1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
complex-constellation type. For instance, the stimulus-word raises the complex of an unhappy love that is being kept as secret as possible. If the subject reacted according to his internal images, then he would exteriorize that part of the complex in the reaction through which it could be betrayed. The concealing of an emotion is always characterized by a quite particular attitude, a particular state of feeling. Without conscious censure, the emerging part of the complex is suppressed by the feeling of being directed not to betray, which is present in consciousness and from which specially attuned inhibitions arise. Of course the process of suppression may take place at a considerably more conscious level (or more unconscious, as in hysteria!). Instead of the suppressed complex-image another association fitting in with the feeling of being directed is put in its place and exteriorized. 
	418 	Thus the true inner association is concealed and the secret 
kept. It may be extraordinarily difficult for the experimenter, who does not enjoy the complete confidence of the subject, to decide in certain cases whether anything was concealed or not. The decision may perhaps be impossible with people who are capable of controlling themselves to a high degree. In most cases, however, the subjects betray themselves after a short time. According to the laws discussed previously, there must be certain phenomena that betray the suppressed complex. We shall here disregard the lengthening of reaction-time,43 which occurs with great regularity. 
	419 	The suppression is betrayed: 
(I) By an unusual and suspicious phrasing of the reaction that cannot be explained by the stimulus-word alone, but the peculiar character of which is bound to have been constellated by an X. Occasionally this X can be peduced directly from the peculiarly forced character of the reaction. Such reactions frequently occur in the form of sentences. 
(2) By the attention phenomenon. A subject who interprets the stimulus-word as a question and therefore produces a series of highly potent associations suddenly, in the absence of ex- 
unconscious inhibition, which in most cases also causes a lengthening of the reaction-time. 
43 A later paper will report on the variation of the reaction-times. [See infra.] 
ISO 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
ternal disturbance, reacts with a sound or some other strikingl) superficial association. This result is suspicious; an internal disturbance or an internal distraction must have occurred. The subject may give no information. With a similar stimulus-word the phenomenon is repeated. We are now practically sure that there is something behind this. This suspicion has never proved unjustified. A complex has suddenly emerged, has attracted some of the attention to itself; meanwhile the reaction is produced and, owing to the disturbance of attention, it can be onl) a superficial one. 
(3) By a failure. The emerging complex absorbs all atten· tion so that the reaction either is forgotten or, owing to the absence of all associations, cannot take place. 
(4) By perseveration. In this case the critical reaction ma) be quite unobtrusive but the subsequent one has an abnormal character, in which the preceding reaction takes over the role of the constellation X. The perseverating factor is the emotion stimulated by the preceding association'" 
(5) By assimilation of the stimulus-word. The stimulus-word is interpreted for no apparent reason in a particular, rare sense or is misunderstood in a striking way according to a feelingtoned conscious idea.45 
	420 	The above points are the main criteria of a concealed 
complex.46 
	421 	We have purposely devoted so much attention to the dis- 
44 A subject whose inner life is strongly affected by an unpleasant financial matter reacts within normal time to ill with poor and in the following reaction, Stolz ('pride') / Bolz ('alTow'), with lengthened reaction-time. For no obvious reason the association is a senseless rhyme. Sound associations and rhymes occur in this subject only at "critical" points. Poor has a quite special emotional significance for this subject; attention remains attached to the constellated complex, which results in a disturbance of the succeeding reaction because of in temal distraction. 
45 The subject already quoted in the preceding footnote reacts to Pity with poor ones (poor has a particular feeling-tone). The succeeding association is yellow (gelb) / much. It is another perseveration of the financial complex, gelb being immediately assimilated as Geld (money), although the subject has long been familiar with all the stimulus-words on our list. 
46 In some subjects the repetitions also have a certain significance as the indirect expression of the complex. (W'e have pointed this out several times in the relevant section.) Certain words that are more or less closely associated with the complex, or that indirectly replace it, are frequently repeated. 
151 

1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
cussion of these subtler psychological phenomena because the affective processes, the traces of which we pursued with the greatest possible care in normal reactions, play the most prominent role in the pathological reactions, as we shall show in detail later. What might perhaps be put to one side as a subtlety in a normal reaction will be revealed as the most significant factor in a pathological reaction. For the present we place great value on the realization that the reactions are an extraordinarily sensitive test for affective processes in particular and the individual response of the subject in general. 
	422 	To illustrate our discussion we present associations of the 
six main types [1 (a), (b); 2 (a), (b-i), (b-ii), (c)]. 
bad 
to clap year 
to threaten long 
rich suffering eye 
youth 
naughty hands month fist narrow poor 
JOY tooth game 
At the Sign of the Bloody Bone 
scandal 
sorrow to note 
dark 
heart (Hen.) bird 
white 
game 
Kaiser moon 
to beat 
to light 
star 
to stroke grand child sofa wild tears loyalty 
once (einmal) wonder blood 
wreath 
to choose right 
to have to 
light 
pain (Schmerz; nest 
black 
card 
Wilhelm 
light 
to throw house shooting cat magnificent dog 
to lie animal 
to shed German 
never (keinmal of wonders vengeance athlete 
choice 
might 
no man must have to48 does not let 
one perish my (mein) 
fai thlessness pain (Schmerz) unknown 
to write 
dog 
-stick 
to eat 
fox 
ornament straw painfully 
(peinlich) 
Inn 
family misery to pay 
attention fist (Faust) people murderer everywhere to calculate to kiss 
ripe 
bond ground play Journey 
to quarrel blue 
flower cherry institution piano 
oven 
to walk to cook water 
to dance cat dozen 
1. OBJECTIVE TYPE 
	423 	(a) Reactions of a subject whose attitude is essentially ob- 
jective. At the same time the interpretation of the stimulusword as a question is in the background. There is a tendency merely to put words next to each other, partly in accordance with the law of similarity, p.artly according to current verbal connections (subject 15, educated men). 
Goethe rebellion blood 
I am at home to measure mouth 
fruit 
of love 
found 
of waves 
to Canossa fight 
red 
calyx 
stone 
male nurse to play town47 
to go 
to eat 
to drink music mouse 
by the (dozen) 
Christmas Sunday winter 
lake (or sea) pupil 
father 
table 
heild 
ink 
needle bread 
lamp 
tree mountain dream 
(Traum) exercise-book paper 
book 
school 
to sing 
Easter Monday spnng ocean teacher mother leg 
scarf pen holder to earn shade clearing green 
froth (Schaum) 
ring tooth window frog sweet 
to ride friendly to cut crown rough prison to part 
(scheiden) ill 
finger time frame leg sour 
to travel painful knife realm 
-ian (ruffian) detention 
to avoid 
(meiden) weak song 
to salt armchair to drink to bring feast father 
hope 
small (klein) unjust 
world (Welt) strange slate-pencil to growl knob 
fruit 
false 
helmet 
hay 
cleanly 
(reinlich) 
aIr potato 
to be lazy coffee sacrifice wedding grandmother 
152 
knife cutter 
to read to attend to write 
47 [Oven stands for the German Olen, the German name of Buda, the si town of Pest (Hungary). O/en really means ·oven.'] 
48 [Cf. supra, par. 212, n. 15.] 
153 
{

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 

	424 	The subject is a doctor, as several technical medical terms, 
such as needle-holder and skull-formation, indicate. We do not include those reactions constellated by the profession in the "constellations" in the narrower sense in which we interpret these. Such reactions are not subjective; they belong not only to the individual, but more or less to a whole profession, The only subjective constellation is to surmise / W. 
	425 	(b) Reactions of a subject whose approach is objective and 
to whom the meaning of the stimulus-word is much more important than to the preceding subject. The tendency is to give as correct a reaction as possible (subject 27, group of uneducated women): 
to surmise 
head 
at home hedge indolent vmegar hot 
table 
head 
ink 
nt:edle 
bread 
lamp 
tree mountain hair 
wood 
salt 
dream exercise-book paper 
book 
school 

W (name of acquaintance who formulated a certain hypothesis) 
blood and 
wounds it's nice rose 
lazy 
sour cold 
chair 
arm 
pen 
thread cheese candle bush valley thread coal 
flour 
sleep 
book material newspaper church 

trap (Falle) 
to be revolted resin 
neck 
steep 
swmg 
to fetch 
skull 
to use 
stamp 
to sing hoop tooth window frog 
flower cherry institution pIano 
fern 
to walk water 
to dance dozen heart bird 
154 

rope (Strick) (Fallstrick, 'snare') gruesome 
to stick 
to wring mountain 
to swing 
to bring formation 
to be able to timbre 
to rejoice ring mouth floor stork grass peach school violin rose-bush to jump wine 
to sing ten warm 
cat 

to swim game Kaiser moon 
to beat obstinate to light star 
to stroke great child 
to ride friendly file crown 
to paint thanks rough 
to stink prison 
to separate ill 
potato trap 
to disgust to be lazy coffee victim wedding angry soldier 
to clap 
to threaten behaviour to fall 
to suffer youth 
inn 
family 
to pay 
attention fist 

to go to sing king stars to bite gentle 
to extinguish sun 
to beat wonderful woman 
to travel cross hammer helmet 
oil 
you're welcome fine 
to taste dungeon to join healthy bread 
to catch to taste to work milk saviour funeral satisfied civilian to sing to beat polite level healthy age 
hotel husband to hear 
hand 

people 
murderer everywhere to kiss 
bad 
ripe 
band ground walk 
to quarrel sofa 
to love wild tears 
to spare wonder blood wreath to choose right force revenge hope 
to pray freedom world strange to growl knot false helmet plate 
hay 
pure 
to surmise head 
at home vinegar resin swing 
155 

household (family is implied) robber here 
to flatter good 
bitter (sweet 
is implied) material floor 
to jump 
to make it up chair 
to hate 
tame 
to laugh better 
nature human being flowers 
to meet wrong voluntary peace 
JOY 
to believe imprisoned nation 
at home 
to bite rope 
true 
sword 
tray 
grass 
clean 
to doubt arm away wine pitch 
to throw 

1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIA nON 
	426 	The subject is a nurse from our hospital. Subjective factors 
are entirely absent from the reactions. Her manner is extraordinarily objective and calm. In contrast to the preceding subject it must be noted that here the meaning of the stimulus-word is the decisive factor, which is expressed in many contrasting ways. 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
liberty 
statue (the subject had been in America and particularly admired :New York) 
to imprison (constellation from daily intercourse with querulous patients) 
wonderful Mocha 
L. (name of an ailing painter who had a predilection for painting sacrificial scenes) 
without alcohol (the subject is a teetotaller) dead 
M. (name of someone who had made a joke referring to the word Hrow") 
L. (name of patient who often went for walks) 
cooking lessons supply 
concert-hall (the hall in which the dances at the hospital are held) room (the subject is an 
enthusiastic amateur photographer) failure 
paws (claws is to be interpolated) 
L. (name of a patient who often used the swimming pool) malaria (a patient named Weiss suffered from malaria) 
Halma (which was at 
that time played in the wards) 
shorthand (to write is to be interpolated; the subject was keenly occupied with shorthand) 
cushion 
Basel (a student friend of subject from Basel went under the name of "Tausig," the dialect form of tausend (thousand). 
The stimulus-word was of course called out in standard German but assimilated in the dialect form by the subject) 
ball 
sonny (the subject is the father of a new-born son) 
row 
un just 
to walk 
to cook water 
to dance 
2. EGOCENTRIC ATTITUDE 
to be lazy coffee sacrifice 
(a) SimPle-constellation type 
	427 	Reactions of a subject in whose reactions numerous sub- 
jective experiences are used. The attitude is egocentric in so far as subjective memories prevail (subject 18, educated men). 
dark 
wedding 
heart bird 
father 
anxious (the subject is the father of a newborn child) 
round 
sour (red/litmus is im- 
plied) bread-factory smells 
F. (name of an acquaintance connected with a certain experience) Dtliberg 
to sing 
Miss B. (name of a singer who was at the hospital just at that time) 
hospital gardens (a ring was at that time found in the garden of the hospital) 
Goschenen (the writer, Zahn, lives in Goschenen) 
opening 
tree-frog 
rose 
JUICY 
R. (a certain hospital for feeble-minded children) 
B. (name of a par- 
ticular nurse) tape-worm Pest49 
Lessing (a famous quotation from Lessing 
is implied) 
thirst 
pregnancy (this constellation is explained by earlier comments) 
male nurse (Klein is the name of a nurse) church 
grandmother wicked 
R. (name of a patient 
with a moral defect) 
B. (name of a colleague) and day 
threatener (Drohweber, nickname of a patient 
who frequently uttered 
threats) 
dough (Teig) 
(Sauerteig, 'dough') Munich (newspaper Youth) 
day 
sorrowful 
	to pay 	association-experiment 
	attention 	(momentary constella- 
tion) 
R. (name of a patient) Folk-Psychology by Wundt (a work that 
had recently been ordered by the hospital) 
murderer G. (name of a murderer who was just then in the hospital for examination) 
everywhere superman 
	(iibera ll) 	(ubermensch) 
	to 	slide-rule 
calculate 
to swim 
head ink 
ring 
to need year 
to threaten 
white (Weiss) 
bread lamp tree 
tooth (Zahn) 
game 
sour (sauer) youth 
mountain (Be.rg) hair 
salt 
window frog flower cherry hospital 
thirteen 
falling out Rheinfelden (where there are salt works) ebony 
R. (name of a colleague who was occupied with dream-analyses at this time) 
fraud (paper in the sense of documents in evidence about a case of fraud) 
letter (Buch-stabe, 'letter of the alphabet') Kohinoor (the subject uses this brand) 
S. (name of the place where the subject went to school) 
family sorrow 
wood dream 
sofa thousand 
male 
nurse fern oven to be 
obliged to revenge hope 
nature folk 
paper 
book 
pencil 
school 
small (Klein) to pray 
to love son 
49 [See n. 47.] 
11;6 
11;7 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 

	428 	This type is characterized by the emergence of numerous 
subjective experiences, mostly of recent origin and belonging for the most part to the field of everyday activities. It goes without saying that, in spite of the objective character of the constellations, some also occur that belong to a feeling-toned complex. These are, however, relatively rare in comparison with the others and are in some cases well concealed_ The recently experienced joy of fatherhood has an after-effect in several reactions: father / anxious) hope / pregnancy) son / sonny. This feeling-toned diminutive seems to us echoed in the somewhat striking reactions: to stroke / kitten) fidelity / little dog. 
158 
wild 
tears war faithful once 
miracle blood 
right ground game 
(Spiel) 
arm 
blue strange to growl knot 
fruit false helmet 
misery hay (heu) 
raspberry 

dentist ("Wild" is the 
name of a dentist) vale 
turmoil 
little dog 
shorthand again (see above) 
Lourdes 
English (in England the word must not be said) 
and duty 
and soil 
thing (Zeug) (Spielzeug, 'toy') 
W. (name of a patient who had injured his arm) 
Grotto in Capri stranger bulldog 
East Swiss (memory of 
his student years) to steal 
trap 
house (Helmhaus, a public building in Zurich) 
hunger 
Heustrich (name of a spa) 
park (the raspberries in the hospital garden) 

at home 
(daheim) vinegar trap throat 
to strike 
star 
to stroke grand (grossartig) 
sweet 
friendly 
to float 
skull rough (rau) 
to report prison 
to separate ill 

newspaper (called 
Daheim) home-made mousetrap epiglottis 
(name of a doctor who had been struck by a patient) 
C. (Stern, 'star,' is the name of a patient in Ward C) 
kitten 
Grossman (name of patient who was included merely as a sound-association) 
bananas (cf. the reaction wood/ebony. The subject had recently given some lectures on travels in Africa) 
H. (name of an acquaintance) 
S. (name of a famous airman) 
occiput 
A.I (Rau is the name of a patient in Ward A.I) 
male nurse police-barracks (the police in Zurich) sulphuric acid diabetes 

(b) Complex-constellation type 
	429 	(i) Reactions of a subject in whose reactions a feeling-toned 
complex appears quite openly. The meaning of the stimulusword is brought into relation with the complex (subject 21, educated men). 

wood 	pile 		friendly 	very nice 	
dream 	studies (simple 	crown 	queen 	
	constellation) 	rough 	table 	
exercise- 	pen 		to stink 	pooh! 	
book 				shrill 	hurt 	
paper 	line 		to separate W. (name of a mental 	
pencil 	big 			patient whose marriage 	
school 	bank 			ended in divorce) 	
to sing 	choir 		potato 	broth 	
ring 	on the finger 	to be lazy 	nice 	
tooth 	teeth 		cross 	I am not 	
window 	frame 		come 	with me to the 	
frog 	hops 			theatre X (a certain 	
flower 	stem50 			theatre) 	
hospital 	big 		year 	1904 	
piano 	I cannot play 	family 	V. (subject's own 	
male 	B. 	(name of a certain 		family) 	
nurse 	male nurse) 	to take 	I should 	
stove 	wood 		care 		
to walk 	a long way 	finally 	it will end 	
to dance 	hotel F. 	(a certain ho- 	folk 	worth much 	
	tel where there was 	slate- 	she is a teacher 	
	dancing) 		pencil 		
dark 	room 		to growl 	poodle 	
heart 	red 		knob 	knob-stick 	
bird 	feathers 		false 	blonde (a "lady," who 	
to swim 	movement 		is false and blonde, to 	
game 	children 			be interpolated) 	
Kaiser 	Wilhelm 		helmet 	fire brigade 	
to hit 	to beat 		clothes 	woman's skirt 	
to set 	S. (name of an 	softly 	she comes along 	
fire to 	incendiary) 	gallantly 	up the stairs 	
star 	Miss Stern (an actual 	plate 	on the table 	
(Stern) 	person) 		misery 	she cries 	
grand 	ah! 		hay 	in it lies a farmer 	
child 	children 		raspberry 	in the wood 	
dark red 	again ah! 		at home 	in D. (home of the 	
to ride 	riding track 		sweetheart) 	
50 [The German word Blumenstock (literally, 'flowerstick') is mainly used for a tree-shaped potted plant such as a fuchsia.] 
159 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
would have to happen 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
ject's egocentricity emerges clearly throughout. He is mentally entirely sound and would at other times probably have presented a much more objective type. The abnormal character of the reaction is to be attributed merely to the temporary but prevailing emotion. One could generalize and say that this abnormal state, caused by the affect, is the prototype of the hysterical reaction . 
	431 	(ii) Subject 24 of the group of uneducated women is a good 
example of a complex appearing in a disguised form. We refer to the associations already given in detail in the relevant section. 
murderer in C (a certain insane murderer in Ward C in the hospital) everywhere K. is (the name of a 
mobile catatonic) 
I cannot 
to calculate to kiss 
natural bad time ripe row ground game poor 
to quarrel sofa 
to love son 
wild 
tears 
protection war 
faith 
once 
again and I 
	. 	complex 
	agam 	f 
wonderful 0 a 
romance no 
	not now 	recently 
		't terminated 

am or 1 
soldiers and soil child 
poor as a beggar oh rot! 
is soft to sit on ah! 
son and father (the subject had had unpleasant quarrels with his family on account of his romance) 
mother (wild = angry; wild is here assimilated into the complex in the special sense of the dialect ex pression) 
she has now (that is, the abandoned sweetheart) 
I cannot offer her if there only were I have not kept and never again 
wonder 
(miracle) blood wreath 
to choose to part right 
to have to force revenge hope small 
to pray dear 
wool 
old freedom un just world strange hedge lazy 
to woo hot conscious- 
ness vinegar trap 
to disgust riot 
resin 
(Harz) to dress up omen 
she is anaemic on the coffin another 
I need not she is not 
I do not have to 
I do not use on her oh no! 
I do not know oh no! perhaps 
she was to me 
a woman's dress perhaps 
she could have I was not 
wide 
that she is now fence 
sometimes (i.e., some- 
times she is lazy) a woman 
love 
yes, in the focus of 
consciousness sour 
into it 
yes, so-so 
there is therefore none hair 
(Haare) 
yes, fine and gallant 
(c) Predicate type 
	432 	Reactions of a subject who judges the object of the stimulus- 
word from a personal point of view (subject 7, educated women). 
lake 	beautiful nature 	moon 	beautiful 	
schoolboy 	diligent 	to beat 	unnecessary 	
father 	something wonderful, 	to light 	an art, till one managed 	
	good, holy 		it 	
needle 	work 	to sing 	beautiful 	
bread 	best food 	ring 	something silly 	
lamp 	work 	tooth 	glad not to have any 	
tree 	something beautiful 		more 	
mountain 	terrible, climbing is 	frog 	something unnecessary 	
	nicer 	flower 	JOY 	
hair 	head-dress 	cherry 	good fruit 	
salt 	strengthens food 	hospital 	narrow 	
wood 	fire 	piano 	mainly laborious 	
dream 	many experiences 	male 	respect 	
exercise- 	much work for the 	nurse 		
book 	children 	fern 	beautiful wood 	
paper 	blessed, because we 	stove 	lovely in cold winter 	
	write on it 	to walk 	one sometimes must 	
book 	JOY 	to cook 	laborious 	
school 	JOY 	water 	lovely 	
dozen 	straight, order 	to dance 	gladly when one is 	
dark 	horrible 		young 	
heart 	beats 	cat 	sneak 	
bird 	lovely, to fly 	star 	magnificent 	
to swim 	lovely 	grand 	pompous 	
white 	hard, bright 	child 	gift of God 	
game 	to enjoy 	sweet 	pleasant 	
thirteen 	clumsy 	to ride 	dangerous 	
	161 		
bad 
	43° 	A strong feeling-toned complex is characteristic of this 
mode of reaction. The stimulus-word is assimilated as a question; the experiment therefore bears the imprint of a conversation in which the subject has only a rather dim awareness of the current situation. This explains the somewhat abnormal character of a conversation of this type. The mode of reaction can be explained by a very strong psychological sensitivity. The relatively numerous interjections and the egocentric references, not only within the complex, also point towards this. The sub- 
160 
I
f

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
friendly crown rough 
duty unnecessary weather 
to stink shrill ill 
sometimes, alley to hurt 
to hurt 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
	435 	In considering the figures, one is struck by the slightness 
of the difference between the two sexes. With few exceptions the figures essentially tally; in any case, the definite numerical differences that separate the group of educated from the uneducated are absent. In the men the type is somewhat blunter than in the women; the men have rather more sound associations, also more indirect associations; these phenomena may be connected with the blunter type. The larger number of egocentric reactions and perseverations seems, according to earlier investigations, to depend on the men's more uninhibited behaviour. The difference in the figures for coincidence of grammatical form and number of syllables is analogous to the corresponding difference between educated and uneducated subjects, and may be attributed to the fact that in our male subjects, particularly in the uneducated ones, the level of education is higher than in the corresponding women subjects. From the figures of the experiment under normal conditions nothing typical of feminine psychology emerges, which does not mean that no differences exist. Our method of investigation is obviously far too crude to discover subtle differences of this sort. 
	433 	The characteristic of this mode of reaction is an unusually 
strong personal participation, which leads to a constant evaluation of the object, usually with reference to herself. 
ll. Sex Differences in the Experiment under Normal Conditions 
	434 	We have considered our individual figures from the point 
of view of the sex difference and calculated their averages (see Table D). 
D. Sex Differences in the Experiment under Normal Conditions 
SPECIAL QUALITY 	MEN 	WOMEN 	
Grouping 	19.8t 	Ig·41 	
Predicative relationship 	17·9 38.6 	20.3)40.7 	
Causal relationship 	o.gJ 	1.0 	
Co-existence 	15'0} 	17.11 	
Identity 	7.8 54.0 	4.8 j53.6 	
Linguistic-motor forms 	31.2 	3I.7 	
Word-completion 	0'5} 	o·gl 	
Sound 	1.2 2.0 	0.6) 2.0 	
Rhyme 	0·3 	0·5 	
Indirect 	1.61 	0.81 	
Meaningless 	0·51 	0.11 	
Failures 	1.8,3,9 	1.4 ~ 2·4 	
Repetition of 		I 	
stimulus-word 	o J 	0.1 J 	
Egocentric reaction 	2.2 	1.3 	
Perseveration 	1.5 	0.8 	
Repetition of reaction 	9·9 	8.2 	
Same grammatical form 	54·3 	56.4 	
Same number of syllables 	37.0 	43·7 	
Alliteration 	g.1 	8.g 	
Consonance 	14.0 	13·5 	
Same ending 	12·4 	10·9 	
Total associations 	3000.0 	3800.0 	
	162 		
Ill. Averages of the Distraction Experiments 
	436 	We give in Tables E and F a compilation of the average 
figures from the distraction experiments. To facilitate comparison we are putting the average for experiments under normal conditions alongside. 
	437 	The figures for the distraction experiments show a pro- 
gressively blunter type of reaction than those obtained under normal conditions. The main difference is quite unequivocal. The internal associations decrease under distraction as opposed to the external associations and sound reactions, both of which increase. 
	438 	Looking at the figures for internal associations, we see that 
the women in this group have higher figures than the men. The lowest figures are for men. The objection that the women start with a higher number of internal associations under normal conditions applies only to uneducated women. Educated women show a somewhat blunter reaction-type, under normal conditions, than educated men. The fact that the number of 
163 

1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
E-l. Averages in the Distraction Experiments: Uneducated Women 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
E-2. Averages in the Distraction Experiments: Uneducated Men 

SPECIAL QUALITY 

NORMAL 

EXTERNAL DISTRACTION 

SPECIAL QUALITY 

NORMAL 

EXTERNAL DISTRACTION 

Grouping 
Predicative relationship Causal relationship 

25'2} 
20.4 46.6 
1.0 

60 Met. 
19'0} 
20.6 40.3 
0·7 

100 Met. 
15'7} 
19.0 35.2 
0·5 

Grouping 
Predicative relationship Causal relationship 

23'3} 
16.1 40.5 
1.1 

60 Met. 
20'S} 
I~.O 30.S 

100 Met. 
14'S} 
I~.S 27.6 

IS.2} 
9.7 52.2 
24·3 
Co-existence 
Identity Linguistic-motor forms 
Word-completion Sound 
Rhyme 

20'4} 
5.0 49·4 
24.0 
0'3} 
0.1 0.7 
0·3 

0'2} 
J.7 
1.0 

2·9 

IS·51 
9.2 ~6J.o 
33·3) 
0·51 
2.0 ~ 3.7 1.2) 

Co-existence 
Identity Linguistic-motor forms 
Word-completion Sound 
Rhyme 

17'3} 
10.0 55.6 
2S·3 
~.6} 0.6 

19'1} 
17·4 5S·5 22.0 
~'4} 3.1 
J.7 

12·51 
15.1 ~63·3 35·7 ) 
~.S} 1.0 
0.2 

Indirect Meaningless Failures Repetition of 
stimulus-word 
Egocen tric reaction Perseveration Repetition of reaction 
Same grammatical form Same number of syllables Alii tera tion 
Consonance 
Same ending 
{
Associations Total Subjects 

0'7} 
0.2 
1.4 
° 
0·5 1.0 
9·5 5S·9 46.0 S·4 
12.2 11.3 

1.2} 
0·7 
1.0 
0·5 
0·5 2.0 
S·5 
62·5 47·5 
11.0 
IS·5 11.7

3·4 

0.71 
0.2 
0'5,1.4 
o ) 
0·5 2·5 3.0 
62.2 44·7 
11.2 
15·7 16.0 
4°° S 

Indirect Meaningless Failures Repetition of 
stimulus-word 
Egocentric reaction Perseveration Repetition of reaction 
Same grammatical form Same number of syllables Alliteration 
Consonance 
Same ending 
{
Associations Total Subjects 

o'S} 
0.1 
1.5 
o 
J.7 0·7 12·3 
59·5 39.0 9.2 12·5 16,3 
14°0 7 

2-4 

3-41 
1.1 
1.4,6,4 
0·5) 
o 0·5 5.1 
67·7 45·7 S.O 
23·4 14·3 
350 7 

1.41 
2.0 
2.2,7.6 
2.0 ) 
o o 4.0 
64-5 4S.2 12·4 IS.S IS.2 
350 7 

tain agreement, while the minus difference of uneducated women is greater than that of educated women, which would indicate better adaptation of the uneducated women to the experiment. 
EDUCATED 
internal associations does not fall as low in women as in men means that the women were less adaptable to the purposes of the experiment than were the men. Comparing the minus differences of the internal associations clearly shows the smaller interest of the women. 
	439 	The remaining differences are unfortunately not equally 
apparent, as they are divided into three groups, the content of which is of varying psychological valency. Therefore the number of internal associations is the best simple measure of the degree of distraction. The differences for the men show a cer- 
164 

Women Men 

Internal Distraction 
-5·5 
-12·3 
Minus difference 

External Distraction 
-2.S 
-II.S 
of internal associations 165 

UNEDUCATED External Distraction -S.S 
-11.3 

1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
F-I. Averages in the Distraction Experiments: Educated Women 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
F-2. Averages in the Distraction Experiments: Educated Men 

EXTERNAL DISTRACTION 
EXTERNAL DISTRACTiON 
SPECIAL QUALITY 
Grouping 
Predicative relationship Causal relationship 
Co-existence 
Identity Linguistic-motor forms 

NORMAL 
13.7} 
20.2 35.0 
1.1 
13.8} 
4·7 58.0 
39·5 

INTERNAL DISTRACTION 
14'0} 
15.0 29·5 
0·5 
10'0} 
4·3 44.8 
3°·5 

6o Met. 
11-7} 
21.2 33.6 
0·7 
I 217} 
10·5 48.9 
25·7 

100 Met. 
"'5} 
19.0 3°·7 
0·7 
8.0} 
9.0 .t)6.0 
39.0 

SPECIAL QUALITY 
Grouping 
Predicative relationship Causal relationship 
Co-existence 
Identity Linguistic-motor forms 

NORMAL 
I6.3} 
19·7 36.7 
0·7 
12.8} 
5·7 52.7 34.2 

INTERNAL DISTRACTION 
8.6} 
15.0 24·4 0.8 
6.1} 
4·5 49.2 38.6 

60 Met. 
15.6} 
12.0 28.0 
0·4 
12.8} 
9.2 57·2 
35.2 

100 Met. 
1O.8} 
10.4 21.8 
0.6 
12'0} 
6.6 61.4 
42•8 

4'5} 
5.1 11.6 
2.0 
3'0} 
5.5 10.2 
1.7 
1.2} 
8.0 9.6 
0·4 
Word-completion Sound 
Rhyme 
Indirect Meaningless Failures Repetition of 
stimulus-word 

1.5} 
1.1 
0·7 
0'9} 
0.1 
1.4 
0.2 

3·3 
2.6 

1.6} 
0·5 
1.1 
0.6 

3.8 

1.0} 
1.2 
2.0 
1.5 

5·7 

2'2} 
6·5 9.2 
0·5 
0'2} 
1.5 
1.5 3·9 
0·7 

Word-completion Sound 
Rhyme 
Indirect Meaningless Failures Repetition of 
stimulus-word 

I. I} 
1.9 
0.6 
2'5} 
0·9 
2.1 
° 

3.6 
5·5 

4'3} 
15.8 20·7 
0.6 
	4'5} 	3'2} 
	1.6 	2.0 
° 6.1 ° 
° ° 

5.2 

2.6} 
3.8 8.2 
1.8 
6'2f 
1.8 
° 8.0 
° J 

Egocentric reaction Perseveration Repetition of reaction 
Same grammatical form Same number of syllables Alliteration 
Consonance 
Same ending 
{
Associations Total Subjects 

2.1 0.6 7.2 
53·9 41.5 8·4 14·9 10·5 
2200 II 

1.0 1.0 
3·5 
59.0 45·5 
Il.l 
19·3 11.8 
5°° 6 

1.2 2.2 6·5 
54.0 47·7 11·7 19.0 11·7 
4°0 8 

1.0 
1.7 5.0 
53.0 43·5 12·5 20.6 13.0 
4°° 8 

Egocentric reaction Perseveration Repetition of reaction 
Same grammatical form Same number of syllables Alliteration 
Consonance 
Same ending 
	T 	{ Associations 
otal Subjects 

2.8 2·4 7·5 
49.1 35.0 9.0 15.6 8·5 
1600 8 

1.1 1.6 3.8 
5°·5 44.6 27·3 33·3 
8·3 
55° 6 

0.8 2.0 6.8 
59.2 46,4 17.6 23.6 11.2 
25° 5 

1.6 3.0 6.2 
51.8 41.0 13.2 20.6 10.0 
435 5 

440 Admittedly the plus differences in the group of sound reactions again show a more significant increase in educated women than in uneducated: 
Plus difference of 
		sound reactions 	2.6 	8,3 and 6.4 
	441 	The cause of this contradiction might be that the educated 
women's attitude to the experiment was considerably more variable than that of the uneducated female subjects. Both 166 
Uneducated women 

Educated women 

groups carry out the instructions of the experiment, the making of strokes and the simultaneous reaction, with somewhat more difficulty than the men. If one compares, for example, the differences of educated men and women in the internal distraction experiment, one is immediately struck by the more complete effect of distraction in the men. The only essential difference between the two female groups is perhaps that educated women are capable at least at times of dividing their attention. 
167 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
	442 	It seems to us now that we have here a certain difference 
in the mode of reaction of men and women, a difference that can be determined quantitatively. As, however, with the limited material, sources of error are not excluded, we offer these observations for further discussion. 
	443 	The figures in the individual groups of the scheme show 
certain variations that need discussion. While the co-ordinations decrease fairly evenly. with distraction, the predicates under distraction present a somewhat different aspect in men and in women. 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL ::'UtlJU .. l::' 
EDUCATED External Distraction 
UNEDUCATED 
	445 	They are all, contrary to expectation, minus differences. 
This shows that the coexistences cannot be held responsible for the increase of external associations. Remembering the discussion where we explained that coexistences frequently arose owing to the effort of vividly imagining the object of the stimulus-word, then the decrease under distraction is comprehensible; coexistence is to some extent a step towards internal association and therefore plays a part in its decrease. 
	446 	The groups of identities and linguistic-motor forms in 
general show a rise-which is, however, affected by a big increase of sound reactions, causing, for example, in the group of educated women particularly, a decrease of the two groups. We explain these variations by the irregularity of distraction often mentioned. The quantitatively infrequent occurrence of word-completion in uneducated subjects is striking. We believe that inadequate verbal facility is responsible for this, particularly lack of practice in standard German. Experiments with uneducated Germans, viz., North Germans, might produce different figures. Sound associations are decidedly more frequent in educated subjects than in uneducated. 
	447 	The indirect associations behave strangely. We have al- 
ready indicated an inverse relationship of their increase with sound associations. In our averages one is first struck by a dependence on the degree of distraction. 
Women Men 
-0.2 
-8·5 
Minus difference of the predicates 
External Distraction -0.6 
-0 
	444 	The table shows that under distraction the predicates de- 
crease to a lesser degree in women than in men. Here let us remember that in the discussion of the predicate type we stated the hypothesis of the primary, sensory vividness of the stimulus images, which invites predicates. This psychological peculiarity shows itself, of course, in a state of attempted division of attention; this will hinder the experiment in that, in the absence of active concentration, the primarily vivid images absorb the interest and thereby bar or impede the division of attention as planned in the experiment. We shall see this phenomenon quite clearly in the result of the distraction experiment of the predicate type, to which we are referring. There are relatively very many predicate types among the women, which is probably the reason for the apparent prevalence of the predicate. In contrast to the decrease of internal associations there is an increase of external associations, in so far as this is not influenced by a stronger rise of sound reactions. The three groups do not participate equally in the increase of external associations. We even notice that the number of coexistences shows rather a tendency to decrease. We tabulate the differences again here: 
UNEDUCATED 
EDUCATED 
Women -2.0 Difference 
Men 
Women 
Men -0·4 distraction 
			Women 	Men 	Women 	Men 
		Normal conditions 	0.7 	0.8 	0.9 	2.5 
		Distraction 	0.9 	2.4 	0.9 	4.6 
	448 	These figures show that uneducated subjects produce fewer 
indirect associations on the average under normal conditions than do the educated and that women produce fewer than men. Under distraction the women's aversion to indirect associations is shown even more clearly. While a quite definite increase is shown in the men, the average figure for educated women under normal conditions remains the same, and in uneducated women only a quite insignificant increase occurs. Thus, in this respect, a significant difference between the sexes must exist, the nature of which is at present unknown to us. The nature of indirect associations, discussed above (predominantly sound reactions as intermediate links), makes a 
169 
UNEDUCATED 
EDUCATED 
	-1.5 	-3·4 
between normal experiment and with reference to coexistences 
ro 

Women S.R. Ind. 
Men S.R. Ind. 
Women S.R. Ind. 
Men S.R. Ind. 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
a minimum of sound reactions. This aspect of the indirect associations seems to indicate a certain interdependence of the two groups; we see this as an increased occurrence of indirect associations affecting mainly the group of sound reactions. Taking the group of sound reactions in relation to indirect associations, we get the following picture: 
I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
dependence on distraction readily comprehensible. Thus with the increase of sound reactions we could expect an increase also of indirect associations. For the sake of clarity we briefly repeat the relevant figures here: 
UNEDUCATED 
EDUCATED 
Normal 
	conditions 	0.7 	0.7 	0.6 	0.8 	3·3 	o.g 	3.6 	2·5 
External 
	distraction I 	2.g 	1.2 	3.1 	3.4 	10.2 	1.0 	g.6 	3.2 
External 
	distraction 11 	3.7 	0.7 	1.0 	1.4 	g.2 	0.2 	8.2 	6.2 
Internal Distraction (educated 
		subject only) 	- 	- 	- 	- 	) 1.6 	1.6 	20·7 	4·5 
	449 	Although the simultaneous increase of sound reactions and 
indirect associations under distraction, already mentioned above, is indicated in general in these figures, the parallelism of the two groups is in places somewhat unbelievable. If a parallel between the two groups really exists, one would expect that the maxima of indirect associations would sometimes coincide with the maxima of sound reactions. This is by no means the case. In considering, in the figures for the distraction experiments, the maxima of indirect associations, we see that the maxima only coincide in two cases. No corresponding increases of indirect associations coincide with the maxima of sound reactions. Thus no clear and simple connection in the form of a direct proportion exists. Neither do these figures provide easily recognizable clues to an inverted relationship. Only the group of educated men shows a co-incidence of a striking maximum of indirect associations with the minimum of sound reactions, which is nevertheless a noteworthy fact. In the female groups we see the indirect associations strikingly lagging behind the sound reactions. In the educated men a distinct increase of sound reactions, from 3.6 per cent under normal conditions to 20.7 per cent under distraction, corresponds to an increase of only 2 per cent of indirect associations, while their maximum coincides, as already stated, with 
170 
External distraction I External 
		distraction 11 	2.0 	0.7 	0.8 	1.4 	6.5 	0.2 	3.8 	6.2 
	450 	The pure sound associations show, with one exception, in- 
verse relation between the two groups. The choice of sound associations for the purpose of the demonstration is not arbitrary, since they form the main part of the whole sound group; at the same time they are the associations that are suppressed under normal conditions (this does not apply to all rhymes, for example). It is just this fact, that the pure sound associations are repressed under normal conditions, that has the greatest significance for the explanation of the inverse relation. The unspoken and mostly quite unconscious intermediate links between indirect associations are in the majority of cases sound associations. Under normal conditions sound associations are continually opposed by inhibitions, as they are, as a rule, quite inexpedient in respect to the process of association and are therefore excluded. There will always be a certain tendency to suppress the sounds; the slighter the distraction of attention the stronger this tendency will be, but the greater the distraction is, the weaker it will be. With increasing distraction the reaction will be more and more influenced by sound, till finally only a sound is associated. Between the influence of sound and the sound association there comes a point where, although the sound association cannot conquer the inhibition it encounters, it does exclusively affect the sense of the following reaction by interrupting the connection between stimulus-word and reaction; it is immaterial whether the subconscious sound association is formed centripetally or centrifugally. The mediating 
171 
	UNEDUCATED 			EDUCATED 		
Women 	Men 	Women 	Men 	
S.R. 	Ind. 	S.R. 	Ind. 	S.R. 	Ind. 	S.R. 	Ind. 	
1.7 	1.2 	1.4 	H 	5·5 	1.0 	8.0 	3.2 	

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIA nON 
sound association, which almost reaches the threshold of reaction, leads to the formation of the indirect association. Of course the intermediate links need not necessarily always be sound associations; they need only invite enough inhibition to remain just below the threshold of reaction. Thus we interpret the indirect association as a symptom of repression of inferior associations, which almost reach the threshold of reaction.51 Using this interpretation the apparently inverse relation of sound association and indirect association can be easily understood: if the sound association predominates, one can conclude from this that the inhibition of sounds has not occurred; therefore repression and consequently indirect association are also prevented. If the number of sound associations decreases it is a sign that inhibition is increasing, thus providing the conditions for the occurrence of indirect associations. The indirect associations are therefore a transitional phenomenon which reaches an optimum at a certain degree of distraction. This also explains the increase apparently in proportion with the sound reaction and the subsequent decrease in inverse proportion after the critical point has been reached.52 
	451 	Claparede, who has worked on the question of indirect as- 
sociations from another angle, believes that it is the "resultat du concours de plusieurs associations intermediaires, chacune trop faible pour etre consciente."53 From the results of experiment we are in complete agreement with this interpretation. The tendency to form a meaningful association, which derives from the stimulus-concept, inhibits sound associatipns. Both 
51 We note that the description of indirect associations at present deserves no greater value than that of a working hypothesis. We willingly offer our figures and our interpretations for further discussion in the hope that several research workers in cooperation might succeed in solving this question satisfactorily. 
52 The occurrence of indirect associations under the influence of a distraction of attention has long been known from another source. The tangential naming of pictures in alcoholic delirium (Bonhoffer), in epileptic mania (Heilbronner), in certain catatonic and hysterial conditions, etc., is nothing but indirect association which is formed not, as in our experiment, through shift via sound similarity but through a shift via image similarity. Thus, in this case, it is a supplementary phenomenon of flight of ideas in the visual sphere and corresponds at all points to the phenomena we have shown in the acoustic-verbal sphere. [For Bonhoffer and Heilbronner, see Bibliography.] 
53 Cf. Claparcde, L'Association des idees (1903), p. 140; and idem, "Association mediate dans I'evocation volontaire" (1904). 
172 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
are too weak, however, to produce a reaction. If the sound association, not linked in meaning with the stimulus image, predominates, then the indirect association comes into being; otherwise it is a reaction that, although strongly influenced by sound, is nevertheless meaningful. Pieron's54 interpretation, which states that the third link of the indirect association has greater interest for the individual than the intermediate link, does not fit in with the results of our experiment. Nevertheless there is something attractive about Pieron's view and it is valid for all those cases where {he external stimulus is unconsciously assimilated as a strongly charged complex, dominant in the subject's consciousness. (We shall discuss this further possibility of an indirect association in a later paper.) Pieron's view does not fit in with a vast number of the indirect associations of everyday life. From many examples we mention only one very instructive observation from our own experience. 55 One of the present authors was smoking a cigar; suddenly it occurred to him that he had no more matches on him. He had a longish train journey before him and had put a good Havana cigar in his pocket in order to smoke it on the way. He now thought he would have to light the cigar from the one he was finishing. With that, the narrator was satisfied and dropped the train of thought. For about one minute, he looked out of the window at the landscape, which he observed attentively; suddenly he noticed himself saying involuntarily and quite softly: 
"Bunau-Varilla." Bunau-Varilla is the name of a well-known Panamanian agitator in Paris. The observer had read the name several days before in the Matin. As this name appeared to him to be without any connection with the contents of consciousness, he immediately directed his attention to the name and observed what occurred to him in the process (Freud's method of spontaneous association). Immediately Varinas occurred to him, then Manila, almost simultaneously also cigarillo, and with it a vague feeling of a South American atmosphere; the next clear link was the Havana cigar and with it the memory that this cigar had provided the content of the penultimate thought-cycle. The intermediate links, Varinas and Manila, 
54 H. Pieron, "L'Association mediate" (1903). 
55 [Cf. "The Psychology of Dementia Praecox," par. 110, where the example is given with slight differences.] 
173 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
are brands of tobacco, both of which had the tone of something Spanish for the narrator; cigarillo is the Spanish word for cigarette; the observer had smoked cigarillos with Manila tobacco in a Spanish colony but not in South America. Nevertheless there was a faint "South American" echo about cigarillo. While the observer was looking out of the window he had not the slightest feeling of such a train of thought, his attention was completely concentrated on the landscape. The unconscious train of thought leading to the formation of "Bunau-Varilla" was: Havana cigar / cigarillo with Spanish-South American background / a travel memory with Manila-cigarillo / SpanishAmerican brand of tobacco Varinas / (Varinas and A1anila condensed by dream-mechanism into) Varilla / Bunau-Varilla. A sufficient reason for the subconscious pursuance of the thought of the cigar was that the observer had prepared himself not to miss lighting the Havana cigar from the end of the cigar still alight. According to Pieron, "Bunau-Varilla" would have to be the emotionally charged final link desired by the observer. This is what in fact it is not; it is merely a product of condensation formed by the competition between several very weak intermediate links (according to Claparede's interpretation). The mechanism is a linguistic-motor automatism such as occurs not infrequently in normal subjects (in certain hysterical subjects, it is true, far more often). The subconscious association-process takes place through similarities of image and sound; in fact all associations taking place in the subconscious, i.e., outside the range of attention, do so (with the exception of certain somnambulant processes). In connection with Jerusalem's56 communication Wundi51 calls the intermediate link "unnoticed" in contrast to "unconscious," in which we can perceive not material objection but merely a verbal quibble. It is not surprising that Scripture58 obtains doubtful results in his experiments on indirect associations, and Smith59 and 
56 Jerusalem, "Ein Beispiel von Assoziation durch unbewusste Mittelglieder" (1892). 
51 Wundt. "Sind die Mittelglieder einer mittelbaren Assoziation bewusst oder 
unbewusst?" (1892). 
58 Scripture, "Ober den assoziativen Verlauf der \'orstellungen" (1889). 59 William Smith, lUT FTage deT mittelbaTen Assoziation (1894). 
174 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS Miinsterberg60 obtained no results, because their experiments were set in a way that did not favour the production of indirect associations. The best indirect associations are provided by careful self-observation in everyday life.61 Indirect verbal associations originate, as our experiment shows, mainly in distraction experiments. 
	452 	Meaningless reactions show, as is to be expected, an increase 
under distraction. 
	453 	The failures, the mainly emotive nature of which has al- 
ready been frequently stressed in the individual descriptions, are conspicuously absent in the group of educated men under distraction. For the rest they present a constant pattern. We shall return to this group in the discussion of the average of the predicate type. 
	454 	A state of affairs similar to that of meaningless reactions 
obtains in the repetition of the stimulus-word; it too increases under distraction. 
	455 	We have combined the four last-mentioned groups to form 
the so-called residual group, with the original purpose of collecting the abnormal subsidiary phenomena of the association experiment into this group. From the number of this group we then hoped to obtain a certain co-efficient of the emotional state into which the subject was brought by the experiment. The decision to include the indirect associations also in this group was based on the assumption, in itself not improbable, that in indirect associations, because of their provenance from sound-shifts, we really have experiments that have failed. Naturally we interpreted the meaningless reactions, as well as the last two groups, as experiments that failed. In this interpre- 
60 Mlinsterberg, BeitT(ige %UT expeTimentellen Psychologie, IV (1892), p. 9. Miinsterberg states emphatically: "Indirect associations through unconscious intermediate links do not exist." All that can be said is that there were none in his experiments. 
61 There are several good examples of indirect associations in Cordes, "Experimentelle Untersuchungen liber Assoziationen" (1899), pp. 70, 71, 75. The supposition that the intermediate links of indirect associations are unconscious is for Cordes "a theoretical construction which it will never be possible to prove empirically, for unconscious psychic phenomena cannot be experienced." The author would in any case modify this apodictic statement if he were at all acquainted with the results of hypnotism. 
175 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIA nON 
tation we were supported by certain experiences in the pathological field-that is, the association phenomena in emotional stupidity,62 where the figures for this group rise considerably. It is true that the results of our experiments do not confirm the original assumption of the emotional nature of inJiirect associations. This does not hold in the other three groups. The nature of the emotion, however, must be defined more precisely for these three groups. Meaningless reactions and repeated stimulus-words originate according to our experience as a rule from stupefaction, which is produced by the way the experiment is set, while the majority of failures are based on emotion evoked through the awakening of feeling-toned complexes. Stupefaction, caused by the way the experiment is set, can in that case be completely excluded. The inclusion of failures in the residual group is therefore arguable. We have therefore substituted the non-committal designation "residual group" for "emotion group," the name we originally chose for this group. The summation of the figures for these groups was undertaken for clarity of arrangement, with full realization of its provisional and inadequate nature. Everyone who has done experimental work, particularly with such involved material, knows that one must pay dearly for one's experience and that one knows afterwards what one should have known before. 
	456 	The distribution under distraction of egocentric reactions 
(which to some extent represent a pointer to feeling-toned reactions) is best demonstrated by a tabulated survey of the differences from the results under normal conditions. 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
	458 	With respect to perseverations, we have already several 
times proved a certain dependence on strong feeling-tones. As regards its frequent increase under distraction, we assumed the cause to be lack of association with distracted attention. Obviously various complicated conditions are involved here which we cannot separate beforehand. The following table of differences from normal conditions shows the effect of distraction on perseverations. 
UNEDUCATED 
EDUCATED 
Women +1.2 
Men -0·4 
Women +1.1 
Men -0.2 
	459 	From these figures it appears that in men perseverations 
decrease under distraction, while in women they increase. 
	UNEDUCATED 	EDUCATED 	
	Women 	Men 	'Nomen 	Men 	
No. of egocentric 					
reactions under 					
normal conditions 	+0·5 	+1.7 	+2.1 	+2.8 	
Difference under 					
distraction 	0.0 	-1.7 	-1.0 	-1.6 	
	460 	The number of egocentric reactions gives us a rough meas- 
ure of how many feeling-toned references to the ego occur among the reactions;63 the number of perseverations indicates something similar to us, but in a less direct form. 
	461 	As stated above, in women there is less effect of distraction 
on the reaction. From this one may conclude that female attention with respect to our experiment has proved less easy to divide. The smaller change in the number of egocentric reactions in women may be connected with this. If the number of egocentric reactions shows only a slight tendency to decrease, a similar tendency is to be expected in perseverations. These increase, however. We explain this by the fact that in the associationless vacuum artificially created by distraction feelingtoned contents of consciousness can persist more easily than otherwise. Why women in particular should have the tendency to perseverate under distraction we do not know. Perhaps it is connected with more intense feelings? 
	462 	That attention cannot easily be divided in women may be 
based on the following causes: 
(1 ) We have already indicated that various individuals (predicate types) presumably have fundamentally much more vivid inner images than others. By "more vivid images," we mean such as have combined in themselves a greater intensity of attention or, in other words, such as appear simultaneously 
	457 	These differences show that according to our material the 
minus differences of the men are greater than those of the women; thus that, although women do not betray greater egocentricity under normal conditions than men, they maintain it more firmly under distraction than men do. 
62 See Jung, "On Simulated Insanity." 
- '---~ 
63 In women by no means all egocentric references emerge freely, for the simple reason that the experimenters are men. 
177 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIA nON 
with many other associations evoked by them. The larger an association-complex is, the more the "ego-complex" is also involved. It is therefore understandable that with the vividness of the inner images, not only does the number of internal predicates increase but also the number of subjective value judgments generally-that is, of egocentric reactions. 
(2) The vividness of the inner image is by no means always a primary involuntary phenomenon but can also be an artificial one; the attention is purposely directed to it or, in other words, numerous new associations accompany an image that appears with few collateral associations. This process is stimulated by the image that appears; it is actually realized through another association-complex, which at the time fills consciousness. The vividness of the inner image is thus in one case primary and involuntary, in the other case secondary and willed. The latter form is then under the influence of another intellectual phenomenon present at the time. 
(3) If the inner images are basically very vivid and plastic, i.e., if they occur from the first together with many collateral associations, they must always have a quite definite effect on attention and therefore make more difficult or hinder its division, according to the degree of vividness. This is, as we shall see, the case with the predicate type. 
(4) If the inner images are under the influence of an already existing association-complex, artificially vivid or plastic, it then depends on the stability of this complex whether the dividing of attention will be possible or not. 
(5) We have no reason to assume that the inner images are in general fundamentally more vivid in women than in men (otherwise all women would probably belong to the predicate type.) We have, however, reason to assume, as we have already demonstrated above, that the reactions of uneducated subjects, particularly of uneducated women, are based on a (quasi) intentionally produced vividness of the stimulus-image. The association-complex responsible for this is the special view that uneducated people take of the association experiment. As, under the influence of this dominating image, they interpret the stimulus-word mainly from the point of view of meaning, they must apply more attention to stimulus-image, thus necessarily yielding less to distraction, as our figures show. That it is par- 
178 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
ticularly the uneducated women who yield least to distraction agrees with the fact that they are the most strongly under the influence of this particular interpretation of the experiment. That educated women also show a tendency to yield less than men to distraction cannot also be attributed to this particular interpretation of the experiment but must be related to the fact, already mentioned, that among our educated female subjects there are relatively many predicate types, who show practically no distraction phenomenon at all. We therefore give in Table G the average figures of the educated women who are not predicate types. 

G. 	Educated Women excluding Predicate Types 	
SPECIAL QUALITY 	NORMAL 	EXTERNAL DISTRACTION 	
			60 Metronome 	100 Metronome 	
Grouping 	15'2} 	13'5} 	10.81 	
Predicative relationshi p 	14.0 3°·2 	I{.o 28·3 	9.6tO.8 	
Causal relationship 	1.0 	0.8 	0·4 	
Co-existence 	15'3} 	12.4} 	7.21 	
Identity 	4.8 62.6 	11.2 50.4 	8.8t2.8 	
Linguistic-motor forms 	42.5 	26.8 	46.8 	
Word-completion 	1.5} 	4'0} 	3.61 	
Sound 	1.4 3·7 	8.0 14.0 	9.2r3.2 	
Rhyme 	0.8 	2.0 	0·4 	
Indirect 	1.°1 	1.21 	~.61 	
Meaningless 	0.1 	2.0 		
Failures 	o.g 2.4 	1.6 5.0 	0.413.2 	
Repetition of 	0.4J 	I 		
stimulus-word 		0.2) 	I.2) 	
Egocentric reaction 	0·3 	0·4 	1.6 	
Perseveration 	0·7 	2·4 	° 	
Repetition of reaction 	6.g 	4.8 	3.6 	
Same grammatical form 	41.8 	63.2 	42.4 	
Same number of syllables 	60.1 	47.6 	57.2 	
Alliteration 	8·5 	13.2 	15.2 	
Consonance 	14·7 	21.2 	24.0 	
Same ending 	12.6 	15.2 	13.2 	
T { Associations 	1200 	25° 	25° 	
otal Subjects 	6 	5 	5 	
		179 			

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
	463 	From the figures of this table it immediately appears that 
it is not the case that the women's attention is less easily divided than the men's, but that it was the predicate type that strongly affected the average for educated women. Our figures show a definite distraction phenomenon that in no way lags behind that of the men. 
	464 	Repetitions of the same reactions decrease with distraction; 
the reasons for this are easy to understand. 
	465 	The numbers of verbal connections rise under distraction, 
thus expressing quantitatively the influence on the reaction in terms of external and mechanical factors. It is noteworthy that in uneducated subjects there is under normal conditions not only a greater agreement of grammatical form than in educated subjects but that the distraction experiment increases this even more intensely than in educated subjects, although in uneducated subjects the distraction phenomenon is less distinct. The following differences64 clearly demonstrate this: 
Women 
Men 
		Uneducated 	+ 3.4 	+6.6 
		Educated 	+ 1.4 	+4.7 
	466 	The figure for the agreement of grammatical form does not 
only begin at a higher level in uneducated subjects but under distraction rises still higher than the corresponding figure for educated subjects. The reason for this probably lies in the fact that educated subjects have numerous current phrases at their command even under distraction. 
	467 	The figures for agreement in number of syllables, alitera- 
tion, consonance, etc., need not be commented on. 
	468 	The almost general decrease of figures for verbal connec- 
tions in the second part of distraction is connected with the decrease of sound reactions. This change can be attributed to habituation, when the factors of very intense distraction gradually recede. 
IV. Average of the Predicate Type under Normal Conditions and under Distraction 
	469 	Tables H and I give the average figures for all those sub- 
jects whom we call "predicate types." We have included in this 
64 Difference between the figure for identical grammatical form under normal conditions and the average number of distraction experiments. 
1~{) 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
type all those subjects in whom the internal associations predominate over the group of linguistic-motor forms; the number of predicates is on an average more than twice the number of co-ordinations. Among the subjects used for the calculation of averages there are seven women and two men.65 
	470 	We have placed the average of all other types next to the 
predicate type for comparison. The difference is striking. The predicate type shows no change worthy of mention under distraction: the predicate type does not show divided attention, while all the other types show themselves accessible to disturbing stimuli, at least to some extent. This fact is extraordinarily strange. 
	471 	As we have already indicated, we assume that the individu- 
als belonging to the predicate type have basically more vivid images on which attention is already involuntarily fixed in the moment of their emergence (contrary to deliberately produced vividness). We have noticed in our material that among the reactions of the predicate type there are, besides numerous value judgments, also strikingly many predicates designating sensory properties of the object of the stimulus-word, particularly visual ones. Individual subjects reported at once that they sometimes received quite definite plastic images.66 We based the theory of the predicate type on this observation. 
	472 	An inner image is vivid if the associations immediately con- 
nected with it spring to mind. The nearest associations upon the image of a concrete object are the sensory aspects: the visual, the acoustic, the tactile, and the motor. A vivid image can be said to be in the state of being concentrated uponY The more vivid an image is, the stronger are the inhibitions emerging from it against everything not associated with it; the attention will therefore be all the less prone to be divided. That the distraction phenomenon is virtually absent in the predicate type we regard as proof of the correctness of our 
65 From the predicate-type class, containing three sub-groups, only one subject was used for calculation. 
66 These plastic images correspond roughly to Ziehen's individual images. We purposely did not ask about them during the experiment, to avoid directing attention to them by this suggestion. In many individuals only a slight effort of attention is needed to produce plastic images immediately. In this case only the vague and general verbal images are suppressed, which can happen half unconsciously with appropriate suggestion, particularly with unpractised subjects. 67 That is, it concentrates attention upon itself. 

	I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 			THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 		
	H. 	Averages of Predicate Types 			I. 	Averages of Non-Predicate Types 		
				EXTERNAL DISTRACTION 					EXTERNAL DISTRACTION 	
SPECIAL QUALITY 			NORMAL 	60 Met. 	100 Met. 		SPECIAL QUALITY 	NORMAL 	60 Met. 	100 Met. 	
Grouping 			12'5} 	14.8} 	13'1} 		Grouping 	"5} 	18'0} 	14'3} 	
Predicative relationship 	32.1 45·7 	31.2 46.5 	30·5 43.8 	I 	Predicative relationship 	13·5 36.0 	11.3 29.9 	10.8 25.4 	
Causal relationship 	1.1 	0·5 	0.2 	I 	Causal relationship 	1.0 	0.6 	0·3 	
				I 					
Co-existence 			13·51 	13·71 	11.71 		Co-existence 	17'2} 	16.0} 	12'2} 	
Identity 			4.1 J48.6 	8.0J44.9 	8·5 J49.3 		Identity 	7·3 58.2 	13.2 57.2 	10.8 62.8 	
Linguistic-motor forms 	31.0 	23.2 	29.1 		Linguistic-motor forms 	33·7 	28.0 	39.8 	
Word-completion 			0.8} 	0.8} 	0.21 		W ord-com pletion 	0.8} 	1.3} 	1.7} 	
Sound 			0·3 1·5 	1.4 3.0 	1.1 J 1.5 		Sound 	1.1 2.5 	4·7 7·5 	4.2 7.0 	
Rhyme 			0·4 	0.8 	0.2 		Rhyme 	0.6 	1.5 	1.1 	
Indirect 			oSf 	1.71 	0.21 		Indirect 	L5} 	"} 	L'} 	
Meaningless 			~'4 3.2 	0.2 	1.11 		Meaningless 	0·3 	1.2 	1.3 	
Failures 				2·5 4.6 	2·5 ~ 4.6 		Failures 	1.0 2.9 	0.8 5.1 	0.8 4.7 	
Repetition of 				I 	I 		Repetition of 				
stimulus-word 			o ) 	0.2) 	0.8 J 		stimulus-word 	0.1 	0·9 	0·7 	
Egocentric reaction 	3.6 	1.7 	1.4 		Egocentric reaction 	1.0 	0.6 	0·7 	
Perseveration 			0.8 	1.1 	1.1 		Perseveration 	0·9 	1.8 	1.9 	
Repetition of reaction 	9·9 	8.0 	4.8 		Repetition of reaction 	8·5 	6,5 	4.0 	
Same grammatical form 	4°·7 	43.1 	45·4 		Same grammatical form 	62.1 	66·9 	63.8 	
Same number of syllables 	37·3 	44.0 	47·4 		Same number of syllables 	42.9 	47·3 	43·5 	
Alliteration 			7·9 	8.8 	10.8 		Alliteration 	9·4 	12·4 	14.1 	
Consonance 			12·9 	15·4 	14.2 		Consonance 	14·4 	22·4 	20.8 	
Same ending 			6·7 	7·7 	11.1 		Same ending 	14.0 	15·4 	16.6 	
T { Associations 	1792 	35° 	350 		T I { Associations 	4586 	1000 	1085 	
					ota S b' 				
otal Subjects 			9 	7 	7 		u Jects 	23 	20 	20 	

interpretation. The predicate type cannot divide his attention because his fundamentally vivid inner images make so much demand on his attention that inferior associations (which make up the distraction phenomenon) do not occur at all. 
	473 	By means of our hypothesis all the peculiarities of the 
predicate type can now be explained. 
(I) The large number of predicates. The subjects name a particularly striking characteristic of the inner image and 182 

naturally use the predicate for this purpose. The large number of internal associations is mainly to be attributed to the number of predicates. The ratio of internal to external associations reminds us of that in uneducated subjects. The common factor, however, is only the degree of attention applied. The predicates are also retained under distraction, which we regard as clear proof of the involuntary nature of the plasticity of the image. 
183 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
(2) The large number of egocentric reactions. The more vivid the image is, or the greater is the complex of associations present in consciousness, at any given moment, the more it is bound to stimulate and absorb into itself the associations making up the consciousness of the personality, in order by this synthesis to remain conscious. Thus a whole series of personal references must be added to the emerging complex of associations, which are then designated as particularly striking properties of the images and so become reactions. This is how egocentric reactions originate. 
(3) The relatively large number of failures. These occur as a rule in reactions to the stimulation of a strong feelingtoned complex, which grips the attention so firmly that no further reaction can take place. It is quite feasible that in the predicate type more feeling-toned complexes are stimulated than in other types as a result of the more vivid images. It follows as an essential consequence of our assumptions that under distraction the failures show a tendency to increase. A certain amount of attention may be left over from what is fixed to the image, but if this is needed for an activity (marking the metronome-beats), then none is left for reacting; no decrease in the number of failures can result from this. 
	474 	From the figures for the distraction experiment it emerges 
that the predicate type is not a fortuitous momentary attitude but constitutes an important psychological characteristic, which also obtains under different conditions.6B 
V. The Influence of the Grammatical Form of the Stimulus-word on the Reaction 
	475 	As can easily be appreciated, the choice of stimulus-word 
with all its different properties is of some consequence. There is a whole series of stimulus-words that have predictable reactions. Thus, for instance, there is a large number of designations for concrete objects with which coexistent images are regularly associated, quite apart from many stimulus-words that call forth stereotyped word-connections, e.g., to part / hurts)' to part / to avoid; blood / red. For the quantitative 
6B By this we mean, of course, merely our experimental conditions. Under the influence of fatigue or alcohol the predicates would probably decrease; this, however, remains to be investigated. 
184 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
ratios it is of considerable importance whether the stimulusword is a noun, adjective, or verb. A main factor will then be the frequency of the particular word-form. From a random selection in books one can say that language uses on average twice as many nouns as adjectives or verbs. Thus a noun used as a stimulus-word will, in accordance with the law of frequency, be "answered" more easily than all other word-forms. On the other hand, the lower frequency of verb and adjective will cause rather more difficulty in reaction, quite apart from the fact that, to most subjects, an adjective or a verb in the infinitive, standing outside the context of a sentence, appears more peculiar than a noun, particularly one that is the name of a concrete object, about which something can be said. We have made a comparative examination of this from the material of the experiments under normal conditions and have found the following average figures: 

		REACTIONS TO VERBS 			
	Noun 	Adjective 	Verb 	ASSOCIATIONS 	Sound 	
				Internal External 		
Educated men 	63.2 	15.8 	20.6 	48.4 	41.6 	7·4 	
Uneducated men 	32.7 	21.7 	45·5 	49.6 	47·4 	1.1 	
Educated women 	45·7 	19·4 	34·7 	55·5 	39.2 	4-5 	
Uneducated women 	52.8 	14·4 	32.6 	69.0 	29.6 	0·3 	
Predicate type 	54.8 	26.2 	18·9 	62.8 	33-4 	2.7 	
Non-predicate type 	46.7 	15.0 	38.1 	52.4 	41.8 	4.2 	
		REACTIONS TO ADJECTIVES 			
	Noun 	Adjective 	Verb 	ASSOCIATIONS 	Sound 	
				Internal External 		
Educated men 	53.1 	43.6 	2·9 	43·5 	45.0 	8.0 	
Uneducated men 	32.4 	64.8 	2·7 	44.8 	51.0 	3-4 	
Educated women 	39.1 	52.6 	7·4 	43·3 	45·4 	3.1 	
Uneducated women 	49·4 	47-3 	3.0 	60.8 	37·3 	1.1 	
Predicate type 	64.0 	29·7 	5.2 	64.2 	28.2 	1.9 	
Non-predicate type 	35·5 	59·9 	H 	42.8 	51.0 	4-3 	
	476 	The number of agreements in grammatical form quoted 
among the individual figures shows that the stimulus-word and reaction do not by any means always agree in grammatical form. The above table shows the average figures, calculated as percentages, for the best-characterized group of our subjects. 
185 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
	479 	We have therefore carried out a further investigation to 
test this interpretation and to learn how great is the number of internal associations that are reactions to verbs. With these figures we are in a position to prove our interpretation. We have therefore placed next to the figures giving the preferred word-forms the figures showing the quality of the associations given in reaction to verbs. We give the appropriate figures once more together with those for the experiment under normal conditions for the groups mainly under consideration here. 
We decided against giving the individual figures, to avoid a confusing accumulation. Also, the average figures show most clearly the characteristic variations with which we are essentially concerned. 
	477 	It is striking that in the verb groups, with one exception, 
the reactions to verbs were mainly nouns; only the group of uneducated men reacted mainly to verbs with verbs. The educated men reacted mostly with nouns. These (strangely enough) have most in common with the uneducated women, while the educated women are closest to the uneducated men. It is clear from the beginning that the verbal law of frequency has great influence on the preference for this or that mode of reaction. It is therefore quite understandable that educated men, who in any case have a very blunt reaction type, should prefer the readier noun to the rarer verb; it is not so easily understandable that uneducated women should react in an apparently similar way and this needs detailed investigation. 
	478 	While, according to our observations, educated men usually 
append nouns to verbs, uneducated men make an effort to do justice to the meaning of the stimulus-word by reacting with a similar verb. A similar effort on the part of the educated women is somewhat less clear. This mode of reaction, the psychology of which we have discussed in detail, is conditioned, as is well known, by the effort to react mainly in accordance with the meaning of the stimulus-word. We have previously seen that uneducated women lead in this respect. Accordingly one would expect that uneducated women would react with an ever higher number of verbs than uneducated men. It must, however, be remembered at this point that the uneducated women's level of education is the lowest, that thus their verbal education and facility is also the lowest; consequently, reacting to verbs will be most difficult for this group, as verbs are even rarer for them than for the other groupS.69 They are therefore dependent on nouns that can most easily be combined with verbs. The uneducated women's effort to produce a meaningful reaction determines the choice of a noun that is not merely joined to the verb but expresses, wherever possible, something significant about the meaning of the verb. 
69 The fact that the majority of the subjects are Swiss, and therefore working under the more difficult linguistic conditions, must be remembered here. 
186 
EDUCATED MEN 
Internal Associations 
External Associations 
Sound Reactions 
Normal conditions Reactions to verbs 
Plus difference 
36.7 48,4 
52.7 
3.6 
41.6 
7·4 
11.7 
	480 	This table shows that the reaction-type when stimulus- 
words are verbs is considerably blunter than for the list of stimulus-words mainly composed of nouns. Thus it has been proved numerically that for educated men too there exist far fewer canalized conne.ctions between verb and verb than between noun and any of the three other parts of speech. Comparing the appropriate figures for uneducated women with these, we find confirmed our assertion that the nouns preferred by this group possess a higher quality. 
UNEDUCATED WO\1EN 
Internal Associations 
External Associations 
Sound Reactions 
Normal conditions Reactions to verbs 
Plus difference 
46.6 
49·4 
0·7 
69.0 
29.6 
0·3 
22·4 
	481 	It becomes apparent from these figures that the vast ma- 
jority of associations in reaction to verbs are highly significant and appropriate to the meaning of the stimulus-word. The sound reactions in the two groups quoted are also remarkable. 
187 

Normal 
	conditions 	45.7 	48.6 	1.5 	36.6 	58.2 	2·5 
Reactions to 
	verbs 	62.8 	33.4 	2·7 	52.4 	41.8 	4.2 
Plus 
		difference 	17.4 	16·4 
	484 	As the plus differences show, the influence of the verbs is 
roughly the same in both cases; no plus difference of internal associations surpassing that found in the non-predicate type corresponds to the numerous nouns in the predicate type. Thus we have no reason to suppose that in the predicate type the verb has a greater influence on the attention, that is, that it presents greater difficulties in reaction. The predicate type shows no difference of attention in relation to the verb but only the difference that educated subjects in general display, namely, that they prefer the noun on account of its greater 70 It must be noted here that of all the eleven predicate types used in these calculations only two are uneducated and of these only one is a woman. 
188 
I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
Their larger proportion under normal conditions in educated men shows how slight is the influence of the meaning of the stimulus-word. Conversely the decrease of the corresponding figures for uneducated women is characteristic of the increased influence of the meaning of the verbs. From the ratios of these figures it is permissible to conclude that, on account of their lower frequency and consequently the greater difficulty of reacting, the influence of verbs on attention is greater than that of nouns. 
	482 	The adjectives show, as a glance at the table demonstrates, 
a reaction analogous to verbs, except that in general they have rather less influence on the reaction-type. It may therefore be assumed that the reaction to adjectives generally encounters little difficulty. 
	483 	The predicate type reacts to verbs predominantly with 
nouns, while on the average all non-predicate types react to verbs with twice as many verbs as the predicate type.70 We examine again the quality of the associations with which the predicate type reacts to verbs: 
PREDICATE TYPE 
	Int. Assn. Ext. Assn. 	S.R. 

l'ON-PREDlCA TE TYPE 
Int. Assn. Ext. Assn. S.R. 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
familiarity. This is because in our predicate types the majority are educated subjects. 
	.t85 	The reaction of predicate types to adjectives is in contrast 
to our earlier findings. As the figures in the tables show, in the four groups first dealt with more adjectives are given as reactions to adjectives than verbs to verbs. In the predicate type, which is mainly distinguished by attributes in adjective nouns are given greater preference (as opposed to non-predicate form, the difference is only 10.8 per cent. On the other hand, types)-namely, 28,5 per cent more. This preference for nouns is caused by the predicate type's effort to react mainly in the form of attributes and not only, as our figures show, by reacting with a predicate but also, conversely, by discovering a noun for an adjectival stimulus-word.71 Let us now examine the proportions with reference to the quality of adjectival reactions. 

		PREDICATE TYPE 		1\ON-PREDICATE TYPE 	
	Int. Assn. Ext. Assn. 	S.R. 	Int. Assn. Ext. Assn. 	S.R. 	
Normal 							
conditions 	45·7 	48.6 	1.5 	36.0 	58.2 	2·5 	
Reactions to 							
adjectives 	64.2 	28.2 	3·9 	42.8 	51.0 	4·3 	
Plus 							
difference 	18·5 			6.8 			
	486 	As these figures show, the large number of nouns in the 
predicate type is connected with a rise of internal associations. Thus we do not in this case have a mere juxtaposition of familiar nouns but constructions that, owing to the particular mental attitude of the subject, are matched to the stimulusword. This although, in view of the figures for the other groups, the juxtaposition of a similar adjective seems easier for them. The latter is clearly demonstrated by the small plus difference of internal associations in the adjectival reactions of the non-predicate type. 
	487 	It also becomes clear from the figures for adjectival reac- 
tions that the predicate attitude is by no means fortuitous but 
71 This can be explained from the psychology of the predicate type. The sub· jects of this type are distinguished by their particularly vivid images. Therefore, they always see the adjective as the property of a definite object, which they then name in their reactions. 
189 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
corresponds to a quite definite psychological disposition, which is maintained even when other modes of reaction would be much easier than the predicate form. 
SUMMARY 
	488 	The associations show normal variation, principally under 
the influence of: 
(1) Attention (2) Education 
(3) The individual characteristics of the subject 
	489 	(a) Decrease of attention owing to any internal or external 
factors causes a blunting of the reaction type, i.e., the internal or fully valent associations recede in favour of external associations or sound associations. 
(b) Distraction of attention according to our experimental design caused, apart from the above-mentioned changes, an increase of indirect associations which must therefore be interpreted as distraction phenomena and can be derived as internal links from the competition of two weakly stressed (less valent) associations. 
(c) Educated subjects have a blunter reaction-type on the average than uneducated. The difference can essentially be eXplained by a difference in the interpretation of the stimulusword. 
(d) No essential differences emerged in the degree of division of attention by distraction between educated and uneducated subjects. 
(e) The most considerable variations in associations are conditioned by individual differences. 
	490 	(1) As regards the effect of sex on the mode of reaction un- 
der normal conditions no clear differences emerge from the average figures. Only in the distraction experiment does the peculiarity of female subjects show, in that they possess less ability to divide attention than male subjects. 
(2) The individual variations can be classified into the following types: 
19° 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
I. Objective type. The stimulus-word is taken objectively, that is: 
(a) mainly according to its objective meaning; the reaction is matched to the sense of the stimulus-word as much as possible and linked by meaning to the stimulus-word. 
(/3) mainly as verbal stimulus; the reaction is in part matched purely verbally, in part it merely marks the juxtaposing of a canalized association, in which the meaning relationship rather recedes into the background. 
H. Egocentric attitude. The stimulus-word is taken subjectively (egocentrically). 
(a) Constellation type. The personal elements used in the reaction belong to one or more emotionally charged complexes, there being two possibilities: (aa) The complex-constellations are spoken without concealment. 
(/3/3) The complex-constellations appear in veiled form as a result of a not always conscious repression.72 
(/3) Predicate type. This type has presumably the psychological peculiarity of particularly vivid (plastic) inner images, by which its particular mode of reaction may be explained. This type also shows at best an abnormally low ability to divide attention, which is expressed in the distraction experiment by an, on the average, almost complete lack of blunting phenomenon. 
	491 	As a general result important for pathology, it emerges that 
the blunting of reaction-type in fatigue, alcoholic intoxication, and mania may be attributed primarily to a disturbance of attention. The observations on the affective side of associations (effects of feeling-toned complexes) might be of importance for the experimental investigation of pathological feeling changes and their consequences. 
72 We use the term "repression" in the sense of Breuer and Freud, to whose work Studies on Hysteria we are indebted for valuable stimulus for our work. 
191 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
	492 	Finally we may be permitted to express our sincerest thanks 
to our esteemed director, Professor Bleuler, for valuable encouragement. We are also particularly grateful to Mrs. Jung for active help in the repeated revision of the extensive material. 
I: internal associations E: external associations 
S: sound reactions 
R: reactions in the residual group 
70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 
EXPLANATION OF GRAPHS 
	493 	In the accompanying graphs the arithmetical means of in- 
ternal associations, external associations, sound reactions, and reactions in the residual group of different groups are presented. The averages shown are: 
70 65 60 55 50 45 
40 
35 30 25 20 15 10 5 
	IESR 	IESR 	IESR 
Graph n. Averages from Experiments with Educated Subjects under External Distraction 
(a) Normal conditions (Graph I, a): 23 subjects, 3,800 associations 
(b) Distraction experiment with 60 metronome-beats per minute: 13 subjects, 650 associations 
(c) Distraction experiment with 100 metronome-beats per minute: 13 subjects, 835 associations 
E 5 R 
E 5 R 
	495 	GraPh n. A definite, regular decrease of internal associa- 
tions from a to e is found, i.e., according to the intensity of the method of distraction. Secondly, an increase of sound reactions in both distraction experiments emerges from the graph. The result of distraction consists in general of an increase of external associations plus an increase of sound reactions. This sum (E + S) is indicated in places by adding to column E a dotted column equal to the height of S. This column (E + S) increases regularly from a to e. The decrease of I and the increase of (E + S) under distraction demonstrates clearly the effect of distraction. Sb and Se are both bigger than Sa. The reactions in the residual group increase from a to e. 
GraPh I. Averages from Experiments under Normal Conditions (a) Educated Subjects: 23 subjects, 3,800 associations 
(b) Uneducated Subjects: 18 subjects, 3,000 associations 
	494 	GraPh I. The educated subjects have fewer internal, more 
external and more sound associations under normal conditions than the uneducated subjects. 
192 
193 

I 		III 		
, 		! 		
, 		, 		
	I 		I 	
		, 		
			I 	
I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 

THE ASSOCIATIONS OF NORMAL SUBJECTS 
70 
65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 

Graph Ill. Averages from Experiments with Uneducated Subjects under External Distraction 
(a) Normal conditions (Graph I, b): 15 subjects, 3,000 associations 
(b) Distraction experiment, 60 metronome-beats: 15 subjects, 750 associations 
(c) Distraction experiment, 100 metronome-beats: 15 subjects, 750 associations 
	496 	GraPh Ill. The picture, apart from the different starting 
point, is similar to the distraction experiment with educated subjects: 
Gradual decrease of internal associations from a to c; Gradual increase of external associations plus sound reactions from a to c. R increases under distraction, S only a little, the sound reactions generally play a much smaller part than in educated subjects. 
E S R 

ESRIESR 

	IESR 	IESR 
GraPh IV. Averages from Experiments with Subjects of the Predicate Type (Educated and Uneducated) 
(a) Normal conditions: 9 subjects, 1,792 associations (b) Distraction experiments (60 and 100 metronomebeats taken together): 7 subjects, 700 associations 
	497 	GraPh IV. While in educated subjects the ratio of I : E is 
2 : 3, and in uneducated subjects I : E is 5 : 6, here it is I : 1. I. S is smaller than in educated subjects but greater than in uneducated under normal conditions. In group R the ratio is inverted. Strikingly enough, in contrast to the preceding pictures, this ratio hardly changes under distraction. There is only a minimal decrease of I and a very small increase of (E + S). R has increased a little. 

194 

195 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 

	IESR 	IESR 
Graph V. Averages of all Experiments in the Remaining Subjects (Non-predicate Types) 
(a) Normal conditions 
(b) Distraction experiment 
	498 	GraPh V. The picture is a striking contrast to the picture 
in graph IV. Under normal conditions the ratio I: (E + S) equals 10: 17, approximately 2 : 3; in the distraction experiment 10: 24, approximately 2 : 5. S increases considerably, R less. 
70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 

,- 

AN ANALYSIS OF THE ASSOCIATIONS OF AN EPILEPTICl 
	499 	Epilepsy is one of the few mental diseases of which the symp- 
tomatology is particularly well known and delimited by innumerable clinical and systematic inquiries. Psychiatry has shown that in the epileptic, besides the symptoms of the fit, there is usually a mental degeneration that can be claimed to be specific and therefore of diagnostic value. Here are the principal traits of those epileptics who show degeneration according to the recognized textbooks of psychiatry: 
1. Intellect. Mental debility, slowness of mental reactions, fussiness, restriction and impoverishment of ideas combined with poor and stereotyped vocabulary, frequently abnormal preponderance of fantasy. 
2. Emotional disposition: Irritability, moodiness, strong egocentricity, exaggeration of all feelings, particularly religious ones. 
	5°° 	These attributes comprise what is known as the epileptic 
character, which, once established, has to be considered a permanent formation. Transitory accentuations of one or the other trait are quite likely, radiating like ripples from occasional fits. It is occasionally possible to make the diagnosis with sufficient certainty by recognizing the epileptic character, even if fits are not known to have occurred. Such cases, however, are on the whole rare. Very frequently the epileptic character is not very obvious, particularly if the fits are infrequent. It would therefore, for practical purposes, be most valuable to find a method of concise formulation of the epileptic degeneration. 
	5°1 	Repeated attempts to investigate the permanent epileptic 
changes by means of experimental methods have recently been 

196 

1 [First published as "Analyse der Assoziationen eines Epileptikers," Journal tilr Psychologie und Neurologie, V (19°5):2, 73-90. Republished in Diagnostische Assoziationsstudien, Vo!. I, pp. 175-92 (Ill. Beitrag). Translated by M. D. Eder in Studies in Word-Association, pp. 206-26. See supra, par. 1, n.1.J 
197 

1.	bright 
2.	dark 
3.	white 
4.	black 
faith health arm blue 
5.	red 
6.	yellow 
7.	green 
8.	blue 
parents father chair arm 
AN ANALYSIS OF THE ASSOCIATIONS OF AN EPILEPTIC 
	504 	In 1903 I demonstrated the frequent occurrence of sud 
meaningless connections in an imbecile in a state of emotionai stupidity in my paper "On Simulated Insanity." Wehrlin7 re cently expressly referred to these facts, supported by evidence in his research on associations of imbeciles and idiots. Accord ing to our experience these meaningless reactions always occm when the patient is in a state of emotional stupidity, whicn can, of course, occur in quite a number of mental abnormali· ties. These "unconscious" reactions are therefore not at all specific for epilepsy. 
	505 	Let us return to Fuhrmann's paper. In the first case a repe· 
tition of the experiment with the same stimulus-words wa~ carried out after about a month. 
	506 	The second case concerns a patient who had been ill since 
he was sixteen. Here the experiment was repeated four time~ within eight months, and a considerable restriction of the ex· tent of the associations, a striking monotony in the reactions, could be observed. Basing his opinion on the associations 01 two female idiots, Fuhrmann considers that there is a "marked" difference between epilepsy and idiocy, in that general con· cepts have no meaning for idiots. Wehrlin's investigation shows that the idiot is aware of general concepts but these are extremely primitive. Thus the difference may be more subtle than Fuhrmann appears to assume. 
	507 	Riklin, in his notable paper on "Relieving Epileptic Am· 
nesias by Hypnosis,"s reports on several association experiments with epileptics. This author deals more with the qualitative aspect of the reactions and arrives at a variety of important findings. 
	508 	He finds a clinging to the content of a reaction and to the 
same grammatical form, strong egocentricity, personal constellations, a frequent emotional charge in the content of the reaction, and a paucity of ideas. 
	5°9 	These peculiarities are to a great extent nothing but reflec- 
tions of the epileptic character. Riklin states that it is possible to read the signs of epileptic degeneration from a sequence of associations. In scrutinizing Riklin's observations, however, it 
7 "The Associations of Imbeciles and Idiots" (1904). 
S "Hebung epileptischer Amnesien durch Hypnose" (1902). 
199 
I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
made: thus Colucci2 and Breukink3 tested by means of the ergograph; Sommer4 and his pupil Fuhrmann5 in particular turned their attention towards associations in epileptics. We consider the latter research as particularly suited for a precise formulation of epileptic degeneration. 
	5°2 	Fuhrmann reports on an investigation into the associations 
of two epileptics. The first concerns a patient who was taken ill in his tenth year. The author found that predicates in particular occurred repeatedly and that egocentricity played a prominent part. Not all reactions could be regarded as "associations"; there were also verbal reactions, the content and form of which had no inherent connection with the stimulus-word. Fuhrmann calls these reactions "unconscious." They appear mainly at the beginning of the test sequence (according to the table given by Fuhrmann). Test sequence I starts with the following reactions: 
	5°3 	Fuhrmann does not attempt any interpretation. Kraepelin6 
mentioned this observation in the latest edition of his textbook, where he states: 
[It seemed] as if these ideas, only released but not produced by the experiment, emerged from permanent general trains of thought. Their contents were mainly related to the illness or else to the patient's personal circumstances. We may well assume that the frequency of such associations, determined by inner conditions, not by external stimulation, is particularly facilitated by the mental slowness of epileptics, which prevents them from associating quickly and easily with the stimulus-word, as normal people do. 
2 "L'Allenamento ergografico nei normali e negli Epilettici" (1902). 
3 "Ober Ermiidungskurven bei Gesunden und bei einigen Neurosen und Psychosen" (1904). 
4 Lehrbuch der psychopathologischen Untersuchungsmethoden (1899). 
5 Analyse des Vorstellungsmaterials bei ePileptischen Schwachsinn (1902). 
6 Psychiatrie: Ein Lehrbuch tilr Studierende und ;frzte (7th edn., 1904), 11, p. 626. [The passage is not included in the abstracted translation by Diefendorf (1907)·J 
198