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10.1 Understanding Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)10.1.1 ProblemYou want a fundamental understanding of PKI. 10.1.2 SolutionRead the following discussion for an overview of basic PKI concepts. For a more detailed treatment, we recommend the book Planning for PKI: Best Practices Guide for Deploying Public Key Infrastructure by Russ Housley and Tim Polk (John Wiley & Sons). 10.1.3 DiscussionOne of the big motivators behind public key cryptography is that there is some hope for securely exchanging encryption keys in an insecure medium. However, that is not as easy as it sounds. If used in a naïve manner, the basic public key methods for communication are susceptible to a man-in-the-middle attack, in which the two parties end up talking to an attacker who relays messages, instead of to each other (we discuss this attack in Recipe 7.1). Man-in-the-middle attacks are possible because public key cryptography in and of itself provides no means of establishing trust. PKI provides the means to establish trust by binding public keys and identities together in a way that gives reasonable assurance that you are communicating securely with the expected entity. Using public key cryptography,[1] you can be sure that if you encrypt data with a public key, only someone with the corresponding private key can decrypt it. If you simply exchange public keys over an insecure medium, there is no easy way to be sure that the public keys you receive belong to the people you think they do. In other words, traditional public key cryptography does not establish trust between entities. That is where PKI comes in.
One solution to the trust problem is to exchange public keys over a secure medium (or to authenticate them in a secure medium by comparing cryptographic hashes of the key, often called a fingerprint). The problem with this solution is that it is not very scalable. If parties need to exchange public keys offline to communicate securely, they might as well exchange symmetric keys and save themselves the computational effort. The basic idea behind public key infrastructure is to introduce a trusted third party to the mix. The idea is that we somehow acquire the public key of the trusted third party over a secure medium. In addition, each entity registers its public key with that trusted party, along with information about that entity. Basically, the trusted party is expected to ensure that the public key really does belong to the registrant and all of the associated data is accurate. If the authority approves, it signs your certificate, which is a piece of data containing your public key along with other identifying information. Once your certificate has been signed, you can hand that certificate to anyone, and as long as that person has securely obtained the authority's public key, he can take your certificate and validate it by checking the authority's signature. As a result, a client can authenticate a server, even when the server's public key is obtained over an insecure medium (see Figure 10-1). Figure 10-1. Client-server key exchange For example, suppose you were to receive through an insecure medium a certificate purporting to belong to Microsoft. If that certificate is signed by VeriSign (the most popular trusted third party), and if you have previously obtained VeriSign's public key in a secure manner, you can determine whether the certificate really does belong to Microsoft. PKI allows you to make many secure connections by exchanging keys over an insecure medium after receiving a single key over a secure medium. 10.1.3.1 CertificatesCertificates contain a wealth of information that can be used to tie the public key inside the certificate to an entity (see Figure 10-2), either an individual or an organization. Certificates have the name of the entity, called the distinguished name in the PKI world. Server-side certificates also usually contain the fully qualified domain name of the server. They have an expiration date, which means you will have to go back and get a new certificate periodically (actually, another reason is to minimize windows of vulnerability). Figure 10-2. Contents of a certificate A digital certificate contains information about the person or organization to whom it was issued (the subject) as well as information about the organization that issued the certificate (the issuer). The issuer signs the certificate with its private key, and the certificate may contain all of the information necessary to validate that signature, including its public key. However, such information should not actually be used to validate the signature on the certificate. After all, anyone could create a key pair to use in signing, place it in the certificate, and claim it is from the issuer. Certificates also have a serial number that is unique, at least across all certificates from a given issuer. The serial number can be used to identify a certificate quickly. The basic idea here is that the issuer signs the certificate with its private key, so anyone who has securely obtained the issuer's public key will be able to validate the authenticity of the entire certificate. The entity to whom the certificate was issued cannot change data in it, such as the expiration date. If she tries, the signature will not check out. Clearly, the issuer is vouching that the information in the certificate is correct when it signs. If you trust the issuer's validation of the core information, you should be able to trust its signature. Once a certificate has been issued, it is generally put into production. The entity with the certificate gives it to parties that wish to communicate. Other people can validate the certificate by checking the signature, assuming that they have securely obtained the public key of the issuer. They can encrypt data to the public key found in the certificate, and only the entity to which the certificate was issued should have the corresponding private key needed to decrypt the data. The issuer does not even have a copy of the private key. Generally, the subject generates a key pair (a public key and an associated private key) and bundles the public key along with a bunch of information into a certificate-signing request. The certification authority (often called simply a CA) or its designate authenticates the data, perhaps requiring interaction from the subject. Then, when it is confident enough, the CA will create the final certificate, sign it, and give it back to the subject. 10.1.3.2 Certification authoritiesA CA is an organization or company that issues certificates. A CA takes on the responsibility of ensuring that the certificates it issues are legitimate. Nonetheless, this does not mean that CAs are infallible. For example, there have been publicly documented instances where VeriSign has issued certificates in Microsoft's name to someone not affiliated with Microsoft. There are two basic types of CA:
Public CAs commonly issue certificates for public web sites requiring encryption and authentication, often for e-commerce. For such operations, it is important that the customer transmits her information to the site that is supposed to be receiving it, without worrying that someone else is obtaining the information. This is why server certificates generally store the domain name of the server: if you think you're buying a book from Amazon.com, it's important to see a certificate presented that includes Amazon's domain name. If you check only the CA's signature and don't check that the domain name is correct, you have no way to tell that you are using the right public key. Instead, you could have checked the signature on a valid certificate issued to Fred from Fred's Mattress Warehouse. For a private CA, verifying the identity of a subject is often simple because the identity of employees can generally be established quite easily. The human resources department at a company generally has proof of identity and right to work for each of its employees. In such a scenario, the human resources department is said to be acting as a registration authority (RA), which is the organization that actually does background validation. Sometimes, this is the same organization as the CA, and sometimes the CA will farm out the work to other people. For example, VeriSign uses a set of companies as RAs. For a public CA (or its designated RA), verifying the identity of a subject is considerably more difficult than it is for a private CA. The information required from the subject to prove its identity to the CA depends on the type of certificate being issued, and on whether the subject is an individual or a business. For example, if you get an email digital certificate, a CA may only care that you can respond to email at the given address. On the other hand, for a server-side certificate, individuals should need to provide proof of identity, and businesses should need to provide various pieces of corporate paperwork. Because most CAs are out to make money first and serve the public second, checks on identities are often not as thorough as they could be. In addition, CAs do not assume any liability for when they are wrong; in other words, they provide no concrete guarantees. Running a private CA is quite appealing for applications that expect to see limited deployment that is explicitly controlled by the software vendor. OpenSSL can be used to run a CA, but doing so is outside the scope of this book (it's really a system administration task, not a programming task). Note, however, that the topic of running a small CA is covered in the book Network Security with OpenSSL (O'Reilly & Associates). 10.1.3.3 Certificate revocationWhat happens if an attacker steals an entity's private key? When that happens, the attacker can decrypt anything intended for the entity. The attacker can also forge digital signatures as if they came from that entity. In short, the attacker can masquerade as the rightful owner of the certificate. Once a certificate has been issued, it is normally put into production, where it will generally be distributed to many clients. If an attacker compromises the associated private key, the attacker now has the ability to use the certificate even though it doesn't belong to the attacker. Assuming that the proper owner is aware of the compromise, a new certificate with a new key pair should be obtained and put into use. Now there will be two certificates out there for the same entity, and both are technically valid because they both contain a valid CA signature. However, one of them clearly should not be trusted. The compromised certificate will eventually expire, but in the meantime, how will the world at large know not to trust it? The answer lies in something called a certificate revocation list (CRL). A CRL (shown in Figure 10-3) contains a list of all of the revoked certificates a CA has issued that have yet to expire. When a certificate is revoked, the CA is declaring that the certificate should not be trusted. Figure 10-3. Clients should retrieve CRLs from the CA that issued a certificate Bandwidth is a significant concern when distributing CRLs, because clients need to have reasonably current revocation information to properly validate a certificate. In an ideal world, the client would get up-to-date revocation information as soon as the CA gets the information. Unfortunately, many CAs distribute CRLs only as a huge list. Downloading a huge list before validating each certificate could easily add unacceptable latency and would place undue load on the server when there are many clients. As a result, CAs tend to update their CRLs regularly, but not immediately after they learn about key compromises. Included in the revocation list is the date and time that the next update will be published, so once an application has downloaded the list, it does not need to do so again until the one it has expires. Clients are encouraged to cache the information, but doing so may not be feasible if the client has limited storage space. This scheme could leave a window of vulnerability during which the CA knows about a revoked certificate, yet the client does not. If a CA publishes the list too frequently, it will require massive amounts of bandwidth to sustain the frequent demand for the list. On the other hand, if a CA publishes the list too infrequently, certificates that need to be revoked will still be considered valid until the next list is published. Each CA needs to strike a balance with the community it is serving to determine how frequently to publish its list. One solution to this problem is for the CA to break up its CRLs into segments. To do this, the CA specifies ranges of certificate serial numbers that each CRL would contain. For example, the CA could create a different CRL for each 1,000 serial numbers. Therefore, the first CRL would be for serial numbers 1 through ,1000; the second would be for serial numbers 1,001 through 2,000; and so on. This solution does require forethought and planning on the part of the CA, but it reduces the size of the CRLs that the CA issues. Another solution is to use "delta CRLs," where a CA periodically publishes incremental changes to its CRL list. Delta CRLs still require the client to cache CRL information or to download everything anew each time a certificate needs to be validated. Another problem with CRLs is that while there is a standard means to publish them (formally specified in RFC 3280), that mechanism is optional, and many of the more common public CAs (e.g., VeriSign) do not distribute their CRLs this way. There are also other standard methods for distributing CRLs, but the overall problem is that there is no single method, so many software applications do not actually make use of CRLs at all. Of the various methods of distribution, LDAP is most commonly used as a repository for CRLs. Yet another problem is that multiple applications on the same machine or even the local network could be interested in the same data and require it to be queried from the CA multiple times within a short period. Problems with the distribution of CRLs currently make them difficult to manage, and what is worse, few applications even make the attempt. This essentially makes CRLs useless and leaves no way for a CA to revoke a certificate effectively once it has been issued. Ideally, CAs need to standardize on a method for distribution, and both CAs and applications need to start making use of it. Another potentially serious problem that has not been addressed is what happens when a root CA's certificate needs to be revoked. A CRL is not suited to handle this, and neither are applications. The reason is that a parent (a CA) issues CRLs for its children, but a root CA has no parent. It is possible for a CA to revoke its own certificate as long as it still has its private key. For purposes of signing a CRL containing its own certificate, the CA's compromised key can still be trusted. Unfortunately, given the poor state of CRL handling in existing software in general, it is not too likely that this situation will be handled very well, if it is handled at all. A classic example of how poorly CRLs are supported is what happened in early 2001 when VeriSign issued two class 3 code-signing certificates to Microsoft Corporation. The problem was that Microsoft never requested the certificates—someone claiming to represent Microsoft did. Given the process failure, VeriSign handled the situation in the appropriate manner and published the serial numbers of the certificates in a new CRL. Microsoft's handling of the situation really demonstrated the flaws with CRLs. It quickly became clear that Microsoft's software, while distributing VeriSign's root certificates and using their services, did not check VeriSign's CRLs. Microsoft issued a patch to deal with the problem of the revoked certificates, but the patch did nothing to fix the problem of their software not utilizing the CRLs at all; it simply special-cased the bad certificates. Had Microsoft's software made proper use (or, arguably, any use at all) of CRLs, no patch would have been necessary and the problem would have ended with VeriSign's publication of its CRL (minus the inherent window of vulnerability). It could be argued that if a major software company like Microsoft can't handle CRLs properly, how can smaller software companies and individual software developers be expected to do so? While this argument may be faulty in a number of respects, it is still a question worth asking; the answer, at least for now, is not one that we would all like to hear. PKI is still relatively immature, and much work needs to be done to remedy not only the issues that we have discussed here, but also others that we leave as an exercise for the reader to explore. While CRLs may not be the ultimate answer to revoking a certificate, they are, for the time being, the most widely implemented means by which to do so. It is worth taking the time to ensure that your software is capable of dealing with the technology and provides for a reasonably safe and pleasant experience for your users. To complicate matters more, the standard CRL specification has changed over time, and both the old format (Version 1) and the new format (Version 2) are still actively used. OpenSSL supports both Version 1 and Version 2 CRLs, but there is much software still in common use that does not yet support Version 2, and certainly old legacy applications that are no longer being developed or supported never will, even though they continue to be used. The major addition that Version 2 brings to the table is extensions. The standard defines four extensions that are used primarily to indicate the following:
An indirect CRL is one that is not necessarily issued by a CA, but instead by a third party. Such a CRL can contain certificates from multiple CAs. The extension, then, is used to indicate which CA issued the certificate that has been revoked. Currently, indirect CRLs are not very common, particularly because CRLs in Version 2 format are not widely supported. 10.1.3.4 Online Certificate Status ProtocolThe Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP), formally specified in RFC 2560, is a relatively new addition to PKI. Its primary aim is to address some of the distribution problems that have traditionally plagued CRLs. Using OCSP, an application makes a connection to an OCSP responder and requests the status of a certificate by passing the certificate's serial number. The responder replies with one of these responses:
An OCSP responder is typically operated by a CA or by a trusted third party that is authorized by the CAs for which it provides information. The client must trust the OCSP responder in a manner similar to a root CA. More importantly, there is only one way to revoke an OCSP's trusted status, and it is not pretty. If an OCSP responder is compromised, every client that makes use of that responder must be manually reconfigured either to not trust it or to use a new certificate that can be trusted. While it is theoretically possible to revoke an OCSP responder's certificate, it is essentially impossible to do so in practice. A client's request includes information about the issuer of the certificate for which it is requesting status information, so it is possible for a single OCSP responder to provide certificate revocation information for more than a single CA. Unfortunately, one of the problems of OCSP responders when run by a third party is that the information they are serving can become stale. At the very least, a delay often occurs between the time that a CA revokes a certificate and the time the responder receives the information from the CA, particularly if the responder is relying on CRLs published by its serviceable CAs to supply its information. Currently, OCSP is not nearly as widely recognized or implemented as CRLs are, so unless you know that all your users will have an OCSP responder available, it is generally best to use the technology to supplement CRLs rather than to replace them completely. OCSP introduces a significant potential for three types of attacks:
Perhaps what is most disturbing about these vulnerabilities is the fact that although the RFC notes each one nothing was done to prevent them when formalizing the standard. There are only a handful of public OCSP responders available at the time of this writing, as listed by OpenValidation.org. The small number of responders is a clear indication that OCSP is not widely deployed. While it is an attempt at resolving the problems of CRLs, we feel that the additional problems it creates, at least in its current state, outweigh the problems that it solves. Certainly, it cannot be reasonably considered a replacement for CRLs. In its defense, an IETF draft was submitted in March 2001 for Version 2 of the protocol, which addresses some of the issues, but this has not yet completed the standards process, and is far from being deployed. We cover use of OCSP using OpenSSL in Recipe 10.12. 10.1.3.5 Certificate hierarchiesA certificate that is issued by a CA can be used to issue and sign another certificate, if the issued certificate is created with the appropriate permissions to do so. In this way, certificates can be chained. At the root of the chain is the root CA's certificate. Because it is at the root of the chain and there is no other authority to sign its certificate, the root CA signs its own certificate. Such a certificate is known as a self-signed certificate. There is no way to digitally verify the authenticity of a self-signed certificate because the issuer and the subject are the same, which is why it has become common practice to provide these certificates with the software that uses them. When self-signed certificates are included with an application, the software author generally obtains them by some physical means. For example, Thawte (now a part of VeriSign) provides its root certificates on its web site, free and clear, but strongly advises anyone making use of them to confirm the certificate fingerprints with Thawte via telephone before using or distributing them. To verify the authenticity and validity of a given certificate, each certificate in the chain must also be verified, from the issuer of the certificate all the way up to the root certificate. If any certificate in the chain is invalid, each certificate below it in the chain must also be considered invalid. Invalid certificates typically have either expired or been revoked (perhaps due to certificate theft). A certificate is also most certainly considered invalid if it has been tampered with or if the signatures on the certificate do not match the ones that should have been used to sign it, indicating that an attacker has tampered with the contents. The decision about whether to employ a certificate hierarchy more complex than a single root CA depends on many factors. These factors and their trade-offs are well beyond the scope of this book. Entire books have been devoted to PKI, and we strongly recommend that you consult one or more of them to assist you in making an informed decision. Again, we strongly recommend Planning for PKI, cited at the beginning of this recipe. 10.1.3.6 X.509 certificatesThe most widely accepted format for certificates is the X.509 format, first introduced in 1988. There are three versions of the format: X.509v1, X.509v2, and X.509v3. The most recent revision to the standard was introduced in 1996, and most, if not all, modern software now supports it. A large number of changes were made between X.509v1 and X.509v3, but perhaps the most significant feature introduced in the X.509v3 standard is its support for extensions. Version 3 extensions allow a certificate to contain additional fields beyond those defined by previous versions of the X.509 standard. The additional fields may be standard in X.509v3, such as the basicConstraints or keyUsage extensions, or they may be completely nonstandard, perhaps recognized by only a single application. Each extension has a name for its field, a designation indicating whether the extension is critical or not, and a value to be associated with the extension field. When an extension is designated as being critical, software that does not recognize the extension must reject the certificate as being invalid. If the extension is noncritical and unknown to the certificate user, it may be ignored. The X.509v3 standard defines numerous extensions in an effort to consolidate the more frequently appearing extensions implemented by third parties. One such example is the permissible uses for a certificate—for example, whether a certificate is allowed to sign another certificate or is usable in an SSL server. If each application were to create its own disparate extensions, the information in those extensions either would be unusable by other applications or would significantly complicate the process of validating a certificate because it would need to recognize a virtually unlimited number of different extensions that all mean essentially the same thing. Of the standard extensions defined by X.509v3, there are only four that are well supported and in widespread use. Only one of them must be designated critical according to the standard, while the other three may or may not be. For now, we will not delve into the details of the X.509 format, but in Recipe 10.4 through Recipe 10.7 we will discuss what you need to know to properly validate a certificate. 10.1.4 See Also
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