THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
	862 	Reports of remarkable isolated cases, however well authen- 
ticated, are unprofitable and lead at most to their reporter being regarded as a credulous person. Even the careful recording and verification of a large number of such cases, as in the work of Gurney, Myers, and Podmore,54 have made next to no impression on the scientific world. The great majority of "professional" psychologists and psychiatrists seem to be completely ignorant of these researches.511 
,.. 
	863 	The results of the ESP and PK experiments have provided 
a statistical basis for evaluating the phenomenon of synchronicity, and at the same time have pointed out the important part played by the psychic factor. This fact prompted me to ask whether it would not be possible to find a method which would on the one hand demonstrate the existence of synchronicity and, on the other hand, disclose psychic contents which would at least give us a clue to the nature of the psychic factor involved. I asked myself, in other words, whether there were not a method which would yield measurable results and at the same time give us an insight into the psychic background of synchronicity. That there are certain essential psychic conditions for synchronistic phenomena we have already seen from the ESP experiments, although the latter are in the nature of the case restricted to the fact of coincidence and only stress its psychic background without illuminating it any further. I had known for a long time that there were intuitive or "mantic" methods which start with the psychic factor and take the existence of synchronicity as self-evident. I therefore turned my attention first of all to the intuitive technique for grasping the total situation which is so characteristic of China, namely the I Ching or Book of Changes.56 Unlike the Greek-trained Western mind, the Chinese mind does not aim at grasping details for their own sake, but at a view which sees the detail as part of a whole. For obvious 54 See p. 430, supra. 
55 Recently Pascual Jordan has put up an excellent case for the scientific investigation of spatial clairvoyance ("Positivistische Bemerkungen iiber die parapsychischen Erscheinungen"). I would also draw attention to his Verdriingung und Komfllementaritiit, concerning the relations between microphysics and the psychology of the unconscious. 
56 Trans. by Cary F. Baynes from the Richard Wilhelm translation. 
45° 

SYNCHRONICITY: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE reasons, a cognitive operation of this kind is impossible to the unaided intellect. Judgment must therefore rely much more on the irrational functions of consciousness, that is on sensation (the "sens du reel") and intuition (perception by means of subliminal contents). The I Ching) which we can well call the experimental foundation of classical Chinese philosophy, is one of the oldest known methods for grasping a situation as a whole and thus placing the details against a cosmic background-the interplay of Yin and Yang. 
	864 	This grasping of the whole is obviously the aim of science as 
well, but it is a goal that necessarily lies very far off because science, whenever possible, proceeds experimentally and in all cases statistically. Experiment, however, consists in asking a definite question which excludes as far as possible anything disturbing and irrelevant. It makes conditions, imposes them on Nature, and in this way forces her to give an answer to a question devised by man. She is prevented from answering out of the fullness of her possibilities since these possibilities are restricted as far as practicable. For this purpose there is created in the laboratory a situation which is artificially restricted to the question and which compels Nature to give an unequivocal answer. The workings of Nature in her unrestricted wholeness are completely excluded. If we want to know what these workings are, we need a method of inquiry which imposes the fewest possible conditions, or if possible no conditions at all, and then leaves Nature to answer out of her fullness. 
	865 	In the laboratory experiment, the known and established 
procedure forms the stable factor in the statistical compilation and comparison of the results. In the intuitive or "mantic" experiment-with-the-whole, on the other hand, there is no need of any question which imposes conditions and restricts the wholeness of the natural process. It is given every possible chance to express itself. In the I Ching the coins fall just as happens to suit them. 57 From the point of view of an observer, an unknown question is followed by a rationally unintelligible answer. Thus far the conditions for a total reaction are positiVely ideal. The disadvantage, however, leaps to the eye: in COntrast to the scientific experiment one does not know what 57 If the experiment is made with the traditional yarrow staiks, the division of the forty-nine stalks represents the chance factor. 
451 

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
has happened. To overcome this drawback, two Chinese sages, King Wen and the Duke of Chou, in the twelfth century before our era, basing themselves on the hypothesis of the unity of nature, sought to explain the simultaneous occurrence of a psychic state with a physical process as an equivalence of meaning. In other words, they supposed that the same living reality was expressing itself in the psychic state as in the physical. But, in order to verify such an hypothesis, some limiting condition was needed in this apparently limitless experiment, namely a definite form of physical procedure, a method or technique which forced nature to answer in even and odd numbers. These, as representatives of Yin and Yang, are found both in the unconscious and in nature in the characteristic form of opposites, as the "mother" and "father" of everything that happens, and they therefore form the tertium comparationis between the psychic inner world and the physical outer world. Thus the two sages devised a method by which an inner state could be represented as an outer one and vice versa. This naturally presupposes an intuitive knowledge of the meaning of each oracle figure. The I Ching) therefore, consists of a collection of sixtyfour interpretations in which the meaning of each of the possible Yin-Yang combinations is worked out. These interpretations formulate the inner unconscious knowledge that corresponds to the state of consciousness at the moment, and this psychological situation coincides with the chance results of the method, that is, with the odd and even numbers resulting from the fall of the coins or the division of the yarrow stalks.58 
	866 	The method, like all divinatory or intuitive techniques, is 
based on an acausal or synchronistic connective principle. 59 In practice, as any unprejudiced person will admit, many obvious cases of synchronicity occur during the experiment, which could be rationally and somewhat arbitrarily explained away as mere projections. But if one assumes that they really are what they 
58 See also infra, par. 986. 
59 I first used this term in my memorial address for Richard Wilhelm (delivered May 10, 1930, in Munich). The address later appeared as an appendix to The Secret of the Golden Flower, where I said: "The science of the 1 Ching is not based on the causality principle, but on a principle (hitherto unnamed because not met with among us) which I have tentatively called the synchronistic principle" (p. 141). [Cf. "Richard WiIhelm: In Memoriam," par. 81.] 
452 

SYNCHRONICITY: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE appear to be, then they can only be meaningful coincidences for which, as far as we know, there is no causal explanation. The method consists either in dividing the forty-nine yarrow stalks into two heaps at random and counting off the heaps by threes and fives, or in throwing three coins six times, each line of the hexagram being determined by the value of obverse and reverse (heads 3, tails 2).60 The experiment is based on a triadic principle (two trigrams) and contains sixty-four mutations, each corresponding to a psychic situation. These are discussed at length in the text and appended commentaries. There is also a Western method of very ancient origin 61 which is based on the same general principle as the I Ching) the only difference being that in the West this principle is not triadic but, significantly enough, tetradic, and the result is not a hexagram built up of Yang and Yin lines but sixteen figures composed of odd and even numbers. Twelve of them are arranged, according to certain rules, in the astrological houses. The experiment is based on 4 X 4 lines consisting of a random number of points which the questioner marks in the sand or on paper from right to left.62 In true Occidental fashion the combination of all these factors goes into considerably more detail than the I Ching. Here too there are any amount of meaningful coincidences, but they are as a rule harder to understand and therefore less obvious than in the latter. In the Western method, which was known since the thirteenth century as the Ars Geomantica or the Art of Punctation 63 and enjoyed a widespread vogue, there are no real commentaries, since its use was only man tic and never philosophical like that of the I Ching. 
	867 	Though the results of both procedures point in the desired 
direction, they do not provide any basis for a statistical evaluation. I have, therefore, looked round for another intuitive technique and have hit on astrology, which, at least in its modern form, claims to give a more or less total Bicture of the individual's character. There is no lack of commentaries here; indeed, 
60 I Ching, Appendix. 
61 Mentioned by Isidore of Seville in his Liber etymologiarum, VIII, ix, 13. 62 Grains of corn or dice can also be used. 
63 The best account is to be found in Robert Fludd (1574-1637), De arte geomantica. Cf. Lynn Thorndike, A History of Magic and Experimental Science, II, p. 110. 
453 

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
we find a bewildering profusion of them-a sure sign that interpretation is neither simple nor certain. The meaningful coincidence we are looking for is immediately apparent in astrology, since the astronomical data are said by astrologers to correspond to individual traits of character; from the remotest times the various planets, houses, zodiacal signs, and aspects have all had meanings that serve as a basis for a character study or for an interpretation of a given situation. It is always possible to object that the result does not agree with our psychological knowledge of the situation or character in question, and it is difficult to refute the assertion that knowledge of character is a highly subjective affair, because in characterology there are no infallible or even reliable signs that can be in any way measured or calculated-an objection that also applies to graphology, although in practice it enjoys widespread recognition. 
	868 	This criticism, together with the absence of reliable criteria 
for determining traits of character, makes the meaningful coincidence of horoscope structure and individual character postulated by astrology seem inapplicable for the purpose here under discussion. If, therefore, we want astrology to tell us anything about the acausal connection of events, we must discard this uncertain diagnosis of character and put in its place an absolutely certain and indubitable fact. One such fact is the marriage connection between two persons.64 
	86g 	Since antiquity, the main traditional astrological and al- 
chemical correspondence to marriage has been the coniunctio So/is (0) et Lunae (<r), the coniunctio Lunae et Lunae, and the conjunction of the moon with the ascendent.65 There are others, but these do not come within the main traditional, 
64 Other obvious facts would be murder and suicide. Statistics are to be found in Herbert von Kloeckler (AstroLogie aLs Erfahrungswissenschaft, pp. 232ff. and 260ff.), but unfortunately they fail to give comparisons with normal average values and cannot be used for our purpose. On the other hand, Paul Flambart (Preuves et bases de l'astroLogie scientifique, pp. 7gff.) shows a graph of statistics on the ascendents of 123 outstandingly intelligent people. Definite accumulations occur at the corners of the airy trigon (IT, =:=, :::::). This result was confirmed by a further 300 cases. 
65 This view datew. back to Ptolemy: "Apponit [Ptolemaeus] autem tres gradus concordiae: Primus cum Sol in viro, et Sol vel Luna in femina, aut Luna in utrisque, fuerint in locis se respicientibus trigono, vel hexagono aspectu. Secundus cum in viro Luna, in uxore Sol eodem modo disponuntur. Tertius si cum hoc 
454 

SYNCHRONICITY: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE stream. The ascendent-descendent axis was introduced into the tradition because it has long been regarded as having a particularly important influence on the personality.66 As I shall refer later to the conjunction and opposition of Mars (<3) and Venus (<;?), I may say here that these are related to marriage only because the conjunction or opposition of these two planets points to a love relationship, and this mayor may not produce a marriage. So far as my experiment is concerned, we have to investigate the coincident aspects 0 <r, <r <r, and <r Asc. in the horoscopes of married pairs in relation to those of unmarried pairs. It will, further, be of interest to compare the relation of the above aspects to those of the aspects which belong only in a minor degree to the main traditional stream. No belief in astrology is needed to carry out such an investigation, only the birth-dates, an astronomical almanac, and a table of logarithms for working out the horoscope. 
alter alterum recipiat." (Ptolemy postulates three degrees of harmony. The first is when the sun in the man's [horoscope], and the sun or moon in the woman's, or the moon in both, are in their respective places in a trine or sex tile aspect. The second degree is when the moon in a man's [horoscope] and the sun in a woman's are constellated in the same way. The third degree is when the one is receptive to the other.) On the same page, Cardan quotes Ptolemy (De iudiciis astrorum): "Omnino vero constantes et diurni convictus permanent quando in utriusque conjugis genitura luminaria contigerit configurata esse concorditer" (Generally speaking, their life together will be long and constant when in the horoscopes of both partners the luminaries [sun and moon] are harmoniously constellated). Ptolemy regards the conjunction of a masculine moon with a feminine sun as particularly favourable for marriage.- Jerome Cardan, Commentaria in Ptolemaeum de astrorum iudiciis, Book IV (in his Opera omnia, V, p. 332). 
66 The practising astrologer can hardly suppress a smile here, because for him these correspondences are absolutely self-evident, a classic example being Goethe's connection with Christiane Vulpius: 0 SO TlJ1 c$ <r 70 TlJ1. 
I should perhaps add a few explanatory words for those readers who do not feel at home with the ancient art and technique of astrology. Its basis is the horoscope, a circular arrangement of sun, moon, and planets according to their relative positions in the signs of the zodiac at the moment of an individual's birth. There are three main positions, viz., those of sun (0), moon (<r), and the so-called ascendent (Asc.); the last has the great~t importance for the interpretation of a nativity: the Asc. represents the degree of the zodiacal sign rising over the eastern horizon at the moment of birth. The horoscope consists of 12 so-called "houses," sectors of 30• each. Astrological tradition ascribes different qualities to them as it does to the various "aspects," Le., angular relations of the planets and the Luminaria (sun 0 and moon <r), and to the zodiacal signs. 
455 

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
	870 	As the above three mantic procedures show, the method best 
adapted to the nature of chance is the numerical method. Since the remotest times men have used numbers to establish meaningful coincidences, that is, coincidences that can be interpreted. There is something peculiar, one might even say mysterious, about numbers. They have never been entirely robbed of their numinous aura. If, so a text-book of mathematics tells us, a group of objects is deprived of every single one of its properties or characteristics, there still remains, at the end, its number, which seems to indicate that number is something irreducible. (I am not concerned here with the logic of this mathematical argument, but only with its psychology!) The sequence of natural numbers turns out to be unexpectedly more than a mere stringing together of identical units: it contains the whole of mathematics and everything yet to be discovered in this field. Number, therefore, is in one sense an unpredictable entity. Although I wou}d not care to undertake to say anything illuminating about th~ inner relation between two such apparently incommensurable things as number and synchronicity, I cannot refrain from pointing out that not only were they always brought into connection with one another, but that both possess numinosity and mystery as their common characteristics. Number has invariably been used to characterize some numinous object, and all numbers from 1 to 9 are "sacred," just as 10, 12, 13, 14, 28, 32, and 40 have a special significance. The most elementary quality about an object is whether it is one or many. Number helps more than anything else to bring order into the chaos of appearances. It is the predestined instrument for creating order, or for apprehending an already existing, but still unknown, regular arrangement or "orderedness." It may well be the most primitive element of order in the human mind, seeing that the numbers 1 to 4 occur with the greatest frequency and have the widest incidence. In other words, primitive patterns of order are mostly triads or tetrads. That numbers have an archetypal foundation is not, by the way, a <;onjecture of mine but of certain mathematicians, as we shall see in due course. Hence it is not such an audacious conclusion after all if we define number psychologically as an archetype of order which has become conscious.67 Remarkably enough, the psychic 67 Cf. "On the Psychology of Eastern Meditation," par. 942• 
456 

SYNCHRONICITY: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE images of wholeness which are spontaneously produced by the unconscious, the symbols of the self in mandala form, also have a mathematical structure. They are as a rule quaternities (or their multiples).68 These structures not only express order, they also create it. That is why they generally appear in times of psychic disorientation in order to compensate a chaotic state or as formulations of numinous experiences. It must be emphasized yet again that they are not inventions of the conscious mind but are spontaneous products of the unconscious, as has been sufficiently shown by experience. Naturally the conscious mind can imitate these patterns of order, but such imitations do not prove that the originals are conscious inventions. From this it follows irrefutably that the unconscious uses number as an ordering factor. 
	871 	It is generally believed that numbers were invented or 
thought out by man, and are therefore nothing but concepts of quantities, containing nothing that was not previously put into them by the human intellect. But it is equally possible that numbers were found or discovered. In that case they are not only concepts but something more-autonomous entities which somehow contain more than just quantities. Unlike concepts, they are based not on any psychic conditions but on the quality of being- themselves, on a "so-ness" that cannot be expressed by an intellectual concept. Under these conditions they might easily be endowed with qualities that have still to be discovered. I must confess that I incline to the view that numbers were as much found as invented, and that in consequence they possess a relative autonomy analogous to that of the archetypes. They would then have, in common with the latter, the quality of being pre-existent to consciousness, and hence, on occasion, of conditioning it rather than being conditioned by it. The archetypes too, as a priori forms of representation, are as much found as invented: they are discovered inasmuch as one did not know of their unconscious autonomous existence, and invented inasmuch as their presence was inferred from analogous representational structures. Accordingly it would seem that natural numbers have an archetypal character. If that is so, then not only would certain numbers and combinations of numbers have a relation 68 Cf. "A Study in the Process of Individuation" and "Concerning Mandala Symbolism." 
457 

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
to and an effect on certain archetypes, but the reverse would also be true. The first case is equivalent to number magic, but the second is equivalent to inquiring whether numbers, in conjunction with the combination of archetypes found in astrology, would show a tendency to behave in a special way. 
458 

2. AN ASTROLOGICAL EXPERIMENT 
	1172 	As I have already said, we need two different facts, one of 
which represents the astrological constellation, and the other the married state. 
	873 	The material to be examined, namely a quantity of marriage 
horoscopes, was obtained from friendly donors in Zurich, London, Rome, and Vienna. Originally the material had been put together for purely astrological purposes, some of it many years ago, so that those who gathered the material knew of no connection between its collection and the aim of the present study, a fact which I stress because it might be objected that the material was specially selected with that aim in view. This was not so; the sample was a random one. The horoscopes, or rather the birth data, were piled up in chronological order just as the post brought them in. When the horoscopes of 180 married pairs had come in, there was a pause in the collection, during which the 360 horoscopes were worked out. This first batch was used to conduct a pilot investigation, as I wanted to test out the methods to be employed. 
	874 	Since the material had been collected originally in order to 
test the empirical foundations of this intuitive method, a few more general remarks may not be out of place concerning the considerations which prompted the collection of the material. 
	875 	Marriage is a well-characterized fact, though its psychological 
459 

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
aspect shows every conceivable sort of variation. According to the astrological view, it is precisely this aspect of marriage that expresses itself most markedly in the horoscopes. The possibility that the individuals characterized by the horoscopes married one another, so to say, by accident will necessarily recede into the background; all external factors seem capable of astrological evaluation, but only inasmuch as they are represented psychologically. Owing to the very large number of chancterological variations, we would hardly expect marriage to be characterized by only one astrological configuration; rather, if astrological assumptions are at all correct, there will be several configurations that point to a predisposition in the choice of a marriage partner. In this connection I must call the reader's attention to the well-known correspondence between the sun-spot periods and the mortality curve. The connecting link appears to be the disturbances of the earth's magnetic field, which in their turn are due to fluctuations in the proton radiation from the sun. These fluctuations also have an influence on "radio weather" by disturbing the ionosphere that reflects the radio waves.1 Investigation of these disturbances f,eems to indicate that the conjunctions, oppositions, and quartile aspects of the planets play a considerable part in increasing the proton radiation and thus causing electromagnetic storms. On the other hand, the astrologically favourable trine and sextile aspects have been reported to produce uniform radio weather. 
	876 	These observations give us an unexpected glimpse into a 
possible causal basis for astrology. At all events, this is certainly true of Kepler's weather astrology. But it is also possible that, over and above the already established physiological effects of proton radiation, psychic effects can occur which would rob astrological statements of their chance nature and bring them within range of a causal explanation. Although nobody knows what the validity of a nativity horoscope rests on, it is just conceivable that there is a causal connection between the planetary aspects and the psycho-physiological disposition. One would therefore do well not to regard the results of astrological observation as synchronistic phenomena, but to take them as 1 For a comprehensive account of this, see Max Knoll, "Transformations of Science in Our Age," in Man and Time. 
SYNCHRONICITY: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE possibly causal in origin. For, wherever a cause is even remotely thinkable, synchronicity becomes an exceedingly doubtful proposition. 
	877 	. For the present, at any rate, we have insufficient grounds for 
believing that the astrological results are more than mere chance, or that statistics involving large numbers yield a statistically significant result.2 As large-scale studies are lacking, I decided to investigate the empirical basis of astrology, using a large number of horoscopes of married pairs just to see what kind of figures would turn up. 
Pilot Investigation 
	878 	With the first batch assembled, I turned first to the conjunc- 
tions (6) and oppositions (8) of sun and moon,3 two aspects 
Male 
Female 
	0 	er 	~ 	'i' 	Asc. 	Desc. 	
0 	68 	68 	68 	86 	6 	6 	
er 	68 	68 	86 	68 	6 	6 	
3 	86 	68 	68 	68 	6 	6 	
				- 			
'i' 	68 	86 	68 	86 	6 	6 	
Asc. 	6 	6 	6 	6 	6 	6 	
Desc. 	6 	6 	6 	6 			
6· = conjunction 
8 = opposition 
FIG. I 
460 
2 Cf. the statistical results in K. E. Krafft and others, Le Premier TraiU d'astrobiologie, pp. 231£. and passim. 
3 Although the quartile, trine and sextiIe aspects and the relations to the Medium and Imum CoeIi ought really to be considered, I have omitted them here so as not to make the exposition unduly complicated. The main point is not what marriag~ aspects are, but whether they can be detected in the horoscope. 
461 

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
regarded in astrology as being about equally strong (though in opposite senses), i.e., as signifying intensive relations between the heavenly bodies. Together with the J, 'i', Asc.) and Desc. conjunctions and oppositions, they yield fifty different aspects} 
	879 	The reasons why I chose these combinations will be clear to 
the reader from my remarks on the astrological traditions in the previous chapter. I have only to add here that, of the conjunctions and oppositions, those of Mars and Venus are far less importa:lt than the rest, as will readily be appreciated from the following consideration: the relation of Mars. to Venus can reveal a love relation, but a marriage is not always a love relation and a love relation is not always a marriage. My aim in including the conjunction and opposition of Mars and Venus was therefore to compare them with the other conjunctions and oppositions. 
	880 	These fifty aspects were first studied for 180 married couples. 
I t is clear that these 180 men and 180 women can also be paired off into unmarried couples. In fact, since anyone of the 180 men could be paired off with anyone of the 179 women to whom he was not married, it is clear that we can investigate 180 X 179 = 32,220 unmarried pairs within the group of 180 marriages. This was done (cf. Table I), and the aspect analysis for these unmarried pairs was compared with that for the married pairs. For all calculations, an orbit of 80 either way was assumed, clockwise and anticlockwise, not only inside the sign but extending beyond it. Later, two more batches of 220 and 83 marriages were added to the original batch, so that, in all, 483 marriages, or 966 horoscopes, were examined. Evaluation of the batches showed that the most frequent aspect in the first was a sun-moon conjunction (10%), in the second a moon-moon conjunction (10.9%), and in the third a moon-A se. conjunction (9.6%). 
	881 	To begin with, what interested me most was, of course, the 
question of probability: were the maximum results that we obtained "significant" figures or not?-that is, were they improbable or not? Calculations undertaken by a mathematician showed unmistakably that the average frequency of 10% in all three batches is far from representing a significant figure. Its • Fig. 1 (p. 461) sets out clearly the 50 different aspects as they actually occurred in the 180 married pairs. 
462 

SYNCHRONIClTY; AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE probability is much too great; in other words, there is no ground for assuming that our maximum frequencies are more than mere dispersions due to chance. 
A nalysis of First Batch 
	882 	First we counted all the conjunctions and oppositions be- 
tween 0) « J ~ Asc. and Desc. for the 180 married and the 32,220 unmarried pairs. The results are shown in Table I, where it will be observed that the aspects are arranged by frequency of their occurrence in the married and unmarried pairs. 
	883 	Clearly, the frequencies of occurrence shown in columns 2 
and 4 of Table I for observed occurrences of the aspects in married and unmarried pairs respectively are not immediately comparable, since the first are occurrences in 180 pairs and the second in 32,220 pairs.lI In column 5, therefore, we show the 
figures in column 4 multiplied by the factor ~. Table II 
32,220 
shows the ratios between the figures in columns 2 and 5 of Table I arranged according to frequency; e.g., the ratio for moon-sun conjunction is 18: 8.4 = 2.14. 
	884 	To a statistician, these figures cannot be used to confirm 
anything, and so are valueless, because they are chance dispersions. But on psychological grounds I have discarded the idea that we are dealing with mere chance numbers. In a total picture of natural events, it is just as important to consider the exceptions to the rule as the averages. This is the fallacy of the statistical picture: it is one-sided, inasmuch as it represents only the average aspect of reality and excludes the total picture. The statistical view of the world is a mere abstraction and therefore incomplete and even fallacious, particularly so when it deals with man's psychology. Inasmuch as chance maxima and minima occur, they are facts whose nature I set out to explore. 
5 [In this way a rough control group is obtained. It will, however, be .appreciated that it is derived from a much larger n\lmber of pairs than 'the married pairs: 32,220 as compared with 180. This leads to the possibility of showing the chance nature of the 180 pairs. On the hypothesis that all the figures are due to chance, we would expect a far greater accuracy in the greater number and consequently a much smaller range in the figures. This is so, for the range in the 180 married pairs is 18 - 2 = 16, whereas in the 180 unmarried pairs we get 9.6 _ 7.4 = 2.2 . -EDITORS.] 
463 

Fern. 
Moon Ase. Moon Moon Moon Venus Mars Mars Mars Sun Venus Sun Mars Dese. Venus Moon Venus Venus Venus Moon Sun Ase. Dese. Venus Sun 
THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
TABLE I 
	Observed Occurrences 	Observed 	Calculated Frequency 	
	for 180 	Occur- 	for 180 Unmarried 	
	Married Pairs 		Pairs 	
spect 			rences 			
Masc. 	Actual 	Percentage 	for 32,220 			
	Occur- 	Occur· 	Unmarried 	Actual 	Frequency 	
	rences 	rences 	Pairs 	Frequency 	Percentage 	
cS Sun 	18 	10.0% 	1506 	8,4 	4·7 	
cS Venus 	15 	8·3% 	14II 	7·9 	4·4 	
cS Ase. 	14 	7·7% 	1485 	8·3 	4.6 	
8 Sun 	13 	7.2% 	1438 	8.0 	4·4 	
cS Moon 	13 	7.2% 	1479 	8·3 	4.6 	
8 Moon 	13 	7.2% 	1526 	8,5 	4·7 	
cS Moon 	13 	7.2% 	1548 	8.6 	4.8 	
cS Mars 	13 	7.2% 	17II 	9.6 	5·3 	
cS Ase. 	12 	6.6% 	1467 	8.2 	4.6 	
cS Mars 	12 	6.6% 	1485 	8,3 	4.6 	
cS Ase. 	II 	6.1% 	1409 	7·9 	4·4 	
cS Ase. 	II 	6.1% 	1413 	7·9 	4-4 	
cS Dese. 	II 	6.1% 	1471 	8.2 	4.6 	
cS Venus 	II 	6.1% 	147° 	8.2 	4.6 	
cS Dese. 	II 	6.1% 	1526 	8,5 	4·7 	
8 Mars 	10 	5·5% 	154° 	8.6 	4.8 	
8 Venus 	9 	5·°% 	1415 	7·9 	4·4 	
cS Mars 	9 	5.0% 	1498 	8-4 	4·7 	
cS Sun 	9 	5·°% 	1526 	8·5 	4·7 	
cS Mars 	9 	5·°% 	1539 	8.6 	4.8 	
cS Dese. 	9 	5·°% 	1556 	8·7 	4.8 	
cS Ase. 	9 	5.0% 	1595 	8,9 	4·9 	
cS Sun 	8 	4·3% 	1398 	7.8 	4·3 	
8 Sun 	8 	4·3% 	1485 	8,3 	4.6 	
cS Moon 	8 	4·3% 	1508 	8·4 	4·7 	
A 
464 
SYNCHRONICITY; AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE 
TAB L E I (continued) 
			ObserVed Occurrences 	Observed 	Calculated Frequency 	
			for 180 		for 180 Unmarried 	
			Married Pairs 	Occur- 	Pairs 	
	Aspect 			rences 			
Fern. 		Masc. 	Actual 	Percentage 	for 32,220 			
			Occur- 	Occur- 	Unmarried 	Actual 	Frequency 	
			rences 	rences 	Pairs 	Frequency 	Percentage 	
In 	8 Venus 	8 	4·3% 	1502 	8,4 	4·7 	
In 	8 Mars 	8 	4·3% 	1516 	8,5 	4·7 	
rars 	8 Sun 	8 	4·3% 	1516 	8,5 	4·7 	
[ars 	cS Venus 	8 	4·3% 	1520 	8,5 	4·7 	
enus 8 Mars 	8 	4·3% 	1531 	8.6 	4.8 	
se. 	cS Moon 	8 	4·3% 	1541 	8.6 	4.8 	
.oon 	8 Moon 	8 	4·3% 	1548 	8.6 	4.8 	
ese. 	cS Moon 	8 	4·3% 	1543 	8.6 	4.8 	
;c. 	cS 	Mars 	8 	4·3% 	1625 	9.1 	5.0 	
oon 	cS Venus 	7 	3.8% 	i481 	8,3 	4.6 	
ars 	8 Venus 	7 	3.8% 	1521 	8,5 	4·7 	
oon 	cS Dese. 	7 	3.8% 	1539 	8.6 	4.8 	
ars 	8 Moon 	7 	3.8% 	1540 	8.6 	4.8 	
.e. 	cS Dese. 	6 	3·3% 	1328 	7·4 	4.1 	
~se. 	cS 	Mars 	6 	3·3% 	1433 	8.0 	4·4 	
~nus 	cS 	Moon 	6 	3·3% 	1436 	8.0 	4·4 	
iC. 	cS Sun 	6 	3·3% 	1587 	8,9 	4·9 	
ars 	cS Sun 	6 	3·3% 	1575 	8.8 	4·9 	
oon 	8 Venus 	6 	3·3% 	1576 	8.8 	4·9 	
~nus 	cS Venus 	5 	2·7% 	1497 	8·4 	4·7 	
n 	8 Moon 	5 	2·7% 	1530 	8.6 	4.8 	
n 	cS Venus 	4 	2.2% 	1490 	8,3 	4.6 	
ars 	8 	Mars 	3 	1.6% 	1440 	8.0 	4·4 	
n 	cS Sun 	2 	1.1% 	1480 	8,3 	4.6 	
n 	8 Sun 	2 	1.1% 	1482 	8,3 	4.6 	
A D V A M M V S S M S S 
465 

THE STRVCTURE ANI> DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
TABLE II 
fern. 

Aspect 
Masc. 

Proportion of Aspect Freq uencies for Married Pairs 

Aspect 
	Fern. 	Masc. 

Proportion of Aspect Frequencies for Married Pairs 

SYNCHRONICITY: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE 
	886 	An interesting point is the confirmation of the traditional 
astrological and alchemical correspondence between marriage and the moon-sun aspects: 
(fern.) moon d (mase.) sun 2.14 : (fern.) moon 8 (mase.) sun 1.61 : 

466 
What strikes us in Table H is the unequal distribution of the frequency values. The top seven and bottom six aspects both show a fairly strong dispersion, while the middle values tend to cluster round the ratio I : 1. I shall come back to this peculiar distribution with the help of a special graph (Fig. 2). 
885 

Moon 
, 
Ase. 
Moon Moon Moon Venus Mars Mars Sun Venus Sun Mars Mars Dese. Venus Moon Venus Venus Venus Moon Sun Dese. Ase. Venus Sun 

d Sun 
d Venus d Ase. 
8 Sun 
d Moon 8 Moon d Moon d Ase. 
d Mars d Ase. 
d Ase. 
d Mars d Dese. d Venus d Dese. 8 Mars 8 Venus d Mars o Sun 
d Mars d Dese. d Sun 
d Ase. 
8 Sun 
d Moon 

2.14 1.89 1.68 1.61 1.57 1.53 1.50 1.46 1.44 1.39 1.39 1.36 1.34 1.34 1.29 1.16 1.14 1.07 1.06 1.05 1.04 1.02 1.01 0.96 0·95 

Sun Sun Mars Mars Venus Ase. Moon Dese. Ase. Moon Mars Moon Ase. Mars Dese. Venus Ase. Mars Moon Venus Sun Sun Mars Sun Sun 

8 Venus 8 Mars 8 Sun 
d Venus 8 Mars d Moon 8 Moon ci Moon d Mars d Venus 8 Venus d Dese. d Dese. 8 Moon d Mars d Moon d Sun 
d Sun 
8 Venus d Venus 8 Moon d Venus 8 Mars d Sun 
8 Sun 

0·95 0'94 0·94 0·94 0·94 0·93 0·93 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.81 
0·75 0·75 0.68 0.68 0.68 0.60 0·59 0.{8 
0·37 0.24 0.24 

whereas there is no evidence of any emphasis on the Venus-Mars aspects. 
	887 	Of the fifty possible aspects, the result shows that for the mar- 
ried pairs there are fifteen such configurations whose frequency is well above the proportion 1 : I. The highest value is found in the aforementioned moon-sun conjunction, and the two nexthighest figures-1.8g : I and 1.68 : I-correspond to the conjunctions between (fem.) Asc. and (masc.) Venus, or (fem.) moon and (masc.) Asc.) thus apparently confirming the traditional significance of the ascendent. 
	888 	Of these fifteen aspects, a moon aspect occurs four times for 
women, whereas only six moon aspects are distributed among the thirty-five other possible values. The mean proportional value of all moon aspects amounts to 1.24 : 1. The average value of the four just cited in the table amounts to 1.74 : I, as compared with 1.24 : 1 for all moon aspects. The moon seems to be less emphasized for men than for women. 
	88g 	For men the corresponding role is played not by the sun but 
by the Asc.-Desc. axis. In the first fifteen aspects of Table H, these aspects occur six times for men and only twice for women. In the former case they have an average value of 1.42 : 1, as compared with 1.22 : 1 for all masculine aspects between Asc. or Desc. on the one hand and one of the four heavenly. bodies on the other. 
	890 	Figures 2 and 3 give a graphic representation of the fre- 
quencies shown respectively in columns 2 and 5 of Table I from the point of view of the dispersion of aspects. 
	891 	This arrangement enables us not only to visualize the disper- 
sion in the frequency of occurrence of the different aspects but also to make a rapid estimate of the mean number of occurrences per aspect, using the median as an estimator. Whereas, in order to get the arithmetic mean, we have to total the aspect frequencies and divide by the number of aspects, the median 
467 

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	8 	9 	10 11 	12 13 	14 
--+ 
Frequency of aspects in IBo married pairs 
FIG. 2 
3.	
7.0 7.1 7.2 7.37.4 7.5 7.6 7.77.8 7.9 8.0 8.1 8.28.3 8.4 8.5 8.68.7 8.88.9 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.59.69.7 
	Median 	+ 

Frequency of aspects per IBo unmarried pairs, observed in J2,220 pairs FIG. 3 
		::l 	
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19 	20 	I:r: 	
		t"l 	
4.	
2.	

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE frequency is found by counting down the histogram to a point where half the squares are counted and half are still to count. Since there are fifty squares in the histogram, the median is seen to be 8.0, since 25 squares do not exceed this value and 25 squares do exceed it (cf. Fig. 2). 
For the married pairs the median amounts to 8 cases, but in the combinations of unmarried pairs it is more, namely 8,4 (cf. Fig. 3)' For the unmarried the median coincides with the arithmetic mean-both amount to 8.4-whereas the median for the married is lower than the corresponding mean value of 8.4, which is due to the presence of lower values for the married pairs. A glance at Figure 2 will show that there is a wide dispersion of values which contrasts strikingly with those clustered 
TABLE III 
First Batch 
	Second Batch 		Both Batches 		
220 Married Pairs 	400 Married Pairs 	
Moon cS Moon 10.9% 	Moon cS Moon 9.2% 	
Mars 	8 Venus 7.7% 	Moon 8 Sun 	7.0% 	
Venus cS Moon 	7.2% 	Moon cS Sun 	7.0% 	
Moon 8 Sun 	6.8% 	Mars 	cS Mars 6.2% 	
Moon 8 Mars 	6.8% 	Desc. 	cS Venus 6.2% 	
Dese. 	cS Mars 	6.8% 	Moon 8 Mars 6.2% 	
Desc. 	cS Venus 6.3% 	Mars 	cS Moon 6.0% 	
Moon 8 Venus 6.3% 	Mars 	8 yenus5·7% 	
Venus cS Venus 6.3% 	Moon cS Ase. 	5·7% 	
Sun 	8 Mars 	5·9% 	Venus cS Dese. 	5·7% 	
Venus cS Dese. 	5·4% 	Venus cS Moon 5·5% 	
Venus cS Mars 	5-4% 	Dese. 	cS Mars 5.2% 	
Sun 	cS Moon 	5·4% 	Ase. 	cS Venus 5.2% 	
Sun 	cS Sun 	5·4% 	Sun 	8 Mars 5.2% 	
180 Married Pairs 
Moon cS Sun 10.0% Ase. cS Venus 9.4% Moon cS Ase. 7 ·7% Moon cS Moon 7.2% Moon 8 Sun 7.2% Mars cS Moon 7.2% Venus 8 Moon 7.2% Mars cS Mars 7.2% Mars cS Ase. 6.6% Sun cS Mars 6.6% Venus cS Dese. 6.1% Venus cS Ase. 6.1% Mars cS Dese. 6.1 % Sun cS Ase. 6.1% 
round the mean figure of 8.4 in Figure 3. Here there is not a single aspect with a frequency greater than 9.6 (cf. Fig. 3), whereas among the married one aspect reaches a frequency of nearly twice as much, namely 18 (cf. Fig. 2). 
47° 
SYNCHRONICITY; AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE 
Comparison of A II Batches 
	893 	On the supposition that the dispersion apparent in Figure 2 
was due to chance, I investigated a larger number of marriage horoscopes by combining the first batch of 180 and the second batch of 220 married pairs, thus making 400 in all (or 800 individual horoscopes). The results are shown in Table Ill, though I have confined myself here to the maximal figures that clearly exceed the median. Figures are given in percentages. 
	894 	The 180 couples in the first column represent the results 
of the first collection, while the 220 in the second column were collected more than a year later. The second column not only differs from the first in its aspects, but shows a marked sinking of the frequency values. The only exception is the top figure, representing the classical <r cS <r. It takes the place of the equally classical <r cS 0 in the first column. Of the fourteen aspects in the first column only four come up again in the second, but of these no less than three are moon aspects, and this is in accord with astrological expectations. The absence of correspondence between the aspects of the first and second columns indicates a great inequality of material, i.e., there is a wide dispersion. One can see this in the aggregate figures for the 4°0 married pairs: as a result of the evening out of the dispersion they all show a marked decrease. This is brought out still more clearly in Table IV, where the third batch is added. 
TABLE IV 
.i<requeney in % 	<r cS 0 	<r cS <r 	<r 8 0 	Average 	
180 Married Pairs 	10.0 	7·2 	7·2 	8.1 	
220 Married Pairs 	5·4 	10·9 	6.8 	7·7 	
- 					
180 + 220 = 400 Married Pairs 	7.0 	9.2 	7.0 	7·7 	
83 Additional Married Pairs 	7·2 	4.8 	4.8 	5.6 	
83 + 400 = 483 Married Pairs 	7·2 	8,4 	6.6 	7·4 	
895 
This table shows the frequency figures for the three constellations that Occur most often: two lunar conjunctions and one lunar opposition. The highest average frequency, that for the 
471 

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
original 180 marriages, is 8.1 %; for the 220 collected and worked out later the average maximum drops to 7.7%; and for the 83 marriages that were added still later the average amounts to only 5.6%. In the original batches of 180 and 220 the maxima still lie with the same aspects, ([ cS 0 , ([ cS ([ ,but in the last batch of 83 it turned out that the maxima lay with different aspects, namely Asc. cS ([, 0 cS ~, 0) cS ~ , and Asc., cS Asc. The average maximum for' these four aspects is 8.7%· This high figure exceeds our highest average of 8.1 % for the first batch of 180, which only proves how fortuitous our "favourable" initial results were. Nevertheless it is worth pointing out that, amusingly enough, in the last batch the maximum of 9.6% lies, as we said earlier,6 with the Asc. cS ([ aspect, that is, with another lunar aspect which is supposed to be particularly characteristic of marriage. A lusus naturae) no doubt, but a very queer one, since according to tradition the ascendent or "horoscopus," together with sun and moon, forms the trinity that determines fate and character. Had one wanted to falsify the statistical findings so as to bring them into line with tradition one could not have done it more successfully. 
	896 	Table V gives the maximal frequencies for unmarried pairs. 
TABLE V 

SYNCHRONICITY: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE 
more probable maximal figure for the 32,220 unmarried pairs, which is only 5.3. This first result seemed to me somewhat suspicious.7 I therefore suggested that we should not combine the pairs ourselves, bilt should proceed in the following way: 325 men's horoscopes were numbered, the numbers were written on separate slips, thrown into a pot, and mixed up. Then a person who knew nothing of astrology and psychology and even less of these investigations was invited to draw the slips one by one out of the pot, without looking at them. The numbers were each combined with the topmost on the pile of women's horoscopes, care being again taken that married pairs did not accidentally come together. In this way 325 artificial pairs were obtained. The resultant 6.5 is rather nearer to probability. Still more probable is the result obtained for the 400 unmarried pairs. Even so, this figure (6.2) is still too high. 
	897 	The somewhat curious behaviour of our figures led to a fur- 
ther experiment whose results I mention here with all the necessary reserve, though it seems to me to throw some light on the statistical variations. It was made with three people whose psychological status was accurately known. The experiment consisted in taking 400 marriage horoscopes at random and providing 200 of them with numbers. Twenty of these were then drawn by lot by the subject. These twenty married pairs were 

Maximal Frequency in % for 
	.•.. 300 pairs combined at random 	. 
5.	325 pairs chosen by lot 	. 
6.	400 pairs chosen by lot 	. 
7.	32,220 pall'S ••..•............................ 

7·3 6·5 6.2 
5·3 

7 How subtle these things can be is shown by the following incident: Recently it fell to my colleague to make the table arrangement for a number of people who were invited to dinner. She did this with care and discretion. But at the last moment an esteemed guest, a man, unexpectedly turned up who had at all costs to be suitably placed. The table arrangement was all upset, and a new one had to be hastily devised. There was no time for elaborate reflection. As we sat down to table, the following astrological picture manifested itself in the immediate vicinity of the guest: 

The first result was obtained by my co-worker, Dr. Liliane Frey-Rohn, putting the men's horoscopes on one side and the women's on the other, and then combining each of the pairs that happened to lie on top. Care was naturally taken that a real married pair was not accidentally combined. The resultant frequency of 7.3 is pretty high in comparison ,vith the much 
6 [Par. 880. 9.6% = 8 such aspects in 83 married pairs. See par. 902 and App., (b).EDITORS.] 
472 

LADY 	LADY 	GUEST 	LADY 	
([ in SI. 	o in * 	o in ~ 	o in * 	
LADY 	LADY 	GENTLEMAN 	LADY 	
o in SI. 	([ in * 	([ in ~ 	([ in * 	
Four 0 ([ marriages had arisen. My colleague, of course, had a thorough knowledge of astrological marriage aspects, and she was also acquainted with the horoscopes of the people in question. But the speed with which the new table arrangement had to be made left her no opportunity for reflection, so that the unconscious had a free hand in secretly arranging the "marriages." 
473 

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE l'SYCHE 
examined statistically for our fifty marriage characteristics. The first subject was a woman patient who, at the time of the experiment, found herself in a state of intense emotional excitement. It proved that of twenty Mars aspects no less than ten were emphasized, with a frequency of 15.0; of the moon aspects nine, with a frequency of 10.0; and of the sun aspects nine, with a frequency of 14.0. The classical significance of Mars lies in his emotionality, in this case supported by the masculine sun. As compared with our general results there is a predominance of the Mars aspects, which fully agrees with the psychic state of the subject. 
	898 	The second subject was a woman patient whose main prob- 
lem was to realize and assert her personality in the face of her self-suppressive tendencies. In this case the axial aspects (Asc. Desc.), which are supposed to be characteristic of the personality, came up twelve times with a frequency of 20.0, and the moon aspects with a frequency of 18.0. This result, astrologically considered, was in full agreement with the subject's actual problems. 
	899 	The third subject was a woman with strong inner opposi- 
tions whose union and reconciliation constituted her main problem. The moon aspects came up fourteen times with a frequency of 20.0, the sun aspects twelve times with a frequency of 15.0, and the axial aspects nine times with a frequency of 14.0. The classical coniunctio Solis et Lunae as the symbol of the union of opposites is clearly emphasized. 
	900 	In all these cases the selection by lot of marriage horoscopes 
proves to have been influenced, and this fits in with our experience of the I Ching and other man tic procedures. Although all these figures lie well within the limits of probability and cannot therefore be regarded as anything more than chance, their variation, which each time corresponds surprisingly well with the psychic state of the subject, still gives one food for thought. The psychic state was characterized as a situation in which insight and decision come up against the insurmountable barrier of an unconscious opposed to the will. This relative defeat of the powers of the conscious mind consteJlates the moderating archetype, which appears in the first case as Mars, the emotional maleficus, in the second case as the equilibrating axial system that strengthens the personality, and in the third 
474 

SYNCHRONICITY: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE 
case as the hieros gamos or coniunctio of supreme opposites.8 The psychic and physical event (namely, the subject's problems and choice of horoscope) correspond, it would seem, to the nature of the archetype in the background and could therefore represent a synchronistic phenomenon. 
	gol 	Inasmuch as I am not very well up in the higher mathe- 
matics, and had therefore to rely on the help of a professional, I asked Professor Markus Fierz, of Basel, to calculate the probability of my maximal figures. This he very kindly did, and using the Poisson distribution he arrived at a probability of 1 : 10,000 for the first two maxima, and of I : 1300 for the third. Ba Later, on checking the calculation, he found an error whose correction raised the probability of the first two maxima to 1 : 1500.9 A further check proved the probabilities of the three maxima to be, respectively, 1 : 1000, 1 : 10,000, 1 : 50.10 From this it is clear that although our best results«: cl 0 and «: cl «: -are fairly improbable in practice, they are theoretically so probable that there is little justification for regarding the immediate results of our statistics as anything more than chance. If for instance there is a 1 : 1000 probability of my getting the telephone connection I want, I shall probably prefer, instead of waiting on the off-chance for a telephone conversation, to write a letter. Our investigation shows that not only do the frequency values approximate to the average with the greatest number of married pairs, but that any chance pairings produce similar statistical proportions. From the scientific point of view the result of our investigation is in some respects not encouraging for astrology, as everything seems to indicate that in the case of large numbers the differences between the frequency values for the marriage aspects of married and unmarried pairs disappear altogether. Thus, from the scientific 
8 Cf. the nuptials of sun and moon in alchemy: Psychology and Alchemy, index, 
	s.v. "Sol and Luna." 	Ba [See infra, pars. g8g-gl.-EDITORS.] 
9 Professor Fierz wishes to correct this sentence as follows: "Later on he called my attention to the fact that the sequence of the 3 aspects does not matter. As there are 6 possible sequences. we have to multiply our probability by 6, which gives 1 : 1500." To this I reply that I never suggested anything of the kindl The sequence, i.e., the way in which the 3 conjunctions follow each other, has no importance at all. 
10 [See App" (b). This passage has been rewritten to include the three sets of probabilities supplied by Professor Fierz.-EDITORS.] 
475 

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
point of view, there is little hope of proving that astrological correspondence is something that conforms to law. At the same time, it is not so easy to counter the astrologer's objection that my statistical method is too arbitrary and too clumsy to evaluate correctly the numerous psychological and astrological aspects of marriage. 
	902 	So the essential thing that remains over from our astrological 
statistics is the fact that the first batch of 180 marriage horoscopes shows a distinct maximum of 18 for <r cl 0 and the second batch of 220 a maximum of 24 for <r cl <r. These two aspects have long been mentioned in the old literature as marriage characteristics, and they therefore represent the oldest tradition. The third batch of 83 yields a maximum of 8 for <r cl Asc. These maxima, as we have said, have probabilities of about 1 : 1000, 1 : 10,000, and 1 : 50 respectively. I should like to illustrate what has happened here by means of an example: 
You take three matchboxes, put I,DOO black ants in the first, 
IO,OOO in the second and 50 in the third, together with one white ant in each, shut the boxes, and bore a hole in each of them) small enough to allow only one ant to crawl through at a time. The first ant to come out of each of the three boxes is always the white one. 
	903 	The chances of this actually happening are extremely im- 
probable. Even in the first two cases, the probability works out at 1 : 1000 X 10,000, which means that such a coincidence is to be expected only in one case out of 10,000,000. It is improbable that it would ever happen in anyone's experience. Yet in my statistiCal investigation it happened that precisely the three conjunctions stressed by astrological tradition came together in the most improbable way. 
	904 	For the sake of accuracy, however, it should be pointed out 
that it is not the same white ant that is the first to appear each time. That is to say, although there is always a lunar conjunction and always a "classical" one of decisive significance, they are nevertheless different conjunctions, because each time the moon is associated with a different partner. These are of course the three main components of the horoscope, namely the ascendent, or rising degree of a zodiacal sign, which characterizes the moment, the moon, which characterizes the day, and the sun, which characterizes the month of birth. Hence, if we consider only the first two batches, we must assume two white ants 
476 

SYNCHRONICITY: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE 
for each box. This correction raises the probability of the coinciding lunar conjunctions to 1 : 2,500,000. If we take the third batch as well, the coincidence of the three classical moon aspects has a probability of 1 : 62,500,000. The first proportion is significant even when taken by itself, for it shows that the coincidence is a very improbable one. But the coincidence with the third lunar conjunction is so remarkable that it looks like a deliberate arrangement in favour of 3strology. If, therefore, the result of our experiment should be found to have a significant-i.e., more than merely chance-probability, the case for astrology would be proved in the most satisfactory way. If, on the contrary, the figures actually fall within the limits of chance expectation, they do not support the astrological claim, they merely imitate accidentally the ideal answer to astrological expectation. It is nothing but a chance result from the statistical point of view, yet it is meaningful on account of the fact that it looks as if it validated this expectation. It is just what I call a synchronistic phenomenon. The statistically significant statement only concerns regularly occurring events, and if considered as axiomatic, it simply abolishes all exceptions to the rule. It produces a merely average picture of natural events, but not a true picture of the world as it is. Yet the exceptions-and my results are exceptions and most improbable ones at thatare just as important as the rules. Statistics would not even make sense without the exceptions. There is no rule that is true under all circumstances, for this is the real and not a statistical world. Because the statistical method shows only the average aspects, it creates an artificial and predominantly conceptual picture of reality. That is why we need a complementary principle for a complete description and explanation of nature. 
	9°5 	If we now consider the results of Rhine's experiments, and 
particularly the fact that they depend in large measure on the subject's active interest,H we can regard what happened in our case as a synchronistic phenomenon. The statistical material shows that a practically as well as theoreticaliy imp.robable chance combination occurred which coincides in the most remarkable way with traditional astrological expectations. That 11 Cf. G. Schmiedler, "Personality Correlates of ESP as Shown by Rorschach Studies." The author points out that those who accept the possibility of ESP get results above expectation, whereas those who reject it get negative results. 
477 

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
such a coincidence should occur at all is so improbable and so incredible that nobody could have dared to predict anything like it. It really does look as if the statistical material had been manipulated and arranged so as to give the appearance of a positive result. The necessary emotional and archetypal conditions for a synchronistic phenomenon were already given, since it is obvious that both my co-worker and myself had a lively interest in the outcome of the experiment, and apart from that the question of synchronicity had been engaging my attention for many years. What seems in fact to have happened-and seems often to have happened, bearing in mind the long astrological tradition-is that we got a result which has presumably turned up many times before in history. Had the astrologers (with but few exceptions) concerned themselves more with statistics and questioned the justice of their interpretations in a scientific spirit, they would have discovered long ago that their statements rested on a precarious foundation. But I imagine that in their case too, as with me, a secret, mutual connivance existed between the material and the psychic state of the astrologer. This correspondence is simply there like any other agreeable or annoying accident, and it seems doubtful to me whether it can be proved scientifically to be anything more than that.12 One may be fooled by coincidence, but one has to have a very thick skin not to be impressed by the fact that, out of fifty possibilities, three times precisely those turned up as maxima which are regarded by tradition as typical. 
	906 	As though to make this startling result even more impressive, 
we found that use had been made of unconscious deception. On first working out the statistics I was put off the trail by a number of errors which I fortunately discovered in time. After overcoming this difficulty I then forgot to mention, in the Swiss edition of this book, that the ant comparison, if applied to our experiment, only fits if respectively two or three white ants are assumed each time. This considerably reduces the improbability of our results. Then, at the eleventh hour, Professor Fierz, on 

SYNCHRONICITY: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE 
checking his probability calculations yet again, found that he had been deceived by the factor 5. The improbability of our results was again reduced, though without reaching a degree which one could have described as probable. The errors all tend to exaggerate the results in a way favourable to astrology, and add most suspiciously to the impression of an artificial or fraudulent arrangement of the facts, which was so mortifying to those concerned that they would probably have preferred to keep silent about it. 
	907 	I know, however, from long experience of these things that 
spontaneous synchronistic phenomena draw the observer, by hook or by crook, into what is happening and occasionally make him an accessory to the deed. That is the danger inherent in all parapsychological experiments. The dependence of ESP on an emotional factor in the experimenter and subject is a case in point. I therefore consider it a scientific duty to give as complete an account as possible of the result and to show how not only the statistical material, but the psychic processes of the interested parties, were affected by the synchronistic arrangement. Although, warned by previous experience, I was cautious enough to submit my original account (in the Swiss edition) to four competent persons, among them two mathematicians, I allowed myself to be lulled into a sense of security too soon. 
	908 	The corrections made here do not in any way alter the fact 
that the maximal frequencies lie with the three classical lunar aspects. 
	9°9 	In order to assure myself of the chance nature of the result, 
I undertook one more statistical experiment. I broke up the original and fortuitous chronological order and the equally fortuitous division into three batches by mixing the first 150 marriages with the last 150, taking the latter in reverse order; that is to say, I put the first marriage on top of the last, and then the second on top of the last but one, and so on. Then I divided the 300 marriages into three batches of a hu"ndred. The result was as follows: 

12 As my statistics show, the result becomes blurred with larger figures. So it is very probable that if more material were collected it would no longer produce a similar result. We have therefore to be content with this apparently unique lusus naturae, though its uniqueness in no way prejudices the facts. 
478 

Maximum 

1St Batch 
No Aspects 11 % 

2nd Batch 
o cl J 11% 
	« cl « 	11% 
479 

srd Batch 
« cl Asc. 12% 

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
	910 	The result of the first batch is amusing in so far as only 
fifteen of the 300 marriages have none of the fifty selected aspects in common. The second batch yields two maxima, of which the second again represents a classical conjunction. The third batch yields a maximum for <r c$ Asc.} which we already know as the third "classical" conjunction. The total result shows that another chance arrangement of the marriages can easily produce a result that deviates from the earlier total, but still does not quite prevent the classical conjunctions from turning up. 
• 
	911 	The result of our experiment tallies with our experience of 
mantic procedures. One has the impression that these methods, and others like them, create favourable conditions for the occurrence of meaningful coincidences. It is quite true that the verification of synchronistic phenomena is a difficult and some· times impossible task. Rhine's achievement in demonstrating, with the help of unexceptionable material, the coincidence of a psychic state with a corresponding objective process must therefore be rated all the higher. Despite the fact that the statistical method is in general highly unsuited to do justice to unusual events, Rhine's experiments have nevertheless withstood the ruinous influence of statistics. Their results must therefore be taken into account in any assessment of synchronistic phenomena. 
	912 	In view of the levelling influence which the statistical method 
has on the quantitative determination of synchronicity, we must ask how it was that Rhine succeeded in obtaining positive results. I maintain that he would never have got the results he did if he had carried out his experiments with a single subject,13 or only a few. He needed a constant renewal of interest, an emotion with its characteristic abaissement mental} which tips the scales in favour of the unconscious. Only in this way can space and time be relativized to a certain extent, thereby reducing the chances of a causal process. What then happens is a kind of creatio ex nihilo} an act of creation that is not causally explicable. The mantic procedures owe their effectiveness to 
13 By which I mean a subject chosen at random, and not one with specific gifts. 480 

SYNCHRONICITY: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE 
this same connection with emotionality: by touching an unconscious aptitude they stimulate interest, curiosity, expectation, hope, and fear, and consequently evoke a corresponding preponderance of the unconscious. The effective (numinous) agents in the unconscious are the archetypes. By far the greatest number of spontaneous synchronistic phenomena that I have had occasion to observe and analyse can easily be shown to have a direct connection with an archetype. This, in itself, is an irrepresentable, psychoid factor 14 of the collective unconscious. The latter cannot be localized, since either it is complete in principle in every individual or is found to be the same everywhere. You can never say with certainty whether what appears to be going on in the collective unconscious of a single individ· ual is not also happening in other individuals or organisms or things or situations. When, for instance, the vision arose in .swedenborg's mind of a fire in Stockholm, there was a real fire raging there at the same time, without there being any demonstrable or even thinkable connection between the twO.15 I certainly would not like to undertake to prove the archetypal connection in this case. I would only point to the fact that in Swedenborg's biography there are certain things which throw a remarkable light on his psychic state. We must assume that there was a lowering of the threshold of consciousness which gave him access to "absolute knowledge." The fire in Stockholm was, in a sense, burning in him too. For the unconscious psyche space and time seem to be relative; that is to say, knowledge finds itself in a space-time continuum in which space is no longer space, nor time time. If, therefore, the unconscious should develop or maintain a potential in the direction of consciousness, it is then possible for parallel events to be perceived or "known." 
	9111 	Compared with Rhine's work the great disadvantage of my 
astrological statistics lies in the fact that the entire experiment was carried out on only one subject, myself. I did not experiment with a variety of subjects; rather, it was the varied material that challenged my interest. I was thus in the position of a subject who is at first enthusiastic, but afterwards cools off on l<i Cf. "On the Nature of the Psyche," pars. 417f. 
15 This case is well authenticated. See report in Kant's Dreams of a Spirit-Seer, Illustrated by Dreams of MetaPhysics. 
481 

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
becoming habituated to the ESP experiment. The results therefore deteriorated with the growing number of experiments, which in this case corresponded to the exposition of the material in batches, so that the accumulation of larger numbers only blurred the "favourable" initial result. Equally my final experiment showed that the discarding of the original order and the division of the horoscopes into arbitrary batches produce, as might be expected, a different picture, though its significance is not altogether clear. 
	914 	Rhine's rules are to be recommended wherever (as in medi- 
cine) very large numbers are not involved. The interest and expectancy of the investigator might well be accompanied synchronistically by surprisingly favourable results to begin with, despite every precaution. These will be interpreted as "miracles" only by persons insufficiently acquainted with the statistical character of naturallaw,16 
• 
	915 	If-and it seems plausible-the meaningful coincidence or 
"cross-connection" of events cannot be explained causally, then the connecting principle must lie in the equal significance of parallel events; in other words, their tertium comparationis is meaning. We are so accustomed to regard meaning as a psychic process or content that it never enters our heads to suppose that it could also exist outside the psyche. But we do know at least enough about the psyche not to attribute to it any magical power, and still less can we attribute any magical power to the conscious mind. If, therefore, we entertain the hypothesis that one and the same (transcendental) meaning might manifest itself simultaneously in the human psyche and in the arrangement of an external and independent event, we at once come into conflict with the conventional scientific and epistemological views. We have to remind ourselves over and over again of the merely statistical validity of natural laws and of the effect of the statistical method in eliminating all unusual occurrences, if we want to lend an ear to such an hypothesis. The great diffi· culty is that we have absolutely no scientific means of proving the existence of an objective meaning which is not just a psychic 16 Cf. the interesting reflections of G. Spencer Brown: "De la recherche psychique consideree comme un test de la theorie des probabilites." 
482 

SYNCHRONICITY: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE 
product. We are, however, driven to some such assumption if we are not to regress to a magical causality and ascribe to the psyche a power that far exceeds its empirical range of action. In that case we should have to suppose, if we don't want to let causality go, either that Swedenborg's unconscious staged the Stockholm fire, or conversely that the objective event activated in some quite inconceivable manner the corresponding images in Swedenborg's brain. In either case we come up against the unanswerable question of transmission discussed earlier. It is of course entirely a matter of subjective opinion which hypothesis is felt to make more sense. Nor does tradition help us much in choosing between magical causality and transcendental meaning, because on the one hand the primitive mentality has always explained synchronicity as magical causality right down to our own day, and on the other hand philosophy assumed a secret correspondence or meaningful connection between natural events until well into the eighteenth century. I prefer the latter hypothesis because it does not, like the first, conflict with the empirical concept of causality, and can count as a principle sui generis. That obliges us, not indeed to correct the principles of natural explanation as hitherto understood, but at least to add to their number, an operation which only the most cogent reasons could justify. I believe, however, that the hints I have given in the foregoing constitute an argument that needs thorough consideration. Psychology, of all the sciences, cannot in the long run afford to overlook such experiences. These things are too important for an understanding of the unconscious, quite apart from their philosophical implications. 
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 2 
[The following notes have been compiled by the Editors on the basis of Professor Fierz's mathematical argument, of which he kindly furnished a precis. These represent his latest thoughts on the topic. These data are presented here for the benefit of readers with a special interest in mathematics or statistics who want to know how the figures in the text were arrived at. 
Since an orbit of 80 was taken as the basis of Professor .J ung's calculations for the estimation of conjunctions and oppositions (cf. par. 880), it follows that, for a particular relation between two 
483 

(1) 
-EDITORS] 
THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE heavenly bodies to be called a conjunction (e.g., sun 6 moon), one of them must lie within an arcof 16°. (Since the only concern was to test the character of the distribution, an arc of ISo was taken for convenience.) 
Now, all positions on a circle of 360° are equally probable. So the probability a that the heavenly body will lie on an arc of ISo is 
IS I a=-=- 
360 24 
This probability a holds for every aspect. 
Let n be the number of particular aspects that will occur in N married pairs if the probability that it will occur in one married pair be a. 
Applying the binomial distribution, we get: 
N! 
	W" = ----a"(I - a)N-" 	(2) 
n!(N - n)! 
In order to obtain a numerical evaluation of W", (2) can be simplified. This results in an' error, which, however, is not important. The simplification can be arrived at by replacing (2) by the Poisson distribution: 
P
 _ I x". e-11! ,,-- 
nl 
This approximation is valid if a may be regarded as very small in comparison with 1, while x is finite. 
Upon the basis of these considerations the following numerical results can be arrived at: 
(a) The probability of <r 6 0, <r 6 <r, and <r 6 Asc. turning up simultaneously is: 
(
	I )3 	1 
a3 = 24 -- 10,000 
(b) The probability P for the maximal figures in the three 
batches is: 
1.	18 aspects in 180 married pairs, P = 1 : 1,000 2. 24 aspects in 220 married pairs, P = I : 10,000 
3. 8 aspects in 83 married pairs, P = I : 50. 
484 

3. FORERUNNERS OF THE IDEA OF SYNCHRONICITY 
	916 	The causality principle asserts that the connection between 
cause and effect is a necessary one. The synchronicity principle asserts that the terms of a meaningful coincidence are connected by simultaneity and meaning. So if we assume that the ESP experiments and numerous other observations are established facts, we must conclude that besides the connection between cause and effect there is another factor in nature which expresses itself in the arrangement of events and appears to us as meaning. Although meaning is an anthropomorphic interpretation it nevertheless forms the indispensable criterion of synchronicity. What that factor which appears to us as "meaning" may be in itself we have no possibility of knowing. As an hypothesis, however, it is not quite so impossible as may appear at first sight. We must remember that the rationalistic attitude of the West is not the only possible one and is not all-embracing, but is in many ways a prejudice and a bias that ought perhaps to be corrected. The very much older civilization of the Chinese has always thought differently from us in this respect, and we have to go back to Heraclitus if we want to find something similar in our civilization, at least where philosophy is concerned. Only in astrology, alchemy, and the mantic procedures do we find po differences of principle between our attitude and the Chinese. That is why alchemy developed along parallel lines in East and 
48S 

I should call it "The Great." [Ch. XXV.] 
917 
918 
919 

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
West and why in both spheres it strove towards the same goal with more or less identical ideas.1 
In Chinese philosophy one of the oldest and most central ideas is that of Tao, which the Jesuits translated as "God." But that is correct only for the Western way of thinking. Other translations, such as "Providence" and the like, are mere makeshifts. Richard Wilhelm brilliantly interprets it as "meaning." 2 The concept of Tao pervades the whole philosophical thought of China. Causality occupies this paramount position with us, but it acquired its importance only in the course of the last two centuries, thanks to the levelling influence of the statistical method on the one hand and the unparalleled success of the natural sciences on the other, which brought the metaphysical view of the world into disrepute. 
Lao-tzu gives the following description of Tao in his cele- 
brated Tao Teh Ching: 3 
There is something formless yet complete That existed before heaven and earth. 
How still! howemptyl Dependent on nothing, unchanging, All pervading, unfailing. 
One may think of it as the mother of all things under heaven. 
I do not know its name, 
But I call it "Meaning." 
If I had to give it a name, 
Tao "covers the ten thousand things like a garment but does not claim to be master over them"(Ch. XXXIV). Lao-tzu describes it as "Nothing," 4 by which he means, says Wilhelm, only its "contrast with the world of reality." Lao-tzu describes its nature as follows: 
1 Cf, Psychology and Alchemy, par. 453, and "The Spirit Mercurius," par. 273, Also the doctrine of chen-yen in Wei Po-yang ["Phi\. Tree," pars. 432ff., and Mysterium, pars. 490, 711n] and in Chuang-tzu. 
2 Jung, "Commentary on The Secret of the Golden Flower," par. 28, and Wilhelm, 
Chinesische Lebensweisheit. 
3 [Quotations from Arthur Waley's The Way and Its Power, with occasional 
slight changes to fit Wilhelm's reading.- TRANs·l 
4 Tao is the contingent, which Andreas Speiser defines as "pure nothing" ("Ober 
die Freiheit"). 
486 

920 
921 

SYNCHRONICITY: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE We put thirty spokes together and call it a wheel; 
But it is on the space where there is nothing that the utility of the wheel depends. 
We turn clay to make a vessel; 
But it is on the space where there is nothing that the utility of the vessel depends. 
We pierce doors and windows to make a house; 
And it is on these spaces where there is nothing that the utility of the house depends. 
Therefore just as we take advantage 'of what is, we should recognize the utility of what is not. [Ch. XI.] 
"Nothing" is evidently "meaning" or "purpose," and it is only called Nothing because it does not appear in the world of the senses, but is only its organizer.5 Lao-tzu says: 
Because the eye gazes but can catch no glimpse of it, It is called elusive. 
Because the ear listens but cannot hear it, It is called the rarefied. 
Because the hand feels for it but cannot find it, It is called the infinitesimal. ... 
These are called the shapeless shapes, 
Forms without form, 
Vague semblances. 
Go towards them, and you can see no front; Go after them, and you see no rear. [Ch. XIV.] 
Wilhelm describes it as "a borderline conception lying at the extreme edge of the world of appearances." In it, the opposites "cancel out in non-discrimination," but are still potentially present. "These seeds," he continues, "point to something that corresponds firstly to the visible) i.e., something in the nature of an image; secondly to the audible) i.e., something in the nature of words; thirdly to extension in space) i.e., something with a form. But these three things are not clearly distinguished and definable, they are a non-spatial and none temporal unity, having no above and below or 'front and back." As the Tao Teh Ching says: 
5 Wilhelm, Chinesische Lebensweisheit, p. 15: "The relation between meaning (Tao) and reality cannot be conceived under the category of cause and effect." 
487 

922 
923 

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE Incommensurable, impalpable, 
Yet latent in it are forms; 
Impalpable, incommensurable, 
Yet within it are entities. 
Shadowy it is and dim. [Ch. XXI.] 
Reality, thinks Wilhelm, is conceptually knowable because according to the Chinese view there is in all things a latent "rationality." 6 This is the basic idea underlying meaningful coincidence: it is possible because both sides have the same meaning. Where meaning prevails, order results: 
Tao is eternal, but has no name; 
The Uncarved Block, though seemingly of small account, 
Is greater than anything under heaven. 
If the kings and barons would but possess themselves of it, The ten thousand creatures would flock to do them homage; Heaven and earth would conspire 
To send Sweet Dew; 
Without law or compulsion men would dwell in harmony. 
[Ch. XXXII.] 
Tao never does; 
Yet through it all things are done. [Ch. XXXVII.] 
Heaven's net is wide; 
Coarse are the meshes, yet nothing slips through. [Ch. LXXIII.] 
Chuang-tzu (a contemporary of Plato's) says of the psycho- 
logical premises on which Tao is based: "The state in which ego and non-ego are no longer opposed is called the pivot of Tao," 7 It sounds almost like a criticism of our scientific view of the world when he remarks that "Tao is obscured when you fix your eye on little segments of existence only," 8 or "Limitations are not originally grounded in the meaning of life. Originally words had no fixed meanings. Differences only arose through looking at things subjectively." 9 The sages of old, says Chuang-tzu, "took as their starting-point a state when the existence of things had not yet begun. That is indeed the eX- 
6 Ibid., p. 19. 
7 Das wahre Buch vam sudlichen B/iltenland, trans. by R. Wilhelm, 11, 3· 
	s Ibid., 11, 3. 	9 n, 7· 
488 

924 

SYNCHRONIClTY: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE 
treme limit beyond which you cannot go. The next assumption was that though things existed they had not yet begun to be separated. The next, that though things were separated in a sense, affirmation and negation had not yet begun. When affirmation and negation came into being, Tao faded. After Tao faded, then came one-sided attachments," 10 "Outward hearing should not penetrate further than the ear; the intellect should not seek to lead a separate existence, thus the soul can become empty and absorb the whole world. It is Tao that fills this e'mptiness." If you have insight, says Chuang-tzu, "you use your iriner eye, your inner ear, to pierce to the heart of things, and have no need of intellectual knowledge," 11 This is obviously an allusion to the absolute knowledge of the unconscious, and to the presence in the microcosm of macrocosmic events. 
This Taoistic view is typical of Chinese thinking. It is, whenever possible, a thinking in terms of the whole, a point also brought out by Marcel Granet,12 the eminent authority on Chinese psychology. This peculiarity can be seen in ordinary conversation with the Chinese: what seems to us a perfectly straightforward, precise question about some detail evokes from the Chinese thinker an unexpectedly elaborate answer, as though one had asked him for a blade of grass and got a whole meadow in return. \Vith us details are important for their own sakes; for the Oriental mind they always complete a total picture. In this totality, as in primitive or in our own medieval, pre-scientific psychology (still very much alive!), are included things which seem to be connected with one another only "by chance," by a coincidence whose meaningfulness appears altogether arbitrary. This is where the theory of corres:pondentia 13 comes in, which was propounded by the natural philosophers of the Middle Ages, and particularly the classical idea of the sympathy of all things.14 Hippocrates says: 
	10 n, 5. 	11 IV, 1. 
12 La Pensee r:hinaise; also Lily Abegg, The Mind af East Asia. The latter gives an excellent account of the synchronistic mentality of the Chinese. 
13 Professor W. Pauli kindly calls my attention to the fact that Niels Bohr used "correspondence" as a mediating term between the representation of the discontinuum (particle) and the continuum (wave). Originally (1913-18) he called it the "principle of correspondence," but later (1927) it was formulated as the 
	"argument of correspondence." 	14 "crv!.l1raIJ<La TWV 6l1..,v." 
489 

925 
926 
927 

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
There is one common flow, one common breathing, all things are in sympathy. The whole organism and each one of its parts are working in conjunction for the same purpose ... the great principle extends to the extremest part, and from the extremest part it returns to the great principle, to the one nature, being and not-being.15 
The universal principle is found even in the smallest particle, which therefore corresponds to the whole. 
In this connection there is an interesting idea in Philo (25 B.C.-A.D. 42): 
God, being minded to unite in intimate and loving fellowship the beginning and end of created things, made heaven the beginning and man the end, the one the most perfect of imperishable objects of sense, the other the noblest of things earth born and perishable, being, in very truth, a miniature heaven. He bears about within himself, like holy images, endowments of nature that correspond to the constellations .... For since the corruptible and the incorruptible are by nature contrary the one to the other, God assigned the fairest of each sort to the beginning and the end, heaven (as I have said) to the beginning, and man to the end.16 
Here the great principle 17 or beginning, heaven, is infused into man the microcosm, who reflects the star-like natures and thus, as the smallest part and end of the work of Creation, contains the whole. 
According to Theophrastus (371-288 B.C.) the suprasensuous and the sensuous are joined by a bond of community. This bond cannot be mathematics, so must presumably be God.18 Similarly in Plotinus the individual souls born of the one World Soul are related to one another by sympathy or antipathy, regardless of distance.1o Similar views are to be found in Pico della Mirandola: 
15 De alimento, a tract .• cribed to Hippocrates. (Trans. by John Precope in HiPpocrates on Diet and Hygiene, p. '74. modified.) ""I.uppo,a. J.Lla.. uVJ.L'/rvola. J.Lla., '/raVTa. UVJ.L'/ra.IJEa. Ka.ra. J.LfV oU'AoJ.Lf"l\l"v '/ravra. Ka.ra. J.LEpOS 5f ra. lv tKaUr'l' J.LEp" J.Lfpla. '/rpOS ro lp'Yov ••. apx~ J.Lf'Ya"l\" ls tuxa.rov J.L'POS aq,'KvEfra." .~ luxarov J.L'P'os .• Is apx~v J.Lf'Ya"l\'!v aq,'Kv'fra." p,la. q,uu,s .zva., Ka.l J.L~ .lva.,." 
16 De oPificio mundi, 82 (trans. by F. H. Colson and G. H. Whitaker, I. p. 67). 17 "apx~ J.Lf'Ya"l\,," 
18 Eduard Zeller. Die PhilosoPhie der Griechen, n. part ii. p. 654. 
10 Enneads, IV. 3. 8 and 4. 32 (in A. C. H. Drews, Plotin und der Untergang der antiken We/tanschauung, p. '79)' 
490 

928 

SYNCHRONICITY: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE Firstly there is the unity in things whereby each thing is at one with itself, consists of itself, and coheres with itself. Secondly there is the unity whereby one creature is united with the others and all parts of the world constitute one world. The third and most important (unity) is that whereby the whole universe is one with its Creator, as an army with its commander.20 
By this threefold unity Pico means a simple unity which, like the Trinity, has three aspects; "a unity distinguished by a threefold character, yet in such a way as not to depart from the simplicity of unity." 21 For him the world is one being, a visible God, in which everything is naturally arranged from the very beginning like the parts of a living organism. The world appears as the corpus mysticum of God, just as the Church is the corpus mysticum of Christ, or as a well-disciplined army can be called a sword in the hand of the commander. The view that all things are arranged according to God's will is one that leaves little room for causality. Just as in a living body the different parts work in harmony and are meaningfully adjusted to one another, so events in the world stand in a meaningful relationship which cannot be derived from any immanent causality. The reason for this is that in either case the behaviour of the parts depends on a central control which is supraordinate to them. 
In his treatise De hominis dignitate Pico says: 'The Father implanted i!1 man at birth seeds of all kinds and the germs of original life." 22 Just as God is the "copula" of the world, so, within the created world, is man. "Let us make man in our image, who is not a fourth world or anything like a new nature, but is rather the fusion and synthesis of three worlds (the supracelestial, the celestial, and the sublunary)." 23 In body and spirit 
20 HeptaPlus, VI. prooem .. in Opera omnia, pp. 40f. ("Est enim primum ea in rebus unitas, qua unumquodque sibi est unum sibique constat atque cohaeret. Est ea secundo. per quam altera alteri creatura unitur, et per quam demum omnes mundi partes unus sunt mundus. Tertia atque omnium principalissima est, qua totum universum cum suo opifice quasi exercitus cum suo duce est unum.") 21 "unitas ita ternario distincta, ut ab linitatis simplicitate non discedat." 
22 Opera omnia, p. 315. ("Nascenti homini omnifaria semina et origenae vitae germina indidit pater.") 
23 HeptaPlus, V. vi, in ibid., p. 38. ("Faciamus hominem ad imaginem nostram. qui non tarn ql.lartus est mundus. quasi nova aliqua natura. quam trium (mundus supercoelestis, coeIestis, sublunaris) complexus et colligatio." 
491 

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
man is "the little God of the world," the microcosm.24 Like God, therefore, man is a centre of, events, and all things revolve about him.25 This thought, so utterly strange to the modern mind, dominated man's picture of the world until a few generations ago, when natural science proved man's SI' bordination to nature and his extreme dependence on causes. The idea of a correlation between events and meaning (now assigned exclusively to man) was banished to such a remote and benighted region that the intellect lost track of it altogether. Schopenhauer remembered it somewhat belatedly after it had formed one of the chief items in Leibniz's scientific explanations. 
	929 	By virtue of his microcosmic nature man is a son of the 
firmament or macrocosm. "I am a star travelling together with you," the initiate confesses in the Mithraic liturgy.26 In alchemy the microcosmos has the same significance as the rotundum, a favourite symbol since the time of Zosimos of Panopolis, which was also known as the Monad. 
	930 	The idea that the inner and outer man together form the 
whole, the 01;AOP.£A[1] of Hippocrates, a microcosm or smallest part wherein the "great principle" is undividedly present, also characterizes the thought of Agrippa von Nettesheim. He says: 
It is the unanimous consent of all Platonists, that as in the archetypal World, all things are in all; so also in this corporeal world, all things are in all, albeit in different ways, according to the receptive nature of each. Thus the Elements are not only in these inferiour bodies, but also in the Heavens, in Stars, in Divels, in Angels, and lastly in God, the maker, and archetype of all things.27 
24 "God ... placed man in the centre [of the world] after his image and the similitude of forms" ("Deus ... hominem in medio [mundi] statuit ad imaginem suam et similitudinem formarum"). 
25 Pico's doctrine is a typical example of the medieval correspondence theory. A good account of cosmological and astrological correspondence is to be found in Alfons Rosenberg, Zeichen am Himmel: Das Weltbild der Astrologie. 
26 Albrecht Dieterich, Eine Mithrasliturgie, p. 9. 
27 Henricus CorneJius Agrippa von Nettesheim, De occulta philosoPhia Libri tres, I, viii, p. 12. Trans. by "J. F." as Three Books of Occult PhilosoPhy (1651 edn.), p. 20; republished under the editorship of W. F. Whitehead, p. 55. [Quotations from the J. F. translation have been slightly modified.- TRANS.] ("Est Platonicorum omnium unanimis sententia quemadmodum i 1 archetypo mundo omnia, sunt in omnibus, ita etiam in hoc corporeo mundo, omnia in omnibus esse, modis tamen diversis, pro natura videlicet suscipientium: sic et elementa non solum sunt in istis inferioribus, sed in coelis, in stellis, in daemonibus, in angelis, in ipso denique omnium opifice et archetypo.") 
492 

SYNCHRONICITY: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE 
The ancients had said: "All things are full of gods." 28 These gods were "divine powers which are diffused in things." 29 Zoroaster had called them "divine allurements," 30 and Synesius "symbolic inticements." 31 This latter interpretation comes very close indeed to the idea of archetypal projections in modern psychology, although from the time of Synesius until quite recently there was no epistemological criticism, let alone the newest form of it, namely psychological criticism. Agrippa shares with the Platonists the view that "there is in the lower beings a certain virtue through which they agree in large measure with the higher," and that as a result the animals are connected with the "divine bodies" (i.e., the stars) and exert an influence on them.32 Here he quotes Virgil: "I for my part do not believe that they [the rooks] are endowed with divine spirit or with a foreknowledge of things greater than the oracle." 33 
	931 	Agrippa is thus suggesting that there is an inborn "knowl- 
edge" or "perception" in living organisms, an idea which recurs in our own day in Hans Driesch.34 Whether we like it or not, we find ourselves in this embarrassing position as soon as we begin seriously to reflect on the teleological processes in biology or to investigate the compensatory function of the unconscious, not to speak of trying to explain the phenomenon of synchronicity. Final causes, twist them how we will, postulate a foreknowledge of some kind. It is certainly not a knowledge that could be connected with the ego, and hence not a conscious knowledge as we know it, but rather a self-subsistent "unconscious" knowledge which I would prefer to call "absolute knowledge." It is not cognition but, as Leibniz so excellently calls it, 
	28 "Omna plena diis esse." 	29 "virtutes divinae in rebus diffusae" 
30 "divinae illices" 
31 "symboJicae illecebrae." [In J. F. original edn., p. 32; Whitehead edn .• p. 6g.TRANS.] Agrippa is basing himself here on the Marsilio Ficino translation (A uctores Platonici, I1, vo). In Synesius (Opuscula, ed. by Nicolaus Terzaghi, p. 148), the text of IT.pl Evv7rvlwv III B has TO (J"~'Y6"..vov, from (J'~'YfLV, "to excite, charm, enchant." 
32 De occulta philosophia, I, iv, p. 69. a. F. edn., p. 117; Whitehead edn., p. 169.) Similarly in Paracelsus. 
33 "Haud equidem credo, quia sit divinius illis Ingenium aut rerum fato prudentia maior." -Georgics, I, ;P5f. 34 Die "See le" als elementm'er Naturfaktor, pp. 80, 82. 
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THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
a "perceiving" which consists-or to be more cautious, seems to consist-of images, of subjectless "simulacra." These postulated images are presumably the same as my archetypes, which can be shown to be formal factors in spontaneous fantasy products. Expressed in modern language, the microcosm which contains "the images of all creation" would be the collective unconscious.35 By the spiritus mundi, the ligamentum animae et corporis, the quinta essentia,36 which he shares with the alchemists, Agrippa probably means what we would call the unconscious. The spirit that "penetrates all things," or shapes all things, is the World Soul: "The soul of the world therefore is a certain only thing, filling all things, bestowing all things, binding, and knitting together all things, that it might make one frame of the world .... " 37 Those things in which this spirit is particularly powerful therefore have a tendency to "beget their like," 38 in other words, to produce correspondences or meaningful coincidences.3o Agrippa gives a long list of these correspondences, based on the numbers 1 to 12.40 A similar but more alchemical table of correspondences can be found in a treatise of Aegidius de Vadis.41 Of these I would only mention the scala unitatis, because it is especially interesting from the point of 35 Cf. supra, "On the Nature of the Psyche," pars. 392f. 
36 Agrippa says of this (op. cit., I, xiv, p. 29: J. F. edn., p. 33; Whitehead edn., p. 70): "That which we call the quintessence: because it is not from the four Elemen:s, but a certain fifth thing, having its being above, and besides them." ("Quoddam quintum super ilIa [elemental aut praeter ilIa subsistens.") 
37 n, lvii, p. 203 (J. F. cdn., p. 331): "Est itaque anima mundi, vita quaedam unica omnia rep lens, omnia perfundens, omnia colligens et connectens, ut unam reddat totius mundi machinam ... ." 
38 Ibid.: " ... potentius perfectiusque agunt, turn etiam promptius generant sibi simile." 
30 The zoologist A. C. Hardy reaches similar conclusions: "Perhaps our ideas on evolution may be altered if something akin to telcpathy-uncons~ious no doubtwere found to be a factor in moulding the patterns of behaviour among members of a species. If there was such a non-conscious group-behaviour plan, distributed between, and linking, the individuals of the race, we might find ourselves coming back to something like those ideas of subconscious racial memory of Samuel Butler, but on a group rather than an individual basis." "The Scientific Evidence for Extra-Sensory Perception," in Discovery, X, 328, quoted by Soal, q.v. 
400p. cit., n, iv-xiv. 
41 "Dialogus inter naturam et filium philosophiae." Theatrum chemiwm, II (1602), p. 123. 
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SYNCHRONICITV: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE 
view of the history of symbols: "Yod [the first letter of the tetragrammaton, the divine name ]-anima mundi-sol-Iapis philosophorum-cor-Lucifer." 42 I must content myself with saying that this is an attempt to set up a hierarchy of archetypes, and that tendencies in this direction can be shown to exist in the unconscious.43 
	932 	Agrippa was an older contemporary of Theophrastus Para- 
celsus and is known to have had a considerable influence on him.44 So it is not surprising if the thinking of Paracelsus proves to be steeped in the idea of correspondence. He says: 
If a man will be a philosopher without going astray, he must lay the foundations of his philosophy by making heaven and earth a microcosm, and not be wrong by a hair's breadth. Therefore he who will lay the foundations of medicine must also guard against the slightest error, and must make from the microcosm the revolution of heaven and earth, so that the philosopher does not find anything in heaven and earth which he does not also find in man, and the physician does not find anything in man which heaven and earth do not have. And these two differ only in outward form, and yet the form on both sides is understood as pertaining to one thing.45 
The Paragranum 46 has some pointed psychological remarks to make about physicians: 
For this reason, [we assume] not four, but one arcanum, which is, however, four-square, like a tower facing the four winds. And as little as a tower may lack a corner, so little may the physician lack one of the parts .... At the same [time he] knows how the world is symbolized [by] an egg in its shell, and how a chick with all its substance lies hidden within it. Thus everything in the world and in man must lie hidden in the physician. And just as the hens, by their brooding, transform the world prefigured in the shell into a chick, so Alchemy brings to maturity the philosophical arcana lying in the 
42 Cited in Agrippa, op. cit., n, iv, p. 104 (J. F. edn., p. 176). 
43 Cf. Aniela JafIe, "Bilder und Symbole aus E. T. A. Hoffmann's Marchen 'Der goldene Topf,' " and Marie-Louise von Franz, "Die Passio Perpetuae." 
44 Cf. Alchemical Studies, index, s.v. "Agrippa." 
45 Das Buch Paragranum, cd. by Franz Strunz, pp. 3!5f. Much the same in Labyrinthus medicorum, in the Siimtliche Werke, cd. Sudhoff, XI, pp. 204ff: 
46 Strunz edn., p. 34. 
495 

933 
934 

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
physician .... Herein lies the error of those who do not under· stand the physician aright.47 
What this means for alchemy I have shown in some detail in m} Psychology and Alchemy. 
]ohannes Kepler thought in much the same way. He says in his Tertius interveniens (1610): 48 
This [viz., a geometrical principle underlying the physical world] i!: also, according to the doctrine of Aristotle, the strongest tie that links the lower world to the heavens and unifies it therewith so that all its forms are governed from on high; for in this lower world, that is to say the globe of the earth, there is inherent a spiritual nature, capable of Geometria, which ex instinctu creatoris, sine ratiocinatione comes to life and stimulates itself into a use of its forces through the geometrical and harmonious combination of the heav· enly rays of light. Whether all plants and animals as well as the globe of the earth have this faculty in themselves I cannot say. But it is not an unbelievable thing .... For, in all these things [e.g., in the fact that flowers have a definite colour, form, and number of petals] there is at work the instinctus divinus, rationis particeps, and not at all man's own intelligence. That man, too, through his soul and its lower faculties, has a like affinity to the heavens as has the soil of the earth can be tested and proven in many ways.49 
Concerning the astrological "Character," i.e., astrological synchronicity, Kepler says: 
This Character is received, not into the body, which is much too inappropriate for this, but into the soul's own nature, which behaves like a point (for which reason it can also be transformed into the point of the conflux us radiorum). This [nature of the soul] not only partakes of their reason (on account of which we human beings are called reasonable above other living creatures) but also has another, innate reason [enabling it] to apprehend instantaneously, without long learning, the Geometriam in the radiis as weB as in the vocibus, that is to say, in M usica.50 
47 Similar ideas in Jakob Biihme, The Signature of All Things, trans. by John Ellistone, p. 10: "Man has indeed the forms of all the three worlds in him, for he is a complete image of God, or of the Being of all beings .... " (Signatura rerum, I, 7.) 
48 Opera omnia, ed. by C. Frisch, I, pp. 605ff. 
	49 Ibid., No. 64. 	50 No. 65. 
496 

935 
936 

SYNCHRONICITY: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE 
Thirdly, another marvellous thing is that the nature which receives this Characterem also. induces a certain correspondence in constellationibus coelestibus in its relatives. When a mother is great with child and the natural time of delivery is near, nature selects for the birth a day and hour which correspond, on account of the heavens [scil., from an astrological point of view], to the nativity of the mother's brother or father, and this non qualitative, sed astronomice et quantitative.51 
Fourthly, so well does each nature· know not only its chara,terem coelestem but also the celestial configurationes and courses of every day that, whenever a planet moves de praesenti into its characteris ascendentem or loca praecipua, especially into the Natalitia,52 it responds to this and is affected and stimulated thereby in various ways.53 
Kepler supposes that the secret of the marvellous correspondence is to be found in the earth, because the earth is animated by an anima telluris} for whose existence- he adduces a number of proofs. Among these are: the constant temperature below the surface of the earth; the peculiar power of the earth-soul to produce metals, minerals, and fossils, namely the facultas formatrix} which is similar to that of the womb and can bring forth in the bowels of the earth shapes that are otherwise found only outside -ships, fishes, kings, popes, monks, soldiers, ete.; 54 further the practice of geometry, for it produces the five geometrical bodies and the six-cornered figures in crystals. The anima telluris has all this from a..n original impulse, independent of the reflection and ratiocination of man.55 
The seat of astrological synchronicity is not in the planets but in the earth; 56 not in matter, but in the anima telluris. 51 No. 67. 
52 ["in die Natalitia" = "into those [positions presiding] at birth," if "in die" is construed as German. The Gesammelte Werke, ed. by M. Caspar and F. Hammer, IV, p. 211, has "in die Natalitio" = "in the day of birth," the words "in die" 
	being construed as Latin.- TRANs.] 	53 No. 68. 
54 See the dreams mentioned below. 
55 Kepler, Opera, ed. by Frisch, V, p. 254: cf. also 11, pp. 270f. and VI, pp. '78f. " ... formatrix facultas est in visceribus terrae, quae feminae praegnantis more OCcursantes foris res humanas veluti eas videret, in fissibilibus lapidibus exprimit, ut militum, monachorum, pontificum, regum et quidquid in ore hominum est. .. ." 
56 " ••• quod sel. principatus causae in terra sedeat, non in plane:is ipsis." Ibid., 11, p. 642• 
497 

THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE 
Therefore every kind of natural or living power in bodies has a certain "divine similitude." 07 
• 
	937 	Such was the intellectual background when Gottfried "\Vil- 
helm von Leibniz (1646-1716) appeared with his idea of preestablished harmony) that is, an absolute synchronism of psychic and physical events. This theory finally petered out in the concept of "psychophysical parallelism." Leibniz's pre-established harmony and the above-mentioned idea of Schopenhauer's, that the unity of the primal cause produces a simultaneity and interrelationship of events not in themselves causally connected, are at bottom only a repetition of the old peripatetic view, with a modern deterministic colouring in the case of Schopenhauer and a partial replacement of causality by an antecedent order in the case of Leibniz. For him God is the creator of order. He compares soul and body to two synchronized clocks 08 and uses 57" ... ut omne genus naturalium vel animalium facultatum in corporibus Dei quandam gerat similitudinem." Ibid. I am indebted to Dr. Liliane Frey-Rohn and Dr. Marie-Louise von Franz for this reference to Kepler. 
58 G. W. Leibniz, "Second Explanation of the System of the Communication be· tween Substances" (The Philosophical Works of Leibniz, trans. by. G. M. Duncan, pp. 90-91): "From the beginning God has made each of these two substances of such a nature that merely by following its own peculiar laws, received with its being, it nevertheless accords with the other, just as if there were a mutual influence or as if God always put his hand thereto in addition to his general co-operation." 
As Professor Pauli has kindly pointed out, it is possible that Leibniz took his idea of the synchronized clocks from the Flemish philosopher Arnold Geulincx (1625-99). In his MetaPhysica vera, Part Ill, there is a note to "Octava scientia" (p. 195), which says (p. 296): " ... horologium voluntatis nostrae quadret cum horologio motus in corpore" (the clock of our will is synchronized with the clock of our physical movement). Another note (p. 297) explains: "Voluntas nostra nullum habet influxum, causalitatem, determinationem aut eflicaciam quamcunque in motum ... cum cogitationes nostras bene excutimus, nullam apud nos invenimus ideam seu notionem determination is .... Restat igitur Deus solus prim us motor et solus motor, quia et ita motum ordinat atque disponit et ita simul voluntati nostrae licet libere moderatur, ut eodem temporis momento conspiret et voluntas nostra ad projiciendum v.g. pedes inter ambulandum, et simul ipsa ilia pedum projectio seu ambulatio." (Our will has no influence. no causative or determinative power, and no effect of any kind on our movement. ... If wc examine our thoughts carefully, we find in ourselves no idea or concept of determination .... There remains, therefore, only God as the prime 
498 

SYNCHRONICITY: AN ACAUSAL CONNECTING PRINCIPLE 
the same simile to express the relations of the monads or entelechies with one another. Although the monads cannot influence one another directly because, as he says, they "have no windows" 59 (relative abolition of causality!), they are so constituted that they are always in accord without having knowledge of one another. He conceives each monad to be a "little world" or "active indivisible mirror." 60 Not only is man a microcosm enclosing the whole in himself, but every entelechy or monad is in effect such a microcosm. Each "simple substance" has connections "which express all the others." It is "a perpetual living mirror of the universe." 61 He calls the monads of living organisms "souls": "the soul follows its own laws, and the body its own likewise, and they accord by virtue of the harmony pre-established among all substances, since they are all representations of one and the same universe." 62 This clearly expresses the idea that man is a microcosm. "Souls in genera!," says Leibniz, "are the living mirrors or images of the universe of created things." He distinguishes between minds on the one hand, which are "images of the Divinity ... capable of knowing the system of the universe, and of imitating something of it by architectonic patterns, each mind being as it were a little 
mover and only mover, because he arranges and orders movement and freely co-ordinates it with our will, so that our will wishes simultaneously to throw the feet forward into walking, and simultaneously the forward movement and the walking take place.) A note to "Nona scientia" adds (p. 298): "Mens nostra ... penitus independens est ab illo (scl. corpore) ... omnia quae de corpore scimus jam praevie quasi ante nostram cognitionem esse in corpore. Ut illa quodam modo nos in corpore legamus, non vero inscribamus, quod Deo proprium est." (Our mind ... is totally independent of the body ... everything we know about the body is already in the body, before our thought. So that we can, as it were, read ourselves in our body. but not imprint ourselves on it. Only God can do that.) This idea anticipates Leibniz' clock comparison. 
59 Monadology, § T "Monads have no windows, by which anything could come in or go out .... Thus neither substance nor accident can enter a monad from without." 
60 Rejoinder to the remarks in Bayle's Dictionary, from the Kleinere philoso. Phische Schriften, XI, p. 105. 
61 Monadology, § 56 (Morris edn., p. (2): "Now this connection or adaptation of all created things with each, and of each with all the rest, means that each simple substance has relations which express all the others, and that consequently 
	it is a perpetual living mirror of the universe." 	62 Ibid., § 78 (p. 17). 
499