1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 

THE REACTION-TIME RATIO IN THE EXPERIMENT 

R.80 followed without any particular feeling-tone. On the othe hand propriety immediately called up inhibitions with unpleasan feeling, which clearly persisted throughout the following associa tion. Afterwards memories of various scenes from childhood whicI are clearly constellated by mother. It was a matter of a few impres sive moments when his mother in rightful anger had maintainec that he was not a decent person and never would be. One scene wa particularly clear when the subject in his teens had behaved coarsel; and indecently towards a lady. This memory led again immediatel; to the erotic complex and here the subject had something similaJ to reproach himself with. It must therefore be this complex that i concealed at the root of this long reaction-time, and of the variou: screen-memories (Freud). 
Here we have evil repeated for the third time. (In the entire serie: it occurs six times and good or well five.) Evil always brings with i the feeling of guilt that is peculiar to the erotic complex. As you car see, this word, together with good, has a similar tendency to increase in frequency, as poor does for the money-complex. (Poor occur: four times in a manifest and three times in a repressed form.) The first time evil appeared was in 10, but at that stage it was obviousl; repressed, as there are strong inhibitions against the erotic corn plex in the subject's present emotional life. 
	8g. fire 	sea 	1.8 (BrandjMeer) 
The stimulus was correctly understood, but changed immediate!; into Brandung (surf); hence the association of sea, with a somewha longer reaction-time. Brand (fire) was therefore assimilated. The previous association does not constellate this assimilation. Brand however, has an unpleasant tone and this is associated in his mine immediately with the meaning of acute alcoholism and, togetheJ with the latter, the memory of his having once been in that state which aroused painful feelings. This time the ego-complex has fore stalled the old but still active memory, which has assimilated the stimulus-word in a convenient sense and has thereby drawn a vei over the painful memory, i.e., has hidden it from consciousness This mechanism (the censor in the Freudian sense)44 plays aver; prominent role in hysteria. It must be emphasized that it is not a all a function of consciousness but an automatic mechanism tha regulates what mayor may not come into the conscious mind. 
To respect seems to have struck very close to the money-complex because Zahn (tooth), in spite of correct interpretation, is assimilated as zahlen (to pay), hence money. Here again, we have the moneycomplex forestalling the ego-complex. 
46.	correct 	incorrect 	1.2 
	47. people 	poor 	1.8 
Again the delayed reaction with the money-complex. 
60.	to hit 	marksman 	1.2 
	61. law 	not set 	4.8 
At 61 there is an inexplicable feeling of restraint which for a long time does not permit of any reaction, and then finally a disturbed, meaningless reaction which seems as if it may perhaps be a defensive expression. Later a whole series of painful memories came to mind all of which dealt with actions that, like the erotic complex, did not conform to the laws of morality. 
The following reaction 
	62. dear 	good 	2.0 
is also under the influence of these memories of past immorality. 
	6g. part 	part of 
		the body 	1.8 
Here again we have the sexual constellation, as in R.6 and 15. 
	76. to wash 	filth43 	1.6 
A slight feeling of guilt and penitence. Later, the erotic complex. For the coarse mode of expression, see go. 
	78. strange 	newcomer 	2.0 
First the feeling that the reaction would be poor, but then the reaction Neuling (newcomer) predetermined by 38 (neujalt [arm]). Of course the reaction followed without any conscious awareness of this constellation. Strange has again hit the money-complex. One can see how this complex sends out its poor at every opportunity. 
	7g. fortune 	misfortune 	1.4 
is predetermined by the preceding reaction. 
80.	to tell 	mother 	1.2 
81.	propriety 	not proper 	3.6 
	82. narrow 	narrow- 
		minded 	1.8 

86. false 
go. dirty 

evil 
filthy (dreckig) 

1.4 
1.4 

43 [Dreck, which also means excrement.J 250 

44 Cf. The lnterpretation of Dreams (orig. 19oo). 251 

1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
The coarse wording of this reaction is determined by the moral feeling of repugnance that is tied up with the erotic complex. 
	91. door 	to show 	1.4 
This reaction too, negative and dismissive as it is, is determined by the same feeling. 
	92. to elect 	Maire (mayor) 	2.2 
With to elect we meet a new complex. This is a matter of hopes of promotion, of mehr (i.e., more) from several points of view. It is at the same time the hope of holding a leading, no longer a subordinate, position. Thus the determination of Maire is not purely a matter of sound; but also of sense in a symbolic form. The right reaction would have been manager. This word, however, is associated with the secret wish and for that reason is subject to the inhibition that suppresses the wish itself. Thus instead of the correct reaction we have an image associated with it that is outwardly determined by the word mehr (more), which itself is characteristic of the momentary mood. This process has great similarities to the hysterical talking at cross purposes of the Ganser syndrome,45 or perhaps even more to the associating at cross purposes of dementia praecox, in which this kind of metaphor is particularly common. Analogous phenomena occur relatively frequently in everyday lifeI mean the word-and-melody automatisms. The following good example was given me by a lady I know. She told me that for some days the name Taganrog had been, as it were, on the tip of her tongue but she had not the remotest idea where it came from. I asked her about her emotional experiences and repressed wishes of the recent past. After some hesitation she told me that she very much wanted a housecoat (Morgenrock) but that her husband had not shown the desired interest. Morgen-rock : Tag-an-rog-you can see that the two words are related partially through meaning and partially through sound. The appearance of the Russian name could be attributed to the fact that the lady had met someone from Taganrog at about the same time.46 Vast numbers of similar combinations can very easily be demonstrated, if one were to take the trouble of getting to the bottom of all the tunes one hums or whistles to oneself or hears from others. A colleague on his hospital rounds caught a fleeting glimpse of a nurse who was allegedly preg- 
THE REACTION-TIME RATIO IN THE EXPERIMENT 
nant and caught himself a moment or so later in the act of whistling the tune of: "Es waren zwei Konigskinder, die hatten einander so lieb" (There were two royal children, who loved each other so, etc.), although his conscious mind was-eccupied with something completely different. Another colleague betrayed to me the sad end of a love-affair by a succession of melody automatisms. 
One can see from these examples roughly the course taken by thought processes when they lack conscious awareness. Each association occurring in consciousness evokes as it were an echo of similarities and analogies that fades out through all stages of similarity of sound. The best examples are furnished by dreams. 
	9S. mockery 	scorn 	1·4 
	99. dog 	dead 	1.6 
This reaction amazed the subject. He could not understand how he could have arrived at this unusual association. The somewhat long time taken suggests a feeling-tone; this is at first described by the subject as indistinct, and then later as sad. The cue sad then reminds him of the incident at the root of this feeling. Some twenty years previously he had had to have a dog he was very fond of destroyed. This loss had been sad to him for some considerable time. 
102. moderate 
immoderate 
1.6 
The longish time of this superficial reaction is explained by its connection with R.89 (Brand). 
	104. to suppose 	to believe 	2.0 
Suppose is a suggestive word as a stimulus and there are few subjects who do not feel affected by it. In this case it hit the erotic complex. 
IOS. pain 108. to laugh 
scorn 
to chatter 
45 Riklin, "Zur Psychologie hysterischer Dammerzustande und des Ganser'schen Symptoms" (1904). 
46 A similar word-automatism (Bunau-VarilIa) is reported in "The Associations of Normal Subjects," supra, par. 451. 
1.2 
2.8 (lachen/ 
schwatzen) 
The sch of the reaction schwatzen was rather prolonged. First for a moment schmerzen (pain) came to mind momentarily though clearly, hence the length of time. Schmerzen was at once involuntarily suppressed. The feeling-tone expressed had a tinge of grief. The subject admits having an almost morbid sensitivity to mockery. 9S: mockery /scorn, IOS: pain/scorn, and 108: laugh/pain, are now closely linked. The determination of schwatzen is on the one hand alliteration and on the other semantic relationship: iiber Einen schwatzen (to gossip about someone). 
120. to create 
to operate 253 
2.0 
252 

1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
Here we have the complex of his professional life which produces the lengthened reaction-time. 
	127. resin 	tree 	2.0 (Harz/Baum) 
First, a feeling occurred as if the association was hart/arm (hard/ poor), in which arm was almost spoken out loud. This is a reappearance of the money-complex. 
Also the following reaction: 
	128. to wake 	to awaken 	1.6 
is therefore still very superficial, with relatively long time. 
130.	bad 	evil 	b.8 
	131. briefcase 	wood 	0.8 (Mappe/Holz) 
The subject takes Mappe in the sense of a briefcase in which he usually fetches (holen) money. The reaction Holz (wood) is quite meaningless and the subject was amazed at first until he remembered the meaning that he had attributed to Mappe. Holz conceals holen, which obviously belongs to the repressed money-complex. 
148.	forget 	-fulness 	2.0 
149.	drum 	beat 	1.2 
150.	free 	-dom 	1.2 
	151. wagon 	-barricade 	3.0 (Wagen/-burg) 
148 has a very unpleasant feeling-tone. Nothing particular was reported about 149 and 150, but at 151 there is a strong but inexplicable inhibition. To forget awakens the memory of an event several years ago, when he broke with a faithless friend. 149 is an echo of the song "Der treue Kamerad" (The faithful comrade): 
"Die Trommel schlug zum Streite/Er ging an meiner Seite, etc." (The drum beat for the battle, He walked by my side). 150 hints at the break. 151: wagon appears to have been assimilated only with difficulty. The compound Wagen-burg is strange, but became intelligible through the subject's remark that the place where he first recognized the friend's false-heartedness was Augsburg. All these data were at the time of the reaction unconscious. The complex betrayed itself at first only by the slightly unpleasant but otherwise indefinable feeling shown in 148. The connection of this series was only established later. 
153.	impudence 	confounded 	2.0 
	154. quick 	-ness 	0.6 
R.153 belongs to the same mood as the reactions given above. (N.B. The analysis of these was undertaken only on completion of the 
254 
THE REACTION-TIME RATIO IN THE EXPERIMENT 
entire series.) This mood is the anger about the insolence of the false friend. This strong feeling-tone seems to have persisted as far as 154. 
	167. change 	of time 	1.8 
The stimulus-word has again hit the money-complex-hence the long reaction-time. 
	184. deaf 	to fly 	2.6 (taub/fliegen) 
The subject has assimilated taub (deaf) as Taube (dove) although he did understand the stimulus-word correctly. (He is familiar with the stimulus-words and has experimented with them himself on various occasions.) The reaction-time is very long. Deaf hits on a fear-complex of limited range. He suffers from recurrent catarrh of the Eustachian tubes and his hearing in one ear has therefore deteriorated. He connects this fact with the fear, often exaggerated, of becoming totally deaf. Deaf thus has too unpleasant a tone and is therefore quickly suppressed. 
190.	to bring 	money 	1.2 
191.	vocabularyH 	to fetch 	2.2 
The last reaction is senseless, but can be explained as a perseveration of the money-complex stimulated by to bring. 
195.	mirror 	soul 	1.8 
196.	full 	filth 	1.4 
197. understanding 
Ig8. to punish 200. beautiful 
good for evil good 
1.6 
2.2 1.6 
612 
R.195 for some unknown reason is somewhat inhibited. Perhaps "mirror of the soul" already presaged the ethical tone of the following reaction. With full it is quite clear: "the soul is full of filth." This coarse expression again reveals the revulsion already mentioned (90). The following reaction, good, is loosely connected with its stimulus-word and is repeated at the next opportunity (200). Each time it represents the erotic complex. 
R.lg8 is clearly influenced by the complex. 
In contrast to the case of the previous subject, we have here a whole series of feeling-toned complexes, which are interconnected only slightly or not at all. Whereas with the female 
47 [Wortschaft, not an actual word; apparently a mistake for Wortschatz, 'vocabulary:] 
255 

1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 

THE REACTION-TIME RATIO IN THE EXPERIMENT 

Here we have, with a long reaction-time, the reaction house assumed in 2, and now the memory comes back. The subject's grandfather had often in times past sung the song "Es geht durch alle Lande-ein Engel still" (A silent angel walks through every land, 
What strikes one in this series is the peculiar reaction mouse and the perseveration of green. Neck is a reverberation from the day before the experiment when the subject had seen a film about the death of Marie Antoinette. The subject is not sure where mouse comes from, he only has the feeling that it is a slip of the tongue and supposes it should have been neck (Hals) or house. 
	614 	Of the 53 per cent of the associations mentioned, only 10 
per cent can be attributed directly to the sexual complex, namely the actual erotic complex, 11.5 per cent to the moneycomplex, 2.5 per cent to ambition, 4.5 per cent to personal sensitivity, 3 per cent to the broken friendship; to the erotic complex of the past, which is only betrayed by feelings of revulsion and remorse, 9 per cent can be related, and 12.5 per cent are connected to about six smaller, more or less separate emotional complexes. Thus with the male subject the sexual complex as such is very much in the background against the many other influences (10: 43)' 
	615 	This case shows us even more than the preceding one just 
how much of the individual personality is contained in the associations. The experiment provides data about a whole series of highly important psychological contents; it gives us as it were a cross-section of the actual personality from a psychological point of view. 
	616 	Subject No. 3: a youngish educated man.49 I am limiting myself 
in this case entirely to the critical associations and am reporting on it mainly to show again what in principle emerged in the two preceding cases. The probable mean time for this subject is 1.6 seconds. 
subject (No. I) the sexual complex (pregnancy) with its various branches (fear, jealousy, ete.) is predominant, with the male subject (No. 2) the sexual complexes play a less important part. From personal respect for the subject I cannot give all the reactions. It is easy enough to demonstrate, however: 
I. Sexual complexes: 
An erotic complex, belonging to the past, now over and done with, which is expressed almost exclusively in ethical feeling-constellations (revulsion, remorse). 
An actual erotic complex, expressed merely through erotic feeling-constellations (not reported). 
At least three sexually charged ideas, independent of each other. 
2.	The money-complex. 
3. Ambition-with at least four secondary memory-complexes. 
4· Personal sensitivity-with at least three secondary memory-com plexes. 
5.	Friendship. 
6. Two feeling-toned reminiscences, independent of each other (dead dog, deafness). 
	113 	Thus we have about ten complexes, independent of each 
other, that are touched on in the series of experiments. Subject No. 2 is a few years older than No. 1. In the latter case, as was mentioned, 18 per cent of the associations were to be attributed to the sexual complex, whereas only 4 per cent came under the influence of other emotions. On the other hand, with subject No. 2, 53 per cent of the associations can be related to the influences of complexes. This great number of constellations does not in any way indicate that the analysis was taken further, or that subject No. 2 gave fuller information than No. I, but it is also to be recognized objectively that subject No. 2 (at least at the time of the experiment) was more emotional than No. 1. We recognize this from the numerous disturbed reactions and the striking assimilations and repressions.48 

1.	head 
2.	green 
3.	water 
4.	to pierce 
5.	angel 

neck mouse green 
to fence house 

1.2 0.8 1.0 
1.2 1.6 

48 Cf. also the "complex-characteristics" in our earlier investigation: "The Associations of Normal Subjects," supra, par. 417. 
256 

49 (This case is also discussed in "The Psychological Diagnosis of Evidence," infra.J 
257 

13. state 
church 
1.8 
THE REACTION-TIME RATIO IN THE EXPERIMENT 
R.44, rascals, means the Jews. The lady concerned is Jewish. People again arouses the image Jews but this is repressed. Religion comes in in its place because the religion of his beloved had aroused scruples in the religious-minded subject. The following feeling-toned reactions refer to the complex rather than to the stimulus-words. (Similarly in subject No. 2 a coarse reaction betrayed the affect.) 
	54. white 	snow 	1.8 
A feeling of "having finished" or "death"; refers to the love-complex. 
I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
etc.). Just as frequently he would sing: "Mein Hauschen steht im Griinen" (My little house stands in the greenwood, etc.). 
A series of feeling-toned images, only some of which are pleasant, are associated with these songs. Hence the perseveration of green and the slip of the tongue mouse. 
This reaction is somewhat hesitant since church represents the sizeable complex of a rather strong religious attitude. 
	16. to dance 	not 	1. 8 
61. law 
absolute 
1.4 
This reaction really is "I cannot dance," to wllich a very unpleasant feeling is connected, for the subject has experienced a disappointment in love, which a friend who could dance well has been spared. 
18. ill 
not 
1.6 
Here we again have the reaction of R.33 expressing the same feeling: "it is the law, it must be so." 
	62. dear 	beautiful 	1.2 
	66. tall 	fine 	1.2 
Here again a stimulus-word is felt to apply to himself: he is not ill from despair over the unfortunate ending of the romance. 
22.	angry 
23.	needle 
friendly nail 
1.8 
1.2 (Nadel/Nagel) 
Both reactions have an ironical flavour and relate to the complex. 
	74. wild 	animal 	1.8 
Wild (dial., "angry") he applies to himself on account of the complex. 
Angry arouses the feeling of jealous animosity that the subject feels towards a certain rival. The sound association that follows is conditioned by the perseveration of this feeling-tone. 
30.	rich 	rather 	2.8 
	31. tree 	branches 	1.6 
R.30 refers to the match that did not materialize, hence the long reaction-time. The next reaction is still somewhat long and has a rather stilted and artificial character; it also seemed to the subject to have a rather ironic tone which holds for the following reactions, too: 
75. family 
house 
1.0 
House seems to represent the complex of all family memories. (Also in to cook / house.) Here we have a relatively short reaction-time. 
79. luck 
game 
1.8 
Clearly refers to the love-complex. 
	80. to tell 	to talk 
1.6 (erziihlen / talk) 
1.0 1.8 
The reaction is in English. We have already seen that French reactions are suspect; this English one too refers to the complex. The subject at first wanted to tell the story of his disappointment to his brother, who lives in America, but then decided against this. Hence the English form. 
	83. brother 	sister 	2.0 (Bruderjsister) 
Again an English form with a long reaction-time! Brother pas probably subconsciously awakened the image of the earlier reaction. Sister comes because his sister at that time was on the point of leaving for a French boarding-school in the same way as his brother 
259 
32.	to sing 	beautiful 	1.4 
	33. pity 	absolutely not 	1.8 
by which he means that he does not deserve any pity because everyone forges his own fate. 
44. detest 
47.	people 48. to stink 50. unfair 
rascals religion abominable atrocious 
258 
5.0 (Kerle) 1.6 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
had left some time earlier for America. This analogy has condensed itself into sister. 
THE REACTION-TIME RATIO IN THE EXPERIMENT 
	88. to kiss 	absolutely 
Absolutely is the key-word to the love-complex. 
	91. door 	mouse 	1.6 
The slip of the tongue of R.2 reappears, probably to mask house, which stands for the complex. 
	92. choose 	Kaposiso 
Actually the word caprice came up momentaril}: as the reaction, but was immediately suppressed and altered into Kaposi. Caprice was the choice of the lady in question. Kaposi is only an example of similarity in sound and is constellated by a conversation of a few days earlier in which Kaposi was mentioned. 
105.	pain 	kissing 	1.0 
	106. lazy 	sow 	1.4 
The coarser expression of the last reaction is caused by the feeling of anger perseverating from R.105. 
	115. intention 	kissing 
1.6 
For a moment house loomed up but was repressed and replaced by the somewhat striking reaction family. This is association 75, which is again suddenly taken up to mask the word house, which represents the complex. 
	145. caution 	intention 	2.0 (V orsicht j 
Absicht) 
Here clearly absolut came first but was inhibited and masked by Absicht through a sound association-perhaps association also contributed. 
		160. to wish 	absolutely not 1.8 
	617 	I shall not add any more examples; they do not in principle 
add anything new, only confirm what we have already established with the previous cases. 
	618 	The love-complex is clearly in the foreground with this 
subject. At least 52 per cent of the associations can be referred to it with certainty. The family-complex can be demonstrated in 11 per cent of the associations. Now and again there is evidence in 7 per cent of the associations of a complex of ambitious strivings. Numerous individual feeling-toned reminiscences can be demonstrated in 27 per cent of the associations. The general probable mean time in this case is 1.6 seconds. 31 per cent of the reaction-times exceed this mean. 17 per cent amount to 1.8 seconds. Of these 85 per cent are certainly constellated by a complex, whereas in 15 per cent this influence is doubtful or not demonstrated. 4.5 per cent of the associations took 2.0 seconds. 89 per cent of these can with certainty be traced back to the influence of a complex, whereas this influence is uncertain in 11 per cent. 9 per cent of the associations took over 2.0 seconds. All these can be attributed to the influence of a complex. 
	619 	It is unnecessary to add more examples, for one would con- 
stantly have to repeat oneself. As far as our experience goes, the complex-phenomena are the same with all subjects. Only the type of complex, naturally, varies with sex and educational leve},sl 
1.8 (Absichtj 
kiissen) 
Absicht he immediately assimilated as absolut, which refers to the complex; he then reacted as if this were the meaning of the stimulus-word. 
12 5. purpose 	absolutely 		
	none 	1.2 	
126. hot 	yes 	2.2 	
134. worthy 	daft 	2.0 	
135. danger 	glad 	1.4 	
136. high 	no, low 	2.8 	
140. to mix 	blood 	2.0 	
143. blood 	to mix 	1.4 	
These reactions are all sometimes more, sometimes less clearly constellated by the love-complex, and in this naturally the constellating factor was not a clear image, but only a certain not very distinct mood. 
51 The concept of repression, which I use on many occasions in my analyses, requires a brief explanation. In Freud's works this concept (which in any case the meaning of the word itself indicates) has the character of an active function, frequently a function of consciousness. In hysteria one may, however, get the 
261 
	144. to let 	family 	1.6 
50 (Famous Viennese dermatologist (1837-1902).] 260 

1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
	620 	The perseveration of a feeling-tone deserves attention. As 
is well known, perseveration plays a particularly important part in the pathology of the process of association. Investigations made with normal subjects might be of some help in elucidating the nature of morbid perseveration. In our experiments the perseveration of a feeling-tone occurred so often that we were able to express it statistically to a certain extent. For example, subject No. 2 showed 32 reaction-times of over 1.6 seconds, of which 16 were themselves followed by longer reaction-times. In 10 cases, only the subsequent reaction was prolonged, in 3 the two following, and once in each case the three, four, and five subsequent reaction-times were prolonged. As can be seen from this survey, we quite often observe a discontinuous decrease in the reaction-times. I have seen a quite similar but even clearer discontinuous decrease in some cases of hysteria and dementia praecox, and mostly at points suspect of complex. 
	621 	To summarize: 
(1) From the figures given, it follows that relatively long reaction-times are almost without exception caused by the intervention of a strong feeling-tone. 
(2) Strong feeling-tones as a rule belong to extensive and personally important complexes. 
(3) The reaction can be an association belonging to a complex of this nature and take its feeling-tone from this complex, though the complex need not be conscious. The constellation (Ziehen) of an association is mostly unconscious (or not-conscious); the constellating complex here plays the part of a quasiindependent entity-a "second consciousness." 
(4) The feeling-tone can unconsciously also influence the next reaction, in which several phenomena are to be observed: 
impression that repression equals deliberate forgetting. With normal subjects it might, however, be a Illore passive "sliding into the background"; at least here repression seems to be something unconscious, to which we can only indirectly attribute the character of something willed or something wished. If, nevertheless, I speak of repressing or, better, concealing, this can be taken as a metaphor from the psychology of the conscious. Essentially it comes to the same thing because objectively it does not matter one way or the other whether a psychic process is conscious or unconscious. (Cf. Bleuler, "Versuch einer naturwissenschaftlichen Betrachtung der psychologischen Grundbegrilfe" (1894).) 
262 

THE REACTION-TIME RATIO IN THE EXPERIMENT 
(a) The reaction influenced by a perseverating feelingtone has a prolonged reaction-time. 
(b) The reaction is still an association belonging to the group of images of the preceding complex. 
(c) The reaction is abnormal in chara<;ter: it can (i) be disturbed through a slip of the tongue or through repetition of the stimulus-word; (ii) be abnormally superficial (sound reactions). 
(5) The feeling-tones in question are mostly unpleasant. (6) The characteristics of an unconsciously constellating 
complex are: long reaction-time, unusual reaction, failures, perseveration, stereotyped repetition of the stimulus-word ("complex-representative"), translation into foreign language, strong language, quotations, slips of the tongue, assimilation of the stimulus-word (possibly also misunderstanding of the stimulus-word). 
(7) Erotic complexes seem to play a particularly significant part.52 
H. The Quantitative Ratio of Prolonged Reaction-times m a Greater Number of Subjects 
A. STIMULUS-WORD AND PROLONGED REACTION-TIME 
	622 	It would be interesting to learn whether the rules we have 
discovered in the analyses given above can be applied to a greater number of subjects about whom we have not adequate information. Practical experience teaches us that there are very few people who can pursue their own psychological processes in their subtlest details. Hence a very narrow limit is imposed on subjective analysis. The results given above should, however, make it possible, objectively, to penetrate into the complexes hidden in the associations and at least to demonstrate that rules gained from subjective analysis probably have a general validity. Hence I have investigated, in a comparative manner, the kind of words that are usually followed by prolonged 
52 I must observe that the analysis of the associations of an uneducated subject Would take a very different and more complicated form. As explained by Riklin and myself, the uneducated subject is inclined to concentrate on the meaning of the stimulus-word; for this reason his reaction-times are longer and it would be difficult to decide to what extent feelings or attitudes account for these. 
263 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
false 
to court 
to disgust uproar 
resin pyramid 
to hit 
to threaten 
Hdespise: 7 subjects)54 ~inn 
to remember ripe 
THE REACTION-TIME RATIO IN THE EXPERIMENT pronounced exactly as in academic German and likewise the ending is unchanged. Nabel is the only dialect word that sounds at all like Nadel in academic German. For this reason inevitably this word must be evoked in the Swiss-German subject when Nadel is called out. As we have seen, it does not necessarily come into consciousness at the time: the inhibition connected with this word can nevertheless influence the association occurring in consciousness. That this is no idle speculation is borne out by the similar case of the word book, with which seven out of eleven subjects took prolonged times. Book (Buch in German) is pronounced in the dialect as Buoch. The dialect word Buch, however, means Bauch (belly), which is a very unpleasant stimulus-word. In experiments on psychotics it has frequently occurred that Buch has been immediately understood as Bauch and the corresponding reaction followed. 
	625 	11. Six out of eleven subjects reacted with prolonged times 
to the following stimulus-words: 
reaction-time. Eleven subjects provided my material; of these, nine were uneducated and two educated. 
	623 	I. Five subjects reacted with prolonged times to the follow- 
ing stimulus-words: 
	624 	It is not surprising that stimulus-words such as fern, uproar, 
resin, and pyramid cause a lengthening in the reaction-time, for they are rather rare words and uneducated people do not have at their disposal ready-made associations to them. But this cannot be said of the words needle, hair, to hit, riPe, etc., for these on the contrary are words that occur very frequently in everyday language. The reasons why these words should cause long reaction-times can only be found by means of the above analyses; in most cases they are words that readily arouse emotional associations for they already have in themselves a certain feeling-value, as for example: hope, false, to hit, to threaten, to remember, riPe, etc., for women hair, too, should have an emotional value. The words salt, window, uproar, inn, have no striking emotional value, but in the original series they follow stimulus-words that evoke feeling; and for this reason, as has many times been shown, come into the orbit of a perseverating feeling-tone. Hair and tooth can cause long reaction-times, particularly with women, whereas to disgust and to desPise generally stimulate feeling. Needle does not in fact follow a stimulusword arousing feeling; in this case, however, another factor might play a part. This word (Nadel in the German original) is pronounced differently in dialect: the vowel a is pronounced nearer to an 0 and the ending is transposed into -die. On the other hand, in the dialect the a in the word Nabel (navel) is 
needle fhair53 
salt 
[tooth: 3 subjects]54 window 
fern 
hope 
strange 
dream paper book frog 
nurse (male) right 
damage to spare dreadful gentle 
f to surmise: 8 subjects ~of age 
impetus premonition to stink 
to forge 
to caress family 
Of age, impetus, and premonition can be considered "difficult" words in which the rarity probably prevails over any possible feeling-value. 
	626 	Since paper is a very common word it is difficult to say just 
what is its capacity to arouse emotion. Nurse (male) is effective because it is in constellation with uneducated subjects who are all male or female nurses in our hospital. The meaning of the word gentle (leise in German) became clear to me when a South German male nurse reacted with big (gross): he had in fact in the meantime suppressed the association Liiuse / klein (lice / small). What matters here is the sound similarity as in the case of book. It is striking that so many long reaction-times should occur with the word frog. With one exception, the subjects giving these long times were all women. The man who had a long reaction-time could give the reason: frog had struck the emotional complex associated with a new-born son. 
265 
53 The stimulus-words bracketed together followed immediately on each other in the test series. 
54 The stimulus-word in square brackets is given because it seems more likely to arouse a complex than window or inn. 
264 
{
j

Only consciousness could be rated as "difficult." The stimuluswords freedom, unjust, and to pay attention presumably produce long reaction-times in the nursing staff, which can easily be understood. World may well have prolonged times so frequently because it is placed between two words that arouse emotions. 
	629 	IV. Eight to ten out of eleven subjects had long reaction- 
times to the following stimulus-words: 
I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIA TlON 
Possibly in the subconscious of a woman, too, the frog's likeness to a small, naked wriggling baby can arouse feeling; so a sexual complex would be touched on which could well be present in every woman, even if only unconsciously. 
	627 	The feeling-value of the other stimulus-words is clear and 
requires no further explanation. 
	628 	Ill. Seven out of eleven subjects reacted to the following 
stimulus-words with prolonged reaction-times: 
It is not so much the relative rarity of the word to surmise that is important, but its capacity to arouse complexes. Miracle often seems to excite religious complexes associated with inhibitions. Natural is influenced by the immediately preceding erotic-sexual stimulant to kiss and is therefore very embarrassing for both sexes. Violence attracts the maximum of prolonged reaction-times. This is perhaps mainly due to the fact that all the subjects are closely connected with the mental hospital. 
	630 	From this account we can see that the difficulty or rarity of 
a stimulus-word can certainly influence the reaCtion-time; but in the vast majority of cases the stimulus-words that produce long reaction-times are characterized by a high feeling-value. Thus' the principal cause of prolonged reaction-times. This objective statistical examination shows the principal cause of 
266 
{fre~dOm 
unjust 
world 
loyalty consciousness 
heart violence wonder  to disgust to despise 
to pay attention to kiss to surmise 
f to kiss: 7 subjects I natural: 9 " 
THE REACTION-TIME RATIO IN THE EXPERIMENT 
prolonged reaction-times to be the emotional effect of the stimulus-word. 
	631 	I have tried to estimate roughly the quantitative values for 
the four series given above, and have compiled them in the following summary: 
Out of 200 stimulus-words, 48 aroused prolonged reaction-times 
in 5 or more out of 11 subjects. 
17 stimulus-words produced prolonged reaction-times in 5 subjects. Of these 76% referred to affective images. 
17 stimulus-words produced prolonged reaction-times in 6 subjects. Of these 76% referred to affective images. 
9 stimulus-words produced prolonged reaction-times in 7 subjects. Of these 89% referred to affective images. 
5 stimulus-words produced prolonged reaction-times in 8 to 10 subjects. Of these 90% referred to affective images. 
	632 	On the average, therefore, approximately 83 per cent of the 
stimulus-words producing prolonged reaction-times have affective value, whereas only about 17 per cent have a delaying influence through their intrinsic difficulty. Of the stimuluswords arousing affects, at least 28 per cent have a mainly eroticsexual affective value. 
B. INCIDENCE OF PROLONGED REACTION-TIMES WITH INDIVIDUAL SUBJECTS 
	633 	It follows from the explanations given above that emotional 
processes are of the greatest significance in the origin or formation of abnormally long reaction-times. As we know from everyday experience, it is in the sphere of the emotions that the greatest individual differences exist. For this reason, it should be worthwhile investigating what is the numerical proportion of abnormally long times with the different subjects. For this investigation, I used the material given by twenty-six subjects. (Uneducated: seven women and seven men. Educated: six women and six men. Thus a total of over 4,000 individual data.) 
	634 	As already mentioned, all those reaction-times that exceeded 
the individual probable mean times were considered to be prolonged. True, we came upon a series of reactions showing neither a particularly long duration nor obvious complexinfluence. On the other hand, if we raise the upper individual 
267 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
limit for normal times, we are thrown on to the arithmetical mean in which the prolonged times are taken into account. This limit is then individually far too high, for which reason no characteristic figures can be obtained in this way. I therefore decided to select the individual probable mean as the upper limit, first, because the abnormally long times are not taken into account in this (the probable mean is as a rule lower than the arithmetical mean) and, secondly, because (according to the analysis of subject No. I) of those times exceeding the probable mean by only 0.2 seconds, almost a third are clearly influenced by feeling-toned complexes, whereas all the very long times depend entirely on the effect of complexes. In this way we encounter almost all the prolonged reaction-times produced by affects. As is clear from several examples, there is a certain proportion between the intensity of the affect and the length of the reaction-time. Hence one can deduce, cum grano salis, very intensive affects from very long reaction-times. By means of the arithmetical mean the prolonged reaction-times are taken abundantly into account in a calculation of averages. For the four groups mentioned I am giving the figures for the probable and arithmetical means, the percentages of prolonged reaction-times, and the difference between the two means. 

					% of 	
					Prolonged 	
		Probable 	Arithmetical 	Differ- 	Reaction- 	
		Mean 	Mean 	ence 	times 	
Uneducated 	ro=n 	2.2 	2·9 	0·7 	49.2 	
	Men 	1.8 	2·4 	0.6 	4°·9 	
Educated 	Women 	1.7 	2.2 	0·5 	42.4 	
	Men 	1.3 	1.7 	0·4 	41.8 	
	635 	The four columns in this table all say approximately the 
same thing in different forms, namely that the uneducated women, as well as having the highest probable mean, also have the greatest number of prolonged reaction-times. The differences between probable and arithmetical mean times are most instructive: the group of educated men has a smaller difference than the other three groups. This figure states that the prolonged reaction-times of educated men are on average shorter than those of the other groups, that consequently the emotional inhibitions in all the other subjects-for this is the 
268 

THE REACTION-TIME RATIO IN THE EXPERIMENT 
main point, not the difference in educational levels-even if they do not always occur more frequently, are still more fundamental and abundant than those of the educated men. From this I see that the experimenter, who is in every respect on the same level as the group of educated men, as far as the other groups are concerned is of the opposite sex or a superior or both. This seems to me sufficient reason for the prevalence of emotional inhibitions in the other subjects. 
	636 	In stating the influences of the emotions on the length of 
reaction-times, I have ventured into a sphere so complicated, and therefore so subject to great individual variations, that there is no point in giving the individual figures on which the above table is based. Only untenable hypotheses could be based on the differences. 
GENERAL RECAPITULATION 
	637 	A. In time-measurements, using a stop-watch, made with 
both educated and uneducated subjects, the average reactiontime came out at 1.8 seconds. 
B. The times of male subjects (1.6 seconds) are on average shorter than those of female subjects (2.g seconds). 
C. Similarly, the times of educated subjects (1.5 seconds) are, on average, shorter than those of the uneducated (2.0 seconds). 
D. The quality of the stimulus-word exerts a certain influence on the reaction-time. The average shortest times follow concrete nouns (1.67 seconds), the longest follow abstract nouns and verbs (1.95 and I.go seconds). Educated men form an exception to this rule in that with them it is usually the concrete nouns that are followed by the longest times. 
E. The quality of the reaction also seems to have a certain influence on the length of the reaction-time. The longest times occur with abstract nouns (l.g8 seconds), the shortest with adjectives and verbs (1.65 and 1.66 seconds). Concrete nouns (1.81 seconds) are in the middle. Educated men here again are the exception in that their longest time occurs with concrete nouns. 
F. The quality of the association has a distinct influence on the reaction-time. Internal associations command a longer reaction-time than external ones. Sound reactions generally show 26g 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIA TlON 
relatively long times because they are abnormal and owe their appearance to certain disturbances occasioned by inner distractions. 
G. Those reaction-times that exceed the probable mean are for the most part caused by the eruption of intense emotions associated with individually important complex-images. The subject is mostly unaware of the reason for the prolonged reaction-time. Hence, too, long reaction-times can serve as a means of uncovering emotionally charged complexes, both conscious and unconscious. (Important in hysteria!) 
H. Prolonged reaction-times tend to follow certain stimulus-words. About 83 per cent of these are mainly characterized by their affective value, whereas only about 17 per cent cause prolonged reaction-times on account of their difficulty or rarity. 
	638 	Very frequently the dying away of the feeling-tone is shown 
and it extends to the subsequent reactions which are thereby disturbed (perseveration). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Aschaffenburg: "Experimentelle Studien iiber Assoziationen" in Kraepelin, Psychologische Arbeiten, I (1896), Il (1899), IV (1904). 
Bechterew: "()ber zeitliche Verhaltnisse der psychischen Prozesse bei in Hypnose befindlichen Personen" (1892). 
Idem: "()ber die Geschwindigkeitsveranderungen der psychischen Prozesse zu verschiedenen Tageszeiten" (1893). 
Cattell: "Psychometrische Untersuchungen" in Wundt, Philosophisches Studien, III (1885). 
Claparede: L'Association des idees (1903). 
Idem and Israi1ovitch: "Influence du tabac sur l'association des 
idees" (1902). 
Fere: The Pathology of the Emotions (1899; orig., 1892). Freud: The Interpretation of Dreams '(orig., 1900). 
Idem: The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (orig., 1904). Galton: "Psychometric Experiments" (1897). 
Jung and Riklin: "The Associations of Normal Subjects" (orig., 1904). 
Kraepelin: Experimentelle Studien ilber Assoziationen (1883). Idem: "()ber den Einfluss der ()bung auf die. Dauer von Assoziationen" (1889). 
Idem: Ober die Beeinfiussung einfacher psychischer Vorgiinge durch einige Arzneimittel (1892). 
270 

THE REACTION-TIME RATIO IN THE EXPERIMENT 
Mayer and Orth: "Zur qualitativen Untersuchung der Assozi. ationen" (1901). 
Miiller and Pilzecker: "Experimentelle Beitrage zur Lehre vom 
Gedachtnis" (1900). 
Miinsterberg: "Die Assoziation sukzessiver Vorstellungen" (1890)' Idem: Beitriige zur experimentellen Psychologie (1889-92). Ranschburg and Balint: "()ber quantitative und qualitative 
Veranderungen geistiger V organge im hohen Greisenalter" (19°0). 
Riklin: "Zur Psychologie hysterischer Dammerzustande und des Ganser'schen Symptoms" (1904). 
Sommer: Lehrbuch der psychopathologischen Untersuchungsmethoden (1899). 
Thumb and Marbe: Experimentelle Untersuchungen ilber die psychologischen Grundlagen der sprachlichen Analogiebildung (19°1). 
Trautscholdt: "Experimentelle Untersuchungen iiber die Assoziation der Vorstellungen" in Wundt, PhilosoPhische Studien, I (1883). 
Walitsky: "Contribution a l'etude des mensurations psychometriques des alienes" (1889). 
Wehrlin: "The Associations of Imbeciles and Idiots" (orig., 1904). Wreschner: "Eine experimentelle Studie iiber die Assoziation in einem Falle von Idiotie" (1900). 
Ziehen: Introduction to Physiological Psychology (1892; ong., 1891 ). 
Idem: "Die Ideenassoziation des Kindes" (1898-1900). 
271 

EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE FACULTY OF MEMORYl 
	639 	We have often observed in our association experiments 
with hysterical patients that the patient would not react for a long time to stimulus-words that were obviously related to his complex, and then would suddenly ask, "What was the word you said?" Closer interrogation revealed that the patient had forgotten the word of which he had just been reminded. We immediately recognized that this striking disturbance of memory was identical with the type of forgetting described by Freud, i.e., the "not wanting to remember" unpleasant impressions. The phenomenon that we observed is a particular case of a general tendency to repress and then forget the unpleasant image. (Cf. Freud's papers.2) 
	640 	It is to the credit of Freud, and partly also of Breuer-as 
is probably well known-that they have amply demonstrated this fact (forgetting equated with repression) in hysterical patients. The validity of this can be doubted only by someone who has not himself tested Freudian psychoanalysis. In more recent works3 Freud has demonstrated that the same mechanisms of repression are at work in the normal dream and in trivial incidents of everyday life (parapraxes in speaking, reading, etc.). In our experimental investigations we have also succeeded in demonstrating the repressed complex in such associations as are produced by calling oJ.lt a stimulus-word. The laying bare of a repressed complex is of immense practical importance, e.g., in hysteria. Every hysterical patient has a 
1 [First published as "ExperimentelIe Beobachtungen iiber das Erinnerungsvermogen," Zentralblatt fur Nervenheilkunde und Psychiatrie (Leipzig), XXVIII (1905; n.s. XVI): 196 (Sept.), 653~6. It was not included in the first volume of Diagnostische Assoziationsstudien, whose contents Jung referred to in the opening sentence, and it is here first republished.] 
2 Freud, "The Neuro-Psychoses of Defence" (orig. 1894), "The Psychical Mech· anism of Forgetfulness" (18g8), "Screen Memories" (18g9), The Psychopathology of Everyday Lite (orig. 1904). 
3 Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams (1900)· 
272 

EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE FACULTY OF MEMORY repressed complex of causal significance. It is therefore essential for treatment that the complex be identified, unless one wants to forego such important psychotherapeutic aids. As Freud has shown, however, the inhibitions repressing the complex are so strong that the images concerned are very often split off from consciousness. It was to overcome this barrier that Freud invented his ingenious method of free association. This method is, however, extremely time-consuming and its use presupposes certain qualities in both the patient and the doctor. The same inhibitions are betrayed in our own method of association. A tabulation of the stimulus-words that have brought up inhibitions shows quite clearly into which category the repressed complex may fall, and from this one can obtain valuable pointers to supplementary questions. To get a clearer idea of the type of complex one can then intersperse additional pertinent stimulus-words. The art of the method, which is never easy to use, lies in distinguishing the reactions connected with a complex from the irrelevant ones. I have therefore compiled a series of so-called comPlex-characteristics.4 In principle the complex-characteristics are the same for normal and pathological associations. Furthermore, to lay bare the complex is of far-reaching significance in applying our experiments to the field of criminal psychology. Hans Gross and his pupils have shown this, stimulated by our experiments.s The complex in this case is the fact of a crime: the stimulus-words are the designations of things associated with the mental picture of the crime. 
	641 	The observations mentioned in our first paragraph became 
the point of departure for a new method that points to those associations attributable to complexes. The reproduction method, as I should like to call it, can be described as follows: 
After completing an association test (usually one hundred words), we try to find out whether the subject remembers how he reacted to individual stimulus-words. We simply repeat the experiment, always allowing the patient enough time to recall 
4 See my "The Reaction-time Ratio in the Association Experiment," supra. 
S Hans Gross, "Zur psychologischen Tatbestandsdiagnostik" (lg05); Wertheimer and Klein, "Psychologische Tatbestandsdiagnostik" (1904); Alfred Gross, "Zur psychologischen Tatbestandsdiagnostik als kriminalistisches HiIfsmittel" (1905); Stern, "Psychologische Tatbestandsdiagnostik" (1905); Hans Gross, "Zur Frage des Wahrnemungsproblems" (1905). 
.,"'" 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 

EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE FACULTY OF MEMORY 

6 [In the German version, the items of this list were not numbered. They have now been numbered to facilitate comparison with the list for Case No. n. The list for Case No. I omits, perhaps inadvertently, 51, frog.] 
274 
A 32-year-old professional musician who was undergoing psychoanalytical treatment because of vague anxiety-states and a compulsive fear of not being able to give solo performances. Two years previously he had become engaged, but the engagement soon broke up owing to moodiness and quarrelling. The young woman was of an implacable, quarrelsome, and jealous nature. This led to violent rows and finally to the breaking off of the engagement when the patient made the mistake of writing picture postcards to another girl. During the nights following these quarrels the patient could not sleep, and it was then that the first nervous symptoms appeared. About a year previously he had had a secret affair with a lady of a rich and distinguished family, but this had soon been broken off. In January of that year the patient became engaged to a rather unintelligent girl who was, however, already three months pregnant by another man, which the patient did not then know. The numerous excitements brought on by these circumstances aggravated his nervous condition to such an extent that he had to seek medical advice. It should also be mentioned that he had led a very dissolute life between the ages of 18 and 25, as a result of which his physical strength had allegedly been greatly impaired. 
Association and Reproduction Test 
	643 	The results of the two tests are set side by side. Those 
associations that were either not reproduced or wrongly reproduced are shown in italic type.6 
275 
642 

his previous reactions. In this reproduction method certain regular characteristics come to light, which I should now like to outline briefly. In these experiments my leading idea was to find out whether failures of memory were accidental or whether a system behind them could be revealed. I have carried out this experiment on mentally healthy people and on patients, and have, at least in principle, always found the same phenomena. (Organic disturbances of memory are of course excepted.) As this article is only concerned with establishing and describing this phenomenon, I have selected as examples two pathological cases in which the phenomenon in question is quite pronounced. 
CASE No. I 

Stimulusword 
I. head 
2. green 
3. water 
4.	to stab 
5.	angel 
6.	long 
7.	shiP 
8. to plough g. wool 
10. friendly I I. desk 
12.	to ask 
13.	state 
14. obstinate IS. stalk 
16.	to dance 
17.	lake 18. ill 
Ig. conceit 
20. to cook 2 I. ink 
22.	wicked 
23.	pin 
24.	to swim 
25.	journey 
26. blue 

Reaction 
empty 
lawn 
to drown 
dead beautiful 
table crew 
peasant sheep very high 
difficult beautiful very 
green 
good stormy unpleasant very 
good black very prick not difficult 
colour 

Reactiontime (secs.) 
3.2 
2.2 
2.2 
1.8 8.0 
2.8 3.0 
2.0 2.0 2.8 3.6 
3.2 2·4 2.0 2.2 2.2 2.0 8.8 2.8 
2.0 1.8 4.8 1·4 2.8 
2·4 
2.0 

Reproduction 
to see 
colour, tree deep 
unpleasant 
to travel, to drown 
to put 
good long 

Remarks 
Complex underlying the illness. 
Probably perseverating feeling-tone. 
The patient had had thoughts of suicide as a result of his illness. 
Here the feeling-tone of the previous reaction has probably perseverated. Word not at first understood. Erotic reminiscences easily aroused by this word. 
Suicide by drowning. 
Affair with the lady. Prolonged reactiontime due to perseverating feeling-tone. 
Same complex. 
I st fiancee. 
Illness. 
Relations with the lady. 
I st fiancee. 
Suicide. Perseverating feeling-tone. 

	1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 	EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE FACULTY OF MEMORY 	
		Re- 					Re- 				
		action- 				action- 				
Stimulus- 	Re- 	time 	Repro- 		Stimulus- 	Re- 	time 	Repro- 			
word 	action 	(secs.) 	duction 	Remarks 	word 	action 	(secs.) 	duction 		Remarks 	
27. bread 	to taste 	2.8 	- 	- 	52. to separate 	acid (noun) 	6.0 	- 	Not at first under- 	
28. to threaten 	me 	10·4 	- 	Fear of the future: 						stood. Relationship 	
				suicide. 						with the lady. 	
29. lamp 	good 	2.2 	to burn 	perseverating 	53. hunger 	pang 	2.0 				
				feeling-tone. 	54. white 	lamb 	2.2 				
30. rich 	pleasant 	3·4 	- 	The lady. 	55. cattle 	to slaughter 	4·4 	to kill 	Memories of quarrels 	
31. tree 	green 	2.0 	high 	Perseverating 						with 1st fiancee. 	
				feeling-tone. 	56. to pay at- 	very· 	2.0 	- 	Perseverating tone. 	
32. to sing 	beautiful 	1.4 	good 	(ditto) 	tention 						
33. sympathy 	Pleasant 	4.6 	to have 	Ostensibly the ill- 	57. pencil 	long 	2.0 				
				ness-complex, but 	58. sultry 	weather 	4.8 				
				probably something 	59. plum 	blue 	1.8 				
				else as well which 	60. to hit 	target 	2.0 	marksman 	Rendezvous with the 	
				is not divulged. 						lady. 	
34. yellow 	material 	5·4 	colour 	Not at first under- 	61. law 	to despise 	2.6 	- 	The lady is married. 	
				stood. 	62. dear 	she 	2.6 	- 	The lady. 	
35. mountain 	high 	1.2 	- 	- 	63. glass 	transparent 	2.0 				
36. to play 	children 	2·4 	- 	- 	64. to quarrel 	unPleasant 	2.2 	violent 	1 st fiancee. 	
37. salt 	bitter 	1.8 	- 	- 	65. goat 	pasture 	3.8 	- 	Perseverating tone. 	
38. new 	material 	2·4 	dress 	? 						Stimulus-word was 	
39. habits 	good 	3.0 	bad 	Early life: adulterous 						repeated by the 	
				relationship with 						patient. 	
				the lady. 	66. big 	man 	2·4 	child 	? 		
40. to ride 	pleasant 	3.6 	- 	- 	67. potato 	to eat 	1.8 				
41. wall 	white 	2.2 	- 	- 	68. to paint 	wall 	3.2 	beautiful 	? 		
42. stuPid 	cattle 	4.8 	very 	2nd fiancee. 	69. part 	whole 	3.0 	? 	Suggestion of 	
43. notebook 	blue 	2.2 	to write 	Perseverating 						"sexual parts." 	
				feeling-tone. 	70. old 	coin 	7·4 	man 	As a result of 	
44. to desPise 	him 	3·4 	me 	Early life: erotic 						previous word the 	
				complexes. 						fear of impotence 	
45. tooth 	sharp 	2.2 	long 	perseverating 						is aroused. 	
				feeling-tone. 	71. flower 	smells 	1.6 				
46. correct 	to write 	3.8 	- 	Correspondence be- 	72. to fight 	stick 	2.0 	violent 	Quarrel with 1st 	
				hind 1st fiancee's 						fiancee. 	
				back. 	73. box 	to put in 	3·4 	? 	Perseverating tone. 	
47. people 	Swiss 	2·4 	- 	- 	74. wild 	horse 	1.6 	- 	- 	
48. to stink 	dung 	2.0 	- 	- 	75. family 	to have 	2.6 	- 	2nd fiancee. 	
49. book 	beautiful 	3.6 	good 	Perhaps not at first 	76. to wash 	face 	1.8 				
				understood. Other- 	77. cow 	to slaughter 	2.6 	to kill 	Memories of rows 	
				wise? 						with 1st fiancee. 	
50. unjust 	judge 	2.0 	very 	The reaction very 	78. strange 	to me 	2.0 	- 	1 st fiancee. 	
				might indicate a 	79. luck 	to have 	1.6 				
				connection with 	80. to tell 	story 	1.6 				
				one of the erotic 	81. poise 	good 	2.0 	habit 	Early life: the lady. 	
				complexes. 	82. narrow 	boot 	1.8 				
		276 				277 			

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIA nON 
EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE FACULTY OF MEMOR' 
		Re· 		
		action· 		
Stimulus· 	Re· 	time 	Repro· 	
word 	action 	(secs.) 	duction 	
83. brother 	sister 	1.2 		
84. damage 	to have 	1.6 	to do 	
85. stork 	long 	1.0 		
86. false 	to write 	5.8 	to speak 	
87. fear 	to have 	1.2 		
88. to kiss 	her 	2.0 		
89. fire 	house 	4.0 		
90. dirty 	street 	1.2 		
91. door 	house 	2.0 	high 	
92. to elect 	electorate 	2.0 		
93. hay 	sweet- 			
	smelling 	1.4 		
94. still 	water 	2·4 		
95. scorn 	Pleasant 	1.6 	unpleasant 	
96. to sleep 	very 	2.2 	deep 	
97. month 	January 	4.6 		
98.	coloured 
99.	dog 
cloth snaPPish 
1.6 
	2.4 	to snap 
100. to speak 
sensitive 
1.8 
Remarks 
follow a critical one, and therefore fall within the area of t perseverating feeling-tone. In many places the perseverati( can be quite easily recognized by the prolonged reaction-till or by the form and content of the reaction. Out of 38 incorre reproductions there are only five in which analysis could n demonstrate any kind of complex-constellation. Neverthele: the prolonged reaction-times usually found in such places inc cate a feeling-tone. 
	646 	Analysis is exceptionally difficult and time-consuming 
the case of half-educated and uneducated people; in fact, often proves almost impossible to reach any depth because I lack of co-operation. Also, with patients from an out-patienl clinic, you may easily meet people who have every reason I keep their secrets. Apart from these exceptions, which need nl be considered, it becomes quite clear that the forgetting dOl not apply to the irrelevant reactions, but to the significar complex-reactions. Should this be generally confirmed, " should have found a method, in this reproduction process, ( objectively revealing complexes from the reactions. But th method can also be theoretically valuable in that it shows l a way to investigate the much discussed connection betwee feeling-tone and memory. 
	647 	Before we go further into these questions, I should like t 
refer to a second case. 
Impotence. 
Correspondence behind I st fiancee's back. 
The lady. 
Word not understood, perseverating tone. 
Suicide. perseverating tone. (ditto) 
Cf. R.3; stimulusword at first not understood. J anuary is the critical month. 
Quarrel with 1st fiancee. 
648 
CASE No. II 
An educated young man, 22 years old, excitable and sensitive, sar guine, morally unsound, not particularly intelligent. He is we] known to the writer and has also given sufficient information abou the complexes broached by the associations. 
Complex I: The patient is very excitable and extraordinaril sensitive. This characteristic brings him into frequent conflict witl his environment. One of these conflicts has led him to a menta hospital. The patient had a good friend who once made a joke 0 sketching him with ass's ears, and produced this caricature in the presence of ladies. The patient took him to task about this, but th. perpetrator denied having done it, whereupon the patient slappec his face and challenged him to a duel with sabres. 
His relationship with his family is strained. 
ComPlex II: Numerous love-affairs. The patient had been giver a diamond pin by one amorous lady, which he wore in his tie, anc had recently lost a stone from this, which annoyed him a great deal 279 
	644 	In these associations several clearly feeling-toned complexes 
are evoked. Their symptoms are mainly a delayed reaction and its influence on the f9110wing reac'tions. I will not proceed further with this analysis as it might lead too far.7 
	645 	The remarks given with the reactions should enable the 
reader to get his bearings. Those points where the analysis showed an association constellated by a complex have been noted. If we now look over the whole experiment we can see that, with very few exceptions, the incorrect reproductions to the repeated stimulus-words are those that are directly constellated by a feeling-toned complex or those that immediately 
7 The complex phenomena are comprehensively presented in my "The Reaction-time Ratio in the Association Experiment"; see supra. 
278 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE FACULTY OF MEMORY 
One of these relationships is with a Greek woman. In the year he has just completed in the cavalry he led a wild and dissolute life. 
ComPlex Ill: The patient recently wanted to become engaged to a woman of means, but it came to nothing. 
Complex IV: The patient has decided to study agriculture, which seems to keep him occupied for the time being, and he is also enthusiastic about rowing and other sports. 
	649 	I am giving full details of the associations in this case. The 
method of analysis is the same as that I have already demonstrated in the work on the reaction-times. I have marked with the appropriate number all the places where the analysis certainly or in all probability shows a complex. Those associations to which the reactions were either not remembered or wrongly remembered in the reproduction test are shown in the table, as on the previous occasion. 
Stimulusword 
I. head 
2.	green 
3.	water 
4.	to stab 
5.	angel 
6.	long 
7.	ship 
8. to plough g. wool 
10. friendly 
11.	desk 
12.	to ask 
13.	state 
Stimulusword 
14. obstinate 
Re· action 
Re- 
actiontime (secs.) 
2.8 
IS. stalk 
16.	to dance 
17.	lake 
18.	ill 
2nd Reproduction 
1st Reproduction 
Remarks 
hat 
cover 
Stupidity complex (ass's ears) and the supposition, owing to stay in mental hospital, that he is men tally ill. 
20.	to cook 
21.	ink 
22.	wicked 
23.	Pin 
24.	to swim 
25.	journey 
26.	blue 
27.	bread 
28. to threaten 2g. lamp 
30.	rich 
31.	tree 
32.	to sing 
Ig. conceit 
colour to row spear heaven 
1.4 2.6 2.8 1.8 
IV. 
1. Sabre duel. 
1. Not understood, reaction omitted. 
-building field sheep Mr.Z. 
1.0 2.2 1.2 2·4 
} IV. 
Acquaintance at the hospital. 
	bank 	2.2 
	answer 	3.6? 
Switzerland 3.8 
institution 
III. 
Preceding R.I2 refers to complex Ill. Owing to the perseverating feelingtone the reproduction is disturbed. 
33. sympathy 
280 
Reaction 
wench 
flower ladies Zurich medicine 
Mr.S. 
kitchen 
to write Mr.C. 
tie 
water adventure colour corn angry light money leaves music 
to have 
Reactiontime (secs.) 
4.8 
1.8 3.8 2.0 4.2 
1st Reproduction 
1.8 
2~ I~ 3~ 3.2 2~ 3.8 24 2~ 
3~ 2~ 
34 3~ 2~ 
to be cravat 
leaf 
2.6 
281 
2nd Reproduction 
to be 
tie-pin 
someone 
to be 
Remarks 
"The Obstinate Wench,"popu song. The stim word to ask ha touched comp] Ill. How mud feeling-tone re berates can be gathered from way the reactic times increase from the conte ofR.I4· 
1I. IV. 
1. Complex of h pitalization,ol vation of his m state. 
1. Acquaintanc( the hospital. 
1. 1I. IV. 1I. 
V. 
1. Duel comple~ 
III. 
Here the critica reaction is obv ly rich/money, which the reac times decrease proportion. Tl action after thl critical one is uncertain 

	I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 		I 	EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE FACULTY OF MEMORY 	
		Re- 								Re- 					
		action- 		1 st 	2nd 					action- 	1St 	2nd 		
Stimulus- 	Re- 	time 		Repro- 	Repro- 			Stimulus- 	Re- 	time 		Repro- 	Repro- 		
word 	action 	(secs.) 		duction 	duction 	Remarks 		word 	action 	(secs.) 	duction 	duction 	Remarks 	
34. yellow 	colour 	2.8 	- 	- 	- 		64. to quarrel 	difference 	4.8 	- 	- 	I. 	
35. mountain 	climbing 	1.8 	- 	tour 	- 		65. goat 	farming 	2.8 	- 		IV. 	
36. to play 	tennis 	3.0 	- 	- 	IV. 		66. big 	Germany 	11.2 	? 		tree, 	Refers to himself as 	
37. salt 	sea 	4.2 	- 	- 	- 							pine 	he is exceptionally 	
38. new 	-Greek 	6.2 	- 	- 	Il. 								tall. 	
39. habits 	& customs 	2.2 	- 	- 	- 		67. potato 	farming 	2.8 	- 	- 	IV. 	
40. to ride 	horse 	1.8 	- 	- 	Il. 		68. to paint 	pictures 	2·4 					
41. wall 	papered 	3·4 	- 	- 	- 		69. part 	to have 	4.6 	- 	- 	Ill. He had hoped 	
42. stuPid 	Mr.B. 	6·4 	to be 	- 	I. Similar to R.22, 	I 							to become a partner 	
						same complex. 								in his prospective 	
43. notebook 	to write 	2.2 	- 	- 									father-in-law's 	
44. to despise 	Mr.H. 	2.8 	- 	- 	I. Acquaintance in 								business. 	
						the hospital. With 		70. old 	to become 	1.8 					
						this man the pa- 							rem, 		
						tient had had a 		71. flower 	blossom 	3-4 	- 	to bloom, IV. 	
						similar experience 	I 						leaves 		
						to that given in 		72. to fight 	sabres 	4.0 	- 	- 	I. 	
						complex I. 		73. box 	lid 	2.8 					
45. tooth 	to pull 	2·4 	- 	- 	- 	~ 	74. wild 	to become 	3.2 	- 	to be 	I. Wild, evil. 	
46. correct 	answer 	8.0 	right and - 	I. Connected with 		75. family 	parents 	4.6 	- 	- 	I. 	
				proper 		the denial in com- 		76. to wash 	soap 	3.6 					
							I 								
						plex I. 	I 	77. cow 	farming 	4·4 	- 	- 	IV. 	
47. people 	race 	2.0 	- 	- 	- 		78. strange 	to be 	4.0 					
48. to stink 	carbolic 	3.6 	- 	- 	I. The hospital. 	I 	79. luck 	lucky 	2.2 					
49. book 	to read 	1.6 	- 	- 	- 		80. to tell 	story 	1.6 					
50. unjust 	Russia 	3.0 	- 	- 	- 		81. poise 	to have 	3.0 	- 	& customs I. 	
51. frog 	leg 	1.6 	- 	- 	- 		82. narrow 	a flat 	5.0 	room 	- 	I. Stay in hospi tal. 	
52. to separate 	marrzage 	6.0 	? 		- 	Ill. 		83. brother 	siblings 	4·4 	- 	- 	I. 	
53. hunger 	to eat 	4.0 	- 	- 	- 							r"" 		
54. white 	colour 	3·4 	- 	- 	- 				{to have, to suffer, I. Refers to excesses 	
55. cattle 	cattle- 	2.6 	- 	- 	IV. Here again the 		84. damage 	to inflict 	2.8 	to suffer to endure, in drunkenness. 	
	breeding 					timing shows a 							to inflict 		
						regular decrease 	I 	85. stork 	bird 	4.0 	- - Word not at first 	
						after the critical 								understood. 	
						reaction. 		86. false 	envy 	4.8 	- 	to be 		
56. to pay at- 	lecture 	6.2 	- 	question 	IV. 		87. fear 	to have 	3.8 					
tention 								88. to kiss 	pleasant 	3-4 	- 	- 	Il. 	
57. pencil 	to write 						I 	89. fire 	brigade 	6·4 					
		4.2 	- 	- 	- 									
58. sultry 	sky 	7.6 	- 	- 	I. Stay in hospi tal. 		90. dirty 	street- 	6.8 	- 	- 	Marked increase in 	
59. plum 	stone-fruit 	3.0 	- 	- 	IV. 			instantly 					times from R.88 	
60. to hit 	to shoot 	2.6 	- 	- 	I. 								onwards. Cf. below. 	
61. law 	state insti- 	6.2 	? 		- 	I. 		91. door 	to open 	1.6 					
	tutions 							92. to elect 	election 	3.2 					
62. dear 	beloved 	7·4 	- 	- 	Il or Ill. 		93. hay 	haymaking 	3.2 	- 	- 	IV. 	
63. glass 	water 	2.2 	- 	- 	- 		94. still 	at night 	3.6 	- 	- 	n. 	
		282 						283 			

I. STUDIES IN WORD .ASSOCIATION 
EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE FACULTY OF MEMORY 
96.	to sleep 
97.	month 
2.0 
At first did not understand the word. 11. 
are significantly longer than those of the others, which gives us an objective confirmation of our supposition that there is a connection between the disturbance of memory and the strong feeling-tone of the reaction. 
	652 	The first reproduction test followed immediately after the 
initial test of one hundred reactions. I had the test repeated again on the following day, and the results are shown in th~ column headed "2nd Reproduction." 
	653 	Of the hundred reactions, 14 were incorrectly reproduced 
on the second occasion. (The second reproduction was assumed to be correct if it was the same as the first reproduction, when the initial reaction had been incorrectly remembered.) 
	654 	Eleven of the fourteen incorrect reproductions concern 
reactions that had been correctly reproduced the first time but that, because of their content or the length of time taken, appeared to suggest the presence of a complex. Only three were wrongly remembered on the second reproduction. We can thus see that the amnestic blockages have developed further in the same direction as in the first reproduction test, and give rise to a series of reactions that also belong to the complexes. For practical purposes it would seem to be advisable to leave some time between the first test and the reproduction tests. 
	655 	In my experience the amnestic blockages occur just as 
frequently with critical reactions as with those immediately following. These two cases represent the usual behaviour. But there are even more island-like amnesias, particularly, as it seems, in hysteria, where the feeling-tones are of great intensity and can extend over many subsequent reactions. Thus, I recently found in the case of a 23-year-old hysterical woman, who had only 13 per cent incorrect reproductions, the following interesting chain of reactions: 
		Re- 		
		action 	1st 	
Stimulus- 	Re- 	time 	Repro- 	
word 	action 	(secs.) 	duction 	
95. scorn 	& derision 	1.8 		
2nd Repro- 
	duction 	Remarks 
at night 
	12 months 	3.2 
in a year flowers 8.2 Great Dane 2.4 
	foreign 	5.0? 	- 	11. The Greek 
	language 			woman. 
Note to test: Reactions 94-g8 are influenced by a complex that requires some elucidation. These reactions show various intense comPlex-characteristics. Obviously the complex is hidden by the words at night. From the first reproduction onwards, there is a marked increase in the reaction-time. I suggested to the patient that this might be due to a more recent love affair, but he did not admit it. There is a similar increase in the time taken after 88, to kiss/pleasant, and it is difficult to understand why 56, to pay attention/lecture, should take as long as 6.2 seconds. Complex-characteristics in reactions to words such as to kiss, to sleep, still, to pay attention, gave rise to the suspicion that the patient had begun an affair behind our back. 
On the day following these tests we intercepted a letter addressed to the patient. This was from a girl whom he had met when he was allowed to go out on parole, and suggested how they could keep their relationship secret and how they could arrange a rendezvous. 
98.	coloured 
99.	dog 
100.	to speak 
	650 	In this series of associations there are obvious complexes 
expressed in the usual way. Out of one hundred reactions there are only 13 in which memory failed. When we now examine where these 13 unrepeated reactions occur, we see that 12 of them are found at points constellated by a complex;7a one follows immediately on a complex-reaction. We may therefore suppose that the disturbance of memory is connected with the complex, or with its feeling-tone. As I have shown earlier,8 strong emotions, especially feelings of un pleasure, are expressed in abnormally long reaction-times. 
	651 	The arithmetical mean time of all correctly repeated reac- 
tions is 3.0 seconds. The mean of those not repeated is 5.0 seconds. Thus the times taken for those reactions not repeated 
7a [lung is apparently referring to the first column of reproductions, in which there are actually 12, not 13, incorrect reproductions. There are 14 in the second column.] 
8 "The Reaction-time Ratio in the Association Experiment:' 
284 
1. water 		- 	(no reaction) 	
2. to sting 	bee 	1.8 		
			In the repeat the pa- 	
3. angel 	-COUl't9 	no} 	tient believed she had 	
4. long 	knife 	g.o 	not given any reac- 	
5. ship 	steamer 	7.0 	tion, as with No. 1. 	
6. to plough 	field 	4.2 	R. garden 	
9 [German Engel/-hof; in Switzerland, a name sometimes given to a farm or house.] 
285 

1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
	;56 	The stimulus-word water had awakened the memory of a 
suicide-attempt, as was subsequently shown through psychoanalysis. With angel the image of death and the hereafter immediately appeared, this time with persisting feeling-tone that hindered the subsequent reactions in a way shown by the decrease in reaction-times. All four reactions showed themselves to be amnestically blocked. 
	'57 	The theory of our phenomenon is closely related to the 
teaching of Freud, whose psychological depth and fertility are still not sufficiently appreciated, in particular by psychiatrists. Freud says in effect that forgetting is frequently caused by the feeling of un pleasure associated with the forgotten image, i.e., one is inclined to forget what is unpleasant and what is associated with the unpleasant.1o The process underlying this forgetting is the repression of the affect of un pleasure which one can observe every day in hysterical cases. "Systematic" forgetting plays, as I have shown/I an important part in the origins of the so-called Ganser's twilight state. Up to now only Riklin12 has taken up my suggestion and developed it with any result. These investigations fully confirm the correctness of Freud's teachings on this point. That just the essential matter (i.e., the repressed complex charged with un pleasure) is forgotten is the obstacle in psychoanalysis that is often the most difficult to overcome. One usually comes up against amnesia ("I don't know," "I have forgotten," etc.) where the important matter lies. The amnestic blockages in our experiment are nothing but hysterical amnesias. They also have in common with hysterical amnesia that not only what is significant is forgotten, but also related ideas which happen to coincide with the perseverating unpleasure. 
	58 	The reaction-words that are so easily forgotten seem like 
excuses; they play a similar role to that of Freud's "screen memories." When, for example, a hysterical young girl takes an agonizingly long time to react to to kiss with sister's kiss 
10 Cf. Pick, "lur Psychologie des Vergessens bei Geistes- und Nervenkranken" (1905)· 
11 "A Case of Hysterical Stupor in a Prisoner in Detention"; "On Simulated Insanity." [For Sigbert Ganser, see Psychiatric Studies, index, s.v.] 
12 Riklin, "lur Psychologie hysterischer Dammerzustande und des Ganser'schen Symptom" (1904). 
286 

EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE FACULTY OF MEMORY 
and afterwards has forgotten how she did react, it is understood without further ado that sister's kiss was only an evasion, which must conceal an important erotic complex. Such reactions are reminiscent of simulation (naturally, unconscious) and resemble the "screen memories" with which hysterical subjects conceal events that are of causal importanceY Another reason for the speedy forgetting of these reactions is their superficiality; for these words can just as well be replaced by a number of different words of an equally superficial kind. The deceptive nature of such reactions is one aspect of the well-known general impression that has so often caused hysterical subjects to be accused of conscious pretence. It should, however, be pointed out that very often the complex hidden by such an evasion is completely cut off from consciousness, since in fact hysterical subjects can very often only under hypnosis be shown what lies behind the suspect reaction. 
	659 	As the experiment shows, the incorrect reproduction has 
the value of a complex-characteristic. (I do not know whether irrelevant reactions are also forgotten.) It can have a positive value through its content since, as a second association to the stimulus-word and the repressed complex, it can be very useful in analysis. The same is, of course, true in research on criminal psychology. I should like to point out that, as in the association test, so also in the reproduction method, the repressed complex can betray itself in the reaction even though it is unconscious; it does so when it is split off from consciousness, as is often the case in hysterical patients. So far as I can see, where repressed complexes are concerned the same phenomenon occurs with normal, hysterical, and catatonic subjects; in normal cases there is a brief embarrassment or momentary blockage, in hysterical cases there is the well-known arbitrary amnesia, and in catatonic cases there is a complete barrier. The psychological mechanism, however, is the same. 
13 Cf. Riklin, "Analytische Untersuchungen der Symptome und Assoziationen eines Falles von Hysterie (Lina H.)" (1905). 
2R7 

PSYCHOANALYSIS AND ASSOCIATION EXPERIMENTS1 
	660 	It is not easy to say in a few words what is the essence of 
Freud's theory of hysteria and of the psychoanalytic method. Freud's terminology and conceptions are still in the makingluckily, if I may say so, because, in spite of the amazing progress that, thanks to Freud's contributions, insight into hysteria has made in recent years, neither Freud nor we, his followers, have gained full knowledge of it. It is therefore not surprising that Freud in his most recent publication on hysteria2 has for the most part abandoned the terminology that he had laid down in the Studies on Hysteria, and substituted for it a number of different and more fitting expressions. One must understand Freud's terms not as always sharply defined scientific concepts but more as opportune coinages from his rich vocabulary. Anyone writing about Freud should therefore not argue with him about words but rather keep the essential meaning in mind. 
	661 	Freud sees hysteria as caused by and manifesting a series of 
psychic traumas, culminating at last in a sexual trauma in the prepubertal period. The so-called psychogenic character of hysteria was, of course, already known before Freud. (We have to thank Mobius3 in particular for a concise definition of the term "psychogenic.") It was known that hysteria stems from ideas marked by the strength of their affect. But it was only Freud who showed us what lines the psychological process follows. He found that the hysterical symptom is essentially a symbol for (fundamentally sexual) ideas that are not present in consciousness but are repressed by strong inhibitions. The repression occurs because these crucial ideas are so charged with painful affects as to make them incompatible with ego-consciousness. 
1 [First published in "Psychoanalyse und Assoziationsexperiment," Journal fur Psychologie und Neurologie, VII (1906): 1-2, 1-24. Republished in Diagnostische Assoziationsstudien, Vo!. I, pp. 258--81 (VI. Beitrag). Translated by M. D. Eder in Studies in Word-Association, pp. 297-321. See supra, par. 1, n. 1.] 
2 "Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria" (orig. 1905). 
8 [Paul ]ulius Mobius (1853-1907), German neurologist who influenced Freud.] 288 

PSYCHOANALYSIS AND ASSOCIATION EXPERIMENTS 
	662 	The psychoanalytic method is inseparably linked with this 
conception. It acknowledges the concept of repressed and therefore unconscious ideas. If we inquire from patients about the cause of their illness, we always obtain incorrect or at least incomplete information. If we had been able to get proper information as in other (physical) diseases, we should already have known a long time ago of the psychogenic nature of hysteria. But this is just the trick of hysteria, that it repres~es or forgets the real cause, the psychic trauma, and substitutes for it superficial "cover" causes. We often hear from hysterics that their illness stems from a cold, from overwork, from real organic disturbances, etc. And so many doctors are fooled again and again. Others turn to the opposite extreme and allege that all hysterics are liars. So they entirely misunderstand the psychological etiology of hysteria, which actually exists only because ideas incompatible with ego-consciousness have been repressed and can therefore not be reproduced. By means of Freud's psychoanalytic method the barriers between ego-consciousness and repressed ideas are bypassed. This method consists mainly in the patient simply telling spontaneously everything that comes into his mind (Freud called this "free association"). An elaborate description of this method can be found in Freud's book The Interpretation of Dreams. Although it is theoretically a priori certain that all human ideas are determined, in a most wonderful way, by psychological laws, it is still easy to conceive that an inexperienced person would get lost in the maze of ideas and would finally be hopelessly caught in a blind alley. It is and will remain one of the main objections against the general acceptability of Freud's method that the prerequisite for the practice of psychoanalysis is psychological sensitivity as well as technique, Le., characteristics that cannot be taken for granted in every physician or psychologist. Then there is a particular way of thinking required for psychoanalysis, which aims at bringing symbols to light. This attitude, however, can only be acquired by constant application. It is a way of thinking that is innate in a poet but is carefully avoided in scientific thought, which is said to be characterized by clear-cut ideas. Thinking in symbols demands from us a new attitude, similar to starting to think in flights of ideas. These seem to be the reasons why Freud's method has only exceptionally been understood and even more rarely 
289 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIA nON 
practised, so that there are actually only a few authors who appreciate Freud, theoretically or practically (Lowenfeld, Vogt, Bleuler, Warda, Starring, Riklin, Otto Gross, Hellpach).4 
	663 	Freud's psychoanalysis is, in spite of the many valuable 
experiences given to us by its author, still a rather difficult art, since a beginner easily loses courage and orientation when faced with the innumerable obstacles it entails. We lack the security of a framework that would enable us to seek out essential data. Having to search haphazardly in treatment is often tantamount to realizing that one has no idea at what point to tackle the problem. 
	664 	The association experiment has helped us to overcome 
these first and most important difficulties. As I have shown, particularly in my paper "The Reaction-time Ratio in the Association Experiment,"5 complexes of ideas referred to as emotionally charged are shown up in the experiment by characteristic disturbances, and their presence and quality can be inferred precisely from these disturbances. This fact is known to be the basis of the "psychological diagnosis of evidence" inaugurated by Wertheimer and Klein,a Hans Gross,1 and Alfred Gross,8 an apparently not unpromising method of diagnosing from the associations the complex underlying a crime. Everybody, of course, has one or more complexes that manifest themselves in some way in associations. The background of our consciousness (or the unconscious) consists of such complexes. The whole material that can be remembered is grouped around these. They form higher psychic units analogous with the egocomplex.9 They constellate our whole thinking and acting, therefore also our associations. With the association experiment we always combine a second, which we call the reproduction test.10 This test consists in making the subject state how he 
4 [For Jung's reviews of books by Leopold L6wenfeld and WiIIy HeIIpach, see Vol. 18. Miscellany.] 
5 See supra, pars. 602 II. 
a Wertheimer, "ExperimenteIIe Untersuchungen zur Tatbestandsdiagnostik" (1905). Wertheimer and Klein, "Psychologische Tatbestandsdiagnostik" (1904). 7 "Zur psychologischen Tatbestandsdiagnostik" (1905). 
8 "Die Assoziationsmethode in Strafprozess" (1g06). Grabowsky, "Psychologische Tatbestandsdiagnostik" (1905). 
9 Bleuler, "Versuch einer naturwissenschaftIichen Betrachtung der psychologischen GrundbegrilIe" (1894) and "Consciousness and Association" (orig. 1905). 
10 Jung, "Experimental Observations on the Faculty of Memory," supra. 
290 

PSYCHOANALYSIS AND ASSOCIATION EXPERIMENTS responded to each stimulus-word in the first test. Where memory fails we usually find a constellation through a complex. The reproduction technique also allows a more detailed description of the complex-disturbances. 
	665 	Every psychogenic neurosis contains a complex that differs 
from normal complexes by unusually strong emotional charges, and for this reason has such a constellating power that it fetters the whole individual. The complex, therefore, is the causa morbi (a certain disposition is, of course, presupposed!). From the associations we can often quickly recognize the nature of the complex, thereby gaining important starting points for causal therapy. A by-product, not to be underestimated, is the increased scientific insight that we obtain into the origin and intrinsic structure of psychogenic neuroses. The essence of these insights has, of course, already been given us long since by Freud, but here he is far too advanced for the understanding of his time. I may therefore be allowed to try to open up new avenues to Freud's body of knowledge. In the papers of the Diagnostic Association Studies published so far, Freud's principles have already been repeatedly used to explain various points. In the present paper I propose to illustrate the connection of psychoanalysis with the association experiment by means of practical examples. I am choosing a common case of obsessional neurosis which I treated in June 1905. 
	666 	Miss. E. came to me for hypnotic treatment of insomnia, which 
she had had for four months. Besides sleeplessness, she complained of an inner restlessness and excitement, irritability towards her family, impatience and difficulty in getting on with people. Miss E. is 37 years old, a teacher, educated and intelligent, has always been "nervous," has a mentally defective younger sister; father was an alcoholic. Present condition: well nourished, no physical abnormality detectable. Patient makes numerous conspicuously restless and twitching movements. When talking she rarely looks at the doctor, mostly speaks past him, out of the window. Occasionally she turns even further round, often laughs unintentionally, frequently makes a shrugging movement with the shoulder, as if shaking off some· thing repulsive, simultaneously stretching the abdomen forward in a peculiar way. 
Her history is very incomplete and vague. One learns that she had been a governess abroad, and was not then ill. The illness started only in recent years and developed gradually to the present 291 

1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
climax. She had been treated by various doctors without any success. She now wanted to try hypnosis, but she had to say at once that she was firmly convinced hypnosis would not be successful. Her illness was incurable and she was sure to go mad. She had in any case repeatedly thought that she was not normal, she must already be mad. Here it was obvious that the patient was apparently talking around something that she either did not want to or could not say. On urgent questioning she declared at last, with many defensive movements and persistent blushing, that she certainly could not sleep, because each time she started going off to sleep the thought came that she certainly would not be able to sleep, she would never be able to sleep until she was dead; then she promptly woke up again and could not sleep any more for the rest of the night. Each time she felt tired and again wanted to sleep, a tremendous fear that she would never again be able to sleep until she was mad or dead woke her up afresh. She had a great struggle to bring herself to this explanation, making numerous defensive gestures, which almost gave the impression that she had something sexually indecent to tell and was ashamed of it. Here again the abdominal movements became noticeable. She repeatedly giggled in a coy way. As this gave an inadequate picture of her condition, I was led to ask whether there were any other ideas that tormented her during her sleeplessness. "No, I don't remember anything else-everything is mixed up--oh, there are thousands of things going through my head." She could not, however, produce any of them, made defensive gestures and suddenly said: In any case, she often had such silly thoughts that they actually overcame her and she could not get rid of them whatever efforts she made. She regretted that she could not tell me these thoughts, because she was afraid that I might also be overtaken by such obsessional ideas. Once before she had told a priest and a doctor about some of her thoughts, and she had always had the compulsive idea that she must have infected those people with them, so that they too had obsessional id~as. She had 
. certainly already infected me. I reassured her; I had already heard many such ideas and it had not done me the slightest harm. After this statement she confessed, again with those peculiar defensive gestures, that besides the idea that she had infected the priest and the doctor with obsessional ideas she was tortured by the thought that a woman neighbour who had recently died had, on her account, died without the last sacrament and was having to suffer all the tortures of hell. She had had this idea only since the death; before that she had for several years had the idea that a boy whom she had brought up had afterwards died from the beatings that she had occasionally given him. The fear had tortured her so much that 
292 

PSYCHOANALYSIS AND ASSOCIATION EXPERIMENTS 
she had twice been obliged to write to the pupil's family to ask how he was. Each time she had done it in quite a casual manner. The good news that she had received on each occasion had calmed her down for the time being, but a few days later the fear was upon her again. This idea had now vanished, but instead she had to blame herself for the death without extreme unction of the neighbour. Her common sense told her that these ideas are nonsense (she said this with a very uncertain voice), but perhaps it was not (she quickly added). Thus she did not correct it completely, but was apparently entirely dominated by the obsessional idea. 
The anamnesis did not reveal any sexual abnormalities; i.e., anything that might refer to sexual processes was immediately rejected. 
An attempt at hypnosis was frustrated because she could not keep her eyes fixed on anything. In order not to compromise this method from the very beginning by useless trials, I decided first to obtain some information about the psychic material underlying the condition. I therefore carried out the association experiment with her. 
1. THE ASSOCIATION EXPERIMENT 
	667 	Here is the whole test: 11 
Reactiontime 
		Stimulus-word 	Reaction 	(secs.) 	Reproduction 
		I. head 	thoughts 	2.2 	hair 
		2. green 	grass 	1.8 	+ 
		3· water 	drinker, to drink 	2.4 	glass 
		4· to prick 	needle 	3.6 	+ 
5.	angel r. 	heaven 	2.6 	+ 
		6. long r. 	short 	4.0 	+ 
		7· ship 	sea 	1.4 	+ 
	668 	I cannot give a complete analysis of the associations. In 
answer to all questions the patient confined herself to saying that nothing special had come to her mind at the critical points. It was thus impossible to find the determinant of the reactions by means of subjective analysis. The objective result of the experiment was, however, sufficient to diagnose the complex, at least in outline, independent of the information given by the patient. I should like to explain in as much detail as possible how I came to this diagnosis. 
11 The incorrectly reproduced associations are in italics. + = correct reproduction. r. = here the patient repeated the stimulus-word quickly in the reaction. One frequently meets this phenomenon in and after complex-reactions. 
293 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
	669 	In anticipation, I should mention that the probable mean 
(Kraepelin) of all the reaction-times of the experiment is 2·4 seconds. This mean is definitely too high for an intelligent and educated person. The mean obtained for twelve educated subjects is 1.5 secs. Since it is mainly emotional influences that prolong the reaction-time,12 we may infer, from this high figure, a rather strong emotionality in the patient. The reader is asked to keep in mind this figure of 2.4 secs. during the following discussion of the reactions. 
	670 	1, head / thoughts, is wrongly reproduced. The complex of 
the illness may have had an influence here. 
	671 	3, water / drinker, to drink, shows a verbal deviation: 
drinker has been corrected to to drink. The father was a heavy drinker. The three following reaction-times are all longer than 2.4 secs.; furthermore, there are two stimulus-word repetitions. From drinker a perseverating emotional charge may be assumed.13 
	672 	5, angel/heaven, may have recalled the obsessional idea of 
the neighbour who died without the sacrament. 

8. to plough 	to sow 	2.2 	+ 		
g. wool 	to sPin 	3·4 	- 	14 	
10. friendly 	loving 	3.6 	good 	
11. table 	woman 	4.6 			
12. to ask 	to reply 	2·4 	+ 		
13. state 	church 	2.2 	+ 		
14. sulky 	brave 	1.8 	friendly 	
15. stalk 	flower 	1.8 	+ 		
	673 	What disturbance prolonged the reaction time of wool I 
cannot say. Experience shows that friendly (10) very easily produces erotic reminiscences. The remarkable table / woman (11), which the patient cannot explain, seems to point to the erotic significance of R. 10. Sensitive people, as all neurotics are, always take stimulus-words personally. It is therefore easy to assume that the patient would like to be the "loving, good woman." That the word friendly has a certain tendency to be reproduced becomes apparent from its reappearance in 14· 
12 Cf. jung, "The Reaction-Time Ratio in the Association Experiment," etc. 13 I cannot deal here with the justification of these inferences. See ibid. 
14 _ = not reproduced. 
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PSYCHOANALYSIS AND ASSOCIATION EXPERIMENTS 
(Feeling-toned ideas have, of course, a stronger tendency to be reproduced than others.) 
16.	to dance 	to jump 	1.8 	+ 
17.	lake r. 	water 	2.4 	+ 
		18. ill 	healthy 	2.0 	+ 
		Ig. pride 	haughty 	5.0 	+ 
20.	to cook 	to roast 	2.0 	+ 
21.	ink 	pot 	2.0 	+ 
22.	wicked 	good 	3.0 
23.	needle 	prick 	2.2 	+ 
24.	to swim 	water 	2.0 	+ 
25.	journey 	railway 	2.2 	+ 
26.	blue 	red 	1.8 	+ 
27.	bread 	knife 	2.0 	+ 
		28. to threaten 	naughty 	8.0 
	674 	To dance (16) tends to arouse erotic reminiscences. This 
assumption is not unjustified here because the following reaction is disturbed. 
	675 	III (18) and pride (19) may easily have been taken person- 
ally. Pride shows distinct complex-characteristics, wicked (22) and to threaten (28) obviously aroused feelings too. The response naughty to to threaten sounds like an association to a child's idea. Has a schoolgirl's reminiscence perhaps been aroused here? To threaten can in any case arouse many feelingtoned associations. People with lively complexes are usually somehow afraid of the future. One can therefore often see that they relate to threaten to the threatening uncertainty of their future. Naturally, there are often underlying concrete associations as well. One must not forget that a word like threaten is seldom used; owing to this "difficulty" it has a somewhat exciting influence; this does not necessarily mean that a complex underlies it. It seems to me wiser, however, to consider the influence of a complex than of a "difficulty." (Cf. Freud's analyses!) 

2g. lamp 	light 	1.8 	+ 	
30. rich 	poor 	1.8 	+ 	
31. tree 	green 	1.2 	+ 	
32. to sing 	to dance 	2.0 	+ 	
33. pity 	poor 	2.0 	+ 	
34. yellow 	flower 	4·2 	green 	
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1. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
35.	mountain r. 
36.	to Play 
37.	salt 
38.	new 
work15 children bread old 
2.8 2.2 2.8 1.6 
+ 
to dance 
+ + 
PSYCHOANAL YSIS AND ASSOCIATION EXPERIMENTS masturbation is a "nasty" habit, a "vicious habit." People Indulging in such "vicious habits" are "scorned." 
	679 	Silly (42) may be personal or may still belong to the range 
of the emotional charge perseverating from habit. Here her gestures by no means contradict a sexual complex. Habit could in some circumstances also mean "the drink habit" and thus have aroused the complex of the drunkard father. 
	676 	To dance (16), mentioned in the previous sequence, returns 
here twice, thus revealing a clear tendency to be reproduced, in accordance with its not inconsiderable emotional charge. In this way frequent repetitions can give away a great deal. A gentleman whom I had asked to be a subject for the experiment was convinced he would not give away any complexes. On the way to me he worked out what he would answer to my stimulus-words; it occurred to him at once that he would say "Paris," a word that seemed to him to have absolutely no personal meaning. True enough, he repeated "Paris" many times during the experiment, declaring this word to be absolutely fortuitous. Six months later he confessed to me that at the time of the test he had still been under the impression of an event that had strongly affected him and which had occurred in Paris. At that time, however, he had thought that Paris had no significance at all for him. I have no reason to doubt this man's truthfulness. Yellow (34) certainly had a personal effect, judging from the surrounding complex-disturbances. The patient has a sallow elderly complexion. Women are very sensitive to such things, particularly if an erotic complex is present. 
	677 	That children (36) is not reproduced but replaced by an- 
other erotic term seems to be worth mentioning. 
46. correct r. 	I should always 	7.6 	incorrect 	
	like to say just 			
	the opposite 			
47. people r. 	father 	6.0 	+ 	
48. to stink 	fragrance 	4.8 	+ 	
49. book r. 	pen 	4·4 	exercise-book 	
50. unfair r. 	sense 	3.6 	fair 	
SI. frog 	green 	2·4 	+ 	
52. to separate 	marriage 	2.2 	+ 	
53. hunger 	thirst 	1.4 	+ 	
54. white 	black 	1.8 	+ 	
296 
If the patient, as we assume, takes the stimulus-words personally and has an erotic complex as indicated, then it is understandable that to correct (46) "she would always like to say the opposite," as this fits her behaviour; it also fits the father's dipsomania. Ideas that are determined twice or more do not exclude each other; according to Freud they are even the rule. 
	681 	That peoPle (47) is associated with father is striking. The 
reaction seems to be within the field of the emotional charge of correct. This could lead to the conclusion that there is some connection, unclear up to now, between her self-reproaches and father. (This connection will become clear later on.) 
	682 	What sort of interference acted on book I pen (49) is not 
easy to say. Book, pronounced as it is spelled [Buch], means "belly" [Bauch] in the Swiss dialect. In a sexual complex such an assimilation could easily occur. I have seen it repeatedly in other subjects. 
	683 	The consistent decrease of the reaction-times from correct, 
7.6 secs., however, indicates a serious complex-interference that begins with this stimulus-word and gradually decreases during the next seven reactions. Unfair (50) seems to have been taken personally, and this fits well with her self-recrimination. 
297 
680 
39. habit r. 	nasty or bad 	12.2 	vicious habit 	
40. to ride r. 	to drive 	2·4 	+ 	
41. wall 	room 	3.0 		
42. silly r. 	clever 	2.8 		
43. exercise-book 	book 	3.0 	+ 	
44. to scorn 	disdain 	15.2 	to desPise 	
45. tooth 	abscess 	1.4 	+ 	
	678 	In this sequence we meet several serious complex-disturb- 
ances. With habit (39) and to scorn (44), the patient made defensive movements and stamped her foot. An "ugly" or "bad" habit can easily be interpreted in a sexual sense: e.g., 
15 [The association in German seems to have been suggested by Bergwerk, 'mine.'] 

I. STUDIES IN WORD ASSOCIATION 
PSYCHOANALYSIS AND ASSOCIATION EXPERIMENTS 
	684 	I have no explanation for the disturbance at 55, cattle. Diso- 
bedient (56) reminds one of the previous naughty, which may be related to the pupil already mentioned. The disturbance of the following unrelated reaction indicates the perseverating emotional charge. R.59, Plum / tree, does not seem to have passed by smoothly, judging by the length of the reaction-time. The word here used for Plum is not an everyday word; it is, however, unlikely that for this reason it takes an educated subject such a long time to react. (Wehrlin's idiots have average figures varying between 3.0 secs. and 37 secs. Therefore 3.8 seems far too long for an educated person.) The German Pflaume (plum) is, like Swiss Zwetschge (plum), a popular sex-symbol in our colloquial language. 
	685 	Dear (62) can easily indicate an erotic complex. At glass 
(63) the complex of the dipsomaniac father apparently comes to the surface again with the strong emotional charge attached to it (hence the disturbance of the two following reactions). 
55.	cattle r. 
56.	to attend 
57.	pencil 
58.	dull 
59.	plum 
60.	to meet 
61.	law 
62.	dear 
63.	glass 
64.	to quarrel 
65.	goat 
cow disobedient to sharpen weather tree 
certain state 
good wa-water argument milk 
4.2 4.0 3.0 1.8 
3.8 1.4 2.8 4.0 1.6 
2·4 2.0 
66. large 	small 	2.6 	
67. potato r. 	floury 	6.0 	
68. to grind 	mill 	2.0 	
69. part r. 	small 	11.6 	
70. old 	ugly 	3.0 	
+ + 
pointed 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
child 
+ 
discord 
to milk 
bound to be much concerned with her body. This might explain the disturbance of the following reaction. 
	687 	For part (69), the reaction-time is very much extended. It 
is usual to interpret "part" as "genital." Here the strong emotional charge is characteristic for this association. It is not surprising under this constellation that old (70) is given a personal erotic meaning. How strongly emphasized in this patient is the question of physical beauty and her own ageing can be seen from the perseveration beautiful (71). To beat / rod (72) can again have been specially constellated by the obsessional idea that she had caused her pupil's death. 
74. wild 	child 	2·4 	+ 	
75. family 	large 	2·4 	+ 	
76. to wash r. 	to clean 	3.0 	+ 	
77. cow 	to milk 	1.8 	+ 	
78. stranger 	nostalgia 	14.8 	+ 	
79. happiness r. 	unhappiness 	3.0 	+ 	
80. to tell 	story 	1.6 	+ 	
	688 	The minor disturbance at 76, to wash, can be explained by 
the preceding erotic concepts child and family. Stranger (78) apparently aroused a personal association, to be explained later on. 
81. propriety 	intellect 	4.6 	+ 	
82. narrow r. 	small 	3.2 	+ 	
83. brother 	sister 	1.0 	+ 	
84. damage r. 	neighbour 	4.0 	+ 	
85. stork r. 	church 	2·4 	+ 	
86. false r. 	unfaithful 	3.0 	+ 	
87. fear 	anxiety 	2·4 	+ 	
88. to kiss 	mouth 	2.2 	+ 	
89. fire 	blaze 	1.8 	+ 	
go. dirty 	sticky 	2.2 	+ 	
g1. door 	fold 	1.6 	+ 	
+ + + + 
young, un- 
attractive 
71.	flower 	beautiful 	2.0 	scent 
72.	to beat 	rod 	2.8 
		73. cupboard 	table 	2.8 	+ 
	686 	Large (66) is as a rule taken personally. The patient is very 
short. With an erotic complex, she is, as we have already seen, 298 
	689 	The sound association of 81, propriety / intellect (A n- 
stand / Verstand) is most striking. Let us remember the disturbances produced by habit! There we suspected the "vicious habit" of masturbation. Here too this complex could have been aroused. In this case intellect is not fortuitous. According to a 
299