* ROME HAS FALLEN!
The greatest power the world has ever known is trampled in the dust. The Empire that had conquered the world is herself conquered!
Italy is overrun by Germanic tribes. Odoacer, a chieftain of the Germanic Heruli, has deposed the boy-monarch Romulus Augustulus. The great city is without an emperor!
The long and
gradual collapse is now complete.
The ancient
world is at an end. The Middle Ages have begun.
The
stage is now set for momentous events--- events that will
determine
the course of history for centuries to come.
* Master of Italy
In the East, the old Roman Empire still
lives, protected by the almost impregnable walls of Constantinople. There, Zeno
sits on the throne of the Eastern or Byzantine Empire. In theory, the German
Odoacer accepts the overlordship of Emperor Zeno. Zeno considers Italy one of
the administrative divisions of his empire.
In
reality, Constantinople has little power west of the Adriatic. Odoacer
holds the administration of Italy firmly in his own hands. He is master of the
peninsula.
Odoacer perpetuates the Roman form of
government, which he admires. He initially encounters little serious opposition
from the people of Italy. But Odoacer is an Arian Christian; that is, a
Christian who follows the teachings of the scholar Anus. The Italians, by
contrast, are Catholics.
The same is true in North Africa. There,
the Germanic Vandals have held sway since AD. 429. The Vandals, too, continue
and maintain the Roman system of administration within their kingdom. The
Vandals are also Arian Christians. They persecute the Catholics within their
realm, often fiercely. The Roman Catholic Church bristles under the feet of the
Arian barbarians dominating the West. Since the days of Constantine, the Church
had had the wholehearted support of the civil power. Now things have changed
radically—for the worst. Something will have to be done about these hated Arian
heretics.
* Italy's New "King"
In AD. 476—the same year Odoacer deposes
the last Roman emperor—a young noble named Theodoric becomes leader of the
Ostrogoths (East Goths). Theodoric quickly becomes the most powerful of the
barbarian kings in southeastern Europe.
Zeno, the Eastern emperor, fears the
ambitious Theodoric. To prevent the troublesome Ostrogoths from invading his
Eastern Empire, Zeno recognizes Theodoric as king of Italy" in 488. Zeno hopes
to appease Theodoric, thereby ridding himself of the Ostrogothic menace.
Theodoric immediately leads 100,000
Ostrogoths into Italy to claim his kingdom from Odoacer. By the autumn of 490,
Theodoric has captured nearly the entire peninsula. But throughout Italy,
military garrisons still hold towns for Odoacer. These bastions must be
eliminated!
* Secret Plot
Though Theodoric is himself attached to
the Arian creed, he is supported by the Catholic clergy in Italy. The clergymen
feel they will fare better under Theodoric than under Odoacer. Secret orders are
sent to the overwhelmingly Catholic citizenry throughout Italy. The Heruli and
other soldiers still loyal to Odoacer are to be dealt with once and for all!
The secret of the plot is well kept. It
is executed precisely on time. The Heruli are caught completely off guard.
Throughout Italy, Catholic civilians set upon the unsuspecting Heruli at a
predetermined hour. At ones stroke, the Italian citizenry accomplishes what the
Ostrogoths could not. This "sacrificial massacre" (as one contemporary describes
it) puts an end to Heruli as a military power once and for all.
* Ambush!
Beaten in the field, Odoacer has taken
refuge behind the strong fortifications of Raven na, north of Rome. There he is
besieged nearly three years. Early in 493, Odoacer finally surrenders. Theodoric
graciously offers to rule Italy jointly with him. A few days later on March 5,
493 Theodoric invites Odoacer to a banquet. Odoacer accepts—with disastrous
consequences. As Odoacer enters the banquet hail, two of Theodoric's men
suddenly grasp his arms. Others hidden in ambush rush forward with drawn swords.
Apparently they had not been told the identity of their intended victim, for
when they see Odoacer standing helpless before them they are panic-stricken!
The soldiers hesitate. Theodoric himself
rushes forward to do the job for them. With one powerful blow of his broadsword,
Theodoric splits Odoacer in two from his collarbone to his hip! With this piece
of treachery, Theodoric becomes the sole and undisputed master of Rome.
Heestablishes a strong Gothic kingdom in Italy. Theodoric, too, has great
respect for Roman civilization, and continues the traditional Roman system of
government.
But Theodoric and his heirs are Arians.
And for this reason, they, too, will have to be uprooted. Theodoric dies in
Ravenna on August 30, 526. He has no male issue, so his kingdom is divided among
his grandsons. Civil war soon breaks out in Italy—with dire consequences for the
Ostrogothic nation.
* New Rome
Meanwhile, Constantinople is growing in
importance. As the western part of the Roman Empire had gradually succumbed to
the barbarians, the star of the eastern capital had steadily risen. Emperor
Constantine had begun building the magnificent new capi tal of the Roman Empire
in AD. 327. He had called it Nova Roma— "New Rome." It was founded on the site
of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium. Before Byzantium became New Rome, it had
occupied the favored location on the Bosporus for more than 1,000 years.
With the fall of Rome, Constantinople and
its emperors carry on the traditions of Roman civilization. Emperor Zeno who had
made Theodoric king of Italy—is followed as emperor by Anastasius (491-518).
Anastasius is succeeded by Justin (518-527). In August 527—exactly a year after
Theodoric died heirless in Ravenna, a new emperor comes to the throne of the
Eastern Empire. The childless Justin is succeeded by his nephew and protégé
Justinian. He will rule for nearly four decades.
Justinian is 45 years old. He possesses
great intelligence and boundless energy. He is popularly called "the man who
never sleeps." Beside Justinian at the helm of state is his beautiful wife and
empress, Theodora. Justinian had married her four years earlier, in 523.
Theodora is lowborn . She is a former actress and dancer. Her father had been a
bear trainer at the Hippodrome circus. Vicious rumor declares her to have once
been a prostitute. The truth of this charge will be debated for centuries.
Despite her past. Theodora be comes a queen in every sense of the word. Her
personal morals as empress will never be called into question. For 21 years,
until her death from cancer in 548. she will live with Justinian as his faithful
spouse and adviser. Theodora is brilliant, brave and wise. Had she been
otherwise, Justinian would not have held his throne. And his historic mission—a
mission of the highest significance to the course of history—would never have
been realized.
* "Conquer!"
Justinian's career is almost ended before
it begins. Constantinople is a sports-minded city. Its people are divided in
their allegiance to different charioteers. They are called the Greens and the
Blues, according to the color of dress of their favorite jockeys. In January
532, a disturbance breaks out between the two factions. The ringleader of each
party is punished. In response, the two rival factions unite in armed revolt
against the government. Open violence erupts as the government cracks down on
both factions. The city is filled with fire, bloodshed and murder. Thousands are
slain in the rioting. The crowd cries out "Nika!" (Greek for "Conquer!").
History will thus record the event as the "Nika Riots."
Justinian's life stands in jeopardy. He
decides to abdicate, and prepares to abandon his capital by ship. But at the
last moment he is dissuaded by Empress Theodora. In a bold speech, Theodora
turns the tide of her husband's fear. "I will remain, and like the great men of
old, regard my throne as a glorious tomb," she declares. Her r firm stand
arouses new determination in Justinian. He de cides to stand his ground.
Justinian dispatches Belisarius, his
trusted and brilliant general, to i the Hippodrome with 3,000 veterans. The
riots are decisively suppressed. In one day, Belisarius slaughters 30,000!
Justinian's throne is saved. Had the Emperor been toppled, history might have
taken a much different course.
Mosaic of the imperial retinue in the choir, San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy. Laid prior to A.D. 547, detail shows Emperor Justinian. - (click to enlarge) |
* Burning Ambition
Justinian is now in a position to pursue
his one burning ambition: the recovery of the Western provinces that his
predecessors had lost to the barbarians. His dream is to restore the Roman
Empire to its full ancient grandeur—under his s own scepter! Justinian sees
himself a as rightful ruler of the whole Roe man world. But Justinian realizes
that there cannot be unity of empire without unity of religion.
Throughout the Empire—West and East
Christianity is established. But the form of Christianity is not the same
everywhere. Quarrels over basic articles of faith tear it at the unity of
Christendom. Justinian believes that a theological rapprochement will prepare
the way for the eventual political reunion of Byzantium and Italy. He views
political and ecclesiastical policy as inextricably linked. They are the two
major aspects of his envisioned Christian Empire. One of the most divisive
religious controversies centers around the old argument about the union of the
human and the divine in Jesus Christ. Some believe that Christ had only one
nature—a divine one or rather than a combined human and as divine nature, as
Catholics believe. They are called "Monophysites"—believers in one nature. The
West—led by the Pope in Rome—rejects the Monophysite doctrine, charging that it
over stresses the divine in Christ at the expense of the human. In AD. 45 1, the
Council of Chalcedon (held in what is now modern Turkey) condemns Monophysitism
as heresy, just as the Council of Nicaea had condemned Arianism in 325.
But Monophysitism persists. The Eastern
Church is torn between Catholic orthodoxy and the Monophysite doctrine. Zeno
and his successor Anastasius sympathize with the Monophysites, triggering a
schism between Constantinople and Rome. The Monophysites are powerful in the
Eastern provinces of Egypt and Syria. The Eastern emperors do not want to
endanger their control of these provinces by condemning the doctrine.
* Ecclesiastical Dilemma
Upon the accession of Justin in 518, good
relations are renewed with the Papacy. Communion is reestablished with Rome. The
Eastern prelates sign a letter of reconciliation proclaiming the decision of
Chalcedon as binding on all Christians and stressing the primacy of the Roman
See as the final arbiter of what constitutes the faith.
The authority of Chalcedon is thus
renewed. The Eastern and Western churches are, for a time, reconciled, albeit
tenuously. But this does not end the problem. Monophysitism still thrives in
many areas. Personally, Justinian is a most zealous supporter of the Council of
Chalcedon and the cause of orthodoxy. But he would like to somehow unite the
die-hard Monophysites with the Church. He seeks to placate the Monophysites
without offending Rome a difficult task. He will have but slight success.
Justinian's efforts are hampered by the
sympathies of Empress Theodora. She leans toward the Monophysite position. In
536, Theodora intrigues with Vigilius, a Roman deacon. Succumbing to an impulse
of ambition, he agrees to modify Western intransigence toward the Monophysites
in exchange for her helping him become Pope. It is said he gives Theodora a
secret guarantee that he will use his papal influence to abolish the Council of
Chalcedon. The next year, Vigilius is installed as Pope. But Theodora's hopes of
manipulating the Roman See are disappointed. Under many opposing pressures,
Vigilius vacillates and fails to offer clear concessions to the Monophysites.
For years the problem continues to plague the religious world. The situation
grows so acute that Justinian is finally prompted to convoke a general church
council. In May 553, the Second Council of Constantinople (the Fifth Ecumenical
Council) opens . It has been called in yet another attempt to reconcile the
Monophysites. The issues are complex. The Council finally settles on an
interpretation that is technically orthodox but leans a bit toward the
Monophysite position.
Few are satisfied with this compromise
formula. To the Monophysites, the new interpretation is just as unacceptable as
the old. Pope Vigilius initially refuses to accept the decrees of the Council.
But under pressure he later signs a formal statement (February 554) giving
pontifical approbation to the Council's verdict. In return, Justinian grants
Vigilius an imperial document known as the Pragmatic Sanction and permits him to
return from Constantinople to Rome. Vigilius dies on the way back. A new Pope,
Pelagius, is eleeted—with Justinian's insistence.
Justinian's Pragmatic Sanction confirms
and increases the Papacy's temporal power, and gives guidelines for regulating
civil and ecclesiastical affairs in Rome and Italy. It is issued on August 13,
554. The year 554 will become a decisive date in history for yet another
reason—the result of events in the military arena.
For the moment, the Papacy is under the
Eastern Emperor's thumb. But it is not destined to remain so. Ultimately,
Justinian's efforts in the religious sphere prove fruitless. At his death, the
Empire will still be badly divided in its religious belief. The unhealed wounds
of reigious strife between the churches of East and West will continue to
fester—coming to a head, as we shall see, in the Great Schism of 1054.
* Barbarians Smashed
While the aforementioned ecclesiastical
maneuverings are underway, events are moving swiftly ahead in the political
sphere. The persecuted Catholics in North Africa appeal to Justinian to send
troops against their Arian andal oppressors. This sparks the short-lived
Vandalic Wars. Justinian sends Belisarius—the greatest general of his age to do
the job. In 533-34, imperial armies move against the Vandals. Belisarius makes
short work of the barbarians. He receives the submission of the Vandal king
Gelimer, and North Africa is reincorporated into the Empire.
Phase Two of Justinian's Grand Design
follows immediately: the military re-conquest of Italy, the heart and mother
province of the Western Empire. The Ostrogoths have played into Justinian's
hands. In his latter years, Theodoric had begun to persecute the Catholic
Italians. Following his death, Ostrogothic cruelty toward non-Arians
intensifies. Italians look for a deliverer to uproot Arianism.
Justinian now has an excuse for invading
Italy. He sees himself as God's agent in destroying the barbarian heretics and
winning back the lost provinces of the West. If he succeeds in toppling the
barbarian usurper from the Western throne, his dream of restoring the Roman
Empire will become reality!
* Italy Regained
In 535, Belisarius fresh from victory in North Africa—arrives in Italy to take on the Ostrogoths. Italy is plunged into war.
The fighting will continue for nearly two decades. In 540, Belisarius captures
Ravenna and announces the end of the war. But the Goths soon regroup under a new
king, Totila, and again take the offensive. City after city falls to Totila,
including Rome in 546. (Totila holds the last chariot races in Rome's Circus
Maximus in 549.) In 549, Belisarius is recalled to Constantinople. In 552,
Justinian sends a strong force against Totila under the command of General
Narses. Totila is defeated and mortally wounded in the summer of 552. His body
is placed at the feet of Justinian in Constantinople.
By 554, the Gothic hold is completely
broken. The reconquest of the peninsula is complete.
Italy is regained! Italy is now firmly in
Justinian 's hands. His Pragmatic Sanction of 554 (mentioned previously)
officially restores the Italian lands taken by the Ostrogoths. Italy is again an
integral part of the Empire. Three barbarian Arian kingdoms have been uprooted
and swept away! The deadly wound of AD. 476 is healed! The ancient Roman Empire
is revived ----restored under the scepter
of Justinian. Both "legs" of the Empire—East and West—are now under his personal
control. History will memorialize his great achievement as the "Imperial
Restoration." It is a milestone in the story of mankind.
* Heir of the Caesars
Many territories have been regained.
During his reign, Justinian has doubled
the Empire's extent! The great Emperor dies on November 14, 565. He has lived 83
years and reigned 38. At his death, his restoration is ready to crumble. The
resources of the Empire are not sufficient to maintain those territories that
have been recovered. The treasury is empty. The army is scattered and ill paid.
Within a century after his death, the Empire will have lost more territory than
.Justinian had gained! Just three years after his death, the Longobardi, or
Lombards—a Germanic tribe—invade and conquer half of Italy . Again the Eastem
Empire is deprived of the greater portion of the Italian peninsula. The
continuing threat of the Empire's traditional enemy to the east Persia—further
saps Byzantium's strength. And soon, the forces unleashed by Mohammed in Arabia
will introduce yet another peril. In the meantime, the Roman court of the East
will lose much of its Western character.
For these and other reasons,
the focus of events will now shift to the West. As the
Eastern Empire founders, Papal Rome will turn its eyes toward Western Europe,
where the powerful Frankish kingdom is on the rise. Subsequent revivals of the
ancient Roman Empire will surface in France, Germany and Austria. The center
will shift away from the Mediterranean to the heart of Europe. But Justinian's
efforts are not to be slighted. His reign has signaled a rebirth of imperial
greatness. He has been a true Roman emperor, an heir of the Roman Caesars! Much
of what will be envisioned and accomplished by later conquerors who build upon
the ruins of the Roman Empire will be owed to the memory of the Grand Design of
Justinian.
The historical consequences will be major.
* Landmark in History
JUSTINIAN'S RESTORATION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE WEST IN A.D. 554 is a landmark in history.
For a brief moment, both "legs" of the old Roman Empire
East and West are under his personal control. But Justinian's history-making
restoration barely survives him.
With the great Emperor's death, the Eastern Empire, with its capital at
Byzantium, falls into a period of weakness and decline. At home, civil and
religious strife tear at the fabric of society. To the east, the Persians renew
their wars. To the west, the Germanic Lombards invade and conquer much of Italy.
Justinian's "Imperial Restoration'' crumbles into the dustbin of
history. Though dying of lethargy, the Eastern Roman Empire, long since known as
Byzantium, continues to be recognized as the eastern successor of the old Roman
Empire . This weakened eastern leg will stand precariously for another
millennium.
Meanwhile, papal Rome turns its eyes toward Western Europe. There, a
powerful kingdom to the northwest is on the rise—the kingdom of the Franks. The
Franks earlier had settled along the Rhine after migrating up the Danube River.
It will be under Frankish tutelage that the western leg of the Roman Empire will
rediscover its vitality and strength.
* The Long-Haired Kings
The Frankish tribes are ruled by a royal family of kings known as the
Merovingians. The Merovingians claim direct descent from the royal house of
ancient Troy. The Merovingian rulers possess an unusual mark of authority. All
the kings of this dynasty wear long hair.
They believe that their uncut locks are the secret of their kingly power,
reminiscent of the nazarite vow of Samson in the Old Testament (Judges 13:5;
16:17; see also Numbers 6:5).
The Merovingian dynasty had been founded by Clodion in AD. 427. But its
most famous ruler is Clovis (481-511). Later historians will consider Clovis to
have been the founder of the Frankish kingdom.
On December 25, 496, Clovis is baptized a Catholic, along with 3,000 of
his own warriors. He thereby becomes the
first Catholic king of the Franks and the only orthodox Christian
ruler in the West. Upon Clovis' death in 511, his kingdom is divided among his
sons, who further enlarge its borders. The Frankish kingdom rapidly becomes the
West's most powerful realm. With the passage of time, however, the old line of
Frankish kings grows weak. The decadent Merovingian kings succumb to luxurious
living. They will be designated by French historians as
les rois fainéants—' 'the enfeebled kings." During this period, the
real power of the Frankish kingdom lies in the hands of the court chancellors,
who are known as major domus regiae,
or "mayors of the palace."
* God's Anointed
It is now 751. Pepin (or Pippin), surnamed
Le Bref ("the Short"), holds the
office of mayor of the palace under the Merovingian king. Pepin, of course, is
also a German Frank by blood and speech. Pepin the Short is ambitious. He is
not content to be merely the king's chief minister or viceroy. He covets the
office of king itself.
Pepin asks Pope Zacharias for an opinion on the legitimacy of his bid.
The Pope replies that "it is better that the man who has the real power should
have the title of king instead of the man who has the mere title but no power."
In November 751, Archbishop Boniface, the papal legate, anoints Pepin king of
the Franks at a gathering of Frankish nobles in the Merovingian capital at
Soissons. Pepin is now "God's anointed" and the Merovingian king Childeric III
is deposed and imprisoned. His sacred flowing hair is ritually shorn by the
command of Pope Stephen II (752-757). The power of the Merovingians is broken!
Childeric is sent to a monastery for the rest of his days. The
Merovingian bloodline, however, will survive, through intermarriage, in the line
of the dukes of Hapsburg-Lorraine. The Merovingians have reigned by right of
conquest. But Pepin has now assumed the sovereignty
in the name of God. He believes it is God's will that his family rule
the Franks. Pepin accordingly styles himself
rex gratia Dei ("king by the grace of God"), a title retained by his
successors. Pepin's new dynasty will be known as the Carolingians. The name
derives from Pepin's father, Charles (Carolus) Martel, who had been mayor of the
palace before him. It had been Charles Martel ("the Hammer") who saved Europe
from the invading Saracens at Tours, in France, in October 732. By that
momentous victory, the Franks had become widely recognized as the real defenders
of Christendom. The Papacy had long since realized that Byzantium could defend
no one.
* Lombard Threat
The Church now looks to the Carolingians for protection against the
Germanic Lombards, who are occupying much of Italy—and want the rest! The
situation becomes desperate. As the Lombards threaten Rome, Pope Stephen II sets
out across the stormy Alps in November 753. His goal is Pepin's winter camp. The
Pope asks Pepin to come to his aid. The Church must be protected from the
encroachment of the Lombards!
At the same time, Pope Stephen 7 personally anoints and crowns Pepin,
and blesses Pepin's sons and heirs. The Franks answer the call Pepin invades
Italy and defeats the Lombards. He then confers the conquered Lombard territory
upon the Pope (754). This gift of rescued lands is called the "Donation of
Pepin." It cements the alliance between the Carolingians and the Church. (The
Donation of Pepin is not to be confused with the fictitious "Donation of
Constantine, a forgery also dating from about this time. This document—whose
falsity would not be proved for another 700 years—ostensibly came from the pen
of the Emperor Constantine himself early in the fourth century, when he moved to
the new capital of Constantinople. The document purports to be an offer from
Constantine to Pope Sylvester I and his successors of temporal rulership over
Rome, over Italy and over most territories of the Western world! Believed to be
genuine, the parchment carries vast implications and bolsters significantly the
prestige and authority of the Papacy.)
Emperor Charlemagne as portrayed in a 14th-century reliquary (a container for religious objects) found today in the Cathedral Treasure at Aachen. Charlemagne revived the tradition of the Roman Caesars and restored the Roman Empire in Western Europe. - (click to enlarge) |
* New King
Pepin dies in 768. His sons Charles (Karl) and Carloman jointly succeed
to the Frankish throne. In 771, Carloman dies suddenly, and Charles becomes sole
king of the Franks. Though only 29 years old Charles is an imposing figure He
most literally exudes power and authority! Charles is
7 feet tall— well over a foot
above average height and robust. He is stately and dignified in bearing, but is
known for his warmheartedness and charity. He speaks a type of Old High German.
But most important, he is a zealous and dedicated Catholic Christian!
Now in undisputed possession of the Frankish throne. Charles directs
his efforts against the enemies of his kingdom. His great goal is to reestablish
the political unity that had existed in Europe before the invasions of the fifth
century.
He first launches a campaign against the fierce Saxons, who are
threatening his frontiers . The Saxons are the last great pagan German nation.
During the next three decades, Charles will wage 18 campaigns in his costly and
bitter struggle against the stubborn Saxons. In 804 they will finally be
Christianized at the point of the sword and incorporated into his empire.
Charles also undertakes campaigns against the Bavarians, Avars, Slays, Bretons,
Arabs and 35 numerous other peoples. During his long career, he will conduct 53
expeditions and war against 12 different nations! And in the process he will
unite by conquest nearly all the lands of Western Europe into one political
unit.
* Urgent Plea
Pepin had delivered a crushing defeat to the Lombards, but he had not
totally subdued them. The Church is now threatened once more. Rome needs a
champion! In 772, Charles receives an urgent plea for aid from Pope Adrian I,
whose territories have been invaded by Desiderius, king of the Lombards. So,
Charles crosses the Alps from Geneva with two armies. In 774 he decisively
overthrows the kingdom of the Lombards, deposes Desiderius and proclaims himself
sovereign of the Lombards.
Charles is now master of Italy! Charles takes the title
Rex Francorum et Longobardorum atque Patricius Romanorum ("King of
the Franks and Lombards and Patrician of the Romans"). The famous iron crown" of
the Loinbards which will become one of the great historic symbols of Europe is
placed upon Charles' head. It will be used in subsequent centuries by Napoleon
and other sovereigns of Europe.
Charles confirms and expands the Donation made to the Papacy by his
father. This territory will later be known as the States of the Church. Italy is
again united for the first time in centuries. Charles is heralded as defender of
the Church and the guardian of the Christian faith. The Frankish monarchy and
the Papacy stand in partnership against the enemies of civilization! Charles is
now the most conspicuous ruler in Europe. History will know him as
Charlemagne—"Charles the Great."
* Papal Misconduct?
It is 795. There is a new Pope—Leo III.---in Rome. He immediately
recognizes Charles as patricius of
the Romans. By now, Western Christendom fully recognizes the bishop of Rome as
its head. But there are elements within the city of Rome itself that wish to see
Leo deposed and another candidate crowned as Pope in his stead.
In the spring of 799, Pope Leo is accused of misconduct. Adultery,
perjury and simony are among the charges. He is driven out of Rome by an
insurrection, and is granted refuge at the court of Charlemagne, protector of
the Holy See. Charlemagne reserves judgment, and has Leo escorted back to
Rome. In November 800, Charlemagne himself comes to Rome to investigate the
charges. A bishop's commission of inquiry into Leo's conduct is set up.
Charlemagne presides over the tribunal.
Pope Leo swears on the Gospels that he is innocent of the crimes
alleged against him. The judgment of the tribunal is in his favor. Leo is
formally cleared and reinstated on December 23. On the same day, emissaries from
Harun al-Rashid, caliph of Baghdad, arrive in Rome with the keys to the Holy
Sepulchre in Jerusalem. (Jerusalem lies within the extensive domains of the
caliph.) The keys are officially presented to Charlemagne. This act symbolizes
the Moslem caliph's recognition of Charlemagne as protector of Christians and
Christian properties.
* Central Event
Charlemagne remains in Rome for the Christmas holidays. On Christmas
Day, A.D. 800, the king of the Franks attends a service in St. Peter's Basilica
on Vatican Hill. The stage is now set for one of the
great scenes of all history. Charlemagne kneels before the altar in
worship. There is a dramatic hush in the church. As the great king rises, Pope
Leo without warning, suddenly turns around and places a golden crown on the
monarch's head! Immediately the assembled people cry in unison: "Long life and
victory to Charles Augustus, crowned by God, great and peace-giving Emperor of
the Romans!"
The Pope has crowned Charlemagne as
imperator Romanorum—"Emperor of the Romans"! Something profound has
occurred. The West once more has an emperor!
Historians will look back on this as the central event of the entire Middle
Ages.
Coronation of Charlemagne in Rome by Pope Leo III in A.D. 800 is the central event of the Middle Ages. - (click to enlarge) |
* Christian Caesar
The coronation of Charlemagne marks the restoration of the Western
Roman Empire—the first revival of Roman Europe since Justinian. Charlemagne is
now officially a successor of the Roman emperors. The tradition of the Roman
Caesars is revived. In Charlemagne, Western Europe now has a Christian Caesar—a
Roman emperor born of German race! The
act also demonstrates that the memory of the once-great Ros man Empire still
lives as a vital tradition in the hearts of Europeans. Historians will view
Charlemagne' s coronation as the beginning of what will be known as the Holy
Roman Empire. The political foundation of the Middle Ages has been laid!
Charlemagne is ruler of nearly all the territories that had once
constituted the Western Roman Empire. He has more than
doubled the territory he had inherited from his father and brother. All
France, nearly all of Germany and Austria, and all of Italy except the kingdom
of Naples are his! Under Charlemagne's scepter Western Europe for the first time
in centuries has something approaching unity. A new Roman Empire—a new
Europe—has been born!
In 803, Charlemagne will stamp on his seal the words
Renovatio Romani Imperii —"Renewal
of the Roman Empire."
* Papal "Coup"
There is yet another significance to the events of December 25, A.D.
800. Charlemagne has received the imperial crown
at the hands of the Pope! The populace see it as having come from
God. The message is clear to all: The imperial crown is a
papal gift. The kingdoms of this
earth belong to the bishop of Rome; they are his to give and to take away!
This assertion will often be challenged in following centuries, and
will have tragic consequences when kings and Popes wage war against each other.
But it leaves an indelible impression on the minds of Europeans. Charlemagne has
been taken unawares. He is reported to have grumbled that he would not have gone
to church on that day if he had known the Pope's intentions.
The Emperor is not unhappy about being emperor. His misgivings are over
the manner of the coronation. He has
won his empire on the battlefield through military genius; he does not
owe it to a Pope. Yet Leo has made it appear so. Whatever his doubts,
Charlemagne makes no protest. He quietly accepts the imperial crown from Leo.
The Pope has cleverly executed a "coup." In the eyes of all, the
Papacy has been symbolically exalted above the authority of the secular power. A
great legal precedent has been set. Charlemagne holds no grudge. Pope and
Emperor have too many interests in common to permit ill-feeling to exist. There
has been a "marriage" formally linking the spiritual power of the Pope with the
temporal power of the Emperor. The two are joint sovereigns on earth.
* New Society
As head of the recreated empire of =the West, Charlemagne presides over
a new society born of the union of Roman and German elements. Charlemagne is a
German, but he is inspired with the spirit of Rome.
The Emperor organizes his empire on the pattern of the old Roman model.
He prizes the traditions of ancient Roman civilization. His Romano-Germanic
society will set a precedent for future European monarchs.
Charlemagne's capital is the German city of Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle).
Following his coronation, the Emperor spends the remaining years of his reign
there in comparative quiet. He becomes a patron of learning and the arts,
importing scholars from throughout Europe to study and teach at his court.
In 812—two years before his death—Charlemagne receives news from the
East. Eastern Emperor Michael I at Constantinople has swallowed his pride and
recognized Charlemagne as co-emperor. The equality of the two halves of the
Empire is now official. For all intents and purposes, however, the two "legs" of
the Empire are completely autonomous. A plan had been conceived shortly after
Charlemagne's coronation to combine his empire with the Byzantine empire through
his marriage to the Eastern Empress Irene (780-802). But the plan failed when
she was overthrown.
* "King Father of Europe"
During the last four years of his life, Charlemagne is subject to
frequent fevers. On the 28th day of January, in the year 814, the great Emperor
dies at nine o'clock in the morning. His death occurs in the 72nd year of his
life, and the 47th of his reign. The Emperor is buried in the church
he built at Aachen, sitting upright with sword in hand. His mammoth achievements
will be lauded in popular legend and poetry for centuries to come. Charlemagne
has not ended an age; he has begun one. He will be called
rex pater Europae—"King father of Europe." He has shown all Europeans
an ideal. He has bequeathed to them a common cultural and political tradition .
Even in the distant 20th century, men will point to his model as a blueprint for
European unity. Charlemagne has left his mark
on European history as no other man. He has, in large measure,
determined the political fate of Western Europe.
* Catastrophe and Revival
Justinian's "Imperial Restoration" in AD. 554 fell apart almost
immediately upon his death. Charlemagne's empire survives him by only one
generation. This very cyclical pattern of revival and disintegration will be
often repeated in centuries to come.
Charlemagne is succeeded by his son Louis the Pious. The well-meaning
but weak Louis is dominated by his wife and by churchmen. He possesses no
qualifications for governing the empire to which he succeeds. Louis dies in 840.
Civil war then breaks out among his three sons. In 843, the Treaty of Verdun
settles the quarrels among Louis' sons. It divides Charlemagne's empire into
three parts—one for each of his grandsons. In short order, however, Europe
crumbles into scattered feudal states. The Carolingian Empire disappears. The
political unity of Christian Europe becomes a thing of the past.
In its weakness, Western Europe falls victim to invasions by Northmen,
Saracens and Magyars. The Continent is again a political shambles.
* Chaos in Rome
The Papacy is also in trouble. The Holy See is increasingly torn by
factionalism. Intrigue becomes rampant. The papal office is bought and sold and
occasionally obtained by murder. The corruption and immorality of the Papacy
during this period will prompt later historians to call it a "pornocracy." The
infamous "Cadaver Synod." serves as a bizarre illustration of the turmoil in
Rome.
The body of former Pope Formosus (891-896) is exhumed by newly elected
Pope Stephen VI late in 896 and put on trial, charged with treason! The corpse
is dressed in papal regalia, assaulted with questions and accusations, then
dragged through the streets of Rome with a mob cheering on!
The next year, Pope Stephen is himself overthrown, imprisoned and
strangled. Sergius III, pope from 904 to 911, attains the office after ordering
the murder of his predecessor. His life of open sin with the noted prostitute
Marozia brings widespread disrepute upon the Papacy. Sergius fathers a number of
sons by Marozia, among them the future Pope John XI. Sergius' reign begins a
period known as "The Rule of the Harlots."
* New Champion
Chaos reigns in Rome—and throughout Europe. The situation is grave. It
becomes clear to many that the disunity and weakness in Europe is tied closely
to the disunity and weakness of the Church—and vice versa. Perceptive churchmen
realize that they must call in a strong prince to again unite Europe. Western
civilization must be saved!
With the Frankish realm in eclipse, Rome must look elsewhere for a
champion to resurrect the tradition of imperial unity. When the next great
Emperor appears in Western Europe in the middle of the 10th century, he will not
be a Frank but a Saxon German. As medieval Germany rises to a predominant
position in the West, the dignity of the title of Roman Emperor will become
permanently connected with that of the king of Germany.
The first German Reich is about to appear on the scene!
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In the public interest. Text by: Keith W. Stump
