Full text of "National geographic index, 1888-1946 inclusive"

This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project 
to make the world's books discoverable online. 

It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject 
to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books 
are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover. 

Marks, notations and other marginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the 
publisher to a library and finally to you. 

Usage guidelines 

Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the 
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing this resource, we have taken steps to 
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying. 

We also ask that you: 

+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for 
personal, non-commercial purposes. 

+ Refrain from automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine 
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the 
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help. 

+ Maintain attribution The Google "watermark" you see on each file is essential for informing people about this project and helping them find 
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it. 

+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just 
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other 
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of 
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner 
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liability can be quite severe. 

About Google Book Search 

Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers 
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web 



at |http : //books . google . com/ 



I 



L.30C,lgO>60 



HARVARD UNIVERSITY 




LIBRARY 

OPTHK 

PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN 
ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY 

IN EXCHAJ^GE WITH 

Mass. School of Art 

Received Aug. 17, 1953 

SCIENCE CENTER LIBRARY 



^i'V-'-«>" ^r^i-'^TT' 



r 



'-'^^' 



Digitized by 




GoAgle 



Digitized by 



Google 



Digitized by 



Google 



Digitized by 



Google 






JAN -JUNE, 1917 



The NATIONAL 

GEOGRAPHIC 
MAGAZINE 



INDEX 



January to June, 1917 



Volume XXXI 



PUBLISHED BY THE 

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 

HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL 
WASHINGTON, D.fc. 



m.5oK 



^5^ 



ACOPVJ 



^t'^6 



A. 



. < 



f t1k^< f 



■ I7\ ' ' \ 



li-yo 



NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 

HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL 

SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS, WASHINGTON. D. C. 



O. H. TITTMANN . . president 

GILBERT H.GROSVENOR. DIRECTOR AND EDITOR 
JOHN OLIVER LA GORGE . ASSOCIATE EDITOR 
O. P. AUSTIN SECRETARY 



JOHN E. PILLSBURY VICE-PRESIDENT 

JOHN JOY EDSON .... TREASURER 
GEORGE W. HUTCHISON. ASSISTANT SECRETARY 
WILLIAM J. SHOWALTER . ASSISTANT EDITOR 



1915-1917 

Charles J. Bell 

President American Security 
and Trust Company 

John Joy Edson 

President Washington Loan & 
Trust Company 

David Fairchild 

In Charge of Agricultural Ex- 
plorations. Dept. of Asric. 

C. Hart Merriam 

Member National Academy of 
Sciences 

O. p. Austin 

statistician 

George R. Putnam 

Commissioner U. S. Bureau of 
Lighthouses 

George Shiras, 3d 

Formerly Member U. S. Con- 
gress. Fauna! Naturalist, and 
Wild-Game Photosrapher 

Grant Squires 

New York 



BOARD OF MANAGERS 

1916-1918 

Franklin K. Lane 

Secretary of the Interior 

Henry F. Blount 

Vice-President American Se- 
curity and Trust Company 

C. M. Chester 

Rear Admiral U.' S. Navy, 
Formerly Supt. U. S. Naval 
Observatory 

Frederick v. Coville 

Formerly I-residentof Wash- 
i nslon Academy of Sciences 

John E. Pillsbury 

Rear Admiral U. S. Navy. 
Formerly Chief Bureau of 
Navis&tion 

Rudolph Kauffmann 

Manaeine Editor The Evening 
Star 

T. L. Macdonald 

M. D., F. A. C. S. 

S. N. D. North 

Formerly Director U. S. Bu- 
reau of Census 



1917-1919 

Alexander Graham Bell 

Inventor of the telephone 

J. Howard Gore 

Prof. Emeritus Mathematics, 
The Geo. Washincton Univ. 

A. W. Greely 

Arctic Explorer, Major Qen'l 
U. S. Army 

Gilbert H. Grosvenor 

Editor of National Qeoeraphic 
Maeazine 

George Otis Smith 

Director of U. S. Geolosical 
Survey 

O. H. Tittmann 

Formerly Superintendent of 
U. S. Coast and Geodetic Sur- 
vey 

Henry White 

Formerly U. S. Ambassador to 
France, Italy, etc. 

John M. Wilson 

Bn'sadier General U. S. Army, 
Formerly Chief of Encineers 



To carry out the purpose for which it was founded twenty-eight years 
ago, namely, "the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge," 
the National Geographic Society publishes this Magazine. All receipts 
from the publication are invested in the Magazine itself or expended 
directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. 
Articles or photographs from members of the Society, or other friends, 
are desired. For material that the Society can use, adequate remunera- 
tion is made. Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed 
return envelope and postage, and be addressed : 

GILBERT H. GROSVENOR. Editor 



A. W. Greely 

C. Hart Merriam 

O. H. Tittmann 

Robert Hollister Chapman 

Walter T. Swingle 



contributing editors 

Alexander Graham Bell 



David Fairchild 
Hugh M. Smith 
N. H. Darton 
Frank M. Chapman 



Copy rig lit, 1917, by National Geographic Society. Washington, D. C. All rights reserved 



Digitized by 



Google 



CONTENTS 

Page 

America's Duty. By Newton D. Baker 453 

Belgium's Plight. By John H. Gade 433 

Bind the Wounds of France. By Herbert C. Hoover 439 

Bohemia and the Czechs. By Ales Hrdlicka 163 

Burden France Has Borne, The. By Granville Fort^scue 323 

Conversion of Old Newspapers and Candle Ends Into Fuel, The 568 

Devastated Poland. By Frederick Walcott 445 

Do Your Bit for America: A Proclamation by President Wilson to the American 

People 289 

Friends of Our Forests. By Henry W. Hensha w 297 

Game Country Without Rival in America, A : The Proposed Mount McKinley National 

Park. By Stephen R. Capps 69 

Needs Abroad, The. By Ian Malcolm 427 

Niagara at the Battle Front. By William Joseph Showalter 413 

Oldest Free Assemblies, The: Address of Rt. Hon. Arthur J. Balfour, in the United 

States House of Representatives, May 5, 1917 368 

One Hundred British Seaports 84 

On the Monastir Road. By Herbert Corey 383 

Our Armies of Mercy. By Henry P. Davison 423 

Our Big Trees Saved i 

Our First Alliance. By J. J. Jusserand 518 

Our Foreign-born Citizens 95 

Our Heritage of Liberty: An Address Before the United States Senate by M. Viviani. 365 

Our Second Alliance. By J. J. Jusserand 565 

Our State Flowers: The Floral Emblems Chosen by the Commonwealths. By the 

Editor 481 

Outspeaking of a Great Democracy, The : The Proceedings of the Chamber of Deputies 

of France on Friday, April 6, 1917 362 

Poisoned World, A. By William Howard Taft 459 

Prizes for the Inventor: Some of the Problems Awaiting Solution. By Alexander 

Graham Bell 131 

Red Cross Spirit, The. By Eliot Wadsworth 467 

Republics — The Ladder to Liberty. By David Jayne Hill 240 

Reviving a Lost Art : 475 

Russian Situation and Its Significance to America, The. By Stanley Washburn 371 

Russia's Democrats. By Montgomery Schuyler 210 

Soldiers of the Soil: Our Food Crops Must Be Greatly Increased. By David F. 

Houston 273 

Stand by the Soldier. By Maj. Gen. John J. Pershing 457 

Their Monument is in Our Hearts : Address by M. Viviani Before the Tomb of Wash- 
ington, at Mount Vernon, April 29, 1917 ^y 

Ties That Bind, The : Our Natural Sympathy with English Traditions, the French Re- 
public, and the Russian Outburst for Liberty. By Senator John Sharp Williams. 281 

Tribute to America, A. By Herbert Henry Asquith 295 

Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, The: National Geographic Society Explorations in 
the Katmai District of Alaska. By Robert F. Griggs, Leader of the Society's 

Mount Katmai Expeditions of 1915 and 1916 13 

Warblers of North America, The 303 

War, Patriotism, and the Food Supply. By Frederick V. CovillE 254 

What Great Britain is Doing. By Sydney Brooks 193 



Digitized by 



Google 



WASHINGTON, D. C 

PRESS OF JUDD ft DETWEILER, INC. 

I917 



Digitized by 



Google 



INDEX FOR VOL. XXXI Qanuary-June), 1917 



AN ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED INDEX 



ENTRIES IN CAPITALS REFER TO ARTICLES 



"A" 

Page 

Abb6 Robin's tribute to George Washington 535 

Abraham's oak, near Hebron, Palestine, ill 189 

Abrasive indastry. Artificial: Niagara Palls, N. Y. 413 

Acetylene gas: Niagara electrical laboratory 420 

Aden: Somali mother and babe, ill. (duotone in- 
sert) SS8 

Africa, Northern: Donkey burden-bearer, ill. (color 

insert) 2s6'273 

Agricultural scenes: Katmai district, Alaska, ill.. 16, 

18, Z9, 21, 23 

Air, Cold: Sold in Paris 145 

Airplane: Miami, Florida, ill 284 

Airplane photograph of Ypres, Bel^um, ill 337 

Airpbnes, German: Watch the allied plans, Mo- 

nastir road « 392 

Alaska: A Game Countiy Mrithout Rival in Amer- 
ica. Bv Stephen R. Capps 69 

Alaska, Katmai district text, 13; 

ill., 12, 14-19, 21, 22-32, 34-^0, 52-58, 60-62, 64-66 

Alaska, Mount McKinley region, ill 69, 70, 

72-76, 78, 80-83 

Alaskan Eskimo family, ill. (duotone insert) 564 

Alaska Range, ill 70, 72» 74 

Alaska: The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. 

By Robert P. Griggs 13 

Albert, Edward: Great Bohemian surgeon 183 

Alcohol, Possibilities of: Inventions 133 

Alexander column: Petrograd, ill 224 

Alexander II, Monument to: Petrograd. ill 220 

Algeria: Children of the desert, ill. (rotogravure 

insert) 146-163 

Algerian dancers, ill. (color insert) 256-273 

Algerian immigrants: Ellis Island, ill 106 

Alnambra: Hall of the Ambassadors, ill. (color 

insert) 256-273 

All Prance behind America then: 1780 519 

All free assemblies modeled after the British Par- 
liament and American Congress 368 

Alliances, Our First and Second: France and 

America. By J. J. Jusserand 518, 565 

Alliance which forbade conquest. An 521 

Alliance with no hatred for the common enemy.. 521 
Alloys, Production of: Niagara electrical labora- 
tory 419 

Aluminum, Niagara's gift of 420 

Ambulance, American: In a ruined French town, 

ill 45a 

Ambulance fleet in the Court of Honor. Hotel des 

Invalides, Paris, ill 454 

Ambulance, Russian: Being blessed by priest, ill. 214 
Ambulance, Springless anoT crude: Russian front, 

ill 451 

America, All France then behind: 1780 519 

America and France: Our First and Second Alli- 

anccs. By J. J. Jusserand 518, 565 

America arrayed against mad arrogance 363 

America, A Tribute to. By Herbert Henry As- 

quith 295 

America, Do Your Bit For. By President Wilson 289 

America, French faith in 518 

American ambulance in a ruined French town, ill. 452 
American children, ill. (rotogravure insert).. 146-163 

American-Czechs, Distinguished 185 

American Falls from Goat Island: Niagara Falls, 

N. Y., ill 415,416 

American hospital at Paris: Nurses, ill 444,445 

American hospital at Neuilly, France, ill 440 

American invention. Our first and greatest 248 

American nurse at Brod: Miss Emily Simmonds. 

^ . « - text, 398; ill., 402 

American Red Cross men: Salonild, ill 400 

American Red Cross War Council, ill 461 

American Red Cross War Council, Addresses be- 
fore 423 

American Revolution and the French 518 

American warblers. North, ill. (color insert) . . 305-320 

America s debt to De Grasse C41 

AMERICA'S DUTY. BY NEWTON D. BAKER. 453 
America, The Russian Situation and its Signifi- 
cance to. By Stanley Washburn 371 



Page 
Andover Academy Red Cross unit off for Prance, 

ill 458 

Animal behavior, Differences in : Alaska 78 

Animal life, Signs of: Katmai district, Alaska... 29 

Animals, Alaskan : A game country 69 

Apple and blossom, The... text, 487; ill. (colored) 50X 
Apple of discord, ill. (rotogravure insert) .... 146-163 
Arabia, Aden: Somali mother and babe, ill. (duo- 
tone insert) 558 

Arabian dancers, ill. (color insert) 256-273 

Arab shod with fire. An: Type, ill. (color insert). 

256-273 

Araby, A daughter of, ill. (color insert) 256-273 

Arch, Norman : Slovak house, ill 184 

Armies and statesmen helpless without miners... 293 
Armies of Mercy, Our. By Henry P. Davison. . . 423 

Army, A democratic ^09 

Army auto with carrier-pigeons: Prance, ill 2S2 

Army camp and the Y. M. C. A., ill 470-47' 

"Army of clerks and shopkeepers, An": New York 

City, ill 358 

Army of Germany contrasted with the French 

army 3^3 

Army of old men in the fighting line: Serbians.. 386 

Arrogance, Our dislike of 283 

Artificial abrasive industry: Niagara Falls, N. Y. . 413 

Artillery, French 33© 

Ash slides more than a thousand feet thick: Kat- 
mai district, Alaska 34 

Ash, Volcanic: Katmai district, Alaska, ill 14. X5* 

17. 18, 25. 36, 37, 41/ 4a, 4f..46, 54 
Asquith, Herbert Henry. Formerly Prime Minis- 
ter of Great Britain: A Tribute to America.... 295 
Assemblies, The Oldest Free. By Right Hon. 

Arthur J. Balfour 368 

Associations of the people: Russia 223* 227 

Astronomical clock: Prague, Bohemia, ill 164 

Aubigny, Church of: Converted into a hospital, 

France, ill 343 

Audubon's warbler text, 307; ill. (colored) 309 

Austrians and Hungarians in the United States, 

Distribution of xo8 

Austrian Tyrol: Boy feeding lamb, ill. (rotogra- 
vure insert) 146-163 

Automobile burning: London road, ill 9» 

Automobiles, Army, ill 282, 283 

"B" 

Babies and their mothers: Many lands, ill. (duo- 
tone insert) 549-5^4 

Babies, Japanese, ilL (rotogravure insert) 146-163 

Baby and mother: MinnesoU Indians, ill. (roto- 
gravure insert) '^^'$1 

Bagdad, A citizen of, ill ••:,•/•• *" 

Baker, Newton D., U. S. Secretary of War: 

America's Duty 453 

Baksheesh in abundance in Macedonia, ill 396 

Balance of power in China: Chinese mother and 

her babies, ill. (duotone insert) 555 

Balfour, Right Hon. Arthur J.: The Oldest Free 

Assemblies 368 

Balkan States: Immigrants at Ellis Island, ill 103 

Baltimore, Maryland: Washington Monument, ill. 249 
"Barabara," A: Typical hut in Katmai village, 

Alaska, ill 35 

Barbering, Open-air, at Iven, Macedonia, ill 393 

Barley and oats. Usefulness of 273 

Barrels of porcelain for United States: Limoges, 

France, ill 366 

Bath, Shower: Erected by French soldiers, ill... 335 
Battle Front, Niagara at the. By William Joseph 

Showalter 413 

Battleship ablaze in mid-ocean, ill 360 

Battleships, United Sutes, ill 348,356,360 

Bavarian peasant: Immigrant at Ellis Island, ill.. 102 

Bay-breasted warbler ill. (colored), 316; text, 3x8 

Beach, Katmai: Alaska, ill 27 

Beans, Soy- : Valuable for food 27$ 

Bear. An educated: Alaska, ill 83 



Digitized by 



Google 



VI 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



Page 

Bear hunter of Kodiak, Alaska 47 

Bearpaw River, Alaska 79 

Bear skin: Kodiak, Alaska, ill 29 

Bear trail. Following a: Kodiak, Alaska 27 

Beavers, Many and busy: Alaska 79 

Bedouin beauty. A, ill. (color insert) 256-273 

Bedouin mother and child (duotone insert), ill... 552 

Bemrs: Saloniki, ill 403 

Belgian appreciation, A demonstration of, ill 278 

Belgian fugitives inscribe their addresses along 

the way, ill 438 

Belgium: A madonna of sacrifice, ill. (duotone 

insert) 551 

Belgium, Ghent: A bread line, ill 455 

Belgium, Reflections of one back from 433 

Belgium : River Meuse. ill 202 

BECblUM'S PUGHT. BY JOHN H. GADE.. 433 
Belgium, Termonde: Priests and nuns among the 

ruined buildings, ill 430 

Belgium, War orphans from, ill 432,434,436 

Belgium, Ypres: City photographed from a flying 

machine, ill 337 

Belgrade mission of the Red Cross unit in Serbia, 

ill. 450 

Bell, Alexander Graham: Prizes for the inventor. 131 

Bell, I^iberty: Philadelphia. Pa., ill 253 

Berkeley, Governor: Opposed the printing press.. 110 

Berries^ Wild salmon-: Alaska text, is; ill., 24 

Bible Society missionaries at Ellis Island, ill 123 

Bier of a city. At the: Mons, Belgium 435 

Big-game paradise, A : Alaska 75, 8*1 

Big gun vs, the lighter one 333 

BIND THE WOIJNDS OF FRANCE. BY HER- 
BERT C. HOOVER 439 

Binoculars, Staff: Chuke Mountain, Macedonia, 

_J^l- ••• 406,410 

Birds: Carrier-pigeons, ill 282 

Birds: Fish-hawks about to leave their nests, ill.. 303 
Birds: Friends of Our Forests. By Henry W, 

Henshaw 297 

Birds: Warblers of North America, ill. (color in- 
sert) 305-320 

Biskra, Algeria: Dancers of the desert, ill. (color 

insert) 256-273 

Biskra, Algeria: Street scene (rotogravure insert) 

X46-163 
Bitter root. The (flower), .text, 489; »". (colored) 504 
Black and white warbler.. text, 307; ill. (colored) 309 

Blackburnian warbler text, 315; ill. (colored) 313 

Blackfeet Indians (rotogravure insert) 146-163 

Blackpoll warbler text, 315 ; ill. (colored) 313 

Black-throated blue warbler text, 311; 

_, , , , ill. (colored) 312 

Black- throated gray warbler text. 318; 

T»i , , J . ill- (colored) 316 

Black- throated green warbler text, 318; 

«, . . ^ „. ill- (colored) 316 
Beaching powders: Niagara electrical laboratory. 422 
Blessings, Church: Bestowed upon Russian sol- 
diers, ill 2i4t 215 

Bli^y, France: Hospital for consumptive sol- 



diers, ill. 



425 



Blockade possibilities: England 87,91,93 

Blockley, Worcestershire, England, ill 90,91 

Bluebonnet, Texas text, 497; iU. (colored) 512 

Bluejackets: Class in telegraphy, Naval training 

school, ill 472 

Bluejackets, United States, ill 345, 346, 350, 354 

Blue-top hav, Alaska, ill 18 

Blue-wmgecf warbler text, 511 ; ill. (colored) 308 

Boats, Flying: Miami, Florida, ill 284 

Bohemia, Scenes in, ill 164, 166, 168-174, 

177, 178, 180-182, 184-186 
BOHEMIA AND THE CZEXIHS. BY ALES 

HRDUCKA 163 

Bohemia, Colonized by Germans 165 

Bohemians in the United States 183 

Bohemians, Origin of the 1 63 

Bordeaux- Begles, France: Health-service ware- 
houses, ill 333 

Boy and donkey, Venezuela, ill. (rotogravure in- 
sert) 146-163 

Boy coal-miner: Pennsylvania, ill. (rotogravure in- 
sert) 146-163 

Boy eating apples, ill. (rotogravure insert) . . . 146-163 
Boy feeding lamb: Austrian Tyrol, ill. (rotogra- 
vure insert) 146-163 

Boy headhunter: Philippine Islands, ill. (rotogra- 
vure insert) 146-163 

Boy, Italian: Boy dressed in soldier uniform, ill. 121 



Page 
Boy Scouts charging with flags: New York City, 

ill 359 

Boys and girls rolling bandages for the soldiers, 

ill 46s 

Bread line: Ghent, Belgium, ill 455 

Bride and groom, Slovak, ill 168 

Bride, War: Paris, ill 426 

Bridge, Charles IV: Prague, Bohemia, ill 182 

Bridge, Draw: Milwaukee, Wisconsin, ill 140 

Bridges, Labyrinth of: Cleveland, Ohio, ill 134 

Bridge tower: Prague, Bohemia, ill 173 

British Empire's rally to the motherland 207 

British fleet. The 199 

British Isles: Map of harbors 85 

British seaports. One hundred 84 

British soldier receiving a food ticket, ill 336 

Brod, Macedonia: Starving fed by an American 

nurse 398 

Brooklyn: Marshal Joffre unveiling the Lafayette 

memorial, ill 566 

Brooks, Sydney: What Great Britain is Doing.... 193 

Buffalo grain elevators: New York, ill 274 

Buffalo, New York: McKinley monument, ill.... 250 

Bugler, Naval militia, ill 346 

Bulgarian prisoners: Monastir Road 395 

BURDEN FRANCE HAS BORNE. THE. BY 

GRANVILLE FORTESCUE 323 

Burmese dwarf: Immigrant at Ellis Island, ill... 129 



Cactus, The text, 498: ill. (colored) 513 

Calais, Russian aids at the Marne and 375 

Camion, French : Monastir Road, ill 384 

Camp, Grand View : Alaska 49 

Camp, Military, and the Y. M. C. A., ill 470-472 

Camp site, National Geographic Expedition, 191 5: 

Alaska, ill 34 

Camp, Trapper's: Alaska, ill 80, 81 

(Canada's contribution to the British forces, ill... 206 

Canada : Steel plant, ill 197 

Canada warbler text. 314; ill. (colored) 320 

Canadians and Newfoundlanders in the United 

States, Distribution of 109 

Canadian side of the Horseshoe Falls: Niagara 

Falls, N. Y., ill 417 

Canadian soldiers in training, ill 206 

Canal, Ekaterinskaya : Petrograd, ill 220 

Candle ends used for fuel text, 568; ill., 568-570 

Candles to electricity, From: Inventions 131 

Cannon, French: "Soixante quinze" 330 

Cannon in Petrograd's Monument of Fame. ill... 2x1 

Cannon of France : 20-inch 335 

Canyon, Wonderful scenery of the: Katmai, 

Alaska 55 

Cape May warbler text, 310; ill. (colored) 312 

Capps, Stephen R., of the U. S. Geological Sur- 
vey: A Game Country Without Rival in Amer- 
ica, the Proposed Mount McKinley National 

Park, Alaska 69 

Carborundum, Manufacture of: Niagara electrical 

laboratory 419 

Cardhouse of republics 252 

Caribou in Mount McKinley National Park, 

Alaska, ill 76 

Caribou, Thousands of: Alaska 77 

Carnation, The text, 494; ill. (colored) 507,510 

Carrel-Dakin method of sterilizing wounds: France 343 

Carriage, Single- passenger: Russia, ill 225 

Carrier-pigeons: French army, ill 282 

Cart, Electric: Used in munition factories for 

shells, ill 328 

Cart, Peasant: Carrying Russian wounded soldiers, 

ill 369 

Cart, Russian peasant, ill 232 

Casino, Russian offlcers': Afternoon tea, ill 217 

Cathedrals, Russian, ill 218, 219, 230, 231 

Cattle, Galloway: Experiment station, Alaska, ill. 22 

Caucasus: Georgian military road, ill 229 

Cavalry, French: Near Verdun, ill 338 

Cavalry, Russian: Advancing into Austrian terri- 
tory, ill 212 

(3ave of the Winds: Niagara Falls in winter, ill.. 418 
Caverns formed by snow melting beneath volcanic 

ash : Alaska 36 

Cech, Svatopluk : Bohemian poet 183 

Ceylon: Mother and child, ill. (duotone insert)... 561 

Chair of ancient Greek "Pope," ill ... ; 406 

Characteristics of the Czechs 176 



Digitized by 



Google 



INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXI, 1917 



vii 



Page 

Charles IV of Bohemia: (Karel) 167 

Charles IV bridge at Prague, Bohemia, ill 182 

Chat, Yellow-breasted text, 304; ill. (colored) 305 

"Cbeecha** sunning himself on a wall, ill 394 

Chemical engineering: Niagara Falls, N. Y 413 

Cherokee rose: Georgia's State flower 492 

Chess, A ^ame of naval 528 

Chcatnut-stded warbler .... text, 314; ill. (colored) 313 

Children, Czech : Bohemia, ill 1 74 

Children, French war orphans, ill 424, 428, 455 

Children, Macedonian, ill 396, 398, 403, 404 

Children of all nations, ill. (rotogravure insert) . . 

146-163 

Children of all nations at Ellis Island, ill 97t 99. 

100, 103, 104, 114, 115, 118, 119, 

121, 122, 124, 126, 127 

Children working for the Red Cross, ill 465 

Chimney heat utilized: Inventions 141 

China: A mother with her babies, ill. (duotone 

insert) 555 

Choumadia Division, The: Serbians 387 

Christianity accepted by the Czechs 165 

Chuke Mountain, Staff binoculars on: Monastir 

Road, ill 406,410 

Church converted into hospital: France, ill.. 342,343 

Church, Greek: Katmai village, Alaska, ill 2.s 

Church Lench village, England, ill 88 

Church of St. Jacques Du Ilaut Pas, Paris: Wed- 
ding scene, ill 426 

Church of the Imperial Palace of Petcrhof, Rus- 
sia, ill 239 

Church of the Resurrection: Petrograd, ill 220 

Church, Tyn : Prague, Bohemia, ill 177 

Citizen of Bagdad, ill 188 

Citizens, Our foreign-born 9S 

(Tity Hall Stquare, New York City, ill 29b 

City life preferred by immigrants 105 

Cleveland, Ohio: Bridges across the Cuyahoga 

River, ill 1 34 

Climb, Highest above snow-line: .Maska 71 

Clinton's fatal error: American Revolution 540 

Clock, Astronomical: Prague, Bohemia, ill 164 

Clover field in Montana, ill 567 

Clover, Red text, 517; ill. (colored) 516 

Coal beds: Mount McKinley National Park, 

Alaska text, 73 ; ill., 75 

Coal fleet: Pittsburgh harbor, ill 142 

Coal-miner, Boy: Pennsylvania, ill. (rotogravure 

insert) 146-163 

Coal mines, Women working in: France, ill 332 

Coins, Ornamental: Algerian dancers, ill. (color 

insert) 256-273 

Cold air sold in Paris 145 

College, William and Mary: Williamsburg, Va., 

•11 542 

Colonial engineer corps in France, ill 200 

Colorado columbine, The. .text, 489; ill. (colored) 503 

Columbine. Colorado text. 489; ill. (colored) 503 

Comenius or Jan Amos Komensky: Bohemian hero 179 

Composers and musicians of Bohemia 183 

Condensed milk, Macedonian peasants tried to 

churn 399 

Conductors, Car: French women, ill 331 

Confederation, Swiss 244 

Connecticut warbler text, 321; ill. (colored) 320 

Cook, French military: Near Monastir, ill 389 

Cooling houses and cities artificially, The prob- 
lem of 143, 14s 

Conquest, An alliance which forbade S2i 

Constellation. U. S. S. : Newport. R. I., ill 348 

CONVERSION OF OLD hfEWSPAPERS AND 

CANDLE ENDS INTO FUEL, THE 568 

Cooking class: Naval training station, Newport, 

R. I., ill 352. 353 

Corey, Herbert: On the Monastir road 383 

Corn acreage, Expand the 275 

Cornwallis' surrender at Yorktown, Va text, 543; 

ill., 546 

Cornwallis' tribute to the French 544 

Cossacks, Russian: Immigrants at Ellis Island, 

ill 125 

Costume, Algerian boy's, ill. (rotogravure insert) 

146-163 
Costumes, Algerian dancers', ill. (color insert) 256-273 
Costumes, Indian, ill. (rotogravure insert).... 146-163 
Costumes of all nations: Immigrants at Ellis 

Island, ill 97-i07> no, 1 13-130 

Costumes: Saloniki streets, ill 398,403 

Costumes, Slovak, ill 118, 168, 178, 184-186 



Page 
Costumes, Spanish gypsy girls, ill. (color insert) 

256-273 
Cotton market, Jerusalem, ill. (color insert) . . 256-273 
Court of Honor, Hotel des Invalides, Paris: Am- 
bulance fleet, ill 454 

Coville, Frederick V., of the U. S, Department 
of Agriculture: War, Patriotism, and the Food 

Supply 254 

Cow-peas valuable for food 275 

Cradle, Slovak: Bohemia, ill 186 

Crater, Katmai Volcano: Alaska.. text and ill., 53> 56, 

57. 60 

Criminologist, Swiss: In Serbia, ill 390 

Cruiser, Gasoline-driven express: Miami, Florida, 

ill 284 

Cuna-Cuna or Tule Indians: Panama, ill. (duotone 

insert) 560 

Curie, Madame: Discoverer of radium 135 

Cuyahoga River bridges, Cleveland, Ohio, ill 134 

(Izech children: Bohemia, ill 174 

Czech-Americans, Distinguished 185 

Czechs and Slovaks in Bohemia 163 

Czechs. Bohemia and the. By Ales Hrdlicka... 163 

Czechs' characteristics 176 

Czechs encouraged by WyclifFe 176 



Daisy, The text, 497: ill. (colored) 512 

Dancers of Arabia, ill. (color insert) 256-273 

Dancers of the desert: Algeria, ill. (color insert) 

256-273 

Danes in the United States, Distribution of 108 

Dangers of a Teuton drive on Petrograd 382 

Dark days for the patriot cause: American Revo- 
lution 532 

Davison, Henry P., Chairman of the War Council 
of the American Red Cross: Our Armies of 

Mercy 423 

Death, An awe-inspiring valley of: Katmai district, 

Alaska 37 

Decoration, Interior: Geometrical designs: Alham- 

bra, ill. (color insert) 256-273 

Defense work, Brushwood screens for: France, ill. 364 

Deliverance, A message of 362 

Democracy, The outspeaking of a great: France.. 362 
Democracy and republics in 191 7. Map showing 

distribution of 243 

Democracy's chance to make good, A 291 

Democratic army, A 209 

Democratic peoples, The way of 19s 

Democrats, Russia's. By Montgomery Schuyler.. 210 
Denali and Denali's wife: Mountain peaks, Alaska 72 
Department store employees preparing for war: 

New York City, ill 358 

Desert, Dancers of the, ill. (color insert) .... 256-273 

Dcstin, Emmy: Bohemian operatic star 183 

DEVASTATED POLAND. BY FREDERICK 

WALCOTT 445 

Dining-room for soldiers, Lyon hospital, ill 433 

Divis, Prokop: Discoverer of the lightning rod... 183 

Dobrapolya Mountain, Serb soldiers on 386 

Dobraveni, A family party at, ill 407 

Dog and child: Playtellows, ill. (rotogravure in- 
sert) 146-163 

Doge, Office of the: Early Venice 241 

Dogs, Alaskan, ill 82 

Dogs, French Red Cross, ill 469 

Dogs, Masterless, roam the barren hills: Mace- 
donia 388 

Dog-teams, Alaska, ill 69 

Dog, Wounded war, ill 4S6 

Donkey burden-bearer: North Africa, ill. (color 

insert) 256-273 

"Donkeymobile" in Sicily, ill. (rotogravure in- 
sert) 146-163 

DO YOUR BIT FOR AMERICA: A PROCLA- 
MATION BY PRESIDENT WILSON TO 

THE AMERICAN PEOPLE 289 

Drawbridge: Milwaukee, Wisconsin, ill 140 

Drunkard, Disappearance of the: Russia 224 

Drying fruits and vegetables: Reviving a lost art 

text, 277,475; ill., 476-479,481 

Duma, The Russian 221 

Dust-storm, Exploring in a: Katmai district, 

Ala<ika 26 

Dutch immigrants. Ellis Island, ill 99,100 

Dvorak, -\nton: Bohemian coiniwser 183 



Digitized by 



Google 



VIII 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



Page 

DvortzoTaya Square : Petrograd, ill 224 

Dwarf, Burmese: Immigrant, Ellis Island, ill 129 

Dynamite plotter. Preparedness against the 420 

"E" 

Economic success of Germany 47S 

Economic value of warblers 301 

Egypt, The lure of, ill. (color insert) 256-273 

Ekaterinskaya canal, Petrograd, ill 220 

Electrical laboratory: Niagara Falls, N. Y 413 

Electric cart for transporting shells: munition fac- 
tory 328 

Electricity, From candles to: Inventions 131 

Electrodes for furnaces; leads for pencils 419 

Electrochemical industry: Niagara, N. Y 413 

Elevators, Grain: Buffalo, N. Y., ill 274 

Ellis Island, Immigrants at, ill... 97-107,110,112-130 

Elmley Castle village, England, ill 89,94 

Emblems, Floral: State flowers, ill. (colored). 501-516 
Embroidery, Bohemian: Peasant girl embroidering, 

ill 171 

"Emerald Isle" of the Pacific: Kodiak, Alaska, 

text, 13; ill., 19 

Engineer corps, Colonial: France, ill 200 

England, A new 209 

England and France given time to prepare 375 

England, London: War rallies, ill 194-204 

England: One Hundred Britisk Seaports 84 

England, Our Debt to 281 

England: Rural scenes, ill 86-94 

England: Women as war-time fire-fighters, ill.... 296 

England: Women munition workers, ill 294 

English child v.-ui ^ .::— -^ilier, ill. (rotogravure 

insert) 146-163 

English immigrants at Ellis Island, ill 127 

English immigrants in the United States, Distri- 
bution of 109 

English Traditions, Our Natural Sympathy with. 

By Senator John Sharp Williams 281 

Eruption of Mount Katmai benefits Kodiak: Alaska 13 
Eskimo family. An: Alaska, ill. (duotone insert). 564 

Evang, Jan: Bohemian scientist 183 

Exhibit of a million dollars in gold: San Fran- 
cisco, ill 473 

Exodus from Poland, ill 448 

Expeditions to Alaska: National (^graphic So- 
ciety, 1915-1916. By Robert F. Griggs, Leader. 13 

Experiments by Alexander Graham Bell 143 

Exploring in a dust-storm: Katmai district, Alaska 26 
Exploring parties: Mount McKinley region, Alaska 73 



..p.. 

Pair, Nizhni-Novgorod: Russia, ill 237,238 

Families, Large: Immigrants, Ellis Island, ill... 100, 

122, 124, 126, 127 

Family, Large: Rural Russia, ill 233 

Farmers, the soldiers behind the firing line 291 

Father and son: Ex-President William H. Taft 

and son, ill 468 

"Feeding the motherless lamb,*' ill. (rotogravure 

insert) 146-163 

Ferdinand. The tyranny of: Bohemia 170 

Ferro-chromium tor shells 419 

Ferro-silicon industry: Niagara 419 

Fertilizer, Human bones for: Poland 448 

Pickle Creek: Katmai, Alaska, ill 34. 35 

Fight not for recompense, but for liberty 522 

Finances, Britain's war 203 

Finley, John H. "The Red Cross Spirit Speaks" 

(poem) 474 

Finnish immigrants: Ellis Island, ill 116 

Finns and Russians in the United States, Distri- 
bution of 109 

Firefighters, War-time; English women, ill 296 

"Fish Cottages": Blockley, Worcestershire, Eng- 
land, ill 90 

Fisherfolk: Rural England, ill 87 

Fish-hawks, Young: Gardiner's Island, N. Y., ill.. 303 

Fish, Tombstone to a : Kngland, ill 91 

Flag, Pledge to the: Philadelphia, ill 292 

Flag, Saluting the: New York City, ill 361 

Flags, U. S.: Boy scouts charging with flags. New 

York City, ill 350 

Fleet, The British I99 

Flemisk war orphans. ilJ 432, 434 



Page 

Flocking of small birds 299 

Flood explained. Tremendous: Alaska. 51 

Flood, Mysterious source of: Katmai district, 

Alaska 26, 38 

Flowers, Our Stote. By the Editor text, 481, 

ill. (color insert) 501-516 

Flying boats : Miami, Florida, ill 284 

Food conservation: Drying methods text, 475; 

ni., 476-479. 481 
Food demands increasing more rapidly than our 

production 255 

Food "dump" alongside the Monastir road, ill.... 409 
Food: Soldiers of the Soil. By David F. Houston 273 
Food Supply, War, Patriotism, and the. By Fred- 
erick Coville 254 

Food tickets for soldiers : Paris, ill 336 

Forage, Reserve sufficient 277 

"Forest Cantons": Switzerland 244,252 

Forest, Giant: California text, i ; ill., 2-1 1 

Fortescue, Granville: The Burden France has 

Borne 323 

Forests, Friends of Our: (Birds). By Henry W. 

Henshaw 297 

Fortune-teller: Nizhni-Novgorod, Russia, ill 227 

Fortune-tellers, Spanish gypsy, ill. (color insert). 

256-273 

Fountain, Turkish : Saloniki, ill 400 

Fox cub drinking condensed milk: Alaska, ill.... 26 

Foxes are plentiful: Alaska 79 

France, (All) behind America then: 1780 519 

France: A madonna of sorrow at her son's grave, 

ill. (duotone insert) 549 

France: American ambulance in a ruined town, ill. 452 
France and America: Our First and Second Alli- 
ance. Bv J. J. Jusserand 518, 565 

France and England griven opportunity to prepare 375 

France: Army auto with earner-pigeons, ill 282 

France, A soldier's grave in, ill. (duotone insert) . 549 
France, Bind the Wounds of. By Herbert C. 

Hoover 439 

France, Bligny: Hospital for consumptive soldiers, 

ill 42s 

France: Colonial engineer corps, ill 200 

France fought for an idea: American Revolution. 539 

France, Gard: Women in the coal mines, ill 332 

France, Limoges: Porcelain ready for United 

States, ill 366 

France: Lyon Hospital dining-room for wounded 

soldiers, ill 433 

France: Soldiers harvesting, ill 280 

France: The Burden France has Borne. By 

Granville Fortescue 323 

France, The love of liberty spreads in 248 

France: The outspeaking of a great democracy... 362 

France: Women car conductors, ill 33 > 

France: Women munition workers 322,326 

Free Assemblies modeled after the British Parlia- 
ment and American Congress 368 

Freedom, a delicate flower 247 

French army contrasted with the German 323 

French cook near Monastir, ill 389 

French faith in America 518 

French fleet at Newport 528 

French fleet. First-hand picture of life in the. . . . 525 
Frenchmen's impression of George Washington... 533 
French ofiicers in the American Revolution, ill.. 520, 
^ . . . , 523, 527. 531. 546 

French patriotism. Interpreting 323 

French Red Cross do^s leaving Paris, ill 469 

French Red Cross tram, ill 334 

French Republic, The first 251 

French Republic, Our Natural Sympathy with the. 

By Senator John Sharp Williams 281 

French reserves on way to Verdun, ill 338 

French "soixante-quinze" gun: Shell cases, ill... 337 
French soldiers harvesting: Department of the 

Mame, ill 280 

French soldiers' shower bath, ill 335 

French war orphans, ill 424, 428, 455 

French women. Heroism of the 343 

Fric, Ant: Bohemian paleontologist 183 

FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS (BIRDS). BY 

HENRY W. HENSHAW 297 

Friendship ratified in blood: America and France 362 
Fruits and vegetables: Drying methods. text. 475,480; 

ill., 476-479. 481 
Fuel, Conversion of old newspapers and candle 

ends into text, 568; ill., 568-570 

Fumarole, The first: Katmai. Alaska 63 



Digitized by 



Google 



INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXI, 1917 



IX 



Page 
Gade. John H., of the American Commission for 

Relief in Belgium: Belgium's Plight 433 

GAME COUNTRY WITHOUT RIVAL IN 
AMERICA, A: The Proposed Mount McKinley 

National Park. By Stephen R. Capps 69 

Gameless days arc rare: Alaska 80 

Game of naval chess 528 

Game paradise, A big-: Alaska 75. 81 

Garden in the Holy I,and, A, ill. (color insert) . . 

256-273 

Gardens, Palace: Prague, Bohemia, ill 172 

Gard, France: Women in the coal mines, ill 332 

Gardiner's Island, N. Y.: Young fish-hawks, ill.. 303 
Gas masks, women munition workers wearing, ill. 325 

Gas masks worn by nurses, ill 44^ 

Gate, Pink stucco: Jaipur, India, ill. (color insert) 

256-273 

Genoa as a republic 244 

George Washington was English 282 

Georgian military road over the Caucasus, ill 229 

Gerard, Chevalier, ill 53" 

German army contrasted with the French army.. 323 
German fliers watch the allied plans: Monastir 

road 39a 

German guard. A: River Meuse, ill 202 

German hordes drawn from the West by Russians 375 

German immigrants: Ellis Island, ill 122 

Germans: Bom and bred to the hardened heart. . 445 
Germans boss the road mender of the Monastir 

road 393 

Germans colonize Bohemia 165 

Germans in the United States, Distribution of... 108 

Germans oppose a liberal Russia 373 

German war machine is strong. Why the 380 

Germany's contempt, The fruit of 462 

Germany's economic success 475 

Ghent, Belgium: A bread line, ill 455 

Giant Forest: California text, i ; ill., 2-1 1 

Giant, Russian: Immigrant, Ellis Island, ill 130 

Girl, Bohemian peasant, ill 171 

Glacier, Muldron: Aladca 73.83 

Gold, A million dollars in, ill 473 

Golden poppy, The text, 487; ill. (colored) 502 

Golden rod, The text, 496; ill. (colored) 511 

Golden-winged warbler. .. .text, 306; ill. (colored) 308 

Grafton Flyford, Enj^land: Post-office, ill 86 

Grain elevators, Bufi^lo. N. Y., ill 274 

Granada, Spain: Alhambra, ill. (color insert). 256-273 
Granada, Spain: Native gypsy, ill. (color insert). 

256-273 

Grand View Camp: Alaska 49 

Grape, Oregon text, 500; ill. (colored) 515 

Grasse, Admiral De, ill 527 

Grasse, De. America's debt to 541 

Grave of French soldier^ ill. (duotone insert) 549 

Great Britain in transition 210 

Great Britain: What Great BriUin is Doing. By 

Sydney Brooks 193 

Greek immigrant: Ellis Island, ill 120 

Greek "Pope" and his open-air pulpit, ill 406 

Greek soldier of the Royal Guard at Ellis Island, 

ill 120 

Greger, Julius: Bohemian journalist 183 

Grenade, Rifle, Work of the 329 

Griggs, Robert F.: Leader of the National Geo- 
graphic Societv's Mount Katmai Expeditions of 
1 91 5 and 1916. The Valley of Ten Thousand 

Smokes 13 

Griggs, Robert P.: In Alaska, ill 28 

Guard, A German: River Meuse, ill 202 

Guard, A Turkish bank, ill zo6 

Guardsman, A National, ill 347 

Guns: Big guns vs. lignter ones 333 

Guns, Russian 8-inch, ill 374 

Guns, The synchronized fire of 400 336 

Gun team: Monastir road, ill 408 

Gymnasium instruction: Naval training station, 

Newport, ill 349 

Gypsies, Serbian: Immigrant, Ellis Island, ill 128 

Gypsy girls. Spanish, ilL (color insert) 256-273 

Gypsy mother and child: Hungary, ill. (duotone 
insert) 563 



Hale, Nathan: Statue in New York City, ill 290 

Harbors, British: Map 85 

Harvesting hay: Alaska, ill 18, 19, 21 



Page 
Harvesting in the Department of the Marne: 

French soldiers, ill 280 

Haunts of wood warblers 298 

Havlicek, Karel: Bohemian journalist 183 

Hawks, Pish-: Young about to leave their nest, ill. 303 

Hay, Alaska, ill 18, 19. 21 

HaV foot. Straw foot: American children, Ul. 

(rotogravure insert) 146-1 63 

Hay, Reserve sufficient 277 

Headgear: Metal helmets used by French soldiers, 

ill 339. 386 

Headgear of all nations: Ellis Island, ill 97, 

101-106, no. 113, 115-121, 125, 129 
Headgear: Oriental dancers, ill. (color insert). 256-273 
Headgear: Philippine Island head-hunter, iU. 

(rotogravure insert) 146-163 

Head-hunter, Boy: Philippine Islands, ill. (roto- 
gravure insert) 146-163 

Health Service warehouses: France, ill 333 

Heaters, Ration: Making and using text, 568; 

ill., 568-570 

Heat in the chimney utilized, ill 141 

Hebrew vegetarian, Russian: Immigrant, Ellis Is- 
land, ill 98 

Hebron, Palestine: Scenes in and near Hebron, 

ill 189,191,192 

Helmets, French trench: Serb soldiers on Dobra- 

polya Mountain, ill. 386 

Helmets, Metal, used by French soldiers, ill . . 339, 386 
Henshaw, Henry W.: Friends of Our Forests 

(Birds) 297 

Heroism of the French women 343 

Hero of war, The true 324 

Hides, Siberian: Nizhni-Novgorod, Russia, ill.... 227 
Hill, David Jayne, Formerly U. S. Minister to 
Switzerland, to the Netherlands, and Ambas- 
sador to Germany: Republics — The Ladder to 

Liberty 240 

Hindu: Immigrant, Ellis Island, ill 129 

Historians, Bohemian x8x 

"Hobby-horse" to the motor-cycle. From the: In- 
ventions X33 

Holmwood, Surrey, England: Sun-dial house, ill. 93 

Honorable rules of war rigorously observed 5*3 

Hooded warbler text, 321; ill. (colored) 320 

Hoover, Herbert C. Chairman of the Committee 
for Relief in Belgium: Bind the Wounds of 

France 439 

Horseshoe Falls: Niagara Falls, ill 414,417,421 

Hospital, Army: In a railway car, ill 443 

Hospital dining-room for wounded soldiers: Lyon, 

France, ill 433 

Hospital for consumptive soldiers: BHgny, France, 

ill 4*5 

Hospitals, American : France, ill 440. 444. 447 

Hospital, Spadina military, Toronto: A wounded 

Canadian, ill 43' 

Hospital, War emergencjr: French Church, ill. 342, 343 
Hotel des Invalides, Paris: Ambulance fleet in the 

Court of Honor, ill 454 

Houston, David F., U. S. Secretary of Agricul- 
ture: Soldiers of the Soil 273 

Hradiany, Royal Palace of: Prague, Bohemia, ill. 

166, 172 
Hrdlicka, Alel, Curator of Physical Anthropology 
in the U. S. National Museum: Bohemia and 

the Czechs 163 

Human bones for fertilizer: Poland 448 

Human machine in action: French artillery 330 

Hummingbirds, Migration of 300 

Hungarian gypsy mother and child, ill. (duotone 

insert) 563 

Hungarians and Austrians in the United States, 

Distribution of 108 

Hunter, Bear: Kodiak. Alaska 47 

Hunters, Pot-: Their destructive toll in Alaska... 81 

Hunting: Alaska, ill 81, 82 

Hussite Church now T^n Church of Prague, ill.. 77 

Hussite wars of Bohemia 167 

Hnss, John: Martyrdom of, Bohemia 167 

Hut, Native: Katmai village, Alaska, ill 25 

"I" 

Ice: Opening of navigation through the ice: St. 

Mary's River, ill 276 

Icicles, Gigantic: Niagara Falls in winter, ill. 418,421 

Ideals, Fighting for Washington's 367 

Ideals of France, The 323 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



Page 
Ilongote tribe, Philippine Islands: Youthful head- 
hunter, ill. (rotogravure insert) 146-163 

Immigration bill vetoed by Presidents 95 

Immigration, Labor's debt to 1 1 1 

Immigrants in the United States, Distribution of. 

108, lOQ 

Immigrants: Our foreign-born citizens text, 95; 

ill., 97-107, 110, 112-130 

Immigrant's preference for city life 105 

Immortal act of a glorious nation 365 

Independence Hall, Philadelphia, ill 246,253 

Independence Square, Philadelphia: Patriotic dem- 
onstration, ill 292 

India, Jaipur: Gateway, ill. (color insert).... 256-273 

India, Marvelous gifts from: European war 207 

Indian madonna of the Great Plains, ill. (duotone 

insert) 554 

Indian mother and babe: Panama, ill. (duotone in- 
sert) 560 

Indian paintbrush, The... text, 500; ill. (colored) 515 
Indians, Blackfeet, ill. (rotogravure insert).. 146-163 
Indians, Ojibway tribe: Mother and child, ill. 

(rotogravure insert) 146-163 

Industries, British : Rewrought. ..'. 203 

Insects, Dead: Katmai Valley, Alaska, ill 47 

Interpreting French patriotism 323 

Invention, America's first and greatest 248 

Inventor, Prizes for the. By Alexander Graham 

Bell ,3, 

Inventor : Josef Ressl 1 83 

Ireland's gift to America in immigrants 10*1 

Irish in the United States, Distribution of 108 

Iron heel that crushes Belgium, The, ill 202 

Italian boy dressed in soldier uniform, ill 121 

Italian immigrants: Ellis Island, ill 101,121 

Italians in the United States. Distribution of.... 109 
Iven, Open-air barbering at: Macedonia, ill 393 



"J" 

Jack Horner, A Sahara, ill. (rotogravure insert). 

146-163 

aipur, India: Gateway, ill. (color insert) 256-273 

apan: A mother of warriors, ill. (duotone insert) 553 
aranese children, ill. (rotogravure insert)... 146-163 

eiferson visited by Rochambeau 545 

crash. Ruins of, ill 190 

erome, General: French army, ill 401 

erusalem: Garden and a cotton market, ill. (color 

insert) 256-273 

Tews, Polish : War refugees, ill 449 

Jews, Russian: Immigrants, Ellis Island, ill 124 

Joffre, Marshal: Before Lafayette memorial, 

Brooklyn, ill 566 

Jollyboy, A romp with, ill. (rotogravure insert) 146-163 

Journalists, Bohemian 1 83 

Jusscrand, J. J., Ambassador from France to the 
United States. Our First Alliance and Our 

Second Alliance 518, 565 

Justice, The harvest of 363 



Kaiser, The perverted teachings of the 379 

Karel of Bohemia (Charles IV) 167 

Katmai, Alaska: Scenes, ill 25, 27, 28, 30-32, 

34-SO, 52-58, 60, 62, 64, 66 

Katmai Canyon: Mt. Katmai, Alaska, ill 58,61 

Katmai District of Alaska, The Valley of Ten 

Thousand Smokes. By Robert F. Griggs 13 

Katmai, Pass, Ascent to, Alaska 63 

Katmai River, Alaska, ill 39.48,60 

Katmai volcano and vicinity, Alaska: Sketch map. 23 

Kentucky warbler text, 314; ill. (colored) 317 

Khan, Ancient: near Hebron, ill. 191 

Kilts, Scotch, ill 97 

Kit packing by Scotch Highlander, ill 199 

Kocian : Bohemian musician 1 83 

Kodiak, Alaska, ill... 12, 14, 15, 19, 21, 22, 24, j6, 29 

Kodiak and the mainland contrasted: Alaska 20 

Kodiak "Emerald Isle" of the Pacific text, 13; 

ill.. 19 
Komensky, Jan Amos (Comenius) : Bohemian hero 179 

Kramaf. Karel: Bohemian statesman 183 

Kremlin, Moscow, Russia, ill 230,231 

Kubelik, Jan : Bohemian musician 183 



"L" 

Page 

Labor's debt to immigration 1 1 1 

Lafayette, Marquis De, ill 523 

Lafayette memorial unveiled by Marshal Joffre: 

Brooklyn, ill 566 

Lake, A vitreoHc: Alaska 54^ 

Lamb feeding from bottle: Austrian Tyrol, ill. 

(rotogravure insert) 146-163 

Lapland immigrant: Ellis Island, ill no 

Lapland mother and her babies, ill. (duotone in- 
sert) 55^ 

Latin was the language of communication: Amer- 
ican Revolution 532 

laurel, MounUin text, 448; ill. (colored) 503 

Lava blown to fragments: Katmai district, Alaska 40 

Leads for pencils, electrodes for furnace 419 

Leontieff, General: With the Russian army in 

Macedonia, ill 394 

Lessons of the war 209 

Lewis' syringa (flower), ill. (colored) 505 

Liberal Russia, A, Opposed by Germans 373 

Liberty, A fight for 5^» 

Liberty Bell: Philadelphia, Pa., ill 253 

Liberty, Cradle of: Independence Hall, Philadel- 
phia, ill ^46 

Liberty, Love of: Spreads in France 248 

Liberty, Our Heritage of. By M. Viviani 365 

Liberty, Republics — The Ladder to. By David 

Jayne Hill 240 

Lioerty, Statue of: New York harbor, ill 245 

Lightning rod. Discoverer of: Prokop Divis 183 

Lily, Sego or Mariposa text, 498; ill. (colored) 512 

Limoges, France: Barrels of porcelain for U. S.. 

ill 366 

Lion : Nelson Monument, London, ill 204 

Lodz, Fortification at: The "Verdun" of the Rus- 
sian line 44^ 

Log raft, San Diego harbor, ill 139 

Logs, Big tree: Sequoia National Park, ill 3-7 

Logs, Hauling: Alaska dog team, ill 69 

Logs: Port Blakeley Mill, Washington, ill a8s 

London: War rallies in Trafalgar Square, ill. . I94. 204 

Louisiana water-thrush text, 319 ill- (colored) 317 

Love of liberty spreads in France 240 



Lumber carriers: Port Blakeley Mill, Washington, 



ill. 



2Ss 



Lumbermen in Sequoia National Park, ill 2-5,7 

Lumber mills at Seattle, Washington, ill 136 

Lyon, France: Hospital dining-room for wounded 
soldiers, ill 433 



"M" 

McKinley, William: Monument, Buffalo, N. Y., ill. 250 

Macedonian types, ill 3S8 

Macedonia: On the Monastir Road. By Herbert 

Corey 383 

Macedonia. Soldiers of the allies tread historic 

ground in 383 

Macgillivray warbler text, 321 ; ill. (colored) 320 

Machine-gun captured by the Serbs, ill 4*1 

Machinery, Sugar-making, ill 144 

Machines, Slicing: Fruits and vegetables, ill 476 

Mad dog among nations, A 451 

Madonnas of Many Lands, ill. (duotone insert). 

549-564 

Mageik, Mount: Alaska, ill 30, 32 

Magic words to conjure with 521 

Magnolia, The text. 493; ill. (colored) 506 

Magnolia warbler text, 315; ill. (colored) 313 

Malaria-bearing mosquito: Macedonia 403 

Malcolm, Ian, Member of the British Red Cross 
and of the House of Commons: The Needs 

Abroad 427 

Man valued at fifty dollars. A: Colonial America. 110 

Map of British harbors 85 

Map. Outline: Proposed Mount McKinley National 

Park 71 

Map, Sketch: Katmai volcano and vicinity, Alaska. 23 
Maps: Republics in 1776 and 191 7. Distribution 

of 242, 243 

Man. U. S., showing the foreign stock in the pop- 
ulation 96 

Marie Square, Petrograd. ill 219 

Mariposa or Sego lily. .text. 498; ill. (color insert) 512 
Market, Cotton: Jerusalem, ill. (color insert^.. 256-273 

Market day at Soubotsko, Macedonia, ill 388,399 

Marnc and Calais, Russia aids at the 375 



Digitized by 



Google 



INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXI, 1917 



XI 



Page 
Mame, Department of: French soldiers harvest- 
ing, m 280 

Marriage at the Church of St. Jacques Du Haut 

Pas: Paris, ill 426 

Martin Volcano, or Mount Martin, Alaska 33 

Martyrdom of John Huss: Bohemia 167 

Martyrs, Unconquerable courage of: Belgium.... 437 

Maryland yellow-throat text, 304; ill. (colored) 305 

Masaryk, Thos. G.: Bohemian statesman 183 

Mascots. Serbian : Black and white sheep, ill 411 

Masks. Gas: Women munition workers, ill 325 

Masks, Gas: Worn by nurses, ill 442 

Meal ticket for Tommy Atkins, ill 336 

Meal-time for little Belgians, ill 43<> 

Melting-pot in operation. The, ill 112 

Men of note in modern Bohemia 181, 183 

Metal helmets used by the French soldiers, ill. 339, 380 
Mcurthe, Department of, France: Women weaving 

brushwood screens, ill 364 

Meuse River : German guard, ill 202 

Mexican child and cactus plant, ill. (rotogravure 

insert) 146-163 

Mexican mother, A patient, ill. (duotone insert) . . 559 

Miami. Florida: Airplane and flying boats, ill. 284 

Migration of warblers. The spectacular 298 

Military hospital. Wounded soldier in: Toronto, 



"N" 



Pase 



ill. 



431 



Military Road, Georgian: Caucasus, ill 229 

Military tractor or airplane: Miami, Florida, ill.. 284 

Million dollars in gold. An exhibit of, ill 47.< 

Milwaukee. Wisconsin: Drawbridge, ill 140 

Miners, Coal : French women, ill 332 

Miners. Statesmen and armies helpless without. . 293 
Minstrel of the Orient: Morocco, ill. (color in- 
sert) 256-273 

Mischitch, Voivode: Serbian strategist, ill 401 

Missionaries at KlHs Island, ill 123 

Mistletoe, The text, 499 ; ill. (colored) 5 1 4 

Moccasin flower. The text, 488; ill. (colored) 502 

"Molina" or salmon-berries: Alaska, .text, 15; ill., 24 

Monastir Road, On the. By Herbert Corey 383 

Monastir Road. Scene on, ill 384 

Mens, Belgium: At tlie bier of a city 435 

Montenegrin immigrants: Ellis Island, ill 113 

Monuments: Petrograd, ill 21 1, 219, 220, 224 

Monument to McKinley: Buffalo, N. Y., ill 250 

Monument, Washington: Baltimore, Md., ill 249 

Moorish quarter of Tetuan, Morocco, ill. (color 

insert) 256-273 

Moors, Throne room of the: .Alhambra. ill. (color 

insert) 256-273 

Moose are wary animals: Alaska 79 

Morava division. The: Serbians, .text, 387; ill., 393, 411 
Morocco: Oriental scenes in, ill. (color insert) 256-273 
Moscow, Russia: Scenes in city and suburbs, ill., 225, 

230, 231, 233-235 
Moselle, Department of, France: Women weaving 

brushwoofi screens, ill 364 

Mosquito, Malaria-bearing: Macedonia 403 

Mosquito plains. Caribou avoid the: Alaska 77 

Mothers and children of many lands, ill. (duotone 

insert) 549-56^ 

Motorcycle, From the "hobby-horse" to the: In- 
ventions 133 

Mountaineer types, Montenegrin, ill 117 

Mountain laurel text, 488; ill. (colored) 503 

Mountains, Alaskan, ill 30, 32, 48, 50, 

52, 58, 61, 70, 72-74 

Mountains, Macedonian 386, 387 

Mt. Foraker, Alaska T2 

Mt. Katmai volcano, Alaska text, 13 ; 

ill., 48-50. 52-58. 60-62 
Mt. McKinley, Alaska: Proposed National Park.. 

text, 69, 71 ; ill., 70, 72, 74 

Mt. Magcik, Alaska, ill 30, 32 

Mt. Vernon Place, Baltimore: Washington Monu- 
ment, ill 249 

Mourning warbler text, 321 ; ill. (colored) 320 

Mud-flow : Katmai volcano, Alaska 63 

Mud-plastered slopes. Climbing the: Katmai, 

Alaska 51 

Mud. Terra-cotta red: Katmai district, Alaska.... 39 

Muldrow Glacier, Alaska 73. 83 

Mule litter. Wing-type: Wounded Serbian soldiers, 

ill 391 

Munition industry 338, 330 

Munition workers. Women, ill. . 294, },22^ 12^, 326, 328 
Musical instrument: Roumanian shepherd, ill.... 117 
Musicians and composers of Bohemia 183 



Napoleon I proclaimed Emperor of the French . . . 252 

Napoleon's artillery victories 333 

Nashville warbler text, 311; ill. (colored) 312 

Nathan Hale statue, New York City, ill 290 

National air, I<earning the: American bluejackets 

and marines, ill 354 

National Congress: Russia 221 

National Geographic Society's appropriation to 

save the Giant Forest x 

National (^ographic Society's Mount Katmai Ex' 
peditions \9i5 and 1916: The Valley of Ten 

Thousand Smokes. By Robert F. Griggs 13 

National guardsman completely equipi>ed, ill 347 

Naval chess, A game of 528 

Naval militia bugler, ill 346 

Naval supremacy. Nothing without 525 

Naval training station: Class in telegraphy, ill..... 472 
Naval training station: Newport, R. I., ill. 345. 348-355 
NEEDS ABROAD, THE. BY IAN MALCOLM. 427 

Nelson Day: Trafalgar Square, London, ill 204 

Nelson House: Yorktown, Va., ill 534 

Nelson monument lion : London, ill 204 

Nenana coal field: Alaska text, 73; ill., 75 

Nenana River : Alaska 69 

Netherlands, The United 244 

Neuilly, France: American Hospital, ill 440 

Newfoundlanders and Canadians in the U. S., Dis- 
tribution of 1 09 

New Guinea woman and baby, ill. (duotone insert) 557 

Newport, The French fleet at 528 

Newport, R. I.: Naval training station, ill. 345.348-355 

Newspapers and candles converted into fuel 

text, 568; ill., 568-570 

New York City: A Red Cross Chapter, ill 464 

New York City: Boy scouts charging with flags, ill. 359 

New York, U. S. S., ill 3S6 

NIAGARA AT THE BATTLE FRONT. BY 

WILLIAM JOSEPH SHOW ALTER 413 

Niagara Falls in summer and winter, ill.. 414-418,421 

Niagara shapes and hardens our shells 413 

Nicholas I, Monument of: Petrograd, ill 219 

Night in Tetuan, Morocco, ill. (color insert).. 256-273 

Nile, Land of the, ill. (color insert) 256-273 

Nippon: Japanese girls with babies on their backs, 

ill. (rotogravure insert) 146-163 

Nizhni-Novgorod. Russia, ill. 227, 236, 237, 238 

Norman arch : Slovak house, ill 1 84 

Norwegian immiarrants: Ellis Island, ill 104. 115 

Norwegians in the U. S., Distribution of 108 

Northern water-thrush text, 319: ill. (colored) 317 

Nuns and priests among the ruined buildings: 

Tcrmonde. Belgium, ill 430 

Nurse, American, fed the starving at Brod 398 

Nurses, Red Cross, ill 327, 3.^4. 402, 

440, 442-444. 447. 462, 463 



Oak, Abraham's: Hebron, Palestine, ill 189 

Oats and barley. Usefulness of 273 

Ocean spray: U. S. S. Neiv York, ill 3S6 

Ojibway Indians, ill. (rotogravure insert).... 146-163 
OLDEST FREE ASSEMBLIES, THE: .AD- 
DRESS IN THE U. S. HOUSE OF REPRE- 
SENTATIVES. MAY 5, 1917. BY RIGHT 

HON. ARTHUR J. BAXFOUR 368 

Old men in the fighting lines: Serbians 386 

"Old woman of Polok'^ 391 

ONE HUNDRED BRITISH SEAPORTS 84 

ON THE MONASTIR ROAD. BY HERBERT 

COREY 383 

Orange blossom, The text, 490; ill. (colored) 504 

Orange-crowned warbler. . .text, 306; ill. (colored) 308 

Oregon grape text, 500; ill. (colored) 515 

Oriental automobile: Donkey burden-bearer, ill. 

(color insert) 256-273 

Oriental minstrel: Morocco, ill. (color insert). 256-273 

Origin of warblers. Tropical 298 

Ornaments, Gold and silver coins: Algerian 

dancers, ill. (colored insert) 256-273 

Orphans, French war, ill 424,426,455 

Orphans, war. from Belgium, ill 432,434,436 

OUR ARMIES OF MERCY (U. S.). BY 

HENRY P. DAVISON 423 

OITR BIG TREES SAVED i 

OUR FIRST ALLIANCE. BY J. J. JUSSE- 
RAND 518 



Digitized by 



Google 



XII 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



Pagre 

OUR FOREIGN-BORN CITIZENS 95 

OUR HERITAGE OF LIBERTY : AN AD- 
DRESS BEFORE THE U. S. SENATE BY 
M. VIVIANI, PRESIDENT OF THE 
FRENCH COMMISSION TO THE UNITED 

STATES, MAY i, 1917 365 

Our Saviour. Cathedral ot: Moscow, ill 231 

OUR SECOND ALUANCE. BY J. J. JUSSE- 

RAND 565 

OUR STATE FLOWERS: THE FLORAL EM- 
BLEMS CHOSEN BY THE COMMON- 

WEALTHS. BY THE EDITOR 481 

OUTSPEAKING OF A GREAT DEMOCRACY, 
THE: PROCEEDINGS OF THE CHAMBER 
OF DEPUTIES OF FRANCE ON FRIDAY. 

APRIL 6, 1917 36a 

Oven-bird text, 304; ^1. (colored) 30S 

Ox-carts on the Monastir road ill-, 384; text, 40a 

Ox-eye daisy, ill. (colored) S'a 



Paintbrush, Indian (flower), .text, 500; ill. (col- 
ored) S15 

Palace of Hradcany, Royal: Prague, Bohemia, ill. 

166, 17a 
Palace of the Dukes of Alba: Seville, Spain, ill. 

(color insert) 256-273 

Palace, Winter: Petrograd, ill 222,224 

Palack^, Franti^k: Bohemian historian 181 

Paleontologist, Bohemian : Ant. Fri2 183 

Palestine, Terusalem: A garden and cotton mar- 
ket, ill. (color insert) 256-273 

Palestine, Scenes in, ill 189-192 

Palm warbler text, 319; ill. (colored) 31 7 

Panama: Indian mother and babe, ill. (duotone 

insert) 560 

Panther skin : Kodiak, Alaska, ill 29 

Papoose and mother of the Great Plains, ill. 

(duotone insert) 554 

Papoose and mother: Ojibway tribe of Indians, ill. 

(rotogravure insert) 146-163 

Parade: Patriotic celebration. New York City, ill. 361 
Paris: Ambulance fleet in the Court of Honor, 

Hotel des Invalides, ill 454 

Paris, American hospital at: Nurses^ ill 444 

Paris, French Red Cross dogs leavmg, ill 469 

Paris: Issuing food tickets to soldiers, ill 336 

Paris: Marriage at the Church of St Jacques Du 

Haut Pas, ill 426 

Parula warbler text, 310; ill. (colored) 312 

Pasque flower. The text, 449; ill. (colored) 514 

Pasture land. Reserve sufficient 277 

•Tath of Gold": A million dollars in gold, ill 473 

Pathological anatomy, Pioneer of: Karel Roky- 

tanski 183 

Patio in the house of the Duke of Alba, ill. (color 

insert) 256-273 

Patriotic celebration. New York City: "Wake up 

America," ill 359t 361 

Patriotic demonstration: Independence Square, 

Philadelphia, ill 292 

Patriotism, Interpreting French 323 

Patriotism, War, and the Food Supply. By 

Frederick V. Coville 254 

Peach blossom, The text, 494; ill. (colored) 507 

Peasant, Bavarian, ill 102 

Peasant children, Norwegian, ill 115 

Peasant girl, Bohemian, ill 171 

Peasants arc sourly philosophic: Macedonia 395 

Peasants, Russian, ill 232,238 

Peasants, Slovak, ill 118, 168, 178, 184-186 

Peasant types : Macedonia, ill 388 

Peasant woman, Serbian, ill 105 

Peasant women tried to churn condensed milk: 

Macedonia 399 

Peas, Cow-: Valuable for food 275 

People's associations: Russia 223, 227 

Perils attending bird migration 301 

Pershing, John J., Major General in U. S. Army: 

Stand by the Soldier 457 

Pcterhof, Russia: Church of the Imperial Palace, 

ill 239 

Petrograd, Dangers of a Teuton drive on 382 

Petrograd, Russia: Buildings and monuments, ill. 211, 

218-220, 222, 224 

Philadelphia: Independence Hall, ill 246, 253 

Philadelphia patriotic demonstration, ill 292 



Page 

Philippine Islands: A boy headhunter, ill. (roto- 
gravure insert) 146-163 

Philippines, Motherhood in the, ill. (duotone in- 
sert) 562 

Physical training school for soldiers: Vincennes, 

ill 340,341 

Physicians and scientists: Bohemia 183 

Pine cone and tassel text, 495 ; ill- (colored) 510 

Pine warbler text. 318; ill. (colored) 316 

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Coal fleet, ill 142 

Plumages of warblers 302 

Poem: "The Red Cross Spirit Speaks." By John 

H. Finley 474 

Poets, Bohemian 1 83 

POISONED WORLD, A. BY WILLIAM HOW- 

ARD TAFT 459 

Poland, Devastated. By Frederick Walcott 445 

Poland, Exodus from, ill 448 

Polish Jews looking for a new home, ill 449 

Pools of Solomon and ancient Khan, ill 191 

"Pope," (ircek, and open-air pulpit, ill 406 

Poppy. Golden text, 487 ; ill. (colored) 502 

Porcelain for United States: Limoges, France, ill. 366 
Port Blakeley mill, Puget Sound, Washington: 

Lumber carriers, ill 285 

Postman, Russian village, ill 234 

Post-office: Grafton Fly ford, England, ill 86 

Postyen, Bohemia: Sunday mass, ill 178 

Potatoes and vegetables 277 

Pot-hunters' destructive toll : Alaska 81 

Poultry, Increase farm production of 279 

Powder Tower: Prague, Bohemia, ill 169 

Power, British: Reasons for 199 

Prairie warbler ill. (colored), 317; text, 319 

Prague, Bohemia, ill 164, 166, 169. 

170, 172, 173, 177, 180-182 

Prague, University of: Founded 1348 167 

Preparedness against the dynamite plotter 420 

Preparing for war. New York Citjr clerks, ill.... 358 
Priests and nuns among the ruined buildings: 

Termonde, Belgium, ill. 430 

Priests, Greek Church: Blessing Russian soldiers, 

ill 214,215 

Printing press opposed by Governor Berkeley.... no 

Prisoners, Bulgarians: ^fonastir Road 395 

PRIZES FOR THE INVENTOR: SOME OF 
THE PROBLEMS AWAITING SOLUTION. 

BY ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 131 

Propeller, Screw: Josef Ressl, inventor 183 

Prussian capacity tor sacrifice 381 

Public school: Prague, Bohemia, ill 180 

Pulpit, ()pen-air, and Greek "Pope," ill 406 

Pumice, Lumps of: Katmai volcano, Alaska, ill... 31 

Punishment, Modes of: Rural England, ill 9a 

Purkinje: Founder of the first physiological insti- 
tute in Germany 183 

"Purushkevitch Points": or Russia's Y. M. C. A. 228 
Pyramid, Egyptian ill. (color insert) 256-273 



Quicksand, Fording a mile of: Katmai district, 
Alaska 35 



Radium:. Discovered by Madame Curie 135 

Raft, Log: San Diego harbor, ill 139 

Railway car used as an army hospital, ill 443 

Ration heaters. Making and using, .text, 568; ill., 

568, 570 
Recruits, Naval: Newport Naval Training Station, 



ill. 



355 



Red clover ill. (colored), 516; text, 517 

Red Cross aid to Russia, The vital importance of. 427 

Red Cross Chapter: New York City, ill 464.466 

Red Cross needs beyond computation 423 

Red Cross nurses, ill 327. 334. 40a, 

»« , ^ c^ . . e. , ♦^S;. 442-444, 447, 462, 463 

"Red Cross Spirit Speaks, The" (poem). By 

John H. Finlev 474 

RED CROSS SPIRIT, THE. BY ELIOT WADS- 
WORTH 467 

Red Cross train, French, ill 334 

Red Cross unit, Andover Academy : Off for France 458 
Red Cross unit in Serbia: Belgrade mission, ill... 450 

Red-faced warbler text. 304; ill. (colored) 305 

Red mud. A flow of: Katmai district, Alaska.... 39 



Digitized by 



Google 



INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXI, 1917 



XIII 



Page 

Red Square, Moscow, Russia, ill 230 

Redstart text, 307 ; ill. (colored) 309 

Refugees, Belgian: Inscribing their addresses 

along the way, ill 438 

Refugees, Macedonian, ill 397, 404, 405 

Refugees, Polish, ill 448, 449 

Refugees, war: Typical, ill 376 

Religious ceremony: Priest blessing Russian sol- 
diers, ill 214,315 

Religious ceremony: Slovaks at Postyen, ill 178 

Religious service, Y. M. C. A.: Army camp, ill.. 470 

Republics, Area covered by 240 

Republics in 1776 and 19 17, Map showing distri- 
bution of 242, 243 

Republics that have failed 247 

REPUBLICS— THE LADDER TO LIBERTY. 

BY DAVID JAYNE HILL 240 

Reserves, Russian: Going to the front, ill 372 

Ressl, Josef: Inventor of the screw propeller.... 183 
Restoration of self-government begun in Russia.. 216 

Resurrection, Church of the: Petrograd 220 

REVIVING A LOST ART 47S 

Revolution, American, and the French 518 

Rhododendron text, 500; ill. (colored) 516 

Rifle grenade. The work of the 329 

River, Crossing the: Katmai district, Alaska 41 

River 6ve miles wide and five inches deep: Kat- 
mai district, Alaska 24 

River, Meuse, ill 202 

River, St. Mary's: Opening of navigation through 

the ice, ill 276 

River Vltava at Prague, Bohemia, ill 180 

Road menders of the Monastir road bossed by 

Germans 393 

Road, Military : Caucasus, ill 229 

Road, On the Monastir. By Herbert Corey 383 

Rochambeau — .A.n ideal leader 524 

Rochambeau, General, ill 520 

Rochambeau's headquarters in 1782: Williams- 
burg, Va., ill S42 

Rochambeau's warm heart and strict discipline . . . 530 

Rochambeau visits Jefferson 545 

Rock, Floating: Pumice, Katmai Bay, Alaska, ill. 31 

"Rock of Sl Paul" in Saloniki, ill 39^ 

Rocks, Sedimentary : Alaska, ill 73 

Rokytanski, Karel: Pioneer of pathological anat- 
omy 183 

RomanofiF, The first 216 

Rope knotting and splicing: Naval training sta- 
tion, Newport, R. L, ill 351 

Roses text. 492, 493 ; ill. (colored) 506 

Roumanian immigrants: Ellis Island, ill 1x7 

Ruins at Termonde. Belgium, ill 430 

Ruins of Jerash, ill 190 

Rulers of Bohemia 167 

Rules of war rigorously observed 522 

Rural England, Scenes in, ill 86-94 

Russia aids at the Mame and Calais 375 

Russia gives England and France opportunity to 

prepare 375 

Russia, Importance of Red Cross aid to 427 

"Russian America": Katmai Village, Alaska, ill.. 25 
Russian cavalry advancing into Austrian territory, 

ill 212 

Russian commander. General Leontieff in Mace- 
donia, ill , 394 

Russian front: Springless ambulances, ill 451 

Russian immigrants: Ellis Island, ill 98,102, 

IIS, 134, ^^5» 130 
Russian Outburst for Liberty, Our Natural Sym- 
pathy with the. By Senator John Sharp Wil- 
liams 281 

Russians and Finns in the United States, Distri- 
bution of 109 

RUSSIAN SITUATION AND ITS SIGNIFI- 
CANCE TO AMERICA. BY STANLEY 

WASHBURN 371 

Russian soldiers being blessed by priest, ill 215 

Russian troops awaiting a German attack, ill 379 

Russian wounded going to the rear^ ill 369 

Russia: Petrograd*s Monument of Fame, ill azi 

Russia, Scenes in, ill 211,218-220, 

222, 224-227. 229-239 
RUSSIA'S DEMOCRATS. BY MONTGOMERY 

SCHUYLER 210 

Russia's elimination would mean. What 377 

Russia's present leaders 223 

Russia's strength 238 

Russia's unpreparedness 373 

Rye: Place of rye under present conditions 275 



Page 

St Basil, Cathedral of : Moscow, ill 230 

St. Isaac's Cathedral: Petrograd, ill 218,219 

St. Jacques Du Haut Pas, Church of, Paris: Mar- 
riage scene, ill 426 

St. Mary's River: Opening of navigation through 

the ice, ill 276 

St. Michael, Alaska: An educated bear, ill 83 

"St. Paul's Rock" in Saloniki, ill 39a 

Sacrifice, A madonna of: Belgium, ill. (duotone 

insert) 551 

Sacrifice, Prussian capacity for 381 

Sagebrush, The text, 488; ill. (colored) 503 

Sanuaro or giant cactus. .. .text, 498; ill. (colored) 513 
Sailors' school: Naval training station, Newport, 

R. L,ill 351 

Sakulevo, Saloniki front: Army officers, ill 390 

Salmon-berries, Branch of: Kodiak, Alaska 

text, 15; ill., 24 

Saloniki, Scenes in, ill 392, 396-398, 400, 403 

Saluting the flag: New York City, ill 361 

Sand blast. The : Katmai district, Alaska 

text, 17, 56; ill., 66 

San Diego harbor: Log raft, ill 139 

San Francisco: Exhibit of twenty-dollar gold 

pieces, ill 473 

Saw, Cross-cut: Giant Forest, California, ill 3 

School, Commissary: Naval training station, New- 
port, R. I., ill 352, 353 

School for sailors: Naval training station, New- 
port, R. I., ill 351 

School, French war orphans', ill 424,428 

School, Immigrant, ill ua 

Schoolmaster and boys: Moscow, Russia, ill 235 

School, Public: Prague, Bohemia, ill 180 

School, Vincennes physical training: For soldiers, 

ill 340, 341 

Schuyler, Montgomery: Russia's Democrats 210 

Scientists and physicians: Bohemia 183 

Scotch Highlanders packing a war kit, ill 199 

Scotch immigrants: Ellis Island, ill 97,126 

Scotch immigrants in the United States, Distri- 
bution of 109 

Screens, Brushwood, used in defense work: 

France, ill 364 

Screw propeller, inventor: Josef Ressl 183 

Seaports, One Hundred British text, 84; ill., 85 

Sea-power, British 199 

Searchlights, Automobile: Searching for Zeppelins, 

^ ill 283 

Seattle, Washington: Lumber mills, ill 136 

Secret Service, British 196 

Sego lily. The text, 498; ill. (colored) 512 

Senate building: Petrograd, Russia, ill 218 

Sequoia National Park: Big trees text, i ; ill., 2-1 1 

Serbia, Belgrade mission of the Red Cross unit 

in,^ ill 450 

Serbian army^ in Macedonia 385 

Serbian immigrants: Ellis Island, ill 105,128 

Serbian soldiers on the Monastir road, ill... 386,387, 
„ , ,. . . 390, 391,393. 394*401,402, 408-412 

Serbs' heroism m 19 16 campaign 385 

Seville, Spain: Patio in the Palace of the Dukes 

of Alba, ill. (color insert) 256-273 

Sheep for stocking ranch: Alaska, ill 22 

Sheep, Great slaughter of: Alaska 81 

Sheep, White bighorn: Mount McKinley Region, 

Alaska 77 

Shell cases, Piling: France, ill 337 

Shells, A wonderful production of: French muni- 
tion industry 338 

Shells in munition factory, ill 322,326,328 

Shells shaped and hardened by Niagara water 

power 413 

Shepherd types, Roumanian, ill 117 

Ships, British 84 

Showaltcr, William Joseph: Niagara at the Battle 

Front 413 

Shower bath erected by French soldiers, ill 335 

Siberian corps. Staff of the 5th, ill 380 

Siberian hides: Nizhni-Novgorod, Russia, ill 227 

Sicard, General: French army, ill 401 

Sicily: Street scene, ill. (rotogravure insert).. 146-163 
Simmonds, Miss Emily: American nurse at Brod, 

text, 3q8; ill., 402 
Singing class, Open-air: Naval training station, 

Newport, R. I., ill 354 

Skin, Bear: Kodiak. Alaska, ill. 29 

Skin, Panther: Kodiak, Alaska, ill 29 



Digitized by 



Google 



XIV 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



Page 
Skins, Goat: Used for carrying water in Palestine, 

ill »92 

Skoda, Josef: Bohemian scientist 1 83 

Skyline, New York City, ill 98. U^ 

Slavery, The woes of : Belgium 435 

Slezak: Bohemian opera singer 183 

Slicing machines for fruits and vegetables, ill 476 

Slide Mountain: Katinai, Alaska, ill 4^ 

Slovak bride and groom, ill 168 

Slovak immigrants: Ellis Island, ill 118 

Slovaks and Czechs in Bohemia 163 

Slovaks at Postyen, Bohemia: Sunday mass, ill... 178 

Smetana, Bedfich : Bohemian composer 183 

Smokes, The Valley of Ten Thousand: Alaska. 

By Robert F. Griggs .. ............... 13 

Snow bridge. Ash -covered: Katmai, Alaska, ill... j 

Snow, Mud-covered: Katmai, Alaska, ill 55 

Snow scene, California, ill • 9 

Snow scenes: Niagara Falls in winter, ill 418,421 

Snow-shoes, Six-foot Yukon: Alaska 78, 80, 81 

Soil. Soldiers of the. By David F. Houston 273 

"Soixante quinze*': French cannon 33©. 337 

Sokol Mountain, Macedonia, ill 387 

Soldier bandaging a wounded war dog, ill 45© 

Soldier boiling his ration, ill 570 

Soldier, Italian: Boy dressed in uniform, ill 121 

Soldier of the Royal Guard, Greek: Ellis Island, 

ill 120 

Soldiers behind the firing line: Industrial forces.. 291 
Soldiers: Colonial engineer corps in France, ill.. 200 
Soldiers, Consumptive: Hospital, Bligny, France, 

ill 425 

Soldiers, Defenders of Warsaw, ill 369 

Soldier's grave in France, ill. (duotone insert)... 549 
Soldiers of allies tread historic grounds in Mace- 
donia 383 

SOLDIERS OF THE SOIL: OUR FOOD 

CROPS MUST BE GREATLY INCREASED. 

BY DAVID F. HOUSTON 273 

Soldiers: On the Monastir Road 384.386,387, 

389-391. 393. 394. 401, 408-412 
Soldiers, Patient Continental: American Revolu- 
tion 539 

Soldiers, Russian, ill 212, 215. 217. 

360. 372. 374, 379, 394. 451 

Soldiers. Scotch: Packing a kit, ill i99 

Soldiers* shower bath : France, ill 335 

Soldier. Stand by the. By John T. Pershing. ... 457 
Soldiers, United States, and the Y. M. C. A., ill. 

470-472 
Soldiers. United Stotes: Sequoia National Park, 

ill o 

Soldiers, Warsaw defenders, ill 3^9 

Solomon's pools, ill „'9i 

Soluka Creek: Katmai, Alaska, ill 37.38,44 

Somali mother and babe: Aden, ill. (duotone in- 

serO -'!S8 

Songsters, Warblers as AA ^^* 

Soubotsko, Macedonia: Market day, ill 388,399 

Soy-beans valuable for food 275 

Spadina military hospiUl, Toronto: A wounded 

Canadian, ill • ;••.•• W, i ^^' 

Spain, Seville: Patio in palace of the Duke of 

Alba, ill. (color insert) 256-273 

Spanish gypsy girls, ill. (color insert) 256-273 

Spinning: Hungarian gypsy, ill. (duotone insert). 563 

Spirit ot France, Unconquerable....... 344 

Spirit of the Red Cross. By Eliot Wadsworth... 467 
STAND BY THE SOLDIER. BY MAJOR 

GENERAL JOHN J. PERSHING, U. S. 

ARMY 457 

Star Spangled Banner being taught to American 

bluejackets, ill 345 

"SUrvation a great force". 45© 

State-flower movement started by New York 485 

State Flowers, Our. By the Editor, .text, 481 ; ill. 

(colored) 501-516 

States and their floral emblems, Index to 486 

Statesmen and armies helpless without miners... 293 

Statesmen. Bohemian 183 

Statue, Nathan Hale: New York City, ill 290 

Statue of Liberty, New York harbor, ill 245 

Steamer, Excursion: Milwaukee. Wisconsin, ill... 140 

Steamers, Freight: St. Mary's River, ill 276 

Steam jets. Valleys full of: Katmai, Alaska 66 

Steel, High-speed: Niagara electrical laboratory.. 419 

Steel plant: Canada, ill • • i97 

Steel, Vastncss of the expenditure of: French 

munition factories 339 

Stock-raising: Alaska, ill 22 



Page 

Stocks and whipping-post: Rural England, ill 92 

Strategist. Serbian: Voivode Mischitch, ill 401 

Submarines. Prussian : Ineffective 196 

Sugar-making machinery, ill 144 

Sun-dial house: Surrey, England, ill 93 

Sunflower, The text, 494; ill. (colored) 508 

Surgeon, Great: Edward Albert 183 

Surgery, New miracles of: France 341 

Surgical dressing-room, U. S. Army railway car, 
"ill. 



ill. 



443 



Surrey, England: Sun-dial house, ill 93 

Swedes in the United States, DistrHmtion of.... 108 
Swedish children drawing pictures, ill. (rotogra- 
vure insert) 146-163 

Swiss criminologist in Serbia, ill 390 

Swiss Republic is very old 244 

Switzerland: A mother and child in the moun- 
tains, ill. (duotone insert) 550 

Synchronized fire of 400 guns: France 336 

Syringa, The (flower) text, 490; in. (colored) 505 



Taft, Ex-President William H. and son, ill 468 

Taft, William Howard, Ex-President of the United 

States : A Poisoned World 459 

Tangier. Morocco: An Oriental minstrel, ill. 

(color insert) 256-273 

Tannery in Hebron, ill 192 

Tatar curse. The 213 

Tea, Afternoon : Russian, ill 217, 226 

Tea: unspeakable quantities are drunk 533 

Teklanika and Toklat rivers. Alaska 71 

Telegraphy, Class in: Naval training station, ill.. 472 

Telephony, Class in: U. S. Army, ill 357 

Tennessee warbler text. 310; ill. (colored) 312 

Tents, Refugee; near Saloniki, ill 397 

Termondc. Belgium: Priests and nuns among the 

ruined buildings, ill 430 

Tetuan, Morocco: Moorish quarter, ill. (color in- 
sert) 256-273 

Teuton drive on Petrograd, Dangers of 382 

Teuton influences in Russia 371 

Texas bluebonnet. The.... text, 497; ill. (colored) 512 
THEIR MONUMENT IS IN OUR HEARTS: 
ADDRESS BEFORE THE TOMB OF WASH- 
INGTON, APRIL 29. 19 1 7. BY M. VIVIANL 367 

Thermos-bottle idea applied to water tank 141 

Throne room of the Moors: Alhambra, ill. (color 

insert) 256-273 

TIES THAT BIND, THE: OUR NATURAL 
SYMPATHY WITH ENGLISH TRADI- 
TIONS, THE FRENCH REPUBLIC AND 
THE RUSSIAN OUTBURST FOR LIB- 
ERTY. BY SENATOR JOHN SHARP WIL- 
LIAMS : 281 

Toklat and Teklanika rivers. Alaska 71 

Tombstone to a trout: England, ill 91 

Toronto, Spadina military nospital: wounded sol- 
dier, ill 431 

Tower, Bridge: Prague, Bohemia, ill 173 

Tower, Powder: Prague, Bohemia, ill 169 

Towers of Prague, Bohemia, ill 169, 173, i8i 

Town Hall. Old: Prague, Bohemia, ill 164 

Trafalgar Square, London: War rally, ill.... 194,204 

Train, French Red Cross 334 

Trapper's camp: Alaska 80,81 

Trays, Drying: Fruits and vegetables, ill 476-479 

Tree: Abraham's oak near Hebron, ill 189 

Trees, Big: Sequoia National Park... text, i; ill., 2-11 

Trees, Mt. McKinley region, Alaska 82 

Trenches, Rear-guard: In the Russian retreat, ill. 

370, 379 

Trenches, The test of the 325 

TRIBUTE TO AMERICA, A. BY HERBERT 

HENRY ASQUITH 295 

Trident, A second new volcano: Alaska text, 41; 

ill., 65 

Tropical origin of warblers 298 

Trucks, Convoy of: near Verdun, ill 453 

Trumpet vine. The text, 495; ill. (colored) 509 

Tule Indians of San Bias coast of Panama, ill. 

(duotone insert) 560 

Turban: Hindu immigrant, Ellis Island, ill 129 

Turkey-in-Asia: A citizen of Bagdad, ill 188 

Turkish cannon in Russian monument, ill 211 

Turkish fountain. An old: Saloniki, ill 400 

Turkish immigrant: Ellis Island, ill 106 

Tyn Church of Prague, Bohemia, ill 177 



Digitized by 



Google 



INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXI, 1917 



XV 



"U" 



Page 



U-boats, German : Ineffective 196 

Unifonn, Italian soldier: Boy dressed in uniform, 

Ul 121 

Uniform of National Guardsman, ill 347 

Uniform of Naval Militia bugler, ill 346 

United States: 

Arizona: State flower, .text, 498; ill. (colored) 513 
Arkansas: State flower. text, 487; ill. (colored) 501 

Army: Class in telephony, ill 357 

Army hospital railway car, ill 443 

Bluejackets, ill 34Si 34^, 350. 3S4f 472 

Bohemians in the United States 183 

California: Log raft in San Diego harbor, ill. 139 
California, San Francisco: Exhibit of gold, ill. 473 
California, Sequoia National Park. text, i; ill. 2-1 x 

California : State flower text, 487 ; 

ill. (colored) 502 
Cavalry troop in Sequoia National Park, ill.. 6 
Colorado: State flower. . text, 489 ; ill. (colored) 503 

Connecticut: State flower text, 488 ; 

ill. (colored) 503 
Delaware: State flower, text, 494 ; ill. (colored) 507 
Florida, Miami: Airplane and flying boats, ill. 284 
Florida: State flower ... text, 490 ; ill. (colored) 504 
Geological Survey map of proposed Mount 

McKinlcy National Park 71 

Georgia: State flower, text 492 

Great Lakes: Opening of navigation through 

the ice, ill 276 

Idaho: State flower. . . .text, 490; ill. (colored) 505 
Illinois: State flower. . .text, 491 ; ill. (colored) 505 

Immigrants, Distribution of 108, 109 

Immigrants, Our Foreign-born Citizens 95 

Indiana: State flower. . .text, 494; ill. (colored) 510 

Iowa: State flower text, 492; ill. (colored) 506 

Kansas: State flower. ..text, 494; ill. (colored) 508 
Kentucky: State flower, text, 495; ill. (colored) 509 

Louisiana: State flower text, 493 ; 

ill. (colored) 506 
Maine: State flower. .. .text, 49^; ill. (colored) 510 
Map showing foreign stock in the U. S. popu- 
lation 96 

Maryland, Baltimore: Washington monument, 

ill 249 

Michigan: State flower, text, 487; ill. (colored) 501 
Minnesota Indians, ill. (rotogravure insert) 

146-163 

Minnesota: State flower text, 488; 

ill. (colored) 502 

Mississippi : State flower text, 493 : 

ill. (colored) 506 

Montana clover field, ill 567 

Montana: State flower. .text, 489; ill. (colored) 504 

National Parks i > 69 

Naval Training Station: Newport, R. I., ill. 345, 

348-355 
Nebraska: State flower, text, 496: ill. (colored) 511 
Nevada: State flower, .text, 488; ill. (colored) 503 

New Mexico: State flower text, 498; 

ill. (colored) 513 

New York, Buffalo: Scenes in, ill 250, 274 

New York City scenes 98, 132, 245, 

390. 358, 359. 361. 464, 566 
New York. Gardiner's Island: Young fish- 
hawks, ill 303 

New York: State flower, text 492 

NIAGARA AT THE BATTLE FRONT. BY 

WILLIAM JOSEPH SHOW.ALTER 413 

North (Carolina: State flower text. 497; 

ill. (colored) 512 

North Dakota: State flower, text 493 

Ohio, Cleveland : Bridges, ill 134 

Ohio: State flower text, 494; ill. (colored) 507 

Oklahoma : State flower text, 499 ; 

ill. (colored) 514 
Oregon: State flower. . .text, 500; ill. (colored) 515 
Pennsylvania, A boy of, ill. (rotogravure in- 
sert) 146-163 

Pennsylvania, Philadelphia: Scenes.. 246,253,292 

Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh: Coal fleet, ill 142 

Rhode Island, Newport: Naval training sta- 
tion, ill 345, 348-355 

Rhode Island: State flower text. 491 ; 

ill. (colored) 505 

South Dakota: State flower text, 499; 

ill. (colored) 514 
Texas: State flower. . . .text, 497; ill. (colored) 512 
U. S. battleship ablaze in mid-ocean, ill 360 



United States: ^^^"^ 

U. S. debt to England 281 

U. S. influence incalculable 252 

United States may prolong the war. How the. 381 
U. S. S. Constellahon: Newport, R. I., ill... 348 

U. S. S. Netv York: Ocean spray, ill 356 

Uuh: State flower text, 498; ill. (colored) 512 

Vermont: State flower.. text, 517; ill. (colored) 516 
Virginia, Williamsburg: William and Mary 

College, ill 542 

Virginia, Yorktown : Scenes text, 543 ; 

Washington, Port Blakcley mills: ^Uaniber ^^ 

carriers, ill age 

Washington, Seattle: Lumber mills, ill 136 

Washington : Stote flower, text 500 

West Virginia: State flower text, 500; 

,,,. ,,.. . ^ ill- (colored) 516 

Wisconsin, Milwaukee: Drawbridge, ill 140 

Wisconsin: State flower text, 491 ; 

,.r . « « *11- (colored) 505 

Wyoming: State flower text, 500 ; 

«rT . . . . >11' (colored) 515 

"United we stand, divided we fall": W. H. Taft 

and son, ill .gg 

University of Prague: Founded 1348 167 

Unpreparedness of Russia 373 



Valley of Death, An awe-inspiring: Katmai dis- 
trict, Alaska 37 

Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, The: National 
Geographic Society Explorations in the Katmai 
District of Alaska. By Robert F. Griggs, Di- 
rector J - 

Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes: Alaska, "ill.* 62* 63, 64 

Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, An interpreta- 



tion of. 



67 



Vegetables and fruits: Drying methods . text, 475,480; 

yr . *.! , ^^1» 476-479.481 

Vegetables and potatoes 277 

Vegetables: Drying practice revived * " . '. 277 

Vegetables, Increase farm production of 279 

Vegetarians, Russian: Immigrants, ill 98,102 

V enezuelan boy and donkey, ill. (rotogravure in- 
sert) 146-161 

Venice as a republic .'..'.*.*.".* .'. * .' ." " 24 1 

Vents, Character of the: Katmai, Alaska '.'.'.'. 6s 

Verdun, Convoy of trucks near, ill 4^; 

V«rdun, French reserves on way to, ill 338 

Verdun' of the Russian line: Fortification at 

Lodz . . 5 

Versailles. Flemish war orphans at, ill .'..".'.'. 4^4 

Vettcmik Mountain, Serbians on 187 

Victory, Thousand needs for 289 

^•!!*^?.»^i^** ^"^^*^' '"•;;/ "^' 227. 232-234, 236 

Villc D Array, France: War orphans at dinner, ill. 428 
Vincennes: Physical training school for soldiers, 

J^-"f '* ^ii^P^*' • • • • • • • • • • *«*• 495 '; ' ill.' (ciiored)' 5^ 

Violet, The... text, 491; ill. (colored) 505 

Vitreolic lake, A : Alaska 54 

Viviani, M., President of the French CommiskioA 
to the United States, May i, 1917: Our Herit- 
age of Liberty ,5- 

Viviani, M.: Their Monument is in Our Hearts, 
An address before the tomb of Washington, 

April 29, 1917 35- 

Vodka, Abolition of : Russia 226 

Volcanoes, Alaska, ill.. 30, 48-50, 52-58, 60-62, 64, 65 
Volcanoes, First view of the: Katmai district, 

Alaska 31 

Volcanoes, Two more new: Katmai, Alaska....*.'. 66 
Volcano, Mount Katmai: Alaska text, 13; 

,, , . r T^ ^ iU' 48-50, 52-58, 60-62 

Volcano named for Dr. George C. Martin: Alaska 33 
Volcano, Three-peaked: Katmai district, Alaska.. 

xr uf. 1 ' T . « . . ^^^^' 41; ill., 30,65 
Vrcniicky, Jaroslav: Bohemian poet 183 

"W" 

Wads worth, Eliot: The Red Cross Spirit 467 

Walcott, Frederick: Devastated Poland 445 

Wallachian immigrants: Ellis Island, ill 104 

Wandering in Macedonia has a sporting flavor... 385 



Digitized by 



Google 



XVI 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



Page 

Warblers as sonffsters 298 

Warblers: Friends of Our Forests. By Henry 

W. Henshaw 297 

Warblers, North American, ill. (color insert). 305-320 

War-bride: Paris, ill 426 

War chemistry: Niagara electrical laboratory 413 

War Council of the American Red Cross, ill 461 

War Council of American Red Cross Society, Ad- 
dresses before the 4^3 

War dog: Bandaging a wounded war dog, ill.... 456 

Warehouses, Health Service: France, ill 333 

War finances, Britain's 203 

War lessons 209 

War-loan rally, Trafalgar Square, London, ill... 194 
War machine, German: Reasons for its strength. 380 
Warm hearts of the North: Lapland mother and 

babies, ill. (duotone insert) 55^ 

War orphans, French, ill 424. 428, 455 

War orphans from Belgium, ill 432,434,436 

WAR, PATRIOTISM. AND THE FOOD SUt- 

PLY. BY FREDERICK V. COVILLE 254 

War refugees relating their experiences, ill 376 

Warriors, A mother of: Japan, ill. (duotone insert) 553 

War rules of honor rigorously observed 522 

War's awful cost to France 327 

Warsaw, Types of men who defended, ill.... 369.380 

War's end not at hand 378 

Wars, Hussite: Bohemia 167 

War's outcome. No doubt as to the 382 

War's relation to immigration, The 106 

War's true hero 324 

War-time fire-fighters, English women, ill 296 

War-wasted communities' crying needs 425 

Washburn, Stanley: The Russian Situation and 

its Significance to America 371 

Washington (George) was English 282 

Washington given the honors of Marshal in the 

French Army 526 

Washington Monument: Baltimore, Md., ill 249 

Washington's ideals. Fighting for 367 

Waterfalls: Niagara, N. Y..text, 413; ill., 414-418,421 

Water front at Kodiak, Alaska, ill 12 

Water power: Niagara Falls and electrical labo- 
ratory text, 413; ill.. 414-418,421 

Water purification: Niagara electrical laboratory. 422 
Water-tnrush, Louisiana ... text, 3x9; ill. (colored) 317 
Water-thrush, Northern. . .text, 319; ill. (colored) 317 
Water vapor in the human breath. Condensing. . . 137 
Welsh immigrants in the United States, Distribu- 
tions of 109 

Whale-back type steamer, ill 140 

WHAT GREAT BRITAIN IS DOING. BY 

SYDNEY BROOKS 193 

Wheat, Condition of our winter: April 7, 1917... 273 

Wheat-market analogy, A 381 

Whipping-p^3st and stocks: Rural England, ill.... 92 

Why the German war machine is strong 380 

Wild roses text, 492, 493; ill. (colored) 506 

William and Mary College, Williamsburg, Va., ill. 542 



Page 
Williams, Senator John Sharp: The Ties that Bind 281 
Williamsbur5f, Va.: William and Mary College, ill. 542 

Wilson's warbler text, 314; ill. (colored) 320 

Wilson, Woodrow, President 01 the United States: 

Do Your Bit for America 289 

Wing-type mule litter with wounded Serbian sol- 
diers, ill 391 

Winter palace: Petrograd, ill 222^22^ 

Wireless telegraphy: Inventions 135 

Woes of slavery. The: Belgium 43s 

Women as war-time fire-fighters: England, ill.... 296 

Women car conductors: France, ill 331 

Women, Heroism of the French 343 

Women in the coal mines of Gard, France, ill . . . 332 
Women munition workers, ill.. 294, 322, 325, 326, 328 
Women return at night to their abandoned homes: 

Macedonia 395 

Women's Peninsula, Alaska, ill 17 

Women weaving brushwood screens for French 

army, ill 364 

Women, Wonderful feats made possible by: Great 

Britain 205 

Wood warblers. Haunts of 298 

Worcestershire, England, ill 86,88-92,94 

World, A Poisoned. By William Howard Taft.. 459 

Worm-eating warbler text, 306; ill. (colored) 308 

Wounded going to the ambulance, ill 460 

Wounded soldiers bound for Paris, ill 334 

Wounded soldiers in Lyon hospital dining-room, 

ill 433 

Wounded soldiers in Russian peasants' cart, ill... 369 
Wycliff e encouraged the Czechs 176 



"X" 

X-ray tent in a base hospital of the Red Cross, ill. 469 



Yellow-breasted chat text, 304; ill. (colored) 305 

Yellow palm warbler text, 319; ill. (colored) 317 

Yellow warbler text, 307; ill. (colored) 309 

Yeoman's school. Naval training station: Newport, 

R. L, ill 3SO 

Yorktown, Va.: Cornwallis' surrender, ill 546 

Yorktown, Va.: In front of the Thomas Nelson 

house, ill 534 

Yorktown, Va. : The main street, ill 538 

Y. M. C. A. in the army, ill 470-472 

Y. M. C. A. of Russia: "Purushkevitch Points".. 228 
Ypres, Belgium: Photographed from a flying ma- 
chine, ill 337 



Zemstvo committees: Russia 22Z 



Digitized by 



Google 



Vol. XXXI, No. 1 



WASHINGTON 



January, 1917 




THE 

MATIIOMAL 

GEOGlAIPIHinG 

lAGAZIM 




OUR BIG TREES SAVED 



IN THE scenic heart of the Sequoia 
National Park, the only section of 
the magnificent 160,000 -acre play- 
ground situated in California which is 
at the present time accessible to motor- 
driven and horse-drawn vehicles, stands 
a group of trees, the Sequoia washing- 
toniana, known as the Giant Forest, and 
in this forest grow the loftiest and most 
venerable living things that Nature has 
produced. 

The Sequoia National Park was con- 
stituted a government preserve to safe- 
guard these very trees, some of which 
were 2,000 years old when the Christian 
era dawned. But it was a preservation 
that did not protect, for the very acres 
upon which grew the finest specimens of 
the Sequoia washing toniana remained in 
the possession of private parties to whom 
they had been patented before the park 
was created. 

Some months ago the Department of 
the Interior, realizing that the constantly 
increasing value of timber had become 
a rapidly growing temptation to these 
owners to convert the trees into lumber, 
secured from Congress an appropriation 
of $50,000 to purchase the coveted land. 
When the effort was made to buy the 
holdings, however, it was discovered that 
the owners could not fairly part with 
their sequoia trees except on condition 
that adjacent property be purchased also, 
the supplementary lands bringing the 
price up to $70,000. 

After learning from their expert ap- 
praisers that the actual market value of 
the timber standing on these holdings 
amounted to $156,000, and that the price 



of $70,000 was, therefore, most reason- 
able, showing that the owners wished to 
cooperate in their preservation, the de- 
partment secured an option on the land 
for six months. 

With the expiration of the option only 
three weeks oflF, and with no prospect 
of being able to secure the necessary 
additional appropriation of $20,000 from 
Congress during its pre-holiday session, 
the Department of the Interior had prac- 
tically lost all hope of saving these most 
highly prized of all trees for the Ameri- 
can people. 

In this predicament one of the officials 
of the department recalled the splendid 
work which has been done for a number 
of years by the National Geographic So- 
ciety in stimulating public interest in the 
preservation of the nation's playgrounds 
and in safeguarding our song birds and 
wild life. Why not appeal to this Society, 
whose more than half a million members 
represent every State in the Union, and 
who would be deeply interested, individu- 
ally as well as collectively, in the preser- 
vation of this forest wonderland? The 
suggestion was adopted and the appeal 
was submitted to the Society's Board of 
Managers. 

As was so earnestly hoped, the So- 
ciety's governing body immediately appre- 
ciated the exceptional opportunity which 
was about to be lost to the American 
people, and at a meeting attended by 
every member of the Board excepting 
two, who were out of town, gladly ap- 
propriated the necessary $20,000. And* 
thus was accomplished a unique coopera- 
tion of a great national scientific society 



Digitized by 



Google 




C 1/ *" «- 
■is ":= ^ 

TT E > C — 
^ C ^•J^.-.- 
rt *^ *•" ^ ^ 

^ o a> rt c« 
3 rt «-> zj 

« >'fr "^ 

5 ^-c E ^ - 

JS w "5 »- >.-3 

? 3 ^ c^ ':S «- 

'-' u ^ ^ w- ^ 

^ tr. O , *- .— 

- ^^ £■ ^ — 

S r o c^ rt r; 

r. rt C C ."^ H 



w c *" ^ ^T F 



r. £.-:3 



I/; JS G> c/; ^S 

«^ -^-^ c 

C • - Ci. :j 

c *" ^"c ^ - 

t/2 rt C »- •— -2; 
O c V. 4^ • — 

•5-0 I- c -t - 

tr: 0^ - c r: i:? 

r- UT P O ^ t 

Sec t/ £ 

c - o "^ *- 



^'7. rt.t: 



Digitized by 



Google 




PhotDgraph by A. K. Moore 

A 25-FOOT SAW USKD FOR FELLING BIG TREES 

While wedges are required to keep the tree from "pinching" the saw, and a good supply 
of axle grease or other lubricant is necessary to overcome friction, elbow grease in liberal 
quantities is the first essential in handling one of these big blades. 



with the national government, whereby 
one of the country's noblest scenic re- 
sources has been presented to the Ameri- 
can people for their perpetual enjoyment. 

When one recalls that the Giant Forest 
is the largest intact body of trees of this 
species in existence, with the General 
Sherman as its king — a wonderful speci- 
men 103 feet in circumference, 280 feet 
tall, as high as the dome of the National 
Capitol* — our hearts thrill that these 
masterpieces of nature have been rescued 
from the axe. 

A thousand years may not bring them 
to their full stature, but a few days may 
wipe them out forever. Unafraid of 
wreck and change, untouched even by 
"time's remorseless doom,'' they have 
come down to us through centuries — aye, 
through millenniums ; and now will live 
on through other centuries, a link to bind 
the future with the past. 

Whoever has stood beneath these tow- 

♦A photogravure of this magnificent tree. 
23x8^2 inches, was published in the April, 
1916, number of the Geographic Magazi.ne. 



ering giants of the forest feels a rever- 
ent love for these grizzled patriarchs! 
The oldest living thing! There is not a 
nation on the face of the earth today but 
what was born, mayhap, a thousand years 
after they reached their maturity. 

Nations have risen, reached their 
prime, and passed on to the decay and 
obHvion that is the ultimate fate of all 
things temporal, and other nations have 
succeeded them, in their turn to be fol- 
lowed by still others, since the great trees 
began their existence. World powers 
have arisen, run their course, and disap- 
j)eared — meteors, as it were — in the sky 
of history, and the big trees still live on ! 

Who could replace them? Not man, 
for never yet in all his existence has he 
had continuity of purpose enough to plan 
2,000 years ahead. The mutations of 
time in twenty centuries leave only here 
and there a silent monument to speak of 
the past, and even these have been the 
prey of generations coming after their 
builders. Some of the most magnificent 
marbles in Athens and Rome were burnt 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by A. R. Moore 

A CALIFORNIA SEQUOIA WASHINGTONIANA LOG, 26 FEET IN DIAMETER 

A thousand years scarcely serve to bring a sequoia to its maturity, and it may be hale 
and hearty still when three thousand summer suns have looked down upon it; but a day 
may lay it low forever. 



into lime for agricultural purposes, and 
even the Pyramids have served as quar- 
ries to the indifferent successors of those 
who raised them. 

Yet when unnumbered thousands of 
Egyptian slaves were laboriously trans- 
porting the stones for Cheops across the 
Nile Valley and hoisting them into posi- 
tion, these hoary old veterans of the Cali- 
fornia mountains were sturdy saplings. 

The human progress they must have 
witnessed ! In their early youth the chil- 
dren of Israel were wandering through 
the Wilderness of Sin. When the Star of 
Bethlehem shone down over that lowly 
manger in Judea, proclaiming the second 
deliverance of mankind, who knows but 
that these monarchs of the California 
forest which have just been rescued from 
the woodman's axe joined in singing 
"Glory to the Highest," as the winds of 
the East swept over the West ! 

The very race that has risen up to save 
them was perhaps overrunning Europe, 
wrapped in skins, living by the chase, and 



using the bow and arrow, when they were 
taking root. Instead of medicine, men 
were resorting to amulets and charms. 
The most complicated piece of machinery 
that had yet been invented was the hand- 
loom. There was not a screw, a bolt, or a 
nut in existence. There was no printing 
press, no steam-engine, no microscope, no 
telescope, no telegraph, no telephone. 
The tallow dip was the only method of 
lighting; the caravan, the sail and row 
boat, and the runner were the only means 
of international communication. 

As a hunter keeps a record of the bears 
he has killed by the notches in his gun- 
stock, so the big tree keeps an account of 
the years it has lived by rings concealed 
within its trunk. Every year that it lives 
it grows in girth a tiny bit — in youth 
faster, in age slower, in fat years more 
and in lean ones less. But it never fails 
to add its ring with each passing year. 
Examine the next pine stump you come 
to and you will see how these rings start 
out from the center like those on the 



Digitized by 



Google 




A CALIFORNIA LOGGING SCENE 



Photograph by A. R. Moore 



In estimating the age of a standing tree the rings on the end of a log of a fallen one 
are counted, and the number of years required for an inch of average circumferential growth 
determined. If the fallen tree is in the immediate neighborhood and of approximately the 
same diameter of the one whose age is to be estimated, the remainder of the problem is 
simply one of determining this diameter in inches and multiplying it by the average number 
of rings to the inch. 



water of a pond where a pebble falls. 
Count them and you can know to a cer- 
tainty the age of the tree. 

The purchase was completed and the 
title to the Big Trees passed to the U. S. 
Government on January 17, 191 7. 

By direction of the Board of Managers 
of the National Geographic Society, the 
ofKcial correspondence on the subject is 
published below. 

National Geographic Society, 
November ii, 191 6. 
Dear Secretary Lane: 

I have much pleasure in advising you 
that the Board of Managers of the Na- 
tional Geographic Society, being informed 
of your efforts to enable the United 
States Government to secure possession 
of the Giant Forest in the Sequoia Na- 
tional Park, and of the urgent necessity 
of $20,000 being made immediately avail- 
able for the purchase (in addition to the 
$50,000 appropriated by Congress for the 



purpose), at a meeting yesterday unani- 
mously adopted the following resolution : 

"Resolved, That the Board of Mana- 
gers of the National Geographic Society 
authorizes the expenditure of not exceed- 
ing $20,000 for the purchase of private 
lands in the Sequoia National Park, to 
be donated to the National Government 
for park purposes, in accordance with 
the provisions of the Act of Congress, 
July I, 191 6, Public 132, 39 Stat., 308, 
and that this sum shall be paid from the 
Research Fund of 1916; and that there 
is given to the President, the Director 
and Editor, and the Chairman of the Fi- 
nance Committee, as representatives of 
the Society, authority to arrange with the 
Secretary of the Interior the details of 
the purchase and donation." 

The National Geographic Society has 
watched with keen interest the rapid de- 
velopment of our national parks by the 
Department of the Interior and heartily 



Digitized by 



Google 




Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by A. R. Moore 
A GTANT SEQUOIA THAT SPLIT IN FALLING 

John Muir counted four thousand rings from the heart out of one fallen giant. That 
tree was a thrifty sapling when Ahraham went into Egypt. It was already a seed-bearer 
when Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed. It was as old as American civilization when 
Joseph was sold into Egypt. It was nearly a thousand years old when David slew Goliath. 
And it was older when Christ was born than the Christian religion is today. 



congratulates you upon the work which 
you have done in safeguarding these great 
national playgrounds for the coming gen- 
erations and in making them accessible 
to visitors. 

Assuring you that the National Oeo- 
graphic Society, through its Board of 
Managers, is very glad to have the privi- 
lege of cooperating with the. government 
in preserving these priceless natural 
treasures to posterity, I am, 
Yours very sincerely, 

Gilbert U. Grosvknor. 

The Secretary of the Interior, 
November 20, 191 6. 
Mv De-ar Mr. Grosvenor: 

I beg to acknowledge your favor set- 
ting forth the resolution of the National 
Geographic Society by which it is made 
possible for us to secure, on behalf of 
the government, certain of the private 
lands in the Giant Forest of the Sequoia 
National Park. 



This act on the part of your Society 
I know will meet with the highest com- 
mendation from its great membership, 
because thereby you render to thie" ( jOv- 
ernment of the United States and to all 
of its people a lasting service and in a 
sense create a monument to the honor of 
your Society itself. 

The trees which your money, together 
with that appropriated by Congress, en- 
able us to purchase are the oldest living 
things upon this continent. They are the 
original pioneers. To have them fall be- 
fore the axe of the woodman would have 
been a lasting crime, reflecting seriously 
U])on the people of our country. 

It will be many centuries before they 
die, and throughout their life I hope it 
may be known that they were kept alive 
by the generosity and foresight of your 
people. We will be pleased to have placed 
on one of the trees of the grove a tablet 
of commemoration. 

Cordially yours, 
(Signed) Franklin K. Lane. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Digitized by 



Google 




tmn^^'f-.^^.-..:^^ 



::i.i^^: 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Lindlcy ] 

ONE oi? god's first ticmples, in the giant forest 



ddy 



Dead indeed must be the soul of the man whose heart is not quickened, whose spirit is 
not moved to reverence, whose thoughts do not reach out and beyond, and whose inmost being 
does not look up through Nature to Nature's God, amid such surroundings as these ! 



10 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Lindlcy Kddy 

IN THE HEART OF THE GIANT FOREST 

"The big tree is Nature's masterpiece. It lias a strange air of other days about it, a 
thoroughbred look inherited from the long ago — the auld lang syne of trees. ... As far 
as man is concerned, it is the same yesterday, today, and forever — emblem of permanence." — 
John Muir. 



II 



Digitized by 



Google 




12 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES 



National Geographic Society Explorations in the 
Katmai District of Alaska 

By Robert F, Griggs, of the Ohio State University 
Leader of the Society's Mount Katmai Expeditions of 1915 and 1916 



THE eruption of Mount Katmai in 
June, 1 91 2, was one of the most 
tremendous volcanic explosions 
ever recorded. A mass of ash and pum- 
ice whose volume has been estimated at 
nearly five cubic miles was thrown into 
the air. In its fall this material buried 
an area as large as the State of Con- 
necticut to a depth varying from 10 
inches to over 10 feet, while small 
amounts of ash fell as much as 900 miles 
away. 

Great quantities of very fine dust were 
thrown into the higher regions of the 
atmosphere and quickly distributed over 
the whole world, so as to have a profound 
effect on the weather, being responsible 
for the notoriously cold, wet summer of 
that year. 

The comparative magnitude of the 
eruption can be better realized if one 
should imagine a similar eruption of 
Vesuvius. Such an eruption would bury 
Naples under 1 5 feet of ash ; Rome would 
be covered nearly a foot deep ; the sound 
would be heard at Paris; dust from the 
crater would fall in Brussels and Berlin, 
and the fumes would be noticeable far 
beyond Christiania, Norway. 

Readers of The Geographic will re- 
member the accounts of the eruption by 
Capt. K. M. Perry and Dr. Geo. C. Mar- 
tin, which appeared in the magazine for 
August, 1 91 2, and February, 191 3, re- 
spectively. 

Fortunately the volcano is situated in 
a country so sparsely inhabited that the 
^mage caused by the eruption was in- 
significant — very much less than in many 
relatively small eruptions in populous 
districts, such as that of Vesuvius, which 
destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum. 
Indeed, so remote and little known is the 



volcano that there were not any witnesses 
near enough to see the eruption, and it 
was not until the National Geographic 
Society's expeditions explored the district 
that it was settled definitely which of 
several near-by volcanoes was really the 
seat of the disturbance. 

The most important settlement in the 
devastated district is Kodiak, which, al- 
though a hundred miles from the volcano, 
was buried nearly a foot deep in ash. 
This ashy blanket transformed the "Green 
Kodiak" of other days into a gray desert 
of sand, whose redemption and revege- 
tation seemed utterly hopeless. When I 
first visited it, a year later, it presented 
an appearance barren and desolate. It 
seemed to every one there that it must 
be many years before it could recover its 
original condition. 

THE ERUPTION WAS THE BEST THING THAT 
EVER HAPPENED TO KODIAK 

What, then, was my surprise on re- 
turning after an interval of only two 
years to find the ash-laden hillsides cov- 
ered with verdure. Despite the reports 
I had received, I could not believe my 
eyes. Where before had been barren ash 
was now rich grass as high as one's head. 

Every one agrees that the eruption was 
"the best thing that ever happened to 
Kodiak." In the words of our hotel 
keeper, "Never was any such grass 
known before, so high or so early. No 
one ever believed the country could grow 
so many berries, nor so large, before the 
ash." 

Were the title not preempted, Kodiak 
might have been called the "Emerald 
Isle" quite as well as Ireland. Its situ- 
ation in the Pacific is indeed very similar 
to that of Ireland in the Atlantic, for it 



13 



Digitized by 



Google 




THE TOWN OF KODIAK, ALASKA, AFTKK TinC ERUPTION OF KATMAI 

The town is lOO miles from the volcano. Note the heavy deposits of whue ashes covering 
hillsides and town. Dust fell as far away as Juneau, Ketchikan, and the Yukon \ alley, 
distant 750, 900, and 600 miles, respectively, from the volcano. 



owes its climate, as does Ireland, to the 
tropical ocean current which bathes its 
shores. It is indeed a hundred and fifty 
miles farther north than Ireland, but this 
is more than counterbalanced by the pro- 
tection from the Arctic Ocean afforded 
by the mainland. 

Many people will no doubt be aston- 
ished to learn that the winter of Boston 
is far more severe than that of Kodiak, 
which more nearly resembles that of 
Washington, D. C. Indeed, an old lady, 
who had lived all her hfe in Kansas, 
found on returning there after two or 
three winters in Kodiak that the climate 
was almost unbearable and has been anx- 



ious ever since to return to the mild 
climate of Kodiak. 

The eastern half of the island is occu- 
pied by a dense forest of spruce, w^hose 
trees reach a great size. Beyond the for- 
est it is covered by a luxuriant grass land, 
which, in the abundance and fine quality 
of its hay and forage, surpasses any 
grazing lands in the United States ])roper 
and finds a parallel only in the "guinea- 
grass" pastures of the tropics. 

At present this country is lying almost 
entirely neglected, but as Alaska passes 
from the stage of ex])loitation to that of 
development, these lands are destined to 
be much sought after for stock-raising. 



14 



Digitized by 



Google 




Phutograi)h by R. F. Griggs 

KODIAK FROM TIIK SAME POSITION FOUR YEARS LATER, AUGUST 25, I916 

Kodiak enjoys the unique distinction of having been benefited by a volcanic eruption. 
The grass has come through the ash better than ever before. The whole hillside has come 
up to grass as abundantly as the foreground. 



The eruption, of course, destroyed 
these pastures, so that the live stock 
nearly perished from starvation. The 
herd of the Government Experiment Sta- 
tion was shipped back to the States until 
it could be determined whether it might 
be possible to grow forage enough to 
support them on the ash -covered land. 
When they were shipped there was scant 
hope that they could ever be brought 
back again ; but at the end of only two 
years the pastures had so far recovered 
that they were returned with full assur- 
ance that they could be maintained with- 
out difficulty (see page 22). 

Places which three years ago were sand 
plains, with hardly a green leaf, have 
now come up into luxuriant meadows of 
blue-top grass. In some places the grass 
is still in scattered bunches, but in others 
it covers the whole ground in pure stands 
six or seven feet high. Where the mead- 
ows are completely grown up, the grass 
is finer than ever before (see page 18). 



Of the berries, the most important is 
the salmon or "Alolina'* berry {Rnbiis 
spectabilis) y which is allied to our black- 
berries and raspberries, but somewhat in- 
termediate between them, having much 
the shape and appearance of a blackberry, 
but coming loose from the receptacle like 
a raspberry. 

Salmon-berries were of course com- 
mon before the eruption, but the ash pro- 
vided such greatly improved conditions 
for them that the plants have made un- 
usually vigorous growth (see page 24). 

The ash also smothered and weeded 
out the smaller plants which formerly 
competed with the berries and apparently 
acts somewhat like a mulch, protecting 
the soil from excessive evaporation, for 
the berries did not suffer in the unprece- 
dented drouth of 191 5 as they are said 
to have done in less dry seasons before 
the eruption. 

P.ut although the country is in places 
clothed with vegetation as richly as be- 



15 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by D. B. Church 
A PLOWED FIELD, PART OF WHICH WAS CULTIVATED JUST BEFORE THE ERUPTION 

The line between cultivated and fallow ground remains perfectly distinct after four 
years. Cultivation just before the eruption destroyed most of the weeds and no new ones 
have been able to start. The uncultivated land has grown a mass of fireweed, whose bloom 
is conspicuous for miles — illustrating the importance of residual vegetation. 



fore, it must not be supposed that the old 
order of things has completely returned. 
The new vegetation is not altogether the 
same as that which was destroyed. It is 
true that the species are the same as those 
dominant before the eruption, but the 
smaller species which formerly grew with 
the dominant plants were unable to pierce 
the ash blanket and were smothered. 
This is particularly true in the bogs or 
tundras, which formerly covered consid- 
erable areas. Even four or five inches of 
the ash was fatal to the bog plants, whose 
extermination was so nearly complete 
that it is difficult to find even individual 
survivors. 

Thus while the salmon-berries and 
high-bush blueberries are finer than ever, 
the low-bush blueberries and cranberries 
are entirely lacking. 

The exposed mountain tops were for- 
merly covered with an alpine heath con- 
taining many of the same species that 
grew in the bogs, and to them the erup- 
tion was similarly fatal. While the sides 



of the mountains are covered with ver- 
dure, their tops are largely barren wastes 
covered with ash drifts and the skeletons 
of the former vegetation. 

THE NEW VEGETATION CAME FROM OLD 
ROOTS 

One would have supposed from the 
appearance of the country at the end of 
the first season after the eruption that 
practically all plants except the trees and 
bushes had been destroyed, and that re- 
vegetation must be due to new seedlings 
started on the ash. Such, however, is 
not the case. Excavation of the root sys- 
tems of the new plants shows that they 
are old perennials which have come 
through the ash from the old soil. 

Where cultivation destroyed the weeds, 
the land is still absolutely bare except for 
an occasional weed which escaped de- 
struction by the plow. The fallow ground, 
on the other hand, is a mass of fireweed 
whose bloom is conspicuous for miles 
(see the picture above). 



i6 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by D. B. Church 
A DUNE OF WIND-BLOWN ASH : WOMEn'S PENINSULA^ NEAR KODIAK 

This blowing ash lodges behind any obstruction, like snow. Among the weeds at the 
edge of cultivated fields and along the fence rows drifts two feet deep have been formed. 
On mountain tops and in other places where there is no vegetation to catch the blowing ash 
it forms dunes like those on a seashore. 



THE SAND BLAST 

While these weeds protect the surface 
of the fallow ground, ash from the bare 
surface is picked up in clouds by every 
wind, forming a sand blast which is very 
hard on the few plants that have per- 
sisted. All of them are lopped over be- 
fore the wind, and their lower leaves are 
cut to pieces by the sharp sand or are 
buried beneath it. 

The particles of ash are all very sharp, 
sharper than ordinary sand. Indeed, vol- 
canic ash forms the basis of such scour- 
ing" agents as "Old Dutch Cleanser." 
The ash is also finer and much lighter 
than shore sand, so that it is more easily 
carried by the wind. Consequently this 
sand blast is a very different thing from 
the sand drift common among beach 
dunes. Standing before it is Hke facing 
a blast of "Old Dutch Cleanser" in one's 
face and is at times exceedingly unpleas- 
ant (see also page 2j^. 

One might suppose that the frequent 



rains which characterize the climate of 
the region would have the eflfect of check- 
ing the sand blast, but it is surprising 
how quickly it starts up again after the 
rain stops. We found once, for example, 
after a day of soaking rain, that the sand 
was blowing early the next morning, al- 
though only the very surface had dried 
off. 

It was of the utmost importance for 
the welfare of the country that the 
ground be covered with vegetation, re- 
gardless of the value of the plants making 
the cover. Of all the native plants, the 
one which could grow through the deep- 
est ash and, once through, could spread 
most rapidly on the bare surface was the 
field horsetail (Equisetmn arvense). This 
is a common weed of railway embank- 
ments and such places with us. In Ko- 
diak scattered individuals were frequent 
before the eruption, though they formed 
no noticeable element in the landscape. 
But it has come up everywhere through 



17 



Digitized by 



Google 




i8 



Digitized by 



Google 




ig 



Digitized by 



Google 



20 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



the ash and spread out on the surface, 
forming in many places a beautiful 
greensward, where hardly anything else 
can come through. 

Its present abundance contrasts so 
greatly with its former state that, accord- 
ing to Mr. Snodgrass of the Experiment 
Station, some of the natives thought that 
it must have "come with the ash," and 
could only be convinced of the contrary 
when he dug out the rootstocks and 
showed that they originated in the old 
soil beneath the ash. While a deposit of 
lo or 12 inches would have been fatal to 
most plants, the horsetail in many places 
came through from 30 to 36 inches of ash. 

CONTRAST BETWEHN KODIAK AND THE 
MAINliAND 

Nothing could offer greater contrast to 
the rehabilitation of Kodiak than the con- 
dition of the country on the mainland 
near the volcano. The village of Katmai, 
which was the nearest settlement affected, 
is in an altogether different state from 
Kodiak. While Kodiak is rejoicing in 
the prospect of a prosperity beyond that 
of former days, Katmai is sinking deeper 
into desolation. 

In fear of their -lives, the people of 
Kodiak deserted their town for a few 
days; but the natives of Katmai, who, 
fortunately, were away fishing at the 
time of the eruption, were never allowed 
to return to their homes, but were re- 
moved in a body and settled in a new 
town built for them by the government. 
The grass has returned to cover the hill- 
sides of Kodiak as richly as ever before, 
but the former luxuriance of Katmai 
Valley is replaced by a barren waste, 
whose few spots of green serve only to 
heighten the weird effect. 

OUR TRIP TO THE MAINI.AND 

It is not to be supposed that Katmai 
village was at all near the crater, how- 
ever. Situated at a distance of 25 miles, 
it was five times as far from the volcano 
as was Pompeii from Vesuvius or St. 
Pierre from Mt. Pelee. More important 
still, Katmai village was not in the main 
track of destruction, but lay at one side, 
near the edge of the ash fall. 

To make the trip to Katmai, we se- 
cured the services of Mr. Albert Johnson, 



of Uyak, who undertook to land us at 
Katmai and come and take us off again 
when we had finished our exploration. 
Mr. Johnson proved himself not only 
trustworthy, but a first-class seaman and 
a man of very good judgment as well, all 
of which quahties are essential in one 
w^ho would successfully navigate the dan- 
gerous waters of Shelikof Strait, which 
lies between Kodiak Island and the main- 
land, for it has justly acquired the repu- 
tation of being one of the most treacher- 
ous pieces of water in the world. There 
were three of us in the party : Mr. B. B. 
Fulton, Entomologist of the New York 
Experiment Station, who accompanied 
me throughout the summer, a most effi- 
cient and loyal assistant, and Mr. Lucius 
G. Folsom, manual-training teacher of 
Wood Island, near Kodiak, who by his 
resourcefulness and never- failing opti- 
mism helped to carry the expedition by 
many an obstacle which might otherwise 
have turned us back. 

A WEIRD^ FANTASTIC SCENE 

The scene which met our eyes as we 
entered Katmai Bay was fantastic and 
weird in the extreme. Quantities of fresh 
pumice were floating about as though 
thrown out by a recent eruption. The 
sun was shining brightly, but the sky was 
filled with haze from the volcanic dust in 
the air, which increased the ghastly and 
mysterious appearance of the desert land- 
scape and veiled the upper reaches of the 
valley and the volcanoes we hoped to 
visit. 

As soon as we landed, we began to see 
evidences of the great flood, which was 
to be the source of much concern to us. 
The flats were everywhere covered ankle 
deep with soft, sticky mud. We were 
unable to find any place to pitch our camp 
between the precipitous mountain sides 
and the flooded flats, except a mound of 
avalanche detritus, which we felt was too 
dangerous, for boulders and small ava- 
lanches were rolling down the mountain 
sides all around us every few minutes. 
We finally reached a bed of pumice which 
had been floated into place in a grove of 
poplars. Although there was very wet 
mud only a few inches below it, the sur- 
face was fairly dry. We were in con- 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by R. F. Griggs 
ROLLING HAY DOWN THE MOUNTAIN SIDE AT KODIAK 

The native method of harvesting hay is certainly one of the most curious bits of agri- 
cultural practice to be found anywhere. The hay is cut high up on the mountain side, done 
up into bundles in fish nets, and sent tumbHng end over end to the bottom, there to be picked 
up and carried home, oftentimes in boats. 



21 



Digitized by 



Google 




SHEEP FOR STOCKING A SETTLERS RANCH BEING LANDED ON KODIAK ISLAND 

At present this country is lying almost neglected, but as Alaska passes from the stage 
of exploitation to that of development, these lands are destined to be much sought after for 
stock-raising. 




Photographs by R. F. Griggs 

SLEEK GALLOWAY CATTLE BELONGING TO THE EXPERIMENT STATION AT KODIAK 

After the eruption the station herd had to be taken to "the States" for the first two 
years; but their pastures made such a remarkable recovery that they were soon returned. 
A stranger would hardly suspect that this country was buried under a foot of ash only four 
years ago. 



22 



Digitized by 



Google 




Slatui* M.iet 

Contour interval bOO feel 

By D B Church 1910 



S TRAJT 

LEGEND 



SKETCH MAP OF KATMAI VOLCANO AND VICINITY 



stant fear, however, that the water would 
suddenly rise in the night and drive us 
out. 

The desolation of the country beggars 
description. All of the trees had per- 
ished except such as were favored by 
some special circumstance, such as prox- 
imity to the protecting mountain sides. 
In one way the trees and bushes suffered 
more seriously than the herbage, for 
wherever the ground had been swept 
bare of ash the old roots of the herbage 
sent up new shoots, so that in a few for- 
tunate spots flowers were blooming in 
their pristine profusion. 

But where the ash remained to the 
depth of a foot or more, the ground 
under the dead trees was absohitely bare. 
No vegetation had come through cracks, 
as at Kodiak, and indeed such cracks 
may not have been fomied because the 
deposit here is much coarser grained. 



Under the mountain sides, where a few 
remnants of the forest remained alive, 
different species had suffered in different 
ways. The only large trees were the bal- 
sam poplars. All of the growing parts 
and ordinary buds of these had been 
killed, but some of the dormant buds, 
buried deep in the bark, had survived and 
grown out into short, bushy branches 
which gave the trees a most bizarre ap- 
pearance. 

The alder, which is the most character- 
istic Alaskan bush, everywhere was sim- 
ply exterminated. For our purposes this 
was somewhat fortunate, for it was easy 
to break our way through the branches 
of the dead thickets, w^hich otherwise 
would have made travehng difficult. Not 
a single Hve sprig of alder was seen until 
after we liad explored considerable coun- 
try, and then only tw^o or three very small 



23 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by M. G. Dickman 
A BRANCH OF SALMON-BERRIES, INDICATING THE PROFUSION OF WILD BERRIES AT 

KODIAK SINCE THE ERUPTION 

These berries are somewhat like the persimmon, in that they have an astringent taste 
that disappears only when they are dead ripe. They have, however, a distinctive and 
extremely delicate flavor, and when served with sugar and cream equalor surpass any other 
berry with which the author is acquainted. 



shoots were seen v coming up from the 
roots. 

When we arrived at the village, the 
magnitude of the flood was impressed on 
US as it could not be in the brush-covered 
dunes. The church where the people had 
worshiped undisturbed for years was 
standing in a sea of liquid mud. The 
high-water mark could be plainly seen 
across the front about five feet and a half 
from the ground. 

Some of the native houses were filled 
solid full to the eaves with pumice. Some 
had been completely submerged, as might 
be seen by the stranded pumice which 
had floated onto their roofs. The roof 
of one had been floated away from the 
body of the house and lay at a little dis- 
tance. The church had evidently floated 
free from its foundation, for the high- 
water marks across it were somewhat 
diagonal (see opposite page). 



A RIVER FIVE MILES WIDE AND FIVE 
INCHES DEEP 

The river, whose former bed was close 
by the houses, had subsided from the 
flood condition enough to show its char- 
acter. Where formerly was deep water 
was now a maze of quicksands and inter- 
twining streams. So much material had 
been dumped into it that the level of its 
bottom was several feet above its former 
channel. We could see no indication of 
the farther bank. Somewhere out be- 
yond the range of our vision were one or 
more main channels in which a formida- 
ble volume of water was running, as we 
later found to our cost. But except for 
these shifting main channels it could be 
described as five miles wide and five 
inches deep. 

We ventured far out from shore to see 
whether it would be possible to cross, but 



24 



Digitized by 



Google 




THE GREEK CHURCH AT KATMAI VILLAGE STANDING IN THE MUD AND WRECKAGE 

LEFT BY THE GREAT FLOOD 

This part of Alaska is still "Russian America." Russian is the language of the common 
•people, and the Greek Church is the only religious institution. 




Photographs by D. B. Church 

A "barabara" buried by the pumice brought down by the great flood: 

KATMAI VILLAGE 

These huts, comparable to the sod-houses of the plains, are well adapted to afford protection 

from the intense gales of winter 



25 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by R. F. Griggs 
A FOX CUB DRINKING CONDENSED MILK! KODIAK 

Foxes are abundant in this region, and it was not intended to establish a precedent by 
feeding this one condensed milk, espjecially during these days of the high cost of living. 
Other foxes must continue to "rustle their own grub." 



soon found ourselves miring in the quick- 
sands, so that we were glad to hurry back 
to terra fimia. 

The condition of this river is undoubt- 
edly the most serious obstacle to the ex- 
ploration of the district. While the bot- 
tom is too treacherous to travel afoot, 
especially under a pack, the greater part 
of it could be easily traversed with snow- 
shoes or some similar contrivance, which, 
however, would be a fatal encumbrance 
in the swift currents of the deeper chan- 
nels. A boat might be used were it not 
for the fact that the current is too strong 
for rowing, the bottom is too uncertain 
for poling, and there is no place to land. 

MYSTERIOUS SOURCE OF FLOOD 

Conditions at the village greatly in- 
creased our respect for the magnitude of 
the flood, but failed to enlighten us as to 
its cause. The volume of water had been 
tremendous, considering the size of the 
watershed, for although the main stream 
is less than forty miles long and has a 



steep gradient through much of its course, 
the water had filled the whole valley, six 
miles wide, many feet deep. We knew 
of no general storm which could have 
caused any such unusual quantity of rain. 

Our first thought was that the spring 
tides, which had just passed, had over- 
whelmed the land ; but a little examina- 
tion showed that the high water had been 
far above any tide-mark. We then 
thought of volcanic rains up the valley, 
for we had no knowledge of the condi- 
tion of the volcanoes. 

But the examination of the village was 
reassuring in one respect : Although there 
could be no doubt but that the flood had 
culminated only a day or two before our 
landing, everything indicated that it was 
a very exceptional event. 

EXPLORING IX A DUST-STORM 

W^hen we awoke the next morning 
we found that a westerly gale which had 
started during the night had picked up 
the fine dust from the mountains until it 



26 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by R. F. Griggs 



I^ANDING ON KATMAI BEACH 



Only in perfectly calm weather can the landing be undertaken, the water being normally 

very rough 



had changed the haze of previous days 
into a terrific dust-storm. The dust was 
so thick that it obliterated everything be- 
yond the immediate vicinity. It per- 
meated everything about our camp. We 
were extremely worried lest it should get 
into our cameras and ruin all our films. 

It matted our hair so that we could not 
comb it for days. The sharp particles 
caused acute discomfort in our eyes, and 
at first we were afraid that it might do 
us permanent injury ; but after a time the 
irritation stimulated an increased flow 
from the tear glands, which helped to 
keep the eyes washed out. 

During this day of dust-storm we ex- 
plored the valley as far as Soluka Creek. 
The dust heightened the already weird 
character of the landscape, giving it an 
indescribably unearthly appearance. The 
effect was much like that of a heavy snow- 
storm. This was increased by the out- 
lines of the bare trees. Indeed, so keen 
were the visual sensations of a snow- 
storm that every little while I would 
realize with a start of surprise that I was 
not cold (see also page 17). 



About noon we fell to speculating on 
the state of the weather above the dust- 
storm and were surprised on searching 
the sky at being able to find the sun, 
whose discwas.just visible, a pale white, 
something like the moon in daytime, but 
fainter. 

It would be quite impossible adequately 
to describe our feelings on this day, as 
we groped our way forward into new 
country, utterly different from any we 
had ever seen before. Fortunately the 
loose sandy surface of the ash every- 
where held our tracks, so that even with- 
out our compass we could hardly have 
become lost. 

FOLLOWING A BEAR TRAII, 

We followed all the way a well-worn 
bear trail which skirted the foot of the 
mountain, finding that the bears had se- 
lected the easiest going to be had. It was 
very noticeable that the bear trails, except 
for an occasional side branch into the 
mountains, all ran lengthwise up and 
down the valley. They had made no 
attempt to cross the river. Apparently 



27 



Digitized by 



Google 




d 



N -•= C ^ 
2*^ "^ C^ O 

? .2 alii 



M ^ c ^ i^ ^ •'' 

fc r- ^ rt -t; i: ~ 

;s .Sp-I 55 t« t;^ 
. c ^ =« o 



.-I 
< 

Q 
< 






o :- C 
fc- '^ ^ 

- u**- rt 

= rt .^ tc 

•|"§?^ 

♦- — X c^ en 

O ^ v 

tfi «rf ■«-• 

o f' -^ ^ S 

^ O w - ^ 

O o a p" 

^ £ £ rt 




^ E 



•-I -.i£ 



S c be 
H -.£ 

o .. 



o 
:2; 



H 






S'n 






2 ^ ^ 



O 

;5 



o ^ rt 



Be® 



s _ 

.c-= o 

z ^ 

-no 



28 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by R. F. Griggs 



A KODIAK BEAR SKIN 



Although by no means a large skin, as Kodiak bears go, comparison with the mountain-lion 
skin to the right shows how much larger the bear is than the panther 



they had learned by experience not t6 tr}^ 
that. 

Everywhere we kept a sharp lookout 
for bears, but, although we found a great 
many tracks belonging to at least a half- 
dozen sizes of bears, we did not see any 
of them. At first we were rather con- 
cerned for fear that we should come 
upon one suddenly, for in such a barren 
country we could not but believe that 
they must be hungry, and in any event a 
she bear with cubs is an ugly customer 
to settle with on short notice. The bears 
of this region are only slightly inferior 
in size to the Kodiak bear, which is the 
largest carnivorous animal in the world, 
so large as to make a full-grown grizzly 
look like a cub by comparison. 

Later, after we had traveled many days 
without seeing one, we began to be as 
much concerned for fear we should not 
see a bear as we had been at first for 
fear we should. 

They doubtless saw us many times, but 
were shy and kept out of our way. In- 
deed, once we thought a mother and cubs 



who had been advancing toward us had 
turned and retreated on our approach, 
for we found where their tracks, appar- 
ently just made, suddenly reversed and 
turned up the valley. We often found 
on returning over one of our trails that 
a bear out of curiosity had tracked us 
for some distance, and when we saw be- 
side our own footprints enormous bear 
tracks measuring nine by fourteen inches 
we could not avoid having somewhat of a 
creepy feeling. Some of the bear tracks 
w^ere so clear that we could see the marks 
of the creases in their soles, and had we 
been palmists doubtless we could have 
read the fortune of the possessor or at 
least have learned his disposition. 

OTHER SIGNS OF ANIMAI. LIFE 

Besides bears, foxes were very abun- 
dant, and we could frequently get their 
scent as we traveled along. Wolverines 
were also frequent travelers along the 
trails we used. One of the latter must 
have passed close beside us one day as 
we climbed a mountain, for we found his 



29 



Digitized by 



Google 




30 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by R. F. Griggs 

FLOATING ROCK — LUMPS OF PUMICE PICKED UP ON THE BEACH: KATMAI BAY 

The foot rule gives the scale. The violence of the explosion was so great that all the 
pumice was blown to small bits. There were few pieces more than six inches in diameter 
from Mount Katmai. These came from one of the subordinate vents in the Valley of the 
Ten Thousand Smokes. 



fresh tracks on the pass at the top, and 
on returning followed his trail across our 
own. How he managed to hide from us 
in a country so destitute of cover is not 
clear, but probably he had ample notice 
of our approach and secreted himself 
somewhere behind a rock. Of the smaller 
mammals we saw not a sign, although 
the surface of the ash preserves tracks 
to a remarkable degree. 

We were surprised to find a few small 
fish like minnows in the river, for with 
the ash fall all the streams were entirely 
filled up for a time, and even the river 
must have been nearly choked. There 
was no evidence, however, anywhere of 
salmon, which must have formerly en- 
tered the river in large numbers. 

The means of subsistence of so many 
large animals was very much of a mys- 
tery to us ; yet they must have found 
something to eat, for they were evidently 
at home and not merely passing through. 
Moreover, if they had not found food 
they could easily have migrated, for a 
journey of 20 miles to the westward 



would have taken them into a country 
rich in berrtes, mice, ground-squirrels, 
and marmots, besides large game such as 
caribou, and, most important of all, in 
the summer, salmon in the streams. The 
only evidence we could secure in this 
matter beyond our own conjectures was 
obtained from the character of the bear 
droppings, which much resembled horse 
dung, as though the animals had been 
living on grass. The quantity of grass 
obtainable, however, seemed entirely in- 
adequate to feed even one bear. 

FIRST VIEW OF THE VOLCANOES 

On the i6lh, having previously broken 
the trail as far as Soluka Creek, we 
packed up our outfit and as much food 
as Vv'e could carry and started up the 
valley for the volcanoes. Our remaining 
provisions, together with everything not 
essential to our work, were left in the 
l:)ase camp. Although we had made 
things as snug as we could, it was not 
without considerable trepidation that we 
turned our back on our supplies; for in 



31 



Digitized by 



Google 




32 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES 



33 



such a desert country we were absolutely 
dependent on our provisions, and if a 
bear or wolverine should take it into his 
head to wreck our camp in our absence 
we should have been in a bad way. 

Three or four miles up the valley we 
came out into the open, where we could 
see the distant mountains of the main 
range. Standing square across the head 
of the valley stood Mount Mageik, its 
magnificenrt three-peaked snow-cap bril- 
liant in the sunshine. From a small 
crater east of the central peak issued a 
column of steam, which, although clearly 
visible for 50 miles out to sea, appeared 
diminutive in comparison with the bulk 
of the mountain (see page 30). 

Mount Katmai itself was concealed be- 
yond the bend of the valley, so that we 
were to have no glimpse of it until we 
encamped at its foot. 

A NEW VOLCANO NAMED FOR DR. MARTIN 

But to the west of Mageik, in a posi- 
tion where no volcano is indicated on the 
maps, was rising from a comparatively 
low mountain a tremendous column of 
steam a thousand feet in- diameter and 
more than a mile high. 

Comparison with Horner's picture 
showed at once that this was the moun- 
tain he photographed as "Mt. Katmai," 
when he penetrated to the upper valley in 
191 3. It was clear enough from its loca- 
tion that it could not be the mountain 
called Katmai on the maps, which is east 
of Mageik. Even from our position it 
was evident that this was at present the 
most active volcano of the district. 

And it was not at all certain but that 
this, rather than Katmai, had been the 
seat of the great eruption whose effects 
we were studying ; for, curiously enough, 
there has never been any very positive 
evidence, beyond the statements of a few 
natives who saw the beginning of the 
eruption, that it was Katmai, rather than 
some other volcano in the vicinity, which 
exploded. Indeed, there was one well- 
informed man in Kodiak who assured us 
that he had climbed the mountains back 
of Amalik Bay and taken bearings which 
fixed the location of the vent nearer the 
coast, in a position which he indicated by 
a cross on my chart (see map, page 23). 



Fortunately we were able later to ob- 
tain evidence which fixed the seat of the 
great eruption beyond question. In the 
first place, we found that the deposits 
became progressively deeper as we ap- 
proached Mt. Katmai, while the volcano 
of Hesse and Horner's photographs was 
near the edge of the ash fall. Thus the 
deposits on the lower slopes of Katmai 
are 15 feet deep on the level ; but 10 miles 
farther south, near the other volcano, 
their depth is to be measured by as many 
inches, and only a mile or two beyond the 
country is covered with vegetation, so 
rapidly do the deposits thin out in that 
direction. 

Moreover, great as is the activity of 
this volcano, its crater, in comparison 
with the great caldera, which we later 
found in Alount Katmai, is relatively di- 
minutive and quite too small to have 
thrown out such a tremendous quantity 
of ash and pumice in so short a time. 
Further, great as must have been the 
changes wrought in the landscape in the 
sudden opening of a vent a thousand feet 
in diameter, they were relatively insig- 
nificant beside the tremendous change we 
found in Mount Katmai itself. There 
can be no question therefore that the 
eruption was from Mount Katmai and 
not from any other vent. 

But if we were convinced that the vol- 
cano of Hesse and Horner's photographs 
was not Katmai, we were equally uncer- 
tain of what it was, for none of the maps 
show any volcano near its location nor 
give any name to the mountain, and there 
appears to be neither record nor tradition 
of any volcano in that quarter. 

Tlier^ is every reason to believe, there- 
fore, that this nezv volcano sprung into 
being at the time of the great explosion. 

But tremendous as is the phenomenon 
of the opening of such a gigantic vent 
through a mountain, we were to find later 
other accompaniments of the great erup- 
tion of even greater magnitude. 

In order to discuss the new volcano, it 
is necessary to give it some designation. 
It seemed to us as we watched the new 
*'steamer" that no name could be more 
appropriate than one commemorating the 
work of Dr. George C. Martin, whose 
explorations and report for the National 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by D. B. Church 
A CAMP SITE OF 19*15: TREES ALL KILLED BY BLAST FROM THE VOLCANO 

On our first expedition our camp stood on the bank of Fickle Creek, whose channel, six 
feet deep, occupied the foreground of the present picture. During the year the channel 
completely filled up, so evenly that the location of the former bank could not be detected, 
and a new channel has been dug a thousand feet away. Yet so gently was this filling accom- 
plished that the embers of our camp-fire, on the same level and only a few feet away, were 
not disturbed. Compare the picture on the opposite page. 



Gcofjrapliic Society will always stand as 
the first authoritative account of the great 
eruption of ^Mount Katmai. We there- 
fore suggest that this new volcano be 
called Mount ^Martin. 

W'e were not able to determine the po- 
sition or altitude of this new volcano with 
precision, but have located it approxi- 
mately on the map given on page 23. 
Although situated in the main range, it is 
considerably lower than the neighboring 
mountains. Its altitude is approximately 
S,ooo feet. 

ASH SLIDES MORE Til AX A THOUSAND 
FEET HIGH 

When we reached Soluka Creek we 
found it much more formidable than our 
reconnoiters in the dust storm had indi- 
cated. Leaving the others on the bank, I 
dropped my pack and waded out through 
the dead forest for half a mile in the icy 



water. From that distance it looked 
wider, deeper and swifter than from the 
starting point. I therefore decided it was 
impracticable to attempt to cross under 
our heavy packs, so we camped that night 
in the dead forest on the flat near by. 

>>Iext morning, starting to hunt for a 
practicable ford, we climbed up on to the 
shoulder of a mountain where we could 
get a bird's-eye view of the creek below 
and select the likeliest place to try. 

Here we found a new experience in 
climbing the great ash slides with which 
the lower slopes are covered. Wherever 
the mountains were precipitous and too 
steep for the ash to stick, it slid down 
into the valleys, covering the lower slopes 
with great fans of sand, which stand at 
the critical angle ready to slide down at 
the slightest provocation. Some of these 
ash slopes are more than a thousand feet 
high. Their surface is loose, rolling sand, 



34 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by R. F. Griggs 
THE BKD OF FICKLE CREEK IN I916: IT HAD SHIFTED A THOUSAND FEET IN THE YEAR 



into which one sinks to his ankles, while 
new sand continually slides down on to 
him. 

(Jften the whole slide ahove one will 
begin to move and then he is placed in a 
tread-mill, where he must keep moving 
or slide to the bottom (see page 37). 
Such climbing was of course hard work, 
and we soon cut up our finger-nails and 
wore the tips of our fingers down to the 
quick in the sharp sand by using our 
hands to help us in climbing. 

FORDING A MILE OF Ql'ICKSAND 

When we descended to the ford we 
found that the bottom was a continuous 
quicksand clear across. 

Sometimes the surface would hold like 
the crust of a snowdrift; but we were in 
constant fear of going down, for on 
sounding with our alpenstock we discov- 
ered that the whole length of the stick 
went down into the sand anywhere with- 
out finding bottom. Often our footing 
gave way and we found ourselves floun- 
dering up to our middle in quicksand. 

With all our crossings in the two ex- 
peditions no one ever got in so deep that 
he could not get out alone. But there 
was the ever-present knowledge that we 
never touched the bottom and the fear of 
what might happen next time. 

Besides this the labor of carrying a 



pack through such mire is so great as to 
defy description. It must be experienced 
to be appreciated. Every step takes all 
one's strength and soon one's weary mus- 
cles ache from the strain. But once in, 
there is no chance to rest until one 
reaches the farther shore, for there is no 
place to lie down or sit down, and if one 
even stands still he immediately begins to 
sink. Even the strongest man is well- 
nigh exhausted after a mile of such work. 

The condition of streams choked with 
ash and pumice is peculiar in the ex- 
treme. They spread out over their whple 
floodplain, wandering this way and that 
through the dead forest in a most fan- 
tastic way, changing their courses con- 
tinually, so that the stream is never the 
same for half an hour at a time. The 
whole bottom is rapidly traveling down- 
stream, its continuous, steady motion re- 
sembling one of the moving platforms 
which are sometimes used to transport 
passengers. 

One stream near our camp had cut 
clear through the accumulated mass of 
ash just below a fall, forming a bluflf 
some 70 feet high. A hundred yards 
downstream, however, the slope, though 
still very steep, was less, and the stream 
had been completely overcome by the 
enormous quantity of pumice in its way. 

It was ludicrous to watch the struggles 



35 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by R. F. Griggs 
ASH SLIDI^S IN' UPPKR KATMAI VALLKY 

"Wherever the mountains were precipitous and too steep for the ash to stick, it shcl clown 
into the valley, covering the low^r slopes with great fans of sand" (see text, page 34) 



of this stream as it wrestled with the 
pumice in its bed. Dammed up in the 
failure of a previous attempt, it would 
gradually accumulate enough energy for 
a new effort. Then suddenly breaking 
loose from its bonds, it would rush for- 
ward down the slope, pushing a pile of 
pumice before it, as though to engulf the 
onlooker, writhing this way and that like 
a live thing, picking up pieces of pumice 
and floating them along as it came. Be- 
fore it had gone far, however, its new 
load would literally choke it, and it would 
give up the struggle in a hiss of grating 
pumice stones. 

It was quite a problem to secure water 
from such streams. The water always 
carried such quantities of large angular 
pumice fragments, not to speak of sand 
and mud, that it was out of the question 
to attempt to wash in the brooks. If we 
tried, the pinnice would so grind into our 
flesh as to prohibit any further efTorts at 
cleanliness. But while washing is a mat- 
ter of choice, one must drink whether or 
no. We were obliged everywhere to 



strain our water through one of our food- 
bags. Often we would have to strain a 
quart of pumice to get a pint of water. 
The stream changed so rapidly that we 
sometimes had to move before we could 
fill a bucket. Straining, of course, re- 
moved only the coarser grit. 

At one of the camps our water was so 
full of mud that ]\[r. Folsom refused to 
wash his face for three days, because he 
"did not want to dirty it with the water 
we had to drink." 

CAVERNS FORMED BY SNOW MELTING 
BENEATH THE ASH 

The day after crossing Soluka Creek 
we climbed the mountain to the west in 
hopes of seeing the volcano, for we 
feared lest the fine w^eather which had 
favored us would come to an end before 
we should attain our object. Our quest, 
however, was vain, for when we reached 
the summit w-e found that another sum- 
mit, not marked on our map, cut off our 
view so that we could not see Mount Kat- 
mai. This we called Barrier Mountain. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by K. F. Griggs 



AN ASH SUDK: SOLUKA CREEK 



Some of these slides spread out into gigantic fans more than a thousand feet high. 
Standing at the critical angle, their slopes are very hard climbing. We soon ground our 
finger-nails to the quick in the sharp sand of these slides. 



We tried to cross the pass to reach a 
position where we could see the condi- 
tion of the volcano, but were balked by 
a new kind of difficulty. On the way up 
one of us, sticking his staff into the 
ground harder than usual, discovered that 
it went through into a cavern beneath. 
Examination showed that we were sup- 
ported on an arch of ash a foot thick, 
spanning a deep hole. 

We found that the mountains every- 
where were deeply covered with snow, 
which was concealed by a mantle of ash 
and pumice blown over it by the wind. 
The snow beneath was rapidly melting 
out in the warm weather, leaving the ash 
surface standing as smooth as ever above 
the cavity. 

Such small holes as the one into which 
we had accidentally broken were, of 
course, of no consequence ; but as we 
looked down one of the side valleys, we 
could see great cave-ins in an apparently 
smooth ash field, where a stream burrow- 
ing through the snowdrifts beneath had 
undermined the surface. For half a mile 
or so the tunnel thus made had caved in, 
and then for another half mile it was still 
intact, giving no indication of its presence 
to an unwary traveler (see page 41). 

Reflecting on the significance of such 



phenomena for us, we carefully chose a 
path free from all appearance of buried 
snowdrifts. We had not gone a hundred 
yards, however, when I happened to 
stamp my foot and was astonished to hear 
the ground beneath me ring hollow. We 
quickly retreated, spread out, and tried 
another place. We had not gone far 
when all three of us at once, though 50 
feet apart, detected a cavern beneath us. 
We had absolutely no means of judging 
whether the hole was 5 feet deep or 50, 
nor of estimating the strength of the roof. 
The danger of such a situation was 
altogether too great to undertake, so we 
reluctantly turned back, with as yet no 
view of the volcano. 

AN AWE-INSPIRING VAI,I,EY OF DEATH 

The following day we started to en- 
circle the mountains into upper Katmai 
Valley. As we proceeded the country 
became progressively more desert. Small 
birds which were common in the lower 
valley were absent here. The stillness of 
the dead forest was oppressive. One 
could travel all day without hearing a 
sound but his own footfalls and the 
plunge of rushing water. The bear trails 
persisted until we turned the corner into 
the upper valley, but there they disap- 



37 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by D. B. Church 

TlIIv GLOOMY STRETCHES OF SOLUKA Cl^KEK : TREES ALL DEAD 

I must confess that even after many crossings of this sinister stream without mishap 
I could never plunge in without a shudder of dread. So wide that from the middle we 
could see neither shore, its swift current everywhere churning the quicksand, it presents a 
formidable obstacle to a man carrying a pack. I was in constant fear lest some member of 
the party would be mired in its depths, for, although we seldom sank below our knees, we 
could plunge the full length of our alpenstock into the quicksand anywhere without linding 
bottom (see text, page 35). 



peared. Beyond that point there were no 
signs of animal life, except a pair of bald 
eagles, which reconnoitered our camp the 
lirst night, a few mosquitos, and, curi- 
ously enough, a humming-bird moth, 
which seemed strangely out of place in 
such a valley of death. 

Clouds hung so low that everything 
above a thousand feet was obscured, but 
as we pushed up into the valley a feeling 
of tremendous awe possessed us. We 
had quite exhausted our stock of super- 
latives in the lower valley and found our- 
selves altogether without means of ex- 
pressing the feelings that arose in us or 
of describing the scene before us. 

MORE EVIDENCE OF A TREMENDOUS 
FLOOD 

As we proceeded, evidences of flood 
damage rapidly increased ; but we noticed 
that none of the tributary streams had 



been affected, and when we reached tlie 
forks of the river we found that the 
whole flood had come down from under 
the volcano itself, wreaking havoc in its 
way. A deep channel had been eroded 
in the pumice deposits. Part of the way 
it had washed out all of the pumice and 
had cut into its original bed besides. 

For miles where thick forests had stood 
the trees were sheared off at the surface 
of the ash (see picture on page 42, taken 
a year later, after the stream had cut 
away the pumice, exposing the stumps). 
The few trees which remained were bent, 
twisted, splintered, and broken in every 
describable manner. In places, sheltered 
from the extreme fury of the waters, the 
trees were piled high with driftwood. 

The volume of water had been enor- 
mous. We found high-water marks 
25 feet above the bed of the stream 
where the valley was two miles wide. 



38 



Digitized by 



Google 




'••♦ >»»•* kf% 




■ *^ 



^^c^\ 




^m^u^ 



4~ 



Pliotograph by B. B. Fulton 

THE AUTHOR STRUGGLING THROUGH THE QUICKSAND OF KATMAI RIVER 

The swift water running over the ash and pumice packs the surface, giving it a crust 
which sometimes holds a man and sometimes breaks under his weight. Crossing these flats 
is somewhat like traveling in snow with a weak crust. One will go along easily ankle deep 
for a few steps and then suddenly drop down to his waist. The labor involved in such travel 
cannot be described, but must be experienced to be appreciated (see text, page 41). 



As we gradually came fully to compre- 
hend what a tremendous catastrophe this 
flood had been, we were more and more 
thankful for the good luck which had 
delayed our expedition until after it had 
passed. If we had landed a week earlier, 
we would certainly have been over- 
whelmed, unless by chance we had hap- 
pened to be on high ground, out of the 
valley, at the time of the disaster. 

We had finally penetrated as far as we 
could up the valley and camped, as we 
hoped, about opposite Mount Katmai ; 
but we could not be sure of our position, 
for the clouds hung low. 

A FLOW OF BRIGHT RED MUD MORE THAN 
TWO MILES LONG 

Here we beheld a formation quite dif- 
ferent from anything else we had seen. 
A ravine which branched off from the 
main valley behind a spur of the moun- 
tain was filled by what looked like a great 
glacier, except that its color was a bright 



terra-cotta red. In every detail of its 
form except for its crevasses it was ex- 
actly like a glacier: beginning at a con- 
siderable elevation, where the ravine was 
narrow, it sloped evenly down to the 
valley level, widening as it descended, so 
as to assume a triangular form. 

If the color had not been so different 
from everything else in the landscape, we 
would have been quite sure it was a 
glacier covered with dirt. But in such 
a situation no glacier could have escaped 
without a thick covering of the omni- 
present ash. Wq concluded, therefore, 
that it must be a mass of mud which had 
run down off the volcano. 

Later, when we visited it, its structure 
confirmed this theory. As it lay on top 
of the ash, it had evidently been formed 
since the eruption. Although it was hard 
and firm, so as to be easy walking, both 
its structure and its form showed clearly 
that it had reached its position in a semi- 
fluid condition. Like a glacier, it had a 



39 



Digitized by 



Google 




RKSTING ON THE TRAII, 



Photograph by L. G. Folsom 



relatively steep front and was convex, 
highest in the middle, so as to turn the 
drainage off to the edges, along each of 
which a deep canyon had been cut. 

But despite the indications that it had 
once been fluid, we saw no mud-cracks 
or other evidence of shrinkage upon dry- 
ing out, such as one would have expected 
to find in a mud-flow. Its length we 
estimated by our pedometer at 23/^ miles. 
Its highest part attained an elevation of 
nearly 1,000 feet, from which point it 
sloped to about 300 feet at the base. We 
were not so well able to estimate its thick- 
ness. But along the edges where it was 
cut into by the streams a section about 
50 feet thick was exposed. In the middle 
it may have been much thicker, both on 
account of the convexity of the surface 
and the greater depth of the valley floor. 

Under erosion, this and other similar 
mud-flows, later found, develop very 
striking bad-land topography, so that on 
a bright day one might almost imagine 
himself to be in western North Dakota 
if it were not for the streams trickling 
everywhere from the melting snows. 
When the mud dries it becomes hard and 
holds its shape, so that the sides of the 



gullies remain vertical, as they are cut by 
the streams, and do not crumble away as 
would softer soil. 

LAVA ALL BLOWN TO FRAGMENTS 

We were very much surprised at the 
character of the ejecta close to the crater. 
Post-cards are current in Alaska show- 
ing great rocks which are said to have 
been "hurled from the volcano," and we 
ourselves had expected to find something 
of the sort. 

The fact is, however, that the violence 
of the explosions was so great that every- 
thing which came out of the crater was 
blown to "smithereens." Pieces of pum- 
ice six inches in diameter were hard to 
find, and the very largest piece we could 
discover near Mount Katmai was less 
than nine inches in its longest dimension. 

Nowhere was there any flow of lava in 
connection with the recent eruption. 
This is due to the fact that the lava as it 
rose through the throat of the volcano 
was so heavily charged with gases, mostly 
steam, under enormous pressure, that on 
reaching the surface it was either blown 
into a froth of pumice by the sudden ex- 



40 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by D. B. Church 

A SNOWDRIFT COVERED BY TWO FEET OF WIND-BLOWN ASH, NEAR KATMAI VILLAGE, 

AT SEA-LEVEL, JULY 1 5 

Thus protected from the sun, melting of the snow is so retarded that in many places 
formerly uncovered early in the season the snow now fails to melt away and is accumulating 
year by year. 



pansion of the included gas or exploded 
and was completely disrupted, forming 
ashes and dust. 

On first thought one is apt to be more 
awed by a force that could hurl great 
rocks through the air than one which 
merely throws up ashes and dust. But 
when one reflects that ash and pumice are 
rock blown to fragments by the violence 
of the explosion, he realizes that much 
mightier forces are involved than would 
be required to toss boulders about. 

CROSSING THE RIVER 

In spite of the desolation of the valley, 
even in the shadow of the volcano, some 
few remnants of plants persisted in shel- 
tered nooks on the steep mountain side. 
In our climb we found Irving plants of 
devil-club, lady-fern, salmon-berries, a 
willow, a sedge, and a bedstraw. The 
leaves of most of these were injured 
around the margins, and in general they 
appeared more dead than alive, though, 



of course, still retaining the possibility of 
later becoming the means of re vegetating^ 
the country. 

Our next venture was to try to cross 
the river to examine the lower slopes of 
the volcano and the mud-flow. This we 
found a very formidable undertaking. 
Although the stream was divided into- 
many channels, none of which was deep, 
it was so *swift as almost to carry us 
away. Indeed, both Fulton and I went 
down under its current and succeeded in 
getting out only with difficulty. We did 
not mind the ducking, even though the 
water was icy cold, but we were in fear 
of wetting our precious cameras (see 

page 39)- 

A SECOND NEW VOLCANO — THE TRIDENT 

Aftet* two days of waiting, the sky 
cleared, and when we woke we beheld 
the whole range. Oflf to the westward 
was a steady column of steam rising from 
Mount Martin, which was concealed be- 



Digitized by 



Google 




Piioiograph by K, F. Griggs 

THE GREAT ASH SLIDE OF SLIDE MOUNTAIN 

Our experience in taking this picture furnished an amusing example of our inability, 
even accustomed to stupendous dimensions as we were, to form any real conception of the 
size of the wonders by which we were surrounded. Desiring to have a scale by which the 
size of the slide could be gauged. I sent one of the men up on it for that purpose; but. to 
my astonishment, when he emerged from the forest and began to climb up the slope I could 
barely make him out, much less tind him in the resulting picture. Our triangulation gave it 
a height of nearly 1,900 feet (see text, page 34). 



hind a foothill, which, from its position, 
we named Observation Mountain. Next 
were the three peaks of Blount Alageik 
(see page 32), covered with newly fallen 
snow. Across its northwestern slopes 
formerly ran the trail to Bering Sea, 
across Katmai Pass, which, though re- 
puted difficult and dangerous, looked very 
easy from our position. 

On the northeast side the pass is 
flanked by a lofty three-peaked volcano, 
which we called The Trident (see page 
65). Its three peaks are arranged in 
semicircular fashion, leaving between 
them an amphitheater open toward Kat- 
mai Valley, which looks somewhat like 
an ancient crater breached on one side. 
The highest peak appears from the valley 
like an almost perfect cone, truncated at 
the top as though by a crater. Its height 
as given by the chart is 6,790 feet. 

The present crater is a fissure at the 



base of this peak (altitude about 3,500 
feet), from which issued, somewhat in- 
termittently, a column of steam. Al- 
though the volume of this steam was 
quite small in comparison with that of 
Mageik and Martin, it sometimes as- 
sumed quite respectable proportions, ris- 
ing 3,000 feet or more. There is good 
reason to believe that this vent also ap- 
peared in connection with the great 
eruption. 

OUR FIRST SIGHT OF MOUNT KATMAI 

Next in line beyond a wide pass stood 
Mount Katmai itself. This was quiescent 
during our visit and at first sight pre- 
sented a rather disappointing appearance, 
for its glaciers and snowfields were so 
covered with ash as to make it suflfer 
from comparison with Mount Mageik. 
As we studied it, however, we saw that 
its great bulk reduced its apparent height. 



42 



Digitized by 



Google 



The crest, as seen 
from the valley, forms 
a great arc some three 
miles in length, high- 
est at the ends, and 
broken in the middle 
by a sharp, tooth-like 
rock, which stands up 
out of the lowest 
place in the rim. 
Even from the valley 
the edges of this curv- 
ing rim are so sharp 
as to give the top a 
hollow app^rance, in- 
dicative of the great 
crater within (p. 48). 

MOUNT KATMAI IS 
NOW MERELY A STUB 
OF ITS FORMER BULK 

Although Mount 
Katmai was seen by 
many white men be- 
fore the eruption, 
there is no record of 
any photograph or de- 
scription of it ; so that 
there is no very defi- 
nite means of deter- 
mining the configura- 
tion of the mountain 
before the explosion. 
It was higher than 
Mageik, however, and 
originally must have 
quite overshadowed 
the latter, because, 
though much less con- 
spicuously placed in 
the valley, it gave its name to both river 
and town. The Coast and Geodetic Sur- 
vey's chart of the district shows a three- 
peaked mountain with an elevation of 
7,500 feet. The highest peak was to the 
south, while the middle one was 7,360 
feet and the north 7,260 feet high re- 
spectively. 

From the contours of the chart I have 
made a diagram of the mountain before 
the eruption for comparison with its pres- 
ent condition (see page 49). But even 
without the information given by the 
chart, it is evident that the present moun- 
tain is merely a stub of a much greater 
peak of former days. 

Coming back into the lower valley after 
the total desolation of the country in the 




Photograph by R. F. Griggs 
A ROCK WHICH ROLLED OFF THE MOUNTAIN SIDE ACROSS OUR 
TllAIL WHILE WE WERE UP THE VALLEY 



shadow of the volcanoes was like regain- 
ing the earth after a visit to the inferno. 
How green the trees looked! How the 
birds sang! How beautiful the green 
mountains ! And this was the country on 
which we had exhausted our superlatives 
of devastation in an eflFort to compare it 
with Kodiak! We ourselves had not 
fully realized the awful devastation near 
the volcano until we felt the relief from 
its contemplation in the comparative ver- 
dure of the vicinity of the ruined village. 

We were much relieved to find our 
base camp intact. Although a wolverine 
had been prowling around, he had evi- 
dently been suspicious of such fresh signs 
of man and had not disturbed anything. 

On July 29 we began to look for Mr. 



43 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by B. D. Fulton 
AN ASH ACCUMULATION ON A TRIBUTARY OF SOLUKA CREEK 

The streams covered their beds with many feet of ash after the eruption. Later they 
began to remove the ash, sometimes cutting deep canyons, as in this «cene, where the human 
figure indicates the tremendous depth of the ash fall. 



44 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by K. F. Griggs 



ON THE TRAIL IN THE UPPER VALLEY 



Since the country was completely devastated, it was necessary to carry everything we had ; 
if any essential thing had been forgotten the expedition would have been stumped 



Johnson to come to take us back to 
Kodiak, according to appointment. We 
learned later that he tried to* reach us 
both that day and the next, but was un- 
able to land. On the 31st, however, the 
weather was clear and calm, so that he 
was able to get ashore. 

We were rejoicing in the prospect of 
a speedy return to Kodiak, but soon 
found that our troubles were not over, 
for before he could get us oflf a "north- 
easter" blew up, so that he had to aban- 
don us hastily on the beach and make for 
his boat with the word "Back at the first 
chance." The sea rose so quickly that he 
had difficulty in regaining the sloop and 
reaching a place of safety. It was not 
for three days that he was able to return, 
and then, although there was considerable 
surf running, we lost no time in getting 
aboard (see page 2^^, 

ORGANIZING THE EXPEDITION Ot I916 

The expedition of 191 6 was carried out 
on substantially the same lines as that of 
the preceding year, except that it was 
possible to organize the work more thor- 



oughly and to provide against various 
contingencies which could not have been 
foreseen without the experience of the 
previous year. The party consisted of 
Mr. Folsom, ^Ir. D. B. Church, as pho- 
tographer, and myself. The experience 
of the previous year showed the necessity 
of the employment of a packer also. 

Here we met one of our most difficult 
problems, for we found that the natives 
were afraid of the volcano and could not 
be induced to go to the mainland. When 
we broached the matter to the chief, he 
said at once very positively, "Me no Kat- 
mai," and we leanied later that he had 
advised his followers, "Life is better than 
money." 

The problem was most happily met, 
however, when we thought of Walter 
Matroken, the celebrated one - handed 
bear hunter of Kodiak. He agreed to go 
without any hesitation and stuck to his 
promise, although, as we found after- 
ward, the other natives used all sorts of 
arguments to dissuade him. 

Already a hero among his fellows be- 
cause of his many exploits as a hunter. 



45 



Digitized by 



Google 




46 



Digitized by 



Google 



he was doubly so when 
he returned safely, 
having actually looked 
into "The Hole" out 
of which had come 
the devastating blast. 
Kven Walter, how- 
ever, was very nerv- 
ous on the crater rim, 
keeping sheltered be- 
hind a rock a good 
share of the time and 
shifting about uneasily 
as he watched us 
work, finally remark- 
ing when he thought 
we had overstayed our 
time, "Can't 'make 
nothing up here." 

THE BEAR HUNTER OF 
KODIAK 

Walter was one of 
those strong char- 
acters whom one finds 
among all classes, who 
stand out superior to 
their fellows. De- 
prived of his right 
hand by a hunting ac- 
cident in his youth, he 
has so overcome the 
handicap that with 
his one hand he can 
accomplish more than 
most men with two. 
We found nothing he 
could not do, even to 
tying knots and roll- 
ing cigarettes. 

But when there 
came a place where 
we needed some one to handle a boat I 
supposed that finally I had found his 
limit, for I could not imagine how any 
man could handle two oars in one hand. 
Not so, however, for in a flash he had 
somehow lashed one oar to his stub and 
\vas rowing along as well as anybody. 

The general appearance of the country 
was much the same as it had been the 
year before; but the mountains were 
greener, and even on the flat seedlings 
were beginning to start. When we began 
to examine old landmarks, however, we 
found that while the general appearances 
were unaltered, there had been great 
changes in detail. 



-- Jf' 




k 


-"/Ml 


Bk^^ 




^1 




^ ^ i 




'3 








a^' 




lb. 


1 


^^£$r .^Mk 




1 




^ * 


-1 



Photograph by R. F. Griggs 
DEAD INSECTS UNDER A SOLITARY TUFT OF HERBAGE IN THE 
UPPER VALIvEY 

Under these plants was half a teacupful of dead insects of many 
species (seen as black spots on the ground), which had been at- 
tracted by the isolated herbage and come thither in a vain search 
for food. Perhaps the most striking change in the upper valley 
observed in 1916 was the great abundance of insects, where there 
had been practically none the year before. 

The site of our camp of the previous 
year we found buried under 20 inches of 
fresh pumice, washed off the mountain 
side, while a stream had cut its bed across 
the place where our tent had stood. The 
year before this stream had been 50 yards 
distant and we never dreamed that it 
might come our way. As we journeyed 
up the valley, we found other similar 
changes, but the general condition'^ were 
but little different. 

Soluka Creek was the same maze of 
quicksands that had almost turned us back 
the year before. I must confess that as 
many times as we crossed Soluka Creek 
I never got used to it. Although we 



47 



Digitized by 



Google 




48 



Digitized by 



Google 



ORIGIMAL MOUNTAIN 




V A L L L YJlL V t L 2 2b J 1 1 T ^ 



'::^^^^^zM:&zzz^zcc::-22& 



AN ILLUSTRATION OF MOUNT KATMAI AS IT WAS AND IS 

Showing the original mountain reconstructed, the present crater rim, and the crater with 
its boiHng lake. The Woolworth Building, drawn to the same scale, gives an idea of the 
depth of the crater. 



never had an accident, I never could free 
myself from the dread of the crossing 
and the fear that the next time it would 
"get" one of us. 

GRAND VIEW CAMP 

When we arrived at the head of the 
flat we picked our camp site so as to 
command a view of the surrounding 
mountains. The marks of the great flood 
were no longer fresh on the ground and 
it was evident that there had been no 
similar catastrophe during the year that 
had elapsed. We therefore had no fear 
of a repetition of the flood and did not 
hesitate to camp out in the open, choos- 
ing, in fact, an island in the river, which, 
although being cut away by the swift 
water at the rate of several yards a day, 
was safe enough for the period of our 
visit. 

I never expect to be privileged to have 
a camp site surrounded by grander scen- 
ery than was this island. On the east 
side of the valley was the waterfall that 
we christened Fulton's Fall, nearly a 
mile away, but the more impressive for 
its distance, framed in between the bril- 
liant orange and green slopes of two 
mountains, which we called Slide Moun- 
tain and Avalanche Mountain, and backed 
by the rich red precipices of Barrier 
Mountain. The latter, though in reality 
several miles away, at the head of a val- 
ley, appeared set just a few hundred feet 
back of the fall, which has the majestic 
sweep attained only by falls of much 
greater height than breadth. 



Farther up at the head of the valley 
stood the 1,500-foot cliffs which guard 
the entrance to the inner canyon of Kat- 
mai River, while towering aloft over in- 
accessible precipices the summits of Slide 
and Avalanche Mountains themselves 
presented fine enough spectacles to com- 
mand attention in any other setting. But 
here they were eclipsed, for on the other 
side of the valley we could see the whole 
chain of glacier-covered volcanoes of the 
main range in continuous series, broken 
only by Katmai Pass, whose 2,700 feet 
looked low indeed by comparison. 

From north to south were Katmai, 
Trident, Mageik — partly hidden behind 
Observation Mountain, and finally the 
distant steam from Martin (map, p. 23). 

It was evident that the activity of all 
the vents was somewhat greater than the 
year before. There could be no longer 
any doubt but that considerable steam 
was rising from Katmai, whereas the 
year before we could not be certain of 
any activity. The column from Mageik 
was larger, and there was a small column 
rising from a point well down on the 
slope of Martin which we had not seen 
before. 

INDICATIONS O^ ACTIVITY ON THE BIRRING 
SEA SIDE OF THE RANGE 

In addition to these vents, every time 
it was clear we saw very definite indica- 
tions of more volcanoes on the other side 
of the range. Through Katmai Pass we 
could see two large clouds when every- 



49 



Digitized by 



Google 




^ ^> u ^ 

• ^ (A 



50 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES 



51 



where else all was clear except the 
"steamers." Over the isthmus connect- 
ing Katmai and Trident we saw, as we 
had in 191 5, similar signs of activity. 

These were, however, very puzzling, 
elusive, uncertain — quite different from 
the steady columns rising from Mageik 
and Martin ; for they were not only in- 
constant and variable in volume, but 
equally uncertain in position, appearing 
now at one point and now at another 
(see page 65). 

STARTING FOR THE FIRST ASCENT 

On finding the sky clear and bright 
the morning after our arrival, July 19, 
we decided to see how the river was and 
to reconnoiter the volcano with a view to 
picking our path for the climb when the 
proper time should come. 

\\Tien we started we had little idea of 
making the ascent, expecting to content 
ourselves with reconnoitering the lower 
slopes. But as we went on we became 
more and more anxious to try the climb. 
So, leaving the mud-flow at about 800 
feet, we started up the long ridge which 
runs out parallel with the canyon. This 
was easy going, with a gentle ascent up 
to 2,000 feet, when we suddenly came 
into sight of the upper valley of Katmai 
River. 

THE TREMENDOUS FLOOD EXPLAINED 

We found that the canyon was only as 
long as Mount Katmai itself, while far- 
ther on, the valley turned to the east and 
expanded again into a flat, in which we 
discovered three large lakes, blue as the 
sky, in strong and grateful contrast to the 
gray land. 

But what especially surprised tls was 
suddenly to discover the origin of the 
flood which had so sorely puzzled out 
party the year before (see pages 20 and 
38). A stream flowing between Katmai 
Volcano and its neighbor had piled up 
an immense dam across its valley. Be- 
hind this dam a vast lake had accumu- 
lated until the pressure of the impounded 
water became irresistible, when the dam 
burst and the torrent, like a Johnstown 
flood, rushed seaward, fortunately with- 
out human toll. 

Turning from the lakes with the hope 



that we might be able to return and ex- 
plore them, we roped ourselves together 
and decided to have a try at the slopes 
above. 

We were on dangerous ground from 
the outset. The surface was covered by 
many feet of ash overlying snow, which, 
melting out from beneath, made the sur- 
face slump away and crack open in all 
directions, while at intervals boiling tor- 
rents issued from the cavernous depths. 
No experience with snow bridges could 
give any precedent for judging the 
strength of such ash bridges and we had 
no means of knowing what to expect. 

It was with fear and trembling that I 
ventured out across the first and, as it 
proved, the worst of these bridges. It 
was only a few feet wide, with perpen- 
dicular edges 30 feet high, while from 
beneath came a roaring torrent, which 
divided just below, part going down be- 
hind the arrete we had come up and part 
tumbling directly down the face of the 
mountain. 

CLIMBING THE MUD-PLASTERED SLOPES 

The slopes were all plastered with mud 
of varied colors — gray, yellow, chocolate, 
red, black, and blue — the results of the 
last spasms of the great eruption. 

At the lower levels the mud was dry 
and hard, making easy going; but as we 
ascended, it soon became slippery, and a 
little higher soft and sticky. Most of the 
way it was about ankle deep, but in spots 
^ve went in nearly to our knees; and at 
times it required all our strength to ex- 
tricate ourselves (see page 53). Un- 
pleasant and laborious as walking through 
deep mud is under any circumstances, we 
found traveling up the slope very hard 
work indeed. 

Above 4,000 feet the way was mostly 
through soft snow, with only occasional 
mud patches, and the slope became 
steeper as we advanced. 

As we reached the higher levels the 
scenery became superb. We could see 
Kodiak Island across the strait over the 
tops of the nearer mountains, which pre- 
sented a magnificent mass of sharp peaks 
and intervening snow-fields. 

But finer than these was the canyon of 
Katmai River, which lay stretched below 
us. Flanked by the multicolored mud- 



Digitized by 



Google 







Photograph by R. F. Gripgs 
STEAM RISIN'G FROM MOUNT KATMAI : VIEW FROM PROSPECT POINT 

The ash sh'dcs of the recent eruption contrast with the massive ancient lava flows. At 
the right are two tine waterfalls. The summit stands about a mile above the observer (see 
text, page 55). 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by R. F. Griggs 
STUCK IN THE MUD ON THE WAY UP TO THE CRATER 
The slopes of the volcano are covered with soft, sticky mud and slush (see text, page 51) 



flows, with the river hidden within the 
lower gorge, this resembled greatly the 
Grand Canyon of the Colorado, and in- 
deed, except for its shortness, rivaled the 
latter in its proportions, for it is about 
4,000 ■ feet deep, of which about 1,500 
feet is the inner gorge, cut through beau- 
tiful delicate green rocks, not to be 
matched in the Grand Canyon (see pages 
55 and 58). 

STEAM FROM THE CRATER OBSCURES THE 
SUMMIT 

Long before we reached the brim the 
hard work had begim to tell on us and 
we were becoming tired, especially 
Church and Folsom, who were carrying 
packs. Mr. Church in particular deserves 
great credit for lugging the big camera, 
with its tripod weighing 20 pounds, to the 
summit. He told me afterward that he 
could never have done it except for two 
facts — that he Avas hitched to a rope and 
could not get away and the fear that if 
we turned back today we would have it 
all to do over again tomorrow. 

As it began to cloud up, we were afraid 
we would not be able to see anything if 
we did reach the rim. All the other sum- 
mits as far as we could see were clear, 



but Katmai became densely covered with 
black, heavy clouds which permitted only 
occasional glimpses of the top. Further- 
more, we were on the lee side of the 
crater instead of to windward, as we 
should have been. We knew these clouds 
must be due, in part at least, to the activ- 
ity of the volcano, because of the strong 
sulphurous odor which filled the air, but 
could not tell how much was to be attrib- 
uted to this cause and how much was 
simply due to the greater altitude of the 
volcano. 

As we came closer we could see that 
•the clouds were in rapid motion, coming 
straight up out of the crater. What if 
we should reach the rim only to poke 
our noses into a steam jet through which 
we could see nothing! Nevertheless we 
were unwilling to give up now without 
at least a try, and so we pressed on. 

THE CRATER 

Finally, at 5,500 feet, we reached the 
rim. The inside wall was standing nearly 
perpendicular and great masses of snow 
and mud were cracked off from the 
edges, ready to fall in ; so that I did not 
dare to look over the edge, even though 
anchored by the rope, until I could find a 



53 



Digitized by 



Google 




Phottigraph by R. F. Gri£2s 
AN ASH-COVERED SNOW BRIDGE SPANNING A STREAM WHICH CUT ITS WAY THROUGH 

BENEATFI 

The caving in of such bridges, which are often concealed, constitutes one of the most serious 
dangers to which the explorer is subject 



place which looked safer. Theri we ap- 
proached the edge. Nothing could be 
seen through the rising steam. 

But, as we looked, there came a little 
rift and we could see something blue far 
below us. Then the steam cut us off 
again and we waited. Again it blew 
away and we were struck speechless by 
the scene, for the whole crater lay below 
us. It was of immense size and seemed 
of an infinite depth. 

A VITREOLIC LAKE 

About half of the bottom was occu- 
pied by a wonderful blue and green vit- 
reolic lake, with the crescent-shaped re- 
mains of an ash cone near the middle. 
In the larger end was a circle of lighter- 
colored water which was in continual 
ebullition. 

Around the margin were a thousand 
jets of steam of all sizes, issuing from 
every crevice with a roar like a great 
locomotive when the safety valve lets go. 
On the far side, close to the water, were 
two large, bright yellow spots of sulphur, 
while in two angles of less activity there 
were snow-fields. 

The perpendicular sides near us were 
composed entirely of frozen mud and 
fragments of various sorts of ejecta, and 



nowhere in the whole ascent did we en- 
counter bedrock. On the opposite side 
of the crater we could see that the greater 
part of the wall was composed of lava 
and tufa, the successive flows giving it a 
roughly stratified appearance. 

We were powerless to form any real 
estimate of the size of this stupendous 
hole. It was clear, however, that it oc- 
cupied all of the area within the rim, 
which from below ai)pears three miles 
long. As to the depth, the best I could 
do was to look in and then try to carry 
the same level to the slope up which we 
had come. Thus estimated, the depth 
was apparently about 1,500 feet. This 
estimate we subsequently had to enlarge. 

All this we took in almost at a glance. 
Before we could get our tripod set up 
the cloud closed in again and we waited 
amid a thunderous roar of escaping 
steam. Were we to be cheated of the 
coveted pictures after allB Finally the 
cloud lifted a little and frantically we 
made our exposures. 

I had planned to take bearings and 
measurements which would permit more 
accurate determination of the depth and 
size, but we were vouchsafed so few 
clear moments that we could not make 



54 



Digitized by 



Google 



them. We had 
reached the rim at 
5.05 p. m. The mo- 
ment we stopped mov- 
ing we be^an to suffer 
so from our cold, wet 
feet that waiting was 
torture; but we Hn- 
gered on the edge for 
50 minutes hoping for 
better views, but as 
the clear intervals be- 
came less and less fre- 
quent we had to give 
it up and descend. 
None of us fully real- 
ized. I think, how far 
we had come till we 
found how long the 
return journey was, 
but we reached our 
camp safely at 10.20 
p. m. 

Next day I was up 
at 5.30 to take pic- 
tures of the moun- 
tains, for practically 
the only opportunities 
to get good pictures 
of the volcanoes came 
early in the morning. 
The sky was clear ex- 
cept for a few very 
delicate cirrus clouds 
above the mountains 
to the east. They 
were long combed out 
and lay in horizontal 
lines, drifting slowly 
toward Katmai. 




THE ASCKNT OVER 



Photograph by t,. G. Folsoin 
MUD-COV'ERED SNOW 



The climbers are within a few hundred feet of the crater rim 
(see text, page 51) 



THE WONDERFUL SCENERY OF THE 
CANYON 

Our distant view from the mountain 
of the second Katmai Valley, with its 
lakes, and especially the dam, which had 
caused the great flood, made us anxious 
to penetrate the canyon and examine the 
upper valley in detail. But we found it 
impossible to penetrate beyond the mouth 
of the canyon, being stopped on the brink 
of a 500- foot precipice, which we named 
Prospect Point. 

The magnificence of the view from this 
point was simply beyond description. 

It is like the Grand Canyon and the Ca- 
nadian Rockies all put together and then 



the volcanoes added. The desert land- 
scape, covered with the many-colored muds 
from the volcano, together with the fine 
colors of the rock walls, recall the Grand 
Canyon. But the upper slopes, with their 
sharp summits occupied by snow-fields 
and glaciers, remind one of the Canadian 
Rockies, in particular of such places as 
the "Valley of the Ten Peaks." 

Down the sides pour numerous water- 
falls, some of which are of great beauty. 
Opposite Prospect Point is one whose 
thin, misty streams drop 1,500 feet from 
the top of the inner canyon clear to the 
bottom (see page 61). Two more, each 
several hundred feet high, may be seen 
on the slopes of Katmai (see page 52). 



55 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by I^ G. Folsom 
PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRATER, SECOND ASCENT 



The two sides of the canyon show very 
different rock structure. The east wall 
IS a 1, 500- foot cliff, of delicate ^reen sed- 
imentaries, but little metamorphosed, al- 
though shot through by numerous dikes 
, of igneous rock, also pale green. But on 
the west the river is hemmed in by great 
mahogany - colored lava flows, whose 
massive cliffs rise 2,000 to 2,500 feet be- 
fore giving way to the gentler slopes of 
the plateau. At least three successive 
flows may be made oyt lying superposed 
one on the other. All appear to have 
come from Katmai itself, but none of 
them is recent. 

In the more exposed situations the 
wind has often cut through the different 
layers of ash, leaving the hillsides marked 
with many bands and circles, where de- 
posits of different colors have been alter- 
nately uncovered. 

EXPERIENCES IN A TERRIFIC GALE 

Where the unprotected positions were 
occupied by birches, their dead trunks 
often bear evidence of the power of wind 
erosion ; for on the northwest side their 
bark has been all cut away, and in many 
cases the wood deeply abraded by pieces 
of ash and pumice flying before the wind 
(see page 66). 

But even such evidences of the power 
of the wind could not have given us any 
conception of the terrific violence of the 



gales if we had not had the misfortune 
to experience one. For 48 hours it blew 
with such fury that we were in constant 
fear lest our tent should be torn to shreds. 
I would never have supposed that any 
tent could have stood up under the strain. 
We had it double-guyed at each end with 
our Alpine roi)e, but were not able to 
keep the pegs from pulling out at the 
bottom. We could not have held it dowTi 
without the floor. Several times we held 
it in place by lying on the floor until the 
pegs could be driven in again around the 
bottom (see also pages 17 and 26). 

Only less noisy was the bombardment 
of the sand-blast, which drove against the 
tent like showers of hail. The power of 
the wind was such that pieces of pumice 
even an inch in diameter were picked up 
and carried away, while others twice as 
big went rolling along the slopes. 

The wind was so fierce that we could 
not keep a fire, nor could we have cooked 
anything if we had, for we no sooner put 
on a kettle of water than it began to fill 
with sand, so that it could not be used. 

THE SECOND ASCENT 

On July 30, for the first time since our 
arrival in the valley, the steam from 
Mageik rose straight up into a cloudless 
sky (see page 30). We therefore decided 
the conditions auspicious to try for a 
second view into the crater. This time 



56 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by R. F. Grig 



LOOKING DOWN INTO KATMAI S CRATER 

At the right is the main column of steam, 3,000 feet high. Little jets may also be seen 
rising from the surface of the boiling lake. Curiously enough, the heat does not melt the 
snow, which may be seen stretching close up to the escaping steam, its surface grooved by 
the innumerable rolling-stones which fall in from the cliffs where we stood (see text, 
page 54). 



57 



Digitized by 



Google 




S8 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES 



59 



I chose a path over the lava plateau 
from near the base of the mud-flow. 
From the valley the ground did not seem 
especially favorable, and we were by no 
means sure of reaching the rim when we 
started; but I was anxious to examine 
the Trident at close range, and especially 
to see what might be behind the isthmus 
connecting it with Katmai, because of our 
suspicions of activity in that direction. 

We got a fine view of Trident, whose 
crater proved to be a simple fissure, out 
of which steam was continually issuing 
in a comparatively small volume (see 
page 65). But we were disappointed in 
our hopes of seeing anything over the 
divide between Trident and Katmai. 

Although we traversed the whole 
length of the nearly level neve at an alti- 
tude of about 4,200 feet, we could see no 
indications of volcanic activity beyond. 
There were several jagged minor sum- 
mits, but no large mountain and no 
clouds ; so that we quite dismissed the 
idea of a volcano in that quarter. 

How greatly in error I was in this con- 
clusion I was to find only the next day. 

For a good share of the way beyond 
2,000 feet our path this time lay across 
the lines of drainage, which had gashed 
the level surface of the ash with innumer- 
able gullies anywhere from two to ten 
feet deep. On our first ascent we had 
followed straight up a single ridge, and so 
avoided the necessity of crossing the gul- 
lies. This time we soon found that con- 
tinued jumping across or scrambling up 
and down the sides of these ravines is 
very fatiguing and were thoroughly tired 
of the job long before we got through 
them. 

For the last 1,500 feet our way led 
across much - crevassed snowfields and 
glaciers, which, while easier going for 
the most part, kept us in constant fear 
of cave-ins on account of the uncertain 
conditions introduced by the ash- fall. In 
places we traversed as nasty a series of 
seracs as one would care to find. 

We found that the glacial seracs ex- 
tended clear up to the very rim of the 
crater, above whose depths the loose 
blocks hung with a precarious hold. 

We did not dare to approach the edge 
over such ground and had to make our 



way around, descending somewhat until 
we finally reached the rim at the lowest 
notch, at an altitude of 5,200 feet, beside 
the rock which breaks the regularity of 
the arc at that point (see page 56). 

This from the valley appears as a small 
tooth-like projection. Near at hand it is 
seen to be a great neck of jointed col- 
umnar basalt two or three hundred feet 
high, which evidently owes its preserva- 
tion to its superior hardness, which en- 
abled it to resist the force of the explo- 
sion that blew away the softer rock all 
around it. Its position and structure in- 
dicate that it was formerly a vent filled 
with liquid lava which, cooling in place, 
formed the massive neck that remains. 

IXABILITV TO JUDGK IIKICHT OR DISTANCE 

From our position directly under it, its 
perpendicular cliffs, though insignificant 
from the valley, appeared immeasurably 
high! Frequently in this land of stu- 
pendous dimensions we had occasion to 
realize how little conception we could 
really form of the true sizes of the fea- 
tures around us. 

When one stands directly beneath a 
cliiT or at its brink and looks up or down, 
200 feet appears as an immeasurably 
great height. Ten times as much appears 
no greater unless there are trees, houses, 
or some such familiar objects beyond, by 
which one can form an independent judg- 
ment of their distance. In a desert coun- 
try without such objects, we were fre- 
quently unable to form any estimate at 
all of the size of the various features 
which met our view. 

We had an amusing instance of this 
when, sending a man to climb the great 
ash slide to serve as a scale for a picture, 
I found that he was hardly visible to the 
naked eye and utterly lost in the picture 
(see page 42). We nearly always found 
that our estimates were too small rather 
than too large, and throughout the pres- 
ent paper I have endeavored to scale 
down my statements of size, so that any 
errors should be in the direction of min- 
imizing rather than of exaggerating the 
things wc have to report. 

Standing on the edge of the crater, we 
recognized our total inability to form any 
judgment of its depth by the ordinary 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by D. B. Church 

CROSSING ONE OF THE CHANNELS OF THE KATMAI RIVER 

While the lower reaches of this river are full of quicksand, farther up it is a rushing 
mountain torrent, so swift that it was hard to cross even supported on a rope (see text, 
page 41). 



methods one uses in estimating such 
things. But, using the shape of the vol- 
cano as a whole and such differences in 
altitude of the parts of the crater rim as 
we could see from the valley for our 
guide, we concluded that our former es- 
timate must be too small, arid that it must 
be at least 2,000 feet in depth. 

THE SECOND VIEW OF THE CRATER 

Both the weather conditions and our 
position were much more favorable for 
observation of the crater this time than 
on our first ascent. The sun shone 
brightly, and it became evident why we 
had had so much trouble with the steam 
on the first ascent, -for we found that the 
point which we had reached the first time 
stood directly above a prominent fissure 
extending in an easterly direction from 
the edge of the lake to the crater wall. 
Its direction was significant in connection 
with what we were to discover the next 
day. 

The boiling lake this time was all cov- 
ered with little (so they appeared from 



our position) wisps of steam curling up 
everywhere from its surface. The vapor 
thus given off condensed into a hazy 
cloud, which hung in the mouth of the 
crater, so that the part of the rim op- 
posite us was veiled. This haze made 
it impossible to secure as clear photo- 
graphs of the crater as we would have 
wished. 

At the northeast angle we could see 
another low notch in the rim of about the 
same altitude as the one where we stood. 
But this one was occupied by a wall of 
ice which rose perpendicular, flush with 
the crater walls, as though it had been 
sheared off by the explosion. It was in- 
deed curious that a moving glacier, how- 
ever it might have been affected by the 
eruption, should remain in such a posi- 
tion. It is probably to be accounted for 
by the falling away of the crater rim, 
which continually exposes a new section 
of the ice cliff. As we had made the 
summit by 3 o'clock, this time we were 
not so late in getting back, reaching camp 
again at 8.30. 



60 



Digitized by 



Google 







rhotograph by IX B. Cluiich 

ACROSS KATMAI CANYON FROM THE LOWER SLOPES OE MOUNT KATMAI 

The scale maj' be judged by the man, who may barely be made out on the trail near the 
center of the picture. The waterfall is 1,500 feet high. 



61 



Digitized by 



Google 




^"3 



i 


.Si c 


'5 


e/3 • — 




U 


'j^ 


>i 


X 


CO bo 


>» 


A 


t rt 


£ 


n 




o 
o 


£^ 


^ 


> 


a. 


w . 




•o 




c 




J= = 




S bo 




be - 




o ^ 




^ j= 


C/3 


o *- 


W 


•§.£ 


» 


o 


(A 

.5^ 




"""o 


Q 


e« 


< 


1^ 


tn 

^ 


ii 


o 


c^ 


ffl 




H 


•§c 


w 


"o-g 


W 


S"i 


U4 


li 


O 


cd ^ 




(A 


>• 






bcgvo 


rf»» 


c ^ 


> 


-. 0* rt 


W 


^ o C 
^ c _ 




•C: e« 4> 




(A ^ O 


H 


«i5 «j tfj 


wi 




t/; 






l^i 


<; 


v. C ti 






> 


*^-''5i 


> 


•— •*-''rt 


> 




a 


r^ig 


< 


"2 c« 5i 


p^ 


c t«'C 


w 




2: 


•c "C-a 


rt — ' rt 


tsT 


O r- 


O 


(A C4 C 




t:J ci 




^.^ V 






^•^"S 




e^J'B 






Sis 












« ""? 




i. vi-i U 




^ ,, 




.*-» ^ w 








i=~ 




rt c«»^ 




iig- 




«« c 




^1^ 

'-:^ 






r^ rt 



62 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES 



63 



The next day, July 31, dawned as clear 
and bright as the former; but the cloud 
from Mageik this time drifted off to the 
northwest, and small clouds were begin- 
ning to gather on the west side of the 
valley, so that I knew it was to be the 
last day of good weather. 

A MUD-FLOW COVERING TEN SQUARE 
MILES 80 FEET DEEP 

I had hoped to take a two-days' trip 
across the pass to see if we could find 
the source of the clouds which had 
aroused our suspicions. But remember- 
ing the bad name given Katmai Pass by 
Spurr, who states that it was the most 
difficult pass crossed by his party in their 
long and adventurous journey in 1898, 
I had no desire to be caught short of 
provisions on the wrong side, and so gave 
up the projected trip and decided to 
reconnoiter instead. Planning to make 
an easy day of it, for we were tired after 
our ascent of Katmai the day before, we 
climbed around the shoulder of Obser- 
vation Mountain and descended into the 
upper valley of Mageik Creek, where we 
found the largest and most striking ac- 
cumulation of ash observed anywhere. 

The whole flat, occupying a triangular 
space five miles on a side, was filled many 
feet in depth by the ash, which had 
slumped off the mountain sides. One 
section we traversed was no less than 125 
feet thick, and two others 80 feet. 

ASCENT TO KATMAI PASS 

Having stopped a Httle while to exam- 
ine the character of the Mageik mud- 
flow and to eat our lunch, we made our 
way forward across the bad lands toward 
the pass, following now the ridges of the 
mud-flow, now the bottom of the canyon, 
which rose in a gentle slope. 

As we ascended the valley past the 
highest peak of Trident, we came into 
view of the hollow between it and the 
next peak, from which I had thought 
several times I saw clear indications of 
rising steam. The sun was shining into 
it brightlv, so that I could see it all 
clearly. There was not the smallest puff 
of steam anywhere to be seen. We were 
up now to 2,500 feet and could see a long 



way through the pass, and there was no 
steam to be seen there either. 

So again I concluded, as 1 had the day 
before, that we had seen nothing more 
than the ordinary clouds which gather so 
easily around the summits of all high 
mountains. 

Church, jaded from the continual hard 
work, had given out and we left him be- 
hind with the packs, much against his 
wishes, several hundred feet below, while 
Folsom and I went forward a little far- 
ther to see what we could discover. ,We 
were both tired from our hard cHmb the 
day before, and traveling transversely 
across the gullied "bad lands" of the 
mud-flow, which was necessitated by the 
condition of the canyon below, was very 
laborious; so that I was ready to turn 
back satisfied with having seen through 
the pass and, as I believed, having laid 
another ghost. 

THE FIRST FUMAROLE 

But just as I was about to suggest 
turning back to Folsom I caught sight of 
a tiny puff of vapor in the floor of the 
pass. I rubbed my eyes and looked again. 
Yes, there it was, a miniature volcano 
sending up a little jet of steam right in 
the pass. When I saw this I decided that 
we must go on to investigate, because the 
very smallness of this steam jet made it 
of as much interest as a lar^e volcano. 

For one of the most striking features 
of the eruption of Katmai — one which 
was without parallel in other great erup- 
tions — was the absence of subordinate 
manifestations of vulcanism outside the 
main theater of action. I had been con- 
tinually surprised at the absence of para- 
sitic cones, fumaroles, mud craters, hot 
springs, and the like in so great an erup- 
tion. 

Earlier in the day we had found the 
stream from the hot springs near the 
pass, mapped by Spurr; but aside from 
that, this fumarole was the first thing of 
its sort to be observed. When we reached 
the pass we found its floor all shot 
through with cracks and small fissures, 
from which issued half a dozen good- 
sized jets of steam and perhaps a hun- 
dred small ones. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by L. G. Folsom 

WARMING MY HANDS AT ONE OF THE LITTLE FUMAROLES IN THE PASS 

The ground was encrusted with bright-colored sublimations from the escaping gases (see 

text below) 



With some trepidation we approached 
over the fissured surface and discovered 
that most of the steam issued from small 
openings a few inches in diameter, 
whence it came with considerable veloc- 
ity, givingf forth a low, roaring sound. 

We could come quite close and warmed 
our hands in the steam, which, though 
very hot as it emerged, soon cooled like 
the vapor from a tea-kettle. 

Coming off with the steam were vari- 
ous other substances, which gave rise to 
curious evil-smelling odors and precipi- 
tated a highly colored crust on the 
ground. Prominent among these was the 
**rottcn-egg" smell of hydrogen sulphide 
and of sulphur dioxide, while crystals of 
sulphur gave a yellow tinge to the parti- 
colored sublimations of the crust. 

I was anxious to return to Church, for 
we had already been gone much longer 
than we had expected when we left him. 
So, starting to return, I had reached a 
little eminence, for the fumaroles were 
just over the pass, when, turning around 
to urge Folsom to hasten, I saw far down 
the valley, over ,the top of some rising 
ground beyond us, a puff of steam. This 
had not been there when we came over 
the pass and was evidently considerably 
larger ihan the jets we had been examin- 



ing, and as the obstructing hill was not 
far away I decided, late as it was, to go 
forward and have a look. 

THE VALLEY OF THE TEN THOUSAND 
.SMOKES 

I can never forget my sensations at the 
sight which met my eyes as I surmounted 
the hillock and looked down the valley; 
for there, stretching as far as the eye 
could reach, till the valley turned behind 
a blue mountain in the distance, were 
hundreds — no, thousands — of little vol- 
canoes like those we had just examined. 
They were not so little, either: for at 
such a distance anything so small as the 
little fumaroles at which we had been 
warming our hands would not be no- 
ticed. 

Many of them were sending up col- 
umns of steam which rose a thousand 
feet before dissolving. After a careful 
estimate, we judged there must be a thou- 
sand whose columns would exceed 500 
feet (see page 62). 

It was as though all the steam-engipes 
in the world, assembled together, had 
popped their safety-valves at once and 
were letting off surplus steam in concert. 
Some were closely grouped in lines along 
a common fissure; others stood apart. 



64 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by R. F. Griggs 



THE TRIDENT FROM THE ISLAND CAMP 



The conspicuous column of steam rising behind Trident comes from the "Valley of the Ten 

Thousand Smokes" 



The biggest of all, whose steam had 
first caught my eye, stood well up on the 
mountain side, in a nest of fissures which 
looked like the crevasses of a glacier, and 
were big enough to be plainly visible, 
though more than five miles away. 

Fortunately a strong wind was blow- 
ing across the pass, carrying the fumes 
all down the valley and away from us, or 
we might not have dared to go on. In 
addition to the active fissures, there were 
thousands more that were quiescent at 
the time of our visit, but which had en- 
crusted the ground round about with col- 
ored deposits like the others. If all of 
these vents were to be counted, their 
numbers would undoubtedly reach into 
tens of thousands. 

CHARACTER OI? THE VENTS 

In some cases the orifice from which 
the steam issued was a large, deep hole; 
in others there was no opening at all, the 
steam simply escaping through the inter- 
stices of the soil particles. There was no 
relation between the size of the vent and 



its output. Some of the largest had no 
visible opening at all, while from some 
cavernous holes issued only faint breaths 
of steam. In many cases steam issued 
from the sides of the gullies cut by water 
from the melting snow on the mountain 
sides where it did not break through the 
more compact surface layer of mud. 

In some places the ground was warm 
beneath our feet, and had we not been 
solicitous for our shoe leather doubtless 
we could have found places as hot as we 
might have desired. 

Although there is every reason to sup- 
pose that the vigor of the action is vari- 
able, there was in most cases no evidence 
of explosive action, such as remnants of 
ejecta around the vent. Most of the 
steam jets came out of cracks in the level 
mud floor of the valley. But some, on 
the contrary, had built up small cones 
around themselves or formed a small- 
sized crater by hurling away the ground 
around the vent. 

I wish my vocabulary were adequate to 
describe the curious mixture of foul 



Digitized by 



Google 



L 

r 




Photograph by D. D. Church 

BIRCHES WITH TIIK DARK CUT OFF BY SAND BLAST 

But even such testimony can give one no idea of the terrible severity of the northwest 
gales. For forty-eight hours one of ihem bombarded our camp. Every moment we expected 
the tent to be torn to shreds. We could never have kept it in place had it not been for 
the floor, which we weighted down when the pegs pulled out. For two nights sleep was 
impossible, and during the day we could cook no food (see text, page 56). 



odors which they gave forth. ]\Iixed 
with the omnipresent sulphurous gases 
were others which had a strangely or- 
ganic smell, recalling at once burning 
wool, the musky smell of a fox den, and 
the odors of decay. 

We could not tell to what extent, if 
any, odorless asphyxiating gases, such as 
carbon dioxide, might be present in the 
complex. \Ve did not notice any ill- 
effects from the fumes, but we took good 
care to keep to windward most of the 
time. 

BRANCH VALLEYS ALSO FULL OF STEAM 
JETS 

Three or four miles down the valley, 
beyond the mountains next to the pass, 
we came to a place where lateral valleys 
come in from both sides at once. Here 
new wonders awaited us. The southern 
branch, leading off in the direction of 
Mount ]\Iartin, was full of fumaroles and 
looked like the main valley. We did not 



go far enough to see what might lie fur- 
ther up, because of the evident interest of 
the opposite branch which bore off to the 
northeast toward Mount Katmai, whose 
jagged crater walls appeared in full view 
in the distance. 

TWO MORE NEW VOLCANOES OF THE FIRST 
MAGNITUDE 

Up this valley was a prodigious column 
of steam. As we drew nearer we saw 
that the main body of this steam was 
rising from a central mass of rock, sur- 
rounded by a comparatively low ring of 
cinders, the whole extending across the 
valley and blocking further progress. 
This I interpret as a plug of lava being 
slowly pushed up through a vent w4iich 
was formerly rather violently explosive; 
so that instead of building a high cinder 
cone, most of the ejecta were scattered 
far and wide and only a small ring was 
formed around the vent. 

The surface of the cooling lava plug 



66 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES 



67 



was covered in most fantastic fashion 
with sharp irregular cinders, the result 
of the too sudden cooling of the molten 
magma, much in the same way that a 
piece of melted glass fragments if sud- 
denly plunged into cold water. 

Farther on up the valley, on the back 
side of the isthmus between Katmai and 
Trident, was another volcano, with a 
crescent-shaped summit, the side of the 
crater toward us being open. From this 
also a Considerable body of steam was 
rising, evidently furnishing part, at least, 
of the clouds which had excited our sus- 
picions from the other side of the range. 
Beyond this there may have been yet an- 
other volcano, but the rising column of 
steam from the lava near us obscured the 
view to such an extent that we could not 
see clearly. 

AN INTERPRETATION O^ THE VALI^EY OF 
THE TEN THOUSAND SMOKES 

Even the hurried observations we had 
been able to make were sufficient to bring 
out distinctly, in its larger outlines, the 
significance of the phenomenon. It was 
evident that the valley of the ten thousand 
smokes is underlain by a great fissure 
extending northwest from Katmai Pass 
along the line of the old trail toward 
Naknek Lake. This might be appropri- 
ately denominated the "Naknek Fissure." 
It is evident that the steam issuing from 
this fissure and seeping through the mass 
of accumulations from recent eruptions 
finds its vent in the myriad fumaroles in 
a similar fashion to the many small leaks 
one finds on the surface of an old bicycle 
tire when there is a single puncture of 
the inner layer of rubber. 

While the main line of this fissure ex- 
tends up to Mageik. the lateral fissures 
branch off toward Martin and Katmai. 
Katmai stands, therefore, like Krakatoa, 
at the junction of two lines of fissures : 
one, the Aleutian fissure, which finds its 
vent in the long line of volcanoes reach- 
ing down the Alaska Peninsula and out 
into the Aleutian Islands, has been long 
known as one of the greatest lines of 
volcanic activity on the globe ; the other, 
this newly discovered Naknek fissure, has 
never been previously recognized and 



perhaps did not exist before the great 
eruption of 191 2. 

That there were no signs of volcanic 
activity in this direction as recently as 
1898 is evident from Spurr's narrative 
of his journey across the Alaska Pen- 
insula from Naknek to Katmai, which is 
the only description of the country ever 
published. 

This remarkable valley, like the other 
volcanic activities of the district, there- 
fore, probably burst forth at the time of 
the great eruption. 

THE RETURN JOURNEY 

We had now seen as much as could be 
observed without extended exploration, 
so we turned our steps homeward and 
hurried to rejoin Church, who had shiv- 
ered for five hours, even with the extra 
clothes of all three of us. Once across 
the gullies, which were more than ever a 
terror to us, now that we were nearly 
exhausted, we made good speed back to 
camp, which we reached a little after 10 
o'clock. 

Here we found that the river, showing 
the effects of the warm weather on the 
snow-fields, was beginning to rise so rap- 
idly that we were afraid of being caught 
miserably on the wrong side. How we 
wished we could have returned and ex- 
plored the wonderful valley we had dis- 
covered ! But we were not equipped for 
such an undertaking and it was better to 
get back with what we had than to risk 
it all for the sake of more. So, hoping 
that we might be permitted to return and 
finish the job, we decided on a move, and 
before 5 the next morning we were up 
and breaking camp. The event proved 
that we had lost nothing, for. although 
the boat to take us back to Kodiak did 
not come for ten days, only once in that 
time did the clouds break away again. 

Looking back at the work after one 
has had time to forget the excitement 
and labor of the daily routine and take 
a calmer survey of results, the one thing 
which stands out is the great magfnitude 
of the eruDtion. Evident from the first 
reports, this has grown with increasing 
knowledge. No one, not even those of 
us who have lived in the desolation of 



Digitized by 



Google 



68 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



the thing, can form any adequate concep- 
tion of the stupendous catyclasm that 
occurred. 

This explosion is easily to be ranked 
among the first dozen known within his- 
toric times. Previously Krakatoa has 
held first place in the minds of most, but 
the quantity of material thrown out by 
Katmai was so much greater as to put it 
into an altogether different class. In- 
deed, the whole island of Krakatoa could 
be dropped into the crater of Katmai. 

We so inevitably estimate the magni- 
tude of natural phenomena by their effect 
on human affairs that an eruption like 
this in an uninhabited district seems un- 
important in comparison, for example, 
with that of Pelee, with its great loss of 
life. Yet there may have been in the 
present case tornadoes of hot gas greater 
than that which overwhelmed St. Pierre 
and killed 25,000 people ; but the destruc- 
tion by other agencies was so great as to 
leave little evidence of them if they oc- 
curred. 

IMAGINE KATMAI'S KRUPTION OCCURRING 
IN NEW YORK 

The magnitude of the eruption can 
perhaps be best realized if one could 
imagine a similar outburst centered in 



New York City. In such a catastrophe 
all of Greater New York would be buried 
under ten to fifteen feet of ash and sub- 
jected to unknown horrors from hot 
gases. The column of steam and ashes 
would be plainly visible beyond Albany, 
but the continued activity of the volcano 
would probably prevent any one from 
approaching for several months to view 
the ruins nearer than Patterson, N. J. 

Philadelphia would be covered by a 
foot of gray ash and would grope in 
total darkness for sixty hours. Wash- 
ington and Buffalo would receive a quar- 
ter of an inch, with a shorter period of 
darkness. Small quantities of ash would 
fall over all of the Eastern States as far 
as the gulf coast. 

The sDunds of the explosions would 
be heard as far as Atlanta and St. Louis. 
The fumes would be noticed as far as 
Denver, San Antonio, and Jamaica. 

Not even the most vivid imagination 
could picture the destruction of life and 
property which would result from such 
an eruption in a thickly populated coun- 
try. We may be profoundly grateful 
that we have had vouchsafed us such a 
wonderful opportunity to study the phe- 
nomena of volcanoes without any of the 
horrors usually attendant on their action. 



TN VIEW of the extraordinary conditions of 
the Katmai region, unparalleled anytvhere 
in the world, the Board of Managers of the 
National Geographic Society has made a further 
grant of $12,000 for explorations of Katmai 
during the summer of 1917, the expedition to he 
in charge of Prof. Robert F. Griggs, who was 
the leader of the Society ^s 1915 and 1916 ex- 
peditions. 



Digitized by 



Google 



A GAME 



COUNTRY WITHOUT RIVAL 
IN AMERICA 



The Proposed Mount McKinley National Park 
By Stephen R. Capps, of the U. S. Geological Survey 



IN THE spring of 1916 a bill was 
presented to Congress to establish in 
Alaska the Mount McKinley Na- 
tional Park. This bill was passed by the 
Senate during the summer, and its final 
enactment into law now requires favor- 
able action by the House and the Presi- 
dent. Before this article is published the 
necessary legislation may have been com- 
pleted and the dream of this new park 
have become a reality ; but in any event 
every one of us who loves outdoor life 
should realize what a wonderful coun- 
tr)^ — 3i country of impressive mountain 
scenery and big game — we have in that 
northern territory, and how seriously the 
wild life of that region is menaced. 



Two parties from the U. S. Geological 
Survey were detailed to a part of the 
proposed park in 191 6. We proceeded 
into interior Alaska by the usual route 
down Yukon River, and disembarked at 
the new town of Nenana, at which place 
construction on the new government rail- 
road is in progress.. 

The 55-mile trip over a little-used trail 
up Nenana River was eventful enough. 
We had only a badly damaged and leaky 
boat to cross that swollen and turbulent 
stream, and for the better part of a day 
the horses refused to swim the icy tor- 
rent. Then, too, in the forested lowlands 
the mosquitos surrounded us in clouds. 
We could protect ourselves with gloves 




Photograph by J. S. Sterling 
HAULING LOGS VIA THE "cANINE" ROUTE IN ALASKA 



69 



Digitized by 



Google 




Pi 
u 

> 
is 

o 

1/5 

■o 

o 



o 
< 

< 

< 
< 



Q 

W 

U 

w 
w 
w 

< 
t/i 

g 

u 

c/) 
c/; 

o 



o 




70 



Digitized by 



Google 



170* '«' liO" t+O* 




OUTLINE MAP O^ THE PROPOSED MOUNT MC KINLKY NATIONAL PARK, FROM SURVEYS 

BY THE U. S. GKOLOGICAL SURVEY 



and head nets, but the horses were con- 
stantly covered with the insects, so that 
all of them — white, bay, and black — took 
on the dirty gray color of the mosquitos 
themselves. 

We began our surveys at Nenana 
River, east of the park, and extended 
them westward over several thousand 
square miles. 

We had spent only a short time in the 
field when we discovered that the park 
had been laid out in a most admirable 
way. It is true that there is fairly abun- 
dant big game and much country of great 
scenic beauty outside the boundaries, but 
we entered a game paradise and a land 
of unrivaled scenery when we crossed the 
park line. Singularly enough, too, when 
we were once within the high mountains 
of the park we left behind us most of the 
mosquitos, and for a month were almost 
free from the exasperating attacks of 
these annoying pests. 

When, in the spring, we had first 
learned of the proposal to establish this 
park and had plotted its outline on the 
map, we wondered at its curious shape. 
Once we were on the ground, the reason 



for this shape became evident. The long 
dimension follows the general course of 
the Alaska Range from Mount Russell to 
Muldrow Glacier, the park including all 
the main range from its northwest face 
to and beyond the summit- East of 
Muldrow Glacier the range widens to- 
ward the north and consists of a number 
of parallel mountain ridges separated by 
broad, open basins. 

THE HIGHEST CLIMB ABOVE SNOW-LINE 
IN THE WORLD 

There, at the headwaters of Toklat and 
Teklanika rivers, sheep and caribou range 
in greatest abundance, and the northern 
part of the park includes the best of the 
game country. The reentrant angle in 
the park line north of Muldrow Glacier 
was so placed as to exclude the Kantishna 
mining district and the hunting ground 
from which the miners, obtain their sup- 
ply of meat. The total area of this great 
playground is about 2,200 square miles. 

In scenic grandeur the stupendous mass 
of which Mount McKinley is the culmi- 
nating peak has no rival. The snow-line 
here lies at about 7,000 feet, and above 



71 



Digitized by 



Google 



1^ ■■ 




that elevation only a few sharp crags and 
seemingly perpendicular clifls are free 
from the glistening white mantle. From 
the valley of IMcKinley Fork, which is at 
the north base of the mountain and lies 
at an elevation of only 1,500 feet, the 
bare rocks of the lower mountains extend 
upward for about 5,500 feet, and above 
them Mount McKinley rises in majestic 
whiteness to a height of 20,300 feet— the 
loftiest peak on the continent. 

The upper 13,000 feet of the mountain 
IS clad in glaciers and perpetual snows, 
thus offering to the mountaineer the high- 
est climb above snow-line in the world. 
The rise of 18,000 feet from the lower 
end of Peters Glacier, north of the moun- 
tain, to the highest peak is made in a dis- 
tance of only 13 miles. In no other 
mountain mass do we find so great a 
vertical ascent in so short a distance. 
The peaks of the Colorado Rockies, 
though wonderful, rise from a high pla- 
teau, so that at most points from which 
they can be seen they stand only 7,000 
or, at most, 8,000 feet above the observer. 
Mount St. Elias, an i8,ooo-foot moun- 
tain, may be seen from sea-level, but the 
peak stands 35 miles from the coast, and 
so loses in height to the eye by the dis- 
tance from which it must be viewed. 

Similarly the high volcanic peaks of 
Mexico and South America and the 
world's loftiest mountains in the Hima- 
layas rise from high plateaus, which di- 
minish by their own elevation the visible 
magnitude and towering height of their 
culminating peaks. 

THE artist's color BOX IS SURPASSED 

Southwest of Mount McKinley, 15 
miles away from it, stands Mount For- 
aker, only 3,300 feet lower and almost 
equally imposing. If it stood alone, 
Mount Foraker would be famous in its 
own right as a mighty peak, having few 
equals; but in the presence of its giant 
neighbor it is reduced to secondary rank. 

These two dominating peaks, standing 
side by side and known to the interior 
natives as Denali and Denali's Wife, far 
outrank the flanking mountains to the 
northeast and southwest, among which, 
however, there are a score of other peaks 
that rise to heights between 7,000 and 
14,000 feet, well above snow-line, and 
that are the gathering ground for many 
glaciers. 



72 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by S. R. Capps 
THE MASSES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS, NOW STANDING VERTICAL, GIVE A HINT OF 
THE TITAN FORCES THAT BUILT THE RANGE 



Of the glaciers that the tourist will 
visit in the park, the largest and most 
accessible is Muldrow Glacier. This ice- 
tongue, 39 miles long, flows from the 
summit of Mount McKinley and makes 
a great fish-hook curve to the northeast 
and north. 

Not the least impressive feature of this 
part of the Alaska Range is the tremen- 
dous scale upon which the foundations 
of the earth are exposed to view. Espe- 
cially in the valley heads, where vegeta- 
tion is sparse or lacking, the high moun- 
tain ridges, cut by deep valleys, offer im- 
pressive sections for the study of the 
earth's structure. 

Here great lava flows and volcanic in- 
trusions, in vivid shades of red, purple, 
brown, and green, will tax the color box 
of the artist. Masses of sedimentary 
rocks, first deposited as flat-lying beds, 
but now standing vertical or twisted into 
giant folds, give a hint of the Titan forces 
that build a mountain range. 

And near the eastern border of the 
park, at the Nenana coal field, the trav- 
eler can see how Nature, by her generous 
placing and preservation of coal within 
the rocks, makes possible the industrial 
prosperity of our nation by furnishing 
the fuel needed for its manufactures. 



OUR LAST CHANCE 

The Mount McKinley region now offers 
a last chance for the people of the United 
States to preserve, untouched by civiliza- 
tion, a great primeval park in its natural 
beauty. Historically this country is new. 
It was not until 1897 that W. A. Dickey, 
after having explored in the upper Su- 
sitna basin the previous summer, pub- 
lished a description of Mount McKinley. 
made his remarkably accurate estimate of 
20,000 feet as the height of the mountain, 
and gave it the name it now bears. In 
1898 the first actual survey in the neigh- 
borhood of the park was made near its 
east side by George H. Eldridge and Rob- 
ert Muldrow, of the United States Geo- 
logical Survey. In 1899 an army expedi- 
tion, in charge of Capt. Joseph S. Herron, 
explored a part of the area near the 
southwestern boundary of the park. 

In 1902 the first surveying party that 
actually reached the vicinity of Mount 
McKinley was conducted by Alfred H. 
Brooks and D. L. Raebum, of the Geo- 
logical Survey. This party entered the 
park at its southwest border and trav- 
ersed it from end to end, bringing out 
the first authentic information in regard 
to an unexplored area of many thousand 



n 



Digitized by 



Google 




74 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Fred Fenton 

COAL BEDS NEAR THE EASTERN END OF THE PARK 

"At the Nenana coal field the traveler can see how nature, by her generous placing and 
preservation of coal within the rocks, makes possible the industrial prosperity of our nation 
by furnishing the fuel needed for its manufactures" (see text, page yz)* 



square miles and determining the posi- 
tion, height, and best route of approach 
to the base of Mount McKinley. 

Inspired by the information furnished 
by the Brooks party, the first attempt to 
climb this great mountain was made in 
the summer of 1903 by James Wicker- 
sham, now delegate to Congress from 
Alaska and sponsor for the pending bill 
to create this great national park. Judge 
Wickersham's party succeeded in reach- 
ing an elevation of 10,000 feet, but a lack 
of proper equipment and sufficient pro- 
visions prevented them from climbing to 
the summit. 

The highest peak remained uncon- 
quered until 19 13, when, on March 17, 
Archdeacon Hudson Stuck, Harry Kar- 
stens, and two companions left the mouth 
of Nenana River, traveled by dog sled to 
the Kantishna district to pick up supplies 
landed there by boat in the fall of 19 12, 
and proceeded to the basin of Clearwater 
Folk, at the north base of Mount ^Ic- 



Kinley. After preparing their own pem- 
mican from wild meat obtained near 
camp, they began the actual ascent about 
the middle of April and reached the peak 
on June 7, 191 3. Thus the mountain 
summit was scaled seventeen years after 
its first adequate description was pub- 
lished. 

A BIG-GAME PARADISE 

As a game refuge the new park in- 
cludes an area that is unique on this con- 
tinent, and few regions in the world can 
vie with it. Many parts of Alaska are 
famous for big game, and hunters have 
come half around the world to that terri- 
tory to obtain trophies of their skill. It 
has been my good fortune to visit several 
of the choicest game ranges in Alaska, 
notably that east of Xenana River, adja- 
cent to the Mount McKinley district, and 
the much praised White River country. 
Both of these regions are well stocked 
with game, but for abundant sheep, cari- 
bou, and moose over wide areas neither 



75 



Digitized by 



Google 




76 



Digitized by 



Google 



A GAME COUNTRY WITHOUT RIVAL IN AMERICA 



77 



of them compares with the area within 
the limits of the new game preserve. 

The mountains at the head of Toklat 
and Teklanika rivers Hterally swarm with 
the magnificent white bighorn sheep, 
which are elsewhere extremely wary and 
difficult to approach, but which in sum- 
mer are here so little disturbed that they 
move off only when one comes to close 
range. A day's travel along one of these 
valleys will usually afford the casual trav- 
eler a view of many bands of sheep. 
The sheep range on the lower slopes of 
the mountains, especially in the upper 
reaches of the streams, near the glaciers 
at the valley heads, or even in the valley 
bottoms. 

I have counted over 300 in a single 
day's journey of 10 miles along the river 
bars, and doubtless as many more were 
unobserved in the tributary valleys be- 
yond my view. From a single point at 
my tent door one evening I counted nine 
bands of sheep, containing in all 171 ani- 
mals. 

The bighorn sheep prefers the slopes 
of high, rough mountains for its range, 
and may be found only in the mountains, 
within easy reach of rugged crags, to 
which it may retreat for safety from its 
enemies. Its range, therefore, lies be- 
tween timber-line and the level of per- 
petual snow. It is difficult to make an 
accurate estimate of the number of sheep 
within the new park, but in the part that 
we visited there are easily 5,000 sheep, 
their range extending westward through- 
out the mountainous portion of the park. 

THOUSANDS OF CARIBOU EVERYWHERE 

I remember well my first big day for 
caribou. The pack-train had gone ahead 
to pitch camp at a prearranged spot near 
the last spruce timber on the main Tok- 
lat, and I was examining the rocks a few 
miles east of the camping place. Herds 
of sheep were scattered along the ildges, 
some feeding on the tender grasses, some 
sleeping in the sun. I was far above 
timber-line and my view was unob- 
structed for miles in all directions. With 
my glass I had already counted half a 
dozen solitary caribou, all young bulls, 
grazing among the stunted willows of the 
stream flats. 



Soon my attention was attracted by a 
sight unusual in this district — z fright- 
ened caribou bull, which was running 
from the direction in which my pack- 
train had gone. Soon two yearlings came 
rushing from the same quarter; then a 
cow and a young calf in full flight, the 
cow with tongue out and sides heaving 
and the calf following closely, but in no 
apparent distress. Then more came, 
singly or in twos and threes. Soon a lone 
calf, lost from its mother, passed close to 
me, uttering plaintive grunts. As I ap- 
proached the main river valley from 
which the frightened animals came, I met 
the main herd, twenty-five or more, walk- 
ing slowly up a narrow gulch a hundred 
yards from me, and apparently unwor- 
ried by the presence of strangers on their 
range. 

During the next few days I saw more 
caribou than I dreamed existed in any 
one locality, including a herd of 200 
which was viewed at close range on the 
Toklat bars. In the pass between Toklat 
and Stony rivers the two pack-trains and 
eight men stood in the midst of a vast 
herd, scattered for miles in all directions. 

CARIBOU AVOID THE MOSQUITO PLAINS 

We counted with the naked eye over a 
thousand within half a mile of us, and 
hundreds of others could be seen too far 
away for accurate count. In order not to 
exaggerate, even to ourselves, we esti- 
mated the number in sight at one time as 
1,500, and I believe that this is an under- 
statement of the number actually there. 
Most of them were cows and calves or 
ytfarlings, but there were a few old bulls, 
conspicuous for their towering horns. 
During the following week we constantly 
saw herds of caribou, some of them num- 
bering hundreds. 

Most of these herds were on the bare 
gravel bars, where the strong winds af- 
ford some relief from the attacks by flies 
and mosquitos. Other herds were high 
on rugged mountain ridges, and several 
large droves were observed far tip on the 
glaciers, well toward snow-line, seeking a 
little respite from insect pests. 

In other parts of Alaska caribou at 
times appear in huge droves as they mi- 
grate from place to place, but they stay 



Digitized by 



Google 




SIX-FOOT YUKON 



For breaking a trail or crossing wide* crevasses they are the 
ideal type, but for climbing steep slopes or traveling where they 
have to be carried considerable distances they are too long and 
cumbersome. 

only a short time in any one locality. In 
the Toklat basin and in the vicinity of 
Muldrow Clacier, however, the caribou 
are at home, and they remain there 
throughout the summer to rear their 
young. 

DirFERKXCKS IN ANIMAL BICTIAVIOR 

There is abundant indication that this 
is a permanent range. Deeply worn trails 
form a veritable labyrinth along the 
stream flats, and bedding grounds, old 
and new, occur everywhere. The miners 



from the Kantishna 
report that caribou 
may always be seen 
in great numbers on 
this range. 

There is a striking 
difference between 
the actions of caribou 
and those of the big- 
horn sheep when sur- 
prised by man. A 
sheep, once aroused, 
knows exactly where 
he wants to go, and 
usually starts, with- 
out a moment's hesi- 
tation, on the shortest 
route to some rugged 
mountain mass. He 
may stop to look 
around and appraise 
the danger, but he is 
sure to follow the 
route he first chose. 

By contrast, the 
caribou appears a 
foolish animal; he 
seems at a loss to de- 
cide whether it is nec- 
essary to run away at 
all. Then, when con- 
vinced that danger 
threatens, he has diffi- 
culty in making up his 
mind which way to 
run. He has sharp 
eyes for any moving 
obiect, but evidently 
refuses to trust his 
sight until his nose 
confirms his sense of 
danger. 

I have many times 
seen a caribou, after 
he has discovered me 
at a distance of no more than lOO yards, 
stand and look, snort, lower his head half 
a dozen times, then run wildly off for a 
short* distance, turn back toward me, re- 
peat the same maneuvers, and make sev- 
eral false, zigzag sprints, all within easy 
gunshot, before he finally ran to leeward, 
got the man scent, and started off for 
good in great panic. In this region, with 
proper caution and a favoring wind, one 
can approach within 200 yards or less of 
a band of caribou, even in the open, be- 
fore they take alarm and move away. 



IMiotograpli frinn Dora Keen 
SNOW-SHOES 



78 



Digitized by 



Google 



MOOSE ARK WARY ANIMALS 

Moose are very plentiful in certain 
parts of the new park, but are not so 
commonly seen as sheep and caribou. As 
their food supply consists of willow and 
birch twigs and leaves and the succulent 
roots of water plants, they stay much of 
the time in timbered and brushy areas, 
where they are inconspicuous. By na- 
ture, too, the moose is a wary animal and 
permits much less familiarity than the 
caribou. 

The best moose country in this region 
lies in the lowlands north of the main 
Alaska Range, outside of the boundaries 
of the proposed park; but some moose 
were seen within the park lines, and 
doubtless more of them will take refuge 
in this game preserve when they are more 
vigorously hunted in the neighboring re- 
gions. It is said that there is an excellent 
moose range within the park, in the area 
southwest of that which we visited. 

There are some black, brown, and 
grizzly bears in this district, but the bear 
hunter has a much better chance of ob- 
taining a hide in other parts of Alaska 
than he has here. All told, only eight 
bears were seen by the members of the 
two survey parties during the last sum- 
mer, and bear sign was so little noted in 
this region that it cannot be considered 
an especially good bear country. 

The park contains good trapping 
grounds for the fur hunter, and a num- 
ber of trappers spend part of each winter 
there. Foxes are plentiful, and an un- 
usually large proportion of the pelts 
taken are of silver gray or black fox. 
One trapper told me that in Toklat basin 
the winter's catch for a number of years 
has yielded one silver gray fox skin for 
every eight foxes caught, and of the re- 
maining seven, several are likely to be 
good cross- fox. We saw a good many 
foxes and found two dens around which 
young ones were playing. Lynx are also 
plentiful, and numerous mink, marten, 
and ermine have been taken. 

MANY AND BUSY BEAVKRS 

Beaver were seen in the park, but are 
exceptionally abundant in the marshy 
lowlands north of it. On our trip down 
Bearpaw River, in the fall, while we were 
on our way to Tanana, we saw every- 
where along the banks signs of beaver. 





Cj^VMCC 




u^ f9/0 




5i^ 


OoJi.. Sti^Kf ^foc^C Ca^.boM. 


. 'Sket.p 




JMM.t¥ 


/ 










' zi 




3 


1 






n 






y 






XI 








7 




30 








5- 




'U 




'/ 




Z^ 




T^ 






s 


y 




to 
// 






r 


'k% 




/i. 


z. 




y 


XkV 




11 






z 


32 


I 


/r 






z. 




^ 


/i 






r 


7^9 


> ^ 


17 






4, 


to 


^ ^0 


/S 






yy 


Z.?7 


/f 






x.r 


yzr 


f. ^ 


Zc 






i9S 


/3L 




Hi 






Jiroo4 


/If 


Zl 






/yr 




\fl V 


Til 






3LS-/ 


s- 


l/J 


ty 






my 




ty S 


If 






fso 


7 


.0 5" 


u 






2. 




r t 


I? 






/ 




tf "*• 


^1 






/li 




.3€» 






Jo 






^9 




JL 


I 






// 






lo 






fl 






? 






/4 




1 


y 






n 






to 






ft 






i 




J 



A PAGE FROM THE AUTHOR S DIARY, SHOW- 
ING GAME SEEN IN AND NEAR THR 
PROPOSED PARK (SEE TEXT) 

Freshly cut cottonwood and willow trees 
lie along the shores, and the trails used 
by the beaver to bring sections of trees 
down the banks were seen at short in- 
tervals. 

Night after night we would hear the 
sharp splash of the swimming animals as 
they whacked their tails upon the surface 
of the stream. Beaver are protected by 
law until 1920, and under this protection 
have greatly increased in numbers. In 
the lowlands they have so much ob- 
structed all the smaller streams with their 
dams that foot travel overland is impos- 
sible until ice forms. 

In order to give the reader an idea of 
the abundance and variety of game to be 
seen by the traveler in the Mount McKin- 
ley Park, I am showing above a photo- 
graph of a page taken from my diary, in 
which I each day made record of the big- 
game animals I saw. In making my 



70 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by R. B. Murray 

A trapper's relief CABIN UP IN THE HILLS: ALASKA 

"Every one of us who loves out-of-door life should realize what a wonderful country — 
a country of impressive mountain scenery and big game — we have in the northern territory, 
and how seriously the wild life of that region is now menaced" (see text, page 69). 



count I wts perhaps overmoderate, for if 
in a trip up a valley I saw 90 sheep, and 
on my return by the same route I saw 
the same number, I added nothing to my 
count, presuming that the sheej) last seen 
were the same as those counted earlier in 
the day. Thus while traveling among 
herds of animals that were in constant 
movement from one feeding ground to 
another I may have failed to make record 
of many new herds that came into sight, 
because I was not sure they were new 
herds. The same practice was followed 
in counting caribou. 

GAMELESS DAYS ARE RARE 

An examination of that diary or rec- 
ord, which was made from day to day in 
the field, shows how wisely the i)ark lines 
were established so as to include the best 
game ranges. Until July 8 we were out- 
side the park, and although we were in a 
good game country, we saw compara- 
tively few animals on any one day, and 
on some days none. Our crossing of the 
park line was coincident with a remark- 



able increase in the number of animals 
seen, and afterward there was a steady 
succession of days in which game was 
sighted. 

The decrease in numbers on July 26, 
2y, and 28 was due not to a paucity of 
game in that part of the park, but to a 
violent rain-storm that kept us in camp. 
Even then we had only one gameless day, 
for our record was kept almost unbroken 
by caribou that passed close to our tents 
on two of the three bad days. 

I have tried to make plain the fact that 
the area within the proposed national 
park is a game country without rival in 
America. That is certainly true today, 
but unless this game refuge is immedi- 
ately reserved a few years may see these 
great herds destroyed beyond hope of re- 
establishment. Even today the encroach- 
ments of the market hunter are serious. 
True, there are game laws in Alaska, but 
they are by no means everywhere strictly 
enforced, and many sled-loads of wild 
meat are carried into the towns during 
the winter. The town of Fairbanks, 



80 



Digitized by 



Google 




IN A TRAPPERS CAMP.* ALASKA 

Part of a winter*s catch, consisting of 74 lynxes (hung in bunches), eight foxes (one 
silver, four cross, three red) ; also (hung in center) 54 rabbits, shot in 45 minutes by three 
rifles while driving through the willows on an island during the winter. 



about icx) miles away from the new park, 
and the largest settlement in the interior, 
is the destination of most of the wild 
meat killed on the north side of the 
Alaska Range. The mountains just south 
of Fairbanks and east of Nenana River 
offered a convenient field for the market 
hunter, and for years large numbers of 
mountain sheep were killed there for the 
Fairbanks market. 

THE pot-hunters' DESTRUCTIVE TOLL 

Within the last few years, however, the 
sheep herds in the nearer mountains have 
become so depleted that the hunter has 
been forced to go constantly farther from 
his market, and now finds the most satis- 
factory hunting ground within the limits 
of the proposed reserve. 

I talked with several men who take 
sheep meat to Fairbanks for sale, and one 
of them estimated that each winter for 
the last three years from 1,500 to 2,000 
sheep have been taken from the basin of 
Toklat and Teklanika rivers. Only a 
part of these reaches Fairbanks, for the 



sled dogs must be fed during the hunt 
and on the trail, and some himters leave 
behind all but the choicest hind quarters. 

It can be readily seen that slaughter on 
such a scale can last only a short time, 
until the game here, too, has been nearly 
exterminated. . The sheep, being of 
choicest flavor, are taken first, but the 
moose and caribou will not escape after 
the sheep become harder to get. 

The absence of a supply of wild meat 
in Fairbanks and other interior towns 
will work- no hardship on the residents, 
for there is already a well-estr.blished 
trade in refrigerated domesiic meat, and 
the dealers will readily supply all the 
fresh meat for which there is a demand, 
and at a cost little, if any, above that 
charged by the market hunters for game. 

A BIG-GAME paradise 1 5 MILES rKO^^ A 

railroad 

Such are the conditions today, even in 
a region so difficult of access. How nuich 
more rapidly will the game disappear 
when the railroad is completed to a i^oini 



81 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Thomas Riggs 

HEADED FOR THE ANNUAL CARIBOU HUNT 

Charley Blackfox and family off for the hills. The poles are tent poles, as the hunting will 
probably be well above timber-line. Note the packs on the dogs. 



within 15 miles of this game paradise! 
The establishment of a town at Nenana, 
where the railroad crosses Tanana River, 
has even now brought a market for game 
some 50 miles nearer the sheep hills of 
the Toklat. 

Already homesteads have been taken 
up along the railroad, and in a few years 
this untouched wilderness will hear the 
sound of the mower and the clatter of 
railroad trains. If the park is established 
now, the game can be saved and will re- 
main for other generations to enjoy. If 
action is postponed a few years, the mar- 
ket hunter and sportsman will have done 
their w^ork and the game will have gone 
forever. 

Most of the larger streams of the park, 
heading as they do in glaciers, are so 
muddy that fish will not live in them. All 
of the smaller tributary creeks that carry 
clear water, however, are stocked wnth 
grayling and furnish excellent fishing. 
The grayling, a relative of the trout, is a 
game fish, rises w^ell to the fly, and af- 
fords excellent sport. In texture and 



flavor it compares well with the trout and 
is a welcome addition to the menu of the 
camper. 

As will be seen from the photographs, 
the new park lies almost entirely above 
timber-line. Trees grow along the val- 
leys of the main streams to an elevation 
of about 3,000 feet above sea-level, but 
the timbered areas comprise only a small 
fraction of the whole. The only trees of 
importance are the spruce, birch, and 
Cottonwood, and none of these are large. 
The best patches of trees afford logs big 
enough for making log cabins, but there 
is no merchantable timber in the park. 
Willow brush and some alders grow 
somewhat farther up the valleys than the 
trees and enable the camper to find fiiel 
for his fire in some areas where trees are 
lacking. 

THE PARK IS EASILY ACCESSIBLE 

On the completion of the new govern- 
ment railroad, now under construction, 
the park will immediately become acces- 
sible. The railroad line runs within 15, 



82 



Digitized by 



Google 



miles of the east park line. On leaving 
Seattle one can then plan to reach Sew- 
ard or Anchorage within a week, spend a 
single day on the railroad to the park 
station, and in another day or two, by 
saddle-horse, penetrate well into the park 
and into the midst of its game herds. 

With a completed wagon road built 
from the railway, it should be an easy 
half day's journey of 80 miles by auto- 
mobile from the railroad to thfe center of 
the park, the whole route traversing' 
mountains of wonderful scenic beauty 
and teeming with big game. 

At the western terminus of the wagon 
road there will some day be a hotel for 
the accommodation of tourists and moun- 
tain climbers. There, below the terminus 
of Muldrow Glacier, in constant view of 
the mighty snow-clad monarclvs to the 
south, one will be able to find complete 
rest in the grandest of natural surround- 
ings, or will have close at hand tasks of 
mountain-climbing that will tax the re- 
sources of the sturdiest. Few regions 
offer the inducements to the mountaineer 
that can be found here. 

The highest point of Mount McKinley, 
the lord of the rangq, has been scaled but 
once, and only one route on that vast ice- 
dome has been explored. Mount Fora- 
ker, only less majestic than McKinley and 
17,000 feet in elevation, is still uncon- 
quered, and associated with Foraker and 
McKinley there are many peaks that rise 
from 4,000 to 8,000 feet above the line of 
perp>etiial snow (see pictures, page 70). 

All this great group of noble moun- 
tains, until now so remote as to be im- 
possible of attack except by elaborately 
prepared expeditions, will be easily ac- 
cessible to even the modestly equipped 
explorer. The main highway of travel 
through the park will pass within 20 or 
30 miles of the highest mountains. Thus 
that bugbear of the climber in so many 
regions — the task of getting within strik- 
ing distance of his chosen peak — is here 
a matter of no great difficulty. 

So much for the park itself — its mar- 
velous advantages as a national reserve, 
its unequaled scenic beauty, and its abun- 
dance of big game. I have tried to tell 
something of wh^t is there for the people 
of the United States, to be had merely 
for the taking- The question may be 
asked, "How necessary is it that this park 




Photograph by Curtis & Miller 
AN EDUCATED BEAR AT ST. MICHAEL 

should be I'eserved immediately, rather 
than at .some indefinite date in the future? 
Is there any danger that the park will not 
keep, even if not reserv^ed?" 

The answer is plain and admits of no 
argument. The scenery will keep indefi- 
nitely, but the game will not, and it must 
be protected soon or it will have been de- 
stroyed. 

WILL IT PAY? 

Considered as a purely business meas- 
ure, without taking account of the es- 
thetic value of such a permanent national 
reserve in its influence on the develop- 
ment of the American people, the Mount 
McKinley National Park will be a tre- 
mendous financial asset to the territory 
of Alaska and to the United States as a 
whole. 

Prodigal as nature has been in endow- 
ing us with unrivaled scenery, we have 
imtil recent years been blind to the money 
value of this resource. Other nations not 
so blessed with fertile soils, vast forests, 
and mines of almost fabulous value have 



83 



Digitized by 



Google 



84 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



widely advertised their natural beauties 
in a way to attract the tourist, so that for 
years American travelers have spent 
abroad millions of dollars that might have 
yielded them no less i)leasure if they had 
spent it in seeinef America first. The 
good roads, well-equi])ped hotels, and 
beautiful mountains of the SwivSs and 
Italian Alps attract the traveler like a 
magnet. Even our nearer neighbor on 
the north, by judicious advertising and 
careful attention to the comfort of the 
traveler, attracts great numbers of our 
people to her western mountains. 



If the United States wishes to share 
in the profits of the tourist business it 
may readily do so, for any well-chosen 
expenditure made in building good roads 
and hotels in our national parks will 
return large dividends not only in dol- 
lars and cents, but in the health, enjoy- 
ment, and education of our people. And 
the traveling public will soon learn that 
one of the grandest of our parks, one 
of those most worth visiting, is that 
which, let us hope, is soon to be es- 
tablished in the Mount McKinley re- 
gion. 



ONE HUNDRED BRITISH SEAPORTS 



WITH a deadline of i,6oo nau- 
tical miles to guard, measured 
from headland to headland, 20 
miles offshore ; with 1 19 ports, large and 
small, to seal up, 80 of which, even at low 
tide, are open to vessels that can navigate 
14 feet of water: with a larger number 
of bays and other navigable indentations 
to watch than are to be found anywhere 
else in the world in the same length of 
straightaway shorelines, Germany's plan 
to blockade the British Isles seems as 
near a proposal to accomplish the impos- 
sible as anything to which any nation 
hitherto has committed itself. 

Indeed, undertaking to combat at once 
the sinuosities of a shoreline lending it- 
self better to defense against blockade 
than any other of equal length in the 
world and the greatest navy civilization 
has ever seen, it is difficult to imagine 
how success could even be hoped for by 
those putting the i)lan into execution. 

Something of the extraordinary inden- 
tations of the shoreline of the United 
Kingdom may be gathered from the map 
on page 85. / 

England is so deeply indented that no 
part is more than 75 miles from the sea, 
while Scotland has the most rambling 
coastline of any country in the world. 

Ireland is not as deeply indented as 
England and Scotland : but with all that 
it has shores that make the way of the 
blockader difficult. 

The vast proportions of the British 



shipping industry which the German sub- 
marine blockade is attempting to destroy 
defies our comprehension. In normal 
years an average of 214 ships arrive at 
United Kingdom ports from foreign 
waters every day in the year. In addi- 
tion to that, there are 780 arrivals from 
home ports every day in the year of ships 
in the coastwise trade, 

British merchant ships have a greater 
aggregate tonnage than those of all the 
other countries of the world together. 
The merchant marine of that nation in- 
cludes nearly 12,000 ships of all kinds. 
( >f these, about 2,800 are sailing ships 
and 5,300 steam vessels employed in the 
home trade. There are api)roxiniately 
4,000 shii)s engaged in sailing between 
British and foreign ports. These latter 
have an average capacity of more than 
2,500 net register tons. 

How rapidly Great Britain has been 
replacing the losses sustained by her 
shipping as a result of C»ermany's sub- 
marine attacks is disclosed by the fact 
that at the end of 19 16 there were 463 
steam vessels under construction in Brit- 
ish shipyards, more than half of them 
being ships of more than 5,000 tons bur- 
den. The aggregate capacity of these 
shii)s is 1,788.000 tons, so that both in 
tonnage and in number the new craft are 
replacing those sunk by the enemy. 

Few countries in the world are so de- 
pendent on the importation of foodstuffs 
as the United Kingdom, and for her not 



Digitized by 



Google 




SKETCH MAP INDICATING THE MULTITUDE OF BRITISH HARBORS 

The United Kingdom and Ireland contain iig seaports, of which 80, even at low tide, 
are open to vessels drawing 14 feet of water. At average tide they will admit vessels 
requiring much greater depths. The seas surrounding the islands are very shallow, making 
it easy to anchor mines to destroy shipping and also to moor nets to trap submarines. If 
the waters of Dover Strait were to subside 100 feet, an isthmus would connect England and 
Holland. If the waters subsided 300 feet, Ireland and the whole of the British Islands 
would once more be connected to Continental Europe. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by A. .\V. Cutler 

A RURAL CONVERSATION IN THE HEART Or RUSTIC WORCESTERSHIRE 

This primitive old place, by the way, is the post-ofifice at Grafton Flyford. Snuff has never 

lost its devotees here. Note the sign. 



86 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Emil P. Albrecht 
TOO OU) TO GO TO THE FISHING GROUNDS, BUT STURDY STILI* AND FULI^Y COMPETENT 
TO MOOR NETS TO TRAP SUBMARINES 

To the seas which surround them, the British Islands are indebted for the mildness of 
their climate, their security from invasion, their commerce, and the wealth yielded by pro- 
ductive fisheries. 



to possess the strongest navy in the world 
would be to leave her of all nations per- 
haps the most vulnerable. Probably 90 
per cent of all the food her 45,000,000 
people consume is brought in by ships 
engaged in foreign trade. 

On the other hand, the splendid coal 
deposits and the abundant supplies of 
iron make British industries largely free 
from blockade dangers. Producing one- 
fourth of the world's coal, the United 
Kingdom has little to fear from a coal 
shortage, no matter what the character 
of a blockade around her. 

The port of London handles approxi- 
mately one-third of all the exports and 



imports of the United Kingdom. The 
ships of the whole world visit it in nor- 
mal times, and there is scarcely a mer- 
chant flag that civilization knows that is 
missing in the Thames in other than war 
times. 

Liverpool has some of the most modern 
docks in the world. Flanking the Mer- 
sey River for a distance of seven miles, 
the 60 docks, having 26 miles of quay 
and covering 428 acres of ground, are 
equipped with every aid known to indus- 
try for the rapid handling of the immense 
quantities of merchandise. 

Cardiff is far down the list in the num- 
ber of ships arriving, but ranks third in 



Digitized by 



Google 




88 



Digitized by 



Google 




o 





>. w 






^s 






1^ 






i 3 






c o 






VJZ 




Ui 






£ 


<^' 2^ 






C-^ 




£ 


<L» *^ 




tn 


T?**- 




0! 


S'^ 




w 


^0/ 






^i 




u 


.S^ 




« 


"^ 




o 


0^ 5 






t c 




w 


:e 




1-7 




H 


> o 




< 


^^ 




u 


E? 










^* 




^ 


•^ 0/ 




?5 


■•o« 






a 




w 


2 4^ 




b 


g-s 




o 




o 
< 


i| 




> 


2-- 
1-i 




Q 


C ■" 




J 


>^ '/) 




o 


'Tj ^ 




o 


^ S 




'/; 






?% 


"SS 




citi 


ro O 




■^ 










C 


X 


£ i^ 


^ 


^ 


•^ *- 


O 




wJL "* 










'^ 2 


u 




pi: ^ 


o 




'» ti 


til) 




•— 3 






II 


O 










w «r. 






O C 


^ 




'-^'rt 


3 




>» P 


c 




u c. 






u o 


cr 




> »- 


•"" 




!>,- 


sz 










>* c 






;= rt 


^ 




2-0 


^ 










Z'o 


o 




rt K 






u >» 


</l 




0, t 


o 




'' 


-o 




.^ 


3 



89 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by A. W. Cutler 

"fish cottages" : blockley, Worcestershire 

Here for 70 years Mrs. Keyte lived with her family. Close by is a trout pond. One of 
the fish became so tame that it would eat worms from its mistress' hand. The cottage is over 
300 years old (see next page). 



90 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by A. W, Cutler 
AN KXTRAORDINARY TOMBSTONE TO A TROUT 

Erected by Mrs. Keyte, of Fish Cottage, Blockley, Worcestershire. The stone recites the 
story of the trout. Few people would believe this of any tish but a trout. 



the total tonnage — this being due to the 
very heavy coal business from that port. 
Cowes has 24,000 ships a year; New- 
castle, 13,000: Portsmouth, 15,000, and 
Glasgow and Belfast 11,000 each. 

With the opening of the Clyde, Glas- 
gow has been brought into direct commu- 
nication with oversea lands. Dover, with 
its great Admiralty harbor; Chatham, 
with its vast Royal Dockyard, where 
7,000 workmen are employed even in nor- 
mal times ; Middlesborough, with its great 
shipbuilding industry; Manchester, with 
its splendid canal opening up an inland 
city to world trade; Belfast, with its fa- 
mous shipbuilders; Portsmouth and Ply- 
mouth, on the south coast, with their 
extensive port works ; Grimsby, Hull, and 
Aberdeen, with the largest fishing fleets 
in existence ; Newly n and Brixham, 
homes of the mackerel fisheries, and Mil- 
ford and Fleetwood, the ports the hake 
has made famous, are all places full of 



enterprise, which have been even more 
active since the war began than they ever 
were before a ^'submarine peril" was 
dreamed of. 

As has been said, the British Isles con- 
tain no less than 119 ports spvailable for 
commerce, and practically all of them 
have been developed for effective use. 

Even if the Germans have 500 sub- 
marines constructed for the purposes of 
this blockade, as is claimed, the total 
makes an average of only about four sub- 
marines available for blockading each 
port. 

Submarines, with even the largest ra- 
dius which any of these boats possess, are 
dependent upon a convenient base or upon 
the service rendered by a "mother ship." 
They generally can carry a most limited 
number of torpedoes, without which they 
are ineffective, and in addition they are 
severely handicapped by the very nature 
of their operations. 



91 



Digitized by 



Google 




A REMINDER OF VE GOODE OLD DAYS 



Photograph by A. W. Cutler 
STOCKS AND WHIPPING-POST 



Situated, as was the custom, opposite the church at Rock, Worcestershire. The supremely 
contented expression on the face of the gentleman on the right may be accounted for by the 
fact that he knew he would receive one shilling upon being released from the stocks. 




Photograph by A. W. Cutler 
THIS IS A CURIOUS ACCIDENT THAT OCCURRED RECENTLY ON THE LONDON ROAD 

These two young men were bringing this car into Worcester for repairs, when suddenly, 
without warning, the machine burst into flames. There were three two-gallon tins of gasoline 
in the automobile, and it did not take those two young men long to get out of the car. 
Buckets of water thrown on the burning mass proved unavailing. Traffic on either side was 
tied up for over an hour, expecting every moment that the petrol would explode. Strange 
to say. it didn't! The car, a Panhard, was totally destroyed— a loss of $1,500. 



92 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by A. VV. Cutler 
THE PICTURESQUE SUN-DIAL HOUSE I HOLM WOOD, SURREY 



The ordinary blockade is not subject to 
these limitations. A blockade established 
upon the surface of the ocean can main- 
tain a constant lookout over a wide ex- 
panse of the sea. By use of search- 
lights, it can be carried on at night as 
well as by day. Cruisers may be coaled 
at sea and provided with ammunition 
openly. The submarine may not. With- 
out a base or a hovering fleet of "mother 
ships," the submarine cannot do continu- 
ous duty on blockade or otherwise. 

If it is planned to operate the subma- 
rine blockade of the British Isles in re- 
lays, the number of ships on duty at a 
given port will be thereby halved, to the 
detriment of the blockade's effectiveness. 
Two submarines to a port could hardly 
maintain a blockade in the condition 
which the ordinary interpretation of in- 
ternational law has required to give it 
recognition among neutrals. 

British domination of the sea has not 
come about by chance. England's geo- 
graphic limitations have compelled her to 
keep the avenues of ocean traffic open 



through constant readiness to render na- 
val protection to her carrying trade ; and it 
is the result of her insular position that her 
activities have developed on sea and land. 

What Nature has always done for the 
children of the wild by rendering them 
adaptable, through habit and through 
equipment, to the environment in which 
they are placed, the English people have 
done for themselves. Cribbed, cabined, 
and confined upon a group of islands lim- 
ited in area and capable of inadequate 
productiveness, even with the most inten- 
sive of cultivation, they were forced, first, 
to command the avenues of supi)ly for 
themselves and, in order to meet the in- 
creasing expense of such necessity, sec- 
ond, to develop their manufacturing re- 
sources to the highest degree. 

To this they owe the great number of 
ports which they now possess and which, 
by their very numbers, render a blockade, 
however attempted, a herculean task. A 
clearer example of how nations are lim- 
ited or advanced by their geographic en- 
vironment could hardly be found. 



93 



Digitized by 



Google 



>.Vv •■: r-^^r-jk 



->.♦>■>,> ,.v 






',v ■- 



£^-*^J 



\ »• I 






. ' n 






'V-^-.W-. 






"^J?/"'!'.^ 



' fs?t 



/ / 






1 

w 



Photograph by A. \V. Cutler 

"WKI^COME HOME, GRAND-DAD": a glimpse 01? RURAI. LIFE AT ELMLEY CASTLE, 

WORCESTERSHIRE 

With sons at the front the path to the village post-office is a beaten track for this aged 
couple and tliousands Hke them. And, alas, only too often does the weary trip bring the 
news from "Somewhere in France" that death has been the soldier's crown! 



94 



Digitized by 



Google 



gl^ 



Vol. XXXI, No. 2 



WASHINGTON 



February, 1917 




THE 

NATQOMAL 

GEOGIRAIPIHIIIC 

AGAZM 




OUR FOREIGN-BORN CITIZENS 



A LTHOUGH the immigrants who 
/\ have flocked to our shores since 
i\ 1776 have mingled their blood 
with pre - Revolution strains until the 
American of unadulterated colonial an- 
cestry is the exception and not the rule ; 
although a great political party was 
formed and the presidential campaign of 
1856 was fought with the immigration 
question as practically the paramount 
issue; although the coming of the Irish 
and of the eastern European each in turn 
stirred the nation, there never has been a 
time when the subject of our foreign-born 
population occupied such a deep place in 
the minds of the people as it does today. 
Should we have departed from our 
time-honored custom of making America 
a homeland for whoever loves freedom 
for himself and craves liberty for his 
children, wTiether he be literate or illit- 
erate? Would our polyglot population 
be a menace in war time, or would it, as 
we have proudly thought in the past, be 
fused into one liberty-loving, flag-defend- 
ing race ? And when the war is over and 
the world escapes from the horrible night- 
mare of blood and carnage and hate, will 
the consequent burdens drive hordes of 
people to America, as did the potato fam- 
ine in Ireland, the social and political un- 
rest in Germany in the decade preceding 
our Civil War, and other economic hard- 
ships in continental countries? 

TII^ MOST FREQUENTLY VETOED MEASURE 
IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

Never in the history of the American 
people has a measure been passed by 



Congress as often and vetoed by the 
President as many times as the immigra- 
tion bill recently enacted into law. Three 
Presidents of the United States have felt 
so keenly that the founders of the gov- 
ernment and their successors were right 
in holding that the lack of opportunity to 
learn to read and write should not bar an 
alien from freedom's shores, that they 
have overridden the will of four Con- 
gresses and have interposed their veto 
between the congressional purpose and 
the unlettered immigrant's desire. 

But Congress was strong enough at last 
to override the presidential veto, and so 
the immigration doctrines of a century 
and a quarter are changed and the prac- 
tices of generations are to be made over. 
Hereafter no one above the age of i6 
who cannot read and write may enter. 

The effect of the literacy test applied 
to the immigration of the future may be 
shown by a few figures. More than one- 
fourth of all the immigrants admitted to 
the United States in the past two dec- 
ades who were over 14 could neither 
read nor write. Out of 8,398,000 ad- 
mitted in the ten years ending with 1910, 
2,238,000 were illiterate. And yet so rap- 
idly does illiteracy melt away that, add- 
ing to this number all the illiterates here 
before these came, there were only 
1,600,000 illiterate foreigners in the 
United States when the census of 1910 
was taken. 

Under a literacy test we will turn back 
one-fourth of the Armenians, two-fifths 
of the Serbians, Bulgarians, and Monte- 



Digitized by 



Google 










Z 7 









96 



Digitized by 



Google 




SCOTCH CHILDREN 



Photograph from Frederic C. Howe 



Taunted with the fact that in England oats were fed to horses and in Scotland to men, 
a famous Scot replied that England was famous for its horses and Scotland for its men. 
America knows how much it is indebted to Scotland and the Scotch-Irish. Nearly half of 
our Presidents have been either Scotch or Scotch-Irish. 



negrins, more than a fourth of the Jews 
and Greeks, more than half of the South 
Italians, more than a third of the Poles 
and Russians, and a fourth of the Slo- 
vaks. 

Who can estimate our debt to immigra- 
tion? Thirty-three million people have 



made the long voyage from alien shores 
to our own since it was proclaimed that 
all men are born free and equal, and lib- 
erty's eternal fire was kindled first on 
American soil! It is as if half the Ger- 
man Empire should embark for America, 
or all of England except the county of 



97 



Digitized by 



Google 






B 




B 




i/t 




(/I 




c^ 


a 


Of 


z, 


o 


D 




§ 


i 


O 


V 


ui 


^ 




c 




4> 


n 


•o 


w 


Ul 



a "s 



> i 





C9 


^ 


JS 


o 


•s 


>• 


•*-• 




p 


^ 


J3 


•aJ 


to 


2 


c 












•— • 


a 
Z 




< 


> 


m4 


Ui 


'J5 










(A 


yj 


V 


3 


6 




1 




o 


< 


U 




«4-l 


H 


o 


2: 


•2 


< 


t 


X 


u. 


o 


§• 


:^ 


c3 




3 








"C 


z; 


o 


< 


4> 


*'3 


JZ 


r- 


*J 


fcj 


•o 


O 


^ 


ui 




> 


"eS 




o 




4> 


0< 




aq 




S 


'e 


^S 


•T3 

c 


< 


JH 








*«> 


D 


_M 


citi 


S 



U) 



o 



93 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Frederic C. IIowc 
FOUR LITTLE DUTCH KIDDIES JUST ARRIVED 

Generations of careful living such as is always necessary in a country of narrow bound- 
aries and expanding population has developed in the Dutch a frugality and a contentment 
with simple pleasures that cannot be excelled. 



Kent. It is as if all of the population of 
all of the States of the United States west 
of the Mississippi, plus that of Alabama, 
should have come bodily to America. 

History records no similar movement 
of population which in rapidity or vol- 
ume can equal this. Compared to it, the 
hordes that invaded Europe from Asia, 



great and enormous as they were, were 
insignificant. 

Of the 33,000,000 who have come 
more than 14,000,000 still live among us, 
and their children and children's children 
are now in good truth bone of our bone 
and blood of our blood. 

Not long ago America crossed the hun- 



99 



Digitized by 



Google j 



r 



I 





100 



Digitized by 



Google 



dred-niillion line in the number of its 
citizens, and it is interesting^ to note the 
composition of that population. 

To begin with, there are 11,000,000 col- 
ored p>eople, including^ negroes, Indians, 
Chinese, etc. Then there are 14,500,000 
people of foreign birth among us. In ad- 
dition to these, there are 14,000,000 chil- 
dren of foreign-bom fathers and mothers 
and 6,500,000 children of foreign-born 
fathers and native mothers, or vice versa. 
WTien all of these have been deducted 
from the 100,000,000, only 54,000,000 
remain of full white native ancestry. 

XOTABLIv PEOPLK OF FOREIGN STOCK 

Yet the 35,000,000 American people 
who are of foreign stock — that is, foreign 
born or the children of a foreign-born 
parent — include some of the most illus- 
trious citizens of our Republic. Even 
the President of the United States him- 
self has only one ancestor who was born 
in America, and the list is long and nota- 
ble of statesmen, captains of industry, 
leaders of finance, inventors, makers of 
literature and progress, who have strains 
of blood not more than one generation 
on this side of the sea. 

An examination of the statistics of 
American immigration shows that since 
the foundation of our government the 
United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland have contributed 8,400,000 of her 
people and Germany more than six mil- 
lion. Ireland, with more than four mil- 
lion ; Great Britain, with a little less than 
four million, and Scandinavia, with some- 
thing less than two million, have, to- 
gether with Germany, contributed more 
than half of the total immigration to our 
shores since the beginning of the Revo- 
lutionary War. 

When we take the German immigra- 
tion of the United States between 1776 
and 1890 and compare it with that from 
other countries, a somewhat startling re- 
sult, and one usually unsuspected, is dis- 
closed. The total arrivals of aliens in 
those 114 years aggregated 15,689,000, of 
whom more than 6,000,000 were British 
and Irish and 5,125,000 were Germans, 
which shows that one alien out of every 
three arriving in America during more 
than a century of our existence was a 
German. Only the United Kingdom 
shows a greater proportion. 




Photograph from Frederic C. Howe 
TYPICAL HEAD-DRESS OF ITALIAN WOMEN 

Since 1890 the trend has been very dif- 
ferent. With more than 17,000,000 im- 
migrant arrivals since that date, only 
1,023,000 have been Germans. If from 
this number a proper deduction is made 
for those who returned to their homeland 
and those who have died since their ar- 
rival, it will be seen that there are fewer 
than a million former subjects of the 
Kaiser in this country who have not been 
here more than twenty-six years. Of 
more than 8,000,000 people of German 
birth and immediate ancestry among us, 
less than 1,000,000 fail to have the £ick- 
ground of birth or long residence in 
America behind them. 

Ireland's gii-t to America 

It is interesting to note the other for- 
eign elements that have entered into the 
make-uj) of American population since 
1776. What a wealth of blood that won- 
derful little island, Ireland, has given us ! 
More Irish people have crossed the seas 
to become part of us than have remained 



101 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photographs trom Frederic C Howe 
A RUSSIAN VEGETARIAN A BAVARIAN PEASANT 



behind. It is remarkable that so small an 
island — smaller, indeed, than the State 
of ]\laine — could in a century and a half 
send us enough people to duplicate the 
present population of eleven of our States 
having an aggregate area as large as the 
United Kingdom, France, Germany, and 
Austria-Hungary together. 

Austria-Hungary stands next on the 
list of contributors to the immigrant 
stream that has flowed from Europe to 
America. Although Austro-Hungarians 
began to immigrate in considerable num- 
bers only when the arrivals from western 



Europe had begun to fall of?, sufficient 
have come from the dual monarchy to 
populate the State of Texas to its present 
density. Italy has sent us enough of her 
people to duplicate the population of 
Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, Oregon, Ne- 
vada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New 
Mexico, while England's and Scotland'^ 
contribution, 3,889,000 in all, together 
with Ireland's 4,500,000, gives a total of 
8,389,000, or plenty to populate all of the 
States lying w'est of Texas and the Da- 
kotas. The Russians who have come to 
our shores number 3,419,000. They could 



102 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Frederic C. Howe 

CHILDREN FROM THE BALKAN STATES 

"Such pretty dollies as they do have in America! 'Course I'll have my picture taken if you 

let me hold that sweet little dollie!'* 



replace one-half of the population of 
New England. 

Although the people of foreign birth 
constitute only one-seventh of the coun- 
try's population, they . contribute nearly 
one-fourth (22 per cent) of the arm- 
bearing strength of the nation. At the 
last census many of the States had a 
greater number of foreign-born men of 
arm-bearing age than they had of native- 
ancestry citizens, among them Massachu- 



setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New 
York, New Jersey, Wisconsin, Minne- 
sota, and North Dakota. Taking the 
States where those of foreign birth and 
their sons together constitute a major 
portion of the men between the ages of 
18 and 44, it will be found that the list 
includes the above States and the fol- 
lowing: New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, 
Michigan, South Dakota, Nebraska, Mon- 
tana, Idaho, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, 



103 



Digitized by 



Google 





T04 



Digitized by 



Google 



Washington, and California — in all 20 
States. We have considerably over 20,- 
000,000 men of military age in the United 
States. 

THE immigrant's PREFERENCIv FOR CITY 
LIFE 

Another striking fact of our immigra- 
tion situation is the unusual preference 
of the foreign born and their children for 
the cities. Of the 35,000,000 foreign- 
stock whites living in the United States, 
approximately 23,000,000 live in the 
cities. In only 14 of the 50 leading cities 
of the country do the whites of full na- 
tive parentage constitute as much as half 
of the total population. Only one-fifth 
of the population of New York and Chi- 
cago is of native white ancestry. Less 
than a third of the populations of Bos- 
ton, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Detroit, Buf- 
falo, San Francisco, Milwaukee, New- 
ark, Minneapolis, Jersey City, Provi- 
dence, St. Paul, Worcester, Scranton, 
Paterson, Fall River, Lowell, Cambridge, 
and Bridgeport are of native ancestry. 

Conditions have played some curious 
pranks in the distribution of the immi- 
grant population in the United States. 
More than two-thirds of the Germans 
live between the Hudson and the Missis- 
sippi and north of the Ohio. The same 
is true of the Austrians, the Belgians, the 
Hungarians, the Italians, the Dutch, the 
Russians, and the Welsh. 

New York, Pennsylvania, and New 
Jersey have 47 per cent of the Austrians, 
34 per cent of the English, 30 per cent of 
the Germans, 54 per cent of the Hun- 
garians, 45 per cent of the Irish, 58 per 
cent of the Italians, 56 per cent of the 
Russians, 34 per cent of the Dutch, and 
46 per cent of the Welsh in the United 
States. 

XINETEEN-TWENTIETIIS OF OUR FOREIGN 
BORN CAME FROM COUNTRIES AT WAR 

An examination of the data at hand 
shows that nearly nineteen-twentieths of 
our foreign-born population come from 
the countries in Europe now at war. 
With such a surprising number of people 
among us who first beheld the light of 
day under flags now flying over Europe's 
battlefields, does it not speak well for our 
country's adopted children that there 
have been no more evidences of hyphen- 




Photograph from Frederic C. Howe 
IN MATTERS OF COSTUME AMERICANIZA- 
TION OFTEN PROCEEDS Ahh BUT 
TOO RAPIDITY 

ism than the past thirty months have dis- 
closed ? 

The war in Europe has largely closed 
the gates of that continent to the emi- 
grant. But three short years ago Ellis 
Island, the greatest immigrant gateway 
in the world, was one of the busiest 
places on the face of the earth. The 
wheels of the great machine that carried 
the incoming alien through the doors of 
America turned fast and long. Morning, 
noon, and night, the men who manned 



105 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photographs from Frederic C. Howe 
A TURKISH BANK GUARD EVEN ALGERIA SENDS ITS QUOTA TO 

AMERICA 



this wonderful mechanism labored as sel- 
dom men have to work in order to keep 
the machine moving fast enough to take 
care of the vast flood of humanity pre- 
senting itself there for inspection and 
adoption. 

Now all is different. Military neces- 
sity must be served, and hundreds of 
thousands, perhaps millions, of those who 
would have come to man our ever-ex- 
panding industries are now on the battle- 
fields of Europe, some still surviving the 
awful avalanche of fire and steel, and 



others, alas, asleep in those last trenches 
where the unending truce of death has 
stilled the enmities of life! And so Ellis 
Island is a somewhat lonesome place to- 
day. The twelve hundred thousand who 
came in 1914 are followed by the three 
hundred thousand of 1916. 

THE war's REI.ATION TO IMMIGRATION 

But what of the morrow of American 
immigration? Will the war, whose mili- 
tary necessities all but stopped the immi- 
grant tide from Europe, be followed by a 



106 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by A. F. Sherman 
IMMIGRANTS IN RAILWAY WAITING-ROOM : ELLIS ISLAND 

Having passed muster with the doctor and the inspector at the nation's gate, it has 
swung open to these new arrivals, and now they are in free America, ready to journey 
unhindered to their respective destinations. 



peace whose economic opportunities will 
have the same effect? 

One searches the pages of history in 
vain for a satisfactory answer. The his- 
tory of past wars throws no certain light 
upon it. After our own Civil War, the 
South, burdened with debts, wanted a 
million things. But empty pocketbooks 
and poor credit form a combination that 
,has little buying power. And so the 
South, unable to solve its economic diffi- 
culties at once, had to sit by and see thou- 
sands of its people go into the North and 
^West to start over again. The end of 
the Russo-Japanese \Var brought great 
hordes of Russians to our shores, eco- 
nomic necessity impelling them to leave 
their homelands. 

The Franco - Prussian War, on the 
other hand, sent only a normal number 
of French people to America as one of 
its aftermaths, and all the people who left 
Europe following the Napoleonic wars 
were fewer in number than those coming 



here in a single three-months' period of 
our normal immigration history. 

There are those who say that the rea- 
son the South could not rebuild after the 
Civil War was because it did not get the 
support of the Federal Government — a 
support which the governments of Eu- 
rope w^ill give their people. They point 
out that none of the warring nations, 
however much they may owe, have bor- 
rowed as near to the margin of their 
credit as many Latin- American countries, 
and that people who would not buy their 
war bonds will take their peace obliga- 
tions readily. They point to the experi- 
ence of Baltimore and San Francisco to 
show how new prosperity and fresh re- 
sources can arise out of the ashes of 
calamity. 

SIX PANAMA CANALS A VICAR INTERKST 
CIIARC.E 

But the difference between an isolated 
city and practically a whole continent is 
too great for such an analogy to be sig- 



107 



Digitized by 



Google 



THOUSANDS 
92S 




KANSAS 

MAINE 

KCNTUCKV 

TEXAS 

04ST. or COCUMBIA 



THIS ILLUSTRATION SHOWS 
IRELAND, 



Courtesy of U. S. Census Bureau 
WHERE OUR IMMIGRANTS FROM GERMANY, SCANDINAVIA, 
AND AUSTRIA-HUNGARY HAVE SETTLED 



I08 



Digitized by 



Google 



RUSSIA AND FINLAND 

THOUSANOS 



NEW VOftK 
PENNSYLVANIA 
ILUNOI8 
MASSACHUaETTS 




WCeT VIRQINIA 



ENGLAND. SCOTLAND, AND WALES 



THOUSANDS 
TS ISO 



CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 

THOUSANDS 



MASsACHUsrrrs 

MICNIGAN 
NEW VOUK 



nxmois 

CAUFORNIA 
RHODE ISLAND 
iflNNESOTA 
WASHINOTON 
CONNECTICUT 



OHIO 

NORTH DAKOTA 

PENNSYLVANIA 



OREGON 

IOWA 



NEW JERSEY 
MISSOURI 



KANSAS 

SOUTH DAKOTA 
INDIANA 
IDAHO 



0^^^ 


^^: 


g 


1 


^^^ 


8SS 


soo 

n 




= 




P 




■^■■19 


1 

10 










■_ 


< -JISOO 










■ 
1 

L, 
























■^ 






^^ ' 








■If 




■■^ 






19 




9 




T 




Ed 




5 




f 




5 




h 




5 




5 




S 




P 















NEW YORK 
PENNSYLVANIA- 
MASSACHUSETTS 
tLUNOIS 
NEW JERSEY 
CAUFQRNIA 
OHIO 
MICHIQAN 
RHODE ISLAND 
•CONNECTICUT 
WASHINGTON 
IOWA 
UTAH 

WISCONSIN 
COLORADO 
MISSOURI 
MINNESOTA 
KANSAS 
INDIANA 

MONTANA 
\ 
OREGON 

NEBRASKA 

TEXAS 

MAINE 

MARYLAND 

IDAHO 

NEW HAMPSHIRE 

VERMONT 

SOUTH DAKOTA 

WEST VIRQINIA 

WVOMINO 

VIRGINIA 



5 
f 

H 



n 



Courtesy of U. S. Census Bureau 
THIS ILLUSTRATION SHOWS WHERU OUR IMMIGRANTS FROM RUSSIA, ITALY, CANADA, 
AND GRKAT BRITAIN HAV^ SETTLED 



109 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Frederic C. Howe 
A LAPI.AND WOMAN 

nificant. Furthermore, no State, no na- 
tion, no continent has ever before stag- 
gered under such an overwhelming debt. 
If the war were to end now, its financial 
obligations alone, to say nothing of the 
devastation, would reach a total of 
$60,000,000,000. Think of a continent, 
with much of the flower of its brains 
and brawn either dead or maimed, and 
vast areas of its productive territory 
in ruins, facing a debt whose interest 
charges alone annually will equal the cost 
of six Panama canals! And that conti- 
nent one which, before the war, sent us 
a million of its people every year because 
living was hard at home ! 

Whoever has stood at the gate at Ellis 
Island and watched the human tide surge 
through, and whoever has traveled among 
the peasants of Europe must realize how 
narrow before the war was the margin 
between their total income and their nec- 
essary outgo. Against these things must 
be matched the efficiency that the war 
has forced upon the people and the na- 
tions and the spirit of self-sacrifice it has 
engendered. 

America has always been a polyglot 
nation, although all tongues do finally 
melt into hers. It is said that twenty 



years after Hudson discovered Manhat- 
tan fourteen languages were spoken in 
New Amsterdam. The religious wars in 
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries 
sent thousands and tens of thousands of 
French Huguenots, German Protestants, 
and English Puritans to our shores. One 
American-built vessel is said to have 
made 116 round trips between New York 
and Liverpool in nineteen years, during 
which time it brought 30,000 immigrants 
to America. 

A MAN VALUE;D AT FIFTY DOLLARS 

The first colonial charter granted by 
England for the purposes of new settle- 
ment was conditioned on homage and 
rent. This was the Virginia charter for 
the land extending from Cape Fear to 
Halifax, the rent of which was to be one- 
fifth of the net produce of gold, silver, 
and copper. The land aristocracy was 
promoted by the provision that a planter 
might add fifty additional acres of land 
for every person he would transport into 
V^irginia at his own cost. When the Pil- 
grims were outfitting, each immigrant 
was rated at a capital of ten pounds. No 
divisions of profits was to be made for 
seven years. 

In the early days the people who came 
were largely of the sturdy pioneer type. 
A great many of them could neither read 
nor write, while most of those who could 
were able to do so only in a limited way. 
The transpositions in many names in 
America came from the carelessness or 
inability of public officials in spelling 
men's names straight in deeds, wills, and 
other documents. 

GOVERNOR BERKELEY OPPOSED THE 
PRINTING PRESS 

In 1718 three hundred and nineteen 
Scotch-Irish empowered their agent to 
negotiate terms with the Governor of 
^lassachusetts for their settlement in that 
colony. Ninety-six per cent of the whole 
number wrote their names out in full. It 
has been said that at that time in no other 
part of the British Empire could such 
a proportion of men miscellaneously se- 
lected have written their names. Twenty- 
six per cent of the German male immi- 
grants above sixteen years of age who 
came to America in the first half of the 
eighteenth century made their marks. 



Digitized by 



Google 



OUR FOREIGN-BORN CITIZENS 



111 



Diflferent communities took different 
views as to education in those early 
times. In Connecticut every town that 
did not keep school for at least three 
months in the year was liable to be fined. 
In Virginia, Governor Berkeley thanked 
God that there were no free schools, nor 
printing presses, and expressed the hope 
that they would not arrive during his 
century, since he believed that learning 
brought disobedience, heresy, and sects 
into the world, and printing developed 
them. At one time in Virginia, out of 
12,455 male adults who signed deeds and 
depositions, 40 per cent made their 
marks. 

Immigration to the United States was 
not large in the early history of the coun- 
try. Europe did not look upon the young 
republic with any favor, and the people 
of that continent did not regard America 
as offering attraction for the ambitious 
home-seeker. Between 1776 and 1820, 
a period of 44. years, less than 250,000 
immigrants are believed to have arrived 
in the United States — an average of 
fewer than 6,000 a year. 

The students of immigration differenti- 
ate between the immigrants from north- 
western Europe and those from southern 
and eastern Europe by calling them "old" 
and "new" respectively. The "old" im- 
migrant arrived with his family and came 
with a desire to make America their 
home. Only sixteen out of every hun- 
dred of the "old" immigrants returned to 
Europe, and more than two-fifths of 
those who came were females. On the 
other hand, thirty-eight out of every hun- 
rlred of the "new" immigrants return to 
their native lands, while only one- fourth 
of those who come are females. It will 
be seen from this that proportionately 
more than twice as many of the "new" 
immigrants return to Europe as of the 
**old," while the number of women 
among the "new" is vastly smaller. 

labor's debt to immigratiox 

Northwestern Europe has given us 
17,000,000 immigrants, where southern 
and eastern Europe have seiit us 15,000,- 
000. 

The labor supply which immigrants 
have brought to the nation constitutes an 



incalculable debt. Seven out of every 
ten of those who work in our iron and 
steel industries are drawn from this 
class ; seven out of ten of our bituminous 
coal miners belong to it. Three out of 
four of those who work in packing towns 
were born abroad, or are children of 
those who were born abroad ; four out of 
five of those who make our silk goods, 
seven out of eight of those employed in 
our woolen mills, nine out of ten of those 
who refine our petroleum, and nineteen 
out of twenty of those who manufacture 
our sugar are immigrants or children of 
immigrants. 

The story of Calumet, in the northern 
part of Michigan, shows how much of a 
monopoly the immigrant has in the min- 
ing industry in America. It is a city of 
45,000, who live and work in the copper 
mines under Lake Superior. Twenty dif- 
ferent races share in its population, and 
not even Babel heard more tongues. 
Sixteen nationalities are represented on 
its school-teaching force. In New York 
the foreigners colonize, as on the East 
Side ; in Calumet it is the native popula- 
tion that colonizes, the American colony 
there being known as Houghton. 

Americans sometimes are inclined to 
complain about the lowering of wage 
standards through the advent of the 
"new" immigrant. Where once the na- 
tive citizen and' the home-builder from 
northwestern Europe had to engage in 
ditch digging and in dirty and dangerous 
occupations, the coming of the "new" 
stream of humanity has released them 
from such task and has permitted them 
to take higher positions in the industrial 
world. The Irish, German, Welsh, and 
Scandinavian within our ^tes, along 
with the native American working-man, 
are now able to give their time almost 
wholly to work in the field of skilled 
labor, and as overseer for the "new" im- 
migrant in the industrial centers. The 
latter has been the ladder on which his 
predecessor has climbed. 

MOVING INTO BETTER QUARTERS 

Go to New York or any other principal 
city, and you will find that the quarters 
that were once occupied by the Germans, 
the Irish, the English, and the Scandina- 



Digitized by 



Google 




Digitized by ^ 




Photograph from Frederic C. Howe 

MONTENEGRINS IN THEIR NATIVE COSTUMES 

Mountaineers by birth and environment, the people of Montenegro are a tall, upstanding, 
sinewy race. Physical perfection must be inherited, but education may be acquired, and the 
Montenegrin bequeaths the one and a desire for the other to his American-born posterity. 



vians are now occupied by the Italians, 
the Slavs, and the immigrant Jew. Their 
coming has permitted the foreign born 
who came in earlier decades to command 
better positions and to live under better 
conditions than they otherwise could have 
done. 

From whatever country the immigrant 
comes, he is, as a rule, above the average 
of the working classes in his community ; 
for money is scarce in southern and east- 
ern Europe, and the peasant who can ac- 
cumulate enough to bring him to the 
United States must have some purpose in 



life, a fair share of ambition, and no little 
ability to practice self-denial. The great 
majority have come from the small vil- 
lages in the rural districts. 

That the alien's children are less illit- 
erate than he is; that they commit less 
crime than he does, and have less ten- 
dency to insanity than he is shown by the 
statistics gathered by the United States 
Bureau of the Census and by the Immi- 
gration Commission of 191 1. 

Furthermore, these statistics prove that 
his grandchildren are about as free from 
illiteracy as the American child of na- 



113 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Frederic C. Howe 

CHILDREN 01^ ALL NATIONS ON ELLIS ISLAND ROOF GARDEN 

Many of the poor little boys and girls who arrive at Ellis Island do not know how 
American kiddies play, but the roof-garden romps one may see every fair day show that 
they are apt at learning. 



live lineage, and even less disposed to in- 
sanity than the child whose ancestry may 
be traced to colonial times. In everything 
that goes to show good citizenship the 
grandchild of the immigrant stands the 
statistical test as well as the child of na- 
tive parentage. How many immigrants 
we shall receive in the future no one can 
say. But, assuming that we have no im- 
migration, and that the United States will 
grow as fast during the three centuries 



ahead of us as Europe grew from 1812 
to 191 2, w^e will have a population of 
nearly 500.000,000 in 2217, or approxi- 
mately 166 to the square mile. 

Agricultural students have declared 
that the soil of the United States has a 
sustaining power of 500 to the square 
mile. Assuming that one-third of the 
country is occupied by waste land, we 
have room on this basis for 900,000,000 
people. 




114 



Digitized by 



Google 




-•» - ::. Photograph from Frederic C. Howe 

norwe:gian children in peasant costume 

Of all the countries of the earth, only Ireland has contributed a greater proportion of 
ner sons and daughters to the development of America than Norway. We now have one- 
third as many Norwegians and their children as the homeland itself. 



US 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Frederic C. Howe 



A FINNISH FAMII.Y 



There are about six thousand Finns in the United States. Hardy, self-reliant, industrious, 
they make good citizens of the type that Scandinavia sends us. 



ii6 



Digitized by 



Google 




I'hotograph from Frederic C. Howe 

KOL\VANIAN SIICPIIERDS 

Three-fifths of all the Roumanians who have come to America were farm laborers in 
the old country; yet it is rare, indeed, that one is found in the United States elsewhere than 
in the factory, the mine, and the railroad construction gang. 



117 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Frederic C Howe 

A SLOVAK MOTHER AND CHILDREN 

The Slovaks are an agricultural people, occupying all of northern Hungary except 
Ruthenian territory. Nearly a half million of them have come to America, though many 
return to Europe. They came so rapidly in the years before the war that whole villages 
were all but depopulated, and wages increased loo per cent in many places as a result of 
their departure for America. 



Ii8 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Frederic C. IIowc 
A RUSSIAN MOTHER AND HER FLOCK 
**Xo, I was not sleeping. I just couldn't help sneezing when the camera shutter clicked." 



119 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Frederic C. Howe 
A GREICK SOUHKR OF TII^ ROYAI, GUARD 

The Greek shoe-shining emporium and the Greek popular-priced restaurants have served 
to distribute the Hellenic immigrants better than almost any other race of the "new" immigra- 
tion; and distribution is solving the prol)lem of their assimilation. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Fretleric C Howe 
AN ITALIAN BOY DRK$SE:d AS A SOLDIER 

Who knows but that the blood of a Caesar, an Anthony, or a Seneca may course through 
the veins of this httle future American? 



121 



Digitized by 



Google 




122 



Digitized by 



Google 




123 



Digitized by 



Google 







c 
c 






as ^ 



^ s 



to 



rfo ' 



c 5/ 



«5 5i ?; 

-I: 



124 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Frederic C. Howe 

THREK COSSACKS AT ELLIS ISLAND 

These warriors of the Russian plain make sturdy Americans — as industrious in peace as 

they were intrepid in battle 



125 



Digitized by 



Google 




126 



Digitized by 



Google 




127 



Digitized by 



Google 







-H; f^ 



— < 

^ t:- 

cx o 

I— 
c« ^ 

OS O 
OS 



c3 «n 









1^ 3 

*- o 



*- o 



^ 3 



i^ 



2'- 



128 



Digitized by 



Google 




< 



O 

fa 

< 



O 



tf] 



a 



0^ 



E 




1 




s^ 


w 






u 




w 


.H 




Ji 


C 




o 


V 




o* 


TS 




•^ «i 


V 




a> :3 


b 




£-g 


u 




.2S 


ji 




a. 


< 




1 


s 

;2; 


^ 2 


1 




o 6 


04 


^_, 


2 rt 




o 


i2 wj 

5 "* 




fa 


2^ 




P 


•1^1 




Q 


E ^ 




Z 


E 






• *^ CO 




s 


bfl to 




< 


.E c 

•fi 

<y E 

si 

u 

dJ 

O 

o 



129 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Frederic C. Howe 

A RUSSIAN GIANT, SEVEN FEET NINE INCHES TALL, WITH TWO MEN OF NORMAL SIZE 

The Russians who come to America are a sturdy, hardy, seasoned race, but not all of them 
are as large as this giant, who can look down upon 99.9999 per cent of all mankind 



130 



Digitized by 



Google 



PRIZES FOR THE INVENTORY 



Some of the Problems Awaiting Solution 
By Alexander Graham Bell 



WHAT a glorious thing it is to 
be young and have a future be- 
fore you. To the graduates, 
especially, of a scientific technical school 
like the McKinley Manual Training 
School the outlook for the future looks 
bright and promising. 

When I was a young man the institu- 
tions of learning, the higher schools and 
colleges, paid a great deal more attention 
to the teaching of Latin and Greek than 
to the study of science ; they made schol- 
ars rather than scientists. 

The war has changed all that, and the 
man of science will be appreciated in the 
future as he never has been in the past. 
Knowledge is power ; and we now realize 
that the nation that fosters science be- 
comes so powerful that other nations 
must, if only in self-defense, adopt the 
same plan. It is safe to say that scien- 
tific men and technical experts are des- 
tined in the future to occupy distin- 
guished and honorable positions in all the 
countries of the world. Your future is 
assured. 

WE PROGRESS FROM CANDLES TO ELEC- 
TRICITY IX ONE LIFETIME 

I said it was a glorious thing to be 
young; but it is also a glorious thing to 
be old and look back upon the progress 
of the world during one's own lifetime. 

Xow, I don't mean to insinuate that I 
am old, by any means ! I had in mind an 
old lady, who is now living in Baltimore, 
at the age of one hundred and seven — 
she is now in her one hundred and eighth 
year — with mental faculties unimpaired. 
Possessed of a bright and active mind, 
she is able, from her own personal recol- 

*An address to the graduating class of the 
McKinley Manual Training School, Washing- 
ton, D. C, February i, 1917, revised for the 
National Geographic Magazine. 



lections, to look back upon a whole cen- 
tury of progress of the world. 

She was born in England and came 
over to America when quite young; and 
it is rather interesting to know what 
brought the family here. The father was 
a wholesale candlemaker in London and 
his business was ruined by the introduc- 
tion of gas ! 

Gas as an illuminant is now being re- 
placed by electric lighting ; and there are 
many people in this room who saw the 
first electric lights. 

I, myself, am not so very old yet, but I 
can remember the days when there were 
no telephones. 

I remember, too, very distinctly when 
there were no automobiles here. There 
were thousands of horses, and Washing- 
ton, in the summer-time, smelled like a 
stable. There were plenty of flies, and 
the death rate was high. 

Now, it is very interesting and instruc- 
tive to look back over the various changes 
that have occurred and trace the evolu- 
tion of the present from the past. By 
projecting these lines of advance into the 
future, you can forecast the future, to a 
certain extent, and recognize some of the 
fields of usefulness that are opening up 
for you. 

Here we have one line of advance from 
candles and oil lamps to gas, and from 
gas to electricity; and we can recognize 
many other threads of advance all con- 
verging upon electricity. We produce 
heat and light by electricity. We trans- 
mit intelligence by the telegraph and tele- 
phone, and we use electricity as a motive 
power. In fact, we have fairly entered 
upon an electrical age, and it is obvious 
that the electrical engineer will be much 
in demand in the future. Those of you 
who devote yourselves to electrical sub- 
jects will certainly find a place and room 
to work. 



131 



Digitized by 



Google 



f 


^^^^^2 


y 




5 

^ 'J 

«-. ^ 

^ ±' -^ 

s If 

c 


132 

Digitized by VliOO 



PRIZES FOR THE INVENTOR 



133 



FROM THIv "HOBBY-IIORSl!:'' TO THIC 
MOTOR-CYCLE OF I30 MILES SPEED 

Then there is that other Hne of ad- 
vance typified by the substitution of au- 
tomobiles for horse-drawn vehicles. In 
line with this is the history of the bicycle. 
First, we had the old French "hobby- 
horse," the ancestor of all our bicycles 
and motor-cycles. Upon this you rode 
astride, with your feet touching the 
ground, and propelled the machine by the 
action of walking. Then came the old 
'*bone-racker," in which your feet were 
applied to pedals attached to a crank- 
shaft on the front wheel of the machine. 

This was superseded by a bicycle with 
an enormous front wheel, about six feet 
in height, with a little one behind — a most 
graceful machine, in which the rider ap- 
peared to great advantage. There was 
none of that slouchy attitude to which 
we are so accustomed now. The rider 
presented a graceful and dignified ap- 
pearance, for he had perforce to sit up- 
right, and even lean a little backward, to 
avoid the possibility of a header! The 
large wheel also appeared behind and the 
small one in front, and a tumble over 
backward w^as felt to be less disastrous 
than a header forward. It was much 
safer to alight upon your feet behind 
than to be thrown out forward upon your 
head. 

Then came the "safety bicycle" — a re- 
turn to the form of the old "hobby- 
horse," but not a "bone-racker," because 
provided with rubber tires. In this ma- 
chine the power was transmitted from 
the feet to the wheels by means of gear- 
ing. This is still the form of the modern 
bicycle ; but a gasoline motor has been 
added to do the work of the feet, giving 
us the power of going faster than rail- 
road trains, on the common roads of the 
country, and without any physical exer- 
tion at all. I believe the speed record 
upon race-tracks stands at about 137 
miles an hour. 

MANY CHANCES FOR THE INVENTOR 

On every hand we see the substitution 
of machinery and artificial motive power 
for animal and man power. There will 
therefore be plenty of openings in the 



future for young, bright mechanical en- 
gineers working in this direction. 

There is, however, one obstacle to fur- 
ther advance, in the increasing price of 
the fuel necessary to work machinery. 
Coal and oil are going up and are strictly 
limited in quantity. We can take coal 
out of a mine, but we can never put it 
back. We can draw oil from subterra- 
nean reservoirs, but we can never refill 
them again. We are spendthrifts in the 
matter of fuel and are using our capital 
for our running expenses. 

In relation to coal and oil, the world's 
annual consumption has become so enor- 
mous that we are now actually within 
measurable distance of the end of the 
supply. What shall we do when we have 
no more coal or oil ! 

Apart from water power (which is 
strictly limited) and tidal and wave power 
(which we have not yet learned to util- 
ize), and the employment of the sun's 
rays directly as a source of power, we 
have little left, excepting wood, and it 
takes at least twenty-five years to grow a 
crop of trees. 

POSSIBILITIES OF ALCOHOL 

There is, however, one other source of 
fuel supply which may perhaps solve this 
problem of the future. Alcohol makes a 
beautiful, clean, and efficient fuel, and, 
where not intended for consumption by 
human beings, can be manufactured very 
cheaply in an indigestible or even poison- 
ous form. Wood alcohol, for example, 
can be employed as a fuel, and we can 
make alcohol from sawdust, a w^aste 
product of our mills. 

Alcohol can also be manufactured from 
corn stalks, and in fact from almost any 
vegetable matter capable of fermentation. 
Our growing crops and even weeds can 
be used. The waste products of our 
farms arc available for this purpose and 
even the garbage from our cities. We 
need never fear the exhaustion of our 
present fuel supplies so long as we can 
produce an annual crop of alcohol to any 
extent desired. 

The world will probably depend upon 
alcohol more and more as time goes on, 
and a great field of usefulness is opening 
up for the engineer who will modify our 



Digitized by 



Google 




O 

D 

O 

u 



o 



> 



^ 

a 
z: 



o 

Q 
D 

S c 

°^ 

< K 

-J z 

^■- 

> 



< 
o 
o 

< 
> 

u 

en 
en 

o 

< 

en 
W 



O 



i4 



134 



Digitized by 



Google 



PRIZES FOR THE INVENTOR 



135 



machinery to enable alcohol to be used 
as the source of power. 

Evolution in science has not always 
been accomplished by a series of gradual 
changes, each small in itself, but cumu- 
lative in effect. There have also been 
sudden "mutations" followed by advances 
of laiowledge by leaps and bounds in a 
new direction, and the establishment of 
new and useful arts never before even 
dreamed of by man. 

Although Clerk - Maxwell and others 
had long ago enunciated the theory that 
light and electricity were vibratory move- 
ments of the so-called "ether" or lumi- 
niferous medium of space, differing 
chiefly in frequency from one another, 
the world was not prepared for the ex- 
periments of Hertz, who demonstrated 
the reality of the conception and actually 
measured the wave-length of electrical 
discharges. Still less was it prepared for 
the discovery that brick walls and other 
apparently opaque objects were as trans- 
parent to the Hertzian waves as glass is 
to light. These experiments formed the 
basis for numerous other startling dis- 
coveries and practical applications for 
the benefit of man. 

WK CAN SKE OUR OWN HEARTS BEAT 

Flesh proved to be transparent to the 
Roentgen rays, and the world was fairly 
startled by the first X-ray photographs 
of the bones in the living human hand. 
Now physicians and surgeons use X-ray 
lamps to enable them to see bullets and 
other objects imbedded in flesh, and have 
even devised means of observing the 
beating of the heart and the movements 
of other internal organs without pain to 
their patients. 

Other developments of the Hertzian 
waves have resulted in the creation of the 
new art of wireless telegraphy. Most of 
us, I think, can remember the first S.O.S. 
signals sent out by a ship in distress and 
the instant response from distant vessels 
equipped with the Marconi apparatus. 
Then came the rush of vessels to the 
scene of disaster and the rescue of the 
passengers and crew. 

Developments of wireless telegraphy 
are proceeding with great rapidity, and 
no man can predict what startling discov- 



eries and applications may appear in the 
near future. Here may be an opening 
for some of you, and I know of no more 
promising field of exploration to recom- 
mend to your notice. 

HONOLULU EAVESDROPS WHILE WASHING- 
TON TALKS TO PARIS 

Already privacy of communication has 
been secured by wireless transmitters and 
receivers "tuned," so to speak, to respond 
to electrical vibrations of certain fre- 
quencies alone. They are sensitive only 
to electrical impulses of definite wave- 
length. The principle of sympathetic vi- 
bration opefating tuned wireless receivers 
has also been applied to the control of 
machinery from a distance and the steer- 
ing of boats without a man on board. 
The possibilities of development in this 
direction are practically illimitable, and 
we shall probably be able to perform at 
a distance by wireless almost any mechan- 
ical operation that can be done at hand. 

Still more recently wireless telegraphy 
has given birth to another new art, and 
wireless telephony has appeared. Only 
a short time ago a man in Arlington, Va., 
at the wireless station there, talked by 
word of mouth to a man on the Eiffel 
Tower in Paris, France. Not only that, 
but a man in Honolulu overheard the 
conversation ! The distance from Hono- 
lulu to the Eiffel Tower must be 8,000 
miles at least — one-third the distance 
around the globe — and this achievement 
surely foreshadows the time when we 
may be able to talk with a man in any 
part of the world by telephone and with- 
out wires. 

OUR MOST CHERISHED THEORIES UPSET BY 
A WOMAN 

The above illustrations exhibit what we 
might call "mutations" of science; but 
the greatest of all these mutations was 
the discovery that opened the twentieth 
century, and I may add for the encour- 
agement of our young lady graduates 
that it was made by a woman. I allude 
to the discovery of radium by Madame 
Curie of Paris. 

Radium has recently upset our most 
cherished theories of matter and force. 
The whole subject of chemistry has to be 



Digitized by 



Google 




13^ 



Digitized by 



Google 



PRIZES FOR THE INVENTOR 



137 



rewritten and our ideas of the constitu- 
tion of matter entirely changed. Here is 
a substance which emits light and heat 
and electricity continuously without any 
apparent source of supply. It emits light 
in the dark, and in a cool room maintains 
itself constantly at a higher temperature 
than its environment. 

It emits the Roentgen rays without any 
electrical machinery to produce them, and 
we have now discovered emanating from 
that substance several different kinds of 
rays of the unknown or X-ray variety; 
and we now recognize the Alpha, Beta, 
and Gamma rays as distinct varieties, 
having different properties. 

Though radium behaves like an ele- 
mentary substance, it is found in process 
of time to disintegrate into other elemen- 
tary substances quite different from the 
original radium itself. Helium is one of 
its products, and, after several transmu- 
tations, it apparently turns into lead ! 

Our forefathers believed firmly in the 
transmutation of metals, one into the 
other, and vainly sought a means of 
transmuting the baser metals into gold. 
Radium shows that there is some foun- 
dation for the transmutation theory, and 
that at least some of the so-called ele- 
ments originate by a process of evolution 
from other elements quite distinct from 
themselves. Where this line of develop- 
ment is going to lead is a problem indeed, 
and radium still remains the great puzzle 
of the twentieth century. 

DYINX OF THIRST IN A FOG 

I cannot hope to bring to your atten- 
tion all of the problems that are awaiting 
solution, but I think it may be interesting 
to you to hear of a few upon which I 
myself have been working. What inter- 
ests me will probably interest you, and 
perhaps some of you may carry out the 
experiments to a further point than I 
have done. 

You know that although I am a lover 
of Washington, yet, when the summer- 
time comes, I go just as far away from 
Washington as I can in the direction of 
the North Pole. I have a summer place 
in Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, 
where I can always be sure of cool, fresh 



breezes, while you poor people are broil- 
ing here in Washington. 

A good many of the people on Cape 
Breton Island are fishermen, who make 
their living on the Banks of Newfound- 
land ; and one of the men employed upon 
my place had two uncles who were fisher- 
men on the Banks. One day they left 
their vessel in a dory to look after their 
nets, and while they were gone a fog 
came up and they were unable to find 
their way back. The dory drifted about 
in the ocean for many days and was then 
picked up with their dead bodies on 
board ; they had perished from exposure 
and thirst. 

Now it is not a very unusual thing on 
the Banks of Newfoundland for fisher- 
men to be separated from their vessels by 
fog. Every year dories are picked up at 
sea, and the occupants are often found 
to be suffering terribly from thirst. They 
have found "water, water, everywhere, 
but not a drop to drink." Now, it seemed 
to me that it was really a reflection upon 
the intelligence of man that people should 
die of thirst in the midst of water. 

There is the salt water of the sea, and 
all you have to do is to separate the salt 
from the w^ater and drink the water. 
That is one problem. 

CONDENSING THE WATER VAPOR IN THE 
HUMAN BREATH 

But there is also the fog which pre- 
vents you from reaching your vessel, and 
what is fog but fresh water in the form 
of cloud. Therefore all you have to do 
is to condense the fog and drink it. That 
is another problem. 

But there is still another alternative. 
Water vapor exists in your breath. Why 
not condense your breath and drink it? 
This problem is easily solved; just 
breathe into an empty tumbler and at 
once you have a condensation of moisture 
on the inside. If you have the patience 
to continue the process for a few min- 
utes, you will soon find clear water at the 
bottom of the tumbler. 

I took a bucket of cool salt water from 
the sea, put it down in the bottom of a 
boat between my knees, and then put into 
it a large empty bottle the size of a beer 
bottle, which floated in the water with 



Digitized by 



Google 



138 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



the neck of the bottle resting on the edge 
of the bucket. Then I took a long glass 
tube, over a meter in length, and put one 
end into the bottle and the other end in 
my mouth. I sat back comfortably in a 
chair with the tube between my lips and 
inhaled through the nostrils and blew 
down through the tube. This process 
was so easily performed that I found I 
could read a book while it was going on. 

I therefore continued the experiment 
for over two hours, and then I found a 
considerable amount of water in the bot- 
tle, quite enough for a moderate drink. It 
might not be very much for us, but if 
you were dying of thirst on the open sea 
you would be glad enough to get what 
was there. I tasted the water and found 
it quite fresh, although I must confess it 
did not have a very palatable taste ; in 
fact, the water condensed from my breath 
had a taste of — of tobacco ! But I don't 
suppose that would have mattered much 
to a man who was. dying of thirst. 

I have also made experiments to con- 
dense drinking water from fog. A large 
pickle jar was provided and two long 
glass tubes were let down through the 
cork. The jar was then submerged at 
the wharf, with the two pipes sticking up 
above the surface. The experiment was 
then made to pump fog down through 
one of the pipes, the other serving as a 
vent. This was accomplished by means 
of a pair of bellows provided with a 
spiral spring between the handles to keep 
them apart. This apparatus was fastened 
on top of the wharf. A heavy log of 
wood was floated upon the water below, 
connected by means of a string with the 
upper handle of the bellows. 

THE CORK THAT FAILED 

The waves moved this log up and down 
and worked the bellows. The nozzle was 
connected to one of the pipes leading to 
the submerged empty jar and at once the 
bellows began to pump the fog into the 
jar. It continued pumping all night, and 
I let it go on pumping all of the next day, 
because there was to be a meeting of men 
on my place the next evening, and I 
thought it would be interesting to open 
the jar at the men's meeting. With great 
ceremony the jar was removed to the 



warehouse and was found to be nearly 
full of beautiful clear water. A British 
naval officer was present and offered to 
be the first to taste the water condensed 
from fog. He took a good mouthful of 
it, while the men gathered around in great 
excitement and shouted, "Fresh or salt?" 

He did not reply, but made a face. He 
then rushed for the window, spat the 
water out, and exclaimed, "Salt!" Now, 
this failure did not by any means prove 
that the process was wrong, but simply 
showed that it might be advisable in the 
future, if you use a cork, to employ one 
that fits tightly and does not leak. The 
one I used had a hole in it, I found but 
afterward. 

An involuntary experiment relating to 
the condensation of fresh water from the 
sea was made in Cape Breton. A man 
fell overboard and was rescued, with his 
clothes wringing wet with sea-water. 
There was a cold wind blowing and he 
took refuge in a little cabin on the boat 
covered with a tarpaulin awning. In a 
little time he began to steam. The heat 
of his body warmed the sea-water in his 
clothes, and there actually arose a cloud 
of steam which condensed on the cold 
tarpaulin and ran down the sides. It was 
fresh water, and if it had been collected 
in a jar there would have been quite 
enough for a drink. 

"we do not boil the sea" 

On large ocean steamers all the drink- 
ing water used is condensed from the 
sea ; and we somehow or other have the 
idea that it is necessary to boil the sea- 
water, or at least have it very hot, and 
then condense it by means of ice or some- 
thing very cold. Now, that is not neces- 
sary at all. Just think of this: All the 
fresh water upon the globe comes from 
the sea, and we do not boil the sea. Water 
vapor is given off by the sea everywhere 
and at all temperatures ; it is even evap- 
orated from ice and snow. Of course, 
the warmer the sea-water is, the greater 
is the amount of water vapor thrown 
out ; but water vapor is everywhere pres- 
ent, and the main point in condensation 
is that it is removed from the surface by 
the action of the wind and carried to 
cooler places, where condensation occurs 



Digitized by 



Google 




BRINGING INTO SAN DIEGO HARBOR A LOG RAFT CONTAINING 5,000,000 FEET 

The raft has journeyed down the coast from Portland, Oregon, where this type of raft was 

invented 



139 



Digitized by 



Google 







■r. 



■7. 



140 



Digitized by 



Google 



PRIZES FOR THE INVENTOR 



141 



in the form of cloud or rain. No great 
amount of heat is required to produce 
evaporation and no great amount of cold 
is necessary to effect condensation. 
Such considerations as these may lead 

I to some cheap industrial process for the 
manufacture of fresh water from the sea. 
All that is necessary is a current of air 

I over your salt water to remove the water 
vapor collected there, and then the carry- 
ing of this confined current into a cool 
reservoir where the water may condense. 

I THE THERMOS- BOTTLE IDEA APPLIED TO A 

WATER TANK 

As little or no artificial heating is re- 
quired, a great saving can be effected in 
the matter of fuel. It is extraordinary 
I how wasteful we are in our means of 
producing heat and in retaining it after 
I it has been produced. It is safe to say 
that a great deal more heat goes up the 
-chimney than we utilize from a fire. 
Then when we cook our dinner or boil 
water, we allow the heat to escape by 
radiation and the things soon cool. 

A cosy for our teapot, a fireless cooker 
for our dinner, and a thermos bottle for 
our heated liquids show how much heat 
may be conserved by simply taking pre- 
cautions to prevent radiation. Our hot- 
water boilers are not protected by cover- 
ings of asbestos paper or other insulating 
material, so that the water gets too cool 
for a warm bath very soon after the fire 
is put out. 

I have made experiments to ascertain 
whether some of the heat wasted by radi- 
ation could not be conserved by insulat- 
ing materials, with rather astonishing re- 
sults. A large tank of zinc was made 
which would hold a great deal of water. 
This was inclosed in a box very much 
larger than itself, leaving a space of about 
three or four inches all around, which 
was filled with wool. I then found that 
hot water put into that tank cooled al- 
most as slowly as if it had been a thermos 
bottle. 

I then attempted to save and utilize 
some of the heat given off by a student's 
lamp. A couple of pipes were led out of 
this insulated tank and placed in a hood 
over the lamp. Thus a circulation of 
water was effected. The water heated by 



the lamp found its way up into the tank 
and produced a sensible rise of tempera- 
ture there. Next day when the lamp was 
again lighted it was found that the water 
in the tank still felt slightly warm. It 
had not lost all of the heat it had received 
at the former heating. When the lamp 
was again put out, the temperature of the 
tank was considerably higher than on the 
former occasion. 

This process of heating was continued 
for a number of days, and it became ob- 
vious that a cumulative effect was pro- 
duced, until at last the water in the tank 
became too hot to hold the hand in, and 
it was determined to see how long it 
would hold its heat. The temperature 
was observed from time to time, and 
more than a week after the lamp had 
been put out the water was still so warm 
that I used it for a bath. 

CUTTING DOWN THE CHIMNEY TAX 

Since then this insulated tank has been 
taken up to the attic of my house in Nova 
Scotia and has been installed there as a 
permanent feature. I have the habit of 
working at night and like to take a warm 
bath somewhere about 2 o'clock in the 
morning. Unfortunately the heating ar- 
rangements in the house have given out 
long before that hour and only cold water 
comes from the kitchen boilers. I con- 
nected the insulated tank with an iron 
pipe let down my study chimney in the 
hope of saving and utilizing some por- 
tion of the heat that escaped up the chim- 
ney every time the fire was lighted. 

I have had this apparatus in use for 
over a year, and find that at any time of 
the day or night I am always sure of a 
warm bath from the heat that used to be 
wasted in going up the chimney. In this 
case there was only one straight pipe, so 
that the amount of heat recovered bears 
only a small proportion to that still 
wasted. A coil of pipe in the chimney or 
special apparatus there would, of course, 
be much more efficient. 

I think that all the hot water required 
for the use of a household, and even for 
warming a house, could be obtained with- 
out special expenditure for fuel by utili- 
zation of the waste heat produced from 



Digitized by 



Google 




142 



Digitized by 



Google 



PRIZES FOR THE INVENTOR 



143 



the kitchen fire and the heat given off by 
the illuminants employed. 

Of course, water can only be heated to 
the boiling temperature; but there are 
many liquids that can be heated to a very 
much higher temperature than this with- 
out boiling. I took a tumbler of olive oil 
and heated it by means of a thin iron 
wire connected with a voltaic battery. I 
placed in the tumbler of oil a test-tube 
filled with water. In a short time the 
water was boiling, but the oil remained 
perfectly quiescent. If you store up hot 
oil instead of water you will have at your 
command a source of heat able to do all 
your cooking, and even produce steam 
power to work machinery. 

We have plenty of heat going to waste 
in Washington during the summer-time, 
for the sun's rays are very powerful, and 
we do not use the roofs of our buildings 
except to keep off the rain. What wide 
expanses of roof are available in all our 
large cities for the utilization of the sun's 
rays ! Simple pipes laid up on the roof 
and containing oil or some other liquid 
would soon become heated by the sun's 
rays. The hot oil could be carried into 
an insulated tank and stored. You could 
thus not only conserve and utilize the 
heat that falls upon the tops of your 
houses, but effect some cooling of the 
houses themselves by the abstraction of 
this heat. 

THE REASON WE CANNOT KEEP OUR 
HOUSES COOL 

I was once obliged, very much against 
my will, I can assure you, to remain in 
Washington right in the midst of the 
summer, and the thought kept constantly 
recurring to my mind. If man has the 
intelligence to heat his house in the win- 
ter-time, why does he not cool it in the 
summer ? We go up to the Arctic regions 
and heat our houses and live. We go 
down to the Tropics and die. In India 
the white children have to be sent home 
to England in order to live, and all on 
account of the heat. The problem of 
cooling houses is one that I would recom- 
mend to your notice, not only on account 
of your own comfort, but on account of 
the public health as well. 

Now, I have found one radical defect 



in the construction of our houses that 
absolutely precludes the possibility of 
cooling them to any great degree. You 
will readily understand the difficulty 
when you remember that cold air is spe- 
cifically heavier than warm air. You can 
take a bucket of cold air, for example, 
and carry it about in the summer-time 
and not spill a drop ; but if you make a 
hole in the bottom of your bucket, then, 
of course, the cold air will all run out. 

Now, if you look at the typical tropical 
houses, you will find that they are all 
open on the ground floor. Supposing it 
were possible to turn on a veritable Ni- 
agara of cold air into a tropical house, it 
wouldn't stay there five minutes. It 
would all come pouring out through the 
open places below and through the win- 
dows and doors. If you want to find your 
leakage places, just fill your house with 
water and see where the water squirts 
out! 

I began to think that it might be pos- 
sible to apply the bucket principle to at 
least one room in my Washington home, 
and thus secure a place of retreat in the 
summer-time. It seemed to be advisable 
to close up all openings near the bottom 
of the room to prevent the escape of cold 
air and open the windows at the top to 
let out the heated air of the room. 

MY OWN EXPERIMENTS 

Now, it so happens that I have in the 
basement of my house a swimming tank, 
and it occurred to me that since this tank 
holds water, it should certainly hold cold 
air; so I turned the water out to study 
the situation. The tank seemed to be 
damp and the sides felt wet and slimy. 

I reflected, however, that the condensa- 
tion of moisture resulted from the fact 
that the sides of the tank were cooler 
than the air admitted. Water vapor will 
not condense on anything that is warmer 
than itself, and it occurred to me that if 
I introduced air that was very much 
colder than I wanted to use, then it would 
be warming up in the tank and becoming 
dryer all the time. It would not deposit 
moisture on the sides and would actually 
absorb the moisture there. 

I therefore provided a refrigerator, in 
which were placed large blocks of ice 



Digitized by 



Google 





144 



Digitized by 



Google 



PRIZES FOR THE INVENTOR 



145 



covered with salt. This was placed in 
another room at a higher elevation than 
the tank, and a pipe covered with asbestos 
paper was employed to lead the cold air 
into the tank. 

The first effect was the drying of the 
\valls, and then I felt the level of the cold 
air gradually rising. At last it came over 
my head. The tank was full, and I 
found myself immersed in cool air. I 
felt so cool and comfortable that it 
seemed difficult to believe that Washing- 
ton stood sizzling outside. I climbed up 
the ladder in the swimming tank until my 
head was above the surface, and then 
found myself breathing a hot, damp, 
muggy atmosphere. I therefore speedily 
retreated into the tank, where I was per- 
fectly cool and comfortable. 

Guided by this experience, I tried an- 
other experiment in my house. I put the 
refrigerator in the attic and led the cold 
air downward through a pipe covered 
with asbestos into one of the rooms of 
the house. The doors were kept shut and 
the windows were opened at the top. 
The temperature in that room was per- 
fectly comfortable, about 65 degrees. 

At that time the papers were speaking 
of some ice plant that had been installed 
in the White House and congratulated 
the President upon a temperature of only 
80 degrees when the thermometer showed 
100 degrees outside. At this very time I 
enjoyed in my house a temperature of 65 
degrees (the ideal temperature), with a 
delicious feeling of freshness in the air. 
Even when the air had risen to the same 
temperature as the rest of the house, as 
measured by a thermometer, the room 
still felt cool, because the air was drier, 
thus promoting perspiration that cooled 
the skin. 

SELLING COLD AIR IN PARIS 

In this connection I may say that there 
is a very interesting cooling plant in 
Paris, France, run by the Societe de I'Air 
Comprime. Very many of the cafes and 
restaurants in Paris have cold rooms for 
the storage of perishable provisions, and 
these rooms are cooled by compressed air 
supplied by this company. 

The plant consists of large pipes laid 
down under the streets of Paris, with 



small branch pipes leading into the cafes 
and restaurants. At a central station 
steam-engines pump air into the pipes and 
keep up a continuous pressure of from 
four to five atmospheres. As there are 
several hundred kilometers of these pipes 
under the streets of Paris, they form a 
huge reservoir of compressed air at the 
ground temperature. 

In the cooling room of a cafe they 
simply turn a little cock and admit the 
compressed air into the room. A gas 
meter measures the amount of air ad- 
mitted and charges are made accordingly. 

The compressed air, by its expansion, 
produces great cold, and the cooling eflfect 
is still further increased by allowing the 
air to do work during the process of ex- 
pansion. Dumb-waiters, elevators, and 
even sewing-machines are thus run very 
economically in connection with the sys- 
tem by means of compressed-air engines, 

WILL OUR CITIKS BE ARTIFICIALLY 
COOLED? 

Now, it appears to me that this process 
might very easily be developed into a 
plan for the cooling of a whole city. 
You would simply have to turn a cock 
in your room to admit the fresh air ; and 
if you then take precautions to prevent 
the cold air from running away by having 
your room tight at the bottom and open 
at the top, you could keep your room cool 
in the hottest summer weather. 

I must confess that there is one other 
subject upon which I would like to say a 
few words before closing. 

One of the great evils attending our 
civilization is the extreme congestion of 
the population into the larger cities, and 
one of the great problems of the future 
is how to spread the population more 
equally over the land. 

The congestion is caused by difficulties 
of transportation ; for, of course, it costs 
much more to send a person to a distant 
place than to one near at hand. 

But did you ever think of this : that it 
also costs more to send a letter to a dis- 
tant place than to one near at hand, and 
yet a two-cent stamp will carry your 
letter anywhere within the limits of the 
United States, and even beyond. 



Digitized by 



Google 



146 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



COULD POSTAGE STAMPS BE USED IN 
TRANSPORTATION OF PERSONS? 

So many more letters are sent to places 
near at hand than to the remoter parts of 
the country that an average rate of post- 
age very slightly in excess of the cost for 
short distances pays for the deficit on the 
longer routes. Now, the thought that I 
would like to put into your minds is this : 
Why could not the postage stamp princi- 
ple be applied to the transportation of 
* persons and goods? Why should it not 
be possible to charge an average rate for 
transportation instead of a rate increas- 
ing with the distance traveled ? 

We have already begun to apply this 
principle in municipalities. We no longer 
charge by distance in our large cities, and 
a five-cent fare will carry you anywhere 
you want to go within the limits of the 
municipality involved. As a consequence 
we find in these cities the poorer people 
abandoning tenement houses and going 
out into the country to live, where their 
children have room to grow. This relief 
of congestion pervades all classes of the 
community, and you see homes springing 
up everywhere in the suburbs of our 
great cities. 

The benefits resulting from a uniform 
rate of transportatiori increase in geo- 
metrical proportion to the distance trav- 
eled, and the possible radius of travel 
should therefore be extended to the great- 
est practicable degree. 

It may well be doubted whether it will 
ever be possible to buy a ticket for any- 
where in the United States at an average 



rate ; but it might be practicable to apply 
the principle to some at least of the 
smaller States. A citizen of Rhode 
Island, for example, might for a very 
small amount be enabled to travel any- 
where within the limits of that State. 

It would certainly be advisable to re- 
duce our charges for transportation to 
the minimum amount possible. This can 
be done, first, by adopting the principle 
of an average rate, and, secondly, by re- 
ducing the actual cost of the transporta- 
tion itself. 

WILL AERIAL LOCOMOTION SOLVE THE 
ROAD QUESTION? 

Now, it is noteworthy that the main 
element of cost resides not so much in 
the vehicles and locomotives employed as 
in the cost of the roads on which they 
have to run; it is this element that in- 
creases with the distance. 

The railroads, for example, have to ex- 
pend millions of dollars in the construc- 
tion of railroad tracks ; and what would 
the automobile be worth without a good 
road on which to travel? Water trans- 
portation is much cheaper than railroad 
transportation, chiefly because we do not 
have to build roads in the sea for our 
ships. 

I will conclude with this thought : that 
a possible solution of the problem over 
land may lie in the development of aerial 
locomotion. However much money we 
may invest in the construction of huge 
aerial machines carrying many passen- 
gers, we don't have to build a road. 




Digitized by 



Google 




Photosraph by Harry P. Blanchard 

THE APPLE OF DISCARD 
Nature's gift to the world's small boy is an appetite all out of proportion to his capacity. This 
"future president" evidently has repaired to the apple cellar and made inroads upon the wmter s supply 
of pippins. From the expression on his face, preliminary pangs in the region of his waistband are inducinyr 
•olemn reflection upon the enormity of his offense. 



Digitized by 



Google 




_ . Photocraph by HofO Brehflw 

A "CHILD OF SORROW ANt) WOE": MEXICO 
Without a squire meal, a goft bed or a clean suit, what wonder that the bright sun of the Mexican 
highlands and the multi-hued birds and flowers cannot dispel the darkness of distress, or drive out the 
woe-begone look from the peon child's eye? 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photocraph by A. W. Catler 



OF COURSE GRANDPA DOESNT KNOW WHO 
The otd-fashioned game of "GueM Who'* it is universal as childhood itself. This typical old Enff- 
fish fanner was probably thinking about cuttins his clover on the morrow, when a pair of little hands 
were clapped over his eyes and a well-known little voice piped, *'Who is it, granddad?'^ 



Digitized by 



Google 




Digitized by 



Google 




Digitized by 



Google 




Copyright by Dorndd Mac LaWi 

THE LIGHT AND SHADE OF THE DESERT: BISKRA, ALGERIA 
Every day like the preceding one, every year a duplicate of the one that went before, every century 
no different from the one it succeeded; the world may move elsewhere, but who can say that it moves in 
Biskra? 



Digitized by 



Google 







..n-^' 







A SAHARA JACK HORNER ^^'*^*''* "^ ^"^^ "*•* ^"^ 

When told that hit picture w«« to visit the six hundred thousand homes of the American boys 
and girls who love the Geographic, he tried to look as dignified as a judge, as wise as a lawgiver, and as 
solemn as a priest. And somehow he seems to have succeeded. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Digitized by 



Google 







\J^ 'A ' ^^^^B^^^^^^^^^^k^ ^ *' - ^fr ' 


— "J • .>x* ^H^^^^^K ^' * \j4 




-^ ' ^^\ir '• 








^tt -^v.-I^M !"- — 


^^■& ^\\ \ ^ 




^K^ ' * 'i \ i "wl . • ^^'^ - • -V.V 


^Ki . 'kl rf:'^ ■ :'■■ ' ■ ^r"'' 


^^B.*'' ./»■■ ^••i 


^^^^■^ 'V "''^' "H 




l^^^^^^^^^H wn^ 


^^^^^^^H. '>| ag!'- 


^^^^^^Hl '->Sr^""^.. "N 







Copyright by RoUnd W. lUcd 

LITTLE CHIEF PACK-A-BACK GRAVELY INSPECTS THE CAMERA 
This little scion of the Ojibwav tribe, who lives up in northern Minnesota, will some day be a "big 
chief" of his people, but now he is onlv a small papoose who travels on his mother*s back. In his restricted 
petition, tightly wrapped to prevent his squirming out, he can move only his head and crane his neck to 
see the strange "paleface" with a queer black box on three legs — the camera which takes his picture. 



Digitized by 



Google 




"WELL BACK" IN SOUTH AMERICA 
The youne Venezuelan astride the hind quarters of his patient palfrey guides his mount with one 
rein of rope. The sleepy appearance of the charger indicates that not much restraint is necessary and 
suggesu that in order to be guided he must first be started. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Charles Martin 

LOOK OUT, OR OFF GOES YOUR HEAD! 
This youthful headhunter of the Philippine Islands is a son of a chief of the warlike Ilongote tribe, 
and he lives in the mountains of northern Luzon. The greater part of his costume is worn upon his head, 
and the little ornaments that look like tfX)ut flies are really tassels of white horsehair, highly prized 
by these people. Indeed, strands of horsehair are often more desirable than money in these mountain 
fastnesses, and burden carriers who have earned a dollar by swinging along difficult trails under a load of 
eighty pounds for three days have been known to refuse coins in favor of horsehairs. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Digitized by 



Google 




Digitized by 



Google 




Digitized by 



Google 



^ 




W^^^^r*^ 




^IHJyll 1 P "^ 




^m 


"- -^' 4^^ 


*^. 


^- ^ jSl 


_ A 




^^^^^^^^^^^Bk-^ 






tm^ «a kf ^ • • 


^'"^^'^^tUBEm ^ ^^iB C'^ 


^^R|^|^ . J.'^^' -,/.»Mi?^ 


,ft... 




''^f'*"- 






1 ' " ■■:^v 


*-»^ •' 




\ . 






' 1 : . . • - .^- 



* FEEDING THE MOTHERLESS LAMB' 



Photos rmpb by Do&ald Umc LdA 



Thii little Austrian boy, who lives far up in the Tyrolean Alps, has his cosset in fond embrace. It 
looks like "forcible feeding," but perhaps the supply of milk is to be conscn-cd for another meal and there 
IS difficulty in retrieving the bottle. 



Digitized b vVjO OQLC 



ij 



Ik 



BOHEMIA AND THE CZECHS 

By Ales Hrdlicka 
Curator of Physical Anthropology ix the U. S. National Museum 



IN THEIR memorable answer to the 
President of the United States on 
the conditions under which they 
would conclude peace with Germany, the 
Allies announced, as one of these condi- 
tions, the liberation of the Czecho-Slo- 
vaks from Austria-Hungary. 

This introduces on the international 
forum a most interesting new factor, of 
which relatively little has been heard dur- 
ing the war and which in consequence 
has largely escaped, in this country at 
least, the attention which it deserves. 

The same natural law of preservation 
that rules over individuals rules also over 
nations^-only the strongest survive the 
struggle for existence. Not the strongest 
in numbers, nor even physically, but the 
richest in that healthy virginal life-cur- 
rent which suffers under defeat, but is 
never crushed ; which may be suppressed 
to the limit, yet wells up again stronger 
and fresher than ever, the moment the 
pressure relaxes. 

One such nation is surely, it seems, 
that of the Czechs or Bohemians. A 
1 ,500-year-long lif e-and-death struggle 
with the race who surround it from the 
north, west, and south, with a near-burial 
within the Austrian Empire for the last 
three centuries, have failed to destroy the 
little nation or break its spirit. 

As President Wilson has said: "At 
least two among these many races [of 
Austria], moreover, are strenuously, 
restlessly, persistently devoted to inde- 
pendence. No lapse of time, no defeat 
of hopes, seems sufficient to reconcile the 
Czechs of Bohemia to incorporation with 
Austria. Pride of race and the memories 
of a notable and distinguished history 
keep them always at odds with the Ger- 
mans within their gates and with the gov- 
ernment set over their heads. They de- 
sire at least the same degree of autonomy 
that has been granted to Hungary." * 

♦The State, by Woodrow Wilson, revised 
edition, 191 1, page 740. 



The Czechs are now more numerous, 
more accomplished, more patriotic than 
ever before, and the day is inevitably ap- 
proaching when the shackles will fall and 
the nation take its place again at the 
council of free nations. 

WHO are the BOHEMIANS 

The Czechs* are the westernmost 
branch of the Slavs, their name being de- 
rived, according to tradition, from that 
of a noted ancestral chief. The term Bo- 
hemia was applied to the country prob- 
ably during the Roman times and was 
derived, like that of Bavaria, from the 
Boii, who for some time before the Chris- 
tian era occupied or claimed parts of 
these regions. 

Nature has favored Bohemia perhaps 
more than any other part of Europe. Its 
soil is so fertile and climate so favorable 
that more than half of the country is cul- 
tivated and produces richly. In its moun- 
tains almost every useful metal and min- 
eral, except salt, is to be found. It is the 
geographical center of the European con- 
tinent, equally distant from the Baltic, 
Adriatic, and North seas, and, though in- 
closed by mountains, is so easily accessi- 
ble, because of the valleys of the Danube 
and the Elbe rivers, that it served, since 
known in history as the avenue of many 
armies. 

Beside Bohemia, the Czechs occupy 
Moravia and adjacent territory in Silesia. 
The Slovaks, who show merely dialectic 
differences from the Czechs, extend from 
Moravia eastward over most of northern 
Hungary.! 

The advent of the Czechs is lost in an- 
tiquity; it is known, however, that they 
cremated their dead, and cremation bur- 
ials in northeastern Bohemia and in Mo- 
ravia antedate 500 B. C. Their invasions 
or spread southwestward, so far as re- 

♦The Cz pronounced like ch in cherry, 
t See "Map of Europe," published by the 
Geographic Magazine, August, 1915. 



163 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Francis P. Marchant 
THE FAMOUS ASTRONOMICAL CLOCK OF THE OLD TOWN HALL OF PRAGUE, DATING 

FROM 1490 A. D. 

In front of the town hall, during the fierce reprisals of Ferdinand 11. after the heroic 
efforts of the Bohemians had been foiled at the battle of White Mountain, forty-eight promi- 
nent nobles and citizens of Prague met torture and the block with great fortitude. The 
astronomical clock at the entrance, with figures of our Lord and the Apostles, is one of the 
oldest in Europe. Inside the building are the dungeons where the patriots were confined 
before execution. 



164 



Digitized by 



Google 



BOHEMIA AND THE CZECHS 



165 



corded in tradition or history, were of a 
peaceful nature, following the desolation 
and abandonment of the land through 
wars. 

Like all people at a corresponding stage 
of development, they were subdivided 
into numerous tribes which settled differ- 
ent parts of the country, and the names 
of some of these clans, with remnants of 
dialectic, dress, and other characteristic 
differences, persist even to this day. 

Their documentary history begins in the 
seventh century, at which time they al- 
ready extend as far south as the Danube. 
They are agricultural and pastoral peo- 
ple, of patriarchal organization. Their 
government is almost republican, under a 
chief, elected by an assembly of repre- 
sentatives of the main classes of the peo- 
ple. Later this office develops into that 
of hereditary kings, whose assumption of 
the throne must nevertheless be in every 
instance ratified by the national diet. 
The nation possesses a code of formal 
supreme laws, and the people are noted 
for their physical prowess, free spirit, 
love of poetry, and passionate jealousy 
of independence. 

CHRISTI.\NITY ACCEPTED 

In the ninth century the pagan Czechs 
accept Christianity, with Slav liturgy, 
which becomes at once one of their most 
cherished endowments, as well as a 
source of much future hostility from 
Rome. The various tribes become united 
under the Premysl Dynasty, begun by the 
national heroine Libussa, with her plow- 
man husband, and lasting in the male line 
until the first part of the fourteenth cen- 
tury. 

Under their kings the Czechs reach an 
important position among the European 
nations. They rule, in turn, over large 
parts of what are now Austrian prov- 
inces, and briefly even over Hungary, 
Poland, and Galicia. But their fortune 
varies. From the time of Charlemagne 
they struggle, often for their very exist- 
ence, with their neighbors, irritated by 
their presence, their racial diversity, and 
their riches. 

The first recorded war with the Ger- 
mans dates from 630, when the Frank 



Dagobert endeavors by force of arms to 
impose vassalage on the Czechs, but suf- 
fers defeat; and from this time on the 
Bohemian history is replete with records 
of fighting with the Germans. How the 
nation escaped annihilation must remain 
a marvel of history. It is sometimes re- 
duced to almost a German vassal ; yet it 
is never entirely overcome, and rises 
again and again to assert its individuality 
and independence. 

GERM.XNS COI.ONIZE BOHEMIA 

Some of the Bohemian kings, under 
political and other influences, permit, and 
even invite, settlements of Germans on 
the outskirts of Bohemia. This is the 
origin of the German population of the 
country, which has played and still plays 
such a large part in its politics. 

The latter part of the thirteenth cen- 
tury is a most critical period of Bohemia. 
Under Otakar H, one of its ablest kings, 
the country has reached the acme of its 
power. It extends from Saxony to the 
Adriatic, and Vienna is its second capital. 
Many of the German principalities are its 
allies and the king comes near to being 
called to head the Holy Empire. 

But Rudolph of Habsburg is elected to 
this office, and from the moment of the 
advent of the house of Habsburg com- 
mence Bohemia's greatest misfortunes. 
The only oflFense of the Bohemian king is 
that he is Slav, but that, with the jealousy 
of his power, the democratic institutions, 
and the wealth of his country, which con- 
tains the richest mines of silver in Eu- 
rope, is sufficient. Great armies, German 
and Hungarian, are raised against him; 
finally he is treacherously slain in battle, 
his kingdom torn apart, and Bohemia is 
ravished and reduced almost to a "pos- 
session" or a fief of the Empire. 

Yet the wound is not mortal, the nation 
is too strong ; it rises again, and within a 
few decades, under Otakar's son, regains 
its independence and much of its former 
power. In 1306, however, the last Bo- 
hemian king of the great Premysl family 
is slain by an assassin, and there begins 
a long period of dynastic difficulties, 
which become in time the main cause of 
Bohemia's downfall. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Digitized by 



Google 



BOHEMIA AND THE CZECHS 



167 



A GODSEND TO HIS COUNTRY 

The next Bohemian ruler of some note 
is John of Luxembourg, married to Eliza- 
beth, the last princess of the Premysl 
house, and killed, fighting for France, at 
the battle of Crecy, on the Somme 
(1346). The knightly John does little 
for Bohemia, but he gives it Karel 
(Charles IV), his and Elizabeth's son, 
who proved a god-send to the country. 

In Bohemian history he is known as 
"the father of his country." Under his 
long, wholesome, patriotic, and peace- 
ful reign (1347-1378) the whole nation 
revives and strengthens. Independence 
of the country, except for the honorable 
connection with the Roman Empire, is 
fully reestablished. Education, art, and 
architecture thrive. The University of 
Prague is founded (1348) on the basis 
of the high seat of learning established a 
century before by Otakar. The medicinal 
waters of Karlovy Vary (Carlsbad) are 
discovered and the city of the same name 
rises on the site ; and Prague, as well as 
other cities, are beautified. 

Charles is elected Emperor of the Ro- 
mans in 1348, and Bohemia stands "first 
in the world in power, wealth, progress, 
and liberty." The excellent relations of 
the country with England culminate in 
1382 in the marriage of Richard ll with 
Anne of Bohemia. 

THE MARTYRDOM OF JOHN HUSS 

But Charles is succeeded by a weak 
son, and it is not long before Bohemia 
suffers again from its old enemies. 

A great national and religious leader 
arises in the person of John IIuss. But 
Rome excommunicates John Huss and 
accuses him of heresy. lie is called to 
report to the Council at Constance and 
leaves with a written guarantee of safe 
conduct from Sigismund, the king and 
emperor, which, however, proves a "scrap 
of paper." Huss is not permitted to ade- 
quately defend the truth, nor to return ; 
he is thrown in prison ; his teachings are 
condemned; and July 6, 1415, he is mar- 
tyred by being burnt at the stake. The 
very ashes are ordered collected and cast 
into the Rhine, lest even they become 
dangerous. 



The shock of the death of Huss and of 
his fellow-reformer, Jeronym, burnt a 
little later, fire Bohemia with religious 
and patriotic zeal and lead to one of the 
most wonderful chapters in its and the 
world's history, the Hussite Wars. A 
military genius arises in Jan Zizka, and 
after him another in Prokop Holy ; a new 
system of warfare is developed, includ- 
ing the use of some frightful weapons 
and of movable fortifications formed of 
armored cars ; and for fifteen years wave 
after wave of armies and crusaders from 
all Europe, operating under the direction 
of Rome, Germany, Austria, and Hun- 
gary, are broken and destroyed, until re- 
ligious and national freedom seem more 
secure. 

As an eventual result and after many 
serious internal difficulties of religious 
nature, another glorious period follows 
for Bohemia, both politically and cultur- 
ally, under the king George Podiebrad 
(1458-1471). One of their enemies of 
this period, Pope Pius II (^neas Syl- 
vius) cannot help but say of them: "The 
Bohemians have in our times by them- 
selves gained more victories than many 
other nations have been able to win in all 
their history." And their many other 
enemies find but little more against 
them. 

No Inquisition, no evil of humanity, 
has ever originated in Bohemia. The ut- 
most reproach they receive, outside of 
the honorable "heretic," is "the hard 
heads" and "peasants." Few nations can 
boast of as clean a record. 

Bohemia's fatefui. hour 

The fateful period for Bohemia comes 
in the sixteenth century. The people are 
weakened by wars, by internal religious 
strifes. A fearful new danger threatens 
central Europe — the Turks. In 1526 the 
Bohemian king, Ludvik, is killed in a bat- 
tle with the Turks, assisting Hungary; 
and as there is no male descendant, the 
elective diet at Prague is influenced to 
oflFer the crown of Bohemia, under strict 
guarantees of all its rights, to the hus- 
band of Ludvik's daughter, Ferdinand of 
Habsburg, archduke of Austria. 

Hungary, too, joins the union, and the 
beginning of the eventual empire of 



Digitized by 



Google 




A SLOVAK BRIDE AND GROOM 



Photograph by Erdelyi 



Some peasant women wear huge boots like the Wellington pattern, doubtless comfortable 
foot ^ear^*^^^^^'^ against weather, but lacking in the grace traditionally expected in feminine 



i68 



Digitized by 



GooqIc 




Photograph by iCdgar K. Frank 

POWDI;R TOWER, AT PRAGUH), BOHEMIA 

There was a time when Shakespeare's shipwreck on the shores of Bohemia, described in 
**Winter's Tale," was a possibility, as the dominions of King Premysl Ottokar were washed 
by the Baltic and the Adriatic seas. A stone thrown at Prague, it has often been said, 
carries a fragment of history (see page 165). 



169 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by D. W. Iddings, Keystone View Co. 
GENERAL VIEW OF PRAGUE FROM THE PETRIN HILL 



Austria has been effected. Continuous 
wars with the Turks and a terrible plague 
further weaken the Czechs. 

Ferdinand proves a scourge. Religious 
persecution and then general oppression 
of Bohemia follow. The freely chosen 
king becomes tyrant and before long the 
greatest enemy of Bohemia. Backed by 
the rest of his dominion, by Rome and 
Spain, he tramples over the privileges of 
Bohemia ; depletes its man-power as well 
as treasury; by subterfuge or treachery 
occupies Prague and other cities, and 
follows with bloody reprisals and con- 
fiscations, which lead to an era of ruth- 
lessness and suffering such as the coun- 
try has not experienced in its history. 
The weakened state of the country allows 



of no effective protest, and of its former 
allies or friends none are strong enough 
to offer effective help. 

THE TYRANNY OF FERDINAND 

Yet even worse was to come from the 
Habsburgs, the association with whom 
for Bohemia was from the beginning of 
the greatest misfortune. During the 
reign of Ferdinand's immediate succes- 
sors there is a breathing spell for the 
Czechs; but in 1616 another Habsburg. 
Ferdinand II, again under force of cir- 
cumstances, is elected king of Bohemia, 
only to prove its greatest tyrant. Within 
two years the Bohemians are in open 
revolt, and in another year the king is 
deposed. 



170 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from R. D. Szalatnay 
A BOHEMIAN PEASANT GIRL WORKING ON A PIECE OF EMBROIDERY 

Many of the Czech as well as Slovak embroideries are ethnological documents as well as 

most interesting works of art 



171 



Digitized by 



Google 




172 



Digitized by 



Google 




173 



Digitized by 



Google 




o 

> 

OS 

< 









-J 



:3 o 



a - 



^ < 



< 






O 

o 



174 



Digitized by 



Google 



BOHEMIA AND THE CZECHS 



175 



The stranger elected in his place, 
Frederick of the Palatinate, son-in-law 
of the King of England, however, proves 
an incompetent weakling. The Czech 
armies are disorganized, and November 
8, 1620, the main force of 20,000 is de- 
feated at Bila Hora, near Prague, by an 
army of Germans, Spaniards, Walloons, 
Poles, Cossacks, and Bavarians. 

The following part of the Bohemian 
history should be read in detail by all its 
friends — ^by all friends of humanity. It 
is a most instructive, though most grue- 
some, part of the history, not merely of 
Bohemia, but of Europe, of civilization. 
In Bohemia itself it is a period of con- 
centrated fiendishness under the banner 
of religion, and of suffering, of thirty 
years duration. Beginning with whole- 
sale executions, it progresses to the 
forced exile of over 30,000 of the best 
families of the country, with confiscation 
of their property, and to orgies of de- 
struction of property and life. 

Under the leadership of fanatics, every 
house, every nook, is searched for books 
and writings, and these are burned in the 
public squares "to eradicate the devil" of 
reformation. Rapine reigns, until there 
is nothing more to burn, nothing to take, 
and until three-quarters of the population 
have gone or perished — 2l dreary monu- 
ment to the Habsburg dynasty, to the 
status of mankind in the 17th century. 

Had not Germany itself been ravaged 
by the religious wars thus kindled, this 
period would probably have been the last 
of the Czechs ; as it was, there were not 
enough Germans left for colonizing other 
countries. Yet many came in the course 
of time, as settlers. German becomes 
the language of commerce, of courts, of 
all public transactions; the university is 
German, and in schools the native tongue 
finds barely space in the lowest grades. 

Books have been burnt, educated pa- 
triotic men and women driven from the 
country, memories perv^erted. It would 
surely seem that the light of the nation 
would now, if ever, become extinct. And 
it becomes obscured for generations — yet 
is not extinguished. The roots of the 
stock prove too strong and healthy. 

The people sleep for 150 years, but it 
is a sleep of rest, not death — a sleep heal- 



ing wounds and allowing of a slow gath- 
ering of new forces. 

BOHKMIA RKAWAK^NEX) 

Toward the end of the eighteenth cen- 
tury the Czech language is almost wholly 
that of the untutored peasant. But the 
time of quickening approaches. First 
one cell, one nerve, one limb of the pros- 
trate body revives ; then others. The his- 
tory of the nation is resurrected and 
proves an elixir of life; to learn it is 
to a Czech enough for a complete awak- 
ening. But the awakening period ber 
.comes one of constant struggle against 
all the old forces that would keep him 
down; yet step by step he advances, ovef 
prisons and gallows. 

Literature, science, art arise again; 
journalism begins to develop. The uni- 
versity is regained ; Prague, the "mother*' 
of Bohemian cities, is regained, and 
others follow. Education reaches a higher 
level ultimately than anywhere else in 
Austria. A great national society of So- 
kols ("falcons") is formed to elevate the 
people physically, intellectually, and mor- 
ally. 

Bohemian literature, music, art, science 
come against all obstacles to occupy again 
an honorable position among those of 
other nations. 

Agricultural and technical training 
progresses until the country is once more 
the richest part of the empire. Finally 
journalism has developed until, just be- 
fore the war, there are hundreds of Czech 
periodicals. The Czech language is again 
heard in the courts, in high circles, in the 
Austrian Reichstag itself; and, though 
still crippled, there is again a Bohemian 
Diet. 

Where after the Thirty Years' War 
there were but a few hundred thousands 
of Czechs left, there are now in Bohemia, 
Moravia, and Silesia alone seven mil- 
lions; besides which there are over two 
million Slovaks in the adjacent area 
under Hungary. 

Such is the very brief and imperfect 
abstract of the history of the Czech peo- 
ple, who see once more before them the 
dawn of liberty which they so long cher- 
ished. 



Digitized by 



Google 



176 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



WHAT HAVE THE BOHEMIANS ACCOM- 
PUSHED AS A NATIONALITY? 

It may be well to quote on this subject 
a paragraph from an American author, 
Robert H. Vickers (History of Bohemia, 
8°, Chicago, 1894, p. 319) :* "The fixed 
rights, the firm institutions, and the un- 
failing gallantry of Bohemia during 
eight hundred years had constituted a 
strong barrier against the anarchy of the 
darkest ages. The manly independence 
and the solicitude for individual political 
rights always exhibited by the Bohemian 
people have rendered them the teachers of 
nations; and their principles and parlia- 
mentary constitution have gradually pen- 
etrated into every country under heaven. 

"They protected and preserved the 
rights of men during long ages when 
those rights were elsewhere unknown or 
trampled down. Bohemia has been the 
birthplace and the shelter of the modern 
politics of freedom." 

But Bohemia has also been for centu- 
ries the culture center of central Europe. 
Its university, founded in 1348, at once 
for the Czechs, Poles, and Germans, not 
only antedated all those in Germany and 
Austria, but up to the Hussite wars was, 
with that of Paris, the most important of 
the continent. In 1409, when the Ger- 
man contingent of the university, failing 
in its eflforts at controlling the institution, 
left Prague to found a true German uni- 
versity at Leipzig, the estimates of the 
number of students, instructors, and at- 
tendants who departed average over 
10,000. 

WYCLIFFE ENCOURAGES THE CZECHS 

Sigismund, the emperor and deposed 
king of Bohemia, in writing of it, in 141 6, 
to the Council of Constance, says : "That 
splendid University of Prague was 
counted among the rarest jewels of our 
realm. . . . Into it flowed, from all 
parts of Germany, youths and men of 
mature years alike, through love of vir- 
tue and study, who, seeking the treasures 
of knowledge and philosophy, found 
them there in abundance." 

Last, but not least, Bohemia led in the 

*See also W. S. Monroe, Bohemia and the 
Czechs, Boston, 1910. 



great struggle for freedom of thought, 
religious reformation. Encouraged by 
the writings of Wycliffe, in England, and 
by such meager sympathy from conti- 
nental Europe as they could obtain in 
those dark times, the Czech puritans, re- 
gardless of the dire consequences which 
they knew must follow, rose in open, bold 
opposition to the intellectual slavery in 
which nearly the whole of Europe was 
then held. They paid for this with their 
blood, and almost with the existence of 
the nation; but Luther and a thousand 
other reformers arose in other lands to 
continue on the road of liberation. 

For a small nation, not without the 
usual human faults, and distracted by 
unending struggles for its very existence, 
the above contributions to the world dur- 
ing the dark age of its rising civilization, 
would seem sufficient for an honorable 
place in history. 

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CZECHS 

As to the modern achievements of the 
nation, they follow largely in the foot- 
steps of the old. Notwithstanding the 
most bitter struggle for every right of 
their own, the Czechs have extended a 
helpful hand to all other branches of the 
Slavs, in whose intellectual advance and 
solidarity they see the best guarantee of 
a peaceful future. They have extended 
their great organization Sokol, which 
stands for national discipline, with phys- 
ical and mental soundness, among all the 
Slavic nations, and they are sending 
freely their teachers over the Slav world, 
and this while still under the Habsburgs. 

To attempt to define the characteristics 
of a whole people is a matter of difficulty 
and serious responsibility even for one 
descended from and well acquainted with 
that people. Moreover, under modern 
conditions of intercourse of men and na- 
tions, with the inevitable admixtures of 
blood, the characteristics of individual 
groups or strains of the race tend to be- 
come weaker and obscured. 

Thus the Czech of today is not wholly 
the Czech of the fifteenth century, and to 
a casual observer may appear to differ 
but little from his neighbors. Yet he 
diflFers, and under modern polish and the 
more or less perceptible effects of cen- 



Digitized by 



Google 







^m^ 



Photograph from Francis P. Marchant 

THE TYN CHURCH OF PRAGUIv (FORMERLY HUSSITE CHURCH) 

Prague is also known as "the city of hundred towers (or steeples)"; but the towers are now 
irfeless; their great sonorous bells have been confiscated for Austrian cannon 



177 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by A. W. Cutler 

SLOVAKS AT POSTYEN ATTENDING A CELEBRATION OF MASS ON SUNDAY MORNING 

There being no room in the church, these devout people take part in the services outside; 
even when the ground is wet and muddy they kneel thereon 



178 



Digitized by 



Google 



BOHEMIA AND THE CZECHS 



179 



turies of oppression, is still in a large 
measure the Czech of the old. 

He is kind and with a stock of native 
humor. He is musical, loves songs, 
poetr>% art, nature, fellowship, the other 
sex. He is an intent thinker and restless 
seeker of truth, of learning, but no apt 
schemer. He is ambitious, and covetous 
of freedom in the broadest sense, but 
tendencies to domineering, oppression, 
power by force over others, are foreign 
to his nature. He ardently searches for 
(^od and is inclined to be deeply religious, 
but is impatient of dogma, as of all other 
undue restraint. 

He may be opinionated, stubborn, but 
is happy to accept facts and recognize 
true superiority. He is easily hurt and 
does not forget the injury ; will fight, but 
is not lastingly revengeful or vicious. 
He is not cold, calculating, thin-lipped, 
nor again as inflammable as the Pole or 
the southern Slav, but is sympathetic and 
full of trust, and through this often open 
to imposition. 

His endurance and bravery in war for 
a cause which he approved were prover- 
bial, as was also his hospitality in peace. 

He is often highly capable in lan- 
guages, science, literary and technical 
education, and is inventive, as well as in- 
dustrial, but not commercial. Imagina- 
tive, artistic, creative, rather than frigidly 
practical. Inclined at times to* melan- 
choly, brooding, pessimism, he is yet deep 
at heart for ever buoyant, optimistic, 
hopeful — ^hopeful not of possessions or 
power, but of human happiness, and of 
the freedom and future golden age of not 
merely his own, but all people. 

COMENIUS — ONE OF THE GREAT MEN OF 
ALL TIME 

Every nation has its local heroes, local 
geniuses, but these mean little for the rest 
of the world. Bohemia had a due share 
of such among its kings, reformers, gen- 
erals, and especially writers; but it also 
gave the world many a son whose work 
was of importance for humanity in gen- 
eral and whose fame is international. 
Not a few of these were exiles or emi- 
grants from the country of their birth, 
who, having settled permanently abroad, 
are only too readily credited to the coun- 



try that gave them asylum. Germany 
and Austria, as the nearest geographic- 
ally and with a language that the Czech 
youth were forced to learn, received most 
of such accessions; but some reached 
Holland, France, England, and even 
America. 

One of the most honored names in the 
universal history of pedagogy is that of 
the Czech patriot and exile, Jan Amos 
Komensky, or Comenius (i 592-1 671), 
the last bishop of the Bohemian Brethren. 

Driven away, in 1624, after all his books 
and manuscripts were taken and' burnt, 
he settles for a time in Poland, then in 
Holland. His pedagogical writings con- 
stitute the foundations of moc'ern educa- 
tion. His best-known works in this con- 
nection are Jamia linguarum reserata 
(1631), Labyrinth of the World (1631), 
Opera didactica magna (1657), and Orbis 
pictus (1658). This latter work is the 
first children's picture-book. He con- 
demns the system of mere memorizing in 
school, then in use, and urges that the 
scholar be taught to think. Teaching 
should be, as far as possible, demonstra- 
tive, directed to nature, and develop 
habits of individual observation. 

All children, without exception — rich 
or .poor, noble or common — should re- 
ceit'e schooling, and all should learn to 
the limits of their possibilities. "They 
should learn to observe all things of im- 
portance, to reflect on the cause of their 
being as they are, and on their interrela- 
tions and utility ; for the children are 
destined to be not merely spectators in 
this world, but active participants." 

"Languages should be taught, like the 
mother tongue, by conversation on ordi- 
nary topics; pictures, object lessons, 
should be used ; teaching should go hand 
in hand with a happy hfe. In his course 
he included singing, economy, politics, 
world history, geography, and the arts 
and handicrafts. He was one of the first 
to advocate teaching science in schools." 

The child should "learn to do by do- 
ing." Education should be made pleas- 
ant ; the parents should be friends of the 
teachers ; the school-room should be spa- 
cious, and each school should have a good 
place for play and recreation. 



Digitized by 



Google 




A PUBLIC SCHOOL IN PRAGUE, BOHEMIA 

The Czech philosopher Comenius, who lived during the seventeenth century, the bloodiest 
of all centuries excepting our own, urged that all children, rich and poor, should be taught 
to read and write. His teachings were in part responsible for the compulsory education of 
all American children early enforced by American colonists (see pages 179 and 184). 




Photographs from R. D. Szalatnay 
GENERAL VIEW OF THE OLD CITY OF PRAGUE AND THE RIVER VLTAVA, WHICH THE 
COMPOSER DVORAK IMMORTALIZED IN A MUSICAL POEM 



180 



Digitized by 



Google 



BOHEMIA AND THE CZECHS 



183 



in Europe from the old Bohemian his- 
torians. His historical works, as well as 
his statesmanship and other important 
activities, bring him the name of the 
"father of the nation." He is regarded 
as the foremost Bohemian of the nine- 
teenth century; and his monument in 
Prague is one of the most remarkable 
works of art in Europe. 

In the line of invention this earlier 
period gives Prokop Divis (1696-1765), 
the discoverer of the lightning rod 
(1754), and Josef Ressl (1793- 1857), the 
inventor of the screw propeller. 

In science and medicine there stand 
foremost Jan Evang. Purkinje (1787- 
1869), founder of the first physiological 
institute in Germany and father of ex- 
perimental physiology ; Karel Rokytanski 
(1804-1878), the most deserving pioneer 
of pathological anatomy; Josef Skoda 
(1805-1881), the founder of modern 
methods of physical diagnosis of disease ; 
Edward Albert (i84i-i9i'2), the great 
surgeon of the Vienna University; Ant. 
Fric (1832-1913), the noted paleontolo- 
gist. 

BOHEMIAN COMPOSERS AND MUSICIANS 

The Bohemian pantheon is particularly 
rich in composers and musicians. Of the 
former one of the best known to the 
world is Bedi^ich Smetana (1824-1884), 
the founder of the modern school of Bo- 
hemian music and the composer, among 
many other exquisite works, of the *'Pro- 
dana Nevesta" (The Bartered Bride), a 
national opera which has appeared re- 
peatedly within the last few years at the 
Metropolitan Opera House, New York. 
The great cycle, "My Country," with the 
"Libuse" and "Dalibor," are a few other 
of his compositions. 

Anton Dvorak (1841-1904) was ad- 
mittedly the greatest composer of his 
time. His "Slavonic Dances" and his 
S3rmphonies are known everywhere. In- 
vited to this country, he was for several 
years director of the National Conserva- 
tory of Music in New York City, during 
which time he made an effort to develop 
purely American music based on native, 
and especially Indian, motives. 

Among musicians the name of Jan 



Kiibelik (1880- ) and Kocian are too 

well known in this country to need any 
introduction, and the same is true of the 
operatic stars Slezak and Emmy Destin. 

Of poets the two greatest are Svatopluk 
Cech (1846-1910) and Jaroslav Vrch- 
Hcky (1853-1912). They are not as 
well known in foreign lands as the 
Bohemian composers and musicians only 
because of the almost unsurmountable 
difficulties which attend the translation 
of their works. In novelists and other 
writers, of both sexes, Bohemia is rich, 
but as yet translations of their works 
are few in number and they remain 
comparatively unknown to the world at 
large. 

The above brief notes, which do but 
meager justice to the subject, would be 
incomplete without a brief reference to 
a few of the most noted Bohemian jour- 
nalists and statesmen of more than local 
renown. Of the former at least two need 
to be mentioned — Karel Havlicek ( 1821- 
1856), martyred by Austria, and Julius 
Greger (1831-1896), the founder of the 
Narodni Listy, the most influential of 
Bohemian journals. 

The most prominent modem statesmen 
of Bohemia are Karel Kramar (1860- 

) , since the beginning of the war in 

Austrian prison, and Thos. G. Masaryk 
(1850-....), since the war a fugitive 
from Austrian persecution, now at Ox- 
ford University, England. The sister of 
the latter is well known in this country 
and her recent liberation from a prison 
in Vienna was in no small measure due 
to the intervention of her American 
friends.* 

BOHEMIANS IN THE UNITED STATES 

It seems a far cry from Bohemia to 
this country, yet their relations are both 
of some import and ancient. The man 
who made the first maps of Maryland 
and Virginia, introduced the cultivation of 
tobacco into the latter State, and for these 
and other services became the lord of the 
"Bohemia Manor" in Maryland, was the 

♦Those who may be more closely interested 
in the more recent and still living men of note 
of Bohemia should consult Narodni (National) 
Album, Prague, 1899, which contains over 1,300 
portraits, with biographies. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by A. W. Cutler 
A SLOVAK PEASANT FAMILY IN KVERY-DAY DRESS 

Note the Norman arch; it is typical of Slovak homes. Note the fringe at bottom of 
trousers, which are pretty wide when compared with English or American trousers, but 
positively skin-tight in comparison with the trousers of a Hungarian peasant. They are a 
highly respectable, hard-working community and may be seen in large numbers throughout 
the Vag Valley. 



exiled Bohemian Jan Herman, as were 
the parents of Philip, lord of the Philip's 
Manor on the Hudson, one of whose de- 
scendants came so near becoming the 
bride of Washington. Not a few of the 
Czechs came into this country with the 
Moravian brethren; and Comenius (see 
page 179) was once invited to become the 
President of Harvard University.* 

The immigration of the Czechs into 

*"The Bohemians," E. F. Chase, N. Y., 1914. 



this country dates very largely from near 
the middle of the last century, when, fol- 
lowing the revolutionary movements of 
1848, from which Bohemia was not 
spared, persecution drove many into for- 
eign lands. During our Civil War many 
Czechs fought bravely in the armies of 
the North. 

The total number of Czechs now liv- 
ing, exclusive of Slovaks, is estimated at 
9,000,000, of whom 7,000,000 are under 
Austria-Hungary; in the United States 



184 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Krdelyi 
YOUNG SLOVAK BEAUX 

In the background are highland cottages. Note the embroidered trousers and shoes. 



there are about 500,000, of whom one- 
half were born in this country. 

They are found in practically every 
State of the Union, though the majority 
live in the Central States. Many are in- 
dependent farmers or artisans, and it is 
only fair to say that they are everywhere 
regarded as desirable citizens. They take 
active part in the political and public life 
of the country. Two United States Con- 



gressmen, a number of members of State 
legislatures, and numerous other public 
officials are of Czech descent. 

DISTINGUISHED CZECH-AMERICANS 

In American science the names of men 
like Novy (Ann Arbor), Shimek (Iowa 
University), or Zeleny . (University of 
Minnesota) are well known and honored, 
while the number of university students 



i8s 



Digitized by 



Google 




L- ^ 






Photograph by A. W. Cuticr 

SLOVAK MOTHER AND CHILD, SHOWING QUAINT CRADLES USED 

Granny, who stands behind, is wearing a very comfortable coat, made of sheepskin; the wool 
is inside. It fits well and looks well, and granny knows it. 



i86 



Digitized by 



Google 



BOHEMIA AND THE CZECHS 



187 



of Bohemian parentage is exemplified by 
the "Federation of Komensky (Come- 
nius) Educational Clubs," with its many 
branches, and by the fact that the Bohe- 
mian language is now taught at the Uni- 
versity of Nebraska and several other in- 
stitutions of higher learning. 

The true Bohemian here and elsewhere, 
as can easily be understood, has nothing 
but the bitterest feelings toward Austria, 
the stranger and usurper, who, since the 
war started, is once more in the full 
swing of his persecutions. The Czech 
sympathies are wholly with Belgium, 
Russia, Serbia, France, and Great Brit- 
ain. And what is true of the Czechs is 
also true of the Slovaks, who suffer even 
more under Magyar oppression. 



The Czechs and Slovaks in Austria- 
Hungary fight only under compulsion; 
their unwilling regiments were deci- 
mated ; their political and national leaders 
fill the Austrian and Hungarian prisons. 
Thousands of Bohemian and Slovak vol- 
unteers are fighting enthusiastically under 
the banners of France and Great Britain, 
and there are whole regiments of them 
attached to the Russian army. 

Here in the United States the very word 
of Austria sounds strange and unnatural 
to the Bohemian. They have found here 
their permanent home, and while hoping 
and even working for the eventual free- 
dom of Bohemia, and proud of their de- 
scent from the Czech people, they are, 
citizens or not yet citizens, all loyal 
Americans. 



FRAUDULENT SOLICITORS 



THK ATTENTION OF THE MEMBERS of the National Geographic Society is invited 
to the fact that we are receiving reports of the activities of many fraudulent 
agents who are operating in various sections of the country, representing them- 
selves to be authorized "agents" of the National Geographic Society. We are 
advised that these persons solicit membership in the Society and subscription to 
the Magazine at a reduced price. 

Many complaints have been received from persons who have paid in advance 
for maps and other publications of the Society which, of course, they have never 
received, since no knowledge of the transactions ever came to us. 

The National Geographic Society has no authorized agqnts and employs no 
solicitors in the field. Therefore it is suggested that members of the Society send 
direct to the Society all orders, remittances, or communications of any kind. 

Should you hear of any person claiming to be an authorized representative of 
the Society and soliciting orders, you will render a great service if you will imme- 
diately telegraph the facts to the National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. 



Digitized by 



Google 




A CITIZEN OF BAGD.\D 

For descriptions of Mesopotamia and Bagdad, the City of the Caliphs, recently captured 
by the British forces, see "The Cradle of Civilization," by James Baikie, and "Pushing Back 
History's Horizon," by Albert T. Clay, National, Geographic Magazine, February, 1916; 
and "Where Adam and Eve Lived" and "Mystic Nedjef," by Margaret and Frederick Simpidi, 
Nationai, Geographic Magazine, December, 1914. 



188 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from George ly. Robinson 
ABRAHAM^S OAK, NEAR HEBRON, PRESERVED BY THE RUSSIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH 

Abraham, wandering slowly with his possessions of cattle, sheep, and goats, made his 
headquarters for a long time at the oak of Mamre. Here it was that Sarah died, and 
Abraham wept to Ephron, the Hittite, and bargained for the cave of Machpelah for a 
burial place. 

For articles on the Holy Land in the National, Geographic Magazine, see "From 
Jerusalem to Aleppo," January, 1913; "ViUage Life in the Holy Land," March, 1914; "Jerusa- 
lem's Locust Plague," December, 191 5 — all by John D. Whiting. 



189 



Digitized by 



Google 




Digitized by 



Google 








^o 


c 




'C c 


i 




•^•rt 


c 




w ♦i 






•«-> c 


-S 




<J 3 


& 




-5 o 


J 






o 




crjj 


^ 




rt^ 


J 






E 




«5 








c 




?l 


1 


^ 






£ rt 


^ 


o <« 


&. 




W 


O.w 




K 


CO 




o 


^1 




>: 


•B** 




< 


o « 




^ 


eu:S 






<U«4-I 




-c o 




55 


'^'u 




O 






tn 








II 




g 


■g& 




t/3 


'c « 




•> 






o 




^ 


(/) 




o 


- ^ 




J 


»- 5 




o 


< s 




c/) 


rt 




Q 
/5 


is 




< 


^•g 




0$ 


i^ 




(H 






3 


Z^ 




en 






y 


Z5 S 




rt C 




3 


> 




n 


*- 6 




^ 


S S 




pii 


&^ 




o 


^"^ 




^ 


*^ a> 




< 


»*H a 




o o 
















:2; 


'u 




w 


^ o. 






•5 "^ 




u 






/5 


1;^ c 




< 


perennial springs : 
supply from dista 
Song. 










<v uJ^ 






o cj c 






-•5 o 






c t: e 










t*-l -^ 






o 






rtV3 



IQI 



Digitized by 



Google 




192 



Digitized by 



Google 



Vol. XXXI, No. 3 



WASHINGTON 



March, 1917 




THE 

NATDONAL 

GEOGIAFMIIIC 

AGAZHM 




WHAT GREAT BRITAIN IS DOING 

By Sydney Brooks 



THERE was a very striking pas- 
sage in the speech which Mr. 
Lloyd-George recently delivered at 
the Guildhall soon after his return from 
the Allied conference at Rome. "There 
is one thing/' he said, "that struck me 
and that strikes me more and more each 
time I attend these conferences and visit 
the Continent— I mean the increasing ex- 
tent to which the Allied peoples are look- 
ing to Great Britain. They are trusting 
her rugged strength and great resources 
more and more. She is to them like a 
great tower in the deep. She is becom- 
ing more and more the hope of the op- 
pressed and the despair of the oppressor, 
and I feel confident that we shall not fail 
the people who have put their trust in 
us." 

It would be singularly unbecoming on 
the part of any British subject to seek to 
exalt the contribution that his own coun- 
try is making to the common cause above 
that of any of the Allies. We can never 
forget our obligation to Belgium's heroic 
stand in crucial days, to the impassable 
wall of steel maintained by unselfish 
France until we could raise, train, and 
equip our armies, and to the brave and 
effective efforts of Russia in the east and 
united Italy to the south. 

If we are now in a position to do rather 
more than any of them, it is because we 
have suffered less, because we have been 
spared the well-nigh mortal blow of an 
invasion of our territory, and because 
time has been vouchsafed to us in which 



to develop and organize our power. But 
there need be nothing vainglorious — 
nothing, indeed, but a sober recognition 
of facts and their responsibilities — in sub- 
scribing to Mr. Lloyd-George's estimate 
of the present situation. 

Those who looked at the war with dis- 
cerning eyes knew from its very begin- 
ning that Great Britain was, and could 
not help being, the linch-pin of the whole 
alliance. It has taken curiously long for 
that elementary fact to sink into the gen- 
eral consciousness. America, I should 
say, is only just beginning to realize it. 
No doubt it is largely our own fault. 

If we had even one-tenth of the Ger- 
man genius for self-advertisement, the 
world would long ago have understood 
that without British power the Allies 
could never have withstood the Prussian 
onset, and that with British power an 
Allied victory — complete, smashing, and 
final — is as certain as the rising of to- 
morrow's sun. 

As it is, Americans in general seem 
even now to have but an imperfect idea 
of what Great Britain has accomplished 
in this war. It is not, in my judgment, 
that they do not wish to know. It is 
mainly, I think, that they have been de- 
luded by our old and deceptive trick of 
taking what we do well for granted and 
saying nothing about it, while we shriek 
our blunders from the housetops. 

We are by all odds the worst adver- 
tisers in the world. We are the most in- 
veterate self -detractors in the world. We 



Digitized by 



Google 




Digitized by 



Google 



WHAT GREAT BRITAIN IS DOING 



195 



are the most persistent grumblers in the 
world. Nothing that other people say 
about Englishmen can ever hope to equal 
what Englishmen say about themselves. 

And, being a strong, rebellious, self- 
sufficient people, tirelessly given to speak- 
ing out, we have naturally found in the 
dislocations and drama and surprises of 
the war an endless theme for self -de- 
preciation. 

Mr. Dooley once accused us of doing 
our national housecleaning by sweeping 
things under the sofa and sprinkling the 
walls with eau de cologne. There has 
been none of that in this war. We have 
published every blunder, we have exposed 
every shortcoming, we have taken every 
opportunity of informing our rulers in 
the plainest possible language just what 
we thought of them. 

THE WAY OF DEMOCRATIC PEOPLES 

Compared with the silence of Prus- 
sia — a silence never deeper than when 
concealing some untoward incident, some 
prodigious miscalculation — our British 
turmoil has seemed a token of confusion 
and inefficiency ; but in reality it has been 
just the rough, wholesome, Anglo-Amer- 
ican, democratic way of doing things. 
That is how all self-governing peoples 
who are used to free speech and who are 
not used to the discipline of universal 
military service must inevitably act when 
caught in a great crisis and obliged to 
shift the whole basis of public and pri- 
vate life in order to strip themselves for 
a fight for existence. 

The Prussians from the first day of the 
war have shown themselves consummate 
masters of the art of magnifying all their 
successes and minimizing all their fail- 
ures. Mirabeau more than a hundred 
years ago declared, and declared truly, 
that war was the national industry of 
Prussia. But Prussia since then has sup- 
plemented that industry with another — 
the manufacture of opinion, and not 
merely German opinion, but foreign opin- 
ion. The submissive intelligence of her 
own people she can, of course, mould as 
she pleases; but it is astonishing how 
often she succeeds in imposing upon dis- 
passionate and even hostile onlookers in 
neutral lands. 



At this game of words and appearances 
and making out a case she leaves every 
one of the Allies, and indeed all of them 
combined, very far in the rear. 

Take, for instance, the Roumanian 
campaign of last fall. It was unques- 
tionably a German military success. But 
it was nothing like the success that head- 
quarters in Berlin tried to make out and 
that Americans were very largely induced 
to believe. 

All those tales that came clicking over 
the wireless of the capture of huge stores 
of grain and oil were fables out of whole 
cloth. The Allies set fire to the oil wells 
one by one as the Roumanians retreated 
and removed or destroyed just as sys- 
tematically almost the whole supply of 
foodstuffs. 

The present position is that while the 
great bulk of Roumania has been over- 
run, from one-half to two-thirds of the 
Roumanian army is still intact, is being 
reformed and rearmed for the coming 
offensive, and that the Germans have to 
maintain an extra 300 miles of front that 
would not have been added to their com- 
mitments had Roumania remained neu- 
tral. From the standpoint of the war as 
a whole, we have, for the time being, but 
I agree quite unnecessarily, and as the 
result of some bad bungling somewhere, 
lost a pawn, and a pawn that, if em- 
ployed in another direction, might and 
should have been extremely useful. 

But Prussia has gained nothing ex- 
cept a barren kudos ; the Roumanian ter- 
ritories she occupies are a liability and 
not an asset ; to defend them she has to 
draw upon her swiftly diminishing re- 
sources of man-power ; a few more such 
victories and she would be undone. Yet 
she has undoubtedly managed to fill the 
unthinking public in more than one neu- 
tral land with the idea that her successes 
in Roumania were in some sort a turning 
point in the war. I have read I know 
not how many articles in the American 
press gravely admonishing us to give up 
the Balkans as a bad job and withdraw 
our forces around Saloniki. 

EXAGGERATIONS ARE AVOIDED 

And in the same way it has been very 
noticeable how skilfully the Prussians be- 



Digitized by 



Google 



196 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



littled and how carefully the British and 
the French refrained from exaggerating 
the significance of the great retreat from 
the Somme. 

The moral to be drawn is, I think, this : 
that you can cut all Prussian boastings 
and all British lamentations in half, and 
that when the Prussians are silent it is a 
sign of failure and when the British are 
silent it is a proof that all is going w^ell. 
One could easily multiply instances of 
this. 

Take, for example, our intelligence serv- 
ice. You never hear anything of it. It 
works as a secret service ought to work — 
in secret. It enjoys not one-half of the 
reputation, it attracts not one-tenth of 
the notoriety, of the German intelligence 
service. Yet those who are at all behind 
the scenes know very well that there is 
precious little hidden from it in any part 
of the world where it is at work and, 
least of all, at the front. What our men 
do not find out about the numbers, dis- 
tribution, equipment, and morale of the 
German troops along the Somme may 
safely be. left out of the reckoning. 

Similarly, without saying much about 
it, we quietly at the beginning, or, rather, 
before the beginning, of the war, rounded 
up all the Prussian spies in the British 
Isles, and have so handled matters that 
none of their successors, to the best of 
my knowledge and belief, has done us 
any appreciable harm. 

This policy of leaving what we do well 
to speak for itself has been closely fol- 
lowed in the case of our flying corps and 
our submarines. We have no aviation 
heroes. In fact, we rather make a point 
of having as few heroes of any kind as 
possible. There are at least a dozen of 
our flying men whose records in bringing 
down enemy machines would compare 
quite favorably with those of the much- 
trumpeted German champions — Immel- 
mann and Boelcke. 

But we never hear of them. Their 
doings are merged in the general record 
of our armies at the front, where divi- 
sions are very rarely named, regiments 
and battalions scarcely at all, and indi- 
viduals practically never. Instead of the 
flashy prominence of a few men here and 
there, we are quite content to shelter be- 



hind the anonymous but incontestable 
superiority of our flying corps as a 
whole — a superiority so great that during 
the latter months of the battle of the 
Somme the Germans were virtually fight- 
ing blindfold. 

PRUSSIAN SUBMARINES INEFFECTIVE 

And just as we never advertise the 
feats of our armies, so we allow the 
world to think that the Prussians are hav- 
ing it pretty much their own way with 
their submarines. As a matter of fact, 
the German submarines have scored very 
few legitimate successes — by which I 
mean successes that conform to the 
usages of civilized warfare. It must be 
nearly two years since they sank any 
British men-of-war of any importance. 

As pirates preying upon fishing smacks, 
trawlers, Atlantic liners, and the mer- 
chantmen of all nations, they have added 
a new and infamous chapter to naval his- 
tory. Otherwise it is, I believe, the opin- 
ion of most naval men that in German 
hands the submarine has proved disap- 
pointingly ineflfective. 

What the British submarines have ac- 
complished in the Dardanelles, in the Sea 
of ^larmora, and in the Baltic has been 
far more remarkable, though far less 
known, than the exploits of the German 
U-boats. 

Moreover, it has to be remembered that 
the Germans have something like a hun- 
dred chances to our one; that our fleets 
are constantly cruising in the North Sea, 
where the German dreadnoughts and 
cruisers very rarely venture ; and that if 
our submarines had been offered any- 
thing like the opportunities we are cease- 
lessly dangling before the Germans, and 
if by now they had not sent several Ger- 
man battleships to the bottom of the sea, 
the world would have justly said that 
they had bungled their business. 

People, I remember, were thrown into 
a state of quite unbalanced admiration 
when the Dcutschland appeared in Amer- 
ican waters. It was spoken of as one of 
the most remarkable achievements of the 
war. Few stopped to remember — even 
indeed if they ever knew — that the war 
was only a few months old when ten 
British submarines crossed the Atlantic 



Digitized by 



Google 




CASTING THIRTY TONS OF MOLTEN STEEL IN ONE OF CANADA'S LARGE STEEL PLANTS 

"The rally of the Empire to the side of the motherland has, indeed, been one of the most 
marvelous and one of the most momentous episodes of the war. ... When the storm 
gathered, the Dominions said with one voice : 'Whatever happens, we are with you.* When it 
burst, they said : 'Everx-thing we have is yours.* " 



197 



Digitized by 



Google 



198 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



from Halifax to the British Isles — the 
first submarines in naval history to make 
the journey under their own power. 

We could, of course, if we liked, if we 
were given to that kind of grand-stand 
play, arrange for a succession of British 
submarines to pop up with the most dra- 
matic effect in every single one of the 
American east coast harbors. But as we 
prefer the realities of sea-power to its 
tinsel, the inducement to any such theat- 
ricalities is largely lacking. ' 

THE SILENT VOICE 

Similarly, while we publish a list of all 
the vessels sunk by Prussian submarines, 
we say not a word about the U-boats 
whose careers are brought to a sudden 
stop. For myself, I honestly do not know 
how many of them we have caught, sunk^ 
or destroyed. It may be i8o; it may be 
200 ; it may be 220. They come out and 
they do not return, and there is no one in 
Germany, and perhaps not half a dozen 
people in England, who know what be- 
comes of them. 

The reasons for our secrecy must be 
tolerably obvious to any one who thinks 
the matter over. All that the Germans 
are able to infer from the failure of any 
given U-boat to return to port is that 
somehow or other it has been lost. But 
how or where they cannot tell. 

It may have been through some error 
of structure or design — a thought to send 
a chill down the spine of every admiralty 
6fficial. It may have been through a mis- 
take in navigation. It may have been 
fli rough one or other of the endless and 
constantly changing devices that P>ritish 
ingenuity has evolved and brought into 
play against the new piracy. It may, too, 
have happened near the German coast or 
^fter the U-boat had reached its ap- 
pointed station. They cannot tell. 

T^hey are faced with a blank wall of pos- 
sibilities that they have no means of veri- 
fying. Weeks must often elapse before 
they can be sure that a submarine which 
they thought was operating in a certain 
area had really perished, and that another 
boat should be dispatched to take its place. 

And from another point of view the 
reasons for reticence are not less urgent. 
The British admiralty is frequently un- 



able itself to decide from the reports of 
the naval officers who have come to grips 
with the submarines whether the. enemy 
vessel was actually destroyed. Some 
cases are clear ; in many there is a margin 
of doubt; and there can be no question 
that it is better to say nothing at all than 
to put forward official claims which can- 
not be substantiated and which the enemy 
may be in a position to disprove. 
- Sometimes, however, the veil of mys- 
tery is partially lifted. Sometimes a Ger- 
man U-boat is towed up the Thames, 
moored to the embankment, and from 
$75,000 to $100,000 collected for some 
naval charity by throwing it open to the 
public. Sometimes if you are dining with 
a naval officer you will hear wondrous 
tales of submarines netted, bombed by 
aeroplanes even when they are well below 
the surface, hunted and caught by de- 
stroyers, induced by one ruse after an- 
other to show themselves where they can 
be got at. 

Sometimes, too, in a British port the 
men of the merchant marine will tell you 
of Homeric combats that would have 
warmed the heart of Nelson and Farra- 
gut and made Drake and Frobisher gasp 
and stare. 

But these are mere haphazard personal 
gleanings. No one knows the full extent 
of the harvest or how it has been gath- 
ered in. But we do know enough — or at 
any rate we think we do — to feel fairly 
confident that the Germans can attempt 
nothing and can invent nothing that we 
cannot find the means of countering ; and 
that confidence has been rather more than 
justified by all that has happened since 
February i. 

With the Prussians succeeding in sink- 
ing only about one in every hundred 
ships that enter or leave the British 
ports ; with three-fourths of all our mer- 
chant ment that are armed successfully 
resisting destruction; with the speeding 
up of shipbuilding and the multiplication 
of means of defense; with both imports 
and exports not merely not falling off. 
but steadily and positively increasing — 
with these as the first fruits of the in- 
tensified submarine campaign, w-e feel 
that while there may be cause for appre- 
hension, there is little or none for alarm. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by F. J. Koch 



AN OBJECT LESSON IN HIGHIvAND KIT PACICING 



THE REASONS OF BRITAIN'S POWER 

But unquestionably our habit of not 
talking except when things are going 
awry has led to some curious misunder- . 
standings and underestimates of the 
scope and character of the British effort ; 
and I can well imagine that Mr. Lloyd- 
George's statement, with which I opened 
this article — his statement about the in- 
creasing dependence of all the Allies upon 
Great Britain and about the main burden 
of the war falling on our shoulders — must 
have been received by many Americans 
with something like incredulity. 

It is worth while, therefore, to examine 
it more closely and to inquire in some 
detail what it is that has given Great 
Britain in this immeasurable cataclysm 
her extraordinary position as the axle on 
which all else depends. 

It is, first, her naval power; it is, sec- 
ondly, her wealth ; thirdly, it is her indus- 
trial resources ; fourthly, it is that serene 
and silent doggedness in the national 
character which in two and a half years 



has converted a^n unarmed, commercial, 
and rather easy-going nation into a mili- 
tary povyer of the very first rank, and 
that animates all the Allies with the 
knowledge., that Great Britain can be re- 
lied, upon to the uttermost. 

THE BRITISH FLEET 

I like to think of some future Mahan 
using the history of this war to point the 
deadly realities of sea-power. He will 
need no other example. Everything that 
naval supremacy means or can ever mean 
has been taught in the past 32 months in 
a fashion that he who runs may read. 

Suppose Great Britain had remained 
neutral and the British navy had never 
moved. What would have happened? 
The German and Austrian dreadnoughts, 
with a five-to-one preponderance over 
the combined dreadnought strength of 
France and Russia, would have held an 
easy command over the sea. Germany 
could then have supplemented her land 
attack by disembarking troops on both 



199 



Digitized by 



Google 



r 




Digitized by ViiOO^lC 



'^ 



WHAT GREAT BRITAIN IS DOING 



201 



the Russian and the French coasts in the 
rear of the Russian and French armies ; 
she would have shut off all the French 
oversea trade; she would have captured 
or destroyed or driven into port practi- 
cally the whole of the French and Rus- 
sian merchant marine; France would 
have been blockaded ; with her chief in- 
dustrial provinces in German occupation, 
she would have been prevented from im- 
porting any food, any raw material, any 
munitions; while Germany would have 
been free to draw on the resources of the 
entire world. In less than six months, 
for all her magnificent valor, France 
could not but have succumbed. 

That was the Prussian calculation and 
it was a perfectly sound one ; but it fell 
like a house of cards when Great Britain 
intervened. Instead of securing at once 
the command of the sea, Germany lost it 
at once. Everything that she had hoped 
to inflict upon France and Russia by 
maritime supremacy was in fact inflicted 
upon herself. What has made it possible 
for us to land some 2,000,000 men on the 
Continent of Europe, equipped with every 
single item in the infinitely varied para- 
phernalia of modern war? 

AN UBIQUITOUS AND UNSHAKABLE POWER 

How have we been able to conduct 
simultaneous campaigns in Egypt, East 
Africa, the Cameroons, Southwest Af- 
rica, the Balkans, and the Pacific ? There 
are Russian troops fighting at this mo- 
ment in France and round Saloniki. How 
did they get there ? 

From all the ends of the earth British 
subjects in hundreds upon hundreds of 
thousands have flocked to the central 
battlefield. What agency convoyed them ? 
WTiat power protected them ? 

The United States has built up with 
the Allies a trade that throws all previous 
American experience of foreign com- 
merce into the shade. But how many 
Americans, I wonder, stop to ask them- 
selves how it is that this vast volume of 
merchandise has crossed the Atlantic in 
the midst of the greatest war in all his- 
tory almost as swiftly and securely as in 
the days of profoundest peace? 

One by one Germany's colonies have 
been torn from her grasp — those over- 



sea possessions the children of so many 
hopes, the scenes of such unremitting 
labor, the nursing plots of such vast am- 
bitions; and not a single blow has been 
struck in defense of them by the father- 
land itself. One and all have had to rely 
on their own isolated and local efforts. 

They have looked in vain to Germany. 
Germany — paralyzed by what power? 
held down in helplessness by what mys- 
terious spell? — has impotently watched 
her beginnings of a world-wide empire 
shattered beneath her eyes. 

How is It, again, that the Belgian arm} 
has been rearmed, reconstituted, and re 
equipped? How is it that the Serbian 
forces have similarly been rescued and 
remade ? How is it that Russia has been 
remunitioned, that Italy has been enabled 
to overcome her natural deficiencies, thai 
France, in spite of the loss of some oi 
her most highly industrialized districts 
is still, for purposes both of war and oi 
commerce, a great manufacturing nation 
and that all the Allies can import f reel} 
what they need from the neutral world/ 

To what ubiquitous and unshakable 
power, stretching from Iceland to the 
Equator and back again, guarding al) 
oceans, girdling the whole world, are 
these miracles due? They are due to 
just one thing — ^the British navy. Be- 
cause of the British navy, Germany is a 
beleagured garrison, her strength stead- 
ily, ceaselessly sapping away ; her people 
languishing physically under the stress ol 
the blockade, and financially and econom- 
ically under the total loss of her foreign 
trade. 

IT SUPPORTS THE EDIFICE 

Defeat the British navy and the war is 
over in six weeks. There lies Germany's 
nearest road, not only to peace, but to 
full and final victory. Take away from 
the Grand Alliance the support of the 
British navy and the whole structure col- 
lapses into nothingness. 

Some Americans may have wondered 
why Prussia last fall should have begun 
to squeal for peace and why, on failing 
to get it, she should have renewed, even 
in face of the almost certain prospect of 
uniting nearly the whole neutral world 
against her, her campaign of murder on 
the high seas. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Digitized by 



Google 



WHAT GREAT BRITAIN IS DOING 



203 



But the answer is very simple. It is 
because the British navy is preying upon 
her vitals; because the pressiire of our 
naval thumb upon her windpipe is never 
relaxed for one moment ; because all tri- 
umphs on land are illusory and untenable, 
with privation and discontent mounting 
up at home ; because by commanding the 
seas we hold the master key to all eco- 
nomic vitality and to all strategic mo- 
bility. 

Germany has really had no option but 
to use her submarines for all they are 
worth. Her one chance of staving off 
defeat IS to. raise the British blockade, to 
break British sea-power, to starve Brit- 
ain into surrender. It is a ten or a twenty 
to one chance against success. .But what 
does that matter when it is her only 
chance ? 

She sees and sees correctly that our con- 
trol of the oceans is not a mere adjunct 
to the strength of the Alliance. It is its 
basis. It supports the whole edifice. 
Without it all that the Allies have built 
up would crumble to pieces. With it they 
can erect, as on a rock, the instruments 
of certain victory. 

But sea-power is not the only, though 
it is by far the greatest, of the contribu- 
tions that make Great Britain the main- 
stay of the Alliance. We are its bankers, 
as well as its guardians on the sea. By 
now we must have advanced to our Allies 
not less than $4,000,000,000. Virtually 
we have taken on our shoulders the re- 
sponsibility for the credit of the Alliance 
abroad. 

Britain's war finances 

And at the same time that we are ren- 
dering this service we are spending more 
in a month than the United States Gov- 
ernment, not by any means the most 
economical in the world, has been com- 
pelled to spend in the whole of the last 
year; our weekly outlay averages some 
$20o,cxx>,ooo ; we have raised on credit 
oyer $25,000,000,000, or about five times 
the generally accepted estimate of the 
I cost of the entire Civil War; our yearly 
revenue, about four-fifths of which is 
I raised by direct taxation — there are many 
I men in Great Britain at this moment who 
i are paying out to the State more than 



half their income — amounts to some $2,- 
500,000,000. 

And as for the unstinted outpouring of 
private generosity, let this one fact suf- 
fice: that a single London newspaper, 
acting on behalf of a single fund, has 
raised nearly as much money as all the 
American people, the whole hundred 
millions of them — and they most cer- 
tainly have not been behindhand in their 
generosity — have given to all the war 
charities combined. I should judge that 
by now the British people must have sub- 
scribed for their own sufferers by the' 
war and for their Allies at least $500,- 
000,000. 

But besides placing our purse and our 
fleets at the service of the Alliance we are 
also its main arsenal and workshop. To 
Great Britain all who are fighting with 
her turn as to an inexhaustible treasure- 
house and rarely turn in vain. Is it ships, 
or provisions, or clothing, or raw ma- 
terial, or coal, or guns, or shells, or any 
other item in the endless catalogue of 
war? At once and unhesitatingly, for 
whatever they may happen to need, the 
Allies with one accord come to us; and 
it is our proud privilege to satisfy, as far 
as we can, every one of their demands. 

A NATION RE WROUGHT INDUSTRIALLY 

I am not sure that in this country there 
is much more than a very hazy concep- 
tion of the industrial revolution that has 
been wrought by the war in Great Britain. 
It is not merely that we have scrapped 
old machinery with a more than Amer- 
ican ruthlessness. It is not merely that 
some of the best and most scientific 
brains in the Kingdom are now giving 
their attention, and with astounding re- 
sults, to the problems of manufacture, or 
that capital and labor were never work- 
ing more harmoniously together, or that 
trade-union practices which interfered 
with the maximum production have been 
done away with. 

It is not merely that over 4,500 firms, 
not one of which before the war even 
dreamed of making munitions, are now 
engaged on nothing else, or that we have 
erected over 100 colossal government fac- 
tories for turning out shells, guns, pow- 
der, and the implements of trench \var- 



Digitized by 



Google 




A POPULAR DE:M0NSTRATI0N BY THE NELSON COLUMN IN TRAFALGAR SQUARE, 

LONDON, ON NELSON DAY 



fare ; or that we have trained and organ- 
ized and are now employing on war work 
some 3,500,000 people; or that we have 
discovered and utilized the immense, the 
hitherto unused, industrial capacities of 
women. 

It is not merely that the government is 
branching out in a hundred helpful direc- 
tions and backing up our merchants and 
manufacturers with all the resources at 
its command. It is not merely that our 
biggest firms are everywhere getting to- 
gether and organizing the trades to which 
they belong as they have never been or- 
ganized before. 

Nor is it merely that questions of in- 
dustrial welfare and efficiency and the 
whole economy of production are being 
studied with incomparal)le zeal, and that 
nothing since the introduction of the 
steam-engine has so renovated, sent such 
a stir through all branches of P)ritish in- 
dustry, as this war. 

These are not the things that matter. 
\\'hat matters is that Britain is work- 



ing ; has taken off her coat ; has ceased to 
be a land of leisure, and has become a 
land of infinite labor. And to what ef- 
fect she is working may be judged by the 
fact that in spite of the vast exodus from 
industry to the army and navy, and in 
spite of the concentration of the main la- 
bor force upon munitions, her exports of 
ordinary commercial commodities reached 
last year a value only once exceeded in 
the most prosperous times of peace. 

A MIRACLE OP ACniKVEMENT 

Talk of German efficiency and German 
organization ! I know of nothing in Ger- 
many's conduct of the war that for sheer 
genius and flexibility surpasses the indus- 
trial transformation that the past thirty 
months have produced in Great Britain. 

How we have worked up our output 
of high explosive shells to a point where 
it leaves the Gemian factories far be- 
hind — and less than two years ago Ger- 
many was turning out a hundred times as 
many of these shells as we were; how we 



204 



Digitized by 



Google 



WHAT GREAT BRITAIN IS DOING 



205 



have grappled with and solved pretty 
nearly every one of the technical prob- 
lems that the war has sprung upon us, 
and how in doing so we have had to turn 
all our industrial arrangements upside 
down and to create what is nothing less 
than a new industrial order — all this it 
would need a volume, and a very fasci- 
nating one, to describe. 

We were set what seemed a hopelessly 
impossible task and we have accomplished 
it: and our present independence of 
America in the supply of munitions and 
the fighting throughout the latter half of 
1916 on the Somme front are more elo- 
quent than any statistics could be of the 
magnitude of our effort. 

But I should just like to say a word or 
two as to the services that in this way we 
have been able to render the Allies. I 
suppose that we must have placed at their 
disposal not less than 500 British ships. 
There are special factories in Great Brit- 
ain solely devoted to meeting the arma- 
ment needs of Russia, of France, and of 
Belgium. Shells, field howitzers, heavy 
guns, grenades, machine-guns, and small 
arms leave British ports in immense 
quantities day after day for the use of 
our Allies. 

tuksp: wonderful feats made possiulk 

BY WOMEN 

One-third of our total production of 
shell steel goes to France. That fact 
alone, to those who understand the char- 
acter of this war, is an epitome of Great 
Britain's industrial contributions to the 
common cause. Three-fourths of the 
steel-producing districts of France are 
occupied by the enemy, and our ally ab- 
solutely depends on us and on our com- 
mand of the sea to procure the essential 
basis of all modern warfai:e. 

It is the same with other metals — with 
copper, for instance, antimony, lead, tin, 
spelter, tungsten, mercury, high - speed 
steel, and other less vital substances. All 
these we are manufacturing in Great 
Britain or in other parts of the Empire, 
or purchasing in neutral lands and deliv- 
ering to our Allies, under the protection 
of the British navy, to the value of over 
$30,000,000 a month. 

Millions of tons of coal and coke reach 



them from our shores every week; one- 
fifth of our total production of machine 
tools is set aside for them, and huge car- 
goes of explosives and machinery are 
daily dispatched to their address. 

It was with the products of British 
workshops, rushed to the Mediterranean 
in British ships and guarded by the Brit- 
ish navy, that the Italians were able to 
push back the Austrian offensive of last 
May ; and the shells and guns which we 
had manufactured for and transported to 
Russia were the real starting point of 
Brusiloff's triumphant sweep thrpugh 
Galicia. 

The immensity of productive effort re- 
quired to meet these demands could never 
have been sustained had it not been for 
the women. They have entered pretty 
nearly every trade and occupation, how- 
ever arduous and dangerous, in the in- 
tensity of their desire to "do their bit," 
and it is one of the compensations of the 
war that it should have revealed to us 
the full splendor of British womanhood. 

Nor could we have borne our unique 
burden without organizing powers of the 
highest efficiency. There is a legend 
abroad, which we are much too busy and 
also much too lazy to refute, that Great 
Britain in this war is following her nor- 
mal habit of "muddling through." As a 
matter of fact, she owes her present pre- 
dominance precisely - to the efficiency 
which the struggle has surprised out of 
her. 

PROPUETIC MEASURES 

In almost all the big commercial and 
administrative undertakings that are in- 
separable from war, and without which 
victory cannot be achieved, the British 
Government has come off with flying 
colors. Its statesmanship, for instance, 
in the early days of the war saved the 
fabric of international credit from what 
might have been irreparable ruin. 

The measures by which it assumed 
control of the railways and has since di- 
rected them were so well thought out that 
scarcely a life, or an hour of time, or a 
ton of stores or equipment has been lost 
in the whole tremendous business of 
transporting and supplying our armies 
overseas. 



Digitized by 



Google 




A sAMPi^E OF Canada's contribution to the British forces 



One might recall, again, how its scheme 
for insuring cargoes and hulls gave in- 
stant confidence to the shipping world 
and went far toward maintaining that 
regularity of our food supplies which so 
far has been one of the wonders of the 
war. 

One might recall, too, how it bought 
up some $90,000,000 worth of sugar and 
succeeded for a long while in keeping 
that essential commodity cheaper in Eng- 
land, which has to import it, than in Ger- 
many, which produces it. 

Similarly, it got a not less effective con- 
trol of the refrigerated meat trade ; it 
made enormous purchases of wheat and 
oats without any one, even in the Chicago 
pit, suspecting that the British Govern- 
ment was the buyer ; it bous^ht up the 
whole of the Norwej::fian fish supply ; it 
has regulated the price of coal ; it has 
overridden not less successfully the ordi- 
nary laws of supj)ly and demand in the 
case of wool, flax, and jute, to the im- 
mense benefit of the State, of the textile 
trades, and of our Allies. 

It is now, under Mr. Lloyd-George's 



leadership, branching out into a far more 
minute scheme for controlling the pro- 
duction and distribution of the food of 
the entire country. It is taking over the 
shipping trade, the mining industry, and 
most of the liquor trade. 

It is feeling its way toward a system 
of compulsory civil service as a comple- 
ment to compulsory military service, so 
that every man not wanted in the army — 
and every woman, too — may be set to 
work where his or her labor can be most 
useful to the State. 

There is not the smallest doubt that it 
will prove as efficient in these as it has 
in all its other business enterprises — as it 
proved, for instance, in devising and in 
inducing Holland, Norway, and Denmark 
to accept its plan for rationing those 
countries more or less in accordance with 
their ante-bellum needs ; and as it also 
proved in the very complicated arrange- 
ments that have to be made with the cot- 
ton, metal, and textile trades in the 
United States. 

Even our press censorship, for all its 
stupidities in the opening months of the 



206 



Digitized by 



Google 



WHAT GREAT BRITAIN IS DOING 



207 



war, has triumphantly fulfilled its main 
purpose, that of preventing the publica- 
tion of any news which might be of use 
to the enemy; and if Americans will 
quietly sit down and imagine the entire 
American press muzzled into a similar 
innocuousness they will begin to appre- 
ciate at least one of the many hundred 
problems that the British Government has 
had to solve. The censorship of the mails 
is another masterpiece of organization. 

Certainly the civilian, English or Amer- 
ican, who visits the British front these 
days and who realizes that every man and 
every ounce of stores and every pound 
of equipment, and, indeed, the whole 
army and all it eats and wears and uses, 
and the weapons wherewith it fights, have 
been brought there after two railway 
journeys and one sea journey, involving 
at least four and possibly six changes 
and transshipments, becomes just a little 
tired when he hears the British accused 
of inefficiency. And the longer he ex- 
plores the bases and takes in the perfec- 
tion of all the arrangements for feeding, 
supplying, and nursing these tremendous 
hosts and for making good the casualties 
to material, the more he perceives that 
Great Britain is winning this war by the 
rapidity and completeness with which 
she has thrown overboard all the slouchy 
standards of peace. 

"everything we have is yours" 

And when I say Great Britain I mean, 
of course, not the men and women of the 
United Kingdom only, but all British sub- 
jects everywhere. The rally of the Em- 
pire to the side of the motherland has, 
indeed, been one of the most marvelous 
and one of the most momentous episodes 
of the war. 

Wherever the British flag waves, in 
places the ordinary Englishman has 
barely heard of, among peoples of whom 
he knows next to nothing there is today, 
as there has been since the war began, 
but one impulse and one resolve. From 
the 450,000,000 British subjects, infinitely 
varied in speech and creed and color, in 
habits and geographical distribution, in 
economic circumstances and pursuits, 
there breathes the single intense determi- 



nation to persist in this struggle till vic- 
tory has crowned our united arms. 

The world has never seen anything like 
It. The Crusades bore but the faintest 
resemblance to this spontaneous rising of 
the free communities, scattered over the 
seven seas, on behalf of a cause that pas- 
sionately appeals to their sense of right. 
The poet's prayer has been answered. 
"In the day of Armageddon, at the last 
great fight of all," it has been proved that 
"our house stands together and the pillars 
do not fall." The Prussians always knew 
that at the touch of war the British Em- 
pire would rise. They were quite right. 
It has risen. But not precisely in the way 
they expected. 

When the storm gathered, the Domin- 
ions said with one voice : "Whatever hap- 
pens, we are with you." When it burst, 
they said : "Everything we have is yours." 

Canada proposed sending an expedi- 
tionary force two days before war was 
declared. Australia put the Australian 
navy and 20,000 men at the complete dis- 
posal of the home government. New 
Zealand, five days before the war broke 
out, declared her intention to send her 
utmost quota of help in support of the 
Empire. South Africa at once assumed, 
and very brilliantly carried out, full re- 
sponsibility for her own defense. New- 
foundland engaged on the spot to meet 
all the local expenses of raising 1,000 
men for the naval reserve. 

MARVELOUS GIFTS FROM INDIA 

As for India, a veritable tidal wave of 
loyalty and sacrifice swept from the Him- 
alayas to Cape Comorin. The rulers of 
the native States, nearly 700 in all, of- 
fered the King-Emperor their personal 
services and their local resources. There 
are 27 States in India that maintain Im- 
perial service troops. One and all of 
these corps were literally flung at the 
head of the Viceroy. 

Money, jewelry, horses and camels and 
men poured in upon the government. 
The Dalai Lama of Tibet oflfered 1,000 
troops. The chiefs of the frontier tribes 
pressed their services. Sir Pertab Singh, 
though in his seventieth year, would take 
no denial, and his spirit was the spirit of 
all the diverse millions in the dependency. 



Digitized by 



Google 



208 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



A vast competition ensued to see which 
State, which prince, could do most for 
the Empire. Faction ceased; grievances 
were put on one side; discontent was 
smothered. When the news came that 
the King-Emperor would use the valor 
of his Indian subjects, the whole penin- 
sula rang with joy. 

All this in the first month of the war. 
Soon the stream became a mighty tor- 
rent fed from every corner 6f the Em- 
pire. All the fruits of the earth, all the 
products of the factory, all the resources 
of public treasures and private purses, 
all the accessories of w^ar that individual 
generosity could furnish, were lavished 
without stint upon the government in 
London. 

Time and again the Colonial office had 
to refuse gifts that it felt would be put- 
ting too great a strain on the donors. 
From the seamstresses and market- 
women of the Bahamas, with their offer- 
ings of two or three shillings, to the Ni- 
zam of Hyderabad, with his initial gift 
of $2,000,000; from East African chiefs, 
with their contributions of bullocks and 
goats, to the millions forwarded in money 
and goods from the self-governing do- 
minions — one common passion to give 
and spend swept through the Empire. 

If it had been confined to men and 
women of British blood and origin, it 
would still have been wonderful enough; 
but what gave and gives it — for the tide 
still runs flood high — its preeminent sig- 
nificance is that the native rulers and peo- 
ples have been everywhere foremost in 
words and deeds. They hastened as one 
man to show their gratitude for what 
British justice and British government 
had done for them; and the more they 
knew of Prussian rule the more quickly 
they hastened. 

Not in a thousand years could the Mo- 
henzollerns earn such touching and un- 
forced tributes of loyalty and affection as 
Sir Hugh Clifford on the Gold Coast and 
Sir Frederic D. Lugard in Nigeria — to 
mention but two instances — have been 
privileged to receive. 

And what have the men of the domin- 
ions and of India achieved in the war? 
They have seized the German possessions 
in the Pacific ; they have conquered Togo- 



land and German Southwest Africa and 
the Cameroons; they hold virtually the 
whole of German East Africa in their 
grip ; they made an end of the Emden; in 
Flanders and the Dardanelles, at the head 
of the Persian Gulf, in Egypt, in Arabia, 
and along the course of the Tigris and 
Euphrates, Indians and New Zealanders, 
Australians and Canadians, have shed 
their bravest blood. 

Before the war is ended the Empire 
overseas will have thrown into the strug- 
gle well over 1,000,000 men, unsurpassed 
the world over in physique, intelligence, 
and the qualities of daring initiative. 

It is a superb record. No Britisher 
can even think of it without a feeling of 
awe mingling with his pride. Far beyond 
any material strengthening, it has brought 
to the motherland the inspiration of the 
real sense of oneness that underlies all 
the peoples of the Empire. 

This war will change many things ; on 
the structure and machinery of the Brit- 
ish Empire its mark will be indelible. No 
one after the experience of the first two 
and a half years can think it possible to 
maintain much longer the arrangement 
by which policies that affect the govern- 
ments and peoples of the entire Empire 
and involve them in unlooked-for perils, 
sacrifices, and responsibilities are decided 
in London by the leaders of a single Brit- 
ish political party, without any consulta- 
tion whatever with the statesmen of the 
dominions. That is an anomaly which 
will have to go. But to uproot it means 
not merely to alter, but to revolutionize, 
the constitution of the British Empire. 

AS IF AMERICA SHOULD RAISE 11,500,000 
TROOPS 

]Meanwhile to make the rounds of any 
of the British fronts at any of the thea- 
ters of war is to view a microcosm of the 
Empire. It is, indeed, the climax to all 
our other services and achievements that 
we should have turned ourselves into a 
military power of the first order. People 
talk of Great Britain being slow to wake 
up to the realities of the war. So we 
were in some ways. But 2,000,000 men 
enlisted in the first year of the war, 
which seems to show a certain conscious- 
ness that at any rate something unusual 



Digitized by 



Google 



WHAT GREAT BRITAIN IS DOING 



209 



was going on. And before conscription 
came into force in May of last year — 
that is, before the war was two years 
old — 5,000,000 men, or more than ii per 
cent of the total population of the British 
Isles, had volunteered. 

If Americans will imagine themselves 
raising a volunteer army of 11,500,000 
men — which is what they would have to 
do to parallel the British achievement — 
they will get some idea of the magnitude 
of what has been accomplished. Alto- 
gether it seems probable that at least 
6,500,000, and possibly 7,000,000, men of 
the United Kingdom will have served 
with the colors before the war is over. 

Our old army that formed the expedi- 
tionary force to France ; that covered it- 
self with credit during the retreat from 
Mons; that helped to save the French 
forces from being outflanked, and that 
barred the way to Calais against a Ger- 
man army that outnumbered it by more 
than four to one, was, I suppose, one of 
the most wonderful military instruments 
that has ever been fashioned. 

A DEMOCRATIC ARMY 

But it was a profession, a caste, apart. 
The new armies, however, are not a caste ; 
they are the nation itself. They are 
drawn from every class and trade and 
profession in the Kingdom, and they 
proved conclusively on the Somme that 
they could beat the Germans at their own 
game. 

They gave the German army such a 
mauling as seldom any army has ever re- 
ceived since warfare first began. The 
battle of the Somme was not only by far 
the biggest battle of the war ; in duration, 
in the numbers engaged, and in the in- 
tensity of the artillery fire it was the big- 
gest battle the world has yet seen. Some 
750,000 of the enemy were put out of 
action before it ended. Our troops cap- 
tured position after position, each one 
stronger than any the Germans have 
taken since the beginning of the war. 

They made "the blood bath of the 
Somme" a name of terror throughout the 
fatherland, charged with horror no less 
deep than that of Verdun. They com- 
pelled the greatest retreat that it has so 
far fallen upon the German troops to 



execute. They pounded the heart out of 
them, and they have followed the enemy 
to his new lines with a definite conviction 
that they have at last the upper hand. 

But our men who are thus helping to 
wear down the most formidable foe that 
has ever assaulted the freedom of Eu- 
rope, who have captured Bagdad, and are 
contributing to end Turkish rule in Asia 
Minor ; who have mopped up the German 
colonies, while preserving intact the in- 
tegrity of all British possessions, and who 
are holding up their end in the difficult 
warfare of the Balkans — these men are 
something more than the backbone of 
Britain during the struggle. They will 
be its backbone also in the hardly less 
anxious years of peace. They will be the 
pivot of the new England that is being 
forged in the furnace of the war. 

LESSONS OF THE WAR 

And that new England is a very dif- 
ferent country from the old one. A po- 
litical democracy we have long been. A 
social democracy before the war we were 
not. But we are now. Some six or seven 
million men, as I have said, have mingled 
with one another ; have learned to under- 
stand and sympathize with one another 
in the new armies ; have been trained into 
an equal brotherhood in the severest 
school of courage, efficiency, and disci- 
pline ; have had most of the nonsense of 
social distinctions knocked out of them. 

Gone IS the vicious consideration that 
wealth has always claimed and received 
in the plump security of the British Isles. 
Duke's son and cook's son are fighting 
shoulder to shoulder ; great ladies do the 
waiting in the soldiers' refreshment buf- 
fets ; work like sewing maids in the Red 
Cross arsenals ; like factory hands in the 
munition works; a shop walker and a 
grocer's assistant wear the Victoria 
Cross — ^the new patent of nobility; for 
the convalescent wounded there is a 
boundless outpouring of hospitality and 
affection, free from the remotest tinge of 
condescension; the impulse to succor, to 
link hands, to know and understand one 
another, is universal. 

We have learned from this war, and 
perhaps nothing else could have taught 
us, the nobility of sacrifice and of work. 



Digitized by 



Google 



210 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



We have learned the full meaning of citi- 
zenship. We are going through an ordeal 
that has called into play every faculty we 
possess, and that will leave us facing life 
sanely, distinguishing very sharply be- 
tween its realities and its solemn plausi- 
bilities and a hundred times more efficient 
than we were for meeting all its emer- 
gencies. 

You must not think of England as de- 
pressed. She is facing her task, she is 
bearing her titanic load, with a tenacity 
that is wonderfully serene. She is serene 
not only because she is confident of her 
power, but because she knows she is fight- 
ing for the noblest causes that ever sum- 
moned a nation to arms, and because she 
knows, with an equally passionate cer- 
tainty of conviction, that honor and duty 
left her no alternative. 

A NATION IN TRANSITION 

Although nowadays in England there 
is little social life — people have no time 
in which to see anybody — and little travel, 
and practically no sport, and few oppor- 
tunities and less inclination for amuse- 
ment, and although we have to get along 
as best we can without servants, or with 
very few of them, without letters — every- 
body is too busy to write except to the 
men at the front — without motoring, 
without lights in the towns after dark, 



and without Paris fashions and dinner 
parties and balls, and although every 
morning there stares us in the face the 
ghastly list of the fallen and the wound- 
ed, still we are buoyed up by the knowl- 
edge that the cause, the great cause, is 
worth all sacrifices and all privations. 

That is why we have gladly surren- 
dered our most cherished liberties, turned 
our parliamentary system inside out, and 
submitted to a multitude of restrictions 
and inconveniences any one of which in 
the little days of peace would have started 
a rebellion. 

Great Britain, that seemed so fixed, is 
now in transition ; the foundations of its 
whole scheme of life are shifting, even if 
they are not breaking; habits and preju- 
dices and old instinctive attitudes of mind 
are in process of dissolution; economic 
conditions that one thought were rooted 
in the deeps are made plastic and ad- 
justable; and from this welter of re- 
newal there is springing up an England 
strengthened by enormous sacrifices for 
great ideals, ennobled by poverty, disci- 
plined without losing her characteristic 
flexibility and self-reliance, knowing 
more than a little of the true faith of 
social equality, and proud to have played 
once mdre, and not without honor, her 
historic role as the defender of the lib- 
erties of Europe. 



RUSSIA'S DEMOCRATS 

By Montgomery Schuyler 



THERE is nothing new under the 
sun. Recent events in Russia 
have not introduced an entirely 
new system of government into that great 
empire, but the revolution of the past few 
weeks, as we hastily but inaccurately call 
it, is in truth a reversal to an earlier form 
of democratic government in which the 
Russian people centuries ago had made 
great progress and in which they stood in 
the forefront of the European nations. 

The leaders of thought in Russia today 
have not evolved a novelty, nor are they 



experimenting with a novelty ; they have 
simply brought back to life the centuries 
old popular saying of the people in Rus- 
sia: "If the prince is bad, into the mud 
with him." 

We must admit, of course, that it has 
not been exactly the custom in the past 
few hundred years to act upon this say- 
ing in the case of rulers who had made 
themselves disliked by their subjects, but 
the underlying spirit was always there, 
waiting with infinite Russian patience for 
the men and the hour. 



Digitized by 



Google 




THE MONUMENT OF FAME: 



Copyright II. C. White Company, 1916 
PETROGRAD 



In the square to the east of the Trinity Cathedral towers this cast-iron shaft surmounted 
by a bronze figure of Victory. The monument was erected in 1886 to commemorate the 
events of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877- 1878. Five rows of captured Turkish cannon form 
the flutes of the Corinthian column and ten captured guns decorate the base. The adjacent 
cathedral occupies the site of the wooden chapel in which tradition says Peter the Great was 
married on a November night in 1707 to Catherine, the future empress. 



Digitized by 



Google 




B 






.S cS\ 



^ rl'Zr- - 



OS 
OS 

< 

< 

O 



Ov:: i 
2p- 



o 



en d. • 

£ c = 

£|! 



O « 










«^ "5 ~ t ^ - 






:i ^w r 



r3 P V £ - ; 



< 
< 

o 
>c 

z 

< 

> 






.— i, >, ~ - ■ 















Digitized by 



Google 



RUSSIA'S DEMOCRATS 



213 



The whole social fabric of the early 
Slav was of a communal kind, but of a 
communism very different from that 
which afterward grew up embracing 
common property. Collectively the Slavs 
tilled the soil and carried on other occu- 
pations and collectively they lived in 
large timber houses. 

It was an excellent system for the de- 
velopment of certain features of self- 
government; but in the troublous times 
in which it started, it was not sufficient 
to give any one collection of people a 
preponderance over other groups, and it 
was not suited to any great advance in 
civilization. 

In time it was realized that some 
stronger and more centralized form of 
control was needed for the protection of 
the Slavs from their more warlike neig^h- 
bors, the Asiatic tribes, by whom they 
were surrounded. 

They took, then, voluntarily one of the 
most remarkable steps recorded by his- 
tory, or at least vouched for by legend: 
they themselves called in to govern them 
two Scandinavian princes and a prin- 
cess — Rurik, Igor, and Olga — ^and said 
to them, according to the story: "Our 
country is wide and fertile, but there is 
no order. Come and govern us." 

Eventually these princes and their fol- 
lowers became the new aristocracy of the 
time, very much as happened in England 
with the Normans, who were, if we be- 
lieve tradition, the same race of people. 

The union of the two elements gave 
the people what they lacked and formed 
the beginnings of the Russian Empire of 
today, with their mixture of democratic 
ideas with perfunctory obedience to es- 
tablished rulers. 

In the early days princes could not ex- 
act obedience against the wish of the peo- 
ple. Unpopular rulers were dismissed 
with scant ceremony in medieval Russia 
and, especially in the palmy days of Nov- 
gorod "the Great," there was a real self- 
governing republic in the heart of Russia. 

THE TATAR CURSE 

In spite of the new blood thus ac- 
quired and the traditions of democracy 
which were rapidly and widely develop- 
ing from these factors, the geography of 



the country once more showed its power 
in influencing history. The Russian com- 
munities were spreading and scattering 
all over the plain, and while they were 
laying the foundations for future great- 
ness of empire there was not sufficient 
cohesion among them to develop the 
broad unity of purpose which was to be 
found so necessary if these little States 
were to resist invasion. 

For along with the growth of the prin- 
cipalities came the great vital fact which 
stands out and dominates everything else 
in the history of medieval Russia, name- 
ly, the later Tatar invasions and the grad- 
ual subjugation by them of the Russian 
princes. In another country the inhabit- 
ants could have retreated to mountain 
and desert regions and held off the new- 
comers for centuries. 

But the peaceful and peace-loving Rus- 
sians were in no condition to resist these 
formidable barbarians, who, under the 
celebrated Genghiz Khan and other lead- 
ers, rapidly overran Russia and in a com- 
paratively short space of time had 
brought the whole country under their 
rule. The very nature of the loose and 
highly localized government of the princes 
was their undoing and they suffered by it 
for centuries, and in fact until they took 
a leaf from the conquerors' book and 
themselves built up the central power 
they needed. 

We must therefore, I think, regard the 
Mongol invasions as the underlying cause 
of the development of the autocratic prin- 
ciple in Russia. They built up a super- 
structure of Oriental despotism and au- 
tocracy, which, in one form or another, 
has lasted in Russia until the present time. 

Even in far-away times the Russian 
peasant was impatient of too much con- 
trol over his personal liberty and his 
property, and when he was not strong 
enough to resist or powerful enough to 
drive out the offending prince he did the 
next best thing — disappeared himself, 
with all his belongings, and founded a 
new settlement elsewhere. This fact must 
be kept constantly in mind in any study 
of the reasons why the Tatars obtained 
and kept for so long such a hold upon 
the Russian principalities ; the people and 
their rulers were not united by bonds 



Digitized by 



Google 




iWii 




214 



Digitized by 



Google 




bets 



Digitized by 



Google 



216 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



sufficiently strong to make them fight 
against the invaders. 

The peasants were originally holders 
of land and members of rural communes ; 
they were constantly trying to maintain 
their rights of freedom of domicile and 
movement, but the princes and nobles 
were as constantly attempting to limit 
and nullify these rights, so that they 
might not be deprived of the services of 
the peasaqts on their lands. 

In- the reigns succeeding that of the 
terrible Ivan, the principles of autocracy 
replaced whatever forms of popular gov- 
ernment there had been. The state of 

. the small farmers and peasants slowly 
became worse and they degenerated into 
the position of appanages of the land on 

', which they lived. 

THE FIRST ROMANOFV WAS ELECTED TSAR 
BY AN ASSEMBLY 

It js a curious fact, and one little ap- 
preciated now, that after some years of 
trouble and rebellion, Michael RginanoflF, 
firs^ Tsar of that name, was elected by 
an assembly. He did not succeed to the 
throne, nor had he any particular right 
to be chosen. 

Once more for a time the Tatar teach- 
ings were forgotten in Russia to some ex- 
tent and there was a partial return to the 
older methods. 

The fact that Michael had been elected 
limited to some extent his autocratic 
powers, the more so as his election was 
the result of sev'eral compromises be- 
tween the different factions of the no- 
bles and courtiers, and he did not feel 
strong enough in the support of any one 
group to oppose the will of other cliques. 

He, therefore, returned to the system 
of obtaining counsel and support from 
the people by means of "zemskii sobory," 
which were not exactly parliaments, but 
assemblies representing different districts 
and classes of society. In these conven- 
tions the greatest part was taken by the 
representatives of the middle classes. 
One result of these assemblies was the 
production of a new code of laws. 

But Michael's successor, Alexis, sup- 
pressed them and put autocracy firmly on 
Its feet, there to remain until the present 
day. 



ABSOLUTISM WAS THEN ^NEEDED 

However much we may regret the dis- 
appearance of popular government from 
Russia under the early Romanoff emper- 
ors, we must admit that it was necessary 
for the growth and expansion of the Em- 
pire. The Tatars probably never would 
have been driven out when they were 
under the old system of petty multitudes 
of principalities, each jealous of the other 
and intriguing against it at the court of 
the khans. 

Absolutism at that stage of the world's 
development was needed for the firm 
control of an enormous territory such as 
was the Russian plain, which of itself 
formed no obstacle to foreign invasion 
and which tended to produce a uniformity 
of race and government. 

Peter the Great could not have done 
what he did in bringing his country into 
the ranks of modern States if he had not 
had an autocratic form of government. 
He realized fully the influence of the 
army in establishing him firmly in the 
new absolutism, and in 1716, in his mili- 
tary statutes, he declared : "His Majesty 
is sovereign and autocrat. He is account- 
able to no one in the world." 

From the time of Ivan the Terrible it 
was autocracy which, more than anything 
else, contributed to the long history of 
territorial extensions of Russia and her 
prestige, such as it was, abroad. In an 
endless cycle, territorial expansion led to 
political extension of this doctrine, and 
this to new territorial growth. 

By the end of the reign of Peter an 
autocratic emperor was head of the na- 
tion, the church, and the army, and held 
absolutely in his own hands all spiritual 
and temporal power. 

THE RESTORATION OF SELF-GOVERNMENT 
BEGUN 

The famous Emancipation Act of the 
Emperor Alexander II in 1861 suddenly 
altered the status of the peasants and 
from a condition of practical slavery 
made them freemen once more. 

It was soon found necessary to give 
them a certain share in local self-govern- 
ment and a somewhat complicated adjust- 
ment of this matter was arranged. There 



Digitized by 



Google 




© Underwood and Underwood 
RUSSIAN OFFICERS TAKING TEA IN THEIR CASINO 

When, by imperial rescript, Nicholas II put an end to the manufacture and sale of 
vodka, the national alcoholic beverage, there was much groaning among the 120,000,000 white 
Russians, but the effect was miraculously salutary, both upon the civilian population and the 
soldiers. 



was a village council called the volost; 
this was composed solely of peasants and 
was a sort of development historically of 
the ancient mir, or commune, a survival 
of the old family rule. The volost, how- 
ever, was soon seen to be inadequate. and 
a larger unit, the zemstvo, was created by 
an imperial decree in 1864. 

The best English translation of this 
word, perhaps, is "county council." It is 
an assembly of deputies from the volosts, 
to which are added a certain number of 
nobles, so that peasants and proprietors 
are seated together. Above the district 
zemstvo again are the provincial councils, 
consisting of chosen representatives of 
the lower councils. 

This system worked fairly satisfac- 
torily for a number of years and had 
made the beginning of self-government 
in parliamentary fashion once more in 
current use in Russia. In 1889, how- 
ever, the government decided to have its 
own direct officers in each rural district. 



and for that purpose appointed zemski 
natchalniki, or rural overseers, to live in 
each district. 

As these petty officials were appointed 
not by the people, but by the central ad- 
ministration, their presence was not wel- 
come, and their interference with local 
affairs and their constant surveillance of 
the people brought about many conflicts 
with the local authorities. They were 
designed to be a sort of guardian for the 
peasants, on the theory that the latter 
were unfit to govern themselves, but in 
reality, of course, they were spies. 

The legal economic status of the peas- 
antry, it must be remembered, is that of a 
minor not fully competent as yet to man- 
age his own business or private aflFairs. 

The decision, however, that the peas- 
ants of Russia were not capable of self- 
government, even in the ordinary affairs 
of the community, while convenient for 
the bureaucracy, was not very successful 
as a way out of the practical difficulties 



217 



Digitized by 



Google 








o y s 






jcj: rs 












c-I - 






C C y 


O 






•J 




*?.'5' = 


*-* 




•-"'•- 


s 




It— « 


o 




^ 1- - 






»- i" i^ 


*»* 




t£*^ 


.a 




;: 5J 


=• 




C^ Z u 














w 




** H "C 


o 












o 




-t-" 5- 








£ 




X. 

- u 




Q 


E--« 




-*; 


5^ i» w 




a^ 












Q 


«•- y — 






TT I- — 




H 


- .-s = 




W 


§1 . 




:U 




U 


.«IJ 




:5 


I'^i 




VI 


'c.'Zh^ 




-^ 






rt ^ 






O >v s 




H 






yj 


C J 

rt - .' j: 




In 
O 


111! 




< 


cr-_s 




3C 


i<i — — "* 




§ 


c St - 




-4 








'-« 






< 


-C *"- - 




t^ C .-: » 










w 


^ u ~*'~ 






^ **" — t: 












^ ^ ' - 






2l8 



Digitized by 



Google 




'^1 




-S-ge 


i 


1 




1^^ 
^ tf) 


i 

< 




u 
O 




e, in 
y and 
e, Wi 


. 




»— » 


t- u u 


r — 


u 


6 
o 


l§'5 


jt^ttM 






cr c 3 


^LM^MM 


VM 


C/5 ^^^ 


^^mtH 


^ 


•— » 


T^i 


2* 


D VM 


^€' 


C0 
It 


•nj2 o 


■ 'i 


^ 


rt C4 


.«^i 


,25 a; w 


ii^^K.! -Si 


C «2 


I^^Bv 0^ 


w c» 3 


rlHT, 




-o« 




^ -1 




11- 




r* 




.■2 c « 






l-l 


*as 






03 

< 


t;='« 






o 










"Pi; to 




, 


t-i 


' « 


4 




:5 


"1" 






feet long 
Crimean 
corners o 


i 


t£4 


f 


o 


^l| 




:5 


ross, 

k of 

At 








t) 


o en 




:z; 


rt t 'i . 


: 


o 


of 
out! 
Tur 
ters 




Q 


U JZ 


< 


a. w-a bo 




^z; 


rt^ C 3 




< 


«5^ -a 




•4 


w «* wT^ 




< 


-i.il 




Q 


f-'l«? 




W 










< 


•S u rt > 




U 






t/i 


j=c:i5 


1 ■ 


< 
< 


whic 

"Iro 

Engl 

he T 




iS:^Z 




H 


'^ c ° 




W3 


•5 ^" « CO 




fe 






O 


2^ 2 




^ 


icho 

the 

port 




w 




t-l 

> 


f this great rcl 
in statue of N 
allies against 
h — sculptured 










0.2-."^ 




O 3 t^-O 



C u t» 

^ rt ^ 



219 



Digitized by 



Google 




Digitized by 



Google 



RUSSIA'S DEMOCRATS 



221 



arising from the making of freemen out 
of serfs in such enormous numbers. 

BUT THE people's GREATEST NEED — 
EDUCATION WAS DENIED 

What the great mass of the Russian 
people needed and what should have been 
put into execution as soon as the emanci- 
pation of the serfs was effected' was a 
system of popular education embracing 
the whole people, in the course of which 
they should have received the instruction 
necessary for their first attempts to re- 
sume any self-government on the new 
scale. 

Had this course been at once followed 
and continued until the present time, it 
is very doubtful if Russia would have 
had on her hands the terrible tragedies 
which followed the emancipation. 

The government seemed to be afraid 
to give the common people any education, 
«ven to the extent of allowing them to 
read and write. It thought, apparently, 
that with education would come dissatis- 
faction with the existing form of govern- 
ment, and that with dissatisfaction would 
come some attempt to bring about re- 
forms. 

So the bureaucracy adopted the old 
expedient of burying its head in the sand 
and in refusing knowledge to the people. 
This was naturally only partially success- 
ful. Education in schools might be lack- 
ing, but it was impossible to keep a hun- 
dred and fifty million human beings per- 
manently in the dark and without knowl- 
edge as to how the rest of the world was 
living and progressing. 

The Russian peasants may be illiterate, 
as, indeed, according to statistics, about 
70 per cent of them are, but they have 
the shrewd intelligence of the peasant all 
over the world, and their sturdy common 
sense makes up for lack of schooling to a 
great extent. 

Thus, in spite of all opposition, the 
rural and urban assemblies retained the 
germ of local government, and in spite 
•of the dual control, as the result of which 
much of their influence was nullified, 
they did have a certain value in airing 
abuses and suggesting improvements. 
Their existence was often threatened, but 
never entirely stopped. 



^ Note, however, that there was no na- 
tional congress or assembly of any kind 
from the eighteenth century down to the 
foundation of the new Imperial Duma, 
in 1906. 

THE FIRST NATIONAL CONGRESS IN 280 
YEARS 

The members of this body were to be 
chosen by electors from all over the coun- 
try. The new law gave the suflFrage to 
every man over 25 years of age v/ho had 
a fixed domicile and a certain property 
qualification. In rural districts those 
peasants had votes who were fathers of 
families, together with the rural "land- 
owners, nobles, merchants, and members 
of the clergy ; in the cities, State officials, 
members of the public services, and pro- 
prietors with certain qualifications. In- 
dustrial workers who could prove six 
months' continuous labor in establish- 
ments having at least fifty employees 
could also vote. 

The Duma could express views, but 
was nearly helpless in carrying into effect 
any reforms. But it had a certain influ- 
ence for good in its very existence, and 
after a succession of abortive sessions, 
the later assemblies developed a courage 
which was truly remarkable when the 
forces opposed to it are considered. 

It is not too much to say, in the light 
of recent events, that the Duma and what 
it stands for is responsible directly and 
primarily for the overthrow of the Ro- 
manoff dynasty and the establishment of 
a new form of government in Russia. 

The reason for the failure of the revo- 
lutionary movement which convulsed 
Russia in the years immediately succeed- 
ing the Russo-Japanese War is that the 
methods were too radical and too remi- 
niscent of the old nihilism to be popular, 
even with the milder groups of revolu- 
tionists. 

The arguments of that time consisted 
in bombs thrown at unpopular ministers 
or officials who, although not disliked 
personally, were supposed to embody the 
principles of the autocratic regime too 
closely. It is doubtful if these enthusi- 
asts ever had the support of any large 
element of the Russian population out- 



Digitized by 



Google 




222 



Digitized by 



Google 



RUSSIA'S DEMOCRATS 



223 



side of the acknowledged '^advanced" 
visionaries. 

The leaders of the movements of 1905 
and the succeeding years were men whose 
abilities and whose methods in no way 
held the confidence either of the middle 
classes or the peasants. 

In fact, what with the devotion of the 
peasant to the "Little Father'* as typify- 
ing the supreme head of Church and 
State, and his innate distrust of all 
strangers, it had never been possible for 
the revolutionists to get any wide sup- 
port among the lower classes. In many 
cases the transplanted peasants who made 
up the industrial classes in the cities had 
quite openly taken that side, but indus- 
trialism as opposed to agriculture had 
never enough votaries to make their sup- 
port effective. 

The riots and general disturbances of 
1905 were largely confined to the cities 
and to workers on the various railways 
who had been in sufficiently close touch 
with urban life to make them quicker to 
feel the need of change and progress. 

THE PRESENT LEADERS ARE FAR-SIGHTED 

The leaders of the new movement, 
however, have learned their lesson. In- 
stead of sporadic instances of terrorism, 
followed by violence, they have entered 
upon a campaign of education, carried 
out systematically and with restraint, for 
the purpose of having all the people with 
them when the opportune time to strike 
should come. 

They eagerly seized the opportunity of 
the war and its consequent needs to illus- 
trate in a practical way how much better 
they could manage things if given the 
power, and the Russian, who may be 
slow, but who is not dull, has learned the 
lesson so graphically put before him. 

It is, of course, too soon after the stir- 
ring events of the last few weeks to esti- 
mate with any degree of accuracy just 
what result the overthrowing of abso- 
lutism will have on the future of the 
Russian people. The peasants — that is, 
of course, the vast majority of the in- 
habitants of the Empire — have, since the 
emancipation, been singularly indifferent 
to their government except in the way of 
interest in the whole agrarian question. 



If the dynasty and the bureaucracy had 
seen fit to give the peasants a satisfactory 
solution of the problems arising from 
land ownership, as they so easily could 
have done, I doubt greatly if there would 
have been any revolution at the present 
time. 

Even a fairly good rule would have 
satisfied these simple people. The lim- 
ited amount of self-government they en- 
joyed in the rural assemblies, hampered 
though it was, was enough for the most 
pressing questions of local interest. 

These assemblies, however, naturally 
had no authority to dig down to the root 
of the peasants' grievances — the unequal 
distribution of land and the lack of any 
just system for adjusting complaints 
thereon — and could not on that account 
be considered satisfactory. 

What undoubtedly had more eflfect 
than anything else in influencing the peas- 
ant favorably toward the new govern- 
ment and against the old was the fact 
that shortly after the beginning of the 
present w^ar it w^as seen that the regular 
commissariat department of the War Of- 
fice was quite unequal to carrying out the 
tasks imposed by the mobilization of the 
millions of men called to the colors in 
Russia, namely, of provisioning, clothing, 
and transporting the men according to 
requirements. 

ASSOCIATIONS OF THE PEOPLE 

The first mobilization was carried out 
in 1 91 4, in the summer-time, and did not 
entail any great amount of physical hard- 
ship on the recruits. When the winter 
of that year had arrived, however, and 
the cold had made transportation difficult, 
the suffering was great. 

In many cases troops had to be sent 
several weeks' journey by rail in unheated 
freight cars, without any conveniences, 
and if it had not been for the splendid 
work of the zemstvo committees thou- 
sands would have frozen and starved. 

Each local assembly, both in city and 
country, formed special committees, as 
they had done in the Japanese war, and, 
working with that perfect spirit of co- 
operation which distinguishes Russians 
of every walk in life when interested in 
any common object, they rapidly and 



Digitized by 



Google 




THE BIGGEST MONOLITH OF OUR TIMES- 



Photograph from J. C. Grew 
-THE ALEXANDER COLUMN: PETROGRAD 



In the center of the Dvortzovaya Square, before the Winter Palace, towers this huge 
pillar of polished red Finnish granite, nearly loo feet high and 13 feet in diameter. The 
height of the whole monument, including the bronze angel clasping a 20-foot cross, is ISSV^ 
feet. It was erected in 1834 by Tsar Nicholas I to the memory of his brother, Alexander I. 
On the side facing the Winter Palace is the inscription, "Grateful Russia to Alexander I." 



energetically took over practically the 
whole task of providing food and other 
needed supplies for the soldiers. 

Booths were established at railway sta- 
tions where the men could get bread and 
hot tea on the arrival of the troop trains ; 
nurses and doctors were on hand to look 
after any who might need their services, 
and a whole system of first aid was soon 
in effect. 

Soon it was found necessary for these 
committees to take up the question of 



buying supplies in quantity and in trans- 
porting these supplies to where they were 
needed. This was followed by the organ- 
ization of boot and clothing factories, 
help in munition works, and gradually, 
but steadily, the zemstva took over prac- 
tically every function of the quartermas- 
ter's department of the army and navy. 

THE DISAPPEARANCE OF THE DRUNKARD 

Another phase, and one perhaps as im- 
portant, if not more so, than the develop- 



224 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Gilbert H. Grosvenor 
A STRKET SCENE IN MOSCOW, RUSSIA 

The low-hung, single-passenger vehicle, with its ponderously yoked horse, is as typical 
of Russia as is the howdah-equipped elephant of India or the man-power jinrikisha of Japan. 
Carriages for infant Russia are not in universal use, however, as evidenced by the little 
mother in the picture with her arms full of baby. 



225 



Digitized by 



Google 




AFTERNOON TEA IN RUSSIA 



The popularity of the cup which cheers but does not inebriate has increased enormously 
since vodka went out of fashion. Another favorite tal)le beverage of the Russians is kvass. 
the liquor drawn off soaked black bread or white bread. 



ment of popular aid to the military forces 
of the country, is the immense expansion 
of the already existing cooperative socie- 
ties since the beginning of the war. This 
growth is very closely connected with the 
abolition of vodka and the consequent 
entire sobriety of the whole nation for a 
period which is already of nearly three 
years' duration. 

Strong drink had always been the one 
absolutely essential thing for the peasant. 
Whatever else he lacked, he must have 
his drunken spree once in so often, and 
no obligation, no duty, and no work ever 
interfered with the far more important 
task of periodically getting drunk. 

As each spree took at least three days' 
time — one day to get drunk, one to lie 
drunk, and one to recover his senses — 
the working time of the average peasant 
was greatly diminished. To this was 
added the due observance of all State 
and Church holidays and anniversaries, 



and also bad weather, so that in all prob- 
ability 150 days would be a large labor 
average for a year. 

When the Emperor "by a stroke of the 
pen," as is so often said, wiped out the 
great curse of drink from the people, he 
not only added greatly to their economic 
forces, but to their military fitness. It is 
now widely felt that one of the most po- 
tent reasons for the ill-success of the 
Russian arms in the Japanese war was 
the constant state of intoxication of so 
many of the officers and men. 

With the ending of vodka, however, a 
great deal of spare time was thrown on 
the people. Drinking was one of the 
chief amusements of millions of men who 
could neither read nor write, and if dis- 
orders, if the mischief which Satan al- 
ways finds for idle hands, was to be 
avoided, something must be substituted 
in the way of clean and healthful recrea- 
tion. 



226 



Digitized by 



Google 




SIBERIAN HIDES AND VILLAGE OF THE TATARS; 



© Underwood & Underwood 
NIZHNI-NOVGOROD, RUSSIA 



Live-stock breeding is second to agriculture as a pursuit among the inhabitants of 
Siberia, a region one and a half times as large as all Europe and forty times larger than the 
British Isles. 



It must be remembered that, as a result 
of the dislike of the authorities for all 
assemblies of people, no matter of how 
innocent a character, there had been prac- 
tically no lectures, concerts, theaters, or 
other forms of pastime, if we except the 
excellent military band concerts in the 
public parks on summer evenings. 

One of the first cares of the coopera- 
tive societies, with their millions of mem- 
bers, after the abolition of drink was to 
get up diversions for the neighborhood, 
which were usually held in the lofts over 
the cooperative stores or warehouses in 
the villages. Cinematographs, amateur 



theatricals, concerts, and other commu- 
nity activities were started and had great 
success. 

The money once spent for drink now 
stays in the peasants' pockets or is put in 
the rural branches of the government 
savings bank, and the total deposits of 
that institution have swelled incredibly 
in the past two years. 

GROWTH OI^ THE PEOPLE'S ASSOCIATIONS 
IS PHENOMENAL 

The growth of these cooperative socie- 
ties has been phenomenal. For instance, 
in one district alone the number has been 



22^ 



Digitized by 



Google 



228 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



increased from 50 to 302. The societies 
for wholesale purchase have increased 
from 40 to 400. 

There are now 60 credit unions work- 
ing, with some 10,000 separate coopera- 
tive credit societies. In Moscow there 
has been organized a Central Cooperative 
Credit Bank, which in 191 5 did a busi- 
ness of $140,000,000. 

It is impossible to imagine how wide- 
spread have become the ramifications of 
these unions and societies. There are 
now building or in operation flour mills, 
oil works, starch works, paper and sugar 
plants, and machine shops. In one town 
we have an electric-light plant, giving 
people light for a dollar a year. 

There is no doubt that in thus helping 
their members to the number of millions 
these societies have in no small degree 
contributed to the military successes of 
Russia, for in every instance they can be 
found working in close harmony with the 
committees of the zemstvos engaged in 
the buying and furnishing of the enor- 
mous quantities of supplies needed by the 
armies. 

Under the leadership of devoted and 
able administrators, the numberless com- 
mittees appointed by the various zemstvos 
have been untiring in reaching out for 
new fields of activity, and only the sus- 
picion and jealousy of the official classes 
has prevented them from turning Russia 
into one great communistic settlement. 

The catalogue of the work undertaken 
and carried to success by these commit- 
tees would be long and meaningless. 
Some of the more interesting of these 
phases, however, may properly be 
touched upon. 

Let us take, for example, almost any 
point on any railroad leading from the 
interior to the fighting front of Russia 
at the present time. As you emerge from 
your railroad car at the station, you prob- 
ably see on a switch in the yard a long 
train of cars painted gray, with big, red 
crosses on the sides, and, on looking 
closer, you can read, "Hospital train for 
active army service of the . . . Zems- 
tvo." Into this train stretcher-bearers are 
carrying wounded men from motor am- 
bulances outside the station, similarly 
marked, which have just come in from 



the temporary hospitals established by the 
same committee just behind the lines of 
trenches. 

IN COOPERATIVE EFFORT RUSSIA CAN 
TEACH US MUCH 

Nurses, orderlies, doctors, medicines, 
and dressings — all are provided by these 
same units and without expense to the 
government. In each city, town, and vil- 
lage women are organized into groups- 
sewing, making bandages, knitting warm 
sleeping things, or doing something else 
useful — much as they are in all the other 
belligerent countries, but \vith a far 
greater degree of coordination and less 
of confusion and duplication of effort 
than is to be found anywhere else. 

In a country so singularly inefficient as 
Russia is in many ways, there is yet much 
for us to learn in the way of cooperative 
eflFort and aid. 

One of the most interesting private in- 
stitutions, which works along the same 
lines as do the committees just de- 
scribed, is what is known as "Purushke- 
vitch Points." Mr. Purushkevitch has 
been a member of several of the Dumas, 
and at the beginning of the war organ- 
ized at his own expense a number of 
"points." 

I visited and made a thorough inspec- 
tion of a "point," situated not far from 
the city of Dvinsk, on the northern front 
of Russia. We started out in a fast 
American automobile and, after going as 
far as was thought safe for the car to- 
ward the front-line trenches, we left it 
and proceeded on foot to the point. This 
was a settlement some couple of miles 
behind the front trenches. 

A Sister of Mercy was in general 
charge of the whole work. Under her 
were three doctors — ^men too old for the 
active work at the front, but quite ready 
to perform any minor operations or give 
any necessary dressings or other aid 
They had a well-equipped hospital in a 
tent surmounted by a large Red Cross 
flag. 

Other tents were dining, dressing, and 
sleeping rooms, and still others contained 
supplies and quarters for the large siaf 
of orderlies and attendants. 

The sister in charge told me that there 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Boston Photo News Company 

THE GEORGIAN MILITARY ROAD OVER THE CAUCASUS ^ 

This great highway, over which motor omnibuses are operated regularly in peace times 
for six months of the year (April 15 to October 15), is one of the most beautiful mountain 
roads in the world. It ascends the valley of the Terek and crosses the Krestovaya Pass at 
an elevation of 7,800 feet, then descends to the famous city of Tiflis. It was under con- 
struction for more than half a century, being completed in 1864. For a distance of eight 
miles the road runs through an awe-inspiring gorge, flanked by precipitous walls of rock 
more than a mile high. 



229 



Digitized by 



Google 






**" .^ 'rt 












•n £t3 




-. *- c 




^uZ rt 




^ o 




♦J — ^ 








o *> « 












o o 




i^t 




y— ^ 




CS"^ o 




«« Vi-I 




>. rt 




t:»^ 




•— . o 








^^•^ 




C *^ o 




J2 C^ 




-i- ♦^ .• 




■*- rs ^ 




r3 fer-a 






o i^-a 




f- ^ 55 y— V 




c^^^ 




^ rt '^ *- 




^CJ.E S 




n area 
citable 
o.ooo ( 
irth (n 






« SS S 










»- >."" 




I«^i 




> 


^ w a ^ 


o 


O tr ~ ^ 


t/5 




^*3^ g 


o 


**^ i: -^ c- 


:^ 


oB'S^ 




♦J o O o 


ui 


S'S.rt5 


< 








Q 


••* O ^ :? 








;at sp; 
the c 
Row 
Cath 



- = ^ = 

•a .1.5 



fc- c = « 
S-^ o * 

be rs c"^ 
C 0.0.= 

c = 9- 



230 



Digitized by 



Google 




231 



Digitized by 



Google 



r 


f 


1 


k^M 


^ 




• 


. ^ ^ * • i 





. ^ 






'A.; i „ i k,ii, ! 




•11 






^V^V •■ ^c2|t^bhk^' 


IB 







m 


. J* ^Bl T H ^^^Ki^^^^^^^K; 


^^1. 






.'«' 




1 




^.y^^ 


1^V«||^B57V=^V J 


K 


Si 




^Mi^^^^^^^\V /I 


f 






^ m^ < , 1^ Ik ^^^^H^^^^^^A 


^W 


c^ 


JU 




4 


-1 






■ -^ V^^^ 




"Z. 




w«i 


§ m^ ^^^«t . . m ij^^^H 


• 


c V. 


^^^^ mwM 


m ^j^^^^H 




a 






^^^^^\' 


1 


Ii 


D TEAM 

ces one-sixth 
so that the c 


1 




!' 






A 


i m 1 




t^ rt ** 




• 




•^ 






t>- 


m , \^ 


> 


§!1 




•iTV^Ht 






s 2±^ 




''V^H 


^^ ilril^ ^ 


4 


tr. 




HV T - — 




55 .^g- 




^^^B 1 ^ ' fl^HB 




< cc 


_ 


nnp \ik w\ ^£i^^H 




Si? BZ 


1 ^ 


• - • iSs ^IP- 


-• ■ 


< +^ in rt 


^^T^ ' 


" J^ \ y^k 


I /'^ 


1 ill 


^W^H 


' • r^H Ml ^ f ^ v^ 


K. / 


*^ 0^^ 


^NjH 


JB^ m *i/f^ow^ 


Nf ^, 


< £n.H 


1 






cached 
11 certai 
ivcrsal 


1 


Gn}ViliP9BI A ifdB^ 


K^NL 


m 






^^^^^Mv*i^\\ ■■ n vNHr^M 




novcmcnt has not 

tortuously rough 

iirge wooden yoke 




^ 


--^^^ 


a*'''' 




- 0^ 
Vo 




• ^ 


^ » 


mt ' 


W 


111 






^^i^^i^'i !^ 




DC ra « 








« "S 






•^ 1 9^M^ 




H ^->- 






flV. 




11 1 


^ 


232 


._. 




233 



Digitized by 



Google 




234 



Digitized by 



Google 




73 g^ 4^ c n - J 

.X .tl O 4> O *^ 

c i i Lis 

>;''B <qi^ E^ 

" S'Z ° E i 
- 2 j; »•«; c 

i =--^^* 

P a> a<» .►'O ♦-• 

<-. ~ ; ft> 

^ rt ^ O rt-O 
O c ^ O. T 

c g rt E*^^ 
:5 2g§H 



§E 






Si-P C-P ^:'S^ 2 



^ g O CTJ jy 

° -I" " 



'^'50 C >s *- 



^ ^ o £ ^ 

O r* *^ 



- c«_^j= O ^ C 

-n 2 ♦- bo >. 5 ^ 

^ n ^ =3 *5 . ^ 
^ ^ S rt 2 c" 
— "^ C ^ '^'JZ P 

2 bog- 6 •£ 



U 4^ 



rt 



C 

o 



c F <^ 
E J^ >- 



tc.5 
c c 

o'5 ^ 



^ "» ... 



C U) 



«-» c^ rt C 



o 



235 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by C. S. Aldcn 

SAFETY RAZORS HAVE NEVER BEEN POPULAR IN RUSSIA, AS BEARDS ARE THE FASHION 

Only about one-half the land of the province of central Russia known as Nizhni-Nov- 
gorod is suitable for agricultural pursuits, and of this three-fifths is owned by noblemen and 
only about one-sixth by the hardy peasantry. Although much of the land is the fertile "valley 
black earth," the yield of wheat, rye, barley, oats, and potatoes is frequently insufficient for 
the population, so that nearly every ^car more than 100,000 persons leave their villages in 
quest of temporary work in neighbormg provinces, or "governments," as the more than one 
hundred subdivisions of the empire are called. Owing to the efforts of the Nizhni-Novgorod 
zemstvo, there has been more progress in education in this district than in many of the other 
governments. 



236 



Digitized by 



Google 



had formerly been three 
sisters there, but that the 
cold and dampness had 
been too much for the 
others, who had been 
forced to go home to re- 
cover their health. She 
showed me a new hut 
which was being built 
for her under the shelter 
of a near-by hill, which 
it was hoped would be 
drier and .more comfort- 
able than the tent she 
had. 

There are about 25 of 
these "points" scattered 
at various places along 
the front, and the inten- 
tion at each one of them 
is that anybody who 
comes along shall be 
taken in, whether pris- 
oner, officer, visitor, gen- 
eral, or private, and 
given whatever he may 
be in need of. 

Facilities are provided 
for hot baths and clean 
suits of underwear for 
tired soldiers; good and 
bountiful meals are sup- 
plied smoking hot for 
any one who is hungry; 
beds are there for as 
long a stay as may be 
found necessary, and in no case are ques- 
tions asked. 

I enjoyed a very good dinner during 
my visit. The fittings were of the sim- 
plest, but everything was clean and good. 
I peeked into the bath-house and found 
there some half dozen soldiers thoroughly 
enjoying a steaming vapor bath. They 
had just been allowed to come from the 
trenches and were shortly going back. 
Other groups of soldiers were lying about 
at rest, enjoying a smoke and perhaps a 
game of some kind. 

This work is the nearest approach to 
what would be called Young Men's Chris- 
tian Association effort in this country 
which I found anywhere on the Russian 
front. In general the men simply He 
around their barracks when they are not 
working, unless they are attending church 
or playing some game in the open. 




Photograph by Gilbert H. Grosvenor 
A FEATHERED FORTUNK-TELLER AND HIS KEEPER AT THE 
FAMOUS NIZHNI-NOVGOROD FAIR 



THE GRATITUDE OF THE SOLDIERS 

All of this work was at first greatly 
resented by the officials who should have 
done it themselves, but before long even 
they realized what was being done in this 
quiet, inconspicuous way, and today the 
whole army realizes that without this 
splendid service the war, so far as Rus- 
sia is concerned, would have been over 
long ago. 

Under these circumstances the defects 
of bureaucracy and the good work of the 
unofficial organizations became more of 
a reality to the peasant soldier than they 
could otherwise have been, and his grati- 
tude, while silent, was none the less sin- 
cere. 

The zemstvo assemblies, which have 
long been the most liberal influences at 
work in Russia, have now become the 
most popular. They have unbounded in- 



237 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by C. S. Alden 

RUSSIAN PEASANTS AT TIIK FAIR: NIZHNI-NOVGOROD 

Situated on the River Volga, the great artery of Russian trade, Nizhni-Novgorod is 
world-famous for its fair, held each year from July 29 to September 10, during which time 
the value of goods sold and ordered sometimes amounts to nearly $200,000,000. Cotton, 
woolen, linen and silk stuflfs, furs, iron ware, pottery, salt, fish, wines, teas, and leather are 
important articles of barter. As the capital of the government of the same name, the city 
ordinarily has a population of 100,000, but during the fair it is visited by 400,000 people 
from all parts of Russia and many points in Asia. The importance of the trading center 
dates almost from its founding, in 1221, as a barrier against the inroads of the MordWns 
and Bulgarians. 



fluence on the people, and under the able 
and devoted leadership of such men as 
Prince LvofT, President of the Associa- 
tion of Zemstvo Committees, and other 
patriots, they have, more than anything 
else, contributed toward the present 
changes in Russia. 

The Liberal element, under the leader- 
ship of men like Paul Milyukoff, now 
Minister for Foreign Affairs ; Alexander 
GuchkolT, President of the Third Duma, 
and a small group of far-seeing men, has 
had to contend, on the one hand, with 
the old regime, the dynasty, and the bu- 
reaucracy, and on the other with that far 
larger number of men and women who 
in their desire for a new and free gov- 
ernment have not stopped at any means 
to attain their ends, and whose preaching 
and carrying out of the doctrines of an- 



archy and terrorism have retarded by so 
many years the establishment of free and 
representative government throughout 
the length and breadth of the great Rus- 
sian Empire. 

Russia's strength 

What will be the result of the revolu- 
tion on the present war? That is the 
question now uppermost in the minds not 
only of Allied statesmen, but of every 
one in the United States as well. Cer- 
tainly, in a general way, this is not diffi- 
cult of answer. 

If the new leaders can succeed in bring- 
ing actively to their side, without foolish 
opposition from the more radical ele- 
ments, the vast majority of the people and 
the rank and file of the army, they will 
have no trouble in bringing, or rather 



238 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Boston Photo News Company 

THE CHURCH OF THE IMPERIAL PALACE OF PETERHOE 

Eighteen miles from Petrograd is the town of Peterhof, founded by Peter the Great in 
1711. The imperial palace is built in imitation of Versailles, the main building being in three 
stories and connected with the wings by galleries. It was built by Peter the Great in 1720 and 
enlarged 30 years later for the Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. This church, with its live gilt 
cupolas, is the work of Rastrelli. 



239 



Digitized by 



Google 



240 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



keeping, Russia in the war, in a position 
of greatly increased strength and vigor. 

The mere fact that in the course of a 
long and bloody war Russia has been able 
at the same time to fight her foes at home 
and abroad proves most strongly her in- 
nate strength and steadfastness. 

I have often been asked why Russia 
has not done better in this war ; why, with 
her millions of man-power, she has seemed 
to have had victory time and time again 
in her grasp only to lose it by some mis- 
take. 

It has been impossible to make people 
realize what Russia was fighting — two 
foes at once, more than any of the other 
nations engaged in the war has had to 
contend against. We shall probably not 
know for long, if ever, what a struggle 
has been carried on within Russia against 
the forces which sought to deliver her 



helpless and bound to her enemies abroad. 

Up to now the news has all seemed to 
favor the probability that the new Russia 
will succeed in forming a stable and pow- 
erful government on the ruins of the old, 
and in doing so she will have the earnest 
good wishes of all her allies and all her 
friends, and in the latter category may 
now be placed for the first time the whole 
of the United States. 

For it must be admitted that in this 
country one of the strongest reasons for 
not entering the war, either actively or 
passively, on the side of the Allies has 
been the thought that in so doing we were 
backing Russian absolutism, the antithe- 
sis of everything for which our own 
form of government stands, the symbol 
of absolutism and terrorism, of autocracy 
against democracy, of darkness against 
light. 



REPUBLICS-THE LADDER TO LIBERTY 

By David Jayne Hill 

FoRMERivY U. S. Minister to Switzeri^and, to the Netherlands, and 
Formerly Ambassador to Germany 



IF WE spread out a map of the world, 
for the purpose of comparing the 
territorial extent of the different 
kinds of government existing at the pres- 
ent time, we find that the area covered 
"by "republics" occupies approximately 
30,250,000 square miles, or considerably 
more than one-half the habitable surface 
of the globe. 

If we add the area of the British Em- 
pire, the spirit of whose government is 
now entirely democratic, and whose "au- 
tonomous colonies," as the Dominions 
are now called, are virtually republics, 
the area of free government reaches the 
enormous total of about 41,500,000 square 
miles, or about four-fifths of the inhab- 
ited earth. 

Turning now to the proportions of the 
population of the globe under the "re- 
publics" and other forms of government, 
we find that of the total inhabitants of 
the earth, estimated at 1,600,000,000, 
more than 850,000,000 are living under 



nominal republics ; and if we add the pop- 
ulation of the British Empire, which may 
be called a commonwealth of republics, 
the total would be about 1,250,000,000, or 
more than three- fourths of the human 
race. 

If to these areas and populations we 
add those under constitutional govern- 
ments, excluding all those under avow- 
edly absolutist rule, we find only a small 
fraction of the globe still adhering to a 
system which only a century and a half 
ago was practically universal (see maps, 
pages 242 and 243). 

few republics in 1776 

These facts are the more astonishing 
if we consider what the result of such an 
examination would have been if made, 
let us say, in the year of our Declaration 
of Independence, 1776. At that time 
there would have been found upon the 
map of the world, apart from a few iso- 
lated so-called "free cities" — like Ham- 



Digitized by 



Google 



REPUBLICS— THE LADDER TO LIBERTY 



241 



burg, Lubeck, Bremen, and Geneva — 
only three or four little patches of color 
to which the name "republics" could 
properly be applied — ^the United Nether- 
lands, the Swiss Confederation, the Re- 
public of Venice, and the Republic of 
Genoa. 

At an earlier time there would have 
been found on the map of Europe a num- 
ber of Italian city-states, like Florence, 
Padua, and others, that were called "re- 
publics," and one great area marked on 
the map as Poland, which was also called 
a republic; but in 1776 the Italian repub- 
lics, with the exception of Venice, had 
totally lost what liberties they had pre- 
viously been able to maintain and had 
become hereditary despotisms, while Po- 
land, after having been partly partitioned 
between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, 
had sought refuge from utter dissolution 
by becoming in effect a protectorate of 
Russia. 

With these examples before us, it 
would be extremely difficult to frame a 
definition of the word "republic," ex- 
pressed in positive terms, that would fit 
all of them ; for no two of them were in 
all respects alike. Not one possessed a 
written constitution in the modern sense. 
Not one admitted universal suffrage. 
The one common characteristic was the 
negative quality of repudiating an over- 
lord. 

They were not, as the national mon- 
archies — with the exception of Britain — 
at that time were, the private possessions 
of dynastic rulers, who regarded the ter- 
ritory over which they ruled as crown 
estates and their inhabitants as subjects, 
to be transmitted by heredity from gen- 
eration to generation or acquired by mar- 
riage, like ordinary private property. 

In the commonwealths called "repub- 
lics" the res publico was considered as 
vested in the community as a whole, espe- 
cially with regard to legislation and ad- 
ministration ; and yet the relation of the 
individual to the State was not very pre- 
cisely defined in any one of them. 

The prominence of negative over posi- 
tive attributes in these eighteenth-century 
republics is explained by the fact that 
they were all brought into being by revolt 
against some form of arbitrary power. 



They were monuments of protest rather 
than embodiments of a constructive idea. 

VENICIv A REPUBUC IN NAME ONLY 

Venice, the oldest of these four at- 
tempts at self-government, was founded 
by refugees from the Italian mainland, 
who in the fifth century had sought ref- 
uge from the power of Attila in the 
islands of the lagoons at the head of 
the Adriatic. For self-preservation the 
islanders united, elected a leader, or doge, 
and formed a new State. This com- 
munity was long considered as a depend- 
ency of the Eastern Empire, from which 
it did not become wholly independent 
until the tenth century. 

In perpetual conflict with the imperial 
pretensions of the East or the West, \'en- 
ice became through commerce and con- 
quest a great maritime power, dominat- 
ing rot only the Adriatic and the lands 
bordering upon it, but also many of the 
ports of Greece, and possessing even a 
portion of Constantinople, which it held 
until the capture of that city by the 
Turks, in 1453, to whom it continued to 
offer a long and courageous resistance. 
At the end of the fifteenth century it had 
become the first maritime power of Eu- 
rope, an ascendency which it did not en- 
tirely lose until the discovery of the sea 
route to India by the Cape dealt its com- 
merce a death blow by making the Atlan- 
tic the main highway for Eastern trade. 

Venice was never in reality a democ- 
racy. The doge, elected for life, in con- 
junction with the Senate, the Council of 
Ten, and other aristocratic bodies, ruled 
at times with almost absolute authority. 

Although the Venetian republic was in 
no sense a democracy, it is interesting to 
trace the development of its safeguards 
of liberty. The perils to which the re- 
public was exposed required both unity 
and continuity in the direction of its af- 
fairs. This use of centralized power was 
confided to the doge, but it was intended 
that he should never become a monarch. 

Living, he was subject to the advice of 
the councils and the restraint of many 
legal limitations; and, even when dead, 
his administration was open to review by 
an examining body, and in case of con- 
demnation reparation was exacted of his 



Digitized by 



Google 




242 



Digitized by 



Google 







< 

u 
o 

;g 

w 

Q 
Q 

< 

(J 
1—1 

w 
p^ 

o 

o 

a 

!- 






og 

t« o 

o 
J- rt 

E3 

I y 



rt ... 
c c 



.ti o 

oTca 
'5. i> 



o 

o 

0^ 



^ C 
o; O 



C 

.- o 



a; c> 



243 



Digitized by 



Google 



244 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



heirs. Although elected for life, the av- 
erage service of a doge did not in fact 
exceed sixteen years, only men of middle 
age being regarded as eligible to the 
office. 

The oath of the doge involved an ex- 
plicit renunciation of sovereign rights. 
He was required to promise not only to 
execute the laws and decrees of the coun- 
cils, but not to correspond directly with 
foreign powers, or to open letters ad- 
dressed to him, even by Venetians, with- 
out the presence of a councillor. He 
could hold no property outside the terri- 
tory of Venice ; he could not intervene in 
any judgment, either of fact or of law; 
none of his relatives could be appointed 
by him to any civil, military, or ecclesi- 
astical office; he was prohibited from per- 
mitting any citizen to kneel before him 
or kiss his hand. But as a symbol of the 
State he was clothed with magnificence, 
and stood before the world as the out- 
ward representative of supreme power. 

GENOA WAS LIKE VENICE 

Like Venice, Genoa, which was founded 
as a city in the eighth century B. C., in 
the tenth century of our era threw off the 
imperial yoke and became an independ- 
ent republic. Like Venice, it also devel- 
oped into a great maritime and commer- 
cial power, extended its territory by con- 
quest, and was the possessor of valuable 
colonies. Subjected to French rule in the 
fourteenth century, it afterward regained 
its independence, but in 1746 fell for a 
time under the power of Austria. By 
1776 it had lost most of its colonies, hav- 
ing been obliged in 1768 to cede Corsica 
to France. 

Internal discord had completely deliv- 
ered the republic into the hands' of the 
aristocratic party. Four hundred and 
sixty-five families of the nobility were in- 
scribed in the "Golden Book" and divided 
among themselves all the public powers, 
honors, and offices, to the exclusion of 
the middle class and the common people. 
A Council of 400 members chose the Sen- 
ate ; the Senate chose the eight governors 
who formed the Executive Council, and 
this body chose from its own number the 
doge, who represented the nation. 



THE SWISS REPUBLIC IS VERY OLD 

Altogether different in form and struc- 
ture was the Swiss Confederation. It, 
too, came into being through a revolt 
against external authority. The three 
"Forest Cantons" — Uri, Schwyz, and 
Unterwalden — comprised in the duchy of 
Suabia had fallen under the rule of the 
counts of Hapsburg. Upon the death of 
Rudolf, in 1291, "in view of the malice 
of the time," these cantons formed a de- 
fensive league and resolved to recognize 
no chief who was not of the country, and 
to maintain the peace and their rights by 
their own armed force. 

The parchment upon which their com- 
pact was written is still preserved, and 
bears as seals the cross of Schwyz, the 
bull's head of Uri, and the key of Unter- 
walden. 

This document was not a declaration 
of independence and retained a trace of 
feudalism; for it enjoined that "who- 
ever hath a lord let him obey him, ac- 
cording to his bounden duty." But it was 
a declaration of rights and a firm resolu- 
tion that they should never be taken away 
by the power of a usurper. The efforts 
of the Hapsburg emperors to reduce the 
cantons to subjection gave repeated op- 
portunities for the fulfillment of this 
pledge. 

In 1 5 13 the Confederation had grown 
to thirteen cantons, Berne, Ziirich, Lu- 
cerne, Friburg, Zug, Claris, Bale, So- 
leure, Schaffhausen, and Appenzell hav- 
ing united with the "Forest Cantons" ; but 
this expansion had entirely transformed 
the original league. Subject territories, 
added by conquest, now formed part of 
the republic. The cities had contributed 
decisive elements of change, for they 
were less democratic than the "Forest 
Cantons." In truth, in some instances, 
the cities had developed the attributes of 
ambitious and oppressive oligarchies. 

A CHILO 01? BLOOD AND HEROISM 

Like the Venetian and the Swiss re- 
publics, the United Netherlands was a 
child of revolution, but of a far more 
dramatic kind. In November, I5^5» 
twenty confederates met at Brussels to 
form a league to resist the Spanish In- 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Edwin Levick 

THE STATUE OF UBERTY IN NEW YORK HARBOR 

This glorious symbol of freedom, towering 300 feet above the waters of New York 
harbor, was purchased by popular subscription and presented to the United States by the 
people of France in commemoration of the hundredth anniversary of the Declaration of 
Independence and in token of the undying bond of sympathy and friendship that exists 
between the citizens of the two great republics — a love which Lafayette and Rochambeau 
brought into being more than a century ago. The statue itself is 151 feet in height from 
base to torch, and is the work of the eminent French sculptor, Bartholdi. 



245 



Digitized by 



Google 




246 



Digitized by 



Google 



REPUBLICS— THE LADDER TO LIBERTY 



247 



quisition, and in the following year a 
wave of popular indignation against the 
royal edicts, which condemned to be 
burned fifty or sixty thousand persons, 
swept over the Netherlands. 

The Duke of Alba was sent to execute 
the orders which the Prince of Orange 
refused to obey and to exterminate the 
heretics. A reign of terror followed, 
during which the Prince of Orange raised 
armies, which he led with consummate 
military genius ; but they steadily melted 
away before the Duke's superior power, 
until heresy and patriotism seemed fatally 
crushed. 

With unfaltering faith, however, the 
r Prince of Orange pursued his resistance, 
I steadily demanding the withdrawal of the 
t Spaniards from the Netherlands, the free 
t exercise of religion, and the restoration 
!, of the ancient rights and liberties of the 
E land. By the Union of Delft, in 1576, 
i he had federated Holland and Zeeland. 
\ In 1579, by the Union of Utrecht, Hol- 
land, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, Fries- 
land, Overyssel, and Gronigen united to 
sustain the freedom of religion and re- 
nounce allegiance to the King of Spain. 
These seven provinces, presided over 
1 by the Prince of Orange as elective Stadt- 
I holder, formed a confederation with a 

! central legislative body called the States 
General ; but so jealous of all central au- 
thority were the provinces that no laws 
\ or engagements could become effective 
\ without the sanction of a majority of the 

I separate provincial assemblies. In 1650 
the anti-monarchical sentiment was so 
k strong that even the elective stadtholder- 
ate was abolished; to be restored, how- 
[ ever, in 1672, and made hereditary in 

; 1674. 

i Like Venice, the Dutch Republic be- 

came a maritime power of great impor- 
r tance, waged war on land and sea, and 
1 acquired by conquest valuable colonies. 

\ FREEDOM HAS ALWAYS BEEN A DELICATE 
I FLOWER TO KEEP ALIVE 

All these republics, as we have seen, 
I were primarily based upon the repudia- 
I tion of autocratic power ; but no perma- 
[ nent political organization can be sus- 
tained by a mere negation. At the basis 
of republicanism in every form is a con- 



ception of liberty united with a sense of 
social solidarity. 

The positive element in the conception 
of a republic is the freedom of the indi- 
vidual, which rests upon the conviction 
that there are in the nature of man cer- 
tain innate qualities that may justly claim 
the right of expression, and which, there- 
fore, ought not to be suppressed by arbi- 
trary power. 

The chief problem for a republic has 
always been the organization of liberty 
in such a manner as to render it perma- 
nently secure. In this no one of the 
republics of antiquity had ever entirely 
succeeded. The Greek city-states — like 
Athens, Sparta, Thebes, and Argos — 
wavered between aristocratic and demo- 
cratic control ; but the existence of slavery 
and a subject class rendered all of them 
to some extent oligarchical. 

The Roman city-republic was sub- 
merged by its ow^n internal expansion of 
power and its external growth of respon- 
sibility, which created conditions that no 
democracy could satisfy or control. The 
later Italian city-states were either ab- 
sorbed by more powerful neighbors or 
in their efforts at self-preservation from 
foreign intrusion degenerated into tyran- 
nies, as the Greek republics often had 
before them. 

Freedom has always proved a delicate 
flower to keep alive. Oligarchy has 
tended to narrow the depositories of 
power until it became the possession of a 
single master; while democracy, on the 
other hand, recognizing in emergencies 
the weakness of divided counsels, has 
tended to confide its power to the hands 
of a dictator. 

REPUBLICS THAT HAVE FAILED 

In no form of government is equilib- 
rium so unstable as in a republic, which 
is essentially a balance of forces, any one 
of which, if exaggerated, is capable of 
consummating its destruction. In addi- 
tion to this inherent internal instability, 
upon which the demagogue skilfully plays 
for the accomplishment of his selfish 
designs, a republic is always peculiarly 
exposed to the intrusion of foreign 
influences and to the peril of foreign 
attack. 



Digitized by 



Google 



248 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



For this reason, republics have usually 
sought to find a safeguard in federation, 
through which alone the republics of the 
eighteenth century were able to survive. 
Those which failed to avail themselves 
of this principle have been short-lived. 

It was owing to this failure on the part 
of the Greek republics that Macedonian 
supremacy was finally established over 
the whole of Greece. A different foreign 
policy on the part of Athens, which might 
have united the rest of the Greek cities 
for common defense, would, in the opin- 
ion of historians, have saved the Greek 
republics from extinction ; but democra- 
cies have usually been short-sighted in 
matters of foreign pohcy. 

For obvious reasons, republics have as 
a rule possessed but a limited territorial 
extent; but magnitude alone is not a 
source of strength. Before the first par- 
tition, in 1772, Poland covered a larger 
area of territory than Spain, or France, 
or all the States of Germany put together. 

A turbulent nobility had completely 
throttled the elective monarchy. It was 
the triumph of an oligarchy of landed 
proprietors whose anarchy was balanced 
by no industrial and commercial middle 
class, and which failed to evolve a leader 
sufficiently powerful to impose unity of 
action upon the nation. 

By the liberum veto, adopted in 1650, 
a single member of the Polish Diet could, 
from that time onward, nullify the reso- 
lutions of the entire assembly, thus para- 
lyzing every policy for the conservation 
of the republic. 

THE LOVE or LIBERTY SPREADS IX FRANCE 

Between 1776 and 1806 profound 
causes of change were introduced into 
the European system, some of them from 
within and others from without, which 
at first greatly promoted the development 
of republics and afterward nearly de- 
stroyed them altogether. 

It is important to note that in 1776 
there was no expectation that a revolu- 
tion would occur in France such as, fif- 
teen years later, was to shake the conti- 
nent of Europe to its foundations and in- 
stitute, for a time at least, a wholly new 
order of things. No contemporary could 
possibly have foreseen this process of 



political evolution, for the causes of it 
were not confined to Europe. 

The accession of the young king, Louis 
XV^I, to the throne of France, in 1772, 
had aroused the hope that the evils 
brought upon Europe by the age of abso- 
lutism were likely to be remedied by a 
better administration of public aflfairs. 

In 1776 there was not the slightest sign 
of the general upheaval that came to Eu- 
rope during the young monarch's reign. 
There had been, it is true, much radical 
speculation regarding the nature of gov- 
ernment. Montesquieu, Voltaire, Dide- 
rot, Mably, and Rousseau had spoken out 
boldly for greater liberty. In fact, their 
work of iconoclasm was already finished, 
so far as mere discussion was concerned. 
Montesquieu's Spirit of the Lazes, in 
which he extolled the English system of 
government as the most perfect guaran- 
tee of freedom that had ever been de- 
vised, had been published a whole gener- 
ation earlier, in 1748. Young men who 
had read Rousseau's Social Contract in 
its first edition, in 1762, had passed into 
middle life. 

OUR FIRST AND GREATEST AMERICAN 
INVENTION 

Although the sovereignty of the people 
and the right of the majority to rule, ad- 
vocated by Rousseau, were theoretically 
hostile to the "old regime," they had pro- 
duced in 1776 no actual fruit. Not one 
of the philosophers of the enlightenment 
had propounded a concrete program of 
political reconstruction. 

Such literature as theirs might have 
existed forever without producing a revo- 
lution; and, in 1789, when the earliest 
tokens of a real revolutionary movement 
in France were perceptible, no definite 
proposition had been offered by any of 
the philosophical writers that could be of 
practical utility in guiding the nation in 
its desire to abolish the abuses of power 
from which France was then suffering; 
yet a whole generation had come to man- 
hood since Rousseau's eulogy of democ- 
racy had appeared. 

But in the meantime something of 
great import had happened. In America 
thirteen British colonies had, in 1776, de- 
clared their independence and had repu- 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by James F. lluges Co. 

WASHINGTON MONUMENT AT MOUNT VERNON PLACE, BALTIMORE 

This was the first monument ever reared to the memory of the Father of his Country — 
a country whose principles of justice and whose economic opportunities have drawn more 
people to its shores than ever journeyed to any other. 



249 



Digitized by 



Google 




250 



Digitized by 



Google 



REPUBLICS— THE LADDER TO LIBERTY 



251 



dialed the Crown and the Parliament. 
Thirteen little republics had been created 
and federated. They possessed written 
constitutions which Franklin had trans- 
lated, distributed, and expounded in 
France. The French armies that had 
aided in the War for Independence had 
returned to France full of enthusiasm. 
The Constitution of the United States 
had just been adopted. Lafayette was 
demanding the convocation of the long- 
forgotten States General, in order that 
France also might have a constitution. 

The innovation in government intro- 
duced by the United States of America, 
an invention as essentially American as 
the telegraph and the telephone, was to 
revolutionize the governments of the 
world as completely as the telegraph and. 
the telephone have changed our methods 
of communication. 

It is not necessary here to follow in 
detail the development of the French 
Revolution. The circumstances of the 
time demanded a change, and the specu- 
lations of the philosophers had justified 
it, but it was the American example that 
marked out a pathway to effective action 

THE REASONS FOR THE COLLAPSE OI^ TllT, 
FIRST FRENCH REPUBLIC 

Unfortunately, however, it was not the 
guarantees of the American constitu- 
tions, but the unrestrained democracy ad- 
vocated by Rousseau that took possession 
of the French mind. The Constitution 
of the United States, as finally adopted, 
unlike any other that had ever existed, 
Vi'hile securing the rights of the citizens, 
placed limits on the powers of govern- 
ment. The French Constitution, on the 

I contrary, simply transferred absolute 
power from one government to another. 
What was most original in the unique 
American invention was entirely over- 
looked. 

The Revolution, which in its early 
stag^es promised to be a new organization 
of liberty, soon became a new form of 
despotism. 

Then began the titanic struggle of ab- 

} solute popular sovereignty with the es- 

I tablished power of royal absolutism — 
the general war of French democracy 

I upon all kings — which brought a young 



Corsican officer to the surface, and at 
last carried him, in the guise of an apos- 
tle and protagonist of liberty, to the im- 
perial throne of France. Unbridled de- 
mocracy demanded and found, first, a 
servant and then a master. 

It is not difficult to comprehend how 
the conservative eighteenth century re- 
publics were swept off their feet by the 
flood-tide of a larger liberty. They were 
not entirely unwilling victims of con- 
quest. Everywhere the doctrines of the 
Revolution preceded its armies and pre- 
pared the way for them. The Declara- 
tion of the Rights of Man and the Citizen 
announced the approach of a liberator. 
Even in the republics, the people had 
their grievances, which the new order of 
things that the French Directory pro- 
claimed promised to abolish. Republics 
sprang up like mushrooms under the pro- 
tection of the French armies. 

As a result of the obstinacy and trea- 
son of Louis XVI, the French Republic 
had come into being on September 21, 
1792. By the end of January, 1795, the 
United Provinces were in the possession 
of the French army, and the Batavian 
Republic was proclaimed on the model of 
the French Republic. In the meantime 
the Polish patriots, under the leadership 
of Kosciuszko, who had received a wel- 
come in France, endeavored to restore 
the Polish Republic, but without success, 
and the final partition was arranged by 
Prussia, Austria, and Russia in 1795. 

Bonaparte was sent to Italy as a con- 
queror, but his conquests were made in 
the name of liberty. Outwardly the obe- 
dient servant of the Directory, even then 
he meant to be in due time the master of 
France and of all that the Republic might 
acquire. 

First of all, however, there was neces- 
sary the conquest of men's minds, which 
could only be made in the name of free- 
dom; and freedom was, therefore, Bona- 
parte's constant watchword. 

But his vision of his goal was from the 
first perfectly clear. Speaking to Miot, 
the French ambassador at Florence, he 
said in 1797 of the destinies of France: 
'*What is needed is a chief illustrious by 
glory and not by theories of govern- 
ment — the mere phrases and discourses 



Digitized by 



Google 



252 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



of ideologues — of which the country 
understands nothing." 

And, turning to Melzi, one of his 
Milanese adjutants, he continued: "As to 
your country, it has still less than France 
the elements of republicanism, and it is 
necessary to make less ado about it than 
with any other. We shall do what you 
wish, but the time has not arrived. We 
must yield to the fever of the moment. 
We shall arrange here for one or two re- 
publics in our own fashion." 

THE CARDIIOUSE OF REPUBLICS 

"The fever of the moment" was the 
orders of the Directory, which had re- 
solved to impose the French constitution 
on all the conquered States of Europe. 
Bonaparte understood the expediency of 
obedience, but, referring to himself as 
conquerer, he said to Miot: "I wish to 
quit Italy only to play in France a role 
similar to that I play here, but the mo- 
ment is not yet come. The pear is not 
ripe!" 

At Venice, where he was received with 
honor and his wife Josephine was loaded 
with ornaments, the consummate diplo- 
macy which had in so many emergencies 
averted calamity failed to maintain the 
independence of the Republic. Austria 
coveted its maritime advantages, while 
France wanted a free hand at Milan and 
the Rhine frontier, which Austria could 
accord. Accordingly, by the treaty of 
Campo-Formio that bargain was made 
and the Venetian Republic was delivered 
into the hands of Austria. 

The remainder of Italy was promptly 
republicanized, partly to its liking and 
partly against its will. In rapid succes- 
sion, in 1797-1798, the territories of Milan 
and the Lombard plain, at first intended 
to be divided into two, were constituted 
into the Cisalpine Republic. Genoa and 
the neighboring coast were transformed 
into the Ligurian Republic. Rome and 
the States of the Church, from which the 
Pope was expelled, were erected into the 
Roman Republic. Finally, Naples and the 
other continental provinces of the King- 
dom of the Two Sicilies were taken from 
King Ferdinand and became the Parthe- 
nopean Republic. 

Even the Swiss Confederation did not 



escape from the hand of the conqueror. 
Most of the cantons were feudal and 
oligarchical. Catching from France the 
contagion of revolution, in 1798 the peo- 
ple of the Pays de Vaud rose in rebellion 
against the Canton of Berne. In other 
cantons insurrection broke out; appeal 
was made by the peasants for aid from 
France; Switzerland was invaded by a 
French army ; a constituent assembly was 
summoned, and the Helvetian Republic 
was proclaimed with a constitution on the 
French model. 

But the Swiss found it inconvenient to 
be reformed by strangers. The "Forest 
Cantons" — Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwal- 
den — revolted, and in the end the French 
were as cordially detested as they had at 
first been cordially welcomed by the Swiss 
people, whose problem then was how to 
regain their independence. 

In 1804 this whole card-house of re- 
publics fell, and Napoleon I was pro- 
claimed "Emperor of the French and 
King of Italy." 

Then followed the grand distribution 
of crowns. Joseph Bonaparte was made 
King of Naples and afterward of Spain ; 
Louis, King of Holland; Jerome, King 
of Westphalia; Murat, a brother-in-law, 
King of Naples after Joseph was sent to 
Spain ; Prince Borghese, another brother- 
in-law, Duke of Guastalla; Eugene de 
Beauharnais, a stepson. Viceroy of Italy. 
More than thirty of Napoleon's marshals 
and generals were made princes or dukes. 

In 1806 there was only one republic on 
the map of Europe — the Swiss Confed- 
eration ! 

THE INFLUENCE OF THE UNITED STATES 
INCALCULABLE 

All the more wonderful, in view of 
these events, is the fact of the present 
vast extension of the republican form of 
government in every part of the world. 
What has brought it about? Undoubt- 
edly the spread of democratic ideas 
throughout Europe during the Revolu- 
tion of 1789 greatly promoted the con- 
stitutional movement between the Peace 
of Vienna and the Revolution of 1848, 
which made France a republic for the 
second time and caused great gains for 
constitutionalism everywhere. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Rau Art Studios 

THE LIBERTY BELL IN INDEPENDENCE HALL: PHILADELPHIA 

Until Freedom's tocsin called to arms a people in defense of their unalienable rights to 
Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness, the * music of the spheres" was deemed a Pytha- 
goran fancy. But the defiance to oppression which throbbed from the throat of Liberty Bell 
in 1776 will go ringing down the centuries as a paean of praise from liberated mankind and an 
anthem of aspiration for those peoples still struggling toward the goal of self-government. 



But It should not be overlooked that 
the continuous, unbroken development of 
the United States of America under a 
republican constitution has been an in- 
fluence of incalculable consequence. The 
whole South and Central American de- 
velopment has found its inspiration in 



this influence, and a close study of the 
growth of the constitutional idea shows 
that there has been no instance of its 
adoption where this influence has not 
operated to some degree. 

It has often resulted in a compromise, 
involving the retention of the monarchical 



253 



Digitized by 



Google 



254 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



tradition under constitutional limitations ; 
but its logical outcome is the practical 
abolition of royal authority, which has 
been almost everywhere displaced by the 
authority of the people. It has been the 
chief cause of the gradual triumph of 
democracy. 

ALL THE PEOPLE UNLIKELY TO GO WRONG 
AT THE SAME TIME 

The strength of republicanism lies in 
the fact that all the people are not likely 
to go wrong at the same time. A mon- 
archy or an oligarchy is liable to that 
calamity. "Men may, however, go wrong 
in a republic also, and even a majority 
may sometimes do so. 

There is for that reason need of con- 
stitutional limitations in a democracy as 
well as in other forms of government. 
Liberty can be secured only by restric- 
tions upon the power of government, no 
matter what its form may be. These re- 
strictions consist in the division of pub- 
lic powers, in deliberation of procedure, 
and the application of general principles 
of justice to all particular cases. 

Herein lies the chief value of a consti- 
tution, and it is the combination of these 
qualities that gives to the Constitution of 
the United States its unique excellence. 
It renders possible the free selection of 
the wisest legislators. This is representa- 
tive government. It divides by law -the 
powers of government. . This defines and 



limits official authority. It declares cer- 
tain rights to be beyond the power of 
government to take away. This furnishes 
guarantees for life, liberty, and property. 
Finally, it places private rights under the 
protection of the judiciary. This insures 
that the citizen shall not be divested of 
his rights without due process of law. 

But the supreme merit of such a con- 
stitution, united with the principle of 
federation, is that it applies to a great 
area and a great population, as well as to 
a small one, to which democracy was al- 
ways before supposed to be necessarily 
confined. 

But there is, in fact, no limit as respects 
territory or population to which the re- 
publican system may not be extended, 
provided it retains its truly constitutional 
character as just described. It is as good 
for 48 States as for 13. It may be as 
good for China or for Russia as for the 
original American colonies. 

But an absolute democracy, a democ- 
racy that sets no bounds to its own arbi- 
trary will, a democracy that is based on 
impulse and appetite, and not on reason 
and justice, is for any community of men 
an illusion and a danger. Any nation that 
is capable in the full sense of realizing 
this truth is ripe for self-government. A 
nation that does not realize it, no matter 
how glorious its past, is falling into decay 
and will not long survive as a free and 
independent republic. 



WAR, PATRIOTISM, AND THE FOOD SUPPLY 

By Frederick V. Coville 
Oi? THE United States Department of Agriculture 



A HUNDRED million Americans 
are searching heart and mind to 
determine in what way each can 
contribute most to the success of his 
country in the war. We are remote from 
the battle line, and few of us, relatively, 
can take part in the actual fighting. It is 
everywhere recognized that our financial 
and industrial cooperation with the Allies 
will have a far greater effect in hastening 



the conclusion of the war than would the 
equipment and sending of a great Amer- 
ican army to Europe. 

In the industries fundamental to the 
manufacture of munitions we are in a 
position to wield an immense influence. 
So widely is this appreciated that the pro- 
posal to exempt from direct military serv- 
ice the skilled workmen of the munition 
industries meets with general approval. 



Digitized by 



Google 



WAR, PATRIOTISM, AND THE FOOD SUPPLY 



255 



The people of the United States, how- 
ever, have not yet come to appreciate 
fully that our most important duty in this 
war lies in still another direction, indi- 
cated aiso by our economic and geo- 
graphic position. I refer to the mainte- 
nance of an adequate food supply for the 
British and the French. 

The armies of France and the British 
Empire must be well nourished. The 
British and French industrial workers 
who supply those armies with munitions 
must be well nourished also. Within the 
last few weeks Argentina has declared an 
embargo on the export of wheat. More 
than ever before, therefore, is it incum- 
bent on us to maintain a wide and con- 
stant stream of food supplies to France, 
Great Britain, and to Italy also. If we 
fail to do so 

But we shall not fail. Our duty is 
clear. The task is large. Understand- 
ing and organization will enable us to ac- 
complish it. Understanding and organi- 
zation are at w^ork upon it. The United 
States Department of Agriculture, State 
agencies and county agencies, all are car- 
rying the message to every farmer in the 
country. 

OUR DEMANDS FOR FOOD ARE INCREASING 

MUCH MORE RAPIDLY THAN OUR 

PRODUCTION 

There are limitations, however, to the 
amount of food that can be grown on 
American farms, and none of these lim- 
itations is more potent than the scarcity 
of farm labor. Even in normal times the 
supply of efficient agricultural labor is, in 
general, inadequate. More land is avail- 
able than can be farmed effectively. The 
town outbids the farmer for his labor by 
higher wages, or shorter hours, or fan- 
cied superiority of recreation, or by all 
these combined. 

In war times the attraction of agricul- 
tural labor away from the farm becomes 
greater than ever. Military service, mu- 
nitions manufacture, and the other indus- 
tries of war all tend to take their quota 
from the farm. The establishment of an 
ammunition factory near the city of 
Washington has combed the labor from 
the farms, either directly or by progres- 
sive replacement in other pursuits, for 



miles around. The suburbs of many 
other cities where munition plants exist 
are having similar experiences. 

As long ago as 1898 it was contended 
by Sir William Crookes, and the conten- 
tion was sustained by one of our fore- 
most agricultural statisticians, that by the 
year 193 1 the increasing population of 
America was likely to consume all the 
wheat we raised. 

We are already more than half way on 
the road to that destination. Increased 
acreage and improved agricultural meth- 
ods have, it is true, intervened to increase 
our crops ; but our consumption of food 
has also increased enormously, and the 
difference between what we raise and 
what we eat is shrinking year by year. 

PRODUCE SOME FOOD IF YOU POSSIBLY CAN 

One does not question that the Amer- 
ican farmer will do his duty, or that the 
wide-spread movement for city gardening 
will contribute somewhat to the extension 
of our food surplus ; but there remains a 
large class of our population favorably 
situated for food production and well 
able to take part in it, whose contribution 
is only a small fraction of what it might 
be made. I refer to the man whose busi- 
ness ordinarily is in town, but whose resi- 
dence in the country gives him access to 
an area of ground varying in size from a 
small garden to an ample farm, used, 
however, only in small part or not at all 
for gardening or farming purposes. 

Usually such country dwellers have the 
equipment for gardening or for farming, 
but make only such limited use of it as 
suits their convenience or their demands 
for recreation. 

The time is now at hand when every 
non-farmer who has unemployed farm- 
ing or gardening land, and every summer 
resident in the country, can contribute 
patriotically to the welfare of his country 
and the progress of liberty by producing 
all the fruit and all the vegetables he con- 
sumes, and in some cases also the eggs 
and poultry that he needs. And I mean 
not merely the fruits and vegetables that 
he uses in summer, but those he will re- 
quire in the following winter. 

Our grandmothers knew how to pre- 
serve fruit for winter use by drying it 



Digitized by 



Google 



256 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



and by canning it, but they did not know 
how to can vegetables. Modern science 
has found out how to do this, and now 
the girls in the department of domestic 
science in every agricultural college and 
every agricultural high school in the 
country are taught how to take vegetables 
at the time when their flavor is most de- 
licious and their texture the most tender 
and put them up in glass jars for winter 
use. 

Such preserved vegetables are far supe- 
rior to those we ordinarily buy in tin 
cans, for they receive a care in selection 
and preparation that commercial can- 
neries seldom give. 

Every pound of food grown and used 
in this way is a contribution of just that 
amount to the great stream of supplies 
that we are passing on to the British and 
the French soldier at the front, for what- 
ever each of us consumes he must take 
from that stream unless he produces it 
himself. 

THE WORK IS NOT SO DIFFICULT AS OF OLD 

In modern gardening the backache- 
breeding hoe and weeder of a generation 
ago have been replaced by those wonder- 
ful little implements set on wheels and 
pushed in front of one by two handles 
like a plow. The heavy plowing and 
planting of spring is still a man's task; 
but these little hand cultivators make the 
later care of a garden a happy outdoor 
task for women and half -grown children. 
It brings the bronzed cheek of summer 
and the elastic step and clear mind of the 
winter that follows. 

The congestion of freight traffic dur- 
ing the last year was due primarily to the 
scarcity of ships for the oversea trade, 
the consequent filling up of warehouses 
at the seaboard, and the delay of loaded 
freight cars waiting their turn to deliver 
their freight. The congestion was greatly 
increased, however, through an agricul- 
tural practice that has been growing up 
in the United States for many years : the 
raising of a special crop in that particular 
part of the country in which it can be 



grown most economically or in the great- 
est perfection and its shipment very long 
distances by rail to the consumer. 

In times like the present every ton of 
food that can be grown where if is con- 
sumed, or not far from its place of con- 
sumption, will relieve our railroads of 
just that much space needed for the ur- 
gent transportation demands of war. 

IT WILL HELP THE BELGIANS 

Because I suggest to the country dweller 
that in growing his own supplies he will 
be practising sounder economy and will 
have better food, better health, and the 
gladness of heart that comes from a pa- 
triotic act, let no one lose sight of the fact 
that the suggestion is made not primarily 
for those reasons, but for the sake of that 
gallant soldier who fights under the ban- 
ner of "liberty, equality, fraternity," and 
that other soldier who carries grimly in 
his heart the message written in stone in 
Trafalgar Square : "No price can be too 
high when honor and freedom are at 
stake." 

And the Belgians. What of them? 
When in schoolboy days we used to read 
the words, **Horum omnium fortissimi 
sunt Belgae," we did not fully grasp their 
meaning; but after Liege and Namur, 
when Belgium stood broken and bleed- 
ing, but still fighting and unafraid, the 
spirit of the phrase burst upon us. "The 
bravest of all these are the Belgians," the 
very words that Julius Caesar wrote two 
thousand years ago. 

No service in this war appeals to Amer- 
ica more than to carry food to the Bel- 
gians, in order to keep from hunger that 
little nation which, single-handed, de- 
fended the gateway of liberty. 

But first we must furnish food to the 
British, the French, and the Italians. In 
doing so we shall have the added satis- 
faction of knowing that in spirit, if not 
indeed in physical fact, we are taking it 
also to the people of Belgium. 

Let each of us do his share toward 
bearing bread to the Belgians. 



Digitized by 



Google 




y ''oltgraph ,iriJ ir.pij tghi hj jiuittn A. Hreed 



A SPANISH GYPSY 
This beautiful girl of Granada represents the highest type of the aristocracy of gypsydom. She 
would lose caste at once if she were to work, but it is perfectly all right for her to beg or steal — 
your heart. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Phufgraph bj Jtbn D. U^hiting 



A GARDEN IN THE HOLY LAND 

In days gone by^ many of tlie city houses of the more prosperous residents of Jerusalem >\ere 
built around an open court so that the Moslem women, although secluded, could have a garden, 
thus affording a measure of outdoor life. This is now the home of an American. 



Digitized by 



Google 




AN AUTOMOBILE OF THE ORIENT 
The donkey is the patient burden-bearer of Northern Africa just as he is in many other parts of 
the world. He has carried heavy loads from time immemorial — both passengers and freight — and 
makes no protest until the accumulation of trouble swells liis heart and he seeks relief through an 
impassioned bray. 



Digitized by 



Google 




MARKET, JERUSALEM 



THE ABANDONED COTTON 
One ot" tlie entrances to the temple area within which stands the Mosque of Omar. Thtre i« ^ 
biblical atmosphere about this old passageway, the cobbles of which have been worn smooth bv 
the weary teet ot the ancients. 



Digitized by 



Google 




A DESERT FLOWER 
'' Somewhere in the Sahara '* lived this child of the Desert until she came to Biskra, the ** Garden of 
Allah/* to earn her dowry as a dancer. One would imagine that she is dreaming of some turbaned 
knight left behind and counting the days until she may return to her natal tent. 



Digitized by 



Google 







« 2 3 

V . • 

*" ^i: 

G j; £ • 

C a-< 
ST.-: 

^ cxI 

c; 3 u s 

<•£! = - 
5 .s ?- i :^ 

C^ J' 5"" J; I 

< Id: ?i 



(2] 



. o-f; 



«c 






S9r^' 



Ji=^: 



Digitized by 



Google 




^ 

^.. 



A DAUGHTER OF ARABY 

** Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 

And waste its sweetness on the desert air- " 



Digitized by 



Google 




Pb»fgr0fh and if^rfgbt hy jtuttim A. Bmd 

A MINSTREL OF THE ORIENT 
Thin old begcar of Tangier, Morocco, is singing a monotonous, wailing chani to attract the 
attention of the passers-by. He is a cheerful soul, however, and a pleasant contrast to some of the 
members of his brotherhood who capitalize their deformities. 



Digitized by 



Google 




PInfgrafh and c*fjright bj Auitin A, Brttd 

NIGHT IN TETUAN, MOROCCO 
Even In daylight one is impressed with the mysterious atmosphere pervading the quiet streets in 
the old Moorish quarter of Tetuan. Here one is among a strange and alien people, widely differ- 
ent in religion and custom. The eerie quality of the streets is accentuated at night, and the soft 
radiance of the moonlight and even an occasional flickering lamp are welcome to the wayfarer. 



Digitized by 



Google 




**AN ARAB SHOD WITH FIRE' 
She is a dancer of Algeria and the slow, throbbing music of the Orient is just as necessary for her 
happiness as the jewels and coins with which she adorns herself. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Fhofgrafh mnd cfyright by ^uttin A, Britd 



SPANISH GYPSY GIRLS 
Picturesque in their rags, the girls and women ** tell fortunes," and to those who refuse to have 
their fortune told is flung this quaint curse : ** May you be made to carry the mail and have 
sore feet." 



Digitized by 



Google 




Phtfgrafh and iofjright bj Austin A Brttd 

THE PATIO IN THE HOUSE OF THE DUKE OF ALBA, SEVILLE, SPAIN 
A fitting companion of the beautiful Alcazar, Seville's rival of Granada's splendid Alhambra in 
beauty and in historical renown, is the magnificent palace of the Dukes of Alba. Dating from 
the fifteenth century, this palace, in its architecture, combines the soft lines of Moorish ideals and 
the sharp ones of Gothic conceptions, and is a fine example of the blending of the two. 



Digitized by 



Google 



4 

-J 

- i 



'%*J^ 





*■>, 



A DANCER OF THE CAFES, ALGERIA 
Their faces clouded with a dark paint to increase the natural effect of the desert sun on their skin, 
their nails darkened with henna, and their cheeks faintly tattooed in blue to show their caste, 
these beauties of the Ouied Nail tribe furnish much local color in the crowded cafes of Northern 
Africa. Their costumes are gorgeous and their heavy ornaments are largely of gold and 
silver coins. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Pbttografh and tt/tright hj Auttin A. Bretd 

FROM THE THRONE ROOM OF THE MOORS 
One of the embrasures, or window alcoves, of the Hall of the Ambassadors in the Alhambra at 
Granada^ Spain. In this room met the last assembly of the Moors, summoned by Boabdil to 
consider the surrender of Granada to the Spanish King Ferdinand just before Columbus dis- 
covered America. The visitor is impressed with the fact that the depiction of living things is 
avoided in Moorish architecture and that the decoration is accomplished with geometrical designs 
which are astonishingly beautiful. 



Digitized by 



Google 




A BEDOUIN BEAUTY 

'* Around her shone 
The nameless charms unmarked by her alone. 
The light of love, the purity of grace." — Byron, 



Digitized by 



Google 




Digitized by ^ 



SOLDIERS OF THE SOIL 
Our Food Crops Must Be Greatly Increased 

By David F. Houston 

United States Secretary of Agriculture 



THE importance to the nation of a 
generously adequate food supply 
for the coming year cannot be 
overemphasized, in view of the economic 
problems which may arise as a result of 
the entrance of the United States into the 
war. Every effort should be made to 
produce more crops than are needed for 
our own use. 

Many millions of people across the 
seas, as well as our own people, must rely 
in large part upon the products of our 
fields and ranges. This situation will con- 
tinue to exist even though hostilities 
should end unexpectedly soon, since Eu- 
ropean production cannot be restored im- 
mediately to its normal basis. 

It is obvious that the greatest and most 
important service that is recjuired of our 
agriculture under existing conditions is 
an enlarged production of the staple food 
crops. Because of the shortage of such 
crops practically throughout the world, 
there is no risk in the near future of ex- 
cessive production such as sometimes has 
resulted in unremunerative prices to pro- 
ducers. This is particularly true of the 
cereals and of peas, beans, cow-peas, soy- 
beans, and buckwheat. 

THERE IS NO DANGER OF OVERPRODUCTION 

In view of the world scarcity of food, 
there is hardly a possibility that the pro- 
duction of these crops by the farmers of 
the United States can be too great this 
year, and there is abundant reason to ex- 
pect generous price returns for all avail- 
able surplus. 

The most effective step that may be 
taken to increase the production of these 
crops is to enlarge the acreage devoted to 
them in the regions where they are grown 
habitually. This expansion of acreage 
should be to the limit permitted by avail- 
able good seed, labor, and equipment. 



The placing of too great emphasis on 
production in new regions is inadvisable, 
since the introduction into a farm opera- 
tion of a crop not usually grown fre- 
quently involves practical difficulties not 
easily foreseen nor quickly surmountable. 

Taking the winter-wheat territory as a 
whole, winter killing has occurred to an 
extent very much greater than usual. ^ 
This, obviously, if not compensated for 
in some way, will mean a material reduc- 
tion in the supplies of our most impor- 
tant bread cereal. Where winter wheat 
has been damaged sufficiently to justify 
the abandonment of fields, it should by 
all means be replaced by spring-planted 
food crops, preferably small grains or 
corn. 

The condition of our winter wheat, as 
shown by the Department in its report of 
April 7, is more than 25 per cent below 
the average "condition April i" for the 
past ten years. This condition forecasts a 
production this year nearly 243,000,000 
bushels less than the crop of 191 5 and 
52,000,000 bushels less than that of igi6. 
when our harvest of winter wheat was 
also poor. 

What this loss means will be appre- 
ciated from the statement that one bushel 
of wheat contains sufficient energy to 
support the average working man for 15 
days. By producing 240,000,000 bushels 
of winter wheat less in 191 5 we have lost 
enough flour energy to support 10,000,- 
000 people for one year. But as no man 
lives on bread alone, this shortage repre- 
sents wheat sufficient for the needs of 
20,000,000 men for a year. 

THE USEFULNESS OF OATS AND BARLEY 

If land intended for spring wheat can- 
not be put into good condition early 
enough for seeding, oats or barley can be 
substituted to good advantage in the sec- 



273 



Digitized by 



Google 




274 



Digitized by 



Google 



SOLDIERS OF THE SOIL 



275 



tions where these crops are known to do 
welL Barley can be relied on in the 
proved areas of Wisconsin, Minnesota, 
Iowa, the Dakotas, and Montana, while 
oats have a much wider range. 

The ease with which barley may be 
substituted directly for wheat in human 
food and its usefulness to replace wheat 
milling by-products as feed in the pro- 
duction of the milk supply render its 
abundant production important.^ Barley, 
ZL'here it succeeds, yields a larger weight 
of feed per acre than any other small 
grain crop. 

With an abundance of oats and barley 
available, much closer milling of wheat 
than at present could be practiced, if nec- 
essary, without endangering the milk sup- 
ply, which constitutes so important an 
element in the dietary of consumers. 

The place of r\'e under present condi- 
tions is an important one. The crop this 
year should be harvested and utilized 
with more than the usual care. Consid- 
erable acreage is planted in some sections 
for plowing under in the spring for green 
manure. Where conditions are suitable, 
part of this acreage might well be held 
for harvesting, and followed with a suit- 
able summer or fall crop for plowing in 
later. 

Buckwheat may be planted later than 
any similar crop, and often does well on 
old meadows or waste land that can be 
broken after the more exacting crops are 
planted. 

In some sections, where experience has 
demonstrated that the cereals, except rye, 
cannot be relied on, buckwheat is a crop 
of considerable importance. The acreage 
could well be increased, especially in por- 
tions of New York, Pennsylvania, and 
New England, where the crop now is 
grown to a considerable extent. 

Rice at present prices provides more 
food value for the money than most of 
the other cereals. Fuller appreciation of 
its value should stimulate production 
quickly in Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, 
and California to an extent that would 
increase the total food supply greatly. 

EXPAND THE CORN ACREAGE 

Corn is the leading food and feed crop 
of the United States in geographic range 



of production, acreage, and quantity of 
product. The vital importance of a large 
acreage of this crop, properly cared for, 
therefore, is obvious. Because of the 
prices obtained for the last crop and the 
world demand for this grain, its profit- 
ableness to the American farmer during 
the approaching season is clear. Th? 
ioS>954>ooo acres planted to corn in 1916 
yielded 2,583,000,000 bushels, or more 
than 400,000,000 bushels less than the 
large crop of 191 5, and considerably less 
than the five-year average — 2,732,457,000 
bushels. 

Conditions now warrant the planting 
of the largest acreage of this crop which 
it is possible to handle effectively. 

Although fall is the proper time for 
breaking sod fcfr corn, there are many 
unproductive and foul meadows and in- 
different pastures in Illinois, Indiana, 
^Ohio, and the Middle Atlantic and North- 
eastern States that, under existing condi- 
tions, can be broken and planted now to 
advantage. The resulting reduction of 
hay and pasture would be more than re- 
placed by the corn stover, ensilage, and 
grain produced. 

Earliness of maturity, other factors be- 
ing equal, is advantageous in the case of 
practically all grain crops. Relatively 
early maturing varieties should be se- 
lected where possible, and the planting 
should be done at the earliest suitable 
date. With the small grains an advance 
of three or four days in stage of maturity 
frequently saves a crop from serious 
damage by rusts. With corn a similar ad- 
vantage is obtained by early maturity, 
when severe droughts are encountered 
and when killing frosts occur toward the 
end of the season. 

COW-PEAS AND SOY-BEANS VAI,UABI,E FOR 
FOOD 

The usefuhiess of cow^-peas and soy- 
beans as human food has been recognized 
only recently in this country. Existing 
conditions warrant the planting of all the 
available seed of varieties known to do 
well in the several sections. The soy- 
bean, in particular, has proved sufficiently 
resistant to cold in spring and to adverse 
weather during summer to warrant heavy 



Digitized by 



Google 



tc O O V cS 

^ J:: *^ y 

mO V 'f' > 




c a. V5 
-id :t-£H »- J* 



276 



Digitized by 



Google 



SOLDIERS OF THE SOIL 



277 



planting, especially throughout the South. 
The value of the beans for oil produc- 
tion, as well as for human food, has be- 
come recognized so quickly and so gen- 
erally during the past year that the crop 
has acquired a commercial standing far 
in excess of its previous status. 

The high food value of field beans and 
the shortage of supply due to the light 
yields of 1915 and 1916 render them of 
great importance in the regions to which 
they are adapted. This is especially the 
case in portions of the New England 
States, New York, Michigan, and Cali- 
fornia, where the chief supply has been 
grown for many years, and in sections of 
Idaho, Colorado, New ^lexico, and other 
Western States where beans have at- 
tained importance recently. 

The seed supply, while high in price, is 
well distributed. 

RESERVE SUFFICIENT HAY, FORAGE, AND 
PASTURE LAND 

A deficiency of hay and forage for the 
next winter would jeopardize the future 
meat and dairy supplies of the country 
and result in a shortage of roughage for 
military draft and saddle animals. 

In regions where dairying dominates, 
the full acreage of clover, alfalfa, and 
the grasses that is in productive condi- 
tion should be maintained. Under the 
conditions prevailing in most dairying 
sections, these crops can be carried with 
less man-power than that required for 
tilled crops. 

The older, thinner, and less productive 
grass lands, however, frequently can be 
made to produce much larger yields of 
feed in corn than if left, as they are, in 
unproductive grass. The seeding down 
of small grain fields for next year s mow- 
ing should by no means be neglected, for 
the maintenance of effective rotations of 
crops will be found as important in the 
future as in the past. 

For the Gulf States, perhaps no forage 
crop of which the available seed supply 
is relatively abundant exceeds the velvet 
bean in potential value. This legume pos- 
sesses also the ability to make a crop 
when planted relatively late. 

Seed potatoes should be conserved by 



planting on the best lands available for 
them and planning for thorough tillage 
and protection of the crop against disease 
and insect pests. 

POTATOES AND VEGETABLES 

Potatoes can be grown most advanta- 
geously near the centers of population in 
the Northern States, where transporta- 
tion cost may be reduced to a minimum. 
This crop is capable of quick and large 
increase of production when conditions 
are favorable. 

There is, however, considerable risk of 
unprofitable production of potatoes when 
they are grown at long distances from the 
consuming markets, owing to their dis- 
proportionate weight and bulk in com- 
parison with the cereals. 

Such vegetable crops as carrots, ruta- 
baga turnips, onions, and cabbage are 
worthy of much more attention than they 
generally receive, especially in the east- 
ern United States. All these crops are 
capable of large production on suitable 
land, under intensive culture, throughout 
the more densely populated portions of 
the country. The supply of seed is am- 
ple and their culture comparatively simple. 

The holding of these vegetables for the 
winter food supply is relatively easy 
where suitable, inexpensive pits, cellars, 
or lofts are prepared in time. 

THE OLD PRACTICE OF DRYING VEGETABLES 
IS REVIVED 

The practicability of quickly drying 
vegetables for longer preservation was 
demonstrated on a large scale last year in 
western New York, where quantities 
were dried in the available apple evap- 
orators and in rapidly constructed dry- 
kilns, for export as army supplies. 

This was a repetition of the experience 
of the Civil War period, when desiccated 
vegetables assumed considerable impor- 
tance in the army ration, and the equip- 
ment required for their preparation 
proved the forerunner of our present 
fruit-drying equipment. Existing condi- 
tions warrant heavier planting than usual 
of staple winter vegetables in the sections 
where canneries and fruit evaporators 
exist, and probably in some sections 



Digitized by 



Google 




3 - 5 E 

^ X 2 ^ 

to ^c 

6 c ?5 



:d: 



- o 

c o 



^ X >-o 









■Bb- 



^ 2<- sf ! 






u, r r. 






E 

g 









c-^ ^ 












C2 w 



278 



Digitized by 



Google 



SOLDIERS OF THE SOIL 



279 



where the provision of such facilities 
later in the season may be justified. 

In the southern half of the country 
perhaps no crop has larger possibilities 
for quick increase of production of food 
for both men and animals than the sweet 
potato. Methods of handling and stor- 
ing this product, demonstrated and advo- 
cated by the Department workers for 
several years, make possible much fuller 
utilization of it than has occurred gen- 
erally in the past: 

The peanut, in many sections of the 
South, also is capable of greatly enlarged 
production, with little risk of oversupply, 
as it is in demand for oil and peanut- 
butter manufacture, as well as for direct 
use as food, both for man and hogs. 

INCREASE FARM PRODUCTION OF VEGE- 
TABLES AND POULTRY 

The high prices for foodstuffs that 
have prevailed during the last few months 
have stimulated interest in the increase 
of home supplies of vegetables, poultry, 
and dairy products on farms. 

This interest has been quickened most 
noticeably in the South, where for several 
years this Department and the States, 
through their extension workers, have 
urged such an increase as necessary for 
economic reasons, even under normal 
conditions. Other parts of the country 
have responded to these appeals, but 
emphasis on this feature should be con- 
tinued by all agencies in position to op- 
erate effectively. 

Through increased attention to poultry 
on farms, it is possible to add quickly and 
materially to the food supply. Because 
of the importance of an increased supply 
of eggs, under present exigencies, far- 
mers should not market hens of the egg 
breeds, such as the leghorns, which are 
less than three years old, or of the larger 
breeds which are less than two years old. 

By the immediate preservation of eggs 
for home consumption through the use of 
water glass or lime water, larger supplies 
of fresh eggs may be made available for 
marketing later in the season, when pro- 
duction is less and prices higher. 

Every person who raises chickens, from 
the novice to the poultry husbandman, 



should see that infertile eggs are pro- 
duced and all surplus marketed promptly, 
so as to eliminate waste through spoilage. 

When conditions render it feasible, 
small flocks of poultry should be kept by 
families in villages, towns, and especially 
in the suburbs of large cities. The need 
for this extension of poultry-raising is 
particularly great where consumption ex- 
ceeds production, as in the Northeastern 
States. 

Through utilization of table waste, 
scraps, and other refuse as poultry feed, 
much wholesome food in the form of 
eggs and poultry for home use may be 
produced at relatively low cost. 

Many families in the villages and on 
the outskirts of cities also should con- 
sider the advisability of keeping a pig, if 
sanitary regulations permit. In most 
cases, however, it will be profitable to 
keep a pig only when a sufficient surplus 
from the household and the garden is 
available to furnish a considerable por- 
tion of the pig's food. 

Consumers living in villages and in the 
suburbs of cities do not appreciate suffi- 
ciently the possibility of adding materially 
to their food supply by utilizing suitable 
idle soil in yards, vacant lots, and unused 
outlying fields. The total contribution to 
the food supply of families and communi- 
ties which can be brought about through 
such activities is great. 

Gardening is peculiarly an activity in 
which the family andjthe community may 
share with resultant mutual helpfulness 
and benefit. 

The duty of the individual farmer, at 
this time, is to increase his production, 
particularly of food crops. If he has 
control of tillable land not in use, or 
money lying* idle, or labor unemployed, 
he should extend his operations so as to 
employ those resources to the fullest 
extent. 

This does not mean that he should rob 
his land, waste his capital, or expend his 
labor fruitlessly, but that by wise plan- 
ning and earnest effort he should turn 
out a greater quantity of food crops than 
ever before. He will not lose by it, and 
he will perform an important service in 
supporting his country in the task that 
lies before it. 



Digitized by 



Google 




c — 



< ^ z 
« u 

C or; 

Is; ^ i 
^ "^ p 
t: -J " 

J- c Ji 

? •§- 
o 5-E 

Is? 
> 0^:5 

< -£ 



9 --5 



C 2 
V 



280 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE TIES THAT BIND 

Our Natural Sympathy with English Traditions, the French 
Republic, and the Russian Outburst for Liberty* 

By Senator John Sharp Williams 



I JOIN the President in having no 
hostility to the German people. I 
spent two and a half years of my life 
with them and I love them — a whole lot 
of them. The man who inhabits the bor- 
ders of the Rhine, the man who inhabits 
Bavaria and Wurttemberg — easily moved 
to tears, and easily moved to laughter, 
and easily moved to rage — is a man whom 
I have learned to love ; and I have always 
believed that this war in Europe, brought 
on by the obstinate refusal of the Kaiser 
to leave either to a tribunal of arbitration 
or to a concert of Europe the question at 
issue between Austria and Serbia, and 
inspiring Austria to refusal, is a proof of 
the truth of the adage, "Whom the gods 
would destroy, they first make mad." 

I am a little tired, Mr. President, of 
utterances like that of the Senator in de- 
nouncing the Entente powers. Who are 
the Entente powers? France, "La Belle 
France," "Sunny France," sweet France — 
the most companionable people on the 
surface of the earth ; the country of La- 
fayette and Rochambeau and De Grasse ; 
the country of Victor Hugo and Moliere 
and Racine ; the country of the men who 
imitated our American example when 
they flung to the breeze banners with 
"Liberty, equality, fraternity" inscribed 
upon them, although they carried the 
banner to a bloody end that was not justi- 
fied — to a Reig^ of Terror against those 
whom they deemed traitors at home — 
which has been exceeded by the German 
Reign of Terror in Belgium, greater in 
atrocity and less provoked. 

Then the gentleman undertakes to 
"twist the British lion's tail." We have 
had a whole lot of demagogues who habit- 
ually do that. It started soon after the 

♦An address to th^ U. S. Senate April 4, 
1917, specially revised by Senator Williams for 
the National Geographic Magazine. 



Revolution, but not with those of us 
whose forefathers fought under George 
Washington in the Continental line to es- 
tablish American independence. 

The War of Independence was really 
carried on against the will of the English 
people by the German king, who happened 
to be then the King of Great Britain, with 
hired Hessians, who were also Germans, 
against the leadership of that greatest 
Englishman that America ever pro- 
duced — George Washington. 

Edmund Burke, the elder Pitt, who was 
then Lord Chatham, and Charles James 
Fox came much nearer representing real 
English sentiment than the Hanoverian 
King George HL 

OUR DEBT TO ENGLAND 

I have a hearty contempt for the man 
who does not know his environment and 
his kindred and his friends and his coun- 
try. It may be narrow, but I love my 
plantation better than any other planta- 
tion, my county better than any other 
county, my State better than any other 
State in the Union, and my country better 
than any other country in the world, and 
my race — the English - speaking race — 
better than any other race. 

Whence do we get our laws? Whence 
do we get our literature ? Whence do we 
get our ethical philosophy? Whence do 
we get our general ideas of religion? 
From the people who sired our fathers 
before they came here. 

I am tired of men telling me — Welsh- 
man, Scotchman, Englishman in blood, 
as I am — that *'the hereditary enemy of 
the United States is England" or Wales 
or Scotland — that it is Great Britain. 
Magna Charta, the Declaration of Rights, 
the Bill of Rights included in the Consti- 
tution in Its first ten amendments — the 
very principles embodied in the Constitu- 



281 



Digitized by 



Google 




MESSENGERS OF THE AIR: THE FRENCH ARMY AUTO AT THE FRONT FOR 

CARRIER-PIGEONS 



tion derived from colonial experience 
under English rule — all come from Brit- 
ain, a country whose high priest was John 
Milton, whose sweet singer was Burns, 
whose great intellect was Shakespeare, 
whose great warriors for liberty were 
Hampden and Sidney and Simon de 
Montfort. 

I would rather have heard the Senator 
eulogize the best offshoots of that branch, 
and those offshoots right here in Canada 
and Australia and in South Africa, than 
to have heard his eulogy of Prussia. 
They are the branches of the old stock 
that had the courage to leave their neigh- 
borhood and environment and seek out a 
new habitat and adapt themselves to it, 
and who won the American fight for lib- 
erty and equal opportunity — who, like 
our ancestors, plowed the field with the 
rifle on their shoulder, while they held 
the plow with the other hand. They were 
English and Scotch and Welsh and Irish. 

GEORGE WASHINGTON WAS ENGUSH 

It was an Englishman of the English- 
men, as far as his blood is concerned — 
George Washington, of Mount Vernon — 
who would have preferred to have the 



l^eople speak of him as "George Wash- 
ington of Mount Vernon," his plantation 
name, rather than by some other name — 
who led the American forces that fought 
against the dictates of a German-blooded 
king, backed up by Hessian hirelings. 
George Washington warned against en- 
tangling alliances and warned against an- 
other thing — an infuriate and insensate 
hatred of some particular people — ^be- 
cause a man with that poison in his blood 
is incapable of being a real, good Amer- 
ican citizen in a country where the melt- 
ing pot will finally operate. 

I do not like the arraignment which the 
Senator made of the English people or 
the English Government, even more dem- 
ocratic than our own. I do not like it 
because it was not correct historically, 
because it was not true in sentiment, and 
because it was an insult to the gentlemen 
from whose loins I sprang, when they 
themselves fought against people of like 
blood who wanted to oppress them. What 
did they fight for? They fought for 
this — Thomas Jefferson and old Samuel 
Adams were pretty nearly the only ones 
of them who then had a larger vision — 
George Washington and Lincoln and 



282 



Digitized by 



Google 




THE AUTOMOBILE SEARCHUGHTS WHICH ARE MOST EFFECTIVE IN SEARCHINX OUT 
THE ENEMY^S ZEPPELINS, THUS AIDING IN BRINGING THEM DOWN 



Greene and the balance of them fought 
for "the inherited rights of Englishmen, 
belonging," as they contended, "to Eng- 
lishmen in America as well as to Eng- 
lishmen in England." Those "inherited 
rights of Englishmen" were expressed in 
the Constitution of the United States. 

Thomas Jefferson and Samuel Adams 
had a bit broader vision and view : they 
went a bit farther; and Thomas Jeffer- 
son's vision went into the Declaration of 
Independence, which includes not only 
the rights of Englishmen, but "the rights 
of man," which were later embodied in 
the Declaration of the French Republic. 

OUR DISLIKE OF ARROGANCE 

Somebody said to me the other day, 
"You seem to be angry and in a passion 
about this German question," and I said, 
"I am." Next to the indignation of God 
is the righteous indignation of a true man 
with a soul in him and red blood, instead 
of bluish milk, in his veins, against the 
German assumption of German superi- 
ority and arrogance and injury and in- 
sult ; but, above all, insult. 



I know it will sound to a lot of you 
curious, but the thing I believe that I re- 
sent most IS what Germany said to us 
about painting our ships like the display 
window of a barber shop, when we could 
go, by her allowance, once a week into 
one port in one country, more than I do 
even the sinking of our ships and the 
drowning of our citizens. I think nearly 
every gentleman resents insult more than 
he resents injury. A man who comes 
upon my place and goes through a path- 
way that is not a public highway, or who 
incidentally destroys some property that 
is growing, I can forgive; but one who 
comes up to me and tells me that he is 
going to do it whenever he pleases, be- 
cause he is stronger than I am, is a man 
whom I cannot forgive. 

Germany thought she was stronger 
than we; and she is right just now. 
These ready nations assume a great deal 
in connection with the unready nations. 
We two branches of the English-speak- 
ing race — across the sea and here — have 
always been unready for war, thank God, 
and shall remain so, because we think it 



283 



Digitized by 



Google 








284 



Digitized by 



Google 



jt I. 




2 1.2 2 



285 



Digitized by 



Google 



286 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



is better to call out the full power of the 
people when the emergency comes than 
it is to keep them weighted down for 20 
years in order to do one year's fighting. 
As a rule, people do one year's fighting 
out of each 20 years of their actual ex- 
istence. We have done less, of course. 

Which would you rather do — fight 
Prussia now, with France and England 
and Russia to help you, or fight her later, 
when she is foot-loose, by ourselves? 
You have got to do one or the other. 

A whole lot of people tell me that the 
nations of the Entente are bound to win 
the war in Europe. I tell you they are 
not. I tell you that with that line, almost 
like a right-angle triangle, with a salient 
here, with Robert E. Lee behind that line, 
with a capacity to reinforce one part of 
it from the other, while the enemy has to 
go all around, he would win that war. 

I tell you, furthermore, that the Italian 
barrier cannot be protected if there are 
enough German people put in, and when 
once it is broken France will be attacked 
upon the south — unfortified and unde- 
fended — on the Italian side. 

I tell you, moreover, that if Germany 
does win that fight upon the Continent of 
Europe — with Belgium already a vassal 
State, Holland to become one, France 
likewise, by defeat — with all their forts 
and naval stations and shipyards open as 
well as her own, she will begin to get 
ready to whip us, unless England's^ fleet 
prevents it. 

Now, Great Britain can, by sea-power, 
defend herself almost indefinitely — de- 
fend herself long enough for us to get 
ready to help her defend us. You can 
put it in your pipe and smoke it — this 
fact : whether you are going to fight Prus- 
sia now, with assistance, or whether you 
are going to fight her later, when we have 
no assistance, you have got to fight her. 

THK OTHKR NEUTRAL NATIONS 

Then the Senator says that "the other 
neutral nations are not taking the course 
that we are taking." No; they are not. 
But why ? There is Norway, the land of 
the free and the brave, and the true coun- 
try whence the Normans came and 
whence almost all the blue blood of Eu- 
rope's rulers came. Why does not Nor- 
way resent these insults ? Oh, Mr. Presi- 



dent, it is a sad and tragic thing; but 
Norway is too weak. Why does not 
Denmark act? Because her very hands 
are in the mouth of the mad dog. 

Why does not Holland act? Again, 
because she dares not. German troops 
are lined across her border, ready to walk 
over her prostrate body as they walked 
over the body of Belgium ; to shoot her 
civilians if they express sympathy for 
themselves against the German enemy ; to 
burn down her schools, her libraries, and 
her cathedrals, as the Germans burned 
down those in Belgium. Holland is 
cowed. 

A brave race are the Dutch. They 
faced Spain in its pride and power, with 
the help of England. They fought and 
died for liberty to speak and to worship. 
But, Mr. President, almost any people in 
the world, no matter how brave, now and 
then can be cowed and for a time act like 
whipped slaves. It is the most tragic and 
pathetic thing in all history when that 
happens either to a man or to a nation. 

I have spoken of France ; I have spoken 
of Great Britain. How about Russia? 
Up to a short time ago, so far as Russia 
is concerned, any animadversions that the 
Senator chose to make would have met 
with a good deal of sympathy upon my 
part ; but once more I see a people throw- 
ing oflF their shackles, who have at last 
"declared" that they are free. Time will 
test the question whether they can prove 
that they are worthy to be free or not; 
but they have at least expressed the desire 
and the intention to be free, and, as a 
rule, where the desire and the intention 
go, the fact exists. 

We have got to go into this war now. 
and we are going into it for all we are 
worth, for all our capital is worth,, for all 
our bodies are worth, for all that we have 
and all that we are ; and I, for one, hope 
that we will never make peace until the 
universal decree of the civilized world 
has gone forth to the eflFect that the 
Hapsburgers and the Hohenzollerns have 
ceased to reign. 

The Hohenzollerns have been able: 
they have been efficient ; they have been 
all that; but a race infected with the 
poisonous idea that it is ruling by divine 
ordinance is crazy. 



Digitized by 



Google 



Vol. XXXI, No. 4 



WASHINGTON 



April, 1917 





TIHE 

ATIOMAL 

©GRAPEIIG 

AGAZHN 




DO YOUR BIT FOR AMERICA 

A Proclamation by President Wilson to the American 

People 



MY Feli^ow-Countrymen : 
The entrance of our own be- 
loved country into the grim and 
terrible war for democracy and human 
rights which has shaken the world creates 
so many problems of national life and 
action which call for immediate consid- 
eration and settlement that I hope you 
will permit me to address to you a few 
words of earnest counsel and appeal with 
regard to them. 

We are rapidly putting our navy upon 
an effective war footing and are about to 
create and equip a great army, but these 
are the simplest parts of the great task 
to which we have addressed ourselves. 

There is not a single selfish element, 
so far as I can see, in the cause we are 
fighting for. We are fighting for what 
we believe and wish to be the rights of 
mankind and for the future peace and 
security of the w^orld. 

To do this great thing worthily and 
successfully we must devote ourselves to 
the service without regard to profit or 
material advantage and with an energy 
and intelligence that will rise to the level 
of the enterprise itself. We must realize 
to the full how great the task is and how 
^many things, how many kinds and ele- 
ments of capacity and service and self- 
sacrifice it involves. 

These, then, are the things we must do, 
and do well, besides fighting — the things 



without which mere fighting would be 
fruitless : 

We must supply abundant food for 
ourselves and for our armies and our sea- 
men, not only, but also for a large part 
of the nations with whom we have now 
made common cause, in whose support 
and by whose sides we shall be fighting. 

THE THOUSAND NEEDS FOR VICTORY 

We must supply ships by the hundreds 
out of our shipyards to carry to the other 
side of the sea, submarines or no sub- 
marines, what will every day be needed 
there, and abundant materials out of our 
fields and our mines and our factories 
with which not only to clothe and equip 
our own forces on land and sea, but also 
to clothe and support our people, for 
whom the gallant fellows under arms can 
no longer work ; to help clothe and equip 
the armies with which we are cooperating 
in Europe, and to keep the looms and 
manufactories there in raw material ; coal 
to keep the fires going in ships at sea and 
in the furnaces of hundreds of factories 
across the sea ; steel out of which to make 
arms and ammunition, both here and 
there; rails for worn-out railways back 
of the fighting fronts ; locomotives and 
rolling stock to take the place of those 
every day going to pieces ; mules, horses, 
cattle, for labor and for military service ; 
everything wMth which the people of Eng- 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by International Film Service 

BEFORK THE STATUE OF NATHAN HALE^ CITY HAI,!, SQUARE, NEW YORK 

A patriot of 1917 becoming imbued with the patriotism of the Revolutionary hero who. 
upon being led forth to die, voiced the inspiring regret that he had but one life to lose for 
his country. 



290 



Digitized by 



Google 



DO YOUR BIT FOR AMERICA 



291 



land and France and Italy and Russia 
have usually supplied themselves, but can- 
not now afford the men, the materials, or 
the machinery to make. 

It is evident to every thinking man that 
our industries — on the farms, in the ship- 
yards, in the mines, in the factories — 
must be made more prolific and more effi- 
cient than ever, and that they must be 
more economically managed and better 
adapted to the particular requirements of 
our task than they have been; and what 
I want to say is that the men and the 
women who devote their thought and 
their energy to these things will be serv- 
ing the country and conducting the fight 
for peace and freedom just as truly and 
just as effectively as the men on the battle- 
field or in the trenches. 

SOLDIERS BEHIND THE FIRING LINE 

The industrial forces of the country, 
men and women alike, will be a great 
national, a great international, service 
army — a notable and honored host en- 
gaged in the service of the nation and the 
world, the efficient friends and saviors of 
free men everywhere. 

Thousands — nay, hundreds of thou- 
sands — of men otherwise liable to mili- 
tary service will of right and of necessity 
be excused from that service and assigned 
to the fundamental, sustaining work of 
the fields and factories and mines, and 
they will be as much part of the great 
patriotic forces of the nation as the men 
under fire. 

I take the liberty, therefore, of address- 
ing this word to the farmers of the coun- 
try and to all who work on the farms: 
The supreme need of our own nation and 
of the nations with which we are coop- 
erating is an abundance of supplies, and 
especially of foodstuffs. 

The importance of an adequate food 
supply, especially for the present year, is 
superlative. Without abundant food, alike 
for the armies and the peoples now at 
war, the whole great enterprise upon 
which we have embarked will break down 
and fail. 

The world's food reserves are low. 
Not only during the present emergency, 
but for some time after peace shall have 
come, both our own people and a large 



proportion of the people of Europe must 
rely upon the harvests in America. 

WHERE THE FATE OF THE WAR RESTS 

Upon the farmers of this country, 
therefore, in large measure rests the fate 
of the war and the fate of the nations. 
May the nation not count upon them to 
omit no step that will increase the pro- 
duction of their land or that will bring 
about the most effectual cooperation in 
the sale and distribution of their prod- 
ucts? 

The time is short. It is of the most 
imperative importance that everything 
possible be done, and done immediately, 
to make sure of large harvests. 

I call upon young men and old alike 
and upon the able-bodied boys of the land 
to accept and act upon this duty — to turn 
in hosts to the farms and make certain. 
that no pains and no labor is lacking in 
this great matter. 

I particularly appeal to the farmers of 
the South to plant abundant foodstitffs, 
as well as cotton. They can show their 
patriotism in no better or more convinc- 
ing way than by resisting the great temp- 
tation of the present price of cotton and 
helping, helping upon a great scale, to 
feed the nation and the peoples every- 
where who are fighting for their liberties 
and for our own. The variety of their 
crops will be the visible measure of their 
comprehension of their national duty. 

The Government of the United States 
and the governments of the several States 
stand ready to cooperate. They will do 
everything possible to assist farmers in 
securing an adequate supply of seed,. an 
adequate force of laborers when they are 
most needed, at harvest time, and the 
means of expediting shipments of fer- 
tilizers and farm machinery, as well as of 
the crops themselves when harvested. 

A democracy's chance to make good 

The course of trade shall be as unham- 
pered as it is possible to make it, and 
there shall be no unwarranted manipula- 
tion of the nation's food supply by those 
who handle it on its way to the consumer. 
This is our opportunity to demonstrate 
the efficiency of a great democracy, and 
we shall not fall short of it ! 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Ledger Photo Service 
PLIGHTING ANEW THEIR FEALTY TO THE FLAG 

Assembled in Independence Square, Philadelphia, thousands of patriotic Americans re- 
cently pledged their unanimous support to the President in the following stirring resolutions : 

"Meeting on the eve of a great crisis affecting our national life and on the sacred ground 
where, 141 years ago, the fathers of the Republic declared belief in the unalienable right of 
man to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, we citizens of Philadelphia, following the 
traditions of the fathers, here publicly renew our oath of allegiance to the Constitution and 
the laws of the Republic, pledging to the President of the United States our loyal support in 
any action which, in the exercise of his constitutional powers, he may deem necessary to the 
protection of American rights upon land and sea. Because the common defense is a common 
duty, universal military training is the only system that is fundamentally democratic and 
fair. We urge upon Congress the prompt enactment of a bill to put this system into imme- 
diate operation." 



292 



Digitized by 



Google 



DO YOUR BIT FOR AMERICA 



293 



This let me say to the middlemen of 
every sort, whether they are handhng our 
foodstuffs or our raw materials of manu- 
facture or the products of our mills and 
factories : The eyes of the country will be 
especially upon you. This is your oppor- 
tunity for signal service, efficient and dis- 
interested. The country expects you, as 
it expects all others, to forego unusual 
profits, to organize and expedite ship- 
ments of supplies of every kind, but espe- 
cially of food, with an eye to the service 
you are rendering and in the spirit of 
those who enlist in the ranks, for their 
people, not for themselves. I shall con- 
fidently expect you to deserve and win 
the confidence of people of every sort and 
station. 

To the men who run the railways of 
the country, w^hether they be managers or 
op)erative employees, let me say that the 
railways are the arteries of the nation's 
life, and that upon them rests the im- 
mense responsibility of seeing to it that 
those arteries suffer no obstruction of any 
kind, no inefficiency or slackened power. 

To the merchant let me suggest the 
motto, "Small profits and quick service," 
and to the shipbuilder the thought that 
the life of the war depends upon him. 
The food and the war supplies must be 
carried across the seas, no matter how 
many ships are sent to the bottom. The 
places of those that go down must be 
supplied, and supplied at once. 

STATESMEN AND ARMIES HELPLESS 
WITHOUT MISTERS 

To the miner let me say that he stands 
where the farmer does — the work of the 
world waits on him. If he slackens or 
fails, armies and statesmen are helpless. 
He also is enlisted in the great service 
army. 

The manufacturer does not need to be 
told, I hope, that the nation looks to him 
to speed and perfect every process ; and 



I want only to remind his employees that 
their service is absolutely indispensable 
and is counted on by every man who 
loves the country and its liberties. 

Let me suggest, also, that every one 
who creates or cultivates a garden helps, 
and helps greatly, to solve the problem 
of the feeding of the nations; and that 
every housewife who practices strict 
economy puts herself in the ranks of 
those who serve the nation. This is the 
time for America to correct her unpar- 
donable fault of wastefulness and ex- 
travagance. 

Let every man and every woman as- 
sume the duty of careful, provident use 
and expenditure as a public duty, as a 
dictate of patriotism which no one can 
now expect ever to be excused or for- 
given for ignoring. 

THE SUPREME TEST HAS COME 

In the hope that this statement of the 
needs of the nation and of the world in 
this hour of supreme crisis may stimulate 
those to whom it comes and remind all 
who need reminder of the solemn duties 
of a time such as the world has never 
seen before, I beg that all editors and 
publishers everywhere will give as promi- 
nent publication and as wide circulation 
as possible to this appeal. 

I venture to suggest, also, to all adver- 
tising agencies that they would perhaps 
render a very substantial and timely serv- 
ice to the country if they would give it 
wide-spread repetition. 

And I hope that clergymen will not 
think the theme of it an unworthy or in- 
appropriate subject of comment and hom- 
ily from their pulpits. 

The supreme test of the nation has 
come. We must all speak, act, and serve 
together ! 

WooDROW Wilson. 

The White House, April 15, 191 7. 




Digitized by 



Google 




294 



Digitized by 



Google 



A TRIBUTE TO AMERICA^ 

By Herbert Henry Asquith 

Formerly Prime Minister of Great Britain 



IT IS only right and fitting that this 
House, the chief representative body 
of the British Empire, should at the 
earliest possible opportunity give definite 
and emphatic expression to the feelings 
which throughout the length and breadth 
of the Empire have grown day by day in 
volume and fervor since the memorable 
decision of the President and Congress 
of the United States. 

I doubt whether, even now, the world 
realizes the full significance of the step 
America has taken. I do not use lan- 
guage of flattery or exaggeration when I 
say it is one of the most disinterested acts 
in history. For more than lOO years it 
has been the cardinal principle of Ameri- 
can policy to keep clear of foreign en- 
tanglements. A war such as this must 
necessarily dislocate international com- 
merce and finance, but on the balance it 
was doing little appreciable harm to the 
material fortunes and prosperity of the 
American people. 

What, then, has enabled the Presi- 
dent — after waiting with the patience 
which Pitt described as the first virtue of 
statesmanship — to carry with him a 
united nation into the hazards and hor- 
rors of the greatest war in history ? 

Not calculation of material gain, not 
hope of territorial aggrandizement, not 
even the pricking of one of those so- 
called points of honor which in days gone 
by have driven nations, as they used to 
drive individuals, to the duelling ground. 

It was the constraining force of con- 
science and humanity, growing in strength 
and compulsive authority month by 
month, with the gradual unfolding of the 
real character of German aims and meth- 
ods. It was that force alone which 
brought home to the great democracy 
overseas the momentous truth that they 

♦An address in the House of Parliament 
April 17, 191 7. 



were standing at the parting of the ways. 
The American nation had to make one of 
those great decisions which in the lives of 
men and nations determine for good or 
ill their whole future. 

What was it that our kinsmen in Amer- 
ica realized as the issue in this unexam- 
pled conflict? The very things which, if 
we are worthy of our best traditions, we 
are bound to vindicate— essential condi- 
tions of free and honorable development 
of the nations of the world, humanity, 
respect for law, consideration for the 
weak and unprotected, chivalry toward 
mankind, observance of good faith — 
these things, which we used to regard as 
commonplaces of international decency, 
one after another have been flouted, men- 
aced, trodden under foot, as though they 
were eflfete superstitions of a bygone 
creed. 

America sees in this clear issue some- 
thing of wider import than the vicissi- 
tudes of the battlefields, of even of a re- 
arrangement of the map of Europe on 
the basis of nationality. 

The whole future of civilized govern- 
ment and intercourse, in particular the 
fortunes and faith of democracy, has 
been brought into peril. In such a situ- 
ation aloofness is seen to be not only a 
blunder, but a crime. To stand aside 
with stopped ears, with folded arms, with 
averted gaze, when you have the power 
to intervene, is to become not a mere 
spectator, but an accomplice. 

There was never in the minds of any 
of us a fear that the moment the issue 
became apparent and unmistakable the 
voice of America w^ould not be heard. 
She has now dedicated herself without 
hesitation or reserve, heart and soul and 
strength, to the greatest of causes, to 
which, stimulated and fortified by her 
comradeship, we here renew our fealty 
and devotion. 



295 



Digitized by 



Google 






2g6 



Digitized by 



Google 



FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS 



By Henry W. Henshaw 

Author of "Common Birds of Town and Country/' 

Geographic Magazine 



IN THE National 



Illustrations by Louis Agassis Puertes 



AT EVERY stage of their growth, 

uL from the seed to the adult tree, 
i\ our forest, shade, and orchard 
trees are subject to the attacks of hordes 
of insect enemies, which, if unchecked, 
would soon utterly destroy them. 

What the loss of our forest and shade 
trees would mean to us can better be 
imagined than described. Wood enters 
into so many products that it is difficult 
to think of civilized man without it, while 
the fruits of our orchards also are of the 
greatest importance. Aside from the eco- 
nomic loss, which can hardly be imagined, 
much less estimated, how barren the 
world would seem shorn of our forests 
and beautiful shade trees ! 

Fortunately, the insect foes of trees are 
not without their own persistent enemies, 
and among them are many species of 
birds whose equipment and habits spe- 
cially fit them to deal with insects and 
whose entire lives are spent in pursuit of 
them. Many insects at one or another 
stage of their existence burrow deeply 
into the bark or even into the living 
wood of trees, and so are quite safe from 
ordinary bird enemies. Woodpeckers, 
however, being among the most highly 
specialized of birds, are wonderfully 
equipped to dig into wood and to expose 
and destroy these hidden foes. 

Certain insects that largely confine their 
attacks to the smaller branches and ter- 
minal twigs are sought out and preyed 
upon by nuthatches, creepers, titmice, and 
warblers. Others, and their number is 
legion, attack the blossoms and foliage, 
and here the nimble and sharp-eyed warb- 
lers render supreme service, the number 
of plant lice and lepidopterous larvae they 
destroy in a single day almost challenging 
belief. 

Thus our woodland songsters are 
among the most important of all our 
birds, and in their own field render man 



unequaled service. Moreover, very few 
have any injurious habits, and the little 
harm they do, if any, weighs as nothing 
in the balance when compared with the 
good. By reason of their numbers and 
their activity in hunting insects, our 
warblers take first place as preservers of 
the forest, and the following account, 
which treats of about half the total num- 
ber, is devoted to the more conspicuous, 
the more important, and the commoner 
species. 

THE WARBI^ER FAMII^Y 

Our wood warblers are assembled in a 
rather loosely defined family (the Mnio- 
tiltidae), embracing in all about 140 spe- 
cies, of which more than a third are 
visitors to the United States. They are 
fairly well distributed over the country 
at large, although more species make their 
summer homes in the eastern half of the 
United States than in the western. 

A number of notable species, however, 
summer in the West, as they do also in 
the Southern States. Our New World 
warblers are quite unlike their Old World 
relatives, the Sylviidae, or true warblers, 
whose family includes some 75 genera 
and between 500 and 600 species. 

Not only do our American species dif- 
fer structurally in many particulars from 
their Old World representatives, espe- 
cially in possessing nine instead of ten 
primaries, but they differ markedly also 
in appearance and habits. It may be said 
in passing that while our warblers are 
brilliantly colored and many of them 
sexually dissimilar, those of the Old 
World are not only small, but plainly 
plumaged; moreover, the sexes are gen- 
erally alike in coloration. 

The larger number of our warblers, as 
well as the most characteristic, are in- 
cluded in the one genus Dendroica, which 
is notable, since it includes more species 



297 



Digitized by 



Google 



298 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



than any other genus of North American 
birds. 

HAUNTS OF WOOD WARBLERS 

Fortunately for the bird lover, our 
wood warblers are not recluses. They 
are creatures of light and sunshine. Some 
of them, it is true, retire to the mountain 
fastnesses or the depths of coniferous 
forests during the nesting period; but 
the number of these is small and their 
withdrawal for only a comparatively 
short time, while the majority at all times 
of the year favor the edges of the forest, 
open woods, or brushy clearings. 

Their preference for such situations 
brings many within the bounds of civil- 
ization and renders it comparatively easy 
for any one so inclined to make their ac- 
quaintance. As during migration they 
assemble in flocks, they are, on the whole, 
pretty well known; and since, as a rule, 
they are not shy, they have long been 
favorite objects of observation and study. 

WARBLERS AS SONGSTERS 

Despite their name, which would seem 
to imply musical ability of no mean order, 
our wood warblers, with few exceptions, 
occupy no very high place in the musical 
galaxy. All smg, however, after a fash- 
ion, and the musical efforts of some are 
pleasing, even according to human stan- 
dards. While most warblers are prodigal 
enough with their music and sing early 
and often, especially prior to and during 
the nesting season, their music is fre- 
quently so faint as to be audible only to 
the trained ear of the bird lover. 

As if aware of their musical inferior- 
ity, few display much enthusiasm in their 
vocal efforts, but sing while they work, 
or while pausing for a brief moment as 
they move among the foliage hunting for 
food. With them, singing appears to be 
an audible expression of general content 
and well being, and, no doubt, an effort 
to please and attract their mates. 

Certain members of the thrush and 
thrasher families, on the contrary, which 
contain in their ranks the prima donnas 
of our bird world, as if conscious of their 
supremacy, are wont to mount a com- 
manding perch when about to sing, and to 
pour out their melody for all the world 
to hear. With them, singing is not merely 



incidental to the day's work. It is a con- 
scious and supreme effort, and is much 
too important to be slighted or shared 
with any other function. Apparently 
they appreciate to a great extent and en- 
joy their own outpourings, and, if we 
may interpret their feelings by human 
standards, are conscious that their musi- 
cal offerings entitle them to an audience. 

TROPICAL ORIGIN OF VV.\RBLERS 

Not only do their bright colors suggest 
a tropical origin of our warblers, but 
their whole make-up is in keeping with 
tropical surroundings. Warblers are 
thinly feathered and delicately organized 
and most of them incapable of withstand- 
ing any great degree of cold. They are 
also almost exclusively insect eaters, only 
a few of the family being at all vege- 
tarian, and these only to a comparatively 
small extent. 

Hence, with them, migration is not a 
matter of choice, but is imperative. They 
come to us on a particular errand for a 
few short months, and when family cares 
are at an end, back they hie to the tropics, 
the lands of warmth and sunshine, which 
lend them to us for a brief season. Thus 
the true home of our warblers is not 
where they nest, but where they spend 
three-fourths of their lives — not the 
north, but the south — not in the temper- 
ate, but in the tropical zones. 

THE SPECTACULAR MIGRATION OF 
WARBLERS 

That wonderful phenomenon, bird mi- 
gration, is illustrated by few birds so 
clearly and convincingly as by our wood 
warblers. Assuredly no other birds — 
unless it be the geese — migrate in such a 
spectacular manner. The stroller, in late 
August or September, finds himself in the 
woods, the silence being broken only by 
the drumming of a distant partridge, the 
chirping of insects, or other familiar 
sounds which only emphasize the general 
quiet that prevails. 

Presto! The scene changes! The 
woods, apparently almost tenantless but 
a moment before, are now filled with 
life of the most animated and intense 
kind. Every shrub, every tree, has its 
feathered occupant. Our observer recog- 



Digitized by 



Google 



FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS 



299 



nizes perhaps a dozen or twenty species, 
representing several distinct families ; but 
prominent among them, by reason of 
numbers, variegated plumage, graceful 
forms, and active motions, are the wood 
warblers. 

Every individual is alert and busy, 
gliding from one twig to another near by, 
or flying from one tree to the next, while 
from all sides come the soft calls and 
notes of individual members of the flock, 
whose friendly converse has the effect, if 
not the purpose, of keeping the individ- 
uals of the assemblage in touch with each 
other and with the flock as a unit. In a 
few moments silence again reigns where 
all was commotion and activity. The 
birds have passed on their seemingly aim- 
less course. 

If the observer would learn the solu- 
tion of the mystery of the birds* evident 
hurry, he has only to follow them for a 
time, when he will find that, however er- 
ratic may seem the course of individual 
members of the flock, the flock as a whole 
is steering a tolerably straight course 
southward. In other words, he is in the 
midst of a flock of birds en route to their 
winter quarters and, in order to econo- 
mize time, feeding as they go. This, 
however, is not the only way warblers 
migrate, nor is it the most important, 
since the greater part of the long journey 
of many is performed by night. 

Any one with good ears has only to 
listen on a clear, frosty night in fall to 
hear hundreds of warblers and other 
birds as tbey flit by, a few hundred yards 
above the earth, the call notes coming in- 
cessantly out of the darkness. The route 
of these flying hosts often carries them 
above cities, and one cannot be insensible 
to the incongruity between his surround- 
ings and the woodland scenes, so vividly 
brought to mind by the lisping notes com- 
ing from the darkness overhead. The 
subject of migration has not inspired our 
poets so often as might be expected, but 
Longfellow, in his "Birds of Passage," 
gives us the following wonderfully sug- 
gestive lines: 

But the night is fair, 
And everywhere 
A warm, soft vapor fills the air, 
And distant sounds seem near; 



And above, in the light 
Of the star-lit night, 
Swift birds of passage wing their flight, 
Through the dewy atmosphere. 

I hear the beat 

Of their pinions fleet, 

As from the land of snow and sleet 

They seek a southern lea. 
I hear the cry 
Of their voices high, 
Falling dreamily through the sky, 

But their forms I cannot see. 

Probably because insects constitute 
such an important part of their food, 
warblers, as a rule, migrate early in fall 
and late in spring. It is true that in fall 
many linger till frosts nip the vegetation ; 
but insects are abroad even later than 
this, and it is only necessary to watch 
these late migrants for a short time to 
learn that their search for insects is be- 
ing well rewarded. 

Only a few species come north early 
in spring, the great bulk of the warblers 
evidently having been taught by bitter ex- 
perience that in spring, at least, it is not 
the early bird that finds most worms or 
finds them easiest. 

FLOCKING OF SMALL BIRDS 

Just why small birds, when migrating, 
congregate in large flocks and troop 
through the woodlands has often been the 
subject of speculation. Juncos, several 
species of sparrows, woodpeckers, nut- 
hatches, chickadees, creepers, and, above 
all, warblers, combine to swell the ranks 
of these migrating companies. As many 
as a dozen or more species of warblers 
may often be seen in one flock, which, in 
addition, may include 200 or 300 indi- 
viduals, representing a number of fam- 
ilies whose tastes and habits in every-day 
life differ very widely. 

Yet here are these incongruous ele- 
ments mingling together on terms of the 
utmost friendliness. Since birds are so- 
ciable beings, except during the short 
time when family cares prompt to jealous 
vigilance, sociability alone may be the 
bond of union ; added, however, to the 
kindly feeling of companionship probably 
is a feeling of increased security which 
comes from numbers. Certainly no enemy 
can approach one of these bird assem- 
blages without being spied by at least one 



Digitized by 



Google 



300 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



pair of vigilant eyes, when the flock is 
immediately notified by a few sharp 
chirps — warning for every individual to 
seek safety in flight or to scurry to cover. 

WHAT MYSTERIOUS SENSE GUIDES THEM 
IN THEIR LONG JOURNEYS? 

In what manner warblers migrate — 
that is, how they are guided on their long 
journeys — is a moot question. Little 
mystery attaches to their ability to find 
their way north or south in daylight, 
since the recognizable landmarks are 
many and prominent. As most birds, es- 
pecially the warblers, choose starlight and 
moonlight nights for their trips, perhaps 
they are similarly guided by night, and 
natural landmarks, as mountains, rivers, 
and the coastline may point out much, if 
not all, of their way. 

However plausible this explanation 
may sound in the case of birds migrating 
over land, it utterly fails when applied to 
migrants whose journeys north and south 
necessitate flight over long stretches of 
ocean, in some instances at least 2,000 
miles, quite out of sight of land and of 
all landmarks. 

In seeking an explanation of the mys- 
tery of birds' ability to find their way 
under such circumstances, many are in- 
clined to reject the one-time sufficient 
answer, "instinct," in favor of the more 
recent theory, the possession by birds of 
another faculty, the so-called "sense of 
direction." This added sense enables 
birds to return to a known locality with 
no other aid than an ever-present knowl- 
edge of the right direction. 

But, in the case of our wood warblers, 
there is little need of appealing to another 
sense to guide them in migration, or, in- 
deed, to anything out of the ordinary save 
excellent memory and good eyesight. The 
five-hundred-mile flight toward the trop- 
ics across the Gulf of Mexico is made by 
preference, and however it originated as 
a fly line, had it proved to be extra haz- 
ardous, it might have been abandoned at 
any time in favor of the apparently safer 
West Indian route. 

But, after all, the Gulf trip involves few 
hazards other than those connected with 
storms, since the flight across the water, 
even at a slow rate, would necessitate a 



journey of less than 24 hours, and this, 
no doubt, is quite within the capacity of 
even the smallest and weakest of the 
family. Moreover, the South American 
Continent is too big a mark to be easily 
missed, and an error of a few hundred 
miles north or south would make little 
difference in the safety of the birds. 

WHY WARBLERS MIGRATE 

It may be set down as an axiom that 
all birds which travel south in fall do so 
because they must migrate or freeze or 
starve. Why some of them leave early, 
when food in their summer home is seem- 
ingly so abundant, is indeed a puzzle. 
Once the nestlings are on the wing and 
ready for the journey, off they go, old 
and young. 

Nevertheless, by an apparently prema- 
ture start they only anticipate by a few 
weeks the time of scarcity when they 
must go, and perhaps the lesson of bitter 
experience in the history of the several 
species has taught them to go when all 
the conditions are favorable. It is true 
that every winter a few birds, often a 
few individuals of a given species, winter 
far north of the customary winter home. 
Some of these are evidently stragglers or 
wanderers which, for some unexplained 
reason, failed to accompany the rest of 
their kind on the southward migration. 
They in no wise affect the general state- 
ment, being exceptional in every way. 

A few of our warblers in Florida and 
on other parts of our southern coast do 
not migrate ; but the almost universal rule 
in the family is to abandon the summer 
home when the care of the young ceases 
and to go far southward ere they stop for 
the winter. Indeed, the males of many 
species do not trouble themselves much 
with the care of the nestlings, but prepare 
to migrate before the young are well on 
the wing. 

A still more flagrant case is that of the 
hummingbirds. The male deserts the 
female when she is still on her eggs, 
shifting the responsibility of caring for 
the family entirely on her devoted head, 
while he disports himself among the 
flowers, leaving for the south long before 
his exemplary mate and the young are 
ready. 



Digitized by 



Google 



FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS 



301 



Some of our species, however, while 
migrating southward, are satisfied to re- 
main all winter within our boundaries. 
Thus the pine and palm warblers winter 
in the Gulf States, while a greater or less 
number of individuals, representing sev- 
eral species, winter in southern Florida. 
The great majority, however, winter 
south of the United States, in Central 
and South America. 

Thus Professor Cooke tells us: "The 
prairie, black-throated blue, Swainson's, 
Bachman's, Cape May, and Kiftland's 
warblers go only to the West Indies. The 
worm-eating, myrtle, magnolia, chestnut- 
sided, black-throated green, hooded, blue- 
winged, Nashville, orange-crowned, pa- 
rula, palm, and Wilson's warblers, and 
the chat, go no farther than Central 
America, while many species spend the 
winter in South America, including some 
or all the individuals of the black and 
white, prothonotary, golden- winged, Ten- 
nessee, yellow, cerulean, bay-breasted, 
black-poll, Blackbumian, Kentucky, Con- 
necticut, mourning, and Canada warb- 
lers, the redstart, oven-bird, and both the 
water-thrushes. Nearly all the warblers 
of the western United States spend the 
winter in Mexico and the contiguous por- 
tions of Central America." 

VAST NUMBERS SUCCUMB 

The northward journey in spring, away 
from the land of sunshine and plenty to 
the land of uncertain spring weather, is 
another matter. Probably if all birds 
that habitually abandon the north and 
winter in the south were to nest there, 
their quota, added to the number resident 
in the tropics, would be too great for the 
means of subsistence. 

Nevertheless, birds are not forced away 
from their winter quarters by inclement 
weather or impending famine, but by the 
subtle physiological change which warns 
them of the approach of the mating sea- 
son and fills them with new desires, 
among which is the compelling one of a 
return to the spot where they first saw 
the light, or where they reared last sea- 
son's brood. 

Whatever the cause, the birds are not 
discouraged by the many and great perils 
that attend migration, and vast numbers 
every year succumb to them. Storms, 



especially oflf-shore storms, constitute the 
gravest peril, and there is abundant evi- 
dence that millions of birds are annually 
blown out to sea to find watery graves. 
Perhaps no family suflFers more in the 
aggregate than the warblers. Thinly 
feathered, delicately organized, highly in- 
sectivorous, they are exposed to unusual 
dangers while birds of passage to and 
from their nesting grounds. 

It is a matter of common observation 
that every few years in some given lo- 
cality, perhaps embracing a region of con- 
siderable size, a particular species of 
warbler or other bird suddenly becomes 
rare where before common. After a sea- 
son or so, though sometimes not for 
years, the equilibrium is reestablished 
and the numbers are as before. These 
changes very probably are the visible 
signs of migration catastrophes, the re- 
sult of the sweeping away of a migration 
wave, composed of one or of many spe- 
cies, in the path of some sudden storm. 
Again, many of us have witnessed the 
dire eflFects of a prolonged rain and sleet 
storm in spring, when thousands of luck- 
less migrants find only too late that they 
have prematurely left the warmth and 
plenty of their tropical winter refuges. 
Under such circumstances thousands of 
migrants perish from the combined effects 
of cold and starvation, and among them 
are sure to be great numbers of warblers. 

ECONOMIC VALUE OF WARBLERS 

From the esthetic point of view, our 
warblers, as a group, occupy a high and 
unique position. They also occupy no 
uncertain place in the list of our useful 
birds. Preeminently insectivorous, they 
spend their lives in the active pursuit of 
insects. They begin with the eggs, prey- 
ing upon them whenever and wherever 
found, and continue the good work when 
the egg becomes the larva and when the 
larva becomes the perfect insect. 

They are especially valuable in this re- 
spect because of the protection they lend 
to forest trees, the trunk, bark, and foli- 
age of which they search with tireless 
energy. Their efficiency is vastly in- 
creased because the many diflferent spe- 
cies pursue the quest for food in very 
diflferent ways. While some confine their 
search chiefly to the trunks and large 



Digitized by 



Google 



302 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



branches and examine each crack and 
crevice in the bark for eggs or larvae, 
others devote their energies to the twigs 
and foliage, scanning each leaf and stem 
with eager eyes. Still others descend to 
the ground and examine the rubbish and 
grass for hidden prey, while nearly all 
are adept at catching insects on the wing. 

Each species, however, has a method 
of its own, more or less unlike that of its 
fellows, and each excels in some specialty. 
Not only does the group as a whole spe- 
cialize on insects, but each individual 
member of the group still further special- 
izes, so as to leave no loophole for the 
escape of the enemy. 

The quantity of animal food required 
to drive the avian engine at full speed is 
so very great that it is no exaggeration 
to say that practically all the waking 
hours of our warblers, from daylight to 
dark, are devoted to food-getting. What 
this never-ceasing industry means when 
translated into tons-weight of insects, it is 
impossible even to guess, but the practical 
result of the work of our warblers and 
other insectivorous birds is that we still 
have our forests, and shall continue to 
have them so long as we encourage and 
protect the birds. 

In the case of orchards and shade trees, 
there are other means at our disposal of 
controlling the insect enemy, notably the 
use of sprays. Sprays are very impor- 
tant, since birds are too few in number 
immediately to control insect outbreaks, 
especially nowadays, when the number of 
destructive native insects has been so 
greatly increased by importations from 
all quarters of the globe. But for the 
preservation of. our forests we must rely 
largely upon our birds, since the use of 
sprays or of other agencies over our vast 
woodland tracts would be too expensive, 
even were it not quite impracticable for 
many other reasons. 

MEANS OF INCREASING THE NUMBER OE 
WARBLERS 

Insects are very numerous, and there is 
reason to believe that much benefit would 



result if we could multiply the present 
number of their enemies — the birds. The 
erection of bird boxes and shelters is an 
easy way to increase the number of cer- 
tain species of birds, like swallows and 
chickadees. Unfortunately, with few ex- 
ceptions, our warblers do not build their 
nests in cavities, and hence can not be 
induced to occupy bird boxes. 

Many of them, however, nest in bushes, 
vines, and shrubbery, and by planting 
clumps of these near houses something 
can be done toward increasing the num- 
bers of certain species, as the yellow 
warbler and the redstart. Because our 
warblers are chiefly insectivorous, their 
food habits bar them from the usual bird 
lunch-counter in times of hard storms. 

During migration, warblers are pecu- 
liarly exposed to the danger of prowling 
cats. Many species feed close to or even 
on the ground, and then they are so much 
concerned with their own business that 
any tabby, however old and lazy, is equal 
to catching one or more individuals daily. 
The bird lover can do good service by 
summarily disposing of vagrant cats> 
which, during migration, work havoc in 
the ranks of our small birds. 

They can also restrain the pernicious 
activities of their own pets, for these, 
however well fed, are still subject to the 
predatory instincts of their wild ancestry, 
which impel them to stalk a live bird with 
all the zeal and cunning of their fore- 
bears. 

PLUMAGES OF WARBLERS 

Little difficulty is experienced, even by 
the tyro, in distinguishing warblers from 
other birds, but to recognize the several 
species is not so easy, particularly as the 
adult males and females of many species 
are markedly dissimilar, while the young, 
both in the first and second plumages, 
often diflfer from the adults. So far as 
possible the various plumages are shown 
in the illustrations of the artist, which 
are so admirable as to do away with the 
need of descriptive text. All are ap- 
proximately one-half life size. 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE WARBLERS OF NORTH AMERICA 



INDEX TO TEXT AND ILLUSTRATION PAGES 



Illiis- 

Text tration 

page. page. 

Audubon's Warbler 307 309 

Bay-breasted Warbler 318 316 

Black and White Warbler 307 309 

Blackburnlan Warbler 315 313 

Black-poll Warbler 315 313 

Black-throated Blue Warbler 311 312 

Black-throated Gray Warbler 318 316 

Black-throated Green Warbler 318 316 

Blue-winged Warbler 311 308 

Canada Warbler 314 320 

Cape May Warbler 310 312 

Chestnut-sided Warbler 314 313 

Connecticut Warbler 321 320 

Golden-winged Warbler 306 308 

Hooded Warbler 321 320 

Kentucky Warbler 314 317 

Louisiana Water-thrush 319 317 

Macgllliyray Warbler 321 320 



Illus- 

Text tration 

page. page. 

Magnolia Warbler 315 313 

Maryland Yellow-throat 304 305 

Mourning Warbler 321 320 

Nashville Warbler 311 312 

Northern Water-thrush 319 317 

Orange-crowned Warbler 306 308 

Oven-bird 304 305 

Palm Warbler 319 317 

Parula Warbler 310 312 

Pine Warbler 318 316 

Prairie Warbler 319 317 

Red-faced Warbler 304 305 

Redstart 307 309 

Tennessee Warbler 310 312 

Wilson's Warbler 314 320 

Worm-eating Warbler 306 308 

Yellow-breasted Chat 304 305 

Yellow Warbler 307 309 




YOUNG FISH-HAWKS ABOUT TO LH:AVH: THEIR NEST: GARDINEr's ISLAND, NEW YORK 

Photograph by Frank M. Chapman, and from his book, "Camps and Cruises of an Orni- 
thologist" 



303 



Digitized by 



Google 



MARYLAND YELLOW-THROAT 

(Geothlypis trichas and variety) 

Length, about si inches. Mostly green above, 
yellow below. Distinguished from other war- 
blers by broad black band across forehead, bor- 
dered narrowly with white. 

Range: Breeds from southern Canada to 
southern California, Texas, and Florida; win- 
ters from the southern United States to Costa 
Rica. 

This little warbler is common throughout the 
Eastern and . Southern States, frequenting 
thickets and low bushes on swampy ground. 
He is not a tree lover, but spends most of his 
time on or very near the ground, where he 
hunts assiduously for caterpillars, beetles, and 
various other small insects. Among the pests 
that he devours are the western cucumber 
beetle and the black olive scale. He has a 
cheery song of which he is not a bit ashamed, 
and when one happens to be near the particu- 
lar thicket a pair of yellow-throats have chosen 
for their own, one has not long to wait for 
vocal proof that the male, at least, is at horne. 
The yellow-throat has the bump of curiosity 
well developed, and if you desire a close ac- 
quaintance with a pair you have only to 
"squeak" a few times, when you will have the 
pleasure of seeing at least one of the couple 
venture out from the retreat far enough to 
make sure of the character of the visitor. 

YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT (Ictcria 
virens and subspecies) 

Length, about 'jYi inches. Its size, olive- 
green upper parts, and bright yellow throat, 
breast, and upper belly distinguish this bird at 
a glance. 

Range : Breeds from British Columbia, Mon- 
tana, Wisconsin, Ontario, and southern New 
England south to the Gulf States and Mexico; 
winters from Mexico to Costa Rica. 

The chat is one of our largest and most 
notable warblers. It is a frequenter of brushy 
thickets and swampy new growth, and, while 
not averse to showing itself, relies more upon 
its voice to announce its presence than upon 
its green and yellow plumage. Not infre- 
quently the chat sings during the night. The 
song, for song we must call it, is an odd jumble 
of chucks and whistles, which is likely to bring 
to mind the quip current in the Ayest, "Don't 
shoot the musician; he is doing his best." In 
this same charitable spirit we must accept the 
song of the chat at the bird's own valuation, 
which, we may be sure, is not low. Its nest is 
a rather bulky structure of grasses, leaves, and 
strips of bark, and is often so conspicuously 
placed in a low bush as to cause one to wonder 
how it ever escapes the notice of marauders 
fond of birds' eggs and nestlings. 

The chat does no harm to agricultural inter- 
ests, but, on the contrary, like most of the 
warbler family, lives largely on insects, and 
among them are many weevils, including the 
alfalfa weevil and the boll weevil so destruct- 
ive to cotton. 

(See Biol. Surv. Bull. 17, p. 18 et scq.; also 
Circular 64, p. 5.) 



OVEN-BIRD (Seiurus aurocapillus) 

Length, a little over 6 inches. Above mostly 
olive green; below white, breast and sides 
streaked with black. 

Range: Breeds from southern Mackenzie, 
Ontario, southern Labrador, and Newfoundland 
south to Wyoming, Kansas, southern Missouri, 
Ohio Valley, and Virginia; also in mountains 
of Georgia and South Carolina; winters in 
southern Florida, southern Louisiana, Bahamas, 
West Indies, and southern Mexico to Colombia. 

The oven-bird is one of our best-known 
birds and one the woodland stroller is sure to 
get acquainted with, whether he will or no, so 
common is it and so generally distributed. In 
moments of ecstacy it has a flight song which 
has been highly extolled, but this is only for 
the initiated ; its insistent repetition of "teacher, 
teacher, teacher," as Burroughs happily phrases 
it, is all the bird vouchsafes for the ears of 
ordinary mortals. Its curious domed-over 
grass nest is placed on the ground and is not 
hard to find. The food of the oven-bird does 
not differ greatly from that of other warblers, 
notwithstanding the fact that the bird is strictly 
terrestrial in habits. It consists almost exclu- 
sively of insects, including ants, beetles, moths, 
span worms, and other caterpillars, with a few 
spiders, millepods, and weevils. 

(See Biol. Surv. Bull. 17; also yearbook for 
1900, p. 416.) 

RED-FACED WARBLER (CardcUina 
nibrifrons) 

Range: Mainly in Transition Zone in moun- 
tains of southern Arizona and southwestern 
New Mexico and south through Mexico to the 
highlands of Guatemala. 

So differently colored from our own North 
American warblers generally is the little red- 
face that one might at once suspect it to be a 
stranger from a strange land. So at least it 
seemed to me when, in the mountains near 
Apache, Arizona, in July, 1874, I saw the first 
one ever detected within our borders. Later in 
the same year I found other^s on Mount Graham. 
It is a Mexican species which has obtained a 
foothold along our southern borders in Arizona 
and New Mexico. As I noted at the time, I 
saw flocks of ten or fifteen among the pines 
and spruces, the birds frequenting these trees 
almost exclusively, only rarely being seen on 
the bushes that fringed the stream. In habits 
red- faced warblers are a rather strange com- 
pound, now resembling the common warblers, 
again recalling the redstart, but more often, 
perhaps, bringing to mind the less graceful mo- 
tions of the familiar titmice. Their favorite 
hunting places appear to be the extremities of 
the limbs of spruces, over the branches of 
which they quickly pass, with a peculiar and 
constant sidewise jerk of the tail. Since 1874 
other observers have had a better chance to 
study the bird and a number of nests have been 
taken. These were under tufts of grass, and 
in the case of one found by Price was **such a 
poor attempt at nest-building and made of 
such loose material that it crumbled to frag- 
ments on being removed." 



304 



Digitized by 



Google 




MARYLAND YELLOW-THROAT 
Female and Mate 



OVEN-BIRD 



YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT 



RED-FACED WARBLER 



305 



Digitized by 



Google 



WORM-EATING WARBLER 
(Helmitheros vermivorus) 

Range: Breeds mainly in the Carolinian 
Zone from southern Iowa, northern Illinois, 
eastern and western Pennsylvania, and the 
Hudson and Connecticut l^iver valleys south 
to southern Missouri, Tennessee, Virginia, and 
mountains of South Carolina; winters from 
Chiapas to Panama, in Cuba and the Bahamas. 

He who would make the acquaintance of 
the worm-eating warbler must seek it in its 
own chosen home, far from which it never 
strays. It/is a bird of shaded hillside and 
dark thickets along watercourses. Though 
nimble in its movements and an active insect 
hunter, it is an unobtrusive little warbler, 
garbed in very modest colors, and is likely 
wholly to escape the notice of the unobservant. 
• There seems to be an unusual degree of 
jealousy among the males, and a pair, the 
hunting and the hunted, are often seen pur- 
suing a rapid, zigzag flight through trees and 
bushes. I imagine that in such cases the pur- 
. s^ing male, whose angry notes show how much 
in. earnest he is, is asserting the right of do- 
main' over his own hunting grounds, and 
driving from his preserves an intruder. 

Like several of our terrestrial warblers, the 
worm-eater has caught the trick of walking, 
perhaps borrowing it from his thrush neigh- 
bors, and he rarely or never hops. In his case 
the term "terrestrial" must be modified by 
the statement that to a certain extent he is 
a connecting link between the arboreal mem- 
bers of the family, as the black-throated green 
and Tennessee, which descend to the ground 
only casually, and such species as the Con- 
necticut and the Swainson, which seek their 
food chiefly on the ground. Of the musical 
ability of the worm-eating warbler little is to 
be said save that his song is so very feeble that 
one must listen carefully to hear it at all, and 
that it much resembles that of our familiar 
"chippy" when heard a long distance off. 
This warbler nests on the ground, often on a 
hillside or in a shallow depression, and the 
pairs seem so much attached to their old home 
that they may confidently be looked for in 
the same place year after year. 



GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER 
(Vcrmivora chrysoptera) 

Range: Breeds in Allej^hanian Zone from 
central Minnesota, southern Ontario, and Mas- 
sachusetts south to southern Iowa, northern 
Illinois, northern Indiana, northern New Jer- 
sey, and northern Georgia; winters from Gua- 
temala to Colombia, 

Though less gaudily colored than certain 
others of our warblers, the golden-wing ranks 
high in the family for beauty, and its trim 
form and tastefully contrasted tints of gray, 
black, and yellow may well excite admiration. 
It is almost wholly hmited to eastern States, 
rarely indeed being found west of the Missis- 
sippi, and its summer haunts are in the north- 
ern parts of its range. Though common in 
some localities, the golden-wing in most places 



is sufficiently rare always to interest the bird 
observer, and in Massachusetts if several are 
heard or seen in a long tramp the day may well 
be esteemed a red-letter day. The bird is t3 
be looked for in deciduous timber, and is espe- 
cially fond of elms and birches as hunting 
grounds. I have often seen it busy in elms so 
high up that only with difficulty could it be dis 
tinguished from the Tennessee, Nashville, and 
other strikingly different warblers in company 
with it. Like the blue-wing, it has the habit of 
clinging to the tip of a branch or cluster of 
flowers, back downward, examining the spot 
with the most exact scrutiny. 

Once heard, its song is not to be forgotten 
nor mistaken for that of any other warbler, 
unless possibly the blue-wing. It possesses a 
buzzing, insectlike quality and is well repre- 
sented to my ears by the syllables ze-ze-ze-ze, 
the latter notes in a higher pitch. It seems 
strange that a bird so distinctly arboreal in 
habits should choose to nest on the ground; 
but numerous nests of the golden-wing have 
been found, all of them practically on or a few 
inches from the earth, though usually sup- 
ported by weed stalks or grass stems. 



ORANGE-CROWNED WARBLER 
(Vermivora celata celata) 

Range : Breeds ilf lower Hudsonian and Can- 
adian Zones from Kobuk River, Alaska, south- 
east to central Keewatin and Manitoba, and 
south locally in the Rocky Mountains to New 
Mexico ; winters in the Gulf and South Atlan- 
tic States to South Carolina and south through 
Mexico to Mount Orizaba. 

The orange-crowned warbler is much better 
known as a migrant, especially a fall migrant, 
than as a summer resident. Its summer home, 
in fact, is so far north that it is beyond the 
ken of most observers, although the bird occa- 
sionally summers, and no doubt nests, in 
Maine and Wisconsin. Seton found it a com- 
mon summer resident in Manitoba; Kennicott 
discovered it nesting about the Great Slave 
Lake among clumps of low bushes ; while Nel- 
son found it common in summer in the wooded 
regions of northern Alaska. For some reason 
or other of late years the orange-crown seems 
to be a much commoner migrant in Massa- 
chusetts, and perhaps generally in New Eng- 
land, than formerly, and the sight of three or 
four in a day occasions no great surprise. It 
winters in Florida and in other of the South 
Atlantic States, and the cause of its rarity in 
the Eastern States in spring is due to the fact 
that it migrates up the Mississippi Valley. The 
orange-crown is one of the most plainly col- 
ored of the warbler tribe, and there is little 
about it to attract the notice of the casual 
observer. The song is said to consist of a 
few sweet trills, and, as is the case with the 
ditties of so many of its kind, has been likened 
to that of the familiar little "chippy." 



BLUE- WINGED WARBLER (Vermivon 

pinus) 



(For text, see page 311) 



306 



Digitized by 



Google 



BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER 
(Mniotilta varia) 

Length, about 4J4 inches. Easily known by- 
its streaked black and white plumage. 

Range: Eastern North America. Breeds 
from central Mackenzie, southern Keewatin, 
northern Ontario, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, 
and New Brunswick to eastern Texas, Louisi- 
ana, central Alabama, and northern Georgia, 
west to South Dakota; winters in P'lorida and 
from Colima and Nuevo Leon to Colombia, 
Ecuador, and Venezuela. 

A warbler in form and general make-up, a 
creeper by profession and practice, this readily 
identiiied species, in its striped suit of black 
and white, may be observed in any bit of east- 
ern woodland. Here it flits from tree to tree 
or climbs over the trunks and branches, scan- 
ning every crack and cranny for the insects 
that constitute its chief food. Though not a 
lover of open country, it frequently visits the 
orchard, where it performs its part in the task 
of keeping insect life within due bounds. It 
nests on the ground and hides its domicile so 
skillfully that it is not often found. None of 
tlie warblers are noted as songsters, but the 
black and white creeper, as I like best to call 
it. emits a series of thin wiry notes which we 
may call a song by courtesy only. In scramb- 
ling over the trunks of trees it finds and de- 
vours many long-horned beetles, the parents of 
the destructive root-borers ; it also finds weev- 
ils, ants, and spiders. 

YELLOW WARBLER (Dendroica aestiva 

and races) 

Length, little more than 5 inches. Mostly 
yellow, breast and belly streaked with reddish 
brown. 

Range: North America, breeding generally 
throughout its range south to California, New 
Mexico, Missouri, and northern South Caro- 
lina ; winters in Central and South America. 

The "yellow bird," or wild canary, as it is 
sometimes called, is one of the commonest of 
the warbler tribe and ranges over a vast extent 
of territory, being found here and there from 
ocean to ocean. Unlike some of its relatives, 
it prefers open thickets, especially of willows, 
to thick woodland, and often builds its pretty 
nest by the roadside or in garden shrubbery. 
Though not an expert musician, the yellow 
warbler sings early and often, and in zeal 
makes up what it lacks in quality of voice. 
Because its nest is easily found by the initiated, 
this warbler is often victimized by the infa- 
mous cowbird, and is forced to bring up one, 
or even two, young cowbirds in place of its 
own rightful progeny. It is pleasant to be able 
to record the fact that sometimes the clever 
warbler knows enough — how.it knows it is an- 
other matter — to evade the unwelcome respon- 
sibilities thus thrust upon it, and builds a plat- 
form over the alien egg, and then continues its 
domestic affairs as originally planned. Indeed, 
cases are on record when two cowbirds' eg^s 
have been found in a nest, each covered up by 
a separate layer of nest material. 

(See Biol. Surv. Bull. 17, p. 20 et seq.; also 
Bull. 29.) 



AUDUBON'S WARBLER (Dendroica 
auduboni) 

Length, about 5 inches. Much like the yel- 
low-rump, but with yellow crown and throat 
patch. 

Range: Breeds from central British Colum- 
bia, Alberta, and southwestern Saskatchewan 
to our southern border, east to South Dakota 
and Nebraska; winters from California and 
Texas south to Guatemala. 

No member of the wood warbler family is 
more characteristic of the group than this 
beautiful bird. In voice, coloration, and habits 
it is almost the counterpart of the yellow-rump 
of the Eastern States, for which indeed it 
might easily be mistaken were it not for its 
yellow throat, the corresponding area in the 
yellow-rump being white. It summers in the 
mountains and shows off to advantage against 
the dark foliage of the pines. It seems to have 
Httle fear of man and in winter frequents 
orchards, gardens, and dooryards. Wherever 
it may be, it keeps up an incessant hunt for its 
insect food, in the pursuit of which, like many 
others of its family, it sometimes essays the 
role of flycatcher, being very expert and nimble 
on the wing. This warbler also devours large 
numbers of ants, flies, scale and plant lice, and 
noxious bugs. 

(See Biol. Surv. Bull. 30, pp. 43-46.) 



REDSTART (Setophaga ruticilla) 

Length, nearly sVi inches. To be distin- 
guished from other warblers by its coloration 
and its motions. (See below.) 

Range: Breeds from central British Colum- 
bia and eastern Canada to Washington, Utah, 
Colorado, Oklahoma, and North Carolina ; win- 
ters in the West Indies and from Mexico to 
Ecuador. 

Its beauty of form and plumage and its 
graceful motions place this dainty bird at the 
head of our list of wood warblers — a place of 
distinction indeed. The bird appears to be the 
incarnation of animated motion and fairly 
dances its way through the forest. Spanish 
imagination has coined a suggestive and fitting 
name for the redstart, candelita, the little 
"torch-bearer." The full appropriateness of 
the name appears as the graceful creature flits 
through the greenery, displaying the salmon- 
colored body and the bright wing and tail 
patches. The redstart is not unknown in some 
parts of the West, but it is essentially a bird 
of the Eastern States, where it is a common 
inhabitant of open woodland districts. While 
it builds a rather neat and compact structure 
of strips of bark, plant fibers, and the like, 
placing it in a sapling not far from the ground, 
the nest is not the thing of beauty one might 
be led to expect from such a fairy-like crea- 
ture. Ornamental as the redstart is, it pos- 
sesses other claims on our gratitude, for it is 
a most active and untiring hunter of insects, 
such as cpittle insects, tree-hoppers, and leaf- 
boppers. and both orchard and forest trees are 
benetited by the unceasing warfare it wages. 

(See Biol. vSurv. Bull. 17. p. ^o ct seq.) 



307 



Digitized by 



Google 








jF: 



■\. I^Vc/*/ /cj 



4 



1 




ry^A 



■■f5 




WORM-EATING WARBLER 



(JOLDEN WINGED WARBLER 

Male and Female 




ORANGE-CROWNED WARBLER 



BLUE-WINGED WARBLER 



308 



Digitized by 



Google 





I 

1 
1 

1 


/ 


■•^. 


4' 


/^ 


7 


X 








BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER 



AUDUBON WARBLER 



YELLOW WARBLER 



REDSTART 
Female and Male 



309 



Digitized by 



Google 



TENNESSEE WARBLER (Vcrmivora 
peregiina) 

Range: Breeds in Canadian Zone from up- 
per Yukon Valley, southern Mackenzie, cen- 
tral Keewatin, southern Ungava, and Anticosti 
Island south to southern British Columbia, 
southern Alberta, Manitoba, northern Minne- 
sota, Ontario, New York (Adirondacks), 
northern Maine, and New Hampshire; winters 
from Oaxaca to Colombia and Venezuela. 

The Tennessee warbler is by no means as 
local as its name would imply, but is likely to 
be found in migration almost anywhere in 
eastern United States, although it is much 
more numerous in the Mississippi Valley. Un- 
pretentious both in dress and character, this 
little bird seems to possess no very salient 
characteristics. It is, however, not likely to be 
mistaken for any other species save the Nash- 
ville, which it resembles rather closely. Dur- 
ing spring migration the Tennessee is apt to be 
overlooked, since it is prone to keep in the 
tree-tops. In fall, however, it is found lower 
down, usually in company with flocks of other 
warblers, among which it becomes conspicuous 
by reason of its very inconspicuousness and in 
contrast with its more gaudy fellows. 

Its song has been variously described and 
may be said to be a simple trill not unlike the 
chippy. It appears to be certain that the Ten- 
nessee, like the Nashville, nests on the ground, 
but apparently the nesting habits of the bird 
are comparatively unknown, or at least have 
not as yet been very fully recorded. 



NORTHERN PARULA WARBLER 
(Compsothlypis americana usneae) 

Range: Breeds mainly in Transition and 
Austral Zones, from eastern Nebraska, north- 
ern Minnesota, central Ontario, and Anticosti 
and Cape Bretpn Islands south to central south- 
ern Texas, southern Louisiana, Alabama, Vir- 
ginia, and Maryland; winters probably in the 
Bahamas and West Indies to Barbados, and 
from Vera Cruz and Oaxaca to Nicaragua. 

The northern parula, smallest of our war- 
blers, with prevailing colors blue and yellow, 
is generally distributed during migration and 
usually found in company with other war- 
blers in leafy trees, which it explores from the 
lower to the topmost branches. It is one of 
the most active of the tribe, and is untiring 
in its pursuit of the minute insects which form 
its food. Its habit of hanging head down- 
ward as it explores a cluster of blossoms sug- 
gests a chickadee, and the httle fellow is a 
combination of warbler, kinglet, and chickadee. 
It is very partial to nesting in usnea moss 
and so is found in summer along streams or 
in swampy localities where long streamers of 
the usnea festoon the trees. The preference 
of the parula for this moss as a site for its 
nest is exemplified by a nest I once found in 



Maryland on the bank of the Potomac, which 
had been built in the frayed end of an old 
rope hanging to a sapling and which a short 
distance away looked to me — and no doubt 
to the bird — exactly like a clump of usnea. 
As no usnea occurred in this locality, the bird 
accepted the frayed rope as a satisfactory 
substitute, and in so doing followed the spirit 
if not the letter of family tradition. How- 
ever, the parula is not strictly limited to usnea 
for a nesting site and I once saw a pair 
carrying shreds of bark into a juniper on an 
island in the Potomac River, the nest being 
already far advanced toward completion. The 
parula has a short, buzzing song of which it 
is prodigal enough, but it is weak and can be 
heard at no great distance. 



CAPE MAY WARBLER (Dcndroica 
tigrina) 

Range : Breeds in Canadian Zone from south- 
ern Mackenzie, northern Ontario, New Bruns- 
wick, and Nova Scotia south to Manitoba, 
northern Maine, and New Hampshire, and in 
Jamaica ; winters in the Bahamas and the West 
Indies to Tobago. 

Not only is the Cape May one of our most 
beautiful warblers, but its rarity adds greatly 
to the zest with which one hails the discovery 
of even an individual. This species, however, 
is far more numerous even in New England, 
especially in fall, than it used to be, and in 
time the bird may even be listed in many of 
the Eastern States as among the more common 
migrants. 

Although the bulk of the species undoubtedly 
migrates north through the Mississippi Valley, 
rarely a spring passes that a few individuals 
are not reported about Washington, p. C, and 
I have seen several in a day. At this time of 
year the Cape May often forsakes the wood- 
lands and appears in orchards or even in city 
parks, and probably not a season passes that 
one or more do not visit the Smithsonian or 
Agricultural Department grounds. Chapman 
tells us that in Florida he has seen the species 
"actually common feeding in weedy patches 
among a rank growth of pokeberries." 

The bird is a rather sluggish, but persistent, 
insect hunter, though it adds to its bill of fare 
one item, grapes, which is bringing it into ill 
repute in parts of Pennsylvania and Virginia. 
The sharp-pointed bill of the Cape May enables 
it readily to puncture the skin, its apparent 
purpose being to satisfy its thirst with the 
sweet juice. 

The Cape May is a persistent songster, but 
its song is weak and squeaky and by no means 
worthy of so superb a creature. Comparatively 
little is recorded of this bird's nesting habits. 
It is known to summer from northern Maine 
northward. A nest found by Banks at St. 
Johns, New Brunswick, was built in a cedar 
less than three feet from the ground. 



310 



Digitized by 



Google 



BLUE-WINGED WARBLER (Vemiivora 
pinus) 

(For illustration, see page 308) 

Range: Breeds from southeastern Minne- 
sota, southern Michigan, western New York, 
Massachusetts (rarely), and southern Con- 
necticut south to northeastern Kansas, central 
Missouri, Kentuck>', Maryland, and Delaware; 
winters from southern Mexico (Puebla) to 
Guatemala. 

Like the golden-wing, the blue-winged war- 
bler is conhned to the Eastern States, but it 
ranges considerably farther west than that 
species and occurs almost or quite to the 
Plains. The blue-wing is in many ways an 
inconspicuous member of the warbler group, 
but, because of its perplexing relationship with 
the golden-wing, Brewster's warbler, and Law- . 
rence's warbler, its ornithological interest is ex- 
celled by few. Like the golden-wing, it prefers 
deciduous trees and second growths and shuns 
the deeper parts of the forests. It has the 
habit — shared by the golden-wing and chicka- 
dee — of hanging from the under side of any 
particular cluster it wishes to investigate, and 
no doubt it makes sure of insects that defy 
the less careful search of most other species. 
The ordinary song of the blue-wing is com- 
parable to the golden-wing's, being in fact little 
else than an apology for a song, with the same 
insectlike quality. This warbler, though of 
distinctly arboreal habits, prefers to nest on 
the ground, or a few inches above it, in a tuft 
of grass, a clump of goldenrods, or at the foot 
of a sapling. 

The nest is rather bulky, composed of leaves 
and grasses, put together after the artless man- 
ner of its kind ; but it is usually well concealed 
by the surrounding screen of grass or weeds 
from any but chance discovery. 

BLACK-THROATED B|^UE WARBLER 
(Dendroica caerulescens caerulescens) 

Range: Breeds in Canadian and Transition 
Zones from northern Minnesota, central On- 
tario, and northeastern Quebec south to cen- 
tral Minnesota, southern Michigan, southern 
Ontario, Pennsylvania (mountains), and north- 
ern Connecticut; winters from Key West, 
Florida, to the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and 
Cozumel Island. 

The male black-throated blue warbler is one 
of the most conspicuous of the warblers, his 
black throat and blue back serving to distin- 
guish him at all times and all seasons. The 
female, despite her inconspicuous coloration, 
may always be identified by the white spot on 
the primaries. The bird is common and ranges 
widely through eastern North America, and 
few flocks of migrating warblers are without 
a greater or less number of this species. 
Though in the main a common resident of the 
northern woods, in the mountains it breeds as 
far south as Maryland, while a color variety 
of the bird (Dendroica cceruJescens cairnsi) 
nests in the southern Alleghenies from Penn- 
sylvania south to Georgia, 



Thayer, as quoted by Chapman, says of the 
song: "There is not a more regularly and 
amply versatile singer among our eastern war- 
blers than the black-throated blue. It has at 
least four main songs, on which it is forever 
playing notable variations." 

Whether in its northern or southern home, 
the black-throated blue warbler builds its nest 
of bark, roots, and other pliant material, loose 
and rather bulky, in a variety of saplings, 
bushes, and weeds, but always a few inches 
or a few feet from the ground. 



NASHVILLE WARBLER (Vcrmivora 
nibricapilla rubricapilla) 

Range: Breeds in Canadian and Transition 
Zones from southern Saskatchewan, northern 
Ontario, central Quebec, and Cape Breton Is- 
land south to Nebraska, northern Illinois, 
northern Pennsylvania, northern New Jersey, 
and Connecticut ; winters from Vera Cruz and 
Chiapas to Guatemala. 

As Wilson never saw but three individuals 
of the Nashville warbler, all taken near Nash- 
ville, Tennessee, he not unnaturally named his 
new discovery for that city, apparently believ- 
ing it to be a local species. Far from being so, 
however, it is now known to inhabit most of 
the eastern United States. Without doubt the 
bird is much more common than it was in Wil- 
son's time, perhaps due to the fact that second 
growth and areas of low woods, its preferred 
haunts, have largely replaced the denser forests 
of the early part of the nineteenth century. 
One cannot wander far afield in Massachusetts 
in summer tinie without hearing its song or 
songs, since it is not only a frequent and viva- 
cious songster, but has a number of ditties in 
its repertoire, including a flight song. 

I never found but one nest, and this was on 
a little pine-wooded knoll in a small depression 
in the earth, only partially concealed by thin 
grass. I should never have found it but for 
the fact that the bird flushed f r6m between my 
feet. So far as known, the Nashville always 
nests on the ground. Its preference for the 
ground as a nesting site is the more remark- 
able, since the bird rarely or never hunts there, 
but prefers to seek its insect food among the 
foliage, often of the tallest elms and chestnuts 
and other giants of the forest. 

The Calaveras warbler (Vermivora rubri- 
capilla gutiuralis) is a form closely allied to 
the Nashville, but confined chiefly to the Pacific 
coast, extending eastward to eastern Oregon 
and northern Idaho. Fisher is quoted by Chap- 
man as saying: "The Calaveras warbler is a 
characteristic denizen of the chaparral and is 
found on both slopes of the Sierra Nevadas 
about as far south as Mount Whitney. It fre- 
quents the belts of the yellow, sugar, and Jeffry 
pines, and ranges up into* the red-fir zone. 
During the height of the nesjing season, while 
the female is assiduously hunting among the 
dense cover of bushes, the male is often sing- 
ing in a pine or fir, far above mundane house- 
hold cares." 



311 



Digitized by 



Google 





NASHVILLE WARBLER 
TENNESSEE W ARBLER 



CAPE MAY WARBLER 
Male and Female 



PARL'LA WARBLER 
Male and Female 



BLACK-THROATED BLUB WARBLER 
Female and Male 



312 



Digitized by 



Google 





MAGNOLIA WARBLER 

Adalt and Immature Male 



BLACK-POLL WARBLER 

Male and Female 



CHESTNUT-SIDED WARBLER 
Male, Immature Male and Female 



BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER 

Male and Female 



313 



Digitized by 



Google 



CHESTNUT-SIDED WARBLER 
(Dendroica pensylvanica) 

Range: Breeds mainly in the Transition 
Zone from central Saskatchewan, northwestern 
Manitoba, central Ontario, and Newfoundland 
south to eastern Nebraska, Illinois, Indiana, 
northern Ohio, northern New Jersey, and 
Rhode Island, and south in the Alleghenies to 
Tennessee and South Carolina; winters from 
Guatemala to Panama. 

Since the days of Wilson, Audubon, and 
Nuttall there is little doubt that the chestnut- 
sided warbler has increased in numbers, and 
within its range it is now one of the commoner 
of the family. It is trim of form and its colors, 
though not gaudy, have a quiet elegance all 
their own. During the fall migration it shows 
little preference in its hunting grounds, but is 
found with others of its kin in all sorts of 
woodland haunts and in deciduous as well as 
coniferous trees. It frequents open woodland 
tracts in summer and loves to nest in low 
thickets of hazel and barberry. In favorable 
localities in Massachusetts I have frequently 
found half a dozen nests in a morning's search. 
The nests are made of shreds of bark and 
grasses and are put together so loosely and 
carelessly that, in connection with their situa- 
tion, they unmistakably betray their ownership. 



KENTUCKY WARBLER (Oporornis 
formosus) 

(For illustration, see page 317) 

Range: Breeds in Carolinian and Austrori- 
parian Zones from southeastern Nebraska, 
southern Wisconsin, southeastern and south- 
western Pennsylvania, and the Hudson Valley 
south to eastern Texas, Louisiana, Alabama, 
and northern Georgia; winters from Tabasco, 
Campeche, and Chiapas through Central Amer- 
ica to Colombia. 

The Kentucky warbler, with its rich colors 
and symmetrical form, is to be classed among 
the elect of the warbler tribe. Moreover, while 
locally common it is never so abundant that it 
does not excite a thrill of interest in the breast 
of even the most blase of bird observers. It 
loves the deep, dark forest and shaded ravine, 
where the foliage overhead casts heavy shad- 
ows on the plentiful undergrowth beneath and 
where even in midsummer it is moist and cool. 

The bird is a persistent singer, and in its 
own chosen haunts its loud, sweet song may be 
heard all day long. There is a curious resem- 
blance between its ditty and that of the Caro- 
lina wren, and while no one can mistake the 
two songs when heard close by, at a distance 
even the expert may be puzzled. This warbler 
finds most of its food on the ground, and the 
thick undergrowth in which it hunts makes it 
difficult to learn much of its habits by observa- 
tion, since it is difficult to keep an individual 
in sight many minutes at a time. 

It builds a rather loose, bulky nest, largely 
of leaves and grasses, which is placed either 
on or just above the ground, and although it 
may seem to have been rather artlessly located 
it is in reality well protected by the surround- 
ing vegetation with which it blends, and hence 
generally escapes the observation of all but the 
most persistent and sharp-sighted of observers. 



WILSON WARBLER (Wilsonia pusUla 
pusilla) 

(For illustration, see page 320) 

Range: Breeds in Boreal Zones from tree 
limit in northwestern and central Mackenzie, 
central Keewatin, central Ungava, and New- 
foundland south to southern Saskatchewan, 
northern Minnesota, central Ontario, New 
Hampshirje, Maine, and Nova Scotia; winters 
in eastern Central America from Guatemala to 
Costa Rica. 

This tiny warbler ventures farther north than 
many bigger and apparently hardier species, 
and Nelson found it in Alaska "one of the 
commonest of the bush- frequenting species, 
. . . extending its breeding range to the 
shores of the Arctic Ocean wherever it finds 
shelter." Cooke also found it in Colorado 
breeding from 6,000 to 12,000 feet elevation. 

The black-cap is a neryous, energetic, little 
fellow, now essaying the role of flycatcher, now 
hunting for insects among the foliage, while 
ever and anon it jerks its tail up and down as 
though constant motion were the chief end of 
existence. It has a short, bubbling, warbling 
song which has been likened to the songs of 
several other species, but which possesses a 
tone and quality all the bird's own. Its nest is 
built on the ground, is composed chiefly of 
grasses, and the eggs do not differ in essential 
respects from those of other warblers. 

It is noteworthy that the West Coast form 
of the black-cap chryseola breeds as far south 
as Los Angeles, and that its nest instead of 
being built on the ground is placed in the 
crotch of a limb or in a bunch of weeds or 
nettles. 

CANADA WARBLER (WUsonia 
canadensis) 

(For illustration, see page 320) 

Range : Breeds in the Canadian Zone and 
casually in the Transition from central Alberta, 
southern Keewatin, northern Ontario, northern 
Quebec, and Newfoundland south to central 
Minnesota, central Michigan, southern Ontario, 
central New York, and Massachusetts, and 
along the Alleghenies to North Carolina and 
Tennessee; winters in Ecuador and Peru. 

The Canada warbler is always associated in 
my mind with the black-cap, in company with 
which it is frequently found during migration. 
The association is purely accidental and results 
from a common preference for the same hunt- 
ing grounds. A path or road through swampy 
ground, especially if bordered by old willow 
trees, is sure to have its quota of this warbler 
and the Wilson black-cap during migration. 

Like the black-cap, the Canada warbler is 
half flycatcher, half warbler, and the click of 
the bird's mandibles as they close on some 
hapless insect caught in mid-air is often the 
first indication of its presence. UnHke many 
of the family, it sings much during its spring 
migration. The song is loud for the size of 
the warbler and is very characteristic. The 
bird builds a rather bulky nest of leaves and 
grasses, which it places in a mossy bank or 
under a moss-grown log. It is an assiduous 
and active insect hunter and gleans among the 
leaves and twigs after the fashion of the 
parula warbler. 



3H 



Digitized by 



Google 



MAGNOLIA WARBLER (Dendroica 
magnolia) 

Range : Breeds in Canadian and upper Tran- 
sition Zones from southwestern Mackenzie, 
southern Keewatin, northern Quebec, and New- 
foundland south to central Alberta, southern 
Saskatchewan, Minnesota, northern Michigan, 
and northern Massachvisetts, and in the moun- 
tains of West Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylva- 
nia, and New York ; winters from southern 
Mexico (Puebla and Chiapas) to Panama. 

The magnolia, or black and yellow warbler, 
as I like best to call it, is one of oiir most 
beautiful warblers, and fortunately, being one 
of the commonest of the tribe, is easily met 
with by any one willing to take a little pains. 
When busy at its self-imposed task of huntmg 
insects — and when is it not busy — it is by no 
means shy, and may be watched at close range 
with or without the aid of a field glass. When- 
ever or however met, the sight of a fuU-plu- 
maged male resplendent in the gold and black 
livery of spring is worth a long journey. 

The bird ranges over much of eastern North 
.-\merica as far west as the Plains, and toward 
the north reaches the Mackenzie region. In 
the mountains it breeds here and there as far 
south as Maryland. In migration the magnolia 
shows no preference for special localities, but 
occurs in upland woods and lowland shrubbery 
where is promised a good harvest of insects. 
Like so many of its fellows, it finds rich hunt- 
ing grounds in gray birches, and few large 
companies of warblers traverse gray birch 
woods without their complement of these beau- 
tiful and sprightly wood nymphs. The mag- 
nolia warbler is a versatile, though scarcely an 
accomplished, songster, and phrases its song in 
a number of different ways. Many of its nests 
have been found in the northern woods, some 
of them in small llrs or spruces only a few feet 
from the ground. 



BLACK-POLL WARBLER (Dendroica 
striata) 

Range: Breeds in Hudsonian and Canadian 
Zones from limit of trees in northwestern 
Alaska, northern Mackenzie, central Keewatin. 
northern Ungava, and Newfoundland south to 
central British Columbia, Manitoba, Michigan, 
northern Maine, and mountains of Vermont 
and New Hampshire; winters from Guiana 
and Venezuela to Brazil. 

The black-poll is one of our commonest 
warblers, in both spring and fall, and probably 
heads the warbler list in point of numbers. So 
far as superficial observations go. the bird 
would seem to be no spryer, no more indus- 
trious, and no more adept in hunting food than 
its compeers: but for some reason or other, 
possibly greater adaptability, it seems to have 
succeeded beyond most of its kind in extending 
its breeding range and in multiplying. It is a 
late migrant, both spring and fall, and when 
the hordes of black-polls put in an appearance. 



especially in the vernal season, one may know- 
that the end of the migrating season is at 
hand. A laggard in spring, it is also a loiterer 
in fall, and occasionally a flock of black-polls 
will linger in some sheltered valley where food 
is abundant till long after others of the family 
have passed southward. 

The bird nests chiefly in the far north, 
though it summers as far south as the Adiron- 
dacks. As it winters in South America, there 
are thus at least 5,000 miles between its ex- 
treme northern and southern habitats. Chap- 
man notes that it is one of the very few war- 
blers that migrate directly across the West In- 
dies from South America to F'lorida. It makes 
its appearance in the Gulf States about the 
last of April, .^s pointed out by Professor 
Cooke, the black-poll is **one of the greatest 
travelers among the warblers. The shortest 
journey that any black-poll performs is 3.500 
miles, while those that nest in Alaska have 
7,000 miles to travel to their probable winter 
home in Brazil.** One can only wonder that 
so small a bird has the requisite courage and 
strength to undertake twice a year such a vast 
journey, every stage of which is compassed by 
dangers of one sort or another. 

BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER 
(Dendroica fusca) 

Range : Breeds in lower Canadian and upper 
Transition Zones from Manitoba, southern 
Keewatin, central Ontario, Quebec, and Cape 
Breton Island to central Minnesota, Wiscon- 
sin, northern Michigan, Massachusetts, and 
Connecticut, and in the AUeghenics from Penn- 
sylvania to Georgia and South Carolina; win- 
ters from Colombia to central Peru and less 
commonly north to Yucatan. 

The Blackburnian. one of the gems of the 
warbler tribe, has a rather wide range in east- 
ern North America, extending west as far as 
the Plains and north to Manitoba. Apparently 
it is nowhere, at least in migration, an abun- 
dant warbler, and there are few field observers 
so seasoned to the sight of its beautiful colors 
as not to he thrilled by sight of the bird. In 
migration its habits offer nothing peculiar. In 
the Atlantic States in September careful scru- 
tiny of a migrating band of warblers and other 
birds will often reveal the pi;esence of one or 
perhaps half a dozen Blackhurnians. About 
Mount Monadnock, Gerald Thayer finds it a 
"very common summer resident. It is one of 
the four deep-wood warblers of this region, 
the other three being the black-throated blue, 
the Northern parula, and the Canada." 

The Blackburnian favors very big trees, par- 
ticularly hemlocks, and spends most of its life 
high above the ground. As Thayer says, the 
Blackburnian is the "preeminent forest warbler 
of the group, the lover of deep mixed growth 
and the upper branches of the biggest conifers." 
The bird has a thin, shrill voice and utters at 
least two songs or variations which some think 
resemble the black-throated green's. Whatever 
the tree selected, be it a hemlock or a deciduous 
tree, the nest is placed well up among the 
branches and well out toward the end, where 
it is safe from all enemies that do not possess 
wings. 



315 



Digitized by 



Google 





BAY-BREASTED WARBLER 
Male and Female 



BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER 
Male and Female 



BLACK-THROATED GRAY WARBLER 



PLVE WARBLER 



316 



Digitized by 



Google 





PALM WARBLER 
YELLOW PALM WARBLER 



NORTHERN WATER-THRUSH 
LOUISIANA WATER-THRUSH 



PRAIRIE WARBLER 

Male and Female 



KENTUCKY WARBLER 
Male and Female 



317 



Digitized by 



Google 



BAY-BREASTED WARBLER (Dendroica 
castanea) 

Range: Breeds in Canadian Zone from 
northeastern Alberta, southern Keewatin, 
southern Ungava, and' Newfoundland south 
to southern Manitoba, northern Maine, and 
mountains of New Hampshire; winters in 
Panama and Colombia. 

The bay-breast appears to be increasing in 
numbers. Forty years or so ago it was rare 
in Massachusetts in fall, and search by the 
most vigilant collector during the entire 
autumn migration was rarely rewarded by 
the sight of more than one or two. Today 
it is far different, and not a season passes 
that at the proper time and place careful 
search will not reveal a dozen or more mingled 
with others of the warbler family. In spring 
the bird has always been uncommon or alto- 
gether wanting in the Eastern States, as it 
migrates up the Mississippi Valley, spreading 
out to occupy northern Maine and other of 
its northern summer haunts. In summer it 
frequents coniferous forests, and often nests 
in hemlocks. 

BLACK-THROATED GRAY WARBLER 
(Dendroica nigrescens) 

Range: Breeds in Transition Zone from 
southern British Columbia, Nevada, northern 
Utah, and northwestern Colorado south to 
northern Lower California, southern Arizona, 
and northern New Mexico ; winters in southern 
Lower California and in Mexico from Du- 
rango to Michoacan, Vera Cruz, and Oaxaca. 

The handsome black-throated gray warbler 
is exclusively western in distribution, from our 
sdHthern border to British Columbia. Though 
I have seen it many times, I am unable to re- 
call any especially salient characteristics pos- 
sessed by the species. Like others of the fam- 
ily, the black-throat is an active insect hunter, 
both among the oaks and various kinds of 
scrub growths of the valleys and the conifers 
of higher altitudes. The bird seems naturally 
to suggest the black-throated green warbler of 
the Eastern States, but I am not aware that 
in habits it is more nearly comparable to that 
species than to others. In choice of nesting 
sites it exhibits a wide range of taste, and 
nests have been found in scrub oaks, pines, and 
firs, and varying in height from the ground 
from 3 or 4 feet up to 50 feet or more. 

BLACK-THROATED GREEN WAR- 
BLER (Dendroica virens) 

Range: Breeds in low^er Canadian and 
Transition Zones from west, central, aiid 
northeastern Alberta, southern Manitoba, 
central Ontario, northeastern Quebec, and 
Newfoundland south to southern Minnesota, 
southern Wisconsin, northern Ohio, northern 
New Jersey, Connecticut, and Long Island, 
New York, and in the Alleghenies south to 
South Carolina and Georgia; winters in 
Mexico (Nuevo Leon to Chiapas and 
Yucatan), Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Panama. 

What true bird lover is there who does not 



cherish fond memories of certain birds? The 
very name of black-throated green warbler 
carries me back to boyhood days and to a 
certain pine-crested hill in Massachusetts, 
from which was wafted on an early spring 
morning the song of this warbler, heard by 
me then for the first time. The many years 
since elapsed have not effaced the sweet 
strains, and I seem to hear them now as they 
were borne that morning by the pine-scented 
spring breeze. I can vividly recall the pleasure 
the song occasioned and the satisfaction of 
having added one more bird to my small Hst 
of avian acquaintances. Those were the days 
of mystery, when the woods seemed filled with 
unknown l)irds, and secrets lurked in every 
thicket and met the seeker at every turn. 
They were the times when bird books were 
few, keys unknown, and the keen eyes of 
youth far more satisfactory than the best field 
glasses of the present day. 

The black-throated green is one of the com- 
moner of our eastern warblers and one of the 
first to engage the attention of the bird stu- 
dent. During migration it may be met with 
in every kind of woodland, where it is at home, 
both high and low, ever pursuing with tireless 
energy its quest for insects. It has two songs, 
or rather one song delivered in two different 
ways, sprightly, sweet, and perfectly character- 
istic. In summer it is partial to coniferous 
woods, especially white pines and hemlocks, 
and it frequently nests in these, though also in 
birches and alders. 

PINE WARBLER (Dendroica vigorsi) 

Range: Breeds in Transition and Austral 
Zones from northern Manitoba, northern Mich- 
igan, southern Ontario, southern Quebec, and 
New Brunswick south to east-central Texas, 
the Gulf States, and Florida; winters from 
southern Illinois and coast of Virginia to Flor- 
ida, eastern Texas, and Tamaulipas. 

Few of our birds are so aptly named as the 
pine warbler, whi(;Jlf first, last, and all the time, 
except in migrati6n. resorts to pine woods. It 
summers in them in the north and it winters 
in them in the south. Even its feathers often 
bear conclusive evidence of its predilection for 
pines, being often besmeared with their gum. 
Among its bright-hued relatives the pine war- 
bler cuts but a poor show with its somber green 
and brown coat, which,* at least in Florida, is 
often dingy and smoke-begrimed from contact 
with burnt timber. 

Though distinctively a warbler and not a 
creeper, the pine warbler is more deliberate in 
its motions than most of its kind and, some- 
what in the manner of the creeper, moves 
among the branches or over the trunks in 
search of its insect food. For a warbler it is 
an early migrant and reaches the latitude of 
Massachusetts soon after the middle of April. 
Indeed, its nest contains eggs or young while 
the late migrants are still passing north. Its 
song has little variation, but while monotonous 
is pleasing and sweet, far sweeter than the trill 
of the chipping sparrow, which it recalls. Nat- 
urally the pine warbler nests in pines, usually 
rather high up, either on a horizontal limb or 
among the twigs at the extremity of a limb. 



318 



Digitized by 



Google 



PALM WARBLER (Dendroica palmamm 
palmanim) 

Range : Breeds in Canadian Zone from south- 
ern Mackenzie (Fort Simpson) and central 
Keewatin south and southeast to nortliern Min- 
nesota; winters from southern Florida and the 
Bahamas to the Greater Antilles and Yucatan. 

The palm warbler, including under this name 
both the eastern and western, or yellow {Den- 
droica palmarum hypochrysea)^ representatives 
of the species, is for the most part an inhabit- 
ant of the Mississippi Valley and the region 
eastward, spending its nesting season chiefly 
north of our northern frontier. It is. there- 
fore, as a spring and fall migrant that it is best 
known. Its somewhat subdued tints of olive 
and yellow streaked with brown class it among 
the less conspicuous members of the warbler 
group, but its motions and habits unmistakably 
distinguish it from its fellows. Though often 
associating with other warblers as they flit 
from tree to tree, the palm warbler keeps close 
to Mother Earth and not infrequently visits 
pastures and stubble far from cover of any 
sort. Favorite hunting groimds are old fences 
and even buildings. 

Perhaps the most salient characteristic of 
this little warbler is the almost incessant tip-up 
motion of its tail, in which respect it recalls a 
bird in no wise related to it — the spotted sand- 
piper, or "tip-up," of pond and stream. It nests 
on the ground. Its song is a low, faint trill, 
characteristically warblerlike, but in no way 
remarkable. It winters in great numbers in 
Florida, and in 1871 I found it wintering in 
loose flocks of considerable size near Lakes 
Borgne and Ponchartrain. Louisiana, where it 
fed chiefly on the ground and among low 
bushes. 

PRAIRIE WARBLER (Dendroica discolor) 

Range : Breeds chiefly in Carolfnian and 
Austroriparian Zones from southeastern Ne- 
braska, eastern Kansas, southern Ohio, south- 
western Pennsylvania, southern New Jersey, 
and Calong the coast) from Massachusetts 
south to southwestern Missouri, northern Mis- 
sissippi, northwestern Georgia, Florida, and 
the Bahamas, and north locally to central Mich- 
igan, southern Ontario, and New Hampshire; 
winters from central Florida through the Ba- 
hamas and the West Indies. 

The prairie, a dainty little warbler in its 
variegated black, yellow, and chestnut dress, is 
common from Florida to the New England 
States and from Nebraska and Kansas east to 
the Atlantic. Its choice of habitat varies con- 
siderably locally ; but wherever it may be found 
there is nothing in the habits of the bird that 
justifies its common name, which is entirely 
misleading, since it has no predilection for 
prairies or indeed for open country of any sort. 
In Massachusetts it frequents rocky barberry 
pastures on open hillsides dotted with cedars. 
About Washington it frequents sprout lands, 
and when it first arrives from the south is 
found almost exclusively in groves of the Jer- 
sey scrub pine or in junipers. It is an active 
insect hunter, moving rapidly amonp: the foli- 
age, now here, now there, ever and apain "tend- 
ing forth its characteristic song. Its lunisually 
compact and pretty nest is often placed in the 
crotch of a barberry bush in Massachusetts or 
elsewhere in junipers or in low deciduous 
bushes. 



NORTHERN WATER-THRUSH (Sciurus 
noveboracencis noveboracensis) 

Range : Breeds chiefly in Canadian Zone from 
northern Ontario, northern Ungava, and New- 
foundland south to central Ontario, northwest- 
ern New York, and northern New England, 
and in mountains south to Pennsylvania and 
West Virginia; winters from the Valley of 
Mexico to Colombia and British Guiana, and 
from the Bahamas throughout the West Indies. 

So far as appearance, motions, and habits go, 
the water-thrush is more thrush than warbler, 
and one who sees him for the first time walk- 
ing sedately along with teetering tail may well 
be excused for declining to class him with the 
warbler family. He is partial to swamps and 
wet places, is a ground frequenter, and in no 
real sense arboreal. Though an inhabitant of 
the wilds and showing strong preference for 
swampy ground, he not infrequently visits gar- 
dens even in populous towns, and seems to be 
quite at home there in the shade of the shrub- 
bery. A sharp and characteristic alarm note 
often calls the attention of the chance passer- 
by, who would otherwise overlook the bird in 
its shady recesses. 

Few who are privileged to hear its notes will 
dissent from the opinion that the water-thrush 
is one of the foremost of the warbler choir 
and a real musician. The bird is a ground 
builder, placing its nest under the roots of an 
upturned tree, in banks, or in cavities of vari- 
ous sorts. 



LOUISIANA WATER-THRUSH 
(Seiurus motacilla) 

Range: Breeds 'mainly in Carolinian Zone 
from southeastern Nebraska, southeastern Min- 
nesota, and the southern parts of Michigan, 
Ontario, New York, and New England south 
to northeastern Texas, northern Georgia, and 
central South Carolina; winters from northern 
Mexico to Colombia, the Greater Antilles, An- 
tigua, and the Bahamas. 

The Louisiana water-thrush, though not un- 
like its northern relative in general appearance, 
is very different in disposition and habits, and 
I know of no bird more shy and difficult to 
watch. It frequents the banks and neighbor- 
hood of clear streams that run through wood- 
lands and tangles of laurel. One hears the 
sharp note of challenge or the wild ringing 
song, but any attempt to see the singer, unless 
made with the utmost caution, will end in dis- 
appointment or in a casual glimpse of a small, 
brown bird flitting like a shadow through the 
brush. 

The song of either water-thrush is of a 
high order of excellence. I cannot but think, 
however, that the song of the Louisiana water- 
thrush gains over that of its tuneful rival by 
partaking somewhat of the nature of its wild 
surroundings, and that its song is enhanced by 
its accompaniments — the murmur of the wood- 
land brook and the whisper of the foliage — 
among which it is heard. Quite a number of 
our birds habitually teeter or wag their tails, 
but few as persistently as the water-thrushes. 

KENTUCKY WARBLER (Oporornis 
formosus) 



(For text, see page 3 

Digitized by 



319 



'Google 





CONNECTICUT WARBLER 

MOURNING WARBLER 
MACGILLIVRAY WARBLER 

HOODED WARBLER 
Male ind Femile 



WILSON WARBLER 
Male and Female 



CANADA WARBLER 



320 



Digitized by 



Google 



CONNECTICUT WARBLER (Oporomis 
agilis) 

Range : Breeds in Canadian Zone from Mani- 
toba to central Minnesota and northern Mich- 
igan; winters in South America, probably in 
Colombia and Brazil. 

Discovered by Wilson in Connecticut early 
in the last century, the Connecticut warbler re- 
mained almost unknown for many years until, 
September 7, 1870, I found it numerous in the 
fresh pond swamps of Cambridge. The bird 
thus rediscovered rapidly came into the lime- 
light, and there are few eastern observers of 
the present day who are not tolerably familiar 
with the appearance and habits of this warbler. 
In fall it is common throughout eastern United 
States in low, swampy thickets. It habitually 
feeds on the ground, and is so silent and shy 
as easily to escape the notice even of one on 
the lookout for it, especially as its single chirp 
of alarm is infrequently uttered. In fact, the 
only way to be sure that one or more Con- 
necticut warblers are not concealed in the 
shrubbery of a suspected locality is to beat 
over it systematically, not once, but many times. 

When started, the warbler flies noiselessly to 
the nearest shaded perch, and there sits mo- 
tionless, watching the intruder, till it decides 
either to renew its interrupted search for food 
or to seek some distant place, far from the dan- 
ger of intrusion. Under such circumstances its 
motions are highly suggestive of the staid and 
quiet thrushes, and in no respect similar to the 
sprightly warblers. The Connecticut is one of 
the few species that for some reason choose 
distinct routes of migration, as in spring it 
passes up the Mississippi Valley instead of 
through the Atlantic Coast States, which form 
its southern route in fall. The bird is known 
to breed in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, 
Manitoba, and elsewhere in the north. The 
only nest so far found, however, appears to be 
one discovered by Seton in Manitoba. As was 
to be expected, it was on the ground. 

MOURNING WARBLER (Oporomis 
Philadelphia) 

Range : Breeds in lower Canadian Zone from 
east central Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, 
southwestern Keewatin, Nova Scotia, and Mag- 
dalen Islands south to central Minnesota, 
Michigan, central Ontario, and mountains of 
Xew York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and 
West Virginia; winters from Nicaragua and 
Costa Rica to Colombia and Ecuador. 

The mourning warbler is a near cousin of 
the Maryland yellow-throat and, like that bird, 
sticks rather closely to Mother Earth, being no 
lover of tree-tops. Unlike the yellow-throat, 
how^ever, it is one of the rarest of the family, 
and few ornithologists have ever enjoyed op- 
portunity to get on familiar terms with it and 
to observe its habits adequately. 

Most observers, like myself, have come across 
a few in migration from time to time, chiefly 
in spring, when the birds' habits may be de- 
scribed in general terms as a combination of 
those of the Maryland yellow-throat and the 
Connecticut warbler. During the spring mi- 
gration it frequents brushy hillsides and damp 
thickets, and m the nesting season seems par- 



tial to briar patches, in which it places its 
bulky nest of leaves and stalks. 

The song is said to be rich and full and has 
been compared with that of the Maryland yel- 
low-throat and the water-thrush. 

MACGILLIVRAY WARBLER 
(Oporomis tolmiei) 

Range: Breeds mainly in the lower Cana- 
dian and Transition Zones from central 
British Columbia, central Alberta, and south- 
ern Saskatchewan south to southern Cali- 
fornia, southern Arizona, and northern New 
Mexico, and from the Pacitic coast to the 
eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains and 
southwestern South Dakota; winters from 
Lower California to Colombia. 

Though closely resembling the mourning 
warbler in appearance and representing that 
bird in the west, the Macgillivray warbler 
differs widely in habits. Thus it is far more 
generally distributed, both in the mountains 
and in the lowlands, and is much more numer- 
ous. In my own experience I have found it 
in summer chiefly in moist thickets of willows 
or other brush along streams, and a suitable 
locality is rarely without a pair or two. Other 
observers, however, have found the bird on 
dry brushy hillsides. This warbler nests from 
a few inches to a few feet above the ground. 
It has a short, though pleasing, song which is 
repeated at brief intervals. 

HOODED WARBLER (Wilsonia citrina) 

Range : Breeds in Carolinian and Austrori- 
parian Zones from southeastern Nebraska, 
southern Iowa, southwestern Michigan, central 
New York, and the lower Connecticut Valley 
south to Louisiana, Alabama, and Georgia; 
winters from Vera Cruz and Yucatan to Pan- 
ama. 

While the hooded warbler has a wide range 
in eastern United States, its center of abun- 
dance is the lower Mississippi Valley. It is 
common only locally and wholly absent from 
many sections except as a casual migrant. Of 
the bird, one of our most beautiful warblers. 
Chapman says : 

"To my mind there is no warbler to which 
that much misused word Movely' may be so 
aptly applied as to the present species. Its 
beauty of plumage, charm of voice, and gen- 
tleness of demeanor make it indeed not only a 
lovely, but a truly lovable bird. Doubtless, 
also, the nature of the hooded warbler's haunts 
increases its attractiveness not merely because 
these well-watered woodlands are in them- 
selves inviting, but because they bring the bird 
down to our level. This creates a sense of 
companionship which we do not feel with the 
bird ranging high above us. and at the same 
time it permits us to see this exquisitely clad 
creature under most favorable conditions." 

WILSON WARBLER (Wilsonia pusilla 
pusilla) 

(For text, see page 314) 

CANADA WARBLER (Wilsonia 
canadensis) 

(For text, see page 314) 



321 



Digitized by 



Google 




322 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE BURDEN FRANCE HAS BORNE 

By Granville Fortescue 



FRANCE has taken war's foulest 
blows full on her breast. During 
the first two years of conflict Ger- 
man armies spread across her most pro- 
ductive provinces like a gray corroding 
acid, eating through farm, orchard, fac- 
tor}", home, destroying the most valuable 
property and most useful lives of the 
French nation. 

But this scorification did not crush 
the spirit of France. Rather the enemy 
outrages — ruined cathedrals, ransacked 
homes, ravaged women — roused the 
French people to a terrible realization of 
the German threat against the world. 

For the French man and woman, love 
of France, under the scourge of war, be- 
came a religion — a religion where fathers, 
mothers, sons, daughters, claimed the 
highest privilege accorded the Crusader 
and the ultimate sacrifice that gained the 
martyr's crown. 

The battle which checked the greatest 
expression of organized savagery the 
world has seen in 3,000 years is often 
called the Miracle of the Marne. Surely 
it was a miracle. During three days lust- 
ful Uhlan outguards pointed their blood- 
stained lance tips at the Eiffel Tower, 
sa>'ing confidently, "Within the week and 
our flag will float from the highest pin- 
nacle in France." But the God who 
weaves the world's destiny in mystery 
heard the prayers of France. The mira- 
cle was performed. Paris, the most beau- 
tiful achievement of man on earth, was 
saved from sack and rapine. 

INTERPRETING FRENCH PATRIOTISM 

It is no easy task to try to interpret 
French patriotism to our home-staying 
Americans. Only sympathetic hands can 
inscribe the long, sad stories of sacrifice 
which mark the stations of the war in 
France. When one has lived in the sacred 
atmosphere of a people daily immolated 
on the altar of patriotism, one feels a cer- 
tain unworthiness in sounding the depths 



of this feeling, of analyzing its springs, 
of calculating its results. 

When the earth's last judgment is given 
on this great war, France will be deemed 
to have saved the world from despotism. 
Diplomats, during many years, have 
prophesied the contest between democ- 
racy and despotism for the domination of 
the world. In the struggle that endures 
France is the true champion of democracy, 
and no better expression of this demo- 
cratic spirit exists than the French army. 

When the French army is mentioned 
today, the French people is implied, for 
the whole nation is bound by the most 
sacred ties to the trials and triumphs of 
the fighting section of the populace. 

THE IDEALS OE ERANCE 

Contrasting the French with the Ger- 
man army, we discover, though both are 
grounded on conscription, they are radi- 
cally different in their inspiration of serv- 
ice. The French and the German armies 
are completely separate in soul. History 
gives us the analogue of variance be- 
tween the French and German military 
systems in the story of Greece and Rome. 
The Roman armies were organized for 
conquest, with the aim of spreading Ro- 
man "kultur" to the southernmost bound- 
aries of Carthage and the northernmost 
villages of Gaul. The Roman eagle, like 
his Prussian descendant, sank his beak 
into the breast of the world. Roman 
power, like Prussian power, sprang from 
the will of the Emperor. 

In Greece, in the age of Pericles, the 
demos was the fountain of power, and 
the army was the guardian of the free- 
dom of the people. The ideals which in- 
spired the Athenians, honor gained in 
serving the country, is today the ideal in- 
spiring the soldiers of France. 

In analyzing the spirit of the French 
soldier, bear in mind this vital fact — 
fighting is an emotional act; and it is 
admitted that an emotion springing from 



323 



Digitized by 



Google 



324 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



an ideal is necessarily finer than one 
founded on a person. The German goes 
to battle with the Kaiser's sparkling fig- 
ure in the back of his mind, while the 
Frenchman fights for all that is connoted 
in the one word — France. 

Frankly, the German honors, reveres, 
sanctifies war; the Frenchman hates, de- 
spises, abhors war. I have seen the sol- 
diers of both nations in battle. I have 
studied them and talked with them after 
battle. I have watched for some uncon- 
scious expression that would give the 
clue to the real feelings of the French 
and German soldier, and when some 
phrase of the lips or flare of the eye 
marked the true state of the inward soul, 
I have noted it. 

In countless ways the German shows 
it is the Kaiser he fights for ; that domi- 
nant, disdainful figure symbolizes the 
Teutonic system, inspiring the German 
race to the ultimate sacrifice in the effort 
to spread that system over the face of 
the earth. 

Never has the French soldier given any 
indication other than that he fights for 
his country, his cities, his farms, his 
homes. Never does he give way to the 
lust of battle for battle's sake. He sees 
in this war an evil, a scourge laying waste 
his beloved country, and he conceives it 
to be his duty to his forefathers, himself, 
and his children to rid the earth of this 
plague. The cultivated Frenchman will 
take pains to explain to you how illogical, 
unintelligent, uncivilized is w^ar ; yet you 
will see this same cultivated Frenchman 
wearing the uniform of his motherland 
racing like a fighting fury to the muzzles 
of the machine-guns. 

THE TRUK HKRO OF WAR 

Will not the man who recognizes the 
brutal side of war, still does not hesitate 
to pay its penalty, merit more the title of 
hero than he who fights to gratify am- 
bition ? 

The paradox of the French way of 
thinking about war and acting in war is 
carried out in the organization of the 
army. The wide, unbridgable chasm of 
caste which exists between the officer and 
the private in the German company is but 
the step of necessity in French battalions. 



French soldiers recognize the need for 
discipline, of the value of team-work, and 
the urgency of obeying in battle, as the 
very foundation of their worth as citizen 
soldiers. They know also that they of 
their own volition have created the au- 
thority behind the officer, and for this 
reason there can be nothing degrading in 
the surrender of personal privilege in the 
crisis of war. 

Discipline is not maintained through 
fear, but by public opinion. Each private 
soldier recognizes that his individual 
efficiency and effectiveness, and conse- 
quently the efficiency and effectiveness of 
the whole French army, is based on his 
prompt and intelligent obedience of or- 
ders delivered by military superiors. 

He knows that his officers are trained 
specialists in war, and he puts himself 
freely in their hands, so that the nation's 
will in war may be accomplished. He 
understands the successive limitations of 
military authority — the private to the ser- 
geant, the sergeant to the lieutenant, the 
lieutenant to the captain, the captain to 
the major, and so on through grade after 
grade, up to General Nivelle, who in turn 
is responsible to France. With this con- 
ception of his duty, the most difficult part 
of military instruction is readily instilled 
into the French recruit. 

HIGH STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE 

Thoroughly to appreciate the relations 
of officer to soldier in the French army, 
they must be seen together in the trenches. 
The captain watches over his men like a 
father. lie shows a sympathetic under- 
standing of their difficulties, while de- 
manding in the common cause a rigor- 
ous adherence to their duties. The officer 
sets the highest standard of performance 
for himself and exacts the best each of 
his men can do. 

But the soldier knows he can go to his 
officer with his private troubles and re- 
ceive helpful advice. He knows he will 
never meet with intentional injustice. 
And what gives him supreme confidence 
is the knowledge that he will be led with 
intelligence and skill. 

The French officer is constantly alert 
to take advantage of the enemy and safe- 
guard his own men. The greatest crime 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by American Press Association 

WEARING GAS MASKS AT THE BENCHES 

It is not alone in the trench that the soldier must guard against poisonous gas and dust 
These women soldiers of the munitions plants must he similarly protected. 



in the officer's calendar is wantonly to 
waste the life of a subordinate. Circum- 
stances may call for the last sacrifice at 
times, but short of this condition the 
French commander husbands the lives of 
his men as a miser his pieces of gold. In 
an attack he will plan how they must 
creep from shell-hole to shell-hole, keep- 
ing as safe as possible from the enemy's 
artillery fire. Pie will study the ground 
in front of his trench for every available 
bit of cover, and so maneuver his men 
that they will gain its every advantage. 
He will elaborate trench and sap until Iiis 
men are as safe as the battle front per- 
mits, feeling his duty to his country de- 



mands not only that he defeat the enemy, 
but that he defeat him with the minimum 
expenditure of the lives under his com- 
mand. 

Men learn quickly to appreciate this 
quality in their officers, and this appre- 
ciation brings about a sense of loyalty 
which closely knits an army into an un- 
beatable whole. 

THi- TEST OF THE TRENCHES 

The te5t of the trenches also brings out 
the indomitable spirit of France as could 
no other circumstance. I saw this spirit 
in its concrete cheerfulness during a visit 
to the battle line beyond the Somme. 



32s 



Digitized by 



Google 





(p American Press Association 
FRENCH WOMKN WORKING IN AMMUNITION FACTORIES 

Mythology relates that Jupiter, as a reward for the excellence of the thunderbolts forged 
by his crippled son, Vulcan, bestowed upon him the hand of the fairest of the immorials — 
Venus. The daughters of France have inherited their beauty from the Cytherean goddess 
and their skill in making modern thunderbolts of battle from the Olympian blacksmith. 



326 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Paul Thompson 
WOMEN ENGAGED IN RESEARCH WORK FOR THE BENEFIT OF FRENCH SOLDIERS 

This war has given women their opportunity, which they have not been slow to seize 
upon ; but in no sphere of usefulness has this been more pronounced than in Red Cross w^ork. 
Here nurses are seen engaged in research work to benefit the particular cases they have in 
hand. 



It had rained for two weeks and it still 
rained. The battle ground, a great patch 
of black, desolate earth, looked as if for 
an age it had been submerged beneath the 
slimy waters of some flood. Gaunt and 
murky tree stumps marked the residue of 
woodlands. A thousand shell pits pocked 
the ground. Into these drained the top 
soil of the earth in flux. 

The Germans kept up a sullen shelling 
of the French trenches, zigzagging across 
these fields of desolation. Depression 
hung like a lowering cloud over the scene. 
Vet as I passed along the communication 
trenches I heard a voice in blithe song 
issuing from the depths of a dug-out. A 
sodden rain was falling, adding the last 
dismal touch to conditions, yet the singer 
chanted gaily: 

**Elle a perdu son parapluie, tant pis 
pour elle." 

In a moment a mud-spattered soldier 
appeared from the dark of the cave. 

"Good morning,'* he said, cheerily 
throwing the carcasses of two huge rats 



over the parapet. "There goes the night 
hunting." 

The cheerfulness of this soldier per- 
sonified the spirit of France. 

war's awful cost to FRANCE 

In the proportion to her population, 
France has given more of her citizens to 
battle than any other nation. It would be 
valuable information to the enemy to give 
the exact figures of losses, so the French 
general staff publishes no record of the 
cost of victory. But from a study of 
such data as is available an estimate can 
be made. Counting the dead, the per- 
manently disabled, and the prisoners, 
France's contribution to the holocaust of 
war is more than two millions. 

The price France pays in flesh and 
blood is a greater sacrifice than has been 
yet demanded from any of the allied na- 
tions. In computing the value of this 
sacrifice, all the conditions of French 
population must be taken into account. 
Chief among these must be placed the ab- 



327 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by American Press Association 

THIv FAIR CIIAUFFEUSE OF A SHELL SEDAN 

This is the type of electric cart used in the munitions factories for the transportation of 
shells. It requires a steady hand and a sure eye to pilot this machine when it is laden with 
a cargo of canned death. 



normally low annual increase in the num- 
ber of French citizens. Taking only the 
fi^:^ures for native-born Americans during 
the last forty years, and the increase in 
population in the United States has been 
over thirty millions, while during the 
same period in France the increase has 
been less than three millions. 

If the loss continues at the same rate, 
in another year France will lose the total 
surplus in citizens she has gained since 
the war of 1870. And it must be remem- 



bered that the death lists today are not 
compiled from the aged and sickly, but 
from the youth and health of the land. 

Through the sacrifices in men lost dur- 
ing the early battles of the war France 
was able to check the German rush and 
gain time for England to prepare. The 
French army met the Gennan army at its 
full strength and defeated it. The victory 
of the !Marne was due to the tactics em- 
ployed and the blows struck by the 
French army. When the facts are finally 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE BURDEN FRANCE HAS BORNE 



329 



revealed, history will grant France this 
honor. But it is an honor paid for in the 
best blood of the country. 

Up to the present it has been the 
French army, the French citizen soldier, 
who has saved the world from German 
conquest. 

A SPARTAN MOTHER AND WIFE 

As an example of what France gives, 
let me quote the story of General Castle- 
neau. He is a valiant, generous gentle- 
man — a soldier with the soul of a Spartan. 
He and his sons were among the first 
to draw their sabers in defense of their 
land. During the first year of the war, 
when he was pressed down with the cares 
of one of the most important commands 
in the French army, news was brought to 
General Castleneau, first, that one of his 
sons had been killed; then in a few 
months a second died for his country. 

The third son fought in the army com- 
manded by his father. He was his father's 
favorite. Little more than a boy, in the 
first battles he had shown a courage that 
won him honor and rapid promotion. 
Then in one of those attacks, where regi- 
ment upon regiment charged through the 
fields of death, this third son was mortally 
wounded. 

Upon the death of this boy, broken by 
his sorrows and the strain of war. Gen- 
eral Castleneau thought to give up his 
high command and live out his last days 
on his home farm. Then his wife came 
to him. He told her his thought. 

"No," said this French wife and 
mother, "you have given the best of your- 
self to your country. You have nothing 
left to give save these last years. We 
must keep up the fight." General Castle- 
neau today is still at his post of duty. 

RESOURCEFLX FRANCE MEETS NEW 
CONDITIONS 

Not only has France given the bodies 
of her sons in the sacrifice of battle, but 
she has also given the fruits of their 
brains. The trained professional officers 
of the French army have been the intelli- 
gence which directed the military opera- 
tions of the Entente armies. These offi- 
cers were instructors in the art of war to 



the aUied forces, and while acting in this 
capacity they evolved new tactics which 
so effectively thwarted German ambitions. 

The new tactics were the outcome of 
trench warfare, which had brought into 
use weapons long since discarded in 
modern armies. When the war opened 
French battalions, a thousand strong, had 
the organization common to most armies, 
namely, four companies and a mitrail- 
leuse section of two guns. The men were 
armed wholly with rifle and bayonet ; but 
French ingenuity was quick to see the 
changes of organization and armament 
made necessary by the new warfare. 

Today half the battalion have discarded 
the rifle and carry grenades or one-man 
machine-guns. Three of the original 
companies are still infantry, while the 
fourth has been changed to a machine- 
gun company with eight mitrailleuses. 

The infantry companies are subdivided 
into sections and armed with special 
weapons: first, the hand-grenade throw- 
ers; second, the rifle grenade soldiers, 
who, instead of throwing the grenade, fire 
it from their guns ; third, the soldiers fir- 
ing automatic rifles, and these are fol- 
lowed by the ordinary infantry, using 
rifle or bayonet. 

The machine-guns as employed by the 
Germans were the great bugbear of the 
trenches. These weapons would mow 
down a whole company of advancing 
soldiers in the charge. French officers 
set themselves to solving this problem 
and devised the small cannon to be used 
in the assault. The gun, i^-inch caliber 
rapid fire, was dragged forward with the 
charging line. When brought into action 
it soon mastered the fire of any hidden 
machine-gun. 

THE WORK OF THE RIFLE GRENADE 

That ingenious weapon, the rifle gren- 
ade, merits special citation. It consists 
of an iron receptacle, clamped to the end 
of the regular rifle, in which a special 
type of grenade is placed, and the rifle 
fiVed. The explosion sends the grenade 
about 200 yards through the air, while 
the rifle bullet, piercing the center of 
the bomb, sets free the fulminate, which 
causes the grenade to explode on landing. 

I have no intention of going into a 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



technical discussion of tKe French in- 
fantry in attack, and only give the outline 
of tactical changes in order to indicate 
how the French people are fighting with 
their intellects. They have no belief in 
brute force in war ; if they had, they long 
ago would have surrendered to the Ger- 
mans. Their faith is pinned to their own 
finesse — a finesse which exasperates and 
thwarts the enemy. 

As instructors, French officers have 
been of inestimable value to the English. 
In the beginning of the war the British 
army was deficient in artillery — a defi- 
ciency which was rapidly remedied in 
material, for England turned out guns 
for the army from the naval-gun foun- 
dries. But gunners, who are soldier 
specialists, were not available for the bat- 
teries. 

In this dilemma England turned to 
France, the country that had developed 
the finest corps of artillerists the world 
has ever seen. French officers were de- 
tailed to the English batteries, and Eng- 
lish officers also were taken into French 
artillery units and learned their art in the 
actual practice of war under the tutelage 
of the most competent teachers. 

I have referred to French artillerists 
as the finest in the world. The statement 
is made without qualification; and were 
I seeking the factor of greatest single 
importance in the military strength of 
France, I should decide upon the artillery. 

A HUMAN MACHINIS IN ACTION 

It was given me to see the French guns 
go into action in one of the early attacks 
of the war — the engagement at Dinant. 
Aside from its spectacular interest, the 
performance was one of the most perfect 
exhibitions of artillery technique I have 
ever witnessed. The guns were driven, 
wlieeled, and unlimbered with the pre- 
cision of parade-ground maneuvers. The 
men dropped into their appointed places 
like the parts of a geared machine. Then 
guns were loaded, aimed, fired, reloaded, 
without an ounce of lost motion. When 
the projectiles exploded, and I could see 
the effect through my binoculars, I want- 
ed to cheer for the gunners of France. 
They had scored four direct hits. 

The guns of this battery were the 



"soixante quinze" caliber, since become 
the most famous cannon of the w-ar. 

The construction of this cannon was a 
jealously guarded military secret up until 
the time of the opening of hostilities. 
Other nations knew that France pos- 
sessed a field gun of exceptional proper- 
ties, and while they had hints of its ef- 
fectiveness, as demonstrated in peace, it 
needed the brutal test of war to prove the 
superiority of this weapon above all sim- 
ilar makes of artillery. 

It is readily understood that, with a 
cannon which shoots farther and faster 
than the enemy, the French army pos- 
sessed an asset of great military advan- 
tage. 

I have heard French artillerymen state 
that the superiority of their "soixante 
quinze" batteries made up for the Ger- 
man preponderance of numbers in the be- 
ginning of the war, and that the destruc- 
tiveness of these guns was so great that 
they almost equalized the tactical value 
of the forces of France and Germany 
after several hours of actual fighting. 

The gun is a marvel of fitted mechan- 
ism ; breech-block, recoil cylinders, sight- 
ing apparatus, all the puzzling pieces of 
hardened steel which open and close the 
cartridge chamber, function Avith the 
smoothness of a dynamo. 

In the process of loading and firing, it 
gives the impression of some sentient 
organism rather than a machine of turned 
steel. This impression is heightened by 
the short, dry sound of the explosion 
when the shell is fired — a sound that awes 
and electrifies when first heard, and which 
has come to be far more characteristic of 
battle than the conventional *'boom" sup- 
posed to convey the noise of cannon. 

GKRMANV BEATEN AT THE ARTILLERY 
GAME 

As soon as the superiority of the French 
cannon was recognized, the great arms 
factories of France were enlarged and 
worked to the limit of capacity, not only 
to furnish new guns for the French army, 
but also to supply the enormous demands 
of the Russian army. Later Serbia and 
Roumania w^ere also supplied with field 
batteries from French foundries, and in 
these countries officers and men acconi- 



Digitized by 



Google 




riiotograph by Paul Thompson 



FARES TO THE FAIR 



Among the many occupations which the women of France are pursuing, in order that 
men may be released for service in the army, are those connected with the street railway 
systems of Paris and other cities. Motorwomen, girl conductors, ticket sellers, and ticket 
takers are now the rule rather than the exception. Here a young girl is seen wearing the 
uniform cap of a surface-car conductor. From her shoulders hangs the big leather bag in 
which she deposits the passengers' sous and centimes. 



331 



Digitized by 



Google 




332 



Digitized by 



Google 




BORDEAUX-BEGLES : GENERAL WAREHOUSES OF THE HEALTH SERVICE 

Like her chief munitions works at Le Creusot, France finds it expedient to keep her 
principal stores of surgical cottons and health-service supplies far removed from the imme- 
diate scenes of hostility. Xot only are these warehouses beyond the zone of possibly air- 
plane raids, but, being at Bordeaux, they are convenient depots for the receipt of Red Cross 
shipments from England and America. 



panied the guns to insure efficient hand- 
ling. 

From the above it is seen how gener- 
ously France came to the support of her 
allies in the most important branch of 
military science; and when we reflect on 
the enormous amount of material de- 
stroyed during the two and one-half 
years of war, we begin to perceive what 
a drain this has been on the resources of 
France. 

Reliance upon the decisive effect of ar- 
tillery in battle has been a tradition with 
the French army since the victories of the 
first Napoleon. He it was who originally 
employed artillery in a massed formation. 
At Wagram, at Lutzen, at Hanau, this 
maneuver of concentrated artillery fire 
gave the victory to the armies of France. 
Napoleon III tried to continue the theo- 
ries of his brilliant ancestor, but failed; 
yet the influence of the great master of 
tactics continued ; so it is but natural that 
the use of artillery in war should reach 



its highest perfection through French de- 
velopment. 

The French have relied for success in 
the fighting today on the ancient maneu- 
ver of the Napoleonic era — a mass of 
guns firing at a given point in the enemy 
line. At the same time they endeavored 
to make the practice of concentrated fire 
more effective through increased speed 
and accuracy of fire. 

the: big gun vs. THE LIGHTER ONE 

Before the opening of the great war 
there were two schools of artillery tac- 
tics — the French, which believed in the 
above theory of rapid field-gun shelling, 
and the German, which pinned its faith 
to the effectiveness of huge guns having 
a greater range than the ordinary field 
gim and of course throwing a far more 
destructive exploding charge. The ex- 
treme of the German theory was the 
widely advertised 42-centimeter cannon, 
supposed to be able to reduce the strong- 



333 



Digitized by 



Google 




BOUND FOR PARIS 



Photograph from Paul Thompson 



A French Red Cross train bearing sick and wounded soldiers to Paris after passing 
through a field hospital. One of the nurses is making a tour of the train, distributing coffee 
to the slightly wounded and sick men. 



est fortress to ruin with three well-di- 
rected shots. 

The actual practice of war and the pe- 
culiarities of trench fighting developed 
the fact that neither of these schools was 
wholly right. The light French guns were 
ineffective against troops hidden in well- 
constructed trenches, while the difficul- 
ties of transportation involved in moving 
the giant German guns from point to 
point outbalanced their ultimate effect- 
iveness. 

French artillery experts began at once 
to experiment toward developing thQ 



most serviceable gun under actual condi- 
tions of war, and the result of this ex- 
periment can be gauged by the different 
caliber of cannon now used in the French 
army. Here is the list given in meters 
and the approximate caliber in inches: 

First the 75 millimeter, the standard 
field gun, 3-inch caliber; the 95 milli- 
meter, 3J/^ inch; 305 millimeter, 12 inch: 
370 millimeter, 15 inch; 400 millimeter, 
16 inch, and last the largest cannon in the 
world, 520 millimeter, or 20 inches. 

I give the list in full to impress upon 
my reader the extraordinary complication 



334 



Digitized by 



Google 



of industry involved 
in the casting, turn- 
ing, and assembling of 
these various types of 
cannon. Special ma- 
chinery must be em- 
ployed in each in- 
stance where there is 
a variation in caliber. 
Complete foundries 
are given over to the 
manufacture of the 
separate parts of the 
gun and gun carriage. 
The industrial organi- 
zation for one size of 
gun alone is greater 
today than the total 
pre-war ordnance or- 
ganization. 

THE 20IXCII CANNON 
OF FRANCE 

From the failures 
of the Germans the 
French found that the 
problem of heavy ar- 
tillery in the field 
w a s transportation ; 
so French artillery ex- 
perts began at once to 
try to solve this difli- 
culty. They have suc- 
ceeded in their task. 
Their triumph is the 
construction of a rail- 
road truck upon which 
is mounted a 20-inch 
cannon, the heaviest 
piece of artillery in 
the world. 

The marvelous man- 
n e r in which the 
French have overcome 
the mechanical diffi- 
culties that hitherto 
confined heavy artil- 
ler>' to fortress or 
siege operations is a striking example of 
what French brains are doing in this war. 
Firing a 12-inch gun from a foundation 
built along a spur of railway was consid- 
ered a mechanical impossibility before 
General Joflfre's expert artillerists dem- 
onstrated the success of the idea. 

It was not only in the construction of 
these guns that France showed her skill, 
but in their operation. French gunners 



.*fe^ 


\ 


;^5^> «N/v 


k\ ^ ' 













THE SHOWER BATH 

Judging by this contraption, the French soldier has developed a 
modicum of Yankee ingenuity. A water-wheel motor operates a 
hydraulic lift, which supplies a bucket reservoir with the ''makings" 
of a sprinkle. The apparatus works, but it looks as if it might have 
been modeled after a comic cartoonist's distorted dream. 



first developed indirect fire — the art of 
hitting an unseen target — and in this war 
they have brought indirect fire to tech- 
nical perfection and even applied its prin- 
ciples in new ways. 

Undoubtedly, in accounts of present-day 
battles in Europe, the reader has met the 
phrase curtain or barrage fire. He may 
have guessed something of the nature of 
this artillery expedient. 



335 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Paul Thompson 

ISSUING A FOOD TICKET TO TOMMY ATKINS 

The offices of the Gare du Nord, Paris, have been converted to the uses of organizations 
for the relief of suffering among the refugees and victims of the war. A British soldier is 
seen accepting an order for a meal. 



The phrase means, in untechnical lan- 
guage, the art of aiming a mass of cannon 
in a manner that the projectiles from all 
of them fall in a given area in such a 
shower as to form a curtain or barrage 
of exploding iron. 

This curtain may be dropped behind 
an enemy position so that reinforcements 
cannot come to his aid when attacked, or 
it may be used to check an advance. 

TlIIv SYNCHRONIZED FIRK OF 4OO GUNS 

Accurately to synchronize the action of 
50 or 100 batteries, 200 or 400 gims, so 
that while firing from widely separated 
positions at a target that is not in view 
the projectiles arrive simultaneously along 
a defined and predetermined line, is a 



matter of the highest technical skill and 
calculation. To the French belongs the 
honor of first employing this effective 
artillery principle. 

I have seen these great pieces of ord- 
nance, equal in size to the major guns of 
a battleship, moving from point to point 
along specially built lines of lateral rail- 
roads, running in rear of the trench posi- 
tion on the Somme. At the will of the 
commander they are brought into action 
wherever the press of battle warrants. 

This development and operation of ar- 
tillery is the most impressive manifesta- 
tion of the colossal expansion of modern 
war. Consider the tons of metal molded 
into each of these great cannon, and then 
reflect that wherever the trucks upon 



336 



Digitized by 



Google 




PILING UP SHELL CASES FOR 75-MILLIMETER GUNS 

|*The French *soixante-quinze' gun is a marvel of fitted mechanism. In the process of 
loading and firing it gives the impression of some sentient organism rather than a machine 
of turned steeL This impression is heightened by the short, dry sound of the explosion 
when the shell is fired — a sound that awes and electrifies." 




VIEW OF YPRES: PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN FROM A FLYING MACHINE 

The pitiful ghost of one of ravaged Belgium's most beautiful and historic cities. In the 
central foreground may be seen the roofless remains of the famous Cloth Hall, the largest 
edifice of its kind in the kingdom, begun by Count Baldwin IX of Flanders in the year 1200. 
Just beyond looms the scarred and desecrated Cathedral of St. Martin. On all sides are 
ruin and desolation, where three summers ago dwelt nearly 20,000 happy, thrifty people, 
engaged chiefly in the peaceful pursuit of making Valenciennes lace. 



337 



Digitized by'' 



Google 




RESERVES CROSSING A RIVER ON THE WAY TO VERDUN 

"They shall not pass" is a phrase which for all time will be associated with the heroic 
defense of Verdun. To future generations of French people it will bring a thrill of pride 
even surpassing that enkindled by the glorious '"The Old Guard dies, it never surrenders." 
The guardians of the great fortress on the Meuse have proved themselves invincible in 
attack, invulnerable in defense. 



which they are mounted move, bridges, 
culverts, even the road-bed itself, of the 
railroad line must be strengthened to sup- 
port the load. 

I^urther, in order that the giant cannon 
shall have the mobility for effective use, 
new sections of railroad must be built 
whenever the army advances. 

If you analyze the process of manu- 
facture and the details of transportation 
involved in the creating and bringing of 
each one of the new heavy field guns to 
the front, you arrive at an understanding 
of the important part played in the war 
by the French industrial organizations. 

A WONDERFUL PROnUCTlON OF SHELLS 

I was witness to another phase of the 
effectiveness of this organization, as 
shown in the munition industry in France. 
Taking the number of units produced 
daily as a standard, the greatest single 
business of the war is the making of 
shells. This comes about through the 



enormous disproportion in the time con- 
sumed in the production and the distribu- 
tion of shells compared with the time 
needed to expend them. 

Consider the making and the breaking 
of the shell. One is a tedious, toilsome, 
exacting, and complicated process, begin- 
ning with the digging of iron ore from 
the earth, its transportation to steel mills, 
its transfusion and casting into ingots. 

These ingots are the raw material of 
the shell casing only. The production of 
the explosive that serves as the bursting 
charge is an industry in itself, while the 
construction of the mechanism of the 
fuses requires almost as much skill as 
watch-making. 

In the first year of the war, the critical 
period of the conflict, France led all the 
Entente nations in the production of 
shells. As was the case with guns, France 
had to supply her ally, Russia, with the 
munitions so necessary to the effective- 
ness of the armies fighting in Poland and 



338 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Paul Thompson 
A WAGON-LOAD OF HELMETS OR CASQUES FOR FRENCH SOLDIERS LEAVING THE 

FACTORY 

At the outbreak of the world war the French fighting man wore a long-visored, tall- 
crowned cap, but this picturesque headgear soon yielded to the utility of the metal head- 
piece, which furnishes a certain degree of protection from the shrapnel that bursts above 
the trenches and sows the seeds of destruction in the furrows of death. 



the Carpathians. To meet this drain the 
industries of the country were reorgan- 
ized. The products of peace gave way 
before the demands of war. 

The concrete example of this is the 
transformation of the plants of the Re- 
nault automobile works to the making 
of munitions. In one factory, formerly 
wholly concerned with the forging and 
fitting of motor machinery, 15,000 men 
and 4,000 women are now employed 24 
hours of each day grinding and filling 
high-explosive shells. The work, divided 
into shifts, never halts, and from this one 
plant 11,000 projectiles are daily sent for- 
ward tp the front. 

THE VASTNESS OF THE EXPENDITURE OF 
STEEL 

But during periods of heavy fighting, 
when the cannon is playing its important 
part in the tragedy of battle, the calcu- 
lated average expenditure of ammunition 



by one army corps is 29,000 shells per 
day. So the total effort of 19,000 work- 
ers employed during 24 hours furnishes 
somewhat more than one-third the am- 
munition used by a small part of the 
army. 

The number of army corps holding the 
front in France is a military secret, and 
as the United States is now ranged on the 
side of France in the war, it would be 
injudicious to try and probe that secret. 
We violate no confidence when we state 
that it is more than thirty. This figure 
will give us a basis for calculating the 
number of shells produced by the muni- 
tions factories of France. 

There are long periods when the ex- 
penditure of ammunition in no way ap- 
proximates the figures given above, and 
it is during these periods when the guns 
are comparatively silent that production 
catches up with consumption. 

It may be true that England is grad- 



339 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Paul Thompson 
HEAVY TRAINING FOR FRENCH SOLDIERS 

The making of men taken from civilian life into well-trained soldiers has been a problem 
in England as in France. Business hours left the Frenchman with little time for exercise. 
Their training in the manner here shown quickly made them fit, and soon after leaving the 
counter, lathe, or desk they have proved themselves able to undertake with endurance the 
long marches and successful offensives against the common enemy with complete success. 
Every Frenchman entering the army undergoes a preparation in gymnastics as here shown, 
where men of the new armies are being made fit at the Physical Training School near 
''''incennes. 



340 



Digitized by 



Google 





T 




ray||yai^j 






f1 


1 1 »"l^ 



Photograph by Paul Thompson 
HOW TO TAKE A BUILDING BY STORM : A LESSON AT THE PHYSICAL TRAINING SCHOOL 

OF VINCENNES 

Although there have been innumerable new engines of destruction employed in the 
present world war, such as the submarine, the airplane, and the high-explosive shell, the 
fighting forces of Europe have also hied back to ancient and medieval principles of warfare 
with astonishing frequency. For example, we have seen the recrudescence of the "Greek 
fire" idea in **liquid fire," the evolution of the Chinese stinkpot in the new poisonous gas, 
the reappearance of the armored knight in the soldier wearing a steel helmet, and the glori- 
fication of the battering ram in the lumbering new "tank." As shown in the above illustra- 
tion, the modern soldier is trained to scale walls, just as were the soldiers of Darius the 
Great, Alexander the Great, Alfred the Great, and Charlemagne. There are variations, but 
no new principles, in the crude art of destroying human life. 



ually approaching France, both in the 
manufacture of heavy guns and the pro- 
duction of munitions; but this condition 
appears after two and a half years of 
war. During those two and a half years 
it was the French cannon, French shells, 
French soldiers, and Franch brains that 
check^ the military ambitions of Ger- 
many. 

NEW MIRACLES OF SURGERY 

With all this effort applied to improve 
her killing power, France did not neglect 
the complement of war destruction — 
healing. The best surgical and medical 
minds of the country pondered long on 
the problem of saving all that was possi- 
ble from the human wreckage of war. 



The fruit of this thoiight is exemplified 
in the work of Doctor Carrel, whose 
achievements under the Rockefefter Foun- 
dation are well known in the United 
States, and Doctor Dakin. 

These two men put all their Efforts into 
curing the evil of infection.* They had 
found in their work among the wounded 
that 75 per cent of deaths, after the first 
24 hours, were due to infection ; that 80 
per cent of amputations were due to in- 
fection, and that 95 per cent of secondary 
hemorrhage came through infection. 

While the work incidental to healing 
the wounded was going on. Doctors Car- 
rel and Dakin established a research labo- 
ratory in conjunction with their military 
hospital at Compeigne. 



341 



Digitized by 



Google 




A CHURCH CONVERTED INTO AN EMERGENCY HOSPITAL: THE OPERATING TABLE 

"With so much of its skill and thought applied to the development and perfection of her 
killing power, France has not neglected the complement of war destruction — healing. The 
best surgical and medical minds of the country have wrestled with and mastered the problem 
of saving all that is possible from the human wreckage of modern battle." 



342 



Digitized by 



Google 




HOSPITAL UNPREPAREDNESS: AN OBJECT-LESSON FOR AMERICA 

In the early days of the war, before the French Red Cross had fully organized its 
resources, it frequently happened that straw strewn upon marble flags was the only make- 
shift for beds which could be provided for the wounded. This straw proved most unfortu- 
nate for the wounded, as it was often infected with tetanus germs. Here, beneath the altar 
of their faith, in the Church of Aubigny, converted into a hospital, the fighting men of France 
reconsecrated their lives to the cause. 



It IS not necessary to give the details 
of the experiments of these two scientists. 
Today, by the application of the Carrel- 
Dakin method of sterilizing wounds, one 
amputation is performed where formerly 
twenty were necessary, and where there 
were ten deaths one now occurs, and the 
time of convalescence is reduced from 
three to six months to four or, at the 
most, six weeks. 

It has been found that the method of 
Doctor Carrel applied to the formula of 
Doctor Dakin has not only shortened con- 
valescence, but in consequence reduced 
the strain on doctors and nurses and the 
cost of hospital maintenance ; also it has 
minimized pain. But more than all this, 
it has resulted in a great saving of limbs 
and lives to France. 

THE HEROISM OF THE FRENCH WOMEN 

Turning from the purely military side 
of war to the economic side, we find an- 



other picture of French sacrifice. In this 
picture the French woman holds the fore- 
ground. 

In the time of war every physically fit 
male in France can be called upon to 
shoulder rifle and fight the battles of his 
country. When this call sounds, it might 
be thought that the agricultural and in- 
dustrial structure of the nation would be 
reduced to chaos. 

But for the sturdy heroism of the 
women of France such might have been 
the case. When the men were called to 
the colors, the women came forward to 
fill the gaps in the farming and manufac- 
turing armies. 

French women, aided by their children, 
plowed the fields, sowed the seed, har- 
vested the crops that during two years 
have fed the soldiers of France. French 
women tended the vines, gathered the 
grapes, and pressed the wine which 
France exports throughout the world. 



343 



Digitized by 



Google 



344 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



French women became conductors, motor 
operators, ticket-sellers on the subways 
of Paris ; they took the positions vacated 
by men in the post-office department; 
they were employed in the street-cldaning 
and other municipal departments. 

In all incijustries, public or private, 
women replaced the men called to the 
front, and, what is much more to the 
point, they made good in their new work. 

UNREMITTING TOIL FOR A FREE FRANCE 

As farmers, as vintners, as laborers, as 
munition workers, French women toil 
without ceasing to save France and take 
some of the burden of war from the 
shoulders of the men. In their own field, 
as housewives who understand the impor- 
tance of thrift, they have saved the eco- 
nomic situation. 

The enormous financial burden which 
war has so unjustly thrown on France 
has been lightened by the thousand econo- 
mies put into practice by French women 
in their homes. All the little dainties of 
table, the little coquetries of dress, the 
little temptations of amusement, have 
been sternly put aside for the duration of 
the war. 

Sugar means money spent abroad; 
therefore the French woman gives up 
pastries, sweets, and reduces the amount 
of sugar used in the household. Coal is 
needed to keep the munition factories up 
to the maximum of production, so the 
French woman reduces the amount of 
gas and electricity used in her home, as 
these are the products of coal. 

Thus French women, through practicing 
direct and indirect economies, actually re- 
duce the cost of the war to France ; and, 
more than this, when any money is saved 
to them from these economies they invest 
the saving in government war loan, mak- 
ing every copper do double work in the 
defense of the country. 



In this article I have outlined what 
France has done in the w^ar. I have men- 
tioned the work of the army which met 
and turned the heaviest blows the mili- 
tary power of .Germany could muster. I 
have mentioned how the artillery, the 
product of French brains, bulwarked the 
efforts of the soldiers. I have referred 
to the work of the women of France and 
their splendid stand under the strain of 
war, and I have mentioned the spirit of 
France. 

AN UNCONQUERABLE SPIRIT 

In conclusion, I must again allude to 
that spirit. French men and women 
know that the resources of their nation 
in property and lives are being consumed 
in the furnace of war. They know what 
the death of their soldiers means to the 
nation in the future. They realize the 
terrible consequences of German occupa- 
tion. Yet in the face of all these bitter 
trials the people have never faltered. 

Throughout the misery, the suffering, 
the brutal injustice of this war, France 
has fought valiantly for one ideal — ^the 
ideal upon which that nation and our own 
is founded — ^the right of the citizen to 
liberty. 

Each day as the French armies press 
the enemy back from the territory so long 
occupied, the sacrifices of France are 
proved with greater poignancy. 

The band of blackened land now given 
over to desolation is the visual testimony 
of what the war has meant to France. 
But it is not only the losses of today, but 
what those losses mean in the future, that 
must be reckoned as part of the burden 
France bears. This is a sacrifice no man 
can gauge. 

When democracy rises triumphant 
from the struggle with despotism, and 
when the last page of war history is 
written, the world will gladly acknowl- 
edge its debt to France. 




Digitized by 



Google 



THE CALL TO THE COLORS 




O Underwood & Underwood 

500 NEWLV MADE BLUEJACKETS OF THE U. S. NAVY READY FOR ACTIVE SERVICE 

Having completed the necessary course of instruction at the Naval Training Station, 
Newport, R. 1., these youths, bearing their white canvas bags, which in the navy take the 
place of "wardrobe trunks," stand on the threshold of the great adventure — war — with honor 
and sacrifice for country as the two great prizes. The Newport Naval Training Station is 
to the bluejacket what West Point is to American army officers and Annapolis is to the 
future admirals of our fleets. Here he receives instruction in the essentials of seamanship. 
At the present time all the pupils at this school are undergoing intensive training to tit them 
for the immediate needs of the hour. 



345 



Digitized by 



Google 




A NAVAL MILITIA BUGLER SOUNDING A CALL 



(Q American Press Association 

''to the colors" 



In twenty million American homes fathers and sons are waiting for this call, and when 
the summons comes there will be no shirking of responsibility. Mothers, wives, and daugh- 
ters also will hear this challenge, and with hearts steeled to sacrifice will bravely bid farewell 
to those who go to battle for America and humanity. 



346 



Digitized by 



Google 




(£> Underwood & Underwood 
A NATIONAL, GUARDSMAN COMPLETELY EQUIPPED FOR SERVICE 

On his back this American fighting man carries his blanket roll, small shovel, bag, etc. 
Wis canteen is at his belt. He is armed with a .30 caliber U. S. Army rifle. Minimum 
weight lor maximum efficiency is the principle upon which his whole outfit has been designed. 



347 



Digitized by 



Google 




'-^ ♦- C 

pa -a 3J3 

•^ «r O O 

bo :5 

«I5 o ^ 



348 



Digitized by 



Google 




c 2 
^ 2 

V O 

Cbb 



•P 

.S o 

CO C 



a; 









in "* 



_s ^ 
O O 

c« "is 

o 

°% 

•Se 

CO C 

>.< 

to "O 

C 

u cd 

c.S 

coT3 



349 



Digitized by 



Google 




3SO 



Digitized by 



Google 




351 



Digitized by 



Google 





352 



Digitized by 



Google 




353 



Digitized by 



Google 




354 



Digitized by 



Google 



f- ^ 




^ 



a 
^ 



"Z 


fiQ 


2 




U 




W 


S 


(I4 


b 


tA 




2 




^ 


•^ 


H 


Q!$ 









U* 


c 







(U 




;^ 


1 


Q 


C/5 


2 


bfi 

c 






►4 


.£ 




*c5 




u 




^ 




_^ 




rt 




> 


1 


rt 




:2: 




t 









a 




5C 




(D 




:z: 




a> 




^ 








,4_^ 




rt 




</i 












3 


M 


u. 


■ 


5i 




u. 








rt 








rt 




A 



355 



Digitized by 



Google 




356 



Digitized by 



Google 




< 

w 

Q 

W 



W5 "rr ■*-» 

•-S3 

O 3 *" 

o o :^ 
i-i ^ 






re •— • 

to**"-;: 
.£.-2 5 

•a c w 
rt Q C 

o o 
Cx: "*^ 

O X. C 

(A 

t_ -^ fa 

u rt Ji 

^ o;^ 

c:5 



^. ^-^^ 

•r '■'5 ens 

U l> t- c 

C 3 rt rt 

u .ts «5 



357 



Digitized by 



Google 




O . o ^ MS f 

»- ? u rt 

^ :;; jf :: 3 

3 .- ^ S £ 



3S8 



Digitized by 



Google 




359 



Digitized by 



Google 




358 



Digitized by 



Google 




Underwood & Underwood 



BATTLESHIP ABLAZE IN MID-OCEAN 



Owing to the perfect organization of the crew of a thousand or more men on a super- 
dreadnought, a fire at sea is not usually so serious as a landsman would imagine. With the 
first alarm each individual on board becomes a fire-hghter, rushing to his post of duty. 
Water compartments are closed and preparations are made for flooding the magazines if 
the flames threaten these store-rooms of destruction. 



360 



Digitized by 



Google 



.'1;.'.j;-'-i g 



iV 



.«.' 



"-T ' .^K..^-* 



c^ 











jmUIK 


n 


"'^ «fcr* ^ « •-». '.•..•1 '; .\ 


^g ' ^^M 


--^ ^^i^mi 


T Sl 


^^f-^-AV,^ 


li mI 


"la 


'^ J 


V <«« 




•i* 



© Underwood ^: ' 



SALUTING Tine FLAG 



An impressive ceremony which took place in Fifth Avenue, New York, opposite the 
Union League Club reviewing stand during the recent "Wake Up, America" celebration. 
Thousands marclied in the procession; hundreds of thousands lined the great thoroughfare 
and voiced their approval in a succession of cheers. 



361 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE OUTSPEAKING OF A GREAT DEMOCRACY 



The Proceedings of the Chamber of Deputies of France 

on Friday, April 6, 1917, as Reported in the 

''Journal Officiel de La Republique Francaise'' 



PRESIDENT 0^ THE CHAMBER OF 
Deputies: The President of the 
Council has the floor. 

Mr. Ribot, President of the Coun- 
cil, Minister of Foreign Affairs: Be- 
fore the Chamber adjourns the Govern- 
ment asks it to address a cordial greet- 
ing to the great Republic of the United 
States. {Cheers, All the deputies rise, 
turn toward the diplomatic gallery, and 
applaud [the Ambassador of the United 
States being in the gallery] . Many cries 
of "Long live the Republic") 

You have read the admirable message 
of President Wilson. We all feel that 
something great, something which ex- 
ceeds the proportions of a political event, 
has been accomplished. ( Cries of assent.) 

It is an historic fact of unequaled im- 
portance (applause) — ^this entry into the 
war on the side of us and our allies by 
the most peaceful democracy in the 
world. (Loud applause.) After having 
done everything to affirm its attachment 
to peace, the great American nation de- 
clares solemnly that it cannot remain 
neutral in this immense conflict between 
right and violence, between civilization 
and barbarism. (Loud and prolonged 
applause.) It holds that honor requires 
it to take up the defiance flung at all rules 
of international law so laboriously built 
up by civilized nations. (Applause.) 

It declares at the same time that it is 
not fighting for self-interest, desires 
neither conquest nor compensation, in- 
tends only to help toward a victory of the 
cause of law and liberty. (All the depu- 
ties rise and applaud.) 

A MESSAGE OF deliverance 

The grandeur, the nobility, of this ac- 
tion is enhanced by the simplicity and 
serenity of the language of the illustrious 
leader of that great democracy. (Loud 
applause.) 



If the world had entertained the least 
doubt of the profound meaning of this 
war in which we are engaged, the mes- 
sage of the President of the United 
States would dissipate all obscurity. It 
makes apparent to all that the struggle is 
verily a struggle between the liberal spirit 
of modern societies and the spirit of op- 
pression of societies still enslaved to mili- 
tary despotism. (Prolonged applause.) 
It is for this reason that the message 
rings in the depths of all hearts like a 
message of deliverance to the world. 
(Applause.) 

The people which, under the inspira- 
tion of the writings of our philosophers, 
declared its rights in the eighteenth cen- 
tury, the people who place Washington 
and Lincoln foremost among their heroes 
(applause) f the people who in the last 
century suffered a civil war for the aboli- 
tion of slavery (cheers; the zvhole Cham- 
ber rises and applauds), were indeed 
worthy^ to give such an example to the 
world. 

Thus they remain faithful to the tradi- 
tions of the founders of their independ- 
ence and demonstrate that the enormous 
rise of their industrial strength and of 
their economic and financial power has 
not weakened in them that need for an 
ideal without which there can be no great 
nation. (Applause.) 

A friendship ratified in blood 

What touches us particularly is that 
the United States has held to the friend- 
ship which at an earlier time was ratified 
in blood. (Applause.) We bear witness 
with grateful joy to the enduring sym- 
pathy between the peoples, which is one 
of the delicate virtues the bosom of a 
democracy can nourish. 

The Star-spangled Banner and the Tri- 
color will fly side by side ; our hands will 
join; our hearts beat in unison. This 



362 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE OUTSPEAKING OF A GREAT DEMOCRACY 



363 



will mean for us, after so much suffer- 
ing, heroically borne, so many bereave- 
ments, so many ruins, a renewal of the 
sentiments which have animated and sus- 
tained us during this long trial. The 
powerful, decisive aid which the United 
States brings us is not only a material 
aid ; it will be especially moral aid, a real 
consolation. {Loud applause.) 

Seeing the conscience of peoples every- 
where in the world awake and rise in an 
immense protest against the atrocities of 
which we are the victims, we feel more 
keenly that we are fighting not only for 
ourselves and for our allies, but for some- 
thing immortal (applause), and that we 
are laying the foundations of a new or- 
der. (Loud applause.) Thus our sacri- 
fices will not have been in vain ; the gen- 
erous blood poured out by the sons of 
France will have sowed fertile -seeds in 
the ideas of justice and of liberty funda- 
mentally necessary to concord between 
nations. (Applause.) 

In the name of the whole country, the 
government of the French Republic ad- 
dresses to the government and people of 
the United States, with the expression of 
its gratitude, its warmest good wishes. 
{Prolonged cheers. All the deputies rise 
and turn applauding to the diplomatic 
gallery.) 

THE HARVEST OF JUSTICE 

Many voices: The proclamation! 

Mr. Paul Dechanel, President oe 
THE Chamber: The proclamation of the 
speech which the Chamber has just ap- 
plauded is asked. There is no opposi- 
tion? The proclamation is ordered. 

The French Chamber greets with en- 
thusiasm the verdict of the President of 
the Republic of the United States, who 
has indeed spoken for justice, and the 
vigorous decision of the Federal Senate 
accepting the war imposed by Germany. 

^iischylus says in "The Persians": 
"When insolence takes root, it grows 
into crime ; the harvest is suffering." 

And we can say: "The growth of the 
crime brings vengeance ; after the harvest 
of suffering comes the harvest of jus- 
tice!" (Loud applause.) 

The cry of the women and children 
from the depths of the abyss where hide- 



ous wickedness flung them echoed from 
one end of the earth to the other. Wash- 
ington and Lincoln trembled in their 
graves; their great spirit has roused 
America. (Loud applause.) 

And is it a question only of avenging 
Americans? Is it a question only of 
punishing the violation of treaties signed 
by the United States? No; the eternal 
truths proclaimed in the Declaration of 
1776, the sacred causes which La Fay- 
ette and Rochambeau defended (ap- 
plause), the ideal of pure consciences 
from which the great Republic was 
born — honor, morality, libert)' — these are 
the supreme values which shine in the 
folds of the Star - spangled Banner. 
(Loud applause.) 

all AMERICA ARRAYED AGAINST MAD 
ARROGANCE 

Descendants of the Puritans of New 
England, brought up on the precepts of 
the Gospel, and who under the eyes of 
God are about to punish the infernal 
creation of evil, falsehood, perjury, as- 
sassination, profanation, rape, slavery, 
martyrdom, and all kinds of disasters; 
Catholics, struck to the heart by curses 
against their religion, by outrages against 
their cathedrals and statues, reaching a 
climax in the destruction oi Louvain and 
Rheims; university professors, trust- 
worthy guardians of law and learning; 
industrialists of the East and Middle 
West, farmers and agriculturists of the 
West ; workmen and artisans, threatened 
by the torpedoing of vessels, by the in- 
terruption of commerce, revolted by the 
insults to their national colors — ^all are 
arrayed against the mad arrogance which 
would enslave the earth, the sea, the 
heavens, and the souls of men. (Pro- 
longed applause and cheers.) 

At a time when, as in the heroic times 
of the American Revolution, the Amer- 
icans are to fight with us, let us repeat 
once more: We wish to prevent no one 
from living, working, and trading freely ; 
but the tyranny of Prussia has become a 
peril for the New World as for the Old, 
for England as for Russia, for Italy as 
for Austria, and for Germany itself. 
(Applause.) To free the world, by a 
common eflFort of all democratic peoples. 



Digitized by 



Google 




3^4 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE OUTSPEAKING OF A GREAT DEMOCRACY 



3G5 



from the yoke of a feudal and military 
caste in order to found peace upon right, 
is a work of human deliverance and uni- 
versal good. (Applause.) 

THE IMMORTAL ACT OF A GLORIOUS 
NATION 

In accomplishing, under an adminis- 
tration henceforth immortal (applause, 
cheers; all rise and applaud), the great- 
est act in its annals since the abolition of 
slavery, the glorious nation whose whole 
history is but a development of the idea 
of liberty (applause) remains true to its 
lofty origin and creates for itself another 
claim to the gratitude of mankind. (Ap- 
plause. ) 

The French Republic, across the ruins 
of its cities and its monuments, devas- 



tated without reason or excuse by shame- 
ful savagery (loud applause), sends to 
its beloved sister Republic in America 
the palms of the Marne, the Yser, and of 
Verdun and the Somme, to which new 
victories will soon be added. (Prolonged 
applause, 'cheers: all the deputies rise.) 

Many voices: We call for the procla- 
mation ! 

Mr. tloLLiARD: I ask that the two 
speeches which the Chamber has just 
heard be issued as proclamations and 
read in the schools of France. 

Mr. Mauger: I second the motion.. 

President of the Chamber: The 
proclamation of the speeches which the 
Chamber has just heard is requested. 
There is no opposition? The proclama- 
tion is ordered. 



our heritage of liberty 

An Address Before the United States Senate by M. Viviani, President of the 
French Commission to the United States, May i, ipi/ 



MR. President and Senators: 
Since I have been granted the 
supreme honor of speaking be- 
fore the representatives of the American 
people, may I ask them first to allow me 
to thank this magnificent Capital for the 
welcome it has accorded us ? Accustomed 
as we are in our own free land to popular 
manifestations, and though we had been 
warned by your fellow-countrymen who 
live in Paris of the enthusiasm burning in 
your hearts, we are still full of the emo- 
tion raised by the sights that awaited us. 

I shall never cease to see the proud 
and stalwart men who saluted our pas- 
sage; your women, whose grace adds 
fresh beauty to your city, their arms out- 
stretched, full of flowers ; and your chil- 
dren hurrying to meet us as if our com- 
ing were looked upon as a lesson for 
them — ^all with one accord acclaiming in 
our perishable persons immortal France. 

And I predict there will be a yet 
grander manifestation on the day when 
your illustrious President, relieved from 
the burden of power, will come among 
us bearing the salute of the Republic of 
the United States to a free Europe, whose 
foundations from end to end shall be 
based on right. 



It is with unspeakable emotion that we 
crossed the threshold of this legislative 
palace, where prudence and boldness 
meet, and that I for the first time in the 
annals of America, though a foreigner, 
speak in this hall which only a few days 
since resounded with the words of virile 
force. 

a magxificknt example for all 
democracies 

You have set all the democracies of the 
world the most magnificent example. So 
soon as the common peril was made mani- 
fest to you, with simplicity and within a 
few short days you voted a formidable 
war credit and proclaimed that a formi- 
dable army was to be raised. President 
Wilson's commentary on his acts, w^hich 
you made yours, remains in the history 
of free peoples the weightiest of lessons. 

Doubtless you were resolved to avenge 
the insults offered your flag, which the 
whole world respected ; doubtless through 
the thickness of these massive walls the 
mournful cry of all the victims that crim- 
inal hands hurled into the depths of the 
sea has reached and stirred your souls; 
but it will be your honor in history that 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Paul Thompson 
BARRELS OF PORCELAIN AT THE DOORS OF A FRENCH FACTORY READY FOR SHIPMENT 
TO THE UNITED STATES : UMOGES, FRANCE 

Those industrial institutions whose skilled workmen were required neither for the 
trenches nor for the munition factories France has endeavored to operate without interrup- 
tion. The ceramic establishments which were not requisitioned for the manufacture of 
crucibles needed in producing high explosives have continued to make beautiful porcelain, 
thus contributing their bit toward the financial welfare of the nation. 



you also heard the cry of humanity and 
invoked against autocracy the right of 
democracies. 

And I can only wonder as I speak 
what, if they still have any power to 
think, are the thoughts of the autocrats 
who three years ago against us, three 
months ago against you, unchained this 
conflict. 

Ah! doubtless they said among them- 
selves that a democracy is an ideal gov- 
ernment ; that it showers reforms on man- 
kind ; that it can in the domain of labor 
quicken all economic activities. And yet 
now we see the French Republic fighting 
in defense of its territory and the liberty 
of nations and opposing to the avalanche 
let loose by Prussian militarism the union 
of all its children, who are still capable 
of striking many a weighty blow. 

And now we see England, far removed 
like you from conscription, who has also, 
by virtue of a discipline all accept, raised 
from her soil millions of fighting men. 



And we see other nations accomplishing 
the same act; and that liberty not only 
inflames all hearts, but coordinates and 
brings into being all needed efforts. 

And now we see all America rise and 
sharpen her weapons in the midst of 
peace for the common struggle. 

ORGANIZING THE FEDERATION OF THE 
WORLD 

Together we will carry on that strug- 
gle, and when by force we have at last 
imposed military victory our labors will 
not be concluded. Our task will be — I 
quote the noble words of President Wil- 
son — to organize the society of nations. 

I well know that our enemies, who have 
never seen before them anything but ho- 
rizons of carnage, will never cease to jeer 
at so noble a design. Such has always 
been the fate of great ideas at their birth ; 
and if thinkers and men of action had 
allowed themselves to be discouraged by 
skeptics, mankind would still be in its 



2f^ 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE OUTSPEAKING OF A GREAT DEMOCRACY 



367 



infancy and we should still be slaves. 
After material victory we will win this 
moral victory. 

We will shatter the ponderous sword 
of militarism; we will establish guaran- 



ties for peace ; and then we can disappear 
from the world's stage, since we shall 
leave at the cost of our common immola- 
tion the noblest heritage future genera- 
tions can possess. 



THEIR MONUMENT IS IN OUR HEARTS 

Address by M. Viviani Before the Tomb of Washington, at Mount Vernon, 

April 29, i^iy 



WE COULD not remain longer 
in Washington without accom- 
plishing this pious pilgrimage. 
In this spot lies all that is mortal of a 
great hero. Close by this spot is the 
modest abode where Washington rested 
after the tremendous labor of achieving 
for a nation its emancipation. 

In this spot meet the admiration of the 
whole world and the veneration of the 
American people. In this spot rise be- 
fore us the glorious memories left by the 
soldiers of France led by Rochambeau 
and Lafayette ; a descendant of the latter, 
my friend, M. de Chambrun, accompanies 
us. 

And I esteem it a supreme honor, as 
well as a satisfaction for my conscience, 
to be entitled to render this homage to 
our ancestors in the presence of my col- 
league and friend, Mr. Balfour, who so 
nobly represents his great nation. By 
thus coming to lay here the respectful 
tribute of every English mind he shows, 
in this historic moment of communion 
which France has willed, what nations 
that live for liberty can do. 

When we contemplate in the distant 
past the luminous presence of Washing- 
ton, in nearer times the majestic figure of 
Abraham Lincoln; when we respectfully 
salute President Wilson, the worthy heir 
of these great memories, we at one glance 
measure the vast career of the American 
people. 

It is because the American people pro- 
claimed and won for the nation the right 
to govern itself, it is because it proclaimed 
and won the equality of all men, that the 
free American people at the hour marked 
by fate has been enabled with command- 
ing force to carry its action beyond the 



seas ; it is because it was resolved to ex- 
tend its action still further that Congress 
was enabled to obtain within the space of 
a few days the vote of conscription and 
to proclaim the necessity for a national 
army in the full splendor of civil peace. 
In the name of France, I salute the 
young army which will share in our com- 
mon glory. 

TflGllTlNG FOR WASHINGTON'S IDEALS 

\Vhile paying this supreme tribute to 
the memory of Washington, I do not 
diminish the effect of my words when I 
turn my thought to the memory of so 
many unnamed heroes. I ask you before 
this tomb to bow in earnest meditation 
and all the fervor of piety before all the 
soldiers of the allied nations who for 
nearly three years have been fighting 
under diflferent flags for some ideal. 

I beg you to address the homage of 
your hearts and souls to all the heroes, 
born to live fn happiness, in the tranquil 
pursuit of their labors, in the enjoyment 
of all human aflFections, who went into 
battle with virile cheerfulness and gave 
themselves up, not to death alone, but to 
the eternal silence that closes over those 
whose sacrifice remains unnamed, in the 
full knowledge that, save for those who 
loved them, their names would disappear 
with their bodies. 

Their monument is in our hearts. Not 
the living alone greet us here ; the ranks 
of the dead themselves rise to surround 
the soldiers of liberty. 

At this solemn hour in the history of 
the world, while saluting from this sacred 
mound the final victory of justice, I send 
to the Republic of the United States the 
greetings of the French Republic. 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE OLDEST FREE ASSEMBLIES 



Address of Right Hon. Arthur J. Balfour, in the United 
States House of Representatives, May 5, 1917 



MR. SrKAKKR, Ladies and Gentle- 
men OF THE House of Repre- 
sentatives : Will you permit me, 
on behalf of my friends and myself, to 
offer you my deepest and sincerest thanks 
for the rare and valued honor which you 
have done us by receiving us here today ? 

We all feel the greatness of this honor ; 
but I think to none of us can it come 
home so closely as to one who, like my- 
self, has been for 43 years in the service 
of a free assembly like your own. I re- 
joice to think that a member — a very old 
member, I am sorry to say — of the Brit- 
ish House of Commons has been received 
here today by this great sister assembly 
with such kindness as you have shown 
to me and to my friends. 

Ladies and gentlemen, these two as- 
semblies are the greatest and the oldest 
of the free assemblies now governing 
great nations in the world. The history 
indeed of the two is very different. 

The beginnings of the British House 
of Commons go back to a dim historic 
past, and its full rights and status have 
only been conquered and permanently 
secured after centuries of political strug- 
gle. 

Your fate has been a happier one. 
You were called into existence at a much 
later stage of social development. You 
came into being complete and perfected 
and all your powers determined, and 
your place in the Constitution secured 
J3eyond chance of revolution ; but, though 
the history of these two great assemblies 
is different, each of them represents the 
great democratic principle to which we 
look forward as the security for the fu- 
ture peace of the world. 

ALL FREE ASSKMBLIES MODELED AFTER 

THE BRITISH PARLIAMENT AND 

AMERICAN CONGRESS 

All of the free assemblies now to be 
found governing the great nations of the 



earth have been modeled either upon 
your practice or upon ours or upon both 
combined. 

Mr. Speaker, the compliment paid to 
the mission from Great Britain by such 
an assembly and upon such an occasion 
is one not one of us is ever likely to for- 
get. But there is something, after all, 
even deeper and more significant in the 
circumstances under which I now have 
the honor to address you than any which 
arise out of the interchange of courte- 
sies, however sincere, between the great 
and friendly nations. 

We all, I think, feel instinctively that 
this is one of the great moments in the 
history of the world, and that what is 
now happening on both sides of the At- 
lantic represents the drawing together of 
great and free peoples for mutual pro- 
tection against the aggression of military 
despotism. 

I am not one of those, and none of you 
are among those, who are such bad dem- 
ocrats as to say that democracies make 
no mistakes. All free assemblies have 
made blunders; sometimes they have 
committed crimes. 

PURSUING THE APPALLING OBJECT OF 
DOMINATING CIVILIZATION 

Why is it, then, that we look forward 
to the spread of free institutior^s through- 
out the world, and especially among our 
present enemies, as one of the greatest 
guaranties of the future peace of the 
world? I will tell you, gentlemen, how 
it seems to me. It is quite true that the 
people and the representatives of the 
people may be betrayed by some mo- 
mentary gust of passion into a policy 
which they ultimately deplore; but it is 
only a military despotism .of the German 
type which can, through generations if 
need be, pursue steadily,' remorselessly, 
unscrupulously, the appalling object of 
dominating the civilization of mankind. 



368 



Digitized by 



Google 




TYPES O^ THK MEN WHO DEFENDED WARSAW TILL THE END 




Pholographs by George H. Mcwes 
RUSSIAN WOUNDED GOING TO THE REAR 

Motor ambulances are a rare luxury in Russia and the wounded are frequently two and three 
days in peasants' carts before they reach the railhead or base hospitals 



369 



Digitized by 



Google 




w 
X 

< 

O 



o 



> 
o 



< 2 

SI 

" < 

X ^ 
X U 



X 

o 



< 



370 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE RUSSIAN SITUATION 



371 



And, mark you, this evil, this menace 
under which we are now suffering, is not 
one which diminishes with the growth of 
knowledge and the progress of material 
civilization, but, on the contrary, it in- 
creases with them. 

When I was young we used to flatter 
ourselves that progress inevitably meant 
peace, and that growth of knowledge 
was always accompanied, as its natural 
fruit, by the growth of good will among 
the nations of the earth. Unhappily, we 
know better now, and we know there is 
such a thing in the world as a power 
which can with unvarying persistency 
focus all the resources of knowledge and 
of civilization into the one great task of 
making itself the moral and material 
master of the world. 

It is against that danger that we, the 



free peoples of western civilization, have 
banded ourselves together. It is in that 
great* cause that we are going to fight, 
and are now fighting this very moment, 
side by side. 

In that cause we shall surely conquer, 
and our children will look back to this 
fateful date as the one day from which 
democracies can feel secure that their 
progress, their civilization, their rivalry, 
if need be, will be conducted, not on 
German lines, but' in that friendly and 
Christian spirit which really befits the 
age in which we live. 

Mr. Speaker, ladies and gentlemen, I 
beg most sincerely to repeat again how 
heartily I thank you for the cordial wel- 
come which you have given us today, and 
to repeat my profound sense of the sig- 
nificance of this unique meeting. 



THE RUSSIAN SITUATION AND 
SIGNIFICANCE TO AMERICA 



ITS 



By Stanley Washburn 



NOW that America has entered the 
world war and, in spirit if not 
by treaty, has become one of the 
Allies who are engaged in this incom- 
parable conflict for the idea of world 
democracy, it becomes of fundamental 
importance that we, as a people, realize, 
and at once, the factors in this war with 
which and through which we must work 
in order that by our united effort we may 
consummate the sacrifice of blood and 
treasure by the achievement of an en- 
during peace in Europe and throughout 
the world. 

Of France, our traditional friend, we 
know much. Our realization of what 
England has done in the war is, for the 
first time, receiving the appreciation 
which is its due. 

Of far and distant Russia there seems 
to be apparently little known in America. 
The world is aware in a general way that 
the Russians have made huge sacrifices 
and have been fighting an uphill battle 
on the far eastern front. 



At this time, when we must in so large 
a measure depend on the cooperation and 
assistance of the great Republic, it is im- 
portant that it should be realized exactly 
what Russia has contributed to the war 
and what her remaining in the war until 
the end means to the Allies, and to 
America in particular. For this reason 
I wish to trace briefly Russia's part io 
this conflict and what it has represented. 

To understand the almost insur- 
mountable handicaps under which the 
Russians have been laboring, it is neces- 
sary to appreciate the nature and impor- 
tance of the German influence in Russia, 
which for the last few decades has be- 
come such a vital menace to the inde- 
pendence of the Russian people. 

TEUTOX INFLUENCES IN RUSSIA 

After the Franco-Prussian War, when 
the new economic and industrial era be- 
gan to develop in the Teuton Empire, it 
was but natural that the Germans should 
look to Russia for their most important 



Digitized by 



Google 




2>7^ 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE RUSSIAN SITUATION 



373 



market. At first this outlet for their 
trade was a luxury to their economic de- 
velopment, but as, to a greater and 
greater extent, their trade became com- 
mitted to this vast territory it became 
more and more of an economic necessity 
that they retain and increase their grip 
on Russia. 

The northern or Baltic provinces of 
Russia are very largely populated by 
persons of German blood who have for 
many generations been Russian subjects. 
It is natural that these people, in a meas- 
ure, should feel and understand German 
aspirations and aid and abet in their plans 
where possible. 

By this I do not mean to assert that 
all Baltic Russians are pro-German, for 
some of the ablest and most loyal men 
and devoted troops have come. from this 
part of Russia ; but it is true that many 
of the worst influences have also been of 
Baltic province extraction. For ten years 
before the war we can trace the German 
influence moving through every specious 
channel of intrigue and malevolent ac- 
tivity to gain ascendency in the internal 
policies of the Russian Government. 

GKRMANS OPPOSE A LIB1CR.\I< RUSSIA 

There is little reason to doubt that the 
German influence has aimed in every way 
to check the growth of liberalism in Rus- 
sia. There are many who believe that 
but for the German influence there would 
have come the abolition of vodka five 
years before the war. The elimination 
of this curse would have meant educa- 
tion, and with education inevitably must 
have come a demand for a more liberal 
government and a ministry responsible 
to the Duma. 

Alone the Germans could not have 
hoped to exert this influence; but we 
find in Russia another group, commortly 
known as the bureaucracy, who had a 
community of interests with the Teutons. 
The bureaucracy represents the office- 
holders and officials appointed by the 
Throne, who have for generations, and 
one might almost say for centuries, 
preyed upon the resources of the Rus- 
sian Empire, which, unchecked, have 
flown irresponsively through a small 



group of public buildings in the Russian 
capital. 

There has been during and before the 
war a cooperation between these two 
parties, the enduring prestige of which 
depended on German victory and Rus- 
sian defeat. It is clear that if Germany 
had been overwhelmingly defeated, both 
the pro-Germans and the bureaucrats 
would have lost the hold they had on the 
Russian Empire. 

Russia's unpreparedness 

It is probably true that none of these 
dark forces had any great apprehension 
at the beginning of the war that Ger- 
many could lose ; for, being well aware of 
Russia's unpreparedness, it seemed in- 
credible that she could triumph over her 
enemy — efficient, complete, and ready for 
the war. 

Russia owes to the Grand Duke Nich- 
olas Nicholaievitch the salvation of the 
Russian cause, for during the first six 
months, with the absolute power dele- 
gated to him by the Tsar, he completely 
upset the original military program of 
the Russian General StaflF in Petrograd 
and of the Minister of War, Sukomlinov, 
afterward removed for corruption and 
alleged treachery. 

The original Russian program seems 
to have contemplated an early defensive. 
By a suspicious coincidence the German 
plan of campaign had anticipated the sup- 
posed negative campaign of the Russians 
and little eflfort had, therefore, been made 
for the defense of East Prussia, the 
greater part of German energy being di- 
rected toward the invasion oi France. 

The Grand Duke, loyal to the cause of 
the Allies and faithful to the interests of 
Russia, in quick response to the appeals 
from France, upset, almost over night, 
the original defensive program and 
launched his East Prussian campaign. 

The Germans were probably taken by 
complete surprise as perhaps was the 
Russian Minister of War in Petrograd. 
The result of the Grand Duke's oflfensive 
in August, 1914, was to fill the Unter den 
Linden in Berlin with refugees fleeing 
panic stricken from East Prussia. It was 
impossible for the Kaiser to advertise, 
convincingly, successes in the west when 



Digitized by 



Google 




374 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE RUSSIAN SITUATION 



375 



every day filled the streets of the capital 
with refugees fleeing from the east. 

RUSSIA AIDS AT THE MARNE AND CAI.AIS 

Ten days before the battle of the 
Mame the Germans transferred six army 
corps from the west to the east and Paris 
was saved. The Germans, utilizing to 
capacity their wonderful system of rail- 
roads, were able to make a concentration 
of troops in the east .which almost an- 
nihilated the Russian army in East Prus- 
sia. The Russians accepted this disaster 
with extraordinary complacency on the 
ground that it was their contribution to 
the war, and that if they had saved Paris 
their losses were quite justified. 

Later in the fall, when the Germans 
were making their terrific drive on Calais, 
in their effort to strike more directly on 
England, the Grand Duke again launched 
a new and unexpected campaign on Ger- 
many, this time advancing from his base 
in Warsaw and striking at the enemy 
from the Polish frontier. Again the Ger- 
mans were obliged to divert huge bodies 
of troops to meet this menace of the Rus- 
sian invasion. By December i the Rus- 
sians had been driven back to the Bzura 
line outside of Warsaw. It is true that 
they had suffered reverses, but it had 
taken sixteen German army corps to drive 
them back, and Calais was saved ! 

In 19x5, when the one cherished stra- 
tegic aim of the Germans was to crush 
either England or France, their program 
was again upset, this time by the activity 
of the Russian armies in Galicia and the 
Bukovina. By the latter part of March 
the Russians had made such progress in 
the southwest as vitally to threaten the 
Hungarian plains, resulting in political 
chaos in Austria and Hungary. This be- 
came such a menace to the whole situa- 
tion that the Germans were obliged to 
abandon whatever plans they had in the 
west and give their immediate attention 
to backing up the dual monarchy, lest it 
be seduced from its alliance. 

DR-\WS HORDES OF GERMANS FROM THE 
WEST 

Beginning in ^lay, the Germans began 
pouring their troops into Galicia. and for 
six months there was an unending flow 



of German divisions and of army corps 
directed against the Russian front with 
an extraordinary supply of munitions, 
while even in men the Russians were out- 
numbered at strategic points by two or 
three to one. 

The Germans were able to drive 
through Galicia and bring about the fall 
of Warsaw in August, 191 5. Contrary 
to their expectations, they were unable to 
bring about an independent peace, and 
instead of seeing the collapse of their 
enemy they beheld the legions of the 
Tsar slip from out their grasp and retire 
into the vast spaces of the Empire. From 
August until October the great retreat 
continued, until exhaustion and falling 
morale of the invader made it necessary 
for the Germans to dig in for the winter. 

The Germans claimed that this was the 
appointed place that they had elected to 
reach for the winter, but I would 5tate, 
unequivocally and without fear of. con- 
tradiction, that the German advance 
stopped there, not because it wished* to, 
but because it literally was unable to con- 
tinue the invasion any farther. Any ob- 
server who has seen their lines as I have 
in many places would concur in the belief 
that no army would elect to spend the 
winter on a line which ran through forest, 
swamp, and plain, achieving, fpr the most 
part, no strategic asset. 

RUSSIA GIVES ENGLAND AND FRANCE 
OPPORTUNITY TO PREPARE 

The world at large looked upon 191 5 
as a year of Russian defeat, failing to 
realize that it took between thirty-five 
and forty corps of German troops, op- 
erating in the east, to bring about the 
Russian disaster. The withdrawal of 
these corps from the west gave England 
and France an opportunity to prepare 
after the war what lack of vision had not 
done before. WTien the Germans, in the 
spring of 1916, sick of their empty ad- 
vances in the wastes of Russia, attacked 
the French at \"erdun they found them 
prepared, and their efforts, as the world 
now knows, to break the French line 
proved abortive. 

By June of 191 6, when the Germans 
were assembling troops for some other 
strategic aim, Brusilloff launched his of- 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by George H. Mcwes 
TYPICAL RCrUGKHS I'ROM THE BATTLE ZONE RELATING THEIR EXPERIENCES 



fensive on the southwestern front, which 
continued without intermission for sev- 
enty days. The capture, during the sum- 
mer and early fall, of 456,000 prisoners 
and nearly 500 guns so demoralized the 
Austrians that whatever plan the Ger- 
mans may have had for that summer had 
to be abandoned and supports hurried to 
Galicia and Volynia to save again the 
dual monarchy from collapse. 

ANOTHER FRONT FOR THE GERMANS TO 
FACE 

This tremendous diversion of troops 
against the Russians last summer made 
it possible for the British and the French 
to commence their blows in the west on 
the Somme, operations which are still in 
progress. 



By September i Germany was again 
beginning to accumulate a strategic re- 
serve which might have made it possible 
for her to strike either on the east or 
west. At this moment Roumania, daz- 
zled by Russian successes, entered the 
war, and the Germans, again menaced on 
the east, were obliged to send thirty divi- 
sions to the Balkans to drive the Russians 
out of Roumania. We see, then, that 
ever since the beginning of the war the 
pressure of the Russians, directly and in- 
directly on the east, has robbed the Ger- 
mans of their strategic opportunities on 
the west. 

Prior to the entrance of Roumania into 
the war the pro-German alliance in Petro- 
grad had been viewing the situation with 
the gravest fear. For the first time it was 



376 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE RUSSIAN SITUATION 



377 



beginning to see the great possibility of 
defeat. The Tsar, himself a well-mean- 
ing and patriotic man, was surrounded 
by a' clique inimical to the Allies, eager 
to bring about a cessation of hostilities as 
the only means of preserving their power 
and prestige in Russia. The removal in 
the early summer of Sazanov, and every 
man in the foreign office known to be 
loyal to the Allies, provided a mechanism 
for negotiating an independent peace. 

SCHEMERS EXPOSE THEIR OWN PLOTS 

The little clique who had been engi- 
neering this enterprise had been so intent 
on their own interests that they utterly 
failed to appreciate the fact that every 
other faction in Russia saw and clearly 
realized their aims. The fall of Bu- 
charest gave them their opportunity, but 
so powerful had become the Duma and 
the Council of the Empire that the gov- 
ernment dared not move openly at that 
time. 

Probably it was felt that the condition 
in Russia economically would be so des- 
perate in the spring that the people would 
demand a cessation of the war and little 
intriguing would be necessary, but when 
spring arrived with its inevitable unrest, 
and the Emperor endeavored to dissolve 
the Duma, there came not the demand 
for an independent peace, but a demand 
for the overthrow of the government 
whose incompetence and double-dealing 
had brought about the wide-spread suf- 
fering and disorders in Russia. 

The ease with which this revolution 
was accomplished was due entirely to the 
fact that every faction in Russia realized 
the truth as to the government, learned 
by thirty months of observation of in- 
competence and munition shortage, which 
had resulted in the sacrifice of millions of 
men at the front, and made manifest at 
home by the fact that in Russia more than 
thirteen million refugees were forced to 
flee for safety to the heart of the Empire 
because an army had not been given rifles 
and munitions with which to guard the 
Russian front. 

We now approach the period of the 
present, when America has elected to en- 
ter the world war, and if America would 
realize what Russia means to this cause 
it must understand that the Russians at 
the present time are holding on their 



eastern front, from the Baltic to the 
Danube, nearly three miUion enemy 
troops, perhaps a million and a half of 
these being Germans. 

WHAT Russia's elimination would 

MEAN 

If, by disaster at the front or by in- 
trigue at homfe, Russia is forced out of 
the war during the coming summer, we 
may anticipate the early transfer of a 
large portion of this vast mass of men 
to the western front, and we will see the 
beginning of what in reality is an entirely 
new war. 

We must now consider what is our 
duty toward ourselves and toward our 
Allies. The minute a nation by declara- 
tion of war engages in hostilities with an 
enemy nation it becomes the duty of the 
government and the people of that gov- 
ernment to commence striking at that 
enemy with every means which is at its 
disposal — moral, financial, economic, and 
military. 

If this country is to be of actual and 
vital assistance to the Allies who are 
fighting this war for world democracy 
and the cause of humanity against the 
German Government, which represents 
neither, the first and most essential re- 
quirement today in America is the realiza- 
tion on the part of the people of this 
country that the Germans are not on the 
point of collapse. 

SEEDS OF DISASTER SOWN BY UNDERESTI- 
MATING THE ENEMY 

I have been in three countries at the 
beginning of the war — England, Russia, 
and Roumania — and in each of these 
countries the seeds of future disaster, 
later paid for by the sacrifice of hun- 
dreds of thousands of lives, were sown 
in the belief among the people that the 
struggle was to be of an approximately 
short duration, and that it would be un- 
necessary to exert the entire national 
effort to defeat the enemy. I heard many 
Englishmen in the early days of the war 
express their hesitancy in enlisting for a 
year's training before going to the front, 
because they believed the conflict would 
be over before they ever could reach the 
fighting line. 

In the fall of 1914 the Russian Min- 
ister of War had almost ceased ordering 



Digitized by 



Google 



378 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



ammunition, expressing the opinion that 
the war would be over before the time of 
delivery came, while in December of that 
first year men of highest importance in 
the Russian Empire labored under the 
belief that Austria, exhausted by her 
early sacrifices, was on the point of mak- 
ing an independent peace. Roumania, in 
September of 1916, believed that the war 
was practically over. 

The result of this general misconcep- 
tion in England was that the mobilization 
of British resources did not take place 
until the spring of 191 5 and conscription 
until 19 1 6. In Russia the truth was 
realized only when the army ran out of 
supplies early in 19 15, when she paid for 
the lack of vision of her government by 
the sacrifice of thousands of lives in the 
great retreat, while Roumania, as the 
world now knows, has lost three-quar- 
ters of her territory as a price for her 
undue optimism as to the German ca- 
pacity to continue the war. 

FALLACIOUS ARGUMENTS HEARD HERE 

In 1917 we hear in America the same 
fallacious arguments that one has heard 
for three years in Europe, namely, that 
Germany is at the end of her resources, 
and that it is not worth while for indi- 
viduals to enlist, as the chances are they 
will never have the opportunity to leave 
American shores. 

The prevalence of this opinion is in 
reality of the greatest assistance to the 
Germans, and by the wide-spread belief 
in this we are actually making the dura- 
tion of the war infinitely longer. To 
those who believe that the German Gov- 
ernment is about to break on account of 
the reverse on the western front, I would 
call attention to the extraordinary psy- 
chology of the German people, which is 
so different from that of all other coun- 
tries engaged in this war that compari- 
son is impossible. 

It is difficult for Americans to realize 
the discipline and lack of intellectual in- 
itiative which exists in the German army 
and among the German people. 

Ever since he became Emperor, Wil- 
helm has been instilling his extraordinary 
beliefs into his army and into his people, 
until today we have a psychology in the 
Teuton Empire which will probably make 



it possible for the military autocracy to 
continue the war to a far greater length 
than would be conceivable in any other 
country in the world. 

THE PERVERTED TEACHINGS OF THE 
KAISER 

In the early nineties the Kaiser sounded 
the keynote of his own character and 
point of view in a speech he made to a 
regiment in northern Germany, when he 
said to them: "I would rather see my 
forty-five million Prussians dead on the 
field of battle than see one foot of the 
soil taken in 1870 given back to France." 

And several years later, in addressing 
a body of recruits in Potsdam, the Kai- 
ser is reported to have said : "Now that 
you have donned my uniform it must be 
your pleasure and your duty to follow 
my wishes, realizing that I rule Germany 
by the direct will of God, and you must 
willingly obey my commands, even 
though I require you to shoot down your 
own fathers and brothers in response to 
my dictates." 

With such ideas as these being in- 
stilled into the German army and Ger- 
man people year by year, we must not 
believe that at the first sign of reverse 
they will forget the teachings of forty 
years and demand consummation of im- 
mediate peace; and we must likewise 
realize that a revolution in Germany at 
this time has far less opportunity for 
success, for there is every probability 
that the German soldiers would fire upon 
their own people with the same sub- 
servience to their officers that they show 
in all their military operations. 

THE war's end NOT AT HAND 

While the military operations in the 
west are of vast importance to the situ- 
ation and must unquestionably demoral- 
ize the Germans to a certain extent, I see 
no reason to believe that the events of 
this month in France have created a con- 
dition from which we may expect any 
immediate results looking toward peace. 

When we read that the French and 
English have taken 33,000 prisoners and 
330 guns in the month of April, we must, 
of course, rejoice; but we must at the 
same time guard against an optimism 
which leads to the belief that our only 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by George H. Mewes 
RUSSIAN TROOPS AWAITING A GERMAN ATTACK 

This is a typical rear-guard trench, characteristic of the field fortifications of the great 

retreat 



379 



Digitized by 



Google 



A ^ 




Photograph by George H. Mewcs 
rut STAFF OF THE 5TH SIBERIAN CORPS 

The last corps to leave Warsaw and one of the first in action on the southwestern front in 

the summer of 1916 



duty in this war is financial and eco- 
nomic. 

These losses of the Germans, while en- 
couraging, are in reality but a drop in 
the bucket. It might be well to remem- 
ber that Brusilloff, in a little over two 
months* operations on the southwestern 
front in Russia during the summer of 
1 9 16, took 450,000 prisoners and 496 
guns ; and yet this far greater loss to the 
enemy, as one now realizes, has exerted 
but transitory influence on the world 
situation. 

In order fully to appreciate the Teuton 
strength, it is necessary to give the Ger- 
mans the credit which is their due. One 
must, I think, consider broadly their 
whole point of view and realize that the 
power of the Central Empire, and no one 
at this time will question its strength, is 
due to the German virtues and not to the 
German vices. 

Now that the bitterness against the 
Germans is so intense, it is difficult to 
wipe away the prejudices one feels and 
give them the benefit of the extraordi- 
nary values which they have as a people : 
but if we underestimate these virtues, we 



fail to understand the causes which have 
made it possible for the Germans to do 
what they have done. 

W^HY THE GERMAN WAR MACHINE IS 
STRONG 

Much as I disapprove of the German 
point of view and of the spirit which has 
been manifested by the Germans of 
nearly all classes in this war, I still re- 
main of the opinion that, taken from the 
internal point of view, our enemies pos- 
sess almost every virtue which makes for 
military strength. 

In the first place, no one who has seen 
and talked with the German troops can 
question the sincerity of their belief in 
the righteousness of the German cause. 
I have talked with prisoners from the 
Baltic to the Bukovina, and I have never 
yet met one who did not believe implic- 
itly in the statement of the Kaiser, made 
at the beginning of the war, to the effect 
that "in the midst of perfect peace we 
have been treacherously surprised by a 
ring of enemies jealous of our genius 
and intent on our destruction." 



380 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE RUSSIAN SITUATION 



381 



THE PRUSSIAN CAPACITY FOR SACRIFICK 

With this idea dominant in the Ger- 
man mind, and probably now accepted as 
a truth even by the Kaiser himself, who 
has come to believe implicitly in his own 
statements, the fallacies of which his 
lack of imagination has made him inca- 
pable of seeing, there has been produced 
in Germany a national fortitude and a 
capacity for sacrifice rarely equaled and 
never surpassed in the history of the 
world. 

Having spent in the achievement of 
what they regard as their national de- 
fensive aims four and one-half million 
casualties gross, we need not imagine 
that the loss of a few hundred thousand 
in the west is going to exert any funda- 
mental or far-reaching influence on the 
German ultimate capacity of resistance. 

I believe it to be an absolute truth that 
if America prepares for war with the 
idea that this conflict is to last for three 
years we may expect the end of the war 
before 1918; but if we elect to make the 
same psychological mistake that the other 
Powers have made and cling to the belief 
that the war is almost over, and prepare 
in the belief that the Germans will be ex- 
hausted this year, it is perfectly possible 
that the war may last for another two 
years. 

now WE MAY PROLONG THE WAR 

If we raise a trifling army of half a 
million to a million men, it is quite possi- 
ble that before this war is over we may 
suffer a million casualties on the w^estern 
front alone ; whereas if we accept the 
necessity of sacrifice and prepare our- 
selves as we would do were we fighting 
Germany alone and for our national ex- 
istence, and formulate plans for a three- 
years war, involving ultimate capacity to 
deliver on various European fronts five 
million men, fully equipped and trained, 
it is my opinion that, w^ith the possible 
exception of an expeditionary force for 
moral effect on the situation, none w-ould 
ever reach a European front. 

It must be realized at this time that a 
dominant feature in the world has be- 
come the visible supply of man power. 
The German staff has carefully analyzed 
the European situation, has reckoned with 
this visible supply in Russia, France, and 



England, and has, to its own satisfaction, 
reached the conclusion that Germany has 
a sporting chance of outliving her ene- 
mies in this competition of death. The 
staff has not, at any time, I am certain, 
included in its figures the possibility of 
five million Americans being potentially 
available to fill the losses of the Allies in 
1918, 1919, and possibly 1920. 

A WHEAT MARKET ANALOGY 

In this matter of the visible supply of 
human material I see a direct analogy in 
the wheat market. If a Chicago operator 
contemplates a corner in May or July 
wheat and learns many months before 
that the acreage in Argentina is to be 
increased 200 per cent, his plans are af- 
fected and defeated, not when this wheat 
really comes on the Chicago market, but 
when he receives information of the con- 
templated acreage in distant fields of pro- 
duction. 

Thus the price of wheat in other rul- 
ing markets is affected even before a seed 
is planted. And so, 1 believe, it is with 
this military situation. If our plans con- 
template the raising of an army of five 
million men within a certain period, the 
Germans feel the military and moral ef- 
fect before we have enlisted the men; 
for it means that a staff already des- 
perately pressed to provide men for this 
year's campaign must extend its vision to 
contemplate the possibility of raising in 
1 91 8, for delivery at the same time and 
place, approximately an equivalent num- 
ber of troops as contemplated in our mili- 
tary program. 

THIS YEAR OR NEVER WITH THE GERMANS 

The realization of this potential situ- 
ation must convince the enemy that what 
they cannot accomplish during this sum- 
mer they can never accomplish, and the 
necessity of peace late in the fall or early 
winter must be apparent to even the 
frozen imagination of the German people. 
It is for this reason that I believe our 
second fundamental duty is the adoption 
of a military program on the basis of 
three years of war. 

The third fundamental and, in my 
opinion, the most necessary action which 
this country should take is that which our 
President and government are already 



Digitized by 



Google 



382 



THE NATIONAL GKOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



taking in the support of the new provis- 
ional government in Russia. Inasmuch 
as we cannot at present strike the enemy 
with any military force of our own, we 
must strike by assisting, to the greatest 
extent possible, that member of the Allies 
who is in the greatest need of assistance. 
It must be evident now that the Ger- 
mans have lost for the present the possi- 
bility of achieving any objective in the 
w^est which might bring them peace. It 
is clear, then, that they must turn their 
minds toward the adjustment of peace 
wn'th Russia ; for, if this end can be ob- 
tained, between two and three million 
available troops would be released for 
operations in the west, and an access to 
food supplies and raw materials in Russia 
would largely neutralize the effectiveness 
of the British blockade and give the Ger- 
mans the capacity to fight indefinitely. 

DANGERS Ol? A TEUTON DRIVE OX 
PETROGRAD 

While I am not a pessimist as to the 
situation in Russia,* I am certainly of the 
opinion that it is more than a military 
possibility for the Germans to take Petro- 
grad between now and the first of Sep- 
tember. 

Were they to do this, they would strike 
a terrific moral blow at the Empire and 
an equally heavy economic one by the 
capture of the greatest munition and 
manufacturing base in Russia. At the 
same time they would isolate the Russian 
fleet in the Baltic and threaten potentially 
the lines of communication between Eng- 
land and Russia, throwing a terrific bur- 
den on the Trans-Siberian Railroad. 

There is no question but that the pres- 
ent provisional government in Russia is 
composed of the most far-seeing and pa- 
triotic men of the nation. Perhaps no 
revolution in history has produced a finer 
group of patriots than this Russian 
twelve ; but we in America must not ex- 
pect the impossible, even from these dis- 
tinguished and highly intelligent gentle- 
men. 

In the face of military disaster, the 
possibility of which we must recognize, 
and the loss of the capital, whose security 
we must not too certainly depend upon, 
and with the ammunition and supplies 
from the outside threatened, if not cut 



off, we must discount the possibility of 
an extremely dangerous situation in the 
east during the coming summer. 

We must always count on German in- 
trigue exerting malevolent influence in 
Russia whenever the news from the front 
is in the least bit pessimistic. It is for 
the reason mentioned above that I believe 
our President has shown great wisdom 
and foresight in giving his immediate at- 
tention to the Russian situation in pref- 
erence to any other of the Allies at the 
present time. 

XO DOUBT AS TO THE WAR'S OUTCOME 

As to the ultimate outcome of the war 
there is, of course, not the slightest doubt 
in my mind, nor has there ever been. 
The only danger was as to whether or not 
Germany's material preparations would 
be able to crush the Allies before the 
character of their people had had time to 
crystallize and prepare itself first for de- 
fense and then for offensive operations. 

With nations as with individuals, it is 
character that is the ultimate test. Forty- 
two centimeter guns are w-orn out, muni- 
tions are shot away, and food supplies 
are eaten up, but the moral character of 
the people remains the one enduring 
asset which makes sacrifice possible and 
victory assured. 

The American Revolution was won, 
not at Yorktown, but at Lexington, when 
it became apparent for the first time what 
was the fiber of the American people; 
and so this w^ar was won when it became 
evident that the people of France, of 
England, and of Russia preferred sacri- 
fice and death to defeat. 

That all these sacrifices are justified 
those who have followed the situation 
closely cannot doubt. 

I am personally of the opinion that an 
enduring moral idea is the greatest in- 
heritance which one generation can leave 
to its successor. 

The establishment of the democratic 
idea, based on morals, ethics, equity, and 
justice, which must come from this war, 
is worth, not a million or ten million 
casualties, but fifty million, if from this 
struggle there emerge an enduring con- 
ception as to the fundamental basis on 
which society, progress, and civilization 
must rest in perpetuity. 



Digitized by 



Google 



Vol. XXXI, No. 5 



WASHINGTON 



May, 1917 




THE 

MATDOMAL 
GEOGIAIPEII 
iAGAZHN 




ON THE MONASTIR ROAD 

By Herbert Corey 



THE story of Macedonia today is 
the story of the Monastir road. 
Along this highway Alexander and 
Xerxes and Galerius once tramped with 
their legions. It has been the link be- 
tween the Adriatic and the -^gean seas 
ever since history was written. 

For centuries it has carried its ox-carts 
with their solid wooden wheels, and long 
trains of donkeys and peasant women 
bowed under packs. Serb and Bulgarian 
raiders have descended on Saloniki along 
it. For thirty centuries fighting men and 
peasants and thieves and slaves have 
marched through its bottomless mud. 

Today it is kaleidoscopic as it could 
never have been in the worst days of its 
. bad history. To the ox-carts and donkeys 
have been added great camions and whirl- 
ing cars filled with officers in furs and 
gold. Natty Frenchmen in horizon blue, 
Englishmen in khaki, Italians in gray 
green, Russians in brown, Serbian sol- 
diers in weather-washed gray, bead its 
surface. Fezzed Turks are there and 
Albanians in white embroidered with 
black, and Cretans in kilts and tights and 
tasseled shoes. 

COLOR AND MOVEMENT FILL THE ROAD 
TODAY 

Airmen, so wrapped in furs that they 
remind one of toy bears, dash by in cars 
that are always straining for the limit of 
speed. Arabs, perched high on their little 
gray horses, direct trains of the blue carts 
of the French army. Gaudy Sicilian carts 



with Biblical scenes painted on their side- 
boards are dragged through the mire. 

Senegalese soldiers, incredibly black, 
watch with an air of comical bewilder- 
ment the erratic ventures of donkeys that 
seem to have been put under pack for the 
first time. Indo-Chinese soldiers in pa- 
goda-shaped hats, tipped with brass, put- 
ter about at mysterious tasks. Blackish- 
brown men from Madagascar carry bur- 
dens. Moroccans in yellowish brown 
swing by under shrapnel helmets. 

SOLDIERS OF ALLIES TREAD HISTORIC 
GROUND 

New levies marching toward the front, 
the sweat beads standing out on their 
pale foreheads as they struggle under 
their 6o-pound packs, give the road to 
the veterans of six months' service — hard, 
capable, tireless. Overhead the fliers 
purr on the lookout for the enemy. Big 
guns lumber along behind caterpillar 
tractors. Ammunition dumps line the 
road and hospitals dot it. Girl nurses 
from France and the United States and 
all the British Empire ride over it. 

Always the ambulances are there. 
They are always given the road. The 
men who turn out for them anticipate the 
day when, in their turn, they will be rid- 
ing in a Red Cross car toward Saloniki 
and home. 

At the farther end of the road is Mo- 
nastir, taken last winter by the Allied 
forces in a battle that in any other war 
would have been set down as great. At 



Digitized by 



Google 




384 



Digitized by 



Google 



ON THE MONASTIR ROAD 



385 



the sea end of the road is Saloniki, the 
Allied base, where Cicero lived for a time 
and St. Paul shook the dust from off 
his feet as a testimony against the Thes- 
salonians of his day, and where Suleiman 
the Magnificent built the White Tower, 
in whose oubliettes bones still moulder 
of the victims of 500 years of Turkish 
rule. 

At right angles to that road, as though 
they were the bent bow of which the road 
is the arrow, are half a million fighting 
men of the Allied forces. Not many in 
this conflict, perhaps. Macedonia is rare- 
ly mentioned in the communiques. Yet 
the British did not employ so many men 
in South Africa during the whole Boer 
War. In one day I have counted the uni- 
forms of twenty fighting peoples on the 
road. 

Campaigning in Macedonia differs for 
the correspondent from campaigning else- 
where. In the greater armies in the 
greater fields a correspondent is cared 
for, guarded, watched, night herded. 
Everything is provided for him except 
his uniform and his wrist watch. He 
rides out in fast cars ; he is taken to high 
hills from which to watch the distant ac- 
tion ; he sleeps in hotels of differing de- 
grees of excellence. 

In Macedonia he first secures creden- 
tials permitting him to visit the Allied 
armies; then he buys an outfit — tent, 
cooking pots, blankets, water bucket — ^all 
complete ; headquarters gives him an or- 
derly, and he takes to the road. Things 
begin to happen. 

WANDERING IN MACEDONIA HAS A 
SPORTING FLAVOR 

I found myself occupying a position 
somewhere between that of an honored 
guest and a hobo. Although permission 
was given me to visit the other units, I 
was formally attached to the Serbian 
army. The Serbs would be the most 
generous hosts in the world if they could 
be, but they have so little. They are the 
poor relations of the Allies. They are 
armed with the old St. Etienne rifle 
which the French discarded. The artil- 
lery in support has been cast from other 
fronts. Their surgeons are borrowed 
surgeons, for the most part. 



Thev are uniformed and fed by the 
French' and Great Britain loans them 
^^money. They never have enough cars, 
"even for staff use. Sometimes they have 
not enough food. But they always have 
enough ammunition and they find enough 
fighting for themselves. Doubtless I am 
influenced by my affection for the Serbs. 
Later I shall tell why I think this army 
is today — what little there is left of it — 
the most efficient fighting force in the 
war. 

There were moments when I found 
myself at the right hand of a general, 
dazed by the earnestness with which 
some officer was responding to the toast 
"America." That same night I might be 
traveling by freight train to another 
point of the front. If I was very lucky 
the orderly founii an empty box car. In 
it he would erect the camp cot and pro- 
vide canned food and candles and read- 
ing matter and then go away Xo tell his 
mates m the next car of the eccentrici- 
ties of the foreign Guspodin. 

HEROISM OF SERBS IN I916 CAMPAIGN 

If it was raining — it usually was rain- 
ing — it ordinarily fell to my lot to ride 
on a flat car. Sometimes I crouched 
under a canvassed gun on its way to the 
front. It was no drier under that gun. 
It did not even seem drier. But the silent 
guardsmen gave me the place as the place 
of honor. It was the one courtesy in 
their power to show. 

Last winter's campaign of the Serbian 
army was one of the most heroic on any 
front in this war. I do not mean to com- 
pare the Serb with his allies to the. dis- 
advantage of the latter. He was at all 
times loyally supported. If it was the 
generalship of Voivode Mischitch and 
the incomparable courage and endurance 
of his men that directly resulted in the 
capture of Monastir, this could not have 
been accomplished except for the frontal 
attack by the French through the plains 
of Monastir or the bulldogging by the 
British of Turk and Bulgarian in the 
swamps of the Struma and the wet 
trenches of the A'ardar. But it is only 
fitting that what the Serb has done 
should be made known. Let us go back 
a little. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Herbert Corey 
SKRB SOLDIERS WEARING FRENCH TRENCH HELMETS MAKING THEIR WAY UP A PATH 

ON DOBRAPOLYA MOUNTAIN 

In the background arc the lines of trenches, while the roads leading to the valley arc shown 

in the middle distance 



The Serbian army began the great re- 
treat of 191 5 250,000 strong. Not more 
than 150,000 reached asylum on the 
island of Corfu after the winter's fight 
through the snow-filled passes of Albania 
and Montenegro. In the confusion of 
those days some one had forgotten. 
There was not sufficient food or clothing 
or medicines or nursing waiting them. 
Men who had struggled through the 
winter died on the open beaches of the 
island of Vido. 

Dying men dug their own graves and 
then dug the graves of the men already 
dead. Not more than half were fit to 
serve again when the fall campaign of 
1916 began. 

AN ARMY OF OLD MEN IN THE FIGHTING 
LINE 

It was a sad army — a bitter army — 
but not a despairing army that I accom- 
panied last winter. Many of these men 
were "cheechas," in the Serb phrase. 
When a man reaches the age of forty he 



becomes "uncle" to his neighbors. Some 
of these men were in the fourth line be- 
fore the war. 

Serbia to the Serb peasant means the 
little white cottage, the plum orchard, 
the ten acres of ground. Few of them 
had been fifty miles away from home 
when war began five years ago in the 
Balkans. Fewer have seen their homes 
since. They have received no news from 
their wives and families, for the Austro- 
Bulgarian censorship has been extremely 
severe. They had seen their comrades 
die. Most of them — ^three men out of 
five in some units — ^had been wounded at 
some time during the war. 

There were no songs upon the march 
except during those vivid days when the 
Bulgarians were being forced out of 
Monastir. There was no light-hearted 
talk about the camp fires. There was no 
music, except that now and then one 
heard the weird and complaining tones 
of a one-stringed fiddle which some pa- 
tient soldier had made out of the material 



386 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Herbert Corey 

WHERE NATURE MAY BE EITHER ALI.Y OR ENEMY 

The pictup; gives an excellent idea of the country through which the Serbian army forced 
the Bulgarians during the drive at Monastir. The mountain in the distance is Sokol. 



at hand. They kept to themselves or in 
little groups of twos and threes. At 
night scores of tiny fires would sparkle 
in the open land on either side of the 
Monastir road, where the paired com- 
rades were cooking their evening meal. 
They marched badly, slowly, slouching, 
their old shoulders bowed under their 
packs, their grizzled faces deeply lined. 
Yet these men were the cutting edge of 
the weapon that bent back the Bulgarian 
lines. 

One division — the Morava — remained 
in the aggressive for 95 days without 
rest. During that period they had but 



one trench — the front trench. They had 
no second line, no reserve, no rest camp. 

One regiment of the Choumadia di- 
vision lost 1,100 out of 1400 men in tak- 
ing Vettemik Mountain, and then held 
that mountain under fire from the Rock 
of Blood, which dominated the summit, 
for 20 days until relief came. Evan then 
the men of the regiment which had been 
so nearly wiped out did not go to rest. 
They stayed on Vetternik. 

In the taking of Kaymakchalan half 
of some organizations were killed out- 
right. They were enabled to do these 
things partly because of the experience 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Herbert Corey 

MACEDONIAN TYPES AT SOUBOTSKO ON A MARKET DAY 

"But there is always something at hand which marks this land as the East. ... It may 
be a cynical and discontented peasant in a town that has escaped injury." 



gained in five years of almost constant 
fighting. Another factor was. the spirit 
of the men. They no longer hoped for 
anything for themselves. They expected 
to die. Those who still remain expect to 
be killed in action. But they intend that 
the bill of Serbia shall be paid. 

If one could forget the foreground, a 
Macedonian winter landscape would re- 
mind one of Wyoming or Montana. 
There are the same brown, shallow swells 
with patches of scrubby brush. There 
are the same washed-out ravines, the 
same distant hills clothed with dark 
wood, while here and there a great bare 
eminence thrusts upward. Shepherds 
herd their sheep within sound of the 
guns. Women wash their clothes at the 
river side, and do not even look up when 
the infantry tramp by on the Monastir 
road. Little black, galloping figures 
might be cowboys if the glasses did not 
prove them to be uniformed men. 

But there is always something at hand 
which marks this land as of the east. It 
may be a Turkish drinking fountain 



through whose old pipes the water still 
trickles. Perhaps it is a Turkish grave- 
yard — neglected, weedgrown — among 
whose tumbled stones the cattle graze. 
It may be a cynical and discontented 
peasant in one of the towns that has 
escaped injury. 

"Neither Bulgar nor Serb," said one 
such old woman, defiantly, when we left 
the Monastir road at Dobraveni. "I am 
Alacedonian only and I am sick of war." 

MASTKRLESS DOGS ROAM THE BARREN 
HILLS 

And everywhere are the dogs. In this 
country of shepherds every peasant's cot- 
tage has d moving fringe of dogs. In the 
East the dog is neither fed nor petted, 
so that he feels himself outcast and de- 
spised. During this war first one army 
and then the other has swept over north- 
ern Macedonia, driving the peasants be- 
fore them. The dogs have been left be- 
hind. At night one hears them howling 
on the desolate hills. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograplfc-l>y Herbert Corey 

A FRENCH COOK JUST OUTSIDE OF MONASTIR ■'' ^ 

Despite the fact that the Bulgarians were at the moment shelling the camp heavily, his one 
concern was to assume a properly martial air 



The tainted breeze that comes down 
the valley hints at the ghastly food on 
which they live. By day every man 
shoots at every dog save the few that 
cling close to an inhabited cottage. They 
slink, coyote fashion, behind rocks. At 
night one hears their feet padding behind 
him on the lonely roads. Their eyes 
shine in the flare of the electric torch. 
Every one carries amis in ^lacedonia at 
night, not against man, but as a protec- 
tion against the dogs. 

The fighting here has been of an oddly 



personal character. On the western front 
war is confusing in its immensity. Hun- 
dreds of guns roar. Thousands of men 
advance over a front miles long. One as 
completely fails to comprehend in detail 
what is going on as though he were 
caught in an earthqu;^ke. ' Here opera- 
tions are watched in the open. One 
crouches in an artillery observation post 
on the tip of a hill and w^atches the little 
gray figures go forward to the charge on 
the slope opposite. Sometimes they are 
broken, and one sees them run down hill 



389 



Digitized by 



Google 




THS MAN WITH PEAKED CAP AND PIPE IS A NOTED SWISS CRIMINOLOGIST INVESTI- 
GATING CONDITIONS IN THE RECAPTURED PORTION OF SERBIA AT THE 
REQUEST OF THE SERBIAN GOVERNMENT 





Photographs by Herbert Corey 
A CROUP OF ENGLISIT, FRENCH, AND SERBIAN OFFICERS AT SAKULEVO, OX THE 

SALONIKI FRONT 



390 



Digitized by 



Google 





-«l 








^. - 






W^ 


t* 




A "*^ 




'^^T^— ^ ^W^^^^^' 


[ jt ^^li^^v 


^^^^^^B^l 




^^^Sf^f *-••» -^ 


P'vjHH^ 


-. *^^ >jW 


^w^ 


--^f 1 


^ '^n 


^K^^^ 


'^^^^^^^^^^^ 1 ■ 1 ™ 1 






^- "* >-* ^' * 


-!^K^*?T5' 





Photograph by Herbert Corey 
TWO WOUNDED SERBIAN SOLDIERS BEING CARRIED TO THE FIELD HOSPITAL ON A 

WING-TYPE MULE LITTER 
Compassionate comrades are giving them a drink of water from an old Turkish fountain 



again, dodging from rock to rock, hiding 
in the crevices of the surface. 

Occasionally the drama takes on an 
intimate — almost a neighborly — touch. 
Five cold men of the Choumadia division 
became aware last winter that in the Bul- 
garian dugout just opposite their post — 
not 50 feet away — three fur-coated offi- 
cers often met. 

'*Let us get the fur coats," said the five 
cold Serbs. 

The story of the getting is too long to 
be told here. But during the two weeks 
in which the five cold men intrigued and 
maneuvered for those three fur coats 
their entire regiment became aware of 
the play and watched it as one might a 
particularly entertaining movie. In the 
end the five cold men succeeded. Lives 
were lost on both sides; but that is be- 
side the point. From the colonel down 
the men of that regiment rejoiced over 
the strategy of the five cold men. For 
the remainder of the winter they luxuri- 
ated in fur. The bitter winds of Dobra- 
polyi Mountain had no terrors for them. 



There was the old woman of Polok, 
too. Polok IS hardly a hamlet. It is just 
a huddle of stone huts, stained by the 
ages, each crowned with a blackened and 
disheveled thatch. For weeks the Serbs 
attacked Chuke Mountain, in a" dimple of 
whose shoulder Polok rests. Each day 
the village had been under bombardment. 
The artillery observers from their high 
posts could see the lone old woman going 
about her business. No other peasants 
were seen in Polok; but she milked her 
cows and drove them to water, as though 
peace reigned in the land. Once she was 
seen chasing a group of Bulgarian sol- 
diers with a stick, as though they were a 
parcel of mischievous boys. 

Twice the hamlet was taken in hand- 
to-hand fighting and lost again. The 
third time the Serbs held it. 

The old woman picked her way down 
the cluttered hillside, past the dead men 
and the wounded, and through the shell 
holes and amid the ruins of the other 
huts, until she found the officer com- 
manding: 



391 



Digitized by 



Google 




ST. PAUL S ROCK IN SALON IKI 



Photograph by Herbert Corey 



According to a local tradition that has persisted for centuries, St. Paul fulfilled in 
Saloniki the scriptural injunction of "shakinj? off the very dust from his feet" as a testimony 
against the Thessalonians of his day. That they took to heart his act is witnessed by this 
historic rock on its three-step pedestal. 



"And who is to pay me for my cow ?*' 
she asked. "What have I to do with 
your war? I want pay for my cow that 
is dead." 

GERMAN FLIERS WATCH THE ALLIED 
PLANS 

Sometimes the enemy fliers visit the 
Monastir road. On many a pleasant day 
they fly over Saloniki, loo miles distant 
from their lines, on missions of recon- 
naissance. It is desirable to know how 
many ships there are in the harbor, for 
in this way they can keep an eye upon 
the Allied plans. 

It IS not often that they drop bombs. 
Usually they come at the noon hour, when 
all leisured Saloniki is taking its coffee in 
front of its favorite cafe. No one goes 
to shelter ; it isn't worth while. Perhaps 
no bombs will be dropped, and if bombs 
are dropped experience has told those be- 
neath that running and dodging are futile 
ways in which to attempt to escape. 

It is not this conviction of futility, but 



real indifference, however, which keeps 
most men and women in their seats. 
They are "fed up" on aeroplanes, as the 
British say. 

Sometimes this indifference is carried 
to an extreme. One day I visited for the 
first time a hospital on the Monastir road. 
There were pretty girl nurses there — 
several of them. Next door was an am- 
munition dump. Further on were hang- 
ars for the war fliers. On a recent visit 
an enemy plane, no doubt intending to 
bomb the ammunition depot, had dropped 
bombs instead in the midst of the hos- 
pital tents. 

The surgeon in charge was a practical 
man of forethought and reason. He had 
funk-holes dug all over the place — many 
funk-holes. No matter how unexpect- 
edly a flier appeared, one had but to<live 
for the entrance of a funk-hole. It was 
somewhat rabbity, perhaps, but the plan 
was sound and safe. 

"Boche coming," trilled one of the 
pretty nurses. 



392 



Digitized by 



Google 




OPEN-AIR BARBERING AT IVEN 



Photograph by Herbert Corey 



Where one of the most noted Serbian divisions, that of the Morava, had its camp at the time. 
Two peasant children are watching the operation. 



"To the funk-holes, girls ; hurry," said 
the doctor. 

He stood at the mouth of his indi- 
vidual funk-hole and waited. Like a 
captain whose duty it is to stand by his 
ship, he felt that he must see his nurses 
secure. They had but to get into the bot- 
tom of the funk-holes and take a half 
turn to the left and there they were 
safe — at least as safe as could be ex- 
pected. 

NO ONE WORRIES ABOUT BOMB DROPPERS 

The girls ran. But instead of running 
to the funk-holes they ran to their tents 
and produced minute cameras, each hav- 
ing a possible range of about 40 feet. 
They stood there in the open and snap- 
shotted the flier and uttered small, ex- 
cited squeaks of satisfaction. The doctor 
did not go down into his funk-hole. He 
showed a regrettable lack of moral cour- 
age. I could not go either, for I was 
talking to the doctor. 

Always the Monastir road is lined with 
road-menders. Some wear the dirty 



brown uniform and the Russian cap of 
the Bulgarian army. They are not par- 
ticularly happy, but they are frankly at 
ease. Broadly speaking, the Bulgarian 
does not seem to know what the war is 
all about. If it were only to fight the 
Serb, he would not mind. He has always 
fought the Serb. He dislikes the Serb 
quite as cordially as the Serb detests him. 
But he remembers that only a little while 
ago he was at work, having just returned 
to his farm from the last war, in which 
he fought the Serb to his heart's content. 
This time he was called out to fight 
Great Britain and Russia, countries 
which have always been known to the 
Bulgarian as his country's friends. He 
is puzzled and says so. Very often he is 
so puzzled that he deserts. 

GERMANS BOSS THE ROAD MENDER OF THE 
MONASTIR ROAD 

If there are helmet ed Germans on the 
road, they are the gang bosses. The Ger- 
man is an excellent gang boss. His Bul- 
garian underlings are made to work much 



393 



Digitized by 



Google 





394 



Digitized by 



Google 



ON THE MONASTIR ROAD 



395 



harder than when a Serbian soldier is 
bossing them, for it must be admitted 
that the Serbian s)mipathizes with people 
who do not like to work. 

Driving along the roads, one finds Bul- 
garians asleep under bushes, stretched 
face down on the sand, examining their 
foot-gear, doing anything but work. In 
that case one is very apt to see a com- 
plaisant Serbian sentry sitting under a rock 
not far away, smoking a cigarette and 
quite at peace with the world. He would 
cheerfully kill that one of his charges 
who sought to escape, but he is open- 
minded in regard to industry. 

"He just got in today," one such sentry 
told me, nodding at a particular contented 
Bulgarian who was actively killing time. 
"He came in from the front, thirty-five 
kilometers away." 

The prisoner explained that he had de- 
serted, hidden his rifle, and started out to * 
give himself up. The whole countryside 
is crawling with Bulgarian prisoners, so 
that no one paid the least attention to 
him. He walked on and walked on, ex- 
amining gang after gang, until he found 
one in which the dignity of labor was 
respected. 

His only complaint was that after he 
had properly surrendered he was obliged 
to walk three kilometers farther, until he 
found an officer at Vertekopp who would 
receipt for him properly. He thought this 
formality might have been attended to by 
mail. 

PEASANTS ARK SOURLY PHILOSOPHIC 

Along with the prisoners one also finds 
press gangs of the peasants of the vicin- 
ity. They are heartily discontented, al- 
though they are paid for their work. 
One cannot wonder at their attitude. 
Throughout the centuries there have been 
wars in Macedonia, and with each war 
the overlordship of the peasant changed. 
But a little while ago he owned allegiance 
to the Turk. Then the Greeks took Mace- 
donia and began to tax him. Then the 
Bulgars established themselves, and right 
on the retreating heels of his new masters 
came the Serbs, accompanied by a swarm 
of strange men wearing many uniforms 
and speaking in many tongues. The peas- 
ant takes refuge from his confusion in a 
sour philosophy. 



"One year the crops fail," he says, 
"and the next year there is war. It is all 
one to the poor man." 

Along the Monastir road there is a con- 
tinuous, dribbling stream of refugees — 
not many at a time. Sometimes half a 
dozen will trudge by in the course of a 
day. Sometimes an entire village has 
been evacuated farther up the line, and 
the fifty or so who have held on to the 
bitter end tramp stolidly and unwillingly 
to safety. These poor folk never leave 
their homes until they have been com- 
pelled to. The outer world is a strange 
and hostile place to them. Perhaps not 
one in an hundred has ever been twenty 
miles away from his hamlet. 

WOMEN RETURN AT NIGHT TO THEIR 
ABANDONED HOMES 

They pile their poor effects on donkeys, 
put the babies on top, and load the women 
with what there is left. If there is a 
spare donkey, the man of the house al- 
ways rides. If there are two spare don- 
keys, the eldest sons ride. The women 
always walk. Only once did I see a man 
walking while his wife rode the donkey. 
The road buzzed with the gossip of it. 

They have suffered greatly, these poor 
folk. Yet candor compels me to say that 
at first sight the difference between a 
Macedonian peasant evicted and a Mace- 
donian peasant at home is so slight that 
it fails to arouse much sympathy. These 
poor folk seem to a westerner always on 
the edge of starvation. The principal 
item of their diet is maize, so poorly 
ground by crude water-turned wheels 
that their bodies are repulsively swollen 
from the resultant indigestion. 

A man with a yoke of oxen and forty 
sheep is rich. 

Their homes are mere inclosures of 
stone, topped with a blackened thatch, 
without windows and sometimes without 
other door than a blanket or a bit of 
flapping skin. Often the fire is lighted 
in the middle of the dirt floor and the 
smoke seeps out through the crevices of 
the walls and the holes in the roof. Baths 
seem unknown and vermin are a common- 
place of their existence. 

Yet they cling blindly to these hovels. 
When they hide themselves from an in- 



Digitized by 



Google 




396 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Herbert Corey 
REFUGEE TENTS JUST OUTSIDE THE OLD CITY WALL AT SALONIKI 



vader they always choose some nook in 
the hills from which they may watch 
their black roofs. They cache foodstuffs 
in secret places, from which they take a 
handful of corn or a cheese of ewe milk 
at night. 

When they are driven out the men go 
silently. Sometimes they are sullen. 
Sometimes they smile at the soldiers in 
a sort of twisted, sidewise fashion, in a 
poor attempt at propitiation. The women 
follow at their heels patiently. After the 
first outcry against the order of eviction 
they never openly defy the soldiery. Yet 
it is the women who most flagrantly dis- 
obey. 

They return at night to the abandoned 
homestead, taking their children with 
them. To do so they must evade the 



guards and tramp across a desolate coun- 
try in the darkness, in continual danger 
from the prowling dogs or from the rifles 
of the sentries. Somehow they manage 
to do it. Humanity requires that these 
little villages in the war zone be emptied 
to the last human, for in the rear is food 
and shelter, while at the front is only 
starvation and danger. 

Yet little by little the inhabitants trickle 
back. At first they are unobtrusive. Al- 
though fifty may be living in a hamlet, 
one sees no more than four or five at a 
time. Eventually they resume their for- 
mer mode of life, so far as that is possi- 
ble. Sometimes they live on the hidden 
stores of food. Sometimes it is quite im- 
possible to discover how they live at all. 

Some such thing happened at Brod. 



397 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Herbert Corey 
CHARACTERISTIC COSTUMES IN THE SALONIKI STREETS 



This IS a fair-sized town for the northern 
Macedonian country. There are perhaps 
150 houses scattered on the slopes of a 
rocky hill or sunk in the abominable mud 
of the Cema Valley. Here the Bulga- 
rians behaved "fairly well," the peasants 
said. Some of the men were beaten, and 
some were taken away to dig trenches, 
and some ran away to the hills ; but the 
town was not burned and the women 
were not abused. The peasants were 
grateful. 

AMERICAN NURSE FED THE STARVING AT 
BROD 

When the Serbians took the town they 
found several hundred of the people still 
there. There was no food. The village 
was under constant bombardment. Each 
Macedonian peasant is a potential spy, 
for lineage and allegiance are too mixed 
for either side to place reliance in his 
loyalty. The people of Brod were moved 
out to the last man and baby. The Serbs 
searched the houses one by one, and 
looked under the caving bank of the 
Cerna and hunted over the bare hillside. 
There was none left. The village head- 
man swore it. 



Yet a little later, when the Serbs had 
given place to the Italians, the mired and 
filthy streets of Brod suddenly became 
alive with children. Children were every- 
where ; starving children, impossibly dirty 
children, children that were \^rminous 
and pallid and so ragged that the snow 
struck against bare flesh through the 
holes in their. garments. No men and 
few women were seen at this time. The 
Italian soldiers fed these little outcasts 
with the scraps of their rations. A mili- 
tary ration is scientifically adjusted to 
the needs of the soldier. There is no ex- 
cess to be devoted to charity. 

Miss Emily Simmonds, of the Amer- 
ican Red Cross, relieved this situation. 
Miss Simmonds secured an assignment 
as nurse in a near-by hospital and while 
there learned of the children's famine at 
Brod. She moved in one night without 
a pass, without a guard, and equipped 
only with a small tent that was so im- 
perfect a shelter that the constant rains 
rotted the mattress of her bed. She took 
a census of the starving ones. 

By this time there were 40 women and 
200 children, and there was not a bite to 
eat, nor a stick of fuel nor a blanket. 



398 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Herbert Corey 
A TYPICAL MARKET-DAY CROWD AT SOUBOTSKO 



They lived in that defiance of natural law 
which seems the rule of the destitute in 
the Balkans. Most of the time they were 
starving. They slept in heaps, like ani- 
mals, in order to keep from freezing. 

"Send food," Miss Simmonds tele- 
graphed, "especially beans." 

PEASANT WOMEN TRIED TO CHURN CON- 
DENSED MILK 

The beans came, but nothing else. 
There was no salt, no meat, no anything 
but beans. Boiled beans become singu- 
larly unpalatable after one has lived a 
few days on bean au naturel. Yet the 
nurse and the refugees were thankful for 
beans that week. They were kept from 
starvation. Later on other supplies ar- 
rived. The poor women, faithful to that 
domestic instinct implanted in every wo- 
man's breast, made a pathetic attempt to 
resume housekeeping along familiar lines. 
But soon they came to the nurse indig- 
nant and complaining. The delegates 
placed before her bowls of the prepared 
condensed milk she had issued: 

"A devil has entered it," they said 



with conviction. "For hours upon hours 
we have churned it and yet the butter 
will not come." 

It was at Slivitska that I began to sus- 
pect that these poor devils have a sense 
of humor. I had gone to the townlet 
with a Serbian officer who was inquiring 
into the recent behavior of the Bulga- 
rians. We held court in a cow stable 
during a pouring rain. 

Outside a German prisoner wandered, 
asking an unintelligible question. He 
had lost his wits completely during the 
battle. He fumbled about aimlessly. 
Sometimes he stood opposite the open 
door of our cow stable, the tears on his 
cheeks mingling with the rain. Wounded 
men lay on the sopping straw. 

A dozen or so compact, sturdy, cheer- 
ful little French soldiers dried their 
clothing at the fire which smoked on the 
dirt floor. A notably sullen priest stood 
by. A peasant told the village story. 

"The Bulgarians were unkind to our 
father here," said he, indicating the pope. 
"Also they were cruel to us." The pope 
sneered ostentatiously. I have never seen 



399 



Digitized by 



Google 




400 



Digitized by 



Google 







Photograph by Herbert Corey 
THREE GENERALS STANDING BY .THE SIGNAL POST, AROUND WHICH AERIAL 
OBSERVERS WERE WONT TO CIRCLE AND DROP THEIR MESSAGES 

At the extreme left is General Jerome, of the French army; in the center is Voivode 
Mischitch, the Serbian strategist of the Macedonian campaign, and at the right is General 
Sicard, of the French army. 



a pope who seemed on such bad terms 
with his parishioners. He half turned 
to go away. Then he turned back, as 
though to listen to the story. 

**The Bulgarians said they would hang 
our pope at noon if we did not give them 
200 dinars," said the peasant, impres- 
sively. It seemed to me that he did not 
meet the eye of the pope. 

"What did you do?" asked the Ser- 
bian officer who was conducting the ex- 
amination. The peasant explained that 
they were poor folk at Slivitska. They 
did not have 200 dinars. Furthermore, 
most of the people of Slivitska had hid- 
den in the hills when the Bulgarians 
came. 

"So the only thing we could do for 
our father," said the peasant, suavely, 
"was to ask the Bulgarians to postpone 
the event until 4 o'clock. That would 
give our people time to come in from the 
hills and see our father hanged." 

Alacedonian mud coupled with the 



Monastir road is a formidable opponent 
of the Allied forces here. The Monastir 
road, in spite of its centuries of use, is 
of an incredible badness. It has no bot- 
tom in wet weather. In dry weather it 
is but a dust-bin, so that one can trace 
the course of a moving column for miles 
by the pillar-like cloud that rises. 

MAJCING A BAD ROAD BEHAVE 

The Allies have done what they could 
to make the road behave itself. But the 
Saloniki base is at an average distance of 
100 miles from the front line, and those 
goods which cannot be carried upon the 
two single-track railroads must go by the 
Monastir road. The railroads are gen- 
erally in an acute state of congestion. 

At all times the native ox-cart is the 
last line of transportation defense. In 
bad weather the railroad bridges wash 
out. The little De Cauville railroads that 
net the hills go completely to pieces after 
each downpour. Their tiny tracks slip 



401 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Herbert Corey 
MISS EMILY SIMMONDS, ONE 01^ THE MOST NOTED NURSES OF THE AMERICAN RED 
CROSS, LUNCHING WITH THE TWO "CHEECHAS" WHO HAD BEEN 
ASSIGNED TO HER FOR A PERSONAL GUARD AT BROD 



sidewise on the slopes or the soft dirt 
ballasting oozes out from beneath the 
ties. 

On the big road the great motor lor- 
ries slip and strain and beat the surface 
into huge ruts. When a car is stranded 
it is pushed into the ditch by the side. 
The men attached to it paddle about 
barefooted, hopelessly, doing little things 
they know will do no good. They must 
wait for the road to come to its senses. 
The pack-trains abandon the road com- 
pletely and strike across the open coun- 
try. 

OX-CARTS THE FINAL RELIANCE OF 
TRANSPORT DEPARTMENT 

But the ox-carts groan and creak and 
waggle on. The little oxen sway and 
grunt under the goad. Progress is in- 
finitely slow, but there is progress. In 
the end they reach the place appointed. 

The Allied forces have built 2»ooo miles 
of main and branch roads in Macedonia 
during the occupancy and dry weather 
conditions are slightly improved. But 
the loose Macedonian soil and the sandy 
^lacedonian rock is not good road metal. 
When the Allies leave Macedonia and 
the people come back to these poor vil- 



lages that are scattered through the hills, 
the big road will go back to that state in 
which Alexander put it, perhaps, or 
Darius found it. Until it is bettered and 
the roads that lead from it are made 
sound for traffic, there can be no perma- 
nent improvement in the internal condi- 
tions of northern Macedonia. Where 
Macedonia is not hilly it is a swamp. 
During the winter Macedonian hills defy 
nature and become swamps. 

If the road is an irritation as well as 
a necessity, the malaria-bearing mosquito 
is a really dangerous enemy. Last year 
the Allied troops did not realize what the 
Macedonian mosquito can do, apparently. 
They were not prepared. In consequence 
fully one-half of their strength was out 
of action because of malaria. 

During one period more men were in- 
valided home than arrived on ships. I 
heard of battalions with 75 per cent of 
their men on their backs, and of com- 
panies in which only five men were fit for 
duty. The well men watched the trench 
while the invalids groaned in their dug- 
outs, but the sick men responded to call 
when an attack was made. Even in the 
midst of winter one saw yellow- faced men 
faltering along the Monastir road toward 



402 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Herbert Corey 
THE THREE GRACES OF SALONIKI 

Persistent beggars, but so adorably sunny that they were forgiven and enriched 



some near-by hospital. It often took 
them a day to cover five miles. At night 
they sometimes slept in the mud, wrapped 
in blankets that had been soaked by the 
day's rain. They did not complain. 
What was the use ? 

MALARIA-BEARING MOSQUITO IS THE MOST 
DANGEROUS ENEMY 

Conditions have improved for future 
campaigns. The Allies are on higher 
ground, for one thing. They have cut 
their way through the Bulgarian lines 
until they have reached the hills. There 



will be malaria, of course. There will 
always be malaria here until Macedonia 
is drained and oiled, Panama fashion. 
But the doctors are learning how to treat 
it and the equipment of prevention has 
become almost formidable. Men now 
wear mosquito gloves and masks and 
neck covers, and sleep in nets inside tents 
that have been made mosquito-safe. 

The difficulty is to make the men make 
use of these safeguards. They become 
irritable during the Macedonian heats, in 
which their strength is fairly drained 
from them. They tear oflf the head cov- 



403 



Digitized by 



Google 




PEASANTS ON THE ROAD TO SAFETY 

In this case their exodus had been so hurried that they had not even time to load their 

donkeys 




Photographs by Herbert Corey 
GROUP OF REFUGEE CHILDREN IN MONASTIR, SHOWING THE VARIETY OF TYPES 

OBSERVABLE IN THE CITY 



404 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Herbert Corey 
A GRAVE AND COURTEOUS IJTTLE GENTI^EMAN 

Although his home had been burned behind him and the other members of his family had 

disappeared 



ers to get a breath of air and draw the 
gloves from hands that have been 
bleached and thinned by the flow of per- 
spiration. Then the mosquito does his 
perfect work. 

Today the road ends at Monastir. 
True, a branch wanders north to Nish 
and Uskub and Prilip, and another branch 
crosses the hills to the Adriatic Sea. But 
across these branches the Bulgarian line 
is thrown. Monastir is a town of 40,000 
people, pretty clean by eastern standards, 
well built, /with wide streets and a tink- 
ling river running through its handsome 



boulevard. It was captured by the Allies 
in November, 191 6, but the Bulgarians 
held the hills from which it is command- 
ed. They shelled it every day until the 
middle of April, and they may be shelling 
it now for aught I know. 

It was even a contemptuous sort of 
shelling they gave it. Although they had 
a sufficiency of big guns, and sometimes 
dropped a 210 shell in the middle of a 
promenade to prove it, most of the firing 
on the town was from the field pieces of 
yj caliber. They were so near at hand, 
you see — only four or five kilometers 



40s 



Digitized by 



Google 








c c 



406 



Digitized by 



Google 




^/ 






v.. ,*>».>, 



I^»^ 



5 to 

O a; 



.m*- 

^ M 




r ^0 




■' ' -aL^m ^P 



0. ^ 
,< bo 

^ 5 



to 



407 



Digitized by 



Googl 





4o8 



Digitized by 



Google 




409 



Digitized by 



Google 




410 



Digitized by 



Google 




411 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Herbert Corey 
ORDERS HAD JUST BEEN RECEIVED TO MOVE THE BATTERY ON, AS THE BULGARIANS 

WERE RETREATING 
Twelve horses were needed to tear the gun out of the reluctant mud 



away. At night the tapping of the mi- 
trailleuse seemed in the very edge of 
town. 

It was too large a town to be hurriedly 
evacuated. There are few asylums for 
refugees in this land of ruined villages 
and minute farms. So that only the very 
poor — perhaps ten thousand in all — who 
had 11^ food, and no money and no hope, 
were sdlfttMBwky^ to Saloniki and elsewhere 
at the start. The richer ones trembled at 
home. 

One by one they were permitted to 
leave ; but when I saw Monastir for the 
last time, in January, fully one-half of 
its population were still hiding in the 
cellars and hoping that the Bulgarians 
might be driven on. The streets were 
empty. The one cafe that remained open 



was tenanted only by French soldiers, 
singing a rousing Gallic chorus ; and in 
the single restaurant the only guests be- 
side myself were the Italian officers. At 
night there is never a light in the city. 

I have never felt so absolutely alone as 
in wandering through these broad, white, 
moonlighted streets. When a regiment 
of tired men shuffled by, their hobnails 
scraping on the cobbles, I sat down on 
the curb to watch them. They took the 
curse of emptiness off the town. 

Then an English officer came up and 
asked the sort of a question one learns to 
expect from an Englishman and from no 
other man on earth. 

"Where," said he, "can I find a piano? 
We want to have a sort of a sing-song 
tonight." 




412 



Digitized by 



Google 



NIAGARA AT THE BATTLE FRONT 

By William Joseph Showalter 



NIAGARA FALLS, held in rever- 
ence for its beauty by generations 
of nature-loving Americans, has 
enlisted for the war and is doing its bit in 
the cause for which the people of the 
United States have pledged anew their 
lives, their fortunes, and their sacred 
honor. 

Aided by science, it has transformed 
the silvery sheen of its whitened waters 
into the fateful furies of the artillery 
duel and the infantry charge. The placid 
flood of the upper river has become 
hardness in steel, speed in manufacture, 
healing in antiseptics, whiteness in linen, 
cheapness in automobiles, durability in 
machinery. 

It has lengthened the lives of big guns ; 
it has multiplied the power and the num- 
ber of shells ; it is standing guard over 
every mile of war-carrying railroad track, 
and is protecting every engine axle and 
car wheel from failure in the rush of 
material to the front. Aye, who knows 
but that the very scales of victory will be 
turned by the weight it throws into the 
balance ? 

The story of Niagara's role in the battle 
of the nations is an epic in the history 
of war. 

Twenty-seven years ago certain manu- 
facturers, seeing the tremendous amount 
of power running to waste where the 
waters of Superior, Michigan, Huron, 
and Erie leap from lake level toward sea- 
level, undertook the installation of a great 
hydro-electric plant at Niagara. Later 
other power-developing interests entered 
the field, and then began a legislative and 
diplomatic war between those who would 
utilize some of the power of Niagara and 
those who would keep it untouched by 
the unsentimental hand of commercialism. 

Finally the governments of the United 
States and Canada made a treaty regu- 
lating the amount of water that could be 
diverted for power purposes. Canada 
has used her share to the last second-foot, 
but the United States has never permitted 



the utilization of a considerable share of 
her allowance. 

A VAST EI.KCTRICAL LABORATORY 

But for the part used there has been 
rendered by the users one of the most 
remarkable accounts of stewardship in 
the history of commercial progress. The 
cheap power obtained made Niagara a 
laboratory where great ideas could be 
transformed into nation-benefiting enter- 
prises. 

When Niagara power was first devel- 
oped, eflPorts to make artificial grinding 
materials were proving a failure because 
of a lack of electric current at a price the 
new venture could aflford to pay. Those 
who backed the process thereupon went 
to Niagara Falls, set up a plant, and 
founded the artificial abrasive industry. 
How much its success means to America 
cannot be overestimated. 

Take the grinding machinery out of 
the automobile factories, remove it from 
the munition plants, eliminate it from the 
locomotive works, car foundries, and ma- 
chine shops of the country and you w'ould 
paralyze the nation*Sr whole industrial 
system. And that would have happened 
ere now had not Niagara's^ artificial abra- 
sives stepped in to save the^ day when the 
war shut out our natural supply of em- 
ery and corundum from Asia Minor. 

There is not a bearing in. your auto- 
mobile but is ground on Niagara-made 
grindstones; crankshafts are roughened 
and finished with them, pistorrs and cylin- 
ders are made true, camshafts likewise, 
and a hundred critical parts of every car, 
whether of the cheapest or the most ex- 
pensive make. It would be impossible to 
build anything of tool steel on a commer- 
cial basis without Niagara's abrasives. 

NIAGARA SHAPES AND HARDENS OUR 
SHELI.S 

No shell goes to Europe whose nose 
has not been ground into shape on Ni- 
agara-made grindstones. Likewise it is 



413 



Digitized by 



Google 



r 





Photograph by Ernest Fox 



HORSESHOE FAI^LS FROM GOAT ISLAND 



The shimmering softness of the cataract has been transformed by a miracle of industry 
into a sure rock of defense. From the seemingly insecure wooden causeway shown to the 
left the spectator commands a wonderful panoramic view of the ve4-y heart of Niagara. 



414 



Digitized by 



Google 



gi 




Photograph by Ernest Fox 
AMERICAN FALI.S FROM GOAT ISLAND 

Directed by the magic of man's ingenuity, the resistless energy of these raging waters is 
transmuted into hardness in steel, speed in manufacture, healing in antiseptics, whiteness in 
linen, cheapness in automobiles, durability in machinery. 



415 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Ernest Fox 

THK AMERICAN FALLS IN THEIR PLUNGE OF 167 FEET 

A modern Orpheus, science has lured the mighty waters of Niagara to follow it into the 
channels of utility, yet without sacrificing the beauty and grandeur of the world's noblest 
cataract. 



416 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Ernest Fox 

horseshoe: falls from the CANADIAN SIDE 

The ceaseless flow and measureless power of Niagara are symbolic of America's purpose 
and resources, which will be mobilized for service in the cause of humanity on the battlefields 
of Europe. No hand can stay the nation, no fleets or armies turn it from its goal — the 
emancipation of mankind from the tyranny of despots. 



417 



Digitized by 



Google 









1**/:^*'^^ 







Photograph by Ernest Fox 



NIAGARA S CAVE OF THE WINDS 



The Niagara that mantles itself in ice at the silent touch of the Frost King, in its turn 
touches sand and coke, and they become near-diamonds ; water and salt, and they become 
purity in drinking water; clay, and it gives forth a marvelous metal; a dead wire, and it lights 
a city or drives a car; carbon and silica, and they are transformed into lubricants or inks. 



418 



Digitized by 



Google 



NIAGARA AT THE BATTLE FRONT 



419 



Niagara's abrasives that have done more 
than any one other thing to master the 
"hot box," that bete noire of the Amer- 
ican railroad man and the worst enemy 
of schedule-time train transportation the 
world around. 

While the processes of carborundum 
manufacture were being perfected an- 
other lesson was learned. Quartz, you 
remember, is the geologist's thermom- 
eter, for it is formed between narrow 
ranges of temperature. If the materials 
from which Nature makes it are sub- 
jected to more than so much heat, they 
take on an entirely different character 
from quartz. The same is true if they 
are subjected to less than a certain 
amount of heat. 

So, also, it is with carborundum. In 
its manufacture a large quantity of a 
mixture of coke and sand, with a touch 
of sawdust and a dash of salt, is put into 
an electric furnace. A heavy current of 
electricity is passed through this for 48 
hours, heating it to 1,350 degrees centi- 
grade. 

If it is properly heated, there forms 
around the central core of coke a great 
array of crystals, large and small, almost 
as hard as diamonds. If too much heat 
is applied, instead of forming into crys- 
tals, the material breaks up into fine 
particles of black dust and you have 
graphite. 

LEADS FOR pencils; ELECTRODES FOR 
FURNACES 

Therefore, largely by the same process, 
the electric furnace produces from the 
same materials the near-diamond of the 
artificial grindstone and the microscopic 
dust that becomes lead for a pencil, color 
for ink, base for lubricants, electrodes 
for furnaces and death chairs, or a thou- 
sand other things, under the manipula- 
tions of industrial science. 

In making carborundum wheels, whet- 
stones, and other grinding implements, 
the crystals are separated, graded, mixed 
with various binders, pressed into the 
shapes desired, dried, and then baked in 
kilns, like porcelain or other ceramic 
products. In some cases binders are 
used which do not permit exposure to 
heat, as in the case of emery cloth. 



Carborundum has a companion, alun- 
dum, as an abrasive, each having its more 
advantageous uses. In the manufacture 
of the latter certain clays are used. One 
of these is bauxite. This is first purified 
and then put into a water- jacketed elec- 
tric furnace, which fuses the aluminum 
oxide. The fused material is taken out, 
crushed, and prepared for use much after 
the manner of carborundum. 

Between the two, Niagara has suc- 
ceeded in saving American industry from 
the calamity that would otherwise have 
ensued as a result of the cutting off of 
our supply of natural abrasives. For 
more than two years Niagara's abrasive 
industry has been mobilized against the 
Central Powers with an effect that can- 
not be measured. 

GIVING STEEL A GREATER HARDNESS 

But Niagara's bit in behalf of Ameri- 
can arms does not end with the story of 
abrasives; indeed, it only well begins. 
The story of ferro-silicon is another il- 
lustration of how beauty under the al- 
chemy of science is transmuted into grim- 
visaged war. 

Last year this country made more steel 
than the whole world produced when 
William McKinley became President of 
the United States. Nearly three-fourths 
of that steel was made by the open-hearth 
process, and ferro-silicon was used as a 
deoxidizer, to purify it by driving out 
the oxygen. Furthermore, in the making 
of big steel castings that alloy is practi- 
cally indispensable in the elimination of 
blow-holes. 

The entire ferro-silicon industry, prac- 
tically, is centered at Niagara, which thus 
gives pure steel and sound castings as 
another part of America's contribution to 
the cause of Allied victory. Every con- 
tract for shell steel that has been made in 
two years calls for a content of ferro- 
silicon. 

There is another alloy of iron indis- 
pensable in war, and well-nigh so in 
twentieth century peace — f erro - chro- 
mium. This is the alloy which gives that 
peculiar hardness to steel which makes it 
resistant almost beyond human concep- 
tion. It has been estimated that a modern 
14-inch shell, such as our Navy is ever 



Digitized by 



Google 



420 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



holding in readiness for the possible dash 
of a German fleet, has a striking mo- 
mentum at a distance of eight miles equal 
to the colliding force of a modern express 
train running at top speed. 

Yet this shell must have a nose so hard 
and so perfect that, although the entire 
force of the impact is upon its narrow 
point when it strikes the armor plate, it 
will pierce the plate without being de- 
formed itself. 

NIAGARA PROTECTS YOUR AUTOMOBII.E 
AXLE 

Not only does ferro-chromium go into 
the shells of American manufacture, giv- 
ing them hardness and death - dealing 
qualities which must make the stoutest 
enemy heart quail, but it gives strength 
to the tool steel shaft, life to the auto- 
mobile axle and gear,- and serves peace 
and war alike with equal fidelity. And 
Niagara produces half of America's sup- 
ply of ferro-chromium today. 

Other alloys indispensable to our suc- 
cess in the great war, in the production 
of which Niagara is a contributing factor, 
are tungsten, vanadium, and molybdenum. 
Some of these alloys are made there, but 
in the production of the part that is not 
Niagara contributes the aluminum which 
makes their preparation possible. To- 
gether with chromium, they give us our 
high-speed steels, gun steels, etc. 

America has been able to turn out mu- 
nitions with a rapidity that has astonished 
the world and even ourselves, because 
through Niagara's influence the high- 
speed tool reached an unprecedented de- 
velopment in days of peace. 

In the old days of carbon steel the ma- 
chine that would cut rapidly would heat 
the steel so hot as to ruin its temper. 
Today alloy steel is not even fretted, 
much less put out of temper, by cutting 
speeds that would have been fatal to any 
carbon steel ever produced. 

Niagara's gift of aluminum 

Where once a cool cutting edge was 
absolutely indispensable, now even a huge 
battleship shaft can be turned down, re- 
volving at a speed of 30 feet a minute 
and giving oflf shavings more than half 
an inch thick. 



It was the touch of Niagara that trans- 
formed aluminum from a laboratory curi- 
osity into one of the most essential of all 
the minor metals, one with which it would 
now be difficult to dispense and which 
has been power to the Allied arm in the 
European war. Take it out of the auto- 
mobile industry, and the stream of cars 
America is sending to the battle front 
would fall to low-water mark, instead of 
rising above it. 

Then there is silicon metal which keeps 
transformer steel in electric transmission 
from ageing, and which, in conjunction 
with caustic soda, will produce the gas 
for the army's hydrogen balloons, and 
titanium — both Niagara products which 
cannot be overlooked in any summary of 
Niagara's part in America's war. 

Between Niagara's alloys and her 
abrasives, it is estimated that every in- 
dustry utilizing steel has multiplied its 
productive powers by three. Engineers 
who know every phase of the processes 
of automobile manufacture declare that 
if it had not been for these abrasives and 
alloys, every motor-car factory in Amer- 
ica would have had to slow down to one- 
fifth of its normal production when the 
war broke out. 

preparedness against the dynamite 

PLOTTER 

Calcium carbide is another product of 
the electric furnace which Niagara is giv- 
ing to the nation in vast quantities. One 
furnace uses egg-size lime and chestnut 
coke in the proportions of 3 parts lime 
and 2 parts coke and is able to produce 
as much calcium carbide in a day as the 
original furnace could produce in a year. 
This compound is the only commercial 
source of acetylene, whose many uses are 
well known. 

In every big industrial plant in the 
country there is fear of the spy, and 
every oxy-acetylene blow -pipe in the 
neighborhood is registered, so that in the 
event of a wrecked plant the work of 
rescue and restoration can begin at once. 

When the Eastland went down in Chi- 
cago harbor it was the cutting power of 
the oxy-acetylene flame that liberated the 
imprisoned people. Calcium carbide is 
also the material from which calcium 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Ernest Fox 

ICICLES UNDER THE HORSESHOE FALLS : NIAGARA 

When Nature desires an altar dedicated to her own glory she seeks Niagara in winter 
and there creates gigantic monoliths of ice and snow, carves them with her chisels of wind 
and water, quickens them with color snatched from a sunbeam, and lo I her worshipers come 
to gaze in silent adoration in the aisled and vaulted temple of her matchless handiwork. 



421 



Digitized by 



Google 



422 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



cynamid, essential in the fixation of nitro- 
gen, is obtained. 

But Niagara does not stop with these 
things. In the trenches of Europe there 
must be pure water lest epidemic disease 
sweep over them, destroying more than 
the shells, shrapnel, and machine-guns of 
the enemy; and Niagara comes forward 
with chlorine, or an allied product, which 
kills the germs of disease, yet leaves the 
drinker untouched. 

In the simplest form, the process of 
breaking up salt and getting command of 
the qualities of the two elements in it con- 
sists of dissolving about one part of com- 
mon salt in eight parts of water and pass- 
ing a given current of electricity through 
it. The resultant fluid is a great bleacher 
and disinfectant. A gallon of it will kill 
all the germs in a day's drinking water of 
a city like Washington. Of course, the 
processes of manufacturing chlorine, 
bleaching powder, and other compounds 
is more complex. 

A thousand American cities sterilize 



their water with these products, which 
have done more than any other agency 
in the hands of the sanitariums to wipe 
out water-borne epidemics. In the hos- 
pitals of France and England they form 
the active part of mixtures used to steri- 
lize the wounds of the soldiers. Without 
them there would be no book or letter 
paper; cotton dresses and sheets would 
be no longer white ; our every-day chem- 
ical fire extinguisher would disappear. 

One might go on showing how Niagara 
aids America in her preparedness cam- 
paign. Its laboratories are producing the 
materials from which picric acid and 
other powerful explosives are made. 
They also are producing metallic soda 
from which is manufactured sodium 
cyanide, used alike in extracting gold and 
silver and in electro-plating. 

All these things Niagara has been able 
to do without detracting at all from its 
beauty — even without exhausting the 
amount of water authorized by the Cana- 
dian-American treaty. 



HELP OUR RED CROSS 

n^RE RED CROSS needs at this time more than it ever 
^ 7ieeded before the comprehending support of the 
American people and all the facilities which coiild be 
placed at its disposal to perform^ its duties adequately 
and efficiently. 

I believe that the American people perhaps hardly yet 
realize the sacrifices and sufferings that are before them. 

We thought the scale of our Civil War was unpre- 
cedented, but in comparison with the struggle into which 
we have now entered the Civil War seems almost insig- 
nificant in its proportions, and in its expenditure of 
treasure and of blood. And, therefore, it is a matter of 
the greatest importance that we should at the outset see 
to it that the American Red Cross is equipped and pre- 
pared for the things that lie before it. 

It will be our instrument to do the work of alleviation 
and of mercy which will attend this struggle. 

WOODROW WiLSOX. 



Digitized by 



Google 



OUR ARMIES OF MERCY 



By Henry P. Davison 

Chairman of the War Council of the American Red Cross ' 

Probably every member of the National Geographic Society, if not already 
in service, has at least one near relative or dear friend preparing cheerfully and 
unselfishly for the battle lines on sea and land. Those who cannot go are search- 
ing for means to help their loved ones and our beloved country. In order to assist, 
in their patriotic ambition to be of service, those who must stay at home, the 
National Geographic Magazine, by courtesy of the American Red Cross, pub- 
lishes herewith the principal addresses at one of the most atvakening meetings that 
has ez'er assembled in America^that of the American Red Cross War Council, 
held in Washington on May 2 ] and 2^, 

The meeting had been called by the President of the United States to plan 
means for raising immediately an immense Red Cross war fund. Every one who 
reads the addresses by General Pershing, Henry P. Davison, Ian Malcolm, John 
H. Cade, Herbert C. Hoover^ Frederick Walcott, Secretary Baker, Eliot Wads- 
worth, and ex-President Taft will appreciate the imperative necessities of our 
Department of Mercy. 

The members of the National Geographic Society are urged to cooperate ivith 
the Red Cross through their local Red Cross chapters, but, for the convenience of 
the many thousands of members living in remote places, zvhere there is no Red 
Cross chapter, remittances may be made to the Red Cross fund through the A-a- 
iioual Geographic Society, using the blank form printed on another page. 

Gilbert H. Grosvhnor, Director and Editor, 



THE most stupendous and appeal- 
ing call in the history of the world 
to aid suffering humanity con- 
fronts our Red Cross. Millions of men 
who have been fighting for liberty lie 
dead or wounded ; millions of women and 
children are homeless and helpless ; hun- 
dreds of towns and villages have been 
destroyed; disease and distress are ram- 
pant.. 

Up to now our own people have not 
suffered. While Europe has been pour- 
ing out her life-blood, America has ex- 
perienced a prosperity she had never 
known before. 

But now we ourselves are in this gigan- 
tic war. We now see that the struggle 
against autocracy and tyranny which our 
Allies have been making is and from the 
first has been in reality no less our strug- 
gle than theirs. We ourselves must now 
share the suffering which they have en- 
dured; we, too, must bear the burdens 
and we must do our part in a very real 
way. 

needs beyond computation 

Our Red Cross is a vital factor in the 
struggle. To promote efficiency in ad- 



ministering its great responsibilities, the 
President of the United States has cre- 
ated a Red Cross War Council. We of 
the Council know now only what the 
minimum requirements are ; but we know 
already that the needs which our Red 
Cross alone can supply are at present be- 
yond computation. 

Something of what we must expect to 
do and something of the sacrifices which 
we must expect to make will be indicated 
by the following summary of the very 
present situation: 

Hundreds of American doctors and 
nurses are already at the front. A force 
of 12,000 American engineers will soon 
be rebuilding the railroads of France. 
Upwards of 25,000 American men are 
now on the battlefields of Europe, fight- 
ing as volunteers in the Allied armies; 
soon 25,000 American regulars will be 
added to their number. 

All our National Guard is to be mobil- 
ized, our regular army is to be recruited 
to full strength, and 500,000 other men 
are shortly to be called to the colors. 
Within a few months we should and will 
have in service an army of 1,000,000 and 
a navy of 150,000 men. 



423 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Harriet Chalmers Adams 

PUPILS AT A FRENCH SCHOOL FOR WAR ORPHANS 

In the midst of her battle for national existence, France is doing her utmost to provide 
an education for the children of her dead patriots. It is a difficult task, however, to feed 
and clothe as well as give instruction to the fatherless thousands. 



These men must have our best. To 
prepare against their needs in advance 
will be a stupendous task which the Red 
Cross must undertake. 

Doctors, nurses, ambulances, must be 
made ready. Vast quantities of hospital 
stores — linen, bandages, and supplies of 
every kind — must be prepared and at 
once. If we wait, it may be too late. 

OUR DUTY TO OUR FLAC's DEFENDERS 

When we ask our own sons and broth- 
ers to fight for our liberty 3,000 miles 
from home, in a country already sore and 
afflicted, surely we cannot do less than 
prepare to take care of them in their day 
of suffering. 

Gallant Canada from 8,000,000 popu- 
lation raised an army of 450,000 men. 
Eighty thousand are dead or injured, and 
Canada has raised in value $16,000,000 
for the Red Cross to relieve her sick and 
wounded. Her Red Cross, thus vitahzed 
by the sacrifice of those at home, has 
been able to save thousands from death 
and misery. 

Immediately our soldiers go into camp 
their dependent families will become a 



problem. Obviously, in a country the 
size of our own, the proper and practical 
way to distribute both the burdens and 
the benefits fairly and uniformly will be 
through the government itself. This is 
especially fitting when voluntary contri- 
butions must meet such enormous re- 
quirements in other fields. 

There will undoubtedly arise a. large 
number of special cases requiring addi- 
tional or unusual assistance. Such assist- 
ance should be made systematic largely 
through local chapters of the Red Cross. 

When our men go to France we must 
not only prepare to take care of them 
when sick and wounded; another very 
serious problem will confront them and 
will confront us in our care and fore- 
thought on their behalf. 

Englishmen and Frenchmen, when 
from time to time they are relieved from 
their grim duties in the trenches, go 
home. The soldiers from other coun- 
tries on the firing line cannot go home; 
there is no home to go to! They go to 
Paris. Many of them do not return from 
Paris as efficient soldiers as they were 
when they went there. 



424 



Digitized by 



Google 




THE HOSPITAL FOR CONSUMPTIVE SOLDIERS : BUGNY, FRANCE 

Not all the casualties sustained in the trenches are inflicted by the bullets of the enemy; 
tuberculosis finds many victims among those not inured to the hardships of trench life. 
France has been quick to recognize the necessity for giving instruction to her invalid soldiers, 
in order that they may, by practicing the lessons of hygiene, be restored to health and to 
their homes. 



Our American soldiers must have a 
home in France — somewhere to rest, 
somewhere to find a friendly atmosphere, 
somewhere to go for recreation and 
wholesome amusement. 

These men will be returning to this 
country some day. We want to make it 
certain that as many as possible return 
in health and strength, and not afflicted 
with disease from which our forethought 
might have protected them. 

The JRed Cross must — and it alone 
can — ^become a real foster parent of our 
soldiers while they are in Europe. To 
perform that function well will require a 
large sum of money. 

The needs of France cannot but stir 
the heart of every American. Tubercu- 
losis has become prevalent as a result of 
this trench war. And the disease is 
spreading. Here is a call not only to aid 
the brave and liberty-loving French peo- 
ple, but also to help make this afflicted 
country healthy for our own sons and 
brothers who are soon to be there in such 
great numbers. 

Hundreds of towns and villages have 



been destroyed in France. In her devas- 
tated regions men, women, and children 
are homeless and suffering for the barest 
necessities of life. We ought at the ear- 
liest moment to provide these peoples 
with the simplest essentials to begin life 
anew. 

the: crying needs of war-wasted com- 
munities 

They need clothing, agricultural im- 
plements, domestic animals, especially 
horses and cows, seeds, fertilizers, tools, 
bedding, stoves, and the elementary ma- 
terials with which to cover themselves by 
day and by night. Some idea can be 
formed of the amount involved in such 
an undertaking, with the knowledge that 
Mr. Hoover, through his magnificent or- 
ganization, has advanced for govern- 
ments and from private subscriptions 
$350,000,000 for relief in Belgium. 

If there were no thought of protection 
and provision for our own people in 
France, can we hesitate generously to 
provide from our plenty that we may 
show some appreciation of our everlast- 



425 



Digitized by 



Google 



r 





426 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE NEEDS ABROAD 



427 



ing debt to the people of our sister re- 
public. 

THE VITAL IMPORTANCE OF RED CROSS AID 
TO RUSSIA 

We should do something and do it im- 
mediately to hearten afflicted Russia. On 
the Russian line of i,ooo miles there are 
only 6,000 ambulances, while on the 
French front of 400 miles there are 
64.000 ambulances fully equipped. 

Behind the lines in Russia are millions 
of refugees from Poland, Lithuania, and 
western Russia — driven from their homes 
by the German and Austrian armies — 
wandering from city to city, crowded into 
unfit habitations, huddled in stables, cel- 
lars, outhouses, and dying from disease 
due to exposure and insufficient food. 

Russia needs our trained women to in- 
struct hers in the art of nursing; she 
needs enormous quantities of the ele- 
mentary articles necessary to relieve the 
very worst cases of pain and suffering. 

Probably nothing that can be done im- 
mediately will do more to win this war 
than to strengthen Russia. The oppor- 
tunity and the duty here alone are almost 
without limit in extent. Our Red Cross 
is the one agency which can exert itself 
effectively in this terrible emergency. 

The foregoing are but the greater and 
more urgent needs of the moment. Other 
work of great magnitude must be done. 
Our Red Cross must maintain a supply 
service, whereby all the contributions in 
kind which our people make can be effi- 
ciently distributed. We must organize 



comprehensive plans to keep the families 
and friends of our soldiers and sailors 
informed as to the wounded and miss- 
ing. 

Indeed, the duties and the opportuni- 
ties which confront our Red Cross have 
no precedent in history and are not 
within human estimate today. The War 
Council, however, can make definite plan 
and budgets only to the extent to which 
it is supported by the generosity of the 
American people. 

EVEN THE CHILD CAN HELP 

If each individual American now con- 
tributes his "bit" there can be no failure. 
America will, we feel sure in this, again 
demonstrate her ability to handle a big 
task in a big way. 

If, in making a survey of the obliga- 
tions and opportunities of our Red Cross 
a gloomy picture is drawn, we must not 
be discouraged, but rather rejoice in this 
undertaking and in the confidence that 
we can by our voluntary action render a 
service to our afflicted allies which will 
for all time be a source of pride and sat- 
isfaction in a good deed well done. 

As President Wilson has said: "But a 
small proportion of our people can have 
the opportunity to serve upon the ar:tual 
field of battle, but all men, women and 
children alike, may serve, and serve 
effectively." 

We must and will all immediately con- 
centrate our energies and efforts, and by 
contributing freely to this supreme cause 
help win the war. 



THE NEEDS ABROAD 

By Ian Malcolm 

Member of the British Red Cross and oe the House of Commons 



IT IS difficult, nay, almost impossible, 
to imagine or to describe the damna- 
ble devastation of modern war. 
It is one thing to gla'nce at long lists of 
casualties in the morning papers, to read 
the descriptions of villages and townships 
mined by artillery fire. It is quite an- 
other thing to sense, as I have had to 
do, the true inwardness of the vast hu- 



man tragedy that is being enacted across 
the sea. 

The silence of London and Paris, and 
of our great cities in France and Eng- 
land ; the prevalence of black as the color 
in which most of our women are dressed, 
an eloquent testimony to the mourning 
that is in the hearts and homes of nearly 
every family in the land ; the streets full 



Digitized by 



Google 



r 




V 




tc 


B 




•c 









(9 






G 







V 




c 


*n 




-id 








n 




(U 






-c 


s 







o 




^ 


w 




.5 








"a. 




h 


rt 




Q> 




>• 


^ 


o 


< 




o 

J3 


OH 


CO 


&4 


< 


a 




Q 


•a 




txl 


i- 




a 


"S 




i-T 


j= 






4^ 




> 


en 




J- 


n 




< 


-o 




W 



,1^ 




S 


I- P 




o 


i^ ~^ 




tj^ 


•*■ 










.tf =0 




^ 

W 


k"e 




pe: 


CA Ij-^ 




o 


»- 




hJ 


^S 




K 


^ 




u 






w 


Lm 




»— ' 


v'B 











p=^ 


-3 




o 






e: 


-*-» -^ 




o 


•^T? 




!-• 


<t/ G> 






^••5 




H 


t;^ /3 




^ 






t-t 


J5 




w 


-3^^ 






";:: *^ 




MH 






H 


3 




^ 



u. 










W 


rt 




S 













H 


en 
C 




CKi 


OJ 




w 


N 




:2: 


™ 




52: 







438 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE NEEDS ABROAD 



429 



of wounded in hospital uniforms, either 
walking or being driven out for an air- 
ing — ^these are some of the outward and 
visible signs of the ravages of war. 

Ambulances driving gently down all 
the thoroughfares, the Red Cross flying 
over one or more large houses in every 
street of the residential quarter — these 
are tokens of the same tragic truth. 

And abroad, in France and Flanders, 
you come nearer still to the true agony of 
the situation. How can I describe it? 
Think of the worst earthquake, of the 
worst floods, that have scourged and 
shocked you here at home; multiply the 
horror of your impression a hundredfold, 
and 3'ou will come near to the horrors of 
the ilarne and the Aisne. 

Multiply them a thousandfold, and you 
will realize the ferocity of carnage at the 
battles of the Ancre and the Somme. 

Multiply them two thousandfold, and 
that is the picture of misery and pain and 
death after the great battles on the plains 
of Russia and in the mountains of Persia 
and the Caucasus. 

Think of the ruin by floods in Flan- 
ders, with the stench of thousands of car- 
casses, human and animal, poisoning the 
atmosphere for miles around for those 
who must stay day and night in the 
trenches ; think of the devastation by fire 
in France, where villages and woods and 
broad pasture lands are utterly wiped out 
of existence — not a house nor a church 
nor a tree left standing, where once there 
were thousands of families living in a 
condition as prosperous and happy as 
anywhere in the world. 

A PURGATORY OF PAIN 

Then turn your minds to the picture of 
some great engagement; try to conceive 
long trenches of men writhing in torture 
from poisonous gas or from liquid flame, 
soldiers smashed and disfigured by shell 
wounds, their lacerations indescribable as 
their heroism is undaunted. 

Leave the trenches and retire behind 
the firing line with me. Here we are on 
roads lined with men on stretchers some 
dead, scores mortally wounded, hundreds 
upon hundreds of casualties in one or an- 
other degree of collapse. The middle of 
the roadway is filled by dozens of ambu- 



lances after every action) there is per- 
haps a mile length of hospital trains wait- 
ing in a siding to convey the wounded to 
base hospitals. 

And all this purgatory of pain is de- 
pendent for relief upon the skill of our 
doctors, the tenderness of our nurses, the 
efficiency of our equipment — all of which 
means, and is dependent upon, the gen- 
erosity of the public. 

May I not take it for granted that just 
as the fighting manhood of the United 
States is soon to be with us in the 
trenches, so you of the Red Cross who 
have done so much for us in the past are 
now eager to be mobilized in the allied 
Army of Mercy, and of charity that is 
almost divine ? 

I assume that your organization is 
coming with us in increased numbers and 
with increased equipment, if necessary, to 
the mountains above and around Saloniki, 
to the plains of Egypt, to East Africa, to 
the waterless wastes of Mesopotamia — 
our tears and triumphs mingling beneath 
the shadow of the Red Cross flag. 

WIlERr: UNASSUAGED WOUNDS CRY FOR 

America's compassion 

Nay, further, I should like to assume 
that, with your resources inexhaustible 
as your hearts are warm, you will pour 
out of the fullness of your treasure into 
war zones where we have no men fight- 
ing, but where ambulance columns are 
desperately needed, such as Russia and 
Roumania. 

You are wanted there, though the pride 
of Russia will prevent their even telling 
you so. I cannot think of a greater 
movement at this moment, in the interests 
of bleeding humanity or of Allied propa- 
ganda, than the offer of a fully equipped 
ambulance corps to work with the Rus- 
sian army and for the Russian people. 

Have I said enough to indicate to you 
the illimitable sphere of Christian in- 
fluence that lies before you if you care to 
occupy it ? Have I said enough to show 
you the dire needs of those who are fight- 
ing in the sacred cause that you have 
made your own ? 

Even so, I have left untouched all the 
work of caring for the homeless, starving 
populations, now being daily released 



Digitized by 



Google 




© E. W. Weigle. 
PRIESTS AND NUNS WHO MINISTERED TO THE WOUNDED AT TERMONDE, BELGIUM 

These shattered walls and piles of debris tell their own story of tbe terrific fighting 
which occurred in and around this little city in the early days of the war, when it was cap- 
tured and recaptured many times. And ever in the thick of battle the "angels and ministers 
of grace" were at hand to succor the wounded and comfort the dying. 



from the bondage of nearly three years* 
servitude, as slowly, but surely, we are 
driving back the Germans on the western 
front. It is, of course, for your great- 
hearted public to decide whether and 
when and how they can best intervene in 
this area of human desolation. 

Unless I have totally misconceived 
your splendid ambition to rescue and to 
save in whatever part of the world war 
zone you are needed most, I have indi- 
cated to you by inference the tremendous 
part that money must play in the great 
drama of your intervention. 

Am I to specify in detail a few of the 
objects upon which, it may be supposed, 
your money will be most usefully spent? 
I can only do so by reference to your own 
schedules of expenditures. 

A THOUSAND NEEDS FOR DOLLARS 

We have base hospitals, running into 
hundreds, I am sorry to say, in France 
and England; advanced base hospitals, 
and special hospitals for convalescents, 



for cripples, for the blind, for face cases, 
and homes for the permanently disabled. 

We have hospital ships on the English 
Channel, in the Mediterranean, on the 
Adriatic, and on the Tigris. 

We have hospital trains in England, 
France, and Egypt; hundreds of motor 
ambulances in all our theaters of war, 
with their repair cars and other necessary 
adjuncts. 

There are thousands of doctors, 
nurses, orderlies, etc.,. to be clothed 
and fed ; there are canteens for Red 
Cross men, rest homes for nurses worn 
out by assiduous work and ceaseless ac- 
tivity. We provide, of course, hospital 
clothing, drugs, dressings — all in enor- 
mous quantities for equipment and in re- 
serve. These reserves are forever being 
replenished and forever rising in cost. 

Then if you affiliate the Young Men's 
Christian Association to yourselves, there 
will be scores of canteens wanted — you 
can never have enough of them — for the 
soldiers sent to rest camps or to the base. 



430 



Digitized by 



Google 




BACK ON CANADIAN SOII^ 

No fighting men of the world war have shown finer stamina than the boys of our neigh- 
bor nation, the Dominion. Their recent heroic offensive which wrested the supposedly 
impregnable Vimy Ridge from the Germans was only one of a long series of brilliant achieve- 
ments. Whenever their condition permits, the wounded Canadians are brought home to 
recuperate, as in the case of this Dominion soldier, who is being tenderly nursed back to 
health at the Spadina Military Hospital, Toronto. 



You will want accommodation for offi- 
cers or men sent over to England from 
time to time for the regulation periods 
of leave. 

I feel I could go on forever suggesting 
to you ways and means for the expendi- 
ture of all the money that you can collect 
in June and go on collecting afterward ; 
but the time at my disposal, to say noth- 
ing of your patience, is exhausted, and I 
must close. 

But I close with these words : We count 
confidently upon you to rouse, and it 
should not be difficult, the deep-seated 
spirit of humanity that permeates this 
Northern Continent of America — to 
rouse that soul of your people to translate 
itself into terms of hard cash ; as an ear^ 
nest that those who cannot fight will pay. 



and that, if it be the will of God that 
wars shall continue in this imperfect 
world, then you are determined to relieve 
and mitigate its horrors for its victims 
to the utmost of your power. 

And may I add that if, in any way 
whatever, you care to ask the British Red 
Cross for the benefit of its experience in 
any quarter of the world during the tragic 
period through which we have passed, I 
am authorized to say that it will be 
promptly and gladly given ; no longer to 
our "cousins," as we used affectionately 
to call you, but to our brothers and sisters 
united by a thousand ties, but none closer 
than that of an overmastering passion to 
join hands in drawing a great net of 
mercy through an ocean of unspeakable 
pain. 



431 



Digitized by 



Google 




432 



Digitized by 



Google 



'-^/CTl 






'->^'_^V^ 



-^- ;:r 






/■v 



Photograph from Harriet Chalmers Adams 

A CORNER OF THE DINING-ROOM FOR WOUNDED SOLDIERS: LYON HOSPITAL IN I917 

In the multifold activities engendered by war woman has many spheres of usefulness, 
but none where her labors are more fruitful than in cheering and comforting the convalescent. 
A hospital dining-room would be a dreary place indeed were it not for her presence. The 
atmosphere of home is brought by her to the otherwise desolate places of earth. 



BELGIUM'S PLIGHT 

By John H. Gade 
Of the American Commission for Relief in Belgium 



YOUR brothers tell you their sons 
lie dead. Your heart aches and 
you try to understand it. You feel 
it — you think you feel it. 

But it is not your son and you have no 
conception, even though he be one of the 
nearest in the world to you, of what your 
brother feels. It is your brother's son 
who lies dead. In six months, in three 
months, in one month your own son lies 
dead. It is for you to bring before this 
country now what it feels like to have 
your own son lying dead there. 

You are about to issue the S. O. S. call 
to this country, to save it to a certain ex- 
tent from ignorance, but also from in- 
difference, and also from carelessness, 
from selfishness. 



I come from northern France, from 
southern Belgium, from the gallant 
strongholds in that great district. There 
firm virtues were the order of the day; 
stern mercies were before you from hour 
to hour, and the flames of chivalry still 
burn in the hearts of men and women. 
The horizon was dark, and it is difficult 
to bring it to this country. 

REFLECTIONS OF ONE BACK FROM BELGIUM 

When I came ashore, it struck me like 
a blow in the face. Is it possible this is 
the same planet on which I have lived ; 
that this is the same world? Have I left 
the basic reality of things behind for the 
rudiments of life? 

Where do these people get all the 



433 



Digitized by 



Google 




434 



Digitized by 



Google 



gj 



J 



BELGIUM'S PLIGHT 



435 



things in the shop windows? Why do 
they look so careless and disinterested 
instead of so serious and earnest and 
sober? Where do they get the automo- 
biles, the tires, the boots, the shoes ? 

No ; I have left the real world beyond. 
The artificialities of life are gone; the 
conventionalities have been washed away, 
and here I have come back to where they 
still look the truth between the eyes. 

Every man and every woman was a 
worker there. I remember one day going 
through the streets of Brussels. We had 
recently opened a soup kitchen. We had 
the pots; we had the pans; we had the 
kitchen ; we had the food ; we had every- 
thing except the workers. 

I walked down the street and saw a 
couple of servants waiting in front of a 
building, and I asked, "What is going on 
inside ?" They told me there was a meet- 
ing of the noble women of Brussels. 

I went inside, and as soon as I entered 
they recognized me. I said, "I need 
twenty or more women right away — five 
to wash the floors, five to ladle soup, 
five to take away the dishes, five to carry 
out the garbage, and the remainder to do 
whatever work there is left." 

I had scarcely finished my demand be- 
fore the response came, almost as quickly 
as the appeal. There those women have 
been working for the last eight months, 
not once a week, but seven days a week. 
Those are the noble women of Belgium, 
noble of heart as well as of birth. 

You have got to bring home here to 
our people conditions as they are. You 
have got to give them the vision. How 
awful the conditions are no one realizes. 
I will give you a single picture. 

THE WOES OF SLAVERY 

I will take the i8th of November of 
last year. A week or so before that a 
placard was placed on the walls telling 
my capital city of Mons that in seven 
days all the men of that city who were 
not clergymen, who were not priests, 
who did not belong to the city council, 
would be deported. 

At half past five, in the gray of the 
morning on the i8th of November, they 
walked out, six thousand two hundred 
men at Mons, myself and another leading 



them down the cobblestones of the street 
and out where the rioting would be less 
than in the great city, with the soldiers 
on each side, with bayonets fixed, with 
the women held back. 

The degradation of it ! The degrada- 
tion of it as they walked into this great 
market square, where the pens were 
erected, exactly as if they were cattle — 
all the great men of that province — the 
lawyers, the statesmen, the heads of the 
trades, the men that had made the capital 
of Hainaut glorious during the last 
twenty years. 

There they were collected ; no question 
of who they were, whether they were 
busy or what they were doing or what 
their position in life. "Go to the right! 
Go to the left ! Go to the right !" So 
they were turned to the one side or the 
other. 

Trains were standing there ready, 
steaming, to take them to Germany. 
You saw on the one side the one brother 
taken, the other brother left. A hasty 
embrace and they were separated and 
gone. You had here a man on his knees 
before a German officer, pleading and 
begging to take his old father's place; 
that was all. The father went and the 
son stayed. They were packed in those 
trains that were waiting there. 

You saw the women in hundreds, with 
bundles in their hands, beseeching to be 
permitted to approach the trains, to give 
their men the last that they had in life 
between themselves and starvation — a 
small bundle of clothing to keep them 
warm on their way to Germany. You 
saw women approach with a bundle that 
had been purchased by the sale of the 
last of their household eflFects. Not one 
was allowed to approach to give her man 
the warm pair of stockings or the warm 
jacket so there might be some chance of 
his reaching there. Oflf they went ! 

AT THE BIER OE A CITY 

I returned to Mons that evening. You 
have sat at the funeral of your dear sons 
and you have heard the family weep, but 
you have never sat at the funeral of a 
city. I went in and I lost courage. I 
walked the streets of Mons all that even- 
ing. 



Digitized by 



Google 




436 



Digitized by 



Google 



BELGIUM'S PLIGHT 



437 



There was not a street, there was not 
an alley, where the shrieking of women 
did not deafen your ears. 

So they went. Then we saw them come 
back, too. I read the reports the next 
day in the paper at Brussels of how Ger- 
many had announced to the United States 
that, in her great mercy, she was taking 
the idle working men of Belgium in order 
that they might earn enough in Germany 
to keep their families provided with 
plenty of funds back in Belgium. Yes, I 
read this, and every other edict issued by 
Germany, and I found no truth in .them. 

I saw them come back in the cars. We 
carried the corpses out of the cars; we 
carried the poor, broken wretches to the 
hospitals after three weeks of work in 
Germany. 

They took me out to the front and I 
tried to get through. It was impossible. 
They did not want me to learn the truth. 
But I got a man through and back to me, 
and he told me what they did, what they 
had done with the men there. They tried 
to put them in the trenches and make 
them dig. What had been the result? 

THE UNCONQUERABLE COURAGE OF 
MARTYRS 

Those men; filled with love for their 
country, refused to work; so they took 
twelve of the best of them and tied their 
hands to posts outside of the city and let 
them hang there for thirty-two hours 
without nourishment, and then they 
fainted or died rather than fight against 
their brothers in the trenches ! That is 
just one of the stories of the courage of 
those men over there ! 

I see them again across those terrible 
swamps, up to their waists in the mire 
and dirt, shot at with blank cartridges in 
order to make them sign the contracts so 
that Germany might publish to the world 
that they were willing workers ; that they 
had come from Belgium to Germany in 
order to execute the work they needed so 
much. 

It is for you to bring these scenes be- 
fore the public. You cannot all fight, but 
you can bring these scenes before the 
public and help those who do fight. 

I will tell you about one man who stood 
beside me in Valenciennes. He came to 



me in the early morning and said, "I can- 
not work any more ; I have got to leave." 

I said, "You are the captain of your 
own soul. You know what you are do- 
ing. 

"Yes," he said, "I have stood this as 
long as I can ; I have got to quit." So 
he quit and left the work because it was 
too horrible. 

' What is the sequel? Today, in these 
early spring days, he is leading his Brit- 
ish soldiers into battle because he pre- 
ferred to fight rather than to see the Ger- 
man officers opposite him, with his hands 
tied. He fights the hardest because he is 
once more approaching that little country 
which he loves so much. 

ARE WE ''the most GENEROUS PEOPLE IN 
THE WORLD?" 

You are going to make an appeal to 
this country. You are starting to do so. 
On behalf of the Commission for Relief 
in Belgium, six or seven weeks ago, I 
talked one day in Boston. After the 
meeting the Bishop of Massachusetts was 
so kind as to say he would come to the 
house where I was going to dine that 
evening. 

You are as well acquainted with the 
fact as I am that the Bishop of Massa- 
chusetts made the most successful appeal 
to this country ever made in the raising 
of church pension funds. The task was 
believed impossible — that task in which 
he succeeded beyond the sum which even 
he expected to raise. 

He turned to me that evening and his 
first words were these: "You are going 
to have the best time of your life appeal- 
ing to this country for funds. You are 
going to deal with the most generous 
people in the world, and you are going to ' 
deal with their best impulses." 

I have found it to be the case ! I ap- 
proached with hesitancy, with timidity. 
I am no speaker, least of all one who can 
make a successful appeal, especially to 
those I have known best. When I asked 
for hundreds, I received thousands. 
When I asked for thousands, I received 
tens of thousands. 

It showed me that our people are alive 
to the fact that now they must give, and 
give with both hands ; that- now no longer 



Digitized by 



Google 




438 



Digitized by 



Google 



BIND THE WOUNDS OF FRANCE 



439 



those who cannot enter the conflict should 
stand aside and shame their country. I 
was dumbfounded at the response I re- 
ceived from all sides, from high and 
from low. 

"five kids of my own, but r^ady to 
help'' 

Again and again I appealed in behalf 
of the children, and some working man 
in his embarrassment would arise in the 
throng and finally would bravely say, 
"Well, I have got five kids of my own, 
but I can take on another one if you want 
me to." That was the response from all 
sides. 

I remember one day in particular. 
When I went to my work that morning 
a friend said to me, "You look rather dis- 
couraged this morning." "Yes," I said, 
"I see no hope in the situation today." 
He said, "You will never be discouraged 
if you will follow the Great Captain the 
way I do." That was, of course, the re- 
sponse of the Bishop of Massachusetts, 
given to me in that way. 

It seemed an almost impossible, hope- 
less task to raise these hundreds of thou- 
sands of dollars, but he said: "It seems 
very easy after you have gotten frankly 
into the hearts of the people, after you 
have taken them right into your confi- 
dence, after you visuaHze the situation. 

"If you can visualize your work, if you 
can make them see the things in the 



battlefield, if you can make them feel 
and give them the vision as you have it, 
then you will find the response is imme- 
diate and glad. It is not only those who 
have been educated in giving to whom 
you can successfully appeal, for gener- 
osity lies in the human heart, and it is 
the most blessed thing man can do, to 
give rather than to receive." 

GIVING WITH BOTH HANDS 

In New York I went to see a man — 
one of the most influential, one of the 
wealthiest men of this country — ^to thank 
him for the thousands and thousands of 
dollars he had sent to Belgium. I gave 
him the figures and showed him the de- 
vastated condition of northern France 
and showed him the shattered fields, 
without a tree standing, without a fruit 
tree that will ever bear fruit again. 

His reply was the same reply you are 
going again and again to receive : "What 
am I going to do? Belgium is closed. 
How can I help? I would like to help 
more than I did." 

I replied to Jiim, "Here is the Red 
Cross. It knows this work and how it is 
being conducted and how it should be 
done." He then said most promptly, "I 
have given with one hand before ; now I 
am going to give with two hands !" 

That is the reply which will come from 
all sides in this work we are now under- 
taking. 



BIND THE WOUNDS OF FRANCE 

By Herbert C. Hoover . 
Chairman of the Committee for Relief in Belgium 



I ALWAYS feel an infinite embar- 
rassment at the reception and over- 
estimation of the part that I may 
have played in what is really an institu- 
tional engine, and the credit for which 
belongs, not to myself, but to some fifty 
thousand volunteers who have worked 
for a period now of nearly three years. 
During the whole of this period we 
have had as one of our duties the care of 
the civilian population in northern 
France. We are, I think, the only Amer- 



icans who have been in intimate contact 
or even in any contact with that impris- 
oned population. We are the only group 
who know of their suffering, of their 
misery, of their destruction, and who 
know of what confronts those people 
even after peace. 

We have always entertained the hope 
that possibly some other engine, some 
other organization, might be found that 
could adequately take in hand their 
wounds and bind up their difficulties, re- 



Digitized by 



Google 





< 
»^ 

CO 

O 

< 
u 
i-i 
(^ 
w 

:^ 

< 

«^ ►J 
S ^ 

p; ^ 

w 
n 

< 

(J 
o 

N 

i-< 

fits 

w 

(O 

w 



£•3 A i: 

•^^^•^ 
•o -' 

E = " ?^ 

4^. Si U 2 

'z: ij '^- V 
c5 - Si « 

is--! ^ 

':z ^ S V 

iiii 

« c ^ 

«v^ IT.- 

i: rt rt V 

""^■^ . 

^ '^ r. ':i V 

*'- - u- - V 



440 



Digitized by 



Google 



BIND THE WOUNDS OF FRANCE 



441 



habilitate them into a position again of 
self-support. 

That is probablv the greatest problem 
of all the war. There is an untold de- 
struction of property, a total displace- 
ment of population, an enormous loss of 
human life, a loss of animals, a loss of 
implements — a population of probably 
three millions of people totally and abso- 
lutely unable to get back onto their feet 
without help. 

WHERE ONLY THE VULTURE COULD LIVE 

About the end of March the retreat of 
the German army over a small area 
opened up to the world a vision of what 
had really happened to the three millions. 
It was but a little parcel in France that 
was recovered, with a population of only 
30,000 people. 

I had visited that area from behind the 
lines and again visited it from the Allies* 
side. I found that every village, with the 
exception of two small areas, had been 
totally destroyed. 

The Germans had erected battering 
rams, had destroyed and burned villages, 
had leveled everything to the ground, had 
gathered up all the agricultural imple- 
ments in open squares and burned them, 
had taken all the animals, and had re- 
moved all the male portion of the popula- 
tion between the ages of 18 and 65 years. 

Even the fruit trees have been de- 
stroyed, and that entire section, of prob- 
ably 60 miles in length and over 20 or 25 
miles in depth, has been devastated to 
such an extent that those people cannot 
get back onto their feet without an en- 
tire replacement of all of the engines by 
which production is carried on. 

This is but a sample of what we have 
to expect from practically the entire area. 
The cost of rehabilitation runs into fig- 
ures which should startle all except 
Americans, and perhaps Americans even 
in the larger figures in which we have 
begun to tnink. 

THE DAMAGE RUNS INTO BILLIONS- 

I made a rough estimate of the imme- 
diate amount of money required to re- 
habilitate that little parcel of population 
and to support them for one year ; to pro- 
vide them with their implements, to give 



them the roughest kind of housing, to 
get them back to the point where they 
may get the land into cultivation and get 
into self-support, would run somewhere 
from seven to ten millions of dollars. 

Altogether the north of France is prob- 
ably faced with a total expenditure for 
rehabilitation which will reach a billion 
and a half dollars. 

There are other problems in France 
also demanding immediate help. Tuber- 
culosis from exposure in the trenches, 
from a population in many sections par- 
tially undernourished, has spread to the 
most alarming degree. The French, busy 
and intent upon the war, with limited re- 
sources, have not neglected the prob- 
lem ; but t»hey need help, they need sani- 
tary support, and they need care and di- 
rection. I am informed that there has 
been an increase above normal in tuber- 
cular cases in France, in the men alone, 
of over 600,000. 

There is still a further field in France, 
and that is the children. The orphans of 
France increase day by day. That serv- 
ice is one which probably touches more 
nearly to the heart of every American 
than any other we can do. 

BLEEDING FRANCE ON LIBERTY'S PVRE 

On the children of France rests abso- 
lutely the hope of France, because today 
France is sacrificing her manhood on a 
pyre devoted to liberty and a pyre de- 
voted to our protection. 

In these three problems the American 
people have an outlet for all of their 
generosity, for all their capacity of or- 
ganization, and that has never before 
been presented to them. 

The problem of Belgium is a problem 
much the same as France, but a problem 
of much less dimensions, so far as we see 
it today. 

If the Red Cross could now consoli- 
date the whole of effort directed toward 
civilian charity to civilian support in 
France, it would have laid the foundation 
for probably the greatest work which the 
American people must undertake as one 
of the aftermath results of the whole war. 

I have long had the feeling that all 
civilian charities in Europe should be 
better organized and better consolidated 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Paul Thompson 



THE HOSPITALS ARE NOT SPARED 



These nurses, both of whom have been decorated for bravery, perform their acts of 
mercy in the front line clearing hospital. Poisonous gas is no respecter of the Red Cross, 
so it is necessary for the young women to wear the same protective masks which the fighting 
men use in warding off the fatal fumes released by the Germans. 



442 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Paul Thompson 
SURGICAI. DRESSING-ROOM, NURSES, AND INTERNE IN U. S. ARMY HOSPITAL 

RAILWAY CAR 

Every facility for performing emergency operations en route from a battlefield to a base 
hospital is provided in these modern operating rooms on wheels 



in the United States. We have had a 
multitude of bodies engaged in that ef- 
fort, a multitude of overlapping effort, a 
multitude of overlapping in collection of 
support, and a multitude of overlapping 
in distribution on the other side. 

HELPING HEROIC PEOPLE HELP THEM- 
SELVES 

Furthermore, as the war goes on, as 
times become harder, we will require a 
greater and a better organized effort in 
order to maintain that support. It re- 
quires an effort that not only covers the 
field of charity, but also covers the field 
of helpful finance. I do not think that 
any thinking person wishes to pauperize 
a population by pouring charity upon 
them. 

We ourselves have undertaken to do 
some rehabilitating and have made some 



study of that subject, which is only one 
of the three great problems. 

We have developed a method by which 
we believe that these people may be put 
back on their feet and made self-support- 
ing again. If perhaps only lo or 15 per 
cent of the total cost may be founded in 
charity, these people themselves will re- 
pay the entire cost of their reconstitu- 
tion. They must be given time. The 80 
per cent may be accomplished by finan- 
cial measures, but some one has to pro- 
vide the first 10 or 15 per cent to give 
the foundation for any adequate devel- 
opment of that problem. 

Since coming to America I have had a 
number of discussions with your officials, 
and I have urged upon them, and they are 
only too glad to undertake, that problem 
as the problem of the Red Cross. 

The Red Cross is perhaps founded 



443 



Digitized by 



Google 




I^UNCHEON HOUR FOR THE NURSES IN THE AMERICAN HOSPITAL AT PARIS 

No American undertaking in France since the beginning of the European war has received 
or deserved more enthusiastic endorsement than this great institution, which daily is mending 
the maimed who are rushed here from the trenches in Flanders. 



fundamentally for the care and comfort 
of soldiers, but we are not fighting this 
war alone for the direct efficiency of bat- 
tle. We are fighting here for infinitely 
greater objectives, and there is no support 
that can be given to the American ideal, 
to the American objective of this war, 
better and greater than a proper organi- 
zation of that side of our civilization 
which we believe is today imperiled. 

We are fighting against an enemy who 
had become dominated with a philos- 
ophy, with an idea, for which there is no 
room in this w^orld with us. It is a na- 
tion obsessed with the single idea that 
survival of the strong warrants any ac- 
tion, demands any submergence of the 
individual to the state, which justifies 
their mastery of the world. 

Our contention of civilization lies in 



the tempering of the struggle for exist- 
ence by the care of the helpless. The 
survival of the strong, the development 
of the individual, must be tempered, or 
else we return two thousand years in our 
civilization. 

While the Red Cross devotes itself to 
the strengthening of the strong, to the 
support of the soldier, it is a duty of the 
Red Cross to illume that part of Amer- 
ican character and American ideal which 
stands for the care of the helpless. 

I had hoped, an4.I think that all of 
your officials had hoped, that it would be 
possible to now congregate the strength 
of the whole nation into the Red Cross 
in order that it might undertake this, pos- 
sibly the greatest work which we have 
yet to perform, and that is to bind the 
wounds of France ! 



444 



Digitized by 



Google 



DEVASTATED POLAND 

By Frederick Walcott 



I WANT to impress upon you two 
things — what the Prussian system 
stands for, and what that system is 
costing the world in innocent victims. 

You are all familiar, more or less, with 
the story of Belgium. You can never 
appreciate what that tragedy means until 
you have seen it. I want to stop just a 
moment in Belgium to give you two or 
three figures to take away with you, and 
pay a tribute to an organization that has 
been supreme there ever since the war 
began. 

You must remember that in Belgium 
nearly five millions of people for many 
months now have been completely desti- 
tute and are getting their one meager 
meal per day, consisting of approximately 
three hundred grams of bread — a piece 
of bread about as big as my fist — and a 
half liter of soup — approximately a pint 
of soup in 24 hours; a nation, in other 
words, whose sole living is obtained by 
going up and standing in line from one 
to three or four or five hours a day. to 
wait, without shelter from the weather, 
for one meager meal a day given to them 
by charity. 

That undertaking has cost approxi- 
mately fifteen millions of dollars per 
month in cash for more than two years. 
Ninety-five per cent of that money is 
being contributed by the English and 
French governments. 

It takes between 50.000 and 60,000 
people, most of them volunteer Belgians 
and French in Belgium and in that oc- 
cupied territory of northern France, to 
distribute this food ; and that great un- 
dertaking is befng supervised by a small 
group of loyal Americans, who have been 
working from the beginning without pay 
under the leadership of an inspired 
genius, Mr. Herbert C. Hoover. 

BORN AND BRED TO THE HARDENED HEART 

I went into Belgium to investigate con- 
ditions, and while there I had opportuni- 
ties to talk with the leading German 
officials. Among others I had a talk one 



day with Governor General von Bissing, 
who died three or four weeks ago, a 
man J2 or 73 years old, a man steeped 
in the "system," born and bred to the 
hardening of the heart which that philos- 
ophy develops. There ought to be some 
new word coined for the process that a 
man's heart undergoes when it becomes 
steeped in that system. 

I said to him, "Governor, what are you 
going to do if England and France stop 
giving these people money to purchase 
food?" 

He said, "We have got that all worked 
out and have had it worked out for 
weeks, because we have expected this 
system to break down at any time." 

He went on to say, "Starvation will 
grip these people in 30 to 60 days. 
Starvation is a compelling force, and we 
would use that force to compel the Bel- 
gian workingmen, many of them very 
skilled, to go into Germany to replace 
the Germans, so that they could go to the 
front and* fight against the English and 
the French. 

"As fast as our railway transportation 
could carry them, we would transport 
thousands of others that would be fit for 
agricultural work, across Europe down 
into southeastern Europe, into Mesopo- 
tamia, where we have huge, splendid 
irrigation works. All that land needs is 
water and it will blossom like the rose. 

KIDDING THE LAND OF THE WEAK 

"The weak remaining, the old and the 
young, we would concentrate opposite the 
firing line, and put firing squads back of 
them, and force them through that line, 
so that the English and French could 
take care of their own people." 

It was a perfectly simple, direct, frank 
reasoning. It meant that the German 
Government would use any force in the 
destruction of any people not its own to 
further its own ends. 

I had never thought in such terms. I 
had read von Bernhardi and others, but 
I did not believe them, and the whole 



445 



Digitized by 



Google 



446 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



point of view was new; but gradually 
the truth of it all began to dawn upon me. 

After that some German officials asked 
if I would not go to Poland, because 
there the situation had gotten the best of 
them. There some three millions of peo- 
ple would die of starvation and exposure 
if not fed between then, a year ago, and 
the next crop, last October. They said, 
"If that thing goes on and on, it will 
demoralize our troops." Again that prac- 
tical reasoning. 

I hurried into Poland under the guid- 
ance and always in the company of Ger- 
man officers, many of them very high 
officers, men on the general staff. 

I want briefly to give you a word pic- 
ture of what I saw there, and again drive 
home the point of what that system 
stands for. Picture Poland, that country 
beween Russia and East Prussia, looking 
like a man's foot, with the foot pointed 
toward East Prussia. 

In the fall of 19 14 the Russian offen- 
sive had successfully driven the Germans 
back almost to East Prussia. There they 
dug themselves in for the winter, two and 
one-half millions of Russians and two 
and one-half millions of Germans, in a 
north and south line nearly 300 miles 
long, from East Prussia to the north and 
down to Galicia. 

WHEN Russia's verdun FE1.1. 

It took ten months for the Germans 
to prepare the greatest offensive that has 
ever been known in military times, under 
General von Hindenburg. They antici- 
pated that in the retreat that might fol- 
low every railroad bridge would be de- 
stroyed, the railroads would be torn up, 
the highways and culverts and everything 
would be gone, and they must make a 
supreme effort to be ready for all these 
contingencies. That started in August, 

1915- 

By the collapse of their great fortifica- 
tion at Lodz, the "Verdun" of the Rus- 
sian line, about 50 miles west of Warsaw, 
which stood there as a bulwark support- 
ing Russia and Poland against any in- 
roads by the Prussians, the situation was 
changed. 

That fortification had been built eight 
or ten years back by money which the 
Russians had borrowed from the French 



Government. I spent the entire day out 
there. It took only five shots from the 
huge howitzer, "Fat Bertha," named for 
Miss Bertha Krupp, that throws a shell 
weighing 1,900 pounds, with an effective 
range of 22 miles, to completely demolish 
that magnificent fortification. 

The gun was located on a concrete 
foundation 13 miles away from one of 
the principal forts — the one that contained 
the most munitions. They knew twenty 
millions of marks' worth of provisions 
were in that warehouse. They knew ex- 
actly how much ammunition was in each 
one of the twenty-six forts in a semi- 
circle facing Prussia, and they picked out 
the one that contained the greatest quan- 
tity. Then they fired four shots, each one 
of which went astray. 

Each one made a crater in that field, a 
place 150 feet in diameter and 30 or 35 
feet deep. 

THE UNPRECEDENTED POWER Ol^ THE BUSY 
BERTHAS 

The fifth, getting the range by aero- 
plane, struck the center of that fortifica- 
tion, and the combined explosion of that 
shell with the explosion of the ammuni- 
tion in the firing pits, detonated by the 
explosion of the shell, threw chunks of 
concrete one- fourth the size of a big room 
out into the field as if they were paper, 
turned over those six- and eight-inch 
guns, mounted on their heavy carriages, 
with 1 5-inch steel turrets over them, and 
dumped them out in the field as if they 
were nothing. 

I went around through some of the 
firing pits that were more or less intact, 
and there the German officer pointed out 
to me the forms of men against the con- 
crete. 

He said 450 men were killed instantly ; 
that in somfe of the firing pits they were 
plastered up against the wall and flat- 
tened as flies would be against a window- 
pane, so that they had to spade the bodies 
off. 

The v/hole Russian line collapsed with 
the surrender of that fortification. The 
commandant of the Russians telephoned 
to the German commander and said, "We 
will surrender the fortification if you will 
stop firing." 

"No," he said, "not until you have sur- 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Paul Thompson 

SISTERS IN THE ARISTOCRACY OF SERVICE TO MANKIND 

Many American girls are already serving in the hospitals of France, and the number will 
have been enormously increased before General Pershing's expeditionary force goes into 
action. In this illustration are shown the daughter of a prominent New York capitalist and 
a member of the British royal family at work in the American Hospital in Paris. 



rendered all your men ; and if you burn 
that warehouse we will not take your 
men alive." 

"It is all yours." And it was all over 
with the Russians in Russian Poland. 
That Russian line, 300 miles long, swept 
across Russian Poland and clear into 
Russia before it stopped, trying every 
now and then to resist, but failing, con- 
tinued its retreat. 

That gray mass of men traversed three 
great military highways, fighting along 
the southern road commencing 30 miles 



west of Warsaw and going 230 miles to- 
ward Moscow, clear into Russia, covering 
an area three times the size of New York 
State and nearly three times the size of 
New England, excepting Maine, contain- 
ing fifteen millions of Poles. 

AN EMPIRE I.AID WASTE 

I motored along those roads, the two 
running toward Petrograd and the one 
toward Moscow. They are all in very 
much the same condition. The German 
ofHcers and the Poles who were with me. 



447 



Digitized by 



Google 



1 


^1 




-m^^^'^^ ^2 






'it' 
W 






1 



Photograph by Stanley Washburn 



THE EXODUS FROM POLAND 



Fleeing from their homes to escape the ruthless fury of the conqueror, thousands of 
these unfortunates died of starvation, leaving their bodies upon the roadside to mark the line 
of march of a stricken people ; and those responsible for this great crime with ruthless thrift 
gathered the bones of their victims to fertilize the fields which the dead had once called 
home-land. 



with whom I consulted, agreed in this 
estimate, that in about six weeks time, a 
year ago last fall, approximately one mil- 
lion people along that southern road were 
made homeless by the burning of their 
dwellings, and of this one million people 
at least four hundred thousand died in 
the flight along that one road. 

Of the balance approximately half were 
saved and gathered by the Germans later 
into refugee camps, and today, according 
to the Central Relief Committee of Po- 
land, approximately seven hundred and 
fifty thousand of those miserable refu- 
gees who escaped with the Russian army 
are now in Russia, many of them in Si- 
beria, and more dead than alive. 

HUMAN BONES FOR FERTILIZER! 

It is those people whom the committee 
has been trying to relieve, because no- 
body has been able to get food or help 
into Russian Poland proper, with the ex- 
ception of one undertaking of the Rocke- 
feller Foundation. 



As I motored along that road, only a 
few weeks after that terrible retreat, I be- 
gan to realize something of what had hap- 
pened. Both sides of the road were com- 
pletely lined for the whole 230 miles with 
mud - covered and rain - soaked clothing. 
The bones had been cleaned by the crows, 
which are in that country by coantless 
thousands. It is a rich alluvial country. 
Three-quarters of the people are agri- 
culturists and one-quarter industrial. 

The Prussians had come along and 
gathered up the larger bones, because 
they were useful to them as phosphates 
and fertilizer. The little finger bones and 
toe bones were still there with the rags 
of clothing. 

The little wicker baby baskets, that 
hold the baby as he swings by a rope or 
chain from the rafters of the peasant's 
cottage, were there by hundreds upon 
hundreds. I started counting them for 
the first mile or two and gave up in de- 
spair, because there were so many. 



448 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Stanley Washburn 
POLISH JEWS LOOKING FOR A NEW HOME 

These wanderers in a wilderness of woe, like their forebears in Palestine, have a pillar 
of fire to guide them by night; but it is to guide them away from their homes, kindled by the 
torch of war, instead of a flame to pilot them to a Land of Promise. 



We began to investigate the conditions 
of those who were still alive, those refu- 
gees who were homeless. We saw no 
buildings in that whole 230 miles. Every- 
thing had been destroyed ; nothing but the 
bare chimney, black and charred, was 
standing; no live stock, no farm imple- 
ments, in all that vast area. 

I saw with my own eyes between fifty 
and sixty thousand of the six or seven 
hundred thousand of those refugees who 
had been gathered together, about a 
thousand to a building, in rude, hardly 
weather-proof barracks hurriedly put up 
by the Germans. 

A STATE OF INDESCRIBABLE WOE 

There they were, lying on the ground 
in broken families, getting one starvation 
ration a day, dying of disease and hunger 
and exposure. The buttons from their 
clothing were gone ; their clothes had to 
be sewed on. 

When I saw them they had not had 
their clothes off for weeks. There were 
no conveniences of life. They were in a 
state of bodily filth that is indescribable. 



Going back to the cities, where the de- 
struction was not so awful, we saw little 
people and grown people, mothers and 
children, sitting on the sidewalk, leaning 
against a building, sometimes covered 
with snow or rain-soaked, too weak to 
lift their hands to take the money or 
bread that we might offer them. 

All the wealthy people of Poland were 
giving everything they owned to save 
their nation. 

One day one of the Poles, the head of 
the great Central Relief Committee of 
Poland, a wonderful man, wealthy before 
the war, but who has given everything he 
possessed to save his people, showed me 
a proclamation and translated it for me. 
It was written in Polish and I could not 
read it. It was signed by the German 
Governor-General, and the significance of 
it was this : It was made a misdemeanor 
for any Pole having food to give it to 
any other able-bodied Pole who would 
refuse to go into Germany to work. 

That meant that this "system" had put 
it up to the head of any of the various 
families to go into voluntary slavery in 



449 



Digitized by 



Google 




> International Film Service 
IN FRONT OF THE BEI.GRADE MISSION OF THE RED CROSS UNIT IN SERBIA 



Germany, knowing that he could not hear 
from his family or communicate with 
them, knowing that he would be back of 
a barbed-wire barricade wnth an armed 
guard to keep him from escaping, with 
one blanket to sleep in on the factory 
floor at night; knowing that the money 
he earned would be taken for the food 
he ate, leaving his family in starvation. 

"starvation a great force" 

I took this matter up with the Gover- 
nor-General and asked him what it 
meant. . 

He said, "I do not know; I have to 
sign so many of those things; but," he 
continued, "go to the Governor-General 
of the Warsaw district and he will tell 
you the whole story." 

T went there in a rage, and when he 
told me that those were the facts, I got 
up and said: "General, I cannot discuss 
this thing with you; it is worse than any- 
thing I ever heard of. I did not suppose 
any civilized nation would be guilty of 
such a thing as this"; and I started to 
walk out. 



He said, "Wait a minute: I want to 
explain this thing to you. We do not 
look at it as you do. Starvation, is a great 
force, and if we can use that to the ad- 
vantage of the German Government we 
are going to use it. 

"Furthermore, this is a rich alluvial 
country. We. have wanted it and needed 
it for a long time, and if these people die 
off through starvation, perhaps a lot of 
German people will overflow into this 
country and settle here; and after the 
war, if we have to give up Poland, the 
question of the liberty of Poland will be 
solved forever, because it will be a Ger- 
man province." 

STiLi* THE "system" 1 

Still the reasoning of that "system"! 
As I walked out. General von Bemhardi 
came into the room, an expert artillery- 
man, a professor in one of their war col- 
leges. I met him the next morning, and 
he asked me if I had read his book, "Ger- 
many in the Next War." 

I said I had. He said, "Do you know, 
my friends nearly ran me out of the 



450 



Digitized by 



Google 




© Underwood & Underwood 

CRUDE AND SPRINGLESS AMBULANCES ON THE RUSSIAN FRONT 

A conveyance of any kind was a luxury for the Russian wounded after the fall of 
Warsaw. Compared with 64,000 ambulances on the 400-mile front in France, Russia has 
only 6,000 ambulances to serve the wounded on a front of i,oco miles. 



country for that. They said, *You have 
let the cat out of the bag/ I said, *No, I 
have not. because nobody will believe it.' 
What did you think of it?" 

I said, "General, I did not believe a 
word of it when I read it, but I now feel 
that you did not tell the whole truth" ; 
and the old general looked actually 
pleased. 

What is true in Poland, is true in Serbia 
and in Roumania. In Serbia approxi- 
mately three-quarters of a million people 
have died miserably. A German captain 
who had been there three months, in that 
campaign through Serbia, told me that he 
saw the Bulgarian soldiers killing inno- 
cent men and women and children along 
the road with their bayonets : that it got 
too much even for him, and he could not 
stand it and came back. He said they 
had tvphus in every city he visited in 
Poland. 

In Roumania practically six hundred 
thousand people have been murdered in 
cold blood by the Turks. All the armed 



forces in that country are officered by 
Germans, so they are in a sense guilty of 
that, too ; they are parties to it. 

A MAD DOG AMONG NATIONS 

There is a wild dog, a mad dog, loose. 
That system has become so ingrown that 
it threatens to involve the German people 
themselves. I tell you, ladies and gentle- 
men, it is worth while, if it costs every- 
thing in the world, to stop that system ! 

Ever since the signing of the Declara- 
tion of Independence we have welcomed 
people who have come to these shores to 
get away from religious and political per- 
secution. They have come here to enjoy 
life and liberty and the pursuit of happi- 
ness. I hope and we all hope that these 
shores always will welcome those people. 

The people that came here, particularly 
the Germans that came in 1848 and the 
two or three years following, and in 1872 
and thereafter, knew why they came, and 
now we know why they came. For two 
years we have been suspicious of the 



451 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Brown Brothers 

AN AMERICAN AMBULANCE ROLLING THROUGH A RUINED TOWN IN FRANCE 

The locomotive engineers of one of our great Western railway systems have asked their 
general manager to deduct from their wages during the period of the war a voluntary con- 
tribution of fifty cents a month. There are 450,000 men in the train service, and that would 
mean a substantial contribution to the Red Cross. 



hyphen, but it behooves us, as a free, lib- 
erty-loving people, to get over that sus- 
picion, to dispel from our hearts rancor 
and hatred, because the fire of American- 
ism has fused that hyphen in an incred- 
ibly short time, and we must assume that 
the German-American today is one with 
us, and that free America, with all its 
citizenship, is going in whole-heartedly, 
with money and with men, to fight for a 
free world. 

NO TIME TO COUNT THE COST 

What is that going to cost us? We 
must not count the cost, though that cost 
-will be terrific. It has already over- 
^vhelmed the nations of Europe. The 
Wood and the travail of Europe thus far, 
terrible as it has been, may be justified 
by the birth of a great nation, the United 
States of Russia, and I pray God de- 
voutly that the last stages of this war, 
terrible as they are going to be, awful as 



will be the cost, may be justified by the 
birth of another great nation, the United 
States of Germany ! 

It devolves upon this great organiza- 
tion, the American Red Cross, first to 
heal the suflFering of the combatants, first 
to look after our soldiers and to help the 
soldiers of our allies. 

But after that, do not let us forget our 
duty to the innocent victims in this war, 
because after this war the nations that 
have been belligerents and engaged in the 
war are going to be so seriously crippled 
that they will have to give all their 
strength to recuperation. They cannot 
give to their people. 

It is going to devolve upon this nation 
to go in there, remembering our duty, re- 
membering the fate of Belgium and Po- 
land, to resuscitate those people and give 
them hope and prove to them that there 
is a God in Heaven, and that liberty is 
worth any price ! 



452 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Brown Brothers 

CONVOY OF TRUCKS PASSING THROUGH A WRECKED VILLAGE NEAR VERDUN 

"Within a few months we should and will have in service an army of 1,000,000 and a 
navy of 150,000 nien. These men must have our best. To prepare against their needs in 
advance will be a stupendous task which the Red Cross must undertake." 



AMERICA'S DUTY 
By Newton D. Baker, Secretary of War 



I SHALL not attempt to describe the 
size of our American duty beyond 
saying that the human race is a waif 
left to die unless we, as trustees, accept 
the task of rescuing it. 

I suppose there has not been, since the 
very early times in human history, a war 
in which slaughter was so casual as it is 
in this. Of course, there has not been in 
recorded human history a war in which 
slaughter was so tremendous in its pro- 
portions as in this war. 

I speak of its casual character because 
for a great many hundred years we have 
been progressing in the direction of lim- 
iting the horrors of war to the combat- 
ants, and that in this twentieth century 
we should revert to the casual slaughter 
of children, to the improvident slaughter 



of women, to the theory of warfare by 
the extermination of peoples, and to the 
use of weapons of war like starvation 
and disease — for both of them have be- 
come weapons of war — is an unthinkable 
reversion to a barbarous type which it 
was the hope of the intelligent that the 
world had outgrown. 

TRAGIC FIGURES IN HISTORY 

But, whatever the cause, the fact re- 
mains that the suffering of the people in 
these warring countries is more wide- 
spread, the desolation and devastation 
more complete, than ever before within 
the knowledge of living persons; and as 
this mode of warfare has not spared 
little persons, so it has not spared little 
nations. 



453 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Brown Brothers 

AMBULANCE FLEET IN THE COURT OF HONOR, HOTEL DES INVALIDES : PARIS 

"Just as the fighting manhood of the United States is soon to be in the trenches, so the 
Red Cross, which has done so much for the Allies in the past, is now eager to be mobilized 
in the allied Army of Mercy." 



454 



Digitized by 



Google 




FRENCH WAR ORPHANS ON THEIR WAY TO CANNES, SOUTHERN FRANCE 

Many of these children, made waifs by the world war, are assured a brighter future 
because they now have foster parents in America. Recently there has been orp^anized in the 
United States a society each member of which assumes the financial responsibility for the 
care and maintenance of a particular child. Ten cents a day, or $j6 a year, is all that is 
required to insure some innocent little war sufferer food and clothing. 




Photograph by Paul Thompson 
A BREAD UNE AT GHENT, BELGIUM 
Our government is now advancing $7,500,000 monthly to Belgium to help feed these lines 



455 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Harriet Chalmers Adams 
BANDAGING A WOUNDED DOG 

In Flanders they still "Cry 'Havoc* and let slip the dogs of war." But the dogs follow 
after the havoc and are not party to it. With a heroism that makes them akin to their mas- 
ters, these gallant animals carry succor to the helpless and the dying who lie in no-man's land 
between the trenches. Heartless indeed must be the sharpshooter who can make a target of 
one of these dumb messengers of mercy. 



I suppose that when this war comes to 
be written as an epic — and it will some • 
day be written as an epic of the folly of 
mankind — the tragic figures in it that 
will persist in the imagination and mem- 
ory of mankind forever will be countries 
like Belgium and Roumania and Poland. 

America's duty! We are separated 
from the actual scene of this conflict by 
thousands of miles of sea. Our losses in 
it have as yet been minor. We are enter- 
ing the war in the firm belief and pur- 
pose of ending it in a victory for right, 
and we have not the slightest intention of 
stopping until that victory is achieved ! 

Mad as the world seems to be, some 
day there will be reestablished on this^. 
stricken planet a peace which will be just' 
and wise and permanent — just in propor- 
tion as America pours out her spiritual 
resources in the waging of the war from 
now on and is heard at the conference 
table to challenge the attention of man- 



kind to the beauty of righteousness 
among nations! 

But in the meantime, as the armies 
w^hich are being called are trained and 
are led to battle, all along the national 
wayside of every nation in the world still 
crouch the terrified and trampled figures 
of the children of mankind — disowned, 
starving, and dying. 

HORRORS THAT MAKE THE STOUTEST 
HEARTS QUAII, 

There is no limit to it, and I shall not 
undertake to harrow your feelings — in 
fact, I am not certain that I could com- 
mand myself to repeat intimate letters 
which I have seen within the last day or 
two about Roumania. 

But the call is limitless and it is going 
to be made known to the hearts of the 
people of the United States, and we are 
going to endeavor to respond to this cry 
of distress. The President has urged 



456 



Digitized by 



Google 



STAND BY THE SOLDIER 



457 



that the Red Cross be made the vehicle 
of our response. 

Organization for any task is the more 
important as the task becomes larger and 
more serious. It requires no organiza- 
tion to allow one of us as an individual 
to buy a dinner for a hungry man. But 
it requires a very high degree of organi- 
zation effectively and economically and 
wisely to administer the charities of a 
city. It requires a very much higher de- 
gree of organization and coordination to 
make effective the philanthropies of a 
nation. 

By that same token it requires the 
highest degree of organization, of con- 
centration and consecration of purpose, 
the most careful cooperation, the most 
willing harmony, the utmost centraliza- 
tion of effort, to deal with the woes of a 
world. 

And so, in the interest of making ef- 
fective our generous impulses, in the in- 
terest of saving just as many as we can — 
facing an impossible task in size, and yet 
seeking to save life and alleviate pain and 
suffering just as far as we can — the con- 
centration of our efforts through the Red 
Cross, which has both a national and an 
international status and is managed and 
conducted by men of large affairs and 
great experience with this sort of thing, 
seems to be essentially demanded. 

I think if anybody would ask me how 
much he ought to give to the Red Cross 
at this time I would say, "All you have." 



That is a counsel of perfection, I know, 
but then it would not be enough. 

I understand the War Council has set 
itself the task of raising one hundred 
million dollars. 

GIVE TILL YOU FEEL IT 

That may sound to some like a large 
amount, and yet this war is costing in 
actual money every day from sixty to 
seventy millions of .dollars, and in human 
life from ten to fifteen thousand of those 
who are killed in actual warfare, without 
counting, those who starve and die of 
disease. 

The Red Cross of the United States of 
America has set itself the great task of 
raising for, one might say, cosmic phil- 
anthropy a sum equal to the destruction 
which the war entails in a day. 

I cannot further describe the size of 
this task. I am very happy to repeat the 
admonition of the President of the 
United States to the people that they cen- 
tralize their energies. Let us have as 
little lost motion as possible about this 
great enterprise, and center our activi- 
ties in this national and international 
agency. The response which we ought 
to make ought to be limited only by the 
extent to which our sympathy, enlight- 
ened by knowledge and stirred by imagi- 
nation, and then overstepping rather than 
understepping the mark, will enable us to 
make sacrifices for the greatest need the 
world has ever known ! 



STAND BY THE SOLDIER 

By Major General John J. Pershing, U. S. Army 



1HAVE been requested by some of 
the officers of the Red Cross to say 
a word as to the part that organiza- 
tion played in our little expedition into 
Mexico. 

Just before Christmas, an official of the 
Red Cross wrote me a note and asked me 
what the Red Cross could do for the men 
in Mexico. 

There was not anything that we really 
needed, but her idea was to arouse a little 
enthusiasm among the members of the 



Red Cross by encouraging them to work 
for our own people; so I telegraphed 
her a list of things that I thought might 
be acceptable as Christmas presents, in- 
cluding cigarettes, cigarette papers, smok- 
ing tobacco, pipes, old-fashioned candy, 
comfort bags, bandanna handkerchiefs, 
pocket-knives, and perhaps a dozen arti- 
cles, thinking that she would select frcJm 
these some one thing to give to each man. 
But she took the telegram literally, and 
sent word around to the various chapters 



Digitized by 



Google 




u 2 rt 4^^ 



o *i ^ 5>^ 
c « ^r -.r 

w~ c 3 > 



458 



Digitized by 



Google 



A POISONED WORLD 



459 



throughout the country, and prepared not 
only a comfort bag, but a comfort bag 
containing each and every one of those 
articles for each man in the division. 

We arranged a Christmas tree and had 
various Christmas celebrations at the 
various camps, and those presents were 
distributed. 

MAKE THE SOLDIERS FEEL VOU'rE BACK OE 
THEM 

The point I wish to make is that those 
things cause the soldier to remember that 
the people at home are behind him. You 
do not know how much that is going to 
mean to us who are going abroad. You 
do not know how much that means to 
any soldier who is over there carrying 
the flag for his country. That is the 
point which should be uppermost in the 
minds of those who are working for the 
soldier. 

The great work, however, for this Red 
Cross is to help our allies. As I under- 
stand it, the people in France need sup- 
plies of all kinds. Therefore, it is our 
first duty to help them rehabilitate them- 
selves. 

We must help their orphans and their 
widows. We must help put them in a 
position to produce. We must help them 



in every way to relieve the French nation 
from the drain upon it which will, in 
tiim, be a drain upon its military re- 
sources. 

Our people have uot begun to realize 
that we are in this great war. It is all 
very well to write newspaper editorials 
about it and to talk about it on the plat- 
form ; but it has not yet been impressed 
upon the people everywhere. 

I have just come from a county where 
they talk to you and say, "Oh, well, we 
haven't lost anybody ; none of our vessels 
has been destroyed, and we do not really 
feel that we are at war." 

I put this question to all such men: 
"Now that we are in this war, do you 
realize that we must take the place of 
every man that is killed among the Allies, 
that we must support the widows and 
orphans ? If we do not, who will do it ?" 

The representatives of business inter- 
ests are the men to start this enterprise 
among our people and bring them to a 
full realization of the very grave serious- 
ness of this war, to make them feel that 
we are in this war to win, and the prob- 
ability is that our entering this war is 
going to be the deciding factor, and that 
the burden of the success is going to rest 
upon the United States. 



A POISONED WORLD 

By William Howard Taft 
Ex-President oe the United States 



A REVIEW of the dreadful horror 
of this war brings back to one the 
^ attitude of mind of many good 
people in the outset of the war, who wrote 
communications and exj)ressed themselves 
orally to the effect that this had shaken 
their faith in the existence of a God ; that 
it could not be that a good God would 
permit the horror and agony of spirit of 
his children such as we saw before our 
eyes. 

The war goes on. There has, it seems 
to me, developed in the war some evi- 
dence of the divine plan of eliminating 



from the family of nations a conspiracy 
to put the world under the heel of a ruth- 
less philosophy of military force to take 
away the liberty of mankind. 

If you will study the history of Ger- 
many for the last half century, you will 
see that conspiracy disclosing itself more 
and more clearly. 

The doctrine preached openly in the 
philosophy of that country was that there 
is no international morality ; that there is 
no rule by which a nation may be gov- 
erned except that of self-preservation, as 
it is called, which means self -exploitation 



Digitized by 



Google 



my 

m 


:"1 






'..' V-' 


> •" 


Tl^ 




■l •J.^'^«8feL«?*' • 


ii ■ 


• ;. '. 


•f^ 




■^ .'. »^ 


»■*»■•%. : • ■ - 


^ •* .1 


n k ^ « H * . 


Mdd 


-■'■dl^ 




F ' :,;. 








^1^^^^^ 


if Hi 


111? 'i1!3 , 




f 1 • i? ' 


-T ^ 


r 1 J 


tS^^ 


i'*-^ •* ^- . v' ' 




" / 


5»' 1 1 


K/Sv&Jx^ s 1 1 »k 




ifc^'* 


"W** 


.M'sr^'^te^ -^ i'. . 


4^ 


•» -u. 


'U 


*0 WV«riflSSfe 






. ■' /^ 


1 > jp^^^**'' •■ 


^ 


: M^' 


•^ i 




J,}-. '^ 


■* -• . 


,; ^ {f^ 1 


^ 1^~ 


^ 


-^Me: 


''-"^. 


^Igai 


V. 




- -.v-^ 





WOUNDED GOING TO THE AMBULANCE 

The wofk of the American Red Cross "everywhere in France" has served to seal the 
bond of fraterhity between the two nations more closely than any other agency since the 
beginning of-thfe war. From this time forth the red badge of courage and compassion will 
be worn by those who must minister to our own wounded as well as to our brother allies 
in arms. , • . 



over the ruins of other civilizations and 
other peoples and other nations. 

THE MINDS OF A PEOPLE POISONED 

So deftly has that conspiracy been car- 
ried on that the minds of a great people — 
a people that have demonstrated their 
greatness in many fields — even in that 
fifty years, have been poisoned into the 
conviction that it is their highest duty to 
subordinate every consideration of hu- 
manity to the exaltation and the develop- 
ment of military force, so that by that 
force they can take from the rest of the 
world what is needed to accomplish their 
destiny, at whatever cost of honor or 
principle. 

I yield to no man in my admiration for 
most of the quah'ties or all of the qualities 
of the German peojple except this obses- 
sion that they have been given through 
the instilling of that poison in the last 
fifty years. 

Where do you see the working out of 
the divine plan? That was a cancer in 



the world. It had grown to be so for- 
midable that it needed a capital operation 
to excise it and restore the world again 
to the station in the development of 
Christian civilization which, but for that, 
we would not have reached. 

So we have seen it in the destruction 
of the greatest autocracy, perhaps — at 
least apparently the greatest autocracy — 
Russia, whose alliance with the Entente 
Allies gave for the time the lie or appar- 
ently gave the lie to the proposal that 
they were fighting the cause of freedom, 
fighting the cause of freedom against ab- 
solutism. 

That toppled over, and now we have 
arrayed on the one side the democracies 
of the world against the military autocra- 
cies on the other, and the issue has been 
clearly drawn so that it may be seen by 
the wayfaring man, though a fool. 

Accompanying this devotion to military 
efficiency, as a God, has come that blind- 
ness which is in the end to destroy the 
Hohenzollern philosophy of government. 



460 



Digitized by 



Google 




\[^) Uarris & Ewing 
OFFICKllS AND WAR COUNCIL OF THE AMERICAN RED CROSS 

Left to right, front row, Robert W. De Forest, vice-president ; Woodr9\V .Wilson, Presi- 
dent of the Red Cross; former President William H. Taft, chairman of the executive com- 
mittee; Eliot Wadsworth, acting chairman. In the back row are Henry P. Davison, chair- 
man of the War Council ; Grayson P. Murphy, Charles D. Norton, and Edward N. Hurley, 
all members of the War Council. Cornelius N. Bliss, Jr., the only other member of the 
council, was not present. 



After two and a half years of struggle 
that has tested the endurance nearly to 
the breaking point of the great nations 
engaged, Germany, in that confidence that 
she has in the science of warfare, has 
said: "We will starve England into sub- 
mission and we will end the war," and 
in the accomplishment of that she forced, 
because she had to force, into the ranks 
of her enemies, at a time when this war 
is to be determined by money, by re- 
sources, and by men, the nation that can 
furnish more money, more resources, 
more equipment, and more meh than any 
nation in the world ! 

And now, my friends, do not let us 
minimize the task we have before us. 
We Americans are a good people — we 
admit it ; but one of our weaknesses is an 



assumption, justified by a good many 
things that have saved us from egregious 
mistakes in the past, that God looks after 
children, drunken men, and the United 
States ! 

We have got beyond that reliance — I 
do not know whether we have or not, but 
we are going to get beyond that reliance. 
Germany is not exhausted. She is, by 
reason of this system of fifty years stand- 
ing, the greatest military nation that ever 
was organized, and she still has great 
fighting power ; and she arrayed ourselves 
as her enemies because, with that devo- 
tion to system, with that failure to under- 
stand the influence of moral force in a 
people, she was contemptuous of what 
we, who had ignored military prepara- 
tion, could do in this war. 



461 



Digitized by 



Google 




C) Underwood & Underwood 



HANDS THAT ARE QUICK TO HEAL 



Like this mother and daughter, many Americans, who are now serving in the ranks of 
Red Cross workers in France, had never known hardship or privation until they volunteered 
to assume the responsibilities of war service, in order that they might mitigate the suffering 
of the men who actually bear the brunt of battle. 



She has now made an egregious error, 
as it is for us to show. When we went 
into this war there were a good many 
people that thought all we had to do was 
to draw a check or several checks for a 
billion dollars, and that "George" would 
do the fighting. 

THE FRUIT OF GERMANY'S CONTEMPT 

That is not the case. One of the things 
which has happened ought to give us the 
greatest hope and satisfaction. It is 
largely due to the gentleman who has 
just addressed us, the Secretary of War, 
and the President of this administration. 

We have begun right in the raising of 



an army, and that is one thing gained. 
We have provided for a million or per- 
haps a million and a half of men. That 
probably will not be enough. 

A great deal better that we should make 
overpreparation in a matter in which the 
whole welfare of the world is engaged 
than that we should make underprepara- 
tion! 

What has been said I only wish to re- 
peat, and that is, while we can intellectu- 
ally, perhaps, visualize the war, if we sit 
down to think about it, we do not in our 
hearts feel it yet. It is something apart 
from us. 

I read the other day, as doubtless you 



462 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Brown Brothers 

NO SURCEASE FROM LABORS OF LOVE 

Even a Red Cross nurse has an occasional respite from toil ; but so eager is the spirit of 
help that during moments of recreation the hands that are accustomed to binding wounds 
and ministering to the suffering are employed at knitting. 



read, "Mr. Britling Sees It Through," 
and studied the psychological develop- 
ment of the coming of the war to him. 
That is what we have got to have. 

SOON we'll realize we're AT WAR 

We shall not realize what the war is 
until our men, those beloved by us, have 
been exposed to the dreadful dangers, to 
the character of wounding that is so hor- 
rible under this modern system of war- 
fare, and until we all go to the bulletins 
and study the names to see whether those 
who are near and dear to us have been 
taken for their country's sake. 



Then the war will come in to us. Then 
there will be nothing but the war and 
everything else will be incidental; and 
until that psychological change has come, 
we shall not feel the whole measure of 
our duty as we must feel in order to 
carry this war through. 

The Red Cross is the only recognized 
agency through which we may help to 
take care of the wounded of the armies 
and the nations that are fighting our 
battles. 

It is an admirable arrangement that 
some such avenue as that should be sup- 
plied to give vent to the patriotic desire 



463 



Digitized by 



Google 




464 



Digitized by 



Google 



^ rt ^ 




46s 



Digitized by 



Googk 




464 



Digitized by 



Google 




46s 



Digitized by 



Google 




O Underwood & Underwood 
A CROUP OP WORKERS AT THIS Nl^W YORK HEADQUARTERS OF THE AMERICAN 

RED CROSS 



466 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE RED CROSS SPIRIT 



467 



of those who cannot go to the front, to 
help in behalf of their country and the 
world. Every country has a Red Cross, 
and every country must have it, because 
no army can furnish the instrumentali- 
ties adequate to meet the proportion of 
wounded that this war furnishes. 

SIX MILUON BEDS OF PAIN 

Think of it! Forty million at the 
colors, seven million dead, six million on 
beds of pain, and the whole of Europe 
taken up with hostilities ! 

You cannot exaggerate the function 
that our Red Cross will have to perform 
merely in attending to the wounded of 
our army and other armies in carrying 



on this fight. Therefore, one hundred 
million dollars, great as the sum seems, is 
inadequate ; but the first hundred million 
dollars will be the hardest hundred mil- 
lion to raise ! 

And we must leave no doubt about it. 
I thank God that the organization is in 
such competent hands to do the great 
work that has to be done. 

And now, my friends, the one thing 
for which we ought to be grateful is that 
in this great war, in this war in which we 
shall have to make sacrifices — oh, such 
sacrifices, so great that they wring tears 
from us as we think of them — we should 
be grateful that we have a cause worthy 
of all the sacrifices that we can make ! 



THE RED CROSS SPIRIT 

By Eliot Wadsworth 



IT IS a most satisfactory fact that the 
Red Cross was able to call into the 
field and send to Europe the first 
actual help that we have extended to our 
allies, in the form of those six base hos- 
pital units which were called and sailed. 
Inside of three weeks the whole six units 
were on the water going to Europe, where 
they will take over existing hospitals and 
relieve the overworked staflfs who have 
been struggling with their problem of 
caring for the wounded for nearly the 
last three years. 

S.^CRIFICES THAT COUNT 

The sacrifice these people make who 
go, particularly the doctors, is one that 
we cannot forget. When a busy doctor 
answers the call, such as Dr. Brewer in 
New York, it is something we should 
never forget. Dr. Brewer received his 
telegram that he was to go. 

He was here the next morning to make 
the arrangements, and I met him, talked 
with him a minute, and he said: "My 
house is to rent. I have performed my 
last operation in this country. I am go- 
ing to use every bit of my time from now 
on to enlist the balance of the personnel, 
getting my uniforms, and getting the men 



ready and everything in good order so 
that we can go." 

Such a sacrifice by a busy doctor, with 
a tremendous practice, cannot be meas- 
ured in money. Any business man could 
aflford to give a check for a year's income 
and be allowed to stay at home and go on 
with his business far better than any one 
of those doctors can afford to go over 
there and practically disappear from view 
for how long he does not know ; it may 
be six months, it may be a year, it may 
be five years. 

Not a single one of them begged off. 
They all went, unless there was some 
very pressing family reason, such as a 
serious illness, and in all cases they ex- 
pressed a desire to go just as soon as they 
could possibly get away. 

A PIUXDRED PER CENT OI^ GIVERS 

It is a tremendous power for good that 
IS now spread in every hamlet, in every 
cross-roads in the country. It is in guid- 
ing that power and giving it something to 
do, in pointing out ways in which it can 
help more and more as the war goes on, 
that the headquarters has been occupied. 

The Red Cross of this country has a 
problem that no Red Cross has ever had 



Digitized by 



Google 




'UNITED WE STAND, DIVIDED WE FALL 



O Harris & Ewing 



An illustration of the true American democracy which in times of stress swings every 
man into line for our country and the cause of liberty! The former Commander-in-Chief 
of the United States Army and Navy measuring up with his son, who decided to try to come 
up through the ranks and enlisted as a private in the Held artillery. 



468 



Digitized by 



Google 




© International Film Service 

A SQUADRON OF FRENCH RED CROSS DOGS LEAVING PARIS 

The Belgian police dogs, on account of their ability to detect and capture criminals, and 
the great St. Bernards, which were famous for their rescues of travelers lost in the Alpine 
snows, were considered the greatest heroes of the canine world until the present war intro- 
duced the Red Cross dogs, whose deeds of valor in front of the front-line trenches have 
saved the lives of thousands of sorely wounded. 




Photograph from Brown Brothers 

AN X-RAY TENT IN A BASE HOSPITAL OF THE RED CROSS 

By means of these powerful rays the physician can see right through the human body, watch 
the beating of the heart, etc., and discover interior fractures or fragments of shell 



469 



Digitized by 



Google 




4/0 



Digitized by 



Google 




471 



Digitized by 



Google 




RECREATION HOUR IN A MILITARY CAMP, Y. M. C. A. BUILDING 

One of the most important problems which has grown out of the modern method of 
trench warfare, with its months of "^tale-mate" inactivity, is that of providing diversion for 
the soldiers. In this work the Army Young Men's Christian Association is maintaining 
thousands of recreation centers in army camps in the United States and Europe. The work 
of the Association is about as varied as the men. At the Mexican Border camps there were 
lectures and educational classes, concerts by such talent as Schumann-Heink, popular enter- 
tainments, and motion-picture shows which often attracted crowds so great that the Asso- 
ciation buildings could not hold them. Volley-ball and base-ball also helped to offset the 
temptations of idle hours. The estimated number of letters written — free stationery fur- 
nished — reached nearly six millions. 




Photograph by United States Navy Department 
CLASS IN TELEGRAPHY, NAVAL TRAINING STATION 



472 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by C. E. Fennell 
WHAT ONE MILLION DOLLARS IN GOLD LOOK LIKE 

The fifty thousand twenty-dollar gold pieces in this display fill a tray ii feet 3 inches 
long, 2 feet 10 inches wide, and 2 inches deep. One hundred times this amount of money is 
needed by the American Red Cross — a quantity of gold which would weigh 375,000 pounds 
and would make a column of yellow discs nearly eight miles high. And yet this vast sum, 
which is required for the alleviation of suffering and distress, is less than the amount the 
world is spending every forty-eight hours in the prosecution of this all-destroying war. 



473 



Digitized by 



Google 



474 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



before — that of doing its ovvA work in 
our own armed forces and at the same 
time trying to give the greatest possible 
help to the nations who are in desperate 
need of that help and who are really 
fighting our battle. 

The Red Cross is strong now as it was 
never strong before for carrying on this 
work, and we can go before the country 
with absolute confidence that we can do 
the work that the country intrusts to us ; 
that we can handle the money, the volun- 
tary contributions that they may make, 
with the best possible efficiency and get 
the best possible results. 

I know from personal observation what 



the problem is in Europe. It is beyond 
the power of any group of men or any 
nation to really meet those needs. But I 
have at least a vision of seeing through- 
out this country every individual affiliated 
in some way with the Red Cross through 
a Red Cross chapter or auxiliary branch. 
Every individual that wants to help— 
and every individual does want to help- 
can be given a definite and practical bur- 
den to carrv, and thus help to make this 
American National Red Cross give to our 
allies and give to this cause one of the 
greatest contributions toward winning the 
war than any nation in the world has ever 
given as a voluntary offering ! 



THE RED CROSS SPIRIT SPEAKS 



"I kneel behind the soldier's trench, 
I walk 'mid shambles' smear and stench, 

The dead I mourn; 
I bear the stretcher and I bend 
O'er Fritz and Pierre and Jack to mend 
What shells have torn. 



"I am your pennies and your pounds ; 
I am your bodies on their rounds 

Of pain afar; 
I am you, doing what you would 
If you were only where you could — 

Your avatar. 



*I go wherever men may dare, 
I go wherever woman's care 

And love can live ; 
Wherever strength and skill can bring 
Surcease to human suffering. 

Or solace give. 



"The cross which on my arm I wear, 
The flag which o'er my breast I bear, 

Is but the sign 
Of what you'd sacrifice for him 
Who suffers on the hellish rim 

Of war's red line." 

— John H. Finlkv. 



Digitized by 



Google 



Vol. XXXI, No. 6 



WASHINGTON 



June, 1 9 17 





THE 

ATDOMAL 
OGIRAIPIHIDC 




REVIVING A LOST ART 



IN NO other field of endeavor have 
German efficiency and German sci- 
ence been so eminently successful as 
in the conservation of that country's 
limited resources to such a remarkable 
degree that even after three years of iso- 
lation from world markets, on which for- 
merly it depended so largely for suste- 
nance, the nation is not yet faced with the 
alternatives of surrender or starvation. 

The United States can profit by this 
economic success of its enemy. 

One of the most important features of 
the food conservation movement in Ger- 
many since the outbreak of the war, and 
one which has been of material aid in 
maintaining the physical fitness of the 
German industrial worker and his family, 
has been the practice of drying fruits and 
vegetables. 

In the great cities all over the empire 
the government, following the establish- 
ment of an effectual blockade of food 
supplies, put into operation the scheme 
of collecting from the markets all un- 
sold vegetables and fruits at the end of 
each day. Those foods which would 
have spoiled if "held over" were taken 
to large municipal drying plants, where 
they were made fit for future use at 
a negligible cost. These drying plants 
thus became great national food reser- 
voirs, saving immense quantities of food 
which otherwise would have gone to 
waste. 

But the activities of the German Gov- 
ernment did not end here. Community 



driers were established in the smaller 
towns and villages, and the inhabitants 
were instructed to see that all surplus 
vegetables were brought in and subjected 
to the drying process, which insured 
against the great extravagance of non- 
use. 

A third method of conservation by dry- 
ing was inaugurated with the itinerant 
drying machines. These vegetable dry- 
kilns on wheels were sent through all the 
rural communities, and the farmer was 
admonished to allow no fruit to grow 
over-ripe in his orchard, no vegetable to 
spoil ungathered in his garden. It was an 
intensive campaign for the saving of little 
things, in so far as each individual house- 
hold was concerned; but it has totaled 
large in the story of the nation's eco- 
nomic endurance. 

Not only does the drying of fruits and 
vegetables increase the supply in the win- 
ter larder of the people at home, but 
much of the dried product can be in- 
cluded with the wheat, which must be 
sent in a constant stream across the seas 
to feed our own soldiers in France and 
our AUies on the battle fronts of the 
world. 

The practicability of sending dried 
garden and orchard products to the fight- 
ing men has been demonstrated already 
in Canada, where fruits have been pre- 
served in this manner and shipped to 
Europe. 

While the process of saving surplus 
summer vegetables for winter consump- 



Digitized by 



Google 




us 

ex 
O 

< 

a 
< 

o 
^2; 



(0^ 






il 

■;;;£ 



XA 



3 ^ 
-C 3 




476 



Digitized by 



Google 




477 



Digitized by 



Google 




AN INEXPENSIVE SUN DRIER MADE OF ONE WINDOW SASH, A FEW LATHS, AND SOME 

METAL FLY SCREEN 

B)r removing one pane of glass a simple ventilator can be made of lath and screen and 
fitted into place, or, if electricity is available, the drying can be accelerated by keeping a 
gentle current of air blowing over the fruits or vegetables. Protection from showers is 
obtained by such a drier and especially delicate fruits can be handled in small quantities 
under it; larger amounts require more space. 





#b 


B^B^mS • !!^,.3l3lBBP! 




..^L 




^H 


, 1 


^S^^ 


K^^^-- 


' ■^:^^:%5it 




rfei. 


^!^^^_<^-^ ^^j^^^B^B^B^^Bi 


^^^ 5:^9m 


■*^^^^^ 



SLICING BEETS 

The trays arc filled with Swiss chard and sliced beets. Both trays and drier itself are made 

of lath and wire netting. 



478 



Digitized by 



Google 




THC HANGING STOVE DRIER SWUNG OVER THE KITCHEN STOVE AFTER THE MEAI. 

HAS BEEN PREPARED 

It utilizes heat which otherwise would be wasted. When the stove is required for cook- 
ing purposes, the drier can be swung back out of the way by means of the wooden bracket 
made of lath and attached to the wall by a bent nail and piece of fence wire. An electric fan 
can be trained on the drier to hasten the drying process. It can be kept running at night 
when the kitchen stove is cold. 




Photographs by Charles Martin and David Fairchild 
THE WATER-TANK DRIER 

This has a false bottom and under it water, which is kept hot by the contact of the 
drier with the back of the stove. In it are leaves of the Chinese cabbage, which are easily 
and quickly dried on this type of drier. Unless watched, delicate leaves will scorch. 



479 



Digitized by 



Google 



480 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



tion by merely drying may seem novel to 
the housewife of today, it was not un- 
known to the thrifty mistress of the 
home two generations ago. Our grand- 
mothers knew the secret of drying many 
garden and farm products, and so suc- 
cessful were they in putting aside for the 
winter day those vegetables which could 
not be . consumed in season that they 
came to prefer dried sweet corn over the 
canned product, while the dried pumpkin 
and squash were pie-plants par excel- 
lence. 

In certain communities today snap- 
beans are strung on threads and dried 
above the stove, while festoons of red 
and green peppers decorate the space be- 
tween the kitchen rafters. Thrifty house- 
wives dry cherries and raspberries on 
bits of bark for winter use in place of 
raisins. In fact, a survey of our fruit 
products shows that drying is by no 
means an unusual method of preserva- 
tion. Prunes, figs, dates, raisins, apples, 
and apricots are staples in the food mar- 
kets of the world. 

Turning to the vegetables, we find that 
dried beans of many varieties, peas, and 
other legumes, tea, coflFee, and cocoa are 
familiar articles of food, while various 
manufactured products, like starch, tapi- 
oca, and macaroni, are dried either in the 
sun or wind, or in specially constructed 
driers. 

While the modern methods of canning 
on a vast commercial scale caused the 
drying processes of two generations ago 
to become one of the *'lost arts" of the 
home, the present food situation seems 
destined to revive it with splendid eco- 
nomic results. The country is producing 
at the present time larger quantities of 
perishable foodstuffs than at any other 
period in its history, owing to the ef- 
fective educational campaign which has 
stimulated the cultivation of individual 
gardens in waste places. 

Drying will help to conserve the sur- 
plus yield of these gardens. But canning 
and preserving should not under any cir- 
cumstances be abandoned. All processes 
have their place in the economy of food 
conservation. 



One of the chief advantages of drying 
vegetables and fruits lies in the practica- 
bility of the process for the city house- 
wife. The farmer's wife has her root 
cellars and other places for storing vege- 
tables ; but in the city home, where space 
is a primary consideration, the drying 
method furnishes a practical solution of 
an important problem. 

For the farmer's wife the new methods 
of canning are commended in preference 
to the longer process of sun-drying. But 
new and shorter methods of drying are 
now available, and the dried product has 
several advantages over the canned prod- 
uct, particularly in the saving of the ex- 
pense of cans, glass jars, and other con- 
tainers. Dried vegetables can be stored 
in receptacles which cannot be used for 
canning, and the bulk of the product is 
usually less. 

Another consideration should be taken 
into account: the canned fruits and veg- 
etables are subject to freezing, a danger 
entirely obviated in the drying process. 
Dried foodstuffs can be shipped in the 
most compact form, with a minimum of 
weight and a minimum of risk. 

One of the most important considera- 
tions cornmending the drying process is 
that the city or town housewife can em- 
ploy this method of preservation with 
the simplest and most inexpensive facili- 
ties, and the process can be employed 
continuously, whether the food to be 
saved is in large or small quantities. A 
few sweet potatoes, peas, or beans can be 
dried at a time. Even a single turnip or 
an apple is worth drying. Bit by bit veg- 
etables may be saved until a whole meal 
is conserved. Small lots of dried car- 
rots, cabbage, turnips, potatoes, and 
onions are combined to advantage for 
vegetable soup. 

As to the tastiness of such dried prod- 
ucts as spinach, beet-tops, and kale there 
is no question. In other cases, while the 
flavor of the fresh vegetable is not pre- 
served in its entirety, the use of these 
ingredients in soups and stews meets suc- 
cessfully the problem of any loss of 
palatability, while the food value of the 
dried product remains unimpaired. 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Charles Martin 
ONCE DRIED, THE VEGETABLES CAN BE STORED IN PAPER BAGS OR CARTONS 

One form of these cartons made of paraffin paper is closed by means of a special instru- 
ment, which is heated and spreads the cap into place, thus hermetically sealing the carton. 



OUR STATE FLOWERS 

The Floral Emblems Chosen by the Commonwealths 

By the Editor 



THE National Geographic Mag- 
azine in this number prints as its 
annual tribute to the "children of 
summer" pictures of the blossoms which 
have been chosen as the floral favorites 
of the various States. 

Realizing that an emblem of natural 
beauty is as significant and essential as a 
State seal, motto, or flag, twenty-six 
States, more than one-half of the nation's 
commonwealths, have formally, by legis- 
lative action and gubernatorial approval, 
selected State flowers. 

Six other States have accepted the ver- 
dict of the school children as the voice 
of the people, while six others have 
adopted floral emblems by common con- 
sent, mainly under the leadership of the 



club women of the respective common- 
wealths. The ten remaining States and 
the District of Columbia have either 
taken no action at all or else action pos- 
sessing so little weight of authority that 
the several Secretaries of State do not 
recognize it (see index, page 486). 

Although thirty-eight of the States 
have in one way or another expressed 
their preferences and chosen their flower 
queens, this is the first attempt that has 
been made to assemble in a single publi- 
cation color paintings and descriptions of 
all the State flowers. 

These pictures, like those of previous 
flower series appearing in the Geo- 
graphic, are very costly reproductions of 
the exquisitely beautiful paintings from 



481 



Digitized by 



Google 



482 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



life made especially for this Magazine by 
Mary E. Eaton, of the New York Bo- 
tanical Garden. 

In making their choices the legislatures, 
women's clubs, and school children of the 
several States were confronted in every 
instance by a plethora rather than a 
paucity of floral treasures from which to 
select a favorite, for the United States 
contains a much greater number of spe- 
cies of wild flowers than any equal area 
on the globe. 

Nations have long honored particular 
flowers with heartiness and devotion — 
Ireland, the shamrock, that beautiful bit 
of green with which it is alleged St. Pat- 
rick demonstrated the doctrine of the 
Trinity; Scotland, the thistle, which 
pricked the foot of the D^ne and awak- 
ened all Scotland with his cry of pain, 
saving her from the heel of the invader; 
and France, the lily, which Ruskin called 
the flower of chivalrv (the iris, or blue 
flag). 

Our series pictures every flower that 
has been chosen by legislative action or is 
regarded by common consent as the State 
flower. But in cases where diflferent spe- 
cies of the same flower have been selected 
"by several States, only one specimen is 
pictured (as the goldenrod, violet, rose, 
and rhododendron). 

SOME OF THE DIFFICULTIES OF MAKING 
THIS COLIyECTlON 

Some difficulty, however, has been ex- 
perienced in the selection of the exact 
species to be portrayed. For instance, in 
the case of Minnesota, although the act 
of the legislature gives the name of the 
flower chosen as Cypripediunt calceolus, 
the extract from the official year book of 
the State, furnished the National Geo- 
graphic Society by the Secretary of State, 
gives six diflferent species as representa- 
tive of the State flower, among which is 
Cypripediunt acaule, but among which 
Cypripediunt calceolus does not appear. 

Again, in the case of Nebraska, the act 
of the legislature choosing the goldenrod 
as the official flower designates Solidago 
serotina as the particular species. On 
the other hand, this species is not the 
most widely distributed in other States 



which have a preference for the golden- 
rod. It is believed that Solidago nemo- 
ralis (page 511) is one of the most rep- 
resentative goldenrods, and one which 
would be probably the composite of pref- 
erences of all of the States having that 
flower, either officially or unofficially. 

Colorado's legislature expressly names 
the "white and lavender columbine," with 
no Latin name attached, as the State 
flower; yet today, through a later vote of 
the school children, the blue and white 
columbine is everywhere in Colorado rec- 
ognized as the State flower. 

The acts of the Arkansas and Michi- 
gan legislatures simply call for "the apple 
blossom." The Illinois law refers to its 
preference only as "the native violet," of 
which there are numerous species, while 
the Louisiana law names no species, but 
simply says "magnolia." The Delaware 
law gives no scientific designation, but 
speaks only of "the peach blossom." 

The resolution of the Ohio legislature 
names the "scarlet carnation," while in 
the Indiana law the only designation is 
"the carnation." Remembering how many 
colors of carnation there are in existence 
today, the one chosen was left, in the case 
of Indiana, to the discretion of the artist. 
The reader should note that the carna- 
tion pictured on page 507 is really too 
deep a red for the State flower of Ohio, 
which has a brighter tone. 

When the State of Kansas came to 
adopt the sunflower, the resolution of the 
legislature used the term "helianthus, or 
wild native sunflower." 

The resolution of the legislature of 
Texas sets forth that the State flower is 
"Lupinus subcarnosus, commonly known 
as the buffalo clover, or bluebonnet." 
There appears to be so little difference 
between Lupinus subcarnosus and Lu- 
pinus tcxensis that no distinction what- 
ever is made between them by the aver- 
age Texan in plucking the State flower. 
In the case of the South Dakota flower, 
while the artist portrays the species of 
pasque flower known as Pulsatilla patens, 
the South Dakota law designates the 
Anemone patens. The main difference 
between the two seems to be the matter 
of a name, since the pasque flower is the 



Digitized by 



Google 



OUR STATE FLOWERS 



483 



name of several plants of the genus 
anemone, section Pulsatilla, 

OKLAHOMA AND MINNESOTA ACTED 
OFFICIALLY FIRST 

Oklahoma was the first of our States 
to take legislative action in the adoption 
of a State flower. In January, 1893, the 
Territorial government was considering 
the question of exhibits for the Chicago 
World's Fair and a Territorial seal. The 
ladies of Oklahoma had presented a peti- 
tion asking that the mistletoe be made the 
Territory's emblematic flower. A bill to 
that end was accordingly introduced and 
passed by a large majority. 

Minnesota had a bill pending to make 
the moccasin flower the State's official 
blossom at the same time that Oklahoma 
was debating the issue of the mistletoe. 
In February, 1893, the Gopher State was 
preparing its exhibits for the Chicago 
Fair. The Ladies' Auxiliary of the State 
World's Fair Commission found only 
an official flower lacking — which they 
thought ought to be used in the scheme 
of decorations. So they prepared a bill 
making the moccasin flower the emblem- 
atic representative of the Commonwealth 
and presented a widely signed petition in 
favor of its enactment. The legislature 
promptly passed the bill. 

The next State to take action was Ver- 
mont. A concurrent resolution to adopt 
a flower was introduced in the House 
of the Vermont legislature, October 19, 
1894. It was considered by a special 
committee consisting of one member 
from each county — fourteen in all. The 
name of the flower was not specified until 
November 8. On that date an agreement 
was reached which led to the amendment 
of the bill by the insertion of "red 
clover/' 

The next State to act was Nebraska. 
On the 29th of January, 1895, the dele- 
gate from Boone County introduced a 
bill to designate a floral emblem for the 
State. It provided that the goldenrod 
should be the emblematic flower. On the 
23d of March the bill was taken up in 
committee of the whole. One of the 
delegates, having in mind that Nebraska 
was a free silver State, moved to substi- 
tute the word "silver" for "golden." His 



motion was not considered, and the bill 
was promptly passed by the House and 
Senate. 

Delaware was the fifth State in the 
Union legislatively to adopt a State 
flower, when by an act of the legislature, 
approved May 5, 1895, that State chose 
the peach blossom as its representative. 
There was very little debate and the sen- 
timent in its favor was practically unani- 
mous. 

Montana also chose a State flower in 
1895, its legislature adopting the bitter 
root almost unanimously. 

Michigan followed the example of Del- 
aware in awarding its floral honors to the 
blossom of its favorite fruit. In the pre- 
amble of its resolution, approved April 
28, 1897, adopting the apple blossom, the 
legislature declared that a refined senti- 
ment seemed to call for the adoption of 
a State flower ; that the blossoming apple 
trees add much to the beauty of Michigan 
landscapes; that Michigan apples have 
gained a world-wide reputation, and that 
at least one of the most fragrant and 
beautiful flowered species of apple, the 
Pyrus coronaria, is native to the State. 

The year 1899 witnessed the accession 
of two States to the ranks of those enjoy- 
ing legislatively created floral emblems. 
On January 30, 1899, a petition was in- 
troduced in the Oregon Senate reciting 
the fact that the women's clubs of Port- 
land, in regular session assembled, had 
declared in favor of the Oregon grape as 
a State flower, and asking the legislature 
to enact their recommendation into law. 
What little debate there was indicated a 
practical unanimity of sentiment, and the 
measure was ready for ^le Governor's 
signature on February 2 of that year. 

IX COLORADO THE SCHOOL CHILDREN 
OVERRULE THE LEGISLATORS 

Colorado holds a unique position in the 
matter of flower legislation. The law- 
makers of the Centennial State passed an 
act, approved April 4, 1899, designating 
the white and lavender columbine as the 
State flower of Colorado. This, how- 
ever, did not please the school children. 
Accordingly, on Arbor Day of 1911 they 
submitted the question to a referendum 
in which they were the only qualified 



Digitized by 



Google 



484 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



voters. Out of 22,316 votes cast, 14,472 
were in favor of the blue and white col- 
umbine {Aquilegia ccerulea). No other 
flower received over 1,200 votes. The 
governor and the legislature seem to have 
concluded that the children are the court 
of last resort in such a matter and have 
apparently acquiesced in their decision. 

Louisiana was the next State to act. 
June 20, 1900, a bill making the magnolia 
the State flower was read in the House. 
July 6 it passed that body by a vote of 
62 to 2. Six days later it passed the Sen- 
ate by the unanimous vote of 32 to o. 

Arkansas, by legislative action, Janu- 
ary, 1901, chose the apple blossom. 

The very next month Texas took up 
the question. On February 28, 1901, a 
Senate concurrent resolution was intro- 
duced, the preamble of which recited the 
fact that the National Society of Colonial 
Dames of America, Texas branch, had 
requested of the legislature that it adopt 
*'Lupinus subcarnosiis, generally known 
as the buffalo clover, or bluebonnet," as 
the State flower. Sentiment in favor of 
the bluebonnet was so general that there 
was little debate, and the measure was 
passed and finally approved by the Gov- 
ernor on March 7. 

IX WEST VIRGINIA ALSO THE CHILDREN- 
LEAD THE WAY 

In West Virginia the subject of an of- 
ficial State flower had long been a theme 
of discussion among teachers and others 
interested in school work. It did not 
take form, however, until 1901, when the 
Governor in his message to the legisla- 
ture recommended the adoption of a 
State flower and suggested the rhododen- 
dron, or big Ifiurel, as the most appro- 
priate. 

Under the direction of the State Su- 
perintendent of Free Schools, the school 
children of the State, on the 25th of No- 
vember, 1902, voted upon the question of 
a selection. Out of 33,854 votes cast, 
19,131 were for the laurel, 3.663 for the 
honeysuckle, 3,387 for the wild rose, and 
3,162 for the goldenrod. On the 8th day 
of January, 1903, the legislature adopted 
a joint resolution designating the rhodo- 
dendron, or big laurel, as the official State 
flower. 



California had long been advocating 
the enactment of a law making the golden 
poppy the Golden Gate State's oflicial 
flower. More than fifteen years ago a 
bill was introduced in the Senate and had 
passed both houses, recognizing the yel- 
low-hued beauty; but the Governor ve- 
toed the measure. The House then 
passed it over his veto, but the Senate 
permitted it to die. The bill was rein- 
troduced in the next legislature, January 
21, 1903. It passed the Senate on Feb- 
ruary 2 by a vote of 28 to i. It received 
practically a unanimous vote also in the 
House. On March 2 the new Governor 
advised the legislature that he had ap- 
proved the bill, and the golden poppy be- 
came the State flower of California. 

The bill to make the sunflower the 
floral emblem of Kansas was introduced 
on February 10, 1903. The Senate passed 
it by a vote of 30 to o, and the House by 
31 to o. 

South Dakota's resolution selecting the 
pasque flower as her floral emblem was 
enacted ^larch 4, 1903, and provided 
that on and after the passage of the act 
the State floral emblem of South Dakota 
should be the pasque flower (Anemone 
patens), with the accompanying motto: 
"I lead." 

OHIO CHOOSES MCKINLE\'^S FAVORITE 
FLOWER 

The State of Ohio officially adopted 
the scarlet carnation as its emblematic 
flower on the 29th day of January, 1904. 
Both houses unanimously voted for the 
measure. The law is as follows: "The 
scarlet carnation is hereby adopted as the 
State flower of Ohio, as a token of love 
and reverence for the memory of Wil- 
liam McKinley." 

Connecticut chose the mountain laurel 
as its State flower after a report of the 
Committee on Agriculture in the Senate 
favoring such action. One senator op- 
posed the bill, saying that he regarded it 
as unnecessary legislation, but that' if the 
clover had been recommended he would 
have been inclined to favor it as the near- 
est approach in this country to the sham- 
rock he loved. He doubted, however, if 
there was any necessity for the legisla- 
tion. Another senator declared that he 



Digitized by 



Google 



OUR STATE FLOWERS 



485 



was bound to favor anything three thou- 
sand women could agree on. In the 
House the choice was advocatel in en- 
thusiastic terms. Upon each desk sprigs 
of mountain laurel were distributed by 
persons in favor of the bill. After a 
short discussion it passed. When the 
measure was pending in the Senate the 
botanical name of the laurel was inserted 
by a senator, who complained that the 
request was out of order when some one 
asked him to spell it. 

North Dakota adopted the wild prairie 
rose by legislative action in 1907, the 
same year that Florida's legislature se- 
lected the orange blossom. By act of the 
General Assembly the violet has been the 
State flower of Illinois since the ist of 
July, 190S. 

Utah officially recognized the sego lily 
as its choice by act of its legislature in 
191 1. Indiana selected the carnation by 
legislative act in 1903, but did not specify 
the color of the carnation, which in our 
illustration was left to the artist. 

THE STATE FLOWER MOVEMENT WAS 
STARTED BY NEW YORK 

The State flower movement in the 
United States was started by New York, 
although its legislature has never yet offi- 
cially sanctioned a flower. In 1890 a 
school vote was taken in the entire State, 
with the result that the goldenrod was 
adopted by a vote of 81,308 as against 
79,666 for other candidates. A year later 
the case was reopened, and this time 
the rose led, receiving 294,816 votes as 
against 206,402 for all the other entries. 
From that time the rose has been consid- 
ered New York's official flower, though 
the vote did not specify any particular 
rose. 

Rhode Island also chose its official em- 
blem by the vote of the school children. 
In May, 1897, there was a plebiscite of 
the children, with the result that the 
violet was overwhelmingly favored and 
was declared the representative flower of 
the State. 

The school children in Mississippi 
made the choice for that State. In 1900 
the matter was submitted to a refer- 



endum, with the result that the magnolia 
was their nearly unanimous favorite. 

The violet is also the unhesitating 
choice of the school children of Wiscon- 
sin. In 1909 the matter was submitted 
to a vote, with the result that the violet 
got 67,178 preferences, the rose 31,024, 
the arbutus 27,068, and the white water 
lily 22,648. 

Maine's adherence to the pine cone 
and tassel was given by the vote of the 
public schools of the State, the same be- 
ing true of New Mexico's support of the 
cactus. 

According to reports furnished the 
National Geographic Society by the Sec- 
retaries of State and other officials of the 
several States, Idaho favors the syringa 
by common consent; the wild rose was 
chosen by common consent in Iowa ; the 
Kentucky Historical Society and citizens 
of Kentucky prefer the trumpet vine, and 
the sagebrush is generally accepted in 
Nevada. The people of North Carolina 
favor the daisy generally, while through 
the work of the women's clubs the State 
of Washington held a contest which re- 
sulted in the choice of the rhododendron 
as that Commonwealth's flower (see 
pages 500 and 517). 

TEN STATES HAVE SELECTED NO STATE 
FLOWER 

In the case of Alabama it is reported 
that no action has ever been taken toward 
the adoption of a State flower, though 
several authorities put down the golden- 
rod as its emblematic blossom. 

The people of Maryland are said to 
favor the black-eyed susan, with the sun- 
flower second; but no formal decision 
has yet been made. 

In Massachusetts, although the may- 
flower, because of its good cheer to the 
Pilgrims, has met with great favor, no 
formal selection has been made. Mis- 
souri officials say that no State flower has 
ever been adopted, yet several authorities 
publicly declare that the goldenrod has 
been accepted by a school vote. 

New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, South 
Carolina, and Virginia are without State 
flowers, either officially or unofficially. 
Popular opinion seems never to have 



Digitized by 



Google 



486 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



crystalized about any one flower in these 
States, or in the District of Columbia, 
which also has no floral emblem. 

Although the State authorities in Ten- 
nessee advise that no State flower has 
ever been chosen, one outside list gives 



the goldenrod and another the daisy. 
The same is true in the case of New 
Jersey. The Commissioner of Education 
of that State writes that, so far as he is 
aware, New Jersey has never chosen a 
State flower. 



INDEX TO OUR STATE FLOWERS 



Name of State. 



Name of flower. 



By whom, chosen. 



Text 
pasre. 



Illustra- 
tion 
pasre. 



Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District of Columbia. . . 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New Mexico 

New York 

North Carolina 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

South Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



No choice. 

Sahuaro or Giant Cactus 

Apple Blossom 

Golden Poppy 

Blue Columbine* 

Mountain Laurel 

Peach Blossom 

No choice. 

Orange Blossom 

Cherokee Rose 

Syringa 

Violet 

Carnationt 

Wild Rose 

Sunflower 

Trumpet Vine 

Magnolia 

Pine Cone and Tassel. . . 
No choice. 
No choice. 

Apple Blossom 

Moccasin Flower 

Magnolia 

No choice. 

Bitter Root 

Goldenrod 

Sagebrush 

No choice. 
No choice. 

Cactus 

Roset 

Daisy 

Wild Prairie Rose 

Scarlet Carnation§ 

Mistletoe 

Oregon Grape 

No choice. 

Violet 

No choice. 

Pasque Flower 

No choice. 

Bluebonnet 

Sego Lily 

Red Clover 

No choice. 

Rhododendron 

Rhododendron 

Violet 

Indian Paintbrush 



Legislature 

Legislature 

Legislature 

School Children. 

Legislature 

Legislature 



Legislature 

Legislature 

Common Consent.. 

Legislature , 

Legislature 

Common Consent. 

Legislature , 

Common Consent.. 

Legislature , 

School Children... 



Legislature 

Legislature 

School Children. 



Legislature , 

Legislature 

Common Consent., 



School Children.. 
School Children.. 
Common Consent. 

Legislature 

Legislature 

Legislature 

Legislature 



School Children. 



Legislature 

Legislature 
Legislature 
Legislature 



Common Consent.. 

Legislature 

School Children.. . 
Legislature , 



498 
487 
487 
489 
488 
494 

490 
492 
490 
491 
494 
492 
494 
495 
493 
495 



487 



489 
496 



498 
492 
497 
493 
494 
499 
500 

491 

499 

497 
498 
517 

500 
500 
491 
500 



S13 
501 
502 
503 
503 
507 

504 

505 
S05 
510 
506 
508 
500 
506 
510 



501 
502 
493 506 



504 
511 
503 



513 
512 

S07 
514 
515 

505 

514 

512 

512 
516 

516 

505 

515 



♦ Legislature previously had chosen the lavender and white columbine. 

t Indiana's legislature designated the carnation, but did not specify the color. 

JThe vote did not specify the species of rose selected. 

§ The scarlet carnation of Ohio's choice is of brighter color than the illustration. 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE APPLE BLOSSOM 
(Malus sylvestris Mill) 

The apple blossom shares with the carnation 
the distinction of being the only two flowers 
in Nature's garden that have won two legis- 
latures to their standards in the "battle of the 
buds" for popular affection. While Ohio and 
Indiana have pledged legislative fealty to the 
carnation, Arkansas and Michigan have cast 
their fortunes with the apple blossom (see 
page 501). 

There are a few commonwealths which, while 
agreeing that a thing of beauty is a joy for- 
ever, are yet utilitarian enough to hold that 
when a delight to the eye ripens into a joy to 
the palate it is to be prized above all other 
forms of loveliness. Florida and Delaware 
share this view with Arkansas and Michigan. 

Certainly, whoever has seen an apple orchard 
in full bloom, with its whole acres of pink and 
white petals set in a framework of green, will 
not need to wonder why two legislatures should 
prize especially tlie beauty of the apple blossom. 

The apple blossom is one of the progressives 
of the floral world. It wants a hardy, strong, 
resistant posterity; so it takes careful precau- 
tion to insure cross- fertilization. The stigmas 
reach maturity before the anthers begin to 
shed their pollen, and in this way the insects 
have every opportunity to bring pollen from 
another blossom. But if the bees and the but- 
terflies chance to overlook one, it retains its 
petals until its own anthers are developed and 
can enable it to produce an apple. 

Perhaps nowhere else do we get a more 
striking picture of what selection may accom- 
plish than in the case of the apple tree and 
its fruit. Contrast the stately and spreading 
winesap tree in a well-cultivated orchard with 
the small, knotty-limbed, scaly-wooded wild 
crab tree. Isn't it almost like contrasting a 
stately elm with a dwarfed hawthorn? And 
yet, is there as much difference between the 
ancestral crab and the descendant winesap 
trees as there is between their fruits? 

The wild crab-apple, though a gnarled, 
knotty, thorny, acrid- fruited tree, is the Adam 
of a wonderful race. An orchardist recently 
counted more than three hundred varieties of 
apples, all of them direct descendants of this 
sturdy pioneer. 

What could bear better testimony to the 
value of apples than the poetical proverbs 
which have crept into our language celebrating 
their qualities ! "To eat an apple before going 
to bed will make the doctor beg his bread." 
says one of these; and another declares, "An 
apple eaten every day will send one's doctor 
far away." An old Saxon coronation cere- 
mony carried with it a benediction after this 
fashion: "May this land be filled with apples." 

Any one who looks at a modern apple or- 
chard finds it hard to realize how close is the 
relationship of the apple to the rose, and yet 
they belong to the same order, Rosacae, the 
apple's thorns having passed under the soften- 
ing influences of a kindly civilization. Now 
the only thorn the apple possesses is the figura- 
tive one that is hidden in the green fruit, which 
small boys often discover to their anguish. 



In history, tradition, and mysticism the apple 
has played a distinguished role. Through it, 
we are told, "came man's first disobedience, 
which brought death into the world and all our 
woe." Juno gave Jupiter an apple on their 
wedding day, and a poorly thrown one was the 
immediate cause of the ruin of Troy. Paris 
gave a golden apple to Venus; Atalanta lost 
her race by stopping to pick up one, and the 
fair fruits of the Hesperides were the apples 
of gold. 

In the west of England the village girls used 
to gather crab-apples and mark them with the 
initials of their beaux. The ones that were 
most nearly perfect on old St. Michaelmas Day 
were supposed to represent the lovers who 
would make the best husbands. In our own 
land to this day girls tell their fortunes on 
Hallowe'en by naming the apples and counting 
the seeds. An apple paring thrown over the 
shoulder on that fateful night will form the 
initial of the future mafe. 

THE GOLDEN POPPY 
(Eschscholtzia californica Cham.) 

No State has chosen its representative flower 
more appropriately than Cali f ornia. The golden 
poppy, the very essence of California's sun- 
shine, has woven its brightness into the history 
of the Pacific coast. During the spring months, 
when it covers valley, field, and mountain side 
with a cloth of gold, men, women, and children 
make a festival of poppy-gathering like the 
Japanese at cherry-blossom time (see p. 502). 

Tradition alleges that a tilted mesa north of 
Pasadena when aglow with poppies in the 
spring used to serve as a beacon to coasting 
ships more than twenty-five miles away, a tale 
which is not wisely questioned by one who has 
never seen the glory of a golden-poppy field. 
Certain it is that early Spanish explorers saw 
some of the hillsides covered with these flow- 
ers and named the coast "The Land of Fire." 
It was "sacred to San Pascual," they said, 
"since his altar-cloth is spread upon all its 
hills." 

No State flower had more lovely rivals — 
Baby Blue Eyes, the butterfly or Mariposa 
tulips, the gilias, the lupines, and the Califor- 
nia peony have a firm hold on the affections 
of nature lovers in a Commonwealth from 
whose floral treasures the finest cultivated gar- 
dens in the world have been enriched. But the 
golden poppy safely outdistanced all compet- 
itors and is now the crowned queen of the 
land of the setting sun. 

The scientific name of this poppy was ac- 
quired when a Russian scientific expedition 
under Kotzebue, in 1815, explored what is now 
California. Chamisso, the naturalist of the 
expedition, named it for* Dr. Eschscholtz, a 
companion naturalist, the Bschscholtsia cali- 
fornica. It is an unfortunate name; and the 
extra "t" must have been inserted amid that 
array of consonants with deliberate intent to 
appall the English eye and paralyze the Eng- 
lish-speaking tongue. Though copa de oro, the 
Spanish "cup of gold," has a poetic attractive- 
ness, yeti it is not much used, even by the 
Spanish Americans. 



487 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE MOCCASIN FLOWER 

(Cypripedium acauli Ait.) 

When Minnesota officially decreed, in 1893, 
that the moccasin flower should be its favorite, 
it led all the States in enacting such legisla- 
tion, and it is the only Commonwealth which 
has selected a member of the orchid family 
(see page 502). 

This orchid loves the deep wood and seeks 
a rocky, sandy place, usually as remote as pos- 
sible from human habitation. Once the com- 
monest of orchids, now it is one of the rarest. 
The friend of the moccasin flower who said 
that it *'is generally and destructively appre- 
ciated" accurately sized up the situation. 

We have heard much about prize-fighters 
being overtrained and extinct mammals being 
overspecialized, and now it has been said that 
the moccasin flower is overorganized. It is 
preeminently a flower that believes in the doc- 
trine of cross-fertilization, and therefore has 
developed so complex a system of protecting 
its stigmas and anthers from self-fertilization 
that it often defeats its own ends and must 
rely on root propagation. 

In order to insure itself the cross-fertiliza- 
tion it demands, the stamens are placed back 
of the pistil in such a position that the pollen 
cannot be transferred except by outside agen- 
cies. The open end of the pouch is nearly 
closed with a singular, broad, scoop-shaped, 
sterile anther which shields the fertile anthers 
and stigma. The flower is so arranged that 
the bee which applies for a cup of nectar must 
come inside and do a little crowding to get 
room enough to stand. When the delightful 
draught is quaffed and the winged beggar 
turns to leave, it is confronted with a straight 
and narrow way out, and before the open can 
be reached our bee must squeeze under a re- 
ceptive stigma covered with sticky hairs which 
comb the pollen grains from the fuzzy back of 
the visitor. But still the guest has not satisfied 
the flower's bill. It must carry pollen to some 
other flower. And so, working its way out, 
the bee has to creep under an anther that is 
placed almost across its path, getting a coating 
of pollen as it passes to take the place of that 
combed out by the pistil. 

It is a short stay that the blossoms of the 
moccasin flower make in their annual visit to 
the woods. They come in May and say fare- 
well in June. It gladdens some of the Cana- 
dian woods, reaches as far south as North 
Carolina, and makes Minnesota its western- 
most home. 

THE SAGEBRUSH 

(Artemisia tridentata Nutt.) 

Nevada's floral queen is not famed for its 
retiring disposition; neither is it known for its 
beauty; nor yet is it distinguished for its ag- 
gressiveness or the usefulness of its product. 
Rather, it is content to soften the sternness of 
the unoccupied, semi-arid lands of the South- 
west until the farmer comes along. Into his 
ear it whispers the information that where it 
grows alfalfa will flourish. After imparting 



this information, it is content to endure the 
woes of surrendering its home. The farmer, 
using a railroad rail or a plank-drag, clears 
his ground of it and puts in its stead a field 
of alfalfa (see page 503). 

The sagebrush belongs to the composite fam- 
ily, and its immediate cousins are widely dis- 
tributed. They are known as the artemisias, 
and there are a host of them, many with im- 
portant uses in the economy of civilization. 
Artemisia absinthium is popularly known as 
wormwood ; from it comes the bitter, aromatic 
liquor known as eau or creme d'absinthe. 
Many of its cousins grow in Asia and Europe, 
including the mugwort, used by the Germans 
as a seasoning in cookery; southernwood, used 
by the British to drive away moths from linen 
and woolens and to force newly swarmed bees, 
which have a peculiar antipathy for it, into the 
hive; and tarragon, used by the Russians as 
an ingredient for pickling and in the prepara- 
tion of fish sauce. 

Sagebrush itself is found as far east as 
Colorado and is one of the dominating shrubs 
of the great basin which lies between the 
Rockies and the Sierra Nevada Mountains. 

The artemisias derived their name from Ar- 
temisia, the beautiful wife of King Mausolus. 
The magnificent tomb she erected to his mem- 
ory at Halicarnassus has given the name mau- 
soleum to every elaborate tomb from that day 
to this. Americans thought so highly of this 
wonderful structure that they duplicated it in 
the national capital. The Southern Jurisdic- 
tion of the Scottish Rite Masons of America 
copied it for their great American temple, and 
today Artemisia's architectural conception is 
one of the show places of one of the most 
beautiful cities of the earth. 



THE MOUNTAIN LAUREL 
(Kalmis latifolia L.) 

When Connecticut's legislature adopted the 
mountain laurel as the Nutmeg State's repre- 
sentative flower, it chose one that is a patrician 
in its history, a blue-blood in its family rela- 
tionships, and an Adonis or a Venus in its 
beauty. 

In its floral relationships the mountain laurel 
is identified with the heath family, some of its 
kinsfolk being the trailing arbutus, the wnnter- 
green, the rhododendron, the white swamp and 
wild honeysuckles, the flaming azalea, and the 
Lapland rose bay (see page 503). 

Because it grows in places where the bees 
and butterflies are not so numerous as they 
are in the fields, the mountain laurel has taken 
care that no visitor shall escape without ren- 
dering it the service of messenger. When the 
flower opens its stigma is erect, but the anthers 
are fastened down with a trigger-like arrange- 
ment, one in each of ten little pockets in the 
flower. The bee that creeps down into the 
flower for a sip of nectar releases a tiny 
spring, like a mouse entering a trap. The re- 
leased anther flies up and dusts its pollen on 
the hairy body of the insect Now, if you take 
this pollen and put it under a good microscope, 



488 



Digitized by 



Google 



you will see that each grain is in reality a 
cluster of four tiny balls resembling oranges. 
Indeed, in passing it may be observed that each 
species of plant seems to possess some special 
whim in the shape of its pollen, with its own 
peculiar devices of exterior decoration and 
structural form. The laurel's clusters of tiny 
balls ride safely on the bee as he flies to the 
next flower, and as he stoops for a sip of that 
blossom's honey they are brushed off by the 
ready pistil and the flower is fertilized. 

Since ants can never render it any pollen- 
bearing service, the mountain laurel has set 
traps to protect its nectar from their ravages. 
It mounts its flowers on hairy stems and covers 
the hairs with a sticky substance, so that if 
Mr. Ant does not heed the warnings of the 
bristles that no trespassing will be allowed he 
promptly finds himself wading through a field 
of glue that pinions his feet until he dies an 
ignominious death as a would-be thief. 

No friend of the stock-raiser is the moun- 
tain laurel. In the springtime, when the cattle- 
growers in the valleys of the East drive their 
herds to the grazing farms on the mountains, 
the laurel is the greenest thing in sight. A 
winter on dry fodder has made every animal 
hungry for a change of diet ; so that, although 
the herd is urged on, one nip after another is 
taken of the laurel bushes along the roadside, 
until, the first thing the drover knows, two or 
three members of his herd have an overdose 
of laurel, with "blind staggers" as a result. 
Usually a day or two brings the affected cattle 
around, and once on the range, they seldom 
or never touch the laurel. Only when there is 
nothing else green in reach will they leave the 
straight and narrow way of abstinence to in- 
dulge in "sheep kill," as it is sometimes called. 

There are many plants that are poisonous, a 
quality developed as a weapon of defense. 
And what would we do without our plant 
poisons? Opium, which in spite of its abuses 
is a boon to humanity, is merely the self-de- 
fense of the poppy turned to the service of 
man. The laurel, too, belongs to the class of 
poison-producers. If let alone it drapes the 
mountainside with lacy bloom, and never hurts 
any creature that treats it with respect; but 
woe betide the one that dares to eat it 

The mountain laurel is distinctly an Eastern 
plant. It flourishes from New Brunswick to 
the Gulf of Mexico, but, unlike so many flow- 
ers that have kept pace with man as he has 
followed the star of empire westward, it has 
never crossed the Mississippi Valley. Once 
there came to the United States a Swedish 
naturalist, Peter Kalm. After making the ac- 
quaintance of our American flowers, he de- 
cided that the laurel was his preference. He 
gathered some young plants, took them to 
Europe, and introduced them on many a fine 
estate. He also contributed to the plant its 
scientific name, "kalmia." 

THE COLORADO COLUMBINE 

(Aquilegia coenilea James) 

The school children and the legislature of 
Colorado do not agree upon the issue of a 



State flower. Both have voted the honor to 
the columbine, but the legislature nineteen years 
ago awarded the wreath of fame to the white- 
and-lavender, while six years ago the school 
children chose the blue-and-white. An out- 
sider may declare his neutrality and admira- 
tion for both (see page 503). 

It is reputed that in no other region does 
the coltohbine grow more beautiful or so large 
as in Colorado. The people of the Centennial 
State have no hesitancy in declaring that their 
flower is four times as large as the "Down 
East" species. 

A native of the lower mountain regions, 
blooming from April to July and ranging from 
Montana to Mexico, the columbine cheers 
every pathway that leads up toward the realm 
of summer snows. 

The name "columbine" comes from the 
Latin for dove, and was applied because the 
flower has a fancied resemblance to a group 
of dainty little doves. Its other name, "aqui- 
legia," was given it because the spurs of the 
flower possess a resemblance — somewhat indis- 
tinct in the Colorado blossom — to the talons 
of the eagle. Thus the columbine may with 
equal claim play the role of dove of peace or 
eagle of war. 

It has many exquisite relatives, among them 
the clematis, the anemones, the hepaticas, the 
rues, the spearworts, the buttercups, the mari- 
golds, the larkspurs, and the monkshoods. 

The various species of columbine have a 
wide range. The flower possesses all Europe 
and occupies that part of Asia between north- 
ern Siberia and the Himalayas. 

In the northern half of the world there are 
about fifty varieties of columbine, of which 
some twenty occur in North America. 



THE BITTER ROOT 
(Lewisia rediviva Pursh) 

The bitter root played a part, though a small 
and inconspicuous one, in that epic of Ameri- 
can exploration, the Lewis and Clark Expedi- 
tion. It was the specimen taken from the her- 
barium of Meriwether Lewis that was first 
described by the botanist Pursh and named 
Lewisia rediviva (see page 504). 

The acquisition of a dignified Latin name 
seems to have been the first forward step in 
its career; from the simple ornament of the 
primeval wilderness and friend of the Indian, 
this blushing beauty has risen to the magnifi- 
cent position of chosen flower of Montana, the 
Treasure State, and has given its English 
name — bitter root — to a mountain range, a 
river, and to the famous Bitter Root Valley. 

Bitter Root Valley, the depression which sep- 
arates the Bitter Root Mountains from the 
Rockies for a distance of about 105 miles, long 
before the white man penetrated the great 
West, was a favored spot. The snow melted 
earliest within its sheltered heart; the storms 
blew less fiercely over its mountain walls; 
spring smiled there soonest, and answering 
smiles seemed to brighten the meadows when 



489 



Digitized by 



Google 



the bitter root held up its colored bowls to 
catch the sunbeams. 

The Indians took a practical interest in the 
plant, for they knew that its thick, starchy 
roots could furnish food. When their brown 
covering is removed and the fleshy part dried, 
these roots will dissolve in water almost like 
pure starch, and when heated become a nu- 
tritious paste. This value was sufficient to give 
the plant great importance in the eyes of the 
savages, and they named the near-by moun- 
tains and river after it. 

What stirring incidents of pioneer days the 
bitter root may have witnessed we do not 
know. Gradually its old friends, the Selish 
Indians, were replaced by white settlers, and 
the lovable flower seems to have had no diffi- 
culty in winning the hearts of the newcomers. 
Meantime mining strikes, boom towns, cow- 
punchers, Vigilantes, built the generous, ro- 
mantic, picturesque structure of Montana's 
early history, which was crowned in 1889 with 
statehood. It was not until 1895 that the citi- 
zens of the Commonwealth found time from 
developing the abundant resources of the 
Treasure State to choose a State flower ; when 
they did so, by legislative resolution they voiced 
their affection for this eager-faced, native blos- 
som — ^the bitter root 

Of course, the habitat of Lewisia rediviva is 
not confined to the valley it has named, nor to 
the State of Montana. The visitor to Yellow- 
stone may find an occasional specimen, al- 
though it is rare within the limits of the park. 
It is naturally most plentiful in dry, sandy, or 
gravelly soil, such as may be found along the 
Lewis and Bitter Root rivers. 

Nuttall, in 1834, said of it: "This curious 
plant constitutes a very distinct natural order," 
and decided that it was most nearly related to 
the cactus family. The flower he describes as 
"very large, wholly like that of the cactus, rose 
red." Since, however, botanists have classified 
the bitter root as allied to the purslane family, 
Portulacaceae, Its resemblance to the gay gar- 
den portulaca, a native of the hot plains of 
southern Brazil, is apparent; but it is not so 
easy to connect it with that persistent weed, 
the common purslane, which the farmer has 
condemned by his forceful comparison, "As 
mean as pusley !" 

The bitter root's relations, poor or otherwise, 
are of no importance in the eyes of the Mon- 
tanan, who cares only that it was found rooted 
in the soil and has made itself inseparable 
from the history of his wonderful country. 



THE ORANGE BLOSSOM 

(Citrus sinensis Osbeck) 

Who that has seen loved ones given in marr 
riage, with the orange blossoms lending the 
touch of their beauty to the bride, can help but 
sympathize with the sentiments of Florida's 
legislators when they enacted into law the 
State's affection for the flower of its favorite 
fruit? And while the orange blossom is ad- 
mired and honored by its association with the 



bridal hour, the fruit is known wherever men 
and women who love good things to eat fore- 
gather (see page 504). 

While the orange is not native to America, 
being in reality a comparatively recent immi- 
grant, there are more orange trees in the 
United States than in any other part of the 
world. Fourteen million trees were grow^ing 
in this country in 1909, two for every thirteen 
people. Of these, Florida had nearly three 
million, while most of the others were in 
California. 

The orange appears to have originated in 
China and the Burmese Peninsula. Thence it 
was carried to India and Hindustan. There 
the Arabs met it, fancied it, and gave it a foot- 
ing in Mesopotamia at the beginning of the 
tenth century. From Asia it was introduced 
into northern Africa and Spain, traveling with 
the conquering armies of Islam. It journeyed 
with the Spaniards from Europe to South 
America, where it was found by missionaries 
from this country, who sent some small trees 
to Florida and California. These took root, 
thrived, and straightway the American orange 
became one of our chief blessings. 

In favorable seasons and in well-kept 
groves, trees bear from 400 to 1,000 oranges 
each. Being slow in reaching maturity, they 
are slow also in giving up their privilege of 
producing their golden fruit. Carefully tended 
trees usually yield for fifty years, and some 
arc productive for eighty years. Occasionally 
a sturdy centenarian is found bearing fruit in 
abundance ; but so great has been the improve- 
ment of the orange under modern methods of 
plant-breeding that the product of these hardy 
old trees seems bitter and unpalatable, although 
it may have delighted ten thousand feasters in 
its day. 

Those who have not been privileged to visit 
an orangery and there taste the nature- 
ripened fruit in all its golden lusciousness can- 
not know fully how delicious an orange may- 
be. The orange that goes to market and must 
wait weeks before it can get out of the hands 
of the retailer and into those of the consumer 
is packed before it is ripe, and few fruits gath- 
ered unripe can ever be as delicious as those 
which have hung on the spit of the twig and 
toasted to a proper flavor before the sun. 

The orange tree is an evergreen, and culti- 
vated varieties seldom exceed 30 feet in height. 
Blossoms, green oranges, and ripe fruit are 
often seen on the same tree, but usually the 
trees bloom in the spring and ripen their fruit 
in the fall. The oily, acrid peel of the orange 
is an effective means which Nature employs to 
seal up her packages of fruit. The germ or 
the insect that could break through a healthy 
orange skin would be a brave and persistent 
creature. 



THE SYRINGA 

(Philadelphus lewisii Pursh) 

The queen of Idaho's wild flower garden 
is by unanimous acclaim the modest syringa. 
Philadelphus lewisii, which is limited in its 



490 



Digitized by 



Google 



territory to the western group of States, from 
Montana and Wyoming to Washington and 
California. Its flowers matching the orange 
blossom in beauty, its bursting buds appearing 
to be fairly pin-cushions, its fragrance as de- 
lightful as the odors that sweep over Elysian 
fields, its leaves a delicate, soft, shimmering 
green, the Idaho syringa is a shrub well 
equipped to awaken enthusiasm in every lover 
of flowers (see page 505). 

The syringa belongs to the saxifrage family, 
which has some 250 species scattered through- 
out the North Temperate world. It has many 
close relatives — ^various species of Philadel- 
phus, which is the botanical name for all the 
species we in our common garden variety of 
nomenclature call the syringas. There is Phil- 
adclphus grandiflorus, which grows in the 
South Atlantic States and is famous for its 
rich and fragrant flowers; Philadelphus ino- 
dorus, with the same range, but without the 
same fragrance; Philadelphus hirsutus, dwell- 
ing in the North Carolina-Alabama mountains 
and arraying itself in hairy leaves; Philadel- 
phus coronarius, the mock orange of the East- 
ern States and everywhere loved for its beau- 
tiful and wonderfully fragrant blossoms. 

The syringas are unfortunate in their popu- 
lar name. Ptolemy Philadelphus loved them 
and they became Philadelphus this or Phila- 
delphus that. But the world at large wanted 
a name more to popular liking and by common 
consent they became syringas. Now that would 
be all right if it did not happen that syringa is 
the botanical name of the lilac, to which family 
the popularly named syringas bear no relation. 



THE VIOLET 
(Viola) 

One does not often meet two flowers so 
different in appearance, so dissimilar in dispo- 
sition, so unlike in their tastes, as the modest 
blue violet and the gorgeous goldenrod, the 
one content to be seen only by the eyes that 
search for it, the other seeking the spotlight 
of every landscape, so that no eye may over- 
look it (see page 505). 

And yet the little violet blossom and the big 
yellow flower are rivals for the highest honors 
in flowerland. Three States have adopted the 
violet and a fourth is not yet sure on which 
side of the issue between them it will finally 
line up. Illinois has cast its lot with the violet 
by legislative action. Nebraska has come out 
for the goldenrod by the same route. Rhode 
Island) and Wisconsin have by the votes of 
their school children declared themselves cham- 
pions of the violet. On the other hand, Mis- 
souri and Alabama are reputed to favor the 
goldenrod, although no action recognized by 
either State government has been taken. New 
Jersey is agreed that her flower shall be one 
or the other, and there is a rumor that she 
wishes it could be both. Yet no one can blame 
this indecision on the lack of grounds for 
choice between them, for there is certainly 
little else than choice. Habit, color, haunt, dis- 
position, almost every point, is different in 
them. 



There are many violets scattered over the 
country, among them the "bird-foot," the 
"common," the "arrow-leaved," the "marsh," 
the "sweet white," the "lance-leaved," the 
"downy yellow," and even the "dog." But, 
whatever their distinctions, they are all good 
to look upon, interesting to study, and modest 
to a fault. Best of all, they manage in their 
several species to gladden all communities 
from the Arctic to the Gulf and from the 
Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific 

Perhaps first among all the species is the 
common or purple hooded. Its royal color, 
its gentle dignity, its rich profusion, its wide 
range of territory, have given it a deep hold 
on popular affection. The different species 
are distinguished as stemmed and stemless, 
bearded and beardless, by the character of the 
spur, the color of the flower, and the shape of 
the leaf. In most of them the lower petal is 
prolonged backward so as to form a spur and 
a nectar jar, which is usually protected by 
little tufts of hair at the throat of the flower. 

Some violets have put; away the ordinary 
processes of inbreeding and now strive, by pro- 
ducing- liberal supplies of nectar, to attract the 
bees and butterflies and to enlist their services 
as carriers. But, knowing how readily their 
insect friends are wooed away by the more 
showy, more thickly clustered flowers of other 
families, they have not abandoned entirely the 
old idea of self-fertilization. If they fail to 
set seed by the cross- fertilization method, they 
promptly develop small, inconspicuous blos- 
soms that fertilize themselves, and therefore 
enable the plant to produce sufficient seeds to 
prevent its extinction by the race-suicide route. 

One writer who knows the poetry of flower- 
land tells us that the witch-hazel is not the 
only sharpshooter of the autumn wood. Down 
among the dry leaves, he declares, it has a 
tiny rival, the blue violet, with which it occa- 
sionally exchanges a salute. The latter closes 
its reign as a debutante among the blossoms 
in May. Then it settles down to the stern 
realities of life and the production of seeds. 
As the late autumn comes, its pods begin to 
force out their tiny seeds just as the small boy 
shoots a cherry stone by pressing it between 
his thumb and finger. Each pod in- its turn 
fires away, hurling the seed babies as far as 
10 feet, with an admonition that they creep 
down into the soil, there to dwell in darkness, 
silence, and inactivity until the winds whisper 
to the pines the glad news that spring is com- 
ing, and that message is passed along to the 
seeds under the snow. 

Violets have figured in many of the ro- 
mances of civilization. An old tradition has it 
that the flower was raised from the body of lo 
by the agency of Diana. Homer and Virgil 
knew its delicate beauty, and the Athenians 
were never so much complimented as when 
they were said to be violet-crowned. 

The pansy that we love so well and for 
which our English cousins have so many nick- 
names is, after all, only a violet that has had 
a chance. Some call it "Heart's-ease," others 
"Meet-her-in-the-entry," others "Kiss-her-in- 
the-buttery," and still others "Jump-up-and- 
kiss-me" and "Tickle-my-fancy." 



491 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE ROSE 

Four States consider the rose, in one form 
or another, their emblematic flower. New York 
school children adopted the rose without any 
adjective limiting the selection. Georgia, by 
legislative resolution, considers the Cherokee 
rose as her flower. Iowa/ by the same method 
of choice, made the wild rose hers. North Da- 
kota's legislature selected the wild prairie rose 
for that State. 

The Cherokee rose, which has white petals 
and yellow stamens, was imported from China 
and is believed by botanists to be the one from 
which the Chinese developed the fragrant 
double Banksian roses. 

Certain it is that from the standpoint of the 
florist, if not from the standpoint of general 
sentiment, the rose is our national flower. And 
yet the florist's rose, which delights milady's 
boudoir with its fragrance as well as with its 
beauty, is one of the most imperfect of flowers. 
To the wild flowers it is deformed, a freak, 
unable to fight its own way in the war of blos- 
soms for place and position. 

That busybody, man, who is always mak- 
ing flower and insect, plant and animal, all 
serve his purposes, went out and gathered 
some natural roses and started to make them 
over to meet his own ideals of beauty and 
fragrance. But how he did interfere with their 
perfection when he tried to magnify their 
beauty ! He, in very fact, made them unfit for 
survival in the garden of Nature. No natural 
rose was ever such a poor seed-bearer as the 
American Beauty or Jacqueminot. Set these 
out to fight for themselves and they would dis- 
appear forever — for the more perfect the rose, 
from the flower-show standpoint, the more im- 
perfect from a natural standpoint. And why? 
When the florist took this rose in hand he 
concluded it had too many stamens and not 
enough petals, so one by one he converted the 
stamens into petals, step by step he bred out 
of the flower the ability to set seed and bred 
into it the quality of looking handsome, until 
it is what we have today. 

Other flowers, like the lotus of Egypt, the 
chrysanthemum of Japan, come and go, but 
still the rose is queen of the flower world. 
That maiden of ancient civilization who sang 
of it as being full of love, the servant of Aph- 
rodite, cradling itself on its nodding stalk and 
playing with the smiling zephyrs which kiss it 
as they pass, beautifully expressed what many 
a modern admirer of the rose has felt. 

Again, the rose is as famous in legend and 
history as for its beauty and fragrance. 

For three hundred years the youngest peer 
of France, on the first day of May, brought to 
the court in an elaborate silver bowl the an- 
nual tribute of roses. In Egypt mattresses for 
the wealthy were made from the flowers' sun- 
dried petals. The Romans placed them at the 
entrance of the banquet hall when the things 
which transpired within were not to be men- 
tioned without; hence our '*sub rosa" In 
China roses play an important part in funeral 
rites, and in some parts of Europe girls prick 
their fingers, extract a drop of blood, and bury 
it under a rose bush to insure the color in 
their cheeks. 



Then there is the commercial side of rose 
culture. It is said that there are more than 
100,000,000 of the cut blossoms sold annually 
in the United States. Many new varieties are 
propagated each year. One European col- 
lector, trying to keep pace with the constant 
additions to the list, has gathered 4,200 diflfcr- 
ent kinds and still finds his collection incom- 
plete. 

How long it has been since man first learned 
to develop new qualities in the rose is not 
known. That the Romans knew the secret of 
flower breeding is certain. And it appears that 
perhaps in even more remote time the Japanese 
and Chinese gardeners were crossing varieties 
and producing hybrid species. The trade in 
attar of roses has been hard hit by the war, and 
many are the hands that once labored to de- 
light the world with the bottled fragrance of 
the rose, but which now work to produce the 
death-dealing thunderbolts. It requires ten 
tons of rose petals to make a pound of the 
attar — ^20,000 pounds concentrated into one ! A 
pound of this luxurious perfume is worth $200. 



THE WILD ROSE 
(Rosa Carolina L.; Rosa humilis Marsh) 

There is nothing about the simple loveliness 
of the wild rose to suggest that she is a queen 
who has never come into her own ; yet, as the 
original from which all the reigning beauties 
of the rose-fancier*s garden and the florist's 
window have been developed, royal honors are 
her due. She resembles rather a little flower 
princess too fragile to brave the dangers of 
rocky hillsides or meadows close to busy high- 
ways. However, Nature has provided this 
seeming innocent with arms for protection 
and wiles for perpetuation (see page 506). 

Sharp downward-turning prickles discour- 
age cattle from eating the foliage and prevent 
the field mice from climbing the stems to steal 
the fruit in the autumn, when the hips, or ber- 
ries, are ripe. These prickles also help the 
plant to hold its position when it grows on the 
side of a bank. 

The delicate fragrance of the usually soli- 
tary pink blossoms, and the solid center of 
bright yellow stamens, rich with pollen, attract 
a variety of insects. Bumblebees, requiring a 
firmer support than the petals would give, 
alight directly on the center of the flower, so 
that pollen from other flowers is likely to 
reach the pistil. Occasionally self-fertilization 
takes place in a simply constructed blossom 
which yields abundant pollen. 

"The wild rose never outstays St. Mary 
Magdalen," is a fairly true English saying, for 
her day, July 22d, generally ends its season. 
Each delicate flower has about two days of 
life. During rainy weather the petals fold 
over the green stigmas and -the yellow stamens 
to protect them from moisture. The blossom 
closes with the last rays tff daylight and re- 
opens as the sun dispels the darkness, so that 
only the careful observer and the early riser 
realize that it "draws the drapery of its couch 



492 



Digitized by 



Google 



about it and lies down to pleasant dreams." 
It is true that some wild roses may be foimd 
open at night, but these are the ones whose 
seeds are fertilized and whose pollen is carried 
off, so that rain and dew are no longer to be 
feared. 

The bright red "hips" have a pleasant flavor, 
but their outer covering irritates the throat, 
and today they are left for wild things to eat 
Old writers refer to them as highly esteemed 
delicacies. "Children with great delight eat 
the berries thereof when they are ripe, and 
make chaines and other pretty geegaws of the 
fruit : cookes and gentlewomen make tarts and 
suchlike dishes for pleasure," testifies one. 
We are rich enough in more luscious fruit to- 
day to forego thip doubtful dainty. The "hip" 
is designed to tempt the birds, which some- 
times drop the seeds it contams miles away 
from the mother plant 

Large swellings or galls are frequently 
found on the rose bush. "Robin's Cushions," 
the country people call them, although they 
have nothing to relate them to the robin except 
a somewhat reddish color. Their origin is 
found in a kind of wasp — the rose-gall — ^which 
punctures a bud and lays its eggs inside. 
Numerous larvae are hatched and later creep 
into the leaf tissue, while the bud swells into 
a gall. The taste of these objects is suffi- 
ciently unpleasant to have gained for them a 
reputation for medicinal virtue in earlier days. 

The choice of the wild rose, by common 
consent, as the State flower of Iowa is only 
one of many tributes to it English poetry 
breathes its fragrance in many pretty verses. 
The scenes of Scott's "Lady of the Lake" are 
profuse with "wild rose, eglantine, and broom." 
Yet so elusive is the charm of this blossom's 
simplicity that it remained for a great Ameri- 
can composer to express it most truly in the 
wistful sweetness of music 



THE WILD PRAIRIE ROSE 
(Rosa blanda) 

North Dakota's floral queen is the species 
known to botanists as rosa blanda; to others 
by various names in different localities. Rang- 
ing from Newfoundland to New Jersey and 
westward to where the Rocky Mountains cut 
off its march toward the land of the setting 
sun, it is known here as the "smooth," there as 
the "early," and elsewhere as the "meadow." 
It is indeed a bland rose, for usually it is en- 
tirely unarmed, with neither true thorn nor 
bark-attached prickle to defend itself. Now 
and then it may possess a few weak prickles 
as a sort of family crest or to show its friend- 
liness with its thorny relatives. Its flowers are 
a trifle larger than those of the climbing rose 
and change from pink to pure white. 

The wild rose has many relatives. Among 
these are the strawberry, with its tufted stem, 
the cinquefoils, with their creeping traits, the 
spikelike bumett and agrimony, the scrambling 
blackberries and raspberries, the blackthorn 
and the hawthorn, the cherry, the mountain 



ash, the apple and the pear— every variety of 
size and shape and style, from the lowly creeper 
to the big spreading tree, within the limits of 
a single flower family. 



THE MAGNOLIA 
(Magnolia grandiflora L.) 

When Louisiana's legislature and Missis- 
sippi's school children awarded the magnolia 
the high praise of rating it first among the 
flowers of their respective States and declar- 
ing that it best typifies their ideals and ex- 
presses their aspirations, they selected a floral 
emblem widely known and universally ad- 
mired, not less for its exquisite beauty than 
for its delightful fragrance. The Chinese re- 
gard the magnolia as symbolical of candor and 
beauty, and whoever has known the sweetness 
of its perfume and the charm of its blossom 
can appreciate the tribute (see page 5p6). 

There are many kinds of magnolias, each 
with its own peculiar attractions. But queen 
of them all is the grandiflora, which has bor- 
rowed all the beauties of the laurel and the 
rhododendron. It has a straight trunk, two 
feet in diameter, which often rises to a height 
of 70 feet. It is an evergreen, with leaves not 
unlike those of the laurel, glossy green on top, 
rusty brown beneath, and oval-oblong in shape. 
It bears a profusion of large, creamy white, 
lemon-scented flowers. As these latter reach 
their final stages before the petals fall, they 
turn a pale apricot hue. When fruiting time 
comes it is a cone of dangling scarlet seeds 
that we see. 

There are numerous other varieties indig- 
enous to America, among them the glauca, a 
beautiful evergreen species found in low situ- 
ations near the sea, from Massachusetts to 
Louisiana. Another is the "cucumber tree," 
well known for its small fruits resembling cu- 
cumbers. Its range is from Pennsylvania to 
the Carolinas, mostly in the mountains. Its 
wood is much prized by farmers for making 
hay ladders, bowls, and other implements and 
utensils where a hard, non-warping material is 
needed. Still another species is the umbrella 
tree. The tulip tree, also a member of the 
family, is of American origin. 

The Chinese have a species- of magnolia 
which gives them a medicine for healing and 
a flavor for improving the gustatory qualities 
of boiled rice. It is said that India has a spe- 
cies that surpasses all others in size, having a 
trunk which sometimes attains a girth of 12 
feet and reaches a height of 150 feet Western 
Europe has gathered species from China, 
Japan, India, and America, and although all 
of them are imported, they seldom reach the 
magnificence in their native habitat that they 
attain under the careful attentions of the 
landscape gardeners in the climes of their 
adoption. 

The beetle is the special insect patron of the 
magnolia. Abundant pollen and nectar in pro- 
fusion suit it so well that instead of making a 
fleeting visit to a flower it shelters itself in the 
soft petals and stays and stays until dispos- 



493 



Digitized by 



Google 



sessed by the fading of the blossom. Then 
only does it go to another field tp pasture ; but 
as it goes it carries liberal quantities of pollen 
grains with which to reward its new host for 
the food and drink and shelter it seeks and 
secures. 

THE PEACH BLOSSOM 
(Amygdalus persica L.) 

Who that has wandered through a f ull-blo\vn 
peach orchard, inhaling the fragrance of a mil- 
lion buds and feasting the eye upon acres of 
heavenly pink, can fail to applaud Delaware's 
choice of the peach blossom as her State 
flower (see page 507). 

A deep claim has the peach upon national 
admiration as well as upon local affection, for 
it ranks second among all the inhabitants of 
the American orchard in the money value of 
its annual crop of fruit. It yields about two 
bushels for every family in the land, and the 
product ranges from the delicious Elberta to 
the small, neglected cling-stone of the wayside 
volunteer tree. 

Of ancient lineage is the peach. Indeed, so 
far back can it be traced that its origin is 
lost in the mazes of Chinese tradition. Trav- 
elers from Persia saw it in China, loved it, and 
carried it home with them. Here they gave it 
firm root and endowed it with the name it 
bears. Thence it traveled westward, a sort of 
pacemaker for the Star of Empire. The Ro- 
mans in the days of Claudius brought it to 
Italy's shores and thence carried it to Britain. 
By the time of the discovery of America it had 
made all Europe its friend and was ready to 
join the pioneers in shipping for America. 

Before the War of 1812 it had crossed the 
Mississippi and was found as far west as Ar- 
kansas. In those days there were many hardy 
varieties, and where they once gained a foot- 
hold they maintained it without human aid. 
To this day one may journey through the Blue 
Ridge and Allegheny Mountains and see 
gnarled and knotty old trees, which must have 
outlived several generations of men, still bear- 
ing their small but delicious cling-stone fruit. 

THE CARNATION 
(Dianthus caryophyllus L.) 

This beautiful blossom belongs to the pink 
family. When man first looked upon it and 
conceived the intention of leading it captive to 
grace the flower garden and to add to the 
shekels in the florist's purse, it was the modest 
little clove pink, such as may still be seen on 
the slopes of turf that succeed the great chalk 
cliffs of the Cheddar Gorge^ in Somerset 
County, England. The Briton considers it the 
rarest wild flower in Nature's garden (see pp. 
507 and 510). 

How long it is since the carnation joined the 
ranks of domesticated flowers no one can say 
with certainty, but that it was a favorite flower 
in Queen Elizabeth's day is certain. The 
"Winter's Tale" was published in 1623, In 
that play Shakespeare tells us that *'the fairest 
flowers of the season are our carnations." 

Many honors have been paid the carnation 



by man, and in its turn it has helped honor the 
memories of those who have counted for some- 
thing in our lives. The scarlet carnation was 
William McKinley's flower, and to this day 
Americans who pause to honor his memory 
wear it on his birthday. When the movement 
for an annual "Mothers* Day" reached impor- 
tant proportions, it was a white carnation that 
was set aside as the badge of her purity, her 
goodness, and the nobility and self-sacrifice of 
her soul. 

Horticulturists have vied with one another 
in producing carnations of rare beauty, some 
of which have won nation-wide reputations 
and names. Men have given many thousands 
of dollars for control of a new variety. 

Two States have by legislative action adopted 
the carnation as their favorite flower — Ohio 
and Indiana. Ohio has taken the scarlet car- 
nation (of a brighter color than that pictured 
on page 507) as emblematic of its spirit, and 
Indiana has chosen the carnation, without de- 
fining the color. 

THE SUNFLOWER 
(Helianthus annuus L.) 

It is fitting that such a genuinely American 
Commonwealth as Kansas should choose a 
genuinely American flower to represent it at 
home and abroad. And the sunflower is such, 
for the Old World's eyes never fell upon it 
until the days when the exploration of the 
New World began. The Incas of Peru and 
the Hurons of our own country alike were en- 
joying it as a cultivated crop when the white 
man first visited them. They used it much as 
the bamboo growers use the bamboo — as a Jack 
of all Services. Its seeds they found useful 
alike as food and as the raw material of a 
home-made hair oil ; its petals were utilized in 
the manufacture of a yellow dye; its leaves 
served them as fodder and from its stalk they 
secured their thread (see page 508). 

The sunflower, along with the goldenrod, the 
black-eyed susan, the asters, and many others, 
is a member of the composite family, the Na- 
poleons of finance and industry in the flower 
world. If there were politics and politicians 
among the flowers, there would be a Kvely 
campaign against the "trusts," for the compo- 
sites seem bent upon a monopoly of the nectar 
business. They are efficiency experts, knowing 
how to crowd hundreds of blossoms into a 
single head, with brilliant ray flowers at the 
edge to attract their insect customers. It has 
been estimated that one-ninth of all the flower- 
ing plants of the earth have joined tJie com- 
posite group, and that it includes in the United 
States and Canada alone more than 1,600 spe- 
cies. 

The wild sunflower is the one that gave 
Kansas the title of "The Sunflower State." 
Its range extends from the Atlantic seaboard, 
through Kansas, and from the Northwestern 
Territory to the Gulf of Mexico. 

Like the potato, which is the world's most 
productive food crop, like maize, which has 
marched to the ends of the earth, and like the 
tomato, which has come to enjoy a place all 
its own in the culinary establishments of civili- 



494 



Digitized by 



Google 



zation, the sunflower is a native American 
gone forth to render rich recompense to other 
nations and other continents for the plants 
they have given us. In China its fiber is used 
as an adulterant of silk; in southern Russia 
the seeds are widely employed both in making 
oil and as a substitute for our peanut. The 
pocketful of sunflower seed plays the same 
role in some parts of Russia as the bag of pea- 
nuts here. Much of the sunflower oil pro- 
duced in Russia is used in making soaps and 
candles. Europe, Asia, and Africa all culti- 
vate this plant. 

When the Spaniards first visited Peru they 
found the sunflower as much the national 
flower of the Incas as it today is the State 
flower of Kansas. The Incas gave it a deeper 
reverence because of its resemblance to the 
radiant sun. In their temples the priestesses 
wore sunflowers on their bosoms, carried them 
in lieu of tapers, and otherwise used them in 
their services. The Spanish invaders found 
many images of sunflowers wrought with ex- 
quisite workmanship in pure virgin gold. 
These wonderful images, among many others, 
helped to excite the cupidity of the conquista- 
dors and thus to bring about the downfall of 
the Incas. 

In North America there are about 40 known 
species of sunflower. South America has 
about 20 species that do not exist on our own 
continent. 



THE TRUMPET VINE 
(Bignonia radicans L.) 

Who that has studied the enthusiasm with 
which that frail and filmy creature, the ruby- 
throated humming-bird, flits from flower to 
flower of the trumpet vine, burying its head 
and shoulders deep in the enveloping petals as 
it strives to drain the last drop from the floral 
honey cup, or who that has observed closely 
the constant eflFort of the trumpet flower to 
captivate this capricious, swift- winged beauty 
can doubt the community of interest between 
them. When Audubon came to paint his plate 
showing the ruby- throats in life colors, he por- 
trayed them hovering about a cluster of the 
trumpet vine's flowers (see page 509). 

Kentucky has made the trumpet vine her 
State flower, and few States can boast of such 
a brilliant member of the sisterhood of em- 
blematic blossoms. Growing on a vine that 
has as much vitality as a Lexington thorough- 
bred and as much resourcefulness in holding 
its own in the gruelling free-for-all race for 
existence as any star of the turf, the trumpet 
flower is well beloved by those who live within 
the Blue Grass State and by a host who enjoy 
no such fortune. 

Except in the West, the vine is no blatant 
intruder in places where it is not wanted and 
never drives the careful farmer distracted by 
a disposition to preempt land which he dedi- 
cates to grass. Rather it seeks the moist rich 
wood" and thicket, desiring only to have its 
chance to survive in this habitat without in- 
truding upon every kind of landscape. Invited 
to do so by the lover of flowers, it willingly 



comes out of the woods and forms a delightful 
arbor for any porch. Sometimes, in parts of 
the country where it did not originally grow 
wild, it lives as an "escape" from the portico 
arbor of the well-kept home. It begins to 
flower in August and seeds in September. From 
Jersey's shores to the Mississippi's banks, from 
the Lakes to the Gulf, it finds hospitable soil 
and genial weather. 

Were it human, the trumpet vine would per- 
haps not be loved so well. Its instincts of sur- 
vival are so strong that it does not hesitate to 
trample upon the rights of weaker neighbors 
in its efforts to reach the top. Sometimes its 
aerial rootlets carry it upward or onward until 
it has stalks as much as 40 feet long. Ever 
reaching up and striving for a place with the 
elect of the plant world, it would be in danger 
of being called a "social climber"; but as a 
flower we can admire its determination to win 
its place in the unhampered room at the top. 



THE PINE CONE AND TASSEL 
(Pinus strobus L.) 

When the school children of Maine elected 
the pine cone and tassel as the floral standard 
bearer for their State, they not only followed 
the precedent that made theirs the "Pine Tree 
State," but they honored the first-born of the 
flowering plants; for science tells us that in 
the long process of evolution, when some of 
the members of the fern family began to strive 
for higher things, their first success on the 
road to perfection was to become cone-bearers. 
And so today the cone-bearers remain the great 
middle class in the flower world between the 
plebeian fern on the one hand and the patri- 
cian rose and the noble lily on the other (see 
page 510). 

How wonderful and how charming is the 
story of the pine's household economy! It is 
so equipped that it can make its home down in 
the lands of tropic warmth or up in the re- 
gions of polar snow. The last tree one meets, 
almost, on a climb to the high summits of snow- 
capped mountains is the pine. The gales may 
blow so hard and so persistently that not a 
limb is able to grow on the windward side ; but, 
twisted and misshapen, the pine still lives on. 

Though the winds seem harsh to the pine, 
they are none the less its good friends. It em- 
ploys them as the messengers in the spreading 
of its pollen. The pistils and stamens grow in 
separate flowers, and the breezes transport the 
pollen from tassel to cone and from tree to 
tree. Each grain is provided with two tiny 
bladders which give it buoyancy and enable it 
to take a bajloon ride. In the region where 
the winds blow the hardest they serve the coni- 
fers best, for there insects are scarce and the 
trees would be exterminated if they had to de- 
pend on such pollen-bearers. This is only an- 
other evidence of the natural ability of the 
pine to adjust itself to its surroundings. The 
tree that could go on and on through number- 
less generations evolving a conifer out of a 
fern naturally would have adaptability enough 
to meet the wind both as foe and friend. 



495 



Digitized by 



Google 



As a messenger the wind is wasteful, and so 
the pines, to perpetuate their species on earth, 
must produce vast quantities of pollen. 

In the flowering season of the pines the air is 
filled with tiny grains of yellow dust, the ponds 
are covered with a golden scum, and one sees 
evidences of pine pollen everywhere. This 
pollen is shed from small tassels which occur 
at the base of the green shoots that form the 
current year*s growth. Upon the under side 
of each scale of every cone is a tiny bag of 
jelly. When a pollen grain flies that way and 
gets stuck in this little bed of jelly, the scale 
closes up so as to be water—and even air — 
tight, oome of the pine species even varnish 
the openings so as to make them safe. Within 
this cozy chamber the miracle of life is con- 
summated, and ere long there is a small seed, 
with its wing attached, mature and awaiting 
the day when the friendly wind will carry it 
to where it can plant itself and grow up into a 
big tree. 

When the cone dies, the seeds it harbors live 
on. During the winter months the squirrels 
improve every fair day to gather pine seeds 
for their present needs and their future wants. 
If you have ever watched a squirrel open up a 
pine cone, you have wondered how he learned 
so well the art of getting the seeds out easily. 
He handles the cone as adeptly as a trained 
athlete might handle a weight. He takes it in 
his fore feet, hurls it bottom upward, as if he 
were a professional juggler, and then begins 
to gnaw at the base of the lowest row of cells. 
Presently an opening reveals a seed or two. 
Thus he goes around and around the cone, 
taking each scale in its order, and before you 
could do it by hand he has unlocked every one 
of them. 

The cones the squirrels do not get hang on 
as if they were the "pimmerly plums" of Uncle 
Remus* story. But when the first faint evi- 
dences appear that the balmy warmth of spring 
is to succeed the icy breath of winter, there 
comes a popping and a cracking in the pine 
forest, and the seasoned woodsman knows that 
it is the cones firing salutes of welcome to the 
approaching spring. As the months pass on, 
one by one the cones dry out, the bended bows 
of their many scales are released as the drying- 
out process pulls the hair-trigger that holds 
them, and ten thousand thousand winged seeds 
fly out into the world with the ambition to 
transform themselves into trees. 

It is interesting to gather a number of dif- 
ferent species of pine cones before they have 
begun to open and watch them do so. Some 
of them jump around like things possessed as 
the scales on which they rest open up; others 
roll this way and turn that. When the last 
scale is open and the last seed is out, the cone 
may be three times as large as it was formerly 
and a hundred or more seeds have been set 
free. Alas, how few of these ever become 
trees. We are told, for instance, that a big 
tree in California produces from loo to 200 
seeds to a cone and as many as 1,000,000 cones 
to the tree — that is, 100,000,000 seeds in a single 
season. 

There are 42 native species of pines in the 
United States. They make the woods of Maine 



and other northern States largely evergreen. 
Countless generations of warring with the ele- 
ments led them to adopt the needle instead of 
the leaf, for needles do not oppose the free 
passage of the wind or afford snow a platform 
which could crush them. Hence it is that the 
pines "bind the tottering edge of cleft and 
chasm and fringe with sudden tints of un- 
hoped-for spring the Arctic edges of retreat- 
ing desolation." 

THE GOLDENROD 
(Solidago nemoralis Ait.) 

By legislative action the State flower of Ne- 
braska, in high favor, though not yet adopted, 
in Missouri and Alabama, and considered with 
the violet for the honor in New Jersey, the 
goldenrod disputes with the violet first place 
in State preferences (see page 491). 

Not only is the goldenrod a member of one 
of the most widely known and versatile flower 
families of the world, but its own household 
is made up of a large number of brothers and 
sisters. We are told that there are 85 species 
of goldenrod in the United States. A few of 
them have crossed the border into Mexico and 
some have even invaded South America, thus 
indicating that there is such a doctrine as 
"manifest destiny" in flower land as well as in 
international politics. Over in Europe there 
are people who like our goldenrod so well that 
they grow them in their gardens, as we our- 
selves would surely do were it not for their 
wonderful ability to shift for themselves. 

All of these species are grouped as members 
of the genus Solidago, a name which comes to 
us from ancient Rome, where they thought the 
goldenrod a possessor of healing powers strong 
enough to entitle it to be called the "makes 
whole" plant. The species range from the 
stout goldenrod, otherwise Solidago squarrosa, 
which lives up to its name^ and the showy 
goldenrod, which does likewise, to the sweet- 
scented goldenrod, from which a delightful 
drink may be brewed, and the slender golden- 
rod, otherwise Solidago tennifolia. There is 
one species which an Irishman must have 
named, for it is called the white goldenrod. It 
is just about as logical to speak of a white 
blackbird, and the botanists get around the in- 
consistency of its color by calling it Solidago 
hicolor. 

There is also a species for every locality — 
the "alpine" for the mountains, the "seaside" 
for the brackish beach, the "bog" for the deep, 
soft wood, the "swamp" for the waste places. 

The goldenrod is one of the merchant princes 
of the plant world. "Quick sales and short 
profits" is its motto, and it has arranged its 
wares so that the insects may find whatever 
they want and in any quantity. The result is 
that the field covered with goldenrod is an 
American entomologist's paradise. 

In the days of Queen Elizabeth the golden- 
rod had a great reputation for healing wounds 
and was imported in considerable quantities 
and sold in the London markets in powder 
form at half a crown a pound. In range the 
goldenrod covers the continent with its cloth 
of gold. North, south, east, west, on moun- 



496 



Digitized by 



Google 



tain and by sea, in dry field and in wet swamp, 
it flourishes in its season and warms every 
landscape with its rich color. 

THE TEXAS BLUEBONNET 

(Lupinus texensis Hook) 

When the legislature of Texas came to con- 
sider the issue raised by the flowers in their 
respective bids for Lone Star fame, it had a 
wide range of candidates, active and receptive, 
from which to choose. There were primroses 
and phloxes, euphorbiae, salvias, Texas plumes, 
Texas fire-wheels, rain lilies, and Indian paint- 
brushes, but the Texas bluebonnet — a different 
flower, by the way, from the bluebonnets of 
Europe — won the day, and is crowned queen 
of Texas' floral empire. It blooms in the 
spring and has a range rather more limited 
than most of the State flowers. One authority 
tells us that it is a great home body and never 
crosses the Texas line or the Mexican border. 
But when it is recalled that Texas is approxi- 
mately as large as all the Atlantic Seaboard 
States down to and including South Carolina, 
it will be seen that it has a rather extensive 
habitat at that. 

To the botanist the Texas bluebonnet is 
known as Lupinus because of its reputedly in- 
satiable appetite. For generations it was be- 
lieved that flowers of this genus were wolfish 
in the amount of plant food consumed, and 
that they virtually exhaust the soil on which 
they grow. Hence their name of wolf flowers. 
Happily, this charge has been proved an unjust 
one. The lupines are, it is true, found in 
sterile, waste lands, gravelly banks, exposed 
hills, and like places; but they do not impov- 
erish the land. Rather they choose poor soil 
for their home, adding to the landscape's 
beauty and fertility. 

There are about seventy species of lupines in 
America, mostly in the West. They can justly 
lay claim to being among the most brilliant of 
all the denizens of Nature's garden. Many a 
sandy waste they transform into an oasis of 
color. The blossom has five petals, the upper 
one an advertising banner announcing to the 
passing bee that the table within is laden with 
choicest viands, and that no daintier food was 
ever served in flower land. There are two 
side petals which serve as landing stages for 
the aeronauts of insectdom and two others 
which touch at the bottom and resemble the 
keel of a boat. When the bee alights on the 
landing stage the keel opens up, and the table, 
all set and garnished, greets the hungry vis- 
itor's eye. 

The lupines sleep at night. Some species 
transform their horizontal stars of day to ver- 
tical stars at night; others shut them down 
around the stem like an umbrella around the 
ferrule. 

THE DAISY 

(Chrysanthemum cucanthemum L.) 

So popular is the white ox-eye daisy in 
North Carolina that neither a legislature nor 
the school children had to express formally 
the State's choice. The unanimous tribute of 



a "common consent" award was paid it by the 
people of the Tar Heel State; and if the whole 
catalogue of Nature's blossoming children had 
been ransacked there could not have been 
found a hardier flower, a more persistent war- 
rior in behalf of its right to exist, or a better 
loved or worse hated plant, than the ox-eye 
daisy. Flowering from May to November, it 
has adjusted its economy to the necessities of 
its perpetuation in a way admirable to the 
student of flower resources and baflfling to the 
good farmer who so heartily dislikes to have 
his field dressed in the full regalia of poor 
farming (see page 512). 

To the daisy a home in the woods is like an 
East Side tenement to one who has lived on 
Fifth avenue. It can never content itself in 
the shade and the solitude of the forest. 
The meadow, the pasture, the hay field, the 
roadside — these are places where it likes to 
grow; and if it is to grow there it must be 
well prepared to fight a battle with the farmer. 
It must be able to set some seed before haying 
time, else how could it continue its hold in the 
hay field? Then, too, it must vary its period 
of blooming, for what farmer who prides him- 
self on well-kept pastures would permit daisies 
to crowd oiit his clover if they could be over- 
come in a single mowing? 

Prolific beyond words is this enterprising 
blossom. It multiplies by wholesale and cov- 
ers the green turf of April with a flowery 
snow* in June. Ten thousand thousand city 
folk go out and gather and admire, but ten 
thousand thousand farmer folk, knowing that 
it means poor quality and less quantity in hay 
and pasture, cannot understand the urban en- 
thusiasm for a blossom that lowers production 
and increases the cost of living. 

But with all its "weedy role" in the eyes of 
the farmer, there is beauty in the field daisy 
and as much sentiment. What maiden has not 
on its "petals" told her fortune with the for- 
mula, "He loves me, he loves me not," or has 
failed to find a blossom that would declare to 
her that her Prince Charming's heart was at 
her feet? 

But whether it be with the eyes of the farmer 
that you see the daisy, beholding only its per- 
sistent invasion of his domains, or whether 
with the eye of the beauty lover who is called 
by admiration and not to battle, or whether 
with the eye of the sentimental who love it for 
the fortunes it has told, the daisy is by all 
awarded the honor of being an alien that has 
no hyphen in its disposition. It is an immi- 
grant, unlike its closest relative, the black- 
eyed susan ; but it has all the enterprise, all the 
spirit of winning its way in the world, all the 
Yankee resourcefulness of a flower to the man- 
ner born. It long ago found Europe too 
crowded for comfort and discovered that it 
could come to America as a stowaway. Over 
here it traveled on the wind, in wagons, by 
river steamboats, on railroad trains, any way 
that offered it the chance to find a new field 
in which to lay the foundations of a new 
colony. - 

The daisy's prosperity is due no less to the 
form of its bloom than to the tactics it employs 
in fighting for its position in the field. The 



497 



Digitized by 



Google 



white "petals" are not petals at all; they are 
sterile florets, gaily bedecked in white, waving 
a welcome to the passing bees and butterflies, 
whom they invite to the feast which the yellow 
florets have prepared for them. Like all other 
progressive flowers, the daisy has designed 
ways to insure itself the boon of cross-fertili- 
zation. The two arms of the pistil are kept 
tightly closed until the pollen is gone; then 
they open up and become sticky, so that the bee 
which comes their way from another blossom 
must leave with them some of the grains of 
pollen it has gathered elsewhere. 

THE SEGO LILY 
(Calochortus nuttallii Torr. and Or.) 

Utah's floral queen belongs to the tulip 
branch of the lily family. It has a remarkable 
list of relatives, good, bad, and indifferent, 
close and distant. These kinsfolk range from 
the evil-smelling carrion flower to the delight- 
fully fragrant lily-of-the-valley ; from the gor- 
geous and assertive butterfly tulip to the timid, 
unassuming fairy bell; from the poisonous 
sego and the hog potato to the edible comass 
and the soap-like amole (see page 512). 

The sego lily is a variety of the mariposa 
tulip. Its flower is about two inches across, 
and its white petals are tinged sometimes with 
yellowish green and sometimes with lilac. The 
flowers usually follow individual taste in color- 
ings and wear a wide range of the prettiest 
gowns imaginable. 

Mariposa in Spanish means butterfly, and the 
members of the mariposa group of flowers, to 
which the sego lily belongs, are marvelous in 
their hues and delightful in their imitation of 
the decorative patterns and color combinations 
of their insect friends. 

A visitor to the big trees of the Mariposa 
Grove relates how she found a bed of sego 
lilies in which, upon close examination, she dis- 
covered fourteen distinct markings, the flowers 
resembling so many butterflies with wings out- 
spread for flight, their rich color glistening in 
the sun. 

The sego lily was even more to the early 
Mormon church in Utah than was the may- 
flower to the Pilgrims at Plymouth. The may- 
flower was the springtime's first harbinger and 
a blossom of hope; the sego lily was not only 
early on the scene to gladden a someNvhat 
dreary landscape, but its roots proved edible. 
The followers of Brigham Young looked upon 
it in somewhat the same light as the Jews 
looked upon the manna that saved them dur- 
ing their wanderings in the wilderness. There- 
fore the sego lily has figured largely in the 
history of the Mormon Church in Utah and 
has been accorded the distinction of State 
flower as a proof of the early settlers' grati- 
tude. 

THE SAHUARO 

(Camegiea gigantea [formerly known as 

Cereus giganteus] (Engelm.) Britton 

and Rose) 

When the legislature of Arizona selected the 
column cactus, known to laymen as the sa- 



huaro, as the State flower, it chose a repre- 
sentative which for tenacity and ability to live 
under stressful conditions is unsurpassed. The 
sahuaro grows so as sometimes to resemble an 
upstanding Brobdingnagian cucumber and at 
others to look like a huge green candelabra. 
It thrives on the mountain slopes where other 
plants cannot survive the shortage of moisture, 
rearing its thick, cylindrical branches straight 
up into the air as high as 40 feet. These arc 
armed with rows of spines arranged in star 
shapes, and in May and June bear exquisite 
whitish, waxlike flowers, perfect in form and 
opening in the daytime (see page 513). 

We always think it wise to save for a "rainy" 
day; but paradoxical as it may sound, the 
"rainy" day of the cactus is the day when it 
fails to rain for a long time. So it has ar- 
ranged its household economy for "making 
hay" while the rain falls. In wet weather it 
converts itself into a sort of grecn-hued 
sponge, drinking up fereat stores of water. It 
long ago suppressed the last vestige of a leaf, 
and in lieu thereof has covered itself with a 
thick, hard, impervious coating which some- 
times has a grayish bloom on the surface. In 
other species the coating is covered by a mass 
of thick hairs. In this way it is able to pre- 
vent evaporation of its moisture under the 
fiercest sun and calmly to await new supplies. 
It is indeed the vegetable counterpart of the 
camel. 

We think of the cacti as unfriendly, yet the 
birds often find them a refuge. Woodpeckers 
make holes in the sahuaro for their nesting: 
places. Other small birds of the arid regions 
move in when the woodpeckers move out. One 
of these is a small owl, said to be the tiniest 
of all members of the owl tribe. Another 
feathered friend of the cacti is the cactus wren, 
a little songster with a grayish brown back, a 
darker head, a spotted breast, and a white line 
over the eye. It builds a large, flask-shaped 
nest of grasses and twigs which it lines with 
feathers. The nest is entered by a covered 
way or neck several inches long. 

The column cactus, like most of its relatives, 
is a prolific producer of seeds. Millions reach 
the ground, thousands may germinate, but only 
now and then does one escape the perils of 
childhood and become a full-grown cactus. In 
their youthful days the sahuaros are odd, 
round plants only a few inches high and with 
the spines, which protect them from animal 
depredations, undeveloped. The fruits of this 
species have a crimson flesh and black seeds, 
reminding one in those respects of the Ckorgia 
watermelon. The Papago Indians eat both the 
meat and the seeds. 



THE CACTUS 

(Echinocereus fendleri (Engelm.) Ruempl.) 

In choosing the cactus as New Mexico's 
flower favorite the school children of that 
State honored a family of plants which are 
almost exclusively Americans. If a few spe- 
cies that originated in Africa be excepted, the 
cacti are limited to America. 



498 



Digitized by 



Google 



The Bchinocereus fendleri is but one of 
many of the types of cacti to be found on New 
Mexico's broad mesas and desert valleys. 
Looking like a cross between a pineapple, a 
cucumber, and a green pepper, and crowned 
with a brilliant flower whose red petals, yel- 
lowish stamens, and green pistil make a color 
sj'mphony, this species is always a favorite. It 
is a sort of vegetable porcupine, ready to give 
every comer a reception that will not soon be 
forgotten. Many an admirer, seeing it for the 
first time, has plucked a blossom to his sorrow, 
for the tiny hairy thorns stick to the fingers in 
a most irritating fashion. 

The cacti are one of the most interesting 
family of plants, containing many remarkable 
species. There is the barrel cactus, or visnaga, 
which often comes to the traveler's rescue in 
the desert. The barrel cactus acts as a cistern, 
collecting within itself reservoirs of water, 
which the traveler in the desert may tap. Then 
there is the coccus cacti, which is cultivated in 
Mexico and Central America as food for the 
cochineal insect, from which dyes for making 
carmine and scarlet are derived. The spines 
of another cactus are used as tooth-picks by 
the American Indians. Then there are the 
opuntias, which include the prickly pear or In- 
dian fig cactus. Several species are cultivated 
in southern Europe and northern Africa for 
their sweet, juicy fruit. 

THE MISTLETOE 
(Phoradendron flavescens, Pursh, Nutt) 

The mistletoe is the only one of the State 
flowers so far adopted that is parasitic in its 
habits. And yet, parasite or no parasite, there 
is no blossom in the catalogue that has more 
of romance clinging to it than this, Oklahoma's 
representative in the galaxy of emblematic 
flowers (see page 514). 

Mistletoe figured in the superstitious rites of 
the British Druids and in the Nature myths 
of the Scandinavians. Balder, son of Odin, 
husband of Nanna, and the darling of all the 
gods, was so fair that light streamed from 
him and the whitest flower that blew was 
likened to him. Once he had a dream of an 
impending disaster, which caused his mother 
to put all things, animate and inanimate, under 
a vow not to harm him. But she omitted one 
object — ^the mistletoe. Loki, his enemy, dis- 
covers this omission and induces Balder's 
brother to shoot at him in play with an arrow 
of mistletoe. It hits the mark and Balder, god 
of light, dies, becoming tljereafter the emblem 
of purity and innocence. 

The mistletoe was then presented to the god- 
dess of love, and it was ordained that whoever 
passed beneath it should receive a kiss as a 
token that it was an emblem of love and not 
of vengeance. The modern Yuletide custom — 
oerhaps more talked about than observed— of 
kissing the pretty girl under the mistletoe is a 
survival of those days. 

There are more than 400 species of mistle- 
toe, most of them tropical and most of them 
parasitic. In the United States there are many 
varieties and they range far and wide, from 
the New Jersey coast west and south. 



If you ask the Oklahoman about the mistle- 
toe as a parasite, he is likely to answer that if 
man, tapping the maple for sugar, extracting 
the sap of the rubber tree for automobile tires, 
and taking the pine tree's turpentine, is a para- 
site, then the mistletoe may be called one, too; 
but that otherwise it deserves to be absolved. 
It has as much right to get its food from trees, 
he maintains, as we have to eat beef and mut- 
ton or wear woolen clothes or silks and satins. 

Of all plants the mistletoe has fewest breath- 
ing pores in its leaves — only 200 to the square 
inch, while the lilac has 200,000. The leaves 
are almost nerveless, thick, and fleshy. When 
the seeds put out roots, they always turn to- 
ward the branch, no matter whether on the 
upper or the lower side of it. 

Traveling through the South, one may see 
thousands of trees literally festooned with 
mistletoe, now growing like witches* brooms, 
now in graceful array, but always calmly ap- 
propriating for its own development the life 
blood of the tree upon which it feeds. 

THE PASQUE FLOWER 
(Pulsatilla patens, L,, Mill) 

Inhabiting dry soil and prairie lands, blos- 
soming through March and April, ranging from 
Illinois to the Rocky Mountains and from 
Canada to Texas, the pasque flower, elected 
queen of flowerland by the legislature of South 
Dakota, need never fear to stand in any flower 
company, however distinguished, however beau- 
tiful, however charming (see page 514). 

As a member of the crowfoot family, the 
pasque flower has some lovely cousins. For 
instance, there is the Virgin's bower or clem- 
atis, the wood anemone, the buttercup, the 
larkspur, the monkshood, the columbine, the 
goldthread, and the baneberries. Its immediate 
relatives are the anemones, among which it is 
one of the prettiest. 

With the first warm sunshine of spring the 
pasque flower begins to lend its soft purplish 
hues to the landscape. Its leaves are so furry, 
the result of its unconscious efforts to protect 
itself from pilfering ants and other creeping 
insects, that the children of South Dakota have 
come to call it the "gosling plant." If its lovely 
flowers gladden the hills while ungenial winter 
wanes, its fruiting period also has beauty to 
oifer. A head of silky seedlets with their 
dainty plumes leads many people to call it the 
ground clematis. 

The stalk of the anemone lengthens consid- 
erably after the plant flowers. Those familiar 
with the garden varieties have noticed how it 
grows longer even after it has been cut. If 
the stems be put in water, they readily double 
their length. This power of cell-making, with 
only air, light, and water out of which to 
manufacture tissue, seems a wonderful gift. 
Devoid of roots and possessed only of local 
energy, it is hard to understand how the stalk 
continues to grow. It has been suggested that 
the duty of raising the seed capsule to the re- 
quired height may be one that the roots have 
delegated to another part, just as the brain of 
man has delegated to the nerve ganglions the 
duty of shutting the eyes when they are threat- 



499 



Digitized by 



Google 



ened, or of causing the body to jump at a sud- 
den noise. 

The pasque flower of South Dakota is a 
speaking likeness of an English variety, if in- 
deed it is not the direct descendant of that 
flower. There is a tradition that the plant first 
arose out of the blood of the Danes who were 
killed on the field of battle in the stormy days 
of Britain's early history, and many people 
call it the "Danesblood." Opinions differ as to 
how it came by its name of pasque flower. 
Some say that before the Gregorian revision 
of the calendar it was the most abundant flower 
at Eastertide; hence its name. Others declare 
that a dye for coloring Easter eggs was ob- 
tained from it. Be that as it may, the pasque 
flower itself brings delight to the prairies even 
before the last winter winds have roared their 
farewell. 

THE OREGON GRAPE 
(Berberis aquifolium Pursh) 

The Oregon grape is one of the State flowers 
which has the prestige of legal status behind 
its queenship. It belongs to the barberry fam- 
ily, other members of which are the twin-leaf, 
the blue cohosh, and the May apple. Between 
its dainty blossoms of early summer and its 
bright purple berries of late fall, it wins ad- 
miration wherever it grows. It lives close to 
the ground and is not a climber like the ordi- 
nary American wild grape. But no fruit of 
field or forest ever made a more delicious jelly 
than that of this handsome shrub of the West. 
Though the berries resemble the huckleberry, 
the foliage looks like that of the holly, and the 
wood inclines to a yellow-cast red. Its range 
is wide, extending as far east as Nebraska, as 
far south as Arizona, and as far north as 
British Columbia (see page 515). 

It is one of the strange thmgs about nature 
that CO many of its creatures are unable to 
l^erpetuate their species without a periodic 
change of environment. For instance, the 
germ of yellow fever dies and disappears 
where it cannot spend part of its time in the 
human body and part in the stomach of a 
stegomyia mosquito. Likewise, cedar rust be- 
comes extinct if it cannot live one year on an 
apple tree and the next on a cedar tree. In 
the case of one species of wheat rust the bar- 
berry is necessary to its continued hold on life. 
This rust cannot live without changing hosts 
periodically. 

But the Oregon grape is wiser than some of 
its immediate kinsfolk. It has a preference 
for situations where the communication of rust 
spores to it from wheat and from it to wheat is 
not quite so readily accomplished. It is found 
most abundant and beautiful on the foothills 
and mountain slopes deep in Oregon's lumber 
lands. 

THE INDIAN PAINTBRUSH 

(Castilleja linariaefolia Benth.) 

Some years ago the school children of Wy- 
oming, feeling that their State ought to have 
a duly chosen queen of the flowers, undertook 



to elect one. They chose the dainty and uni- 
versally admired fringed gentian. But while 
no flower is more beautiful, many people in 
Wyoming thought there were others more rep- 
resentative and typical of their State. This 
feeling culminated in legislative action in 1917, 
with the result that beautiful Queen Gentian 
had to abandon her throne to the narrow- 
leaved Indian paintbrush (see page 515). 

The paintbrush belongs to the figwort family, 
which includes a great host of beauties. Some 
of its cousins are the mullens, the toadflaxes, 
the snap-dragons, the turtle-heads, the beard- 
tongues, the monkey flowers, the speedwells, 
the foxgloves, and the eye-brights. Closest of 
kin are the painted cups, an attractive group 
of posies. 

Most of the Castilleja tribe are inclined to 
be parasitic in their habits. Instead of sending 
out rootlets themselves in order to absorb the 
plant food and moisture that Nature provides, 
some of them send their roots down into those 
of other plants and feast all summer long. 
Like the lily, they toil not, neither do they 
spin; but if Solomon was ever in all his glory 
arrayed as they are, that fact was overlooked 
by the historians of his day. 

Wyoming's flower, while not possessed of 
the deep hue characteristic of the Castilleja 
tribe — declared by one of our leading botanists 
to be "the brightest spot of red the wild palette 
can show" — makes up in delicacy what it lacks 
in intensity. The blossom is light red, with 
touches of soft yellow and hints of salmon 
pink. 

No traveler in the Rocky Mountains, the 
High Sierras, or the sagebrush regions of the 
Great Basin can forget the paintbrushes. 
Where they dwell among the blue lupines, the 
yellow mimulus, and other bright blossoms, 
they perfect a combination of hues that trans- 
forms the veriest riot of color into an orderly 
aggregation of polychromatic beauty. 

RHODODENDRON 
(Rhododendron maximum Michx.) 

The superb beauty of the rhododendron has 
won for it universal admiration and the dis- 
tinction of being the flower of two States. 
The legislature of West Virginia and the State 
organization of women's clubc in Washington 
have elevated it above all other floral rivals in 
their communities. The chosen variety of 
West Virginia is Rhododendron maximum, 
while that of Washington is Rhododendron 
calif ornicum, also called the California rose 
bay. The latter is the most splendid of western 
shrubs. Both kinds are of the heath family, 
cousins of the mountain laurel, and have deli- 
cate, waxen blossoms tinted like the *'rosy- 
fingered dawn," with upper petals flecked with 
golden and greenish spots (see page 516). 

A true artist in selecting its background, the 
rhododendron not only surrounds its exquisite 
blossoms with smooth, rich green leaves which 
set them off effectively, but also makes its home 
commonly on moist, forested mountainsides, 
where the gloomy greens and browns of dark 
rocks and lofty trees contrast with its dainty 
pink and white ruffles. 



500 



Digitized by 



Google 




Arkansas and Michigan 



APPLE and BLOSSOM 
Ma/us syl'vestris Mill. 



501 



Digitized by 



Google 




< 




z 



\:^ 



502 



Digitized by 



Google 




503 



Digitized by 



Google 




it 



o 

2 



a^:^ -,/.\ 




5-? 

c - 
2^C 



504 



Digitized by 



Google 





505 



Digitized by 



Google 




Iowa 



LOW or PASTURE ROSE 
Rosa Carolina L. {Rosa humilis Marsh.) 




Louisiana and Mississippi 



MAGNOLIA 
Magnolia grandiftora L. 

506 



Digitized by 



Google 




Delaware 



Ohio 



PEACH BLOSSOM 

Amygdalus per sic a L. 



RED CARNATION 
Dianthus caryophyllus L. 



507 



Digitized by 



Google 




Kansas 



COMMON SUNFLOWER 
Helianthus annuus L. 

508 



Digitized by 



Google 




Kentucky 



TRUMPET VINE 
BignoTtia radicaus L. 

509 



Digitized by 



Google 





510 



Digitized by 



Google 




Nebraska 



FIELD GOLDENROD 

Soitda^o nemoralis Ait. 

511 



Digitized by 



Google 




512 



Digitized by 



Google 











^«««^^4^r<ik^^.^.:iii?^^ii 






513 



Digitized by 



Google 





514 



Digitized by 



Google 




w 5 
o ^ 

s. 




515 



Digitized by 



Google 





Si 



516 



Digitized by 



Google 



The rhododendrons growing in Washington, 
or among the redwoods of California, or 
clothing the slopes of the AUeghenies with 
impenetrable thickets and in early summer 
glorifying them with bloom, are worth going 
far to see. 

At its best, and rarely, the shrub attains a 
height of 35 feet. Its form, with spreading 
branches, twisting and interlocking, calls to 
mind the Greek meaning of its name, "rose 
tree." In less favorable locations the plant is 
sometimes less than five feet high. The wood 
is one of the strongest and hardest that grows 
and weighs 39 pounds to the cubic foot. 

The rhododendron has no such clever trick 
of showering its pollen upon insect visitors as 
the mountain laurel, but, like the laurel, it pro- 
tects itself by a sticky substance below the 
flower from ants and crawling insects which 
do not transfer pollen. The bee and other in- 
sect friends of the rhododendron find its nec- 
tar very gratifying, but the honey they make 
from it is said to be poisonous. 

To the deeper pink, rather purplish rhodo- 
dendron of the Carolinas, European gardeners 
pay the homage of careful cultivation, as they 
do also to some varieties native to Asia. 

Americans might fittingly revive England's 
"Maying" custom and set aside an early sum- 
mer day for pilgrimages to our mountains 
where the laurel and rhododendron bloom, in 
order properly to appreciate these perfect gifts 
of Nature. 

RED CLOVER 
(Trifolium pratense L.) 

Member of the Pulse family, with the wild 
sensitive plant, the partridge pea, the wild pea- 
nut, the vetches, the tick trefoil, and the blue 
lupine as its cousins, the red clover, which the 
legislature of the Green Mountain State has 
decreed shall be accorded the honor of stand- 
ing at the head of the Vermont floral proces- 
sion, finds itself at home in all temperate 
America (see page 516). 

The clover is an extraordinary seed-bearer. 
Darwin counted those of a large number of 
heads and found an average of 27 seeds per 
blossom. But when he kept the insects away 
not a single seed was set. 

The clover blossom is preeminently the bum- 
blebee's flower. When Australia first under- 
took to add this legume to her list of forage 
crops, as fine-looking fields of clover as one 
could imagine appeared in due time. But 
somehow the heads did not set seed and it 
seemed that failure was to follow the experi- 
ment. On looking around for a possible cause 
of this failure, it was found that the clover's 
best friend, the bumblebee, had not been im- 
ported along with the seed. As soon as this 
faithful servant was brought in and given time 
to establish itself, there were lively, hopeful 
days in the antipodean clover fields and no 
more failures of the crop to provide for future 
sowings. 

The butterfly, too, long of tongue, can sip 
the nectar of these blossoms; but the light- 
weight insects with short tongues need not 
apply. The clover hides its sweets beneath a 



reddish lock that can be opened only by long 
tongues or heavy weights. 

The child who has not plucked the tiny 
florets of the clover blossom and tasted their 
nectar is to be placed in the same category as 
the girl who has not taken a daisy and plucked 
the petals to the tune of **He loves me, he loves 
me not," for neither has known the simple 
joys of the field. 

When James Whitcomb Riley asked what the 
lily and all the rest of the flowers were to a 
man who in babyhood knew the sweet clover 
blossom, it was not that he loved the lily less, 
but that he loved the clover more. 

Who that has seen a herd of fine cows, sleek 
and fat and trim, in a field of red clover fails 
to understand the force of the phrase "Living 
in clover" as a description of worldly affluence? 
But even the cows have no advantage of the 
bumblebee and the butterfly when it comes to 
the joy the clover field gives, for neither ox- 
eye daisies, black-eyed susans, goldenrods, nor 
iron-weeds can afford such rich pastures for 
these insects as the! well-cultivated meadows 
of clover offer them. 

For ages the clover has figured in the mys- 
ticism of the Caucasian races. The four- 
leaved clover is regarded as a harbinger of 
good luck when one finds it growing, although 
it is probably more an evidence of the finder's 
powers of observation and. therefore, of abil- 
ity to get on in the world. In Europe the 
peasants declare that a dream about clover 
foretells a happy marriage, long life, and pros- 
perity. There is another superstition to the 
effect that if one carries a fcur-leaved clover 
at Christmas time it will bring the ability to 
see witches and sprites. Still another fancy is 
expressed in the old couplet to the effect that 
finding an even ash leaf or a four-leaved clover 
is sure to bring a sight of the finder's sweet- 
heart before the day is over. 

Clover is thought by the herb doctor to have 
some medicinal properties. For instance, it is 
claimed that a syrup made from its blossoms 
is a cure for whooping-cough; and many a 
country child knows the joy of red clover tea 
at impromptu parties. 

The clover is not a native American plant. 
It was brought here from Europe, where it is 
widely cultivated; and, again, it is only a set- 
tler in Europe, for it originally migrated there, 
like so many other plants of economic value, 
from Asia. However, it has a right to be 
called a blue-stocking among our flowers, for 
it is one of those favored individuals of the 
plant world that enrich the soil as they grow. 
Man has been long ages learning how to ex- 
tract nitrogen, the most expensive of all fer- 
tilizing elements, from the air; but the clover 
learned that secret untold centuries ago, and 
instead of levying heavy tribute on the nitro- 
gen supply of the ground, it draws its supplies 
from the air, uses what it can, and presents 
the remainder to the land with its compliments. 

It joins the cow-pea, the soy-bean, the locust 
tree, and other legumes in being a great sup- 
porter of soil fertility. Compare the sod under 
the next locust tree you see with that under 
an oak, and you will realize why the clover 
and its cousins are allies of the progressive 
farmer. 



517 



Digitized by 



Google 



OUR FIRST ALLIANCE 

B^^ J- J- JUSSERAND 
Ambassador oi^ France to the United States 

At this time, when we are all reading the story of our expeditionary army to 
France, it is profitable to review the voyage of the French expedition of 137 years 
ago to America — an expedition undertaken zvith the same unselfish object as ours 
of today, but under conditions of travel and life so different. The follozving con- 
tribution by Ambassador Jusserand is abridged from his notable volume, entitled 
''With Americans of Past and Present Days," by courtesy of the publishers, 
Messrs, Charles Scribner's Sons, — Editor. 



THE American war had been for 
five years in progress; for two 
years a treaty of alliance, having 
as sole object "to maintain eflfectually the 
liberty, sovereignty, and independence, 
absolute and unlimited, of the United 
States," bound us French to the "insur- 
gents"; successes and reverses followed 
each other in turn: Brooklyn, Trenton, 
Brandywine, Saratoga. 

Quite recently the news had come of 
the double victory at sea and on land of 
d'Estaing at Grenada, and Paris had been 
illuminated. The lights were scarcely out 
when news arrived of the disaster of the 
same d'Estaing at Savannah. All France 
felt anxious concerning the issue of a 
war which had lasted so long and whose 
end continued to be doubtful. 

When, in the first months of 1780, the 
report went about that a great definitive 
eflfort was to be attempted; that it was 
not this time a question of sending ships 
to the Americans, but of sending an 
army, and that the termination of the 
great drama was near, the enthusiasm 
was unbounded. All wanted to take part. 
There was a prospect of crossing the 
seas, of succoring a people fighting for a 
sacred cause — a people of whom all our 
volunteers praised the virtues ; the people 
led by Washington, and represented in 
Paris by Franklin. 

An ardor as of Crusaders inflamed the 
hearts of French youths, and the intended 
expedition was, in fact, the most impor- 
tant that France had launched beyond the 
seas since the distant time of the Cru- 



sades. The cause was a truly sacred 
one — the cause of hberty — a magical 
word which then stirred the hearts of the 
many. "Why is liberty so rare?" Vol- 
taire had said, "Because the most valu- 
able of possessions." 

All those who were so lucky as to be 
allowed to take part in the expedition 
were convinced that they would witness 
memorable, perhaps unique, events, and 
it turned out, indeed, that they were to 
witness a campaign which, with the bat- 
tle of Hastings, where the fate of Eng- 
land was decided in 1066, and that of 
Bouvines, which made of France in 12 14 
a great nation, was to be one of the three 
military actions with greatest conse- 
quences in which for the last thousand 
years the French had participated. 

FRENCH FAITH IN AMERICA 

A striking result of this state of mind 
is that an extraordinary number of those 
who went noted down their impressions, 
kept journals, drew sketches. Never per- 
haps during a military campaign was so 
much writing done, nor were so many 
albums filled with drawings. 

Notes, letters, journals, sketches have 
come down to us in large quantities, and 
from all manner of men, for the passion 
of observing and narrating was common 
to all kinds of people: journals and 
memoirs of army chiefs like Rocham- 
beau, or chiefs of staff like Chastellux, 
a member of the French Academy, 
adapter of Shakespeare, and author of a 
Fclicite Publique, which, Franklin said. 



518 



Digitized by 



Google 



OUR FIRST ALLIANCE 



519 



showed him to be "a real friend of hu- 
manity" ; narratives of a regimental chap- 
lain, like Abbe Robin, of a skeptical rake 
like the Duke de Lauzun ; journals of 
officers of various ranks, like Count de 
Deux-Ponts, Prince de Broglie, Count de 
Segur, son of the marshal, himself after- 
ward an Academician and an ambassa- 
dor ; Mathieu-Dumas, future minister of 
war of a future king of Naples, who 
bore the then unknown name of Joseph 
Bonaparte; the Swedish Count Axel de 
Fersen, one of Rochambeau's aides, who 
was to organize the French royal family's 
flight to Varennes and to die massacred 
by the mob in his own country; journal, 
too, among many others, of a modest 
quartermaster like Blanchard, who gives 
a note quite apart, observes what others 
do not, and whose tone, as that of a sub- 
ordinate, is in contrast with the superb 
ways of the "seigneurs," his companions. 
From page to page, turning the leaves, 
one sees appear, without speaking of La- 
fayette, Kosciusko, and the first enthusi- 
asts, many names just emerging from 
obscurity, never to sink into it again: 
Berthier, La Perouse, La Touche-Tre- 
ville, the Lameth brothers, Bougainville, 
Custine, the Bouille of the flight to Va- 
rennes, the La Clocheterie of the fight of 
La Belle Poule, the Duportail who was to 
be minister of war under the Constituent 
Assembly ; young Talleyrand, brother of 
the future statesman; young Mirabeau, 
brother of the orator, himself usually 
known for his portly dimensions as Mira- 
beaU'tonneau, ever ready with the cup or 
the sword; young Saint-Simon, not yet 
a pacifist and not yet a Saint-Simonian ; 
Suffren, in whose squadron had em- 
barked the future Director Barras, an 
officer then in the regiment of Pondi- 
chery. 

ALL FRANCE BEHIND AMERICA THEN 

All France was really represented — to 
some extent that of the past, to a larger 
one that of the future. 

A juvenile note,' in contrast with the 
quiet dignity of the official reports by 
the heads of the army, is given by the 
unprinted journal, a copy of which is 
preserved in the Library of Congress, 
kept by one more of Rochambeau's 



aides, Louis Baron de Closen, an excel- 
lent observer, gay, warm-hearted, who 
took seriously all that pertained to duty, 
and merrily all the rest, especially mis- 
haps. 

Useful information is also given by 
some unprinted letters of George Wash- 
ington, some with the superscription still 
preserved: "On public service — to his 
Excellency Count de Rochambeau, Wil- 
liamsburg, Virginia," the whole text often 
in the great chief's characteristic hand- 
writing, clear and steady, neither slow 
nor hasty, with nothing blurred and noth- 
ing omitted, with no trepidation, no ab- 
breviation, the writing of a man with a 
clear conscience and clear views, superior 
to fortune, and the convinced partisan, in 
every circumstance throughout life, of 
the straight line. 

The British Government has, more- 
over, most liberally opened its archives, 
so that, both through the recriminatory 
pamphlets printed in London after the 
disaster and the dispatches now accessi- 
ble, one can know what was said day by 
day in New York and out of New York, 
in the redoubts at Yorktown, and in the 
French and American trenches around 
the place. 

AN EXTRAORDINARY TASK 

Lieut. Gen. Jean-Baptiste Donatien de 
A^imeur, Comte de Rochambeau, aged 
then fifty-five, and Washington's senior 
by seven years, was in his house, still in 
existence. Rue du Cherche-Midi, Paris, at 
the beginning of March, 1780; he was ill 
and about to leave for his castle of Ro- 
chambeau in Vendomois ; post - horses 
were in readiness when, in the middle of 
the night, he received, he says in his me- 
moirs, a "courier bringing him the order 
to go to Versailles and receive the in- 
structions of his Majesty." 

For some time rumors had been afloat 
that the great attempt would soon be 
made. He was informed that the news 
w^as true, and that he would be placed at 
the head of the army sent to the assist- 
ance of the Americans. 

The task was an extraordinary one. 
He would have to reach the New World 
with a body of troops packed on slow 
transports, to avoid the English fleets, to 



Digitized by 



Google 




GENERAL ROCHAMBEAU 

A distinguished veteran of three wars in Europe, Rochambeau came to America at the 
head of 5,000 French regulars to succor the Thirteen Colonies in their struggle for liberty. 
A more experienced soldier and an older man than Washington, the French general, with 
admirable spirit and magnanimity, placed himself and his troops unreservedly under the 
American commander-in-chief, serving as an integral part of the colonial forces. 



520 



Digitized by 



Google 



OUR FIRST ALLIANCE 



521 



fight in a country practically unknown, 
by the side of men not less so, and whom 
we had been accustomed to fight rather 
than befriend, and for a cause which had 
never before elicited enthusiasm at Ver- 
sailles — ^the cause of republican liberty. 

This last point was the strangest of all, 
so strange that even Indians, friends of 
the French in former days, asked Ro- 
chambeau, when they saw him in Amer- 
ica, how it was that his king could think 
fit to help other people against "their 
own father," their king. 

Rochambeau replied that the latter had 
been too hard on his subjects; that they 
were right, therefore, in shaking off the 
yoke, and we in helping them to secure 
"that natural liberty which God has con- 
ferred on man." 

AN ALLIANCE WHICH FORBADE CONQUEST 

This answer to "Messieurs les Sau- 
vages" is an enlightening one; it shows 
what was the latent force that sur- 
mounted all obstacles and caused the 
French nation to stand as a whole, from 
beginning to end, in favor of the Amer- 
icans, to applaud a treaty of alliance 
which, while entailing the gravest risks, 
forbade us all conquest, and to rejoice 
enthusiastically at a peace which after a 
victorious war added nothing to our pos- 
sessions. This force was the increasing 
passion among the French for precisely 
"that natural liberty which God has con- 
ferred on man." 

Hatred of England, quickened though 
it had been by the harsh conditions of the 
Treaty of Paris bereaving us of Canada, 
in 1763, had much less to do with it than 
is sometimes alleged. Such a feeling ex- 
isted, it is true, in the hearts of some of 
the leaders, but not of all; it did in the 
minds also of some of the officers, but 
again not of all. 

What predominated in the mass of the 
nation, irrespective of any other consid- 
eration, was sympathy for men who 
wanted to fight injustice and to be free. 
The cause of the insurgents was popular 
because it was associated with the notion 
of liberty ; people did not look beyond. 

It is often forgotten that this time was 
not in France a period of Anglophobia, 
but of Anglomania. Necker, so influen- 



tial, and who then held the purse-strings, 
was an Anglophile; so was Prince de 
Montbarey, minister of war ; so was that 
Duke de Lauzun who put an end for a 
time to his love affairs and came to 
America at the head of his famous legion. 
All that was English was admired and, 
when possible, imitated: manners, phil- 
osophy, sports, clothes, parliamentary in- 
stitutions, Shakespeare, just translated 
by Le Tourneur, with the King and 
Queen as patrons of the undertaking: 
but, above all, wrote Count de Segur, 
"we were all dreaming of the liberty, at 
once calm and lofty, enjoyed by the en- 
tire body of citizens of Great Britain." 

THE MAGIC WORDS TO CONJURE WITH 

Such is the ever-recurring word. Lib- 
erty, philanthropy, natural rights — these 
were the magic syllables to conjure with. 
"All France," we read in Grimm and 
Diderot's correspondence, "was filled 
with an unbounded love for humanity," 
and felt a passion for "those exaggerated 
general maxims which raise the enthusi- 
asm of young men and which would cause 
them to run to the world's end to help a 
Laplander or a Hottentot." 

The ideas of Montesquieu, whose Es- 
prit des Lois had had 22 editions in one 
year, of Voltaire, of d'Alembert, were in 
the ascendant, and liberal thinkers saw 
in the Americans propagandists for their 
doctrine. General Howe having occupied 
New York in 1776, Voltaire wrote to 
d'Alembert: "The troops of Doctor 
Franklin have been beaten by those of 
the King of England. Alas ! philosophers 
are being beaten everywhere. Reason 
and liberty are unwelcome in this world." 

AN ALLIANCE WITH NO HATRED FOR THE 
COMMON ENEMY 

Another of the master minds of the 
day, the economist, thinker, and reformer 
Turgot, the one whose advice, if fol- 
lowed, would have possibly secured for 
us a bloodless revolution, was of the same 
opinion. In the famous letter written by 
him on the 22d of March, 1778, to his 
English friend. Doctor Price, Turgot 
showed himself, just as the French na- 
tion was, ardently pro- American, but not 
anti-English. 



Digitized by 



Google 



522 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



He deplored the impending war, which 
ought to have been avoided by England's 
acknowledging in time *'the folly of its 
absurd project to subjugate the Amer- 
icans. . . . It is a strange thing that 
it be not yet a commonplace truth to say 
that no nation can ever have the right to 
govern another nation; that such a gov- 
ernment has no other foundation than 
force, which is also the foundation of 
brigandage and tyranny; that a people's 
tyranny is, of all tyrannies, the most 
cruel, the most intolerable, and the one 
which leaves the least resources to the 
oppressed ; . , . for a multitude does 
not calculate, does not feel remorse, and 
it bestows on itself glory when all that it 
deserves is shame." 

The Americans, according to Turgot, 
must be free, not only for their own sake, 
but for the sake of humanity ; an experi- 
ment of the utmost import is about to be- 
gin, and should succeed. He added this, 
the worthy forecast of a generous mind : 

"It is impossible not to form wishes 
for that people to reach the utmost pros- 
perity it is capable of. That people is the 
hope of mankind. It must show to the 
world by its example that men can be 
free and tranquil, and can do without the 
chains that tyrants and cheats of all garb 
have tried to lay on them under pretense 
of public good. It must give the exam- 
ple of political liberty, religious liberty, 
commercial and industrial liberty. 

"The shelter which it is going to offer 
to the oppressed of all nations will con- 
sole the earth. The ease with which men 
will be able to avail themselves of it and 
escape the effects of a bad government 
will oblige governments to open their 
eyes and to be just. The rest of the 
world will perceive by degrees the empti- 
ness of the illusions on which politicians 
have festered." 

Toward England Turgot has a feeling 
of regret on account of its policies, but 
no trace of animosity ; and, on the con- 
trary, the belief that, in spite of what 
some people of note were alleging, the 
absolutely certain loss of her American 
colonies would not result in a diminution 
of her power. "This revolution will 
prove, maybe, as profitable to you as to 
America." 



THE HONORABLE RULES OF WAR 
RIGOROUSLY OBSERVED 

Not less characteristic of the times and 
of the same thinker's turn of mind is a 
brief memorial written by him for the 
King shortly after, when Captain Cook 
was making his third voyage of discov- 
ery, the one from which he never re- 
turned. "Captain Cook," Turgot said, 
"is probably on his way back to Europe. 
His expedition having no other object 
than the progress of human knowledge, 
and interesting, therefore, to all nations, 
it would be worthy of the King s mag- 
nanimity not to allow that the result be 
jeopardized by the chances of war." 

Orders should be given to all French 
naval officers "to abstain from any hos- 
tile act against him or his ship, and allow 
him to freely continue his navigation, 
and to treat him in every respect as the 
custom is to treat the officers and ships 
of neutral and friendly countries." 

The King assented and had our cruis- 
ers notified of the sort of sacred charac- 
ter which they would have to recognize 
in that ship of the enemy — a small fact 
in itself, but showing the difference be- 
tween the wars in those days and in ours, 
when we have had to witness the wanton 
destruction of the Louvain library, the 
shelling of the Rheims cathedral, and the 
Arras town hall. 

A FIGHT NOT FOR RECOMPENSE, BUT FOR 
LIBERTY 

An immense aspiration was growing 
in France for more equality, fewer privi- 
leges, simpler lives among the great, less 
hard ones among the lowly, more acces- 
sible knowledge, the free discussion by 
all of the common interests of all. A fact 
of deepest import struck the least atten- 
tive : French masses were becoming more 
and more thinking masses. One should 
not forget that between the end of the 
American Revolution and the beginning 
of the French one only six years elapsed ; 
between the American and the French 
Constitutions but four years. 

It was not, therefore, a statement of 
small import that Franklin had conveyed 
to Congress when he wrote from France: 
"The united bent of the nation is mani- 



Digitized by 



Google 




MARQUIS DE; LAFAYETTE 

His passion for liberty enkindled by the heroic struggle of the American colonies, Marie 
Jean Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier Lafayette, a youth of 19, determined to cast his 
fortunes with the followers of Washington. Arrested by order of his sovereign when he 
attempted to sail from Bordeaux, the dauntless boy escaped from France in disguise and 
embarked with eleven companions from a port in Spain. Landing in America in April, 1779, 
he went at once to Philadelphia, where Congress hesitated to give him a commission as 
major general, which had been promised by the American agent in Paris. 

Immediately Lafayette waived all claim to military rank and asked to be allowed to serve 
in the Continental Army "as a volunteer and without pay." Happily, Congress proved no 
less magnanimous; his commission was issued at once. The day following he met Washing- 
ton, and there began a lifelong friendship between the two great patriots and lovers of 
liberty, epitomizing the mutual devotion and admiration which the people of France and of 
the United States were henceforth to entertain toward each other for all time. It was largely 
through Lafayette's influence that Rochambeau came to America with a division of French 
soldiers which turned the tide of defeat into victory for the colonies. 

Returning to his native France, Lafayette played a distinguished role in the events of 
the French Revolution, his devotion to the cause of liberty ever remaining unsullied by 
wanton deeds of bloodshed or vainglorious striving for power. Having been made com- 
mander-in-chief of the National Guard of Paris on the day following the storming of the 
Bastille, he sent the key of that grim stronghold to General Washington as a symbol of the 
overthrow of despotism and the triumph of free government in France. That symbol is 
today one of America's most treasured mementos, carefully guarded in the nation's shrine — 
Mt. Vernon. 



523 



Digitized by 



Google 



524 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



festly in our favor." And he deplored 
elsewhere that some could think that an 
appeal to France's own interest was good 
policy : 

"Telling them their commerce will be 
advantaged by our success, and that it is 
their interest to help us, seems as much 
as to say: 'Help us and we shall not be 
obliged to you.' Such indiscreet and im- 
proper language has been sometimes held 
here by some of our people and produced 
no good effect. The truth is," he said 
also, that "this nation is fond of glory, 
particularly that of protecting the op- 
pressed." 

The treaty of commerce, accompany- 
ing the treaty of alliance of 1778, had 
been in itself a justification of this judg- 
ment. Help from abroad was so press- 
ingly needed in America that almost any 
advantages requested by France as a con- 
dition would have been granted ; but that 
strange sight was seen : advantages being 
offered, unasked, by one party and de- 
clined by the other. 

France decided at once not to accept 
anything as a recompense, not even Can- 
ada, if that were wrested from the Eng- 
lish, in spite of Canada's having been 
French from the first and having but re- 
cently ceased to be such. The fight was 
not for recompense, but for liberty, and 
Franklin could write to Congress that 
the treaty of commerce was one to which 
all the rest of the world, in accordance 
with France's own wishes, was free to 
accede, when it chose, on the same foot- 
ing as herself, England included. 

This was so peculiar that many had 
doubts ; John Adams never lost his ; even 
Washington himself had some, and when 
plans were submitted to him for an action 
in Canada he wondered, as he wrote, 
whether there was not in them "more 
than the disinterested zeal of allies." 
What would take place at the peace if 
the allies were victorious? Would not 
France require, in one form or another, 
some advantages for herself? But she 
did not ; her peace was to be like her war, 
pro-American rather than anti-English. 

THE IDEAL LEADER — ROCHAMBEAU 

Aware of the importance and difficulty 
of the move it had decided upon, the 



French Govertiment had looked for a 
trained soldier, a man of decision and of 
sense, one who would understand Wash- 
ington and be understood by him, would 
keep in hand the enthusiasts under his 
orders, and would avoid ill-prepared, 
risky ventures. The government consid- 
ered it could do no better than to select 
Rochambeau. It could, indeed, do no 
better. 

Rochambeau was appointed an officer 
and served on his first campaign in Ger- 
many at sixteen; fought under Marshal 
de Saxe; was a colonel at twenty-two 
(Washington was to become one also at 
twenty-two) ; received at Laufeldt his 
two first wounds, of which he nearly died. 
At the head of the famous Auvergne reg- 
iment, "Auvergne sans tache" (Auvergne 
the spotless), as it was called, he took 
part in the chief battles of the Seven 
Years' War, notably in the victory of 
Klostercamp, where spotless Auvergne 
had 58 officers and 800 soldiers killed or 
wounded, the battle made memorable by 
the episode of the Chevalier d'Assas, who 
went to his heroic death in the fulfill- 
ment of an order given by Rochambeau. 
The latter was again severely wounded, 
but, leaning on two soldiers, he could re- 
main at his post till the day was won. 

On the opposite side of the same battle- 
fields were fighting many destined, like 
Rochambeau himself, to take part in the 
American war ; it was like a preliminary 
rehearsal of the drama that was to be. 
At the second battle of Minden, in 1759, 
where the father of Lafayette was killed, 
Rochambeau covered the retreat, while 
in the English ranks Lord CornwalHs was 
learning his trade, as was, too, but less 
brilliantly, Lord George Germain, the fu- 
ture colonial secretary of the Yorktown 
period. 

A HAPPY MARRIAGE WITH ANNALS BRIEF 

When still very young, Rochambeau 
had contracted one of those marriages so 
numerous in the eighteenth, as in every 
other, century, of which nothing is said 
in the memoirs and letters of the period, 
because they were what they should be — 
happy ones. Every right-minded and 
right-hearted man will find less pleasure 
in the sauciest anecdote told by Lauzun 



Digitized by 



Google 



OUR FIRST ALLIANCE 



525 



than in the simple and brief lines written 
in his old age by Rochambeau : "My good 
star gave me such a wife as I could de- 
sire;, she has been for me a cause of con- 
stant happiness throughout life, and I 
hope, on my side, to have made her happy 
by the tenderest amity, which has never 
varied an instant during nearly sixty 
years." 

Informed at Versailles of the task he 
would have to perform, Rochambeau set 
to work to get everything in readiness, 
collecting information, talking with those 
who knew America, and noting down in 
his green-garbed registers, which were to 
accompany him in his campaign, the chief 
data thus secured. 

He also addressed to himself, as a re- 
minder, a number of useful recommenda- 
tions, such as these : "To take with us a 
quantity of flints, . . . much flour and 
biscuit; have bricks as ballast for the 
ships, to be used for ovens; to try to 
bring with us all we want and not to have 
to ask from the Americans, who are 
themselves in want; ... to have a 
copy of the atlas brought from Philadel- 
phia by Mr. de Lafayette; ... to 
have a portable printing-press, like that 
of Mr. d'Estaing, handy for proclama- 
tions . . . siege artillery is indispen- 
sable." 

Some of the notes are of grave import 
and were not lost sight of throughout the 
campaign: "Nothing without naval su- 
premacy." 

NOTHING WITHOUT NAVAL SUPREMACY 

To those intrusted with the care of 
loading the vessels he recommends that 
all articles of the same kind be not placed 
on the same ship, "so that in case of mis- 
hap to any ship the whole supply of any 
kind of provisions be not totally lost." 

When all were there, however, form- 
ing a total of S,ooo men, the maximum 
was so truly reached that a number of 
young men, some belonging to the best- 
known French families, who were arriv- 
ing at Brest from day to day, in the hope 
of being added to the expedition, had to 
be sent back. 

The departure, which it was necessary 
to hasten while the English were not yet 
ready, was beset with difficulties. Tem- 



pests, contrary winds, and other mishaps 
had caused vexatious delay ; the Comtesse 
de Noailles and the Conquerant had come 
into collision and had had to be repaired. 
"Luckily," wrote Rochambeau to Mont- 
barey, with his usual good humor, "it 
rains also on Portsmouth." At last, on 
the 2d of May, 1780, the fleet of seven 
ships of the line and two frigates, con- 
veying thirty-six transports, weighed 
anchor for good. "We shall have the 
start of Graves," the general wrote again, 
"for he will have to use the same wind 
to leave Portsmouth." 

At sea now for a long voyage, two or 
three months perhaps, with the prospect 
of calms, of storms, of untoward en- 
counters, of scurvy for the troops. On 
board the big Due de Bourgogne, of 
eighty guns, with Admiral de Ternay, 
Rochambeau adds now and then para- 
graphs to a long report which is a kind 
of journal, assuring the minister, after 
the first fortnight, that all is well on 
board : "We have no men sick other than 
those which the sea makes so, among 
whom the Marquis de Laval and my son 
play the most conspicuous part." He 
prepares his general instructions to the 
troops. 

On board the smaller craft life was 
harder, and numerous unflattering de- 
scriptions have come down to us in the 
journals kept by so many officers of the 
army, especially in that of the aforemen- 
tioned young captain, Louis Baron de 
Closen, later one of the aides of Ro- 
chambeau. 

A FIRST-HAND PICTURE OF UFE IN THE 
FRENCH FLEET 

He confesses, but with no undue senti- 
mentalism, that he was saddened at first 
to some extent at the prospect of an ab- 
sence that might be a long one, particu- 
larly when thinking "of a charming young 
fiancee, full of wit and grace. . . . 
My profession, however, does not allow 
me to yield too much to sensibility ; so I 
am now perfectly resigned." 

It is hard at first to get accustomed, 
so tight-packed is the ship, but one gets 
inured to it, in spite of the "buzzing of 
so numerous a company," of the lack of 
breathing space, and of what people 



Digitized by 



Google 



526 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



breathe being made unpleasant by all 
sorts of "exhalations" from the ship, the 
masses of humanity on board, "and a 
few dogs." 

Closen has the good luck not to be in- 
convenienced by the sea, settles in his 
corner, and from that moment till the 
end takes pleasure in watching life around 
him. He learns how to make nautical 
observations, describes his companions in 
his journal, and especially the captain, a 
typical old tar who has an equal faith in 
the efficacy of hymns and of oaths. 

"Prayer is said twice a day on the 
deck, which does not prevent there being 
much irreligion among seamen. I have 
often heard our captain swear and curse 
and freely use the worst sailors' language 
while he was praying and chanting : 

"*Ja mets ma confiance, 
Vierge, en votre secours, 
Et quand ma derniere heure 
Viendra, guidez mon sort; 
Obtenez que je meure 
De la plus sainte mort.' 

Various incidents break the monotony 
of the journey. On the i8th of June the 
Surveillante captures an English corsair, 
which is a joy ; but they learn from her 
the fall of Charleston and the surrender 
of Lincoln, which gives food for thought. 

A TRAP THAT WAS AVOIDED 

Nothing better shows the difference 
between old-time and present-time navi- 
gation than the small fact that while on 
the way they indulge in fishing. On 
board the Comtesse de Noailles they cap- 
ture flying-fishes, which are "very tender 
and delicious to eat, fried in fresh butter, 
like gudgeons." 

An occasion offers to open fight, with 
the advantage of numerical superiority, 
on six English vessels; some shots are 
exchanged, but with great wisdom, and, 
in spite of the grumblings of all his peo- 
ple, Ternay refuses to really engage them, 
and continues his voyage. 

"He had his convoy too much at heart," 
says Closen, "and he knew too well the 
importance of our expedition, his positive 
orders being that he must make our army 
arrive as quickly as possible, for him not 
to set aside all the entreaties of the young 
naval officers, who, I was told, were very 



outspoken on that score, as well as most 
of the land officers, who know nothing 
of naval matters." 

The event fully justified Ternay, for 
Graves, whose mission it had been to 
intercept him and his slow and heavy 
convoy, missed his opportunity by twenty- 
four hours only, reaching New York, 
where he joined forces with Arbuthnot, 
just as our own ships were safe at New- 
port. The slightest delay on Ternay's 
part might have been fatal. 

The more so since, when nearing the 
coast, our fleet had fallen into fogs. 
"Nothing so sad and dangerous at sea 
as fogs," Closen sententiously writes; 
"besides the difficulty of avoiding col- 
lisions in so numerous a fleet, each vessel, 
in order to shun them, tries to gain space ; 
thus one may chance to get too far from 
the center. The standing orders for our 
convoy were, in view of avoiding those 
inconveniences, to beat the drums every 
quarter of an hour or fire petards. The 
men-of-war fired their guns or sent rock- 
ets. The speed limit was three knots 
during the fog, so that each vessel might, 
as far as possible, continue keeping com- 
pany with its neighbor." 

In spite of all which the He de France 
was lost, and there was great anxiety; 
she was not seen again during the rest of 
the journey, but she appeared later, quite 
safe, at Boston. 

WASHINGTON GIVEN THE HONORS Ol? A 
MARSHAL IN THE FRENCH ARMY 

The landing orders of Rochambeam 
making known now to all concerned the 
intentions of the government, were clear 
and peremptory. Drawn up by him on 
board the Due de Bourgogne, he had 
caused copies to be carried to the chiefs 
of the several corps on board the other 
ships : 

"The troops which His Majesty is 
sending to America are auxiliary to those 
of the United States, his allies, and placed 
under the orders of General Washington, 
to whom the honors of a marshal of 
France will be rendered. The same with 
the President of Congress," which avoid- 
ed the possibility of any trouble as to 
precedence, no one in the French army 
having such a rank. 



Digitized by 



Google 




ADMIRAL DE GRASSE, WHO RISKED AND DID MORE FOR THE UNITED STATES THAN 

ANY SINGLE FOREIGNER 

By blockading the James and York rivers and by repulsing the British fleet, thereby pre- 
venting its coming to the relief of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown, this French naval officer 
became a potent factor in the establishment of the American Republic (see pp. 537 and 541). 



527 



Digitized by 



Google 



628 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



"In case of an equality of rank and 
duration of service, the American officer 
will take command. . . . The troops 
of the King will yield the right side to 
the allies; French troops will add black 
to their cockades, black being the color 
of the United States," and some such 
hats, with black and white cockades, are 
still preserved at Fraunce's Tavern, New 
York. 

"The intention of His Majesty," the 
general continues, "is that there be per- 
fect concert and harmony between the 
generals and officers of the two nations. 
The severest discipline will be observed. 
. . . It is forbidden to take a bit of 
wood, a sheaf of straw, any kind of vege- 
tables, except amicably and in paying. 
. . . All faults of unruliness, disobedi- 
ence, insubordination, ill will, brutal and 
sonorous drunkenness . . . will be 
punished, according to ordinances, with 
strokes of the flat of the sword." Even 
"light faults of lack of cleanliness or 
attention" will be punished. "To make 
the punishment the harder for the French 
soldier, he will be barred from military 
service during his detention." 

The army, but not the fleet, had been 
placed under the orders of Washington. 
Temay's instructions specified, however, 
that while his squadron had no other 
commander than himself, it was expected 
that he "would proffer all assistance that 
might facilitate the operations of the 
United States," and that he would allow 
the use of our ships "on every occasion 
when their help might be requested." 

Good will was obviously the leading 
sentiment, and the desire of all was to 
give as little trouble and bring as much 
useful help as possible. 

TH^ FRENCH FLEET AT NEWPORT 

On the nth day of July the fleet 
reached Newport, after seventy days at 
sea, which was longer than Columbus 
had taken on his first voyage, but which 
was nothing extraordinary. Abbe Robin, 
a chaplain of the army, arrived later, 
after a journey of eighty-five days, none 
the less filled with admiration for those 
"enormous machines with which men 
master the waves" — a very minute enor- 
mity from our modern point of view. 



"There were among the land troops," 
says Closen, "endless shouts of joy" at 
the prospect of being on terra firma 
again. The troops, owing to their hav- 
ing been fed on salt meat and dry vege- 
tables, with little water to drink (on 
board the Comtesse de Noailles water 
had become corrupt ; it was now and then 
replaced by wine, "but that heats one very 
much"), had greatly suff'ered. Scurvy 
had caused its usual ravages ; 600 or 700 
soldiers and 1,000 sailors were suffering 
from it; some had died. 

They were now confronted by the un- 
known. What would that unknown be? 
Rochambeau had only his first division 
with him; would he be attacked at once 
by the English, who disposed of superior 
naval and land forces about New York? 
And what would be the attitude of the 
Americans themselves? Everybody was 
for them in France, but few people had a 
real knowledge of them. Lafayette had, 
but he was young and enthusiastic. 
Would the inhabitants, would their 
leader, Washington, would their army, 
answer his description? 

A GAME OF NAVAL CHESS 

On the arrival of the fleet Newport had 
fired "13 grand rockets" and illuminated 
its windows, but that might be a mere 
matter of course. Of these illuminations 
the then president of Yale, Ezra Stiles, 
has left a noteworthy record: "The bell 
rang at Newport till after midnight, and 
the evening of the 12th Newport illumi- 
nated; the Whigs put thirteen lights in 
the windows; the Tories or doubtfuls 
four or six. The Quakers did not choose 
their lights should shine before men, and 
their windows were broken." 

The game was, moreover, a difficult 
one and had to be played on an immense 
chess-board, including North and South 
(Boston, New York, Charleston, and the 
Chesapeake), including even "the Isles" — 
that is, the West Indies — ^and what took 
place there, which might have so much 
importance for continental operations, 
had constantly to be guessed or imagined 
for lack of news. 

Worse than all, the reputation of the 
French was, up to then, in Ajcnerica such 
as hostile English books and caricatures 



Digitized by 



Google 



OUR FIRST ALLIANCE 



529 



and inconsiderate French ones had made 
it. We knew it, and so well, too, that the 
appropriateness of having our troops 
winter in our colonies of the West In- 
dies was at one time considered. Our 
minister, Gerard, was of that opinion: 
'*The Americans are little accustomed to 
live with French people, for whom they 
cannot have as yet a very marked incli- 
nation." 

"It is difficult to imagine," said Abbe 
Robin, "the idea Americans entertained 
about the French before the war. They 
considered them as groaning under the 
yoke of despotism, a prey to superstition 
and prejudices, almost idolatrous in their 
religion, and as a kind of light, brittle, 
queer-shapen mechanism, only busy friz- 
zling their hair and painting their faces, 
without faith or morals." How would 
thousands of such mechanisms be re- 
ceived ? 

PREPARING TO GIVE THE ENEMY "HOT 

shot" 

With his usual clear-headedness, Ro- 
chambeau did the necessary thing on each 
point. To begin with, in case of an Eng- 
lish attack, which was at first expected 
every day, he lost no time in fortifying 
the position he occupied, "having," wrote 
Mathieu-Dumas, "personally selected the 
chief points to be defended, and having 
batteries of heavy artillery and mortars 
erected along the channel, with furnaces 
to heat the balls." 

During "the first six days," says 
Closen, "we were not quite at our ease, 
but, luckily. Messieurs les Anglais showed 
us great consideration, and we suffered 
from nothing worse than grave anxie- 
ties." After the second week Rocham- 
beau could write home that if Clinton 
appeared he would be well received. 
Shortly after he feels sorry the visit is 
delayed ; later, when his own second divi- 
sion, so ardently desired, did not appear, 
he writes to the war minister: "In two 
words. Sir Henry Clinton and I are very 
punctilious, and the question is between 
us who will first call on the other. If we 
do not get up earlier in the morning than 
the English, and the reinforcements they 
expect from Europe reach them before 
our second division arrives, they will pay 



us a visit here that I should prefer to pay 
them in New York." 

Concerning the reputation of the 
French, Rochambeau and his officers 
were in perfect accord; it would change 
if exemplary discipline were maintained 
throughout the campaign. There is noth- 
ing the chief paid more attention to than 
this, nor with more complete success. 
Writing to Prince de Montbarey a month 
after the landing, Rochambeau says: "I 
can answer for the discipline of the 
army ; not a man has left his camp ; not 
a cabbage has been stolen; not a com- 
plaint has been heard." 

NOT ONE COMPI^AINT AGAINST THE 
CONDUCT OE THE FRENCH TROOPS 

To the President of Congress he had 
written a few days before: "I hope that 
account will have been rendered to Your 
Excellency of the discipline observed by 
the French troops; there has not been 
one complaint; not a man has missed a 
roll-call. We are your brothers and we 
shall act as such with you ; we shall fight 
your enemies by your side as if we were 
one and the same nation." 

Mentioning in his memoirs the visit of 
those "savages" who had been formerly 
under French rule and persisted in re- 
maining friendly to us, he adds: "The 
sight of guns, troops, and military exer- 
cises caused them no surprise; but they 
were greatly astonished to see apple trees 
with their apples upon them overhanging 
the soldiers' tents." "This result," he 
concludes, "was due not only to the zeal 
of officers, but more than anything else 
to the good disposition of the soldiers, 
which never failed." 

William Channing, father of the phil- 
anthropist, confides to the same Ezra 
Stiles, in a letter of August 6, 1780, his 
delighted surprise: "The French are a 
fine body of men and appear to be well 
officered. Neither the officers nor men 
are the effeminate beings we were here- 
tofore taught to believe them. They are 
as large and likely men as can be pro- 
duced by any nation." So much for the 
brittle, queer-shaped mechanisms. 

With the French officers in the West 
Indies, most of them former companions 
in arms and personal friends, Rocham- 



Digitized by 



Google 



530 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



beau, as soon as he had landed, began to 
correspond. The letters thus exchanged, 
generally unpublished, give a vivid pic- 
ture of the life then led in the Isles. Cut 
off from the world most of the time, not 
knowing what was taking place in 
France, in America, on the sea, or even 
sometimes on the neighboring island, 
unaware of the whereabouts of Rodney, 
having to guess which place he might try 
to storm and which they should there- 
fore garrison, these men, suffering from 
fevers, having now and then their ships 
scattered by cyclones, played to their 
credit and with perfect good humor their 
difficult game of hide and seek. 

They send their letters in duplicate and 
triplicate, by chance boats, give news of 
the French court when they have any, 
and learn after a year's delay that their 
letters of October, 1780, have been duly 
received by Rochambeau in June, 1781. 

The Marquis de Saint-Simon writes 
from Santo Domingo to say how much 
he would like to go and fight under Ro- 
chambeau on the continent : "I would be 
delighted to be under your orders, and to 
give up for that the command-in-chief I 
enjoy here." 

ROCHAMBEAU'S WARM H^ART AND STRICT 
DISCIPLINE 

The stanch devotion of Rochambeau 
to his duties as a soldier, his personal dis- 
interestedness, his cool-hcadedness and 
energy as a leader, his good humor in 
the midst of troubles, had secured for 
him the devotion of many, while his 
brusquerie, his peremptoriness, the se- 
verity which veiled his real warmth of 
heart whenever the service was at stake, 
won him a goodly number of enemies, 
the latter very generally of less worth as 
men than the former. 

In the affectionate letter by which he 
made up early differences with "his son 
Lafayette," shortly after his arrival, he 
observes, concerning his own military 
career: "If I have been lucky enough to 
preserve, up to now, the confidetice of 
the French soldiers, . . . the reason is 
that out of 15,000 men or thereabout 
who have been killed or wounded under 
my orders, of different rank and in the 
most deadly actions, I have not to re- 



proach myself with having caused a sin- 
gle one to be killed for the sake of my 
own fame." 

"He seemed," Segur said in his me- 
moirs, "to have been purposely created to 
understand Washington and be under- 
stood by him, and to serve with republi- 
cans. A friend of order, of law, and of 
liberty, his example more even than his 
authority obliged us scrupulously to re- 
spect the rights, properties, and customs 
of our allies." 

WAITING FOR THE SECOND DIVISION 

Nothing without my second division, 
Rochambeau thought. He had urged the 
government in his last letters before leav- 
ing France to send it not later than a 
fortnight after he himself had sailed: 
"The convoy will cross much more safely 
now under the guard of two warships," 
he had written to Montbarey, "than it 
will in a month with an escort of thirty, 
when the English are ready." And again, 
after having embarked on the Due de 
Bourgogne: "For Heaven's sake, sir, 
hasten that second division. . . . We 
are just now weighing anchor." 

But weeks and months went by and no 
news came of the second division. Wash- 
ington with his ardent patriotism, Lafay- 
ette with his youthful enthusiasm, were 
pressing Rochambeau to risk all in order 
to capture New York, the stronghold of 
the enemy and chief center of their 
power. "I am confident," Rochambeau 
answered, "that our general (Washing- 
ton) does not want us to give here a sec- 
ond edition of Savannah," and he felt the 
more anxious that, with the coming of re- 
cruits and going of veterans and the short 
term enlistments, "Washington would 
command now 15,000 men, now 5,000." 

Rochambeau decided in October to 
send to France his son, then colonel of 
the regiment of Bourbonnais, to remon- 
strate. As capture was possible and the 
envoy might have to throw his dispatches 
overboard, young Rochambeau, being 
blessed with youth and a good memory, 
had learned their contents by heart. One 
of the best sailors of the fleet had been 
selected to convey him, on the frigate 
Amazone. 

On account of superior forces mount- 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by courtesy of Horace Wells Sellers 

THE FIRST FRENCH AMBASSADOR TO THE UNITED STATES: CHEVALIER GERARD 

"Whereas the Honorable Sieur Gerard, the first Minister Plenipotentiary to the United 
States, hath before as well as since their treaty with France uniformly, ably, and zealously 
promoted the objects of the alliance and welfare of both nations. Resolved, That the com- 
mittee do request Mr. Gerard to sit for his picture before he leaves this city, and that the 
same be placed in the Council Chamber of the United States." So ran the resolution, 
adopted in 1779 by the Continental Congress, which resulted in this Peale portrait of one of 
the first and ablest friends of the American Republic in the days of its infancy. 



531 



Digitized by 



Google 



532 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



ing guard outside, the captain waited for 
the first night storm that should arise, 
when the watch was sure to be less strict, 
started in the midst of one, after having 
waited for eight days, was recognized, 
but too late, was chased, had his masts 
broken, repaired them, and reached Brest 
safely. The sailor who did so well on 
this occasion and who was to meet a 
tragic death at Vanikoro, bore the name, 
famous since, of La Perouse. 

DARK DAYS FOR THE PATRIOT CAUSE 

Time wore on — a sad time for the 
American cause. One day the news was 
that one of the most trusted generals, 
famous for his services on land and 
water — Benedict Arnold — had turned 
traitor ; another day that Gates had been 
routed at Camden and Kalb killed. In 
December Ternay died. In January, 
worse than all, the soldiers of the Penn- 
sylvania line mutinied ; unpaid, underfed, 
kept under the flag long after the time 
for which they had enlisted, "they went," 
Closen writes in his journal, "to extremi- 
ties. In Europe they would not have 
waited so long." 

The danger was great, but brief; 
tempted by the enemy to change sides 
and receive full pay, the Pennsylvania 
line refused indignantly. "We are honest 
soldiers, asking justice from our compa- 
triots," they answered; "we are not 
traitors." 

Owing to Washington's influence, or- 
der soon reigned again ; but the alarm had 
been very great, as shown by the instruc- 
tions which he handed to Colonel Lau- 
rens, now sent by him to Versailles with 
a mission similar to that of young Ro- 
chambeau. The emotion caused by the 
last events is reflected in them : "The pa- 
tience of the American army is almost 
exhausted. ... The great majority 
of the inhabitants is still firmly attached 
to the cause of independence," but that 
cause may be wrecked if more money, 
more men, and more ships are not imme- 
diately supplied by the French ally. 

A SERIOUS SITUATION IN THE SOUTH 

While the presence of the American 
and French troops in the North kept 
Clinton and his powerful New York gar- 



rison immobile, where they were, the situ- 
ation in the South was becoming worse 
and worse, with Cornwallis at the head 
of superior forces, Lord Rawdon holding 
Charleston, and the hated Arnold ravag- 
ing Virginia. 

Against them the American forces 
under Greene, Lafayette, and Morgan 
(who had partly destroyed Tarleton's 
cavalry at Cowpens, January 17) were 
doing their utmost, facing fearful odds. 

With a handful of men, knowing that 
the slightest error might be his destruc- 
tion, young Lafayette, aged twenty-four, 
far from help and advice, was conducting 
a 'campaign in which his pluck, wisdom, 
and tenacity won him the admiration of 
veterans. Irritated ever to find him on 
his path, Cornwallis was writing a little 
later to Clinton: "If I can get an oppor- 
tunity to strike a blow at him without 
loss of time, I will certainly try it." But 
Lafayette would not let his adversary 
thus employ his leisure. 

One day, however, something would 
have to be done, and, in order to be 
ready, Rochambeau kept his army busy 
with maneuvers, military exercises, sham 
warfare ("le simulacre de la petite 
guerre"), and the building of fortifica- 
tions. As for his officers, he encouraged 
them to travel, for a large part of the 
land was free of enemies, and to become 
better acquainted w^ith these "American 
brothers," whom they had come to fight 
for. French officers were thus seen at 
Boston, Albany, West Point, Philadel- 
phia. 

LATIN WAS THE LANGUAGE OF 
COMMUNICATION 

Closen, who, to his joy and surprise, 
had been made a member of Rocham- 
beau's "family" — that is, had been afH 
pointed one of his aides — ^as soon as his 
new duties left him some leisure, began, 
with his methodical mind, to study, he 
tells us, "the Constitution of the thirteen 
States and of the Congress of America," 
meaning, of course, at that date, their 
several constitutions, which organization, 
"as time has shown, is well adapted to 
the national character and has made the 
happiness of that people so respectable 
from every point of view." He began 



Digitized by 



Google 



OUR FIRST ALLIANCE 



533 



after this to examine the products of the 
soil of Rhode Island, "pferhaps one of the 
prettiest islands on the globe." 

The stay being prolonged, the officers^ 
began to make 'acquaintances, to learn 
English, to gain access to American so- 
ciety. It was at first very difficult; 
neither French nor American understood 
each other's language; so recourse was 
bravely had to Latin, better known then 
than today. 

UNSPEAKABLE QUANTITIES OF TEA ARE 
DRUNK 

For the use of Latin the commander- 
in-chief of the French army was able to 
set the example, and Ezra Stiles could talk 
at a dinner in that language with Rocham- 
beau, still reminiscent of what he had 
learned when studying for priesthood. 

Beginning to know something of the 
language, our officers risk paying visits 
and go to teas and dinners. Closen notes 
with curiosity all he sees : "It is good be- 
havior each time people meet. to accost 
each other, mutually offering the hand 
and shaking it, English fashion. Arriv- 
ing in a company of men, one thus goes 
around, but must remember that it be- 
longs to the one of higher rank to extend 
his hand first." 

Unspeakable quantities of tea are 
drunk. "To crave mercy, when one has 
taken half a dozen cups, one must put the 
spoon across the cup ; for so long as you 
do not place it so, your cup is always 
taken, rinsed, filled again, and placed be- 
fore you. After the first, the custom is 
for the pretty pourer (verseuse) — most 
of them are so — to ask you: Is the tea 
suitable?" "An insipid drink," grumbles 
Chaplain Robin, over whom the pretti- 
ness of the pourers was powerless. 

The toasts are also a very surprising 
custom, sometimes an uncomfortable one. 
"One is terribly fatigued by the quantity 
of healths which are being drunk 
(toasts). From one end of the table to 
the other a gentleman pledges you, some- 
times with only a glance, which means 
that you should drink a glass of wine 
with him — a compliment which cannot be 
politely igjiored." 

But what strikes hirti more than any- 
thing else is the beauty of those young 



ladies who made him drink so much tea : 
"Nature has endowed the ladies of Rhode 
Island with the handsomest, finest fea- 
tures one can imagine ; their complexion 
is clear and white ; their hands and feet 
usually small." 

But let not the ladies of other States 
be tempted to resent this preference. 
One sees later that in each city he visits 
young Closen is similarly struck, and that, 
more considerate than the shepherd Paris, 
he somehow manages to refuse the apple 
to none. On the Boston ladies he is quite 
etithusiastic, on the Philadelphia ones not 
less ; he finds, however, the latter a little 
too serious, which he attributes to the 
presence of Congress in that city. 

THE frenchmen's IMPRESSION OF 
WASHINGTON 

But, above all, the object of my com- 
patriots' curiosity was the great man, the 
one of whom they had heard so much on 
the other side, the personification of the 
new-born ideas of liberty and popular 
government — George Washington. All 
wanted to see him, and as soon as per- 
mission to travel was granted several 
managed to reach his camp. For all of 
them, different as they might be in rank 
and character, the impression was the 
same and fulfilled expectation, beginning 
with Rochambeau, who saw him for the 
first time at the Hartford conferences, in 
September, 1780, when they tried to draw 
a first plan for a combined action, 

A friendship then commenced between 
the two that was long to survive those 
eventful years. "From the moment we 
began to correspond with one another," 
Rochambeau wrote in his memoirs, "I 
never ceased to enjoy the soundness of 
his judgment and the amenity of his style 
in a very long correspondence, which is 
likely not to end before the death of one 
of us." 

Chastellux, who saw him at his camp, 
where the band of the American army 
played for him the "March of the Hu- 
ron," could draw from life his well- 
known description of him, ending: 
"Northern America, from Boston to 
Charleston, is a great book, every page 
of which tells his praise." Count de 
Segur says that he apprehended his ex- 



Digitized by 



Google 




534 



Digitized by 



Google 



OUR FIRST ALLIANCE 



535 



pectations could not be equaled by reality, 
but they were. "His exterior almost told 
his story. Simplicity, grandeur, dignity, 
calm, kindness, firmness shone in his 
physiognomy as well as in his character. 
He was of a noble and high stature, his 
expression was gentle and kindly, his 
smile pleasing, his manners simple with- 
out familiarity. . . . All in him an- 
nounced the hero of a republic." 

ABBE robin's TRIBUTI5 

"I have seen Washington," says Abbe 
Robin, "the soul and support of one of 
the greatest revolutions that ever hap- 
pened. ... In a country where every 
individual has a part in supreme author- 
ity .. . he has been able to maintain 
his troops in absolute subordination, ren- 
der them jealous of his praise, make them 
fear his very silence." Closen was one 
day sent with dispatches to the great man, 
and, like all the others, began to worship 
him. 

As a consequence of this mission, 
Washington came, on the 6th of March, 
1781, to visit the French camp and fleet. 
He was received with the honors due to 
a marshal of France; the ships were 
dressed; the troops, in their best uni- 
forms, "dans la plus grande tenue," lined 
the streets from Rochambeau's house 
(the fine Vernon house, still in existence) 
to the harbor ; the roar and smoke of the 
guns rose in honor of the "hero of lib- 
erty." Washington saw Destouches's 
fleet sail for its Southern expedition and 
wished it Godspeed ; and after a six days' 
stay, enlivened by "illuminations, dinners, 
and balls," he left on the 13th. 

"I can say," we read in Closen's jour- 
nal, "that he carried away with him the 
regrets, the attachment, the respect, and 
the veneration of all our army." Surn- 
ming up his impression, he adds : "All in 
him betokens a great man with an excel- 
lent heart. Enough good will never be 
said of him." 

ROCHAMBEAU'S DISAPPOINTMENT 

On the 8th of May, 1781, the Concorde 
arrived at Boston, having on board Count 
de Barras, "a commodore with the red 
ribbon," of the same family as the future 
member of the "directoire," and who was 



to replace Ternay. With him wa? Vis- 
count Rochambeau, bringing to his father 
the unwelcome news that no second di- 
vision was to be expected. "My son has 
returned very solitary" was the only re- 
monstrance the general sent to the min- 
ister. 

But the young colonel was able to give, 
at the same time, news of great impor- 
tance. A new fleet under Count de Grasse 
had been got together, and at the time of 
the Concorde's departure had just sailed 
for the West Indies, so that a temporary 
domination of the sea might become a 
possibility. "Nothing without naval su- 
premacy," Rochambeau had written, as 
we know, in his note^book before starting. 

In spite, moreover, of "hard times," 
wrote Vergennes to La Luzerne, and of 
the already disquieting state of our 
finances, a new "gratuitous subsidy of 
six million livres tournois" was granted 
to the Americans. Some funds had al- 
ready been sent to Rochambeau, one mil- 
lion and a half in February, with a letter 
of Necker, saying: "Be assured, sir, that 
all that will be asked from the finance 
department for your army will be made 
ready on the instant." Seven millions 
arrived a little later, brought by the 
Astree, which had crossed the ocean in 
67 days without mishap. As for troops, 
only 600 recruits arrived at Boston, in 
June, with the Sagittaire. 

THE QUESTION OP THE HOUR: STORM 
NEW YORK OR RELIEVE THE SOUTH? 

Since nothing more was to be expected, 
the hour had come for definite decisions. 
A great effort must now be made — the 
great effort in view of which all the rest 
had been done, the one which might bring 
about peace and American liberty or end 
in lasting failure. All felt the importance 
and solemnity of the hour. The great 
question was what should be attempted — 
the storming of New York or the relief 
of the South ? 

The terms of the problem had been 
amply discussed in letters and confer- 
ences between the chiefs, and the discus- 
sion still continued. The one who first 
made up his mind and ceased to hesitate 
between the respective advantages or dis- 
advantages of the two projects, and who 



Digitized by 



Google 



536 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



plainly declared that there was but one 
good plan, which was to reconquer the 
South — that one, strange to say, was 
neither Washington nor Rochambeau, 
and was not in the United States either 
as a sailor or a soldier, but as a diplomat, 
and in drawing attention to the fact I am 
only performing the most agreeable duty 
toward a justly admired predecessor. 
This wise adviser was La Luzerne. In 
an unpublished memoir, drawn up by 
him' on the 20th of April and sent to Ro- 
chambeau on May 19, with an explana- 
tory letter, in which he asked that his 
statement (a copy of which he also sent 
to Barras) be placed under the eyes of 
Washington, he insisted on the necessity 
of immediate action, and action in the 
Chesapeake : 

"It is in the Chesapeake Bay that it 
seems urgent to convey all the naval 
forces of the King, with such land forces 
as the generals will consider appropriate. 
This change cannot fail to have the most 
advantageous consequences for the con- 
tinuation of the campaign," which conse- 
quences he points out with singular clear- 
sightedness, adding: 

ADVANTAGES OF A SOUTHERN OFFENSIVE 

"If the English follow us and can reach 
the bay only after us, their situation will 
prove very different from ours; all the 
coasts and the inland parts of the coun- 
try are full of their enemies. They have 
neither the means nor the time to raise, 
as at New York, the necessary works to 
protect themselves against the inroads of 
the American troops and to save them- 
selves from the danger to which the ar- 
rival of superior forces would expose 
them." If the plan submitted by him 
offers difficulties, others should then be 
formed; but he maintains that "all those 
which have for their object the relief of 
the Southern States must be preferred, 
and that no time should be lost to put 
them in execution." 

At the Weathersfield conference, near 
Hartford, Conn., between the Americans 
and French, on the 23d of May (in the 
Webb house, still in existence), Washing- 
ton still evinced, and not without some 
weighty reasons, his preference for an 
attack on New York. He spoke of the 



advanced season, of "the great waste of 
men which we have found from experi- 
ence in long marches in the Southern 
States," of the "difficulty of transports 
by land"; all those reasons and some 
others, "too well known to Count de Ro- 
chambeau to need repeating, show that 
an operation against New York should 
be preferred, in the present circum- 
stances, to the effort of a sending of 
troops to the South." On the same day 
he was writing to La Luzerne : "I should 
be wanting in respect and confidence 
were I not to add that our object is New 
York." 

TO Virginia's rescue 

La Luzerne, however, kept on insisting. 
To Rochambeau he wrote on the ist of 
June: "The situation of the Southern 
States becomes every moment more crit- 
ical; it has even become very dangerous, 
and every measure that could be taken 
for their relief would be of infinite ad- 
vantage. . . . The situation of the 
Marquis de Lafayette and that of General 
Greene is most embarrassing, since Lord 
Cornwallis has joined the English divi- 
sion of the Chesapeake. If Virginia is 
not helped in time, the English will have 
reached the goal which they have as- 
signed to themselves in the bold move- 
ments attempted by them in the South: 
they will soon have really conquered the 
Southern States. . . . 

"I am going to write to M. de Grasse 
as you want me to do ; on your side, seize 
every occasion to write to him, and mul- 
tiply the copies of the letters you send 
him" — that is, in duplicate and triplicate 
for fear of loss or capture. "His coming 
to the rescue of the oppressed States is 
not simply desirable ; the thing seems to 
be now of the most pressing necessity." 
He must not only come, but bring with 
him all he can find of French troops in 
our isles ; thus would be compensated, to 
a certain extent, the absence of the sec- 
ond division. 

THE fate of the united STATES HANGS 
ON DE GRASSE 

Rochambeau soon agreed, and, with 
his usual wisdom, Washington was not 
long in doing the same. On the 28th of 



Digitized by 



Google 



OUR FIRST ALLIANCE 



537 



May the French general had already 
written to de Grasse, beseeching him to 
come with every means at his disposal, to 
bring his whole fleet, and not only his 
fleet, but a supply of money, to be bor- 
rowed in our colonies, and also all the 
French land forces from our garrisons 
which he could muster. The desire of 
Saint-Simon to come and help had, of 
course, not been forgotten by Rocham- 
beau, and he counted on his good will. 

After having described the extreme 
importance of the eflfort to be attempted, 
he concluded : "The crisis through which 
America is passing at this moment is of 
the severest. The coming of Count de 
Grasse may be salvation" (see page 541)- 

Events had so shaped themselves that 
the fate of the United States and the des- 
tinies of more than one nation would be 
for a few weeks in the hands of one man, 
and one greatly hampered by imperative 
instructions obliging him, at a time when 
there was no steam to command the wind 
and waves, to be at a fixed date in the 
West Indies, owing to certain arrange- 
ments with Spain. 

Would he take the risk, and what would 
be the answer of that temporary arbiter 
of future events, Fran<;ois Joseph Paul 
Comte de Grasse, a sailor from the age 
of twelve, now a lieutenant general and 
'*chef d'escadre," who had seen already 
much service on every sea, in the East 
and We.st Indies, with d'Orvilliers at 
Ushant, with Guichen against Rodney in 
the Caribbean Sea, a haughty man, it was 
said, with some friends and many ene- 
mies, the one quality of his acknowl- 
edged by friend and foe being valor? 
*'Our admiral," his sailors were wont to 
say, "is six foot tall on ordinary days and 
six foot six on battle days." 

READY ^OR A FIGHT OR A FROLIC 

What would he do and say ? People in 
those times had to take their chance and 
act in accordance with probabilities. This 
Washington and Rochambeau did. By 
the beginning of June all was astir in the 
northern camp. Soldiers did not know 
what was contemplated, but obviously it 
was something great. Young officers ex- 
ulted. What joy to have at last the pros- 
pect of an "active campaign," wrote Clo- 



sen in his journal, "and to have an occa- 
sion to visit other provinces and see the 
differences in manners, customs, prod- 
ucts, and trade of our good Americans !" 

The camp is raised and the armies are 
on the move toward New York and the 
South; they are in the best dispositions, 
ready, according to circumstances, to 
fight or admire all that turns up. "The 
country between Providence and Bris- 
tol," says Closen, "is charming. We 
thought we had been transported into 
Paradise, all the roads being lined with 
acacias in full bloom, filling the air with 
a delicious, almost too strong, fragrance." 
Steeples are climbed, and "the sight is 
one of the finest possible." Snakes are 
somewhat troublesome, but such things 
will happen, even in Paradise. 

The heat becomes very great, and night 
marches are arranged, beginning at two 
o'clock in the morning ; roads at times be- 
come rnuddy paths, where wagons, artil- 
lery, carts conveying boats for the cross- 
ing of rivers cause great trouble and de- 
lay. "French gayety remains ever pres- 
ent in these hard marches. The Amer- 
icans, whom curiosity brings by the thou- 
sand to our camps, are received," Abbe 
Robin writes, "with lively joy; we cause 
our military instruments to play for 
them, of which they are passionately 
fond. Officers and soldiers, then, Amer- 
ican men and women mix and dance to- 
gether; it is the feast of equality; the 
first-fruits of the alliance which must 
prevail between those nations. . . . 
These people are still in the happy period 
when distinctions of rank and birth are 
ignored; they treat alike the soldier and 
the officer, and often ask the latter what 
is his profession in his country, unable 
as they are to imagine that that of a war- 
rior may be a fixed and permanent one." 

WASHINGTON WARNS OF SPIES 

W^ashington writes to recommend pre- 
cautions against spies, who will be sent to 
the French camp, dressed as peasants, 
bringing fruit and other provisions, and 
who "will be attentive to every word 
which they may hear drop." 

Several officers, for the sake of exam- 
ple, discard their horses and walk, indif- 
ferent to mud and heat; some of them, 



Digitized by 



Google 




538 



Digitized by 



Google 



OUR FIRST ALLIANCE 



539 



like the Viscount de Noailles, perform- 
ing on foot the whole distance of 756 
miles between Newport and Yorktown. 
Cases of sickness were rare. 

On the 6th of July the junction of the 
two armies took place at Phillipsburg, 
''three leagues," Rochambeau writes, 
"from Kingsbridge, the first post of the 
enemy in the island of New York," the 
American army having followed the left 
bank of the Hudson in order to reach the 
place of meeting. 

On the receipt of the news Lord Ger- 
main, the British colonial secretary, wrote 
to Clinton, who commanded in chief at 
New York: "The junction of the French 
troops with the Americans will, I am per- 
suaded, soon produce disagreements and 
discontents, and Mr. Washington will 
find it necessary to separate them very 
speedily, either by detaching the Amer- 
icans to the southward or suffering the 
French to return to Rhode Island. . . . 
But I trust before that can happen Lord 
Cornwallis will have given the loyal in- 
habitants on both sides of the Chesapeake 
the opportunity they have so long ago 
earnestly desired, of avowing their prin- 
ciples and standing forth in support of 
the King's measures." 

Similar proofs of my lord's acumen 
abound in his partly unpublished corre- 
spondence. He goes on rejoicing and de- 
ducting all the happy consequences which 
were sure to result from the meeting of 
the French and American troops, so 
blandly elated at the prospect as to re- 
mind any one familiar with La Fontaine's 
fables, of Perrette and her milk-pot. 

Washington, in the meantime, was re- 
viewing the French troops (July 9) and 
Rochambeau the American ones, and — a 
fact which would have greatly surprised 
Lord Germain — the worse equipped the 
latter were, the greater the sympathy and 
admiration among the French for their 
endurance. 

THE PATIENT CONTINENTAL SOLDIERS 

"Those brave people," wrote Closen, 
"it really pained us to see, almost naked, 
with mere linen vests and trousers, most 
of them, without stockings; but, would 
you believe it? looking very healthy and 
in the best of spirits." And further on : 



"I am full of admiration for the Amer- 
ican troops. It is unbelievable that troops 
composed of men of all ages, even of 
children of fifteen, of blacks and whites, 
all nearly naked, without money, poorly 
fed, should walk so well and stand the 
enemy's fire with such firmness. The 
calmness of mind and the clever combi- 
nations of General Washington, in whom 
I discover every day new eminent quali- 
ties, are already enough known, and the 
whole universe respects and admires him. 
Certain it is that he is admirable at the 
head of his army, every member of which 
considers him as his friend and father." 

These sentiments, which were unani- 
mous in the French army, assuredly did , 
not betoken the clash counted upon by 
the English colonial secretary, and more 
than one of our officers who had a few 
years later to take part in another revo- 
lution must have been reminded of the 
Continental soldiers of '81 as they led to 
battle, fighting for a similar cause, our 
volunteers of '92. 

FRANCE FOUCIIT FOR AN IDEA 

No real hatred, any more than before, 
appeared among the French troops for 
those enemies whom they were now near- 
ing, and with whom they had already had 
some sanguinary skirmishes. During the 
intervals between military operations re- 
lations were courteous and at times ami- 
cable. The English gave to the French 
news of Europe, even when the news was 
good for the latter, and passed to them 
newspapers. "We learned that news" 
(Necker's resignation), writes Blanch- 
ard, "through the English, who often 
sent trumpeters and passed gazettes to 
us. We learned from the same papers 
that Mr. de La Motte-Picquet had cap- 
tured a rich convoy. 

"These exchanges between the English 
and us did not please the Americans, nor 
even General Washington, who were un- 
accustomed to this kind of warfare." 
The fight was really for an idea, but, 
what might have dispelled any misgiv- 
ings, with no possibility of a change of 
idea. 

Two unknown factors now were for 
the generals the cause of deep concern. 
What would de Grasse do ? What would 



Digitized by 



Google 



540 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



Clinton do? The wounded officer of Jo- 
hannisberg, the winner of Charleston, Sir 
Henry Clinton, a lieutenant general and 
former member of Parliament, enjoying 
great repute, was holding New York, not 
yet the second city of the world nor even 
the first of the United States, covering 
only with its modest houses, churches, 
and gardens the lower part of Manhat- 
tan, and reduced, owing to the war, to 
10,000 inhabitants. 

But, posted there, the English com- 
mander threatened the road on which the 
combined armies had to move. He had 
at his disposal immense stores, strong 
fortifications, a powerful fleet to second 
his movements, and troops equal in num- 
ber and training to ours. 

There are periods in the history of 
nations when, after a continuous series 
of misfortunes, when despair would have 
seemed excusable, suddenly the sky clears 
and everything turns their way. In the 
War of American Independence such a 
period had begun. The armies of Wash- 
ington and Rochambeau, encumbered 
with their carts, wagons, and artillery, 
had to pass rivers, to cross hilly regions, 
to follow muddy tracks; any serious at- 
tempt against them might have proved 
fatal; but nothing was tried. It was of 
the greatest importance that Clinton 
should, as long as possible, have no inti- 
mation of the real plans of the Franco- 
Americans ; everything helped to mislead 
him — his natural disposition as well as 
circumstances. 

Clinton's fatal error 

He had an unshakable conviction that 
the key to the whole situation was New 
York, and that the royal power in Amer- 
ica, and he, too, Lieut. Gen. Sir Henry 
Clinton, would stand or fall with that 
city. Hence his disinclination to leave it 
and to attempt anything outside. His in- 
structions ordered him to help Cornwallis 
to his utmost, the plan of the British 
court being to conquer the Southern 
States first, and then continue the con- 
quest northward. But he, on the con- 
trary, was day after day asking Corn- 
wallis to send back some of his troops. 

A great source of light, and, as it 
turned out, of darkness also, was the in- 



tercepting of letters. This constantly 
happened in those days, to the benefit or 
bewilderment of both parties, on land or 
at sea. But luck had decidedly turned, 
and the stars shone propitious for the 
allies. We captured valuable letters, and 
Clinton misleading ones. 

On the 1 8th of August the two armies 
raised their camps, disappeared, and, fol- 
lowing unusual roads, moving northward 
at first for three marches, reached in the 
midst of great difficulties, under a torrid 
heat, greatly encumbered with heavy bag- 
gage, the Hudson River and crossed it at 
King's Ferry, without being more inter- 
fered with than before. 

How can such an inaction on the part 
of Clinton be explained? "It is for me," 
writes Count Guillaume de Deux-Ponts 
in his journal, the manuscript of which 
was found on the quays in Paris and 
printed in America, "an undecipherable 
enigma, and I hope I shall never be re- 
proached for having puzzled people with 
any similar ones." 

The river once crossed, the double 
army moved southward by forced 
marches. Rochambeau, in order to has- 
ten the move, prescribed the leaving be- 
hind of a quantity of eflfects; and this, 
says Closen, "caused considerable grumb- 
ling among the line," which grumbled, 
but marched. 

The news, to be sure, of so important 
a movement came to Clinton ; but, since 
the stars had ceased to smile on him, he 
chose to conclude, as he wrote to Lord 
Germain on the 7th of September, "this 
to be a feint." When he discovered that 
it was not "a feint" the Franco-American 
army was beyond reach. "What can be 
said as to this?" Closen writes merrily. 
"Try to see better another time," and he 
draws a pair of spectacles on the margin 
of his journal. 

Philadelphia's welcome 

The march southward thus continued 
unhampered. They crossed first the Jer- 
seys, "a land of Cockayne, for game, fish, 
vegetables, poultry." Closen had the hap- 
piness to "hear from the lips of General 
Washington, and on the ground itself, a 
description of the dispositions taken, the 
movements and all the incidents of the 



Digitized by 



Google 



OUR FIRST ALLIANCE 



541 



famous battles of Trenton and Prince- 
ton." The young man, who had made 
great progress in English, was now used 
by the two generals as their interpreter; 
so nothing escaped him. 

The reception at Philadelphia was tri- 
umphal; Congress was most courteous; 
toasts were innumerable. The city is an 
immense one, "with seventy-two streets 
in a straight line. . . . Shops abound 
in all kinds of merchandise, and some of 
them do not yield to the Petit Dunkerque 
in Paris." Women are very pretty, "of 
charming manners, and very well dressed, 
even in French fashion." Benezet, the 
French Quaker, one of the celebrities of 
the city, is found to be full of wisdom, 
and La Luzerne, "who keeps a state 
worthy of his sovereign," gives a dinner 
to one hundred and eighty guests. 

From Philadelphia to Chester, on the 
5th of September, Rochambeau and his 
aides took a boat. As they were nearing 
the latter city, "we saw in the distance," 
says Closen, "General Washington shak- 
ing his hat and a white handkerchief, and 
showing signs of great joy." 

GREAT news! DE GRASSE HAD COME ! 

Rochambeau had scarcely landed when 
Washington, usually so cool and com- 
posed, fell into his arms ; the great news 
had arrived; de Grasse had come, and 
while ComwalHs was on the defensive at 
Yorktown, the French fleet was barring 
the Chesapeake. 

On the receipt of letters from Wash- 
ington, Rochambeau, and La Luzerne, 
telling him to what extent the fate of the 
United States was in his hands, the sailor, 
having "learned, with much sorrow," he 
wrote to the latter, "what was the distress 
of the continent, and the need there was 
of immediate help," had decided that he 
would leave nothing undone to usefully 
take part in the supreme effort which, 
without his help, might be attempted in 
vain. 

Having left, on the 5th of August, Cap 
Frangais (today Cap Haitien), he had 
added to his fleet all the available ships 
he could find in our isles, including some 
which, having been years away, had re- 
ceived orders to go back to France for 
repairs. He had had great difficulty in 



obtaining the money asked for, although 
he had offered to mortgage for it his 
Castle of Tilly, and the Chevalier de 
Charitte, in command of the Bourgogne, 
had made a like offer. But at last, thanks 
to the Spanish governor at Havana, he 
had secured the desired amount of twelve 
hundred thousand francs. He was bring- 
ing, moreover, the Marquis de Saint- 
Simon, with the 3,000 regular troops 
under his command. 

De Grasse's only request was that op- 
erations be pushed on with the utmost 
rapidity, as he was bound to be back at 
the Isles at a fixed date. 

America's debt to de grasse 

It can truly be said that no single man 
risked nor did more for the United States 
than de Grasse, the single one of the lead- 
ers to whom no memorial has been dedi- 
cated. 

The news spread like wild-fire; the 
camp was merry with songs and shouts; 
in Philadelphia the joy was indescribable ; 
crowds pressed before the house of La 
Luzerne, cheering him and his country, 
while in the streets impromptu orators, 
standing on chairs, delivered mock fu- 
neral orations on the Earl of Cornwallis. 
"You have," Rochambeau wrote to the 
admiral, "spread universal joy through- 
out America, with which she is wild." 

Anxiety was renewed, however, when 
it was learned shortly after that the 
French men-of-war had left the Chesa- 
peake, the entrance to which now re- 
mained free. The English fleet, of 
twenty ships and seven frigates, under 
Hood and Graves, the same Graves who 
had failed to intercept Rochambeau's con- 
voy, had been signaled on the 5th of Sep- 
tember, and de Grasse, leaving behind 
him, in order to go faster, some of his 
ships and a number of sailors who were 
busy on land, had weighed anchor, three- 
quarters of an hour after sighting the 
signals, to risk the fight upon which the 
issue of the campaign and, as it turned 
out, of the war was to depend. "This 
behavior of Count de Grasse," wrote the 
famous Tarleton, is "worthy of admira- 
tion." 

Six days later the French admiral was 
back; he had had 21 officers and 200 



Digitized by 



Google 






542 



Digitized by 



Google 



OUR FIRST ALLIANCE 



543 



sailors killed or wounded, but he had lost 
no ship, and the enemy's fleet, very much 
damaged, with 336 men killed or dis- 
abled, and having lost the Terrible, of 
74 guns, and the frigates Iris and Rich- 
tnond of 40, had been compelled to re- 
treat to New York. Admiral Robert 
Digby thereupon arrived with naval re- 
inforcements ; "yet I do not think," La 
Luzerne wrote to Rochambeau, "that 
battle will be offered again. If it is, I am 
not anxious about the result." Nothing 
was attempted. This "superiority at sea," 
Tarleton wrote in his History of the Cam- 
paigns, "proved the strength of the ene- 
mies of Great Britain, deranged the plans 
of her generals, disheartened the courage 
of her friends, and finally confirmed the 
independency of America." "Nothing," 
Rochambeau had written in his note-book 
at starting, "without naval supremacy." 

ANOTHER FRENCH FLEET IN THE 
CHESAPEAKE 

On reentering the bay, de Grasse had 
the pleasure to find there another French 
fleet, that of his friend Barras. As a lieu- 
tenant general, de Grasse outranked him, 
but as a "chef d'escadre" Barras was his 
senior officer, which might have caused 
difficulties; the latter could be tempted, 
and he was, to conduct a campaign apart, 
so as to personally reap the glory of pos- 
sible successes. 

"I leave it to thee, my dear Barras," 
de Grasse had written him on the 28th of 
July, "to come and join me or to act on 
thy own account for the good of the com- 
mon cause. Do only let me know, so that 
we do not hamper each other unawares." 

Barras preferred the service of the 
cause to his own interest; leaving New- 
port, going far out on the high seas, then 
dashing south at a great distance from 
the coast, he escaped the English and 
reached the Chesapeake, bringing the 
heavy siege artillery now indispensable 
for the last operations. The stars had 
continued incredibly propitious. 

The well-known double siege now be- 
gan — ^that of Yorktown by Washington 
and Rochambeau, and that of Gloucester, 
on the opposite side of the river, which 
might have afforded a place of retreat to 
Comwallis. De Grasse had consented to 



land, in view of the latter, 800 men under 
Choisy, whom Lauzun joined with his 
legion, and both acted in conjunction with 
the American militia under Weedon. 

The two chiefs on the Yorktown side 
were careful to conduct the operations 
according to rules, "on account," says 
Closen, "of the reputation of Cornvvallis 
and the strength of the garrison." Such 
rules were certainly familiar to Rocham- 
beau, whose fifteenth siege this one was. 

THE SURRENDER 

From day to day Cornwallis was more 
narrowly pressed. As late as the 29th of 
September he was still full of hope. "I 
have ventured these two days," he wrote 
to Clinton, "to look General Washington's 
whole force in the face in the position on 
the outside of my works ; and I have the 
pleasure to assure Your Excellency that 
there was but one wish throughout the 
whole army, which was that the enemy 
would advance." 

A dozen days later the tone was very 
different. "I have only to repeat that 
nothing but a direct move to York River, 
which includes a successful naval action, 
can save me ; . . . many of our works 
are considerably damaged." 

Lord Germain was, in the meantime, 
writing to Clinton in his happiest mood, 
on the I2th of October: "It is a great 
satisfaction to me to find . . . that 
the plan you had concerted for conduct- 
ing the military operations in that quarter 
(the Chesapeake) corresponds with what 
I had suggested." 

The court, which had no more misgiv- 
ings than Lord Germain himself, had 
caused to sail with Digby no less a per- 
sonage than Prince William, one of the 
fifteen children of George III, and even- 
tually one of his successors as William 
IV ; but his presence could only prove one 
more encumbrance. 

After the familiar incidents of the 
siege, in which the American and French 
armies displayed similar valor and met 
with about the same losses, the decisive 
move of the night attack on the enemy's 
advanced redoubts had to be made — one 
of the redoubts to be stormed by the 
Americans with Lafayette and the other 
by the French under Viomesnil. 



Digitized by 



Google 



544 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



On the 19th of October, after a loss of 
less than 300 men in each of the besieg- 
ing armies, an act was signed as great in 
its consequences as any that ever fol- 
lowed the bloodiest battles, the capitula- 
tion of Yorktown. It was in a way the 
ratification of that other act which had 
been proposed for signature five years 
before at Philadelphia by men whose fate 
had more than once in the interval seemed 
desperate — the Declaration of Independ- 
ence. 

On the same day Closen writes: "The 
York garrison marched past at two 
o'clock, before the combined army, which 
was formed in two lines, the French fac- 
ing the Americans and in full dress uni- 
form. . . . Passing between the two 
armies, the English showed much disdain 
for the Americans, who, so far as dress 
and appearances went, represented the 
seamy side, many of those poor boys be- 
ing garbed in linen habits-vestes, torn, 
soiled, a number among them almost 
shoeless. The English had given them 
the nickname of Yanckey-Dudle. 

"What does it matter ? the man of sense 
will think ; they are the more to be praised 
and show the greater valor, fighting, as 
they do, so badly equipped." As a "man 
of sense," Rochambeau writes in his me- 
moirs: "This justice must be rendered to 
the Americans, that they behaved with a 
zeal, a courage, an emulation, which left 
them in no case behind, in all that part of 
the siege intrusted to them, in spite of 
their being unaccustomed to sieges." 

yorktown's pitiflx aspect 

The city offered a pitiful sight. "I 
shall never forget," says Closen, "how 
horrible and painful to behold was the 
aspect of the town of York. . . . One 
could not walk three steps without find- 
ing big holes made by bombs, cannon- 
balls, splinters, barely covered graves, 
arms and legs of blacks and whites scat- 
tered here and there, most of the houses 
riddled with shot and devoid of window 
panes. . . . We found Lord Corn- 
wallis in his house. His attitude evinced 
the nobility of his soul, his magnanimity 
and firmness of character. He seemed to 
say: I have nothing to reproach myself 
with ; I have done my duty and defended 



myself to the utmost." This impression 
of Lord Cornwallis was general. 

As to Closen's description of the town, 
now so quiet and almost asleep by the 
blue water, amid her sand-dunes, once 
more torn and blood-stained during the 
Civil War, resting at the foot of the great 
marble memorial raised a hundred years 
later by Congress, it is confirmed by Abbe 
Robin, who notices, too, "the quantity of 
human limbs which infected the air," but 
also, being an abbe, the number of books 
scattered among the ruins, many being 
works of piety and theological contro- 
versy. 

A GENEROUS VICTOR 

Nothing better puts in its true light the 
dominant characteristics of the French 
sentiment throughout the war than what 
happened on this solemn occasion, and 
more shows how, with their new-born 
enthusiasm for philanthropy and liberty, 
the French were pro-Americans much 
more than anti-English. No trace of a 
triumphant attitude toward a vanquished 
enemy appeared in anything they did or 
said. Even in the surrendering the fact 
remained apparent that this was not a 
war of hatred. 

"The Erglish," writes Abbe Robin, 
"laid down their arms at the place se- 
lected. Care was taken not to admit 
sightseers, so as to diminish their humili- 
ation." Henry Lee (Lighthorse Harry), 
who was present, describes in the same 
spirit the march past : "Universal silence 
was observed amidst the vast concourse, 
and the utmost decency prevailed, exhib- 
iting in demeanor an awful sense of the 
vicissitudes of human Hfe, mingled with 
commiseration for the unhappy." 

The victors pitied Cornwallis and 
showed him every consideration; Ro- 
chambeau, learning that he was without 
money, lent him all he wanted. 

CORNWALLIS'S TRIBUTE TO THE FRENCH 

Cornwallis realized quite well that the 
French had fought for a cause dear to 
their hearts more than from any desire 
to humble him or his nation. He pub- 
licly rendered full justice to the enemy, 
acknowledging that the fairest treatment 
had been awarded him by them. In the 



Digitized by 



Google 



OUR FIRST ALLIANCE 



545 



final report, in which he gives his own 
account of the catastrophe and which he 
caused to be printed when he reached 
England, he said: 

"The kindness and attention that has 
been shown us by the French officers, 
. . . their delicate sensibility of our 
situation, their generous and pressing 
offers of money, both public and private, 
to any amount, has really gone beyond 
what I can possibly describe and will, I 
hope, make an impression on the breast 
of every British officer whenever the for- 
tunes of war should put any qf them in 
our power." 

The French attitude in the New World 
was in perfect accord with the French 
sentiments in the Old. On receiving 
from Lauzun and Count de Deux- Pont s» 
who for fear of capture had sailed in two 
different frigates, the news of the taking 
of Cornwallis, of his 8,000 men (of 
whom 2,000 were in hospitals), 800 
sailors, 214 guns, and 22 flags, the King 
wrote to Rochambeau: "Monsieur le 
Comte de Rochambeau, the success of 
my arms flatters me only as being con- 
ducive to peace." 

THE BEGINNING OF A NEW POUTICAL ERA 

One of the most authoritative publi- 
cists of the day, Lacretelle, in 1785, con- 
sidering, in the Mercure de France, the 
future of the new-born United States, 
praised the favorable influence exercised 
on them by the so much admired British 
Constitution — "the most wonderful gov- 
ernment in Europe. For it will be Eng- 
land's glory to have created peoples 
worthy of throwing off her yoke, even 
though she must endure the reproach of 
having forced them to independence by 
forget fulness of her own maxims." 

As to the members of the French army 
who had started for the new crusade two 
years before, they had at once the con- 
viction that, in accordance with their an- 
ticipation, they had witnessed something 
great which would leave a profound 
trace in the history of the world. They 
brought home the seed of liberty and 
equality, the "virus," as it was called by 
Pontgibaud, who, friend as he was of 
Lafayette, resisted the current to the last 
and remained a royalist. 



Youthful Saint - Simon, the future 
Saint-Simonian, thus summed up his im- 
pressions of the campaign: "I felt that 
the American Revolution marked the be- 
ginning of a new political era; that this 
revolution would necessarily set moving 
an important progress in general civiliza- 
tion, and that it would before long occa- 
sion great changes in the social order then 
existing in Europe." 

ROCHAMBEAU VISITS JEFFERSON 

For one year more Rochambeau re- 
mained in America. Peace was. a possi- 
bility, not a certainty. 

Rochambeau had established himself 
at Williamsburg, the quiet and dignified 
capital of the then immense State of Vir- 
ginia, noted for its "Bruton Church," its 
old College of William and Mary, de- 
signed by Sir Christopher Wren, and the 
birthplace of the far-famed Phi Beta 
Kappa fraternity; its statue of the for- 
mer English governor, Lord Botetourt, in 
conspicuous marble wig and court mantle. 
"America, behold your friend," the in- 
scription on the pedestal reads. 

That other friend of America, Ro- 
chambeau, took up his quarters in the 
college, one of the buildings of which, 
used as a hospital for our troops, acci- 
dentally took lire, but was at once paid 
for by the French commander. 

Rochambeau, his son, and two aides, 
one of whom was Closen, journey to visit 
at Monticello the already famous Jeffer- 
son. They take with them 14 horses, 
sleep in the houses where they chance to 
be at nightfall — a surprise party which 
may, at times, have caused embarrass- 
ment ; but this accorded with the customs 
of the day. 

The hospitality is, according to occa- 
sions, brilliant or wretched, "with a bed 
for the general as ornamented as the 
canopy for a procession," and elsewhere 
"with rats which come and tickle our 
ears." They reach the handsome house 
of the "Philosopher," adorned with a 
colonnade, "the platform of which is 
very prettily fitted with all sorts of myth- 
ological scenes." 

The lord of the place dazzles his vis- 
itors by his encyclopaedic knowledge. 
Closen describes him as "very learned in 



Digitized by 



Google 




From a painting by Couder 

THS SURRENDER OF CORNWALUS AT YORKTOWN 

General Washington stands between Rochambeau and Lafayette. The original painting 
hangs in the Gallery of Battles at Versailles, but a copy in oils is one of the art treasures of 
the French embassy in Washington. 



belles-lettres, in history, in geography, 
etc., being better versed than any in the 
statistics of America in general and the 
interests of each particular province — 
trade, agriculture, soil, products; in a 
word, all that is of greatest use to know. 
The least detail of the wars here since 
the beginning of the troubles is familiar 
to him. He speaks all the chief lan- 
guages to perfection, and his library is 
well chosen, and even rather large, in 
spite of a visit paid to the place by a de- 
tachment of Tarleton's legion, which has 
proved costly and has greatly frightened 
his family." 

MANY MEMORIALS ARE PRESENTFJ) TO THE 
. FRENCH COMMANDER 

Numerous addresses expressing fer- 
vent gratitude were received by Rocham- 
beau from Congress, from the legisla- 



tures of the various States, from the uni- 
versities, from the mayor and inhabitants 
of Williamsburg, the latter offering their 
thanks not only for the services rendered 
by the general in his "military capacity," 
but, they said, "for your conduct in the 
more private walks of life, and the hap- 
piness we have derived from the social, 
polite, and very friendly intercourse we 
have been honored with by yourself and 
the officers of the French army in gen- 
eral, during the whole time of your resi- 
dence among us." 

The favorable impression left by an 
army permeated with the growing hu- 
manitarian spirit is especially mentioned 
in several of those addresses: "May 
Heaven," wrote "the Governor, council, 
and representatives of the State of Rhode 
Island and Providence Plantations in 
General Assembly convened," "reward 



546 



Digitized by 



Google 



OUR FIRST ALLIANCE 



547 



your exertions in the cause of humanity 
and the particular regard you have paid 
to the rights of the citizens." 

PREJUDICES 300 YEARS OLD DESTROYED IN 
3 YEARS 

Writing at the moment when departure 
was imminent, the Maryland Assembly 
recalled in its address the extraordinary 
prejudices prevailing shortly before in 
America against all that was French: 

"To preserve in troops far removed 
from their own country the strictest dis- 
cipline and to convert into esteem and 
affection deep and ancient prejudices was 
reserved for you. . . . We view with 
regret the departure of troops which have 
so conducted, so endeared, and so dis- 
tinguished themselves, and we pray that 
the laurels they have gathered before 
Yorktown may never fade, and that vic- 
tory, to whatever quarter of the globe 
they direct their arms, may follow their 
standard." 

The important result of a change in 
American sentiment toward the French, 
apart from the military service rendered 
by them, was confirmed to Rochambeau 
by La Luzerne, who wrote him: "Your 
well-behaved and brave army has not 
only contributed to put an end to the 
success of the English in this country, 
but has destroyed in three years preju- 
dices deep-rooted for three centuries." 

The "President and professors of the 
University of William and Mary," using 
a style which was to become habitual in 
France but a few years later, desired to 
address Rochambeau, "not in the prosti- 
tuted language of fashionable flattery, 
but with the voice of truth and republi- 
can sincerity," and, after thanks for the 
services rendered and the payment made 
for the building destroyed "by an acci- 
dent that often eludes all possible pre- 
caution," they adverted to the future in- 
tellectual intercourse between the two 
nations, saying: "Among the many sub- 
stantial advantages which this country 
hath already derived and which must 
ever continue to flow from its connection 
with France, we are persuaded that the 
improvement of useful knowledge will 
not be the least. A number of distin- 
fifuished characters in your army afford 



us the happiest presage that science, as 
well as liberty, will acquire vigor from 
the fostering hand of your nation." 

They concluded: "You have reaped 
the noblest laurels that victory can be- 
stow, and it is perhaps not an inferior 
triumph to have obtained the sincere af- 
fection of a grateful people." 

THE FRENCH ARMY RETURNS TO 
PROVIDENCE 

As the summer of 1782 was drawing 
near, the French army, which had win- 
tered in Virginia, moved northward in 
view of possible operations. 

On the 14th of August Washington 
and Rochambeau were again together, in 
the vicinity of the North River, and the 
American troops were again reviewed by 
the French general. They are no longer 
in tatters, but well dressed and have a 
fine appearance ; their bearing, their ma- 
neuvers are perfect; the commander-in- 
chief, "who causes his drums," Rocham- 
beau relates, "to beat the French march," 
is delighted to show his soldiers to ad- 
vantage ; everybody compliments him. 

During his stay at Providence, in the 
course of his journey north, Rochambeau 
gave numerous fetes, a charming picture 
of which, as well as of the American so- 
ciety attending them, is furnished us by 
Segur: "Mr. de Rochambeau, desirous to 
the very last of proving by the details of 
his conduct, as well as by the great serv- 
ices he had rendered, how much he 
wished to keep the affection of the Amer- 
icans and to carry away their regrets, 
gave in the city of Providence frequent 
assemblies and numerous balls, to which 
people flocked from ten leagues around. 

"I do not remember to have seen gath- 
ered together in any other spot more 
gayety and less confusion, more pretty 
women and more happily married cou- 
ples, more grace and less coquetry, a 
more complete mingling of persons of all 
classes, between whom an equal decency 
allowed no untoward difference to be 
seen. That decency, that order, that 
wise liberty, that felicity of the new Re- 
public, so ripe from its very cradle, were 
the continual subject of my surprise and 
the object of my frequent talks with the 
Chevalier de Chastellux." 



Digitized by 



Google 



548 



THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 



ALL FRANCE HONORS ROCHAMBEAU ON 
HIS RETURN 

In the autumn of 1782 a general part- 
ing took place, Rochambeau returning to 
France. 

The King, the ministers, the whole 
country, gave Rochambeau the welcome 
he deserved. At his first audience on his 
return he had asked Louis XVI, as being 
his chief request, permission to divide the 
praise bestowed on him with the unfor- 
tunate de Grasse, now a prisoner of the 
English after the battle of the Saintes. 
where, fighting 30 against 37, he had lost 
seven ships, including the Ville de Paris 
(which had 400 dead and 500 wounded), 
all so damaged by the most furious re- 
sistance that, owing to grounding, to 
sinking, or to fire, not one reached the 
English waters. Rochambeau received 
the blue ribbon of the Holy Ghost, was 
appointed governor of Picardy, and a 
few years later became a marshal of 
France. 

Rochambeau was keeping up with 
Washington a most affectionate corre- 
spondence, still partly unpublished, the 
. great American often reminding him of 
his "friendship and love" for his "com- 
panions in war." Dreaming of a hu- 
manity less agitated than that he had 
known, dreaming dreams which were not 
to be soon realized, he was writing to 
Rochambeau, from Mount Vernon, on 
September 7, 1785: "Although it is 
against the profession of arms, I wish to 
see all the world at peace." 

The French Revolution found Rocham- 
beau still an officer in the French army, 
defending the frontier as a marshal of 
France and commander-in-chief of the 
northern troops. In 1792 he definitely 
withdrew to his estate, barely escaping 
with his life during the Terror. A strik- 
ing and touching thing it is to note that 
when a prisoner in that "horrible sepul- 
chre," the Conciergerie, he appealed to 
the "Citizen President of the Revolu- 
tionary Tribunal" and invoked as a safe- 
guard the great name of Washington, 
'*my colleague and my friend in the war 
we* made together for the liberty of 
America." Luckier than many of his 
companions in arms of the American 



war — than Lauzun, Custine, d'Estaing, 
Broglie, Dillon, and others — Rochambeau 
escaped the scaffold. 

THE EQUIUBRIUM OF THE WORLD HAS 
BEEN ALTERED 

V^isiting some years ago the place and 
the tomb and standing beside the grave 
of the marshal, it occurred to me that it 
would be appropriate if some day trees 
from Mount Vernon could spread their 
shade over the remains of that friend of 
Washington and the American cause. 
With the assent of the family and of the 
mayor of Thore, and thanks to the good 
will of the ladies of the Mount Vernon 
Association, this idea was realized, and 
half a dozen seedlings from trees planted 
by Washington were sent to be placed 
around Rochambeau's monument — ^two 
elms, two maples, two redbuds, and six 
plants of ivy from Washington's tomb. 
The last news received about them 
showed that they had taken root and 
were growing. 

In less than a century and a half New 
York has passed from the ten thousand 
inhabitants it possessed under Clinton to 
the five million and more of today. Phila- 
delphia, once the chief city, "an immense 
town," Closen had called it, has now ten 
times more houses than it had citizens. 

Partly owing again to France ceding, 
unasked, the whole territory of Louisiana 
in 1803, the frontier of this country, 
which the upper Hudson formerly di- 
vided in its center, has been pushed back 
to the Pacific; the three million Ameri- 
cans of Washington and Rochambeau 
have become the one hundred million of 
today. From the time when the flags of 
the two countries floated on the ruins of 
Yorktown the equilibrium of the world 
has been altered. 

There is, perhaps, no case in which, 
with the unavoidable mixture of human 
interests, a war has been more undoubt- 
edly waged for an idea. The fact was 
made obvious at the peace, when victori- 
ous France, being offered Canada for a 
separate settlement, refused, and kept 
her word not to accept any material ad- 
vantage, the whole nation being in ac- 
cord and the people illuminating for joy. 



Digitized by 



Google 




@ loternational Film Service 

A MADONNA OF SORROW AT HER SON'S GRAVE 

If the sympathy of the civilized world cannot still the anguish of the moment, the ages to come 
will venerate such heroic women who taught their sons the highest bravery, the finest courtesy, the 
loftiest honor — and who gave their all for France. 



549 



Digitized by 



Google 




Pbotograpb by Der VerciniKten Kunstanst. A.>G. 

A MADONNA OF THE MOUNTAINS 

In the whirlpool of Europe, Switzerland's political neutrality has kept its balance, and peace of 
a sort exists within the little democracy's borders. But it is a peace strained by the evidences of war 
and shot through with thoughts of another little state which had no friendly Alps to guard it — only 
a treaty and the honor of nations. Mother hearts cannot forget that there are no such idyls as thb 
in Belgium today. 



550 



Digitized by 



Google 




A MADONNA OF SACRIFICE 

Wordless reverence is the most fitting tribute to the Mothers of Belgium. May her sole remaining 
treasure, in the liberated and peace-blessed world of the future, live to realize that in the terrible 
vision of the present his eyes have seen the gloiy of the coming of the Lord. 



551 



Digitized by 



Google 




Pbotoeraph by Garric«e« 



A BEDOUIN MOTHER AND CHILD 



The father of this little nomad may be a warlike bandit with a cloudy notion of property rights 
and other details of the civilized code; his mother a simple daughter of the desert with a childish 
curiosity and fondness for gaudy trinkets, but her babe has the divine heritage of mother love as truly 
as the most fortunate child of our own land. 



552 



Digitized by 



Google 




Negative by Eliza R. Scidmore 



A MOTHER OF WARRIORS: JAPAN 



Stoicism is more than a tenet with the Japanese; it is almost a religion, and the mother of these 
babes, if the hand of death were laid upon them, could with calm fortitude relate her loss to a 
stranger without the display of grief, for it is a cardinal principle of her politeness that she should 
never burden -another with her woes. But beneath this cross-barred cradle of cloth there beats the 
universal mother heart — universal in its high hopes for her children's future and in its eager joy at 
personal sacrifice for their happiness. r^^^^^^-rT^ 

Digitized by VjOOQ 16 



553 




a. 
o 



C/5 

Z 

< 

< 

u 

o 

H 

o 

< 
z 
z 

o 

< 

< 



*r a 



rt a. 



< J 



1> s 

'-• C3 

c c 

r: - 

•I "3 

V E 

O g 






c 2 

11 



H 5 



554 



Digitized by 



Google 




< 

X 

u 



o 

o 

u 
z 

< 

< 

» 

X 



555 



Digitized by 



Google 





Photograph by Borg Mescb 



WARM HEARTS OF THE NORTH 



The Lapland father may measure his wealth in herds of reindeer, in hides and pelts, hut the Lap- 
land mother knows that her bright-eyed, smiling baby and her sturdy two-year-old are the treasure* 
beyond price. 



556 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by A. B. Lewis 



A NEW GUINEA WOMAN AND BABY 



This device is at a disadvantage when compared with an American cradle, but it is a touching 
evidence of maternal inventiveness and industry at work for baby's safety even- in the -South Seas. 



557 



Digitized by 



Google 





/ ( 



/ 



Pbototraph by Mrs. Charles K. K!oscr 

YOUNG SOMALI MOTHER AND BABE; ADEN 

Even the primitive heart of a Somali woman is instinct with a sense of protection for the inno- 
cence and helplessness of a child. 



5S8 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photoeraph by S. J. Spooner 



A PATIENT MEXICAN MOTHER 



When war for the peace of the world and "for the principles that gave her birth," is welding 
the great heart of America into high-purposed unity, she must needs feel a deep pity for the mothers 
and children of distracted Mexico, and a just indignation that their burden of poverty and distress 
has been increased by selfish Prussian intrigue. 



559 



Digitized by 



Google 




INDIAN MOTHER AND BABE: 



Pbototrapb from Hon. BelUario Porrii 

PANAMA 



The Cuna-Cuna, or Tule Indians of the San Bias coast of Panama, are of the purest aboriginal 
strain. For hundreds of years they have resisted amalgamation, and woe to the Cuna-Cuna belle who 
looks with favor upon a " foreign " lover. They are an intelligent race and are not savages by any 
means— even though nose rings are a part of the adornment of all members of the gentler sex, who 
wear them from the time they begin to walk. 



560 



'Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph from Alexander Graham Bell 

MOTHER AND CHILD IN CEYLON 

In spite of the white man's improvements, the climate of Ceylon is not merciful to baby dwellers 
in " the Half-way House of the East;" but the little brown natives are merry and bright-eyed, never- 
theless. Life is sweet; although, of course, much sweeter when one has a bit of palm sugar to suck. 



S6i 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Harriet Chalmers Adams 

MOTHERHOOD IN THE PHILIPPINES 

He doesn't know that, after his mother, Uncle Sam is his best friend. Had he belonged to an 
earlier generation his childhood would have been spent at work in the fields until he was old enough 
to join father in head-hunting. Under American direction, the future probably holds for him an 
education and a respectable career as a farmer or as a member of the native police. At present he is 
just a healthy little Ifugao; mother's back is a warm and comfortable reality — and " Who is Uncle 
Sam, anyway ? ** 



562 



Digitized by 



Google 




Pbotosrapb by D. W. Iddints 

A HUNGARIAN GYPSY MOTHER AND CHILD— AT HOME 

Neither the poets who have celebrated the gypsy passion for freedom and the open road, nor the 
ethnologists who have studied the mysterious origin of the race have offered an explanation of the 
Romany's lack of that almost universal quality — a love for home. ^ 



563 



Digitized by 



Google 




564 



Digitized by 



Google 



OUR SECOND ALLIANCE 



By J. J. JUSSERAND 

Ambassador from France to the United States 

The follounng impromptu address by Ambassador Jusserand was delivered 
at the reception by the United States Congress to M. Viviani, President of the 
French Commission, and Marshal Joffre^ in the House of Representatives on 
May J. The occasion was unique in that it was the first and only time that a resi- 
dent ambassador of any foreign country has addressvd the United States Congress. 



Mr. Speaker and Gentlemen of 
THE House of Representa- 
tives: I might repeat only the 
words of Marshal Joffre, though I have 
not the same excuse for not making a 
longer speech ; but the words interpret my 
feelings as well as his and those of all my 
compatriots. Gentlemen, I thank you. 

This occasion is a very great one, and 
I am sure that those two men whose por- 
traits adorn this Hall — Washington and 
Lafayette — those two friends who fought 
for liberty, would, if they could, also ap- 
plaud, and say to their descendants, their 
American and their French ones, "Dear 
people, we thank you." 

What you have been doing, the laws 
you have passed, the decisions you have 
taken, touch us deeply, and touch the 
French people in a very particular fash- 
ion, because what you have done is a sort 
of counterpart of what we did long ago. 

What we did was to come to the rescue 
of men who wanted to be free, and our 
desire was to help them and to have no 
other recompense than to succeed, and 
that liberty should be established in this 
new continent. 



What we did was unique then in the 
history of the world. We expected noth- 
ing for ourselves but your friendship, and 
that we got. We did not know that ever 
a time would come when the same action 
would be taken by another of the nations 
of the world ; and yet that time has come, 
the same action has been taken, with the 
same energy, the same generosity, the 
same disinterestedness that characterized 
the conduct of those other men many 
years ago. It has been taken by the 
United States. 

What you do now is to come to Eu- 
rope to take part in the fight for liberty, 
a fight in which you expect no recom- 
pense, no advantage, except that very 
great advantage, that in the same way 
that we helped to secure liberty — human 
liberty, individual liberty, national lib- 
erty — on this continent, you will fight to 
see that liberty be preserved in the broad 
family of nations. 

Thanks to you, we shall see the calam- 
ities of this struggle shortened, and a 
new spirit of liberty grow greater and 
stronger, pervade all countries and in- 
deed fill the world. 




565 



Digitized by 



Google 




© Underwood & Underwood 
MARSIIAI, JOFFRE UNVCILS THE MEMORIAI. TO LAFAYETTE IN PROSPECT PARK, 

BROOKLYN 

Americans, as long as the United States endures, will reverence the name of Lafayette, 
who, though inheriting immense wealth and, as head of one of the oldest and most distin- 
guished families, assured of an influential career in France, deliberately abandoned the ad- 
vantages of birth to fight in our country for the liberation of mankind. 



566 



Digitized by 



Google 





t)^^^'^■"*^^^'^^^•■■ -■ ■■■ V.-^V- 


r , , '^^•:-'7- -J 

















Photograph by Albert Schlechtcn 

A CI.OVER FIELD IN MONTANA (sEE PAGE 517) 

Although thirty-eight of the States have in one way or another expressed their prefer- 
ences and chosen their flower queens, this is the first attempt that has been made to assemble 
in a single publication color paintings and descriptions of all the State flowers (pp. 481-517). 



567 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Charles Martin and Ethel M. Bagg 
ROLLING AND PASTING RATION HEATERS AT HOME 



THE CONVERSION OF OLD NEWSPAPERS AND 
CANDLE ENDS INTO FUEL 



IN ITALY and France women and 
children are rolling old newspapers 
into tight rolls, pasting down the 
edges with glue or paste, and boiling them 
in paraffin to make ration heaters (scalda- 
rancio) out of them for the use of the 
soldiers in the trenches in the high Alps, 
where coal cannot be sent. They are 
making them by the million. The Italian 
National Society furnishes ij^ million a 
day to the government, and the old news- 
papers are being used up for this pur- 
pose so fast that they are becoming 
scarce, and paraffin has become very ex- 
pensive. 

In America there are still millions of 
candle ends and thousands of tons of 
newspapers scattered over the country, 
and it would seem to be well worth while 
for the thousands of willing hands in the 
homes to convert them into these most 



useful ration heaters for the boys ac the 
front, or for their use next winter in the 
training camps, or even for use at home, 
where they can take the place of the 
more expensive solid alcohol or replace 
kindlings in the kitchen stove. 

It is the easiest thing imaginable to 
make ration heaters, or scalda-rancio, as 
they are called in Italy, if one follows 
the directions of the National Italian 
Society. 

Spread out four newspapers, eight 
sheets in all, and begin rolling at the long 
edge. Roll as tightly as possible until the 
papers are half rolled, then fold back the 
first three sheets toward the rolled part 
and continue to wrap around the roll al- 
most to the first fold, then fold back an- 
other three sheets and continue to wrap 
around the roll again up to the last mar- 
gin of the paper. On this margin, con- 



568 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Charles Martin and Ethel M. Bagg 
CUTTING THF NEWSPAPER ROI.LS AND MEI.TING THE CANDI.E ENDS 



sisting of two sheets, spread a little glue 
or paste and continue the rolling, so as 
to make a compact roll of paper almost 
like a torch. If six of the sheets are not 
turned under, there will be too many 
edges to glue. 

While the newspapers may be cut along 
the line of the columns before rolling and 
the individual columns rolled separately, 
as is done in the making of the trench 
candles in France, it is easier to roll the 
whole newspaper into a long roll and 
then cut it into short lengths. A sharp 
carving knife, a pair of pruning shears, 
or an old-fashioned hay-cutter will cut 



the rolls easily. These little rolls must 
then be boiled for four minutes in enough 
paraffin to cover them and then taken out 
and cooled, when they are ready to be 
put in bags and sent to the front. If 
there are more newspapers than candle 
ends, block paraffin can be bought for a 
few cents at any grocery or drug store. 

Little children and grown-ups in Italy 
and France are rolling, gluing, and paraf- 
fining these ration heaters by the million, 
and their fathers and husbands in the 
high Alps arid other places where wood 
and coal cannot be sent are cooking their 
rations over them. 



569 



Digitized by 



Google 




Photograph by Charles Martin and Ethel M. Dagg 

A SOLDIER BOILING HIS RATION OVER THE HOME-MADE RATION HEATERS 

Three of these little rolls of paper, no larger than a spool of silk, saturated with hot 
paraffin and allowed to cool, will burn without smoke, which in the presence of the enemy 
is dangerous, and will boil a pint of soup in about ten minutes and keep lighted for twenty 
minutes or half an hour. By supporting the can of soup on pieces of rock and protecting 
the flames from the wind an ideal individual camp meal can be made. 



570 



Digitized by 



Google 



"HIS MASTERIS VOICE' 



■■^'■ 



^i 



^■1, 



To insure Victor quaHty, always loofc 
for the famous trademark, "His Mas- 
ter's Voice." It is on every VJctrola 
and every Victor Record. It U the 
Identifying label on all genuine 
Victrolas and Victor Records. 



Victor Supremacy 

means- the greatest music 
by the greatest artists 

It is indeed a wonderful thing" to have the greatest 
artists of all the v^orld sing* and play for you right in 
your own home. 

The instrument that accomplishes this inevitably 
stands supreme among musical instruments. 

And that instrument is the Yictrola. 

The g-reatest artists make records for the Victrola ex- 
clusively. They agree that only the Victrola can bring 
to you their art and personality with unerring^ truth. 

The Victrola is the log^ical instrument for your home. 

There are Victors and Victrolas in great variety 
of styles from $10 to $400. and there are Victor dealers 
everywhere who will gladly demonstrate them and 
play any music you wish to hear. 

Victor Talldngr Machine Co. 
Camden, N- J., U. S. A. 

Berliner Gramophone Co. . Montreal, Canadian Distributor* 

Important Notice, All Victor Talking Machines are pat- 
ented and arc only lUenMtd, and with right of use with 
\ ictor Records only. AH Victor Records tre patented and 
are only lUtnttd^ and with right of tjsc on Victor Talking 
Machines only. Victor Records and Victor Machines are 
scicniiiically coordinated and synchronized by our special 
processes oF manufacture; and their use, except with each 
other, is not only unauthorized, but damaging and unsatis- 
factory, 

"Victrola" is the Registered Trade-mark of the Victor 
Talking Machine Company designating the products of this 
Company only. 

Warning: The use of the word Victrola upon or in the 
proniotion or sale of any other Talking Machine or Phono- 
graph products is misleading and llicgat. 

Victrola XVIl. $250 
Victrola XVU. electric, $300 

Mahogany or oak 






^^ 



New Victor Records « 



trated at all dealers on the 28th of each i 



'Mention the Qeographlc — It identifies you." ^-^ ^ 

Digitized by VjOOQIC 



M 

w^^ 



i 

i 



2 PANES HIGH 

Y Height 3']%' 
Z Height 3 '5%' 

3 PANES HIGH 

Y Height 4' 8' 
Z Height 5' 2' 



4 PANES HIGH 
Y Height 6' 3%' 
Z Height 6' !•%' 



5 PANES HIGH 
Y Height 7 '8*' 
Z Height 8 '6%' 



6 PANES HIGH 
Y Height 9' 3%' 
Z Height If 3Vi' 




I \m lit 



'c|: 



•■ • * ^ * 



= '^ 



iJ itA 



:: 



t* !■ M k ■ 
■ I* Mi ii ■ 






" 








, 


■ 
















• 


' 




























" 


. 



[Ill IJ 


Ft' 1 III 


111 if 1 


I W H 1 


1 1"! rJ I 


Tfl'Tl 



3 PANES WIDE 
Y Width 3' 2' 
Z Width3'8' 



4 PANES WIDE 
Y Width 4 '2%' 
ZWidth4'lC%' 



5 PANES WIDE 

Y Widths' 2*' 
ZWidth6'0%' 



Ready For Your Building Now 

These thirty types of Fenestra Solid Steel Windows in both 12x18 and 
14x20 inch glass sizes are now at the immediate disposal of all builders 

Shipment At Once 



They are the most popular units in the 
entire Fenestra line. 



Meet your unexpected rush demands and 
offset the dangers of railroad delay by 
ordering these immediate shipment types, 
either from Detroit or from your nearest 
Fenestra representative. 
An even larger variety can be shipped in 
ten days. 

DETROIT STEEL PRODUCTS COMPANY 
2619 East Grand Blvd. Detroit, Michigan 



They offer a variety in design and dimension 
sufficient to answer almost any building need. 

They bear the usual high standard of Fenes- 
tra material and workmanship and carry the 
latest Fenestra fittings. 




M 



WMmmm^^^ 




"Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.* 



Digitized by 



Google 



VOLUME XXXI 



NUMBER SEX 



The NATIONAL 

GEOGRAPHIC 
MAGAZINE 



JUNE, 1917 
CONTENTS 



16 Pages in Four Colors 
Our First Alliance 

AMBASSADOR JUSSEKAND 

Our State Flowers 
Madonnas of Many Lands 



PUBLISHED BY THE 

NATIONAL GEOGRAJPHIC SOCIETY 

HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL 
•WASHINGTON, D.C. 



>SJa 



ilCOPVj 



Digitized by ^ 



NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 

HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL 

SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS, WASHINGTON. D. C. 



O. H. TITTMANN PRESIDENT 

GILBERT H.GROSVENOR. director AND EDITOR 
JOHN OLIVER LA GORGE . ASSOCIATE EDITOR 
O. P. AUSTIN SECRETARY 



JOHN E. PILLSBURY vice-president 

JOHN JOY EDSON .... TREASURER 

GEORGE W. HUTCHISON, assistant secretary 
WILLIAM J. SHOWALTER . ASSISTANT editor 



1915-1917 
Charles J. Bell 

President American Security 
and Trust Company 

John Joy Edson 

President Washinston Loan & 
Trust Company 

David Fairchild 

In Chance of Agricultural Ex- 
plorations. Dept. of Asric. 

C. Hart Merriam 

Member National Academy of 
Sciences 

O. p. Austin 

Statistician 

George R. Putnam 

Commissioner U. S. Bureau of 
Liffhthouses 

George Shiras, 3d 

Formerly Member U. S. Con- 
srress, Faunal Naturalist, and 
Wild-Game Photosrapher 

Grant Squires 

New York 



BOARD OF MANAGERS 

1916-1918 
Franklin K. Lane 

Secretary of the Interior 

Henry F. Blount 

Vice-President American Se* 
curity and Trust Company 

C. M. Chester 

Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, 
Formerly Supt U. S. Naval 
Observatory 

Frederick V. Coville 

Formerly President of Wash- 
i nffton Academy of Sciences 

John E. Pillsbury 

Rear Admiral U. S. Navy. 
Formerly Chief Bureau of 
Navigation 

Rudolph Kauffmann 

Manasins Editor The Even Ins 

Star 

T. L. Macdonald 

M. D., F. a. C. S. 

S. N. D. North 

Formerly Director U. S. Bu- 
reau of Census 



1917-1919 

Alexander Graham Bell 

Inventor of the telephone 

J. Howard Gore 

Prof. Emeritus Mathematics, 
The Geo. Washington Univ. 

A. W. Greely 

Arctic Explorer. Major Qen*l 
U. S. Army 

Gilbert H. Grosvenor 

Editor of National Oeoffraphic 
Magazine 

George Otis Smith 

Director of U. S. Geolosical 

Survey 

O. H. TiTTMANN 

Formerly Superintendent of 
U. S. Coast and GeodeUc Sur- 
vey 

Henry White 

Formerly U. S. Ambassador to 
France, Italy, etc. 

John M. Wilson 

Brigadier General U. S. Army. 
Formerly Chief of Enetneers 



To carry out the purpose for which it was founded twenty-eight years 
ago, namely, *'the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge," 
the National Geographic Society publishes this Magazine. All receipts 
from the publication are invested in the Magazine itself or expended 
directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. 
Articles or photographs from members of the Society, or other friends, 
are desired. For material that the Society can use, adequate remunera- 
tion is made. Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed 
return envelope and postage, and be addressed : 

GILBERT H. GROSVENOR. EDITOR 



CONTRIBUTING EDITORS 



A. W. Greely 
C. Hart Merriam 

O. H. TiTTMANN 

Robert Hollister Chapman 
Walter T. Swingle 



Alexander Graham Bell 
David Fairchild 
Hugh M. Smith 
N. H. Darton 
Frank M. Chapman 



Bntered at the Post -Office at Washington, D. C, as Second-Class Mail Matter 
Copyright, 19x7, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C All rights reservetll 



Ogle 



'iArrs.*' 



r^^:. 



n':^ 



\K. X. 





,rz:^ 



The Cool'off Threey 
Windy Wave and B. V. D. 

NATURE has created two un- 
failing agents of coolness to 
offset summer heat— Wind 
and Wave. The ingenuity of man 
has evolved the third— B.V.D. Put 
it on, and you're more comfortable 
and competent for anything on the 
day's slate, from work to frolic. 

In our own modemly equipped cotton 
mills at Lexington, N. C, nainsook from 
which Loose-Fitting B. V. D. undergar- 
ments are made is produced in a scientific 
manner from selected cotton, to insure 
durability in wash and wear. 

In our own B. V. D. Factories the garments are 
skilfully cut, strongly stitched, accurately finished — 
to fit and be cool and comfortable all day long. 



If it hasn't 

this Rod 

\^vn Label 



MADE FOR THE 



B.V D.I 



BEST RETAIL TRADE 



It isn't 
UnJemmtr 



Cfv«4( M^H *r- V. n fto. Of. •*/ r-^t* <— ^> 

B. V. D. Coat CutUndersh ins 
and Knec-LciiFth Drawers. 
B.V. D. Ckwcd Crottrh Union 

Suits ( rat. U, S. A.}. 



p} 



fi 



'i^>. 



"Mention the Geographic — It identifies you." 



Digitized by 



Google 




I KNEW IT WOULD RELIEVE DYSPEPSIA 

I knewy as a physiciaiit that a good chewing gum 
in combination with pepsin would relieve many 
cases of dyspepsia. 

This led me to experiment and after many trials 
I produced in the gum that bears my name one that 
has given great relief to thousands of dyspeptics. 

I make no claim that Beeman's Pepsin Gum 
always overcomes djrspepsia, but there is ample 
proof that many people keep it constantly at hand 
because they know from experience that it does 
give them relief. 



A 

CHICLI 

V 



AMERICAN CHICLE COMPANY 




'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you." ^-^ j 

Digitized by VjOOQ iC 




An Exceptional Car 

Distinctive in a Hundred Ways 



In the Mitchell car of either 
size you will find many unique 
attractions. 

There are 31 wanted features 
which nearly all cars omit. There 
are luxuries and beauties far ex- 
celling any other car in this class. 

Every vital part is built to the 
standard of 100 per cent over- 
strength. That is twice the usual 
margin of safety. 



There are shock- 
absorbing springs 
found on no other 
car. They make 
this the easiest- 
riding car in exist- 
ence. There is a re- 
markable motor, 
economical and 
efficient, the result 
of 14 years of 
study. There are 
reversible head- 
lights, a ball-bear- 
ing steering gear, 
adashboard engine 
primer, a light in 
the tonneau, a 
locked compart- 
ment for valuables. 




SIXES 
TWO SIZES 

MitcheU reS^S^'Sr^.'-J^h 

127-inch wheelbase and a hiRhly- 
developed 48- horsepower motor. 

$1460 

Four-Passeni;er Roadster, $1495. 
Sedan. $2175. Cabriolet. $1895. 

Coupe, $1995. 
Also Town Car and Lunousine 



There are eight new-style 
bodies, all exclusive to the Mit- 
chell. The experts who designed 
them first reviewed 257 new mod- 
els to include all the known at- 
tractions. 

There is an extra-smart Club 
Roadster, a new-type Convertible 
Sedan. 

All are built in this model plant, 
under John W- 
Bate*s efficiency 
methods. The fac- 
tory savings, 
amounting to mil- 
lions of dollars, go 
into the extra 
values. 



Mitchell Junior- e n'^ e*^ 

Six on similar lines, with 120-inch 
wheelbase and a 40-horsepower 
motor— >i-inch smaller bore. 



195 



All Prices f. o. b. Racine 



See these new 
models. See a 
truly complete car. 
See how strong 
a lifetime car 
should be. See 
how beautiful it 
can be. Over 70,- 
000 motorists have 
come to the Bate- 
built Mitchells. 

MITCHELL MOTORS 

COMPANY, Inc. 
Racine, Wis.. U. S. A. 



iniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiHiiiiiitiitiiiiiiiiiH^ 



'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you." ^ j 

Digitized by VjOOQIC 





Progress 



Making fire was mans first adventure 
in chemistry. This "was the beginning 
of human progress Here for the first 

time he produo?cl something uhich nature 
had failed to supply The greater beauty 
of EHiratex and it's pradical superiority to 
leather for motor car upholsteiy ^vouId 
seem to indicate that chemical science 
not only has met the situation created by 
the shortage d leather but has piXTvided 
something better in place of it. 

THE DURATEX COMPANY 

Nexvark.N.J. 



'* Mention the Geographic — It identifies yom'» 



Digitized by 



Google 



The 

Puffed Wheat 

Dish 

As Every Child Would 

Like It — Constantly 

Overflowing 

To the youthful lovers of PuflPed Wheat 
and Rice, no dish seems large enoue:h. 

You know how it is — you mothers who have served them, 
the bowls come back for refilling. 

There is never so much that the end of the dish doesn't leave a desire for more. 
For these bubbles of grain — airy, flaky, and nut-like — are delightful food confections. 




Again and again 



Why Do You Stint 
Them? 

Consider these facts, Mrs. Housewife. 

These are whole grains, filled with all 
the elements that youthful bodies need. 
They arc not partial foods, like most 
things. They are not unbalanced, so di- 
gestion is upset. 

They are two of Nature' s premier foods. 

By Prof. An- 
dcrson'sprocess— 



shooting from guns 
—every food cell is 
exploded. So ev- 
ery granule feeds. 
No other grain 
food off ers that ad- 
vantage. 



Puffed Puffed 

Wheat Rice 

and Corn Puffs 

Each 15c Except in Far West 



When such foods come in such likable 
form, why not let the children have them 
in abundance ? 

Puffed Grains are not mere breakfast 
cereals. They are flavory, crusty morsels 
to be mixed with anyfruit. They are flimsy, 
toasted bubbles to float in bowls of milk. 
They are nut-like tidbits for eating 
between meals. Douse them with melted 
butter. Use thenf in candy-making or as 
garnish for ice 
cream. They are 
ideal wafers for 
soups. 

Such perfect 
foods, made s6 en- 
ticing, should be 
served in' many 
ways. 





Puffed Grains in Milk 



Puffed Grain* Mixed with Fruit 



The Quaker O<^&0>inpaiiy 



Sole Makers 



U5:«;) 



*]^ention the Oeographlc — It IdentiAes you." 

Digitized by VjOOQIC 




Special 0#er-We 
tKe largest manufactur- 
ers of toy balloons in the 
world. Send 50 cents 
for the new Airoplay 
Outfit — a big package 
of balloons. Fun for 
everybody — children 
and grown-ups. Ad- 
dress Dept F. 



Mark Twain Was 
A Great Pilot! 



Fifty years ago he knew every sand-bar and dan- 
ger mark in that ever-changing Mississippi River, 
His accurate knowledge insured a safe, pleasant 
journey for his passengers. 

But today you wouldn't ride with a pilot who 
steered according to Mark Twain's landmarks* 
The pilot of today must know the river channel as 
it is now. 

The same is true of tires. You w^ant tires built 
on the accurate, scientific knoTx>ledge of today, 

tnillerTir^s 

GEARED-TO-THE-ROAD 

The Miller Method of vulcanizing is a modem development 
that retains the natural vegetable wax and oil in the fabric; 
builds rugged endurance and safety into the rubber tread. 
But even this modem process is charted daily by experienced 
Miller engineers and chemists — men recognized as dependable 
tire pilots. That's why Miller Tire users don't have mishaps, 
but get excessive mileage and care-free service. 

You demand an up-to-date car. Demand a tire of today — 
a Miller Tire. 

For sale hy Geared'iO' the- Road 
Disirihuiora and Dealers everywhere 

^ THE MILLER RUBBER CO., AKRON, U. S. A. 



** Mention the Oeographic — ^It IdentifLes yon.** 



Digitized by 



Google 



JOHNS'MANVILCE 

ASBESTOS ROOFING 




lOHNS- 

ANVILLE 

■ SERVICE 



COVERS 
THECONTINENr 



First National Bank 
Btdg^ Omaha, Neb, 
Oraham, Burn ham 
4F* Ca, Arcliitecta 



THERE is no more magic in the resistance 
of Johns-Manville Asbestos Roofing to 
fire and the elements than there is in the 
warmth of wool, the permanence of granite, 
or in the resistance of rubber to water — it's 
naturaL Every sheet of Johns-Manville 
Asbestos Roofing is naturally fire-repellent, 

water-resistant, time defiant, because 
each fibre of that felt is naturally en- 
dowed with those properties. 



■ii 



»^ 



n ii'O 



-\ 



I 



oniii^niin 



Your roof decision need not be one which 
asks the question **what kind of a roofing/' 
but "what kind of a Johns-Manville As- 
bestos Roofing." There is not one nega- 
tive factor in such a choice. It is the most 
economical roofing — the safest roofing — 
a roofing that rarely needs attention. 

Is it any wonder that Johns-Manville 
Asbestos Roofing is fast gaining general 
acceptance, when an ideal material for 
roofing can now be had for any roof, as 
the list below will show ? 

AsbeBtofl Built -Up Roofing (or flat roofs. 
Asbestos Ready Roofins for sloping surfaces. 
Corrugated Asbestos Roofing for skeleton 
Craxning, Transite Asbestos Shingles for homes. 

Jolms-Manville RooBng Responsibility 

—a principle that certifies the service of 
every Johns-Manville Asbestos Roofing. 
You can register your roofing with us, 
and thus be assured of complete satisfac- 
tion in the service it gives. 

H. W, JOHNS-MANVILLE CO. 

NEW YORK CITY 
10 FactorimB — Branches in SS Large Ciliet 



"Mention the (Geographic — It identifies you." 



Digitized by 



Google 




"/» the Garden 
of Sleep" 

BARRE 
GRANITE 

Standsy the Everlasting 
Sentinel 

For massive mausoleum or simple 
memorial stone, there is no other ma- 
terial so fitting^ly devised by Nature 
to combat the ravages of time and ele- 
ments, in marking with everlasting 
beauty the last resting place. 
Barre Granite, by its even texture, 
lends itself to whatever character of 
design or architecture is demanded, 
and its beauty is equally distinctive 
under the sculptor's chisel or in pol- 
ished surface. 

All Barre Granite is quarried at Barre, 
Vt. Specify that every part of your 
memorial be of Barre Granite. 
Write for " Memorial Masterpieces," 
ilkistrating the monuments of many 
of America's distinguished citizens,in- 
cluding the Rockefeller, Fleischman, 
Heinz, Schley, Armour, Tarkington, 
Potter Palmer, Anheuser, Lcland 
Stanford, and others. 

Barre Quarriers and 
Manufacturers Ast'n 

Dept, B, BARRE. VERMONT 
•'The Granite Center of the World" 



BBBBMB 




Here's Fun For You ! 

A day in the woods with a Hawkeyc 
Basket. Fish, hike, smoke, read, and 
rest in the woods and take along eat- 
ables and drinkables in a 

JftSSSSSte 

REFRIOERATOR 

Keeps contents cool, clean, and fresh for 36 
hours with one filling of ice. Light weight, 
attractive, durable. The Hawkeye has been 
the keynote of hundreds of enjoyable days in 
the woods. Priced as low as $5.00. 

Try a Haiukeye Basket— 30 detys 'with- 
out expense. Ask for Booklet 23^ 

BURUNGTON BASKET COMPANY 
113 Hawkeye Bids., DepC M, BucUnston, Iowa 



You Can Make Photos 

in Natural Colors 
xDith Your Own Camera 

USE the plate or filni' camera you 
now have. Proce^ •a^ily under- 
stood and readily followed^b'y any one 
who can take black-and-white photo- 
graphs. The new 

HIBLOCK 

is a plate that gives any number of colored 
prints from a single set of negatives. Well 
handled pictures show all the beauty of color 
found in animate or inanimate nature. Usable 
indoors or outdoors with natural or flash light 
We supply all necessary materials for cameras 
of all sizes. 

Wnim for oar frmm booklet explmning color 
photography for yoar eamora. 

Hess-Ives Corporation 

1201 Race Street, Philadel^Iua, Pa. 

Dealers ; If you are not already handlins Hiblock platea, 
write for our offer today. 



•Mention the Ctoographlc — ^It IdentifLes you." ^ t 

Digitized by VjOOQIC 



fortiME 







VnWl'i'brlci- 



^ 



* Mention the Greographlc — It identifies you.'* ^ j 

Digitized by VjOOQIC 



DIAVm DMandHOUSI 



Rockyflountain 
NATIONAL PARK 



COME TO THE 

COLORADO 
ROCKIES 

Plan Your Trip Via 
Denver The Gateway to 
12 National Parks and 
32 National Monuments 

See Denver's New Mountain Parks 
id Rocky Mountain National Park 
(Estes). The most wonderful mountain 
scenery in the world. 38 other Short 
Scenic Trips by Rail. Auto and 
Trolley. 1 4 one day trips. Low rates 
all railroads. 

Write Today For 
FREE Picture Book 

that tells where to go, what to sec, what 
it costs and how to enjoy your vacation 
in the cool Colorado Rockies. Address 
DENVER TOURIST BUREAU 
614 i7lh St., Denver, Cola. 




The Supreme Test 

Ever been on an ocean-going steam- 
ship? Then you know what terrific 
strain and vibration the wall lining of the 
staterooms, dining-room, and saloons 
must stand. 



'a^>voc?:^ 




is the only material, except steel or wood panels, 
that can satisfactorily withstand this severe test. 
It is now used on several steamships in prefer- 
ence to steel and wood. 

There's proof of the strength, durability, 
moisture-proofness, decorative adaptability, non- 
warping, and non-shrinking qualities of Compo- 
Board — the modem wall-lining. 

The reason is its wood-core construction. 
How important it is, then, that you look for and 
get the ^wood-core wall board when you ask for 
Compo-Board. 



Write for sample and 
interesting booklet. 




THE COMPO-BOARD CO, 

4512 Lyndale Ave. N., 
MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. 




Don^t Say It Cannot Be Done— 

For orer 310,000 deaf people now hear distinctly through the 
ACOUSTICON. Thousands of them have had their hearing per- 
manently restored. In every occupation, science, and industn*. 
self-supporting people are making their way I}ecauseof the help 
ffiven their hearing by the Acousticon. All you need do is to write 
us, saying! " I am hard of hearing and will try the Acousticon ;" 
also state ajre and the cause of your deafness (if you know it); «c 
will immediately send you. charges paid, the 

1917 ACOUSTICON 

FOR 10 DAYS' FREE TRIAL 

No deposit, no obllpition, no expense. In your own home. 
amonfT your own family. ^Te it any test. Use it ten days and we 
will leave it entirely to you to decide whether you want to keep it 
or return it 

I! it does not benefit you, we do not want you to buy it. We 
feel sure, however, that you will be one of the hundreds of thou- 
sands to whom it has given normal hearing. 

D glMf A D p f The srenuine Acousticon is made and sold 
^^ ww#%I%^ i onlybytheGeneralAcousticCo.— branches 
in all principal cities— never through agents. The Acousticon Is 
the only Instrument for the deaf RECOMMENDED by eminent 
Aurists. The results accomplished by the Acousticon cannot be 
had in any other manner. 
SEND FOR YOUR FREB TRIAI. TODAY— YOU AIX>NB TO DECIDE 

GENERAL ACOUSTIC CO.. 1311 Candler BIda.. New York 
Cuadin AMrm: 121 Iw Birfcs BI4|.. mmknA 



'Mention the Ctoographic — It identifies yoiL' 



Digitized by 



Google 



New England 

Thc\^cation Land 




WHITE MOUNTAINS 

of New Hampshire 

Mile high mountains, hundred mile 
views, goi^ tennis, every summer sport, 
glorious air, delightful social life. Superb 
hotels, comfortable boarding houses. 

MAINE WOODS 

The best vacation for fun, new ex- 
periences and health — among the forest- 
hidden lakes and rivers of Maine. 
Fishing, paddling, exploring, summer 
sports. Splendid hotels, real camps. 

Through train service from Wa«fain«toii, 

Baltimore. Philadelphia and New York 

to White Mountains and Maine 

VACATION BOOKS 

Complete information about the best 
hotels, boarding houses, camps, inVVhite 
Mountains, Maine, New Hampshire, 
and Vermont Lakes and Woods, Berk- 
shire Hills, Cape Cod, Marthas Vine- 
yard, Nantucket, Casco Bay, Penobscot 
Bay, Mt. Desert, Bar Harbor. 

Send for those of region you prefer. 

For booklets and information address 

VACATION BUREAU 
171 Broadway, Room 119, New Yoric 







'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.' 



Digitized by 



Google 




Beautiful 
Highlands of Ontario 

With millions of acres of hills and valleys 
clothed with unscarred forests of pine and 
spruce and dotted by thousands of lakes and 
streams, the "Highlands of Ontario" present the 
most wonderful vacation spot on the American 
continent. Breathe in the pure air at an elevation 
of 2,000 feet above the sea. Fishlngr, hunting:. 
swimrainfiT, boating, canoeingf, campinjr— all in an 

Incomparable setlinif oi scenic grandeur. I,et the Gmnd Trunk 
Railway Sy'jtcm pbn your vacation at ATsronquln Park.Mus- 
koka Lakes, Ceorsian Bay, Lake of Bays, or TlmaKami, and < 
you will never reyret or lortfet. Good hotel accommodation. 
Write for free Illustrated Uteralure to 

A. G. CHOWN W. n. EASTMAH 

SOT Park Bulldlns 707 Old South BuHdInc 

Pirtiburih.f^. F. P. DVYEB 294 Wtshiiqitiin Stmt 

1270 Brvadvaf 
NnTork.N.r. 







Jjeaufi/al nircit /6r I^autifalTisDoochoi^' 




Living Room. Oakea Home, Evanston. II!. White enamel on 
birch. Messrs. Schmidt, Garden & Martin, Chicago. Arch'ts 

You Kve insfWe your home — 

The interior woodwork mtist be a delight to 
the eye, harmonious, beautiful and in ^ood taste, 
("beautiful biixh" characteristics). 

"Beautiful birch'* bein^ a close-ferained, 
hard, lasting wood forms an ideal base for 
white enamel. 

It lends itself to a wide variety of finishes 
from li^ht to dark, "holds its own" under hard 
usa^e, is "mai^proof," and above all else — 
economical to buy, 

■pT^'C'C Six Utth paneh in tix hatidiemt finhhei v-Uh a com- 

The NORTHERN HEMLOCK and HARDWOOD 

MANUFACTURERS' ASS'N 

214 F. R. A. BUILDING OSHKOSH. WIS. 



ACombinatioii of Strong 
Investment Safeguards 

First Mortgage bonds on a natural 

resource. 
Security three to one. 
Net earnings five to one. 
Twenty years* successful history. 
Product a necessity and in strong 

demand. 
Payment personally guaranteed by 

reliable business men. 
Bonds in |»500 amounts paying 6^ 

interest 
Prbceeds of loan to increase Com- 

pansr* s output 
Send for Circular No. 987 D 

Peabod^, 
Honghteling&Co* 

(EsUbUshed 1M5) 
10 South La Salle Street, Chicago 

(A 352) 



r ^xw,v!iM:i^.Ji.Li> ll 



RenewYoui^ 

Masonr% 

Walls. 



Renew the beauty of itucro concrrte oi 
brick buildinfs ! Obtain eoft-bucd, uni- 
form tones— rainproof. dampprt>of — a last- 
ingly beautiful finish— by apply in eTRUS- 
CON STONE-TEX. 

A liquid cement coaiinc. applird m tth a 
brush. Deriicd solely for masonry sur- 
faces. Unlike paints, cannot chip, flake 
orpccloff. Fillsall pores and hair crack*, 
makinc the Vail bard as flint and «aled 
atrainc' moisture. Suitable for new or old 
walls. Furnished in many pleasing colon, 
STONE-TEX is one of the famous 
Trus-Con Waterp roofing and P am pp roof- 
in C products — sufficient awurance of qual- 
ity- 

If your brick, stucco, concrete or stone 
buildinjf is rlisfiirured or damp and unsjin- 
Itarv, use STONE-TEX. Write lor full in* 
formation, tellintr your necfls. 

The Trus-Con Laboratories 

178 Tnu-CoD Bldg.. Dctnitp MidiixaB 
We specialize in uDUSual paint 
requirements. Write for advice. 



Let Srb K^l^ 



^ 



'Mention the Geographic — ^It identifles yon." ^ j 

Digitized by VjOOQIC 



i 



I 

I 



Your Income Tax 

On June 15, 1917, every one whose income last year amounted 
to $3,000 or more paid the tax assessed by the Federal Govern- 
ment. 

Returns from this tax are of the utmost importance to the Government, espe- 
cially at the present time. 

It is the duty of every individual subject to this tax to cooperate with the Gov- 
ernment in simplifying the process of collection. 

For the convenience of investors we have prepared a sixteen-page individual 
income record book which will greatly facilitate the making out of annual income 
reports. 

Complimentary copy on request. Mention edition N6. 

This is indicative of the attention— even to the smallest particular— which our 
clients receive through the Compton Investment Service. 

\N\\\\m R.fitmpton rompany 

Municipal Bonds 

** Ovft a Qiunttf CtKtttry bt This Butiatu ** 

NEW YORK: 14 WaU Street ST. LOUIS: 408 Olive Street 

CHICAGO : 105 S. La Salle Street CINCINNATI : 102 Union Trust Building 

PITTSBURGH: 721 Farmers Bank Building 









, July 
Investments 

To Net 5% 6% 


Our Service- 
Its Distinctive Features 


TN war time conditions, shrewd investors 
1 are turning back to the land and its 
"*■ earning-power for unimpeachable 
secarity. This widespread detnand is met 
in the first mortgage bonds we ofifer, safe- 
guarded under the Straus Plan, 

"C^ACH issue is a first mortgage on a high 
•I^ grade building and land in 

New York Chicago Lo« An«elM 
Detroit Philadelphia St. Louis 




No. 4— Trustees* Requirements 

Appreciating the restric- 
tions placed upon the in- 
vestments of Savings Banks 
and Trustees, wc maintain 
at all times a comprehensive 1 
list of issues eligible and at- 
tractive as to safety and yield 


or some other large city. Price to net 5^— 
6%. Write for our booklet, "Acid Tests of 
Investments in War Time", and for 

July Investment List NaF-708 




for these various purposes. 

Send for our current 
list of offerings, AN -60 


s:h:straus & co. 




The National City 


Pounded 1882 Incorporated 1905 
NKWYORK CHICAGO 
150 Broadway Straus Buildinff 
Branch Offlaa: 

S?r,*®P. ^. San Franciaco KanBaaCIty 




Company 

National City Bank Building 
New York 


35 years without loss to any investor 







^Mention the Geographic — It identifies you." 



Digitized by 



Google 



THE Hindu's belief that the mighty Ganges purifies 
his morals while cleansing his body and garments 
causes him to use its water frequently, even though put 
to the inconvenience of having it sent to him. 

The widespread knowledge of how easy, pleasant and 
inexpensive it is to keep clean with Ivory Soap causes 
the American people to use tons upon tons of it every 
day. The love of cleanliness in body, clothes and home 
is fostered and quickened by the safe, efficient, eco- 
nomical work done by every cake of Ivory. 



99S*o^ PURE 




'Mention the Oeograplilc — It identifies you.' 



Digitized by 



Google 




Outside NUio Inn, Harmon, N. Y. 



You Can Expect 
Immediate Benefits 

It will undoubtedly require several months for 
you to experience in fuU the advantages of 
Goodyear Cord Tires. 

The greater mileages they deliver, their slow 
and obstinate wear in everyday service, their 
consistent freedom from trouble — these can be 
learned properly only over a long period of use. 

But there are other advantages perhaps no less 
important, from which you can expect im- 
mediate benefits. 

The superior comfort of Goodyear Cords 
and the riding-ease they add to any car, the sav- 
ings they effect in gasoline and power, die added 
distinction their equipment means and the 
security they insure — these are benefits you wiU 
appreciate in the first mile of travel. 

Goodyear Cord Tires are from every stand- 
point the most efficient, economical and satisfac- 
tory tire^ we have been able to produce. Their 
quality makes them higher-priced — and i^etter. 

Goodyear Tlres^ Heaiy Tourist Tubes and 
**Tire Sa^er** Accessories are easy to get from 
Goodyear Service Station Dealers enjeryuohere. 







'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.' 



Digitized by 



Google 



ELECTRIC WARE FOR THE HOME 



Your Unseen Servant 



He comes at your bidding, but you 
do not see him. 

You turn a switch or put a plug in 
a socket, and instantly he is at work. 

He lights your lamps, cooks your 
meals, washes and irons your clothes, 
sweeps your rooms, gives you a breeze 
on hot summer nights, freezes your 
ice-cream, warms your bed. heats the 
baby*3 milk, runs your sewing-ma- 
chine, polishes your eilver, grinds 
your knives, transports you to your 
office, and carries you up or down in 
the elevator. 

He works for small wages and is 
at your service twenty- four hours a 
day. 

But you would not have this uni- 
versal servant — at an expense anyone 
can afford — except for the work of 
many engineers who have made pos- 
sible the economic generation of elec- 
tric current and provided the means 
of turning that current into light, heat, 
and power. 



When you use your Westinghouse 
Ellectric Iron or Toaster-Stove or Sew- 
Motor, you owe the lightening of 
your household tasks not alone to 
these appliances, but to many other 
types of electrical apparatus in the 
origination and perfection of which 
Westinghouse engineers have played 
a leading part. 

These include the turbo-generators 
in the power-house miles away, that 
generate the electricity, and the 
switchboards, meters, transformers, 
rectifiers, regulators, and more that 
make possible the control, distribu- 
tion, and use of this great force. 

And Westinghouse engineering has 
been accompanied at every step by 
complete manufacturing facilities 
and high manufacturing standards. 

Thus Westinghouse quality is the 
same, whether in a great 15.000- 
horsepower blooming mill motor, a 
7 5, 000- kilo watt generator, or little fan 
motors and electric irons in a million 
homes. 



WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC & MANUFACTURING CO, 
East Pittsburgh, Pa. 



A \Vc5t inffhoiise Fin • 
trie Fin keenstheliiHiir 
com fortable in hot 
wralJicr for a few cents 
« day. 



Westirnihou«ie lilcc- 
trie Ware for the Uble 
provi'lfs a qiit> k, easy, 
arifl elficicnt w rtvto pre* 
p.ire breakfast and 




A WcstinKhouse Elrc- 
tric Iron eI>nitAate« tbe 
hot stove. *ares slrp«. 
an 1 is ready »or time 
anywhere there's ft 
Ian; p- -socket. 



A WestlDghouse Sew- 
Minor make* an elettric 
mat liine of .iny oniin«nr 
sen-inu-mAc lilne, abof* 
Hhinz the loa ol tttad' 
Ung. 



* Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.' 



Digitized by 



Google 



FOR CENTRAL STATIONS 




An Electric Wasliing- 
machine.rciuippcd with 
a WestinsrliouRe Motor, 
saves time, labor, and 
wear - and •trar on t]ic 
clotties. 



AWc^tinuhou^riiec- 
trie Milk-Warititr hents 
the Imbv's mflk quickly 
at tite turn o( a switch. 
Can be stt.ichrd « tier- 
ever there's a light- 
socket. 



With a Westlnsfhouse 
Automatic l*lr(.:tric 
Range the dinner is 
ready to *irrve wlicii you 
come home .iltcran all- 
day absence. 



An Electric X'acimin 
Cleaner, driven hy a 
WcBtinshouse Motor, 
ends tirinif, iins,ininr\-, 
inetliclent sweeping with 
a broom. 



"Mention the Gaographic— It Identifies you." 



Digitized by 



Google 




Your other camera. 

A Vest Pocket Kodak 

Although you have a 
grand-father's clock in the 
hall, a Dresden clock on 
the drawing-room mantel, 
an alarm clock in your 
bed-room, a chronometer 
in your motor car and an 
eight day clock on your 
office desk, you always wear a watch. 

Similarly you may have and carry other cam- 
eras — you wear a Vest Pocket Kodak. It's the 
accurate, reliable, unobtrusive little Kodak that you 
can have always with you for the unexpected that 
is sure to happen. 

Contact V. P. K. prints are iSy{ x 2^ inches; 
enlarged prints of post card size (3^ x ^y2 in.) 
are but fifteen cents. 

The Vest Pocket Kodaks are $6.00. The V. P. K. Specia/s 
with Anastigmat lenses are $10.00, $20.00 and $22.50. 

jit your dealer's. 

EASTMAN KODAK CO., Rochester, N. Y., TAe Kodak City. 



"Mention the Geographic — It identifies yon.** C^ r^r^r^\r->, 

Digitized by VjOOQIC 




< Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies you.'* 

Digitized by VjOOQIC 




I 



A Scenic and Educational 
Vacation Trip 

YellowstoneNat'lPark 

Through Gardiner Gateh?ay 
and 

Northern Pacific Ry. 

Comfortable automobiles having replaced 
stage coaches this summer, enable you to 
see more of the wonders of this great 
vacation land. 

Spokane and the Inland Empire 

Pi^et Sound, Alaska, Seattle, Tacoma, 

Portland, Rainier National Park 

and the 

Picturesque Columbia 

River Highway 

may be included in your vacation journey 
via the Northern Pacific Railway. Hun- 
dreds of miles of mountain, river and lake 
scenery. 

Send for travel literature, summer rates 
and information. 

A. M. CLELAND, Gen'l Pass. Afit. 

66 Northern Pacific Railway 
ST. PAUL, MINN. 



I 

I 






(( 



Mum" 



(a« easy to oae a« to ny) 



keeps the body fresh 
and sweet 

A delightful sense of personai dain- 
tiness may be retained throughout 
the day by using a little *'Mum'' 
after the morning bath. This snow- 
white, greaseless cream gently neutral- 
izes all odors of perspiration as they 
occur. Applied in a minute. Harm- 
less to skin and clothing. A jar lasts 
a long time. 

2Sc at drue- aiid depactment-ffores. 

**Mum" Is a Trade-Mark reritUnd in th* Patmt Qfitt 
in ffashingtm, D. C. 

"MUM" MFC CO 1106 Chestnut St Philadelphia 




Mapleware 

Lunch Set 

ere's something you 
outdoor folk will likeim- 
mensely— suitable for n umber- 
less occasions, but specially for 
serving your lunches on motor 
tri])s. at picnics, canipingparties, 
yachting, etc. 

Susrar Mnple Dishes will 
carry any foods— hot, cold, 
semi-liquid. Each carton 
contains: 

6 Oiiincr Pl.itps— 2 Long' Flatten 
2 EVep Salad Dislips 
CMcdium Side Plates 
6 Butter nr Salt Dtshei 
^ .S,uiitarT Spoons or Spreaders 
1 T)ih1e Cover— 48 x 60 incites (wood fibr«) 
6 Lari^e Napkins (wood fibre) 

Dispenses with weififhtand dish wnshingr- Retail price. 
35c. the set ; 3 sets . $1.00. Triirt sets ou receipt of price. 

THE OVAL WOOD DISH COMPANY 

DepL 10, Delta, Ohio 
NewOriMM SaaFraiidKO Ne«r T«rk T«Ma»0. 



'Mention the Qeographic — ^It identifies you." 

Digitized by VjOOQIC 





Twenty Million Miles of Telephone Wire 



The telephone wire in use in the 
Bell System is long enough to run 
from the eaitk to the moon and back 
again forty times. 

The Bell System has about twice 
as much telephone wire as all Europe. 

More than 500,000 new telephones 
are being added to the Bell System 
yearly — almost as many as the total 
number of telephones in Elngland. 

In twelve months the Bell System 
adds enough telephones to duplicate 



the entire telephone systems of France» 
Italy and Switzerland combined. 

In proportion to population the 
extension of the Bell System in the 
United States is equal in two years 
to the total telephone progress of 
Europe since the telephone was in- 
vented — ^a period of about forty years. 

The Bell System fills the telephone 
needs of the American people with a 
thoroughness and a spirit of public 
service which are without parallel the 
world over. 




American Telephone and Telegraph Company 

And Associated Companies 
Onm Policy One System Universal Service 



** Mention the Geographic — It identifies you." ^ t 

Digitized by VjOOQIC 



If^HJT IT IS. 



WHY YOU 
WANT IT. 




"A WORD TO THE 'BUYS' IS SUmcIENT." 



HOW TO GET IT. 



Owing to the nation-wide insistence upon Cypress, 
*'The Wood Eternal," for all uses that invite de- 
cay, (as well as for artistic uses in interiors), it be- 
came necessary to devise safeguards for lumber-consumers who 
have had no reason to become skilled in identifying differ- 
ent woods or in judging their gradations or adaptabilities. 

The one way for you to be sure that the Cypress you get was 
grown in a region near enough to the coast to possess the M AX- 
IMUM of decay-resisting quality is to refuse all but genuine 
**TI DE-WATER" CYPRESS^-and the only way to know that 
you're getting Tide-water Cypress is to insist (and keep on insisting) upon 
SEEING WITH YOUR OWN EYES the REGISTERED TRADE- 
MARK of the Southern Cypress Mfrs. Assn., stamped ineradicably in one or 

both ends of EVERY CYPRESS BOARD OR TIMBER, and on EVERY BUNDLE of 

"small sticks," such as flooring, siding, moulding and shingles. This is 
the mark to BUY BY — now that every piece of thoroughly reliable 

"TIPE-WATER"C?YPRESS 
MANUFACTURED BY 
ASSOCIATION MlliliS 
IS IDENTIFIED BY 
THIS TRADE - MARK 'P>A0ENMKRc6.u.S.P«0mcc 

Only mills which are qualified by the superior physical character of their product AND 
die ethical character o their business practice can belong to the Southern Cypress Mfrs. Assn. 
— and only member-nulls can ever apply this legally registered trade-mark to ANY Cypress. 




Let our AIX-BOUIO) HELPS DEFABIMENT Mp TOU MOSS. 



Oar «i>tir* i ««o uit «« an at yoor Mr*iM with Baliabla Ooannl. 



SOUTHERN CYPRESS MANUFACTURERS' ASSOCIATION 

1224 HIBERNIA BANK BUXL. NEW ORLEANS, LA., or 1224 HEARD NATL BANK BLIXL, JACKSONVILLE. FIA. 



INSIST ON TRADE-MARKED CYPRESS AT YOUR LOCAL LUMBER DEALER'S. 



IF BB BASNT IT. UBT V8 KNOW. 



// yTELLHIMTO ^^.p-w "BUY BY THE 
^ ^ REMEMBER ^ J^ y CYPRESS ARROW 





•Mention the Oeographic — It identiflesvyoo." ^-^ ^ 

Digitized by VjOOQIC 



:#:#jagg n^air List T>riceB^^ im}J[f^ltSii ^ Fair Treat men t ' ^^r#r#>:g | 



GOODmCM 

D 




Cable Cbrd^40Z Robber 

Immune to Tire Fever 

5Tir^ EHOLD how cord and rubber are fused into the flexible, 

I ll P^^^^f^^ cable-cord which forms the exclusive patent- 

l-Lrl protected body of a Silvertown tire. Note the rubber 

core, and how each cord tendon in the cable-cord lies 

completely encased in a cushion of rubber. 




Corded and cabled under high pres- 
sure, which replaces all air in the 
fiber with rubber gum, it is fused 
with rubber as a cobbler's waxed 
end is waxed with wax. 

That fusion of rubber and cord, 
cool no matter how fast the tire 
whirls, when cross-wrapped in the 
Silvertown's two-ply body, is the 
secret of Silvertown s IMMU- 
NITY from TIRE-FEVER-the 
internal heat rubbed up between 



the plies of many-ply tires— the 
great destroyer of tires. 

With but two plies of strong, cool 
cablecord— Silvertowns, trade 
marked with the Red Double 
Diamond, are bound to outlast and 
outserve many- ply tires with their 
multiplied tire fever. 

Moreover they give a style, a 
smoother riding comfort and 
gasoline saving economy you can 
not afford to deny yourself. 



THE B. F. GOODRICH CO., Akron, Ohio 

Goodrich also makes the famous Fabric Tires — Black Safety Treads 



^glfe S ^l il ^ r 'lyj/veri'ow/i makes all cars highr^rade^ 



?c:^:>r<x 



J 



'Mention the (}eosraphlc — ^It identifies yoiu'» C^ r^r^^^Ar^ 

Digitized by VjOOQ 16 



UT THI CA$ MANIAAP 



r5v3 



\-^l 




<^-U' 



-£P^lM 



Make fuel stops few and far between. Stretch mileage and 
shorten gas costs with the new 

Stromberg Carburetor 
FOR FORDS 

It "doM it.** We ahow you m figures on your speedometer— with 10 Day Free Trial. 

The Economy Record That Made the Motoring World Marvel 

374/10 miles on a gallon of gasoline— was made by a Stromberg-equipped Model T 1915 
Pord-canying three passengers and weighing 2170 lbs.- in an official test A wonderful 
record -made more wonderful by the fact that the same Ford was accelerated from stand- 
ing start to 25 miles an hour in 11.4 seconds; then speeded up to 43 miles an hour without 
touching the carburetor. Get the same remarkable results from your Ford— immense sav- 
ings—gigantic power and speed increase— easier starting. No risk. The purchase price 
—118— will be returned if not satisfied with 10 Day Trial. Oidcraow. OrMadforFrMliteniHib 

StrombergMotorDeYice8Co.,Dept639,64L25diSt,CIiicago,IIL 




luiiitrmiilh. .aii..i 



RECOMMENDATION FOR MEMBERSHIP 

in the 

National Geographic Society 

The Membership Fee Includes Subscription to the National Geographic Magazine 

DUES: Annual membership in U. S., $2.00; annual membership abroad. $3.00; Canada. $2.50; life member»kip. 
$30. Please make remittances payable to National Ceosraphic Sociecy, and if at a aistance remit by N. Y. dxalt. 



postal or express order. 



Please detach and fill in blank below and send to the Secretary 



__/9/ 



*\7o the Secretary, National Geographic Society, 

Sixteenth and M Street* Norlhtceat, 

Washington, D. C. : 



/ nominate.- 
Address. . 



for membership in the Society, 



(Write your address) 



'Mention the Qeographlc — It Identifies you.' 



Digitized by 



Google 



Scientific study coupled with practical 
manufacturing methods— tms is the 
basisof the MAZDA Service thathelps 
lamp-makers produce better lamps. 




MAZDA 

^*Nbr the name of a thing, but the mark of a service * * 



-The Meaning of MAZDA- 



ump 

ufiM^uren. It* pnrpoae is to collect and select acieiitific and General Electric Company at Schenectady, Now York. Thb 

piadieal information concerning progreaa and derelopments in mazk MAZDAcanapp«tronlyonlanipa whiohmeetthestandarda 

the art of incandescent lamp mannfiicturing and to distribute this of fAAZDh. Service. It is thus an assurance of onality. Thia 

injonnatioo to the (Munpanies entitled to reoeiTe thia Service. trademark is the property of the General Electric Company. 

^RESEARCH LABORATORIES OF GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY 

4638 



* Mention the Oeographlc — It identifies you." 

Digitized by VjOOQIC 




BANFR 



;wc^ 



^JPBWICl" 






>«l|Mp^^*f% 



In the CANADIAN PACIFIC ROCKIES 

rniJrr the rucccd grandeur of sitow<laJ peaks. Has the 

air thM adils years to your life. 

CUmbinff. Coacbinf , Fiihinf, Ridinf. Golfing. Walkinc on 

the High Mooataio Triili, Swimminr in Wirm Salphar Pools 

In the cool, crisp evenings 

THE BANFF SPRINGS HOTEL 

MaEnificcnt as a feudal castle, offers jray social life— music. 

promenades, danctnc. Only one of the ereat Canadian 

Pacific Railway Hotels. 

Liberal stop-over pririteges at Calcary. Banff. iJke Louise. Firl<l. 

Glacier. Sicamous. Alone the World's Greatest Hichway, 

CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY 

For information and titrraturc apply to nearest C. P. R, ajent f 

ALLAN O. SEYMOUR 
General Tourist Agent, Canadian Pacific 

Railway. Montreal, Quebec j. 




lame Farmer 

Write for these two books whidi 
tell all about this interesting and 
profitable work. "Game Farming 
for Profit and Pleasure" is sent 
free on request. It treats of 
the subject as a whole } de- 
scribes the many game birds, 
tells of their food and habits, 
etc. * 'American Pheasant 
Breeding and Shootino^'* is 
sent on receipt of 10c 
in ^taInps. It is a complete 
manual on the subject. 

\m9 Market Street 
WilmiDgtoo Delaware 



#. 



'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.' 



Digitized by 



Google 




makes yo\x proud 
of your complexion 



There can be no luxury for a woman equal to the 
consciousness that her complexion is clear, fresh, del- 
icately radiant. To keep it so, no amount of cosmetics 
can excel the regular use of a soap which thoroughly 
cleanses, and at the same time has just the rxg^hx sooth- 
ing, healing action to maintain the natural health and 
beauty of the skin. 

Resinol Soap does t'.iis because it is an exquisitely 
pure and cleansing toilet soap containing the Resinol 
medication which physicians prescribe, in Resinol Oint- 
ment, for the treatment of skin affections. With its 



use, the tendency to pimples is lessened, redness and 
roughness disappear, and the skin usually becomes a 
source of pride and satisfaction. 

The same extreme purity and gentle Resinol medica- 
tion adapt Resinol Soap to the care of the hair and of a 
baby's delicate, easily irritated skin. 

If the complexion is in bad condition throaeb nrelector an unwise uie 
of cosmetics, a linle Resinol Ointment should at first be used to help Retinol 
Soap restore its health and beauty. Resinol Soap is sold by all dnirtrista 
and dealers in toilet eoods. Th0 use •/ Reiinol SMf greatfy helps to effiet th* 
ill tffecti 9f summer tun, heat, and dust. 



•*Jde3iUon the Geographic — ^It identifies you.' 



Digitized by 



Google 



Free Instruction 

on Canning and Drying 

Vegetables and 

Fruits 



Send 2c. stamp 

for our Manuals containing 

expert advice 



National Emergency 
Food Garden Commission 

210-220 Maryland Buildinfir 
Washington, D. C, 




Write for a free copy of 

Vantine's Catalog 



is a fascinating book, iilird with illustra- 
tions—many ill actualcolors— of the quaint and 

curious objects of art and utility collected by the 

Vantine rrpre<ientatiA c« in Japan. China. Persia, 

lid other Oriental countries. 

I a Trader of the Nat ionnt Ceo frrapkic Magazine 
we feel sure yon will be inlcresifd. lor liie \'antine Caialivjf "in- 
creases an<I diffuses jfeoifraphif knowlcdjre" l»y Uluttrating' or 
describhij; the distinntve and individual creations of the artisans 
in the inysticnl lands beyond the seas. 

Write no«v — your name and address on a postal will do— and w'th- 
oiit oblii.'a1ion we shall send« postpaid, this delightful book of Uie 
Orient. Address Dept. N. 

A. A. VANTINE & CO., Inc. 
Fifth Ave. and 39th Street New York 



I Specialize in Binding up Back Volumes of 
the National 

GEOGRAPHIC 

Masrazlne— 6 numbers to the volume. Price per volume, 
neatly bound in full Library Buckram. Sl.OO; in Vi morocco, 
f 1.50 : called for and delivered free in New York City. Books 
returned prepaid outside of New York. Missinsr numbers 
supplied. 25 cents per copy, back to 1912; previous years at 
market rates. Complete back volumes for sale; also back 
volumes and odd numbers bousfht for cash. Prospectus on 
application. 

F. GAILERy Library Bookbinder, 
141 West 24th Street, New York City 

PHONE. FARRAGUT 9058 



When you have 

one of those borj-to- 

the-purple guests, serve— 

Creamed Chicken^ 

a la Kind 

I 0«ly 25c. and 50c. at all fine grocer;, or 

\ scud us fl.45orf2.85 1-2 doz, respemvc t 

\ lUes, prepaid if you mention your jfro- \ 

i ccr. in Canada, 3Sc. and 6fM:.! $2.00 and 

^ $3.75, 1-3 doz. Write, mentioning hiui. 

t for buoklet, "IIow and When," 

PURITY CROSS, Inc. 

Ms£et Kitchen, R]ute2G. M. 
Oranga, N. J. 




"WESTERN FRONT ATA GLANCE' 



Just oflF the pren. this new war map is designed to satisfy those who 
dcbire a most complete, large-scale map of the Western Front ; scale, 
19 miles to one inch ; size. 28 x 36 inches. 
S^owt every hamlet, ▼iUai c.and city, forests, fertificatioas, altiiodei, 

air-craft depots, wireless stations, etc 
It contains upwards of 5.000 place names.whicb can be readily located 
by means of ibe complete index which accompanies the map. 

Paper, $1.00 TD^^,^.frer Cloth, $2.00 
C. S. HAMMOND & COMPANY 

28 Church Street (Hudson Terminal) t New York 



tCb<g iWaqa^ine isl from ^tir |lregs>cg 



420-422 Clebentt) B^tvttt 



3utiti Si Bettoetler. 3nc. 

^a^ttt printers? 



l^as;titngton» B. C. 




"Mention the Geograpbic— It identifies you.' 



Digitized by 



Google 



TOWNSEND'S TRIPLEX 



The Greatest 
Grass-catter 
on Earth 



Cuts a 
Swath 
86 Inches Wid« 




Floats Over the Uneven Ground 
as a Ship Rides the Waves. 

One mower may be climbing a knoll, the second 
skimming a level, while the third pares a hollow. 
Drawn by one horse and operated by one man, 
the TRIPLEX will mow more lawn in a day 
than the best motor mower ever made ; cut it 
better and at a fraction of the cost. 

Drawn by one hone and operated by one man. it will mow more 
lawn in a day than any three ordinary borse-drawn mowers with 
three borscs and tbree men. 

Does not smash the irrass to earth and plaster it in the mud in 
■prinetime. neither does it crush the life out of the grass between 
hot rollers and bard, but ground in summer, za does the motor 
mower. 

The public is wanied not to purchase mowers infrinKiaf the 
Town»end Patent, No. 1.209.519. December 19ih. 1916. 

irriu f»r idtaUt i/Iiutraiinz alltjfts of Lawn Mtwtn. 

S. p. TOWNSEND & CO. 
27 Central Avenue Orange, New Jersey 



DENBY 



TRUCKS 




FANCY FISH 

for Pleasure or Profit 

TTku IB the SeoBon 

There is a wonderful interest in this 
tascinatinflr hobby. The demand for 
hish-priced aquarium fish is greater 
than the supply. Our new. magnifi- 
cently illustrated book 

''GoMfidi Varieties and Tropical 
Aqaarium Fishes" 

gives complete, practidil 'information 
about the care, breediriig and commer- 
cial handling of 3O0f^ varieties, their 
enemies, diseases, ^t^i : aouarium con- 
strucuon, plants, popq culture, etc. A 
book of reference, lor the beginner or 
lyofessional. Price' $3.00, postpaid. 



INNES & SONS, Cherry ana 12th Sts., Phikaelphia, 




HE CANT PUSH 
IT OFF 





HARRISON MEMORIALS of CHARACTER 

Offices In pilndpal dtie««. Wnt^ for Booklet 3. 

HARRISON GRANITE COMPANY 
200 Fifth Avena«. N«w York City Works : Bnrr.-. vt. 



PERSONAL SERVICE I 



]^m 



Ko doflT can imsh off the Witt's IJd and scatter refuse over 
your back doorstep. The Witt's lid fits air-tigrht and stays 
tleht until it is lifted off by the handle. It seals Witt's Can 
and Pail like a vault- Odors can't set out. Dotrs, rats, flies, 
and roaches can't get in. Witt's is made of heavy, deeply 
corrugated gralvanized steel— rust-proof and dent-proof. It 
outlasts two ordinary cans. Buy Witt's for your home. It 
saves you money. Write for booklet and name of nearest 
Witt dealer. 

THE WITT CORNICE CO. 

Dept. B-2 Cincinnati, O. 
Look for the ytUovO label 




'Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies yon.' 



Digitized by 



Google