11. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH 
The unchanged reproductions in Series Il average 
The altered reproductions in Series III average 
The unchanged reproductions in Series III average 
3.6 mm. 
2.5 mm. 
2.4 mm. 
5.2 sec. 
Twice the reaction-times are what we expected, the galvanic curves only once, and in Series III the arithmetical average is the same. 
7.4 sec. 
4.6 sec. 
								Reaction- 	
							Galv. 	time 	
(F) Series 1. 	The associations with 			
altered 	reproductions 	in 	the 	fol- 			
lowing series average 				g.omm. 	10.4 sec. 	
Series 1. 	The associations with un- 				
changed reproductions in the fol- 			
lowing series average 				6.3 mm. 	12.4 sec. 	
Series 1I. 	The associations with 	altered 			
reproductions in the following series 			
average 						3.3 mm. 	6.6 sec. 	
Series 1I. 	The associations with un- 				
changed reproductions in the fol- 			
lowing series average 				4.0 mm. 	4.8 sec. 	
J 172 
The reaction-times accord with our expectation, as in the former case, much better than the galvanometer curves. 
1169 
(C) The galvanometer curves with long reactiontimes in Series I average 
The galvanometer curves with short reaction-times in Series I average 
The galvanometer curves with long reaction-times in Series 1I average 
The galvanometer curves with short reaction-times in Series Il average 
The galvanometer curves with long reaction-times in Series III average 
The galvanometer curves with short reaction-times in Series III average 
g.6mm. 
6.0 mm. 
4.7 mm. 
2.6 mm. 
2.8 mm. 
We find in this table that only the galvanic curves in Series I and the reaction-times in Series Il are what we expected. 
	"73 	(G) The average of distribution in Series I was 4.9. 
The average of distribution in Series 1I was 2.8. The average of distribution in Series III was 1.6. 
	11 74 	The highest galvanic curve (2 I mm.) is found in the associa- 
tion sun / sun-time, and here the reaction-time is 14.0 seconds. It is difficult to explain this excessive deviation. The preceding association is stou t / constitu tion (IS mm., and 14.8 seconds reaction-time). The patient is very stout, which she thinks due to supernatural influences. She complains much of this "forced" disfigurement. In Series Il these two associations caused no deviations, but in Series III stout / constitution suddenly induced the largest deflection of the whole series, viz., 14.5 mm., whereas the average was only 2.5 mm. There was a curve of 20 mm. with the association ugly / disfigured by great suffering, and with this a reaction-time of 12.0 seconds. The contents of this association are concerned with the same theme as stOllt I constitution. Another high curve occurred with high / highest action (19 mm. and reaction-time 11.2 seconds). This association was subsequently altered twice in the reproductions. It is 
551 
2.5 mm. 
The figures in all three series are what we expect. 
(D) In Series Il, 28.0 per cent of the associations show an average plus difference of 4.7 mm. In Series Ill, 24.0 per cent of the associations show an average plus difference of 4.8 mm. 
117° 
"71 
(E) Series 1. Probable average of reaction-times following associations with unusually high galvanic curves 
Series 1. Arithmetical average of corresponding galvanic curves 
Series 11. Probable average of reaction-times following associations with unusually high galvanic curves 
Series 1I. Arithmetical average of corresponding galvanic curves 
Series Ill. Probable average of reaction-times following associations with unusually high galvanic curves 
Series Ill. Arithmetical average of corresponding galvanic curves 
550 
11.6 sec. 
11.8 mm. 
5.8 sec. 
3.7 mm. 
8.0 sec. 
2.5 mm. 

H. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
connected with the delusion of the patient that she had accomplished the "highest work." 
	1175 	The associations are typically affected and show a distinctly 
morbid character. The following are examples: 
		diligent 	high esteem-payment 
		love 	to be lovable-wedding 
		snake 	to point out as extraordinary 
		high 	highest action-highest distinction 
		ugly 	disfigured by great suffering 
	1176 	Resume: In our tests with word associations in the two 
cases of dementia praecox the only striking fact has been the great lengthening of reaction-times. In the relations between the galvanometer curves and associations we have found nothing different from the normal. From the material of lung, who has analyzed a large collection of association experiments in dementia praecox, we learn that in by far the greater proportion of these cases there is no particular lengthening of reactiontime. Therefore a long reaction-time cannot be considered as characteristic for all cases of dementia praecox. It is of value in some cases. It is only present when the patients suffer from certain hindrances to thought, which are often present in this disease. 
	1177 	When we examine the associations of such patients we find 
that the hindrance to thought (lengthened reaction-time) is especially manifested where complexes constellate the association, which is also the case in normal individuals. This phenomenon first led lung to think that the specific pathological factor in dementia praecox depends upon some complex. A complex in fact plays a great role in the associations of our two patients here described. The reaction-times are extraordinarily long where connected with a complex. The complex constellations are also very numerous, as well as the altered reproductions related to them. In our normal cases we found an average of 30 per cent of altered reproductions in Series I, while the patients had 51 per cent. Besides this, the character of the associations presents abnormalities almost constantly, especially around the complexes. 
	117R 	From these indications we may conclude that little of a 
pathological nature can be found in the general and regular 1')1')2 

INVESTIGATIONS WITH GALVANOMETER AND PNEUMOGRAPH mechanisms of thought, but rather in the manner and meth< of reaction of the individual to his complexes. We find in bo of these patients an increased influence of the complex upe association, which corroborates the results of innumerab analyses of dementia praecox by lung. This phenomenon h an important and general clinical significance, because, whe carefully analyzed, nearly all the symptoms are found to t determined by an individual complex, often manifested in very convincing way. This is particularly true for delusions ar hallucinations. A series of other symptoms is more often d pendent upon indirect disturbance of association by the con plex. This state of affairs explains why we do not discover ar elementary disturbances, even in quite intense mental disorde the dementia is shown only in the most delicate psychologic relations. Therefore we shall look in vain, for the present an for a long time to come, among these patients for simple, el mentary disturbances common to all cases. 
	1179 	N OTE.-Since this article was put into type we have foun 
that Fere,23 carrying a current through a subject with variol sensory stimuli, made the following observation: "Il se produ alors une deviation brusque de l'aiguille du galvanometre ... La meme deviation se produit encore sous l'influence d'eml tions etheniques; c'est a dire qu'elle se produit dans toutes 11 conditions ou j'ai signale precedemment une augmentation c volume des membres mise en evidence par le plethysmograph This clearly shows that Fere made the discovery two years h fore Tarchanoff. 
23 "Note sur des modifications de la resistance eIectrique sous I'influence d excitations sensorieIles et des emotions" (1888), p. 217. 
S.I').~ 

FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS ON THE GALVANIC PHENOMENON AND RESPIRATION IN NORMAL AND INSANE INDIVIDUALSl 
by Charles Ricksher and C. G. lung 
	1180 	The changes produced by various causes in the electrical 
resistance of the human body have been studied for many years, but as yet no definite results have been reached. Charles Fen~ was the first to report on the changes produced by emotion. In a communication made to the Societe de Biologie in 18882 he noted that there was a decrease in bodily resistance when various sensory stimuli were applied, and also that emotion produced a similar decrease. R. Vigouroux had been working on the problem of electrical resistance in the human body with patients from the Salpetriere and had reached the conclusion that the old view of resistance being caused by the epidermis was wrong and that the true cause was the condition of the superficial circulation. He thought that variations in resistance were caused by an increased or decreased superficial circulation. F ere accepted these con cl usions and added that' '1' etude de la resistance eIectrique peut trouver une application dans les recherches des psycho-physiologues." 
	1181 	Nothing new was reported for several years. In 1890, A. 
Vigouroux published a report on the study of electrical resistance in melancholics but added nothing to our knowledge. Tarchanoff, Stricher, Sommer, and Veraguth have all summarized the work of the French investigators. The first person to do real psychological research using the galvanometer was Veraguth, who in 1906 worked with this instrument and with Jung's association experiments. In the same year work was be- 
1 [Originally published, in English, in The Journal of Abnormal Psychology (Boston), 11 (1907-8):5, 18g-217' Charles Ricksher (187g-1943), M,D., was then Assistant Physician, Danvers Insane Hospital, Hathorne, Massachusetts. In this version, stylistic and terminological revisions have been made.] 
? rt:" .......•.•. 1.-.:,., or ••.•• t ......•.......•........ "" "' •..• .-1 •....• -ho .•.• " 4="11,, .•••• "1'1" ,,&>~ 'h.hl.r\lTr':)1'""\r", 'It pnrl nf th"", T"\-::anpr 1 

FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS ON THE GALVANIC PHENOMENOl\ gun in the Psychiatric Clinic in Zurich to try to determine cause of electrical resistance of the body and the ch an produced in the bodies of normal and insane individuals different stimuli. The apparatus used consisted of a circuit c taining a single low-voltage element, a Deprez-d'Arsonval gal nometer of high sensitivity, a shunt for lowering the oscillati( of the mirror, and two brass plates upon which the subject the test places his hands and thus closes the circuit. The ~ vanometer reflects a beam of light onto a celluloid scale which is attached a movable slide with a visor, which, puslby hand, follows the moving mirror-reflection. To the slid{ attached a cord leading to what is called an ergograph writ which marks the movements of the slide by means of a p point on a kymograph-drum fitted with endless paper. I measuring time a Jaquet chronograph was used and for the n ment of stimulus an ordinary electrical marker. 
	1182 	The problem of the cause of resistance was first approachc 
the results given are those obtained by Jung and Binswanl and are as yet unpublished. Resistance was found to vary grea in different individuals with different conditions of the paIn epithelium. That the epidermis was the seat of resistance v proved by the fact that when the electrodes were placed une the skin resistance was enormously decreased. This was do by piercing the skin of each arm with a surgical needle a using the needles as electrodes.3 
	1183 	The French investigators were unanimous in ascribing t 
changes in resistance to changes in the blood supply of an an caused by dilation and contraction of the vessels, the greal the blood supply the lower the resistance and vice versa. TIthe blood supply was not a chief factor was proved by exs;; guinating the area in contact with the plates with an Esmar bandage, whereupon it was found that the galvanic phenon non still appeared. 
	1184 	That the changes in resistance are not due to changes 
contact, such as pressure on the electrodes, is shown by t fact that when the hands are immersed in water, which acts a connection to the electrodes, the changes in resistance st occur. Pressure and involuntary movements give a deflecti( entirely different from the usual result of an affective stimuh 
3 Experiments by \'eraguth and lung and Binswanger. 

n. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
	1185 	The time that elapsed between a stimulus and the change in 
resistance, as shown by the galvanometer, suggested some change in the sympathetic nervous system or in some area controlled by it. The sweat-glands seemed to have most influence in the reduction of resistance. If the sweat-glands were stimulated there would be thousands of liquid connections between the electrodes and tissues, and resistance would be much lowered. Experiments were made by placing electrodes on different parts of the body, and it was found that the reduction in resistance was most marked in those places where most sweat-glands are located. It is well known that both emotion and sensory stimuli influence the various organs and glands, heart, lungs, sweat-glands, ete. Heat and cold also influence the phenomenon, heat causing a reduction and cold an increase in resistance. In view of these facts the action of the sweat-glands seems to be the most plausible explanation of the changes in resistance. 
	] .86 	The following experiments were made in the winter and 
spring of 1907, with a view to determining the effect on the galvanic phenomenon and respiration of a series of simple physical and mental stimuli in a number of normal and insane subjects. The galvanometric changes were noted by the apparatus described above. The respiration was recorded by means of a Marey pneumograph attached to the thorax and leading by means of a rubber tube to a Marey tambour, to which is attached a pen-point that writes on the kymograph-drum. 
	1187 	The results of pneumographic experiments of various au- 
thors are very conflicting. Delabarre< found that attention to sensory impressions increased the frequency and depth of respiration. Mosso, in his work on the circulation in the brain, could come to no satisfactory conclusions. Mentz found that every noticeable acoustic stimulus caused a slowing of the respiration and pulse. Zoneff and Meumann found that high grades of attention cause a very great or total inhibition of respiration, while relatively weaker attention generally produces an increase in the rate and a decrease in the amplitude of the respirations. Total arrest of respiration was found relatively more frequently in sensory than in intellectual attention. 
4 Remarks by Delabarre, Mosso, and Mentz are quoted from Zoneff and Meumann. 

FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS ON THE GALVANIC PHENOMENON Martius notes great individual differences and comes to the conclusion that there is an affect type differing from the normal, shown by slowness of the pulse and respiration. 
	1188 	The experiments of these authors were all made on a limited 
number of subjects, usually students. Our experiments with the pneumograph were generally made on uneducated men, attendants in the clinic, and our stimuli were quite different from those used by the other investigators. It is possible that the great difference in our results may in part depend on these facts. 
	1189 	In our experiments care was taken to have the conditions as 
nearly equal as possible. It was found that different positions of the body, leaning forward or backward, for example, caused a change in the level of the respiratory curves. Slight movements of the body and of the limbs did not influence the curves. The tambour itself can cause changes in the recorded curves. The tambour must contain the same amount of air in every case, otherwise the curves will be different. The curve registered is not an exact one, owing to defects in the instruments. In deep inspirations the rubber covering becomes tense and, when the pressure in the chest changes, the elasticity of the rubber causes the respirations to be registered in a different way from that in which they really occur. 
	1190 	It cannot be assumed that the respiratory curves represent 
ordinary normal respiration but only the kind of normal respiration to be expected under experimental conditions. No one can breathe naturally with a recording apparatus on his chest and with his attention more or less directed to it. The release from the tension of the experiment is seen at the end of the experiment when the respirations become deeper and the level of the curve changes. The pneumograph could not be used on women because of their clothing, nor could it be used with many of the insane subjects because of their excitability. 
	1191 	The plethysmograph was not used because with it the 
sources of error are too numerous. Martius has shown that, even when the arm and instrument are encased in plaster of Paris, there occur involuntary movements that make correct interpretation of the results difficult. 
	1192 	In the galvanic experiment many sources of error have to 
be considered. Chief among these is the deflection caused by 

n. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
movements of the hands. An increase or decrease in the pressure of the hands upon the electrodes causes an instantaneous change in the position of the reflection of the galvanic mirror. This change is sudden, and it is almost impossible to produce deliberately a change in the position of the reflection like one caused by an affective mental process. The natural change of position of the hands is shown by an almost vertical rise or fall of the galvanic curve as shown on the kymograph-drum. To prevent, as far as possible, involuntary changes of position, bags of sand were placed on the hands, thus preventing any but deliberate movements. It was found that quite extensive movements of the body could be made without influencing the galvanometric curve. Deep inspirations and sighs cause a greater or lesser rise in the curve. In the same curve a sigh occurring after an affective process seems to cause a more extensive rise than one occurring before. Deliberate long inspirations cause little or no disturbance. It must therefore be assumed that sighs are caused by some affective complex, or that they cause such a complex to come into consciousness or they produce an unconscious emotional condition. 
	1193 	The subjects were physicians and attendants, as well as pa- 
tients suffering from various mental diseases. 
	1194 	The experiment may be divided into six parts: in each part 
a different stimulus or series of stimuli of the same kind, physicalor psychological, was used. Before each stimulus or series of stimuli the subject was told in a general way what was going to happen. In many individuals, after a short period of waiting for a stimulus, there were changes in respiration and in the galvanic curve. These expectation-curves will be discussed later. 
	1195 	The measurements of height are in each case the real, i.e., 
the vertical height. The respiratory rate is given as so many per centimetre, which is a purely comparative measurement. For the quiet periods we give the average rate per centimetre for ten centimetres at the beginning and end of each period. 
	1196 	Part I of the experiment consists of a quiet period of four 
minutes. The subject was asked to sit as quietly as possible and was told that no stimulus was going to be applied. In Part Il, the stimulus was a leaden weight allowed to fall about three 
558 

FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS ON THE GALVANIC PHENOMENON feet onto the floor. In Part Ill, the subject was asked to say spontaneously, after a minute or so, a word or a short sentence, and then to remain quiet. Part IV consists of three physical stimuli: a low whistle, a weight dropped onto the floor, and a picture (picture post-card) shown to the subject. Part V consists of four sentences spoken by the investigator. The first two were usually some familiar proverb, such as "The pitcher goes often to the well but is broken at last"; the third and fourth were of a more critical nature as they referred directly to the subject himself or to his habits. In several cases single words, such as eye and face, were given. Part VI is again a quiet period of four minutes. The results of each part will be given here, and the normal subjects, fifteen in number, will be considered first. 
NORMAL SUBJECTS 
	1197 	Part I. The galvanometric curve is usually higher at the 
beginning than it becomes a short time later owing to feelings of expectation and tension caused by the unusual position and the strange experiment. As a rule the curve shows many irregularities caused by the subject's hand and body movements as he settles into a comfortable position; such movements are also the result of expectation, muscular tension (this is not, however, an important factor), and of various emotionally charged complexes. In the course of the quiet period there are seen oscillations of the galvanic mirror that cannot be accounted for by any movement of the hands or body, by any respiratory change, or any conscious thought or association. We have therefore attributed them to the indefinite feeling caused by some still unconscious complex. Everyone has experienced these vague feelings, sad or gay, that come without apparent cause, last only a short time, and are soon forgotten. Such a curve was clearly shown in the case of a well-educated physician, with a considerable power of self-analysis, who could not remember any affective thought that had occurred to him during the period. 
	1198 	The inspirations at the beginning of the quiet period are 
usually deeper and more frequent than at the end. At the beginning they average 2.91 per cm. and at the end 2.79 per 
559 

6.	
Height of 	InsPir. before 	Rise of Calv. 	Fall of Calv. 		
Calv. Curve 		Stim. 		Curve 		Curve 		
							I 	1206 	
54· 	mm. 	3.5 per cm. 	3.86 per cm. 	3.92 per cm. 		
18.8 mm. 	3· 	per cm. 	2.72 per cm. 	2·5 	per cm. 		
4.6 mm. 	3· 	per cm. 	2·5 	per cm. 	2·3 	per cm. 		
H. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
cm. The average height of the inspirations at the beginning is 12.41 mm., at the end 12.26 mm. In our cases the respiratory curve does not show any great or constant change of level. 
	1199 	In Part Il (stimulus a falling weight) the galvanometric 
curves show great individual differences. In one case, that of an attendant who was very nervous and frightened by the experiment, the galvanometric deflection was 54 mm. In another case, also of an attendant, but of a very phlegmatic disposition, the deflection was only 4.6 mm. The average deflection for fifteen subjects was 20.6 mm. 
	1200 	The longest reaction-time, i.e., the time from the moment 
of stimulus to the beginning of the rise of the galvanic curve, varies from 1.5 to 5.5 seconds. This time, while showing individual variations, is usually shorter in cases showing the greatest galvanic reactions, and averages 2.87 seconds. The time required for the curve to reach its maximum height corresponds roughly to the height, a curve of 54 mm. requiring 11.5 seconds and one of 10 mm. requiring 2.5 seconds. The average time is 6.93 seconds. 
	1201 	The inspirations show individual differences in rate and 
amplitude, and the respiratory rate does not vary as much as the height of the galvanometric curve, as the following table shows: 
	1202 	Thus the change in rate for a galvanic curve of 54 mm. is 
not as great as for a curve of 4.6 mm. Whether the respiration is slowed down or speeded up during the rise of the galvanic curve seems to depend on the individual. The majority, however, show a decrease of speed during the rise and an increase during the fall of the galvanic curve. 
	12°3 	The average number of inspirations before the stimulus is 
3.05 per cm., during the rise of the galvanic curve 3.02 cm., and during the fall 3.09 per cm. 
	] 204 	The amplitude of the inspirations does not vary in propor- 
tion to the rate. Before the stimulus the average height of the 

FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS ON THE GALVANIC PHENOMENON inspirations is 11.75 mm., during the rise of the galvanic curve 10·73 mm., and during the fall of the curve 11.45 mm. 
	12°5 	Part III (spontaneous speaking). In this part the average 
height of the galvanic curve is lower than in the preceding part, being 17·9 mm. As a rule the curves of the different subjects show little variation in height. Some of the curves show irregularities before the moment of speaking, caused partly by indecision and partly by preparation for speaking. In normal subjects the galvanic curve begins to rise at the moment of speaking or even a little before. 
FIG. I. Stimulus a falling weight. Resistance was very high at the beginning of the experiment and fell throughout the quiet period and up to the moment of stimulation, as shown by the vertical line. The latency time and the decrease in rate and amplitude of respirations are clearly shown 
The number of inspirations per centimetre decreases during the rise of the galvanic curve and continues to decrease as the curve falls. The average rate before speaking is 3.5 per cm., during the rise of the galvanic curve 3.15 per cm., and during 
the fall 3.04 per cm. The average height of the inspirations before speaking is 10.08 mm., during the rise of the curve 10·57 mm., and during the fall 11.75 mm. Thus the height increases as the rate decreases. 
	12°7 	In Part IV there are three stimuli: a falling weight, a whistle, 
and a picture. In each case the stimulus is not merely a sensory, visual, or auditory one, but has also a psychological component. Almost every stimulus, when perceived or received into consciousness, is associated with affective complexes. A low whistle is heard not only as a sound but also as a call, and is associated with many past experiences; a picture calls up 
.. c_ 

H. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
many other associations. Naturally the personal equation comes into play here to a very great extent. 
	1208 	The measurements are: 
FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS ON THE GALVANIC PHENOMENON 
in height as the affect passes off. Expressed in tabulated fon the measurements are: 
Height of curve Latency time 
Time to reach top of curve5 
Weight 17.94 mm. 2.55 sec. 6.95 sec. 
Whistle 18.2 mm. 2.82 sec. 9.88 sec. 
Picture 
InsPirations per cm. 
Weight Whistle Picture 
	Before stimulus 3.01 	2.75 	2.88 
	Rise of curve 	3·33 	2·77 	3.02 
	Fall of curve6 	2.76 	3.06 	3.09 
Height in mm. 
	Weight 	Whistle 	Pictu 
19.72 mm. 3.03 sec. 7.47 sec. 
12.02 10.56 12.32 
12.05 11.35 12.13 
12·4 10·9 11.3 

FIG. 3. Stimulus a whistle. A small expectation curve, before the moveme of stimulus, is shown. The latency period, and the changes in the respiJ tory rate and amplitude, are clearly shown 
1210 
Part V. Four short sentences or words were used as stimu The sentences were spoken by the investigator, and time w allowed between each for the galvanic curve to return to i lowest level. The measurements are: 
FIG. 2. Spontaneous speaking. The vertical line indicates the moment of speaking. The irregularities b~fore speaking are clearly shown in the galvanometric curve. In the respiratory curve the decrease in amplitude during the rise of the galvanometric curve is clearly shown 
Sen. I 
Sen. 2 
Sen.] 
Sen. 4 
In these cases the latency time increases with the height of the galvanometric curve. The time for the curve to reach its maximum varies in the different cases. 
	1209 	In every case the respiratory rate increases during the rise 
of the galvanic curve; in one case it decreases and in two increases during the fall. The amplitude of the respirations varies in the same way, being lower during the rise and increasing 
5 [Hereafter abbreviated as Height, Latency, Time to top.] 
	Height 	14.62 mm. 	14.48 mm. 	19-42 mm. 	11.12 ml 
	Latency 	3.32 sec. 	3.1 sec. 	2.83 sec. 	3.15 se< 
	Time to top 	8.13 sec. 	5.82 sec. 	7.67 sec. 	5.95 se< 
As can be seen from the table, the height of the galvanic CUP gradually decreases in the second and fourth sentences, whi the curve of the third sentence is higher. The gradual decrea in the height of the galvanic curve is to be expected and ca be explained by the gradual fading out of the affect. The fir two sentences were trite, but the third usually referred to tl subject or could be referred by him to himself, henfe tl 
6 [Hereafter abbreviated as Before, Rise, Fall.] 

7.	
FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS ON THE GALVANIC PHENOMENON 
8.	
n. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
stronger innervation and the increase in the height of the galvanIC curve. 
	1211 	The latency time and the time required for the curve to 
reach its maximum height bear no constant relation to the height of the galvanic curve. 
	1212 	The respiratory curves vary greatly for the different sen- 
tences. In response to two sentences the respiratory rate decreases and in two it increases during the rise of the galvanic curve. The amplitude of the inspirations is always lower while the galvanic curve is rising and while the affect is acting, and slowly increases as the affect wears off, as the following table shows: 

	InsPirations per cm. 		Height in mm. 		
	Sen. I 	Sen. 2 	Sen. 3 	Sen. 4 	Sen. I 	Sen. 2 	Sen. 3 	Sen. 4 	
Before 	2.84 	2·97 	2.71 	3·°5 	12.85 	12·59 	13·74 	12.23 	
Rise 	3·°4 	2.78 	2·57 	3.41 	11.63 	11.27 	12.81 	11. 76 	
Fall 	3·°9 	2·74 	3.13 	3.46 	12.13 	11.98 	13.38 	13·°7 	
	1213 	Part VI is a second quiet period of four minutes. As a gen- 
eral rule this part shows fewer irregularities than the first, because the subject has become accustomed to the experiment and is comfortably settled in his place. One marked feature of this part is the change of level of the respiratory curve as soon as the subject is told that the experiment is over and he is released from the involuntary tension in which he has been held. 
	1214 	The respiratory rate is slower than in the first quiet period. 
At the beginning the inspirations are 2.41 per cm. as compared to 2.91 per cm. in the first' curve. At the end they are 2.71 per cm. as compared to 2.79 per cm. in the first curve. The height of the inspirations is 12.57 mm. at the beginning as compared to 12.41 in the first curve, and 12.17 mm. at the end as compared to 12.26 mm. in the first curve. 
	1215 	What we have designated expectation curves are changes in 
the galvanic curve that occur while the subject is waiting for the stimulus. Naturally they vary according to the individual. Some of our subjects showed no trace of an expectation curve, whereas in others we found quite marked expectation curves. These curves are more frequent in the early part of the experiment and are especially marked in Part II while the subject is 

waiting for the fall of the weight. In height they vary with th~ reactions to the stimuli but are nearly always lower than these 
	1216 	The average height of expectation curves is 15.70 mm. Thi~ 
high average is due to the fact that a subject who has an intense galvanic reaction to a stimulus will have many and strong expectation curves. The time required for the curve to reach its maximum averages 10 seconds; to fall to the former level 12 seconds. 
	1217 	The inspirations from the beginning to the top of the curve 
average 3.06 per cm.; during the fall they average 3.3 per cm. The average respiratory amplitude during the rise is 10. I 8 mm.; during the fall, 10.56 mm. 

FIG. 4. Expectation curve. Showing changes in electrical resistance and respiration due to anticipatory attention 
	1218 	That there are great individual differences in the galvanic 
reactions will be seen from the average of distribution of the various averages, expressed as a coefficient obtained by taking the average of the sum of the differences between each figure and the average of all the figures. 
	Part Il: weight 	8.09 
	Part IV: weight 	8.71 
	whistle 	2.75 
	picture 	6.64 
	Part V: sentence 1 	4.7 
	sentence 2 	4.42 
	sentence 3 	7.63 
	sentence A 	20R 

H. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS ON THE GALVANIC PHENOMENON same in both high and low reactions but the decrease in ampli tude is greater in the higher reactions. 
	hi h l rate . 	}~ecrease 0.066 per cm 
	g 	S amphtude 	Increase 1.601 mm. 
During fall 
		1 		l rate 	decrease 0.001 per cm 
			ow 	S amplitude 	increase 0.819 mm. 
	1225 	During the fall of the galvanic curve the rate decreases more 
in the greater than in the lesser reactions, while the amplitude also increases more in the greater than in the lesser reactions. 
	1226 	During the rise of the curve it is probable that part of the 
bodily innervation is expended on the various affective muscular tensions, etc., and consequently the more the individual reacts with other innervations the less will be expended on the respiration. This would explain the decrease in rate and amplitude in the greater reactions. During the fall of the galvanic curve more innervation is probably concentrated again on the respiration but chiefly on the depth; the rate decreases in some of the greater reactions. 
	1227 	The relations of the rate and amplitude before and after 
the reaction show that there is an increase in the rate and amplitude after high reactions and a decrease in the rate and increase in the amplitude after low reactions. 
	1228 	The following table was obtained by comparing the rate 
and amplitude before stimulus with the rate and amplitude during the rise of the galvanic curve, and the rate and amplitude during the fall of the galvanic curve with those occurring during the rise of the galvanic curve. 
	1219 	This coefficient shows, when large, that there is a great di- 
versity in the numbers of which an average is taken; when low, that the numbers are nearly equal. Two of our subjects had extremely high galvanic curves, and therefore the average and coefficient are greater than they would have been had these two cases been omitted. On this account, our averages are probably higher than those of other observers. 
	1220 	The pneumographic results are interesting because they dif- 
fer from those obtained by other investigators and because they show a different relation between the rate and amplitude from what one would expect. 
	1221 	The following table shows the averages of all the averages 
of respiratory rate and amplitude and the average of distribution of each. 
	InsPir. per 	Coef- 	Height 	Coef- 	
	cm. 	ficient 	in mm. 	ficient 	
Before 	2·94 	0.16 	12.19 	0.62 	
Rise 	2·97 	0.19 	11.28 	0.50 	
Fall 	3.11 	0.13 	12.19 	0·47 	
	1222 	It can be seen that the respiratory rate increases from the 
moment of stimulus while the amplitude decreases during the action of the affect and increases when it passes away. The coefficients in all cases are low and show that the numbers of which an average was taken are about equal. 
	1223 	The relation between the respiratory rate and amplitude 
during the rise and fall of the galvanic curve and the high and low galvanic reactions is interesting. These relations were obtained by taking the averages of the sums of the respiratory rates and amplitudes of the high and low reactions of each individual before and after the stimulus. They are: 
Before stimulus 
l rate 
S amplitude 
During rise 
high 
low 
l rate 
S amplitude 
deCrease 0.05 per cm. decrease 1.17 per mm. 
decrease 0.06 per cm. decrease 1.06 per mm. 
 increase 0.156 per cm. increase 0.213 mm. 
				decrease 0.091 per cm. 
		rate 		. 
			· d 	Increase 0.093 mm. 

amp Itu e 
This table shows that the differences in respiratory changes are much greater in cases of higher galvanic reactions. 
	1229 	So far as could be determined there was no regular relation 
between the height of the galvanic reactions and the individual bodily resistance at the beginning of the experiment. 
567 
After reaction 
high 
low 
l rate 
S amplitude 
	1224 	Thus during the rise the decrease in rate is practically the 
566 
{
{
}
J
}
1
{

11. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS ON THE GALVANIC PHENOMENON 
ABNORMAL SUBJECTS 
	1230 	These subjects were patients suffering from epilepsy, de- 
mentia praecox, general paralysis, chronic alcoholism, and alcoholic dementia and senile dementia. 
	1231 	The conditions of the experiment were exactly the same as 
in the case of normal subjects except that in many cases the pneumograph could not be used. 
EPilepsy 
	1232 	There were nine subjects in this group, the majority being 
seriously demented. Among these were included one case of traumatic epilepsy with congenital imbecility and one case of epilepsy with hysteria. One subject was examined immediately after an attack of petit mal. In this case the reactions to ordinary stimuli were slight or nil, but when the patient was threatened with a needle there was a galvanometric deflection of 20 mm. This change was very slow and the curve remained high for several minutes. The threat of a prick of a needle is a very strong stimulus and causes reactions in nearly every case where dementia is not marked. In this case the whistle produced a fluctuation of 4 mm. and the weight one of 2.8 mm. The other stimuli were without effect. The latency time for the whistle was 5 seconds and for the needle IS seconds. It req uired 2 I seconds for the curve produced by the needle to reach its maximum. 
	1233 	In this group the differences between the reactions to physi- 
cal and to psychological stimuli are more marked than in normal subjects. In all cases the quiet period shows little change. Only one subject shows what could be considered an expectation curve. 
	1234 	Five subjects reacted to the falling weigh t, Part II. The 
reactions vary from ~.2 mm. to 35.6 mm. The greatest reaction was in the case of epilepsy and hysteria. The three cases not reacting were severely demented. The averages for the cases reacting are: 
1235 
The pneumographic measurements are: 
Before Rise Fall 
lnspirations 
per cm. 
2.6 2.6 2.71 
Average height zn mm. 
12.28 9·73 10.81 
	1236 	The galvanometric reaction is only about one-third as hig 
as the normal. The pneumographic measurements are almm the same as those of the normal cases. 
	1237 	Spontaneous speaking (Part Ill) could only be tried in thre 
cases. In these cases there was a latency time averaging 2 se( onds, in contrast to the normal cases where the curve begins t. rise at the moment of speaking. The measurements for th three cases are: 
Height Latency Time to top 
14.66 mm. 2.0 sec. 5.5 sec. 
	123R 	These measurements are lower than in normal subjects 
The pneumographic results are: 
lnspirations per cm. 
Average height zn mm. 
Before Rise Fall 
3·5 3·3 2·9 
10.92 11.52 13.62 
In normal cases the amplitude decreases from the moment 01 stimulus; here it increases. 
1239 Part IV, three physical stimuli, weight, whistle, and picture failed to cause any reaction in three demented cases. 
	1240 	The measurements for five cases are: 
	Weight 	Whistle 	Picture 	
Height 	26.6 mm. 	23.6 	mm. 	15·4 	mm. 	
Latency 	2.3 sec. 	3·5 	sec. 	2.83 sec. 	
Time to top 	6.6 sec. 	6.75 sec. 	5·3 	sec. 	
Height Latency Time to top 
7.5 mm. 2.25 sec. 6.00 sec. 
	1241 	In the normal cases the greatest reaction was to the picture. 
The weight, the stimulus calling up the fewest associations, 569 
568 

H. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS ON THE GALVANIC PHENOMENON 
caused the smallest reaction. The pneumographic measurements in three cases are as follows: 
	Inspirations per cm. 	Average height in mm. 
	Weight 	Whistle 	Picture 	Weight 	Whistle 	Picture 
	2.8 	3.0 	2.7 	8.05 	8.23 	8·34 
	2·5 	2.96 	3.6 	7.1 	9·37 	6.51 
	3.11 	3.1 	2·9 	6·74 	8.38 	8.03 
In the normal cases the height is always less during the rise of the galvanic curve, here it varies very much. 
	1243 	Part V, sentences, caused comparatively slight reactions in 
all cases. In four demented cases there were no reactions. The measurements for four cases are: 
Before Rise Fall 
1242 
Dementia Praecox 
	1247 	The cases in this group were in various stages of the disease 
The reactions therefore vary considerably. Each form of thl disease will be discussed separately. 
Sen. I 
Catatonia 
	1248 	There were eleven cases of catatonia varying from those ir 
complete stupor to those in a convalescent condition. Our re suIts are high because one convalescent gave reactions that wen those of a normal person. Cases in a condition of stupor giv~ practically no reaction to ordinary stimuli; for cases in a de pressive state the reaction is also less marked. 
	1249 	The curve for the quiet period varies according to the con 
dition of the subject. In patients who are actively hallucinatec it is very often quite irregular; in patients in a stuporous condition it is very nearly a straight line. 
	1250 	The pneumograph was not used. 
1251 Part II (falling weight) caused a reaction in almost ever) case, the reaction varying from 1.8 mm. in a very depressed patient to 6 mm. in a patient with active hallucinations and 43.2 mm. in a convalescent. The average deflection for eleven cases was 6.8 mm. 
	1252 	Part III (spontaneous speaking) was not possible with these 
subjects. 
	1253 	Part IV (three physical stimuli) caused various reactions, as 
in normal cases. In five cases of patients in a stuporous, depressed condition, the whistle caused no reaction. 
	1254 	The weight caused a deflection of 6.3 mm., the whistle 2.4 
mm., and the picture 3.9 mm. As in the groups of epileptics the weight caused the greatest reactions. 
	1255 	Part IV (four sentences) in every case gave smaller reactions 
than the physical stimuli. The subject who reacted to the weight with 43.2 mm. reacted to the sentences with a deflection of from 6 to 14 mm. The averages for the four sentences are: 
Sen. 2 
Sen. 3 
Sen. 4 
		Height 	13.4 mm. 	7.8 mm. 	4.5 mm. 	4.5 mm. 
		Latency 	3.0 sec. 	3.3 sec. 	5.0 sec. 	3.0 sec. 
		Time to top 	3.6 sec. 	5.0 sec. 	5.0 sec. 	2.0 sec. 
	1244 	The reactions decrease in intensity from the first to the 
third sentence. The pneumographic curves give the following measurements: 
Before Rise Fall 
	1245 	Part VI, the second quiet period, shows nothing. 
	1246 	In all these cases of varying degrees of dementia the galvanic 
fluctuations were in direct relation to the degree of mental dullness, seriously demented cases having little or no reaction. In such seriously demented cases the reactions are similar to those of the subject cited above, tested after an attack of petit mal: only those stimuli tending to cause pain are reacted to. The problem of this phenomenon is entirely a question of lack 
	r 	•• 
Before Rise Fall 
	insPirations per cm. 		
Sen. I 	Sen. 2 	Sen. 3 	Sen. 4 	
3·.? 	3.0 	3.0 	4.0 	
4.0 	3.0 	3.0 	3.0 	
3.1 	3·3 	3·3 	2·5 	
	Average height in mm. 		
Sen. I' 	Sen. 2 	Sen. 3 	Sen. 4 	
7.2 	6·7 	5.6 	7.0 	
6.1 	7·5 	6.0 	5·5 	
6.8 	6.0 	6.6 	5·5 	
Sentence 1 	2.01 mm. 	
Sentence 2 	2·3 	mm. 	
Sentence 3 	2.6 	mm. 	
Sentence 4 	1.9 	mm. 	
	121;,6 	Th~ C'.orr'\.'Y'Irl ••..••.•.• ~L>f- .•...••.....•• __ : •....•. ....1 ~~ __ u __ L 	.1 • 

II. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
HebePhrenia 
	1257 	There were eleven subjects suffering from this form of the 
disease. The measurements, while not markedly different from those of the former group, are quite different from the normal. 
	1258 	As in the former group, the quiet curve is irregular when- 
ever the patient has marked hallucinations. 
	1259 	The weight (Part ll) caused a weaker reaction than in the 
former group, the average deflection being 5 mm. 
	1260 	Spontaneous speaking (Part Ill) in four cases gave an aver- 
age deflection of 2.6 mm. 
	1261 	The three physical stimuli (Part IV) caused the following 
reactions: weight, 6.8 mm.; whistle, 3.5 mm.; picture, 4.4 mm. As in the former groups, the weight caused the greatest reaction. 
	1262 	Part V (sentences) caused a greater reaction here than in the 
former group but a much smaller average reaction than the physical stimuli. The measurements are: 
1268 
Sentence 1 Sentence 2 Sentence 3 Sentence 4 
2.6 mm. 1.3 mm. 3.8 mm. 4.2 mm. 
Paranoid Group 
	1263 	There are four subjects in this group, one in an early stage, 
two somewhat demented, and one seriously demented. The latter reacted to none of the stimuli. The pneumograph was used in two cases. 
	1264 	The quiet period is almost that of a normal subject. 
	1265 	Part II (falling weight) called forth weaker reactions than 
those in the two preceding groups, the average being 4.8 mm. The latency time averages 3 sec. and the time required for the curve to reach its maximum 7 sec. The rise and fall of these curves is much slower than in the normal cases. The pneumographic measurements of two cases are: 
1269 
InsPirations per cm. 
Average height in mm. 13.1 
8.1 
11.8 
Before Rise Fall 
2·5 2·94 2.63 
These are very close to the measurements obtained in the normal cases. 
1270 
FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS ON THE GALVANIC PHENOMENON 
1266 
Part III (spontaneous speaking) was tried in two case~ giving an average deflection of 4.6 mm. The pneumographi measurements are those of the normal cases: 
1267 
		Insp?'rations per cm. 	Average height in mm. 
	Before 	3.2 	11.78 
	Rise 	2.92 	9.2 
	Fall 	2.52 	10.76 
Part IV (three physical stimuli) gives measurements simila to those of the normal subjects in that the reaction to the pic ture is the greatest. The measurements are: 
		Weight 	Whistle 	Picture 
	Height 	5.8 mm. 	5.4 mm. 	7.0 mm. 
	Latency 	2.5 sec. 	2.0 sec. 	2.0 sec. 
	Time to top 	6.0 sec. 	6.0 sec. 	5.5 sec. 
The pneumographic measurements for the depth of inspira tions are about those of a normal subject. The rate varies ir every case, apparently quite freely. 
	InsPirations per cm. 	Average height in mm. 
	Weight 	Whistle 	Picture 	Weight 	Whistle 	Picture 
	3.0 	2·7 	3.0 	11.90 	11.61 	16.91 
	2.78 	3.2 	4.0 	9.32 	9.50 	11.25 
	2·95 	3.16 	2.91 	12·54 	11.53 	11.31 
Part V. The reactions to the sentences are but little higher than those in the other forms of dementia praecox. The measurements are: 
Before Rise Fall 
		Sen. I 	Sen. 2 	Sen. 3 	Sen. 4 
	Height 	5.2 mm. 	3.2 mm. 	2.6 mm. 	3.0 mm. 
	Latency 	3.0 sec. 	5.0 sec. 	3.0 sec. 	3.0 sec. 
	Time to top 	4·5 sec. 	5.0 sec. 	2.0 sec. 	1.0 sec. 
The pneumographic curves for the first two sentences only are given, those of the other two being unusable. 
InsPirations per cm. Sen. I Sen. 2 
Average height in mm. Sen. I Sen. 2 
Before Rise Fall 
3.2 3.16 2·5 
3.0 2·99 2.48 
12.52 12.16 13.0 
13.58 12.1 12.22 
The second OlliFt rnrvp ;< rpO'1l1-:>r in ~11 ~~o~o 

H. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
Sen. I 
Sen. 2 
FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS ON THE GALVANIC PHENOMENON 
Sen. 4 
Chronic Alcoholism 
	1271 	There are three cases in this group, confirmed alcoholics, 
but showing no dementia. The galvanometric measurements only are given. The subjects reacted fairly rapidly, and most of them responded more intensely than normal subjects to all stimuli. 
	] 272 	The first quiet period shows nothing. 
	1273 	Part Il (falling weight) caused a deflection of 23.3 mm., 
greater than in any of the other groups. 
	1274 	Part III (spontaneous speaking) caused a deflection of 18.6 
mm. 
	1275 	Part IV (three physical stimuli, weight, whistle, and picture) 
caused the following deflections: weight, 24 mm.; whistle, 24 mm., picture, 28 mm. These reactions are greater than those of the normal subjects. The relation of the reactions to the various stimuli in these and in normal subjects is almost the same in all cases, that to the picture being the greatest and those to the weight and whistle being very nearly the same. 
	1276 	Part V (the four sentences) caused reactions generally greater 
than in the normal cases, being: Sen. 1, 8.6 mm.; Sen. 2, 16 mm.; Sen. 3, 20 mm.; Sen. 4, 14 mm. 
A lcoholic Dementia 
	1277 	There were three cases of alcoholic dementia, which may be 
contrasted with the last group. In this group the reactions are all weaker than in the cases without dementia, and the smaller reactions to psychological stimuli are especially striking. 
	1278 	The weight caused a deflection of 9.06 mm., as compared to 
23.3 mm. for the last group. 
	1279 	Spontaneous speaking caused a reaction of 6.8 mm. 
	1280 	The reactions to the three physical stimuli, weight, whistle, 
and picture, are very interesting. The picture caused a deflection of only 7.6 mm., as compared to the weight, 16 mm., and the whistle, 13 mm. The reactions are directly proportional to the physical nature of the stimuli. The picture, which in normal cases caused the greatest number of associations and the greatest affects, here caused the fewest associations and the sligh test reactions. 
	] 28] 	The reduction of the reactions to mental stimuli is again 
seen in the sentences, where they are slight. 
Sen.] 
	3·3 mm. 	1.3 mm. 	5.6 mm. 	2.5 mm. 
The reduction here is proportionally much greater than in an) of the other groups. 
General Paralysis 
	]282 	Nine cases of general paralysis were examined. Two were in 
a condition of euphoria and one in a period of remission. The other six cases were in a condition of dementia and apathy and gave hardly any reactions to the various stimuli. 
	1283 	The quiet period shows nothing at all for the cases of de- 
mentia; in the other cases a few irregularities can be seen. 
	1284 	Part Il (the falling weight) caused strong reactions in the 
two euphoric cases and the case in remission, but no reaction at all in the demented cases. 
		Height 	21.1 mm. 
		Latency 	2.2 sec. 
		Time to top 	6.6 sec. 
	]285 	The pneumographic measurements in these cases are nearly 
normal. 
InsPirations per cm. 
Before Rise Fall 
3.25 3.1 3·4 
1286 
Average height in mm. 8·7 
7.2 
g.6 
The pneumographic measurements for two cases giving no galvanic reactions are: 
InsPirations per cm. 
	Before stimulus 	2.5 
	After stimulus 	3.0 
1287 1288 
Spontaneous speaking could not be attempted. 
Part IV (three physical stimuli) in the three cases caused the following reactions: 
Average height in mm. 21.37 
22·3 
	Weight 	Whistle 	Picture 	
Height 	g·4mm. 	25.8 mm. 	15.05 mm. 	
Latency 	2.5 sec. 	2.3 sec. 	2.6 	sec. 	
Time to top 	4.0 sec. 	7.0 sec. 	A .1 	.~f'r 	

H. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
Average height in mm. 
	Weight Whistle 	Picture 
FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS ON THE GALVANIC PHENOMENON ous stimuli. They take a very active interest in the experiment and this may account for the fairly large galvanic reaction. Pare tics in a demented condition give no reactions to simple stimuli and correspond to other cases of dementia. 
Senile Dementia 
	1295 	There were eleven cases of senile dementia. Most of these 
cases did not react to the stimuli. In some cases even the prick of a needle caused no galvanic fluctuation. 
	1296 	The weight caused a reaction in three cases. The average 
deviation for the three cases was 5 mm. 
	1297 	Spontaneous speaking (Part III of the experiment) could 
not be attempted on account of the dementia. 
	1298 	The three stimuli (Part IV) gave smaller measurements than 
those obtained in any other disease, the weight causing an average deflection of I mm., the whistle 1.8 mm., and the picture 4 mm. The relatively high reaction caused by the picture is interesting. 
	1299 	The mental stimuli, sentences (Part V), caused very little 
reaction. 
	1289 	The high average reaction to the whistle is due to the re- 
action of the patient in a period of remission whose reaction was 70 mm. It will be observed that the weight in these cases caused the smallest reaction. The pneumographic measurements for the three cases are: 
InsPirations per cm. 
	Weight Whistle 	Picture 
Before Rise Fall 
3.0 3.0 2·9 
3.65 3.2 3·5 
3.0 3.0 3.0 
5·5 4·5 4.8 
7·9 7·9 7.8 
5·5 9.1 8.8 
	1290 	In the case of two patients giving no galvanic reaction the 
pneumographic measurements are: 
InsPirations per cm. 
Weight Whistle Picture 
Average height in mm. 
	Weight 	Whistle 	Picture 
		Before 	2.0 	3.0 	2.0 	20.5 	20.45 	18.5 
		After 	2.0 	2.5 	2.0 	21.12 	20.50 	19.0 
	1291 	Part V. The results for three sentences are given. Four sub- 
jects reacted to these stimuli. 
			Sen. I 	Sen. 2 	Sen. 3 
		Height 	16 mm. 	9.58 mm. 	18 mm. 
		Latency 	4 sec. 	2·5 sec. 	1.5 sec. 
		Time to top 	5 sec. 	4·7 sec. 	5.S sec. 
	1292 	These reactions are nearly the same as those of the normal 
subjects. The pneumogTaphic measurements for these cases are: 
Sen. I 
Sen. 2 
Sen·3 0.2 mm. 
Sen·4 0.8 mm. 
0.6 mm. 
0.6 mm. 
13°0 
The following table gives a survey of the galvanic measurements in mm. of all the subjects: 
Average height in mm. 
	Sen. I 	Sen. 2 
	- 		- 	~ 	" 					
	b;, 	";:! 	b;, 	::: 	~ 					
	'" 	Cl 	'" 	:.:: 	~ 		Sentences 		
	s::: 	"" 	s::: 	s::: 	i:i; 				
		V] 								
						I 	2 	3 	4 	
Normal 	20.6 	17·9 	17·94 	18.2 	19.72 	14.62 	14 -48 	19-42 	11.12 	
Epilepsy 	7·5 	14.66 	26.6 	23.6 	15·4 	13·4 	7.8 	4·5 	4·5 	
Catatonia 	6.8 	- 	6·3 	2·4 	3·9 	2.01 	2·3 	2.6 	1.9 	
Hebephrenia 	5.0 	2.6 	6.8 	3·5 	4·4 	2.6 	1.3 	3.8 	4.2 	
Paranoid D. P. 	4.8 	4.6 	5.8 	5-4 	7.0 	5.2 	3.2 	2.6 	3.0 	
Chronic 										
alcoholism 	23·3 	18.6 	24.0 	24.0 	28.0 	8.6 	16.0 	20.0 	14.0 	
Alcoholic 										
dementia 	9.06 	6.8 	16.0 	13.0 	7.6 	3·3 	1.3 	5.6 	2·5 	
General paralysis: 										
euphoria and 										
remission 	21.1 	- 	9·4 	25.8 	15.05 	16.0 	9.58 	18.0 		
General paralysis: 										
dementia 										
	Inspirations.per cm. 	Average height in mm. 	
Before 	3·5 	3.0 	3.0 	7·4 	7.1 	10·3 	
Rise 	4.0 	3·3 	3·3 	10.0 	8.6 	9.0 	
Fall 	4.0 	4.6 	4·5 	11.0 	8.1 	9.2 	
	1293 	The pneumographic measurements of two cases glvmg no 
galvanic reaction are: 
Inspirations per cm. Sen. I Sen. 2 
Before After 
2·75 2·75 
3.0 2·75 
20·75 21.3° 
20.40 21.50 
, 
	1294 	Pare tics in a condition of euphoria and in a stage of remis- 

II. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
	13°1 	This table shows that in every case the physical stimuli 
cause a smaller galvanic fluctuation than the psychological ones, but in the cases where intellectual deterioration is marked the reduction is proportionally greater than in the other cases. 
	13°2 	The intensity of the reaction seems to depend partly on the 
attention paid by the subject to the experiment. In cases of dementia praecox, where internal complexes dominate the affectivity and attention, the reactions are slight; in alcoholism and in general paralysis, euphoric state, where excitability' is very great, the reactions are correspondingly greater. In organic dementia, where all associative power is lost, the reactions are almost nil. In dementia senilis, where dementia was very marked, even the prick of a needle failed to cause any response. 
	13°3 	The pneumographic measurements in these cases are nearly 
the same as those found in normal cases. There is evidently no rule for the rate but the amplitude usually decreases while the galvanic phenomenon persists. 
	13°4 	That the galvanic fluctuation is caused by the psychologicaF 
and not the physical factor of a stimulus is shown by the following facts: 
	13°5 	The reaction is greatest when the stimulus is such as to call 
up a large number of associations, e.g., the picture. 
	13°6 	A stimulus causing doubt and perplexity is accompanied by 
a marked galvanic fluctuation, e.g., where the stimulus is a simple word. 
	13°7 	In cases of dementia, where associations are few, the re- 
actions are correspondingly weaker. 
	13°8 	The physical intensity of a stimulus does not bear any regu- 
lar relation to the force of the galvanic reaction. 
	13°9 	The strength of the reaction changes exclusively according 
to psychological constellations. This is beautifully shown in one normal case where an ordinary whistle caused only a slight reaction, but the whistle-call of a society to which the subject had belonged as a schoolboy caused a very great fluctuation. 
	1310 	If the attention is not directed to the stimulus the reaction 
is small or nil. We therefore have no reactions in cases where 
7 Binswanger, "On the Psychogalvanic Phenomenon in Association Experiments" (orig. 19°7/8). 
578 

FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS ON THE GALVANIC PHENOMENON 
attention is seriously disturbed. This can be proved by letting the subject count or draw lines on a paper at the beat of a metronome. In this case the reactions are almost nil. 
SUMMARY 
	1311 	From the above experiments we conclude that: 
(I) The galvanic reaction depends on attention to the stimulus and the ability to associate it with other previous occurrences. This association may be conscious but is usually unconscious.8 
(2) In our experiments greater galvanic fluctuations are caused, as a rule, by physical than by psychological stimuli. This may be due to the fact that they occurred before the psychological stimuli, early stimuli nearly always causing greater reactions than later ones. 
(3) While normal reactions vary greatly in different individuals, they are nearly always greater than pathological reactions. 
(4) In depression and stupor, galvanic reactions are low because attention is poor and associations are inhibited. 
(5) In alcoholism and in the euphoric stage of general paralysis, reactions are high because of greater excitability. (6) In dementia, reactions are practically nil because of the lack of associations. 
(7) Reactions show great individual variation and within certain rather wide limits are entirely independent of the original bodily resistance. 
The pneumographic measurements may be summarized as follows: 
(I) The inspiratory rate varies according to the individual and no general rule can be given. 
(2) The amplitude of the inspirations generally decreases during the rise of the galvanic curve. 
(3) This decrease in amplitude, however, has no relation to the height of the galvanic curve but varies according to individuals. 
(4) In cases of dementia where there is no galvanic reaction, changes of respiration exist but are very slight. 
s [Orig.: subconscious.] 
579 

11. PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESEARCHES 
BIBLIOGRAPHy9 
Delabarre: Vber Bewegungsempfindungen (1891). 
Fen~: "Note sur des modifications de la resistance eIectrique sous l'influence des excitations sensorielles et des emotions" (1888). 
Idem: "Note sur des modifications de la tension eIectrique dans le corps humain" (1888). 
Mentz: "Die Wirkung akustischer Sinnesreize auf PuIs und Atmung" (1893). 
Mosso: Vber den Kreislauf des Blutes im menschlichen Gehim (1881). 
Sommer: In Beitrage zur Psychiatrischen Klinik, Vienna (1902). Sommer and Fiirstenau: "Die elektrischen Vorgange an der menschlichen Haut" (19°6). 
Sticker: "Dber Versuche einer objektiven Darstellung von Sensibili tatsstorungen" (1897). 
Tarchanoff: "Dber die galvanischen Erscheinungen an der Haut 
des Menschen ... " (1890)' 
Veraguth: "Le Reflexe psycho-galvanique" (1906). 
Idem: "Das psycho-galvanische Reflex-Phanomen" (1906). 
A. Vigouroux: Etude sur la resistance electrique chez les melancoliques (1890). 
R. Vigouroux: "Sur la resistance electrique consideree comme signe clinique" (1888). 
Idem: "L'Electricite du corps humain" (1888). 
Zoneff and Meumann: "Dber Begleiterscheinungen psychischer Vorgange in Atem und PuIs" (1900). 
9 [lung published this bibliography with more or less full references. which will be found in the entries in the volume bibliography.] 

APPENDIX 

STATISTICAL DETAILS OF ENLISTMENT' 
	'3'2 	As a member of a medical board I had the opportunity last 
autumn to make a few observations that may be of interest to some of my colleagues and stimulate them to make similar investigations. 
	1313 	The enlistment at which I was present took place in Lucerne 
and its environs. The first day of the enlistment produced much strikingly inferior human material. At least, that is how it struck me-it was the first time I had taken part in an enlistment. If I remember rightly, not even half of the recruits were fit. Later on it became even worse. There are places where not even 30 per cent of the male population are fit; it must be emphasized that these places are not industrial towns, but villages in rich and fertile country. The impression that the first day of enlistment made on me, namely the fact that so many mentally inferior men came for examination, induced me to note how many manifestly imbecile men had presented themselves. Since a somewhat too biassed judgment regarding the diagnosis of mental deficiency is attributed to the psychiatrist, I noted only those cases that had also immediately struck the psychiatric layman as idiots. I omitted a number of cases where, after a short examination,2 I was convinced that I was faced with mental deficiency, in which, however, imbecility was not immediately apparent to the layman. The material under examination consisted of 506 men, of whom 47 (that is, as much as 9.2 per cent) were patently imbecile! 211 men 
1 [Translated from "Statistisches von del' Rekrutenaushebung:' CorrespondenzB/att fiir Schweizer Aerzte (Basel), XXX"I:4 (Feb. 15, 1906), 129-3°. Jung served as an officer in the Swiss Army medical corps from 1901 to 1930'] 
2 One must take into consideration that the formalities of enlistment create for many people an unusual situation, owing to which they get into a state of persistent slupefaction (so-called emotional stupidity), which makes them appear more stupid Ihan they really are. 

APPENDIX 
from the town presented themselves; of these 5.6 per cent were imbecile. 2323 men came from the country; of these 13 per cent were imbecile. The big difference between town and country might be eXplained by the fact that it is mainly the intelligent and enterprising people who converge on the towns, while the unintelligent and torpid remain in the country. The difference between town and country probably does not mean more than a symptom of the present tendency to migrate into the towns. The imbecility of my cases was so obvious that, where there had been any question of criminal offences, the psychiatrist present had stated that the accused were not responsible for their actions. Should my figures be confirmed throughout, then approximately 9 per cent of Swiss adolescents would not be responsible for their actions! This is a terrifyingly high figure which casts a curious light on the level of intelligence of our people, particularly of the rural population. The even higher figures for physical unfitness raise the question of whether there has always been an inferiority of this kind or whether we are faced with degeneration. In any case, an investigation of this problem in connection with enlistment would, for various theoretical and economic reasons, be worthwhile. 
	13'4 	In this connection one should consider the fact that, in the 
enlistment district about which I am reporting, the farmers are alleged to have the curious custom of delivering all their milk to the cheese· factories and of feeding their children on coffee and brandy (a similar custom is reported from the canton of Bern). 
	'3'5 	When examining those conscripts who reported some ail· 
ment to the Commission, I was struck by the large number of alcoholics. To avoid misunderstandings, I noted only those cases that also impressed my colleagues as alcoholics. I there· fore included only the cases that revealed themselves as chronic alcoholics through tremor, heart or liver symptoms, and per· haps through signs of polyneuritis. My material comprises 78 men, nearly all of them between the ages of 20 and 30. Of these, 10 (that is 12.9 per cent) had to be discharged as unfit for military service owing to chronic alcoholism. No statistical survey, however, reports this figure because these people are 
3 The rest came from the semi-urban population of Kriens; they were therefore omitted. 

1. STATISTICAL DETAILS OF ENLISTMENT 
not classified under the heading of alcoholism; they are entered under the more decent title of the alcoholic sequelafor instance, dilatation of the heart or hypertrophy of the heart, chronic gastric catarrh, chronic nephritis, ete. One refers to these alcoholics with a kind of euphemism that certainly often originates in commendable personal consideration but which ultimately leads to a highly detrimental obscuring of the fact that our army annually loses a disproportionately large number of strong men because of alcoholism. What makes matters even worse is the fact that it is the most vigorous age-group that is in question and not the older age·groups. One wonders what conditions are like in the militia if we get such figures for the regular recruits! 

2 
NEW ASPECTS OF CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGYI 
Contribution to the Method Used for the Psychological Diagnosis of Evidence (Tatbestandsdiagnose)2 
	'316 	The very simple experiment designed to induce an indi- 
vidual to respond to a given stimulus-word with the first word that crosses his mind has become the point of departure of a long series of psychological problems that are of interest not only to the psychologist but also to the jurist and the psychiatrist. 
	1317 	It is not my intention to give here a review of all association 
experiments; I only wish to indicate one of the possible applications of these experiments, which may interest practical psy- 
1 [Translated from "Le nuove vedute della psicologia criminale: Contributo al metodo della 'Diagnosi della conoscenza del fatto' (Tatbestandsdiagnose)," Rivista di psicologia aPPlicata (Bologna), IV:4 (July-August, 1908), 285-304. The article in Italian was translated by L. Baroncini from a German manuscript that has not been discovered. Part of the article was incorporated in lung's lecture "The Association Method" at Clark University, 1909: see supra, par. 929, n. I, and infra, n. 10.] 
2 [Editorial note in the Italian, apparently by the editor of the Rivista, G. Cesare Ferrari, director of the prot<incial mental hospital at Imola: 
"Tatbestandsdiagnose is one of those words without meaning, at least for us, that only the Germans can coin. The subject to which this inappropriate word refers is, however, so important that we must try to find a significant term. 
"It is not the first time that this difficulty has arisen; terms such as 'associations with a diagnostic purpose,' 'involuntary self·accusation by means of associations,' 'diagnosis of complexes of ideas,' and others have been proposed. Each of these is, however, open to criticism. 
"Baroncini, who has translated lung's original work into Italian, tries to be faithful to the German phraseology of the text. He proposes, however, to correct the term to 'psychological diagnosis of evidence' (diagnosi della con· oscenza del fatto), a logical substitution that has the disadvantage of needing two pages of interpretation. For lack of a better term, we accept this phrase and we suggest that the organizers of the Congress for Psychology in Geneva may improve on it."] 

2. NEW ASPECTS OF CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY 
chologists and criminologists. This is the so-called "diagnosis of evidence" (Tatbestandsdiagnose), i.e., the psychological diagnosis of a crime.3 This term is somewhat pretentious; in practice, those in favour of the method content themselves with more modest results than the infallible diagnosis of a crime. Notwithstanding this limitation, there are some, and they are not a few, who deny any value to the use of the experiment and who maintain that it is without any interest: but as so often, this exaggeration only shows how one falls from one extreme into the other. On the one hand, workers in this field dare not hope that they can arrive at a psychological procedure that will permit them to make a sure diagnosis after only a few preliminary investigations. Medicine, however, possesses quite a number of such methods that have won acceptance only after a laborious struggle. In the field of psychology progress cannot be made any more easily. On the other hand, one must recognize the facile opposition that is based on initial failure of the method; some, like Heilbronner, deny that any application of the experiment can be of value. So the opposition degenerates into a scepticism that arises not from knowledge and serious criticism, but from a deplorably superficial judgment." 
	'318 	The problem of the diagnosis of evidence is at present of 
the greatest importance to psychologists; to criminologists it is only of academic interest, since we are still far from its practical application in court: this must be the honest and fair appreciation of the experiments we are going to report. 
	'319 	The technique is very simple. Let us take an example: a 
bag containing jewellery, such as a gold bracelet with blue stones, a diamond brooch in the shape of a butterfly, a ring shaped like a snake, and a brooch in the form of a lizard with 
3 For the history, literature, and technique of the experiments, see my "The Psychological Diagnosis of Evidence," supra. 
A good illustration of the laboratory experiments and of many questions about the method can be found in Alfred Gross, "Kriminalpsychologische Tatbe. standsforschung" (1907). 
The use of the association experiments for criminological purposes was first suggested by Wertheimer and Klein [1904]. 
For the general importance of the association experiments, see the Diagnostic Association Studies edited by me (1906). 
4]. G. Schnitzler, medical dissertation, Utrecht, '907 [= "Experimentelle Beitriige zur Tatbestandsdiagnostik" (1909)]. 

in the experiment ( ComPlexmerkmale 
APPENDIX 
emerald eyes, was stolen from a hotel: There were also a green leather wallet containing a cheque drawn on the Banca Commerciale Italiana and three banknotes of fifty lire each, and a bottle of OdoI. 
	1320 	The hotel porter and two other employees were suspected 
of the theft and arrested. Apart from the hotel proprietor, only the culprit could have known the contents of the bag. Such a state of affairs lends itself admirably to the association experiment. Here are examples of the words chosen for it: gold) fifty) three) bracelet) blue) bank) snake) stone) diamond) lizard) green) leather) butterfly) wallet) cheque) banknote) Odol, etc. These were distributed among approximately twice the number of other words, chosen for having the smallest possible reference to the evidence. This was done because we wanted to demonstrate how words derived from the evidence, which is known in its minutest particulars only to the culprit, affect people subjected to the experiment. 
	1321 	How then, generally speaking, do the stimulus-words "act"? 
	1322 	Needless to say, the subject must consent to the experiment 
and must obey the instructions. Without his co-operation one cannot, of course, achieve anything. The instruction usually given is this: "You must say, as quickly as possible, the first word that the stimulus-word suggests to you." It is possible for the subject to cheat by not saying the first word that comes to his mind, but in order to reveal the deception, we measure the reaction-time with a stop-watch. If the subject does not say the first word that occurs to him, it is tantamount to rejecting it and he has to look for another; this needs a certain time, which is measurable. A long reaction-time should therefore not mislead the experimenter. The subject of the experiment may well go to the trouble of prolonging his other reaction-times nearly to the same extent, whether they belong to critical words or to others without special meaning. But this deception is as a rule easily seen through since it is known that the reaction-time in educated people is about 1.5 seconds and in uneducated people 2.0 seconds; on the other hand, as the subject deliberately influences the reaction-times, these are as a rule unduly prolonged because it is difficult consciously to judge the lapse of time. Apart from these possible deceptions, every other effect 
588 

2. NEW ASPECTS OF CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY 
of the critical stimulus-words will result from a disturban of attention. This disturbance arises from the fact th the critical stimulus-word brings back to the mind a conte with a strong feeling-tone; this attracts the attention and cap vates it for a moment, producing a slowing down of the reacti( if a familiar word does not at once present itself. The re pr duction method5 also brings into relief another fact, name] that reactions to critical words (i.e., those words that revi contents of consciousness with a strong feeling-tone) are mo easily forgotten than reactions to words without special mea ing. Reactions that immediately follow critical reactions a also often forgotten (perseveration of the disturbance of atte tion). Why they are so easily forgotten has not yet been suI ciently explored; nor do I wish to enter into any theoretic speculations. 
	1323 	It often happens that the subject is startled by the critic 
stimulus-word. This is another disturbing factor, which fir affects the reaction-time and then the verbal form of the r action itself: the subject believes that he has not proper understood or has really misunderstood, or he mechanical repeats the stimulus-word. As, in his embarrassment, he ca not find a word of no special significance, he replaces it wil a phrase (and this is against the rules) and then, in utterir this phrase, makes a mistake. In these short moments, whi( are of immense intrinsic value, he produces many blunde that betray him, such as we all, in our daily lives, also corn m for the same reasons, even though as a rule unconsciously. ] one case, a student who took part in the experiment, and Wf was usually very much in command of himself, betrayed hir self by making at each critical word a certain small gestU1 of the hand which he omitted when the word had no speci meaning for him. 
	1324 	All these small disturbing elements 
have termed "complex-characteristics" 
5 In the reproduction method. one first collects a large number of associatiOl then one requests the subject to say again the words with which he had react, to the various stimulus-words. One then finds that it is mainly such associatio as indicate complexes that are easily forgotten. Cf. my "Disturbances of Repr duction in the Association Experiment," supra. 
589 

APPENDIX 
this means that they are pointers revealing the influence of a complex of ideas with a particular feeling-tone.6 These are the complex-characteristics in question: 
I. Prolonged reaction-timer in the critical reaction or in the one immediately following. 
2. Reaction with two or more words, although the subject usually reacts with one word only, according to the instructions. 
3.	Repetition of the stimulus-word. 
4. The stimulus-word (especially the one following the critical word) is misunderstood. 
5. Failure to react (i.e., where the subject does not know how to react). 
9.	Lapsus linguae when pronouncing the reaction-word. 
7. Translation of the stimulus-word, or of the reaction, into a 
foreign language. 
S. Reaction in the form of an unusual expression. 
g. The reaction has a singular content or may be meaningless. 10. Perseveration of the reaction-word in respect of content and 
of form. 
11. Interpolation of "yes" or of other interjections before or after the reaction-word. 
	1325 	Characteristics 8, 9, and 10 are somewhat arbitrary and can 
therefore be omitted in an exact computation. 
	1326 	It may be objected that these deviations cannot with cer- 
tainty be reduced to psychological disturbances determined by ideas with a special feeling-tone (complexes). This does not in fact appear when the association experiment is used specifically for what we have called the diagnosis of evidence, whereas it becomes quite clear in the case of the accurate analytical examination of the experiments made without a diagnostic purpose. These findings receive considerable support from measuring oscillations of body-resistance to the galvanic current during the association experiment! 
	1327 	Now, given that these deviations are caused by critical 
stimulus-words, we may justifiably admit that we are faced with 
6 A classification of the complex-characteristics can be found in par. 935. supra. 
7 See my "The Reaction-time Ratio in the Association Experiment," supra. I call "prolonged" those reaction-times that exceed the probable mean of all the reaction-times observed during the investigations. 
8 CL especially the investigations of Binswanger, "On the Psychogalvanic Phenomenon in Association Experiments." 

2. NEW ASPECTS OF CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY 
a disturbing inner factor, i.e., an idea with a strong feelingtone. If, then, with a particular subject these deviations occur mainly in connection with critical reactions-i.e., in response to stimulus-words derived from actuality-then we can confidently assume that with the word that influences the subject a complex is operative that refers to actual facts. This complex may embrace simply the subject's general knowledge about a particular crime; should stimulus-words refer to this crime then a certain emotion is bound to arise in response to everyone of these stimulus-words. But it may also turn out that the disturbing complex is one that points to a feeling of guilt in the subject. 
	1328 	An innocent suspect, as well as a guilty one, will of course 
show a certain emotion in response to critical stimulus-words. We do not yet know whether this emotion exerts the same perturbing influence over each of them, or whether the reaction of the innocent can be qualitatively distinguished from that of the guilty; only further experience can decide this question. 
	1329 	In the case of our hypothetical crime only the guilty party 
knows the details of the facts, whereas innocent suspects hardly know the general outline. From the experiment it appears that all the critical stimulus-words have a disturbing effect on the porter, whereas in the other two employees most of the critical reactions are quite normal. From this we may conclude that suspicion must very probably fall on the porter and that his guilt appears to be established; moreover, the complex-characteristics are, significantly enough, recognized through those stimulus-words the importance of which cannot by any means be known to the innocent. 
	1330 	We have no absolute proof of guilt, but it is clear that in 
such cases the experiment may provide valuable pointers for further investigation. This will happen especially when there is a large number of suspects and when the elements of suspicion about some of them lack a solid basis; in such a case we can, with the help of the experiment, eventually succeed in tracing those on whom graver suspicion must fall. Let us, however, repeat that the results of the experiment will not provide absolute proof of guilt but, at best, merely a valuable addition to the circumstantial evidence. If one has to do with only one 

APPENDIX 
suspect and if there are no facts with which to confront this person, then the results are unquestionably most unreliable. 
	'331 	Some two years ago I published a case from my practice, in 
which a thief confessed his crime as a result of strong evidence arising from the association experiment.9 A short time ago I was concerned with another case of theft that from the technical point of view lent itself very well to the experiment; like the first case, it was entirely successful,1° 
Critique and Qualitative Analysis 
	1332 	Faced with these results, the reader who is without a thor- 
ough knowledge of the method is bound to ask himself this question: Is it not possible that one of the three suspects who was not the subject of this research would, on examination, present an even greater number of signs of guilt? This is of course a priori possible, but in practice one always begins with the subject to whom the evidence points most clearly; in our case this was definitely the nurse A. From this reasoning my concept of the experiment clearly emerges: it should only, in the first place, show us which of the subjects presents the maximum number of complex-disturbances. Then we have the suspect who shows himself most disturbed, either because he is really the culprit or because the fear of appearing guilty causes great agitation. Nurse B appeared very agitated during the experiment and this prejudiced me against her, even though she did not show distinct signs of a guil t-complex. Nurse C was relatively calm but nevertheless the complex-characteristics were more numerous. This discrepancy needs to be examined further. Why do the innocent usually show signs of a guilt-complex? The answer to this question p'resents no difficulties. Nurse B knew all the particulars of the case and during the experiment Nurse C had an inkling of its importance. It is therefore easy to understand why words like theft, to steal, and police created in them an unpleasant feeling that in its turn produced the characteristic disturbance of the experiment. 
9 "The Psychological Diagnosis of Evidence," supra. 
10 [The case report is omitted here, as it is reproduced in "The Association Method," supra, .pars. 957-82. The present paper, however, contains further analysis of the case, which follows.] 

2. NEW ASPECTS OF CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY 
Here we have the explanation of why even the innocent G show a not inconsiderable number of signs of guilt-comple What distinguishes them from the guilty are not (at least far as we know at present) qualitative differences but main quantitative ones. 
	1333 	It is nevertheless surprising that Nurse B, who had bee 
given exact information about the circumstances of the the and who was evidently affected by strong emotion, showc fewer signs of guilt-complex than Nurse C, who was the calm of the two. Only psychoanalysis, applied to each associatio can throw light on this question. 
	1334 	In Nurse C the words watch) chain) silver, produced evidel 
complex-disturbances; now, by an unfortunate coincidenc both the watch and the chain had been broken a few da before. The word to hide also has a disturbing influence; Nur C had a short time before taken away her evening meal ar hidden it, something that was absolutely forbidden in tl hospital. Fear) to discover) innocent) suspect) to lie are all d] turbing words: it was known that through negligence she h" mislaid or lost a garment belonging to one of the patients. suddenly occurred to her during the experiment that this in< dent was being enquired into, since nothing had so far bee discovered about it; and that was why signs of guilt-comple appeared in response to these words. 
	1335 	The interference of other individual complexes serious 
compromised the results of the investigation but this was UI avoidable. One of the few measures that could be taken to th end would be to use a long series of stimul us-words (100-201 of which as many as possible would refer to definite details c the case and would be of similar categories since, if they wer they would produce disturbances owing to the intellectu, work involved. A priori one would regard as most suitab words that are apparently of no special significance and that YI have a special significance in relation to the case (the so-calle "exchange" [German, WechselJ, according to Freud's apt e: pressionl1). 
11 Freud, "Psycho-analysis and the Establishment of the Facts in Legal Procee ings" (1906). [See the Standard Edn., IX, 106, where, however, the term "e change" (Wechsel) does not occur. In a letter to Jung of I Jan. 1907, Freud us Wechsel in precisely this sense. It is possible that Jung was recalling Freuc 

APPENDIX 
2. NEW ASPECTS OF CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY 
c 
	1342 	This shows that the figures for disturbances of reproduction 
are larger for the general stimulus-words [for A and C]. 
	1343 	Little can be expected, for the time being, from the study 
of such associations as follow immediately upon critical associations; this is because we do not know when, in what individuals, or in what complexes a particularly strong perseveration may exert a disturbing influence on the experiment. One could presume that perseveration would appear mainly after very intense emotion, but it is not at all certain that this would be shown by the experiment. Should it prove to be true, it could turn out to be one of the origins of disturbance associated with perseveration. Another cause may be found in the fact that quite often the total range of the preceding stimulus-word is not readily understood, so that soon enough other ideas suddenly appear, not infrequently carrying strong feeling-tone. But all these contingencies demand very accurate investigations. Until these are completed, we shall not be able to benefit from whatever emerges from the research-according to which, words referring in a special way to the evidence leave in their train more disturbances in the post-critical associations than general stimulus-words do. 
	1344 	The most intense after-effect was produced in the culprit 
by the following stimulus-words; I give the reactions with the ordinary reactions that follow them. 
	'336 	Let us therefore try to assess the importance of words that 
have a direct reference to the case as compared with those that have only a general connection with the theft. 
	1337 	First we shall again calculate the probable mean of the 
reaction-times; we shall, however, reduce the numbers of Band C as if the reaction-times of these subjects had the same general probable mean as those shown by A (11.0). 
Probable Mean of Reaction-times (reduced to the level of that of the culPrit) 
	A 	B 	C 
Special stimulus-words General stimulus-words 
15 18 
15.1 11.0 
12.2 14.6 
	'33R 	We can see that the general stimulus-words have a very 
strong influence on the guilty nurse A. The special stimuluswords have the same effect on the guilty A and on the innocent B, whereas on B the general stimulus-words show very little effect. In this case the expected confirmation was not forthcommg. 
	1339 	Let us now investigate the same question from the point 
of view of complex-characteristics. 
Average Number of ComPlex-characteristics per Reaction 
A 
B 0·9 0·7 
1.0 1.1 
Stimulus-word 		Reaction 	Reaction- 	Repro- 	
			time 	duction'3 	
(I) banknote 		money 	15 		
mountain 	r 	to climb 	26 		
to play 		to sing 	15 		
(2) suspect (noun) 		nobody 	43 	+ 	
bottle 		water 	17 		
fire 		wood 	9 		
(3) to hide 		to lose, to 			
		look for 	18 		
sofa 		seat 	17 		
night 		day 	6 	+ 	
(4) chain 		round the neck 	19 		
(5) silver 		gold 	10 	+ 	
13 The sign - means incorrect reproduction; +, correct reproduction; the letter 	
"r," repetition of the stimulus-word. 			
Special stimulus-words General stimulus-words 
1.2 1.5 
	, 340 	We find here in essence a state of affairs similar to that in 
the reaction-times, i.e., [in the case of A and C]12 the general stimulus-words exercise a stronger influence. 
	'31' 	Let us now examine the disturbances of reproduction from 
the same point of view. 
Incorrect Reproductions 			
	A 	B. 	C 	
Special stimulus-words 	0·4 	0.2 	0.2 	
General stimulus-words 	0.6 	0.2 	0·3 	
lIsage in that lcttcr but by mistakc citcd the 1906 article. Sce The Freud/lung Correspondence (in press).] 
12 [Bracketed words added by translator.) 

APPENDIX 
		(6) money 	r 	centime 	34 
		wine 		beer 	8 	+ 
		(7) open 	r 	free 	6 	+ 
		(8) key 		keyhole 	19 	+ 
		house 		courtyard 	13 
		lamp 		light 	8 	+ 
	]345 	Just as we have found that it is on the whole the general 
stimulus-words that work with the utmost intensity, so we now see that the strongest single impact is made by those stimulus-words that refer particularly to the evidence. This shows that the general stimulus-words usually have a strong effect, whereas the special stimulus-words sometimes have an intense effect and sometimes a weak one. 
	1346 	The only way in which we can do full justice to these results 
is to apply them as much as possible to practical cases since, for reasons not far to seek, laboratory investigations are always rather incomplete. 
	1347 	I am confident that with this work I have awakened a cer- 
tain interest in experiments of this kind and have encouraged others to follow in this direction. It is only by the work of many, directed always towards the examination of practical cases, that we can hope to make the diagnosis of a particular case a matter of greater certainty. 
.~ _ c 

3 
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS OF INVESTIGATION USED IN THE PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ZURICH' 
	1348 	1. Rapidity of apperception: short exposure of simple pic· 
tures. 
2 . Working through psychological material and fidelity of reproduction: retelling of three fables. The first fable contains two similar simple situations which, however, differ from each other by one important nuance. The second fable is similar but more complicated. The third fable is in principle similar, but contains a whole series of similar situations. 
3. Fatiguability of the will: Kraepelin's method of reckonmg. 
4. Emotionally charged contents ("complexes"): Jung's association method. 
5. Psychogenic mechanism and symptom-determination: 
Freud's psychoanalytic method. 
1 [Translated from "Die an der psychiatrischen Klinik in Zurich gebrauchlichen psychologischen Untersuchungsmethoden," Zeitschrift filr angewandte Psychologie (Leipzig), III (1910), 390. The item is a contribution to a "survey of clinical methods for the psychological testing of the insane," along with six other reports, from German institutions.] 

4 
ON THE DOCTRINE OF COMPLEXESI 
	1349 	It is difficult to express in a short summary the doctrines laid 
down in my two books, "Diagnostic Association Studies" and "The Psychology of Dementia Praecox." What I state here must necessarily be incomplete and superficial. 
	1350 	M Y theoretical views on the neuroses and certain psychoses- 
especially dementia praecox-are founded upon the psychological outcome of the association experiment. These experiments are used for the demonstration of certain intellectual types, but I must here mention that an important point was formerly disregarded, namely, the disturbing inAuence of the experiment on the subject. Thus, in my practice of using a series of stimulus-words, and allowing the subject to react to them, that is to give answers to each word, the reactions often do not come with equal smoothness, but very irregularly, or with lengthened intervals; or there appear other disturbances such as repetitions of the stimulus-word, slips of the tongue, several reaction-words instead of one, ete. These irregularities were formerly regarded as mere faults of the experiment, and not taken into further consideration. In collaboration with Riklin, however, I have now given special attention to these disturbances. Noting at which stimulus-words they occur, we find that it is principally. where a stimulus-word refers to a personal matter, which, as a rule, is of a distressing nature. 
1 [In March 1911, Dr. Andrew Davidson, the secretary of the Section of Psychological Medicine and Neurology, Australasian Medical Congress, invited Jung, Freud, and Havelock EIlis to send papers to be read before the Congress in Sydney, September, 1911. All three responded, and subsequently the papers were read and in 1913 published in the Australasian Medical Congress, Transactions of the Ninth Session, 11, part 8. It is not known whether Jung's paper (pp. 835-39) was written in English or whether this is a translation. It is published here with only stylistic alterations. For Freud's paper, "On Psychoanalysis," see voI. XII of the Standard Edn., pp. 205ff.] 

4. ON THE DOCTRINE OF COMPLEXES 
Often the relation between the two is not clear at first glance, but is rather of a "symbolic" character, it is in fact an "allusion." Usually there are only a few personal matters to which the disturbances of the experiment refer. Riklin and myself have introduced for this "personal matter" the term comPlex, because such a "personal matter" is always a collection of various ideas, held together by an emotional tone common to all. With practice and experience one may easily attain the faculty of collecting those stimulus-words which will most likely be accompanied by disturbances, then of combining their meanings and deducing there from the intimate affairs of the subject. It is obvious that this procedure is of special importance in a psychological examination of patients. (It is important also to note the use of the procedure in criminology; I, myself, have detected by its means two cases of theft.) Here I must mention that nearly all the German authorities have pronounced against the method, but its use is generally recognized in Switzerland and in the United States of America. French and English psychiatrists are as yet unfamiliar with the method. 
	1351 	The experiment, which I perform usually with a hundred 
specially selected and collocated stimulus-words, serves as an indication of the psychic contents of a patient and his mode of reaction. This is of special importance with regard to the neuroses, the psychic origin of which present-day observers no longer doubt. Somatic states are never the real, but only the predisposing causes of the neuroses. The neurosis itself is of psychic origin, and emanates from "special psychic contents," which we call a comPlex. It has been discovered that the complexes revealed by association experiment are either pathogenic conAicts or at least nearly such, so that by association experiment the pathogenic complex is easily located. If one wishes to penetrate still further into the psychological connections of a neurosis, one must have knowledge of Freud's psychoanalytic method. But for a superficial grasp of the psychic contents of a neurosis the association experiment is quite sufficient. It is interesting to find that the experiment discloses thought-complexes, which were not mentioned at all in the history of the case. The obvious reason for this is the distressing character of the complexes. At the outset, patients do not talk to the doctor quite frankly about more private matters, and it is pre-