n. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
galvanometer. In some of the experiments the subject was in an adjoining room, the electric connections and signals being easily adjusted for this purpose. The following is the series of stimuli: 
(1) A loud whistle . 
(2) Actual fall of a weight with a very loud noise . (3) Multiply 4 by S· 
(4) MultiplygbYll. 
(S) Multiply 8 by 12. 
(6) Sudden call of subject by name. (7) Where do you live? 
(8) What is the capital of Switzerland? (9) What is the capital of France? 
(10) How old are you? (11) Are you married? 
(12) Were you engaged once before? 
(13) Have you been long at your present employment? (14) Threat of prick with needle after counting 1-2-3. 
(IS) Threat of allowing heavy weight to fall after counting 1- 
2-3· 
(16) What is your first name? 
(17) What is the first name of your wife? (18) Is she pretty? 
(19) We have now finished. 
	1°52 	The verbal stimuli were varied to a slight degree with vari- 
ous individuals, to adapt them to different conditions and circumstances, but the general character of the stimuli was the same. 
	1°53 	These stimuli were ordinarily repeated three times for each 
individual, normal or pathological, and subsequently the series of word stimuli were given for the word associations, and these were also repeated once or twice. From seventy curves, fig. 2 (H., nurse, Series 3) is selected as a general illustration of the galvanometric curve. This man was emotional and in the third series here presented the curves are smaller and more rounded than in the first and second series. At the same time they serve to show the character of the emotional curve. Stimuli 3, 4, and 5, although they were but simple multiplication, induced an emotional curve, because H. was a nurse and was embarrassed at doing mental arithmetic before experimenters. Stimuli 8, g, 
500 

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C ~ C ~ v ~ 0 to ~ ..c _ c - ~ 
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	~ 	QJ 	••••• In 

n. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 

and 10 were practically exhausted in this third trial and show very little. Between 10 and 11 someone entered the room. The weight was let fall twice between 13 and 14 instead of at 2, and being unexpected produced a large and a smaller wave of alarm. The threatened prick of the needle at 14 and threat of fall of large leaden weight at IS still produced large waves, and show how strongly actuality in an apprehension influences the curves. Again, at 18 the ip.quiry if his wife was pretty, she being far from it, induced a lively emotion and correspondingly high wave, for this question was here a surprise as well, not having been asked in the preceding series. 

.Normal Person Serie.5 I 

Seri£s ,2 

Serie.s3~ 

FIG. 3. Repetition of same stimulus questions in a normal person (H., a nurse) three successive times to show gradual exhaustion of emotional wave in the galvanometer curve. In 3rd series, question I, someone entered the laboratory and caused an extra wave 

	1054 	Exhaustion of stimulus by repetition.-When the first series 
of stimuli is recorded, the curves are usually characterized by 

	21 	22 

FIG. 4. Here G., a nurse, is asked about a quarrel with another nurse, H. The fluctuating galvanometer waves 21 and 22 represent the wavering emotions aroused 

5°2 

INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH abrupt ascent and descent with rather sharp summits. The curves diminish in size and the summits become more rounded in each repetition, showing a slower excitation and slower reaction of the emotion. This is well illustrated in fig. 3, where several curves induced by the same stimuli in the first, second, and third series in the same individual are reproduced. Wave No. 1 in Series I also exhibits in the descent the fluctuating character of an emotion which is slowly and waveringly passing off. This is even better shown in fig. 4, from Case G., who was asked questions calculated to produce a complex emotional state such as the galvanometer perfectly indicates. In quite a number of instances the heights of the waves of the three successive series were measured and the following two illustrations are selected as examples of the differences in height (in milli- 

Table I: 	Case of H. Diminishing Excursions of Galvanometer 	
				in Successive Stimulations 					
												--- 				
				" 	::s 		". 	" 				,". 	GC"· 				
				" 	0 							"" 	"blJ 	-5 	.r: 		
							•.... '" 	~ 				,,~ 					
Stimuli 		::: 		" 	» 		~§ 	" 		::s'" 	::s.E 	.D" 	.~.£ 	'~E 	" 	
	on 			" 	0". 		'" ". 	0'" 		::soS 			blJ 	
						,,- 		;>..~ 	0" 				" 	
	X 			» 	"''' 	.~ t 	-::s 		».D 	0" 	-'" 	_OIl 	~ 	
		X 	.D 	e~ 		00 	"I: 		"'~ 	"" 	".- 	" 	
					o.N 	~'" 	~" 	"'" 	~ 	"" 	,," 	> 	
	... 	'" 			" 		ce.-::; 	0 		<" 	~" 	"::s 	1:" 	1:~ 	< 	
Case of H 			'" 	.r: 		U~ 				"blJ 	>" 				
			U 	~ 		'" 	0:: 				~~ 	~" 	f-< 	f-< 		
Series I 	34 	18 		5 	38 	14 	24 	18 	27 	26 	36 	22 	24 	
Series 2 	11 	12 		4 	18 	9 		9 		6 	4 	6 	25 	59+ 	10-4 	
Series 3 	8 	8 	4 	18 	I 		3 		6 	9 	9 	18 	13 	8,4 	
Table 2: 	Case of G. Diminishing Excursions of Galvanometer 	
				in Successive Stimulations 					
			::s 			". 				" 		5C"· 					
								~ 		u 			" 		.r: 		
			0 		•.... '" 	•.... 			§~ 	"blJ 		-5 			
Stimuli 			'" 	~§ 	0'" 	" 			.D" 	-",'" 			" 	
	on 	~ 	0". 		c;e 	"'''. 	::s" 	0 	=~ 	.~ .£ 	'~E 	OJ) 	
			"''' 	,,- 		-::s 	oblJ 	,,- 	::so 	-'" 	_blJ 	" 	
	X 			-~ 	-" 			0" 				~ 	
		X 	~~ 	.- " 	.- " 	00 	",,, 	»~ 	o~ 	"" 	".- 	" 	
				o.N 	o.~ 	~'" 		blJ 		"'" 	,," 	,," 	> 	
	..• 	00 	" 		(';$.-::; 	J~ 		~E 	"::s 		1:" 	~~ 	< 	
Case of G 			.r: 		U~ 		0 			~" 	o.r: 		~ 		
			~ 			'" 		0:: 		~ 		0::" 	el- 	f-< 			
Series I 	9 	10 	7 	7 	8 	5 	10 	5 	8 	17 	15 	8.6 	
Series 2 	6 	6 	4 	7 	4 	6 		4 	5 	6 	14 	17 	6.2 	
Series 3 	3 	5 	3 	5 	3 	4 		6 	4 	5 	16 	15 	5·4 	

NOTE. In the averages of these two tables the eleventh column of figures was not included as the emotion of expectation that the weight would really be dropped modifies especially the second trial, while in the third trial there was less of such expectation. 

5°3 

11. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
metres) of the curves of the stimuli in the three series. Waves were selected which had not been affected in any of the series by interruptions, change of contact, coughing, or deep inspirations. 
	1055 	In these tables the falling off of the height of the emotional 
curve is very well shown, and in both the livelier affects produced even in repetition by actual threats of the needle and weigh t are typical. In Series 2 of the first table the threat with the weight raised the curve to over fifty-nine because the subject thought that the weight would actually fall in this experiment, whereas before it was a threat only. 
	1056 	Latent time.-It was noted by Tarchanoff that the galvanic 
wave began to rise from one to three seconds after a stimulus was given. We have verified this period of latent time in all normal conditions, but the latent time varies with different people and at different times. In the curves that we have thus far taken we could not well complicate the apparatus with a chronograph adjustment, and have estimated the space of latent time in a number of normal cases by measuring the distance of the curve from the moment of stimulation to the beginning of ascent of the emotional curve, taking the measurements in millimetres. The kymograph drum revolved slowly. The following results were obtained. Nurse B. with the series of mixed stimuli given above showed in the first series an average of 2.06 millimetres; the repetition of the second series averaged 2.Fi5 millimetres; with Nurse G. and the same series of mixed stimuli in Series 1 the average was 1.85, in the second 1.76, and in the third or final series 2.32 millimetres. Dr. P. with the same series showed an average latent period in the first trial of 3.15, and in the repetition an average of 4.40. Dr. R. with the same series had an average period in the first trial of 4.05 millimetres, and in the second trial of 4.50 millimetres. In a series of word-associations Dr. R. showed at first an average period of 2.95 millimetres, and in the repetition immediately after the average was 4 millimetres. With word-associations Nurse H. showed in the first series an average latent period of 2.26; in the repetition or second series the latent period was increased to 3.55, and with a third trial of the same words the latent period had become 4.14. These figures with regard to the 
504 

INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH latent period show therefore that with repetition there is increase of the latent period of time simultaneously with t rounding off and diminishing amplitude of the curve, both c< responding with exhaustion of the power of the stimulus. " were unable to determine in this investigation that there v. any marked difference in latent time in relation to the vario forms of stimulation whether physical or psychic, and wh, psychic with or without answer to questions or words, thoul such differences will probably be discovered by further expe ment directed to this end.lo 
	1057 	Normal individual variations of galvanometer curve.-V 
find considerable difference in the curves made by the g: vanometer in normal persons. In some the waves are of rath 
	~ 	6 7 8 	9 10 11 12 	13 1+ 15 18 17 18 

							~ 	f'- 	f'-. 	lI' 	
						I~ 					
			r- 	~ 	1-- 						
		•...... 									
- 	- 										
	'V' 	v 									
FIG. 5. Dr. R., normal curve with rather indifferent word-associati, stimuli. Unemotional type 
small and even excursion, corresponding to the unemotional 1 phlegmatic nature of the subject. In other waves there is wi< excursion, with fluctuating or bifurcated waves, rapid ascen and descents, expressing great emotionallability. These norm variations are illustrated in figs. 5 and 6. 
10 With a stop-watch we estimated that the time of revolution of the dn was 4·5 in five seconds. Hence the latent time in the above normal individu was about as follows: 

Latent time in 					Dr. R. Word 	H.W< 	
seconds 	B. 	G. 	Dr. P. 	Dr. R. 	Assoc. 	Asso 	
First series 	2.28 	2.05 	3-5 	4·5 	3.27 	2.51 	
Second series 	2.83 	1.95 	4.88 	5 	4·44 	3·94 	
Third series 		2·.~7 				4.6 	
			505 				

H. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 

Ill. THE PNEUMOGRAPH AS AN INDICATOR OF PSYCHIC PROCESSES 
	1058 	The relation of the respiratory innervation curve to psychic 

processes in both normal and pathological conditions has not yet been thoroughly investigated. Mosso was one of the earlier investigators (1879-1893) in the physiological application. of the pneumograph and could reach no satisfactory conclusions from a study of the respiratory curve under sensory stimulation. Delabarre11 states that respiration increases in frequency and depth with attention to sensory stimulation, and with 
	5 	6 	7 	8 9 ID 11 12 	13 	14< 	15 	18 

FIG. 6. H., an attendant, normal curves, very labile emotions. The numbers here correspond to the series of mixed stimuli; 15 is threat of weight 

mental processes increases in frequency and diminishes in depth. Lehmann12 states that every pleasant impression increases the depth of breathing, and that strong unpleasant impressions are accompanied by several deep respiratory movements. Mentz13 employed pleasant and unpleasant acoustic stimuli in a study of the pulse and breathing, and as regards respiration observed with strong stimulation first slowing and then shortening of the respiratory movements. He noted also a marked influence of attention on the results. Involuntary attention generally induced prolongation of breathing, while voluntary attention often caused abbreviation of the movements. Pursuing his studies further he investigated the action of pleasant and unpleasant stimuli and of the effects upon pulse and respiration. As regards the former, pleasant feelings 

11 Ober BewegungsemPfindungen (1891). 
12 Die Hauptgesetze des menschlichen Gefilhlslebens (1892). 
13 "Die Wirkung akustischer Sinnesreize auf PuIs und Atmung" (1893). 
506 

INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 

lengthened the pulse curve and unpleasant ones shortened it and he regards the respiratory curve as running a paralle: course. With affects there was prolongation of the respiratoq movements, and with increasing strength of the affects an in creasing height or depth of the breathing curve. Zoneff ana Meumann,14 finding nothing sufficiently definite in literatuH in relation to the correspondence between respiration and cir· culation and psychic or emotional processes, have made an exhaustive research upon normal individuals, employing vari· ous stimuli, optic, acoustic, gustatory, cutaneous, and psychic (arithmetical problems and space conceptions), and studied at the same time the effects of voluntary attention and pleasant and unpleasant impressions upon the breathing and pulse. They found that as a rule attention produced acceleration of the breathing, especially at the end of the stimulation, and in addition to acceleration the breathing might become more shallow or be inhibited. This inhibition may appear as shallow and more rapid breathing, or there may be a partial or complete standstill of the respiration, which is greater in direct proportion to the degree of attention. Complete inhibition was found more often in attention to sensory than to intellectual stimulation. There were variations in the results in different individuals. There were fluctuations in the curves which they considered as being due to fluctuations in attention. In relation to pleasant and unpleasant stimuli, they concluded that all pleasant sensations cause shallowing and acceleration of the breathing, and all unpleasant sensations deepening and slowing of respiration, ar, in other words, that the former diminish and the latter increase respiratory function. In experiments with diversion of the attention together with stimulation, they found that emotional effects upon breathing and pulse ceased. In experiments with concentration of attention on stimulus and sensation, attention strengthened the effects of both pleasant and unpleasant feelings upon the curves. While their work is the best that has yet appeared upon this subject, it must still be confessed that experiments of this nature carried out upon the trained assistants or students connected with the laboratory are more or less artificial, and this, together with the extremely simple character of the stimulation, would make their 
14 "Ober Begleiterscheinungen psychischer Vorgange im Atem und PuIs" (1900). 
507 

n. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
criteria for the more complex emotional phenomena with which we have to deal only relatively valuable. 
	1059 	Martius and Minnemann15 in a thoroughly iconoclastic and 
yet excellent work point out many fallacies in the studies of Lehmann, Menz, and Zoneff and Meumann, artifacts of a mechanical nature, and wrong conclusions as to the relations between affects and pulse and breathing curves. They t{1emselves find the normal respiratory curve inconstant, subject to variations due to age, temperament, perseveration of affect, reactions from the affect, embarrassment from the experiment, undue interest in the procedure, etc., and their chief conclusion is that the main changes in breathing in emotional conditions consist of quickened or lengthened tempo, with diminished height in either case. 
	1060 	Believing that a study of the inspiratory curve would throw 
the most light upon the relation of respiratory innervation to psychic processes, we set before ourselves several problems for consideration, viz., the character of the usual respiratory curve, the character of the curve in stimulation without verbal reaction, the influence of verbal reaction with indifferent stimuli upon the curve, whether distinct emotional complexes affected uniformly the pneumographic curve, whether there were marked disturbances of the respiratory without corresponding changes in the galvanometric curve, and, finally, what influence attention has on both galvanometer and pneumograph. We have not been able as yet to reach satisfactory conclusions on all of these points, for the material already available is more than we have yet had opportunity to investigate thoroughly; but so far as they go the results obtained are of interest. The figures in the table for one of the cases given here show a regular, though not constant, relation between the galvanometric and the pneumographic curves. 
	1061 	To obtain these relations it is necessary to select an experi- 
ment in which the galvanometric curve has not been influenced greatly by the several sources of error, and the simultaneous pneumographic curve has not been modified too much by verbal reaction, coughing, etc. Taking the typical curves of several such series, measurements were made to determine the relative number of inspirations synchronous with the ascending 
15 Beitriige zur Psychologie und PhilosoPhie (1905). 
508 

galvanometer curve, and also with the descending galvanometer curve. The amplitude of each inspiration was also measured and averaged for the same purpose, and the measurements are recorded in millimetres. It will be seen that the ascending portion of the galvanometer curve, which is the result of an emotional stimulus, is accompanied by fewer inspirations as well as by deeper ones. While this seemed to be a general rule in this instance, we find variations in different individuals with the same mixed series of stimuli, and in some cases the reverse. The stimuli in the tables were unpleasant rather than pleasant to the subject. But the determination of the quality of the emotional tone in any such experiment is very difficult. The forced -and artificial situation of the subject in itself induces unpleasant feelings, and any pleasant stimulus must therefore simply bring about a certain relief or relaxation in a situation 
509 

n. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
of unpleasant tension. The nervous tension during an experiment must naturally influence the breathing, and a pleasant stimulus is apt to produce only a temporary lessening of such tension. This is a criticism we would make of the Zoneff and Meumann experiments, and of experiments with the pneumograph in general. It is altogether probable that there are more inexplicable influences at work in relation to the pneumographic curve than we are at present able to comprehend. There are many respiratory fluctuations which have nothing to do with the emotions, but are the result of physical or intellectual processes, with the enforced quiet of body of the subject, with the disposition to speak, with tendencies to cough or to swallow, ete. Furthermore, there will be a difference in the curve if the stimulus occurs during an inspiration or an expiration, and there are individual variations dependent upon temperament or upon lability of the emotions. 
	1062 	We have, therefore, not been greatly impressed with the 
value of a possible relation between the galvanometric and pneumographic curves since this is not constant, and the more comparative study we have given to the two synchronous curves, the more we have been impressed with a surprising divergence between the influences at work upon them. We have studied hundreds of waves in every conceivable manner. For instance, we have taken series of galvanometric curves and carefully measured the length of each inspiration, and the intervals between inspirations, as related to the point of stimulus, to the latent space before the ascent of the galvanometer wave, to the ascending curve, to the crest, to the descending curve, and to the space next to the point of stimulus, without developing any regular and constant relationship of correspondence, though we think this may ultimately be shown to exist in some degree. On the contrary, we have found thus far that the influences at work upon the two curves reveal an astonishing regularity of difference. When the emotions are very labile, and show the most marked excursions in the galvanometer curve, the respiratory curve is often regular and even (fig. 7). On the other hand, in instances both normal and pathological, where the galvanometer curve is marked by little fluctuation, or even by none, as in some cases of catatonia, there will often be most decided variations in the pneumographic curve. We often note a change 
510 
INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 
	10 	II 	12 	I3 

FIG. 7. Dr. P., normal good-sized galvanometer curves with fairly regular respiratory curve 
in character in the pneumographic curve, not so much with each separate stimulus, but during the whole course of a series of stimuli as if expectant attention and nervous tension diminished the inspirations during the early part of the series, and as if there were a relaxation during the later half with longer inspirations (fig. 8). There does not seem to be the intimate and 
1 
2 
3 
+ 
El 
7 
8 
8 

FIG. 8. Dr. S., a patient with paranoid dementia (Case No. 3). Extraordinarily labile emotions expressed in galvanometer curve. Considerable tension in pneumographic curve from stimulus 2 (fall of weight) on, with relaxation and deeper breathing beyond stimulus 7. An example of perseveration of tension for a long period in the pneumographic curve 
deep relationship between the respiratory function and the unconscious emotions that exists between the sweat glandular system and these emotions. It is a matter of everyday experience that the respiration is influenced by our conscious emotions, especially when they are strong, as instanced in such expressions as "bated breath," "breathless with astonishment," ete. Such in- 
511 

	

6 

A. 

6 

B. 

FIG. g. J., acute catatonic stupor (Case No. 10). A is a wave selected from the series in which 6 is sudden call by name. The galvanometer curve is slight, but the change in the pneumographic curve is notable. B is the same stimulus in the repetition of the series. (Fig. g is reproduced actual size of the tracing) 

hibitions of breathing are noticeable in many pneumographic curves, particularly in association with expectation and tension. But perhaps the emotions of the unconscious, roused up by questions or words that strike into the buried complexes of the soul, reveal themselves in the galvanometer curve, while the pneumographic curve is comparatively unaffected. Respiration is an instrumen t of consciousness. You can con trol it vol un taril y while you cannot control the galvanometer curve. The respiratory innervation is closely associated with speech innervation, anatomically and functionally, and the physical connection in the brain is, perhaps, one of the closest and earliest. Let us take 
512 

INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 

these remarkable curves of a case of acute catatonia (figs. 9A and 9B), which may be regarded as a psychological experiment in diverting both attention and ordinary emotion. Attention and all other emotions being practically diverted by the pathological process, the galvanometer curve is slight (indeed, in the second repetition it was a straight line), but the sudden call of the patient by name produced the extraordinary fluctuations in the respiratory curve, though nothing was apparent in his outward demeanour to show that he was conscious in any degree of the stimulus. He may have been conscious of the call, but we had no means of determining this. In the repetition the same fluctuations occurred, proving that they were not fortuitous. The only reasonable explanation of this phenomenon, in our opinion, is that the call of the name developed a disposition to speak, stimulated the hearing centre, and the closely-associated speech centre, the motor innervation from which acted upon the respiratory muscles. Ordinarily a sudden call by name, which is one of the strongest and deepest of stimuli, produces an answer. In this instance the call by name was a stimulus that acted as in a simple reflex process, and led to motor manifestations in the respiratory muscles connected with the motor speech centre, analogous to the contraction of the eyelids in response to a sudden flash of light. Fig. 10 is another instance of almost like character. 
	1063 	While inconstancy of emotional variations in the respira- 
tory curve and in correspondence with the galvanometer curve has been the rule in our findings thus far, we have learned that inhibitions, when they occur as an expression of expectant attention or of other emotions, are almost always shown in the expiratory curve and not in the inspiratory, which would accord with our idea that active, intellectual, emotional or conscious innervation is chiefly associated with inspiration, whereas expiration is rather a physical process or relaxation, prone to be inhibited, but not otherwise affected by the active respiratory nerves. 
	1064 	In reiterating our opinion that the galvanometer curve is 
probably more intimately connected than the pneumographic curve with the subconscious emotional complexes, we would add that there is a greater tendency also to persistence in the pneumographic curve when emotion is expressed in it, for the 
513 

H. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 

8 

FIG. 10. Miss S., paranoid dementia (Case No. 2), stimuli 9, 10, I I, 12, correspond to numbers in the mixed series printed in the text. The noteworthy changes in the respiratory curve are due to her constant "disposition to speak." She did not speak except in answer to the questions given, but she apparently whispered most of the time between audible answers. Sometimes there was slight movement of the lips, when real whispering was not apparent 

galvanometer curve subsides rather quickly with the fall of the emotion, while the pneumographic curve may show traces of conscious reminiscence of the emotional stimulus for a much longer time. The galvanometer is rather an index or measure of acute feeling-tone. 
	1065 	Thus far, for the purposes of this study of the curves under 
normal conditions, we had made some forty series of curves in eight normal individuals, educated and uneducated. After this we made some thirty series of curves in eleven cases of dementia praecox of different types, viz.: Dementia paranoides three, hebephrenia two, and catatonia six cases (three chronic and three acute), and to these tests we will now turn our attention. 

IV. THE GALVANOMETRIC AND PNEUMOGRAPHIC CURVES IN DEMENTIA PRAECOX 
	1066 	Before recording the results of our experiments in dementia 
praecox it is necessary to say something of the psychology of the disorder. The chief characteristic in the mental condition of these patients is a peculiar disturbance of the emotions. In chronic conditions we have, as Kraepelin has clearly shown, an "emotional atrophy." In acute conditions there is a species of "inco-ordination" or "ataxia" between affectivity and concepts, 
514 

INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 

well demonstrated by Stransky.16 The emotional disturbance has also been called "inadequate emotional tone." But these phrases represent rather the superficial impression that these patients make upon the physician. As soon as one examines the phenomena analytically and critically, the difficulty of attaining to a common point of view as regards all the morbid emotional symptoms is found to be extraordinary. We see at once that in most cases of dementia praecox none of the emotions is either changed or destroyed. We find, indeed, on closer analysis that many normal feelings are present. Cases with complete loss of emotion are exceptional. Elementary affects, such as fright, anxiety, pleasure, anger, embarrassment, shame, ete., are usually preserved. There is even at times an increased affectivity, or real nervous sensitiveness, present. Furthermore, in cases where one would expect more or less diminution of affectivity from their previous conduct and life, the elementary feelings are still maintained. The disorder is then shown in what Janet calls the fonction du reel17 or the psychological adaptation to the environment. It is hardly to be expected that we should find characteristic disturbances in such patients by our experimental method (psychogalvanic), since they would lie in quantitative differences between the various feelingtones. Even if there were qualitative changes, these would be too small for recognition. 
	1067 	One of the chief factors in psychological adaptation to the 
environment is attention, which renders possible all the associations necessary to normal existence. In dementia praecox, especially the catatonic form, there are marked disorders of attention, which are shown by lack of power of voluntary concentration; or, otherwise expressed, objects do not excite in the diseased brain the affective reaction which alone permits an adequate selection of intellectual associations. This defective reaction to stimuli in the environment is the chief feature of dementia praecox. But this disorder is neither simple nor elementary; on the contrary, it is very complicated. What is its origin? There is in the psychology of dementia praecox still another characteristic that throws light upon the problem. By means 

16 "Zur Kenntnis gewisser erworbener BlOdsinnsformen" (1903); "Zur Auffassung gewisser Symptome deI' Dementia Praecox" (1904). 
17 "Acting up to realities." 

515 

n. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
of word associations and subsequent analysis we find in these cases, among other abnormal manifestations, certain thoughtcomplexes associated with strong emotional tone, one or several of which are fundamental complexes for the individual and embody as a rule the emotions or experiences that immediately preceded the development of the mental disorder. In suitable cases it is possible without much trouble to discover that the symptoms (delusions, hallucinations, insane ideas) stand in close relation to these psychological antecedents. They in fact, as Freud has shown, determine the symptoms. Freud applied his method particularly to hysteria, in which he found conscious or unconscious constellations, with strong affective tone, that may dominate the individual for years, or even the whole life through, by the force they exert upon associations. Such a morbid complex plays the part of an independent being, or soul within a soul, comparable to the ambitious vassal who by intrigue finally grew mightier than the king. This complex acts in a particular way upon the psyche. Janet has described it in an excellent manner in his book.18 The complex robs the ego of light and nourishment, just as a cancer robs the body of its vitality. The sequelae of the complex are briefly as follows: Diminution of the entire psychic energy, weakening of the will, loss of objective interest and of power of concentration and of self-control, and the rise of morbid hysterical symptoms. These results can also manifest themselves in associations, so that in hysteria we find clear manifestations of emotional constellations among their associations. But this is not the only analogy between dementia praecox and hysteria. There are numerous others, which we cannot describe here in detail. One may, however, call attention to the large number of undoubted catatonic processes which were formerly called "degenerative hysterical psychoses." There are many cases, too, of dementia praecox which for years cannot be distinguished from hysteria. We call attention to the similarity of the two disorders here in order to show that ot:r hypothesis of the relation between "psychological adaptation to environment" and an emotional complex is an established fact in the matter of hysteria. If we find in dementia praecox similar conditions, we are justified in assuming that here, too, the general disturb- 
18 Les Obsessions et la psychasthenie (1903). 516 

INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 
ances of mind may have a close causal relationship with an underlying complex. The complex is naturally not the only cause of dementia praecox, as little as it is of hysteria. Disposition is also a chief agency, and it is possible that in the disposition to dementia praecox affectivity brings about certain irreparable organic disturbances, as for instance metabolic toxins. 
	1068 	The difference between dementia praecox and hysteria lies 
in certain irreparable sequelae and the more marked psychic disturbances in the former disorder. Profound general disturbances (delirium, severe emotional crises, etc.), exceptional in hysteria, are usual in dementia praecox. Hysteria is a caricature of the normal, and therefore shows distinct reactions to the stimuli of the environment. In dementia praecox, on the other hand, there is always defective reaction to external stimuli. There are characteristic differences in relation to the complex. In hysteria the complex may with very little trouble be revealed by analysis, and with a good prospect of therapeutic advantage in the procedure. But with dementia praecox there is no possibility of its being thus influenced. Even if, as is sometimes possible, the complex may be forced to reproduction, there is as a rule no therapeutic result. In dementia praecox the complex is more independent and more strongly detached, and the patient more profoundly injured by the complex than is the case in hysteria. For this reason the skilled physician is able to affect by suggestion acute hysterical states, which are nothing but irradiations from an excited complex, while he fails in dementia praecox where the inner psychic excitement is so much stronger than the stimuli from the environment. This is also the reason why patients in the early stages of dementia possess neither power of critical correction nor insight, which never fail in hysteria even in the severest formsY 
	1069 	Convalescence in hysteria is characterized by gradual weak- 
ening of the complex till it vanishes entirely. The same is true in the remissions of dementia praecox, though here there is always some vestige of irreparable injury, which, even if unimportant, may still be revealed by study of the associations. 
	1°7° 	It is often astonishing how even the severest symptoms of 
dementia praecox may suddenly vanish. This is readily understood from our assumption that the acute conditions of both 
19 Raimann, Die hysterischen Geistesstorungen (1904). 
517 

n. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
hysteria and dementia praecox are the results of irradiations from the complex, which for the time conceal the normal functions that are still present. For example, some strong emotion may throw a hysterical person into a condition of apathy or delirium, which may disappear the next moment through the action of some psychological stimulus. In like manner stuporous conditions may come and go quite suddenly in dementia praecox. While such patients are under the spell of the excited complex, they are for the time completely cut off from the outside world, and neither perceive external stimuli nor react to them. When the excitement of the complex has subsided, the power of reaction to the environment gradually returns, first for elementary and later for more complicated psychological stimulation. 
	1°71 	Since, according to our hypothesis, dementia praecox can 
be localized in some dominating psychological complex, it is to ce expected that all elementary emotional reactions will be fully preserved, so long as the patient is not completely in the control of the complex. We may, therefore, expect to find in all patients with dementia praecox who show psychological adaptation in elementary matters (eating, drinking, sleeping, dressing, speaking, mechanical occupation, ete.) the presence of some adequate emotional tone. But in all cases where such psychological adaptation fails, external stimuli will produce no reaction in the disordered brain, and even elementary emotional phenomena will fail to become manifest, because the entire psychic activity is bound up with the morbid complex. That this is an actual fact is shown in the results of our experiments. 
	1°72 	The following is a brief resume in each case of the features 
that are of interest for us here: 
(1) H., male, aged 43, teacher of languages. First insane ten years ago. Well educated and intelligent. Entered an asylum for a time in 1896. Passed through a light period of catatonia with refusal of food, bizarre demeanour, and auditory hallucinations. Later constant persecutory ideas. In August 1906, he murdered one of his supposed persecutors, and since then has been in this asylum. Very precise and correct in his dress and conduct, industrious, independent, but extremely suspicious. Hallucinations not discoverable. Diagnosis-Dementia paranoides. 
(2) Miss S., aged 61, dressmaker. Became insane about 1885. In- 
518 

INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH numerable bizarre delusions, delusions of grandeur, hallucinations of all the senses, neologisms, motor and language stereotypy. Conduct orderly, neat, industrious, but rather querulous. Is on parole and shows considerable independent activity. Diagnosis-Dementia paranoides.20 
(3) Dr. S., male, aged 35, chemist. Became insane about 1897. 
Very intelligent and reads numerous scientific books. Has many wants and makes many complaints. Extremely careful in dress, and is extraordinarily neat. Numerous grandiose ideas and hallucinations. No catatonic symptoms. Diagnosis-Dementia paranoides. 
(4) Mrs. H. 0., aged 44, farmer's wife. Became insane in 1904 with an attack of hebephrenic depression. Since the end of 1906, in a second attack of similar character. Speaks only in whispers. Somewhat inhibited, anxious, and hears very unpleasant voices. Works industriously and spontaneously. Neat in dress and in care of her room. Diagnosis-Hebephrenic depression. 
(5) Mrs. E. S., aged 43, merchant's wife. Became insane in 1901. 
Occasionally light maniacal excitement, never confusion at first, but rapid dementia. Now greatly demented, inactive, and vexes other patients. Unemotional, indifferent, and untidy in dress. Without interest in her husband or surroundings. Chatters a great deal, but quite superficially, and it is impossible in any way to arouse in her any of the deeper emotions. Diagnosis-Hebephrenia. 
(6) A. V. D., male, aged 39. Entered the asylum in 1897. From the beginning quiet, unemotional, somewhat timid and anxious. Speech fragmentary and indistinct, and most of the time talks to himself. Makes meaningless gestures with the hands. Has to be cared for by the attendant in all matters. Cannot work. Shows neither homesickness nor desire for freedom. Automatism on command and at times catalepsy. Diagnosis-Chronic catatonic stupor. 
(7) Sp., male, aged 62, factory worker. Became insane in 1865. 
In the early stages several attacks of catatonic excitement. Later chronic stupor with occasional raptus. In one attack of raptus tore out one of his testicles with his hand. At another time suddenly kissed the attendant. During a severe physical illness at one time he suddenly became quite clear and approachable. Speaks only spontaneously and at long intervals. Works only mechar.ically when he is led to it. Stereotyped gestures. Diagnosis-Chronic catatonic stupor. 
20 [This is probably the case that Jung dealt with in detail in "The Psychology of Dementia Praecox" (IC)07). See especially par. 198 and pars. 364-84 in ColI. Works, vol. 3; also Mem01'ies, Dreams, Reflections, pp. 125-28 (both edns.).] 
519 

II. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
(8) F., male, aged 50. Became insane in 1881. At first, for a long period, depressed inhibition. Later, mutism, with occasional outbursts of abusive language on account of voices and numerous hallucinations. At present constant hallucination, though he is quiet, speaking only when addressed, and then in a low, fragmentary manner. Occasionally outbreaks of abuse because of the voices. Works mechanically, and is stupid and docile. Diagnosis-Chronic catatonia. 
(9) ]. 5., male, aged 21. Became insane in 1902. Stupid, stubborn, negativistic, speaks spontaneously not at all or very seldom, quite apathetic and without affectivity, sits the whole day in one place, wholly disorderly in dress. Once in a while demands release with some irritation. Diagnosis-Mild catatonic stupor. 
(10) ]., male, aged 21, student of philosophy and very intelligent. 
Became insane about 1901, when he had a short attack. The second attack came in December last (1906). At times excited, wholly confused, and strikes about him. Incessant hallucinations. Wholly wrapped up in his inner mental processes. In occasional intervals of some lucidity, the patient states quite spontaneously that he has no feeling at all, that he cannot be either glad or unhappy, that everything to him seems wholly indifferent. Diagnosis-Acute catatonic stupor with raptus. 
(11) l\L, male, aged 26, merchant. Became insane in 1902. At first maniacal excitement. Later dull apathy and occasional exhibition. Then gradually increasing stupor, with complete detachment. Now mutacismus, and tears out his beard, but at other times rigid and cataleptic. Diagnosis-Acute ca tatonic stupor. 
	1073 	The galvanometer curves in many of the tests with dementia 
praecox were extraordinary. As in normal individuals we found, where there was reaction at all, a gradual exhaustion of the power of the stimulus in repetitions of the same series, so that the waves became smaller in the second, and still smaller and more rounded in the third series. In some cases, where the waves were small in the first series, they disappeared altogether in the· third. In fig. 8 we have a good example of a very labile galvanometer curve from a case of dementia paranoides, in which we have abrupt and high ascents, at times with large bifurcations. This was the second series of this patient, and the curves are smaller than in the first. They may be compared with the labile normal curve of fig. 6, which was the first series; and also with fig. 10, another case of paranoid dementia, but in which the galvanometer wave is rather unemotional, while the pneumographic curve shows in this instance such 
520 

INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH marked changes owing to the disposition to whisper. The type of galvanometer curve, shown in fig. 8, is also characteristic of curves we have taken in hysteria. 
	IOU 	In the hebephrenic type there is nothing especially note- 
worthy in the curve, either in respect of great lability or smallness of wave. In the catatonic forms of dementia praecox, especially in the acute forms, however, we observed extraordinary variations from the normal in the character of the curve. Not only is the latent time longer, but the waves are almost always of gradual ascent, and very small if present at all. Figs. 9A and gB, from a case of acute catatonic stupor, present illustrations of curves brought about by the sudden calling of the name. The galvanometer curve is exceedingly slight, but the pneumographic curve shows the singular changes previously mentioned. In fig. I I (p. 522) we show three galvanometer curves. The upper one is from a normal person, with the series printed in the text. The middle one is that of a case of chronic catatonic stupor (Sp.), which is characterized by almost no reaction to any stimuli until 14 is reached, when the threat of pricking with a needle (and the actual prick where the line crosses the up wave) produced a great rise in the curve. A slighter rise occurred at I5, the threat to let the weight fall. This is an example of reaction to an elementary emotion in a chronic case where some emotional tone is still present. The lowest line in fig. Il represents the galvanometer curve of an acute case of catatonic stupor (].), and here it is seen that the line is perfectly straight, that not one of the mixed series of stimuli printed in the text had the slightest effect; whistle, dropping of the weight with a loud noise, sudden loud call by name, actual hard pricks with the needle-nothing brought out a response in the galvanometer. The pneumograph could not be applied in this case. Our experience with the six cases of catatonia is that such curves are characteristic for the type, and bear out our idea of the psychology of the disease as recorded above. 
	1°75 	Another feature of importance in these cases is the matter 
of latent time. It will be remembered that latent time, before the rise of the galvanometer wave, was estimated by us to vary in normal persons between two and five seconds. In fact, the norm is three seconds for first series, and 3.77 seconds for subsequent series. In the following tables, one relating to latent 
521 

n. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 

INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 

	
	
~ 

1 
~ 

ll) 
GO 
•... 
'" 
on 
••• 
<'l 
<'t 
,..., 

.s·~ 
JJ 

522 

1 
"'~Q,) 

space on the kymograph, and the other to latent time, only seven of the eleven cases of dementia praecox appear, for in the others the waves were so slightly marked or so uncertain that the facts could not be satisfactorily determined. One of these patients (Dr. S.) was tested with both the mixed series and a series of word associations. 

Latent Time in Millimetres of Distance from Stimulus to Beginning of Ascent of Galvanometer Emotional Wave in Cases of Insanity 

	,,~ 	,,~ 	c 	u.~ 	ci u.~ 	u.~ 	" 	" 	
	. " 	.'=~ 	0 						
	en '':: "0 		."'C.- 	.- C 		'0 c:: 	v'a 	.E'§ 	
NAMES AND 	C'- 	I/) C'- 	Cl)1-~ 	. C 0 	. '§ 5 		. '50 		
	~"o 	." 0 				~~~ 			
	.~ E ~ 	~EC 	. 0-- 	0.0_ 	>~;;; 		••.• u- 	::E"- 	
DIAGNOSIS 			~~ u 	"'~" 			-<~ 	u" 	
	::E"~ 	Q~e 	Cl ~ 	.c_ 	. .c _ 			-<- 	
	0" 	0" 		u" 	-<Ui1 	u" 	" 	" 	
	0. 	0. 	" 	u 			u 	u 	u 	
Series I 	3.13 	3·75 	4.01 	3.2 	2 	4·77 	7.16 	24.25 	
Series 11 	2.66 	3.87 	5.81 		5 	5·5 		17·3 		
Series III 	3·93 	4.22 								
Series IV 		5.46 								
Latent 	Time in the Same Cases of Insanity as Above 		
		Estimated in Seconds 					
	. ~ ~ 	,,~ 	C 	u.~ 	Q u.~ 	u.::!' 	" 	" 	
			0 						
	rJ')'~~ 	,''::''0 	."'C.- 	.- C 	'c c 	'c t: 	~·c 	d)'a 	
		Cl) 1:;'- 	(/)i-~ 	. C 0 					
NAMES AND 	~"o 	~E~ 			. 0 0 	~]3 	.:: 0 	::E"O 	
	.~ E ~ 		. 0'- 	0.0_ 	> ... ~ 				
DIAGNOSIS 			~~ u 	"'~" 			••.• u- 	u- 	
		o " ~ 		.c_ 	. .c _ 		-<~ 	-<~ 	
	::E"~ 		o ~ 	u" 	-<Ui1 	u" 			
	0" 	0" 					" 	" 	
	0. 	0. 	" 	u 			u 	u 	u 	
Series I, III ixed 	3-47 	4.16 	4-45 	3·55 	2.22 	5·3 		7·95 	26·94 	
stimuli 										
Series 11 	2·93 	4·3 	6·45 		5·55 	6.11 	19.22 		
Series III 	4.36 	4.68 								
Series 1\' 		6.06 								

1°76 In the first case, a woman with dementia paranoides, the latent time is within normal limits. In the second case, also dementia paranoides, Dr. S., the normal was overstepped only in the fourth round of the same mixed series, but, with the same 
523 

H. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
patient using word association, the latent time was excessive (6.45) in the first repetition of the same words. In the third case (Sp.), a case of chronic catatonia, the first series showed a latent time of 3.55 seconds, but there were no waves whatever in the repetitions. The four succeeding patients, all cases of catatonia, show increase of latent time, and the two acute cases of catatonia present an astonishing interval of space and time between the stimulus and the galvanometer wave. 
	1°77 	The following table will better show the differences in 
latent time between the normal and cases of dementia praecox, especially in the averages given at the end of the table. 
Comparative Table Showing Latent Time in Galvanometer Curve of Normal Cases and of Dementia Praecox 

												~c 	
											0) 	°.9 	
											bll 	0)- 	
											~ 	bll::l 	
												"'.0 	
											•.. 	~.- 	
											> 	•.. ~ 	
											« 	>ti 	
												<:0 	
	{ Series I 	2.28 	2.05 	3.5 	4.5 	3.27 	2.51 			3.01 	.73 	
Normal 		Series 11 	2.83 	1.95 	4.88 	5 	4.44 	3.94 	2.57 	4.6 	3.77 	.99 	
		and III 											
	{ 	Series I 	3.47 	4.16 	4.45 	3.55 	2.22 	5.3 	7.95 	26.94 	7.25 	5.09 	
Dementia 													
Praecox 		Series 11 	2.93 	4.3 	6.45 	5.55 	6.11 	19.22 	4.36 	4.68 	6.70 	3.13 	
		and III 											
	1°78 	The average of distribution is obtained by subtracting the 
ordinary average from the larger numbers in the series, or the smaller numbers from the average. The sum of these differences is divided by the number of items, which gives what is called the average of distribution or the average of differences -a useful method of showing wide fluctuations in pathological conditions. 
V. ASSOCIATION EXPERIMENTS 
	[°79 	Calton, Wundt, Kraepelin, Aschaffenburg, Sommer, and 
others have introduced into psychology a very simple experiment in which a word is called out to the subject, who must respond as quickly as possible with the first word that occurs to him. The reaction-time between the stimulus-word and the 
524 

INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 
response can be measured with a one-fifth-second stop-watch. It was originally expected that this method would reveal certain intellectual differences in various individuals. But from the results of investigations carried out in the Psychiatric Clinic at Zurich, it has been found that it is not intellectual factors but the emotions that play the chief part in determining these associations. Two persons, of the same social class, one intelligent, the other unintelligent, even with differences in the character of their intellectual development, may still produce similar associations, because language itself has many general word connections which are familiar to all sorts of individuals belonging to the same circle of society. 
	1080 	There are certain well-marked differences between the word 
associations of educated and uneducated persons. For instance, the uneducated prefer inner connections with deeper meaning, while the educated very often select simply superficial and linguistic associations. As has been ascertained at the Zurich Clinic, this difference depends upon the fact that the uneducated fix their attention more closely than the educated upon the actual meaning of the stimulus word. But attention, as has been shown by Bleuler, is nothing more than an emotional process. All affective processes are more or less clearly connected with physical manifestations, which are also to be observed in conjunction with attention. It is therefore to be expected that the attention roused by every association should have an influence upon the galvanometer curve, though this is but one of the affective factors represented in an association experiment. 
	1081 	We observe, as a rule, considerable variation in reaction- 
time, even with quick and practised subjects. One is inclined to explain such irregularities, which are apparently accidental, by supposing that the stimulus-word is unusual and difficult or that the attention is momentarily relaxed for some reason or another. Such may at times be the case, but these reasons are not sufficient to explain the frequent repetition and long duration of certain reaction-times. There must be some constant and regular rule to account for them. This disturbing factor has been found at the Zurich Clinic tobe in most cases some characteristic thought-complex of intrinsic importance for the 
525 

526 
H. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
personality of the subject. The following series will illustrate our meaning: 

Stimulus-word 	Reaction-word 	Reaction-time 	
head 	hair 	1.4 	
green 	meadow 	1.6 	
water 	deep 	5 	
stick 	knife 	1.6 	
long 	table 	1.2 	
shiP 	sink 	3-4 	
ask 	answer 	1.6 	
wool 	knit 	1.6 	
spiteful 	friendly 	1.4 	
lake 	water 	4 	
sick 	well 	1.8 	
ink 	black 	1.2 	
sWIm 	can swim 	3.8 	
	1082 	The four italicized numbers are abnormally long reaction- 
times. The stimulus-words are quite ordinary, are not difficult, and are such as commonly carry numerous current connections. By questioning the patient, we learn that recently, when greatly depressed, he had determined to commit suicide by drowning. Water, lake, ship, swim were words that excited this complex. The complex brought about lengthening of the reaction-time. This phenomenon is quite usual, and is to be observed constantly and everywhere in association studies. Lengthened reaction-time may therefore be regarded as a complex indicator, and be employed for the selection from a series of associations of such as have a personal significance to the individual. It is self-evident that associations of this kind are apt to be accompanied by lively emotional tone. The explanation would be simple if the subject were always conscious of the complex which had been excited. But it is extraordinarily common for the subject to be unconscious of the complex disturbed by the stimulus-word, and to be unable to answer questions relating to it. It is then necessary to employ the psychoanalytic method, which Freud uses for the investigation of dreams and hysteria. It would carry us too far to describe here the details of this method of analysis, and readers must be referred to Freud's The Interpretation of Dreams. 

INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 
	1083 	The cause of the interference with the reaction must be 
sought for in the strong emotional tone of the complex. Individuals with good powers of introspection often affirm that they could not respond quickly, because of the sudden crowding into consciousness of a number of words among which they could find none suitable for the reaction. This is easily understood, for strong affects always collect numerous associations around them, and, on the other hand, an assemblage of associations is always accompanied by an intense emotional tone. In some cases we have an opposite condition from the above, and the subjects are not able to react because of a vacuum in consciousness, in which event the complex hinders reaction by simply not appearing in consciousness. Thus the underlying thoughtcomplex sometimes carries too much into consciousness, and at other times too little, in either case disturbing the uniform flow of psychic functions. It acts like a peace-breaker in the psychic hierarchy. Such being the behaviour of the complex under normal conditions, it is easy to understand how it may play the chief part in abnormal mental states based upon disordered affectivity. 
	1084 	Lengthened reaction-time is not the only index of a com- 
plex. If the stimulus-word causes a sudden embarrassment and brings out some striking and unusual reaction-word, it is certain that a complex has been struck, so that any reaction out of the ordinary may also be regarded as indicating the presence of an emotional thought-complex. 
	1085 	It is not infrequent to observe a lengthened or disturbed 
reaction also in the second reaction after some critical stimulusword, so that we have a persistence of the affect to the next following reaction, a fact which also may be taken to indicate the existence of a complex. 
	1086 	And, finally, we have in the method of reproduction an- 
other excellent aid for the discovery of the complex. When the series of stimulus-words has been finished, the list is gone over again, and the subject is simply asked to repeat the word he had given before in response to the stimulus. We then notice that where stimulus-words touched upon a complex, the memory plays false and the subject tends to react with some other word than the one first given. This paradoxical phenomenon depends altogether upon the influence of a strong emotional 
527 

H. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
tone. The complexes are often unpleasant and create a natural resistance in the individual; but they are not always unpleasant or painful, and even with such complexes as the subject would be perfectly willing to reveal, there is yet an inhibition present which shows itself in like manner. The cause of defective reproduction must lie in the general nature of the complex as already described, in a certain independence of the complex, which comes and goes according to factors peculiar to it, and not at the behest of consciousness, and which yields the selfgenerated associations, and not such as are sought by consciousness. We-that is, our conscious selves-are on the whole in a sense the resultants of competitions in the unconscious. 
	1087 	It is thus that affective factors present themselves every- 
where in our associations; and it is of interest to ascertain whether the psychogalvanic reflex runs a parallel course with the complex indices just described; whether it does so regularly or has a preference for certain constellations; whether differences exist when a complex is conscious or unconscious, ete. 
	1088 	Wherever possible, we have employed the pneumograph at 
the same time with the galvanometer in these association studies to determine whether parallel disturbances were present. 
	1089 	The association question is many-sided, and there are nu- 
merous methods by which to study it. We shall try in the following pages to present our method and to confine ourselves more especially to our method of investigation, rather than to bring forward too prominently results which, owing to the small number of individuals examined, are valuable as case material but cannot be looked upon as having general application. 
1. The Results Obtained with Association Tests 
	109° 	(1) When the experiment is ended we measure the heights 
of the galvanometric curves and arrange them in a table, with other results of the tests. As the table shows, we made one repetition of the experiment in this instance; in other cases two repetitions were made. 
	1°91 	(2) We then determine the arithmetical average of the gal- 
vanometric deviations, which in this instance is 4.9 mm. These figures are naturally only relative and, with our apparatus, cor- 
528 

INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 

	Case I.-Uneducated man) aged 40) normal) two series of 	
word associations) each twenty-four words (Nine words given 	
as examPle) 							
	SERIES I 			SERIES 11 		
		" . 		I:: 		" . 		
	at· 	Eu 		0 	C ~ . 	EU 		
		. - " 				'= ~ 	I:: 	
		-~ 		U 			0 	
	-::lE 	c..c:: 		::l 	-::lE 	c..c:: 		
No. 	-§, ~ E 	o~ 		"0 	~~ S 	o~ 	U 	
	'oJ: ~ 	.;::«:: 		2 	'o~ c:: 	'=tt:: 	'" 	
		u' 				u' 	" 	
	:I: ",'- 	",,, 		0. 	:I: ,,'- 	",,, 	p:; 	
	0/) 	"I:: 	Association 	" 	0/) 	"I:: 		
		p:;o 		p:; 		p:;o 		
	9 	9 	table / chair 	ditto 	7 	7 	ditto 	
2 	4 	9 	sit/on a chair 	ditto 	3 	15 	ditto 	
3 	4 	11 	garden/vegetable 	ditto 	3 	6 	ditto 	
4 	3 	14 	red/apple 	ditto 	4 	5 	ditto 	
5 	3 	9 	write/with pencil 	ditto 	4 	7 	ditto 	
6 	6 	4° 	full (no reaction) 		2 	6 	cask 	
7 	3 	8 	good/sugar 		9 	9 	apple 	
8 	6 	6 	forest/wood 	ditto 	4 	5 	ditto 	
9 	5 	10 	tavern/drink 	ditto 	2 	5 	ditto 	
respond to only one-half of the actual movement of the mirror of the galvanometer. (The actual figure would be 9.8 mm.) 
	1°92 	(3) We then determine the probable average (Kraepelin) of 
the reaction-times in the following manner: The figures are arranged in a column in the order of their size, and the middle number is taken, which in this instance is 1.8 seconds. The probable is here preferred to the arithmetical average, because occasionally very high numbers occur in such tests, where the reaction-times are much more liable to increase than to diminish. An arithmetical average would be unduly influenced by the occasional presence of one or more large numbers, and would not give us the actual average of the reaction-time. 
	1093 	(4) In the second series the average of the galvanometer 
deviations was 4.8 mm., and that of the reaction-times 1.2 seconds. We observe, therefore, a reduction in the average height of the galvanometer curve, which is clearly due to lessening of the power of the stimulus in the repetition. The same phenomenon is also seen in the average of the reaction-times, which is shortened. The fact that every reaction is accompanied by a galvanometer movement is due to the emotion of attention 
529 

11. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
which accompanies each reaction and is great enough to produce notable physical changes. 
	]094 	(5) We note that in the second series certain associations 
(the sixth and seventh) are repeated with a change of words. These defective or changed reproductions indicate that the psychological constellation for the respective associations had changed in the short time (a little over one-half hour) that had elapsed since the first series had been given. We know that associations which belong to certain complexes are those that may, because of inner conditions, suffer change within a short period of time. We may, therefore, expect that such false re· productions carry with them particular emotional phenomena; and this is actually the case here. The arithmetical average of the altered reproductions is 5.7 mm., while in the first series the average for the same associations was 4.5 mm. Furthermore, the altered reproductions in the second series show an excess of some 0.8 mm. over the average of the stimulation of the first series. The average of the reaction-times for the altered reproductions is 1.2 seconds, and for the correct reproduction 1 second, as would be expected. We learn from this that the supposition that the altered reproductions are affective phenomena would seem to be justified. We will not here enter into details in relation to the psychoanalysis of such manifestations, as we do not wish to forestall an especially careful study of this question now being made in this clinic by Binswanger. 21 
	1095 	(6) From the above consideration one would also expect 
that those associations which are changed in the repetition should also present some sort of affective signs in the first series; but, contrary to our expectation, we see in this case that the average height of the galvanometer deviation for the words subsequently changed in repetition is 4.8 mm., while the average for the unaltered reproductions is 5 mm. This difference is, of course, small, and no particular deduction could be drawn from one case. It is to be noted that the average reaction-time for the associations subsequently wrongly reproduced is 1.g seconds, and for the words correctly reproduced 1.8 seconds. Perhaps there is here a slight indication of the phenomenon to which we refer. 
21 [See n. 6, supra.] 
530 

INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 
	1096 	(7) In the preceding paragraphs we have frequently inti- 
mated that there is a certain connection between affectivity and the length of reaction-time, and this has been already carefully determined in the work of one"of US.22 One may expect to have, as a rule, large galvanometer curves with long reaction-times, always, however, with the limitation that only such lengthened reaction-times are considered as are connected with associations that directly excite complexes, and not the long reaction-times which may follow immediately after reactions that excite complexes. These latter are frequent and are examples of perseveration. In order to discover the actual complex-exciting association it is necessary to employ the psychoanalytic method, and for this purpose a more suitable material is needed than is at our disposition. We, therefore, content ourselves here with simply determining the average height of all galvanometer curves in relation to reaction-times which lie respectively above and below the probable average. 
	1097 	In Series I, the average of galvanometer curves connected 
with long reaction-times is 4.5 mm., and with short reactiontimes 6.1 mm. 
	1098 	In Series II, the galvanometer curves with long reaction- 
times average 5.7 mm., and with short reaction-times 4.4 mm. 
	1099 	The two results are contradictory. The cause of this lies 
in factors already alluded to and in other difficulties which must be the subject of later study. 
	1100 	(8) The alteration of the psychological constellation of 
Series II already mentioned may be manifested in the galvanometer curve alone, without any change in the reproductions. This matter might be thus explained. In the first trial only certain meanings are attached to the stimulus-word by the subject; i.e., not all of the associations belonging to it are excited at the first trial, while at the second trial another series of new connections may be aroused. We very often meet this phenomenon in our psychoanalytic investigations. 
	1101 	It is of the greatest importance for the study of intellectual 
processes in the individual to know how his associations are presented to consciousness, whether he has quick and complete 
22 "The Psychology of Dementia Praecox"; "Experimental Observations on the Faculty of Memory" (supra); and other works on the association test. 
531 

11. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
command of all related associations. This point is of the utmost value for testing intelligence, since many persons may appear to be stupid during investigation because their associations are not at immediate command, and on the other hand stupid persons may seem to be relatively intelligent simply because they have good command of their associations. We may perhaps also expect to discover important differences between educated and uneducated intellects; the galvanometric experiments seem to open to us endless vistas. 
	1102 	In this case 41.6 per cent of the associations in Series II 
show an increased galvanometric curve with an average plus difference of 2.3 mm. It is possible that later investigations may show us that this result has considerable psychological significance for the individual, because this subject was quite unintelligent. 
	11°3 	(9) After a marked galvanometric deviation we frequently 
observe that there is an inclination to successive large curves, if the succeeding stimuli are not too quickly given. This is not unexpected because it is a general psychological experience that strong affects induce great sensitiveness. If therefore we take the average of the curves which follow unusually strong galvanometer curves and compare them with the arithmetical average of all the curves, we find that after unusually high curves, the average height in Series I is 5 mm. and the reactiontime two seconds in contrast with the general averages of 4.9 mm. and 1.8 seconds. In Series II these figures are reversed, for here the average has a difference of plus 0.6 mm. while the average of the reaction-times shows a difference of minus 0.5 seconds. The relations are not quite definite. 
	11°4 	(10) The whole of Series I shows a rather uniform course, 
for the average of distribution amounts only to 1.6. The deviations are relatively not very high. The highest curve is 12 mm., and the association connected with it is stuPid / am I, which was for this individual a clear egocentric stimulus which evidently struck a strong emotional complex. 
	1105 	Fig. 12 is a portion of the curve in this case. In this, one 
notes the even course and uniform emotional value of each association. The accompanying pneumographic curve is undisturbed. 
532 

INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 
10 11 12 13 J40 15 
rn 
FIG. 12. Portion of curve in word association of a normal subject 

FIG. 13. Portion of curve corresponding to the association stuPid/am I 
	11 06 	Fig. 13 shows the portion of the curve in which the assoc 
tion stuPid / am I (reaction No. 18) occurred. This portion marked by a very high many-pointed wave. The pneum graphic curve is altered here, as it is also in reaction No. I though the latter has little emotional tone. But No. 19 h; however, a very long reaction-time (4.8 secs.), which is to I looked upon as a persisting intellectual disturbance from 1 action No. 18. We observe here one of the numerous instan( where the pneumographic curve and the reaction-time she evident disturbances, while the galvanic curve is unaffecte According to our hypothesis, this is owing to the fact that t] galvanometer indicates only acute affective conditions, and n the more lasting intellectual after-effects, these latter beiI often well registered by reaction-time and pneumograph. TI reaction-time shows how long the mind requires to detal itself from its conscious or unconscious preoccupation, and tU1 to the new stimulus. The respiration, because of its close re] tion to consciousness (susceptibility to voluntary influence is also affected by intellectual processes, while the galvanomet seems to be influenced directly only by the unconscious. 
533 

5.6 mm. 7.2 mm. 5.9 mm. 1.8 sec. 1.3 sec. 1.0 sec. 
11. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
Case 2.-Uneducated but rather intelligent man) aged 38 
	1107 	(I) We have arranged in the following table the results of 
three series of associations of twenty-four words each: 
Series I Arithmetical average of galvanometer curves Series Il Arithmetical average of galvanometer curves Series III Arithmetical average of galvanometer curves Series I Probable average of reaction-times 
Series Il Probable average of reaction-times 
Series III Probable average of reaction-times 
	1108 	The reaction-times are what we expect, but the galvanic 
curves show an unexpected increase in the second series. Our first supposition would be that this is owing to some physical change; for instance, better contact from increased warmth of the hands, or a change of posture of the body that increased the pressure of the hands upon the electrodes. Such conditions may not only interfere with the experiment, but also render comparison of results difficult. But it is also possible that the psychological constellation changed in the second series, causing thereby greater deviation of the galvanometer. If we take the first fifteen curves of Series II, we find the average to be 4.7 mm., which is much less than the average of Series 1. But if we take the last nine curves of Series II, we find the average to be 11.3 mm., and that the cause of the great difference lies where the principle of loss of power in repeated stimulation does not seem to be effective. It is possible that after the fifteenth reaction there was a physical disturbance, which increased the height of the curves. 
	1109 	We find that the probable average of the reaction-times of 
the first fifteen and last nine reactions both amount to 1.8 seconds, while the average of the galvanometer curves of the first fifteen reactions shows only a difference of minus 0.2 mm., as compared with the last nine curves. Now, if a physical change occurred toward the end of Series II, we might expect no change in the purely psychological reaction-times. This is, however, not the case. For the increased galvanic curves in the last nine reactions correspond to an increase of the reaction-times (1.4 seconds, as compared to I second of the first fifteen reactions). There is, therefore, a parallel between the galvanometer increase and the increased reaction-times, from which we 
534 

INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 
may conclude that the increase depends upon an altered psychological constellation. 
	1110 	We have already mentioned that a change in the constella- 
tion is due to the arousing of complexes. The reactions occur in this wise: 

			SERIES 	I 		SERIES 	II 	
					c 			
		t: 	" 		.8 	t: 	" 	
			t 		tl 		t 	
ci 		.S::OJ 	::l 		::l 	.S OJ 	::l 	
Z 	Associations 	tlE 	u 		"0 	tlE 	u 	
		~.;::: 	0; 		2 	",.- 	0; 	
		" 			Co 	,,- 		
		i>: 	Cl 		" 	i>: 	Cl 	
					i>: 			
I 	money/round 	1.8 sec. 	3mm. 	ditto 	1.2 sec. 	12mm. 	
2 	high/tree 	1.4 sec. 	7111111. 	ditto 	1.4 sec. 	4mm. 	
3 	go out/morning 	2.0 sec. 	8mm. 	ditto 	1.4 sec. 	6mm. 	
4 	floor/dirt\' 	1.8 sec. 	5111111• 	ditto 	1.8 sec. 	gmm. 	
. 'i 	wages / large 	1.2 sec. 	6 mm . 	ditto 	1.2 sec. 	Igmm. 	
6 	pa\)debts 	3.4 sec. 	9 lI1nl. 	ditto 	3.0 sec. 	Ismm. 	
7 	apple/red 	2.4 sec. 	smm. 	ditto 	1.4 sec. 	27mm. 	
8 	Ilurscs/nlany 	1.6 sec. 	4mm. 	ditto 	1.8 sec. 	smm. 	
9 	five/small 	1.8 sec. 	smll1. 	ditto 	1.2 sec. 	5111n1. 	
	I I I I 	\"'hile as a rule the reaction-times are shortened in Series II, 
the galvanometer curves are higher. It seems as if the affects first really manifested themselves in Series II after having been inhibited in Series 1. As is shown, the largest increases are connected with the associations money / round, floor / dirty, wages / large (the subject is an attendant or nurse and receives small wages), pay / debts, aPPle / red, and nurses / many. It is easy to understand that five of these associations might arouse strong sentiments. The strong reaction with aPPle / red is incomprehensible. But we have frequently noticed that quite indifferent associations following immediately upon strong emotional associations show in repetition sudden increase of galvanic reaction, as if the emotional tone were postponed. It is possible that we have such a phenomenon here, but we have no means of proving it. Affects are always inhibited if some other strong emotional complex displaces them. This was evidently the case here, because the unusual experiment excited the subject, so that he probably did not grasp the stimuluswords in all their personal relations. In Series II he was quieter and could comprehend better, in consequence of which emotional tones were more easily developed than before. This 
535 

6.4 mm. 6.4 mm. 8.1 mm. 4.2 mm. 6.8 mm. 
Galv. 	Reaction- 	
Curve 	time 	
6mm. 	1.7 sec. 	
7mm. 	1.0 sec. 	
7.3 mm. 	1.3 sec. 	
11. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
phenomenon is theoretically very important, since it indicates how affects are repressed in normal persons. Inhibition of affects plays a powerful role in psychopathology. (See the works of Freud, Bleuler, and Jung.) 
	1112 	This experiment also illustrates well that reaction-time and 
galvanometer curve do not mean the same thing. We see here again how dearly the reaction-time reveals a greater intellectual freedom than in Series Il, whereas the galvanometer curves are considerably higher than those of Series 1. 
(2) The altered reproductions of Series Il average 
The altered reproductions of Series III average 
The unchanged reproductions of Series Il average 
The unchanged reproductions of Series III 
		average 	5.8 mm. 	1.3 sec. 
	1113 	Here, too, the relations are somewhat obscure, which may 
be owing to the occurrence of very few altered reproductions. Only half of the above numbers coincide with our expectations. 
(3) Galvanometer curves with long reaction-times 
average in Series I 
Galvanometer curves with short reaction-times average in Series I 
Galvanometer curves with long reaction-times average in Series II 
Galvanometer curves with short reaction-times average in Series II 
Galvanometer curves with long reaction-times average in Series III 
Galvanometer curves with short reaction-times average 
		in Series III 	4.1 mm. 
	11'4 	The first test is undecided, but the two following present 
figures which correspond with our expectation. (In Case 1 above recorded the first test also gave a contradictory result.) 
	1115 	(4) In Series Il, 41.6 per cent of the associations show an 
average difference of plus 3.2 mm. compared with Series 1. In Series Ill, 45.8 per cent of the associations show a difference of plus 2.6 mm. as compared with Series H. 
__ c 

INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 
	1116 	These figures prove, as already mentioned, that Series Il 
presents a considerably altered constellation. In Series III there are still more psychological constellations changed. It is to be regretted that there was not a much larger material at hand for the further investigation of matters so important for the psychology of the individual. 
(5) Series I. Probable average of reaction-times in asso- 
	ciations with unusually high galvanometer curves 	2.2 sec. 
Series I. Arithmetical average of the corresponding 
	galvanometer curves 	5.2 mm. 
Series 11. Probable average of reaction-times in asso- 
	ciations with unusually high galvanometer curves 	1.6 sec. 
Series Il. Arithmetical average of the corresponding 
	galvanometer curves 	12.0 mm. 
Series Ill. Probable average of reaction-times in asso- 
	ciations with unusually high galvanometer curves 	0.8 sec. 
Series Ill. Arithmetical average of corresponding gal- 
		vanometer curves 	7.0 mm. 
	1117 	The curves in Series Il and III do not, while those of Series 
I do, correspond to expectation. The reaction times in Series I and Il are what we anticipate. Therefore, of six items, four coincide with our expectation. 
~ 
FIG. 14. Portion of pneumographic curve in Case 2 (word association, normal individual) 
FIG. 15. Galvanic and pneumographic curve corresponding to the word association pay / debts. (Figs. 14 and 15 are reproduced the actual size of the tracing) 
":<,,., 

n. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 
Case 3.-Uneducated man of moderate intelligence, agec 28, lively, excitable temperament. Normal. Three series OJ associations, each with twenty-three words 
(I) Series 1. Arithmetical average of galvanometer curves 
Series 11. Arithmetical average of galvanometer curves 
Series Ill. Arithmetical average of galvanometer 
curves 
Series 1. Probable average of reaction-times Series ll. Probable average of reaction-times Series Ill. Probable average of reaction-times 
	IllS 	(6) Series 1. Presents in general a uniform character. The 
average of distribution is only 1.5 mm. The highest curve measures 9 mm., and this is connected with the association pay I debts, which, as we have seen, also preserves its high emotional value in Series n. 
	1119 	Series n is much more irregular. The average of distribu- 
tion is 3.8 mm., a very high figure, which well illustrates the general irregularity of the series. The highest curves of this series have already been described. 
	] 120 	Series III presents, on the other hand, another series with 
uniform character. The average of distribution is only 1.8 mm. The highest curve occurs with the association wages / large, and amounts to 11 mm., and in Series n it also had a high value. Such concord shows clearly that these figures are not acciden tal. 
	1121 	The pneumographic curve presents no peculiarities. In 
Series I, with indifferent associations, this curve has the aspect shown in fig. 14. 
	1122 	Fig. 15 is the galvanometric and pneumographic curve be- 
longing to the association pay / debts. In this we observe a marked inhibition of respiration during and after the critical association. 
1125 
14.2 mm 
6,5 mm 
2.0 mm 
2.4 sec. 2.2 sec. 2.0 sec. 
The curves of Series I reach a considerable height, but the stim ulus diminishes rapidly and intensely in power in the succeed ing series. The reaction-times shorten uniformly, but are still in general somewhat long, as we observe not infrequentl) among emotional people. 
1126 
Reaction· 
	Galv. 	time 
(2) The altered reproductions of Series II average 
The unchanged reproductions of Series II average 
The altered reproductions of Series III average 
The unchanged reproductions of Series III average 
7·gmm. 
a. 
	I 	2:'1 4> 5 
~ 
	17 	18 1& 20 	21 
~ 
1.8 mm. 
3.5 mm. 
b. 
1.3 mm. 
2.0 sec. 
2.2 sec. 
2.2 sec. 
2.1 sec. 
The galvanic curves correspond in both series to our expectation, but the reaction-times in Series n are contradictory, which, however, is changed if we do not employ the probable average (as is ordinarily done by us in all cases) but the arithmetical average, when the average time for altered reproduction is 2.8 sec., and for the unchanged only 2.4 sec. 
FIG. 16. (a) Respiratory curve, with word associations No. I to 5 in Case 2. (b) Curve, same case, associations No. 17 to 21 
	1123 	The psychic excitation referred to previously in the last 
nine associations of Series Il seems to manifest itself also in the pneumographic curve, as apparently evidenced in figs. 16(a) and 16(b). 
	1124 	Fig. 16(a) is a portion of the respiratory curve during associa- 
tions 1 to 5. Fig. 16( b) represents associations 17 to 21. The difference is marked. We can hardly be mistaken in supposing that the change in respiration is the expression of a certain excitation, which is in harmony with our previous assumptions. 
538 
1127 
(3) The galvanic curves with long reaction-times in Series I average 
The galvanic curves with short reaction-times III Series I average 
The galvanic curves with long reaction-times III Series II average 
539 
17.8 mm. 
12.7 mm. 
g.8mm. 

11. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
2.8 sec. 
INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH Series Il. A verage of associations altered 
	in subsequent reproduction 	8.7 mm. 	2.2 sec. 
Series Il. Average of associations un- 
	changed subsequently 	3.6 mm. 	2.0 sec. 
All of these figures coincide with what we expect. 
	1132 	(7) The general course of Series I is very irregular. Th( 
average of distribution is 7.6, the highest number we have yel observed. In the tests with Cases I and 2 the various phases 01 stimulation were shown in strong, but much differentiated emotions, but in this case with a lively temperament there wa~ a continual and marked fluctuation of emotions, and hence the high average of distribution. 
	1'33 	Series Il is more uniform, and the average of distribution 
is 5.4, and in Series III this average is only 2.3. 
	1134 	The highest galvanic curve in Series I measures 51.5 mm. 
and is connected with the association the sun / burns. Why there should be here so strong a reflex innervation could not be understood without further examination. The subject himself could not explain why he had any particular emotion at this moment. But the connection was shown in the following associations. The other high curves (37, 21 and 18 mm.) occurred with the associations floor / parquet, pay / write, warm / the stove. These three associations showed constant and similar disturbances in all three series, as illustrated in this table: 
The galvanic curves with short reaction-times 10 		
Series Il average 	3.6 mm. 	
The galvanic curves with long reaction-times in 		
Series III average 	2.1 mm. 	
The galvanic curves with short reaction-times in 		
Series III average 	0.0 mm. 	
All of these figures are in perfect accord with our hypothesis. 
	lI28 	(4) In Series Il, 17.3 per cent of the associations have an 
average difference of plus 5.8 mm. In Series Ill, 17.3 per cent of the associations have an average difference of plus 2.8 mm. 
	1129 	These figures show that the constellation in the latter series 
is not very much changed, with the exception of a few associations. We may conclude that all the strong emotional relations of the stimulus-words were brought out in the first test. We should say here that Case No. 3 was well accustomed to this kind of experiment, while cases No. I and No. 2 were not. 
	1'30 	(5) Series I. Probable average of reaction-times 
following associations with unusually high galvanic curves 
Series 1. Arithmetical average of the corresponding galvanic curves 
Series 11. Probable average of reaction-times following associations with unusually high galvanic curves 
Series Il. Arithmetical average of the corresponding galvanic curves 
Series Ill. Probable average of reaction-times following associations with unusually high galvanic curves 
Series Ill. Arithmetical average of the corresponding galvanic curves 
22.3 mm. 
1.8 sec. 
11.4 mm. 
	SERIES I 			SERIES Il 			SERIES III 		
		.:: 	." 			.:: 	." 		.:: 	
	> 	,9 ~ 	2.9 		> 	.9 llJ 	2.9 	> 	.90 	
	-; 	tiE 	0.- 		-; 	tiE 	0.- 	-; 	tiE 	
	0 	~.= 	,," 		0 	.•. - 	" " 	0 	.•. - 	
		" 	P<:.g 			,,- 	P<:.g 		,,- 	
		P<: 				P<: 			P<: 	
floor 	37mm. 	3.0 sec. 	ditto 	13 	mm. 	3.2 sec. 	ditto 	2.5 mm. 	3.0 sec. 	
warm 	18mm. 	1.2 sec. 	ditto 	31 	mm. 	2.2 sec. 	ditto 	7.0 nIlll. 	2.0 sec. 	
pay 	21 llltll. 	2.0 sec. 	ditto 	4·511Illl. 	0.8 sec. 	ditto 	7.5 n1l11. 	2.2 sec. 	
1.2 Sec. 
1.7 mm. 
The galvanic curves are what we would expect in Series I and Il but not in Series Ill. The reaction-time is what we expect only in Series I. 
2.4 sec. 
	1135 	All the reproductions were altered. With one exception all 
of the galvanometer curves were considerably above the averages for each of the series. As to the nine reaction-times, four were above, and two coincided with the probable averages. It seemed justified from these observations to assume that a strong emotional complex lay behind them. But when questioned the subject answered that he had had no particular thoughts in 
541 
1131 
Reaction- 
	Galv. 	time 
(6) Series I. A verage of associations altered in subsequent reproduction Series I. A verage of association unchanged subsequently 
14.2 mm. 
13.5 mm. 
540 
2.0 sec. 

11. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
connection with these reactions, and was evidently unconscious of any special complex. Yet even if a subject asserts that no complex is present, this is not conclusive in the face of so many indications pointing to interference by a complex. In this instance we distracted his attention from the matters in hand and asked what personal significance the word floor had for him, when suddenly he said with surprise and embarrassment that 
	15 J6 17 18 	19 
20 
	21 22 	23 
	
~,~~~~ 
FIG. '7. Portion of a curve to show emotional effect of certain word associations 
recently a stove in his dwelling had become defective and burned the floor to such an extent that he had not only to pay for a new stove, but also for an entire new floor which was a hardship for him. Besides this there had been great danger from fire. Thus all the disturbances above related were perfectly explained, including the strong emotional tone of the association the sun / burns. 
	"36 	We learn from this interesting episode that the galvanic 
phenomenon, like reaction-time and alteration of 'reproductions, may give evidence of the existence of an unconscious complex. We cannot go into further detail regarding this fact here, but the investigations of Binswanger already mentioned also throw much light on the subject. 
	"37 	The group of associations described above gives an unusu- 
ally fine picture in Series II of emotional effect upon the curves (fig. 17). At the beginning we have indifferent reactions. Reaction No. 18 is floor, 19 warm, 20 wages / small, and 21 pay. 
	"38 	The respiratory curve also shows the reactions very clearly. 
In general, inspiration is increased, which is especially characteristic for this particular case in connection with expectant 
542 
INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 
J 
z 
:1 

FIG. 18. Expectation curve in Case 3 (reproduced actual size of tracing) 
attention. The condition during the unconscious complex excitation seems therefore to have had a certain resemblance to the tension of expectation. An example of this tension of expectation in this case at the beginning of a test is shown in fig. 18. 

Case 4·-A n educated woman) aged 25) used to these experiments. Three series of word associations) eighteen words in each 
"39 
(A) Series I. Arithmetical average of galvanic 
curves 

Series Il. Arithmetical average of galvanic curves Series Ill. Arithmetical average of galvanic curves Series I. Probable average of reaction-times 
Series Il. Probable average of reaction-times Series Ill. Probable average of reaction-times 

6.8 mm. I.g mm. o.gmm. 1.2 sec. 1.0 sec. 1.0 sec. 
The galvanic curves show very rapid diminution, while the reaction-time is very short and the lowest limit is soon reached. 
'14° 
(B) The altered reproductions of Series Il average 

The unchanged reproductions of Series Il average 

The altered reproductions of Series III average 

The unchanged reproductions of Series III average 
	Reaction- 	
Galv. 	time 	
7.5 mm. 	1.6 sec. 	
1.6 mm. 	1.0 sec. 	
0.0 mm. 	1.0 sec. 	
1.0 mm. 	1.0 sec. 	
543 

H. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 
Reaction- 
	Galv. 	time 
The result in Series II is what we expected, but this is not true of Series Ill, perhaps because only very few altered reproductions occur. 
1141 	(C) The galvanic curves with long reaction- 			
	times in Series I average 		11.6 mm. 	
	The galvanic curves with short reaction-times in 		
	Series I average 		5.2 mm. 	
	The galvanic curves with long reaction-times in 		
	Series Il average 		5.4 mm. 	
	The galvanic curves with short reaction-times in 		
	Series Il average 		0.8 mm. 	
	The galvanic curves with long reaction-times 	in 		
	Series III average 		1.0 mm. 	
	The galvanic curves with short reaction-times in 		
	Series III average 		1.5 mm. 	
	1144 	(F) Series 1. Average of associations 
altered in subsequent reproductions Series 1. Average of associations unchanged subsequently 
Series H. Average of associations altered in subsequent reproductions 
Series Il. Average of associations unchanged subsequently 
These figures are what we should expect. 
	4·3 mm. 	4.0 sec. 
	4.4 mm. 	1.2 sec. 
	6 mm. 	1.2 sec. 
	1.6 mm. 	1.0 sec. 
1145 
(G) Average of distribution in Series I Average of distribution in Series Il Average of distribution in Series III 
5·5 
2.2 
1.6 
The figures in Series I and II are what we expected, but not in Series Ill, perhaps because most of the curves had already sunk to zero. 
	1146 	We find as usual the greatest variation in the figures in the 
first series. With lessening power of the stimulus in the repetitions, a levelling tendency is manifested as regards this variation in the power of the stimulus. The highest curves are found in the following associations: 
	1142 	(D) In Series Il, 5.5 per cent of the associations 
show an average plus difference of 
In Series Ill, 11.1 per cent of the associations show an average plus difference of 
6.0 mm. 
		SERIES I 			SERIES Il 		SERIES III 	
	kt 	<: 	'c: 		rilE 	<: 	'C: 	~B 	<: 	
		.2 Q) 	2.2 			.2 CJ 	2.~ 		.90 	
	~~ 	tiE 			>" 	tiE 		> " 	tiE 	
			0.- 		<iiE 		0.- 	<iiE 		
		".- 	"u 			".- 	"u 		".- 	
	00 	,,- 	~.g 		00 	,,- 	~.g 	00 	,,- 	
	" 	~ 			" 	~ 		" 	~ 	
ball/dance 	4.3 mm. 	4.0 sec. 	0 	7·5mm. 	1.6 sec. 	ditto 	12mm. 	0.8 sec. 	
dress/red 	g.omm. 	1.8 sec. 	ditto 	2. 	mm. 	0.6 sec. 	ditto 	omm. 	0.8 sec. 	
pretty /ugly 	7.5 mm. 	1.4 sec. 	ditto 	3· 	mm. 	0.8 sec. 	ditto 	3mm. 	1.2 sec. 	
2.7 mm. 
In this case also we note a great readiness of the association to appear fully on the first stimulus, so that the constellation does not change much later on. 
The figures in Series III are omitted, because most of the galvanic curves were reduced to zero. The figures given in the above two series do not accord with our expectation. 
544 
	1143 	(E) Series 1. Probable average of reaction-times 
following associations with unusually high galvanometer curve 
Series 1. Arithmetical average of corresponding galvanometer curves 
Series Il. Probable average of reaction-times following associations with unusually high galvanometer curves 
Series Il. Arithmetical average of corresponding galvanometer curves 
1. 1 sec. 
	1147 	The galvanic curves are much higher than the average in 
all three series for the association ball / dance. The intensity of the affect here is shown by the fact that while fifteen out of eighteen reactions in the last series caused no deviations of the galvanometer, this particular association induced a deflection of 12 mm. In this instance the subject expected to go in a 
6·smm. 
1.0 sec. 
1.2 mm. 

.Balb 
FIG. Ig. Wood association ball/dance in Case 4 545 

IT. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
few days to a fancy dress ball, but despite much search had not yet found a suitable costume. She was, therefore, in a state of anxiety concerning it. The association dress and pretty are selfevident. 
	1148 	The reaction-times were rapidly shortened in the repeti- 
tions, because of her natural aptitude in speech. It is evident that at times the galvanic phenomenon is more helpful than lengthened reaction-times in demonstrating emotional states. 
	1149 	Fig. 19 is a curve from Series III in this case representing 
the well-marked association ball! dance. Repetition of the association test is to be recommended when one desires to bring out more clearly very strong emotional complexes. 
2. Resume of the Tests with Word Associations in Normal Individuals 
	1150 	Our limited material, consisting of the word associations in 
one educated woman and three uneducated men, leads us to bring forward with much reserve a resume of our results. We know that they must be regarded as only preliminary, and as being of questionable value, but at the same time they foreshadow features of interest for future enquiry and investigation. Our intention in this work is chiefly to point out indications, and our presentation of results must be taken in this sense. 
	1151 	(I) The average positive difference of a galvanic curve, 
produced by an association whose reaction-time exceeds that of the probable average of the same series, is 2.7 mm. 
	1152 	Taking into consideration the above-mentioned limitations 
this figure seems to express that in certain cases there is a clear parallelism between the length of reaction-time and the height of the galvanometer curve. This method appears, therefore, to afford a psychophysical proof of the hypothesis of one of us (] ung), that very long reaction-times are affective phenomena. 
	1153 	(2) AI tered reproductions show an average difference of 
2 mm. over unchanged reproductions. 
	115+ 	(3) Such associations as are changed in the reproductions of 
the following series present an average difference of plus 6.8 mm. over such as are reproduced subsequently unchanged. 
	] 155 	These two figures, especially the last, seem to offer a psycho- 
546 

INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 
physical confirmation of the hypothesis of one of us (] unl that altered reproductions are affective phenomena. 
	1156 	The remaining methods embodied in the text of our wo 
have little right to a special summing up here, because of t scantiness of our material, and also because of some cont] dictions in our results. 
3· Word Associations in Dementia Praecox 
	J 157 	There were but two of our cases of paranoid dementia th 
could be used for a test of word associations with the g; vanometer. 
Case 1.- Male, aged 36, very intelligent, academic edw tion. SPeech well preserved. Two series of associations, wi twenty-four words each 
	1158 	(A) Series I. Arithmetical average of heights 
		of galvanometer curve 	11.6 m] 
Series H. Arithmetical average of heights of gal- 
	vanometer curve 	4.6 m! 
	Series I. Probable average of the reaction-times 	6.6 sec 
	Series II. Probable average of the reaction-times 	4.8 sec 
The average height of the galvanometer curves falls in bo series within normal limits, which is not the case with tl reaction-times showing excess. Our four normal subjects pr sented the following average: 
	Series I. Galvanometer curves 7.8 mm. 	Reaction-times 1.8 sec 
	Series H. Galvao0meter curves 5.1 mm. 	Reaction-times 1.4 sec 
From these figures it is see-n th-at the patient offers a stror contrast in the length of the reaction-times. 
Reactio 
	Galv. 	time 
	1159 	(B) The altered reproductions in Series 
		H average 	4.7 mm. 	6.0 sec 
The unchanged reproductions in Series H 
	average 	3.4 mm. 	2.8 sec 
These figures coincide with the normal, and are what we shou] expect. But we note that the unchanged reproductions preser a much lower value in the reaction-time than the altered repr, ductions. 
547 

11. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
	1160 	(C) The galvanometer curves with long re- 
		action-times in Series I average 	13.1 mm. 
The galvanometer curves with short reaction-times 
	in Series I average 	10.3 mm. 
The galvanometer curves with long reaction-times 
	in Series II average 	3.8 mm. 
The galvanometer curves with short reaction-times 
	in Series II average 	4.0 mm. 
In this table the figures in Series I, but not those in Series II, are what we expect. 
	1161 	(D) In Series II, 12.5 per cent of the associations show an 
average plus difference of 4.5 mm. 
	1162 	(E) Series I. Probable average of reaction-times 
following associations with unusually high gal- 
	vanic curves 	4.0 sec. 
Series 1. Arithmetical average of the corresponding 
	galvanic curves 	10.0 mm. 
Series 11. Probable average of reaction-times following associations with unusually high galvanic 
	curves 	7.6 sec. 
Series Il. Arithmetical average of the corresponding 
	galvanic curves 	3.2 mm. 
In this table, only the reaction-time of Series II is in accordance with our expectation. 
INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 
is single, and having had with love a strong emotional tone, it was not surprising that wife should also evince a similar intensity. Another high curve was found in the association sick / at-heart (26 mm.). The patient still had some insight into his condition, and knew that he was confined in the asylum because of his mental malady, hence the strong emotion connected therewith. The word handsome produced a curve of 25 mm. The patient is very vain, and pays extraordinary attention to his dress. The contents of the association present the symptoms of affectation, which is evident from his external appearance. Most of his associations showed a definition character which, in educated people, always indicates a certain amount of affectation. The following are examples: 
write shoes hat house to sit money proud 
1166 
The long reaction-times may be due to this affected manner of expression, though this can hardly be the only cause. 
Case 2.-Woman, single, aged 62, uneducated, medium intelligence. SPeech mingled with neologisms. Three series of associations with twenty-five words each 
(A) Series 1. Arithmetical average of the galvanic 
curves 
H. Arithmetical average of the galvanic curves HI. Arithmetical average of the galvanic curves I. Probable average of reaction-times 
H. Probable average of reaction-times 
Ill. Probable average of reaction-times 
Reaction- 
	Galv. 	time 
	1163 	(F) Series 1. The associations with 
altered reproductions in the following series average 
Series I. The associations with unchanged reproductions in the following series average 
1167 
	9.8 mm. 	6.6 sec. 
Series Series Series Series Series 
	13·5 mm. 	5.4 sec. 
Only the reaction-time here is what we expect. 
	1164 	(G) The average of distribution in Series I was 5.8. The 
average of distribution in Series II was 3.4. These figures are similar to those of Case 4 among the normal. 
	1165 	The highest galvanic curve occurred with the reaction love / 
a psychic process (30 mm.), and here was also the longest reaction-time (27.2 sec.). The next highest curve was connected with the reaction wife / marriage-law (29 mm.). The patient 
548 
activity footwear 
an article of clothing building construction condition of rest medium of exchange adjective 
7·gmm. 3.6 mm. 2..1) mm. 
10.8 sec. 6.4 sec. 6.0 sec. 
As in the former case, the galvanic deviations are of medium height, while the reaction-times are extraordinarily long. 
1168 
(B) The altered reproductions in Series Il average 
Reaction- 
	Galv. 	time 
3.6 mm. 
549 
6.6 sec.