(NOTE - many equations to be added in this chapter)
METAL FRACTURE PHYSICS USING SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY AND
THE THEORY OF TELENEURAL INTERACTIONS
by Wilbur Franklin, Ph.D., Department of Physics,
Kent State University, Kent, Ohio.
Published for the first time with the permission of the author.
Introductory Background
The recent investigations of neuronal functions utilizing network
theory,(1-5) stochastic models of neuroelectric activity,(6) and
a tunneling model to describe a neural state vector(7) have provided
substantial new insights into the complexities of the functioning
of the central nervous system. The question as to whether the
comprehensive function of the mind is greater than the measurable
sum of the neural interactions that constitute the total brain
function has been raised, in part, by Delgado.(8) In his book,
Physical Control of the Mind, he says, "The mind should
not be considered identical with its supporting organ, the brain
. . . The mind is related not only to the structure of neurons
but also to their spatial-temporal relations and to important
extracerebral factors."
Science dwells, in general, on physically measurable quantities.
If some of the functions of the mind depend, in part, on fields
or influences that are not physically measurable at the present
time with contemporary techniques, then sophisticated methods
of interpretation of the results of these influences may be needed
in order for one to infer the properties of the unknown influence
function. Material results of certain altered states of consciousness
have been observed; their causal fields have evidently not been
measured or isolated in the laboratory. In addition, teleneural
interactions between a human being and material objects have been
reported with no evidence for an interaction field.(9) In the
expansive literatures (most of which is popular in vein) dealing
with parapsychology, there is no satisfactory explanation or theory
of teleneural phenomena, such as bioinformation transfer or retrieval
from both living and inanimate objects or teleneural interaction
with matter, that correlates theory with experimental observations.
This, perhaps, is the prima facie reason for the historical
rejection by many scientists of most of the observations in the
field of parapsychology; the desire for a reasonable explanation
seemingly governs, to a certain extent, one's belief. Another
reason, to be sure, is the fact that certain of the experimental
observations and techniques have been of questionable validity.(11)
The points to be made from a review of both the experimental and
theoretical work that has been done in the past are that results
of a definitive nature have been lacking, for the most part, and
that the evidence for teleneural interactions, particularly with
matter, has often not been convincing.
In November and December of 1972, laboratory-controlled experiments
were conducted at the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) with a
young Israeli, Mr. Uri Geller.(12) The author took part in a portion
of those experiments. (For the full set of experiments see pages
61-66.)
The SRI results with Mr. Geller were recorded on film and video
tape and included the following results of laboratory-controlled
experiments: telepathy; reproducing, reasonably well, simple sketches
enclosed inside two opaque envelopes; producing a magnetometer
reading of approximately 1/2 gauss without touching the probe;
correctly choosing, without touching any of the cans, which of
ten small metal cans held an object (twelve correct, two abstain,
and zero wrong, giving a chance probability of 1 in 10 to the
power 12); telling which side of a die faced upward after the
die had been shaken inside a closed opaque box (eight correct,
zero wrong, giving a chance probability of 1 in 1.68 x 10 to the
power 6); and causing a real or an apparent change of weight in
a dynamic balance enclosed in a bell jar. The results of the
latter experiment were recorded on a strip chart recorder. Certain
of the results obtained with Mr. Geller, namely, the latter two
experiments, have no apparent means of explanation within the
accepted framework of theoretical physics. For this reason it
is important to consider carefully these experiments and the metallurgical
results(13) that are reported here. It will be of equal importance
to perform similar experiments in other laboratories with different
subjects and to investigate their theoretical implications. It
is the author's opinion, based on the observations that have already
been made, that theoretical constructs need not await further
experimental results to corroborate and extend the SRI experiments,
but that the formulation of theoretical models is, in fact, one
of the most important considerations in the constructive development
of this field. Without the contributions of physicists, engineers,
and others in the "hard sciences" who understand physical
laws, the field of teleneural phenomena will not become understandable
scientifically, but will remain on the fringes of quasi-scientific
endeavor, where a large domain of potential usefulness to society
may remain dormant.
The material reported here is both theoretical and experimental
in perspective. The new theory given is, for the most part, generally
applicable regardless of the type of interaction involved. In
this sense, it seems wise, at this stage of the development of
the field, to find theoretical paradigms that have general applicability,
and are not dependent on the type of field or interaction involved,
until the nature of the interaction or interactions in certain
teleneural phenomena can be ascertained. Known electromagnetic
theory is, of course, applicable to certain types of teleneural
interactions that are known with reasonable certainty to be electromagnetic
in nature. Some electromagnetic aspects will be discussed below.
The experimental investigations that are reported are made up
of metallurgical studies of two metal objects that were broken
by Mr. Uri Geller. These results are reported in more detail
elsewhere.(13) A scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis of
the fracture surfaces and rnicrohardness test results on one of
the specimens are reported. While some of the experimental evidence
reported here is principally metallurgical in nature, the photographic
evidence, which stems from scanning electron microscopy, is, we
feel, clear even to the nonspecialist. The metallurgical analysis
that has been performed is not as complete as possible. Metallurgical
testing of the specimens prior to, and concurrent with, fracture
was not performed. One of the reasons for this deficiency is
that insufficient funds were available for a complete investigations
However, enough evidence was obtained through the use of the SEM
at SRI and through donated services to give the results reported
here.(15)
The fracture surfaces studied were those of two common household
items, specifically, a stainless steel spoon and a platinum alloy
ring. The following section, Fracture Conditions, is a brief
statement about the conditions under which fracture was observed
to occur.(16) The next section deals with the SEM analysis of
the fracture surfaces, and includes fracture photographs of the
specimens and their controls. In the theoretical section that
follows, some new theoretical constructs are presented, together
with a discussion of electromagnetic effects. Finally, a brief
summary and conclusions are given.
Regarding the nature of the process or processes involved in the
fractures reported on here, the possibilities that have been proposed
from the outset of our work with, and observation of, Mr. Geller
include the following: (1) magic trickery, (2) perpetrated fraud,
(3) group hypnosis of the investigators, (4) self-hypnosis or
self-
control by the subject in order to facilitate fracture of the
specimens, and (5) a real event. From the SEM analysis of the
fracture surfaces of two out of four fractures investigated in
three different specimens,(17) it was concluded that (1) and (4)
are not reasonable possibilities as an explanation of the observations
without the inclusion of (2), (3), or (5). In the SRI experiments,
which involved manifestations of teleneural interactions other
than metallurgical fractures, it was considered highly unlikely
that (2.) or (3) could have occurred since both film and video-tape
records were made of the experiments and since security measures
were followed in the processing and storage of the films. Also,
the SRI experiments were monitored visually by observers outside
the laboratory using direct TV transmission to a neighboring room.
Important additional evidence that (2) or (3) is not involved
in the fractures induced by Mr. Geller is a movie from which the
pertinent frames have been published.(18) It shows a metallic
specimen in the process of being fractured with no apparent force
being applied by Mr. Geller. (See Plate 18.)
Fracture Condition
The nature of the energy fields of subjects with special teleneural
powers has not been determined except for those categories that
are classifiable with reasonable certainty as being within the
framework of known electromagnetic theory. The conditions for
fracture that are described in this section do not appear to be
within the domain of known theoretical physics. Therefore, it
is important to consider the conditions under which fracture occurred
as well as the analysis of the fractures themselves. However,
it must be stated again that the results that are reported here
for the fractured specimens deal with the unusual nature of the
metallurgical observations and not with the subject of experimental
methodology.(16)
The specimens were fractured in a room-temperature setting and
were observed by the author and others during the process of deformation
and fracture. The spoon was broken with no apparent strain by
Mr. Geller, who bent it back and forth for three cycles or less
to angles of approximately forty-five degrees from the vertical.
(Another spoon from the same set of tableware was also seen to
be broken by Geller without bending.) The author tested another
spoon from the same set and found it impossible permanently to
deform the handle manually by more than about ten degrees.(19)
The spoon was made of work-hardened ferritic stainless steel with
an ultimate tensile strength of approximately 110,000 Psi (estimated
from hardness measurements) and was 1/16-inch thick and 3/16-inch
wide at the point in the shank where fracture occurred.
The platinum ring was fractured as it was held gently by an associate
of the author's in the proximity of Mr. Geller. After the appearance
of the first fracture, Mr. Geller held the ring and gently bent
a segment outward until a second fracture occurred. The surface
of the second break appeared to be ductile fracture distorted
by shear. The surface of the first fracture was not characteristic
of ductile failure, fatigue, or shear, and is described in the
next section.
Metallurgical Analysis
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is especially useful in
the examination of fracture surfaces since it has good depth of
field, the natural "as broken" surfaces can be examined
directly without replication, and since both low and high magnifications
can he utilised easily. The possibility of surface distortion,
dissolution, or the removal of loose segments was minimized by
examining the "as fractured" surfaces with no cleaning
of any sort. The Cambridge Stereoscan Mark 2A SEM at SRI was
used and all the photographs were taken between, November 9 and
2.2, 1972. In the following paragraphs the nature of the fracture
surfaces of the stainless steers spoon and its control and of
the platinum ring is described.
The locations of the fracture surfaces of the two breaks in the
stainless steel spoon, one of which was induced by Geller and
the other made in, the laboratory by bending, are shown in Figure
1.(20) The comparison fracture surfaces, shown in Plates 8 and
9, are quite similar in nature and portray a dimpled pattern that
is typical in the metallurgical literature, of ductile failure.
It is not known whether the slight differences between Plates
8 and 9 are significant.
Fig. 1. A common household spoon showing the location of the
fracture produced by Geller. In addition, the locations of the
laboratory fracture and cuts from the cut-off wheel are shown.
Microhardness measurements were made on the three small pieces.
A striking difference from usual room-temperature fractures caused
by tension or bending can be seen in Plates 10 and 11, which show
a progression of increasing magnification. The shank of the spoon
in the foreground of Plate 10 shows a crack along the left vertical
edge, which is magnified in the next two figures. The profile
of the upper and lower edges of the crack match reasonably well.
This, together with the upward displacement of material, indicate
that the crack was caused by separation (pulling apart) rather
than by a piece's falling out. The bottom of the crack, as shown
in Plates 11 and 12, displays an unusual viscous appearance that
is not typical of ductile failure from tensile or bending loads
at room temperature.
The fracture surface of the first break in the platinum ring
was very different from that in the spoon. Plate 13 shows an
overview of the fracture surface. There was essentially no evidence
of necking down, as is expected in a ductile metal under tensile
failure, or of bending. In Plate 13 the higher regions of the
fracture surface, especially the left side and the upper right
corner, appeared to have been distorted by shear. This may have
occurred when the opposing faces of the broken ring, which were
in contact, were rubbed, since the ring spread open after the
crack was formed.
Plate 14 shows the lower right quarter of the fracture surface
and Plates 15-17 show regions taken from the field of view of
Plate 14 at a higher magnification. Small rounded-over protuberances
are characteristic of the region around the depression shown in
Plate 15, which is taken from the upper left corner of Plate 14.
Plates 16 and 17 are taken from the lower right corner of Plate
14 and show a terraced structure with distinct geometrical forms
that are close to hexagonal in symmetry. The latter are inclusions
and/or cavities, which reflect the symmetry of the face-centered-cubic
structure of platinum. The fields of view in and around those
displayed in Plates 15-17 are unusual in nature, particularly
when the possible types of room-temperature fracture are considered.
Ductile failure in platinum alloys, such as that caused by tension,
results in microstructures similar to those shown in Plates 8
and 9. Usually necking down on a visually macroscopic scale occurs
in tension and lateral cracking in bend failure in a metal of
this sort. If the fracture occurred by shear, then macroscopic
shear deformation should appear adjacent to the fracture surface.
The flat terraced surfaces with the included geometrical shapes
are difficult to explain as a result of room-temperature fracture.
Geometrical shapes of the type shown can occur in high-temperature
creep specimens that have had sufficient time for the formation
of vacancy clusters and/or inclusions. The flat terraced surfaces
have the appearance of low-
temperature (liquid nitrogen) cleavage.
Microhardness measurements were made with an 800-gm load on the
pieces adjacent to the Geller and laboratory fractures in the
spoon. The average of twenty impressions in the matrix material
gave an average Knoop hardness of 240, which corresponds to an
ultimate tensile strength of 109,000 Psi ñ 5%. The measured
values for hardness immediately adjacent to the Geller and laboratory
fractures were 254 and 2.53, respectively, which correspond to
an ultimate tensile strength of 113,000 Psi. This is less than
4% higher than the hardness of the matrix material. No change
of hardness with respect to that of the matrix occurred at the
cuts made with the cut-off wheel. Metallographs of the microstructure
of the spoon and Microhardness measurements with a lighter load
(200 gms) indicated that small (approx. 10 micro) hard inclusions
- probably carbides - were present. There were, however, no regions
of significant softening. The steel was a ferritic stainless,
which is easier to fracture than one of the austenitic type, but
had, nonetheless, a high ultimate tensile strength. The minimum
bending load required to bend the spoon by mechanical means was
probably greater than sixty pounds. Assuming a 6o-pound load,
a total bend distance (in three cycles of motion) of six inches,
and a time of ten seconds, the minimum required power was roughly
3 to 4 watts. This power is within the capacity of human biomechanics;
humans burn energy at the rate of approximately 100 watts (approx.
10 watts for the brain alone) when at rest and 1000 watts in heavy
work. From our work with Mr. Geller an upper limit to the diameter
of an object that can be bent or broken and the fracture speed
(in first Pt fracture) has not been established.
Theoretical Constructs
This section will include some introductory theoretical approaches
to the physical understanding of teleneural phenomena that may
be applied to interactions between living systems and matter.
First an effective stress due to teleneural causes is introduced
and is added to the electromagnetic stress-energy tensor. The
next section deals with field and information theory concepts.
This is followed by a brief presentation of some electromagnetic
effects and models of interaction of electromagnetic radiation
with a living system.
Effective Stress-Energy Tensor
If the specimens were fractured with less than the mechanical
stress
for failure required for fractures to occur by normal means, then
we can postulate the existence of a force or influence field,
exerted by the subject (or due to the presence of the subject),
that produces an effective stress PE in the specimen. An effective
stress is postulated since the nature of the interaction between
subject and specimen is unknown. Let us define a total stress-energy
tensor by:
Tuv = Muv + Suv + Puve
where M, S, and Pe are the stress-energy tensor densities for
matter, electromagnetic interactions, and non-electromagnetic
teleneural interactions, respectively. We postulate that the
gradients of these densities are given by:
(partial derivatives go here) (2)
where f and X, are the separate but, perhaps, coupled electromagnetic
and teleneural force densities, respectively. Then
(partial derivatives go here) (3)
L
Following Robertson and Noonan,(21) an equation that represents
the conservation of energy in an isotropic fluid (22) is obtained;
it is given by:
(equation goes here) (4)
where u is the u component of the world velocity, c is the velocity
of light, po is the pressure, and p = p,, + p,,/c' where P, is
the total proper energy density (including the rest, thermal,
nuclear, and teleneural energies). The equation for the force
density can also be derived, and is, following Robertson and Noonan,(21)
given by:
(equation goes here) (5)
where xxx is the Minkowski metric tensor. In the above argument
xxx represents the effective force. In our case, it is postulated
that was applied to the metallic specimens and produced the portion
of the deformation not produced by electromagnetic or mechanical
forces.
it is apparent from the argument given here that the addition
of a new effective stress-energy tensor for teleneural phenomena
leads to conservation and force equations in which an interchange
can occur between the electromagnetic and teleneural types of
interaction. This is appealing because if the normal operation
of the neural system of a subject is assumed to be electromagnetic
in nature then the teleneural mode of operation might then involve
the creation of PE from S. This raises the question as to whether
PE arises from some special electromagnetic origin such as a new
effect due to strong nonlinearities, or from a new type of influence
that differs from the usual gravitational, electromagnetic, and
nuclear forces, or other new construct.
Field and Information Theory Concepts
We will postulate, following the suggestion of other authors(10)
in the field of teleneural phenomena, that a field, psi, for teleneural
interactions exists and propagates with a velocity that will be
assumed to be finite. (We must note, however, that action-at-a-distance
is also a possibility to be considered and tested). If the field
is characterized by space and time dependence, then psi = psi(r,t)
where r = rR - rS, and t = tR - tS, where R and S denote receiver
and source, respectively. We will also postulate that the strength
of the field (or number of particles, if the field is quantized)
is characterized not only by space and time, but by two subjective
quantities - the "psychological factors," phi, and the
amount of information, HR, known by the subject about the object
or receiver. Then n=n( equation goes here). The quantity psi
includes effects of other living systems, climactic factors, geomagnetic
disturbances, physiological factors, state of mental consciousness,
etc. on the ability of the subject to emit the psi field. HR
represents the quantity of information received consciously or
subliminally by the subject about the object or receiver with
which interaction occurs. Certain aspects of a teleneural field
theory can probably be developed following traditional field theories
for known interactions. Geometrization of the field might also
lead to fruitful results.
Now a general theoretical construct, which applies to fields
of any type, namely, information theory, will be considered briefly.
One role of information theory in the process of bioinformation
transfer has been shown, assuming an electromagnetic model, by
Kogan.(23) In terms of bits, a telepathic percipient receives
H bits of information for a particular situation in which there
are N possibilities to choose from (all of equal probability)
and a choice is made n times. This stems from the information
theory equation for equal probabilities, which is given by H =
n ln2N.
The question of whether information theory plays an important
role in teleneural interaction with matter arises from a consideration
of the information content in a material object and the role of
object perception in the interaction. If cognitive or subliminal
perception is important in teleneural interaction with matter,
then the information in the object may be stored by the subject.
We do not consider here the mechanism of teleneural interaction
with matter; rather, we deal with the object of interaction as
a quantity of information. This raises the question of the amount
of information stored in an object or a segment of an object.
If we consider that a mass of 1 gm has approximately 10 to the
power 22 atoms, then we find that the information content for
the identification of each atom and nuclear state and for assigning
all the degrees of freedom individually is a very large number
- greater than 10 to the power 22 bits.(24) If we consider the
bit rates that have been measured in bioinformation transfer experiments,
we find that it is too large a number for a subject to receive
and store in a reasonable time. (Bit rates from 1 to 10 to the
power -3 bit/see appear to be typical of short- to long-range
information transfer.(23,25)) In addition, an upper limit assumed
for long-term memory is approximately 10 to the power 20 bits
for a person thirty years old, since each neuron transmits approximately
ten digital impressions per second, there are about 10^10 neurons,
and thirty years is 10^9 seconds. Smaller upper limits of 10^13
- 10^14 bits in a lifetime have been estimated; they include effects
of various loss mechanisms. Thus, if the information transfer
rate in a subject's teleneural perception of matter is similar
to that in bioinformation transfer and does not greatly exceed
neural information capacities, we can make an important observation
regarding teleneural interaction with matter: either the information
is not stored by the subject, or the information stored is a macroscopic
rather than a microscopic description of the object. If it is
stored by the subject and the interaction is macroscopic, then
the quantity of information about the fracture surfaces in the
ring (and needle - see Reference 13) falls within the amount that
could be received and stored by a subject in a reasonable amount
of time. For example, if a subject is capable of receiving and
storing 0.1 bit/see for ten minutes, this amounts to 60 bits of
information, which is more than adequate to describe a simple
geometrical object in macroscopic terms. Thus, the storage of
information in atomistic detail in macroscopic effects such as
fractures appears to be outside the domain of possible teleneural
interactions unless a very high degree of symmetry and purity
exists in the objects. This observation does not imply, however,
that atomistic teleneural events are impossible if the event does
not require a prohibitively high bit rate. We should also note
that the upper limits on storage capacity of the central nervous
system and of the bioinformation transfer rate may be substantially
higher than postulated previously.
Electromagnetic Interactions
Bioinformation transfer by electromagnetic radiation has been
considered theoretically by Kogan(23) from the standpoint of the
information theory. The relationship for the bit rate, C, in
terms of the band width, W, and the source and noise powers, Ps
and Pn, respectively, is given by
C--W In @(6)
The band width is 1/tau where tau is the time required for information
transfer per bit. The noise power is assumed to be kT/tau, and
the critical signal power required to send a certain critical
bit rate, C, is given by
p* 47rr2 kT (2c*7. - l)e&r r S(r - h) + S(h - r
(7)
where r, SA, T, and alpha are the distance, antenna area, temperature,
and attenuation coefficient, respectively. The wave-guide effects
of the ionosphere are accounted for crudely by the square brackets
in which h is the height of the ionosphere and S(r - h) is the
step function. The requisite biocurrent for generation of P'
is obtained from P' = (I')^2*R where R is the antenna resistance.
The resulting biocurrents calculated using Equation (7), together
with elementary antenna theory, give typical values of 10^-10
amps or less for distances of a few meters and for typical conditions
in bioinformation transfer experiments in which there are a small
number of possible choices, N. This theory assumes no power losses
except for the attenuation factor exp(alpha*r), which is very
small except for distances greater than a few hundred miles.
It represents, therefore, the optimum information transfer conditions,
assuming an r^-2 fall-off for r < h and an r^-1 decrease of
power for r > h. If losses are low, the electromagnetic theory
seems reasonable for communication for small r and even for large
r if tau is also large. However, interference of the signal caused
by electronic noise is a very significant factor in interactions
with the electromagnetic mechanism and, in addition, living organisms
are not known to generate power levels sufficient for intermediate-
to long-range communication.
The transfer of information by biological systems through the
use of electromagnetic sources and sensors has been studied or
considered by many authors.(23,26-33) In recent reviews, Bullock(26)
and Hopkins(27) have summarized work on sensory mechanisms for
low-frequency electromagnetic radiation in sharks and other fish,
certain species of which have thresholds for electric field sensation
in water as low as 1 micro Volt/m. Nelson(28) and Callahan(29)
have considered direct electromagnetic reception of various frequency
ranges by insects. The effects of electromagnetic fields in the
radio range on the electroencephalogram of humans has been reported
by Presman(30) in a good review of Russian work concerning electromagnetic
radiation fields and living systems. Aceto, Tibias, and Silver(31)
have recently reviewed the theories of the interaction of electromagnetic
radiation and of static magnetic fields with living systems.
The biological effects of magnetic fields have been reviewed by
Kolin.(34) Changes in reaction time of human beings by exposure
to 0.2 Hz magnetic fields of approximately 5-17 gauss have been
observed by Friedman, Becker, and Bachman,(35) whereas static
and 0.1 Hz fields produced no significant effect. Bawin et al.(36)
reported large behavior changes in monkeys exposed to 147 MHz
modulated by 0-30 Hz.
The measurement of electric and magnetic fields of and around
human bodies have been reported, respectively, by Burr(37) and
Cohen.(38) Magnetic fields Of 5 X 10^-6 and 5 X 10^-9 gauss around
contracting muscles and cranial regions, respectively, were measured.(38)
There are reports of indications that certain people with special
capabilities of self-control are able consciously to control and
produce magnetic fields of much higher magnitudes.(9) Electric
fields were found to be a function of emotional state or state
of consciousness in humans.(32,37) A theory of the generation
of electromagnetic fields from neuronal activity has been given
by Anninos.(39)
The possible mechanisms of interaction of biological systems
with electromagnetic radiation include molecular vibration, rotation,
and conformation states, and electronic and nuclear states in
frequency ranges extending from the upper-microwave to the X-ray
region. At frequencies in the microwave region and less, collective
modes of molecular clusters and cellular structures become significant.
The possibility of interaction of extremely low frequencies with
the Larmor precession frequency of protons in biological materials
in the earth's magnetic field has been considered.(40) The Larmor
frequency for protons in the earth's field is approximately 2000
Hz. A possibility may also exist for quasi-
resonance interactions of extremely low frequencies with antiferromagnetic
modes in cell membranes.(41)
The above review of electromagnetic interactions with living
systems reveals that bioinformation transfer occurs at frequencies
down to less than 1 Hz.(26,36) At extremely low frequencies the
attenuation of a Faraday cage is low. In this regard it is interesting
to note that Puharich(42) and Puthoff and Targ(9) have done bioinformation
transfer experiments with human subjects with the source or receiver
in a Faraday cage. Further tests of bioinformation transfer are
needed in which bit rates are measured as a function of distance
both inside and outside a very good Faraday cage and in a "mu"
metal cage.
It is interesting to compare biological communication in the
ELF, regime with that developed for submarine applications in
a program called Project Sanguine.(43-45) Frequencies less than
100 Hz and antenna powers of 1-2 MW were utilised in the Sanguine
communication project. The transmitter antenna covers 30-50 square
miles, giving about 100 W/acre of power, and the receiving antenna
is approximately 100 m long.(45) The bit rate is low; approximately
one bit per 60 cycles is evidently possible.(45) The radiated
power is less than the antenna power because of radiation resistance,
but it is still several orders of magnitude larger than the maximum
possible power radiated from a human being in the ELF regime.
Historically, it is interesting to note that Nikola Tesla, in
1899, proposed using the ELF regime for a world-wide communication
system. His huge spark-gap transmitter drained the power supply
of the city of Colorado Springs! The point of these observations
is that the power levels and antenna systems required for ELF
electromagnetic communication are several orders of magnitude
larger than those required for bioinformation transfer between
humans. Therefore, it is extremely unlikely that mental telepathy
can be propagated at great distances by biosystems in the ELF
electromagnetic regime.(46)
Summary and Conclusions
The detailed metallurgical analysis of three fracture surfaces
in two metallic specimens broken by, or in the presence of, Mr.
Uri Geller revealed two distinct types of fracture-surface microstructure
in the SEM photographs. One type appeared quite similar to normal
room-temperature ductile failure caused by mechanical loading,
except for a viscous appearance at the bottom of a small lateral
crack (see Plates 10 and 11).
In the second type of fracture surface, the predominant microstructures
were not typical of ductile failure, fatigue, stress-corrosion,
or shear failure, nor of room-
temperature cleavage. In the platinum specimen, which exemplified
the second type of fracture, locaised regions of two types were
observed on the same fracture surface only 0.02 cm apart. One
region looked like ductile failure in an area that had been heated
to the point of incipient melting (see Plate 15; the melting point
of platinum is 1773 degrees C). The second region looked like
low-temperature cleavage, with inclusions or vacancy clusters
also appearing in the field of view (see Plates 16 and 17). These
observations, which are not typical of SEM fractographs of failures
by mechanical loading, indicate that the cause of fracture was
not mechanical in nature nor was it a result of usual mechanical
methods of fracture. In fact, the possible methods of, reconstruction
of the fracture surface in the platinum ring by known techniques
seem to require procedures such as partial cleavage at liquid
nitrogen temperature (- 195 degrees C) followed by ductile failure
of the noncleaved portion and subsequent exposure of this portion
to a small beam from a powerful laser in selected regions and
a shear force in other regions. Such a project would not only
be difficult to carry out, but could not, in fact, be conducted
unless a number of people actually perpetrated fraud. Consequently,
it is not considered as a reasonable possibility. In view of
the nature of the fracture surfaces, especially those of the platinum
ring, it is concluded that the specimens were not broken by techniques
known to induce laboratory fractures. The evidence, based on
metallurgical analysis of the fracture surfaces, indicates that
a paranormal influence must have been operative in the formation
of the fractures.
Since the metallurgical analysis of the fractured specimens was
completed, a number of reports of other subjects who can bend
and/or fracture metal objects have been published. Taylor,(47)
in his recent book, has given detailed reports of many children
in England as well as people with paranormal teleneural capabilities
who could bend and fracture metals. At the international conference
on the Physics of Paranormal Phenomena, Taylor, Hasted, Byrd,
Owen, and Franklin(48)
reported results of metal-bending and fracture studies, These
included, in the work of Owen, Price, and Taylor, studies of subjects
other than Geller. In addition, there have been many reports
in the popular press of metal bending that may or may not have
been accomplished by paranormal means. The fork that was filmed
during fracture(18) is presently being investigated by the author,
as is a 2-mm-thick key fractured by Matthew Manning in the presence
of Dr. A. R. G. Owen(49) and two items bent by children in the
Akron, Ohio, area. In a historical perspective, it would be interesting
to analyze the knife that fractured in the presence of Carl Jung;(50)
an attempt is being made to obtain this specimen for metallurgical
examination.
Effects, either direct or indirect, or electromagnetic fields
of frequencies less than those of the microwave regime have been
observed on the central nervous systems of living organisms.
It appears, therefore, that there will be a new area of research
concerned with the mechanisms of communication of information
and biological effects by low-frequency electromagnetic radiation
interacting with living organisms. Information transfer has been
observed in sharks and other fish(26,27) at frequencies in the
range 0.3-30 Hz. Hence, further consideration should be given
to low-frequency biocommunication in other living organisms, both
animal and plant. It is known that information transfer rates,
measured by the bit rate in information theory, are small for
low frequencies. Therefore, reasonably long periods of time (in
comparison to verbal or telegraphic communication rates, for example)
are required for the transfer of low-frequency information. Frequencies
in the radio range have been shown to affect electroencephalographs.(30)
Also, a magnetic field oscillating at the ELF of 0.2 Hz was found
to reduce reaction rates in human subjects.(35) The major portion
of the power spectrum of human brain waves lies in the ELF range
from 0-30 Hz and most of this power is at less than a few Hz.(51)
Also, the peaks of the frequency spectra of contracting muscles
usually occur at less than 100 Hz.(38) Higher body frequencies
have, however, also been noted.(39) Since the power levels of
brain waves and contracting muscles are orders of magnitude less
than that required for electromagnetic stimulation of known effects
on humans and still less than that required for the weakening
or fracture of metal objects, it would seem to be important to
consider non-electromagnetic theories as well as the new aspects
of ELF communication.
Whether there exists a channel of bioinformation transfer other
than electromagnetic fields and other known channels is an important
question, especially when the experimental results with unusual
and with normal subjects, which have been reported recently, are
considered. In the Geller experiments at SRI the side of a die
facing upward inside an opaque container, after being shaken,
was guessed or sensed correctly eight times in a row.(9) The transfer
of information in this experiment could not have been electromagnetic
in nature, assuming known electromagnetic theory (unless some
extremely sensitive unknown mechanism exists). In addition to
information transfer, which does not appear to be electromagnetic
in nature, the apparent change of mass in the dynamic balance
experiment at SRI and the unusual fracture surfaces of the metal
specimens reported here give evidence that requires further investigation
outside known theoretical constructs. Then, too, there is a question
regarding the modality of communication in teleneural information
transfer between living organisms, especially at large distances.(23)
If more than one channel of teleneural interaction exists then
it is possible that electromagnetic radiation may either interfere
with or enhance the second type of interaction mechanism.
The development of theoretical paradigms that deal constructively
with the observations in unexplained teleneural phenomena will
demand new insights into the fundamentals of physical laws. Mehra(52)
has recently considered the role of the observer in quantum mechanical
measurements and the difference between a complete and a quantum
mechanical representation. Bohm has also discussed new aspects
of the role of the observer and, in addition, the implications
of a holographic concept of quantum states. The generality of
information theory is appealing for use in teleneural theory since
objects can be described as quantities of information regardless
of the types of force or influence they are subjected to. The
statement of Eigen,(54) regarding organization in biological systems
- "We need organization in a different 'space,' which one
may call information space" - may apply, in a broader
sense, to teleneural phenomena as well. The recent work of Prigogine(55),
regarding the evolutionary origin of the organization in living
systems may be significant in its contribution to new methods
of treating many phenomena, including those of a teleneural nature,
in living systems. It is interesting to compare the questions
being asked by paraphysicists and parapsychologists with those
being asked in another field in which there seem to be more questions
than there are answers: astrophysics. In a recent article the
noted astrophysicist John Wheeler questions, "In what way,
if any, is the universe, the observed, affected by man, the observer?
Is the universe deprived of all meaningful existence in the absence
of the mind? . . . In brief, are life and mind irrelevant to the
structure of the universe - or are they central to it?" Questions
of this nature have been asked recently by physicists who have
observed and considered the nature of paranormal events.
REFERENCES
1. Griffith, J. S., Mathematical Neurobiology (New York:
Academic Press, 1972).
2. Harth, E. M. and S. L. Edgar, Biophysical Journal,
7, 689-717, 1967.
3. Harth, E. M., T. J. Csermely, B. Beek, and R. D. Lindsay,
Journal of Theoretical Biology, 26, 93-120, 1970.
4. Caianiello, E. R., Journal of Theoretical Biology,
1, 204-35, 1961.
5. Caianiello, E. R., A. DeLuca, and L. M. Ricciardi, Kybernetic,
4, 10-
18, 1967.
6. Cowan, J. D., in Towards a Theoretical Biology 4: Essays
(Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1972).
7. Walker, E. H., Journal of the Study of the Conscious,
5, 46-63; 257-77, 1972-73.
8. Delgado, J. M. S., Physical Control of the Mind (New
York: Harper & Row, 1969).
9. Putoff, H. and R. Targ, Stanford Research Institute news release,
March 10, 1973. The initial experiments with Mr. Uri Geller,
done in November and December 1972, were reported by SRI in this
news release. In addition, a movie of the laboratory experiments
with Mr. Geller was made; it has been shown to over 3000 scientists
and engineers. Subsequently, results of telepathy and clairvoyance
tests with Geller, Ingo Swann, Patrick Price, and other subjects
was reported in Nature, 251, 602-607, 1974.
10. The following books, together with their references,
provide an introduction to the literature of parapsychology: Soal,
S. G. and F. Bateman, Modern Experiments in Telepathy (London:
Faber & Faber, 1954); Rhine, J. B. and J. G. Pratt, Parapsychology:
Frontier Science of the Mind (Springfield, Illinois: Charles
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1966); John White, Psychic Exploration (New York: G. P.
Putnam's Sons, 1974).
11. Kennedy, J. L., Proceedings of the American Philosophical
Society, 96, 513-18 1952.
12. Mr. Uri Geller is an Israeli who was studied in Israel by
Dr. Andrija Puharich before he came to the United States in August
1972 and was studied at SRI and other laboratories.
13. Franklin, Wilbur, New Horizons Journal, 2, No. 1,
8-13,1975; Wilbur Franklin and Edgar Mitchell, "SEM Study
of Fracture Surfaces Pertaining to the Question of Teleneural
Fields From Human Subjects," available on request from Kent
State University, Kent, Ohio.
14. Progress in the fields of parapsychology and paraphysics
has been severely hindered by the lack of financial support.
Unless the scientific community and the government agencies that
provide financial resources decide to support high-level research
in these fields, the potential usefulness of societal applications
will not he developed beyond their present status of parlor curiosities
in most scientific circles.
15. SRI financed the SEM study and EDMA, Inc. supported the author
during the experiments at SRI with Mr. Geller.
16. The studies of the metal specimens and the conclusions drawn
from them are based principally on metallurgical evidence.
This evidence is much more substantial than merely visual, video-tape,
or cinematography evidence of the subject performing the experiment
since all these modes of monitoring may be questionable. For
example hypnotists and magicians can cause metallic objects to
appear to bend or, in the case of magicians, actually to bend
and fracture. Also, it is well known to metallurgists that small
amounts of mercury and other agents can, under certain conditions,
cause intergranular fracture when the specimen is exposed to stress-corrosion
situations.
17. The results of the investigation of three specimens are reported
in Ref. 13 whereas the summary of that work presented in this
article includes the results of only two of the three specimens.
18. Vaughan, A., "The phenomena of Uri Geller," Psychic,
Vol. 4, No. 5, 13, 1973.
19. After a very small deformation, evidently the work-hardening
was sufficient to preclude further bending by manual means.
20. The magnification, angle from the vertical, and date taken
are recorded in the captions that accompany the photographs of
the fracture surfaces.
21. Robertson, H. P. and T. W. Noonan, Relativity and Cosmology
(Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1968), p. 129.
22. The tensor properties of the stress in a solid can be incorporated
but the isotropic fluid model is shown here to keep the model
simple.
23. Kogan, I. M., Telecommunications and Radio Engineering,
21, 75, 1966; 22, 141, 1967; 23, 122, 1968.
24. A perfect crystal could be constructed with a much lower
H utilizing translational and rotational symmetry operators and
a distribution of momentums. However, a polycrystalline sample
with a typical concentration of impurities, atomic defects, dislocations,
and nonhomogeneous strains would have a much higher information
content than a perfect crystal. Nevertheless, crystals with defects
would still have less information content than glasses and plastics,
which have little or no rotational or translational symmetry,
and might, therefore, be easier for a subject to interact with.
25. The author has done bioinformation transfer experiments with
a graduate student up to 380 miles. The bit rates were comparable
to those reported by Kogan.(23) However, further work is needed
to establish bit rates versus distance with greater reliability.
26. Bullock, T. H., American Scientist, 61, 316-25, 1973.
27. Hopkins, C. D., American Scientist, 62, 426, 1974.
28 Nelson, S. D., Transactions of the American Society of Engineers,
9, 398-405, 1966.
29. Callahan, P.S., Applied optics, 7, 1425-30, 1968.
30. Presman, A. S., Electromagnetic Fields and Life (New
York: Plenum Press, 1970).
31. Aceto, Jr., H., C. A. Tibias, and I. L. Silver, IEEE Transactions,
Magnetics MAG-6, 368-73, 1970.
32. Ravitz, L. J., Journal of the American Society of Psychosomatic
Dentistry and Medicine, 17, 119-27, 1970.
33. Mutschall, V., Foreign Science Bulletin, 4, 1-12,
1968.
34. Kolin, A., Physics Today, November 1968.
35. Friedman, H., R. O. Becker, and C. H. Bachman, Nature,
213, 949-50, 1967.
36. Bawin, S., R. G. Medici, W. Adey, and L. Kaczmarek, Conference
at the New York Academy of Science, Feb. 12-15, 1974.
37. Burr, H. S., Blueprint for Immortality (London: Neville
Spearman. 1972).
38. Cohen, D., Science, 161, 784-86, 1968; D. Cohen and E. Givler,
Applied Physics, Letters, 21, 114-16, 1972.
39. Anninos, P. A., Journal of Life Sciences, 3, 15-18,
1973.
40. Rocard, Y., in Biological Effects of Magnetic Fields,
edited by M. Barnothy (New York: Plenum Press, 1964), PP. 279-86.
41. Grodsky, I., Conference at the New York Academy of Science,
Feb. 12-15, 1974.
42. Puharich, A., The Sacred Mushroom (New York: Doubleday,
1959), Appendix 1; Journal of Neuropsychology, 2, 474,
1966.
43. Wait, J. R., Science, 178, 272, 1972.
44. Wait, J. R., "The Sanguine Concept," in Proceedings
of the Symposium on Engineering in the Ocean Environment (New
York: IEE, 1972).
45. Ricardi, L. J., Lincoln Laboratories, personal communication.
46. Franklin, W., Bulletin of the American Physical Society,
19, 821, 1974.
47. Taylor, J., Superminds: An Inquiry into the Paranormal
(New York: Macmillan, 1975).
48. "The Physics of Paranormal Phenomena," International
Conference, February 1975, Tarrytown, New York; author's notes
are available on request.
49. Owen, A. R. G., New Horizons Journal, 1, No. 4, 172,
1974.
50. Rhine, 1. B., personal communication.
51. Vidal, J. J., Annual Review of Biophysics and Bioengineering,
2, 157, 1973.
52. Mehra, J., American Scientist 61, 722, 1973.
53. Bohm, D., Foundations of Physics, 3, 139 1973.
54. Eigen, M., Naturwiss. 58, 465 1971.
55. Prigogine, I., G. Nicholis, and A. Babloyantz, Physics
Today, 25, 23, 1972.
56. Wheeler, J., American Scientist, 62, 683, 1974.
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