1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
only very few that are often repeated. In almost all experiments we find pleasant) unPleasant) gladly) unwillingly) friendly, and similar words among the repetitions. We shall not examine the individual cases of repetition and perseveration any further here, because they do not point towards such obviously emotionally charged ideas as in the earlier cases; nevertheless, these do not entirely lack this background. 
	258 	The constellations are few and far between. Here too we 
find a decrease of sound associations at the same time as an increase of indirect associations in the second part of external distraction. 
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE GROUP OF EDUCATED MEN 
	259 	We had at our disposal nine subjects, whose ages ranged 
from 23 to 47, with altogether 3,793 associations. With five subjects, the experiments were carried out with internal as well as external distraction; in one case only with internal distraction, and in one case only with external distraction; in two cases no distraction experiment took place. With five subjects, associations in fatigue were also worked over, with one subject associations in a state of drowsiness. All the subjects in this group have had academic education. Six of them are physicians, one a medical student, one a grammar-school teacher, and one a chemist. All are German-Swiss. 
	260 	Only one subject is of the predicative type (No. 17). Un- 
fortunately we could not carry out a distraction experiment on him. 
	261 	The experiment with internal distraction was successful in 
four cases; the sharp increase of sound reactions is most characteristic, the decrease of internal with the increase of external associations is less prominent. In one case (16) the result was unexpected, in another (23) there was no definite result; the subject had a minimum of internal and a maximum of external associations already in the experiment under normal conditions. 
	262 	External distraction was clearly successful in two cases; in 
two cases the success was very moderate, in one case (23), on the other hand, no definite effect was noted. In general the effect of internal distraction is more intense than that of external. These particular subjects always succeeded in fulfilling the experimental conditions for internal distraction. 
100 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
	263 	The associations obtained in fatigue give a result similar to 
that of distraction in three out of the five cases. In one case (18) it is particularly clear; but it is possible that perhaps fatigue was not, or not solely, responsible for that, as the subject had had a particularly exciting experience during the sleepless night and probably was still very much distracted by it during the experiment. 
	264 	The association experiment in drowsiness with subject 15 
also gave a result similar to that of a distraction experiment. 
	265 	In four subjects (19, 20, 21, 22) we find in the course of the 
experiment, particularly under normal conditions, extensive complex phenomena. In the first three (19, 20, 21), we see that the internal associations increase in the second hundred of the experiment under normal conditions and the external associations decrease, i.e., the opposite of what one would expect. At the same time we find an increase in the complex-constellations. In the distraction experiment the complex-constellations usually decrease or disappear. 
	266 	The subject need not be conscious of the complex phe- 
nomena and they often do not emerge till the association results are statistically worked over and grouped. Thus, lesser complex-phenomena may also be found in subjects without this distinct complex-type, e.g., in subject 18 (see below, the examples of association-types given in detail) or in subject 16, where in plotting a curve of reaction-times, several emotionally charged associations from long ago appeared. Practically every lengthening of reaction-time, even within quite normal limits (of which the subject is not aware), signifies, as far as we know at present, that the particular stimulus-word has touched upon a feeling-toned complex. We shall describe these findings in a later communication. 
Ill. UNEDUCATED WOMEN 
Eight subjects with 2)400 associations28 
	267 	Subject 24. The associations of this subject are given in de- 
tail among the examples of association types (see below). As in 
28 For technical reasons the experiment with internal distraction could not be carried out with any of the uneducated subjects. 
101 

1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
DISTRACTION 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS uneducated subjects generally, we find relatively more internal reactions and fewer linguistic-motor forms than in educated subjects. The increase of internal associations, particularly of predicates in the second hundred of the experiment under normal conditions, may be attributed to the predominance of personal participation after the subject had grown used to the experiment. We have already met this phenomenon several times. 
	268 	Although distraction was successful, it was not exactly strik- 
ing. External associations increased, sound and indirect associations, which are quite absent under normal conditions, occurred. Strikingly enough, perseveratioilS are also more numerous. 
	269 	Distraction had little effect, for several reasons: the subject 
has relatively many predicative reactions without actually belonging to the predicative type; the latter, however, is distinguished by a weaker distraction-phenomenon. The subject often found it difficult to divide her attention and to react simultaneously to the metronome and the stimulus-word. Secondly, the experiments with uneducated women gave us the impression th'lt these found dividing their attention more difficult than did educated subjects. They are usually completely absorbed by the experiment and work with quite concentrated attention. The stronger the means of distraction, the more desperate their effort. Thirdly, we know that in this case the experiment had a very strong psychic effect on the subject. Emotions relating to the subject's complex, some of which were only recently assuaged, came to the fore and strongly affected the reaction. The experiment was a revival of a complex that had become somewhat latent. That is why we find a large number of obvious complex-reactions even in the distraction experiment, which as a rule is rarely the case. 
27° The complex-phenomena require a short explanatory casehistory. The subject had a country background and became a nurse at seventeen, after brooding at home for a year upon the unhappy termination of a love-affair. Her irascible father did not want to know anything of the relationship and once there was a scene during which he cursed her because she had dared to contradict him. Facial burns, accompanied by great terror, and a tedious illness had revived this psychic pain through 
1°3 
Subject 24. Nurse, I8 years of age, Swiss, secondaryschool education 
ASSOCIATIONS 
SPECIAL QUALITY 
Grouping 
Predicative relationship Causal relationship 
Co-existence 
Identity Linguistic-motor forms 
Word-completion Sound 
Rhyme 
Indirect Meaningless Failures 
Repetition of stimulus-word 
Egocentric reaction Perseveration Repetition of reaction 
Same grammatical form Same number of syllables Alliteration 
Consonance 
Same ending 
Internal associations 
External associations 
Sound reactions 
Number of associations 
"0 '" •... 
"0 
C ;:l 
:I: 
.. '" 
23 23 2 
28 
23 
3 
1 
11 
60 36 16 
15 
5 
48 
52 
100 
NORMAL 
"0 '" •... 
"0 
5 :I: 
-g 
'" 
20 
37 
14 5 23 
53 44 7 
11 
6 
58 
42 
100 
102 
6 '" o t: E 
	<J:> 	'" 0 
~ c 
16 20 
38 2 
14 
6 
2 
9 
4 14 
68 48 4 12 10 
36 
54 6 
50 
External 
6 '" 
 .... ::: 
v 0 ~ ~ c 
14 22 
30 2 
30 
2 
2 
4 2 
58 46 12 
8 8 
36 
62 
2 
50 
8

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
brooding shortly before the associations were taken. The association experiment gave rise to a further exacerbation of this unhappy memory; the effect persisted for some time, a proof of how intense a reagent these experiments are, particularly with uneducated subjects, and with how strong an affinity an emotionally charged complex attracts and uses for itself as large a number of stimulus-words or stimulus-concepts as possible. Now, six months after the experiment, the subject has a more objective attitude towards the complex which, however, still strongly affects her. While then, in her explanation, she emph~sized that she was bound to be unhappy because of her father's curse, she now no longer conceals the deeper erotic connections when she has to comment on her reactions. It is striking how vividly she still remembers every reaction she then gave. 
	271 	The number of demonstrable complex-constellations is (in 
percen tages): 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
The quotation comes from the story of the lazy school-boy who wants to tempt the hard-working one to play truant; the lazy one later becomes a tramp, the steady, hard-working school-boy a respected teacher. For the subject the quotation has a quite different background. In any case it is not without reason that the meadow occurs twice as a reaction in the experiment under normal conditions. In the orchard of her parents' house there is a beautiful tree surrounded by grass; here she often used to dream and, as she watched trains coming and going on the nearby railway-line, she would make fantastic travel plans. After the unhappy end of her love-affair the subject had a wishfulfilment dream: she was lying next to her beloved in the grass. She still thinks of this dream with pleasure. To the stimulus-word dream she immediately reacts with Pleasure and her eyes shine at the memory of that wish-dream. Further quotations: 
			Ist half 	2nd half 
		Under normal conditions 	15 	21 
		With distraction 	16 	14 
	272 	As already stated, we only rarely find complex-constella- 
tions under distraction and hardly ever to this extent. Naturally this interferes severely with distraction. The maximum of complex-constellations in the second hundred under normal conditions is, as in other cases, explicable by a difference of attitude, through becoming familiar with the experiment. 
	273 	Perhaps in order to be less obvious, perhaps because it takes 
less effort, the complex expresses intimate feelings by cliches such as quotations, words of songs, titles of stories, and such like. Quotations are frequently masks. We use them in everyday life, too, in this sense. One sings certain songs in certain moods, often because one does not want to express the thoughts that underlie the moods; so they become masked. Or the song, the quotation, is used to exaggerate a rudimentary feeling, perhaps to awake a spark of feeling by this exaggeration; one need only think of patriotic songs and poems to celebrate birthdays, special occasions, and festivals. Examples: 
	come 	to the meadow 
1°4 
at home 
it's nice 
refers to a song, the meaning of which is clear. Further: 
	once 	I was happy 
The subject once heard a wicked, stupid catatonic woman sing: 
Once I was so happy, But now no more, 
Love, the magician, deceived me full sore. 
In the next three associations she remains caught up in the complex: 
once 
wonder blood wreath 
I was happy of love 
of expiation (thinks of her father's curse) 
death (for months she thought of dying; she intentionally ate almost nothing for weeks so that she might become ill, and lost a lot of weight in the process. After the experiment, which revived the complex again-particularly after a visit home that she made soon afterwards-she started to eat very little even with us and to lose weight till the matter was discovered and the folly of her behaviour made clear to her). 
105 
{

seven 
brothers 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
plex. In the distraction experiments (one hundred reactions) there are altogether eight reaction-words that occur several times (two to three times). The ratio expressed as a percentage is also roughly the same as under normal conditions (2 X 8 = 16). Of those, four (8 per cent) definitely refer to the complex. 
	281 	It is striking how often human being appears as a reaction; 
eight times in three hundred associations (normal conditions and distraction). There are seven reactions that certainly belong to the complex. Human being sometimes refers to a quite definite person, sometimes to the subject herself. 
	282 	Similarly we find the reaction the person several times used 
as a general term, with quite concrete meaning in reference to the complex, e.g.: 
I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
	274 	On other occasions the subject quotes the titles of stories, 
the content of which refers to her complex, e.g.: 
"The Seven Brothers" is the title of a story in which devoted brother-love is rewarded. 29 The association immediately following is: 
		ill 	my brother 
	275 	The quotations, six in all, occur only in the experiment 
under normal conditions (as with subject 19, educated men) and all evidently refer to the complex. 
	276 	We have already quoted two examples where the complex 
entraps the subject in an idea. Others occur, e.g., this perseveration: 
propriety bad 
the person the person 
friendly --I friendship three ~ friends 
The subject has an intense need for friendship; but there have always been disappointments-her best friend married another girl. 
	277 	Another example, from the experiment under distraction: 
		meadow 	the orchard 
		to bring 	the apples 
	278 	We have here a direct perseveration not of the reaction but 
of the image of the underlying situation. We shall in the course of the work include these forms also in the concept of perseveration. The connection between meadow and orchard is clear to us at once from what has been said above (meadow!). The "apples" of course come from the same orchard. 
	279 	Of the four (8 per cent) perseverations in the distraction 
experiment, there is only one that probably refers to the complex. 
	280 	Repetitions. In the experiment under normal conditions, 
seven reaction-words occur several times (two to five times); at least thirteen of these seventeen words belong to the com- 
	283 	The subject is thinking of a quite definite person, her 
friend, who plays an important part in the complex. She is not morally faultless-has, for instance, an illegitimate child. By the reaction human being she often means this same friend, who in her more frivolous life had more luck in love than the more serious subject, e.g.: 
i~dolent VIrtue 

the human being of human beings 
In this example there was even a perseveration of the same reaction-word, from which can be gathered how strong is the emotional charge of this idea. 
	284 	We often find the definite article used in the reaction as a 
disguise of the complex-constellation. Our subject, for example, used the article 26 times in the reactions under normal conditions; seventeen of these reactions definitely refer to the complex. The connection is less striking under distraction. 
	285 	We find the phenomenon again in other subjects. To il- 
lustrate the complex-reactions here are some relevant examples: 
29 After the breaking off of her romance, her brother was the only person in whom the subject confided. 
decent 
to be careful bad 
the person (see above) the person 
the person 
106 
107 
{

108 
30 The braces to the left of the stimulus-words indicate that these immediately succeeded each other. 
and so on. 
	286 	In the distraction experiment the subject did not under- 
stand several stimulus-words, namely: hatred) love) repentance) fall) pleasant) penny) glass) to hammer) entrance) ears) to inhibit. 
	287 	It soon transpired on analysis that the subject could not, or 
would not, understand the first series of quoted stimulus-words, owing to the half-conscious, half-unconscious effect of her complex. According to her, all these stimulus-words touched most intimately upon the complex that she was trying to suppress. 
	288 	The stimulus-words of the second series were really not 
understood because of the acoustic disturbance of the metronome. The subject thus found a further method here of hiding her complex in an apparently unobtrusive way; it is adapted to the situation, for, as the second series of stimulus-words (which do not touch upon the complex) proves, it is easy not to understand stimulus-words, or to understand them wrongly, in 
to pray 
fwonder30 I blood 
omen 
normal meadow to bring mild clever 
fwilling I order 
angry 

1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
the pious one (referring to herself; she prayed a great deal when most unhappy) 
of love (referring to herself, also to expiation) 
of expiation (she feels guilty towards her father; there is a perseveration of the external form of the reaction here) 
of punishment (in the same way this reaction would be quite nonsensical grammatically and can only be explained by the assumption that we are probably dealing with the after-effect of the previous reaction form. This reaction is separated by several from the one before) 
the human being (a quite definite one) the orchard I (for explanations of these 
	apples 	S associations see above) 
the father 
the snake (quite definite people) 
the school-boy 1 in these associations the subject the industrious ~ was particularly thinking of the worker J friend of her youth 
the human being (means her father) 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
the constant noise of the metronome beats of the distraction experiment (to compensate for this, another stimulus-word was introduced into the experiment). 
	289 	This not wanting to understand corresponds to a repression 
of the complex that was to a greater or lesser extent conscious. There is no difference in principle from the cases (hysteria!) where not reacting or falsely reacting occurs involuntarily. 
	290 	Under complex-reactions we have a large group; that of 
masked complex-reactions. In our subject the masking, so far as we could discern it, was achieved by the following means: 
1.	By quotations (songs, book-titles, quotations from texts). 2. By the use of unobtrusive general concepts with a quite special meaning with reference to the sense of the complex. 
3. By the addition of the article. The reaction thus receives an apparently even more objective appearance; it then appears like the practised reply of an elementary-school child. 
4. By misunderstanding the stimulus-words that allude to the complex. 
	291 	Finally it must be reported that abnormally long reaction- 
times frequently occur in the complex-reactions; unfortunately, however, no systematic measurements were taken with this subject, so that we cannot develop this point further in the case before us. 
	292 	Subject 25. In the first place, the high figures for grouping 
and co-existence are striking, both under normal conditions and under distraction. Some of them are far above the mean values. On the other hand, the figure for predicative and linguistic-motor reactions is relatively small and below the mean, particularly in the case of the predicative reactions. The explanation of these figures is probably the extraordinarily objective, steady mode of reaction, which is apparently little disturbed by complexes. 
	293 	A few reactions with a rather long reaction-time are to be 
noted. In our experience reactions with a time of more than 5.0 seconds are generally suspect of referring to emotionally charged constellations. 
	294 	In this subject we find twelve associations with a reaction- 
time of more than five seconds under normal conditions, in the distraction experiment only three. 
109 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
	295 	In the following examples with lengthened reaction-time, 
the lengthening is presumably to be interpreted as the effect of an erotic complex: 
Subject 25. 
Nurse, 22 years of age, South German, intelligent but not educated 
ASSOCIATIONS 
SPECIAL QUALITY 
Grouping 
Predicative relationship Causal relationship 
Co-existence 
Identity Linguistic-motor forms 
Word-completion Sound 
Rhyme 
Indirect Meaningless Failures 
Repetition of stimulus-word 
Egocentric reaction Perseveration Repetition of reaction 
Same grammatical form Same number of syllables Alliteration 
Consonance 
Same ending 
Internal associations 
External associations 
Sound reactions 
Number of associations 
"Cl o.J •... "Cl C :: 
:I: 
~ '" 
33 3 
36 6 
15 
4 3 
5 
91 67 8 
7 
22 
36 
57 
100 
NORMAL 
"Cl o.J •... 
"0 C :: 
:I: 
"Cl C 
'" 
34 9 
25 II 16 
3 
78 56 
7 18 
19 
44 
52 
4 
100 
110 
6 o.J o b a <D o.J 0 
~ c 
18 2 4 
28 24 20 
2 2 
8 
92 58 2 22 22 
24 
72 
4 
50 
DISTRACTION 
External 
wedding to kiss 
to love male nurse dream 
ripe 
to bless 
6.831 6.0 5.6 8.0 
6·4 6.6 
5.8 
miss 
to laugh gladly wardrobe basket fruit 
to receive 
6 o.J 
•	b a o o.J 0 
~ ~ c 
22 4 2 
	296 	The subject usually reacts strongly to allusions of an erotic 
nature and also blushes easily. She admits herself that she was embarrassed at answering to the first three stimulus-words. She also found it awkward to say the word nurse which first occurred to her as an answer to the stimulus-word male nurse, obviously because she immediately thought of erotic relations. She searched in her surroundings and named the first object she saw in the room: wardrobe. 
	297 	At the stimulus-word dream, an erotic thought prevented 
her from reacting. Instead of giving a reaction according to sense, the subject again let herself be distracted by externals, happened to see the waste-paper basket, and said basket. Thus a senseless reaction was given as a result of the complex. The reactions riPe / fruit (Obst) (the subject first thought of "fruit" [FruchtJ) and to bless / to receive are obviously again examples of the same sexual embarrassment.32 
	298 	Distraction by surrounding objects is, as far as we know 
from our experience in psychopathology, a phenomenon that must be interpreted in both cases as the effect of emotion.33 In embarrassment or bewilderment, which are caused when the stimulus-word conjures up emotionally charged ideas that the subject consciously or unconsciously tries to repress, the subject lets herself be completely distracted by externals and verbally reacts by simply naming an object from her surroundings. 
34 18 
18 
2 
88 48 2 
14 16 
28 
70 
31 Reactions of between one and two seconds are considered normal. [All reaction-time data in this paper are in seconds.] 
32 [German Obst is the equivalent of English 'fruit' in a collective sense. Frucht is Ihe term for particular fruit but is also used in the phrase "the fruit of the womb."] 
33 Cf. "emotional stupidity"; Jung, "On Simulated Insanity." 
III 
2 
50 

fidelity 
to plunder freedom regret stork 
bike 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
	3°6 	Subject 26. The subject has a rather obvious tendency to 
make rhymes, which increased in the second half of the distraction experiment. 
	307 	The usual distraction phenomenon did not appear, al- 
though the subject does not belong to the predicate type. Marking the beats was done with great irregularity. The predicates increase under distraction; the external associations, particularly the linguistic-motor reactions, decrease; only the sound reactions increase constantly. 
	3°8 	Constellations are found mostly in the second hundred of 
the experiment under normal conditions and in the first half of the distraction experiment. The latter fact shows that the distraction experiment was after all partially successful; for, with the exception of subject 24 of this group, where the distraction experiment was equally unsatisfactory, the constellations disappeared almost completely under distraction in the other subjects. 
	309 	We here describe individual examples: To the stimulus- 
word lamp, the subject did not react till 20.0 seconds later with oil-lamp. She had just before had the pleasant dream that instead of the 9 o'clock meal, which she rarely took, she was getting a new lamp in her room, which she wanted very much. 
	310 	window 	glass 	ID.O (thought of vitrine in between) 
The subject thought of a large shop with beautiful glass cases. She had for some time been the private nurse of the wife of the owner of such a shop and was very attached to her former patient. The subject had learned the French expression vitrine for "glass case" from the sister of this patient. One can see how a particular thought occurring at the time is responsible for an apparently insignificant expression. 
I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
We find this phenomenon very marked in certain hysterics, for example. 
	299 	Of the sixteen reaction-words, from the experiment under 
normal conditions, that are repeated we call special attention to: diligent five times, good three times, well-behaved twice, right twice. The others are divided among very varied ideas. One can more or less see from these the strict morals of the subject. It is characteristic that these indications of subjectivity disappear under distraction. 
	3°° 	In classifying, it was rather difficult always to draw the 
dividing line with certainty between grouping and co-existence. 3°1 . Finally, it can be said of the subject that she belongs to an objective reaction-type that is very little influenced by constellations, and which we find again in subject 27 of this group. 
	3°2 	The following reactions might illustrate this general ob- 
jective reaction-type of the subject. 
	soft 	hard 	to rinse to wash 
	youth 	age 	building wall 
	sorrow worry 	sleeve 	dress 
	window glass 	park 	garden 
	false 	right 	glass 	iron 
	sweet 	sour 	couch 	chair 
	wide 	narrow 	to paint to varnish 
	honey 	bee 	star 	moon 
	3°3 	The unusually high number of reactions with the same 
grammatical form runs parallel to the many groupings and coexistences and confirms what has just been stated. 
	3°4 	Distraction is very obvious. There is a decrease of internal, 
an increase of external associations. We only find sound reactions in the second hundred of the experiment under normal conditions and under distraction; on the other hand, direct associations only in the first hundred, so that our assumed rule of reciprocity between indirect and sound associations would again be correct here.34 
	3°5 	It must, incidentally, be mentioned that the subject carried 
the experiments out with great enthusiasm and also made a great effort under distraction to do justice to the higher demands by devoting all her attention to the experiment. 
34 See below, Calculations of Averages, par. 405 (6). 112 
obedience to catch solitude fear 
dove 
car 
311 
to strike 
6 o'clock 
2.0 
The subject had carried out night duty in a ward, always having to get up at 6 o'clock in the evening. 
312 
to paint 
peintre 
6.8 
This reaction, with a lengthened reaction-time, refers to a year's stay in French Switzerland. The subject, then a young girl, was admired by a painter; he was also very keen to paint 
113 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
her. In the reaction-word peintre there is, besides a masking of the constellation by a quite blunt association, a further constellation, in that the subject in this instance uses, together with the reminiscence of an erotic experience in French Switzerland, a French word. In the distraction experiment she produces the reaction 
	painter 	peintre 	13.0 
with the same constellation. The characteristically long reaction-times in both places are worthy of note. 
	313 	In rapid succession the following reactions occur: 
		wedding 	tomorrow 2.2 
		come 	tomorrow 1.4 
This repetition is not a coincidence. The subject was celebrating her saint's day the day after the experiment under normal conditions took place. She was happy, for she wanted to go out, and she had been invited out for this day and would be receiving all the congratulations at home; among these she was also expecting a letter from her sweetheart. 
	3'4 	Further, we find the reactions: 
	rich 	in love 	2.0 
	poor 	in virtue 2.2 
The first is a quotation from Ernst Zahn's novel Albin lndergand (1901). It refers to a love-story and has the significance of a complex quotation for the subject, like the one we discussed in subject 19 in the group of educated men and subject 24 (uneducated women). The second is an analogous but original form. The subject was thinking of another nurse with whom she had had an argument the day before on the subject of "love," in which the other had maintained a much less idealistic attitude to the question than had the subject. The stimulus-word poor has become associated with the previous stimulus-word rich and the emotionally charged reaction connected with it, whereupon she became conscious of the contrast between her "ideal of love" and that of the other nurse. By poor in virtue she means the other nurse. 
	3'5 	The same thought gave rise to the following quotation: 
1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 				
Subject 26. 	Nurse, 21 years of age, Swiss, secondary- 			
			school education 					
ASSOCIATIONS 		NORMAL 		DISTRACTION 		
			"d 		External 			
		"d 	!'J 					
		<l.I 	.0 					
		•.. 						
SPECIAL QUALITY 	"d 	S 					
		§ 	i 	6 		6 		
		:c 	"d 	o t: 	8 t: 		
		~ 		<0 <l.I 	~ <l.I 	
		" 	C 	~ 		~ 		
			<:< 					
Grouping 	20 	16 	22 			8 	
Predicative relationship 	5 	11 	16 		18 	
Causal relationship 	I 	I 	2 				
Co-existence 	24 	10 	18 			8 	
Identity 	4 	6 	10 		14 	
Linguistic-motor forms 	43 	47 	24 		36 	
Word-completion 	I 	I 	- 			2 	
Sound 	- 	- 	2 			2 	
Rhyme 	I 	2 	2 			8 	
Indirect 	- 	5 	2 			2 	
Meaningless 	- 	- 	2 			2 	
Failures 							
Repetition of stimulus-word 							
Egocentric reaction 	I 	- 	- 			2 	
Persevera tion 	2 	2 	2 				
Repetition of reaction 	6 	5 	8 		4 	
Same grammatical form 	75 	50 	76 		60 	
Same number of syllables 	48 	39 	56 		46 	
Alliteration 	9 	8 	6 		2 	
Consonance 	13 	9 	18 		16 	
Same ending 	13 	II 	12 		20 	
Internal associations 	26 	28 	40 		26 	
External associations 	71 	63 	52 		58 	
Sound reactions 	2 	3 	4 		12 	
Number of associations 	100 	100 	50 		50 	
		114 					

to despise 

you think 2.2 115 

is accompanied by a sudden change of facial expression. This phenomenon refers to her love-complex and is important for us because we find similar reaction-phenomena (changed facial expression, sudden lowering of voice) in the pathology of associations, where emotionally important complexes are concerned. 
	320 	At 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
meaning when used with time but with to reign at the most only a remote one. Thus the gap in the reaction produced by the affect is filled by a reaction-word already used. A similar phenomenon was already observed in subject I9 in the group of educated men, who in an experiment under fatigue always reacted with yesterday to a series of stimulus-words that touched upon the complex. 
	319 	The reaction 
1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
The quotation is word for word as follows: 
Perhaps you believed 
I should hate life, [Flee to the deserts, Because all dream buds 
Had not bloomed?] (Goethe, Prometheus) 
The subject knows only the first two lines of this quotation, she had quite forgotten the part in brackets. At this, the subject vividly thought of the other nurse and her low views on the subject of "love." One sees from this how closely related expressions and quotations of this sort become associated with feeling-toned complexes, helping to create the infinitely copious unconscious verbal material used by feeling-toned complexes, which makes possible, for example, the poet's countless variations on one single thought. 
	316 	A further quotation: 

to love 

in need of 

4.0 

agam refers to her love-complex. The reaction-time is strikingly long. The subject was thinking of the "brother of a woman friend," who turned out to be her sweetheart; she was anxiously awaiting news of whether he had accepted a certain post abroad, wishing he would not go. 
	317 	At the stimulus-word to kiss the subject reacted in a tone 
of surprise; "To kiss-yes-I cannot tell you that; we have just been talking about something." She meant the discussion with the other nurse, who said that kissing was something dirty. To the stimulus-word time the subject reacted: 
the subject thought that one must be very careful in one's choice of a husband; she thought that one ought to have good advice when having to make one's choice. 
	321 	A quotation, the reaction 
		hope 	does not let one sink 1.8 
is based on a recent letter which the young man from Western Switzerland (le peintre) had written to her a short while before, and from which it transpired that he had not yet given up hope of winning her. 
	322 	On the reaction 
finally 
time 

does not last for ever 
according to 

5.6 
2.0 

to choose 

advice 

3.2 

the subject put an unusual inflection; it refers to her own lovelife and must be put by the side of the reaction; 
with a change of facial expression. 
	323 	The reaction 
The next reaction but one was 
		to reign 	according to ... 	3.8 
	318 	At to reign an older nurse who was in charge of the whole 
department came to her mind. A trifling incident of about that time made the subject think: "She regiments us in everything." The stimulus-word to reign released this thought, which the subject could not utter; in its place appears the reaction-word according to used almost immediately before, which had a 
116 

something 
important 1.2 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
widower had been recommended to her by this bureau as a good match. This idea displeased the subject very much. 
	328 	To the stimulus-word doing the subject reacts and not do- 
ing (10 secs.). Behind this superficial reaction the thought of the argument about love is once more concealed. 
	329 	When a complex is hidden behind quotations or super- 
ficial reactions of this sort, the reaction-time is usually short. While in the so-called failures attention is quite absorbed by the complex that is to be suppressed (that is, hidden from consciousness or from the experimenter) here a division of attention takes place. One part is devoted to the verbal reaction and this then bears a very superficial (linguistic-motor, sound) character; the other part is occupied by the emotionally charged idea. This part is frequently repressed and does not clearly emerge to consciousness. This interpretation is also confirmed by the frequent observation that such quotations and superficial reactions are produced with the most indifferent expression in the world although the observer, for example, knows that they refer to a strong emotionally charged complex and are conditioned by it. 
	33° 	The main part of the emotionally charged complex be- 
comes split off and repressed. At the same time the chain of ideas unfolding in consciousness contains as representative of the complex only a quotation, for instance; this appears after a short reaction-time and indicates to the expert that under this cover an important complex is exerting its influence in the subconscious. 
	331 	In other cases, where the affect is already shown in the 
quality of the reaction (intonation, expression), this split does not take place; the reaction becomes more difficult and the reaction-time lengthened (see the example to love / in need of; 4.0). 
	332 	In the distraction experiment we find in subject 26, in the 
group of uneducated women, among the few reaction-words (bicycle, Zurich, clear, sad) that are repeated several times, two in which a complex is probably the cause of the repetition. 
	333 	About the reactions 
I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
IS agam a quotation. The text on which it is based runs as follows: 
The girl came to the spider 
And the spider said: Why so late? 
I have been spinning threads for three hours See how finely and delicately they are twisted! 
The content of these lines is summarized by the stimulus-word lazy. Also the reaction is determined by sound in the stimuluswords spat (late) and gedreht (twisted). An obvious condensation (Freud) of the situation and apparent form into the word trage (lazy) has occurred in the subconscious; this is already proved by the fact that the reaction-time is quite short and therefore there can be no question of a conscious search for quotations. One also sees that the subconscious or unconscious likes to associate quotations or complexes, often in such a way that fragments of quotations and songs which happen to have been picked up, and the continuation of which the subject does not know, are directly connected with the complex. In our present case, for example, the subject does not know the poem by heart. 
	324 	We still have to prove that behind this quotation there lies 
a feeling-toned thought. 
	325 	The verse, taken from a school poem, corresponds to the 
feeling-toned situation at the time. The subject was then, as already mentioned, on night duty in a ward. She slept during the day. In the morning she was relieved by the nurse who was on day duty in the same ward; she had several times in the last few days been annoyed that this nurse relieved her so late; we find the expression of this in this reaction. 
	326 	Behind the seemingly insignificant, quite impersonal re- 
action: 
is concealed the thought of the saint's day on the morrow. 
	327 	To the stimulus-word to woo there was no reaction. The 
cause of this is once more the conversation with the other nurse about love. She recounted that she had permitted herself the joke of writing to an obscure marriage bureau, whereupon a 
118 
bike 
wheel 
tram 119 
bicycle 

3.0 
4.0 
1.8 
1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
the subject afterwards explained that her sweetheart cycled a lot, which immediately came to her mind when she heard the stimulus-words. The reactions 
Subjects 27 and 28. Nurses, 23 and 28 years of age, Swiss, elementary-school education 
fire 
Zurich 
station 
Zurich 
ASSOCIATIONS 
	NORMAL 	DISTRACTION 	NORMAL 	DISTRACTION 
SUBJECT 28 
remind her that in the discussion about love she had defended the town of Zurich and its inhabitants against the other nurse. The reactions 
SPECIAL QUALITY 
	moved 	sad 
	mild 	sad 
are connected with incidents in her family. In the reactions 
Grouping 
Predicative relationship Causal relationship 
sin remorse 
world 0.8 death 1.2 
a recent accident was on her mind, in which a patient managed to drink some Lysol from an instrument dish. There were no serious consequences but the incident had happened in the ward in which the subject was on duty and had left her with a very unpleasant impression and a great feeling of guilt; hence also the perseveration in the above reactions. 
	334 	Subject 27. The result of the experiment has the greatest 
similarity with that of subject 25 of this group. Admittedly the distraction phenomenon is not so marked (the subject gave her whole attention to both experiments). Reactions from the sound group are completely absent and the number of linguistic-motor forms is very small. The co-existences show high figures. The predicates are few, egocentric reactions absent, which indicates a very objective grasp of the stimulus-words. The figures for the same grammatical form of the stimulusword and reaction are strikingly high, as in case 25 of this group. Thus our subject also belongs to the same quite objective reaction-type without demonstrable constellations. Many associations have lengthened reaction-times, without our having a retrospective explanation for it. We do not possess a more detailed analysis. 
	335 	Subject 28. The predicates are relatively few (in the experi- 
ment under normal conditions, for example, only 8.5 per cent instead of 20.4 per cent, the average for uneducated women). The groupings, too, are below average in the experiments 
120 
	Co-existence 	30 
	Identity 	4 
	Linguistic-motor forms 	14 
Word-completion Sound 
Rhyme 
Indirect Meaningless Failures 
Repetition of stimulus-word - 
Egocentric reaction Perseveration 
	Repetition of reaction 	8 
	Same grammatical form 	85 
	Same number of syllables 	60 
	Alliteration 	I I 
	Consonance 	15 
	Same ending 	25 
	In ternal associations 	5 I 
	External associations 	48 
Sound reactions 
Number of associations 100 
SUBJECT 27 
'0 <l.i •... 
'0 C ::l 
:I: 
'0 <l.i •... 
'0 .: ::l 
:I: '0 C Of 
~ '" 
46 4 
I 
46 2 
3 
	15 	18 
	13 	16 
	18 	12 
2 
5 6 
	86 	96 
	53 	58 
6 8 
7 10 
	17 	12 
	51 	54 
	46 	46 
	100 	50 
121 
External 
"" 
"@ 
:I: 
~ '" 
54 
"" 
"@ 
:I: '0 C Of 
26 6 
32 18 
18 
4 
90 56 2 8 24 
32 
68 
5° 
'0 <l.i •... 
'0 C ::l 
:I: 
~ '" 
21 
9 
I 
32 6 
3° 
10 
76 54 16 
14 17 
31 
68 
100 
'0 <l.i •... 
'0 C ::l 
:I: '0 C Of 
External 
"" 
"@ 
:I: 
"" 
"@ 
:I: '0 C Of 
~ en ~ 
32 8 
16 6 
14 4 
15 8 
32 
14 12 
5° 
12 8 48 
2 
8 
2 2 
2 
2 
9 69 43 19 21 14 
2 2 
° 
68 48 28 
3° 12 
70 42 28 
36 22 
41 
18 
22 
55 
76 4 
68 8 
2 
100 
5° 
5° 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
under normal conditions and under distraction; the linguisticmotor reactions, on the other hand, are above average for uneducated women (the latter is 24 per cent under normal conditions and 28.8 per cent under external distraction). On the whole, we are confronted by a case with relatively few internal and many external associations. 
	336 	Although, or rather because, the general reaction-type ap- 
pears somewhat superficial, the distraction experiment was successful, considering that uneducated women with many predicatives are usually more difficult to distract. Even if the external associations are no more numerous in the second part of the distraction experiment than in the first hundred under normal conditions, the internal associations have definitely decreased, while the sound reactions have increased. 
	337 	In the second hundred under normal conditions we have an 
increase of internal associations. At the same time, we find (as so often) an increase of constellations, which are probably, as many cases show, the ca~se of this shift. (The fact that among the stimulus-words of the second hundred there are more than in the first hundred of the kind likely to awaken emotionally charged concepts may have an influence here.) In the first hundred under normal conditions six constellations, in the second hundred under normal conditions ten, in the distraction experiment two can be demonstrated. In the distraction experiment they are much less frequent. We have here almost exclusively complex-constellations. 
	338 	The complex is linked to a romance with an unhappy end- 
ing. The subject was disloyally deserted by her lover after a long relationship. 
	339 	The long reaction-times (mostly more than five seconds) 
are almost exclusively confined to these complex-constellations. Examples: 
male nurse heart 
to stroke to part dear freedom to despise band false 

hospital orderly stomach 
to love 
to go 
angry imprisoned respected 
to tear up falseness 
122 

11.4 6·4 5.6 5.6 8.8 6.0 
18·4 5.2 7.2 

(the lover was a male nurse) 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
	34° 	The subject did not really want to give an account of the 
few remaining constellations and long reaction-times, which cannot easily be recognized as belonging to the complex; they are therefore all the more suspect. 
	341 	Here again we see the specific way in which the complex 
is manifested, i.e., the lengthened reaction-times. (This does not mean that these do not also occur in other cases, e.g., with rather difficult, unfamiliar stimulus-words.) 
	342 	We have already found lengthened reaction-times as com- 
plex-phenomena (subjects 26 and 27 of this group); here they are almost exclusively complex-characteristics. There is a transition to the so-called "failures," where there is no verbal reaction at all. 
	343 	The repetition of reaction-words is almost exclusively 
limited to the experiment under normal conditions and concerns sixteen different words; the majority of them designate things from the everyday life of a nurse. 
	344 	Subject 29. A glance at the ratio of the predicate to the 
groupings tells us that the subject must be classed as a predicate type. In keeping with the rule for the predicate type we find no clear effect of distraction. Sound reactions and indirect associations only occur in the first part of distraction. Egocentric reactions are well represented and evenly distributed. The highest number of internal and the smallest number of external associations occur again in the second hundred of the experiment under normal conditions. There we also see a maximum of failures (7), which are nearly all caused by a complex. Unfortunately the subject never gave us an exact explanation and her retiring character induced us not to insist on one. The subject only confessed that memories of particular events in her family were largely behind the failures and the lengthened reaction-times. In a few instances unusual stimulus-words were responsible. 
	345 	Subject 30. Distraction was clearly successful; it is mainly 
characterized by a decrease of groupings and increase of linguistic-motor forms; the number of predicates, although fairly numerous, is somewhat more stable. The largest number of perseverations occurs under distraction, particularly in the second hundred of the distraction experiment. There are no egocentric reactions. From the type of reactions it is not clear 
123 

1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIA TlON 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
	NORMAL 	DISTRACTION 	NORMAL 	DISTRACTION 
External 
whether constellations or complexes play a part in the associations of the subjec~ or not. It is easier to draw some conclusions from the reaction-times occurring, for example, after provocative stimulus-words, e.g., 
to kiss 
to remember bad 
rascal 
'0 '" 
5 i 
~ en 
22 27 1 
31 2 16 
3 7 13 
5° 37 6 
9 
5° 
49 
100 100 
SUBJECT 29 
'0 '" 
.::: 
5 i 
] 
01 
19 45 
14 3 
11 
7 
2 1 11 
29 24 3 5 2 
65 
28 
124 
External 
""' 
';; 
:r: 
""' 
';; 
:r: 
'0 >= 01 
Subjects 29 and 30. Nurses, I8 and 27 years of age, Swiss, elementary school education 
ASSOCIATIONS 
SPECIAL QUALITY 
Grouping 
Predicative relationship Causal relationship 
Co-existence 
Identity Linguistic-motor forms 
Word-completion Sound 
Rhyme 
Indirect Meaningless Failures 
Repetition of stimulus-word - 
Egocentric reaction Perseveration Repetition of reaction 
Same grammatical form Same number of syllables Alliteration 
Consonance 
Same ending 
Internal associations 
External associations 
Sound reactions 
Number of associations 
~ en 
14 50 
12 48 
16 6 18 
12 10 18 
2 
4 
2 2 14 
2 
2 6 14 
28 48 6 
32 31 52 53 6 13 
	6 	15 
	4 	6 
12 2 
64 
60 53 
30 
40 46 
2 
50 
50 100 100 
'0 '" •... 
§ 
:r: 
~ en 
19 32 2 
26 2 18 
SUBJECT 30 
'0 '" 
.0 
§ 
:r: 
] 
01 
30 32 1 
12 
4 18 
3 
9 
35 43 9 
12 
1 I 
63 
34 
morning kiss letter 
(failure) without means 
8·4 
11.0 
12.6 
""' 
';; 
:r: 
""' 
';; 
:r: '0 >= 01 
	346 	But we lack a detailed psychological analysis in this case. 
In the distraction experiment, repetitions of the form of the reaction occur; mainly we find reactions in the form of a whole sentence, e.g., 
		sin 	man sins 
		repentance 	man repents 
		love 	people love 
		strong 	man is strong 
		hatred 	people hate, ete. 
	347 	Strikingly long reaction-times do not occur here; whether 
the repetition of form, particularly the re occurrence of the word man, indicates similar complex-phenomena to those we found in subject 24 of this group cannot be established. 
	348 	Seen from outside the associations of our subject make a 
very objective impression, without many subjective constellations. The rather variable and often strikingly long reactiontimes, however, indicate that, behind the apparently objective reactions, complex-constellations are probably to be found after all. For practical reasons it was not possible in all cases to carry out a thorough psychological analysis, as could fortunately be done with a number of subjects. 
	349 	Sub ject 3 I. The reactions are characterized by the great 
predominance of predicates, which make up the majority of the large number of internal associations. There is a definite inclination towards value judgments, which, however, do not have an expressly subjective (egocentric) character. The reactions betray a strong involvement with the experiment and with the meaning of the stimulus-word. In this way, in spite of a certain reticence and reserve, the more intimate content does emerge rather clearly. The subject is a very capable and practical housemaid, very religious. Occasionally she thinks of 
125 
~ en 
4 36 
8 16 
10 6 
36 
6 
2 66 
2 
4 
4 
8 18 
14 4 
38 
20 
28 
34 
20 
60 14 30 30 28 
40 
24 
52 
74 
2 
5° 
50 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 			
Subject JI. 	Maid, about 27 years of age, Swiss, elementary school 	
		education, fairly intelligent 		
ASSOCIA TIONS 		NORMAL 			DISTRACTION 	
				';j 		External 	
		';j 		'" 			
		~ 		•... 			
				';j 		~ 	
SPECIAL QUALITY 	C 		C 	~ 	rJ 	
				i 	rJ 	::r:: 	
		::r:: 			::r:: 		
		~ 		';j 	~ 	';j 	
		'" 		~ 	'" 	c 	
				Of 		Of 	
Grouping 	10 		13 	10 	20 	
Predicative relationship 	48 		32 	37 	32 	
Causal relationship 	- 		- 	- 	2 	
Co-existence 	II 		4 	14 	4 	
Identity 	2 		5 	2 	2 	
Linguistic-motor forms 	23 		42 	25 	32 	
'Vord-completion 	- 		2 	2 	2 	
Sound 	- 		- 	- 	2 	
Rhyme 	- 		- 	2 		
Indirect 	- 		- 	2 		
Meaningless 						
Failures 	6 		I 	6 	4 	
Repetition of stimulus-word 						
Egocentric reaction 	- 		- 	2 		
Perseveration 						
Repetition of reaction 	15 		15 	8 	2 	
Same grammatical form 	38 		38 	34 	40 	
Same number of syllables 	42 		36 	44 	54 	
Alliteration 	3 		Il 	6 	8 	
Consonance 	II 		15 	10 	8 	
Same ending 	6 		8 	4 	6 	
In ternal associations 	58 		45 	47 	54 	
External associations 	36 		51 	41 	38 	
Sound reactions 	- 		2 	4 	4 	
Number of associations 	100 		100 	5° 	5° 	
			126 				

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
marriage. In the reactions under normal conditions the following reactions are repeated: 

practical 	twice 	good 	3 times 	
house 	twice 	beautiful 	4 times 	
room 	twice 	wonderful 	3 times 	
church 	twice 	man (husband) 	3 times 	
God 	twice 	child 	5 times 	
	35° 	Shortly before the associations were obtained the subject 
was attacked by a large dog, which greatly frightened her. 
	35! 	The reaction dog was repeated four times. Once the subject 
showed a strong perseveration with the image of the dog. 
{
		to growl 	dog 
		knot 	the knots (lumps) on the paws of the dog 
	352 	The reaction wolf is also repeated twice. To the stimulus- 
word cunning the subject reacts with wolf, volunteering that actually fox had occurred to her first. These reactions and repetitions dearly show feeling-toned complexes and therefore a strong personal participation. 
	353 	The distraction experiment, which incidentatly was carried 
out very inadequately, had no effect at all. Thus we have here the same behaviour as in the predicate types described above. 
	354 	The failures, numerous with this subject, are distributed as 
follows: Of the seven failures under normal conditions, five concern emotionally charged stimulus-words such as heart, custom, flatterer, faithful, rich, revenge, ete. In the two series of experiments under distraction, the failures (ten in the one and five in the other) concern 8 per cent of emotionally charged stimulus-words in the one and 4 per cent in the other-a further proof that the majority of failures can be attributed to emotional causes. 
SUMMARY 
	355 	In the group of uneducated women we have eight subjects, 
with ages ranging from 18 to 28, and altogether 2,400 associations. From each subject we have two hundred associations under normal conditions and one hundred under external distraction. 
	356 	Most of the subjects are fairly intelligent. More than half 
127 

1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
have attended secondary as well as primary schools. Seven subjects usually speak the Swiss dialect, only one speaks a South German dialect, which is more like standard German. Seven subjects are nurses, one is a maid. Two subjects react as predicate types; with neither was the distraction experiment successful. With a third subject, who gave a good number of predicates without actually belonging to the predicate type, the distraction experiment also failed; partly, no doubt, because the subject, in order not to let her attention be distracted, did not always make the strokes to the beat of the metronome at the stimuluswords. The distraction experiment was only partly successful with a subject with many groupings and no constellations. She almost doubled her effort in the distraction experiment, in order to pay attention to the stimulus-words as well as to the metronome beats. 
	357 	With the remaining four subjects the distraction experi- 
ment was successful, although in general these subjects also strained their powers in the distraction experiment and made considerably more effort than in the experiment under normal conditions, because they found it more difficult than the educated subjects to divide their attention. On the whole the uneducated women were the group least able to divide their attention. The sound associations play a much smaller role as distraction phenomena than in the groups of educated subjects. Two subjects are of a purely objective type with few predicates, practically no constellations and strikingly many reaction-words with the same number of syllables as the stimulus-word. In two other subjects (24 and 26), complex-phenomena in various forms are predominant. In three subjects an increase of internal and a decrease of external associations can be observed in the second hundred of the experiment under normal conditions; it usually appeared that the complex-phenomena were also more obvious in the second hundred under normal conditions, while they diminish in number under distraction. In the marked cases, e.g., subject 24, the manifestation of the complex in the second hundred of the experiment under normal conditions is certainly not dependent on the increase of emotionally charged stimulus-words. It also appears with stimulus-words that for other people do not have this property at all. 
128 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
IV. UNEDUCATED MEN 
	358 	In the group of uneducated men we tabulate only a sum- 
mary for the first six cases; the columns omitted are of no special interest. For the group of linguistic-motor forms, we have obtained the following mean values, from which none of the six subjects deviates significantly: experiment under normal conditions, first hundred 27, second hundred 30; external distraction, first half 22, second half 34. Definite complex-constellations are hardly demonstrable, and in almost all cases detailed analyses are lacking. 
	359 	Subject 32. The external associations predominate over the 
internal but not to the same degree as in the educated subjects. The effect of distraction is clear: in the second hundred of the experiment under normal conditions we see the number of internal associations fall and the external ones rise somewhat. The figures for failures and egocentric reactions (4, 8, 6, 4) are strikingly high; they exceed the mean for these reaction-forms. In the absence of a more detailed analysis it is not really possible to find the significance of the failures in each association. There are practically no definite constellation-associations; neither do the reaction-times-apart from the few failures-betray any complex-constellation. They vary within narrow limits, 0.6 to 2.6 seconds. 
	360 	Subject 33· Predominance of external associations, as in the 
preceding case. In the second hundred of the experiment under normal conditions, an increase of internal and decrease of external associations appears. We have been able to explain this phenomenon where we met it in other groups up to now, almost without exception, by the fact that the feeling-toned association-complexes emerge more clearly. Probably this is the case here too; yet the constellation-associations are here not very obvious and we possess only a fragmentary analysis. The sum of reaction-times in the second hundred is greater than in the first; the longer reaction-times are more numerous. In the second hundred there occurs significantly the reaction family / alone, 4·4 secs., the longest reaction-time that occurs with this subject. 
	361 	The young man is engaged to a nurse. A series of reactions 
129 

with somewhat longer reaction-times are probably determined by this thought-complex. 
	362 	We find the most marked distraction phenomena in the 
first part of the distraction experiment, where we also find six sound associations. 
	363 	We find indications of constellations in our subject In 
single reactions referring to military service. 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
Subjects 32-37. Male nurses: (]2) 40 years of age, Swiss, elementaryschool education, fairly well read; (33) about 25, South German, elementary-school educa tion; (;4) 54, secondary-school education, intelligent, rather neurasthenic; (35) 37, elementm'y-school education; (;6) 30; (;7) 36, secondary-school education 
I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
pupil faithful row 
soldier soldier rank 
ASSOCIATIONS 
Others refer, with fairly great probability, to his engagement and his fiancee: 
-0 
;: 
	SPECIAL QUALITY 	-g 
:l 
:r: 
dear 
hope wreath fidelity everywhere family 
to part 
to trust at last ring 
to let go alone alone 
to come together 
1.6 1.6 3.2 2·4 
? 
4·4 1.6 
Grouping 
SUBJECT 32 
SUBJECT 33 
NORMAL DISTRACTION NORMAL DISTRACTION NORMAL DISTRACTION 
SUBJECT 34 
~ en 
~ 
•... 
c 
i 'Q Oi 
External 
.•.. 
-;;; 
:r: 
.•.. 
-;;; 
:r: 
~ 
•... 
-0 
<= 
-0 
;: 
-0 <= :l 
:r: -0 <= Of 
External 
External 
~ r.J 
.0 
<= :l 
:r: -0 <= Of 
.•.. 
-;;; 
:r: 
.•.. 
-;;; 
:r: -0 <= Of 
~ en 
-0 <= Of 
:r: 
~ en 
.•.. 
-;;; 
:r: 
.•.. 
-;;; 
:r: -0 <= Of 
~ 
•... -0 
<= :l 
:r: 
~ en 
34 12 16 16 32 37 24 20 
5 22 10 12 
Predicate Internal 
	associations 	49 41 34 26 33 42 26 28 23 38 22 42 
External associations 
Sound reactions 
Remaining group 
Number of associations 
ASSOCIATIONS 
Grouping Predicate Internal 
associations 
External associations 
Sound reactions 
Remaining group 
Number of associations 
12 28 18 10 
50 51 62 
	8 	2 
100 100 50 
SUBJECT 35 
15 15 22 31 28 20 
49 46 44 
48 48 46 
2 
5 
	36+ 	These reaction-times, which are rather long in relation to 
the other associations, support this interpretation. We find practically no quotations or the like in this or in the preceding subject. 
	365 	Subject 3-1. The distraction experiment was not very suc- 
cessful; nevertheless it must be taken into consideration that the use of associations belonging to the sound and residual groups is more frequent in the distraction experiment than under normal conditions; the egocentric reactions disappeared in the distraction experiment, a phenomenon that may be regarded more or less as the effect of distraction. No constellationand complex-associations are manifest. 
	366 	Subject 35. The subject can just be included in the predi- 
cate type. A certain effect of distraction can nevertheless be noted. We see the internal associations decrease noticeably in our table and a definite increase of external associations only in the second part of the distraction experiment; on the other hand there is a maximum of sound reactions in the first part of the distraction experiment. Perseverations and egocentric reactions are completely absent. No constellation-associations are 
13° 
100 100 50 
4 
60 64 53 64 
14 
2 I 6 
4 
50 100 100 50 SUBJECT 36 
	10 32 	16 18 
16 
3 
5 
	26 35 21 	18 
68 63 78 68 
4 
6 
6 1-6 
50 100 100 50 
1 ~ 1 
8 17 16 12 30 
2 
66 75 59 56 
48 
4 
2 
4 
6 
2 
	2 	18 
8 
50 100 100 50 SUBJECT 37 12 46 27 30 
	2 	9 11 	6 
50 
22 
10 
14 56 40 38 
32 
80 40 56 56 
58 
8 
4 
2 
2 
6 
8 
3 
3 
50 100 100 50 
50 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
in fact the numbers obtained in the second hundred of the experiment under normal conditions foreshadowed it. 
	37° 	Our subject is like subject 36 of this group, and subjects 
27 and 25 of the group of uneducated women, in the marked prominence of groupings and the figures for the same grammatical form, the decrease of predicative relationships and the almost complete absence of egocentric reactions and constellation-associations. We have here an objective balanced reactiontype. 
	371 	This case is distinguished from the others by the predomi- 
nance of subordinations and definitions within the groupings, while the other three subjects mentioned previously produced more actual co-ordinations. 
evident. We quoted this case (one of the preceding cases from this group could also have been taken) in our discussion on constellations and complexes (see subject 18, educated men) as an example for those cases in which we find the first constellations and/or subjective reminiscences. 
	367 	Subject 36. The internal associations diminish in number 
in this case as in the first few cases of this group. The predicates especially are very few. Define effects of distraction: the internal associations decrease both in the second hundred of the experiment under normal conditions and in the distraction experiment, particularly in the second part. Sound reactions, rhymes, and indirect and senseless reactions are numerous in the distraction experiment, particularly in the first part. In the second part they diminish again somewhat, but on the other hand the decrease of internal and increase of external associations is most marked. The figures for the same grammatical form are, as in the next case and in nos. 25 and 27 in the group of uneducated women, strikingly high (86 in the first hundred under normal conditions, 44 in the second hundred; 88 in each of the two halves of the distraction experiment). In keeping with this finding, egocentric associations are absent and the constellation-associations completely recede into the background and cannot be clearly recognized, as in the cases quoted. 
	368 	In the second part of the distraction experiment there 
appears a certain amount of repetition, probably in embarrassment and as a distraction phenomenon: 
17.35 door 
55. hall 
57. bridge 69. shield 81. cellar 87. corridor 
castle (or lock) castle hall 
castle bridge (drawbridge) castle shield (or lockplate) cellar-door 
door 
Stimulus- 	Subject 	Subject 	Subject 	Subject 	
word 	25 	27 	36 	37 	
	(Uneducated women) 	(Uneducated men) 	
Sunday 	Tuesday 	Monday 	Monday 	holiday 	
schoolboy 	girl 	teacher 	teacher 	boy 	
head 	foot 	arm 	neck 	part of human 	
				being 	
ink 	pen 	pen 	pencil 	writing material 	
bread 	meat 	cheese 	flour 	food 	
lamp 	oil 	candle 	light 	object in a room 	
tree 	chair (?) 	bush 	bush 	plant 	
wood 	coal 	coal 	coal 	fuel 	
slate-pencil 	pen 	pen 	blackboard school implement 	
fruit 	plum 	apple 	vegetable 	fruits 	
helmet 	glove 	sword 	cuirassier 	head-covering 	
35 The numbers refer to the order of the stimulus-words on the form; they are given only to show at what intervals these repetitions occur. 
132 
	372 	Subject 38. The subject may perhaps be included in the 
predicate types, although the predicates do not predominate greatly in the second hundred. Strikingly many co-existences. No reactions in the sound group. In the residual group the number of failures is noteworthy. The maximum (five) occurs in the second hundred of the experiment under normal conditions. The sudden occurrence of 6 per cent of repetitions of the stimulus-word in the second part of the distraction experiment is surprising. We also find 2 per cent of perseverations there. In the second hundred of the experiment under normal conditions the number of internal associations rises and that of external associations falls, as we have already found several 
133 
	369 	Subject 37. Among the fairly abundant internal associations 
there are mainly groupings, while the predicates are not particularly numerous. The linguistic-motor forms are relatively few. A glance at the ratio of internal to external associations shows at once that the distraction experiment was successful; 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 				
Subject 38. 	I7 years of age, technical-school boy, fairly 		
		intelligent, nervous 					
ASSOCIATIONS 	NORMAL 			DISTRACTION 	
			"0 		External 		
		"0 	<l.i 					
		<l.i 	... 					
		... 	"0 					
SPECIAL QUALITY 	"0 	C 					
	S 	;::l 	6 <l.i 		
		::2 	:r: 		o <l.i 	
				o .= E 	o •... :: 	
			"0 		o ~ - 	
		~ 	c 	~ 0,) 0 	_ <l.i 0 	
		'" 	'" 	;:;E c 	;:;E c 	
Grouping 	13 	22 	26 			12 	
Predicative relationship 	35 	26 	12 			14 	
Causal relationship 							
Co-existence 	26 	10 	22 			12 	
Identity 	3 	2 	14 			8 	
Linguistic-motor forms 	22 	34 	22 			44 	
Word-completion 							
Sound 							
Rhyme 							
Indirect 							
Meaningless 							
Failures 	I 	5 	4 			4 	
Repetition of stimulus-word 	- 		- 			6 	
Egocentric reaction 	2 						
Perseveration 	- 		- 			2 	
Repetition of reaction 	12 	5 					
Same grammatical form 	44 	48 	82 			64 	
Same number of syllables 	32 	30 	40 			40 	
Alliteration 	12 	15 	12 			16 	
Consonance 	17 	18 	26 			22 	
Same ending 	2 	13 	10 			14 	
Internal associations 	48 	49 	38 			26 	
External associations 	51 	46 	58 			64 	
Sound reactions 							
Number of associations 	100 	100 	50 			50 	
		134 						

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
times in connection with the emergence of complex-constellations. In spite of the predicate type, the distraction experiment was successful. The number of internal associations decreased and that of external associations increased more and more. The predicates in particular diminish noticeably in the distraction experiment. 
	373 	The exact figure for new constellations cannot be given; 
nevertheless a series of constellations exists, besides an enormous quantity of reminiscences from subjects taught at a grammar school. Individual associations with very long reactiontimes are striking, e.g.: 
		exercise-book 	squared 	7-4 
		book 	interesting 	10.1 
		obstinate 	the enemy 	17.2 
		to stroke 	caresser (French) 6.4 
		evil 	devil 	10.4 
		wicked 	devil 	28.0 
		to come 	the yellow peril 	8.4 
		to kiss 	Oberon 	6.8 
		to love 	mother 	13.0 
		dear 	mother 	g.o 
		strange 	a poem 	11.0 
		to disgust 	dirty 	6.8 
	374 	In the distraction experiment the reactions with strikingly 
long reaction-times are very few. Probably a more detailed analysis would have found one or more complexes behind these reactions. Eroticism, school, and fear of a small operation were probably the decisive reasons for the lengthening of the reaction-times. 
SUMMARY 
	375 	In the group of uneducated men we have seven subjects and 
2,086 associations. All subjects are fairly intelligent but with the exception of subject 37, who has received a secondary-school education, and subject 38, who is attending a technical school, they have all only had elementary-school education. Four subjects are German Swiss, speaking the ordinary dialect; one subject is South German but has long been resident in Switzerland, and the Swiss dialect therefore came quite naturally to him. Only one subject speaks the Swabian dialect, which 
135 

1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
approximates more closely to standard German. One subject, the technical school boy, speaks standard German at home. 
	376 	Two subjects may be considered to be predicate types; as 
in most subjects of this type, distraction was not really successful in the first case, but it was in the second. With one subject, who produced relatively few internal and many external associations in the experiment under normal conditions, distraction was also not very successful. In all other subjects the effect of distraction was obvious (in all subjects of this group only external distraction was used). 
	377 	Sound associations as signs of distraction never occur to the 
same extent as with the educated subjects. 
	378 	Two subjects (~6 and 37 of this group) belong to a type 
having very many groupings, few predicates, and many reactions with the same grammatical form; they are distinguished at the same time by the paucity of egocentric reactions and constellations. We also meet this type in the group of uneducated women (subjects 25 and 27). For the rest, the whole group of uneducated men is distinguished by the fact that constellations and complexes are few in number and can only be guessed at; this does not mean, however, that, within narrow limits, the fluctuations of the reaction-times do not betray the workings of complexes. Quotations and similar reactions suggesting a complex were found only rarely in this group, an 
. exception being the youngest of the group, the technical school boy. He reacted with many subjective reminiscences and a number of constellations, which may in part be interpreted as com plex -cons tellations. 
	379 	In subjects 33, ~4, and 38 we find an increase of internal 
associations in the second hundred of the experiment under normal conditions. Whether this can always be explained by the effects of complexes cannot be ascertained with certainty in all cases. 
	380 	In general the uneducated men are distinguished from the 
uneducated women in our experiments in that subjectivity and feelings are less prominent. This difference hardly exists in the educated subjects. Among the educated men there are as many subjective types who react strongly with feeling as there are among the women; the educated men have more feminine characteristics in this respect than the uneducated. 
136 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
	381 	Finally, it may be permissible to point out once more that 
an overwhelming number of the complexes we have discovered in our subjects are erotic. In view of the great part played by love and sexuality in human life, this is not surprising. 
B. CALCULATIONS OF AVERAGES 
I. Experiment under Normal Conditions 
	382 	Having discussed the individual subjects, we still have to 
study the interrelations of the groups of reactions. In the individuals the proportions of these is markedly variable, as a glance at the previous tables shows. Besides the individual causes, one of the main reasons for these variations is the intensity of concentration, the effect of which we have already mentioned several times. The fact that some individuals tend to react with internal associations and others with external ones is primarily a question of attention. Everyone gifted with speech has all the different qualities of association at his command: which quality of association he expresses depends in the main only on the degree of attention devoted to the stimulus-word. Where our distraction experiment was successfulthat is, where the conditions of the experiment were carried out in the way intended by the experimenter-the identical unequivocal phenomenon appeared: the external associations and sound reactions increased at the expense of internal associations. The type of reaction shifted towards the accustomed and canalized and thus to the mechanical, concrete and verbal connections. With increasing distraction the effect of the "law of frequency" increases, ideas that are often spatially or temporally related being evoked. The less an idea is focussed upon, the more the valency of associated, mainly linguistic, elements increases, the threshold is lowered and these elements are therefore produced again. 
	383 	We do not wish to discuss here the different psychological 
theories of attention. We regard attention as a state occurring in association-complexes and ultimately characterized by muscular tension, which provides the psychophysical basis for the complex. The stabilizing of the idea in the field of consciousness seems to be the aim of the physical echo. It is probably through the somatic connection that the idea, or the "feeling" 
137 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
replacing it, is kept in focus. It becomes a "directional idea" (or a "directional feeling"). From it result two types of effect: (1) ideas promoting all associated ideas, particulail y those associated with direction, 
(2) ideas inhibiting all ideas not associated, particularly 
those not associated with direction. 
	384 	If the intensity of concentration is raised for a non-associ- 
ated idea, then the directional idea is correspondingly shifted from focus, i.e., it loses intensity. Its impact decreases correspondingly: thus the difference in the threshold value of all other associations becomes smaller. The directional selection becomes more difficult and is increasingly subject to the effect of the law of frequency, i.e., all those associations which, through practice and habit, form the largest component of consciousness come to the fore. The law of frequency now assumes the role previously played by the directional idea. As regards our experiment, this means that ideas already automatized and condensed in language assist the subject in his effort to comprehend the meaning of the stimulus-word and to work it over. 
	385 	In the act of apperception and the further working on the 
stimulus-word, all these purely linguistic connections are suppressed, so that in part they manifest themselves only very faintly and vaguely and in part they remain completely unconscious. If the linguistic connections enter the field of consciousness, the higher associations are pushed into the background; some of them faintly reverberate and some remain unconscious (according to Wundt "unnoticed"). (It is possible that they are not even formed, but this is difficult to prove.) In linguistic mechanisms, however, the process has not yet reached its lowest level; mere repetition of the sound reaction is suppressed during the mechanical linguistic reaction. If, by further lowering of attention, we remove the linguistic mechanisms, which in most cases still possess some meaning, the sound reactions come to the fore; these represent the lowest level of linguistic reaction and therefore remain constantly below the threshold of consciousness in everyday life. In the process of development of the child's speech, sound reactions, as is well known, still play a fairly important part; later they are increasingly suppressed and usually enter into the uncon- 
138 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
scious, from which they can under normal conditions be brought up only with a certain effort. 
	386 	We have deliberately discussed only the effect of distraction 
on linguistic functions. We note in addition that the law of frequency also applies to the selection of internal images. It struck us how often old childish memories cropped up, even with quite everyday objects, in the state of internal distraction (N.B. decidedly more frequently than in the normal state). 
	387 	In the individual accounts we pointed out the similarity 
between the distraction phenomenon and manic reaction. The reactions under distraction are in no way different from manic reactions as found by Aschaffenburg and observed by us in many manic associations. Liepmann,36 who in a recently published monograph explains flight of ideas as a result of a disturbance of attention, reached a similar view to ours. Considerations such as Liepmann makes in his work have for some time pointed directions in our experimental work. The results of our experiments confirm Liepmann's views. As regards the psychological mechanism of flight of ideas, our views are completely in agreement with Liepmann. 'Ve therefore refer to his monograph. 
	388 	Aschaffenburg has introduced us to another reaction-type 
similar to the manic, the fatigue type. Other investigations, carried out under Kraepelin's direction, report analogous results under the influence of alcohol. Aschaffenburg considers, as is well known, motor excitation responsible for the occurrence of sound reactions. An obvious objection to this interpretation is that the conditions described are to a high degree characterized by disturbance of attention. It has been proved by our experiments that sound reactions are, one might say exclusively, caused by disturbance of attention. The motor excitation is a probably inessential side-effect which, at the most, could be the cause of the disturbance of attention. The latter seems to be the case in fatigue and alcoholism. In manic flight of ideas another factor must certainly also be considered as a cause of disturbance of attention, the specific excitation, the psychological nature of which is still quite obscure to us. 36 Liepmann, Vber Ideenflllcht, BegrifJsbestimmllng llnd psychologische Analyse (19°4)· 
139 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
Disturbance of attention due to motor excitation in fatigue and alcoholism could in our view be interpreted thus: the physical correlates of the attention phenomenon, the muscular tensions, become under the influence of motor excitation shorter and more variable. The psychophysical basis of accentuated ideas thus reaches a degree of instability that is represented psychically as a weakness of the directional idea. According to Liepmann's principles, from this weakness of the directional idea flight of ideas must result, which in the association experiment appears as sound reactions, etc. It is possible that in acoustic linguistic experiments motor excitation, which is of course also transmitted to the linguistic-motor system, furthers the release of the mechanical reaction; but it is never its sole cause. 
	389 	From this we may expect the occurrence of a blunt reaction- 
type or a sound reaction wherever there is a disturbance of attention; conversely we may suspect a disturbance of attention where sound reactions occur. 
	39° 	This fact appears to us of great diagnostic value; it is, more- 
over, an essential condition for the understanding of the reactions generally. 
	391 	Because of the relatively great variations in the individual 
figures, a general survey of our figures is difficult; we have therefore compiled tables in which the arithmetical means of certain groups have been calculated in percentages to make comparison easier. We realize that a calculation of averages from figures of such diversity is a somewhat hazardous undertaking. Even if the quantitative relation of the individual groups to each other is somewhat variable, we are nevertheless convinced that at least the main figures, that is, those for internal and external associations and for sound reactions, do present a true picture of the mode of reaction. The quantitative interrelation of certain special groups, e.g., particularly of co-existences, is partly subject to certain sources of error that are caused by the selection of stimulus-words. It is certainly clear that, where nouns only are used, reactions show ratios rather different from those brought about by mixed stimuluswords. Nevertheless our relative figures retain their value, as all subjects were given the same set of stimulus-words. 
	392 	We have classified our material according to different cri- 
140 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
teria; first of all the question of the relation of educated to uneducated subjects interested us. Aschaffenburg has found, as is well known, a relatively strong predominance of external over internal associations in his educated subjects. On the other hand, Ranschburg and Balint have found a marked predominance of internal associations in uneducated subjects. See herewith Tables A and B for the first and second hundred of normal associations. 
	393 	Our uneducated subjects were almost all male and female 
nurses of the hospital. We must now confess that this selection of uneducated subjects is not a particularly good one, for among the nursing staff there are many individuals who are above the low average level of education. It might be better to substitute the term "half-educated" for "uneducated." The level of education and intelligence of the male subjects is in general somewhat above that of the female subjects. 
	394 	The female subjects show a relatively high number of in- 
ternal associations; strangely enough the number of internal associations rises considerably in the second half of the experiment, the predicates particularly showing an increase. In addition there is an increase in the residual group and in the sound reactions. There is probably a connection between the increase of predicates and of linguistic-motor forms and the decrease of correspondence of grammatical forms. The figures for linguistic connections are very high. 
	395 	The male subjects show in general a blunter reaction-type 
than the female subjects. The second hundred does not differ significantly from the first, only the figures for indirect associations and for consonances show a rather striking increase. 
	396 	The increase of failures in the second hundred of both 
groups may perhaps be attributed to the unfortunate coincidence that the number of feeling-toned stimulus-words is somewhat greater in the second hundred than in the first. As we have seen, the failures mainly coincide with feeling-toned stimuluswords. It is noteworthy that the men produce a larger number of egocentric reactions than the women, as well as a definitely smaller number of predicates. 
	397 	The egocentric reactions, i.e., the influence of personal 
wishes and values, is probably connected with the number of perseverations; this is somewhat higher for the women than for 141 

1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
A. The First and Second Hundred of Normal Associations: 
Uneducated 
SPECIAL QUALITY 
1St Hundred 
Grouping 
Predicative relationship Causal relationship 
24'2} 
18.8 44.0 
1.0 
Co-existence 
Identity Linguistic-motor forms 
27.21 
3·3 ~S2.8 22·3) 
Word-completion Sound 
Rhyme 
0'2} 
	- 	0·3 
0.1 
Indirect J\feaningless Failures Repetition of 
stimulus-word 
0.61 0·3 
~'2J 2.1 
	Egocentric reactions 	0.8 
	Perseveration 	1.5 
	Repetition of reaction 	10.2 
	Same grammatical form 	63.2 
	Same number of syllables 	49.9 
	Alliteration 	10.2 
	Consonance 	12.3 
	Same ending 	I 1.7 
	Number of associations 	800 
Number of subjects 
WOMEN 
2nd Hundred 
26.2} 
22.0 49.3 
1.1 
13.6} 
6.8 46.1 
25·7 
0.0) 
0·3 ~ I.4 0.6) 
0.81 
0.2 
~.6J 
0.8 0.6 8.8 
54·7 42.2 8·7 
12.2 11.0 
800 
8 
1St Hundred 
2S'2} 
15·4 4I.7 
1.1 
21.71 
7.8 ~SS·7 26.2) 
- 1 
~.7 J 0·7 
2.6 
0·51 0.11 
0.8 r 1.4 
- ) 
B. The First and Second Hundred of Normal Associations: 
Educated 
MEN 
2nd Hundred 
SPECIAL QUALITY 
1St Hundred 
2.0 1.0 14.1 
60.1 41. I 9.0 I 1.1 
16·4 
700 
21.S} 
16.8 39.4 
1.1 
Grouping 
Predicative relationship Causal relationship 
IHI 21.8 ~36'9 I.7) 
13.01 
I 2.2 ~SS.7 30.5) 
Co-existence 
Identity Linguistic-motor forms 
16.S} 
2·7 Si-2 
38.0 
:.S} 0.6 
0.1 
Word-completion Sound 
Rhyme 
1.0} 
0.3 2.1 
0.8 
I.21 0.21 
2.2 r 3.6 
- ) 
Indirect Meaningless Failures Repetition of 
stimulus-word 
0'9l 
0.1 
1.9 
- ) 
1.5 0·4 10·5 
	Egocentric reactions 	2.7 
	Perseveration 	0.8 
	Repetition of reaction 	8.0 
58.4 37.0 9.0 14.0 16.2 
	Same grammatical form 	53.9 
	Same number of syllables 	43.9 
	Alliteration 	9.0 
	Consonance 	14.6 
	Same ending 	9.8 
700 
	Number of associations 	1100 
7 
Number of subjects 
the men but alters in accordance with the decrease of egocentric judgments, a finding that will be confirmed in the future. vVe attribute this to the fact that it is mainly feeling-toned reactions that have a tendency towards perseveration, as we have already frequently pointed out in the individual accounts. 
	398 	With the educated subjects, in the first place one is struck 
by the generally blunter reaction-type. The subjects are nearly 142 
WOMEN 
2nd Hundred 
14.01 18.6 ~33.2 0.6) 
11.2} 
6·7 58.9 41.0 
2.01 1.9~ 0.6) 
2·9 
1.01 0.11 0·9 ~ 
I 0·4) 
1St Hundred 
16.1} 
17·3 34.0 0.6 
18.21 
3.2 ~56.6 35.2) 
4·5 
I.I} 
1·5 3·3 0·7 
MEN 
2nd Hundred 
16'5} 
22.2 39.5 
0.8 
7'5} 
8·3 49.0 
33.2 
ul 
2·3 ~ 4.0 0.6) 
2.21 
1.2 
2.6 6.1 
I 
0.1 ) 
2.6 1.8 7.6 
46.1 32.6 8.8 16.2 8.8 
800 
8 
all highly educated people: the women too, with few exceptions, are of a high level of education. 
	399 	The difference between male and female subjects is not 
considerable in the first three groups, with the exception of a s.light preponderance of internal associations in the men (in which groupings particularly play a part). On the other hand, considerable differences appear in the residual group, in which 
143 
1.5 0'.5 6,5 
54.0 39.2 7.8 15.2 11.3 
1100 
II 
2·4 
2.81 0·71 
I.7 r 5.2 
- ) 
3.6 3.1 7·5 
52.1 37.0 9.2 15.1 8.2 
800 

1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
the high figures for indirect associations in the men are particularly striking, being more than twice those of the women. The average of sound reactions in the men is somewhat higher than in the women. The inverse relationship of indirect association and sound reactions, which was previously suspected, is indicated here too: 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
C. Averages for Educated and Uneducated Subjects 
SPECIAL QUALITY 	EDUCATED 	UNEDUCATED 	
Grouping 	I5'0} 	24'2} 	
Predicative relationship 	19·3 35·S 	IS.2 43.4 	
Causal relationship 	0·9 	1.0 	
Co-existence 	I3'3} 	IS.S} 	
Identity 	5.2 55·3 	7·5 52.4 	
Linguistic-motor forms 	36.S 	26.1 	
Word-completion 	1.3} 	O.I} 	
Sound 	1·5 3·4 	0·3 0·5 	
Rhyme 	0.6 	0·4 	
Indirect 	'7f 	07} 	
Meaningless 	0·5 	0.1 	
Failures 	1·7 4.0 	~'4 2.2 	
Repetition of 			
stimulus-word 	0.1 J 		
Egocentric reaction 	2·4 	1.1 	
Perseveration 	1.5 	o.S 	
Repetition of reaction 	7·3 	10·9 	
Same grammatical form 	51.5 	59.2 	
Same number of syllables 	3S.2 	42.5 	
Alliteration 	S·7 	9·3 	
Consonance 	10.2 	12·3 	
Same ending 	9·5 	I3·S 	
Number of associations 	3S00 	3000 	
Number of subjects 	19 	15 	
WOMEN 
MEN 
1St hundred 2nd hundred 
1St hundred 2nd hundred 
Sound 					
reactions 	2·9 	2·4 	5.2 	6.1 	
Indirect 					
association 	0·9 	1.0 	2.S 	2.2 	
We shall discuss this phenomenon in the discussion of distraction averages. 
	400 	Here also the egocentric reactions of the men exceed those 
of the women. The number of perseverations corresponds to that of egocentric reactions, as in the uneducated subjects-a further proof of the largely affective nature of perseverations (N.B. only in the experiments under normal conditions). 
	401 	The difference between educated and uneducated subjects 
can be best made clear by putting the average figures of both groups side by side (Table C). 
	402 	The educated subjects show a clearly blunter reaction-type 
than the uneducated. The difference is best expressed by stating: In contrast to the uneducated subjects the educated subjects show a distraction phenomenon. 
	403 	If we suppose the figures for the uneducated subjects are 
those of a subject under normal conditions, then the figures for the educated subjects bear the same relation to them as those of a distraction experiment. The sound reactions and the figures for the residual group are proportionately increased, as we have repeatedly seen in the individual accounts. 
	404 	What is the origin of this difference? One cannot assume 
that the educated subjects in effect think more "bluntly" than the uneducated; that would be nonsense. One can merely assume that in the experiment they thought more "bluntly" than the uneducated subjects. This appears to us really to be the case, and it seems that from this the explanation of the reactiontype can be deduced. 
144 
	4°5 	As proof for this assumption the following points may be 
considered: 
(1) The agreement in grammatical form and number of syllables of the stimulus-word and reaction is clearly higher in the uneducated subjects. This fact seems to indicate that the uneducated subject sticks more closely to the stimulus-word or is more influenced by it than the educated subject. 
(2) The number of meaningless reactions is considerably smaller in the uneducated subject. He has better control over himself or he pays more attention to his reaction. 
145 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
(3) The uneducated subject surpasses the educated mainly in the number of groupings: i.e., he makes a greater effort to do justice to the meaning of the stimulus-word than the educated subject does. 
(4) The uneducated subject surpasses the educated in the number of co-existences, which are mainly made up of spatial concepts, i.e., the uneducated subject makes an effort to imagine clearly the object named by the stimulus-word, and he naturally must associate that which is co-existent with it. The educated subject, on the other hand, has fewer co-existences, as he limits himself to connecting linguistic forms. 
(5) The uneducated subject has roughly half as many egocentric reactions as the educated. This fact indicates that he lets himself go much less and exposes undisguised subjective wishes and valuations much less. He makes an effort to achieve as objective as possible an interpretation of the stimulus-word. 
(6) One of the main proofs is the almost sevenfold greater number of sound reactions in educated subjects. In this laziness is most clearly revealed. The subject who is intensely attentive produces practically no sound associations.37 
	406 	For these reasons we regard it as proved that the difference 
between educated and uneducated reaction-types, as far as it is expressed in these figures, is merely a functional one and only has the significance of an attention phenomenon. 
	407 	If we may estimate the degree of attention from the figures 
for sound reactions, the residual group and the linguistic-motor forms, then the uneducated women achieve the highest degree of attention and the educated men the lowest. This fact becomes evident if we examine the groups divided according to sex with respect to these points of view. 
	408 	What is the origin of this difference of attention38 between 
educated and uneducated subjects? Various factors must be considered: 
(1) The uneducated subject is unused to an experiment of this kind. Naturally, it seems stranger and more difficult to him than to the educated subject, who is much more capable of understanding the significance of the experiment and who must 
37 With the exception, of course, of people with specific dispositions. 
38 By this we mean a difference of attention only in the quantitative sense, not by any means a qualitative difference. 
146 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
from the first feel more at home than the uneducated in an intellectual activity. The stimulation of the uneducated subject by the experiment is therefore greater and more general, which is why more effort is made in reacting. 
(2) Words without any sentence connection are called out to the subject. Under normal circumstances, if one calls anything out to someone it is, as a rule, a command or a question. The uneducated subject, in contrast to the educated, is not used to dealing with individual words outside the sentence connection, particularly if he has never learned a foreign language from books. Thus the stimulus-word contains something strange for the uneducated subject. Under the influence of habit he interprets it instinctively as a question, with the intensity of attention necessary for producing an appropriate answer. The stimulus-word is mostly something to the uneducated subject for which he constructs for himself some interrogative connection, to which he then replies.39 
(3) The uneducated subject knows words only, so to speak, related to a sentence, particularly when they appear as an auditory phenomenon. In the context of a sentence the words always have a meaning; the uneducated subject therefore knows the word less as mere "word" or verbal sign but much more as meaning. Therefore the uneducated subject grasps the semantic value of a single word only in a fictitious sentence-context, while to the educated the stimulus-word usually remains merely "word" without specific semantic value.40 
	409 	Summarizing, we can say that the uneducated subject shows, 
in keeping with his lower degree of education, a narrower interpretation of the experiment, particularly of the stimulusword called out to him, than the educated subject whose approach to the matter is much cooler and more businesslike. In other words: the uneducated subject shows a certain tendency 
39 One can say that in general the more uneducated and unintelligent a subject is, the more he interprets the stimulus-word as a question. This is shown most clearly in idiots, who, with few exceptions, always interpret the stimulus-word as a question and then give a definition or an explanation of it in the reaction. 40 Incidentally, educated subjects have the same experience with words of a language that they have never read in print or writing. When stimulus-words are called out in dialect, the educated subjects sometimes have difficulty in understanding the words, because they are used to hearing dialect words only in a sentence-connection. 
147 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
stellation of this complex. In practice a subject of this type, at least in an extreme case, can easily be distinguished from the others. We call this type the complex-constellation type. 
(f3) The image evoked by the stimulus-word is a personal memory usually taken from everyday life. The reaction contains this image or is at least distinctly constellated by it. We call this type the simple constellation type.41 
(y) The image evoked by the stimulus-word acts through one or other of its associated attributes (partly the sensory aspects of the image, partly feeling-tones). Presumably the stimulus-image appears in strong relief; now one, now another characteristic comes to the fore and thus, in conjunction with other features, determines the reaction; thus it usually contains a predicate of the object designated by the stimulus-word. We call this type the predicate type. 
	415 	The common factor in the types described under (a), (f3), 
and (y), as opposed to the objective type (2), is a marked stress of that part of the reaction that is individual, personal, and independent of the stimulus-word. Thus we can say that the difference between type 1 and type 2 is the egocentricity of attitude. 
	416 	The points presented make clear the general psychological 
laws that rule our experiment. This does not by any means reveal all the roots from which complications in the reactions originate. 
	417 	As regards the egocentric attitude, we have tacitly presup- 
posed that the reaction is a more or less clear symbol of internal processes. As long as we know that the subject is speaking freely we can let this assumption prevail cum grana salis. The picture of reactions, however, changes at once when the egocentric attitude conduces to feeling-toned complexes, which the subject does not wish to betray.42 This occurs particularly in the 
41 We stress here once more that by this classification we intend to mark only the clear and obvious differences in the mode of reaction. We know very well that basically every subject belongs in fact to, for example, the complex-constellation type, as no reaction is fortuitous but irrevocably conditioned by the psychological past of the subject. What we wish to clarify by our classification is the degree of subjective dependence in so far as it is clearly expressed in the reactions. 
42 This not-wanting-to-betray is, as we have become convinced from numerous experiments, by no means always a conscious not-wanting but quite often an 
149 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
to assimilate the stimulus-word in the form of a question, because it is most usual for called-out verbal sounds to have the connotation of questions. 
	410 	This attitude to the stimulus-word becomes more evident 
in certain pathological cases, where the association experiment is nothing but a 2 X 200 sentence-long conversation on a feeling-toned theme. From these observations one can readily deduce that the uneducated subject pays greater attention because the meaning of the stimulus-word influences him more than it does the educated subject. 
	411 	The difference between educated and uneducated subjects 
is in the contrast of their interpretations of the stimulus-word. This principle of differentiation allows us to discern two groups, even if vaguely delineated. This distinction, however, is such a general one that it does not take into account other essential differences in the reaction-types. We have therefore made an effort to find other more subtle principles of classification. We asked ourselves whether there are other general factors that influence the reaction, apart from the attention phenomenon. 
	412 	One principal factor is the individual character. The differ- 
ence in interpretation discussed above is an intellectual or associative disposition, which may be the same in individuals of widely varying character. As regards characters, the state of affairs is different. From our experiments two easily recognizable types emerge: 
(1) A type in whose reactions subjective, often feeling-toned experiences are used. 
(2) A type whose reactions show an objective, impersonal tone. 
	413 	The former type exhibits reminiscences of a personal kind 
that often show a very strong feeling-tone. The latter type couples words with words and concepts with concepts, but the personal plays a quite subordinate role in the reaction. This type can be called objective. 
	414 	The first type can be divided into three groups. 
(a) The stimulus-image emanating from the stimulus-word acts principally through its feeling-tone. Usually the feelingtone of the stimulus-image excites a whole complex of memories belonging to it. The reaction then is inherent in the con- 
148