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(1) Theodor Lachner

(b Rain am Lech, Upper Bavaria, 1788; d Munich, 23 May 1877). Composer and organist. He was court organist in Munich, a position he held until his death. He enjoyed a reputation as a composer of lieder and choral works, his quartets for men’s voices being especially popular.

(2) Franz Paul Lachner

(b Rain am Lech, 2 April 1803; d Munich, 20 Jan 1890). Composer and conductor, brother of (1) Theodor Lachner. He was the most celebrated member of the family. He received his first lessons in the piano and organ from his father, Anton Lachner, the city’s organist. On his father’s death in 1822, he went to Munich, where he scraped a living as an organist, music teacher and instrumentalist in the Isartor theatre orchestra. In 1823 he competed successfully for the post of organist at the Lutheran church in Vienna, where he was able to complete his musical education with Simon Sechter and the Abbé Stadler. He moved in the circle that included Schubert and Moritz von Schwind, and also came to know Beethoven. In 1827 he became assistant conductor at the Kärntnertortheater, and in 1829 was appointed its chief conductor. After an unsuccessful attempt to establish himself in Berlin, Lachner returned to Munich in 1836, where he quickly won a position of prominence in musical life. He was appointed conductor of the Munich Hofoper, directed the concerts of the Musikalische Akademie and also conducted the Königliche Vokalkapelle. He directed the music festivals of Munich in 1855 and 1863, and shared in directing the Salzburg Festival in 1855 and the Aachen festivals in 1861 and 1870. In 1852 he was appointed Generalmusikdirektor and in 1862 was awarded an honorary PhD at the University of Munich. His manifold activities came to an abrupt end in 1864 with Wagner’s arrival in the city. His retirement, for which he applied in 1865, was accepted at first in the form of a holiday and became effective only in 1868, when Wagner’s immediate influence in Munich had long since declined; the grateful city made Lachner an honorary citizen in 1883.

Lachner was prominent in the intellectual life of his time, being a friend of David L. Strauss, Eduard Mörike and Felix Dahn. Among his most important pupils were Joseph Rheinberger and Franz Wüllner. A prolific composer, he took Beethoven and Schubert as his models but was also influenced by Spohr, Mendelssohn and Meyerbeer. He wrote many craftsmanlike works, of which the opera Catarina Cornaro (1841), the seventh orchestral suite op.190 and the Requiem op.146 (revised 1872) in particular had great and lasting success. His other contributions to the musical life in Munich were as conductor of the Munich Opera orchestra, which he successfully prepared for the technical demands of Wagner’s operas, and in raising the standards of the public’s musical taste. His performances of opera and of works by Beethoven were considered exemplary. It was impossible for Lachner to warm to Wagner’s music, and personal confrontations with Wagner and his circle did not improve the relationship between the two men. Despite this antagonism, which finally deprived him of the fruits of his work in Munich, Lachner showed his magnanimity in 1873 by repeating a suggestion he had made nine years earlier, that Wagner be awarded the Royal Maximilian Order – this time successfully.

WORKS

(selective list)

for complete list, see Stetter; MSS in D-Mbs

stage

Die Bürgschaft (op, 3, K. von Biedenfeld, after F. von Schiller), Budapest, Városí Színház, 30 Oct 1828

Lanassa (incid music), Vienna, Hofburg, c1830

Alidia (op, 3, O. Prechtler, after E. Bulwer-Lytton: The Last Days of Pompeii), Munich, Hofoper, 12 April 1839

Catarina Cornaro, Königin von Cypern (tragische Oper, 4, J.-H. Vernoy de Saint-Georges), Munich, Hofoper, 3 Dec 1841, vs (Mainz, 1842)

Benvenuto Cellini (op, 4, H.A. Barbier and A.F.L. de Wailly), Munich, Hofoper, 7 Oct 1849

König Ödipus (incid music, Sophocles, trans. Donner and Minkwitz), Munich, Hofoper, 18 Nov 1852

Addns to ops by Spohr, Auber, Cherubini, Lindpaintner; festival music

other vocal

Die vier Menschenalter (cant., J.G. Seidel), solo vv, chorus, orch, op.31 (Vienna, 1829); 2 other cants.

Moses (orat, E. von Bauernfeld), solo vv, chorus, orch, op.45, 1833

8 masses; Requiem; Stabat mater; numerous smaller sacred works

Numerous partsongs, male, female and mixed choruses; numerous songs, 2–3vv, pf; songs, 1v, hn/vc, pf; c200 songs, 1v, pf

orchestral

8 syms.: no.1, E, op.32 (Vienna, 1828); no.2, F, 1833; no.3, d, op.41 (Vienna, 1834); no.4, E, 1834; no.5 ‘Preis-Symphonie’, c, op.52 (Vienna, 1835); no.6, D, op.56 (Vienna, 1837); no.7, d, op.58, 1839; no.8, g, op.100 (Mainz, 1851)

7 suites: no.1, d, op.113 (Mainz, 1861); no.2, e, op.115 (Mainz, 1862); no.3, f, op.122 (Mainz, 1864); no.4, E, op.129 (Mainz, 1865); no.5, c, op.135 (Mainz, 1868); no.6, C, op.150 (Mainz, 1871); no.7, d, op.190 (Mainz, 1881)

2 hp concs.: no.1, c, 1828, no.2, d, 1833; fl conc., d, 1832

Ball-Suite, D, op.170 (Leipzig, 1874); other works

chamber music without piano

Nonet, F, fl, ob, cl, hn, bn, vn, va, vc, db, 1875

Andante, A, 4 hn, 2 tpt, 3 trbn, 1833

Octet, B, fl, ob, 2 cl, 2 hn, 2 bn, op.156 (Leipzig, 1850)

Septet, E, fl, cl, hn, vn, va, vc, db, 1824

2 qnts, fl, ob, cl, hn, bn: no.1, F, 1823; no.2, E, 1829

String Quintet, c, op.121, 1834 (Mainz, 1864)

6 str qts: no.1, b, op.75 (Mainz, 1843); no.2, A, op.76 (Mainz, 1843); no.3, E, op.77 (Mainz, 1843); no.4, d, op.120 (Mainz, 1849); no.5, G, op.169, 1849 (Mainz, 1875); no.6, e, op.173, 1850 (Mainz, 1875)

Serenade, G, 4 vc (Vienna, 1829); Elegie, f, 5 vc, op.160, 1834 (Leipzig, c1870), op.29

chamber music with piano

2 pf qnts: no.1, a, op.139 (Mainz, 1868), no.2, c, op.145 (Mainz, 1869)

2 pf trios: no.1, E, 1828, no.2, c, 1829; trio, pf, cl, hn, B, 1830

Other works for vn/vc, pf; vc, pf; hn, pf

other works

Pf 4 hands: 2 sonatas, fantasia, variations, Momento capriccioso, Nocturne (after Weber: Oberon)

Pf solo: 3 sonatas, 3 rondos, 3 scherzos, suite, fantasia, variations, short pieces

Org: 3 sonatas (Munich, 1876): f, op.175, c, op.176, a, op.177; preludes and fugues

Hp: 3 Lieder ohne Worte, 1856

(3) Ignaz Lachner

(b Rain am Lech, 11 Sept 1807; d Hanover, 24 Feb 1895). Composer and conductor, brother of (1) Theodor Lachner. He received his earliest musical training in Augsburg and Munich, and then went to Vienna to study with his brother (2) Franz Lachner, whom he succeeded as organist of the Lutheran church there. In 1828 he became assistant Kapellmeister of the Vienna Hofoper, moving to Stuttgart three years later to become court musical director. He moved to Munich in 1836, becoming assistant Kapellmeister of the Hofoper in 1842. He became principal Kapellmeister of the Hamburg theatre in 1853, but accepted an appointment as court Kapellmeister in Stockholm five years later. From 1861 until his retirement in 1875 he was chief conductor in Frankfurt. His most significant compositions are his chamber music and dramatic works, of which the Alpenszenen enjoyed considerable success in their day; a complete list of his works is not yet available.

WORKS

(selective list)

Der Geisterturm (op), Stuttgart, 1837

Die Regenbrüder (op, E. Mörike and H. Kurz), Stuttgart, 1839

Loreley (op), Munich, Hofoper, 1846, vs (Heidelberg, c1846)

Alpenszenen (all performed Munich, Hofoper, c1850): ’s letzti Fensterln (J.G. Seidel and W. von Kobell); Drei Jahrln nach’m letzten Fensterln (Seidl); Die beiden Freier; Der Freiherr als Wildschütz; Der Ju-Schroa

Deutsche Vesper, chorus, orch, org; songs, 1v, pf

7 str qts [2 for 3 vn, va; 1 for 4 vn]; 6 pf trios; 3 sonatinas, 2/3 vn; Sonata, vn, pf

7 pf sonatas; Sonata, pf 4 hands; Kindersinfonie, pf, 9 children’s insts

1. Terminology and origins.

(4) Vinzenz [Vincenz] Lachner

(b Rain am Lech, 19 July 1811; d Karlsruhe, 22 Jan 1893). Conductor, brother of (1) Theodor Lachner. He first worked as music tutor to a Polish count in Poznań and then went to Vienna at the invitation of his brother (2) Franz Lachner. In 1834 he succeeded Franz as Kapellmeister at the Kärntnertortheater, and took up the post of Kapellmeister in Mannheim two years later. In 1842 he directed a season of the Deutsche Operngesellschaft in London. He retired to Karlsruhe in 1872 and taught music at the conservatory there after 1884.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PEM (S. Döhring)

F. Stetter: ‘Verzeichnis der Werke von Franz Lachner’, in M. Chop: Zeitgenössische Tondichter, ii (Leipzig, 1890)

L.K. Mayer: Franz Lachner als Instrumental-Komponist (diss., U. of Munich, 1922)

A. Würz: Franz Lachner als dramatischer Komponist (diss., U. of Munich, 1927)

F. Walter, ed.: Briefe von Vincenz Lachner an Hermann Levi (Mannheim, 1931)

G. Wagner: Franz Lachner als Liederkomponist, nebst einem biographischen Teil und dem thematischen Verzeichnis sämtlicher Lieder (Giebing, 1970)

H. Federhofer: ‘Briefe von Franz und Vincenz Lachner an Franz und Betty Schott’, Festschrift für einen Verleger: Ludwig Strecker, ed. C. Dahlhaus (Mainz, 1973), 149–66

H. Müller: Ignaz Lachner: Versuch einer Würdigung, mit Werkverzeichnis (Celle, 1974)

Lachnith [Lachnitt], Ludwig Wenzel [Louis-Wenceslas]

(b Prague, 7 July 1746; d Paris, 3 Oct 1820). Bohemian composer and horn player. He was probably the son of Franz Lachnith, a church musician in Prague, and in his youth learnt the violin, harpsichord and horn. From 1768 he was in the service of the Duke of Zweibrücken and in 1773 he received permission to travel to Paris, where he performed one of his own horn concertos at the Concert Spirituel on 28 March. Apparently he settled in Paris soon after 1780 (though remaining on the salary lists at Zweibrücken until 1786) studying the horn with Rodolphe (until obliged by ill health to discontinue) and composition with F.-A.D. Philidor. From 1781 to 1783 he appeared in the Concerts de la reine. After being exiled during the Revolution, he returned to Paris in 1801 and was appointed instructeur at the Opéra, holding this post for ten months and again from 1806 to 1816.

Lachnith wrote a number of orchestral and choral works but is remembered primarily for his stage works. His first, L'heureuse réconciliation (1785), offered evidence of a sound technique but was marred by a weak libretto: ‘The result is sometimes laborious and painful, but one notices in it the ideas, appropriate intentions and intelligence of a good composer’ (Mercure de France, 26 June 1785). It was performed only twice. Several elaborate pasticcio arrangements enjoyed greater publicity, the most infamous of which was his adaptation of Mozart's Die Zauberflöte entitled Les mystères d'Isis. Lachnith not only cut and rearranged the score, adding recitative to replace the spoken dialogue, but also incorporated music from other Mozart operas and a Haydn symphony. The work acquired the nickname ‘Les misères d'ici’ and was criticized by Berlioz as a ‘wretched hotchpotch’ (Mémoires, Paris, 1870/R), although Lachnith's intentions – ‘to make a foreign comic opera worthy of the first theatre of Europe’ (see Mongrédien) – were sincere. Les mystères was certainly popular, receiving regular performances in Paris for more than 25 years, and helped familiarize French audiences with Mozart's operatic style.

In collaboration with Christian Kalkbrenner, Lachnith based other pasticcios on religious subjects which were presented at the Opéra during Holy Week as oratorios en action in place of orchestral concerts. His original instrumental works include symphonies, concertos, accompanied keyboard sonatas (in a severely Classical style) and string quartets. He also arranged chamber works by Haydn and Pleyel for keyboard (sometimes with accompanying instruments) and published pedagogical essays on piano technique with J.L. Adam.

WORKS

printed works published in Paris unless otherwise stated

stage

first performed in Paris

L'heureuse réconciliation (oc, l, A.M.D. Devismes, after J.F. Marmontel), Comédie-Italienne (Favart), 25 June 1785

Eugénie et Linval, ou Le mauvais fils (oc, 2, Devismes), Montansier, 1798

Les fêtes lacédémoniennes, 1808 (opéra, 3, J.-B. Lourdet de Santerre), unperf.

Pasticcios: Les mystères d'Isis (opéra, 4, E. Morel de Chédeville, after E. Schikaneder: Die Zauberflöte), Opéra, 20 Aug 1801, F-Po [music by Mozart, Haydn]; Saul (oratorio mis en action, 3 pts, Morel de Chédeville, E. Deschamps and J.B.D. Desprès), Opéra, 6 April 1803, collab. C. Kalkbrenner, Pc*, Po [music by Cimarosa, Gossec, Haydn, Mozart, Naumann, Paisiello, Philidor and Sacchini]; La prise de Jéricho (orat, 3 pts, Morel de Chédeville, Deschamps and Desprès), Opéra, 11 April 1805, collab. Kalkbrenner, Po* [music by Mozart and others]; Le laboureur chinois (opéra, l, Morel de Chédeville, Deschamps and Desprès), Opéra, 5 Feb 1813, collab. M. Berton, Po [music by Haydn, Mozart and others]

Addns to or arrs. of works by others: ov., airs in Paris [?(P.P. Baignoux), 1784], arr. pf (c1799), arr. 2 vn (c1799); 7 airs in Sacchini: Oedipe à Colone, 1786, acc. hpd (n.d.); ov., airs in Salieri: Tarare, 1787, arr. hpd, vn (n.d.); ov., airs, duos in Sacchini and Rey: Arvire et Evelina, 1788, acc. hpd (c1788); ov. in Propiac: La fausse paysanne, 1789, arr. hpd (n.d.); ballets in Fontenelle: Hécube, 1800, Po; ov., airs, duos in Deux prétendus, acc. hpd (c1790)

Doubtful: L'antiquaire (parodie), Monsieur, 9 March 1789 [? by Anfossi]

instrumental

extant works only; some possibly by Anton Lachnith

Orch: 6 Syms., op.1 (c1779); 3 Syms., op.6 (c1781); 3 Syms., op.4 (c1783); 3 Syms., op.3 (Berlin and Amsterdam, 1784); [6] Syms., opp.11–12 (c1785); [6] Hpd/pf Concs., opp.9–10 (c1785)

Chbr: 6 sonates, hpd/pf, vn obbl, op.2 (c1777); 6 quatuors concertants, 2 vn, va, vc, op.7 (c1780); 3 sonates, hpd, acc. vn, op.3 (before 1782); 6 trios, 2 vn, vc, op.5 (c1782); 3 sonates, hpd/pf, acc. vn, op.8 (c1785); 6 sonates concertantes, hpd/pf, vn, op.14 (c1788); 3 sonates, harp, acc. vn, op.18 (n.d.); 3 sonates, pf, vn obbl, op.20 (n.d.); 5 str qts, I-Mc; 6 sonatas, kbd, vn obbl, D-Mbs

Other works: Pasticcio ou mélange d’airs, pf, acc. vn (n.d.); Recueil de walzes, pf (n.d.)

pedagogical

Méthode ou principe général du doigté pour le forte-piano (1798), with J.L. Adam, incl. arrs. of works by Cherubini, Haydn and others; Exercices préparatoires pour le piano (c1800), with J.L. Adam

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

FétisB

PierreH

L. Petit de Bachaumont: Mémoires secrets (London, 1780–89)

M. Tourneux, ed.: Correspondance littéraire, philosophique et critique par Grimm, Diderot, Raynal, Meister, etc. (Paris, 1877–82)

A. Jullien: Paris dilettante au commencement du siècle (Paris, 1884), 114–23

G. Servières: Episodes d'histoire musicale (Paris, 1914), 147–70

H. Gougelot: La romance française sous la Révolution et l'Empire, i (Melun, 1938)

W. Gruhn: ‘Ergänzungen zur Zweibrücker Musikgeschichte’, Mf, xxiii (1970), 173–5

R. Angermüller: ‘“Les mystères d'Isis” (1801) und “Don Juan” (1805, 1834) auf der Bühner der Pariser Oper’, MJb 1980–83, 32–97

J. Mongrédien: ‘Les Mystères d'Isis (1801) and Reflections on Mozart from the Parisian Press at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century’, Music in the Classic Period: Essays in Honor of Barry S. Brook, ed. A.W. Atlas (New York, 1985), 195–211

H. Vanhulst: ‘Une traduction française inachevée de Die Zauberflöte (B-Br Fétis 2817)’, D'un opéra l'autre: hommage à Jean Mongrédien, ed. J. Gribenski (Paris, 1996), 273–81

ETHYL L. WILL/ELISABETH COOK

La Clayette Manuscript

(F-Pn n.a.fr.13521). See Sources, MS, §V, 2.

Lacombe [Trouillon-Lacombe], Louis

(b Bourges, 26 Nov 1818; d Saint Vaast-la-Hougue, Manche, 30 Sept 1884). French composer, pianist and writer on music. He first studied the piano with his mother and at 11 entered the Paris Conservatoire for lessons with P.-J. Zimmermann; he won the premier prix within two years although he still had difficulty reaching the pedals. In 1832 he undertook a European concert tour and in 1834 he spent several months in Vienna studying the piano with Czerny, learning theory and orchestration from Sechter and Seyfried and learning some works of Beethoven. By 1840 he was back in Paris and, having decided to abandon a virtuoso’s career in favour of composition, he soon published some piano pieces and chamber music. Marriage to a woman of some wealth enabled him to spend much of his time composing. In the 1850s he began writing stage works but most were performed only after his death. His best-known work, the dramatic symphony Sapho, was selected in a competition to be performed at the Paris Exposition Universelle in 1878. He contributed reviews and thoughtful, unpretentious articles to the Chronique musicale and other journals. His posthumously published, aptly titled Philosophie et musique is a series of essays discussing aesthetics, religion and a wide range of musical topics.

Lacombe wrote hundreds of works encompassing nearly all genres. He appears to have been most at ease in light, small-scale works; his songs are sensitive and witty and few of his many piano works reflect his own virtuoso technique. His unpretentious style is appropriate to the folk-orientated plots of certain of his operas, most of which, however, lapse occasionally into exaggerated grandiosity. The large symphonic works include experimental descriptive effects in the manner of Berlioz and David. His music is characterized by inventive melodies and effective use of syncopation and hemiola, but the harmonies rarely surpass in complexity the diminished 7th (which he evidently liked) and the simple, unvaried textures become tiresome in the longer works. His formal structures, however, are quite striking. The fantasia-like fourth-movement finale of the Piano Trio No.2 has 14 major tempo changes and several metre changes; it begins with the theme of the second-movement Scherzo, and later resurrects a transformed version of a prominent theme from the first movement, thereby establishing Lacombe as an early French explorer of cyclical structure.

Lacombe’s second wife, Claudine Duclairfait (b Voisinlieu, Oise, 17 Jan 1831; d Saint Vaast-la-Hougue, 18 Sept 1902), was a celebrated singer at the Opéra-Comique under the name Andrée Favel. Later a highly esteemed teacher, she wrote, under the name Andrée Lacombe, La science du mécanisme vocal et l’art du chant (Paris, 1876) for which Lacombe provided the musical exercises and which was awarded a gold medal by the Société pour le Développement de l'Instruction Publique the following year.

WORKS

most printed works published in Paris

stage

L'Amour (drame lyrique, P. Niboyet), Paris, St Marcel, ?1855

La madone (oc, 1, P.F. de Caramouche), Paris, Lyrique, 16 Jan 1861

Winkelried (op, 4, L. Bonnemère and Moreau-Sainti), Geneva, Grand, 17 Feb 1892, vs (1892)

Le tonnelier de Nuremburg (oc, 2, C. Nuitter, after E.T.A. Hoffmann), perf. in Ger. as Meister Martin und seine Gesellen, Koblenz, 7 March 1897

La reine des eaux (op, 3, Nuitter, or Lacombe and F. Barrillot), perf. in Ger. as Die Korrigane, Sondershausen, 12/14 March 1901

Der Kreuzritter (comic opera, 1, Clairville), Sondershausen, 21 March 1902 [? originally Le festin de fer]

5 or more other works, incl. incid music

other works

Sacred: 16 or more works, incl. Mass, Petite messe, hymns, few pubd

Dramatic syms. (with solo vv, chorus, orch): Manfred (J. Barbier, de Chateau-Renaud, A. Queyroy, after Byron), 1847 (1888); Arva, ou Les hongroises (Chateau-Renaud), 1850 (1900); Sapho (A. de Lamartine, choruses by Barrillot), 1878 (1888)

Other choral: Cimbres et teutons (Barrillot), male vv, military band, c1855; many works with orch; cants.; works for male vv; choruses, org acc.; choruses, unacc.

Other vocal: over 100 songs, 1v, pf, incl. 80 in 3 sets, ?15 fables de La Fontaine, 8 sonnets (Barrillot); works for 1v, orch, incl. L’ondine et le pêcheur, ballade; vocalises; others

Orch: Lassan et Friss, Hung. fantasia (1890); Au tombeau d’un héros, vn, orch; ?2 concert ovs.; 4 works with speaker; others, incl. works for military band

Chbr: Grand quintette, pf, vn, ob/vn, vc, B cl/bn/vc (?c1860); Le château, str qt (n.d.); Str Qt, unpubd; 2 pf trios (n.d.); 9 or more works, vn, pf; many works for 1 inst, pf, incl. arrs.

Pf: 55 or more, incl. sets of nocturnes, études, valses, mélodies, fantasias, arrs.; works for pf 4 hands; works for 2 pf

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

A. Bitard: Dictionnaire de biographie contemporaine (Paris, 1878)

E. Bourdin: La musique et les musiciens: Louis Lacombe (Paris, 1882)

H. Moreno: Obituary, Le ménestrel (5 Oct 1884)

H. Boyer: Louis Lacombe et son oeuvre (Paris, 1888)

L. Gallet: Conférence sur Louis Lacombe et son oeuvre (Bourges, 1891)

L. Lacombe: Philosophie et musique, ed. A. Lacombe [C. Duclairfait Lacombe] (Paris, 1896) [incl. detailed list of works]

E. Jongleux: Un grand musicien méconnu, Louis Lacombe (Bourges, 1935) [mentioned in RiemannL12]

J.-M. Fauquet: Les sociétés de musique de chambre à Paris de la Restauration à 1870 (Paris, 1986)

J.-M. Fauquet, ed.: Edouard Lalo: correspondance (Paris, 1989)

JEFFREY COOPER

Lacombe, Paul

(b Carcassonne, 11 July 1837; d Carcassonne, 5 June 1927). French composer. Although he travelled widely in Europe, he resided in his native town until his death. His only formal education was acquired from a local organist and former Paris Conservatoire pupil, François Teysserre, but he attentively studied the works of established masters. He was an admirer of Bizet, with whom he corresponded from 1866, and a personal friend of Saint-Saëns. In 1901 he was elected a corresponding member of the Institut and the following year he was made a Chevalier of the Légion d’Honneur.

Lacombe belonged to a generation of French composers who, inspired by the achievements of Mendelssohn and Schumann, wished to see symphonic and chamber music placed on a sound footing in France after the Franco-Prussian war. Many of his works were first performed by the Société Nationale de Musique, an organization he helped found in 1871 for the promotion of new French music. Although his compositions are technically assured, most of them lack the originality and spontaneity necessary to escape the powerful influence of contemporary German composers. Theatrical works are notably absent from his more than 150 opus numbers. He continued to compose until after his 80th birthday, and his output consists mainly of small piano pieces, chamber music, orchestral works and approximately 120 songs. His first violin sonata was performed by Sarasate in 1869 and his Third Symphony was awarded the prize of the Société des Compositeurs de Musique in 1886. Numerous works were left in manuscript.

WORKS

published in Paris unless otherwise stated

Chorus, orch: Mass; Requiem

Other vocal: c60 songs; 4 duets, incl. Nuit d’été (M. de Baure) (1902); 5 trios; c60 unpubd songs

Orch: c25 works, incl. 3 syms.; Ov. symphonique, op.22 (n.d.); Suite pastorale, op.31 (1875); Aubade printanière, op.37 (1884); Sous les étoiles, marche-nocturne, op.78 (Hamburg, 1896); Ov. dramatique; Légende symphonique; other MS works

Chbr: c15 works, incl. Pf Qt, op.101 (n.d.); 4 pf trios; 3 vn sonatas, opp.8 (1868), 17, 98; Vc Sonata, op.100 (n.d.); 3 morceaux de fantasie, op.10, vc, pf (n.d.); 4 morceaux, op.14, vn, pf (n.d.); Sérénade humoristique, pf, vn, vc, op.93 (1898)

Solo inst, orch: Divertissement, pf, op.40 (1885); Rapsodie, vn, op.51; Suite, pf, op.52; Sérénade d’automne, fl, ob, hp ad lib, str orch (n.d.); other MS works

Pf: c85 works, incl. 5 morceaux caractéristiques, op.7 (Leipzig, n.d.); 4 pièces, 4 hands, op.9 (1869); 2 idylles, op.11 (n.d.); Etude en forme de variations, op.18 (n.d.); Intermède de concert, op.38 (1887); Petits préludes, op.140 (1911); Marche dernière, op.150 (1917), also arr. orch (1918); Dialogue sentimental, op.151 (1917), also arr. orch (1917), vn/fl/bn/vc, pf (1917); Petite suite (New York, 1921); 2 pièces (1922); 2 berceuses; 3 suites; 7 impromptus; studies; waltzes; other MS pieces

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (G. Ferchault) [with detailed list of works]

C.E. Curinier: Dictionnaire national des contemporains (Paris, 1889–1906)

L. Moulin: Le romantisme musical allemand et l’âme française: un classique français du piano: Paul Lacombe (Montauban, 1915–17)

L. Moulin: Paul Lacombe et son oeuvre (Paris, 1924)

J.-M. Fauquet, ed.: Edouard Lalo: correspondance (Paris, 1989)

JOHN TREVITT

Lacome [Lacome d’Estalenx], Paul(-Jean-Jacques)

(b Le Houga, Gers, 4 March 1838; d Le Houga, 12 Dec 1920). French composer. He studied with José Puig y Absubide, organist in Aire-sur-Adour, 1857–60. He won a prize in a magazine competition, with an operetta, Le dernier des paladins, and settled in Paris, where he wrote music criticism and had over 20 operettas performed between 1870 and the end of the century, when he returned to his native Gascony. The most successful of them in France was Jeanne, Jeannette et Jeanneton (1876), the libretto of which had been turned down by Offenbach, but Ma mie Rosette (1890) achieved greater popularity in Britain. His most widely familiar composition is probably the ‘Spanish Duet’ Estudiantina (no.4 of Duos à deux voix égales) which was published in 1882 and around which Waldteufel wrote a waltz of the same name. Besides operettas and songs, Lacome composed orchestral and chamber music and piano pieces. Lacome was a close friend of Chabrier, whose high opinion of him is evident from his letters. He has been criticized for a certain affected and showy quality to his invention, and it may be this that prevented his music from achieving still greater success.

WORKS

(selective list)

opérettes, in order of first Paris performance; for more detailed list see GroveO

L’épicier par amour (1), 1870; J’veux mon peignoir (1, G. Mancel), 1872; En Espagne (1, Mancel), 1872; La dot mal placée (3, Mancel), 1873; Le mouton enragé (1, Jaime and Noriac), 1873; Amphytrion (oc, 1, C. Nuitter and Beaumont), 1875; Jeanne, Jeannette et Jeanneton (3, C. Clairville and M. Delacour), 1876

Pâques fleuries (3, Clairville and Delacour), 1879; Le beau Nicolas (3, A. Vanloo and E. Letterier), 1880; La nuit de Saint Jean (oc, 1, M. de Lua-Lusignan and Delacour, after Erckmann-Chatrian), 1882; Madame Boniface (3, Clairville and E. Depré), 1883; Myrtille (oc, 4, Erckmann-Chatrian and M. Drack), 1885

Les saturnales (3, A. Valabrègue), 1887; La gardeuse d’oies (3, Letterier and Vanloo), 1888; Ma mie Rosette (3, J. Préval and A. Liorat), 1890; La fille de l’air (féerie, 3, Coignard brothers, after Liorat), 1890; Mademoiselle Asmodée (3, P. Ferrier and Clairville), 1891, collab. V. Roger; Le cadeau de noces (4, Liorat, Stop and A. Hue), 1893

Le baiser de Monsieur (1, J. Pradels and Mancel), 1895; La fiancée en loterie (3, A. Douane and C. de Roddaz) 1896, collab. Messager; Le maréchal Chadrou (oc, 3, H. Chivot, J. Gascogne and de Roddaz), 1898; Les quatre filles Aymon (3, Liorat and M.A. Fontenay), 1898, collab. Roger

ANDREW LAMB

Lacorcia, Scipione

(b ?Naples, ?c1585–95; d Naples, after 1620). Italian composer. On 15 March 1616 he dedicated his Secondo libro de madrigali for five voices (Naples, 1616¹⁴) to Alessandro Miroballo, the Marchese of Bracigliano, for whom the madrigals had already been performed. On 1 October 1620 he dedicated his Terzo libro de madrigali (Naples, 1620¹⁸) to Francesco Filomarino, Count of Castello Abbate. He was a successful imitator of Gesualdo in that he avoided the obvious in order to produce the unexpected. He treated the texts in great detail and often used a literal repetition of the opening and closing phrases – features which resulted in some of the lengthiest 17th-century Neapolitan madrigals. Contrasting passages of dissonances and suspensions, fast-moving diatonic counterpoint, and chordal writing are all features of his style. He used harsh dissonances more frequently than did Gesualdo, employing augmented triads, minor triads on sharp notes and juxtapositions involving false relations. He sometimes seemed purposely to have avoided tonal coherence; for example, a group of four phrases may be repeated exactly, but for one phrase transposed down a degree and bearing no apparent tonal relation to the other three.

KEITH A. LARSON

La Coste, Emanuel-Jean de.

Dutch music seller who acquired the firm of Estienne Roger.

Lacoste [De La Coste], Louis

(b c1675; d c1750). French composer. The two versions of his name are found in anthologies and on title-pages of his opera scores, but exemplars of the printed editions of Télégone, Orion and Biblis at Toulouse bear the autograph signature ‘Lacoste’. He was a chorus member at the Opéra and is included in the register of musicians employed there in 1704 (see La Gorce). He introduced himself in the preface to his ballet Aricie (1697) as ‘a man who writes only songs’ (alluding to his airs sérieux et à boire published in the Ballard anthologies), not yet capable of more ambitious compositions. A document published by Campardon in 1701 reveals that he was involved in an adulterous affair with the wife of a watch maker who, on the indictment of her husband, was confined in a hospice. Lacoste is described in the document as a ‘musicien de l’opéra’.

Lacoste found fame with the success of his tragedy Philomèle on 20 October 1705 (it was revived in 1709, 1723 and 1734), but this success was overshadowed two years later by the bruising failure of Bradamante. A new tragedy, Créuse l’Athénienne (April 1712) does not seem to have been well received, a failure confirmed by the absence of a revival. The following year Lacoste was named batteur de mesure (orchestral conductor) at the Opéra, and a year later maître de musique. In 1715 a new document published by Campardon shows him seeking to marry a singer at the Opéra, Madeleine Pasquier, ‘with her mother’s agreement’, but an argument with the singer’s father put an end to it. On 8 July 1717 he was dismissed from his post of maître de musique for some unknown reason and replaced by François Blouquier. Another document, dated 6 July 1720, is a ‘three-year concession for the exclusive privilege of staging operas in the town of Lille … to Louis De La Coste, merchant, and Marie Catherine Robert his wife residing in Lille’, but the title of merchant attributed to Lacoste makes the interpretation of this text uncertain. The title-page of the score of Télégone (1725) reads ‘by M. Lacoste of the Académie Royale de Musique’, and the Mercure de France of March 1728 (in a review of Orion) describes the composer as maître de chant at the same institution. He seems to have retained this position at least until the première of his last opera, Biblis, in 1732. After that we lose all trace of Lacoste. Antoine de Léris, in his Dictionnaire portatif (Paris, 1754, but completed, according to the author, in 1749) spoke of him as a ‘musician who died some years ago’.

The career of Lacoste shows many similarities to that of Destouches. Like him, Lacoste began by writing airs sérieux et à boire; his first dramatic work was a kind of pastorale, Aricie, performed the same year (1697) as Destouches’s pastorale-héroïque Issé; and, like Destouches, Lacoste gave priority to tragedy over ballet, rejected italianisms and appeared as a strict defender of the Lullyist tradition. But the parallel stops there: while Destouches’s career was punctuated with brilliant successes which earned him important positions, that of Lacoste was much less glorious. Only Philomèle was accorded three revivals (in 1709, 1723 and 1734) and a parody (1723). Moreover, this work marks a turning-point in the history of tragédie en musique, moving away from the rather flavourless galantry of recent pieces to return to a more tragic conception which Lacoste upheld to the end, even in the years 1720–30 during which the ballet aesthetic predominated. Lacoste’s tragédies all have a sombre and violent character which manifests itself in Philomèle (rape and murder) and continues up to Biblis (incest and suicide). The composer proved to be more inspired in the depiction of criminal characters (Térée, Télégone) than in the traditional musical depiction of love, and he thus occupies an original and even unique position among composers of the period. However (perhaps for this reason), apart from Philomèle none of his pieces enjoyed a genuine success except perhaps Télégone, which was performed for about a month and a half (from 6 November to 16 December 1725) but was never revived. Prince Antoine I of Monaco severely criticized Télégone, the music of which he found ‘plagaristic and trivial’ – a criticism which might seem to apply more to the libretto. In the Mercure de France contemporaries appreciated the quality of the recitative, the beauty of certain duets and the successful divertissements in Lacoste’s works. There are also some highly expressive choruses and pretty dances, but overall the composer’s inspiration seems to have been uneven. Lacoste’s work is indicative of the crisis in tragédie en musique at this time. ‘Of all composers since Lully’, wrote Antoine I, ‘I find only Destouches to have been creative; the others merely re-use songs like old garments from a second-hand clothes shop and give them that faint sheen of novelty that vanishes in a moment’ (1725). The judgment is harsh and not altogether impartial, but one cannot help agreeing with it, at least in part, as far as Lacoste is concerned.

WORKS

all published in Paris

operas

tragédies en musique unless otherwise stated; performed at Paris Opéra and published the same year

Aricie (opéra-ballet, prol, 5, Abbé Pic), 9 June 1697

Philomèle (prol, 5, P.-C. Roy), 20 Oct 1705, F-Po

Bradamante (prol, 5, Roy, after L. Ariosto), 2 May 1707

Créuse l’Athénienne (prol, 5, Roy), 5 April 1712

Télégone (prol, 5, S.-J. Pellegrin), 6 Nov 1725, Po

Orion (prol, 5, Pellegrin and J. de La Font), 17 Feb 1728

Biblis (prol, 5, Fleury), 6 Nov 1732

other works

Recueil d’airs sérieux et à boire (1695, 1696, 1699, 1700, 1703, 1704 [incl. Iris et Silvandre, idylle en musique], 1708, 1716, 1718)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Raimond: Lettre critique sur Philomèle, tragédie nouvelle mise en musique (Paris, 1705)

A. de Léris: Dictionnaire portatif des théâtres … de Paris (Paris, 1754)

C. and F. Parfaict: Dictionnaire des théâtres de Paris (Paris, 1756)

E. Campardon: L’Académie royale de musique au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1884/R)

M. Benoit et N. Dufourcq: ‘Documents du minutier central’, RMFC, ix (1969), 216–38

G. Favre: ‘La musique dans la correspondance d’Antoine I prince de Monaco’, RdM, lix (1973), 248–9

J. de La Gorce: ‘L’Académie royale de musique en 1704, d’après des documents inédits conservés dans les archives notariales’, RdM, ixv (1979), 160–91

R. Fajon: L’Opéra à Paris du Roi Soleil à Louis le Bien-Aimé (Geneva, 1984)

ROBERT FAJON

La Court, Antoine de

(b Dordrecht, c1530–35; d Prague, 15 Sept 1600). Dutch singer and composer, active mainly in Austria. He was employed as a singer, first at the church of Ste Gudule and from 1550 in the imperial court chapel at Brussels. From 1559 to 1568 he served as an alto in the imperial Hofkapelle at Vienna, and from 1574 to 1590 as a tenor at the court of Archduke Ferdinand Innsbruck. During his time at Innsbruck he applied at least twice to return to the Hofkapelle at Vienna, but neither petitions nor the dedication of two masses to the Emperors Maximilian II and Rudolph II achieved the desired result. He was also refused an appointment at Munich. In 1581 he travelled to the Netherlands to recruit singers for the Innsbruck choir. He sought leave to give up his post in 1588 and petitioned for a pension which was granted two years later. He then joined the imperial chapel at Prague where he remained until his death. In 1593 his son Martin joined him at Prague after serving for 11 years as a chorister at Innsbruck. It is not known whether Antoine and Henri de La Court were related.

La Court’s only extant works are two motets for five and six voices (in RISM 1568⁶, 1610¹⁸). The earlier of these, Carole caesareo princeps (ed. in MAM, xxi–xxii, 1971), includes passages of effective declamation and makes imaginative use of harmonic sequences. The only surviving references to the two lost masses with which he attempted to secure his return to Vienna are in the imperial accounts which record payments of 25 florins made to him in 1574 and 1588.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

FétisB

KöchelKHM

MGG1 (H. Federhofer)

SennMT

Vander StraetenMPB iii, v

A. Sandberger: Beiträge zur Geschichte der bayerischen Hofkapelle unter Orlando di Lasso, iii (Leipzig, 1895/R)

A. Smijers: ‘Die kaiserliche Hofmusik-Kapelle von 1543–1619: II’, SMw, vii (1920), 102–42; parts I to IV pubd separately (Vienna, 1922)

G. van Doorslaer: ‘La chapelle musicale de l’empereur Rudolphe II en 1594’, AcM, v (1933), 148–61

W. Pass: Musik und Musiker am Hof Maximilians II (Tutzing, 1980)

ALBERT DUNNING

La Court, Henri de

(b 1st half of 16th century; d ? Vienna or Prague, 13 March 1577). Dutch composer and singer, active mainly in Austria. According to Fétis he was a singer at Soissons Cathedral in 1547. From 23 August 1563 he was employed as an alto in the imperial Hofkapelle of Ferdinand I, Maximilian II and Rudolph II at Vienna and Prague; he also taught the choristers music, for which in 1570 he received 6 guilders monthly and a bonus of 18 guilders. He seems to have run into financial difficulties since the account books for 1574 and 1576 record payments to him of considerable sums of money in addition to his salary, and after his death his widow received help with their children’s maintenance. It is not known whether he was related to Antoine de La Court. All eight of La Court’s printed motets appeared in Pietro Giovanelli’s Novus thesaurus musicus (RISM 1568^2-6); one of those in the fifth book of the anthology (ed. in CMM, lxvi, 1974) is in honour of Giovanelli with whom he may have been on friendly terms. Six more motets for five, six, eight and ten voices survive in manuscript sources (A-Wn, D-Mbs including one in organ tablature). La Court’s motets are representative of the style of works then favoured at the Habsburg courts; the settings are predominantly syllabic and homophonic though the texture is varied by pseudo-polychoral writing for different groups of voices.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

FétisB

KöchelKHM

MGG1 (‘La Court, Antoine de’; H. Federhofer)

SennMT

Vander StraetenMPB, v

A. Sandberger: Beiträge zur Geschichte der bayerischen Hofkapelle unter Orlando di Lasso, iii (Leipzig, 1895/R)

A. Smijers: ‘Die kaiserliche Hofmusik-Kapelle von 1543–1619: II’, SMw, vii (1920), 102–42; parts I to IV pubd separately (Vienna, 1922)

W. Pass: Musik und Musiker am Hof Maximilians II. (Tutzing, 1980)

ALBERT DUNNING

Lacroix [Croix], Antoine

(b Rambouillers, nr Nancy, 1756; d Lübeck, 18 June 1806). French violinist, composer and music dealer, active in Germany. He first studied the violin and composition with Joseph-Antoine Lorenziti, maître de chapelle at Nancy Cathedral. From 1780 to 1792 Lacroix lived in Paris where he achieved considerable fame as a violin virtuoso and published his Six Sonates pour piano et violon, op.1 (1784). He left Paris in 1792 because of the Revolution, travelling via Bruges to Bremen, where he evidently remained until 1794. He made several concert tours in Denmark and Germany, served for a short time as a chamber musician to the King of Prussia in Berlin, then from 22 January 1796 was a municipal musician in Lübeck. There he was also active in private concerts with the organist J.W.C. von Königslöw. From 1799 he built up a music trade, offering the most important current works by Haydn, Zumsteeg and Pleyel, as well as his own sonatas, duos and variations for the violin. His works were praised by his contemporaries for their brilliant and effective passages for the instrument, their pleasing melodies and their straightforward structures. (J. Hennings and W. Stahl: Musikgeschichte Lübecks, Kassel, 1951–2)

WORKS

Duos: 6 sonatas, pf, vn, op.1 (Paris, 1784), lost; 3 Duos concertants, 2 vn, op.2 (Hamburg, n.d.); 3 sonatas, vn, vc, op.3 (Hamburg, n.d.); 3 for 2 vn, op.12 (Paris, 1801); 3 for 2 vn, op.14 (Paris, n.d.), lost; 3 for 2 vn, op.15 (Leipzig, n.d.), no.1 arr. as Sonate, pf, vn, op.17b (Leipzig, n.d.); 3 [12] for 2 vn, opp.16, 18, 20, 21 (Leipzig, n.d.); Air varié, Ah vous dirai-je, maman, 2 vn, op.19 (Leipzig, n.d.); VII variations, on O mein lieber Augustin, vn, vc (Leipzig, 1801); Air varié, vn, vc (Brunswick and Hamburg, n.d.); 12 pièces, 2 vn, mentioned in AMZ, v (1806); 3 Sonate, 2 vn, 1798, lost

Other works: IV Angloisen, II Walzer, orch (Brunswick, n.d.); 3 str qts, op.17a (Brunswick, n.d.); V walzes, pf (Hamburg, c1805); Divertissement, 1797, lost; ?3[?6] str qts, opp.5, 13 (Hamburg, n.d), lost; Thèmes variés, vn, op.6 (Hamburg, n.d.), lost; Thèmes variés, vn, op.19 (Vienna, n.d.), lost; Thème varié, pf, mentioned in FétisB; Romanze mit 4 Variationen, vn, 1795, lost; dances (Hamburg and Brunswick, n.d.), mentioned in GerberNL

GEORG KARSTÄDT

La Croix [Delacroix], François de

(b Senlis, 6 Jan 1683; d Paris, 8 April 1759). French composer. After initial musical training at Senlis Cathedral, he probably studied under Nicolas Bernier in Paris. He was maître de chapelle of the royal church of St Paul from 8 September 1714 to 12 September 1726, and succeeded Bernier in the same post at the Ste Chapelle from 18 September 1726. A priest, he was appointed permanent chaplain of the Ste Chapelle on 2 December 1744, succeeding P. Warnier, and on 30 January 1745 he was replaced as maître de chapelle by Abel-François Fanton, former maître de chapelle of Blois Cathedral. He composed a large number of motets, several of which were performed at the Concert Spirituel, and masses for the reopening of the Paris parliament. His surviving works consist of several airs published in Ballard’s collections and one book of Motets à une, deux et trois voix avec symphonie et sans symphonie op.1 (Paris, 1741), which contains 14 of his motets and four posthumous motets by Bernier. La Croix’s motets are distinguished by their sobriety of expression and clarity of part-writing.

Other musicians with the same name who may have been related include Abbé de La Croix, a singer at the Concert Spirituel from 1750 to 1759; Adrien de La Croix, a member of the 24 Violons in 1664 who composed an Allemande à 4 (D-Kl); and Pierre La Croix, a ‘Maître Joueur d’Instruments’ in Paris in 1724.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BrenetC; BrenetM; EitnerQ; MGG1 (D. Launay); PierreH

P. Nelson: ‘Nicolas Bernier: a Resume of his Work’, RMFC, i (1960), 93–8

M. Benoît, ed.: Dictionnaire de la musique en France aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (Paris, 1992)

GUY BOURLIGUEUX

La Crotte, Nicolas de.

See La Grotte, Nicolas de.

La Cruz, Zulema de

(b Madrid, 9 March 1958). Spanish composer. She took higher degrees in piano and composition at the Madrid Conservatory (1986–8) and the MA at the Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics of the University of Stanford, California (1986–7). In 1988 she was appointed professor of electro-acoustic composition at the Madrid Conservatory and founded the Laboratorio de Informática Musical there. Her apprenticeship with John Chowning and Leland Smith at Stanford led to her specialization in electro-acoustic music, but she continued to compose for traditional groups of instruments. In these her interest in numerical structures and their combinations is evident, as can be seen in Kinesis-2 (1987) and in Seis para seis (1990). She has become increasingly interested in basing the structure of her works on mathematical relations of natural phenomena, such as volcanos in Chío (1989), or the cosmos in Púlsares (1990) and Erídano (1994). Her style is increasingly characterized by relatively simple forms effectively reinforced by a vigorous and striking use of dense textures.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Pieza, 1985

Vocal: Seis para seis, S, pf, vn, va, db, bn, 1990; Canto a Europa, S, tape, 1992

Chbr: Nucleofonía, s sax, b cl, hn, pf, vib, vn, va, vc, 1980; Kinesis-2, 2 vn, va, vc, 1987; Géminis, fl, cl, perc, pf, vn, va, vc, 1988; Soluna, pf, perc, sax qt, tape, 1993; Phoenix, brass qnt, tape, 1996

Solo inst: Quasar, pf, 1979–89; Púlsar, pf, 1989; Chío, b sax, tape, 1989; Púlsares, pf, tape, 1990; Erídano, sax, tape, 1994

Tape: So far, so near, 1987; Fugaz, 1990

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.R. Encinar, ed.: Música en Madrid (Madrid, 1992)

Zulema de la Cruz (Madrid, 1994) [contains catalogue]

JOSÉ IGES

Lacy, Michael Rophino

(b Bilbao, 19 July 1795; d London, 20 Sept 1867). English violinist, composer, actor and playwright. According to Sainsbury (the source from which all other biographies derive), Lacy was a child prodigy who performed in public at the age of six a concerto by Giornovichi. He was educated at Bordeaux (1802) and Paris (1803), where he studied with Kreutzer. About the end of 1804 he performed for Napoleon. He played in the Netherlands on his way to London, which he reached in October 1805. His musical and linguistic skills earned him much success there: his first concert at the Hanover Square Rooms was given under the patronage of the Prince of Wales. In 1807 Lacy was in Dublin, performing with Catalini; he then moved on to Edinburgh, where he was engaged for Corri's concerts. Some time after that he left music for the theatre, acting in Dublin, Edinburgh and Glasgow. In 1818 he returned to music, succeeding Janiewicz as leader of the Liverpool concerts, and at the end of 1820 he returned to London where he led the ballet orchestra at the King's Theatre.

From 1827 to 1833 Lacy produced a series of skilful adaptations of French and Italian operas for the Drury Lane and Covent Garden theatres. He spent the season of 1830–31 in Paris, where he heard Paganini's first Parisian performance and urged (unsuccessfully, as it turned out) the Covent Garden management to engage him. Lacy's oratorio The Israelites in Egypt, a mixture of music by Rossini and Handel, was staged with great success in 1833; however, a second dramatic oratorio, Jephtha, was suppressed because of the perceived impropriety of having sacred characters acting in costume. Plays submitted to the Lord Chamberlain in 1836 listed him as a manager at Covent Garden. In September 1845 Lacy conducted Bellini's La sonnambula and other works at the Park Theatre in New York, where his daughter, Miss Delcy, sang. He directed a series of ‘Handelian Operatic Concerts’ at London in 1847, and during the 1850s he did much of the research for Schoelcher's biography of Handel and unpublished catalogue of Handel's music. Copies of Handel's music in Lacy's hand (GB-Lbl and F-Pc) show a wealth of annotations that are notable for their explorations of borrowings and of the compositional process.

A portrait of Lacy aged 12 was painted by the noted English miniaturist J. Smart; an engraving of that portrait by Anthony Cardon survives at the British Museum and the Harvard Theatre Collection. Lacy published numerous arrangements of arias by Handel, Rossini and others, and no doubt arranged more operas than are known at present. His greatest theatrical success was his adaptation of Rossini's La Cenerentola, which held the stage in both England and America for a considerable time.

WORKS

MS librettos, all by Lacy, in GB-Lbl

LDL	Drury Lane Theatre
LCG	Covent Garden Theatre

Stage: The Turkish Lovers (comic op, after Rossini: Il turco in Italia), LDL, 1 May 1827; Love in Wrinkles, or The Russian Stratagem (comic op, after Fétis: La vieille), LDL, 4 Dec 1828; The Maid of Judah, or The Knights Templar (op, after A. Pacini: Ivanhoé), LCG, 7 March 1829; The Casket (comic op, after E. Scribe: Les premières amours), LDL, 10 March 1829 (music after Mozart: Idomeneo); Cinderella, or The Fairy Queen and the Glass Slipper (comic op, after Rossini: La Cenerentola, incl. music from Armida, Maometto II and Guillaume Tell), LCG, 13 April 1830; Napoleon Buonaparte, Captain of Artillery, General and First Consul, Emperor and Exile (dramatic spectacle), LCG, 16 May 1831; Fra Diavolo, or The Inn of Terracina (op, after Auber), LCG, 3 Nov 1831; The Fiend Father, or Robert of Normandy (op, after Meyerbeer: Robert le diable), LCG, 21 Feb 1832; The Coiners, or The Soldier's Oath (op, after Auber: Le serment), LCG, 23 March 1833; The Israelites in Egypt, or The Passage of the Red Sea (staged orat, after Rossini: Mosè in Egitto and Handel: Israel in Egypt), LCG, 22 Feb 1833; Jephtha (pasticcio orat, after Handel), 1834; The Blind Sister, or The Mountain Farm (op, story written and music adapted from Auber by Lacy), London, Princess's, May 1849; The Route of the Overland Mail to India, from Southampton to Calcutta (diorama, J.H. Siddons, scenery by T. Grieve, W. Telbin), London, Gallery of Illustration, 1851; Ginevra of Sicily (pasticcio, after Handel: Ariodante), n.d.

Other works: ‘A popular Hungarian air composed by Kreutzer, arranged as a rondo for the pianoforte, with accompaniments, ad libitum, for the flute and violoncello’ (1824); Contributions to The Juvenile Band (1826); numerous song and aria arrangements; 3 rondos (pf), qnt (2 vn, va, fl, vc, with pf acc.), 6 songs with guitar acc. (SainsburyD)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DNB

NicollH

SainsburyD

A. Bunn: The Stage: both Before and Behind the Curtain, i (London, 1840), 176–80

V. Schoelcher: The Life of Handel (London, 1857), preface, 111–14

V. Schoelcher: Catalogue de l'oeuvre de Handel (MS, F-Pc)

J.N. Ireland: Records of the New York Stage from 1750–1860, ii (New York, 1866/R), 447

H.S. Wyndham: The Annals of Covent Garden Theatre: from 1732 to 1897, ii (London, 1906), 76–9, 83–4, 121

T.J. Walsh: Opera in Dublin 1798–1820: Frederick Jones and the Crow Street Theatre (Oxford, 1993), 54

J. Graziano: Introduction to M.R. Lacy: Cinderella, in Nineteenth-Century American Musical Theater, ed. D.L. Root, iii (New York, 1994)

B. Trowell: ‘Michael Rophino Lacy and Ginevra of Sicily: a 19th-Century Adaptation of Handel's Ariodante’, Handel Institute Newsletter, vi (1995), 1–3

RICHARD G. KING

Lacy, William

(b 1788; d Devon, 1871). English bass. He is erroneously listed in many dictionaries as ‘John Lacy’. He was a pupil of Rauzzini’s at Bath. After singing in London he went to Italy for further study, mastering both the Italian language and style of singing. On his return he sang at concerts and the Lenten Oratorios; but though he had an exceptionally fine voice and execution, and offers from opera companies at Florence, Milan and later London, weak health prevented him from taking any prominent position. In 1817 he and his wife helped secure early subscribers and intelligence for the new journal planned by Richard Mackenzie Bacon, the Quarterly Musical Magazine and Review. The following year they accepted an engagement in Calcutta, returning to England about 1826. They retired into private life and resided at Florence and other continental cities before finally settling in England.

Lacy’s wife, the soprano Jane Jackson (b London, 1776; d Ealing, 19 March 1858), first appeared at a London concert on 25 April 1798, and sang as Miss Jackson at the Concert of Ancient Music in 1800. That same year she married the composer Francesco Bianchi; while Mrs Bianchi she often sang at Windsor in the presence of George III and Queen Charlotte. She and Bianchi soon separated, he died in 1810, and she married Lacy in 1812, singing as Mrs Bianchi Lacy until 1815. Considered one of the finest interpreters of Handel as well as a good pianist and painter, she was noted for her grand, simple style and perfect delivery of Italian. Through her friendship with R.M. Bacon, portions of Bianchi’s celebrated manuscript theory treatise were published in early volumes of the Quarterly Musical Magazine.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DNB (‘Lacy, John William or William’; R.H. Legge; see also Errata vol.)

SainsburyD

[R.M. Bacon]: ‘Preliminary Remarks on Bass Singing’, Quarterly Musical Magazine and Review, i (1818), 333–40

L. Langley: The English Musical Journal in the Early Nineteenth Century (diss., U. of North Carolina, 1983)

LEANNE LANGLEY

Łada [Ładowski, Ładewski], Kazimierz

(b Blizno, nr Kalisz, 1824; d Włocławek, 5 Sept 1871). Polish violinist and composer. He had his first music lessons from his elder brother Maciej in Włocławek. In 1837 he moved to Warsaw where, with his brothers, he formed the Ładowskis Quintet, in which Kazimierz was first violin. He also gave solo performances in Poland and Russia. From 1854 to 1857 he was in Paris, where he studied composition with E. Collet and the violin with Delphin Alard. His playing was described as melodious, lilting and of great feeling, though technically imperfect; his programmes consisted mainly of his own compositions and salon pieces. In 1861 paralysis compelled him to give up concert performance. He composed more than 40 small pieces for violin in dance and other light forms. The best known were the Kujawiak in D (1850), Cygan, the Fantasy (1860) and the Caprice poétique (1862). His writings included ‘Historia muzyki’ (1860) and ‘Materiały do historii muzyki w Polsce’, published in Gazeta muzyczna i teatralna (1866).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SMP

J.W. Reiss: Polskie skrzypce i polscy skrzypkowie [Polish violins and violinists] (Łódź, 1946), 11

JERZY MORAWSKI

Ladegast, Friedrich

(b Hochhermsdorf, 30 Aug 1818; d Weissenfels, 30 June 1905). German organ builder. He trained under his brother Christlieb in Geringswalde and with Urban Kreutzbach in Borna, Mende in Leipzig and Zuberbier in Dessau. He set up in business on his own in Weissenfels in 1846. The excellence of his organ at Hohenmölsen led to a contract to repair and enlarge the organ in Merseburg Cathedral. When completed in 1855, this was the largest organ in Germany (four manuals, 81 stops); among those who played it was Liszt, whom it inspired to compose his Prelude and Fugue on B–A–C–H. Other major works by Ladegast include the organs of the Nikolaikirche, Leipzig (1858–62; four manuals, 86 stops), Schwerin Cathedral (1866–71; four manuals, 84 stops; extant, unaltered), and the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna (1872; three manuals, 55 stops; the case and pipes standing in the front survive). Ladegast was in the forefront of German organ builders of the 19th century. Unlike such master craftsmen as Walcker and Steinmeyer, he built slider-chests, but he also built cone-chests as early as c1875. He introduced pneumatic action in 1890. Ladegast followed the trends of German Romantic organ building (see Schulze) both in tone and in the relatively small proportion (by comparison with Cavaillé-Coll, for instance) of reeds in the specification. In the scale of his pipes he followed older methods in his early instruments, employing a basic ratio of 1:2 for the diameters of pipes an octave apart (also used by Bédos de Celles), but he later adopted J.G. Töpfer’s ratio (see Organ, §III, 1), at first for the Principal chorus only, eventually for all stops. Ladegast was known in professional circles as the ‘Nestor of German organ building’.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H.-G. Wauer: ‘Friedrich Ladegast, ein bedeutender Orgelbauer des 19. Jahrhunderts’, Musik und Kirche, xxv (1955), 293–4

H.J. Busch: ‘The Organ Music of Franz Liszt and the Organ of the Cathedral of Merseburg’, Organ Yearbook, xxi (1991), 79–94

H.J. Busch: ‘Friedrich Ladegast: ein Weissenfelser Orgelbauer von Weltrang und seine Orgeln in Sachsen-Anhalt’, Denkmalpflege in Sachsen-Anhalt, i (1994), 28–37

H.J. Busch: ‘Die Orgel der Nikolaikirche zu Leipzig: Vergangenheit, Gegenwart, Zukunft’, Die Orgel der Nikolaikirche in Leipzig, ed. J. Wolf (Leipzig, 1996), 2–8

HANS KLOTZ/HERMANN J. BUSCH

Laderman, Ezra

(b Brooklyn, NY, 29 June 1924). American composer. He attended the High School of Music and Art in New York, where he was the soloist in the first performance of his Piano Concerto (1939), given by the school orchestra. During World War II, while serving in the US Army, he composed the Leipzig Symphony, which was given its première in Wiesbaden in 1945. After the war he began composition study with Stefan Wolpe (1946–9) and entered Brooklyn College, CUNY (BA 1949), where he studied with Miriam Gideon. He continued his studies at Columbia University (MA 1952), where his teachers included Otto Luening and Douglas S. Moore. During the periods 1960–61 and 1965–6 he taught at Sarah Lawrence College. Other appointments included positions as composer-in-residence at SUNY, Binghamton (1971–82), visiting composer at Yale University (1988) and dean of the Yale School of Music (1989–95). In 1996 he was appointed professor of composition at Yale. Among his many honours are three Guggenheim fellowships (1955, 1958, 1964), the Prix de Rome (1963) and residencies at the Bennington Composers Conference (1967, 1968) and the American Academy in Rome (1982–3). He has also served as chair of the NEA’s composer-librettist programme (1972), president of the AMC (1973–6) and director of the NEA music programme (1979–82). In 1985 he was elected president of the National Music Council. He has received commissions from the Philadelphia Orchestra, the Chicago SO, the New York PO, the American Recorder Society, Jean-Pierre Rampal, Yo-Yo Ma and Emanuel Ax, among others.

During his study with Wolpe, Laderman was introduced to the techniques of atonal and 12-note composition. Luening and Moore, however, challenged the young composer to free himself from the rigidity of these techniques and develop the long lyrical lines that became a hallmark of his style. Laderman’s use of tonal materials in combination with atonal and aleatory elements, as in Priorities (1969), is particularly striking; also characteristic is his development of unusual formal structures, often arising from the transformation of unexpected ideas into musical shapes. In Double Helix (1968), for example, the oboe and flute repeatedly return at the same time to the tonic pitch and then move away in independent melodic and harmonic lines, musically duplicating the structure of DNA. Some of Laderman's most interesting compositional experiments appear in his string quartets. In the Fourth String Quartet (1974) a juxtaposition of dynamics, gesture, harmonic language and metre is explored, while in the Seventh Quartet (1983) the elaboration of separate ideas suggests a functional combination of development and recapitulation.

Laderman’s ten operas, on a variety of biblical, historical and fantastic subjects, form a large part of his output. Perhaps the best known of these is Galileo Galilei (1978), a revision of his oratorio The Trials of Galileo (1967). Strongly rhythmic, dissonant and highly contrapuntal, lyricism does not prevail in this work. The drama is static, but purposeful in a Brechtian manner. With the commission and première of Marilyn by New York City Opera (1993), Laderman turned to American pop culture. Taking the actress Marilyn Monroe as its subject, the opera portrays her at the end of her life – drugged, depressed, unloved and ultimately betrayed. The music incorporates pop and jazz styles prevalent in the 1960s as well as maintaining Laderman's own musical aesthetic.

WORKS

dramatic

Ops: Jacob and the Indians (3, E. Kinoy, after S.V. Benét), 1954, Woodstock, NY, 24 July 1957; Goodbye to the Clowns (1, Kinoy), 1956; The Hunting of the Snark (op-cant., 1, L. Carroll), 1958, concert perf., New York, 25 March 1961, staged, New York, 13 April 1978; Sarah (1, C. Roskam), 1959, CBS TV, 29 Nov 1959; Air Raid (1, A. MacLeish), 1965; Shadows Among Us (2, N. Rosten), 1967, Philadelphia, 14 Dec 1979; And David Wept (op-cant., 1, J. Darion), 1970, CBS TV, 11 April 1971, staged, New York, 31 May 1980; The Questions of Abraham (op-cant., 1, Darion), 1973, CBS TV, 30 Sept 1973; Galileo Galilei (3, Darion, after The Trials of Galileo), 1978, Binghamton, NY, 3 Feb 1979; Marilyn (1, Rosten), New York, Oct 1993

Other stage: Duet for Flute and Dancer (J. Erdman), 1956; Dance Quartet (Erdman), fl, cl, vc, dancer, 1957; Ester (dance score, Erdman), nar, ob, str orch, 1960; Machinal (incid music, S. Treadwell), 1960; Solos and Chorale (dance score, Erdman), 4 mixed vv, 1960; Song of Songs (dance score, Bible, choreog. A. Sokolow), S, pf, 1960; Dominique (musical comedy, 2, J. Darion, after E. Kinoy), 1962; The Lincoln Mask (incid music, V.J. Longhi), 1972

12 Film scores; 12 TV scores

orchestral

With solo inst(s): Pf Conc., 1939; Pf Conc. no.1, 1978; Vc Conc., 1984; Fl Conc., 1986; Pf Conc. no.2, 1989; 11 other concertos

Other orch: Leipzig Sym., 1945; Sym. no.1, 1964; Magic Prison (E. Dickinson, T.W. Higginson, arr. A. MacLeish), 2 nar, orch, 1967 [based on film score]; Priorities, jazz band, rock band, str qt, 1969; Sym. no.2 ‘Luther’, 1969; Sym. no.3 ‘Jerusalem’, 1973; Sym. no.4, 1980; Sym. no.5 ‘Isaiah’, S, orch, 1982; Sym. no.6, 1983; Sym. no.7, 1984; Sanctuary, 1986; Conc. for Double Orch (A Play Within a Play), 1989; Citadel, 1990; Sym. no.8, 1994; Yisreal, 1998; 9 other works

vocal

Songs for Eve (A. MacLeish), S, pf, 1966; The Trials of Galileo (orat, J. Darion), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1967; Songs from Michelangelo, Bar, pf, 1968; A Handful of Souls (cant., Darion), solo vv, chorus, org, 1975; Columbus (cant., N. Kazantsakis), B-Bar, orch, 1975; Song of Songs (chbr cant.), S, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1977 [based on dance score]; A Mass for Cain (orat, Darion), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1983; 4 other works

chamber

2 or more insts: Pf Qnt, 1951; Str Qt, 1953; Wind Qnt, 1954; Pf Trio, 1955, rev. 1959; Theme, Variations and Finale, 4 wind, 2 str, 1957; Wind Octet, 1957; Sextet, wind qnt, db, 1959; Str Qt no.1, 1959; Str Qt no.2, 1962; Str Qt no.3, 1966; Double Helix, fl, ob, str qt, 1968; Str Qt no.4, 1974; Str Qt no.5, 1976; Str Qt no.6 ‘The Audubon’, 1980; Remembrances, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1982; Double Str Qt, 1983; Str Qt no.7, 1983; Str Qt no.8, 1985; Cl Qnt, 1988; MBL Suite, 2 fl, str qt, 1988; Epigrams and Canons, 2 Baroque fl, 1990; Pf Qnt, 1990; Talkin’-Lovin’-Leavin’, rec, str qt, 1990; Aldo, 8 vc, 1991; A Single Voice, fl, str qt, 1991; Pf Qt, 1996; 20 other works

Solo inst: Prelude in the Form of a Passacaglia, pf, late 1940s; Pf Sonata no.1, 1952; Pf Sonata no.2, 1955; Partita (Meditations on Isaiah), vc, 1972; Elegy, va, 1973; 25 Preludes for Org in Different Forms, 1975; Partita, vn, 1982; June 29, fl, 1986; A Moment in Time, fl, 1989; Partita, vn, 1990; Michael's Suite, fl, 1994; 7 other works

El-ac: Other Voices, va, tape, 1976

recorded interviews in US-NHoh

Principal publishers: OUP, G. Schirmer

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anderson2

Baker7

EwenD

GroveA (P. Friedheim)

GroveO (J.P. Cassaro)

S. Fleming: ‘Musician of the Month: Ezra Laderman’, High Fidelity/Musical America, xxx/3 (1980), 4 only

R.H. Kornick: Recent American Opera: a Production Guide (New York, 1991), 163–7

T. Page: ‘Opera in 3-D’, ON, lviii/4 (1993–4), 12–17, 52 [on Marilyn]

JAMES P. CASSARO

Ładewski [Ładowski], Kazimierz.

See Łada, Kazimierz.

Lādhiqī [Muhammad], al-

(fl late 15th century). Arab theorist. His two treatises, one of which, al-Risāla al-fathiyya (‘The victory treatise’), is dedicated to the Ottoman Sultan Bāyazīd II (1481–1512), are among the last significant additions to the Systematist school of theoretical writing derived from Safī al-Dīn. They treat mainly of intervallic relationships, tetrachord, pentachord and octave species, and rhythm; however, in common with several of the later Systematist treatises they make no significant theoretical contributions in these areas. Al-Lādhiqī is important, rather, for the information he provides on musical practice; while reproducing the definitions of the modes and rhythms given by earlier theorists, he also includes extensive lists relating to contemporary usage which give some insight into the various changes and developments taking place during the 15th century.

WRITINGS

Al-risāla al-fathiyya fī al-mūsīqī [The victory treatise concerning the theory of music] (MS, GB-Lbl Oriental 6629; National Library, Cairo, f.j.7); Fr. trans. in La musique arabe, ed. R. d'Erlanger, iv (Paris, 1939), 257–498

Zayn al-alhān fī ‘ilm ta’līf al-awzān [The adorning of melodies in the composition of the measures] (MS, National Library, Cairo, f.j.350)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H.G. Farmer: The Sources of Arabian Music (Bearsden, 1940, 2/1965), 57

OWEN WRIGHT

Ladipo, Duro

(b Oshogbo, 18 Dec 1931; d Ibadan, 11 March 1978). Nigerian playwright. Ladipo was an internationally famous author of Yoruba popular plays. For the Duro Ladipo Theatre Group he served as director, actor, composer, choreographer and manager. He was the grandson of a drummer and the son of an Anglican catechist. He was a member of his school's choir from the age of nine, and wrote his first play while still in school. At the same time he began composing and adapting European hymns to the tonality of the Yoruba language. The performance of his Easter Cantata (1961) in Oshogbo sparked a controversy concerning the use of drums in churches. Ladipo thereafter began performing outside the church, changing his topics to historical themes that integrated Yoruba singing and drumming. He ‘Yoruba-ized’ popular theatre, and his new directions were highly successful. He produced 36 plays, not including his television scripts.

His play Oba Koso, which depicted the deified Alafin Shango of Oyo, became one of the most impressive theatrical productions of Ladipo's time. It was presented at the Berliner Festspiele (1964) and the Commonwealth Arts Festival in Liverpool (1965), and in Bahia (1969). His music fused elements of church music, highlife and traditional Yoruba drumming. Throughout his career Ladipo presented Yoruba history and culture in a positive way, and he is thus considered instrumental in the strengthening of the waning Yoruba identity.

WORKS

Eda (op), Ibadan, 1970

Oba Koso [The king did not hang] (dance-drama), Ibadan, 1972, S1975 Kaleidophone

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Jahn: Who's Who in African Literature (Tübingen, 1972)

B. Jeyifo: The Yoruba Popular Travelling Theatre of Nigeria (Lagos, 1984)

G. Kubik: Musikgeschichte in Bildern: Westafrika (Leipzig, 1989)

U. Beier, ed.: The Return of Shango: the Theatre of Duro Ladipo (Bayreuth, 1994)

WOLFGANG BENDER

Ladmirault, Paul (Emile)

(b Nantes, 8 Dec 1877; d Camoël, nr La Roche-Bernard, Morbihan, 30 Oct 1944). French composer. He wrote music from childhood, and when he was eleven one of his works attracted the attention of Bourgault-Ducoudray. His first opera, Gilles de Retz, was written when he was fifteen and produced in Nantes in 1893. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire from 1897 to 1904, mainly as a pupil of Fauré, and became professor of harmony, counterpoint and fugue at the Nantes Conservatoire in 1920. He wrote music criticism for a number of journals, including the Revue Musicale.

The range and diversity of Ladmirault's music reflect his precocious talent and wealth of cultural interests. He was deeply attached to his native Brittany and to Celtic culture, and his output contains refined examples of regionalist composition as well as significant works in standard genres. Ladmirault was conscious of his music's indebtedness to Fauré and Ravel. His works embrace pure modality on the one hand and, on the other, a highly personal chromaticism with an appetite for strong dissonance. His harmonizations of traditional themes show an obvious desire to preserve their essential rhythmic character (in the barring especially), while the works inspired by folklore show great imagination in their treatment and development of motives.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Myrdhin (op, 4, L. Ladmirault and A. Fleury), 1899–1902 [incl., orch extracts: Suite bretonne, 1903; Brocéliande au matin, ov., 1905]; Le roman de Tristan (incid music, J. Bédier and L. Artus), 1913–18; La prêtresse de Korydwen (ballet), 1917;

Inst: Variations sur des airs de biniou trégorois, orch, 1908; Rhapsodie gaélique, orch, 1909; En forêt, sym. poem, orch, 1913; La Brière, orch, 1926; Sym., C, orch, 1926; Sonata, vn, pf, 1931; Pf Qnt [from Sym.], 1993; Str Qt, 1933; Sonata, vc, pf, 1939; Sonata, cl, pf, 1942; Trio; pf works for 2 and 4 hands

Vocal: Choeur des âmes de la forêt, chorus, orch; Messe brève, chorus, org, 1937; Dominical (M. Elskamp), S, A, T, B, pf, 1911; many songs for 1v, pf; choral works for 2–4vv

Principal publishers: Leduc, Jobert, Eschig, Salabert

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (G. Ferchault)

C. Debussy: ‘De l’opéra et de ses rapports avec la musique’, Gil Blas (9 March 1903)

O. Séré [J. Poueigh]: Musiciens français d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1911, 8/1921)

M. Courtonne: Un siècle de musique à Nantes et dans la région nantaise, 1850–1950 (Nantes, 1953)

L. Legeard: ‘Paul Ladmirault’, Résonances, no.18 (1991), 1–4

YVES KRIER

La Douardière, Henri de.

See L’Enclos, Henri de.

Ladurner, Ignace Antoine (François Xavier) [Ignaz Anton Franz Xaver/Joseph]

(b Aldein, nr Bolzano, 1 Aug 1766; d Villain, nr Massy, 4 March 1839). French composer, pianist and teacher of Austrian descent, elder brother of Josef Alois Ladurner. His father, Franz Xaver (1735–82), was an organist and teacher at Aldein and later at Algund (now Lagundo). Ignace studied music with his uncle Innozenz Ladurner (1745–1807) at the nearby monastery of Benediktbeuren and became the organist at Algund on his father's death. In 1784 he went to Munich to study at the Lyceum Gregorianum, leaving the organ position to Josef Alois. He soon completed his studies and moved to Longeville, near Bar-le-Duc, with Countess Heimhausen, a distinguished pianist, who apparently employed him to play music with her. He arrived in Paris in 1788 and soon developed a reputation as an outstanding teacher. From 1797 until 1802 he taught the piano at the Conservatoire, during which time his pupils won several prizes. However, his most famous pupils, Auber and Boëly, were taught privately. When the Conservatoire was re-formed as the Ecole Royale in 1816 he was appointed to the faculty but apparently never fulfilled this role. He married Mlle Magnier de Gondreville, a talented violinist; their son, Adolphe Ladurner, became known as a painter. In 1836, disabled by paralysis, he moved to his country home in Villain.

Ladurner wrote two operas and some chamber music, but most of his compositions were for the piano. According to Saint-Foix, Ladurner was more interested in solid construction than in the flashy style of his contemporary Steibelt, and his music, characterized by good counterpoint and unusual modulations, reveals thorough knowledge of Clementi's works, but is not reactionary. In his sonatas the opening movements are melodically less attractive than the later movements; there is often a disparity between the first subjects, which are pre-Romantic in inflection, and the more galant second subjects. Popular airs are used in the Mélanges harmoniques, and his opéra comique Les vieux fous is notable for the ingenuity of the orchestration. Ladurner influenced his pupils, particularly Boëly, both through his interest in new ideas and his continual study of established masters.

WORKS

all printed works published in Paris

operas

Wenzel, ou Le magistrat du peuple (drame lyrique 3, F. Pillet), Paris, National, 10 April 1794, ov., airs, acc. pf (1795–1800)

Les vieux fous, ou Plus de peur que de mal (oc, 1, J.A. de Ségur), Paris, OC (Feydeau), 16 Jan 1796, score, F-Pc

piano

12 sonatas, opp.1–2, lost, 8, 11; 3 grandes sonates avec la charge de cavalerie, op.4 (1797); 4 caprices, 3 as op.8, 1 as op.11; 3 divertissements, op.13; 3 thèmes variés, op.14; 6 airs variés, op.16, lost; Airs irlandais variés, op.17, lost; Airs des Trembleurs variés, op.18, lost; Mélange harmonique, op.3; Second mélange harmonique, op.10; Fantaisie, op.12; Gai, gai, rondo fantaisie, Pc*; pieces in Etude ou Exercice de différents auteurs (1798)

Pf 4 hands: 3 sonatas, op.2 (1793), op.6 (c1804), op.12 [with Une larme sur la tombe de la plus tendre mère]

other works

Chbr: Sonata, pf, vn acc. in Journal de pièces de clavecin par différents auteurs (1792); 3 Sonatas, pf, vn, vc, op.1 (?1793); 9 Sonatas, pf, vn acc., 3 as op.5 (1798), 3 as op.7 (after 1804), 3 others, ?op.9; Introduction pour la sonate de Steibelt, vn, pf, Pc

Vocal: Amant cher autant qu'infidèle, romance, in Journal hebdomadaire composé d'airs d'opéras, xxiv/42 (1789); Orgie militaire, ou Gaité militaire (Pillet) (?1795)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

FétisB

G. de Saint-Foix: ‘Les premiers pianistes parisiens: Ignace-Antoine Ladurner (1766–1839)’, ReM, viii/1–2 (1926–7), 13–20

B. François-Sappey: Alexandre Pierre François Boëly (1785–1858): ses ancêtres, savie, son oeuvre, son temps (Paris, 1989)

FRÉDÉRIC ROBERT

Ladurner, Josef Alois

(b Algund, nr Merano, 7 March 1769; d Brixen [Bressanone], 20 Feb 1851). Austrian composer, brother of Ignace Antoine Ladurner. He studied with his uncle at the monastery of Benediktbeuern, became organist at Algund in 1784, and attended the Lyceum Gregorianum at Munich where he studied theology and philosophy until 1798. He also had piano lessons and received instruction in composition and counterpoint from the Hofclaviermeister Josef Graetz. He became a priest in 1799, and held various positions at the prince-bishop’s consistory at Brixen, including those of court chaplain from 1802 and councillor from 1816. Although he was not a professional musician, he directed choirs, gave piano lessons and participated in the activities of music societies at Innsbruck and Salzburg. His compositions, which were highly regarded by his contemporaries, include variations and fantasias for the piano, considerable church music and some pedagogical works; many of his works remain in manuscript.

WORKS

published in Munich after 1826 unless otherwise stated

Sacred vocal, 4vv: Tantum ergo, op.2; Ecce sacerdos, op.3, pf. acc.; Ave Maria, op.4; O salutaris hostia, op.5; other works, unpubd incl. MSS, A–Wgm, D–LEm

Pf: Fantaisie, ?op.1 (Mainz, before 1811); Fantasie, op.6 (c1835); 52 kurze Cadenzen mit variirter Modulation, op.7; Rondo all’anglaise, op.8; 16 Variationen über ein Pastoral-Thema, op.9; 16 Variationen über einen beliebten Wiener Walzer, op.10; Fantasie, Fuge und Sonata über das Thema einer Fuge von Handel, op.11; Fugue, op.12; Fantasie über ein Thema aus Don Juan [Mozart’s Don Giovanni], op.13; 56 moderne Orgel- und Clavier-Praeludien, op.14; other works, unpubd

Pedagogical works, incl. Grundliches Lehrbuch [piano teaching method]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

G.W. Fink: ‘Joseph Aloys Ladurner’, AMZ, xxxvii (1835), 759–61

Lady Day.

See Holiday, Billie.

Lady Mass.

One of the votive masses. See Votive ritual.

Ladysmith Black Mambazo.

South African a cappella vocal group. See Isicathamiya and South africa, §III.

Laetrius, Petit Jean.

See De Latre, Petit Jean.

La Fage, (Juste-)Adrien(-Lenoir) de

(b Paris, 30 March 1805; d Charenton, 8 March 1862). French composer and writer on music. He was a grandson of the celebrated architect Lenoir. Educated for the church and the army, he decided instead on a career in music, and as a harmony and counterpoint pupil of Perne made a particular study of plainsong; he was then a pupil, and later assistant, of Choron. In 1828, sent by the government to Rome, he studied for a year under Baini, and while in Italy produced a farce, I creditori, but he never gained any distinction in this genre. On his return to Paris (December 1829) he was appointed maître de chapelle of St Etienne-du-Mont, where he substituted an organ (built by John Abbey) for the harsh out-of-tune serpent previously used with the chant. At the same time he held a similar post at the church of St François-Xavier, where he restored much ancient plainchant and introduced antiphonal singing for men’s and boys' choirs.

La Fage spent the years 1833–6 in Italy and while he was there his wife and son both died. On returning to Paris he published the Manuel complet de musique vocale et instrumentale (1836–8), of which the first chapters had been prepared by Choron, some critical works and collections of biographical and critical articles. He visited Italy again after the 1848 revolution and made copies of previously unstudied manuscripts; he also visited Germany and Spain, and England during the 1851 Great Exhibition. He finally settled in Paris and published the works on which his reputation rests. Overwork as an author and as general editor of Le plainchant, a periodical which he founded in 1859, brought on a nervous illness that ultimately led to his removal to the insane asylum at Charenton.

La Fage was a prolific composer of sacred music and also wrote some chamber music for flute, but is remembered as a historian and didactic writer. His Cours complet de plain-chant (1855–6) fully justifies its title. It was succeeded in 1859 by an equally valuable supplement, the Nouveau traité de plain-chant romain (with questions). His Histoire générale de la musique et de la danse, though dealing only with Chinese, Indian, Egyptian and Hebrew music, is a careful and conscientious work. His learning and method appear conspicuously in his Extraits du catalogue critique et raisonné d’une petite bibliothèque musicale and in his Essais de dipthérographie musicale, works of particular importance in that they refer to manuscripts and documents now lost. His substantial library was catalogued (Paris, 1862) and afterwards dispersed by auction. His unpublished works and materials including his compositions are in the Bibliothèque Nationale, to which he bequeathed all his papers, with the manuscripts of Choron and Baini in his possession.

WRITINGS

Manuel complet de musique vocale et instrumentale, ou Encyclopédie musicale (Paris, 1836–8) [begun by A. Choron]

Séméiologie musicale (Paris, 1837)

De la chanson considérée sous le rapport musical (Paris, 1840)

Eloge de Choron (Paris, 1843)

Miscellanées musicales (Paris, 1844/R)

Histoire générale de la musique et de la danse (Paris, 1844/R)

Nicolai Capuani presbyteri compendium musicale (Paris, 1853)

De la reproduction des livres de plain-chant romain (Paris, 1853)

Lettre écrite à l’occasion d’un mémoire pour servir à la restauration du chant romain en France, par l’abbé Céleste Alix (Paris, 1853)

Cours complet de plain-chant (Paris, 1855)

Quinze visites musicales à l'Exposition Universelle de 1855 (Paris, 1856)

Extraits du catalogue critique et raisonné d’une petite bibliothèque musicale (Rennes, ?1857)

Nouveau traité de plain-chant romain (Paris, 1859) [suppl. to Cours complet de plain-chant]

De l’unité tonique et de la fixation d’un diapason universel (Paris, 1859)

Essais de dipthérographie musicale (Paris, 1864/R)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R.D. Denne-Baron: Adrien de La Fage (Paris, 1863)

M. Cole: ‘Sonata-Rondo, the Formulation of a Theoretical Concept in the 18th and 19th Centuries’, MQ, lv (1969), 180–92

GUSTAVE CHOUQUET/ARTHUR HUTCHINGS

La Fage, Jean de

(fl c1518–30). Composer, probably of French birth. On stylistic grounds, La Fage was probably trained before the turn of the 15th century. He is cited in lists of musicians in Rabelais’ prologue to book 4 of Pantagruel and in a noël by Jean Daniel written about 1525–30. The Ferrarese singer Turleron described La Fage as ‘a contrabass, the best in Italy’, according to a letter of June 1516 from the Ferrarese agent Enea Pio to Cardinal Ippolito I d’Este. Pio noted that La Fage was highly esteemed by Pope Leo X, and he indicated that the composer and several choirboys had recently arrived in Rome among the retinue of the Cardinal of Auch, François Guillaume de Clermont. La Fage has been proposed as a conduit for the transmission of music and musical influence between southern France and Italy during the early decades of the 16th century.

La Fage left thirteen motets (one of which is fragmentary) and two chansons. His works, chiefly preserved in Italian and French sources between 1518 and 1535, are notable for their expressive intensity, powerful rhythmic pull and tendency towards pervasive melodic imitation. La Fage’s motets are similar to those of his greater contemporary Jean Mouton in scope and frequent use of voice-pairing, but may be distinguished by their more continuous rhythmic motion, colourful yet euphonious harmonies and often expressive use of dissonance. The motets based on plainchant exhibit both migrant cantus firmus techniques and melodic paraphrase. His one chanson employs short points of imitation, homorhythmic voice pairing, animated rhythms, short phrases, and syllabic text setting.

WORKS

Edition: Treize livres de motets parus chez Pierre Attaingnant en 1534 et 1535, ed. A. Smijers and A.T. Merritt (Paris and Monaco, 1934–63) [S]

Aspice Domine quia facta es, 4vv, 1528²; Ave domina mea Sancta Maria, 4vv, S iv; Ave mundi spes, 4vv, ed. in MRM, viii (1987); Elisabeth Zachariae, 4vv, ed. in MRM, iv (1968) (also attrib. Mouton); O Sancte Seraphice, GB-Lbl Add.19583 (A only); Partus et integritas, 5vv, ed. in MRM, viii (1987); Quae est ista quae processit, 3vv, 1541²; Quam pulchra es, 3vv, 1541²; Rex autem David, 4vv, S xi (also attrib. Gascongne, Lupus); Super flumina Babylonis, 5vv, S iii; Verbum caro factum est, 6vv, 1558⁴ (also attrib. Mouton); Vide Domine afflictionem nostram, 4vv, ed. in MRM, viii (1987); Videns Dominus civitatem desolatam, 4vv, ed. in MRM, iv (1968)

L’amour de moy, 3vv, D-HRD 9821; M’y levay par ung matin, 4vv, I-Fn Magl.XIX.117, excerpt ed. in Bernstein

misattributed works

Aspice Domine de sede sancta tua, 4vv, S xi (by Claudin de Sermisy; also attrib. Jacquet); Verbum bonum et suave, 4vv, ed. in MRM, iv (1968) (by Therache; also attrib. Févin)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Lockwood: ‘Jean Mouton and Jean Michel: New Evidence on French Music and Musicians in Italy, 1505–1520’, JAMS, xxxiii (1979), 191–246, esp. 222–4

L. Bernstein: ‘A Florentine Chansonnier of the Early Sixteenth Century’, EMH, vi (1986), 1–107, esp. 76–88

J. Brobeck: ‘Style and Authenticity in the Motets of Claudin de Sermisy’, JM, xvi (1998), 26–90, esp. 63–6

JOHN T. BROBECK

La Farge, P. de

(fl 1539–46). French or Franco-Flemish composer. Although Eitner (EitnerS and EitnerQ) considered La Farge and Jean de La Fage to be the same person, they were in fact two different composers. Between 1539 and 1547 eight Latin motets and two French chansons were published by Jacques Moderne of Lyons with attribution to ‘P. de la Farge’. The composer may be identifiable with Pierre de La Farge, a canon at the collegiate church of St Just, Lyons, whose will was attested on 18 August 1559.

WORKS

A solis ortu, 5vv, 1542⁵; Ave regina caelorum, 4vv, 1539¹¹; Clamabat autem mulier cananea, 5vv, 1547²; Cum sero factum esset, 5vv, 1542⁵; Regina celi letare, 4vv, 1539¹¹; Sanctificamini hodie, 5vv, 1542⁵; Suscipiens Jesum, 4vv, 1539¹¹; Virgo Maria non est tibi similis, 6vv, 1547²

Las que te sert, 4vv, 1543¹⁴, ed. in SCC, xxviii (1993); Robin avoit de la souppe, 4vv, 1544⁹

SAMUEL F. POGUE

LaFaro, Scott

(b Newark, NJ, 3 April 1936; d Geneva, NY, 6 July 1961). American jazz double bass player. His family moved to Geneva, New York, when he was five years old. He started playing the clarinet at the age of 14; later, in high school, he took up the tenor saxophone, and finally studied the double bass at Ithaca Conservatory and in Syracuse. In 1955–6 he travelled with Buddy Morrow's band to Los Angeles, where he began his career as a jazz musician as a member of Chet Baker's group (1956–7). After playing briefly in Chicago with Ira Sullivan, he accompanied Sonny Rollins and Harold Land in San Francisco (1958) and worked with Barney Kessel and played in a group at the Lighthouse Cafe in Hermosa Beach, California. In 1959 he moved to New York and toured briefly with Benny Goodman, then joined a trio led by Bill Evans (with Paul Motian). He remained with Evans until his early death in a road accident, though he also led his own trio and worked with Stan Getz. His recordings with Evans (notably Sunday at the Village Vanguard, 1961, Riv.) and Ornette Coleman (1960–61) set the standard for a new generation of jazz bass players who varied their accompaniments by mixing traditional time-keeping bass lines with far-ranging countermelodies in free rhythm.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Williams: ‘Introducing Scott LaFaro’, JR, iii/7 (1960), 16–17

‘A Light Gone Out’, Down Beat, xxviii/17 (1961), 13 [obituary]

BARRY KERNFELD

La Faya, Aurelio.

See Della Faya, Aurelio.

Lafayette Quartet.

Canadian-based string quartet. It was formed in Detroit in 1984 by members of the Renaissance City Chamber Players, the Canadian violinist Ann Elliott-Goldschmid and three US musicians – Sharon Stanis, Joanna Hood and Pamela Highbaugh – who had previously played in a quartet led by their tutor at Indiana University, Rostislav Dubinsky, formerly of the Borodin Quartet. Coached by Dubinsky, the four won the 1988 Fischoff National Chamber Music Competition, taking prizes in addition at competitions in Portsmouth (1988) and Chicago (1989). They were also helped by the Cleveland Quartet, whose competition they won in 1986, and by members of the Alban Berg and Amadeus Quartets. Since 1991 they have been artists-in-residence at the University of Victoria School of Music, British Columbia, but they have been encouraged to tour regularly. They play a wide repertory with perceptive musicianship and refinement and beauty of tone. Their recordings include the Dvořák piano quintets (with the Czech-born Canadian pianist Antonín Kubálek) and the quartets of Murray Adaskin. For a time they played on the Amatis belonging to the University of Saskatchewan but now all except Hood use modern instruments. In the 1999–2000 season they gave their first Beethoven cycle, in Victoria.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

B. McDougall: ‘Four Women for Four Amatis’, The Strad, civ (1993), 1024–9

D. Rounds: The Four and the One (Fort Bragg, CA, 1999)

TULLY POTTER

La Feillée, François de

(d c1780). French theorist. He probably lived in or near Poitiers around 1750. His reputation stands on his Méthode nouvelle pour apprendre parfaitement les règles du plainchant et de la psalmodie (Poitiers, 1748), which appeared nine times in four editions up to 1784. It advocates the ‘expressive’ performance of chant in accord with the doctrine of the Affections as it was then understood. La Feillée wrote: ‘Expression is an image which sensitively renders the character of all that one utters in singing, and which depicts it realistically’. The use of trills and other ornamentation is recommended, and relative speeds of delivery are prescribed. The same text should be sung more slowly on a solemn feast-day than on normal days, but otherwise the immediate contents of the text should determine the manner of singing: prayers are to be sung ‘devoutly and sadly’, narrative texts ‘without any passion but with good pronunciation’. The treatise provides a valuable sidelight on the history of chant performance, and may reflect the kinds of expressive effect that 18th-century composers of religious music may have intended. La Feillée also published Epitome gradualis romani (Poitiers, n.d.) and Epitome antiphonarii romani (Poitiers, 1746).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D. Launay: La musique religieuse en France du Concile de Trente à 1804 (Paris, 1993)

J. Duron, ed.: Plain-chant et liturgie en France au XVIIe siècle (Paris, 1997)

See also Plain-chant musical.

MARY HUNTER

La Ferté, Denis-Pierre-Jean, Papillon de

(b Châlons-sur-Marne, 18 Feb 1725; d Paris, 7 July 1794). French courtier and administrator. Having moved to Paris in the mid-1740s, he completed his law studies and subsequently bought three official positions: intendant-contrôler de l’argenterie (1756), menus-plaisirs (1762) and affaires de la chambre du roi (1762). He also obtained management of the Comédie-Italienne in 1760, of the Comédie-Française two years later, and organized, amid a web of intrigue, the amalgamation of the Comédie-Italienne with the Opéra-Comique in February 1762). At the king’s request La Ferté assisted in the reorganization of the Opéra in 1776, and although this occupied him only until the following year, he later took over the administration of the Opéra for ten years, from 1780 to 1790. A related responsibility, from 1784, was the direction of the Ecole Royale de Chant (the forerunner of the Paris Conservatoire).

La Ferté emerges, through documentary evidence and through his own journal (which offers valuable insights into life at court) as a clever, at times unscrupulous, figurehead who wielded considerable power. Dealing predominantly with matters relating to personnel and finance, he handled discontented artists from the institutions under his control adroitly, if not always sympathetically. As intendant des menus-plaisirs, La Ferté was responsible for all royal ceremonies including the coronation of Louis XVI. Having enjoyed an amicable friendship with Mme de Pompadour, he later found himself in frequent conflict with Marie Antoinette over the cost of meeting her extravagant tastes, and in particular her generous payments to singers and musicians, which he felt encouraged an over-familiarity. She, in turn, rebuked him on one occasion for his manners towards the librettist Sedaine. During the Revolution La Ferté was guillotined; his autobiographical note written in prison on the eve of his death is reproduced in Jullien (1876).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Jullien: Un potentat musical: Papillon de la Ferté: son règne à l’Opéra de 1780 à 1790 (Paris, 1876)

A. Jullien: La cour et l’opéra sous Louis XVI (Paris, 1878)

E. Boysse: Les abonnés de l’Opéra, 1783–1786 (Paris, 1881), 38–40

J.G. Prod’homme and E.de Crauzat: Les menus plaisirs du roi (Paris, 1929)

M. Barthélemy: ‘Les règlements de 1776 et l’Académie royale de musique’, RMFC, iv (1964), 239–48

R. Isherwood: Farce and Fantasy: Popular Entertainment in 18th-Century Paris (New York, 1986)

ETHYL L. WILL/ELISABETH COOK

L’Affilard [Laffilard, L’Affillard, La Filiade], Michel

(b c1656; d Versailles, April 1708). French composer, theorist and singer. On 24 March 1679 he was appointed chantre clerc at the Ste Chapelle, Paris, where he may have studied with René Ouvrard. He joined the royal chapel at Versailles in 1683 and remained there until his death. He married Anne Typhaine in 1685. In 1696 he became an officer of the king’s music and bought a coat-of-arms.

L’Affilard was the first composer to supply metronomic indications for his own music, and he was scrupulous in editing it, indicating breathing places, ornaments and notes inégales. His surviving music amounts to about three dozen elegant airs de mouvement or dance-songs, which are found in manuscript (in F-V and CDN-Mn), in Recueils published by Ballard (RISM 1695³ and 1697², and two others of 1701 and 1705) and especially in what might be termed his ‘complete works’: the Principes très-faciles pour bien apprendre la musique (Paris, 1694), which was reprinted many times up to 1747. The Principes is a treatise on sight-singing which he seems to have used as a laboratory, for he reworked and recomposed the songs in each fresh edition up to the fifth (a secular version printed twice in 1705) and sixth (a sacred version also printed in 1705). When he replaced tempo words with metronome indications in 1705, the ‘complete works’ reached its final form, and all subsequent editions are based on either the fifth or sixth edition.

The Principes would be a rather ordinary self-tutor were it not for the high quality of L’Affilard’s dance-songs, which are regular and can be danced to. The anthology is important for the insights it provides on questions of the tempo, articulation, phrasing, ornamentation and quality of movement of early 18th-century dance music. However, scholars are not in agreement over the interpretation of the tempo indications. L’Affilard based these on the pendulum of Joseph Sauveur, which is divided logarithmically into 60th parts of a second, but he seems to have understood Sauveur’s system imperfectly. It could be that L’Affilard employed a quarter-length pendulum, where a complete vibration equals the musical beat, but he recorded his pendulum lengths using Sauveur’s scale of tierces du temps, which is calculated for half vibrations. This would give metronome indications as shown in Table 1. An asterisk indicates that no contemporary choreography exists, and question marks indicate tempos that are unreasonably slow.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BenoitMC

BrenetM

E. Schwandt: ‘L’Affilard on the French Court Dances’, MQ, lx (1974), 389–400

E. Schwandt: ‘L’Affilard’s Published Sketchbooks’, MQ, lxiii (1977), 99–113

W. Hilton: Dance of Court and Theater: the French Noble Style (1690–1725) (Princeton, NJ, 1981/R)

É. Gallat-Morin: ‘Un manuscrit de cantiques à Montréal (XVIII^e siècle)’, Canadian University Music Review, xi/2 (1991), 68–93

ERICH SCHWANDT

Lafitte, José White.

See White Lafitte, José.

Lafleur, Joseph René

(b Paris, 9 June 1812; d Maisons-Laffitte, nr Paris, 18 Feb 1874). French bowmaker. His father Jacques Lafleur was also a violin maker and bowmaker. Joseph René appears to have worked initially as a violinist. Details concerning his apprenticeship as a maker do not survive, though he did not learn from his father, whose work he far surpassed. It is reasonable to assume that his earlier career as a violinist afforded him many opportunities to examine and consider a wide range of transitional and post-transitional bows. This would explain his early tendencies towards experimentation with shaft resistance and flexibility and the use of a ‘pikes-head’ tip. His later association with Nicolas Maire, probably resulted in a further apprenticeship of sorts. Following this period the ‘pikes-head’ tips were modified, although a certain elongation remained. His mature work possesses playing qualities of the highest order. His bows are occasionally branded lafleur; it is also possible that a certain amount of his work bears the brand of Nicolas Maire.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Roda: Bows for Musical Instruments of the Violin Family (Chicago, 1959)

E. Vatelot: Les archets français (Paris, 1976, 2/1977) [in Fr., Ger. and Eng.]

J. Liivoja: ‘The Bows of Lafleur, Maire and Pajeot’, The Strad, xcii (1981–2), 646–8

JAAK LIIVOJA-LORIUS

La Florinda.

See Andreini, Virginia.

Lafont, Charles Philippe

(b Paris, 1 Dec 1781; d nr Tarbes, 14 Aug/10 Jan 1839). French violinist and composer. His mother, a sister of the violinist Bertheaume, gave him his first violin lessons, which were continued under his uncle’s guidance. At the age of 11 he was ready to accompany Bertheaume on a concert tour to Germany, where his precocious talent was much admired. On his return to Paris, Lafont resumed his studies, first under Kreutzer (with whom he worked for two years), then for a brief period with Rode. He also developed an attractive voice and appeared occasionally as a singer of French ballads. In 1801 he gave concerts in Belgium, and in 1802 was acclaimed at the Concert Français in Paris. Soon he was recognized as one of France’s leading violinists, and his pre-eminence was firmly established when Rode left for Russia in 1803. There followed successful tours in Germany, the Netherlands and England. In 1808 he was appointed solo violinist to the Tsar, succeeding Rode, and he remained in St Petersburg for six years. In 1815 he was named solo violinist to Louis XVIII.

Resuming his travels, Lafont had a memorable encounter with Paganini in Milan in 1816. They agreed, on Lafont’s suggestion, to give a joint concert at La Scala; the programme consisted of a double concerto by Kreutzer as well as solo works by the two artists. This event is often described as a ‘contest’ in which Lafont was allegedly humiliated by Paganini’s wizardry. In fact, in a letter, Paganini praised Lafont’s artistry and even conceded his ‘greater beauty of tone’, but concluded, ‘He plays well but he does not surprise’ (de Courcy, p.147). Lafont, angered by the persistent story of his ‘defeat’, published his own belated version of the encounter in The Harmonicon in 1830, saying: ‘I was not beaten by Paganini, nor he by me’ and defending the French school as ‘the first in the world for the violin’. This statement was made when Paganini was at the height of his fame. Whatever the outcome of the encounter, Lafont’s supreme self-assurance remained unshaken, and he continued his career for more than 20 years. Spohr, who heard him in Paris in 1821, ranked him first among French violinists and admired his ‘beauty of tone, the greatest purity, power, and grace’, but criticized the lack of ‘deeper feeling’. In the course of his career, Lafont often collaborated with prominent pianists, among them Kalkbrenner, Herz, Osborne and Moscheles; these partnerships produced joint compositions for violin and piano in which both instruments were treated with equal brilliance. Lafont died in a carriage accident while on a concert tour in the south of France.

Lafont represented French violin playing at its best. He inherited the classical technique of the Viotti school through his teachers Kreutzer and Rode, but modernized it by making it more brilliant and idiomatic. Thus he stands midway between Rode and Bériot. His encounter with Paganini came too late to influence his style and he was gradually overshadowed by the rising generation of Paganini-inspired virtuosos. As a composer, Lafont was of little importance: his seven violin concertos lack musical distinction, and his numerous fantasias and airs variés on operatic themes do not rise above the mediocre level of fashionable virtuoso music. Thanks to his pianist-collaborators, particularly Moscheles, higher musical standards are displayed in his duos concertants. He also composed more than 200 French ballads (romances), which for a time were very popular, and an opera, La rivalité villageoise (1799). Other operas mentioned by Fétis cannot be traced.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

Obituary, Revue et gazette musicale de Paris, vi (1839), 359

L. Spohr: Selbstbiographie (Kassel, 1860–61; Eng. trans., 1865/R, 2/1878/R); ed. E. Schmitz (1954–5)

E. Van der Straeten: The History of the Violin, i (London, 1933/R), 290–92

G.I.C. de Courcy: Paganini the Genoese, i (Norman, OK, 1957/R), 146–50

BORIS SCHWARZ

La Font, de.

See Delafont.

Lafont, Jean-Philippe

(b Toulouse, 4 Feb 1951). French baritone. He studied in Toulouse and then at the Opéra-Studio in Paris, where he made his début as Papageno in 1974 and in 1977 sang Nick Shadow in The Rake’s Progress. He subsequently sang regularly in Toulouse (where he took part in the première of Landowski’s Montségur in 1985) and in 1987 in the title role of Falstaff. At the Opéra-Comique in Paris he has taken part in the revivals of Gounod’s Le médecin malgré lui, Philidor’s Tom Jones and the Offenbach triple bill, Vive Offenbach!, and in 1982 sang all four sinister roles in Les contes d’Hoffmann. In 1983 he made his American début at Carnegie Hall in a concert performance of Benvenuto Cellini; his Metropolitan début was as Escamillo in 1988, and in 1991 he sang Jack Rance in La fanciulla del West at La Scala, Milan. One of the most versatile French baritones of his generation, Lafont also includes in his repertory roles such as Rigoletto, Amonasro, Barak (Die Frau ohne Schatten), Leporello, Sancho Panza, William Tell, Golaud and Nabucco. In 1996 he created the role of the villain, Scarpiof, in Landowski’s Galina in Lyons. His many recordings include Debussy’s La chute de la maison Usher with Prêtre, Les mamelles de Tirésias with Ozawa, Falstaff with Gardiner and La belle Hélène with Plasson. He has also appeared as an actor in the films Parole de Flic and Babette’s Feast.

PATRICK O’CONNOR

La Font, Joseph de

(b Paris, 1686; d Passy, 30 March 1725). French librettist and playwright. His masterpiece is the opéra-ballet Les fêtes, ou Le triomphe de Thalie (music by Mouret, 1714). Although not the work in which the ‘comic element was first introduced into the sphere of French opera’ (compare for example Les Muses of 1703 and Les fêtes vénitiennes of 1710), Les fêtes de Thalie deals with flesh-and-blood characters, soubrettes, petits maîtres and coquettish widows. La Font stated that this was the ‘first Opéra where one sees the women dressed à la Françoise’. The frequently mentioned scandale arose from La Font’s bold stroke, in the prologue, of having Thalia (muse of Comedy) triumph over Melpomene (muse of Tragedy) in a setting representing the stage of the Paris Opéra. La Font and Mouret lost no time in composing another entrée, La critique des fêtes de Thalie, and in changing the name of the opéra-ballet to Les fêtes de Thalie, all of which appeared to placate the aestheticians. In 1722 a new entrée, ‘La provençale’, was added, proving the most popular of all, and holding the stage until 1778. La Font’s other works for the lyric stage include two tragédies en musique, Hypermnèstre (1716) and Orion (1728, completed by S.-J. Pellegrin), and the ballet Les amours de Protée (1720). In addition, he collaborated with Lesage and d’Orneval for the Opéra-Comique.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO (J.R. Anthony) [incl. work-list]

Jullien-Desboulmiers: Histoire de la théâtre de l’Opéra-comique (Paris, 1769)

J. Carmody: Le répertoire de l’Opéra-Comique en vaudevilles de 1708 à 1764 (Berkeley, 1933)

JAMES R. ANTHONY

La Fontaine, Jean de

(b Château-Thierry, Aisne, 8 July 1621; d Paris, 13 April 1695). French poet, fabulist, dramatist and librettist. He was educated at Château-Thierry and in Paris, where he finally settled in 1661, having spent months at a time there from 1658. He quickly established links with leading writers and musicians (Molière, Jean Racine and Boileau-Despréaux; Michel Lambert and Lully) and with their patrons (Nicolas Fouquet, Henri Loménie, count of Brienne and Madeleine de Scudéry). Frequenting salons such as the Hôtel de Nevers he met Mme de Sévigné, Mme de la Fayette, La Rochefoucauld and other prominent arbiters of taste. When his first patron, the Duchess of Orléans, died in 1672, he sought refuge with Mme de la Sablière, who protected him until her death in 1693. He was faithful to friends such as Fouquet and the Duchess of Bouillon even when they were disgraced. He received few formal honours and little financial reward, and not until 1684 was he elected to the Académie Française.

La Fontaine is principally renowned for his gently ironic stories (Contes et nouvelles en vers, 1665–6) and for the finely drawn portrait of man that emerges from his fables (Fables choisies mises en vers, 1668, 1679). Many composers since his day have taken tales from both volumes as the basis of both stage and concert works. But La Fontaine's love of variety and his taste for novelty led him to experiment with many other literary forms, including drama. His first published work (1654) was a translation of Terence's Eunuchus, and his second dramatic effort was a ballet, Les rieurs du Beau-Richard (the music for which is lost), performed at Château-Thierry in 1659 or 1660, about the time that he composed his comedy Clymène. These early works show that he was aware of the need to adapt material to prevailing tastes and that he could exploit the dramatic and comic elements latent in a situation; they also show how he found it difficult to sustain a tone for long or to keep personal interjections out of the drama.

Diversity was essential to La Fontaine's view of art, and music played an equally important role in creating those effects of charm and grace by which he judged good style. As a spectator he found such effects in the ballet Les fâcheux, given at Vaux in 1661. In 1671 his Les amours de Psyché et de Cupidon (1659) inspired Psyché, the tragédie-ballet created by Molière and Lully with the aid of Quinault and Corneille. Lully's collaboration with Quinault, which began after Molière's death in 1673, was temporarily interrupted early in 1674, and he asked La Fontaine for a libretto. He produced the pastoral Daphne, light in tone, lyrical and graceful. It did not please: Lully required something more heroic, more dramatically consistent. La Fontaine's characteristic lyricism and irony were indeed unsuitable for opera librettos, where drama and simplicity are demanded; furthermore his self-conscious, independent character was incompatible with Lully's taxing, temperamental demands. Despite his consequent criticism of Lully (in the comedy Le florentin, 1674) and of opera as a form (in a verse letter to Pierre de Niert, 1677), he wrote the unfinished libretto Galatée (1682), dedicatory verses for Lully (Amadis, 1684, and Roland, 1685), and Astrée (1691). This last work, set to music by Pascal Collasse, received only six performances: La Fontaine had persisted in seeing Louis XIV as a lyrical Apollo rather than as a heroic Jupiter, and he had also indulged his private taste for make-believe and enchantment, showing that his gifts were more appropriate to armchair theatre than to tragédie lyrique.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P. Clarac: La Fontaine: l’homme et l’oeuvre (Paris, 1947)

O. de Mourgues: O muse, fuyante proie (Paris, 1962)

M.M. McGowan: ‘Le Papillon du Parnasse: a Reappraisal of La Fontaine's Experiments in Drama’, Australian Journal of French Studies, iv (1967), 204–24

J.P. Collinet: Le monde littéraire de La Fontaine (Paris, 1970)

J. Metz: The Fables of Fontaine: a Critical Edition of the Eighteenth-Century Vocal Settings (New York, 1986)

D.L. Rubin: A Pact with Silence (New York, 1991)

M. Benoît: Dictionnaire de la musique en France au 17e et au 18e siècles (Paris, 1992)

MARGARET M. McGOWAN

Lagacé, Bernard

(b St Hyacinthe, Quebec, 21 Nov 1930). Canadian organist. He studied in St Hyacinthe and Montreal with Conrad Letendre (organ), Yvonne Hubert (piano) and Gabriel Cusson (music theory). A scholarship from the Quebec government enabled him to perfect his organ technique in Paris from 1954 to 1956 under the aegis of André Marchal, whose assistant he became at St Eustache; he gave his first official recital there in June 1956. He then spent a year working with Heiller at the Vienna Music Academy. In 1957 he was appointed organ professor at the Quebec Conservatoire in Montreal and returned to Canada; he continued to give numerous concerts and recitals in Europe as well as in Canada and the USA. He was a prizewinner in the international competitions at Ghent and Munich and in the USA. Lagacé has exerted considerable influence both through his masterclasses and lectures, and through his important part in the organ revival in Canada. He has also frequently served as a jury member at international organ competitions. He has twice performed the complete organ works of Bach in Montreal (1975–7 and 1987–9), and has made several recordings, including Couperin’s Messe pour les convents, The Art of Fugue and a Frescobaldi programme, all of which combine a classical purity of style with a rigorous approach to interpretation.

JACQUES THÉRIAULT/GILES BRYANT

Lagacé [née Begin], Mireille

(b St Jérôme, PQ, 8 June 1935). Canadian organist, harpsichordist and teacher. After studying in Montreal and Vienna (with Anton Heiller), she embarked on a career as an organist, harpsichordist and (from 1988) fortepianist, performing in North America and western Europe and winning various prizes. She has taught the harpsichord in Montreal and New England and Baroque performance in North America and France, and teaches both subjects at the Conservatoire de Musique du Québec in Montréal. She also plays and teaches at organists’ conventions in North America. Although a champion of the Baroque repertory, Lagacé also plays 20th-century music and has had several works written for her. She has recorded organ works by Buxtehude and other Baroque composers, an anthology of French organ music and the complete harpsichord works of Bach. She is known for her colourful and imaginative interpretations of Baroque music and as a sensitive performer of the French Romantic repertory.

GILES BRYANT

Lagarde [La Garde], Mr.

See Laguerre, John.

La Garde [Lagarde, Garde], Pierre de

(b nr Crécy-en-Brie, Seine-et-Marne, 10 Feb 1717; d c1792). French composer and baritone. As an ordinaire de la chambre du roi he was highly regarded by Louis XV, who made him responsible for the musical training of the royal children. In 1755 he shared this duty with Mion, Maître de musique des enfants de France, and gained the title himself two years later. He was an assistant conductor at the Opéra from 1750 to 1755 and on the resignation of François Francoeur in 1756 he became compositeur de la chambre du roi. Some time later he was placed in charge of the concerts given for the Count of Artois. He is also reported to have taught the harp to Marie Antoinette. La Borde described him as having a baritone voice of wide compass and great facility.

La Garde’s reputation as a composer was firmly established when his Aeglé, a pastorale héroïque in one act, was performed at Madame de Pompadour’s Théâtre des Petits Cabinets in 1748; it is indebted to Rameau, particularly in its orchestral style. Two years later it was incorporated into La journée galante as the second act of that opéra-ballet; the first and last acts, of which no scores are extant, were La toilette de Vénus and Léandre et Héro. While there is no record of La journée galante being performed outside court circles, Aeglé was performed at the Opéra in 1751 and continued to be played there until 1777. Other works commissioned by Madame de Pompadour were Silvie, a full-length pastorale héroïque performed at Versailles in 1749, and L’impromptu de la cour de marbre, a divertissement comique performed in her country house at Bellevue in 1751 after the Théâtre des Petits Cabinets at Versailles had been dismantled.

La Garde’s lyrical gifts were often charmingly displayed in his airs, cantatas and cantatilles. Among his collections of airs were three volumes of brunettes (1764) with harp or guitar (both much in vogue at the time) and sometimes harpsichord or violin accompaniment. The guitar was also used to accompany some of the cantatilles in his Journal de musique (1758); although such works represent a decline in the French cantata, La Garde also composed cantatas and cantatilles of a high artistic level: for a long time his La musette was attributed to Rameau. His last published works were contained in two volumes entitled Les soirées de l’Ille Adam, dedicated to the Prince of Conti. They contained airs (and a cantatille, L’amant malheureux) for one and two voices accompanied by violin, oboe, bassoon, horn and bass. As in the works of a number of French composers at this time the music, in both thematic and instrumental writing, was greatly influenced by the nascent Classical style. While La Garde seems to have written no compositions during the last 25 years of his life, his airs remained popular for many years. In 1780 La Borde stated that the composer’s ‘charming duets and melodious songs will always be sung with pleasure by music lovers. He is, without doubt, the finest composer in this genre’.

WORKS

Edition:Oeuvres de Pierre Lagarde (Béziers, 1989–90)

all printed works published in Paris

Aeglé (pastorale-héroïque, 1, P. Laujon), Versailles, 13 Jan 1748, vs (1751)

Silvie (pastorale-héroïque, 3, Laujon), Versailles, 26 Feb 1749, F-Pn, Po

La journée galante (opéra-ballet, 3, Laujon), Versailles, 25 Feb 1750, lib pubd in Divertissemens du Théâtre des petits appartemens pendant l’hiver de 1749 à 1750 [incl. Aeglé as Act 2]

L’impromptu de la cour de marbre (divertissement comique, 1, C.-S. Favart), Bellevue, 28 Nov 1751, lost

Cants. (1v, insts): Enée et Didon (c1751); La sonate (?1757); Le triomphe de l’Amour (?1757); Vénus retrouvée (?1757)

Cantatilles: La musette (before 1758); 12 in Journal de musique (1758); 1 in Les soirées de l’Ille Adam, ii (1766)

Airs, etc.: 1re–6me recueils d’airs, 1 or more vv (c1742–64); 1re–3me recueils de brunettes (1764); Les soirées de l’Ille Adam, i (1764), ii (1766)

Many works, arrs. in l8th-century anthologies

Other works, Pc, Pn

BIBLIOGRAPHY

La BordeE

T. L’Huillier: ‘Note sur quelques artistes musiciens dans La Brie’, Bulletin de la Société d’archéologie, sciences, lettres et arts du département de Seine-et-Marne, v (1868), 317–40

N. Dufourcq, ed.: La musique à la cour de Louis XIV et de Louis XV d’après les mémoires de Sourches et Luynes, 1681–1758 (Paris, 1970)

W.H. Kaehler: The Operatic Repertoire of Madame de Pompadour’s Théâtre des petits cabinets (1747–1753) (diss., U. of Michigan, 1971)

R. Machard: ‘Les musiciens en France au temps de Jean-Philippe Rameau d’après les actes du Secrétariat de la Maison du roi’, RMFC, xi (1971), 5–177

D. Tunley: The Eighteenth-Century French Cantata (London, 1974, 2/1997)

DAVID TUNLEY

Lagarto, Pedro de

(b c1465; d Toledo, 1543). Iberian composer. In a document dated 1537 he is said to have been in the service of Toledo Cathedral for 62 years. If he entered the cathedral in 1475 it was probably as a choirboy. From June 1490 he was master of the choirboys (claustrero). In 1495 he succeeded in obtaining a prebend as a singer in open contest: the winner was to be the ‘most accomplished and fluent singer’ and highly trained in polyphonic composition. In 1507 he was seriously ill and does not seem to have resumed his duties as claustrero after this time. He held at least two chaplaincies at the cathedral and between 1530 and 1534 was ‘maestro de ceremonias’. By 1537, being deaf and blind, he asked to be relieved of his duties as chaplain; he died towards the end of 1543.

No Latin-texted work is attributed to Lagarto although the copying of a book of polyphonic villancicos for Christmas and Epiphany undertaken in 1507 by the cathedral scribe Alonso Fernández de Roa was apparently executed under Lagarto's supervision. One of Lagarto's songs Andad, pasiones, andad was copied in the Cancionero Musical de La Colombina and is a villancico in form, as are two of his other songs included in the original layer of the Cancionero Musical de Palacio. All three villancicos draw on different themes: Andad, pasiones, andad is an intensely emotional love song, Callen todas las galanas compares the ladies of Seville and Toledo, and D'aquel fraire flaco is an anticlerical satire. His one surviving romance, Quéxome de ti, ventura, is a lament against the vicissitudes of Fortune.

WORKS

Editions: La música en la corte de los reyes católicos: Cancionero musical de palacio, ed. H. Anglès, MME v, x (1947–51) [A i–ii]

Andad, pasiones, andad, 3vv, A ii, no.279; Callen todas las galanas, 3vv, A ii, no.226; D'aquel fraire flaco, 4vv, A ii, no.255; Quéxome de ti, ventura, 3vv, A i, no.90

BIBLIOGRAPHY

StevensonSM, 235–7

F. Asenjo Barbiero, ed.: Cancionero musical de los siglos XV y XVI (Madrid, 1890/R), 22, 36–7

M. Schneider: ‘Gestaltimitation als Komposition-Prinzip im Cancionero de Palacio’, Mf, xi (1958), 415–22

G. Haberkamp: Die weltliche Vokalmusik in Spanien um 1500 (Tutzing, 1968), 186

T. Knighton: Music and Musicians at the Court of Fernando of Aragon, 1474–1516 (diss., U. of Cambridge, 1984), i, 274

E. Casares, ed.: Francisco Asenjo Barbieri: Biografías y documentos sobre música y músicos españoles, Legado Barbieri, i (Madrid, 1986), 275

F. Reynaud: La polyphonie tolédane et son milieu: des premiers témoignages aux environs de 1600 (Paris, 1996), 102–6

ISABEL POPE/TESS KNIGHTON

Lage (i)

(Ger.).

In string playing, position playing or position fingering. (The equivalent term in the 18th century was Applicatur.) See Application.

Lage (ii)

(Ger.). See Register.

Lagidze, Revaz

(b Bagdadi, western Georgia, 10 July 1921; d Tbilisi, 16 Oct 1981). Georgian composer. A student of Balanchivadze at the Tbilisi State Conservatory (graduating in 1948, postgraduate studies until 1950), he worked as a violinist in the Georgian Radio SO, as a music editor for documentary films (1960–62) and then was head of the music faculty of the Pushkin State Institute in Tbilisi until his death. He was awarded the Rustaveli Prize (1975), the USSR State Prize (1977) and the Paliashvili Prize (1991). A composer of Romantic and nationalist inclinations, his opera Lela represents the peak of his output and is replete with eloquent cantilena, lyrical imagination and an artistic sense of drama. As a whole, his works are regarded as a national treasure in Georgia as well as having won recognition outside that country. His language is inflected by the richness of Georgian musical dialects, many of which – such as those of ancient sacred songs, peasant songs and urban folk music – are originally reinterpreted in a style marked by nobility, emotion and poeticism. The changes which occurred in Georgian song writing in favour of a more professional approach are generally attributed to Lagidze, whose own songs, whether solo, ensemble or choral in scope, are characterized by a patriotic and ethical sensibility. His aesthetic outlook was democratic and so he sought to associate with a wide audience and win its recognition.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Megobrebi [Friends] (musical comedy), 1950; Komble (musical comedy), 1957; Lela (op), completed 1973, Tbilisi, 1975

Cants.: Simghera Tbilisze (Song about Tbilisi) 1958; Sakartvelo [Georgia], 1961; Simghera samshobloze [Song about our Motherland], 1967; Balada vazze [Ballad of the Vine], 1969; Simghera Tkeebze (Song of the Woods), 1970; Melis Vardzia [Vardzia is Waiting for me], 1973

Unacc. chorus: Chemo Kargo Kvekana (My Lovely Land), 1962; Akvavilda Nushi (Almond Trees in Blossom), 1960; Hymni Deda Enas (Hymn to the Mother Tongue), 1977

Orch: Samshoblosatvis [For the Motherland], sym. poem, 1949; Sachidao, sym. picture, 1952

Other works: songs, chbr pieces, incid music, over 30 film scores

Principal publishers: Muzfond Gruzii (Tbilisi), Muzgiz, Muzïka, Sovetskiy Kompozitor (Moscow and Leningrad)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Orjonikidze: ‘Revaz Lagidze’, Sovetskaya muzïka (Moscow, 1956), 284

E. Balanchivadze: ‘Sakutari gzit’ [By his own path], Sabchota khelovneba (1966), no.7, pp.27–30

M. Akhmeteli: ‘Lela: akali kartuli opera’ (Lela: the new Georgian opera], Sabchota khelovneba (1975), no.7, pp.9–22

G. Orjonikidze: ‘R. Lagidze da misi opera “Lela”’ [R. Lagidze and his opera ‘Lela’], Agmavlobis gzis problemebi [Problems on the path of development] (Tbilisi, 1978), 319–348

MANANA AKHMETELI

Lagkhner, Daniel

(b Marburg, Lower Styria [now Maribor, Slovenia], after c1550; d after 1607). Austrian composer. A minor master of early Protestant music, he was among the first composers born in Styria. On the title-page of his major publication, Soboles musica, he described himself as citizen and organist of Loosdorf in Lower Austria; in his publications of 1606 and 1607 he called himself ‘symphonista’ and ‘musurgus’ of the barons of Losenstein, founders of a notable Protestant grammar school at Loosdorf (1574–1619) in which Lagkhner probably taught. Evidence of his connection with the school is to be found in his three-part Flores Jessaei for boys' voices, and in his four-part Florum Jessaeorum semina, also set mainly for equal voices. After 1607 he may well have gone into exile on account of his Protestant sympathies. Fétis maintained that he became Kapellmeister of St Sebaldus, Nuremberg; this, however, is based on inferences wrongly drawn from the place of publication of Lagkhner's works.

The 28 motets in the Soboles musica, for four to eight voices, are characterized by an abundant use of contrary motion, quasi-polyphony, block harmony and by both simulated and actual double-choir textures, all suggesting strong Venetian influences. His Neuer teutscher Lieder I. Theil contains 23 songs for four voices, nearly all secular, with dedications to various members of the Austrian nobility who had joined together in singing them. Lagkhner's choice of texts, taken from the Ambras songbook (settings by composers such as Forster, H.L. Hassler, Regnart and Eccard), links him to the German songwriting tradition of Hassler's time.

WORKS

Melodia funebris, 6vv (Vienna, 1601); cited in FétisB

Soboles musica, 4–8vv (Nuremberg, 1602), ed. in Monumenta artis musicae Slovenia, ii (Ljubljana, 1983)

Flores Jessaei, 3vv (Nuremberg, 1606)

Neuer teutscher Lieder I. Theil, 4vv (Nuremberg, 1606)

Florum Jessaeorum semina (Nuremberg, 1607)

1 galliard, D-Rp

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

H.J. Moser: Die Musik im frühevangelischen Österreich (Kassel, 1954), 44–7

J. Sivec: ‘The Oeuvre of a Renaissance Composer from Maribor’, Glazbena baština noraoda i norodnasti Jugoslavije od 16. 19 stoljeća (Zagreb, 1980), 111–26, 129–46 [also in Serbo-Croat]

J. Sivec: Kompozicijski stave Danela Laghnerja [The compositional style of Daniel Lagkhner] (Ljubljana, 1982) [with Ger. summary]

HELLMUT FEDERHOFER

Lago, Giovanni del.

See Del Lago, Giovanni.

Lagoya, Alexandre

(b Alexandria, 21 June 1929). French guitarist of Greek-Italian parentage. He began studying guitar at the age of eight in the Alexandria Conservatory. He gave his first public recital at 13 and five years later moved to Paris, where he continued his studies at the Ecole Normale de Musique and met several important composers. In 1950 he met Ida Presti at Segovia’s summer course in Siena; they married in 1952. Thereafter they abandoned their successful solo careers and devoted themselves to establishing a duo that set new standards for the medium. After Ida Presti’s premature death in 1967, Lagoya resumed his solo career, continued to direct the annual summer school in Nice (a task previously shared with Presti) and in 1969 became professor of guitar at the Paris Conservatoire, retiring in the mid-1990s. He continues to perform and make recordings.

JOHN W. DUARTE

Lagrange, Joseph Louis, Comte

(b Turin, 25 Jan 1736; d Paris, 10 April 1813). French mathematician and physicist. He was largely self-trained and was encouraged by Euler and d'Alembert, whose protégé he became. He held positions in Berlin (from 1766) and Paris (from 1787). He is remembered as an acoustician for his work in 1759 on the transverse vibrations of the taut, massless cord loaded by n weights, equally spaced. He is credited with being the first to represent the string in this way and to calculate its normal mode patterns and frequencies, and for having established Euler's solution for the continuous monochord as being the result of taking the limit as n tends to infinity. In fact the discrete model was a very old one, and Lagrange's work on it is a straightforward extension of Euler's; further, as d'Alembert pointed out, Lagrange's passage to the limit is fallacious. In 1788 Lagrange showed how to determine in principle the normal modes of any discrete system in small oscillation about a stable position of equilibrium. In acoustics, as in many other domains, Lagrange's work closely follows Euler. It is Lagrange's chief merit to have been the only man of his day to master Euler's discoveries and methods as soon as they appeared, so that he was often able to extend Euler's results.

See also Physics of music, §3.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.-A. Serret, ed.: Oeuvres de Lagrange (Paris, 1867–92)

J. Itard: ‘Lagrange, Joseph Louis’, Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. C.C. Gillispie (New York, 1970–80)

CLIVE GREATED

La Greca, Antonio [‘Il Fardiola’]

(b Palermo, 1631; d Palermo, 8 May 1668). Italian composer. His nickname was derived from his teacher, Filippo Fardiola, an incumbent of the Church at Palermo. In December 1653 La Greca is listed among the members of the Unione dei musici of Palermo. His Armonia sacra di vari motetti … libro primo op.1 (Palermo, 1657), discovered in the archives of St Paul’s Cathedral of Malta, Mdina, in 1979, is for two to five voices with organ continuo. It contains settings of 21 Latin sacred texts, most of them extra-liturgical. Exultate, gaudete (for two sopranos and bass voice) and Lauda Sion (for five voices) include two violins, though in the latter they are optional. The music is sensitive to the meaning of the texts, with contrasts of metre (triple and duple), tempo (presto, allegro and largo) and style (arias, ariosos and recitatives). The harmony is rich, full of bold dissonances and modulations, and the melody is constantly enchanting, with unusual and surprising figurations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PitoniN

D. Ficola: ‘Stampe musicali siciliane a Malta’, Musica sacra in Sicilia tra Rinascimento e Barocco: Caltagironi 1985, 69–86, esp. 77–8

U. D'Arpa: ‘Notizie e documenti sull'Unione dei musici e sulla musica sacra a Palermo’, I quaderni del conservatorio, i (Palermo, 1988), 19–36, esp. 29ff

A. Tedesco: Il Teatro Santa Cecilia e il Seicento musicale palermitano (Palermo, 1992), 10, 243

PAOLO EMILIO CARAPEZZA, GIUSEPPE COLLISANI

La Grille, Sieur de.

See Normandin, Dominique.

La Grotte [La Crotte], Nicolas de

(b 1530; d c1600). French keyboard player and composer. In 1557 he was organist and spinet player at Pau to Antoine de Bourbon, King of Navarre. In October 1558 he married and, though still attached to the court of Navarre, resided at Paris. After Antoine's death in 1562 he joined Costeley and Jean Dugué in the service of Henri de Valois, Duke of Anjou, and was appointed ‘vallet de chambre et organiste ordinaire’ in 1574 when the duke succeeded his brother Charles IX to become Henri III of France. He and Claude Le Jeune were paid 600 gold crowns for serving during the festivities for the wedding of the Duke of Joyeuse in September and October 1581. In 1584 he tested a new organ at St Germain-l'Auxerrois and his playing was praised by La Croix du Maine for its ‘sweetness of execution, manual delicacy’ and ‘musical profundity’; the poet laureate Jean Dorat expressed similar sentiments in a Latin anagram, Tu solus organicus. In 1587 La Grotte petitioned the king for a sinecure, and between 1586 and 1589 made several applications to purchase land in the Corbeil district, near Paris.

The chansons in his 1569 collection reflect the contemporary preference of poets and humanists for monody; although the publication, in four partbooks, follows the standard format, the music was clearly conceived as melody and accompaniment – the three lower voices providing harmonic support – and seems more naturally suited to the arrangement for voice and lute issued under Le Roy’s own name as airs de cour in 1571 (this includes all but the final piece of La Grotte's 1569 collection). Several of the melodies were also used in Jehan Chardavoine's monophonic Recueil des plus excellents chansons en forme de voix de ville (Paris, 1576). The declamatory rhythm of some of these pieces foreshadows the work of musicians in Baïf's circle and La Grotte demonstrated his interest in musique mesurée à l'antique by including four chansons mesurées (Il a menty, La belle Aronde, Lesse-moy osu (Baïf) and Ma gente bergère) in a second collection, published in Paris in 1583. The distinction between air and chanson in the title of this collection refers only to strophic and non-strophic texts, among which are verses by Baïf and Belleau, religious texts by Desportes, du Bellay and Guéroult, two Italian poems and a long opening piece in five sections entitled Mascarades de Pionniers. La Grotte's own literary talent is evident in that he translated from Dorat's original Latin the prefatory verses addressed to Henri III in the 1583 volume. In view of the chronology, La Grotte seems more likely than Gombert, Millot or Guillaume Nicolas to have written the chansons ascribed to ‘Nicolas’ in anthologies published between 1559 and 1578; these are generally more old-fashioned in style than La Grotte's collections of 1569 and 1583, but they include a few settings of the Pléiade poets (Ronsard, Du Bellay and Belleau) as well as older verse by Marot, Guéroult and others. In spite of his fame as an organist, only one of La Grotte's keyboard works survives – a four-part polyphonic fantasia on Rore's madrigal Ancor che col partire.

WORKS

chansons

[16] Chansons de P. de Ronsard, Ph. Desportes et autres mises en musique par Nicolas de la Grotte, 4vv (Paris, 1569, 3/1572 with 2 added chansons), ed. in SCC, xv (1992); 15 arr. in Livre d'airs de cour miz sur le luth par Adrian le Roy (Paris, 1571); ed. in PSFM, iv–v [iii–iv] (1934/R)

Premier livre d'airs et chansons (28 chansons), 3–6vv (Paris, 1583)

1 chanson, 4vv, 1569¹⁷ (attrib. ‘N. la Grotte’)

55 chansons, 1 canon, 3–6vv, 1559⁸, 1559¹¹, 1559¹², Livre de meslanges (Paris, 1560), 1561⁶, 1564⁸, 1564¹¹, 1565⁵, 1572², 1578¹⁴: all attrib. ‘Nicolas’, possibly by La Grotte; 40 ed. in SCC, xx (1991)

instrumental

Courante, lute, 1617²⁶

Fantasia a 4 sopra ‘Ancor che col partire’, kbd, A-Wn; ed. F. Dobbins, Le concert des voix et des instruments à la Renaissance: Tours 1991, pp.573–4

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. de Juvigny, ed.: Les bibliothèques françoises de La Croix du Maine et de Du Verdier (Paris, 1772–3), ii, 163ff

E. Droz: ‘Les chansons de Nicolas de la Grotte’, RdM, viii (1927), 133–41

L. de La Laurencie: ‘Nicolas de la Grotte, musicista di Ronsard’, RaM, v (1932), 117–28

L. de La Laurencie: Introduction to Chansons au luth et airs de cour français du XVIe siècle, PSFM, iv–v [recte iii–iv] (1934/R)

R. Lebègue: ‘Ronsard corrigé par un de ses musiciens’, RdM, xxxix (1957), 71–2

FRANK DOBBINS

Lagudio, Paolo

(fl 1563). Italian composer. His Primo libro di madrigali a cinque voci (Venice, 1563¹⁰, incomplete) is dedicated from Naples. In addition to his own three madrigal pairs and a 21-stanza cycle, the book contains one madrigal by Ferrante Bucca. Such extended cycles as Lagudio’s Quel antico mio were uncommon even in Rome, Venice and Verona where settings of entire canzoni were popular.

PATRICIA ANN MYERS

La Guerre, Elisabeth Jacquet de.

See Jacquet de La Guerre, Elisabeth.

Laguerre [Lagarde, Legar, Legard, Le Garde, Legare, Leguar, Leguerre etc.], John

(b c1700; d London, 28 March 1748). English baritone and painter. The various spellings of his name in playbills, advertisements and cast-lists have caused much confusion, with some writers asserting that more than one person is involved. Laguerre first appeared in Italian opera, having a minor role in Handel's Radamisto (1720). He then joined John Rich's company, where between 1721 and 1740 he sang in pantomimes, afterpieces, ballad operas and burlesques. He sang again for Handel, as Curio in Giulio Cesare (1724), his English theatre roles being taken by other singers on Italian opera nights. His most popular roles were Hob in Flora and Gaffer Gubbins in The Dragon of Wantley. He sang Corydon in the first public performance of Handel's Acis and Galatea in March 1731. In 1724 he married the dancer and actress Mary Rogeir; they always worked together and after her death in 1739 his career declined. In 1741 he was imprisoned for debt, but was allowed to sing in his benefit performance on 23 April. In 1746 he was taken on by Rich as a scene painter. He had published engravings of theatrical subjects, having been trained by his father, the French-born mural painter Louis Laguerre, who died at the theatre on John's first benefit night in 1721. ‘Honest Jack Laguerre’ had a reputation as a wit, a mimic and an amusing companion.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BDA; DNB (L.H. Cust); LS

Vertue Note Books, v, ed. Walpole Society (Oxford, 1938)

OLIVE BALDWIN, THELMA WILSON

Laguerre, Marie-Joséphine

(b Paris, 1755; d Paris, 14 Feb 1783). French soprano. She joined the Opéra as a chorister in 1771–2 and in 1776 took the title roles in La Borde's Adèle de Ponthieu and Gluck's Alceste. A pure-voiced and expressive singer, she shared leading roles with Rosalie Levasseur from 1778, and created the title role in Floquet's Hellé (1779), Sangaride in Piccinni's Atys (1780), Iphigenia in Piccinni's Iphigénie en Tauride (1781) and the Countess in Grétry's La double épreuve (1782). Her early death was apparently the result of loose living; at the second performance of Piccinni's Iphigénie, she was incoherent through drink and was imprisoned until the following performance.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

H. Audiffret: ‘Laguerre (Marie-Joséphine)’, Biographie universelle ancienne et moderne, ed. L.G. Michaud and E.E. Desplaces (Paris, 2/1843–65/R)

D. Denne-Baron: ‘Laguerre (Marie-Sophie)’, Nouvelle biographie générale, ed. J.C.F. Hoefer (Paris, 1852–66/R)

C. Davillier: Une vente d'actrice sous Louis XVI: Mlle Laguerre (Paris, 1870)

G. Desnoiresterres: La musique française au XVIIIe siècle: Gluck et Piccinni (Paris, 1872/R, 2/1875)

JULIAN RUSHTON

La Guerre, Michel de

(b Paris, c1606; d Paris, 12 Nov 1679). French organist, lutenist and composer. At the age of 14 he succeeded Charles Racquet, organist at Notre Dame, Paris, and on 1 January 1633 was appointed organist of the Ste Chapelle, where he remained until his death. According to the Ste Chapelle records, he was also treasurer from 1661. He married Marguerite Trépagne and had ten children: Jérôme succeeded him as organist of the Ste Chapelle, holding the post until about 1739; Marin, who was married to Elisabeth Jacquet, acted as substitute for his brother between 1698 and 1704. Michel de La Guerre was considered by Jean Loret (La muze historique, 19 December 1654) to be ‘a very excellent master of the lute’; he performed at musical gatherings arranged by the organist Pierre de la Barre and accompanied the famous singer Anne de la Barre. He is regarded as the creator of the French pastorale: Le triomphe de l'Amour, a setting of a poem by Charles de Beys, was performed at the Louvre on 22 January 1655 and then at the Théâtre du Palais-Royal on 26 March 1657; the music is lost. In about 1661 La Guerre dedicated to Louis XIV a collection of his settings of Oeuvres en vers de divers autheurs, mis en musique, among them a Dialogue sur l'alliance de la France et de l'Espagne in which each allegorical figure sings in his or her own language. The music of these, too, is lost.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BrenetC

BrenetM

MGG1 (S. Wallon)

H. Quittard: ‘La première comédie française en musique’, BSIM, iv (1908), 377–96, 497–537

L. de La Laurencie: Les créateurs de l'opéra français (Paris, 1930)

Y. de Brossard: ‘La vie musicale en France d'après Loret et ses continuateurs’, RMFC, x (1970), 132, 186–7

C. Cessac: ‘Les La Guerre: une dynastie d'organistes à la Sainte-Chapelle de 1633 à 1739’, Histoire, humanisme et hymnologie: mélanges offerts au professeur Edith Weber, ed. P. Guillot and L. Jambou (Paris, 1997), 77–90

CATHERINE CESSAC

Lah.

The submediant of a major scale or keynote of a minor scale in Tonic Sol-fa.

La Halle, Adam de.

See Adam de la Halle.

Lahjī, Muhammad Fadl al-

(b 1922, al-Hawta, British Protectorate of South Arabia [now Yemen]; d 1967). Arab singer and ‘ūd player. His life was closely linked to that of his patron, Prince Ahmad Fadl al-‘Abdalī, known as ‘the Commandant’ (al-Komandān). Before the Komandān, the music of the Lahij region near Aden was confined to popular songs and instruments (the double clarinet, the lyre and percussion). In the 1930s, young artists influenced by Egyptian song discovered the ‘ūd (short-necked lute). As an alternative to the other urban musical genres of the Yemen, which derived from Sana’a and Hadramawt, the Komandān invented a new style known as lahjī by adapting his poetry to traditional melodies; he later composed new melodies and provided patronage for young composers. The lahjī style was the first ‘urban’ musical genre of the Yemen in the contemporary sense, making its mark throughout the Yemen together with the polyrhythmic sharh dance. Many lahjī recordings were released in Aden during the 1940s by the al-Tāj al-Adanī company, and the lahjī became particularly well known in the Persian Gulf under the name of ‘adanī. Al-Lahjī added to this repertory new songs such as Yā ward yā kādhī (‘O rose, O kādhī, pears and apricots’). In many of his melodies it is difficult to tell the traditional from the new elements and to distinguish the contributions of al-Lahjī from those of the Komandān; al-Lahjī's work retains the pentatonic scale of popular origin which later became blurred in the work of artists such as Faysal ‘Alawī. Al-Lahjī pursued a traditional career, providing music for weddings; he joined the Musical Club of Lahij in 1955 and the Musical Club of the South in 1957, both of which associations played a part in the revival of Yemeni nationalism. He died prematurely, assassinated in 1967.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Fari': Lamahāt fī tā'rīkh al-ughniyya al-yamaniyya al-mu‘āsira [Aspects of the history of contemporary Yemeni song] (Aden, 1985)

J.A. Ahmad: ‘Fadl b. Muhammad al-Lahjī’, Al-mawsū‘a al-yamaniyya [Yemeni encyclopaedia] (Sana'a, 1992)

A. Qa'id: ‘Le chant de la rose et du coton: musique citadine de Lahej’, Musicales instituts du monde arabe, ix (1998), 10 only

JEAN LAMBERT

La Harpe [Delaharpe], Jean François de

(b Paris, 20 Nov 1739; d Paris, 11 Feb 1803). French man of letters. He wrote several tragedies, of which Le comte de Warwick (1763) was the most successful, but he is chiefly remembered for his didactic and critical works. These include the Cours de littérature in 16 volumes (1799–1805), in which he holds a special place for French librettists of the 17th and 18th centuries, and an Eloge de Racine (1772). A dogmatic critic with little understanding of music, he joined with Marmontel to support the Italians against Gluck, and particularly favoured Sacchini; his virulent attack on Armide in the Journal de politique et de littérature (5 October 1777) was ridiculed by Gluck himself in the Journal de Paris (12 October 1777) and by La Harpe’s colleague J.B.A. Suard using the pseudonym ‘L’anonyme de Vaugirard’. His Correspondance littéraire (1774–91, published 1801–7), a manuscript periodical similar to Grimm’s, though less extensive, is a valuable informal record of the period. His Chant des triomphes de la République française was set to music by Le Sueur in 1794.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ES (A. Tissier)

G.M. Leblond, ed.: Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de la révolution opérée dans la musique par … Gluck (Paris, 1781/R)

G. Peignot: Recherches … sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. de La Harpe (Dijon, 1820)

C. Pierre: Les hymnes et chansons de la Révolution (Paris, 1904)

JULIAN RUSHTON/MANUEL COUVREUR

La Hèle [Hele], George de

(b Antwerp, 1547; d Madrid, 27 Aug 1586). Flemish composer, active in Spain. He received his early musical training under Antoine Barbé (i) at the church of Our Lady in Antwerp. It is also possible that he spent some time as a choirboy at the collegiate church at Soignies. In 1560 he was among a group of choirboys who went from the Low Countries to Madrid to serve in the chapel of Philip II, then under the direction of Pierre de Manchicourt. From the preface to his Octo missae, we know that La Hèle remained in the service of the king for ten years at this time. Towards the end of this period, possibly for three or four years, he was enrolled in the University of Alcalá, while continuing to have his name inscribed in the roster of the choir in order to receive its benefits. In 1570 La Hèle returned to the Low Countries to study at the University of Leuven, probably reading theology. While never fully ordained a priest, there is evidence that he received minor orders before discontinuing his theological studies.

La Hèle became choirmaster at St Rombouts in Mechelen in 1572, and about 1574 went to the cathedral at Tournai in a similar capacity. In 1576 he won two prizes for his compositions at a contest in honour of St Cecilia at Évreux. He was awarded second prize, a golden ring adorned with a silver harp, for the motet Nonne Deo subiecta erit anima mea; and also gained third prize, a golden ring ornamented with a silver lute, for his chanson Mais voyez mon cher esmoy. In 1578 Christopher Plantin of Antwerp printed the composer's most important work, his Octo missae.

Philip II designated La Hèle master of the royal chapel on 15 September 1580. However, despite numerous efforts by the king to hasten his journey to Madrid, La Hèle does not seem to have arrived there until over a year and a half after this appointment. He was much concerned with the condition of the musical repertory he found at the chapel, and greatly enlarged it with music by Clemens non Papa, Palestrina, Guerrero, Morales and Manchicourt, as well as with some of his own works. In 1585 Philip II travelled to Zaragoza for the marriage of his daughter Catherine with Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy. La Hèle wrote a highly successful motet for this occasion. On this same journey, while at Monzón, he conducted a festival performance in which the choir of his own chapel and those from Castile, Aragon and Portugal sang.

Because he had received minor orders, La Hèle was eligible to hold ecclesiastical benefices. Philip II liberally provided him with several throughout his life. However, La Hèle lost all of these through his marriage, which seems to have taken place shortly before he died, probably during his final illness. On 16 June 1586 he made a will which contains the only mention of his wife, formerly Madelena Guabaelaraoen, who was appointed an executor. He died on 27 August 1586 in the parish of St Nicholas in Madrid.

George de La Hèle's Octo missae was the first of Christopher Plantin's few music printings. For its publication Plantin had an elaborate frontispiece specially engraved, which later served for his other music publications (see Low Countries, fig.3). The music fount used was also specially prepared. For the first letter of the text at the beginning of each part of each mass, majuscules were employed which had originally been intended for an antiphoner, commissioned by Philip II but never printed. The high-quality paper on which these eight masses were printed had also been purchased for this antiphoner. The beautiful workmanship of the Plantin press on the Octo missae makes it a model of printing artistry for the period. The work was published in choirbook format, its actual size being 54 cm by 38 cm. The retail selling price of the volume was an expensive 18 florins, and by the terms of the printing contract La Hèle was required to purchase 40 copies at a reduced price. The account books of Plantin show that the publication sold well, and many copies survive today. La Hèle's Octo missae comprises the masses on Benedicta es coelorum regina (7vv), Fremuit spiritus Jesu (6vv), Gustate et videte (5vv), In convertendo Dominus (5vv), Nigra sum sed formosa (5vv), Oculi omnium in te sperant Domine (5vv), Praeter rerum seriem (7vv) and Quare tristis es (6vv). The first and seventh are based on motets by Josquin; the second, third, sixth and eighth on motets by Lassus; the fourth on the motet by Rore and the fifth on the motet by Crecquillon. La Hèle's motet Asperges me precedes the masses in this collection.

La Hèle's skill as a composer is best demonstrated through the parody technique of his masses. Melodic, harmonic and rhythmic elements from the polyphonic model are ingeniously reworked, in both easily recognizable and cleverly disguised variations, in such a way as to elevate the contrapuntal level of the original. La Hèle drew only on motets, avoiding secular models as inappropriate to the divine service. All his models were composed by established composers.

The Octo missae and the one motet and one chanson previously mentioned are the only extant works of George de La Hèle. That he did write others is verified by the lists of music copied into the repertory of the royal chapel of Philip II. The lists for 1585 contain a Credo (8vv); a motet In illo tempore (8vv); a Kyrie for Paschal time (5vv); a Kyrie for Paschal time (6vv); two Passion settings (both 4vv); a Lamentatio Jeremie (5vv); another for eight voices; the motet Domine tu mihi lavas pedes (8vv); and Egredientum (4vv); all by La Hèle. Presumably these, and probably more of his works, were lost when the library of the royal chapel was burnt in 1734.

WORKS

Edition:Collected Works of George de la Hele, ed. L.J. Wagner, CMM, lvi (1972)

Octo missae quinque, sex et septem vocum (Antwerp, 1578), 1 ed. in F. Haberl, Missa ‘Gustate et videte’ (Düsseldorf, 1950)

Motet, Nonne Deo subiecta erit, in F. Sales, Sacrarum cantionum … liber primus (Prague, 1593)

Chanson, Mais voyez mon cher esmoy, 1597¹⁰

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Vander StraetenMPB, iii, viii

G. van Doorslaer: ‘George de La Hèle, maître de chapelle-compositeur, 1547–1587’, Bulletin de l'Académie royale d'archéologie de Belgique (1923–4), 108–33

L. Voet: The Plantin-Moretus Museum (Antwerp, 1955)

L.J. Wagner: The ‘Octo Missae’ of George de La Hèle (diss., U. of Wisconsin, 1957)

L.J. Wagner: ‘Some Considerations on Plantin's Printing of De la Hele's Octo Missae’, De Gulden Passer, lxiv (Antwerp, 1986), 49–59

L.J. Wagner: ‘Music of the Composers from the Low Countries at the Spanish Court of Philip II’, Musique des Pays-Bas anciens – musique espagnole ancienne: Brussels 1985, 202–6

LAVERN J. WAGNER

La Hire, Philippe de

(b Paris, 18 March 1640; d Paris, 21 April 1718). French astronomer, mathematician and physicist. He was the son of the painter Laurent de la Hire. In 1678 he was admitted a member of the Académie Royale des Sciences in Paris as an astronomer, and subsequently he taught mathematics at both the Collège de France (from 1682) and the Académie Royale d'Architecture (of which he was a founder-member in 1687). Among the many works by this celebrated and productive scientist are several essays devoted to research into the nature of sound, which appear in the publications of the French scientific academy. The most noteworthy features of these investigations are his concerns with partial vibrations as determinants of timbre, with the acoustical differences between the vibration of cylinders, solid bodies and strings, and with the effect on a resultant sound of such factors as the elastic quality of a vibrating body, its relative moisture content and the means by which it is set into vibration.

WRITINGS

only those relating to music

‘Explication des différences des sons de la corde tendue sur la trompette marine’, Mémoires de l'Académie royale des sciences, depuis 1666 jusqu'à 1699, ix (Paris, 1730), 500–29

‘Observation d'acoustique’, Histoire de l'Académie royale des sciences [1709] (Paris, 17??), 96–7; review, ibid. [1716] (Paris, 17??), 66–8

‘Expériences sur le son’, Histoire de l'Académie royale des sciences, année 1716. Avec les Mémoires, 262–4; ‘Continuation d'expériences sur le son', ibid., 264–8

BIBLIOGRAPHY

B. le Bouvier de Fontenelle: ‘Eloge’, Histoire de l'Académie royale des sciences en 1699 (Paris, 1724)

N. Nielsen: Géomètres français du dix-huitième siècle (Copenhagen and Paris, 1935), 248–62

A. Cohen: Music in the French Royal Academy of Sciences (Princeton, 1981), 18–19

ALBERT COHEN

La Houssaye [Housset], Pierre(-Nicolas)

(b Paris, 11 April 1735; d Paris, 1818). French violinist, conductor and composer. Originally called Housset, he studied the violin in the 1740s with J.-A. Piffet. Shortly after 1750 his brilliant performance of a Tartini sonata at a gathering of eminent violinists created the opportunity to study with Pagin, a pupil of Tartini. La Houssaye was later employed by the Count of Clermont, then by the Prince of Monaco, with whom he travelled to Italy, probably in about 1753. On arrival in Padua he received a few lessons from Tartini. He was employed briefly at the court of Filippo, Duke of Parma, where he studied composition with Traetta, but he soon returned to Padua for more lessons with Tartini. During his stay of about 15 years in Italy he became an excellent violinist and conductor.

In 1768 or later La Houssaye left Italy for London, probably passing through Paris. Precisely how long he remained there and what he did while there remains unknown. Fétis and most subsequent sources have reported that he directed the orchestra of the Italian Opera in the 1770s, but Pericaud thought this improbable. McVeigh states that he was a soloist at several of the King’s Theatre oratorios in 1770, and that he may have led the Bach-Abel concerts in 1770 and 1771. By 1776 La Houssaye had returned to Paris, and in 1777 he was named conductor and leader of the Concert Spirituel under Legros. (In 1778 Mozart, after observing La Houssaye’s particularly disastrous rehearsal of his symphony k297/300a, wrote that he would be tempted to remove the violin from La Houssaye’s hands and conduct himself if the performance were equally bad; but the performance on 18 June was a great success.) In 1781 La Houssaye became conductor and leader of the Comédie-Italienne orchestra but remained a violinist at the Concert Spirituel until at least 1788. He also played in the highly respected Concert des Amateurs. From 1791 he shared with Joseph Lefebvre the position of orchestra director at the Théâtre Feydeau, but the merger with the Théâtre Favart in 1801 resulted in his dismissal. After the Paris Conservatoire opened in 1795, he was appointed a violin teacher, a post he retained until 1802. To maintain a livelihood, he played second violin in the Opéra orchestra and taught privately until 1813, when deafness and age forced him to retire. His final five years were spent in poverty.

La Houssaye was regarded as a master of the violin by those who heard him, including Fétis and Viotti; his one remaining collection of compositions, Sei sonate for violin and bass, op.1 (Paris, c1774), supports this evaluation, demanding great proficiency in double stops and calling for notes in the extreme upper register. A virtuoso violin concerto attributed to him in another hand matches the style of Tartini’s second period; if authentic, it was probably composed before his years in Italy. According to Fétis, La Houssaye wrote other works for the violin, the manuscripts of which are lost: 12 ‘church’ concertos, seven books of sonatas and three books of duos. His only other known work is a comic opera, Les amours de Coucy, performed at the Théâtre de Monsieur on 22 August 1790.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

La LaurencieEF

A. Vidal: Les instruments à archet (Paris, 1876–8/R)

L. Pericaud: Théâtre de Monsieur (Paris, 1908)

S. McVeigh: The Violinist in London’s Concert Life, 1750–1784 (New York, 1989)

C. White: From Vivaldi to Viotti: a History of the Early Classical Violin Concerto (Philadelphia, 1992)

JEFFREY COOPER

Le Hye [née Rousseau], Louise-Geneviève de

(b Charenton, 8 March 1810; d Paris, 17 Nov 1838). French pianist, organist and composer. She was a collateral descendant of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. A child prodigy, she studied first with her father, Charles-Louis Rousseau, then with Louis-Joseph Saint-Amans; when she was 11 she was admitted to the Paris Conservatoire. According to Fétis, she was invited in 1830 by the Conservatoire director, Luigi Cherubini, to teach harmony to a class of young girls, and took the solo part in her fantasy for organ and orchestra in a Conservatoire performance on 10 April 1831. She married shortly thereafter and gave up her appointment to move to Cambrai, but returned to Paris at the end of 1834 and resumed teaching. In 1835 her dramatic choral work Le songe de la religieuse was performed at the Hôtel de Ville. She published a number of works (among them a set of variations on ‘La muette de Portici’ under the pseudonym ‘M. Léon Saint-Amans fils’), including a duo for horn and piano, a set of variations for piano and string quartet, and some settings of poems by her husband, but ill-health prevented her from realizing many of her projects. She died at the age of 28 leaving two young children. Her Méthode d’orgue expressif and collection of Six mélodies italiennes (dedicated to the Princess Belgioioso) were published posthumously, while other works remained in manuscript, including masses, scènes dramatiques, a piano method and études.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

FétisBS

SchillingES

SchmidlD

‘A List of Well-Known Women Composers’, Etude, xxxvi (1918), 699–700

E. Barrell: ‘Notable Musical Women’, Etude, xlviii (1930), 121

JULIE ANNE SADIE

Lai

(Fr.).

An extended song form cultivated particularly in the 13th and 14th centuries. The stanzas – if the poem can be divided in that way – are each in a different form and therefore have different music. Though the number of surviving examples is small compared with the total extent of medieval song these works occupy a special position for several reasons: the very irregularity of the poetic form led to large metrical and rhyming patterns that have caused the lai and its German equivalent the Leich to be described as the major showpieces of medieval lyric poetry; and there is much truth in Spanke’s useful distinction (1938) between songs that are primarily metrical in their formal concept (i.e. nearly all medieval strophic song) and those that are primarily musical (the lai and the sequence), a distinction that almost inevitably brings with it the suggestion that the lai and related forms represent by far the earliest surviving attempts at continuous extended musical composition outside the liturgy. In general it is true to say that in the 13th century the form could be extremely free, with highly irregular rhyme schemes and lines of uneven length, but that in the 14th century lais became enormously longer, with the French tradition developing a standard pattern with each stanza following a double-versicle scheme (often refined to an apparent quadruple-versicle) and a 12-stanza form in which the first and last could be related musically or even have the same music at different pitches.

2. Poetic form.

3. The lai before 1300.

4. The lai after 1300.

5. Notes on the checklist of lai music.

CHECKLIST OF LAI MUSIC

DAVID FALLOWS

The trouvère manuscript GB-Ob Douce 308 contains a group of 19 poems in lai form having the title ‘estampie’, but none of them has music. Among the Provençal repertory, the poem Kalenda maya by Raimbaut de Vaqeiras describes itself as an estampida but is isostrophic with each stanza following the pattern aabb¹cc¹. Instrumental pieces (perhaps dances) of the 13th and 14th centuries have the title and are in double-versicle sections with refrains at the end of each stanza and with ouvert and clos endings. The form is mentioned by Johannes de Grocheio, by the author of Las leys d’amors (1328) and as late as Michael Praetorius; see Estampie.

1. Terminology and origins.

Many different extended forms in medieval (and later) poetry are encompassed by the word ‘lai’ and related words in other European languages. The form described above is more strictly called the lyric lai (or lai lyrique) to distinguish it from the narrative lai (or lai breton), a long poem normally in octosyllabic rhyming couplets and often associated with stories of the Arthurian cycle.

The narrative lai was most elegantly described by Chaucer’s Franklin:

Thise olde gentil Bretouns in hir dayes
Of diverse aventures maden layes,
Rymeyed in hir firste Briton tonge;
Which layes with hir instrumentz they songe,
Or elles redden hem for hir plesaunce.

In French this genre saw its first success with Marie de France, who apparently worked in England and whose 12 narrative lais date from the years after 1160, though she claimed they were adapted from Breton originals that are now lost; but it continued well into the 15th century: after 1415 Pierre de Nesson called his poem in that form lamenting the French defeat at Agincourt the Lay de la guerre. Though the narrative lai, like much other narrative verse, was evidently sung, certainly in its earlier history, no music for it survives: only the presence of empty staves above a manuscript of the Lai de Graelent (F-Pn fr.2168) and a lost manuscript of the lais of Marie de France (see Maillard, 1963, p.66) witness that this music may have been written down. (See also Chanson de geste.)

Even within the terminology ‘lyric lai’ there are poems that cannot be described as lais according to the definition adopted for this article. Several poems carrying the title ‘lai’ are found inserted in longer narratives: particularly famous examples of this category appear in the Roman de Perceforest and the Roman de Tristan en prose. For the latter there is even music, surviving notably in A-Wn 2542 (listed below); but these are mostly simple strophic songs, quatrains with the musical scheme aabc (the three melodies in F-Pn fr.776 have no such clear design), though with the peculiarity that their music is fully written out for all stanzas of the poem. Tannhäuser’s Lude Leich (D-Mbs Cgm 4997, ff.72–73v) is also isostrophic. More difficult to classify are the two ‘lais’ attributed by Beck to Charles d’Anjou and described by Stäblein (1975) as merely a series of single-stanza songs.

The word itself is hard to pin down and has been variously explained. One possibility is that it derives from the Latin laicus, implying a secular equivalent of the sequence. Intriguingly the narrative Palamede says that the lai has its name because it leaves behind (laissier) all other lyric forms. Another theory traces it back to the Low Latin leudus, found as early as Venantius Fortunatus (c550) and meaning a vernacular song in Latin metre: this is probably a latinization of a germanic word (perhaps *leuthaz, though the German word Leich is thought to derive from *laik; asterisks in this context denote hypothetical roots) and is glossed in one manuscript with the Old High German Uuinileodos (singer); the later Latin laudes and the Irish loîd (or laîd) are evidently related. The Irish word (meaning blackbird’s song) can be documented from the mid-9th century and may go back further; since the 16th century it has been used to mean any poem, but particularly songs related to the epic of Finn. There is much evidence in favour of Irish origin for the form, a theory supported by Aarburg and by Maillard, who showed how the rhythmic interest of early Irish poetry may have influenced the lai (‘Lai, Leich’, 1973, pp.326ff); but no music survives to document this and nothing in Irish poetic structure can be linked directly with the musical form that appeared in France about 1200.

The earliest recorded French uses of the word ‘lai’, those of Wace in his Roman de Brut (c1155: ‘lais et notes/lais de vieles, lais de rotes/lais de harpes et de frestels’), describe instrumental melody, but this is by no means the rule for other early references: Wolf (1841, pp.4ff) showed that the word ‘lai’ in English or Old French often meant no more than ‘song’.

Just as the word ‘lai’ itself had and still has several meanings beyond and around the specific musico-poetic form that is the subject of this article, so also many other words cover ranges of meaning that include that of the lyric lai.

(i) Descort.

Derived from the Latin discordia, descort was the standard Provençal word for lai and was carried into Old French as well as into Italian, where the word discordio appears describing a poem of Jacopo da Lentino. There has been some disagreement as to the differences between descort and lai, with Wolf (1841) and Jeanroy (1901) pioneering the opinion that there was none and Stäblein (1975) suggesting that descort was merely a later and more sophisticated name preferred by the trouvères. (An excellent and full survey of the dispute appears in Baum, 1971; see also P. Bec, La lyrique française au Moyen Age (XIIe-XIIIe siecles), i, Paris, 1977, pp.199ff.) For musical purposes the two probably were identical since the confusion appears to lie mainly in the range of other materials encompassed by the word descort: though primarily designating the same form (or forms) as the lyric lai, it is also used for a poem whose stanzas disagree in some other way (e.g. Raimbaut de Vaqeiras’s descort Ara quan vei verdejar has five isometric stanzas but their discordia lies in the fact that each is in a different language) and for a poem whose subject matter is discordance, disagreement or most characteristically severe disappointment in love (this last explaining the definition of the descort in the Provençal Doctrina de comprendre dictatz). In this context it might be worth noting that Konrad von Würzburg’s second Leich (for which no music survives) repeatedly describes itself as a Streit (‘contest’).

It must be added, however, that some scholars see substantial differences between the lai and the descort. Maillard (1963), starting from the nomenclature found in the sources, divided the extant lyric lais into lais and descorts, but his efforts (pp.128ff) to define the difference are not entirely convincing. His suggestion (pp.143–4) that the essence of the descort was in its poetical form occasionally departing from its musical form seems questionable in view of the relative frequency of troubadour strophic songs whose musical form is at variance with their poetic form, and the extremely small number of Provençal lais (or descorts) with surviving music against which the theory can be tested (see also Maillard, 1971). Yet another opinion as to the difference is offered by Gennrich (1932, pp.138ff). Although the matter is still a subject of considerable dispute, this article has been prepared in the belief that these distinctions are artificial.

(ii) Leich or leih.

The Middle High German word for lai. Kuhn (1952) argued that the earlier form was *laik, a dance-song (but see also Carol), and there is much evidence that the word ‘leih’ was originally used to denote a melody: so Browne (1956) gave examples of a sancleich (sung Leich), a herafleih (harp Leich) and a keraleih (sorrowful Leich). By the late 12th century it seems that ‘Leich’ could mean any sacred poem, and the Monk of Salzburg (c1400) used the word to describe his sequence contrafacta; moreover, the word appears in manuscripts of the 12th and 13th centuries as a designation of psalms (D-Mbs Cgm 17 and A-Gu 204), perhaps because King David was reputed to have sung them to the harp (harafleich). But otherwise the word is perhaps the most specific of all those related to the form discussed in this article: it was not used for narrative poems and seems to have had very little currency for other purposes. Since Spanke many German philologists have preferred to form the plural artificially as Leichs (since Leiche, the more correct plural, also means ‘corpse’).

(iii) Note, nota, notula.

One or other of these words is used by Johannes de Grocheio and in several French lais apparently describing lai form. In the title of the ‘Note Martinet’ (the lai J’ai trouvé), ‘note’ may be merely the designation of the melody or perhaps more particularly of the musical and poetic scheme (see also Ton (i)). Maillard cited several instances of its apparently referring to the melody of a lai; but sometimes it meant simply the melody of any song. The word is discussed more fully by Gennrich (1932, pp.167ff).

(iv) Estampie, estampida, ostampida, stantipes, stampita.

(v) Ductia.

Another form mentioned by Johannes de Grocheio and closely related to the estampie: it has double-versicle sections with refrains but differs from most such forms in having isometric stanzas; see Ductia.

(vi) Caribo, caribetto (Provençal: garip).

An Italian word used primarily for instrumental versions of the form though also implying dance music. It was mentioned together with the nota and the stampita by the theorist Francesco da Barberino (1310). As a name for a kind of dance-song it appears in Dante’s Purgatorio (xxxi.132); and it describes a poem in lai form by Giacobo Pugliese. There is some disagreement as to whether the word derives from the Greek charis or from the name of an Arabic instrument. (See Appel, 1887, p.224.)

(vii) Consonium.

Mentioned by Francesco da Barberino as the text for a caribus, a nota or a stampita (see Gennrich, 1932, p.163).

(viii) Ensalada, ensaladilla.

Rengifo’s Arte poetica española (1592) described the form in terms strikingly similar to earlier descriptions of the lai and descort. In surviving Portuguese and Spanish music the Ensalada is not known before the mid-16th century; on earlier traces of the poetic form see d’Heur (1968) and G. Tavani: Repertorio metrico della lirica galego-portoghese, Officina romanica, vii (Rome, 1967).

(ix) Sequence, prose, conductus, planctus, versus.

These are the Latin forms that include material that could be described in Spanke’s terms as ‘musikalisch primär’. Ferdinand Wolf’s theories (1841) on the substantial identity of sequence and lyric lai were strongly opposed by Jeanroy and Aubry (1901), who asserted a little too absolutely that all sequences were built on an unvarying double-versicle pattern – a pattern that can rarely be seen in the 13th-century lai. Subsequent studies of the sequence (see Sequence (i)) may not restore Wolf’s original position, but they do suggest that both forms were initially less strict than they later became and that although the surviving history of the sequence’s development belongs to a time nearly four centuries earlier than that of the lai the two have much in common and even share some music. Gautier de Coincy’s Hui enfantés is a straight contrafactum of the Christmas sequence Letabundus which also served as source for the Anglo-Norman drinking-song Or hi parra; and it may be an evasion of the real issue to omit these works from considerations of the lai, dismissing them as mere contrafacta. Godefroy de St Victor’s Planctus ante nescia provided the melody and the form for the French lai Eyns ne soy ke pleynte fu, the English ‘translation’, Ar ne kuthe ich sorghe non (both in Corporation of London Records Office, Liber de antiquis legibus, ff.160v–161v; fig.2) and the Hungarian poem Volék sirolm tudotlan. There are several other such examples in which the Latin original is obviously far earlier and served as a model: the fullest study is that of Spanke (1936); Handschin (1954) gave good reason for thinking that both sequence and lai have their roots in the Celtic tradition; and Stäblein (1954, 1962) showed how a close examination of the Latin precursors can throw important light on the history of the lai.

Questions of definition are made even more difficult by the inserted ‘Amen’ and ‘Evovae’ phrases in lais by Ernoul le vielle de Gastinois and Leichs by Frauenlob, perhaps just as indications of modality but possibly suggesting some liturgical function (see Maillard, 1963, pp.310ff; März, 1988; Shields, 1988). Perhaps the most interesting contrafacta, however, merit inclusion on their own account: Heinrich Laufenberg’s two Salve regina parodies have no connection with the metrical scheme of the original because they set the melismatic melody syllabically.

These works all belong in a kind of no-man’s-land between the lai and the sequence, but they should not allow any confusion as to the fundamental separateness of the two forms. The classic sequence has a compactness and clarity of design that are entirely different from either the rambling motivic dialectic of the 13th-century lai or the closely defined stanza and repetition patterns of the form in the 14th century. Certain aspects of the essence of both are more easily understood if sequence and lai are seen as the same form, but many others make sense only if the two are considered separately.

Maillard (1963) provided an extensive listing of extant poems in the lai form: far fewer than half of them survive with music. Since musical form was at the time almost invariably determined by poetic form and since there are some discussions of it in the poetical theory, it is in literary terms that the essential features of the form’s history are most easily summarized.

2. Poetic form.

Jeanroy (1901) mentioned the difficulty of being certain in identifying the stanzaic divisions of the 13th-century lyric lai: the poems are often too irregular to permit unambiguous analysis and the illuminated initials that normally begin a stanza in the manuscripts are sometimes clearly misplaced in lais, as though the early scribes were as confused as anybody. Put another way, the early lai is often a mere series of poetic lines, mostly brief and all rhyming with some other line, sometimes easily divisible into larger sections but not always giving any clear clue as to formal shape. An extreme example is the beginning of Comencerai by Thibaut IV (for the music see ex.1):

Comencerai / a fere un lai / de la meillor /
forment m’esmai / que trop parai / fet de dolor, / dont mi chant
torront a plor.
Mere virge savoree / se vos faitez demoree /
de proier le haut segnor / bien doi avoir grant paor /
du deable, du felon / que en la noire prison /
nos velt mener / dont nus ne peut eschaper;

Jeanroy, surveying the 30 13th-century lais known to him (a few more have since been discovered), listed a range of six to 19 stanzas, of two to 56 lines comprising two to 11 syllables but tending to favour the shorter lines that are in general a special characteristic of the lai throughout its history.

Few lais are quite as irregular as Thibaut’s Comencerai, and one of the most prominent features of the lai is normally the principle of responsion, or repeated material. ‘Lesser responsion’ is the immediate or almost immediate repetition of a metrical or poetic scheme in the manner of the ‘classical’ double-versicle sequence: the repeated metre and rhyme scheme normally bring with them a musical repeat. But in the lai, particularly in the early stages of its history, the scheme of a single line or a couplet will often be repeated several times before new material is introduced, and this brings in its train the multifold repetition of short melodic fragments. In the 14th-century lai lesser responsion became customary throughout, normally in the form of regular fourfold responsion which was given music with alternating ouvert and clos cadences. Thus the 11th stanza of Machaut’s Le lay de l’ymage runs:

Riens ne desir / tant com li servir / a plaisir. / Mi desir
sont la jour et nuit,
pour desservir, / en lieu de merir, / li veir, / li oir:
a ce Amours me duit.
Mieus vueil languir / pour li, sans mentir, / et morir / que joir
d’autre; c’est le fruit
dont soustenir / me vueil et norir. / La metir / la querir
vueil tout mon deduit.

‘Greater responsion’ entails repeating the scheme of a larger section later within the lai. Maillard (‘Lai, Leich’, 1973, p.335) gave the following formal analysis (others are possible) of the long ‘Lai de l’ancien et du nouveau testament’: ABCDEFG EHIJ EHIJ EIJ EIJ E AB. Such greater responsion is also found in the sequence (see Double cursus). In lais of the 14th century it had reduced itself to a single case: the last stanza normally repeated the verse scheme of the first, but here the music was often transposed to another pitch, thereby both breaking the convention of the same verse scheme having the same music and also anticipating the sonata form recapitulation idea in many of its essential features by some 400 years.

Spanke (1938), in making what is still the most comprehensive attempt to analyse and categorize the 13th-century lais, was particularly reluctant to postulate any ‘development’ of form within the lai, asserting that the strictest poetic form in Machaut was already known in the 12th century. There was merely an extraordinarily wide range of structures, from the almost shapeless, such as Thibaut’s Comencerai, through the heavily repetitive but rambling, such as the two lais of Ernoul de Gastinois, to the most painstakingly balanced lai with strictly paired lesser responsions, such as the ‘Lai du chevrefeuille’ or Puis qu’en chantant. On the other hand, it is also true to say that of the 46 Provençal poems and 109 Old French poems inventoried by Maillard (not all are strictly lais within the terms of this article and many are lost), remarkably few have 12 stanzas, the number favoured by Machaut and increasingly adhered to through the 14th century. So also, the earliest theorist to discuss the form at any length, Guilhem Molinier in the first version of Las leys d’amors (1328), was suitably vague in his definition, saying that it ‘can have as many stanzas as a vers, that is to say five or ten, these stanzas being singulars, and distinct in rhyme, in music and in text; and they can each have the same metre or different metre’.

Only one of the Roman de Fauvel lais has 12 stanzas, but nearly all of Machaut’s are in that form, later described by Eustache Deschamps (Art de dictier, 1392), who himself wrote 12 such poems. He described the lai as long and difficult to write (‘c’est une chose longue et malaisee a faire et trouver’), having 12 double stanzas of 16, 18, 20 or 24 lines, each stanza with a different rhyme except the last, which should repeat that of the first without however repeating any of the actual rhyme words. He also said that lais were fairly common: in view of his own output and the continued cultivation of this intricate and elaborate form by Froissart (who gave a similar definition in his Prison amoureuse, ll.3483–514), Oton de Granson, Christine de Pizan, Alain Chartier and Georges Chastellain, this is no surprise.

An even further increase in the rigidity of the form is apparent from the Regles de la seconde rhetorique (c1411–32) which gives a brief history of the form, according special honours to Philippe de Vitry and to Machaut (see §4 below). It describes the lai as having ‘12 stanzas of which the first and the last are similar in form and rhyme while the other ten are each individual in these respects; but each stanza must have four quarters’. Baudet Herenc (1432, ed. in Langlois, 1902, pp.166ff) was even more restrictive as to the length of each line and the permissible rhyme schemes.

Poetic theory on the subject in the later 15th century and after represents a falling away at the edges. Deschamps had described and exemplified a double lai with 38 stanzas, but for Molinet a century later the form had become so rigid that double lai was merely a lai with 16 lines in the stanza rather than the 12 lines that had by then become almost mandatory: the 12-line form most favoured was that with the rhyme scheme aab aab bba bba, often called the petit lai de contradiction but also sometimes called virelai – a name that is particularly confusing in musical contexts because the form has nothing at all to do with the standard Virelai of polyphonic song. At the same time a distinction evolved between the petit lai or commun lai with only one stanza and the full-size grand lai: a late example of a ‘commun lay’ in the Jardin de plaisance (Paris, c1501) comprises four stanzas with the same metre and rhyme scheme (that described above as ‘virelai’) and commends Chartier as a writer of lais. Thomas Sebillet’s Art poëtique françois (Lyons, 2/1556) mentioned the lai and the virelai as an afterthought, declaring both to be obsolete. One particularly interesting late example of a lai (discussed in Giacchetti, 1973) is in fact a connected ‘cycle’ of seven poems in the following sequence of forms: rondeau, fatras, virelai, fatras, ballade, fatras, rondeau; but it describes itself as being a lai, and is a lai in having each stanza in a different form from the last; moreover, Willaert (1992) notes a similar poem-sequence elsewhere in the same romance, Ysaÿe le triste, and remarks that comparable sequences can be found among the Dutch poems in the Hague Chansonnier (NL-DHk 128 D 2) of about 1400.

The earliest lai repertories with music are most simply described in terms of their manuscript sources. Peripheral to the main subject of this article are the inserts in the Roman de Tristan en prose (c1225–30, found particularly in A-Wn 2542; for a version from a different manuscript see fig.3). These are a series of simple stanzaic songs, very much in the musical and poetic style of the trouvère tradition at the time. Several of them are entitled ‘lai’ and they are the only surviving music with that title actually associated with Arthurian or narrative material: for these reasons they are included in the checklist below and must be considered in any study of the subject so long as the question of definition remains unsolved. But nothing in their poetry or their music suggests any connections with the genre under consideration here.

3. The lai before 1300.

The main collection of true 13th-century lais is in the Chansonnier de Noailles (F-Pn fr.12615) which contains 17, ten of them together (fig.4). Smaller quantities of music, less clearly organized, appear in the Chansonnier du Roi (F-Pn fr.844), in F-Pn fr.845 and in the Wiener Leichhandschrift (A-Wn 2701). In two of the French sources the collection of chansons is followed by a group of two-voice motets after which the lais are to be found; and in the third collection a group of motets is nearby. All four sources are probably from the late 13th century but their repertories, partly anonymous, have such stylistic variety as to cause considerable disagreement on the early history of the lai form.

The Provençal vida of Garin d’Apchier states that he ‘made the first descort that ever was made’ (‘fetz lo premier descort que anc fos faitz’), which would place the birth of the form around 1200; and while it is surely pertinent to ask how much the anonymous 14th-century biographer really understood about the subject, just as his comment raises again the question as to whether any clear distinction between the descort and the lyric lai was intended, it seems possible that the form appeared in the troubadour and trouvère traditions only shortly before 1200. This judgment may seem dangerous in view of the far greater antiquity of the sequence tradition, of the various discussions as to the roots of the sequence, and of the Celtic roots Handschin and others impute to the lai; nevertheless it makes sense in terms of the lyric tradition of the troubadours and trouvères as it survives, a tradition that grew up gently in the 12th century, gradually trying new formal ideas and expanding its boundaries as the century progressed.

Surveying the lais of the trouvère repertory (published almost complete in Jeanroy, Brandin and Aubry, 1901), Aubry called attention to a clear stylistic division falling approximately between those that were anonymous and those whose authors were known. The former (together with the two lais of Ernoul de Gastinois, who has even been suggested as a possible author for the others because they appear immediately after his lais in the Chansonnier de Noailles) include some extremely irregular patterns and occasional apparently incomplete musical notation on the basis of which a complete edition can require reconstruction and even guesswork. Aubry concluded that the incompletely notated lais were more improvisational and that they left hints as to possible Celtic origins for the genre; and several other scholars have pointed out that the tendency to repeat relatively brief musical phrases eight or nine times before moving on is perhaps symptomatic of some derivation from the style of the chanson de geste. Stäblein (1975) went further and proposed a chronology based on the assumptions that these less formalized pieces were earlier (an opinion it is difficult to endorse wholeheartedly in view of the full formalization of the substantially similar sequence form by 1100), and that the ‘Lai des pucelles’ (Coraigeus) was already written in the early 12th century when Abelard wrote his ‘Planctus virginum Israel’ to the same melody (for a contrary opinion see Weinrich, 1969): Stäblein suggested that all these anonymous lais may date from about 1100. He also proposed a chronology for the ascribed lais beginning with the three rather stolid pieces of Gautier de Dargies early in the 13th century, then the slightly freer works of the brothers Le Vinier; the second half of the 13th century was then represented by Colin Muset, Adam de Givenchi, Thomas Herier, Jacques de Cysoing and Ernoul le vielle de Gastinois.

Rietsch (DTÖ, xli, Jg.xx, 1913/R) observed many of the same characteristics in the Leichs of the Wiener Leichhandschrift as he found in some of the lais in the Jeanroy collection, especially those of Ernoul de Gastinois: he mentioned the short rhyming lines with no obvious scheme, rarity of clear stanza patterns and the use of greater responsion. Similarly, Stäblein (1975, pp.172–3) made an extremely interesting melodic analysis of a Leich by Tannhäuser, Ich lobe ein Wîp, and pointed out (p.97) that it is closely related in style to the French lais of the time. An adequate survey of the genres in the 13th century will need to view the French and German traditions together, if only because it is likely that none of the music in the French sources dates from later than about 1250 and the chronological (and stylistic) gap before the lais of the Roman de Fauvel is slightly closed by a consideration of the Leich of Herman Damen, a long rambling piece with constantly developing material, as well as those of Frauenlob with their consistently precise repetition in double versicles.

The developing melodic material just mentioned is perhaps the most absorbing characteristic of the lai as a musical form: figures and motifs carried from one section and expanded in the next are to some extent inevitable in a sectional monodic form the size of the lai, particularly if the composer has any feeling for the need to supply some shape to his work. In the opening section of Comencerai each unit builds on the preceding one, but the fifth unit grows anew out of the melodic material that had evolved at the end of the third and fourth units (ex.1; the texts, which have one syllable for each note or neume, are represented by only the rhyming syllable at the end of each line; for the text see §2 above).

Something similar happens in Herman Damen’s Ir kristenen. The section of it in ex.2 contains short fragments repeated several times and representing a considerable change of pace after the more casual aab form that had characterized all that went before in the piece. This section is therefore transitional, setting up its own signposts, perceptibly changing character and, in the event, leading to a new section with a higher tessitura. The transitional passage treats a simple melodic figure in several different ways, finally transposing it up a tone before launching into the new section – at which point the frequency of repetition relaxes again and the melodic material for the first time in the piece has no obvious relation to that of the preceding sections. (For a similar attempt to describe part of a lai by Machaut, see Fallows, 1977.)

Schrade (1958) put forward tentative but persuasive arguments for suspecting that the four lais in the Roman de Fauvel could be the work of Philippe de Vitry, who otherwise contributed some of the most distinguished and modern music to that collection. The Regles de la seconde rhetorique (see Langlois, 1902, p.12) said: ‘Aprez vint Philippe de Vitry qui trouva la maniere des motés, et des balades, et des lais et des simples rondeaux’, and continued by praising Machaut ‘le grant retthorique de nouvelle fourme, qui commencha toutes tailles nouvelles et les parfais lays d’amours’. In any case these four Fauvel lais are the only immediate precursors of the magnificent lais of Machaut. Their musical rhythm is clear, their sections are carefully balanced, and the repetitions have reached a regularity of form that suggests an effort to build on the basis of the 13th-century lai and crystallize it into a more balanced and logical shape in line with so many other innovations of the early 14th century. In these lais there is an even clearer sense of melodic progress: each section builds on the material with which the last ended, so the result is a constantly developing musical organism along the lines seen in the 13th-century lai but more continuous, more conscious of a thematic evolution.

4. The lai after 1300.

Machaut’s lais often include this feature, and in formal terms they follow the same scheme as those of the Roman de Fauvel. But the development of the mensural system opened new avenues: he was able to vary the pace from one section to another thereby giving this still-growing form an opportunity to become even larger, with (effective) changes of tempo giving the whole piece a sense of variety and springiness that was not found earlier. In a way this is the major importance of Machaut’s lais in musical history, for none of his other works is so long as to require such full and conscious exploitation of the mensural system, using musical techniques more commonly found in the larger mass cycles of the 15th century.

Four of Machaut’s lais contain polyphony written in ‘successive notation’. This is clearly indicated only in Je ne cesse de prier where the even-numbered stanzas have the annotation ‘chace’ and make three-voice polyphony if performed in unison canon with the entries three perfections apart. S’onques douleureusement can be performed in three-voice unison canon throughout. The polyphony of Pour ce que plus proprement is written after the manner of certain St Martial sources: the first versicle in each double-versicle stanza has different music from the second, but the two fit in excellent polyphony. Finally the music for stanzas 1, 2 and 3 in En demantant combines in three-voice polyphony as does that for stanzas 4–6, 7–9 and 10–12. In all these cases there is a serious question as to how the music might best be performed: if each voice was sung and texted the cumulative effect of the poem would presumably be lost, so perhaps the canonic possibilities are merely aids towards the construction of an instrumental accompaniment more carefully controlled by the composer than it was in the monophonic repertories of the preceding generation. The polyphony of Machaut’s lais has been observed but not explained.

If Machaut’s lais must be regarded as the highpoint of the form’s history, there is little evidence that any of his successors followed this lead. That 15th-century composers seem not to have given the form their attention may perhaps be because it was still an essentially monodic form, and monophonic writing had none of the prestige it enjoyed in earlier centuries. (Securely ascribed monophonic song in the 15th century survives only from Germany.) Another reason was possibly that the composer interested in developing extended forms concentrated more on the cyclic mass which was now beginning to take its definitive form.

But two examples of later lai composition have come to light and the circumstances surrounding each suggest that they were not entirely isolated but rather examples of a larger tradition that happens to have been lost. The lai De cuer je soupire (c1400; ed. in Wright, 1974) has exact double versicles and ouvert–clos cadences: the nature of its melodic line and its changes of pace both clearly separate it from the sequence tradition. And if the brevity of its sections contrasts strongly with the inflated length of the unset lais of Chartier and Granson this may be seen as the only way of keeping the form within the scope of other secular monophony in the 15th century. A similar situation exists in Hans Folz’s ‘Kettenton’ (c1500), which Petzsch (1970) ingeniously identified as being in the lai form: again the sections are brief, and the continuous development of material passing from one section to the next is fully within the received tradition. If these are symptoms characteristic of a larger tradition, the size of the form in the 13th century was considerably expanded and reduced to formulae by composers in France and Germany after 1300, whereas the composers after Machaut reduced size and scope with the lai as they did with so much of their cultural heritage.

While it is clear that a study of the lai must take account of the poems and their form, it seems also that much can be learnt from a study of the music alone, and it is to this end that the appended list has been compiled. The fullest listing of texts is still that in Maillard (1963), where they are tabulated separately under lais (pp.71ff), descorts (pp.119ff) and Leichs (pp.153ff) and much additional material is included. In the list here four categories of material have been deliberately omitted: (i) the many poems in lai form with no surviving music: it is not suggested that these are unimportant, but that the reader of this dictionary might be grateful for a listing that confines itself to what music is actually there; (ii) other text sources for lais whose music does survive: they can quickly be ascertained from Maillard, from Tischler (1997 edn) and from the standard inventories of medieval literary genres; (iii) Latin pieces that might be described as in lai form: these are listed and discussed in Spanke (1936), and many are edited in Tischler (1997); (iv) strophic songs in which the individual stanza includes several musical repetitions, many of which are edited in Tischler (1997); (v) pieces that happen to be called lais either in manuscript titles or within the poem, but show no apparent trace of lai form (examples would be Gautier de Coincy’s Entendez tuit ensemble and Harder’s ‘Kôrwîse’), pieces that are in the form but are straight translations of sequences (such as Gautier’s Hui enfantés) and pieces showing only elements of lai form (see Spanke, 1936, pp.91ff).

5. Notes on the checklist of lai music.

Unresolved questions as to the strict definition of the lai and as to its pre-history have made some of the decisions in this last category extremely difficult. One category has been included even though it strictly has nothing to do with the lai as defined here: the lyric insertions in the Roman de Tristan en prose are listed because many are entitled ‘lai’ and they represent a complete independent category of material; moreover they are included as such in the major studies of Wolf (1841) and Maillard (1963), and their omission could therefore cause unnecessary confusion.

Editions listed are not necessarily the best or the most recent but merely the most convenient for obtaining an overview of the repertory. Descriptions of form are added only when unambiguous and relatively simple.

CHECKLIST OF LAI MUSIC

Editions: Die Sangesweisen der Colmarer Handschrift und die Liederhandschrift Donaueschingen, ed. P. Runge (Leipzig, 1896/R) [Ru]Lais et descorts français du XIIIe siècle, ed. A. Jeanroy, L. Brandin and P. Aubry (Paris, 1901/R) [J]Gesänge von Frauenlob, Reinmar v. Zweter und Alexander, ed. H. Rietsch, DTÖ, xli, Jg.xx (1913/R) [Ri]Guillaume de Machaut: Musikalische Werke, iv: Messe und Lais, ed. F. Ludwig and H. Besseler (Leipzig, 1954) [L]The Works of Guillaume de Machaut: First Part, ed. L. Schrade, PMFC, ii (1956) [S]J. Maillard: Evolution et esthétique du lai lyrique (Paris, 1963) [M]R.J. Taylor: The Art of the Minnesinger (Cardiff, 1968) [Ta]Les lais du roman de Tristan en prose d’après le manuscrit de Vienne 2542, ed. T. Fotitch and R. Steiner (Munich, 1974) [FS]Trouvère Lyrics with Melodies: Complete Comparative Edition, ed. H. Tischler, CMM, cvii/14–15 (1997) [T]

provençal lais



Title	Composer	Text incipit	Identification	Musical sources	Edition

—	Guillem Augier Novella	Bella domna cara	PC 461.37	F-Pn fr.844	T 85
Remarks : No repetitions but a long articulated melody; described in the text as acort
Lai nom par	—	Finamens	PC 461.122	F-Pn fr.844, fr.12615	T 55
Remarks : 11 stanzas; music of 1 repeated for 11
Lai Markiol	—	Gent me nais	PC 461.124	F-Pn fr.844, fr.12615	T 19
Remarks : melody also used for Flour ne glais, for Philippe the Chancellor’s ‘Veritas, equitas, largitas’ and for the St Martial ‘Prosa virginalis’
—	Aimeric de Peguilhan	Qui la ve en ditz	PC 10.45	F-Pn fr. 844, fr.22543	T 30
Remarks : music inc. and different in the 2 sources
—	Guilhem Augier Novella, or Peire Ramon de Tolosa or Guiraut de Calanso	Ses alegratge	PC 205.5	F-Pn fr.844	T 37
Remarks : discussed in Maillard: ‘Structures mélodiques’ (1973)
—	? Charles d’Anjou	Sill qu’es captz e quitz	PC 461.67a	F-Pn fr.844	T 49

lyric lais in the roman de tristan en prose (A-Wn 2542)

all isostrophic



Title	Speaker	Text incipit	Edition

—	Helyas	Amours de vostre acordement	FS 12
Lai de victoire	Tristan	Apres chou que je vi victoire	FS 15
Lettre	chevalier	A toi rois Artus qui signeur	FS 10
Lai de Kahedin	Kahedin	A vous Amours ainz c’a nului	FS 3
Remarks : Melody = Folie n’est
[lettre]	Yseut	A vous Tristran amis verai	FS 14
Lai de plour	Tristan	D’amour vient mon chant	FS 17
—	Palamedes	D’amours viennent li dous penser	FS 9
Lai mortel	Kahedin	En mourant de si douce mort	FS 5
[lettre]	Yseut	Folie n’est pas vasselage	FS 4
Remarks : Melody = A vous Amours
Lai mortel	Tristan	Ja fis canchonnetes et lais	FS 1
Lai du boire amoureux	Tristan	La u jou fui dedens la mer	FS 16
Lai mortel	Yseut	Li solaus luist et clers	FS 2
Lai	Tristan	Lonc tans a que il ne vit chele	FS 13
Remarks : 9 lines only
Lai	chevalier	Riens n’est qui ne viengne a	FS 11
—	Roi Marc	Salu vous com je le doi faire
Remarks : different music in F-Pn fr.776, ed. M 200
—	Lamorat de Galles	Sans cuer sui et sans cuer remain	FS 6
Lai voir disant	Dynadan	Tant me sui de dire teu	FS 8
Remarks : different music in F-Pn fr.776, ed. M 189

french lais before 1300



Title	Composer	Text incipit	Identification	Editions	Remarks

—	Gilles Le Vinier	A ce m’acort	R.1928	J ix, T 15
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.844, fr.12615
Lai a la Vierge	Thibaut IV	Comencerai	R.73a	J xiv, M 297, T 21	considered by Stäblein (1975) not to be a lai
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.844, fr.846, fr.22406
Lai des pucelles	—	Coraigeus	R.1012	J xxiii, M 262, T 1	melody also used for Abelard’s ‘Planctus virginum Israel’ (of which the title ‘Lai des pucelles’ could be a trans.), I-Rvat reg.lat.288
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.12615
—	Gautier de Dargies	De cele me plaing	R.1421	J iii, T 12
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.844, fr.12615
—	Colin Muset	En ceste note dirai	R.74	J iv, T 6
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.845, n.a.fr.1050, Pa 5198
Lai de Notre Dame	Ernoul le vielle	En entente curieuse	R.1017	J xvii, T 9	music frag.; needs heavy reconstruction
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.12615
Lai d’Aelis	—	En sospirant de trop	R.1921	J xxv, M 228, T 22
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.12615
—	—	… en tremblant	R.362a	T 18	melody = Lonc tens
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.845
—	Guillaume Le Vinier	Espris d’ire et d’amor	R.1946	J viii, T 16
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.844, fr.12615
—	—	Eyns ne soy ke pleynte fu	—	T 36	melody also used for Godefroy de St Victor’s ‘Planctus ante nescia’ and Eng. ‘Prisoner’s song’
Musical sources : Corporation of London Records Office, Liber de antiquis legibus, f.160v–161v
Lai de Notre Dame [‘contre le lai Markiol’]	—	Flour ne glais	R.192	J xvi, T 19	melody = Gent me nais
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.2193, fr.12615, Wolf frag.
Cantus de Domina post cantum Aaliz	—	Flur de virginité	R.476a	J xxx, M 235, T 23	melody appears only with Lat. text Flos pudicitie
Musical sources : GB-Lbl Arundel 248
Lai des amants	—	Ichi comans	R.635	J xx, T 24
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.12615
—	Gautier de Dargies	J’ai maintes fois chanté	R.416	J i, T 13
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.844, fr.12615
Note Martinet	? Martin le Beguin	J’ai trouvé	R.474	T 42
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.845, Mesmes (lost)
—	? Charles d’Anjou	Ki de bons est souef	[R.165a]	M 285, T 48	Stäblein (1975) suggested that this was merely a series of single-stanza trouvère songs in the normal aab form, although the poem is described as a lai in 1.5; melody also used in same MS for Iam mundus
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.844
—	Adam de Givenchi	La doce acordance	R.205	J x, T 2	2 different melodies, that in fr.844 also with Latin text ‘Iam mundus ornatur’
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.844, fr.12615
—	Gautier de Dargies	La doce pensee	R.539	J ii, T 14
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.844, fr.12615
—	? Charles d’Anjou	La plus noble emprise	[R.1623a]	M 290, Maillard (1967), 43	Stäblein (1975) suggested that this was merely a series of single-stanza trouvère songs
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.844
Plaintes de la Vierge au pied de la croix	—	Lasse que deviendrai gié	R.1093	J xxix, T 25	same metrical scheme as Par courtoisie despuel, but different melody
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.12483
Lai de la pastourelle	—	L’autrier chevauchoie	R.1695	J xxiv, T 18	melody = Lonc tens
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.845, Mesmes (lost)
Lai des Hermins	—	Lonc tens m’ai teü	R.2060	J xxvii, T 18	melody also used for L’autrier, … en tremblant, Virge glorieuse and Philippe the Chancellor’s sequence ‘Ave gloriosa’; 10 stanzas; music of 1 repeated for 10
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.845, Mesmes (lost)
—	—	Mere de pitié	R.1094a	T 57	same metrical scheme as De cele me plaing
Musical sources : F-Pa 3517
—	—	Ne flours ne glais	R.192a	T 4
Musical sources : F-Pa 3517
Lai du chevrefeuille, or Note del kievrefuel	—	Par courtoisie despuel	R.995	J xxii, T 26	11 stanzas; music of 1 repeated for 11
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.844 fr.12615, Wolf frag.
Lai de la rose	—	Pot s’onques mais nus hom	R.900	J xxi, T 27
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.12615
—	—	Puis qu’en chantant	R.1931	J xxvi, M 237, T 28	9 stanzas; music of 1 repeated for 9
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.846
—	—	Qui porroit un guirredon	R.1868	M 300, T 59	inc.
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.846 (frag.)
Lai a la Vierge	Gautier de Coincy	Royne celestre	R.956	J xv, T 11	3 stanzas each in form aabbccdd
Musical sources : F-Pn n.a.fr.24541 and 10 others
—	Guillaume Le Vinier	Se chans ne descors ne lais	R.193	J vii, T 17
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.844, fr.12615, fr.25566
Lai de l’ancien et du nouveau testament	? Ernoul le Vielle	S’onques hom en lui s’asist	R.1642	J xviii, T 10	music frag.; needs heavy reconstruction
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.12615
—	Adam de Givenchi	Trop est costumiere Amors	R.2018	J xi, T 3
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.844, fr.12615
—	Thomas Herier	Un descort vaurai retraire	R.186	J xiii, T 20
Musical sources : F-Pn fr.12615
—	? Gautier de Coincy	Virge glorieuse	R.1020	J xxviii, T 18	melody = Lonc tens
Musical sources : F-Pa 3517

lais in the roman de fauvel (F-Pn fr.146)



Title	Text incipit	Edition	Remarks

Lai des Hellequines	En ce douz temps d’este	T 91	called ‘descort’ in the text; 12 stanzas, each sung by a different character
Lai de Fortune	Je qui pooir seule ai	T 89	10 stanzas
Lai de Venus	Pour recouvrer alegiance	T 90	13 stanzas; music of 1 repeated for 13
Lai de Fauvel	Talant que j’ai d’obeir	T 88	14 stanzas; music of 1 repeated for 14

lais by guillaume de machaut

in Vg [Wildenstein Gallery, New York], A [F-Pn fr.1584], B [Pn fr.1585], C [Pn fr.1586], E [Pn fr.9221] and G [Pn fr.22546] unless otherwise stated



Title	Text incipit	Musical sources	Editions

Le lay des dames	Amis, t’amour me contreint		S 7, L 10
Remarks : 12 stanzas; music of 1 repeated up a 5th for 12
—	Amours doucement me tente		S 6, L 7
Remarks : 12 stanzas; music of 1 repeated up a 4th for 12
Le lay de Nostre Dame	Contre ce doulz mois de may	not in C	S 10, L 15
Remarks : 12 stanzas; music of 1 repeated up a 5th for 12
—	En demantant et lamentant	E only	S 18, L 24
Remarks : 12 stanzas; music of 1 repeated down a 4th for 12; each group of 3 stanzas combines in polyphony for 3 vv, see Hasselman and Walker (1970)
—	J’aim la flour de valour		S 2, L 2
Remarks : 7 stanzas; music of 1 repeated for 7
Le lay de la fonteinne, or Le lay de Nostre Dame	Je ne cesse de prier	not in C	S 11, L 16
Remarks : 12 stanzas; music of 1 repeated up a 5th for 12; even-numbered stanzas are chaces, 3vv
Le lay de bonne esperance, or Le lay d’esperance	Longuement me sui tenus		S 13, L 18
Remarks : 12 stanzas; music of 1 repeated up a 5th for 12
—	Loyauté que point ne delay	not in E	S 1, L 1
Remarks : 12 stanzas, each with the same melody
Le lay de plour	Malgré Fortune et son tour	A and G only	S 14, L 19
Remarks : 12 stanzas; music of 1 repeated up a 5th for 12
Le lay de l’ymage	Ne say comment commencier		S 9, L 14
Remarks : 12 stanzas; music of 1 repeated up a 5th for 12
—	Nuls ne doit avoir		S 4, L 5
Remarks : 12 stanzas; music of 1 repeated up a 5th for 12
—	Par trois raisons me vueil		S 5, L 6
Remarks : 12 stanzas; music of 1 repeated up a 5th for 12
Un lay de consolation	Pour ce que plus proprement	E only	S 17, L 23
Remarks : 12 stanzas; music of 1 repeated for 12; 2vv throughout in successive notation, see Hoppin (1958)
—	Pour ce qu’on puist	also in Lille, Archives du Nord, MS 134 (frag.)	S 3, L 3
Remarks : 12 stanzas; music of 1 repeated for 12
Le lay de la rose	Pour vivre joliement	A and G only	S 15, L 21
Remarks : 12 stanzas; music of 1 repeated up a 5th for 12
Le lay de plour	Qui bien aimme a tart oublie	not in G	S 16, L 22
Remarks : 12 stanzas; music of 1 repeated up a 5th for 12
—	Qui n’aroit autre deport		S 19, L i, p.93
Remarks : 12 stanzas; music of 1 repeated up a 5th for 12
Le lay de confort	S’onques douleureusement	not in C	S 12, L 17
Remarks : 12 stanzas; music of 1 repeated for 12; all stanzas canonic 3vv
Le lay mortel	Un mortel lay vueil commencier	also in Maggs	S 8, L 12
Remarks : 12 stanzas; music of 1 repeated for 12

leichs before 1300



Title	Composer	Text incipit	Editions

—	Reinmar von Zweter	Got und dîn eben êwikeit	Ta i, 72, Ri 62
Musical sources : A-Wn 2701
Remarks : 29 stanzas; use of rhyming cadences; melody used for conductus O amor deus deitas
—	Tannhäuser	Ich lobe ein Wîp	Kuhn (1952), 111
Musical sources : D-Mbs Clm 5539
Remarks : melody used for conductus Syon egredere
—	Alexander	Mîn trûreclîchez klagen	Ta i, 7 Ta i, 11, Ri 83
Musical sources : D-Ju A-Wn 2701
Remarks : 2 different though noticeably related melodies
—	Ulrich von Winterstetten	Swer die wunne	Ta i, 92
Musical sources : lost Schreiber frag.
Remarks : frag.

leichs around 1300

Frauenleich, or Der guldin flügel	Frauenlob	Ei ich sach in dem trône	A-Wn 2701, D-Mbs Cgm 4997, Mbs Mus. ms.921, PL-WRu fr.12 (frag.), Königsberg, lost frag.	Ru 3, Ri 57	dated Nov 1318; 22 stanzas
Taugenhort, or Slosshort	? Frauenlob	In gotes schôz gesehen wart	D-Mbs Cgm 4997	Ru 28	25 stanzas
—	Herman Damen	Ir kristenen alle schriet	D-Ju
Minnekliche leich	Frauenlob	O wîp du hôher êren haft	A-Wn 2701	Ri 67	33 stanzas
Des Heylygyn Cruecysleych	Frauenlob or Regenbogen	Wo wundirwernder	A-Wn 2701, D-Mbs Cgm 4997	Ri 71, Ru 106	22 stanzas; music incomplete at end in Mbs 4997

later leichs

Goldenes ABC	Monk of Salzburg	Ave Balsams Creatur	D-Mbs Cgm 4997, Mbs Cgm 715, A-Wn 2856	Ru 145	12 stanzas
—	Heinrich Laufenberg	Bis grůst maget reine	F-Sm 222	Wolf (1841), ix; Runge (1910)	contrafactum-paraphrase of Salve regina
Hort	Peter von Reichenbach	Got vater, sun	D-Mbs Cgm 4997	Ru 53	10 stanzas
—	Heinrich Laufenberg	Wilcom lobes werde	F-Sm 222	Runge (1910)	contrafactum-paraphrase of Salve regina

latest examples

Kettenton	Hans Folz	[no surviving orig. text]	D-Nst Will III.792, WRtl fol.420.2, PL-WRu 356	Petzsch (1970)	4 double versicles and coda
—	—	De cuer je soupire	F-Dm 2837, Sm 222	Wright (1974)	6 stanzas; 1st used for tenor of mass cycle in I-TRmp 89
Tageweise	Albrecht Lesch	Zuch durch die wolken	D-Mbs Cgm 4997	Ru 180	see Petzsch (1975)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (‘Lai, Leich’, U. Aarburg; see also ‘Descort’, J. Maillard)

MGG2 (‘Lai, Leich’, C. März)

F. Wolf: Über die Lais, Sequenzen und Leiche (Heidelberg, 1841/R)

C. Appel: ‘Vom Descort’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, xi (1887), 212–30

H.R. Lang: ‘The Descort in Old Portuguese and Spanish Poetry’, Beiträge zur romanischen Philologie: Festgabe für Gustav Gröber (Halle, 1899), 484–506

A. Jeanroy, L. Brandin and P. Aubry: Lais et descorts français du XIIIe siècle: texte et musique (Paris, 1901/R)

E. Langlois, ed.: Recueil d’arts de seconde rhétorique (Paris, 1902)

O. Gottschalk: Der deutsche Minneleich und sein Verhältnis zu Lai und Descort (diss., U. of Marburg, 1908)

P. Runge: ‘Der Marienleich Heinrich Laufenbergs “Wilkom lobes werde”’, Festschrift … Rochus Freiherrn von Liliencron (Leipzig, 1910/R), 228–40

G. Hase: Der Minneleich Meister Alexanders und seine Stellung in der mittelalterlichen Musik (Halle, 1921)

F. Gennrich: ‘Internationale mittelalterliche Melodien’, ZMw, xi (1928–9), 259–96, 321–48

J. Handschin: ‘Über Estampie und Sequenz’, ZMw, xii (1929–30), 1–20; xiii (1930–31), 113–32

H. Spanke: ‘Eine neue Leich-Melodie’, ZMw, xiv (1931–2), 385–97 [Tannhäuser’s Ich lobe ein Wîp]

H. Spanke: ‘Über das Fortleben der Sequenzenform in den romanischen Sprachen’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, li (1931), 309–34

F. Gennrich: Grundriss einer Formenlehre des mittelalterlichen Liedes (Halle, 1932/R)

H. Spanke: Beziehungen zwischen romanischer und mittellateinischer Lyrik mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Metrik und Musik (Berlin, 1936/R)

H. Spanke: ‘Sequenz und Lai’, Studi medievali, new ser., xi (1938), 12–68

F. Gennrich: ‘Zwei altfranzösische Lais’, Studi medievali, new ser., xv (1942), 1–68

H. Spanke: Deutsche und französische Dichtung des Mittelalters (Stuttgart, 1943)

G. Vecchi: ‘Sequenza e lai: a proposito di un ritmo di Abelardo’, Studi medievali, new ser., xvi (1943–50), 86–101

H. Kuhn: ‘Ulrich von Winterstetten und der deutsche Leich’, Minnesangs Wende (Tübingen, 1952, 2/1967), 91–142

J. Handschin: ‘Trope, Sequence, and Conductus’, NOHM, ii (1954), 128–74

B. Stäblein: ‘Von der Sequenz zum Strophenlied: eine neue Sequenzenmelodie “archaischen” Stiles’, Mf, vii (1954), 257–68

A. Machabey: Guillaume de Machault 130?–1377 (Paris, 1955), i, 98–130

G. Reaney: ‘The Lais of Guillaume de Machaut and their Background’, PRMA, lxxxii (1955–6), 15–32 [incl. information on earlier lais]

R.J. Browne: A Stylistic and Formal History of the Middle High German Leich, 1190–1290 (diss., Yale U., 1956)

R.H. Hoppin: ‘An Unrecognized Polyphonic Lai of Machaut’, MD, xii (1958), 93–104 [Pour ce que pens proprement]

J. Maillard: ‘Problèmes musicaux et littéraires du “lai”’, Quadrivium, ii (1958), 32–44

G. Reaney: ‘Concerning the Origins of the Medieval Lai’, ML, xxix (1958), 343–6

L. Schrade: ‘Guillaume de Machaut and the Roman de Fauvel’, Miscelánea en homenaje a Monseñor Higinio Anglés (Barcelona, 1958–61), 843–50

J. Maillard: ‘Le “lai” et la “note” du Chèvrefeuille’, MD, xiii (1959), 3–13

B. Stäblein: ‘Die Schwanenklage: zum Problem Lai–Planctus–Sequenz’, Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer zum sechzigsten Geburtstag, ed. H. Hüschen (Regensburg, 1962), 491–502

J. Maillard: Evolution et esthétique du lai lyrique des origines à la fin du XIVe siècle (Paris, 1963)

K.H. Bertau: Sangverslyrik: über Gestalt und Geschichtlichkeit mittelhochdeutscher Lyrik am Beispiel des Leichs, Palaestra, ccxl (Göttingen, 1964)

J. Maillard: Lais et chansons d’Ernoul de Gastinois, MSD, xv (1964)

D. Poirion: Le poète et le prince: l’évolution du lyrisme courtois de Guillaume de Machaut à Charles d’Orléans (Paris, 1965/R), 397ff

H. Baader: Die Lais: zur Geschichte einer Gattung der altfranzösischen Kurzerzählungen (Frankfurt, 1966)

J. Maillard: Roi-trouvère du XIIIème siècle: Charles d’Anjou, MSD, xviii (1967)

J.-M. d’Heur: ‘Des descorts occitans et des descordos galiciens-portugais’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, lxxxiv (1968), 323–39

R. Baum: ‘Les troubadours et les lais’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, lxxxv (1969), 1–44 [analysis of 58 uses of the word ‘lai’ in Provençal]

I. Glier: ‘Der Minneleich im späten 13. Jahrhundert’, Werk–Typ–Situation: Studien zu poetologischen Bedingungen in der älteren deutschen Literatur: Hugo Kuhn zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. I. Glier and others (Stuttgart, 1969), 161–83

J. Maillard: ‘Lais avec notation dans le Tristan en prose’, Mélanges offerts à Rita Lejeune (Gembloux, 1969), 1347–65 [rectifies omissions in Maillard, 1963]

L. Weinrich: ‘Peter Abaelard as Musician’, MQ, lv (1969), 295–312, 464–86

M. Hasselman and T. Walker: ‘More Hidden Polyphony in a Machaut Manuscript’, MD, xxiv (1970), 7–11 [En demantant]

C. Petzsch: ‘Ein spätes Zeugnis der Lai-Technik’, ZDADL, xcix (1970), 310–23 [Folz’s ‘Kettenton’]

R. Baum: ‘Le descort ou l’anti-chanson’, Mélanges de philologie romane … Jean Boutière, ed I. Cluzel and F. Pirot (Liège, 1971), 75–98 [with extensive bibliography]

J. Maillard: ‘Coblas dezacordablas et poésie d’oïl’, ibid., 361–75

G. Objartel: ‘Zwei wenig beachtete Fragmente Reinmars von Zweter und ein lateinisches Gegenstück seines Leichs’, Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie, xc (1971), suppl., 217–31

C. Bullock-Davies: ‘The Form of the Breton Lay’, Medium aevum, xlii (1973), 18–31

A. Giacchetti: ‘Une nouvelle forme du lai apparue à la fin du XIVe siècle’, Etudes de langue et de littérature du Moyen Age offertes à Félix Lecoy (Paris, 1973), 147–55

J. Maillard: ‘Lai, Leich’, Gattungen der Musik in Einzeldarstellungen: Gedenkschrift Leo Schrade, ed. W. Arlt and others (Berne and Munich, 1973), 323–45

J. Maillard: ‘Structures mélodiques complexes au Moyen Age’, Mélanges de langue et de littérature médiévales offerts à Pierre Le Gentil (Paris, 1973), 523–39 [Ses alegratge]

T. Fotitch and R. Steiner: Les lais du roman de Tristan en prose d’après le manuscrit de Vienne 2542 (Munich, 1974) [incl. complete edn]

C. Wright: ‘A Fragmentary Manuscript of Early 15th-Century Music in Dijon’, JAMS, xxvii (1974), 306–15 [De cuer je soupire]

C. Petzsch: ‘Folgen nachträglich eingeführter Text-Form-Korrespondenz für Text und Lai-Technik’, Mf, xxviii (1975), 284–7 [Lesch’s ‘Tageweise’]

B. Stäblein: Schriftbild der einstimmigen Musik, Musikgeschichte in Bildern, iii/4 (Leipzig, 1975), 95ff, 172ff

E. Köhler: ‘Deliberations on a Theory of the Genre of the Old Provençal Descort’, Italian Literature: Roots and Branches: Essays in Honor of Thomas Goddard Bergin, ed. G. Rimanelli and K.J. Atchity (New Haven, 1976), 1–13

D. Fallows: ‘Guillaume de Machaut and the Lai: a New Source’, EMc, v (1977), 477–83

R. Baum: ‘Eine neue Etymologie von frz. lai und apr. lais; zugleich: ein Plädoyer für die Zusammenarbeit von Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaft’, Beiträge zum romanischen Mittelalter, ed. K. Baldinger (Tübingen, 1977), 17–66

E. Mulder: ‘Einige Bemerkungen zu Machauts “Lay de L’ymage”’, Mf, xxxii (1979), 58–62

J.H. Marshall: ‘The Isostrophic Descort in the Poetry of the Troubadours’, Romance Philology, xxxv (1981), 130–57

H. Tischler: ‘Die Lais im Roman de Fauvel’, Mf, xxxiv (1981), 161–79

J. Maillard: ‘Descourt, que me veux-tu? … ’, Cahiers de civilization médiévale, xxv (1982), 219–23

D. Billy: ‘Le descort occitan: réexamen critique du corpus’, Revue des langues romanes, lxxxvii (1983), 1–28

J. Maillard: ‘Un diptyque marial chez Guillaume de Machaut: les lais XV et XVI’, Mélanges de langue et de littérature médiévales offerts à Alice Planche, ed. M. Accarie and A. Queffélec (Nice, 1984), 328–37

J. Stevens: Words and Music in the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 1986)

C. März: Frauenlobs Marienleich: Untersuchungen zur spätmittelalterlichen Monodie (Erlangen, 1987)

R. Deschaux: ‘Le lai et la complainte’, La littérature française aux XIVe et XVe siècles, ed. D. Poirion, i: Grundriss der romanischen Literatur des Mittelalters (Heidelberg, 1988), 70–85

C. März: ‘Zum musikalischen Stil in Frauenlobs Kreuzleich’, Wolfram-Studien (1988), 125–34

M. Shields: ‘Zum melodischen Aufbau des Marienleichs’, ibid., 117–24

A.I. Buckley: A Study of Old French Lyric Lais and Descorts and Related Latin Song to c.1300 (diss., U. of Cambridge, 1990)

J.H. Marshall: ‘The Transmission of the Lyric Lais in Old French Chansonnier T’, The Editor and the Text: in Honour of Professor Anthony J. Holden, ed. P.E. Bennett and G.A. Runnalls (Edinburgh, 1990), 20–32

H. Apfelböck: Tradition und Gattungsbewusstein im deutschen Leich (Tübingen, 1991) [see also reviews by C. März: Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur, cxvi (1994), 130–37, and by M. Shields: Medium aevum, lxii (1993), 355–7]

V. Newes: ‘Turning Fortune's Wheel: Musical and Textual Design in Machaut's Canonic Lais’, MD, xlv (1991), 95–121

S.N. Rosenberg and H. Tischler: The Monophonic Songs in the Roman de Fauvel (Lincoln, NE, 1991)

J. Stevens: ‘Samson dux fortissime: an International Latin Song’, PMM, i (1992), 1–40

F. Willaert: ‘Courtly Love Songs in Ysaÿe le triste’, Crossings: a liber amicorum for Denis Conlon, ed. G. Kums (Antwerp, 1992), 152–63

A. Buckley: Introduction to Lyric Lais (Newton Abbot, 1992–4) [incl. edn]

D. Billy: Deux lais en langue mixte: le lai Markiol et le lai Nompar (Tübingen, 1995)

M. Staehelin: ‘Kleinüberlieferung mehrstimmiger Musik vor 1550 in deutschem Sprachgebiet, I: die Notre-Dame-Fragmente aus dem Besitz von Johannes Wolf’, Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, I: philologisch-historische Klasse (1999), no.6, 281–313

Lai, François.

See Lays, François.

Laibach

(Ger.).

See Ljubljana.

Lainati, Carlo Ambrogio.

Laine, Dame Cleo [Campbell, Clementina Dinah]

(b London, 28 Oct 1927). English jazz, popular and concert singer, and wife of John Dankworth. Born of West Indian and English parents, she began singing at the age of three. In 1952 she joined the John Dankworth Seven; shortly after marrying Dankworth (1958) she left his group and began a very successful stage career, though she remained active as a singer. In 1969 she and Dankworth founded the Wavendon Allmusic Plan, an educational institution devoted to all styles of music. They performed together again in 1971, and in 1972 toured Australia as well as undertaking the first of a series of tours of the USA. Dankworth also worked as her arranger, composer and musical director.

Laine has recorded and performed opera, lieder and pop music as well as jazz, and in the 1980s was the only singer to have been nominated for Grammy awards in the female popular, classical and jazz categories. As a jazz singer she is both an interpreter and an improviser, and her scat singing, accompanied by Dankworth on alto saxophone or clarinet, is particularly noteworthy. Her contralto voice is capable of great variety of colour, and has an extraordinary upward extension in falsetto to c'''', giving her a compass of four octaves. She was made a DBE in 1997.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Mitchell: ‘Profile: John Dankworth, Cleo Laine’, Down Beat, xli/13 (1974), 36

G. Collier: Cleo and John (London, 1976)

J. Joseph: ‘Music Education at Wavendon’, Music Teacher, lxi/2 (1982), 14–15

C. Laine: Cleo (London, 1994)

PAUL RINZLER (with HENRY PLEASANTS)

Laine, Frankie [Lo Vecchio, Frank Paul]

(b Chicago, 30 March 1913). American pop singer. A former big band singer, Frankie Laine became one of the most popular recording stars of the 1950s. His big baritone voice proved to be particularly suited to ersatz but muscular country music and cowboy songs provided by his recording manager Mitch Miller and by Hollywood. Miller created the neo-Western mode in 1949 with Mule Train, a dramatic recording on which the accompaniment included the sound of a bull whip. Even more impassioned was Jezebel composed by Wayne Shanklin, in which the song’s subject was accused of being ‘the devil … born without a pair of horns’. Laine made subsequent cover versions of past country and western hits including Hank Williams’s Your Cheating Heart and Bob Nolan’s Cool Water.

In 1952 Miller and Laine recorded the film theme High Noon (do not forsake me) by Ned Washington and Dmitri Tiomkin. This led to further film and television themes including Gunfight at the OK Corral, Champion the Wonder Horse, Rawhide and Blazing Saddles, the title song of Mel Brooks’s spoof Western film from 1974. On record Laine was usually accompanied by Paul Weston’s orchestra; in cabaret his pianist was Carl Fisher, with whom he co-wrote the song We’ll be together again.

DAVE LAING

Laird, Michael

(b Harpenden, Herts., 22 Aug 1942). English trumpeter. Although he studied the modern trumpet at the RCM (1962–4), a crucial influence on him was the baroque trumpeter, Walter Holy, whom he met in Cologne in 1963. Urged by David Munrow, Laird also took up the cornett in Munrow’s Early Music Consort. Further milestones include playing with the Steinitz Bach Players, in the Academy of St Martin-in-the-Fields and in the Philip Jones Brass Ensemble (negating Jones’s one-time assessment of him as a schoolboy with ‘limited professional potential’). Although an influential player and teacher of the natural trumpet, Laird has also continued to play the modern trumpet. He is co-founder, with Robert Howes, of the period-instrument group Baroque Brass of London. His many recordings include Bach’s Brandenburg Concerto no.2 (under Pinnock), Biber’s trumpet sonatas and concertos by Vivaldi and Telemann.

GEORGE PRATT

Laïs, François.

See Lays, François.

Lais, Johan Dominico

(fl 2nd half of the 16th century). Arranger and ?composer. He was the joint-compiler with Sixt Kargel of Nova eaque artificiosa et valde commoda ratio ludendae cytharae (RISM 1575¹⁸), a tablature volume of 63 dances for six-course solo cittern tuned b–G–d–g–d'–e'. Some of the pieces use vocal models from French, Italian and German sources, including works by Lassus, Arcadelt, Berchem, Crecquillon, Didier Lupi Second, Rore and Senfl. The tablature system is Italian and the volume also contains rules in Latin and German for tuning. The 1575 edition was followed by another from the same printer (RISM 1578²⁶; 1 ed. in Wolf); a collection referred to by Draud as Carmina italica, gallica et germanica ludenda cythara (Strasbourg, 1569) may have been an earlier edition of the same work.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BrownI

WolfH

G. Draud: Bibliotheca exotica, sive Catalogus officinalis librorum peregrinus linguis usualibus scriptorum (Frankfurt, rev. 2/1625), 1622

K.J. Levy: ‘“Susanne un jour”: the History of a 16th Century Chanson’, AnnM, i (1953), 375–408

IAIN FENLON

Laisse.

A form of stanza used primarily in French epic poetry of the Middle Ages (see Chanson de geste and Chante-fable). A laisse consists of a varying number of lines each having the same number of syllables and linked together by assonance. In many poems the laisse ends with a line of different length, sometimes in the form of a refrain or an apparently meaningless series of vowels or short syllables. In a few instances such last lines are provided with notes, with no clear indication of metre or of relation to other lines in the laisse.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Gennrich: Grundriss einer Formenlehre des mittelalterlichen Liedes (Halle, 1932/R), 40ff

R. Louis: ‘Le refrain dans les plus anciennes chansons de geste et le sigle AOI dans le Roland d’Oxford’, Mélanges de linguistique et de littérature romanes à la mémoire d’István Frank (Saarbrücken, 1957/R), 330–60

HENDRIK VAN DER WERF

Laisser vibrer

(Fr.: ‘let vibrate’).

A performing direction instructing that the sound should not be damped. It is found in music for the harp, certain percussion instruments (notably cymbals), the piano (indicating that the sustaining pedal should remain depressed) and occasionally string instruments.

Laitinen, Heikki

(b Ylivieska, 8 Nov 1943). Finnish composer, performer, teacher and musicologist. A student of Erik Bergman, his early compositions showed modernist inclination until a shift came in the 1970s when he began to study, teach and perform folk music. Between 1974 and 1983 he was director of the influential Folk Music Institute at Kaustinen. In 1981 he was involved in setting up an alternative music teaching project, becoming in 1983 the first head of the folk music department of the Sibelius Academy. Laitinen frequently participates in performances of his own works, from archaic rune singing of the Kalevela, the Finnish national epic, to experimental combinations involving vocal expression and sound processing equipment. He has combined improvised music with the improvised dance of Reijo Kela, and has worked with the musician Kimmo Pohjonen. In 1990 he began an association with the Suomussalmi group, 15 musicians and dancers working on the same improvising principle who have produced Nyt riitti (Now, the Rite/That's Enough, 1995–9). In 1996 he founded his own record label, HecRec, and in 1999 Ääniteatteri (‘the Voice Theatre’). Appointed Artist Professor (1995–2000), Laitinen is considered one of the most versatile and innovative figures in Finnish music. His leadership of the seminal folk music course at the Sibelius Academy with its stress on orality, improvisation, composition, ensemble and solo performance, and arrangement, rooted in a thorough knowledge of traditional folk music and instrumentation, with the objective to break through perceived limits in the creation of a ‘folk music of the future’, has produced a distinguished generation of innovative musicians including Maria Kalaniemi, Anna-Kaisa Liedes, members of Värttinä and Järvelän Pikkupelimannit.

WORKS

(selective list)

Incid: Pohjalaisia [The Ostrobothians], 1995; Equus, 1996; Pidot [The Feast], 1996; Idiioootti [The Idiot], 1997; Via Crucis, 1998

Other works: Hiien hirvi [The Elk of Hiisi], 1987; Sampo, 1987; In vivo, 1991; Dona nobis, 1994; Improvisations for Man's Body and Voice, 1995; Elokuun yö [August Night], 1996; Mythical Improvisations, 1997; Sanctus Henricus, 1997; Ei lopu loiut [The Spells Never Cease], 1998; Laments, 1998; Iki-Turso, 1999

WRITINGS

‘Karjalainen kanteleensoittotyyli’ [The Karelian style of kantele playing], Kansanmusiikki, ii (1980), 43–54

‘Rune Singing: the Musical Vernacular’, Finnish Music Quarterly, i/2 (1985) 36–42

‘Rock taiteena, taidemusiikki elämänmuotona’ [Rock as art, art music as a life style], Tiede ja edistys, i (1990), 13–24

‘Elias Lönnrot a musiikki’ [Elias Lönnrot and music], Kalevalaseuran vuosikirja, lxx (1991), 76–136

‘Oma perinne vieraana kulttuurina’ [One's own tradition as an unknown culture], Kansanmusiikin tutkimus, ed. P. Moisala (Helsinki, 1991), 59–85

‘Impron teoriaa’ [Theory of improvisation], Musiikin suunta, xv/3 (1993), 31–40

‘The History and Ideology of the Folk Music Revival in Finland’, ibid., 32–7

‘The Ideology of Folk Music Education in Music Academies’, ibid., 147–151

‘Song in Oral Culture’, Explorations in Finnish and Hungarian Folk Music and Dance Research, i (1994), 83–96

‘The Many Faces of the Yoik’, Finnish Music Quarterly, x/4 (1994), 2–15

‘Kuinka opin runolaulajaksi’ [How can I become a real Kalevala singer?], Uusi Kansanmusiikki (1995); no.3, no.5, no.6; (1996), no.5

JAN FAIRLEY

Lajarte, Théodore (Edouard Dufaure de)

(b Bordeaux, 10 July 1826; d Paris, 20 June 1890). French musicologist and composer. A pupil of Leborne at the Paris Conservatoire, he concentrated on composition during the first part of his life. His works include at least ten opéras comiques (among which Le secret de l'oncle Vincent of 1855 had notable success), two ballets, choral works and music for military band. He wrote in a simple and correct manner, but showed little originality; he sometimes imitated 18th-century music or the 19th-century Viennese style. He is better known for his new editions of early music: Airs à danser de Lully à Méhul (Paris, 1876), Chefs-d'oeuvre classiques de l'opéra français (Paris, 1880), and vocal scores of 11 operas by Lully, two by Rameau and one by Campra (in the Michaelis collection, 1880–82). From 1873 he worked as a librarian in the archives of the Opéra, under the direction of Charles Nuitter, and there undertook his principal achievement, the Bibliothèque musicale du théatre de l'Opéra. This valuable work, with an excellent preface, gives a list of works performed at the Opéra from its origins in 1669 until 1876, providing historical and bibliographical information for each work. Lajarte wrote several other books and contributed to many periodicals. He also organized concerts of early music, particularly in south-west France.

WRITINGS

Instruments-Sax et fanfares civiles (Paris, 1867)

Bibliothèque musicale du Théâtre de l’Opéra: catalogue historique, chronologique, anecdotique (Paris, 1878/R)

with A. Bisson: Grammaire de la musique (Paris, 1880, 3/1913)

with A. Bisson: Petit traité de composition musicale (Paris, 1881)

with A. Bisson: Petite encyclopédie musicale (Paris, 1881–4)

Curiosités de l'Opéra (Paris, 1883)

Numerous articles in Le ménestrel, France musicale, Moniteur des arts, Globe and Petit journal

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

MGG1 (A. Ménetrat) [with list of works]

Obituary, Le ménestrel (22 June 1890)

N. Wild: ‘Le théâtre lyric français du XIXe siècle dans les collections de la Bibliothèque de l'opéra’, Le théâtre lyrique en France au XIXe siècle, ed. P. Prévost (Metz, 1995), 279–95

ELISABETH LEBEAU

Lajeunesse, Emma.

See Albani, emma.

Lajovic, Anton

(b Vače, Slovenia, 19 Dec 1878; d Ljubljana, 28 Aug 1960). Slovene composer. After studies at the Ljubljana Glasbena Matica music school, he was a composition pupil of Fuchs at the Vienna Conservatory (1897–1902), concurrently completing his training in law at the university. While practising law in Slovenia and Croatia he composed and published articles on music. Influenced by late Romanticism and, particularly after World War I, Impressionism, he became a champion of new developments in Slovenian music. His greatest contribution was in his songs and choruses. He was a member of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Adagio, 1900; Andante, 1901; Capriccio, 1901; Caprice, 1922; Pesem jeseni [Autumn Song], sym. poem, 1938

Vocal: Gozdna samota [Forest Solitude] (Cant.), 1902; Pss xli and xlii, T, chorus, orch, 1922; Dvanajst pesmi, za moški, mešani in ženski zbor [12 Songs for Male, Mixed and Female Choruses] (1920); Album samospevov [Song Album] (1956); Zbori [Choruses], 1963; other songs, choruses

Pf: Sanjarija [Rêverie], 1900

Principal publisher: Edicije DSS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L.M. Škerjanc: Anton Lajovic (Ljubljana, 1958)

D. Cvetko: Glasbeni svet Antona Lajovca [The Musical World of Lajovic] (Ljubljana, 1985)

D. Cvetko: Anton Lajovic (Ljubljana, 1987)

ANDREJ RIJAVEC/IVAN KLEMENČIČ

Lajtha, László

(b Budapest, 30 June 1892; d Budapest, 16 Feb 1963). Hungarian composer, ethnomusicologist and teacher.

JOHN S. WEISSMANN/MELINDA BERLÁSZ

1. Life.

He studied composition at the National Hungarian Royal Academy of Music (1909–13) under Victor Herzfeld and the piano with Arnold Székely and Árpád Szendy. Concurrently he read law at the university, where he obtained a degree in 1918. In 1910 he became associated with the folk music movement of Bartók and Kodály and joined their collecting expeditions, which he continued independently. On his early travels he visited Leipzig (1910), Geneva (1910–11) and Paris (1911–13), where his becoming acquainted with some of the leading musicians contributed to the widening of his experience and outlook. In 1913 he joined the staff of the ethnographical department of the Hungarian National Museum. After the war, in 1919, he was appointed professor of composition and chamber music at the National Conservatory in Budapest, of which he became honorary director after World War II.

In 1926 Lajtha became choirmaster of the Goudimel Choir of the Calvinist church in Budapest. At another Calvinist church in Budapest, on Szabadság tér, he would later organize a chamber orchestra and conduct its performances from 1940 to 1947. In 1929 he won the Coolidge Prize for his Third String Quartet, and in the following year joined the publishing house Leduc, becoming the only Hungarian composer represented by French publishers. From 1932 he worked for the Institute of Intellectual Cooperation, a League of Nations organization, and played an important role in the music section of the Commission Internationale des Arts Populaires (CIAP) until 1939. After the end of hostilities he served as director of the music department in the Hungarian Broadcasting Service (1945–6).

In the years between the wars Lajtha travelled widely in Europe, appearing frequently in Paris, the place of his most important successes (particularly at the Triton concerts). In 1947, when the CIAP held its first postwar meeting in Paris, he took part in the deliberations which resulted in the setting up of the International Folk Music Council. In the same year he visited London, where he finished his important Third Symphony and Variations for orchestra. In 1951 he was awarded the Kossuth Prize in recognition of his work on Hungarian folk music and became the teacher of folk music transcription at the Budapest Academy of Music. In 1955 he was elected a corresponding member of the Institut de France. During the 1950s he worked and lived in Budapest in isolation he did not travel abroad again until 1962. He continued to collect folk music from parts of western Hungary until his death in 1963.

2. Works.

In many respects Lajtha occupied a unique position among Hungarian composers. Like Bartók and Kodály he was not only acknowledged as a composer of distinction, but also recognized as an authority on folk music; further, again like Bartók and Kodály, his activities were not confined to creative and scientific work, but also included teaching. His main distinguishing characteristic, however, was his attachment to French, and generally to Latin, culture in sensibility and taste. In this he was one of the few nonconformists of Hungarian music history, most of whose development was affected by German influences. Superior workmanship is the most prominent and consistent feature of his music; and the principle that ‘in all works of art the quality of craftsmanship is a decisive factor of evaluation’ always guided his artistic consideration.

Regarding the Hungarian accent, the influence of Magyar folk music is less obvious in his works than in those of Bartók and Kodály, chiefly because Lajtha was attracted by another aspect of the traditional materials: it was their melodic shape and form, viewed primarily as an objective musical element regardless of their peculiarly national characteristics, that inspired him. This conception admitted a considerable stylistic freedom of treatment: thus the Magyar flavour succeeded in permeating equally his Italianized passages (e.g. the slow movement of the Sonatina for violin and piano and the ‘Aria’ from the Cello Sonata), his sectional forms (couplets, rondeaux etc.) modelled on classical French prototypes, dance movements and contrapuntal textures (fugues). It also permitted him to resort to popular tunes, some of which are not strictly folktunes, often assuming the understanding of an allusive quotation, and to subject them to ‘Western’ treatment, i.e. elaborate harmonization and contrapuntal development (especially in the Serenade for string trio and the Sinfonietta for string orchestra). Here there is an unexpected affinity with 19th-century Romantic Hungarian composers, who also availed themselves of popular tunes and treated them in Western (mainly German) fashion, and whose style and endeavours were vehemently rejected by the generation immediately following, to which Lajtha himself belonged.

These stylistic mainstays kept in view, a survey of Lajtha’s music reveals an almost unbroken continuity of development, in the early phases of which the harmonic aspects are stressed, giving place, during subsequent stages, to predominantly contrapuntal treatment and arriving at an equilibrium of craftsmanship and invention of exceptional clarity and directness. Seen from another standpoint, Lajtha’s development may be characterized as a gradual assertion of melody.

The harmonic style of Lajtha’s early works shows a complex idiom derived from the experimental tendencies of the first decade of the 20th century: superimposed 4ths, appoggiaturas and suspensions and other dissonant aggregates furnish the basis of chordal structure whose progression is predominantly chromatic. These are evident in his early piano works, where the specific influences of Bartók and Debussy are also discernible; in addition the part-writing of his Piano Sonata, apart from its considerable harmonic complexities, is conceived in the grand virtuoso manner of Liszt. In his subsequent works, where the contrapuntal aspect gradually gained prominence, his harmony, though not relinquishing the advanced vocabulary, is subordinated to the horizontal elements. Discords are more purposefully used, and their tension values consequently become increased. Emergence of counterpoint also led to a preoccupation with chamber combinations during a period which may be said to have started, approximately, with the years following World War I and lasted up to about the mid-1930s. The most typical works, with the points previously mentioned well in evidence, are the Third and Fourth Quartets, the Second String Trio and the Fifth Quartet, which indicates a transition to his subsequent creative period. This was characterized, as far as harmony is concerned, by a return to a chordal structure of diatonic purity, in which Lajtha rediscovered the far from exhausted potentialities of the common chord. The new harmonic conception is evident in the extended D major passages of the Capriccio and the sustained E of his Third Symphony. Nevertheless, Lajtha’s was fundamentally a contrapuntal temperament. Even in his early works contrapuntal passages appear frequently, and their neatness and competence of treatment, although embryonic, provide a curious contrast to his harmonic extravagance.

In Lajtha’s second period horizontal elements dominate, manifesting themselves above all in the frequency of complete fugues expanding into independent movements, prolonged fugal and imitative passages, and of canonic treatment. The contrapuntal aspect is also evident in his particular treatment of figuration; though obviously instrumental in character, his invention shows a conspicuous melodic shapeliness. The primacy of horizontal values in these works also appears in the contrapuntally conditioned harmony derived from the interplay of the various polyphonic strains. In the earlier works of this period the resulting harmony is often bitonal or polytonal (e.g. the chamber music with piano, in which this treatment is particularly advantageous owing to the differentiation of colour). In later works his return to a simplified harmonic basis resulted in a more euphonious texture, as in the chamber music with harp, the Capriccio and the Third String Trio. The vitality of his counterpoint gains a great deal from the energy of his rhythmic drive: derived from folk music impulses, Lajtha’s symphonic music absorbed this element into a ‘civilized’ musical speech much more readily than did Bartók’s or Kodály’s.

In Lajtha’s next period the assertion of melodic values was his main concern. Seeking to display them in a suitable formal disposition prompted him to investigate the designs of Italian and French 17th- and 18th-century composers; the titles of many of his movements – ‘Aria’, ‘Strophes et ritournelles’ etc. – indicate this attitude. The conspicuous simplification of musical grammar, concurrently with and in consequence of a superior technical accomplishment, produces in these works an equilibrium between transparency of expression and range of emotional sensibility, between technique and inspiration: a classical art in the truest sense of the word (see the symphonies, especially the Third, the Sinfonietta for strings and the Third String Trio).

Lajtha’s folk music investigation included the collecting of melodies from those districts which were left largely untouched by Bartók and Kodály. These explorations yielded many variants of the previously collected material which, together with not a few hitherto unknown tunes, supplemented the work of the two pioneers. Lajtha took a considerable share in the work conducted in the Ethnographical Museum of transcribing melodies from recordings: he was engaged in this almost continuously from the time he joined the society. As a delegate of the Hungarian Ethnographical Society he took an active part in the gramophone recording scheme undertaken jointly by the society and the Hungarian Broadcasting Station in 1937. Among his numerous collecting expeditions those in the 1930s (Great Hungarian Plain and adjoining districts) and during the years 1940 to 1944 (Transylvania) were the most important. Material from the latter was prepared for publication in 1950 in the series Népzenei monográfiák, in which appeared his most important ethnomusicological publications (1954–62). In the last years of his life he gave several ethnomusicological lectures in Paris, London and Oslo.

Lajtha’s interest in folk music led him to investigate other, related manifestations of folk art: he was a leading authority on folkdance. He also served the cause of folk music by taking part in many conferences and joining the international organizations such as the CIAP and International Folk Music Council.

As a teacher Lajtha exercised an influence necessarily less than that of the professors at the academy; yet in encouraging his pupils to study the Latin musical culture he did a great service to the indigenous development of a healthy musical life. As a professor at the Budapest Academy of Music, he was the first to introduce folk music transcription into the ordinary curriculum. In his composition class at the conservatory he insisted on the investigation of modern, especially French music. In general he did not attach great importance to an academic, prescribed course of study, but relied on the intellectual curiosity of his students, which he stimulated with his sharp-witted conversation and by allowing free discussion of controversial points.

WORKS

dramatic

op.

19	Lysistrata (ballet, 1, Lajtha and L. Áprily, after Aristophanes), 1933, Budapest Opera, Feb 1937
21	Hortobágy (film score), 1935
38	Le bosquet des quatre dieux (dance-comedy, 1, J. Révay), 1943, unperf.
39	Capriccio (ballet, 1, Lajtha), 1944, unperf.
44	Murder in the Cathedral (film score, T.S. Eliot), 1948, unpubd
48	Shapes and Forms (film score), 1949, unpubd
51	Le chapeau bleu (opéra bouffe, 2, S. de Madariaga), 1950, Cluj-Napoca, Hungarian Opera, Feb 1998 [orch completed by F. Farkas]
—	Kövek, várak, emberek [Stones, Castles, Men] (film score, I. Szőcs), 1956

orchestral

15	Violin Concerto, 1931, unpubd, lost
19a	Overture and Suite, from Lysistrata, 1933
21a	Suite, from Hortobágy, 1935
24	Symphony no.1, 1936
25	Divertissement, 1936
27	Symphony no.2, 1938
30	Divertissement no.2, 1939, unpubd, lost
33	Les soli, sym., str, hp, perc, 1941
35	In memoriam, sym. poem, 1941
37	Evasion, fuite, liberté, sym. poem, 1942, lost
38a	Suite du ballet no.2, from Le bosquet des quatre dieux, 1943
39a	Suite, from Capriccio, 1944
43	Sinfonietta, str, 1946
44	Variations, 1947, unpubd
45	Symphony no.3, 1947
48	Shapes and Forms, small orch, 1949, unpubd, lost
52	Symphony no.4 ‘Le printemps’, 1951
55	Symphony no.5, 1952
56	Suite no.3, 1952
61	Symphony no.6, 1955
62	Sinfonietta no.2, str, 1956
63	Symphony no.7, 1957
66	Symphony no.8, 1959
67	Symphony no.9, 1961

choral

16	Deux choeurs (L. Áprily), unacc., 1932: A hegylakók [The Mountaineers], Esti párabeszéd [Nocturnal Dialogue]
23	Deux choeurs (C. d’Orléans), unacc., 1936: Chanson, Rondel
29	Trois madrigaux (d’Orléans), unacc., 1939
32	Par où est passé le chant (Áprily), unacc., 1940
50	Missa in tono phrygio, chorus, orch, 1950
54	Mass, chorus, org, 1952
60	Magnificat, female vv, org, 1954
65	Trois hymnes pour la Ste Vierge, female vv, org, 1958

solo vocal

8	Motet, 1v, pf/org, 1926
—	Vocalise étude, 1v, pf, 1930
34	Trois nocturnes, S, fl, hp, str qt, 1941, unpubd
—	Ballade et chant des recruteurs, Bar, pf/orch, 1951

chamber and instrumental

3	String Sextet, 1921, unpubd, lost
4	Piano Quintet, 1922, unpubd
5	String Quartet no.1, 1922, unpubd
6	Piano Quartet, 1925, unpubd
7	String Quartet no.2, 1926, unpubd
9	String Trio no.1 (Sérénade), 1927, unpubd
10	Piano Trio, 1928, unpubd
11	String Quartet no.3, 1929
12	String Quartet no.4, 1930
13	Sonatina, vn, pf, 1930
17	Sonata, vc, pf, 1932
18	String Trio no.2, 1932
20	String Quartet no.5 (Cinq études), 1934
22	Trio no.1, fl, hp, vc, 1935
26	Marionettes, fl, hp, str trio, 1937
28	Sonata, vn, pf, 1939, unpubd, lost
31	Concerto, vc, pf, 1940
36	String Quartet no.6 (Quatre études), 1942, unpubd
40	Serenade, wind trio, 1944, lost
41	String Trio no.3 ‘Soirs transylvains’, 1945
42	Quatre hommages, fl, ob, cl, bn, 1946
46	Quintet, fl, hp, vn, va, vc, 1948
47	Trio no.2, hp, fl, vc, 1949
49	String Quartet no.7, 1950
53	String Quartet no.8, 1951
57	String Quartet no.9, 1953
58	String Quartet no.10 ‘Soirs transylvains’, 1953
59	Intermezzo, sax, pf, 1954
64	Sonate en concert, fl, pf, 1958
68	Sonate en concert, vn, pf, 1962
69	Deux pièces, fl, 1958

piano

1	Des écrits d’un musicien, 1913
2	Contes I, 1914
—	Contes II, 1914–17, unpubd, lost
—	Sonata, 1916
—	Prélude, 1918
—	Hat zongoradarab [6 Piano Pieces], unpubd
14	Scherzo et toccata, 1930, unpubd
—	Trois berceuses, 1955–7
Numerous folksong arrs.
Principal publishers: Leduc, Editio, Musica Budapest, Salabert, Universal

folk music collections

with I. Molnár: Játékország [Children's games] (Budapest, 1929/R)

Szépkenyerűszentmártoni gyűjtés[Collection from Szépkenyerűszentmárton], Népzenei monográfiák, i (Budapest, 1954, 2/1980)

Széki gyűjtés [Collection from Szék], Népzenei monográfiák, ii (Budapest, 1954)

Körispataki gyűjtés [Collection from Körispatak], Népzenei monográfiák, iii (Budapest, 1955)

Sopronmegyei virrasztó énekek [Vigil songs of Sopron county], Népzenei monográfiák, iv (Budapest, 1956)

Dunántúli táncok és dallamok [Transdanubian dances and melodies], Népzenei monográfiák, v (Budapest, 1962)

Instrumental Music from Western Hungary: from the Repertoire of an Urban Gipsy Band, ed. B. Sárosi (Budapest, 1988)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

O. Gombosi: ‘Ladislas Lajtha’, Melos, viii (1929), 231–5

B. Avasi: ‘Népzenei monográfiák I., II.’ [Folk music monographs I, II], Új zenei szemle, vi/4 (1955), 38–41

Laszlo Lajtha: quelques oeuvres (Paris, 1961) [Leduc catalogue]

M. Karpeles: ‘László Lajtha 1892–1963’, Journal of the IFMC, xv (1963), 3 only

I. Volly: ‘Lajtha László zenetudományos munkássága’ [Lajtha's musicological works], Magyar zene, viii (1967), 65–70; Fr. trans., as ‘L'oeuvre de László Lajtha, I’, Etudes finno-ougriennes, v (1968), 14–24

J.S. Weissman: ‘L'oeuvre de László Lajtha, II’, Etudes finno-ougriennes, v (1968), 25–48

H. Barraud and others: ‘Hommage à László Lajtha’, Etudes finno-ougriennes, v (1968) [Lajtha issue]

J.S. Weissmann: ‘Lászlo Lajtha: the Symphonies’, MR, xxxvi (1975), 197–214

J. Ujfalussy: ‘Megjegyzések Lajtha László utolsó és 20. századi zenetörténetünk korábbi éveihez’ [Notes on Lajtha's last years and the earlier years of our 20th-century music history], Magyar zene, xvii (1976), 196–200

I. Halmos: ‘Lajtha Körispataki gyűjtésének hangkészlete és tonalitása’ [The tone system and tonality in Lajtha's collection from Körispatak], Magyar zene, xix (1978), 385–400

M. Berlász: ‘Contributions hongroises à l'organisation internationale des investigations de la musique folklorique (Ecrits de László Lajtha, 1934, 1939)’, SMH, xxii (1980), 427–58

M. Berlász: ‘Da capo al fine: ismétlődő segélykiáltások népzenekutatásunk létéért’ [Repetetive cries for help for the subsistence of our research into folk music], Magyar zene, xxiii (1982), 10–17

M. Berlász: ‘Lajtha László: Széki gyűjtés’ [Lajtha's Szék collection], Széki gyűjtés, Hungaroton LPX 18092 (1985) [disc notes]

J. Breuer: ‘Lajtha-művek Budapesten’ [Lajtha's Budapest works], Muzsika, xxix/11 (1986), 33–8

M. Berlász: ‘Műfajszerű gondolkodás Lajtha László zeneszerzőii életművében’ [The function of genre in the works of Lajtha], Magyar zene, xxxi (1990), 99–107; xxxi (1990), 193–201

M. Berlász: ‘László Lajtha and T.S. Eliot’, New Hungarian Quarterly, no.127 (1992), 163–170

M. Berlász, ed.: Lajtha László összegyûjtött írásai, i [collected writings of L. Lajtha] (Budapest, 1992)

J. Breuer: Fejezetek Lajtha Lászlóról (Budapest, 1992)

L. Fábián: ‘Lajtha Laszló’, Magyar zene, xxxiii (1992), 370–75

L. Tari: ‘Lajtha László hangszeres népzenegyűjtései 1911–1963’ [Lajtha's instrumental folk music collection 1911–1963], Magyar zene, xxxiii (1992), 141–90

I. Retkesné Szilvássy, ed.: Lajtha Tanár Ur 1892–1992 [Professor Lajtha, 1892–1992] (Budapest, 1992)

B. Avasi: ‘Lajtha lejegyzési módszere’ [Lajtha's transcription method], Magyar zene, xxxiv (1993), 48–53

E. Pesovár: ‘Lajtha és a néptánckutatás’ [Lajtha and folkdance research], Magyar zene, xxxiv (1993), 54–6

M. Berlász: ‘Deodatus. A Lajtha-Leduc levelezés kényszerpályája 1952–1962’ [The political situation in the correspondance between Lajtha and Leduc], Zenetudományi dolgozatok (1995–6), 229–33

Lakatos, István [Ştefan]

(b Zorlenţul-Mare, Caraş-Severin region, 26 Feb 1895; d Cluj-Napoca, 22 Sept 1989). Romanian musicologist of Hungarian descent. He studied music in Cluj and Budapest, taking the doctorate at Cluj in 1946 with a dissertation on the Romanian folksong and its literature. He taught the violin at the conservatory in Cluj (1919–23), and founded the Lakatos Quartet (1920–40); he also taught music history at the Gheorghe Dima Conservatory, Cluj (1949–63). Concurrently he became known as a musicologist and music critic; in particular he wrote on the music history of Transylvania and its documentary sources, and on Romanian-Magyar relations. He delivered numerous papers on the interrelation of Romanian musical culture and that of neighbouring peoples. His publications are largely of documentary material, particularly of letters by Prokofiev, Bartók, Berg, Richard Strauss and others.

WRITINGS

‘Magyaros elemek Brahms zenéjében’ [The Hungarian element in Brahms's music], Erdélyi tudományos füzetek, no.73 (1935), 32–40

‘A román zene fejlödéstörténete’ [The history of Romanian music], Erdélyi tudományos füzetek, no.98 (1938)

‘A román népdal és irodalma’ [Romanian folksong and its literature], Apolló könyvtár, no.10 (1939)

ed.: Egy erdélyi muzsikus vallomśai: Ruzitska György emlékezései 1856 évböl [Ruzitska's memoirs from 1856] (Cluj, 1940–44) [See also A Zene, xxi (1939–40), 233–4]

Bibliografia az 1919–1940 között erdélyi szerzötöl önállóan megjelent magyar zenei vonatkozású munkákról [Bibliography of music 1919–40, published in Transylvania in Hungarian] (Kecskemét, 1943)

‘Kodály művészetének útja Erdélyben’ [Kodály's music in Siebenbürgen], Emlékkönyv Kodály Zoltan hatvanadik születésnapjára, ed. B. Gunda (Budapest, 1943), 143–53

Cîntecul popular românesc şi literatura sa [Romanian folksong and its literature] (diss., U. of Cluj, 1946)

with V. Cosma: ‘Erkel Ferenc élete és munkássága, mint összekötő kapocs a magyar és román zenekultura között’ [Erkel's life and work in the relations between Hungarian and Romanian music cultures], ZT, ii (1954), 17–24

‘Kolozsvári Liszt emlékek’ [Memories of Liszt in Kolozsvár], ZT, iii (1955), 101–8

with G. Merişescu: Legături muzicale româno-maghiare de-a lungul veacurior (Cluj, 1957)

‘Alte tschechische Musikalien in der Bibliothek der Musikhochschule von Klausenburg’, SMH, vi (1964), 143–52

‘Enescu budapesti hangversenyei’ [Enescu's concerts in Budapest], Magyar zene, vi (1965), 404–11

‘Instrumente muzicale vechi ale Muzeului de Istorie Cluj’ [Old musical instruments in the historical museum in Cluj], Acta musei napocensis, iii (1966), 257–70; Ger. trans. in SMH, xv (1973), 336–53

‘F. Erkels Opern in Klausenburg (Kolozsvár, Cluj) und Bukarest’, SMH, xi (1969), 259–70

‘Jiří Růžička: moravský hudebník v Rumunsku’ [Georg Ruzítska: Moravian composer in Romania], OM, iii (1971), 114–15

Zenetörténeti irások [Studies in music history] (Bucharest, 1971) [incl. list of writings], 302ff

‘Kodály művészetének romániai útja’ [Kodály’s music in Romania], Magyar zene, xiii (1972), 373–83; xiv (1973), 24–32

with G. Merişescu: ‘Činnost českých a slovenských hudebníků y Transylvánii ve 20. století’ [The activity of Czech and Slovak musicians in Transyvania in the 20th century], HV, x (1973), 126–34

A kolozsvári zenés szinpad (1792–1973) [Music theatre in Cluj/Kolozsvár] (Bucharest, 1977)

‘K Sibinským rokom J.L. Bellu’ [On the stay of J.L. Bella in Sibiu], Musicologica slovaca, viii (1982), 221–7

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (G. Breazul)

V. Cosma: Muzicieni români Lexicon (Bucharest, 1970), 272–3

F. László: Obituary, Muzica, i/1 (1990), 148–50

VIOREL COSMA

Lake, Mayhew Lester [Brockton, Lester]

(b Southville, MA, 25 Oct 1879; d Palisade, NJ, 16 March 1955). American composer, conductor, editor and arranger. He studied at the New England Conservatory and was playing the violin with professional symphony orchestras in Boston by the age of 16. From 1896 to 1910 he conducted various theatre orchestras, including the orchestra of the Teatro Payret, Havana, then one of the largest theatres in the western hemisphere. He later moved to New York, where he wrote arrangements for Victor Herbert, John Philip Sousa, Edwin Franko Goldman, Percy Grainger, Henry Hadley and George M. Cohan. In 1913 he became editor-in-chief of band and orchestral music at Carl Fischer, a position he held for 35 years. His textbook, The American Band Arranger, was published by Fischer in 1920. He taught at the Ernest Williams School, Columbia University and New York University. He also conducted his band, Symphony in Gold, for NBC radio. More than 3000 of his arrangements and compositions were published, some under the pseudonym Lester Brockton. The Heritage of the March series of recordings includes a sample of his work. Lake’s autobiography is entitled Great Guys: Laughs and Gripes of Fifty Years of Show-Music Business (Grosse Pointe Woods, MI, 1983).

WORKS

(selective list)

all for band; many arranged for orchestra

The Joker (1912); American Trumpeter (1914); Le siffleur coquet (1914); The Booster (1915); Lakesonian (1915); Crimson (1916); Evolution of Dixie (1916); Good Old Pals (1916); Hail, Hail the Gang’s All Here (1916); Slidus Trombonus (1916); Gen. Pershing’s Carry-On (1917); In a Bird Store (1917); Old Timer’s Waltz (1917); Evolution of Yankee Doodle (1919); Londonderry Air (1923); American Spirit (1924); Forward March (1929)

Parade of the Gendarmes (1929); The Pilgrim (1929); Parade of Jack and Jill (1930); Ernest Williams Band School March (1932); Caprice (1934); Democracy (1934); Hungarian Fantasy (1934); Valse caprice (1934); Yankee Rhythm (1934); Nutty Noodles (1935); Opera in the Barnyard (1935); Pleasant Recollections (1935); The Roosters Lay Eggs in Kansas (1936); Yea, Drummer (1936); Assembly Selection (1937); Coming Home (1937)

Robin Hood Fantasy (1939); Naida, cornet, band (1940); Golden Century Ov. (1941); Little Red Riding Hood (1944); In the Land of Shangri-La (1946); Kreutzer in Waukegan (1950); All Out for America (1951); Sweetheart, 3 tpt, 3 trbn, band (1982); many arrs., incl. works by Bizet, Grieg, Herbert, Massenet, Meyerbeer, Tchaikovsky, Wagner

Principal publisher: C. Fischer

RAOUL F. CAMUS (text, bibliography), LEONARD B. SMITH (work-list)

Lakes, Gary

(b Dallas, TX, 26 Sept 1950). American tenor. He studied at Seattle, where he made his début in 1981 as Froh. After winning the Melchior Auditions at the Juilliard School, New York, he sang Florestan in Mexico City (1983), Achilles (Iphigénie en Aulide) at Waterloo, New Jersey (1984), and Saint-Saëns's Samson in Charlotte, North Carolina (1985). He made his Metropolitan début in 1986 as the High Priest (Idomeneo) and has subsequently sung many roles there, notably Walther von der Vogelweide, Bacchus (which he recorded with Levine), Siegmund, Florestan, Parsifal and Aeneas (Les Troyens). He had also appeared in San Francisco, Buenos Aires and many of the leading European opera houses, and made an acclaimed début at the Châtelet, Paris, as Samson in 1991. Lakes's other recordings include Heurtal in Magnard's Guercoeur, Aeneas and the title role in Weber's Oberon. He has an imposing stage presence and a powerful, brilliant-toned voice, heard to particular advantage in the French heroic tenor repertory.

ELIZABETH FORBES

Lakita [laquita].

Panpipes of the Bolivian altiplano. They are usually played in pairs at certain religious and community feasts.

Lakner, Yehoshua

(b Bratislava, 24 April 1924). Israeli-Swiss composer of Slovak origin. After emigrating to Palestine in 1941, Lakner, who was Jewish, settled in Tel-Aviv, where he studied the piano with Frank Pelleg and composition with Alexander Uriyah Boskovich and Oedoen Partos. In 1952, under the auspices of the International Arts Program of the Institute of International Education, he travelled to the USA, where he studied with Copland at Tanglewood. He pursued further study with Karlheinz Stockhausen, Gottfried Michael Koening and Mauricio Kagel at the WDR Studio for Electronic Music, Cologne, and with Bernd Alois Zimmermann at the Cologne Musikhochschule. From 1948 to 1963 he taught at the Rubin Academy of Music, Tel-Aviv. He moved to Switzerland in 1963 to teach and compose. Concentrating on incidental music, he wrote scores for all of Maria von Ostfelden’s productions (1965–71) and for the première of Brecht’s Turandot at the Zürich Schauspielhaus (1969). Later, he taught music theory at the Zürich Conservatory (1974–87). His many awards include the Engel Prize (Tel-Aviv, 1958), the Salomon David Steinberg Foundation music prize (Zürich and Jerusalem, 1970) and the city of Zürich’s year-long composition award (1986–7).

Lakner’s early instrumental music shows a keen sense of rhythm, indicative of his interest in jazz and the traditional music of Asia Minor, and employs pitch organizations best described as somewhere between modal and serial. In the 1960s and 70s he turned to musique concrète and electronic music, composing a number of electro-acoustic incidental works. In 1985 he began to use the computer as his main instrument, creating what he has termed Audio-Visual Time Structures (AVTS). These musical and visual configurations (‘Zeit-Gestalten’) are methodically developed in poetic forms that can be manipulated in real time during performance.

WORKS

(selective list)

dramatic

Dmujoth (ballet), vc, pf, perc, tape, 1962; Incid music, 1965–72; film and TV scores

electro-acoustic

Tape: Mohammeds Traum, SATB, tape, 1968; Kaninchen (E. Pedretti), spkr, perc, tape, 1973; Umläufe, fl, b cl, pf, 2 tapes, 1976; Theater an der Winkelwieses, tape, 1981

Cptr: Musikado, 1987–90; GAZALUT, 1988–9; Ostinato-Westinato, 1988; Scherzodrama, 1988; 12-Ton-Computüde, 1988; Tönt so die Rache des Achilles, 1988–9; Ornament frisst sich selbst (Kannibalische Mäander), 1989; Wer hilft mir beim Atmen, 1989; Black-Green Agitato, 1990–91; Optifischmus, 1990; Zorn der Bienen, 1990; Schauen, schimpfen, räsonieren – poltern oder meditieren, 1991; Schlangen, 1991; Triology 91, 1991

2 cptrs: O+Z, 1992; Such das kleine grüne Herz, 1993; Chanukija, 1994; 7 Duette, 1994; Flüchtige Figur, 1994; Rufe aus dem Dunkel, 1994; Unrast, 1994; In Memoriam RM, 1995; Klangparallele, 1995; Kaw we dofek, 1995; Trilogie 95, 1995; L12c, 1996; Sucht der Klang das Bild … , 1996; Tanz der Akzente, 1996; Yagon/Widmung für Selma, 1996; Alfa-Numerisches Ballett, 1997; Aufruhr in Mykene, 1997; Beengt, 1997; BX mit Variationen, 1997; Duett der Stillen Berge, 1997

other works

Sonata, fl, pf, 1948; T’nu’a b’fa [Movt in F], pf, 1950; Sextet, ww, pf, 1951; Iltur [Improvisations], va, 1952; Toccata, orch, 1953; Hexachords, ww, brass, str, 1959–60; Dance, cl, pf, perc, 1960; 5 Birthdays, pf, 1965; Vorlage für Horak, b cl, 1970; Fermaten, pf, 1977; Kreise und Signale, 2 pf, 1985; Alef-Beth-Gimel, pf, 1991

Principal publishers: Israel Music Institute, Israeli Music Publications

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A.L. Ringer: ‘Musical Composition in Modern Israel’, MQ, li (1965), 282–97

Y. Lakner: ‘Audio-Visuelle Zeit-Gestalten (AVZG)’, Schweizer musikpädagogische Blätter, lxxviii (1990), 215–17

A. Zimmerlin: ‘Yehoshua Lakners audio-visuelle Zeit-Gestalten’, Dissonanz/Dissonance, xl (1994), 4–8

ALFRED ZIMMERLIN

Laks, Szymon [Simon]

(b Warsaw, 1 Nov 1901; d Paris, 11 Dec 1983). Polish composer. He studied mathematics for two years at Vilnius University before entering the Warsaw Academy of Music, where he studied under Statkowski, Melcer and Rytel (1921–4). In 1926 he went to Paris to study with Vidal and Rabaud at the Conservatoire. Arrested by the Germans in 1941, he spent three years in the concentration camps of Auschwitz and Dachau. A large quantity of his manuscripts was lost during the war. In 1945 he returned to Paris, promoting music in Polish émigré circles. The best of his work is in the deeply lyrical vocal music, concentrated in expression and simple in language. Many of his pieces are based on Polish folk music.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: L’hirondelle inattendue (ob, 1, after C. Aveline), 1965

Orch: Farys, sym. poem, 1924; Sym., C, 1924; Scherzo, 1925; Sinfonietta, str, 1936; 3 polonezy warszawskie [3 Warsaw Polonaises], 1947; Sym., str, 1964

Chbr: Str Qt no.1, 1928; Str Qt no.2, 1932; Sonata, vc, pf, 1932; Suita polska, vn, pf, 1935; Str Qt no.3, 1946; Pf Trio, 1950; Str Qt no.4, 1962; Conc. da camera, pf, 9 wind, perc, 1963; Dialogue, 2 vc, 1964; Str Qt no.5, 1964; Concertino, wind trio, 1965; Kwintet fortepianowy na polskie tematy Indowe [Pf Qnt on Polish Folk Themes], 1967; Suite concertante, trbn, pf, 1969; Chorale, 4 trbn, 1973

Kbd: Sonate brève, hpd, 1947; Suite dans le goût ancien, pf, 1973

Songs: 5 Melodies (J. Tuwim), 1936–8, nos.4 and 5, 1961–2; Passacaille-vocalise, 1946; 8 chants populaires juifs [8 Jewish Folk Songs], 1947; 3 pieśni [3 Songs] (W.M. Berezowska), 1960; Elegia żydowskich miasteczek [Elergy of the Jewish Villages] (A. Słonimski), 1961; Songs (Tuwim, J. Iwaszkiewicz, M. Jastrun), 1961–3; Portrait de l’oiseau-qui-n’existe-pas (Aveline), 1964

WRITINGS

Musiques d'un autre monde (Paris, 1948; Eng. trans., 1989)

Epizody, epigramy, epistoły (London, 1976)

TERESA CHYLIŃSKA

Lal, Chatur

(b Udaipur, Rajasthan, 23 Jan 1925; d Delhi, 14 Nov 1965). Indian tablā player. His father was a well-known musician and he began his musical training when he was seven, studying first under Pandit Nathu Lalji and later with Ustad Hafiz Mian of Udaipur. In 1947 he joined All-India Radio, remaining on its staff as an accompanist and soloist until his early death. Even as a young man he accompanied some of the leading musicians of the time, particularly Ravi Shankar. In 1954 he toured the USA and Europe with Ustad Ali Akbar Khan, and he accompanied Ravi Shankar during his tour of the USA and Europe (1956) and two subsequent extensive tours; he also performed in the former USSR, Australia and Romania. Besides accompanying noted musicians in their recordings, he made several records as a soloist.

NARAYANA MENON

Lalande, Desiré Alfred

(b Paris, 5 Sept 1866; d London, 8 Nov 1904). French oboist. After two and a half years at the Paris Conservatoire under Georges Gillet, Lalande's first professional engagement was with Lamoureux. He came to England in 1886 to join the Hallé (in which his father was a bassoonist) where he remained for five years. After a period with the Scottish Orchestra he joined the Queen's Hall Orchestra. In 1897 Henry Wood appointed him first oboist for the third season of the Promenade Concerts in succession to Malsch.

The delicacy and refinement of Lalande's performance did much to foster appreciation of the French school of oboe playing in England at a period when in many areas German artists were predominant. Many regarded him as the finest oboist of his time in Britain. The beauty of his tone was remarkable, particularly in solos for english horn.

PHILIP BATE

Lalande [La Lande, Delalande], Michel-Richard de

(b Paris, 15 Dec 1657; d Versailles, 18 June 1726). French composer, harpsichordist and organist. He was the leading composer of the high Baroque grand motet at the French court.

3. Secular vocal and stage works.

2. Sacred works.

4. Symphonies and caprices.

JAMES R. ANTHONY/LIONEL SAWKINS

1. Life.

Lalande was the 15th child of Michel Lalande, a Parisian master tailor, and Claude Dumoutiers. Most information about his early life comes from notarial and archival documents, church registers, the Mercure galant and the anecdotal ‘Discours sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. De la Lande’ by the poet Alexandre Tannevot, which served as a preface to the posthumous engraved edition (1729–34) of 40 grands motets, the Miserere à voix seule and three Leçons de ténèbres.

On 15 April 1667 Lalande (together with Marin Marais) entered the choir of the royal church of St Germain-l'Auxerrois, Paris, where he remained until 18 November 1672. The director of the choir, François Chaperon, gave preference for solos to the young Lalande on account of his ‘beautiful voice’ and ‘ardour for study’. To introduce Lalande to the public, weekly concerts of his earliest compositions were given at the home of his brother-in-law. In 1680, after Chaperon's transfer to the Ste-Chapelle, Paris, he invited Lalande (then aged 22) to contribute some of his Leçons de Ténèbres to the repertory in Holy Week. Nothing is known of Lalande's formal musical training. The ‘Discours’ tells us that he preferred the violin among the instruments he cultivated in his youth, but when he was rejected by Lully for the opera orchestra he ‘renounced the violin forever’. He mastered both harpsichord and organ, perhaps studying the latter with Charles Damour, the organist at St Germain-l'Auxerrois. (Tannevot stated that ‘the harpsichord, which he studied so seriously in his youth, was his greatest relaxation right up to his death’.) The Maréchal de Noailles, who had employed him as a harpsichord teacher for his daughter, recommended that Louis XIV should do likewise for his two daughters by Mme de Montespan, Louise-Françoise (Mlle de Nantes) and Françoise-Marie (Mlle de Blois). According to the ‘Discours’, Lalande played the organ for the king at Saint Germain-en-Laye in 1678, but Louis XIV thought him too young to be appointed organiste du roy.

His skill as an organist was sufficient to gain him employment in four Paris churches: the Jesuit church of St Louis, the conventual church of Petit St Antoine, St Gervais and St Jean-en-Grève. For the Collège de Clermont (known later as the Collège Louis-le-Grand) he also composed intermèdes and choruses (now lost) for the dramatic productions of the Jesuits. On the death in 1679 of Charles Couperin, Lalande was contracted to remain at St Gervais until Couperin's eldest son, François, was 18 (in 1686). However, after Lalande's appointment as sous-maître for the October quarter at the royal chapel in 1683, the young Couperin (as well as Lalande's elder brother François) must have deputized for Lalande on a regular basis at St Gervais; in 1690 Lalande, in his approbation, found François Couperin's two organ masses ‘fort belles, et dignes d'estre données au Public’. In 1682 Lalande replaced Pierre Meliton at St Jean-en-Grève. He remained there as organist until the increasing responsibilities of his court positions forced his resignation in 1691. (No firm evidence has been adduced to support the assertion (see Corp, 1995) of a particular musical connection between Lalande and the exiled Jacobean court at Saint Germain-en-Laye at this time.)

In 1683, when the sous-maîtres Du Mont and Robert retired from the royal chapel, the king ordered a competition to replace them; 35 musicians took part (among them Charpentier, Desmarets, Lorenzani and Nivers). This number was narrowed to 15, who were all obliged to set the text of Psalm xxxii, Beati quorum; on the basis of these compositions (only Lalande's survives), four were chosen to share the responsibilities by quarters: Coupillet (January), Collasse (April), Minoret (July) and Lalande (October). According to the ‘Discours’, Louis XIV himself intervened to assure the quarter for Lalande, initiating his rise as a favoured court composer. A little over a year later, in January 1685, he was appointed compositeur de la musique de la chambre, sharing half the year with Collasse, the other half being controlled by Pierre Robert. In January 1689, aged 31, he became a surintendant de la musique de la chambre, the most coveted musical post at court, and the same year the king ordered the court copyists, François Fossard and André Danican Philidor l'aîné, to make a complete manuscript collection of Lalande's grands motets, a singular honour (F-V Mus 8–17). In September 1693, after the enforced retirement of Coupillet (for whom Henry Desmarets had ‘ghost-written’ several grands motets), Lalande added the quarter of January as sous-maître to that of October. In March 1704, on the retirement of Collasse, the king gave the April quarter to ‘nostre bien aimé Richard Michel de La Lande’. In 1714 the Marquis de Dangeau noted in his journal for 29 September: ‘There are several changes in the king's music for the chapel. The maître de musique for the July quarter … the Abbé Minoret, has retired’. Minoret's departure seems to have been provoked not by infirmity, as the official record suggests, but, according to Marc-François Bêche, by disgust that Louis XIV chose Lalande's Cantate Domino canticum novum to impress the visiting Elector of Bavaria rather than a work by Minoret, whose ‘quarter’ it was (see Sawkins 1986). Dangeau continues: ‘The king gave him 3500 livres as a pension and joined his quarter to the three others already held by La Lande … When [Lalande] is ill and there is no one assigned to his post, [Jean-Baptiste] Matho will conduct (battra la mesure) for him’. Thus, from 1 July 1715, the music of the royal chapel was under the control of one man for the first time, just two months before Louis XIV died. Although described by Tannevot as ‘shy in public’, Lalande does not seem to have been deterred in his accumulation of most of the official positions available to a court musician. As well as those already mentioned, in 1700, after Robert's death, Lalande was given three-quarter control as compositeur de la musique de la chambre, and following Collasse's death in 1709 all charges for this office were his. From 1689, when he was appointed surintendant de la musique de la chambre (replacing Jean-Louis Lully), he shared the year with Jean-Baptiste Boesset. In 1695 Boesset sold his charge of maître de musique de la chambre to Lalande for 16,000 livres. Lalande, who could raise only part of the money, turned to André Danican Philidor, who lent him 14,400 livres over a two-year period.

In July 1684 Lalande married the singer Anne Rebel, daughter of Jean Rebel, ordinaire de la musique du roy, and half-sister of Jean-Fery Rebel, the violinist, conductor and director of the Paris Opéra. According to the ‘Discours’, Louis XIV himself covered all the wedding expenses. The couple had two daughters, Marie-Anne (b 1686) and Jeanne (b 1687), both of whom became well-known singers; they were rewarded for their industry by Louis XIV, who in 1706 gave each a pension of 1000 livres, while expressing a wish that they should sing during his Mass. Tannevot stated that ‘it is to them that we owe those beautiful soprano solos which M. De la Lande composed in response to the beauty of their voices’. Unfortunately both succumbed to smallpox in May 1711. The death of the dauphin in the same year forged an even closer bond between the French king and the son of a Paris tailor; Louis XIV is quoted as saying to Lalande, a few days after the death of the composer's daughters, ‘You have lost two daughters who were deserving of merit. I have lost Monseigneur … La Lande we must submit (‘se soumettre’)’. A few months later (18 April 1712), at the king's request, Lalande conducted 129 musicians of the royal chapel in a memorial service for the dauphin and his wife at St Denis (among the works probably performed was Lalande's Dies irae, originally written for the dauphine's funeral in 1690, but revised in 1711).

Lalande lived comfortably as a result of royal appointments and lucrative pensions, which included one of 6000 livres paid to him and his wife from 1713 out of the revenues of the Paris Opéra. He was one of the few composers of his day to own a coach. When in Paris, he lived in a large three-storey house on the rue Ste-Anne which had formerly belonged to his father-in-law. An inventory of 11 May 1722 following the death of Anne Rebel reveals an abundance of material possessions, including much silver, more than 50 paintings, a fine harpsichord (valued at 300 livres), two viols and two violins. In addition to his town house, he had a ground-floor apartment in the Grand Commun at Versailles close to the château and a country house and garden in the Parc-aux-Cerfs.

After the king's death in 1715, when the Regency court moved to Paris, Lalande gradually abandoned his heavy responsibilities. In doing so he made sure that his best pupils, André Cardinal Destouches, François Collin de Blamont and Jean-François de La Porte, received good positions. In February 1718 Destouches took over one of the charges of surintendant; he was succeeded in the same post by Collin de Blamont in November 1719. In March 1718 Lalande's brother-in-law, Jean-Fery Rebel, and La Porte succeeded him as compositeur de la musique de la chambre.

On 5 May 1722 Lalande's wife died. Soon afterwards Louis XV made the composer a Chevalier of the Order of St Michel, possibly at the time of the coronation at Reims (25 October) for which Lalande directed the music. Later the same year, according to Tannevot, when the court returned to Versailles, Lalande expressed his desire to remit voluntarily three-quarters of his salary at the royal chapel in order to return to the original situation of four sous-maîtres. Touched by his request, Louis XV agreed and in January 1723 granted him an annual life pension of 3000 livres. A new generation of composers, protégés of the regent, Philippe of Orléans, were quickly chosen for the three vacancies (André Campra, Nicolas Bernier and Charles-Hubert Gervais).

Lalande remarried in 1723; his bride was Marie-Louise de Cury (1692–1775), a daughter of the Princess of Conti's surgeon. They had one daughter, Marie-Michelle (1724–81). According to the ‘Discours’, Lalande died of pneumonia in 1726; he was buried in the church of Notre Dame de Versailles, not far from the château where he had served for 43 years.

2. Sacred works.

The ‘Versailles style’ – initiated by Veillot and Formé, developed most significantly by Du Mont and the model for Lully and Robert – reached full flower in the 77 authenticated grands motets composed and reworked by Lalande over 46 years. During the entire 18th century they were considered to be ‘masterpieces of the genre’ (Rousseau). As late as 1780 La Borde, in his Essai sur la musique ancienne et moderne, viewed Lalande as the ‘creator of a new genre of church music’. Their eloquent message touched both the favoured few who attended the king's Mass in the royal chapel and, after 1725, the crowds who applauded them at the newly established Concert Spirituel in Paris. During the first 45 years of the Concert Spirituel there were more than 590 performances of 41 different Lalande grands motets and throughout the 18th century they were heard at the royal chapel. The final issue of the Livre de motets pour la chapelle du roy, printed by Ballard in 1792, gives the titles of 14 motets by Lalande in the repertory between January and June of that year. The durability of Lalande's motets is also attested by the many manuscript copies in provincial libraries throughout France. For example, the academies that promoted concerts in Lyons acquired copies of early versions of motets such as Cantate Domino in Lalande's lifetime (now in F-LYm). The Bibliothèque Méjanes in Aix-en-Provence also has unique copies (scores and parts) of early versions of other motets as well as several parts bearing the date 1819. The popularity of these works in the 18th century is further documented by the number of récits in manuscript collections which were extracted from the grands motets to provide a solo repertory for church or convent as well as for noble amateurs. One such collection of Tous les récits du basse taille des motets de M^r De La Lande (F-AIXmc F.c.385) was made in 1731–2 for the duc de Noailles by Christien Le Noble, a successor as copyist to André Danican Philidor. Some récits ‘ajustés pour être chantés à l'orgue’ found their way into convent repertories (e.g. F-Pn Rés.1899). One such collection, made as late as 1765 in the Provençale town of Apt, is the unique source of several of Lalande's grands motets (F-Pn Vm¹ 3123). There is also an example of an entire motet, O filii et filiae, in a reduction for soprano solo and continuo, for performance at the Concert Spirituel (F-Pn Rés.2560).

Far from representing what Bukofzer called ‘the most conservative spirit of the period’ (Music in the Baroque Era, New York, 1947), Lalande's motets bring together totally dissimilar elements with an unprecedented depth of feeling. Galant ‘operatic’ airs and the majestic ‘official’ style of the Versailles motet stand side by side. Cantus firmus treatment of Gregorian melodies in finely wrought polyphony (such as in Sacris solemniis) is found together with weighty homophonic ‘battle’ choruses akin to those in Lully's Bellérophon (as in Deus noster refugium). Lalande was deeply imbued with the spirit of the Latin psalms he chose. The warmth of his musical language humanized the grand motet. A perceptive and deeply felt homage to Lalande was included in the avertissement of the posthumous engraved edition; it was written by a protégé of the composer, Collin de Blamont, who described his former teacher as a ‘Latin Lully’ and continued:

His great merit … consisted in wonderful choice of melody, judicious use of harmony and nobility of expression. He understood the value of the words he chose to treat and rendered (in music) the true meaning of the majestic and holy enthusiasm of the Prophets … Profound and learned on the one hand, simple and natural on the other, he applied all his study to touch the soul by richness of expression and vivid pictorialism. The mind is refreshed by the pleasing variety not only from one piece to the next, but within the same piece, … by the ingenious disparities with which he ornaments his works, by the graceful melodies which serve as contrasting episodes to the most complex choral sections.

Clearly, Collin de Blamont is describing here the late motets or the final versions of earlier motets that make up the posthumous edition.

Four large collections contain most of Lalande's grands motets: the manuscript copy of 27 motets, made in 1689–90 by Philidor, Fossard and an unnamed third scribe (F-V Mus 8–17); copies of 11 motets (both full scores and parts) which Philidor made for the Count of Toulouse, beginning in 1704 or 1705 (Pn Rés.F.1694–7); the 1729 engraved edition of 40 motets; and a manuscript copy of 41 motets made for a certain Gaspard Alexis Cauvin (F-V Mus 216–35, Pn Rés Vmb MS16; other volumes from Cauvin's collection are in the Collection François Lang, Royaumont). The Cauvin manuscript is a mid-18th-century copy clearly based on earlier copies, with a changed sequence of motets and with the addition of the instrumental inner parts (missing from the engraved edition). For some motets which exist in other full scores from Lalande's lifetime (such as some in the Toulouse-Philidor collection and others now in Lyons), it can be shown that the Cauvin scores, including their inner parts, correspond to versions earlier than those in the engraved edition. For Exaudi Deus the Cauvin copy is virtually identical to that in the Philidor collection of 1689–90, except that it omits the lowest of the three viola parts (the quinte de violon).

Lalande constantly revised his grands motets; 29 exist in more than one version (some in more than two), while others are provided with alternative versions of single movements. There are others, too, which survive only in mature versions but are known to have originated at much earlier dates. According to the ‘Discours’,

from the time of the former king [Louis XIV], he had begun to make changes in several of his earlier motets. Noting this, His Majesty prevented him from continuing, possibly to render more obvious the progress made under his aegis by the composer, possibly to preserve the graces and naïvety of the first works, or finally, because of fear that this occupation which took so much time would prevent him from composing new music.

In his Apologie de la musique françoise contre M. Rousseau (1754), the Abbé Laugier wrote that Lalande ‘produced nothing that was not extremely well worked (travaillé). One senses that he returned many times to his motets and that he touched and retouched them’. If the dates in an Avignon manuscript (F-A MS 5840) are to be trusted, 28 of Lalande's motets (more than a third of the total) date from the period 1680–91, which includes the first eight years of his tenure at the royal chapel. From other sources we know that another three motets are from this early period. Of this total of 31, 27 are in the 1689–90 Philidor copy at Versailles (one, Audite coeli, in two versions, showing that the composer's lifelong habit of revision started early). This collection, then, may be said to represent Lalande's early style. These works are referred to in the ‘Discours’ as follows: ‘The first compositions of M^r De La Lande are not as well worked as the last pieces; they are more simple than profound and are less the fruits of Art than of Nature’.

Most of the ‘Philidor’ motets to some extent exploit the vertical sonorities and syllabic treatment of text that characterize the earlier Versailles motets of Du Mont, Lully and Robert. Although some influence from French stage music may be observed in such a binary air as ‘Asperges me’ or a rondeau air such as ‘Amplius lava me’ (both from the Miserere), many récits, often accompanied by five-part strings, are open-ended and elide or alternate with choral sections. The large four- and five-part choruses are generally homophonic. On the other hand, a shift towards a more polyphonic style may be seen in such a chorus as ‘Ascendit Deus in jubilo’ from Omnes gentes. In his polyphonic choral settings in the ‘Philidor’ motets, Lalande often represented two independent and clearly defined motifs in a solo récit (or an opening symphonie) and then combined them in a chorus. In the hymn Veni Creator spiritus the music assigned in the opening tenor récit to each part of the paired text of the fifth verset, ‘Hostem repellas longius, Pacemque dones protinus’, is quite different; these two are then combined in a ten-voice double chorus. A similar practice is used in the Miserere where the two motifs occurring in succession in the introductory symphonie are worked together in the chorus that follows, the second motif being used as a countersubject to the first. In Lalande's later music such textual counterpoint is used with much subtlety. In the eighth verset of De profundis, ‘Et ipse redimet Israel, Ex omnibus iniquitatibus ejus’, two motifs are used to represent the two parts of the text (ex.1); motif a ascends and b descends. They were clearly chosen for use either consecutively or simultaneously. Most tutti passages combine the motifs and their respective texts, as here; to assure the comprehensibility of the text Lalande restricted the opening and the end of the movement to the first and second lines respectively.

In the ‘Philidor’ motets the orchestra usually doubles the voices of the grand choeur and supplies five-part symphonies or three-part ritournelles to mark structural divisions. But, like Du Mont, Lalande allowed the second violin to elaborate the vocal line in free counterpoint. Occasionally, especially in slow-moving choruses, the orchestra is independent of the voice parts (in ‘Exultat cantico’ from Christe Redemptor omnium, for example).

Clearly, Lalande suffered a crisis of conflicting styles soon after the turn of the century. Changes were taking place in French stage music by such post-Lully composers as Campra, Destouches, Mouret and Montéclair; French composers had to come to terms with the Italian cantatas and sonatas ‘that have flooded all Paris’ (Mercure galant, 1714). In spite of his absorption in the style of the Versailles motet, Lalande was no stranger to Italian music. The italophile Nicolas Mathieu, curé of St André-des-Arts, had established weekly concerts in his home before the turn of the century where ‘only Latin music composed in Italy’ was performed. Lalande and Charpentier were both part of the coterie surrounding the Abbé Mathieu, and it was Lalande who inherited his collection of cantatas and motets.

A stylistic and chronological gap separates the Philidor copies of 1689–90 from the 1729 engraving. The Toulouse-Philidor copies of 1704 and certain isolated Philidor motet manuscripts at Versailles may be considered representative of a transition period. In the 17 years that separate the Count of Toulouse copy of Super flumina Babylonis from the original version in the Philidor Versailles collection, Lalande substituted an extended concert ‘aria’ with flute obbligato (‘Ad hereat lingua’) for the earlier récit for soprano accompanied by five-part strings. This is already an ‘ingenious disparity’ (‘Discours’), as is the elegant duo ‘Laudate, laudate Dominum’ for two sopranos and obbligato violin in Laudate Dominum, which comes from the Philidor atelier and dates from 1700 (F-V Mus 24).

The 1729 engraved edition and the Cauvin manuscript together offer the most complete picture of the grands motets of the mature Lalande. The revisions documented in these sources take the following forms: (1) the change from a loosely organized structure with elided sectional divisions to autonomous movements (solos and ensembles interspersed between choruses), resembling the so-called reform cantatas of Bach or the Restoration anthems of Humfrey or Purcell; (2) the creation out of simple récits with five-part homophonic accompaniment of elaborate concert ‘arias’ or duos, often accompanied by obbligato instruments; (3) the changing of predominantly homophonic choruses into more polyphonic ones; (4) the change from an orchestra primarily doubling choral lines to one independent of the voices; and (5) greater economy in the use of some material while other material is expanded. The ‘Requiem aeternam’ from De profundis is a fine example of the fifth category. The Philidor version includes a symphonie of 14 bars, a solo récit of eight bars, a second symphonie of six bars and a basically homophonic chorus of 31 bars up to ‘Et lux perpetua’ (ex.2a). In the 1729 edition there is only one symphonie, of nine bars, which merges with a 53-bar chorus up to ‘Et lux perpetua’. The writing is dense, five-part polyphony of Bach-like intensity in which both instruments and voices participate (ex.2b). The harmony in Lalande's late works may owe something to his exposure to Charpentier's music. The dissonant chord of the mediant 9th with major 7th and augmented 5th, found in the music of Charpentier, is also heard in the motets of his younger contemporary (ex.3, bars 2 and 7). Like Rameau, Lalande found the diminished 7th chord compellingly dramatic. In Pange lingua (ex.3) his coupling of this chord with an indicated ‘silence’ shows the care with which he chose the most effective musical setting for the text.

The motets common to the engraved edition and the Cauvin manuscripts vary greatly in the number of sections they have. Regina coeli laetare is the shortest, with only six sections (symphonie, duo, chorus, recitative, trio, chorus); the Miserere, on the other hand, has a total of 15, including eight récits, and the Te Deum has 18. A symmetrical ordering of sections, like that found in many Bach cantatas, is rare; only Deus noster refugium approaches an alternation of récit and chorus. However, outside these collections, in Dies irae (1690/1711), the composer exploits in dramatic fashion the contrasts inherent in the 18 rhyming stanzas and final couplet of the 13th-century poem. His strong formal sense is evident in the organization of the 18 stanzas into four groups of four framing a central group of two. The two larger groups nearer the centre are each assigned a solo voice (haute-contre, then basse-taille), while the others employ a variety of solo and choral textures. The work is framed in plainchant, with the opening ‘Dies irae’ sung by unison sopranos and the concluding ‘Pie Jesu’ in a web of counterpoint of simple yet awesome beauty. In 11 grands motets Lalande used the traditional opening formula of the Versailles motets – that is, the sharing of the same thematic material by symphonie, récit and chorus. In seven instances Lalande introduced his motet with an autonomous récit; Quare fremuerunt gentes begins with two. More than half the récits found in the engraved edition and in the Cauvin manuscripts are in some sort of binary form, including examples of the type A–B–B', the most common binary configuration in the stage music of the Lully and post-Lully generation; in this type of air, the text is usually a quatrain. In the B' section the textual repetition never gives rise to an exact musical repetition although note values and melodic shape may be similar. The example below shows the relationship between text and music in the récit ‘Quae utilitas in sanguine meo’ from the tenth verset of Exaltabo te, Domine:

Quae utilitas in sanguine meo,
Dum descendo in corruptionem? A:I–V

Numquid confitebitur tibi pulvis,
Aut annuntiabit veritatem tuam? B:V–ii

Numquid confitebitur tibi pulvis,
Aut annuntiabit veritatem tuam? B':I–I

Operatic influence is also seen in the more than ten récits scored for high voice (soprano or haute-contre) ‘accompanied’ by two flutes, by two violins or by a combination of the two without continuo. There are more than 20 récits with a striking resemblance to the extended arias found in French cantatas or opéra-ballets; these, with their elaborate melismas, chains of sequences and vocal displays (‘Qui posuit’ from Lauda Jerusalem and ‘Jubilate Deo’ from Cantate Domino s72 even have cadenzas for soprano and oboe), mark the most radical break with the past. Surprisingly, there are only two genuine da capo arias in the 40 motets of the engraved edition and the Cauvin manuscripts: most récits of this type are in rondeau form (A–B–A'), with modifications in the return of A.

To appreciate the extent to which Lalande had absorbed the new italianate style in his religious music, one need only compare a récit of an early motet with the same récit as revised in the engraved edition and Cauvin. Ex.4a shows ‘Hodie si vocem ejus’ from Venite, exultemus Domino as it appears in an early 18th-century copy from Philidor's atelier (F-V Mus 25); the heavy five-part accompaniment is mostly homophonic, following note-against-note the baritone's vocal line. In ex.4b the conception is totally different; we have a highly developed aria for soprano with violin obbligato.

In certain of his late motets Lalande exposed the texts of several versets in a succession of short movements, much as Lully or Campra constructed an operatic scene from short dialogue airs interspersed with recitatives. This scena-like procedure may be seen in Confitemini, where there is a succession of five movements for dessus, Domine in virtute tua (nine movements for basse-taille), Cantate Domino s72 (seven movements for dessus) and Exultate justi in Domino, where three airs for haute-contre (interrupted by a brief recitative) are followed by two for dessus, each on two lines of text.

It is not certain that the 1729 engraved edition represents an accurate final version of Lalande's motets as performed at the royal chapel or at the Concert Spirituel; what is clear is that the omission of the inner orchestral parts as found in the Cauvin manuscripts was no more and no less than the custom for such engraved editions from the last decade of the 17th century onwards (for example, all Rameau's published operas were in this form, even though we know from surviving manuscript materials that they were performed in full scoring). Less than six weeks after his death, on 25 July 1726, Lalande's widow requested a royal patent to engrave her husband's motets. The first two motets were done ‘chez Jacques Collombat’ in 1728 (although the edition carries the date of 1729). Despite the assertions of several modern writers, there is no evidence that Collin de Blamont had any active part in preparing the engraved edition. Indeed the circumstantial evidence argues against such a contribution. In the ‘Notice’ at the end of the preface Tannevot explained that to give the public a general idea of Lalande's music he invited Collin de Blamont to write an avertissement because the close relationship the latter had with Lalande put him in a better position than anybody to analyse his music, and Collin de Blamont's letter (dated 28 September 1728, just before the first volume was printed) is the result. The letter opens with the claim that he has ‘just learnt … of the good offices which you [Tannevot] wish to perform in memory of the late M. De La Lande’ and says he is ‘only too happy if this can be of some use to you in your project’. Clearly, Collin de Blamont would not have written this after two years of work on the edition if he had been closely involved in the project as musical editor, especially when one considers his character as betrayed in the well-documented quarrel between the sous-maîtres and the surintendants (see Benoit, Dufourcq and Massip, 1986).

It seems obvious that there must have been musicians involved in the work, since the full scores were not reduced by simply omitting the viola parts; in many passages the reduced orchestral score is a skilful reduction of the full score. The widespread substitution in the edition of the time signature 2 for and modifications to ‘expressive’ indications make the edition quite distinct from all surviving manuscript material and suggest ‘musical’ intervention before, or in the course of, the engraving process. Indeed, Titon du Tillet (Le Parnasse françois, 1732) stated that Lalande's widow, ‘attentive to everything that may do honour to the memory of her late husband, having entrusted his motets to musicians who were very knowledgeable and also friends of the deceased, began in 1728 to have them engraved’. But, whoever these musicians were, it seems probable from the Avertissement that Collin de Blamont was not among them. Despite his close ties with Lalande, there is no need to credit Collin de Blamont with a part in the composition of these eloquent statements of the mature Lalande. A study of his own extant religious music reveals none of the intensity of expression or skilful polyphonic manipulation found in several of the choruses in the engraved edition of Lalande's motets. Collin de Blamont's letter has the ring of sincerity:

I have been too much his servant and friend, and have received too many marks of his esteem and kindness through the pains he took with my education from my tenderest youth, not to sacrifice something of my own self-interest in daring to put this in writing. I can instruct you in all the perfection I have recognized in this Latin Lully.

3. Secular vocal and stage works.

Lalande's stage and concert works were written between 1682 and 1704, apart from a Divertissement sur la Paix in 1713 and the three ballets for Louis XV in 1720–21. He wrote some 24 ballets, divertissements, intermèdes and pastorales to entertain royalty at Versailles, Marly, Fontainebleau and Sceaux, and occasionally in Paris, including those for Louis XV. The music for only six of these works survives in complete form, but that for another four can be almost completely reconstructed. For nine others, excerpts and/or librettos give an outline of the work, and two survive as librettos only.

Lalande's Ballet de la jeunesse, performed at Versailles on 28 January 1686 as a substitute for Lully's unfinished Armide, is a synthesis between opera and ballet, and an important precursor of the opéra-ballet; its long poem is divided into three episodes, devoted respectively to Mercury, Pallas and Tircis, and the music includes eight symphonies, 14 airs, 15 choruses and 18 dances, these last including a central ‘Chaconne de la jeunesse’ with 61 variations on the eight-bar bass, showing how Lalande, like Lully, was able to organize an entire scene around the chaconne pattern (the theme and 28 variations are instrumental, and the remaining music is for vocal solo, ensemble and chorus).

The pastorale L'Amour fléchi par la Constance, the full score of which came to light in 1974, was first performed at Fontainebleau in 1697, in the presence of the exiled James II and Mary of Modena. This work displays a formal strength akin to that which Lalande skilfully deploys in his grands motets. Scenes consisting mainly of solo récits and duos alternate with three consisting of divertissements of choruses and dances. The two most substantial récits occur in Scene 1, ‘Tant qu'a duré la nuit’, where the two stanzas are each followed by the same sommeil (‘sleep symphony’), and in Scene 3, where a récit with a florid violin obbligato, ‘Doux calme de la solitude’, is also in two stanzas, the second of which is an elaborately written-out ornamented double. Scene 5 forms the centre of the work with an impressive passacaille of 221 bars, of which the last 56 are mainly vocal, framed by a chorus. The ninth and final scene consists of an air ‘grave et piqué’, in the style of the first section of an ouverture, a sarabande (danced and sung) and a vigorous shepherds' chorus.

Two years later Lalande again collaborated with his librettist of the Ballet de la jeunesse, Dancourt (Florent Carton), this time to provide a series of intermèdes for Dancourt's play Les fées, given first at Fontainebleau and then at the Comédie Française in Paris. Fairy stories and plays built around them were a popular genre in the last decade of the century, and Dancourt, the most fashionable story-teller and actor of his day (he was patronized by the dauphin), responded to the trend. Lalande's contributions are among his most sparkling and colourful, and he went on to re-use much of the material in later works.

For the first court ballet danced by Louis XV at the Tuileries, in February 1720, Lalande set to music Dancourt's revised intermèdes for L'inconnu. He included some movements by Rebel and Destouches, and himself supplied the overture (revised from his 1703 ‘supper’ suites), 35 airs de danse and some of his most adventurous vocal ariettes. On 31 December 1721 Les élémens, ‘Troisieme Ballet danse par le Roy dans son Palais des Tuileries’, was first performed. Lalande and Destouches collaborated on this court ballet, which with several revisions reached the Paris Opéra in May 1725 as an opéra-ballet and went on to become one of the most performed works in the repertory of that house. The distribution of labour between Lalande and Destouches remained a carefully guarded secret, but there is little doubt that most of the music is by Destouches. In a letter to Prince Antoine I of Monaco, Destouches wrote:

My amour propre has been flattered by the praise you give to the Ballet des Elémens. I share the glory of pleasing you with M. de La Lande. We were ordered to work on it together. He contributed some very beautiful things the details concerning which I must pray you not [to ask me] to divulge because he has insisted that we were both covered by the same cloak.

The only clue as to Lalande's contribution is found in the table of ‘Airs tirés des autres Divertissemens et Ballets’ in the manuscript collection of Simphonies de M. De La Lande (F-Pc Rés.581), where, under the title Ballet des Elémens, the overture, five items from the prologue and four items from Act 1 are listed as by Lalande.

4. Symphonies and caprices.

The earliest and most intimate of Lalande's instrumental suites independent of those extracted from the ballets is the Grande pièce royale, known later as the Deuxième Fantaisie ou Caprice, subtitled ‘which the king often asked for’. First found in a Philidor recueil dated 1695 (F-Pc Rés.F.533), it is in six movements designated only by varied tempo indications. The obbligatos for bassoon include a sustained e', a pitch not exceeded until the late 1740s in Rameau's operas. Of the other suites or caprices which are independent of the ballets, the Caprice en passacaille (s164/14) also contains obbligatos for bassoons, while the Troisième Caprice (s162/18) is imaginatively scored for a quartet of violins, violas, bassoons and continuo; both the viola part and the figuring of the continuo are attributed to Lalande's brother-in-law ‘M. Rebel’. The work includes a fine set of free variations in concerto scoring. Contrary to normal procedures, its tutti sections rather than its solo sections increase in complexity. Quite different in character is the Concert de trompettes (s158/1–6, 20), outdoor music to accompany processions on the canals and lakes of the Versailles gardens, five movements of which are first found in the Ballet pour le jour de Saint-Louis (1691). The year 1695 also saw the first printed publications containing Lalande's music, one a collection of 12 Airs italiens assembled by Fossard and Philidor mostly from Italian operas, for six of which Lalande wrote ritournelles (s174: preludes for two dessus instruments and continuo).

The first of five (possibly six) collections of instrumental music and excerpts from ballets was made in 1703, entitled Les symphonies de M. de La Lande ‘which were usually played at the king's supper’ by the ‘troupe des petits violons’. Its four part books were copied on the order of the Count of Toulouse by Philidor l'aîné and contain ten suites totalling 160 movements (F-Pc Rés.582). Of these almost half have their origins in stage works. A decade later, a collection, of which only the index survives, shows that while nine movements had been dropped another 34 were added, 23 of them from the ballets, together with the Troisième Caprice, making 185 movements in all. Two posthumous collections (F-Pn Vm⁷3077 and Pc Rés.581, the latter a true manuscript de luxe) both show strong evidence of reliance on material contemporary with the composer, and were probably copied from an earlier collection now lost. They include almost all the material of the 1703 and 1713 collections together with more than 100 additional movements from the ballets. Of the grand total of 300 movements, some 206 are from known stage works. In these two late collections, almost identical in content, the movements are reordered so that they are grouped by keys into 18 suites, three of which (nos.6–8) are the three caprices, while the Concert de trompettes is incorporated into suite no.4; interior movements are often in related keys. Following the suites in volume one of these late collections are the Symphonies des Noëls, settings of traditional French carol melodies ‘which were played in the king's chapel on Christmas night’.

WORKS

Catalogue: L. Sawkins: A Thematic Catalogue of the Works of Michel-Richard de Lalande (1657–1726) (Oxford, forthcoming) [S]

sacred

MS collections: Motets de M. Delalande, F-V Mus 8–17, Philidor-Fossard MSS, 10 vols., 1689–90 [P i–x]

F-Pn Rés F.1694–7, Toulouse-Philidor collection, 1704–6 [T]

F-LYm, MSS formerly in Académie de Beaux-Arts, Lyons [L]

Motets à grand choeur de M. de la Lande, F-V Mus 216–35 (vols.i–xx), Pn Rés. Vmb.16 (vol.xxi), Gaspard Alexis Cauvin's collection [C i–xxi]

Récits et duo de Msr de La Lande, F-APT 9505(1–3), Pn Vm¹ 3123, compiled in Apt, 1765 [Apt]

Printed: Motets de feu M. De La Lande (Paris, 1729–34), 21 vols. [H i–xxi]

grands motets

†	includes variant movement(s)

1	Dixit Dominus (Ps cx), 1680, 1st setting, P iv
2	Magnificat (Luke i.46–55), 1681, music lost
3	Deitatis majestatem (Psalm pastiche), 1682, P vii
4	Afferte Domino (Ps xxix), 1683, P vi
5	Beati quorum (Ps xxxii), 1683, P ii
6	Ad te levavi (Ps cxxiii), 1689, P ix
7	Audite coeli (Deuteronomy xxxii), 1689, P v, D-Bsb; 2nd version, P v; 3rd version, Apt
8	Ecce, nunc benedicite (Ps cxxxiv), 1686, P vi
9	Jubilate Deo (Ps c), 1689, P viii; ed. L. Sawkins (Stuttgart, 1985)
10	Laudate Dominum, omnes gentes (Ps cxvii), 1686, P vii
11	Omnes gentes, plaudite (Ps xlvii), 1st setting, 1689, P viii; 2nd version, F-Pn
12	Quam dilecta tabernacula (Ps lxxxiv), 1686, P ii; 2nd version, T, V
13	Super flumina Babylonis (Ps cxxxvii), 1687, P v; 2nd version, T, ed. P. Oboussier (London, 1988)
14	Veni Creator (hymn), 1684, P iv; 2nd version, 1722, Apt, R. Lutz's private collection, Strasbourg
15	Miserere mei, Deus (Ps lvii), 1685, P vii; 2nd version, Apt
16	Deus misereatur nostri (Ps lxvii), 1687, P iii
17	Domine, Dominus noster (Ps viii), 1686, Apt (inc.)
18	Laudate pueri Dominum (Ps cxiii), 1686, P iv; 2nd version, Pn
19	Lauda Jerusalem (Ps cxlvii.12–20), 1690, P x; 2nd version, 1725, C xxi, Apt, H iv, Pn, US-BEm
20	Deus, Deus meus (Ps lxiii), 1685, P ix
21	Christe, Redemptor (hymn), 1689, P viii
22	Cantemus Domino (psalm pastiche), 1687, P iii; ed. K. Husa (New York, 1971)
23	De profundis (Ps cxxx, Requiem aeternam), 1689, P vi (facs. (Courlay, 1992)); 2nd version, C ii† (facs. (Courlay, 1992)), Apt, H (facs. (Courlay, 1992)) ix†, F-A, AIXmc, Pn†, US-BEm†; ed. A. Cellier (Paris, 1944), ed. L. Boulay (Paris, c1961), ed. J. Anthony (Chapel Hill, NC, 1980), ed. L. Sawkins (London, 2000)
24	Exaudi Deus (Ps lxi), 1689, P iii, C viii; 2nd version, 1719, Apt
25	In convertendo (Ps cxxvi), 1684, P x; 2nd version, C xvii, Apt, H xiii, F-Pn, US-BEm
26	Nisi quia Dominus (Ps cxxiv), 1703, T; 2nd version, C i, Apt, H xviii, F-AIXmc, Pn, US-BEm
27	Miserere mei, Deus (Ps li), 1687, P i; 2nd version, C iv, Apt, H iii, F-AIXmc, Pn, US-BEm; ed. L. Sawkins (Paris, 2000)
28	Domine, non est exaltatum (Ps cxxxi), 1689, P ii
29	Domine, in virtute tua (Ps xxi), 1689, P x; 2nd version, C xvii, Apt, H xv, F-A, AIXmc; ed. G. Roussel (Paris, 1952)
30	Deus stetit in synagoga (Ps lxxxii), music lost
31	Dies irae (seq), 1690, 1711, R. Lutz's private collection, Strasbourg
32	Te Deum laudamus (hymn), 1684, P i; 2nd version, T; 3rd version, Apt, Pn† (part autograph); 4th version, C xi, vi, AIXmc, Lm, Pn, US-BEm; ed. H. Sarlit (Paris, 1951), ed. L. Boulay (Paris, c1970)
33	Deus, in adjutorium (Ps lxx), 1691, L, C xv, Apt, H iv, F-A, AIXmc, US-BEm; ed. A. Cellier (Paris, 1958)
34	Cantemus Virginem (anon.), music lost
35	Deus, in nomine tuo (Ps liv), 1690, Apt (inc.)
36	Exaudiat te, Dominus (Ps xx), 1688, music lost
37	Domine, quid multiplicati (Ps iii), 1691, Apt (inc.)
38	Judica me, Deus (Ps xliii), 1693, C ix, Apt, H viii, F-AIXmc
39	Beatus vir (Ps cxii), 1692, C ii, Apt, H xix, AIXmc, US-BEm
40	Usquequo, Domine (Ps xiii), 1692, F-AIXmc; 2nd version, C x, Apt, H v, US-BEm
41	Cum invocarem (Ps iv), 1714 (inc.), Apt, ?F-AIXmc
42	Nisi Dominus aedificaverit (Ps cxxvii), 1694, AIXmc†; 2nd version, 1704, C xx†, Apt†, H xvi†, A†, AIXmc†, Pn† (part autograph), US-BEm†; ed. L. Boulay (Paris, 1956)
43	Dominus regit me (Ps xxiii), 1695, C xx, Apt, H xi, BEm
44	Benedictus Dominus Deus meus (Ps cxliv), 1695, L, F-Pn, RS; 2nd version, C vii, Apt, H i, A, AIXmc, Pn, US-BEm
45	Quemadmodum (Ps xlii), 1696, C xiv, Apt, H vii, F-A, AIXmc, Pn, US-BEm
46	Laudate Dominum in sanctis (Ps cl), 1697, F-V; facs. (Béziers, 1990)
47	Laetatus sum (Ps cxxii), 1693, music lost
48	Confitebor tibi Domine (Ps cxxxviii), 1697, C vii, H xix
49	Credidi propter (Ps cxvi.10–16), 1697, C xiii, Apt, H xiii, US-BEm
50	Eructavit cor meum (Ps xlv), 1697, Apt, R. Lutz's private collection, Strasbourg
51	Beati omnes (Ps cxxviii), 1698, C xviii, Apt, H vi, F-AIXmc, Pn, US-BEm; ed. H. Letocart (Paris, 1928)
52	O filii et filiae (hymn), 1698, C xiv, H ii, F-AIXmc
53	Regina coeli (ant), 1698, C xi, H iii, AIXmc, Pn, US-BEm; ed. S. Spycket (Paris, 1951), ed. G. Roussel (Paris, 1959), ed. L. Boulay (Paris, 1970)
54	Deus noster refugium (Ps xlvi), 1699, C xiii, Apt, H x, F-AIXmc, Pn, US-BEm
55	Cantate Domino (Ps xcvi), 1698, 1719, Apt, R. Lutz's private collection, Strasbourg†
56	Confitebor tibi Domine (Ps cxi), 1699, T, L, C iv; 2nd version, H i†, F-A†, AIXmc†, Pn†, US-BEm†, R†; ed. P. Oboussier (London, 1982)
57	Laudate Dominum (Ps cxlvii.1–11), 1700, T, F-V, facs. (Courlay, 1990); 2nd version, C ix, facs. (Courlay, 1990), Apt, H xx, facs. (Courlay, 1990), F-Pn
58	Venite, exultemus (Ps xcv), 1701, T, V; 2nd version, C iii, Apt, H xii, AIXmc, Pn, US-BEm
59	Confitebimur tibi (Ps lxxv), 1701, T; 2nd version, C iii, Apt, H ix, F-AIXmc, Pn, US-BEm; ed. A. Cellier (Paris, 1952)
60	Ad Dominum cum tribularer (Ps cxx), music lost
61	Magnus Dominus (Ps xlviii), 1701, C xii†, A, M xx†, F-AIXmc, Pn†
62	Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel (Luke i.68–79), 1702, C xix, Apt, H xviii, US-BEm
63	Notus in Judaea (Ps lxxvi), 1702, L; 2nd version, C vi, Apt, H xi, F-AIXmc, Pn, US-BEm
64	Ad te, Domine, clamabo (Ps xxviii), 1702, L, C viii, Apt, H xii, F-AIXmc, Pn, US-BEm
65	Dominus regnavit (Ps xcvii), 1704, T, L, C v, Apt, H viii, F-AIXmc, C, Pn, US-BEm; ed. D. Chirat (Paris, 1953)
66	Exaltabo te, Domine (Ps xxx), 1704, T; 2nd version, C xii, Apt, H xvii, CDN-Qmu, F-A, AIXmc, US-BEm
67	Pange lingua gloriosi (hymn), 1689, 1704, C xvi, Apt, H xiv, F-AIXmc, US-BEm; ed. H. Sarlit (Paris, 1951)
68	Confitemini Domino (Ps cv), 1705, T; 2nd version, L, C vi; 3rd version, Apt, H vii, F-A, AIXmc, Phanson, Pn, US-BEm, R
69	Verbum supernum prodiens (hymn), music lost
70	Quare fremuerunt gentes (Ps ii), 1706, L, C xviii, Apt, H xvii, F-A, AIXmc, Pn, V, US-BEm; ed. A. Cellier (Paris, 1949)
71	Exurgat Deus (Ps lxviii), 1706, L; 2nd version, C x; 3rd version, Apt, H xiv, F-AIXmc, Pn, US-BEm
72	Cantate Domino (Ps xcviii), 1707, L, C i, F-AIXmc, Pn; 2nd version, Apt, H ii, A, AIXmc, Pn, US-BEm; ed. G. Roussel (Sèvres, 1956)
73	Dixit Dominus (Ps cx), 2nd setting, 1708, C, v, Apt, H v, F-A, AIXmc, Pn, US-BEm; ed. H. Sarlit (Paris, 1950)
74	Sacris solemniis (hymn), 1709, C xvi; 2nd version, Apt, H xvi, F-A, AIXmc, Pn, US-BEm, ed. H. Sarlit (Paris, 1951)
75	Exultate justi in Domino (Ps xxxiii), 1710, C xv†, Apt, H xv†, F-A, AIXmc, Pn†, US-BEm†
76	Exaltabo te, Deus meus (Ps cxlv), 1712, C xix, Apt, H x, F-AIXmc, Pn, US-BEm†; ed. L. Boulay (Paris, 1952)
77	Omnes gentes, plaudite (Ps xlvii), 2nd setting, 1721 (inc.), F-AIXmc; 2nd version, Apt

other sacred

78–86	9 Elévations, text only, before 1704: Salve caro Salvatoris; Jesu quem velatum; O salutaris hostia; Ave verum corpus; Tantum ergo sacramentum; Ignis vivus, dulcis flamma; Ad gaudia cordis; O bone Jesu; Properate multitudo
87	Miserere à voix seule (Ps li), 1v, before 1712, F-B; 2nd version, C xxi, H xxi, D-Bsb, F-AIXmc, Pn, US-AAu, BEm, Cn
88	Nunc dimittis (Luke ii.29–32), 1v, before 1712, music lost
89	O filii et filiae (hymn), 1v, before 1712, F-Pn
90	Regina coeli (ant), before 1712, music lost
91–106	16 petits motets, 1–2vv, org, extracted from grands motets, Pn Rés.1899: Panis angelicus (from s74); Cantemus Domino (s22); Afferte Domino (s55); Magnificavit Dominus (s25, 72); Exultate justi (s75); Sitivit anima mea (s45, 66); Benedictus Dominus, qui non (s26, 71); Confitemini (s68, 59); Memoriam fecit (s56, 68); Quid retribuam (s49, 43); Vanum est vobis (s42, 63); In memoria aeterna (s39, 61); Benedictus Dominus, quoniam (s64, 44); Exultent et laetentur (s33); Miserator et misericors (s76, 71); Adorate Deum (s65)
107–15	9 settings of Domine, salvum fac regem (Ps xx.9): d, before 1702, Pn (inc., Bar pt only); D, before 1702, Pn (inc., Bar pt only); a, before 1702, Pn (inc., Bar pt only); C, before 1702, L, Pn (inc., Bar pt only); G, before 1698, V, Pn (inc., Bar pt only); B, before 1705, T; c, before 1705, T; C, V (doubtful); g, V (doubtful)
116–24	9 Leçons de ténèbres, before 1712: IIIe Leçon du Mercredi Saint s118, C xxi, H xxi, Pn, US-AAu; IIIe Leçon du Jeudi Saint, s121, C xxi, H xxi, F-Pn; IIIe Leçon du Vendredi Saint, s124, C xxi, H xxi; others lost, listed in A 1201
125	Litanies à la Sainte-Vierge, lost, formerly V
126	Messe en plainchant musical, Pn
127	Cantique sur le bonheur des justes (J. Racine), 1694–5, V, US-Cn, in Cantiques (Paris, 1695, 2/1719)
128	Tandis que Babylone, in Nouvelles poésies spirituelles et morales (Paris, 1732)
129	Intermèdes for tragedies by T.-C. Fleuriau d’Armenonville, ?c1680, lost, cited in Tannevot (1729)
130	Symphonies des Noëls, F-Pc Rés.581, Pn Vm⁷ 3077 (Paris, n.d.); nos.1–4 ed. A. Cellier (Paris, 1937), no.2 ed. Schroeder (Berlin, 1968) nos.1–23, ed. R. Ewerhart (Celle, 1979)

stage

MS collections: Les symphonies de M de La Lande … copiées … par Philidor l'aîne … 1703 … pour les soupez du roy), F-Pc Rés.582 [Ph] Recueil d'airs détachez et d'airs de violons de Monsieur De lalande … 1727[–36], F-Pn Vm⁷ 3077 [R] Simphonies de M. De La Lande … recueillies en 1736[–45], F-Pc Rés.581 [Si]

131	La sérénade (divertissement, 1, C.-C. Genest), Fontainebleau, Nov 1682, lost, collab. P. Lorenzani
132	L'amour berger (opéra-pastorale, prol., 3, Marquis de Lomagne), Paris, Hotel de Duras, Feb 1683, 2 airs in Mercure galant, May 1683
133	Les fontaines de Versailles (concert, 6 scenes, A. Maurel), Versailles, 5 April 1683, Ph, R, Si, F-Pc, Pn, in Symphonies de feu Mr. Gaultier (Paris, 1707); ed. Centre de Musique Baroque de Versailles (Versailles, 1997)
134	Concert d'Esculape (concert, 1, ?A. Maurel), Versailles, May 1683, Pc
135	Epithalame, for marriage of the duc de Bourbon and Mme de Nantes (divertissement, 1, Genest), Versailles, 25 July 1685, music lost
136	Ballet de la jeunesse (ballet, prol., 3 intermèdes, F. Dancourt), Versailles, 28 Jan 1686, Pa, Pn, V; ed. in FO, ix (1996)
137	Le palais de Flore (ballet, 6 entrées, Genest), Versailles, 5 Jan 1689 (inc.), Ph, R, Si, Pc, Phanson, Pn, V, US-Wc
138	Ballet de Monsieur de La Lande (ballet), Fontainebleau, before 31 Oct 1691 (inc.), Ph, R, Si, F-Pc, Pn, V, US-Wc, in Suite de trio de differents auteurs (Paris, 1699)
139	Ballet du jour de St Louis (ballet), Versailles, 25 Aug 1691 (inc.) Ph, R, Si, F-Pc, Phanson, Pn, V, US-Wc
140	Mirtil, ou La sérénade (serenade), ?1683–96 (inc.) R, Si
141	Idylle de Fontainebleau, ?Fontainebleau, c1695 (inc.), Ph, R, Si, B-Bc, F-Pc, Phanson, Pn, V, US-Wc
142	Adonis (divertissement, 10 scenes), ?Fontainebleau, 1696 (inc.), Ph, R, Si
143	L'Amour fléchi par la Constance (pastorale, 9 scenes), Fontainebleau, Oct 1697, R, Si, F-LYm
144	Mirtil et Mélicerte (comedy, ov., 3 intermèdes, Banzy), Fontainebleau, ?18 Oct 1698, Ph, R, Si; 2nd music, Paris, 10 Jan 1699 (Paris, 1699, also attrib. F. Couperin (ii)); both musics inc.
145	La comédie des fées (comedy ov., prol., 3 intermèdes, Dancourt), Fontainebleau, 24 Sept 1699 (inc.), Ph, R, Si (Paris, 1699)
146	La noce de village (mascarade, J.-B. Rousseau), Marly, 13 Feb 1700 (inc.), R, Si, Pc
147	L'hymen champêtre (mascarade), Versailles, 1700 (inc.) Ph, R, Si, Pc
148	Madrigaux (Musique nouvelle; Airs nouveaux) (P. Bellocq), Marly, 6 Aug 1704, lost
149	Ode a la louange du roy (concert, Genest), Sceaux, 24 Oct 1704, music lost
150	Divertissement (Idylle) sur la Paix (Ballet de la Paix) (divertissement, 4 entrées, Marquis de Longepierre), Marly, 14 July 1713 (inc.), Ph, R, Si, Pc, Pn, V
151	L'inconnu (comedy, ov., 6 entrées, T. Corneille/Dancourt), Paris, 8 Feb 1720 (inc.), Ph, R, Si, Pc, V (Paris, 1720); incl. music by J.-F. Rebel and A.C. Destouches
152	Les folies de Cardénio (comedy, ov., prol., 3 entrées, C.A. Coypel), Paris, 30 Dec 1720 (inc.), Ph, R, Si, Pa, Pc, Pn, US-Wc; incl. music by Rebel
153	Les élémens (opéra-ballet, prol., 4 entrées, P.-C. Roy), Paris, 31 Dec 1721, R, Si, F-AG, C, Pa, Pc, Pn, Po, US-NH, NYp, reduced score (Paris, 1725, 2/1742) [collab. Destouches]
154	Eglogue, ou Pastorale, Fontainebleau, Oct 1697, doubtful, lost

instrumental

155–72	18 suites of airs (incl. 20 concert de trompettes s158/1–6; 3 caprices s160–62, in Recueil d'airs detachez et d'airs de violons … 1727, F-Pn Vm⁷ 3077, and Simphonies de M. de La Lande … 1736[–45], Pc Rés.581 [300 movts., mostly 1/2 tr, bc, some with ww obbl, incl. 153 from Pc Rés.582 (1703)]
173/1	Simphonie faitte à St Gervais, ?1679–85, B-Bc
173/2	Chaconne, before 1692, F-Pn (inc.)
173/3–9	7 pieces, before 1696: Ritournelle pour ‘qui seminant’, US-Wc; Euntes ibant, Wc; Ritournelle, F-Pc; Ecce enim in iniquitatibus, Pc, US-Wc; Air (Gavotte), F-V, Us-Wc; 2e Air [de la marche suisse], F-Pc, Phanson, V, US-Wc; 3e air en trio du mesme, F-Pc, Phanson, V, US-Wc
173/10–12	[3] pièces de trompette, before 1698, F-Pc: La fugue de Mr de la Lande; Grande pièce; Menuet
173/13–21	9 movts from Les symphonies de M de La Lande … 1703 … pour les soupez du roy, Pc Rés.582, not incl. in later collections: Premier air (also in V); 2e air (also in V, US-Wc); 3e air; Prélude; Dernier air; Menuet; Passepied (also in F-Pc); 2e rigaudon; Prélude
173/22	Menuet, after 1716, V
173/23	Sarabande, gui, Pc
173/24	Carillon, in Noels en trio (Paris, n.d.)
174/1–6	6 ritournelles, 2 vn, bc, in Airs italiens (Paris, 1695)

miscellaneous secular vocal

175/1	Non, non je ne croyois pas, 1678, GB-LWa
175/2	Oh! che felicita, before 1725, F-Pn
175/3	Grégoire à jeun, Grégoire à table, music lost, text in P. Laujon: Oeuvres choisies, iv (Paris, 1811)

misattributed works

Conserva me, Domine, F-Pn Vm¹ 3123, by Antoine dit Esprit Blanchard

Exaudiat te, Dominus, Pn Vm¹ 1353, by M. Delalande (1739–1812)

Laetatus sum, Pn H.400B, by H. Madin

Pleni sunt coeli, Pn Vm¹ 3123, by J. Gilles

3. Typology, tuning and playing techniques.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AnthonyFB

BenoitMC

BrenetC

PierreH

A. Tannevot: ‘Discours sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. De la Lande’: preface to Motets de feu M. De La Lande, i (Paris, 1729)

M. Brenet: La musique sacrée sous Louis XIV (Paris, 1899)

H. Quittard: ‘Notes sur Michel-Richard de Lalande’, RHCM, ii (1902), 315–22

A. Tessier: ‘La carrière versaillaise de La Lande’, RdM, ix (1928), 134–48

A. Cellier: ‘Les motets de Michel-Richard de Lalande’, ReM, nos.198–202 (1946), 20–25

R.J. Martin: Michel-Richard de Lalande and the Sacred Music of the Court of Louis XIV (diss., Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1948)

J.E. Richards: The ‘Grand Motet’ of the Late Baroque in France as exemplified by Michel-Richard de Lalande and a Selected Group of his Contemporaries (diss., U. of Southern California, 1950)

M. Barthélemy: ‘La musique dramatique à Versailles de 1660 à 1715’, XVIIe siècle, no.34 (1957), 7–18

H. Bert: ‘Un ballet de Michel-Richard Delalande’, ibid, 58–72

L. Boulay: ‘Les cantiques spirituels de Racine mis en musique au XVIIe siècle’, ibid, 79– 92

N. Dufourcq: ed.: Notes et références pour servir à une histoire de Michel-Richard Delalande (Paris, 1957)

H.A. Durand: ‘Note sur la diffusion de M. R. Delalande dans les chapitres provençaux au XVIIIe siècle’, RdM, xxxix–xl (1957), 72–3

F. Raugel: ‘La musique à la chapelle du château de Versailles sous Louis XIV’, XVIIe siècle, no.34 (1957), 19–25

L. Boulay: ‘Notes sur quatre motets inédits de Michel-Richard Delalande’, RMFC, i (1960), 77–86

N. Dufourcq: ‘Retour à Michel-Richard Delalande’, ibid., 69–75

C. Masson: ‘Journal du Marquis de Dangeau, 1684–1720’, RMFC, ii (1961–2), 193–223

M. Le Moel: ‘Un foyer d'italianisme à la fin du XVIIe siècle: Nicolas Mathieu, curé de Saint-André-des-Arts’, RMFC, iii (1963), 43–8

G. Thibault: ‘Le “Te Deum” de Lalande’, FAM, xii (1965), 162–5

N. Dufourcq: La musique à la cour de Louis XIV et de Louis XV d’après les mémoires de Sourches et Laynes, 1681–1758 (Paris, 1970)

M. Benoit: Versailles et les musiciens du roi (Paris, 1971)

L. Sawkins: ‘Lalande and the Concert Spirituel’, MT, cxvi (1975), 333–5

P. Oboussier: ‘Lalande's Grands Motets’, MT, cxvii (1976), 483–6

L. Sawkins: ‘An Encore to the Lexicographer's Dilemma, or de Lalande et du Bon Sens’, FAM, xxviii (1981), 319–23 [response by J.R. Anthony, FAM, xxix (1982), 141 only]

J.D. Watson: Michel-Richard Delalande's ‘Lauda Jerusalem’: a Style-Study of the Three Versions (diss., U. of Arizona, 1983)

J.R. Anthony: ‘La structure musicale des récits de Michel-Richard de Lalande’, Le grand motet français (1663–1792): CNRS Paris (Paris, 1984), 119–27

L. Sawkins: ‘The Brothers Bêche: an Anecdotal History of Court Music ’, RMFC, xxiv (1986), 1921–221

M. Benoit, N. Dufourcq and C. Massip: ‘Maîtres et Surintendants du roi au XVIII siècle: une nouvelle querelle’, ibid., 222–60

B. Coeyman: The Stage Works of Michel-Richard Delalande in the Musical-Cultural Context of the French Court, 1680–1726 (diss., CUNY, 1987)

L. Sawkins: ‘For and Against the Order of Nature: Who Sang the Soprano?’, EMc, xv (1987), 315–24

L. Sawkins: ‘Chronology and Evolution of the grand motet at the Court of Louis XIV: Evidence from the Livres du Roi and the Works of Perrin, the sous-maîtres and Lully’, Jean-Baptiste Lully and the Music of the French Baroque, ed. J.H. Heyer (Cambridge, 1989), 41–79

L. Sawkins: The Sacred Music of Michel-Richard de Lalande (1657–1726) (diss., U. of London, 1993)

L. Sawkins: ‘Doucement and légèrement: Tempo in French Baroque Music’, EMc, xxi (1993), 365–74

E.T. Corp: ‘The Exiled Court of James II and James III: a Centre of Italian Music in France, 1689–1712’, JRMA, cxx (1995), 216–31

L. Sawkins: ‘…à l'admiration de tout Paris: Lalande's Sacred Music for Women's Voices’, Essays in Honour of David Evatt Tunley, ed. F. Callaway (Perth, 1995), 73–90

D. Herlin: ‘Fossard et la musique italienne en France au XVIIe siècle’, RMFC, xxix (1996–8), 27–52

Lalauni, Lila [Julia]

(b Athens, 9 June ?1910; d Paris, 12 Feb 1996). Greek pianist and composer. Granddaughter of the composer Timotheos Xanthopoulos and a child prodigy, she entered the Vienna Music Academy in 1927. She studied the piano until 1930, and then composition with Robert Konta, graduating in 1934. She later took lessons privately with Dupré in Paris, where she settled. Lalauni became known primarily as a brilliant pianist; she made her début in Vienna as early as 1930. Four years later she performed Richard Strauss’s Burleske, with the composer conducting. Although her international performing career overshadowed her achievements as a composer, some of her works, especially her piano concertos, were occasionally performed in Greece. Stylistically, her compositions move between late Romanticism and neo-classicism and betray a genuine lyrical gift exercised with emotional restraint. Indeed in terms of technique, let alone inspiration, she ranks among the best Greek composers of her generation. In her final years, poor eyesight forced her to abandon composition.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Montezuma (op, 3, after G. Hauptmann: Der weisse Heiland), c1925–6, unperf.; Medea (incid music, Euripides), ?1943; Hecuba (incid music, Euripides), 1943, lost; Monsieur de Pourceaugnac (incid music, Molière), 1943, unperf., lost

Orch and chbr: Pf Conc., b, arr. 2 pf; Pf Conc. ‘Phantastisches’, d, after 1930, arr. 2 pf; Pf Conc. no.1, e, 1942; Pf Conc. no.2, c, 1958; Petite suite, str, 1959, transcr. pf, 1959, arr. str qnt, 1989; Sym. ‘Synthèses et catalyses’, 1960–62, unperf., transcr. as Sonata [no.1], pf; F.A.E. (Frei aber einsam), vn, pf, 1963, arr. pf; 3 impromptus, fl, pf, 1979; Str Qnt, 1989 [based on Petite suite]; Sicilienne, Villanelle, str

Pf: Klaviersuite, op.6, 1928; Valse lente, 1928; Fantaisie; Au clair de la lune, op.8, 1930; Capriccio sur 3 themes du ‘Chevalier à la rose’ de Richard Strauss, 1936; Le carnaval secret, Le domaine enchanté, 1942; Elegheio [Elegy], f, 1944; Petite suite, 1959; Andante un poco sostenuto, b, 1962; Sonata [no.1] ‘A la mémoire de ma mère’, 1975; Petite suite no.2, 1977, ?lost; Sonata no.2, 1980, ?lost; Andante con moto [after Bach: Art of Fugue]; transcrs. of works by Buxtehude, Bull, Gluck, Schumann

Songs: 2 Songs (K. Karthéos [C. Lakon]), S, pf, 1943; 6 chinesische Lieder (Li Bai [Li Tai-po]), op.7, ?1928–30; 4 Lieder (J. von Goethe, E. Mörike, H. Heine), S, pf/orch; Anixi [Spring] (A. Skelianos), S, pf, 1936; 3 Sonnets (P. Kanellopoulos), S, pf, 1949; 4 rondeaux (C. d’Orléans), Mez/Bar, tpt ad lib, pf, 1984

MSS in Athens Conservatory Library

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Leotsakos: ‘Ellinidhes synthétries’, ‘Lila Lalauni’, Moussiki kai gynaekes (Athens, 1996), 13–18, 32–5

GEORGE LEOTSAKOS

La Laurencie, (Marie-Bertrand-)Lionel(-Jules) de

(b Nantes, 24 July 1861; d Paris, 21 Nov 1933). French musicologist. He took degrees in law and sciences at Nantes and studied at the Collège Stanislas, Paris, and the Ecole des Eaux et Forêts, Nancy (1881–3); concurrently he was taught the violin by Léon Reynier and theory by Alphonse Weingartner and studied with Bourgault-Ducoudray at the Paris Conservatoire (1891–2). He learnt the Classical repertory through regular domestic quartet playing, which he continued to the end of his life. In 1898 he abandoned a promising government administrative career to devote himself to music; he gave popular lecture courses (mainly at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes) on music history and aesthetics (1906–33), also serving as the archivist and librarian (1905–14) and vice-president (from 1914) of the Paris section of the International Musical Society. In 1917 he founded the Société Française de Musicologie, of which he became president (1924–5, 1932). He succeeded Lavignac as editor of the Encyclopédie de la musique et dictionnaire du Conservatoire in 1919.

Although La Laurencie turned to professional musicology comparatively late, he had early served an apprenticeship in letters as the list of his writings shows. To his new career he brought a solid musical grounding and a boundless enthusiasm for a wide range of subjects to which was added precision of thought derived from legal and scientific studies. To complete his training, he acquired an unrivalled skill in archival investigation at the Ecole des Chartes. Notwithstanding an immense output he showed minute attention to detail and documentation, and yet wore his knowledge lightly enough to rivet the reader’s attention.

La Laurencie’s main area of study, French music from Lully to Gluck, is the theme of a well-balanced contribution to Lavignac’s Encyclopédie. For the scholar he compiled a thematic index (Fonds Blancheton) and a library catalogue (Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal); other books cater for the general reader, such as Orphée (which views Gluck’s opera from every angle) and his shorter books on Lully and Rameau. Of special importance is his extended survey on the French symphony (in collaboration with Saint-Foix). L’école française de violon, the result of over 20 years’ research, is his masterpiece and dwarfs all similar works. In this work, La Laurencie’s apology for a certain monotony is too modest in view of the vivid manner of presentation, the abundance of musical examples and footnotes which in themselves would constitute a book, the whole capped by an exhaustive set of appendices. The first two volumes are chronologically devoted to composers and their works, while the third deals with violin manuals, techniques, theorists and teachers, and the evolution of French instrumental music. This work and the study of the symphony, with Barry Brook’s La symphonie française (1962), form a remarkable trilogy covering the whole spectrum of French concerted music from Lully to the Revolution.

WRITINGS

La légende de Parsifal et le drame musical de Richard Wagner (Nantes, 1888, 2/1894)

‘Un moment musical: notes sur lart de Cl. Debussy’, Durendal, x (1903), 614–30; repr. in Courrier musical, vii (1904), 141–9, 181–5

‘Hector Berlioz et le public de son temps’, Courrier musical, vii (1904), 1–10

‘Jean-Marie Leclair l’aîné, premier symphoniste du Roi, d’après des documents inédits’, SIMG, vi (1904–5), 250–73

Le goût musical en France (Paris, 1905/R)

‘Un grand violiniste de l’ancien régime: les deux Jean-Baptiste Anet’, RHCM, v (1905), 548–55, 582–6

‘Un primitif français du violon: François du Val’, BSIM, i (1905), 59–72

‘Un violiniste lyonnais au XVIIIe siècle: Jean-Marie Leclair le second’, Courrier musical, viii (1905), 393–401

‘Une dynastie de musiciens aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles: Les Rebel’, SIMG, vii (1905–6), 253–307

L’Académie de musique et le concert de Nantes à l’Hôtel de la Bourse (1727–1767) (Paris, 1906/R)

‘Jacques Aubert et les premiers concertos français de violon’, BSIM, ii/1 (1906), 441–53

‘Quelques documents sur Jean-Philippe Rameau et sa famille’, BSIM, iii (1907), 541–614

‘Les Forqueray’, BSIM, iv (1908), 1251–74; v (1909), 48–66

Rameau (Paris, 1908/R)

‘Notes sur la jeunesse d’André Campra’, SIMG, x (1908–9), 159–258

with H. Prunières: ‘La jeunesse de Lully (1632–62)’, BSIM, v (1909), 234–42, 329–53

with G. de Saint-Foix: ‘Contribution à l’histoire de la symphonie française vers 1750’, Année musicale, i (1911), 1–123

Lully (Paris, 1911/R, 2/1919/R)

‘Les pastorales en musique au XVIIme siècle en France avant Lully et leur influence sur l’opéra’, IMusSCR IV: London 1911, 139–46 [Eng. summary, p.63]; also in Monde musical (15 Dec 1912)

‘Un émule de Lully: Pierre Gautier de Marseille’, SIMG, xiii (1911–12), 39–69

‘André Campra, musicien profane: notes biographiques’, Année musicale, iii (1913), 153–205

‘La musique française de Lulli à Gluck (1687–1789)’, EMDC, I/iii (1914), 1362–562

‘L’Amérique dans la musique française des XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles’, MQ, vii (1921), 284–302

Les créateurs de l’opéra français (Paris, 1921, 2/1930/R)

L’école française de violon de Lully à Viotti: études d’histoire et d’esthétique (Paris, 1922–4/R)

with A. Mairy: ‘Le luth’, EMDC, II/iii (1927), 1972–83

Les luthistes (Paris, 1928/R)

Inventaire critique du Fonds Blancheton de la Bibliothèque du Conservatoire de Paris (Paris, 1930–31)

‘Antonio Bartolomeo Bruni musicista cunese (1751–1821)’, Richerche e studi, ed. L. Borgo (Turin, 1931), 117–83

‘L’apparition des oeuvres d’Haydn à Paris’, RdM, xiii (1932), 191–205

‘G.-Ph. Telemann à Paris’, RdM, xiii (1932), 75–85

‘Les débuts de la musique de chambre en France’, RdM, xv (1934), 25–34, 86–96, 159–67, 204–31

Orphée de Gluck: étude et analyse (Paris, 1934)

with A. Gastoué: Catalogue des livres de musique (manuscrits et imprimés) de la bibliothèque de l’Arsenal à Paris (Paris, 1936)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Mélanges de musicologie offerts à M. Lionel de La Laurencie (Paris, 1933)

M. Pincherle: ‘Lionel de La Laurencie’, RdM, xv (1934), 3–24 [incl. complete list of writings]

H. Prunières: ‘Nécrologie: Lionel de La Laurencie’, ReM, nos.142–6 (1934), 94–6

B.S. Brook: ‘Lionel de La Laurencie’s “L’école française de violon”’, Notes, xxvi (1969–70), 9–14

J. Hirshberg: ‘The Formation and Destination of the Fonds Blancheton’, CMc, no.27 (1979), 36–44

G.B. SHARP/JEAN GRIBENSKI

Lalli, (Benedetto) Domenico [Biancardi, (Nicolò) Sebastiano]

(b Naples, 27 March 1679; d Venice, 9 Oct 1741). Italian librettist. He fled from Naples in 1706, when he was accused of having taken money from the treasury of the brotherhood of the Annunziata, where he had been employed. Seeking refuge in Rome, he met the composer Emanuele d’Astorga, and together they wandered throughout Italy. He adopted the pseudonym Domenico Lalli in 1709. In Venice between 1710 and 1718 Lalli wrote librettos for the Teatro S Cassiano and, probably from 1719, was impresario at the S Samuele and S Giovanni Grisostomo theatres. In the early 1720s he worked at the archiepiscopal court at Salzburg, and from 1727 to 1740 served as court poet to the Elector of Bavaria. During these years he made the acquaintance of Metastasio and Goldoni, and the latter often praised him for his ‘poetic genius’. He had previously enjoyed the friendship and support of Apostolo Zeno.

One of Lalli’s greatest achievements was in 1711, when his Elisa (with music by G.M. Ruggieri) became the first comic opera to be performed in Venice. In fact opera buffa had existed as early as 1706 in Naples (Faggioli’s La Cilla), and at least one scholar considers that the text of Elisa may have been taken from an even earlier Neapolitan comedy by Niccolò Amenta (see Scherillo). Yet regardless of where Lalli acquired his understanding of the genre, and despite the fact that comic opera did not flourish in Venice until later, his importance lay in the initial step he took in presenting comic opera to the Venetians. With the exception of Elisa most of his librettos adhered faithfully to the 18th-century convention of developing character relationships. These texts were first set by such composers as Francesco Gasparini, Mancini, Vivaldi, Albinoni, Alessandro Scarlatti, Leo and Porpora. In addition, Lalli adapted texts by Minato, Zeno and Metastasio which were set by Hasse and Galuppi, and he also wrote texts and some music for serenatas, cantatas, festive occasions, dedications and sacred and other works.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ES (M. Bogianckino)

GroveO (W.N. Gibney) [with list of librettos]

M. Scherillo: L’opera buffa napoletana durante il Settecento: storia letteraria (Naples, 1883, 2/1917)

F. Walker: ‘Emanuele d’Astorga and a Neapolitan Librettist’, MMR, lxxxi (1951), 90–96

B. Brizi: ‘Domenico Lalli librettista di Vivaldi?’, Vivaldi veneziano europeo: Venice 1978, 183–204

J.W. Hill: Introduction to Vivaldi: Ottone in villa, DMV, xii (Milan, 1983)

L. Bianconi and G. La Face Bianconi, eds.: I libretti italiani di Georg Friedrich Händel e le loro fonti (Florence, 1992–)

WENDY N. GIBNEY/R

Lallouette [Lalouette], Jean (Baptiste) François

(b Paris, 1651; d Paris, 31 Aug 1728). French composer. He was trained at the choir school of St Eustache, Paris, and studied the violin with Guy Leclerc and composition with Lully. Lully appointed him as his secretary and as time-beater at the Opéra and asked him to fill in the inner parts of certain of his works. When he reportedly boasted of having written some of the best parts of Lully’s Isis (1677) he was dismissed. Isis, however, displeased Louis XIV because of its thinly disguised and unflattering portrayal of Mme de Montespan in the character of Juno. The work was withdrawn, not to be performed again until 1704, and Philippe Quinault, the librettist, was dismissed. Lully came through the affair unscathed, and one must wonder if Lallouette was a scapegoat. On 18 April 1678 he was appointed to the Savoy court at Turin as composer of French music and director of the band of violins. He was dismissed in July 1679, possibly because in over a year he had produced only one composition, a three-part serenata performed on 14 May 1678. He probably returned to Paris, where he soon composed an opera; on 27 January 1681 the king’s secretary wrote to a M. de la Régnie informing him that the king forbade further performances of it on the grounds that it violated Lully’s privilege. Lallouette competed unsuccessfully in April 1683 for one of the four positions of sous-maître at the royal chapel. The post was awarded to Pascal Collasse, who had succeeded him as Lully’s secretary; it is likely that Lully intervened on Collasse’s behalf and against Lallouette.

Little is known of Lallouette’s activities from 1683 to 1693. He paid a visit to Rome in 1689 and while he was there composed a concerto in the Italian style which was performed at least once. It is established that in 1692 he was living near St Germain-l’Auxerrois, Paris, and he may have been employed there. On 7 December 1693 he was made choirmaster of Rouen Cathedral, defeating Nicolas Bernier for the post; he remained there until 15 February 1695. There is disagreement on his whereabouts between 1695 and 1700. One source has him at St Germain-l’Auxerrois from September 1695 and busy with a four-act opera, Europe; another has him at Notre Dame, Versailles, in 1695–7 and at St Germain-l’Auxerrois only in 1697–8. Those that have him at St Germain-l’Auxerrois from 1693 to 1700 or maintain that he went from Rouen to Notre Dame, Paris, in 1695 are undoubtedly in error. On 17 November 1700, however, he certainly was appointed to succeed Campra as choirmaster of Notre Dame, Paris. He asked to be released in 1716, claiming fatigue, although the chapter had given him unprecedented yearly vacations and in 1706 had even employed an assistant so that he could be absent frequently. His resignation was accepted, and he was made a canon of St Jean-le-Rond. Early in 1718, however, he asked to be reinstated as choirmaster, asserting that his music was not being well performed; he resumed his duties on 5 March. His Miserere was performed at the Concert Spirituel in 1726. He finally retired on 22 January 1727 and he was allotted a yearly pension of 400 livres. On 9 July 1727 the chapter accepted the gift of all his music to be placed in the archives.

Lallouette was in his day a respected and popular musician and teacher. His works were thought to be well composed and to display a certain originality, although the sacred music was said to suffer from his faulty knowledge of Latin. It bears witness to two influences. On the one hand Italian cantatas seem to have prompted the alternation of vocal and instrumental sections, the rise of certain forms and textures (which derive also from the trio sonata), and the tendency towards stereotyped figuration; on the other hand he sometimes seems consciously to refer to the great Versailles motets of Lalande.

WORKS

Motets livre premier, 1–3vv, bc (Paris, 1726)

Le psalme Miserere à grand choeur et l’hymne Veni Creator à 3 voix, bc, livre second (Paris, 1730)

Missa ‘Veritas’, 4vv (Paris, 1744)

Messe en plain chant, in Recueil de messes en plain chant musical, F-Pn

O cibum super omnia, motet, 2vv, bc, Pn (also attrib. Lully)

6 motets, 3vv, bc, Pn (attrib. by Brossard; also attrib. Lully)

Menuet pour le 1er dessus, in Suite de danses pour les violons et les hautbois, Pn

lost

Opera, Paris, c1678–80

Conc, probably 1689

Serenata, a 3, 1678

Ballet airs, incid music

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BenoitMC; EitnerQ; FétisB; GerberL; GerberNL; HoneggerD; LaBordeE; LabordeMP

Mercure galant (1677–1728)

A. du Pradel [N. de Blégny]: Le livre commode des adresses de Paris pour 1692 (Paris, 1692), ed. E. Fournier (Paris, 1878/R)

P. Bourdelot and P. Bonnet-Bourdelot: Histoire de la musique et de ses effets, ed. J. Bonnet (Paris, 1715/R, 7/1743)

E. Titon du Tillet: Le Parnasse françois (Paris, 1732/R)

A. Collette and A. Bourdon: Histoire de la maîtrise de Rouen (Rouen, 1892/R)

F.L. Chartier: L’ancien chapitre de Notre-Dame de Paris et sa maîtrise (Paris, 1897/R)

M.-T. Bouquet: ‘Quelques relations musicales franco-piémontaises au XVIIe et au XVIIIe siècles’, RMFC, x (1970), 5–18

R.M. Isherwood: Music in the Service of the King: France in the Seventeenth Century (Ithaca, NY, and London, 1973)

J. Anthony and N. Dufourcq: ‘Church Music in France, 1661–1751’, NOHM, v (London, 1975), 437–92

D. Launay: La musique religieuse en France du Concile de Trente à 1804 (Paris, 1993)

WILLIAM HAYS, ERIC MULARD

Lalo, Charles

(b Périgueux, 24 Feb 1877; d Paris, 1 April 1953). French aesthetician. He studied philosophy and aesthetics in Bayonne and in Paris, where he took the doctorate in 1908 with two dissertations, on contemporary experimental aesthetics and on his own theory of musical aesthetics. After teaching philosophy at the University of Bordeaux and various leading secondary schools, he succeeded Victor Basch as lecturer in aesthetics and art history at the Sorbonne (1933–53). He was president of the Société Française d’Esthétique, and one of the directors of the Revue d’esthétique. Throughout his writings (which deal with sociology and logic as well as general aesthetics) he insisted that aesthetics is a scientific discipline that must be based on facts, on an examination of the mathematical, psychological, physiological and sociological aspects of the beautiful rather than on theory or criticism; and that the components of a musical (or any artistic) structure are interdependent parts of the organic whole and cannot be assessed in isolation.

WRITINGS

Esquisse d’une esthétique musicale scientifique (diss., U. of Paris, 1908; Paris, 1908, enlarged 2/1939 as Eléments d’une esthétique)

L’esthétique expérimentale contemporaine (diss., U. of Paris, 1908; Paris, 1908)

Les sentiments esthétiques (Paris, 1910)

‘La philosophie de la musique’, La musique contemporaine française: Rome 1911, 117–26

Introduction à l’esthétique (Paris, 1912, 5/1960 as Notions d’esthétique)

L’art et la vie sociale (Paris, 1921)

L’art et la morale (Paris, 1922/R)

La beauté et l’instinct sexuel (Paris, 1922)

L’expression de la vie dans l’art (Paris, 1933)

‘Sur les valeurs culturelles et sociales des beaux-arts’, Congrès international d’esthétique et de science de l’art: Paris 1937, i, 358–63

L’art loin de la vie (Paris, 1939)

L’art et la vie, i: L’art près de la vie (Paris, 1946); ii: Les grandes évasions esthétiques (Paris, 1947); iii: L’économie des passions (Paris, 1947)

‘L’esthétique musicale’, La musique des origines à nos jours, ed. N. Dufourcq (Paris, 1946, 3/1959), 481–514

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (G. Ferchault)

Revue d’esthétique, vi/2 (1953) [fasc. devoted to Lalo]

Lalo, Edouard(-Victoire-Antoine)

(b Lille, 27 Jan 1823; d Paris, 22 April 1892). French composer. His father had fought for Napoleon and although the name was originally Spanish, the family had been settled in Flanders and northern France since the 16th century. Lalo’s parents at first encouraged musical studies and he learnt both the violin and the cello at the Lille Conservatoire, but his more serious inclinations towards music met with stern military opposition from his father, compelling him to leave home at the age of 16 to pursue his talent in Paris. He attended Habeneck’s violin class at the Paris Conservatoire for a brief period and studied composition privately with the pianist Julius Schulhoff and the composer J.-E. Crèvecoeur. For a long while he worked in obscurity, making his living as a violinist and teacher. He became friendly with Delacroix and played in some of Berlioz’s concerts. He was also composing and two early symphonies were apparently destroyed. In the late 1840s he published some romances in the manner of the day and some violin pieces; his inclination was, unfashionably, towards chamber music. By 1853 he had composed two piano trios, a medium almost entirely neglected in France at the time. The revival of interest in chamber music in France in the 1850s owed much to Lalo, for he was a founder-member of the Armingaud Quartet, formed in 1855 with the aim of making better known the quartets of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and also of Mendelssohn and Schumann; Lalo played the viola and later second violin. His own string quartet dates from 1859.

A period of discouragement then ensued and Lalo wrote little until 1866 when, at the age of 43, he embarked on an opera in response to a competition set up by the Théâtre-Lyrique. His Fiesque, a grand opera in three acts to a libretto by Charles Beauquier after Schiller’s play Fiesco, was not awarded the prize and, despite interest shown by both the Paris Opéra and the Théâtre de la Monnaie, Brussels, it was never performed. Lalo was embittered by these refusals and had the vocal score published at his own expense. He valued the work highly and drew on it for numerous later compositions, including the scherzo of the Symphony in G minor, the two Aubades for small orchestra, the Divertissement, Néron and other works.

Lalo’s fame as a composer was greatly widened in the 1870s by the performance of a series of important instrumental works. The formation of the Société Nationale and the support of Pasdeloup, Lamoureux, Colonne, Sarasate and others gave Lalo an opportunity to pursue his ambitions as a composer of orchestral music in an essentially German tradition. The F major violin concerto was played by Sarasate in 1874 and the Symphonie espagnole, also by Sarasate, the following year. His cello concerto was played by Fischer in 1877 and the Fantaisie norvégienne in 1878. The Concerto russe for violin was first played by Marsick in 1879. Despite this highly productive period devoted to orchestral music, the composition of Fiesque had satisfied Lalo that he should continue to seek success in the theatre and in 1875 he began work on a libretto by Edouard Blau based on a Breton legend, Le roi d’Ys. By 1881 it was substantially completed and extracts had been heard in concerts. But no theatre accepted it, and the Opéra, perhaps as consolation for turning it down, asked Lalo instead for a ballet (‘a genre that I know nothing about’, he admitted) to be completed in four months. Namouna was composed in 1881–2 (when Lalo suffered an attack of hemiplegia Gounod helped with the orchestration) and played at the Opéra the following year. The production was beset with intrigue and survived only a few performances. Lalo’s music was variously criticized as that of a symphonist or a Wagnerian or both, but the more discerning critics appreciated its freshness and originality. Debussy, then a student at the Conservatoire, remained an enthusiastic admirer of the score and it became popular in the form of a series of orchestral suites.

More orchestral works followed, notably the symphony and the piano concerto, but Lalo’s main attention was given to the production of his masterpiece Le roi d’Ys, finally mounted at the Opéra-Comique on 7 May 1888. It was an overwhelming success and for the remaining four years of his life Lalo finally enjoyed the general acclaim he had sought for so long. Although he worked on two more stage works, the pantomime Néron staged at the Hippodrome in 1891 and La jacquerie, an opera of which he completed only one act, both drew almost entirely on earlier compositions; his productive life was essentially over. In 1865 Lalo had married one of his pupils, Julie de Maligny – a singer of Breton origin; their son was Pierre Lalo.

Although Lalo’s fame has rested, in France at least, on Le roi d’Ys, his instrumental music must be accorded a more prominent historical importance, for it represents a decisively new direction in French music at that period, taken more or less simultaneously by César Franck and Saint-Saëns. Outside France the Symphonie espagnole, a violin concerto in five movements using Spanish idioms and whimsically entitled symphony, has remained his most popular work; the freshness of its melodic and orchestral language is imperishable. The cello concerto is on the whole a stronger and more searching work, with a central movement that combines slow movement and scherzo as Brahms was wont to do, and a forward momentum, especially in the first movement, of exceptional power. In his Symphony it is the two central movements, a scherzo and an adagio (both drawn from earlier music) which carry the weight of the argument. The piano concerto is disappointing, but the string quartet, composed in 1859 and revised in 1880, and the second piano trio are both works that deserve to be heard more frequently.

The opera Fiesque is encumbered with a libretto laden with absurdities and awkward stage manoeuvres, belonging in spirit to the age of Scribe. Yet for a first opera the music is extraordinarily deft and varied, occasionally pompous but never dull, and full of brilliantly successful numbers. The Divertissement, drawn from the opera, is one of Lalo’s most effective orchestral pieces. Le roi d’Ys is a fine opera too, with some borrowing of the conventional scenes of grand opera, such as the offstage organ with ethereal voices. Margared is well characterized, especially in her expressions of anxiety or horror, and Rozenn has music of winning tenderness. The choral music is less convincing, for Lalo seems inadequate to the task of collective characterization except when the chorus are being conventionally decorative, as for example in the exquisite wedding scene. The opera has considerable dramatic force and a genuine individuality of style.

Many of Lalo’s songs were written for his wife’s contralto voice. They form a more sentimental, lyrical part of his output in notable contrast to the instrumental music. His gift in this area was already evident in the Six romances populaires of 1849 and the Hugo settings of 1856.

Lalo’s style is robust and forceful with fresh rhythmic and harmonic invention. He was accused, like all progressive composers of his time, of imitating Wagner but although he admired Wagner, their styles have little in common. As Lalo himself said: ‘It’s hard enough doing my own kind of music and making sure that it’s good enough. If I started to do someone else’s I’m sure it would be appalling’. His favourite harmonic colour is the so-called French 6th, which is almost overused, but he did turn harmonic progression to fine effect as a source of forward momentum. His orchestration is noisy but ingenious; Namouna is a particularly skilful score. He had an evident fondness for scherzo movements in 6/8, 3/8 and even 3/16. Another hallmark is a recurring emphatic chord (often an octave), fortissimo, commonly on an unexpected beat of the bar; in his orchestral music this mannerism can be brusque or crude in effect. His temperament was naturally tuned to the styles of Mendelssohn and Schumann on which he superimposed a variety of colours, sometimes drawn from folk idioms of Scandinavia, Russia, Brittany or Spain. All his music has a vigour and energy that place it in striking contrast to the music of Franck’s pupils on the one hand and the impressionists on the other. His kinship is more with the Russians, especially Borodin, and with Smetana, than with composers of his own country, although it is not difficult to find traces of his influence in Dukas and Debussy and perhaps more distinctly in Roussel.

WORKS

all printed works published in Paris unless otherwise stated

stage

Fiesque (grand opéra, 3, C. Beauquier, after F. von Schiller Die Verschwörung des Fiesco zu Genua), 1866–8, unperf., vs (1872)

Namouna (ballet, 2, C. Nuitter, H. Blaze de Bury, M. Petipa), 1881–2, Paris, Opéra, 6 March 1882 (1882)

Le roi d’Ys (opéra, 3, E. Blau), 1875–88, Paris, OC (Favart), 7 May 1888, vs (1888), fs (n.d.)

Néron (pantomime, 3, P. Milliet), 1891, Paris, Hippodrome, 28 March 1891, F-Pn [drawn from Fiesque and other works]

La jacquerie (opéra, 4, Blau and S. Arnaud), 1891–2, Monte Carlo, 9 March 1895, vs (1894) [Act 1 only, completed by A. Coquard]

vocal

Choral: Litanies de la sainte Vierge, org/pf acc. (1876); O salutaris, op.34, female vv, org (1884)

Collections: 6 romances populaires (P.J. de Béranger) (1849): 1 La pauvre femme, 2 Beaucoup d’amour, 3 Le suicide, 4 Si j’étais petit oiseau, 5 Les petits coups, 6 Le vieux vagabond; 6 mélodies (V. Hugo), op.17 (1856): 1 Guitare, 2 Puisqu’ici bas, 3 L’aube naît, 4 Dieu qui sourit et qui donne, 5 Oh! quand je dors, 6 Chanson à boire [2 settings]; 3 mélodies (A. de Musset) (?c1870): 1 A une fleur, 2 Chanson de Barberine, 3 La Zuecca; 5 Lieder (Mainz, 1879): 1 Prière de l’enfant à son réveil (Lamartine), 2 A celle qui part (A. Silvestre), 3 Tristesse (Silvestre), 4 Viens (Lamartine), 5 La chanson de l’alouette (V. de Laprade); 3 mélodies (1887): La fenaison (Stella), L’esclave (T. Gautier), Souvenir (Hugo)

Songs (all pf acc.): Adieux au désert (A. Flobert) (1848); L’ombre de Dieu (A. Lehugeur) (?1848); Le novice (H. Stupuy), op.5 (1849); Ballade à la lune (de Musset) (1860); Humoresque (Beauquier) (?1867); Aubade (V. Wilder) (1872); Chant breton (A. Delpit), op.31, acc. fl/ob (1884); Marine (A. Theuriet), op.33 (1884); Dansons, op.35, S, Mez (1884) [arr. from Namouna]; Au fond des halliers (Theuriet), S, T (1887) [arr. from Fiesque]; Le rouge-gorge (Theuriet) (1887); Veni, Creator, d’après un thème bohème, A, pf/org (n.d.)

orchestral

2 symphonies, early, destroyed by Lalo

2 aubades, 10 insts/small orch, 1872 (n.d.) from Fiesque: 1 Allegretto, 2 Andantino

Divertissement, 1872 (c1872), ballet music from Fiesque, incl. the 2 aubades

Violin Concerto, F, op.20, 1873 (1874)

Symphonie espagnole, op.21, vn, orch, 1874 (1875)

Allegro appassionato, op.27, vc, orch (1875), arr. of op.16; also orchd as Allegro symphonique (n.d.)

Cello Concerto, d, 1877 (Berlin, 1877)

Fantaisie norvégienne, vn, orch, 1878 (Berlin, 1880)

Rapsodie norvégienne, 1879 (Berlin, 1881), portions arr. from Fantaisie norvégienne

Romance-sérénade, vn, orch, 1879 (Berlin, 1879)

Concerto russe, op.29, vn, orch, 1879 (Mainz, 1883)

Fantaisie-ballet, vn, orch, 1885 (n.d.), from Namouna

Andantino, vn, orch, from Namouna

Sérénade, str, from Namouna

Symphony, g, 1886 (?1887)

Piano Concerto, f, 1888–9 (1889)

chamber and solo instrumental

op.

1	Fantaisie originale, vn, pf, c1848 (c1850)
2	Allegro maestoso, vn, pf, c1848 (c1850)
4	Deux impromptus, vn, pf, c1848 (c1850): 1 Espérance, 2 Insouciance
—	Arlequin, esquisse caractéristique, vn/vc, pf, c1848 (c1850); also orchd
7	Piano Trio no.1, c, c1850 (n.d.)
8	Pastorale and Scherzo alla Pulcinella, vn, pf, c1850 (n.d.)
—	Piano Trio no.2, b (?1852)
12	Violin Sonata, 1853 (1855); originally Grand duo concertant
14	Chanson villageoise, Sérénade, vn/vc, pf (1854)
16	Allegro, vc, pf (?1856); arr. vc, orch as op.27, and again as Allegro symphonique (n.d.)
18	Soirées parisiennes, vn, pf, 1856 (c1860), collab. C. Wehle: 1 Ballade, 2 Menuet, 3 Idylle
—	Cello Sonata, 1856 (n.d.)
19	String Quartet, E, 1859 (Leipzig, n.d.); rev. as op.45
—	Sérénade, pf (1864)
26	Piano Trio no.3, a, 1880 (1881); Scherzo orchd 1884
28	Guitare, vn, pf (1882)
32	La mère et l’enfant, pf 4 hands, 1873 (c1873): 1 Romance, 2 Sérénade
45	String Quartet, E, 1880 (1886); rev. of op.19
—	Valse, vc, pf
—	Piano Quintet, A, F-Pn
—	Adagio, 2nd fantaisie-quintette, pf, str qt, Pn

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO (H. Macdonald)

H. Imbert: Nouveaux profils de musiciens (Paris, 1892)

A. Pougin: ‘Edouard Lalo’, Le ménestrel (1 May 1892)

A. Bruneau: Musiques de Russie et musiciens de France (Paris, 1903)

G. Servières: ‘La musique de chambre d’Edouard Lalo’, Guide musical, lvi (1910), 711–16

O. Séré [J. Poueigh]: Musiciens français d’aujourd’hui (Paris, 1911, 8/1921) [incl. bibliography to 1921]

H. Malherbe: Edouard Lalo, conférence prononcée … 23 décembre, 1920 (Paris, 1921)

P. Dukas: ‘Edouard Lalo’, ReM, iv/4–6 (1923), 97–107

P. Lalo: ‘La vie d’Edouard Lalo’, ReM, iv/4–6 (1923), 118–24

G. Servières: Edouard Lalo (Paris, 1925)

M. Pincherle, ed.: Musiciens peints par eux-mêmes: lettres de compositeurs écrites en français (Paris, 1939)

E. Lockspeiser: The Literary Clef: an Anthology of Letters and Writings by French Composers (London, 1958)

G. Schulz: ‘A Northern Legend’, ON, xxiv/14 (1959–60), 12 only

K.R. Brachtel: ‘Edouard Lalo zum 75. Todestag am 22 April’, Musica, xxi (1967), 130 only

L’avant-scène opéra, no.65 (1984) [Le roi d’Ys issue]

E. Lalo: Correspondance, ed. J.-M. Fauquet (Paris, 1989)

W.L.A. DeLozier: Hispanic Elements as Found in the Concerto in D minor for Cello and Orchestra by Edouard Victoire Antoine Lalo (thesis, California State U., 1991)

J. Allin: ‘Edouard Lalo: Symphonie espagnole’, Education musicale, no.388 (1992), 11–15

G. Denizeau: ‘Concerto pour violencelle en ré mineur’, ibid., 4–10

C. Rose: ‘Eduoard Lalo: 1823–1892’, ibid., 2–3

M. Ladjili: ‘La musique arabe chez les compositeurs français du XIXe siècle saisis d'exotisme’, IRASM, xxvi (1995), 3–33

S. Huebner: French Opera at the ‘fin de Siecle’: Wagnerism, Nationalism, and Style (Oxford, 1999)

HUGH MACDONALD

Lalo, Pierre

(b Puteaux, 6 Sept 1866; d Paris, 9 June 1943). French music critic, son of Edouard Lalo. He was a brilliant student of literature, classics, philosophy and, at the Ecole Nationale des Chartes and the Ecole Polytechnique, modern languages. From 1896 he contributed for some time to the Journal des débats before making his mark as a music critic with an article on d’Indy’s Fervaal in the Revue de Paris (v, 1898, pp.438–48); this secured him the post of critic of Le temps (in succession to Johannès Weber), which he held from October 1898 until 1914. Lalo’s articles in that paper, and in Courrier musical and Comoedia, are characterized by conservatism, wit, astuteness and a linguistic finesse which occasionally turned to virulence: his diatribes against ‘Debussyism’ (Le temps, 21 Feb 1906) were heavily sarcastic and his preoccupation with the supposed influence of Debussy on Ravel (see the review of Histoires naturelles entitled ‘Maurice Ravel et le Debussysme’, Le temps, 19 March 1907) was an important feature of the journalistic cause célèbre that largely caused the strained relations between the two men. Lalo was later a member of the governing bodies of the Paris Conservatoire and the Radiodiffusion Française.

WRITINGS

La musique: 1898–1899 (Paris, 1920) [collection of articles]

Richard Wagner ou le Nibelung (Paris, 1933)

De Rameau à Ravel: portraits et souvenirs (Paris, 1947) [posth. selection of articles]

JOHN TREVITT

Lalouette, Jean François.

See Lallouette, Jean François.

Laloy, Louis

(b Gray, Haute-Saône, 18 Feb 1874; d Dôle, 4 March 1944). French musicologist and critic. He was a pupil at the Ecole Normale Supérieure (1893), gaining the agrégé des lettres (1896) and docteur ès lettres (1904); he also studied at the Schola Cantorum with d’Indy, Bordes and others (1899–1905). He contributed as editor-in-chief (‘without title’, as he said later) to Combarieu’s Revue musicale from 1901, and in 1905 founded, with Jean Marnold, the Mercure musical which Ecorcheville later transformed into the Bulletin français de la S.I.M. He was also co-founder of the short-lived Année musicale (1911–13) and an influential music critic of the Grande revue, the Gazette des beaux-arts and (from 1930) the Revue des deux mondes. In 1906–7 he lectured on music history at the Sorbonne while Romain Rolland was on leave. He served as secretary general of the Paris Opéra from 1914 and was professor of music history at the Paris Conservatoire (1936–41).

Laloy was a cultured man whose interests included the music of ancient Greece (discussed in his dissertation) and that of East Asia: he lectured on Chinese music at the Sorbonne from 1921 and wrote the libretto for Roussel’s Padmâvatî. Though his work at the Schola Cantorum led to a book on Rameau, Laloy was a noted defender of contemporary French music and was a close friend of, and mediator between, Ravel and Debussy, with whom he collaborated on some unrealized stage works; he was also the author of the first major work (and the first in the French language) on Debussy.

WRITINGS

Aristoxène de Tarente et la musique de l’antiquité (diss., Ecole Normale Supérieure, Paris, 1904; Paris, 1904/R)

‘Notes sur la musique cambodgienne’, IMusSCR II: Basle 1906, 61–5

Rameau (Paris, 1908, 3/1919)

Claude Debussy (Paris, 1909, 2/1944; Eng. trans., 1930)

The Future of Music (London, 1910)

La musique chinoise (Paris, 1910; Eng. trans., 1979)

Richard Wagner (Leipzig, 1910) [trans. of G. Adler: Richard Wagner, Leipzig, 1904]

La danse à l’Opéra (Paris, 1927)

La musique retrouvée, 1902–1927 (Paris, 1928/R)

Une heure de musique avec Beethoven (Paris, 1930)

Comment écouter la musique (Paris, 1942)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Dietschy: ‘Louis Laloy (1874–1944)’, Bulletin de la Société des amis de Meudon, cxlii (1977), 2276–85

A. Hoérée: ‘Lettres d’Albert Roussel à Louis Laloy’, Cahier Albert Roussel, ii (1979), 72–4

A. Flattot-Mouffard: ‘Louis Laloy, musicologue Franc-comtois et Claude Debussy’, Mémoires de la Société d’emulation du Doubs, new ser., xxviii (1986), 67–77

JOHN TREVITT

Lam.

Southern Lao and north-eastern Thai term for vocal music (the central and northern Lao equivalent is khap), used particularly to designate melodies that are generated from the speech tones of the text. See Laos, §1.

Lam, Doming(os) [Lam Ngok-pui]

(b Macau, 5 Aug 1926). Macanese composer and teacher. Brought up in Macau, his first exposure to music was through singing in church choirs and the lessons of Salesian missionaries. Moving to Hong Kong at the age of 23, he began to study music and learn the violin privately, and though self-taught, he gained entry to the Royal Conservatory in Toronto (1954–8). He gained a composition diploma there, then moved to the University of Southern California (1960–63) to study with Rózsa. He continued to keep abreast of developments in avant-garde music, and from the mid-1960s to the early 70s he became known as Hong Kong’s first full-time native composer. In 1973 he co-founded the Asian Composers’ League, serving as its secretary-general (1980–90). He was composer-in-residence and a lecturer at Hong Kong University (1986–94); in 1988 the governor of Macau decorated him for services to the arts. In 1994 he moved to Toronto.

The earlier stages of Lam’s music show two trends: atmospheric settings of Chinese texts, such as the ever-popular Li Bai songs (1957), and a neo-classical instrumental style, reminiscent of Bartók, as in the violin sonata Oriental Pearl (1961), which echoes Cantonese opera and employs pipa fingerings. With the founding of the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra in the late 1970s, he gained a laboratory for the study of Chinese instruments; the first result of this enduring collaboration was Autumn Execution (1978). Two other pieces, Thanksgiving to Joe-Kwan (1976) and Insect World I (1979), a delightful suite rich in onomatopoeic effects and aimed at children, made his reputation both in Asia and in the West. Both works use Western techniques in a Chinese context and reflect the joyful brashness associated with life in Hong Kong. An increasing amalgamation of his Western background with his experience of Chinese music characterizes his later works, notably in the song cycle Like is Their Delight (1980) for dramatic soprano and Chinese instruments. In the 1990s, following a hiatus in his work, he concentrated on composing Catholic liturgical music for use by Cantonese-speaking congregations.

WORKS

Dance-dramas: Legend, 1981; Triptych, 1982

Orch: Essay, str, 1958; Gu-Chu, pf, 1964, rev. pf, orch, 1971; Thanksgiving to Joe-Kwan, the Kitchen God, 1976; Image, pf, orch, 1977; Aerial Ode, 1978; Tai-Ping Shan Panorama, 1979; Contrast, dizi, pipa, yangqin, erhu, orch, 1981; Insect World II, 1981; Heaven’s Blessing, 1988; Twilight, pipa, orch, 1997

Chin. orch: Autumn Execution, 1978; Insect World I, 1979; Silent Prayer, 1981; Kung Fu, pipa, orch, 1987

Chbr and solo inst: Pf Study no.1, tape, 1954; Divertimento no.1, 2 fl, pf, 1958; Duet, 2 vn, 1958; Prelude and Scherzo, pf, 1959; Uncle’s Suite, pf, 1960; Oriental Pearl, sonata, vn, pf, 1961; Old Fisherman, vn, 1962; 7 Popular Chinese Folk Songs, pf, 1962; 3 Chinese Dances, vn, pf, 1963; Chinese Folk Song Suite, 2 fl, va, perc, 1963; 3 Settings of the Wai City Ballad, fl, pf, 1966; Breakthrough II, fl, vc, 1976; Changing Wind, vn, b cl + a sax, pf, perc, 1990

Vocal: Reap and Gather, 3 songs, 1v, pf, 1953–7; Panis Angelicus, SATB, 1v, org/orch, 1956; 3 Night Songs (Li Bai), 1v, orch, 1957; Ah! Sun Flower, SATB, 1958; Gloria Patri, SATB, org, 1961; Missa Laudis, SATB, org, 1962; 2 Farewell Songs (Li Bai), high v, fl, 1964; Open your Arms, children’s choir, pf/orch, 1979; Like is Their Delight, S, insts, 1980; A Silent Prayer, children’s chorus, Chin. orch, 1981; The War Bridge (cant.), T, Bar, SATB, 2 pf, 1983; The Trial of Dou-e in a Dream (cant.), S, Bar, Chin. orch, 1989; Eucharistic Prayer, vv, org, 1994; liturgical music, chorus, org, c1982–94

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D.P.L. Law: ‘Hong Kong’, New Music in the Orient, ed. H. Ryker (Buren,1991), 225–48

F.F. Chow, ed.: The Wonderful Life of Doming Lam (Hong Kong, 1995)

B. Mittler: ‘New Music from Hong Kong and Taiwan’, CHIME, no.9 (1996), 4–44

W.C. Tsui, ed.: Hong Kong Composers’ Guild Directory (Hong Kong, 1997), 17–22

HARRISON RYKER

Lamalle, Pierre

(b c1648; d Liège, 28 July 1722). Flemish composer. He entered the cathedral of St Lambert at Liège as a duodenus, and he spent his life there as musician and priest. On 26 September 1664 he received a bursa toledana – an award that enabled choristers whose voices had broken to continue their studies – and on the same day in 1668 the chapter made him another award so that he could continue his studies at the seminary. The following year he offered the chapter a mass he had composed, and its favourable reception is confirmed by the performances of a simphonia by him at High Mass in the cathedral on two consecutive Sundays in January 1671. The political troubles and wars that racked Liège between 1672 and 1715 also affected the cathedral and probably hindered Lamalle’s output and success. Nonetheless on 30 April 1672 the maître de chant, Lambert Pietkin, who taught him composition, drew the chapter’s attention to his talent as a composer, and he was appointed second succentor. Pietkin’s retirement in 1674 and the death seven years later of the first succentor made it possible for Lamalle to become director of the cathedral choir school on 3 September 1681. However, the title of phonascus and the revenue from the post were not accorded him until 1688; in his plea to the chapter to obtain this delayed nomination he pointed out that he had de facto been carrying out the duties of maître de chant for years without being paid to do so and also that he had been composing works for the cathedral in the Italian style.

From 1688, as maître de chant, he set about reorganizing the school, which by 1699 consisted of 30 performers. He encouraged the performance of Italian music, and the italianate tradition that he established persisted throughout the 18th century. From this time onward the canons sent their best young musicians to Rome to perfect their talents. Lamalle himself set them the highest artistic standards. The chapter accepted his resignation on 2 September 1713; in doing so they specifically stated that he should hand over to them all the works that he had composed for the cathedral, a common practice in Liège that unfortunately led to the disappearance of manuscript works of several centuries composed by the maîtres de chant of St Lambert. Lamalle’s lost works include the mass and simphonia already referred to and also two other masses. Of a four-part Salve regina only the continuo part survives (B-Lc T205). The same source contains his only surviving complete work, a six-part mass with two obbligato instruments, bassoon and continuo, composed in 1672. The brilliant style of this work, in which the soloists, chorus and instrumentalists partake in a lively dialogue, probably characterized his more mature works too. Free imitation, duets in 3rds, rapid melismas at the ends of phrases and the judicious distribution of the text between the voices are features of a work whose quality explains the high esteem in which the canons of St Lambert held Lamalle.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AudaM

BNB (J. Quitin)

VannesD

J. Quitin: ‘Pierre Lamalle … 1648(?)–1722’, Bulletin de la Société royale Le Vieux-Liège, no.120 (1958), 218–25

JOSÉ QUITIN

Laman, Wim

(b The Hague, 27 April 1946). Dutch composer. He studied music education and the flute at the Goois Muziklyceum before studying philosophy and music at Leiden University (1970–75). During this period he became known as a composer and worked with student ensembles. He then studied musicology and electronic music at the University of Utrecht's Institute for Sonology. La voce del corno, a radiophonic work, received honourable mentions in the Italia Prize contest and at the Rostrum for Electro-Acoustic Music. Critical of the enclosed world of new music that has existed since Darmstadt, Laman has pleaded for a culture of greater openness towards the public, and for greater effort to be made in the education of contemporary music. While working at VPRO-Radio in Hilversum, he has been able to put some of his ideas into practice.

Agamemnon, his opera of 1997, is the first part of a trilogy based on the Oresteia; the large ensemble in this work creates the most refined musical mosaics possible, giving the audience a soundscape of their own time, but through the glasses of Aeschylus. In order to express the doom over the house of the Atriden, Laman invented an instrument with an enormous string that offers a very low D. Such well-known ensembles as the Residentie-Orkest of the Hague, the Schönberg Ensemble and the Netherlands Wind Ensemble have performed his works.

WORKS

(selective list)

Wat baet die vryheyt, 2 spkr, SATB, orch, 1974; Musica, ars subtilior, va, wind ens, 1976; Echo la primavera, cl, 1977; Canto infernale (Dante, E. Deschamps), S, orch, 1978, rev. 1980; Het gevecht (Armando), B-Bar, ens, tape, 1978; Wahnfried, oder die Wagnerdämmerung, orch, 1979; Fleurs du mal (C. Baudelaire), Mez, orch, 1981; Confronti, hn, orch, 1982; Pancabana, ens, 1986; Emanation, fl, vn, vc, hp, 1987; Midas' Tomb, medium v, str qt, tape, 1989; Duo?, 2 hn, 1991; Syntagma, vn, orch, 1991; Vortex, wind ens, 1997; Agamemnon, Pt 1 of the Oresteia (op, after Aeschylus), 1997

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Wielaert: ‘Festivals brengen de nieuwe muziek steeds meer in een isolement: portret van componist Wim Laman’, Muziek & dans, x/4 (1986), 28–30

E. Wennekes: ‘Agamemnon, an Opera by Wim Laman’, Key Notes, xxxi/3 (1997), 22–5

HUIB RAMAER

Lamare [Lamarre], Jacques-Michel Hurel de

(b Paris, 1 May 1772; d Caen, 27 March 1823). French cellist. He entered the Institute of Pages in the Music of the King at the age of seven. He studied the cello first with J.H. Levasseur, and later with J.L. Duport (1787–90). After the Revolution he obtained a position at the Théâtre Feydeau (1794). Parisian audiences acclaimed his virtuosity, and his reputation soon equalled that of Duport. Fétis states that Lamare took up an appointment at the Conservatoire, and although the records there provide no substantiation for this, he was associated closely with the Conservatoire violinists Pierre Baillot and Pierre Rode.

Following Rode's lead, Lamare left Paris in 1801, travelling to London and Berlin and on to Russia, where he was joined by Baillot in 1805. In addition to private performances for the nobility, Lamare participated in the 16 subscription concerts given by Baillot's quartet between 1805 and 1808. When he left Russia and returned to Paris (via Poland, Austria and Belgium), however, he had difficulty in re-establishing himself as a soloist. A Parisian performance in May 1809 was poorly received because ‘the violoncello is so little appreciated by the ladies’ (AMZ, xi (1809), 605). He subsequently retired from solo playing, but remained in Baillot's quartet until 1815. Marrying a woman of independent wealth, he retired to Caen. Lamare's name remained prominent as Auber's nom de plume for a number of cello compositions; the concertos were used as teaching repertory at the Conservatoire until 1866.

As described in the Berlinische musikalische Zeitung (1806, no.26, pp.102–4), Lamare utilized the orchestral cello hold taught by the Conservatoire, with the instrument placed on his left foot rather than held between his legs. A preference for the upper strings correspondingly became a distinguishing trait, commentators remarking that he even rewrote passages to avoid playing on the cello's lower strings. Nevertheless, Auber's concertos demonstrate that Lamare was on the cutting edge of the new style of performance as exhibited by members of J.B. Viotti's French violin school. Lamare was said to emulate Rode's bowing style, particularly excelling in the execution of dotted-rhythm patterns (piqué) performed at the tip of the bow. Lengthy passages of bravura passage-work demonstrate the sophisticated fingering techniques of Duport and include virtuoso phrases of double-stops and solid octaves in the upper registers. Lamare was also described as a sensitive chamber music player, having beautiful sound and absolute control of dynamic gradations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

Correspondance des amateurs musiciens (18 Jan 1804), (8 Feb 1804)

‘On the Rise and Progress of the Violoncello’, Quarterly Musical Magazine and Review, ix (1824), 351–63, 475–82, esp. 482

B. François-Sappey: ‘Pierre Marie François de Sales Baillot (1771–1842) par lui-même’, Recherches sur la Musique Française Classique, xviii (1978), 127–211

J.-M. Fauquet: Les sociétés de musique de chambre à Paris de la restauration à 1870 (Paris, 1986)

V. Walden: An Investigation and Comparison of the French and Austro-German Schools of Violoncello Bowing Techniques: 1785–1839 (diss., U. of Auckland, 1993)

V. Walden: One Hundred Years of Violoncello: a History of Technique and Performance Practice, 1740–1840 (Cambridge, 1998)

VALERIE WALDEN

Lamarque-Pons, Jaurés

(b Salto, 6 May 1917; d Montevideo, 11 June 1982). Uruguayan composer. In Salto he received instruction in the piano and the violin from an early age. He moved to Montevideo (1934), where he continued his piano studies with Guillermo Kolischer. He studied harmony with Tomás Mujica until 1945, harmony and counterpoint with Santórsola (1945–7), and composition and instrumentation with Casal y Chapí (1949–51). He began earning a living as a musician at an early age, serving as piano accompanist at the Salto Choral Society in 1933. In Montevideo he appeared regularly as a pianist for the Ariel Radio Station (1937–9) and at hotels and night clubs.

His works have a nationalist flavour inspired by urban music such as the tango and Afro-Uruguayan candombe rhythms. His opera Marta Gruni (1965), based on a work by the Uruguayan playwright Florencio Sanchez, is considered to be most representative of his style.

WRITINGS

Yo: pianista de varieté (Montevideo, 1968)

El varieté y Yo (Montevideo, 1978)

El tango nuestro de cade día (Montevideo, 1986)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Salgado: Breve historia de la música en el Uruguay (Montevideo, 1971)

S. Novoa: ‘Jaurés Lamarque Pons’, Músicos de aquí, ii (1992), 185–214

B. González-Puig: Jaurés Lamarque-Pons (Montevideo, 1995)

LEONARDO MANZINO

La Marre, de

(b c1630; d after 1666). French dancer, instrumentalist and composer. His first name is unknown. He regularly performed in court ballets from 1653, when he was mentioned as playing the role of ‘une assez laide bourgeoise’ in Le ballet de la nuit, to 1666, when he danced as a muse in Le ballet des Muses. He was a maître joueur d’instruments. His only known music is a collection of Chansons pour danser et pour boire (Paris, 1650) for one and two voices without continuo. The dedication, to Prévost, one of Louis XIV’s dancing-masters, singles out the king’s ability as a dancer and recommends him as an example to others. (M.-F. Christout: Le ballet de cour de Louis XIV, 1643–1672, Paris, 1967)

MARGARET M. McGOWAN

Lamartine, Alphonse(-Marie-Louis Prat) de

(b Mâcon, 21 Oct 1790; d Paris, 28 Feb 1869). French writer. He came to fame in 1820 with his Méditations poétiques, a collection of poetry about love and nature, longing, aspiration and imprecise religious sentiments. He published further collections, and at the age of 39 was elected to the Académie Française. By then, however, he was turning to travel writing and history, and had entered politics. Appointed Minister for Foreign Affairs in February 1848, he played a major role in the Second Republic, running for the Presidency in December that year. Defeated by Louis-Napoleon (the future Napoleon III), he devoted the rest of his life to writing, largely to earn a living and pay off creditors. Graziella, a tale based loosely on his early amorous experiences in Italy, first appeared in his not entirely reliable multi-volume Confidences. When published separately in 1858, it tickled Romantic sensibilities and over the next half century formed the basis for ten not very successful operas. Fior d'Aliza (1866), in a similar style, attracted Massé, and Godard fashioned an opera out of Jocelyn. His verse appealed to a number of song writers, especially Gounod and Niedermeyer, whose setting of Le lac was much admired. Liszt's symphonic poem Les préludes (1848) was originally intended as the overture to Les quatre éléments, a cantata on a text by the Marseilles poet Joseph Autran. In the programme note prepared for the first performance at Weimar in 1854, Liszt specifically invites listeners to connect his music with Lamartine. The work offers a valuable insight into the responses awakened in the Romantic period by Lamartine's passionate idealism. Mikhail Fokine choreographed a ‘futuristic’ ballet after Les préludes for performance by Pavlova's company in Berlin in 1913.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Main: ‘Liszt after Lamartine: Les préludes’, ML, lx (1979), 133–48

C. Stanger: Feigned Chaos: a Study of the Relationship between Music and Language in Romantic Poetry (diss., U. of Southern California, 1985)

J. Chailley: ‘Quel fut l'inspirateur des Préludes de Liszt?’, ReM, nos.405–7 (1987), 37–55, 307–35

E. Sala: ‘La fortuna di Graziella nel melodramma italiana’, Lamartine, Napoli, e l'Italia, ed. G. Vallet (Naples, 1992), 564–83

CHRISTOPHER SMITH

La Martoretta [Martoretta, Il Martoretta], Giandominico

(b Calabria; fl 1544–66). Italian composer. Before 1554 he had travelled to the Holy Land. On his return he spent some time in Cyprus where he enjoyed the hospitality of the nobleman Piero Singlitico. Einstein wrote that La Martoretta was ‘apparently an ecclesiastic’. In 1552 he was referred to as a ‘Dottor in musica’. Jan Nasco is known to have supplied the Accademia Filarmonica at Verona with some five-voice madrigals by La Martoretta, but these are now lost. The second of his four-voice madrigal books is entitled ‘madrigali cromatici’, which signifies that they were written under the mensuration sign C, also known as misura breve. The third book contains a setting of a Greek text, O pothos isdio, which he probably took back to Venice after his stay in Cyprus.

WORKS

all published in Venice

[34] Madrigali, 4vv (1548)

Il secondo libro di [29] madrigali cromatici, 4vv (1552); ed. P.E. Carapezza (Florence, 1988)

Il terzo libro de [28] madrigali, 4vv (1554) [incl. 5 repr. from 1548 book]

Sacrae cantiones liber I, 5vv (1566)

Madrigals in 1544¹⁶, G. Scotto: Il secondo libro delle muse, 3vv (1562)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EinsteinIM

J. Haar: ‘The note nere Madrigal’, JAMS, xviii (1965), 22–41

DON HARRÁN

Lamas, José Angel

(b Caracas, 2 Aug 1775; d Caracas, 9 Dec 1814). Venezuelan composer. Records exist for his baptism, his burial, the marriage to Maria Josefa Sumosa (1 July 1802) and the birth of three children (1808, 1810, 1812). According to the Caracas Cathedral records he became a soprano in the cathedral choir in 1789–90 and in 1796 was promoted to bassoonist. His appointment and promotion coincide with those of Cayetano Carreño and were probably due to Carreño's influence. The association with Carreño also suggests that Lamas received his musical training at Padre Sojo’s school. Lamas, unlike other colonial composers, took no part in the independence war. Nevertheless, during the 19th century several biographical legends grew around him; these have been dispelled by Juan Plaza's researches.

Lamas's works are religious compositions in the style of the Classical motets of the late 18th century. He normally employed two oboes, two horns, strings and a chorus of three or four voices. His choral writing is largely homophonic with little or no imitation. In the three-voice works the bass is invariably provided by the orchestra. Instruments are treated simply but independently, without undue doubling of vocal parts. The wind usually have sustained tones, the lower strings provide the harmonic foundation and rhythmic pulse and the violins have the main melodies or simple figurations. The violin writing is so careful and idiomatic as to suggest that Lamas also played the violin. Choral sections are contrasted with short solos for one or another of the voices. In these passages the instrumental writing colla parte increases considerably. Although Lamas's music is simple, it shows delicate melodic sensibility and a good sense of formal balance. The Popule meus is his best-known work; the Mass in D, Miserere and Ave maris stella in D minor are also notable.

WORKS

all for voices, orchestra; MSS in Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas

Mass, D, 1810, ed. G. Castellanos (Caracas, 1959)

30 motets, 1 doubtful, 1 inc., incl.: Popule meus, 1801, ed. in Archivo de música colonial venezolana, vii (Montevideo, 1943); En premio, 1802; Sepulto Domino, 1805; Salve regina, 3vv, 1808, ed. in Archivo de música colonial venezolana, v (Montevideo, 1943); 2 Ave maris stella, E, 1808, d, 1814; 3 lessons for the Office of the Dead, ed. in Archivo de música colonial venezolana, ii (Montevideo, 1943); Miserere, 4vv, ed. in Guido

7 tonos (3 doubtful)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.B. Plaza: ‘Music in Caracas during the Colonial Period (1770–1811)’, MQ, xxix (1943), 198–213

J.A. Calcaño: La ciudad y su música (Caracas, 1958/R)

W. Guido: José Angel Lamas y su época (Caracas, 1981); see also review by A.E. Planchart, Latin American Music Review, vii (1986), 347–52

ALEJANDRO ENRIQUE PLANCHART

Lamb, Andrew (Martin)

(b Oldham, 23 Sept 1942). English writer. He studied mathematics at Oxford; by profession an investment manager, he is a noted authority on the lighter forms of music theatre. He has written lucidly and extensively on musical comedy and the zarzuela as well as operetta, and has published many articles in reference works and periodicals on the American musical theatre, Sullivan, the Strausses and particularly Offenbach; he was one of the collaborators on Gänzl’s Book of the Musical Theatre (1988) and has written studies of Jerome Kern (1985) and the Waldteufels (1995).

WRITINGS

Jerome Kern in Edwardian London (Littlehampton, 1981, enlarged 2/1985)

with K. Gänzl: Gänzl’s Book of the Musical Theatre (London, 1988)

ed.: Unterhaltungsmusik aus Österreich: Max Schönherr in seinen Erinnerungen und Schriften/Light Music from Austria: Reminiscences and Writings of Max Schönherr (New York, 1992)

Skaters’ Waltz: the Story of the Waldteufels (Croydon, 1995)

One Hundred and Fifty Years of Popular Music Theatre (New Haven, CT, forthcoming)

Lamb, Benjamin

(b Windsor, 16 May 1674; d Windsor, 17 Aug 1733). English singer, organist and composer. He was the son of Captain Benjamin Lamb, one of the Poor Knights of Windsor, and followed his elder brother William into the choir of St George's Chapel on 24 November 1683. It is not clear whether ‘Mr Lambe’, one of the clerks at Eton from 1688, was William or Benjamin, but Benjamin was certainly organist there jointly with John Walter from 1705, and served alone from 1709. He was paid for a good deal of music copying at Eton, and some of his manuscripts survive in the college library. From 1716 he also assisted John Goldwin and later John Pigott at St George's Chapel, Windsor. His anthems and service are in a fluent but conventional idiom. Probably most of them were written soon after he acquired his Eton posts. His setting of Saul and the Witch of Endor surprisingly owes more to Ramsey's setting than to Purcell's.

WORKS

Sacred vocal, GB-DRc, Lbl, WRch, WRec: Evening Service, e; chant, G; 8 anthems

2 secular songs: Saul and the Witch of Endor, Lbl; Take not the first refusal, Lcm

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Williams: ‘Manuscript Organ Books in Eton College Library’, ML, xli (1960), 358–9

H.W. Shaw: The Succession of Organists of the Chapel Royal and the Cathedrals of England and Wales from c.1538 (Oxford, 1991)

I. Spink: Restoration Cathedral Music 1660–1714 (Oxford, 1995)

PETER HOLMAN

Lamb, Joseph F(rancis)

(b Montclair, NJ, 6 Dec 1877; d Brooklyn, NY, 3 Sept 1960). American ragtime composer. A protégé of Scott Joplin, he remained unidentified for decades because he was assumed to be a black Midwesterner like Joplin and James Scott, with whom he shares honours as one of the three outstanding piano ragtime composers. His first published rag, Sensation, appeared in 1909 with an endorsement from Joplin. From then until 1919 he produced 12 rags on which his high reputation is based. Because Lamb spent his adult life working in the textile trade in Brooklyn, he became romanticized as a recluse amid the commercialism of Tin Pan Alley. After being rediscovered by Blesh and Janis in 1949 he resumed composing rags, occasionally performed his works in public and recorded for the first time in 1959. An anthology of his works was published in 1964.

According to Lamb’s own account he consciously composed in two distinct styles: the ‘light rags’ (e.g. Champagne and Bohemia), making use of tuneful lines and transparent textures and culminating in the commercial idiom of the cakewalk and two-step; and the ‘heavy rags’ (American Beauty and The Ragtime Nightingale), which abound in complex syncopations, dense textures and virtuoso passages. In these latter works he synthesized the styles of Joplin and Scott with some of his own identifying traits: a diversity of texture (as in the opening period of Excelsior), diatonic and chromatic (rather than pentatonic) melodies and chromatic harmony – including a predilection for the diminished 7th chord with an upper-note appoggiatura. He made considerable use of sequential writing, creating a sense of development very uncommon to ragtime, and concentrated on an eight-bar period, in contrast to Joplin's emphasis on four-bar phrases and Scott’s tendency towards two-bar phrases, and an AAB structure. This last trait led to Lamb’s most remarkable structural accomplishment: the complete elision of the four-bar caesura, exemplified in the opening strains of American Beauty and Top Liner.

Contrary to legend, Lamb did in fact seek a career in Tin Pan Alley, and published several songs and miscellaneous pieces. He continued to write into the 1920s; some of his pieces in the novelty style influenced his later rags. Lamb refined the piano rag into a very intimate composition, of which the prime example is his posthumously published Alaskan Rag, considered by many to be the supreme lyric and melodic achievement in the piano ragtime literature.

WORKS

all printed works published in New York

Edition: Ragtime Treasures: Piano Solos by Joseph F. Lamb (New York, 1964) [L]

Pf rags: Sensation (1908); Ethiopia Rag (1909); Excelsior Rag (1909); Champagne Rag (1910); American Beauty Rag (1913); Cleopatra Rag (1915); Contentment Rag (1915); The Ragtime Nightingale (1915); Reindeer (1915); Patricia Rag (1916); Top Liner Rag (1916); Bohemia Rag (1919); Alabama Rag, Arctic Sunset, Bird Brain Rag, Blue Grass Rag, Chimes of Dixie, Cottontail Rag, Firefly Rag, Good and Plenty Rag, Hot Cinders, The Old Home Rag, Ragtime Bobolink, Thorough Bred Rag, Toad Stool Rag, L; Alaskan Rag, in R. Blesh and H. Janis: They All Played Ragtime (New York, 3/1966); 10 others, unpubd

Other pf: Celestine Waltzes (1905); The Lilliputian’s Bazaar (1905); Florentine Waltzes (1906); 11 others, unpubd

Songs: Dear Blue Eyes (L. Wood) (1908); If love is a dream let me never awake (Wood) (1908); I’m jealous of you (H. Moore) (1908); In the shade of the maple by the gate (R. Dingman) (1908); The Lost Letter (M.A. Cawthorpe) (1908); Love’s Ebb Tide (S.A. White) (1908); Three leaves of shamrock on a watermelon vine (Moore) (1908); Twilight Dreams (C.E. Wellinger) (1908); Gee kid but I like you (Lamb) (1909); The homestead where the Swanee River flows (Lamb) (1909); Love in Absence (M.A. O'Reilly) (1909); I love you just the same (Lamb) (1910); My Fairy Iceberg Queen (M. Wood) (1910); Playmates (W. Wilander) (1910); I'll follow the crowd to Coney (G. Satterlee) (1913); I want to be a birdman (Satterlee) (1913); 27 others, unpubd

Principal publisher: J. Stark

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Blesh and H. Janis: They All Played Ragtime (New York, 1950, 4/1971)

M. Montgomery: ‘A Visit with Joe Lamb’, Jazz Report (1957), Dec

R. Cassidy: ‘Joseph Lamb: Last of the Ragtime Composers’, JazzM, vii (1961), no.8, pp.4–7; no.10, pp.11–15; no.11, pp.9–10; no.12, pp.15–16 [orig. pubd in Jazz Report, i/Jan–Aug (1961)]

M. Montgomery: ‘Joseph F. Lamb: a Ragtime Paradox, 1887–1960’, Second Line, xii/3–4 (1961), 17–18

T.J. Tichenor: ‘The World of Joseph Lamb: an Exploration’, JazzM, vii (1961), no.8, pp.7–9; no.10, pp.15–16; no.11, pp.10–11; no.12, pp.16–17 [orig. pubd in Jazz Report, i/Jan–Aug (1961)]

M.F. Den: Joseph F. Lamb, a Ragtime Composer Recalled (thesis, Brooklyn College, CUNY, 1975)

J.R. Scotti: Joe Lamb: a Study of Ragtime’s Paradox (diss., U. of Cincinnati, 1977) [with list of works]

J.R. Scotti: ‘The Musical Legacy of Joe Lamb’, Ragtime: its History, Composers, and Music, ed. J.E. Hasse (New York, 1985)

JOSEPH R. SCOTTI

Lambach.

Benedictine abbey in Upper Austria. It was founded in 1056 on the site of a fortress protecting the confluence of the rivers Traun and Ager, and was sanctioned by Emperor Heinrich IV in 1061. The first monks came from the monastery of Münsterschwarzach near Würzburg, and in 1089 the church was consecrated.

Situated on the main west-east trade route, the abbey's wealth grew steadily in the Middle Ages, largely based on the salt trade, but its location also made it vulnerable to attack and occupation by conquering forces from the 13th century to Napoleonic times. Abbot Pabo founded an abbey school towards the end of the 12th century by which time a musical scriptorium was already thriving. Illuminated manuscripts in the hands of two monks, Haimo and Gotschalk, are notable, including a fragment of music in neumatic notation for the Dreikönigsspiel frequently performed at the abbey. Other important medieval manuscripts are two examples of the Lambach Ritual (from the beginning and end of the 12th century), a 14th-century collection of songs (both in monody and in parts) copied by Hermann (now in A-Wn, 4696), and the later Mondsee Liederhandschrift (also in Wn, 2856). Performances of sacred drama with some music took place from at least the 14th century.

A choir school was founded in the middle of the 15th century and the first organ was completed in 1471. The period of the Reformation and, later, the Austrian Peasant Wars saw some retrenchment in the activities of the abbey from which it did not begin to recover until the middle of the 17th century. As often in the history of Austrian ecclesiastical foundations, substantial rebuilding in the Baroque style – in this case directed by the imperial architect, Philiberto Luchese – initiated a period of sustained prosperity and influence. Two new organs were built at this time. Three items of church music by Romanus Weichlein (1652–1706) constitute the first extant compositions by a Lambach monk and other active musicians at the abbey included B.L. Ramhaufsky (d 1694), J.B. Hochreiter (c1668–1731) and Maximilian Röll (fl 1730); Johann Beer (1655–1700), who was to become Konzertmeister at the court of the Duke of Weissenfels, received his education at Lambach.

Lambach had always had close working connections with the Benedictine abbey at Kremsmünster, 20 km to the east. Franz Sparry (1715–67), regens chori at Kremsmünster, wrote a number of works for Lambach, including Latin oratorios and sacred compositions. Under the guidance of Amand Schickmayer, who was abbot at Lambach from 1746 to 1794, musical activity reached a high point. Given the close proximity of Salzburg, it is not surprising that music by composers from that city is strongly represented in the library, including works by Adlgasser (1729–77), J.E. Eberlin (1702–62), Michael Haydn, Leopold Mozart and W.A. Mozart. Michael Haydn performed at the abbey on several occasions and two works were specially commissioned from him: a cantata, Ninfe imbelli semplicette, for a visit in January 1765 by Princess Josepha of Bavaria (en route to Vienna to marry the future Joseph II); and the Missa Sancti Amandi for the 30th anniversary in October 1776 of Schickmayer's tenure as abbot. Leopold Mozart and Schickmayer were close acquaintances, and W.A. Mozart visited the abbey on four occasions, to play the organ and clavichord. During a visit in January 1769 Leopold and Wolfgang presented manuscript copies of two symphonies to the abbey. The so-called ‘Lambach’ (sometimes ‘Old Lambach’) symphony by Wolfgang is a revised version of the symphony in G (ke45a) first written in the Hague in 1765–6, and the ‘New Lambach’, which has sometimes been wrongly attributed to Wolfgang, is a symphony in G by Leopold Mozart.

Secular plays with musical numbers also flourished during Schickmayer's time, especially after the theatre was renovated in 1770. The plays of Maurus Lindemayr (1723–83), who was a monk at Lambach for 13 years, are notable for cultivating a proto-romantic enthusiasm for the representation of Austrian folk life; musical numbers by F.J. Aumann (1728–97), F.X. Süssmayr (1766–1803), Johann Wittmann (1757–1847) and others are featured in the plays.

Under Schickmayer's guidance Lambach remained largely unaffected by the monastic reforms undertaken by Joseph II during the 1780s. However, the Napoleonic period saw a decline in the sacred and secular life of the abbey, exacerbated in the first half of the 19th century by indifferent economic management. During the second half of the century church music at Lambach came under the strong influence of the Cecilian movement, a tradition which, together with the establishment of a well-regarded choir, was maintained until 1941 when ecclesiastical life was severely curtailed. It was reactivated after World War II.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P. Schmieder: Breve chronicon monasterii Beatae Mariae Virginis lambacensis (Linz, 1865)

A. Eilenstein: Die Benediktinerabtei Lambach in Österreich ob der Enns und ihre Mönche (Linz, 1936)

W. Luger: Die Benediktinerabtei Lambach (Linz, 1952, 3/1973)

S. Leidinger: 900 Jahre Lambach: ein Festgabe (Lambach, 1956)

F. Fuhrich: Theatergeschichte Oberösterreichs im 18. Jahrhundert (Vienna, 1968)

G. Lang: Zur Geschichte und Pflege der Musik in der Benediktiner-Abtei zu Lambach mit einem Katalog zu den Beständen des Musikarchives (diss., U. of Salzburg, 1978)

C. Eisen: The Symphonies of Leopold Mozart and their Relationship to the Early Symphonies of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: a Bibliographical and Stylistic Study (diss., Cornell U., 1986)

N. Zaslaw: Mozart's Symphonies: Context – Performance Practice – Reception (Oxford, 1989), 127–45

DAVID WYN JONES

Lambardi, Camillo

(b Naples, c1560; d Naples, Nov 1634). Italian organist and composer. He spent nearly all his musical career at SS Annunziata in Naples. He served there from 1569 as a high treble and was taught by Nola, the maestro di cappella; he had become a tenor by February 1579. After having deputized for Nola on several occasions in 1588 and 1591, he took up the appointment of maestro di cappella on 5 May 1592, working under the condition that he perform only works by Stella and Macque, the organists of SS Annunziata. This condition was relaxed, however, on 24 May 1595. He supplemented his income by providing music for such occasions as the funerals of members of the Monte della Misericordia in 1612 and 1630. When he retired in 1631 his monthly wage was 15 ducats.

Lambardi’s sacred works were all dedicated to the governors of SS Annunziata. His responsories are for double chorus, but, unlike Gesualdo’s, they have through-composed responds. The two-part motets of 1613, mainly for soprano and bass, include three pieces that may be arrangements of motets from Hippolito Tartaglino’s book of 1574. The three-part motets of 1628, many with high alto parts, use a great deal of repetition in the last half of each work. His first book of madrigals for four voices has none of the strong dissonances and contrasts characteristic of the seconda pratica and used in some madrigals of the second book.

Camillo Lambardi’s sons were Francesco Lambardi, Andrea Lambardi (b Naples, 1590–?95; d Naples, 1629), who in 1604 was a soprano at SS Annunziata and later a tenor at the royal chapel, and Giacinto Lambardi (b Naples, 1585–?90; d Naples, c1650), who composed the music (now lost) for G.B. Basile’s mascherata Monte Parnaso of 1630. Giacinto aided Francesco as organist of the royal chapel from 1636 and succeeded him in that post in 1642. Gennaro Lambardi, possibly another son of Camillo, was an alto at SS Annunziata in 1604 and in 1614 an alto-tenor in the royal chapel. Filippo Lambardi, whose relationship with the rest of the family is unknown, received six ducats on 29 January 1627 for organizing the music for the funeral of a member of the Accademia degli Annoverati in Naples.

WORKS

sacred

Responsorii della Settimana Santa con il Miserere, Benedictus et Christus factus est, 2 choirs (Naples, 1592)

Il secondo libro di [26] motetti, 2vv, bc (org) (Naples, 1613) [contains 2 by Tartaglino, 1 by Animuccia]

Il secondo libro de [22] motetti, 3vv, bc (org), op.10 (Naples, 1628)

Masses, vespers; lost, cited by C. Tutino (MS, I-Nn Brancacciana VII B3, f.245)

secular

Il primo libro di [18] madrigali, 4vv (Naples, 1600¹³)

Secondo libro de [19] madrigali ariosi, 4vv (Naples, 1609²²)

Madrigal, 5vv, 1609¹⁶

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Cerreto: Della prattica musica (Naples, 1601/R), 156

G. Filangieri, ed.: Documenti per la storia, le arti e le industrie delle provincie napoletane, vi (Naples, 1891), 68–9

N. D’Arienzo: ‘Salvator Rosa musicista e lo stile monodico da camera (delle origini della musica moderna)’, RMI, i (1894), 389–410, esp. 395

S. di Giacomo: Il Conservatorio di Sant’Onofrio a Capuana e quello di S.M. della Pietà dei Turchini (Palermo, 1924), 310f

U. Prota-Giurleo: ‘La musica a Napoli nel Seicento’, Samnium, i/4 (1928), 67–90, esp. 77, 82

G. Pannain: L’oratorio dei Filippini e la scuola musicale di Napoli, IMi, v (1934), xxvi–xxvii

F. Nicolini: ‘Notizie storiche tratte dai giornali copiapolizze dell’antico Banco della Pietà’, Banco di Napoli bollettino dell’Archivio storico, iii (1951), nos.2322, 2629

U. Prota-Giurleo: ‘Aggiunte ai “Documenti per la storia dell’arte a Napoli”’, Il fuidoro, ii (1955), 273–9, esp. 275

F. Strazzullo: ‘Inediti per la storia della musica a Napoli’, Il fuidoro, ii (1955), 106–8

U. Prota-Giurleo: ‘Giovanni Maria Trabaci e gli organisti della Real Cappella di Palazzo di Napoli’, L’organo, i (1960), 185–96, esp. 188

W.P. Stalnaker: The Beginnings of Opera in Naples (diss., Princeton U., 1968), 46–54, 65–84

KEITH A. LARSON

Lambardi, Francesco

(b Naples, c1587; d Naples, 25 July 1642). Italian composer, son of Camillo Lambardi. After serving as a treble in 1599 and an alto in 1600 at SS Annunziata, he served the royal chapel as a tenor in 1607 and, from 1615 until his death, as organist. He was maestro di cappella of the Conservatorio di S Maria della Pietà dei Turchini from 1626 to 1630, and of S Maria la Nova in 1628. He gave private music lessons to Maria Ruffo, Princess of Scilla, in 1612, provided entertainment music at Posillipo in 1614, and opened a singing school in 1623. His arias are among the earliest Neapolitan pieces to specify the use of a basso continuo. One two-part piece Vita mia di te privo from the 1607 publication, although titled ‘madrigal’, is stylistically no different from the arias for two voices that make up the rest of the publication, and is partly modelled on Nenna’s madrigal for five voices to the same text from his first 1603 publication. Only the 1614 arias use gorgia and sprezzatura effects. The villanellas in the 1614 and 1616 books are mostly in two sections and make much use of smooth triple metre enlivened by syncopation.

L.htm - S15877

WORKS

Villanelle et arie, libro primo, 3–5vv (Naples, 1607), inc.

Il secondo libro de [22] villanelle…con alcune à modo di dialoghi, & 2 arie nel fine, 3–5vv (Naples, 1614)

Canzonette con alcune arie per cantar solo nella parte del tenore, libro terzo, 1, 3–5vv (Naples, 1616¹⁵), inc.

Madrigals in 1609¹⁶, 1609²², 1612¹², 1616¹⁴, 1620¹⁴, ed. in RRMR, xxv (1978)

4 works, kbd, GB-Lbl Add.30491 3 ed. in CEKM, xxiv (1967), facs. in SCKM, xi (1987)

For bibliography see Lambardi camillo.

KEITH A. LARSON

Lambardi [Lambardo], Girolamo

(b Venice; fl 1586–1623). Italian composer. On the title-pages of his publications he described himself as a canon regular of Santo Spirito, Venice. He probably spent most of his life in Venice. Although he appears not to have held a specific musical post, the sheer size of his production could well be taken as indicative of a certain continuity in musical activity at Santo Spirito. Giovanni Croce’s Magnificat omnium tonorum of 1605, which is dedicated to Lambardi, describes him as a pupil of Zarlino. Eitner and Gaspari maintained that he studied under Palestrina. His works belong to the tradition of 16th-century sacred polyphony, even the later ones that include continuo. Largely functional in character, they include most of the chief types of liturgical polyphony of the period. The music is not difficult: voice ranges are somewhat restricted and the counterpoint is generally simple. Lambardi’s reputation was probably limited to Venetian musical circles and his monastic order. He was at any rate well respected in Venice, for Monteverdi bought some of his music, together with works by Lassus, Palestrina and Soriano, for performance on ferial days at S Marco.

WORKS

all published in Venice

Sacra cantica B. Mariae Virginis cuiusvis toni, 4vv (1586)

Psalmi ad tertiam, una cum missa, 8vv (1594), inc.

Antiphonarium vespertinum dierum festorum totius anni … nunc nuper … exornatum atque auctum … in tres partes distributum, 8vv (1597)

Antiphonae omnes … pro totius anni dominicis diebus in primis, & secundis vesperis nunc primum … exornatae … atque in duas partes coactae, 4vv (1600)

Missae quattuor … liber primus, 4, 5vv (1601)

Psalmodia vespertina omnium solemnitatum cum cantico Beatae Mariae Virginis … liber secundus, 8vv, org (1605)

Vespertina omnium solemnitatum psalmodia … cum cantico Beatae Mariae Virginis, 6vv, bc (1612)

Vespertina omnium solemnitatum totius anni psalmodia … cum duobus canticis Beatae Mariae Virginis, 3, 5vv, bc (1613)

Psalmodia ad vespertinas omnium solemnitatum horas … cum duobus canticis Beatae Mariae Virginis, 5vv, bc (1613)

Contrapunta in introitus missarum, 4vv (1617)

Vespertina omnium psalmodia solemnitatum, 3vv (1623)

2 motets, 4vv, I-Af (probably from printed vols.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

GaspariC

E. Quaranta: Oltre San Marco: Organizzazione e prassi della musica nelle chiese di Venezia nel Rinascimento (Florence, 1998)

JUDITH NAGLEY/DAVID BRYANT

Lambe

(fl c1400). English composer. His name is attached to a Sanctus in the Old Hall Manuscript (ed. in CMM, xlvi, 1969–73; no.97), a descant setting in score with Sarum Sanctus no.2 in the middle voice. The manuscript has been trimmed, leaving open the possibility that his name may have been longer. He might, for instance, be the Lambertus to whom a square in I-Rvat Reg.lat.1146 is ascribed. It has also been suggested that he may have been the Lampens of the lost Strasbourg Manuscript (F-Sm 222; T. Dart, RBM, viii, 1954, pp.122–4).

For bibliography see Old Hall Manuscript.

MARGARET BENT

Lambe, Walter

(b ?1450–51; d after Michaelmas 1504). English composer. He may be identifiable with the Walter Lambe, born in Salisbury and aged 15 on 15 August 1466, who was elected scholar of Eton College on 8 July 1467. In 1476–7 he was a clerk in the chapel of the collegiate church of the Holy Trinity at Arundel. On 5 January 1479 he was admitted clerk of the choir of St George’s Chapel, Windsor, and at Michaelmas in that year he and William Edmunds were appointed joint informatores, replacing Thomas Gossyp, who with several other members of the chapel had died of plague during the summer. Lambe’s antiphon Stella caeli, the text of which requests divine relief from plague, was perhaps written at this time. Lambe became sole informator at Christmas 1479 and retained the post until he left St George's in 1484–5. He seems then to have returned to Arundel, where he is again listed as a clerk in the next surviving set of accounts for 1490–91. On 1 July 1492 he resumed his clerkship at Windsor but was not reappointed informator; he was still there in 1503–4. The Edward Lambe who was a chorister at Arundel in 1490–91, and the ‘Walter Lambe of Arundel’ who entered Winchester College as a scholar at the age of ten in 1500, are likely to have been sons of the composer.

Lambe was evidently a highly regarded composer. Only John Browne contributed more compositions to the Eton Choirbook, and of the Eton Choirbook composers contemporary with Lambe only William Cornysh, Richard Davy and Robert Fayrfax are represented in as many surviving sources. He was an extremely accomplished and resourceful exponent of the florid choral style which came to maturity during his lifetime and which English composers continued to cultivate until the Reformation. His motets in five and six parts encompass a total of 21, 22 or 23 notes and contrast fully scored sections with more profusely decorated passages for a reduced number of voices. Stylistic differentiation is not so marked in the four-voice works, which contain a larger proportion of music in full scoring and use an overall compass of 14 or 15 notes. Lambe was a fastidious craftsman, particularly in his often subtle manipulation of motifs and imitative ideas in order to bind reduced-voice sections together. He also achieved a strong sense of drive in the fully scored sections, and had a flair for well-timed cadences (the ending of Nesciens mater is an excellent example).

Lambe’s cantus firmus technique is an interesting blend of current and retrospective practice. O Maria plena gratia is perhaps most observant of contemporary English convention in using as its cantus firmus a plainchant melody unconnected with the motet text, and in laying this out, mainly in long note values, in the tenor part of the fully scored sections. The fragmentary six-part O regina caelestis gloriae adventurously extends this technique by incorporating a double cantus firmus of two simultaneously stated plainchants, a procedure which seems to have no English precedent, although two other Eton Choirbook composers may have emulated Lambe in works which are now fragmentary: Richard Davy in his six-part Gaude flore virginali and Robert Wylkynson in his six-part Magnificat. It seems unlikely that Lambe could have known any of the very few comparable continental works such as the Missa ‘Sub tuum praesidium’ by Obrecht or the Missa ‘Ecce ancilla’/‘Ne timeas’ by Johannes Regis (d 1485). In Ascendit Christus, Nesciens mater and Salve regina, Lambe maintained an earlier 15th-century English tradition by using as his cantus firmus the plainchants proper to the motet text. His treatment of these cantus firmi, combining conventional tenor layout with migration and paraphrase in both fully scored and reduced-voice sections, emphasizes his important transitional role in the history of later 15th-century English music.

WORKS

Edition: The Eton Choirbook, ed. F.Ll. Harrison, MB, x–xii (1956–61, 2/1969–73) [complete edn except for lost]

Magnificat, 5vv (on 8th tone faburden)

Ascendit Christus, 4vv

Gaude flore virginali, 5vv (indexed in Eton Choirbook but now missing)

Gaude flore virginali, 4vv

Nesciens mater, 5vv

Nunc dimittis (lost; mentioned in GB-Ckc inventory, 1529)

O Maria plena gratia, 6vv

O regina caelestis gloriae, inc., 6vv

O regina caelestis gloriae, 5vv (indexed in Eton Choirbook but now missing; an anon. medius, GB-Lbl Harl.1709, is perhaps from this motet)

O virgo virginum, 4vv (indexed in Eton Choirbook but now missing)

Salve regina, 5vv

Stella caeli, 4vv

Virgo gaude gloriosa, 5vv (indexed in Eton Choirbook but now missing)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

HarrisonMMB

F.Ll. Harrison: ‘The Eton Choirbook: its Background and Contents’, AnnM, i (1953), 151–76

H. Benham: Latin Church Music in England c.1460–1575 (London, 1977)

D. Skinner: Nicholas Ludford (c.1490–1557): a Biography and Critical Edition of the Antiphons, with a Study of the Collegiate Chapel of the Holy Trinity, Arundel, under the Mastership of Edward Higgons, and a History of the Caius and Lambeth Choirbooks (diss., U. of Oxford, 1995)

NICHOLAS SANDON

Lambeg drum.

A large double-headed drum associated with the Ulster Orange Order, measuring approximately 90 cm in diameter, 75 cm in depth and weighing about 20 kg, traditionally used for accompanying fife tunes in Orange processions. Among the many myths about its origin is one that it was introduced by Duke Schomberg’s troops at the time of the Battle of the Boyne (1690). However, its name probably derives from the first use of such a drum at a demonstration about 1894 in the village of Lambeg, near Belfast. The ‘Lambeg’, as it is colloquially known, is beaten with bamboo canes: earlier drums were smaller and beaten with boxwood drumsticks.

Although the fife-and-drum bands, playing reel, jig or hornpipe tunes in march time, have largely been replaced by brass bands in the towns, the drum and its playing art have been preserved, mainly as a sport or hobby, and the Lambeg still accompanies certain processions in country districts and in Ballymena. Lambeg drumming contests are held regularly during the summer in which solo drummers display the good tone or ‘ring’ of their drums and their skill in maintaining and ornamenting traditional rhythms. Each district of Ulster has its own march-rhythm dialects based on traditional dance rhythms. Some are based on popular songs. Ex.1 illustrates the relationship between a Lambeg rhythm and its fife tune.

Two families, Johnson and Hewitt, have traditionally been responsible for the manufacture and maintenance of Lambeg drums, though the hard-wearing oak shells need little attention; many drummers have learnt to recover their own shells with the traditional goatskin. Before World War II occasional ‘stick-ins’ were held in which champion drummers, often representing rival families, faced each other in a test of endurance and strength, playing for up to nine hours at a time as the one attempted to outlast the other or to confuse his rhythm.

FIONNUAGHLA SCULLION

Lambelet, Georgios

(b Corfu, 24 Dec 1875; d Athens, 31 Oct 1945). Greek composer and critic. Introduced to the piano by his mother and to theory and harmony by his father, he enrolled in the faculty of law at Athens University before studying at the S Pietro a Majella Conservatory, Naples (1895–1901). On his return to Greece, long before Kalomiris's 1908 manifesto of the national school, Lambelet published his essay ‘National Music’, in which he called for composers to draw inspiration from their folk traditions; this nationalist stance was also adopted by his periodical Kritiki, first issued in 1903. For a year he was director of the Piraeus League conservatory, and for several years of the Piraeus League Conservatory. He also taught music at the Varvakeion Lyceum, Athens, and was editor of the monthly periodical Moussika hronika (1928–9).

Much of Lambelet's music is lost, but what has survived displays flawless technique and harmonic taste, qualities especially evident in his sensitive approach to the harmonization of Greek folksongs in the collection Elleniki dhimodhis moussiki (1930). His tone-poem I yorti (‘The Village Fair’) is characterized by certainty of form and colourful orchestration, while his songs, generally based on folksong modes, adhere sensitively to the inflections of Greek language. Often exploiting dramatic changes of tempo and rhythm (I anthostefanoti), they make the most of a harmonically transparent yet emotionally suggestive piano writing, thus representing an intermediate link from the songs of Samaras to those of Riadis and the art of Constantinidis. Lambelet's intellectual integrity as a critic has set an example: risking marginalization, he was for decades almost the only opposition to the establishment of Nazos at the Athens Conservatory and, later, Kalomiris.

Lambelet’s brother Napoleon (1864–1932) was active from the mid-1890s as a musical director in the London theatre, working under André Charlot among others. As well as composing incidental music, one-act operettas for music halls and music for pantomime, he provided the replacement score for Seymour Hicks’s The Yashmak (1897). Further details of his career are given in GänzlEMT.

WORKS

Inst: Melodia, pf, pubd in Moussikà hronikà, no.1 (1930); I yorti [The Village Fair], orch (Athens, 1977); Elegheia [Elegy], orch, only pf score extant; Mikri gavotta [Little Gavotte], pf, lost; Minuetto, str orch; Prelude, str orch, lost; Moiroloi [Lament], Poimeniki fuga [Pastoral Fugue], str orch, lost; Scherzo, pf

Choral: Dhéissi [Prayer] (Lambelet), 3-pt female chorus, pf/orch; Stin akroyalia [At the Seashore] (Lambelet), 3-pt female chorus, pf; Ston kambo [On the Plain] (Lambelet ‘Karousos’), S/3-pt female chorus, pf, before 1912; Hymne Balkanique (C. Athanasiadès), vv, pf/orch, only transcr. for band by S. Valtetsiotis extant (?Athens, n.d.); Ymnos is tin irinin [Hymn to Peace] (K. Palamas), SATB, pf (Athens, n.d.), perf. Athens, 1929; To evloghiméno karavi [The Blessed Ship]; To thymoméno karavi [The Ship in Wrath], female chorus; Sto hortari [To the Grass]; Hymnos tis nikis [Hymn to Victory]; Hymnos is tin Ellada/Stin elliniki yee [Hymn to Greece/To the Greek Soil]

Songs (1v, pf): Filià [Kisses] (M. Malakassis); Ballata (Lambelet ‘Karousos’); Tà matia [The Eyes] (Malakassis); I anthostefanoti [A Chaplet of Flowers] (Malakassis), before 1912; To oneiron [The Dream] (Z. Papandoniou), before 1912; Neotis/Apokriatiko [Youth/Carnival Song], T, pf, pubd in Moussiki efimeris, no.5; To sterno paramythi [The Last Fairy Tale] (L. Porfyras); Lacrimae rerum (Porfyras); Ta Helidhonia (Papandoniou), 16 children's songs (Athens, 1920): nos.1–9, 11–15 for 1v, pf, no.10 for 2vv, pf, no.16 for 3vv, pf; Proskynima [Pilgrimage] (P. Nirvanas), pubd in Moussiki epitheorissis, i/4 (1922); Éna poulaki [A Little Bird] (Y. Kambyssis); O odhoiporos [The Wayfarer] (Nirvanas); O thliménos diavatis/Il povero passante (Lambelet), Bar, pf, pubd in Moussika chronikà, no.1 (1928); Stin strata [On the Road]; O voutihtis [The Diver]

WRITINGS

‘Ethniki moussiki’ [National music], Panathenaea (1901), 82–90, 126–31

‘I simerini moussiki’ [Music today], Engyklopoaedikon imerologhion 1929 (New York, 1929), 81–90

I Elliniki dhimodhis moussiki: 60 tragoudhia ke horoi [Greek folk music: 60 songs and dances] (Athens, 1930; Fr. trans. as La musique populaire grecque, chants et danses, 1934) [critical study, transcription and harmonization]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S.G. Motsenigos: Neoelliniki moussiki: symvoli is tin istorian tis [Modern Greek music: a contribution to its history] (Athens, 1958), 226–30

I. Grékas: ‘Mia megali ikoyénia moussikon stin Ellada’ [A great family of musicians in Greece], Piraeas 1960, zoi ke téchni, 161–80

P. Paramythiotis: ‘I Eptanissii moussourghoi tou 19o aeonos: i symvoli tous stin diamorfossi tis Ellinikis moussikis’ [The 19th-century Ionian composers: their contribution to the formation of Greek music], Kerkyraïkà chronikà, xix (1974), 38–60, esp. 38–9

GEORGE LEOTSAKOS

Lambert, (Leonard) Constant

(b London, 23 Aug 1905; d London, 21 Aug 1951). English composer, conductor and writer on music. A sickly child, he suffered from ill-health throughout his life. His family, while never particularly stable (his father, the painter George Washington Thomas Lambert, left for Australia in 1920 and never saw him again), nevertheless instilled in him an appreciation for the visual arts and literature that brought a distinctive character to his career as a music critic and writer. After winning a scholarship to the RCM, he studied composition with Ralph Vaughan Williams, R.O. Morris and George Dyson, the piano with Herbert Fryer and conducting with Malcolm Sargent.

As a young man, Lambert developed interests in French and Russian music, and the works of Stravinsky and Liszt. The influences of pointillism, neo-classicism and Romanticism are apparent in the orchestral rhapsody Green Fire (?1923), inspired by Russian themes; Prize-Fight (1923–4), a ‘Realistic Ballet in One-Act’ strongly redolent of Satie and Les Six; and Mr Bear Squash-You-All-Flat (1923–4), a one-act ballet based on a Russian children’s tale. Two London pavilion shows, Dover Street to Dixie (1923) and The Blackbirds (1926), introduced him to the world of jazz, an influence that surfaced in compositions such as Elegiac Blues (1927).

Lambert, who enjoyed bohemian artistic circles and salon culture, was a regular visitor at Philip Heseltine’s cottage at Eynsford. He was also friendly with the Waltons and Sitwells, his neighbours in Chelsea, acquaintances that led to his role as co-reciter with Edith Sitwell in Walton’s Façade at the Chenil Galleries in April 1926. The painters Charles Ricketts and C.H. Shannon and the collector Edmund Davis introduced Lambert to Diaghilev who commissioned Romeo and Juliet for the Ballets Russes. Although Lambert threatened to withdraw his score after Diaghilev made various changes to the choreography and rejected Christopher Wood’s set designs in favour of those by surrealists Max Ernst and Joan Miró, he was forcibly prevented from doing so. After a cool reception at its first performance in Monte Carlo (4 May 1926), the ballet was performed in Paris, sparking a riot largely orchestrated by the antagonistic surrealists Louis Aragon and André Breton. The first London production, however, was more successful. The neo-Baroque style of the work, recalling the music of Domenico Scarlatti, suggests the influence of Stravinsky’s Pulcinella, a model used subsequently in Pomona (1926), written for Bronislava Nizhinska’s company in Buenos Aires.

During the second half of the 1920s, Lambert worked sporadically. Though he was short of money, these years proved to be his most fertile in terms of composition. Infatuated by the film actress Anna May Wong, he immersed himself in things Chinese, composing Eight Poems of Li-Po (1926–9), fragile miniatures of impressive economy and poignancy. Music for Orchestra (1927), an introduction and allegro design, received several performances, despite its more severe contrapuntal invention. The Rio Grande (1927), a work displaying his fascination with the exotic, was an immediate success. Using elements of cantata, dance rhapsody, concerto and fantasy, he brought both seduction and melancholy to Sacheverell Sitwell’s atmospheric poem. To his regret, however, the popularity of the work established a set of stylistic expectations that impeded the reception of later works such as the Piano Sonata (1928–9) and the Concerto for Piano and Nine Players (1930–31). A memorial to Heseltine, the Concerto is imbued with a free interpretation of Classical forms, blurred on the one hand by elements of jazz improvisation and metrical complexity, and on the other by an austere harmonic language on the edge of tonality.

The last 20 years of Lambert’s life, largely owing to his appointment as conductor of the Carmargo Society in 1930 and musical director of the Vic-Wells company in 1931, saw the composition of far fewer original works. His fascination for 16th- and 17th-century literature and music, however, did find expression in Summer’s Last Will and Testament (1932–5). Written in the form of a masque to words from Thomas Nashe’s Pleasant Comedy (1593), the work was dedicated to Florence Chuter, whom he married in 1931. His most substantial undertaking, Summer’s Last Will and Testament is an urban pastoral in which early forms (madrigal con ritornelli, coranto, branle and sarabande) are the vehicles for expressing the polarized emotions of Bacchian exuberance and autumnal sadness

As Lambert grew older, melancholy contemplation figured more conspicuously in his works, particularly those composed during the war, such as Dirge from Cymbeline (1940), dedicated to his friend Patrick Hadley, and Aubade héroïque (1942). The ballet Tiresias (1950–51), with its sinewy neo-classical style, lies between the worlds of Stravinsky and Roussel. Its licentious plot, involving sex-changes, copulating snakes and erotic suggestion, had to be toned down for its gala performance (9 July 1951) in the presence of Queen Elizabeth (now the Queen Mother). OUP later refused to publish the work and, despite a number of performances of a shortened version by Lutyens, it quickly fell into obscurity. In 1995, after 40 years of neglect, the shorter version was broadcast by the BBC.

From 1930 onwards Lambert began to devote more time to music criticism, writing for the Nation, the Athenaeum, the Sunday Referee, Figaro, the Saturday Review, the Daily Chronicle and the Daily Telegraph. He also wrote for the Radio Times, The Listener and BBC’s Music Magazine (1944). The first postwar production of Purcell’s The Fairy Queen (1946) used his edition, and gave rise to a collaborative publication with Edward Dent and Michael Ayrton (London, 1948). A critic of independent and unconventional views, Lambert had violent likes and dislikes and used his not inconsiderable powers of wit and satire towards both generous and destructive ends. His one extended work of criticism, Music, Ho! (London, 1934), reflects his concern in relating modern music to the other arts and ‘the social and mechanical background of modern life’. An eminently readable volume, largely devoid of technical description, he uses his wide knowledge of painting, sculpture, literature and the cinema to draw parallels between artistic, cinematic, literary and musical trends in the early 20th century. The book’s subtitle, A Study of Music in Decline, reflects his inherent pessimism about the future. This is not only expressed in his incisive and largely negative examinations of neo-classicism, nationalism and revolution, but also in his assessment of musical reception: composers were destined, he believed, to become more sophisticated, like Berg, or, like Weill, they would turn ‘their sophistication to popular account’. Although he admired both composers, Lambert reserved his greatest approbation for Sibelius, van Dieren and Busoni.

Though Lambert is remembered principally for his work as conductor of the Royal Ballet, he was also active as a conductor for ISCM, as an associate conductor of the Proms (1945–6), as a guest conductor of the Hallé and Scottish orchestras (after 1947), and, from time to time, as an opera conductor at Sadler’s Wells (1931) and Covent Garden (1937, 1939, 1947). He did much to promote the work of Weill, Satie, Walton and Berners.

WORKS

dramatic

Ballets: Prize-fight (1), 1923–4, London, 6 March 1924, rev. 1925, unpubd; Mr Bear Squash-You-All-Flat (1), 1923–4, Manchester, 22 June 1979, unpubd; Adam and Eve (suite dansée), 1924–5, London, 6 June 1932, rev. 1932, unpubd; Romeo and Juliet (2 tableaux), 1924–5, Monte Carlo, 4 May 1926 [based on Adam and Eve]; Pomona (1), 1926, Buenos Aires, 9 Sept 1927 [incl. material from Adam and Eve]; Horoscope (1), 1937, London, 27 Jan 1938; Tiresias (3 scenes), 1950–51, London, 9 July 1951, unpubd

Incid music: Jew Süss (A. Dukes, after L. Feuchtwanger), ?1929, London, 19 Sept 1929; Salome (O. Wilde), cl, tpt, vc, perc, 1931, London, 27 May 1931; Hamlet (W. Shakespeare), 1944, London, 11 Feb 1944, unpubd

Film scores: Merchant Seamen, 1940 [orch suite arr. 1943, pubd]; Anna Karenina (dir. J. Duvivier), 1947, unpubd

Arrs. (dates are of first perf.): Mars and Venus (incid music for Jew Süss) [after D. Scarlatti]; Hommage aux belles viennoises, 1929 [after Schubert]; Les rendezvous, 1933 [after Auber: L’enfant prodigue]; Apparitions, 1936, unpubd [after Liszt]; Les patineurs, 1937, suite pubd [after Meyerbeer: Le prophète, L’étoile du nord]; Harlequin in the Street, 1938, unpubd [after Couperin]; Dante Sonata, pf, orch, 1940, unpubd [after Liszt]; The Prospect before Us, London, 1940, unpubd [after Boyce]; Comus, 1942 [after Purcell]; Hamlet, London, 1942 [after Tchaikovsky]; Ballabile, 1950 [after Chabrier]

instrumental

Orch and ens: Green Fire, rhapsody, ?1923, unpubd; Conc., pf, 2 tpt, timp, str, 1924, unpubd; The Bird Actors, ov., 1925, reorchd 1927, unpubd [originally for pf 4 hands]; Champêtre, chbr orch, 1926, unpubd in original form [used as Intrada of Pomona; arr. as Pastorale, pf]; Elegiac Blues, 1927 [arr. pf]; Music for Orch, 1927; Conc. for Pf and 9 players, 1930–31; Aubade héroïque, 1942

Pf: Alla Marcia, ?1925 [incl. in Romeo and Juliet]; Ov., pf duet, 1925, unpubd [see orch: The Bird Actors]; Suite in 3 Movts, 1925, unpubd; Tema, ?1925, unpubd; Pastorale, 1926, unpubd; Elegiac Blues, 1927; Sonata, 1928–9; Elegy, 1938; 3 pièces nègres pour les touches blanches, 4 hands, 1949

Edns/arrs.: Caprice peruvien, orch [after Berners: Le carrosse du St Sacrement]; Boyce: 8 syms., str orch, wind ad lib; Boyce: The Power of Music, The Cambridge Ode, Pan and Syrinx, str orch, wind ad lib; Conc., pf, small orch [after Handel: Org Concs. nos.2 and 6]; Purcell: The Fairy Queen, collab. E. Dent, unpubd

vocal

2 Songs (S. Sitwell), S, fl, hp, 1923; 8 Poems of Li-Po (Li Bai [Li Tai-po]), 1v, pf/8 insts, 1926–9; The Rio Grande (S. Sitwell), chorus, pf, brass, str, perc, 1927; Summer’s Last Will and Testament (T. Nashe: Pleasant Comedy), Bar, chorus, orch, 1932–5; Dirge from Cymbeline (W. Shakespeare), T, bar, male chorus, str/pf, 1940

MSS in GB-Lbbc

Principal publishers: Chester, OUP, Maecenas

WRITINGS

Music, Ho!: a Study of Music in Decline (London, 1934, 3/1966)

‘The Music of The Fairy Queen’, Purcell’s ‘The Fairy Queen’ as Presented by the Sadler’s Wells Ballet and the Covent Garden Opera, ed. E. Mandinian (London, 1948), 19–27

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Foss: ‘Constant Lambert’, MT, xcii (1951), 449–51

D. Webster: ‘Constant Lambert: an Appreciation’, Opera, ii (1951), 656 only

A. Morrison: Obituary, RCM Magazine (1951), Nov, 107–10

R. Irving: ‘Constant Lambert’, Decca Book of Ballet, ed. D. Drew (London, 1958), 184–90

R. McGrady: ‘The Music of Constant Lambert’, ML, li (1970), 242–58

C. Palmer: ‘Constant Lambert: a Postscript’, ML, lii (1971), 173–6

R. Shead: Constant Lambert (London, 1973) [incl. bibliography, detailed work-list, discography, etc]

W.T. Hoehn: The Ballet Music of Constant Lambert (diss., Ohio State U., 1981)

J. Dibble: ‘The English Bohemians: Warlock, Van Dieren, Moeran and Lambert’, Glasba med obema vojnama in Slavko Osterc/Musik zwischen beiden Weltkriegen und Slavko Osterc: Ljubljana 1995 (1995), 361–8

JEREMY DIBBLE

Lambert, Herbert.

English clavichord maker. He was active in Bath; his instruments served as models for those built by Thomas Goff.

Lambert, Johann Heinrich

(b Mulhouse, ?26 Aug 1728; d Berlin, 25 Sept 1777). German scientist. From 1748 to 1758 he was tutor to the children of a Swiss noble family; in 1765 he managed to obtain a post at the Akademie der Wissenschaften in Berlin. He was one of those universal scientists characteristic of the 17th and 18th centuries, and was a figure of particular importance in several subjects mainly connected with physics and mathematics. He determined very precisely the frequencies of the first eight overtones of a bar in its clamped-free modes, correcting and extending Euler’s results; the results of Rayleigh and others, a century or more later, were less conclusive. Lambert projected a musical instrument, the ‘musique solitaire’, whereby a person might enjoy music through his teeth without awakening sleepers.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C.J. Scriba: ‘Lambert, Johann Heinrich’, Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. C.C. Gillispie (New York, 1970–80)

R. Jaquel: Le savant et philosophe mulhousien Jean-Henri Lambert (1728–1777): études critiques et documentaires (Paris, 1977)

MURRAY CAMPBELL

Lambert, John (Arthur Neill)

(b Maidenhead, 15 July 1926; d Brighton, 7 March 1995). English composer. After studies at the RAM and the RCM (1943–50) and, privately, with Boulanger in Paris, Lambert was at different times director of music at the Old Vic Theatre (1958–62), organist of St Vedast-alias-Foster in the City of London (1949–77), and professor of composition at the RCM (1963–90), where he set up, in the face of a notoriously conservative establishment, an Experimental Music Group. Widely considered as one of the most influential of British composition teachers, his many eminent pupils include Julian Anderson, Oliver Knussen, Mark-Anthony Turnage and Simon Bainbridge, all of whom pay lavish tribute to his influence and his insistence on a refined and thorough approach to creativity. Partly because of this insistence and because of his commitment to teaching, his own music is limited in quantity, its wider dissemination prevented both by his inability to cement long-lasting relationships with publishers and by the related difficulty of securing repeated performances. But its high quality, its economy of means, its clarity and its intellectual integrity are widely recognized. His influences include Dutilleux, Boulez and Ligeti. Like those composers, he was intrigued by the play of textures, by block contrasts, and above all perhaps by processes of quasi-ritualistic transformation. Often that transformation will take the form of a disintegration which builds to something new. In Veni Creator the process is slightly different, with each instrument – organ and voice – achieving a rapport with the other by gradually ‘crossing over’ into the other’s territory. The process in Formations and Transformations, performed at the Promenade Concerts in 1972, is a matter of revealing one layer and concealing it with another. Orpheus Cycle I (1969–70) is an early experiment with multimedia in which an 8 mm film depicts symbols of each of the elements, and uses transformations of colour, while Orpheus Cycle II is a literal musical depiction of the confrontation and subsequent interaction of Orpheus (oboe) and Charon (harpsichord). Elements of improvisation feature in a number of works, among them Tread Softly for four guitars, and Lambert’s fascination with spatial aspects of music is evinced in the swirling sounds presented by three antiphonal groups in … but then face to face, for ten guitars doubling organ, piano, voice and percussion. But arguably his finest achievements are the two string quartets, the incomplete five-work cycle Sea-Change, Seasons, commissioned for the RCM centenary in 1982, and the sinister chamber opera Family Affairs.

WORKS

Stage: Persona, spkr, 4 amp gui, costumes, lighting, staging, 1975; baby – a ballet, S, fl/pic, cl/E-cl/B-cl, b sax, 2 perc, pf, elec gui, db, 1975; Family Affairs, chbr op, 1988

Orch: Ricercare no.1, str, 1955; Formations and Transformations, 1969

Chbr/ens: Tread Softly, 4 gui, 1970; Orpheus Cycle II, ob, hpd, 1970; From the Nebula, vc, str, 1971; Str Qt no.1 ‘Consider the Lilies’, 1977; Sea-Change, small orch, live elecs: 1 Waves, 2 Time and Tides, 3 Melodies and Drones, unfinished, 4 Accents, 5 Mutations, 1978–95; Seasons, large ens, 1981–2, rev. 1984, 1991, 1995; Str Qt no.2, 1986; Meditations, b fl, eng hn, cl, pf, 1991

Solo inst: Ricercare no.2, org, 1956; Org Mass, org, 1964–8; Toccata, gui, 1984; Studies, gui, 1989; Slide, tpt, 1989; Intro, pf, 1991; Uccelli, org, 1992; Echo Toccata, org, 1993 [based on Monteverdi’s Vespers)

Choral: I will lift up mine eyes, SATB, org, 1955, rev. 1977; Dream Carol, double SATB, 1974; Antiphons, chorus, org, 1976

Other vocal: 3 Songs of Baudelaire, Bar/A, pf, 1956; The Golden Sequence, 2 high/medium vv, org, 2 vn, va, vc, db, 1966; Veni Creator, cant., 2 vv/2-pt chorus, org, 1967; Jubilatio, medium v, 4 perc, 1968; … but then face to face, 1v, perc, org, pf, 10 gui, 1971; For a while …, S, fl/a fl, cl/melodica, perc, va, db, 1973–4; 5 Songs of Po-Chui, Bar, pf, 1974; Scale, 8vv/double SATB, 1990

Arr.: J.S. Bach: The Musical Offering, ens, 1977

Other works: Orpheus Cycle I, multimedia, 1969–70; Soundtrack, tape, 1991

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Pettitt: ‘The Music of John Lambert’, Tempo, no.164 (1988), 12–19

STEPHEN PETTITT

Lambert, Michel

(b Champigny-sur-Veudes, c1610; d Paris, 27 June 1696). French composer, singer and singing teacher. Educated as a choirboy in the chapel of Gaston d’Orléans, the elder brother of Louis XIII, Lambert began making his name as a singer in Paris in the 1640s. He benefited from the support of several patrons, including Cardinal Richelieu, the bishop of Lisieux, Fouquet, Gaston d’Orléans and his daughter Mlle de Montpensier, known as ‘la Grande Mademoiselle’. His name is also associated with the précieux circles of Paris at the time, first that of Mme de Rambouillet, and after the 1650s the circle of Mlle de Scudéry. In 1641 he married Gabrielle Dupuy, a singer; they had a daughter, Madeleine, who later married Jean-Baptiste Lully. From then on Lambert’s career was frequently linked to that of his sister-in-law, Hilaire Dupuy, a famous singer who performed in musical entertainments at court, in sacred music (she sang in the offices of Tenebrae) and in court ballets. Documentary records show that Lambert first performed as a dancer in 1651 in the ballets produced at the court of the young king Louis XIV. After 1656 his reputation as a composer of airs was consolidated by their regular appearance in the collections of Airs de differents autheurs published by Christophe Ballard. In 1660 he published the first book of airs with basso continuo to be engraved in France. Lambert was appointed maître de la musique de la chambre du roi in May 1661, a position that he held until his death. His son-in-law Jean-Baptiste Lully was appointed surintendant de la musique de la chambre du roi and from this time their professional and family lives were closely connected: Lambert wrote several récits and dialogues for Lully’s ballets of the 1660s. Among the duties of Lambert’s post were the education of pages in the royal chapel and the training of choristers in the Chambre du Roi.

Lambert had been recognized since 1636 as an important singer and singing teacher. In the dedication of his first book of airs to Pierre de Nyert in 1660, he praised the ‘beautiful manner of singing’ introduced by Nyert after his sojourn in Italy and said that he was indebted to him for ‘all the best I know’. His singing and teaching were widely, even extravagantly, praised. The singer Anne de la Barre wrote to Constantijn Huygens that he was ‘the best singing teacher in Paris’ (letter of 31 July 1648); Perrin called him the ‘Amphion of our days’; according to Le Cerf de la Viéville he was ‘the best master to have appeared in centuries’; and Titon du Tillet described the ‘charming concerts’ in his country home at Puteau-sur-Seine in which he accompanied himself on the theorbo. His popularity at court is a matter of record: the ‘Compte de la maison du Roi’ for July 1688 shows that 1200 livres were given to him as soloist for the king. Some idea of his method may be obtained from a reading of the Remarques curieuses sur l’art de bien chanter (1668; Eng. trans., 1968) of Bacilly, who directed his readers to several airs by Lambert for illustrations.

Although most of Lambert’s collections of airs are lost (the Mercure galant numbered them at 20 in 1668), his position as the most important and prolific French composer of airs sérieux in the second half of the 17th century can be confirmed by a study of the more than 330 airs by him that remain in printed and manuscript sources. Lambert was careful in his choice of texts, using the works of some 50 poets, including Bouchardeau, the Comtesse de La Suze, Pierre Perrin, La Fontaine, Scarron, Guillaume and François Colletet. The commonest form in the airs is a short binary structure followed by a double familiar from the air de cour. There are also examples of rounded binary airs (e.g. Mes yeux, que vos plaisirs) and, from the 1670s onwards, airs en rondeau (Ah! qui voudra desormais s’engager); some airs border on recitative (the tragic lament Ombre de mon amant); others borrow the rhythmic organization of dances such as sarabands (D’un feu secret) or are built over chaconne basses (Ma bergère); and some are organized as dialogues (Loin de vos yeux). In general Lambert’s airs are models of elegance and grace in which careful attention is paid to correct declamation (for which he was praised by d’Ambruys and Jean Rousseau). In most of his doubles he did not allow melismatic writing to destroy the shape of the original melodies (ex.1) and rarely wrote the sort of purely abstract melodic patterns that mar some of the airs even of Guédron. Ex.2 illustrates his control of variation techniques: a three-part instrumental statement is followed by solo and ensemble settings, and all are based on the same melodic and harmonic materials.

Through his dialogues and some of his more dramatic récits Lambert influenced French opera composers. Ménestrier (Des représentations en musique anciennes et modernes, Paris, 1681) quoted the text of a dialogue by him between Silvie and Tircis to show how such ‘petites chansons’ had served as models for what he called ‘musique d’action et de Théâtre’.

WORKS

secular vocal

Les airs de Monsieur Lambert, 19 airs with doubles, 2vv, bc (Paris, 1660, 1666/R1983); 1 ed. in La Borde

[60] Airs, 1–5vv, 2 insts, bc (Paris, 1689); 1 ed. in La Borde; 1 ed. in Quittard; 1 ed. in Gérold

[75] Airs de Monsieur Lambert non imprimez, 1v, bc, 50 with doubles, c1710, F-Pa, Pn [? compiled by H. Foucault]; 1 ed. in Mw, xvi (1958; Eng. trans., 1958)

Airs in 1656³, 1658², 1658³, 1659⁴, 1 ed. in Gérold, 1660¹, 1662⁵, 1662⁶, 1678³, 1679³, 1682², 1683², 1685³, 1687², 1691¹, 1695³; Airs spirituels des meilleurs autheurs (Paris, 1701), 2, ed. F. Delsarte, Archives du chant, iv, xvi (Paris, 1856–61); Brunètes ou petits airs tendres (Paris, 1704), 5 ed. H. Expert, Chants de France et d’Italie, i (Paris, 1910), 1 ed. J. Weckerlin, Echos du temps passé, i (Paris, 1857); Parodies spirituelles en forme des cantates (Paris, 1717), 2 ed. H. Prunières, Les maîtres du chant, iv/1 (Paris, 1924); Meslanges de musique latine, françoise et italienne, divisez par saisons (Paris, 1725), Nouveau recueil de chansons choisies, iv (The Hague, 1729); Nouvelles poésies morales sur les beaux airs de la musique française et italienne (Paris, 1737); Journal de la Haye, ou Choix d’airs français dédié aux dames (The Hague and Amsterdam, c1785)

Airs in Pn Vm⁷501, Rés Vma 854, Vm⁷651, Rés Vm⁷583–4, Vm⁷513, Vm⁷4822, Rés 89ter

stage music

1 récit, 3 dialogues, in Ballet des arts, Paris, Palais Royal, 8 Jan 1663, F-Pn, V [with Lully and Benserade]

1 dialogue, in Ballet des amours déguisés, Paris, Palais Royal, 13 Feb 1664, Pn [with Lully and Benserade]

1 dialogue, in Ballet de la naissance de Vénus, Paris, Palais Royal, 26 Jan 1665, Pn [with Lully and Benserade]

sacred music

Leçons de ténèbres pour la semaine sainte, 1v, bc, 1689, F-Pn Rés 585, 588 [2 cycles]

Miserere mei Deus, 2/3vv, bc, Pn Rés 586

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AnthonyFB

BenoitMC

LaBordeE

J.L. le cerf de la Viéville: Comparaison de la musique italienne et de la musique françoise (Brussels, 1704–6/R)

E. Titon du Tillet: Le Parnasse françois (Paris, 1732/R1971)

J.E. Bertrand: ‘Michel Lambert: vie d’un musicien au XVIIe siècle’, RGMP, xxvi (1859), 9–10, 35–6, 69–70, 143–4, 154–6

H. Quittard: ‘La première comédie française en musique’, BSIM, iv (1908), 497–537

T. Gérold: L’art du chant en France au XVIIe siècle (Strasbourg, 1921/R)

L. de La Laurencie: Les créateurs de l’opéra français (Paris, 1921, 2/1930/R)

L. Maurice-Amour: ‘Benserade, Michel Lambert et Lulli’, Cahiers de l’Association internationale des études françaises, ix (1957), 53–76

A. Adam, ed.: G. Tallemant des Réaux: Historiettes (Paris, 1960–61)

E. Millet: ‘Le musicien Michel Lambert (1610–1696) était de Champigny-sur-Veude’, Bulletin des Amis du vieux Chinon, vii (1968), 186–90

C. Massip: L’art de bien chanter: Michel Lambert (1610–1696) (Paris, 1999)

JAMES R. ANTHONY/CATHERINE MASSIP

Lambert, Pierre-Jean

(d ?Paris, ? 20 Oct 1752). French composer and harpsichordist. He is known only through two works, Pièces de clavecin and a cantatille, L’aurore (both in F-Pn), as well as a privilege dated 1 April 1749. The harpsichord pieces are dedicated to the Comtesse de Montgommery (Marie-Anne-Rose, Marquise de Thiboutot), a pupil. Their indebtedness to earlier music is naively apparent – a hunting divertissement is modelled on Dandrieu, a variation of Les sauterelles on Rameau’s Les niais de Sologne. They are characterized by their use of brilliant figuration, and are the last pieces to use the appoggiatura and mordent symbols of d’Anglebert and Rameau. The cantatille is later than the harpsichord pieces (its title includes an advertisement for them); it is for voice, one obbligato line marked ‘violons & flûtes’ and basso continuo, and divided into four movements. (D. Fuller and B. Gustafson: A Catalogue of French Harpsichord Music, 1699–1780, Oxford, 1990)

DAVID FULLER/BRUCE GUSTAFSON

Lambert Ferri.

See Ferri, Lambert.

Lambertini.

Portuguese firm of piano makers. Luigi Gioacchino Lambertini (b Bologna, 17 March 1790; d Lisbon, 13 Nov 1864) was a fellow student of Rossini at the Liceo Filarmonico (now Conservatorio Statale di Musica G.B. Martini), Bologna. He emigrated to Lisbon for political reasons in 1836, and established a piano-making business with the help of four of the best workers from his Italian workshop, receiving a prize for his instruments in 1838. In 1860, under the direction of his sons Evaristo (b ?Bologna, 10 June 1827; d Lisbon, 7 Dec 1900) and Ermete Lambertini (d Lisbon, 11 Dec 1887), the firm became Lambertini Filhos & Ca., selling and publishing music as well as making pianos. The firm later became Lambertini & Irmão. Evaristo's son, Michel'Angelo Lambertini (b Oporto, 14 April 1852; d Lisbon, 20 Dec 1920), was a fine pianist and founded the Grande Orchestra Portuguesa in 1906. The firm closed in 1922.

See DBP.

MARGARET CRANMER

Lambertini, Giovan Tomaso

(b Bologna; fl 1545–80; d ?Rome). Italian composer and singer. He was appointed mansionario (beneficed chaplain) at S Petronio, Bologna, in November 1545. The archives record a payment to him in December 1546 for copying a book of music by the maestro del canto, Michele Cimatore. In 1548 he entered the choir of the basilica and was registered as singer and scribe. Following a disagreement with the other mansionarii he was expelled from his benefice in March 1573. Although he was reinstated two months later by Cardinal Paleotti, he was in Rome in September of the same year: apparently Cardinal Otto von Truchsess von Waldburg, to whom he had dedicated his Septem psalmi poenitentiales (1569), invited him to serve him there. He was a tenor in the Cappella Giulia between 1578 and 1580. The statement by Eitner that he was a singer at S Petronio until 1628 is incorrect, as is the one by Fétis that he was vicemaestro di cappella at S Lorenzo, Venice, in 1560.

Lambertini’s compositions, all for four voices, display a rich harmonic language that exploits the interplay of major and minor sonorities. His part-writing is non-imitative, and his vocal lines tend to lack distinct melodic shape. However, since he wrote excellent counterpoint and maintained a happy balance between linear and chordal passages, the text declamation is neither monotonous nor artlessly obvious.

WORKS

Il primo libro de madregali, 4vv (Venice, 1560)

Septem psalmi poenitentiales (Venice, 1569), inc.

1 work, 1559¹⁹; ed. in Maestri bolognesi, ii (Bologna, 1953)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

FétisB

G. Gaspari: ‘Continuazione delle memorie biografiche e bibliografiche sui musicisti bolognesi del XVI secolo’, Atti e memorie della R. Deputazione di storia patria per le provincie di Romagna, 2nd ser., i (1875); repr. in Musica e musicisti a Bologna (Bologna, 1969), 179ff

O. Gambassi: La cappella musicale di S. Petronio: maestri, organisti, cantori e strumentisti dal 1436 al 1920 (Florence, 1987), 10, 74ff

G. Rostirolla: ‘La Bolla “De Communi Omnium” di Gregorio XIII per la restaurazione della Cappella Giulia’, La cappella musicale nell’Italia della Controriforma: Cento 1989, 39–66, esp. 58

FRANK TIRRO/MARC VANSCHEEUWIJCK

Lambertini, Marta

(b San Isidro, 12 Nov 1937). Argentine composer. She studied with Luis Gianneo, Caamaño and Gandini at the Catholic University of Argentina (graduation 1972); she also studied electro-acoustic composition at the Centro de Investigaciones en Comunicación Masiva, Arte y Tecnología (CICMAT), Buenos Aires. She is a member of the Academy of Sciences and Arts of San Isidro. Since 1973 she has taught composition and orchestration at the faculty of arts and musical sciences of the Catholic University of Argentina, and since 1994 she has been the faculty dean. She has received many prizes and takes part in national and international festivals and competitions, both as a composer and as a member of the jury.

In Lambertini's prolific output there are very few works that can be considered what is traditionally called ‘pure music’. She often has recourse to literary inspiration, and from her early works onwards there are two major characteristics: the theme of the cosmos, for example in Quasares (1971), Galileo descubre las cuatro lunas de Júpiter (1985), Ultima filmación de los anillos de Saturno (1991) and Rigel (1980); and her humour, which can be seen in La question pataphysique (1983), The Pool of Tears (1987), O, Ewigkeit … ! I and II, and Alice in Wonderland (1989). In this last work, full of cross-references, she uses different languages (English, Italian and Spanish), and tries out various musical genres to represent the multiplicity of readings offered by Lewis Carroll's original text. While in her works produced from 1970 to 1980 she used references to other musical works as ‘quotations’ (Serenata, Gymel, Alice in Wonderland etc.) or transcriptions of complete musical pieces (for example the ‘Madrigal de Marenzio’ from Alice in Wonderland) to create settings for the characters to move about in her later works, and especially from 1990 onwards, she has investigated the various possibilities offered by the ‘objet trouvé’, and has then gone on (in works such as Reunión, La casa inundada and La ribera) to ‘fracture’ all the elements derived from this, rupturing its original meaning in order to convert it into a new musical entity with new and different characteristics. The selection of these elements is not a matter of whim, since it is always intimately related to the ‘story’ or the landscape that is being represented musically. The results of these transformations, on the level of expression, are a close solidarity with these musical objects: when they return to their original form, they no longer appear as ‘quotations’, but are completely absorbed by the context. One can say that by means of these procedures Lambertini has inverted the use of the quotation, resulting in the suppression of the quotation as such.

WORKS

Chbr ops: Alice in Wonderland (M. Lambertini, after L. Carroll), 1989; ¡Oh, eternidad …! ossia S.M.R. BACH (M. Lambertini, J.S. Bach, E. Meynell, J.C.F. Hölderlin, E.A. Poe), 1990

Orch: Concertino–Serenata, fl, cl, str ens, perc, hp, pf, 1981; Misa de pájaros II, 1983; Galileo descubre las cuatro lunas de Júpiter, 1985; Antigona II, 1989

Other inst: Enroque a 7, fl, cl, str qt, pf, 1970; Quasares, str qt, 1971; Posters de una exposición, pf, 1972; Serenata, fl, cl, vc, pf, perc, 1973; Espacios interiores I, fl, pf, 1975–6; Espacios interiores II, cl, vc, pf, 1976; Gymel, fl, gui, 1977; Misa de pájaros I, fl, cl, vc, pf, perc, 1978; Vaghe stelle dell’Orsa, str qt, 1978; Eridanus, fl, gui, 1979; Yggdrasil, el árbol, fl, cl, pf, 1979; Rigel, cl, pf, 1980; La espada de Orión, wind qnt, hp, pf, str qt, 1981; Anónimo italiano, 2 fl, gui, vn, va, vc, 1982; La Hydra, ob, pf, 1983; La question pataphysique, ens of insts held at Museo Azzarini, La Plata, 1983; 5 piezas transversales, pf, 1984; Los fuegos de San Telmo, pf trio, 1985; Antígona [I], va, 2 cl, mand, gui, pf, 1987; El Catedral sumergido, vc, pf, 1989; Como un jardín cerrado, bn, 1990; Una ofrenda musical, cl, bn, pf, 1990; Assorted Köchels (con Fantasía galopante), cl, bn, pf, 1991; Ultima filmación de los anillos de Saturno, 4 cl, 1991; Amanecer en el patio y apronte, 4 perc, 1992; Segundo jardín cerrado, cl, bn, 1992; Música para renacer en las aguas, ob, hn, str qt, pf, 1992; Reunión, str qt, pf, 1994; La casa inundada, vn, vc, pf, 1995; Mocqueur polyglotte, fl, 1995; Pathfinder, vn, va, vc, 1997

Vocal: Ad invocandum spiritum sanctum, chorus, 1969; Odas (F. Pessoa), chorus, orch, 1972; Proverbios (P. Eluard), chorus, orch, 1972; 3 poemas (O. Paz), Mez, pf, 1975; 3 canciones de cuna (M. Lambertini), children's chorus, 1975–6; 3 canti d’amore (Dunstable, Gesualdo, Palestrina), S, fl, gui, 1981; O, Ewigkeit…! I (M. Lambertini, J.S. Bach, O. Loerke) [after J.S. Bach], Bar, str qt, pf, perc, 1985, rev. Bar, str orch, pf, perc, 1990; Lo stivale [It. folksongs], Bar, fl, cl, vn, vc, db, pf, perc, 1986, The Pool of Tears (Carroll), S, pf 6 hands, 1987; Tankas (J.L. Borges), Bar, pf, 1988, version for Mez, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1993; O, Ewigkeit…! II (M. Lambertini, J.S. Bach, Hölderlin), Bar, str orch, pf, perc, 1990; Extracción de la piedra de la locura (theatre music, A. Pizarnic), spkr, pf trio, 1991; La nariz de Mozart (W.A. Mozart, M. Lambertini), Mez, fl, str pt, pf, 1991; Poemas del silencio (A. Lambertini), S, 2 fl, 1991; Nocturno (A. Lambertini), chorus, 1992; Escena de la falsa tortuga (M. Lambertini, Carroll), Bar, fl, ob, cl, vn, va, perc, 1993 [insertion in op Alice in Wonderland]; La cecala e la formica (Trilussa), Mez, Bar, fl, str qt, pf, 1996; La ribera (J.L. Ortiz), spkr, str qt, 1996

Tape: Estudio de materia, 1973

Incid music: La lección de anatomía (C. Mathus), tape, 1983; La reina de corazones (T. Wehbi), tape, 1983; Payasos (Wehbi), Tape, 1983

Principal publishers: EAC-Moeck, Ricordi Americana

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P. Ortiz: ‘La citation dans la musique contemporaine argentine’, Contrechamps, no.3 (1984), 136–7

R. Arias Usandivaras: ‘Marta Lambertini, su obra’, Temas y contracantos (1986), May–June

G. Paraskevaidis: ‘Acerca de las mujeres, que además de ser mujeres, componen’, Pauta, v/17 (1986), 54–60

C. García Muñoz: ‘Marta Lambertini: catálogo de su obra’, Revista del Instituto de investigación musicológica Carlos Vega, viii (1987), 137–44

D. Grela: Catálogo de obras argentinas 1950–1992 (Santa Fé, 1993), 63–4

M. Ficher, M.F. Schleifer and J.M. Furman: Latin American Classical Composers: a Biographical Dictionary (Lanham, MD, and London, 1996), 189

W.A. Roldan: Diccionario de música y músicos (Buenos Aires, 1996)

RAQUEL C. DE ARIAS

Lambertus, Magister [Pseudo-Aristoteles]

(fl c1270). Music theorist. His Tractatus de musica made an important contribution to the theory of measured music between Johannes de Garlandia and Franco of Cologne. All that is known of his life or nationality is that he evidently spent time in Parisian musical circles. Apart from the treatise itself, the only information about him derives from the comments of three other theorists: the St Emmeram or Sowa anonymus, Johannes de Grocheio and Jacobus of Liège. The St Emmeram anonymus, writing in 1279, mentioned Lambertus by name and several times made strenuous objections to his notational ideas. At the end of the 13th century Grocheio mentioned him as an advocate of a system of nine rhythmic modes rather than the six modes of Johannes de Garlandia or the five of Franco of Cologne. Jacobus of Liège in the 14th century cited him three times along with Franco as a respected and eminent authority, but Jacobus referred to him by the name Aristotle rather than Lambertus – an error that probably arose as a result of one anonymous copy of Lambertus’s treatise following a work ascribed to Aristotle. The treatise also circulated under the name of Bede, among whose complete works (Basle, 1563) it was printed as De musica quadrata seu mensurata (ed. in PL, xc, 919–38); as such it was cited by Francisco de Salinas (1577).

Yudkin (1991) has suggested that Lambertus should be identified with the man of that name who was a magister of the University of Paris and dean of St Vincent, Soignies; his will, dated 8 April 1270, names as his executor Robert of Sorbon, canon of Paris and founder of the Collège de Sorbonne. Pinegar has alternatively proposed an identification with Labertus of Auxerre, a Dominican scholar buried at the covent of St Jacques in Paris, but this seems less likely since the tonary included with Lambertus’s treatise shows no Dominican characteristics.

Lambertus’s Tractatus de musica (ed. in CoussemakerS, i, 251–81; ed. in CSM, forthcoming) dates from the third quarter of the 13th century, most probably from the decade 1265–75. As it survives today, the first two-thirds of the treatise deals with the traditional topics of speculative music and of practical rudiments needed by performers; this portion may well be a compilatio not directly connected to Lambertus. After opening with statements on the definitions, etymology and invention of music, there is a section dealing with the notes of the gamut, the hexachord system, the staff, B and B and mutation. The treatise allows 12 musical intervals from the unison to the octave, deliberately excluding the tritone. Like Johannes de Garlandia, it subdivides consonant and dissonant intervals into perfect, medial and imperfect, although this formulation differs in its details. This section concludes with an explanation of the ecclesiastical modes and a fairly extensive tonary with musical examples.

The more important last portion of the treatise – the part specifically associated with Lambertus by later theorists – discusses measured music and its notation. Here Lambertus shows himself to be the most important polyphonic theorist between the modal theory associated with Johannes de Garlandia and the mensural theory of Franco of Cologne. His doctrine, though heavily indebted to Garlandian theory, nonetheless reveals a shift in emphasis that prepared the way for the fully mensural system set out by Franco in about 1280. Lambertus’s work indicates that by about 1270 the old modal rhythms and melismatic successions of ligatures were necessarily giving way to mensural techniques in the syllabically texted motet.

After the classification of the categories of musica mensurabilis as discant, ‘hokettus’ and organum, there is an extensive discussion of discant, followed by several paragraphs on hocket (organum is mentioned only in passing). Lambertus did not begin with a discussion of mode and ligature patterns but with an exposition of single note forms: the perfect long, the imperfect long, the brevis recta and brevis altera, the semibrevis major and minor, and later, the duplex long. The most significant innovation proved to be his insistence on the priority of the perfect long of three tempora as the fount and origin of all other note values. Here he directly contradicted earlier modal theory and Johannes de Garlandia, who regarded the long of two tempora as the ‘correct’ long and the basis of the rhythmic system; Lambertus’s perfect long was in Garlandian teaching the long ‘beyond measure’. Lambertus dwelt at length on the concept of perfection and imperfection, explaining how perfections are formed by various combinations of longs and breves and quoting musical examples from the motet repertory. He also specified that the brevis recta divides into three equal or two unequal semibreves.

Lambertus next considered ligatures of two to five notes and their rhythmic interpretations. For him the shape of a ligature, not its position in an additive modal series, was the most significant factor as regards its rhythm; the propriety of a ligature is determined purely by the presence or absence of a descending stroke on the left side. Lambertus was also precise about the length of the symbols for rests of different durations.

His last major topic, presented in poetic form, is a consideration of the Rhythmic modes, of which he is unique in listing nine. In accordance with his concept of the primacy of the perfect long, his 1st mode is Johannes de Garlandia’s 5th, and he stated that all other modes can be resolved or reduced to this mode. His 2nd to 5th modes are equivalent to Garlandia’s 1st to 4th modes and his 7th is Garlandia’s 6th. The 6th, 8th and 9th modes are Lambertus’s additions; all three feature semibreves, and in the motets quoted as musical examples, each semibreve has its own syllable of text. Thus his added modes reflect the new divisive rhythms and more rapid declamation of text fashionable in the motet during the last third of the 13th century.

The dozen or more motets which Lambertus cited are found mostly in the Montpellier and Bamberg manuscripts (F-MO H 196 and D-BAs Ed.IV.6), although several appear also in the La Clayette and Las Huelgas manuscripts (F-Pn fr.13521 and E-BUlh), and other sources, including the musical appendix in the 13th-century manuscript that is the most important source of the Tractatus itself (F-Pn lat.11266). Lambertus’s notational ideas find their best representation in the motets of this short collection appended to his treatise, but his doctrine is also partly reflected in the notation of the Bamberg manuscript. By providing Franco of Cologne with the fruitful concepts of perfection, the perfect long and the imperfect long, Lambertus helped to set the stage for the next several centuries of the mensural system.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

HMT (‘Clausula’, S. Schmalzriedt; ‘Conductus’, F. Reckow; ‘Copula’, F. Reckow; ‘Hoquetus’, W. Frobenius; ‘Longa – brevis’, W. Frobenius; ‘Modus (Rhythmuslehre)’, W. Frobenius; ‘Musica falsa/musica ficta’, B. Sydow-Saak; ‘Perfectio’, W. Frobenius; ‘Proprietas (Notationslehre)’, W. Frobenius; ‘Semibrevis’, W. Frobenius)

MGG1 (G. Reaney)

R.L. Crocker: ‘Discant, Counterpoint, and Harmony’, JAMS, xv (1962), 1–21

G. Reaney: ‘The Question of Authorship in the Medieval Treatises on Music’, MD, xviii (1964), 7–17

F. Reckow: ‘Proprietas und perfectio’, AcM, xxxix (1967), 115–43

M. Huglo: Les tonaires: inventaire, analyse, comparaison (Paris, 1971)

W. Frobenius: ‘Zur Datierung von Francos Ars cantus mensurabilis’, AMw, xxvii (1970), 122–7

G.A. Anderson: ‘Magister Lambertus and Nine Rhythmic Modes’, AcM, xlv (1973), 57–73

G.A. Anderson: ‘The Notation of the Bamberg and Las Huelgas Manuscripts’, MD, xxxii (1978), 19–67

M. Huglo: ‘De Franco de Cologne à Jacques de Liège’, RBM, xxxiv–xxxv (1980–81), 44–60

M. Everist: ‘Music and Theory in late Thirteenth-Century Paris: the Manuscript Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, fonds lat.11266’, RMARC, xvii (1981), 52–64

M. Haas: ‘Die Musiklehre im 13. Jahrhundert von Johannes de Garlandia bis Franco’, Die mittelalterliche Lehre von der Mehstimmigkeit, Geschichte der Musiktheorie, ed. F. Zaminer, v (Darmstadt, 1984), 89–159

C.B. Schmitt and D. Knox: Pseudo-Aristoteles Latinus: a Guide to Latin Works Falsely Attributed to Aristotle before 1500 (London, 1985), 78, n.89 [‘Speculum musicae’, with list of MSS]

J. Yudkin: ‘The Influence of Aristotle on French University Music Texts’, Music Theory and its Sources: Antiquity and the Middle Ages: Notre Dame, IN, 1987, 173–89

M. Huglo: ‘Bibliographie des éditions et études relatives à la théorie musicale du Moyen Age (1972–1987)’, AcM, lx (1988), 229–72

A. Gilles: ‘De musica plana breve compendium: un témoignage de l'enseignement de Lambertus’, MD, xliii (1989), 33–62

J. Yudkin, ed.: De musica mensurata: the Anonymous of St. Emmeram (Bloomington, IN, 1990)

S. Pinegar: Textual and Conceptual Relationships among Theoretical Writings on Measurable Music during the Thirteenth and Early Fourteenth Centuries (diss., Columbia U., 1991)

J. Yudkin: ‘The Anonymous Music Treatise of 1279: Why St Emmeram?’, ML, lxxii (1991), 177–96

J. Dyer: ‘The Clavis in Thirteenth-Century Music Theory’, Cantus Planus VII: Sopron 1995, 195–212

J. Yudkin and T. Scott: ‘Ut hic: Announcing a Study of Musical Examples in the Thirteenth-Century Music Treatises’, Essays on Medieval Music in Honor of David G. Hughes, ed. G. Boone (Cambridge, MA, 1995), 471–85

REBECCA A. BALTZER

Lambeth Choirbook

(GB-Llp 1). See Sources, MS, §IX, 19.

Lambranzi, Gregorio

(fl early 18th century). Italian dancer and choreographer. He wrote one of the most interesting 18th-century books on dance: Neue und curieuse theatrialische Tantz-Schul (Nuremberg, 1716/R with commentary by K. Petermann and Eng. trans.). The title-page (see illustration) and preface indicate that Lambranzi was born in or around Venice, and that as a dancer he toured Italy, Germany and France. The original manuscript for the book (in D-Mbs; facs., New York, 1972) suggests that he may have spent large parts of his life in Germany, although no other evidence is known to support this. The book contains 101 plates beautifully engraved by J.G. Puschner. Each plate shows a dance scene in stage settings typical for touring companies of the period (for illustration see Folia). All costumed male and female characters are presented by men (Lambranzi served as a model for most of the illustrations). At the bottom of each plate there are suggestions for the steps and the manner of performance. The melody for each dance is given at the top of each plate (similar to Feuillet's printed dance notations, which Lambranzi knew quite well). The subjects of the dances range from commedia dell'arte scenes to national dances, represented by a variety of craftsmen and grotesque characters. In the preface Lambranzi claimed that the dance tunes were his own compositions, but it is likely that he used a repertory of popular song and dance melodies that he came to know while touring Europe (66 tunes, for example, are from John Playford's editions of country dances). It is probable that Lambranzi's book was intended for use in schools and universities, where theatrical performance practice was an important part of the curriculum.

A Giovan Battista Lambranzi worked as a painter and scenographer in Venice during the last third of the 17th century; whether he was related to Gregorio Lambranzi is unknown.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Derra de Moroda: ‘Auffindung des Gregorio Lambranzi Manuscript’, Die Musik, xxxiv (1941–2), 260–61

S. Ewert: ‘Ballett und Pantomime in der Commedia dell'Arte, erörtert am Beispiel von Gregorio Lambranzi’, Maske und Kothurn, xxii (1976), 224–37

S. Dahms: ‘“Gregorio Lambranzi di Venetia” e il Ballo d'azione a Vienna’, L'opera italiana a Vienna prima di Metastasio, ed. M.T. Muraro (Florence, 1989), 251–69

FRIDERICA DERRA DE MORODA/SIBYLLE DAHMS

Lambuleti, Johannes

(fl 14th century). French or Spanish composer. He was possibly a member of the same family as Edmon and Gerónimo Lambullet, active at the court chapel of Alfonso V of Aragon in 1416 and 1422 (see Gómez, 106–7), and his name appears near the end of the second voice of the Kyrie of the so-called Sorbonne Mass (ed. in CMM, xxix, 1962, pp.6, 59, 123, 131, 138, and PMFC, xxxiii/A, 1989, pp.1–27). He may have been the composer of the complete mass setting, which includes a two-voice Benedicamus Domino, since there are relationships between the movements of the mass, and since also the movements are all based on mass settings in I-IV (with the exception of the Benedicamus Domino). The Gloria and Sanctus are incomplete, and the Credo is missing.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Chailley: ‘La Messe de Besançon et un compositeur inconnu du XIVe siècle, Jean Lambelet’, AnnM, ii (1954), 93–104 [with facs. and partial transcr.]

L. Schrade: ‘A Fourteenth Century Parody Mass’, AcM, xxvii (1955), 13–39

R. Jackson: ‘Musical Interrelations between Fourteenth Century Mass Movements’, AcM, xxix (1957), 54–64

H. Stäblein-Harder: Fourteenth-Century Mass Music in France, MSD, vii (1962), 13, 24–5, 48–9, 71ff, 77–8, 98, 108

M. del Carmen Gómez Muntané: La música en la casa real catalano-aragonesa durante los años 1336–1432 (Barcelona, 1979)

GILBERT REANEY

Lam Bun-ching

(b Macau, 26 June 1954). Macanese composer. She graduated from the Chinese University of Hong Kong (1976), then completed the PhD (1981) at the University of California at San Diego, studying composition with Erickson, Oliveros, Rands and Reynolds. From 1981 to 1986 she taught at Cornish College of the Arts, Seattle. Since then, living in New York, she has concentrated on composing. She has been composer-in-residence for the American Dance Festival, Durham, North Carolina (1986), and been involved in several Meet the Composer programmes. Awards include a first prize at Aspen, Colorado (1980), the Prix de Rome (1992) and the Lili Boulanger Award (1992), as well as inclusion in the ISCM World Music Days in 1988.

Works such as Springwaters (1980) display a sensitive, eclectic ear for harmony (after Debussy and Takemitsu) and a strong sense of instrumental colour, also apparent in a series of commissions for instruments, ranging from the cello and trombone to the pipa, which owe much to Lam’s involvement with performers. Traditional Chinese music and calligraphy seem reflected in moments of stillness, punctuated by intense activity, as in After Spring (written for Oppens and the Arditti Quartet), although overtly Chinese gestures are rare. Her music reflects contact with both the Western and Asian avant garde (Oliveros, Cage, Yuasa, Takemitsu) and a fondness for classical harmony and metre, strikingly juxtaposed. A significant strand is the series of ‘spring’ pieces (1976–1992), while notable too is an increasing use of Chinese instruments, beginning with Impetus (for the Hong Kong Chinese Orchestra) and continuing in a number of commissions from 1991 onwards. The Child God, for a Chinese shadow puppet play, was acclaimed at the New York Bang on a Can Festival in 1993.

WORKS

Stage: E. O. 9066, dance, vocal qt, tape, 1989; The Child God (shadow op, Ming Dynasty: The Creation of the God), New York, 1993

Orch: Lang Tao Sha, vn, orch, 1981; Yangguan Sandie, American gamelan, 1984; Impetus, conc. for Chin. orch, 1987; Saudades de Macau, 1987–9; Circle, 1992; Sudden Thunder, pipa, orch, 1994

Chbr and solo inst: 3 Tiny Bits, pf, 1977; – (Solo) = (Duo), fl/fls (1977); Masks, 12 insts, 1978; Springwaters, 2 fl, 3 cl, hn, tpt, trbn, pf, 1980; Movt, str qt, 1980; Bittersweet Music I, pic, 1980; Bittersweet Music II, vn, 1981; After Spring, 2 pf, 1983; Lü, solo perc, 1983; 3 Easy Pieces, trbn, elec, 1985; 2 + 1 = 3, a fl, bn, pf, 1987; Boehmesliebeslied, fl, pf, 1987; Social Accidents, fl, b cl, vn, pf, accn, perc, 1988; Another Spring, a fl, vc, pf, 1988; Californian Duo, trbn, va, 1989; L’air du temps, str qt, 1991; Similia/Dissimilia, trbn, elec vn, 1990; Klang, solo perc, 1990; Last Spring, pf qnt, 1992; For Bernard and Augusta, hp, 1993; Run, pipa, 1993; Qin 2000, vn, bn, elec gui, pf, perc, 1994; … Like Water, vn/va, pf, perc, 1995; 4½ Pack, fl, ob/eng hn, cl, vn, va, vc, 1995; Fa, gui qt, 1996; Jeder Tag ein Maya Tag, vc, 1996; 6 Phenomena, pf, 1997

Vocal: Spring Yearning (Quan Han-ching), S, chbr orch/S, pf, 1976; 3 Yuan Dynasty Songs (Ma Chih-yun), S, pf, 1977; 4 Beckett Songs (S. Beckett), S, vn, cl, perc, 1980; Autumn Sound (Li Ching-Ch’ao), S, fl, 1982; 3 Dada Songs (H. Ball), S, fl, vc, pf, 1985; Clouds/Wolken (G. Kaldewey), nar, S, fl, pf, 1986; Wolken II (Kaldewey), nar, double chorus, chbr orch 1987; Wolken III (Kaldewey), nar, chorus, pf, 1990; Walking Walking Keep Walking (Han Dynasty poems), T, Chin. insts, 1991; Wolken IV (Kaldewey), nar, double chorus, fl, cl, va, vc, pf, 1994; Last Love Songs, Bar, pf, 1995; The Great River Flows East (Su Shih), S, perc, 1997

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Sugai: ‘State of the Art’, International Examiner [Seattle], xiii/5 (1986)

B. Rice: ‘Composer Lam's “Circle” an Exploration of the Human Spirit’, Albany Daily Gazette (6 May 1994)

HARRISON RYKER

Lamellophone [lamellaphone].

A musical instrument whose sound is generated essentially by the vibration of thin lamellae (Lat. lamella, from lamina: ‘a thin plate or layer’) or tongues (hence the term ‘linguaphone’) of metal, wood or other material. Here, however, the term ‘lamellophone’ is not used for free-reed aerophones such as the Jew’s harp, Accordion or the European Mouth organ, nor for the European Musical box, but for another type of idiophone found throughout many regions of sub-Saharan Africa and in Latin America.

1. Introduction.

2. Terminology.

4. Early history.

5. Written and iconographical sources.

6. African typology and distribution in the 19th and 20th centuries.

7. Latin America.

GERHARD KUBIK (1–6), PETER COOKE/R (7)

1. Introduction.

Lamellophones form a particularly important and much ramified family of African musical instruments.

A lamellophone produces sound when a lamella (or tongue), fixed at one end (by a great variety of means) and free at the other, is caused to vibrate by being gently depressed and then released by the player. As far as we know lamellophones with a complex structure and technology evolved only in sub-Saharan Africa. They represent a development of the principle outlined above: a number of lamellae are prepared for use, laid in order, fixed over a soundboard and tuned reciprocally. The soundboard may be a flat board or a resonator of various shapes, such as box- or bell-shaped. The lamellae can be attached in a wide variety of ways. On an exceptional type of instrument found in the lower Ruvuma Valley in Mozambique, Tanzania, they are hooked into the wood, but the most common method involves fixing them to a pressure bar placed between two strips of wood, which serve respectively as backrest and bridge. Extending over the bridge, the free end of each lamella can be a different length, and that determines its pitch (fig.1).

In the course of the lamellophone's history, countless forms developed in sub-Saharan Africa. Until about the middle of the 20th century, before the instruments disappeared from many areas in sub-Saharan Africa, there was great diversity in technical devices and playing techniques (Laurenty, 1962; Kubik and Malamusi 1985–7; Borel, 1986; Kubik, Berlin, 1999, and Los Angeles, 1999). In the wake of the slave trade, some types of lamellophone spread from Africa to other regions of the world, including various parts of the Caribbean, Central and South America. There are large collections of lamellophones in European museums from the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

2. Terminology.

In ethnographic and travel literature in European languages, African lamellophones are referred to by a variety of terms including ‘hand piano’, ‘thumb piano’, ‘pianino’, even ‘Kaffir piano’ and ‘Klimper’ (the German equivalent of ‘joanna’). Sometimes local names were reported in the orthographic systems of the various European languages, and occasionally distorted. Thus the Kimbundu term kisanji entered the Portuguese language as quissange. A famous example of a corrupted form that was reported is ‘sansa’ (also ‘sanza’, ‘zanza’), referring to a common designation of the instrument in the lower Zambezi valley (Mozambique); nsansi (in Chiyungwe) or sansi (in the Maravi languages); the error seems to go back to Charles Livingstone.

The adoption of a local name, distorted or not, in a European language also regularly entailed some form of generalization. The specific local expression was interpreted as an African generic term for this group of instruments. One example is the generalization of the word mbira, indigenous to Zimbabwe; in the literature this has been used sometimes to denote not only West African lamellophones that were never called mbira but even Caribbean and Latin American instruments.

The word ‘Lamellophon’ was used for the first time by Kubik (1966) and has since become accepted in the major European languages (‘lamellophone’ in French and English; ‘lamelofone’ in Portuguese, etc.).

Table 1 illustrates some common names for lamellophones in African languages. In spite of this variety, especially in Bantu languages, many of the names display common word-stems: -limba or -rimba; -mbila or -mbira; -sansi or -sanji; and -kembe. Some are identical in lamellophone and xylophone names of Central and south-east Africa. This suggests that an analogy is felt by the speakers of these languages.

3. Typology, tuning and playing techniques.

African lamellophones can be classified according to organology, playing techniques and other principles. Tracey's Handbook for Librarians (1948) and distribution map (1961), use a system based on the type of resonator summarized as follows:

(i) Rectangular board.

Also termed ‘board lamellophone’. This type most often has an external resonator, usually a gourd-calabash, e.g. the ocisanji in central and south-western Angola (fig.2).

(ii) Fan-shaped soundboard, mostly with edges raised at the sides.

This also has an external resonator, e.g. the kalimba of the Chewa in Malawi and eastern Zambia (fig.3).

(iii) Bell-shaped resonator.

The defining trait is that the resonator, like a bell, is open in one direction, namely towards the player's stomach e.g. the Loango coast type, several Zimbabwe-Zambezi types such as the matepe and nyonganyonga, the sasi (fig.4) of the Khokola at Lake Chilwa, and the mucapata of the Cokwe in Angola (fig.5).

(iv) Box-shaped resonator.

This is usually rectangular, but sometimes trapezoid. It is often hollowed-out from one piece and closed by a strip of wood e.g. the likembe (fig.6). The agidigbo of the Yoruba of Nigeria has an oversized resonator made from a crate (fig.7).

(v) Other specific shapes.

These include the ‘raft’ made of raffia straw (as in Cameroon), and the ‘dish’, with board attached by nails or glue, as in Gabon.

Irregular shapes in addition to Hugh Tracey's basic categories are frequently found in parts of Central Africa (from Gabon and southern Cameroon) to coastal areas of eastern Nigeria. Tracey's categories have been refined and modified to meet specific regional requirements by other writers, including Borel (1986), Dias (1986), De Hen (1960) and Laurenty (1962). Laurenty drew up a scheme of classification for the huge variety of lamellophones from the Democratic Republic of Congo preserved in the Musée Royale de l'Afrique Centrale in Tervuren.

Working with mbira players in Zimbabwe, Andrew Tracey (1972) discovered that musicians in this culture area think in terms of the tuning layout rather than organological features. Layout tends to be constant, in contrast with the actual intervals, which vary considerably from one musician to another; sometimes even a single musician may appear to have changed the tuning from occasion to occasion. For this reason, Tracey introduced a technique of notation that elucidates the tuning layout, pentatonic or heptatonic, without being diverted by the details of individual margins of tolerance (see fig.8).

Various devices are used to modify timbre and to produce sympathetic resonance, for instance: threading pieces of shell or bottle-tops and attaching them to the resonator; fixing rings individually around the lamellae, specific to likembe box-resonated lamellophones (fig.6); laying a string of beads or pieces of metal across the tongues as in the malimba of south-west Tanzania but also the asologun of the Bini of Nigeria; threading rings on a metal bar in a bell-shaped wooden resonator as on the matepe of the Shona and the mucapata of the Cokwe of Angola (see also fig.4); glueing a membrane from an African house-spider's nest over a hole in the middle of the soundboard, most common on the small lamellophones with fan-shaped soundboards of eastern Zambia and the central region of Malawi (fig.3) but also a feature of the box-resonated ilimba of the Gogo of Tanzania; and attaching vibrating pins to the upper side of raffia lamellae, as with the lamellophones of the Tikar and Vute in Cameroon.

The most common way of playing lamellophones is using the thumbs to depress and release the tongues. Lamellophones with box-shaped resonators may have a soundhole in the back, manipulated by the middle finger of the left hand during play to modify the timbre and to produce a ‘wowing’ effect (fig.6b). In Zimbabwe and the lower Zambezi region, thumbs and index fingers of both hands are often used with the index fingers plucking the lamellae from below. This technique is also found in the Cameroon grasslands among the Tikar and neighbouring groups.

The coast of West Africa is home to some unusual playing techniques and playing positions, for example the kondi of Sierra Leone (van Oven, 1973–4) which seems to be played ‘reversed’.

4. Early history.

Organological characteristics, as well as aspects of playing technique and terminology, suggest historical connections between the lamellophones and xylophones in Africa. In a letter to the editor of African Music (1973–4), Arthur M. Jones put forward the thesis that lamellophones were conceived as ‘portable xylophones’. Jones argued that the scalar layout of eight xylophone slats could have been transformed into a V-shaped layout of eight lamellae, with the lowest note in the middle. Each thumb of the lamellophone player would then have represented one hand only of two xylophonists sitting opposite one another. In other words, according to Jones, two imaginary xylophonists were merged into one person (fig.9).

Andrew Tracey reconstructed a ‘family tree’ of the lamellophones for south-east Africa (1972). He discovered the ‘kalimba core’, an eight-note tuning pattern hidden in a central part of the tuning layout of most lamellophones (fig.10). This actually exists on some fan-shaped instruments in Zambia. Tracey then successfully reconstructed a genealogy and thereby a relative chronology of lamellophones in south-east Africa.

Archaeological finds have given hints on the early history of lamellophones. Joseph O. Vogel dug up strips of iron at Kumadzulo on the Zambezi in Zambia, which may be lamellophone tongues. Radio-carbon dating put them between the 5th and 7th centuries ce. The similar iron objects which Brian M. Fagan excavated at Kalomo and Kalundu were dated from the 10th or 11th centuries.

The dependence of constructing complex types of lamellophone on the presence of highly developed metallurgy suggests the crucial importance of regions where mining and metalworking were long established. Zimbabwe, parts of Zambia and Mozambique were regions with metallurgical centres from around the beginning of the Later Iron Age. Significantly, the earliest written sources we have about African lamellophones also come from south-east Africa.

There seem to be two historical zones of origin and dispersal of lamellophones. It might be assumed that lamellophones manufactured from materials of the raffia palm existed in west-central Africa, in Gabon, southern Cameroon and possibly eastern Nigeria before the Bantu dispersal started about 2500 years ago and that the technique spread with migrations from west-central Africa to central and south-eastern Africa where metal-manufactured versions were developed with the increase in iron technology. Lamellophones were introduced to East Africa from the Congo and, with the exception of the Ruvuma Valley along the Tanzania-Mozambique borders, only became known in East Africa at the end of the 19th century. Along the West African coast, west of the Niger delta, lamellophones were introduced between the 17th and 19th centuries when European coastal shipping brought African crewmen from other parts of the continent to that area.

5. Written and iconographical sources.

In the oldest written source, Ethiopia oriental, the Portuguese missionary Frei João dos Santos (1609) gave a very detailed description of a nine-note lamellophone and reported the name ‘ambira’ from his travels in the kingdom of Kiteve (east of Zimbabwe) in 1586. Filippo Bonanni's Gabinetto armonico (1722) contains a picture of a lamellophone player, with the caption ‘Marimba de Cafri’ (probably on the coast of Mozambique).

Alexandre Rodrigues Ferreira reported on a 16-note board-type lamellophone made by a slave in north Brazil during the late 18th century. The analysis of his very detailed technical drawing (fig.11) revealed that knowledge of this type must have come from south-west Angola (Kubik 1979).

More sources become available from the mid-19th century, for example in the travel writings of David Livingstone (1865), Carl Mauch (1869–72, Eng. trans., 1969) and Capello and Ivens (1881). Mauch was the first to attempt to transcribe the playing of a mbira dza vadzimu; that of a musician he heard near the ruins of Zimbabwe (Kubik, 1971).

(i) Eastern Nigeria and the Cameroon grasslands.

6. African typology and distribution in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Seven major regions can be distinguished for the geographical distribution of lamellophones. Each region is associated with specific types.

(ii) West-Central Africa's Equatorial Zone.

(iii) Southern Central-African savanna.

(iv) The Zimbabwe-Zambezi region.

(v) Northern Mozambique and the Ruvuma valley.

(vi) East Africa: Uganda, Tanzania.

(vii) The West African diaspora.

Lamellophone, §6: African typology and distribution in the 19th and 20th centuries

(i) Eastern Nigeria and the Cameroon grasslands.

This is a cohesive distribution area with a long history. The predominant material for constructing the instrument comes from the raffia palm. The soft pith of a raffia leaf stem is used to construct its body, while the tongues are cut from the hard outer skin. The box-shaped ‘Calabar’ lamellophones from the coast of eastern Nigeria generally have Nsibidi ideographs carved on them. A ‘chain stitch’ holding the lamellae in place is also characteristic of many instruments from this area.

The Tikar and the Vute in the Cameroon grasslands also have raffia lamellophones. Among the Vute they are tuned in paired octaves. The ubo aka of the Igbo people, exceptionally for the region, has metal tongues. The soundboard is firmly attached to the gourd-resonator, and has crescent-shaped openings on either side of the lamellae into which the player can put his hands. The organological characteristics of the Bini's asologun include a metal chain laid across the lamellae to cause sympathetic resonance.

Lamellophone, §6: African typology and distribution in the 19th and 20th centuries

(ii) West-Central Africa's Equatorial Zone.

The lamellophones of this region (from Gabon to the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo) come in innumerable shapes. They include instruments made of raffia or other vegetable materials and, especially in the south of the region, instruments with metal lamellae and wooden bodies.

One distinctive type is concentrated on the Loango coast and found among the Bafioti, the Manyombe and neighbouring ethnic groups (Laurenty, 1962; see fig.4). It is characterized by a bell-shaped resonator carved from a single piece of wood, with a rounded base. The soundhole, facing the player, is often in a half-moon shape. This has religious significance with the moon symbolizing a female transcendental being. The upper end of the resonator is bent slightly forwards, which means that the backrest can often be dispensed with or reduced. Loango lamellophones mostly have seven tongues, but sometimes as many as ten, laid out in ascending order of pitch from left to right.

By the mid-19th century a new type of lamellophone had been invented in the Lower Congo area, that is, the likembe (fig.6). Carried by personnel in the colonial service, it spread along the great rivers, together with the region's lingua franca, Lingala. Coquilhat, the first Belgian colonial agent, who installed himself in the area that became the Belgian Congo in the last decades of the 19th century, described the likembe in his book of 1888 about the upper course of the Congo river. Many specimens from the Bateke people (in the former French Congo) are held in museum collections. Late 19th-century specimens often have imported blue, hexagonal, glass beads around the iron lamellae as a buzzing device. Brass pins were often hammered into the soundboard as decoration (Kubik, Berlin, 1999). In the decade before World War I, the likembe was established everywhere along the Congo river, and known to the Kongo and Mfinu, as well as the Mbuja in the Kisangani vicinity. It had also spread along the Ubangi, where it was reported among Ng'baka musicians and the Ngbandi in 1911–13.

Lamellophone, §6: African typology and distribution in the 19th and 20th centuries

(iii) Southern Central-African savanna.

A striking feature of this region (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, northern parts of Zambia, Malawi central region) is the predominance of the word-stem -sansi (with variant forms and different prefixes), as well as -limba. Board lamellophones with gourd resonators were once very popular among the Luba in Katanga, but they are now largely obsolete (Gansemans, 1980, p.27). To the west of the Luba, among the Lunda, board lamellophones called cisanji are known.

Board lamellophones are almost universal throughout Angola, but other forms also exist. Among the Cokwe in the north-east is found the cisaji cakele, an elongated lamellophone made of raffia with a small number of tongues, and cisaji ca kakolondondo, a board lamellophone with raised edges, buzzing rings on a bar on the narrow side of the instrument facing the musician, and usually 10 spatula-shaped iron tongues in a V-shaped layout. The cisaji ca lungandu or cisaji ca mandumbwa, a 12-note board lamellophone with raised edges and a layout in two octave ranks (the pitch ascending from left to right), is also found there. The use of pieces of wax to adjust the tuning, especially for the lower notes, is characteristic of this type. In addition there is the mucapata, which has a bell-shaped resonator, buzzing rings on a stick across the bell opening, 17, 19 or more tongues laid out above two basic notes in up to four sections according to the principle of tonal relationship (see fig.5), and the likembe, which has a box-shaped resonator and soundhole.

The tuning of instruments in this region is hexatonic among the Luba and hexa- to heptatonic among the Cokwe and their neighbours. Various organological details of individual types support conjecture that relationships between them exist in two main directions: towards the west, to the Loango coast (see, for instance, the rounded form of the resonator in some mucapata, or the reduction of the backrest); and towards the Zambezi Valley (demonstrated in the great similarity of buzzing devices on mucapata and on matepe from Zimbabwe, the tray-shape of the kakolondondo and lugandu types, and finally, above all on the cisaja ca lungandu, the layout of lamellae in two ranks.

Lamellophone, §6: African typology and distribution in the 19th and 20th centuries

(iv) The Zimbabwe-Zambezi region.

Thanks to the tireless work of Hugh Tracey, and later Andrew Tracey, this is the best researched part of Africa with regard to lamellophones, including their forms and histories. Lamellophones in Zimbabwe and the Zambezi Valley are either tray-shaped, such as the mbira dza vadzimu (fig.12), or have a bell-shaped resonator, such as the nyonganyonga and matepe. A historically-related zone lies to the north of the Zambezi, where the soundboard was often transformed into a fan-shape.

The body is usually carved from a single piece of wood; in many types the bell-shaped resonator is hollowed out from one direction. Andrew Tracey considers the mbira dza vadzimu as a very old, perhaps even the oldest, form of lamellophone among the Shona. In his genealogical table (1972) he distinguished an early type with the bass notes in the right-hand playing area from a later type with the bass notes in the left-hand playing area. The mbira dza vadzimu was used in connection with religious ceremonies for ancestral spirits (vadzimu). The gourd resonator is called deze, a name also often given to the instrument itself. The body is a rectangular ‘tray’, with raised edges and mostly 22 to 23 lamellae, in three ranks. Three fingers are used in playing: the two thumbs and the right-hand index finger. The index finger ‘scratches’ (kukwenya) the rank of treble lamellae on the right in an upward motion from below.

Like other Zimbabwean mbira music, music for the mbira dza vadzimu is constructed on chord sequences between four degrees displaying bi-chords in 4ths or 5ths. Many cycles cover 48 elementary pulses. Today the instrument is usually played in duet, and accompanied by rattles known as hosho. The opening part is called in Shona kushaura (‘start’, ‘lead’); the second part, which combines with the first, is played on a second mbira and called kutsinhira (‘exchange’, ‘sing a refrain’). The vocal part often includes yodelling (kunguridzira in Shona) and ‘singing the bass’ (kuhongera).

There were very few players of this instrument left in the Shona-Karanga-speaking area in the 1930s. From the 1970s onwards its popularity revived, stimulated by the studies of ethnomusicologists and the awakening of national consciousness as part of the struggle for national liberation (chimurenga) in Zimbabwe, but this took place above all in the Shona-Zezuru-speaking area and resulted in a kind of mbira revival music.

Lamellophones are also known to the neighbours of the Shona people. There are three main types among the Ndau: tomboji, mostly played by old people (distributed south of the town of Umtali); danda, a development of the tomboji; and utee, characterized by soft-sounding low notes. Ndau lamellophones differ in tuning and layout from those of the Shona. The most important types of lamellophone among the Chikunda in the Lower Zambezi Valley are the njari huru; among the Korekore, the hera, mana embudzi and nyonganyonga. The nyonganyonga type is called malimba among the Dzimba and Phodzo. On the periphery of this region there is a large type with 15 or 16 tongues and a bell-shaped body, called sasi among the Khokola in the neighbourhood of Lake Chilwa, Malawi.

There is a direct historical link between the Zimbabwe-Zambezi types and the development of small fan-shaped instruments in the Tete area, some of them also having two ranks of tongues, one above the other. On their progress northwards from the 17th century to the 19th, fan-shaped lamellophones were simplified and the number of tongues reduced. Fan-shaped types also spread upstream along the Zambezi river.

Lamellophone, §6: African typology and distribution in the 19th and 20th centuries

(v) Northern Mozambique and the Ruvuma valley.

There are two types of lamellophone in this region. One, called shitata by the Shirima, Lomwe and related populations, and shityatya (or cityatya) by the Makonde, is a board lamellophone with rounded ends to the often narrow, rectangular board, and only seven or eight lamellae (mostly made from old umbrella spokes). The board is fixed over a gourd resonator.

The other type appears to be found only among the Makonde and Mwera. It is one of the strangest lamellophones in Africa, and has aroused great interest among scholars. Margot Dias, following her field-research among the Makonde (1957–9; papers held in the Museu Etnográfico, Lisbon), pursued the type through every museum in Europe. Examples in the Musikinstrumenten-Museum in Munich were analysed closely by M.A. Malamusi, Lidiya Malamusi and Gerhard Kubik. These types, called ulimba or lulimba, are characterized by a number of features. The resonator, carved from a single piece and slightly rounded, has an upwards-tilted top section with an edge shaped somewhat like a roof gable. The resonator is closed at the back by a very close-fitting piece of thin board. All the wooden parts are reddish-brown and highly polished. There are several small holes in the soundboard, arranged in specific, sometimes cruciform patterns. The iron lamellae are relatively wide and carefully filed, with their ends either rounded or slightly pointed. They are immovably hooked into the resonator at the point where the ‘gable’ starts, so that a backrest is unnecessary. The tuning cannot be altered. The layout is V-shaped. Nearly all the instruments are seven-tongued, with a pentatonic tuning. The lowest note is in the middle.

It has been suggested that this type of lamellophone is historically related to metallophones in Indonesia, in particular the saron burang (Kubik and Malamusi, 1985–7). Indonesian gamelans were probably the original source of inspiration of East African trough xylophones, which occur on the Indian Ocean coast among the Zaramo (Tanzania) and the Cuambo of Quelimane (Mozambique) and even in the region of Lake Chilwa and Mount Mulanje (Jones, 2/1971). It is conceivable that the Makonde-Mwera type of lamellophone was inspired by toy or model gamelans seen when they reached the east coast of Africa centuries ago on merchant ships. Certain distinguishing elements were preserved but the metal tongues were turned at right angles (see also Kubik, Berlin, 1999, and Los Angeles, 1999).

Lamellophone, §6: African typology and distribution in the 19th and 20th centuries

(vi) East Africa: Uganda, Tanzania.

The history of the lamellophone in this region, beginning just before the turn of the century, has been reconstructed in every detail, especially in Uganda. Ugandan types derive from the likembe, which first reached the western and north-western area of the country; in the south it was also called Kongo, from its provenance. Alur and Acooli workers adopted the box-resonated lamellophone from the Logo and other intermediary peoples in north-eastern Congo (via the town of Mahagi). In about 1912 they brought it to the Basoga in the area of Jinja in the south, where the Uganda railway was being constructed at that time. Basoga musicians adopted it, but called it by a name in their own language, endongo (lyre), and began to play pieces for embaire (xylophone) on it, eventually giving rise to a new style.

Lamellophones in central Tanzania, such as the ilimba of the Gogo, were inspired by instruments that Nyamwezi traders from eastern Congo had brought to Tabora before the beginning of the 20th century. The layout of the lamellae follows the Gogo tuning system, which derives from the 4th to the 9th partial over a single fundamental, and was developed locally (Kubik, 1994). The presence of a central soundhole in the soundboard, covered with a spider's-web nest-covering in order to create sympathetic resonance, especially with the bass tongues, indicates connections with types of lamellophone in north-east Zambia. The buzzing-rings placed around the lamellae and the box-resonator with a soundhole in the back were probably inspired by the likembe of Congo.

Small lamellophones, mostly called malimba, also spread into south-western Tanzania from Zambia. According to oral tradition the town of Tukuyu became a secondary distribution centre. These types are also distinct from the likembe, in spite of some shared features (box-resonator, soundhole etc.). The chain laid at right angles across the lamellae is characteristic of this type. Among the Kisi, Pangwa, Bena, Nyakyusa and their neighbours, instruments were developed capable of producing prominent ‘wow’ effects by the technique of opening and closing the soundhole at the back of the resonator.

Lamellophone, §6: African typology and distribution in the 19th and 20th centuries

(vii) The West African diaspora.

Most authors agree that lamellophones were not indigenous to the African coast west of the Niger delta but were carried there by African crew members on European ships, just as they were to the New World. There were a number of factors responsible for the development of the West African diaspora. In 1901 Bernhard Ankermann reported the lamellophone among the Kru of Liberia, in an enclave outside the compact distribution area east of the Niger delta. The Kru (‘crew’) are known to have played a crucial role in the diffusion of musical instruments along the Guinea coast through their position as crewmen on European ships. These sailors also adopted instruments that they came across in other parts of Africa. After 1815, the resettlement of slaves (liberated by the British navy from many parts of Africa) also led to the transplantation of elements of musical culture to their new homes in Freetown, Sierra Leone, and Libreville, Gabon. Similarly, the repatriation of African Americans from Brazil after the abolition of slavery there in 1888 led to the reintroduction of an Afro-Caribbean model into West African ports, notably Lagos, Nigeria. One derivative type of lamellophone, the agidigbo, has been prominent since then among the Yoruba. During the 20th century, further diffusionary processes were stimulated by movements along footpaths and roads between neighbouring West African territories under European rule. This was linked with the phenomenon of itinerant workers and migration into urban centres, which created, for example, the Yoruba communities in Accra, Ghana.

A lamellophone used by itinerant workers called a gidigbo has been documented among the Fõ in Togo and the Reepublic of Benin (Kubik, 1989). An oval fish tin serves as resonator and a thin piece of wood is cut to fit it exactly, to act as soundboard. There are only five lamellae (made from old umbrella spokes), fixed to the soundboard by having a strip of tin laid across them, and nails hammered between each one. A straight length of iron wire is forced underneath them to lift the ends ready to play. These pentatonically-tuned tongues are laid out in a V-shape. The gidigbo is played in an unusual position: it is held ‘upside down’, pinned vertically between the player's knees with the soundboard facing away from the player and the free ends of the lamellae pointing upwards so that they may be plucked with the index fingers. There is an alternative position, with the instrument still held ‘upside down’ but turned in such a way that the thumbs can reach the soundboard from above. Similar playing positions occur in Sierra Leone.

The existence of identical names for lamellophones among the Fõ and the Yoruba is significant, although they refer to different types. According to Valentine Ojo (Kubik, 1989), gidigbo in Yoruba means ‘wrestling match’, and came to be applied to lamellophones because they were used to accompany such fights. Technologically the agidigbo is analogous to the Fõ instrument, but a large crate (usually a soapbox) forms the resonator and the lamellae are made from broad pieces of metal, such as the remnants of old, thin sawblades. The shape of the soundhole in the lid is very reminiscent of the Caribbean marimbula, but also, ultimately, of shapes found in numerous lamellophones of the Cameroon grasslands.

Since the 1970s there has been an increasing tendency to equip the Yoruba agidigbo with a pickup and an electric amplifier: this is the case with many àpàla music groups and also in Juju music.

During the 19th century lamellophones were taken by African slaves to various parts of the New World. Ewbank reported its great popularity among Africans in Rio de Janeiro in 1856 and described a calabash-resonated instrument. The instrument has also been reported in Louisiana and as far south as Montevideo, Uruguay, where in the 1950s it was still known as quisanche, which is the cisanji of southern central Africa. Variants of the name ‘marimba’ (e.g. malimba, marímbula) have been reported in the Caribbean; there the instrument is still popular, whereas in South America it appears to be obsolescent.

7. Latin America.

Ortiz’s survey (1952–5) of Afro-Cuban instruments mentions the small type, commonly held in the lap of seated performers. But by the 1970s the large box-resonated instrument, the size and shape of a small suitcase, was apparently much more popular. Thompson (1971) described its manufacture and use in the Caribbean area in some detail. He reported that in Haiti and Dominica the instruments usually have three or four steel tongues, whereas in Cuba and Puerto Rico they have ten or more, now often made from knifeblades. The player sits on the instrument, reaching down to sound the keys with the fingers of one hand while beating out sometimes complex rhythms on the sides and front of the box with the other hand.

In Jamaica, where it is known as the ‘rumba-box’, the instrument is also used in the ensembles of religious groups such as the Rastafarians. Like the prempensua in Ghana it serves to replace drums.

Western percussion manufacturers such as the German firm Kolberg make a lamellophone called a ‘marimbula’ with a two-octave compass (c–c''). This has been adopted by composers such as Henze (Violin Concerto no.2, 1971; Tristan, 1972–3; Voices, 1973) and Thomas Adès (The Origin of the Harp, 1994).

See also Marimba, §1.

2. Central and East Asia.

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Lame musicale

(Fr.).

See Saw, musical.

Lament.

A term associated not only with mourning rites for the dead but also with ritual leave-taking, as in the case of a bride parting from her family or a mother’s farewell to a son recruited on war service (in many societies, perhaps most, the role of lamenter is taken by women; see Women in music, §III). The ritual character of laments embodies notions of transition to another state or world and the possibility of symbolic renewal. Funeral laments, although they mark a universal fact, are not found throughout the world; nor, where they are found, are they analogous in structure or style. On the contrary, they differ just as the rites associated with them vary from one region to another. The predominantly vocal expression of grief in lament rituals is complemented in some cultures by instrumental music and movement that carries symbolic or numinous force; speech, poetry and dance may also play a part. The notion of lament can extend into other traditional genres such as ballad or epic, especially through performance style: ‘lamenting’ can be an interpretative approach to song or chant, a style as much as a genre. The range of symbolic functions can range from genuine mourning or parting to complaints about status in the community, or to contact with the preternatural or spirit world.

Lamenting draws on a wide set of vocal mannerisms from culture to culture, and often parallels such genres as the lullaby, especially when an improvisatory style is used. This improvisation, however, usually follows formulaic, ritualized patterns of vocal gesture, just as the funeral events themselves are highly structured. Vocal laments tend to move within a narrow melodic range of a 5th or less, although some, beginning in a high or middle register, descend as much as an octave or more. Vocal techniques used include sobbing, voiced inhalation, slow vibration of the vocal cords and falsetto. Laments often bring into focus the boundaries of speech and song, composition in performance and gender- or emotion-related issues. Their increasing rarity in the Western world has occasionally resulted in the re-creation of lamenting as a phenomenon of cultural tourism. (For discussion of different types of lament and nomenclature see Apothéose; Déploration; Dirge; Dump; Elegy; Epicedium; Lamento; Nenia; Pibroch; Plainte; Planctus; Threnody; and Thrēnos).

1. Europe.

3. South-east Asia and Melanesia.

4. The Middle East and Africa.

5. The Americas.

JAMES PORTER

1. Europe.

Vocal laments are found in many rural communities, even into the 20th century, more often in Catholic or Orthodox than in Protestant countries. Examples have been recorded and studied in Finland, Hungary, Ireland, throughout the Mediterranean and the Balkans, and in Russia, where Stravinsky famously adapted and modified the structure and style of wedding laments for The Wedding (1921–3). For funeral laments a distinction can be made between the improvised, ritual wailing over the body or at the graveside and the more considered poetic tribute made by a local composer. The distinction was known in ancient Greece: the epikedeion over the dead body, and the thrēnos in memory of the dead. The two styles can merge, however, as in Bulgaria, where each utterance is a fragment of a melodic and poetic whole that exists in the singer’s mind in many variants and dominates her thoughts after the utterance is past. The ritual lament accompanying a major rite of passage often involves weeping, sobbing and cries of grief. Sometimes the lamenter praises the departed, calling attention to their beauty or strength of character, or adopts an accusatory tone, bewailing their abandonment of those who live on. In most societies the lamenters are women past childbearing age who are honoured and recompensed for their knowledge and skill, being thought to have special power relating to the passage of the deceased to the otherworld. In many areas these rites were opposed by Christian churches as pagan or at least unsupported by dogma: the church hierarchy in Ireland, for example, passed numerous ordinances in the 17th and 18th centuries against the practice of keening.

Lamenting in Ireland (keening), first referred to in a 7th-century eulogy for St Cummain the Tall, has been described since at least the 17th century, and during the 19th century Edward Bunting and others attempted to notate its melodic shape. The keen, or ‘Irish cry’, was performed over the body in the house, during the procession to the graveyard, and at the burial itself. The usual number of hired keeners was four; one, standing near the head of the bed or table on which the body lay, began the dirge with the first note of the cry, which was followed by a note or part of equal length sung by a mourner at the feet. The long or double part was then sung by mourners at the side, after which family and friends would join in the common chorus at the end of each stanza. Lamentations at wakes and funerals were often in the form of extempore songs; E. O’Curry (On the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish, London, 1873) cited one such by the deceased’s younger brother, who recounted his genealogy, eulogized his family’s honour and described his childhood and youth. Then, changing the melody, he sang of his skills, his wooing and marriage, and ended by ‘suddenly bursting into a loud, piercing, but exquisitely beautiful wail, which was again taken up by the bystanders’. Elegies were usually composed at a later stage. Keening was recorded as late as the 1950s in the Aran Islands, though out of context and with some wariness because of the opposition of the Catholic church. Ritual lamenting of this kind contrasts markedly with the merrymaking and horseplay that often accompanied wakes in Ireland.

The practice of keening lasted less long in Scotland, where the Reformation opposed it more resolutely from the 17th century on. Traces of keening, however, have lingered in Catholic areas of the Hebrides; the three-part keen included repeating the name of the deceased, a dirge (tuiream) invoking his or her virtues, and the cry (goll), a chorus of non-lexical syllables. The bagpipe became something of a surrogate for the human voice, and stirring ceòl mór has been composed around the notion of lament (cumha), although it is now rare for a piper to play ceòl mór at the graveside. The Highland Clearances of the 19th century sometimes resulted in lament-like reactions from the people: one observer (A. Geikie, Scottish Reminiscences, Glasgow, 1904) was startled by the sound of a communal wail ‘like a funeral coronach’ from the inhabitants of a Skye township as they made their way along the road, departing unwillingly from their ancestral crofts. Lamenting can thus become a collective expression of grief rather than, as in shamanistic enactment, an individual conjoining with the spirit world.

Along the Atlantic littoral and into the Mediterranean, laments have been recorded in Portugal, Spain and Corsica. In Corsica, the singer (voceratrice) improvises a lament (vocero) at the foot of the table where the corpse is laid out. In former times keening over the body of a murdered relative could incite the mourning family to a blood feud. Keening is practised by Albanian groups in central and southern Italy, where some laments resemble Transylvanian types; lamenting by Italians continues in those regions and in the islands, though no longer in the north. The Roma of Europe lament even before death takes place, while those present continue to chat, smoke and drink beside the dying person. When the death is announced there is collective weeping; men whimper and cry bitterly. Among some groups the lamenting continues long into the night, subsequently changing to rhythmic chanting. Even the children wail. Musicians normally play before the lowering of the coffin into the grave. The funeral chants, according to J.-P. Clébert (Les tziganes, Paris, 1961), are improvised and, more important, are never repeated. Their ephemeral nature enhances their value.

In Russia, where the practice of lamenting is widespread, the terms used vary according to region: plach (‘weeping’, ‘crying’) is used for traditional laments in general, especially in central and western villages, whereas prichet' (‘reciting’, ‘counting’), whose text is often a bitter litany of complaint, is characteristic of north Russia. The voiced beginning or ending of a breath cycle may be marked by a loud inhalation or exhalation, termed vopl', one of many intonational devices found in Russian laments. A woman lamenter is called plakal'shchitsa (‘she who cries’), voplenitsa (‘she who wails’), vytnitsa (‘she who howls’) or prichitalka (‘she who recites’). Although a lamenter might be singled out as specially skilled, in many local traditions every woman was expected to be able to lament. The Molokan or Spiritual Christian sect have a special concept of ‘fine singer’ (khoroshii pevets) for members who aid communication with the divine by their singing during communal worship. Their intercessions resemble village lamenting in that sobs, tears and wailing mingle with songs and recitation.

The same women who lament over the dead in Russian villages are often invited to lament for brides. In most local traditions, wedding and funeral laments share the same melodic formulae. The wedding lament is composed of episodes ordered according to local tradition and embodies impersonal responses to a ritualized situation: young persons entering a new stage of life must undergo a symbolic death of their former selves. The wedding lament is performed on the bride’s behalf by a woman who knows the tradition and leads the ceremony. Weddings fall into two parts, the first symbolizing the separation of the bride and groom from their previous lives, the second dealing with the wedding festivities and rituals to ensure good fortune. Laments were essential to the first part but were not permitted to cross into the feast; this division was paralleled in the funeral ritual. The first lament might conclude the matchmaking episode; during the following weeks the bride laments at dawn and sunset each day and while bidding farewell to her family and home. Such laments might be combined with choral song, which does not belong to the category of wedding songs proper. Two musical layers result, an upper one saturated with exclamations and sobs, moving in free time; and a lower one with a rigid syllabification that is strongly accented and songlike. Similarly, the pitch level in the upper layer is subject to fluidity and nuance, while the lower pitch level is stable throughout (Balashov and others, 1985; Mazo, ‘Wedding Laments’, 1994).

Every Russian lament is unique, being created anew even when it follows prescribed patterns. The associations surrounding the performance can affect those present even before the lament begins, as when the lamenter covers her eyes with a shawl. Although laments have been sung for the singer alone, the response of those in attendance is normally regarded as important: Vologda women would always comment on whether everyone wept, and which words the lamenter used. Small details of regional or village custom in lamenting, such as ‘thin voice’ (high register), were felt to be significant and helped define the local style. The singers draw a distinction here between ‘the tune’ and ‘the voice’, and distinguish similarly between ‘singing’ and ‘lamenting’. The former is associated with a fixed and stable set of pitches, while the latter has a gliding pitch contour and intervals (popevki) that vary within the same melodic gesture. Professional lamenters make a clear distinction between stability and instability in the scale degrees for a performance; under selfconscious conditions they are likely to select a more formal interpretation based on fixed pitches. Observers including Istomin and Dyutsh (1894) have also described a practice termed khlyostan'e or khryostan'e in which a lamenter drops to the floor with an exclamation such as ‘O mamon'ka’ or ‘O-oi, okh-kho khoi!’ before rising and continuing to lament.

In Karelia, where the population underwent forced relocation during and after World War II, the lament seems to typify an ancient Finno-Ugric melodic pattern also found in Hungarian laments: a descending unison pentachord or solo melody consisting of a single constantly embellished phrase with alternating cadences on the second and first scale degrees. This pattern, distributed widely among Finno-Ugric peoples, is related to the Te Deum melody (Kiss and Rajeczky, 1966). The first mention of a Balto-Finnic lament tradition is in 1210, when Estonians were said to bury their war dead with laments and drinking. Finnish laments are mentioned in Bishop Agricola’s Psalter of 1551. Johann Gottlieb Georgi included an account of Ingrian lamenting in his description of Russia and its territories (1776), mentioning specifically the custom of bringing food and money to the grave and quoting a fragment of lament text. The earliest surviving texts were recorded by Elias Lönnrot, compiler of the Finnish national epic, Kalevala, in 1836. Lönnrot mentioned the crying and sobbing that accompanied lament performance, and that the texts were only partly comprehensible. Lamenters themselves are not always able to explain the language of the laments, even though Karelian is intelligible to Finnish speakers. The recondite language appears to link the lament, especially at the outset where the pitches are unstable, to both older epic singing and shamanistic practice. Preternatural power resides in such expression. While the pitches, mode, range and phrase structure were also fluid within the performance, the power of the lament clearly had a transformative effect on those present. As in Russia, the Karelian lamenter might cover her eyes with a shawl or apron and even simulate a sorrowful demeanour as a means of inducing the appropriate psychic state. During the lament the other women present would yield to crying or quiet sobbing while the lament itself would rise in strength and in pitch. The overall structure, however, is a descending melodic phrase within the range of a 4th or 5th. Lamenters may be competitive and critical, since lamenting is the main source of prestige in their old age. They value a good lamenter for her ability to ‘find words’, to affect others, and by her effectiveness within the ritual. As a device to communicate with the spirit world, the lament was sacred in nature. In Finland women who learnt to lament in the original traditional context sometimes display their art in a folkloristic arena such as the ‘tourist cabin’ in Nurmes, east Finland. In this way the singers become mediators of fragments of their own culture.

Hungarian lamenting forms a link with Finno-Ugric and Ob-Ugrian musical types and follows a performance pattern found elsewhere in east Europe. Traditional laments in Hungary have been recorded with singular thoroughness since the beginning of the 20th century when Bartók and Kodály began their field research, and the number of laments (and parodies, usually by children) increased vastly around the mid-century. Kodály in particular drew attention to the improvisatory nature of vocal lamenting in Hungary. Often the lamenter was the nearest female relative of the deceased, and those present would comment on the quality and sincerity of the lament. The inspirational aspect results in sections of unequal length ending with pauses, irregular repetition of melodic phrases, and a melodic structure tied to the freely flowing prose and consisting of two descending lines sometimes covering an octave, sometimes a 4th or 5th. The tonal structure is usually diatonic, though occasionally pentatonic turns are heard. Notably, the ‘complaints’ of the Székely people represent a transitional form between the local pentatonic lament and pentatonic strophic melodies, perhaps indicating a development from improvised lament to song types with stanzas having fixed numbers of syllables to a line. In some counties rhymed texts are sung to a pre-existing tune, the individual expression of grief giving way to a typical standard text; this too can be considered a lament since it is sung by the nearest female relative. During the absence of menfolk at war, women have lamented while engaged in such tasks as spinning (Kodály, 1937; Kiss and Rajeczky, 1966).

A similar pattern of lamenting in Romania was described by Brăiloiu (1973). The ceremony involved pieces to be sung by the coffin in the house, on the road to the graveyard and at the graveside. Brăiloiu differentiated these laments from ancient ritual songs sung at the same time, not by relatives, but by chosen women of standing in the community. In the 1990s the style of village lamenting was adapted to comment on the political and social upheavals since 1989. One singer transformed a lament for the dead in her village as a model, stating that her people mourn the dead in various ways, both in a doina-like manner and with words, as if trying to restore them to life. Another remarked that humankind developed the lament as the only means of communication with the dead. In Jewish tradition a woman’s long, improvised song provided a means of easing her emotional burden for years afterwards by singing at the graveside.

Albanian women who lament, though needed by the community to communicate with the otherworld, are marked out by that function as powerful and hence to be avoided. The idea of lamenting as a bridge between the worlds of the living and the dead is strong in Greece. In Crete, the ‘invitation to mourning’ is an important element of lamenting; group catharsis achieved through lamenting reinforces the bond between women for whom suffering is a communicative code. Although women attend wakes primarily to honour individuals, they may also bewail their own misfortunes. Epirot women in north-west Greece lament their shared problems: widowhood, caring for extended or dispersed families, the general sense of loss. The distinction between singing (tragoudia) and lamenting (moirologia), and the metamorphosis of the former to the latter, as well as the prevalence of the lament in declining village traditions, has resulted in some older women expressing reluctance to sing and preferring to lament.

2. Central and East Asia.

Russian wedding laments are linked to other Slavonic regions and to the ritual songs and laments of the Kazakh in Central Asia and Georgians in the Caucasus, in particular through the rhythmic formula that breaks the widespread octosyllabic line into 5 + 3 syllables (ex.1). Traces of this rhythm, which may not be Slavonic in origin, have been found in Hungarian wedding songs and among Romanians in Bihor, as well as in Bashkir, Mishar Tatar and Mordvinian wedding laments. In Kazakhstan this rhythmic structure is found only in female ritual songs, namely wedding or funeral laments (zhoktau), but a similar rhythm is used in Kazakh and Kyrgyz epic song, and it is possible that the Kazakh predilection for epic singing has led to the rhythmic model’s influencing the structure of other genres, including Slavonic ritual songs. The model also appears in Georgian laments, and it has been suggested that Georgians adapted it from the Siberian-derived Kipchak who settled in Georgia in the early 12th century; evidence of it appears throughout eastern Europe, always in places visited by the Kipchak. But its origin may, rather, lie in contact between the Kipchak and the Bolgars, who had migrated earlier to the Caucasus and whose musical and speech patterns are similar (Zemtsovsky, 1990).

Further east, instruments play an important symbolic role in funeral music. In China and North Vietnam, and among the Hmong, who live in the border regions of Thailand, Myanmar and Laos, the mouth organ and drum feature prominently in the rituals enacted before the funeral. During the ceremony itself a lamenter standing at one side of the body sings out with a loud, descending melody while the spouse of the deceased sobs at the other side. On the death of a Buddhist believer in Kyoto, Japan, five or six old women gather in the home where the funeral is to be held and sing a Buddhist chant (goeika) to the accompaniment of a small bell (chin chin). Funeral processions among Soto Buddhists include a mouth organ (sho), drum, flute and a ritual chant (syomyo). One such chant, termed wasan, is sung in Japan by the Shingon, one of the oldest sects, as they make their customary pilgrimage to 88 temples, often in commemoration of the death of family members.

In Korea, songs known as sangyo-soro are sung by pallbearers during funeral processions. In the cities such pallbearers, though professionals, are a minority group with low social status. In rural societies the villagers arrange the ceremony and carry the bier. A competent male singer leads with a solo which is answered by the others singing a refrain. When the procession begins, the handbell-ringer (yoryong chabi) sings a prologue before the bier while shaking the bell (yoryong). The song text incorporates Confucian, Buddhist and shamanic elements. Sangyo-sori fall into four parts: a slow prologue sung at departure to express the soul’s feelings of grief at separation from its village; a processional song on the way to the grave; a song in accelerated tempo when approaching the burial site; and a song for trampling the grave soil after burial. The singing thus contains elements of work songs. The pitch of these songs is variable, and microtonal shadings are often present. On the island of Chindo, south-west of the mainland, burial is preceded by tashiraegi, a performance genre honouring the dead in which women go ahead of the coffin wailing or weeping while men sing dirges.

3. South-east Asia and Melanesia.

In Bali, the spirit is believed to remain earthbound until cremation, whereupon it may enter into the cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth. Soon after death, songs termed kakawin, similar to laments but used also in other contexts, are performed. Their texts urge the deceased to leave the house, dispelling fear by describing the wonders of the upper world and the high level of reincarnation the spirit deserves.

In northern New Guinea, elaborate funeral ceremonies lasting 12 hours or more take place in Iatmul villages of the middle Sepik river. The feast for the death of a clan leader is accompanied by paired flutes representing a specific spirit. Their playing is quite independent of the chants sung to the accompaniment of an hourglass drum, split bamboo beater and, occasionally, men’s chorus. Before the ceremony the flute players carry their instruments (concealed from women and children) to a special part of the deceased person’s house, inside which a screen has been built. The singer begins a chant, the cue for the flutes to enter; symbolically, their playing invites the participation of ancestors. The assembled men of the clan utter a harsh ‘Ah’ to express wonder and gratification that the ancestors have answered. The Eipo of western New Guinea cultivate laments for the recently dead and the dying. These are performed almost exclusively by women, and consist of spontaneous, emotional singing, sometimes on two pitches a tone apart, interspersed with weeping or crying. The lament begins emphatically, in a loud voice, and ends after several minutes in an introverted manner, with a low voice. There is no Eipo word for this kind of singing, but lamenting in general is termed layelayana.

The Kaluli in the southern highlands of Papua New Guinea have five named patterns of weeping to express grief at loss, abandonment or separation. Three are associated with men; of the two performed by women, sa-yalab is the more refined and aesthetic. It is elaborated through improvised texts and a highly patterned but stable melodic contour based on four descending notes, the first two a major 2nd apart, the next a minor 3rd below and the last a major 2nd below (e.g. D–C–A–G). This pattern is said to derive from the call of the fruit dove; one Kaluli myth connects sadness, birds and human expressive sound. Sa-yalab involves continuous sobbing, streaming of tears and nasal discharge. Voiced inhalation is characteristic, particularly at the beginnings and ends of phrases, giving the effect of short, startled bursts of vocalization. Slower glottal chord vibration results in a somewhat ‘raspy’ sound.

Although solo sa-yalab is fundamentally monophonic it is less often performed by an individual voice than by two to four women simultaneously, with some interaction as one lamenter responds to or is moved by another. Performance of sa-yalab involves, according to Feld (1990), a process called dulugu ganalan (‘lift-up over-sounding’), a spatial-acoustic metaphor that suggests an image of continuous layers of sound, overlapping without internal breaks. Through their wailing the women give voice to personal memories and convey their emotional relationship with one another, the deceased, and their listeners. Themes of food, family, relationship and place are embodied in the texts, which also include place names symbolic of the shared paths in life. A sa-yalab performance may be followed after a short interval by another (with the same or different participants) that allows the effect of the first performance to be kept in temporal and spatial focus.

Although sa-yalab is essentially improvisatory, a limited amount of ‘composition’ may take place before performance in that the women are clearly aware of poetic images and place-name sequences that emerge in the texts. Memorizing does not occur with obvious regularity as a principle, although lines and images heard in sa-yalab may be ‘reinvented’ on a different occasion. There is no sense of a single ‘authentic’ version of a lament. Each performance is unique, the art of sa-yalab wailing lying in the spontaneous creation of song. Ritual wailing for the Kaluli displays the aesthetics of emotionalism, and performances are valued as expressions of personal and social identity. But the special role of women as performers of sa-yalab leads to a striking division between the sexes. Kaluli men contrast sa-yalab with their own forms of wailing, which are impulsive or wild and require the wailer to be restrained in order to regain composure, whereas women see sa-yalab as a way of articulating collective feelings.

4. The Middle East and Africa.

Lamenting has been known in the Middle East since ancient times. The most spectacular funeral ceremony in the modern world takes place among the Druzes of Lebanon (see Lebanon, §2 (iii)), an Arabic-speaking Islamic sect for whom attending a funeral is a moral obligation. The funeral performance as a whole, and dirges in particular, are referred to as nadb (‘funeral songs’), a wide repertory including improvised war songs for deceased young males and wedding songs for females. Other song types used in funerals include tanāwīh (wailing songs), firaqiyyāt and scābā (departure songs), and rithā’ (eulogistic poems). Nadb can be performed by men or women, but the other genres (apart from rithy’, normally sung by male funeral singers specializing in Zajal poetry) are performed solely by women, who gather round the body of the deceased in a separate room. Female lamenters are instructed not to invoke excessive grief at funerals, not to beat themselves nor dance and sing before a male audience; all singers must avoid song texts that criticize the acceptance of death as divine justice. The melodic compass of laments is generally limited to a 4th or 5th, although rithā’ songs may reach an octave or more. These scalic patterns are often related to the system of maqāmāt.

In sub-Saharan Africa a woman who leads the lament is honoured. In Zambia, for example, every woman is expected to know how to sing the lament in preparation for singing for her own relatives when they die. Older women are closer to ancestors by virtue of their age; men, on the other hand, do not sing the lament because they have never given birth. The lament gives birth to a spirit, because without death there would be no ancestors; women therefore sing the dirge to bring life. Music is the purest form of communication: through it the spirit can be called back to work with its people, or a human, purged by death, can be elevated to spirit form. Older women, then, sing the lament because they are more knowledgeable, and music is their appropriate form of communication.

Among the Ga people of south-eastern Ghana, the music and dance of transitional funeral rites are collectively termed adowa, performed at the wake the night before burial and on the day of the burial before and during the funeral procession. Adowa is the only corpus of songs and a dance used for a single rite of passage by all Ga people; the songs are performed exclusively by women. Public mourning is also conducted by women, in keeping with the belief, shared with the Asante, that weeping does not become men (who are, nevertheless, expected to express their sorrow at a death). The dirges sung can refer to such qualities as patience, family cohesion or sharing (Hampton, 1982). The elders are recognized as the principal mourners apart from the bereaved family.

The most important musical expression in funerals of the Akpafu, who also inhabit south-eastern Ghana, is the dirge sung by adult women. The Akpafu, a largely agrarian people whose culture is strongly influenced by the dominant neighbouring Ewe, have begun to include Ewe funeral dirges, worksongs and folktale interludes in their repertory. They perceive two broad categories of music for funeral rites: abi (‘drums’) and sino (‘dirges’). Sino is semantically and functionally quite distinct from kuka (‘song’), and combines singing, speaking and a manner midway between the two. Both Christian and more traditional non-Christian funeral rites are held, the former being a 20th-century development. In both types, dirges that use Western functional harmony, especially at cadence points, are heard alongside traditional dirges. In the Christian wake, hymns, Bible readings and testimonies by friends and relatives are interspersed with neo-traditional choral and brass band music and punctuated by sobs, wails, cries and shouts as expressions of sorrow. Dirges are central to the traditional wake, and may number anything from 20 to 40 over its span. The cosmology expressed in them embodies a belief that life before and after death is regulated by spirits who remain active in both stages. The singer may address questions to the deceased about the passage from this world to the next, as well as detailing his or her personal attributes.

Structurally, dirges are cast in a call–response form, and stock phrases by the lead singer are answered by a chorus restating the main musical ideas and amplifying them with wails, cries and shouts as well as verbal expressions suggested by the particular dirge. Important gaps or silences occur between the phrases of the response. The Akpafu dirge, like that of the Akan, may be characterized in performance as ‘essentially a linguistic activity’ (Nketia, 1955, p.113); some dirges are influenced structurally by the sound of speech patterns, while others show affinity with semantic aspects. In some a melodic phrase remains constant while elements of the text change. Each dirge can thus be considered a unique structure that highlights significant features. Melodic contour, for example, follows the intonational contour of speech quite closely. A number of dirges employ the archetypal gradual descent noted by writers on African melody, reaching the lowest pitch at or near the end. Akpafu dirge melodies can stray into other generic territory and become, for example, dance-songs, confirming that a multiplicity of subgenres are implicit in them (Agawu, 1988).

5. The Americas.

In the Caribbean, funeral wakes on Jamaica and Martinique customarily occupied nine days. The East Indian influence in Trinidad has resulted in an annual ritual celebrating the martyrdom of the grandsons of the Prophet Muhammad; traditionally, women followed the procession of ornate temple-tombs singing laments. On Carriacou, between Grenada and St Vincent, the African-derived creole repertory includes hallecord songs with lamenting texts. Wakes on Guadeloupe include music performed both within and outside the house of the deceased: outdoors, throat sounds, clapping and stamping accompany the music. A male singer leads, with the exchange amounting to a competition in which singers challenge one another, begging the audience for support. Indoors, invited women singers sing canticles (kantikamo) over the coffin throughout the night, again in a responsorial fashion. Songs performed outdoors support the mourners, while those sung indoors invoke the spirit world.

Wakes on St Lucia involve singing, dancing and instrumental performance. On the first and eighth night following the death, funeral wakes are held at the house of the deceased. Hymns and sankeys (gospel hymns), as prayers to God to accept the souls of the dead into heaven, have been sung at St Lucia wakes since around 1970. An unaccompanied vocal genre, kont, includes a variety of topics chiefly concerning death but also as a means of entertainment: a good kont singer must be a convincing actor, with a clear voice and keen wit. Normally, the kont consists of two sections that involve contrast in melodic material and in the pace of alternation by solo and chorus. The song may be extended or reduced depending on its reception. To intensify expression kont singers use sustained notes, a wider ambitus and melodic leaps of up to a 12th. Some make a point of heavy breathing at the end of certain phrases to indicate their emotional involvement.

African-related practices exist in Colombia: the wake for a dead child includes celebratory music as part of the belief that the child’s soul goes directly to heaven. The Quichua of Ecuador employ harp music during the child’s funeral; eventually, addressing her child, the mother’s lament revolves around a descending major 2nd followed by a descending major 3rd (G–F–D). In the Atlantic region the wake (velorio) is usually held in the parents’ home, music being provided by a specialized group of singers in call and response mode, while others sing and dance in a circle around the corpse. In the Pacific area hymns for the dead (chigualos) are sung by a chorus of women accompanied by male kin playing drums. The wake for an adult is more solemn; no drumming occurs, and all sing dirges. For the Atlantic-coast Sumu people in Nicaragua the funeral rite is the most important communal ceremony. On the first night, the shaman sings incantations to invoke the spirit of the deceased. Dancing with instrumental accompaniment continues the ritual.

The Miskitu, an Amerindian people who inhabit parts of Nicaragua, Honduras and north-eastern Costa Rica, mourn their departed in laments (inanka) sung by women which refer to the life of the deceased and idealize the afterlife. The singers weep while seated around the body of the deceased and sing laments to accompany the burial. The melodies are descending in contour, with the lowest note repeated at phrase ends. A wake for a dead child can include a greater variety of music, sometimes accompanied by a musical bow or machete, and a tiun (‘song’, ‘tune’) referring to death may be sung. Three days after the death, a shaman begins an extended wake in which laments are the principal form; the shaman dances and sings to the soul, manifested as a firefly trapped in his hands. This dance is accompanied by one or more rustic plucked lutes known as kitar (from guitar), food-grater rasps, rattles without handles, and a horse’s jawbone. At the same time, younger men perform their songs to the same instruments. Portable radios and record players add to the scene in contemporary rituals. As the sky lightens, the performers move to the grave, where the shaman buries the firefly with the body.

Among northern Amerindian cultures laments take another form. L.B. Palladino observed that one of the funeral dirges sung by Flathead Indians while carrying the dead to the place of burial was an old war song, ‘a stirring wail of lamentation they used to sing over their braves fallen in battle’ (Indian and White in the Northwest, Baltimore, 1894, 2/1922). The arrival of missionaries marked the first time Salish learnt ‘a prayer song for death’. One writer in the 1880s described a dirge to accompany a warrior funeral, but this was an arrangement by an early missionary, later adapted as a Christian hymn. H.H. Turney-High (The Flathead Indians of Montana, Menasha, Wisconsin, 1937) gave an account of a death feast: after the meal the men retired to the interior of the lodge and began the death chant, which had few words and was ‘a long, protracted wail with no or few intermissions’.

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Tod und Jenseits im europäischen Volkslied Kolympari 1986 [incl. D. Burkhart: ‘Sterben, Tod und Jenseits in russischen Totenklagen’, 81–93; D. Loucatos: ‘Emprunts aux ballades ordinaires pendant les lamentations sur les morts en Grèce’, 35–48; M. Meeraklis: ‘Hochszeitslamentationen in Griechenland’, 65–80]

A. Caraveli: ‘The Bitter Wounding: the Greek Lament as Social Protest in Rural Greece’, Gender and Power in Rural Greece ed. J. Dubisch (Princeton, NJ, 1986), 169–94

I. Rüütel: Muzïka v obriadakh i trudovoy deyatel'nosti finno-ugrov (Tallinn, 1986)

S. Auerbach: ‘From Singing to Lamenting: Women’s Musical Role in a Greek Village’, Women and Music in Cross-Cultural Perspective, ed. E. Koskoff (New York, 1987), 25–44

I. Zemtsovsky: ‘Etnomuzïkovedcheskiy vzglyad na Balto-Slavyanskyu pokhoronnyu prichet' v indoevropejskom kontekste’ [An ethnomusicological view of the Balto-Slavonic dirge in an Indo-European context], Balto-Slavyanskiye issledovaniya 1985 (Moscow, 1987), 60–70

N. Kaufman and D. Kaufman: Pogrebalni i drugi oplakivanija v Bulgarija [Funeral and other lamentations in Bulgaria] (Sofia, 1988)

T. Varfolomeyeva: Severobelorusskaya svad'ba: obryad, peseno-melodicheskiye tipy [North Belarusian wedding: ritual, song melody types] (Minsk, 1988)

G. Oberhänsli-Widmer: La complainte funèbre du Haut Moyen Age français et occitan (Berne, 1989)

M. Mazo: ‘Stravinsky’s Les Noces and Russian Village Wedding Ritual’, JAMS, xliii (1990), 99–142

E.D. Tolbert: ‘Women Cry with Words: Symbolization of Affect in the Karelian Lament’, YTM, xxii (1990), 80–105

C.N. Seremetakis: The Last Word: Women, Death and Divination in Inner Mani (Chicago, 1991)

G. Flam: Singing for Survival: Songs of the Łódz Ghetto, 1940–45 (Urbana, IL, 1992)

G. Holst-Warhaft: Dangerous Voices: Women’s Laments and Greek Literature (London, 1992)

U.S. Konkka: Poeziia pechali: karel'skie obriadovye plachi (Petrozavodsk, 1992)

A. Nowicka-Jezova: Sarmaci i śmierć: o staropolskiej poezji żałobnej [Sarmatians and death: on old Polish funeral poetry] (Warsaw, 1992)

R. Kara: Erzincan’ in goz yaslari: deprem agit ve destanlari (Ankara, 1993)

V.P. Kuznetsova: Prichitaniya v severo-russkom svadebnom obriade [Laments in north Russian wedding ritual] (Petrozavodsk, 1993)

L.G. Nevskaya: Balto-slavianskoye prichitaniye: rekonstruktsiya semanticheskoy struktury [Balto-Slavonic laments: a reconstruction of their semantic structure] (Moscow, 1993)

B. Ó Madagáin: ‘Song for Emotional Release in the Gaelic Tradition’, Irish Musical Studies, ii, ed. G. Gillen and H. White (Blackrock, 1993), 254–75

I. Kriza: ‘The Rural Form of Death Dirges in Hungary’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xxxix (1994), 110–16

M. Mazo: ‘Lament Made Visible: a Study of Paramusical Elements in Russian Lament’, Themes and Variations: Writings on Music in Honor of Rulan Chao Pian, ed. B. Yung and J.S.C. Lam (Cambridge, MA, 1994), 164–211

M. Mazo: ‘Wedding Laments in North-Russian Villages’, Music-Cultures in Contact: Convergences and Collisions, ed. M. Kartomi and S. Blum (Basle, 1994), 21–39

P. Lysaght: ‘Caoineadh na marbh: die Totenklage in Irland’, Rheinisch-westfälische Zeitschrift für Volkskunde, xl (1995), 163–213

S. Popa: ‘The Romanian Revolution of December 1989 and its Reflection in Musical Folklore’, Retuning Culture: Musical Changes in Central and Eastern Europe, ed. M. Slobin (Durham, NC, 1996), 156–75

E.V. Barsov, ed.: Prichitaniia severnogo kraia [Laments of the northern region], i–ii (St Petersburg, 1997)

central and east asia

Z. Tajikova: ‘Songs of the Tajik Burial Ritual (on the Material of the Zeravshan Expeditions)’, Problemï muzïkal'nogo fol'klora narodov SSSR, ed. I.I. Zemtsovsky (Moscow, 1973), 95–100

I. Kas'ianova and M. Chuvashev: disc notes, Mordovskiye (Erzianskiye) prichitaniya [Mordvinian (Erzian) laments], ed. E. Alekseyev (1974)

Kwon O-Song: ‘Hyangt’o sonyul ui kolgyok’, Yesul nonmunjip, xvi (1977), 116–30; repr., Eng. trans., as ‘Melodic Structure of Korean Funeral Procession Songs’, YTM, xv (1983), 59–69

R.B. Qureshi: ‘Islamic Music in an Indian Environment: the Shi’a Majlis’, EthM, xxv (1981), 41–71

M. Dugantsy: Erza-mordwinische rituelle Klagegesänge (Uppsala, 1991)

south-east asia and melanesia

A. Simon: ‘Types and Functions of Music in the Eastern Highlands of West-Irian (New Guinea)’, EthM, xxii (1978), 441–55

S. Feld: Sound and Sentiment: Birds, Weeping, Poetics, and Song in Kaluli Expression (Philadelphia, 1982, 2/1990)

S. Feld: ‘Wept Thoughts: the Voicing of Kaluli Memories’, Oral Tradition, v (1990), 241–66

the middle east and africa

J.H. Nketia: Funeral Dirges of the Akan People (Exeter, NH, 1955)

A.J. Racy: Funeral Songs of the Druzes of Lebanon (thesis, U. of Illinois, 1971)

B. Ajuwon: Funeral Dirges of Yoruba Hunters (New York, 1982)

B.L. Hampton: ‘Music and Ritual Symbolism in the Ga Funeral’, YTM, xiv (1982), 75–105

A.J. Racy: ‘Lebanese Laments: Grief, Music, and Cultural Values’, World of Music, xxviii/2 (1986), 27–40

El-Aswad and el-Sayed: ‘Death Rituals in Rural Egyptian Society: a Symbolic Study’, Urban Anthropology, xvi (1987), 205–41

V.K. Agawu: ‘Music in the Funeral Traditions of the Akpafu’, EthM xxxii (1988), 75–105

G.A. Anderson: A Time to Mourn, a Time to Dance: the Expression of Grief and Joy in Israelite Religion (University Park, PA, 1991)

P.W. Ferris: The Genre of Communal Lament in the Bible and the Ancient Near East (Atlanta, GA, 1992)

the americas

GEWM, ix (‘French Guiana’, J.-M. Beaudet; ‘Miskitu’, T.M. Scruggs)

S. Girard: Funeral Music and Customs in Venezuela (Tempe, AZ, 1980)

J.M. Schechter: ‘Corone y baile: Music in the Child’s Wake of Ecuador and Hispanic South America, Past and Present’, LAMR, iv (1983), 1–80

J. Guilbault: ‘Fitness and Flexibility: Funeral Wakes in St. Lucia, West Indies’, EthM, xxxi (1987), 273–99

G. Urban: ‘Ritual Wailing in Amerindian Brazil’, American Anthropologist, xc (1988), 385–400

R. Keeling: Cry for Luck: Sacred Song and Speech among the Yurok, Hupa, and Karok Indians of Northern California (Berkeley, 1992)

Lamentations.

The Old Testament verses of mourning of the prophet Jeremiah (Threni, Lamentationes), portions of which were sung in the Roman Catholic liturgy until around 1970 as lessons for the first Nocturn of Matins on Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Holy Saturday. Along with the great responsories, the Lamentations are musically the most important texts of Tenebrae and were set polyphonically by major composers as early as the 15th century.

1. Structure of chant.

Until the 16th century the number and selection of Lamentations verses used as lessons for the triduum sacrum varied considerably, but the Council of Trent succeeded in establishing an ordered system. From then the division was essentially as shown in Table 1. The first lesson begins with the words ‘Incipit lamentatio Jeremiae prophetae’ (or ‘De lamentatione’), the third lesson on Holy Saturday with ‘Incipit oratio Jeremiae prophetae’. A distinguishing feature is the appearance of Hebrew letters (Aleph, Beth, Ghimel) at the beginning of each verse, indicating that in the original Hebrew the five chapters of laments were largely an alphabetical acrostic. Each lesson ends with the line ‘Jerusalem, Jerusalem, convertere ad Dominum Deum tuum’, which is not from Jeremiah but is freely adapted from Hosea xiv.1.

TABLE 1

	Lesson I	Lesson II	Lesson III


Maundy Thursday	i. 1–5	i. 6–9	i. 10–14
Good Friday	ii. 8–11	ii. 12–15	iii. 1–9
Holy Saturday	iii. 22–30	iv. 1–6	v. 1–11

Like the Passion, the Lamentations received particular emphasis in the readings of the Holy Week liturgy and were distinguished by special lesson chants. Those that survive from the Middle Ages are in part simple recitation formulae and in part more individual settings that attempt to express the content of the text (ex.1). After the Council of Trent one of the simpler existing formulae, related structurally to the 6th psalm tone, was officially prescribed in the Roman liturgy (ex.2). For the Oratio Jeremiae (third lesson on Holy Saturday) a melodically rich, ornamented tonus lamentationum of Spanish provenance could be used. A monophonic setting of the complete Sarum text by the 15th-century English composer John Tuder (GB-Cmc Pepys 1236) is an extended paraphrase of the ‘Roman’ tone in a form then current in England.

2. Polyphonic Lamentations to 1600.

The history of polyphonic Lamentations can be traced only as far back as the middle of the 15th century. Like contemporary polyphony for the Passion, the earliest settings intended to serve liturgically as lessons for the triduum sacrum were organum-like with strictly syllabic declamation and frequent parallel movement. Such settings may be distinguished, however, from a smaller group of motet-like works based on single verses. The best-known example is Du Fay’s three-voice lament on the fall of Constantinople (1453), which has a French text (‘O tres piteulx’) in the upper voice and the Roman tonus lamentationum with the text ‘Omnes amici ejus spreverunt eam’ (Lamentations i.2) in the tenor. Other ‘Lamentation motets’ of the late 15th century are Johannes Cornago’s Patres nostri peccaverunt and Compère’s O vos omnes.

A large, two-volume collection of polyphonic Lamentations printed by Petrucci in 1506 illustrates the extent to which composers of the Josquin generation, including Alexander Agricola, Marbrianus de Orto, Johannes de Quadris, Gaspar van Weerbeke, Erasmus Lapicida, Tinctoris, Tromboncino and Bernhard Ycart, were interested in works of this genre. A characteristic of the works of this collection, and of Lamentations generally in the first half of the 16th century, is that individual composers treated a varied selection of Lamentations chapters. They also differ greatly in the number of verses they set, as well as in the way they grouped them in the course of the lesson. In melodic substance the majority of the Lamentations in Petrucci’s collection bear the stamp of the Roman tonus lamentationum, which is clearly recognizable as a cantus firmus in places and more freely worked in others. The setting of Tromboncino is peculiar in that the opening is set to an original theme, the individual motifs of which are repeated in the same or a different order as the text progresses. The Lamentations of Quadris are also notable for their strophic-like form, similar in structure to settings of the Magnificat from around 1500.

The flowering of polyphonic Lamentations that began with the Petrucci edition lasted for the whole of the 16th century. Netherlandish, French, Italian and Spanish composers were first and foremost in this field, English and German being less in evidence. For the first half of the century the main sources are Liber decimus: Passiones (Paris, 1534; RISM 1535²); Selectae harmoniae (Wittenberg, 1538¹); Lamentationes Hieremiae Prophetae (Nuremberg, 1549¹); and Piissimae ac sacratissimae lamentationes (Paris, 1557⁷). These publications include Lamentations by Arcadelt, Crecquillon, Costanzo Festa, Antoine de Févin, Johannes Gardano, Isaac, La Rue, Stephan Mahu and Claudin de Sermisy. Carpentras must rank as the most prolific composer of the genre at this time; his Lamentations, which had appeared in an individual edition in Avignon in 1532, enjoyed special favour with the popes and were regularly sung in S Pietro until 1587.

Lamentations in the first half of the 16th century adhered more rigidly to the Roman tonus lamentationum than did those of earlier composers, which means that most were in the same mode (F Ionian). Stylistically they are similar to the contemporary motet; four-part writing is clearly the rule and the spectrum of contrapuntal possibilities is quite varied. The Lamentations of Carpentras and Crecquillon, in particular, are often highly imitative and rhythmically complex, whereas La Rue preferred a more homorhythmic texture reminiscent of the French chanson. Expressive devices are not more highly developed or more frequently used than in other genres despite the strongly expressive nature of the text.

In the second half of the 16th century the most significant settings are those of Morales (1564), Victoria (1581), Lassus (1585), Asola (1585), Handl (in Opus musicum, iii, 1587) and Palestrina (five books from 1564 on, only the first of which was printed in Rome in 1588). Palestrina’s Lamentations, along with works of other composers, replaced those of Carpentras in the papal chapel from 1587. Stylistically they are close to his Improperia and Stabat mater and belong among his most mature works. In contrast to settings from the first half of the century, they reveal a stronger tendency to homorhythmic texture in order to obtain a clear declamation of the text (this is also true of the Lamentations of Lassus and Handl, but not of Morales and Victoria). In Palestrina’s compositions only the Hebrew letters are melodically and rhythmically ornate, rather like illuminated initials. Adherence to the Roman tonus lamentationum was no longer as prevalent nor as strict; this is generally true of other settings of his time. The only complete setting of the Lamentations from 16th-century England, which appears anonymously in GB-Lbl Roy. App.12–16, does occasionally paraphrase the chant tone in the upper voice and the partial setting by Osbert Parsley makes use of it; but the Lamentations of Byrd, Tallis and Robert White dispense with it altogether. Of these English settings, only that of Tallis sets a text corresponding to the requirements of the Sarum Breviary (in this case the first and second lessons of Maundy Thursday); those of White (two sets, in five and six parts respectively, with almost identical texts) correspond to parts of the Maundy Thursday and Good Friday lessons; those of Byrd and Parsley are extracts from the Roman arrangements; while the anonymous setting includes all nine of the Roman lessons (with the omission of some verses: see Warren, 1970). 16th-century Spanish composers made striking use of a Spanish tonus lamentationum: a setting by Morales, in which this lesson tone appears as a cantus firmus, was transcribed into tablature for lute and solo voice by Miguel de Fuenllana in 1554, anticipating to some extent the early monodic Lamentations of the next century.

3. Settings after 1600.

The stylistic innovations of the early 17th century influenced the Lamentations slowly. Among the numerous settings in the stile antico are those of Giovanni Croce (1603 and 1610), Karl Luython (1604), Viadana (1609) and Gregorio Allegri (1641). The Lamentations of Allegri partly superseded those of Palestrina in the papal chapel. But monodic Lamentations with basso continuo began to be written in Italy as early as the end of the 16th century. According to a report by G.B. Doni, Vincenzo Galilei of the Florentine Camerata had been moved to attempt composition by the Lamentations and by the songs of sorrow in Dante’s Divina commedia, and performed his own monodic Lamentations ‘molto soavemente … sopra un concerto di viole’ (Trattato della musica scenica, chap.9). Any settings that Galilei may have written down, however, have not survived. The Lamentations by Cavalieri may have been written in collaboration with Galilei, but must also be seen in connection with the religious aspirations of the Congregazione dell’Oratorio. Probably performed in 1599 in the Oratorio della Vallicella in Rome, Cavalieri’s setting is transitional in its alternation of parts for soloist and chorus; in this it was as characteristic of the half-century to 1650 as were the Lamentations of Annibale Gregori for solo voice and basso continuo printed in Siena in 1620. Not until the middle of the century do the sources for monodic Lamentations become more common, principally in Italy. Among those printed are works by A.B. Della Ciaia (1650), Pietro Cesi (1653), C.D. Cossoni (1668), Cazzati (1668), Francesco Cavanni (1689) and G.P. Colonna (1689); manuscripts surviving from this period include Lamentations by Carissimi, Frescobaldi, Marazzoli, G.F. Marcorelli, Carlo Rainaldi, Stradella, Gaetano Veneziano and others. The only Lamentations from Germany in this period, those of Rosenmüller, were wholly italianate in style.

The texts of these composers conform to the basic criteria of a liturgical Lesson (Hebrew letters, ‘Jerusalem’ line, and occasionally even traces of the Roman tonus lamentationum). Musically, however, they depart dramatically from the traditional reserve of the stile antico. The Lamentations text, with its emotionally charged contest, gave the composers of the 17th century a number of welcome opportunities for text expression (chromaticism, free use of dissonance etc.), and the pathos thus achieved, reinforced by a tendency to arioso form, brought the monodic Lamentations of this period into the immediate domain of the lamento in opera, oratorio and cantata. Interest in the setting of Lamentation texts waned noticeably in 18th-century Italy, but remained relatively high in Naples. Many representatives of the so-called Neapolitan school composed such works: Alessandro Scarlatti, Durante, Francesco Feo, Porpora, Leonardo Leo, David Perez, Jommelli, Alessandro Speranza and, in the 19th century, N.A. Zingarelli.

Apart from Italy, only France played an important part in the history of the Lamentations in the 17th and 18th centuries. There, more than 100 years after the collected edition of Lamentations of Le Roy & Ballard (1557), a new development began that culminated in the extensive leçons de ténèbres of Michel Lambert (1689) and Charpentier (c1670–95). The most important characteristics of these settings are a highly melismatic vocal line and the frequent use of the Roman tonus lamentationum as a melodic foundation. In fact, the leçons de ténèbres are unique, contrasting both with the French motet and with contemporary Italian Lamentations. The leçons not only served a liturgical function but were also performed in the courtly presentations of Louis XIV. The Lamentations for chorus by Guillaume Nivers (1689) were a specifically French phenomenon inspired by the exceptionally successful masses ‘en plain chant’ of Henry Du Mont. In the 18th century the published settings of François Couperin (?1714), Brossard (1721) and Lalande (1730) must be counted among the most noteworthy French church music of their time; their influence was felt even outside France, particularly in the Lamentations of J.-H. Fiocco, who was active in Brussels. French appreciation of the Lamentations at this time is reflected in literature, as in Diderot’s reference to the Lamentations of Jommelli (Le neveu de Rameau).

For the most part, the continuing development of the Lamentations drew to a close at the end of the 18th century; not until the middle of the 20th century did the genre experience a short revival. Krenek’s Lamentatio (first performed in 1958) is based on the complete text of the nine lessons and the music combines modern serial techniques with formal and stylistic devices of the late Middle Ages to produce an original choral style of great forcefulness. In contrast, Stravinsky’s Threni of 1958 for soloists, chorus and orchestra is a pure 12-note work, in which the composer expressly avoided both liturgical and historical connotations.

Special cases in the history of the Lamentations are the German solo songs of the Neumarkt Cantional (c1480), non-biblical songs of mourning using the Hebrew letters and Jerusalem line. Finally, Haydn’s Symphony no.26 (‘Lamentatione’) may be mentioned in this context as a unique work, one in which the Gregorian tone is used as a motif as well as a cantus firmus.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Vale: ‘Le lamentazioni de Geremia ad Aquileia’, Rassegna gregoriana, viii (1909), 105–16

P. Bohn: ‘Die Lamentation des Propheten Jeremias’, Gregorius-Blatt, xxxviii (1913), 100–02

P. Wagner: Einführung in die gregorianischen Melodien, iii: Gregorianische Formenlehre (Leipzig, 1921/R)

G. Prado Pereita: Cantus lamentationum pro ultimo Triduo Hebdomadae majoris juxta Hispanos Codices (Tournai, 1934)

A. Schmitz: ‘Ein schlesisches Cantional aus dem 15. Jahrhundert’, AMf, i (1936), 385–423

A.E. Schröder: De meerstemmige muziek op de Lamentaties van Jeremia tot het einde der 18de eeuw (diss., U. of Leuven, 1948)

A.E. Schröder: ‘Les origines des lamentations polyphoniques au XVe siècle dans les Pays-Bas’, IMSCR V: Utrecht 1952, 352–9

G.E. Watkins: Three Books of Polyphonic Lamentations of Jeremiah, 1549–1564 (diss., U. of Rochester, 1953)

F.Ll. Harrison: Music in Medieval Britain (London, 1958, 4/1980)

F.Ll. Harrison: ‘Music for the Sarum Rite: MS 1236 in the Pepys Library, Magdalene College, Cambridge’, AnnM, vi (1958–63), 99–144

G. Massenkeil: ‘Zur Lamentationskomposition des 15. Jahrhunderts’, AMw, xviii (1961), 103–14

G. Massenkeil: ‘Eine spanische Choralmelodie in mehrstimmigen Lamentationskompositionen des 16. Jahrhunderts’, AMw, xix–xx (1962–3), 230–37

G. Massenkeil, ed.: Mehrstimmige Lamentationen aus der ersten Hälfte des 16. Jahrhunderts (Mainz, 1965)

T. Käser: Die ‘Leçon de ténèbres’ im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert (Berne, 1966)

A.A. Ross: A Study of ‘Hieremiae Prophetae Lamentationes’ of Orlando di Lasso, i (diss., Indiana U., 1968)

E.R. Thomas: Two Petrucci Prints of Polyphonic Lamentations 1506 (diss., U. of Illinois, 1970)

C.W. Warren: ‘The Music of Royal Appendix 12–16’, ML, li (1970), 357–72

H.T. David: ‘Hebrew Letters in Polyphonic Settings by Christian Composers’, Bach, ii/2 (1971), 6–17

P. Ludwig: ‘Lamentations notées dans quelques manuscrits bibliques’, EG, xii (1971), 127–30

H.J. Marx: ‘Monodische Lamentationen des Seicento’, AMw, xxviii (1971), 1–23

D.T. Flanagan: Polyphonic Settings of the Lamentations of Jeremiah by Sixteenth-Century English Composers (diss., Cornell U., 1990)

C.D.H. Raynes: Robert White’s ‘Lamentations of Jeremiah’: a History of Polyphonic Settings of the Lamentations in Sixteenth-Century England (diss., U. of Arizona, 1991)

M. Olarte Martínez: ‘Estudio de la forma lamentación’, AnM, xlvii (1992), 83–101

J. Bettley: ‘“La composizione lacrimosa”: Musical Style and Text Selection in North Italian Lamentations Settings in the Second Half of the Sixteenth Century’, PRMA, cxviii (1993), 167–202

GÜNTHER MASSENKEIL

Lamento

(It.: ‘lament’).

Usually, a vocal piece based on a mournful text, often built over a descending tetrachord ostinato (see Ground, §2) and common in cantatas and operas of the Baroque period.

Originating in ancient Greek drama and further developed in Latin poetry, the lament topos enjoyed a privileged status in European literature. Set apart as an exceptional moment of emotional climax or particularly intense expression, it provided an occasion for special formal development and for the display of expressive rhetoric and of affective imagery. Laments were most often associated with female characters and the female voice.

Madrigals designated ‘lamento’ appeared occasionally during the 16th century; Stefano Rossetto’s Lamento di Olimpia (1567) and B.S. Nardò’s Lamento di Fiordeligi (1571), for example, each set appropriately dramatic stanzas from Ariosto’s Orlando furioso. The genre assumed musical importance around the turn of the 17th century as a focus of the theoretical justifications of the new monodic style. Indeed, in defining the cathartic purpose of that style, theorists such as Giacomini, Mei and Vincenzo Galilei singled out the lament; because it expressed a height of emotional intensity, it was the type of text best calculated to move an audience to pity, thereby purging them of strong passions.

Librettists and composers of early opera acknowledged the special dramatic position and affective responsibility of the lamento, distinguishing it from the narrative flow of its context: librettists imposed greater formality through using more strongly metred and rhymed texts in which particularly affective lines often recurred as refrains; and composers interpreted these texts with greater freedom, repeating or otherwise enhancing specially affective words or phrases with melodic sequence, dissonance or textural conflicts, often imposing an overall tonal coherence to create structural self-sufficiency.

One of the most effective and clearly the most influential of early 17th-century lamenti was Monteverdi’s Lamento d’Arianna from his opera to a libretto by Ottavio Rinuccini, performed in Mantua in 1608. The musical isolation of this lamento from its context was recognized immediately in contemporary descriptions of the opera’s performance and confirmed by the publication of monodic Ariadne laments by Severo Bonini (1613), Possenti (1623) and F.A. Costa (1626) and, most conclusively, by Monteverdi’s own reworking of the piece as a madrigal (1614), the publication of the monodic version (1623) and his adaptation of the madrigal to a sacred text (1640). His madrigal publication may well have inspired the madrigal laments of Ariadne published by Claudio Pari and Antonio Il Verso in 1619.

Monteverdi’s monodic lamento, though self-contained, is not a closed form. Its organization develops out of the internal exigencies of its text: no superimposed formal structure determines its shape. It is not an aria, for arias, by definition, were fixed, predetermined musical structures and therefore inappropriate to the expression of uncontrolled passion in a lament. Clear distinctions between laments and arias persisted for some time. Claudio Saracini’s second and fifth monody books (1620 and 1624) each contain one lengthy dramatic monologue entitled ‘lamento’, in addition to madrigals and pieces marked ‘aria’. Sigismondo D’India’s fourth and fifth books of Musiche (1621 and 1623), in addition to a large number of ‘arias’, characterized by strophic structure and simple rhythmic and melodic style, contain a total of five monodic ‘lamenti in stile recitativo’, highly expressive, irregular settings of lengthy dramatic texts by the composer himself. In a context in which most lamenting characters were female, portrayed by the soprano voice, three of these are notable for being scored for tenor and expressing the grief of male heroes: Orpheus, Apollo and Jason. The tradition of the extended, dramatic recitative lamento persisted until nearly the middle of the century and is exemplified in such works as Peri’s Lamento d’Iole (1628), Abbatini’s Pianto di Rodomonte (1633) and Rovetta’s Lagrime d’Erminia (1649).

At the same time a new stage in the development of the Baroque lamento was achieved in Monteverdi’s Amor, generally known as the Lamento della ninfa, published in his eighth book of madrigals (1638). The central section of a dramatic scene ‘in stile recitativo’, Amor is constructed over a descending tetrachord ostinato. Although probably anticipated by other tetrachord laments – including the Lamento di Madama Lucia published in 1628 under the name ‘Il Fasolo’ and almost certainly by Francesco Manelli – its full exploitation of the affective implications of the pattern asserted a relationship between tetrachord and lament that soon became fundamental to the genre.

In the Venetian opera repertory of the 1640s a definitive association between lament and tetrachord became explicit. Cavalli’s 27 operas, the most comprehensive surviving musical documentation of Venetian opera from 1640 to 1660, confirm this association. Cavalli’s earliest lamenti, like those of Monteverdi’s operas, are in continuous recitative style, heightened by dissonance and affective text repetition and structured primarily by refrains. But after Apollo’s lamento from Gli amori di Apollo e di Dafne (1640), partly in free recitative, partly based on the descending tetrachord, Cavalli began to employ the bass pattern consistently in lamenti, which initially occupied a specific position at the dramatic climax immediately preceding the resolution of the plot. Characterized by a slow tempo, highly accented triple metre and usually accompanied by strings, they use the tetrachord in a variety of ways, ranging from strict ostinato treatment of the simple pattern to freer treatment of one of its variants, such as a chromatic or inverted version. All these lamenti exploit the tetrachord as a source of harmonic, melodic and rhythmic dissonance created by suspensions, syncopation and overlapping phrases between the voice and the bass.

The popular success of such arias is indicated by their proliferation – accompanied by a loss of specific dramatic function – during the 1650s and 60s, to the point where some operas contain as many as four lamenti spread over their three acts (e.g. Cavalli’s Statira, 1655, and Eliogabalo, 1667). Similar lamenti, many either partly or entirely based on the descending tetrachord, occur frequently in aria and cantata collections from the 1640s onwards by such composers as Benedetto Ferrari, Luigi Rossi, Carissimi and Cesti. Although a few were written for specific occasions (e.g. Rossi’s Lamento della Regina di Svetia) most are settings of pastoral texts involving the amorous trials of nymphs and shepherds.

Pathetic lament arias, many of them associated with some form of the tetrachord bass, continued to occur in operas, oratorios and cantatas of the late 17th and early 18th centuries; indeed, with the development of other aria types, they tended to reassume their former specific dramatic position. Purcell’s Dido and Aeneas and The Fairy Queen each contains a lament based on a chromatically descending tetrachord just before the resolution of the plot, and several Handel operas, such as Orlando (1733), contain similarly placed laments in which the tetrachord bass plays a significant role.

The term ‘lamento’ also appeared in conjunction with instrumental music of a programmatic nature in the late 17th and eariy 18th centuries. Froberger’s Suite in C (1656) bears the title Lamento sopra la dolorosa perdita della Real Maestà di Ferdinando IV; several sets of sonatas including Biber’s Mystery (or Rosary) Sonatas (c1676) and Kuhnau’s Biblical Sonatas (1700) contain occasional ‘lamento’ movements; and Bach’s Capriccio in B (c1704) ‘sopra la lontananza del suo fratello dilettissimo’ contains an ‘allgemeines Lamento der Freunde’. Although the term generally refers to the expressive musical language and dramatic intentions of these movements, in Bach’s capriccio it also refers to the descending tetrachord on which the movement is based.

The persistence of an association between lament and descending tetrachord in the 19th century is attested by Jérôme-Joseph de Momigny (Cours complet d’harmonie, Paris, 1803–5). In his analysis of Mozart’s Quartet in D minor k421/417b, which opens with a descending tetrachord in the bass, Momigny applied to the first violin part the text of a lament of Dido (see Analysis, §II, 2).

See also Planctus.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Kroyer: ‘Dialog und Echo in der alten Chormusik’, JbMP 1909, 13–32

E. Wellesz: ‘Cavalli und der Stil der venezianischen Oper 1640–1660’, SMw, i (1913), 1–103

L. Propper: Der Basso Ostinato als technisches und formbildendes Prinzip (diss., U. of Berlin, 1926)

P. Epstein: ‘Dichtung und Musik in Monteverdis “Lamento d’Arianna”’, ZMw, x (1927–8), 216–22

L. Walther: Die Ostinato-Technik in den Chaconne- und Arien-formen des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts (Würzburg, 1940)

J.A. Westrup: ‘Monteverdi’s “Lamento d’Arianna”’, MR, i (1940), 144–54

N. Fortune: ‘Sigismondo d’India: an Introduction to his Life and Works’, PRMA, lxxxi (1954–5), 29–47

W. Osthoff: ‘Le forme più antiche della Passacaglia nella musica italiana’, Musiche popolari mediterranee …: Palermo 1954, 275–88

W. Osthoff: ‘Monteverdi-Funde’, AMw, xiv (1957), 253–80

K. von Fischer: ‘Chaconne und Passacaglia: ein Versuch mit Beispielen’, RBM, xii (1958), 19–34

W. Osthoff: Preface to Claudio Monteverdi: 12 composizioni vocali profane e sacre (Milan, 1958)

W. Osthoff: ‘Antonio Cestis “Alessandro vincitor di se stesso”’, SMw, xxiv (1960), 13–43

W. Osthoff: Das dramatische Spätwerk Claudio Monteverdis (Tutzing, 1960)

C. Gallico: ‘I due pianti di Arianna di Claudio Monteverdi’, Chigiana, new ser., iv (1967), 29–42

G. Barblan: ‘Un ignoto “Lamento d’Arianna” mantovano’, RIM, ii (1967), 217–28

D. Arnold: ‘Monteverdi: some Colleagues and Pupils’, The Monteverdi Companion, ed. D. Arnold and N. Fortune (London, 1968, 2/1985 as The New Monteverdi Companion), 110–24

N. Fortune: ‘Monteverdi and the Seconda Prattica, i: Monody’, The Monteverdi Companion, ed. D. Arnold and N. Fortune (London, 1968, 2/1985 as The New Monteverdi Companion), 183–97

L. Galleni Luisi: ‘Il lamento d’Arianna di Severo Bonini (1613)’, Claudio Monteverdi e il suo tempo: Venezia, Mantova e Cremona 1968, 573–82

N. Pirrotta: ‘Early Opera and Aria’, New Looks at Italian Opera: Essays in Honor of Donald J. Grout, ed. W.W. Austin (Ithaca, NY, 1968), 39–107

T. Walker: ‘Ciaccona and Passacaglia: Remarks on their Origin and Early History’, JAMS, xxi (1968), 300–20

P.E. Carapezza: Introduction to C. Bari: Il lamento d’Arianna: Quarto libro dei madrigali a 5 voci, MRS, i (1970) [with Eng. trans.]

E. Ferrari Barassi: ‘“La Luciata” di Francesco Manelli: considerazioni su una perduta stampa della Biblioteca Municipale di Breslavia, l’esemplare di un manoscritto berlinese, e un componimento del “Fasolo”’, Musica strumentale e vocale dal Rinascimento al Barocco: Bologna 1970, 211–42

R. Hudson: ‘Further Remarks on the Passacaglia and Ciaccona’, JAMS, xxiii (1970), 302–14

M. Murata: ‘The Recitative Soliloquy’, JAMS, xxxii (1978), 45–73

E. Rosand: ‘The Descending Tetrachord: an Emblem of Lament’, MQ, lv (1979), 346–59

G. Tomlinson: ‘Madrigal, Monody, and Monteverdi’s via naturale alla immitatione’, JAMS, xxxiv (1981), 60–108

L. Bianconi: Music in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, 1987)

P. Fabbri: Il secolo cantante: per una storia del libretto d’opera nel seicento (Bologna, 1990)

S. Leopold: Monteverdi und seine Zeit (Laaber, 1982; Eng. trans., 1991, as Monteverdi: Music in Transition)

C. Berger: ‘Musikalische Formbildung im Spannungsfeld nationaler Traditionen des 17. Jahrhunderts: das Lamento aus Heinrich Ignaz Bibers Rosenkranzsonate Nr.6’, AcM, lxiv (1992), 17–29

E. Chafe: Monteverdi’s Tonal Language (New York, 1992)

F.W. Sternfeld: The Birth of Opera (Oxford, 1993)

S. Cusick: ‘“There Was Not One Lady Who Failed to Shed a Tear”: Arianna’s Lament and the Construction of Modern Womanhood’, EMc, xxii (1994), 21–41

I. Godt: ‘I casi di Arianna’, RIM, xxix (1994), 315–59

W. Heller: Chastity, Heroism, and Allure: Women in the Opera of Seventeenth-Century Venice (diss., Brandeis U., 1995)

W. Porter: ‘Lamenti recitativi da camera’, ‘Con che soavità’: Studies in Italian Opera, Song, and Dance, 1580–1740, ed. I. Fenlon and T. Carter (Oxford, 1995), 73–110

T. Carter: ‘Intriguing Laments: Sigismondo d’India, Claudio Monteverdi, and Dido alla parmigiana (1628)’, JAMS, xlix (1996), 32–96

EMc, xxvii/3 (1999) [‘Lament’ issue ed. T. Carter. Articles by L. Stras, L. Holford-Strevens, T. Carter, A. MacNeil, J. Brooks, S. Cusick]

ELLEN ROSAND

Lamm, Pavel Aleksandrovich

(b Moscow, 16/28 July 1882; d Nikolina Gora, nr Moscow, 5 May 1951). Russian music editor. He graduated from the Moscow Conservatory having studied the piano and undertook concert tours with the singer Olenina d'Algeym; he was also involved with the work of the Dom pesni (‘House of Song’). In 1912 he began working as a music editor, and in 1918 he was made a professor of chamber music at the Moscow Conservatory, a post he held until his death. Throughout the 1920s and 30s he also worked for the State Publishing House (Gosudarstvennnoye Izdatel'stvo).

Lamm's main scholarly contribution was his pioneering editorial methods based on a careful study of sources and precise palaeographic methods. He initiated the publication of the collected works of Musorgsky (which remained incomplete) using the autograph manuscripts and the original texts, and Lamm was one of the first music editors to account for textual variants and provide an elaborate critical apparatus. Only later did flaws in his editorial decisions emerge, such as the combination of various versions of the texts, or the grouping of the cycles. He also edited the operas of Borodin based on the composer's manuscripts, although he did not complete Knyaz Igor and the vocal score he prepared of The Warrior Heroes, which had been typeset, was never released. (Party members' indignant reaction to the 1936 production at the Chamber Theatre blocked any further progress.) Other volumes which Lamm published for the first time included the Musorgsky's piano quintet, a string trio and sextet by Borodin, the score of Rusalka by Dargomïzhsky, and the Symphony in E minor by Taneyev. Using the surviving orchestral parts and the vocal score, Lamm also restored Tchaikovsky's opera The Voyevoda, and edited for the first time several of the composer's instrumental compositions. During the 1910s and 20s, his house served as a meeting point for young composers such as Anatoly Akeksandrov, Eyges, Feinberg and Myaskovsky. Lamm acted as Prokofiev's ‘artistic secretary’ after the composer's return to Russia, making fair copies of his ‘directions’, and preparing scores of Prokofiev's orchestrations of Romeo i Dzhul'yetta, the operas Voyna i mir, Semyon Kotko and other works.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P.A. Lamm: ‘K vosstanovleniyu podlinnogo Musorgskogo’ [Restoring the real Musorgsky], M.P. Musorgskiy: k pyatidesyatiletiyu so dnya smerti – 1883–1931 (Moscow, 1932), 29–32

V. Kiselyov: ‘Pamyati P.A. Lamma’ [In memory of Lamm], SovM (1951), no.6, 90–91

O.P. Lamm: ‘Druz'ya P.A. Lamma i uchastniki muzïkal'nïkh vecherov v yego dome (20-e godï XX veka)’ [The friends of Lamm and the participants at the musical soirées held at his house (in the 1920s)], Iz proshlogo sovetskoy muzïkal'noy kul'turï, ed. T. Livanova (Moscow, 1975), 72–103

LYUDMILA KORABEL'NIKOVA

Lam Manyee [Lin Minyi]

(b Hong Kong, 10 Sept 1950). Hong Kong Chinese composer, songwriter and performer. She graduated in sociology and psychology from the University of Hong Kong (1972). While working for a diploma in piano performance at the Conservatorio di S Cecilia in Rome, Lam followed a course in electronic music and began to study composition with Evangelisti (1973–6), then later with Ferneyhough at the Freiburg Hochschule für Musik (1979–82). She established a career in Hong Kong and New Jersey as a freelance composer and producer of classical and popular music. Many of Lam's compositions have a distinct philosophical flavour. In Die Meng she explores a question about existence posed by the Daoist philosopher Zhuangzi. In the similarly existentialist Is there Life on Mars? (1997), she interweaves electronic and natural sounds with snippets of speech, including quasi-scientific information, elaborately far-fetched menus and philosophical statements. Another approach to the same question is Journey (1977–8), a study in loneliness in which Lam never quite allows the instruments to interact, distancing the performers by directing them to walk about and change their relative positions. A characteristic of her work is the juxtaposition of the most unexpected of sounds, such as car horns, Bach-like melodies and counterpoint, the buzzing of electronic appliances, the suona (Chinese shawm), techno beats, the chanting of Tibetan monks, ambulance sirens and the splashing of water, to form fascinating sonic collages.

WORKS

(selective list)

Ballet: Double Triangle, 1976; Bamboo Suite, 1983; Mixed Visions, 1983; Chinese Historical Myths, 1985; ID Shuffle, 1985; Kwaidan/Emaki, 1986; Diary, 1988; Hell Screen, 1990; Stories of Aung San Suu Kyi, 1992; Open Party, 1994; Is there Life on Mars?, 1997; Dream City, 1998; Beauty and the Beast, 1999

Orch: Die Meng [Butterfly Dream], Chin. orch, 1978; Ceng Die, 1981

Chbr and solo inst: Interludes, pf, 1977; Journey, chbr ens, 1977–8; VWV, pf, hp, db, 1978; Monologo II, cl, pf, tape, 1980

Over 50 film scores; over 150 pop songs; music for TV

MSS in C.C. Liu Collection, Institute of Chinese Studies, U. of Heidelberg

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D.P.L. Law: ‘Hong Kong’, New Music in the Orient, ed. H. Ryker (Buren, 1991), 225–48, esp. 235–7

B. Mittler: ‘Mirrors and Double Mirrors: The Politics of Identity in New Music from Hong Kong and Taiwan’, CHIME, no.9 (1996), 4–44, esp. 38–40

B. Mittler: Dangerous Tunes: the Politics of Chinese Music in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People's Republic of China since 1949 (Wiesbaden, 1997), 251–2

BARBARA MITTLER

La Moeulle [La Mole, La Moulaz, La Mule], Guillaume de

(b Geneva, c1485; d Geneva, Sept 1556). Swiss composer, instrumentalist and singer. He was secretary to the last bishop of Geneva, Pierre de La Baume, and acquired a reputation as a fiddler (barbitonsor). The new republic granted him citizenship in January 1517. In 1545 he was an instrumentalist in Lyons; he may have lived there for some years before that time, for Jacques Moderne printed seven of his chansons between 1538 and 1543. On 12 October 1553, Calvin and his council appointed La Moeulle singer at St Pierre Cathedral, Geneva, in succession to Loys Bourgeois who had moved to Lyons the previous year. Despite ill health and poverty, La Moeulle set a number of psalms, canticles and chansons spirituelles for four voices. The tenor melodies were printed by Dubosc and Guéroult in 1554 (RISM 1554¹⁸); however those of the chansons spirituelles are identical with those by Didier Lupi published in Lyons by the Beringen brothers in 1548. In April 1555 and February 1556, the Genevan consistory reprimanded La Moeulle for playing his rebec for dancing, and rejected a petition to allow violins and other instruments to accompany psalm singing. His chansons resemble the contemporary Parisian genre in their clear epigrammatic form and careful matching of textual and musical rhythm. They are, however, unusual in their use of passing chromatic harmonies, and in their unstable tonality; only one, Le mien désir, ends in the opening mode.

WORKS

all for 4 voices

Premier livre de pseaumes, cantiques et chansons spirituelles (Geneva, 1554)

J'ay veu que j'estois franc et maistre, 1543¹⁴, ed. in SCC, xxviii (1993); Je l'ayme tant qu'elle m’en aymera, 1540¹⁶, ed. in SCC, xxvi (1993); Le mien désir qui longtemps a chassé, 1540¹⁷, ed. in SCC, xxvii (1993); Les encaveux qui sont en l'herberie, 1541⁷, ed. in SCC, xxvii (1993); Licite m'est endurer pour mon mieulx, 1538¹⁶ (intabulated for viols in 1546³¹), ed. in SCC, xxiv (1992); Si je maintiens ma vie seullement, 1538¹⁵, ed. in SCC, xxiv (1992)

Vous semblet-il, 1547²⁷ (lute intabulation), ed. in C. Dupraz and J.-M. Vaccaro, Oeuvres de Francesco Bianchini (Paris, 1995)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P. Pidoux, ed.: Le psautier huguenot du XVIe siècle, i–ii (Basle, 1962)

F. Dobbins: The Chanson at Lyons in the Sixteenth Century (diss., U. of Oxford, 1972), i, 146ff; ii, nos.8–13a

F. Dobbins: Music in Renaissance Lyons (Oxford, 1992)

FRANK DOBBINS

La Moleère, Louis de.

See Mollier louis de.

Lamond, Frederic(k Archibald)

(b Glasgow, 28 Jan 1868; d Stirling, 21 Feb 1948). Scottish pianist and composer. He was taught the rudiments of music by his brother, David. His reputation as a child prodigy spread, and in 1882 he entered the Raff Conservatory at Frankfurt, where his teachers included Max Schwarz (piano), Hugo Heermann (violin) and Anton Urspruch (composition). From 1884 he also studied with Bülow, honorary president of the Raff Conservatory, who was one of the most important influences on his musical temperament. He attended Liszt's masterclasses in Weimar and Rome between August 1885 and January 1886; having made his Berlin début on 17 November 1885 he soon appeared in Vienna and Glasgow. His reputation in Germany led him to settle there, although he travelled widely with tours to Russia, the USA (1902 and five further trips from 1922) and South America (1935). His opposition to the Nazi regime caused him to spend an increasing amount of time in Switzerland, and at the outbreak of World War II he moved back to Britain. Although he had success playing Brahms, Liszt and Saint-Saëns, he was most renowned as an interpreter of Beethoven. Alongside Schnabel and Backhaus, he was the foremost exponent of Beethoven's piano sonatas of the early 20th century. By modern standards his playing lacked rhythmical control, but it was impetuous and rhetorical, mixing rough grittiness with poetic eloquence. His approach to Beethoven may give us some hints of Bülow's own style. Lamond published Beethoven: Notes on the Sonatas (Glasgow, 1944) and left fragments of an autobiography, published after his death as The Memoirs of Frederic Lamond (Glasgow, 1949). His compositions include piano pieces, a piano trio, a symphony and a concert overture Scottish Highlands, all youthful works dating from the mid-1880s.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Vicat: ‘Great Pianists of the Twentieth Century: Frederic Lamond’, International Piano Quarterly, i/3 (1997–8), 54–69 [incl. complete discography]

TIM PARRY

Lamoninary, Jacques-Philippe

(b Maroilles, 14 July 1707; d Boulogne, 29 Oct 1802). French violinist and composer. He is first mentioned as an apprentice musician in Valenciennes in 1723. He remained there until 1779, playing the violin and composing; by 1768 he was one of the town’s most affluent citizens. At various times he was engaged by the St Pierre chapel, Valenciennes; many of his compositions were performed in the chapel’s richly endowed maîtrise. In 1779 he moved to Boulogne, where he gave singing and violin lessons, but died in poverty at the age of 95.

Lamoninary dedicated his compositions to his generous patron, the Marquis of Cernay. These works, which demand the fluent technique for which Lamoninary was famous, comprise 18 trio sonatas (for two violins and bass) in three sets – opp.1–2 (Paris, 1749) and op.3 (Paris, 1755) – and a set of quatuors en simphonie op.4 (Paris, ?1765–6) for string orchestra and organ. The somewhat archaic style of these pieces may reflect the taste of Lamoninary’s patron; an Italian influence is also suggested. Some of the first movements have a development and recapitulation and are bithematic, while the third (final) movements are almost invariably entitled ‘Minuetto amoroso’. The compositions are characterized by a diversity of thematic structures, a primarily homophonic texture and a lack of tonal variation, both within and among movements. (BrookSF; La LaurencieEF)

JEFFREY COOPER

La Monnaie, Théâtre Royal de.

Opera theatre in Brussels opened in 1700, also called the Koninklijke Muntschouwburg; in 1963 it became the Théâtre Royal de La Monnaie.

La Montaine, John

(b Chicago, 17 March 1920). American composer. After studying privately in Chicago with Stella Robert, Muriel Parker and Margaret Farr Wilson (1935–8), he entered the Eastman School of Music, where he studied composition with Howard Hanson and Bernard Rogers (BM 1942). He also studied at the Juilliard School with Bernard Wagenaar, privately with Rudolf Ganz (1945) during service in the US Navy, and at the American Conservatory in Fontainebleau with Nadia Boulanger (1952). He has taught at the Eastman School (1964–5) and the University of Utah (1968) and served as composer-in-residence at the American Academy in Rome (1962). His honours include two Guggenheim fellowships (1959–60) and the Pulitzer Prize (1959, for the Piano Concerto, a commission from the Ford Foundation). At home in all musical genres, La Montaine's works demonstrate his deep interest in nature sounds, which he has used in such compositions as Birds of Paradise, the Mass of Nature and the Wilderness Journal. The last of these works also displays his sensitivity to text-setting. Other characteristics of his style include a predominant lyricism, and the influences of medieval music, serialism, folksong and jazz.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Spreading the News (op), op.27, 1957; Novellis, novellis (Christmas pageant op, La Montaine, after medieval Eng.), op.31, 1961 [Christmas Trilogy no.1]; The Shephardes Playe (Christmas pageant op, La Montaine, after medieval Eng.), op.38, 1967 [Christmas Trilogy no.2]; Erode the Great (Christmas pageant op, La Montaine, after medieval Eng.), op.40, 1969 [Christmas Trilogy no.3]; Be Glad then America (op, La Montaine), op.43, 1974–6

Orch: Pf Conc. no.1 ‘In Time of War’, op.9, 1942–50; Ode, op.11, ob, orch, 1957; Sym. no.1, op.28, 1957; Ov. ‘From Sea to Shining Sea’, op.30, 1961; Birds of Paradise, op.34, pf, orch, 1964; Colloquy, op.21, str orch, 1964; A Summer’s Day, sonnet for orch, op.32, 1964; Incantation for Jazz Band, op.39, 1972–6; Fl Conc., op.48, 1980; Conc. for Str Orch, op.51, 1981; Sym. Variations, op.50, pf, orch, 1982; 2 Scenes from the Song of Solomon, op.49, fl, (str, perc)/pf, 1982; Pf conc. no.2 ‘Transformations’, 1987; Pf. Conc. no.3 ‘Children’s Games’, 1985; Pf. Conc. no.4, 1989; An Age, an Ode, Epode and Fanfares, orch, 1990; Sym. Encounter, org, orch, 2000, collab. P.J. Sifler

Vocal: Songs of the Rose of Sharon (Bible), 7 songs, op.6, S, orch, 1947 [arr. S, pf]; 6 Sonnets of Shakespeare, S, pf, 1957; [Christmas Cycle no.1: Wonder Tidings, op.23, narr, solo vv, chorus, hp, perc, 1957; Frags. from the Song of Songs (Bible), op.29, S, orch, 1959; Sanctuary (cant.), op.17, Bar, SATB, org, 1965; TeD, op.35, SATB, wind, perc, 1965; Mass of Nature, op.37, SATB, orch, 1968; Sym. no.2 ‘Wilderness Journal’ (H. Thoreau), op.41, B-Bar, org, orch, 1970; Christmas Cycle no.2: The Nine Lessons of Christmas (various), op.44, nar, solo vv, SATB, hp, perc, 1975; Christmas Cycle no.3: The Lessons of Advent, op.52, nar, solo vv, chorus/double chorus, tpt, drums, handbells, hp, ob, gui, org, 1983; The Marshes of Glynn (S. Lanier), op.53, B, SATB, orch, 1984

Chbr and solo inst: Str Qt, op.16, 1957; Sonata, op.25, pf 4 hands, 1965; Conversations, op.42a, cl/fl/trbn/vn/va/mar, pf, 1976; 12 Studies, op.46, 2 fl, 1979; Canonic Variations, op.47, fl, cl, 1980; Sonata, picc, pf, 1993

Principal publishers: Fredonia, Broude, Carl Fischer, G. Schirmer

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. La Montaine: ‘Life on the Edge’, Music Educators Journal, lxix/7 (1982–3), 41–3

R.H. Kornick: Recent American Opera: a Production Guide (New York, 1991), 162–3

JAMES P. CASSARO

Lamote de Grignon (i Bocquet), Joan

(b Barcelona, 7 July 1872; d Barcelona, 11 March 1949). Catalan composer, teacher and conductor. He studied at the Barcelona Conservatory with B. Tintoré, T. Güell, Gabriel Balart and later with Antoni Nicolau. He became a teacher there (1890) and was appointed its director (1917). He founded the Barcelona SO (1910), and conducted concerts with the Berlin PO (1913) and the Blüthner Orchestra (1914). In 1914 he also became conductor of the municipal band of Barcelona, in which capacity he popularized the Romantic orchestral repertory (particularly Beethoven and Richard Strauss) by means of transcriptions. Under his direction the band achieved a high level of technical proficiency and performed with great success in Berlin and Frankfurt. After the Spanish Civil War Lamote settled in Valencia and founded the Valencia Municipal Orchestra (1943), which he conducted until 1949. He then returned to Barcelona where he was able to conduct one final concert before his death.

Lamote was one of the main exponents of orchestral music in Barcelona at the beginning of the 20th century. His work displays the influence of Wagner's operas, which had been performed at the Conservatory at the end of the 19th century and had made a great impression on Catalan musicians and intellectuals. Like Pedrell he adhered to nationalist trends and adopted the ideals of the political and cultural ‘Renaixença’ movement, introducing elements of folksong into his compositions. His vocal music and his works for orchestra and band maintained their popularity in Catalonia after his death.

His son Ricardo Lamote de Grignon y Ribas (b Barcelona, 23 Sept 1899; d Barcelona, 5 Feb 1962) was also a composer and a conductor. Among his works are an opera La cabeza del dragón (text by R. del Valle Inclán) and Enigmas for chorus and orchestra (1951) on words from the Apocalypse.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Imogina (cuadro dramático, F. Girossi), 1894; 6 zarzuelas, 1895–6, incl.: En todas partes cuecen habas o la romería del santo (A. Contreras), 1895; Las siete palabras (zar cómica, 1, 3 scenes, L. Millà), 1896; L'angelo (op, 1, N. Foretti), 1899; Hesperia (poema lírico, J. Oliva), 1906

Orch: Scherzo sobre un tema popular, 1897, rev. 1910; Médora, sym. poem, 1899; Reverie schumanniana, vc, orch, 1901; Solidaritat de les flors, sardana, 1907; Hispánica II (Catalunya), 1913, arr. wind orch; Cantos populares españoles, 1914; Hispánica I (Andalucía), 1924, arr. wind orch; Hispánica III (scherzo catalán); Matí de festa; Santa Maria de Ripoll, march, wind orch; Sym. no.1, d; Tema y variaciones breves, db, orch; marches and other works for wind orch

Vocal: La nit de Nadal (orat, F. Casas I Amigó), S, Bar, orch, 1902; Poema romàntic, Bar, orch, 1912; Canco d'anar-se'n al llit, chorus; Stella matutina, Tr chorus; works for 1v, wind orch; 1v, pf; many songs, some orchd; sacred works, 1v, org

Chbr: Ballet, cobla band; Estudis, cl/1v, pf; Florida, cobla band; Improvització, vn, pf; Reverie schumanniana, any str/ww, pf; La rosa del folló, cobla band; La solidaritat de les flors, cobla band; Tema y variaciones breves, db, bugle/b cl, 2 pf; El testament d'Amèlia, cobla band

Pf: Minuet, sonatina, 1939; Mercedes, mazurka

Many transcrs. and arrs. for orch, wind orch

Principal publishers: Boileau, Clivis, Unión musical española

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Saperas: Cinc compositors catalans (Barcelona, 1975)

F. Bonastre: ‘L'època gloriosa de Lamote de Grignon’, La banda municipal de Barcelona (Barcelona, 1989)

M. Coll: Lamote de Grignon (Ricard y Joan) (Barcelona, 1989)

F. Bonastre: Joan Lamote de Grignon (Barcelona, 1998)

GUY BOURLIGUEUX/F. TAVERNA-BECH

Lamothe, Ludovic

(b Port-au-Prince, 22 May 1882; d Port-au-Prince, 4 April 1953). Haitian composer and pianist. He began his studies in music theory, solfège and clarinet with Robert Joseph at the Saint Louis de Gonzague Institution in Port-au-Prince and studied piano with his mother, the poet Virginie Sampeur. In 1910 he went to Paris on a scholarship to study with Louis Diémer. He returned to Haiti the following year, teaching the piano and giving frequent salon performances of his works.

Almost all Lamothe’s works were written originally for piano and many of them are influenced by Caribbean dance rhythms and African-derived religious music. His best-known works in Haiti were his danzas (nos.1–4 of the Musique, an anthology of his work published in Port-au-Prince in 1955, two years after his death) and méringues lentes, both of which genres employ the five-pulse dance rhythm known as the cinquillo or quintolet. Lamothe’s best-known méringue, La dangereuse, had an alternating quintolet rhythm between the right and left hand, a characteristic feature of most méringues. Lamothe was also influenced by the anthropological works of the Haitian physician and ethnologist Jean Price-Mars. He tried to incorporate ideas into his music from the Haitian religious tradition of Vodou. His works Sobo and Loco imitate rhythms from the Rada and Petwo nanchons (denominations) of Vodou respectively. Lamothe also published articles in the Haitian press on the relationship between music and Haitian national culture.

WORKS

(selective list)

Pf: Bluff; La dangereuse, méringue haïtienne; 10 danses espagnoles; 4 danzas; Elégie; Feuillet d’album nos.1 and 2; Gavotte dans le style ancien; Libellule, caprice; Loco; Nibo; Scènes de carnaval; Sobo; Tango; 5 valses

WRITINGS

‘Pouvons-nous avoir une musique nationale?’, Le temps, no.3 (1935), 9–11

‘Musique haïtienne’, La relève, (1936–7), no.6, pp.4–6

‘Le folklore’, La relève (1937–8), no.1, pp.33–6

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Lassègue: ‘La romanticisme de Ludovic Lamothe’, Etudes critiques sur la musique haïtienne (Port-au-Prince, 1919), 10–20

C. Dumervé: Histoire de la musique en Haïti (Port-au-Prince, 1968), 243–48

MICHAEL LARGEY

La Motta, Bill [Wilbur]

b St Croix, VI, 13 Jan 1919; d St Thomas, VI, 8 Oct 1980). American composer. He was only 17 when his first composition in the popular idiom ‘Heading for Home’ (1936) was published and recorded for RCA. In spite of his musical interests, he trained to become an engineer at the US Merchant Marine Academy. As a student there he formed the Cadet Corps band and wrote a composition which later became the official marching song of the Academy. In 1950, after several years as an engineer at sea, he began composition study at the Juilliard School of Music. He later composed and arranged music for a small recording company in New York, formed his own band, became a member of ASCAP and made several recordings. In 1959 he returned to the Virgin Islands where he was active as an engineer, performer and composer of both classical and popular works. He founded the Westindy Music Company which published much of his music. His output includes 77 popular songs, of which ‘Pig Knuckles and Rice’ (1972) was the best seller, ten compositions for orchestra and/or concert band and 12 works for solo piano. A high point in his compositional career was Casals’s performance of Don Pablo’s Bolero, a work written on behalf of the people of the Virgin Islands to honour the famous cellist.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

O. Ryan: ‘The Melodious LaMottas’, Focus [St Thomas, VI] (13 Dec 1970)

M. Lieth-Philipp: Die Musikkultur der Jungferninseln (Ludwigsburg, 1990)

MARGOT LIETH-PHILIPP

Lamotte [La Motte], Antoine Houdar [Houdart, Houdard] de

(b Paris, 17 Jan 1672; d Paris, 26 Dec 1731). French librettist, aesthetician, poet and dramatist. He received an education in Latin and French literature at a Jesuit school, then attended law school but never practised law. At the age of 21 he saw his first play (a comedy) fail miserably and reacted by attempting to join a monastery. Two months later he emerged, but he spent some time reading and writing religious texts before returning definitively to the theatre. He wrote nearly all his opera librettos between 1697 and 1708, as well as three brief spoken comedies and a number of cantata texts. Wishing to enter the Académie Française, he wrote a book of odes (1707), and was received by the Académie in 1710. His subsequent output includes spoken plays (four tragedies, five comedies), fables, a free translation of the Iliad with accompanying ‘Discours’ (which led to a long pamphlet war), other essays in literary criticism and miscellaneous non-fiction. In 1727 Rameau addressed a letter to Lamotte regarding his aesthetic goals in an unsuccessful bid for collaboration. Lamotte remained productive until his death, even though he had been blind and infirm for many years.

As a philosopher Lamotte’s name is often coupled with that of his mentor, Fontenelle. Lamotte was a ‘moderne’ in the ‘querelle des Anciens et des Modernes’. He favoured writing spoken tragedy in prose rather than alexandrines, aiming to please (by selective ‘imitation of nature’) rather than ‘instruct’, and replacing the traditional unities with unity of ‘interest’. Although his aesthetic writings concentrate on spoken tragedy, many of his recommendations (for instance, that spectacle be exploited) reflect his experiences as a librettist. His cantata texts belong to the earliest flowering of the French chamber cantate. While typical of the genre in form and poetic style, nearly all are atypically based stories from the Old Testament.

His first achievement as a librettist was to invent a new genre, the opéra-ballet. (The term appeared later; Lamotte used the simple designation ‘ballet’.) The characters in L’Europe galante are contemporary Europeans, not heroes of mythology or chivalric legend; only the prologue features allegorical figures. Each act (‘entrée’) has a separate plot and its own divertissement; the entrées are loosely connected by a common theme (stereotype images of love-making in different countries). Cahusac later characterized the separate entrées as ‘piquant miniatures’. Lamotte’s only other opéra-ballet, Le triomphe des Arts, returns to mythological characters; the five entrées represent architecture, poetry, music, painting and sculpture. The fifth entrée, which presents the legend of Pygmalion, is better known in Rameau’s later setting than in La Barre’s original.

Issé, in keeping with the conventions of the pastorale-héroïque, includes a pastoral love triangle involving a combination of a god and two mortals. There are three acts in the original version, but for the revised version of 1708 Lamotte lengthened the divertissements and superficially reorganized the structure by splitting Acts 1 and 3 into two acts each. D’Alembert later explained that Lamotte had been advised to put his three-act pastorale into five acts to give it ‘the dignity of grand opera’; general critical opinion was that Lamotte might better have achieved ‘dignity’ by suppressing the comic subplot, which is a burlesque love intrigue for the confidants. The two pieces labelled comédie-ballet (a term used differently by Molière) have continuous plots, with the customary divertissement in each act. Le carnaval et la folie has mythological characters (and therefore the expected supernatural events), whereas those of La vénitienne are contemporary Europeans. Both pieces are light comedies.

Lamotte’s first tragédie en musique, Amadis de Grèce, is based on the same chivalric romance as Quinault’s Amadis de Gaule. His next five works in that genre borrow from ancient mythology. Finally, Scanderberg (begun in 1711 and completed by La Serre after Lamotte’s death) is based on an episode in Turkish history. In his youth Lamotte had written a manuscript study of Quinault’s librettos, and the general style of these ‘tragedies’ is based closely on Quinault. The most important difference, one that had far-reaching influence on the next generation of French librettists, was the increased importance of the divertissements. The plots are simple, allowing lengthy divertissements (frequently ceremonial celebrations) to become the centre of gravity for each act. Lamotte often borrowed Quinault’s occasional device of introducing the divertissement by interrupting the drama at a moment of great tension; the return to the story often involves a similarly violent contrast between static celebration and high drama.

LIBRETTOS

performed and published in Paris unless otherwise stated

Tragédies en musique, each with prol and 5 acts: Amadis de Grèce, A.C. Destouches, 1699; Marthésie reine des Amazones, Destouches, Fontainebleau, 1699; Canente, Collasse, 1700; Omphale, Destouches, 1701; Alcyone, Marais, 1706; Sémelé, Marais, 1709; Scanderberg (completed by J.-L.-I. de La Serre), Rebel and Francoeur, 1735

Pastorales-héroïques: Issé, Destouches, 1697; Climène, not set

Opéra-ballets: L’Europe galante, Campra, 1697; Le triomphe des arts, La Barre, 1700 (Act 5, Rameau, 1748, as Pygmalion)

Comédies-ballets: Le carnaval et la folie, Destouches, 1703; La vénitienne, La Barre, 1705 (Dauvergne, 1768); Le sâges (prol, 4 entrées), prol, Mondonville, 1753, in Titon et l’Aurore; Les fées, not set

Chbr cant. texts: Esther; Le passage de la Mer Rouge; Jacob et Rachel; Jonas; Susanne; Judith; Adam; Le temple rebasti; Le déluge; Joseph; Jephté; Samson; all set by E. Jacquet de La Guerre in Cantates françoises (1708, 1711); Abraham, Clérambault (1715); Sémelé, Destouches (1719); Echo, not set; 23 others on biblical subjects, not set

Odes and chansons: Le désir (anacreontic ode), anon. setting in Ballard’s Recueil d’airs sérieux et à boire (1707); various settings of song texts in Rousseau’s Les consolations des misères de ma vie (1781) and Jean-Benjamin de La Borde’s Choix de chansons (1772)

WRITINGS

only those relevant to music

Réflexions sur la critique (Paris, 1715, 2/1716)

‘Suite de réflexions sur la tragédie’, Oeuvres de théâtre (Paris, 1730, 2/1765, as Pièces de théâtre), iv, and Oeuvres de Monsieur Houdar de la Motte (Paris, 1754/R1970 as Oeuvres complètes), iii

‘Discours sur la tragédie’, Oeuvres de théâtre (Paris, 1730, 2/1765 as Pièces de théâtre), iv, and Oeuvres de Monsieur Houdar de la Motte (Paris, 1754/R1970 as Oeuvres complètes), iv

‘Réponse à la critique du Ballet des Arts’, Oeuvres de Monsieur Houdar de la Motte (Paris, 1754/R1970 as Oeuvres complètes), iv

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AnthonyFB

Abbé Trublet: ‘Lettre sur M.H. de La Motte et ses ouvrages’, Mercure de France (Jan 1732), 62–74

Abbé Trublet: Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de la vie et des oeuvres de M. de Fontenelle et de M. de La Motte (Amsterdam, 1759)

P. Dupont: Un poète philosophe au commencement du dix-huitième siècle, Houdar de la Motte (Paris, 1898)

G. Dost: Houdar de la Motte als Tragiker und dramatischer Theoretiker (Weida, 1909)

P. Russo: ‘“L’isola di Alcina”: funzioni drammaturgiche del “divertissement” nella “tragédie lyrique” (1699–1735)’, NRMI, xxi (1987), 1–15

C. Kintzler: Poétique de l’opéra français de Corneille à Rousseau (Paris, 1991)

A.-M. Anthonioz: ‘Trois thèmes majeurs dans les opéras de La Motte’, Thèmes et genres litteraires aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, ed. N. Ferrier-Caverivière (Paris, 1992), 269–74

V. McIntosh: The Twelve Cantatas Based on the Scriptures by Elisabeth-Claude Jacquet de la Guerre: Study and Transcriptions (diss., U. of Oregon, 1997)

LOIS ROSOW

Lamotte, Franz

(b ?1751; d The Hague, 7 Sept 1780). Violinist and composer, probably of Flemish origin. According to Burney, he was Flemish (although his name appears to come from the French-speaking, Walloon, part of the southern Netherlands) and received lessons on the violin from Felice Giardini in London, which is probably why he was often dubbed ‘the young Englishman’. On 29 December 1766 he performed in the Burgtheater, Vienna; he so impressed the Viennese court that in 1767 he was given financial support to undertake a long concert tour. He appeared in Prague and Leipzig (where he performed with J.A. Hiller), and in 1768 in Padua and Venice. Leopold Mozart referred to a lengthy stay in Naples, but by 1769 Lamotte was performing in competition with the violinist G.M. Giornovichi in Paris. In 1770 or 1772 he returned to Vienna and joined the Hofkapelle of Empress Maria Theresa as a first violinist, though he continued to make concert tours. In 1775 he appeared at the Paris Concert Spirituel, and from 1776 gave concerts in London, including several subscription concerts with Rauzzini in 1778–9. He seems to have left London hurriedly in about 1780, probably because of criminal offences, but it remains unclear to what extent the resulting suspicions and reports of scandal are justified.

Even in his youth, Lamotte was regarded as a virtuoso of the first rank whose double stopping was particularly remarkable. In 1767 he caused a stir in Prague by performing at sight a violin concerto in F or C major by the Prince of Fürstenberg’s secretary, Bablizeck (Choron and Fayolle claimed that he tuned his violin a semitone higher and ignored the sharps in accomplishing this feat). His bowing technique was also admired and, according to Mozart, his staccato playing was long remembered in Vienna. He composed concertos, sonatas and airs for the violin.

WORKS

printed works published in Paris unless otherwise stated

Conc., vn, orch (1775); IIe conc., vn, orch (1775); IIIe conc., vn, orch (1775); vn conc., D, D-W

Sonate, vn, b (hpd/vc), op.5 (c1770); 3 sonatas, vn, b (kbd) in 6 sonate (London and Paris, ?1776)

6 airs mis en variation, vn, b (1775)

Marche des 2 avares, 2 tr insts (n.p., n.d.)

Duetti, vn, va (n.d.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BDA

BurneyGN

Choron-FayolleD

GerberL

J.F. Reichardt: Briefe eines aufmerksamen Reisenden, i (Frankfurt and Leipzig, 1774/R), 162–6

Gentleman’s Magazine, l (1780), 446 only

F.A. Ernst: ‘Anekdote’, AMZ, ii (1799–1800), 315–16

P.M. Baillot: Notice sur J.B. Viotti (Paris, 1825)

E. Hanslick: Geschichte des Concertwesens in Wien (Vienna, 1869–70/R), 107–8

J. Schmidt: ‘Voltaire und Maria Theresia’, Mitteilungen des Vereines für Geschichte der Stadt Wien, xi (1931), 92

S. McVeigh: Concert Life in London from Mozart to Haydn (Cambridge, 1993)

OTHMAR WESSELY

La Motte-Haber, Helga de.

See Motte-Haber, Helga de la.

La Moulaz, Guillaume de.

See La Moeulle, Guillaume de.

Lamoureux, Charles

(b Bordeaux, 28 Sept 1834; d Paris, 21 Dec 1899). French conductor and violinist. The son of a café owner, he began studying the violin with Baudoin, who sent him to Paris at his own expense to enrol in Girard’s class at the Conservatoire. There he took a premier prix for the violin in 1854, and studied harmony under Tolbecque, counterpoint and fugue under Leborne and composition with Chauvet. From 1850 he earned his living playing in the orchestra of the Théâtre du Gymnase, leaving it for a position at the Opéra. He also played in the orchestra for young performers recently formed by Pasdeloup and eventually joined the Société des Concerts du Conservatoire. In 1860 he founded the Séances Populaires de Musique de Chambre with Colonne, Adam and Pilet; this society, whose partners changed several times, gave numerous concerts that were particularly interesting for their inclusion of new and seldom-performed works. From 1872 a quartet formed by Lamoureux with Coblain, Adam and Tolbecque gradually became a chamber orchestra, and, with the addition of singers, began to perform important works including Bach’s keyboard concertos and excerpts from his cantatas and even a whole cantata, Der Streit zwischen Phöbus und Pan

Lamoureux had travelled in England and Germany and was anxious to emulate the performances of large-scale choral works he had heard at the great festivals organized by Hiller and Costa. After his marriage, he found himself in possession of a large fortune, and when the committee of the Société des Concerts du Conservatoire, where he had been assistant conductor since 26 May 1872, refused his request to organize one or two performances of oratorios, Lamoureux resigned from the Société and decided to finance the performances himself. He produced Handel’s Messiah in December 1873, followed by the St Matthew Passion, performed three times in March and April 1874 with such success that he founded the Société Française de l’Harmonie Sacrée (1874) and under its auspices presented Judas Maccabaeus and Alexander’s Feast by Handel, Gounod’s Gallia and Massenet’s Eve. The Société was obliged to break off its activities owing to lack of funds, but Lamoureux had made his mark as a conductor. In 1876 he joined the Opéra-Comique, then under the direction of Carvalho, but stayed only six months, resigning after an argument during a rehearsal. In 1877 he was appointed to the Opéra, but only stayed there until December 1879, leaving for London, after a disagreement with the director Vaucorbeil over Mozart’s Don Giovanni, to organize a festival of French music, which took place in 1881 and was a great success. He then submitted a memorandum demanding the restoration of the Théâtre-Lyrique and an annual subsidy of 600,000 francs to make it into an ‘opéra populaire’, but this project came to nothing.

It was at this point that Lamoureux decided to sign a contract with the Théâtre du Château d’Eau to give weekly symphony concerts. The Société des Nouveaux-Concerts (also called the Concerts Lamoureux) gave its first concert on 23 October 1881; it had an immediate and well-deserved success because of the high quality of the performances, whose precision and firmness, but also expressiveness, were Lamoureux trademarks. Almost at once he began the struggle to introduce the music of Wagner, which he carried on to the end of his career. He first performed single acts from Lohengrin and Tristan in concerts and then went to Bayreuth, where it seems that Wagner finally authorized him to produce Lohengrin. This he did in 1887 at the Eden-Théâtre, where he had established himself two years before. However the anti-Wagner extremists, using a border incident with Germany as a pretext, staged a street demonstration to protest against the performance, calling it an unpatriotic act. Lamoureux was intimidated and, though the government had not insisted on his doing so, gave up the venture before the second performance and was held responsible for the financial loss incurred. At least his nomination as Officier of the Légion d’Honneur was a source of some consolation at this time. He devoted himself once more to his weekly concerts and also directed the stage music at the Théâtre de l’Odéon. In 1891, the Opéra produced Lohengrin and Lamoureux was made the musical director. He was replaced by Colonne at the beginning of 1892 on the occasion of a change of management.

In 1893 Lamoureux made a tour of Russia; from 1896 he brought his orchestra to London yearly, and in May 1899 he took part with Sir Henry Wood in a festival in the Queen’s Hall where the two conductors directed their respective orchestras alternately. In 1897 Lamoureux decided to give up the direction of his orchestra and chose Camille Chevillard, his son-in-law, to succeed him as permanent conductor. It was in order to give more time to the theatre that he curtailed his conducting, but his projects were not successful and he never built the French Bayreuth of his dreams. He did, however, finally succeed in producing Tristan und Isolde on 28 October 1899 at the Nouveau-Théâtre.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Imbert: Portraits et études … lettres inédites de Georges Bizet (Paris, 1894)

A. Jullien: ‘Charles Lamoureux’, RMI, vii (1900), 153–9

R. Rolland: Musiciens d’aujourd’hui (Paris, 1908, 18/1947; Eng. trans., 1915/R)

J.-M. Nectoux: ‘La musique à Paris en 1900’, Revue internationale de musique française, no.12 (1983) [incl. extracts from memoires of Lamoureux, ed. J. Chailley]

E. Bernard: ‘La mélodie dans les sociétés de concert’, Autour de la mélodie française [Rouen 1984], ed. M. Biget (Rouen, 1987), 49–56

ELISABETH BERNARD

Lampadarios, Joannes.

See Kladas, Joannes.

Lampadius [Lampe], Auctor

(b Brunswick, c1500; d Halberstadt, 1559). German theorist and composer. His unusual Christian name comes from the patron saint of Brunswick. Between 1532 and 1535 he left a teaching post at Goslar to become Kantor at the Johannisschule at Lüneburg, newly opened after the Reformation, where Lossius also taught. In 1537 Lampadius’s children died of the plague and he and his wife left Lüneburg. In a letter to the Lüneburg council written from Wernigerode on 27 November 1537, he still described himself as Lüneburg Kantor. Shortly afterwards he entered the service of the Count of Stolberg at Wernigerode, as schoolmaster and court chaplain. At Easter 1541 he was appointed pastor at St Martini, Halberstadt, where he remained until his death. In the winter of 1541–2 he matriculated at Leipzig University and, on 6 June 1542, he was accepted ‘ad licentiam recipiendi doctoratus insignia’. In 1546, in a request for an increase in salary, he pleaded that he needed the money because the university had offered him a doctorate. In the 1550s he took an active part in the exchanges between leading Protestant theologians, including Flacius Illyricus.

Though a Kantor for only a few years, Lampadius was occupied with music throughout his life. In 1556, 19 years after becoming a pastor, he described himself, in a letter sent to a friend with a new composition (‘words by Christ, music by Lampadius’), as ‘musician and confessor of Christ’, and stated that he would shortly be composing a mass; however, the only known musical works ascribed to him are two bicinia in Diphona amoena et florida (RISM 1549¹⁶), Omnis caro faenum and Te Deus aeterna faciat. Both appear as unattributed examples in his Compendium musices (the latter without text), and other examples are likely to be by Lampadius as well.

Lampadius is best known to the history of music for his Compendium musices, tam figurati quam plani cantus, ad formam dialogi (Berne, 1537, 5/1554), which he compiled while Kantor at the Johannisschule in Lüneburg. The book was intended for use in teaching schoolboys and chiefly assembled from the writings of others, although some of its material and presentation seems to be original and is of great interest. The first two sections are devoted to the substance and notation of pitch and rhythm respectively, ‘cantus planus’ and ‘musica mensurata’; in both, Lampadius frequently referred to and drew upon the writings of Ornithoparchus (Musice active micrologus, 1517) and Rhau (Enchiridion utriusque musicae practicae, 1517). The third part, ‘De compositione cantus compendium’, appears to be the most original. It is made up of five chapters, of which the first four present rules for chord-formation and voice-leading (the three rules in the third chapter are quoted without acknowledgement from Galliculus, Isagoge de compositione cantus, 1520), while the fifth is on two-part composition. The final section contains rules for reading Scripture.

One aspect of the third part of Lampadius’s textbook that has received much attention is his remarks on the music of Josquin, a composer whom, like other Lutherans, he venerated. He presented Josquin’s works in general terms as models worthy of imitation, and felicitously described their style: ‘Josquin’s works have many, varied and extremely expressive (argutissimas) sections (clausulationes), adorned with very appropriate imitations and canons, full of sweetness (suavitatis) …’. The book has also attracted attention for its examples in different notational formats. The second chapter of the third part consists of eight rules for constructing four-part chords, each illustrated on a ten-line staff, which Lampadius recommended for beginners; there is then a summary example of a continuous phrase, given in two versions: on the ten-line staff and in four separate parts (see Owens, 26–9). Still more significant is Lampadius’s example of open score, showing the opening of Verdelot’s four-voice Sancta Maria succurre miseris. While not the earliest true score to survive (Martin Agricola printed one to show how tablature relates to mensural notation in Musica instrumentalis deudsch (1529), and there are three manuscript scores in two voices from about 1480 in the Tongeren fragments), its placement in the treatise is striking and suggestive. It occurs at the very end of the third section, immediately following Lampadius’s discussion of experienced composers’ working methods, in which he mentioned the use of the tabula compositoria (which has been variously interpreted) and contrasted former and more recent ways of composing. Lowinsky (1948) believed Lampadius was a reliable witness that Josquin composed in score, but this interpretation is called into question by the absence until much later of manuscript evidence for any composer’s doing so. The passage has yet to be explained in convincing fashion.

Lampadius’s Compendium musices is one of many school textbooks on music written in Central Europe during the 16th century, and must be understood in that context rather than that of advanced or original music theory. It remains necessary to investigate the ‘very erudite’ authorities Lampadius drew upon, since – especially in the important third part – only a few have been identified. It is not yet possible to say how much of his treatise is his own.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (M. Ruhnke)

E. Jacobs: ‘Zwei harzische Musiktheoretiker des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts, I: Autor Lampadius’, VMw, vi (1890), 91–111

G. Pietzsch: ‘Zur Pflege der Musik an den deutschen Universitäten bis zur Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts’, AMf, iii (1938), 302–30, esp.320–21

E.E. Lowinsky: ‘On the Use of Scores by Sixteenth-Century Musicians’, JAMS, i/1 (1948), 17–23; repr. in Music in the Culture of the Renaissance and Other Essays (Chicago, 1989), 797–802

G. Reichert: ‘Martin Crusius und die Musik in Tübingen um 1590’, AMw, x (1953), 185–212

M. Bukofzer: Postscript to Adrianus Petit Coclico: Compendium musices, DM, 1st ser., Druckschriften-Faksimiles, ix (1954)

E.E. Lowinsky: ‘Early Scores in Manuscript’, JAMS, xiii (1960), 126–73; repr. in Music in the Culture of the Renaissance and Other Essays (Chicago, 1989), 803–40

F. Onkelbach: Lucas Lossius und seine Musiklehre (Regensburg, 1960)

S. Hermelink: ‘Die Tabula compositoria: Beiträge zu einer Begriffstimmung’, Festschrift Heinrich Besseler, ed. E. Klemm (Leipzig, 1961), 221–30

H. Walter: Musikgeschichte der Stadt Lüneburg vom Ende des 16. bis zum Anfang des 18. Jahrhunderts (Tutzing, 1967)

E. Apfel: Geschichte der Kompositionslehre von den Anfangen bis gegen 1700 (Wilhelmshaven, 1981, 3/1989), 592–6, 1663

J.A. Owens: ‘The Milan Partbooks: Evidence of Cipriano de Rore's Compositional Process’, JAMS, xxxvii (1984), 270–98

B. Blackburn: ‘On Compositional Process in the Fifteenth Century’, JAMS, xl (1987), 210–84, esp. 274–7

C. Reynolds: ‘Musical Evidence of Compositional Planning in the Renaissance’, JAMS, xl (1987), 53–81, esp. 75–7

J.A. Owens: Composers at Work: the Craft of Musical Composition (New York, 1997)

JESSIE ANN OWENS, MARTIN RUHNKE

Lampe, Charles John Frederick

(b ?London, ?1739; d London, 10 Sept 1767). English composer and organist. He was the son of John Frederick Lampe and the singer Isabella Young, who were married in 1738. In 1758 he succeeded his grandfather, Charles Young, as organist at All Hallows, Barking-by-the-Tower, a post which he held until his death. He may be the Lampe who played in the Covent Garden orchestra in 1760–61. In 1763 he married Ann Smith, a singer at Marylebone Gardens; from at least 1766 he lived in the Drury Lane area. His songs include the patriotic Britannia's Invitation to her Sons, to Partake of the Glory of the Intended Expedition (c1755), Damon & Delia or the Retreat (1759) and a collection, Six English Songs as Sung by Mr [Thomas] Lowe & Mrs Lampe Junr at Mary-bone Gardens (1764); his music is light and appealing with much use of the Scotch snap. Lampe's only other published compositions are some catches included in The Catch Club or Merry Companions … Selected by C.I.F. Lampe (c1765) and in A Second Collection of Catches (c1766).

ROGER FISKE/PAMELA McGAIRL

Lampe, Johann Friedrich

(b Wolfenbüttel, 1744; d after 1788). German composer and singer. He was musical director of the Hamburg theatre from 1773 to 1777 and apparently stayed on as a singer. In 1788 he was a member of the court theatre at Schwedt (Pomerania). His works include symphonies (lost), songs, incidental music for the stage and Das Mädchen in Eichthale, a three-act Singspiel adapted from Bickerstaff’s Love in a Village and Burgoyne’s The Maid of the Oaks, first performed at the Hamburg Gänsemarkt (19 August 1776) and later in Berlin and elsewhere (score in D-Bdhm).

Lampe, John Frederick [Johann Friedrich]

(b ?Brunswick, winter 1702–3; d Edinburgh, 25 July 1751). German composer and bassoonist active in Britain. Nothing is known of his life before he was admitted to the University of Helmstedt on 2 May 1718, when he was described as ‘Brunsvicensis’ (‘from Brunswick’). He graduated in law in March 1720, moved to Hamburg soon after, and arrived in London in 1725 or 1726, when Henry Carey, later his regular librettist, described him in a poem as ‘my LAMP obscure, because unknown’ who ‘shines in secret (now) to Friends alone’. Fame was predicted for him (‘Light him but up! Let him in publick blaze, / He will delight not only but amaze’), but he did not attract much public attention until 1732–3, when he was the prime mover in a project to promote English opera at the Little Theatre in the Haymarket.

Lampe wrote three full-length serious operas ‘after the Italian manner’ within a year: Carey’s Amelia, Britannia by Thomas Lediard (a diplomat who probably met Lampe in Hamburg) and Dione, adapted from a ‘pastoral tragedy’ by John Gay. Only two airs from Amelia survive, though ten from Britannia and eight from Dione exist in manuscript full score, perhaps copied as part of a later process of turning them from full-length operas to afterpieces. Although these three operas lost money, a fourth, The Opera of Operas, or Tom Thumb the Great, was a turning-point for Lampe. It was an adaptation of Fielding’s burlesque The Tragedy of Tragedies, with opera and opera singers made the objects of ridicule rather than plays and actors. It has often been confused with Arne’s rival afterpiece setting of the same text, put on at the Little Theatre in October 1733 in competition with a revival of Lampe’s opera at Drury Lane, though there is little doubt that the 16 published songs are by Lampe. The Opera of Operas established Lampe in the theatre, and he was soon in demand: in spring 1734 he wrote incidental music for two plays, the masque Aurora’s Nuptials (celebrating Princess Anne’s wedding to the Prince of Orange) and, his second success, the pantomime Cupid and Psyche, or Columbine Courtezan.

The overture to Cupid and Psyche is an example of the ‘medley overture’, a popular genre in the early 1730s in which fragments of popular tunes were introduced, often in counterpoint or hidden in the lower parts; Lampe managed to work in tunes from Handel’s Rodelinda, Giulio Cesare, Admeto, Ottone and Siroe. Although he was one of Handel’s rivals as a composer, he was associated with his fellow-Saxon as a performer. He probably started to play the bassoon for Handel soon after he arrived in London, for Charles Burney wrote that Thomas Stanesby made a double bassoon for the coronation of 1727, and that Lampe ‘was the person intended to perform on it; but, for want of a proper reed, or for some other cause, at present unknown, no use was made of it at that time’. The difficulties were evidently overcome by 174o, when Handel included a double bassoon part in L’Allegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato. The double bassoon used then was perhaps the one by Thomas Stanesby (ii) dated 1739, now in the National Museum, Dublin.

Nothing for sure is known of Lampe’s activities between 1734 and 1737. He may merely have been busy teaching and writing his thoroughbass treatise, though so complete an absence from theatrical life suggests that he spent the time out of London. Perhaps he visited Paris, for both his treatises show an early familiarity with Rameau’s concept of the ‘fundamental bass’. He returned to London with The Dragon of Wantley, which was a sensation. Carey’s libretto was reprinted 14 times in little more than a year, the work was taken up by other companies, and it held the stage until 1782. It is Lampe’s only opera to survive complete: the concerted numbers were published in full score in 1738, and the recitatives are included in a manuscript full score of a shortened version, perhaps copied for the touring production Charles Burney saw in Chester in 1741. Carey ridiculed Italian opera in The Dragon of Wantley by transferring its artificial conventions and high-flown sentiments to a down-to-earth English folktale set in his native Yorkshire. The legend of Moore of Moore Hall and the dragon of Wantley (Wharncliffe near Rotherham) would have been familiar to his audience from the ballad printed in Thomas D’Urfey’s Pills to Purge Melancholy. Lampe’s music added an extra dimension to the comedy by setting Carey’s inane lines to elaborate and seemingly serious music (see illustration).

With such a hit on their hands it was inevitable that Carey and Lampe would produce a sequel. Like most sequels, Margery, or A Worse Plague than the Dragon was less effective and less successful. But Lampe was now one of London’s most prominent theatre musicians, a position he consolidated by marrying his leading lady, Isabella Young, in December 1738, thus becoming Thomas Arne’s brother-in-law (Arne had married Isabella’s sister Cecilia in 1737). Moreover, the pantomime Orpheus and Euridice, first produced at Covent Garden in February 1740, received 46 performances in that season alone, though the crowds were probably drawn more by a 17-foot clockwork snake that devoured Euridice (it moved with ‘a velocity scarce credible’) than by Lampe’s music. In 1741, however, audiences for music in London dwindled as the public’s attention was caught by the revolution in Shakespearean acting initiated by Charles Macklin and David Garrick. Lampe’s The Sham Conjurer, a ‘Comic-Masque of Speaking, Singing, Dancing’, failed after three performances at Covent Garden in April, though its music (including a ‘grand concerto’ for oboes, horns, strings and continuo) was published in full score. As a result, his company tried its luck in the provinces, and he wrote nothing for the London theatres except for two works given at the Little Theatre in the Haymarket in spring 1744, one of which was described as an ‘operetta’, apparently the earliest use of the term.

Lampe’s last opera, Pyramus and Thisbe, was produced at Covent Garden in January 1745. The text, derived in part from one set by Richard Leveridge in 1716, is an ingenious adaptation of the play-within-a-play in Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream. As in The Opera of Operas, Italian opera and opera singers are the object of ridicule rather than plays or actors. The airs are once again deadpan, though the clichés of the Handelian style are parodied in typical rage and revenge numbers. Pyramus and Thisbe was taken up by provincial companies, though it did not lead to further opportunities in London, a couple of contributions to plays excepted.

About this time Lampe was drawn into the circle around John and Charles Wesley, perhaps through the influence of Priscilla Rich, the wife of the proprietor of Covent Garden. John Wesley wrote in his journal on 29 November 1745 that he ‘spent an hour with Mr. Lampe, who had been a Deist for many years, till it pleased God, by An Earnest Appeal [John Wesley’s pamphlet of 1743] to bring him to a better mind’. An immediate fruit of his conversion was Hymns on the Great Festivals and Other Occasions (1746), a handsomely produced volume of 24 hymns by Charles Wesley and his brother Samuel, set by Lampe in a florid style for voice and continuo. More of his devotional music probably survives anonymously in other collections produced by members of the Wesley circle, such as Thomas Butts’s Harmonia sacra (London, 1767).

Lampe and his company went to Dublin in September 1748 for two seasons at the Smock Alley Theatre, where he wrote the lost serenata Damon and Anathe as well as music for revivals of two old tragedies, Oroonoko and Theodosius. He seems to have visited Belfast and Edinburgh in summer 1750, before returning to Dublin briefly in October and then settling in Edinburgh for a season at its new theatre; but he died of a fever there on 25 July 1751, and was buried in Canongate churchyard. Charles Wesley commemorated his death in the hymn ’Tis done! The sov’reign will’s obey’d.

As a composer Lampe displayed a consistent technical facility that was beyond the grasp of many of his colleagues working for the London theatres, and he showed skill at setting English even in his early works. He inevitably invites comparison with Handel, who is said to have admired The Dragon of Wantley. Yet his surviving operas are closer in style to Arne than Handel, perhaps because they are comedies. Apart from those occcasions when he parodied the Handelian style for comic effect, he tended to follow his brother-in-law in introducing elements of British popular song into his airs, including the Scotch snaps that proliferate in Pyramus and Thisbe. The few surviving fragments of his serious operas, notably the airs from Britannia and Dione, suggest that he was also capable of deeper things.

WORKS

printed works published in London unless otherwise stated

stage

LCG	London, Covent Garden
LDL	London, Drury Lane Theatre
LLH	London, Little Theatre in the Haymarket

Diana and Acteon (pantomime, Monsieur Roger), LDL, 23 April 1730, lost

Amelia (Eng. op, H. Carey), LLH, 13 March 1732, 2 airs (?1732)

Britannia (Eng. op, T. Lediard), LLH, 16 Nov 1732, 10 airs GB-Lbl

Dione (Eng. op, ?Lampe, after J. Gay), LLH, 23 Feb 1733, 8 airs Lbl

The Usurers, or Harlequin’s Last Shift (pantomime), 23 Feb 1733, music lost

Love Runs All Dangers (pantomime), LLH, 16 March 1733, lost

The Opera of Operas, or Tom Thumb the Great (burlesque op, ?E. Haywood and ?W. Hatchett, after H. Fielding: The Tragedy of Tragedies), LLH, 31 May 1733, 16 airs (1733)

Music in The Cornish Squire (play, J. Ralph, after J. Vanbrugh), 1734, music lost

Cupid and Psyche, or Columbine Courtezan (pantomime), LDL, 4 Feb 1734, medley ov. (1736), comic tunes (1735), Crowds of coxcombs, air (n.d.), Who to win a woman’s favour, air (n.d./R in Martin)

Music in The Fatal Falsehood (play, J. Hewitt), 1734, Whilst endless tears and sighs, air (1734/R in Martin)

Aurora’s Nuptials (masque), ?LDL, ?15 March 1734, music lost

Masque of Pastoral Musick, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, 16 May 1734, lost

The Dragon of Wantley (burlesque op, 3, Carey), LLH, 16 May 1737, Lcm, full score without recits (1738); ed. P. Holman (Wyton, 1996)

Margery, or A Worse Plague than the Dragon (burlesque op, Carey), LCG, 9 Dec 1738, full score without recits (1738)

Roger and Joan, or The Country Wedding (comic masque), LCG, 20 March 1739, music lost

Orpheus and Euridice, with The Metamorphoses of Harlequin (pantomime, L. Theobald), LCG, 12 Feb 1740, comic tunes (?1740), The parent bird, air, Lyra Britannica (1740–45; see ‘Miscellaneous’)

The Sham Conjurer (comic masque), LCG, 18 April 1741, text lost, full score (1741)

Music in The Winter’s Tale (play, W. Shakespeare), 1741, But Shall I go mourn for that my dear, air (?1741–2)

The Queen of Spain, or Farinelli at Madrid (burlesque scene, J. Ayres), LLH, 19 Jan 1744, lost

The Kiss Accepted and Returned (operetta, Ayres), LLH, 16 April 1744, lost

Pyramus and Thisbe (mock op, 1, after Shakespeare and R. Leveridge), LCG, 25 Jan 1745, full score without recits (1745/R)

Music in The What d’Ye Call It (play, Gay), 1745, lost

Music in The Muses’ Looking Glass (play, L. Ryan, after T. Randolph), 1748, lost

Music in Oroonoko (play, T. Southerne), 1749, 2 airs (1749)

Music in Theodosius (play, N. Lee), 1749, 4 songs, The Ladies Amusement (Dublin, 1749; 1 R in Martin)

Damon and Anathe (serenata, T. Cibber), Dublin, Smock Alley Theatre, 12 March 1750, lost

Music in King John (play, Shakespeare), 1750, choruses ‘in the manner of the Ancients’, lost

miscellaneous

6 Solos, fl, bc (c1727), lost

Wit Musically Embellish’d … 40 New English Ballads, 1v, bc (1731)

British Melody, or The Musical Magazine, 1v, bc (1739), ed. Lampe [60 songs, some by Lampe]

The Musical Entertainer, mostly 1v, bc (1740), ed. Lampe [some by Lampe]

Lyra Britannica: a Collection of [12] Favourite English Songs, 1v, bc (1740–45) (see also Orpheus and Euridice under ‘Stage’)

The Cuckoo Concerto, G, fl, str, bc (c1740)

[24] Hymns on the Great Festivals and Other Occasions, 1v, bc (1746/R)

The king shall now rejoice, S, S, T, B, SSTB, 2 tpt, timp, 2 hn, 2 ob, bn, str, org, The Musick in Score of the Thanksgiving Anthem … for the Suppression of the Rebellion (c1746), GB-Ge

A Cantata [Ophelia] and 4 English Songs, 1v, tr inst, bc (1748)

A Collection of Hymns and Sacred Poems (Dublin, 1749), ed. Lampe

The Ladies Amusement (Dublin, 1749), 1v, tr inst, bc [13 songs; Amphitryon and Alcmena, cant.]

The Grand Chorus [Hail to the lovely blooming pair] as Perform’d in the Representation of the Coronation at the Theatre-Royal in Covent Garden, SATB, 2 ob, str, bc (?1763)

Songs pubd separately and in anthologies

Ode on his Majesty’s Birthday, Dublin, ?31 Oct 1748, lost

Conc., ob, 2 vn, va, b, lost, see Haynes

2 sonatas, G, e, ?fl, bc, private collection [?from 6 solos]

theoretical works

A Plain and Compendious Method of Teaching Thorough Bass (1737/R)

The Art of Musick (1740)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BDA

BurneyH

FiskeETM

GroveO (‘Dragon of Wantley, The’, ‘Pyramus and Thisbe’, P. Holman)

HawkinsH

NicollH

P. Lord: ‘The English-Italian Opera Companies 1732–3’, ML, xlv (1964), 239–51

R.B. Price: A Textual, Dramatic and Musical Analysis of Two Burlesque Operas, ‘The Dragon of Wantley’ and ‘Margery, or A Worse Plague than the Dragon’ (diss., U. of Texas, 1975)

J.E. Wierzbicki: Burlesque Opera in London 1729–1737 (diss., U. of Cincinnati, 1979)

H.C. Wolff: ‘Eine englische Händel-Parodie: “The Dragon of Wantley”, 1737’, Hjb, xxix (1983), 43–54

D.R. Martin: The Operas and Operatic Style of John Frederick Lampe (Detroit,1985)

W.J. Burling and R.D. Hume: ‘Theatrical Companies at the Little Haymarket, 1720–1737’, Essays in Theatre, iv (1986), 98–116

B. Boydell: A Dublin Musical Calendar 1700–1760 (Dublin, 1988)

B. Haynes: Music for Oboe, 1650–1800 (Berkeley, 2/1992)

M. Burden: ‘The Independent Masque in Britain in the Eighteenth Century: a Catalogue’, RMARC, xxviii (1995), 59–150

R. Johnston: Concerts in the Musical Life of Belfast to 1874 (diss., Queens U., Belfast, 1996)

C.R. Young and others: Introduction to J.F. Lampe: Hymns on the Great Festivals and Other Occasions (Madison, NJ, 1996) [facs.]

J. Milhous and R.D. Hume: ‘J.F. Lampe and English Opera at the Little Haymarket in 1732–3’, ML, lxxviii (1997), 502–31

J. Caldwell: The Oxford History of English Music, ii (Oxford, 1999)

PETER HOLMAN

Lampe, Mrs.

English soprano, wife of John Frederick Lampe. See Young family, (4).

Lampens

(fl c1425). Composer, possibly Netherlandish. His name is known only from F-Sm C.22, where a three-voice Credo is ascribed to him (f.103v–104r; Coussemaker, no.182; Welker, no.179; ed. in PMFC, xxiii/b, 1991). The setting is in void mensural notation in tempus imperfectum (?diminutum), and in minor prolation. Coussemaker’s copy (B-Bc 56.286, no.41) has only the first part of the Credo, up to ‘cuius regni non erit finis’. The conclusion, from ‘Et in spiritum sanctum’, was probably on f.108v of the manuscript.

Thurston Dart (RBM, viii, 1954, 122–4) suggested that Lampens might be identified with Lambe; Strohm (The Rise of European Music 1380–1500, Cambridge, 1993, 2/1996) proposed an identification with Arnold or Hugo de Lantins.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

V. Ramalingam: ‘The Trumpetum in Strasbourg M 222 C 22’, IMSCR XIII: Strasbourg 1982, iii, 143–60

L. Welker: Musik am Oberrhein im späten Mittalter: die Handschrift Strasbourg, olim Bibliothèque de la Ville, C.22 (Habilitationsschrift, U. of Basle, 1993)

For further bibliography see Sources, MS, §VII, 3.

LORENZ WELKER

Lampersberg, Gerhard

(b Hermagor, Carinthia, 5 July 1928). Austrian composer and writer. He studied at the Vienna Musikhochschule with Joseph Marx (until 1953) and Alfred Uhl, among others. His first musical and literary compositions appeared after 1940. He has worked for Austrian Radio (1959–66) and as a freelance composer and writer. In 1962 he published a literary journal with Konrad Bayer, but it did not continue after Bayer's death. Lampersberg is the founder of the Insel Hombroich Festival.

Lampersberg’s literary talent emerged alongside his musical abilities at an early age. His compositions, therefore, have been predominantly inspired by written texts, or by experiences and situations for which literary development has ultimately found musical expression. Although music seems to follow words for Lampersberg, he has not given priority to the articulated word itself, but rather to its underlying meaning. His compositions concentrate and express that meaning in aphorism, branch out in recitative, heighten the atmosphere with sound gestures, create veils of polyphony, or accentuate dramatic climaxes without relying on substantial instrumental resources. He has also made use of serial and 12-note techniques. His music does not dominate but rather accompanies, enclosing in itself both supplementation and interpretation.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Köpfe (chbr op, T. Bernhard), 1957, Maria Saal, 1959; Die Rosen der Einöde (op, Bernhard), 1958, Bonn, 1995; Ladies Voices (op, G. Stein), 1968, Erdingen, 1985; Dornröschen (Musikdramolett, R. Walser), 1978, Berlin, 1978; Kleopatra und das Krokodil (P. Scheerbart), 1984, Berlin, 1984; Lelia (chbr op, 9 scenes, M. Rausch, after G. Sand), 1993, Vienna, 1993

Vocal: Fragmente (Lampersberg), A, vn, cl, pf, 1950; 4 Lieder (Sappho), A, pf, 1951, rev. 1953, 1955, 1991; In hora mortis (cant., Bernhard), S, B, chorus, orch, 1957–69; Pierrot weint (3 scenes, H.C. Artmann), S, spkr, speaking chorus, fl, mand, vib, perc, str, dancer, 1962; Die Fahrt zur Insel Nantucket (Artmann), S, T, Bar, spkr, orch, 1967; Engführung (P. Celan), S, Bar, speaking chorus, org, orch, 1975; Again (Lampersberg), 4 poems, low vv, pf, 1982, rev. 1985; Alleluja für Gert Jonke, 1v, tpt, hmn, db, 1982; Liebe und Requiem (Lampersberg), A, SATB, 1982; Mysterium der Hoffnung (C. Pegny) 3 Bar, tpt, org, 1983; 4 deutsche Liebesgedichte (M. von Ebner-Eschenbach, M. Claudius, D. von Liliencron, anon.), T, pf, 1985; 2 Birds are Singing (Lampersberg), S, A, bn, pf, 1986; Lamento, Bar, org, 1990; A Birthday Book (G. Stein), 8vv, 1992; Dolce e chiara è la notte e senza vento (G. Leopardi), 1v, ob, trbn, va, 2 vc, db, pf, 1992; 4 Gedichte, Ct, 2T, Bar, 1994

Inst: Verwirrung, conc., vc, orch, 1984; Nordseebilder, ob, b cl, xyl, timp, db, 1988; 7 Gemälde nach Lucas Cranach 1472–1553, Lichtblicke–Durchblicke, vn, pf, 1991; Veränderungen, octet, 1996

BIBLIOGRAPHY

LZMÖ [incl. further bibliography]

K. Reitter: ‘Geschlechterkampf am Obststand: Uraufführung von Gerhard Lampersbergs “Lelia” im Wiener Künstlerhaus’, ÖMz, xlix (1994), 50–52

A. Friedrich: ‘Kurzweilige Avantgarde: Gerhard Lampersbergs Oper “Die Rosen der Einöde”’, NZM, Jg.157, no.2 (1996), 67 only

SIGRID WIESMANN

Lamperti, Francesco

(b Savona, 11 March 1813; d Cernobbio, nr Como, 1 May 1892). Italian singing teacher. He studied in Lodi with Pietro Rizzi and then at the Milan Conservatory. After working as co-director of the Teatro Filodrammatico, Lodi, he returned to Milan and taught at the conservatory from 1850 to 1875; his pupils included Albani, Gottardo Aldighieri, Désirée Artôt, Ennio Barbacini, Italo Campanini, A.C. de Lagrange, Teresa Stolz and Maria Waldmann. He published several vocal studies and a treatise on the art of singing. His elder son, Giuseppe (b Milan, 1834; d Rome, 1899), was an impresario who worked at La Scala, Milan (1883–8), the Teatro Apollo, Rome, and the Teatro S Carlo, Naples. His younger son, Giovanni Battista (b Milan, 24 June 1839; d Berlin, 18 March 1910), was also a singing teacher; he studied at the Milan Conservatory and taught in Milan, Dresden and Berlin. His pupils included Irene Abendroth, Bispham, Nachbaur, Schumann-Heink, Sembrich and Stagno.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

W.E. Brown: Vocal Wisdom: Maxims of Giovanni Battista Lamperti (New York, 1931)

ELIZABETH FORBES

Lampugnani, Giovanni Battista (i)

(b Florence; fl 1690–98). Italian writer. Between 1690 and 1696 he was in Warsaw in the service of the nuncio Andrea Santa Croce, and in 1697 he was in Vienna in the same role. He was in London in 1698 as a correspondent of the Tuscan court, a post he held from 1693. He may have been related to Giovanni Battista Lampugnani (ii). Two of his drammi per musica are known: Per goder in amor ci vuol costanza (1691; music by Viviano Augustini) and the pastoral Amor vuol il giusto (1694; composer unknown). They were written for the weddings of King Jan Sobieski’s children. Lampugnani also wrote two oratorio texts in the manner of Arcangelo Spagna: Il transito di San Casimiro (1695; composer unknown) and La caduta d’Aman (1697; music by Raniero Borrini).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Ciampi: Bibliografia critica (Florence, 1834–42), i, 222; ii, 99

W. Roszkowska and T. Bienkowski: ‘Polski przekład opery G.B. Lampugnaniego “Amor vuol il giusto”’, Archiwum literackie, xvi (1972), 297–345

ANNA SZWEYKOWSKA

Lampugnani, Giovanni Battista (ii)

(b ?Milan, 1708; d Milan, 2 June 1788). Italian composer. He was of middle-class origin; his father Virgilio may have been a composer. In 1732 his first opera Candace was given at the Teatro Regio Ducale, Milan. During the ensuing years several of his operas were frequently performed, particularly in northern Italy, and in 1738 he was paid for the composition of a number of sacred works for the Ospedale della Pietà in Venice. In 1743 he was appointed resident composer at the King's Theatre, London; his first opera production there was Roxana (15 November 1743), a pasticcio including music by Handel. Lampugnani wrote two further operas for London in the early months of 1744, Alfonso and Alceste. He was back in Italy in 1745–6; his Semiramide was performed in June 1745 in Padua, and Il gran Tamerlano on 20 January 1746 in Milan. In the years after his return from London he travelled throughout Italy, organizing performances of his works in Milan, Venice, Florence, Reggio nell'Emilia, Turin, Piacenza and Genoa. His Siroe, re di Persia was performed in London in 1755, but it is not certain that he was present. In April 1758 his Il re pastore was staged in Milan, and in the same year he was appointed harpsichordist at the Teatro Regio Ducale there. His first comic operas date from this time. He also must have made the acquaintance of J.C. Bach and Padre Martini; Bach mentioned him in a letter to Martini written in 1759. Henceforth he became increasingly active as a teacher of singing and less as a composer: his last known opera was performed in Turin in 1769. He also wrote instrumental music, including trio sonatas, concertos and symphonies. When Mozart was in Milan to finish his Mitridate, rè di Ponto in 1770, Lampugnani helped rehearse the singers, including the prima donna Antonia Bernasconi. During the first three performances he played second harpsichord and in subsequent performances directed the orchestra himself. He continued his activity as harpsichordist, performing at the inauguration of the Regio Ducal Teatro alla Scala in August in 1778 and a year later at that of the Cannobiana; he was still harpsichordist at La Scala for the performance of Cimarosa's Il marito disperato in autumn 1786. Lampugnani was married to Vittoria Visconti and had two children: Leopoldo, an accountant (d 29 March 1799, aged 45), and Giuditta, a singer. When he died he was living in the parish of S Alessandro in Zebedia, Milan.

In spite of popular approval Lampugnani's music gained only lukewarm acclaim from 18th-century critics. He acquired a reputation for providing his arias with over-energetic orchestral accompaniments. Arteaga, in particular, accused him of giving all his attention to them; La Borde also stressed Lampugnani's development of the orchestra's role, though he did not criticize the music unfavourably. The best-considered judgment was passed by Burney. Writing about Alfonso, Burney commented on the large amount of bravura in the arias for the leading singer Monticelli, thought the work lacked dignity, but conceded nonetheless that ‘there is a graceful gaiety in the melody of his quick songs, and an elegant tenderness in the slow, that resemble no other composer's works of that time’. In fact the arias of Lampugnani's early heroic operas contain many of the usual melodic formulae of the period. Not so usual, however, is the curious combination within several arias of elaborate melodic ornamentation – usual in heroic opera – on the one hand and a catchy tunefulness and a light buoyant style – suitable for comic opera – on the other.

The gay and elegant qualities that Burney noticed in Alfonso are present in Lampugnani's last extant opera, and incidentally his only surviving comic opera, Amor contadino. In this work Lampugnani minimized the comical, grotesque nature of the characters and relied on tunefulness to gain his effects. Unlike his earlier heroic operas, in which the da capo form is preferred for the arias, he here adopted a variety of different forms for his vocal items, and never used an exact da capo. The ensembles, consisting of several sections in differing time signatures and speeds, may owe something to the example of Galuppi, who during the 1750s constructed ensembles in a similar way. In Il re pastore Lampugnani respected earlier dramatic practices and set most of the arias in da capo form. The routine, conservative aspects of his style are exemplified in the modified repeat of the first section of the aria, with its absence of modulations beyond the customary move from tonic to dominant and back, and by the different (though not always contrasting) character of the second section. The composer also shows a rather limited harmonic vocabulary, relying mostly on tonic, dominant and subdominant chords. At the same time, his themes are not Classical in style, but are characterized more by their rhythms than by any well-defined melodic shape.

WORKS

printed works published in London unless otherwise stated

operas

drammi per musica in 3 acts, unless otherwise stated

Candace (D. Lalli, after F. Silvani: I veri amici, after P. Corneille: Héraclius, empereur d'Orient), Milan, Regio Ducale, 26 Dec 1732

Antigono (G. Marizoli), Milan, Regio Ducale, 26 Dec 1736

Arianna e Teseo (P. Pariati), Alessandria, Solerio, aut. 1737

Ezio (P. Metastasio), Venice, S Angelo, aut. 1737, I-Bas; rev. version, Venice, S Samuele, Ascension 1743; ov. ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. A, iv (New York, 1983)

Demofoonte (B. Vitturi, after Metastasio), Piacenza, Ducale, carn. 1738

Angelica (C. Vedova, after L. Ariosto), Venice, S Samuele, 11 May 1738

Didone abbandonata (Metastasio), Padua, Obizzi, June 1739; rev. Naples, S Carlo, 20 Jan 1753; E-Mn (ov., Acts 1, 2); ov. ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. A, iv (New York, 1983)

Adriano in Siria (Metastasio), Vicenza, Grazie, May 1740

Semiramide riconosciuta (Metastasio), Rome, Dame, carn. 1741, I-Nc (without recits), P-La; ov. ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. A, iv (New York, 1983)

Arsace (A. Salvi), Crema, Sept 1741; I-Fc (ov., Act 1)

Farasmene, re di Tracia, Genoa, Falcone, carn. 1743

Alfonso (P.A. Rolli, after S.B. Pallavicino), London, King's, 3 Jan 1744, Favourite Songs (London, c1744)

Alceste (Rolli, after Metastasio: Demetrio), London, King's, 28 April 1744, Favourite Songs (London, c1744)

Semiramide, Padua, Obizzi, June 1745

Il gran Tamerlano (A. Piovene), Milan, Regio Ducale, 20 Jan 1746

Tigrane (C. Goldoni, after Silvani: Virtù trionfante dell'Amore e dell'Odio), Venice, S Angelo, 10 May 1747, Favourite Songs (London, c1747)

L'olimpiade (Metastasio), Florence, Pergola, carn. 1748

Andromaca (Salvi), Turin, Regio, 26 Dec 1748

Artaserse (Metastasio), Milan, Regio Ducale, 26 Dec 1749

Alessandro sotto le tende di Dario (G. Riviera), Piacenza, Ducale, spr. 1751

Vologeso, re de' Parti, Genoa, Falcone, carn. 1752

Vologeso (after A. Zeno), Barcelona, 1753 [possibly rev. of Vologeso, re de' Patri, 1752]

Siroe, re di Persia (Metastasio), London, King's, 14 Jan 1755, Favourite Songs (London, c1755)

II re pastore (Metastasio), Milan, Regio Ducale, April 1758, P-La

Le cantatrici (dg), Milan, Regio Ducale, aut. 1758; as La scuola delle cantatrici, Modena, 1761; also as La scuola di musica

II conte Chicchera (dg, Goldoni), Milan, Regio Ducale, aut. 1759

La contessina (dg, Goldoni), Milan, Regio Ducale, aut. 1759

Amor contadino (dg, Goldoni), Venice, S Angelo, 12 Nov 1760, GB-Cfm (R1982: IOB, lxxxii)

Enea in Italia (? G. Bussani), Palermo, 1763

L'illustre villanella (dramma semiserio), Turin, Carignano, spr. 1769

Music in: Alessandro in Persia, 1741; Meraspe, o L'Olimpiade, 1742; Gianguir, 1742; Roxana, o Alessandro nell'Indie, 1743; La finta schiava, 1744; Annibale in Capua, 1746; Catone, 1747–8; Didone, 1748; L'ingratitudine punita, 1748; Semiramide, 1748; Catone in Utica, 1749; Ipermestra, 1754; Andromaca, 1755; Orazio, c1755; Tito Manlio, 1756; La Giulia, 1760; Le pescatrici, 1761; L'Issipile, 1763; The Summer's Tale, 1765

other vocal

Il passaggio per Ferrara della Sacra Reale Maestà di Maria Amalia (serenata, 2, G. Melani), Ferrara, Scroffa, 5 June 1738

Serenata per lo felicisissimo giorno natalizio dell' Imperiale Real Maestà di Maria Teresa d'Austria (serenata, 1, C. Frugoni), Reggio nell'Emilia, May 1748

1 aria in Venetian Ballad's compos'd by Sig. Hasse and all the Celebrated Italian Masters (1742); 17 arias/songs arr. in Farinelli's Celebrated Songs collected from Sig Hasse, Porpora, Vinci and Veracini's Operas, fl/vn/hpd, i–ii (1736–55); pieces in A Collection of Marches and Airs, vns/fls/obs, vc/hpd (Edinburgh, 1761)

Motets: Salve Pater Salvatoris, S, str, bc; Quid te angis fata, S, str, bc; Minax crudelis tempestas, B, 2 tpt, timp, str, bc: all A-LA, D-DO

Numerous arias, pezzi teatrali etc., most from operas, in various European libraries

sinfonias and concertos

all with strings and continuo

10 sinfonias: (D), c1750, I-Vlevi; (D), 2 hn, c1750, D-DS, ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. A, iv (New York, 1983); (D), 2 hn, c1750, CH-Zz, ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. A, iv (New York, 1983); (D), 2 hn, timp, before 1763, Bu (attrib. Galimberti), F-AG, Pn; (D), 2 hn, lost, listed in Breitkopf catalogue, 1762; (D), 2 ob, 2 tpt/hn, lost, listed in Breitkopf catalogue, 1762; (D), 2 hn, lost, listed in Breitkopf catalogue, 1762; (G), c1760, D-HR (attrib. L. Lampugnani); (A), lost, listed in Breitkopf catalogue, 1762; (B), c1760, S-HÄ, L (2 copies), Skma (3 copies, 1 attrib. Graun)

3 other sinfonias (D, G, A), doubtful; see Vitali

2 concs.: (D), 2 fl, D-KA; (G), 2 fl, 2 hn, KA

3 concs.: (C, F, B), hpd, lost, formerly DS

other instrumental

6 Sonatas … compos'd by Sigr Giov. Battista Lampugnani and St. Martini of Milan (A, B, A, D, E, G), 2 vn, bc, op.1 (1744) (2/c1745 attrib. all 6 sonatas to Lampugnani), no.1 in F-Pn, GB-Ob, S-Skma, Uu; no.2 in L, Skma, SK; no.5 in GB-Ob, S-Skma, L; no.6 in L

Sonatas nos.2, 4, 6 (G, C, D), in 6 Sonatas … compos'd by Sigr Gio. Battista Lampugnani and St. Martini of Milan, 2 vn, bc, op.2 (Walsh, 1745); no.6 arr. kbd in GB-Lbl attrib. ‘Lanpongniar’

6 Sonatas (G, A, B, A, D, A), 2 vn, be, op.1 (Simpson, c1745) [also (Thomson, c1765)]; nos.1–4 are same as nos.6, 3, 2, 1, of 6 Sonatas op.1 (Walsh)

3 sonatas (E, A, F), 2 vn, bc, GB-Ob; sonata (D), 2 vn, bc, F-Pn; sonata a 3 (D), GB-Lbl; sonata (G), 2 fl, b, CH-Bu; 2 sonatas (E, A), lost (formerly D-DS)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BrookB

BrookSF

BurneyFI

BurneyH

ES (P. Petrobelli)

GerberL

La BordeE

MGG1 (R. Münster)

S. Arteaga: Le rivoluzioni del teatro musicale italiano, ii (Venice, 2/1785), 256–7

A. Paglicci Brozzi: Il Regio ducal teatro di Milano nel secolo XVIII (Milan, 1894)

P. Cambiasi: La Scala 1778–1906: note storiche e statistiche (Milan, 1906)

F. Piovano: ‘Un opéra inconnu de Gluck’, SIMG, ix (1907–8), 231–81, 448 only

F. Torrefranca: ‘Le origini della sinfonia’, RMI, xx (1913), 291–346

K. Hortschansky: ‘Gluck und Lampugnani in Italien zum pasticcio Arsace’, AnMc, no.3 (1966), 49–64

M. Donà: ‘Dagli archivi milanesi: lettera di Ranieri de' Calzabigi e di Antonia Bernasconi’, AnMc, no.14 (1974), 268–300

M. Talbot: ‘A Vivaldi Discovery at the Conservatorio “Benedetto Marcello”’, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani, iii (1982), 3–12

E. Weimer: Preface to Giovanni Battista Lampugnani: L'amor contadino, IOB, lxxxii (1982)

C. Vitali: ‘Giovanni Battista Lampugnani’, The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. A, iv (New York, 1983)

F. Maffei: Giovanni Battista Lampugnani (c1708–1788): notizie biografiche e un catalogo ragionato della musica (diss. U. of Pisa, 1988)

R. Garibbo: Il re pastore (1705): storia e analisi del libretto metastasiano e della partitura di Giovanni Battista Lampugnani (diss. U. of Pisa, 1996)

MICHAEL F. ROBINSON/FABIOLA MAFFEI, ROSSELLA GARIBBO

La Mule, Guillaume de.

See La Moeulle, Guillaume de.

Lamy, Alfred Joseph

(b Mirecourt, 8 Sept 1850; d Paris, 1919). French bowmaker. He learnt his craft in Mirecourt with Charles Claude Husson (i) from 1862 to 1868. He then took up a position with the firm of Gautrot at Château-Thierry, but his career was firmly established when he went to Paris to be assistant to F.N. Voirin. With exceptional gifts of hand and eye he copied every detail of his master's work, and it is difficult to tell their bows apart. He may have made certain of Voirin's bows unaided, but on Voirin's death in 1885 Lamy was employed by his widow for some years, and Voirin's brand continued in use. By 1889, when he won a gold medal at the Paris exhibition, Lamy was working on his own account, at premises at 24 rue Poissonnière. His brand-mark was a. lamy à paris. He never varied from his teacher's style, with the characteristic small, elegant head and mostly round sticks, though they tend to be more yielding. The heads and frogs also follow Voirin's model but are slightly fuller. Most of his bows are ebony and silver mounted, the buttons being banded with two rings. Occasionally ivory or tortoiseshell is used for the frogs, with gold mountings and mother-of-pearl dots, which are either circled or plain. Generally Lamy's bows have a little more weight than Voirin's, a feature particularly appreciated by cellists, but their overall lightness has diminished their viability for the modern violinist. His output was quite large. His bows are highly regarded, and the value of well-preserved examples has risen constantly.

On his death, Lamy was succeeded by his son Alfred Lamy (b after 1875; d 1944). As they worked together for over two decades it is not surprising that their bows are remarkably similar; identification is further complicated by the fact that both used the same stamp, though there are a few distinguishing details: the mother-of-pearl slide in the frogs of Lamy the elder tend to be narrower than the son's; the buttons of Lamy the younger are not only slightly larger but also often silver-capped; and the ferrules on the son's bows can be narrower than those on the father's.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

VannesE

J. Roda: Bows for Musical Instruments of the Violin Family (Chicago, 1959)

E. Vatelot: Les archets français (Paris, 1976)

CHARLES BEARE, JAAK LIIVOJA-LORIUS

Lamy, Bernard

(b Le Mans, bap. 29 June 1640; d Rouen, 29 Jan 1715). French philosopher, mathematician and philologist. He first studied at Le Mans at the Congrégation de l'Oratoire, an order that he later joined. After further studies in Paris and Saumur he taught grammar, rhetoric and philosophy at Vendôme and Juilly. He became a Jansenist. In 1667 he was ordained priest and later taught philosophy at Saumur and Angers. His teaching, based on the novel doctrines of Michael Baius and Descartes, became a centre of controversy. He was formally denounced in 1675 and sent to the seminary in Grenoble, where he remained until 1686. He was then recalled to the seminary of St Magloire, Paris, and in 1689 retired to Rouen, where he remained until his death. In his writings he attempted to develop a methodology to reconcile the humanistic and religious doctrines of his time with those based on the new mechanistic approach to scientific investigation, leading to a universal wisdom. His contributions to music are contained in studies devoted to biblical history, mathematics and especially rhetoric, in which he explained music as a phenomenon of language and laid an important theoretical basis for the later development of a doctrine of the passions.

WRITINGS

only those on music

L'art de parler (Paris, 1675; Eng. trans., 1676, 2/1706; 3/1688 as La rhétorique, ou L'art de parler; 4/1699/R; Amsterdam, 5/1712; ‘nouvelle édition’, Paris, 1741)

‘Traité de la proportion harmonique’, Les éléments des mathématiques, ou Le traité de la grandeur, viii (Paris, 3/1704), suppl.

‘De Levitis cantoribus, eorum divisione, classibus: de Hebraeorum canticis, musica, instrumentis’, De tabernaculo foederis, de sancta civitate Jerusalem et de templo eius, vii (Paris, 1720), 1173–214

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Girbal: Bernard Lamy (1640–1715): étude biographique et bibliographique (Paris, 1964)

F. Girbal and P. Clair: introduction to edn of B. Lamy: Entretiens sur les sciences (Paris, 1966)

W.G. Waite: ‘Bernard Lamy, Rhetorician of the Passions’, Studies in Eighteenth-Century Music: a Tribute to Karl Geiringer (New York and London, 1970), 388–96

B.L. Crampe: Linguistique et rhétorique ‘Cartésiennes’: L'art de parler de Bernard Lamy (diss., New York U., 1984)

J.T. Harwood, ed.: The Rhetorics of Thomas Hobbes and Bernard Lamy (Carbondale, IL., 1986), 131–64

ALBERT COHEN

Lanari, Alessandro

(b S Marcello di Iesi, 25 Jan 1787; d Florence, 7 Oct 1852). Italian impresario. He was notably associated with the careers of Bellini, Donizetti, Mercadante and Verdi and was a pioneer of Romantic opera production. His activity sprang from the costume workshop which he set up in Florence about 1820 and ran with despotic attention to detail; it came to supply opera houses as far afield as Naples and Parma. His ability to work out impressive stage pictures and movement, noted early in his career, was later praised by Donizetti and led Verdi to entrust him with launching Macbeth. As a theatrical agent he made long-term contracts with singers, whom he paid and sought to place at a profit; his musical director Pietro Romani trained, among others, Gilbert Duprez, Giuseppina Strepponi, Giorgio Ronconi and Giulia Grisi. Though mean and exacting – qualities almost necessitated by the harsh working conditions of Italian opera – Lanari was later praised by Duprez for his flair; Grisi, it seems, fled from him because she wished to make money in Paris rather than because her contract was unfair (as sometimes stated).

As manager, Lanari probably began in Iesi. From 1819 he took on the running of opera seasons in larger Italian towns, more than he could attend to in person; he worked through partners and assistants and through a dense correspondence, some of which (in I-Fn) now affords valuable documentation of Italian operatic life. He managed many seasons at Lucca (then lavishly subsidized from gambling), Florence and Venice, and at the important Senigallia fair; he was also active in Rome, Naples and Bologna, in Milan at La Scala (through partners), and in smaller central and north Italian towns. He put on the first performances of Bellini's I Capuleti e i Montecchi (1830, Venice) and Beatrice di Tenda (1833, Venice), five of Donizetti's operas including Lucia di Lammermoor (1835, Naples), and Verdi's Attila (1846, Venice) and Macbeth (1847, Florence), as well as the first Italian performances of Rossini's Guillaume Tell (1831, Lucca), Meyerbeer's Robert le diable (1840, Florence) and Weber's Der Freischütz (1843, Florence).

His son Antonio Lanari (who is sometimes confused with him) was also an impresario, though less successful.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Regli: Dizionario biografico dei più illustri poeti e artisti melodrammatici (Turin, 1860)

G.-L. Duprez: Souvenirs d'un chanteur (Paris, 1880)

Jarro [G. Piccini]: Memorie di un impresario fiorentino (Florence, 1892)

G. Monaldi: Impresari celebri del secolo XIX (Rocca S Casciano, 1918)

M. De Angelis: Le carte dell'impresario (Florence, 1982)

M. De Angelis, ed.: Le cifre del melodramma: l'archivio inedito dell'impresario A. Lanari nella Biblioteca nazionale centrale di Firenze (1815–1870) (Florence, 1982)

J. Rosselli: The Opera Industry in Italy from Cimarosa to Verdi: the Role of the Impresario (Cambridge, 1984)

M.J. Phillips-Matz: Verdi: a Biography (Oxford, 1993)

JOHN ROSSELLI

Lancashire sol-fa.

A traditional solmization system. See Fasola.

Lancers.

A 19th-century square dance, which was a variant of the Quadrille with an elaborate final figure (‘Grand Chain’). Even more than the quadrille, the music used for the dance was almost invariably derived from popular songs and stage works. The Lancers flourished alongside the quadrille in the last quarter of the 19th century and even outlived the latter into the early 20th century.

The name ‘Lancers’ was derived from the Quadrille des lanciers, which was introduced in Dublin in 1817 by the dancing-master John Duval. It consisted of the following five figures: ‘La Dorset’ (music by Spagnoletti); ‘Lodoïska’ (music by Rodolphe Kreutzer); ‘La Native’ (‘If the heart of a man’ from The Beggar's Opera); ‘Les Graces’ (‘Pretty Maiden’ from Storace's The Haunted Tower); and ‘Les Lanciers’ (music by Janiewicz). The Quadrille des lanciers achieved international popularity during the 1850s after being introduced to Paris by the dancing-master Laborde, but had virtually died out by 1870 except in England where it achieved new life with new sets of music as the Lancers. The five figures of the Quadrille des lanciers were known in France as ‘Les Tiroirs’, ‘Les Lignes’, ‘Les Moulinets’, ‘Les Visites’ and ‘Les Lanciers’, and in Germany (where the whole dance was alternatively known as ‘Quadrille à la Cour’) as ‘La Dorset’, ‘La Victoire’, ‘Les Moulinets’, ‘Les Visites’ and ‘Les Lanciers’ or ‘Finale à la Cour’.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.S. Richardson: The Social Dances of the Nineteenth Century in England (London, 1960)

S.J. Cohen, ed.: International Encyclopedia of Dance (New York, 1998)

ANDREW LAMB

Lanchbery, John (Arthur)

(b London, 15 May 1923). English conductor. He studied at the RAM, and became musical director of the Metropolitan Ballet (1948–50), then of Sadler’s Wells Theatre Ballet (1951); from 1959–72 he was principal conductor of the Royal Ballet, touring widely throughout the world. He worked in television opera, and has composed incidental music for films, including The Turning Point (1977) and Nijinsky (1980), television and radio; his popular orchestral arrangements include the film score for The Tales of Beatrix Potter (1971). He has made new performing versions of various ballet scores, including La fille mal gardée and The Dream for the Royal Ballet, and Don Quixote, Giselle, Les sylphides and The Tales of Hoffmann for companies in Britain, Austria, Sweden and the USA. He was particularly successful with arrangements of operettas for ballet, especially The Merry Widow (1975) and Rosalinda (from Die Fledermaus, 1978). Lanchbery was music director of the Australian Ballet, 1972–7, and the American Ballet Theatre, 1978–81. His recordings include distinguished performances of the three Tchaikovsky ballets in their complete original versions (with the Philharmonia Orchestra). He was made an OBE in 1990.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

‘Conductor who Arranges Things’, Dance and Dancers, xxix/3 (1978), 24–7

NOËL GOODWIN

Lanciani, Flavio Carlo

(b Rome, 1661; d Rome, 28 July 1706). Italian composer, cellist and copyist. He was presumably related to two other copyists named Lanciani: Tarquinio (fl 1675–1718) and Francesco Antonio (fl 1690–1726), who might have been his father and brother respectively. By 5 July 1685 he was named a maestro in the musicians' Congregazione di S Cecilia, so he presumably held an appointment as maestro di cappella. A libretto for his Judith (1689) has the handwritten annotation ‘m[aestr]o S. M[aria] in Trastevere’, and from 1703 until his death he was maestro di cappella there and at S Agostino. He seems to have begun and ended his compositional career with the first and last of his ten oratorios to Latin texts. Between 1685 and 1688 he set two opera and two oratorio texts by his future father-in-law, the playwright G.A. Lorenzani. From 1688 to February 1702 he was a ‘virtuoso’, ‘aiutante di camera’ and copyist for Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni, who commissioned him to set all or part of six operas for which the cardinal had written the texts; although two of them, Il martirio di S Eustachio and La costanza nell'amor divino, have religious subjects, they are listed below among the operas because they have three acts and were staged. Lanciani's other dramas include six oratorios in Italian, two Christmas Eve compositions for the Vatican and two secular serenatas. The score of S Dimna (1687) illustrates his grounding in mid-Baroque style: recitative and arioso passages play an important role; arias are text-centred, brief and in a variety of forms; and the accompaniment, usually for continuo alone, is sometimes augmented by two violins.

WORKS

lost unless otherwise stated

oratorios

performed in Rome unless otherwise stated

Excidium Abimelech (S. Mesquita), SS Crocifisso, 1683

S Stefano, primo re dell'Ungheria (S. Stampiglia), Chiesa Nuova, 9 March 1687

S Dimna, figlia del re d'Irlanda (G.A. Lorenzani), ?Chiesa Nuova, ?16 March 1687; Modena, 1687, I-MOe; facs. in IO, vi (1986)

La purità trionfante, overo Martiniano il santo (Lorenzani), S Girolamo della Carità, 11 April 1688

Constantia fidei et haeresis coecitas (C. Di Napoli), SS Crocifisso, 11 March 1689

Judith Bethuliae obsessae propugnatricis triumphus, SS Crocifisso, 1 April 1689

L'Absalone ribello (A. Ottoboni), ?Palazzo della Cancelleria, 1691

Gesta Iosue (Di Napoli), SS Crocifisso, 6 March 1693

S Maria Egiziaca (Stampiglia), Florence, Oratorio di S Filippo Neri, 1695

Innocentiae de hypocrisi triumphus (F. Capistrelli), SS Crocifisso, 13 April 1696

Vox succisa (Capistrelli), SS Crocifisso, 2 April 1700

S Clotilde, reina di Francia (G.B. Taroni), Bologna, 1700, 1702, 1703, 1704, F-Pn, GB-Cmc (dated ‘Roma, Anno 1700’); as Le vittorie della fede in Clodoveo, re di Francia (Taroni), Perugia, Oratorio di S Filippo Neri, 22 Nov 1704

Dilectionis portentum (Capistrelli), SS Crocifisso, 31 March 1702

Abimelech amor et poena seu Abrae pudica simulatio, SS Crocifisso, 22 Feb 1704

Le vittorie della fede in Clodoveo [= S Clotilde, reina di Francia]

Pharaonis poena mendacium amoris, SS Crocifisso, 13 March 1705

Pudicitia ab innocentia vindicata (G.B. Vaccondi), SS Crocifisso, 5 March 1706

operas

performed in Rome unless otherwise stated

Il Visir, amante geloso, overo Le disgrazie di Giurgia (introduzzione drammatica per un lotto, 3, G.A. Lorenzani), Palazzo Ugo e Fabio Accoramboni, Jan 1685

La forza del sangue, o vero Gl'equivoci gelosi (op musicale, 3, Lorenzani), Casa Lorenzani, Jan 1686, arias F-Pn and I-Rvat

L'amante del suo nemico (P. Ottoboni), intended for Rome, 1688, unperf., lib Rvat, arias Rli

Il martirio di S Eustachio (oratorio, 3, P. Ottoboni), Palazzo A. Ottoboni, Feb 1690; Palazzo della Cancelleria, 26 Feb 1690; Collegio Nazareno, 12 Feb 1694, F-Pc, GB-Lcm

Amore e Gratitudine (dramma pastorale, 3, Ottoboni), Palazzo della Cancelleria, 3 Sept 1690; Tordinona, 8 Jan 1691, D-Hs, arias I-Rli

La costanza nell'amor divino, overo La S Rosalia [Act 2] (dramma sacro per musica, 3, Ottoboni), ?Palazzo della Cancelleria, ?Jan 1696, arias F-Pn, GB-Ob and I-PAVu; rev. Ottoboni as L'amante del cielo, Collegio Nazareno, 7 Feb 1699, Rsp [Act 1 by S. De Luca, Act 3 by F. Gasparini]

Doubtful: L'amante combattuto (dramma per musica, 3, ?G. Vaini), Casa Vaini, Jan 1695, arias D-Dlb and I-Bc [only one attrib. Lanciani]; Il console tutore (dramma per musica, 3, Ottoboni), ?Collegio Romano, carn. 1698, rev. Ottoboni as Il console in Egitto, Collegio Nazareno, 9 Jan 1701, arias F-Pn [only one attrib. Lanciani]

Arias in: A. Scarlatti: La Statira, 1690, Pn, I-Rvat

other works

La fede consolato (componimento per musica, P. Figari), Rome, Palazzo Apostolico, 24 Dec 1689

La gioia nel seno d'Abramo (componimento per musica, S. Stampiglia), Rome, Palazzo Apostolico, 24 Dec 1690; Florence, Compagnia della Purificazione, March 1702

Regina coeli, motet, S, 2 vn, va, bc, GB-Ob

Sotto cielo crudel chi al mondo nasce (Eurillo, Amore, Gloria), serenata, S, T, B, 2 vn, tpt, bc, I-MOe

Crudo ciel, fato rio, serenata, S, 2 vn, bc, GB-Lbl

Cantata a 3 (P. Vagni) for wedding of Carlo Borromeo and Camilla Barberini, 1689

Cantatas [dates are of earliest known copy]: Breve stagion correa, S, bc, 1691, I-Nc, Rli; Con penoso languire, A, bc, GB-Lbl; Dal dì che Amor di violenza armato, A, bc, F-Pn; E quando Amor tiranno, S, bc, 1689, D-MÜs; Già sparivano l'ombre (La Rosa), S, bc, 1689, MÜs; O dolce penare, 1688, MÜs; Sì che in amor si gode, 1688, S, bc, MÜs; Vide spuntare il giglio (Il giglio), S, bc, 1689, MÜs, F-Pn, I-Vnm

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D. Alaleona: Studi su la storia dell'oratorio musicale in Italia (Turin, 1908, 2/1945 as Storia dell'oratorio musicale in Italia)

H.J. Marx: ‘Ein neuer Fund zur römischen Operngeschichte des ausgehenden Seicento [Amore e Gratitudine]’, AnMc, no.3 (1966), 43–8

H.J. Marx: ‘Die Musik am Hofe Pietro Kardinal Ottobonis unter Arcangelo Corelli’, AnMc, no.5 (1968), 104–77, esp. 171

G. Morelli: ‘Giovanni Andrea Lorenzani: artista e letterato romano del Seicento’, Studi secenteschi, xiii (1972), 193–251

L. Bianchi: ‘Gasparini all'Oratorio del Crocifisso e le gare su Giuditta’, Francesco Gasparini: Camaiore 1978, 183–9

L.E. Lindgren and C.B. Schmidt: ‘A Collection of 137 Broadsides Concerning Theatre in Late Seventeenth-Century Italy: an Annotated Catalogue’, Harvard Library Bulletin, xxviii (1980), 185–233, esp. 202, 216–17

W.C. Holmes: ‘La Statira’ by Pietro Ottoboni and Alessandro Scarlatti: the Textual Sources, with a Documentary Postscript (New York, 1983), 65–9

H.J. Marx: ‘Die “Giustificazioni della Casa Pamphilj” als musikgeschichtliche Quelle’, Studi musicali, xii (1983), 121–87

A. Morelli: ‘Musica e musicisti in S. Agostino a Roma dal Quattrocento al Settecento’, Musica e musicisti nel Lazio, ed. R. Lefevre and A. Morelli (Rome, 1985), 325–48, esp. 342

E. Careri: Catalogo dei manoscritti musicali dell'archivio generale delle Scuole Pie a San Pantaleo (Rome, 1987)

S. Franchi: Drammaturgia romana: repertorio bibliografico cronologico dei testi drammatici pubblicati a Roma e nel Lazio, secolo XVII (Rome, 1988)

F. Carboni, T.M. Gialdroni and A. Ziino: ‘Cantate ed arie romane del tardo Seicento nel Fondo Caetani della Biblioteca Corsiniana: repertorio, forme e strutture’, Studi musicali, xviii (1989), 49–192

M.G. Pastura Ruggiero: ‘Fonti per la storia del teatro romano nel Settecento conservate nell'Archivio di stato di Roma’, Il teatro a Roma nel Settecento, ed. Istituto della Enciclopedia italiana (Rome, 1989), 505–87, esp. 571

M.L. Volpicelli: ‘Il teatro del Cardinale Ottoboni al Palazzo della Cancelleria’, ibid., 681–782

K. Watanabe and H.J. Marx: ‘Händels italienische Kopisten’, Göttinger Händel-Beiträge, iii (1989), 195–234

C. Sartori: I libretti italiani a stampa dalle origini al 1800 (Cuneo, 1990–94)

G. Staffieri: Colligite fragmenta: la vita musicale romana negli ‘Avvisi Marescotti’ (1683–1707) (Lucca, 1990)

G. Rostirolla: ‘La professione di strumentista a Roma nel Sei e Settecento’, Studi musicali, xxiii (1994), 87–174, esp. 105, 116–7, 154

S. La Via: ‘Il cardinale Ottoboni e la musica: nuovi documenti (1700–1740), nuove letture e ipotesi’, Intorno a Locatelli: studi in occasione del tricentenario della nascita di Pietro Antonio Locatelli (1695–1764), ed. A. Dunning (Lucca, 1995), 319–526, esp. 372

LOWELL LINDGREN

Lancie, John de

(b Berkeley, CA, 26 July 1921). American oboist and teacher. After studying with Tabuteau at the Curtis Institute, Philadelphia, from 1936 to 1940, his career was divided between orchestral posts (as principal oboist with the Philadelphia Orchestra and Pittsburgh SO), solo and chamber music and teaching. In 1954 he replaced Tabuteau at the Curtis Institute, and from 1977 to 1985 held the position of director of the Institute. While stationed in Germany during World War II, he met Richard Strauss and proposed that he write an oboe concerto. The result was a work which has become a standard part of the oboist’s repertory. De Lancie did not play its première, although he did record it much later (1987). He was also responsible for commissioning Jean Françaix’s L’horloge de Flore and Benjamin Lees’s Concerto for Oboe and Small Orchestra. Many of de Lancie’s pupils have been appointed to leading positions in orchestras throughout the USA.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Roos: ‘Oboist Finally Records the Concerto he Inspired’, The Double Reed, xiv/3 (1991), 34–6

GEOFFREY BURGESS

Lanclos, Henri de.

See L’Enclos, Henri de.

Lanctin, Charles-François-Honoré.

See Duquesnoy, Charles-François-Honoré.

Landa (Calvet), Fabio

(b Villa Clara, 23 March 1924). Cuban composer, cellist and conductor. He studied the piano with Adolfo Odnoposoff and the cello with Ernesto Xancó at the Havana Municipal Conservatory. He also learnt to play the guitar and the clarinet. He played the cello in the Havana PO (1946–58) and the Cuban Radio and TV Orchestra (1953–9). He was also a member of two Havana quartets, the José White String Quartet and the Cuarteto de Cámara. Since 1961 he has played the cello with the National SO. In 1962 he became conductor of the Orchestra of the Teatro Nacional Lírico and of the Conjunto de Danza Moderna. He has also, since 1959, devoted much time to teaching. He gave music classes at the Universidad de Oriente in Santiago de Cuba (1959–61) and taught the cello at the Alejandro García Caturla Conservatory in Havana.

He has written a considerable quantity of incidental music, above all for the cinema and the theatre, as well as orchestral works, chamber music, choral pieces and works for solo instruments. His compositions are fundamentally in a neo-Romantic style, marked by a certain conservatism, with brief excursions into avant-garde technique. The most notable of his works are the La pequeña suite cubana (1950) and the Andante and Tema y fugado, both written in 1958. Also noteworthy is his Toccata for piano (1960), which uses elements taken from traditional Cuban music.

OLAVO ALÉN RODRIGUEZ

Landaeta, Juan José

(b Caracas, 10 March 1780; d Cumaná, 16 Oct 1814). Venezuelan composer. He studied in the school of Father Sojo, who left him in his will 50 pesos, a violin and a viola. As a black man Landaeta could not be employed by the Church, which may explain his small sacred output. In 1805 he sought to establish a school for black children; he conducted the opera season in 1808, and participated in the 1810 conspiracy for independence. He died in the Cumaná massacre of 1814. The song Gloria al bravo pueblo, which became the Venezuelan national anthem, has been attributed to Lino Gallardo (c1770–1837), but Landaeta is now officially considered the composer. J.B. Plaza published an official edition in three versions (Caracas, 1947), and also edited a Salve regina in Archivo de Música Colonial Venezolana, xi (Montevideo, 1943). Landaeta’s manuscripts, including five motets, a Spanish tonos and two songs, are in the Biblioteca Nacional in Caracas.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.B. Plaza: ‘Music in Caracas during the Colonial Period (1770–1811)’, MQ, xxix (1943), 198–213

J.A. Calcaño: La ciudad y su música (Caracas, 1958/R)

ALEJANDRO ENRIQUE PLANCHART

Landauer, Erich.

See Leinsdorf, Erich.

Landeghem, Jan van

(b Temse, 28 Nov 1954). Belgian composer and organist. He began his musical studies at the St Niklaas Music Academy and completed them at the Brussels Conservatory (1973–93), where he obtained first prizes in several subjects, including composition, for which his teachers were André Laporte and Cabus. At the same time he studied organ with Kamiel D'Hooge at the Maastricht Conservatory (organ soloist's diploma, 1978). There followed summer courses in France, the Netherlands and England. As a solo organist he performed in many European countries and in the USA. He won a Fulbright scholarship to teach and perform at the Georgia State University and at the University of Kraków. He also plays chamber music as a member of the ‘All'armi’ Duo and Trio. For many years he directed the ‘In dulci jubilo’ boys' choir, and he has been appointed to conduct the ‘Concinentes’ Chamber Choir. Since 1976 he has taught harmony at the Brussels Conservatory and in 1986 was appointed director of the Bornem Academy of Music. His compositions have won several awards, including the Camille Huysmans Prize (1994) for Epitaffio, the East Flanders provincial prize for Een tent van Tamarinde (1995) and the Flanders-Quebec contemporary music prize (1995) for the String Quartet ‘Silent Screams’. After trying out different styles, he finally embraced postmodernism, combining serialism with polystylism and an eclectic approach.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Behind the Crescent Moon, 12 str, 1989; Org Conc. ‘Urbi et Gorbi’, 1991; Epitaffio, 1993; Serenata notturna, eng hn, hn, hp, 1994; Modale Suite, wind band, 1995; Gui Conc., 1997; Pastorale notturno, cl, str, 1997

Vocal: Vem noito, S, 10 insts, 1991; 3 Songs (J. Prevert), Bar, pf, 1995; 7 Trakllieder (G. Trakl), T, str qt, pf, 1995; Les heures claires (song cycle, E. Verhaeren), Bar, orch, 1996; Les heures d'après-midi (Verhaeren), S, cl qnt, 1998; Gezelle, een verjaardagscadeau voor Guido (multi-media orat), S, Bar, vocal ens, spkrs, orch, 1999; Lieder, 1v, pf

Chbr: 3 danzas festivas, fl, gui, 1987; Birds, rec qt, 1989; Grappa ma non troppo, cl qt, 1989; Silent Scream, str qt, 1991; Essere o non essere, b cl, pf, 1992; The Jericho Wall, tpt, pf/org, 1992; Sanpaku, rec qt, 1992; Carpe diem, brass qnt, 1993; Aquarioso, 8–12 tpt, 1995; 3 Crystals, 4 tpt, 1996; Conc. grosso modo, str qt, rec qt, 1 perc, 1997

Solo inst: Toccatella, org, 1981; Trivium liquidium, fl, 1985; Seduzione, cl, 1986; Game, org, 1988; Battaglia interotta, org, 1989; Elegie voor Carl & Karel, org, 1993; Shots, mar, 1993; Spielerei, f1, 1994; Klage, fl, 1995; Totentanz, fl, 1996

Principal Publisher: CeBeDeM

DIANA VON VOLBORTH-DANYS

Landi, Giuseppe

(b Bologna; fl late 18th and early 19th centuries). Italian composer and double bass player. In 1792 he became a member, in 1801 a principe, of the Accademia Filarmonica in Bologna. He may be the Landi who performed in Gluck’s Alceste in 1778 at the Teatro Comunale in Bologna, or the Giuseppe Landi who in 1798 was primo violino dei balli at the Teatro degl'Intrepidi in Florence. In 1791 and 1793 he conducted performances of his Sanctus Deus, sanctus fortis at S Francesco in Bologna. His sacred works are in the style of Stanislao Mattei, in which concertante elements in the style of contemporary opera are combined with older contrapuntal techniques. He is one of the last representative composers of the Italian oratorio cantata.

WORKS

Responsorio del beato Leonardo, 3vv, insts; Mulier, ecce filius tuus, 2vv, str; Sitio, 2vv, str; Domine ad adjuvandum, 4vv, insts, ripieni; Sanctus Deus, sanctus fortis, 4vv, insts, ripieni; Ecce nunc, 4vv, 1792, insts, ripieni: all I-Bc

Gloria Patri, 2vv, vn, b, Baf

Instrumentation for L. Gibelli’s O gloriosa virginum and Quam terra pontus, and G.A. Perti’s Confitebor: Bc

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

RicciTB

L. Bignami: Cronologia di tutti gli spettacoli rappresentati nel gran Teatro Comunale di Bologna (Bologna, 1880)

SIEGFRIED GMEINWIESER

Landi, Stefano

(b Rome, bap. 26 Feb 1587; d Rome, 28 Oct 1639). Italian composer, singer and teacher. He bore his mother Cecilia’s surname. His maternal grandfather Fabio, an antiquarian from Padua who had settled in Rome about 1550–57, was a member of the Roman Arciconfraternita del SS Crocefisso. Landi’s father, Matteo Mattei, a shoemaker from Siena, died before Stefano entered the Collegio Germanico in Rome as a boy soprano on 8 May 1595. Stefano took minor orders on 28 October 1599 and began studies at the Seminario Romano on 25 February 1602, having been recommended by the Cesi (Cardinal Bartolomeo, Duke Federico and their mother). Only scattered notices in the ten years after defending his thesis in philosophy in 1607 indicate his early musical career as an adult: at the organ of S Maria in Trastevere in 1610, directing singers at the Oratorio del Crocefisso in May 1611 and serving as maestro di cappella at S Maria della Consolazione (1614–17). His first published composition, a three-voice motet, appeared in a Fabio Constantini anthology in 1616.

Three subsequent Venetian publications next place Landi in the north, where he entered the rarified world of the chamber musician. His five-voice madrigals were offered from Venice in February 1619 to his patron Marco Cornaro, Bishop of Padua. Four months later, from Padua, he dedicated the opera La morte d’Orfeo to Alessandro Mattei, a cleric in the household of Paul V (Borghese). By the following year Landi had returned to Rome, and on 1 June 1620 he dedicated his first book of solo arias to Prince Paolo Savelli, Duke of Albano and governor of the papal army in Emilia, whom he served until about 1622. Except for a fondness for expressive suspensions, the madrigals show nothing of the invention and liveliness of the solo arias, 12 of which are strophic variations; among them is the stupendous sonnet to the ruins of ancient Rome, Superbi colli for bass solo. The volume closes with a florid solo madrigal, six canzonets to be sung to a Spanish guitar, and a closing madrigal for solo bass. In the dedication to the book of polyphonic madrigals, however, Landi offered an artistic philosophy to which he remained true in his later works: ‘My madrigals are born of man and represent human ideas and natural passions, but they are also a path and means to angelic concerts, which I strive to imitate as best I can; and in my other works I shall endeavour to reveal the shadow of true celestial music.’

The occasion and inspiration for the opera La morte d’Orfeo, designated a ‘tragicomic pastoral’ op.2, remains unknown. Its only Roman model is Agostino Agazzari’s Eumelio, staged in 1606 at the Seminario Romano when Landi would have been a 19-year-old student. With his unknown librettist, however, Landi created five well-constructed musical tableaux representing events that led to Orpheus’s death after his failure to regain Eurydice from hell. Orpheus is cast as a tenor, as is the shepherd who narrates the manner of his death in the style of epic recitation to a melodic formula. The five solo bass roles do not appear onstage at the same time and may have been double cast. Bacchus and Mercury, whose parts are written in alto clef, would probably have been sung by falsettists. Passages for the sopranos Calliope and Eurydice bear echoes of Monteverdi’s Mantuan recitative laments, but in general Landi’s recitative forgoes the madrigalian intensity of the early monodists. Strophic arias and arias in strophic variation form serve to focus on solo characters (e.g. Orpheus’s opening scene consists only of a four-strophe aria in variation), while animated choral ensembles of shepherds, satyrs (both in double quartets), maenads and gods include solo, duet and trio sections. Touchingly elegiac are an echo aria for Nisa (Act 3 scene ii) and a plangently dactylic chorus of shepherds within which an unaccompanied trio of shepherds grieves (4.iv). Landi repeated this effect in an unaccompanied trio lament in Sant’Alessio. In the last act Orpheus sees Eurydice in hell yet again, but she no longer recognizes him. Utterly forlorn, he drinks the waters of Lethe, loses his mortal mould and is transformed into a celestial demigod, in much the same way that Alexis will become a saint in Landi’s later opera (see illustration).

Landi’s career in these and subsequent years appears to have been connected to the cardinal nephews of three successive popes and a cardinal prince of Savoy. On 19 December 1619 he sent a ‘compositione allegra’ for three voices from Ancona to Cardinal Scipione Borghese. As archpriest of S Pietro, Borghese would have recommended Landi’s lifelong benefice there. When it was bestowed on 27 October 1622 by Gregory XV (Ludovisi), Landi was noted as ‘servitore’ of Cardinal Ludovico Ludovisi (Tallián, 280). Under Urban VIII (Barberini), Landi became a beneficed cleric of the basilica (1624–39) and ‘rector and perpetual chaplain’ of its chapel of SS Processus and Martianus. To his clerical duties at S Pietro Landi added service as maestro di cappella at S Maria ai Monti in Rome from the end of 1624. His cousin Fabio studied with him and became a harpist at the Medici court. His pupil Angelo Ferrotti joined the Roman household of Cardinal Maurizio of Savoy, to whom Landi dedicated his Vespers psalms and Magnificat of 1624; he sent Ferrotti to Turin to sing his second book of solo arias (1627) to its dedicatee, Maurizio’s sister-in-law. Most of its airs are pleasant strophic songs; all, even the sonnet setting, have alfabeto tablature for guitar accompaniment, in addition to the usual continuo bass line. Pitoni cited two further volumes of chamber music from this period, Poesie diverse (1628) and a fourth book of solo arias (1629); both are lost. After his ordination as a subdeacon (5 March 1629), Landi entered the Cappella Sistina as a contralto on 29 November 1629 and moved into the Barberini inner circles, though he maintained a connection to Maurizio until 1636. Ferrotti became ‘the castrato’ of Cardinal Francesco, and Landi began training Girolamo Zampetti for Barberini, along with his other boarding pupils. The Barberini account books disclose payments to Landi for instructing various boys and for other musical services.

A detailed chronicle of the last ten years of Landi’s life would reveal the demands made on a musician with clerical obligations and musical responsibilities in church and chamber. In addition to the liturgical and non-liturgical duties associated with the Cappella Sistina, Landi organized, directed and often composed music for festal performances at the titular churches of Cardinals Francesco and Antonio Barberini. Traces of this music survive only in a mass for the marriage of Taddeo and Anna Barberini in 1627, another in the archive of S Maria in Trastevere, and a lost book of masses. Landi attempted a revision of the plainchant responsories for Tenebrae in 1631 (formally rejected by the Sistine singers in 1633) and was on the Sistine committee to revise Palestrina’s settings of the Office hymns in 1634, presumably the revision published in Antwerp in 1644. A large portrait of Palestrina hung in his house, and the two surviving masses are in the stile antico, markedly contrasting with the more modern style of his earlier psalm settings. Landi returned to the style of the 1624 works, however, in the choruses to the opera Sant’Alessio.

Francesco Barberini appears to have first planned and staged a musical version of the life of the early Christian saint Alexis in 1631. He had attended two operas on sacred subjects in Florence in 1624 and 1625, one on the life of St Ursula and the other on Judith and Holofernes (texts by Andrea Salvadori, music by Marco da Gagliano). In Rome, Cardinal Maurizio of Savoy had regularly presented dramatic entertainments in music in which Ferrotti must have sung; one of them may have been a lost S Eustachio (1625). For Carnival 1632, the Barberini offered two musical dramas by the prelate Giulio Rospigliosi. Prince Taddeo Barberini staged the Old Testament story of Queen Esther at his Palazzo ai Giubbonari, and at the new Palazzo Barberini alle Quattro Fontane Cardinal Francesco presented Landi’s setting of Sant’Alessio.

Its large number of soprano roles (seven out of 11) reflects the Barberinis’ access to the Sistine choir and to Landi’s pupils, past and present. Years after abandoning his new bride and patrician parents, Alexis returns to Rome as a Christian ascetic. The Devil tempts him to resume the life of a Roman aristocrat, but Alexis chooses to die a mendicant under the stairs in his father’s palace. There is little action; rather the main scenes focus on the family’s hopes of finding their long-lost son and husband, and on Alexis’s wrestling with a decision either to reveal his identity or to continue his selfless life of Christian poverty. In the last act his family grieves at discovering him only at his death and finds consolation in his holiness. Landi handled the intense dialogues with a transparent recitative style that emphasizes poignancy rather than pathos. Psychological tension is dispelled in the extended choral finales, with their metric rhythms and alternations of solo ensembles with tutti sections. The ariettas are few and brief; those who praised the castratos who played Alexis and his wife (probably Angelo Ferrotti in the title role and Marc’Antonio Pasqualini), were responding to their expressive abilities in all aspects of the new medium. The Barberini gave this private entertainment in honour of a diplomat from the Habsburg empire, Hans Ulrich, Prince of Eggenberg, sojourning in Rome with his son. Six years later Landi dedicated his sixth book of arias to the younger Eggenberg (by then Duke of Krumau) in anticipation of his return to Rome in November 1638.

Later in 1632 Francesco succeeded Cardinal Ludovisi as vice-chancellor of the church, an event which he celebrated at the titular church of S Lorenzo in Damaso by commissioning an elaborate Quarant’ore apparatus for Lent 1633, in which Landi directed the musical component. The elaborate architectural set for the host was by Pietro da Cortona, who had designed the sets for Sant’Alessio. Also in 1633 Cardinal Francesco succeeded Scipione Borghese as archpriest of S Pietro, and Landi became a deacon (Panofsky-Sorgel, 114).

Sant’Alessio was revived for Carnival 1634, its performances dedicated this time to a Polish prince, Alexander Charles of the royal house of Wasa. Minor roles were added, as were new scenes that took advantage of the sets used in Taddeo Barberini’s 1633 opera, Erminia sul Giordano (music by Michelangelo Rossi). A second pageboy was added (which suggests that the insouciant duet sung by the two children, ‘Poca voglio di far bene’, was newly composed), as was the comic scene in which the Devil transforms himself into a bear to frighten a page away. Because the Wasa dynasty was divided between a Protestant branch ruling in Sweden and a Catholic branch in Poland, several references to the strength of Polish Catholicism were also introduced. Six slaves new in the prologue praised Alexander and were freed from bondage by the figure of Rome. In Act 2 the new figure of Religion sang a recitative and an aria in galliard rhythm which returns in the choral finale to Act 3. Although Religion’s appearance marks Alexis’s decision ‘to follow the sun’ (a Barberini emblem) and not the shadow promised by the forces of darkness, Act 3 still offers strongly contrasting emotions. In scene i an angry devil and his demons are vanquished as the floor of the stage suddenly opens to engulf them in flames. In scene iii, Alexis’s wife, mother and father reach their deepest grief, expressed in an unaccompanied trio whose three sections are separated by recitative dialogue. In D minor, it never cadences in the tonic, which arrives only when a choir of consoling angels calls on them to cease their weeping at the opening of the next scene. This is only one example of Landi’s many subtle means of constructing his scenes. In the finale three violins, lutes, theorbos and harps join the angels in their heavenly cloud, as dancing Virtues and a final polychoral ensemble declare Rome happy to see heaven receive its newest saint (see illustration). Landi’s score, the first of three Barberini operas to be published, was issued in the same year with eight scenographic plates (see also Opera, fig.33). Landi’s note to the reader concerning transposition of roles, instrumental doubling, and ornamentation suggests that he anticipated future performances. Librettos from Reggio nell’Emilia (1645) and Bologna (1647) have survived.

The composer of the Barberini opera given in 1635 and 1636, I Santi Didimo e Theodora, is not known. Landi has been considered, since he, along with other Sistine singers, was involved in the performance, although in an unspecified capacity. He was also involved, however, as musical director for an unknown drama staged by Pietro della Valle that year. In spring 1635 he collaborated with Ottaviano Castelli to provide choral music for a May Day celebration at the pope’s summer villa at Castel Gandolfo. The extant text of I pregi di primavera may not represent a unified work, but rather incidental music for a more extended festa.

Some time in 1635 Landi’s health may have begun to decline; Virgilio Mazzocchi, maestro of the Cappella Giulia, replaced him as teacher of Francesco’s putti and organizer of Francesco’s special music, with commissions both secular and sacred from as early as April 1635. Mazzocchi was one of the composers for the 1637 Barberini opera, Chi soffre speri. The Sistine diaries for 1637 document Landi’s absences to take purges and sweats for his ‘mal di testa’. He seems to have occupied himself in collecting his scattered compositions, issuing a fifth book of solo arias in November 1637, a sixth in May 1638, a seventh 12 months later, and an eighth book (for two voices) in August 1639, as well as publishing his first book of a cappella masses (1638–9). Books 7 and 8 of the arias are lost, but some of the manuscript duets in the Biblioteca Universitaria Alessandrina may have originally appeared in his last publication. His illness gives a personal touch to his Latin poem on Urban VIII’s restoration to good health, which was widely mentioned in carnival events of 1638 (I-Rvat, ed. in Leopold, 76). Landi made his last will on 26 October 1639, two days before his death. He was the first to be buried in the common tomb for Sistine singers in the Chiesa Nuova, the church of the Oratorians. In addition to many well-used musical instruments, the inventory of his estate listed a great deal of manuscript and printed music (see Panofsky-Sorgel).

MARGARET MURATA

Landi, Stefano

WORKS

dramatic

La morte d’Orfeo op.2 (tragicommedia pastorale, 5), ?Veneto region, ?1619 (Venice, 1619); ed. in Herzog, 1996; lib ed. in A. Solerti: Gli albori del melodramma, iii (Milan, 1904/R), 293–339

Il Sant’Alessio (dramma musicale, 3, G. Rospigliosi), Rome, Palazzo Barberini ai Giubbonari, 2 March 1631 or 18 Feb 1632; Palazzo Barberini alle Quattro Fontane, 1634 (Rome, 1634/R); lib ed. in A. della Corte: Drammi per musica dal Rinuccini allo Zeno, i (Turin, 1958), 195–265

sacred

Psalmi integri, 4vv, bc (Rome, 1624); ed. in Leopold (1976), ii, 31–70

Missa in benedictione nuptiarum, 6vv (Rome, 1628); ed. in Leopold (1976), ii, 73–134

Messa, 5vv, bc, I-Rsmt; ed. in Leopold (1976), ii, 137–56

Motets, 1616¹, 1621³, 1625¹

secular

[18] Madrigali … libro primo, 5vv, bc (Venice, 1619); 1 ed. in FortuneISS, appx iv, 30ff; 4 ed. in Leopold (1976), ii, 9–24

Arie, 1v, bc (Venice, 1620/R)

Il secondo libro d’arie musicali, 1v, bc (Rome, 1627/R); 1 R in Mioli (1988)

Il quinto libro d’arie, 1v, bc (Venice, 1637); 1 ed. in Holzer, 1990

Il sesto libro d’arie, 1v, [bc] (Venice, 1638)

Arias, duets, dialogues in 1621¹⁵, 1621¹⁶, 1629⁹, I-Baf (2 ed. in Hill, 1997), MOe (ed. in Leopold, 1976, ii) Ru (5 ed. in Hill, 1997), Vnm, P. Quagliati: La sfera armoniosa (Rome, 1623; ed. in SCMA, xiii (1957), 57ff)

lost works

Poesie diverse in musica (Rome, 1628), cited in PitoniN

Il quarto libro di arie, 1v (Rome, 1629), cited in PitoniN

Il primo libro delle messe, 4–5vv (Rome, 1638), cited in PitoniN

Il settimo libro dell’arie, 1v (Rome, 1639), cited in PitoniN

Il libro ottavo d’arie, 2vv (Rome, 1639), cited in PitoniN

Responsories for Tenebrae (1630–31)

I pregi di primavera (O. Castelli), I-Rvat (text only)

doubtful works

Il primo libro di madrigali, 4vv (Venice, 1619), cited in FétisB and Grove5

Madrigali, 5vv (Rome, 1625), cited in FétisB and Grove5

La vittoria del Principe Ladislao in Vallachia (G. Ciampoli), music lost (Rome, 1625); also attrib. G. Kapsberger

I Santi Didimo e Theodora (G. Rospigliosi), music lost (Rome, 1635)

6 inst works, I-Rn (see Sartori)

Landi, Stefano

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

FétisB

FortuneISS

Grove6 (C. Timms)

PitoniN

G. Baini: Memorie storico-critiche della vita e delle opere di Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (Rome, 1828/R), ii, 217–19

A. Ademollo: I teatri di Roma nel secolo decimosettimo (Rome, 1888/R), 7–20

H. Goldschmidt: Studien zur Geschichte der italienischen Oper im 17. Jahrhundert, i (Leipzig, 1901/R)

R. Rolland: ‘La première représentation du San Alessio de Stefano Landi en 1632, à Rome, d’après le journal manuscrit de Jean-Jacques Bouchard’, RHCM, ii (1902), 29–36, 74–5

G. Canevazzi: Di tre melodrammi del secolo XVII (Modena, 1904)

E. Schmitz: ‘Zur Frühgeschichte der lyrischen Monodie Italiens im 17. Jahrhundert’, JbMP 1911, 35–48

S. Cordero di Pamparato: ‘I musici alla corte di Carlo Emanuele I di Savoia’, Biblioteca della Società storica subalpina, cxxi (1930), 31–142, esp. 131–2

R. Casimiri: ‘“Disciplina, musicae” e “mastri di capella” dopo il Concilio di Trento nei maggiori istituti ecclesiastici di Roma: Seminario romano – Collegio germanico – Collegio inglese (sec. XVI–XVII)’, NA, xv (1938), 1–14, 225–47, esp. 231

F. Vatielli: ‘Operisti-librettisti dei secoli XVII–XVIII’, RMI, xliii (1939), 1–16, esp. 5

A.A. Abert: Claudio Monteverdi und das musikalische Drama (Lippstadt, 1954)

D.J. Grout: ‘The Chorus in Early Opera’, Festschrift Friedrich Blume (Kassel, 1963), 151–61, esp. 160

N. Pirrotta: ‘Early Opera and Aria’, New Looks at Italian Opera: Essays in Honor of Donald J. Grout (Ithaca, NY, 1968), 39–107, esp. 87, 94, 99–102

A. Ziino: ‘“Contese letterarie” tra Pietro della Valle e Nicolò Farfaro sulla musica antica e moderna’, NRMI, iii (1969), 101–20, esp. 109

T.D. Culley: Jesuits and Music, i: A Study of the Musicians connected with the German College in Rome during the 17th Century and of their Activities in Northern Europe (Rome, 1970)

M.K. Murata: Operas for the Papal Court, 1631–1668 (Ann Arbor, 1981)

C. Sartori: ‘Stefano Landi uno e due. Ma di chi sono le canzoni strumentali?’, NRMI, ix (1975), 3–9

S. Leopold: Stefano Landi: Beiträge zur Biographie: Untersuchungen zur weltlichen und geistlichen Vokalmusik (Hamburg, 1976)

T. Tallián: ‘Archivdokumente über die Tätigkeit S. Landis in Rom in den Jahren von 1624 bis 1629’, SM, xix (1977), 267–95

S. Leopold: ‘Das geistliche Libretto im 17. Jahrhundert: zur Gattungsgeschichte der frühen Oper’, Mf, xxxi (1978), 245–57

S. Leopold: ‘Quelle bazzicature poetiche appellate ariette: Dichtungsformen in der frühen italienischen Oper (1600–1640)’, HJbMw, iii (1978), 101–41

G. Panofsky-Sorgel: ‘Nachträge zu Stefano Landis Biographie’, AnMc, no.22 (1984), 69–129

V. Kapp: ‘Das Barberini-Theater und die Bedeutung der römischer Kultur unter Urban VIII’, Literaturwissenschaftliches Jb, new ser., xxvi (1985), 75–100

P. Mioli: A voce sola: studio sulla cantata italiana del XVII secolo (Florence, 1988), 269–72

R.R. Holzer: Music and Poetry in Seventeenth-Century Rome: Settings of the Canzonetta and Cantata Texts of F. Balducci, D. Benigni, F. Melosio, and A. Abati (diss., U. of Pennsylvania, 1990)

F. Hammond: Music & Spectacle in Baroque Rome: Barberini Patronage under Urban VIII (New Haven, CT, 1994)

S. Herzog: Strophic Discourse and S. Landi’s ‘La morte d’Orfeo’: Syntax in Music and Poetry during the Cinquecento and Seicento (diss., U. of Southern California, 1996)

J.W. Hill: Roman Monody, Cantata, and Opera from the Circles around Cardinal Montalto (Oxford, 1997) [incl. ed. of 7 vocal chamber pieces]

Landini, Francesco [Landino, Franciscus; Magister Franciscus de Florentia; Magister Franciscus Coecus Horghanista de Florentia; Francesco degli orghani; Cechus de Florentia]

(b ? Fiesole or Florence, c1325; d Florence, 2 Sept 1397). Italian composer, poet, organist, singer and instrument maker of the second generation of Italian Trecento composers.

2. Survival of works.

KURT VON FISCHER/GIANLUCA D’AGOSTINO

1. Life.

Only a few dates relating to Landini’s life can be established with any certainty. There is no record of his date of birth, which Fétis gave as c1325 and Pirrotta as c1335. Fiesole was stated as his place of birth, but by only one authority: the Florentine humanist Cristoforo Landino (1429–98), Landini’s great-nephew, in his Elogia de suis maioribus. Most of the available biographical information derives from Filippo Villani’s Liber de origine civitatis Florentiae et eiusdem famosis civibus: the chapter that concerns certain of the Trecento composers (Bartholus, Giovanni, Lorenzo and Jacopo) was written after 1381 but still within Landini’s lifetime (see Villani, Filippo). The name Landini (Landino), according to Pirrotta, descends from Francesco’s grandfather, Landino di Manno, who can be traced in Pratovecchio (Casentino) from 1289 onwards. However that may be, Francesco’s name is nowhere specified as ‘Landini’ in musical manuscripts.

Francesco Landini was the son of the painter Jacopo del Casentino (?1310–1349), who was one of the school of Giotto and a co-founder of the Florentine guild of painters (in 1339). Francesco lost his sight in childhood during an attack of smallpox. As a result, he turned to music early in life. He mastered several instruments in addition to the organ; he also sang and wrote poetry. In addition he worked as organ builder, organ tuner and instrument maker. According to Villani, he is supposed to have devised a string instrument called ‘syrenam’. As well as this Villani’s chronicle, and also Cristoforo Landino’s Dante commentary, among other sources, mention Francesco’s concern with philosophical, ethical and astrological matters. He wrote an extended poem in praise of William of Ockham’s logic (I-Fr 688, on which see Wesselofsky, Lanza, and Long, 1983). With this, and the verses ‘in contumeliam Florentinae juventutis effeminatae’, referred to by Villani, Landini took issue in the political and religious strife of his day. In view of all this, it is quite likely that several of the texts he set to music were in fact his own (see Taucci, p.152). Villani reported the crowning of the poet-musician with the ‘corona laurea’ by the King of Cyprus (who was in Venice in 1362–3, 1364–5 and 1368). Doubts have been cast upon this event by E. Li Gotti. Nonetheless, it is highly probable that the composer spent at least some time in northern Italy before 1370, presumably in Venice itself. Evidence for this comes not only from the transmission of many of his works in north Italian sources, but perhaps also from a single surviving voice of a motet Principum nobilissime, in which the author described himself as ‘Franciscus peregre canentem’ (that is, as Plamenac has explained, ‘Franciscus singing abroad’, i.e. far from his own country). This piece is addressed to the Doge of Venice, Andrea Contarini (doge from 1368 to 1382). It is possible, too, that a motet Marce Marcum imitaris addressed to Marco Corner (doge from 1365 to 1368), may be by Landini. There is, at least, nothing to rule out the possibility that this work, which perhaps owes something to the three-part madrigal style of Jacopo da Bologna, is an early work of Francesco’s, despite the objections that Ursula Günther has raised. Further possible associations of the composer with northern Italy are the name Anna, hidden in the text as a so-called Senhal, in the madrigal Non a Narcisso (cf also madrigals by Giovanni, Jacopo and Piero), and the possibility that the madrigal Una colomba candida was written for the marriage of Gian Galeazzo Visconti and Caterina Visconti (1380).

Research by D’Accone and by Gallo has produced evidence of Landini as organist at the monastery of Santa Trinità in 1361, and as cappellanus at the church of S Lorenzo from 1365 until his death; Lorenzo da Firenze was also employed there at that time. That Landini was on good terms with the Florentine chancellor of state and humanist Coluccio Salutati is indicated by a letter of recommendation for Landini addressed to the Bishop of Florence and dated 10 September 1375. Also, in the late 1370s there is a clear and strong association between Landini and the composer Andreas de Florentia. In 1379 Landini was involved in the building of the new organ in the church of the SS Annunziata, where he is also known to have been organ tuner. In the same year he received a payment from Andreas ‘pro quinque motectis’; whether the motets composed for the Venetian Doges were among these is impossible to establish. In 1387 Landini was involved in planning the new organ for Florence Cathedral. A vivid portrayal of his activities in Florentine society was painted by Giovanni da Prato in his narrative poetic account of Florence in 1389, Il paradiso degli Alberti (books iii and iv; see Wesselofsky; also ed. A. Lanza, Rome, 1975, and F. Garilli, Palermo, 1976). The poet-composer emerges there as singer and organetto player, and takes part in erudite conversations and discussions of philosophical and political matters.

Landini died in Florence on 2 September 1397, and was buried there on 4 September in the church of S Lorenzo. His tombstone, which was discovered in Prato in the 19th century, and which is now back in S Lorenzo (in the second side-chapel to the right), shows the blind composer with his organetto. A similar depiction is to be found on f.121v of the Squarcialupi Codex (I-Fl 87), in which Landini is depicted with the ‘corona laurea’ referred to by Villani (seeillustration).

In addition to the praise of Salutati in 1375, and that of Villani and Giovanni da Prato, the composer’s fame was proclaimed by Franco Sacchetti, Cino Rinuccini (1397) and Cristoforo Landino (1446), among others. Landini’s name does not occur again until 1589; it was cited by Michael Poccianti (Catalogus scriptorum Florentiae), and taken up by Walther in 1732 and A.M. Bandini in 1748. As a composer he was rediscovered by Fétis (Revue musicale, i, 1827).

2. Survival of works.

154 works can be attributed with certainty to Landini: 89 ballatas for two voices, 42 for three voices, and at least nine which survive in both two-part and three-part versions (though in three of these cases the contratenor is probably not by Landini); one French virelai; one caccia; nine madrigals for two voices, and three for three voices (of which one is canonic, one is a triple madrigal and one is isorhythmic in structure). To these must be added (as works of doubtful authenticity) two ballatas for two voices (the ballata Mort' è la fè with erased ascription in F-Pn 568 is by Paolo da Firanze, see J. Nãdas/A-Ziino, 1990); and four motets, of which three survive only as fragmentary single voices. The music for at least one further text by Sacchetti is lost. Landini’s extant works represent about a quarter of the entire known repertory of secular music from the Trecento.

The manuscripts of Landini’s music are confined exclusively to Italy and, in one case, southern Germany (CZ-Pu XI E 9). The source that is central to Landini’s work, and with which he was probably directly concerned, is I-Fn 26 (presumed to have been copied 1380–88). Numerically speaking, the largest collection of Landini’s works – 145 pieces – is the Squarcialupi Manuscript (see Sources, MS, §VIII, 2). Three works are known in instrumental versions from the early 15th century. There are sacred contrafacta in two south German sources. In addition, at least 19 ballata texts known through Landini’s settings were poetically recast as laude spirituali. To what extent the music of the prototypes was retained for these recast poems, or indeed whether it was retained at all, we cannot be sure. With a syllabic piece such as Ecco la primavera, the use of the same music for the lauda version, Preghian Gesù con lieta cera, is quite conceivable throughout. To do the same thing for a melismatic piece such as Donna, s’i’ t’ò fallito in its lauda version Donna, s’i’ son partito da Cristo is more questionable. The ballata Questa fanciulla must have been particularly popular, for it survives in at least six different forms: the original ballata, an instrumental intabulation, and four contrafacta (a Kyrie, an Agnus, an Est illa and a lauda, Creata fusti, o Vergine Maria). Moreover, Oswald von Wolkenstein used the piece for his lied Mein hertz das ist versert (see Göllner). At least seven works by Landini are cited in Prudenzani’s Saporetto (Orvieto, c1415), and one in a treatise by Anonymus 5 (CoussemakerS, iii, pp.395–6).

The notation of Landini’s works exhibits certain French scribal practices which were of increasing importance in Italy towards the end of the 14th century. This is particularly evident in cases where a piece was apparently originally composed in divisio duodenaria or octonaria but has been written down in augmented form, in modus perfectus or imperfectus (the so-called ‘Longanotation’, on which see Fischer, 1959; Fellin; N. Pirrotta: Introduction to CMM, viii, vols.1, 3 and 4, 1954–63).

3. Musical style.

Landini’s style has many facets. It ranges from the simple dance-song to the highly stylized piece with canonic or isorhythmic structure. It stretches from the Italian style of his precursors Jacopo and Lorenzo, across the infiltration of French influences, to an ultimate synthesis of French and Italian elements of style. Most immediate in its impression is Landini’s gift for melody – distinctively shaped and at the same time expressive. At phrase-ends the under-3rd cadence (the so-calledLandini cadence) figures frequently in the upper voices (seeex.1).

Little can be said with certainty about the development of Landini’s style. The texts offer very scanty clues on which to date works. Schrade’s belief that the order of the pieces as written in I-Fn 26 reflects a roughly chronological order is questionable. Some precision of dating arises from the known dates of three ballata texts by Sacchetti. The pieces in question are Non creder, donna (1368–70), Perché virtù (1374) and Altri n’avrà (after 1384); we may assume that their musical setting followed in each case not too long after the writing of the poems. The ballata Or su, gentili spirti, referred to in Il Paradiso degli Alberti, was presumably a newly composed work of Landini’s at the time when the story is set (1389). Furthermore, three pieces that seem to express similar ‘philosophical’ tenets – Tu che l’opera altrui, Contemplar le gran cose and Deh, dimmi tu – are likely to date from about 1380, though the case for connecting them to Ockhamism is perhaps too weak. The madrigal Per la’nfluenza di Saturno e Marte perhaps centres on a historical event: but whether its subject is the events of the 1370s or those of the late 1360s remains an open question. The madrigals Musica son and Mostrommi Amor are to be construed autobiographically, and perhaps also the two ballate I’ fu’ tuo servo, Amore and I’ piango, lasso.

On the basis of known datings, and of considerations of style, the following picture emerges of the separate categories of composition.

The two-voice madrigals, which accord with the older Trecento practice in always setting text to both voices, in placing melismas on the initial and penultimate syllables of the line, in cadencing at the unison rather than at the octave, and in effecting a change of mensuration in the ritornello, follow the models of Giovanni da Cascia, Jacopo da Bologna and others. Despite this, they are not all to be assigned to the composer’s youth. The criteria for early date of composition seem to be: parallel open 5ths (a pointer to the connection of madrigal style with the earlier style of organum), simultaneous declamation of syllables, and untexted linking phrases, for one voice alone, between individual lines of verse (as inex.2), on the model of Jacopo.

As his style developed, these linking phrases came to be texted. At corresponding points in the later works imitative entries become a regular feature (see for example Mostrommi Amor, which is also his only madrigal written in senaria imperfecta). There also seems to have been, during the course of Landini’s stylistic development, a growing tendency towards a certain tonal cohesion. Non a Narcisso, for example, an early work, has its stanza beginning on E and ending on A, and the ritornello ending on C; the ends of the lines cadence on C, G, A, D and C. Una colomba candida (?1380, but date rejected by Long, 1987, on stylistic grounds), on the other hand, has its stanza beginning and ending on G, the ritornello ending on C, the lines cadencing on A, G, G, A, C.

The three-voice madrigals exhibit a fusion of Italian and French techniques of composition. Musica son is a triple-texted madrigal, perhaps modelled on Jacopo da Bologna’s Aquila altera. Sì dolce non sonò is constructed isorhythmically (see Fischer, 1975). Deh, dimmi tu is canonic in structure. His only caccia, Cosi pensoso, is, judging from its style (for instance, use of dissonance and of identical cadences at the end of the two sections), an early work possibly composed in northern Italy.

In the realm of the polyphonic ballata, a form that was scarcely to be found in Florence before the 1360s, Landini appears to have been a pioneer. Of his 89 two-voice ballatas, no fewer than 82 follow the pattern of the madrigal in having text for both voices. With four exceptions, these pieces lack the first- and second-time endings with two piedi (ouvert–clos, or verto–chiuso) so characteristic of the French virelai (the French form corresponding to the ballata). Moreover, among the ballatas with text in both voices, the majority have predominantly Italian mensurations (duodenaria, octonaria, senaria perfecta – admittedly in most cases converted into French notation). All of this points to a rather early date of composition, at least for a proportion of the two-voice ballatas. It may be presumed that the French influence, found in the pieces with untexted tenors, is a feature of later works. Five of these ballatas display the ouvert–clos in the French manner (invariably cadencing on D, E, D), and six have ‘French-orientated’ mensurations (senaria imperfecta and novenaria) and often use syncopation; in only three cases (Abbonda di virtù, Ognor mi trovo, Vaga fanciulla) does the concluding phrase of the piedi mirror musically that of the ripresa. The placing of melismas on the first and penultimate syllables of a line is a common feature taken over from the madrigal. In contrast to the madrigal, on the other hand, individual lines of verse are separated by rests instead of by linking phrases, and the two sections (ripresa/volta and piedi) are not rhythmically differentiated. Also the ballatas show a generally stronger tonal cohesion than do the madrigals; approximately half of the two-voice ballatas begin and end on the same pitch (in some 35 other cases only the first and last chords of the ripresa are the same). (For illustration see Sources, MS, fig.36.)

The influence of the French chanson style is more apparent in the three-voice ballatas. It is detectable in the 18 pieces that are universally transmitted with text in the superius only (seven more have the superius and tenor texted, a pattern that made its first appearance in the works of Landini; six have all voices texted, in the Italian manner). 12 of these 18 works are in French mensurations (eight in 6/8 and four in 9/8). Verto and chiuso endings occur in 31 pieces (often cadencing on D, E, D), including all the pieces with text in the superius alone; whereas this double ending is hardly ever found among the works with text in all voices and in those with two parts texted. French influence can also be suspected wherever in place of smooth flowing lines and small regularly sequential passages the melodic style gives way to much tinier motifs and more frequent syncopations. Similarly, the greater amount of melodic parallelism at the ends of ripresa and strofa to be found in the three-voice ballatas (e.g. Lasso! di donna, Questa fanciulla and others) is to be put down to French influence. Two double endings, one for the ripresa and one for the strofa, are a feature of the ballatas Partesi con dolore and Conviensi a fede.

Given this evidence, it follows that the three-voice ballatas must belong primarily to the middle or later period of Landini’s career. The unified tonality of these works points to the same conclusion. About half of them begin and end the ripresa on the same pitch; moreover, in 14 cases the strofa ends on the same pitch as the ripresa. Tonal orientation is also provided by the commonly-used interval of a 5th between the opening and the closing chords (at points where Landini always used sonorities composed of perfect consonances; see Schachter).

Particularly revealing for Landini’s style is his treatment of the contratenor. In about half of the three-voice ballatas there is – in contrast to French practice – no crossing of parts between tenor and contratenor. In 20 cases, even the contratenor moves in the same range as the superius. As in the three-voice madrigals of Jacopo and Lorenzo, and in a manner reminiscent of the caccia, the contratenor in such cases functions as a secundus cantus, as inex.3.

The remaining three-voice ballatas do have, in French fashion, crossing of parts between tenor and contratenor. Above them the superius voice moves mostly in shorter note values (seeex.4).

One type of composition, possibly created by Landini, and cultivated in particular by Paolo da Firenze, is a mixed Italian–French type (found only in Italy) in which the superius and tenor are texted while the contratenor forms an untexted middle voice. One or two of the three-voice ballatas (such as Amar sì li alti and Partesi con dolore), pieces which can be considered late works, have a distinctly melodic top voice, and underlying harmonies that occasionally come close to fauxbourdon, as inex.5.

If one were to apply a hypothetical scheme of dating to the various facets of style within Landini’s work, a pattern such as the following would emerge: up to c1370 (including the earliest ballatas), assimilation of the older Trecento style; c1370–80/85, French influence, notably upon the three-voice ballatas; c1385–97, a synthesis of Italian and French features, and an increase of vertical harmonic effect. In these late works Landini pointed towards the music of the 15th century.

4. Poetry.

With the exception of the verses about William of Ockham mentioned above and two further moralizing poems in Latin and Italian attributed to the composer in the same manuscript, a sonnet written in reply to Franco Sacchetti, and two ballatas explicitly attributed in a literary source (I-Rvat Chigi L.IV.131), there is scarcely a poem to which Landini’s authorship can be securely attached. Nonetheless, the texts of the clearly autobiographical pieces at least presumably come from him, and some of the ballatas named by Taucci, too. These, along with the texts that he set by Sacchetti, Cino Rinuccini and Bindo d’Alesso Donati, belong to the Italian tradition of the late stil novo, but they also reflect the typically Florentine taste for bourgeois poetry (as witnessed by the senhals).

WORKS

Editions:The Works of Francesco Landini, ed. L. Ellinwood (Cambridge, MA, 1939, 2/1945/R) [E]Der Squarcialupi-Codex Pal. 87 der Biblioteca medicea laurenziana zu Florenz, ed. J. Wolf (Lippstadt, 1955) [W]; see K. von Fischer: ‘Zu Johannes Wolfs Uebertragung des Squarcialupi-Codex’, Mf, ix (1956), 77–89, and L. Schrade: ‘Der Squarcialupi-Codex’, Notes, xiii (1955–6), 683The Works of Francesco Landini, ed. L. Schrade, PMFC, iv (1958/R) [S] [repr. with new introduction and notes on performances by K.V. Fischer, 2 vols. (1982)]Poetry edition:Poesie musicali del Trecento, ed. G. Corsi (Bologna, 1970), pp.xlviii–l, 127–237



Incipit	No. of vv	E	S	W
virelais
Adiu, adiu, dous dame (2 versions)	3, 2	169	192	298

ballate

Abbonda di virtù	2	39	90	279
A le’ s’andrà lo spirto (2 versions)	3, 2	40	166	227	Senhal: ‘Sandra’ or ‘Alexandra’
Altera luce ed angelic’aspetto	2	42	91	281
Altri n’avrà la pena	2	43	68	239	Text: Sacchetti; lauda contrafactum: ‘Preghian la dolce Vergine’
Ama, donna, chi t’ama	2	44	24	298	Text: ?Landini; Prudenzani, no.48?; lauda contrafactum: ‘Ami ciascun cristian’
Amar sì li alti	3	171	176	280	‘Ballata per Mona marsilia di Manetto davanzati, fecela fare Lionardo Sassetti’ (I-Rvat Chigi.L.IV.131)
Amor ch’al tuo sugetto (2 versions)	3, 2	174	183	241	Senhal: ‘Madalena’
Amor con fede seguito	2	46	56	218
Amor, in te spera’	3	176	141	—
Amor in uom gentil	3	178	153	270
Angelica biltà	2	48	54	204
Ara’ tu pietà mai	2	291	69	240	Text inc.; laude contrafacta: ‘Merzé con gran pietà’, ?‘Volgi li occhi tuoi in qua’
Benché crudele siate	2	49	59	228
Benché la bionda treza	2	292	88	271	Text incomplete
Benché ora piova	2	50	93	284
Cara mie donna	3	180	188	291
Caro signor, palesa	3	183	126	295
Che cosa è questa, Amor	3	186	164	295	Senhal: ‘Cosa’
Che fai? che pensi?	2	51	92	283	See Corsi no.145
Che pena è questa al cor (2 versions)	3, 2	188	162	218	Instrumental version, I-FZc 117; erased ascription in F-Pn 568
Chi più le vuol saper	2	52	55	208, 304
Chi pregio vuol	2	53	30	282
Come a seguir	2	55	45	274
Con gli occhi assai	2	56	46	282	Text: C. Rinuccini; erased ascription in F-Pn 568 Prudenzani, no.34
Contemplar le gran cose	3	191	177	273	Text: ?Landini
Conviensi a fede	3	193	150	271
Cosa null’ha più fe’	3	196	158	221	Senhal: ‘Cosa’
D’Amor mi biasmo	2	58	10	253	Erased ascription in F-Pn it.568
Da poi che va mia donna	2	60	94	285
Da poi che vedi’l mie fedel	2	61	81	264
Da po’ ch’a te rinasce	2	62	84	268
Debbe l’animo altero	3	198	186	254	Text incomplete
Deh, che mi giova	2	64	79	262
Deh, non fugir da me	2	65	40	250
Deh, pon quest’amor giù	2	67	4	250	Senhal: ‘Cosa’; Prudenzani, no.34; dialogic text; ‘Ballata di Franc° degli organi’ (I-Rvat Chigi L.IV.131)
Deh, volgi gli occhi	2	70	31	255	?Lauda; lauda contrafactum: ‘Di virtù gratie e doni’
De sospirar sovente	2	69	80	263	Dialogic text; lauda contrafactum: ‘Batista da Dio amato’
Divennon gli ochi	3	200	172	—
Dolce signor	2	71	53	—
Donna, che d’amor senta	2	72	82	265	Lauda contrafactum: ‘Laudian Giesù piatoso’; Prudenzani, no.35?; cited by Anonymus 5 (CoussemakerS, iii, p.396); erased ascription in F-Pn it. 568
Donna, con vo’ rimane	2	74	72	249
Donna, i’ prego Amor	3	202	152	252
Donna, la mente mia	2	75	36	—
Donna, la mie partenza	2	77	83	267
Donna, languir mi fai	2	78	78	262
Donna, l’animo tuo	2	79	9	269
Donna, ’l tuo partimento (2 versions)	3, 2	204	106	263	Ct by ?Landini
Donna, perché mi spregi	2	294	73	251	Text incomplete
Donna, per farmi guerra	3	206	160	255
Donna, se ’l cor t’ho dato	2	80	21	274	Text: ?Landini
Donna, s’i’ t’ho fallito	2	81	1	284	Lauda contrafactum: ‘Donna, s’i’ son partito’ (and other 15th-century laude); erased ascription in F-Pn 568; Prudenzani, no.48
Donna, tu prendi sdegno	2	83	75	256
Duolsi la vita	2	84	74	252
Ecco la primavera	2	85	58	258	Lauda contrafactum: ‘Preghian Gesù con lieta cera’
El gran disio (2 versions)	3, 2	209	146	257	Later setting in E-E IV.a.24
El mie dolce sospir	3	212	123	259
Fatto m’ha serv’, Amore	2	86	77	260
Fior di dolceza	2	88	76	260
Fortuna ria (2 versions)	2, 3	89	27	258	3-part version E-Sco 5-2-25, no.2a/b (see Gallo, 1968); Ct and alius T by ?Landini; erased ascription in F-Pn 568 (text cited in Bologna document, 1416; see Fiori)
Gentil aspetto	3	214	134	223	‘Balla del medes° Franc°’ (I-Rvat Chigi L.IV.131)
Già d’amore speranza	2	91	97	289
Già ebbi libertate	2	92	43	—
Già non biasimo Amor	3	218	170	311
Già perch’i’ penso	2	94	2	310
Giovine donna vidi star	2	95	98	290	Senhal: ‘Selvaggia’
Giovine vaga, non senti’	2	97	96	288
Giunta vaga biltà	3	220	124	289
Gli occhi che ’n prima	2	98	20	261	Text: ?Landini
Gran pianto a gli ochi	3	222	128	224	Prudenzani, no.34
Guarda una volta	3	224	110	292	Senhal: ‘Tancia’
I’ fu’ tuo servo, Amore	2	99	47	301	Text: ?Landini
Il suo bel viso	2	100	44	243
I’ non ardisco	2	102	41	—	Text: Rinuccini
In somma altezza	2	103	103	312
I’ piango, lasso	2	105	61	230	Text: ?Landini
I’ priego Amor (2 versions)	3, 2	226	190	293
I’ vegio ch’a natura	2	106	63	231
La bionda treccia	2	107	18	209	Laude contrafacta: ‘Or che non piangi’, ‘O Gesù Cristo padre’
La dolce vista (2 versions)	3, 2	229	108	265	Ct by ?Landini
L’alma legiadra	2	109	34	278
L’alma mie piange	3	232	148	219	Prudenzani, no.34
La mala lingua	2	111	70	240	I-Fn Magl.VII.1078 transmits the beginning of a second strophe
La mente mi riprende	3	236	132	266
L’antica fiamma	2	112	12	278
L’aspetto è qui	2	114	86	268
Lasso! di donna	3	238	138	222	Contrafactum: ‘Dilectus meus misit’, F-Sm 222
Lasso! per mie fortuna	3	240	180	220
L’onesta tuo biltà	2	116	89	277
Ma’ non s’andrà	2	118	50	242	Senhal: ‘Sandra’; ‘Ballata per Mona Sandra moglie del … cavallaro de nostri Signori’ (I-Rvat Chigi L.IV.131); erased ascription in F-Pn 568
Muorti oramai, deh	3	242	178	216
Ne la mia vita	3	245	120	308
Ne la partita pianson	2	120	48	237
Ne la più cara parte	2	121	102	310
Ne la tuo luce	2	123	57	227
Né ’n ciascun mie pensiero	3	247	168	238
Nessun ponga speranza	3	249	174	294
Nessun provò già mai	2	124	95	286
Non avrà mai pietà	3	252	144	225	Text: B. d’Alesso Donati; inst version, I-FZc 117
Non creder, donna	2	126	6	232	Text: Sacchetti; laude contrafacta ‘Preghian la dolce vergine’, ‘Ciascun che ’l regno di Gesù disia’
Non do la colp’a te	3	255	122	226
Non per fallir	2	128	14	306
Ochi dolenti mie	2	130	60	229
O fanciulla giulia	3	257	154	287	Text: ?Landini: ‘Ballata facta per Mona Contessa figlia di boccasenno de bardi e moglie di Cavalcante Cavalcanti’ (I-Rvat Chigi L.IV.131); erased ascription in F-Pn 568
Ognor mi trovo	2	131	62	230
Oimè ’l core!	2	134	71	244	Erased ascription in F-Pn 568
Or è tal l’alma mia	2	132	23	242	Senhal: ‘Oretta’ (Lauretta); lauda contrafactum: ‘O Vergine Maria’
Or su, gentili spirti	3	260	184	244	Text: ?Landini; text inc. in I-Fl 87, with Senhal ‘Petra’, but cited in Il Paradiso degli Alberti with complete text and Senhal ‘Cosa’
Partesi con dolore	3	262	136	276	Text inc., possibly ballade form (Baumann, 1975)
Per allegrezza del parlar	2	136	17	286	Laude contrafacta: ‘Per l’allegrezza del nostro Signore’, ‘Ciascun fedel cristian per riverenza’
Perché di novo sdegno/Vendetta far dovrei/Perché tuo servo	3	265	142	297	Triple ballata
Perché virtù	2	137	42	—	Text: Sacchetti
Per la belleza	2	138	99	299
Per la mie dolze piaga	3	268	185	247
Per seguir la speranza	3	271	112	302
Per servar umiltà	2	140	8	309
Per un amante	2	141	100	303
Più bella donn’al mondo	2	143	52	—
Po’ ch’amor ne’ begli ochi	2	145	26	307
Po’ che di simil	2	296	66	236	Text incomplete
Po’ che da te mi convien	?3, 2	147	16	246	Unique Ct in I-Las 184; laude contrafacta: ‘Po’ che v’ho posto’, ‘Ciascun che ’l regno di Gesù disia’
Po’ che partir convienmi	3	273	118	300	Lauda contrafactum: ‘Po’ che da morte nessun si ripara’; erased ascription in F-Pn 568
Posto che da l’aspetto	3	276	156	275
Quanto più caro fai (2 versions)	3, 2	279	130	248	Erased ascription (‘franciscus’/‘Bartolino’) in F-Pn 568
Quel sol che raggia	3	282	114	236
Questa fanciulla, Amor	3	285	116	234	Inst version, F-Pn 6771; contrafacta: ‘Kyrie’, D-Mbs 14274 (olim 3232-); ‘Agnus’, Guardiagrele, S Maria Maggiore MS 1, f.192v, see Cattin etc, 1972; ‘Est illa’, F-Sm 222 [lost]; lauda contrafactum: ‘Creata fusti, o Vergine Maria’; used by Oswald von Wolkenstein for ‘Mein hertz das ist versert’ (see Göllner, 1964); (cited in Bologna document 1416, see Fiori)
S’andrà sanza merzé	2	149	37	304	Senhal: ‘Sandra’
Se la nimica mie	2	151	101	306
Se la vista soave	2	153	64	233
Selvagia, fera di Diana	3	287	182	232	Erased ascription in F-Pn 568
Se merzé, donna	2	155	38	—
Sempre girò caendo	2	298	104	314	Text incomplete
Se pronto non sarà	2	157	32	313
Sia maladetta l’ora	2	159	19	314
S’i’ fossi certo	3	289	140	235	Erased ascription in F-Pn 568
S’i’ ti son stato	2	161	22	246	Lauda contrafactum: ‘Sempre laudata e benedetta sia’; erased ascription in F-Pn 568
Tante belleze	2	162	67	238
Vaga fanciulla	2	163	29	300
Va’ pure, Amor	2	165	25	315	Lauda contrafactum: ‘O falso amore privato di pace’
Viditi, donna, già vaga	2	166	105	316
Vita non è più misera	2	167	28	305	Lauda contrafactum: ‘Vita, chi t’ama in croce morto sia’; text mentioned in Giovanni Sercambi’s Novelle, XCVII (see Rossi)

madrigals

Deh, dimmi tu	3	22	216	206	Canon T–Ct (caccia-madrigal)
Fa metter bando	2	3	192	200
Lucea nel prato	2	5	204	210
Mostrommi amor	2	7	200	204	Text: ?Landini
Musica son che mi dolgo/Già furon/Ciascun vuol	3	26	213	197	Triple madrigal
Non a Narcisso	2	9	198	205	Senhal: ‘Anna’
O pianta vaga	2	11	196	212
Per la’nfluenza	2	13	202	208
Sì dolce non sonò	3	31	210	201	Isorhythmic (see Fischer, 1975)
Somma felicità	2	15	206	211	Text: ?Sacchetti
Tu che l’opera altrui	2	17	194	199	Text: ?Landini
Una colomba candida	2	19	208	215

caccia

Così pensoso

219

213

Pesca

lost works

Né te né altra voglio amar

—

‘Canzonetta’ (=ballata); text: Sacchetti: MS of poems mention Landini as composer; laude contrafacta: ‘Altro che te non voglio’, ‘Con sicurtà ritorna’, ‘O Signor Iesù’, ‘Come se’ da laudar’

DOUBTFUL WORKS



Incipit	No. of vv	E	S	W	Remarks
motets
Principum nobilissime	?3	—	222	—	I-Pu 1106, only 1v extant (see Plamenac, 1955)
Florencia, mundi speculum	?3	—	—	—	1v in I-MFA, another in I-Fl 2211; ed. in PMFC, xiii
Leonarde, pater inclite	?3	—	—	—	I-MFA, only 1v extant
Marce Marcum imitaris	3	—	—	—	I-GR 197; see Günther (1970)

ballate

Achurr’uomo	2	—	—	—	Erased ascription in F-Pn 568 (see Günther, 1966); ed. in PMFC, xi
Io sono un pellegrin	2	—	—	—	ed. in PMFC, xi, and CMM, viii/3, p.51; see also ibid., p.iii; Prudenzani, no.25
Cose non è	3	—	—	—	ed. in PMFC, xi (see Ziino, 1988)

(1) Berthold [Bernold] de Lantins alias de Bolsée

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1(N. Pirrotta)

F. Villani: De origine civitatis florentiae et eiusdem famosis civilus ed. G.C. Galletti (Florence, 1847); ed. G. Tanturli (Padua, 1997)

A. Wesselofsky, ed.: Giovanni da Prato: Il Paradiso degli Alberti (Bologna, 1867/R)

C. Guasti: ‘Della sepoltura di Francesco Cieco de’ Landini’, Belle arti (Florence, 1874), 95–8

R. Gandolfi: ‘Una riparazione a proposito di Francesco Landini’, Rassegna nazionale, x (1888), 58–71

P.H. Horne: ‘A Commentary upon Vasari’s Life of Jacopo dal Casentino’, Rivista d’arte, vi (1909), 95–112, 165–83

S. Debenedetti, ed.: ‘Il “Sollazzo” e il “Saporetto” con altre rime di Simone Prudenzani d'Orvieto’, Giornale storico della letteratura italiana, suppl.xv (1913) [complete edn of Prudenzani’s poetry]

S. Debenedetti: Il ‘Sollazzo’: contributi alla storia della novella, della poesia musicale e del costume nel Trecento (Turin, 1922)

R. Taucci: ‘Fra Andrea dei Servi organista e compositore del Trecento’, Studi storici sull’Ordine dei Servi di Maria, ii (1934–5), 73–108; pubd separately (Rome, 1935)

E. Li Gotti and N.Pirrotta: Il Sacchetti e la tecnica musicale del Trecento italiano (Florence, 1935)

L. Ellinwood: ‘Francesco Landini and his Music’, MQ, xxii (1936), 190–216

E. Li Gotti: ‘Una pretesa incoronazione di Francesco Landini’, Atti della R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti di Palermo, 4th ser. v/2 (1946), 41–6; repr. in Restauri trecenteschi (Palermo, 1947), 91–7

M. Johnson: ‘A Study of Conflicting Key-signatures in Francesco Landini’s Music’,Hamline Studies in Musicology, ed. E. Krenek, ii (Minneapolis, 1947), 27–40

H. Nolthenius: ‘Een autobiografisch madrigaal van Francesco Landini’, TVNM, xvii/4 (1955), 237–41; repr. in Renaissance in Mei: Florentijns leven rond Francesco Landini (Utrecht, 1956, 5/1985)

D. Plamenac: ‘Another Paduan Fragment of Trecento Music’, JAMS, viii (1955), 165–81

K. von Fischer: Studien zur italienischen Musik des Trecento and frühen Quattrocento (Berne,1956)

B. Becherini: ‘Antonio Squarcialupi e il codice Mediceo Palatino 87’, L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento I: Certaldo 1959, 141–96

G. Corsi: ‘Madrigali e ballate inedite del Trecento’, Belfagor, xiv (1959), 329–40

K. von Fischer: ‘On the Technique, Origin, and Evolution of Italian Trecento Music’,MQ, xlvii (1961), 41–57

K. von Fischer: ‘Neue Quellen zur Musik des 13., 14. und 15. Jahrhunderts’, AcM, xxxvi (1964), 79–97

T. Göllner: ‘Landinis “Questa fanciulla” bei Oswald von Wolkenstein’,Mf, xvii (1964), 393–8

K. von Fischer: ‘Ein Versuch zur Chronologie von Landinis Werken’, MD, xx (1966), 31–46

U. Günther: ‘Die “anonymen” Kompositionen des Manuskripts Paris, B.N., fonds it. 568 (Pit)’, AMw, xxiii (1966), 73–92

F.A. Gallo: ‘Alcune fonti poco note di musica teorica e pratica’, L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento: convegni di studio 1961–1967, ed. F.A. Gallo (Certaldo, 1968), 49–76

U. Günther: ‘Quelques remarques sur des feuillets récemment découverts à Grottaferrata’, L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento: Convegno II: Certaldo 1969 [L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, iii (Certaldo, 1970)], 315–97

C. Schachter: ‘Landini’s Treatment of Consonance and Dissonance’, Music Forum, ii (1970), 130–86

F.A. D’Accone: ‘Music and Musicians at the Florentine Monastery of Santa Trìnita, 1360–1363’, Quadrivium, xii/1 (1971), 131–51

G. Cattin, O.Mischiati and A. Ziino: ‘Composizioni polifoniche del primo Quattrocento nei libri corali di Guardiagrele’, RIM, vii (1972), 153–81

K. von Fischer: ‘Zum Wort-Ton Problem in der Musik des italienischen Trecento’, Festschrift Arnold Geering, ed. V. Ravizza (Berne, 1972), 53–62

R. Cardini, ed.: Cristoforo Landino: Scritti teorici e critici (Rome, 1974)

L. Rossi, ed.: Giovanni Sercambi: Novelliere (Rome, 1974)

D. Baumann: ‘Some Extraordinary Forms in the Italian Secular Trecento Repertoire’,La musica al tempo del Boccaccio e i suoi rapporti con la letteratura: Siena and Certaldo 1975 [L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, iv (Certaldo, 1978)], 45–63

E.C. Fellin: ‘The Notation-Types of Trecento Music’, ibid., 211–23

K. von Fischer: ‘Philippe de Vitry in Italy and an Homage of Landini to Philippe’, ibid., 225–35

F.A. Gallo: ‘Lorenzo Masini e Francesco degli Organi in San Lorenzo’, Studi musicali, iv (1975), 57–63

G. Tanturli: ‘I Benci copisti’, Studi di filologia italiana, xxxvi (1978), 287–96

D. Baumann: Die dreistimmige italienische Lied-Satztechnik im Trecento (Baden-Baden, 1979)

A. Ziino: ‘Ripetizioni di sillabe e parole nella musica profana italiana del Trecento e del primo Quattrocento’, Musik und Text in der Mehrstimmigkeit des 14. und 15. Jahrhunderts: Wolfenbüttel 1980, 93–119

F.A. Gallo, ed.: Il codice musicale Panciatichi 26 della Biblioteca Nazionale di Firenze (Florence, 1981) [facs.]

M.P. Long: Musical Tastes in Fourteenth-Century Italy: Notational Styles, Scholarly Traditions, and Historical Circumstances (diss., Princeton U. 1981), 136–41

J. Nádas: ‘The Structure of MS Panciatichi 26 and the Transmission of Trecento Polyphony’,JAMS, xxiv (1981), 393–427

M. Fabbri and J.Nádas: ‘A Newly Discovered Trecento Fragment’, EMH, iii (1983), 67–81

M.P. Long: ‘Francesco Landini and the Florentine Cultural Elite’, EMH, iii (1983), 83–99

F.A. D’Accone: ‘Una nuova fonte dell' Ars Nova italiana: il codice di San Lorenzo, 2211’,Studi musicali, xiii (1984), 3–31

K. von Fischer: ‘A Study on Text Declamation in Francesco Landini's Two-Part Madrigals’,Gordon Athol Anderson, 1929–1981, in memoriam, ed. L.A. Dittmer (Henryville, PA, 1984), 119–30

J. Nádas: ‘Manuscript San Lorenzo 2211: Some Further Observations’, L’Europa e la musica del Trecento: Congresso IV: Certaldo 1984 [L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, vi (Certaldo, 1992)], 145–68

J. Nádas: The Transmission of Trecento Secular Polyphony: Manuscript Production and Scribal Practices in Italy at the End of the Middle Ages (diss., New York U., 1985)

M.P. Long: ‘Landini's Musical Patrimony: a Reassessment of Some Compositional Conventions in Trecento Polyphony’, JAMS, xl (1987), 31–52

A. Ziino: ‘“Chosa non è ch'a sé tanto mi tiri”: una ballata anonima nello stile di Landini’, La Toscana nel secolo XIV: caratteri di una civiltà regionale, ed. S. Gensini (Pisa, 1988), 513–38

A. Lanza: Polemiche e berte letterarie nella Firenze del primo Rinascimento (1375–1449) (Rome, 1989), 107–28

K. von Fischer: ‘Text Underlay in Landini's Ballate for Three Voices’, CMc, nos.45–7 (1990) [Sanders Fs issue, ed. P.M. Lefferts and L.L. Perkins], 179–97

J. Nádas and A.Ziino, eds.: Introduction to The Lucca Codex: Codice Mancini (Lucca, 1990)

F. Brambilla Ageno, ed.: F. Sacchetti: Il libro delle rime (Florence and Perth, 1990)

G. Di Bacco: ‘Alcune nuove osservazioni sul codice di Londra (British Library, MS Additional 29987)’, Studi musicali, xx (1991), 181–234

A. Fiori: ‘Ruolo del notariato nella diffusione del repertorio poetico-musicale nel Medioevo’,Studi musicali, xxi (1992), 211–35

F.A. Gallo, ed.: Il codice Squarcialupi (Florence, 1992) [incl. J. Nádas: ‘Il codice Squarcialupi: una “edizione” della musica del Trecento (ca.1410–1415)’, i, 19–86; K. von Fischer: ‘Le biografie’, i, 127–44, esp. 138–40; N. Pirrotta: ‘Le musiche del codice Squarcialupi’, i, 193–222, esp. 212–7]

M. Gozzi: ‘Alcune postille sul codice Add.29987 della British Library’, Studi musicali, xxii (1993), 249–77

N. Pirrotta: ‘On Landini and San Lorenzo’, MD, xlviii (1994), 5–13

M.T.R. Barezzani and A. Delfino, eds.: ‘Col dolce suon che da te piove’: studi su Francesco Landini e la musica del suo tempo in memoria di Nino Pirrotta (Florence, 1999) [incl. articles by N. Pirrotta, K. von Fischer, A. Ziino, J. Hirshberg, V. Newes and others]

J. Nádas and A.Ziino: ‘Two Newly Discovered Leaves from the Lucca Codex’, Studi musicali, xxix (2000)

Landini, Giovanni Battista

(fl 1630–35). Florentine music printer. He appears to have taken over the firm of Pietro Cecconcelli.

Landini cadence [Landino 6th]

(Ger. Landinoklausel, Landinosext).

A name often used for a cadential formula in which the sixth degree of the scale is interposed between the leading note and its resolution on the tonic or final degree (ex.1 ..\Frames/F003444.html). Many examples appear in the ballate of Francesco Landini (exx.2 and 3), but it is particularly common in polyphony of the 15th and early 16th centuries.

The pattern is perhaps inevitable because contrapuntal theory of the Middle Ages required that a cadence should include two voices moving outwards to an octave (or perhaps a 5th), and composers were driven to add variety by embellishing the progression: several different kinds of embellishment pattern can be found in the music of that time, most of them giving prominence to the sixth degree which had the advantage of giving a perfect 5th with the lower voice in all such cadences. Exx.4, 5 and 6 show the three most common types of the cadence, all taken from the songs of Binchois.

In general the term has been used with extreme caution in scholarly writing: it is normal to put it in quotes, to qualify it as ‘the so-called Landini cadence’, or to find a synonym such as ‘under-third cadence’. But the name, though it has no medieval authority, may not be entirely inappropriate: certainly the figure appears earlier in the monophonic ballate of Gherardello da Firenze, for example; but Landini seems to have been the first composer to use the pattern at all systematically in the manner described above (see M. Long: ‘Landini's Musical Patrimony: a Reassessment of some Compositional Conventions in Trecento Polyphony’, JAMS, xl (1987), 31–52).

A.G. Ritter (Zur Geschichte des Orgelspiels, Leipzig, 1884, p.5) gave what seems to be the earliest description of such a cadence as being characteristic of Landini: he felt that Landini’s reputation as an organist merited a place in the history of organ music but he had access to only one work by the composer, the ballata Non avrà mai pietà, printed in Kiesewetter’s influential and pioneering Schicksale und Beschaffenheit (1841). On the basis of that piece alone Ritter attempted to describe Landini’s musical style and drew attention to the cadence in ex.1. His book had such success, in terms of both subsequent editions and its influence on other handbooks, that the label has remained current, though evidence of that currency must be sought in the more transitory literature rather than in the standard scholarly works.

DAVID FALLOWS

Landis, Clericus de

(fl 14th century). French composer. He is known only from a composition in NL-Uu 1846² (olim 37), in which he is described as ‘bone memorie’. The composition is a three-voice rondeau, Des dont que part, with text in the top voice only (ed. in CMM, liii/1; MMN, xv, 1985; facs. in E. Schreurs, ed.: Anthologie van muziekfragmenten uit de Lage Landen, Peer, 1985). It is noteworthy for its use of syncopation in C time, as well as for the use of imitation between top voice and tenor at the opening of the two principal sections.

GILBERT REANEY

Ländler

(Ger.).

A folkdance in 3/4 time of varying speed: generally fast in the west (Switzerland and the Tyrol) and slow in the east (Styria, Upper and Lower Austria). Before the dissemination of the waltz, mazurka and polka in the 19th century, the ländler was the most common folkdance in Austria, south Germany and German Switzerland. It also existed in Bohemia, Moravia, Slovenia and northern Italy, and in some areas it is still popular today. The dance itself is much older than the name; in the 18th century it was simply called ‘Tanz’, often prefixed by a region, for example ‘Salzburger Tänze’, ‘Ländlerische Tänze’ and Beethoven's ‘Mödlinger Tänze’. In the 19th century the term ‘Ländler’ gained widespread use, but some regions retained their distinctive terms (‘Steirische Tänze’ in Styria and Kärnten, ‘Steirer’ in Salzkammergut, ‘Wickler’ in Salzburg.

The Austrian court traditionally staged popular feasts called ‘Wirtschaften’, ‘Königreiche’ and ‘Bauernhochzeiten’ – dramatic representations of scenes from peasant life in which members of the imperial family appeared in costumes of peasants and hunters. These entertainments were in the nature of bals champêtres with folksongs and folkdances.Ex.1 shows a ‘Brader’ dance (after the Prater, one of Vienna's largest pleasure gardens) contrasted with a ländler, both from the 17th century. Composers such as J.H. Schmelzer wrote ballet suites containing ländlers for these festive occasions, and later both Haydn and Mozart wrote Teutsche or German Dances for the masked balls given by the court during Carnival at the Redoutensaal in the Hofburg.

The historical coherence of the ländler is primarily musical rather than choreographical. Most ländler's are for individual couples, but there are exceptions, for example the ‘Schuhplattler’ which is danced by a group of men. Hopping and stamping may be found in some areas but more widespread is the use of arm figures. In Upper Austria, Styria and in parts of Switzerland partners hold each other by one or two hands; in some areas partners do not hold each other at all.

The choreographic pattern of the ländler is left–right–left–right–left–right on the six crotchets of two bars, usually with every beat accented; in certain regions it is accompanied by ‘Paschen’ or rhythmic hand-clapping. The music consists of two strains eight or (later and under the influence of the waltz) 16 bars long, usually with each part repeated at least once. It is nearly always in a major key, is markedly diatonic, and the melody shows a tendency towards arpeggio figures, which may have influenced Alpine folksong. The ländler was usually played by two violins and a double bass, cymbal and clarinet, although today it is usually played by an accordion. The dance song (variously called ‘Schnadahüpfl’, ‘Gstanzl’, ‘Tanzl’), when the dancers sing or yodel to the ländler, can be in crotchets, or with many quavers (like the ländler). Vocal descendants of the ländler retain the musical form but are slower and not used for dancing. Silcher's Ännchen von Tharau (see ex.2), a folksong from the Tyrol, is a descendant of the ‘Schnadahüpfl’. Individual ländlers are sometimes gathered together to form a ländler chain, examples of which are provided by Schubert's dances for piano d145, 366, 681 and 734. In Upper Austria the lengthening of the third crotchet in the bar has developed in to a ländler in common time. By tradition the ländler music is played from memory, yet many players have ‘Partien’ or ‘Schnoasn’, notebooks in which they enter various ländlers, sometimes in a much abbreviated form and according to key. These musical ‘stenographs’ are never complete and, moreover, do not contain rhythmic variants and embellishments. Zoder is said to have possessed a collection of over 11,000 ländler melodies. The practice is now extinct.

The ländler was used by such Austrian symphonists as Haydn, Mozart, Bruckner and Mahler, whose minuet or scherzo movements are frequently ländler-like. The Carinthian tune in Berg's Violin Concerto is a true ländler melody, as is the waltz in Act 1 of Weber's Der Freischütz. Some of Brahms's songs are in ländler style, including Der Schmied, Sonntag, Wiegenlied and Vergebliches Ständchen.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGGZ (G. Haid and D. Mielke-Gerdes)

F.M. Böhme: Geschichte des Tanzes in Deutschland (Leipzig, 1886/R)

E. Binder: Oberösterreichische Original-Ländler aus älterer Zeit (Vienna, 1909)

H. Dondl: Der Ländler (Munich, 1912)

R. Zoder: ‘Die melodisch-stychische Anordnung von Ländlermelodien’, Das deutsche Volkslied, xvi (1914), 87

H. Gielge: ‘Der geradtaktige Ländler: ein musikalischer Eigenbrötler’,Das deutsche Volkslied, xlii (1940), 21

P. Nettl: The Story of Dance Music (New York, 1947/R)

E. Hamza: Der Ländler (Vienna, 1957)

H. Fritz: ‘Landtler, Steirer, Schleuniger: zur musikalischen Typologie des Ländlers’, Jb des Österreichischen Volksliedwerks, xxxviii (1989), 62–82

MOSCO CARNER/R

Lando, Stefano

(b Naples, c1530; d Naples, April 1571). Italian composer. Cerreto mentioned him as one of ‘the excellent composers from the city of Naples, now no longer living’. In 1559 he was appointed keeper of the vihuelas at the royal palace of Naples, and was also chamber musician to the Duke of Alcalà, Viceroy of Naples. His Primo libro de madrigali a quattro voci (Venice, 1558, incomplete) contains 39 madrigals; five three-voice napolitane appeared in contemporary collections (RISM 1566⁹, 1566¹⁰, 1570¹⁸). He may also be the composer of six works for two to four instruments (in I-Rn 156/1–4).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Cerreto: Della pratica musica vocale, et strumentale (Naples, 1601/R1969)

C. Sartori: ‘Stefano Landi uno e due: ma di chi sono le Canzoni strumentali’, NRMI, ix (1975), 3–9

PIER PAOLO SCATTOLIN

Landolfi, Carlo Ferdinando

(b c1710; d Baveno, 22 Nov 1784). Italian violin maker. He worked in Milan from about 1750 onwards. It is not known who taught him the art of violin making but he may have been associated with G.B. Guadagnini, who went there in 1749. His instruments draw much more from the Guadagnini workshop than from the earlier Milanese makers. By the mid-1750s he was producing his best violins, elegant in design and neat in workmanship, though with strong personal character. The varnish is rich in appearance, sometimes the deep red of the Venetians but more often a lighter orange-brown. His violins are desirable tonally, but mostly not in the same class as those of Guadagnini. Equally interesting are his violas, varying in size from a minute 38·1 cm body length, to a good 38·9 cm model and an occasional splendid pattern just over 40·6 cm. Landolfi cellos are invariably small, though good instruments.

Landolfi’s main pupils were Pietro Giovanni Mantegazza and his own son Pietro Antonio Landolfi (b c1730; d Baveno, 13 Nov 1795). Some of Pietro Antonio’s instruments were spoilt by their rather high build and a harder varnish than that used by his father. The younger Landolfi's influence is increasingly noticeable in the Landolfi instruments after 1760, but his enthusiasm for the craft seems to have waned from 1770.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Hamma: Meisterwerke italienischer Geigenbaukunst (Stuttgart, 1933)

C. Chiesa: ‘Milanese Violin Makers’, Violin Conference: Dartington 1995, 21–8

CHARLES BEARE/CARLO CHIESA

Landon [née Fuhrmann], Christa

(b Berlin, 23 Sept 1921; d Funchal, Madeira, 19 Nov 1977). Austrian musicologist. She studied the piano and organ with Bruno Seidlhofer, theory with Joseph Marx and Alfred Uhl and the harpsichord with Isolde Ahlgrimm at the Vienna Music Academy, and had private lessons in analysis with Webern. After passing the final harpsichord examination (1948), she worked for the Haydn Society in Boston and Vienna (1949–58), collaborating with H.C. Robbins Landon, then her husband, on publications and research. In 1959 she began working as a freelance editor, specializing in editions of Haydn (symphonies and cassations), Mozart (serenades) and Bach (Brandenburg Concertos, etc.). With Walther Dürr and Arnold Feil she was general editor of the new Schubert edition (1964–77), contributing herself two volumes containing symphonies and the piano music for four hands, and helping to revise (in 1978) Deutsch's 1951 thematic catalogue of Schubert's works. In the course of her editorial work she discovered about 50 sheets of hitherto unknown Schubert autographs in Vienna (see ÖMz, xxiv, 1969, pp.299–323; Eng. trans., MR, xxxi, 1970, pp.215–31); she published two rediscovered songs Vollendung and Die Erde (Kassel, 1970). With Alexander Weinmann she also discovered a proof copy of Beethoven’s Piano Sonata op.111 with corrections in the composer's hand (see FAM, xxvi, 1979, pp.281–94). She also wrote on Haydn (see Haydn-Studien, iv, 1978, pp.113–17) and her articles on Schubert have been reprinted in Christa Landon zum Gedächtnis (Tübingen, 1978; incl. list of writings). She was killed in an aeroplane crash.

EDITIONS

Joseph Haydn: Messen Nr. 5–8, Werke, xxiii/2 (Munich, 1958) [with K.H. Füssl and H.C.R. Landon]; Sämtliche Klaviersonaten, i–iii (Vienna, 1963–6); Sinfonia concertante Hob. I:105 (Zürich, 1968)

Franz Schubert: Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke, V/1: Symphonien Nr.1–3 (Kassel, 1967) [with A. Feil]; VII/1/ii, iv, 2/v: Werke für Klavier zu vier Händen (Kassel, 1972–8) [VII/2/v with W. Dürr]; VIII/4: Thematisches Verzeichnis seiner Werke in chronologischer Folge (Kassel, 1978) [with W. Dürr, A. Feil and others]; VI/3: Streichquartette (Kassel, 1980) [with W. Dürr and A. Feil]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. LaRue: ‘Christa Landon (1921–1977)’, MQ, lxiv (1978), 104–5

RUDOLF KLEIN

Landon, H(oward) C(handler) Robbins

(b Boston, 6 March 1926). American musicologist. After studying music theory with Alfred Swan, composition with Harl McDonald and English literature with W.H. Auden at Swarthmore College (1943–5), and music with Karl Geiringer and Hugo Norton at Boston University (1945–7, MusB 1947), he worked as a music critic for American papers in England, France, Holland and Austria (1947–9). In 1949 he founded the Haydn Society, of which he became secretary general (1949–51), and which planned a complete edition of Haydn’s works. He edited the Haydn Yearbook from its inception in 1962. He has held appointments as professor of music at Queens College, New York (1969), and regis professor at the University of California at Davis (1970); he was John Bird Professor of Music at the University of Wales, Cardiff (1978–93) and a fellow of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford (1979). He has been awarded honorary doctorates by Boston University (1969), Queen’s University, Belfast (1974), Bristol University (1981) and the New England Conservatory (1989). He was presented with the Siemens Prize (1991) and the Medal of Honour of the Handel and Haydn Society (1993).

Landon started publishing material on Haydn and critical editions of his music in the late 1940s. His book The Symphonies of Joseph Haydn (1955) discusses new chronologies and texts, setting the works in the broad context of 18th-century music and of Haydn’s output as a whole. He continued to draw fresh public and scholarly attention to other Haydn works, notably the masses and operas, several of which he published in new editions, stimulating performances and provoking a reappraisal of Haydn as a dramatic composer. The culmination of his work on Haydn was the five-volume Haydn: Chronicle and Works (1976–80); it and the book on the symphonies represent major landmarks in Haydn studies. He has also contributed to Mozart scholarship and has done much work on the sources of Austrian 18th-century music in general. Some of his work, for example 1791: Mozart’s Last Year (1988) and Vivaldi: Voice of the Baroque (1993), is directed towards a broader public – 1791 in particular has been widely translated and much reprinted. Some of his work (particularly on composers slightly outside his specialist field, for example Vivaldi, J.C. Bach and Beethoven) has been criticized for lacking the scholarly precision that distinguished his earlier research, particularly that on Haydn.

WRITINGS

‘On Haydn’s Quartets of Opera 1 & 2: Notes and Comments on Sondheimer’s Historical and Psychological Study’, MR, xiii (1952), 181–6

‘The Original Versions of Haydn’s First “Salomon” Symphonies’, MR, xv (1954), 1–32

The Symphonies of Joseph Haydn (London, 1955, suppl., 1961)

‘La crise romantique dans la musique autrichienne vers 1770: quelques précurseurs inconnus de la Symphonie en sol mineur (KV 183) de Mozart’, Les influences étrangères dans l’oeuvre de W.A. Mozart: Paris 1956, 27–47

‘Symphonien: ihr geistiger und musikalischer Ursprung und ihre Entwicklung’, Mozart-Aspekte, ed. P. Schaller and H. Kühner (Olten and Freiburg, 1956), 39–62

ed., with D. Mitchell: The Mozart Companion (London and New York, 1956) [incl. ‘The Concertos (2): Their Musical Origin and Development’, 234–82]

‘Mozart fälschlich zugeschriebene Messen’, MJb 1957, 85–95

‘Problems of Authenticity in Eighteenth-Century Music’, Instrumental Music: Cambridge, MA, 1957, 31–56

‘Survey of the Haydn Sources in Czechoslovakia’, Konferenz zum Andenken Joseph Haydns: Budapest 1959, 69–77

ed.: The Collected Correspondence and London Notebooks of Joseph Haydn (London, 1959)

‘Haydn’s Marionette Operas and the Repertoire of the Marionette Theatre at Esterház Castle’, Haydn Yearbook 1962, 111–97 [incl. thematic catalogue, list of marionette operas and marionette productions at Eszterháza, 1773–83]

Haydn Symphonies (London, 1966, 2/1968)

ed.: C.S. Terry: John Christian Bach (London, 2/1967)

‘Haydniana’, Haydn Yearbook 1968, 199–206 [Missa Rorate coeli desuper, authenticity of concertos, letters to L. Polzelli, Viotti]; Haydn Yearbook 1970 (1970), 307–19 [letters to Mme Pointer, Artaria, Sieber]

‘Haydn’s Newly Discovered Responsorium ad Absolutionem, “Libera me, Domine”’, Haydn Yearbook 1968, 140–47 [facs. and modern edn, 228–35]

Beethoven: sein Leben und seine Welt in zeitgenössischen Bildern und Texten (Zürich, 1970; Eng. trans., 1970, as Beethoven: a Documentary Study, 2/1992 as Beethoven: his Life, Work and World)

ed., with R.E. Chapman: Studies in Eighteenth-Century Music: a Tribute to Karl Geiringer (New York and London, 1970)

Essays on the Viennese Classical Style: Gluck, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven (London, 1970)

‘Haydns erste Erfahrungen in England: von der Ankunft in London bis zum ersten Salomon-Konzert’, Jb für österreichische Kulturgeschichte, i/2: Beiträge zur Musikgeschichte des 18. Jahrhunderts (1971), 154–81

‘A New Authentic Source for “La fedeltà premiata” by Haydn’, Soundings, ii (1971–2), 6–17

‘Two Research Lacunae of the Classic Period’, Perspectives in Musicology, ed. B.S. Brook, E.O.D. Downes and S. Van Solkema (New York, 1972), 136–50

‘Opera in Italy and the Holy Roman Empire: the Operas of Haydn’, NOHM, vii (1973), 172–99

‘The Newly Discovered Autograph to Haydn's Missa Cellensis of 1766 (Formerly Known as the “Missa Sanctae Caeciliae”)’, Haydn Yearbook 1975, 306–27 [incl. facs.]

Haydn: Chronicle and Works (London, 1976––80)

Haydn: a Documentary Study (London and New York, 1981)

‘A New, Authentic Manuscript Source for Beethoven's Wind-Band Sextetto, op.71’, Music East and West: Essays in Honor of Walter Kaufmann, ed. T. Noblitt (New York, 1981), 261–71

‘The Acta musicalia of the Esterházy Archives’, Haydn Yearbook 1982, 5–96; 1983, 9–128; 1984, 93–180; 1985, 99–207

Mozart and the Masons: New Light on the Lodge ‘Crowned Hope’ (London, 1982)

Handel and his World (London and Boston, 1984)

‘New Manuscript Sources of Works by Joseph Haydn, Johann Michael Haydn, and their Austrian Contemporaries’, Haydn Yearbook 1984, 199–213

1791: Mozart’s Last Year (London and New York, 1988)

‘The Pre-Classical Concerto and the Concerto Parallel to Mozart’, A Companion to the Concerto, ed. R. Layton (London, 1988), 57–74

with D.W. Jones: Haydn: his Life and Music (London, 1988)

Mozart: the Golden Years, 1781–1791 (London and New York, 1989)

ed.: The Mozart Compendium: a Guide to Mozart’s Life and Music (London and New York, 1990)

Mozart and Vienna, including Selections from Johann Pezzl’s ‘Sketch of Vienna’ (1786–1790) (London and New York, 1991)

with J.J. Norwich: Five Centuries of Music in Venice (London and New York, 1991)

with N. Salinger: Mozart à Paris, Musée Carnavalet, 13 Nov 1991 – 16 Feb 1992 (Paris, 1991) [exhibition catalogue]

Mozart, Samedi 12 Novembre 1791: une journée particulière (Paris, 1993)

‘“Nothing can Exceed the Pleasure and Happyness of this Place”: an Englishman in Vienna and Eisenstadt Castle in 1748 and 1749’, Haydn Yearbook 1993, 197–212

‘The Symphonies of Mozart’, A Companion to the Symphony, ed. R. Layton (London, 1993), 53–79; repr. in The Mozart Essays (London, 1995), 81–110

Vivaldi: Voice of the Baroque (London, 1993)

ed.: Haydn schreibt Briefe (Vienna, 1993)

ed., with E. Radant: ‘Dokumente aus den Eszterházy-Archiven in Eisenstadt und Forchtenstein’, Haydn Yearbook 1993, 1–114; 1994, 1–359

The Mozart Essays (London, 1995)

Horns in High C: a Memoir of Musical Discoveries and Adventures (London, 1999)

EDITIONS

Joseph Haydn: Symphonies, nos.82–7, Kritische Gesamtausgabe, 1st ser., ix (Leipzig, 1950); Symphonies, nos.88–92, ibid, 1st ser., x (Leipzig, 1951); Messen Nr.5–8, Werke, xxiii/2 (Munich and Duisburg, 1958) [with K.H. Füssl and C. Landon]; critical ed. of the complete symphonies in pocket score, with foreword and notes to each symphony (Vienna, 1963–8); also critical edns of numerous other works

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Symphonien, K.V.543, 550, 551, Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke, iv/11/9 (Kassel, 1957); Mauerische Trauermusik, ibid, x/53 (Kassel, 1956)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

O. Biba and D.W. Jones, eds.: Studies in Music History Presented to H.C. Robbins Landon (London, 1996) [incl. J. Agus: ‘H.C. Robbins Landon: a Bibliography’, 234–53]

PAULA MORGAN

Landormy, Paul (Charles René)

(b Issy-les-Moulineaux, 3 Jan 1869; d Paris, 17 Nov 1943). French musicologist and composer. He was an agrégé des lettres of the Ecole Normale and taught philosophy in Roanne and Bar-le-Duc; he later wrote on Socrates and Descartes. He began to study music in Paris in 1892, taking singing lessons from Giovanni Sbriglia and Pol Plançon whose niece, a pianist, he married in 1897. From 1902 he worked with Romain Rolland organizing courses in music history at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, where he also founded and directed the acoustics laboratory (1904–7). Landormy was a regular contributor to Le temps and in 1918 was appointed music critic of La victoire. He also served as secretary of the music section of the Paris International Exhibition (1937) and as editor-in-chief of the series Collection des Chefs d’Oeuvre de la Musique Expliqués, to which he contributed a volume on Gounod’s Faust. His compositions include piano pieces and songs.

WRITINGS

Commentary on: R. Descartes: Discours de la méthode (Paris, 1899)

‘Des moyens d’organiser en France une ligue pour la protection et le développement de l’art musical’, Congrès d’histoire de la musique: Paris 1900, 246–50

Socrate (Paris, 1900)

Descartes (Paris, 1902/R)

Histoire de la musique (Paris 1910, 3/1923; Eng. trans with addns by F.H. Martens, 1923, 2/1935)

‘La musique de chambre’, La musique contemporaine française: Rome 1911, 103–16

Brahms (Paris, 1920, 5/1948)

Bizet (Paris, 1924, 2/1950)

Schumann (Paris, n.d.)

La vie de Schubert (Paris, 1928/R; Eng. trans., 1966)

Albert Roussel (Paris, 1938)

Gluck (Paris, 1941)

Gounod (Paris, 1942)

La musique française, i: La musique française de Franck à Debussy; ii: La musique française après Debussy; iii: La musique française de ‘La Marseillaise’ à la mort de Berlioz (Paris, 1943–4)

JOHN TREVITT

Landowska, Wanda

(b Warsaw, 5 July 1879; d Lakeville, CT, 16 Aug 1959). Polish keyboard player. She was a champion of 17th- and 18th-century music and the leading figure in the 20th-century revival of the harpsichord. Her date of birth has been variously given, but on her passport is 5 July 1879.

She played the piano from the age of four; her first teachers were Jan Kleczyński and then, at the Warsaw Conservatory, Aleksander Michałowski, both Chopin specialists. In 1896 she went to Berlin and studied composition under Heinrich Urban, but was, in her own words, ‘refractory to rules’. From this period date some songs, Kolysanka for voice and piano and Paysage triste for string orchestra. She won two prizes in 1903 in the Musica International Competition with a piano piece and a song, causing Massenet to declare ‘Elle a du talent, beaucoup de talent’. She had already shown an enthusiasm for Bach (then played mostly in transcriptions), and was beginning to make a reputation as a pianist. In 1900 she moved to Paris, married Henry Lew (an authority on Hebrew folklore, killed in a car accident in 1919) and with his help threw herself energetically into research on every aspect of 17th- and 18th-century music and its interpretation. She played Bach concertos (on the piano) at the Schola Cantorum, with which she was associated for the next decade, but became increasingly convinced that only the harpsichord was really appropriate to this period. She first played the harpsichord in public in 1903 and subsequently made concert tours in Europe (including Russia, where Tolstoy was interested in her playing and her ideas), at the same time assiduously writing what she herself later recognized as ‘belligerent’ articles to overcome the resistance widely shown towards the harpsichord, largely on account of the feeble tone of the available instruments. In 1909 she published her book Musique ancienne, and three years later at the Breslau Bach Festival triumphantly introduced a large new two-manual harpsichord built to her own specification by Pleyel. In 1913 she began a harpsichord class at the Hochschule für Musik in Berlin, where she and her husband were detained as civil prisoners on parole during World War I.

Immediately after the war Landowska played a harpsichord continuo in the St Matthew Passion – for the first time in the 20th century – in Basle, where she held masterclasses before returning to Paris, which she made her home; she lectured at the Sorbonne and gave classes at the Ecole Normale. With four Pleyel harpsichords, she made her first visit to the USA in 1923, appearing with the Philadelphia Orchestra under Stokowski and making her first gramophone records (she had made some piano rolls in 1905); she also toured extensively in other countries. In 1925 she settled at Saint-Leu-la-Fôret (north of Paris) where she founded an Ecole de Musique Ancienne which attracted students from all over the world to private and public courses; the summer concerts held in its concert hall (built 1927) were to become celebrated. There, in 1933, she gave the first integral performance of Bach’s Goldberg Variations. When the Germans approached Paris in 1940 – anti-aircraft fire can be heard in her recording of Scarlatti sonatas – she had to abandon the school, her library of over 10,000 volumes and her valuable collection of instruments; after several months at Banyuls-sur-Mer, near the Spanish border, she went to New York, where in February 1942 she was rapturously received for her performance of the Goldberg Variations. She toured widely in the USA, performing and teaching, and found a new home in Lakeville, Connecticut. At the age of 70 she recorded the complete Bach ‘48’.

Decorated by both the French and Polish governments, Landowska was also held in the highest esteem by the entire musical world. Concertos were written for her by Falla and Poulenc (Concert champêtre); many of her pupils later became eminent harpsichordists, and she exercised an even wider influence through her numerous writings and recordings. She developed modern harpsichord technique, particularly in matters of fingering, and laid emphasis on good touch and on the acquisition of a true legato and of variety of articulation. Her own playing was characterized by its vigour and sparkling vitality, which contrasted with her seemingly frail figure and the unobtrusive way she glided on to a platform, although she radiated a deep and serene confidence. She gave spirit precedence over letter, and did not hesitate to add such things as superfluous petites reprises in Bach's Goldberg Variations. If her registrations, in her many recordings, appear over-coloured for later taste, these arise partly from the nature of the instrument she used and, like the vehemence of many of her writings, seemed necessary at the time to counter objections to the ‘bloodlessness’ of the harpsichord.

Her writings reveal the thoroughness of preparation and the imaginative insight she brought to her performances; an extensive selection of these (many of them re-workings of previous material) is to be found in Landowska on Music (New York, 1965), edited by her disciple Denise Restout. It includes a list of her compositions (among them the Pologne variations for two pianos, several arrangements of Polish folksongs and a Liberation Fanfare in honour of Charles de Gaulle) and a discography (which is complete except for the Mozart and Poulenc items issued by the International Piano Library, IPL 106–7).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AND OTHER RESOURCES

A. Schaeffner: ‘Wanda Landowska et le retour aux “humanités” de la musique’, ReM, viii/3 (1926–7), 254

N. Dufourcq: Le clavecin (Paris, 1949, 2/1967), chap.9

R. Gelatt: Music Makers (New York, 1953/R), 254

B. Gavoty and R. Hauert: Wanda Landowska (Geneva, 1957)

R. Subin: ‘And so I am going on …’, American Record Guide, xxvi (1959), 239 [with discography by I. Kipnis]

T. Bainbridge: ‘Wanda Landowska and her Repertoire: a Note’, EMc, iii (1975), 39–41

R. Dyson: ‘Bend the Finger at All Three Joints: a First-Hand Record of Landowska’s Teaching Methods’, EMc, iii (1975), 240–42

H. Schott: ‘Wanda Landowska: a Centenary Appraisal’, EMc, vii (1979), 467–72

D. Restout: ‘Wanda Landowska’, Women Composers: Music Through the Ages, ed. S. Glickman and M.F. Schleifer, vi (New York, 1999), 382–8 [incl. list of compositions]

Landowska: Uncommon Visionary, videotape (New York, 1999)

LIONEL SALTER

Landowski, Marcel

(b Pont-l'Abbé, Finistère, 18 Feb 1915). French composer and administrator. As a high-ranking official in the Ministry of Culture from the 1960s he was a moving spirit in the reorganization of music in France, and was thus one of the central figures in French musical life during the last three decades of the 20th century. He is the son of the sculptor Paul Landowski, whose famous statue of Christ overlooks the bay of Rio de Janeiro, and the great-grandson of the violinist and composer Henri Vieuxtemps. Landowski decided to become a composer at the age of seven, during an end-of-term concert at the Marguerite Long school where he was a star pupil. When he was 13 his father encouraged him to show his first scores to the composer Raoul Laparra. Four years later he entered the Paris Conservatoire, where he studied harmony with Paul Fauchet, counterpoint and fugue with Noël Gallon, conducting with Gaubert and composition with Busser. He also studied conducting with Pierre Monteux, who conducted some of the first performances of Landowski's works, including Les sorcières and Les sept loups (both 1937).

Even in 1937, when he was still a student, Marcel Landowski made his independent mark as a composer with works that successfully eschewed Conservatoire academicism. He continued to reject dogmatic precepts, serialism notably: the only influence he has acknowledged is that of Honegger, with whom, since their first meeting in 1941, he enjoyed a lasting friendship. Landowski has always preferred to subordinate his style to the dramatic content of his scores. Respecting classical forms and faithful to tradition, he has expressed himself most fully in stage music, especially operas like Le rire de Nils Halerius, Le fou, L'opéra de poussière and Montségur, and in such works as his symphony Jean de la Peur, his Messe de l'Aurore and Un enfant appelle, written for Mstislav Rostropovitch and Galina Vishnevskaya, to whom he also dedicated his opera Galina.

In 1960 Landowski embarked upon an administrative career, initially as director of the conservatoire of Boulogne-Billancourt, the district in the Parisian region where he lived. In 1964, after two years as music director of the Comédie-Française, the writer André Malraux, Minister of Culture in General de Gaulle's government, appointed him inspector-general of music education, and then entrusted the department of music in the Ministry of Cultural Affairs to him. From 1970 to 1975 he was director of music, opera and dance. In the course of these ten years in the Ministry he pursued a policy of renovating and decentralizing music teaching, reforming the opera in France – most notably by appointing Rolf Liebermann to direct the Opéra in Paris – founding festivals and symphonic ensembles, including the Orchestre de Paris which he entrusted in 1967 to his old friend Charles Münch, and encouraging the state to support musical creativity. From 1977 to 1979 he pursued the same policy as director of cultural affairs for the city of Paris. Since 1975 he has been a member of the Institut de France at the Académie des Beaux-Arts, of which he became permanent secretary in 1986, and in 1994 he was appointed chancellor of the Institut de France, a post he occupied until 1999. In 1991 he became chairman and managing director of Editions Salabert, and he is also active in the Association Musique Nouvelle en Liberté, which he founded with the aim of promoting creativity in the musical institutions of France.

WORKS

(selective list)

operas

Le rire de Nils Halerius (légende lyrique et choréographique, 3, G. Caillet and Landowski), 1944–8, Mulhouse, Opéra, 19 Jan 1951

Le fou (drame lyrique, 2, 5 tableaux, Landowski and P. de La Tour du Pin), 1948–55, Nancy, 1 Feb 1956

Rabelais, François de France (opéra-ballet, 1), 1953, Tours, 26 July 1953

Le ventriloque (comédie lyrique et choréographique, 1, Landowski and P. Arnold), 1954–5, Paris, Sarah Bernhardt, 6 Feb 1956

L'opéra de poussière (drame lyrique, prol, 2, 4 tableaux, G. Caillet and Landowski), 1958–62, Festival d'Avignon, 25 Oct 1962

Les adieux (drame lyrique, 1, Landowski), 1959, Radio Luxembourg, Nov 1959; staged, POC, Théâtre de la Ville, 8 Oct 1960

Le pont de l'espérance (oratorio scénique, 6 tableaux, Landowski and A. de Lamartine), 1980, Vaison-la-Romaine, Antique, 8 Aug 1980

Montségur (drame lyrique, 2, 11 tableaux, G. Caillet, G.-P. Sainderichin and Landowski, after Le Duc de Lévis-Mirepoix), 1980–85, Toulouse, Halles aux Grains, 1 Feb 1985

La prison (récit musical et dramatique, 3 pts, Landowski), 1981, Aix-en-Provence, Pavillon Vendôme, 18 July 1983

La sorcière du placard au balais (mini-opéra pour enfants, 1, Landowski, after P. Gripari), 1983, concert perf., Sèvres, 2 May 1983; staged, Boulogne-Billancourt, 8 March 1984

La vieille maison (conte musical, 2, 11 tableaux, Landowski), 1987, Nantes, Opéra, 25 Feb 1988

P'tit Pierre et la sorcière du placard aux balais (opéra pour enfants, Landowski, after P. Gripari), 1991, Colmar, 7 May 1992

Galina (op, 15 tableaux, Landowski), 1995, Lyons, Opéra, 17 March 1996

ballets

Abîmes (2, Y. Bonnat), Essen, Opera, 12 Feb 1959

Le fantôme de l'opéra (2, R. Petit, after G. Leroux), 1979, Paris, Opéra, 22 Feb 1980

Les hauts de Hurlevant (2, 7 tableaux, R. Petit, after E. Brontë), 1982, Paris, Champs-Elysées, 28 Dec 1982

incidental music

Le petit Poucet (féerie, 4, 10 tableaux, after C. Perrault), perf. 1949; Un dieu a dormi dans la maison (G. Figueiredo), 1952; Paris a dix mille ans (spectacle pyrotechnique), 1952; Le songe d'un nuit d'été (W. Shakespeare), 1953; Retour par Dunkerque (J. Chabannes), 1955; Prestige de Toulouse (son et lumière, le Duc de Lévis-Mirepoix), 1956; Reflets de Lyon (son et lumière), 1958; Sortilèges (son et lumière), 1960; Candide (P. Cardinal, after Voltaire), 1962; Le Cid (P. Corneille), 1963; Cyrano de Bergerac (E. Rostand), 1964

film scores

[directors' names in parentheses]

Etoiles de demain (R.G. Grand), 1942; Trente jours au-dessus des nuages (Chanas), 1942; Les beaux jours du Roi Murat (T. Pathé), 1946; Mandrin (R. Jayet), 1947; La femme sans passé (H. Calef), 1948; Gigi (J. Audry), 1948; Lyonnière, terre captive (Zimbacca), 1948; La Norvège sous les Vikings, 1948; Premier prix du conservatoire (Grand), 1948; Le secret de Monte-Cristo (A. Valentin), 1948; Sombre dimanche (Audry), 1948; Square du Temple (Zimbacca), 1948; Agnès de rien (P. Billon), 1949; L'homme aux mains d'argile (L. Mathot), 1949; La lanterne des morts (J. de Casembroot), 1949; Chéri (Audry), 1950; La rue sans loi (M. Gibaud), 1950; Jocelyn (de Casembroot), 1951; Maria du bout du monde (J. Stelli), 1951; Art Rhénan (M. Gibeau), 1952; La vie de Jésus (Gibeau), 1952; La millième fenêtre (R. Menegoz), 1959; Bonaparte (J. Vidal), 1962

vocal

With orch: Les sept loups (ballade, after J.W. von Goethe), female chorus, orch, 1937; Les sorcières (ballade, after W. Shakespeare: Macbeth), female chorus, orch, 1937; 3 mélodies (R. Tagore), S, orch, 1938; Rythmes du monde (orat, Landowski), solo vv, spkr, chorus, orch, 1939–41; Brumes (sym. poem, P. Verlaine, de La Tour du Pin), spkr, orch, 1943; La quête sans fin (orat, Landowski), spkr, chorus, orch, 1943–4; Jésus, là, es-tu? (cant., A. Marc), A, female chorus, str, perc, 1948; Chant de solitude, 4 solo female vv, orch, 1960; Les notes de nuit (conte symphonique, G. Caillet, Landowski), child spkr, orch, 1961; Aux mendiants de ciel, S, orch, 1966; Messe de l'Aurore (P. Emmanuel), S, T, B, chorus, orch, 1977; Un enfant appelle (M. Noël), S, vc, orch, 1978; La symphonie de Montségur, S, Bar, orch, 1987; Les leçons de ténèbres, S, B, vc, chorus, org, inst ens, 1991, arr. (S, B, solo vc, chorus, orch)/(S, B, solo vc, org); Chant de paix: écoute ma voix (Pope John Paul II), S, Bar, children's chorus/mixed chorus, orch; Help-Help Vatelot (Landowski), S, vc, chorus, small orchOther: 3 révérances à la mort (Tagore), S, pf, 1946; Le lac d'Undeneur (de La Tour du Pin), solo C, 1948–9; 4 chants d'innocence (A. Marc), female chorus, 1952; Les deux soeurs (M. Noël), 4 solo vv, 1986; Le silence (R.M. Rilke), 1v, org, 1993; Les Rois Mages (C. Bobin), children's/female chorus, fl, tpt, 1994

orchestral

Poème (Pf Conc. no.1), 1939–40; Vc Conc., 1944–5; Edina, sym. poem, 1946; Le petit Poucet, sym. suite, 1946 [arr. of pf pieces]; Jean de la Peur (Sym. no.1), 1949; 3 histoires de la prairie, 1950; Conc., ondes martenot, orch, 1954; Bn Conc., 1957, arr. bn, str orch, 1990; La passante, sym. suite, 1958 [from film score to La femme sans passé]; Mouvement, str, 1960; L'orage, sym. poem after painting by Giorgione, 1960; Pf Conc. no.2, 1963; Sym. no.2, 1964; Les espaces (Sym. no.3), 1965; Fl Conc. no.1, fl, str, 1968; Au bout du chagrin, une fenêtre ouverte, tpt, orch, tape, 1976; Le fantôme de l'opéra, sym. suite, 1979 [from ballet]; L'horloge, sym. poem, 1982; Improvisation, trbn, orch, 1983; Les orchestrades, 1985; Sym. no.4, 1988; 4 préludes pour l'Opéra des Bastilles, vn, str, timp ad lib, 1989; Concertino, trbn, str, 1990; Adagio cantabile, ob, eng hn, perc, str, 1991; Symphonie concertante, org, orch, 1993; Que ma joie demeure, vn, str, 1994; Vn Conc., 1995; Un chant, vc, orch, 1996; A Sainte Dévote, 1997; Ouverture pour un opéra imaginaire, fanfare, 4 hn, 4 tpt, 3 trbn, timp, 2 perc, 1997; Fl Conc. no.2, 1998; Sym. no.5 ‘Les lumières de la nuit’, 1998

chamber and solo instrumental

Sonatine, pf, 1940; 2 nocturnes, pf, 1945; Trio, hn, tpt, pf, 1954–5; En trottinant sur le sentier, pf, 1959; Concerto en trio, ondes martenot, perc, pf, 1975 [arr. of Conc., ondes martenot, orch, 1954]; Cahier pour quatre jours, tpt, org, 1977; Souvenir d'un jardin d'enfance, ob, pf, 1977, arr. ob, str orch, 1990; Blanc et feu, brass qnt, 1985; Sonata brève, vc, 1985; Petit chanson de l'amitié, 4 vc, 1987–91; Sonate en duo, cl, pf, 1992; Pas de deux en deux variations, vn, pf, 1993; La méditation de Jean-Pierre, fl, pf, 1995; Quatuor dit l'Interrogation, str qt, 1995; Etude de technique et de sonorité, vn, pf, 1996; Paris sur orgues, org, 1997; Villéda et le coeur de chêne, vn, hp, 1998; Le petit Poucet, 6 pieces, pf

Principal publishers: Billaudot, Choudens, Durand, Lemoine, Salabert

WRITINGS

Arthur Honegger (Paris, 1957)

with L. Aubert: L'orchestre (Paris, 1964)

Batailles pour la musique (Paris, 1979)

La musique n'adoucit pas les moeurs (Paris, 1990)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

B. Gavoty and Daniel-Lesur: Pour ou contre la musique moderne? (Paris, 1957), 172–3

C. Baignères: Marcel Landowski (Paris, 1959)

A. Goléa: Marcel Landowski (Paris, 1969)

ReM, nos.372–4 (1984) [Landowski issue]

F. Andrieux: ‘Marcel Landowski et le théâtre lyrique’, Le théâtre lyrique français 1945–85, ed. D. Pistone (Paris, 1987), 243–53

L'avant-scène opéra: opéra aujourd'hui, no.2a (1991) [Montségur, Le fou issue]

Marcel Landowski (Paris, 1996) [catalogue of works]

BRUNO SERROU

Landré, Guillaume

(b The Hague, 24 Feb 1905; d Amsterdam, 6 Nov 1968). Dutch composer. The son of Willem Landré, he received his early musical training from his father and from Zagwijn. He went on to study law at Utrecht University, while at the same time a composition pupil of Pijper. He fulfilled several functions in public musical life, including president of the Genootschap van Nederlandse Componisten, vice-president of the ISCM and a member of the Donemus Foundation, of the Stichting de Nederlandse Opera and of the Concertgebouw Orchestra, of which, from 1952 to 1955, he also acted as artistic director. He was an authority in the field of authors’ rights and was active both in national and international authors’ rights organizations.

His style was at first influenced by Pijper, as evident, for example, in the Piano Trio (1929). Landré adopted the then current principle of avoiding note repetition, and based many of his subsequent compositions on 12-note rows (as for instance in his Third Symphony), without, however, adhering to a strict dodecaphonic technique. In his later orchestral works he sometimes used titles which refer to specific formal or technical devices (e.g. Anagrammen and Permutazioni sinfoniche). Nevertheless, the content or character of the works remains similar to that of his symphonies, and is often highly expressive. In 1964 he received the Sweelinck Award in recognition of his lifetime’s work.

WORKS

(selective list)

stage

Ops: De snoek [The Pike] (3, E. van Lockhorst), 1934, Amsterdam, 1938; Jean Lévecq (1, G. Smit, after G. de Maupassant: Le retour), 1963, Amsterdam, 6 June 1965; La symphonie pastorale (prol, 3, epilogue, C. Rostand, after A. Gide), 1964, Rouen, Arts, 31 March 1968

orchestral

Sym. no.1, 1932; Suite, str, pf, 1936; 4 Pieces, 1937; Concert Piece, 1938; Vc Conc., 1940; Sinfonietta, vn, orch, 1941; Sym. no.2, 1942; Sinfonia sacra in memoriam patris, 1948; Sym. Music, fl, orch, 1948; 4 mouvements symphoniques, 1949; 4 Miniatures on H.E., cl, str, 1950; Sym. no.3, 1951; Chbr Sym., 1952; Sonata festiva, chbr orch, 1953; Sym. no.4, 1955; Caleidoscopio, 1956; Permutazioni sinfoniche, 1957; Cl Conc., 1958; Variations on an Eulenspiegel Theme, 2 vn, orch, 1958; Concertante, cb, cl, orch, 1959, arr. b cl, orch, 1961; Anagrammen, 1960; Sonata per orchestra da camera, 1961; Variazioni senza tema, 1967; La symphonie pastorale, interludes, 1968

vocal

Egidius waer bestu bleven [Where Have You Been], female chorus, 1929; Piae memoriae pro patria mortuorum, chorus, tpt, orch, 1942; Groet der martelaren [The Martyrs’ Greeting] (L. Braat), Bar, orch, 1944; Berceuse voor moede mensen (A. de Vries), 3vv, chbr orch, 1952

chamber and solo instrumental

4 str qts: 1927; 1943, rev. 1959; 1949; 1965

Other: Sonata, vn, pf, 1927; Pf Trio, 1929; Wind Qnt, 1930; 4 Miniaturen, cl, str, 1950; Moment musical, pf, 1950; Sextet, fl, cl, str qt, 1959; Wind Qnt, 1960; Quartetto piccolo, 2 tpt, hn, trbn, 1961

Principal publisher: Donemus

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Badings: ‘Guillaume Landré’, De hedendaagsche Nederlandsche muziek (Amsterdam, 1936), 87–90

J. Wouters: ‘Guillaume Landré: Symphonic Permutations’, Sonorum speculum, no.8 (1961), 10–13

J. Wouters: ‘Guillaume Landré: Symphony no.III’, Sonorum speculum, no.20 (1964), 34–7

W. Paap: ‘In memoriam Guillaume Landré’, Sonorum speculum, no.37 (1968), 1–5

C. Rostand: ‘La symphonie pastorale: Opera by Guillaume Landré’, Sonorum speculum, no.34 (1968), 1–16

J. Wouters: ‘Guillaume Landré’, Dutch Composers’ Gallery (Amsterdam, 1971), 88–103

MARIUS FLOTHUIS

Landry, Richard [Dickie]

(b Cecilia, LA, 16 Nov 1938). American saxophonist and composer. He received the BME from the University of Southwestern Louisiana in 1962 and studied the flute with Arthur Lora in the early 1960s. He was well known as a member of the Philip Glass Ensemble from 1968 until 1981, during which time he appeared in all of the ensemble's concerts and recordings, including the seminal Einstein on the Beach (1979). In the early 1970s he began pursuing his own solo career, performing throughout Europe, the Americas, Russia, India and Japan. He has also worked with other performing and visual artists, including David Byrne, Laurie Anderson, Robert Rauschenberg, Paul Simon, Robert Wilson and Richard Serra. In 1973 he developed a new electronic performance process – quadraphonic delay – that enables him to perform with four mirror images or echoes of himself. This technique is best demonstrated in his solo album 15 Saxophones (1976). His improvisational compositions combine the various styles and idioms of jazz, classical and contemporary music; his most significant through-composed work is the Mass for Pentecost Sunday (1987).

Landry was also one of the early pioneers of video art. His videotapes, showing him in performance, often with close-up images of his hands or mouth, have been exhibited in museums and galleries throughout the world. These works include 1, 2, 3, 4, (1969), Sax I (1970), Sax II (1972), Quadraphonic Delay Suite (1973) and Divided Alto (1974).

Principal recording companies: Chatham Square, Northern Lights

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Johnson: ‘Music on Videotape’, Village Voice (14 Nov 1974)

P. Glass: ‘Interview with Richard Landry’, Parachute [Montreal], no.6 (1977)

T. Johnson: The Voice of New Music New York City 1972–1982 (Eindhoven, 1989)

R. Kostelanetz, ed.: Writings on Glass (New York, 1997)

CHARLES PASSY/JON GIBSON

Landsberg, Ludwig

(b Breslau, 1807; d Rome, 6 May 1858). German musician and collector. After beginning his career as a tenor in the chorus of the Royal Opera House in Berlin, he settled in Rome and lived there for 24 years. He studied the piano and organized successful amateur concerts. He also devoted himself intensively to the study of early music and musical literature. His wide knowledge helped him to amass a valuable library, drawn from all over Italy and Germany. At his death, his heirs conveyed part of the collection to Breslau and part to Berlin, and catalogues were prepared to enable it to be acquired by music lovers. But many of the choicest items appear to have vanished (this statement is derived from Fétis, who seems to have known Landsberg by correspondence and received from him a manuscript catalogue on which he based his comparisons). Nevertheless, some of the greatest treasures, including a number of Beethoven sketchbooks, found their way into the Königliche Bibliothek (later called the Preussische Staatsbibliothek) in Berlin; most of them remain in the collections of the Deutsche Staatsbibliothek and the Staatsbibliothek der Stiftung Preussischer Kulturbesitz in Berlin.

ALEC HYATT KING

Landsbergis, Vytautas

(b Kaunas, 18 Oct 1932). Lithuanian musicologist. He studied at the J. Gruodis Music School (from 1946) and later at the Lithuanian State Conservatory (from 1950). He taught the piano and was an accompanist at the M.K. Čiurlionis Music School (1952–5), after which he became a lecturer (1957–63) and, having gained the doctorate in musicology in 1969, professor (1978–90) at the Lithuanian State Conservatory. He was in addition a lecturer and associate professor at both the Vilnius Pedagogical Institute (1957–74) and the affiliated conservatory departments in Klaipėda (1974–8). Landsbergis was chairman of the Lithuanian Reform movement Sajudis from 1988 to 1990, during the troubled times preceding Lithuania's independence from the Soviet Union. On independence he was made President of Parliament – the Head of State of Lithuania (1990–92) and served as co-chairman of the Council of Baltic States. He has remained a powerful political figure as leader of the opposition (1992–6) and chairman of the Seimas (Parliament) of the Republic of Lithuania (1996–). He has been awarded many honorary degrees, at the Loyola University in Chicago (1991), Weber State University in Ogden, Utah (1992), and at the universities of Kaunas (1992) and Klaipėda (1997). Among various other awards he has received are the Lithuanian SSR Award (1975; 1988) and the Norwegian People's Peace Prize (1991).

Despite his political activities, Landsbergis has continued to pursue his career as a musicologist. He has written on a number of Lithuanian composers, for example Balys Dvarionas and Česlovas Sasnauskas, but his particular interest is the work of M.K. Čiurlionis, on which he is the leading expert. He has recorded (EMI 1998, CD) and produced editions of Čiulionis's works for piano (Leningrad, 1975, 2/1980; Cracow, 1978; Vilnius, 1985, 1990, 2/1997) and choir (Leningrad, 1983) and has prepared studies that examine his life and music, art, written (word) creation. In 1987 he was elected chairman of the M.K. Čiurlionis Society, and in 1995 he became chairman of the organizing committee for the international M.K. Čiurlionis piano and organ competition.

WRITINGS

Pavasario sonata [Spring sonata – essays and researches] (Vilnius, 1965)

Sonata vesnï: tvorchestvo M.K. Ciurlionisa [Spring sonata: Čiurlionis's creation-monograph] (Leningrad, 1971, 2/1975)

ed.: M.K. Čiurlionis: Laiskai Sofijai [Čiurlionis: Letters to Sofija] (Vilnius, 1973) [documentary biography]

Čiurlionio dailė [Čiurlionis' art] (Vilnius, 1976)

Česlovas Sasnauskas. Bibliografija [Česlovas Sasnauskas. Bibliography] (Vilnius, 1978)

‘Das Königliche Konservatorium zu Leipzig mit den Augen eines Studenten: Briefe von M.K. Čiurlionis’, BMw, xxi (1979), 42–69

Česlovo Sasnausko gyvenimas ir darbai [The life and work of Česlovas Sasnauskas) (Vilnius, 1980)

Vainikas Čiurlioniui: menininko gyvenimo ir kurybos apybraizos [The wreath for Čiurlionis: essays on life and work of artist] (Vilnius, 1980)

‘Eugeniusz Morawski ogladany z innej perspektywy’ [Another view of Morawski], Ruch muzyczny, iii (1981), 12–14

‘Twórczosc fortepianowa Balysa Dvarionasa: stylizacja i autentyzm’ [The piano music of Dvarionas: style-links and authenticity], Zeszyty naukowe: Akademia Myzycna im. Stanislawa Moniuszki w Gdansku, xxiii (1984), 243–53

Čiurlinio muzika [Čiurlionis's music] (Vilnius, 1986)

‘Morze w twórczosci Eduardasa Balsysa’ [The sea in Balsys's output], Zeszyty naukowe: Akademia Myzycna im. Stanislawa Moniuszki w Gdansku, xxvi (1987), 267–71

Geresnes muzikos troskimas [The desire for better music – collection of essays and critics] (Vilnius, 1990)

‘Eine ungewühnliche Oper: Grüner Vogel Strazdas von Bronius Kutavicius’, Sowjetische Musik im Licht der Perestroika, ed. H. Danuser, H. Gerlach and J. Köchel (Laaber, 1990), 201–6

M.K. Čiurlionis: Time and content (Vilnius, 1992)

‘The Spring sonata’; ‘Art as an historical problem’; ‘The symbolism of sounds’, Čiurlionis: painter and composer, ed. S. Goštautas (Vilnius, 1994), 373–89; 443–51; 466–69

ed.: M.K. Čiurlionis: Žodžio küryba [The creation of word – poetry and prose] (Vilnius, 1997)

Jahre der Entscheidung. Litauen auf dem Weg in die Freiheit: Eine politische Autobiographie (Ostfildern vor Stuttgart, 1997)

JOHN TYRRELL

Landshoff, Ludwig

(b Stettin [now Szczecin, Poland], 3 June 1874; d New York, 20 Sept 1941). German musicologist and conductor. He studied music with Thuille, Heinrich Urban and Reger and musicology with Friedlaender and Oskar Fleischer at Berlin University and with Sandberger at the University of Munich, where he took the doctorate in 1900 with a dissertation on Johann Rudolf Zumsteeg. He was subsequently an opera conductor at the theatres in Aachen (1902–4), Kiel (1912–13), Breslau (1913–15) and Würzburg (1915–20), and music director of the Munich Bachverein (1918–28), where he performed a wide variety of music, including that of Bach's sons, Pergolesi, Hasse and Jommelli as well as contemporary works. When the municipal subsidy was stopped in 1928 he moved to Berlin; his activity there was confined to occasional broadcasts, lectures at the Lessing Hochschule and library research. He emigrated to Italy in 1936 and later to Paris (1938) and to New York (1941).

Landshoff's reputation rests chiefly on his research into the vocal music of the 17th and 18th centuries. His most important work was his Alte Meister des Bel Canto, a collection in five volumes that printed for the first time (and furnished with comprehensive bibliographical and historical notes) vocal works by Carissimi, Luigi Rossi, Mario Savioni and others. He made many other editions of vocal and instrumental works by Domenico Gabrielli, J.S. Bach, J.C. Bach, C.P.E. Bach, Vivaldi, Zelter, Zumsteeg, Fasch, Haydn and Rossini. In his studies of the problems of accompaniment and performance he aimed at reaching a wide audience while attempting to give an authentic representation of the original style.

WRITINGS

Johann Rudolf Zumsteeg (1760–1802): ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Liedes und der Ballade (diss., U. of Munich, 1900; Berlin, 1902)

‘Über das vielstimmige Accompagnement und andere Fragen des Generalbass-spiels’, Festschrift zum 50. Geburtstag Adolf Sandberger (Munich, 1918), 189–208

Introduction to F. Schlichtegroll: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Nekrolog (Munich, 1924)

‘Die Aufführungspraxis Bachscher Chorwerke’, Die Musik, xxi (1928–9), 81–97

EDITIONS

Johann Rudolf Zumsteeg: Ausgewählte Lieder (Leipzig, 1907)

Alte Meister des Bel Canto: eine Sammlung von Arien aus Opern und Kantaten, von Kanzonen, Kanzonetten, Opern- und Kammerduetten, i–v (Leipzig, c1915)

C.F.C. Fasch: Ariette mit 14 Variationen, Andantino mit 7 Variationen: für Cembalo oder Klavier, NM, xxxviii (1929)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Einstein: ‘In memoriam Ludwig Landshoff’, MQ, xxviii (1942), 241–7

ALFRED GRANT GOODMAN

Lane [Levy], Burton

(b New York, 2 Feb 1912; d New York, 5 Jan 1997). American songwriter. At the age of 15 he was engaged as a pianist-songwriter by the music publishers Remick & Co., serving an apprenticeship that prepared him for a songwriting career on Broadway and in Hollywood, during which he collaborated with such noted lyricists as Loesser, E.Y. Harburg and Lerner. His earliest compositions were songs for musical stage revues including Three’s a Crowd (1930), The Third Little Show (1931) and Earl Carroll Vanities (1931). From 1933 to 1954 he lived in California where he wrote songs for approximately 30 films, including ‘Everything I Have is Yours’ (Dancing Lady, 1933), ‘How About You’ (Babes on Broadway, 1941) and ‘Too Late Now’ (Royal Wedding, 1951). During this period he also returned to work on Broadway, providing scores for Hold On To Your Hats (Harburg, 1940), Laffing Room Only (Lane, 1944) and Finian’s Rainbow (Harburg, 1947). In the last of these, a mixture of fantasy and satire and Lane’s greatest success, his sense of melodic wit (‘Something Sort of Grandish’), harmonic invention (‘Old Devil Moon’) and popular grace (‘How Are Things in Glocca Mora?’) found its most consistent outlet. While his subsequent output was relatively small, Lane’s meticulous craftsmanship remained evident in his two Broadway theatre scores, On a Clear Day You Can See Forever (1965) and Carmelina (1979), both collaborations with Lerner, and the animated musical film Heidi’s Song (Cahn, 1982).

Stylistically Lane’s work is perhaps best understood in terms of the great flowering of American popular song that took place in the second quarter of the 20th century. He also sought to protect songwriters from piracy of their work, and from 1957 to 1967 he was the president of the American Guild of Authors and Composers (now the Songwriters Guild of America).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CBY 1967

A. Wilder: American Popular Song: The Great Innovators, 1900–1950 (New York, 1972)

W. Craig: Sweet and Lowdown (Metuchen, NJ, 1978)

S. Green: The World of Musical Comedy (New York, 1960, enlarged 4/1980)

H. Meyerson and E. Harburg: Who Put the Rainbow in ‘The Wizard of Oz’? (Ann Arbor, 1993)

LARRY STEMPEL

Lane, (Sidney) Eastwood

(b Brewerton, NY, 22 Nov 1879; d Central Square, NY, 22 Jan 1951). American composer. He studied Belles Lettres at Syracuse University, a course that included a weekly class in music, but did not complete the degree. In 1910 Alexander Russell, whom he had met at Syracuse, became the concert director of the Wanamaker Auditorium, New York, and invited Lane to work as his assistant. Lane married Modena Scovill, a professor of music theory at New York University in 1933. He retired in 1935 but continued composing.

Largely self-taught, Lane familiarized himself with the works of MacDowell, Debussy and others from piano rolls played on an Ampico player piano. He regarded composition as a hobby and showed little interest in compositional theory. He found the process of notating a work an agonizing chore and would customarily commit entire pieces to memory before writing them down. His compositions, primarily for solo piano, reflect a profound interest in American legends, folk music and literature. Occasionally the influences of Asian and medieval music are also present. Although strongly influenced by MacDowell’s style, Lane employed a rich harmonic language that was all his own. A resourceful and idiosyncratic treatment of thematic material is also characteristic of his work.

WORKS

Pf: In Sleepy Hollow (1913); 5 American Dances (1919); Adirondack Sketches (1922); The Blue-Robed Mandarins, suite (1922) [from Mongoliana]; Sea Burial, suite (1925), orchd F. Grofé [from Eastern Seas]; Persimmon Pucker (1926), orchd Grofé; Sold Down the River, ballet suite (1928); Abelard & Heloise, Girl on Tiptoe, Caravan from China (1933) [from Pantomimes]; Fourth of July, suite (1935); Variation (1939) [from 29 Modern Piano Interpretations of ‘Swanee River’]; Here are Ladies! (1944); Jesuit’s Journey, suite, c1947, unpubd

Songs: The Little Fisherman (1918); Summer Glow (1919); Gray Winds, Dream Laden (1920); Liza, c1920; They’ve Hung Bill Jones, c1920

Principal publishers: J. Fischer, Robbins

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.T. Howard: Eastwood Lane (New York, 1925)

N.P. Gentieu: ‘Eastwood Lane’, Journal of Jazz Studies, iii/2 (1976), 58–74

NORMAN P. GENTIEU

Laneare [Laneer].

See Lanier family.

Lanetin, Charles-François-Honoré.

See Duquesnoy, Charles-François-Honoré.

La Neuville, Martin Joseph.

See Adrien, Martin Joseph.

Lanfranco, Giovanni Maria

(b Terenzo, nr Parma, c1490; d Parma, late Nov 1545). Italian theorist. In the dedication of the first book of his Scintille di musica he names Lodovico Milanese as his organ teacher (perhaps in Lucca after 1512); the expression ‘mio Burtio Parmegiano’ may indicate that he studied music with Nicolò Burzio or simply denote friendship. He was maestro di cappella at Brescia Cathedral from 1528 to about 1536, when he assumed the same post in Verona. According to Pietro Aaron, he was forced to flee Verona in 1538 for having violated a boy. He became an Augustinian monk at a small monastery near Bergamo, but two years later returned to Parma to become maestro di cappella at the Chiesa della Madonna della Steccata, where he remained until his death.

Lanfranco's Scintille di musica is the earliest comprehensive treatise on music theory in Italian. Written deliberately in the ‘universale Italiana favella’ (i.e. lingua cortigiana), it was aimed at beginners, with the emphasis on practice. It is divided into four books. The first deals with the elements of music: the three genera, hexachords and properties, the Guidonian hand, clefs, mutation, intervals, chant notation, note values and text underlay. The second, dedicated to his nephew Genesio Lanfranco, explains mensural notation and proportions (of intervals and notes), with numerous examples. His explanation of the beat in various mensurations is especially valuable, as is his discussion of fitting words to music, the earliest major statement on the subject. The third part, dedicated to a singer at Brescia Cathedral, is a brief discourse on the modes in plainchant, following the doctrine of Marchetto of Padua. The last part, dedicated to two singers, deals with counterpoint as Lanfranco taught it to his choristers. This is improvised counterpoint, learnt through the contrapuntal hand. Seemingly as an afterthought, Lanfranco then added a substantial and important section on the tuning of instruments: keyboard (with instructions for tempering 5ths, 4ths and 3rds), bowed string instruments (with and without frets), harps, citterns, and lutes.

A second treatise, Terentiana, referred to frequently in the Scintille, has not survived, if ever completed; unlike the Scintille it was to be written in pure Tuscan, for more advanced students. In it there was to have been further discussion of the modes.

Lanfranco's only known composition is an enigmatic canon on a humanistic text, sent to Adrian Willaert in 1531 as a peace offering after having offended the master. The Rimario is a catalogue of Petrarch's rhymes.

WRITINGS

Rimario di tutti le voci usate dal Petrarca nel fine de' versi, raccolte tutte ordinatamente de M. Lanfranco Parmegiano (Brescia, 1531; also attached to a 1554 edition of Petrarch, ed. Girolamo Ruscelli)

Scintille di musica (Brescia, 1533/R; Eng. trans. in Lee)

2 letters, I-Rvat Vat.lat.5318, f.192r (to Adrian Willaert, 20 Oct 1531), f.254r (to Pietro Aaron, 10 Aug 1534) (ed. in SpataroC, nos.106 and 104)

COMPOSITION

Threicium memorat, 5vv, enigmatic canon 4 in 1 plus a fifth voice (facs. and edn in SpataroC, 959–69)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (C. Palisca)

SpataroC

N. Pelicelli: La cappella corale della Steccata nel secolo XVI (Parma, 1916)

N. Pelicelli: ‘Musicisti in Parma nei secoli XV–XVI’, NA, viii (1931), 132–42, esp. 138–9

B. Lee: Giovanni Maria Lanfranco's ‘Scintille di Musica’ and its Relation to 16th-Century Music Theory (diss., Cornell U., 1961) [incl. trans. of Scintille di musica]

G. Massera: ‘Musica inspettiva e accordatura strumentale nelle Scintille di Lanfranco da Terenzo’, Quadrivium, vi (1964), 85–105

D. Harrán: ‘New Light on the Question of Text Underlay Prior to Zarlino’, AcM, xlv (1973), 24–56

M. Lindley: ‘Early 16th-Century Keyboard Temperaments’, MD, xxviii (1974), 129–51, esp. 144–51

D. Harrán: Word-Tone Relations in Musical Thought from Antiquity to the Seventeenth Century (Neuhausen, 1986), 130–56, 197–209

BONNIE J. BLACKBURN

Lang, Bernhard (Ingomar)

(b Linz, 24 Feb 1957). Austrian composer. He studied at the Bruckner Conservatory in Linz (1972–5), at the Graz Musikhochschule (jazz, 1975–83, composition, 1982–8), where his teachers included Dobrowolski, Pressl and Georg Friedrich Haas, and privately with Gösta Neuwirth. He also studied philosophy and German studies at Graz University (1976–81). In 1989 he attended the Darmstadt summer courses, where he encountered Cage and Lachenmann. He has taught at the Graz Conservatory (1984–9) and the Graz Musikhochschule (from 1989), and worked on composition software for CADMUS (Computer Aided Design for Musical Applications). He has also served as an arranger and pianist for various jazz ensembles (1977–81), and realized projects that transcend the boundaries between genres.

Composition techniques such as the non-intentional and constructivist aspects of Josef Matthias Hauer's 12-note system and the diminutions of late medieval polyphony reflect a link between Lang's work as a composer and his work for CADMUS. His music also reflects his experiences of performance art and installations, as well as his work in jazz, improvisatory, punk and rock music, though without actual borrowing of the idioms themselves. His aesthetic, which integrates noise and music, stands at a point of intersection between the music of Cage and Lachenmann on the one hand, and rock music and free improvisation on the other. The complexity and intricacy of the notation in his scores force the transformation of instrumental virtuosity into something closer to improvisation. His high degree of technical extravagance and organization contrasts with the varied and fragile nature of his musical results. (LZMÖ)

WORKS

(selective list)

El-ac: V, 64 analogue generators, 1985; Hexagrammatikon I–II, 6 cptr + synth, 1988, collab. W. Ritsch; Radiophones Synchronizitätsexperiment, 23 montages, 1989; Icht II, 1v, tape, live elecs, 1995; Versuch über das Vergessen 2, vn, elec gui, elec delay, 1995; Hommage à Martin Arnold 1, tape, 1996; Schrift/Bild/Schrift, fl, ob, cl, vn, va, vc, pf, perc, live amp, 1998; Differenz/Wiederholung 2, 3 vv, chbr ens, live amp, video

Other works: Zeitmasken, str qt, 1986; Kohelet, solo vv, chorus, orch, 1987; Relief, fl, va, hp, 1988; Romanze, pf, 1988; Stele, 2 pf [tuned a quarter-tone apart], 1988; Mozart 1789, actress, 9 tape rec, 1989, collab. Ritsch; Niemandsland (film score), 1989, collab. Ritsch; Zwischen Morgen und Mitternacht, str qt, pf, 1989; Modern Monsters, 12 pieces, vc, pf, 1990; Sonett 1 (C. Baudelaire), chorus, 1990; Sonett 2 (C. Loidl), chorus, 1990; Kleine Welten, str qt, 1991; Qt, fl, 1991; Brüche, cl, str qt, prep pf, 1992; Küstenlinien, 2 pf, perc, 1992; Lá-bas à S, 2 t sax, va, orch, 1993; Rondell-Remise, Mez, va, chbr ens, 1993; Felder, 2 essays, str, 1994; Icht I (Loidl), Mez, 8 insts, 1994; Versuch über Drei Traumkongruenzen von Günther Freitag, actor, 1 female v, vc, 1995; 60FOR G, sax qt, 1996; Hommage à Martin Arnold 2, orch, 1996; Schrift 1, fl, 1996, rev. as Schrift 2.1, 1998; Schrift 2, vn, 1996; Schrift 3, accdn, 1997; Differenz/Wiederholung I, fl, vc, pf, 1998; Schrift/Frag. 4, tpt, hn, trbn, 1998; Differenz/Wiederholung I.2, fl, vc, accdn

WRITINGS

Diminuendo: über selbstähnliche Verkleinerungen, ed. R.R. Höldrich (Graz, 1996)

‘The Talking Drum: Musik als Sprache’, Musik als Sprache, Sprache als Musik, Ton [Vienna] (1997), no.2, pp.33–41

‘Schrift/Bild’, Positionen, no.36 (1998), 19–23

BERNHARD GÜNTHER

Lang, B(enjamin) J(ohnson)

(b Salem, MA, 28 Dec 1837; d Boston, 4 April 1909). American pianist, conductor, organist, teacher and composer. Lang's career as a conductor was of signal importance in Boston's musical life. After early studies with his father, Benjamin Lang, and Francis G. Hill in Boston, he became organist and choirmaster of a Boston church at the age of 15. He went to Europe in 1855 to study composition in Berlin and piano with Alfred Jaëll and Liszt. He made his first public appearance in Boston immediately after his return in 1858, and from the early 1860s was prominent as a pianist. He promoted many new works, including Tchaikovsky's First Concerto and Brahms's Second, which he played with the Boston SO (he had been the conductor at the world première of the Tchaikovsky concerto in Hans von Bülow's Boston concert in 1875); in two ‘Bach Concerto Concerts’, in December 1898 and January 1899, he played on an Erard harpsichord imported from Paris.

He was a solid orchestral conductor and unsurpassed as a choral director, in which area he was Boston's principal exponent for four decades. He made his début in Boston on 3 May 1862 with the local première of Mendelssohn's Die erste Walpurgisnacht. His major contribution as a choral conductor came from his work with the Apollo Club, a men's singing society found in 1871, and the Cecilia Society, a mixed chorus established in 1874, both of which he formed and led for several years. The early repertory of both choirs consisted mostly of German works, some of which were given their first Boston (or even first American) performances under Lang. From about 1880 he began to introduce much more American music, including works composed especially for the singers, such as Dudley Buck's The Nun of Nidaros, George E. Whiting's March of the Monks of Bangor and Chadwick's The Viking's Last Voyage.

Lang's many connections with singers and instrumentalists in Boston and his remarkable abilities as an organizer made possible two of his most elaborate contributions to Boston's musical life: the first complete performances there of Berlioz's La damnation de Faust (1880) and Parsifal in concert form (1891). An ardent Wagnerian, Lang visited Wagner in July 1871 and offered his assistance in publicizing the Bayreuth Festival in America. In 1876 he was an honoured guest at the first performance of the Ring in Bayreuth.

Lang was active as an organist all his life, and had a reputation as a magnificent improviser. He played an important part in the planning of the organ in Boston's Music Hall, and he performed in the inaugural concerts for the instrument in 1863. From 1859 to 1895 he was the organist of the Handel and Haydn Society. He also devoted much time to teaching, and his pupils included Arthur Foote, who began piano and organ lessons with him in 1874, Ethelbert Nevin and W.F. Apthorp. He was imaginative in the invention of new exercises and promoted ‘the principle of sensible relaxation at a time when few teachers … had awakened to the importance of this’ (Foote).

Lang composed, though he published little; even with the ensembles he conducted, he rarely performed his own music. Yet he produced an oratorio, David, as well as symphonies, overtures, piano pieces, church music, and songs. Yale awarded him an honorary MA in 1903. Lang's family, correspondence, and diaries, together with some scrapbooks of programmes from 1861 to 1906, are in the Boston Public Library.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveA (S. Ledbetter) [incl. further bibliography]

A. Foote: ‘A Near View of Mr. Lang’, Boston Evening Transcript (1 May 1909)

W.F. Apthorp: ‘Thirty Years of the Symphony Orchestra’, Boston Evening Transcript (30 Sept 1911)

G. Henschel: Musings and Memories of a Musician (New York, 1919/R), 268ff

A. Foote: An Autobiography (Norwood, MA, 1946/R)

STEVEN LEDBETTER

Lang, David (Avery)

(b Los Angeles, 8 Jan 1957). American composer. He attended Stanford University (AB 1978), the University of Iowa (MM 1980) and Yale University (DMA 1989); his principal teachers included Lou Harrison, Martin Bresnick, Leland Smith, Jacob Druckman, Roger Reynolds and Morton Subotnick. He also studied at Tanglewood with Henze. While at Yale, Lang became involved in Bresnick’s concert series Sheep’s Clothing, which took an eclectic and unconventional approach to the presentation of new works. He drew heavily on such non-doctrinaire attitudes when he co-founded, with Michael Gordon and Julia Wolfe, the Bang on a Can festival in New York (1981). Also involved in theatre music, he became composer-in-residence at the American Conservatory Theater, San Francisco, in 1992.

Lang’s works, while readily accessible to the ear, are derived from highly mathematical and intensely detailed formal structures. He sees his compositions as dividing into two categories: static works exhibiting a postminimalist flat form, such as Orpheus Over and Under, Slow Movement and Face So Pale; and developmental works, such as Spud and Are You Experienced?. Orpheus Over and Under for two pianos maintains a sadly soothing minimalist surface comprised of quick repeated notes and tremolos. The rhythmic entrance of pitches in the work, however, is strictly controlled down to the semiquaver by golden section proportions. Similarly, the virtuoso Illumination Rounds for violin and piano is in a progressive variation form; semiquavers, constituting 55-note number sequences, are shaped into phrases by conforming to numerical patterns determined by the Fibonacci series.

While complex organizational systems often operate on microstructural levels, larger gestures in Lang’s works are more intuitively dramatic. The colourful titles of his compositions reflect this (Eating Living Monkeys, Spud) as do their occasional references to pop music. Are You Experienced?, named after a Jimi Hendrix tune, contains narration that begins: ‘I know you were looking forward to hearing this piece, but something terrible has just happened. While we were busy setting up, someone crept up silently behind you and dealt a quick blow to the side of your head’. The music then throbs like a head wound, simulating a disconcerted stream of consciousness. Three operas number among Lang's theatre works, the most important being Modern Painters, based on the life of the 19th-century art critic John Ruskin.

WORKS

Stage: Judith and Holofernes (puppet chbr op, Lang), 1989; Hecuba (incid music), female vv, 1994; Modern Painters (op, M. Hoelterhoff), 1995; The Tempest (incid music), 4 male vv, str qt, 1995; The Difficulty of Crossing a Field (op, M. Wellman), 1999

Orch: Eating Living Monkeys, 1985–7; Bonehead, 1990; International Business Machine, 1990; Fire and Forget, 1992; Under Orpheus, 1994; Grind to a Halt, 1996; The Passing Measures, solo b cl, female vv, orch, 1998

Chbr: Hammer Amour, solo pf, 2 fl, 2 cl, 2 hn, tpt, trbn, perc, 1978, rev. 1989; Illumination Rounds, vn, pf, 1981; Frag, fl, ob, bn, 1984; Spud, fl, ob, cl, hn, timp, vn, va, vc, db, 1986; Dance/Drop, bn, bar sax, pf, synth, perc, 1987 [arr. fl, b cl, vn, vc, pf, perc, 1997]; Are You Experienced?, nar, solo elec tuba, fl, ob, cl, bn, hn, tpt, trbn, elec gui, pf + synth, perc, va, vc, db, 1987–9; Burn Notice, fl/vn, vc, pf, 1989; Vent, fl, pf, 1990; Bitter Herb, vc, pf, 1992; Face So Pale, 6 pf, 1992; Fire and Forget, 11 str, opt. perc, 1992; Music for Gracious Living, nar, str qt, 1992–6; My Evil Twin, 3 cl, 2 hn, 2 va, 2 vc, hp, elec org, elec b gui, perc, 1992–6; Slow Movt, 2 fl, a sax, t sax, bar sax, perc, accdn, 2 synth, 2 elec gui, elec b gui, elec vn, elec vc, 1993; Cheating, Lying, Stealing, b cl, vc, pf, perc, 2 antiphonal brake drums, 1993–5; Wreck/Wed, str qt, 1995; Follow, vn, bn, elec gui, synth, perc, 1996; I Fought the Law, fl, ob, cl, tpt, vn, va, vc, db, perc, 1996; Slip, vn, bn, elec gui, synth, perc, 1996; Hell, nar, 2 ob, 2 cl, 2 bn, 2 hn, db, perc, 1997; Trample Young Lion, b cl, t sax, tpt, trbn, str qt, db, pf, 2 perc, 1997

Solo inst: While Nailing at Random, pf, 1983; Orpheus Over and Under, pf 4 hands, 1989; The Anvil Chorus, perc, 1991; Press Release, b cl/bn, 1992; Memory Pieces, pf, 1992–7; Thorn, fl, 1993; Miracle Ear, toy pf, 1996; Broken Door, pf, 1997; Scraping Song, perc, 1997

Vocal: By Fire, SATB, 1984

Recorded interviews in US-NHoh

Principal publishers: Chester, Red Poppy

KYLE GANN

Lang, Eddie [Dunn, Blind Willie; Massaro, Salvatore]

(b Philadelphia, 25 Oct 1902; d New York, 26 March 1933). American jazz guitarist. He studied the violin formally for 11 years and learnt guitar from his father, a guitarist and instrument maker. With the violinist Joe Venuti, his former schoolmate in Philadelphia, he formed a successful and long-lived partnership, and the two played together in the early 1920s in Atlantic City, New Jersey. By 1924, when he recorded with the Mound City Blue Blowers, Lang had moved to New York. There he performed and recorded frequently with, among others, Red Nichols, Jean Goldkette, Frankie Trumbauer, the Dorsey brothers, Paul Whiteman and above all Venuti, with whom he made a series of duet recordings (1926–8), including the noteworthy Stringing the Blues (1926, Col.), their recomposition of Tiger Rag. He also recorded some duos with Lonnie Johnson (1928–9) and, under the pseudonym Blind Willie Dunn, two titles (1929) with a group called the Gin Bottle Four (which included Johnson and King Oliver). After playing with Whiteman (1929–30) Lang became Bing Crosby’s accompanist.

Lang was the first well-known solo jazz guitarist and, from the mid-1920s, was widely influential. His career coincided with the development of recording techniques suited to the acoustic guitar, which, partly through his influence, supplanted the banjo as a jazz instrument. He was highly regarded for his single-string solos and his accompaniments, which usually interspersed chords and single-string lines in the middle register. While some contemporary black guitarists were better soloists, Lang’s accompaniments resulted in interesting textures (but with rather undirected lines at times); he was a good rhythm guitarist with a fine technique and attained a consistently high level of performance.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Trumbauer: ‘Eddie Didn’t Use Music: he had it in his Pocket’, Down Beat, vi/5 (1939), 17 only

R. Hadlock: ‘Eddie Lang’, Jazz Masters of the Twenties (New York, 1965/R), 239–55

B. McRae: ‘A B Basics, no.49: Eddie Lang’, Jazz Journal, xxiv/11 (1971), 15 only

J. Ferguson: ‘Eddie Lang: Father of Jazz Guitar’, Guitar Player, xvii/8 (1983), 78–85, 88, 122 [incl. discography]

JAMES DAPOGNY/R

Láng, István

(b Budapest, 1 March 1933). Hungarian composer. He studied composition with Viski and later Szabó at the Liszt Academy of Music, Budapest (1950–58). He was later musical director of the State Puppet Theatre (1966–84). In 1973 he joined the staff of the Liszt Academy, chamber music branch, and was guest lecturer at the University of Colorado and at the University of New Mexico, CNM Mexico City. He has received the Erkel Prize (1968, 1975), was made Artist of Merit (1985) and has won the Bartók-Pásztori Prize (1994).

A leading representative of the generation of Hungarian composers born in the 1930s, Láng has forged a personal style which assimilates aleatorism and serialism and which frequently builds on motivic cells. In the 1960s he was absorbed in writing for the stage, and a sense of theatre also informs Láng’s chamber and solo instrumental works, among them Monodia for clarinet, which is intended for stage or concert performance. His opera for television, Álom a színházról (‘Dream about the Theatre’, 1980–81), abandons conventional narrative in favour of creating a bizarre sense of the unreal; the personalities of the characters, for example, change freely between scenes.

Another of Láng’s preoccupations has been cyclic form. His early pieces (e.g. the Concertino and the Chamber Cantata) are typically in two movements, but later he came to cast his music in sequences of short movements constructed from small motifs, or ‘micro-organisms’. This is shown in the second wind quintet and the third string quartet. In several works the proportions of the movements are determined by mathematical series – for example, the Fibonacci-type series in Gyász-zene (‘Funeral music’) and Laudate hominem (5–6–11–17–28). Other features of his work are the careful balancing of free and strict parts in those works which employ aleatory writing, and the extreme, yet always musical, exploitation of instrumental possibilities in chamber pieces. Later works in addition experiment with electronic music, as in Esteledés (‘Nightfall’, 1997), which manipulates sounds of a trumpet and Korean bell.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Mario és a varázsló [Mario and the Magician] (dance drama, A. Pernye, Láng, after T. Mann), 1962; Hiperbola (ballet, I. Eck), 1963; A gyáva [The Coward] (op, Láng, after I. Sarkadi), 1964–8, rev. 1998; Csillagra-törők [Starfighters] (ballet-cant., I. Ágh), 1971; Álom a színházról [Dream about the Theatre] (TV op, after I. Mándy), 1980–81; Bekerítve [Rounded Up] (TV op, after I. Bächer), 1988–9

Orch: Xyl Concertino, 1961, rev. 1967; Variazioni ed allegro, 1965; Gyász-zene [Funeral Music], 1969; Impulsioni, ob, inst groups, 1969; Három mondat a Rómeó és Júliából [3 Sentences from Romeo and Juliet], str, 1969–70; Conc. bucolico, hn, orch, 1969–70; Sym. no.2, 1972–4; Vn Conc., 1976–7; Double Conc., cl, hp, orch, 1979; Sym. no.3, 1981–2; Sym. no.4, 1983; Org Conc., 1987; Sym. no.6, 1993–4

Solo vocal-orch: 3 Orch Songs (O. Orbán), S, orch, 1984–5; Sym. no.5, S, orch, 1991–2; Sym. no.7, S, orch, 1995–6

Other vocal: Chamber Cantata, S, cl, vc, perc, pf, 1962; Laudate hominem (cant., Sophocles, A. József), chorus, 1968; In memoriam N. N. (cant., J. Pilinszky), chorus, 1971; Hullámok [Waves], S, vib, 1975

Chbr: Duo, 2 fl, 1963; 2 wind qnts, 1963, 1966; Str Qt no.2, 1966; Cassazione, brass sextet, 1971; Duo, 2 trbn, 1972; Rhymes, fl, cl, pf, va, vc, 1972; Constellations, ob qt, 1974–5; Solo, 6 fl, 1975; Wind Qnt no.3, 1975; Str Qt no.3, 1978; Chagall elszáll az ő alvó Vityebszke fölött [Chagall Flies Away over his Sleeping Vitebsk], perc qt, 1985; Affetti, cl, vn, vc, hp, 1986; Intarzia egy Bartók-témára [Intarsia around a Bartók Theme], str trio, 1989; Sonata, vn, pf, 1990; Sonata, vc, pf, 1992–3; Viviofa, va, bn, vib, 1995

Solo inst: Sonata, vc, 1960; Monodia, cl, 1965; Dramma breve, a fl, 1970; Intermezzi, pf, 1972; Villanások [Flashes], vn, 1973; Improvizáció, cimb, 1973; Monologue, hn, 1974; Organissimo, org, 1982; Soliloquium, hpd, 1982; Libero, trbn, 1984; Aria di coloratura, trbn, 1984; Linea melodica, ob, 1987; Interpolations, bn, 1988; Canto, fl, 1994; Glances back, va, 2000

Elec: Surface Metamorphosis, 1974, realized M. Maros, 1975; Off and On, hp, live elecs, tape, 1996; Esteledés [Nightfall], tpt, Korean temple bell, live elecs, 1997; Találkozás egy fiatalemberrel [Meeting with a Young Man], nar, SA, fl, tpt, hpd, hp, elecs, 1997; Concertino, S, tr, hp, vn, va, vc, elecs

Principal publisher: Editio Musica Budapest

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Kárpáti: ‘Hungarian Composers Today: some Trends among Younger Composers’, Tempo, no.88 (1969), 5–10, 11–13, 40

J. Kárpáti: ‘Láng István. II: Kamarazene’ [Láng II: chamber music], Muzsika, xviii/11 (1975), 34–6

ANTAL BORONKAY/RACHEL BECKLES WILLSON

Lang, Johann Georg

(b Schweissing [now Svojšín], c1722; d Ehrenbreitstein, 17 July 1798). German composer of Bohemian descent. As a youth he studied the keyboard and violin in Prague. In 1746 he began service in the orchestra of the Prince-Bishop of Augsburg (Joseph, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt). After mid-1749 he embarked on a three-year trip to Italy and for a year studied counterpoint at Naples with Francesco Durante and Girolamo Abos. By 1758 he was Konzertmeister of the prince-bishop's orchestra. In 1768 Clemens Wenzeslaus, Elector of Trier, succeeded to the bishopric of Augsburg and took over the orchestra, moving some of its personnel to Ehrenbreitstein, his electoral residence; Lang was made Konzertmeister there in 1769 and remained even after the elector moved across the Rhine into the new palace at Koblenz in 1786. Lang's official duties included leading the strings and advising the elector's Musikintendant, Baron von Thünnefeld, on orchestral administration. In 1794 the elector abandoned both his residences because of the advancing French Republican forces, but Lang remained at Ehrenbreitstein. He was buried there in the Kreuzkirche.

Lang's orchestral output consists mainly of keyboard concertos and symphonies. One of his early concertos has been erroneously attributed to Haydn and several symphonies to J.C. Bach and others. Among his instrumental pieces are many ensemble sonatas with obbligato keyboard and quartets with obbligato flute. Lang's larger vocal works are mostly sacred, including masses, litanies and Te Deum settings. The stylistic evolution of the keyboard concertos shows the changing musical taste at Koblenz between 1769 and 1784; particularly after 1775 greater textural flexibility, slower harmonic rhythm, and more broadly arched melodies become clearly characteristic. A parallel development occurred in the symphonies (mostly from the late 1750s and 1760s), which were praised by a correspondent to Baron von Eschstruth's Musikalische Bibliothek (5 June 1784) as ‘fluent and in accord with the rules’.

WORKS

lost works mostly listed in catalogues: see BrookB

orchestral

29 hpd concs.: 2 as opp.4–5 (Offenbach, 1776); 1 (London, c1785); 1 in D-Bsb, falsely attrib. J. Stamitz (London, c1775), and Haydn, CH-E; Concerto da caccia, D-Bsb, Rtt; 24 others incl. 13 in Bsb, 2 in Dlb, 2 in SWl, 1, E, in Bsb, doubtful, 8 lost

8 other concs.: 3 for fl, Rtt; 1 for fl, lost; 1 for vn, HR; 3 for vn, A-ST

38 syms., incl.: 6 (Augsburg, 1760), 3 (Speier, 1782), 12 in D-Rtt, 10 in DO (incl. 2 falsely attrib. ‘Bilz’), 15 in A-ST, 3 in KR, 3 in CH-FF, 3 in Zz, 3 in CZ-Pnm, 3 in D-Bsb, 2 in CZ-Bm, 2 in D-Mbs, 1 in W, 1 in CZ-Pnm (falsely attrib. Körgle [?Körzl] in A-GÖ and Ordoñez in BrookB, no.194), 4 falsely attrib. [J.C.] Bach in A-Wgm, 1 falsely attrib. Gispi [?Bach], lost; 1 ed. W. Höckner, Kleine Sinfonie Schule, v (Berlin-Lichterfelde, c1940); 1 ed. W. Höckner (Leipzig, n.d.); 3 ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. C, i (1983)

chamber

9 qts, kbd, fl, str: 6 as op.3 (Offenbach, 1775), no.6 arr. solo hpd, GB-Lbl; 1 as Concertino, G, D-Mbs; 2 lost

25 acc. sonatas (kbd, str, unless otherwise stated): 6 (London, 1774); 6 as op.6 (Offenbach, 1779); 2 short works (Speier, 1782); 4 as op.7 (Offenbach, 1782–3), no.4 hpd/pf 4 hands, vn, vc; 3 as op.9 (Speier, 1783); 1 in Dlb; 3 lost

21 works for kbd solo: 4 sonatas (Nuremberg, 1758–63); Fuga prima a 3, org (Nuremberg, 1764); 3 sonatas, sonata movt, B-Bc; Sonata, CZ-Pnm; 5 short works (Speier, 1782–3); 6 works, as Divertimento, D-Bsb

2 sonatas, vn, vc (London, c1775); 3 trios, 2 vn, b, lost

vocal

3 masses, D-TRb; Mass, CZ-Pnm; Mass, lost; Tantum ergo, lost; 1 (?2) lit(s), 1 lit of Loreto, 1 TeD, all lost

1 secular song (Bayreuth, c1788), doubtful; 2 songs and MS collection, A-Wn, mentioned in EitnerQ; song(s) in Melodien zum Taschenbuch für Freunde des Gesanges (Stuttgart, 1796), spurious

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BrookB

DlabacžKL

GerberL

LipowskyB

P. von Stetten: Kunst-, Gewerb- und Handwerks Geschichte der Reichs Stadt Augsburg, i (Augsburg,1779), 546

Hof-Musik-Intendanz-Protokoll (MS, 1783–93, D-KBs)

H.A. von Eschstruth, ed.: Musikalische Bibliothek, ii (Marburg and Giessen, 1785/R), 248

J.J. Wagner: Coblenz-Ehrenbreitstein: biographische Nachrichten (Koblenz, 1925)

G. Bereths: Die Musikpflege am kurtrierischen Hofe zu Koblenz-Ehrenbreitstein (Mainz, 1964)

J. Schmidt-Görg: ‘Ein Wappenbrief für den kurfürstlich-trierschen Konzertmeister Johann Georg Lang’, Festschrift Hans Engel, ed. H. Heussner (Kassel, 1964), 326–30

H. Gappenach: ‘ Lang, Johann Georg’, Rheinische Musiker, v, ed. K.G. Fellerer (Cologne, 1967), 104–5

S. Davis: The Keyboard Concertos of Johann Georg Lang (1722–1798) (diss., New York U., 1971)

S. Davis: ‘Regarding the Authenticity of the “Haydn” Keyboard Concerto Hob. XVIII:F3’, Haydn Studies: Washington DC 1975, 121–6

S. Davis: ‘The Hunt, the Keyboard, and J.G. Lang's Concerto da caccia’, MR, xxxix (1978), 167–77

S. Davis: ‘J.G. Lang and the Early Classical Keyboard Concerto’, MQ, lxvi ( 1980), 21–52

SHELLEY DAVIS

Lang, Josephine (Caroline)

(b Munich, 14 March 1815; d Tübingen, 2 Dec 1880). German composer. She was first taught music by her mother, and made her début at the age of 11, playing a set of piano variations by Henri Herz. Her earliest compositions date from 1828. In 1830 she met Mendelssohn, who wrote a glowing report to his family (letter of 6 October 1831). He gave her lessons in theory and recommended that she study in Berlin, but Lang's father decided against it. Mendelssohn remained enthusiastic about Lang, and his opinion was shared by his sister Fanny (letter of 13 July 1841). During the 1830s Lang taught singing and the piano, sang in the Königliche Vokalkapelle and composed. In 1837 Schumann praised her music in a review of Das Traumbild op.28 no.1. Her courtship by her future husband, the poet Christian Reinhold Köstlin, led to an outpouring of lieder in the summer of 1840, but after their marriage in 1842 she wrote only a few works. 14 years later, when Köstlin died, Lang turned with renewed zeal to composition, and with the help of friends, notably Ferdinand Hiller, she found publishers. Of her 46 published opus numbers, almost all are lieder. In 1882 Breitkopf & Härtel issued a posthumous collection of 40 lieder, many previously unpublished. Lang identified strongly with her compositions, declaring them ‘my diary’. Most of her songs, which number approximately 150, deal with love or nature. Her melodies are often daring and show the insight of a singer, while the accompaniments usually function independently. Her son Heinrich Adolf Köstlin (b Tübingen, 4 Sept 1846; d Cannstatt, 4 June 1907), was a theologian who wrote on the history of music, especially evangelical church music, and left a memoir of his mother.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

FétisBS

Grove1

LipowskyBL

SchmidlD

Reviews in AMZ, xliii (1841), 1042; xlviii (1846), 36–7; 1 (1848), 35

F. Hiller: Aus dem Tonleben unserer Zeit (Leipzig, 1868–71), ii, 116–36

H.A. Köstlin: ‘Josefine Lang’, Sammlung musikalischer Vorträge, iii, ed. P. Waldersee (Leipzig, 1881), 51–103 [incl. list of works]

J. Tick: Introduction to Josephine Lang: Selected Songs (New York, 1982) [52 songs]

M.J. Citron: ‘Women and the Lied, 1775–1850’, Women Making Music: the Western Art Tradition 1150–1950, ed. J. Bowers and J. Tick (Urbana, IL, and Chicago, 1986), 224–48

M.J. Citron: ‘Introduction on Lang’, Historical Anthology of Music by Women, ed. J. Briscoe (Bloomington, IN, 1987), 109–10

MARCIA J. CITRON

Lang, K(athryn) D(awn) [lang, k d]

(b Edmonton, AL, 2 Nov 1961). Canadian singer-songwriter. She learnt the piano and the guitar as a child, and began songwriting in her early teens. Having studied music at Red Deer College, Alberta, she found her métier when she was cast in Country Chorale (1982), a 1950s-style musical. The writer Raymond Storey suggested that Patsy Cline might be a suitable model for her character. Lang had never heard of her but was soon obsessed. In the following years, she presented herself as a country punk whose androgynous image defied category. The album A Truly Western Experience (Homestead, 1984) attracted a cult following in Canada and a gig in 1985 at the Bottom Line, New York, finally secured a contract with Sire Records. Though she was unhappy with the resulting album, Angel with a Lariat (1987), it found a ready audience with the fans of Nanci Griffith and Lyle Lovett, who were then re-inventing the country music sound.

She achieved more widespread success with her next album, Shadowland (1988), which was recorded in Nashville and produced by Owen Bradley, creator of the Nashville sound. It combined the sultry sounds of cabaret and old-style country to become a crossover success. Even so, in the USA Lang's music was allowed little radio exposure and it was the Canadian Country Music Association that was the first to honour her. She subsequently won two Grammy awards for Crying (1987), a duet with Roy Orbison, and Absolute Torch and Twang (1989), but received no recognition from Nashville. The latter was recorded in Vancouver with her own choice of musicians and featured a skilful blend of old and new country with elements of jazz, Latin and 1950s pop, and the recurring influence of Cline. Ingénue (1992) was Lang's international breakthrough: a polished hybrid of jazz, pop and country, the album won a cluster of awards. Introspective and melancholic, it redefined k d lang and, in dealing with the subject of unrequited love, she was finally able to acknowledge her sexuality. As the first openly lesbian pop icon the announcement propelled her career to new heights. Her 1997 release, Drag, a collection of songs concerned with smoking, showed a return to those qualities that brought her initial success: long controlled phrases, the use of wide dynamic range and a direct and intense tone manipulated with great sensitivity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

B. Lemon: ‘Virgin Territory: k d lang’, The Advocate (16 June 1992)

G.G. Gaar: She's a Rebel: the History of Women in Rock & Roll (London, 1993)

D. Hepworth: ‘The k d lang Interview’, Mojo, no.2 (1993), 64–70

V. Starr: k d lang: All You Get Is Me (New York, 1994)

L. O'Brien: She Bop: the Definitive History of Women in Rock, Pop and Soul (London, 1995)

LIZ THOMSON

Lang, Margaret Ruthven

(b Boston, 27 Nov 1867; d Boston, 30 May 1972). American composer. She studied the piano and composition with her father, Benjamin Johnson Lang, and wrote her first works at the age of 12. She studied the violin with Louis Schmidt in Boston, continuing with Franz Drechsler and Ludwig Abel in Munich (1886–7), where she also studied counterpoint and fugue with Victor Gluth. On her return to Boston she worked on orchestration with George Chadwick. Her father continued to act as her teacher and mentor: Lang submitted for publication only those works that pleased him and, as conductor of the Cecilia and Apollo Clubs, he was regularly able to include his daughter’s works in his programmes.

The first works by Lang to receive public performance were five songs included in a Boston recital by Myron W. Whitney on 14 December 1887, which received favourable reviews from local critics. Her song Ojalá was performed at a concert of representative American works given at the Trocadéro during the Paris Exposition of 1889; this established her reputation, and the same song was repeated at the inauguration of the Lincoln Concert Hall in Washington, DC, on 26 March 1890. The soprano Mrs Gerrit Smith gave the first of many concerts solely of works by Lang in New York two years later. Many leading singers performed Lang’s songs including Ernestine Schumann-Heink, who favoured An Irish Love Song as an encore.

Lang was the first woman in the USA to have a work played by a major orchestra. On 7 April 1893 the Boston SO under Nikisch gave the première of her Dramatic Overture op.12. The same year her overture Witichis op.10 received three performances at the World’s Columbian Exposition, Chicago, conducted by Theodore Thomas and Max Bendix. The Ballade op.36 received its première on 14 March 1901 at the Women in Music Grand Concert given by the Baltimore SO. Wind op.53 was commissioned by Victor Harris for his St Cecilia Club of New York, and was regularly included in the group’s programmes. Lang’s last work appeared in 1919. She remained interested in new music, however, and continued to attend concerts of the Boston SO, which gave a concert in honour of her 100th birthday.

Unlike her contemporaries, Lang made use of a restrained harmonic vocabulary with judicious use of dissonance. A number of her works draw on Scottish and Irish elements (for example, the Six Scotch Songs and An Irish Mother’s Lullaby). Others contain onomatopoeic effects and humour (The Jumblies). Many, such as Day is Gone, are strophic and brief; the Nonsense Rhymes are witty miniatures. Several works, including Wind, explore Impressionist sonorities within a tonal frame. Manuscripts by Lang, together with printed music and correspondence, are in the Arthur P. Schmidt Collection at the Library of Congress; the Boston Public Library has multiple family scrapbooks, as well as printed music.

WORKS

(selective list)

all printed works published in Boston

Choral: The Jumblies (E. Lear), B, male chorus 4vv, 2 pf, op.5 (1890); The Wild Huntsman, 1v, 4vv, orch, lost; TeD, 4vv, org, op.34 (1899); Praise the Lord, O my Soul, S, A, T, B, male chorus 4vv; The Lonely Rose (cant., P.B. Marston), S, female chorus 4vv, pf, op.43 (1906); Grant, we Beseech Thee, Merciful Lord, 4vv, org, op.51 (1912); The Night of the Star (cant., D.A. McCarthy), 4vv, orch, op.52 (1913); Wind (J. Galsworthy), female chorus 8vv, op.53 (1913); In praesepio (R.L. Gales), 4vv, org ad lib, op.56 (1916); The Heavenly Noël (Gales), Mez, female chorus 4vv, orch, op.57 (1916); 8 others

Orch (all lost): Witichis, ov., op.10, perf. 1893; Dramatic Ov., op.12, perf. 1893; Sappho’s Prayer to Aphrodite, Mez, orch, perf. 1895; Armida, S, orch, op.24, perf. 1896; Phoebus’ Denunciation of the Furies at the Delphian Shrine, B, orch; Totila, ov., op.23; Ballade, d, op.36, perf. 1901; incid. music to E. Rostand: The Princess Far Away, perf. 1906

Chbr: Pf Qnt, 1879; Evening Chimes, vn, pf, op.29, perf. 1898; Str Qt

Pf: Petit roman, op.18 (1894); Rhapsody, op.21 (1895); Meditation, op.26 (1897); Springtime, op.30 (1899); Revery, op.31 (1899); A Spring Idyll, op.33 (1899); The Spirit of the Old House: Elegy, op.58 (1917); One Summer Day, [op.59] (1919); 3 Pieces for Young Players, [op.60] (1919)

Songs (for 1v, pf, unless otherwise stated): Ghosts (R. Munkittrick) (1889); Ojalá (G. Eliot) (1889); Lament (S. Galler), op.6 no.3 (1891); The Grief of Love (J.A. Symonds), op.19 no.2 (1894); 6 Scotch Songs, op.20; An Irish Love Song, op.22 (1895); An Irish Mother’s Lullaby (M.E. Blake), with vn obbl, op.34 (1900); The Hills o’ Skye (W. McLennan), op.37 no.3 (1901); Day is Gone (J.V. Cheney), op.40 no.2 (1904); Nonsense Rhymes and Pictures (Lear), op.42 (1905); More Nonsense Rhymes and Pictures (Lear), op.43 (1907); Spring, op.47 (1919); c140 others

Principal publisher: A.P. Schmidt

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveW (A.F. Block) [incl. further bibliography]

T.F. Ryan: Recollections of an Old Musician (New York, 1899), 85–7

E. Syford: ‘Margaret Ruthven Lang’, New England Magazine, xlvi/March (1912), 22

Obituary, Boston Globe (31 May 1972)

K. Pendle, ed.: Women and Music: a History (Indianapolis, IN, 1991), 160–61, 164–7

J. Cline: Margaret Ruthven Lang: her Life and Songs (diss., Washington U., 1993)

ADRIENNE FRIED BLOCK

Lang, Paul Henry [Láng, Pál]

(b Budapest, 28 Aug 1901; d Lakeville, CT, 21 Sept 1991). American musicologist of Hungarian birth. He studied at the Budapest Academy of Music, graduating in 1922. His teachers there were Kodály (composition), Hans Koessler (counterpoint), Leó Weiner (chamber music) and Wieschendorf (bassoon). On leaving the academy he was appointed assistant conductor at the Budapest Opera and played the bassoon in several orchestras. In 1924, encouraged by Kodály and Bartók, he decided to study musicology. As Budapest did not offer courses in this field he enrolled at the University of Heidelberg, where he became a pupil of Kroyer; he also studied comparative literature with Ernst R. Curtius and Friedrich Gundolf. The last two were responsible for starting him on the path of cultural history which he followed throughout his career. In the autumn of the same year he transferred to the Sorbonne, from which he received a degree in literature (1928); his chief teachers were Pirro (musicology), Henri Focillon (art history), Fernand Baldensperger, Félix Gaiffe (literature) and Victor Basch (aesthetics). During his four years in Paris, Lang also played the bassoon professionally, conducted choral societies, served as accompanist to singers and assisted Prunières in editing the Revue musicale. In the spring of 1928 he was named a Junior Scholar to the United States by the Rockefeller Foundation and taught music for a year at Vassar College (1930–31). This was followed by an appointment to Wells College (1931–3), and while teaching there he worked on a doctoral dissertation in French literature and philology (A Literary History of French Opera, 1934) under James Frederick Mason at Cornell University. He also continued his studies in musicology with Kinkeldey.

Lang, who became an American citizen in 1934, took an active and influential part in the musical life of his adopted country. In 1933 he began to teach at Columbia University, where from 1939 to 1969 he was full professor of musicology and trained several generations of musical scholars. His monumental Music in Western Civilization (1941) is one of the outstanding 20th-century contributions to cultural history and probably his major achievement. In it he lucidly expounded the history of music by placing it firmly in its artistic, social and political contexts. As editor of the Musical Quarterly (1945–73) he continued the development of this journal of international importance with literary as well as scholarly contributions, and he opened its pages to contemporary music, notably in the feature called ‘Current Chronicle’. He also served from 1954 to 1963 as chief music critic of the New York Herald Tribune and brought to this task a historical knowledge rare in American journalism. He held many positions of importance: in 1934 he was one of the founders of the American Musicological Society and from 1955 to 1958 president of the International Musicological Society. He received degrees in music and letters from Temple and Northwestern universities, the University of Western Ontario and the New England Conservatory of Music; he was also a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

WRITINGS

‘Haydn and the Opera’, MQ, xviii (1932), 274–81

‘Liszt and the Romantic Movement’, MQ, xx (1936), 314–25

‘Ecce Criticus’, American Scholar, vii (1938), 478–95

‘The So-Called Netherlands School’, MQ, xxv (1939), 48–59

‘The Influence of Political Thought on the History of Music’, PAMS 1940, 108–14

Music in Western Civilization (New York, 1941)

‘The Formation of the Lyric Stage at the Confluence of Renaissance and Baroque’, A Birthday Offering to Carl Engel, ed. G. Reese (New York, 1943), 143–54

‘The Equipment of the Musical Journalist’, Music and Criticism: Cambridge, MA, 1947, 137–61

‘Music and the Liberal Arts College’, Music Teachers National Association: Proceedings, xlii (1948), 32–44

Music and History (Poughkeepsie, NY, 1953)

‘The Flemish, French and Spanish Renaissance Schools’, Music and Western Man, ed. P. Garvie (London, 1958), 74–101 [5 essays on their music; originally CBC radio scripts]

with O. Bettmann: A Pictorial History of Music (New York, 1960) [text based on Music in Western Civilization]

‘Mozart after 200 Years’, JAMS, xiii (1960), 197–205

ed.: Problems of Modern Music (New York, 1960) [orig. pubd as MQ, xlvi/2 (1960)]

ed.: One Hundred Years of Music in America (New York, 1961) [incl. ‘Portrait of a Publishing House’, 9–21]

‘Objectivity and Construction in the Vocal Music of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries’, Natalicia musicologica Knud Jeppesen Septuagenario collegis oblata, ed. B. Hjelmborg and S. Sørensen (Copenhagen, 1962), 115–24

‘Palestrina across the Centuries’, Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer zum sechzigsten Geburtstag, ed. H. Hüschen (Regensburg, 1962), 294–302

‘Handel: Churchman or Dramatist?’, Festschrift Friedrich Blume, ed. A.A. Abert and W. Pfannkuch (Kassel, 1963), 214–20

ed.: Stravinsky: a New Appraisal of his Work (New York, 1963) [orig. pubd in MQ, xlviii (1962), 287–384]

ed.: The Creative World of Mozart (New York, 1963) [orig. pubd in MQ, xlii (1956), 145–235]

ed., with N. Broder: Contemporary Music in Europe: a Comprehensive Survey (New York, 1965) [orig. pubd in MQ, li (1965), 1–297]

George Frideric Handel (New York, 1966)

‘The Patrimonium musicae sacrae and the Task of Sacred Music Today’, Sacred Music, xciii (1966), 119

‘The Enlightenment and Music’, Eighteenth-Century Studies, i (1967–8), 93–103

‘Diderot as Musician’, Diderot Studies, x (1968), 95–107

‘Musicology and Musical Letters’, Musik und Verlag: Karl Vötterle zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. R. Baum and W. Rehm (Kassel, 1968), 403–9

‘The Composer’, Man versus Society in Eighteenth-Century Britain, ed. J.L. Clifford (London, 1968), 85–101

ed.: The Concerto 1800–1900 (New York, 1969) [anthology]

ed.: The Symphony 1800–1900 (New York, 1969) [anthology]

ed.: The Creative World of Beethoven (New York, 1970) [orig. pubd as MQ, lvi/4 (1970)]

Critic at the Opera (New York, 1971; Eng. edn, 1973 as The Experience of Opera) [collected reviews]

‘French Opera and the Spirit of the Revolution’, Irrationalism in the Eighteenth Century, ed. H.E. Pagliaro, ii (Cleveland, 1972), 97–112

‘Musicology and Related Disciplines’, Perspectives in Musicology, ed. B.S. Brook, E.O.D. Downes and S. Van Solkema (New York, 1972), 185–201

‘Tales of a Travelling Music Historian’, JM, ii (1983), 196–205

ed. A. Mann and G.J. Buelow: Musicology and Performance (New Haven, CT, 1997)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

‘18th-Century Studies in Honor of Paul Henry Lang’, CMc, no.9 (1969), 47–189 [incl. O. Fellows: ‘Paul Henry Lang: an Enlightened Critic of the French Enlightenment’, 84–7]

E. Strainchamps, H.R. Maniates and C. Hatch, eds.: Music and Civilization: Essays in Honor of Paul Henry Lang (New York, 1984) [incl. D. Ossenkop: ‘The Writings of Paul Henry Lang: a Selective Bibliography’, 478–87]

C.E. Steinzor: American Musicologists, c.1890–1945: a Bio-Bibliographical Sourcebook to the Formative Period (New York, 1989), 133–53

CARLETON SPRAGUE SMITH

Lang, Philip (Emil) J(oseph)

(b 17 April 1911; d 22 Feb 1986). American orchestrator, arranger and composer. He studied at Ithaca College (1931) and then the Juilliard Graduate School. At WOR radio Lang worked under the music director Alfred Wallenstein and as arranger and assistant conductor for Morton Gould’s radio programmes. During World War II he was an ensign in charge of music for the US Maritime Service. Lang’s earliest theatre orchestrations include those for Gould’s Billion Dollar Baby (1945) and Berlin’s Annie Get Your Gun (1946). The following two decades were divided between the specialized craft of theatre scoring and his composing or arranging for America’s educational market. Among the most successful of his dozens of Broadway credits are High Button Shoes (composer: Styne, 1947), Can-Can (Porter, 1953), My Fair Lady (Loewe, 1956), Camelot (Loewe, 1960), Hello Dolly! (Herman, 1964) and Mame (Herman, 1966). The variety of Lang’s Broadway assignments, both operetta-flavoured and splashy, uninhibited shows, testifies to his versatility. His work with Robert Russell Bennett on Loewe’s My Fair Lady and Camelot also shows a keen ability to obtain a unified style while on a collaborative assignment.

With Herb Martin, Lang completed a musical of his own, Places, Please (pubd. Chicago, 1978). He also helped to score the film version of Hello Dolly! and the soundtracks for The Molly Maguires and The Night They Raided Minsky’s. Among his postwar contributions to the growing American school band movement were many transcriptions, notably of orchestral works by Gould and Leroy Anderson, along with a few original pieces including Trumpet and Drum (1950) and Circus Time (1950), both for wind band. His Scoring for the Band (New York, 1950) is a succinct and valuable study of American concert-band instrumentation and writing in the mid-twentieth century.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P.J. Lang: ‘A Band is a Band’, Musical Journal, v/2 (1947), 37, 52

‘Biography’, The Instrumentalist, vii/1 (1952–3), 37 only

R.G. Goodman: ‘Orchestrating Frederick Loewe’s Music’, From Script to Stage (San Francisco, 1971), 334–9 [interview]

GEORGE J. FERENCZ

Langa, Francisco Soto de.

See Soto de Langa, Francisco.

Langdon, Michael [Birtles, Frank]

(b Wolverhampton, 12 Nov 1920; d Hove, E. Sussex, 12 March 1991). English bass. He joined the Covent Garden chorus in 1948, making his solo début in 1950 as the Nightwatchman (The Olympians) in Manchester. Graduating to principal roles, he created Lieutenant Ratcliffe in Billy Budd (1951), the Recorder of Norwich in Gloriana (1953), the He-Ancient in The Midsummer Marriage (1955) and the Doctor in We Come to the River (1976). His other roles included Osmin, Sarastro, Fafner, Hunding, Hagen, Daland, Don Basilio, Rocco, Kecal, Varlaam, the Grand Inquisitor (Don Carlos), Bottom, Waldner (Arabella) and Ochs, his best-known part, which he studied in Vienna with Jerger and sang more than 100 times. Langdon was a notable Claggart (Billy Budd) in a production for television and on Britten’s recording. He had a large, rather dry-toned voice, equally suitable to comic or tragic parts. On retiring from the stage he became director of the National Opera Studio (1978–86). His autobiography, Notes from a Low Singer, was published in 1982.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Rosenthal: ‘Michael Langdon’, Opera, xxvi (1975), 1111–16

E. Downes and E. Forbes: ‘Michael Langdon (1920–1991)’, Opera, xlii (1991), 511–15

ALAN BLYTH

Langdon, Richard

(b Exeter, c1729; d Exeter, 8 Sept 1803). English organist and composer. He came of a family long connected with the music of Exeter Cathedral, and was probably the grandson of Tobias Langdon, a priest vicar-choral there. He himself became lay vicar-choral and organist of Exeter Cathedral in June 1753 and also Master of the Choristers in 1762. In 1761 he took the Oxford degree of BMus. He resigned his posts at Exeter in October 1777 and in November of that year was appointed organist of Ely Cathedral, moving thence to Bristol Cathedral in 1778 and to Armagh Cathedral in 1782. He left Armagh in poor health in 1794 and appears to have retired to Exeter, where he died. In June 1784 one Richard Langdon was appointed organist of Peterborough Cathedral but it is apparent that he did not take up duty there. (W. Shaw: The Succession of Organists, Oxford, 1991)

WORKS

published in London

10 Songs and a Cantata, op.1 (c1754)

A Collection of Songs, op.2 (c1755)

Cupid and Chloe (cant.) (c1755)

6 Sonatas, hpd, op.3 (1765)

12 Songs and 2 Cantatas, op.4 (c1770)

Divine Harmony [psalms, anthems etc.] … by the Most Eminent Masters, op.5 (1774)

12 Glees, 3–4vv, op.6 (c1780)

Songs pubd separately

WATKINS SHAW

Lange, Aloysia.

German soprano. See Weber family, (4).

Lange, de.

Dutch family of musicians.

(1) Samuel de Lange (i)

(2) Samuel de Lange (ii)

(3) Daniël de Lange

JAN TEN BOKUM

Lange, de

(1) Samuel de Lange (i)

(b Rotterdam, 9 June 1811; d Rotterdam, 15 May 1884). Organist and composer. He studied the organ and piano with Pruys and J.B. van Bree and from 1827 was organist of several Rotterdam churches, where he became celebrated for his recital series. From 1844 he taught at the newly founded school of the Rotterdam section of Toonkunst. His compositions, in the style of Mendelssohn, are mainly for the organ and include sonatas, fantasias, variations and transcriptions.

Lange, de

(2) Samuel de Lange (ii)

(b Rotterdam, 22 Feb 1840; d Stuttgart, 7 July 1911). Organist and composer, son of (1) Samuel de Lange (i). After early studies with his father, J.F. Dupont and Verhulst, he took organ lessons in Vienna in 1859 from Winterberger, a Liszt pupil, while on a concert tour with his younger brother. In Lemberg (L'viv) he taught at the conservatory, where he also studied the piano with Karol Mikuli. The brothers returned in 1862 to Rotterdam where Samuel was appointed teacher at the Toonkunst music school, director of the Toonkunst choir and organist of the Waalse Kerk. He played an influential part in the Dutch Bach renaissance, organizing and conducting orchestral concerts as well as playing keyboard instruments in solo and chamber music; he also promoted the organ works of Muffat, Frescobaldi, Liszt and Brahms. From 1877 to 1884 he lived in Cologne, where he taught the organ at the conservatory and was also a choral conductor. On returning to the Netherlands he became director of the Toonkunst music school of The Hague; in 1893 he left to teach at the Stuttgart Conservatory, which he directed from 1900 to 1908. He composed in a wide range of genres, and also published an edition of Muffat’s Apparatus musico-organisticus (Leipzig, 1888).

Lange, de

(3) Daniël de Lange

(b Rotterdam, 11 July 1841; d Point Loma, CA, 31 Jan 1918). Composer, educationist and writer on music, son of (1) Samuel de Lange (i). He studied the cello with A.F. Servais at the Brussels Conservatory, where he was also in Berthold Damcke's composition class. From 1858 he toured eastern Europe with his brother, teaching the cello at the conservatory in Lemberg (L'viv), 1860–62. He returned to Rotterdam in 1862 and taught at the Toonkunst music school. He lived in Paris as an organist and choir conductor from 1864 to 1870, meeting Berlioz, Bizet, Lalo and Massenet, then settled in Amsterdam as a teacher and orchestra and choir conductor. In 1873 he established a music school at Zaandam and from 1875 to 1911 directed the Leiden section of Toonkunst; he sat on the society's general committee (1876–1908) and served on the board of the Vereeniging voor Noord Nederlands Muziekgeschiedenis (1881–1913). From 1884 he taught at the Amsterdam Conservatory (of which he was a co-founder), succeeding Frans Coenen as director (1895–1913). In 1914 he became director of the music department of the Isis Conservatory in Point Loma, California.

De Lange's chief importance lies in his championship of early Renaissance polyphony. In 1881 he founded in Amsterdam a choir of ten soloists with which he toured the Netherlands. In 1885 he gave a concert at the International Inventions Exhibition in London, and in 1892 he was invited to Vienna where he directed another a cappella choir, this time with 18 soloists, at the Internationale Ausstellung für Musik- und Theaterwesen. A successful tour of western Europe followed. He also promoted contemporary and Asian music. From 1875 to 1913 he wrote music criticism for the newspaper Het nieuws van den dag. His editions include the doubtful St Matthew Passion ascribed to Obrecht (UVNM, xviii, 1894). In his compositions de Lange combined progressive tendencies with echoes of early polyphonic techniques.

WORKS

(selective list)

Dramatic: Lioba (dramatische scène, F. van Eeden), S, T, Bar, female chorus, orch, ?1905 (Amsterdam, c1911); De val van Kuilenburg (op, H. de Veer), unperf., lost

Choral: Ps cxxxviii, Bar, SATB, pf, 1852; Requiem, 2S, 2A, 2T, 2B, SATB, SATB, 1868; Sacred Cantata, SATB, org, op.8 (Amsterdam, 1880); Exultavit cor meum, TTBB (Amsterdam, 1883); Ps xxii (S, A, T, B, SATB, pf), TTBB (Liège, c1895); Dies irae, TTBB (Amsterdam, 1898); sacred songs, 2–3 female/children's vv (n.p., 1899); Ps cxv, TTBB (Tilburg, 1901); Gloria, TTBB (Amsterdam, 1902); Ps cxxxvii, TTBB (Amsterdam, 1903); Ps iii, SATB (Amsterdam, 1908)

Songs (1v, pf unless otherwise stated): Ich unglücksel'ger Atlas (H. Heine) (1854); Lieder und Gesänge (L. Uhland, J.W. von Goethe, T. Storm, F. Spielhagen, A. Verwey), 1865–9 (Amsterdam, 1887); Thränen: 7 Gedichte (A. von Chamisso) (Amsterdam, c1867); Sentiers où l'herbe se balance (V. Hugo); Te souviens-tu (Palmer) (1869); 4 gedichten (Heine, Hugo, Phal), c1869 (Amsterdam, 1911); The Lady of the Greenwood (K. Morris), 1873; Venus im Exil, Concertstück (Frankfurt, c1875); Lieder und Gesänge (R. Hamerling, Holda, M. Schaffy, Heine, Goethe), op.10 (Amsterdam, 1887); De roze (Verwey), Bar, orch, op.12 (Amsterdam, 1888); Ik droomde van een kalmen blaauwen nacht (W. Kloos) (Amsterdam, 1899); Beatrice (Dante Alighieri) (Milan, 1905); Due fate (Nardini) (Milan, 1905); 6 liedjes, c1905 (Amsterdam, 1911); 2 liederen, 1906 (Amsterdam, c1911); 5 gedichten (J. Perk), 1909 (Amsterdam, 1911); Ave verum and O salutaris, 1v, org (Amsterdam, 1911); 5 liederen (A. Roland Holst, H. Lapidoth, W. Kloos, A. Gutteling) (Amsterdam, 1911); arrs. of Dutch trad. songs

Inst: Sym., c, op.4, c1868 (Paris, c1875), ed. D. van Heuvel and R. Rakier (Arnhem, 1995); Adagio, vc, str qt/pf, op.7 (Amsterdam, 1879); 3 Clavierstücke, pf; Variations et Allegro fugué, pf, op.1, c1866 (Paris, c1874); 4 pièces, pf, op.2 (Paris, c1874); Marche, pf 4 hands, op.6 (Amsterdam, 1876)

WRITINGS

‘De collectie Indische muziekinstrumenten … te Leiden’, Aardrijkskundig weekblad, no.2 (1880–81), 65–71

Zangschool … volgens de grondbeginselen der Méthode Galin-Paris-Chevé (Groningen, 1881)

Anton Rubinstein (Haarlem, 1883)

Exposé d'une théorie de la musique (Paris, 1908)

‘Thoughts on Music’, Theosophical Path [Point Loma, CA], xiv/3 (1918)

with J.F. Snelleman: ‘La musique et les instruments de musique dans les Indes Orientales néerlandaises’, EMDC, I/v (1922), 3147–78

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H.C. Rogge: ‘De historische concerten van de Internationale tentoonstelling van muziek en tooneel te Weenen in 1892’, TVNM, iv (1892), 110–24

J. Röntgen: ‘Daniël de Lange, 1841 – 11 juli 1911’, TVNM, ix (1914), 136–40

S. Dresden: Het muziekleven in Nederland sinds 1880, i: De componisten (Amsterdam, 1923)

J.D.C. van Dokkum: Honderd jaar muziekleven in Nederland (Amsterdam, 1929)

E. Reeser, ed.: De Vereeniging voor Nederlandsche Muziekgeschiedenis 1868–1943: gedenkboek (Amsterdam, 1943)

J. ten Bokum: Johannes Gijsbertus Bastiaans 1812–1875 (Utrecht, 1971) [with Eng. summary]

C. von Gleich: ‘Daniel de Lange’, Biografisch woordenboek van Nederland, ed. J. Charité (The Hague, 1979–94)

D. van Hevel and R. Rakier: Introduction to D. de Lange: Symphony in C minor op.4 (Arnhem, 1995) [incl. list of works]

Lange, Francisco [Franz] Curt [Kurt]

(b Eilenburg, 12 Dec 1903; d Montevideo, 3 May 1997). Uruguayan musicologist of German origin. He studied at Leipzig, Berlin, Munich and Bonn universities, taking an architect’s diploma at Munich (1927) and the doctorate at Bonn (1929) with a dissertation on the polyphony of the Netherlands; his teachers included Nikisch, Sandberger, Bücken, van den Borren, Oeser, Hornbostel and Sachs. In 1930 the Uruguayan government invited him to help organize the country’s musical life and he settled in Montevideo, adopting Uruguayan citizenship and working energetically on a variety of projects. He was a founder of the State Broadcasting System (SODRE) and the State Record Library, and was SODRE’s music adviser (1930–48); he introduced musicological studies at the Instituto de Estudios Superiores (1933), and in Montevideo started the ‘Americanismo musical’ movement to promote music and musicians of the Americas: the first Ibero-American Music Festival (Bogotá, 1938) and Inter-American Conference in the Field of Music (Washington DC, 1939) were organized under its auspices. For several years he worked on music organization and education in Argentina, Brazil, Peru and Colombia. In 1935 he began to publish the Boletín latino-americano de música, dealing with the various musical traditions of the Americas. He also founded the Instituto Interamericano de Musicología (1938) at Montevideo, which published some 66 works by Latin American composers under the auspices of Editorial Cooperativa Interamericana de Compositores (1941–56). In connection with this, he published with Hans J. Koellreutter the short-lived review Música viva (Rio de Janeiro, 1940–41), and under the institute’s auspices and in collaboration with Juan Bautista Plaza the Archivo de música colonial venezolana (1941–2), the first organized Latin American historical collection (12 volumes). In 1948 Lange was invited to establish the department of musicology at the National University of Cuyo in Mendoza, Argentina, where he founded and edited the Revista de estudios musicales (1949–56) and a series of contemporary Latin American music.

Lange’s main contribution to musicological research was his extensive exploration of colonial archives in Argentina and Brazil, supported by grants from over 20 foundations and governments. In Minas Gerais he discovered a particularly rich 18th-century musical culture, developed exclusively by mulattos, and edited many scores of its religious music for his Monumenta Musicae Brasiliae; further volumes of valuable documentation resulted from his work on Brazilian archives. This research was amplified by further study in Spain and Portugal. Between 1933 and 1970 he organized hundreds of concerts of this music throughout South America, the USA and Europe, and thus contributed more than any other individual to the dissemination of Latin American music. He was also active in disseminating European and North American culture in South America: he mounted many concerts of new music from the USA in Montevideo and Rio de Janeiro, and to extend Latin American knowledge of international bibliography translated numerous studies into Spanish. As a visiting lecturer he taught throughout Europe and the USA, and he was the Latin American representative of most European and North American musicological organizations. In 1985 the state conferred on him the Gabriela Mistral Prize.

WRITINGS

Über die Mehrstimmigkeit der Niederländischen Motetten (diss., U. of Bonn, 1929)

‘Organización musical en el Uruguay: La Ossodre’, Boletín latino-americano de música, i (1935), 111–31

‘Villa-Lobos, un pedagogo creador’, Boletín latino-americano de música, i (1935), 189–96

‘Americanismo musical’, Boletín latino-americano de música, ii (1936), 117–30

‘La difusión radio-elétrica como medio de educación de las masas y como factor de difusión cultural y científica’, Boletín latino-americano de música, ii (1936), 131–42

‘Sistemas de investigación folklórica y el empleo del acervo folklórico en la música artística’, Boletín latino-americano de música, ii (1936), 143–56

‘León Ribeiro’, Boletín latino-americano de música, iii (1937), 519–36

‘Los estudios musicales de la América Latina publicados últimamente’, Handbook of Latin American Studies, iii (1937), 527–46

Programs of Latin American Music (Washington DC, 1939)

‘La educación musical infantil en el Uruguay: una nueva orientación’, Boletín latino-americano de música, v (1941), 619–29

‘Suma de las relaciones interamericanas en el campo de la música’, Boletín latino-americano de música, v (1941), 11–22

ed.: Latin-American Art Music for the Piano by Twelve Contemporary Composers (New York, 1942)

‘La música en Minas Gerais: un informe preliminar’, Boletín latino-americano de música, vi (1946), 409–94

‘Estudios brasileños (Mauricinas) I: Manuscritos de la biblioteca nacional de Rio de Janeiro’, Revista de estudios musicales, i/3 (1949–50), 99–194

ed.: Archivo de música religiosa de la Capitania Geral das Minas Gerais, Brasil, siglo XVIII (Mendoza, 1951)

Vida y muerte de Louis Moreau Gottschalk en Rio de Janeiro, 1869 (Mendoza, 1951)

‘La música eclesiástica argentina en el período de la dominación hispánica (una investigación), Revista de estudios musicales, iii/7 (1954), 15–171

La música eclesiástica en Córdoba durante la dominación hispánica (Córdoba, 1956)

‘La música en Minas Gerais durante el siglo XVIII’, Estudios americanos, nos.57–8 (1956), 1

La música religiosa en el área de Rosario de Santa Fe y en el convento San Carlos de San Lorenzo, durante el período aproximado de 1770 a 1820 (Rosario, 1956)

‘Organeros y órganos durante el período colonial argentino’, Boletín interamericano de música, no.50 (1965), 3–15

‘Sobre las difíciles huellas de la música antigua del Brasil: la “Missa abreviada” (1823) del Padre José Maurício Nunes Garcia’, YIAMR, i (1965), 15–40

A organização musical durante o período colonial brasileiro (Coimbra, 1966)

‘La música en Villa Rica (Minas Gerais, siglo XVIII)’, RMC, no.102 (1967), 8–55; no.103 (1968), 77–149; no.125 (1974), 5–20

‘Os irmãos músicos da Irmandade de São José dos Homens Pardos de Villa Rica’, YIAMR, iv (1968), 110–60

Historia de la música colonial argentina (?Buenos Aires, 1972–3)

‘O caso Domenico Zipoli – uma retificaçao histórica: a sua opera omnia’, Barroco [Belo Horizonte], v (1973), 7–44; Ger. trans. in Musica scientiae collectanea: Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer zum siebzigsten Geburtstag, ed. H. Hüschen (Cologne, 1973), 327–55

‘Documentação musical pernambucana’, Barroco [Belo Horizonte], ix (1977), 7–64

Historia de la música colonial cordobesa (Córdoba, 1977)

‘Os primeiros subministros musicais do Brasil para o rio da Prata: a reciprocidade musical entre o Brasil e o Prata’, Revista de história [São Paolo], no.112 (1977), 381–417

‘A música no período colonial em Minas Gerais’, Seminário sobre a cultura mineira no período colonial: Belo Horizonte 1978 (Belo Horizonte, 1979), 7–87

História da música nas Irmandades de Vila Rica (Belo Horizonte, 1979–83)

‘Los conjuntos musicales ambulantes de Salzgitter y su propagación en Brasil y Chile durante el siglo XIX’, LAMR, i (1980), 213–52

‘La música en la Argentina del siglo XIX’, ‘A música no Brasil durante o século XIX: regéncia, império, república’, ‘La música en el Uruguay durante el siglo XIX’, ‘Louis Moreau Gottschalk (1829–1869): correspondencia recientemente descubierta sobre su personalidad y obra realizada en el Uruguay y el Brasil’, Die Musikkulturen Lateinamerikas im 19. Jahrhundert, ed. R. Günther (Regensburg, 1982), 65–91, 121–66, 333–43, 371–449 [with Eng. summaries]

‘Algumas novidades em torno a atividade musical erudita no periodo colonial de Minas Gerais (Brasil)’, LAMR, iv (1983), 247–68

‘La música culta en el périodo hispano’, Historia general del arte en la Argentina, ii (1983), 249–333

‘A actividade musical na igreja de São José do Rio de Janeiro’, LAMR, vi (1985), 201–34

‘Cómo ve un musicólogo la crítica musical’, Heterofonía, xviii/2 (1985), 65–74

‘Domenico Zipoli: storia di una riscoperta’, NRMI, xix (1985), 203–26; Sp. orig., ‘El redescubrimento de Domenico Zipoli’, Brussels Museum of Musical Instruments Bulletin, xvi (1986), 221–42; repr. in Montalbán, no.22 (1990), 207–27

‘La actividad musical en la capitanía general de Minas Gerais, Brasil, siglo XVIII’, Brussels Museum of Musical Instruments Bulletin, xvi (1986), 145–59; repr. in Revista musical de Venezuela, no.26 (1988), 45–65

‘Las hermandades de Santa Cecilia y su propagación desde Lisboa hacia el Brasil’, Brussels Museum of Musical Instruments Bulletin, xvi (1986), 109–21

‘La música en la provincia de Salta’, Revista musical de Venezuela, no.19 (1986), 51–161

‘Domenico Zipoli en Roma (1709–1716)’, Domenico Zipoli: itinerari iberoamericani della musica italiana nel Settecento: Prato, Italy, 1988, 57–82

‘Villa-Lobos y el americanismo musical’, Revista musical de Venezuela, no.25 (1988), 11–45

‘Las bandas de música en el Brasil’, RMC, no.187 (1997), 27–36

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Chase: ‘Francisco Curt Lange and “Americanismo musical”’, The Inter-American, ii/5 (1943), 33

P.S. Urtubey: Las obras colectivas de Francisco Curt Lange (Buenos Aires, 1974)

A.A. Bispo: ‘Francisco Curt Lange: 80 años’, Boletím da Sociedade brasileira de musicologia, ii (1984–5), 48–67

H.L. Crowl: ‘Exposição do acervo de Francisco Curt Lange’, Encontro nacional de pesquisa em música III: Ouro Prêto 1987, 97–102

‘Homenaje al doctor Francisco Curt Lange’, Revista musical de Venezuela, no.28 (1989) [incl. I. Ruiz: ‘Un proyecto trunco’, 98–105; J. Velazco: ‘La confluencia intelectual y académica en la formación escolástica y la obra de investigación de Francisco Curt Lange’, 207–23; list of writings and further bibliography, 224–64]

M. Fuerst-Heidtmann: ‘Francisco Curt Lange: Pionier, Mittler, Nestor der Musikwissenschaft in Lateinamerika’, Ibero-amerikanisches Archiv, xvii (1991), 245–58

G. Béhague, ed.: Latin American Music Review, xviii/2 (1997) [incl. ‘Francisco Curt Lange (12 December 1903 – 3 May 1997)

L. Merino Montero: ‘Francisco Curt Lange (1903–1997): tributo a un americanista de excepción’, RMC, no.189 (1998), 9–36

GERARD BÉHAGUE

Lange, Gregor [Langius, Hieronymus Gregorius]

(b Havelberg, Brandenburg, c1540; d Breslau [now Wrocław], ? 1 May 1587). German composer. He matriculated at the University of Frankfurt an der Oder in 1573 and in 1574 became the university Kantor. He appears to have contracted an incurable disease about 1580, since shortly afterwards he was obliged to relinquish his position; in the last dedication he wrote, in 1585, he stated that his hands and feet were completely paralysed. From 1583 he lived at Breslau, where he was supported by the town council; he spent the final period of his life in the Hieronymus Hospital there.

Lange was highly esteemed by his contemporaries, who ranked him with Lassus and Lechner, and his reputation endured until the 19th century. The influence of Lassus is evident in the swiftly developing structures and penchant for modulation in Lange’s music; the motet Vae misero mihi from the 1584 collection, for example, is remarkable for its unusual chromatic modulations. In other respects, however, his work was outmoded, particularly in its rapid alteration of vocal groupings and the brevity of its themes. His Latin motets, 45 of which were published in his collections of 1580 and 1584, enjoyed considerable favour. His three-voice German songs are less attractive than those of Regnart, for they are somewhat stiff and lacking in melody, but they were popular enough for the first book (1584) to be reprinted four times and the second (1586) twice before the end of the 16th century; in 1615 they reappeared with sacred texts by Henning Dedekind and in arrangements for five voices by Christoph Demantius that are of greater musical merit.

WORKS

Editions: G. Lange: Eine ausgewählte Sammlung Motetten, 4, 5, 6, 8vv, ed. R. Starke, PÄMw, xxv (1901/R) [24 motets]

F. Bose, ed.: Neue deutsche Lieder mit drei Stimmen von Gregor Lange (Berlin, 1968)

sacred vocal

[19] Cantiones aliquot novae, 5, 6vv (Frankfurt an der Oder, 1580)

Liber secundus [26] cantionum sacrarum, 4–6, 8vv, cum adjuncto in fine dialogo, 10vv (Nuremberg, 1584)

4 sacred works, 1646³; 2 motets intabulated for lute, 1584¹⁴

secular vocal

Neuer deutscher Lieder … der erste Theil, 3vv (Breslau, 1584) [arr. 5vv by Demantius (Leipzig, 1614)]

Der ander Theil neuer deudscher Lieder, 3vv (Breslau, 1586) [arr. 5vv by Demantius (Leipzig, 1615)]

4 songs, intabulated for lute, 1584¹⁴

occasional

Gamedion (Audi dulcis amica mea) in honorem Adami Bolforosii, 5vv (Frankfurt, 1574)

Wedding work, 5vv, in J. Belitz: Epithalamia (Frankfurt, 1580)

Cantiones due, quarum altera in honorem nuptiarum D … Martini Nosleri … et Evae D. Basilij Mehlhornij … altera in eiusdem gratiam & honorem … composita est, 6vv (Frankfurt, 1582)

Nuptiis … Henrici Schmid … et Catharinae … Christophori … cantio gratulatoria composita (Breslau, 1584)

Bekentnis der Sünden, und Gebet umb gnedige Linderung der vorstehenden Not und Gefahr … de … Stadt Bresslau, 4vv (Breslau, 1585)

Prudens simplex, simplex prudens: symbolum Francisci Virlingi Diaconi, 5vv (Breslau, 1585), lost (cited in Starke, 1889)

Epithalamion melos … Iohanni Hennmanno, medicinae doctori, ac … eius sponsae Mariae, 5vv (Breslau, 1586)

For MS works incl. 2 masses, Lat. motets, Ger. sacred and secular works, see EitnerQ and Starke (1899)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BlumeEK

BoetticherOL

MGG1 (B. Stockmann)

R. Starke: ‘Hieronymus Gregorius Lange Havelbergensis’, MMg, xxxi (1899), 101–10

H.J. Moser: Geschichte der deutschen Musik, i (Stuttgart, 1920, 5/1930/R)

A.A. Abert: Die stilistischen Voraussetzungen der ‘Cantiones sacrae’ von Heinrich Schütz (Wolfenbüttel, 1935/R)

N. Hampel: Deutschsprachige protestantische Kirchenmusik Schlesiens bis zum Einbruch der Monodie (diss., U. of Breslau, 1937)

H. Grimm: Meister der Renaissancemusik an der Viadrina (Frankfurt an der Oder, 1942)

H.J. Moser: Die evangelische Kirchenmusik in Deutschland (Berlin, 1954)

H. Osthoff, ed.: Das deutsche Chorlied vom 16. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart, Mw, x (1955; Eng. trans., 1955)

I. Gallwitz: Die Neuen deutsche Lieder von 1584 und 1586 des Gregorius Langius und deren Bearbeitung durch Christoph Demantius und Henning Dedekind (diss., U. of Vienna, 1960)

BERNHARD STOCKMANN

Langeleik.

Fretted Norwegian box zither. It resembles the Scheitholt depicted by Praetorius (Theatrum instrumentorum, 1620), having only one melody string and three to seven drone strings. An instrument dated 1524 is known from the Gjøvik district, and there are several literary references to the langeleik dating from about 1600. It was commonly used for domestic rural music-making from this time until the mid-19th century. Its use was fairly widespread, the greatest number of old instruments being found in Telemark and Oppland. The Valdres district still has an unbroken tradition of langeleik playing, and there has been a strong revival in the Gjøvik district (see Norway, fig.2).

Older instruments are hollowed out from one piece of wood; the newer instruments from Valdres are made as boxes, often with different kinds of wood used for the top, sides and bottom. The playing technique differs considerably from that of similar instruments outside Norway: the middle three fingers of the left hand stop the melody string and also rapidly strike (on ascending) and pluck (on descending) the notes between the rhythmic plectrum strokes of the right hand. The melodic idiosyncrasies of langeleik music may be related to this technique (see Ledang, 1974). Modern instruments have the frets placed to produce a major scale; a few instruments are made with movable frets to produce other intervals. On early specimens, however, it is difficult to establish common patterns in the spacing of the frets, and the old instruments have featured in research related to scale and mode in Norwegian traditional music. Eggen (1923) attempted an evaluation of langeleik scales. Sevåg (1974), using a greater number of early instruments, concluded that a heptatonic scale structure with a relatively fixed framework of tonic, 5th and octave can be abstracted. Other intervals vary as much as 60 cents.

See also Norway, §II, 3 and Zither, §3.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Eggen: Skalastudier [Studies in scales] (Christiania [now Oslo], 1923)

O.K. Ledang: ‘Instrument – Player – Music: on the Norwegian langeleik’, Festschrift to Ernst Emsheimer, ed. G. Hilleström (Stockholm, 1974), 107–18

R. Sevåg: ‘Neutral Tones and the Problems of Mode in Norwegian Folk Music’, Festschrift to Ernst Emsheimer, ed. G. Hilleström (Stockholm, 1974), 207–13

E. Kværne: disc notes, På langeleik, Heilo HO 7036 (1985)

For further bibliography see Zither

REIDAR SEVÅG/TELLEF KVIFTE

Lange-Müller, Peter Erasmus

(b Frederiksberg, 1 Dec 1850; d Copenhagen, 26 Feb 1926). Danish composer. He came from a wealthy and musical family of scientists, clergymen and academics and was taught the piano from an early age by Gottfred Matthison-Hansen. After leaving school in 1870 he enrolled at Copenhagen University (to read political science) and at the conservatory, where he was taught the piano by Edmund Neupert, but ill-health soon forced him to give up his studies. Throughout his life he suffered from constant headaches, which affected both his personal relations and his musical development. He was largely self-taught, and his isolation meant that he could more readily develop the original and untraditional characteristics of his music; he withdrew from official musical life except between 1879 and 1883, when he was conductor of the Koncertforening that he had helped to found. Shortly after his marriage in 1892 he moved to a beautiful country estate in northern Zealand, and the surroundings there deeply influenced his creative work.

Lange-Müller was a Romantic by temperament and artistic inclination. His style was strongly influenced by the music of his countrymen Hartmann and Heise and by that of Schumann, but he evolved an individual late Romantic style built around emotionally concentrated tonal effects on a dark harmonic background, reminiscent of Brahms and contemporary French developments – an expression of nostalgia that was not directly followed up in Danish music. His substantial output is dominated by vocal music. The Piano Trio op.53 is one of his best instrumental pieces, but his lack of technical training becomes apparent in the sometimes awkward orchestration of his larger works. As a composer of songs he had no equal among his Danish contemporaries; his wide choice of texts and acute sensitivity to the mood of each poem enabled him to create a vocal style whose subtlety was without precedent in Danish music. He found a source of sympathetic inspiration in his friend, the poet Thor Lange, whose varied imagery and reworkings of Russian and other Slav folk poetry influenced Lange-Müller's musical expression. He hoped for success as a composer of opera, as is shown by his numerous efforts in that genre, but his most ambitious work, the opera Vikingeblod, was also his greatest disappointment; the critics found the style and subject outdated, and this judgment may partly account for the decline in his output after 1900 and its virtual cessation by 1910. By that time, however, his songs with piano and works such as the Madonnasange op.65 and the music for Der var engang (‘Once upon a time’) op.25 had secured the widespread acceptance and popularity of his music. The younger generation of Danish composers regarded him with respect and veneration.

WORKS

Edition: P.E. Lange-Müller: Sange (Copenhagen, 1911–12)

all printed works published in Copenhagen

MSS in DK-Kk

stage

first performed at Copenhagen, Royal Theatre, unless otherwise stated

op.

7	Tove (Spl, 2, Lange-Müller), 1878, abridged vs (1879)
13	I Mester Sebalds have [In Master Sebald's garden] (incid music, S. Bauditz), 1880, abridged vs (1881)
15	Fulvia (incid music, H.V. Kaalund), 1881, abridged vs (1881)
22	Spanske studenter (op, 2, V. Faber), 1883, vs (1883)
25	Der var engang [Once upon a time] (incid music, H. Drachmann), 1887, abridged vs (1887)
30	Fru Jeanna (tragic op, 4, E. von der Recke), composed 1886; 1891, vs (1892)
32	Gildet paa Solhaug [The Feast at Solhaug] (incid music, H. Ibsen), composed 1888; Christiania, 1897, abridged vs (1888), songs (1894)
41	Ved Bosporus [At the Bosporus] (incid music, Drachmann), 1891, abridged vs (1893)
42	Peter Plus (incid music, E. Christiansen), 1891, 2 songs (1891)
43	Die schlimmen Brüder (incid music, P. Heyse), Weimar, 1891, serenade, vn, pf (1922)
44	Hertuginden af Burgund [The Duchess of Burgundy] (incid music, von der Recke), abridged vs (1892)
48	Letizia (incid music, Christiansen), Copenhagen, Dagmar, 1898, songs (1893–8)
50	Vikingeblod (op, 4, Christiansen), composed before 1897; 1900, vs (1897)
51	Sommernat paa sundet [Summer night on the sound] (O. Benzon), 1894 [prelude to Anna Bryde]
55	Middelalderlig [Medieval] (melodrama, Drachmann), 1896, abridged vs (1903)
59	Renaissance (melodrama, Drachmann), 1901, vs (1903)

choral

op.

5	Tonernes flugt [The tones' flight] (H. Hertz), Novemberstemning [November mood] (H. Høst), both for mixed vv, 1876, acc. pf 4 hands (1913), with orch acc. (1914–15)
9	Niels Ebbesen (C. Gandrup), Bar, male vv, orch (1878), rev. 1924
10	Tolv kor- og kvartetsange, male vv (1879)
21	Tre salmer, mixed vv, orch (1883)
29	Zwei Madonnalieder (P. Heyse, after Sp. orig.), Mez, female vv, orch (1895)
36	Kantate ved universitetets fest, June 1888 (H. Drachmann), mixed vv, orch, vs (1911)
60	1848 (E. von der Recke), cant., Bar, male vv, wind, vs (1919)
62	Arion (Recke), T, mixed vv, orch, perf. 1899, vs (n.d.)
65	Tre Madonnasange (T. Lange), mixed vv (1900)
71	H.C. Andersen-kantate (Recke), solo vv, mixed vv, orch (1906)
73	Agnete og havmanden [Agnete and the merman] (E. Blaumüller), chorus, orch, vs (1910)

songs

5 sange af Sulamith og Salomon (B.S. Ingemann), op.1 (1874); Menuet og marsch (H.V. Kaalund, F. Paludan-Müller), 2 songs, low v, op.2 (1874); 3 digte (V. Bergsøe), op.4 (1875); 8 sange (Ingemann), op.6 (1876); 6 sange efter det russiske (T. Lange), op.11 (1879); Fem danske sange (C.F.K. Molbech, C. Hauch, Kaalund), op.14 (1882); 5 norske sange (B. Bjørnson, H. Ibsen, C. Welhaven), op.16 (1882); 6 folkeviser (trans. Lange), op.18 (1883); Naar sol gaar ned [At sunset] (Lange), 4 songs, op.19 (1883); Skumring [Twilight] (Lange, after L. Tolstoy), 4 songs, op.20 (1883); Bjørnen, hinden, junkeren [The bear, the hind, the squire], op.23 (1884)

7 sange (Recke), op.24 (1884); 6 ernste Lieder (H. Heine, H. Heyse), op.27 (1895); 6 anciennes chansons d’amour, op.28 (1885); 4 digte (C. Richardt, Molbech, Kaalund), op.31 (1887); 8 folkeviser (trans. Lange), op.34 (1888); 5 Romanzen und Balladen (L. Uhland), op.35 (1889); 3 sange (Lange, after Pol. and Russ. orig.), op.38 (1890); 6 sange af Min kaerligheds bog (K. Gjellerup), op.40 (1890); [3] Sange ved havet [Songs by the sea] (H. Drachmann), op.54 (1896); 4 sange af Cosmus (E. Christiansen), op.57 (1898); 4 sange (L. Holstein), op.61 (1899); 17 viser og sange (Lange), op.64 (1899); 3 digte (Jacobsen), op.74 (1908); 9 sange (Recke), op.75 (1908); [5] Vandringsmandens sange [Songs of travel] (C. Bahnson), op.77 (1910); 12 smaasange (1901)

instrumental

Orch: Sym. ‘Efteraar’ [Autumn], d, op.17, 1879–81, arr. pf 4 hands (1881); Sym., d, op.33, 1889, rev. 1915; 2 suites, I Alhambra, op.3 (1875) and Weyerburg, op.47, arr. pf 4 hands (1894); Romance, vn solo, op.63 (1899); Vn Conc., C, op.69 (1904)

Chamber: Pf Trio, F, op.53 (1898); 3 fantasistykker, vn, pf, op.39 (1891); works for pf 2 hands, incl. 12 klaverstykker, op.8 (1877), Danse og intermezzi, op.49 (1894), 7 skovstykker [Forest pieces], op.56 (1898), En efteraarsfantasi [An autumn fantasia], op.66 (1900), Daempede melodier [Soft melodies], op.68 (1904), Smaa klaverstykker for børn [Little pf pieces for children] (1911); Meraner-Reigen, pf 4 hands, op.26 (1886)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DBL (E. Abrahamsen)

Fortegnelse over P.E. Lange-Müller's kompositioner (Copenhagen, 1910) [catalogue]

P.E. Lange-Müller: Autobiography, Illustreret tidende (27 Nov 1910)

G. Lynge: ‘P.E. Lange-Müller’, Danske komponister i det 20. aarhundredes begyndelse (Århus, 1916, 2/1917), 170–82

J. Clausen: P.E. Lange-Müller (Copenhagen, 1938)

H. Bonnén: P.E. Lange-Müller (Copenhagen, 1946) [incl. list of works]

K.A. Bruun: ‘P.E. Lange-Müller’, Dansk musiks historie fra Holberg-tiden til Carl Nielsen, ii (Copenhagen, 1969), 243–79

N. Schiørring: Musikkens historie i Danmark, iii (Copenhagen, 1978), 89–94

N.V. Bentzon: ‘Den lille internationalisme: nogle bemaerkninger vedr. P.E. Lange-Müller’, Dansk musiktidsskrift, lxi (1986), 65–71

NIELS MARTIN JENSEN

Langer [née Knauth], Susanne Katherina

(b New York, 20 Dec 1895; d Old Lyme, CT, 17 July 1985). American philosopher. After studying philosophy at Radcliffe College (PhD 1926) and (briefly) at the University of Vienna, she taught at various institutions between 1927 and 1954, when she was appointed professor at Connecticut College. She remained there as a research scholar after her retirement in 1962.

Between 1940 and 1960 Langer's publications centred on a philosophy of art derived from a theory of musical meaning in which music played an important role. She responded to trends she observed in Ernst Cassirer's Philosophie der symbolischen Formen (Berlin, 1928–9), Charles Peirce's theory of signs, Alfred North Whitehead's Symbolism, its Meaning and Effect (Charlottesville, VA, 1927/R) and Wittgenstein's Tractatus logico-philosophicus (London, 1922/R; Gero. orig. in Annalen der Naturphilosophie, xiv, 1921). Noting their thematic connection, she declared the study of symbolism a ‘New Key’ in the thought of her era (1942). In developing her own philosophy of symbols, Langer uses music as paradigm of a symbol system whose symbols are presentational rather than discursive, having meaning but not the power to assert anything about states-of-affairs in the world. She does so in order to counter Wittgenstein, who denied ‘meaning’ to non-discursive (or ‘non-propositional’) forms, and viewed the excluded artistic forms of verbal utterances as ‘expressive’, in the sense that a scream of pain might be. A ‘presentational symbol’, she argued, need not be discursive in order to convey a meaning, and its lack of propositional content need not be taken as a symptom of the emotionally cathartic. Music presents a content which neither expresses an emotional state felt by the composer, nor elicits an emotional response in the hearer. Instead, it is a symbolic ‘formulation and representation of emotions, moods, mental tensions and resolutions – a “logical picture” of sentient, responsive life’. Music's capacity for presenting emotional states is attributed to its dynamic shape, or patterns of tension and resolution, which Langer takes to be correlated with those of emotional life. Music is not, however, limited to the presentation of familiar states, but ‘articulates subtle complexes of feeling that language cannot even name’ calling for a response of reflective ‘insight’ (1942, pp.222–3).

Langer extended her aesthetics to become a philosophy of mind (1967–72). The strength of her position lies in its challenge to philosophies which privilege the linguistic over other modes of semiotic activity, and the propositional over other modes of mental life, including feeling. Its weakness lies in a lack of precision in the basic definition of terms (‘symbol’ in Langer's scheme would more usually be referred to as ‘icon’ in current semiotics) and the absence of a precise working-out of the supposed correlation between the presentational shapes of music and those of emotional life.

WRITINGS

Philosophy in a New Key (Cambridge, MA, 1942, 3/1957)

Feeling and Form: a Theoy of Art developed from Philosophy in a New Key (New York, 1953/R)

Problems of Art (New York, 1957)

ed.: Reflections on Art: a Souce Book of Writings by Artists, Critics, and Philosophers (Baltimore, 1958/R)

Philosophical Sketches (Baltimore, 1962/R)

Mind: an Essay on Human Feeling, i–iii (Baltimore, 1967–72, abridged 2/1988)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Schoen: ‘On Musical Expression’, JRME, ii (1954), 57–60

W. Sargent: ‘Profiles: Philosopher in a New Key’, New Yorker (3 Dec 1960)

B. Lang: ‘Langer's Arabesque and the Collapse of the Symbol’, Review of Metaphysics, xvi (1962), 349–65

P.A. Bertocci: ‘Susanne Langer, or The Symbol Abstracted’, Philological Quarterly, xlviii (1969), 261–77

P.A. Bertocci: ‘Susanne K. Langer's Theory of Feeling and Mind’, Review of Metaphysics, xxiii (1970), 527–51

R. Monelle: ‘Symbolic Modes in Music Aesthetics’, British Journal of Aesthetics, xix (1979), 24–37

F. Hanson: ‘Philosophy of Music Education in a Slightly New Key’, Philosophy of Music Education Review, i/1 (1993), 61–74; see also K. Price: ‘Philosophy in a New Key: an Interpretation’, ibid., 33–43 and B. Reimer: ‘Langer on the Arts as Cognitive’, ibid., 44–60

V. Howard: ‘Music as Icon: a Critique of Twentieth-Century Music Semiotic’, Peirce's Doctrine of Signs: Theory Applications, and Connections, ed. V. Colapietro and T. Olshewsky (Berlin, 1996), 315–25

F.E. SPARSHOTT/NAOMI CUMMING

Langford, Gordon (Maris Colman) [Colman, Gordon Maris]

(b Edgware, 11 May 1930). English arranger, composer and pianist. He was an accomplished pianist from childhood, playing a Mozart concerto in a public concert at the age of 11, and winning a Middlesex scholarship to the RAM where he also studied trombone. Early attempts at composition were influenced by Debussy and Ravel, and later by the Russian Romantics, Rachmaninoff and Skryabin. His first BBC broadcast as a pianist was in 1951 while serving with the Royal Artillery Band. By the 1960s, after a variety of engagements as both player and arranger, Langford had established himself as a respected pianist in concerts and on numerous broadcasts such as ‘Music in the Air’ and ‘Friday Night is Music Night’. His reputation as an arranger and composer also grew steadily.

In 1971 he won an Ivor Novello Award for his march from the Colour Suite, and became more involved in brass band music. At the same time he was increasingly in demand to orchestrate West End musicals and feature films, and also contributed mood music to publishers' recorded music libraries. He has written many arrangements for the King's Singers and the Philip Jones Brass Ensemble. In 1994 the BBC commissioned Grand Fantasia on ‘La bohème’ for the centenary of the Proms, and in the same year he received the Gold Badge of Merit from the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Beautiful Haven; Capriciello, str orch; Chanson d'été; A Christmas Fantasy; Cirrus, rhapsody, pf, orch; Colour Suite; Comedietta, ov; Concertino, tpt, orch; Friendly Street; Grand Fantasia on ‘La bohème’; Greenways; Hebridean Hoedown; Royal Daffodil; Spirit of London, ov; Theme and Diversions, accdn, orch

Brass band and concert band: Carnival Day March; Facets of Glass; Leviathan March; London Miniature; Metropolis, ov; The Peacemakers; Prince of Wales March; Proclamation, b trbn, brass band; Rhapsody, cornet, brass band; Rhapsody, trbn, brass band; A Summer Scherzo

Chbr: Andante and Rondo on Flemish Themes, chbr ens; Ballade, vln, pf; Divertimento, sax qt; Sonatina, vln, pf

DAVID ADES

Langgaard, Rued [Rud] (Immanuel)

(b Copenhagen, 28 July 1893; d Ribe, 10 July 1952). Danish composer and organist. His father, Siegfried Langgaard, was a piano teacher and composer, and his mother, Emma Foss, a pianist. He received early instruction from his parents, and was taught the organ and musical theory by private teachers, including C.F.E. Horneman (1903–7). At the age of 11 he made a remarkable début in Copenhagen as an organist and improviser, and in 1908 a performance of an early cantata, for soloists, chorus and orchestra, attracted attention. Between 1908 and 1913 he travelled regularly to Berlin with his parents; contacts there led to his hour-long Symphony no.1 (1908–11) being performed by the Berlin PO in 1913 in a concert devoted to his works. This was the greatest outward success of the composer’s career; in Denmark the musical community regarded the highly productive but reserved and solitary composer with considerable scepticism. In 1921–3 Langgaard’s symphonic works aroused some interest in Germany, where two of his most progressive compositions, Sfaerernes musik (‘Music of the Spheres’) (1916–18) and the Symphony no.6 (1919–20), were given their premières. But a true breakthrough failed to materialize, and after his opera Antikrist was turned down by the Royal Theatre in Copenhagen in 1925, he reacted sharply by turning his back on modernism and openly criticizing Danish musical life, not least Nielsen’s significant aesthetic influence on it. He never gained sufficient sympathy for his music to establish himself in Danish musical life, becoming instead an isolated figure who developed a rigid and unhappy relationship of opposition to the musical authorities and the spirit of the time. His uncompromising view of music, coloured by religion and symbolism, did not concur with the anti-Romantic and sober attitude which became dominant in Denmark around 1930. He battled for many years to obtain a position as organist, and only in 1940 became cathedral organist in Ribe, far from the centre of Danish musical life in Copenhagen.

Collage-like features, expressive of desperation and fragmentation, and a preoccupation with visions of destruction make Langgaard’s music distinctive, despite the often late Romantic and at times demonstratively retrospective nature of his musical language. He often went to extremes to achieve expressiveness, and his works frequently transcend traditional perceptions of musical form and temporal progression. His many pastiche-like compositions, seen purely in isolation, are of debatable artistic merit, but they have a place in his individual, symbolist universe. His works overall can be seen as a commentary on time, on the Classical-Romantic tradition and on the isolation of the composer.

Langgaard’s vast output of more than 400 compositions falls into four phases. Up until 1916 his works were late Romantic in idiom, influenced by composers such as Liszt and Richard Strauss; between 1916 and 1924 late Romanticism, refined in sound, was mixed with expressive modernism, inspired in places by Nielsen but also anticipating Hindemith and Bartók. The principal works of this period are the Symphonies nos.4 and 6, Sfaerernes musik, Antikrist, Afgrundsmusik (‘Music of the Abyss’) for piano and the String Quartets nos.2 and 3. In a long intermediate phase (1925–45), Langgaard attempted to re-establish his Romantic point of departure, to ‘re-tell’, as it were, music as he remembered it from his childhood about the turn of the century. He adopted a consciously ‘anonymous’ style which took the music of Wagner and Gade as its starting-point. The principal work in this period was the two-hour-long Messis (Høstens tid) (‘Messis [Harvest Time]’) for organ, which draws on the entire range of expression of the Romantic era. In the fourth and final phase, from about 1945 onwards, absurdity and fragmentation found their way into Langgaard’s world, and the composer's desperation is expressed in works such as the nightmarish six-minute Symphony no.11 ‘Ixion’ (1944–5). In the distinctive piano piece Le béguinage (1948–9), stylistic elements of Schumann, Debussy and salon music are combined with modernist effects in a collage-like mixture.

Only about half of Langgaard’s output was performed during his lifetime, and most works only on a single occasion. The opera Antikrist, eight of his 16 symphonies and other major works were not performed until interest in his music was reawakened in about 1968. Sfaerernes musik in particular contributed towards this renewal of interest, since it anticipated the avant-garde music of the 1960s in both its compositional technique and its concentration on the spatial and purely sonorous aspects of the music. In the 1990s Langgaard’s works and the symbolist musical world from which they emerged were again surveyed and discussed, and numerous recordings have helped provide a varied picture of the paradoxical and complex composer, confirming his position among the outsiders of the 20th century. His music, which has generated considerable scholarly interest, often radiates elemental creative power, making an immediate impression. Langgaard’s art and his personal fate sets Danish musical history into relief, and in a wider perspective his works provide ‘an inexhaustible source for the enrichment and renewal of the usual view of music’, as the musical historian Godtfred Skjerne – the only one to do so in Langgaard's own time – was able to foresee in 1916.

WORKS

(selective list)

Opera: Antikrist/Fortabelsen [Antichrist/Perdition] (Langgaard), 1921–3, rev. 1926–9

Orch: Sym. no.1 ‘Klippepastoraler’ [Pastorals of the Rocks], 1908–11; Sfinx [Sphinx], 1909–10, rev. 1913; Sym. no.2 ‘Vaarbrud’ [Breaking of Spring], S, orch, 1912–14, rev. 1926–33; Sym. no.4 ‘Løvfald’ [Leaf-Fall], 1916, rev. 1920; Sym. no.6 ‘Det himmelrivende’ [The Heaven-Rending], 1919–20, rev. 1926; Sym. no.10 ‘Hin torden-bolig’ [Yon Hall of Thunder], 1944–5; Sym. no.11 ‘Ixion’ (1944–5); Sym. no.14 ‘Morgenen’ [Morning], chorus, orch, 1947–8, rev. 1951; Sym. no.15 ‘Søstormen’ [The Sea Storm], Bar, male chorus, orch, 1937, 1949

Vocal: Sfaerernes musik [Music of the Spheres], Mez, chorus, org, orch, off-stage orch, off-stage 1916–18; I blomstringstiden [In the Flowering Time], S, str qt, 1917; Tonebilleder [Tone Pictures], 1v, orch, 1917; Rosengaardsviser [Rosengaard Ballads], chorus, 1919; Endens tid [The Time of the End], solo vv, chorus, orch, 1921–3, rev. 1939–40, 1943; Fra dybet [From the Deep], chorus, orch, 1950, rev. 1952

Chbr: Str Qt no.2, 1918; Sonata no.2 ‘Den store mester kommer’ [The Master Cometh], vn, pf, 1920–21; Str Qt no.3, 1924; Ecrasez l’infâme, vn, pf, 1949; Sonata no.4 ‘Parce nobis, Jesu!’, vn, pf, 1949

Pf: Vanvidsfantasi [Insanity Fantasy], 1916, 1947, rev. 1949; Insektarium, 1917; Afgrundsmusik [Music of the Abyss], 1921–4; Flammekamrene [The Flame Chambers], 1930–37; Fri klaversonate [Free Piano Sonata], 1945–6; Le béguinage, 1948–9

Org: Preludio patetico, 1913; Messis/Høstens tid [Messis/Harvest Time], drama in 3 evenings, 1935–7; Som lynet er Kristi genkomst [As Lightning Cometh Christ Again], 1948

Principal publishers: Samfundet til Udgivelsen af Dansk Musik, Egtved, Engstrøm & Søndring, Hansen, Ries & Erler

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Lynge: Danske komponister i det 20. aarhundredes begyndelse (Århus, 1916, 2/1917)

J. Brincker: ‘Langgaards sjette symfoni: et forsøg på eksegese’, DMt, xliii (1968), 183–9

B. Wallner: ‘Om Rued Langgaard og Sfaerernes musik’, DMt, xliii (1968), 174–9

B. Wallner: Vår tids musik i Norden: från 20-tal till 60-tal [Nordic music of today: from the 1920s to the 1960s] (Stockholm, 1968)

B. Viinholt Nielsen: Rued Langgaards kompositioner: annoteret vaerkfortegnelse [Langgaard’s compositions: an annotated catalogue of works] (Odense, 1991)

B. Viinholt Nielsen: Rued Langgaard: biografi (Copenhagen, 1993)

L. Lesle: ‘Sonnenwahn, Himmelsriss und Donnerwohnung’, Das Orchester, xliii/9 (1995), 2–9

B. Viinholt Nielsen: ‘An Ecstatic Outsider: Rued Langgaard, 1893–1952’, Fontes, xlii/1 (1995), 36–50

Rued Langgaard website (B. Viinholt Nielsen) 〈www.Langgaard.dk〉 [incl. work-list, bibliography and discography]

BENDT VIINHOLT NIELSEN

Langhans, (Friedrich) Wilhelm

(b Hamburg, 21 Sept 1832; d Berlin, 9 June 1892). German writer, composer and violinist. He showed an inclination to be a performer at an early age and was enrolled at the Leipzig Conservatory from 1849 to 1852, studying the violin with David and composition with Hauptmann and Richter. Subsequently he played in the Gewandhaus Orchestra, Leipzig, from 1852 to 1856, during which time he also took further violin instruction from Alard in Paris. He was appointed Konzertmeister at Düsseldorf in 1857; the following year he married Louise Japha, a pianist from Hamburg (and a pupil of the Schumanns) with whom he gave joint recitals. He was active as a violinist and teacher in Hamburg (1860), Paris (1863) and Heidelberg (1869), where he received the doctorate in 1871. He moved to Berlin in 1871, teaching music history and theory at Kullak’s Neue Akademie der Tonkunst from 1874, then at Scharwenka’s newly founded conservatory from 1881.

Langhans’s published compositions, including the Concert Allegro for violin and orchestra, violin studies, a sonata, string quartet and songs, are mainly forgotten. His major contribution was as a writer on music: he was a critic for the Neue Berliner Musikzeitung, a correspondent for the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, the editor of the Berlin music journal Echo (1873–9) and a contributor to Mendel’s Musikalisches Conversations-Lexikon. Many of his writings are coloured by his admiration for Wagner. He recommended reforms in music education, advocating that music be given a status comparable to that of other disciplines in the Gymnasium, and was a champion of academic freedom in the secondary educational system, which he felt should be run on similar lines to those of the university. His contribution to Italian music was recognized by honorary memberships in musical academies in Florence, Rome and Bologna.

WRITINGS

Das musikalische Urtheil und seine Ausbildung durch die Erziehung (Berlin, 1872, 2/1886)

Die Königliche Hochschule für Musik zu Berlin (Leipzig, 1873)

Zum dritten Male die Königliche Hochschule (Berlin, 1874)

Die Musikgeschichte in zwölf Vorlesungen (Leipzig, 1878, 2/1879; Eng. trans., 1886)

Die Geschichte der Musik des 17., 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts in chronologischem Anschlusse an die Musikgeschichte von A.W. Ambros (Leipzig, 1884–7)

I lavori di Riccardo Wagner considerati dal lato pedagogico (Florence, 1887)

Friedrich Chopin als Mensch und als Musiker (Leipzig, 1890) [trans. of F. Niecks: Frederick Chopin as a Man and Musician (London, 1888)]

Der Endreim in der Musik (Leipzig, 1892)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Review in MMR, xvi (1886), 15–19

Obituary, Neue Berliner Musikzeitung, xlvi (1892), 322–3

A. von Hanstein, ed.: Musiker- und Dichterbriefe von Paul Kuczynski (Berlin, 1900)

N. Linke: ‘“Mündigkeit” als musikdidaktischer Begriff: Wilhelm Langhans: Das musikalische Urteil und seine Ausbildung durch die Erziehung (1872)’, Zeitschrift für Musikpädagogik, ii/3 (1977), 29–32

GAYNOR G. JONES

Langhedul.

Flemish family of organ builders. Active about 1475 to 1635, they were one of the prominent families in Ypres during that period, and particularly significant in the early development of the French Baroque organ.

Victor (d ?1513) was one of the great organ builders at the turn of the 16th century, as can be concluded from the importance of the churches for which he worked (Courtrai, Saint Omer and Lille). After his death his clients were taken over by Matthijs de Wulf [Matthieu le Leup] (fl 1515–22), husband of one of his four daughters.

Michiel the elder, Victor’s son, went to England in his youth, probably to allow Matthijs de Wulf to work unhindered; while there he improved and enlarged the organ at Trinity Chapel, Salisbury Cathedral (1530–31). Apparently Michiel returned to Ypres after the early death of his brother-in-law and continued the family business from 1534 to c1570. His name is linked with a great number of organs, including many which he built new, though all are within the narrow geographical range of south-west Flanders and surroundings: Ypres, Courtrai (1534, 1546, 1570), Bruges (1535), Veurne (1536, 1557), Saint Omer (1546), Bergues (1548, 1557), Nieuwpoort (1553, 1557), Dunkirk (1555, 1559), Poperinghe (1569). And as very many village churches in the 16th century had organs, a large number in west Flanders must naturally be ascribed to Michiel. Towards the end of his life he was particularly occupied with the restoring of organs destroyed during the religious troubles of 1566.

Jan (d Ghent, 6 Feb 1592), son of Michiel the elder, was active at first in the same area (Courtrai, Ypres), but war, the temporary regime of the Calvinists and economic confusion forced him to move, in 1583 to Lille, and in 1585 to Paris. His Paris organ restorations (St Benoît, the Ste Chapelle, Couvent des Augustines, St Eustache) and the new instrument he built in St Jacques-de-la-Boucherie show several important innovations: a balanced plein jeu, a progressive Cornet of four, five and six ranks, and a rich complement of reed stops. He received the title ‘Organ Builder to the King of France’ for his work in the Ste Chapelle, part of the royal palace. Jan left Paris sometime after 15 October 1590 and returned to Ypres; his last works are found especially in Ghent and were produced in partnership with Guillames [Guillaume] (fl Ghent, 1590–95), probably his son. Jan is buried in the Dominican church, the only church in Ghent whose organ survived the religious uprisings.

Guillames’ methods are especially known from a pair of plans for a new organ in St Baaf Cathedral, Ghent (c1590), which he submitted but which were not realized. They closely resemble the instruments constructed by his father in Paris.

Matthijs [Mattheus, Matthieu, Mateo] (b Ypres; d Brussels, 1635–6), son of Jan, was perhaps the most important organ builder of the family. It is likely that he was with his father during the latter’s Paris years; when Jan decided to return to Flanders, Matthijs went to Spain. From 1592 to 1599 he was the organ tuner (templador) for the Spanish court. From mid-1599 to mid-1605 he was again in Paris, where his family’s reputation brought him immediate work: restoration of organs in St Jean-en-Grève, the Cimetière des Innocents, Hôpital du St Esprit-en-Grève, St Benoît, Chapelle St Leu and St Jacques-de-la-Boucherie, and provision of a new Rückpositiv organ and a modernized great organ for St Eustache (1604–5). Matthijs’s most important organ was the new one he built for St Gervais (1601–2), which provided the basis for the later instrument of the Couperin family. This organ still contains an amount of important pipework by Matthijs, including some with his signature.

It was Jan and Matthijs, together with Crespin Carlier, who laid the groundwork for the classic French organ of the 17th and 18th centuries. In 1605 Matthijs returned to Ypres, from where he built the organ in Hondschoote (1611), the Rückpositiv of which is still preserved. About 1613 he settled in Brussels and became court organ builder to the Archdukes Albertus and Isabella. While there, he built organs in a wide radius including Saint Omer, Antwerp and Tongeren, as well as one for the Spanish court at Madrid.

Other family members are: Michiel the younger, son of Michiel the elder, resident of Ypres, organ builder and organist, mentioned in 1610 as organist at Hazebrouck; and two other Jans. One was choirmaster of Antwerp Cathedral about 1570. Another was city magistrate at Ypres, and though himself a Calvinist was able to save the organs of the main church there (certainly products of his family) from destruction during the Calvinist interregnum of 1578. He was a signatory of the Union of Utrecht (1579); after the restoration of Catholicism in 1584, he fled to England, where he died in Norwich.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Vander StraetenMPB, i, ii, viii

E.G.J. Grégoir: Historique de la facture et des facteurs d’orgues (Antwerp, 1865/R)

M.A. Vente: ‘Figuren uit Vlaanderens orgelhistorie: het geslacht Langhedul’, De schalmei, i (1946), July, 2; Sept, 2

B. de Keyzer: ‘Charles Blanquaert en Guillames Langhedul in de St. Baafs-kathedraal te Gent’, De schalmei, iii (1948), 2

A. Deschrevel: ‘Het orgel in de St. Maartenskathedraal te Ieper’, De schalmei, iii (1948), 68

M.A. Vente: Proeve van een repertorium van de archivalia betrekking hebbende op het Nederlandse orgel en zijn makers tot omstreeks 1630 (Brussels, 1956)

N. Dufourcq: ‘Recent Researches into French Organ-Building from the Fifteenth to the Seventeenth Century’, GSJ, x (1957), 66–81

A. Deschrevel: ‘Historische terugblik op het orgel in West-Vlaanderen: Ieper, internationaal centrum van orgelbouw en orgelcultuur in der loop der tijden’, West-Vlaanderen, xi (1962), 23–32

M. Vanmackelberg: Les orgues d’Arras (Arras, 1963), 20

G. Moortgat: Oude orgels in Vlaanderen (Brussels, 1965), ii, 11–12

M. Jurgens: Documents du minutier central concernant l’histoire de la musique (1600–1650) (Paris, 1967–74), 787ff

N. Dufourcq and J. Krug-Basse: ‘A propos de l’orgue dit “Des Couperin”’, Mélanges François Couperin (Paris, 1968), 72–94

F. Douglass: The Language of the Classical French Organ (New Haven, CT, 1969), 60–61

N. Dufourcq: Le livre de l’orgue français 1589–1789, i: Les sources (Paris, 1969)

P. Hardouin: ‘A propos de l’orgue dit des Couperin’, Renaissance de l’orgue, no.4 (1969), 27–9

P. Hardouin: ‘Facteurs d’orgues flamands en France sous Henri IV’, Renaissance de l’orgue, no.8 (1970), 8–11 [Jean Langhedeul]; Connaissance de l’orgue, no.4 (1973), 18–22 [Mathieu Langhedul]

P. Hardouin: ‘L'influence du passage à Paris de Jan et Mathis Langhedul sur la facture d'orgues’, Orgelkunst, ii/3 (1979), 113–24

G. Persoons: De orgels en organisten van de Onze Lieve Vrouwkerk te Antwerpen van 1500 tot 1650 (Brussels, 1981)

MAARTEN ALBERT VENTE

Langhveldt [Langveld], Joris van.

See Macropedius, Georgius.

Langius, Hieronymus Gregorius.

See Lange, Gregor.

Langlais, Jean

(b La Fontenelle, 15 Feb 1907; d Paris, 8 May 1991). French organist and composer. He studied at the Institution des Jeunes Aveugles in Paris with Blazy (piano), Mahaut (harmony) Marchal (organ). Marchal prepared him for Dupré's class at the Conservatoire, where he was, with Messiaen, one of Dukas' last composition pupils; he took a premier prix in organ (1930) and a second prix in composition (1934). Lessons with Tournemire during this period were decisive. In 1932 he was appointed organist of St Pierre-de-Montrouge; he also joined the staff at the blind school where he had studied, teaching composition and organ, and conducting the choir in Palestrina, Bach and Josquin. In 1945 he followed in the line of Franck and Tournemire as organist of Ste Clotilde, a position he held until 1987.

He made his first visit to the USA in 1952, and repeatedly returned for concerts (including more than 300 recitals) and teaching engagements until 1981. Many of his works have been written for America. His Solemn Mass ‘Orbis factor’ had its first performance in 1969 at the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception in Washington, DC, before an audience of around 7000. His earlier Mass ‘Salve regina’, though, was first sung in Notre Dame, Paris, at Christmas 1954.

As an organ composer, Langlais followed the tradition of Tournemire. A quarter of his works are based on Gregorian melodies, treated with great inventiveness and enhanced by rich polymodal harmonies. Almost all his music was intended to express his religious faith. From 1962 to 1975 he taught at the Schola Cantorum in Paris, and gained a reputation as one of the best teachers of improvisation in the world, drawing pupils from many countries.

WORKS

(selective list)

Org: 3 poèmes évangéliques, 1932; 24 pieces, 1933–9; 3 paraphrases grégoriennes, 1934; Sym. no.1, 1942; 9 pieces, 1943; Suite brève, 1947; Suite médiévale, 1947; Suite française, 1948; Incantation, 1949; 4 postludes, 1950; Hommage à Frescobaldi, 1951; Suite folklorique, 1952; Organ Bk, 1956; 8 pièces modales, 1956; 3 characteristic pieces, 1957; Triptyque, 1957; Office pour la Sainte Famille, 1957; Office pour la Sainte Trinité, 1958; American Suite, 1959; Essai, 1962; 3 méditations, 1962; 12 petites pièces, 1962; Homage to Jean-Philippe Rameau, 1963; Livre oecuménique, 1968; 3 voluntaries, 1969: 3 implorations, 1970; 5 chorales, 1971; Offrande à Marie, 1972; Supplication, 1972; Suite baroque, 1973; 5 méditations sur l'apocalypse, 1974; 8 chants de Bretagne, 1975; 3 esquisses romanes, 1976; 3 esquisses gothiques, 1977; Mosaïque, 1977; Sym. no.2, 1977; Offrande à une âme, 1979; Progression, 1979; In memoriam, 1985; Talitha Koum, 1985; 12 versets, 1986; Christmas Carol Hymn Settings, 1988; Contrastes, 1988; Mort et résurrection, 1989

Orch: 3 Org Concs.: 1949, 1961, 1971

Chbr: Qt, org, str trio, 1936; 7 chorales, tpt/ob/fl, org/pf, 1973; Sonatine, tpt, pf, 1978; 9 pieces, tpt, org/pf, 1986

Choral: Messe solennelle, chorus, org, 1951; Missa in simplicitate, chorus, org, 1953; Mass ‘Salve regina’, 3 T, unison male chorus, 2 org, 8 brass, 1954; 3 psalms, 4 solo vv, chorus, org, brass, timp, 1965; Solemn Mass ‘Orbis factor’, SATB, org, 1969; Festival Alleluia, SATB, org, 1971; 3 oraisons, 1v/unison chorus, org, fl/vn, 1974

Principal publishers: Bornemann, Costallat, Durand, Elkan-Vogel, Philippo

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P. Giraud: ‘Le thème grégorien dans les oeuvres pour orgue de Jean Langlais’,L'orgue, nos.122–3 (1967), 220–37

R.T. Nyquist: The Use of Gregorian Chant in the Organ Music of Jean Langlais (diss., Indiana U.,1968)

J. Langlais: ‘Quelques souvenirs d’un organiste d’église’, L'orgue, no.137 (1971), 4–6

K. Thomerson: Jean Langlais: a Bio-Bibliography, Bio-Bibliographies in Music, x (New York, 1988)

M.-L. Jaquet-Langlais: Ombre et lumière: Jean Langlais 1907–1991 (Paris, 1995)

XAVIER DARASSE/MARIE-LOUISE JAQUET-LANGLAIS

Langlé, Honoré (François Marie)

(b Monaco, 1741; d Villiers-le-Bel, nr Paris, 20 Sept 1807). French composer, singing teacher and theorist. A scholarship from Prince Honoré III of Monaco paid for his musical education at the Conservatorio della Pietà dei Turchini in Naples from 1756 to 1764. After managing the theatre and the noblemen’s concerts in Genoa (1764–8), he made a career as a teacher and composer in Paris, where his first works were performed at the Concert Spirituel. Drawn by the theatre, he wrote several stage works, but only two of them were performed. Antiochus et Stratonice, a skilfully orchestrated work, shows early hints of Romanticism. The score of Corisandre demonstrates the composer’s solid technique and characteristic style: highly coloured orchestration and an alternation of action scenes with poetic reflections. Langlé was appointed professor of singing at the Ecole Royale de Chant et de Déclamation at its founding in 1784 and kept his appointment through its reorganization in 1791 and again in 1795, when it became the Conservatoire. From about 1797 he also served as librarian there until his retirement to Villiers-le-Bel in 1802. During the early years of the Revolution he was an éditeurmusicien in the Parisian National Guard.

Langlé’s compositions were far less successful than his theoretical and didactic works, through which he is largely remembered today. He had a receptive mind and wide knowledge which led him to be nicknamed ‘the Fontenelle of music’.

WORKS

stage

Antiochus et Stratonice (opéra, 3, Durosoi), Versailles, 30 Dec 1786, F-Pn (Paris, 1786)

Corisandre, ou Les fous par enchantement (comédie-opéra, De Linières and A.F. Lebailly, after Voltaire: La pucelle), Paris, Opéra, 8 March 1791, Po (Paris, 1791)

Unperf. works, scores in Pn: Oreste et Tyndare, 1783; Soliman et Eromine (Mahomet II), 1792; L’auberge des volontaires, 1793; La choix d’Alcide, 1800; Médée; Tancrède; Les vengeances

other works

[6] Symphonies militaires, wind insts, op.1 (Paris, 1776)

Motets, 1774–6: Dies irae, De profundis, Pater noster, Cantate Domino, Te Deum

La mort de Lavoisier (hiérodrame, C. Desaudroy), Paris, Lycée des Arts, 1794, Pn

Déclaration des droits de l’homme et du citoyen (Mentelle), 1v, b (Paris, 1794)

Romance sur la liberté des hommes de couleur (d’Auguste), 1v, bc, in Musique à l’usage des fêtes nationales, ii (Paris, 1794)

Hymne à Bara et Viala, 1v, bc, in Musique à l’usage des fêtes nationales (Paris, c1795), ed. in Pierre (1899)

Hymne à la liberté (Desorgues), 1v, b, in Musique à l’usage des fêtes nationales (Paris, 1795), ed. in Pierre (1899)

Hymne à l’éternel (Lebrun), 1v, ww insts, in Recueil des époques (Paris, c1798), ed. in Pierre (1899)

6 duos en canon (P. Metastasio), 2vv (Paris, n.d.)

6 noturni ou petits duos italiens, 2vv, hp/pf ad lib (Paris, n.d.)

6 romances in Journal anacréontique (Paris, n.d.); other pieces in contemporary anthologies

Romance d’Alix et d’Alexis, Monologue de Sapho, other scenes and airs, Pn

WRITINGS

Traité d’harmonie et de modulation (Paris, 1795, 2/1797)

Traité de la basse sous le chant précédé de toutes les règles de la composition (Paris, c1798)

Annotations to T. de Iriarte: La musique (Fr. trans., Paris, 1799)

with others: Principes élémentaires de musique (Paris, c1800)

with others: Solfèges pour servir a l’étude dans le Conservatoire (Paris, 1801)

Nouvelle méthode pour chiffrer les accords (Paris, 1801)

ed.: B. Mengozzi: Méthode de chant du Conservatoire (Paris, 1804, 2/c1815)

Traité de la fugue (Paris, 1805)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BrenetC

EitnerQ

FétisB

GerberL (‘Angle’)

GerberNL

F. Fayolle: Eloge de Langlé (Paris, 1808)

A. Adam: Souvenirs d’un musicien (Paris, 1857, many later edns)

C. Pierre, ed.: Musique des fêtes et cérémonies de la Révolution française (Paris, 1899)

C. Pierre, ed.: Le Conservatoire nationale de musique et de déclamation: documents historiques et administratifs (Paris, 1900)

C. Pierre: Les hymnes et chansons de la Révolution (Paris, 1904/R)

L. Canis: ‘Honoré-François-Marie-Langlé, compositeur monégasque’, Petit monégasque (5 Aug 1923)

R. Valette: ‘A propos d’Honoré Langlé’, Petit monégasque (12 Aug 1923)

J. Tiersot: Lettres de musiciens, i (Turin, 1924)

L. de Castro: ‘Notice sur le musicien Honoré Langlé’, Annales du Comté de Nice, no.17 (1935), 89–94

G. Favre: Histoire musicale de la principauté de Monaco du XVIe au XXe siècle (Monaco and Paris, 1974)

G. Favre: ‘Un compositeur monégasque: Honoré Langlé (1741–1807)’, Annales monégasques, i (1977), 55–66

PAULE DRUILHE

Langreder, Martin

(b Hildesheim; d Suben am Inn, Upper Austria, before 1602). German writer of contrafacta. He was a canon regular at the Augustinian canonry at Suben. He is known by a five-voice occasional motet, published in Passau in 1602, and by seven six-part Magnificat settings, all of them contrafacta, published by Michael Herrer in his Canticum gloriosae deiparae Virginis Mariae … super varia (ut vocant) madrigalia (Passau, 1602). Herrer explained that he had taken them from the ‘vast treasure’ of contrafacta that Langreder had left behind at his sudden death. He listed the titles but not the composers of the models: Mentr'io compai contento, Leggiadrissima, Voi ch'ascoltate, Nel più fiorito aprile, Un pastor, Tiridola, non dormire and Exaudiat te Dominus.

HORST LEUCHTMANN

Langridge, Philip (Gordon)

(b Hawkhurst, Kent, 16 Dec 1939). English tenor. From 1958 he studied the violin at the RAM, playing professionally for a short period until 1964; in 1962 he began singing lessons with Bruce Boyce, continuing later with Celia Bizony. One of the most versatile British singers of the day, he has a large concert repertory that extends from Monteverdi and the 18th- and 19th-century oratorios to first performances of works by Bennett, Goehr, Holliger, Lutyens and Milner. But it is as a singing-actor of extraordinarily wide range that he has become internationally celebrated. Whether in operas by contemporary composers (Birtwistle and Tippett among many others), those of the postwar period (he has given memorable accounts of Britten’s Grimes, Vere, Quint and, finest of all, Aschenbach) or others stretching back to the beginnings of the medium, Langridge has consistently revealed an acuity of stylistic understanding and a rare directness of dramatic delivery. His voice, individual rather than beautiful and tending to lack power and ring at the top of its compass, has nevertheless served him in the dramatic tenor roles of Janáček (Zivný in Osud, Laca in Jenůfa, Gregor in The Makropulos Affair) as impressively as it has in Rameau, Handel, Mozart (notably Don Ottavio and Idomeneus, both of which he has sung at Glyndebourne), Berlioz, Musorgsky, Schoenberg and Stravinsky. The same intelligence, natural musicianship and finely focussed diction have shed light on the song repertory. Langridge’s many recordings include Peter Grimes, The Rake’s Progress, Aaron in Moses und Aron (the role of his Salzburg début in 1987), Osud, lieder by Schubert and several outstanding discs of English song. He was made a CBE in 1994. He is married to the mezzo-soprano Ann Murray.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Pitt: ‘Philip Langridge’, Opera, xxxvii (1986), 499–507

MAX LOPPERT

Langsam

(Ger.: ‘slow’).

A tempo mark, the German equivalent of adagio, lento or largo; it was used as early as the 17th century by Schütz in his madrigal Itzt blicken durch des Himmels Saal. Wagner's Tristan opens with the direction langsam und schmachtend.

Langsflöte

(Ger.).

See Recorder.

Langspil.

An Icelandic box zither. See Iceland, §3(ii) and fig.2.

Langue des durées.

French method of teaching rhythmic notation to beginners. It was introduced by Aimé Paris (1798–1866) as part of the Galin-Paris-Chevé method of teaching sight-singing. The method gives to notes and groups of notes names which, when spoken aloud, reproduce the rhythmic effects concerned (see illustration). The system was later adapted for English use by John Curwen (1816–80) and incorporated into the Tonic Sol-fa method under the name of ‘French time names’.

BERNARR RAINBOW

Langueur

(Fr.).

A type of ornament; see Ornaments, §7.

Languid [languet]

(Fr. biseau; Ger. Kern,Pfeifenkern). In a flue pipe, an adjustable metal plate fixed inside the pipe-foot. See Voicing, §1, and Organ, §III, 1, esp. fig.16.

Langwill, Lyndesay G(raham)

(b Portobello, Midlothian, 19 March 1897; d Edinburgh, 1 Sept 1983). Scottish organologist. He studied at the University of Edinburgh and was by profession a chartered accountant. His lifelong interest in music centred first on the cello, which he began to play when he was 14, and then on the bassoon, which he took up in 1931 and of which he wrote a standard history. He also studied the stock-and-horn, waits and the barrel organ. His main contribution to organology, by which he became known internationally, was his pioneering An Index of Musical Wind-Instrument Makers (1960), a reference tool intended to assist in the identification, dating and evaluation of early woodwind and brass instruments. The work was begun in 1941 in the form of typescripts that were circulated to his friends and known as ‘Langwill's Lists’; it subsequently appeared in six editions, which were published over a period of twenty years. In 1982 Langwill entrusted its future to Waterhouse, transferring to him for his lifetime the valuable archive of manuscript and printed material amassed over half a century, which he bequeathed to Edinburgh University. His other publications include contributions to various musical dictionaries and journals. He was a founder member of the Galpin Society and its treasurer until 1968. Involved for many years in a number of charitable fields, he was awarded the OBE (1969) for his services to animal welfare and an honorary MA by the University of Edinburgh (1964).

WRITINGS

‘London Wind-Instrument Makers of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, The Music Review, vii (1946), 87–102

‘Two Rare Eighteenth-Century London Directories’, ML, xxx (1949), 37–43

‘The Stock-and-Horn’, Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, lxxxiv (1949–50), 173–80

‘The Waits’, HMYB, vii (1952), 170–83

An Index of Musical Wind-Instrument Makers (Edinburgh, 1960, enlarged 6/1980, rev. 7/1993 by W. Waterhouse as The New Langwill Index: a Dictionary of Musical Wind-Instrument Makers and Inventors [Waterhouse-LangwillI])

The Bassoon and Contrabassoon (London, 1965)

with N. Boston: Church and Chamber Barrel-Organs, their Origin, Makers, Music and Location: a Chapter in English Church Music (Edinburgh, 1967, 2/1970)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Waterhouse-LangwillI

P. Bate: ‘L.G.L. 1897–1983’, GSJ, xxxviii (1985), 2–3

W. Waterhouse: ‘Langwill and his Index’, GSJ, xxxix (1986), 58–67

WILLIAM WATERHOUSE

Lanier [Laniere, Laneare, Laneer, Lanyer, Lenear etc.].

English family of musicians of French descent. John (i) (d 29 Nov 1572) and Nicholas (i) (d 1612) came originally from Rouen but settled in London in 1561, becoming musicians to Queen Elizabeth. Nicholas was the father of at least 11 children: John (ii) (d 1616), Alfonso (d 1613), Andrea (d 1660), Clement (d 1661), Innocent (d 1625) and Jerome (d 1657), all of whom were wind players in the royal band, and five daughters, two at least of whom were married to musicians – Katherine to Daniel Farrant and Ellen to Alfonso Ferrabosco (ii). Of this generation John (ii) had seven children who survived to maturity, including (1) John Lanier (iii) and (2) Nicholas Lanier (ii). Clement had nine children and Jerome eleven, one of whom, William (1618–c1660), served in the royal music. Andrea had eight children; a son, Thomas (1633–c1686), was in the royal band, as was Henry (d 1633), the son of Alfonso. (For further details see Grove5 suppl., and Wilson).

(1) John Lanier (iii)

(2) Nicholas Lanier (ii)

IAN SPINK

Lanier

(1) John Lanier (iii)

(d ?London, before 5 April 1650). Tenor and composer. He served as musician for the lutes and voices in the King’s Musick from 1625 until the court broke up in the 1640s, although he continued to receive occasional payments up to 1650. Almost certainly he was the John Lanier described as one of the courtier Endymion Porter’s servants in March 1639. He sang the part of Irene in Shirley’s Triumph of Peace (1634) and is mentioned in Richard Lovelace’s Lucasta (1649) as having set two of the songs, including To Lucasta, Going to the Warres (‘Tell me not, sweet, I am unkind’). Neither these nor any others appear to have survived.

Lanier

(2) Nicholas Lanier (ii)

(b London, bap. 10 Sept 1588; d Greenwich, London, bur. 24 Feb 1666). Composer, singer, lutenist and artist, brother of (1) John Lanier (iii). As a child he was no doubt surrounded by music in his family, but he was indentured to the Earl of Salisbury for a period up to 1607 and his name occurs in the Cecil family and estate papers at Hatfield House as a recipient of various payments between 1605 and 1613, including a salary of £20 a year from 1608. He also acted as a messenger on behalf of the government, carrying letters to Paris in March 1610 and to Venice in February 1611, the latter perhaps in conjunction with a journey to Italy with William, Viscount Cranborne, who wrote to his father, the Earl of Salisbury, asking for Lanier to accompany him ‘by reason of a desire I have to learn on the viol while I am there’. Connections and responsibilities such as these must have been valuable to Lanier at the start of his career. Although he was not appointed to the King’s Musick as a lutenist until 1616, he had already made his mark at court, for in 1613 he composed and sang the song Bring away this sacred tree in Campion’s masque for the marriage of Robert Carr, Earl of Somerset, and Lady Frances Howard.

Lanier composed the music for Ben Jonson’s masque Lovers Made Men (1617) and in doing so was described by Jonson in the printed text of 1640 as introducing ‘stylo recitativo’ into England; Jonson also reported that the masque was sung throughout. In the absence of the music these claims, made long after the performance of the work, must be accepted guardedly. Lanier also sang in the masque and designed the scenery. He wrote music for three further masques by Jonson: The Vision of Delight (1617), The Gypsies Metamorphos’d (1621) with Robert Johnson, and The Masque of Augurs (1622) with Alfonso Ferrabosco (ii).

At the accession of Charles I in 1625 Lanier was appointed the first ever Master of the King’s Musick, at a salary of £200 (with livery of £16 2s.6d.). He continued to receive £40 a year as a lutenist, plus additional livery. Early in the new reign, his knowledge of painting, his reputation as a connoisseur and, above all, his trustworthiness as a courtier, induced Charles and the Duke of Buckingham to send him to Italy to buy pictures. He seems to have made three visits between 1625 and 1628, arranging, with the help of Daniel Nys in Venice, for the purchase of the Duke of Mantua’s collection at a cost of more than £25,000. Some of these pictures are still in the royal collection at Hampton Court and elsewhere, but the rest were dispersed during the Commonwealth period; about half are probably still identifiable (a tentative list is given by Spink in ML, 1959). In addition he bought many master drawings; dozens survive bearing his mark (a small star), 34 of them at Windsor Castle, although many have disappeared.

On 6 February 1629 Lanier was arrested with his brother John and uncles Andrea, Clement and Jerome for disorderly behaviour in the street; the affair caused quite a stir, and an angry exchange of letters between the City and the court ensued. In 1630 he set to music A Pastorall upon the birth of Prince Charles by Herrick (‘Good day, Mirtillo’) which is, unfortunately, lost. In 1646 he was in the Low Countries – ‘old, unhappye in a manner in exile, plundered not only of his fortune, but of all his musicall papers, nay, almost of his witts and vertue’, as he described himself in a letter to Constantijn Huygens. He was also in France at one stage, for William Sanderson in Graphice (1658) said: ‘Laniere in Paris, by a cunning way of tempering his colours with Chimney Soote, the painting becomes duskish, and seems ancient; which done, he roules up and thereby it crackls, and so mistaken for an old Principall, it being well copied from a good hand’. In 1656 Lanier published a book of etchings from drawings by Parmigianino, Prove prime fatti a l’aqua forte da N: Lanier a l’età sua giovanile di sessanta otto Anni 1656. A similar set from drawings by Parmigianino and Giulio Romano is entitled Maschere delineato di Julio Romano ex Collne NLanier (n.d.). Several portraits (including sketches) of him are known, one by Anthony van Dyck in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna (see illustration), painted at Antwerp (or perhaps Genoa the previous year) and said to have been the work that prompted Charles I to invite van Dyck to England (where he stayed with Lanier’s brother-in-law Edward Norgate).

Although it is apparent that much of his output has not survived – indeed he implied as much in the letter cited above – Lanier was one of the most important English songwriters of his time, particularly as an innovator. Bring away this sacred tree (1613) is one of the earliest declamatory ayres, a type that Henry and William Lawes, John Wilson, Charles Coleman and Lanier himself developed between 1620 and 1660. The accompaniment is chordal, anticipating a true continuo style, although the bass is not figured. The effect is of a heroic kind of declamation, almost completely unmelodic though strongly tonal and in harmony with the sumptuous Baroque qualities of Inigo Jones’s décor, and other features of the Jacobean masque. His long recitative Hero and Leander (‘Nor com’st thou yet’) was probably composed soon after his return from Italy (though all the sources are post-1660), and it was surely inspired by Italian laments such as those of Sigismondo d’India. The various moods of Hero’s soliloquy – her agonies and near-delirium as she awaits Leander and her final grief at his death – are expressed with amazing force. The style is quite different from that of his declamatory ayres: Roger North found in it ‘passion, hope, fear, and despair, as strong as words and sounds can beare, and saving some pieces of Mr H. Purcell, wee have nothing of this kind in English at all recommendable’. The piece has been described as the first use of true recitative in English music. Another Italian form that Lanier may have imported was the strophically varied aria over a repeated bass: he set Carew’s No more shall meads be decked with flowers in this way.

WORKS

Editions:Nicholas Lanier: the Complete Works, ed. G.J. Callon, Boethius Editions, xi (Hereford, 1994)English Songs 1625–1660, ed. I. Spink, MB, xxxiii (1971) [S]Nicholas Lanier: Six Songs, ed. E. Huws Jones (London, 1976) [H]

stage

surviving songs listed below

Maske … at the Marriage of … the Earle of Somerset (T. Campion), London, 1613; collab. G. Coprario

Lovers Made Men (B. Jonson), London, 1617, inc.; see Sabol (1963)

The Vision of Delight (Jonson), London, 1617

The Gypsies Metamorphos’d (Jonson), Burley-on-the-Hill [near Oakham], Rutland, 1621; collab. R. Johnson (ii)

The Masque of Augurs (Jonson), London, 1622; The Beares Dance, GB-Lbl Add.10444; collab. A. Ferrabosco (ii)

vocal

Bring away this sacred tree (T. Campion), S [same music as Weep no more]

Colin say why sit’st thou so, GB-Eu Dc.1.69, Lbl Add.11608, 29396, Ob d.238, US-NYp Drexel 4041

Come, thou glorious object of my sight (T. Killigrew), H

Do not expect to hear of all thy good (B. Jonson), GB-Lbl Add.11608

Fire, lo here I burn (Campion), S

I prithee keep my sheep for me (B. Yong), 1652⁸

I was not wearier when I lay (Jonson), Lbl Eg.2013

I wish no more thou should’st love me, 1652⁸

In guilty night, Lbl Add.22100 [probably by Robert Ramsey with bass by Lanier]

Like hermit poor (?Raleigh), S, H

Love and I of late did part, S

Mark how the blushful morn (T. Carew), S, H

Neither sighs, nor tears, nor mourning, S

No, I tell thee, no, 1669⁵

No more shall meads (Carew), S

Nor com’st thou yet (Hero and Leander), S

Of thee, kind boy, I ask no red and white (J. Suckling), US-NYp Drexel 4257, 4041

Shepherd, in faith, I cannot stay, 1652⁸

Silly heart, forbear, S

Stay, silly heart, and do not break, S

Sweet, do not thus destroy me, GB-Och 17

Tell me shepherd, dost thou love, S

Thou art not fair for all thy red and white (Campion), 1652⁸, H

Though I am young (Jonson), 1652⁸, H

Weep no more my wearied eyes, S [same music as Bring away]

White though ye be (R. Herrick), 1669⁵

Young and simple though I am (Campion), 1652⁸, H

Amorosa pargoletta, Och 17

Miser pastorella, Och 17

Qual musico gentil, Lbl Add.11608

O amantissime Domine, motet, 1v, Ob Mus.Sch.C.11

instrumental

2 symphonia, a 3, Och Mus.379–81

Almand and sarabande, cornetts, Cfm 734

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AshbeeR, i, iii–vi, viii

BDECM

GroveO (M. Chan)

SpinkES

L. Cust: ‘The Lanier Family’, Miscellanea genealogica et heraldica, 5th ser., vi (1926–8), 375–83

A. Sabol: Songs and Dances for the Stuart Masque (Providence, RI, 1959)

I. Spink: ‘Lanier in Italy’, ML, xl (1959), 242–52

I. Spink: ‘English Cavalier Songs 1620–1660’, PRMA, lxxxvi (1959–60), 61–78

McD. Emslie: ‘Nicholas Lanier’s Innovations in English Song’, ML, xli (1960), 13–27

A.J. Sabol: Introduction to A Score for ‘Lovers Made Men’: a Masque by Ben Jonson (Providence, RI, 1963)

V. Duckles: ‘English Song and the Challenge of Italian Monody’, in V. Duckles and F.B. Zimmerman: Words to Music (Los Angeles, 1967), 3–42

F.L. Graham: The Earlier Life and Work of Nicholas Lanier … Collector of Paintings and Drawings (diss., Columbia U., 1967)

R. Charteris: ‘Jacobean Musicians at Hatfield House 1605–1613’, RMARC, no.12 (1974), 115–36

A.J. Sabol, ed.: Four Hundred Songs and Dances from the Stuart Masque (Providence, RI, 1978, enlarged 2/1982)

L. Hulse: ‘The Musical Patronage of Robert Cecil, First Earl of Salisbury (1563–1612)’, JRMA, cxvi (1991), 24–40

M. Wilson: Nicholas Lanier, Master of the King’s Musick (Aldershot, 1994)

Lanier, Sidney (Clopton)

(b Macon, GA, 3 Feb 1842; d Lynn, NC, 7 Sept 1881). American poet, writer, flautist and composer. Descended from a family of musicians associated with the English court of the late 16th and early 17th centuries, he became proficient on many instruments as a child, later proclaiming himself self-taught in most musical matters. He graduated from Oglethorpe University in 1860, served in the Confederate Army and then spent several years in business ventures, but ultimately resolved to devote his time and energy to literary and musical pursuits.

Lanier is best known for his sensitive poetry, much of which has been set to music, but he also produced significant books and scholarly essays on music, a translation of Wagner’s Das Rheingold and a libretto for Dudley Buck’s cantata The Centennial Meditation of Columbia (1876), and lectured on music and literature at Johns Hopkins University. As a flautist he was known particularly for his facile technique and skill in sight-reading; his appointment to the Peabody Orchestra in Baltimore, as well as brief visits to New York, introduced him to the repertory and the progressive musical thought of the late 19th century. His compositions are generated more by idiomatic instrumental qualities than by a mature grasp of musical composition.

Lanier became an ardent admirer of Richard Wagner and expounded views similar to Wagner’s on art, science and religion. Much of his work dealt with a systematic study of connections between poetry and music: he developed a technique of describing poetic metre through musical notation, and compared the phonetic structure of poetry with the timbre of music. His views generated considerable debate between those extolling his systematic approach to a complex problem and those criticizing his efforts as ill-founded and essentially naive.

WORKS

MSS in US-BAu

Inst (for solo fl unless otherwise stated): Sacred Memories, perf. 1868; Bird Song, 1872; Condilicatezza, 1872; Heimweh Polka, 1872; Song of the Lost Spirit, 1872; Danse des moucherons (Gnat Sym.), fl, pf, op.1, 1873; Fieldlarks and Blackbirds, 1873; Wind Song, 1874; Wald-Einsamkeit; The Widow Sings the Child to Sleep (Orphan’s Cradle Song), fl, pf; Old Sister Phebe, fl, vn; Die Wacht am Rhein, pf; sketches; arrs. for 3 fl/fl, pf of works by Verdi, Donizetti, others

Songs (for 1v, pf unless otherwise stated): The Song of Elaine (A. Tennyson), c1862; The Song of Love and Death (Tennyson), 1862; Little Ella (Lanier) (Montgomery, AL, 1866); Break, break, break (Tennyson), c1871; Flow down, cold rivulet (Tennyson), c1871; Love that hath us in the net (Tennyson) (New Orleans, 1884); The Cuckoo Song, 4vv; My life is like a summer rose (H. Wilde), lost

WRITINGS

The Science of English Verse (New York, 1880)

The English Novel (New York, 1883, rev. 1897)

Music and Poetry (New York, 1898/R)

ed. C.R. Anderson and others: The Centennial Edition of the Works of Sidney Lanier (Baltimore, 1945)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A.H. Starke: Sidney Lanier: a Biographical and Critical Study (Chapel Hill, NC, 1933/R)

J.W. Hendren: ‘Time and Stress in English Verse with Special Reference to Lanier’s Theory of Rhythm’, Rice Institute Pamphlet, xlvi/2 (1959) [complete issue]

J. De Bellis: Sidney Lanier (New York, 1972)

F.W. Hoogerwerf, ed.: Music in Georgia (New York, 1984)

J.S. Gabin: A Living Minstrelsy (Macon, GA, 1985)

DOUGLAS A. LEE

Lankveld, Joris van.

See Macropedius, Georgius.

Lanner, Joseph (Franz Karl)

(b St Ulrich, Vienna, 11 April 1801; d Oberdöbling, nr Vienna, 14 April 1843). Austrian composer and violinist. The son of a glover, Martin Lanner (1771–1839), and a housekeeper, Maria Scherhauff (1772–1823), Joseph Lanner was largely self-taught as a violinist and composer. In the late autumn of 1816 he and the Drahanek brothers, Anton (1797–1863) and Johann (1800–76), formed a trio, sometimes expanded to a sextet, to play music in the yards and small taverns of Vienna. In the spring of 1823 Johann Strauss (i) joined the ensemble as a viola player. Lanner divided his orchestra into two on 1 September 1825, with Strauss becoming conductor of the other half, and in the spring of 1827 Strauss left Lanner and founded his own orchestra. On 28 November 1828 Lanner married Franziska Jahn (1800–55), but marital difficulties led to their separation in 1838, and Lanner moved to a house in Oberdöbling with his mistress Maria Kraus. Early in 1829 Lanner became music director of the Redoutensäle in Vienna, and he also introduced promenade concerts into the Vienna Volksgarten in 1831. In 1833 he was appointed Kapellmeister of the Second Viennese militia regiment.

Lanner went on several concert tours to Pest (now Budapest) (1834 and 1835) and Graz (1837 and 1838), to Brno and Pressburg (now Bratislava), and on the occasion of the coronation festivities for Crown Prince Ferdinand in 1838 he undertook a long journey to Milan (by way of Linz, Innsbruck and Venice). His ensemble played in all the major dance cafés of Vienna, particularly the Sperl, the Dommayer, Zögernitz Casino and the Goldene Birn, and at many court festivities in the Redoutensäle. On 16 January 1840 he was conductor at the chamber ball in the Hofburg for the first time. He was known and highly regarded all over Europe, and his compositions were even played in America. At the height of his career he was managing several ensembles during the carnival season, employing some 200 musicians. Lanner gave his last concert on 21 March 1843, and died three weeks later of a typhoid infection at the age of 42.

Of his surviving children, Katharina Lanner (b Vienna, 14 Sept 1829; d London, 15 Nov 1908) became a famous ballerina, making her début at the Kärntnerthortheater on 17 July 1845; at the peak of her career she was known as ‘the Taglioni of the North’. On retiring from the stage she founded a successful children’s ballet in London. Lanner’s son August (b Vienna, 23 Jan 1835; d Vienna, 27 Sept 1855) appeared as a violinist and conductor of his father’s orchestra at the age of eight. He made his début with a newly founded orchestra on 19 March 1853 and within a short time became one of the leading light musicians of Vienna, but then died at the age of 20. The 33 compositions printed and published by Spina in Venice, show that he was a talented composer, and his D’ersten Gedanken op.1 and Amalien-Polka op.14 are still sometimes played.

With Johann Stauss (i), Lanner was the most important dance composer of the Biedermeier period, and the two musicians have rightly been called the fathers of the Viennese waltz. Even Lanner’s early work shows further development of the waltz form introduced some years earlier by Joseph Wilde and Michael Pamer. Broad, sweeping melodies, rich harmonies and daring rhythmic subtleties are typical of his compositions. Above all the frequent use of minor keys gives Lanner's works a touch of melancholy, although the composer himself was cheerful and outgoing. After 1833 Lanner took over the classic waltz form developed by Strauss in 1830, with its introduction, five double waltzes and coda, and developed it further. In particular, he often set the introduction in several parts, sometimes achieving a symphonic effect by frequent changes of key and tempo. The coda also acquired larger dimensions, bringing the preceding waltzes together and thereby giving unity to the composition as a whole.

Lanner was an excellent violinist, and sometimes played technically demanding violin concertos, such as that of de Bériot, in the intervals of his concerts. He was also an outstanding orchestrator, combining the classical instruments of the orchestra with many mechanical sound effects and the human voice (his orchestral musicians were quite often called on to sing), especially in his many popular potpourris. Despite a lengthy period of some neglect, there has been an increasing awareness of Lanner’s music. Small ensembles in particular have taken a greater interest in his work and tried to reproduce the original sound, and many new recordings have been made.

WORKS

All works were published in Vienna for solo piano; most works also appeared simultaneously in arrangements for orchestra, piano for 4 hands, violin and piano, 3 violins and double bass and for solo flute; principal MS sources are A-Wgm, Wn and Wst.

Editions: J. Lanner: Werke: neue Gesamtausgabe, ed. E. Kremser (Leipzig, 1889–91/R1973 as Sämtliche Werke für Klavier), solo pf [K]J. Lanner: Ländler und Walzer, ed. A. Orel, DTÖ, lxv, Jg.xxxiii/2 (1926), orch [O]

waltzes

Aufforderung zum Tanze, op.7 (1827), K i; Terpsichore-Walzer, op.12 (1827), K i, O; Trennungs-Walzer, op.19 (1828), K i; Katharinen-Tänze, op.26 (1829), K i, O; Annen-Einladungs-Walzer, op.48 (1830), K i; Die Ein-und-Dreissiger, op.55 (1831), K i; Die Badner Ring’In, op.64 (1832), K i, O; Lock-Walzer, op.80 (1833), K i; Die Abenteurer, op.91 (1834), K ii; Die Humoristiker, op.92 (1834), K ii; Pesther-Walzer, op.93 (1834), K ii, O; Dampf-Walzer, op.94 (1835), K ii; Abschied von Pesth, Monument-Walzer, op.95 (1835), K ii

Die Schwimmer, op.99 (1835), K ii; Die Lebenswecker, op. 104 (1836), K ii; Die Werber, op.103 (1835), K ii, O; Lenz-Blüthen, op.118 (1837), K ii; Prometheus-Funken, Grätzer Soirée-Walzer, op.123 (1837), K iii; Die Aelpler, op.124 (1837), K iii; Die Kosenden, op.128 (1838), K iii; Walzer-Fluth, oder 20 Jahre in 20 Minuten, Grosses Walzer-Potpourri, op.129 (1838), K iii; Die Flotten, op.140 (1839), K iii; Marien-Walzer, op.143 (1839), K iii

Liebesträume, Brünner Walzer, op.150 (1839), K iv; Die Pressburger: Comité-Ball-Tänze, op.155 (1840), K iv; Hoffnungs-Strahlen, op.158 (1840), K iv; Nacht-Violen, op.160 (1840), K iv; Hofball-Tänze, op.161 (1840), K iv; Die Romantiker, op.167 (1840), K iv, O; Kammerball-Tänze, op.177 (1841), K iv; Abendsterne, op.180 (1841), K iv; Ideale: Künstler-Ball-Tänze, op.192 (1841), K iv; Die Vorstädtler, op.195 (1842), K v; Die Mozartisten, op.196 (1842), K v; Die Schönbrunner, op.200 (1842), K v, O

other works

28 galops, incl. Sommernachtstraum-Galoppe, op.90 (1834), K vii; Panorama der beliebtesten Galoppe: 1 Italienische Galoppe, 2 Spanische Galoppe, 3 Ungarische Galoppe, 4 Englisch Galoppe, op.97 (1834); Panorama der beliebtesten Galoppe, no.2: a Der Zapfenstreich, K vii, b Galoppe nach Beatrice di Tenda, op.108 (1836); 3. Panorama der beliebtesten Galoppe: Gartenfest-, Huguenotten-, Champagner-Knall-Galoppe, op.114 (1837); 4. Panorama der beliebtesten Galoppe: 3 Galoppe nach [Adam’s] Postillon von Lonjumeau, op.122 (1837)

25 ländler, incl. Neue Wiener Ländler mit Coda, op.1 (1825); Dornbacher Ländler, op.9 (1827), K vi, O; Zauberhorn-Ländler, op.31 (1829), K vi/14; Steyrische Tänze, op.165 (1841), K vi, O

8 mazurkas, incl. Der Uhlane (Le Lancier), op.76 (1833), K vi; Sehnsuchts-Mazur, op.89 (1834), K vi

6 marches, incl. 3 Märsche des 2. Wiener Bürgeregimentes [i], op.130 (1838), K viii; 3 Märsche des 2. Wiener Bürger Regimentes, ii, op.157 (1840), K viii

Miscellaneous dances, incl. 10 Quadrilles; 3 Polkas, Hans-Jörgel-Polka, op.194 (1842); Bolero, op.209 (1842), K viii [last work]

Stage: Policinello’s Entstehung (pantomime), 1833; Der Preis einer Lebensstunde (folk tale with songs), 1836 [incl. ov. op.106 (1835), K iii]; Die Macht der Kunst (ballet), 1841, collab. with various composers

Principal publishers: Diabelli (opp.1–14), Haslinger (opp.15–31, 33, 170–208 and opus ultimo), Mechetti (opp.32, 34–168)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Lange: Josef Lanner und Johann Strauss (Vienna, 1904, 2/1919)

A. Weinmann: Verzeichnis der im Druck erschienen Werke von Joseph Lanner (Vienna, 1948)

M. Schönherr: Lanner, Strauss, Ziehrer: synoptisches Handbuch der Tänze und Märsche (Vienna, 1982)

E. Brixel: ‘Lanner in Graz: ein Beitrag zum urbanen Gesellschaftsleben und zur bürgerlichen Musikkultur im biedermeierlichen Graz’, Festschrift zum 60. Geburtstag von Wolfgang Suppan, ed. B. Habla (Tutzing, 1993), 35–50

H. Krenn: ‘Lenz-Blüthen’: Joseph Lanner – sein Leben, sein Werk (Cologne, 1994)

H. Krenn: ‘August Lanner’, Flugschriften Heft 18. (Coburg, 1995), 100–27

G. Waleta: ‘Die Walzer für Pest von Johann Strauss (Vater) und Joseph Lanner’, Bekenntnis zur österreichischen Musik in Lehre und Forschung: eine Festschrift für Eberhard Würzl, ed. W. Pass (Vienna, 1996), 321–40

MOSCO CARNER/HERBERT KRENN

Lannis, Johannes de.

See Hillanis, Johannes.

Lannoy [Lanoy, Lanoys, Lannoys], Colinet [Colin] de

(d before 6 Feb 1497). French composer. On 6 February 1477 he was granted a safe-conduct to leave Milan along with several other musicians (including Martini, Jappart and Compère) following the assassination of Duke Galeazzo Maria Sforza the previous year. He may have been related to two singers active at the French royal court, Jehan (1447–68) and David (1461–75) de Lannoy. Guillaume Crétin's Déploration sur le trépas de Jean Okeghem indicates that ‘lannoys’ (presumably the composer) predeceased his famous contemporary. This last detail appears to rule out identification with one ‘Karolus de Launoy’, a choirboy at Bourges in 1472 who spent his early manhood in France, emigrated to Italy, eventually settled in Florence, married the sister of Henricus Isaac's wife, and died in 1506.

Colinet's song Cela sans plus (3vv; ed. Brown, no.98) was described by Gombosi (76–7) as ‘decidedly the weakest piece I have ever seen … a shabby, anaemic composition of minimal originality’; nevertheless it achieved considerable success, being adapted, expanded and used as the basis for masses by Martini and Obrecht. Possibly dating from the 1470s, it is ascribed to ‘Collinet de lanoy’ in I-Fn Banco Rari 229 and three other sources; a conflicting ascription to Josquin in I-Fn Magl.XIX.178 probably confuses the piece with an identically named song by that composer. Colinet's only other surviving song, the perhaps slightly later Adieu natuerlic leven mijn (4vv; ed. Lenaerts, 21), is one of several settings of the tune (by Edelinck and others).

A fragmentary mass cycle (3vv; Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei only) is given to ‘lanoy’ in CZ-HK II A 7. This source's ascriptions are of dubious reliability, and the ‘lanoy’ of the mass may refer to a different composer: possibly to one of the singers at the French royal chapel, or even to Karolus of Bourges (fragments of the Sanctus and Agnus Dei are transmitted anonymously in I-Rvat SP B80). While a possible pairing of the mass (which may date from the 1470s) with Ockeghem's Quinti toni cycle does suggest a possible central French origin, there are also stylistic affinities with the work of Martini (Colinet's colleague at the court of Milan) and with the two ascribed songs: all three works share uncomplicated, melodically driven textures, long drawn-out triadic points of imitation and a strong sense of harmonic polarity. These features, combined with a certain rigidity in the handling of the lowest voice, result in a slow rate of harmonic change, and a lack of sustained contrapuntal interest over extended passages. The overall impression is of a competent composer, if not of a consistently inspired one.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

O. Gombosi: Jacob Obrecht: eine stilkritische Studie (Leipzig, 1925)

R. Lenaerts: Het nederlands polifonies lied in de zestiende eeuw (Mechelen, 1933)

E.E. Lowinsky: ‘Ascanio Sforza's Life: a Key to Josquin's Biography and an Aid to the Chronology of his Works’, Josquin des Prez: New York 1971, 31–75, esp. 40

H.M. Brown, ed.: A Florentine Chansonnier from the Time of Lorenzo the Magnificent: Florence, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, MS Banco Rari 229 (Chicago, 1983)

L.L. Perkins: ‘Musical Patronage at the Royal Court of France under Charles VII and Louis XI (1422–83)’, JAMS, xxxvii (1984), 546–57

R.C. Wegman: ‘An Anonymous Twin of Johannes Ockeghem's Missa Quinti Toni in San Pietro B 80’, TVNM, xxxvii (1987), 25–48

P. Higgins: ‘Tracing the Careers of Late Medieval Composers: the Case of Philippe Basiron of Bourges’, AcM, lxii (1990), 1–28, esp. 15

A. Kirkman: The Three-Voice Mass in the Later Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries: Aspects of Style, Distribution and Case-Studies (New York, 1995)

F. Fitch, ed.: Colinet de Lannoys: Mass and Songs (Paris, 1999)

FABRICE FITCH

Lansbury, Angela (Brigid)

(b London, 16 Oct 1925). English actress and singer. Her grandfather was George Lansbury, leader of Britain’s Labour Party, and her mother was the actress Moyna McGill. She began her dramatic and musical training at London’s Webber-Douglas School. During World War II the widowed McGill moved her family to New York, where Lansbury completed her studies at the Feagin School. She then moved to Hollywood, and was signed as a contract player at MGM. Her first film, Gaslight (1944), earned her an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress. For the next 20 years she played character roles in films and on television, usually portraying older, bitter women, most notably in The Manchurian Candidate (1962). After playing straight dramatic roles on Broadway beginning in 1957, she appeared in the critically panned musical Anyone Can Whistle (1964) by Sondheim. The title role in Herman’s Mame (1966) proved far more successful; the character’s eccentricity and generosity of spirit were echoed in a second Herman musical, Dear World (1969), based on Giradoux’s Madwoman of Chaillot, and both portrayals received Tony Awards. In 1970 she starred in Walt Disney’s musical film Bedknobs and Broomsticks. Subsequently she appeared as Rose in acclaimed revivals of Gypsy in London (1973) and New York (1974), and created the part of Mrs. Lovett in Sondheim’s quasi-opera Sweeney Todd (1979). From 1984 to 1996 her energies were devoted to the CBS-TV mystery series Murder, She Wrote. Her only musical roles during this period were portrayals of a teapot in Disney’s animated film Beauty and the Beast (1991), and Mrs. Santa Claus for ABC-TV in 1996.

Lansbury’s dramatic talents enabled her to create a vulnerable, pathetic Rose in Gypsy; her unique portrayal forestalled any immediate comparison with Ethel Merman’s greater vocal prowess in the original production. Nevertheless, Lansbury was able to cope with the exacting demands of Sondheim’s complicated melodies and rhythms in Sweeney Todd, although the gruesome exigencies of the plot called for her to hawk more than sing. She navigated her contralto range with intelligence, belting the exuberant score of Mame, while lightening the voice in the gentler moments of Dear World. See M.W. Bonanno: Angela Lansbury: a Biography (New York, 1987).

HOWARD GOLDSTEIN

Länsiö, Tapani

(b Helsinki, 22 Oct 1953). Finnish composer and choral conductor. He studied composition with Kokkonen and Heininen at the Sibelius Academy, where he took his diploma in music theory in 1988 and where he began teaching in 1979, from 1993 as a lecturer. Since 1984 he has been artistic director of Polyteknikkojen kuoro, the male voice choir of the Helsinki University of Technology. From 1987 to 1999 he was music critic of the newspaper Helsingin sanomat and from 1998 to 1999 composer-in-residence of the Jyväskylä SO. He regularly contributes to the music programmes of the FBC.

Länsiö is a composer of small-scale works characterized by minute control of detail. His favourite instrument is the human voice and his vocal writing, both for solo voice and a cappella chorus, arises from the idea that meaning and sound are one. There is an innate lyricism and a considerable wit in his songs, for example in 17 laulua kesästä [17 Songs of Summer] (1992). The String Quartet of 1995 with its rhythmic energy uncovers another side of his musical personality.

WORKS

Choral: 3 koraalia [3 Chorales] (L. Wittgenstein), 1975–92; Kalevalasta [From the Kalevala], 1984; Credo, 1985; Ave Maria, 1987; 2 Settings of Texts by Carlo Gesualdo, male vv, 1987; Traum(a) (textless), male vv, tape, 1989; 3 Songs for Children’s Choir (P. Haavikko), 1990; Puut [Trees] (Haavikko), 1991; Kevätlaulu [Spring Song], male vv, 1992; 17 laulua kesästä [17 Songs of Summer] (Haavikko), male vv, 1992; Suomen hakemus EY:n jäseneksi [Finland’s Application for Membership in the EU], 1992; Repetitio, male vv, 1993; Suomalaisia lauluja mieskuorolle [Finnish Songs for Male-Voice Choir] (V. Meri, L. Viita), male vv, 1993–4; Uni, uneksi [Dream, Dreaming] (Tanka Poems), 1995; Oravan hirmuteko [The Atrocity of a Squirrel] (I. Tiihonen), children’s vv, 1998

Solo vocal: 3 laulua [3 Songs] (P. Nieminen, Po Chu-i, Ki-No Tsuryaki), Mez, pf, 1982; Ps 139, Bar, 1993; 4 lyyristä laulua [4 Lyric Songs], Mez, pf, 1995; 5 tankaa [5 Tanka Poems], 1v, 1995; 8 songs (Haavikko), Mez, orch, 1998

Chbr and solo inst: Prelude and Imitation, str qt, 1976; Trio, fl, cl, bn, 1978; Tricornia, 3 hn, 1979; Equale, 4 hn, perc, 1981; Una lettera al amico mio in forma di domino, a sax, 1984; Taikaviulu, musiikkisatu [The Magic Violin, a Musical Fairy Tale], spkr, 2 perc, hpd, vn, 1989; Taikaviulu, soolo [The Magic Violin, Solo], vn, 1990; A due, b cl, vc, 1991; Trio facile, a sax, bn, vib, 1994; Str Qt, 1995; Sonos, 2 b cl, 1999

Orch: Hit, 1997

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Heiniö: ‘Tapani Länsiö’, Suomalaisia säveltäjiä [Finnish composers], ed. E. Salmenhaara (Helsinki, 1994), 275–6

M. Heiniö: Aikamme musiikki, 1945–1993 [Contemporary music, 1945–93], Suomen musiikin historia, iv (Porvoo, 1995)

K. Korhonen: Finnish Composers since the 1960s (Jyväskylä, 1995)

ILKKA ORAMO

Lansky, Paul

(b New York, 18 June 1944). American composer and theorist. He studied with Perle and Weisgall at Queens College, CUNY (BA 1966), and with Milton Babbitt, Edward Cone and Earl Kim at Princeton University (MFA 1969, PhD 1973). His teaching appointments include positions at Mannes College (1963–8), Swarthmore College (1968–9) and Princeton University (1969–). He has received awards from the League of Composers-ISCM (1975), the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters (1977), and the Koussevitzky (1981), Fromm (1986) and Guggenheim (1990) foundations, among others.

While studying at Princeton, Lansky began to experiment with divergent approaches to 12-note composition. His attraction to serialism through Babbitt’s teachings inspired him to learn computer synthesis, which he used to probe more deeply into the properties of the 12-note technique. He also began to look carefully at Perle’s description of the so-called ‘twelve-tone modal system’. His insights led to an intense collaboration with Perle from 1969 to 1973 and contributed to Perle’s later formulations of ‘twelve-tone tonality’. Lansky’s artistic development ultimately led him away from experimentation with abstract pitch-class relations. Since the early 1970s, he has used the computer as a kind of ‘aural camera’ on the sounds of the world, chiselling out the implicit musical qualities of ‘realworld’ sounds. Six Fantasies on a Poem by Thomas Campion (1978–9), a set of computer explorations on the sounds of speech and poetry, was his first significant work in this genre. In the mid-1980s some of his computer compositions began to employ a tonal-like syntax. In these works, however, tonal relationships serve as a foundation for sonic exploration, rather than as an assertion of tonality as a structural principle.

Lansky’s broad musical interests are exemplified by his use of blues, folk and ethnic music in Folk Images (1980–81), Guy’s Harp (1984) and Not So Heavy Metal (1989). He experiments with ‘realworld noises’ such as kitchen implements, highways and shopping malls in Table’s Clear (1990), Night Traffic (1990) and Quakerbridge (1990). A continuing preoccupation with the sound and content of speech is evident in Idle Chatter (1985), Smalltalk (1988), Now and Then (1991) and Memory Pages (1993). He is also the author of Cmix, a Unix-based music tool kit for the computer.

WORKS

traditional media

Inst: Verse and Refrain, fl, 1966; Str Qt no.1, 1967; Pf Piece in 3 Pts, 1968; Modal Fantasy, pf, 1970; Str Qt no.2, 1971, rev. 1977; Affine Study, pf, 1972; Crossworks, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1974–5; Fanfare, 2 hn, 1976; Dance Suite, pf, 1977; Serenade, vn, va, pf, 1978; Hop, vn, mar, 1993; Semi-Suite, gui, 1998

Vocal: Talkshow, live pfmrs, 1989; 3 Campion Choruses, SATB, 1992

electro-acoustic

Tape and insts: As If, str trio, tape, 1981–2; Values of Time, wind qt, str qt, tape, 1987; Stroll, fl, vc, mar, pf, tape, 1988; Dancetracks, improvising gui, elec gui, tape, 1994; Six Years Ago, Monday, mar, vn, tape, 1996

Cptr: Mild und leise, 1973; Artifice, 1975–6 [Ferdinand’s Reflection]; 6 Fantasies on a Poem by Thomas Campion, 1978–9; Folk Images, 1980–81; As It Grew Dark, 1981–3; Guy’s Harp, 1984; Idle Chatter, 1985; Wasting, 1985, collab. B. Garton, A. Milburn; Just_More_Idle_Chatter, 1987; Notjustmoreidlechatter, 1988; Smalltalk, 1988; Late August, 1989; The Lesson, 1989; Not So Heavy Metal, 1989, collab. S. Mackey; Night Traffic, 1990; Quakerbridge, 1990; The Sound of Two Hands, 1990; Table’s Clear, 1990; Listening-In, 7 folksong settings, 1991; Now and Then, 1991; Word Color, 1992; AshGrove, folksong setting, 1993; Memory Pages, 1993; Still Time, 1994; Thinking Back, 1996; Andalusia, 1997; Chords, 1997; Dancetracks: Dark Remix, 1997; For the Moment, 1997; Same Scene, Nine Years Later, 1997; Things She Carried, 1997; Heavy Set, 1998; Now that You Mention it, 1998; Shadows, 1998

Principal publishers: Boelke-Bomart, Bridge Records, Grim Tim

WRITINGS

‘Pitch-Class Consciousness’, PNM, xiii/2 (1974–5), 30–57

‘Musikmaschinen’, ÖMz, xxxi (1976), 467–500 [Eng. trans. in special Amer. issue: ÖMz, (1976), Oct, 33–6]

with K. Steiglitz: ‘Synthesis of Timbral Families by Warped Linear Prediction’, Computer Music Journal, v/3 (1981), 45–9

Mix: A Program for Digital Signal-Processing, Editing and Synthesis (Princeton, NJ, 1983)

‘Compositional Applications of Linear Predictive Coding’, Current Directions in Computer Music Research, ed. M.V. Mathews and J.R. Pierce (Cambridge, MA, 1989), 5–9

‘It’s About Time: Some Next Perspectives’, PNM, xxvii/2 (1989), 270–81; xxviii/1 (1990), 170–79

‘A View from the Bus: when Machines Make Music’, PNM, xxviii/2 (1990), 102–11

‘Being and Going’, International Journal of Musicology, iv (1995), 241–52

with K. Steiglitz: ‘Ein: A Digital Signal Processing Scratchpad’, Computer Music Journal, xix/3 (1995), 18–25

‘I Thought I'd Write a Song or Two’, Making Musics: Collaborations between Poets and Composers, 1978–2000, ed. J. Duemer and D. Rakowski (forthcoming)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Roads: ‘Interview with Paul Lansky’, Computer Music Journal, vii/3 (1983), 16–24

D.L. Code: ‘Observations in the Art of Speech: Paul Lansky’s Six Fantasies’, PNM, xxviii/1 (1990), 144–69

D. Ondishko: Six Fantasies on a Poem by Thomas Campion: Synthesis and Evolution of Paul Lansky’s Music Compositions (diss., Eastman School, Rochester, NY, 1990)

J. Cody: ‘A Conversation with Paul Lansky’, Computer Music Journal, xx/1 (1996), 19–24

J. Perry: ‘The Innver Voices of Simple Things: a Conversation with Paul Lansky’, PNM, xxxiv/2 (1996), 40–61

ELLIOTT ANTOKOLETZ

Lantins, de.

Several Franco-Flemish composers and musicians of the early 15th century bearing this name may well have been related. All are thought to have come from the diocese of Liège.

(2) Ray. de Lan(tins)

(3) Johannes de Lotinis [Lothin]

(4) Arnold [Arnoldo, Arnoldus] de Lantins [Lantinis, Latinis]

(5) Hugo [Hugho, Ugho, Ugo] de Lantins [Lantinis, Latinis]

HANS SCHOOP/J. MICHAEL ALLSEN

(1) Berthold [Bernold] de Lantins alias de Bolsée

(d 24 Jan 1413). Cleric and singer. He was canon at St Jean l'Evangeliste in Liège in 1372 and apparently a singer there from 1379 until his death (see Auda).

(2) Ray. de Lan(tins)

(fl before 1445). Composer. He wrote the Ut queant laxis (two voices with fauxbourdon) in D-Mbs Mus.Ms.3224. The manuscript otherwise contains works of Dunstaple, Du Fay, Christopherus de Feltro and Bartolomeus Brollo, as well as an incomplete copy of the Mass Verbum incarnatum by (4) Arnold de Lantins. He is possibly to be identified with the Reynaldus Tenorista at Treviso Cathedral from 2 February 1438 to 25 December 1439.

(3) Johannes de Lotinis [Lothin]

(fl c1475–1480). Singer. He came from Dinant and is listed in 1480 among the singers at the royal court of Naples, where he was a colleague of Tinctoris. He was the dedicatee of Tinctoris's Expositio manus (CoussemakerS, iv, 1; c1475), where he is described as a ‘young man’. In De inventione et usu musicae (c1480–87), Tinctoris again mentioned Johannes, in this case in a listing of several of the finest singers of the day, where he is described as a soprano (see Weinmann).

(4) Arnold [Arnoldo, Arnoldus] de Lantins [Lantinis, Latinis]

(d Rome, before 2 July 1432). Composer. He is listed, together with (5) Hugo de Lantins, as a member of the chapel of Malatesta di Malatestis of Pesaro on 8 June 1423, and both are linked to Du Fay at about the same time by references in Du Fay's song Hé compagnons (see Planchart). Annotations to two of Arnold's songs in GB-Ob 213 (Se ne prenés and Quant je mire) indicate that he was in Venice in March 1428. From November 1431 to June 1432 he was a singer in the chapel of Pope Eugenius IV, together with Du Fay and Malbecque. He death in June or July of 1432 is documented by Malbecque's request for Arnold's benefice at the parish church of Fermes in the diocese of Liège (see Planchart); this negates the contention that his ballade Puisque je sui cyprianés was written in connection with the arrival of Anne de Lusignan on the mainland in 1434. Arnold's works appear primarily in northern Italian manuscripts from the 1420s and 1430s.

The esteem in which Arnold was held around 1430 can be assessed from the extremely wide distribution of his Marian motet Tota pulchra es as also from the equal status with Du Fay, Binchois and Ciconia afforded him in the tenor partbook to GB-Ob 213 in F-Pn n.a.fr.4379 (see Schoop). Further indication of his reputation is the pride of place his work is given at the beginning of I-Bc Q15. This source begins with a composite Marian mass by Arnold and Ciconia: Arnold's introit, Kyrie, Sanctus and Agnus are grouped with a Gloria with the Marian trope ‘Spiritus et alme’ and a Credo, both by Ciconia.

Most of Arnold's mass music survives in the earliest layer of I-Bc Q15, suggesting a date in the middle or early 1420s. In his four movements of the composite mass there is a liturgical unity imposed by use of appropriate chants in the tenors of each successive movement (the introit ‘Salve sancta parens’, LU 1263, and the Kyrie, Sanctus and Agnus of Vatican Mass IX, LU 40); this is reinforced by the use of the trope ‘Marie filius’ in the tenor of the Sanctus. These movements are probably the earliest compositions among the mass music, possibly dating from before Arnold moved to Italy. There are several variants in the Sanctus melody that point to northern French origins (see P.J. Thannabauer, Das einstimmige Sanctus, Munich, 1962). Each of Arnold's Gloria-Credo pairs is united musically by various means – head-motifs, tail-motifs, tonality and mensuration (see Hamm and Widaman) – and the third pair, cited below, is further unified by the use of identical music in the opening sections and at mensuration changes.

The Mass Verbum incarnatum, so named because of the Kyrie trope, appears in the second layer of I-Bc Q15, I-Bu 2216 and GB-Ob 213, and may be somewhat later. All five movements are closely linked by head-motifs and tonality, but a more subtle underlying connection is their shared musical references to the composer's Marian motet O pulcherrima mulierum. These references and the Kyrie and Sanctus tropes suggest that this may have been a votive Mass for Advent (see Strohm, 1990).

Arnold's two Marian motets feature florid melodic writing in the upper voice and relatively simple supporting voices. Tota pulchra es was probably written originally as a three-voice work, but a fourth voice, possibly by Arnold himself, appears in I-Bc Q15 (see Nosow, 1992). The lauda setting In tua memoria is much simpler in style, proceeding in a series of rhythmically simple phrases with largely syllabic texting.

The songs are also written for three voices, with a focus on florid melodic writing above tenor and contratenor. Arnold occasionally used imitation (Ce jour de l'an), but never to the extent seen in contemporary works by Hugo de Lantins. Las pouray je mon martir begins with expressive fermatas above the first few words. Most of the songs set rather conventional courtly love poems in formes fixes, although there are few tantalizing references to specific circumstances: Sans de plaisir refers to May Day, and Puisque je suis cyprianés clearly refers to a specific woman.

WORKS

all 3 voices

Editions: Polyphonia sacra, ed. C. van den Borren (Burnham, Bucks., 1932, 2/1963) [P]Pièces polyphoniques profanes de provenance liégeoise (XVe siècle), ed. C. van den Borren, Flores musicales belgicae, i (Brussels, 1950) [L]

mass ordinary

all ed. in Widaman

Mass Verbum incarnatum, P

Introitus, Kyrie, Sanctus, Agnus [Gl and Cr by Ciconia complete the cycle]

Gloria-Credo, I-Bc Q15, nos.38, 39

Gloria-Credo, Bc Q15, nos.47, 48

Gloria-Credo, Bc Q15, nos.90, 91

smaller sacred pieces

In tua memoria, lauda, P

O pulcherrima mulierum, P

Tota pulchra es [Cantus II in I-Bc Q15 seems to be a later addition], P

ballades

Puisque je suy cyprianés, L

Tout mon desir et mon voloir, L

rondeaux

Amour servir et honnourer, L

Ce jour de l’an belle je vous supplye, L

Certes belle quand de vous partiray, L

Esclave a dueil et forain de liesse, L

Helas emy ma dame et ma mestresse, L

Las pouray je mon martire celer, L

Mon doulx espoir mon souvenir [ascribed Ar. Lantins in I-Bc Q15, Hugo in GB-Ob 213], L

Ne me vueilliés belle oblier, L

Or voy je bien que je moray martir, L

Puis que je voy belle que ne m’amés, L

Quant je mire vos doulce portraiture [dated in MS Venice, March 1428], L

Sans desplaisir et sans esmay, L

Se ne prenés de moy pité [dated in MS Venice, March 1428], L

doubtful works

Ce jour le doibt, aussi fait la saison [original ascription to Arnold in GB-Ob 213 has been erased and corrected to Du Fay], ed. in CMM, i/6 (1964), no.18

Chanter ne scay ce poyse moy [rondeau; ascribed to Arnold de Lantins in I-Bc Q15 and to Hugo de Lantins in GB-Ob 213; may be attributed to Hugo on stylistic grounds], L

Un seul confort pour mon cuer resjoir [rondeau; ascribed to ‘de L’ in I-Bc Q15; may be attributed to Hugo on stylistic grounds], L

4. Musics of upland peoples.

(5) Hugo [Hugho, Ugho, Ugo] de Lantins [Lantinis, Latinis]

(fl 1420–30). Composer. His works appear in the same manuscripts as those of (4) Arnold de Lantins. The precise familial relationship between Arnold and Hugo de Lantins remains unclear, although it is likely that they were of the same generation. Like Arnold, Hugo was a member of the Malatesta chapel in 1423, and was an acquaintance of Du Fay at this time (see (4) above). There are also several musical connections between Hugo's works and those of Du Fay (see Allsen, 1992 and Fallows). Other direct documentation of Hugo's activities is lacking, but his surviving works provide evidence of his activities in Italy. His Tra quante regione praises Sparta, the Eastern Roman Empire and Cleofe Malatesta. Both this work and Du Fay's isorhythmic motet Vasilissa ergo gaude seem to have been composed for Cleofe's embarkation for Greece in 1420 to wed Theodore Palaiologos. Mirar non posso refers to the Colonna family of Rome, who were linked by marriage to the Malatestas in the wedding celebrated by Du Fay's Resvelliés vous. The motet Celsa sublimatur/Sabine presul refers specifically to the city of Bari, and probably dates from 1424 or 1425, when Antonio Colonna was briefly viceroy of Apulia. Hugo's Christus vincit celebrates the Venetian Doge Francesco Foscari (1423–57) by setting the laudes regiae sung twice yearly in the Doge's honour. O lux et decus Hispanie reworks the music of Christus vincit, and may have been written around 1430 for Bishop Pietro Emiliani of Vicenza.

The openings of the paired Gloria and Credo are identical in all three voices; both repeat their tenor pattern several times (three in the Gloria and four in the Credo), and both reflect material from the tenor in the other parts (see Gossett). Imitation plays a role in two of Hugo's Glorias. In the Gloria P 17 (with tempus perfectum diminutum and low tessitura in all voices), two of the voices are set in canon throughout. In the Gloria P 15, virtually every successive line of text is set off by a brief point of imitation between cantus and tenor.

Hugo's motets represent a cross-section of all motet styles current in the 1420s. Celsa sublimatur/Sabine presul, which may have served as a model for Du Fay's St Nicholas motet O gemma, lux et speculum, is fully isorhythmic, with two taleae in all voices. Ave gemma claritatis is a response to the Italianate ‘equal discantus’ style of the early 15th century, with its long opening echo imitation and two contrapuntally equal upper voices (see Nosow, 1991). Ave verum corpus, also for four voices, has an extremely florid upper line set above three rhythmically simple lower voices. In Christus vincit and its contrafactum O lux et decus Hispanie, as in the Gloria P 17, Hugo sets off individual lines of text with brief imitations.

Imitation also plays a role in virtually all of Hugo's songs, affording them a more solemn and learned sound than that of Arnold's more lyrical secular music. While most of Hugo's songs use the imitative procedure noted above (for example A ma dame, where each of the rondeau refrain's four lines is marked with imitations between cantus and tenor), he also experimented with various musical effects. In Tra quante regione, he makes striking use of rhythmic sequences similar to those heard in contemporary isorhythmic motets and earlier Italian songs by Ciconia. Plaindre m'estuet poses difficult problems of musica ficta, while Je suy extent features intricate changes of mensuration. The majority of the songs are rondeaux, but Hugo also produced four Italian songs. Like the closely contemporary Italian songs of Du Fay, these works adapt some musical features common to Ciconia and the earlier generation of Italian composers, while taking liberties with established Italian poetic forms (see Pirrotta and StrohmR).

WORKS

3 voices unless otherwise stated

mass ordinary

Gloria-Credo, I-Bc Q15, nos.86–7 [Gloria also appears in D-Mbs 14274 with an ascription to Forest and anonymously in I-TRmp 90; both movements may be attributed to Hugo on stylistic grounds], tenors ed. in Gossett

Gloria [attributed to Hugo de Lantins in Bc Q15 and AO and to Du Fay in GB-Ob 213; ascription to Du Fay is probably spurious (see Schoop and Fallows); paired with a Du Fay Credo in I-Bc and AO]; ed. in CMM, i/4, 15

Gloria, P 15

Gloria, P 17

motets

Ave gemma claritatis, 4vv [St Catharine], ed. in Nosow, 1991

Ave verum, 4vv, ed. in Nosow, 1992

Celsa sublimatur/Sabine presul, 4vv or 3vv [incomplete isorhythmic motet for St Nicholas of Bari and St Sabinus of Canosa], P 32, A

Christus vincit, ed. in Gallo and in Allsen, 1993

O lux et decus [St James], ed. in Allsen, 1993

… ram …, I-Bc Q15, reverse of pasted initial ‘A’ on f.271v [small fragment of a Latin piece attributed to Hugo de Lantins]

rondeaux

A ma damme playsant et belle, L

Ce j’eusse fait ce que je pence, L

Chanter ne scay ce poyse moy [contrary ascription to Arnold de Lantins], L

Grant ennuy m’est tres douce simple et coye, L

Helas amour que ce qu’endure, L

J’ay ma joye ben perdue, L

Je suy espris d’une damme amoureuse, L

Je suy exent entre aman pour amour, L

Joly et gay je me tenray, 2vv, L

Plaindre m’estuet de ma damme jolye [acrostic: PVTAIN DE MERDE], L

Pour resioyr la compaignie, L

Prendre convint de tout en gré, L

Un seul confort pour mon cuer resjoir [ascribed only ‘de L’], L

ballatas

Io sum tuo servo, L

Per amor de costey, L

Tra quante regione el sol si mobele [for Cleofe Malatesta, ?1420], L

italian ?rondeau

Mirar non posso ni conçerner dona, L

doubtful works

Gloria [‘cursiva’ setting; ascribed in the index to GB-Ob 213 to Du Fay, but in the body of the MS to Hugo de Lantins; may be attributed to Du Fay on stylistic grounds (see Schoop and Fallows)], P 16

Mon doulx espoir mon souvenir [rondeau; ascribed to Hugo de Lantins in Ob 213 and to ‘Lantins’ in I-Bc Q15, where it appears with a Credo by Arnold; may be attributed to Arnold on stylistic grounds], L

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (W. Rehm)

PirroHM

StrohmR

J., J.F.R. and C. Stainer: Dufay and his Contemporaries (London, 1898/R)

C. Weinmann: Johannes Tinctoris (1445–1511) und sein unbekannter Traktat ‘De inventione et usu musicae’ (Regensburg, 1917, 2/1961)

A. Auda: La musique et les musiciens de l'ancien pays de Liège (Brussels, 1930)

C. van den Borren: ‘Hugo et Arnold de Lantins’, Annales de la Fédération archéologique et historique de Belgique, xxix (Liège, 1932), 263–72; repr. in RBM, xxi (1967), 29–35

G. d’Alessi: La cappella musicale del duomo di Treviso (1300–1633) (Vedelago, 1954)

R. Bockholdt: Die frühen Messenkompositionen von Guillaume Dufay (Tutzing, 1960)

F.A. Gallo: ‘Musiche veneziane nel MS 2216 della Biblioteca universitaria di Bologna’, Quadrivium, vi (1964), 107–16

C. Hamm: ‘The Reson Mass’, JAMS, xviii (1965), 5–21

P. Gossett: ‘Techniques of Unification in Early Cyclic Masses and Mass Pairs’, JAMS, xix (1966), 205–31

N. Pirrotta: ‘On Text Forms from Ciconia to Dufay’, Aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Music: a Birthday Offering to Gustave Reese, ed. J. LaRue and others (New York, 1966/R), 673–82

F.A. Gallo, ed.: Il codice musicale 2216 della Biblioteca universitaria di Bologna, MLMI, iii/3 (Bologna, 1968–70)

G. Reaney: ‘The Italian Contribution to the Manuscript Oxford, Bodleian Library, Canonici Misc. 213’, L’Ars Nova italiana, [ii]: convegni di studio 1961–1967 del Trecento, ed. F.A. Gallo (Certaldo, 1968), 443–64

H. Schoop: Entstehung und Verwendung der Handschrift Oxford, Bodleian Library, Canonici misc. 213 (Berne, 1971)

G. Chew: ‘The Early Cyclic Mass as an Expression of Royal and Papal Supremacy’, ML, liii (1972), 254–69

D. Fallows: Dufay (London, 1982, 2/1987)

A. Planchart: ‘Du Fay's Benefices and his Relationship to the Court of Burgundy’, EMH, viii (1988), 117–71

J. Widaman: The Mass Settings of Arnold de Lantins: a Case Study in the Transmission of Early Fifteenth-Century Music (diss., Brandeis U., 1988)

R. Strohm: ‘Einheit und Funktion früher Messzyklen’, Festschrift: Rudolf Bockholdt, ed. N. Dubowy and S. Meyer-Eller (Pfaffenhofen, 1990), 141–60

R. Nosow: ‘The Equal-Discantus Motet Style after Ciconia’, MD, xlv (1991), 221–75

R. Nosow: The Florid and Equal-Discantus Motet Styles of Fifteenth-Century Italy (diss., U. of North Carolina, 1992)

J.M. Allsen: Style and Intertextuality in the Isorhythmic Motet 1400–1440 (diss., U. of Wisconsin, Madison, 1992)

J.M. Allsen: ‘Intertextuality and Compositional Process in Two Cantilena-Motets by Hugo de Lantins’, JM, xi (1993), 174–202

Lantos.

See Tinódi, Sebestyén.

Lanyer.

See Lanier family.

Lanyuk, Yury

(b L'viv, 1957). Ukrainian composer. He graduated from L'viv Conservatory as a cellist and composer (Dezidery Zador's class) and, after studying privately with Nikodemowicz, he undertook postgraduate work with Chervov at the Kiev Conservatory before returning to teach in L'viv at the Lysenko Music Institute. He won the Revutsky Composition Prize in 1989. His style is influenced by late-Romantic Austro-German traditions, the constructional principles of the Second Viennese School as well as the lyrical heritage of Ukrainian song and romance. His reliance on the speech intonations of the poetry of various nations and his own performing experience have both conditioned the significance of the linear principle in his musical language. These tendencies are also related to his inclination to combine polyphonic complexity with colourful orchestral effects.

WORKS

(selective list)

Vocal: Zhaloba ternovnika [Wild Plum] (B.-I. Antonïch), S, Bar, chbr orch, 1976–91; Spiv dlya rivnodennya [Singing for the Equinox] (S.-Zh. Pers), S, Bar, chbr ens, 1977–91; Zabuta zemlya [The Forgotten Land] (after V. Stefanyk), S, orch, 1992; Okhotnik Grakkh [The Hunter Grakkh] (after F. Kafka), Bar, chbr ens, 1993; Palimpsestï [Palimpsests] (V. Stus, V. Barka), chorus, orch, 1994

Inst: Chbr Music, 21 insts, 1977–89; Triptych (M. Shashkevich), S, pf, 1987; Diptych, vc, pf, 1988; Sonata ozhidaniya [A Sonata of Expectation], vc, pf, tape, 1993; Tan Gopak, pf, perc, 1994; Seraphitus, vc, pf, tape, 1995; Muzïka dlya Reshersha [Music for Recherche], 9 insts, 1996

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Pavlyshyn: ‘Kompozytory-liryky’ [Lyric Composers], Muzyka [Kiev] (1993), no.3

YELENA CHEKAN, YURY CHEKAN

Lanza.

Italian family of musicians.

(1) Giuseppe Lanza

(2) Gesualdo Lanza

(3) Francesco Lanza

Another son of (1) Giuseppe, a singer whose name is unknown, was born in London and finished his studies there. At the age of about 20 he moved to Paris, where he lived for some years. In 1838 he taught singing in Lille, and in 1841 he settled in the USA. Details of a son ‘Giuseppe’, who was said to have worked in London and Naples, are now thought to be an amalgamation in some sources of the activities of (1) Giuseppe and (3) Francesco.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

FétisB

FlorimoN

SainsburyD

SchmidlD

G. Mascia: ‘Cenni biografici del clebre pianista e compositore Francesco Lanza’, Gazzetta musicale di Napoli, xii (1864), 139, 156, 174 and 192 only

L.A. Villanis: L'arte del pianoforte in Italia da Clementi a Sgambati (Turin, 1907/R)

S. Martinotti: ‘Poetiche e presenze nel pianismo italiano dell'Ottocento’, Quaderni della RaM, no.3 (1965), 181–94

S. Martinotti: Ottocento strumentale italiano (Bologna, 1972)

V. Vitale: Il pianoforte a Napoli nell’Ottocento (Naples, 1983)

F. Esposito: ‘Aggiornamento e continuità nel pianismo napoletano dell’Ottocento: Francesco Lanza’, Morcone-Benevento 1990 (forthcoming)

FRANCESCO BUSSI (1, 2)/R, FRANCESCO ESPOSITO (3)

Lanza

(1) Giuseppe Lanza

(b Naples, c1750; d ?Naples, after 1812). Composer and singing teacher, formerly known as Francesco Giuseppe. He probably moved to London in 1793, where he was employed by the Duke of Abercorn. On returning to Naples in 1812 he was appointed singing teacher at the Real Collegio di Musica (now the Conservatorio di Musica S Pietro a Majella) and at the Pensionato Reale dei Miracoli.

WORKS

printed works published in London unless otherwise stated

Comic ops: L'ingannatrice; Le nozze per fanatismo

Ballets: Don Quichotte

Vocal: Il pianto delle virtù (cant.), 1780; Stabat mater, 2 S, op.12 (c1795); Canzonette, duetti e trio, op.6 (c1796); other trios, op.8 (c1798), op.13 (c1800); other duos, op.5 (1794), op.7 (c1797), op.11 (1800); 6 arie notturne, 1v, gui, vn ad lib (Naples, 1792); ariettas, op.1 (1794), op.4 (?1794), op.10 (1800)

Inst: duos, fl, pf; sonatas, pf solo

Lanza

(2) Gesualdo Lanza

(b Naples, 1779; d London, 12 March 1859). Composer and singing teacher, son of (1) Giuseppe Lanza. As a child he went with his father to London, where he became well known as a singing teacher.

WORKS

printed works published in London

Stage: The Deserts of Arabia (1806); Spirits of Dew (masque, 3)

Vocal and inst: Gran messa di gloria, 2 S, T, B, chorus, orch (c1840); Britannia weeps, funeral monody (1805); ballads, canzonas, songs, 1v, pf; pf solo works

Didactic: The Elements of Singing (1809); Studii elementari di canto (c1830); New Method of Teaching Class Singing (1843)

Lanza

(3) Francesco Lanza

(b Naples, 1783; d Naples, 1862). Pianist and composer, son of (1) Giuseppe Lanza. At the age of nine he moved with his father to London, where he studied the piano in the circle of Muzio Clementi. In 1804, during a brief return visit to Naples, he gave one of the first public piano concerts known to have taken place in the city. Back in London he continued a career as a pianist and composer, publishing various compositions, and providing the music for the ballet The Caliph of Bagdad (1809), by the choreographer Auguste-Armand Vestris.

He returned to Naples, where he taught both privately and in girls’ boarding-schools, and appeared in the city’s leading salons, quickly becoming the leading pianist in Naples. In 1830 he became a piano teacher in the local conservatory, a post which he had first been offered in 1827. Here, for more than 30 years he educated generations of musicians, including Giuseppe Lillo, Michelangelo Russo, Constantino Palumbo, Michele Ruta and Ciro Pinsuti, thus becoming the founder of the Neapolitan piano school.

His compositions – exclusively for piano and including two concertos, fantasias on operatic themes, salon music, two sonatas and a piano method – reveal a solid harmonic manner and an elegant vein of melody, as well as the legacy of Clementií’s classicism, through which influences of the Romantic and harpsichord repertories are sometimes re-elaborated.

Lanza, Alcides

(b Rosario, 2 June 1929). Argentine composer, conductor, pianist and teacher. His early studies were in Buenos Aires with Ruwin Erlich (piano), Julian Bautista (composition) and Roberto Kinsky (conducting). Thereafter he attended courses given by Loriod, Messiaen, Maderna and Ginastera at the Di Tella Institute, where he worked intensively in electronic composition. He also studied electronic engineering at the Escuela Industrial de la Nación, Rosario. From 1959 to 1965 he was rehearsal pianist at the Teatro Colón, and then a Guggenheim Fellowship enabled him to study with Ussachevsky at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center (1966–70); at that time he also lectured on music appreciation at the New York City Community College. In 1971 he was appointed associate professor of composition and electronic music at McGill University, and he received a Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst grant to live in Berlin from 1972 to 1973. While in Europe he toured as associate music director of the Composer/Performers Group; he also directed the Composers' Group for International Performance and was a member of the Asociación Música Viva of Buenos Aires, which, from 1960, has given first performances of avant-garde compositions in Argentina and elsewhere in Latin America. In addition he has, since his youth, travelled extensively in the Americas as a pianist, lecturer, composer and conductor. His major preoccupation has been electronic music. Eidesis II, first performed at Tanglewood in 1967, has, in Lanza's words, ‘masses of sound in motion, with an enormous charge of sensuality, resolved in several “orgasms of sound’”. The piece employs quarter-tone tuning, special coloured lights and contact microphones for the strings.

In 1971 he was appointed professor of composition at McGill University, Montreal, and since 1974 he has been director of the Electronic Music Studio at McGill. He received the CIDEM (Consejo Interamericano de Música) 1996 award for his contribution to the promotion of contemporary music. Alone … together …? was his second five-hour piano marathon with music from the Americas written for keyboard and electronics, held at the Pollard Concert Hall, in April 1992. In addition he has written several essays about electronic and contemporary music.

WORKS

(selective list)

Toccata, pf, 1957; Plectros I, 1/2 pf, 1962; Eidesis sinfónica, orch, 1963; Cuarteto IV, 4 tpt, 1964; Pf Conc., 1964; Interferencias I, wind, tape, 1966; Plectros II, pf, tape, 1966; Eidesis II, 13 insts, 1967; Strobo I, db, perc, lights, tape, 1967; Ekphonesis II (Lanza), 1v, pf, tape, elecs, 1968; Ekphonesis III, insts, tape, elecs, 1969; Penetrations II, insts, tape, elecs, 1969; Penetrations V, mixed media, 1970; Acúfenos II, 4 insts, tape, 1971; Eidesis III, 1/2 orch, tape, 1971; Penetrations VII, actress-singer, tape, 1972; Hip'nes I, 1973; Kron’ikelz 75, 1975; Sensors I, perc ens, 1976; Eidesis IV, wind ens, elecs, 1977; Ekphonesis V, actress-singer, tape, 1979; Interferences III, chbr ens, cptr tape, 1983; Sensors V, solo perc, perc ens, 1985; Ekphonesis VI, actress-singer, tape, 1988; … there is a way to sing it …, tape, 1988; Arghanum V, accordion/pf, tape, 1990; Quodlibet, stylus luxurians, org, chbr ens, 1991; Son glosas, claro … digital synths, tape, 1991; Alone … together … ?, kbd, elecs, Pollard Concert Hall, April 1992; Vôo, acting voice, tape, 1992; Conc., pf, chbr orch, 1993

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Compositores de América/Composers of the Americas, ed. Pan American Union, xvii (Washington DC, 1971)

M. Ficher, M. Furman Schleifer and J.M. Furman: Latin American Classical Composers: a Biographical Dictionary (Lanham, MD, and London, 1996)

SUSANA SALGADO

Lanza, Mario [Cocozza, Alfred Arnold]

(b Philadelphia, 31 Jan 1921; d Rome, Italy, 7 Oct 1959). American tenor. He first studied singing while working as a piano mover in Philadelphia and in 1942 was awarded a summer scholarship at the Berkshire Music Center. Shortly afterwards he entered the Special Services of the armed forces and sang regularly for military radio shows during World War II. After his discharge he made a series of concert appearances, including a performance at the Hollywood Bowl in 1946. His first film role in That Midnight Kiss (1949) brought him immediate national recognition and fame. He subsequently made six further films, including The Great Caruso (1951) and The Toast of New Orleans (1950), in which he sang his greatest hit, Be my love (Brodszky and Cahn). Although he possessed a voice of great power and range, Lanza sang in only one opera, Puccini’s Madama Butterfly, with the New Orleans Opera (1948). He was idolized as a romantic figure with a marvellous voice who chose films over opera. In the early 1950s he presented his own radio show. At this time his problems with obesity became increasingly severe, and they may have contributed to his early death at the age of 38.

JEAN W. THOMAS

Lanzetti, Domenico.

Italian cellist and composer, possibly related to Salvatore Lanzetti.

Lanzetti, Salvatore

(b Naples, c1710; d Turin, c1780). Italian cellist and composer. He studied at the Naples Conservatorio di S Maria di Loreto. For a short time he was a member of the court chapel in Lucca and in 1727 entered the service of Vittorio Amedeo II in Turin, a post he retained despite numerous tours in northern Europe. By the second half of the 1730s he was in Paris and then London, where he seems to have lived until at least 1754. He had great success there and, according to Burney, helped to establish a taste for the cello. In May 1751 he gave concerts in Frankfurt. He returned to Italy about 1760 and rejoined the royal chapel in Turin, of which he probably remained a member until his death.

Lanzetti was one of the most innovative cellists of his era, advancing many aspects of cello technique. His own virtuosity is evident in his solo compositions through the intricacy of bowings, dynamic contrasts and note range. The tessitura of the cello was extended to b'' in his Sonatas op.1, while his proficiency with slurred staccato bowings was testified to by Corrette, who credited him with bringing such techniques to cello performance. The notated fingerings of his exercises are of particular interest and show consistency with the fingering patterns demonstrated by Corrette. Lanzetti used diatonic fingerings for half, first and second positions, but compressed third and fourth positions as a means of circumscribing the neck joint. His use of thumb position was fluent, with inclusion of the fourth finger a salient feature.

The cellist and composer Domenico Lanzetti was perhaps related to Salvatore. Two of his cello sonatas and five concertos are extant (D-Bsb). Six concertos, mentioned by Eitner, were formerly in the same library.

WORKS

Inst: 12 sonate, vc, bc, op.1 (Amsterdam, 1736/R in ECCS, vii); 6 Solos, 2 vc, bc (hpd) (London, 1740; 2/c1745 as 6 Solos. 2 vc/fl, b, op.2, in a different order); 6 Solos, 2 vc/fl, b (London, c1745) [same title-page as op.2, different contents]; 6 Solos after an Easy & Elegant Taste, vc, bc (hpd) (London, c1760/R in ECCS, vii); Sonata intitolata Porto Maone, vc, va, vn, b, op.5, D-Bsb [vn, b pts. only]; Sonates, vc, bc, op.5 (Paris, n.d.), F-Pn; Sonates, vc, bc, op.7 (Paris, n.d.), Pn, Pc (inc.); other sonatas listed in EitnerQ

Pedagogical: Principes ou l’application de violoncelle par tous les tons (Amsterdam, before 1770)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Corrette: Méthode theoretique et pratique pour apprendre en peu de tems le violoncelle dans sa perfection (Paris, 1741/R)

A. Vidal: Les instruments à archet: les feseurs, les joueurs d’instruments, leur histoire sur le continent européen (Paris, 1876–8/R)

B. Weigl: Handbuch der Violoncell-Literatur (Vienna, 1911, enlarged 3/1929)

E. van der Straeten: History of the Violoncello (London, 1915/R)

C.D. Graves: The Theoretical and Practical Method for Cello by Michel Corrette: Translation, Commentary, and Comparison with Seven other Eighteenth-Century Cello Methods (diss., Michigan State U., 1972)

V. Walden: One Hundred Years of Violoncello: a History of Technique and Performance Practice, 1740–1840 (Cambridge, 1998)

GUIDO SALVETTI/VALERIE WALDEN

Laos [Lao People’s Democratic Republic] (Saathiaranarath Prachhathipatay Prachhachhon Lao).

The Lao People's Democratic Republic is a small, landlocked country in mainland South-east Asia bordering Vietnam, China, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand and Cambodia. Before its partition into the princedoms of Luang Prabang, Vientiane (also spelt Viang Chan) and Champassak soon after 1700, the 14th-century kingdom of Lan Sang (‘Million Elephants’) was a significant power in the region. After 1827, when Siamese armies defeated the Lao and sacked Vientiane, most Lao-occupied territory west of the Mekong river was absorbed into Siam (present-day Thailand). Although much of the current population of north-east Thailand is culturally Lao, their music has developed on a different path, one influenced by Bangkok's modernization and the development of urban popular culture. About half of the 5·3 million population is comprised of upland, non-Lao-speaking groups, many of whom practise swidden agriculture on the mountainsides. The ethnic Lao population is concentrated in lowland valleys, especially along the Mekong and its tributaries, and on the Vientiane plain north of the capital. Laos was a kingdom until 1975, when the communist Pathet Lao overthrew the royalists, resulting in economic collapse and mass emigration, the latter including many of the country's musicians, singers and dancers.

Although not exclusive, the following four musical categories are useful: traditional village vocal genres with instrumental accompaniment; classical music surviving from the former court; popular songs; and musics of non-Lao upland groups. Because Laos consists of isolated villages and towns with little infrastructure (roads, transportation or communications), village genres show great variation. The court tradition exists primarily in Vientiane, the capital, with pockets of activity in Luang Prabang and Champassak. Popular songs are characteristic of the cities along the Mekong, where influence from Thailand is strongest. Least studied are the musics of the many upland groups, scattered throughout the country. Culturally, they are related to upland minorities in neighbouring Vietnam and China. Research on Lao musics, modest before 1975, ceased at that time until the early 1990s, when foreign scholars were allowed to return, albeit in small numbers.

1. Village vocal genres.

2. Classical music.

3. Popular music.

5. Buddhist music.

6. Relationship with musics of north-east Thailand.

TERRY E. MILLER

1. Village vocal genres.

Lao vocal genres predominantly consist of male-female repartee in a ritualized derivative of courtship. This is analogous to the spoken phanya, a lovers' dialogue consisting of memorized units of poetry and proverbs, which is mostly expressed in simile, metaphor and double entendre. The musical analogue is embodied in two terms, lam (used in southern Laos) and khap (central and northern Laos). The textual subjects include feigned courtship, with or without insults and sexual innuendo, discussions and challenges concerning matters of history, Buddhism, geography and other subjects, didactic poems on correct behaviour and topical comments. Whereas phanya was functional, lam and khap are repartee performances featuring vocal melody and instrumental accompaniment.

Five northern genre names are preceded with khap: khap ngeum from the Ngum river valley north-east of Vientiane; khap thoum from the former royal capital, Luang Prabang; khap phouan for the Lao Phouan, a sub-group living in the Xieng Khouang area; khap sam neua after Sam Neua village in Houaphan province; and khap thai dam after the Thai Dam (‘Black Thai’) sub-group of central Laos. Each of these genres exists in isolation, with little that unifies them stylistically.

Eight southern genre names are preceded with lam: lam sithandone (also called lam siphandone) and lam som from southern Champassak province; lam saravane from Saravane province; lam ban xok from Xok village near Savannakhet city; lam tang vay from Tang Vay village (located 95 kilometres south-east of Savannakhet); lam khon savan from Savannakhet province; lam mahaxay from Mahaxay (located 40 kilometres east of Thakhek city in Khammouane province); and lam phou thai after the Phou Thai sub-group living in southern Laos. In addition, many southern Lao singers perform genres from north-east Thailand, especially the repartee form lam klawn (also called lam tat) and the theatrically derived lam pleun.

Each genre is mainly distinguished by its dialect, scale form, melodic shape, accompaniment pattern and performance practices, but also to some extent by its accompanying instruments. Many are easily recognisable to outsiders, but distinguishing some genres in the south requires great attention to detail. Since the differences in dialect are least among the lam genres, southern singers can routinely perform two or more genres. These genres are also closest in style to those of north-east Thailand just across the Mekong river. Indeed, certain lam genres have given rise to localized genres in Thailand, especially lam phanya yoi and toei hua non tan in the Mukdahan area.

A vast repertory of poetry must be memorized by each singer. Literacy in Laos, especially in remote rural areas, is far from universal, making oral transmission a necessity. In north-east Thailand teachers often write out texts. Most poetry is constructed in kon form, i.e. stanzas having four lines, each with seven basic beats or syllables, but singers may add prefixes, suffixes and extra syllables to the basic seven. This arrangement produces duple metre. In addition, each stanza requires a pattern of lexical tone marks, but because the language has three consonant classes, each with its own realization of tone marks, this pattern allows varying melodic interpretations.

The relationships between lexical tones and musical tones are complex, as the resultant performance requires coordination among several elements, including scale, a typical melodic shape for each regional genre, and overall (but not rigid) correspondence of individual lexical tones and melodic contour; these are tempered by elements of personal style. Non-conformity of melodic phrase and lexical tone resulting from a genre's typical melodic shape, potentially altering a word's meaning, can be avoided by the singer's addition of slides to or from main notes. This kind of flexible melodic line, which maintains its genre-specific identity while avoiding regularity and predictability, is what is meant by lam, and what distinguishes traditional singing from hong, the term for singing songs with fixed melodies such as popular, patriotic and foreign songs.

Traditional village music performances occur in conjunction with calendrical, Buddhist and national festivals. These include boun song kan (water throwing festival, April), boun bang fai (rocket festival, May), boun kathin (giving gifts to Buddhist monks, October–November), boun phavet (chanting the story of Prince Vetsandone's life, February–March), ordinations, temple fairs, the Western New Year and certain national holidays. Three additional Lao rituals provide contexts for other forms of chanting and singing: the boun bang fai rocket festival, which features responsorial singing called seung bang fai; lam phi fa rituals to cure people made ill by spirits, and Buddhist ceremonies requiring Pāli-language chant (sout) and Lao-language sermons (thet).

All but two village genres (khap thai dam and khap thoum) require the accompaniment of Laos's most distinctive musical instrument, the khene (see Khaen), a free-reed bamboo mouth organ in raft form, either alone or in combination with other village instruments. The typical Lao khene has 14 pipes in two rows of seven pipes each, but instruments with 6, 10, 16 and 18 pipes also exist ( fig.1). Instruments with 16 pipes from north-east Thailand have come to dominate in southern Laos. Khene slightly less than one metre in length are usual, although instruments up to three or four metres were formerly used. Except for the Phouan khene, all 14- and 16-tube instruments have the same relative tuning. Expressed in a pitch-letter system that distinguishes the near-tempered semitones from the whole tones while avoiding sharps and flats, the two-octave tuning system runs diatonically from a to a''. Right-hand pitches (from front to back) are a–c'–g'–a'–b'–d''–e''–a''; left-handed pitches are c''–b–d'–e'–f'–g'–f''–g''. Instruments with 14 tubes omit the highest pair (a' and g'). This arrangement, while appearing illogical, facilitates playing in five pentatonic modes while maintaining balance between the hands and avoiding more than three consecutive pipes in any mode. Players, all of whom are male, cause the silver-copper alloy free reeds to vibrate, each producing a single note, when they cover a pipe's finger-hole while inhaling or exhaling through the carved wooden windchest. Multiple pitches are produced by covering more than one finger-hole; pieces of the black khisout insect wax that seals the bamboo pipes into the windchest are used to cover one or two finger-holes, producing drones. Typically tilting the instrument slightly to the left, the player can create solos or play accompaniments within a simple modal system.

Whereas Thai khene players tend to have a comprehensive view of the instrument and its repertory, few Lao players do, mostly playing the patterns of the vocal genres they accompany. In the north-east Thai modal system, lai, there are two pentatonic scale forms, which can be called san and nyao. The san scale can be expressed as G–A–C–D–E and nyao as A–C–D–E–G. In each case the lowest note serves as a tonic. The various modes (ex.1a) (lai) provide a variety of starting pitches and moods for each scale. The san modes are lai sutsanaen (G–A–C–D–E), lai po sai (C–D–F–G–A) (ex.1b) and lai soi (D–E–G–A–B); the nyao modes are lai nyai (A–C–D–E–G), lai noi (D–F–G–A–C) and an unnamed mode on E (E–G–A–B–D).

Khene players in Laos commonly classify accompaniments and programmatic solos in reference to specific vocal genres, but some non-programmic solos are denoted by theoretical terms related to those of north-east Thailand (e.g. lai noi is called tit sut noi). Solo playing in Laos is slower, less prevalent and less virtuoso than that of Thailand, remaining closer to the original accompanimental patterns. An example of a khene piece may be found in Khaen.

Other Lao village instruments are of less importance than the khene. The Thai Dam minority, who are related to the Lao, use a free-reed pipe with finger-holes, the larger called pi louang (fig.2) and the smaller called pi bap. The classical bamboo duct flute (khoui) can be used to ornament the accompanimental melody. Small, home-made plucked lutes called phin or kachappi, of various shapes and with two to four strings, are commonly used in conjunction with the khene. Locally made fiddles called so, derived from the classical so i, are sometimes played (fig.3).

Lao village musicians also use a small number of idiophones: one is melodic, while the rest have a rhythmic function. The former is a rarely seen vertical xylophone of tuned logs called dung lung in Laos and bong lang or kha law in north-east Thailand. More common are small metal cymbals borrowed from the classical tradition called sing and slightly larger cymbals called sap. The southern Lao ngop ngep consists of two hinged pieces of wood, about 30 cm long; a block of wood is used to scrape the teeth carved into the underside of the lower piece of wood. Various small barrel drums are simply called kong.

Of the southern lam vocal genres, all require at least the khene for accompaniment, although the kachappi, so, khoui, drum and other percussion instruments may also be added. Khap genres in the north, however, are normally accompanied only by the khene, with the exception of khap thoum from Luang Prabang, which requires a small, classical-style ensemble consisting of fiddles, dulcimer and flute, plus percussion. Khene playing for khap tends to be rhythmically free and sometimes monophonic (without drones), while lam patterns are metrical and fuller in sound because of the presence of drones and multiple notes.

A singer is called mo lam or mo khap and the accompanist mo khene (mo: ‘skilled person’). Although audiences prefer younger, single female singers to older, married ones, older singers of both sexes continue to perform. While being a singer or musician does not admit one to élite society, singers are respected for their knowledge of culture, history, proper behaviour, stories, Buddhism and the art of courtship. Because many of the most famous singers fled Laos in 1975, and those who remain live in a poor country with little infrastructure, it has been difficult for singers to build lucrative careers or attain the star status possible in relatively prosperous and modern north-east Thailand. After 1975 the new communist government sent many of the remaining singers to ‘seminars’ (re-education camps) and created a hierarchy of national, provincial, and city cultural officials to manage public performance. In the late 1980s singers were no longer required to sing propaganda for the government, but neither could they criticize lazy or corrupt officials or make pointed comments on society as they had before 1975.

Distinguishing the 12 regional vocal genres requires attention to detail but is possible for outsiders. Each is briefly described below in terms of scale, metre, relationship to accompaniment and other pertinent features.

(viii) Lam phou thai.

(i) Lam sithandone.

Similar to traditional Ubon-style lam in north-east Thailand, lam sithandone is usually accompanied by solo khene playing metrically in a san mode. Each singer, however, opens with a non-metrical section that then becomes metred with the scale remaining somewhat ambiguous, wavering between san and nyao.

(ii) Lam som.

Now extremely rare, lam som is actually hexatonic, using the pentatonic nyao scale plus a supertonic (B): A–B–C–D–E–G. The singer declaims the text in speech rhythm to slow but metrical accompaniment, emphasizing pitches A, B, and D at cadences. The nearest equivalent in north-east Thailand is lam pheun, an almost extinct narrative genre.

(iii) Lam saravane.

Sung by Lao-speaking people of Mon-Khmer origin living in the remote Saravane area along the Se Done river, lam saravane is sung and played in the nyao scale. While the accompaniment, provided by a small ensemble dominated by khene, is metrical, the singer declaims phrases in rapid speech-rhythm that follows a descending contour.

(iv) Lam ban xok.

Distinguishing lam ban xok from nearby lam khon savan is difficult, since both use khene, either alone or a small ensemble, both have metrical accompaniment in the san scale, and both have near-metrical vocal parts. The differences lie more in function, for lam ban xok is not for ordinary occasions but is associated with ceremonial occasions.

(v) Lam tang vay.

Said to be a lowland Lao derivative of upland Mon-Khmer singing, lam tang vay is easily distinguished by its four-note descending accompaniment pattern (A–A–G–G–F–D) that is played by a small ensemble. Informants report that this genre was originally a type of khap accompanied by free-reed pipe or flute.

(vi) Lam khon savan.

Considered the most important Lao village singing genre, lam khon savan is primarily performed by professionals. Using the san scale, its melodic patterns are easily confused with those of lam ban xok and lam mahaxay in Laos and toei hua non tan and lam phanya yoi in north-east Thailand. The vocal part tends to have a flexible short–long rhythmic lilt, while the accompaniment is in even pulses (ex.2).

(vii) Lam mahaxay.

Distinguishing lam mahaxay from lam khon savan and lam ban xok requires attention to a long-held or melismatically ornamented high note that precedes the vocal line's descent to the tonic pitch.

(viii) Lam phou thai.

The term Phou Thai, meaning ‘Thai people’, refers to upland Tai speakers from north-eastern Laos and nearby Vietnam who migrated to lowland Laos and became acculturated. Whereas the Phou Thai have their own style of singing, the genre called lam phou thai denotes a lowland Lao adaptation sung in the nyao scale with metrical ensemble accompaniment and a declamatory, descending vocal line.

(ix) Khap ngeum.

Performed by people living near Vientiane along the Ngum river who probably came from north-eastern Laos, khap ngeum is accompanied by solo khene playing non-metrical, melismatic lines, especially after the singer has declaimed a line of poetry; both use the nyao scale. The slow pace of delivery allows singers to improvise poetry and thereby comment on current events.

(x) Khap phouan.

Living in the cool uplands near the Plain of Jarres and Xieng Khouang, the Lao sub-group called Phouan perform khap accompanied by solo khene, but their instrument has 14 pipes in a configuration of pitches different from the standard form, including one silent (reedless) pipe. Males sing in metre accompanied by a repetitive khene pattern, while females usually answer in non-metrical, heightened speech. Both use pitches of the nyao scale.

(xi) Khap sam neua.

The genre most remote from mainstream Lao styles, khap sam neua originated in an area that straddles Houaphan province in the north-east and nearby Vietnam. The singers are usually Nua, a Lao sub-group. Using the nyao scale and accompanied by a khene having 10 to 14 pipes, singers declaim the text within a narrow vocal range, ending each phrase with a cadence that alternates tonic with sub-tonic.

(xii) Khap thoum.

The former royal capital, Luang Prabang, which had a classical music tradition until 1975, is the centre of khap thoum, a repartee genre that is accompanied by a small ensemble consisting of classical instruments (fiddles, flute, dulcimer and percussion). Each singer's section is answered by a chorus sung by onlookers. Based on a 1 2 3 5 6 scale form, with passing use of 4 (eg. C–D–E–G–A–, with F), both singing and accompaniment are metrical and based on a semi-fixed melody (exx.3a and 3b).

To summarize, the khap genres are accompanied by solo khene (khap thoum excepted), and through their geographical isolation each has unique characteristics. Not surprisingly, northern singers usually know only one genre. The lam genres of southern Laos are more often accompanied by a small ensemble, with the khene as an essential instrument. Southern singers typically perform more than one genre, since their locales are less geographically isolated and somewhat similar in style. Furthermore, all lam genres have metrical accompaniments, but only three (tang vay, khon savan and mahaxay) have metrical vocal lines. Descending melodic contours dominate lam styles as well, with the exception of sithandone and som.

2. Classical music.

The term lao deum denotes the Lao classical tradition. Classical music was exclusive to the court in Luang Prabang until 1959, when the Lao Fine Arts School in Vientiane was established to train musicians, singers, dancers, actors and actresses. Since the fall of the monarchy in 1975, only the Vientiane school has kept the classical tradition alive. Virtually banned for several years after 1975 by the Pathet Lao communist government as a symbol of bourgeois decadence and arrogance, classical music was resurrected as a respectable state symbol from about 1990. In 1992 the Fine Arts School became the National School of Folkloric Music and Dance. Because classical music is now primarily preserved within this one institution, its existence remains somewhat precarious. The musicians and dancers from Luang Prabang resettled in Nashville, Tennessee, in 1975, but they were unable to keep the tradition alive. Some performers from Vientiane resettled in Paris, but they too no longer perform. However, a classical ensemble descended from the former principality of Champassak survives nearby as a village ensemble.

In classical music the Lao classify instruments into four groups: tit (plucked), si (bowed), ti (beaten) and pao (blown). The ‘beaten’ instruments include two xylophones, lanat ek and lanat thoum (higher- and lower-pitched, respectively), two circular gong-chimes, khong vong nyai (lower) and khong vong noi (higher), as well as rhythmic idiophones and membranophones. There are two ‘blown’ instruments, the pi kaeo quadruple-reed aerophone with bulbous body and the khoui vertical duct flute. Similarly, there are two ‘bowed’ instruments, the so i two-string fiddle with a cylindrical body and the so ou two-string fiddle with coconut-shell body. The classical ensemble includes no plucked instruments, but the Chinese-derived khim dulcimer is sometimes used.

Two ensembles predominate, each with different names according to location. The piphat (Vientiane) or sep nyai (Luang Prabang) consists of xylophones, circular gong-chimes and quadruple-reed instrument plus drums and cymbals. The maholi (Vientiane) or sep noi (Luang Prabang) denotes an ensemble whose makeup is flexible but normally includes melodic idiophones, bowed strings, flute and percussion. A khene is sometimes added to the maholi or sep noi to make the ensemble more Lao, but there is also a discrepancy between the seven half and whole steps of the khene and the nearly equidistant seven tones of the xylophones and circular gong-chimes. Lastly, the kheuang sai ensemble consists of the two so fiddles, dulcimer, flute and percussion.

While many Lao strive to define their classical tradition as distinct, outside observers note its close relationships to those of Cambodia and Thailand, especially in terms of repertory. While it has been argued that the Khmer strongly influenced Luang Prabang during the 14th century, recordings made there in the 1960s show closer relationships to the Thai tradition. All works are pre-composed but are rarely notated. There are no melodic accents, but main beats are articulated by small bronze or brass cymbals called sing and offbeats marked by larger, flatter cymbals called sap. The pitches coinciding with the accented strokes of the sing cymbals are the most significant in defining a work's structure; pitches coinciding with unaccented strokes are of lesser importance. The way these structural pitches are realized melodically depends on each instrument's individual idiom. The higher xylophone, for example, plays continuously in octaves while the lower circular gong-chime plays a less dense, less continuous version with secondary pitches at the 4th, 5th or octave. As in the Thai and Cambodian traditions, compositions are organized in cycles of beats marked by the sing and fixed, cyclic drum patterns. A given composition can be realized at three different levels of density, called sam san (third level), song san (second level), and san dio (first level) (Table 1). A composition that includes all three levels in sequence (third, second, first) is called peng thao. The level of virtuosity depends on the skill of the players. In general, Lao classical music is played more simply than the same compositions in Thailand.

table 1

Proportional relationships among the three tempo levels (san)

sam san

(one cycle)

song san

(two cycles)

san dio

(three cycles)

key:

accented stroke on sing cymbals

unaccented stroke

According to Mahoney's teachers (1995, p.64), Lao classical musicians classify compositions into three categories: laksana homlong, laksana moun seun and laksana sok sao. The first group, laksana homlong, include the most serious compositions, the so-called overtures, which are suites consisting of rigidly fixed, revered and spiritually-endowed pieces called peng naphat. Laksana homlong, however, also includes lighter works such as Peng Pae Sam Chan, by Thai composer Luang Pradit Phairau. These pieces are primarily played by the piphat ensemble during ceremonies, but similar repertory is also used to accompany the masked play (khon) and dance drama (lakhon), both of Thai derivation but altered to reflect Lao sensibilities. Laksana moun seun (‘happy, interesting’ compositions) are lighter, more melodious, and usually played by the maholi and kheuang sai ensembles. Laksana sok sao (‘sad songs’) include funereal pieces of the naphat type as well as miscellaneous compositions appropriate for sad occasions.

In the early 18th century, the unified Lao kingdom of Lan Xang split into the three principalities - Luang Prabang, Vientiane and Champassak, each maintaining its own classical music. Champassak declined, gradually becoming a Siamese vassal. Although the court and its accoutrements became extinct, its classical music survived among the musicians, who continued to live in nearby villages and taught the music to their sons. Remarkably, this tradition survives in a small piphat ensemble that in 1994 included seven musicians ranging in age from 18 to 83 who play xylophone, circular gong-chime, quadruple-reed aerophone, soprano recorder (in place of a khoui), a pair of barrel drums, a horizontal drum and small cymbals. The ensemble plays periodically for local festivals, especially the sacrificial buffalo feast held annually at nearby Vat Phu, an ancient Khmer temple ruin (fig.4).

3. Popular music.

Considering the light concentrations of population in both the capital and the small cities along the Mekong, as well as their relative poverty, the absence of a Lao popular tradition distinct from that of Thailand is not surprising. The Lao media remain low-powered, unable to dominate the country or compete with the media of Thailand, which reach inadvertently into most parts of Laos. Since the predominant popular music emanating from north-east Thailand also derives from its own Lao-Isan culture, the Lao of Laos find this music familiar and not at all Thai. Consequently, most popular music performed inside Laos is derived from the Lao-Isan genres called luk thung, popular songs derived from local styles, and lam sing, an upbeat, post-1989 repartee genre that blends traditional styles and instruments with electrified ones and a drum kit.

4. Musics of upland peoples.

The Lao classify their population into three groups: Lao Loum or lowland Lao; Lao Theung or mid-elevation dwelling Tai and Mon-Khmer speakers; and Lao Soung or high-elevation dwelling people, especially the Hmong and Yao. Lao Theung and Lao Soung are recent terms coined to replace the former (and pejorative) kha (‘slave’) classification. Although the population of Laos is modest at about five million, the number of differentiated ethnic groups is remarkable. Chazee (1995, p.6) lists by name 25 Tai-Kadai groups, one of which is the mainstream lowland Lao; 47 Austro-Asiatic groups; 5 Miao-Yao groups (including the Hmong); 26 Sino-Tibetan groups; and 16 others, including Burmese, Thai and Viet. Considering that mainstream Lao music itself is little studied, that Laos was closed to research from 1975 until 1990 and that most of the upland minority groups live in remote areas in the mountains or near the Vietnamese and Chinese borders, it is not surprising that little can be said at this point about their multitudinous musics.

Some upland Mon-Khmer (Austro-Asiatic) groups, such as the Loven, Lovae and Tau-oi in the Saravane area, have been acculturated into Lao society and perform a genre of lam in Lao (lam saravane). The Phou Thai style is imitated in the southern Lao genre called lam phou thai, and the music of the Lao Phouan (khap phouan) is also known, but little can be said with any certainty about the rest. Hmong music has been thoroughly documented among immigrant groups in the United States by Amy Catlin (see United States of America, §II, 5, (vi), (a)), and some anthropological studies of other groups have included sections on music, but it is difficult to state more than generalities. Although Chazee differentiates 119 ethnic groups, many are related linguistically, and it ought to be possible to reduce distinct musical types to a much lower number. Considering the paucity of people interested in Lao music, the difficulty of research and the lack of money to support any studies, attainment of this goal is unlikely in the near future. At the end of the 20th century, virtually no Lao scholars have the training or means to carry out this research.

The best-known upland people are the Hmong, called Miao in China, who after the Vietnam War migrated in large numbers to the United States, South America, Europe and elsewhere, bringing with them their much-noted needlework. Their major form of expression is poetry ‘sung’ in heightened speech according to lexical tones. Players of their main instrument, the gaeng free-reed mouth organ with six tubes (fig.5), imitate the same poems in a kind of surrogate speech. While many poems relate to daily life, the most important occasions for poetry and gaeng playing are the lunar New Year and funerals.

5. Buddhist music.

The chant and teaching practices of Theravāda Buddhism in Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Myanmar vary to greater or lesser extents. Ordinary Lao Buddhist chant is intoned in Pāli, an Indic sacred language, but sermons can be chanted (or sometimes nearly sung) in either Pāli or Lao. Chants in Lao are often local in style. One of the most important festivals, boun phavet, the chanting of the life of Prince Vetsandone (the penultimate life of the Buddha before enlightenment), occurs from late February to early March and can last up to three days. Lay people often sing salapan, Lao sacred poetry in stanza form sung to simple melodies. During the Vietnam War many Buddhist temples were destroyed by bombing; after 1975 Buddhism was temporarily suppressed, and many monks and other practitioners fled the country. At the end of the 20th century Buddhism had barely recovered from these events, leaving few to chant and preach.

6. Relationship with musics of north-east Thailand.

The majority of people in Thailand's north-east region speak Lao at home (locally called Isan). Until a government-backed development drive in the early 1970s brought Bangkok's modernization to what had been the country's most remote and poorest region, life in the north-east was not much different from that in pre-1975 Laos. With the collapse of the Lao economy following the communist coup d'état and the simultaneous modernization of Thailand stemming from its rapid economic growth and internationalization, the cultures of Isan and Laos diverged.

Before modernized Isan music surged in popularity during the 1980s, singers in southern Laos typically included the older Isan genres in their public performances. These included repartee singing called lam klawn in Isan or lam tat in Lao. Whereas most Lao genres are sung seated on the floor, Isan genres are sung standing (fig.6). A full performance consists of three sections, the first (lam thang san) beginning about 9 p.m. and lasting until about 5 a.m. Performed in metre using the san scale, each singer's portion begins with a tripartite introduction in speech rhythm, followed by the main poem in klawn form, i.e. four-line stanzas, each having seven main syllables with a required tone-mark pattern. This is followed by lam thang nyao, which lasts approximately 30 minutes and is sung in speech rhythm in the nyao scale. Without a break, the singers conclude with lam toei, also using the nyao scale but now in metre.

The second genre copied in Laos was derived from one of Isan's theatre types, lam pleun. Interestingly, while lam pleun has changed drastically in Isan through modernization and the replacement of traditional singing by luk thung pop songs, singers in Laos have preserved the original form of lam pleun but no longer in a theatrical context. Before 1975 Isan singers sometimes copied certain southern Lao genres and performed as well two local genres from near Mukdahan, lam phanya yoi and toei hua non tan, which were derived earlier from lam khon savan. After 1975 the presence of Lao singers in refugee camps in north-east Thailand brought a surge of interest in Lao styles to Thailand.

With the rise of the Isan-derived luk thung popular song since the 1960s, Isan's popular culture has come to appeal to Thai people of all regions and has penetrated Laos through the Thai media. Around 1989 a new traditionally-derived genre called lam sing quickly rose to popularity, threatening even the luk thung song genre. Lam sing (the name implies anything that is fast) incorporated repartee, khene accompaniment and some traditional song but also blended in a drum kit, rock combo instruments (including electrified phin lute), interspersed the performance with luk thung songs and often used central Thai language. Lam sing had immediate appeal to even Bangkok's youth and swept through the country. Lam sing performances may remain rare in Laos, but it is likely that only lack of money and equipment holds back the youth of Laos from adopting lam sing.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

GEWM, iv (‘Laos’, T. Miller)

P. Lefèvre-Pontalis: Chansons et fêtes du Laos, Collection de contes et chansons populaires, xxii (Paris, 1896)

J. Brengues: ‘Les Mo Lâm: La chanson au Laos’, Revue indo-chinoise, ii (1904), 588–92

C. Compton: Courting Poetry in Laos: a Textual and Linguistic Analysis (Dekalb, IL, 1979)

T. Miller and J. Chonpairot: ‘Review-Essay: the Problems of Lao Discography’, AsM, xi/1 (1979), 124–39

J. Mottin: 55 Chants d'amour Hmong Blanc (Bangkok, 1980)

H. Lundstrom: ‘Kammu Gongs and Drums’, Asian Folklore Studies, xl (1981), 173–89

K. Lindell and others: The Kammu Year: its Lore and Music (London, 1982)

A. Catlin: Music of the Hmong: Singing Voices and Talking Reeds (Providence, RI, 1983)

T. Miller: ‘The Survival of Lao Traditional Music in America’, Selected Reports, vi (1985), 99–110

T. Miller: Traditional Music of the Lao: Kaen Playing and Mawlum Singing in Northeast Thailand (Westport, CT, 1985)

J. Chonpairot: Lam Khon Sawan: a Vocal Genre of Southern Laos (diss., Kent State U., 1990)

K. Bond and K. Pathammavong: ‘Contexts of dontrii lao deum: Traditional Lao Music’, Selected Reports, ix (1992), 131–48

A. Catlin: ‘Homo Cantens: Why Hmong Sing during Interactive Courtship Rituals’, ibid., 43–60

C. Compton: ‘Traditional Verbal Arts in Laos: Functions, Forms, Continuities, and Changes in Texts, Contexts and Performances’, ibid., 149–60

J. Hartmann: ‘The Context, Text, and Performance of khap lue’, ibid., 33–42

T. Miller: ‘A Melody Not Sung: the Performance of Lao Buddhist Texts in Northeast Thailand’, ibid., 161–88

H. Rattanavong: ‘Music and Instruments in Laos: Historical Antecedents and the Democratic Revolution’, ibid., 193–202

L. Chazee: Atlas des ethnies et des sous-ethnies du Laos (Bangkok, 1995)

T. Mahoney: The White Parasol and the Red Star: the Laos Classical Music Culture in a Climate of Change (diss., UCLA, 1995)

recordings

Laos: Lam saravane - musique pour le khène, coll. J. Brunet, Ocora C 559 058 (1989)

Music from Southern Laos, perf. Molam Lao, Nimbus Records NI 5401 (1994)

Boua Xou Mua: the Music of the Hmong People of Laos, coll. A. Governar, Arhoolie CD 446 (1995)

Visions of the Orient: Music from Laos, perf. Nouthong Phimvilayphone, Amiata Records ARNR 0195 (1995)

Bamboo Voices: Folk Music from Laos, Latitudes LAT 50601 (1997)

Laparra, Raoul

(b Bordeaux, 13 May 1876; d Suresnes, 4 April 1943). French composer. Born into an artistic family, he studied with Gédalge, Fauré, Lavignac and Diémer although his music, with its constant reference to Spanish dance, must surely owe a lot to Albéniz. He was awarded the Prix de Rome in 1903 for his cantata Alyssa, although Fauré spoke vehemently against the work. Ravel admired him, however, not least for his elegant command of the Basque language and his detailed knowledge of Spanish music, demonstrated in his extensive article ‘La musique et la danse populaire en Espagne’ (EMDC, I/iv, 1920, pp.2353–2400), unparalleled in its time. His early career was mostly devoted to opera. He also made a substantial contribution to the mélodie, composing songs throughout his life. As well as setting texts of his own, he returned several times to the poetry of Baudelaire and Verlaine.

In his operas and instrumental music, Laparra writes vivid Spanish pastiche, with many different kinds of dance and cante jondo. Many of the short suites of piano pieces are closely based on dance forms and scales drawn from the different regions of Spain; modal melodies, often with a flattened second, are set against simple harmony and pedal points. In the late 1920s several of the suites appeared in piano-conductor arrangements for the accompaniment of silent films. His most ambitious non-operatic work is the Poème for piano and orchestra, subtitled ‘Une dimanche basque’, which was commissioned by the Boston SO. Each of the four sections is preceded by a spoken narration which describes the scene evoked by the music; the piano plays more of an orchestral than a soloistic role.

Two of Laparra’s operas, La habanera (1908) and La jota (1911), have dance scenes built into the librettos and deal with Latin concepts of honour and revenge. Le joueur de viole (1925) abandons the Spanish settings in favour of an allegory, in which a luthier has been trying to make an instrument where each of the four strings represents one of the seasons. His son overtakes him in the project, producing an instrument on which the strings represent the joys and trials of life. In style, Laparra’s music looks back to Massenet, absorbing few of the innovations of the earlier part of the century. His book Bizet et l’Espagne (Paris, 1934) contains a critical examination of the Spanish elements in Carmen, but his study of Spanish music remains his most important contribution to musicology. Laparra met an untimely death during an air-raid.

WORKS

operas

Peau d’âne, 1899, Bordeaux, Grand, 3 Feb 1899

La habanera (drame lyrique, prol, 3), Paris, OC (Favart), 26 Feb 1908

La jota (conte lyrique, 2), Paris, OC (Favart), 26 April 1911

Le joueur de viole (4, Laparra), Paris, OC (Favart), 24 Dec 1925

Las torreras (zar, 1, after T. de Molina), Lille, Grand, 17 Jan 1929

Amphityron, 1929

L’illustre Frégona (zar, 3, Laparra, after M. de Cervantes), 1931, Paris, Opéra, 16 Feb 1931

vocal

1v, pf, unless otherwise stated

Matinée de Provence, vv, orch, unpubd, F-Pn; Bien loin d’ici (C. Baudelaire), 1v, fl, pf/hp; La chasse au furet, 2vv (1902); Des pas de sabots (L. Prieur) (1902); Alyssa (légende irlandaise, M. Coiffier, Eugène Adenis), solo vv, orch (1904); Lieds de notre amour (Laparra), 10 songs (1905); Dans une villa romaine (1906); Nuages (Laparra) (1906); Le temps a laissé son manteau (C. d’Orléans) (1906); La bonne chanson (P. Verlaine) (1907); A San Lorenzo; Lettre à une espagnole; Le papillon passionné; Propos d’avril (Laparra) (1907); Tristesse (A. de Musset) (1907); La chanson de mon tout-petit (R. Dieudonnée) (1909); Un grand sommeil noir (Verlaine) (1909); Matinale (Laparra) (1909)

2 mélodies (P. Géraldy) (1910); 16 mélodies sur des thèmes populaires d’Espagne (1920); Chanson des Cyclades (1926); Chants de la mer et des villages (P. Fort), 14 songs (1926); Jeux printaniers en l’honneur de ma bien-aimée (J. Heugel), 6 songs (1926); Le Missel chantant (old Fr. poems), 96 songs in 8 vols. (1926); Les nains (Laparra, after Breton legend) (1926); L’amour par terre (1927); L’attente (after P. Loti) (1927); Comme hier (Fort) (1927); Femme et chatte (1927); Les hiboux (Baudelaire) (1927); Pastels (P. Verlaine), 7 mélodies (1927); Les pirates (V. Hugo) (1927); Chants des jardins (Comtesse de Noailles) (1929); Chant de Chloé, Le fruitier de septembre, Jardin près de la mer (Comtesse de Noailles) (1931)

Vocal exercises in P.A. Tissié, ed.: L’éducation physique (Paris, 1903)

instrumental

Orch: Suite ancienne en marge de Don Quichotte, vn/va, orch/pf (1921); Poème (Un dimanche basque), pf, orch (1922); Eternal silence, salon orch (1926); Au jeu de pelote, salon orch (1929); Suite italienne en forme de ballet, tpt, orch (1929); Rythmes espagnols (1932) [orch of hp pieces]

Chbr: Soledad au mirador, vn, pf; Romance, vn, pf; L’arche de Noë, vn, pf; Le livre de l’Aurore, fl/vn, pf (1926); Cuadros, scènes d’Espagne, vn, pf (1927), also arr. pf; Prélude valsé et Irish Reel, cl, pf (1927)

Pf: A sept ans (1885); 3 valses (1896), Valse lente (1906); Souvenirs de jeunesse, 8 pieces (1913); Scènes ibériennes, 8 pieces (1924); Lore Dantzariak (Les fleurs qui dansent), 10 pieces, 4 hands (1927); Pages d’Espagne, 10 pieces (1927); [4] Pièces espagnoles à danser (1927); Suite, 12 pieces (1927); Vueltas (Girations) (1928); Paseos, 5 pièces espagnoles (1929); Sueños, 5 pieces (1930); Corrida de muerte; Gitaneras, Juergas

Other solo inst: Rythmes espagnols, 4 pieces, chromatic hp (1914), orchd (1932)

MSS in F-Pn

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Rebois: Les grands prix de Rome de musique (Paris, 1932)

P. le Flem: ‘G. Dupont, R. Laparra, F. Casadesus, Marcel Samuel-Rousseau’, Le théâtre lyrique en France (Paris, 1937–9), iii, 163–71 [pubn of Poste Nationale/Radio-Paris]

P. Landormy: La musique française après Debussy (Paris, 1943)

P. Bertrand: Le monde de la musique (Geneva, 1947)

G. Samazeuilh: Musiciens de mon temps (Paris, 1947)

J.V. Gonzalez Valle: ‘La jota aragonesa en la música romántica más allá de neustras fronteras’, Aragón en el mundo, ed. G. Fatas (Zaragoza, 1988), 353–63

B. Pouradier Duteil: Les musiciens et les Hauts-de-Seine (Paris, 1991)

RICHARD LANGHAM SMITH

Lap dulcimer.

See Appalachian dulcimer.

Lapicida [Steinschneider], Erasmus [Rasmo]

(b c1440–45; d Vienna, 19 Nov 1547). Composer. He may have been at least 100 years of age when he died at the Schottenkloster in Vienna. In 1510 he was appointed court composer in Elector Ludwig V’s Hofkapelle in Heidelberg, a position he retained for about ten years. During this period he came into contact with Andreas Ornithoparchus who included Lapicida in his list of recognized composers in Musicae activae micrologus (Leipzig, 1517). In 1521 Lapicida was granted a benefice in the Schottenkloster, Vienna, by Archduke Ferdinand Karl of Austria, where he remained until his death. Here he met Joseph Zanger who recorded a dispute between Lapicida, Arnold von Bruck and Stephan Mahu in his Practicae musicae praecepta (Leipzig, 1554).

Lapicida’s output consists primarily of motets and lieder that are transmitted in German as well as Italian sources. Several of his works survive in publications by Petrucci. These include four motets, a setting of Lamentations, the frottola La pietà ha chiusa le porte and a four-voice textless composition entitled ‘Tandernaken’. The frottola combines the superius of Cara’s Pietà, cara signora with the superius of Tromboncino’s La pietà chiuso which becomes the tenor of the combinative piece. At Heidelberg, Lapicida composed the four-voice motet Sacerdos et pontifex. The work is dedicated to Bernhard Cles, secretary to Maximilian I and a member of the Habsburg court, and celebrates Cles’s installation as Bishop of Trent in 1515. All three parts of the motet are based on a soggetto cavato derived from the words ‘Bernardus Clesius episcopus tridentinus dignus est’. Other details concerning the work and its connections with Cles suggest that Lapicida may have come from Trent and not from Venice or the Netherlands as has been postulated. This would help to explain the presence of his works in both German and Italian sources. His contact with composers active in Italy (many of them Franco-Flemish) at the turn of the 16th century may also explain the use of a variety of contrapuntal techniques, such as systematized tenor patterns, imitation, stretti and other devices that distinguish Lapicida’s music from the more melody-dominated, homophonic style of his Heidelberg contemporaries. Even the texts of his lieder seem to have fallen under the influence of the Italian courtly love lyric with amatory subjects preferred over those of the moralizing variety.

WORKS

for 4 voices unless otherwise stated

sacred

Ave regina celorum, I-Fn; Benedictus Dominus, 1506²; Efferor ad manus, D-Rp; Gloriosi principes terrae/Petrus apostolus, 5vv, I-Fl, ed. in MRM, iv (1968); Lamentatio Jeremiae, 3vv, 1506²; Nativitas tua, Dei genetrix, 1505², ed. in SCMot, iii (1991); Sacerdos et pontifex, I-TRa; Veni electa mea, 1538⁸, ed. in G. Rhau: Musikdrucke, iii (1959); Virgo prudentissima, 1505², ed. in SCMot, iii (1991)

secular

German songs: Ach edles N, 1539²⁷; Die mich erfrewt, 1539²⁷; Es lebt mich hertz, 1519⁵, 1539²⁷; Gut ding muss haben weil, 1539²⁷; Ich hoff es sey vast wol müglich, 1539²⁷; Nie grösser lieb, CH-SAM, 1539²⁷, ed. E. Gamble, Renaissance Lieder (University Park, PA, 1964); O hertzigs S, SAM, 1539²⁷, all ed. in DTÖ, lxxii, Jg.xxxvii/2 (1930/R), EDM, 1st ser., xx (1942/R); Tandernaken, 1504³, ed. in DTÖ, lxxii, Jg.xxxvii/2 (1930/R)

La pietà ha chiusa le porte, 1509²

textless, c1536¹⁴

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

FétisB

GerberNL

MGG1 (O. Wessely)

ReeseMR

RiemannL12

WaltherML

L. Nowak: ‘Das deutsche Gesellschaftslied in Österreich von 1480 bis 1550’, SMw, xvii (1930), 21–52

H. Federhofer: ‘Biographische Beiträge zu Erasmus Lapicida und Stephan Mahu’, Mf, v (1952), 37–46

O. Wessely: ‘Ein unbekannter Brief von Erasmus Lapicida’, Musikerziehung, viii (1954–5), 38–40

O. Wessely: ‘Neues zur Lebensgeschichte von Erasmus Lapicida’, AÖAW, xcii (1955), 85–93

O. Wessely: ‘Neue Beiträge zur Lebensgeschichte von Erasmus Lapicida’, KJb, xli (1957), 16–19

G. Pietzsch: Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der Musik am kurpfälzischen Hof zu Heidelberg bis 1622 (Mainz, 1963)

O. Wessely: ‘Hofkapellmitglieder und andere Musiker in den Preces-Registern Ferdinands I’, Speculum musicae artis: Festgabe für Heinrich Husmann, ed. H. Becker and R. Gerlach (Munich, 1970), 313–24

L. Finscher: ‘Der Medici Kodex: Geschichte und Edition’, Mf, xxx (1977), 246–81 [review of E.E. Lowinsky, The Medici Codex of 1518]

W.F. Prizer: Courtly Pastimes: the Frottole of Marchetto Cara (Ann Arbor, 1981)

S. Keyl: Arnolt Schlick and Instrumental Music circa 1500 (diss., Duke U., 1989)

SUSAN FORSCHER WEISS

La Pierre, Louis-Maurice de

(b Versailles, 17 Feb 1697; d Lunéville, 1 Jan 1753). French composer. He is first heard of as composer of an air published in the Ballard collection of 1722, and of two books of cantatas dated 1728. From 1729 he was in the service of Stanislas, the Duke of Lorraine and exiled King of Poland, at Chambord, and in 1737 he became Stanislas’s surintendant de la musique in Lorraine. He married Thérèse Salcenska, lady-in-waiting to the Queen of Poland, in Lunéville in February 1744. They had a son in May 1749; La Pierre died four years later and was buried in the Capuchin church at Lunéville.

Besides cantatas and cantatilles, La Pierre wrote a motet, some instrumental pieces and two stage works, divertissements for the celebration of the name days of the King and Queen of Poland. His music, characterized by graceful melodies and competent workmanship, has a certain surface charm. The cantatas show the influence of Lully.

WORKS

Stage: Divertissement pour le jour de la fête du Roy de Pologne, duc de Lorraine et de Bar (de Solignac), before 1740, music lost; Pastorale pour le jour de la feste de la Reine de Pologne, duchesse de Lorraine et de Bar (divertissement, de Solignac), solo vv, 4vv, insts, bc, 24 Nov 1740, F-Pc

Vocal: En amour la ruze est permise, air, 1v, bc, in Recueil d’airs serieux et à boire (Paris, 1722); Cantates françaises, 1–2vv, insts, bc, 2 bks, 1728, formerly H. Prunières’ private collection; 4 cantatilles, 1v, insts: L’amant vainqueur (Paris, 1748), L’inconstance (Paris, 1748), Danaé (Paris, n.d.), La pudeur (Paris, n.d.); Veni creator spiritus, motet, solo vv, 4vv, insts, bc, April 1752, Pc

Inst: Conc., G, 4 insts; Sonata, a, 2 vn, bc; Sonata, G, 2 fl, bc: all formerly H. Prunières’ private collection; Prélude, menuet, musette, tambourin, 1743, lost

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Mercure de France (Dec 1740); (March, 1743)

H. Prunières: ‘Notes sur un musicien oublié, Louis-Maurice de la Pierre’, RdM, ii (1920–21), 71–4

M. Antoine: ‘Notes sur les violonistes Anet’, RMFC, ii (1961–2), 81–94

D. Tunley: The Eighteenth-Century French Cantata (London, 1974, 2/1997)

VIVIEN LO

La Pierre, Paul de

(b Avignon, bap. 7 Jan 1612; d Turin, 1689). French composer, violinist and dancing-master. In 1640 he appeared in the Ballet du bureau des adresses performed before the Duke of Enghien at Dijon. He was a violinist in Avignon in 1641, together with his father Jean, and in 1643 he settled in Montpellier, where he was in charge of the violin band until 1661, taking part in numerous performances in Nîmes, Béziers, Narbonne and Pézenas. He collaborated with Molière on the Ballet des incompatibles while the Etats Généraux were in session in Montpellier in 1654–5. In 1660 he and his brother Guillaume took the band of violins and hautbois to Turin to participate in the marriage celebrations of Princess Margherita of Savoy. They both settled there in 1662, and Paul became director of the Avignon violin band (1672) and dancing-master to the king (1662) and to several members of his court. Between 1662 and 1689 he composed most of the dance tunes for ballets and operas performed at the court of Savoy. A manuscript (1665–70) preserved in the Bibliothèque Méjanes, Aix en Provence, includes two bourrées attributed to Paul de La Pierre. He was granted a pension in 1685, but continued to write choreographies and musical interludes (none of which survive) for the operas Amore vendicato by Carisio (1688), Leonida in Sparta by Sebenico (1689) and Silvio, re degli Albani by Domenico Gabrielli (1689); these were his last choreographic collaborations with his son Paolo. He married his second wife, Maddalena Lajarde, in 1639 (the marriage to his first wife was annulled in 1637). With Maddalena he had at least 11 children, including Paolo. Most of his sons were violinists, dancers and composers in Turin.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Baluffe: ‘Un camarade de Molière: La Pierre, chanteur-chorégraphe’, Autour de Molière (Paris, 1889), 183–202

J. Robert: ‘Une famille de “joueurs de violon” avignonnais au XVIIe siècle: les de La Pierre’, RMFC, iv (1964), 54–68

M.-T. Bouquet-Boyer: Turin et les musiciens de la Cour, 1619–1775: Vie quotidienne et production artistique (diss., U. of Paris IV (Paris-Sorbonne), (1987)

MARIE-THÉRÈSE BOUQUET-BOYER

Lapis [Lapi, Lappi], Santo [Sante]

(b Bologna; fl 1725–64). Italian composer. According to archival documents (I-Baf, Bas) he studied in Bologna at the S Onofrio conservatory and in 1720 was admitted to the Accademia Filarmonica as an organist. He probably left Bologna after 1724. He wrote the first two acts of the three-act dramma, La generosità di Tiberio (the third act was by Cordans) to a libretto by Minato, performed at the Teatro S Cassiano, Venice, in autumn 1729; and he partly reset Francesco Gasparini’s L’amor generoso as La fede in cimento, performed during Carnival 1730, again at the S Cassiano. In 1732 he composed a cantata, Le nozze di Psiche e Cupido, for a celebration at S Marco. In 1739 he may have been in Prague, where part of the music for a production of Ginevra (libretto by Antonio Salvi) was ascribed to him. He lived in the Netherlands from about 1752 to 1756, in 1754 presenting his opera L’infelice avventurato, probably in Amsterdam (the score was once in Breitkopf’s possession). Lapis seems to have been in London in 1758–60, when some instrumental music and songs by him were published there. The last record places him in Edinburgh, as harpsichordist of a visiting Italian intermezzo company which performed Pergolesi’s La serva padrona in June 1763. He may have gone with the same company to York in October 1763 and to Dublin in the spring of 1764.

La Popelinière, Alexandre-Jean-Joseph Le Riche de.

See La Pouplinière, Alexandre-Jean-Joseph Le Riche de.

Laporte, André

(b Oplinter, Brabant, 12 July 1931). Belgian composer. He studied with Peeters (organ) and De Jong (counterpoint) at the Lemmens Institute, Mechelen, where he won the Lemmens-Tinel Award for organ composition in 1958. He studied musicology and philosophy at the Katholieke Universiteit in Leuven (1953–7). He attended the Darmstadt summer courses from 1960 and the Cologne courses in new music (1960–65), during which he had contact with Boulez, Maderna, Berio, Ligeti, Stockhausen, Kagel and Gielen. From 1974 to 96 he taught theory and composition at the Brussels Conservatory. He was head of production at Flemish Radio and TV (1979–89) and artistic director of the BRTN RPO (1989–96). Since 1971 he has been president of the Belgian section of the ISCM.

He received numerous distinctions for his compositions, for example the Koopal award from the Belgian Ministry of Culture (1971, 1976) and the Prix Italia for his oratorio La vita non è sogno (Bologna, 1976). His opera Das Schloss, based on Kafka, was first performed at the La Monnaie Theatre in Brussels in 1986; a subsequent performance took place in Saarbrücken in 1991. His Fantasia rondino for violin and orchestra was the set piece for the 1989 Queen Elisabeth Competition. He is the jury member for several international competitions.

His eclectic musical style developed from a simple to a complex use of 12-note and other techniques. There is a strong narrative element and frequent allusions to and quotations from contemporary music.

WORKS

(selective list)

Op: Das Schloss (3, Laporte, after M. Brod’s adaptation of F. Kafka: The Castle), 1985, Brussels, La Monnaie, 16 Dec 1986

Orat: La vita non è sogno (S. Quasimodo, F.T. Marinetti), T, B, nar, chorus, orch, 1972

Orch: Nachtmusik, 1970; 2 suites, 1977–8; Transit, 48 str, 1979; Fantasia rondino, vn, orch, 1998; Fantasia-rondino con tema reale, vn, orch, 1988; De ekster op de galg [The Magpie on the Gallows] (concert ov., after Breughel), 1989

Chbr and solo inst: Jubilus, brass, perc, 1966; Ascension, pf, 1967; Story, vn, va, vc, hpd, 1967; Inclinations, fl, 1968; Reflections, cl, 1970

Vocal: Le morte chitarre (Quasimodo), T, fl, str, 1969; Testamento de Otoño (P. Neruda), Bar, hp, str, 1990

Principal publishers: Tonos, Chester, Gerig, Breitkopf und Härtel, CeBeDeM

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Heughebaert: ‘Ontmoetingen met Vlaamse komponisten: André Laporte’, Vlaams muziektijdschrift (1970), Aug–Sept, pp.195–203

A. Laporte: ‘“La vita non è sogno”’, Vlaams muziektijdschrift (1972), Aug–Sept

H. Sabbe: ‘De Vlaamse componist André Laporte: overzicht van een evolutie’, Mens en melodie, xxvii (1972)

G. Mortier, ed.: Le château (Brussels, 1986) [essays on Das Schloss]

H. Sabbe: ‘André Laporte: Mimus eclecticus’, Brussels, Théâtre La Monnaie, 16 Dec 1986, pp.21–36 [Das Schloss programme book]

M. Delaere, Y. Knockaert and H. Sabbe: Nieuwe muziek in Vlaanderen (Bruges, 1998)

CORNEEL MERTENS/DIANA VON VOLBORTH-DANYS

Laporte, Joseph de

(b Belfort, 1713; d Paris, 19 Dec 1779). French writer. He left the Jesuit order, in which he was educated, and devoted himself to the literature, theatre, and opera of Paris. He wrote a comedy and two librettos for Leclair, translated the works of Pope, edited literary periodicals and contributed to the Mercure de France; his published work consists chiefly of anthologies and chronicles of the Paris theatres, with valuable details of plays and operas, authors, performers and receipts.

WRITINGS

only those relating to music included

Almanach historique et chronologique de tous les spectacles de Paris, i (1752); Nouveau calendrier historique des théâtres de l'opéra et des comédies françoise et italienne et des foires, ii (1753); Spectacles de Paris, ou Suite du Calendrier historique et chronologique des théâtres, iii–xxvii (1754–78) [continued after 1778 by Duchesne and others]

with J.B.A. Suard: Nouveaux choix de pièces tirées des anciens Mercures et des autres journeaux, lx–cviii (Paris, 1762–4)

L'esprit de l'‘Encyclopédie’, ou Choix des articles les plus curieux (Geneva and Paris, 1768)

with J.-M. Clément: Anecdotes dramatiques (Paris, 1775/R)

with S.R.N. Chamfort: Dictionnaire dramatique (Paris, 1776/R)

2 libs for J.-M. Leclair: Le danger des épreuves, 1749; Apollon et Climène, 2nd entrée in Les amusements lyriques, 1750

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

MGG1 (M. Briquet)

L.G. Michaud: ‘Porte (L’Abbé Joseph de la)’, Biographie universelle ancienne et moderne, ed. L.G. Michaud and E.E. Desplaces (Paris, 2/1843–65/R)

JULIAN RUSHTON

La Pouplinière [La Popelinière], Alexandre-Jean-Joseph Le Riche de

(b Chinon, Limousin, 26 July 1693; d Paris, 5 Dec 1762). French patron of music, art and literature. The son of a financier, he became a lawyer and later fermier général. The many poets, artists and musicians he befriended include Voltaire, Marmontel, the Van Loos and La Tours, Rameau and Rousseau. From about 1731 he held frequent concerts in his Paris mansion (opposite what is now the Bibliothèque Nationale) and his country estate at Passy. Up to 1753 La Pouplinière's excellent orchestra performed Rameau's own compositions under his direction, as well as those of Mondonville, and other Frenchmen and Italians; La Pouplinière developed a particular fondness for these last. J.W.A. Stamitz and Gossec later assumed the direction of the orchestra. Though not an accomplished performer, La Pouplinière played the hurdy–gurdy and guitar and composed airs (some incorporated by Rameau; see Cucuël, 288–9). A portrait of him by Carle Van Loo shows him seated holding a flute. Rameau's ‘La La Poplinière’ from his Pièces de clavecin en concerts (1741) pays tribute either to his devoted friend and patron or to his patron's first wife, Thérèse Des Hayes, an accomplished harpsichordist and pupil of Rameau.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Cucuel: La Pouplinière et la musique de chambre au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1913/R)

C. Girdlestone: Jean-Philippe Rameau: his Life and Work (London, 1957, 2/1969)

M. Benoit: Dictionnaire de la musique en France aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (Paris, 1992)

MARY CYR

Lappi, Pietro

(b Florence, c1575; d Brescia, 1630). Italian composer. He became a member of the Congregazione Fiesolana, a religious order, and spent his working life as maestro di cappella of the Madonna delle Grazie, Brescia, from about 1593 until his death. His works, whether vocal or instrumental, are all for church use. They span the period of transition from the polyphonic to the concertato style, though he tended to adhere to the former, and only one or two of his collections include motets for the more intimate scorings of the new style. Working in Brescia he was in contact with the school of instrumental musicians and instrument makers that flourished in that city. He produced a volume of canzonas in 1616 as well as contributing three others to an anthology of 1608 and including six sinfonias in his own 1614 motet collection. Like several composers at this period he sought to demonstrate his mastery of both old and new styles in the same publication: the masses of 1613 comprise two which can be sung without organ and three ‘concertate a voci sole nell’organo’. The latter have more quaver movement, chordal writing and dotted rhythms in melismatic solos. The motets of 1614 show that Lappi was concerned with problems of musical form, trying out ternary and rondo schemes, with alternating solos and tuttis, while the Compline music for three and four choirs (1621) fuses antiphonal writing with the new ripieno concept of the mixed concertato. But the hymns of 1628 hark back to the previous century: he set alternate verses only and paraphrased the plainsong in a polyphonic idiom, and only the last verse of each setting is in a simple chordal style in triple time.

WORKS

all except anthologies published in Venice

Sacra omnium solemnitatum vespertina psalmodia cum 3 BVM canticis, 8vv, bc (1600)

Missarum, 8vv, liber I (1601; 2/1607 with bc) [contains 2 motets]

Regis Davidis psalmi ad Vesperas, 5vv, ut hymnus Gloria … 9vv ad lib, regiae virginis deiparae cantica alternis choris, 9–10vv (1605)

La terza con il Te Deum e letanie della Beata Vergine et santi, 8vv (1607)

[5] Missarum, 8–9vv, liber II (1608)

[5] Missarum, 4–6vv, bc (org), liber I (1613)

[10] Sacrae melodiae, 1–6vv, una cum symphoniis e bc (org), liber I (1614, enlarged 2/1621, further enlarged 3/1622)

Canzoni da suonare, a 4–13, libro I, op.9 (1616)

Salmi, 8vv (1616)

Salmi a 3 e 4 chori, bc (org), op.12 (1621; 2/1626 as Compieta a 3 e 4 chori) [includes 1 Mag]

Concerti sacri, 1–7vv, bc, libro II, op.13 (1623)

Messe secondo libro, 4–6vv, op.14 (1624)

Missa et responsorii, op.15 (1625)

Letanie della Beatae Virgine, 4–8vv, bc ad lib, libro II, op.17 (1627)

Salmi concertati, 5vv, bc (org), op.18 (1627)

[30] Hymni per tutto l’anno, 4vv, bc (org) (1628)

Rosario musicale: una messa a 2 cori con terzo coro aggiunto, salmi, litanie, motetti, canzone (1629)

Salmi spezzati, 4vv, bc, op.22 (1630)

5 masses, 1618², 1628²; 2 motets, 1612², 1623²; several pieces in Tripartus SS. concentuum fasciculus (Frankfurt, 1621); 3 canzonas, 1608²⁴

Motets, D-Bsb, RUS-KA; MS fragments, D-Mbs

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Roche: ‘Musica diversa di Compietà: Compline and its Music in Seventeenth-Century Italy’, PRMA, cix (1982–3), 60–79

J. Roche: North Italian Church Music in the Age of Monteverdi (Oxford, 1984)

JEROME ROCHE/ELIZABETH ROCHE

Lapp [Lappish] music.

See Sámi music.

Lap steel guitar.

See Pedal steel guitar.

Laquement, Jean.

See Dubuisson, (2).

Lara (Aguirre del Pino), Agustín

(b Mexico City, 30 Oct 1897; d Mexico City, 6 Nov 1970). Mexican songwriter. He probably composed around 700 songs, although only 420 are documented, and created a very personal style of composition that transformed urban song in Mexico and strongly influenced those of Latin America and Spain. He had no academic training, but assimilated diverse musical legacies such as the habanera, danzón, tango, foxtrot and, above all, the trova yucateca (through Guty Cárdenas) and the strongly syncopated Cuban bolero in 2/4. He converted this last style into 4/4, allowing the words to be sung without straight dependence on the rhythm. Through his lyrics he influenced popular sensibility and later composers. He used all the popular genres of his time, notably the tango (Arráncame la vida), traditional Mexican song (Xochimilco and Janitzio), waltz (Farolito, Rival, Noche de ronda and María Bonita) and ranchera songs (Aquel amor and Se me hizo fácil). His songs of Spanish genres (Granada, Madrid, Clavel sevillano and Cuerdas de mi guitarra) gained international success, but above all, his boleros (Imposible, Rosa, Aventurera, Santa, Mujer, Oración Caribe, Noche criolla, Veracruz, Palmera, Nadie and Solamente una vez) took on an original Mexican character. He sustained a remarkable public presence from 1930 until his death, through his radio programmes, work in the theatre (for which he composed the revue El pájaro de oro, 1946), the dissemination of his repertory through singers in Mexico and abroad and the regular use of his songs in films.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D. Castañeda: Balance de Agustín Lara (México, 1940)

P.I. Taibo: Agustín Lara (México, 1985)

Y. Moreno Rivas: Historia de la música popular mexicana (México, 1989)

A. Pineda: ‘La evolución del bolero urbano en Agustín Lara’, Heterofonía, nos. 102–3 (1990), 4–23

EDUARDO CONTRERAS SOTO

Lara, Kozma

(b Durrës, 10 June 1930). Albanian composer, pianist and teacher. After early piano lessons in Durrës, he studied at the Jordan Misja Art Lyceum, Tirana (1947–9), subsequently working as a pianist for the Ensemble of the People's Army (1950–53) and at the Opera (1953–5). He also taught the piano at the Durrës elementary music school. He then resumed his studies at the Moscow Conservatory (1959–61), and, after Albania's breach with the USSR, at the newly-founded Tirana Conservatory with Zadeja (1962–4). He was head of the music department at the Ministry of Education and Culture (1964–9), head of composition at the Tirana Conservatory (1969–74) and professor of harmony and analysis at the Durrës elementary music school (1974–8). In 1978 he returned to teach at the Tirana Conservatory. From 1992 to 1997 he served as music secretary of the Albanian Union of Artists and Writers.

Committed to the enrichment of the Albanian piano literature, Lara looked for his stylistic models to Romantic composers from Chopin (the four Ballads, c1976–9) to Rachmaninoff (Piano Concerto no.5, 1990), although he has sometimes cleverly introduced folk or (as in the Piano Concerto no.2, 1972) political songs. His mastery of large-scale development is evident in such works as the Symphony (1965), while his ballet Fatosi partizan (1967) ranks among the most successful Albanian works in the genre. After 1991, Lara modified his writing towards a felicitous and elegant blend of post-romanticism and neo-classicism in works like Suite and Ekspresion (1999).

WORKS

(selective list)

Dramatic: Ylli partizan [The Partisan Star] (operetta, 1, F. Hoxha), ?1957; Ditë pranvere [Spring Days] (operetta, 1, Hoxha), ?1958; Fatosi partizan [The Boy Partisan] (ballet, 2, P. Kanaçi), Tirana, Theatre of Opera and Ballet, 27 Oct 1967; 3 film scores

Vocal: Atdheu i moçëm dhe i ri [Fatherland Old and Modern], (cant.), ?mixed chorus, orch, before 1982; Partisë, (cant.), ?solo vv, ?mixed chorus, orch, before 1982; 2 children's songs, 1 female v, small chorus, orch, 1982: Kemi ardhur në aksion [We Came to Work as Volunteers] (V. Allmuça), Në shtigjet partizane [On Partisan Paths]; Qershori i pushimeve [June, Month of Vacations] (X. Jorganxhi), 1v, small chorus, 1983; Ti je maj që lulëzon [You are like May in Blossom] (B. Londo), 1 female v, orch, 1983; Nga Vlora gjer në Klos [From Vlora to Klos] (V. Nelaj), chorus, orch, 1986; Duke dalë nga errësira [Coming out of Darkness] (F. Arapi), 7 songs, S/T, pf, 1990; Rrjedhin e shkojnë vargjet e mia [Flow and Vanish my Verses] (A. Blok), S, pf, 1998; c15 other songs for S/T, pf

Orch: Sym., 1965; Ditë feste [Day of Festivity] (Suite no.1), 1968; Vn Conc. no.1, D, 1971; Rhapsody no.1, pf, orch, 1972; Rinisë [To Youth] (Suite no.2), 1972; 3 Dances, 1973; Pf Conc. no.1, D, 1975; Rhapsody no.2, pf, orch, ?1975; Pf Conc. no.2, e, 1976; Vn Conc. no.2, C, 1977; Vallë [Dance], 1977; Vallë, fl, orch, 1979; Albanian Dance, F, ?1980; Suite, A, pf, orch, ?1982; Pjesë [Piece], str, 1982; Fantasia, e, pf, orch, 1982; Ob Conc., e, 1982; Suite no.1, fl, orch, perf. 1983; Rhapsody no.3, pf, orch; Rhapsody no.4, pf, orch, 1984; Pf Conc. no.4, d, 1985; Suite, ?1985; Suite no.2, fl, orch, perf. 1986; Suite, str, d, 1989; Pf Conc. no.5, e, 1990

Chbr: Capriccio, fl, pf, ?1968; Poemë, vc, pf, 1982; 4 pieces, fl, pf, ?1985; Rondo, vc, pf, 1986; Str Qt no.1, g, 1988; Improvizim [Improvization], vc, pf, 1988; Vallë, vn, pf, 1988; Improvizim, fl, pf, 1995; Sonata, vn, pf, 1997; Str Qt no.2, 1998; Suite, fl, pf, 1998; Ekspresion [Expression], vc, pf, 1999; Duet, fl, vc, 2000

Pf: Ditë të gëzuara [Happy Days], album of 12 pieces for children, 1960s; Sonata no.1, e, ?1964; Sonata no.2, e, 1974; Sonata no.3, C, 1974 or after; Album no.1, ?1974; Album no.2, 24 pieces, ?1974–5; 4 Ballads: ?1976, ?1977, ?1978, ?1979; 25 pedagogic pieces, 1983–4; Sonata no.4, e, ?1987/?1988; Album no.3, 17 pieces, ?1985–90; Sonata no.5, perf. 1993; Sonata no.6, 1996; Album no.4, 24 pieces, ?1997; 8 Preludes, 1997; Several Dances; 3 early Preludes; Theme and Variations [on a folk theme]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Kalemi: Arritjet e artit tonë muzikor: vepra dhe krijues të muzikës Shqiptare [Achievements of our musical art: creations and creators of Albanian music] (Tirana, 1982)

Historia e muzikës Shqiptare [A history of Albanian music] (Tirana, 1984–5)

GEORGE LEOTSAKOS

Lara, Manuel Manrique de.

See Manrique de Lara, Manuel.

Larbi, Emmanuel Gyimah.

See Labi, Emmanuel Gyimah.

Larchet, John F(rancis)

(b Dublin, 13 July 1884; d Dublin, 10 Aug 1967). Irish composer and educator. He received his early music education at the Royal Irish Academy of Music, where he studied with Michele Esposito. He took the BMus (1915) and DMus (1917) at the University of Dublin and in 1920 he was appointed to the Staff of the RIAM, where he succeeded Esposito as senior professor of composition, harmony and counterpoint. Larchet was director of music at the Abbey Theatre, Dublin, from 1907 to 1934, where his responsibilities included writing incidental music. In 1921 he succeeded C.H. Kitson as professor of music at University College, Dublin. He occupied this chair, which became a full-time appointment in 1944, until 1958. Larchet also taught music in a number of Dublin schools, and he served as principal examiner for the Irish Department of Education and for the local centre examinations of the RIAM. As music adviser to the Irish army after 1923, he was influential in the development of the Army School of Music. Larchet was also founding president and musical director of the Dublin Grand Opera Society (1941), which superseded the Dublin Operatic Society, and vice-president of Trinity College of Music, London. The National University of Ireland awarded him the honorary DMus in 1953 and in 1958 he was decorated with the order of Commendatore by the Italian government. In 1995 the first John F. Larchet Memorial Lecture was delivered by Joseph Kerman as the keynote address at the Maynooth International Musicological Conference.

Larchet’s career – as composer, professor, teacher of composition, choral conductor, and not least as a gentle but persuasive advocate of an outward-looking cosmopolitan aesthetic – was dedicated to one end: the fostering of music as a vital dynamic, artistic and educational, within the emergent nation state of Ireland. He moulded a steady stream of composers, musicians and teachers, without whom the history of art music in Ireland would be considerably the poorer. Larchet sought to overcome both the ‘art-ethnic’ divide, during the first flush of the Celtic revival in the early part of the century, and the cultural stagnation which he so deplored between 1920 and 1950. His ambiguous response to Yeats is especially expressive of the quandary in which he found himself, writing incidental music to a number of his plays at the Abbey Theatre, while at the same time challenging Yeats’s phrase, and the widespread indifference to it, ‘As for the peasant, he has his songs and his music’. As a composer the greater part of Larchet’s small output is given over to the fastidious arrangement of Irish airs. Many of the arrangements derive from his theatre work, and he re-scored some of them, including the Lament for Youth and the Dirge of Ossian in later years. Some of his compositions share an affinity with the work of his contemporary Hamilton Harty. For instance, By the Waters of Moyle (1957) is an arrangement of a traditional ari adn Harty based his orchestral suite The Children of Liv (1938) on the same melody. The several songs that Larchet wrote contain the best examples of his original voice; a few still find a place in the Irish concert repertory. In particular, Padraig the Fiddiler brought him international fame in a recording by John McCormack, accompanied by Edwin Schneider and Kreisler. His Bluebeard’s Castle, a ballet score composed for Ninette de Valois at the Abbey Theatre, is an extensive work which deserves greater recognition, as too do his choral works and arrangements and especially the incidental music.

WORKS

(selective list)

Ballet: Bluebeard’s Castle, 1932

Incid music: The Land of Heart’s Desire (W.B. Yeats), perf. c1911; The Spell (B. Duffay), perf. c1916; The Pipe in the Fields (T.C. Murray), perf., c1927; The Cat and the Moon (Yeats), perf. 1931; The Dreaming of the Bones (Yeats), perf. 1931; Deirdre (Yeats), perf. 1970

Orch: 12 Irish Airs, pf, orch, 1917, arr. str qt; Lament for Youth, chbr orch, 1919, rev. 1939; 12 Irish Airs, 1922; Dirge of Ossian, str, 1940; Macananty’s Reel, str, 1940; Carlow Tune, str, xyl, 1952; Tinker’s Wedding, str, xyl, 1952; March, quasi scherzo, 1955; By the Waters of Moyle, 1957; National Anthem of Ireland, arr.

Choral: The Legend of Lough Rea, 1920; Lúireach Phádraig [St Patrick’s Breastplate], 1956; Ave maris stella, 1957; 3 Motets, 1961; c30 folksong arrs.

Songs (1v, pf, unless otherwise stated): The Philosophy of Love (P.B. Shelley), 1908; In Sweet Humility (J. Taylor), 1910; Padraig the Fiddiler (P. Gregory), 1919; An Ardglass Boatsong (Gregory), 1920; A Stóirín Bán, 1920; Diarmuid’s Lament (M. MacLiammóir), 1v, pf, obbl, vc, 1937; The Stranger (ancient Gaelic), 1939; The Thief of the World (F. Fahy), 1939; The Wee Boy in Bed (E. Shane), 1943, arr. small orch; The Cormorant (E. Lawless), 1947, arr. small orch; Wee Hughie (Shane), 1947, arr. small orch; The Small Black Rose (D. O’Sullivan), 1v, hp, 1955

Principal publishers: Pigott, An Gúm, Boosey and Hawkes, Stainer and Bell

WRITINGS

(selective list)

‘A Plea for Music’, The Voice of Ireland, ed. W. Fitzgerald (Dublin, 3/1924), 508–11

‘Musical Renaissance’, Irish Art Handbook (1943)

‘Music in the Universities’, Music in Ireland: a Symposium, ed. A. Feischmann (Cork, 1952), 13–20

C.V. Stanford (1952)

Michele Esposito (Broadcast lecture, Radio Éireann, 1955)

Opera in Dublin (Dublin, 1962) [Dublin Grand Opera Society: Programme Book]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Robinson: Ireland’s Abbey Theatre (London, 1951)

A. Hughes: Dr John F. Larchet: an Appreciation (Dublin, 1968) [Dublin Grand Opera Society: Programme Book]

E. Deale: A Catalogue of Contemporary Irish Composers (Dublin, 2/1973)

H. Hunt: The Abbey: Ireland’s National Theatre 1904–1978 (Dublin, 1979)

A. Hughes: ‘The Society and Music’, eds. J. Meenan and D. Clarke, The Royal Dublin Society: 1731–1981 (Dublin, 1981), 265–77

J. Ryan: Nationalism and Music in Ireland (diss., National U. of Ireland, 1991)

H. White: The Keeper’s Recital: Music and Cultural History in Ireland, 1770–1970 (Cork, 1998)

HARRY WHITE

Larchier, Federicus

(fl ?1543). Composer who may be identifiable with Jean Larchier.

Larchier [Larcier], Jean [Johannes]

(fl ?1543–1555). French or Franco-Flemish composer. Three motets and four chansons by him were published in collections in Antwerp and Leuven between 1544 and 1555. He may be the same man as the Jean Larcher or ‘Jean Achez’ who was listed as a singer in the Ste Chapelle in Paris in 1521, and who later became chaplain to King Henri II between 1547 and 1550. However, all his surviving music was composed in the style of the Flemish school of Gombert, Clemens and Crecquillon.

He may be identifiable with the Federicus Larchier to whom one chanson (written in the largely homophonic manner of Sandrin) is attributed in a collection published in Lyons in 1543.

WORKS

3 motets, 1547⁶, 1553¹⁵, 1555⁵; 1 ed. in SCMot, xvi (1995)

4 chansons, 1544¹³, 1545¹⁴, 1550¹⁴, 1553²⁴

1 chanson (attrib. Federicus Larchier), 1543¹⁴; ed. in SCC, xxviii (1993)

FRANK DOBBINS

Lardenois, Antoine

(b Paris; d ?Dax, 1672 or later). French composer. He lived at Nîmes at least from 1651 to 1653, possibly to about 1658; he figures in the records of the consistory there. On 14 August 1652 he abjured Catholicism and in spite of his quarrelsome nature received financial aid from his protectors there towards a journey to Geneva in March and April 1653 to arrange for the publication of a volume of music. In November 1653 he sought but was not appointed to the dual post of janitor of the college and singer at the little temple at Nîmes. In 1657, with support from the Protestants at Nîmes, he offered his solmization method to the Protestants of La Rochelle. Lardenois continued his career as a musician in Paris, where on 27 January 1660 he abjured the reformed faith. He later became choirmaster of Dax Cathedral. His name appears for the last time in the chapter records in 1672, when it was recorded that he had been troubling his colleagues with ‘grandes injures at autres emportements’.

Lardenois devised a simplified solmization method that he adapted to the Protestant psalter to make it easier to read and use. His method reduces the notation to a single system, with a single (C) clef and a signature of one flat and with a fixed doh, starting on fa (= ut); it freely makes use of the note si but places it at the interval mi-fa. The first edition of his Les psaumes de David, mis en rime française par Clément Marot et Théodore de Bèze, réduits tout nouvellement à une bonne et facile méthode pour apprendre le chant ordinaire de l'église (Geneva, 1651) is lost (2/1657, with a slightly different title-page and a sheet of music illustrating his method; subsequent edns., 1659 and 1662, and others later in the 17th century). At this period the Paraphrase des pseaumes de David, en vers françois by Antoine Godeau was becoming known to the public in settings by Louis XIII, Jacques de Gouy and Aux Cousteaux. This version of the psalms received a warm welcome, above all from Protestants who could sing it without running the risk involved with using Marot's paraphrases. Lardenois in his turn took it up and at his own expense (or perhaps that of the church at Nîmes) published his Paraphrase … de Godeau, nouvellement mise en musique (Paris, 1655, 2/1658/R). The chronicler Loret in La muze historique for 31 January 1660 reported that Lardenois' settings were being sung by Protestants throughout France. The melodies that he adapted for them are for the most part derived from those used in the Huguenot Psalter.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

O. Douen: Clément Marot et le psautier huguenot (Paris, 1878–9/R)

H. Charnier: ‘La musique du chapitre de Dax dans la deuxième moitié du XVIIeme siècle’, Bulletin trimestriel de la Société de Borda, Dax, no.1 (1955)

D. Launay: ‘A propos du chant des psaumes en français au XVIIe siècle: La “paraphrase des pseaumes” de Godeau et ses musiciens’, RdM, l (1964), 30–75

D. Launay: ‘Les musiciens de Godeau’, Antoine Godeau, 1605–1672, de la galanterie à la sainteté: Grasse 1972, ed. Y. Giraud (Paris, 1975)

D. Launay: La musique religieuse en France du concile de Trente à 1804 (Paris, 1993)

DENISE LAUNAY/JAMES R. ANTHONY

Laredo, Jaime (Eduardo)

(b Cochabamba, 7 June 1941). American violinist of Bolivian birth. His family moved to the USA when he was seven to enable him to further his musical training, and he was taught by Ivan Galamian at the Curtis Institute, Philadelphia. After making his professional début at the age of 11, with the San Francisco SO, he toured Latin America on a number of occasions. In 1959 he became the youngest winner of the Queen Elisabeth Competition, Brussels, and the same year he appeared with the Philadelphia and Cleveland Orchestras. His career as an adult violinist began with a much-praised Carnegie Hall recital in October 1960; he also received the New York City Handel Medallion that year. Laredo has performed throughout the USA and Europe, and made his London début at the Royal Albert Hall in 1961. He was a frequent visitor to the Marlboro Festival, and his recording of Beethoven’s Triple Concerto with Serkin, Parnas and the Marlboro Festival Orchestra well represents his style. Laredo is an aristocratic and predominantly lyrical performer; he is not as demonstrative as other Galamian pupils, but his clean intonation and meticulous phrasing make him valuable as an ensemble player – he was a member of the Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center, directs the ‘Chamber Music at the 92nd Street Y’ series and has recorded (as a violist) piano quartets with Stern, Ma and Ax. Since 1977 he has frequently appeared and recorded with the Scottish Chamber Orchestra as guest conductor, also forming close relations with the St Paul Chamber Orchestra and the English Chamber Orchestra. He owns a 1717 violin by Stradivari known as the ‘Ex-Gariel’. A series of Bolivian airmail stamps issued in his honour bore his portrait and the notes A, D and C (La-re-do).

RICHARD BERNAS

Laredo [née Meckler], Ruth

(b Detroit, MI, 20 Nov 1937). American pianist. She studied at the Curtis Institute with Rudolf Serkin, and made her orchestral début with Stokowski and the American SO at Carnegie Hall in 1962. She has appeared with many of the major orchestras in the USA and toured widely as a soloist; she has played much of the chamber music repertory and has participated regularly in the Mostly Mozart, Marlboro, Aspen, Caramoor and Spoleto festivals. She is particularly known for her recordings of the complete solo piano works of Rachmaninoff and the complete piano sonatas and preludes of Skryabin, which helped to revive interest in that composer in the USA. She has held teaching positions at SUNY, Binghamton (1972–3), Kent State University (1969–71) and the Yale School of Music (1977–9). She has contributed many articles on piano repertory and technique to Keyboard Magazine, and has edited Rachmaninoff piano works.

ELLEN HIGHSTEIN

Largamente

(It.: ‘broadly’, ‘generously’).

Though strictly the adverb from Largo, this word is rather different in its uses. It is used as an expression mark to denote a more stately manner of playing; or it can be an instruction to slow down the tempo. In this second sense it was a particular favourite of Elgar, who found it so indispensable that in some of his works he even abbreviated it to L (together with A for accelerando and R for ritardando); see especially the scores of the Second Symphony and The Kingdom.

See also Tempo and expression marks.

DAVID FALLOWS

Large

(Lat. larga, maxima).

In western notation the longest note value of medieval and Renaissance music. First found in late 13th-century music, its value was twice or three times that of a long, and it was usually shown as in ex.1a. Its rest was usually shown as a multiple of the long-rest, the precise form depending on the binary or ternary division of both the large and the long (ex.1b). The large survived into the period of ‘white’ or ‘void’ notation (post-1450), although its use in the Renaissance was restricted mainly to the notation of tenor parts and other cantus firmi. It is mentioned in writings as late as Christopher Simpson’s Compendium of Practical Musick (1667), although by this date its existence was purely theoretical. Indeed, Simpson stated that ‘The Large and Long are now of little use, being too long for any Voice, or Instrument (the Organ excepted) to hold out to their full length’. Some sources use the term ‘duplex longa’ as an alternative term for the (imperfect) large.

See also Note values.

JOHN MOREHEN/RICHARD RASTALL

Larghetto

(It.: ‘rather wide’; diminutive of largo).

A tempo mark indicating a rather more lighthearted largo. ‘Handel's Largo’ (‘Ombra mai fù’ from Serse) is marked larghetto, as are many other movements in the same opera; in his Messiah, ‘Comfort ye’ is marked larghetto e piano, ‘For behold’ is andante larghetto, and ‘The people that walked in darkness’ is larghetto. The word seems to have come into use early in the 18th century: Brossard (1703) did not mention it; but Rousseau (1768, article ‘Mouvement’) gave it as one of the main adjustments of tempo (though not of mood) and described it (article ‘Largo’) as being ‘a little less slow than largo’. Koch (1802) said it was ‘normally the same as andante’. On the other hand, Cartier (1798) gave larghetto as slower than adagio and slower than any mark except largo.

For bibliography see Tempo and expression marks.

DAVID FALLOWS

Largo

(It.: ‘large’, ‘broad’).

A tempo mark, considered by many theorists of the 18th century, particularly in France, to be the slowest of all: Rousseau (1768) listed it as the slowest of his five main degrees of movement in music, and many other writers agreed with him; but there is no overall consistency of opinion among earlier writers about its relation to such designations as adagio, lento and grave. Early Italian writers and 19th-century usage seem to have been more consistent in placing it somewhere between adagio and andante: it was surely in this sense that Bach had used it for the opening fugue of his B minor Mass and the final fugue in book 1 of the ‘48’; and Vivaldi had used the direction largo ma più tosto andante (p211/rv227).

Largo appeared relatively often in music from the beginning of the 17th century, though normally to indicate a contrast in tempo within a faster movement. Caccini (Le nuove musiche, 1601/2/R) included an instruction ‘escla con misura più larga’; Frescobaldi (Partite e toccate, 1615) recommended a tempo largo for runs and embellishments; and a similar usage in Giovanni Scipione (1650) endorses the conclusion that for them, at least, largo was already more a tempo than an affect. Praetorius (Syntagma musicum, iii, 2/1619/R) gave the equation adagio: largo: lento: langsam. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries the term was commonly applied to third movements, in 3/2 time and saraband rhythm, of sonate da chiesa.

In England largo may have had a firmer position similar to that of andante in later centuries. Purcell, in the preface to his Sonnata's of III Parts (1683), gave largo, along with presto largo and poco largo, as the moderate tempo between adagio and allegro; and the anonymous A Short Explication (London, 1724) gave the progression adagio, grave, largo, vivace, allegro, presto.

Brossard's Dictionaire (1703), followed by J.G. Walther's Musicalisches Lexicon (1732), gave an interesting description of largo:

Very slowly as though expanding the beat, and often marking the major accents unusually, etc. This happens above all in the Recitative of the Italians, in which one often does not make the beats equal because it is a kind of declamation in which the actor must follow the movement of the passion which affects him and which he wishes to express instead of following that of an equal and regulated beat.

‘Handel's Largo’ (‘Ombra mai fù’ from Serse) is actually marked larghetto.

For bibliography see Tempo and expression marks.

DAVID FALLOWS

La Riche [Le Riche], François

(b ?Tournai, ?1662; d ?Tournai, ? after 1732). ?Flemish oboist and composer. He popularized the oboe in England and Germany. He may have been born in Tournai in 1662 (FürstenauG). In 1685 he was appointed one of the ‘Bases’ (bass violinist and/or bassoonist) at the court of James II. When James fled in 1688, La Riche, a Roman Catholic, was not reappointed to the court, although he was among the five ‘hoboys’ who accompanied William III to the Netherlands in 1691. He then seems to have returned to London to work as a freelance musician. For James Talbot's manuscript (c1692–5) he was the supplier of a double curtal and a serpent and two oboe fingering charts; he and James Paisible were to have provided the flute chart. In 1697 he and Jeremiah Clarke (i) were stewards at the St Cecilia's Day feast, for which La Riche wrote an overture and nine dances in the French style (GB-Lbl Add.35043).

In 1699 La Riche became an oboist with the title Kammermusicus at the Dresden court. He also acted as an agent in the purchase of foreign goods, including jewellery and horses, which would explain his remarkably high salary (3200 thaler per annum). In 1700 he took part in the wedding celebrations in Berlin of the Crown Prince of Hesse-Cassel and the Princess of Brandenburg; Telemann heard him perform in two operas in Berlin around 1702. He was the first-named of the oboists to whom Telemann dedicated his Kleine Cammer-Music (1716), at least one and probably all three of the others being his German pupils. He had retired by 1727, when Quantz reported that La Riche gave him a letter of credit for a visit to London. His servant was a witness to the will of Peter Bressan, made in 1731 in Tournai, to which city La Riche had presumably returned. He is last mentioned in the Dresden records in 1733.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BDECM

FürstenauG

MatthesonGEP

A. Baines: ‘James Talbot's Manuscript (Christ Church Library Music MS 1187): I: Wind Instruments’, GSJ, i (1948), 9–26

M. Byrne: ‘Pierre Jaillard, Peter Bressan’, GSJ, xxxvi (1983), 2–28

B. Haynes: ‘Telemann's Kleine Cammer-music and the Four Oboists to Whom it was Dedicated’, Musick, vii/4 (1986), 30–35; repr. in Journal of the International Double Reed Society, xv (1987), 27–32

DAVID LASOCKI

Larigot

(Fr.).

See under Organ stop.

Larin, Sergey

(b Daugavpils, Latvia, 9 March 1953). Russian tenor. After linguistic studies in Gor'kiy (now Nizhniy Novgorod) and singing lessons in Vilnius, he made his début at the Lithuanian Opera and Ballet Theatre, as Alfredo, in 1981. His Western début did not take place until 1990, when he appeared as Lensky at the Vienna Staatsoper; but unlike some compatriots he has not concentrated primarily on Russian roles: his calling cards at major houses in Western Europe have included Don José, Calaf and Don Carlos (which he sang at the 1998 Salzburg Festival), and his non-Russian repertory also includes the Prince (Rusalka) and Florestan. It was in Carmen that he made his Covent Garden début in 1991. He has sung three roles in Boris Godunov, beginning as the Simpleton, moving on to Shuysky and finally assuming the Pretender with the Kirov Opera at the Metropolitan in 1992 and at the 1994 Salzburg Festival. That Salzburg production has been preserved on disc, and his other important recordings include Calaf (on disc and video), Andrey in Tchaikovsky’s Mazepa and a disc of Russian songs. Larin is a highly expressive performer, possessed of a heroically charged tenor tone which he is capable of scaling down as the situation demands. His portrayals of complex characters and the internalized drama he finds in the song repertory suggest that he belongs to the old, psychological tradition of Russian theatre.

JOHN ALLISON

Larmanjat, Jacques

(b Paris, 19 Oct 1878; d Paris, 7 Nov 1952). French composer. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire with Albert Lavignac and André Gédalge. He began to publish work in 1905 but first attracted wider attention with the production of his opera Gina in Nice in 1912. From 1918 to 1928 he worked for Pleyel on the development of the Pleyela, the mechanical piano perfected by the company, for which he made a huge number of transcriptions. He collaborated with Stravinsky, adapting works by him for this instrument, and he was also responsible for the French translation of Mavra. Later he took important posts at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, at Gaveau, the French firm of piano and harpsichord makers, and at French radio. His deep love of Brittany inspired several of his works and from 1935 to 1945 he was director of the Rennes Conservatoire.

Larmanjat’s ballets are the best proof of a natural theatrical talent in which he could give free rein to an imaginative lightness of touch and a taste for fantasy and humour. The composer of numerous mélodies, notably on poems by Léon-Paul Fargue and Francis Carco, he had a facility for the chanson and was interpreted by artists such as Fréhel and Lucienne Boyer, who made his Doux caboulot famous. He also composed piano music and symphonic works characterized by rhythmic vivacity and stylistic elegance.

WORKS

Dramatic: Gina (op, 4, M. Carré), Nice, 1912; Chacun pour soi (op, 1, Carré), Paris, 1914; Le général malade (ballet), Deauville, 1925; Entre deux eaux (film score), 1931; Chanson d’Armor (film score, dir. J. Epstein), 1935; Le banquet (ballet avec chant, M. Belvianes), Paris, 1938; Le doux caboulot (poème chorégraphique, F. Carco), Paris, 1949; incid music for Comédie Française

Orch: Sérénade, op.34 (1928); Divertissement, 4 hp, orch, 1930; Fantaisie romantique, pf, orch, 1932; L’écuyère aux cerceaux (1934), arr. 2 pf; Marine, 1935; Petit concert, sax, orch, 1941; Vn Conc., 1946

Other inst: 2 petites pièces, pf (1908); Valse impromptu, op.12, pf (1909); Suite facile, op.27, pf, c1925; Divertissement, op.32, pf (1927); Suite enfantine, pf (1935), 4 pièces en concert, sax, pf (1951)

Vocal: Je vous salue Marie, op.36, 1v, org/pf, 1930; 6 petits choeurs sur des chansons bretonnes (1937); Missa brevis, chorus, 1942; songs on texts by F. Carco, J. Pellerin; mélodies on texts by C. Baudelaire, Carco, L.-P. Fargue, A. Salmon, A. Samain

Principal publishers: Durand, Heugel, Ricordi

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (G. Ferchault)

R. Bernard: Histoire de la musique, ii (Paris, 1962)

V. de Bellaing: Dictionnaire des compositeurs de musique en Bretagne (Nantes, 1992)

JACQUES TCHAMKERTEN

Larmore, Jennifer

(b Atlanta, GA, 21 June 1958). American mezzo-soprano. She studied at Westminster Choir College at Princeton with R.H. McIvor, and privately with John Bullock and Regina Resnik. She sang in the European première of Menotti's The Egg at Spoleto in 1977 and made her official début as Mozart's Sextus at Nice in 1986. Since then she has built an impressive reputation in the operas of Handel, Mozart and Rossini. Larmore made her Covent Garden début as Rosina in 1992 and her first appearance at La Scala, as Isolier (Le comte Ory), in the same year. Her Metropolitan début, as Rosina, followed in 1995. Her full, flexible mezzo and forthright characterization can be heard on her recordings of the title roles of Giulio Cesare and La Cenerentola, as Rosina in Il barbiere di Siviglia and as Arsace in Semiramide. She is a lively and persuasive actress.

ALAN BLYTH

Larner, Sam [Samuel James]

(b Winterton, Norfolk, 1878; d 11 Sept 1965). English traditional singer. Born into a fishing community, he was one of nine children. He worked at sea from the ages of 12 to 55, where he acquired a sizable repertory of songs from his father and fellow herring fishermen. The latter included Jimmy Sutton (‘Old Larpin’) whose songs had been noted by the composer and folksong collector E.J. Moeran in 1915. Discovered and recorded by BBC producer Philip Donnellan in 1958, Larner was subsequently invited to sing at the Singers Club in London by Ewan MacColl and Peggy Seeger. By then, he had a diverse repertory of about 60 songs including broadside versions of traditional ballads, as well as sea, parlour and historical songs. Larner was extensively recorded by MacColl, Seeger and the BBC radio producer Charles Parker for the Prix d'Italia prizewinning radio-ballad documentary Singing the Fishing originally broadcast in 1960. Larner was a ‘showman singer’ who performed with his left hand cupped to his ear and occasionally executed a few jig steps. His personality endeared him to members of the Folk Revival as well as to local audiences (see England, §II, 2).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

A.E. Green: ‘Sam Larner on Record: a Review with some Comments on the Singer's Art’, Traditional Music, no.1 (1975)

Now is the Time for Fishing, perf. Sam Larner, Musical Traditions MT CASS203 (1993)

Singing the Fishing: a Radio-Ballad about Britain's Herring Fishing Communities, coll. E. MacColl with P. Seeger and C. Parker, various pfmrs, Topic TSCD 803 (1999)

The Voice of the People: the Traditional Music of England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales, ed. R. Hall, ii: My Ship shall Sail the Ocean, various pfmrs, Topic TSCD 652 (1999) [incl. notes by R. Hall]

The Voice of the People: the Traditional Music of England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales, ed. R. Hall, v: Come All my Lads that Follow the Plough, Topic TSCD 655 (1999) [incl. ‘Sam Larner’]

The Voice of the People: the Traditional Music of England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales, ed. R. Hall, xii: We've Received Orders to Sail, various pfmrs, Topic TSCD 662 (1999)

DAVE ARTHUR

Laro, Kujtim

(b Vlora, 8 May 1947). Albanian composer. He studied the cello and the double bass with his brother at the Jordan Misja Art Lyceum, Tirana (1961–5). He then entered the Tirana Conservatory, where from 1965 to 1971 he studied composition with Zadeja, counterpoint with Ibrahimi and analysis with Kozma Lara. He then worked at Radio Tirana (1971–5) while teaching composition at the conservatory. For 15 years he was director of the Ensemble of the People's Army (1975–90).

Laro was one of the first composers to study exclusively in Albania after the country's breach with the USSR, and his work continued for some time to favour the national historical subjects commonly used by Albanian artists at that time, commemorating such events as the 1912 independence (in the Balladë për Ismail Qemali, 1987, which honours the head of the first Albanian government) and the 1920 conflicts in Vlora (in the Balladë për Selam Musanë, 1982). Mostly epic and dramatic in character, his music is meticulously worked out, interrelating seemingly disparate motivic elements within a framework of broad gestures; he often draws on rhythmic elements from the folk music of Vlora and Labëria, as well as on partisan songs, subtly harmonized. In the 1990s, apart from composing songs, he shifted successfully to an often atonal chamber music, producing works rich in vivid gestures if not dramatic.

WORKS

(selective list)

stage

choreographic tableaux unless otherwise stated

c15, incl.: Labëria, 1971; Bilbilenjtë trembëdhjetë [13 ‘Nightingales’] (trad., choreog. Kaceli), Tirana, 1982; Besa, besë për trojet tona [An Oath for Our Cradle] (choreog. Kaceli), Tirana, 1983; U rritëm me lirinë [They Brought us Up in Liberty] (choreog. A. Aliaj), Tirana, 1985; Vëlla e motër, yje për liri [Brother and Sister, Stars of Freedom] (choreog. Kaceli), Tirana, 1986; Pesë heronjtë e Vigut [The Five Heroes of Vig] (ballet, 5 scenes), 1987

choral

mixed chorus, orch, unless otherwise stated

12 large-scale works, incl.: Prij Parti, syshqiponja jonë [Lead us, ye Sharp-Eyed Party] (cant., Ll. Siliqi), B-Bar, mixed chorus, orch, 1978; Balladë për Selam Musanë (A. Shehu), 1982; Sym. Poem no.5 ‘Tenda e Qypit’ [The Tent at Qyp] (Xh. Jorganxhi), 1982; Perherë me ty në ballë [Always with You on my Forehead] (cant., A. Duka), B, mixed chorus, orch, 1985; Balladë për Ismail Qemali, 1987; Malet nuk tunden nga era [Mountains are not Shaken by the Wind] (vocal-sym. poem, Milloshi), C, mixed chorus, orch, 1990; arr. as choreographic tableau, perf. 1990

Many songs for chorus (male, female, mixed, childrens), orch.

other vocal

Si lule Maj qellin [Like a Mayflower in Blossom] (I. Sulëkuqi), 8 female vv, orch, 1978; Vjeshtë e vitit (19)12 [Autumn of 1912] (Xh. Spahiu), T, 3 female vv, orch, 1985; Lule Shqipëria [Albania, a Flower], 6 female vv, orch, 1986; Kambanat e shpresës [The Bells of Hope] (song, Jorganxhi), 1v, orch, 1991; In memoriam Nikolla Zoraqi (textless), S, orch, 1995

Songs, incl.: Buka e duarve tona [Bread from our Own Hands] (Spahiu), 1976; Lulequke, jeta jone [Our Life, like Poppies], female vv, orch, 1984; Lulequke mbi pagur [Poppies on the Flask] (Duka), T, orch, 1987; O lule [Oh Flowers] (A. Doçi), 1v, orch, 1996; Vjen një çast [A Moment Comes] (Boshnjaku), 1v, orch, 1997; Endërr/Dashuri [Dream/Love] (K. Buzi), S, pf, 1998

instrumental

Orch: Variations, vc, orch, 1967; Vn Conc., 1968/9; Sym. Poem no.1, 1971; Sym. Poem no.2 ‘Baballarët’ [Ancestors], 1974; Sym. Poem no.3 ‘Me gjak e shkrove historine’ [You Wrote History with Blood], ?1976; Sym. Poem no.4 ‘Lule more trima, që ratë për Atdhe’ [Ye Flowers of Gallantry, that Died for Our Country], 1977; Vn Conc. no.2, a, 1983; Sym. Poem ‘Heronjtë nuk vdesin’ [Heroes are Immortal], 1987; Ov., f, 1990; Rhapsody-poem ‘Acropolis’, ?1998–2000; several rhapsodies

Chbr: Scherzo, vn, pf, 1987; Improviso I ‘Vaji i bilbilit’ [The Lament of the Nightingale], vn, fl, bn, pf, 1994; Improviso II, vc, pf, 1995; Sonata, bn, cl, 1996; Pf Trio, 1998; Scherzo no.2, vn, pf, 1999

23 film scores

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Kalemi: Arritjet e artit tonë muzikor: vepra dhe krijues të muzikës Shqiptare [Achievements of our musical art: creations and creators of Albanian music] (Tirana, 1982)

Historia e muzikës Shqiptare [A history of Albanian music] (Tirana, 1984)

R.H. Bogdani: Koreografi & art i kultivuar [Choreography and Cultivated Art] (Tirana, 1998)

GEORGE LEOTSAKOS

La Roche, François de

(d Vaux, 23 Dec 1676). French composer and singer. The records show that François de La Roche, an haute-contre, was one of the eight ‘chantres ordinaires de la musique’ in the ensemble of Gaston d’Orléans, brother of Louis XIII, and took part in the divertissements performed at the prince’s court in the 1650s. After his patron’s death in 1661 he entered the service of the surintendant Fouquet. He published five books of airs de cours in three and four parts (in 1648, 1649, 1652, 1655 and 1658), of which only the haute-contre, tenor and bass parts are extant. The first book is dedicated to the chaplain of Gaston d’Orléans, and the third to the prince himself. His airs (airs sérieux and a few airs à boire) are in the same tradition as those of Jean de Cambefort, published at the same period. A solo air by him is contained in the collection Airs de cour et airs à boire (F-Pn dated 1645–80). (C. Massip: ‘Le Mécénat musical de Gaston d’Orléans’, L’âge d’or du mécénat (1598–1661): Paris 1983, ed. R. Mousnier and J. Mesnard (Paris, 1985), 383–91)

DAVID TUNLEY/CATHERINE MASSIP

Laroche, Herman [Larosh, German Avgustovich]

(b St Petersburg, 13/25 May 1845; d St Petersburg, 5/18 Oct 1904). Russian music critic. After studying the piano with Dubuque in Moscow, he became a student at the St Petersburg Conservatory (1862–6), where his teachers included Rubinstein and Zaremba. He taught theoretical and historical topics at the Moscow Conservatory (1867–70, and again in the 1880s) and at St Petersburg (in the 1870s). He published material about music from 1867 until the year of his death, and wrote extensively on Russian and other literature and current affairs. His work appeared under his own name, pseudonymously and anonymously, in a large number of periodicals based in both the Russian capitals, with music strongly represented in his contributions to Russkiy vestnik, Sovremennaya letopis', Moskovskiye vedomosti and Golos. Laroche reviewed operatic premières and concerts, evaluated new works, chronicled events and discussed musical issues in a more philosophical vein. While Russian music features conspicuously, Laroche's work reveals a wide-ranging interest in the European musical world, and displays a cosmopolitanism unusual in Russian criticism of the time. There are similarities with the outlook of his student contemporary and lifelong friend Tchaikovsky: they shared a passionate enthusiasm for Mozart, delighted in modern French music and took a detached view of the principles and achievements of Wagner and Liszt. Laroche's opinions reflected his academic training, and left him deaf to the virtues of works produced outside that tradition, notably those of Musorgsky; he considered that Russian music bore traces of the nation's history, which the Renaissance had bypassed, and that musicians could eliminate the resulting backwardness only by studying the counterpoint of Palestrina and his precursors. Sergey Taneyev's indebtedness to his teacher is shown by the style and expertise of his compositions as well as by his dedication to Laroche of his Podvizhnoy kontrapunkt strogogo pis'ma (‘Invertible counterpoint in the strict style’, Leipzig and Moscow, 1909). As early as 1866 Laroche detected the extraordinary potential as a composer of Tchaikovsky, whose champion he generally remained, while displaying hostility to the activities of the Balakirev circle. Tchaikovsky in turn was aware of his friend's gifts, but in 1878 expressed regret that Laroche's powers were often not channelled into disciplined, systematic effort. Laroche's views had much in common with those of Hanslick, as may be seen especially in his translator's preface to the latter's Vom Musikalisch-Schönen; in this regard Laroche was conscious of being a lone voice in Russia. Although in certain respects more backward-looking in his tastes than Hanslick, Laroche was far more sympathetic to Russian music. Of particular importance among his voluminous output are the extended essay on Glinka of 1867–8 which made his name, and his writings about Tchaikovsky, in particular Chaykovsky kak dramaticheskiy kompozitor (‘Tchaikovsky as a dramatic composer’) of 1894. Laroche's work offers a rare combination of erudition and profound technical understanding of music with a compelling literary style.

WRITINGS

Glinka i yego znacheniye v istorii muzïki [Glinka and his significance in music history] (Moscow, 1867)

Introduction to A.D. Ulïbïshev: Novaya biografiya Motsarta [A new biography of Mozart] (Moscow, 1890)

Muzïkal'no-kriticheskiye stat'i [Critical articles on music] (St Petersburg, 1894)

with N.D. Kashkin: Na pamyat' o P.I. Chaykovskom [In memory of Tchaikovsky] (Moscow, 1894)

O muzïkal'no-prekrasnom (Moscow, 1895) [trans. of E. Hanslick: Vom Musikalisch-Schönen, Leipzig, 1870]

ed. N.D. Kashkin and V. Yakovlev: Sobraniye muzïkal'no-kriticheskikh statey [Collection of critical articles on music] (Moscow, 1913–24)

ed. S.I. Levit: Izbrannïye stat'i o Glinke [Selected articles on Glinka] (Moscow, 1953)

ed. G.B. Bernandt and others: Izbrannïye stat'i [Selected articles] (Leningrad, 1974–8)

ed. E. Kuhn: Peter Tschaikowsky: Aufsätze und Erinnerungen (Berlin, 1993)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (S. Levit)

E. Bogoslovsky: ‘G.A. Larosh’, Muzïka, no.16 (1911), 364–9

V.G. Val'ter: ‘German Avgustovich Larosh’, Russkaya mïsl', no.5 (1914), 42–7

V. Belyayev: ‘Bibliografiya’, Muzïka, no.164 (1914), 305

M. Sabinina: ‘Larosh i Chaykovskiy’, SovM (1954), no.10, pp.67–76

A.S. Ogolevets: Materialï i dokumentï po istorii russkoy realisticheskoy muzïkal'noy ėstetiki [Materials and documents on the history of the Russian aesthetics of realism in music] (Moscow, 1954–6)

Yu.A. Kremlyov: Russkaya mïsl'o muzïke: ocherki istorii russkoy muzïkal'noy kritiki i ėstetiki XIX veka [Russian thought on music: essays on the history of Russian music criticism and aesthetics in the 19th century], ii (Leningrad, 1958), 297ff; iii (Leningrad, 1960), 129ff

G.B. Bernandt and I.M. Yampol'sky: Kto pisal o muzïke [Writers on music], ii (Moscow, 1974) [incl. list of writings]

G.B. Bernandt: ‘Larosh: neskol'ko shtrikhov k portretu’ [Laroche: a few lines of sketching towards a portrait], SovM (1975), no.1, pp.110–15

S. Campbell, ed.: Russians on Russian Music, 1830–1880 (Cambridge, 1994)

STUART CAMPBELL

La Rochelle.

Town in France. Site of the Rencontres Internationales d’Art Contemporain. See Royan Festival.

La Rochois.

See Le Rochois, Marie.

La Roque [La Rocque].

See Pellegrin, simon-joseph.

Larrauri, Antón

(b Bilbao, 30 April 1932). Basque composer. His first contact with music was as a boy soprano in El Camelo de Begoña choir in Bilbao. He had his first music lessons with his brother Laureano, then studied with Father José Domingo Ugartetxea, Víctor Zubizarreta and Julio Valdés. After that he was self-taught, and his first works were published at a relatively mature age. He took degrees in philosophy and literature while teaching Classical languages. From 1960 to 71 he was music critic for El correo español in Bilbao. The first performance of his orchestral works Dédalo and Apokatástasis took place in Bilbao in 1968. These were followed by Contingencias (1971), also for orchestra, and Ezpatadantza (1972), for solo voices, chorus and orchestra, both of which were chosen to represent Spain at UNESCO's International Tribune of Composers in Paris. From then on the success of his music spread rapidly throughout Spain. He won several competition prizes, including the Silver Harp prize for Aitxa, and his choral work Illun was selected for the RAI's Prix Italia. He was also in demand at musical centres and solicited by the main musical institutions in Spain.

Larrauri favours large choral and orchestral ensembles where the concept of sound density is predominant. His music, which has shown hardly a trace of aesthetic evolution over the years, develops out of great blocks of sound (used even in instrumental, chamber or electro-acoustic music) which interrelate by means of violent contrasts in dynamics, density and timbre. This dialectical opposition provides a basis for the formal structure of the music and at the same time ensures an expressive climate of a powerful, elemental and dramatic quality. The use of elements drawn from Basque folk music (rhythms, certain melodic phrases, intervallic cells, instrumental timbres) contributes to the music's somewhat archaic character.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Apokatástasis, 1968; Dédalo, 1968; Contingencias, 1971; Diálogos (J. Embeita), opt. bertsolari (spkr), pf, orch, 1974; Crónica (Larrauri), 2 spkr, synth, orch, 1994

Vocal: Ezpatadantza (Erkiaga), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1972; Munduak (Erkiaga), Mez/S, tape, 1973; Aldatza (Erkiaga), Bar solo/(Bar/Mez, 9 insts)/(Bar/Mez, orch), 1974; Zan tiretu, chorus, 1975; Illun (Erkiaga), chorus, perc, tape, 1977; Illun II (Erkiaga), chorus, tape, 1979; Deus ibi est… (Bible: Song of Solomon), 2 S/SS, bells, tape, 1981; Oración al cosmos (oriental poems), chorus, 1985; Laiñoa (Eguzki), 1v, orch, synth, 1993

Chbr: Fluctuante, 15 insts, 1969; Bederatzi (Noneto de Aldatza), 9 insts, 1974; Grimorios, wind qnt/(5 cl, opt. tape), 1974; De profundis, 14 insts, 1975; Aitxa, pf, 13 insts, 1976; Dualismos, pf, 1976; Norabait, 5 perc, 1979; Pakerantza gabean, pf, 1986; A sonoris tenebris (Una página para Rubinstein), pf, 1987

Tape: Zuloan bat, 1978; Voces de Gernika, 1986

MSS in Euskal Ereslarien Bilduma (Rentería)

Principal publisher: Alpuerto

WRITINGS

ed. E. Casares Rodicio: ‘Comentarios musicales’, 14 compositores españoles de hoy (Oviedo, 1982), 243–60

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Marco: Historia de la música española, vi: Siglo XX (Madrid, 1983; Eng. trans., 1993, as Spanish Music in the Twentieth Century)

C. Villasol: ‘Antón Larrauri’, Ritmo, no.568 (1986), 79–80

J.A. Arana Martija: Música vasca (Bilbao, 2/1987)

A. García Estefanía: Catálogo de Antón Larrauri (Madrid, 1995)

CARLOS VILLASOL

Larrivée, Henri

(b Lyons, 9 Jan 1737; d Paris, 7 Aug 1802). French baritone. At first a singer in the Opéra chorus, he began his career as a soloist in 1755 when he played a High Priest in Rameau's Castor et Pollux; later he sang Jupiter and finally Pollux. Apart from other roles in operas of Rameau and Lully, he created Ricimer in Philidor's Ernelinde (1767) and the title role in Gossec's Sabinus (1773). For Gluck he sang Agamemnon (in Iphigénie en Aulide), Hercules (in Alceste), Ubalde (in Armide) and Orestes (in Iphigénie en Tauride); he also played Orestes in Piccinni's Iphigénie, Grétry's Andromaque and Lemoyne's Electre. He venerated Gluck (although the composer criticized his acting) and overcame a lack of sympathy with Piccinni to sing Roland with such success as to give rise to Framery's ‘Epître à M. Larrivée’ (Journal de Paris, 4 February 1778). Subsequently he created Danaus in Salieri's Les Danaïdes (1784). He last appeared as Agamemnon in 1797. He had a wide range and a flexible voice which, according to Fétis and others, became nasal on high notes.

Larrivée's wife, Marie Jeanne Larrivée (née Le Mière) (b Sedan, 29 Nov 1733; d Paris, Oct 1786), was a soprano who appeared at the Opéra from 1750, mostly in minor roles; but she created the title role of Philidor's Ernelinde (1767) and Eponine in Gossec's Sabinus (1773).

JULIAN RUSHTON

Larrocha (y de la Calle), Alicia de

(b Barcelona, 23 May 1923). Spanish pianist. She gave her first recital at the age of four, studied with Frank Marshall (a pupil of Granados) at the Academia Marshall in Barcelona and made her first orchestral appearance, in Mozart’s ‘Coronation’ Concerto k537, with the Madrid SO at the age of 11. She first toured outside Spain in 1947, made her Wigmore Hall début in 1953 and first appeared in the USA, with the Los Angeles SO, in 1955. In 1959 she became director of the Academia Marshall. After a ten-year absence she returned to America, giving recitals in New York and Chicago. By this time she was increasingly recognized as a peerless exponent of the Spanish repertory, and her performances of Albéniz’s Iberia and Granados’s Goyescas, in the USA and elsewhere, won particular praise. She has recorded Iberia four times, while her recordings of the same composer’s La vega and Azulejos are equally beguiling. If Spanish music, including works by Falla, Turina (particularly his Sanlucar de Barrameda) and Mompou, forms the cornerstone of her repertory, she has also performed and recorded music by many other composers, notably Mozart, for whom she retains a special affection. Her performances, particularly in the Spanish repertory, combine a magisterial strength with a rare command of colour, texture and rhythm. She has given the premières of several Spanish works, including book 4 of Mompou’s Música callada (1972) and Montsalvatge’s Concierto breve (1953), which is dedicated to her.

BRYCE MORRISON

Larsen, Jens Peter

(b Copenhagen, 14 June 1902; d Copenhagen, 22 Aug 1988). Danish musicologist. He studied mathematics (1920–21) and musicology at Copenhagen University and between Hammerich’s retirement (1922) and Abrahamsen’s appointment there (1924) had private tuition in organ playing from Wöldike and music history from Laub, taking the organ examination at the Royal Danish Conservatory (1923); subsequently he resumed his study of musicology at the university (MA 1928). He then began a distinguished teaching career there, being appointed lecturer (1939), professor of musicology (1945) and director of the Institute for Musicology (1949–65); he retired in 1970. He was visiting professor at the University of California, Berkeley (1961), the University of Wisconsin (1971–2), the University of Vienna (1974), Rochester University, New York (1974, 1983) and the John F. Kennedy Center, Washington, DC (1975).

Larsen’s first main interest was Haydn, and for more than 40 years he occupied a leading position in Haydn scholarship. In his Die Haydn-Überlieferung (1939), for which he received the doctorate of Copenhagen University, he meticulously investigated questions of authenticity and established a canon on which subsequent research and the publication of a Haydn edition were based. He was general editor of the Haydn Society edition (1949–51) and the collected edition prepared under the auspices of the Joseph Haydn-Institut, Cologne (1955–60), as well as chairman of the International Haydn Conference in Washington, DC (1975). In Handel’s Messiah (1957) he again considered the problem of authenticity and, by a careful identification of copyists’ handwriting and other palaeographical evidence, made a valuable contribution to the ordering of Handelian sources. He served on the board of directors of the Halle G.-F. Händel-Gesellschaft (from 1955) and the council of the Göttingen Händel-Gesellschaft (from 1967), and was awarded the City of Halle Handel Prize (1965) and the gold medals of the Göttingen Händel-Gesellschaft (1972) and the City of Vienna (1983). He also worked on Mozart and on general issues, particularly to do with changes of form and style between the Baroque and Classical periods.

In the field of Danish music Larsen wrote about and edited music by C.E.F. Weyse, but more important were his contributions on behalf of Danish church music: he was organist of Vangede Church (1930–45) and lecturer on church music at the Pastoral Seminary (1933–71), and his work as an editor, with Wöldike and others, includes a number of publications of liturgical music for use in Danish churches, the music of the standard Danish hymnbook, Den danske koralbog (1954, 3/1992), and the Nordisk koralbog (1961). He was elected a member of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters in 1960 and was awarded honorary membership of the Hungarian Academy in 1976.

WRITINGS

‘Den gregorianske sang’, Kirken: tidsskrift for kirkelig orientering (1929), 324–38

‘Om Laubs folkevise-rekonstruktioner’, DMt, vi (1931), 197–203

‘Laub og dansk kirkesang’, Kirken: tidsskrift for kirkelig orientering (1932), 66–79

‘Haydn und das “kleine Quartbuch”’, AcM, vii (1935), 111–23; see also viii (1936), 18–29, 139–54 and ix (1937), 31–41

ed.: Messetoner efter gammel kirkelig tradition (1935, 3/1965)

Die Haydn-Überlieferung (diss., U. of Copenhagen, 1939; Copenhagen, 1939/R)

Drei Haydn Kataloge in Faksimile mit Einleitung und ergänzenden Themenverzeichnissen (Copenhagen, 1941)

Weyses sange: deres betydning for sangen i hjem, skole og kirke (Copenhagen, 1942)

‘Laubs Melodiredaktioner og ord-tone-problemer’, Dansk kirkesangs årsskrift 1945–6, 28–41

‘Litaniet i den danske kirke’, Dansk kirkesangs årsskrift 1948–9, 18–46

‘Ein Händel-Requiem: die Trauerhymne für Königin Caroline (1737)’, GfMKB: Hamburg 1956, 15–23

‘The Symphonies’, The Mozart Companion, ed. H.C.R. Landon and D. Mitchell (London and New York, 1956/R), 156–99

‘Zu Haydns künstlerischer Entwicklung’, Festschrift Wilhelm Fischer, ed. H. Zingerle (Innsbruck, 1956), 123–9

Handel’s Messiah: Origins, Composition, Sources (Copenhagen, 1957, 2/1972/R)

‘Tempoprobleme bei Händel, dargestellt am “Messias”’, Händel-Ehrung der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik: Halle 1959, 141–53; Eng. trans. in American Choral Review, xiv/1 (1972), 31–41

‘En Haydnsk gådekanon’, STMf, xliii (1961), 215–26

‘Et notationsproblem i Hans Thomissøns Psalmebog (1569)’, Natalicia musicologica Knud Jeppesen septuagenario collegis oblata, ed. B. Hjelmborg and S. Sørensen (Copenhagen, 1962), 132–42

‘Probleme der chronologischen Ordnung von Haydns Sinfonien’, Festschrift Otto Erich Deutsch, ed. W. Gerstenberg, J. LaRue and W. Rehm (Kassel, 1963), 90–104

‘Some Observations on the Development and Characteristics of Vienna Classical Instrumental Music’, SMH, ix (1967), 115–39

‘Zur Geschichte der “Messias”-Aufführungstraditionen’, HJb 1967–8, 13–23; Eng. trans. in American Choral Review, xiv/1 (1972), 23–30

‘Der musikalische Stilwandel um 1750 im Spiegel der zeitgenössischen Pariser Verlagskataloge’, Musik und Verlag: Karl Vötterle zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. R. Baum and W. Rehm (Kassel, 1968), 410–23

‘Schütz und Dänemark’, Sagittarius, ii (1969), 9–16; repr. in BMw, xiv (1972), 215–20; also repr. in Heinrich Schütz in seiner Zeit, ed. W. Blankenburg (Darmstadt, 1985), 229–39

‘Zu Schuberts Vertonung des Liedes “Nur wer die Sehnsucht kennt”’, Musa – mens – musici: im Gedenken an Walther Vetter (Leipzig, 1969), 277–81

‘Der Stilwandel in der österreichischen Musik zwischen Barock und Wiener Klassik’, Der junge Haydn: Graz 1970, 18–30

‘Händels Weg zum Oratorium und sein “Messias”’, ‘Esther und Entstehung der Händelschen Oratorien-Tradition’, ‘Oratorium versus Oper: Wandlungen der Oratoriumspflege durch die Jahrhunderte’, 50 Jahre Göttinger Händel-Festspiele: Festschrift, ed. W. Meyerhoff (Kassel, 1970), 21–8, 40–47, 113–19; Eng. trans. in American Choral Review, xiv/1 (1972), 15–22, 7–14, 42–8

‘Zur Frage der Porträtähnlichkeit der Haydn-Bildnisse’, SMH, xii (1970), 153–66

‘Traditionelle Vorurteile bei der Betrachtung der Wiener klassischen Musik’, Symbolae historiae musicae: Hellmut Federhofer zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. F.W. Riedel and H. Unverricht (Mainz, 1971), 194–203

‘Towards an Understanding of the Development of the Viennese Classical Style’, IMSCR XI: Copenhagen 1972, 23–32

‘Über Echtheitsprobleme in der Musik der Klassik’, Mf, xxv (1972), 4–16

‘Die Triosonaten von Johann Joseph Fux im Wiener Musikleben um 1740’, Musicae scientiae collectanea: Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer, ed. H. Hüschen (Cologne, 1973), 356–62

‘To slags Weyse-stil’, Festskrift Gunnar Heerup, ed. J. Høybye, F.V. Nielsen and A. Schiøtz (Egtved, 1973), 197–210

ed., with H. Serwer and J. Webster: Haydn Studies: Washington DC 1975 [incl. ‘A Survey of the Development of Haydn Research: Solved and Unsolved Problems’, 14–25]

‘Zur Entstehung der österreichischen Symphonietradition’, Die Musik auf den Adelssitzen rund um Wien: Oberschützen 1975 [Haydn Yearbook 1978], 72–80

‘Funktion und Wirkung der Werke Georg Friedrich Händels im 18. Jahrhundert (insbesondere in England)’, Funktion und Wirkung der Musik Georg Friedrich Händels: Halle 1976, 17–25

‘Beethovens C-dur Messe und die Spätmessen Joseph Haydns’, Beethoven Colloquium: Vienna 1977 [Beiträge ’76–’78], 12–19

‘Evidence or Guesswork: the “Quartbuch” Revisited’, AcM, xlix (1977), 86–102

‘Händel und Haydn’, Georg Friedrich Händel als Wegbereiter der Wiener Klassik: Halle 1977, 25–53; see also HJb 1982, 93–9

‘Deutsche und englische Musiktraditionen im Händel’schen Oratorium’, Deutsch-englische Musikbeziehungen: Nuremberg 1980, 86–97

‘Charakter und Bedeutung von zeitgenössischen Händel-Quellen’, HJb 1981, 141–8

‘Probleme der Händel-Überlieferung’, Mf, xxxiv (1981), 137–61

‘Fra Salmesangens overdrev: nogle refleksioner ved salmebogs-reolen’, Hvad fatter gjør … essays tilegnet Erik Dal, ed. H. Glahn and others (Herning, 1982), 253–70

‘Haydn's Early Masses: Evolution of a Genre’, American Choral Review, xxiv/2–3 (1982), 48–60

‘Om arbejde med musikhistoriske problemer og metoder: et personligt tilbageblik på et halvt århundredes praksis’, DAM, xiv (1983), 21–34

ed., with K. Wedin: Die Sinfonie KV. 16a ‘del Sigr. Mozart’: Odense 1984 [incl. Echtheitsprobleme in den frühen Sinfonien Mozarts–warum?’, 31–9]

‘Hymnologiske meddelelser, kirkemusikken og Vartov-sangen’, Hymnologiske meddelelser, xiii (1984), 65–95, 227–37

‘Wandlungen der Auffassung von Händels “Messias”’, Göttinger Händel-Beiträge, i (1984), 7–20

‘Wenzel Raimund Birck und Matthäus Schlöger: zwei Hofmusiker und “Vorklassiker” aus der Zeit Maria Theresias’, Musik am Hof Maria Theresias: in memoriam Vera Schwarz, ed. R.V. Karpf (Munich and Salzburg, 1984), 108–30

‘Händel-Pflege und Händel-Bild im 20. Jahrhundert’, ÖMz, xl (1985), 82–8

‘Haydn's Early Symphonies: the Problem of Dating’, Music in the Classic Period: Essays in Honor of Barry S. Brook, ed. A.W. Atlas (New York, 1985), 117–31

‘Opera og Oratorium: i Händels praksis og i nutidig gengivelse’, ‘Händels “Messias”: idé og udførelse’, ‘Händels “Messias” i vor tid, belyst gennem grammofon-indspilninger’, SMN, xii (1986), 135–58, 159—66, 167—77

‘Georg Friedrich Händel – Oper und Oratorium: Gattungstypologie und Aufführungspraxis’, Händel auf dem Theater: Karlsruhe 1986 and 1987, 17–28

Handel, Haydn, and the Viennese Classical Style (Ann Arbor, 1988) [collection of 25 of Larsen’s essays in Eng.]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

N. Schiørring, H. Glahn and C.E. Hatting, eds.: Festskrift Jens Peter Larsen (Copenhagen, 1972) [incl. C.E. Hatting and N. Krabbe: ‘Bibliografi’, 1–10]

N. Schiørring: ‘Jens Peter Larsen, 14.6.1902–22.8.1988’, Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters Annual Report 1988–9, 173–85

N. Krabbe: ‘Jens Peter Larsen bibliografi 1971–88’, Musik & forskning, xiv (1988–9), 134–44

N. Krabbe: ‘Jens Peter Larsen bibliografi: supplement’, Musik & forskning, xvi (1990–91), 1–169

JOHN BERGSAGEL

Larsen [Reece], Libby [Elizabeth] (Brown)

(b Wilmington, DE, 24 Dec 1950). American composer. She studied at the University of Minnesota (BA 1971, MM 1975, PhD 1978), where her teachers included Argento, Paul Fetler and Eric Stokes. Determined to find a role for the composer outside academe, in 1973 she co-founded, with the composer Stephen Paulus, the Minnesota Composers Forum (known as the American Composers Forum since 1996). From the 1983–4 season to 1987 Larsen was composer-in-residence with the Minnesota Orchestra, for which she has composed several works, including Symphony no.1 (1985, later revised), subtitled ‘Water Music’, Ghosts of an Old Ceremony (1991) – a music theatre piece for orchestra, ten dancers and video – and the Piano Concerto (‘Since Armstrong’, 1991). Larsen has also been resident composer for the Charlotte (North Carolina) SO and the Colorado Springs SO.

A strong advocate of issues such as music education and women in music, Larsen has been a visiting professor and guest lecturer at numerous institutions. She has served on the music panel of the NEA and the managing board of the ASOL, and has been vice-president of the AMC. Rising to prominence in America during the 1980s and 90s, she has received many awards, including the NEA fellowship and a 1994 Grammy award for her production of The Art of Arleen Augér, which includes her song cycle Sonnets from the Portuguese (1991).

Adventurous without being self-consciously avant-garde, Larsen has written in all genres. Her style is noted for its energy, optimism, rhythmic diversity, colourful orchestration, liberated tonality without harsh dissonance, and pervading lyricism. Although she has written abundantly for orchestras and mixed ensembles, she is attracted in particular to the qualities of the voice – in this she betrays the influence of Argento. Outstanding in her numerous songs and choral works is her keen inflection of both prose and poetry. Her eclectic sources tend towards first-person settings, as in Me, containing fragments of Brenda Ueland’s autobiography, Mary Cassatt (1844–1926), seven songs for mezzo soprano, solo trombone and orchestra, performed with projections of the artist’s paintings; and Eleanor Roosevelt, a dramatic cantata for singers and spoken voices. Although not a radical feminist, in the quest for an understanding of human progress which informs her operas and songs, Larsen has dealt extensively with female subjects from women pioneers of the American West to characters created by Virginia Woolf.

Of her operas, Frankenstein: the Modern Prometheus (1990) draws a parallel between alchemy and nuclear research and proceeds from the premise that film and video editing have altered the audience’s perception and sense of time; the continuous drama flows cinematically in a prologue and 14 compressed scenes. The small orchestra used in this work incorporates electronically mixed sounds. A second work, Eric Hermannson’s Soul (1998), dramatizes Willa Cather’s short story of the struggle between the love for music and religious zealotry among Norwegian settlers in a village on the remote Nebraska plains of the 1880s. Under the spell of a fundamentalist preacher, the protagonist Hermannson abandons his fiddle-playing. Each segment of the community is vividly represented by a distinct music: the Hardanger fiddle tunes of the immigrant musician; the verismo opera (a fragment of Cavalleria rusticana) beloved of the genteel city girl who helps him understand that music is essential to the human spirit; and the gospel songs of the church congregation. The score exemplifies how Larsen incorporates the vernacular into her free-wheeling style.

WORKS

(selective list)

stage

The Silver Fox (children’s op, 1, J. Olive), St Paul, MN, 20 April 1979; Tumbledown Dick (op, 2, V. Sutton, after H. Fielding), St Paul, 16 May 1980; Psyke and the Pskyskraper (chbr op), S, T, B, pf, 1982; Clair de lune (chbr op, 2, P. Hampl), Little Rock, AR, 22 Feb 1985; Frankenstein, the Modern Prometheus (music drama, 1, Larsen, after M.W. Shelley), St Paul, 25 May 1990; A Wrinkle in Time (op, 1, W. Green), 1991–2; Mrs Dalloway (op, 2, B. Grice, after V. Woolf), Cleveland, Lyric Theater, July 1993; Eric Hermannson’s Soul (op, 2, C.R. Schieber, after W. Cather), perf. 1998

instrumental

Orch: Tom Twist, nar, mime, orch, 1975; Weaver’s Song and Jig, str band, chbr orch, 1978; 3 Cartoons, 1980; Pinions, vn, chbr orch, 1981; Deep Summer Music, 1982; Ov. ‘Parachute Dancing’, 1983; Sym. no.1 ‘Water Music’, 1985; Coriolis, 1986; Conc. ‘Cold Silent Snow’, fl, hp, chbr orch, 1987; What the Monster Saw, orch, opt. slides, 1987 [from music drama Frankenstein]; Collage: Boogie, 1988; Tpt Conc., 1988; Ghosts of an Old Ceremony (dance score), orch, 10 dancers, video, 1991; Pf Conc. ‘Since Armstrong’, 1991; Tambourines!, 1991; Atmosphere as a Fluid System, fl, str, perc, 1992; Mar Conc. ‘After Hampton’, 1992; Sym. no.3 ‘Lyric’, 1992; Blue Fiddler, perf. 1996; Fanfare: Strum, perf. 1996; Str Sym., perf. 1999

Concert band: Grand Rondo, 1988; Sun Song, 1991; Concert Dances, perf. 1996; Short Sym., perf. 1996

Chbr and solo inst: Black Roller, fl, ob, cl, bn, vn, va, vc, pf, 1975; Suite, pf, 1976; Argyle Sketches, gui, 1979; Bronze Veils, trbn, perc, 1979; Triage, hp, 1981; Aubade, fl, 1982; Sonata on Kalenda Maya, org, 1983; Alauda, str qt, 1986; Corker, cl, perc, 1989; Kathleen, as she was, ob, hpd, 1989; Trio, va, vc, pf, 1989; Schoenberg, Schenker and Schillinger, str qt, 1991; Blues in 6, cl, pf, perf. 1992; Concert Piece, tuba, pf, perf. 1993; Dancing Solo, cl, perf. 1994; Fanfare for the Women, tpt, perf. 1994; Slang, cl, vn, pf, perf. 1994; Blue Third Pieces, fl, gui, perf. 1996

vocal

Choral: In a Winter Garden (P. Hampl), S, T, SATB, chbr orch, 1982; Clair de lune (P. Verlaine), TTBB, 1985; Coming Forth into Day (orat, J. Sadat and others), S, B, SATB, orch, 1985; Clair de lune in Blue (textless), SATB, pf, 1986; Canticle of the Sun, high vv, perc, synth, org, 1987; The Settling Years, SATB, ww qnt, pf, 1988; 3 Summer Scenes, SATB, orch, 1988; Everyone Sang (S. Sassoon), SATB, hp, 2 perc, 1991; Blessed Mother, Holy Sister (M.K. Dean), SSA, pf, 1992; Eagle Poem (J. Harjo), SATB, pf 4 hands, 1992; Missa Gaia: Mass for the Earth (G.M. Hopkins, M. Kenny, Harjo, Bible), S, SATB, opt. SSA, ob, str, pf 4 hands, 1992; Now I become myself (M. Sarton), S, TTBB, 1992; Speak to the earth and it shall teach thee (Bible: Matthew iii.16, Luke viii.15, Job xii.8), SATB, pf 4 hands, 1992; Within the circle of our lives (W. Berry: Song (4)), SATB, pf 4 hands, 1992; Canticle of Mary (Magnificat, Gregorian hymnal), SSA, pf 4 hands, 1994, orchd; I Just Lightening (M. Sabina), SSAA, perc, 1994; Roll Over Beethoven, SATB, pf, 1994; Fanfare and Alleluia, SATB, brass, org, handbells, chimes, 1995; 7 Ghosts (20th-century biographies), SATB, brass qnt, perc, 1995; Invitation to Music (E. Bishop), SATB, str/pf, 1995; Love and Friendship (E. Brontë), 1996; anthems

Solo vocal: Saints without Tears (P. McGinley), S, fl, bn, 1976; Eurydice, S, str qnt, 1978; Moon Door: Lululu’s Funeral (K. Shimpei), 1v, prep pf, 1976, A Verse Record of my Peonies (M. Shiki), T, perc, tape, 1980; Me (B. Ueland), S, pf, 1987; Black Birds, Red Hills, S, pf, 1989; Songs from Letters (Calamity Jane [M.J. Burke]), S, pf, 1989; Sonnets from the Portuguese, S, chbr orch, 1991; Before Winter (A. Mampel), Bar, org, 1992; Perineo (R. Eshvarren), Bar, pf, 1993; Beloved, thou hast brought me many flowers (R.M. Rilke and others), Mez, vc, pf, 1994; Mary Cassatt (1844–1926), Mez, trbn, orch, slide projection, 1994; Today, this Spring (E. Dickinson, J. Kimes), SA, pf, 1995; Eleanor Roosevelt (cant.), vv, 1996; Margaret Songs (W. Cather, Larsen), S, pf, 1996

Principal publishers: OUP, E.C. Schirmer

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A.I. Cohen: International Encyclopedia of Women Composers (New York, 1981, 2/1982)

L. Larsen: ‘The Nature of Music’, Pan Pipes of Sigma Alpha Iota, lxxvii/wint. (1984–5)

S. Lipman: The Road to Now: Arguing for Music, Arguing for Culture (Boston, 1990)

C. Green: ‘Interview with Composer Libby Larsen’, ILWC Journal (1992), June, 24–7

D. Boyer: ‘Musical Style and Gesture in the Choral Music of Libby Larsen’, Choral Journal, xxxiv/3 (1992–3), 17–28

C.B. Fowler: ‘Three Musical Creators: Aaron Copland, Duke Ellington, Libby Larsen’, Music! its Role and Importance in our Lives (New York, 1994), 330–55 [incl. CD and video]

S. Fuller: Pandora Guide to Women Composers: Britain and the United States, 1629–Present (London, 1994)

J.R. Briscoe: Introduction to L. Larsen: How it Thrills Us, Contemporary Anthology of Music by Women (Bloomington, IN, 1996), 107–18

MARY ANN FELDMAN

Larsén-Todsen, Nanny

(b Hagby, 2 Aug 1884; d Stockholm, 26 May 1982). Swedish soprano. She studied in Stockholm, Berlin and Milan and made her début in 1906 with the Swedish Royal Opera, where she continued to sing until 1923, first in lyric roles, including Donna Anna, Reiza, Aida, Tosca and the Marschallin, before taking on the heavier Wagner repertory. At La Scala (1923–4) she sang Isolde under Toscanini; at the Metropolitan (1925–7) she made her début as Brünnhilde (Götterdämmerung) and, in addition to Wagner, sang Leonore, Rachel (La Juive) and Gioconda. At Covent Garden (1927 and 1930) she sang Brünnhilde, while at Bayreuth (1927–31) her roles were Isolde, Kundry and Brünnhilde. Most notable of her recordings are her Isolde, based on Bayreuth performances of 1928, and Brünnhilde’s Immolation Scene from the same year, which show her strong, evenly produced tone and appreciable sensitivity.

LEO RIEMENS/ALAN BLYTH

Larson brothers.

American makers of fretted instruments. Carl (b 31 Dec 1867; d 4 Sept 1946) and August (b 24 April 1873; d 16 June 1944) Larson emigrated from Sweden to Chicago during the 1880s, and began making instruments in the 1890s. Their guitars were exclusively designed to be fitted with steel strings at a time when almost every other guitar maker used gut. Mandolins of the period were successfully made with steel strings to produce a loud sound. No other American maker before the Larsons had considered the strengthening and modification of construction that a guitar specifically designed for steel strings would require. August Larson obtained a US patent in 1904 for the distinctive laminated braces the Larsons used under their guitar tops. A later Larson design had metal rods within the guitar’s body to provide even greater internal strength. The brothers primarily manufactured guitars, harp-guitars and mandolins with a variety of brand names, including Champion, Dyer, Euphonon, Maurer, Prairie State, Stahl and Stetson. Their Dyer Symphony harp-guitars, based on a design by Chris Knutsen and made in the 1910s and 20s, are among their finest achievements. The firm ceased to operate after the brothers died.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R.C. Hartman: Guitars and Mandolins in America, Featuring the Larsons’ Creations (Schaumburg, IL, 1984, 2/1988)

G. Gruhn and W. Carter: Acoustic Guitars and other Fretted Instruments: a Photographic History (San Francisco, 1993)

S. Chinery and T. Bacon: The Chinery Collection: 150 Years of American Guitars (London, 1996)

TONY BACON

Larsson, Lars-Erik (Vilner)

(b Åkarp, Skåne, 15 May 1908; d Helsingborg, 26 Dec 1986). Swedish composer. After taking the organist’s examination in Växjö (1924), he studied at the Stockholm Conservatory (1925–9) with Ernst Ellberg for composition and Olallo Morales for conducting. While still a student he attracted attention with En spelmans jordafärd (1928) and his First Symphony (1927–8), and in 1929 he received a state composer's grant. In 1929–30 he made a study trip to Vienna and Leipzig, taking lessons from Berg and Fritz Reuter, and in 1930–31 he was a coach at the Royal Theatre, Stockholm. He then taught music in Malmö and Lund and was music critic of the Lunds Dagblad (1933–7). His Sinfonietta, performed at the 1934 ISCM Festival, brought him international recognition and contributed to his growing reputation in the 1930s. He worked for Swedish radio as a conductor, composer and producer (1937–43); from 1945 to 1947 he was supervisor of the non-professional symphony orchestras, and he remained conductor of the radio chamber orchestra until 1953. He was also professor of composition at the Stockholm Conservatory (1947–59) and later director of music at Uppsala University (1961–6). In 1971 he retired to Helsingborg.

As a composer Larsson continually oscillated between Nordic Romanticism, neo-classicism and more unconventional styles (serialism and polytonality). His first works are Sibelian, but his year abroad (1929–30) brought a change: the Ten Two-Part Piano Pieces (1932) include the first examples of 12-note technique in Swedish music, and a string quartet fragment of the same period is in a harsh tonal style reminiscent of Hindemith. Of much greater importance, however, is the Sinfonietta for strings (also 1932), a quite un-Romantic, contrapuntal piece with neo-Baroque motivic work in the outer movements; for a composer of Larsson’s gentle lyrical disposition it is a work of biting aggressiveness. It was followed by a series of successful and entertaining pieces in an increasingly warm, elegant neo-classical style, the Concert Overture no.2 (1934), the Saxophone Concerto (1934), the Little Serenade for strings (1934), the Divertimento no.2 (1935) and the much performed Piano Sonatina no.1 (1936). Works on a larger scale met with less success: both the Second Symphony (1936–7) and the monumental opera Princessen av Cypern (‘The Princess from Cyprus’, 1930–37) were criticized for their mixture of styles, lack of originality and weak ideas, and they were withdrawn, though the symphony was performed again after revision in the 1970s.

Larsson's appointment to the radio service brought another change, and until the mid-1940s he concentrated exclusively on music for broadcasting, the theatre and films. Together with the poet Hjalmar Gullberg he developed a new type of radio programme, the ‘lyrical suite’, consisting of poetry readings interspersed with music. His works in this form included Dagens stunder (1938), from which the Pastoralsvit was compiled for concert performance, Senhöstblad (1938), which produced the Intima miniatyrer for string quartet, and Förklädd gud (‘The Disguised God’, 1940), a more cantata-like piece. In all of these, and particularly in the slower sections, there is a warm Scandinavian Romanticism, though the lively movements still show the airy, witty elegance of Larsson’s neo-classicism. During the war years he also wrote works of contemporary relevance, most notably the Obligationsmarschen (1940), which, in a Norwegian version, played a part in encouraging the resistance movement in Norway.

A return to substantial independent composition came with the First String Quartet (1944) and the Third Symphony (1944–5). In the Cello Concerto (1947) there was another change of direction, best demonstrated in the Musik för orkester (1948–9), one of Larsson's weightiest works. It represents an unconscious approach to Hindemith: there are polytonal tendencies, thematic metamorphosis is used without schematicism on an extended scale and the ideas have a new depth and tension. This direction was continued in the Violin Concerto (1952) and in the 12 concertinos for solo instrument and strings (1953–7), a group designed for skilled amateurs and comparable with Larsson's neo-classical works.

In the late 1950s, Larsson again reviewed his style. There had been 12-note suggestions in the Kyrie of his Missa brevis (1954), and he now developed his own 12-note technique, based not on series but on ‘interval piles’ (four of three notes separated by a major 3rd, or three of four notes separated by a minor 3rd). The few works written in this manner, including the Adagio for strings (1960), the Three Orchestral Pieces (1960) and the Orchestral Variations (1962–3), display an introspective, austere character. Larsson then moved in the opposite direction with the colourful cantata Soluret och urnan (‘The Sundial and the Urn’, 1966) and the Lyrisk fantasi for orchestra (1966). He returned again to neo-classicism in a series of lesser chamber pieces, and in the orchestral Due auguri (1971) and Råå-rokoko (1973) he brought together learning and humour in subtle musical witticism. His last major work, Musica permutatio (1980), is a cool, enigmatic return to his counterpoint of the early 1960s, but without using 12-note technique.

WORKS

(selective list)

dramatic

Princessen av Cypern [The Princess from Cyprus] (op, 4), 1930–37, Stockholm, 1937, withdrawn; Arresten på Bohus [The Arrest on Bohus] (opera bouffe, 2), 1938–9; Linden (ballet), op.46, 1957–8, Stockholm, 1958; numerous scores for the theatre, cinema and radio

orchestral

Sym. no.1, D, op.2, 1927–8; Concert Ov. no.1, op.4, 1929; Symfonisk skiss, op.5, 1930; Divertimento no.1, op.7, chbr orch, 1932; Sinfonietta, op.10, str, 1932; Little Serenade, op.12, str, 1934; Concert Ov. no.2, op.13, 1934; Conc., op.14, sax, str, 1934; Divertimento no.2, op.15, small orch, 1935; Drei Opernbilder [from Princessen av Cypern]; Sym. no.2, 1936–7, withdrawn except for 3rd movt, Ostinato, op.17; En vintersaga, op.18, 1937–8; Pastoralsvit, op.19, 1938 [from lyrical suite Dagens stunder]; Festmusik (Hyllningsmusik), op.22, 1939; Jorden sjunger, op.23, 1940; Gustaviansk svit, op.28, fl, hpd, str, 1944 [from film score Kungajakt]; 2 Pieces, op.32, 1944; Symphony no.3, 1944–5, withdrawn except for 4th movt, Concert Ov., op.34; Vc Conc., op.37, 1947; Musik för orkester, op.40, 1948–9; Vn Conc., op.42, 1952; Concertinos, op.45, 1 inst, str: no.1, fl, 1955; no.2, ob, 1955; no.3, cl, 1957; no.4, bn, 1955; no.5, hn, 1955; no.6, tpt, 1953; no.7, trbn, 1955; no.8, vn, 1956; no.9, va, 1956; no.10, vc, 1956: no.11, db, 1957; no.12, pf, 1957; Adagio, op.48, str, 1960; 3 Orch Pieces, op.49, 1960; Orch Variations, op.50, 1962–3; Lyrisk fantasi, op.54, 1966; Due auguri, op.62, 1971; Råå-rokoko, op.64, 1973; Musica permutatio, op.66, 1980

vocal

Choral: De nakna trädens sånger, male vv, 1932; Förklädd gud [The Disguised God], op.24, spkr, S, Bar, vv, orch, 1940; Väktarsånger [Songs of the Guardian], op.25, spkr, Bar, vv, orch, 1940; Missa brevis, op.43, 3vv, 1954; Intrada solemnis, op.51, vv, brass, org, 1963; Soluret och urnan [The Sundial and the Urn], cant., op.53, Bar, vv, orch, 1966; Tre citat, op.59, vv, 1969

Solo: En spelmans jordafärd, 1v, pf, 1928, orchd; 2 Songs (E. Lindorm), 1v, pf, 1945; 9 Songs (H. Gullberg), 1v, pf, 1946; 8 Songs, op.52, 1964

chamber and instrumental

Sonatina, op.3, vn, pf, 1928; Duo, op.6, vn, va, 1931; 10 2-Part Pf Pieces, 1932; Sonatina no.1, op.16, pf, 1936; Intima miniatyrer, op.20, str qt, 1938 [from lyrical suite Senhöstblad]; Str Qt no.1, d, op.31, 1944; Croquiser, pf, op.38, 1946–7; Sonatina no.2, op.39, pf, 1947; Sonatina no.3, pf, op.41, 1950; Str Qt no.2 (Quartetto alla serenata), op.44, 1955; 12 Little Pf Pieces, op.47, 1960; Quattro tempi, divertimento, op.55, wind qnt, 1968; Easy Pieces, 5 Pieces, 7 Little Fugues with Preludes, opp.56–8, pf, 1969; Sonatina, op.60, vc, pf, 1969; 3 Pieces, op.61, cl, pf, 1970; Aubade, op.63, ob, str trio, 1972; Str Qt no.3, op.65, 1975

Principal publisher: Gehrman

BIBLIOGRAPHY

B. Wallner, H. Blomstedt and F. Lindberg: Lars-Erik Larsson och hans concertinor (Stockholm, 1957)

H. Connor: Samtal med tonsättare [Conversations with composers] (Stockholm, 1971)

G. Bergendal: 33 svenska komponister (Stockholm, 1972)

J. Carlstedt: ‘Lars-Erik Larsson’, Tonsättare om tonsättare, ed. S. Hanson and T. Jennefelt (Stockholm, 1993), 63–71

G. Bergendal: ‘Lars-Erik Larsson’, Musiken in Sverige, iv: Konstmusik, folkmusik, populärmusik 1920–1990, ed. L. Jonsson (Stockholm, 1994), 385–93

GÖRAN BERGENDAL

LaRue, (Adrian) Jan (Pieters)

(b Kisaran, Sumatra, Indonesia, 31 July 1918). American musicologist. He took the SB at Harvard in 1940. He began graduate work at Princeton, where he studied with Roger Sessions and Oliver Strunk and received the MFA in 1942. Returning to Harvard for additional studies, he took courses with Walter Piston, A. Tillman Merritt and Archibald T. Davison; he received the PhD at Harvard in 1952 with a dissertation on Okinawan Classical Songs. He taught at Wellesley College from 1942 to 1943 and 1946 to 1957. He was a professor in the music department at New York University from 1957; he was appointed chairman in 1971. He was chairman of the American Musicological Society from 1966 to 1968. He retired in 1988.

LaRue has done research in both ethnomusicology and historical musicology. His more recent interests include late 18th-century music, style analysis and tools of research, including watermark analysis, study of publishers' catalogues and computer applications in musicology. He has sought to combine and relate these interests through such projects as computer-aided preparation of thematic catalogues and use of the computer for problems of analysis. His examinations of 18th-century publishers' catalogues have furnished information concerning dating of publications, musical tastes and the speed with which music prints became available throughout Europe. His book on style analysis provides both a methodology and a system of analytical symbols for the student. He was the editor of the Wellesley Edition (Wellesley, MA, 1950–75).

WRITINGS

‘Native Music on Okinawa’, MQ, xxxii (1946), 157–70

‘The Okinawan Notation System’, JAMS, iv (1951), 27–35

The Okinawan Classical Songs: an Analytical and Comparative Study (diss., Harvard U., 1952)

‘Bifocal Tonality: an Explanation for Ambiguous Baroque Cadences’, Essays on Music in Honor of Archibald Thompson Davison (Cambridge, MA, 1957), 173–84

‘A System of Symbols for Formal Analysis’, JAMS, x (1957), 25–8; xix (1966), 403–8

‘Harmonic Rhythm in the Beethoven Symphonies’, MR, xviii (1957), 8–20; repr. in The Garland Library of the History of Western Music, ed. E. Rosand, vii (New York, 1985), 72–84

‘Major and Minor Mysteries of Identification in the 18th-Century Symphony’, JAMS, xiii (1960), 181–96

‘Watermarks and Musicology’, AcM, xxxiii (1961), 120–46

‘Significant and Coincidental Resemblances between Classical Themes’, JAMS, xiv (1961), 224–34

ed.: IMSCR VIII: New York 1961

ed., with W. Gerstenberg and W. Rehm: Festschrift Otto Erich Deutsch (Kassel, 1963)

ed., with others: Aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Music: a Birthday Offering to Gustave Reese (New York, 1966/R)

‘Two Problems in Musical Analysis: the Computer Lends a Hand’, Computers in Humanistic Research, ed. E.A. Bowles (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1967), 194–203

with M. Cobin: ‘The Ruge-Seignelay Catalogue: an Exercise in Automated Entries’, Elektronische Datenverarbeitung in der Musikwissenschaft, ed. H. Heckmann (Regensburg, 1967), 41–56

‘Mozart Listings in Some Rediscovered Sale-Catalogues, Breslau 1787–1792’, MJb 1967, 46–51

‘Ten Rediscovered Sale-Catalogues: Leuckart's Supplements, Breslau, 1787–1792’, Musik und Verlag: Karl Vötterle zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. R. Baum and W. Rehm (Kassel, 1968), 424–32

with J.B. Holland: ‘The Sharp Manuscript, London, 1759-ca.1793: a Uniquely Annotated Music Catalogue’, New York Public Library Bulletin, lxxiii (1969), 147–66

‘Fundamental Considerations in Style Analysis’, Notes, xxv (1968–9), 447–62

Guidelines for Style Analysis (New York, 1970, 2/1992)

‘New Directions for Style Analysis’, Musicology and the Computer, Musicology 1966–2000: New York 1965 and 1966, 194–8

‘Mozart or Dittersdorf: KV 84/73q’, MJb 1971–2, 40–49

‘The Background of the Classical Symphony’, The Symphony, ed. U. von Rauchhaupt (London, 1973), 99–110

with H. LaRue: ‘Trade Routes and Time Lag in the Export of Late Eighteenth-Century Opera’, A Musical Offering: Essays in Honor of Martin Bernstein, ed. E.H. Clinkscale and C. Brook (New York, 1977), 183–92

‘Mozart Authentication by Activity Analysis’, Mozart und seine Umwelt: Salzburg 1976 [MJb 1978–9], 209–14

‘Multistage Variance: Haydn's Legacy to Beethoven’, JM, i (1982), 265–74

with C. Cudworth: ‘Thematic Index of English Symphonies’, Music in Eighteenth-Century England: Essays in Memory of Charles Cudworth, ed. C. Hogwood and R. Luckett (Cambridge, 1983), 219–44

with E. Brody: ‘Trois nouvelles études’, MQ, lxxii (1986), 1–15

A Catalogue of 18th-Century Symphonies (Bloomington, IN, 1988–)

‘Bifocal Tonality in Haydn Symphonies’, Convention in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Music: Essays in Honor of Leonard G. Ratner, ed. W. Allanbrook, J. Levy and W. Mahrt (Stuyvesant, NY, 1992), 59–73

with D. Cannata: ‘An Ancient Crisis in Music Bibliography: the Need for Incipits’, Notes, l (1993), 502–18

PAULA MORGAN

La Rue [de Platea, de Robore, de Vico, vander Straeten], Pierre [Perison, Peteren, Petrus, Pierchon, Pieter, Pirson] de

(b ?Tournai, c1452; d Kortrijk, 20 Nov 1518). Franco-Flemish composer. He was one of the most important composers of the late 15th and early 16th centuries, with an extensive and varied output in all major genres of his time.

3. Reputation and significance.

2. Works.

HONEY MECONI

1. Life.

The son of Jehan de la Rue and Gertrud de la Haye, La Rue was almost certainly born in Tournai and educated in the city cathedral’s maîtrise. He is first mentioned, as an adult professional singer, in the records of the cathedral of Ste Gudule in Brussels for 1469/70. This reference, together with the fact that his mother survived him, suggests a birthdate about 1452. He next appears at the Jacobskerk, Ghent, in the account book for 1471/2; other early employment was at Onze Lieve Vrouwkerk, Nieuwpoort (1472/3 to before 1477/8), the church of St Ode (location and date undetermined), an unidentified institution in Cologne (to 1489) and possibly Cambrai Cathedral. The ‘Misser Piero delapiazza’ in Siena thought by Staehelin to be La Rue refers to another musician; so far no evidence places the composer in Italy, making him one of the few major composers of his time not to visit there.

La Rue left Cologne in 1489 for employment at the Confraternity of Our Lady in ’s-Hertogenbosch, where he stayed until 1492. In November of that year, after a gap of up to nine months unaccounted for, he joined the Habsburg-Burgundian chapel, where he was to spend the rest of his professional life; claims as to earlier court associations are based on misreadings of the documents. He served each successive ruler of the court beginning with Maximilian and travelled extensively in the court entourage. Under Maximilian’s son Philip the Fair he made two trips to Spain, the first from 1501 to 1503 (through France to Spain, then back north by way of Habsburg lands) and the second by sea in 1506; bad weather and shipwreck forced a three-month stay in England at the court of Henry VII. Though many chapel members left Spain upon Philip’s death in September 1506, La Rue and others remained there in the service of Juana, Philip’s widow. After power was wrested from Juana in 1508 La Rue returned north, where in the previous year Philip’s sister Marguerite of Austria had assumed the regency of the Low Countries for her young nephew, the future Charles V. In 1516, a year after Charles came of age, La Rue retired to Kortrijk, possibly to avoid another trip to Spain. He drew up his will on 16 June of the same year and died there in 1518.

Despite considerable gaps in the early years, La Rue’s life is thus unusually well-documented and for the most part demonstrates a continual search for better-paid and more prestigious employment, culminating in his membership in one of the largest and most illustrious musical institutions of the time. His longevity at the court is in contrast to the peripatetic lives of his major contemporaries, but certainly the richness of the musical life (colleagues at various times included Agricola, Weerbeke, de Orto, Champion and Divitis) as well as the professional security were reasons to remain. Evidently La Rue gradually assumed a quasi-official status as court composer and probably influenced the compilation of the many musical manuscripts emanating from the court scriptorium, possibly even sometimes acting as scribe. He was rewarded by valuable prebends at St Aubain, Namur, Onze Lieve Vrouwkerk, Kortrijk (where he ultimately retired), Onze Lieve Vrouwkerk, Dendermonde, and St Faraïlde (Sente Verle), Ghent; with the added income from the prebend at St Ode, received before he joined the court, he died a wealthy man.

2. Works.

(i) Sources and chronology.

Sources for La Rue’s music began appearing in the late 15th century and continued until 1617. His lengthy association with the Habsburg-Burgundian court resulted in the transmission of his music throughout Europe, not only through the court’s many travels but also through the extensive series of manuscripts prepared by the scriptorium associated with the court. More than 50 such manuscripts survive today, prepared between the late 15th century and 1534 when the principal scribe Pierre Alamire retired. La Rue is by far the best-represented composer in this complex (see Kellman); five manuscripts are exclusively devoted to his works, with another five each containing only a single work by another composer. His music dominates B-Br 228 and plays a significant role in I-Fc 2439 (two major court chansonniers). As a result we have a series of authenticated works unique for a major composerof his generation; problems of authorship are less pressing than for his contemporaries, though some still remain. In addition, the court was not the only place where La Rue’s music was cultivated; many manuscripts prepared elsewhere (especially Germany), as well as numerous prints beginning with the Odhecaton, disseminated his compositions across the continent. Petrucci devoted one of his earliest mass prints (1503) to La Rue and included his masses and a motet in several anthologies, while Antico, Giunta, Petreius and Formschneider also published complete masses.

Despite the excellent source situation for La Rue’s music, a chronology remains difficult to construct; firm dates of composition exist for very few pieces. By and large his music seems to follow the general trends of the time – masses in earlier sources are more likely to progress in each movement from perfect to imperfect tempus, for example – but stylistic considerations alone are insufficient to place each work. One might expect the six-voice Credo to be a late work, for example, yet it appears in one of the earliest manuscripts to transmit his music.

Staehelin’s suggestion that La Rue composed only during the last 20 or so years of his life seems unlikely in view of the revised birth-date, which makes him about 40 at the time of his court recruitment. But it remains possible that most of what survives dates from his court years; certain aspects of his output suggest a slightly later period of composition than the works of his contemporaries: the number of pieces – especially masses – for more than four voices, the relatively limited use of strict cantus-firmus procedure or fixed forms, the interest in parody. At the same time his intense interest in Marian-inspired works may stem initially from his employment at the Marian brotherhood in ’s-Hertogenbosch.

(ii) Masses and mass movements.

La Rue was one of the most prolific mass composers of his generation. 29 of his masses circulated with ascriptions in Habsburg-Burgundian manuscripts; another work, Missa ‘Jesum liate’, was in a now-lost manuscript belonging to Philip II. Missa ‘Sancta dei genitrix’, despite a garbled attribution in its sole court source, is surely La Rue’s as well. Two other masses, Missa ‘L’homme armé’ (ii) and Missa sine nomine (ii), are anonymous in their sources (manuscripts likewise from the court scriptorium) but are usually considered to be La Rue’s. The anonymous Missa de septem doloribus for four voices (also in a Habsburg-Burgundian manuscript), on the other hand, seems unlikely to be genuine. This leaves undecided only the Missa ‘Fortuna desperata’ attributed to ‘Periquin’ in its unique source.

In contrast to his contemporaries, La Rue drew relatively little on secular models for his masses, using only Urrede’s villancico Nunca fué pena mayor ( ex.1), his own chansons Tous les regretz and Incessament mon pauvre cueur lamente, the popular melodies L’homme armé and Tandernaken, possibly a German tune (in Missa Almana), and perhaps the Italian song Fortuna desperata. More often he turned to chant models, a number of which remain unidentified. In one unusual composition, the Missa de Sancto Job, the chants are drawn from their appearance in Pipelare’s Missa Floruit egregius rather than from original sources (see Bloxam, 1991). La Rue used the motet Ave sanctissima Maria (probably his own) as the basis for one work, and a few masses (the Sine nomine works and the canonic Missa ‘O salutaris hostia’) appear to be completely free. Particularly striking is his practice in certain masses of quoting from a completely separate work at a single point in the cycle: the final Agnus Dei of Missa ‘Ave sanctissima Maria’ uses an unidentified O dulcis amica Dei melody, the Credo of Missa ‘Sancta dei genitrix’ includes part of the L’homme armé tune, the second ‘Osanna’ of the five-voice Missa de septem doloribus quotes the superius of the concluding phrase of Josquin’s Ave Maria, and the final Agnus Dei of Missa ‘L’homme armé’ (i) cites the popular song Tant que nostre argent dura. In a related vein, the ‘Pleni’ of Missa de sancta cruce owes much to the second Agnus Dei of Josquin’s Missa ‘L’ami baudichon’. La Rue’s Missa de Beata Virgine, Missa de feria, Missa de Sancto Job, Missa de septem doloribus, Missa Pascale and Requiem Mass all draw on multiple chants, making him one of the composers most sympathetic to this practice. Finally, in part because he used polyphonic head-motifs in some masses, several scholars have suggested unidentified polyphonic models for some works (e.g. Missa ‘Alleluia’).

La Rue wrote two ostinato masses, Missa ‘Cum iocunditate’ and Missa ‘Sancta dei genitrix’, and two that are completely canonic: Missa ‘O salutaris hostia’, in which a single notated voice generates three others, and Missa ‘Ave sanctissima Maria’, whose six voices are generated by three two-voice canons as in the motet on which it is based. In the other masses La Rue rarely followed strict cantus-firmus procedure, preferring instead to embellish his models and integrate the borrowed material throughout the texture, making him of singular importance in the history of the paraphrase mass. He is also a composer of crucial significance in the early parody or ‘imitation’ mass. Both his Missa ‘Nuncqua fué pena mayor’ (a cantus-firmus mass with extensive ancillary borrowings from the polyphonic model) and his eight-voice Credo ‘Angeli archangeli’ (based on Isaac’s six-voice motet) point the way towards the full-fledged parody technique he employed in three masses, Missa ‘Tous les regretz’, Missa ‘Incessament mon pauvre cueur lamente’, and Missa ‘Ave sanctissima Maria’. These masses are noteworthy not only because two of them use secular models but also because La Rue turned exclusively to his own pieces as sources for inspiration. Further, they solve a series of compositional problems of increasing difficulty: Missa ‘Tous les regretz’, for four voices, is based on a straightforward rondeau cinquain; Missa ‘Incessament’, for five voices, has a two-voice canon as its foundation throughout, as does its model; Missa ‘Ave sanctissima Maria’, for six voices, is completely canonic, its triple canons matching those of its model. La Rue is alone among his contemporaries in displaying so much interest in this newest type of mass.

La Rue typically wrote for equal voices and constantly varied his texture within individual movements. Like Josquin, he was extremely fond of paired voices, and used them frequently to provide contrast and lighten the texture. He made use of both homophonic sections and non-imitative polyphony, but imitative writing is by far the most common texture, with melodic entries occurring at times on unusual intervals. He is widely recognized for his contrapuntal mastery, and his masses demonstrate numerous instances of strict canonic writing. In addition to the two completely canonic works cited above, three others are based on a structural foundation of two voices in canon: Missa de feria, Missa ‘Incessament’, and Missa ‘L’homme armé’ (ii). Five more masses contain one or more canon-based or totally canonic sections. Perhaps the most interesting of this last group are the canons found in Missa ‘L’homme armé’ (i), where each of the three sections of the Kyrie has two voices in a mensuration canon, and where the second Agnus Dei is a mensuration canon in which all four voices are derived from one – in all probability La Rue was attempting to surpass the second Agnus Dei of Josquin’s Missa ‘L’homme armé’ super voces musicales.

La Rue’s love of variety is also evident in his treatment of melodic material, both borrowed material and that of his own invention. Varied repetition is the norm; the constantly changing rhythms of the ostinato in Missa ‘Cum iocunditate’ are a good example of his reluctance to use exact repetition. La Rue was also fond of melodies that keep circling gracefully back to the same pitch, approaching it in continually shifting ways. He frequently played with motifs that thoroughly explore a limited range in this manner, often using syncopated rhythms. Motifs are often inspired by specific intervals that then pervade the melody, and individual lines are at times composed of a string of related ideas. These types of writing provide a subtle yet satisfying sense of unification. For contrast La Rue sometimes wrote wide-ranging lines, melodies employing large leaps, and phrases that immediately repeat themselves an octave higher. Other devices found in his music are sequences, ostinati (especially in the lowest voice) and passages in parallel 3rds or 6ths.

Two Kyries and five independent Credos are usually considered La Rue’s (the five-voice Kyrie is anonymous in its two sources, both from the court, but has never been seriously questioned). Two of these movements are evidently free, while three draw on liturgically appropriate chant (one in a Credo de villagiis). Another Credo uses the monophonic song L’amour du moy, freely treated, while the extended eight-voice Credo ‘Angeli archangeli’ borrows from Isaac’s motet both polyphonically and monophonically (the tenor of Binchois’ Comme femme as used by Isaac). The six-voice Credo, evidently an early work, is La Rue’s only composition for so many voices that does not employ canon.

(iii) Other sacred music.

La Rue’s motets are less well represented than the masses in court sources. 13 of 25 surviving works appear with attributions in court manuscripts; six works circulate only in non-court sources, often posthumous German prints (though a number of ‘motets’ in these sources are actually contrafacta of mass movements and chansons; see Davison, 1962). Of the other half dozen, all anonymous in court collections, two are ascribed to La Rue elsewhere, while the remaining four (including O salutaris hostia, which takes the place of the first Osanna in all sources of Missa de Sancta Anna) have been attributed to La Rue by modern scholars only. Of this last group, the most dramatic reattribution is that for Absalon fili mi; van Benthem and Rifkin independently gave reasons for moving its authorship from Josquin to La Rue (for opposing arguments see Milsom, 1993, and Davison, 1996; for support see Meconi, 1998).

The stylistic traits of La Rue’s masses carry over into his motets, with continued interest in strict canon. Three motets are totally canonic (Ave sanctissima Maria, six voices derived from three two-voice canons; Da pacem domine, four voices derived from two; and Salve regina (i), four derived from one) while two others add a free voice or voices to a canonic foundation (Laudate Dominum and Pater de coelis, Deus). 16 motets are in two or more sections, and they range in length from the brief O salutaris hostia (34 breves) to the massive Salve mater salvatoris (300 breves). Almost all the works are for four voices; the few exceptions are all unusual in other ways as well (Ave sanctissima Maria and Pater de coelis, Deus employ canon, Maria mater gratie/Fors seulement uses a voice from Ockeghem’s chanson, and both Sancta Maria virgo and Si dormiero are sacred tricinia).

Somewhat more than half the motets use (or appear to use) pre-existing material; although this is usually the same chant that supplies the text for the derived work, La Rue borrowed on one occasion from Ockeghem and, in Salve regina (iv), from both Du Fay’s Par le regard and Binchois’s Je ne vis oncques la pareille. As in the masses, some models elude identification (such as that for Sancta Maria virgo), and the impetus behind certain possibly occasional compositions (e.g. Quis dabit pacem) remains obscure. More than half the motets have Marian themes, and the presence of six Salve regina settings is particularly striking. Only two psalm motets (possibly late works) survive, neither in a court source.

La Rue also wrote a complete set of Magnificat settings on every tone, apparently the first composer to do so. The setting for the third tone is now unfortunately lost; the surviving ones all set even verses only. These are well-authenticated, all but one appearing with attribution in court manuscripts. The set of Lamentations attributed to La Rue in a late German print, however, is more likely to be by Stephan Mahu.

(iv) Secular music.

Recent stylistic analysis has eliminated many secular works previously considered to be La Rue’s (see Meconi, 1986), but suggestions that anonymous pieces should be attributed to him are swelling the corpus anew. Two dozen works with contemporary ascriptions remain, all but one transmitted in court chansonniers; modern scholars have attributed to La Rue another 22 anonymous compositions found in court manuscripts. Of the unquestioned two dozen, most are for four voices, with three for three voices and another four for five voices. Because the bulk of La Rue’s chansons appear to have been written later than those of Agricola and Compère, his works are in general more forward-looking, and they constitute an important portion of the pre-‘Parisian’ repertoire. Only three of the attributed chansons, A vous non autre, Ce n’est pas jeu and De l’oeil de la fille du roy, are in the formes fixes (all rondeaux), and all are likely to be early compositions. One work is strophic: Pour ung jamais on a text by Marguerite of Austria. Other works set poems that may be rondeau refrains for which additional text is unknown, but it is unclear what La Rue’s intentions were. In some instances (e.g. Tous nobles cueurs), full text exists, but the music precludes performance as a fully-texted rondeau. Free works are usually through-composed but sometimes involve the repetition of an earlier section of music (e.g. Mijn hert).

La Rue made relatively little use of borrowed material in his secular music; even the two works in the style of four-part arrangements (Autant en emporte le vent and Dedans bouton) avoid the use of popular melodies. His ventures into the genre of art-song reworkings all draw on models by Ockeghem (D’ung aultre aymer, Ma bouche rit and Fors seulement, the last inspiring one sacred and two secular settings by La Rue). His motet-chanson Plorer, gemir, crier/Requiem, which uses the introit for the Requiem Mass, is likely to be in commemoration of the older composer as well.

La Rue’s secular works demonstrate the same stylistic traits as his sacred ones, with however considerably less interest in homophony and somewhat less use of canon. Only one chanson, En espoir vis, is completely canonic (two two-voice canons). Three of the five-voice chansons (Cent mille regretz, Incessament mon pauvre cueur lamente and one of the Fors seulement settings) are based on a strict canon between the two lowest voices, a procedure evidently unique to La Rue (see Bernstein). Inclusion of the anonymous chansons proposed by modern scholars augments rather than changes the formal and stylistic picture sketched above, adding six rondeaux, two more chant-based motet-chansons (one of which is also a rondeau), a canon for six voices derived from three two-voice canons, five works adding free voices to a canonic foundation, one piece based on a monophonic song, and several free compositions.

3. Reputation and significance.

La Rue was cited in Molinet’s famous déploration on the death of Ockeghem, Nymphes des bois (set by Josquin), and appeared regularly thereafter in literary and theoretical lists of noteworthy composers, including the foreword to Monteverdi’s fifth book of madrigals. Praised by Glarean, Martin Luther, Zarlino and many others, his music enjoyed a special vogue in Germany after his death, prompting misattributions similar to those for Josquin, if not so extensive. Modern scholars have noted his significance for more than two centuries – Burney published the Benedictus from Missa de Beata Virgine – yet the lack of a complete critical edition has severely hindered attempts to evaluate and understand La Rue’s work as well as its influence on subsequent composers. He is perhaps best known as a composer of canons, and certainly the frequency of strict canon in his output is surpassed only by Josquin among composers of his generation. Yet there is considerably more to his music. His tendency to paraphrase and integrate melodic lines, whether original or borrowed, creates tightly unified compositions; his mastery of textural variety generates continual aural interest. Although usually considered a composer only peripherally concerned with textual meaning, La Rue wrote several works that display considerable rhetorical power, including Pourquoy non and Considera Israel; in the latter work the switch to a series of repeated breves in the top voice for the words ‘non sunt divisi’ is but one of several examples of clear word-painting in his music. Further, the use of homophonic and syllabic sections to emphasize specific phrases is frequent in his compositions.

La Rue expanded the contemporary sound-world in several significant ways. He used signed accidentals to a greater degree than his contemporaries, going as far as D in Pourquoy non and G in Absalon fili mi, where this employment of flats is one argument in favour of his authorship. He also employed extremely low ranges more frequently than any contemporary or predecessor. About two-thirds of the masses extend below the gamut, eleven of these to E, D, C, or even B; similar instances of writing for extremely low voices occur in both the motets and chansons. La Rue also had a distinctive style of dissonance and harmonic relations, with a high tolerance for parallel perfect intervals and casual dissonances. While certain of his pieces seem to lack a coherent tonal plan, others display striking and clearly intentional harmonic shifts (ex.1). Despite differences in style, La Rue’s music was probably most strongly influenced by that of Josquin, which he certainly knew; he may even have met the composer himself during the court’s travels. In any event, there are curious parallels between the works of the two that, combined with La Rue’s borrowings from Josquin, suggest that La Rue felt a rivalry even if Josquin did not.

Several of La Rue’s compositions served as models for his contemporaries and successors, and according to one early source he was even considered (probably erroneously) the composer of the famous and much-borrowed Een vrolic wesen. His single authenticated Flemish work, Mijn hert, inspired a group of derivative settings, and the second section of Sancta Maria virgo was reworked by Craen in Ecce video. Gascongne used both Mijn hert and Pourquoy non as models for parody Masses, while La Rue’s Missa de feria may have inspired Févin’s. Other instances of direct borrowing may come to light as La Rue’s work becomes better known. A more general influence will probably be found in the succeeding generation of northern composers, including Gombert, Richafort and Manchicourt.

His significance for now thus rests on the quantity, type and quality of his compositions as well as a number of historic firsts. Among his peers, only Josquin, Isaac and Mouton surpassed him in sheer number of works. Taken as a whole, his output presents a liturgical completeness of a kind unequalled among his contemporaries: a set of masses for the most important Marian feasts, another series of miscellaneous Marian masses, masses for the dead, the blessed sacrament, the holy cross, Christmas, Easter and daily use, a complete Magnificat cycle and settings of three of the four most important Marian antiphons, including an astonishing six versions of Salve regina. His Requiem Mass is among the earliest polyphonic treatments to survive, his Magnificat cycle was apparently the first ever composed, his Missa ‘Ave sanctissima Maria’ is possibly the earliest six-voice mass and certainly the first wholly canonic one, and he was a pioneer in writing full-fledged parody masses. He is important as well in the history of the paraphrase mass and the turn-of-the century chanson. In respect of the quality and inventiveness of his music, he was second only to Josquin among the composers of his generation.

conjecturally attributed works

WORKS

For full source information see the Opera omnia for sacred works, Meconi (1986) for secular works. Only additional sources are listed below.

Editions: Pierre de la Rue: Opera omnia, ed. N.S.J. Davison, J.E. Kreider and T.H. Keahey, CMM, xcvii/1– (1989–) [D]

Trésor musical: musique profane, ed. R.J. van Maldeghem, années i–xxix (Brussels, 1865–93/R) [VMP]

Trésor musical: musique religieuse, ed. R.J. van Maldeghem, années i–xxix (Brussels, 1865–93/R) [VMR]

Georg Rhau: Musikdrucke aus den Jahren 1538–1545 in praktischer Neuausgabe, ed. I.-M. Schröder and others (Kassel, 1955–) [RhauM]

M. Picker: The Chanson Albums of Marguerite of Austria (Berkeley, 1965) [P]

H. Meconi: Style and Authenticity in the Secular Music of Pierre de la Rue (diss., Harvard U., 1986) [M]

doubtful and misattributed works

masses

Missa ‘Alleluia’, 5vv, D i

Missa Almana [Missa ‘Pourquoy non’, sexti ut fa], 4vv, D i (not on La Rue’s chanson)

Missa ‘Assumpta est Maria’, 4vv, D i (c.f. ant for Assumption of BVM)

Missa ‘Ave Maria’ [Missa de annuntiatione Maria], 4–5vv, D i (c.f. ant for Annunciation)

Missa ‘Ave sanctissima Maria’ [Missa de Beata Virgine], 6vv, D i (on motet conjecturally attrib. La Rue; unknown melody O dulcis amica Dei in 2nd Ag; motet Te decet laus appended in I-Rvat C.S.36)

Missa ‘Conceptio tua’, 5vv, D ii (c.f. ant for Conception of BVM)

Missa ‘Cum iocunditate’ [Missa ‘Dirige’], 4–5vv, D ii (c.f. ant for Nativity of BVM; incorrectly ascribed to Josquin in I-Ma E 46 Inf.)

Missa de Beata Virgine [Missa super ‘Coronatum’, de domina, ‘Salve sancta parens’], 4vv, D ii (c.f.s Ky IX, Gl IX with trope ‘Spiritus et alme’, Cr IV, San IX, Ag XVII; Cr called ‘Patrem Cardinal’ in I-Bsp A.38)

Missa de feria, 5vv, D ii (c.f.s Gl XV, Cr I, Ag XV; ‘motet’ Ne temere quid loquaris in Grove6 is contrafactum of 2nd Ag; probably inspired Févin, Missa de feria; new sources of 2nd Ag, 1545⁶, A-Wn 18832, D-Mbs 260)

Missa de Sancta Anna [Missa ‘Felix Anna’], 4vv, D ii (c.f. ?ant for St Anne in use of Paris; motet O salutaris hostia in place of 1st ‘Osanna’)

Missa de sancta cruce [Missa ‘Nos autem gloriari’], 5vv, D iii (c.f. int for Finding of the Holy Cross and Exaltation of the Holy Cross; ‘Pleni’ related to 2nd Ag of Josquin, Missa ‘L’ami baudichon’)

Missa de Sancto Antonio [Missa ‘O sacer Anthoni’, ‘Agnosce o Vincenti’], 4vv, D iii (c.f. ant for St Anthony, with altered text)

Missa de Sancto Job [Missa ‘Floruit egregius’], 4vv, D iii (c.f.s chants from rhymed office for St Livinus as used in Pipelare, Missa ‘Floruit egregius’)

Missa de septem doloribus [Missa de doloribus], 5vv, D iii (unidentified c.f. with texts of invitatory and seq for Seven Sorrows of Mary, also unidentified ‘Trenosa compassio’; 2nd ‘Osanna’ uses Sup of concluding phrase of Josquin, Ave Maria … virgo serena; new source of ‘Pleni’, A-Wn 18832)

Missa de virginibus [Missa ‘O quam pulchra’], 4vv, D iii

Missa ‘Incessament’, 5vv, D iv (on La Rue’s chanson)

Missa ‘Inviolata’, 4vv, D iv (c.f. seq for BVM)

Missa ‘Ista est speciosa’ [Missa de sanctissima virgine Maria], 5vv, D iv (c.f. ant for BVM)

Missa ‘Jesum liate’, 4vv, lost (known from 1602 inventory of Philip II’s library; see Vander StraetenMPB, viii, 379)

Missa ‘L’homme armé’ (i), 4vv, D iv (c.f. monophonic chanson; also uses monophonic chanson Tant que nostre argent dura in B of 3rd Ag)

Missa ‘Nuncqua fué pena maior’, 4vv, D iv (on Urrede’s villancico; ascription in index of D-Ju 22)

Missa ‘O gloriosa domina’ [Missa ‘O gloriosa Margaretha’], 4vv, D v (c.f. plainsong hymn)

Missa ‘O salutaris hostia’, 4vv, D v

Missa pascale [Missa ‘Resurrexi’], 5vv, D v (c.f.s 7 chants from Easter liturgy)

Missa pro fidelibus defunctis [Missa pro defunctis], 4–5vv, D v (c.f.s appropriate chants from Requiem Mass)

Missa ‘Puer natus est’ [Missa de nativitate Christi], 4vv, D v (c.f. int for 3rd Mass of Christmas)

Missa ‘Sancta dei genitrix’, 4vv, D vi; ‘Pleni’ ascribed to La Rue in 1545⁶; ascribed to Petrus la ?Vic in only complete source, D-Ju 21 (on 7-note ostinato, as well as monophonic chanson L’homme armé in B of Cr)

Missa sine nomine (i), 4vv, D vi

Missa ‘Sub tuum praesidium’ [Missa quarti toni], 4vv , D vi (c.f. Marian ant; ascribed in 1539² to both La Rue and Josquin)

Missa ‘Tandernaken’, 4vv, D vi (c.f. monophonic Flemish song; ‘motet’ Frange esurienti in Grove6 is contrafactum of 2nd Ag)

Missa ‘Tous les regretz’, 4vv, D vi (on La Rue’s chanson; two distinct versions)

mass movements

Kyrie in festo pasche, 4vv, D vii (c.f. Ky I)

Credo, 4vv, D vii

Credo, 6vv, D vii

Credo ‘Angeli archangeli’, 8vv, D vii (on Isaac’s motet with c.f. T of Binchois’s chanson Comme femme)

Credo de villagiis, 4vv, D vii (c.f. Cr I; used as Cr of Obrecht, Missa ‘Sicut spina rosam’ in I-Rvat CS 160)

Credo ‘L’amour du moy’, 4vv, D vii (c.f. monophonic chanson)

magnificat settings

all settings of even verses only

Magnificat primi toni, 3–6vv, D viii

Magnificat secundi toni, 2–4vv, D viii

Magnificat tertii toni, lost (implied by entry ‘de ocho tonos de mañificas de musica, de Pedro De La Rua’ in 1612 inventory of Philip II’s library; see Vander StraetenMPB, viii, 367)

Magnificat quarti toni, 3–4vv, D viii

Magnificat quinti toni, 2–4vv, D viii

Magnificat sexti toni, 3–5vv, D viii

Magnificat septimi toni, 3–4vv, D viii

Magnificat octavi toni, 2–4v, D viii

motets

contrafacta not included

Ave regina caelorum [Ave apertor caelorum], 4vv, D ix (? chant c.f.)

Considera Israel, 4vv, D ix (probably written for Marguerite of Austria on death of Philip the fair; 4p. Doleo super te also exists independently)

Da pacem domine, 4vv , D ix (c.f. ant for peace)

Delicta iuventutis, 4vv, D ix (two versions of text, each drawing briefly on office for the dead; possibly written on death of Philip the Fair)

Gaude virgo, 4vv, D ix (?c.f. ps tone 7; text attributed to St Thomas Becket)

Lauda anima mea dominum (Ps cxlvi), 4vv, D ix (c.f. tonus peregrinus)

Laudate dominum (Ps cxvii), 4vv, D ix

O domine Jesu Christe, 4vv, D ix

O salutaris hostia, 4vv, D ii and D ix (substitutes for 1st ‘Osanna’ of Missa de Sancta Anna; also exists independently without ascription)

Pater de coelis deus, 6vv, D ix (text is a collection of responses associated with the Trinity)

Quis dabit pacem, 4vv, D ix (textless; a text by Seneca with this beginning was set by Isaac)

Regina celi, 4vv, D ix

Salve Jesu, 6vv, lost (known from 1602 inventory of Philip II’s library; see Vander StraetenMPB, viii, 370)

Salve mater salvatoris, 4vv, D ix (melodic similarities to seq with same opening; text is prayer for Assumption of the BVM, adapted with references to Marguerite of Austria as governor of the Low Countries)

Salve regina (i), 4vv, D ix (canon melody related to Marian ant)

Salve regina (ii), 4vv, D ix (c.f. Marian ant)

Salve regina (iii), 4vv, D ix (c.f. Marian ant)

Salve regina (iv), 4vv, D ix (alternatim setting; c.f.s Marian ant, Sup of Du Fay, Par le regard, and Sup of Binchois, Je ne vis oncques)

Salve regina (v), 4vv, D ix (alternatim setting; c.f. Marian ant)

Salve regina (vi), 4vv, D ix (c.f. Marian ant)

Sancta Maria virgo, 3vv, D ix (textless; B shares material with Il viendra and Pourquoy tant; 2p. is model for Craen, Ecce video; see Meconi, 1991, on genre)

Si dormiero [O mitis mater Christi], 3vv, D ix (see Meconi, 1991, on genre and related works; also ascribed to Isaac, Agricola and Finck)

Vexilla regis/Passio domini, 4vv, D ix (text and c.f. hymn for Passion Sunday; T uses text of two passages from Matthew, c.f. formulae from the Passion lessons)

secular works

Autant en emporte le vent, 4vv, P; ed. in Cw iii (1929)

A vous non autre, 3vv, rondeau, P (rondeau cinquain; altered text in two sources, probably for Marguerite of Austria)

Ce n’est pas jeu, 4vv, rondeau, P (rondeau quatrain)

Cent mille regretz, 5vv, M; ed. A. Smijers, Werken van Josquin des Près: Wereldlijke werken, i, afl.8 (Amsterdam, 1925) (ascribed to Josquin in Trente sixiesme livre, Paris, 1550)

Dedans bouton, 4vv, M (?for a member of the Bouton family of courtiers)

De l’oeil de la fille du roy, 4vv, rondeau, P (rondeau cinquain; ?for Marguerite of Austria)

D’ung aultre aymer, 5vv, M; ed. R. Taruskin, D’ung aultre amer (Miami, 1983) (textless; T of Ockeghem’s rondeau in 2nd T)

En espoir vis, 4vv, M; ed. G. Dottin, Douze canons du XVIe siècle a 4 voix mixtes (Paris, 1971)

Fors seulement (i), 4vv, M; ed. F. J. Giesbert, Ein altes Spielbuch (Mainz, 1936); ed. M. Picker, Fors seulement (Madison, 1981) (textless; Sup of Ockeghem’s rondeau in A)

Fors seulement, 5vv, M; ed. M. Picker, Fors seulement (Madison, 1981) (textless; Sup of Ockeghem’s rondeau in Sup)

Il est bien heureux, 4vv, P (attrib. La Rue in P. Aaron: Toscanello in musica, 2/1529, ‘Aggiunta’)

Il viendra le jour désiré, 4vv, P (? response to Pourquoy tant; B shares material with Pourquoy tant and Sancta Maria virgo)

Incessament mon pauvre cueur lamente [Sic Deus dilexit], 5vv, M; ed. A. Smijers, Werken van Josquin des Près: Wereldlijke werken, i, afl.8 (Amsterdam, 1925) (? refrain only of rondeau cinquain; ascribed to Josquin in Trente sixiesme livre, Paris, 1550)

Ma bouche rit, 4vv, M (textless; T of Ockeghem’s virelai in T)

Mijn hert heeft altijt, 4vv, P (ascribed to Obrecht in CH-SGs 463; model for Mass by Gascongne, anon. setting in 1538⁹ and elsewhere, setting by Cornelius Rigo de Bergis, anon. Salve regina in D-Mbs 34)

Plorer, gemir, crier/Requiem, 4vv, M (c.f. int from Requiem Mass; ? lament for Ockeghem)

Pour ce que je suis [Puisque je suis], 4vv, P

Pourquoy non, 4vv, P (model for Mass by Gascongne)

Pourquoy tant, 4vv, P (? paired with Il viendra; B shares material with Il viendra and Sancta Maria virgo)

Pour ung jamais [Fraw margretsen lied, Nos debemus gratias, Pour vous james], 3vv, P (setting of strophic poem by Marguerite of Austria; addl A in D-Rp C120)

Secretz regretz [Carmen in la], 4vv, P

Tous les regretz, 4vv, P (rondeau cinquain by Octavien de Saint-Gelais; ascribed to Josquin in D-Rp C120)

Tous nobles cueurs, 3vv, P (refrain only of rondeau cinquain by Octavien de Saint-Gelais)

Trop plus secret, 4vv, P

conjecturally attributed works

Missa ‘Fortuna desperata’, 4vv (c.f. T of ?Busnoys’ chanson; ascribed to ‘Periquin’ in E-TZ 3; unlikely to be by Pierrequin de Therache; see Kreitner), authenticity uncertain

Missa ‘L’homme armé’ (ii), 4vv, D vii; anon. in only sources, 2 Habsburg-Burgundian MSS; attrib. La Rue in K.E. Roediger: Die geistlichen Musikhandschriften der Universitäts-Bibliothek Jena (Jena, 1935); accepted by Robijns (1954) and in MGG1, but questioned in Grove6 (c.f. monophonic chanson)

Missa sine nomine (ii), 4vv, D vii; anon. in D-Ju 12 from Habsburg-Burgundian court and only other source, F 2; attrib. La Rue in MGG1 and J.M. Llorens: Capellae Sixtinae codices (Vatican City, 1960), but questioned in Grove6

Kyrie pascale, 5vv, D vii; anon. in only sources, 2 Habsburg-Burgundian MSS; attrib. La Rue in Rubsamen (1937) (c.f. Ky I)

Absalon fili mi, 4vv, D ix; ascribed to Josquin in 1540⁷ and two dependent sources; anon. in Habsburg-Burgundian court MS GB-Lbl Roy.8.G.VII; attrib. La Rue by van Benthem (1989), Rifkin, Meconi (1998); questioned by Milsom, Davison (1996) (probably written for Maximilian on death of Philip the Fair)

Ave sanctissima Maria, 6vv, D ix; ascribed to Verdelot/Claudin in 1534⁵, anon. in Habsburg-Burgundian court MS B-Br 228; attrib. La Rue in VMR xviii and generally accepted as his (model for La Rue’s mass) (3 2-voice canons)

Maria mater gratie/Fors seulement, 5vv, P; anon. in only sources, A-Wn 18746 and B-Br 228; attrib. La Rue in VMR xix, Picker (1965) (c.f. T of Ockeghem’s chanson in B2)

Te decet laus, 5vv, D i and D ix; anon. in only source, I-Rvat C.S.36, where it follows Missa ‘Ave sanctissima Maria’, headed ‘loco Deo gracias’; attrib. La Rue by L. Feininger in Documenta polyphoniae liturgicae sanctae ecclesiae romanae, ser.1B, i (Rome, 1950)

Adieu comment, 5vv; anon. in A-Wn 18746; attrib. La Rue in Bernstein

Aprez regretz, 4vv, P; anon. in B-Br 228; attrib. La Rue in VMP xxii, Picker (1965), Milsom (rondeau cinquain)

Ce m’est tout ung, 4vv, P; anon. in Br 228; attrib. La Rue in VMP xxi, Picker (1965), Milsom

C’est ma fortune, 4vv, P; anon. in Br 228; attrib. La Rue in VMP xxii, Picker (1965), Milsom (rondeau cinquain)

Changier ne veulx, 4vv, P; anon. in Br 228; attrib. La Rue in Picker (1965), Milsom (rondeau quatrain)

Cueurs desolez/Dies illa, 5vv, P; ed. in Cw iii (1929); anon. in Br 228; attrib. La Rue in VMP xxii, Picker (1965), Milsom (rondeau cinquain; c.f. 3rd verse of resp Libera me from Requiem Mass; poem on death of Jean de Luxembourg, Seigneur de Ville, in 1508 by ?Jean Lemaire)

Dueil et ennuy, 5vv, P; anon. in A-Wn 18746 and B-Br 228; attrib. La Rue in VMP xxi, Picker (1965), Bernstein, Milsom

Dulces exuvie, 4vv, P; anon. in Br 228; attrib. La Rue in VMP xviii, Milsom (text from Aeneid)

Helas, fault il, 4vv, P; anon. in Br 228; attrib. La Rue in VMP xxii, Picker (1965)

Il me fait mal, 3vv, P; anon. in Br 228; attrib. La Rue in VMP xxii, Picker (1965) (? response to Me fauldra il; ? poem by La Rue)

J'ay mis mon cueur, 3vv, P; anon. in Br 228; attrib. La Rue in Picker (1965) (refrain of monophonic virelai)

Je n’ay regretz, 5vv; anon. in A-Wn 18746; attrib. La Rue in Bernstein

Je ne dis mot, 6vv, P; anon. in B-Br 228; attrib. La Rue in Picker (1965), Milsom (3 2-voice canons)

Je ne scay plus, 3vv, P; anon. in Br 228; attrib. La Rue in Picker (1965), Milsom

Las, helas, las, seray-je repris?, 4vv, P; anon. in Br 228; attrib. La Rue in Picker (1965), Milsom (rondeau cinquain)

Me fauldra il, 4vv, P; anon. in Br 228; attrib. La Rue in VMP xxii, Picker (1965) (? poem by Marguerite of Austria; ? paired with Il me fait mal)

Plusieurs regretz, 4vv, P; anon. in Br 228; attrib. La Rue in Picker (1965), Milsom

Quant il advient, 5vv, P; anon. in Br 228; attrib. La Rue in VMP xxii, Milsom

Quant il survient, 4vv, P; ed. in Cw iii (1929); anon. in Br 228; attrib. La Rue in VMP xxi, Picker (1965), Milsom (rondeau quatrain)

Sailliés avant, 5vv; anon. in A-Wn 18746; attrib. La Rue in Bernstein; attrib. Josquin in J. van Benthem, TVNM, xxii (1971–2), 21–9

Se je souspire/Ecce iterum, 3vv, P; anon. in B-Br 228; attrib. La Rue in Milsom (on death of Philip the Fair; ? French poem and Latin text of 1p. by Marguerite of Austria; c.f. of 2p. from Lamentations, tone for 3rd lesson of Tenebrae)

Soubz ce tumbel, 4vv, P; anon. in Br 228; attrib. La Rue in VMP xxii, Milsom; attrib. Josquin in Picker (1965) and others (setting of J. Lemaire, ‘L’epitaphe de l’amant vert’)

doubtful and misattributed works

Missa ‘Coronata’, 4–5vv, ed. A. Smijers, Werken van Josquin des Près: Missen, iii, afl.30–31 (Amsterdam, 1952); ascribed to La Rue in Weimar, Bibliothek der Evangelisch-Lutherischen Kirchengemeinde, MS B, but by Josquin (his Missa de Beata Virgine)

Missa de septem doloribus, 4vv; anon. in only source, B-Br 215–16 (from Habsburg-Burgundian court); possibility of La Rue’s authorship first examined in Robijns, 1954

Missa ‘Iste confessor domini’, 4vv, D vii; ascribed to La Rue in P-Cug 2, but by Févin (his Missa O quam glorifica)

Magnificat quarti toni, 4vv, ed. A. Smijers and A. Antonowycz, Werken van Josquin des Près: Motetten, v, afl.47 (Amsterdam, 1958); ascribed to La Rue in I-MOd III, elsewhere to Josquin, Agricola and Brumel; probably by Josquin

Lamentationes Hieremiae, 2–6vv, D viii; ascribed to La Rue in 1549¹, portions ascribed elsewhere to Stephan Mahu, Antoine de Févin and Forster; one section by Févin, the rest probably by Mahu

Anima mea liquefacta est, 4vv, P; attrib. La Rue in VMR xviii, but actually by Weerbeke

Domini est terra, 4vv, inc., D ix; ascribed to La Rue in lost T book originally belonging to D-Bga 7

Passio domini nostri, 4vv, ed. in RhauM, x (1990); New Obrecht Edition, xviii (1999); ascribed to La Rue in D-Dl 505, elsewhere to Obrecht, Longueval and Jo. a la Venture; by Longueval

Proch dolor/Pie Jhesu, 7vv, P; anon. in B-Br 228; attrib. La Rue in VMR xix, but written for death of Maximilian (1519) and hence not by La Rue; attrib. Josquin in Picker (1965)

Salva nos domine, 4vv, ed. in RhauM, iii (1959); ascribed to La Rue in 1538⁸, but contrafactum of 3rd Agnus Dei of Isaac’s Missa Salva nos

Sancta Maria succurre miseris/O werder mondt, 4vv, P; anon. in Br 228; attrib. La Rue in VMR xix, but by Franciscus Strus

Stabat mater/Comme femme, 5vv, ed. A. Smijers, Werken van Josquin des Près: Motetten, ii, afl.21 (Amsterdam, 1942); attrib. La Rue in SchmidlD and elsewhere, but by Josquin

Virga tua, 2vv, D ix; ascribed to La Rue in D-Rp 220–22, but probably by Pipelare (setting of grad text from Requiem Mass; c.f. chant Si ambulem)

Ach hülff mich leid, 4vv, M; ed. in SMd, v (1967); ascribed to La Rue in CH-Bu F.X.1–4; elsewhere to Josquin, Bauldeweyn and Hans Buchner; probably by Buchner

Adieu Florens la jolie [Carmen in sol], 4vv, M; ed. in MRM, vii (1983); ascribed to La Rue in A-Wn 18810, but by Pietrequin Bonnel

Au feu d’amour, 4vv, M; ed. H. Riemann, Musikgeschichte in Beispielen (Leipzig, 1911–12, 2/1921); ed. in Meconi (1997); ascription to ‘La Rue’ in 1541⁶ and elsewhere refers to Robert de la Rue

Buccucia dolce chiu che canamielle, 4vv, ed. in RRMR, xxx (1978); ascription to ‘Piersson’ in 1548¹¹, thought by Ambros to be La Rue, actually refers to Perissone Cambio

Car dieu voulut, 4vv, P; attrib. La Rue in VMP xxi, but actually by Agricola (2p. of Je n’ay deuil que de vous)

Dicte moy bergère, 4vv, M; 2 2-voice canons; ascribed to La Rue in I-Fc 2442; possibly by Josquin, to whom it is attributed in D-HRD 9820

D’ung desplaisir, 4vv, M; ed. M. Cauchie, Quinze chansons françaises du XVIe siècle (Paris, 1926); ascription to ‘De la Rue’ in 1538¹⁰ and elsewhere refers to Robert de la Rue

Du tout plongiet/Fors seulement, 4vv, P; attrib. La Rue in VMP xxi, but by Brumel

Een vrolic wesen, 3vv, ed. in CMM vii/2 (1957); Sup (and presumably the rest) ascribed to La Rue in I-TRc 1947/4, but Barbireau is more likely

Een vrolic wesen, 4vv, M; ed. in CMM xxxiv/1 (1966); ascribed to La Rue in A-Wn 18810, but by Pipelare

Elle a bien ce ris, 4vv, M; ed. in CMM lii/3 (1974); ascription to ‘D. la rue’ in D-Mbs 1508 refers to Robert de la Rue; elsewhere ascribed to Claudin de Sermisy

En desirant ce que ne puis avoir, 3vv, ed. in G.M. Jones: The ‘First’ Chansonnier of the Biblioteca Riccardiana, Codex 2794 (diss., New York U., 1972), ii, 158; ascription to ‘Pietrequin’ in I-Fr 2794 refers to Pietrequin Bonnel

En l’amour d’une dame, 5vv, inc., M; ascribed to La Rue in GB-Lbl 19583; unlikely on stylistic grounds

Fama malum, 4vv, P; anon. in B-Br 228; attrib. La Rue in VMP xix; Picker (1965) suggests attrib. to De Orto (text from Aeneid)

Fors seulement (ii) [Exortum est in tenebris], 4vv, P; ed. in CMM xxxiv/1 (1966); ascribed to La Rue in 1502², but by Pipelare

Il fault morir, 6vv, M; textless; ascribed to La Rue in D-Rp C120; unlikely on stylistic grounds

In pace in idipsum/Que vous madame, 3vv, P; attrib. La Rue in VMR xix, but by Josquin

Je n’ay deuil que je ne suis morte, 4vv, P; attrib. La Rue in VMP xxi, but by Ockeghem

Je n’ay deuil que de vous, 4vv, P; attrib. La Rue in VMP xxi, but by Agricola

Je suys a moy, 4vv, M; ascription to ‘La Rue’ in 1536⁵ refers to Robert de la Rue; ascribed to Mittantier in index

Jouyssance vous donneray [Iam sauche, Jani sauche], 4vv, M; ed. in CMM lii/3 (1974); ascribed to La Rue in A-Wn 18810, but by Claudin de Sermisy

Las que plains tu, 4vv, M; ascription to ‘La Rue’ in 1541⁶ and elsewhere refers to Robert de la Rue

Leal schray tante [Carmen in re], 4vv, M; ascribed to La Rue in Wn 18810 and D-Rp C120; but by Josquin, to whom it is attributed in CH-Zz Z.XI.301

Le renvoye [Num stultum est mortem], 2vv, M; ed. in HM, xxvii (1950/R), lxxiv (1951); ed. in RRMR xvi–xvii (1974); ascribed to La Rue in 1549¹⁶; unlikely on stylistic grounds (Sup of Compère’s chanson in Sup)

Ma mère hellas, 4vv, M; ed. H. Expert, Anthologie chorale des maîtres musiciens de la Renaissance française (Paris, 1938); ascription to ‘La Rue’ in 1536⁵ refers to Robert de la Rue

Mes douleurs sont incomparables, 3vv, ed. in G.M. Jones: The ‘First’ Chansonnier of the Biblioteca Riccardiana, Codex 2794 (diss., New York U., 1972), ii, 165; ascription to ‘Pietrequin’ in I-Fr 2794 refers to Pietrequin Bonnel

Mais que ce fust secretement [Donzella no men culpeys], 3vv, ed. in CMM xv/5 (1972); ascriptions to ‘Pierquin’ etc. in Bc Q17 and elsewhere refer to Pietrequin Bonnel; elsewhere ascribed incorrectly to Compère

Qu’en dictez vous suis je en danger, 3vv, ed. in G.M. Jones: The ‘First’ Chansonnier of the Biblioteca Riccardiana, Codex 2794 (diss., New York U., 1972), ii, 294; ascription to ‘Pietrequin’ in Fr 2794 refers to Pietrequin Bonnel

Sans y penser a l’aventure, 3vv, ed. in G.M. Jones: The ‘First’ Chansonnier of the Biblioteca Riccardiana, Codex 2794 (diss., New York U., 1972), ii, 160; ascription to ‘Pietrequin’ in Fr 2794 refers to Pietrequin Bonnel

Si dedero, 3vv, P; attrib. La Rue in VMR xix, but by Agricola

Si le changer, 4vv, M; ascription to ‘De la Rue’ in 1554²¹ refers to Robert de la Rue

Si sumpsero, 3vv, P; attrib. La Rue in VMR xix, but by Obrecht

Tant que nostre argent durra [Amours fait molt tant/Il est de bonne heure né/Tant que nostre argent dure], 4vv, M; ed. in MRM, vii (1983); ascribed to La Rue in CH-Bu F.X.1–4, elsewhere to Japart and Busnoys; probably by Japart

(1) Orlande [Roland] de Lassus [Orlando di Lasso]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AmbrosGM, iii; Grove6 (M. Staehelin); MGG1 (W. Rubsamen); ReeseMR; Vander StraetenMPB, vii–viii

G. Caullet: Musiciens de la collégiale Notre-Dame à Courtrai d’après leurs testaments (Courtrai and Bruges, 1911)

A. Hocquet: ‘Un musicien tournaisien dit courtraisien’, Revue tournaisienne, vii (1911), 167–8; repr. in Gazette musicale de Belgique (15 Aug 1936)

A. Smijers: ‘De Illustre Lieve Vrouwe Broederschap te ’s-Hertogenbosch’, TVNM, xiii (1931–2), 181–237

G. van Doorslaer: ‘La chapelle musicale de Philippe le Beau’, Revue belge d’archéologie et d’histoire de l’art, iv (1934), 21–57, 139–65

L.K.J. Feininger: Die Frühgeschichte des Kanons bis Josquin des Prez (um 1500) (Emsdetten, 1937)

W.H. Rubsamen: Pierre de la Rue als Messen-Komponist (diss., U. of Munich, 1937)

J. Schmidt-Görg: ‘Die Acta Capitularia der Notre-Dame-Kirche zu Kortrijk als musikgeschichtliche Quelle’, Vlaams jb voor muziekgeschiedenis, i (1939), 21–80

R.B. Lenaerts: ‘The 16th-Century Parody Mass in the Netherlands’, MQ, xxxvi (1950), 410–21

J. Robijns: Pierre de la Rue (circa 1460–1518): een bio-bibliographische studie (Brussels, 1954)

J. Robijns: ‘Pierre de la Rue als overgangsfiguur tussen middeleeuwen en renaissance’, RBM, ix (1955), 122–30

M. Picker: ‘The Chanson Albums of Marguerite of Austria’, AnnM, vi (1958–63), 145–285

M. Picker: ‘Three Unidentified Chansons by Pierre de la Rue in the Album de Marguerite d’Autriche’, MQ, xlvi (1960), 329–43

N. Davison: The Motets of Pierre de la Rue (diss., U. of Edinburgh, 1961)

N. Davison: ‘The Motets of Pierre de la Rue’, MQ, xlviii (1962), 19–35

E.M. Sparks: Cantus Firmus in Mass and Motet, 1420–1520 (Berkeley, 1963/R)

M. Picker: The Chanson Albums of Marguerite of Austria (Berkeley, 1965)

M. Rosenberg: ‘Symbolic and Descriptive Text Settings in the Sacred Works of Pierre de la Rue (c1460–1518)’, MMA, i (1966), 225–48

C. Maas: ‘Josquin–Agricola–Brumel–de la Rue: een authenticiteitsprobleem’, TVNM, xx/3 (1966), 120–39

M. Staehelin: ‘Pierre de la Rue in Italien’, AMw, xxvii (1970), 128–37

J. de Cuyper: ‘Een Godsdienstige Stichting van de beroemde komponist Pierre de la Rue in de Kapittelkerk te Kortrijk’, Verslagen en Mededelingen van de Leiegouw, xiii (1971), 295–7

H. Kellman: ‘Josquin and the Courts of the Netherlands and France’, Josquin des Prez: New York 1971, 181–216

W.H. Rubsamen: ‘Unifying Techniques in Selected Masses of Josquin and La Rue’, ibid., 369–400

J.E. Kreider: The Masses for Five and Six Voices by Pierre de la Rue (diss., Indiana U., 1974)

M.K. Duggan: ‘Queen Joanna and Her Musicians’, MD, xxx (1976), 73–95

M.B. W[inn] Marvin: ‘“Regret” Chansons for Marguerite d’Autriche by Octavien de Saint-Gelais’, Bibliothèque d’humanisme et renaissance, xxxix (1977), 23–32

H.M. Brown: ‘In Alamire’s Workshop: Notes on Scribal Practice in the Early Sixteenth Century’, Datierung und Filiation von Musikhandschriften der Josquin-Zeit: Wolfenbüttel 1980, 15–63

K.-J. Sachs: ‘Pierre de La Rues “Missa de Beata Virgine” in ihrer copia aus varietas und similitudo’, Analysen: Beiträge zu einer Problemgeschichte des Komponierens: Festschrift für Hans Heinrich Eggebrecht, ed. W. Breig, R. Brinkmann and E. Budde (Wiesbaden, 1984), 76–90

J. van Benthem: ‘Introduction to Workshop III: Josquin and La Rue’, Josquin Symposium: Utrecht 1986, 101–2

L.F. Bernstein: ‘Chansons Attributed to Both Josquin des Prez and Pierre de la Rue: a Problem in Establishing Authenticity’, ibid., 125–52

F. de Haen: ‘A Magnificat quarti toni with a Fourfold Ascription’, ibid., 117–23

J.E. Kreider: ‘Works Attributed in the Sixteenth Century to Both Josquin des Prez and Pierre de la Rue’, ibid., 103–16

H. Meconi: Style and Authenticity in the Secular Music of Pierre de la Rue (diss., Harvard U., 1986)

J. Rifkin: ‘Problems of Authorship in Josquin: Some Impolitic Observations with a Postscript on Absalon, fili mi’, Josquin Symposium: Utrecht 1986, 45–52

M.J. Bloxam: A Survey of Late Medieval Service Books from the Low Countries: Implications for Sacred Polyphony, 1460–1520 (diss., Yale U., 1987)

W. Elders: ‘Number Symbolism in Some Cantus-Firmus Masses of Pierre de la Rue’, Jb van het Vlaamse Centrum voor Oude Muziek, iii (1987), 59–68

H. Meconi: ‘Pierre de la Rue and Secular Music at the Court of Marguerite of Austria’, Jb van het Vlaamse Centrum voor Oude Muziek, iii (1987), 49–58

J. van Benthem: ‘Lazarus versus Absalon: About Fiction and Fact in the Netherlands Motet’, TVNM, xxxix (1989), 54–82

M.J. Bloxam: ‘In Praise of Spurious Saints: the Missae Floruit Egregiis by Pipelare and La Rue’, JAMS, xxxxiv (1991), 163–220

N. Davison: ‘Continental Cousins of the In Nomine Family?’, MR, lii (1991), 1–11

H. Meconi: ‘Sacred Tricinia and Basevi 2439’, I Tatti Studies, iv (1991), 151–99

K. Kreitner: ‘Franco-Flemish Elements in Tarazona 2 and 3’, IMSCR XV: Madrid 1992 [RdMc, xvi (1993)], 2567–86

H. Meconi: ‘Free from the Crime of Venus: the Biography of Pierre de la Rue’, ibid., 2673–83

J. Milsom: Review of Pierre de la Rue: Opera omnia, ii–iii, EMc, xxi (1993), 479–82

J.E. Kreider: ‘Pierre de la Rue’s Incessament and its Musical Descendants’, From Ciconia to Sweelinck: donum natalicium Willem Elders, ed. A. Clement and E. Jas (Amsterdam, 1994), 167–78

H. Meconi: Review of N.S.J. Davison, J.E. Kreider and T.H. Keahey, eds.: Pierre de la Rue: Opera omnia, i–iii, JAMS, xlviii (1995), 283–93

N. Davison: ‘Absalom fili mi Reconsidered’, TVNM, xlvi (1996), 42–56

H. Meconi: ‘French Print Chansons and Pierre de la Rue: a Case Study in Authenticity’, Music in Renaissance Cities and Courts: Studies in Honor of Lewis Lockwood, ed. J.A. Owens and A. Cummings (Warren, MI, 1997), 187–213

H. Meconi: ‘Another Look at Absalon’, TVNM, xlviii (1998), 3–29

H. Meconi: Pierre de la Rue (Oxford, forthcoming)

H. Meconi: ‘Pierre de la Rue and the Origin of the “Parody” Mass’, Early Music Borrowing, ed. H. Meconi (New York, forthcoming)

La Rue, Robert de

(fl c1530–50). French composer. He was master of the boys at Meaux in June 1533, when he was unsuccessfully recruited for the same post at Notre Dame, Paris. Five chansons in Parisian printed anthologies between 1536 and 1554, ascribed to ‘La Rue’ or ‘De la Rue’, are almost certainly by Robert rather than his more famous namesake Pierre de La Rue.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

HONEY MECONI

Laruette [La Ruette], Jean-Louis

(b Paris, 7 March 1731, d Paris, 10 Jan 1792). French haute-contre and composer. He first became known as a singer in the Théâtres de la Foire, where he made his début in September 1752, shortly after Monnet opened the Théâtre de la Foire St-Laurent. He was thus one of the first to perform in opéras comiques mêlés d’ariettes at a time when librettists were mingling vaudevilles and parodies of Italian arias; his most important such role was probably the part of the Magician in Sedaine’s Le diable à quatre (1756). His first ventures into composition are harder to date because the arrangers of pasticcios and vaudevilles generally remained anonymous; however, pieces attributed to him are the final vaudeville of Parmentier’s Le plaisir et l’innocence (14 August 1753), a new air in Louis Anseaume and Farin de Hautemer’s Le boulevard (24 August 1753) and the final quartet of Anseaume and P.A.L. de Marcouville’s La fausse aventurière (22 March 1757). The nature of his contributions to Anseaume and Marcouville’s Les amants trompés (1756) and Sedaine’s Le diable à quatre is uncertain. Laruette fully assumed the role of composer with Le docteur Sangrado, an opéra comique with ariettes and vaudevilles written jointly with Duni. His first important operas, Le médecin de l’amour, Cendrillon and L’ivrogne corrigé, owe much to their librettos, in which Anseaume contrived a skilful mixture of vaudevilles, ariettes and vocal ensembles. Laruette’s last three operas, while musically more ambitious (they contain no vaudevilles at all) were less successful than his mixed-genre works – indeed, Le dépit généreux and Les deux compères were total failures.

Laruette also pursued a brilliant career as a singer; after playing such juvenile leads as Alberti in Duni’s Le peintre amoureux de son modèle (1757) and Azor in his own Cendrillon, he specialized in the often unsympathetic parts of fathers and financiers, for instance Monsieur Pince in Philidor’s Blaise le savetier (1759). He and his wife, Marie-Thérèse (née Villette) (1744–1837), were among the five members of the Opéra-Comique company authorized to join the Comédie-Italienne in 1762, and he contributed to the success of operas by Philidor (he sang Blifil in Tom Jones) and Grétry (as Cassandre in Le tableau parlant). Laruette retired from the Comédie-Italienne in March 1778, and thereafter sang only in concerts and at the Théâtre des Beaujolais, as a printed score of Anfossi and Cambini’s Le tuteur avare, 1787, shows. His high voice was not particularly attractive, but his acting ability and the care composers took in writing music for him made him one of the most popular singers of his time. His name remained linked to a type of opéra-comique role which persisted until the end of the 19th century.

Laruette belonged to the first generation of French composers of opéra comique in the sense that term assumed during the 1750s under the influence of the intermèdes performed in Paris by the Bouffons. However, he never embraced the Italian opera buffa style, although his work does contain a few examples, such as Jacqueline’s ariette ‘De la médecine’ in Le docteur Sangrado and the trio ‘Sotte carogne’ in L’ivrogne corrigé. These apart, he borrowed techniques directly from tragédie lyrique and opéra-ballet. His melodic writing is inseparable from its frequently lavish ornamentation, while the accompaniment displays a linear conception reminiscent of Rameau, although Laruette’s harmony is less dissonant and his orchestral texture much less dense. Also French in style are his frequent recourse to dance metres, changes of time in recitatives and illustrative vocal writing of the kind found in the divertissements of grand opéra. The second act of L’ivrogne corrigé is very humorous, ushering in a series of pieces in which composers of opéra comique parody the serious style. Le guy de chesne is more in the pastoral tradition and, unusually, is set in pre-Roman Gaul.

WORKS

printed works published in Paris

PCI	Paris, Comédie-Italienne (Hôtel de Bourgogne)
PSG	Paris, Foire St-Germain
PSL	Paris, Foire St-Laurent

Le docteur Sangrado (oc, 1, L. Anseaume and J.-B. Lourdet de Santerre, after A.-R. Lesage: Gil Blas), PSG, 13 Feb 1758; rev. version, PCI, 5 May 1762 (1763), airs (1764); collab. Duni

L’heureux déguisement, ou La gouvernante supposée (oc mêlé d’ariettes, 2, P.A.L. de Marcouville), PSL, 7 Aug 1758, airs (1758, 1763)

Le médecin de l’amour (oc, 1, Anseaume and Marcouville), PSL, 22 Sept 1758; PCI, 25 April 1762 (n.d. [after 1762; with revisions]), excerpts (1766)

Cendrillon (oc, 1, Anseaume, after C. Perrault), PSG, 20/21 Feb 1759; rev. version, PCI, 14 July 1762 (1762), airs (1764); collab. Duni

L’ivrogne corrigé, ou Le mariage du diable (oc, 2, Anseaume and Lourdet de Santerre, after J. de La Fontaine: L’ivrogne et sa femme), PSL, 23/24 July 1759 (n.d.), airs (1771)

Le dépit généreux (cmda, 2, Anseaume and A.-F. Quétant), PCI, 16 July 1761

Le guy de chesne, ou La feste des druides (comédie mise en musique, 1, J.-B. de Junquières), PCI, 26 Jan 1763 (n.d.), excerpts (1763, 1766)

Les deux compères (cmda, 2, Lourdet de Santerre or Anseaume, after La Fontaine: L’ivrogne et sa femme), PCI, 3 Sept 1772, excerpts (1772)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Cucuel: Les créateurs de l’opéra-comique français (Paris, 1914), 104–8

F. Rühlman: Preface to C. W. Gluck: L’ivrogne corrigé, Sämtliche Werke, iv/5 (1951), 5–9

P. Letailleur: ‘Jean-Louis Laruette, chanteur et compositeur’, RMFC, viii (1968), 161–89; ix (1969), 145–61; x (1970), 57–86

K.M. Smith: Egidio Duni and the Development of the Opéra-comique from 1753 to 1770 (diss., Cornell U., 1980), 113–21

B.A. Brown: Gluck and the French Theatre in Vienna (Oxford, 1991), 254–61

MICHEL NOIRAY

Larway, J.H.

English firm of music publishers. Taken over by Edwin Ashdown.

LaSalle Quartet.

American string quartet. It was formed in 1949 by students from the Juilliard School of Music. The first violinist, Walter Levin (b Berlin, 6 Dec 1924), studied with Galamian at Juilliard; the second violinist, Henry Meyer (b Dresden, 29 June 1923), studied at the Prague Academy of Musical Arts, in Paris with George Enescu and René Benedetti, and with Galamian at Juilliard; the viola player, Peter Kamnitzer (b Berlin, 27 Nov 1922), studied at the Manhattan and Juilliard schools; the successive cellists were Richard Kapuscinski (1946–55), Jack Kirstein (1955–75) and Lee Fiser (b Portland, OR, 26 April 1947), who joined the quartet in 1975 and studied at the Cleveland Institute and was a member of the Cincinnati SO up to 1975. The ensemble was quartet-in-residence at Colorado College (1949–53), and then at the Cincinnati College-Conservatory of Music, where all four members became professors (in October 1982 they gave a concert in Alice Tully Hall to celebrate the 30th year of their residency). The quartet made its European début in 1954 and toured extensively in the USA and abroad. It was dissolved in 1988. It performed works of all periods but was best known for its performances and recordings of Schoenberg, Berg and Webern, and the late quartets of Beethoven. Among the many composers who wrote music for the quartet are Hans Erich Apostel, Herbert Brün, Earle Brown, Henri Pousseur, Wolf Rosenberg, Kagel, Ligeti, Penderecki and Lutosławski. In 1958 the quartet acquired a matched set of Amati instruments: two violins by Nicolo (1648 and 1682), a viola by Antonio and Girolamo (1619), and a cello by Nicolo (1670). Although the LaSalle Quartet was associated mainly with 20th-century music, its playing of it was not archetypally ‘modern’. Rather it was compounded of tonal richness (with pronounced vibrato), broad tempos and, at all times, linear clarity. In its famous performances and recordings of the works of the Second Viennese School, the quartet projected the essence of the music’s ‘modernity’ while at the same time exposing its roots in 19th-century Romanticism.

HERBERT GLASS/R

Lascarini, Francesco Maria.

See Rascarini, Francesco Maria.

Lascelles, George Henry Hubert.

See Harewood.

Lasceux, Guillaume

(b Poissy, 3 Feb 1740; d Paris, 1831). French organist and composer. He began his career as an organist at the church of St Martin in the village of Chevreuse, near Poissy, at the age of 18. He went to Paris in 1762 and spent five years studying composition with the organist Charles Noblet, who was also harpsichordist of the Opéra. In 1769 he became supernumerary organist to Claude-Nicolas Ingrain at St Etienne-du-Mont and took over the post in 1774. Other positions which he held simultaneously were at the church of the Mathurins (from 1769, succeeding Noblet), St Aure (from 1769), the Minims convent in the Place Royale (from 1779), Collège de Navarre and Séminaire St Magloire. As a result of the Revolution he lost his patronage and most of his organ positions and then, in order to support himself, played for the services of the Theophilanthropists in St Etienne-du-Mont (renamed Temple de la Piété-filiale). When St Etienne-du-Mont was restored to Roman Catholic worship in 1803 he resumed his former duties until he retired on 2 January 1819.

Lasceux was known as a virtuoso organist, and was particularly celebrated for his improvisations depicting the Last Judgment. He composed in many genres, including opéras comiques, accompanied keyboard sonatas, sacred organ pieces and vocal music, and made keyboard arrangements of popular songs. The novelty of his works gained them some success, particularly with amateurs.

WORKS

printed works published in Paris unless otherwise stated

Vocal: Les epoux réconciliés (comédie lyrique, 1), ?1789, B-Bc; 3 opéras comiques, 1789, cited in Choron and Fayolle; Messe, chorus, orch (1804); 2 motets au Saint Sacrement, 3vv, org (Charleville, 1836); Ariettes et petits airs, 1v, hpd/pf/harp (?c1775); romances pubd singly, incl. Hommage à l’amour (1767), Absence et retour (n.d.), Les adieux de la violette (n.d.)

Org: Journal de pièces d’orgue, contenant des messes, Magnificat et noëls (1771–2); Nouveau journal [Nouvelle suite] … des messes, Magnificat et noëls (c1782–4); TeD (1786), lost; Nouvelle suite (1810): 1. Messe des annuels et grands solennels, 2. Hymnes, proses et répons de l’office de la Fête-Dieu, 3. Messe des solennels mineurs [no.3 lost]; Annuaire de l’organiste, 1819; 12 fugues, 1820

Other inst: [12] Sonates, hpd, vn ad lib (1768–72); Quatuor, hpd/pf, 2 vn, b, op.4 (1775); Potpuri d’airs connus, hpd, op.9 (1783); many pubd kbd arrs. of ovs. and songs from stage works, incl. some in 18th-century anthologies

Pedagogical: Essai théorique et pratique sur l’art de l’orgue, 1809

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Choron-FayolleD

FétisB

GerberL

G. Servières: Documents inédits sur les organistes français des XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (Paris, 1924)

G. Favre: ‘Guillaume Lasceux’, RdM, xxxi (1952), 38–42

N. Gorenstein: L'orgue post-classique français: du Concert Spirituel à Cavaillé-Coll (Paris, 1993)

EILEEN MORRIS GUENTHER

Laschi [Mombelli], Luisa

(b Florence, 1760s; d c1790). Italian soprano. Her first known appearances were in 1782 in Vicenza and Bologna. She made her Viennese début on 24 September 1784 in Cimarosa’s Giannina e Bernardone. The Wiener Kronik said: ‘she has a beautiful clear voice, which in time will become rounder and fuller; she is very musical, sings with more expression than the usual opera singers and has a beautiful figure! Madam Fischer (Storazi [i.e. Nancy Storace]) has only more experience, and is otherwise in no way superior to Dem Laschi’. On 21 January 1785 Laschi replaced Storace, who was about to give birth, as Rosina in Paisiello’s Il barbiere di Siviglia ‘very well, and was much applauded’ (Zinzendorf). She left at Easter for an engagement in Naples – where she met her future husband, the tenor Domenico Mombelli (1751–1835) – but returned to Vienna at Easter 1786. There, on 1 May 1786, she created the role of the Countess in Le nozze di Figaro. She had a further success on 15 May in Anfossi’s Il trionfo delle donne. On 1 August she appeared, probably for the first time in Vienna with Mombelli, in Sarti’s I finti eredi. On 29 September the emperor wrote to his chamberlain Count Rosenberg, with a jocular reference to Figaro: ‘The marriage between Laschi and Mombelli may take place without waiting for my return, and I cede to you le droit de Seigneur’. In November 1786 she created the role of Queen Isabella in Martín y Soler’s Una cosa rara, and in 1787 created Cupid in his L’arbore di Diana, a role that required her to appear alternately as a shepherdess and as Cupid. A contemporary reviewer described her portrayal: ‘Grace personified …; ah, who is not enchanted by it, what painter could better depict the arch smile, what sculptor the grace in all her gestures, what singer could match the singing, so melting and sighing, with the same naturalness and true, warm expression?’

In January 1788 she appeared in the première of Salieri's Axur re d'Ormus and in May sang Zerlina in the first Vienna performance of Mozart's Don Giovanni; Mozart composed a new duet to be sung by her and Benucci. She was already seven months pregnant but continued singing until the day before her confinement and reappeared four weeks later. But there were difficulties between the Italian company and the management and the emperor gave the Mombellis notice. In September Luisa created the role of Carolina in Salieri's Il talismano and in February 1789 she made her farewell appearance as Donna Farinella in L'ape musicale; nothing further seems to be known about her, but in 1791 Domenico, apparently a widower, married the ballerina Vincenza Viganò, by whom he had 12 children.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SartoriL

O. Michtner: Das alte Burgtheater als Opernbühne (Vienna, 1970)

D. Link: The National Court Theatre in Mozart's Vienna: Sources and Documents 1783–1792 (Oxford, 1998)

CHRISTOPHER RAEBURN

Laserna, Blas de

(b Corella, Navarra, bap. 4 Feb 1751; d Madrid, 8 Aug 1816). Spanish composer. At 23 he began his career as a theatrical composer in Madrid and by 1776 his fame was such that the impresario Eusebio Ribera contracted him to write 63 tonadillas every year. In 1773 he married the daughter of the Madrid organist Vicente Adán. Widowed in 1795, he next married the singer María Pupillo, who died in 1809. In 1790 he succeeded Esteve as conductor at the Teatro de la Cruz, remaining there until 1808. Despite being one of the most prolific composers of his time, he was constantly underpaid and after 1800 had to resort to menial copying and teaching to secure a livelihood.

Laserna's speciality was the tonadilla or skit for one to four actors, of which he wrote at least 700, some to his own texts. 684 of these along with 78 sainetes are in Madrid (E-Mm), and several were circulated as far as Lima and Mexico City. Usually showing piquant scenes from contemporary middle and low life, these genre pieces lasted no more than 20 minutes and were inserted between acts of a play or opera. Although El majo y la italiana fingida (1778; ed. in Subirá, 1930) involves a girl who, to pose as an Italian, sings in Italian operatic style, Laserna's early tonadillas on the whole were exempt from the influence of bel canto (in 1790 he even proposed founding a school to preserve authentic Spanish traditions). His proverbial folkloric interests are exemplified in such tonadillas as La viscaína (1784) and Las provincias españolas (1789), both of which end with quotations of the most popular of all Basque folktunes, Iru damatxo donostiako (‘Three young maidens of San Sebastián’), 42 years before the earliest publication of the tune. In his last period, however, he had to adopt the Italian vogue in order to have his pieces produced. Laserna also wrote the music for eight melólogos (1791–7) and for several zarzuelas, as well as instrumental pieces and prologues. Two excerpts from his melólogos are edited in Subirá (1950) and five vocal selections appear in Joaquín Nin's Classiques espagnols du chant (Paris, 1926).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ES (J. Subirá)

StevensonRB

J. Gómez: ‘Don Blas de Laserna: un capítulo de la historia del teatro lírico español visto en la vida del último tonadillero’, Revista de la Biblioteca, Archivo y Museo del Ayuntamiento de Madrid, ii (1925), 406–30, 531–48, iii (1926), 222–40; repr. in Escritos de Julio Gómez, ed. A. Iglesias (Madrid, 1986)

J. Subirá: La tonadilla escénica, iii (Madrid, 1930), 69–78, 117–45

J. Subirá: El compositor Iriarte (1750–1791) y el cultivo español del melólogo (melodrama), ii (Barcelona, 1950), 265–6, 272–5, 422–7

J. Gómez, J.L. de Arrese and E. Aunós: El músico Blas de Laserna (Corella, 1952)

J. Subirá: Catálogo de la Sección de música de la Biblioteca municipal de Madrid (Madrid, 1965), 105–94, 337–48

R. Stevenson: ‘National Library Publications in Brazil, Peru and Venezuela’, Inter-American Music Review, iii (1980–01), 39–48, esp. 44

M.C. García-Matos Alonso: ‘Un folklorista del siglo XVIII: “Don Preciso”’, RdMc, iv (1981), 295–315, esp. 302–03

D. Preciado: ‘Sobre las concidas canciones que aprovechó el teatro’, La música para teatro en España: Cuenca 1986 [RdMc, x/2 (1987)], 641–4

ROBERT STEVENSON

Laserna, Estacio de.

See Serna, Estacio de la.

La Serre.

See Pellegrin, simon-joseph.

Las Huelgas Manuscript.

See Sources, MS, §V, 2.

La Sirène.

French firm of publishers. It was founded as Editions de la Sirène in Paris in 1918, establishing a reputation from the outset for publishing new music, and in its first year published Jean Cocteau’s book Le coq et l’arlequin, illustrated by Picasso. The firm’s most celebrated publication is Stravinsky’s piano transcription of his Rag-Time, with cover by Picasso ; it was published in 1919 in an edition of 1000 copies. The following year La Sirène published Milhaud’s Le boeuf sur le toit, with a frontispiece by Dufy. Other important early publications include Satie’s Socrate and Poulenc’s Bestiaire. In about 1918 La Sirène purchased the stock of Paul Dupont, whose firm, established in 1891, was later known as the Société Nouvelle d’Editions Musicales. Dupont’s publications included Debussy’s Nocturne for piano (1892) and Claude Terrasse’s operetta Panthéon-Courcelles (1899; with a cover by Terrasse’s brother-in-law Pierre Bonnard). In 1927 Michel Dillard became director; under his leadership the firm published music by Jean Françaix, Martinů, Nabokov, Tansman and others. About 1927 the firm became known as La Sirène Musicale; it was acquired by Max Eschig of Paris in 1936.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.J. Fuld and F. Barulich: ‘Harmonizing the Arts: Original Graphic Designs for Printed Music by World-Famous Artists’, Notes, xliii (1986–7), 259–71

NIGEL SIMEONE

Laskine, Lily

(b Paris, 31 Aug 1893; d Paris, 4 Jan 1988). French harpist. She studied with Alphonse Hasselmans at the Paris Conservatoire, gaining a premier prix in 1906, and making her London début the following year. From 1909 to 1926 she was a member of the Paris Opéra orchestra and subsequently played with many other orchestras, notably those of the Koussevitzky concert series (from 1921), the Lamoureux Association (1921–40 and 1943–5) and the National Radio Orchestra (from 1934). Her international career began with appearances at Donaueschingen in 1934, followed by concerts in London, Rome, Brussels and Amsterdam. With Moyse, Delecluse and the Pro Arte Quartet, she made the first recording of Ravel's Introduction et Allegro in 1938, and she was the regular duo partner of Jean-Pierre Rampal for some 40 years. Laskine was professor of the harp at the Paris Conservatoire, 1948–58. In later years she recorded many interesting works by lesser composers, including concertos by Bochsa, Jadin, Krumpholtz and Gossec, and works for two harps with Marielle Nordmann. She is the dedicatee of Roussel's only work for harp, the Impromptu op.86 of 1919, and of Jolivet's Concerto of 1952, recorded with the composer in 1957. She was admitted to the Légion d'Honneur in 1936, and made a Chevalier in 1958. She was also a Commandeur de l'Ordre des Arts et Lettres.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Nordmann: ‘Lily Laskine’, American Harp Journal, x/2 (1985), 3–7

M. Nordmann: ‘Lily Laskine’, Bulletin de l'Association Internationale des Harpistes et des Amis de la Harpe (Paris, 1988) [commemorative issue]

W.M. Govea: Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Harpists: a Bio-critical Sourcebook (Westport, CT, 1995), 153–63

ANN GRIFFITHS

Laskovsky, Ivan Fyodorovich

(b St Petersburg, 1799; d St Petersburg, 1855). Russian composer. His father was of Polish descent, his mother a native Russian. After serving as an officer in the Preobrazhensky Regiment from 1817 until 1832 he took a post in the war office. He studied composition with Joseph Hunke (1792–1883) and the piano with John Field. He was known as a fine pianist but is remembered particularly for his valuable contributions to the Russian piano repertory during the first half of the 19th century. Some of his earliest compositions appeared in the Harpe du Nord from 1822 onwards; a march, two waltzes and a polonaise were published in an Album musical in 1826, and thereafter his pieces appeared frequently in annual albums and journals. A nocturne and several dance pieces were published in the supplement to the Liricheskiy al'bom na 1832 god (‘Album of Lyrical Songs for 1832’, St Petersburg) which Laskovsky produced himself in collaboration with the composer Norov. Glinka included a number of Laskovsky's pieces in his Sobraniye muzïkal'nïkh p'yes ‘Collection of Musical Pieces’, St Petersburg, 1839), and Balakirev, who was a great admirer of Laskovsky's works, prepared an edition, Oeuvres complètes pour piano de Jean Laskowsky (St Petersburg, 1858), which contains 78 piano pieces (over 100 works are now known to have been written).

Laskovsky's piano compositions show a considerable technical advance on earlier Russian composers such as Genishta, Aleksandr Gurilyov and Yesaulov, and in many respects they are the precursors of the piano works of Tchaikovsky, Balakirev and other composers in the second half of the century. His mazurkas and waltzes show a certain stylistic affinity with Chopin, whose works he knew well and often performed at concerts. He also composed two sets of variations on Russian folk melodies, one of which is the Kamarinskaya, on which Field had based a set of keyboard variations and on which Glinka composed his Fantasia. Laskovsky's most notable extended pieces are a Nocturne in B minor/major and a Ballade in F minor; both make extensive use of the piano's range, and skilfully exploit its ability to provide dramatic contrasts between lyrical and percussive sounds. Besides solo piano music Laskovsky completed a tarantella for orchestra, a trio, and three string quartets, in E minor, G major and G minor, the last of which has been published in a modern edition (Moscow, 1947).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L.A. Barenboym and V.I. Muzalevsky: Khrestomatiya po istorii fortepiannoy muzïki v rossii (Moscow and Leningrad, 1949) [incl. Nocturne in B minor/major and Ballade in F minor]

V.I. Muzalevsky: Russkaya fortepiannaya muzïka [Russian piano music] (Moscow and Leningrad, 1949, rev. 2/1961 as Russkaya fortep'yannoye iskusstvo [The art of the piano in Russia]), 237–46

C. Cui: Izbrannïye stat'i [Selected articles], ed. Yu.A. Kremylov (Leningrad, 1952), 246–51

L.N. Raaben: Instrumental'nïy ansambl' v russkoy muzïke [The instrumental ensemble in Russian music] (Moscow, 1961), 134–7

N.A. Kopchevsky, ed.: Russkaya fortepiannaya muzïka, i (Moscow, 1986), 162–70

GEOFFREY NORRIS

Lasoń, Aleksander

(b Siemianowice, Silesia, 10 Nov 1951). Polish composer and pianist. He studied jazz (1970–74) and composition with Józef Świder (1973–9) at the Katowice Academy of Music. In 1975 he joined the teaching staff of the academy and of the Silesian University, Cieszyn. He has received a number of awards, including first prize at the UNESCO International Rostrum (in the category of young composers) in 1980 for Symphony no.1; the Beethoven Prize of the City of Bonn for Symphony no.2, also in 1980; and a Lutosławski scholarship in 1987. His first and second quartets were performed at the ISCM World Music Days in 1985 and 1990.

Lasoń's compositional style is instantly recognizable. His music is youthful, tonally centred and openly expressive as well as being obsessive in its use of motifs and strictly organized. He shares an affinity with Bartók and with 20th-century pre-serial French music, echoes of which may be heard in the Second Symphony (1977–9). But his most representative works, including the string quartets, are those which sublimate Polish folk or neo-classical influences. Heterophonic roulades, chorale textures, powerful dynamic contrasts and rhythmic drive serve to invigorate his more abstract pieces. His later orchestral works, for example Katedra (1989) contain richer textures, while Concerto festivo achieves a heightened lyricism.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Impresje [Impressions], pf, orch, 1974; Sym. no.1, wind, 2 pf, perc, 1975; Sym. no.2 ‘Concertante’, pf, orch, 1977–9; Góry [Mountains], 1980; Vc Conc. ‘Pablo Casals in memoriam’, 1985; Katedra [Cathedral], 1989; Hymn and Aria, str, 1993; Concerto festivo, vn, orch, 1995; Credo, 1997

Vocal: 7 pieśni [7 Songs] (T. Snopkowska), S, pf, 1973; 3 pieśni (K. Iłłakowicz), A, ob, pf trio, 1983; Sym. no.3 ‘1999’, chorus, orch, 1997; Musica sacra-Sanctus, 4 male vv, org, str, 1998

Chbr and solo inst: Muzyka kameralna no.1 ‘Stalowawolska’ [Of Stalowa Wola], pf, str qt, 1974–8; Sonata no.1, vn, 1975; Conc., pf, 3 tapes, 1976; Muzyka kameralna no.2, 2 hn, tpt, trbn, tuba, pf, 1976; Muzyka w 4 częściach [Music in 4 Movts], db, pf, 1977; Muzyka kameralna no.3, 2 ob, 2 hn, 2 tpt, tuba, perc, pf, 1978; Str Qt no.1, 1980; Wind Qnt ‘Wiosna’ [Spring], 1981; Muzyka kameralna no.5 ‘4 pory roku’ [The 4 Seasons], cl, trbn, pf, str, 1981–4; Sonata no.2, vn, 1984; Concertino, vn, pf, 1986; Str Qt no.2, 1987; Str Qt no.3, 1993; Relief dla Andrzeja [Relief for Andrzej], str qt, 1995; 2 plus 2 dla Witolda, vn, vc, 2 pf, 1997

Principal publishers: PWM, Edition Modern, Tonos

BIBLIOGRAPHY

K. Szwajgier: ‘Symfonia A. Lasonia’, Wokół słowa, sensu i struktury w muzyce [On word, meaning and structure in music] (Kraków, 1977), 83–9

R. Augustyn: ‘The New Generation of Polish Composers: III’, Polish Music (1978), no.2, pp.12–16

B. Młynarczyk: ‘II Symfonia “Koncertująca” Aleksandra Lasońia’, RM, xxxiv/9 (1990), 4 only

J. Bauman-Szulakowska: ‘Aleksander Lasoń: estetyka, ewolucja, inspiracje’, Inspiracje w muzyce XX wieku (Warsaw, 1993), 120–27

Opcje: kwartalnik kulturlny (1997), no.17 [Lasoń issue]

ADRIAN THOMAS

Lasos of Hermione.

See Lasus of Hermione.

Lassen, Eduard

(b Copenhagen, 13 April 1830; d Weimar, 15 Jan 1904). Belgian composer of Danish origin, active in Germany. He studied at the Brussels Conservatory, receiving prizes for piano (1844) and composition (1847), and winning the Belgian Prix de Rome (1851), which enabled him to tour Germany and Rome and meet Spohr and Liszt. Returning to Brussels in 1855, he was unable to secure a performance of his five-act opera Le roi Edgard, but this was successfully produced under Liszt in Weimar in 1857. He was offered the position of music director at Weimar and in 1858 succeeded Liszt as court music director, a post he held until his retirement in 1895. He was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Jena.

Lassen’s operas Frauenlob and Der Gefangene did not have lasting success, though his music to Goethe’s Faust gained popularity and was praised by Liszt. His solo songs and duets show a variety of treatment from the folklike Sei nur ruhig, lieber Robin or the songs with dance rhythms to the through-composed Abendlandschaft (with its more interesting modulations and accompaniment) to the rhapsodic and improvisatory Ich hab im Traum geweinet. Many of his songs, for instance Vöglein wohin so schnell, were translated into both English and French and were popular at the end of the 19th century.

WORKS

many MSS in D-WRdn

stage

Le roi Edgard, 1855 (romantic op, 5, Lassen and E. Pasqué), unperf.; rev. as Landgraf Ludwigs Brautfahrt, Weimar, Hof, 10 May 1857, D-WRdn*

Frauenlob (romantic op, 3, Pasqué), Weimar, Hof, 22 May 1860, WRdn*

Le captif (oc, 1, E. Cormon, after M. de Cervantes: El captivo), Brussels, Monnaie, 24 April 1865, vs (Paris, 1866), B-Ba*, D-WRdn*; rev. as Der Gefangene, Weimar, Hof, 8 April 1869, Mbn*

Incid music: Triumph der Empfindsamkeit (Goethe); Pandora (Goethe); König Ödipus; Faust I and II (Goethe); Die Göttin Diana (after Heine); Nibelungen (Hebbel); Über allen Zauber Liebe (Calderón)

other works

Orch: 2 syms., D, C; Vn Conc.; Festmarsch; Festouverture; Beethovenouverture; 11 Characterstücke

Vocal: cants., choruses; many solo songs with pf or inst acc. incl., 6 Lieder von Peter Cornelius, op.5 (Leipzig, 1866), 5 biblische Bilder, op.49 (London, 1882), 5 Lieder (London, 1882)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO (J.A. Deaville)

La Mara [M. Lipsius], ed.: Briefwechsel zwischen Franz Liszt und Hans von Bülow (Leipzig, 1898)

A. Bartels: Chronik des weimarischen Hoftheaters 1817–1907 (Weimar, 1908)

L. Schrickel: Geschichte des Weimarer Theaters von seinen Anfängen bis heute (Weimar, 1928)

M. Marx-Weber: ‘Die Lieder Eduard Lassens’, HJbMw, ii (1977), 147–85

GAYNOR G. JONES

Lasser, Johann Baptist

(b Steinkirchen, 12 Aug 1751; d Munich, 21 Oct 1805). Austrian composer, singer, violinist and conductor. He studied at Linz before moving to Vienna, where he probably continued his studies but also taught. In 1781 (Wurzbach) or 1782 (Lipowsky) he married the singer Johanna Roithner (who later sang at the Munich Opera until at least 1811). The couple were at Brünn (now Brno) in 1783 as members of Waizhofer's company, and in 1785 they moved on to Linz, where Lasser directed the company in the 1786–7 season. In 1788, after a brief season as director at Eszterháza, he rejoined Waizhofer, then at Graz. In 1791 the Lassers went to Munich, where he distinguished himself at court by singing arias in all four registers, and by playing a violin concerto. Apart from a successful guest appearance as singer and violinist in Berlin in 1797 he remained in Munich for the remainder of his life, well loved and respected as both man and musician.

Despite the vocal feat of his Munich court concert it is difficult to reconcile the opinions of Lipowsky and Wurzbach that he was a tenor with statements in later books that he was a bass. Apart from a Vollständige Anleitung zur Singkunst (Munich, 1798) that was published in several editions and revisions, he achieved some renown with a series of compositions: several masses, some of them published, and a handful of Singspiele dating mainly from his Graz years. His two sons Joseph Lasser (b Vienna, 7 Nov 1782) and Emanuel Lasser (b Brünn, 20 Jan 1784) achieved some distinction as musicians, the former as a pianist (successful début in Vienna in 1794), the latter as a court singer in Munich.

WORKS

Singspiele: Die kluge Witwe, Brünn, 1782; Die glückliche Maskerade, Graz, 1788; Der Kapellmeister (J.C. Bock), ?Graz, 1789, and Vienna, Freihaus, 2 July 1790; Das wüthende Heer (C.F. Bretzner), Graz, 1789; Die Modehändlerin (F. Ebert), Graz, 1790; Die unruhige Nacht (after C. Goldoni: La notte critica), Vienna, Kärntnertor, 28 May 1790, D-Bsb; Die Huldigung der Töne (?Treue) (W. von Bube), ?Graz, c1790; Der Jude, Graz, 1791

Cora und Alonzo (op), ?Munich, after 1791

Other works: 3 missae, op.1 (Augsburg, 1795); 6 missae, op.2 (Augsburg, 1801); Duetti e solfeggi, A-Wgm

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ADB (J. Kürschner)

EitnerQ

LipowskyBL

MCL

WurzbachL

C. d'Elvert: Geschichte des Theaters in Mähren und Oesterreichisch Schlesien (Brno, 1851)

C. d'Elvert: Geschichte der Musik in Mähren und Oesterr.-Schlesien (Brno, 1873)

F. Grandaur: Chronik des königlichen Hof- und Nationaltheaters in München (Munich, 1878)

A. Rille: Die Geschichte des Brünner Stadttheaters (Brno, 1885)

F. Fuhrich: Theatergeschichte Oberösterreichs im 18. Jahrhundert (Vienna, 1968)

F. Neumann: Ornamentation and Improvisation in Mozart (Princeton, NJ, 1986)

F. Neumann: ‘A New Look at Mozart's Prosodic Appoggiatura’, Perspectives on Mozart Performance, ed. R.L. Todd and P. Williams (Cambridge, 1991), 92–116

PETER BRANSCOMBE

Lasserson, Sascha (Shlom Laybovich)

(b Vitebsk, 1 May 1890; d London, 6 July 1978). British violinist and teacher of Russian birth. His first lessons were with his father, who took him to St Petersburg at the age of six, where he entered the conservatory under Nicolai Galkin. At ten he made his début in Helsinki playing a Spohr concerto. He entered Auer's class in 1900, won a silver medal in 1909 and graduated with distinction in 1911. A solo career followed, both in Russia and abroad, and in 1914 he made a tour of England. Unable to return home after the outbreak of World War I and the Russian Revolution, he settled in London. After the foundation of the BBC he was frequently heard on the radio, where he once broadcast a complete series of Beethoven violin sonatas. He was also in demand as a teacher and became one of the most distinguished representatives of the Auer School in the West. Based in London, Lasserson attracted pupils from throughout the world. A critic once described his playing as possessing ‘the requisite artistic power and consummate technique, coupled with a lack of all apparent effort’. A memorial trust was founded in his name in 1979.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CampbellGV

R. Lewin: Obituary, The Strad, lxxxix (1978), 421–5

B. Underwood: ‘Sascha Lasserson’, The Strad, ci (1990), 976–81

MARGARET CAMPBELL

Lasson, Mathieu

(b ?Cambrai, c1500; d Nancy, 26 Sept 1553). French composer. He had his early training at Cambrai Cathedral, which in 1517 sent him to the University of Leuven. By 1523 he was again in Cambrai, this time as a petit vicaire. In 1527 Lasson joined the ducal chapel of Antoine de Lorraine at Nancy, where following the death of Pierrequin de Thérache he quickly became the leading musical figure at court. He was elected canon and trésorier of the collegiate church of St Georges (parish church of the ducal palace), and in the early 1530s was maître des enfants of the duke's private music chapel. Following Lasson's death in 1553, his house and possessions were the object of intense legal dispute between his colleagues at Nancy and his heirs from Cambrai, suggesting that the composer was himself originally from that diocese. In addition to his duties as teacher and landlord to the boys themselves, Lasson seems to have been responsible for a wide range of musical matters: he acquired instruments for use at court and headed the corps of singers and players who typically accompanied their patron on trips to France, all in addition to the composition of sacred and secular music per se.

Lasson's extant works show the clear impression made on his compositional practice by the heavily francophile orientation of his patrons (Antoine de Lorraine and his brother Claude de Guise were raised at the royal court along with the future King François I, and both married princesses of the Bourbon household – Renée and Antoinette). Most of his compositions (seven out of nine works) are preserved in the offerings of the official French music printer, Attaingnant. Virtute magna and Congratulamini mihi reveal his command of the symmetrical responsorial motet form and flowing polyphonic fabric favoured by many composers of the early 16th century. In manibus tuis, to a centonate psalm text, takes a rather more varied approach to composition, contrasting well-paced points of imitation with sections of solemn homorhythmic writing. His Anthoni, pater inclyte seems to be a political motet in praise of Lasson's principal patron and the dynastic heritage of the Lorraine household. Lasson's chansons are remarkable for the extent to which they show his intimate comprehension of Claudin de Sermisy's emerging conception of melodic design. No other composer of provincial France seems to have assimilated his ideal to Claudin's so quickly or so thoroughly.

WORKS

ed. in Freedman (1987) unless otherwise stated; complete list of sources in Freedman (1990)

motets

Edition:Treize livres de motets parus chez Pierre Attaingnant en 1534 et 1535, ed. A. Smijers and A.T. Merritt (Monaco, 1934–64) [S]

Anthoni, pater inclyte, 4vv, 1534¹⁰, S viii

Congratulamini mihi omnes, 4vv, 1539¹³

In manibus tuis, 4vv, 1535³, S xi

Quem dies vidi, 2vv, 1549¹⁶, ed. in HM, lxxiv (1951) [2-voice contrafactum of La grant doulceur]

Virtute magna, 4vv, 1532¹⁰, S xiii

chansons

En l'ombre d'ung buysonnet, 4vv, 1528⁹, ed. in Collegium musicum, ii (New Haven, 1960)

La grant doulceur, 4vv, 1535¹⁴, ed. in Freedman (1990)

L'oeil a plaisir, 4vv, 1535¹⁴

Pour satisfaire, 4vv, 1534¹⁴

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Lesure: ‘ Some Minor French Composers of the Sixteenth Century’, Aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Music: a Birthday Offering to Gustave Reese, ed. J. LaRue and others (New York, 1966/R), 538–44

C. Wright: ‘ Musiciens à la cathédral de Cambrai’, RdM, lxii (1976), 204–28

R. Freedman: Music, Musicians, and the House of Lorraine during the First Half of the Sixteenth Century (diss., U. of Pennsylvania, 1987)

P. Desaux: ‘La musique sacrée à la cour de Lorraine au XVe et au début du XVIe siècle’, Pays lorrain, lxix (1988), 152–8, 226–33

L.F. Bernstein: ‘Melodic Structure in the Parisian Chanson: a Preliminary Study in the Transmission of a Musical Style’, Studies in Musical Sources and Style: Essays in Honor of Jan LaRue, ed. E. Roesner and E.K. Wolf (Madison, WI, 1990), 121–90

R. Freedman: ‘ The Chansons of Mathieu Lasson: Music at the Courts of Lorraine and France ca. 1530’, JM, viii (1990), 316–56

RICHARD FREEDMAN

Lassú [Lassan]

(Hung.).

A slow section of Verbunkos or Csárdás dance music.

Lassus [Lasso].

Franco-Flemish family of composers.

(2) Ferdinand de Lassus

(3) Rudolph de Lassus

JAMES HAAR

Lassus

(1) Orlande [Roland] de Lassus [Orlando di Lasso]

(b Mons, Hainaut, 1530 or, more probably, 1532; d Munich, 14 June 1594). He was one of the most prolific and versatile of 16th-century composers, and in his time the best-known and most widely admired musician in Europe.

6. Magnificat settings and other liturgical works.

1. Early years.

Lassus was born at Mons in Hainaut, a Franco-Flemish province notable for the number of distinguished musicians born and trained there during the Renaissance. Nothing definite is known of his parents, nor is there any solid proof that he was a choirboy at the church of St Nicholas – much less for the legend that he was three times abducted because of the beauty of his voice. The first known fact about him, attested to by his contemporary and earliest biographer, Samuel Quickelberg, is that at about the age of 12 he entered the service of Ferrante Gonzaga, a cadet of the Mantuan ducal house and a general in the service of Charles V. Gonzaga was in the Low Countries in summer 1544; when he headed south the boy Lassus presumably accompanied him. After a stop near Paris (Fontainebleau) Gonzaga returned to Italy at the beginning of 1545; he stayed in Mantua until mid-September, before proceeding to Sicily. Thus Lassus’s first experience of Italy was at the Mantuan court. From Palermo, Gonzaga went as imperial governor to Milan, where Lassus apparently spent the years 1546–9. It is likely that at this time he met other musicians in the service of the Gonzagas, particularly Hoste da Reggio, a madrigalist who headed whatever musical establishment Ferrante Gonzaga maintained.

According to Quickelberg, Lassus next went to Naples (early in 1549), where he entered, informally, the service of Constantino Castrioto and lived in the household of G.B. d’Azzia della Terza, a man of letters. It is thought that Lassus began to compose while in Naples (though there may be a few pieces from the Milanese period), and that the villanescas printed in Antwerp in 1555 may have been written at this time. From Naples he went, at the end of 1551, to Rome; after a period in the household of Antonio Altoviti, Archbishop of Florence but then resident in Rome, he became maestro di cappella at S Giovanni in Laterano in spring 1553. Although young and as yet not well known as a composer – at least in print – Lassus must by this time have acquired a certain reputation as a musician in order to get a post such as this.

A little over a year later Lassus left Rome, for a visit to his parents who were ill, but they were already dead by the time he arrived. His whereabouts for a short period after this are unknown, and it has been claimed (Quickelberg; see Cardamone, 1994), though not proved (he himself never spoke of it), that he visited France and England in the company of the singer-diplomat-adventurer G.C. Brancaccio. Early in 1555 (possibly by autumn, 1554) Lassus was in Antwerp. Although he is not known to have held any official post, he seems to have made friends quickly there, with prominent figures such as Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle and with helpful people such as the printers Tylman Susato and Jean de Laet; he may have worked as a corrector in Susato’s shop. In 1555 Susato printed what has been called Lassus’s ‘op.1’, a collection of ‘madrigali, vilanesche, canzoni francesi e motetti’ for four voices; meanwhile Antonio Gardane in Venice had issued Lassus’s first book of five-part madrigals. In 1556 the first book of five- and six-part motets appeared in Antwerp; it seems that Lassus had waited to publish his music until he had accumulated a substantial number of pieces. How much other music he had written up to this time we do not know; but it is probable that some of the madrigals appearing in Antonio Barrè’s Roman anthologies of the late 1550s date from Lassus’s stay in Rome, that at least one mass, the Missa ‘Domine secundum actum meum’, was written before 1556, and that the Sacrae lectiones novem ex propheta Iob, though not printed until 1565, belong to this period. The Prophetiae Sibyllarum, a collection of highly chromatic settings of humanistic Latin texts that was not published until after Lassus’s death although it had periods of notoriety during his lifetime – including the amazed response of Charles IX of France in 1571 – may also belong to Lassus’s Italian years (it survives in a manuscript containing a portrait of the composer at the age of 28).

2. Munich.

In 1556 Lassus received and accepted an invitation to join the court of Duke Albrecht V of Bavaria in Munich. The circumstances of this appointment are not clear, but it is evident that Johann Jakob Fugger and Granvelle were involved, and that Dr Seld, the imperial vice-chancellor at Brussels, played a part in the negotiations (having first recommended Philippe de Monte for the post). Lassus was engaged as a tenor in a chapel headed by Ludwig Daser; a half-dozen other newly engaged Flemish singers also arrived in Munich in 1556–7, the result of a deliberate plan to ‘netherlandize’ a chapel which had perhaps come to seem too provincially German in character (Albrecht V’s ambitions to revitalize his chapel may have been spurred by news of the dissolution of Charles V’s chapel in 1555).

Lassus may not have been altogether happy during his first years in Munich; he may indeed have cast about for another position, as some correspondence with Granvelle indicates (see Bossuyt, 1993). His salary began to rise, but as late as 1568 he was still referred to in the chapel records as ‘cantor’ and ‘tenor 2us’. On the other hand the title-pages of prints such as the Libro quarto de madrigali for five voices of 1567 referred to him as maestro di cappella of the Bavarian court. Whether for musical reasons or political and religious ones (Daser was a Protestant and Albrecht V, who had for some time tolerated and even encouraged reformers in Bavaria, had turned back to Catholicism, sending a representative to the Council of Trent in 1563), Lassus, who appears to have remained Catholic though he was no Counter-Reformation zealot, took over the leadership of the chapel when Daser was pensioned in 1563, a position he was to hold for 30 years (see Munich, fig.1). During this period the make-up of the chapel changed as more and more Italians were recruited. There was much fluctuation in numbers of singers and instrumentalists, the highpoint being reached in 1568 at the time of the young Duke Wilhelm’s marriage, the low occurring after the latter’s accession to the throne in 1579. But Lassus’s position ended only with his death, and so firm was his hold on it that it could be inherited by his two sons in turn; in 1629 a grandson still represented the family in the chapel.

Lassus’s duties included a morning service, for which polyphonic masses, elaborate or simple as the occasion required, were prepared. Judging from his enormous output of Magnificat settings, Vespers must have been celebrated solemnly a good deal of the time. It is less clear for what services much of the repertory of motets was created, though many could have fitted into celebrations of the Mass and Offices. Music for special occasions was provided by the ducal chapel; this included state visits, banquets for which ‘Tafelmusik’ was customary and hunting parties. Indeed Albrecht’s love of musical display and his munificence towards musicians was much criticized in some court quarters. In addition Lassus supervised the musical education of the choirboys; he saw to the copying of manuscripts and perhaps to the collection of printed music for the ducal library. He also became a friend and companion to the duke and especially to his heir, the future Wilhelm V.

In 1558 Lassus married Regina Wäckinger, the daughter of a Bavarian court official. Among their children two sons, (2) Ferdinand (b c1560) and (3) Rudolph (b c1563), were to become musicians. He settled into what seems to have been a stable and comfortable existence, apparently one that he never seriously considered changing. This was varied by journeys undertaken at ducal behest. Thus in 1560 he went to Flanders to recruit singers; in 1562 he was in Prague for the coronation of the Archduke Maximilian as king of Bohemia, and in Frankfurt for the latter’s enthronement as ‘king of the Romans’. Andrea Gabrieli joined Lassus’s chapel for this visit, and may have remained in Munich for a year or two thereafter. In 1567 Lassus was in northern Italy, visiting Ferrara and Venice – and reminding Italians that, as he said in the dedication to his fourth book of five-part madrigals, good Italian music could be written even in far-off ‘Germania’.

Lassus’s fame was steadily growing, at home and abroad. He began, perhaps at the duke’s request, to collect and put in order his own compositions, particularly the motets. The Venetian and Flemish printers who published his first works continued to issue madrigals, chansons and sacred music; in the 1560s Berg in Munich, Montanus and Neuber in Nuremberg (now Nürnberg), and Le Roy & Ballard in Paris began to print individual works, then series of volumes devoted to the music of the man becoming known as ‘princeps musicorum’ and the ‘divin Orlande’.

In 1568 Lassus played an important part in the festivities for the wedding of Wilhelm V with Renée of Lorraine; in addition to composing music and supervising performances he is said to have performed the role of a ‘magnifico’ in an Italian comedia dell’arte. He was becoming something of a genuine ‘magnifico’: in 1570 Maximilian II conferred upon him a patent of nobility; in 1571 and again in 1573 and 1574 he visited the French court at the invitation of Charles IX; in 1574 he was made a Knight of the Golden Spur by Pope Gregory XIII. Such honours were rarely bestowed on musicians. Still, Lassus was content to remain in Munich; there seems to be no proof that in 1574 he seriously thought of moving to France, and turned back only on hearing of the death of Charles IX.

In 1573 Lassus was in Venice and Vienna for brief periods; in 1574 he visited Trent, Mantua, Bologna, Rome and Naples. His motet Domine Jesu Christe was awarded first prize at Evreux in 1575; he won again in 1583 with the Cecilian motet Cantantibus organis. He may have had as a pupil Giovanni Gabrieli, who was in Munich during the 1570s. From these years a charming correspondence between the composer and Duke Wilhelm, Albrecht’s son and heir, survives; these letters, and some correspondence between Wilhelm and his father, are proof of the high regard felt by both men for Lassus. Before his death, Albrecht V made provisions that the composer was to receive his salary for the rest of his life. The five magisterial volumes of sacred works called Patrocinium musices (fig.2) appeared during these years, and numerous reprints of his earlier music testify to Lassus’s continuing popularity all over Europe.

On the accession of Wilhelm V in 1579 the ducal chapel was much reduced in size. Whatever Lassus may have felt about this, he did not consider leaving. Refusing an invitation (1580) to succeed Antonio Scandello in Dresden, he wrote to the Duke of Saxony that he did not want to leave his house, garden and other good things in Munich, and that he was now beginning to feel old. His activity as a composer did not diminish, however; the years 1581–5 are marked by a number of new publications, of masses, Magnificat settings, motets, psalms and German lieder. He made a brief visit to Verona in 1582. In 1584 Ferdinand Lassus took over some of his father’s duties, and the next year Lassus made a pilgrimage to Loreto. On this journey he visited Ferrara, where he heard new Italian music of an advanced style. The conservatism of his own later music was the result of deliberate choice, viewed by the composer himself with some wryness, and not because of ignorance of what was happening in Italy.

Although Lassus’s final years were marked by some poor health and by a ‘melancholia hypocondriaca’ for which he sought the help of a physician, Thomas Mermann, he continued to write music, if only intermittently. Shortly before his death he dedicated to Pope Clement VIII his last cycle of compositions, the Lagrime di S Pietro, adding to it a seven-voice motet, Vide homo quae pro te patior.

3. Letters.

A series of letters from Lassus to Duke Wilhelm, son and heir of Albrecht V, survives. The letters, dated between 1572 and 1579 and for the most part written from Munich to the duke’s establishment at Landshut, are celebrated for their mixture of languages, passing back and forth from a playful, half-macaronic Latin to Italian, French and German. A few are partly in doggerel verse, strengthening the supposition that Lassus wrote some of his own texts for occasional and humorous pieces. The tone of these letters and their amusing signatures (‘Orlando Lasso col cor non basso’; ‘Orlandissimo lassissimo, amorevolissimo’; ‘secretaire publique, Orlando magnifique’) show Lassus to have been on terms of easy familiarity with Wilhelm. There are occasional references to music, as in a letter of 22 March 1576, when he wrote: ‘I send a copy of Io son ferito; if it seems good to you, I will hope to hear my work at Landshut or elsewhere’ (this must refer to Lassus’s mass written on Palestrina’s well-known madrigal and published in 1589). Wilhelm apparently knew a good deal about music and liked to talk about it; thus Lassus could send him a letter (11 March 1578; fig.3) entirely made up of musical puns and jokes, mentioning other composers such as Rore, Clemens non Papa and Arcadelt, and referring jokingly to musical terms, as in the description of ‘una baligia senza pause, coperta di passagi di molte cadenze fatte in falso bordone a misura di macaroni’ (‘a valise without rests, covered with passage-work of many cadences made from falsobordoni the size of macaroni’). These letters suggest that Lassus had read Italian epistolary writers such as Pietro Aretino and Antonfrancesco Doni; they confirm his reputation as – when the occasion required and perhaps when the mood was on him – an amusing friend and boon companion.

4. Masses.

The earliest surviving printed volume devoted entirely to masses by Lassus, issued by Claudio Merulo in Venice in 1570 (1570e), is a ‘volume two’; an earlier first volume must have existed. Some of Lassus’s masses belong to the first years of his residence in Munich in the late 1550s; the latest, a five-voice mass based on Gombert’s Triste départ, was written as a kind of valedictory gesture near the end of his life. The 60 or so masses known to be authentic (there are a number of doubtful works in this genre) make up a not inconsiderable part of his oeuvre. Since their publication in the new Lassus edition, the traditional view that Lassus’s masses are of peripheral importance in his work, and indeed of largely perfunctory character, has been modified. Certainly they were not considered of negligible value during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Although no single mass attained the popularity of some of the more celebrated motets, many were reprinted during and after his lifetime; several groups were included in the Patrocinium musices; and Le Roy & Ballard’s resplendent Missae variis concentibus ornatae of 1577–8 (1577b) suggests that the Parisian publishers planned (although they did not carry out) a complete edition of his masses.

Most of Lassus’s settings are parody masses, based on motets (chiefly his own), French chansons (by Gombert, Willaert, Monte and members of the Parisian school), or Italian madrigals (by Sebastiano Festa, Arcadelt, Rore and Palestrina). They provide a highly instructive anthology of the techniques of parody. His rearrangement and recomposition of his own music, as in the Missa ‘Locutus sum’, show Lassus’s technical prowess; his striking transformation of a rather simple model, such as Daser’s motet for the Missa ‘Ecce nunc benedicite’, illustrates his ability to raise the level of music of his lesser contemporaries. More remarkable still is the sensitivity he displayed in adapting secular models as diverse as Arcadelt’s Quand’io pens’al martire, the densely polyphonic texture of Gombert’s chansons, and the supple and subtle flow of Rore’s madrigals. The masses based on these pieces are reminiscent of their models in style yet show no musical incongruity or technical strain. A work like the Missa ‘Qual donna attende’, based on Rore’s distinguished madrigal, must have provided a rich treat for connoisseurs of this genre.

At the other extreme in Lassus’s masses are the short, syllabic missae breves. Some of these are parodies of works, like Sermisy’s La, la, maistre Pierre, themselves in concise syllabic style. The shortest of all these works is the ‘Jäger’ Mass or Missa venatorum, a work designed for a brief service on days the court spent hunting. Some of the masses based on plainchant are of this succinct type; an exception is the impressive five-voice Missa pro defunctis with its curious bass intonations. Whether or not because they fit post-Tridentine ideas about music for the Mass (Lassus is known to have been stubborn about changing things at Munich to conform to new ideas coming from Rome), some of the shortest and simplest of Lassus’s masses were among his most popular works in the genre. It should be stressed, however, that these works do not represent him fully or entirely characteristically as a composer of masses.

5. Passions.

Lassus’s four Passions are responsorial and of the kind cultivated by north Italian composers throughout most of the 16th century. In two of them (the St Matthew and St John) the words of the turbae and of the various individuals are set polyphonically, the first group for five-part chorus and the second for solo duos and trios; the words of Christ and the evangelists’ narrative are to be chanted. The Passions according to St Mark and St Luke are shorter works in which chordal polyphony is provided only for the turbae. In the St Matthew Passion, first published in 1575, a clear stylistic distinction is made between the music of the turbae – chordal successions with ponderously decorated cadences – and the supple imitative style of the duos and trios used for the words of Peter, Judas and other characters. This work enjoyed great and lasting popularity. Various later Passions borrowed from it, and a manuscript dated 1743, complete with added thoroughbass part, shows that it was still performed 150 years after its composition. The other three Passions survive only in manuscript, with convincing though not absolutely definitive attributions to Lassus.

6. Magnificat settings and other liturgical works.

Lassus’s more than 100 settings of the Magnificat, all but ten of them collected in a posthumous edition (1619) by his son Rudolph, far outnumber those of any other 16th-century composer (Palestrina, for example, wrote 35). Their wide circulation in print and manuscript is testimony to their lasting popularity; only those of Morales had anything like this success. All but a few are alternatim settings of the even verses, leaving the odd verses to be chanted, as was customary, or perhaps played on the organ.

In 1567 Lassus published three cycles each containing a six-verse setting for all eight tones (1567b). He went on to write at least two more such cycles; all are based on the appropriate chant tones of the Magnificat, with widely varied use of cantus-firmus technique. Some 60 settings use the psalmodic tones; a number of others have monophonic tunes used as cantus firmi. He respected the Magnificat tones in his choice of mode, and tended not to embellish the cantus firmus when using it intact; but no brief description could do justice to the flexible virtuosity with which the time-honoured device of the cantus firmus is used in these works. There is of course much integration of cantus firmus with other voices through melodic paraphrase and contrapuntal imitation.

A Magnificat parodying Rore’s celebrated madrigal Ancor che col partire was published in the collection of 1576. Some 40 of the Magnificat settings appearing in subsequent years are parody works; Lassus was the first to make consistent use of parody technique in this genre, and he seems to have liked using the procedure almost as much as he did in the masses. His own motets (and an occasional chanson) were favoured sources, but he ranged widely through 16th-century literature, from Josquin (whose Praeter rerum seriem served as model for a magnificently elaborate six-voice work) to Striggio and Vecchi, from motets to madrigals. As in the masses, parody technique is used here in an almost bewilderingly varied fashion, and with a sure instinct for blending the style of the model with that of the ‘copy’.

Lassus’s settings of the Magnificat vary greatly in length and complexity, from concise settings resembling falsobordoni to resplendently contrapuntal works over 200 bars long. His tendency to write more compact, harmonically conceived works in his later years may be seen in these pieces, but not in any easily predictable way. The opening and closing verses are generally closer to their melodic or contrapuntal models, the middle verses correspondingly freer. All voices respect to some degree the bipartite structure of the psalm verses.

There are a large number of liturgical and quasiliturgical works in other genres. Some were printed in the composer’s lifetime: the mass propers for Christmas, Easter and Pentecost in the third volume of the Patrocinium musices (1574); the Christmas Lessons of volume iv (1575) in that series; the Lamentations of Jeremiah, some of which were printed in 1585; the Lessons from Job (two sets, printed in 1565 and 1582); and the seven Psalmi Davidis poenitentiales (printed in 1584 but composed much earlier). Posthumously published works include 12 litanies (1596; four others survive in manuscript copies). None of these works was included in the Magnum opus musicum (1604) and therefore none appear in Haberl’s edition. All have now been published in the new collected edition.

An important category of Office polyphony in Lassus’s works is the Nunc dimittis. 13 settings survive, none of them ever printed: five, based on chant, date from about 1565, and eight (not all confirmed as genuine), parody works based on motets and madrigals, from the last period of his life. Still other groups of liturgical pieces survive only in manuscript and were apparently never printed (they were perhaps considered in a way the private property of the Bavarian court chapel): these include a group of falsobordoni, an important hymn cycle written after local adoption of the Roman hymn sequence in 1581, and a group of responsories (from the 1580s). These are now published in the new Lassus edition and have been studied by Bergquist.

(iv) Classical and classicistic texts.

7. Motets.

Difficult to assess simply by reason of their enormous number, the motets of Lassus as they appear in Haberl’s edition pose an additional problem: they are printed in the order assigned to them by Ferdinand and Rudolph Lassus in the Magnum opus musicum of 1604, and thus arranged by number of voices rather than in chronological order of publication (the new Lassus edition and that of Bergquist are fortunately proceeding on quite different principles). Studies of Lassus’s music based on chronology have been made (Boetticher), but much remains to be done. It is not easy to be sure about relative composition dates for much of this music; the publication date is of course not an infallible guide, sometimes not even a useful one. Details of stylistic growth and change can probably be seen and analysed, but the criteria for such a study have yet to be fully developed.

In motet composition, as in the writing of madrigals, Lassus began by assimilating the styles fashionable in Italy in his youth. Rore and the Roman school around Barrè seem the two most important of these influences, as seen in the carefully conceived declamatory rhythms in all voice parts. The bold yet tonally controlled chromaticism of motets such as Alma nemes, and the use of distinctive, finely chiselled thematic material in Audi dulcis [filia] amica mea (both printed in 1555), certainly show that Lassus knew Rore’s work. The motets of the Roman and Antwerp years, as well as those of the first decade in Munich, are dazzlingly virtuoso in invention and the handling of vocal textures. Videntes stellam, a two-section motet for five voices printed in 1562, is a good example of Lassus’s brilliant early style. The melodic material, distantly derived from a Magnificat antiphon for Epiphany week, transforms gentle hints in the chant into dramatically descriptive motifs that rocket through the texture, a texture that is constantly varied but always clear, and always well grounded harmonically. It is no wonder that the composer of pieces such as this rapidly won for himself first place at the Bavarian court and an international reputation soon to surpass that of all his contemporaries.

Imitation plays a large role in the contrapuntal technique of Lassus’s early work, as does voice pairing; he did not of course observe these techniques as strictly as did Josquin’s generation, but neither did he favour the thick texture and close-set imitation cultivated by Gombert. Everywhere there is harmonic clarity and solidity, equally apparent in pieces such as the Prophetiae Sibyllarum, which use the chromatic vocabulary fashionable in the 1550s, as in completely diatonic works.

It has been said that Lassus made little use of canon or other constructivist elements. This is true in a statistical sense, but when he chose he could show off Netherlandish skills; for example, the seven-part In omnibus requiem quaesivi (published 1565) has a three-part canon, with one of the voices in contrary motion. Cantus-firmus writing is rarer in Lassus than in Palestrina, but on occasion Lassus could revert to the kind of cantus-firmus procedure used by Josquin and Obrecht; Homo cum in honore esset (six voices; published 1566) has a soggetto cavato as cantus firmus on the text ‘Nosce te ipsum’, heard successively in breves, semibreves and minims. In this eclectic revival of earlier techniques, and in many individual passages where archaisms such as fauxbourdon or use of outmoded long notes can be seen, Lassus may have been using elements of an older Netherlandish style for expressive reasons, making a musical allusion to support the meaning of a phrase of text.

Like all Lassus’s music, the motets are immensely varied in musical invention and expressive detail. Nonetheless a recognizable stylistic ‘set’ may be observed in all the motets of the period c1555–70: thematic originality is blended with a contrapuntal fluidity that, in less distinguished pieces, approaches formula; there is plenty of chordal declamation, always marked by strength and clarity of harmony; expressive word-painting abounds but does not dominate or upset the equilibrium of a piece; and a certain succinctness – the economy of utterance that was to become increasingly evident in Lassus’s later works – is noticeable (the famous six-part Timor et tremor, published 1564, is as surprising for brevity as it is celebrated for expressive power). Lassus’s capacity for obtaining iridescent changes of colour in the plainest of diatonic palettes through skilful vocal scoring, a trait very marked in his later works, is present in his early motets; it is indeed one of the most characteristic of his stylistic traits (see ex.1, the opening of O Domine salvum me fac, published 1562).

In his motets of the 1570s and 1580s, as in other works of this period, Lassus made much use of chordal declamation on short note values, varied by quickly alternating points of imitation of rather neutral melodic character. This ‘villanella’ style (see Boetticher), perhaps better termed ‘canzonetta style’, may indicate a desire for a more up-to-date vocabulary on Lassus’s part. If so, that is about as far as he went; the works of the last decade are less markedly declamatory, more complex in texture and marked by a certain denseness and concentration of style that is not so much progressive as it is highly individual, a final style seen to good advantage in the six-part Musica Dei donum optimi (published 1594), a moving tribute to the composer’s art (this text was also set by other 16th-century composers).

Although they cannot be categorized in any very neat way, Lassus’s motets can be divided roughly under a few general headings.

(i) Didactic works.

(ii) Ceremonial motets.

(iii) Humorous motets.

(v) Religious works.

(i) Didactic works.

The 24 duos of 1577 (1577d) and many of the pieces for three voices must have been intended for students. In this the duos are particularly interesting. When compared with other famous 16th-century collections of duos such as those of Gero or of Lupacchino – both of them sets that were reprinted so often as to leave no doubt about their pedagogical usefulness – Lassus’s psalm settings and textless bicinia are surprising in their individuality of style: they are not generic counterpoint but rather illustrations of his own contrapuntal practice. They were popular enough to be reprinted and even to be ‘modernized’ (in a Parisian reprint of 1601 with an added third voice), but they did not rival Gero’s in longevity of use; they have about them too much of the finished and idiosyncratic composition, too little of the contrapuntal exercise. For Lassus’s own pupils they must have been of great value since the writing of duos was probably the most important part of a 16th-century composer’s training. It may be noted that the two-part pieces illustrate the D, E, F and G modes but not those of A and C; this supports the remark of Lechner, Lassus’s pupil, that his teacher used only the traditional eight modes.

(ii) Ceremonial motets.

There are a surprising number of pieces written for special occasions or to honour rulers and dignitaries; these are mostly grouped together in the Magnum opus musicum, near the beginning or end of the divisions by number of voices. Some of them provide clues to the composer’s life; thus the five-part Te spectant Reginalde Poli (published 1556) may indicate that Lassus knew the English Cardinal Pole in Rome in the 1550s. Many occasional pieces honouring the Habsburgs and various secular and religious potentates throughout Germany were doubtless commissioned by the Bavarian court. By far the largest number of these are addressed to Albrecht V, to his eldest son and to other members of the ducal family (one of these, Unde revertimini, started its existence under a slightly different name as a work in praise of Henri d’Anjou, the future Henri III of France). They vary in length and scoring (from three to ten voices) but as a matter of course are uniformly bright and festive in nature. Some, like the nine-section Princeps Marte potens, Guilelmus, are little more than a series of acclamations (in this instance addressed to Wilhelm V, his bride, and members of the imperial and ducal families); others are in full polyphonic style. A distinguishing feature of Lassus’s ceremonial pieces honouring the Wittelsbachs is their personal tone, evident proof of the composer’s close relationship with his employers. This is seen in Multarum hic resonat, addressed to Wilhelm on his name day in 1571, and in Haec quae ter triplici, the dedicatory piece of a collection of motets for three voices (1575) honouring Albrecht’s three sons, on a text ending ‘Lassus mente animoque dicat’ (‘Lassus’ set to the composer’s musical signature of la–sol). Most appealingly personal of all is Sponsa quid agis, for five voices, thought to have been composed for Lassus’s marriage in 1558; here the colouristic harmony on the words ‘Non me lasciviae veneris’, in an otherwise diatonic framework, is a charming bit of musical allusion.

(iii) Humorous motets.

Pieces with texts ranging from playfulness to burlesque are to be found among the works with Latin texts. Their music is appropriate and often witty in itself, but almost never broadly farcical; Lassus, rather like Mozart, tended to clothe his verbal jokes in exquisite musical dress. One exception is the travesty of ‘super flumina Babylonis’, beginning ‘SU-su-PER-per’ and proceeding haltingly and confusedly through both text and music, perhaps mocking the efforts of inexpert singers. Of a similar nature is Ut queant laxis, for five voices, in which the tenor sings the isolated notes of the hexachord between snatches of four-voice polyphony. In many apparently serious motets the tone-painting of individual words is so literal that one suspects a half-humorous intent, and occasionally one is sure of it: the concertato performance of motets is parodied in Laudent Deum cythara, in which five instrumental families are named, to music characteristic for each, in the space of a dozen bars (the total length of the piece).

There are drinking-songs in Latin in his output, as there are in German and French. These may be elaborate, as in the eight-part double chorus Vinum bonum. Perhaps the most amusing is the macaronic Lucescit jam o socii, whose independently rhymed series of alternating Latin and French lines sounds so much like some of the composer’s letters to Duke Wilhelm that Lassus must surely be author of both text and music.

(iv) Classical and classicistic texts.

The ceremonial motets are full of classical phrases. Other pieces setting either classical texts (Virgil, Horace) or humanistic 16th-century verse are to be found; there is a whole group of these near the end of the five-part section of the Magnum opus musicum. Lassus made his contribution to the list of Renaissance composers who set Dido’s lament Dulces exuviae; his version is in correctly quantitative declamatory chords with little ornament, a style not far from that used for classical choruses (as in Andrea Gabrieli’s music for Edippo tiranno, 1588). Most of these pieces are less academic in character, closer to the composer’s normal motet style. There are, however, examples of almost completely literal quantitative settings; the five-voice setting of Tragico tecti syrmate coelites looks very much like the settings of Horatian odes used in German schools, a genre with which Lassus was evidently familiar. Related to this genre are the Prophetiae Sibyllarum, famous for their chordal chromaticism but also showing careful declamatory exactness in setting the curious half-Christian, half-pagan humanistic verse.

(v) Religious works.

There are hints of ordering within the liturgical calendar in sections of the Magnum opus musicum (examples are the four-part offertories, roughly nos.124–68 in Haberl’s edition, and the section in the five-part motets beginning with the Christmas antiphon Angelus ad pastores, no.192; the six-part motets also show traces of liturgical sequence). The collection also has groupings by category such as hymns, Marian antiphons, Gospel or Epistle motets etc, which are convenient for study but of little help in determining liturgical usage. As Lassus’s sons included in their huge anthology a good many pieces which are motets only by virtue of being contrafacta of secular works, their methods of assemblage and editing appear too arbitrary to serve as the basis for study of the religious function of their father’s motets.

A large proportion of the motets must of course have been used in performance of the Mass and Offices in the court chapel. The number of settings of Marian antiphons, some of which are very elaborate, suggest that portions of the Office were sung with great solemnity. This is also true of settings of the Pater noster, the Ave Maria, and hymns included in the Magnum opus musicum; the six-part settings of Veni Creator Spiritus and Veni Sancte Spiritus are particularly resplendent. When one recalls that many of Lassus’s motet prints carried the rubric ‘apt for voices and instruments’ it is easy to imagine concerted performances of motets using some of the forces depicted in Hans Mielich’s miniature, which shows the court chapel as assembled for chamber performance (fig.4). Among the motets appearing in tablatures, chiefly of German origin, are a group in Johannes Rühling’s keyboard book (1583) which are arranged in liturgical order for Sundays and great feast days throughout the year, and thus are clearly intended for use in the liturgy.

Whether motets on religious texts were used as liturgical works, for private devotional purposes or in concert is hard to determine. Marian antiphons, for example, could certainly have been used as devotional pieces. Style may offer some clue; the Gospel motets (six voices, nos.549–58) are severely conservative and thus ‘sound’ liturgical whereas the Epistle motets adjacent to them are highly expressive (Cum essem parvulus, nos.570–71, with its touching delineation of the cardinal virtues and especially of charity, is one of the composer’s most moving works in any genre) and thus appear devotional in character. The many psalm settings, some of them free compilations from various psalms (the celebrated Timor et tremor is among them), are difficult to judge in this regard. A thorough study of the liturgical practices at Munich might help to place many works whose function is now not clear.

The motets of Lassus were admired in their own day not only for their beauty and technical perfection but also for their rhetorical power – their ability to move the affections through the use of rhetorical devices transferred into musical idioms. Joachim Burmeister’s celebrated rhetorical analysis of In me transierunt (published 1562) in his Musica poetica (1606; an expanded version of the Musica autoschediastikē, 1601) compares the motet to a classically ordered speech. 40 years earlier Quickelberg had praised Lassus’s ability to ‘describe an object almost as if it were before one’s eyes’. One has only to think of the many striking, sharply individualized openings of motets – the exordia of classical rhetoric – in Lassus’s work to see that both expressiveness and the rhetorician’s trick of catching attention can hardly be missed in this music. Whether the composer proceeded as deliberately, even pedantically, as Burmeister would have it may be doubted. However, if one recalls Lassus’s carefully precise declamation of classical texts it becomes clear that he knew something of the German didactic tradition linking music with the study of classical metres; it is not a large step from this to assume that he also knew how classical rhetoric was studied in the schools. The ‘speaking’ quality of much of this music cannot be a fortuitous property; it is not only expressive in a general sense but affective in a precise way, clearly perceptible to the composer’s contemporaries.

8. Madrigals.

In the mixed print issued in Antwerp by Susato in 1555 and often referred to as Lassus’s ‘op.1’, there are seven madrigals for four voices showing the composer’s grasp of the genre as a result of his Italian, particularly his Roman, years. His poetic tastes – a quatrain and a canzone stanza of Petrarch, an ottava by Ariosto, a Sannazaro poem and a pastoral in sestina (a form he particularly liked) – are typical of the period. Del freddo Rheno, a complete sestina rather in the style of the cyclic madrigals of Arcadelt and Berchem, opens the group on a note of simple tunefulness (this piece was popular with intabulators); in other madrigals the style varies from Willaert-like seriousness (Occhi piangete), through supple contrapuntal writing resembling Rore (Per pianto la mia carne), to the chordal declamation typical of the Roman madrigale arioso (Queste non son più lagrime). A certain clarity and succinctness of utterance are Lassus’s personal stamp; in other respects this collection is highly eclectic. These madrigals, together with a few others including the chanson-like Appariran per me le stell’in cielo, reappeared in Lassus’s first book of four-part madrigals, published by Dorico in Rome and then by Gardane in Venice, both in 1560. The strong resemblance of Lassus’s early madrigals to those of his contemporaries may be illustrated by the fact that one piece in this volume, Non vi vieto, credited to Lassus and included in Sandberger’s edition, is actually the work of Hoste da Reggio (if not a student work, written under the latter’s direction), part of a cycle in Hoste’s second book for four voices (1554). Lassus’s volume was a popular one, reprinted a dozen times over the next 30 years and supplying favourite materials for lutenists’ intabulations. Other early four-part madrigals appeared in Barrè’s Roman anthologies of madrigali ariosi.

Also highly successful, to judge by the frequency with which they were reprinted, were the first book for five voices, first issued by Gardane in Venice in 1555, and the second, printed by Barrè in Rome in 1557 after having long been held in private hands (so says the dedicatory letter of G.B. Bruno, who is known to have been in Rome in 1554). These madrigals and, in all probability, most of those in the third book for five voices (brought out by Barrè in Rome in 1563 after, says the publisher, a diligent search for works by Orlande) must have been written before Lassus’s departure from Rome in 1555. Petrarch dominates the first volume and is well represented in the others, with a six-section canzone cycle (Standomi un giorno) in a ‘narrative’, vibrantly declamatory style opening the second book.

The Petrarchan sonnets receive on the whole the most serious treatment, with sharply expressive thematic material in the tradition of Rore (see ex.2, the opening of Sol’e pensoso). Other forms such as the sestina, cyclic or in individual stanzas, are given lighter polyphonic dress; and the chordal declamation of the arioso madrigal may be seen (Bernardo Tasso’s Vostro fui vostro son). Some works, particularly a group near the end of the second book, are clearly in an easy, ‘popular’ style. Even the most ambitious Petrarchan settings, however, are marked by Lassus’s ever-present clarity of tonal palette and attractiveness of melody. These madrigals are distinguished by free use of material (there is little exact imitative writing) and by much variety of speed and character in declamation, despite the fact that the misura cromatica (C) is used in only a few pieces. They do not perhaps equal the work of Rore in intensity but they do rival the older master in variety of mood and seamless technical perfection – no mean achievement for a man in his twenties. The frequent choice of texts in which the word ‘lasso’ appears (in six pieces scattered through the three volumes), and the invariable la–sol setting it receives, suggest a youthful desire to ‘sign’ his works; Lassus as a young Roman clearly wanted the world to know who he was.

From the first decade in Munich come the contents of the fourth book for five voices, written to show, in the composer’s words, that the Muses were cherished and could flourish in ‘Germania’ as well as in Italy. Lassus visited Venice in May 1567; while there (when he was described in a letter as ‘lively and a good companion’) he saw to the printing of this fourth book, which he dedicated to Duke Alfonso II d’Este and then took to Ferrara to present to him. Lassus’s inclination towards the cyclic madrigal is again seen here; there is a complete sestina by Petrarch at the beginning, sonnets in two parts, and another sestina (Qual nemica fortuna oltra quest’ Alpe, on a text by Federico Asinari) that seems to combine local Ferrarese reference (the Po river) with a laboured geography-of-love image.

Lassus’s madrigal output slowed down after this, though he contributed to the anthologies of Bavarian court madrigals assembled by Troiano (RISM 1569¹⁹) and Bottegari (1575). Whether a true ‘middle period’ in stylistic terms can be seen in these and other individual pieces appearing in various anthologies of the 1570s remains to be demonstrated.

In 1585 Lassus was again in Italy; the dedication of his volume of five-part madrigals printed in Nuremberg in that year (1585c, reissued in Venice in 1587 as the Libro quinto) is to the great Veronese patron Mario Bevilacqua, whose ridotto the composer may have visited in 1582. Here serious Petrarchan texts alternate with religious sonnets by Gabriel Fiamma. In style these madrigals, separated from the fourth book by nearly 20 years, show definite awareness of the newer Italian madrigal: not that of the chromaticists but rather that of Marenzio, with brief contrast motifs, declamation on short note values and counterpoint that is chiefly figured chordal progressions (Io che l’età più verde is an example). Lassus’s older style is not completely absorbed by these novelties, and in a few pieces his earlier madrigals are recalled (the sestina Quando il giorno). How well he could write in a newer style is demonstrated by the amusing La non vol esser più mia (published 1584), a work in fully-fledged canzonetta idiom.

The madrigals for four, five and six voices dedicated to Lassus’s friend the physician Thomas Mermann (Nuremberg, 1587) show some of the traits seen in the volume of 1585 but are more varied in style, often suggesting the compression and individuality of his late motet style. In this volume a five-section religious cycle to text by Beccuti (‘il Copetta’), Signor le colpe mie, has been shown (by Boetticher) to be missing its first stanza, Di terrena armonia, a piece for some reason printed separately in Continuation du mellange issued by Le Roy & Ballard in 1584.

At the very end of his life Lassus set the 21 ottava stanzas of Tansillo’s Lagrime di S Pietro. This cycle of seven-voice spiritual madrigals is one of the most remarkable artistic testaments in the history of music. Deliberately restrained in mood and character, planned as a magnificent tonal arch covering the whole range of 16th-century sound, the work is at once musically unified and expressively varied. Lassus’s lifelong habits of concision and balance, subordinating vivid declamation and rhetorical power to inexorable musical clarity, are here given their definitive statement. The transcendentally synthetic quality of this music, blending styles as diverse as the Prophetiae Sibyllarum and the late madrigals, stands in the sharpest possible contrast to what was in other hands already becoming the drily academic stile antico.

Among Lassus’s most popular Italian-texted works are the six four-voice villanescas in the ‘op.1’ of 1555 (these pieces are often found in anthologies of lute intabulations) and the contents of the Libro de villanelle, moresche, et altre canzoni for four, five, six and eight voices (Paris, 1581), a volume said by the composer to have been written in his old age when he should have known better. The famous Matona mia cara may serve as an example of pieces to be found in this volume, although some of the other pieces are equally amusing. All are reworkings of older material, following the time-honoured principle of using pre-existing melodies in this genre; the most outrageous texts receive elegant if simple musical setting, in its own way a final statement about this sub-species of the madrigal.

9. Chansons.

Fewer in number than his madrigals, Lassus’s chansons, about 150 in all, are nonetheless considerable in bulk and, more importantly, highly characteristic of the composer, who never entirely left off being a Frenchman. He wrote a number of chansons in his youth and did not by any means stop when he moved to Munich; French was in common use at the court, and chansons of various types were evidently in demand from his patrons as well as from his publishers.

To judge by their dates of publication, Lassus wrote chansons from the 1550s into the 1580s; a greater proportion than of most other categories are early works. Just as the madrigals were brought out for the most part by Roman and Venetian printers, so the chansons were published chiefly in the Netherlands (Phalèse, Susato, Laet) and in Paris (Le Roy & Ballard, Du Chemin). Their wide popularity can be seen from the frequent reprints and from their appearance in print in Lyons, La Rochelle, Strasbourg and London (Vautrollier, 1570). Some of the later reprints bear the proud description of the composer as ‘Prince des musiciens de nostre temps’. The chansons were much in favour with keyboard, cittern and especially lute intabulators; the Theatrum musicum of Phalèse and Bellère (1568²³, 1571¹⁶) is particularly rich in Lassus’s works. The English translation of Le Roy’s lute tutor (London, 1574) contains 11 chansons by Lassus. A very large number of chansons, including some of the bawdiest, were ‘spiritualized’ in French and German religious collections (Pasquier, 1576; Berg, 1582). The bulk of Lassus’s chanson output was collected in two volumes of ‘meslanges’ issued by Le Roy & Ballard (1576b, 1584a). Of the chansons not included in these volumes or in the important Livre de chansons nouvelles issued by Le Roy & Ballard in Paris and Phalèse in Leuven in 1571 (1571g), some have not survived complete; among these are a set of religious chansons on texts by Guy du Faur de Pibrac, published in 1581. Fortunately two of these pieces, illustrating the sobriety of Lassus’s late chanson style, have been reassembled through the discovery (by Bernstein) of a set of manuscript parts in Edward Paston’s library (in GB-Cfm).

Lassus turned to some of the most famous of 16th-century French poets for texts: Marot, Ronsard, Du Bellay and Baïf. The fact that he often set texts already known in musical settings is reflected in his occasional choice of Mellin de Saint-Gelais, a favourite poet among composers of the preceding generation, and also in his fondness for light verse from popular anthologies such as La fleur de poesie francoyse (1542). Occasional choice of much earlier poetry (Chartier, Villon) can also be seen. The subject matter ranges from dignified nature-poetry (Du Bellay) and Petrarchesque lyrics (Ronsard), through sententious and moralizing texts, to the familiar drinking-songs, some macaronic texts, and Rabelaisian amorous and bawdy narratives; no one wrote more amusing chansons of this last type (En un chasteau and Il esteoit une religieuse are excellent examples). There are also biblical and religious texts (the famous Susanne un jour, for example) – these apart from the contrafacta imposed by other hands on nearly all the secular chansons. There are a few real love-lyrics, some occasional pieces, and isolated soundings of familiar chanson-like themes such as ‘faulte d’argent’ (in Je suis quasi prest d’enrager).

In musical style the chansons are more varied than the usual blanket description given them – as either ‘Parisian’ patter chansons or motet-like serious pieces – would suggest. Lassus could and often did write chansons, usually light narratives or dialogues, in the classically clear and succinct style made popular in Attaingnant’s anthologies. How directly and economically he went about this can be seen in a work such as Un advocat dit à sa femme (ex.3). These pieces are usually for four voices, but Lassus, who in all genres preferred five-part texture, could manage ‘Parisian’ style just as easily in five voices (La terre les eaux, for example). He could even write a piece that resembles, paradoxically, an instrumental canzona alla francese transcribed for voices (Si pour moy avez du souci). The light chansons are not always written in ‘Parisian’ fashion; the Italian patter style infecting so much of Lassus’s work in his middle years may also be seen here (there is one outright ‘villanelle’, to Baïf’s Une puce j’ay dedans l’oreill’).

Many chansons begin, as do so many of the lieder, with a contrapuntal exordium, sharply delineating the character of the piece through distinctive melodic shapes; then follow patter chords or lightweight texture in which short motifs are constantly thrown back and forth among the voices. Sometimes the music changes character with every flicker of meaning in the text, as in the setting of Marot’s Qui dort icy. The declamation in all the lively chansons is good; in some it is extraordinarily vivid – Marot’s Bon jour et puis quelles nouvelles is given a setting of such conversational immediacy that on hearing it all barriers separating us from the 16th century seem to drop away.

The more serious chansons resemble the reflective, affective madrigals of Rore and his successors more than they do motets. Chansons such as Le temps passé (with its ‘soupir’ figures), Mon coeur ravi d’amour and Comme la tourterelle (with its madrigalian chromaticism) are madrigals in all but their very Gallic declamatory diction. Use of madrigalian style is sometimes but not always influenced by the text; thus Ronsard’s J’espère et crains, with its laboured Petrarchan oxymorons, is given a quite restrained setting, while Vray dieu disoit une fillette, a very French text, is given such Italian touches as a long final pedal point. In a category by themselves are pieces such as La nuict froide et sombre (Du Bellay), set as an expansive, colouristic tone poem in style even though characteristically brief in actual duration.

German schoolmasters would not have picked chansons by Lassus as examples of rhetorical organization and affective power; the genre was not sufficiently grand. Many of the chansons would nevertheless make good examples of the musician as rhetorician; Marot’s Fleur de quinze ans, for instance, is in Lassus’s hands a seduction speech of extraordinarily tight organization and persuasive musical diction.

In the preface to the third book of five-part lieder (1576), Lassus contrasted the Italian and German styles, emphasizing (and defending) the roughness of the latter. He evidently tried to cultivate a specifically German style. The results were good, certainly; but his position in the history of the lied has been described (by Osthoff, 1938) as that of an innovator who discarded German tradition, that of the Tenorlied, in favour of a style mixing elements of the madrigal, the villanella and the chanson. This is true primarily of the secular lieder; the sacred works use traditional melodies in, on the whole, as strict an adherence to cantus-firmus writing as Lassus showed in any genre.

10. German lieder.

For Lassus, French by birth and Italian by musical training, composition in a German vein must have posed problems. He published no lieder until 1567; by that time he was surely fluent in setting German texts, enough for him to have written for private use, at the court, pieces Duke Albrecht liked too well to allow to circulate in print (preface to the 1567 collection). But the native tradition was very strong in Munich, where Senfl had worked until his death (1542–3); the song collections of Ott, Forster and others remained popular, and the need for new works was correspondingly less great during Lassus’s early years at the Bavarian court.

The lieder are few in number only by the standards of Lassus’s prolific output in other genres; if one counts the German psalms for three voices (1588) there are over 90 compositions, including several multipartite six-part sacred compositions larger in scale than most of the motets. Many of the secular pieces were famous in the composer’s time and are among his best-known works today (Audite nova, for example). The proportion of sacred pieces among the lieder is high, even without counting the volume of psalms; this suggests that the German collections were intended for a somewhat different audience from that of the madrigals and the chansons.

In some respects Lassus was conservative as a composer of lieder. He chose texts for the most part already known in sacred and secular songbooks (one exception is the setting of Hans Sachs’s Ein Körbelmacher in ein Dorff), and inclined towards folk-like ones. His German settings are rhythmically lively and correct in declamation, but not exaggeratedly so; nor are there experiments in chromaticism in the lieder. His preference for five-part texture (which he felt he had to justify as a novelty in the preface to the 1567 collection) was merely carrying over into the lieder a general preference typical of his generation.

The sacred lieder use texts and melodies common to Lutheran and Catholic songbooks with Luther’s Vater unser im Himmelreich opening the first collection (the Ulenberg psalm translations are, however, Catholic and even anti-Protestant in intent). The psalm settings range from the rather simple tricinia of the 1588 collection (where they alternate with similar settings by his son Rudolph) to the great six-part psalm-motets such as Ich ruff zu dir, using paraphrased and cantus-firmus versions of the borrowed melodies, in the French–German volume of 1590.

Among the secular texts chosen by Lassus are drinking-songs and lieder in which the bad effects of liquor are lamented (Mein Fraw hilgert); possibly the constantly expressed preference for wine over beer was a personal one. Comic rustic narrative encounters (Baur, was tregst im Sacke?) are among the most famous of the lieder. There are also melancholy and satirical pieces (Die zeit, so jetz vorhanden ist), some love-songs of narrative character, and a few songs of nature-love. The traditional vein of elegiac introspection seen in the lied from Hofhaimer to Senfl was on the whole avoided by Lassus.

Many lieder begin with an imitative exordium followed by lively patter. Relationships to the villanella and lighter madrigal may of course be seen (Lassus knew the celebrated German villanella collections of Regnart), and the presence of chanson-like rhythms is frequent. The combination is a natural and convincing one; Lassus did not so much break with German tradition as simply set texts in his own style, a somewhat eclectic one in every genre. In any event the triumphantly German character of the best lieder is proof enough that he mastered the lied in his own way.

responsories and antiphons

WORKS

Editions: Orlando di Lasso: Sämtliche Werke, ed. F.X. Haberl and A. Sandberger (Leipzig, 1894–1926/R1974) [S]Orlando di Lasso: Sämtliche Werke: neue Reihe, ed. S. Hermelink and others (Kassel, 1956–) [H]Orlando di Lasso: Sämtliche Werke. Zweite, nach den Quellen revidierte Auflage der Ausgabe von F.X. Haberl und A. Sandberger, ed. H. Leuchtmann (Wiesbaden, 1968–) [L]Orlande de Lassus: Chansons, ed. J. Bernstein, SCC, xi–xiv (1987) [B]Orlando di Lasso: Complete Motets, ed. P. Bergquist, RRMR, cii– (1995–) [M i–]

for MSS see editions

motets

madrigals

other secular italian

chansons

German contrafacta

lieder

doubtful and misattributed works

masses

Liber missarum … liber primus, 4–6vv (Venice, 1566) (RISM 1566¹) [1566a]

Praestantissimorum divinae musices auctorum missae decem, 4–6vv (Leuven, 1570) (RISM 1570¹) [1570c]

Quinque missae suavissimis modulationibus refertae … liber secundus, 4, 5vv (Venice, 1570) (RISM 1570a) [1570e]

Patrocinium musices … missae aliquot, secunda pars, 5vv (Munich, 1574) (RISM 1574b) [1574a]

Missae variis concentibus ornatae … cum cantico beatae Mariae octo modis variato, 4–6, 8vv (Paris, 1577–8) (RISM 1577a) [1577b]

Liber missarum, 4, 5vv (Nuremberg, 1581) (RISM 1581a) [1581a]

Missa ad imitationem moduli Quand’io penso al martire, 4vv (Paris, 1582) (RISM 1582a) [1582c]

Missa ad imitationem moduli Beatus qui intelligit, 6vv (Paris, 1587) (RISM 1587a) [1587b]

Missa ad imitationem moduli Locutus sum, 6vv (Paris, 1587) (RISM 1587b) [1587c]

Missae … liber primus, 4, 5vv (Milan, 1588) (RISM 1588⁴) [1588a]

Patrocinium musices: missae aliquot, 5vv (Munich, 1589) (RISM 1589a) [1589]

Missa ad imitationem moduli Dixit Joseph, 6vv (Paris, 1607) (RISM 1607a) [1607a]

Missae posthumae, 6, 8vv (Munich, 1610) (RISM 1610a) [1610]

Alleluia, 5vv (frag., T only of Kyrie and Gloria), H xii, 155

Alleluia, 5vv (frag., B only of Kyrie and Gloria), H xii, 157

Amar donna [‘Chi passa per questa strada’], 5vv, 1589, H vi, 23

Amor ecco colei, 6vv, 1610; H viii, 93

Beatus qui intelligit, 6vv, 1587b (on own motet); H vii, 195

Bell’Amfitrit’altera, 8vv, 1610; H viii, 55

Benedicam Dominum, 5vv, MS c1570 (on own motet); H xi, 3

Cantorum, 4vv (inc.); H xii, 3

Certa fortiter, 6vv, 1610 (on own motet); H viii, 131

Confundantur superbi, 5vv, MS c1564 (on own motet); H ix, 3

Congratulamini mihi, 6vv, 1570c (on own motet); H vii, 137

Credidi propter, 5vv, 1577b (on own motet); H iii, 249

De feria, 4vv, 1577b; H iv, 87

De feria in Quadragesima, 4vv, MS 1566; H ix, 43

De feria in Septimana Sancta, 4vv, MS 1566; H ix, 51

Deus in adjutorium, 6vv, 1610 (on own motet); H viii, 211

Dittes maistresse, 5vv, 1589 (on Monte’s chanson); H vi, 3

Dixit Joseph, 6vv, 1607a (on own motet); H viii, 3

Domine Dominus noster, 6vv, MS 1577 (on own motet); H x, 41

Domine secundum actum meum, 5vv, 1570c (on Jacquet of Mantua’s motet); H vii, 49

Doulce memoire, 4vv, 1577b (on Sandrin’s chanson); H iv, 3

Eccce Maria, 5vv (inc.) (on own motet); H xii, 51

Ecce nunc benedicite, 6vv, 1610 (on L. Daser’s motet); H viii, 173

Entre vous filles, 5vv, 1581a (on Clemens’s chanson); H v, 159

Frère Thibault [Sine nomine], 4vv, 1570e (on Certon’s chanson); H iii, 75

Il me suffit [Beschaffens-Glück], 4vv, 1581a (on Sermisy’s chanson); H v, 139

In die tribulationis, 5vv, 1589 (on Jacquet of Mantua’s motet); H vi, 71

In me transierunt, 5vv (frag., T only of Kyrie and Gloria) (on own motet); H xii, 154

In principio, 6vv (inc.) (on own motet); H xii, 65

In te Domine speravi, 6vv, 1566a (on own motet); H v, 51

Io son ferito ahi lasso, 5vv, 1589 (on Palestrina’s madrigal); H vi, 105

Ite rime dolenti, 5vv, 1574a (on Rore’s madrigal); H iii, 133

Jäger [Venatorum], 4vv, 1577b; H iv, 73

Je ne mange poinct de porcq, 4vv, 1570e; H iii, 3

Je prens en gres, 4vv, MS 1572 (on Clemens’s chanson); H ix, 77

Je suis desheritée, 4vv, MS 1583 (on J. Lupi’s chanson); H x, 93

Jesus ist ein süsser Nam, 6vv, MS c1592; H x, 145

La, la, maistre Pierre [Ad placitum], 4vv, 1570e (on Sermisy’s chanson); H iii, 27

Laudate Dominum omnes gentes, 4vv, 1588a; H vii, 3

Le berger et la bergère, 5vv, 1570e (on Gombert’s chanson); H iii, 97

Locutus sum, 6vv, 1587c (on own motet); H vii, 89

On me l’a dict, 4vv, MS c1570 (on Certon’s chanson); H ix, 61

O passi sparsi, 4vv, 1577b (on S. Festa’s madrigal); H iv, 49

Osculetur me, 8vv, MS after 1582 (on own motet); H x, 187

Paschalis, 5vv, MS 1576; H ix, 131

Pilons pilons lorge [Quinti toni], 4vv, 1570e (on Sermisy’s chanson); H iii, 51

Pro defunctis, 4vv, 1577b; H iv, 95

Pro defunctis, 5vv, 1589; H vi, 135

Puisque i’ay perdu, 4vv, 1577b; H iv, 23

Qual donna attende à gloriosa fama, 5vv, 1589 (on Rore’s madrigal); H vi, 43

Quand’io pens’al martire, 4vv, 1582c (on Arcadelt’s madrigal); H vii, 25

Qui la dira, 5vv, MS 1576 (on Willaert’s madrigal); H x, 3

Requiem, 4vv (inc.); H xii, 326

Rompi de l’empio cor, 6vv, MS c1570 (on Willaert’s madrigal); H xi, 45

Scarco di doglia, 5vv, 1574a (on Rore’s madrigal); H iii, 175

Sesquialtera, 4vv, MS 1579; H x, 69

Sidus ex claro, 5vv, 1574a (on own motet); H iii, 217

Si rore aenio, 5vv, MS 1572; H ix, 101

Surge propera, 6vv, 1577b (on own motet); H iv, 157

Surrexit Pastor bonus, 5vv (inc.) (on own motet); H xii, 15

Susanne un jour, 5vv, 1577b (on own chanson); H iv, 121

Tempus est ut revertar, 6vv, frag. (B only of Kyrie and Gloria) (on own motet); H xii, 159

Tous les regretz, 6vv, 1577b (on Gombert’s chanson); H v, 3

Triste départ, 6vv, MS 1592 (on Gombert’s chanson); H x, 115

Veni in hortum meum, 5vv, 1581a (on own motet); H v, 185

Vinum [Verbum] bonum, 8vv, 1577b (on own motet); H v, 105

passions

Patrocinium musices … passio, idem lectiones Iob, et lectiones matutinae de nativitate Christi, 4–5vv, quarta pars (Munich, 1575) (RISM 1575a) [1575]

Passio Domini nostri Jesu Christi secundum Mattheum, 5vv, 1575; H ii, 3

Passio Domini nostri Jesu Christi secundum Marcum, 4vv, MS 1582; H ii, 27

Passio Domini nostri Jesu Christi secundum Lucam, 4vv, MS 1582; H ii, 37

Passio Domini nostri Jesu Christi secundum Johannem, 5vv, MS 1580; H ii, 47

canticles

Magnificat settings

(for chronology see Crook, 1994)

Magnificat octo tonorum, 4–6vv (Nuremberg, 1567) (RISM 1567b) [1567b]

Patrocinium musices … Magnificat aliquot, quinta pars, 4–6, 8vv (Munich, 1576) (RISM 1576c) [1576c]

Patrocinium musices: Beatissimae deiparaeque Virginis Mariae canticum Magnificat, ad imitationem cantilenarum quarundam, 4–6vv (Munich, 1587) (RISM 1587c) [1587d]

Liber primus cantiones sacrae Magnificat vocant, 5, 6vv (Paris, 1602¹) [1602]

Iubilus beatae virginis, hoc est centum Magnificat, 4–8, 10vv (Munich, 1619) (RISM 1619a) [1619]

Alma real se come fide stella (octavi toni), 5vv, 1619 (on Rore’s madrigal); H xvi, 163

Amor ecco colei (septimi toni), 6vv, 1587d; H xiv, 231

Ancor che col partire (quarti toni), 5vv, 1576c (on Rore’s madrigal); H xiv, 82

Aria di un sonetto (octavi toni), 5vv, 1587d (on D. Ortiz’s Aria di Ruggiero); H xiv, 256

Aurora lucis rutilat (octavi toni), 10vv, 1619 (on own motet); H xvii, 124

Beau le cristal (sexti toni), 4vv, 1619 (on own chanson); H xvi, 230

Benedicta es caelorum regina (octavi toni), 6vv, 1602 (on Josquin’s motet); H xv, 228

Dalle belle contrade (sexti toni), 5vv, 1619 (on Rore’s madrigal); H xvi, 120

Deus in adjutorium (septimi toni), 6vv, 1587d (on own motet); H xiv, 189

Dessus le marché d’Arras (primi toni), 6vv, 1587d (on own chanson); H xiv, 158

Dies est laetitia (sexti toni), 6vv, 1602; H xv, 212

D’ogni gratia e d’amor (septimi toni), 6vv, 1619 (on Striggio’s madrigal); H xvi, 188

Ecco ch’io lasso il core (secundi toni), 6vv, 1587d (? on Striggio’s madrigal); H xiv, 201

Erano capei d’oro (septimi toni), 5vv, 1619 (on G.M. Nanino’s madrigal); H xvii, 64

Hélas j’ai sans merci (septimi toni), 5vv, 1619 (on own chanson); H xv, 95

Il est jour (secundi toni), 4vv, 1587d (on Sermisy’s chanson); H xiv, 133

Las je n’iray plus (secundi toni), 5vv, 1619 (on own chanson); H xv, 46

Mais qui pourroit (secundi toni), 6vv, 1587d (on own chanson); H xiv, 275

Margot labouréz les vignes (septimi toni), 4vv, 1619 (on own chanson); H xvi, 154

Memor esto (secundi toni), 6vv, 1619 (on own motet); H xvii, 107

Mort et fortune (tertii toni), 5vv, 1587d (on Gombert’s chanson); H xiv, 263

O che vezzosa aurora (secundi toni), 6vv, 1619 (on Vecchi’s madrigal); H xvi, 175

Omnis enim homo (primi toni), 6vv, 1587d (on own motet); H xiv, 216

Omnis homo primum bonum vinum ponit (sexti toni), 6vv, 1602 (on Wert’s motet); H xv, 181

O s’io potessi (secundi toni), 4vv, 1619 (on Berchem’s madrigal); H xv, 3

Pange lingua gloriosa (septimi toni), 4vv, 1619; H xvi, 241

Praeter rerum seriem (secundi toni), 6vv, 1602 (on Josquin’s motet); H xv, 248

Quando lieta sperai (quarti toni), 6vv, 1587d (on a madrigal variously attrib. Rore and Morales); H xiv, 243

Quant’in mille anni il ciel (secundi toni), 6vv, 1587d (on Nollet’s madrigal); H xiv, 141

Recordare Jesu pie (septimi toni), 6vv, 1619 (on own motet); H xvi, 134

S’io credessi per morte (tertii toni), 4vv, 1619 (on A. de Reulx’s madrigal); H xvi, 221

S’io esca vivo (septimi toni), 6vv, 1619 (on own madrigal); H xv, 108

Si par souhait (primi toni), 4vv, 1587d (on own chanson); H xiv, 126

Si vous estes m’amie (sexti toni), 6vv, 1619 (on own chanson); H xvii, 94

Susanne un jour (primi toni), 6vv, 1587d (on Lupi’s chanson); H xiv, 174

Tant vous allez doux (sexti toni), 6vv, 1619 (on Ebran’s chanson); H xv, 74

Ultimi miei sospiri (secundi toni), 6vv, 1619 (on Verdelot’s madrigal); H xv, 58

Vergine bella (primi toni), 5vv, 1619 (on Rore’s madrigal); H xvi, 108

Vola vola pensier [Aeria a la italiana] (octavi toni), 5vv, 1602; H xvii, 3

Vous perdez temps (septimi toni), 5vv, 1619 (on Sermisy’s chanson); H xvi, 267

Primi toni, 4vv, 1576c, H xiv, 75; Primi toni (i), 5vv, 1619, H xvi, 92; Primi toni (ii), 5vv, 1619, H xvi, 108; Primi toni (iii), 5vv, 1619, H xvi, 259

Secundi toni, 5vv, 1619, H xv, 10; Secundi toni, 6vv, 1619, H xvii, 76

Quarti toni (i), 5vv, 1619, H xv, 16; Quarti toni (ii), 5vv, 1619, H xvii, 48; Quarti toni, 8vv, 1619, H xv, 138

Quinti toni, 6vv, 1619, H xvii, 14

Sexti toni (i), 5vv, 1619, H xv, 24; Sexti toni (ii), 5vv, 1619, H xv, 30; Sexti toni (iii), 5vv, 1619, H xvi, 57; [Sexti toni], 5vv, MS c1582, H xv, 201; Sexti toni, 8vv, 1576c, H xiv, 94

Septimi toni (i), 5vv, 1619, H xv, 35; Septimi toni (ii), 5vv, 1619, H xvi, 67; Septimi toni (‘perpulchrum’), 7vv, 1619, H xvi, 204; Septimi toni, 8vv, 1576c, H xiv, 112; Septimi toni, 8vv, 1619, H xv, 152; Septimi toni, 10vv, MS, H xvii, 150

Octavi toni (i), 5vv, 1619, H xv, 40; Octavi toni (ii), 5vv, 1619, H xvi, 80; Octavi toni, 6vv, 1619, H xv, 126; Octavi toni (i), 8vv, 1619, H xv, 166; Octavi toni (ii), 8vv, 1619, H xvii, 31

8 settings, octo tonorum (i), 4vv, 1567b, H xiii, 245; 8 settings, octo tonorum (ii), 4vv, 1587d, H xiv, 3

8 settings, octo tonorum (i), 5vv, 1567b, H xiii, 143; 8 settings, octo tonorum (ii), 5vv, 1619, H xvi, 3

8 settings, octo tonorum, 6vv, 1567b, H xiii, 3

Nunc Dimittis settings

Come havran fin, 4vv, H xxiv, 37; Heu mihi Domini, 5vv, H xxiv, 59; Il magnanimo Pietro, 7vv, H xxiv, 29; Io son si stanco, 5vv, H xxiv, 76; Oculi mei semper ad Dominum, 6vv, H xxiv, 83; S’el mio sempre per voi, 4vv, H xxiv, 46; Susanne un jour, 5vv, H xxiv, 94; Un dubbio verno, 5vv, H xxiv, 68; Quarti toni, 4vv, H xxiv, 3; Quarti toni, 5vv, H xxiv, 54; Quinti toni, 4vv, H xxiv, 24; Septimi toni, 4vv, H xxiv, 11; Octavi toni, 4vv, H xxiv, 17

3 Benedictus Dominus Israel, 9vv, H xxiv, 105, 127, 149

Miserere mei Deus, 9vv, MS 1850s, Mbs; H xxiv, 172

mass propers

Patrocinium musices … officia aliquot, de praecipuis festis anni … tertia pars, 5vv (Munich, 1574) (RISM 1574c) [1574b]

Asperges me (quarti toni), 5vv, 1574b, H xxiii, 14; Asperges me (septimi toni), 5vv, 1574b, H xxiii, 20; Officium Corporis Christi, 1574b, 5vv, H xxiii, 106; Officium Natalis Christi, 5vv, 1574b, H xxiii, 28; Officium Paschale, 5vv, 1574b, H xxiii, 53; Officium Pentecostes, 5vv, 1574b, H xxiii, 81; Vidi aquam, 5vv, 1574b, H xxiii, 3; Officium primum in Nativitate Domini, 6vv, H xxiii, 192; Epiphania Domini, 6vv, H xxiii, 203; Ascensio Domini, 6vv, H xxiii, 215; Corpus Christi, 6vv, H xxiii, 230; Resurrectio Domini, 6vv, H xxiii, 273; Feria 2a post Resurrectionem, 6vv, H xxiii, 298; Feria 3a post Resurrectionem, 6vv, H xxiii, 317; Quinquagesima, 6vv, H xxiii, 332; Officium Sancti Michaelis, 6vv, H xxiii, 346

lessons

Sacrae lectiones novem ex propheta Iob, in officiis defunctorum cantari solitae, 4vv (Venice, 1565) (RISM 1565e); Hxix, 3; RRMR, lv (1983)

Patrocinium musices … passio, 5vv idem lectiones Iob, et lectiones matutinae de nativitate Christi, 4vv, quarta pars (Munich, 1575) (RISM 1575a); H xix, 137

Lectiones sacrae novem, ex libris Hiob excerptea, 4vv (Munich, 1582) (RISM 1582f); H xix, 101; RRMR, lv (1983)

lamentations

Hieremiae prophetae lamentationes, et aliae pieae cantiones, 5vv (Munich, 1585) (RISM 1585d) [1585b]

9 Lamentationes Hieremiae, 4vv, MS c1588; H xxii, 112

9 Lamentationes Hieremiae, 5vv, 1585b; H xxii, 3

litanies

all printed works in 1596²

Litaniae Beatae Mariae Virginis (i), 4vv; H xxv, 3

Litaniae Beatae Mariae Virginis (ii), 4vv; H xxv, 5

Litaniae Beatae Mariae Virginis (i), 5vv; H xxv, 11

Litaniae Beatae Mariae Virginis (ii), 5vv; H xxv, 16

Litaniae Beatae Mariae Virginis (iii), 5vv; H xxv, 20

Litaniae Beatae Mariae Virginis (iv), 5vv; H xxv, 23

Litaniae Beatae Mariae Virginis (v), 5vv; H xxv, 28

Litaniae Beatae Mariae Virginis, 6vv; H xxv, 32

Litaniae Beatae Mariae Virginis, 8vv; H xxv, 37

Litaniae Beatae Mariae Virginis (i), 9vv; H xxv, 67

Litaniae Beatae Mariae Virginis (ii), 9vv, MS c1590; H xxv, 74

Litaniae Beatae Mariae Virginis, 10vv, MS c1580; H xxv, 98

Litaniae Deiparae Beatae Mariae Virginis, 4vv, MS; H xxv, 113

Litaniae omnium sanctorum, 4vv; H xxv, 121

Litaniae omnium sanctorum, 5vv; H xxv, 127

Litaniae omnium sanctorum, 7vv; H xxv, 134

falsobordoni

all ed. in H xxv

Dixit dominus: Primi toni (i), 4vv; Primi toni (ii), 4vv; Primi toni (i), 5vv; Primi toni (ii), 5vv; Primi toni (iii), 5vv; Secundi toni (i), 5vv; Secundi toni (ii), 5vv; Tertii toni (i), 4vv; Tertii toni (ii), 4vv; Quarti toni (i), 4vv; Quarti toni (ii), 4vv; Quinti toni, 4vv; Sexti toni, 5vv; Septimi toni (i), 4vv; Septimi toni (ii), 4vv; Septimi toni (iii), 4vv; Septimi toni, 5vv; Octavi toni (i), 5vv; Octavi toni (ii), 5vv

In exitu Israel: Toni peregrini, 4vv

Textless: Tertii toni, 4vv; Tertii toni, 5vv; Toni in Caesarea Capella consueti, 4vv

hymns

all in D-Mbs, c1580

Ad coenam agni providi, 4vv, H xviii, 57; Ad preces nostras, 4vv, H xviii, 45; Audi benigne conditor, 4vv, H xviii, 42; Aurea luce et decore, 4vv, H xviii, 86; Ave maris stella, 4vv, H xviii, 36; Christe redemptor omnium, Tu lumen, 5vv, H xviii, 18; Christe redemptor omnium, Beata quoque, 4vv, H xviii, 3; Conditor alme siderum, 5vv, H xviii, 14; Custodes hominum, 4vv, H xviii, 144; Deus tuorum militum (i), 4vv, H xviii, 111; Deus tuorum militum (ii), 4vv, H xviii, 122; Doctor egregie, 4vv, H xviii, 91; Exultet coelum laudibus, 4vv, H xviii, 117; Fit porta Christi pervia, 5vv, H xviii, 151; Fortem virili pectore, 4vv, H xviii, 147; Haec dies, quam fecit Dominus, 4vv, H xviii, 141; Hostis herodes impie, 5vv, H xviii, 26; In exitu Israel, 4vv, H xviii, 138; Iste confessor, 4vv, H xviii, 8; Jesu corona virginum, 4vv, H xviii, 10 [=Pater superni luminis, H xviii, 154]

Jesu nostra redemptio, 4vv, H xviii, 61; Lauda mater Ecclesia, 5vv, H xviii, 93 [=Pater superni luminis, H xviii, 171]; Lucis creator optime, 4vv, H xviii, 32; O lux beata Trinitas, 4vv, H xviii, 30; Pange lingua gloriosi, 5vv, H xviii, 71; Petrus beatus catenarum, 4vv, H xviii, 98; Quicumque Christum queritis, 4vv, H xviii, 100; Rex gloriose martirum, 4vv, H xviii, 114; Salvete flores martyrum, 4vv, H xviii, 24 [= Deus tuorum militum, H xviii, 158 = Exultet caelum laudibus, H xviii, 161]; Sanctorum meritis, 4vv, H xviii, 126; Te lucis ante terminum (i), 4vv, H xviii, 50; Te lucis ante terminum (ii), 4vv, H xviii, 166; Tibi Christe splendor patris, 4vv, H xviii, 104; Tristes erant apostoli, 4vv, H xviii, 108; Urbs beata Jerusalem, 4vv, H xviii, 132; Ut queant laxis, 4vv, H xviii, 82; Veni creator spiritus, 5vv, H xviii, 65; Vexilla regis prodeunt, 4vv, H xviii, 51

responsories and antiphons

all in D-Mbs

In nativitate Domini, 5vv, ?1580–85; H xxiv, 261

Pro Triduo sacro in nocturno II et III, 4vv, ?1580–85; H xxiv, 197

In die Sancto Paschae, 6vv; H xxiv, 251

In exequiis, 4vv; H xxiv, 274

Antiphonae septem ad Vesperas Corporis Christ, 6vv; H xxiv, 281

Antiphonae septem ad Vesperas Sancti Michaelis, 4vv; H xxiv, 313

motets

Il primo libro dove si contengono madrigali, vilanesche, canzoni francesi, e motetti, 4vv (Antwerp, 1555) (RISM 1555²⁹, same contents as 1555¹⁹) [1555b]

Il primo libro de mottetti, 5, 6vv (Antwerp, 1556, enlarged 2/1560 as Liber decimus quintus ecclesiasticarum cantionum) (RISM 1556a/1560a) [1556/1560b]

[25] Sacrae cantiones, 5vv (Nuremberg, 1562, enlarged 2/1570) (RISM 1562a/1570b) [1562/1570h]

Primus liber concentuum sacrorum, 5, 6vv (Paris, 1564) (RISM 1564b) [1564b]

Dixhuictieme livre de chansons, 4, 5vv (Paris, 1565) (RISM 1565f) [1565a]

Modulorum … modulatorum secundum volumen, 4–8, 10vv (Paris, 1565) (RISM 1565a) [1565b]

Perornatae sacrae cantiones … liber secundus, 5, 6vv (Venice, 1565) (RISM 1565c) [1565c]

Sacrae cantiones … liber secundus, 5, 6vv (Venice, 1566) (RISM 1566c) [1566b]

Sacrae cantiones … liber tertius, 5, 6vv (Venice, 1566) (RISM 1566d) [1566c]

Sacrae cantiones … liber quartus, 6, 8vv (Venice, 1566) (RISM 1566e) [1566d]

Selectissimae cantiones, 4–6vv (Nuremberg, 1568) (RISM 1568a) [1568a]

Selectissimae cantiones, 4, 5vv (Nuremberg, 1568) (RISM 1568b) [1568b]

Cantiones aliquot, 5vv (Munich, 1569) (RISM 1569a) [1569a]

Liber secundus sacrarum cantionum, 4vv (Leuven, 1569) (RISM 1569⁸) [1569b]

Disieme livre de chansons, 4vv (Paris, 1570) (RISM 1570⁹) [1570a]

Mellange d’Orlande de Lassus, contenant plusieurs chansons, tant en vers latins qu’en ryme francoyse, 4, 5vv (Paris, 1570) (RISM 1570d) [1570b]

Selectiorum aliquot cantionum sacrarum, fasciculus adiunctis in fine tribus dialogis, 6, 8vv (Munich, 1570) (RISM 1570c) [1570g]

Moduli nunquam hactenus editi, 5vv (Paris, 1571) (RISM 1571a) [1571b]

Moduli, 4, 8vv (Paris, 1572) (RISM 1572a) [1572b]

Moduli, 6, 7, 12vv (Paris, 1573) (RISM 1573b) [1573a]

Patrocinium musices … cantionum … prima pars, 4–6vv (Munich, 1573) (RISM 1573a) [1573b]

6 cantiones latinae, 4vv, adiuncto dialogo, 8vv: 6 teutsche Lieder, 4vv, sampt einem Dialogo, 8vv: 6 chansons françoises nouvelles, 4vv, avecq un dialogue, 8vv: 6 madrigali nuovi, 4vv, con un dialogo, 8vv (Munich, 1573) (RISM 1573d) [1573c]

Liber mottetarum, trium vocum, quae cum vivae voci, tum omnis generis instrumentis musicis commodissimé applicari possunt (Munich, 1575, enlarged 2/1577) (RISM 1575b/1577d) [1575/1577a]

Les meslanges … contenantz plusieurs chansons, tant en vers latins qu’en ryme francoyse, 4–6, 8, 10vv (Paris, 1576, earlier edn. 1570, lost; repr. with sacred contrafacta, London, 1570) (RISM 1576i) [1576b]

Moduli, 4–9vv (Paris, 1577) (RISM 1577e) [1577c]

Novae aliquot et ante hac non ita usitatae cantiones suavissimae, 2vv (Munich, 1577) [incl. 12 textless bicinia] (RISM 1577c) [1577d]

Altera pars selectissimarum cantionum, 4, 5vv (Nuremberg, 1579) (RISM 1579b) [1579]

Fasciculi aliquot sacrarum cantionum, 4–6, 8vv (Nuremberg, 1582) (RISM 1582c) [1582a]

Lectiones sacrae novem, ex libris Hiob excerptea, 4vv (Munich, 1582) (RISM 1582f) [1582b]

Mottetta typis nondum uspiam excusa, 6vv (Munich, 1582) (RISM 1582e) [1582d]

Sacrae cantiones, 5vv (Munich, 1582) [1582e]

Continuation du mellange, 3–6, 10vv (Paris, 1584) (RISM 1584f) [1584a]

Psalmi Davidis poenitentiales, modis musicis redditi ... his accessit psalmus Laudate Dominum de coelis, 5vv (Munich, 1584/R1970) (RISM 1584e) [1584b]

Cantica sacra, recens numeris et modulis musicis ornata, 6, 8vv (Munich, 1585) (RISM 1585b) [1585a]

Hieremiae prophetae lamentationes, et aliae pieae cantiones, 5vv (Munich, 1585) (RISM 1585d) [1585b]

Sacrae cantiones … recens singulari industria compositae, 4vv (Munich, 1585) (RISM 1585a) [1585d]

Tertium opus musicum, continens lectiones Hiob et motectas seu cantiones sacras, 4–6vv (Nuremberg, 1588) (RISM 1588⁸) [1588b]

Moduli quator et octo vocum (Paris, 1588) (RISM 1588c) [1588d]

Moduli quinque vocum (Paris, 1588) (RISM 1588d) [1588e]

Cantiones sacrae, 6vv (Graz, 1594) (RISM 1594a) [1594]

Lagrime di S Pietro … con un mottetto nel fine, 7vv (Munich, 1595) (RISM 1595a) [1595]

Cantiones ab Orlando di Lasso et huius filio Ferdinando di Lasso compositae, 5vv (Munich, 1597) (RISM 1597³) [1597]

Prophetiae Sibyllarum … chromatico more singulari confectae, 4vv (Munich, 1600) (RISM 1600a) [1600]

Liber primus cantiones sacrae Magnificat vocant, 5, 6vv (Paris, 1602) (RISM 1602¹) [1602]

Magnum opus musicum … complectens omnes cantiones, 2–10, 12vv (Munich, 1604) (RISM 1604a) [1604]

1563³, 1564¹, 1564², 1564³, 1564⁴, 1564⁵, 1566¹⁷, 1567³, 1567¹³, 1568², 1568⁴, 1583², 1586⁴, 1590⁵, 1601³

Accipe daque (2p. of Anna mihi dilecta veni)

Accipe qua recrees (2p. Quo fers), 6vv, 1604; S xi, 101, M xxi

Accipite Spiritum (2p. of Jam non dicam vos)

Ad Dominum cum tribularer (2p. Heu mihi), 6vv, 1594; S xvii, 49, M xvi

Adoramus te Christe (i), 3vv, 1586; S i, 57, M xix

Adoramus te Christe (ii), 3vv, 1586; S i, 57, M xix

Adoramus te, Christe (iii), 3vv, 1604; M xxi

Adoramus te Christe (i), 4vv, 1586; M xix

Adoramus te Christe (ii), 4vv, 1604: S i, 112, M xxi

Adoramus te Christe, 5vv, 1604; S v, 63, M xxi

Adorna thalamum, 4vv, 1585d: S i, 91, M xiv

Ad primum morsum, 6vv, 1594; S xix, 74, M xvi

Ad te Domine levavi (2p. Vias tuas), 5vv, 1556; S ix, 150, M i

Ad te igitur (3p. of Infelix ego)

Ad te levavi animam meam, 6vv 1582d; S xvii, 121, M xiii

Ad te levavi oculos meos (2p. Miserere nostri), 6vv, 1570g; S xvii, 125, M vii

Ad te perenne gaudium, 3vv, 1604; S i, 60, M xxi

Adversum me loquebantur, 5vv, 1562; S ix, 40, M ii

Aegra currit (2p. of Lauda mater ecclesia)

Agimus tibi gratias, 3vv, 1604; S i, 59, M xxi

Agimus tibi gratias, 4vv, 1604; S i, 131, M xxi

Agimus tibi gratias (i), 5vv, 1576b; S v, 98, M xviii

Agimus tibi gratias (ii), 5vv, 1579; S v, 100, M xviii

Agimus tibi gratias, 6vv, 1573b; S xiii, 103, M ix

Alia est enim (2p. of Quicumque vult salvus esse)

Alleluia (2p. of Alleluia Surrexit Dominus)

Alleluia laus et gloria, 4vv, 1604; S i, 68, M xxi

Alleluia Surrexit Dominus (2p. Allueluja; 3p. Dum transisset; 4p. Maria Magdalena; 5p. Ut venientes; 6p. Et valde mane; 7p. Gloria Patri), 6vv, 1592; Mbs

Alleluia, vox laeta personat (2p. Alleluia, praegaudio resultant), 5vv, 1568b, M vi

Alma nemes quae sola [Alme Deus qui cuncta tenes], 4vv, 1555b; S iii, 93, M xvli

Alma parens dilecta Deo (2p. Qua sina coelestis; 3p. Nos pia turba; 4p. Tu modo diva; 5p. Aspicent invictos), 5vv, 1604; S v, 128, M xxi

Alma Redemptoris mater, 5vv, 1597; S v, 102, M xx

Alma Redemptoris mater (i), 6vv, 1582d; S xiii, 105, M xiii

Alma Redemptoris mater (ii), 6vv, 1604; S xiii, 108, M xix

Alma Redemptoris mater, 8vv, 1604; S xxi, 14, M xxi

Alma Venus [Christe Patris verbum] (2p. Nunc elegos divae [Tu poteris]), 5vv, 1560a; S v, 37, M xvii

Amen dico vobis, 4vv, 1564⁵; S i, 119, M iii

Andreas Christi famulus, 6vv, 1585a; S xv, 1, M xv

Angelus ad pastores ait, 5vv, 1562; S iii, 139, M ii

Angelus Domini descendit (2p. Nolite timere), 6vv, 1585a; S xiii, 1, M xv

Angelus Domini locutus est, 5vv, 1571b; S v, 51, M viii

Anima mea liquefacta est, 5vv, 1582e; S ix, 42, M xii

Animam meam dilectam tradidi (2p. Congregamini), 5vv, 1565b; S v, 29, M iv

Anna mihi dilecta veni [Christe Dei soboles] (2p. Accipe daque), 4vv, 1579; S iii, 95, M xviii

Anni nostri sicut aranea, 6vv, 1566d; S xv, 53, M v

Ante me non est formatus Deus, 6vv, 1573b; S xi, 131, M ix

Aspicent invictos (5p. of Alma parens dilecta Deo)

At illi (2p. of Cum natus esset)

Audi benigne conditor (2p. Multum quidem), 5vv, 1568²; S vii, 86, M xvii

Audi dulcis [filia] amica mea, 4vv, 1555b; S i, 99, M xvii

Audi tellus (2p. Ubi Plato; 3p. Ubi David), 6vv, 1566d; S xv, 44, M v

Auris bona est, 5vv, 1582e; S vii, 56, M xii

Aurora lucis rutilat, 10vv, 1604; S xxi, 119, M xxii

Ave color vini clari [Ave decus coeli; Ave Christe] (2p. O quam flagrans), 5vv, 1568b; S xi, 11, M vi

Ave Jesu Christe [Maria] alta stirps, 4vv, 1579; S i, 102, M xviii

Ave Maria gratia plena, 5vv, 1604; S v, 118, M xix

Ave mater matris Dei, 4vv, 1604; S i, 132, M xxi

Ave regina coelorum, 3vv, 1575; S i, 25, M xi

Ave regina coelorum, 4vv, 1604; S i, 79, M xix

Ave regina coelorum, 5vv, 1604; S v, 104, M xxii

Ave regina coelorum (i), 6vv, 1582d; S xiii, 111, M xix

Ave regina coelorum (ii), 6vv, 1604; S xiii, 114, M xiii

Averte Domine (2p. of Domine Jesu Christe qui cognoscis)

Ave verum corpus, 6vv, 1582d; S xiii, 66, M xiii

Beata cuius (3p. of Vexilla regis prodeunt)

Beati omnes qui timent (2p. Ecce sit benedicetur), 3vv, 1575; S i, 49, M xi

Beati omnes qui timent (2p. Ecce sit benedicetur), 5vv, 1565b; S vii, 136, M iv

Beati pacifici (2p. of Beati pauperes)

Beati pauperes spiritu (2p. Beati pacifici), 4vv, 1572b; H i, 11, M xviii

Beatus homo (2p. of Quam magnificata sunt)

Beatus homo cui donatum est, 6vv, 1594; S xvii, 99, M xvi

Beatus homo qui invenit sapientiam, 2vv, 1577d; S i, 1, M xi

Beatus ille qui procul negotiis (2p. Ergo aut adulta; 3p. Libet jacere), 5vv, 1569a; S xi, 22, M vii

Beatus Nicolaus, 8vv, 1604; S xxi, 23, M xviii

Beatus qui intelligit (2p. Dominus opem), 6vv, 1565b; S xvii, 105, M iv

Beatus vir qui in sapientia morabitur, 2vv, 1577d; S i, 1, M xi

Beatus vir qui inventus est, 5vv, 1582e; S ix, 117, M xii

Beatus vir qui non abiit, 6vv, 1568a; S xv, 159, M vi

Beatus vir qui timet, 4vv, 1565b; S iii, 50, M iv

Benedicam Dominum, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 73, M xiv

Benedicam Dominum (2p. In Domino laudabitur), 5vv, 1562; S ix, 174, M ii

Benedic anima mea, 4vv, 1585d; S i, 152, M xiv

Benedic anima mea Domino (2p. Qui replet; 3p. Non secundum; 4p. Recordatus; 5p. Benedicite Domino), 6vv, 1570g; S xv, 169, M vii

Benedic Domine domum istam, 8vv, 1588d; S xix, 160, M xix

Benedicite Domino (5p. of Benedic anima mea Domino)

Benedicite gentes, 4vv, 1585d; S i, 157, M xiv

Benedicite ignis (2p. of Benedicite omnia opera)

Benedicite montes (3p. of Benedicite omnia opera)

Benedicite omnia opera (2p. Benedicite ignis; 3p. Benedicite montes; 4p. Benedicite sacerdotes), 5, 6vv, 1565b; S ix, 93, M iv

Benedicite sacerdotes (4p. of Benedicite omnia opera)

Benedictio et claritas, 6vv, 1582d; S xi, 139, M xiii

Benedictus es Domine (i), 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 49, M xiv

Benedictus es Domine (ii), 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 65, M xiv

Benedixisti Domine, 5vv, 1582e; S ix, 179, M xii

Bestia curvafia pulices [Bestia stultus homo], 5vv, 1576b; S xi, 44; H i, 67, M xviii

Bone Jesu verbum patris, 8vv, 1604; S xix, 154, M xxi

Bonitatem fecisti, 5vv, 1565b; S ix, 15, M iv

Bonum est confidere (2p. of Dominus mihi adjutor)

Caligaverunt oculi mei, 5vv, 1562; S ix, 182, M ii

Cantabant canticum Moysi (2p. Quis non timet), 6vv, 1594; S xvii, 131, M xvi

Cantantibus organis (2p. Fiat Domine), 5vv, 1582e; S v, 164, M xii

Cantate Domino canticum novum (2p. Cantate … et benedicite), 3vv, 1575; S i, 42, M xi

Cantate Domino canticum novum (2p. Viderunt omnes), 5vv, 1565c; S vii, 142, M v

Cantate Dominum canticum novum, 6vv, 1582d, S xix, 14, M xiii

Cantate … et benedicite (2p. of Cantate Domino canticum novum)

Cantate ei (2p. of Exurgat Deus)

Cernere virtutes, 5vv, 1568b, S iii, 114, M vi

Cerno Dei (11p. of Prophetiae Sibyllarum)

Certa fortiter, 6vv, 1582d; S xv, 82, M xiii

Christi, Patris verbum (2p. Tu poteris nostri maculas), 5vv, 1568b; M vi

Christus resurgens ex mortuis, 3vv, 1575; S i, 23, M xi

Christus resurgens ex mortuis, 5vv, 1582e; S v, 54, M xii

Circumdederunt me dolores mortis, 6vv, 1601³; S xv, 106, M xx

Clamaverunt ad Dominum, 6vv, 1570g; S xvii, 29, M vii

Clare sanctorum senatus (2p. Thoma), 5vv, 1562; S v, 144, M ii

Cognoscimus Domine (2p. Vita nostra), 5vv, 1564⁴; S vii, 147, M iii

Cognovi Domine (2p. Veniant mihi), 4vv, 1565b; S i, 147, M iv

Concupiscendo concupiscit (2p. Exaltabo te), 6vv, 1565c; S xvii, 145, M v

Confirma hoc Deus, 6vv, 1583²; S xvii, 96, M xix

Confisus Domino (2p. Inde tuo si quis), 5vv, 1564⁴; S vii, 92, M iii

Confitebor tibi Domine, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 16, M xiv

Contitebor tibi Domine, 6vv, 1594; S xix, 20, M xvi

Confitebor tibi Domine, 8vv, 1564¹; S xxi, 56, M iii

Confitemini Domino (2p. Narrate omnia), 5vv, 1562; S vii, 131, M ii

Confitemini Domino (2p. Ipse castigavit), 6vv, 1573b; S xvii, 79, M ix

Confortamini et jam nolite, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 89, M xiv

Confundantur superbi (2p. Fiat cor meum), 5vv, 1562; S ix, 155, M ii

Congratulamini mihi (2p. Tulerunt), 6vv, 1566d; S xiii, 10, M v

Congregamini (2p. of Animam meam dilectam)

Congregati sunt inimici nostri, 5vv, 1597; S ix, 186, M xviii

Conserva me Domine (2p. Sancti qui sunt), 6vv, 1594; S xvii, 101, M xvi

Contristatus sum (2p. of Exaudi Deus orationem)

Conveniens homini est famam, 6vv, 1585a; S xv, 92, M xv

Convertere anima (2p. of Tribulationem et dolorem)

Convertere Domine (2p. of Ego dixi Domine)

Convertere Domine (2p. of In convertendo Dominus)

Coram illo (2p. of Descendit sicut pluvia)

Creator omnium Deus, 6vv, 1556; S xiii, 68, M i

Credidi propter (2p. Vota mea), 5vv, 1569a; S ix, 21, M vii

Cum dederit (2p. of Nisi Dominus)

Cum essem parvulus (2p. Nunc cognosco), 6vv, 1582d; S xv, 72, M xiii

Cum hominibus (2p. of Domine clamavi)

Cum invocarem exaudibit me (2p. Sacrificate; 3p. Signum est), 6vv, 1570g; S xvii, 43, M vii

Cum natus esset Jesus (2p. At illi; 3p. Et ecce stella), 6vv, 1566d; S xi, 141, M v

Cum rides mihi (2p. Data est), 5vv, 1577c; H i, 23, M xviii

Custodi me Domine, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 88, M xiv

Da gaudiorum (2p. of Tibi laus tibi gloria)

Da mihi intellectum (2p. of Legem pone mihi)

Da pacem Domine, 5vv, 1588e; H i, 62, M xix

Da pacem Domine (i), 6vv, 1582d; S xiii, 72, M xiii

Da pacem Domine (ii), 6vv, 1556; S xiii, 74, M i

Da pater antique, 5vv, 1569a; S v, 84, M vii

Data est (2p. of Cum rides mihi)

Date siceram (2p. of Noli regibus)

Decantabat populus Israel, 7vv, 1564²; S xix, 91, M iii

Declinate (2p. of Iniquos odio habui)

Deficiat in dolore vita mea, 6vv, 1594; S xvii, 22, M xvi

Delitiae Phoebi, 5vv, 1556; S xi, 81, M i

De me solus (2p. of Huc me sidero)

De ore prudentis, 5vv, 1565c; S vii, 38, M v

De profundis (6p. of Psalmi Davidis poenitentiales)

Descendit sicut pluvia (2p. Coram illo), 5vv, 1571b; S v, 3, M viii

Deus canticum novum (2p. Quia delectasti), 5vv, 1565c; S vii, 164, M v

Deus in adjutorium meum intende, 6vv, 1582d; S xvii, 160, M xiii

Deus iniqui insurrexerunt, 6vv, 1594; S xvii, 113, M xvi

Deus in loco (3p. of Exurgat Deus)

Deus in nomine tuo (2p. Ecce enim Deus), 4vv, 1565b; S iii, 44, M iv

Deus judex justus (2p. Et in eo paravit), 5vv, 1571b; S ix, 61, M viii

Deus meus in simplicitate, 6vv, 1582d; S xvii, 156, M xiii

Deus misereatur nostri, 8vv, 1566d; S xxi, 35, M v

Deus noster refugium, 5vv, 1565b; S ix, 131, M iv

Deus qui bonum vinum [Deus qui non vis mortem], 4vv, 1565a; S iii, 97, M xvii

Deus qui sedes super thronum, 5vv, 1562; S ix, 12, M ii

Deus tu conversus, 5vv, 1582e; S ix, 46, M xii

Deus tu scis insipientiam meam, 3vv, 1575; S i, 40, M xi

Dextera Domini, 4vv, 1585d; S i, 158, M xiv

Dic mihi quem portas, 8vv, 1570g; S xix, 133, M xviii

Dies enim (2p. of Lauda Sion salvatorem)

Diligam te Domine, 3vv, 1577a; S i, 48, M xi

Diligam te Domine fortitudo, 6vv, 1594; S xvii, 67, M xvi

Dilige solitudinem, 5vv, 1583²; S vii, 35, M xix

Diliges proximum tuum (2p. Quoniam qui talia; 3p. Fructus autem), 4vv, 1582b; S i, 113, M xix

Dissipata sit (3p. of Domine clamavi)

Diverte a malo (2p. of Venite filii audite me)

Divites eguerunt (2p. of Gustate et videte)

Dixi custodiam vias meas, 8vv, 1577c; S xxi, 48, M xviii

Dixi ergo in corde meo (2p. Possedi servos; 3p. Et omnia), 5vv, 1585b; S vii, 107, M xix

Dixit autem (3p. of Missus est angelus)

Dixit autem (4p. of Missus est angelus)

Dixit Dominus, 8vv, 1570g; S xxi, 27, M vii

Dixit Joseph undecim fratribus suis (2p. Nunciaverunt), 6vv, 1564³; S xv, 76, M iii

Dixit Martha, 9vv, 1577c; S xxi, 98, M xviii

Dixit mater (2p. of Nuptiae factae sunt)

Dominator Domine, 5vv, 1571b; S v, 96, M viii

Domine ad adjuvandum me, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 32, M xiv

Domine clamavi (2p. Cum hominibus; 3p. Dissipata sit), 5vv, 1573b; S ix, 140, M ix

Domine convertere, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 17, M xiv

Domine da nobis auxilium, 6vv, 1585a; S xvii, 19, M xv

Domine deduc me (2p. Sepulchrum patens), 6vv, 1566d; S xvii, 24, M v

Domine Deus fortissime, 5vv, 1585b; S vii, 83, M xix

Domine Deus meus, 3vv, 1577a; S i, 34, M xi

Domine Deus salutis meae, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 91, M xiv

Domine Dominus noster, 6vv, 1577c; S xvii, 39, M xviii

Domine eduxisti (2p. of Exaltabo te Domine)

Domine exaudi … auribus percipe (7p. of Psalmi Davidis poenitentiales)

Domine exaudi … non avertas (5p. of Psalmi Davidis poenitentiales)

Domine exaudi orationem meam, 4v, 1585d; S iii, 33, M xiv

Domine fac mecum, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 63, M xiv

Domine in auxilium, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 92, M xiv

Domine Jesu Christe pastor bone, 5vv, 1585b; S v, 167, M xix

Domine Jesu Christe qui cognoscis (2p. Averte Domine), 5vv, 1577c; S v, 91, M xviii

Domine labia mea, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 66, M xiv

Domine ne in furore tuo … miserere (2p. of Psalmi Davidis poenitentiales)

Domine ne in furore tuo … quoniam (3p. of Psalmi Davidis poenitentiales)

Domine non est exaltatum (2p. Sicut ablactatus), 3vv, 1575; S i, 30, M xi

Domine non est exaltatum (2p. Sicut ablactatus), 5vv, 1556; S vii, 152, M i

Domine non est exaltatum (2p. Sicut ablactatus), 6vv, 1585a; S xvii, 117, M xv

Domine probasti me (2p. Ecce Domine), 5vv, 1556; S ix, 34, M i

Domine quando veneris, 4vv, 1555b; S iii, 107, M xvii

Domine quando veneris, 5vv, 1568⁴; H i (nachtrag), 1, M xvii

Domine quid multiplicati sunt, 6vv, 1582d; S xvii, 110, M xiii

Domine quid multiplicati sunt (2p. Ego dormivi), 12vv, 1604; S xxi, 135, M xxi

Domine secundum actum meum, 4vv, 1573c; S iii, 13, M x

Domine vivifica me, 4vv, 1582b; S iii, 81, M xix

Dominus mihi adjutor (2p. Bonum est confidere), 6vv, 1566d; S xvii, 58, M v

Dominus opem (2p. of Beatus qui intelligit)

Dominus scit cogitationes, 5vv, 1556; S ix, 128, M i

Dulce lignum (2p. of O crux splendidior)

Dulces exuviae (2p. Urbem praeclaram), 5vv, 1570b; S xi, 57, M xvii

Dulci sub umbra, 5vv, 1597; S xi, 49, M xx

Dum meditor (7p. of Prophetiae Sibyllarum)

Dum nos Ererbi (4p. of Tibi progenies, 5vv; 3p. of Tibi progenies, 6vv)

Dum transisset (3p. of Alleluia Surrexit Dominus)

Ecce Agnus Dei (2p. of Ecce Maria genuit)

Ecce dies nigras (5p. of Porphetiae Sibyllarum)

Ecce dies venient (2p. of Prophetiae Sibyllarum)

Ecce Domine (2p. of Domine probasti me)

Ecce enim Deus (2p. of Deus in nomine tuo)

Ecce Maria genuit nobis (2p. Ecce Agnus Dei), 5vv, 1568b; S v, 15, M vi

Ecce nunc benedicite, 7vv, 1604; S xix, 114, M xxi

Ecce panis (4p. of Lauda Sion salvatorem)

Ecce quam bonum, 8vv, 1604; S xxi, 52, M xxi

Ecce sit benedicetur (2p. of Beati omnes qui timent)

Edite Caesareo Boiorum (2p. Obscura sub nocte), 8vv, 1568a; S xix, 146, M vi

Ego cognovi, 6vv, 1594; S xv, 41, M xvi

Ego dixi Domine miserere mei (2p. Convertere Domine), 3vv, 1575; S i, 55, M xi

Ego dormivi (2p. of Domine quid multiplicati sunt)

Ego dormivi (2p. of Ego sum qui sum)

Ego sum panis vivus, 5vv, 1582e; S v, 71, M xii

Ego sum pauper (2p. Laudabo nomen), 3vv, 1575; S i, 44, M xi

Ego sum pauper, 5vv, 1582e; S ix, 159, M xii

Ego sum qui sum (2p. Ego dormivi), 6vv, 1570g; S xiii, 4, M vii

Ego sum resurrectio, 3vv, 1575; S i, 22, M xi

Emendemus in melius, 5vv, 1571b; S vii, 32, M viii

Emittit verbum (3p. of Lauda Jerusalem Dominum)

Ergo aut adulta (2p. of Beatus ille qui procul)

Ergo rex vivat, 8vv, 1604; S xix, 129, M xxi

Eripe me de inimicis meis, 4vv, 1573c; S i, 150, M x

Eripe me de inimicis meis, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 60, M xiv

Estote ergo misericordes, 7vv, 1564²; S xix, 87, M iii

Et apertis (2p. of Videntes stellam magi)

Et dicit ei Jesu (3p. of Nuptiae factae sunt)

Et ecce stella (3p. of Cum natus esset)

Et immisit os (2p. of Expectans expectavi)

Et in eo paravit (2p. of Deus judex justus)

Et Jesum benedictum (2p. of Salve regina mater)

Et Jesum benedictum (2p. of Salve regina misericordiae)

Et omnia (3p. of Dixi ergo in corde meo)

Et plus quam ecclesiam (5p. of Fertur [vertur] in conviviis vinus)

Et tamen (3p. of Quicumque vult salvus esse)

Et valde mane (6p. of Alleluia Surrexit Dominus)

Evehor invidia pressus (2p. Rumpere livor), 5vv, 1582e; S xi, 53, M xii

Exaltabo te (2p. of Concupiscendo concupiscit)

Exaltabo te Domine, 4vv, 1582b; S iii, 59, M xix

Exaltabo te Domine (2p. Domine eduxisti), 6vv, 1594; S xvii, 136, M xvi

Exaudi Deus (2p. of Timor et tremor)

Exaudi Deus orationem meam (2p. Contristatus sum), 3vv, 1575; S i, 52, M xi

Exaudi Deus orationem meam, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 20, M xiv

Exaudi Domine preces, 5vv, 1573b; S ix, 56, M ix

Exaudi Domine vocem meam (2p. Ne avertas), 5vv, 1562; S vii, 158, M ii

Exaudi me Domine, 3vv, 1575; S i, 46, M xi

Expectans expectavi Dominum, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 72, M xiv

Expectatio justorum, 2vv, 1577d; S i, 3, M xi

Exultate justi, 4vv, 1568b; S iii, 2

Exultet coelum mare, 5vv, 1571b; S iii, 144, M viii

Exurgat Deus, 4vv, 1588d; S iii, 1, M xix

Exurgat Deus (2p. Cantate ei; 3p. Deus in loco), 5vv, 1573b; S ix, 105, M ix

Fac mecum signum (2p. of Locutus sum in lingua mea)

Factus est Dominus, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 85, M xiv

Fallax gratia, 4vv, 1573c; S i, 143, M x

Feci judicium, 5vv, 1582e; S ix, 120, M xii

Felices (2p. of Salva festa dies)

Fertur [vertur] in conviviis vinus [Tristis ut Euridicen Orphaeus ab orco] (2p. Volo inter omnia; 3p. Potatores incliti; 4p. Meum est propositum; 5p. Et plus quam ecclesiam), 4vv, 1564c; S iii, 99, M xvii

Fiat cor meum (2p. of Confundantur superbi)

Fiat Domine (2p. of Cantantibus organis)

Fili quid fecisti nobis sic, 5vv, 1564⁴; S vii, 14, M iii

Fili recordare (2p. of Pater Abraham miserere)

Flemus extremus (2p. Regiam Christi), 6vv, 1604; S xix, 40, M xxi

Forte soporifera, 5vv, 1566¹⁷; S xi, 98, M xvii

Fratres gaudete in Domino (2p. Petitiones vestrae), 6vv, 1585a; S xv, 97, M xv

Fratres nescitis, 6vv, 1594; S xv, 95, M xvi

Fratres qui gloriatur, 6vv, 1604; S xv, 126, M xxi

Fratres sobrii, 4vv, 1569b; S i, 129, M xvii

Fremuit spiritus Jesus (2p. Videns Dominus), 6vv, 1556; S xv, 23, M i

Fructus autem (3p. of Diliges proximum)

Fuit homo missus (2p. of In principio erat verbum)

Fulgebunt justi, 2vv, 1577d; S i, 6, M xi

Futurum est (2p. of Quid prodest homini)

Gaudet exultetque (2p. of Quid trepides)

Gaude a laetare (2p. of Jerusalem plantavis)

Gaudent in coelis, 4vv, 1573b; S i, 133, M ix

Genuit puerpera regem, 6vv, 1594; S xi, 164, M xvi

Gloriamur in tribulationibus, 6vv, 1604; S xv, 144, M xxi

Gloria Patri (7p. of Alleluia Surrexit Dominus)

Gloria Patri et Spiritui Sancto, 6vv, 1566c; H i, 71, M v

Gloria pontificum Ernestus (2p. of Princeps Marte potens)

Gratia sola Dei (2p. Legitimo ergo; 3p. Res mira), 5, 1569a; S iii, 117, M vii

Gressus meos dirige, 4vv, 1585b; S iii, 70, M xiv

Gustate et videte (2p. Divites eguerunt), 5vv, 1556; S v, 73, M i

Guttur tuam (2p. of Quam pulchra es)

Haec est fides (4p. of Quicumque vult salvus esse)

Haec est vera fraternitas, 6vv, 1585a; S xiii, 167, M xv

Haec quae ter triplici, 3vv, 1575; S i, 20, M xi

Heroum soboles, 6vv, 1556; S xi, 122, M i

Heu mihi (2p. of Ad Dominum cum tribularer)

Heu mihi Domine quia peccavi, 5vv, 1556; S ix, 6, M i

Heu quantus dolor, 5vv, 1562; S xi, 51, M ii

Heu quis armorum furor (2p. Jam satio longo), 6vv, 1594; S xix, 44, M xvi

Heu quos dabimus miseranda (2p. Mens male), 6vv, 1601³; S xix, 48, M xx

Heu quos dabimus miseranda (2p. Mens male), 7vv, 1604; S xix, 116, M xxi

Hic belligeras (2p. of Tragico tecti syrmate coelites)

Hic sunt quos habuimus (2p. of Stabunt justi)

Hispanum ad coenam (2p. Mox importuno), 5vv, 1569a; S xi, 90, M vii

Hodie apparuit (2p. of Resonet in laudibus)

Hodie completi sunt (2p. Misit eos), 6vv, 1582d; S xiii, 32, M xiii

Homo cum in honore esset, 6vv, 1566d; S xv, 90, M v

Honorabile est, 4vv, 1573c; S i, 123, M x

Hostem repellas (3p. of Veni Creator Spiritus)

Huc ades, o Erneste, 6vv, 1585a; S xi, 105, M xv

Huc me sidereo (2p. Pungentem capiti; 3p. De me solus amor), 6vv, 1568a; S xi, 180, M vi

IL-il-LIC-lic (2p. of SU-su-PER-per)

Illumina oculos meos, 4vv, 1604; S i, 107, M xix

Illustra faciem tuam (2p. Quam multa multitudo), 5vv, 1562; S ix, 77, M ii

Immittet Angelus Domini, 4vv, 1582b; S iii, 69, M xix

Impleta sunt (2p. of Vexilla regis prodeunt)

Improperium expectavit, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 21, M xiv

Impulsus eversus sum (2p. Vox exultationis), 5vv, 1582e; S ix, 114, M xii

Inclina Domine, 4vv, 1555b; S iii, 26, M xvii

Inclina Domine, 9vv, 1604; S xxi, 106, M xxi

In convertendo Dominus (2p. Convertere Domine), 8vv, 1565b; S xxi, 63, M iv

In dedicatione templi, 6vv, 1594; S xv, 121, M xvi

In Deo salutarem meum (2p. Sperate in eo), 6vv, 1573b; S xvii, 140, M ix

Inde tuo si quis (2p. of Confisus Domino)

In Domino laudabitur (2p. of Benedicam Dominum)

In exitu Israel, 6vv, c1581, Mbs; H xxv, 157

Infelix ego (2p. Solus igitur; 3p. Ad te igitur), 6vv, 1566d; S xiii, 95, M v

Inferni claustra (2p. of Jesu nostra redemptio)

In hora ultima, 6vv, 1604; S xv, 151, M xxi

In illo tempore, 6vv, 1577c; S xv, 20, M xviii

Iniquos odio habui (2p. Declinate), 4vv, 1565b; S iii, 5, M iv

In me transierunt, 5vv, 1562; S ix, 49, M ii

In monte Oliveti, 6vv, 1568a; S xi, 187, M vi

In omnibus requiem quaesivi, 7vv, 1565b; S xix, 101, M iv

In pace in idipsum, 3vv, 1604; S i, 59, M xxi

In principio erat verbum (2p. Fuit homo missus; 3p. In propria venit), 6vv, 1566d; S xv, 8, M v

In propria venit (3p. of In principio erat verbum)

In quoscumque locos, 5vv, 1597; S xi, 17, M xx

In religione homo vivit, 6vv, 1585a; S xv, 66, M xv

In te Domine speravi (2p. Quonium fortitudo mea), 6vv, 1564³; S xvii, 87, M iii

Intende voci, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 19, M xiv

In teneris (4p. of Prophetiae Sibyllarum)

Inter animalia (2p. of Jubilemus singuli)

Inter natos mulierum, 5vv, 1571b; S v, 150, M viii

In te speravi Domine, 4vv, 1582b; S iii, 82, M xix

Inveterata sunt (2p. of Prolongati sunt dies mei)

Ipsa Deum (8p. of Prophetiae Sibyllarum)

Ipsa te cogat (3p. of Jesu nostra redemptio)

Ipse castigavit (2p. of Confitemini Domino)

Iste flos Alemannorum (2p. Languor nunc; 3p. Papa viduatam), 4vv, 1604; S i, 141, Mxxi

Jam lucis orto sidere (2p. Qui ponit aquam), 8vv, 1564¹; S xxi, 84, M iii

Jam mea (6p. of Prophetiae Sibyllarum)

Jam non dicam vos (2p. Accipite Spiritum), 6vv, 1573a; S xiii, 38, M xviii

Jam quod quaesivi (2p. of Quocumque loco fuero)

Jam satio longo (2p. of Heu quis armorum furor)

Jerusalem (2p. of Laetatus sum)

Jerusalem plantabis vineam (2p. Gaude et laetare), 5vv, 1562; S iii, 134, M ii

Jesu corona virginum (2p. Quocumque pergis; 3p. Te deprecamur; 4p. Laus honor), 6vv, 1565c; S xiii, 174, M v

Jesu nostra redemptio (2p. Inferni claustra; 3p. Ipsa te cogat; 4p. Tu esto nostrum gaudium), 6vv, 1567³; S xiii, 18, M xvii

Johannes est nomen eius, 4vv, 1604; S i, 136, M xxi

Jubilate Deo omnis terra, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 62, M xiv

Jubilate Deo omnis terra (2p. Populus eius), 6vv, 1565b; S xvii, 149, M iv

Jubilemus singuli (2p. Inter animalia), 6vv, 1570g; S xi, 151, M vii

Junior fui, 6vv, 1566d; S xv, 101, M v

Justi tulerunt spolia impiorum, 2vv, 1577d; S i, 4, M xi

Justorum animae, 5vv, 1582e; S v, 139, M xii

Justus cor suum tradet, 2vv, 1577d; S i, 2, M xi

Justus Dominus (2p. of Oculi omnium)

Justus es Domine, 3vv, 1577a; S i, 35, M xi

Juvenes et virgines (3p. of Laudate Dominum de coelis)

Laetatus sum (2p. Jerusalem; 3p. Quia illic; 4p. Propter fratres), 3vv, 1575; S i, 36, M xi

Laetentur coeli (2p. Tunc exultabunt), 4vv, 1569b; S iii, 76, M xvii

Lauda anima mea Dominum, 4vv, 1573b; S iii, 75, M ix

Lauda anima mea Dominum, 6vv, 1594; S xvii, 34, M xvi

Laudabit usque ad mortem, 8vv, 1604; S xxi, 41, M xxi

Laudabo nomen (2p. of Ergo sum pauper)

Lauda Jerusalem Dominum (2p. Qui emittit; 3p. Emittit verbum; 4p. Non fecit taliter), 6vv, 1565c; S xiii, 70, M v

Lauda mater ecclesia, 5vv, 1597; S v, 171, M xx

Lauda mater ecclesia (2p. Aegra currit; 3p. Surgentem cum victoria), 6vv, 1582d; S xv, 3, M xiii

Lauda Sion salvatorum (2p. Dies enim; 3p. Quod non capis; 4p. Ecce panis), 6vv, 1577c; H i, 75, M xviii

Laudate Dominum de coelis (2p. Laudate Dominum de terra; 3p. Juvenes et virgines; 4p. Laudate eum), 5vv, 1565b; S ix, 161, M iv

Laudate Dominum omnes gentes, 6vv, 1604; S xv, 156, M xxi

Laudate Dominum omnes gentes, 12vv, 1573a; S xxi, 152, M xviii

Laudate Dominum quoniam bonus est (2p. Magnus Dominus; 3p. Praecinite; 4p. Non in fortitudine), 7vv, 1568a; S xix, 106, M vi

Laudate eum (4p. of Laudate Dominum de coelis)

Laudate pueri Dominum, 7vv, 1568a; S xix, 94, M vi

Laudavi igitur laetitiam, 6vv, 1604; S xv, 154, M xxi

Laudent Deum cythara, 4vv, 1604; S iii, 58, M xxi

Laus honor (4p. of Jesu corona virginum)

Legem pone mihi (2p. Da mihi intellectum), 5vv, 1562; S ix, 73, M ii

Legitimo ergo (2p. of Gratia soli Dei pie)

Levabo oculos meos, 4vv, 1582b; S iii, 29, M xix

Levavi oculos meos, 8vv, 1566d; S xxi, 71, M v

Libera me Domine, 6vv, 1568a; S xv, 109, M vi

Libet jacere (3p. of Beatus ille qui procul)

Locutus sum in lingua mea (2p. Fac mecum signum), 6vv, 1568a; S xiii, 62, M vi

Lucescit jam o socii (see ‘Chansons’)

Luna velut (6p. of Princeps Marte potens)

Luxuriosa res vinum, 6vv, 1594; S xv, 85, M xvi

Magnanimus princeps (3p. of Princeps Marte potens)

Magnus Dominus (2p. of Laudate Dominum quoniam bonum est)

Manum nomen Domini (3p. of Resonet in laudibus)

Maria Magdalena (4p. of Alleluia Surrexit Dominus)

Martini festum celebremus (2p. Plebs igitur), 5vv, 1573b; S v, 153, M ix

Matronarum decus (4p. of Princeps Marte potens)

Media vita in morte sumus (2p. Sancte Deus), 6vv, 1573b; S xiii, 90, M ix

Meditabor in mandatis, 4vv, 1582b; S iii, 83, M xix

Memento peccati tui, 5vv, 1597; S vii, 58, M xx

Me miserum (2p. of Quis mihi quia te rapuit)

Memor esto, 6vv, 1585a; S xvii, 32, M xv

Mens male (2p. of Heu quos dabimus miseranda)

Meum est propositum (4p. of Fertur [vertur] in conviviis vinus)

Mirabile mysterium, 5vv, 1556; S v, 18, M i

Mira loquor sed digna fide, 10vv, 1604; S xxi, 126, M xviii

Miserere mei Deus (4p. of Psalmi Davidis poentitentiales)

Miserere mei Domine, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 31, M xiv

Miserere nostri (2p. of Ad te levavi oculos)

Misericordias Domini, 5vv, 1573b; S ix, 9, M ix

Misit eos (2p. of Hodie completi sunt)

Missus est angelus (2p. Ne timeas Maria; 3p. Dixit autem; 4p. Dixit autem), 5, 6vv, 1565c; S vii, 16, M v

Momenta quaevis temporis, 6vv, 1601³; S xix, 58, M xx

Mors tua mors Christi (2p. Quisquid erit), 5vv, 1585b; S vii, 43, M xix

Mortalium jucunditas, 5vv, 1597; S xi, 20, M xx

Mox importuno (2p. of Hispanum ad coenam)

Multe tribulationes, 6vv, 1577c; S xv, 65

Multarum hic resonat, 5vv, 1571b; S iii, 112, M viii

Multifariam multisque modis, 6vv, 1594; S xi, 161, M xvi

Multum quidem (2p. of Audi benigne conditor)

Musica Dei donum optimi, 6vv, 1594; S xix, 63, M xvi

Narrate omnia (2p. of Confitemini Domino)

Ne avertas (2p. of Exaudi Dominum vocem meam)

Nec minus effulget Salome (7p. of Princeps Marte potens)

Nectar et ambrosiam, 6vv, 1594; S xi, 109, M xvi

Ne derelinquas amicus, 6vv, 1604; S xv, 134, M xxi

Ne reminiscaris, 4vv, 1577c; S i, 109, M xviii

Ne reminiscaris, 7vv, 1577c; S xix, 78, M xviii

Ne timeas Maria (2p. of Missus est angelus)

Nisi Dominus (2p. Cum dederit), 5vv, 1562; S ix, 66, M ii

Nisi ego abiero (2p. of Tempus est ut revertar)

Noli regibus o Lamuel (2p. Date siceram), 5vv, 1571b; S vii, 47, M viii

Nolite timere (2p. of Angelus Domini descendit)

Non des mulieri potestatem, 6vv, 1604; S xv, 139, M xxi

Non fecit taliter (4p. of Lauda Jerusalem Dominum)

Non in fortitudine (4p. of Laudate Dominum quoniam bonum est)

Non me lasciviae (2p. of Quid tamen)

Non moriar (2p. of O Domine salvum me fac)

Non secundum (3p. of Benedic anima mea Domino)

Non tarde (3p. of Prophetiae Sibyllarum)

Non vos me elegistis, 5vv, 1562; S v, 141, M ii

Nos pia turba (3p. of Alma parens)

Nos qui sumus in hoc mundo, 4vv, 1573b; S i, 139, M ix

Numquid redditur (2p. of Popule meus)

Nunc cognosco (2p. of Cum essem parvulus)

Nunc elegos divae (2p. of Alma Venus)

Nunc gaudere licet [Or sus, esgaions nous], 6vv, 1568a; S xix, 66, M vi

Nunciaverunt (2p. of Dixit Joseph undecim fratribus suis)

Nunc juvat immensi (3p. of Quis mihi quia te rapuit)

Nuntium vobis fero (2p. Thus, Deo), 5vv, 1571b; S v, 9, M viii

Nuptiae factae sunt (2p. Dixit mater; 3p. Et dicit ei Jesu; 4p. Omnis homo), 6vv, 1566d; S xv, 30, M v

Nuptias clares (2p. Viribus magni), 5vv, 1597; S xi, 7, M xx

O altitudo divitiarum (2p. Quis enim cognovit), 6vv, 1582d; S xi, 133, M xiii

O beatum hominem (2p. of Quam benignus es)

O bone Jesu o piissime Jesu (2p. O bone Jesu si merui; 3p. O misericordissime), 4vv, 1582b; S i, 69, M xix

O bone Jesu si merui (2p. of O bone Jesu, o piissime Jesu)

Obscura sub nocte (2p. of Edite Caesareo Boiorum)

O crux ave (4p. of Vexilla regis prodeunt)

O crux splendidior (2p. Dulce lignum), 6vv, 1568a; S xi, 167, M vi

Oculi mei semper, 6vv, 1585a; S xvii, 15, M xv

Oculi omnium (2p. Justus Dominus), 5vv, 1573b; S vii, 122, M ix

Oculus non vidit, 2vv, 1577d; S i, 2, M xi

O decus celsi genus, 6vv, 1582d; S xi, 156, M xiii

O Domine salvum me fac (2p. Non moriar), 5vv, 1562; S ix, 26, M ii

O gloriosa domina (2p. Tu regis), 6vv, 1577c; S xiii, 139, M xviii

O gloriosa domina, 6vv, 1573b; S xiii, 145, M ix

O Maria clausus hortus, 3vv, 1575; S i, 29, M xi

O Meliboee (2p. of Tityre tu patule)

O misericordissime (3p. of O bone Jesu o piissime Jesu)

Omnes de Saba venient, 8vv, 1590⁵; S xxi, 1, M xix

Omnia quae feasti, 5vv, 1562; S vii, 127, M ii

Omnia tempus habent (2p. Tempus amplexandi), 8vv, 1585a; S xxi, 77, M xv

Omnis enim homo, 6vv, 1585a; S xv, 58, M xv

Omnis homo (4p. of Nuptiae factae sunt)

Omnium deliciarum, 6vv, 1604; S xv, 132, M xxi

O mors bonum est (2p. of O mors quam amara)

O mors quam amara (2p. O mors bonum), 6vv, 1564b; S xv, 67, M iv

O peccator, 6vv, 1604; S xiii, 163, M xxi

O quam flagrans (2p. of Ave color vini clari)

O quam suavis, 6vv, 1568a; S xiii, 61, M vi

O sacrum convivium, 5vv, 1582e; S v, 68, M xii

O salutaris hostia, 5vv, 1582e; S v, 79, M xii

Osculetur me osculo, 8vv, 1582a; S xxi, 9, M xix

Pacis amans (2p. Te nunc laetetur), 6vv, 1570b; S xi, 125, M xviii

Panem nostrum (2p. of Pater noster)

Pater Abraham miserere (2p. Fili recordare), 5vv, 1571b; S vii, 1, M viii

Pater noster, 4vv, 1573b; S i, 104, M ix

Pater noster (2p. Panem nostrum), 6vv, 1585a; S xiii, 77, M xv

Pater noster, 6vv, 1565b; S xiii, 81, M iv

Pater peccavi (2p. Quanti mercenarii), 5vv, 1564c; S vii, 24, M xvii

Pauper sum ego, 4vv, 1573b; S iii, 79, M ix

Peccantem me quotidie, 4vv, 1555b; S i, 159, M xvii

Peccata mea Domine, 5vv, 1582e; S ix, 3, M xii

Peccavi quid faciam, 5vv, 1556; S vii, 100, M i

Peccavit David, 6vv, 1604; S xv, 129, M xxi

Perfice gressus meos, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 86, M xiv

Petitiones vestrae (2p. of Fratres gaudete in Domino)

Plebs igitur (2p. of Martini festum celebremus)

Popule meus (2p. Numquid redditur), 5vv, 1582e; S v, 34, M xii

Populum humilem, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 67, M xiv

Populus eius (2p. of Jubilate Deo omnis terra)

Possedi servos (2p. of Dixi ergo in corde meo)

Potatores incliti (3p. of Fertur in conviviis vinus)

Praecinite (3p. of Laudate Dominum quoniam bonum est)

Praesidium Sara, 4vv, 1570a; H i, 7, M xviii

Precatus est Moyses, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 23, M xiv

Princeps egregius (8p. of Princeps Marte potens)

Princeps Marte potens, Guilelmus (2p. Gloria pontificum Ernestus; 3p. Magnanimus princeps; 4p. Matronarum decus; 5p. Virginitatis honos; 6p. Luna velut rutilat; 7p. Nec minus effulget Salome; 8p. Princeps egregius; 9p. Vive Pater patriae), 4, 8vv, 1604; S i, 61, M xxi

Proba me Deus, 4vv, 1579; S iii, 35, M xviii

Prolongati sunt dies mei (2p. Inveterata sunt; 3p. Si ergo fas), 6vv, 1594; S xvii, 1, M xvi

Pronuba Juno tibi [Gratia summi; Qui regit astra], 4vv, 1570a; H i, 3, M xviii

Prophetiae Sibyllarum (1p. Virgine matre; 2p. Ecce dies venient; 3p. Non tarde; 4p. In teneris; 5p. Ecce dies nigras; 6p. Jam mea; 7p. Dum meditor; 8p. Ipsa Deum; 9p. Virginis aeternum; 10p. Verax ipse; 11p. Cerno Dei; 12p. Summus erit), 4vv, 1600; ed. in Cw, xlviii (1937/R)

Propterea Deus (2p. of Quid gloriaris)

Propter fratres (4p. of Laetatus sum)

Providebam Dominum, 7vv, 1604; S xix, 98, M xxi

Psalmi Davidis poenitentiales (1p. Domine ne in furore tuo … miserere; 2p. Beati quorum remissae sunt; 3p. Domine ne in furore tuo … quoniam; 4p. Miserere mei Deus; 5p. Domine exaud … non avertas; 6p. De profundis; 7p. Domine exaudi … auribus percipe), 5vv, 1584b/R1970; ed. in RRMR, lxxxvi–lxxxvii (1990)

Pulvis et umbra sumus, 4vv, 1573b; S i, 127, M ix

Quam benignus es (2p. O beatum hominem), 4vv, 1562; S ix, 30, M ii

Quam bonus Israel Deus (2p. Quia non est respectus), 6vv, 1594; S xix, 1, M xvi

Quam magnificata sunt (2p. Beatus homo), 6vv, 1564³; S xvii, 7, M iii

Quam multa multitudo (2p. of Illustra faciem)

Quam pulchra es (2p. Guttur tuam), 6vv, 1585a; S xiii, 149, M xv

Quanti mercenari (2p. of Pater peccavi)

Quare tristis es anima mea?, 4vv, 1573c; S i, 154, M x

Quare tristis es anima mea?, 6vv, 1564b; S xvii, 12, M iv

Quasi cedrus, 4vv, 1564⁵; S i, 93, M iii

Qua sina coelestis (2p. of Alma parens)

Quemadmodum desiderat cervus, 6vv, 1569a; S xix, 18, M vii

Quem dicunt homines (2p. Tu es Christus), 5vv, 1567³; S vii, 6, M xvii

Quem vidistis pastores?, 5vv, 1569a; S v, 1, M vii

Quia delectasti (2p. of Deus canticum novum)

Quia illic (3p. of Laetatus sum)

Quia non est respectus (2p. of Quam bonus Israel Deus)

Quia vidisti me, 4vv, 1563³; S i, 137, M xvii

Quicumque vult salvus esse (2p. Alia est enim; 3p. Et tamen; 4p. Haec est fides), 5vv, 1577c; H i, 32, M xviii

Qui cupit, 4vv, 1564⁵; S i, 125, M iii

Quid estis pusillanimes, 4vv, 1573c; S i, 121, M x

Quid facies, 4vv, 1582b; S iii, 100, M xix

Quid gloriaris (2p. Propterea Deus), 5vv, 1566c; S ix, 81, M v

Quid prodest homini (2p. Futurum est), 5vv, 1571b; S vii, 70, M viii

Quid prodest stulto, 5vv, 1564c; S vii, 41, M xvii

Quid tamen [sponsa quid agis] (2p. Non me lascivia), 5vv, 1571b; S xi, 64, M viii

Quid trepidas (2p. Gaudeat exultetque), 6vv, 1570g; S xi, 111, M vii

Quid vulgo memorant, 8vv, 1604; S xix, 122, M xxi

Qui emittit (2p. of Lauda Jerusalem Dominum)

Qui maris terrae (2p. of Sidus ex claro veniet)

Qui moderatur sermones suos, 6vv, 1604; S xv, 142, M xxi

Qui novus aethereo, 5vv, 1569a; S v, 80, M vii

Qui patiens est, 6vv, 1604; S xv, 137, M xxi

Qui ponit aquam (2p. of Jam lucis orto)

Qui replet (2p. of Benedic anima mea Domino)

Quis enim cognovit (2p. of O altitudo divitiarum)

Qui sequitur me, 2vv, 1577d; S i, 3, M xi

Quis est homo, 5vv, 1567³; S ix, 53, M xvii

Quis mihi det lacrimis, 5vv, 1573b; S v, 44, M ix

Quis mihi quis tete rapuit [Quid tibi quidnam] (2p. Me miserum; 3p. Nunc juvat immensi), 5vv, 1565b; S xi, 30, M iv

Quis non timet (2p. of Cantabant canticum Moysi)

Quisquid erit (2p. of Mors tua mors Christi)

Qui sunt hi sermones (2p. Tu solus peregrinus), 5vv, 1582e; S vii, 9, M xii

Quis valet eloquio, 5vv, 1565b; S xi, 78, M iv

Qui timet Deum, 6vv, 1594; S xv, 56, M xvi

Qui tribulant me (2p. Unam petii), 4vv, 1582b; S i, 145, M xix

Qui viderit (2p. of Vicenti dabo edere)

Qui vult venire post me, 2vv, 1577d; S i, 5, M xi

Quocumque loco fuero (2p. Jam quod quae sivi), 5vv, 1585b; S v, 65, M xix

Quocumque pergis (2p. of Jesu corona virginum)

Quod licet id libeat, 5vv, 1604; S xi, 16, M xxi

Quod non capis (3p. of Lauda Sion salvatorem)

Quo fers (2p. of Accipe qua recrees)

Quoniam ad te (2p. of Verba mea auribus percipe)

Quoniam fortitudo mea (2p. of In te Domine speravi)

Quoniam qui talia (2p. of Diliges proximum)

Quo properas, facunde nepos Atlantis?, 10vv, 1565b; S xxi, 112, M iv

Rebus in adversis, 5vv, 1569a; S vii, 68, M vii

Recordare Jesu pie, 6vv, 1594; S xv, 112, M xvi

Recordatus (4p. of Benedic anima mea Domino)

Regiam Christi (2p. of Flemus extremos)

Regina coeli laetare (2p. Resurrexit sicut dixit), 4vv, 1604; S i, 81, M xxi

Regina coeli laetare, 5vv, 1604; S v, 106, M xxi

Regina coeli laetare (2p. Resurrexit sicut dixit) (i), 5vv, 1604; S v, 109, M xviii

Regina coeli laetare (2p. Resurrexit sicut dixit) (ii), 5vv, 1604; S v, 112, M xxi

Regina coeli laetare (2p. Resurrexit sicut dixit) (i), 6vv, 1585a; S xiii, 118, M xv

Regina coeli laetare (2p. Resurrexit sicut dixit) (ii), 6vv, 1604; S xiii, 122, M xix

Regina coeli laetare (2p. Resurrexit sicut dixit), 7vv, 1604; S xix, 84, M xix

Regnum mundi, 6vv, 1573b; S xiii, 170, M ix

Res mira (3p. of Gratia soli Dei pie)

Res neque ab internis, 5vv, 1569a; S xi, 69, M vii

Resonet in laudibus (2p. Hodie apparuit; 3p. Manum nomen Domini), 5vv, 1569a; S iii, 148, M vii

Respexit Elias, 5vv, 1582e; S v, 158, M xii

Respice me (2p. of Tu Domine benignus es)

Respicit Dominus vias hominis, 6vv, 1594; S xvii, 37, M xvi

Resurrexit sicut dixit (2p. of Regina coeli laetare)

Rumpere livor (2p. of Evehor invidia pressus)

Rumpitur invidia, 5vv, 1569a; S xi, 72, M vii

Rursum contemplatus (2p. of Vidi calumnias)

Sacrificate (2p. of Cum invocarem exaudibit me)

Salve festa dies (2p. Felices), 5vv, 1568b; S xi, 1, M vi

Salve regina mater (2p. Et Jesum benedictum), 5vv, 1597; S v, 115, M xx

Salve regina mater, 6vv, 1582d; S xiii, 125, M xiii

Salve regina mater, 6vv, 1604; S xiii, 128, M xix

Salve Regina, 6vv, 1604; M xix

Salve regina mater, 8vv, 1604; S xxi, 18, M xix

Salve regina misericordiae, 4vv, 1573b; S i, 83, M ix

Salve regina misericordiae (2p. Et Jesum benedictum), 4vv, 1586⁴; S i, 89, M xix

Sancta et immaculata, 3vv, 1575; S i, 27, M xi

Sancta Maria (i), 4vv, 1604; S iii, 110, M xxi

Sancta Maria (ii), 4vv, 1604; S iii, 110, M xxi

Sancta Maria (iii), 4vv, 1604; S iii, 111, M xxi

Sancta Maria, 5vv, 1585b; S v, 135, M xix

Sancte Deus (2p. of Media vita in morte sumus)

Sancti mei, 2vv, 1577d; S i, 4, M xi

Sancti qui sunt (2p. of Conserva me Domine)

Scapulis suis, 4vv, 1582b; S iii, 12, M xix

Scio enim quod Redemptor, 4vv, 1563³; S iii, 105, M xvii

Sepulchrum patens (2p. of Domine deduc me)

Serve bone et fidelis, 2vv, 1577d; S i, 6, M xi

Si ambulavero in medio, 5vv, 1556; S ix, 18, M i

Si bene perpendi, 5vv, 1579; S xi, 37, M xviii

Si bona suscepimus, 5vv, 1571b; S ix, 87, M viii

Si coelum et coeli coelorum, 6vv, 1594; S xv, 115, M xvi

Sic sua virtutum (2p. Tu maxime rerum), 5vv, 1604; S xi, 4, M xxi

Si cum transierint (2p. of Stet quicumque volet)

Sicut ablactatus (2p. of Domine non est exaltatum)

Sicut mater consolator, 5vv, 1562; S vii, 97, M ii

Sicut rosa inter spinas, 2vv, 1577d; S i, 7, M xi

Sidus ex claro veniet (2p. Qui maris terrae), 5vv, 1569a; S iii, 153, M vii

Si ergo fas (3p. of Prolongati sunt dies mei)

Signum est (3p. of Cum invocarem exaudibit me)

Si qua tibi obtulerint, 6vv, 1556; S xi, 118, M i

Si quid vota valent, 5vv, 1571b; S iii, 124, M viii

Solus igitur (2p. of Infelix ego)

Sperate in eo (2p. of In Deo salutaren meum)

Sperent in te omnes, 4vv, 1585d; S i, 155, M xiv

Sponsa quid agis: see Quid tamen

Stabat mater dolorosa, 8vv, 1585d; M xiv

Stabunt justi (2p. Hic sunt quos habuimus), 5vv, 1571b; S vii, 61, M viii

Stet quicumque volet potens (2p. Si cum transierint), 5vv, 1556; S xi, 44, M i

Summus erit (12p. of Prophetiae Sibyllarum)

Super flumina Babylonis, 4vv, 1585d; S iii, 25, M xiv

Surgens Jesus, 5vv, 1562; S v, 60, M ii

Surgentem cum victoria (3p. of Lauda mater ecclesia)

Surge propera amica mea et veni (2p. Surge … columba mea), 6vv, 1564b; S xiii, 158, M iv

Surge … speciosa (2p. of Surge propera amica mea et veni)

Surrexit Pastor bonus, 5vv, 1562; S v, 57, M ii

SU-su-PER-per (2p. IL-il-LIC-lic), 5vv, 1567¹³; S ix, 133, M xvii

Taedet animam, 5vv, 1562; S vii, 103, M ii

Te decet hymnus, 4vv, 1564⁵; S iii, 37, M iii

Te deprecamur (3p. of Jesu corona virginum)

Te Deum laudamus, 6vv, 1568a; S xix, 24, M vi

Te merito Daniel (2p. Subque tuo Daniel), 5vv, 1604; S v, 160, M xxi

Tempus amplexandi (2p. of Omnia tempus habent)

Tempus est ut revertar (2p. Nisi ego abiero), 6vv, 1566d; S xiii, 25, M v

Te nunc laetetur (2p. of Pacis amans)

Te spectant Reginalde Poli, 5vv, 1556; S iii, 127, M i

Thoma (2p. of Clare sanctorum senatus)

Thus, Deo (2p. of Nuntium vobis fero)

Tibi laus tibi gloria, 4vv, 1586⁴; S i, 67, M xiv

Tibi laus tibi gloria (2p. Da gaudiorum), 5vv, 1564⁴; S iii, 130, M iii

Tibi progenies unica patris (2p. Tu quae versat; 3p. Tu nostros Deus; 4p. Dum nos Erebi; 5p. Tu multa), 5vv, 1604; S xi, 40, M xxi

Tibi progenies (2p. Tu quae versat; 3p. Dum nos Erebi), 6vv, 1604; S xix, 35, M xxi

Timor Domini gloria, 6vv, 1604; S xv, 147, M xxi

Timor Domini principium, 6vv, 1594; S xv, 87, M xvi

Timor et tremor (2p. Exaudi Deus), 6vv, 1564³; S xix, 6, M iii

Tityre tu patulae (2p. O Meliboee), 6vv, 1560b; S xix, 68, M xvii

Tota pulchra es, 4vv, 1604; S i, 96, M xxi

Tragico tecti syrmate coelites, 5vv, 1597; S xi, 75, M xx

Tragico tecti syrmate coelites (2p. Hic belligeras), 6vv, 1604; S xix, 53, M xxi

Tribulationem et dolorem (2p. Convertere anima), 4vv, RISM 1569⁸; S iii, 8, M xvii

Tribus miraculis, 5vv, 1565c; S v, 25, M v

Tristis est anima mea, 5vv, 1565b; S v, 48, M iv

Tu Domine benignus es (2p. Respice me), 5vv, 1565b; S v, 87, M iv

Tu es Christus (2p. of Quem dicunt homines)

Tu esto nostrum gaudium (4p. of Jesu nostra redemptio)

Tui sunt coeli, 8vv, 1604; S xxi, 5, M xxi

Tulerunt (2p. of Congratulamini mihi)

Tu maxime rerum (2p. of Sic sua virtutum)

Tu modo diva (4. of Alma parens)

Tu multa (5p. of Tibi progenies, 5vv)

Tunc exultabunt (2p. of Laetentur coeli)

Tu nostros Deus (3p. of Tibi progenies, 5vv)

Tu quae versat (2p. of Tibi progenies, 5vv, 6vv)

Tu regis (2p. of O gloriosa domina)

Tu septiformis muner (2p. of Veni Creator Spiritus)

Tu solus peregrinus (2p. of Qui sunt his sermones)

Ubi David (3p. of Audi tellus)

Ubi est Abel, 5vv, 1567³; S vii, 80, M xvii

Ubi Plato (2p. of Audi tellus)

Unam petii (2p. of Qui tribulant me)

Unde revertimini, 8vv, 1573c; S xix, 138, M x

Unus Dominus una fides, 6vv, 1604; S xv, 124, M xxi

Urbem praeclaram (2p. of Dulces exuviae)

Ut queant laxis, 5vv, 1582e; S v, 152, M xii

Ut radios edit rutilo, 5vv, 1565b; S xi, 85, M iv

Ut venientes (5p. of Alleluia Surrexit Dominus)

Veniant mihi (2p. of Cognovi Domine)

Veni Creator Spiritus (2p. Tu septiformis muner; 3p. Hostem repellas), 6vv, 1568a; S xiii, 43, M vi

Veni dilecte mi (2p. Videamus si), 5vv, 1571b; S v, 124, M viii

Veni Domine et noli tardare, 5vv, 1583²; S ix, 1, M xix

Veni Domine et noli tardare, 6vv, 1570g; S xvii, 84, M vii

Veni in hortum meum, 5vv, 1562; S v, 120, M ii

Veni Sancte Spiritus, 6vv, 1582d; S xiii, 53, M xiii

Venite ad me omnes, 5vv, 1571b; S vii, 52, M viii

Venite filii audite me (2p. Diverte a malo), 5vv, 1604; S vii, 75, M xxi

Verax ipse (10p. of Prophetiae Sibyllarum)

Verba mea auribus percipe (2p. Quoniam ad te), 5vv, 1571b; S vii, 116, M viii

Verbum caro factum est, 6vv, 1564³; S xi, 158, M iii

Verbum caro panem verum, 3vv, 1604; S i, 58, M xxi

Verbum caro panem verum, 4vv, 1604; S i, 111, M xxi

Vere Dominus est in loco isto, 6vv, 1594; S xv, 118, M xvi

Vexilla regis prodeunt (2p. Impleta sunt; 3p. Beata cuius; 4p. O crux ave), 6vv, 1565c; S xi, 172, M v

Vias tuas (2p. of Ad to Domine levavi)

Videamus si (2p. of Veni dilecte mi)

Vide homo quae pro te patior, 7vv, 1595; S xix, 82

Videns Dominus (2p. of Fremuit spiritus Jesus)

Videntes stellam magi (2p. Et apertis), 5vv, 1562; S v, 22, M ii

Vidi calumnias (2p. Rursum contemplatus), 6vv, 1594; S xvii, 53, M xvi

Vidi impium, 5vv, 1569a; S ix, 125, M vii

Vincenti dabo edere (2p. Qui viderit), 6vv, 1594; S xiii, 56, M xvi

Vinum bonum et suave, 8vv, 1570g; S xxi, 91, M vii

Virgine matre (2p. of Prophetiae Sibyllarum)

Virginis aeternum (9p. of Prophetiae Sibyllarum)

Virginitatis honos (5p. of Princeps Marte potens)

Vita nostra (2p. of Cognoscimus Domine)

Vive pater patriae (9p. of Princeps Marte potens)

Voce mea ad Dominum clamavi, 6vv, 1604; S xix, 10, M xxi

Volo inter omnia (2p. of Fertur in conviviis vinus)

Vos quibus rector, 6vv, 1601³; S xii, 60, M xx

Vota mea (2p. of Credidi propter)

Vox exultationis (2p. of Impulsus eversus sum)

Vulnerasti cor meum, 6vv, 1582d; S xiii, 154, M xiii

Zachaee festinans descende, 5vv, 1566c; H i, 56, M v

12 textless bicinia, a 2, 1577d; S i, 13–24, M xi

madrigals

Il primo libro di madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1555) (RISM 1555c) [1555a]

Il primo libro dove si contengono madrigali, vilanesche, canzoni francesi, e motetti, 4vv (Antwerp, 1555) (RISM 1555²⁹, same contents as 1555¹⁹) [1555b]

Secondo libro delle muse, madrigali … con una canzone del Petrarca, 5vv (Rome, 1557) (RISM 1557²²) [1557]

Il primo libro di madrigali, insieme alcuni madrigali d’altri autori, 4vv (Venice, 1560) (RISM 1560¹⁷) [1560d]

Il terzo libro di madrigali, 5vv (Rome, 1563) (RISM 1563¹¹) [1563]

Quatriesme livre des chansons, 4, 5vv (Leuven, 1564) (RISM 1564d) [1564c]

Libro quarto de madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1567) (RISM 1567k) [1567a]

Second livre des chansons, 4, 5vv (Leuven, 1570) (RISM 1570⁶) [1570f]

Les meslanges … contenantz plusieurs chansons, tant en vers latins qu’en ryme francoyse, 4–6, 8, 10vv (Paris, 1576, earlier edn. 1570, lost, repr. with sacred contrafacta, London, 1570) (RISM 1576i) [1576b]

Continuation du mellange, 3–6, 10vv (Paris, 1584) (RISM 1584f) [1584a]

Cantica sacra, recens numeris et modulis musicis ornata, 6, 8vv (Munich, 1585) (RISM 1585b) [1585a]

Madrigali novamente composti, 5vv (Nuremberg, 1585) (RISM 1585e) [1585c]

Madrigali novamente composti, 4–6vv (Nuremberg, 1587) (RISM 1587k) [1587a]

Lagrime di S Pietro … con un mottetto nel fine, 7vv (Munich, 1595) (RISM 1595a) [1595]

Musica nuova dove si contengono madrigali, sonnetti, stanze, canzoni, villanelle et altri compositioni, 3vv (Munich, 1595), lost

1558¹³, 1561¹⁰, 1562⁷, 1566², 1567⁴, 1567¹⁶, 1569¹¹, 1569¹⁸, 1569¹⁹, 1570⁷, 1570¹⁵, 1575¹¹, 1576⁵, 1579², 1583¹⁵, 1584⁴, 1585¹⁷, 1594⁶

A che tenderm’amor, 4vv, 1570f; S viii, 59

Ahi che la forza (2p. of V’ son gl’ingegni)

Al dolce suon (Minturno), 5vv, 1569¹⁹; Hi (Nachtrag)

Al fin vidd’io (6p. of Standomi un giorno)

Al gran Guglielmo nostro, 5vv, 1584a; H i, 147

Al’hor lass (2p. of S’io tal’hor muovo gli occhi)

Al’hor mi desto (2p. of Veggio se al vero apre ragion)

Al’hor nel (4p. of Si come’al chiaro giorno)

All’ ultimo bisogno (5p. of Là ver’ e’aurora)

Alma cortese (2p. Ch’udirai), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 12

Alma real dignissima d’impero, 4vv, 1564c; S viii, 44

Alma tu ch ’l furor (2p. of Il grave de l’età)

Almen nel suo fuggir (2p. of Io ho più tempo)

Altri non vedrà (6p. of Si come’ al chiaro giorno)

Amor che ved’ogni pensier (Petrarch), 5vv, 1563; S iv, 48

Amor mi strugge ’l cor (Petrarch) 5vv, 1563; S iv, 26

Appariran per me le stell’in cielo, 4vv, 1560d; S viii, 27

Ardo sì ma non t’amo (Tasso), 5vv, 1585¹⁷; S viii, 144, 147 (2 versions)

Arse la fiamma e consumò, 4vv, 1587a; S vi, 83

A voi Guglielmo invitto, 5vv, 1584a; H i, 143

Bella guerriera mia (Bembo) (2p. Ma se con l’opr’), 5vv, 1563; S iv, 38

Ben convenne madonna (G. Manrique) (2p. Solo n’andrò), 5vv, 1569¹⁹; H i (nachtrag), 17

Ben mi credea passar mio tempo (Petrarch), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 67

Ben sono i premi tuoi (Fiamma) (2p. Poi che si grand’), 6vv, 1587a; S vi, 137

Ben veggio di lontan’il dolce lume (Petrarch), 4vv, 1562⁷; S viii, 37

Bianca neve è il bel collo (Ariosto), 4vv, 1573c; S viii, 78

Candid’albor del ciel, 5vv, 1557; S ii, 114

Cantai hor piango (Petrarch) (2p. Tengan dunque), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 1

Canzon la doglia e ’l pianto, 4vv, 1587a; S vi, 90

Canzon se l’esser meco (Petrarch), 4vv, 1584a; H i, 131

Che fai alma (Petrarch), 7vv, 1569¹⁸; S x, 23

Che fai che pensi (Petrarch) (2p. Deh non rinovellar), 5vv, 1567a; S iv, 90

Che giova posseder (Bembo), 5vv, 1587a; S vi, 110

Che più d’un giorno (Petrarch), 5vv, 1576b; H i, 140

Che se la ver’ (2p. of Quel chiaro sol)

Chiara fontana (4p. of Standomi un giorno)

Chi è fermato di menar sua vita (Petrarch), 4vv, 1584a; S ii, 82

Chi’il credera (2p. of Del freddo Rheno)

Chi no’l sa di ch’io vivo (Petrarch), 5vv, 1576⁵; S viii, 123

Chi non sa come spira (2p. Ma quel ch’una), 5vv, 1587a; S vi, 113

Ch’udirai (2p. of Alma cortese)

Come la cera al foco (Fiamma), 6vv, 1585c; S vi, 66

Come la notte ogni fiamella (Ariosto), 5vv, 1584a; H i, 136

Come lume di notte (Petrarch), 4vv, 1584a; H i, 134

Come non conosch’io (3p. of La notte che segui l’horribil)

Come pianta (2p. Perchè qual peregrin), 4vv, 1587a; S vi, 87

Come sei stat’ o ciel (2p. of Ove sei vita mia)

Come va ’l mondo (Petrarch) (2p. Ma ’l cieco amor), 5vv, 1567a; S iv, 101

Con lei fuss’io (Petrarch), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 63

Con le stell’e col sol (2p. of Del auro crin de la Tassinia bella)

Così aspettando (2p. of Mentre fiorv’amor)

Così cor mio vogliate (Ariosto), 4vv, 1587a; S vi, 80

Così quel che m’avanza (5p. of Per aspro mar di notte)

Crudel acerba inesorabil morte (Petrarch), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 44

Dappoi che sott’il ciel (Petrarch), 5vv, 1584a; H i, 172

Deh che fuss’io (5p. of Non ha tante)

Deh hor foss’io co’l vago (Petrarch), 4vv, 1558¹³; S viii, 26

Deh lascia anima homai (Fiamma), 4vv, 1587a; S vi, 85

Deh non rinovellar (2p. of Che fai che pensi)

Deh perchè voglio anco (Ariosto) (2p. Dunque fia ver), 5vv, 1584a; H i, 183

Deh sol che sei si chiaro, 4vv, 1570f; S viii, 61

Del auro crin de la Tassinia bella (2p. Con le stell’e col sol), 5vv, 1570f; S viii, 112

De l’eterne tue sante (Fiamma) (2p. Per questa), 5vv, 1585c; S vi, 1

Del freddo Rheno (2p. Ch’il credera; 3p. Rotava ed è pur ver; 4p. Si fe cristallo; 5p. Et io qual; 6p. Hor su la nuda terra), 4vv, 1555b; S viii, 3

Dicesi che la morte (A. Marsi), 5vv, 1563; S iv, 22

Di pensier in pensier (Petrarch), 6vv, 1579²; S x, 3

Di persona era tanto ben formata (Ariosto), 4vv, 1573c; S viii, 72

Di qua di là (Ariosto), 5vv, 1584a; H i, 176

Ditemi vita mia, 7vv, 1584⁴; S x, 30

Di terrena armonia (Beccuti) (2p. Signor le colpe mia; 3p. Padre rivolgi; 4p. Stanco di lagrimar; 5p. Voi che di prave; 6p. Fugga), 5vv, 1584a [repr. without 1st stanza as Signor le colpe mie, 1587a]; H i, 179

Diviso m’ha (2p. of Poi che’l’iniquo e fero mio destino)

Dunque fia ver (2p. of Deh perchè voglio anco)

Ecco che pur vi lasso, 5vv, 1587a; S vi, 92

Ed a noi restare (2p. of Volgi cor mio la tua speranza)

E puro bene (2p. of Tanto e quel ben eterno amor)

Errai scorrendo (3p. of Per aspro mar di notte)

E sarebbe hora (2p. of O tempo o cielo)

Et in sembiante (2p. of Evro gentil)

Et io qual (5p. of Del freddo Rheno)

Et mentre (2p. of Quant’invidia vi port’aure)

Evro gentil se d’amoroso ardore (G.B. d’Azzia) (2p. Et in sembiante), 5vv, 1557; S ii, 121

Fiera stella s’el ciel ha forza (Petrarch) (2p. Ma tu prendi), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 50

Fugga (6p. of Di terrena armonia)

Già mi fu co’l desir (Petrarch), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 14

Già senz’affan’ (5p. of Si come’al chiaro giorno)

Guarda ‘l mio stat’a le vaghezze (Petrarch), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 6

Hor a cantar (2p. of Più volte un bel desio)

Hora per far (2p. of Io son si stanco sotto il grave peso)

Hor ch’a l’albergo de monton (Fiamma), 6vv, 1587a; S vi, 105

Hor che la nuova e vaga primavera, 10vv, 1575¹¹; S x, 43

Hor come i rai (3p. of Quando il giorno da l’onde)

Hor qui son lasso e voglio esser (Petrarch), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 22

Hor su la nuda terra (6p. of Del freddo Rheno)

Hor vi riconfortate (Petrarch), 5vv, 1585c; S vi, 26

Hor vi riconfortate (Petrarch), 6vv, 1584a; S x, 14

Huomini e Dei (4p. of Là ver’ e’aurora)

Il grave de l’età (Fiamma) (2p. Alma tu che ’l furor), 6vv, 1587a; S vi, 126

Il mondo muta (5p. of Quando il giorno da l’onde)

Il tempo passa e l’hore (Petrarch), 5vv, 1567a; S iv, 92

Indi gl’acuti strali (3p. of Viene dolc’hymeneo)

Indi per altro (2p. of Standomi un giorno)

In divina bellezza (2p. of In qual parte del ciel)

In dubbio di mio stato (Petrarch), 4vv, 1560c; S viii, 35

In dubbio di mio stato (Petrarch), 4vv, 1562⁷; S viii, 42

In qual parte del ciel (Petrarch) (2p. Per divina bellezza), 5vv, 1557; S ii, 134

In sonno eterno (2p. of Non ha tante)

In un boschetto (3p. of Standomi un giorno)

Io che l’età più verde (Fiamma) (2p. Ma conven), 5vv, 1585c; S vi, 6

Io ho più tempo (2p. Almen nel suo fuggir), 5vv, 1575¹¹; S viii, 117

Io non sapea di tal vista (Petrarch), 5vv, 1585c; S vi, 33

Io son si stanco sotto il fascio antico (Petrarch) (2p. Ma la sua voce), 5vv, 1585c; S vi, 45

Io son si stanco sotto il grave peso (Guidiccioni) (2p. Hora per far), 5vv, 1557; S ii, 139

Io vo fuggendo (4p. of Non ha tante)

I vo piangendo i miei passati tempi (Petrarch) (2p. Si che s’io vissi), 5vv, 1567a; S iv, 116

Lagrime di S Pietro (Tansillo), 7vv, 1595; H xx

L’alto signor, dinanzi a cui (Petrarch), 5vv, 1563; S iv, 3

L’altr’hier sul mezzo giorno, 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 79

La non vol esser più mia, 5vv, 1584a; H i, 152

La notte che segui l’horribil (Petrarch) (2p. Riconosci; 3p. Come non conosch’io), 5vv, 1561¹⁰; S viii, 88

Lasso che (2p. of Qual nemica fortuna)

Lasso che par (2p. of Tutto ’l dì piango)

Là ver’ e’aurora (Petrarch) (2p. Temprar potess’io; 3p. Quante lagrime; 4p. Huomini e Dei; 5p. All’ ultimo bisogno; 6p. Ridon hor), 5vv, 1567a; S vi, 65

La vita fugge (Petrarch), 5vv, 1563; S iv, 44

Le voglie e l’opre mie (Fiamma) (2p. Non tu colle), 5vv, 1585c; S vi, 17

Ma ben veggi’hor (2p. of Voi ch’ascoltate in rime)

Ma che morta (2p. of Spent’è d’amor)

Ma conven (2p. of Io de l’età più verde)

Madonna sa l’amor, 5vv, 1576b; H i, 156

Ma ’l cieco amor (2p. of Come va ’l mondo)

Malvaggio horrido gelo, 4vv, 1570f; S viii, 63

Ma quel ch’una (2p. of Chi non sa come spira)

Ma quel gran re (4p. of Per aspro mar di notte)

Ma sarò spento (6p of Non ha tante)

Ma se con l’opr’ (2p. of Bella guerriera mia)

Ma tu prendi (2p. of Fiera stella s’el ciel ha forza)

Mentre che ’l cor da gl’amorosi vermi (Petrarch) (2p. Quel fuoco), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 27

Mentre fioriv’amor (2p. Così aspettando), 5vv, 1557; S ii, 111

Mia benigna fortun’e ’l viver lieto (Petrarch), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 37

Miser qui speme in cose mortal pone (Petrarch), 5vv, 1567a; S iv, 90

Misera che farò, 5vv, 1576⁵; S viii, 129

Mostran le braccia sue (Ariosto), 4vv, 1573c; S viii, 81

Ne però (2p. of O invidia nemica de virtute)

Nessun visse giamai (Petrarch), 5vv, 1584a; S viii, 137

Non hanno tante (2p. of Per aspro mar di notte)

Non ha tante (2p. In sonno eterno; 3p. Secchi vedransi; 4p. Io vo fuggendo; 5p. Deh che fuss’io; 6p. Ma sarò spento), 3, 5, 6vv, 1563; S iv, 6

Non hebbe (2p. of Quando il giorno da l’onde)

Non s’incolpi ’l desire, 5vv, 1563; S iv, 53

O beltà rara, 5vv, 1567a; S iv, 82

Occhi piangete accompagnate il core (Petrarch), 4vv, 1555b; S viii, 19

O che lieve è (2p. of Quel rossignuol che si soave piagne)

O d’amarissime onde, 5vv, 1561¹⁰; S viii, 97

O dolci parolette (Cassola), 5vv, 1570⁷; S viii, 107

O fugace dolcezza (Petrarch), 5vv, 1584a; S vi, 127

O invidia nemica di virtute (Petrarch) (2p. Ne però), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 39

Onde come colui (2p. of Quando ’l voler)

O noiosa mia vita (2p. of Ov’è condott’il mio amorose stile)

Ornando come suole, 6vv, 1587a; S vi, 154

O sempre vagh’ (2p. of Si come’al chiaro giorno)

O tempo o cielo (Petrarch) (2p. E sarebbe hora), 5vv, 1585c; S vi, 11

Ov’è condott’il mio amoroso stile (2p. O noiosa mia vita), 4vv, 1562⁷; S viii, 38

Ove d’altra montagn’ ombra tocchi, 4vv, 1567¹⁶; H i (Nachtrag), 36

Ove le luci giro, 5vv, 1576b; H i, 163

Ove sei vita mia (2p. Come sei stat’ o ciel), 5vv, 1561¹⁰; S viii, 102

O voi già stanchi (6p. of Per aspro mar di notte)

Padre rivolgi (3p. of Di terrena armonia)

Parmi che sempre sian’ (4p. of Quando il giorno da l’onde)

Passan vostri trionfi (Petrarch), 10vv, 1584a; S x, 53

Pensier dicea che ’l cor (i) (Ariosto), 5vv, 1569¹¹; H i (Nachtrag), 30

Pensier dicea che’l cor (ii) (Ariosto), 5vv, 1587a; S vi, 123

Per aspro mar di notte (Fiamma) (2p. Non hanno tante; 3p. Errai scorrendo; 4p. Ma quel gran re; 5p. Così quel che m’avanza; 6p. O voi già stanchi), 4vv, 1587a; S vi, 70

Perchè qual peregrin (2p. of Come pianta)

Perchè sempre nimica mia, 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 83

Perch’io veggio (Petrarch), 4vv, 1555b; S viii, 23

Per pianto la mia carne (Sannazaro), 4vv, 1555b; S viii, 13

Per questa (2p. of De l’eterne tue sante)

Pien d’un vago pensier (Petrarch), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 75

Più volte un bel desio (Fiamma) (2p. Hor a cantar), 6vv, 1587a; S vi, 132

Poggi, valli (6p. of Quando il giorno da l’onde)

Poi che ‘l camin m’è chiuso (Petrarch), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 25

Poi che ’l’iniquo e fero mio destino (2p. Diviso m’ha), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 32

Poi che ’l mio largo pianto (Petrarch), 4vv, 1583¹⁵; S viii, 84

Poi che si grand’ (2p. of Ben sono i premi tuoi)

Pon fren’ al gran dolor (Petrarch), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 46

Prendi l’aurata lira (Fiamma), 6vv, 1587a; S vi, 158

Qual nemica fortuna (Asinari) (2p. Lasso che; 3p. Sol’io quanto; 4p. Tal hor dico; 5p. Talhor parmi la luce; 6p. Re de gli altri), 5, 6vv, 1567a; S iv, 128

Quando fia mai quel giorno, 4vv, 1570f; S viii, 65

Quando il giorno da l’onde (Fiamma) (2p. Non hebbe; 3p. Hor come rai; 4p. Parmi che sempre sian’; 5p. Il mondo muta; 6p. Poggi, valli), 5vv, 1585c; S vi, 50

Quando io penso al fuggir (Fiamma) (2p. Vedi gli dico), 5vv, 1585c; S vi, 39

Quando la sera scaccia (Petrarch), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 35

Quando ’l voler (Petrarch) (2p. Onde come colui), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 17

Quante lagrime (3p. of Là ver’ e’aurora)

Quant’invidia (2p. of Quant’invidia ti porto avara terra)

Quanto il mio duol, 4vv, 1560d; S viii, 31

Quant’invidia ti porto avara terra (Petrarch) (2p. Quant’invidia), 5vv, 1563; S iv, 18

Quant’invidia vi port’aure (C. Besalio) (2p. Et mentre), 5vv, 1563; S iv, 32

Quel chiaro sol (2p. Che se la ver’), 5vv, 1557; S ii, 116

Quel fuoco (2p. of Mentre che ‘l cor da gl’amorosi vermi)

Quel rossignuol che si soave piagne (Petrarch) (2p. O che lieve è), 5vv, 1567a; S iv, 85

Que piangon (2p. of Soleasi nel mio cor)

Queste contrarie tempre (2p. of Signor se la tua grazia è fuoco)

Queste non son più lagrime (Ariosto), 4vv, 1555b; S viii, 15

Questi ch’inditio fan (Ariosto), 5vv, 1557; S ii, 132

Questi son lasso de la mia spem’, 5vv, 1563; S iv, 28

Questo e disceso (2p. of Tra verdi rami)

Re de gli altri (6p. of Qual nemica fortuna)

Riconosci (2p. of La notte che segui l’horribil)

Ridon hor (6p. of Là ver’ e’aurora)

Rotava ed è pur ver (3p. of Del freddo Rheno)

Scorgo tant’altro il lume (Tansillo), 5vv, 1563; S iv, 57

Se ben l’empia mia sorte, 4vv, 1555b; S viii, 17

Se ben non veggion gl’occhi, 4vv, 1570f; S viii, 67

Secchi vedransi (3p. of Non ha tante)

Seguì già le speranze (Petrarch), 5vv, 1584a; S viii, 141

Se si alto pon gir mie stanche rime (Petrarch), 5vv, 1563; S iv, 59

Si che s’io vissi (2p. of I vo piangendo)

Si ch’io mi credo (2p. of Sol’e pensoso i più deserti campi)

Si come’ al chiaro giorno (2p. O sempre vagh ’; 3p. Tal ch’io possa; 4p. Al’ hor nel; 5p. Già senz’affan’; 6p. Altri non vedrà), 4vv, 1566²; S viii, 46

Si com’ i fiori da l’ardente sole, 5vv, 1570¹⁵; H i, 168

Si fe cristallo (4p. of Del freddo Rheno)

Signor da l’alto trono, 5vv, 1584a; H i, 150

Signor le colpe mie (2p. of Di terrena armonia)

Signor se la tua grazia è fuoco (Tansillo) (2p. Queste contrarie tempre), 5vv, 1567a; S iv, 106

Silen di rose ha ’l volto (C. Camilli), 6vv, 1594⁶; S x, 18

S’io esca vivo (Petrarch), 6vv, 1579²; S x, 9

S’io tal’hor muovo gli occhi (F. Ronconi) (2p. Al’hor lasso), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 58

Soleasi nel mio cor (Petrarch) (2p. Que piangon), 5vv, 1576b; S viii, 131

Sol’e pensoso i più deserti campi (Petrarch) (2p. Si ch’io mi credo), 5vv, 1555a; S ii, 71

Sol’io quanto (3p. of Qual nemica fortuna)

Solo n’andrò (2p. of Ben convenne madonna)

Sotto duo negri e sottilissimi archi (Ariosto), 4vv, 1573c; S viii, 74

Sotto quel sta (Ariosto), 4vv, 1573c; S viii, 76

Spent’è d’amor (Minturno) (2p. Ma che morta), 5vv, 1569¹⁹; H i (Nachtrag), 9

Spesso in poveri alberghi (Ariosto), 4vv, 1573c; S viii, 83

Stanco di lagrima (4p. of Di terrena armonia)

Standomi un giorno (Petrarch) (2p. Indi per altro; 3p. In un boschetto; 4p. Chiara fontana; 5p. Una strana fenice; 6p. Al fin vidd’io), 5vv, 1557; S ii, 89

S’una fede amorosa (Petrarch), 8vv, 1573c; S x, 36

Tal ch’io possa (3p. of Si come’al chiaro giorno)

Tal hor dico (4p. of Qual nemica fortuna)

Talhor parmi la luce (5p. of Qual nemica fortuna)

Tanto e quel ben eterno amor (Fiamma) (2p. E puro bene), 6vv, 1587a; S vi, 149

Temprar potess’io (2p. of Là ver’ e’aurora)

Tengan dunque (2p. of Cantai hor piango)

Tra verdi rami (2p. Questo e disceso), 6vv, 1587a; S vi, 160

Tutto ’l dì piango (Petrarch) (2p. Lasso che par), 5vv, 1567a; S iv, 122

Una strana fenice (5p. of Standomi un giorno)

Un dubbio verno (Petrarch), 5vv, 1585c; S vi, 23

Valle profonda, 10vv, 1584⁴; S x, 50

Vatene lieta homai coppia d’amici, 4vv, 1555b; S viii, 121

Vedi gli dico (2p. of Quando io penso al fuggir)

Vedi l’aurora (Petrarch), 5vv, 1584a; S vi, 120

Veggio se al vero apre ragion (Fiamma) (2p. Al’hor mi desto), 6vv, 1587a; S vi, 143

Vieni dolc’hymeneo (2p. Indi gl’acuti strali), 4vv, 1570f; S viii, 69

Vivo sol di speranza (Petrarch), 4vv, 1560d; S viii, 33

Voi ch’ascoltate in rime (Petrarch) (2p. Ma ben veggi’hor), 5vv, 1567a; S iv, 111

Voi che di prave (5p. of Di terrena armonia)

Volgi cor mio la tua speranza (F. Spira) (2p. Ed a noi restare), 5vv, 1557; S ii, 127

Vostro fui vostro son (B. Tasso), 5vv, 1557; S ii, 114

V’ son gl’ingegni (Fiamma) (2p. Ahi che la forza), 5vv, 1585c; S vi, 30

Fragments of 5 madrigals; H i (Nachtrag)

other secular italian

villanelle unless otherwise stated

Il primo libro dove si contengono madrigali, vilanesche, canzoni francesi, e motetti, 4vv (Antwerp, 1555) (RISM 1555²⁹, same contents as 1555¹⁹) [1555b]

Libro de villanelle, moresche, et altre canzoni, 4–6, 8vv (Paris, 1581) (RISM 1581g) [1581b]

Ad altre le voi dare, 4vv, 1581b; S x, 77

Allala la pia calia, 4vv, 1581b; S x, 104

Andar a valezza (2p. of Cathalina apra finestra)

Canta Giorgia canta (morescha), 5vv, 1581b; S x, 125

Cathalina apra finestra (2p. Andar a valezza) (morescha), 6vv, 1581b; S x, 112

Chi chilichi (morescha), 6vv, 1581b; S x, 120

Ecco la ninph'ebraica chiamata, 4vv, 1581b; S x, 76

Hai Lucia buona cosa (morescha), 4vv, 1581b; S x, 86

Io ti vorria contar, 4vv, 1581b; S x, 85

La cortesia voi donne predicate, 4vv, 1555b; S x, 66

Lucia celu hai biscamia (morescha), 4vv, 1581b; S x, 97

Madonna mia pietà, 4vv, 1555b; S x, 61

Matona mia cara, 4vv, 1581b; S x, 93

Mi me chiamere, 5vv, 1581b; S x, 108

No giorno t’haggio havere, 4vv, 1555b; S x, 65

O bella fusa, 4vv, 1581b; S x, 89

Ogni giorno m'han ditt'a chi favelli, 4vv, 1581b; S x, 91

O là o che bon eccho, 8vv, 1581b; S x, 140

O Lucia miau (morescha), 3vv, 1560¹⁴; S x, 70

O occhi manza mia, 4vv, 1581b; S x, 103 [previously pubd 1557²⁰, 3vv (inc.)]

Par ch’hai lasciato, 4vv, 1581b; S x, 82

Saccio ’na cosa, 4vv, 1581b; S x, 8

S’io fusse ciaul’ettu, 4vv, 1581b; S x, 92

S’io ti vedess’una sol volt’il giorno, 4vv, 1581b; S x, 102

S’io ve dico, 4vv, 1581b; S x, 75

Sto core mio se fosse di diamante, 4vv, 1555b; S x, 69

Tu sai madonna mia, 4vv, 1555b; S x, 63

Tu traditora, 4vv, 1555b; S x, 68 [also pubd 1555³⁰, 3vv (inc.)]

Tutto’l dì mi dici, 4vv, 1581b; S x, 79

Tutto’l dì mi dici, 8vv, 1581b; S x, 130

Zanni piasi patro, 8vv, 1581b; S x, 135

chansons

Il primo libro dove si contengono madrigali, vilanesche, canzoni francesi, e motetti, 4vv (Antwerp, 1555) (RISM 1555²⁹, same contents as 1555¹⁹) [1555b]

Le premier livre de chansons, auquel sont 27 chansons nouvelles, 4vv (Antwerp, 1564) (RISM 1564c) [1564a]

Quatriesme livre des chansons, 4, 5vv (Leuven, 1564) (RISM 1564d) [1564c]

Dixhuictieme livre des chansons, 4, 5vv (Paris, 1565) (RISM 1565f) [1565a]

Disieme livre de chansons, 4vv (Paris, 1570) (RISM 1570⁹) [1570a]

Mellange d'Orlande de Lassus, contenant plusieurs chansons, tant en vers latins qu'en ryme francoyse, 4, 5vv (Paris, 1570) (RISM 1570d) [1570b]

Second livre des chansons, 4, 5vv (Leuven, 1570) (RISM 1570⁶) [1570f]

Livre de chansons nouvelles, avec 2 dialogues, 5, 8vv (Leuven and Paris, 1571) (RISM 1571f and g) [1571a]

Thresor de musique … contenant … chansons, 4–6vv (Geneva, 1576) (RISM 1576⁴) [1576d]

Continuation du mellange, 3–6, 10vv (Paris, 1584) (RISM 1584f) [1584a]

1559¹², 1559¹³, 1561⁵, 1561⁷, 1564¹¹, 1565⁸, 1565⁹, 1567⁸, 1567¹¹, 1569¹⁹, 1583⁷, 1583⁸, 1587³

A ce matin [L’avare veut avoir], 4vv, 1564a; S xii, 28, B xi, 1

A l’eau jettes-toy (2p. of Au feu venez-moy)

Amour donne-moy pays (2p. Que doibs-je faire) (Ronsard), 5vv, 1571a; S xvi, 75, B xi, 5

Ardant amour souvent, 4vv, 1565⁹; S xii, 25, B xi, 15

Ardant amour souvent [Divin amour; La ferme foi], 5vv, 1565⁹; S xiv, 84, B xi, 20

A toy je crie, 5vv, 1584a; S xvi, 118, B xi, 27

Au feu venez-moy [au feu las] (2p. A l’eau jettes-toy [A l’eau de grace vistement]) (M. de Saint-Gelais), 5vv, 1564c; S xiv, 92, B xi, 32

Au temps jadis, 5vv, 1570b; S xiv, 100, B xi, 44

Avec le jour commence ta journée, 4vv, 1583⁷ [previously pubd 1581, now inc.]; B xi, 52

Avec vous [Dieu] mon amour finira, 4vv, 1555b; S xii, 37, B xi, 54

Beau le cristal, 4vv, 1576b; S xii, 94, B xi, 57

Bon jour et puis quelles nouvelles [Bon coeur amis] (2p. Mais si vous cueillez) (C. Marot), 5vv, 1571a; S xvi, 53, B xi, 60

Bon jour mon coeur (Ronsard) [Christ est mon Dieu], 4vv, 1564a; S xii, 100, B xi, 68

Ce faux amour [Satan], 4vv, 1564a; S xii, 103, B xi, 70

Célébrons sans cesse, 4vv, 1576d; S xvi, 102, B xiv, 164

Ce que tu peux maintenant (G. du Faur de Pybrac), 4vv, 1583⁷ [previously pubd 1581]; B xi, 74

C’estoit en ton jeune age, 5vv, 1584a; S xvi, 123, B xi, 76

Chanter je veux la gente [l’heur de l’ame], 5vv, 1569¹⁹; S xiv, 50, B xi, 80

Comme la tourterelle (2p. Où t’attend ta maistresse [De l’éternelle liesse]), 5vv, 1565a; S xiv, 120, B xi, 87

Comme un qui prend (Ronsard) [Que malheureuse est la troupe], 5vv, 1571a; S xvi, 3, B xi, 95

Croire leger & soudain, 4vv, 1583⁷ (inc.) [previously pubd 1581, now inc.]; B xiv, 170

D’amours me va (Marot) [Le monde va tout à rebours], 5vv, 1571a; S xvi, 58, B xi, 100

De plusieurs choses, 5vv, 1571a; S xvi, 72, B xi, 105

Dessus le marché d’Arras, 6vv, 1584a; S xvi, 152, B xi, 110

De tout mon coeur (G. Crétin), 5vv, 1564¹¹; S xiv, 33, B xi, 119

De vous servir, 4vv, 1570a; S xii, 69, B xi, 126

Dis-moy mon coeur, 8vv, 1576b; S xiv, 150, B xi, 128

Dix ennemies [Mes vains desirs] tous désarmés (2p. Et me prenant), 5vv, 1576b; S xiv, 59, B xi, 155

Du corps absent, 4vv, 1564a; S xii, 55, B xi, 164

Du fond de ma pensée (Marot), 4vv, 1564a; S xvi, 159, B xi, 167

Elle s’en va de moy [Elle périt ma chair] (Marot), 5vv, 1567⁸; S xiv, 105, B xi, 169

En espoir vis et crainte, 4vv, 1555b; S xii, 52, B xi, 174

En m’oyant chanter (Marot), 4vv, 1564a; S xii, 106, B xi, 177

En un chasteau, madame [L’homme mortel contemplant], 4vv, 1570b; S xii, 14, B xi, 180

En un lieu [En ce monde] (Saint-Gelais), 4vv, 1565a; S xii, 83, B xi, 183

Est-il possible à moy [Est-il possible en ce monde], 5vv, 1561⁵; S xiv, 112, B xi, 187

Et d’où venez vous [Que devenez-vous], 5vv, 1565⁸; S xiv, 68, B xii, 1

Femme qui demande (2p. of Parens sans amis)

Fleur de quinze ans (Marot), 4vv, 1564a; S xii, 43, B xii, 7

Fuyons tous d’amour [Fuyons de vices] le jeu, 4vv, 1564a; S xii, 80, B xii, 10

Gallans qui par terre (Villon), 4vv, 1584a; S xvi, 111, B xii, 12

Guérir ma douleur, 4vv, 1584a; S xvi, 106, B xii, 15

Hâtez-vous [Haste-toi de me faire], 4vv, 1567¹¹; S xii, 81, B xii, 17

Hélas j’ai sans merci, 5vv, 1584a; S xvi, 132, B xii, 19

Hélas mon Dieu, 5vv, 1571a; S xvi, 46, B xii, 28

Hélas mon Francin (3p. of Mais qui pourroit)

Hélas quel jour, 4vv, 1561⁵; S xii, 47, B xii, 36

Heureux qui met en Dieu (du Faur de Pybrac), 4vv, 1583⁷ [previously pubd 1581]; B xii, 39

Holà Caron (O. de Magny), 8vv, 1571a; S xvi, 81, B xii, 41

Il esteoit une religieuse [Si j’estoi où mon ame], 4vv, 1565a; S xii, 74, B xii, 60

J’aime la pierre précieuse, 5vv, 1584a; S xvi, 121, B xii, 63

J’attends le tems, 5vv, 1570b; S xiv, 48, B xii, 67

J’ay cherché la science [J’ay du ciel la science] (Saint-Gelais), 4vv, 1565⁹; S xii, 57, B xii, 72

J’ay de vou voir (Du Bellay), 4vv, 1584a; S xvi, 113, B xii, 75

Je l’ayme bien [J’aime mon Dieu et l’aimerai], 4vv, 1555b; S xii, 41, B xii, 77

J’endure un tourment (2p. Mais à quel propos [Mais de quoi me sert]), 5vv, 1565a; S xiv, 38, B xii, 80

Je ne veux plus que chanter, 5vv, 1570b; S xiv, 88, B xii, 90

Je ne veux rien qu’un baiser [que deux mots], 4vv, 1564¹¹; S xii, 98, B xii, 97

J’espère et crains (Ronsard) (2p. Plus que me pique), 5vv, 1571a; S xvi, 12, B xii, 101

Je vous donne en conscience (Marot), 5vv, 1571a; S xvi, 70, B xii, 111

Je suis quasi prest d’enrager [de mourir], 4vv, 1570b; S xii, 54, B xii, 115

La mort est [Les dez, c’est] jeu pire (Marot), 4vv, 1564a; S xii, 58, B xii, 117

La nuict froide et sombre (Du Bellay), 4vv, 1576b; S xii, 34, B xii, 119

La peine dure, 4vv, 1584a; S xvi, 104, B xii, 122

Las je n’iray plus, 5vv, 1584a; S xvi, 126, B xii, 125

Las me fault-il, 5vv, 1561⁵; S xiv, 76, B xii, 135

Las voulez-vous, 4vv, 1555b; S xii, 3, B xii, 142

La terre les eaux (Ronsard) [La terre son Dieu va louant], 5vv, 1565a; S xiv, 7, B xii, 146

Le comple de ton sçavoir (2p. of Ton nom que on vers)

Le départir [Partir d’ici, c’est un departement], 5vv, 1565⁹; S xiv, 116, B xii, 152

Le rossignol plaisant, 5vv, 1561⁷; S xiv, 107, B xii, 157

Le sage fils est du père, 4vv, 1583⁷ [previously pubd 1581, now inc.]; L xvi, 186, B xiv, 172

Le temps passé (B. d’Auriol) [Le tems perdu je souspire], 4vv, 1567¹¹; S xii, 49, B xii, 163

Le temps peut bien, 4vv, 1564a; S xii, 76, B xii, 165

Le vray amy (Saint-Gelais) [Le vertueux ne s’estonne de rien], 4vv, 1564a; S xii, 62, B xii, 168

Les biens du corps, 4vv, 1583⁷ [previously pubd 1581, now inc.]; L xvi, 189

L’heureux amour [plaisir qui esleve], 4vv, 1576b; S xii, 5, B xii, 171

L’homme se plaint, 4vv, 1583⁷, inc. [previously pubd 1581, now inc.]; L xvi, 189, B xiv, 172

Lucescit jam o socii, 4vv, 1587³; H i, 121

Mais à quel propos (2p. of J’endure un tourment)

Mais a vous voir (2p. of Un bien petit)

Mais qui pourroit, 3vv, 1584a; S xvi, 107, B xii, 175

Mais qui pourroit (2p. Si mon gentil; 3p. Hélas mon Francin), 6vv, 1584a; S xvi, 137, B xii, 177

Mais si vous cueillez (2p. of Bon jour et puis quelles nouvelles)

M’amie a bien le regard, 4vv, 1584a; S xvi, 102, B xiii, 1

Margot labouréz, 4vv, 1564a; S xii, 102, B xiii, 3

Mes pas semés [Mes pas Seigneur tant esgarez], 4vv, 1564a; S xii, 87, B xiii, 5

Mon coeur ravi d’amour, 5vv, 1565⁸; S xiv, 22, B xiii, 8

Mon coeur se recommande (Marot) [Mon coeur se rend à toi; Qui laboure champ ou vigne], 5vv, 1567⁸; S xiv, 15, B xiii, 15

Monsieur l’abbé (Marot) [Maistre Robbin], 4vv, 1564a; S xii, 16, B xiii, 20

Noblesse gist au coeur, 5vv, 1570b; S xiv, 3, B xiii, 24

O comme heureux, 4vv, 1564c; S xvi, 160, B xiv, 165

O doux parler (Ronsard) (2p. O Vermeillons), 8vv, 1571a; S xii, 89, B xiii, 32

O foible esprit (Du Bellay) (2p. O jeune archer), 5vv, 1571a; S xvi, 34, B xiii, 58

O jeune archer (2p. of O foible esprit)

O mère des amours Ciprine (2p. Tu sais o gentille; 3p. Or cesse doncques), 4vv, 1584a; S xvi, 109, B xiii, 63

On doit le fer battre, 4vv, 1583⁸; S xvi, 100, B xiii, 68

Or cesse doncques (3p. of O mère des amours Ciprine)

Ores que je suis dispos (Ronsard) (2p. Verse moy donc du vin nouveau), 5vv, 1571a; S xvi, 24, B xiii, 71

Orsus filles (R. Belleau) [Sus, je vous pri], 4vv, 1576b; S xii, 63, B xiii, 81

O temps divers [Maudit peché qui me deffens], 4vv, 1559¹²; S xii, 67, B xiii, 84

Où t’attend ta maistresse (2p. of Comme la tourterelle)

O vermeillons (2p. of O doux parler)

O vin en vigne [Bonté divine, vien et monstre], 4vv, 1570b; S xii, 36, B xiii, 87

Paisible domaine [Qu’ est-ce que Dieu donne], 5vv, 1571a; S xvi, 50, B xiii, 89

Parens sans amis (2p. Femme qui demande), 5vv, 1571a; S xvi, 40, B xiii, 93

Père qui habites les cieux, 5vv, 1584a; S xvi, 115, B xiii, 98

Petite folle [Troupe fidele, es-tu pas], 4vv, 1565⁹; S xii, 78, B xiii, 105

Plus que me pique (2p. of J’espère et crains)

Pour courir en poste (Marot) (2p. Pour mettre; 3p. Pour desbaucher; 4p. Pour faire), 5vv, 1571a; S xii, 61, B xiii, 109

Pour desbaucher (3p. of Pour courir en poste)

Pour faire (4p. of Pour courir en poste)

Pour mettre (2p. of Pour courir en poste)

Puisque fortune [Peché infame; Puis que peché à moi], 5vv, 1565⁹; S xiv, 125, B xiii, 125

Puisque vivre en servitude (Saint-Gelais), 4vv, 1584a; S xvi, 103, B xiii, 129

Quand me souvient (Sentant l’effort et la triste], 5vv, 1570b; S xiv, 128, B xiii, 132

Quand mon mary vient [Quand l’homme honneste], 4vv, 1564a; S xii, 23, B xiii, 136

Quand un cordier (Chartier), 4vv, 1576b; S xii, 108, B xiii, 139

Que dis-tu (Ronsard), 8vv, 1576b; S xiv, 142, B xiii, 142

Que doibs-je faire (2p. of Amour donne-moy pays)

Que gaignez vous [D’où vient cela], 5vv, 1570b; S xvi, 166, B xiii, 158

Qui bien se mire, 4vv, 1576b; S xii, 65, B xiii, 164

Qui dort icy [en nous] (Marot), 4vv, 1564a; S xii, 19, B xiii, 166

Qui veult d’amour (Bouchet) [Qui de peché veut savoir], 5vv, 1576b; S xiv, 133, B xiii, 169

Rends-moi mon coeur (Ronsard), 5vv, 1561⁵; S xiv, 18, B xiii, 174

Sais-tu dire l’Avé [Sais-tu dire bien], 4vv, 1576b; S xii, 66, B xiii, 181

Sauter danser faire les tours, 4vv, 1576b; S xii, 10, B xiii, 183

Secouré’s moy [Assiste moy Seigneur] (Marot), 5vv, 1564a; S xvi, 163, B xiii, 186

Si du malheur [De ce malheur], 4vv, 1576b; S xii, 50, B xiii, 192

Si froid et chault, 4vv, 1564a; S xii, 96, B xiv, 1

Si je suis brun (2p. Ne vous soit estrange), 4vv, 1576b; S xii, 30, B xiv, 4

Si le long temps (P. du Val), 4vv, 1559¹²; S xii, 7, B xiv, 10

Si le mal ennuyeux, 4vv, 1583⁷, inc. [previously pubd 1581, now inc.]; L xvi, 192, B xiv, 178

S’il y a compagnons [Il n’y a que douleur], 5vv, 1576b; S xiv, 65, B xiv, 12

Si mon gentil (2p. of Mais qui pourroit)

Si par souhait je vous [te] tenoit, 4vv, 1570b; S xii, 12, B xiv, 17

Si pour moy avez du souci (Marot) [Quand mon coeur a quelque souci], 4vv, 1576b; S xii, 85, B xiv, 20

Si vous estes m’amie, 6vv, 1584a; S xvi, 147, B xiv, 24

Si vous n’estes en bon point (Marot), 4vv, 1564a; S xii, 60, B xiv, 34

Soufflons d’autant amis (Cherchons ailleurs], 5vv, 1571a; S xvi, 30, B xiv, 36

Soyons joyeux, 4vv, 1565⁹; S xii, 20, B xiv, 43

Sur tous regretz, 5vv, 1567⁸; S xiv, 26, B xiv, 46

Susanne un jour (G. Guérault), 5vv, 1567⁸; S xiv, 29, B xiv, 52

Ton [Mon] feu s’esteint, 4vv, 1559¹³; S xii, 109, B xiv, 59

Ton nom que mon vers (2p. Le comple de ton sçavoir) (Ronsard), 5vv, 1571a; S xvi, 6, B xiv, 68

Toutes les nuitz (Marot), 5vv, 1563; S xiv, 130, B xiv, 73

Trop endurer sans avoir [de peché], 4vv, 1555b; S xii, 70, B xiv, 78

Tu sais o gentille (2p. of O mère des amours Ciprine)

Un advocat dit à sa femme [L’homme de bien dit à son ame], 4vv, 1570b; S xii, 8, B xiv, 81

Un bien petit (Marot) (2p. Mais a vous voir), 5vv, 1571a; S xvi, 18, B xiv, 90

Une puce j’ay dedans l’oreill’ (Baïf), 5vv, 1576b; S xiv, 114, B xiv, 95

Ung doulx nenny (Marot) [Ta voix, ô Dieu, avec ton doux], 4vv, 1564¹¹; S xii, 45, B xiv, 100

Un jeune moine [Quitte le monde], 4vv, 1576b; S xii, 89, B xiv, 104

Un jour concluz, 4vv, 1583⁷ [previously pubd 1581, now inc.]; L xvi, 190, B xiv, 180

Un jour l’amant, 8vv, 1570b; S xiv, 136, B xiv, 110

Un jour vis un foulon [On ne peut le fol amour], 4vv, 1570b; S xii, 39, B xiv, 122

Un mesnagier, 5vv, 1570b; S xiv, 54, B xiv, 125

Un [Mon] triste coeur rempli, 5vv, 1561⁵; S xiv, 80, B xiv, 132

Verse moy donc du vin nouveau (2p. of Ores que je suis dispos)

Veux-tu ton mal [Puis qu’en mon mal], 5vv, 1559¹²; S xiv, 71, B xiv, 138

Vignon vignon vignette, 6vv, 1584a; S xvi, 144, B xiv, 142

Vive sera et toujours perdurable, 5vv, 1570f; S xiv, 11, B xiv, 147

Voir est beaucoup, 4vv, 1559¹³; H i, 126, B xiv, 183

Vous qui aymez les dames, 5vv, 1565⁸; S xiv, 45, B xiv, 154

Vray dieu disoit une fillette [une ame sainte], 4vv, 1555b; S xii, 72, B xiv, 160

German contrafacta

Al mein Anfang ( = Le temps peut bien); Auss tiefer Not ( = Si le long temps); Bewar mich Herr (= Ton feu s’esteint); Das sawer Tranck (= La mort est jeu pire); Frölich und frey (= Quand mon mary vient); Gott ist mein Schütz (= A ce matin); Gross Angst und Not (= Trop endurer); Gunst geht für gspunst ( = Soyons joyeux); Herr Jesu Christ (= Le vray amy); Hilff uns, o Herr (= Si froid et chault); Ich rieff zu dir Herr Jesu Christ (= Au feu verez-moy); Ich rieff zu dir hilff mir (= Monsieur l’abbé); Id quid? fit, sit, Wie kann ich dirs abschlagen (= Je ne veux rien); Kein Lieb noch treu ist (= En un lieu)

Laetamini in Domino und singt in dulci jubilo ( = Je l’ayme bien); Mein aininger Trost (= Petite folle); Mein Hoffnung (= Fleur de quinze ans); Merck schönes (= Hé’las quel jour); O Herre Gott mein Not (= Bon mon coeur); O trewer Gott ( = Ung doulx nenny); Seit frisch (= Margot labouréz); Thue dich, o Herr (= Du corps absent); Von Morgens frü mit Gottes Lob ( = Avec le jour commence ta journée), S xx, 27; Vor Zeiten was ich lieb gehalten (= Hâtez-vous); Wenn wir recht thun betrachten (= Du fond de ma pensée); Wer singen wil (= En m’ovant chanter); Wer sucht der findt (= Qui dort icy); Wolauff gut Gsellen (= Un jeune moine); Zu aller Stund (= Ardant amour souvent)

lieder

Neue teütsche Liedlein, 5vv (Munich, 1567) (RISM 1567l) [1567c]

Der ander Theil teutscher Lieder, 5vv (Munich, 1572) (RISM 1572g) [1572a]

Der dritte Theil schöner, neuer, teutscher Lieder sampt einem zu End gesetzten frantzösischen frölichen Liedlein, 5vv (Munich, 1576) (RISM 1576r) [1576a]

Neue teutsche Lieder, geistlich und weltlich, 4vv (Munich, 1583) (RISM 1583a) [1583a]

Teutsche Psalmen: geistliche Psalmen, 3vv (Munich, 1588) (RISM 1588¹²) [1588c]

Neue teutsche, und etliche frantzösische Gesäng, 6vv (Munich, 1590) (RISM 1590b) [1590]

Allein Gott (3p. of Auss meiner sünden Tieffe)

Als Holophernes (6p. of Die Gnad kombt oben her)

Am Abent spat, heim khiellen Wein, 5vv, 1567c; S xviii, 33

Annelein, du singst fein, 4vv, 1573c; S xx, 46

Audite nova Der Bawr von Eselsskirchen, 4vv, 1573c; S xx, 51

Auff dich, mein heber Herr und Gott (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 63

Auff ihen wil ich vertrawen (3p. of Von Gott wil ich nit lassen)

Auss härtem Grundt, 4vv, 1573c; S xx, 47

Auss härtem Weh, 6vv, 1590; S xx, 99

Auss meiner sünden Tieffe (2p. Wann sich ein grimmer zoren; 3p. Allein Gott; 4p. Von Gott kein Mensch), 4vv, 1583a; S xx, 17

Bald ich von Gelt (6p. of Ich hab ein Mann)

Baur, was tregst im Sacke?, 4vv, 1583a; S xx, 29

Christ ist erstanden 4vv, 1583a; S xx, 3

Da das der Herr (2p. of Im Lant zu Wirtenberg)

Da lagens (3p. of Mit Lust thet ich aussreitten)

Daniel geworfen war (9p. of Die Gnad kombt oben her)

Daniels Knaben drey (8p. of Die Gnad kombt oben her)

Dann bey dem Herren (5p. og Ich ruff zu der mein Herr und Gott)

Dann eh er’s hat begert (3p. of Der König wirdt seyn Wolgemut)

Darauff hat Gott gesandt (7p. of Die Gnad kombt ober her)

Darumb, o frommer Gott (10p. of Die Gnad kombt ober her)

Das ein das Annelein (2p. of Mit Lust thet ich aussreitten)

Das Meidlein (2p. of Einmal ging ich spatzieren)

Das Volck von Israel (4p. of Die Gnad kombt oben her)

Der g’winnen will (3p. of Hort zu eins news Gedicht)

Derhalben dann nichts (2p. pf In viel Trübsal)

Der Herr, dir ist mit dir (2p. of Maria voll Genad)

Der Herr erhöre deine Klag (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 68

Der König wirdt seyn Wolgemut (Ulenberg) (2p. Du hast ihm geben; 3p. Dann eh er’s hat begert), 6vv, 1590; S xx, 128

Der Meye bringt uns der Blümlein vil (J. Klieber), 5vv, 1572a; S xviii, 75

Der richter lacht (3p. of Im Lant zu Wirtenberg)

Der starcke Gott im Himmelreich (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 80

Der Tag der ist so frewdenreich, 5vv, 1572a; S xviii, 71

Der Wein, der schmeckt mir also, 5vv, 1567c; S xviii, 11

Der Welte Pracht ist hoch geacht, 5vv, 1576a; S xviii, 147

Die Fassnacht ist ein schöne Zeit, 5vv, 1567c; S xviii, 6

Die Gnad kombt oben her (2p. Wer Gott vertrauen thut; 3p. Wir armes Volck; 4p. Das Volck von Israel; 5p. Joseph verkauffet; 6p. Als Holophernes; 7p. Darauff hat Gott gesandt; 8p. Daniels Knaben drey; 9p. Daniel geworfen war; 10p. Darumb, o frommer Gott; 11p. Wer diss Lied hat gemacht; 12p. Hierauf sey nun gepreiset), 4vv, 1583a; S xx, 4

Die Thoren sprechen wohl (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 66

Die Welt und all ir Reichethumb (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 70

Die Zeit, so jetz vorhanden ist, 5vv, 1567c; S xviii, 14

Do icht lang stilt (4p. of Mein Fraw hilgert)

Dort aber wirdt (2p. of O Mensch gedenck)

Du best gebenedeyd (3p. of Maria voll Genad)

Du hast ihm geben (2p. of Der König wirdt seyn Wolgemut)

Ein Esel und das Nüssbawmholtz, 4vv, 1573c; S xx, 45

Ein guten Raht wil gehen ich (2p. In Glück und Frewd), 6vv, 1590; S xx, 83

Ein guter Wein ist Lobens werd, 5vv, 1567c; S xviii, 44

Ein Körbelmacher in ein Dorff (H. Sachs), 6vv, 1590; S xx, 124

Einmal ging ich spatzieren (2p. Das Meidlein), 5vv, 1572a; S xviii, 98

Ein Meidlein zu dem Brunnen gieng (2p. Ich sprach o Fraw; 3p. Die Fraw gantz höflich; 4p. So danck ich Gott), 5vv, 1572a; S xviii, 82

Erzürn dich nicht o frommer Christ (L. Hätzer), 5vv, 1572a; S xviii, 65

Es Jagt ein Jeger vor dem Holtz, 5vv, 1572a; S xviii, 88

Es sind doch selig alle die (M. Greiter), 5vv, 1572a; S xviii, 77

Es thut sich als verkeren, 4vv, 1573c; S xx, 49

Es zeugen des gottlosen Wercke (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 75

Fraw ich bin euch von hertzen Hold, 5vv, 1567c; S xviii, 31

Frölich und frey on alle Rey, 5vv, 1576a; S xviii, 149

Frölich zu sein ist mein Manier, 5vv, 1567c; S xviii, 38

Gebenedeyt auch (4p. of Maria voll Genad)

Gelt, Welt, dir wird (2p. of Welt, Gelt, dir wird einmal)

Gott ist auf den wir immer hoffen (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 79

Gott nimbt und geit zu jeder Zeit, 5vv, 1576a; S xviii, 130

Gross ist der Herr im heilgen Thron (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 79

Halt mich o Herr in deiner Hut (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 66

Herr der du meine Stercke bist (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 67

Herr Gott mein Hort (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 72

Hierauf sey nun gepreiset (12p. of Die Gnad kombt oben her)

Hilff lieber Herr die heilig Frommen (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 65

Hort zu ein news Gedicht (2p. So fundt man; 3p. Der g’winnen will), 5vv, 1576a; S xviii, 151

Ich armer Mann was hab ich than, 5vv, 1576a; S xviii, 113

Ich armes Weib (5p. of Ich hab ein Mann)

Ich hab dich lieb das weist du wol (2p. Und wann du freundlich bist), 5vv, 1572a; S xviii, 93

Ich hab ein Mann (2p. Wann er auffsteht; 3p. Nach dem Frühmal; 4p. Umb fünffe hin; 5p. Ich armes Weib; 6p. Bald ich von Gelt; 7p. Wann ich dann sag; 8p. Nun wars umb mich), 4vv, 1583a; S xx, 31

Ich harr auf Gott (3p. of Ich ruff zu dir mein Herr und Gott)

Ich harre auff Gott (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 76

Ich ruff zu dir mein Herr und Gott (2p. Wann du Herr wolltest; 3p. Ich harr auf Gott; 4p. Mein Hoffnung steht; 5p. Dann bey dem Herren) (Ulenberg), 6vv, 1590; S xx, 88

Ich sprach wan ich nit leuge, 5vv, 1576a; S xviii, 159

Ich weiss ein Frawelein, 5vv, 1572a; S xviii, 91

Ich weiss nur ein hübsches Meidlein, 4vv, 1583a; S xx, 28

Ich will auss gantzem Hertzen mein (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 64

Ich will dich Herr gebürlich loben (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 73

Ich will Gott unaufhörlich preisen (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 74

Im Lant zu Wirtenberg (2p. Da das der Herr; 3p. Der richter lacht), 5vv, 1567c; S xviii, 19

Im Mayen hört man die Hanen krayen, 5vv, 1567c; S xviii, 24

In Glück und Frewd (2p. of Ein guten Raht wil geben ich)

In viel Trübsal (2p. Derhalben dann nichts), 6vv, 1590; S xx, 116

In wölches Hauss (3p. of Mein Mann, der ist in Krieg)

Ist doch Gott gar (2p. of Wach auff o Menschenkind)

Ist Keiner hie, der sprich zu mir, 5vv, 1567c; S xviii, 8

Joseph verkauffet (5p. of Die Gnad kombt oben her)

Kombt her zu mir spricht Gottes Son (G. Grünwald), 5vv, 1572a; S xviii, 73

Man sieht nun wol wie stet du bist, 5vv, 1572a; S xviii, 81

Maria voll Genad (2p. Der Herr, der ist mit dir; 3p. Du best gebenedeyd; 4p. Gebenedeyt auch), 6vv, 1590; S xx, 108

Mein Fraw hilgert (2p. Mein Fraw unmilt; 3p. Mein Fraw unrein; 4p. Do ich lang stilt; 5p. Sie raufft jr gnug), 5vv, 1576a; S xviii, 132

Mein Fraw unmilt (2p. of Mein Fraw hilgert)

Mein Fraw unrein (3p. of Mein Fraw hilgert)

Mein Gott, mein heber trewer Gott (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 69

Mein Hoffnung steht (4p. of ich ruff zu dir mein Herr und Gott)

Mein Mann, der ist in Krieg (2p. Was soll ich euch; 3p. In wölches Hauss; 4p. Wolstu mich), 5vv, 1572a; S, xviii, 51

Mit Lust thet ich aussreitten (2p. Das ein das Annelein; 3p. Da lagens), 5vv, 1576a; S xviii, 124

Nach dem Frühmal (3p. of Ich hab ein Mann)

Nun grüss dich Gott, 8vv, 1573c; S xx, 54

Nun wars umb mich (8p. of Ich hab ein Mann)

Nur närrisch seyn ist mein Monier, 5vv, 1572a; S xviii, 62

O Herr, ich klag, es dir (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 62

O Mensch gedenck (2p. Dort aber wirdt), 6vv, 1590; S xx, 102

O selig dein der trewe Gott (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 74

Schaff mir Herr nicht in Eiffermut (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 71

Selig ist der auff Gott sein Hoffnung, 4vv, 1583a; S xx, 22

Selig zu preisen ist der Mann (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 61

Sie raufft jr gnug (5p. of Mein Fraw hilgert)

So fundt man (2p. of Hort zu ein news Gedicht)

So trincken wir alle, 5vv, 1576a; S xviii, 145

Straff mich Herr nicht in Eiffermut (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 76

Susannen frumb, 5vv, 1576a; S xviii, 109

Tritt auf en Rigel von der Thür, 5vv, 1567c; S xviii, 35

Umb fünffe him (4p. of Ich hab ein Mann)

Und wann du freundlich bist (2p. of Ich hab dich lieb das weist du wol)

Vater unser im Himmelreich (Luther), 5vv, 1567c; S xviii, 1

Vernimb Herr meine Wort (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 62

Von Gott kein Mensch (4p. of Auss meiner sünden Tieffe)

Von Gott wil ich nit lassen (2p. Wann sich der Menschen Hulde; 3p. Auff ihn wil ich vertrawen), 6vv, 1590; S xx, 134

Vor Zeiten was ich Lieb und Werd, 5vv, 1567c; S xviii, 16

Wach auff o Menschenkind (2p. Ist doch Gott gar), 4vv, 1583a; S xx, 24

Wann du Herr wolltest (2p. of Ich ruff zu dir mein Herr und Gott)

Wann er auffsteht (2p. of Ich hab ein Mann)

Wann ich dann sag (7p. of Ich hab ein Mann)

Wann sich der Menschen Hulde (2p. of Von Gott wil ich nit lassen)

Wann sich ein grimmer zoren (2p. of Auss meiner sünden Tieffe)

Was heut soll sein, 4vv, 1583a; S xx, 23

Was kann uns kommen an für Not (A. Knöpken), 5vv, 1572a; S xviii, 68

Was soll ich euch (2p. of Mein Mann, der ist in Krieg)

Welt, Gelt, dir wird (3p. of Welt, Gelt, dir wird einmal)

Welt, Gelt, dir wird einmal (2p. Gelt, Welt, dir wird; 3p. Welt, Gelt, dir wird), 5vv, 1576a; S xviii, 117

Wem soll man jetzund trawen, 4vv, 1573c; S xx, 50

Wer diss Lied hat gemacht (11p. of Die Gnad kombt oben her)

Wer Gott vertrauen thut (2p. of Die Gnad kombt oben her)

Wie ein hirsch gierlich schreien thut (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 77

Wie lang, o Gott, in meiner Not, 5vv, 1567c; S xviii, 27

Willig und trew on alle Rew, 5vv, 1572a; S xviii, 80

Wir armes Volck (3p. of Die Gnad kombt oben her)

Wir haben Herr mit unsern Oren (Ulenberg), 3vv, 1588c; S xx, 78

Wohl kombt der May, 4vv, 1583a; S xx, 40

Wolstu mich (4p. of Mein Mann, der ist in Krieg)

(b Munich, c1560; d Munich, 27 Aug 1609). Singer and composer, eldest son of (1) Orlande de Lassus. He entered the Bavarian court chapel in 1584; in 1585 he was in Hechingen, in the service of Friedrich von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, but at the beginning of 1590 he was again in Munich and Landshut. In 1602 he succeeded Johann à Fossa as Kapellmeister at Munich. In 1585 he married; eight children were born of this marriage (including Ferdinand, 1592–1630, who became a musician, studied in Rome, and was Kapellmeister in Munich, 1616–29). His music, where different in style from his father’s, shows some turn-of-the-century characteristics.

doubtful and misattributed works

Masses: Deus misereatur, 8vv (on Lassus’s motet) (? by A. Grothusius), H xii, 99; Mon coeur se recommende à vous, 5vv, MS 1579 (on Lassus’s chanson) (? by J. Eccard), Hxi, 233; Missa Octavi toni, 5vv (by Neuner), H xii, 306; Officium mortuorum, 4vv (? by J. de Kerle), H xi, 263; Or sus à coup, 4vv (Antwerp, 1607) (RISM 1607c) (on Crecquillon’s chanson) (? by J. Lockenburg); Se salamandre, 4vv, MS c1570 (on Crecquillon’s chanson) (? by J. Lockenburg), H xi, 113; Si me tenez, 6vv, MS c1576 (on Crecquillon’s chanson) (? by J. Vaet), H xi, 179; Surrexit Pastor bonus, 5vv, MS c1576 (on Lassus’s motet) (? by Ivo de Vento), H xi, 135

8 Magnificat settings; MS; H xvii, 182–293

Motets: In conspectu angelorum, 8vv, 1570d; Lucesit jam pariter, 4vv, 1584 (RISM 1584a)

Madrigal: Non vi vieto per questo (Ariosto), 4vv, 1560d (? by Hoste da Reggio); S viii, 29

Lassus

(2) Ferdinand de Lassus

WORKS

Cantiones sacrae, 6vv (Graz, 1587)

Cantiones ab Orlando di Lasso et huius filio Ferdinando di Lasso, 5vv (Munich, 1597³); ed. in RRMR (forthcoming)

Apparatus musicus, 8vv, bc (org) (Munich, 1622)

Works in 1583², 1585¹⁷, 1588⁸, 1596², 1602¹, 1604⁷, 1616², 1623², 1624¹, D-Mbs

Lassus

(3) Rudolph de Lassus

(b Munich, c1563; d Munich, 1625). Organist and composer, second son of (1) Orlande de Lassus. He entered the Bavarian court chapel in 1585. Having served briefly as organist at the Hohenzollern court in Hechingen in 1586, he returned to Munich the next year, becoming first organist in 1589 and remaining in that post until his death. In 1609 he became court composer to the duke. He married some time before 1590 and had four children. Together with his brother (2) Ferdinand he assembled and published the Magnum opus musicum (1604), the enormous if incomplete corpus of his father’s motets. Rudolph established himself as a composer through his share, one half, of the Ulenberg psalm settings published in 1588 (Rudolph’s contributions alternate regularly with those of Orlande in this volume). His father’s influence remained important; several of Rudolph’s Magnificat settings are parodies of works by Orlande. He went so far, however, as to write some works making use of thoroughbass and of soprano duets in the style of the early 17th century. Rudolph was a fairly prolific composer and may deserve study aside from the matter of his father’s influence.

WORKS

Teutsche Psalmen: geistliche psalmen, 3vv (Munich, 1588¹²); ed. W. Lipphardt (Kassel, 1928/R)

Cantiones sacrae, 6vv (Munich, 1601³); ed. in RRMR (forthcoming)

Selectae aliquot cantiones, 4vv (Munich, 1606)

Circus symphoniacus commissi in arenam Phonomachi, 9, 11, 12vv (Munich, 1607)

Triga musica qua missae odaeque Marianae triplice fugantur: in Viadanae modo, 4–6vv (Munich, 1612)

Virginalia Eucharistica, 2–8vv (Munich, 1615)

Ad sacrum convivium modi sacri, 2–6vv (Munich, 1617)

Alphabetum Marianum triplici cantionum, 2–4vv, bc (org) (Munich, 1621)

Cygnaeum melos, una cum litaneis, 2–4vv cecinit (Munich, 1626)

Missae (Ingolstadt, n.d.), lost

Works in Pantheon musicum (Paris, 1600), 1585¹⁷, 1590¹, 1596², 1604⁷, 1610¹⁸, 1616², 1622², 1623², 1624¹, 1627², 1628³, A-Wn, D-Mbs

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BoetticherOL

EinsteinIM

FasquelleE

MGG1 (W. Boetticher)

R. Eitner: ‘Chronologisches Verzeichniss der gedruckten Werke von H.L. Hassler und Orlandus de Lassus’, MMg, v (1873), suppl.

C. van den Borren: Orlande de Lassus (Paris, 1920/R)

A. Sandberger: Ausgewählte Aufsätze zur Musikgeschichte (Munich, 1921/R), i, 1–168

E.E. Lowinsky: Das Antwerpener Motettenbuch Orlando di Lasso’s und seine Beziehungen zum Motettenschaffen der niederländischen Zeitgenossen (The Hague, 1937); Eng. trans. in E.E. Lowinsky: Music in the Culture of the Renaissance and Other Essays, ed. B. Blackburn (Chicago, 1989), 385–431

H. Osthoff: Die Niederländer und das deutsche Lied, 1400–1640 (Berlin, 1938/R), 139ff

K.J. Levy: ‘“Susanne un jour”: the History of a 16th Century Chanson’, AnnM, i (1953), 375–408

B. Meier: ‘Alter und neuer Stil in lateinisch textierten Werken von Orlando di Lasso’,AMw, xv (1958), 151–61

H. Leuchtmann: Die musikalische Wortausdeutungen in den Motetten des Magnum opus musicum von Orlando di Lasso (Strasbourg, 1959)

W. Frei: ‘Die bayerische Hofkapelle unter Orlando di Lasso: Ergänzungen und Berichtigungen zur Deutung von Mielichs Bild’, Mf, xv (1962), 359–64

W. Boetticher: Aus Orlando di Lassos Wirkungskreis (Kassel, 1963)

W. Boetticher: ‘Wortausdeutung und Tonalität bei Orlando di Lasso’, KJb, xlvii (1963), 75–104

R. Eras: ‘Zur Deutung von Mielichs Bild der bayerischen Hofkapelle’, Mf, xvi (1963), 364–7

W. Boetticher: ‘Über einige neue Werke aus Orlando di Lassos mittlerer Madrigal- und Motettenkomposition (1567–1569)’, AMw, xxii (1965), 12–42

S. Hermelink: ‘Jägermesse: Beitrag zu einer Begriffsbestimmung’, Mf, xviii (1965), 29–33

W. Boetticher: ‘New Lasso Studies’, Aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Music: a Birthday Offering to Gustave Reese, ed. J. LaRue and others (New York,1966/R), 17–26

K. Morawska: ‘Kompozycje Orlanda di Lasso w repertuarze instrumentalnym’, Muzyka, xiii/3 (1968), 3–21

W. Boetticher: ‘Weitere Beiträge zur Lasso-Forschung’, Renaissance-muziek 1400–1600: donum natalicium René Bernard Lenaerts (Leuven, 1969), 61–70

S. Hermelink: ‘Die Gegenquintsprungkadenz, ein Ausdrucksmittel der Satzkunst Lassos’, GfMKB: Bonn 1970, 435–8

D. Kämper: Studien zur instrumentalen Ensemblemusik des 16. Jahrhunderts in Italien, AnMc, no.10 (1970)

H. Leuchtmann: ‘Lassos Huldigungsmotette für Henri d’Anjou 1573’, Mf, xxiii (1970), 165–7

W. Mitchell: ‘The Prologue to Orlando di Lasso’s Prophetiae Sibyllarum’, Music Forum, ii (1970), 264–73

C.V. Palisca: ‘Ut oratoria musica: the Rhetorical Basis of Musical Mannerism’, The Meaning of Mannerism, ed. F.W. Robinson and S.G. Nichols (Hanover, NH, 1972), 37–65

H. Leuchtmann: ‘Orlando di Lasso in München’, Oberbayerisches Archiv, xcvii (1973), 1–12

J. Bernstein: ‘Lassus in English Sources: Two Chansons Recovered’, JAMS, xxvii (1974), 315–25

B. Meier: Die Tonarten der klassischen Vokalpolyphonie (Utrecht, 1974; rev. Eng. trans., 1988)

M. Ruhnke: ‘Lassos Chromatik und die Orgelstimmung’, Convivium musicorum: Festschrift Wolfgang Boetticher, ed. H. Hüschen and D.-R. Moser (Berlin, 1974), 291–308

W. Boetticher: ‘Anticipations of Dramatic Monody in the Late Works of Lassus’, Essays on Opera and English Music in Honour of Sir Jack Westrup, ed. F.W. Sternfeld, N. Fortune and E. Olleson (Oxford, 1975), 84–102

J. Erb: Parody Technique in the Magnificats of Orlando di Lasso (diss., Harvard U., 1975)

J. Haar: ‘A Madrigal Falsely Ascribed to Lasso’, JAMS, xxviii (1975), 526–9

H. Leuchtmann: Orlando di Lasso (Wiesbaden, 1976–7)

H.-W. Gross: Klangliche Struktur und Klangverhältnis in Messen und lateinischen Motetten Orlando di Lassos (Tutzing, 1977)

D. Arnold: ‘The Grand Motets of Orlandus Lassus’, EMc, vi (1978), 170–81

H. Leuchtmann: ‘Ariostos Stanza “Pensier dicea” in Lassos Vertonungen von 1569 und 1587’, Musik in Bayern, xvii (1978), 61–7

P. Bergquist: ‘The Poems of Orlando di Lasso's “Prophetiae Sibyllarum” and their Sources’, JAMS, xxxii (1979), 516–38

G.R. Hoekstra: ‘An Eight-Voice Parody of Lassus: An Introduction and the Complete Music of André Pevernage’s “Bon jour mon coeur”’, EMc, vii (1979), 367–77

K. Berger: ‘Tonality and Atonality in the Prologue to Orlando di Lasso's Prophetiae Sibyllarum’, MQ, lxvi (1980), 484–504

M. van Daalen: ‘Der Utrechter Lasso-Codex aus der Bayerischen Hofkapelle in München’, TVNM, xxx (1980), 85–112

H. Leuchtmann, ed.: Die Münchner Fürstenhochzeit von 1568: Dialoge (Munich, 1980)

H. Leuchtmann: ‘Ein Porträt von Ferdinand de Lasso?’, Musik in Bayern, xx (1980), 85–8

H. Hell and H. Leuchtmann: Orlando di Lasso: Musik der Renaissance am Münchner Fürstenhof (Wiesbaden, 1982)

J. Roche: Lassus (London, 1982)

C. Wearing: ‘Orlandus Lassus (1532–1594) and the Munich Kapelle’, EMc, x (1982), 147–53

H. Hell: ‘Ist der Wiener Sibyllen-Codex wirklich ein Lasso-Autograph?’, Musik in Bayern, xxviii (1984), 51–64

N. O’Regan: ‘The Early Polychoral Music of Orlando di Lasso: New Light from Roman Sources’, AcM, lvi (1984), 234–51

S. Schulze: Die Tonarten in Lassos ‘Busspsalmen’ mit einen Vergleich von Alexander Utendals und Jacob Reiners ‘Busspsalmen’ (Neuhausen-Stuttgart, 1984)

H. Hell: ‘Ein unbekanntes Dies Irae von Orlando di Lasso’, Musik in Bayern, xxxi (1985), 29–41

H. Leuchtmann: ‘Ein neugefundener Lasso-Brief’, Festschrift Rudolf Elvers zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. E. Hertrich and H. Schneider (Tutzing, 1985), 349–57

R. Orlich: Die Parodiemessen von Oralndo di Lasso (Munich, 1985)

D. Zagar: The Polyphonic Hymns of Orlando di Lasso: A Liturgical and Repertorial Study (diss., U. of Minnesota, 1985)

K. Berger: ‘The Common and the Unusual Steps of Musica Ficta: A Background for the Gamut of Orlando di Lasso's “Prophetiae Sibyllarum”’, RBM, xxxix–xl (1985–6), 61–73

P. Bergquist: ‘Orlando di Lassos Nunc Dimittis-Vertonungen’, Musik in Bayern, xxxiii (1986), 5–28

W. Boetticher: ‘Ueber einige in Jüngerer Zeit hinzugewonnene Sätze Orlando di Lassos’, RBM, xxxix (1985–6), 74–9

K. Forney: ‘Orlando di Lasso's “Opus 1”: the Making and Marketing of a Renaissance Music Book’, ibid., 33–60

J. Haar: ‘The Early Madrigals of Lassus’, ibid., 17–32

H. Van Hulst: ‘Lassus et ses éditeurs: Remarques à propos de deux lettres peu connues’, ibid., 80–100

H. Leuchtmann: ‘Tu traditora: Orlando di Lasso bearbeitet eine villanesca’, Quaestiones in musica: Festschrift für Franz Krautwurst zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. F. Brusniak and H. Leuchtmann (Tutzing, 1989), 337–46

D. Cardamone and D.L. Jackson: ‘Multiple Formes and Vertical Setting in Susato's First Edition of Lassus's “Opus 1”’, Notes, xliv (1989–90), 7–24

J. Erb: Orlando di Lasso: A Guide to Research (New York, 1990)

M. Farahat: ‘Villanescas of the Virtuosi: Lasso and the Commedia dell'arte’, Performance Practice Review, iii (1990), 121–37

H. Leuchtmann: ‘Zum Ordnungsprinzip in Lassos Magnum Opus Musicum’, Musik in Bayern, xl (1990), 46–72

N. McGuinness: Orlando di Lasso’s Motets in the ‘Patrocinium Musices’, vol.1 (1573) (diss., U. of California, Berkeley, 1990)

R. Bartoli: ‘L'apprendistato italiano di Orlando di Lasso’, Studi musicali, xx (1991), 235–65

P. Berquist: ‘Why Did Orlando di Lasso not publish his Posthumous Motets?’, Festschrift für Horst Leuchtmann zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. S. Hörner and B. Schmid (Tutzing, 1993), 13–25

I. Bossuyt: ‘Lassos erste Jahre in München (1556–1559): eine “cosa non riuscita”?’, ibid., 55–67

J. Erb: ‘Zu Lassos “Laibacher” Magnificat’, ibid., 127–34

J. Winemiller: ‘Lasso, Albrecht V and the Figure of Job: Speculation on the History and Function of Lasso's Sacrae lectiones ex propheta Job and Vienna, Mus. ms. 18.744’, JMR, xii (1993), 273–302

D. Crook: Orlando di Lasso's Imitation Magnificats for Counter-Reformation Munich (Princeton, NJ, 1994)

J. Haar: ‘Lasso as Historicist: the Cantus Firmus Motets’, Hearing the Motet: St Louis 1994, 265–85

N. O’Regan: ‘G.P. da Palestrina, Orlandus Lassus and the Arciconfraternità del Sanctissimo Crocefisso in Rome’, Palestrina, Lassus, Monteverdi: Duisberg 1994 (forthcoming)

Orlando di Lasso: Munich 1994

Orlando Lassus and his Time: Antwerp 1994 [Yearbook of the Alamire Foundation, i (1995)] [incl. D. Cardamone: ‘Orlando di Lasso and Pro-French Factions in Rome’, 23–47]

D. Melamed: ‘Who Wrote Lassus's Most Famous Piece?’, EMc, xxvi (1998), 6–26

P. Bergquist, ed.: Orlando di Lasso Studies (Cambridge, 1999)

J. Haar: ‘Orlando di Lasso, Composer-Print Entrepreneur’ (forthcoming)

J. Haar: ‘A Wedding Mass by Lasso’, JM (forthcoming)

Last, James [Hans]

(b Bremen, 17 April 1929). German composer and bandleader. An accomplished jazz bass player, James Last confected an easy-listening style in which almost any type of music could be reduced to a medley of soft pop dance tunes. After leading his own band and working as an arranger and record producer, in 1965 he perfected his formula with the album Non-Stop Dancing which linked together the melodies of 26 recent hit songs over a cheerful dance rhythm. The party atmosphere was cemented by the addition of laughter, cheers and clapping between each section, and the success of this album led Last and his orchestra to undertake annual European tours for a number of years. Further volumes of Non-Stop Dancing followed as well as albums based on themes, such as Classics Up To Date, In South America and James Last plays Andrew Lloyd Webber. Guest artists on Last’s recordings included pianist Richard Clayderman and singer Astrud Gilberto. As a composer, Last wrote Fool (recorded by Elvis Presley), Happy Heart (recorded by Andy Williams), Games That Lovers Play (Eine Ganze Nacht), recorded by Eddie Fisher and The Seduction, the theme from the 1980 film American Gigolo.

DAVE LAING

Lasus [Lasos] of Hermione

(b Hermione [now Kastri], Argolis; fl c530–20 bce). Greek lyric poet and the earliest music theorist. According to Herodotus (vii.6.3), Lasus was at Athens at some time between 527 and 514 bce. A brief fragment of the text of one of his compositions has survived, the beginning of a hymn to Demeter (Edmonds, frag.1). During his lifetime he was famous chiefly as a composer of dithyrambs; Aristophanes (Wasps, 1410) referred to a competition between him and Simonides, and in the late classical period dithyrambs were spuriously attributed to him. By tradition he was one of the teachers of Pindar.

The original (wrongly emended) text of the Byzantine Suda and a brief reference by Pseudo-Plutarch (On Music, 1141c) credit him with a radical innovation: the introduction of dithyrambic rhythm and tempo (agōgē, actually a broader concept; see Privitera, p.75n.) into other forms of composition. Music sung to the kithara would thus have become more like music sung to aulos accompaniment: for example, the diatonic whole tone may have been subdivided into microtones. Lasus cannot, however, be termed a forerunner of the dithyrambists associated with the ‘new music’ movement; it is significant that the fragment of the Cheiron of Pherecrates preserved by Pseudo-Plutarch (On Music, 1141d–42a) does not list him among the ravishers of Mousikē.

Aristotle's famous pupil Aristoxenus wrote in the Harmonics (i.3; da Rios, p.7) that Lasus did research in acoustics, and three centuries later Theon of Smyrna (Hiller, p.59) made a similar reference, associating him with Pythagorean inquiry. The link here between practice and theory, if genuine, is unusual.

Research has broadly confirmed the Suda's statement that Lasus ‘was the first to write a treatise On Music’. His ideas and gnomic sayings were considered subtle and profound at an early period – Aristophanes parodied one of them in the Wasps (1411) – and he was sometimes numbered among the Seven Sages. In the 5th century ce Martianus Capella (On the Marriage of Philology and Mercury, ix.936) claimed that originally (primo) Lasus distinguished the harmonic, rhythmic and metrical aspects of music; his claim echoes a tradition believed to go back through Aristides Quintilianus and perhaps Marcus Terentius Varro to an original source. From the 5th century bce Lasus's theories were evidently heeded and remembered, whether or not he ever wrote them down.

WRITINGS

J.M. Edmonds, ed. and trans.: Lyra graeca, ii (London and Cambridge, MA, 1924, 2/1928/R), 222ff

D.L. Page, ed.: Poetae melici graeci (Oxford, 1962), 364ff

D.A. Campbell, ed. and trans.: Greek Lyric, iii (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1991), 296–311

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Abert: ‘Lasos (2)’, Paulys Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, xii/1 (Stuttgart, 1924), 887–8

A.W. Pickard-Cambridge: Dithyramb, Tragedy and Comedy (Oxford, 1927, rev. 2/1962 by T.B.L. Webster), 12ff, 23–4

F. Lasserre, ed.: Plutarque: De la musique (Olten, 1954), 34ff

L. Richter: Zur Wissenschaftslehre von der Musik bei Platon und Aristoteles (Berlin, 1961), 14–15

G.A. Privitera: Laso di Ermione nella cultura ateniese e nella tradizione storiografica (Rome, 1965); reviewed by E.K. Borthwick, Classical Review, new ser., xvii (1967), 146–7

G. Wille: Musica romana (Amsterdam, 1967), 645–6

G.F. Brussich: ‘Laso d'Ermione, testimonianze e frammenti’, Quaderni triestini per il lessico della lirica corale greca, iii (1975–6), 83–135

G. Comotti: ‘Pitagora, Ippaso, Laso e il metodo sperimentale’, Harmonia mundi: musica e filosofia nell'antichità: Rome 1989, 20–29

WARREN ANDERSON/THOMAS J. MATHIESEN

László, Alexander [Sándor]

(b Budapest, 22 Nov 1895; d Los Angeles, 17 Nov 1970). Hungarian pianist, composer and conductor. He studied the piano and composition at the National Hungarian Royal Academy of Music. In 1915 he moved to Germany, made successful European concert tours as a pianist and began composing dance-pantomimes. He directed the Dresden PO on a tour of Sweden in 1921. Between 1920 and 22 he recorded 31 ‘Welte-Mignon’ player piano rolls, mainly featuring transcriptions of Romantic orchestral works. From 1925 to 1927 he devoted his energies to the colour-organ (see Colour and music, §3 and Farblichtmusik), for which he became internationally known. He was director of the abstract film Pacific 231, made in 1928, and with the coming of sound films in that year became a conductor in studios as well as teaching at the German School of Theatre and Film in Munich. In 1933, when the National Socialists took power in Germany, being half Jewish by birth, he returned to Budapest, where he became production manager at the Synchron film studios; thereafter he composed numerous scores for both feature films and documentaries.

In 1938 he emigrated to the United States. In New York he made further developments in music for colour-organ and gave a number of lectures; he also taught at the New York College of Music, made appearances as a pianist and resumed his career as a composer (his Improvisations on ‘Oh Susanna’ of 1940 enjoyed popular success). From 1943 onwards he worked in Hollywood as a conductor and composer of film scores (writing 59 by 1963), while also composing for television in the 1950s and later. His music for the cinema – mostly for low-budget productions – encompasses every genre: melodrama (The Great Flamarion, 1945), crime (Accomplice, 1946), children's entertainment (Banjo, 1947), educational (The Narcotics Story, 1958), adventure, science fiction and horror. Contemporary film reviews frequently comment on the excellence of his scores. On television he was best known for the music to the series ‘My Little Margie’.

László’s versatility as a musician and the melodious, programmatic style of his writing revealed an affinity with cinema even before 1943. With his knowledge and experience of music and film, belonged to that group of émigré musicians who adapted their multifarious skills to the opportunities they encountered. As a result they suffered few problems of acculturation in their exile.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Das Märchen (dance-pantomime), 1916; Die schöne O-Sang (dance-pantomime), 1919; Musik zu Shakespeare’s ein Sommernachtstraum, op.12, 1926; The Pirate's Opera (J. Gay and L. Regehr), 1966; Wanted: Sexperts and Serpents for our Garden of Maidens (musical), 1968

Orch: 4D-122, pf conc., op.17, 1940; Improvisations on ‘Oh Susanna’, op.16, 1940, arr. pf; Mechanized Force, op.18, 1941, arr. pf; Hollywood Conc., pf, orch (1944, 1950); Sonata quasi conc., pf, orch, before 1951 [after Mozart and Grieg]; Mana Hawaii, 1960; The World of Century Twentyfirst: a Musical Panorama, 1962; Pacific Triptych, 1963; Quorum eroticum, amateur orch, 1967; Roulette hématologique, 1969

Film, TV: Boykott (dir. R. Land), 1930; Westfront 1918 (dir. G.W. Pabst), 1930; Der bebende Berg (dir. H. Beck-Gaden and L. Nusser), 1931; My Little Margie, 1952–5; This is your Life, 1952–61; Waterfront, 1954–6; Structural Music, 38 vols. (1950–) [collection of cinema music]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Jewanski: ‘Die Farblichtmusik Alexander Lászlós’, Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte, lx/1 (1997), 12–43

J. Jewanski: ‘“Your taste and mine are meeting each other …”: Künstlerische und biografische Parallelen zwischen László Moholy-Nagy und Alexander László’, Über Moholy-Nagy: Bielefeld 1995, ed. G. Jäger and G. Wessing (Bielefeld, 1997), 215–24

J. Jewanski: ‘Auf der Suche nach dem Gesamtkunstwerk: der Pianist Alexander László und die Farblichtmusik’, Piano News, i/2 (1998), 28–32

J. Jewanski: ‘“Ich brauche mich mit ‘Geschäften’ nicht mehr zu befassen, nur mit Kunst”: Alexander László und die Weiterentwicklung seiner Farblichtmusik im amerikanischen Exil’, Exilforschung, xvi (1998), 194–228

J. Jewanski: ‘Wie ein Komet am Sternenkimmel: die Erstaufführung von Alexander Láslós Farblichtmusik am 16. Juni 1925’, Grenzgänge–Übergänge: Musikwissenschaft im Dialog: DVSM no.13: Frankfurt 1998

JÖRG JEWANSKI

László, Ferenc [Francisc]

(b Cluj [now Cluj-Napoca], 8 May 1937). Hungarian-Romanian music critic and flautist. He graduated from the Academy of Music in Cluj in 1959 and then became flautist in the Sibiu State Philharmonic (1959–65), chamber music instructor at the Cluj Music School (1966–70), senior assistant and later associate professor in the chamber music department of the Bucharest Academy of Music (1970–91), and associate professor and later professor of chamber music and organology at the Academy of Music in Cluj-Napoca (1970–91). He gave up his playing career in the 1970s, and began to concentrate more on journalism and musicology. A self-taught musicologist, he has written extensive criticism and numerous studies, notably on the music of Bartók, in both Romanian and Hungarian. He is the founding president of the Romanian Mozart Society and the artistic director of the Cluj Mozart Festival.

WRITINGS

‘Johann Sebastian Bach: Musikalisches Opfer’, Din activitatea cercurilor ştiinţifice ale Conservatorului Gh. Dima din Cluj (Cluj, 1957), 17–32

ed.: Bartók-könyv 1970–1971 [Bartók book] (Bucharest, 1971)

‘Untersuchungen zum “zweiten” Opus 1, Nr. 1’, MJb 1971–2, 149–56

‘Contribuţii la studiul formei de sonată la Mozart’, Studii de muzicologie, ix (1973), 481–504

ed.: Bartók-dolgozatok [Bartók papers] (Bucharest, 1974) [incl. ‘Széljegyzetek egy Bartók-kézirat margójára’ [Notes on a Bartók MS], 29–39; summaries in Eng., Ger.]

ed.: 99 Bartók-levél [99 letters of Bartók] (Bucharest, 1974)

‘Geneza trioului cu pian la Mozart’ [The genesis of Mozart’s piano trios], Studii de muzicologie, x (1974), 302–10

ed.: Béla Bartók şi muzica românească [Bartók and Romanian music] (Bucharest, 1976)

Zenei ügyelet: publicisztikai írások 1971–1974 [Musical watch: journalistic writings] (Bucharest, 1976)

ed.: Béla Bartók: scrisori [Letters] (Bucharest, 1976–7)

Bartók Béla: tanulmányok és tanúságok [Bartók: studies and testimonies] (Bucharest, 1980)

‘Nochmals über die Entstehungsgeschichte der rumänischen Folkloresammlung von Maramuresch’, SMH, xxiii (1981), 329–51

‘Viaţa lui Philipp Caudella’ [Caudella’s life], Studii de muzicologie, xvi (1981), 177–202

ed.: Bartók-dolgozatok 1981 [Bartók papers] (Budapest, 1982)

A százegyedik év: Bartókrol, Enescuról, Kodályról [The 101st year: on Bartók, Enescu and Kodály] (Bucharest, 1984)

ed.: Utunk Kodályhoz [Our way to Kodály] (Bucharest, 1984)

‘Muzica românească a lui Béla Bartók’ [The Romanian music of Béla Bartók], Studii de muzicologie, xix (1985), 39–73

‘Béla Bartóks neun Violinduos über rumänische Volksweisen’, Sandor Veress: Festschrift, ed. A. Traub (Berlin, 1986), 129–56

Zenén innen, zenén túl: publicsztikai írások [Before music, beyond music: journalistic writings] (Bucharest, 1987)

Gen, specie şi formă în muzica de flaut a lui J.S. Bach [Genre, species and form in J.S. Bach’s flute music] (Bucharest, 1989)

Klavír és koboz: tények, értelmezések és föltevések Liszt Ferenc 1846–47-es hangversenyútjával kapcsolatban [Piano and Cobsa: facts, interpretations and suppositions on Liszt’s 1846–7 concert tour] (Bucharest, 1989)

‘Walachische Melodie: o melodie populară românească de joc în creaţia lui Franz Liszt’ [A Romanian folk dance melody in Liszt’s works], Muzica, ii/2 (1991), 125–46

Béla Bartók şi lumea nostră: aşa cum a fost [Bartók and our world, such as it was] (Cluj-Napoca, 1995)

‘Rumänische Stilelemente in Bartóks Musik: Fakten und Deutungen’, SMH, xxxvi (1995), 413–28

ed.: Zenetudományi írások [Musicological writings] (Bucharest, forthcoming)

ANDRÁS BENKŐ/R

László [Singer], Zsigmond

(b Nagytétény, 23 May 1893; d Budapest, 28 July 1981). Hungarian musicologist. He studied literature at the University of Leipzig (1913–14), continuing at the University of Vienna, and took the doctorate in 1917 at the Pétér Pázmány Universíty of Sciences, Budapest. Since its founding in 1919, László was a member of the Budapest Choral and Orchestral Society, eventually becoming its administrative director. In 1943 he founded the Goldmark Music School and served as its principal (1945–8). In 1939, in response to new and more restrictive anti-Semitic legislation in Hungary that banned Jewish performers from the legitimate stage, he initiated the Arts Programmes of the National Hungarian Jewish Cultural Society, which became the only performing venue for such musicians as Annie Fischer and Janos Starker. The performances were noted in Budapest for their artistic excellence; they continued until the Nazi invasion of Hungary in March 1944. In 1945 László was one of the founders of the Free Union of Hungarian Musicians. He was a prolific translator of song texts from several languages and contributed librettos to vocal works by Hungarian composers, including the text of Szelényi’s Spartacus.

László’s research concerned the prosody of Hungarian poetry and music from the Middle Ages to the 20th century, eventually broadening his inquiry to the study of the relationship of rhyme, metre and text setting throughout Western European music and literature. He published monographs on Liszt’s early years and on the relationship of Liszt and Russian musicians of the 19th century, and iconographies of Erkel and Liszt.

WRITINGS

‘Nyelvmelódia és hangminőség: Sievers és Rutz módszerei’ [The relationship of speech melody and vocal quality: the methods of Sievers and Rutz], Egyetemes philologiai közlöny, xxxix/1 (1915), 7–19

A kuruc balladák [The Kuruts ballads] (Budapest, 1917)

Liszt Ferenc és az orosz zene [Liszt and Russian music] (Budapest, 1955, 2/1986)

Erkel Ferenc élete képekben [Erkel’s life in pictures] (Budapest, 1956, 2/1961; Russ. trans., 1964)

‘Vers és dallam: Szabolcsi Bence tanulmányai’ [Verse and melody: the essays of Szabolcsi], Muzsika, ii/10 (1959), 43–4

Ritmus és dallam: a magyar vers és ének prozódiája [Rhythm and melody: the prosody of Hungarian verse and song] (Budapest, 1961)

Az ifjú Liszt, 1811–1839 [Liszt’s early years] (Budapest, 1962)

‘Der Zusammenhang von Sprache und musikalischer Intonation als Voraussetzung der Rezeption’, Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg: gesellschafts- und sprachwissenschaftliche Reihe, xii (1963), 571–8

‘A prozódiától a dramaturgiáig: Bartók Béla’ [From prosody to dramaturgy], Magyar zene, iv/4 (1964), 368–94

Franz Liszt: sein Leben in Bildern (Kassel, 1967; Eng. trans., 1968; Fr. trans., 1978; Hung. orig., 1978)

‘Major Ervin 1901–1967’, Magyar zene, vii/5 (1967), 533–4

‘Ritmus és dallam: válasz bírálóimnak’ [Rhythm and melody: a response to my critics], Magyar zene, viii/3 (1968), 237–54

A rím varázsa [The magic of rhyme] (Budapest, 1972)

‘Szó és ének Kodály dallamvilágában’ [Words and song in Kodály’s melodies], Kodály Zoltán emlékére, ed. F. Bónis (Budapest, 1977), 51–6

‘Velem nem történt semmi …: töredékek egy félbenmaradt életrajzból’ [Nothing happened to me …: fragments from an abandoned memoir], Magyar Izraeliták Országos Képviselete Évkönyv, ed. S. Scheiber (Budapest, 1982), 309–12

Kóltészet és zeneiség: prozódiai tanulmányok [Poetry and musicality: essays in prosody] (Budapest, 1985)

ed. M. Horák: ‘Ősi hittel, becsülettel a hazáért!’: OMIKE – Országos Magyar Izraelita Közművelődési Egyesület 1909–1944 [‘With ancient faith and rectitude for the country!’: OMIKE – the National Hungarian Jewish Cultural Society] (Budapest, 1998)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Scheiber: ‘László Zsigmond halálára’ [On László’s death], Élet és irodalom (8 Aug 1981)

I. Raics: ‘László Zsigmond 1893–1981’, Magyar Izraeliták Országos Képviselete Évkönyv, ed. S. Scheiber (Budapest, 1982), 346–8

ANDRÉ BALOG

Lateiner, Jacob

(b Havana, 31 May 1928). American pianist. From 1934 to 1940 he studied in Havana with Jascha Fischermann, and in 1940 he went to the Curtis Institute in Philadelphia and studied with Isabelle Vengerova. He also worked in the chamber music classes of Primrose and Piatigorsky. He made his début in 1945 with the Philadelphia Orchestra under Ormandy, as winner of the Philadelphia Youth Competition. In 1947 he was engaged by Koussevitzky for the Tanglewood Summer Festival and he made his New York recital début the following year. By this time he had already made many appearances in the USA and had toured Australia. After service in the US army he continued his career and from 1954 he played throughout the USA and made a number of appearances in Europe. Lateiner has been associated particularly with Beethoven (on whom he has taught courses and lectured) and with contemporary American music. In 1967 he gave, with the Boston SO under Leinsdorf, the first performance of Elliott Carter's Piano Concerto (which he had commissioned) and in 1968 of Sessions's Third Piano Sonata. He frequently played and recorded chamber music with Heifetz and Piatigorsky. From 1963 to 1970 he taught at the Mannes College, and in 1966 he joined the faculty of the Juilliard School of Music.

RONALD KINLOCH ANDERSON/R

Latere, Petit Jean de.

See De Latre, Petit Jean.

Lates, James

(b ? c1740; d Oxford, 21 Nov 1777). English composer and violinist. He was a son of David Francisco Lates, a Hebrew scholar who taught modern languages at Oxford University. According to Sainsbury, he studied in Italy and is described by Lewis as ‘the first Oxford Jewish composer’. The local newspaper reported his marriage on 29 October 1768 to Miss Joanna Day, ‘a Lady of exceeding good Accomplishments, with a very handsome Fortune’. He played in the Holywell Music Room orchestra, probably as principal second violin, and in other concerts in the vicinity of Oxford (including Henley and Banbury) from the late 1750s until his death, and was connected with the Duke of Marlborough’s musical establishment at Blenheim. An early appearance in 1757 at a benefit concert and ball for Miss Lates (probably a sister) in Abingdon featured ‘Master Lates’ playing first violin and a solo; by 1761 he was referred to, again performing as first violin and soloist in a benefit concert at Henley, as ‘Mr. Lates, Junior, from Oxford’. His earliest known works, the op.1 violin duets, have a rhythmic life rare in his more galant later music, even the flute duets of op.2. In the op.3 violin solos there is occasional Baroque-style instrumental figuration within a primarily galant idiom; in spite of pallid slow movements, a feature of nearly all Lates’s music, these are among the most interesting English violin solos of the period. The op.4 trio sonatas, each in three movements, are marked by their leisurely, languishing style of galant melody; the writing is generally homophonic, although the single movement marked ‘Fuga’ (in Sonata III) maintains a stately contrapuntal style. The op.5 sonatas, dedicated to the Duke of Marlborough, ‘for whose private amusement they were principally composed’ (according to the dedication), are for the rare combination in English music of violin, cello and basso continuo, no doubt following the example of C.F. Abel’s op.9 (c1770); they are each in two movements, the first usually in a moderate tempo, the second a minuet (a movement form favoured by Lates). Lates’s music is old-fashioned for its date, but there is a gentle, relaxed charm to his melodic lines, and a sureness of general technique, which make his opp.4 and 5 among the most interesting products of the late flowering of the trio sonata in England.

Lates’s name is sometimes given as John James, which may be due to confusion with his son of that name. Another son, Charles (1771–c1810), was a professional pianist and organist, and published keyboard music and songs; in 1793, when he graduated BMus at Oxford, he was organist of Gainsborough, Lincs.

WORKS

all published in London

op.

1	Six Duets, 2 vn (1761)
2	Six Duets, 2 fl/vn (1761)
3	Six Solos, vn, bc (1764)
4	Six Sonatas, 2 vn, bc or fl, vn, bc (c1768)
5	Six Trios, vn, vc, bc (1774)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SainsburyD

J.H. Mee: The Oldest Music Room in Europe (London, 1911)

S.J. Sadie: British Chamber Music, 1720–1790 (diss., U. of Cambridge, 1958)

S. Sadie: ‘Music in the Home II’, Music in Britain: the Eighteenth Century, ed. H.D. Johnstone and R. Fiske (Oxford, 1990), 313–54

D.M. Lewis: The Jews of Oxford (Oxford, 1992)

R. Stowell, ed.: The Cambridge Companion to the Violin (Cambridge, 1992)

STANLEY SADIE/SUSAN WOLLENBERG

Latham-Koenig, Jan

(b London, 15 Dec 1953). English conductor and pianist. He studied conducting at the RCM with Norman Del Mar, and piano with Kendall Taylor and Lamar Crowson. He appeared as a pianist as well as conductor up to 1981, but then concentrated almost exclusively on conducting. He founded the Koenig Ensemble in 1976 as an orchestra of flexible size and eclectic repertory, and has been a guest conductor with major London and regional orchestras. He has also conducted widely abroad and was a member of the Cantiere Internazionale d'Arte at Montepulciano from 1981 to 1986. An admired opera conductor, he made his débuts with the ENO in 1987 (Tosca), the Royal Opera in 1985 (La bohème) and the Vienna Staatsoper in 1988 (Macbeth), gave the premières of Bussotti's L'ispirazione (Florence) and Fedra (Rome), both in 1988, and broadcast a cycle of Weill operas and cantatas on WDR. Several of these have appeared on disc, including Mahagonny, Happy End and Der Silbersee, in addition to Leoncavallo's La bohème (which he conducted at Venice in 1990), Donizetti's Elisabetta and Poliuto and Nørgård's opera-ballet Siddhartha. From 1989 to 1992 Latham-Koenig was musical director of the Orquestra Clássica do Porto, which he formed at the instigation of the Portuguese government. In 1997 he was appointed musical director of both the Opéra du Rhin, Strasbourg, and of the Strasbourg PO.

NOËL GOODWIN

Latilla, Gaetano

(b Bari, 12 Jan 1711; d Naples, 15 Jan 1788). Italian composer. As a boy he sang in the choir of Bari Cathedral. He then moved to Naples where, in March 1726, he enrolled as a student in the Conservatorio di S Maria di Loreto. The chief music masters there were Francesco Mancini and Giovanni Veneziano, one of whom must have been responsible for Latilla’s training during his late adolescence. Latilla began his professional career in 1732 by composing a comic opera, Li marite a forza, for the Teatro dei Fiorentini in Naples, and he wrote other comic operas for that theatre during the next five years.

His first successes outside Naples occurred around 1738 when he obtained commissions for comic operas at several Roman theatres and for a serious opera, Demofoonte, at the S Giovanni Grisostomo in Venice. Gismondo (as La finta cameriera) and Madama Ciana were performed in opera houses throughout Italy, helping to establish the notion of full-length comic opera outside the circle of its Neapolitan dialect origins. These works set the seal on his popularity, and from then until about 1755 he was constantly in demand as an opera composer. He was assistant maestro at the Roman basilica S Maria Maggiore, where he worked from 31 December 1738 until April 1741. The libretto for Siroe names him as a ‘virtuoso’ to the Duke of York. On 14 December 1753 he was engaged as maestro di coro at the Venetian Ospedale della Pietà; for reasons unspecified in the documents this appointment was terminated on 14 March 1766. In March 1762 he was also made assistant maestro at S Marco under Galuppi; he was still in this post in 1770 when Charles Burney met him in Venice and obtained much useful information from him on the history and constitution of the Venetian conservatories. Burney remarked that he seemed ‘in great indigence’, and in fact his popularity among opera audiences had dwindled by this time. Later, Burney reported a rumour that Latilla finally fell foul of the Venetian state authorities and was thrown into prison there. He had left Venice and was in Naples again by 1774, where he spent the last years of his life writing a few compositions and teaching. One of his composition pupils during this period was Thomas Attwood, who later took lessons from Mozart in Vienna.

Because Latilla’s official posts were all with religious or charitable foundations, it is likely that he composed a quantity of church music. Few such works have survived. He composed some religious music while serving at the Pietà, where there were several gifted female solo singers among the pupils; Latilla’s surviving Miserere (GB-Lbl), while Neapolitan in many of its features, contains the kind of highly elaborate vocal writing that was specially suited to these singers. No-one has yet established what music he wrote for S Maria Maggiore or S Marco. His chief extant instrumental compositions are six quartets published in London. Only six of his three-act operas and two of his short operas (both adaptations of larger works) remain intact. The earliest, the comic opera Angelica ed Orlando of 1735, dates from the same period as the operas of his almost exact contemporary Pergolesi, though its music bears less resemblance to Pergolesi’s than to that of another Neapolitan, Leonardo Leo. Over the following decades Latilla changed his style considerably in conformity with new tastes. The lyrical items of his heroic opera Antigono of 1775, the last of his compositions that has survived, are characterized by longer melodic lines and heavier accompaniments than those of his earlier works, and the racier and less lilting style he adopted seems to have been an attempt to come to terms with the latest music of Niccolò Piccinni, Antonio Sacchini and others among the new generation of Neapolitan composers.

WORKS

stage

music lost unless otherwise stated

Li marite a forza (comic opera, 3, B. Saddumene), Naples, Fiorentini, spr. 1732

L'Ottavio (commedia per musica, 3, G.A. Federico), Naples, Fiorentini, wint. 1733

Gl’Ingannati (commedia per musica, 3, Federico), Naples, Fiorentini, aut. 1734

Angelica ed Orlando (commedia per musica, 3, F.A. Tullio, after L. Ariosto), Naples, Fiorentini, aut. 1735, GB-Lbl

Lo sposo senza moglie (I due supposti conti) (commedia per musica, 3, C. Palma), Naples, Nuovo, aut. 1736

Temistocle (dramma giocoso, 3, P. Metastasio), Rome, Tor di Nona, carn. 1737, A-Wgm

Gismondo (commedia per musica, 3, Federico), Naples, Fiorentini, sum. 1737; rev. as La finta cameriera (3, G. Barlocci), Rome, Valle, spr. 1738, B-Bc, I-Fc; rev. as Don Calascione (3), London, King’s, 21 Jan 1749, Favourite Songs (London, 1749); rev. as La finta cameriera (int, 2), Naples, Nuovo, aut. 1745, B-Bc; Paris, Opéra, 1752, F-Po; rev. as La giardiniera contessa (1), B-Bc

Demofoonte (dramma per musica, 3, Metastasio), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, carn. 1738

Polipodio e Rocchetta (int, 2), Rome, Argentina, carn. 1738

Madama Ciana (commedia per musica, 3, Barlocci), Rome, Pallacorda, Feb 1738; rev. as L'ambizione delusa, Turin, 1747; rev. as Gli artigiani arricchiti (int, 2), Paris, Opéra, 25 Sept 1753, F-Pn, Po

Romolo (dramma per musica, 3), Rome, Delle Dame, carn. 1739, attrib. Latilla and Terradellas, extracts D-Dl, I-BGi

Siroe (dramma per musica, 3, Metastasio), Rome, Delle Dame, carn. 1740, A-Wgm

Alceste in Ebuda (dramma per musica, 3, A. Trabucco), Naples, S Carlo, 20 Jan 1741

La vendetta generosa (dramma per musica, 3), Naples, Fiorentini, aut. 1742

Zenobia (dramma per musica, 3, Metastasio), Turin, Regio, carn. 1742, arias D-Dl and I-Nc

La gara per la gloria (divertimento teatrale, 3, B. Vitturi), Venice, S Moisè, carn. 1744

Amare e fingere (dramma per musica, 3), Naples, Nuovo, carn. 1745

Il concerto (melodramma per musica, 3, P. Trinchera), Naples, Nuovo, spr. 1746

Catone in Utica (dramma per musica, 3, Metastasio), Rome, Capranica, carn. 1747

Il vecchio amante (dramma per musica, 3, Barlocci), Turin, Carignano, carn. 1747; also as La commedia in commedia

Adriano in Siria (dramma per musica, 3, Metastasio), Naples, S Carlo, 19 Dec 1747, aria I-Gl

Il barone di Vignalunga (commedia per musica, 3, A. Palomba), Naples, Nuovo, 1747

Ciascheduno ha il suo negozio (dramma per musica), Madrid, Buen Retiro, 1747

La Celia (commedia per musica, 3, Palomba, Naples, Fiorentini, aut. 1749

Amore in Tarantola (dramma per musica, 3, Abate Vaccina), Venice, S Moisè, aut. 1750

[?] L’astuzia felice (dramma per musica, 3, C. Goldoni), Turin, Carignano, spr. 1750; or c1777

Il giuoco de' matti (commedia per musica, 3, Palomba), Naples, Nuovo, aut. 1750

La Maestra (commedia per musica, 3, Palomba), Naples, Fiorentini, carn. 1751, rev., with G. Cocchi and G. Cordella, of Cocchi's La maestra, 1747

L’opera in prova alla moda (dramma per musica, 3, G. Fiorini), Venice, S Moisè, carn. 1751

Urganostocar (‘tragedia tragichissimama di lieto fine’, 3, Fiorini), Venice, S Moisè, carn. 1751, perf. with L’opera in prova alla moda

La pastorella al soglio (dramma per musica, 3, G.C. Pagani), Venice, S Moisè, Ascension 1751, D-Wa

Griselda (dramma per musica, 3, A. Zeno), Venice, S Cassiano, aut. 1751, arias Dl

Gl’impostori (dramma per musica, 3), Venice, S Moisè, aut. 1751

L’isola d’amore (commedia in musica, 3, A. Rigo), Venice, S Moisè, carn. 1752

Olimpiade (dramma per musica, 3, Metastasio), Venice, S Cassiano, aut. 1752, arias Dl

Alessandro nell’Indie (dramma per musica, 3, Metastasio), Venice, S Cassiano, carn. 1753, collabs. unknown

Antigona (dramma per musica, 3, G. Roccaforte), Modena, Corte, carn. 1753

Il protettor del poeta (int, 2, G. Puccinelli), Rome, Valle, carn. 1754

Venceslao (dramma per musica, ?3, Zeno), Barcelona, 1754

La finta sposa (dramma per musica, 3), Bologna, Formagliari, carn. 1755

Tito Manlio (dramma per musica, 3, Roccaforte), Rome, Capranica, carn. 1755, P-La

Ezio (dramma per musica, 3, Metastasio), Naples, S Carlo, 10 July 1758, La, US-CA

L’amore artigiano (dramma per musica, 3, Goldoni), Venice, S Angelo, carn. 1761, I-Tco

Merope (dramma per musica, 3, Zeno), Venice, S Benedetto, carn. 1763, BGi

La buona figliuola supposta vedova (dramma comico per musica, 3, A. Bianchi), Venice, S Cassiano, carn. 1766

Gl'inganni amorosi (commedia per musica, 3, P. Mililotti), Naples, Fiorentini, carn. 1774

Il maritato fra le disgrazie (commedia per musica, 3, G. Palomba), Naples, Fiorentini, aut. 1774

Antigono (dramma per musica, 3, Metastasio), Naples, S Carlo, 13 Aug 1775, Nc, P-La

I sposi incogniti (commedia per musica, 3, Mililotti), Naples, Nuovo, 1779

sacred vocal

music lost unless otherwise stated

L'immaculata concezione della Santissima Vergine (componimento sacro), Genoa, Oratorio S Filippo Neri, 1739

Sanctorum Patrum in Abrahae sinu expectatio (cant., 2), Venice, Pietà, 1755

Carmina Sacra, Venice, Pietà, 1756

Judith triumphans (orat), Venice, Pietà, 1757

Modulamina sacra (motet), Venice, Pietà, 1760

Miserere, E, SATB, 2 hn, str, bc, Venice, Pietà, c1760, GB-Lbl

Sacra Esther historia (orat), Venice, 14 Sept 1761

La pietà essultante nel santissimo natale, Venice, Pietà, 25 Dec 1761

La colpa abbattuta (componimento sacro), Palermo, Oratorio S Filippo Neri

Omnipotenza e misericordia divina [characters Omnipotenza, Umanità, Misericordia, Lucifero] (orat), 4vv, D-MÜs

Messa in pastorale, 2vv, org, I-Nc

Salve regina, SA, str, bc, GB-Lbl

Bonum est confiteri (motet)

Matutino, dum surgit (cant.), cited by Mondolfi

Motets ?written for Pietà, Venice, all in I-Vc: Aurum voluptas, per Ellena, S, bc; Ave Regina, per Ellena, S, bc; Ave Regina, per Gregoria, A, bc; Furen furens hostis, per Josepha, S, bc; Mormorate, per Ellena, S, bc; Non timeo, per Josepha, S, bc; Regina celi, per Ellena, S, bc; Regina celi, per Iseppa, S, bc; Regina celi, per Marina, S, bc; Surge aurora luminosa, per Ellena, S, bc; Ut errant, per Josepha, S, bc

other works

Componimento per musica da cantarsi nel giorno natalizio di Maria Amalia Walburga, Rome, 1738

Componimento per musica da cantarsi nel giorno natalizio di Carlo Borbone, Rome, 1739

Works in Solfèges d'Italie … composés par Leo, Durante, Scarlatti, Hasse (Paris, 1772)

Various arias and ensembles, vv, insts, B-Bc, D-Bsb, GB-Lbl, I-Gl, US-Wc

6 Quartettos, 2 vn, va, vc obbl (London, n.d.)

Trio, fl, vn, bc, I-Gl

Sinfonia, 2 vn, 2 ob, 2 hn, bc, B-Bc

Sinfonia à 8, D, D-Bsb

Sinfonia, G, Bsb

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BurneyH

BurneyFl

Grove5 (A. Loewenberg)

FlorimoN

MGG1 (A. Mondolfi)

G.G. Ferrari: Aneddoti piacevoli e interessanti occorsi nella vita di G.G.F. da Roveredo (London, 1830); ed. S. di Giacomo (Milan, 1929)

T. Wiel: I teatri musicali veneziani del Settecento (Venice, 1897/R)

M. Bellucci La Salandra: ‘Saggio cronologico delle opere teatrali di Gaetano Latilla’, Japigia [Bari], v (1935), 310

T. Walker: ‘Orazio: the History of a Pasticcio’, MQ, xxxviii (1952), 369–83

D. Arnold: ‘Orphans and Ladies: the Venetian Conservatories (1680–1790)’, PRMA, lxxxix (1962–3), 31–47, esp. 46

S.H. Hansell: ‘Sacred Music at the Incurabili in Venice at the Time of J.A. Hasse, II’, JAMS, xxiii (1970), 505–21

G. Ellero: ‘Origini e sviluppo storico della musica nei quattro grandi ospedali veneziani’, NRMI, xiii (1979), 160–67

S. Mamy: L'influence des chanteurs napolitains sur l'evolution de l'opéra baroque tardif vénitien au théâtre San Giovanni Grisostomo de Venise (1701–1755) (diss., U. of Paris, 1983)

M. Marx-Weber: ‘Neapolitanische und Venezianische Miserere-Vertonungen des 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhunderts’, AMf, xliii (1986), 136–63

B.D. Mackenzie: The Creation of a Genre: Comic Opera's Dissemination in Italy in the 1740s (diss., U. of Michigan, 1993)

MICHAEL F. ROBINSON/DALE E. MONSON

Latin America.

Term applied to those areas of Central and South America where Spanish, Portuguese and French are spoken. The countries constituting Latin America and the Caribbean present cultural and musical traits mainly derived from their tri-ethnic cultural heritage. The expression of that heritage, however, is not homogeneous in the various countries and regions, but is dependent on various factors, such as the ethno-history of a specific country and the dynamics of its cultural history in contemporary times. Thus, in a number of cases, one strain of that heritage has predominated over the other two. In fact, many parts of what is called Latin America are virtually devoid of any Latin cultural elements. Until recently, some lowland Amerindian cultures, for example, and some Amerindian groups of the Andean highlands and Central America had remained relatively untouched by European or mestizo traditions. In other cases the prevailing cultural influences have been more sub-Saharan African than European. Thus the study of folk and traditional music in individual countries or territories is bound to be somewhat artificial, although there are common cultural traits in very large geographical areas and among ethnic groups with similar historical developments.

The systematic search for origins along the lines of the tri-ethnic heritage in Latin American and Caribbean musical expressions has had dubious benefit in relation to the configuration of contemporary societies. The general tendency in Europe and North America to view Latin America as a monolithic cultural area has often resulted in simplistic and reductionist generalizations of traditional musics of Latin America. The actual diversity of the musics of the Latin American continent has become clearer since the 1960s as a result of more extensive field research carried out by scholars from Latin America, Europe and North America. And yet, for some areas, not enough empirical knowledge of the vast music corpora of the continent has been accumulated to allow meaningful cross-cultural comparisons among music cultures that share a common ethno-history but have developed different expressions, as, for example, in the case of Afro-Caribbean communities of Cuba, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Western Colombia and north-eastern Brazil. One could argue that the prominent social stratification which typifies Latin America's social organization elucidates to a large extent musical expressions that function as symbols of class identity. This stratification provides the keystone to account for the various musical performative practices to be found in both rural and urban areas of the continent. And yet the lines of demarcation of such stratification can be blurred when one considers the thorny issue of self-identity of social groups vis à vis other groups and nations. Identity is frequently a process of negotiation resulting in various strategies of expression, including music.

Throughout the area the tri-ethnic heritage results in fundamentally mestizo (culturally and racially mixed) musical traditions whose nature varies according to the degree of prevalence of any one of the three sources. For the sake of clarity we refer to Iberian-American and Afro-Hispanic or Afro-American traditions, although the boundaries and borders of such traditions at the end of the 20th century reveal many more complexities. Indeed the old categories tend to fade away as people increasingly share the same space, frequently relying on several existing traditions while creating new ones. It should be borne in mind, therefore, that a great deal of fluidity prevails in most regions of Latin America and the Caribbean in terms of social stratification, ethnicities, regionalism, religions and generations. Because of their essential mestizo character, the musics of Latin America cut across ethnic and sometimes social lines. Moreover, the consequence of this fluidity has precipitated musical change in the whole continent, only a portion of which we seem to be aware of at the beginning of the 21st century.

The folk, traditional and popular musics of the region present therefore a very complex picture that can only be ascertained at the culture-specific level. Here, however, only an overview can be presented: for more detailed discussion, see entries on the individual countries.

I. Indigenous music

II. Iberian and mestizo folk music

III. Afro-American Music

IV. Urban popular music

CAROLINA ROBERTSON (I), GERARD BÉHAGUE (II–IV)

2. Contemporary performance traditions.

I. Indigenous music

The indigenous cultures of Latin America are neither obsolete nor waning in musical richness. Many Amerindian communities, though threatened by acculturation, development and hegemonic political programmes have managed to conserve their intrinsic character while incorporating new musical ideas and instruments. Linguists have differed over the number of indigenous languages found in the Americas. Depending on the classificatory methods used, South America alone has been estimated to have between 73 (Brinton) and 117 distinct languages (Loukotka, 1968). In his classic study, Loukotka lists over 2000 dialects from Venezuela to Tierra del Fuego. This linguistic diversity is reflected in an equally complex soundscape in which Amerindian, African, European and criollo musical traditions intermingle in instrumentation, concept, context and musical structures (see Americas, §II).

A few groups have managed to keep their distance from encroaching urban, Eurocentric influences. Nestled in remote mountain areas or dense rainforests, people like the Kogi of Colombia or the Lacandón of the Mexico-Guatemala border have preserved the integrity of their pre-Columbian musical traditions. But even the Kogi and Lacandón are keenly aware of their neighbours, and sometimes ‘borrow’ repertories from other communities. The fluidity of form and concept in indigenous cultures defies belaboured definitions and categories, which attempt to differentiate ‘pure’ from ‘acculturated’ forms; ‘Indian’ from ‘mestizo’; and rural folk from urban popular idioms. The contemporary musical panorama reflects change as a dynamic reality of peoples who have lived with conquest for 500 years.

The complexity and dynamism of this continually changing heritage are rooted in ancient times. In the 14th and 15th centuries the Nahuatl-speaking Aztecs or Mexicas of central Mexico turned the flourishing metropolis of Tenochtitlan into a centre for ritual, science and the performing arts. They took many ideas from the people they conquered and created a system of schools (cuicacalli) in which knowledge could be transmitted. In the high Andes, the Inca aristocracy propagated their hegemonic statecraft, their elaborate ceremonial calendar, their sophisticated approaches to agriculture and road building and their musical ideas about the interrelationships of hocket and melody throughout their vast empire. Urbanization, ethnic enclaves caused by mass migrations, acculturation through conquest and syncretism were important variables in pre-Columbian musical life, just as they are today.

These parallels are mentioned to underline certain areas of continuity between pre- and post-conquest musical traditions. They are in no way meant to minimize the systematic genocide of an indigenous population that in the 15th century equalled that of Europe, including Russia (Dobyns). The survival of Amerindian musics despite this onslaught points to the tenacity and strength of many notions of sound and cosmology nourished by a rich past. The emphasis of ethnomusicology on the ‘ethnographic present’ tends to obscure the fact that the present is but a small microcosm of human patterns that have cycled through many historical permutations.

1. Historical patterns.

3. History, context and performing practice.

Latin America, §I: Indigenous Music

1. Historical patterns.

Many documents that would have provided a more coherent understanding of the indigenous musical past were systematically destroyed by zealous missionaries in the 15th and 16th centuries; yet, as Eric Wolf aptly points out, the Indians of the Americas are not ‘people without a history’. A few enlightened priests, such as Bernardino de Sahagún, Diego Durán and Bartolomé de las Casas (1951) carefully recorded the cultural patterns and contributions of the people of the Americas. Through their efforts, and the testaments of Fernando Alvarado Tezozomoc, Fernando de Alva Ixtlixóchitl, Domingo Francisco Antón Muñón Chimalpain Cuauhtlehuanitzin, ‘El Inca’ Garcilaso de la Vega, Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, Santacruz Pachacuti Yamqui and other native writers of Mexico and Peru, we can discern historical patterns that continue to inform indigenous music-making (for compilations of early indigenous chroniclers see Cornejo Polar, León Portilla and Wachtel). The richest footprints of the indigenous past are embedded in oral histories and performance traditions which persist to this day. Together, these written and oral histories point out several patterns that illuminate our later discussion of contemporary traditions.

The names of historical indigenous cultures most recognized today are Aztec, Maya and Inca. These peoples, located in central Mexico, Central America and highland Peru, were all empire builders who extended their governments, their scientific achievements, and their philosophies and theologies through trade and conquest. But even the Aztec, Maya and Inca recognized that their kingdoms were built on the achievements of earlier cultures. The Aztecs invoked the deeds of the Toltecs who had preceded them. Though they destroyed many of the records of the Toltecs to rewrite history in their own image, the Aztecs/Mexicans acknowledged artists, poets and composers of great worth with the greatest of compliments: ‘You are a true Toltec!’. Likewise, the Quechua-speaking Incas perfected their understanding of ceramics, acoustics, poetry, ritual and statecraft through what they had inherited from earlier Nasca, Moche and Tairona cultures. Thus the evidence for indigenous musical cultures of the Americas begins at least 3000 years ago, with the emergence of cultures that fashioned stone and clay into sound-producing instruments which have survived decay and can be studied by contemporary archaeomusicologists. We can also assume that musical sounds and instruments were brought across the Bering Strait from Asia in migrations which began 40,000 to 70,000 years ago.

Archaeological studies show great sophistication in acoustical thinking and in instrument-building technologies among pre-Columbian peoples. Studies by Martí, Nyberg, Olsen (1986, 1988), Silva Sifuentes, Rawcliffe and many other scholars show several notable characteristics in early American music: instruments were usually built by specialists who combined their knowledge of acoustics, ceramic techniques, metallurgy, mathematics and ritual purpose into a vast array of experiments with timbre, form and tonal distribution. Tonal organization seems more important here than tonal range. Thus, the Tairona and Nasca peoples of the Andes experimented with multiphones, creating aerophones that could produce more than one pitch at a time. They also created wind instruments that used combination frequencies to produce sharp-edged sounds called beat frequencies (Benade, 1960). These acoustical properties are characteristic of aerophones fashioned in the shape of snakes, jaguars or other animals with supernatural associations. Thus, the peculiar acoustical combinations gave the gods a distinct ‘voice’ which could be invoked in ritual contexts.

In both Mexico and the Andes, multiphonics were sometimes coupled in aerophones with multiple chambers. Ancient wind instruments from Veracruz contained chambers within chambers, all blown through the same aperture. An increase in air shifted resonance deeper and deeper into the flute or ocarina, producing a jump in pitch as well as a shift in resonance location. These pitch-jump whistles are unique to the pre-Columbian world and are one more example of sophisticated acoustical engineering. Duct flutes excavated in Mexico, Ecuador and Peru may have as many as four interconnected chambers, two blowholes and myriad combinations of partials and overtones. As Susan Rawcliffe (1988, p.58) summarizes:

What is remarkable about these pre-Columbian flutes is their diversity of form, timbre and partials, and tunings. Perhaps these instruments were meant to be played alone or accompanied by unpitched instruments. Perhaps ensemble pitch was organized around single related tones. Perhaps melodic contour or timbre was valued more than pitch or the kind of tonal organization we think of as scales. Certainly pitch relationships were organized in ways that challenge the ‘scientific’ acoustical principles developed by Europeans.

Archaeomusicologists of the Andes disagree as to whether the clay globular flutes of ancient times were played in ensembles (Olsen, 1988; Stevenson). Iconographic representations of musicians and instruments in pre-Columbian Andean ceramics imply that instruments were grouped into families and served specific purposes. Thus, performing practices were unique to each instrumental grouping, determined primarily by ritual context, supernatural association and social and hierarchical functions. Raft pipes (panpipes) in the early pottery traditions of South America are always depicted in pairs, with one raft pipe tied to its mate by a rope or string. This pairing implies that these instruments were used, as they are today, to create interlocking parts. In this style of performance, each instrument is equipped with only half the tones needed to complete a melodic idea. In the contemporary panpipe traditions of Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru and northern Chile and Argentina, sicuri or zampoña players are paired into ira and arca parts, and interweave their notes to form a complete melody (analogous to the hocket technique in Europe).

Pre-Columbian traditions lead us into a view of performance that links the ways in which we must study the musics of both the past and the present. First, musical traditions cannot be extricated from a larger panoply of performance that often includes dramatization, text, dance and symbolic gesture, costume and body ornamentation and representations through all of these devices of larger views of the cosmos referenced in the microcosm of performance. Second, the phenomenon we usually call text creates multiple levels of communication. For example, the ancient hymn to the rain god Tlaloc found in the Madrid Codex compiled by Sahagún inflects a discourse that was chanted as a four-way dialogue between a congregation, priests, a sacrificial victim and the rain god. Although the goal of the ritual and its chants is the exchange of precious human blood for the nourishment of rain, it also contains a subtext central to 15th-century Nahuatl thought: just as plants nourish the human body, the sacrificed body becomes the food of plants, thus reversing or inverting the food chain and ‘loaning’ the sacrificial victim to the organic world of plants so that the cycle of life may always be renewed. This notion of transmogrification is evident in the opening stanza of the hymn as translated by Willard Gingerich (1977, p.79):

Ahvia! Mexico teutlaneviloc
amapanitlan nauhcampa
ye moquetzquetl
ye kena ichocayan.

(Ahuia! Mexico seeks a loan of the god;
paper-flag places in the four directions;
men stand forth;
finally the time of its weeping.)

The ancient hymn, which focusses on the ‘loan’ of a human life for renewed life on the planet, reflects a continued concern with the importance of sacrifice in the maintenance of balance in the cosmos. The pictographic texts of the Aztec and Maya and the oral traditions of the Andes outline a web of intricate relationships between aspects of creation. The interconnectedness of the universe is activated and maintained through intricate rituals involving music, dance and dramatic texts. Among the texts that survived the onslaught of Spain are the Popol Vuh, the Chilam Balam and Rabinal Achi of the Maya; and the vast collections of songs left behind by Aztec poet-composers. Inca literature was equally rich, and included plays as the Apu Ollantay and the wealth of epic songs known as the Cantares históricos. Many song forms, such as the harawi, were designated for performance on specific occasions and were divided into female (sung) and male (instrumental) genres (Harrison; Gruszczyńska-Ziólkowska). Among the Aztecs, Maya and Inca words were given so much ceremonial power that specialized priesthoods were developed to interpret sacred texts.

The great poet-composers of the Aztec world drew on the images of myth, ritual, nature and warfare to create a vast literature. Nezahualcóyotl (1402–72), Axayácatl (father of Montecuhzoma II) and the other great sages and composers of Mexico were known as tlamatinime, a title indicating that they embodied the highest notions of aesthetics and were masters of ‘flowers and song’, the metaphor for artful composition. The cuicapicque, who specifically composed songs for public rituals, were later folded into the service of the conquering Catholic Church, and continued to receive privileged treatment well into the 16th century. Like their amauta counterparts in Peru, who composed in the imperial runasimi and other Andean languages, the sages of Mexico documented the deeds of heroes and mused about the nature of Creation. The tlamatinime drew on theological tenets developed by the Toltecs, problematizing the nature of gods and men. Thus, in the Cantares mexicanos manuscript (Cantares mexicanos, MS, n.d., f.62r), an anonymous poet sings:

Where is the place of light,
for He who gives life hides Himself?

And also in reference to the notion of Ometéotl, the god of duality inherited from the Toltecs (Cantares mexicanos, MS, n.d., f.35v):

Where shall I go?
Oh, where shall I go?
The path of the god of duality.
Is your home in the place of the dead?
In the interior of the heavens?
Or only here on earth
is the abode of the dead?

The recreation of myths and cosmic forces through ritual enactment conflated time and space, giving humans access to ancestral and supernatural realms. The vehicle that opened the gates between these co-existing realities was performance, wherein music, poetry and dance commingled to open doors to other domains of experience.

All of these symbolic performances enact a relational world, i.e. a world in which music and dance embody the connections between various elements of creation. Thus music, or the act of performance, references the relation of humans to non-humans, of humans to other life forms, of humans to geographic and mythical places, of humans to ancestors, of humans to their past, of individuals and groups to community and of humans to their emotions. These emphases provide the framework for our discussion of contemporary Amerindian traditions.

Latin America, §I: Indigenous Music

2. Contemporary performance traditions.

A great deal of confusion has been engendered by scholarly attempts to classify peoples of the Americas into what are rather artificial groupings: indio, mestizo, criollo, acculturated, unacculturated. Usually, these categories are based on assumptions about racial purity, intermarriage, cultural contact as a purely post-colonial phenomenon and other fictions imposed by outsiders. Many so-called mestizo, or mixed-blood communities identify with the music of the indios. Many indio communities listen to rock and roll, cumbias and Mexican rancheras on the radio and at their public gatherings. Mass media, migration and an increased awareness of the politics of representation have created a musical continuum in many villages that stuns and confounds colonialist analytical categories. To further muddle our discussion, communities in Peru and Mexico often proclaim themselves as mestizo or indio, and structure their public festivals according to their conceptions of these terms. But even these self-designations are rooted in a concern with the relational world, for they describe an affinity with larger patterns of authority and cultural hegemony. Indio has usually signalled location at the bottom of the socioeconomic ladder; mestizo indicates a broader access to the Euro-focussed metropolis, as well as the pervasive influence of the Spanish language; criollo identifies the speaker with a culture of European origins and New World permutations. These are linguistic, economic, racial and cultural distinctions that negate the complexity of how traditions have been perpetuated and transmitted in Latin America. As used in Peru, Bolivia and parts of Mexico, mestizo refers not so much to racial phenotype as it does to the presence of bilingualism, styles of clothing and speech and socioeconomic status.

(i) Bridging cultural spaces through performance.

(ii) Myth, ritual and performance.

Latin America, §I, 2: Indigenous Music: Contemporary performance traditions

(i) Bridging cultural spaces through performance.

In his research among Aymara-speaking musicians in the Lake Titicaca region of Peru, Thomas Turino shows how music reflects the fluid nature of culture and identity. The people of Conima, a town situated 12,500 feet above sea level, organize their social and religious life around religious fiestas that merge Catholicism with pre-Columbian agricultural rites. Sicus, or raft pipes (panpipes), vertical duct flutes or pinkillus (or pincullos), pitu transverse flutes, drums called cajas, chants, dances and specific costumes punctuate fiestas that embody the social stratifications and spiritual dynamics of the community. In the annual Fiesta de la Candelaria (Candlemas Feast) celebrated on 2 February, the symbolism of the church is merged with the celebration of corn and of the ‘birth of the potato’, crops that are the main sources of sustenance in this region. Plant fertility and courtship are interwoven in songs, dances and instrumental pieces played on cajas and pinkillus.

The human and spiritual relationships traced in ritual contexts carry over into all genres of Conimeño music, creating an ethos of social interdependence that is reflected in the structure of siku, or panpipe melodies. Sikus are divided into two rows of tubes, known as ira and arca. In some communities, the division of a siku into two separate but interdependent sections played by two musicians is equated with male (ira) and female (arca) (Baumann; Grebe, 1980). Adjoining pitches are alternated between the ira and arca rows, resulting in melodies such as the one shown in ex.1.

Conimeños put great emphasis on competition and originality. Thus, each performance of this piece will expand its possibilities within an aesthetic that stresses repetition and contrast within a minimal body of musical information. Tonal materials rely on two basic scale formations: a six-note pattern with flattened third and seventh and a natural minor scale.

Just as important as its distinctive style is the significance of this style of music as a reflection of changing national attitudes towards indigenous peoples. In the past, Conimeños who immigrated to the sprawling coastal city of Lima might have been shunned because of their musical styles and cultural ways; but today the sound of panpipes has become emblematic of the rise of indigenous rights in the Andes. In fact, hybrid forms of panpipe music which adjust intonation to European notions of pitch have come to evoke Andean culture throughout Europe and the Americas. While shifting from regional voices of the disenfranchised to national symbols of ‘Andeanness’, the idiosyncratic musical idioms of Peruvian communities have been appropriated and glossed into a larger web of commodities and cultural representations (Fairley). This itinerary illustrates the way a tradition can navigate the complex waters of indio, mestizo and national identities.

The importance of performance as a way of enacting human relationships is also evident among the contemporary Suyá of Amazonian Brazil. Anthony Seeger (1979) has shown that Suyá men compose akia songs as badges of individual identity that bridge the social and physical space between the men’s hut in the centre of the village and each man’s natal household. Men in a village group sing their individual songs at the same time, shouting their message so that their sisters and mothers can hear their distinctive voices and styles above those of other performers. The akia repertory uses the village as a resounding space in which complex kinship ties are enacted in performances that are simultaneous yet conceptually independent. Although each rendition exhibits new aspects of composition, ex.2 illustrates how three men executed their songs in the same village performance space in 1976.

Akia songs emphasize the individuality of each male composer/performer. Stylistic characteristics reflect this intention through a strained, loud, almost shouted sound begun by each man in the highest part of his vocal range. Melodies terrace downwards, and need not begin or end on any particular pitch (this is true of many other indigenous singing styles as well).

Akia are intended as idiosyncratic statements of individuality that link each performer acoustically to the women who raised him. In contrast, the ngere repertory among the Suyá has a fixed tempo, a flat melodic contour, and purposefully unison, blended vocal style. In ngere performances men, sometimes joined by women, perform as part of their moiety or name-based ceremonial group. Texts conceal the secret of a supernatural entity associated with the moiety. This animal or plant protector is also the source of the song. Seeger (1987), in collaboration with Roseman, has demonstrated that ngere songs make noticeable and measurable rises in pitch during the execution of the song. In ex.3, numbered pitches indicate significant jumps in pitch location. For example, the number 3 indicates B minus 39 cents; and the number 4 indicates F plus 35 cents.

Although pitch stability is important in Western analyses of sound, it is neither named nor critiqued by the Suyá. The rising pitch phenomenon is absorbed as part of the natural path of the song. Seeger’s analysis of the issue of rising pitch in ngere is noteworthy, for it signals that, as among the Conimeños of Peru, an aesthetic quite distinct from the tenets and priorities of Western music criticism is at play. In fact, the ideas that inform many indigenous musical systems can seldom be depicted accurately through conventional staff notation.

The examples examined thus far emphasize originality and repetition, the relationship of the individual to the kin or name group and the relationship of the community to the spirit world. One of the most remarkable examples of performing human-supernatural relationships through specific musical structures comes from the Tepehua and Otomí Indians of Mexico. In a landmark article published in 1967, Charles Boilès demonstrated that in ritual contexts, Tepehua violinists articulate intervallic relationships that generate specific text associations. He called these violin melodies ‘Tepehua thought-songs’, for their textual references hold startling lexical specificity. Using extensive analysis of Otomí linguistics, poetics structures and field research, Boilès was able to translate the semantic signals of the Halakiltunti ceremonies used in healing illnesses, securing rain and restoring harmony in community life. Ex.4 illustrates a text generated by intervals holding this semantic code:

Textual translation of violin intervals:

There was the thought,

Which thought it had been,
Yet it still is.

Hardly had it been born
When there existed lads and lasses.

Even though they were not Old Ones,
In this manner they grasped the way.

Thus were they given the thought;
Thus was the life given them by their fathers.

When the music begins,

It refers to when the thought entered.
It wants to say it is happy.

Yonder it has to grasp the music
Because it knows where it is.

Now it knows where to come in,
For when it arrived where were its fathers,
It greeted them.

Boilès asserted that all traditional Tepehua could hear these violin melodies and easily translate them into words. Intervallic relationships in indigenous performance are rarely this specific. Meanings associated with texts are usually much more abstract. In the vocal genre known as tayil among the Mapuche of Andean Argentina, the combination of melodic contours with non-lexical texts is used to identify particular lineages. Texts of short, repeated syllables carry abstract references to the totemic association of each lineage. The Mapuche word for sheep is ufisha, but the sung ritual signature of ufisha kimpeñ, the sheep lineage, is we-ke. Thus, the phonemes ‘we, we-ke’ identify the shared lineage soul of families who constitute the sheep kin group. Examples of three distinct lineage chants can be seen in ex.5.

The melodic contour and signature syllables that characterize each totemically centred tayil constitute a sonic pathway to the ancestors and creator beings. This repertory can only be performed by women, whose ability to give birth gives them a direct channel to the dimension of ancestral time called takuifí or alüalüntu. In ritual contexts, women perform or ‘pull forth’ this chant for their fathers, husbands, sons or kinswomen. As in the case of the Suyá akia, each performance is considered an independent sonic event, even when it occurs simultaneously with other performances of the same chant. Thus, each woman begins her rendition on her own pitch and may not try to link her performance rhythmically or tonally to the chanting of her kinswomen.

Each tayil consists of four phrases that act as ‘conjugations’ of the chant into four dimensions of time and space: the first phrase connects the intention of the woman who is performing to the heart of the person she is performing for. The second phrase pulls the lineage soul out of the recipient of the chant, bringing that shared soul into sacralized space. The third phrase catapults the lineage soul into the domain of sacred ancestral time. The entry of the chant into this dimension is marked by a specific pitch and timbre referred to as chempralitún, the pivotal sound that engenders transformation. The fourth phrase brings the transformed or re-energized soul back into the present and safely places it back in the body of its owner (Robertson).

The Tarahumara of western Mexico also use sound to bridge spatio-temporal domains. Arturo Salinas has demonstrated that the large, double-headed frame drums of the Tarahumara are used across vast geographic spaces to create an experience of concentric sonic layering (A. Salinas Sound layering in Tarahumara Drumming, unpublished manuscript, Washington, 1988). When Tarahumara peoples gather in a central location for celebratory purposes, they begin their drumming performances at the periphery of each village. Drummers pound their instruments for hours as they slowly approach the central fiesta space. The effect on the celebrants is of layers of rhythm and timbre which circle in on the nexus of celebration. Each village brings a distinct rhythm into prominence. The intention of the performers is not necessarily to articulate specific rhythms, but rather to create patterned layers of sound that weave a sonic tapestry as village kin groups converge. The end result, moving through these concentric circles of sound, is an experience of sound that mirrors Tarahumara village organization.

Not all performance happens in public or in large social contexts. As in other parts of the world, parents sing lullabies to their children, lone shepherds play their flutes for their flocks, and travellers compose nostalgic songs and improvisations that link them to home and family. But even in these instances of isolated solo performance, individuals rely on the musical patterns that mark them as members of a social group, for even the explorations of isolated composers are directly linked to an indelible cultural identity and soundscape.

Latin America, §I, 2: Indigenous Music: Contemporary performance traditions

(ii) Myth, ritual and performance.

All of these examples imply that indigenous musical traditions are anchored to theories of sound, time and space and to more complex theories of what sound is, how it can be structured and how it can be used to articulate community values and beliefs. In turn, these theories of what music is and what it does are rooted in rich oral traditions that link performance to myth and ritual.

One of the oldest belief systems of the Americas is linked to the jaguar (Hill, 1993; Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1975; Robertson, 1998). Beginning about 1300 bce, the Olmecs of eastern Mexico fashioned stone into gigantic representations of their jaguar god. In the oral traditions of the Baniwa of the north-western Amazon the jaguar Yaperikuli gives birth to the primordial hero, Kuai. The voice of the jaguar is contained in the resonant bass voice of wooden trumpets. Furthermore, Wright asserts that ‘whenever the jaguar-song occurs in myth or shaman-song, it indicates a transformation – Ipadámawa – is being made’ (1981, p.82). In creation myths, the female jaguar brings fire to the world, thus signalling a transformational moment in history when the hearth becomes the nexus of villages and kin groups.

In many initiation rites, the novice must face his or her own terror of encountering the ancestral jaguar. Among the Barasana of Colombia, male initiates are warned of the power of the he trumpets, which contain the terrifying voice of the jaguar ancestor. As they are played during the ritual, these instruments come to life and pass the life-giving breath of the ancestor into the initiate. Passing through fear and being touched by the fierce life force of the archetypal jaguar brings the initiates into full membership in the community.

Initiation rituals are frequently representations of the tension between genders. Among many peoples of the lowland rainforests, male social control is enacted, sanctioned and maintained through rituals that exclude women and separate them from contact with the sacred flutes performed by men (Basso; Murphy). Given their shape, construction and male symbolic association, anthropologists and ethnomusicologists have assumed these instruments to be phallic objects that assert male primacy. However, myths prevalent among the Mundurucú, Kalapalo, Mehinaku, Trumaí and neighbouring groups narrate that women used to be the owners of the flutes. Through abuses of power and sexual privilege, women lost ownership of the flutes and must now be controlled by men. Ellen Basso, one of the few women to do research in this region, tells us that during certain times of the month, Kalapalo male elders hide these instruments in the rafters of the men’s house because the flutes are ‘menstruating’. This fact implies that the flutes are not (or not only) a representation of the phallus, but rather an embodiment of the birth canal and of a kind of female power coveted by men.

The complexity and multivalence of ritual symbols and performance defy reductionistic interpretations. Such is the case in the Baile de moros y cristianos, the dance of Moors and Christians; another ritual of broad distribution in the Americas. Versions of this 15th-century dance–drama, linked to the expulsion of the Moors from Spain in 1492, can be found wherever Spain extended her empire. From New Mexico to Bolivia, this representation of the triumph of ‘good’ (Christianity) over ‘evil’ (Islam) is known variously as ‘Las Moritas’, ‘Los Santiagos’, ‘Los Alchileos’, ‘Los Matachines’ and other names (Warman Gryj). Spanish chroniclers of the 16th century tell us that the dance was first performed in Cotzacoalcos to honour Hernán Cortés. Predictably, Mexican versions of this drama incorporate the mistress of Cortés as a central figure of conquest. Known as Malinalli in Nahuatl, her native tongue; as Doña Marina to the Spaniards; and as La Malinche to her mestizo descendants, this woman played a key role in the initial encounter between Spaniard and Amerindian. She was a gifted translator and linguist, a political mediator and a respected cacique (chief). Ironically, her liaison with Cortés identifies her to some as a betrayer of the Amerindian. The breadth of her identity parallels the breadth of musical and instrumental traditions in which this dance repertory is played. In Mexico alone, Moros y cristianos instrumentation can range from harp and guitar to chirimía (shawm) and huehuetl or teponaztli drums; from fiddle and rattle to marimbas. The rattles and wooden drums are pre-Columbian in origin. The marimba is believed by some to be an indigenous instrument and by others to be an African import. The shawm and string instruments were introduced by Spanish conquerors and missionaries. Again, the multiple origins and associations of these instruments signal the complex cultural intricacies and variations wrought by conquest. Today these types of dramatic performances are perpetuated throughout Latin America by cofradías, or religious brotherhoods centring on a patron saint (see Moreno Chá; Uribe-Echevarría; Verger). The proliferation and diffusion of cofradías is on the rise, and continually expands to include new costumes, dances and songs. This form of popular religiosity, born originally of indigenous attempts to assimilate and ‘convert’ Catholicism to local beliefs, has attracted people of all social classes who are willing to dance or sing for the saints in exchange for supernatural intervention.

The most broadly distributed and musically diverse category of indigenous performance regards healing the body and spirit through sound. Healing is facilitated by the ability of a shaman (an anthropological term of Siberian origin) to mediate between the human and spirit worlds. This ancient role is linked to music in pre-Columbian ceramics from the Recuay, Wari and Chincha periods of Peru, where the healer is shown playing flutes, panpipes and drums. Detailed descriptions and transcriptions of healing songs among the Mapuche of Chile, the Warao of Venezuela and the Mazatec of Mexico are provided by Balada (1981), Grebe (1980) and Olsen (1996). These authors demonstrate that the details of performance, ranging from rattle and drum rhythms to the timbre and structure of songs, are relevant to the curing process. In his analysis of a Mariusa healing ceremony in Venezuela, Briggs (The Effectiveness of Poetics, unpublished manuscript, Briggs, 1991, cited in Olsen, 1996, p.190) delineates the relationship of the ceremonial rattle to actual healing procedures conducted by the wisiratu, or shaman, for a sick child:

… The slow tempo rattling enables the kareko in the rattle – who are the shaman’s helpers – to establish contact with the kureko aurohi ‘the fevers of the stones’, in the child, and this part of each section is referred to as dokotebuyaha ‘starting up the song’. The fast tempo rattling that follows is termed hebu nayaha ‘spanking the hebu’. Here the shaman either leans forward or crouches above the patient so that the rattle is directly over his body. With the increase in tempo and the intensity of movement, the revolutions become more ellipsoidal than circular, with rapid downthrusts constituting the blows to the hebu. This ‘spanking’ loosens the hebu’s grip on the child, paving the way for its extraction.

Specific tones, timbres and rhythms, sometimes combined with hallucinogens, also serve to establish and regulate the shaman and patient’s state of consciousness, and move the ceremony through successive stages in which the malady may be diagnosed, treated and transformed with the aid of the spirit world.

Indigenous communities are not static cultural entities. They continue to be permeated by internal and external changes that often modify or nullify ancient practices or even generate new genres of performance. In highland communities of Peru, the ancient ceremony honouring the sun, Intip Raymin, was incorporated into Corpus Christi celebrations. In recent times, Peruvians have reinvented a version of what they now call Inti Raimi, an elaborate pageant of pseudo-Inca characters played by criollos for the benefit of tourist audiences. But many traditionally rooted historical dramas have re-emerged in the 20th century as statements of Amerindian identity.

Among the Chamula of southern Mexico, Passion cults in which ritual players impersonate Jesus Christ constitute a central part of village life. The theme of the fiesta is not really Jesus of Nazareth but 500 years of resistance to external authority structures. In particular, the people of Chamula (a village in the state of Chiapas) commemorate the Caste War of 1867–70. This rebellion originated in Chamula. The indigenous leaders of this war exhorted their followers to reject the Catholic Church. On Good Friday of 1868 they crucified a young boy named Domingo Gómez Checheb so that he could be worshipped as the Indian Christ of Chamula. According to Bricker (1973, p.89), ‘There is abundant evidence that the Christ whom the Passion impersonates is the Indian Christ rather than the Ladino [Spanish-speaking] Saviour’. The focus on ‘Indianness’ is further marked by the playing of drums and cane flutes of pre-Columbian origin.

Luis Millones has documented a play popular in the Carhuamayo area of Peru that depicts the life, uprising, defeat and execution of Atahualpa (on 29 October 1532), the last Inca to lead an uprising against the Spanish invaders. The play ‘The Death of Atahualpa’ conflates the image of Santa Rosa de Lima, patron saint of many Andean communities, with the concept of Pachamama, the pre-Hispanic Earth Mother. The story is staged with elaborate costumes, songs and dances executed by the Inca Atahualpa and his entourage of warriors, priests and Coyas (royal consorts of the Inca). In a heightened dramatic moment, the invading conqueror, Francisco Pizarro, stealthily penetrates the formation of royal women dancing to the sound of drums and panpipes, draws his dagger and slits the throat of the lead Coya. Chicha (corn liquor), a symbol of life-sustaining wira energy, flows from the throat of the massacred ancestral mother to the ground. In this moment the course of history is forever changed and historical drama and ritual become one in the narrative of a people.

Latin America, §I: Indigenous Music

3. History, context and performing practice.

In pre-Columbian times, repertories, instruments and ideas were traded over vast geographies. Both Guaman Poma de Ayala and Garcilaso de la Vega, chroniclers of the Inca empire, asserted that the panpipes we have come to associate with the descendants of the Incas were actually imported from other lands. These instruments, which seem to have originated somewhere in the central Andes some 7000 years ago (Pérez de Arce) were traded out of the Peruvian area and then returned to their general place of origin many centuries later. Through trade and imperial expansion, the Incas redistributed this instrument as far north as Panama and as far south as Patagonia. The conch-shell trumpet (Strombus galeatus) was also traded from the Caribbean Sea into the Andes. It is possible that the scale patterns, rhythms, dance styles and spiritual practices were also exported through the routes created by commerce. This would explain the wide distribution of various kinds of pentatonic scales, for example.

Today musical ideas are more commonly traded by radio and television. It is not uncommon for the Mapuche of Chile and Argentina to listen to Mexican mariachi music on the radio and imitate the ranchera falsetto style at their social gatherings. In Peru, composers of huaynos may reach a relative who is hiding from the authorities by performing their compositions at independent radio stations and folding hidden political messages into their Quechua and Aymara texts.

From Mexico to Bolivia, instruments are seen as belonging to ‘families’. This kinship between instruments may be determined by their mode of production or by associations provided by contexts. Among the Aymara of Bolivia, one characteristic that marks Amerindian identity in performance is that panpipes should only be played with other panpipes, tarkas with tarkas, kenas with kenas; or, at least, when all these wind instruments are combined in one performance they should not be mixed with string instruments. Mixing winds with guitar or the armadillo-backed charango is a practice that identifies a genre and its performers as mestizo. This does not mean that traditional Aymara performing groups cannot perform a wide variety of styles, but instrumental combinations do signal cultural associations and socioeconomic variables.

Tonal organization among indigenous peoples defies the facile categories devised by scholars to describe how we, as Westerners, might apprehend performance. Pentatonic scales are common in the Americas; but in early ethnomusicology (Aretz, 1952; Izikowitz, 1934; Vega, 1946) scholars tended to reduce the music of a community to the particular scale that had caught their fancy. Thus, cultures that used many different scales became characterized by the tonal patterns of a single genre, a reductionistic practice that haunts us to this day. The key questions that have yet to be answered satisfactorily by ethnomusicology are, ‘How many systems of musical organization co-exist within one performance region? How are tone, rhythm and timbre perceived by the members of a particular culture? How does music interface with other ways of knowing the universe?’. Until we are able to decode the subtleties of time and tune as heard and used by indigenous people we will only be describing ourselves.

Regardless of how disparate or unusual indigenous tunings of musical structures may sound to the European ear, performance is always intentional and carries embedded assumptions about the nature of sound, the efficacy of form and the purpose of making music. McCosker has demonstrated that among the San Blas Cuna of Panama even lullabies, which are improvised to both comfort and educate children, follow a specific and predictable format. An example of the melodic characteristics of one of these lullabies is given in ex.6.

Intentionality of construction and inflection are important in indigenous approaches to tonal organization. In the archaeological heritage of central Chile we find pifilca flutes that were carved in stone or wood with a double bore that narrowed in the middle and flared at the ends. The resulting timbre created a shrill sense of dissonance that could be magnified by playing several of these flutes at once (Pérez de Arce). As in the timbre of Bolivian tarkas, the voice of the pifilca is meant to draw the attention of ancestors and supernaturals to the ritual ground. Among contemporary Araucanian Indians pifilcas are often made out of mountain bamboo. The same effect is achieved by cutting the stalks to specific lengths, pairing them and tuning them with water so that they generate shrill tones less than a major 2nd apart.

Rituals change; repertories change. It is true that many aspects of Amerindian life and performing practice have been altered, repressed and even rendered extinct by encroaching national and ladino interests. In Brazil, the fragility of rainforest cultures equals the fragility of rapidly disappearing ecosystems. But the survival of Amerindian cultures over 500 years of struggle attests to their tenacity and depth. Among the Aztecs, Maya and Inca of pre-conquest times, music education played a central part in socialization, empire building and ritual coherence. Linda O’Brien has shown that among the contemporary Tzutuhil-Maya of Atitlán, Guatemala, music continues to be a central vehicle for enculturation. Performance is at the core of traditions that the Tzutuhil speak of as ‘the heart and centre of the world’, the ‘ancient source of power and contentment’ and the ‘roots of life’ (1976, p.384). Music is an essential key for understanding the world of the indigenous peoples of Latin America; for we find that both before and long after European presence, theirs is a sonic universe.

Latin America, §I, 3: Indigenous Music: History, context and performing practice

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1. Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean.

II. Iberian and mestizo folk music

The Spanish and Portuguese presence in the western hemisphere for over five centuries obviously resulted in various forms of retention and transformation of music and dance expressions of Iberian origin. Latin American and Spanish Caribbean countries retained not only Iberian traditions in songs and dances but also developed genres of their own emanating from those traditions generally referred to as criollo (originally meaning ‘born in the New World’ of Iberian origin). Particularly significant was the widespread retention of the old Iberian romancero or ballad repertory in all of Spanish and Portuguese America, the adoption and adaptation of Iberian musical instruments (especially string instruments), of dance genres, and of specific style and performance characteristics. Concurrently, the contact of Europeans with Amerindian cultures created musical traditions that exhibit varying combinations of elements of corresponding origin. The hybridization of these traditions is clearly not homogeneous in the various countries and territories, since it depends on numerous factors such as the nature and structure of native cultures, the relative degree of acculturation, the level of native resistance to the process of colonialization and the relative importance attributed to a given region by the colonizers. Thus, the degree to which a single culture predominates, whether Iberian, Amerindian or African, varies greatly among nations, and, within nations, among regions.

2. South America.

Latin America, §II: Iberian and mestizo folk music

1. Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean.

The existence of a fairly sophisticated musical system by high Amerindian cultures of the Aztecs and Mayas in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica is demonstrated by archaeological evidence, the testimony of early Spanish missionaries in the form of detailed chronicles, and the study of Mexican codices and Amerindian language lexicons. At the time of the conquest in 1521, the Aztecs in central Mexico ruled over a large confederation of peoples; and their empire extended to present-day El Salvador. From their own domination of older Amerindian cultures, they inherited numerous ideas of instrument making and performance techniques.

The early missionaries in Mexico and Central America tried hard to suppress the native Amerindian musical culture. While they did not entirely succeed, as a result of their effective work much of the folk music of the Hispanic tradition found its way into the culture of almost all Mexican and Central American Amerindian groups. For example, obvious traces of Gregorian chant intonation and of old European modal melodies can be found in the shamanic chanting and singing performance of the Mazatec Indians in Oaxaca, Mexico. Moreover, songs of the Otomí Indians of north-east Mexico follow the characteristic triplet figurations of Spanish folksong and have elements of major tonality emphasizing tonic and third, as shown by the studies of Vicente Mendoza, a well-known authority on Mexican traditional music. Other Otomí songs give even greater evidence of European influence in their parallel 3rds and 6ths. Concurrently, these songs retain traditional Amerindian traits, such as small range and short melodies with but a few tones. Regardless of the origins of the varied elements of their musical expressions, contemporary Amerindian groups have fully assimilated them as integral parts of their cultures.

Despite its strong Amerindian roots, Mexican and Central American folk music derives substantially from its Spanish heritage. This Hispanic domination is not only the result of the early missionary work in the area but also of the Amerindians’ highly praised aptitude to learn and assimilate European music, a fact made possible by the existence of strong indigenous musical traditions in pre-Columbian times. Contemporary mestizo music exhibits a variety of scales, but the classic European major and minor modes predominate, especially in the various regional sones and other song types. Iberian folk polyphony (parallel 3rds and 6ths) as well as hemiola rhythmic structure constitute conspicuous traits of Mexican and Central American folk music in both instrumental and vocal performances. Likewise, Spanish popular literary forms (décima, copla) are the most frequently found in folksongs of the area.

Several membranophones, idiophones and aerophones of pre-Columbian origin are still in use in contemporary Mexico and Central America. The huehuetl single-headed drum is still played in central, southern and south-eastern Mexico. The teponaztli slit drum is even more widespread, as is its Mayan counterpart, the tun or tunkul, in Guatemala. Turtle-shell rasps continue to accompany sones in the isthmus of Tehuantepec. Whistle flutes, vertical flutes with varying numbers of finger-holes and panpipes are found throughout the area. The African-derived marimba is especially popular in Oaxaca, Chiapas and from Guatemala to Costa Rica in various forms. Despite the numerous attempts in Guatemala to prove the pre-Columbian origin of the marimba, there is no definite archaeological evidence to indicate that the original marimba de tecomates (i.e. of calabash resonators tuned to a diatonic scale) is of Amerindian provenance, despite the popularity of the instrument among Amerindians since the 18th century. The Guatemalan marimba was probably introduced in the early colonial period by African slaves, since it is remarkably similar to African xylophones, not only in its actual construction but in the particular buzzing sound resulting from a vibrating membrane attached to a circle of wax around an opening at the bottom of the resonators. All other folk instruments are derived or adapted from European instruments. Particularly significant are string instruments, including the standard violin, diatonic harp (the largest one of 35 strings), and a large number of instruments relating to the Spanish vihuela and guitar families, among them the standard guitar, the vihuela (five-string with convex shape), jarana or guitarra de golpe (five-string small guitar), requinto (six-string guitar somewhat smaller than the classic guitar), cuatro, guitarra huapanguera (eight strings in five courses), guitarrón (large five-string bass guitar), bajo sexto (six courses of double strings), mandolin and psaltery. The accordion (primarily the diatonic, button type) is the principal instrument of the northern conjuntos (or ensembles) but also appears as far south as Chiapas. The tradition of the brass band, developed in both Amerindian and mestizo communities, has proliferated everywhere. This is in part due to military service and military band traditions and constitutes a matter of civic pride in all communities.

The major genre of mestizo folk music in Mexico is the son which, despite its many regional differences, can be defined as music associated with dance, with specific literary form and verse contents and with specific regional instrumental ensembles. Although primarily an instrumental genre, the son includes singing as a rule, in alternating instrumental (‘música’) and vocal (‘verso’) sections. The main secular vocal genres of Mexican mestizo folk music are the corrido and the canción. Related to the Spanish romance, the corrido is the main ballad of Mexico, Central America and some of the Spanish Caribbean countries. Set in the usual copla (four-line stanza of octosyllabic lines) or décima form (ten-line verse), the corrido (also designated as romance, historia, tragedia, bola, mañanitas, versos etc.) exhibits a general melodic structure of one or two symmetrical and isometric phrases, repeated as often as the text demands it (the length varies from six to 78 stanzas), in typical strophic form. Corridos deal with a wide array of subjects, from old chivalry and love stories to historical events and figures (particularly significant is the corrido repertory of the Mexican Revolution of 1910), to local current events and sociopolitical protest. The corrido singer or corridista follows certain general formulae in telling the story: calling the audience’s attention, statement of the place and date of the event to be narrated and the name of the main character of the story; presentation of the main parts of the story; message; farewell of the main character and the corridista. A corrido is performed by one or two voices, with the accompaniment of guitar, violin and guitar, accordion or harp. With the increased popularity of conjuntos norteños (northern ensembles consisting of accordion, bajo sexto and double bass) and mariachis (developed in the state of Jalisco and consisting of male voices, violins, guitars, vihuelas, jaranas, guitarrón and trumpets), corridos written by popular composers such as José Alfredo Jiménez (1926–72) are sung by a solo voice with the support of an orchestra, in Mariachi or norteño style.

Although the term canción is applied generically to any song, it is more specifically understood as a Mexican mestizo song of lyric expression, outside any dance context (with a few exceptions, such as the polka songs of northern Mexico and the waltz songs of Tehuantepec). The wide range of sources of this lyric expression explains the great diversity of the genre, but many of the characteristics of 19th-century Italian opera and musical comedy have exerted profound influence on the canción, such as long, expanded melodic phrases and operatic vocal style of performance. Vicente Mendoza has classified the canción according to the following criteria: the metre of the versification, the musical structure, the geographical features which it describes, the area of the country in which it is sung, the character of the tune, the age or occupation of the users and the rhythm of the accompaniment expressed in terms of European dance forms. The canción appears both in rural and urban contexts. Numerous songs of the canción romántica mexicana (Mexican romantic song) type, written by such venerated composers of popular music as Agustín Lara, Tata Nacho and Guty Cárdenas, have won such lasting recognition that they are part of the repertory of the whole mestizo population. Among the songs of the northern region of Mexico (canciones norteñas) are rancheras, extremely popular sentimental songs with march-, polka- or waltz-influenced accompaniment in varying tempos. An affected performance style (ringing vocal production, contrasting dynamics) is particularly appropriate for conveying the melodramatic character of many rancheras.

Numerous dramatic dances of Iberian origin, such as the dance of Christians and Moors, illustrate the integration of indigenous and mestizo Christian and musical practices in Mexico and Central America. In Mexico the tradition of the concheros is especially symbolic of that integration. Also known as danzantes de la conquista (‘dancers of the conquest’), corporaciones de danza Azteca or chichimeca (‘corporations of Aztec dance or chichimeca’), they supposedly represent defeated Amerindians who converted to Catholicism and became active soldiers of spiritual conquest in the 16th century. Contemporary concheros consider themselves the descendants of the ancient Mexicans, marking their identity through Amerindian dress, elaborate feather headdresses, use of teponaztli and huehuetl, and observance of some ritual elements which could be pre-Hispanic. Their main melodic and harmonic instrument is the concha, a guitar of five courses of double strings made from an armadillo shell, from which their name derives. Mandolins are also added to the ensemble. They wear large jingles (huesos) made of seed shells around their ankles. They organize themselves as a sort of spiritual army, with military titles, but their musical instruments are their weapons, their rituals entirely musical and choreographic. The two principal ceremonies are the velación, private rite to Catholic saints and to the spirits of ancestor-concheros (known as ánimas conquistadoras or ‘conquest souls’) and the danza itself. The latter is a public ceremony, performed at least four times a year, in four major sanctuaries, of which those of Chalma and Villa de Guadalupe are the most important. The greeting, offering and praise songs follow a familiar Hispanic-mestizo style, in call and response, with the choral answers in characteristic parallel 3rds and 6ths; popular Catholic hymns and alabanzas (praise hymns) are the main genres. Strictly instrumental music (mandolins, conchas, huehuetl, teponaztli) accompany the public dance. Since the 1970s, the danza azteca and the conchero groups have spread throughout the south-western United States, from Texas to California, as a strong key symbol of Mexican-American identity.

The ‘Spanish’ Caribbean, composed of the islands of Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, demonstrate more their Hispanic than their African heritage, although the contribution of the latter to mestizo folk music is considerable. Hispanic-related genres among the Cuban guajiros (rural farmers) of the eastern provinces and the interior of the country, include the song types décima guajira, guajira and punto, all exhibiting the same main stylistic peculiarities as most Iberian-mestizo folk music throughout Latin America. The décima represents the improvised song text, frequently in controversias, poetic-singing contests. As a song and dance, the punto is found not only in Cuba but in the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Colombia and Panama. Among Puerto Rican jíbaros (peasants) the prevailing genre is the seis whose Spanish character comes not only from the use of the décima espinela in its song text but also from the frequent harmonies based on the ‘Andalucian cadence’ (a descending conjunct motion of the roots of alternating major and minor triads) and a specific tense vocal style associated with cante hondo or flamenco music. The typical accompanying ensemble of the seis includes a guitar, a tiple (small guitar of five courses of single or double strings), a bordonúa (large six-string guitar) and the Puerto Rican cuatro (a guitar-like instrument with five courses of double strings).

The impact of African culture on Caribbean music is so pre-eminent that the most important genres of song and dance music belong properly to the Afro-Caribbean tradition (see §III below).

Latin America, §II: Iberian and mestizo folk music

2. South America.

(i) Songs.

(ii) Dances, autos and dramatic dances.

Latin America, §II, 2: Iberian and mestizo folk music: South America

(i) Songs.

Because song functions in conjunction with dancing in a very high proportion of repertories, there are relatively few independent song genres in South American folk music. Throughout the continent one finds several song types derived from the old Spanish romance, the typical ballad dating to the early Renaissance, based on the décima (ten-line verse) form or four-line stanzas with octosyllabic lines (the copla poetic structure, with rhyme schemes of ABCB, known as rima romancera). Under different local names, romances have been preserved, sometimes in their original form (e.g. in the Chocó province of Colombia) and sometimes with significant variations which reveal the characteristic feeling and world view of the mestizos of a given region. Improvised coplas of a narrative nature frequently replace the romance as the ballad genre (although they are derived from it), especially in Mexico, Colombia, the Andean countries and Argentina. Typically, romances and coplas describe, in an epic lyrical manner, famous historical events of a region, the feats of a folk hero or episodes of daily life. Apart from their poetic and musical value, they often provide significant sociological data, expressed for the most part in metaphorical language. Ex.7 shows two versions of a traditional romance known in Lima, Peru. Entitled La esposa difunta o la aparición, its origin has been traced to 16th-century Spain. The regular two- and four-bar phrases and their isometric structure are characteristic of Spanish folksong. Literary versions of the same romance have been collected from New Mexico, California, Mexico and Nicaragua to the Spanish Caribbean, Venezuela, Ecuador and several provinces of Argentina, confirming the wide diffusion of the romance tradition.

Other folksongs, such as the Argentine and Chilean tonadas and tonos, have maintained other old Spanish literary forms. The glosa and the décima are, respectively, a quatrain which sets the basic subject or story and a development of the basic subject in a stanza of ten octosyllabic lines. This structure is found in Chilean, Peruvian, Ecuadorian and Colombian décimas, Argentine estilos and cifras, and in many other genres, such as the guabina of Colombia or the romances and xácaras of Luso-Brazilian folk music. The classical rhyme scheme of the Spanish décima, abbaaccddc, known as décima espinela (after Vicente Espinel who first introduced it in the 16th century), prevails in most of the folksong types mentioned.

Actual Iberian folk melodies extant in Spain and Portugal, however, are very rare in Latin America. Children’s songs (particularly round-play songs and lullabies) seem to be the notable exceptions, for many of them remain basically the same in both areas. The problem of determining the sources of Iberian tunes in Latin American folk music is generally unsolved. But we can say with some certainty that the tunes sung in Latin America are for the most part not simply imports from Spain and Portugal, although the texts more frequently are. They are more usually songs composed in Latin America in the styles brought from Europe, or those brought from Europe centuries ago but so changed by oral tradition that their European relatives can no longer be recognized. It should also be considered that perhaps the European tunes have themselves undergone change. This situation is not paralleled among the minority groups living in South America, including Germans, East Europeans and Italians, for although they have preserved many songs brought from Europe, they have not created much new material in corresponding styles.

An extensive study by Grebe in 1967 of the Chilean verso (also known as canto a lo poeta), a traditional type of sung poetry, has conclusively shown stylistic similarities with Spanish medieval and Renaissance genres such as cantigas and villancicos, especially regarding modality, cadential practices and both strict and free metrical and rhythmic styles. The poetas or cantores perform versos accompanying themselves with a guitar or more commonly the guitarrón (not to be confused with the Mexican instrument of the same name), an older type of guitar of 25 strings, 21 of them grouped in five courses, the remaining four (sympathetic) strings directly attached in pairs to the table of the soundbox on each side of the neck. The accompaniment alternates mostly between tonic and dominant chords. Quite apart from their poetry, which ranges from biblical stories to Spanish historical and legendary accounts of the Middle Ages, the musical behaviour and customs of the folk cantores reveal striking similarities to the Spanish medieval juglar and other European types of troubadour.

Archaic musical elements are also found in the cantoria (generic term for poetic singing of a predominantly narrative nature) of north-east Brazil, as well as in some folk melody types associated with the desafio (challenge), used in singing contests, with frequently improvised texts consisting of questions and answers performed by two singers, often in antiphonal structure with instrumental interludes (by a viola, a Portuguese folk guitar of five courses of double strings) between the vocal sections. The most common literary form of desafio in Brazil is the six-line heptasyllabic stanza, common in Portuguese folk poetry. One of the most popular song types associated with the desafio is the embolada, found throughout Brazil’s hinterland but originally from the north-east. Mostly improvised, it is declamatory in character and presents a typical refrain in addition to the six-line stanza. As in many Brazilian songs, the refrain makes use of alliteration, assonance and onomatopoeia in a syncopated melodic line with many repeated tones and an unusually fast tempo. The text of the embolada, based on stereotyped models, comments on local customs and criticizes figures and events of the community in a very humorous, satirical and provocative manner.

Lyrical love songs abound in South American folk music. Generically known as tonadas in the Spanish-speaking countries and toadas in Brazil, they appear, typically, in four-, five-, or ten-line stanzas, sometimes incorporating a refrain. The Argentine estilo will serve as an example. According to Isabel Aretz (1952), the estilo is a well-defined lyrical song genre made up of two melodic ideas, the ‘theme’, properly speaking, and somewhat faster strain known as alegre. The overall form of the song is ternary, ABA. The text of the estilo is generally set in quatrains or in décimas. The estilo is also common in Uruguay. Ex.8 illustrates the characteristics of the genre: guitar accompaniment (both picked and strummed styles), vocal duet in parallel 3rds and the theme and alegre sections.

A fairly important body of folksongs in South America comes from folk and popular religious customs accompanying the liturgical calendar of the Catholic church. Here too the repertory exhibits a close relationship with the Iberian peninsula. The hymns and songs of praise brought over by Spanish and Portuguese missionaries are variously known as alabados, alabanzas, salves (hymns of praise) in Spanish, and cantigas de romarias (songs of pilgrimage) in Portuguese. Most of them are predominantly modal and follow the traditional pattern of folk hymn singing, i.e. alternation of the estribillo (the refrain), performed by the chorus and the copla (stanza), performed by one or two soloists. In the Chocó province of Colombia, inhabited mostly by black Colombians, alabados, romances and salves are performed antiphonally at various wakes for an adult or a child to pay tribute to the dead person; the text is improvised and frequently alludes to the life story of that person. In responsorial style, these songs maintain an archaic character through the modal structures of the solo lines and polyphonic choral responses in parallel 4ths and 5ths. Many religious folksongs are associated with the Christmas season. Thus the traditional Spanish villancico has developed into many folksong types, known as aguinaldo, adoración, coplas de Navidad, esquinazo and others in the various countries. While most of them obviously relate to their Spanish counterpart, they also show many mestizo or criollo characteristics. For example, the Venezuelan villancicos and aguinaldos are in 2/4, 6/8 or 3/4 metres, with regular phrases of two- and four-bar lengths, major and minor mode or bi-modality, melodies in parallel 3rds with a range not exceeding a 6th, almost total absence of modulation and chromaticism and syllabic setting of the text. All are features occurring in the Hispanic-American Christmas repertory. But most aguinaldos differ from the Spanish villancico in their complex rhythmic accompaniment, provided by an ensemble consisting of cuatro (a small four-string guitar, different from the Puerto Rican instrument of the same name) and various percussion instruments, based on the alternation of binary and ternary rhythmic figures common in mestizo dances such as the merengue and the guasá. The melodies of the Venezuelan aguinaldos tend also to be more syncopated than those of the Spanish villancico. Ex.9 shows some of the features of the aguinaldo.

Work songs also constitute an important part of the South American folksong repertory. The various genres of work song naturally reflect the predominant agricultural labour in the rural areas. The Spanish zafra song refers to the olive harvest in Spain, and the same term is generally used for the sugar cane harvest in the Caribbean and for any type of agricultural work in the Atlantic coastal area of Colombia. The copla forms the most common basis for the texts of the Colombian zafras, although interjections, typical cries (gritos), the addition of syllables at the beginning and ending of verses and the occasional insertion of new verses give the performances an improvisatory character. In the same area of Colombia, cattle-herding songs known as vaquerías are performed in responsorial fashion between several vaqueros walking or riding in front and at the rear of the herd. According to List (B1983), the terms zafra and vaquería refer in the strictest sense to singing styles rather than to song genres. The two are similar in their rather free form, which is made up of various improvised combinations of melodic patterns, and in the style of vocal production, which favours a very high tessitura. A comparable type of herding song is the Brazilian aboio de gado performed by vaqueiros in south-central and north-east Brazil. It is stylistically different from its Portuguese counterpart in that it involves non-lexical syllables, has no recurrent pulse, and is sometimes sung in parallel 3rds in the highest tessitura with long sustained tones and vocal glissandi. Another type of Brazilian work song, the aboio da roça, functions in general agricultural labour contexts and emphasizes a rhythmic pulse matching the pace and rhythm of the corresponding labour.

Latin America, §II, 2: Iberian and mestizo folk music: South America

(ii) Dances, autos and dramatic dances.

South America enjoys a well-known distinction in the category of secular folk and popular dances, many of which originated in the Iberian peninsula and retain significant traits specific to much Spanish folkdancing (zapateado shoe tapping, finger snapping, use of scarf or handkerchief). This is the case of the Argentine chacarera, whose name is derived from chacra meaning ‘farm’ (from the Quechua Indian chagra ‘cornfield’). The chacarera was probably created by the farmers of the pampas, the plains of the province of Buenos Aires. Musically, the Spanish ancestry is also evident in the use of hemiola rhythm (alternating 6/8 and 3/4 metres) in the instrumental introduction. Another important criolla (i.e. native but of Hispanic origin) dance widespread throughout the Argentine countryside is the gato, from which other dances are derived. Its dance figures include shoe-tapping steps performed by women who, like female flamenco dancers, lift their long skirts to show agile foot movements. Male dancers perform another very familiar figure known as escobillado (or escobilleo), a very fast movement consisting of swinging one foot after the other while scraping the ground. Rhythmically, the most characteristic formula of the gato alternates 6/8 and 3/4 metres (the hemiola rhythm again).

The zamba is one of the many Argentine couple-dances. A danza de pañuelo (scarf dance) also found in Peru, Chile and Ecuador, it involves a symbolic code in use and function of the scarf. The history of the zamba is rather obscure. A late colonial Peruvian criolla dance known as zamacueca (or zambacueca) was introduced into Argentina during the first half of the 19th century. Out of this dance emerged the zamba, on the one hand, and the cueca on the other. The latter has become one of the most familiar dances of Bolivia and Chile. In Peru and the western provinces of Argentina the name chilena was used to designate the Chilean cueca. As a result of the Pacific war (1879) between Peru and Chile, in Peru the chilena became the marinera. Thus, the names zamba, cueca, chilena, and marinera have acquired specific meanings in the various countries. Although they are all flirtation dances and share the same basic rhythmic organization (with 6/8 and 3/4 metres), they differ in melodic types, tempos and instrumental accompaniment. The Chilean cueca presents a more complex poetic and musical structure: two musical phrases are set to a text made up of three elements, i.e. a cuarteta (quatrain), a seguidilla (seven lines) and a pareado (two lines). In actual performance, a number of extemporized stock verbal interjections (muletillas) may be added at will in any of the three basic components.

Among the main social dances of the Andes is the huayno (commonly called huayño in Bolivia), popular among Amerindians and mestizos from north-west Argentina to Ecuador, where it is known as sanjuanito (a term that could be derived from use of the diminutive huaynito rather than San Juan). Originally an Amerindian dance, the huayno has been adopted by mestizos as their own and continues to be very relevant in contemporary societies. Huayno music can be strictly instrumental or both vocal and instrumental. Vocal Amerindian huaynos are generally sung in the native languages (Quechua and Aymara), although lyrics in both Spanish and Quechua are not uncommon. Aymara huaynos tend to be strictly instrumental, performed by sicuri bands (panpipes) or pincullo (vertical flute) or tarka (duct flute) ensembles. In lively tempo, the huayno appears most of the time in duple metre and in binary form, consisting of two phrases of equal length (frequently isometric) repeated ad libitum. Versions alternating triple and duple metre (or compound duple), or simply alternating binary and ternary divisions in a single metre, are fairly frequent. Ex.10 shows one of the most typical versions of the huayno, from the Cuzco area, with a standard descending anhemi-pentatonic tune (mode E–C–B–A–F), with common syncopated lines and the usual cadential falling minor 3rd.

Especially in the Andean region of South America it is difficult in many contexts of music-making to differentiate the musical features of Amerindian origin from those of the European tradition, as the elements of the two cultures combined to form inseparable units. While mestizo culture and society have been dominant (and hegemonic), mestizo music and dance have incorporated more of the Amerindian heritage of the area than any other region of South America and European-derived elements have been ‘Andeanized’ to a great extent. European string instruments (violin, guitar, harp and mandolin), for example, are performed in a uniquely Amerindian manner and represent an important aspect of Amerindian aesthetic systems. Mestizo, criollo and Amerindian genres are often integrated in actual performance, for example the yaravi (a song type of pre-Columbian origin) often precedes the huayno, while the huayno and marinera frequently form a logical pair.

Many Brazilian folkdances and corresponding musical genres exhibit considerable European retentions. For example, many of the round-dance types used in the fandangos of southern Brazil are popular rural revelries in which regional dances, such as the tirana, tatu, balaio, recortado, chimarrita and many others are performed. Thus fandango was transformed in Brazil into a generic term, which suggests that the Spanish dance of the same name was once popular there, as it was in Portugal. The numerous designations of these dances derive from their song texts. The singing, in which stanza and refrain alternate and which is always in parallel 3rds and 6ths, is the responsibility of the viola players. In the coastal area of the southern states, the fiddle is common, and in Rio Grande do Sul the accordion has become a popular accompanying instrument of the fandango dances.

The transfer of the Roman Catholic religion to South America has generated a series of more or less complex autos (folk religious plays with dance and music) and popular dramatizations of the Christian liturgical festivities, such as the Nativity and the journey of the Magi, the Lent and Easter cycle, and the Holy Cross, as well as the commemoration of saints’ days. Many of these dramatic dances resulted at first from the Iberian catechetical theatre and became true rituals as cycles of syncretic religious feasts. Among these feasts Carnival has remained the most popular. Syncretism with Amerindian and African belief systems and practices is often present. In Brazil, for example, the central subject of many dramatic dances is always religious. Conversion and resurrection as symbolic rites of passage are the main themes of such dances as congada, marujada, moçambique, quilombo, caiapó and cabocolinhos, among others. In the catechization process, the medieval crusades represented in the Iberian peninsula as dances of Christians and Moors (Danza de Moros y Cristianos) were incorporated in similar dances in Hispanic America, where the native infidels became the ‘Moors’.

In Paraguay, northern Argentina and Brazil, the Jesuits in particular were responsible for diffusing many of these dances and for giving them unity and uniformity. Indeed, the congada, for example, known all over Brazil, combines elements of the popular religious theatre of the peninsula with Afro-Brazilian traditions and customs, such as the coronation of black kings during the slave period. But in spite of its name and the fact that blacks participate in it in large numbers, the history of the dance suggests that it is not of African origin, but simply a remembrance of and inspiration from the Chanson de Roland (the well-known medieval French chanson de geste) wisely turned to the advantage of the catechist-missionary. The songs accompanying the cortège, which is led by the main characters (including Roland himself and Charlemagne), show typical traits of Portuguese folksongs. A number of dramatic dances also refer to the great maritime exploration of Spain and Portugal in the 15th and 16th centuries, but always in conjunction with their civilizing mission of converting the native populations of the conquered territories.

In the Andean area, on the other hand, many indigenous dances of Aymara and Quechua Amerindian origin, including pantomime dances, have become traditional for celebrating Catholic religious feasts. Particularly widespread are the numerous festivals honouring patron saints in various cities, towns and villages. These patronal fiestas involve Amerindians and mestizos in various combinations of pre-Columbian and Spanish traditions of dances and songs. Numerous other dramatic dances are reminiscent of events from the Conquest period or of the glory of the past, such as the well-known Baile del Inca, reminding one of the last Inca leader Atahualpa’s cruel death.

The sub-Saharan African presence in the cultural history of Latin America and the Caribbean has been deeply significant not only in the preservation of African diasporic cultural expressions, under slavery conditions, but also in the creation of sui generis cultural traditions resulting from the absorption of imposed foreign cultural values and, through this process, in the strongly influential contribution to various aspects of mestizo expressive culture thoughout Latin America. Despite centuries of oppression and racial discrimination, Latin Americans of African descent have been integrated and acculturated to such a large extent that the general acceptance of what constitutes, ethnically and culturally, an Afro-American in the Latin American context is not as unequivocal as in North America. As a result, the definition of ‘black’ music becomes extremely complex, for, with the exception of a few important religious contexts of music making in which African musical elements and functions are strongly preserved, Afro-Iberian and Afro-Caribbean music represent another significant phase of mestizo culture. In many areas, acculturation of African peoples has affected other ethnic groups or the wide range of mestizo groups. In such cases we are confronted with ethnically diverse groups with a remarkably homogeneous ‘black’ culture. Race alone, therefore, cannot be considered a sole criterion for identifying Afro-Iberian musical styles, and while Africanisms are stressed here, it should always be borne in mind that Afro-Iberian music cuts across ethnic lines.

III. Afro-American Music

1. Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean.

2. South America.

Latin America, §III: Afro-American Music

1. Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean.

The African contribution to Mexican folk music has been traditionally neglected or minimized. Only in the 1980s did Mexico begin to recognize the ‘third root’ (tercera raíz) of its traditional music and the Caribbean affinity of some of its expressions. Mexican scholars began then to search for the specific elements of what they called the ‘Afro-mestizo’ traditions of mostly the Gulf Coast (Huasteca region, the southern portion of Veracruz and the state of Tabasco) and the Pacific coastal area in Jalisco, the ‘tierra caliente’ (hot land) of Michoacán and Guerrero, and of the ‘Costa Chica’ (small coast) of Guerrero and Oaxaca states. The music of the Afro-mestizo communities of the Costa Chica reveals the most obvious African-related percussion practice, as seen in the sones de artesa and sones de diablos. In addition, the complex rhythmic structures of the son jarocho, the jarabe, the chilena, gusto and zapateo have been assigned some African influence, mostly in relation to the frequency of the hemiola pattern and the reliance on percussive effects, even with string instruments such as the harp and jaranas.

In Guatemala, Honduras and Belize the Garífuna, who are descendents of maroons and Caribs from St. Vincent, retain a remarkably African-like musical tradition in their main dances and instruments, such as the drum garaon performing the rhythm and dance known as punta or culeado, urbanized and modernized as the punta rock. A genre of ritual song, the dugu, also constitutes a significant aspect of Garífuna culture in Honduras. Nicaragua and Costa Rica have low percentages of black population (mostly along the Atlantic coast, around Bluefields and Limón, respectively), most of it with close historical and cultural ties to the British Caribbean (Jamaica and Trinidad). Thus some of the musical expressions of that population are related to Jamaican spiritual baptists, calypso and Carnival celebration. In Panama a large number of people of African descent (both slaves during the Colonial period and Caribbean blacks) play an important role in contemporary folk music. This African musical heritage is best expressed in the mimetic dance–theatre known as los congos, performing congadas, coming from a black colonial tradition, and also in the types of drums accompanying most Panamanian folk dances and in their dancing style (Afro-Hispanic sensual choreography), including the national dance, the tamborito, and the well-known Afro-Panamanian and Afro-Colombian cumbia.

In the Caribbean predominantly West African religions have been retained with considerable transformation in Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica and Trinidad. It is in the sacred contexts of Cuban Santería, Haitian Vodou, Jamaican Kumina, and Trinidadian Shango music that traditional African elements are most strongly preserved. These Afro-Caribbean religions recognize the African Yoruba (orishás) and Fon (voduns) deities (or some local reinterpretations of them) and are based on a belief system and on practices essentially African. Varying degrees of syncretism, however, are found almost everywhere. Most religious groups show features of Christian beliefs, although not necessarily a recognition of a Christian god or saint. Often, as a result of socio-historical accommodation to the conditions of slavery, a Catholic saint has been assimilated into the personality of an African deity, or, more likely, the saint served originally to camouflage the African god. The equivalence of saints and deities is not uniform throughout the area. As developed in these countries, these African religions are monotheistic (the recognition of a supreme God), animistic in nature, and involve a pantheon of major and lesser deities, each of which is worshipped with characteristic ceremonies, songs and drum rhythms. The ritual performance activities are almost always rendered liturgically meaningful through songs which correspond to the various myths involving the deities. The most obvious African features prevailing in these activities include the offerings to the god (with the ritual use of blood through animal sacrifices), initiatory rites, ritual dancing with a highly symbolic choreography, personification of the deities through spirit possession, and divinatory practices, among others.

The most important Afro-Cuban religions include the Lucumí (derived from the Yoruba of Nigeria), the Kimbisa or Mayombé (from the Congo area) and the Abakuá (combining beliefs of the other cults; its members are referred to as ñáñigos). Various societies such as the Regla de Ocha (Santería), Regla de Palo Monte, and Regla Arará, among others, present complex corpora of ritual elements in which music and dance are fully integrated. Lucumí music typically is made up of responsorial singing (the solo lines often performed by the cult leader or the master drummer), with monophonic choral responses, accompanied by drums and bells. The Yoruba sacred batá drums (double-headed with each head of a different size) are played with bare hands, as in Nigeria, in a battery of three: the largest (iyá, i.e. ‘mother’) played by the master drummer with frequent improvisations, the medium-sized (itótele) and smallest (okónkolo) drums performing a set rhythmic pattern with slight variants (ex.11). Cycles of songs are performed in a prescribed ritual order, according to specific liturgical functions, and the texts of the songs appear mostly in the Yoruba and various Congo languages.

Among the Haitian cult groups are the Vodou or Rada religion (from the Arada-Nago family), the Pétro group (Congo-Guinée family) and other lesser family groups. The Vodou religious group is entirely based on the Fon religion of the ancient kingdom of Abomey and Alada in present-day Benin, but with a number of mythical reinterpretations and the development of a religious language based on Creole, including the names of the deities (lwa) which, nevertheless, retain the same general attributes of the African voduns. The practices of initiation, mandatory offerings to the deities, ritual dancing and songs as integral parts of the spirit possession phenomenon are also observed in Haitian traditional religions.

The Afro-Dominican folk music tradition has been deliberately neglected in the Dominican Republic as a result of a prevailing strong Hispanocentric ideology in that country. But the African presence is evidenced in certain collective worksongs and through the use of the palos and atabales (long drums), mostly associated with the rituals of religious brotherhoods (cofradías), such as the Brotherhood of the Holy Spirit of Villa Mella and that of St. John the Baptist of Baní. In addition, the music of the gagá groups (the Lenten carnivalesque vodou-related societies) originally from Haiti (known there as rarás) is considered a bonafide Haitian-Dominican expression. Likewise, Dominican vodú or espiritismo has gradually gained popularity since the 1980s. The main genre of traditional secular dance music, the folk merengue (especially the Cibao regional variant called perico ripiao), reveals a number of Afro-Dominican musical and dance features, as do other mestizo genres.

The countries of Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago preserve various aspects of Afro-Caribbean religious music: non-Christian groups in the case of the Shango religion in Trinidad and of the Kumina and Rastafarians in Jamaica; Christian groups as in the Spiritual Baptists or ‘Shouters’ of Trinidad and the Pukkomina, Spiritual Baptists and Revival Zions of Jamaica. Specific types of songs, drum music and performance practices show traditional African elements in the non-Christian religions, and harmonized choruses and Anglo-American hymnody among the Christian groups. All, however, tend to follow a predominantly overlapping responsorial practice. The music of the Revivalist groups is very similar to black Protestant music of the southern USA, combining various types of traditional hymnody with an important body of 19th century gospel hymns. The influence of the latter in Jamaica is such that the hymns are referred to as ‘sankeys’ from Ira D. Sankey, the American evangelist singer and lead musician associated with the revivalist group of Dwight L. Moody.

In the area of secular music Caribbean songs and dances owe much to the Afro-Caribbean heritage. Afro-Cuban genres (with European and African roots) such as the son, guaracha, and rumba reveal a sub-Saharan African conception of rhythmic organization in which timbric contrast (in both voices and instruments) has great significance. In the son, for example, so central in Cuban and Caribbean music at large, the various instruments (especially bongos, tres guitar, marímbula [rumba box], claves, maracas and tumbadora) present various rhythmic cells, known as tumbaos, forming cross-rhythmic and polyrhythmic textures, with much freedom and exciting variants. Improvisation is paramount in the rumba (existing in three different choreographic forms: guaguancó, yambú and columbia) in which the highest-pitched drum (quinto) is free to improvise at will, establishing a sort of dialogue with the improvising solo voice and a form of challenge with the male dancer, while the tumbadora and the palitos (sticks on woodblock) establish a contrast with regular mostly unchanging patterns, paralleling the set harmonized choral responses. The son summarizes in many different ways the basic elements and qualities of Afro-Cuban and, by extension, Afro-Caribbean music. Other closely related styles and genres, such as the nengón, changüi, guaracha and hybrids (guaguancó-son, bolero-son, etc.), attest to the centrality of the Cuban son. Even the pan-Hispanic genre of popular music that emerged in the late 1960s, salsa, owes a great deal to the son (see §IV).

Afro-Puerto Rican folk music traditions developed originally in the southern coast of the island in and around Ponce. The bailes de bomba and the plena are the genres with the strongest Afro-Caribbean connection. Bomba designates a dance and its music dating back to the times of slavery and the generic drums (barrel-like single-headed cylindrical instruments) used in it. Besides the various sizes of bomba drums, other instruments participate in the dance performance, especially the burlador (the largest drum functioning as the main improviser), the requinto (a smaller drum), wooden sticks (the cuás), claves and maracas. The bailes de bomba (bomba dances) were performed in the sugar cane fields and might have had some religious relationship, but in contemporary times they animate various secular social ‘fiesta’ occasions. The bomba involves responsorial singing in which the soloist may improvise songtexts. As a brief narrative song, the plena has emerged since the 1920s as a major genre of Puerto Rican working class identity, frequently commenting in critical and satirical terms on local socio-political issues. Its connection to Afro-Puerto Rican musical tradition is due mainly to Afro-Caribbean related rhythms and dance character, as well as the use of conga drums, bongos, the pandereta (hand drums) of Spanish origin but performed sui generis, and melodic instruments such as the Puerto Rican cuatro.

A number of song and dance genres are associated with Carnival celebration throughout the Caribbean. In Cuba, the Santiago Carnival is especially noteworthy, with its percussion groups (descargas) and the various parading dance and musical comparsas. In Trinidad, calypso song, calypso tent and steel drum ensembles have all been associated with Carnival celebration (see §IV).

Latin America, §III: Afro-American Music

2. South America.

Afro-American music in South America is found in various forms primarily in Suriname, the Guyanas, Venezuela, Colombia, Brazil, and secondarily in smaller enclaves in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Uruguay. The relationship of music expressions and black ethnicity and identity is by no means homogeneous in South America. As opposed to many Caribbean countries, with very few exceptions, black communities in South America are mostly minorities, despite the varying regional distribution of the black population. In most cases, they are marginalized and often adopt the ideology of négritude as the essence of their cultural, sometimes class, identity. At the same time, many black communities also share in and contribute to the Iberian-American mestizo expressions, so that they exhibit a truly unique form of expression, thereby transcending ethnic origin in favour of regional or national integration.

As in the Caribbean, it is in the sacred and secular ritual music repertories that the more black African stylistic elements are found. African religions (generically known as candomblé in Bahia) are retained in Brazil and the songs, rhythmic patterns and percussion improvisation of the most traditional groups follow, by and large, West African styles and functions, especially Yoruba and Fon religious practices as transferred and developed in that country. Such styles include anhemitonic pentatonic and hexatonic descending melodies, percussion accompaniment, and responsorial performing practices, with monophonic choral responses and African-related vocal production. Although the styles are strongly African the repertories are most likely of local elaboration. Cycles of songs are performed in a fairly well-established ritual order, as invocations and offerings to the gods (Yoruba orixás, Fon voduns). Songtexts appear in various languages, from Yoruba (Nagô), Fon and various Congo languages to Portuguese, and, among some groups, a combination of these. Typically, songtexts refer to the various myths associated with the deities, as reinterpreted in Brazil. Music fulfils primarily a sacralizing function and as such is totally integrated within the liturgical precepts of the Afro-Brazilian religions. The latter represent a focal point of resistance to the dominating culture and serve as an important symbolic source of Afro-Brazilian identity in contemporary times.

The rhythmic structure of candomblé music reveals a typically African sense of rhythm whereby regular motoric unchangeable parts are contrasted with improvised parts. Ritual drumming occurs as an accompaniment to song performances and solo (ex.12). Specific rhythmic patterns are associated with specific gods, such as alujá for Xangô, the god of thunder and fire, bravum for Ogum, the warrior deity and god of metal tools, aguerê for Oxossi, the hunting god, and igbim for Oxalá, the god of creation. To each rhythm corresponds a given choreography also associated with a specific god. The type of interlocking rhythmic organization so common in traditional West African and Afro-Cuban religious music does not prevail in Brazil. However, the African type of hemiola is quite frequent. Cone-shaped, single-headed drums, known in Bahia as atabaques, are played in a battery of three different sizes. The largest drum, called rum, is played with a stick and a bare hand by the master drummer who, through his improvisations, controls the ritual dance. The middle-sized drum, the rumpi, and the smallest drum, the lê, played with sticks in Gêge-Nagô music, perform standard, unchanging patterns. The agogô (cowbell), played with a metal stick, completes the accompanying ensemble. As drums constitute a very significant symbol of communication with the 0rixás, they go through a sort of ‘baptism’ ceremony before they can be used in ritual contexts. The sacred role of drummers (alabês) is recognized by means of a confirmation ceremony. Their primary function is to call the gods, hence to bring about spirit possession of the initiates, but they themselves never fall into a trance while drumming.

Since the 1950s Brazilian music has gained a greater following as a result of the popularity across the country of the umbanda religion, a combination of candomblé beliefs, popular Catholicism, spiritualism, and Kardecism. Umbanda music displays stylistic changes that illustrate the effective penetration of national values into strong regional and urban cultural settings. Indeed umbanda music responds to a deliberate attempt to cater to all segments of urban society, especially the lower middle-class. And it does so by relying on a nationally omnipresent and familiar style, namely the folk-urban type of dance music most readily associated with the samba. In contradistinction to the traditional candomblés, umbanda music repertory is in constant elaboration, albeit stylistically restricted. But this stylistic limitation appears the most effective in attracting worshippers from the whole gamut of the social strata. In effect, it seems that caboclo and umbanda religions and their expressive means (mostly music and dance) may have been the most important factor for the cultural and regional integration of Brazil in the last three decades of the 20th century.

Among the secular ritual contexts of music-making the Afro-Bahian game–dance known as capoeira is considered by some to come from Angola, by others to have been the creation of black Brazilians during slavery. Most probably capoeira is a local elaboration of some African model. From a game–fight believed to have been practised by slaves during resting periods in the fields, it developed into a sort of martial art with subtle choreographic movements and rules, a well-defined musical repertory of songs and accompanimental rhythms. Although capoeira originated in Bahia, it extended to other major coastal cities, especially since the 1940s, and became a main martial art taught in military schools. The traditional dance is known as capoeira Angola, which gives a linguistic justification to believers of the Angolese origin. The choreographic development involves a series of figures known as golpes, of which the ginga (swaying motion) is fundamental, performed by couples of male dancers–fighters (capoeiristas) simulating various attack and defence motions, using the feet only and turning head over heels, among other types of figures. The synchronization of movements between the attack of one dancer and the defence of the other (and vice-versa) is remarkable. The game of capoeira is accompanied by an ensemble of musical bows (berimbau de barriga), tambourine (pandeiro), cowbell (agogô), and at least one drum, and the singing follows a responsorial practice. As the main instrument the berimbau has a calabash resonator and is played with a wooden stick together with a basket rattle (caxixi). By using a coin as a bridge, the bow can produce two distinct pitches (generally a second apart), but the simultaneous performance of several bows of different sizes allows multi-part and harmonic textures. Specific rhythmic patterns, known as toques, include the São Bento grande, São Bento pequeno, Iúna, Santa Maria, Angola, and cavalaria among others, with specific functions and references to the dance. They differ mostly in tempo rather than in actual rhythmic structure.

Capoeira songs (some 139 have been collected) constitute a rich source of Afro-Bahían expressive culture relating to slavery time, to local language and poetics. With the exception of the song of the hymn of the capoeira and to ladainhas (litanies), the capoeira song repertory borrows a great deal from other corpora, such as children’s game songs of the ciranda genre. Other songs invoke religious themes and figures, such as Santa Maria, mãe de Deus (St. Mary, mother of God).

Traditionally capoeira has been taught and practiced in academias (academies) whose leaders are referred to as mestres (masters). Among the numerous mestres of the history of capoeira none has enjoyed as much fame as Mestre Bimba who developed a new form called capoeira regional, adding a number of dance figures resembling some of the strokes of other martial arts.

Other South American countries with significant Afro-Hispanic musical traditions are Venezuela and Colombia. Afro-Venezuelan music is found mostly in the central coastal area of the Federal District, the Barlovento and Guarenas-Guatire region in the state of Miranda and portions of the state of Aragua. Drum ensembles and various forms and genres are clearly related to a black African ancestry. In Barlovento especially, the main types of drums known as mina, redondo, tambora and furruco (a friction drum) form part of the various ensembles associated with a number of celebrations, such as the fiestas of San Juan. In addition, ensembles of quitiplás (bamboo stamping tubes), accompany dances and songs performed on social occasions unrelated to ritual festivities.

The black and mestizo populations of Colombia are located primarily in the Atlantic and Pacific coastal regions. Costeño musical cultures in both areas combine elements of the tri-ethnic heritage, with a very significant African contribution. For example, in Palenque de San Basilio on the northern coast the funeral songs performed in responsorial fashion at wakes and burials of members of the Cabildo Lumbalú (studied by List, B1983) not only contain a large number of words of probable Bantu origin but are accompanied by African-related drums. Likewise, the conjunto de gaitas, one of the most important traditional ensembles of the region, includes drums easily connected to African instruments in both physical properties, timbres, and performance practices. The cumbia, one of the well-known dance-song genres of the area, exhibits a polyrhythmic organization. In the Pacific lowlands, the currulao or marimba dance (studied by Whitten, B1974) represents a secular ritual in which a symbolic confrontation of power between men and women is enacted musically: the men performing the marimba, the drums (cununos and bombos), with the glosador (leading male vocalist), all in competition with the female singers (respondedoras) who shake guasás, or rattles. The resulting texture (numerous ostinati in a dense polyrhythm) and performance characteristics (responsorial, use of falsetto and hocket techniques) represent one of the most traditional African sounding musics to be found in the Americas. This genre is also known in the Afro-Ecuadorian province of Esmeraldas where the African marimba also predominates. Outside of Esmeraldas the only other region where Afro-Ecuadorian music is found is the Chota valley where contemporary black musicians cultivate mostly the bomba, in addition to the urban popular genres of the day.

The black presence in Peru and Bolivia has been culturally and demographically less significant than that of the Ameirndian. However, from the beginning of the Spanish conquest, Peru was an important centre of black slavery with corresponding significance in the development of mestizo culture, primarily along the coastal areas. Black culture, nevertheless, had little national impact until the 1950s, when a revival and reconstruction of the African heritage in Afro-Peruvian music were initiated by local intellectuals of African ancestry. Typical musical genres, such as the festejo, socabón and agua de nieve, were rightfully claimed as Afro-Peruvian. Thereafter, a number of Afro-Peruvian performing groups appeared and had real impact on Peru’s urban culture. In Bolivia, the rediscovery of Afro-Bolivian music and culture is even more recent and affects a number of trends in contemporary popular music.

The African contribution to Argentine and Uruguayan musical life has also been minimized, despite the early recognition by such writers as Vicente Rossi (D1926) and Lauro Ayesterán (D1953) of the black impact on the musical life of the Río de la Plata region. Although practically extinct by the end of the 19th century, the well-known dance, candombe, was revived at various times in the 20th century in both Montevideo and Buenos Aires.

Finally, the presence and contribution of blacks (both slaves and free blacks) in colonial art–music of Latin America and the Caribbean need to be acknowledged. Whether composers or performers, the numerous black musicians retained in the annals of the music histories obviously did not and could not cultivate particular musical styles that related in any way to sub-Saharan Africa. The system of cofradías and hermandades/irmandades(confraternities and brotherhoods) inherited from the Iberian peninsula and implanted in Hispanic America and Brazil thoughout the colonial period helped in preserving some aspects of black identity. Musically, the only genre performed in churches that retains some aspect of that identity was the villancico to pseudo-black dialects cultivated in Spain, Portugal and Latin America. Even cathedral chapelmasters from Mexico to Bolivia were fond of this type of villancico known as negro, guineo, negrilla and negrito. The late and post-Colonial periods actually saw a large number of very significant black composers and performers, such as some of the figures of the Minas Gerais (Brazil) and Venezuelan church-music composers of the late 18th century, and the prolific and creative figure of José Maurício Nunes García, active in Rio de Janeiro. The Cuban composer-violinist José White and his contemporary Brindis de Salas, and the Argentine pianist-composer-conductor Zenón Rolón are some of the examples of successful black musicians of the 19th century.

Latin America, §IV: Popular music

IV. Urban popular music

1. Historical overview.

2. Specific genres.

1. Historical overview.

The expression ‘urban popular music’ refers essentially to the music produced in major cities for a predominantly urban population of consumers. It is disseminated through various formats, from sheet music to commercial recordings, from radio or television programmes to video tapes and is therefore closely related to various forms of mass media. In Spanish and Portuguese, música popular has meant traditionally music of the people, including what folklorists and ethnomusicologists designate as folk and traditional music as well as urban music. The semantic differentiation between folk and popular music began to appear most prominently in the 1950s, when folklore musical or simply folklore became common and música popular gradually came to be understood in the modern sense of pop/commercial music. Recognizing that the term ‘popular’ can have multiple meanings, Carlos Vega (A1966) later opted for ‘mesomusic’ which he defined as follows:

Mesomusic is the aggregate of musical traditions (melodies with or without words) functionally designed for recreation, for social dancing, for the theatre, for ceremonies, public acts, classrooms, games etc. adopted or accepted by listeners of [the] culturally modern nations. During recent centuries, improvements in communication have favoured the dissemination of mesomusic to such a degree that today the only exceptions to its influence are the more or less primitive aborigines and the national groups that have not yet completed their process of modernization. But, since mesomusic is not an exclusively Western music rather a ‘common music’ of mankind, there can exist eccentric foci with dispersal over wide areas of the world. Mesomusic, then, coexists in the minds of urban groups along with fine-art music, and participates in the life of rural groups along with folk music.

In effect, this definition is only useful at the most general level of functionality and fails to consider the specific attributes of the makers and consumers of ‘mesomusic’. In addition, it tends to be too inclusive, admitting all species or genres that are deemed outside the art music, folk music or traditional music repertories. In its basic conceptualization, however, ‘mesomusic’ is the equivalent of the contemporary use of urban pop music.

Repertories, genres and behaviours associated with urban popular music generally reflect the social stratification of a particular urban area, whether social strata are defined along socio-economic, generational or ethnic lines, although such relationships are not to be thought of as a one-to-one correspondence. Additionally, certain Latin American and Caribbean popular music movements, genres and styles have emerged from socio-political participation and criticism, thereby reflecting certain ideological positions of specific social groups. The pervasiveness of mass media since the 1970s has extended the consumption of popular music outside urban areas. It is quite clear, therefore, that popular music cuts across the traditional dichotomy of urban–rural and its corresponding social strata differentiation. But for that reason, it is not to be thought of as always and only representing the ‘middle’ or ‘neutral’ level of a given stratification.

The socio-aesthetic significance of popular music for Latin American and Caribbean people has been recognized by only a few. The Cuban writer and musicologist Alejo Carpentier acknowledged the strong identity marker inherent in popular music:

Habanera, Argentine tango, rumba, guaracha, bolero, Brazilian samba invaded the world with their rhythms, their typical instruments, and their rich percussion arsenal nowadays incorporated by right to the battery of symphonic ensembles. And now musics from Mexico, Venezuela and the Andes (and a renewed tango in sound and style) are heard everywhere, with their bandoneones, guitars, kenas of very old ancestry, llanera harps … All music due to the inventiveness of semicultivated, popular, populachero (common, vulgar) musicians, or however they might be called by certain clerical verses, well versed in the arts of harmony, counterpoint and fugue. But musics that have been much more useful, quite frankly, for the strengthening of a national accent of our own, than certain ‘symphonies’ on indigenous themes, inumerous orchestral ‘rhapsodies’ with strong folk background, symphonic poems of ‘vernacular inspiration’ (almost always terribly impressionist …), that remain only as documents, reference titles, milestones of local history, in the archives of conservatories … For there is something evident: Latin American music must be accepted en bloc, in and of itself, recognizing that its most original expressions can just as well come from the street as from the academies. In the past, peasant musicians, instrumentalists from the slums, obscure guitarists, movie-theatre pianists (such as those in Rio de Janeiro who caused Darius Milhaud's admiration), are the ones that gave to this music its identity cards, its presence and style. And there rests the essential difference, in our opinion, between European music history and that of Latin America, where, in still recent periods, a good local song could result in a stronger aesthetic enrichment than a moderately successful symphony that added nothing to the universal symphonic repertory (Carpentier, A1977, pp.17–18).

Without dismissing, however, the value and place of art music in Latin America, Carpentier advocated an integrated view of all traditions, with particular importance assigned to popular music. Vega also stated that ‘mesomusic is the most important music in the world; not the greatest, from a Western point of view, but the most important’ (A1966, p.9), in the sense of its overwhelming place in music consumption and in national economies.

Since the beginning of the 20th century, Latin American music historians have given some attention to the popular music of their countries. This was usually only in conjunction with parallel folk music genres, or in dealing with the sources of musical nationalism drawn upon by art music composers. Such treatment was justified in the early 20th century because the majority of popular music forms were urban renditions of folk music songs and dance genres, with the development of sui generis types appearing at a later period. Musicologists for the most part have ignored popular music because of their perception of its limited aesthetic value and as a result of historical musicology's ‘élitist idealism’ (Shepherd, A1982, p.148). Only since the 1960s has popular music been considered worthy of serious study. The amount and quality of scholarly study remains uneven, however, among the various Latin American and Caribbean regions and among the traditions of popular music.

Historical and sociological data relating to popular music trends and productions in Latin America are very incomplete. Systematic compilation of sheet music collections, a major anthology of popular music and a comprehensive gathering of historical documents dealing with early recordings and music broadcasts do not exist. Similarly lacking is a holistic musicological analysis of the extensive repertories produced in the various republics since about 1850, the approximate time at which urban music had developed a distinctive, relatively cohesive identity. In the 20th century bibliographical tools providing precise figures to measure the popularity of specific pieces at a given time among specific segments of society were not thoroughly developed. Information provided for U.S. popular music by, for example, Your Hit Parade broadcasts (1935–58) and Billboard weekly charts from 1940 does not exist in Latin America. The study of the historical development of popular music is of necessity sketchy and can only stress those areas for which reliable data exist.

It was not until the latter part of the 19th century that major urban areas in Latin America and the Caribbean developed what can be called in retrospect urban popular music markets. At first, such markets relied primarily on the growing urban middle class whose members consumed music produced through the music sheet format propagating the most fashionable dance music and song genres of a particular period. In general terms, this music stemmed from two major sources: the urbanization of folk and dance forms, on the one hand, and on the other, the direct influence of light theatrical musical genres cultivated in most Latin American cities since at least the early part of the 19th century. At that time, popular music developed primarily as an upper-class activity involving semi-popular theatrical genres and salon music and as a parallel to art music traditions. It is difficult, however, to attempt to trace a homogenous, unbroken tradition of urban music because of insufficient documentary sources. Independence at first and, later, the abolition of slavery facilitated the interaction between urban and rural areas, although, with the few exceptions of the largest cities, the interpenetration of folk and urban cultures remained quite dynamic in many cities and towns well into the 1940s. In general, the first characteristic popular music genres emerged in the last quarter of the 19th century. Since that time, the most obvious process of urbanization has consisted in urban renditions (with specific instrumental groups and special types of arrangements) of folk music genres. Thus, performing characteristics rather than the structural contents of urban popular forms represented at that time the distinguishing features of that music.

In the 20th century the gradual influence of North American Tin Pan Alley and other popular genres had clear repercussions in the hybrid forms that developed in the 1920s and 30s, such as the rumba-fox, the Inca-fox and samba-fox. The big band era of jazz of the 1930s and 40s also left a lasting imprint on the performing media of many classical Latin American urban popular forms. From the 1950s Cuban, Puerto Rican and Brazilian musicians, in particular, developed Latin expressions of jazz, and the period of the 1960s to the 90s saw adaptations of rock and roll and rock music often fused with some aspects of local folk-urban traditions, which gave rise to substantial innovations in various types of rock nacional. At the same time, folk music in urban contexts has gained wide recognition and acceptance largely through the emergence of the peña setting in the 1960s, the point of departure for a new style often associated with political movements of the time, which within a short period took on a pan-Ibero-American character.

The impact of 20th-century media, at first through radio and the recording industry, then through television (beginning in earnest in the 1960s) and videotape (in the 1970s and 80s), was as important for the development of Latin American popular music as in other major regions of the world. While urbanization of rural areas was facilitated by mediated popular music expressions it did not prevent existing diversification. Indeed, the adoption of internationally fashionable popular music genres and styles created new forms but as a rule did not replace the most familiar national genres, whether boleros, canciones, sones, valses, guarachas, rumbas, cuecas, huaynos, tangos or sambas. Clearly these have their own stylistic historical development associated with specific periods, countries, composers–musicians and ensemble groups. The appearance of the long-playing disc in the early 1950s had interesting and long-lasting effects on popular music, the most notorious being the reworking of earlier recorded compositions, for example, the expansion of old compositions (limited to three-minute recordings in the 1930s) by the Brazilian Pixinguinha and his band Velha Guarda. Television and later videotape recordings actually facilitated the creation of mass-mediated performing genres, motivating huge popular music festivals in most major Latin American and Caribbean cities from the late 1960s. Latin America was swift to adopt the newest technologies in sound production and reproduction. Electric and electronic musical instruments were not only an integral part of the various trends and figures of rock nacional (with international festivals such as two huge events of ‘Rock in Rio’ in 1985 and 1991), but became integrated alongside more traditional acoustic instruments.

It hardly seems an exaggeration to view popular music as the ultimate vehicle of symbolism of national identity, mediated by radio and television. Regardless of the size and geographical complexity of a specific country, radio penetrated virtually everywhere by the 1940s and 50s and television by the 60s, thus cutting across regionalism, however strongly present. Certain trends of popular music came to be perceived by the majority of the population as true syntheses of various regional musical styles, thereby transcending the provincial boundaries and acquiring an image of unified national identity. For example, the corridos composed by the Mexican José Alfredo Jiménez (1926–72) combine the ballad tradition with Mariachi accompaniment and arrangements, and ranchera-like performing singing style. Thus, the commercial music industry in its desire to win and control national markets promoted systematically any music genre and style that had the potential of transcending regional and social-class boundaries. On the international level, the industry promoted whatever stereotypical images existed at a specific time, conveying through international markets preconceived ideas of the exoticism of Latin American musics. Not surprisingly the multinational recording companies operating in most Latin American countries contributed substantially to the exploitation of local popular musicians through the imposition of specific arrangements and performing styles thought to be most marketable, even though such styles frequently misrepresented the real expressions of local popular music. In addition, the impact of the North American and western European record producers on numerous occasions had rather negative effects on Latin American composers and musicians living in those areas, in that they were forced to make aesthetic concessions in order to sell their products in those markets.

From a socio-political perspective, various innovative aspects and trends in Latin American popular music since the 1960s have been considered by some Latin Americans as reflecting a new era of musical neo-colonialism. The cultivation of modernistic pop music currents by Latin American musicians was seen as a yielding to the tendencies and characteristics of imported technology and mass-produced musical items. This has been interpreted by some commentators as a renouncement of the basic values of the musicians' original culture, thus becoming, directly or indirectly, artistic agents of international capitalism. The adoption and adaptation of internationalized pop music styles has been perceived, therefore, as part of an anti-nationalist process. Moreover, considering that no more than 10% of Latin American populations have the means of becoming regular consumers of the products of mass culture, it was thought that modernizing popular music could alienate poor majorities. In his study of the mechanisms of music colonization, the Cuban writer Leonardo Acosta equates music merchandizing of Latin American popular products with cultural colonialism:

It is worth pointing out that, although the diffusion of our popular music was a positive fact, reflecting to a great extent its creativity, aesthetic quality and rhythmic and sound vitality, the fact of its appropriation by the Yanqiu music enterprises for many years also had negative consequences, such as the distortion and commercialization of this music, and the falsification of its most authentic values (A1982, p.54).

He singles out Xavier Cugat as the ‘pioneer in the spoliation and distortion’ of Latin American music and its characteristics in favour of a commercial music with ‘tropical flavour’.

The model of modernity with its commercial concessions to the international markets came primarily from the United States where ‘Latin’ popular music has been produced by American recording companies and the Hollywood film industry since the 1920s. This domination of the commercial promotion of the international entertainment industry has been interpreted by some as the result of the political and economic dependency of Latin American countries which have consequently followed the market economy of their dominators. In the specific case of Brazilian popular music, José Ramos Tinhorão expressed his view of the situation as follows:

Thus, while for the pride of the colonized middle class, the multinational (recording industry) was in the process of internationalizing the sounds of Brazil from its headquarters (much in the same manner that bankers were internationalizing the result of the labour of millions of Brazilians, through the collection of a debt of 120 billion dollars), the most humble social strata, heirs of a cultural continuum of almost five centuries, continued to play their bombos vigorously in the traditional metre of 2/4, waiting for their turn in History, perhaps in the 21st century (D1990, p.276).

Although there is justifiable ground for this type of interpretation, one should not forget or minimize the importance of the process of integration of international pop music in certain local popular cultural movements. However, rather than a mere copy of original models, the ‘modernizing’ and innovative trends of Latin American and Caribbean popular musics, jazz, rock, reggae, funk, heavy metal, new wave and other genres have become perfectly legitimate expressions of creative artists who reflect the values of the specific segments of urban society with which they are associated. The results of their creative efforts reveal assimilation and transformation of imported styles into their own musical sensibility to which they add their own, different meanings. In addition, it must be recognized that the major urban areas of Latin America have not only been a natural part of the international scene but have contributed to it in their own unique ways. Elements of confrontation between the national and international popular styles have forced specific and deliberate choices, but such choices have been made by popular musicians according to their perception of their own aesthetic and ideological needs of a particular moment. One such need has been the collective identity of the new class structure of the industrialized urban world since the 1960s, especially among international youth movements as sub-cultures for which certain genres and styles of North American and British popular music of the 1960s (Elvis Presley, the Beatles and the Rolling Stones, among others) became a sort of lingua franca, transcending nationalities. Latin American urban areas have gone through this process of development in much the same manner as industrialized societies. In those areas, there can be no doubt that the classic distinction between First and Third Worlds hardly applies in terms of the mechanisms of musical production and socio-economic patterns of consumption, although the obvious different meanings assigned to that lingua franca in these respective worlds remain.

Concurrently, the establishment of international commercial music markets did not prevent Latin American countries from developing their own local popular music with little or no influence from international trends. In effect, various musical expressions emerging since the 1920s correspond to various strata of a particular urban society at a particular time. This is why one finds not one but many popular musics in the major cities of Latin America and the Caribbean. These musics, however, have generally enough in common to create a sense of regional or national identity. In addition, they frequently function in a large number of social contexts which intersect the boundaries of various social groups. The function of popular music as a facilitator of national integration explains, to a great extent, the process of urbanization in Latin America and the Caribbean of mestizo folksong and folkdance genres. In numerous cases, it was because most people shared a common knowledge, enjoyment and consumption of such genres that they appeared suitable to urban popular composers as natural sources of national music. Thus, almost all major folk music genres have at one time or another been used as the very foundation of national popular music. These include the son in Mexico and Guatemala; the son and rumba in Cuba; the bambuco, vallenato and cumbia in Colombia; the joropo in Venezuela; the huayno/huayño and the cueca/marinera complexes, and the saya in the Andean countries; the zamba, chacarera, gato in Argentina; and the samba of Brazil.

Latin America, §IV: Popular music

2. Specific genres.

(i) Transformation of 19th-century European popular music.

The pervasive European 19th-century salon music tradition left a strong imprint on Latin American urban popular music and provided an important source for numerous popular genres of the early 20th century. Fashionable European and other foreign genres of popular music have always been present in major cities in which some segments of society tended to emulate their European counterparts. The main 19th-century ballroom dances such as the waltz, mazurka, polka, schottishe and contredanse were readily adopted in all cities and with time underwent the process of ‘creolization’, that is, transformation into local, national genres. The waltz, particularly, served as a forerunner to a large number of popular dances on the whole continent, each with different names: pasillo or vals del país in Colombia and Ecuador; vals criollo or peruano in Peru; vals melopeya in Venezuela; vals mexicano in Mexico; and other similar, hybrid types such as the Brazilian valsa-choro. Likewise, the polka originated several native genres of popular music, from the Mexican polka in the conjunto norteño tradition, to the Brazilian polka-tango and polka-choro of the late 19th century. Similarly, the prevailing romantic character of many popular song types originated within the same canción tradition, its gentility happily combined with the criollo traditions of Latin American cities. The canción and chanzoneta/cançoneta complex was at first cultivated in the popular, lyrical spectacles of the genres of musical comedy, operetta and zarzuela. This important source of sentimental song of popular appeal has generally been neglected but the connections are everywhere evident. Several such songs have also been combined with slow dance types, thereby creating unique blends and genres, such as the Cuban and Mexican bolero, the Argentine tango-canción and the Brazilian samba-canção and sambolero. The romantic, sentimental song tradition which has its origins in the Italian operatic tradition of the early 19th century provided the basis of development of popular musical genres which transcended, in general, the stereotypes of their European sources and acquired their own innately local character. Perhaps more than any other, these song genres have contributed to the development of truly national popular musics.

(ii) The urbanization of the huayno.

The urbanization process of traditional music in the Andean area is perhaps best reflected in the dance-song known as huayno in Peru and Chile, huayño in Bolivia and sanjuanito in Ecuador. Present in both Amerindian, peasant and mestizo communities, although with considerable differences, the Peruvian huayno and the Bolivian huayño developed in the 20th century as the respective national folkdance music par excellence. In Peru especially, the migratory movement of people towards Lima and other coastal cities which grew to unprecedented proportions in the early 1950s facilitated the urbanization process of several folk music genres. In a relatively short time a social basis which could support an urban market for highland music was created, part of a general socio-cultural phenomenon which has been referred to as the ‘Andeanization’ of Lima. In his study of a commercial catalogue of Peruvian 78 r.p.m. records, José María Arguedas (C1967) discovered that by 1953 almost 160 titles of popular highland music records had been issued in Lima, with music from the Mantaro valley most in evidence. The demand continued to increase so that by 1967, 3000 titles of highland Andean music had been issued in Lima. Among these titles, huayno pieces seem to have predominated. Lima had by that time a number of provincial migrant composers specializing in highland music through which they not only expressed traditional topics associated with huaynos (including glorification of provincial towns and villages and love subjects) but also themes of social concern and conflict of particular relevance to the migrant population. A number of social clubs for weekend get-togethers favoured the interaction of highland migrants through music and dance. Although at first it was the original migrant population and its descendants which made up the market, the popularity of the huayno gradually extended to other sections of urban society. The mass media fulfilled an important role in this diffusion, especially when several Lima radio stations, particularly Radio Agricultura, began to broadcast popular highland music regularly. In the process of its urbanization, the huayno went through a number of transformations, affecting not only the traditional instrumentation of performing groups but also vocal styles. As such, the urban huayno came to be referred to as the urban, mestizo huayno. While the majority of such urban huayno melodies retain their predominant pentatonic structure, a few of their traditional syncopated patterns and cadential formulas, their harmonic support tended to be provided by guitars, accordion and occasional brass instruments, rather than the traditional kena, harp and charango.

In the 1960s the Colombian cumbia, first performed in the highlands in band arrangements, began to gain popularity in Peruvian cities. This popularity extended to the whole of the country through radio programmes and commercial recordings. The new style of Peruvian cumbia came to be known as chicha (according to some after the name of the homemade, fermented beer-like, alcoholic beverage known throughout the Andes among Amerindian and mestizo communities). Three sub-styles of chicha have been identified in Peru: the chicha criolla popular (without any national influence); the chicha chola (highland Amerindian-influenced); and the chicha selvática (from the jungle area). The first is performed by Limeño musicians without any trace of local adaptation. The second sub-type, also known as cumbia andina, cumbia folk or tropical andino, appears strongly associated with the Andean mestizo huayno. Among numerous groups specializing in this type of chicha are the Shapis, Alegría, Chacalón and Nueva Crema, all active in the capital city. The chicha selvática, also known as cumbión, in a faster tempo than the other sub-styles, is performed by groups such as the Mirlos, who came originally from the Amazonian area. The mass media have also had a significant impact on popular bands of Peruvian cumbia, with the introduction of a variety of foreign musical genres such as rock and roll and various Afro-Caribbean dance types. Most of these bands include two or three electric guitars, an electric bass, electric organ, conga drums, bongos and bells, all supporting the vocal soloist. Curiously but significantly, chicha music is enjoyed by the most underprivileged segments of urban society, while the Andean cumbia finds its followers among the younger generations of highland migrant workers. Indeed, the mestizo huayno provides a certain continuity with the highland version, while the cumbia rhythm links the identity of its consumers with the youth of the Andes at large.

(iii) Popular music and political identities.

A number of specific occasions and events involve a kind of popular music-making which has a highly symbolic function in terms of social relationships. In this respect, Carnival, a democratic event which celebrates not only social solidarity but also social contradictions and antagonisms, is particularly important in Latin America and the Caribbean. As a result, Carnival and other festivals of popular culture frequently display specific power relations. On such occasions, music, especially musical styles, performing media and venues, often serve as effective markers of the identity of the social groups involved. In Brazil, for example, especially in Rio and Bahia, despite the assumed symbolic elimination of social barriers in daily life during the Carnival period, people have very different experiences of Carnival, depending on their socio-economic class, race, gender and even sexual preference. Following Mikhail Bakhtin's view of the carnivalesque, anthropologist Roberto da Matta has stressed that Carnival provides an opportunity for the forging of new social relations in a multicultural and multiracial society by its lessening of firm identities and its inversion of social and political order. While at a general level, Carnival may indeed appear as a ritual of social integration, at more specific levels, it serves as the vehicle of self-expression of traditionally marginalized groups. Moreover, the symbolic dichotomy casa/rua (‘home/street’) perceived by da Matta operates during Carnival in semi-private clubs and public spaces respectively. In these symbolic spaces contrasting types of activities and relationships occur, the club recreating the privacy of a home shared with relatives and friends, as opposed to the street in which impersonal forces dominate. While the predominant music genres, the Carnival samba and march, function in both contexts, the performing media and the general music behaviour of participants set them apart. The club orchestras present more polished renditions of the fashionable samba pieces of the season while de-emphasizing the heavier percussion of the street blocos (spontaneous groupings of musicians and merrymakers). Even the street musical performances differ between the northern poorer districts and those of the more affluent southern areas of Rio de Janeiro. In the latter, streets are cordoned off to mark a specific territory and identity of the local residents, while the tendency in the former is to leave an open space for anyone to participate.

In Cuba and Chile the 1960s and 70s movements of nueva trova and nueva canción respectively illustrate the involvement of musicians with specific sociopolitical movements, ideologies and events, while pursuing independent careers.

(iv) The salsa phenomenon.

La Torre, Jerónimo (i)La Torre, Jerónimo (i)La Torre, Jerónimo (i)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

a: general

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B. Nettl: Folk and Traditional Music of the Western Continents (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1965, 2/1973, rev. 3/1990 by V. Woodring Goertzen

R. Bastide: Les amériques noires, les civilisations africaines dans le Nouveau Monde (Paris, 1967, 3/1996); Eng. trans., 1971), 41b, 83, 118, 137, 174, 178, 224

R. Stevenson: ‘The Afro-American Musical Legacy to 1800’, MQ, liv (1968), 475–502

E. Southern: The Music of Black Americans: a History (New York, 1971, 3/1977)

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L. Acosta: Música y descolonización (Mexico, 1982)

J. Shepherd: ‘A Theoretical Model for the Sociomusicological Analysis of Popular Music’, Popular Music, ii (1982), 145–77

G. Béhague: ‘Popular Music’, Handbook of Latin American Popular Culture, ed. H.E. Hinds Jr. and C. Tatum (Westport, CT, 1985), 3–38

C. Vega: ‘Mesomusic: an Essay on the Music of the Masses’, EthM, x (1966), 1–17

A. Carpentier: ‘América Latina en la confluencia de coovdenadas históricos y su repercussión en la música’, América Latina en su Música, ed. I. Aretz (Mexico, 1977), 7–19

J.M. Schechter: ‘The Current State of Bibliographic Research in Latin American Ethnomusicology’, Latin American Masses and Minorities: Their Images and Realities, ed. D. Hazen (Madison, 1987), 334

G. Béhague: ‘Latin American Folk Music’, Folk Traditional Music of the Western Continents, ed. B. Nettl (Englewood Cliffs, 1990/R), 179–206

I. Aretz: Historia de la etnomusicología en América Latina: desde la época precolombina hasta nuestros días (Caracas, 1991)

G. Béhague: ‘Music’, Latin American and the Caribbean: A Critical Guide to Research Sources, ed. P.H. Covington (Westport, CT, 1992), 567

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b: mexico, the caribbean and colombia

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P. Young: West-India Melodies or Negro Tunes (London, ?1822)

I. Castellanos: Instrumentos musicales de los afrocubanos (Havana, 1927)

R.M. Campos: El folklore musical de las ciudades (Mexico City, 1930)

J.I. Perdomo Escobar: Historia de la música en Colombia (Bogota, 1938, 4/1975, 5/1980)

H. Courlander: Haiti Singing (Chapel Hill, NC, 1939/R)

E. Grenet, ed.: Popular Cuban Music (Havana, 1939)

P. Bowles: ‘On Mexico's Popular Music’, MM, xviii (1940–1), 225

D. Castañeda: Balance de Agustín Lara (Mexico City, 1941)

H. Menéndez Peña: Monografías y cantares huastecos (Mexico City, 1944)

A. Carpentier: La música en Cuba (Mexico City, 1946, 3/1988)

V.T. Mendoza: El corrido de la revolución mexicana (Mexico City, 1956/R)

R. Nettel: ‘Historical Introduction to “La Calinda”’, ML, xxvii (1946), 59–62

M. Talavera: Miguel Lerdo de Tejada (Mexico City, n.d.)

V.T. Mendoza, ed.: Canciones mexicanas [Mexican Folk Songs] (New York, 1948, 1968)

F. Ortíz: La africanía de la música folklorica de Cuba (Havana, 1950, 2/1965)

V.T. Mendoza: ‘Música indígena otomí’, Revista de estudios musicales, ii/5–6 (1950–51), 527

F. Ortíz: Los bailes y el teatro de los negros en el folkore de Cuba (Havana, 1951, 2/1981)

F. Ortíz: Los instrumentos de la música afrocubana, i–v (Havana, 1952–5)

L.F. Ramón y Rivera: El joropo, baile nacional de Venezuela (Caracas, 1952, 2/1987)

R. Stevenson: Music in Mexico: A Historical Survey (New York, 1952/R)

S. Martí: Instrumentos musicales precortesianos (Mexico City, 1955), 2

V.T. Mendoza: Panorama de la música tradicional de México (Mexico City, 1956, 2/1984)

R.A. Waterman: ‘African Influence on the Music of the Americas’, Acculturation in the Americas: … XXIXth International Congress of Americanists, New York, 1949, ed. S. Tax (Chicago, 1952), 207–18; repr. in Music as Culture, ed. K.K. Shelemay (New York, 1990), 17–28

J. Sesto: La bohemia de la muerte (Mexico City, 1958)

H. Courlander: The Drum and the Hoe: Life and Lore of the Haitan People (Berkeley, 1960/R, incl. 186 transcrs. of Haitian songs and drum rhythms by M. Kolinski), 203–313

V.T. Mendoza: La canción mexicana (Mexico City, 1961, 2/1982)

I. Aretz and L.F. Ramón y Rivera: Cantos navideños en el folklore venezolano (Caracas, 1962)

R. Ayala: Musicosas (Mexico, 1962)

A. de María y Campos: La revolución mexicana a través de los corridos populares (Mexico City, 1962)

V. Chenoweth: The Marimbas of Guatemala (Lexington, KY, 1964)

S. Martí and G.P. Kurath: Dances of Anahuac: the Choreography and Music of Precortesian Dances (Chicago and New York, 1964)

H. de Grial: Músicos mexicanos (Mexico City, 1965)

C.L. Boilès: ‘The Pipe and Tabor in Mesoamerica’, YIAMR, ii (1966), 43–74

I. Aretz: Instrumentos musicales de Venezuela (Cumaná, 1967)

G. Basqueiro Fóster: La canción popular de Yucatán (Mexico City, 1970)

J.S. Garrido: História de la música popular en México (1896–1973) (Mexico City, 1974, 2/1981)

N.E. Whitten Jr: Black Frontiersmen: A South American Case (New York, 1974)

M.E. Davis: Voces del purgatorio: Estudio de la salve dominicana (Santo Domingo, 1981)

E.T. Stanford: ‘La música popular de México’, La música de México, ed. J. Estrada, i: Historia; v. Período Contemporáneo (Mexico, 1984–6)

G. List: Music and Poetry in a Colombian Village (Bloomington, 1983)

J. Duany: ‘Popular Music in Puerto Rico: Towards an Anthropology of Salsa’, LAMR, v (1984), 186–216

A. León: Del canto y el tiempo (Havana, 1984)

O. Alén R: La música de las Sociedades de Tumba Francesa en Cuba (Havana, 1986)

R.A. Pérez Fernández: La música afromestiza mexicana (Havana, 1987)

A. Arrivillaga Cortés: ‘La música tradicional Garífuna en Guatemala’, LAMR, xxi (1990), 251–80

J. Robbins: ‘The Cuban Son as Form, Genre, and Symbol’, LAMR, xxi (1990), 182–200

P. Manuel, ed.: Essays on Cuban Music: North America and Cuban Perspectives (Lanham, MD and London, 1991)

R.R. Smith: ‘Arroz Colorao: Los Congos de Panama’, Music and Black Ethnicity: The Caribbean and South America, ed. G.H. Béhague (New Brunswick and London, 1994), 239

P. Manuel: Caribbean Currents, Caribbean Music, From Rumba to Reggae (Philadelphia, 1995) [with K. Bilby and Mar Largey]

c: the andean area

J. de la Torre: Aclamación festiva (Lima, 1716), 26

N. Garay: ‘Folklore musical colombiano’, Revista gris (1894), 240

R. and M. d’Harcourt: La musique des Incas et ses survivances (Paris, 1925, rev. 2/1957 by S.L. Moreno as La Música de los Incas, 5/1980)

P. Humberto Allende: ‘La musique populaire chilienne’, 1er congrès internacional des art populaire (Prague, 1928), 118

C. Raygada: Panorama musical del Perú (Lima, 1936)

L. Sandoval: Selección de canciones populares chilenas (Santiago, 1937)

A. Acevedo Hernández: Canciones populares chilenas (Santiago, 1939)

T. Vargas: Aires nacionales de Bolivia (Cochabamba, 1940)

P. Garrido: Biografía de la cueca (Santiago, 1943, rev.2/1976 by L.A. Sanchez)

C. Vega: ‘La forma de la cueca chilena’, RMC, nos.20–21 (1947), 7–23; nos.22–3 (1947), 15–19

E. Romero: El Romance tradicional en el Perú (Mexico, 1952)

J.M. Arguedas: ‘Análisis de un catálogo comercial de discos peruanos’, Revista del Club de Folklore, i (1967), 5

M. and R. d’Harcourt: La musique des Aymara sur les hauts plateaux boliviens (Paris, 1959)

R. Holzmann, ed.: Panorama de la música tradicional del Perú (Lima, 1966)

C. Pagaza Galdo: Cancionero andino sur (Lima, 1967)

M. Ester Grebe: The Chilean Verso: a Study in Musical Archaism (Los Angeles, 1967)

E. Pereira Salas: Guía bibliográfica para el estudio del folklore chileno (Santiago, 1952)

R. Stevenson: Music in Aztec & Inca Territory (Berkeley and London, 1968/R)

S. Zapata Agurto: ‘Psicoanalisis del vals Peruano’, Revista ciencias psicológicas y neurológicas, v/1–2 (1968), 5

C. Bolaños et al: Mapa de los instrumentos musicales de uso popular en el Perú (Lima, 1978)

S. Claro-Valdés: Oyendo a Chile (Santiago, 1979)

C.A. Coba A: Instrumentos musicales populares registrados en el Ecuador, i, ii (Otavalo, 1980/84)

G. Abadía M: Instrumentos de la música folklórica de Colombia (Begotá, 1981)

J.A. Lloréns Amico: Música popular en Lima: criollo y andinos (Lima, 1983)

C. Bolaños et al: La música el el Perú (Lima, 1985)

R. Romero: ‘La música tradicional y popular’, La música en el Perú (Lima, 1985), 217–83

J.M. Schechter: The Indispensable Harp: Historical Development, Modern Roles, Configurations and Performance Practices in Ecuador and Latin America (Kent, OH, 1991)

T. Turino: Moving Away From Silence, Music of the Peruvian Altiplano and the Experience of Urban Migration (Chicago, 1993)

d: argentina, uruguay and brazil

R. Almeida: História da música brasileira (Rio de Janerio, 1926, 2/1942), 9ff, 137ff, 156ff

V. Rossi: Cosas de negros (Córdoba, 1926, 2/1958 by H.J. Becco)

A. Ramos: ‘Os instrumentos musicaes dos candomblés da Bahia’, Bahia médica, iii/7 (1932), 194

C. Vega: Danzas y canciones argentinas (Buenos Aires, 1936)

M. Lira: Brasil sonoro (Rio da Janeiro, 1938)

O. Barbosa: Samba (Rio de Janeiro, 1933, 2/1978)

A. Ramos: ‘A sobrevivencia da dança e da música’, O folclore negro do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1935, 2/1954), 118

D. Pierson: ‘The Candomblé’, Negroes in Brazil (Chicago, 1942), 275–317

M.J. Herskovits: ‘Drums and Drummers in Afro-Brazilian Cult Life’, MQ, xxx (1944), 477–92 [repr. in The New World Negro: Selected Papers in Afroamerican Studies, ed. F.S. Herskovits (Bloomington, IN, 1966)]

C. Vega: Los instrumentos musicales aborígenes y criollas de la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1946)

V. Maríz: A canção brasileira (Oporto, 1948, 4/1980, Rio de Janeiro, 1959)

O. Alvarenga: Música popular brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1950, 2/1982)

I. Aretz: El folklore musical argentino (Buenos Aires, 1952)

C. Vega: Las danzas populares argentinas, i (Buenos Aires, 1952, rev. 2/1968 by E. Moreno Cha)

L. Ayestarán: La música en el Uruguay (Montevideo, 1953)

R. Tavares de Lima: Melodia e ritmo no folclore de São Paulo (São Paulo, 1954, 2/1961)

V. Gesualdo: Historia de la música en la Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1961, 2/1978 [1526–1851])

A. Maynard Araújo: Folclore nacional (Sao Paulo, 1964, 2/1967)

L. Rangel: Sambistas e chorões (São Paulo, 1964)

A. Vasconcelas: Panorama da música popular brasileira (São Paulo, 1964)

F.K. Lange: Os compositores na Capitania General das Minas Gerais (Marília, 1965)

C. Vega: ‘Las pespecies homónimas y afines de“los orígenes del tango argentino”’, RMC, no.101 (1967), 49–65

F. García Jiménez: Estampas de tango (Buenos Aires, 1968)

F.K. Lange: La música en Villa Rica, Minas Gerais, siglo XVIII (Santiago, 1968)

B. Matamoro: Carlos Gardel (Buenos Aires, 1971)

B. Matamoro: Historia del tango (Buenos Aires, 1971)

J. Ramos Tinhorão: Música popular de índios, negros e mestiços (Petrópolis, 1972, 2/1975)

J. Ramos Tinhorão: Pequeña história da música popular (Petrópolis, 1974)

R. da Matta: Carnavais, malandros e herois: para uma sociologia do dilema brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1979)

H. Ferrer: El libro del tango: arte popular de Buenos Aires, i: Crónica del tango; ii: Diccionario A-J; iii: Diccionario K-Z (Buenos Aires, 1980)

O. Luduena and E. Aguirre: Enciclopedia de la música folklórica argentina y latinoamericana (Rosario, 1985)

T. Oliveira Pinto, ed.: Brasilien, Einführung in Musiktraditionen Brasiliens (Mains, 1986)

J. Ramos Tinhorão: História social da música popular brasileira (Lisbon, 1990)

Latin jazz.

A term applied to jazz in which elements of Latin American music, chiefly its dance rhythms, are particularly prominent. In striking contrast to most genres of jazz, in which triple subdivisions of the beat are prevalent, Latin jazz utilizes duple subdivisions. But unlike the rhythms of ragtime and jazz-rock, where the beat also undergoes duple subdivision, Latin-jazz rhythms are constructed from multiples of a basic durational unit, grouped unequally so that the accents fall irregularly in a one- or two-bar pattern. The habanera (or danza) rhythm (ex.1) is the simplest and most common of these groupings. The rhythmic ostinato may be played by members of a conventional rhythm section (piano, guitar, double bass and drums) or by Latin American instruments, particularly Afro-Cuban or Brazilian percussion such as the conga drum, bongos, cowbells and cuíca; the bass line often oscillates between the roots and fifths of chords.

Latin ostinatos were part of Jelly Roll Morton’s piano style. During the 1930s new Latin dances entered the mainstream of American popular music and occasionally found their way into jazz. In the 1940s Machito formed the Afro-Cubans, in which big-band instrumentation and arranging techniques were combined with Cuban percussion and musical structures; from 1948 to the 1960s he engaged famous jazzmen, including Charlie Parker, as soloists. In 1947 Dizzy Gillespie established his Afro-Cuban jazz orchestra, which included the conga drummer Chano Pozo, and in the same year Stan Kenton introduced the Brazilian guitarist Laurindo Almeida and the bongo drummer Jack Costanzo into his jazz orchestra.

During the 1950s the mambo, the merengue and the cha cha cha were quickly incorporated into the repertories of big bands that played jazz for dancing. In small bop groups Latin tunes regularly supplemented the normal fare of swing standards, ballads and blues. The 1960s witnessed the emergence of strong Brazilian influences on jazz: the energetic samba and the quiet bossa nova reached a wide audience through the recordings of Stan Getz. In the late 1960s Airto Moreira initiated a second period of Brazilian influence by introducing Brazilian rhythms and dozens of native instruments into jazz-rock groups in the USA, most notably in those of Pat Metheny since the 1980s. The late 1980s and the 1990s witnessed a resurgence of Afro-Cuban jazz, particularly under Gillespie and Jerry Gonzalez.

See also Afro-Cuban jazz.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveJ

J.S. Roberts: The Latin Tinge: the Impact of Latin American Music on the United States (New York and Oxford, 1979)

J.S. Roberts: Latin Jazz: the First of the fusions, 1880s to Today (New York, 1999)

BARRY KERNFELD

Latin secular song, early.

See Early Latin secular song.

Latio, Giovanni [Latius, Joannes].

See De Laet, Jean.

La Tombelle, (Antoine Louis Joseph Gueyrand) Fernand (Fouant) de

(b Paris, 3 Aug 1854; d Château de Fayrac, Dordogne, 13 Aug 1928). French organist and composer. He first studied music with his mother, a pupil of Liszt and Thalberg. At the Paris Conservatoire he studied the organ with Guilmant and composition with Théodore Dubois. When the Trocadéro organ concerts began in 1878 he became an active associate of Guilmant, and also made successful recital tours. From 1885 to 1898 he was Dubois’s assistant at St Marie-Madeleine. When the Schola Cantorum was founded by Bordes, d’Indy and Guilmant (1894) La Tombelle devoted much time to realizing the aims of its revised programme, the improvement and enlarging of the organ repertory and the foundation of a modern school of church music. From 1896 to 1904 he was professor, and later inspector, of harmony at the Schola Cantorum, and collaborated in the production of the Répertoire moderne de musique religieuse. He also contributed articles to La tribune de St Gervais, the magazine of the Schola, which began in 1895.

Before turning to sacred works La Tombelle composed much secular music, including orchestral pieces, songs, choral music, two operettas, Un bon numéro and Un rêve au pays du bleu (both 1892), piano solos and duets, a violin sonata and a trio op.35 (1894). He was also a prolific composer of sacred music: masses, oratorios, motets, canticles, hymns and organ and harmonium pieces. Ferchault stressed the traditional form and language of most of La Tombelle’s music. He published a book L’oratorio et la cantate (Paris, 1911) and a Méthode d’harmonium.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (G. Ferchault) [with list of works]

A. Gastoué: Obituary, La tribune de St Gervais, xxv (1928), 170–72

E. BORREL/DAVID CHARLTON

La Torre, Jerónimo [Jerónimo de] (i)

(b ?Zaragoza/Calamocha; d Valencia, 20 July 1672). Spanish composer and organist. He was possibly the ‘Jerónimo La Toria’ who applied for the post of organist at S María del Mar, Barcelona, in 1627, but on 17 July that year he secured a similar post in Tarragona, and in November 1636 was appointed organist of Barcelona Cathedral. He was apparently held in high esteem by the cathedral chapter, which in 1642 offered him financial assistance and took his side in a dispute with the viceroy, who had ordered him to leave Catalonia (then allied with the French against the Austrian monarchy). La Torre was nevertheless advised to obey the viceroy's command, but his salary was paid and his post kept open while a substitute carried out his duties. He probably formally resigned his Barcelona post in 1645; on 3 June that year he was made second organist at Valencia Cathedral, where again he was highly regarded and well rewarded. In 1665 he suffered a hand injury that forced his retirement; Cabanilles was appointed to succeed him.

The music of La Torre awaits scholarly investigation, and it is not yet possible to distinguish his works from those of his namesake (perhaps a relative) Jerónimo La Torre (ii). Those surviving in Tarragona, Barcelona and Valencia are probably by the elder composer, those extant (or inventoried) at Zaragoza by the younger, while those existing elsewhere are possibly by either.

WORKS

probably authentic

Gozos de las virtudes y milagros del seráphico y gran patriarca S Bruno, fundador de la sagrada orden de la Cartuxa, 4vv (Barcelona, 1702)

Salve regina, SSAT, SATB, hp, other acc., E-VAcp

8 tonos: Cupidillo bendado suspende, 4vv, acc., Tac; Hiriéronme tan apri, 4vv, Bc, ed. in J. Pavia i Simó; Hoy un retrato a gusto, 2vv, Bc; Loco estoy, 1v, bc, Bc; Mísera navecilla, 4vv, VAc; O que mal viven, 4vv, acc., Tac; Para divertir a Filis, 4vv, Bc, ed. in J. Pavia i Simó; Traidor corazón, qué tienes, 4vv, acc., Bc

by Jerónimo La Torre (i) or (ii)

Lamentation, 8vv, J

Lit, S, SATB, hp, org, Ac

9 tonos: Cantad jilguerillos, 1v, Ce, ce, ce, luces divinas, 4vv, Filomela canora, 1v, Gilguerillo volante, 2vv, Loco estoy de contento, 1v, Mariana de mayo, 2vv, Viendo el sacristán, 4vv, all at Canet de Mar; Ce, ce, luces divinas, SSAT, acc., SEG

Aquel sol, villancico, 3vv, bc, GU

Duet in Tiso y Angélica (ballet), Mn

Tonada in the Ballet de l'herbolario, Mn

Tonadillas and letrillas, Mn

Comedia de S Alejo, frags., Mn

12 frags.: comedias, cantadas, zarzuelas, aires de ballet, Mn

2 canciones, 4vv, Crisóstomo Ripollès's private collection (according to Mitjana, EMDC, I/iv, 1920)

12 versets, org, J

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DEUMM (‘Torre, Jerónimo de la’, A. Basso)

MGG1 (M. Querol)

R. Mitjana y Gordón: ‘La musique en Espagne’, EMDC, I/iv (1920), 1913–2351

J. Climent: ‘Organistas valencianos de los siglos XVII y XVIII: Organistas de la catedral’, AnM, xvii (1962), 179–208

L. Siemens Hernández: ‘La Seo de Zaragoza, destacada escuela de órgano en el siglo XVII’, ii, AnM, xxiii (1968), 129–56

S. Ramon i Vinyes: Los órganos de la catedral de Tarragona: Caixa Provincial de Tarragona (Tarragona, 1974)

J. Pavia i Simó: La música a la catedral de Barcelona durant el segle XVII (Barcelona, 1986)

L. Siemens Hernández: Tecla Aragonesa, ii: la Escuela de órgano de la Se ode Zaragoza en el siglo XVII: Andrés de Sola y Jerónimo Latorre (Zaragoza, 1988)

J.V. Gozález Valle and others: ‘Regesta de noticias referentes a la música en las actas capitulares de la Seo de Zaragoza, 1645–1675’, Aragonia Sacra, v (Zaragoza, 1990)

‘Torre, Jeroni de la’, Gran enciclopèdia catalana, ed. J. Carreras i Martí (Barcelona, 2/1992)

J.V. Gozález Valle and others: Actas Capitulares de la Seo y el Pilar – acuerdos conjuntos a partir de 1676 –, tomo 1676–1680

JOSEP PAVIA I SIMÓ

La Torre, Jerónimo [Jerónimo de; ‘El Cojo’] (ii)

(fl Zaragoza, 1674–1700). Spanish organist and composer. He was known as El Cojo (‘the cripple’) because of a physical defect, which did not, however, prevent his becoming an accomplished organist. On 20 September 1674 he was appointed assistant organist of the cathedral of La Seo, Zaragoza, and three years later, on 21 August 1677, he was made principal organist at Zaragoza's other cathedral, Nuestra Señora del Pilar. In March 1695 he became maestro de capilla at El Pilar, a post that he resigned in 1699, when he took holy orders at the convent of S Ildefonso in Zaragoza. In 1700 the chapter sought his advice in appointing his successor. His namesake Jerónimo la Torre (i) may have been a relative.

WORKS

probably authentic

Mass, 4vv, E-Zac

Mass, 4vv, CAL, Zac

San, Zac, ed. in L. Siemens Hernández (see bibliography in La torre, jerónimo (i))

Conceptio tua (motet), SSAT, SATB, vn, hp, org, Zac

72 other sacred vocal works, 1–12vv, lost, listed in 2 early 18th-century inventories in Zac

Gloria de dominical (9 versets), org, Zac, ed. in L. Siemens Hernández (see bibliography in La torre, jerónimo (i))

For other works possibly by Jerónimo La Torre (ii) and for bibliography see La torre, jerónimo (i).

JOSEP PAVIA I SIMÓ

Latour, Francis Tatton.

One of the original partners in the music-publishing firm of Chappell.

Latre, Petit Jean de.

See De Latre, Petit Jean.

Latrobe [La Trobe], Christian Ignatius

(b Fulneck, Leeds, 12 Feb 1758; d Fairfield [now in Manchester], 6 May 1836). English composer. His family was of Huguenot descent; his father, Benjamin Latrobe, was superintendent of the Moravian Brethren in England and moved in the highest political and intellectual circles. He was educated among the Moravians at Niesky, Upper Lusatia (1771–84), and became a minister in the Moravian Church on his return and secretary of the denomination in England in 1795. He took part in various missions, including one to South Africa in 1815–16, and published accounts of his own and other Moravian missionary activities.

Latrobe was never a professional musician and was apparently self-taught, yet his achievement was considerable. His first compositions were instrumental, including three fine piano sonatas (London, c1790) dedicated to Haydn, with whom he was on friendly terms. It was Graun's Der Tod Jesu and Haydn's Stabat mater (according to his own account) that ‘first gave him the idea of the powers of vocal music, in the expression of every feeling of which a devotional mind is capable’. He composed and edited much church music for both Moravian and general use, and a few pieces of Anglican cathedral music. His most important Moravian publication was Anthems for One or More Voices Sung in the Church of the United Brethren (London, 1811), which is indispensable to the study of Moravian music. It includes a dozen of his own compositions. He also edited the first English collection of Moravian hymn tunes (London, 1790), which remained in use for a century and more; the tunes were chiefly drawn from C.F. Gregor's Choral-Buch (Leipzig, 1784), but 13 of them were probably composed by Latrobe. In 1828 he published a collection of his own sacred music.

A publication of wider influence was Latrobe's six-volume Selection of Sacred Music (London, 1806–26), which introduced to the British public the church music of such European composers as Graun, Hasse, Pergolesi, Haydn and Mozart (for contents see Grove's Dictionary, 1st–3rd edns, ‘Latrobe’). The music was published in vocal score with fully written-out accompaniments, some of them with the original text, others in translation. This pioneering work opened an entirely new realm of music, most of it Catholic in origin, to English Protestants. It anticipated Novello's publications, in which Latrobe also played an acknowledged part. Although he disapproved of opera, Latrobe delighted in the operatic style in church music. He was the first English composer to use the style of Haydn's later masses with confidence and skill. His settings of the canticles are markedly more expressive and dramatic than those of contemporary Anglican composers (they are probably too long, however, for normal cathedral use). In such works as his cantata The Dawn of Glory (London, 1803/R) operatic recitative and aria are successfully adapted to sacred English words, with sensitive attention to word-setting and with richly varied accompaniments.

One of Latrobe's sons, John Antes Latrobe (1799–1878), named after the American Moravian composer John Antes, took orders in the Church of England, and was incumbent of St Thomas's, Kendal (1840–65); he wrote a number of books on music, the most important of which, The Music of the Church Considered in its Various Branches, Congregational and Choral (London, 1831), gives a detailed picture (though in stilted language) of Anglican church music before the Oxford Movement.

WORKS

all published in London

Original Anthems … Adapted for Private Devotion or Public Worship (1828) [incl. Morning and Evening Service, G, 1817; Dies irae, 1823; Magnificat, D, 1823; Evening Service, G, 1828; 2 Agnus Dei; 9 anthems; 2 duets; 8 arias, ariettas; c17 hymn tunes]

2 other anthems: Anthem for … the Jubilee of George III (1809); Miserere mei (1814)

2 cantatas: The Dawn of Glory (C.I. Latrobe), solo vv, chorus, pf (1803/R); In Memory of a Beloved Sister (J.A. Latrobe), 1v, pf (1826)

6 Airs, the Words on Serious Subjects (W. Cowper, H. More), 1v, pf (c1812)

3 pf sonatas, op.3 (c1790), ed. in The London Pianoforte School 1766–1860, vii (New York, 1985)

editions

Hymn-Tunes Sung in the Church of the Brethren (London, 1789–90/R)

A Selection of Sacred Music from the Work of Some of the Most Eminent Composers of Germany and Italy (London, 1806–26)

Anthems for One or More Voices Sung in the Church of the United Brethren (London, 1811) [incl. 12 of Latrobe's compositions]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DNB (J.C. Haddon; also ‘Latrobe, John Antes’)

SainsburyD

E. Holmes: ‘The Rev. Christian Ignatius Latrobe’, MT, iv (1851), 249–50, 255–6

Brief Notices of the Latrobe Family (London, 1864)

C.E. Stephens: The Musical Works of Christian Ignatius Latrobe (diss., U. of North Carolina, 1971)

N. Temperley: The Hymn Tune Index (Oxford, 1988)

NICHOLAS TEMPERLEY

Latry, Olivier

(b Boulogne-sur-Mer, 22 Feb 1962). French organist. A pupil of Gaston Litaize at the Conservatoire at Saint Maur-des-Fossés (organ) and Jean-Claude Raynaud at the Paris Conservatoire (harmony), he succeeded his teacher at Saint Maur in 1990, then became organist at Notre Dame in Paris and organ professor at the Conservatoire (1995). He has given the premières of works by many contemporary composers, including Xavier Darasse, Claude Ballif and Renaud Gagneux, and rapidly attained recognition through his exceptional technique and the breadth of his repertory, which ranges from the 17th century to the present. This is reflected in his numerous concerts, both in France and abroad (Canada, the USA, South America, Australia, Japan), and in his recordings of music by Bach, Handel, Mozart and Vierne, as well as Duruflé and Schumann, whose complete organ works he has recorded. Latry also ranks as one of the great improvisers of his generation.

FRANÇOIS SABATIER

Lattuada, Felice

(b Caselle di Morimondo, nr Milan, 5 Feb 1882; d Milan, 2 Nov 1962). Italian composer. He embarked on a teaching career in primary schools in Milan and was at first self-taught musically, but in 1907 he entered the Milan Conservatory where he studied composition with V. Ferroni, graduating in 1912. In 1928 his opera Don Giovanni won the Concorso Nazionale della Pubblica Istruzione, judged by Alfano, Casella, Gasco and Mascagni. He was director of the Civica Scuola di Musica in Milan from 1935 to 1962. From his earliest works Lattuada showed a preference for a musical idiom deriving from late-Romantic tradition. In his theatre music his style remains close to verismo and is often emphatic, as Riccardo Allorto observed (Ricordiana, 1957) about his opera Caino. In his orchestral and chamber music his position as a follower of existing trends is confirmed by the Sinfonia romantica of 1912, his String Quartet, which won the Concorso Certani in Bologna in 1918, and his Violin Sonata, all works of a strongly lyrical, expressive character. The subjects and rhetorical tone typical of Italian music between the wars are exemplified by such works as the symphonic poem La consacrazione del bardo (1931) and the Canto augurale per la Nazione eletta for tenor, chorus and orchestra (1933) on D’Annunzio’s lauda dedicated to Mussolini. Lattuada’s son Alberto (b 1914) is a well-known film director and their collaboration, developed during the 1940s, led to a large number of soundtracks, in which the composer’s style frequently diverges from the director’s innovative approach.

WORKS

Ops: La tempesta (prol, 3, A. Rossato, after W. Shakespeare), Milan, Dal Verme, 23 Nov 1922; Sandha (tragedia indiana, 1, F. Fontana), Genoa, Carlo Felice, 21 Feb 1924; Le preziose ridicole (commedia, 1, Rossato, after Molière), Milan, Scala, 9 Feb 1929; Don Giovanni (4, Rossato, after J. Zorrilla y Moral: Don Giovanni Tenorio), Naples, S Carlo, 18 May 1929; La caverna di Salamanca (1, V. Piccoli, after M. de Cervantes), Genoa, Carlo Felice, 1 March 1938; Caino (1, Lattuada and G. Zambianchi, after Byron), Milan, Scala, 10 Jan 1957

Orch: Sinfonia romantica, 1912; La consacrazione del bardo, 1931; Cimitero di guerra, 1943; Preludio e fuga, 1946; Impressioni sinfoniche, 1954; Banchetto magico; Danza orientale; Divertimento giocoso; Divertimento rustico; Sogno

Vocal: Canto augurale per la Nazione eletta (G. D’Annunzio), T, chorus, orch, 1933; Il mistero della Passione di Cristo; 4-pt madrigals; songs

Chbr: Str Qt, 1918; 3 madrigali, vn, pf; 12 preludi, pf; Sonata, vn, pf; Str Qt

Film scores: Giacomo l’idealista, 1943; Il bandito, 1946; Il delitto di Giovanni Episcopo, 1947; Le luci del varietà (dir. F. Fellini), 1951; Il cappotto, 1952; La lupa, 1953

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DEUMM (A. Sommariva)

A. Procida: ‘“Don Giovanni” di Rossato e Lattuada’, Musica d’oggi, vi (1929), 270–71

F. Lattuada: La passione dominante (Bologna, 1951) [autobiography]

A. Fino: La Civica scuola di musica di Milano (Milan, 1978)

F. Nicolodi: Musica e musicisti nel ventennio fascista (Florence, 1984)

RAFFAELE POZZI

Latvia

(Latvija).

Country in eastern Europe. It is on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea, founded in 1918. It was annexed to the Soviet Union in 1940, although few other nations formally recognized this incorporation. The country regained its national independence in 1991.

I. Art music

II. Traditional music

JOACHIM BRAUN/ARNOLDS KLOTIŅŠ(I), MARTIN BOIKO (II)

Latvia

I. Art music

The earliest evidence of musical life in what is now the territory of Latvia consists in some archaeological finds of end-blown flutes and strung rattles dating from the Neolithic period. By the end of the 1st millennium the tribes living in this area had developed a number of instruments, such as flutes with five finger-holes and the kokle, a type of plucked zither (see §2(iii) below). Although some professional elements were probably present, by the time of the Teutonic conquest in the 12th century the musical culture of the Baltic population was based on folk traditions (see §2 below).

While the Latvian population was reduced to serfdom and did not develop an art culture until the 19th century, the Germans developed their own, significant musical life; it was based mainly on German values and no local trend or school developed. Most musical activities were concentrated in the country’s capital, Riga. The Chronicon livoniae of Henricus de Lettis mentions the native population listening to Catholic mysteries as early as 1205. From the 14th century to the 16th, Riga’s musical life was that of a typical Hanseatic city with its Stadtmusikanten, companies of musicians and guilds. In the 16th century Lutheranism prevailed and German political supremacy came to an end. The first liturgical songbooks with Latvian texts were published in Königsberg (after 1945 Kaliningrad) in 1587 and in Riga in 1615. From the early 17th century Latvian musicians were participating in the active Polish and Czech music companies. From the 17th century to the 19th, city and country life were closely in touch with west European musical achievements; Riga’s collegium musicum, Musikalische Gesellschaft and City Theatre promoted musical activities. Another musical centre from the late 16th century was the court of the dukes of Kurzeme at Mitau (now Jelgava); musicians such as J. Fischer, F.A. Veichtner and J.A. Hiller were engaged at the court orchestra and opera.

In the 18th and 19th centuries many organs were installed in Latvian churches; some 250 historic instruments have been maintained to the present day. From the 18th century onwards significant numbers of virtuoso performers gave concerts in Jelgava and Riga, en route from Western Europe to St Petersburg. In the 18th century educated Latvian circles had close ties with the University of Königsberg. J.G. Herder, who was the first to publish Latvian folksongs in Western Europe, came from Königsberg to live in Riga between 1764 and 1769, as did the well-known music publisher J.F. Hartknoch (1740–89) and many other cultural and educational figures.

In the second half of the 19th century, against a background of Latvian national aspiration, a national school of Latvian music developed, of which Kārlis Baumanis was an early representative. He was the author of the text and music of the Latvian national hymn Dievs, svētī Latvijú (‘God bless Latvia’). Although Catholic and Lutheran liturgical music had deep roots in Latvia, its impact on Latvian music was limited to the early period when Jānis Cimze in particular was active in collecting and arranging folk music. Choral music was the form of art music that developed earliest and it has remained one of the most important genres. This is reflected in immense Latvian song festivals; the first of these took place in 1873, and they have continued in an uninterrupted tradition, held every five years on a specially constructed outdoor stage in Riga with as many as 15,000 participants. The 21st festival took place in 1993.

Early 19th-century music education in Latvia on a professional level was available only at some seminaries for teachers and music schools; conductors, composers and other musicians wanting more than a teaching diploma went abroad, mainly to St Petersburg. Latvian art music at the end of the 19th century, like other east European national schools, was strongly influenced by folk music. Most of the early Latvian composers (Andrejs Jurjāns, Jāzeps Vītols and Emīlis Melngailis) frequently used folksong quotations and arrangements. Another group (Alfrēds Kalniņš and Emīls Dārziņš) avoided direct quotations, but folk music characteristics are an integral part of their works.

The short life of the independent Latvian republic (1918–40) saw years of rapid growth: the Latvian National Opera was founded (the first Latvian opera, Baņuta by Alfrēds Kalniņš, was produced in 1920), as were the Latvian Conservatory, seven schools of music, the first permanent symphony orchestra (the Latvian RSO, 1926) and several chamber groups. Different musical styles flourished in those years: nationalist Romanticism (Jāzeps Vītols, Alfrēds Kalniņš and Jāzeps Mediņš), post-Wagnerism (Jānis Mediņš and Jānis Kalniņš) and impressionism (Jānis Ķepītis and Jānis Zālītis).

From 1940 music in Latvia came under Soviet control, and many musicians suffered repression or were forced to emigrate. Thus in 1944 a number of Latvian musicians and composers, including J. Vītols, J. Kalniņš and Jānis Mediņš, left Latvia and continued their work in the West. In the Latvian SSR some institutions were broadened (e.g. a chair of musicology was established at the conservatory) and some new ones were founded (the State Philharmonia, a composers’ union and a special musical high school). In 1948 Latvian music, like all Soviet music, was under heavy party criticism. Latvian composers experienced strong ideological pressure from the Communist Party, and many works were created of little or no lasting value. From the 1950s composers in Latvia were influenced by the postwar European avant garde; however, on the whole postmodernism in Latvian music has been tempered by a strong vein of neo-Romanticism and neo-classicism. The best-known Latvian composers at the end of the 20th century included Pauls Dambis (b 1936), Maija Einfelde (b 1939), Artūs Grīnups (1931–89), Imants Kalniņš (b 1941), Romualds Kalsons (b 1936), Juris Karlsons (b 1948), Pēteris Plakidis (b 1947), Pēteris Vasks (b 1946) and Imants Zenzaris (b 1951). Latvian composers working abroad included Ā. Ābele (1889–1967), Volfgangs Dārziņš (1906–62), Jānis Kalniņš (b 1904), Talivaldis Kenins (b 1919) and Gundaris Pone (1932–94).

Despite ideological constraints after World War II, the Latvian National Opera also renewed its activities, and was known as the State Opera and Ballet Theatre of the Latvian SSR until 1990. Conductors in the years after 1944 included Leonīds Vīgners, Edgars Tons, Richards Glāzups and Aleksandrs Viļumanis. Between the 1960s and the 1980s the theatre’s repertory expanded to include 20th-century operas, among them many works by Latvian composers. Internationally known Latvian musicians of the postwar period include the conductors Arvīds Jansons, Mariss Jansons and Imants Kokars; the soprano Žermēna Heine-Vāgnere; the tenors Kārlis Zariņš, Jānis Sprogis and Ingus Pētersons; the violinists Ieva Graubiņa-Bravo, Rasma Lielmane-Kortesa and Valdis Zariņš; and the pianist Artūrs Ozoliņš.

Since the restoration of national independence in 1990, concert life in Latvia has been decentralized, professional associations of musicians restored and musical contacts with Western Europe renewed. The country also hosts regular international music festivals.

See also Riga.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Latvijas Konservatorija: 1919–1929 (Riga, 1930)

J. Vītoliņš, ed.: ‘Latviešu mūsika’, Mūzikas vēsture (Riga, 1934–7), 499–601

K. Lesiņš: Problēmas un sejas latviešu mūzikā [Problems and personalities in Latvian music] (Riga, 1939)

O. Grāvītis: Kratkiye biografii latïshskikh kompozitorov [Short biographies of Latvian composers] (Riga, 1955)

K. Mediņš: Latviešu dziesmu svētki [Latvian song festivals] (Riga, 1955)

J. Brauns: ‘No latviešu instrumentālās mūzikas vēstures’ [From the history of Latvian instrumental music], Latviešu mūzika, ii (1962), 129

J. Brauns: Vijolmākslas attīstība Latvijā [The development of the art of the violin in Latvia] (Riga, 1962)

A. Darkevic and E. Vitoliń, eds.: Muzykalnaja kultura Latvijskoi SSR (Moscow, 1965, 2/1976)

E. Arro: ‘Die deutschbaltische Liederschule’, Musik des Ostens, iii (1965), 175–239

L. Kārkliņš, ed.: Ocherki muzïkal'noy kul'turï sovetskoy Latvii [Essays on Soviet Latvian musical culture] (Leningrad, 1965)

V. Bērzkalns: Latviešu dziesmu svētku vēsture 1864–1940 [The history of Latvian song festivals] (Brooklyn, NY, 1965)

V. Bērzkalns: Latviešu dziesmu svētki trimdā 1946–1965 [Latvian song festivals in exile] (Brooklyn, NY, 1968)

V. Bērziņa: Eju pārvērsties skaņā: Operas un baleta mākslinieku portreti [Transforming into sound: portraits of opera and ballet artists] (Riga, 1969)

J. Braun: ‘Die Anfänge des Musikinstrumentenspiels in Lettland’, Musik des Ostens, vi (1971), 88–125

L. Kārkliņš, ed.: Ocherki muzïkal'noy kul'turï sovetskoy Latvii (Leningrad, 1971)

J. Vītoliņš and L. Krasinska: Latviešu mūzikas vēsture [A history of Latvian music], i (Riga, 1972)

S. Verinja: Muzykalnyi teatr Latvii i zarozhdenie latyshskoi natsionalnoi opery [The musical theatre of Latvia and the emergence of the Latvian national opera] (Leningrad, 1973)

L. Kārkliņš: Kompozitory i muzykovedy Sovetskoi Latvii [Composers and musicologists of Soviet Latvia] (Riga, 1974)

V. Briede-Bulāvinova: Latviešu opera (Riga, 1975)

N. Grīnfelds: Padomju Latvijas mūzika (Riga, 1976)

L. Apkalns: Lettische Musik (Wiesbaden, 1977)

N. Grjunfeld: Istoria latyshskoi muzyki (Moscow, 1978)

O. Grāvītis: Izcilākie tautas kori [Outstanding choirs] (Riga, 1979)

V. Briede: Jaunās balsis: Latvijas operas debitanti 70. gados [New voices: the new singers of the Latvian opera in the 1970s] (Riga, 1981)

V. Bērzina: Tautas muzikālā atmoda latviešu publicistu skatījumā [The musical awakening of the people as seen by Latvian publicists] (Riga, 1983)

J. Braun and K. Brambats, eds.: Selected Writings on Latvian Music: a Bibliography (Münster, 1985)

V. Briede: Latviešu operteātris [Latvian operatic theatre] (Riga, 1987)

I. Grauzdiņa: Tūkstoš mēlēm ērgeles spēlē [Organ music in Latvia] (Riga, 1987)

L. Mūrniece, ed.: Muzyka Sovetskoi Latvii (Riga, 1988)

L. Kārkliņš: Simfoniska muzika Latvija (Riga, 1990)

L. Lesle: ‘Auflehnung gegen eine brutale Macht: Neue Musik aus Lettland’, Das Orchester, xlv/3 (1997), 12–18

Latvia

II. Traditional music

Latvian traditional music characteristically has a large number of recitative-style forms and thus differs essentially from that of its southern (Lithuanian) and eastern (Russian and Belarusian) neighbours. It is more readily comparable to that of the Estonians, to the north. Another characteristic feature is the existence of various forms of vocal polyphony, although in Latvia polyphony is not as varied in form and as widespread as it is in Lithuania, Belarus and Russia. In this sense, Latvia forms a transitional stage between these three countries and Estonia, where polyphony plays an even smaller role than in Latvia, and where it has been documented only in the south and south-east, close to the Latvian and Russian borders. As distinct from its close neighbours, Latvian tradition has no form of lament.

The expression ‘Latvian traditional music’ for the most part is synonymous with the term ‘Latvian peasant music’, as its most important genres are concerned with the annual agricultural work and ceremonial cycle. The music of family festivals (name-giving, weddings, funerals) also has a deep connection with the everyday life and world view of those working on the land. Traditional music in practice survives chiefly in south-east Latvia and in some communities in the south-west, although even in these areas it is often no longer performed in its former contexts.

1. Stratigraphy and style.

2. Polyphony.

3. Instrumental music and instruments.

4. The folk music revival movement.

5. Minorities.

6. Research and sources.

1. Stratigraphy and style.

On the basis of material collected systematically from the second half of the 19th century, an older indigenous stratum of traditional music can be distinguished from a later one marked by considerable outside influence. The former is an integral part of old peasant custom and usage (seasonal and family festivals, traditions connected with work, etc.), and to a large extent is pagan in character.

One of the most extensive stylistic groups consists of the recitative-like songs (teiktās dziesmas), which feature a narrow range (a 3rd or a 4th) and a syllabic relationship of notes to text. Their melodic and rhythmic structures are largely determined by elements of linguistic prosody such as word stress, syllabic quantity (i.e. the physical length of syllables) and syllabic intonations. (Syllabic intonations – descending, ascending, broken off or drawn out – constitute what might be called melodic microcurves within the long syllables.) These factors cannot be adequately notated; for instance, the fine rhythmic variations produced by a sequence of different syllabic quantities are usually reduced in notation to a series of quavers.

Although the area of distribution of recitative songs covers almost the whole country, the group shows pronounced stylistic homogeneity while covering a broad range of functions. Many recitatives can be performed in several traditional contexts. In some areas it was known for the same recitative-style melody to be sung at weddings, baptisms, funerals, the midsummer festival, and so on (of course to different texts). Most recitatives are strophic, each strophe having two sections of four bars each, or 4 + 6 [4+2] bars. In many places they were or still are performed with a drone (ex.1).

Refrain songs form a second group in this older stratum, with melostrophes consisting of sets of four-bar, three-bar or more rarely five-bar melodic lines on the following patterns (R=refrain): 2 + 2R, 2 + 1R or 2 + 3R. The melostrophes can be made up of melodic lines with different structures, so that as well as symmetrical strophic models such as (2 + 2R) + (2 + 2R), asymmetrical models occur, for instance (2 + 2R) + (2 + 1R) or (2 + 2R) + (2 + 3R) + (2 + 1R), etc. The dominant metre is duple time, with 3/4 time sometimes occurring in the refrains. The elements forming a melodic line are rhythmically contrasted: the verse line with its strictly syllabic relationship between notes and text consists principally of notes of short duration, usually transcribed as quavers, while the refrains are often dominated by longer notes, transcribed as crotchets. Longer notes can also occur. In these refrain songs melisma, if it exists at all, is very simple, usually consisting of one syllable sung to two notes, in the refrain sections (ex.2). (Narrow-range midsummer solstice songs with more elaborately melismatic refrains are found only in south-eastern Latvia.)

Eastern and central Latvia are the main areas of distribution of refrain songs and their function is confined to seasonal customs. There are smaller groups consisting of carnival songs (meteņu dziesmas with the refrains Paņudis, paņudis! and Ē, vastalāvi!), Easter songs (Lieldienu dziesmas, refrains Šūvo, šūvo! and, among the Livs of the north Kurzeme coast, Čičor, čīčor!) and spring songs (rotāšanas dziesmas, refrain Rotā, rotā!). Most numerous, however, are the midwinter songs (kaladu dziesmas, refrains Kalado, kalado!, Udobru, judobru!, Tolderā, tolderā!, etc.) and midsummer songs (Jāņu dziesmas or līgotnes, refrains Līgo, līgo!; in south-east Latvia Rūtuo, rūtuo! Leiguo, leiguo!, etc.). These last occur in particularly great variety, and, unlike the other refrain songs, they often have a wide range and show the influence of functional harmony in their melodic structure. The līgotnes and singing with a drone are regarded as musical emblems of national cultural identity. Refrain structures are also found in lullabies, children's songs and herdsmen's songs. The area of distribution of these refrain songs extends beyond Latvia into southern Estonia and eastern Lithuania.

As well as these two main stylistic groups of the older stratum there are many smaller ones. Narrow-range work songs and spring songs have been recorded, particularly in eastern and western Latvia. They are performed very slowly and forcefully, always in the open air and usually accompanied by a drone. In south-eastern Latvia there are narrow-range songs for the rye harvest and the hay harvest which show a certain similarity to south-eastern Lithuanian and Belarusian harvest songs in their profuse ornamentation and rubato-like style of performance. Many western Latvian midwinter songs (those without a refrain), wedding and funeral songs consist of a primitive melodic framework, with melostrophes usually having two lines of melody, each sung on only one or two notes of recitative. Herdsmen's calls are another stylistic phenomenon: they are often in the nature of short, powerfully sung vocalises and were used by the herdsmen or boys as a means of communicating with one another and with their homes. There is a differentiated system of acoustic signals on every farm, used in daily communication with the livestock.

Wide-range modal vocal melodies are widespread in Latvia, in particular Aeolian and Ionian and various hypomodal tunes of a lyric or lyrical-epic character. Many of these modal melodies have a changing tonic note. The wide-range modal tunes occur particularly frequently as wedding, wooing, drinking and war songs; unlike the recitative songs, their rhythm is strictly dependent on the musical metre, and they are self-contained, with more individuality in their melodies than the narrow-range tunes, although like the latter they usually have little ornamentation.

The majority of texts of songs from the older stratum consists of quatrains or six-line verses (dainas), without end rhymes and trochaic in metre (c95%), or more rarely dactylic. Two lines make up a melostrophe and can appear with or without various repetitions of one or both lines or sections of lines. In content and in poetic form the quatrains and six-line verses are self-contained, and are linked within the text of a song not by the continuation of a narrative but only by a thematic motif or key word, such as ‘sun’, ‘oak tree’, ‘cuckoo’, etc. They display various different aspects of such a theme, so to speak, and often their number and the order in which they appear is not predetermined.

The later stratum comprises music based on the principles of functional harmony, created under the influence of stimulus from Central Europe from the 18th century onwards. Quite frequently melodies of this type are sung to dainas texts. There is a large group of songs known as ziņges (from the German verb singen: to sing): these have rhyming texts, and are generally satirical or love songs. Ziņges are frequently drinking songs, and their texts, often from literary sources and, unlike the dainas, with a known author, can be transmitted either orally or in writing (by means of rough copies or printed sources). German and other models can often be detected in the melodies of these ziņges; Lutheran hymns are the prototypes of a number of them. Scholars consider that the distribution of ziņges began because of the activities of the philologist and Lutheran pastor Gotthard Friedrich Stender (1714–96; in Latvia he is known as ‘Vecais Stenders’). He published a volume of poems entitled Jaunas ziņges (‘New Songs’) in 1774, hoping that the ‘new Latvian airs’ it contained would oust the pagan and unseemly dainas from peasant custom and usage. Of all the various genres of traditional music the ziņges have had the greatest influence on 20th-century Latvian pop music, and are regarded as one of its sources.

There are strong sacred music traditions of recent origin in the Catholic south-east of Latvia, which is otherwise a Protestant country. Some Catholic hymns are sung outside churches, spontaneously performed by the people in rituals with no priestly participants. The performers transmit the melodies orally, although the texts are usually learnt from written copies or hymnbooks. At ceremonies in honour of the Virgin Mary, for instance, conducted in May around wayside shrines or prayer-crosses in the open air, the ‘Songs of Mary’ (Marijas dzīsmes) are performed. When someone dies relatives and neighbours meet at the dead person's house, usually on the day of death itself and then every day until the funeral, to sing psalms (psaļmes) and funeral songs. The ceremony called ‘psalm-singing’ by the singers, is actually a complete Office for the Dead, introduced into south-eastern Latvia by Jesuit missionaries at the end of the 18th century. This ritual which lasts about two hours is repeated at memorial ceremonies held every year in October or early November. These and other forms of traditional sacred music are widespread and still flourishing in many local versions in the south-east of the country.

2. Polyphony.

Polyphony is widespread, but there are large areas, particularly in the north, where there are no records of any polyphonic tradition. In areas where polyphonic singing exists or did exist, there are almost always strong traditions of monophonic group performance as well.

The drone songs which are part of the older stratum of traditional music are found in greater concentration in the south-west and south-east. The drone is almost exclusively a pedal drone in the south-west, while in the south-east there is also a considerable number of songs with syllabic drone. The drone almost always occurs in combination with narrow-range melodies, particularly of the recitative type. Refrain songs with drone have been recorded in eastern Latvia. Drone songs are usually two-part, although some transcriptions from the early 20th century show three-part polyphony, the result of the superimposition of a syllabic and a pedal drone. Various transcriptions show a regular alternation of syllabic and pedal drone within the confines of the melostrophe. The melostrophe of a typical drone song begins with a melodic line performed by the leading woman singer (teicēja) alone. In the next section either she sings the upper part alone, or it is continued by another or several women singers, while the others sustain the drone (see ex.1). In the vast majority of cases, the drone represents the lower part of the range employed by the melody (within the two-part section). Both constant and changing forms of the pedal drone have been recorded. The pedal drone is usually the key note, and a changing drone usually occurs because the drone part follows a change of key note in the melody. The pedal drone is sung on a vowel, usually e or a. The syllabic drone nearly always occurs in combination with ostinato elements: the drone part is provided with neighbouring notes on the 2nd below, and often oscillates rapidly between the key note and the sub-tonic. Constant syllabic drones occur rarely; the drone part recites the text at the same time as the main part.

At the end of the 19th century, several polyphonic phenomena were documented which represent the synthesis of elements of drone songs and sutartinės. The latter are a form of old Lithuanian polyphony found throughout the north-east of Lithuania; its characteristics are the dominance of the 2nd as a harmonic interval, complementary rhythms, the simultaneous performance of different texts and polymodality.

More recent homophonic polyphony based on functional harmony is found chiefly and in great variety in the Catholic south-east, with a small ‘island’ of this phenomenon in the south-west. There is wide distribution of simple songs sung in uninterrupted or predominating parallel 3rds. In addition, there are some in which the parts have greater melodic individuality and are much ornamented. Besides a type of polyphony with strict functional differentiation of the parts, there is another more reminiscent of heterophony influenced by functional harmony. Some examples display evidence of interaction between the ostinato-like syllabic drone and the harmonic parallel 3rds.

The major key predominates, although not always with the same character: for instance, melodies from the older stratum sometimes feature as the main parts, and when studied in isolation are not in the major key, but have a narrow-range tetrachordal or trichordal construction which takes on the character of the major only when fitted into the polyphonic structure. Two-part or three-part polyphony predominates, although the number of parts is not strictly regulated, and depends on the specific experience and skills of the singers. Even in what is basically a two-part polyphonic song, divergences in the supporting part can lead to sporadic occurrences of three-part polyphony.

Homophonic polyphony with a high solo supporting part is chiefly found in the eastern areas of the Catholic part of the country bordering on Russia. Songs in this category are in three or four parts. In three-part polyphony of this kind the main part is the middle or, more rarely, the lower part; in four-part polyphony it lies between the high supporting part and the higher of the two low parts. The high supporting part is taken by one woman singer with a particularly high, penetrating voice; the other parts are performed by several singers. Their number, although not usually large, is not subject to any rules. The high supporting part sometimes comes in only after the semi-cadence, sometimes just before the cadence, etc., but never at the very beginning of the melostrophe. It may take various forms: for instance, introduced in parallel 3rds to the main part, an octave above the lower accompanying part, at a distance of an octave with deviations, etc. Songs with high supporting part are performed powerfully, at a slow tempo and often in the open air, and have various functions.

In south-west Latvia, homophonic polyphony, chiefly in two-part songs, is found in the small neighbouring communities of Bārta and Nīca near the Lithuanian border. The melody is heard in the upper part. The melostrophe begins with a short solo introduction performed by the leading woman singer; then the two-part chorus comes in, or the melody may be continued by the soloist alone while the chorus sings the lower part. In many respects this two-part polyphony resembles Lithuanian homophonic polyphony. Although it is also represented among the wedding songs and in other genres, most of the songs in this form are spring songs to be performed in the open air. They are popularly known as leiši (sing. leitis, ‘Lithuanian’).

3. Instrumental music and instruments.

A feature of Latvian traditional music is the strong predominance of vocal over instrumental and vocal-instrumental music, although this impression could be caused by the tendency of earlier collectors to concentrate on documenting mostly vocal music. Documentary records of traditional instrumental music are few, and are mostly dance-tunes of Central European origin. The range of traditional instruments, however, is extensive: it is known to have included over 30 varieties of idiophone, for example, clappers, bells, jingles, jew's harp, klabata (wooden sounding-board), the čagana and trideksnis (hand-held rattles); membranophones such as the paupenes (kettledrums), cylindrical drums made from a hollowed-out tree trunk, etc.; chordophones – the kokle and cītara (board zithers), the spēles (musical bow), the dūdas (bumbass or bladder and stick), monochords and violins, etc.; and aerophones (reed pipes, various types of flute and whistle, horns with finger-holes, wooden trumpets, bagpipes, etc.). Musical instruments were played in four main contexts: while herding animals; as part of rituals, ceremonies and customs; for accompanying dance; and for self-entertainment.

Most of the aerophones are herdsmen's instruments used for signalling and entertainment. Trumpets and horns of various kinds also served to give signals during hunting, and were played for certain wooing and wedding ceremonies. Hand-held rattles (trideksnis, eglīte, etc.) also played an important part in wedding ceremonies. The kokle board zither (related to the Lithuanian kanklės, the Estonian kannel, the Finnish kantele and the north-west Russian gusli) has a special place among traditional instruments. In the late 19th and the 20th century it has been regarded as a symbol of Latvian national cultural identity. The body of the kokle (often used in the plural form kokles) is trapezoidal, with one end narrower than the other. It is made of a single piece of hollowed-out wood, to which a thin board is fitted, with soundholes cut out of it first. The strings (earlier of gut, nowadays usually metal) radiate from the narrower to the broader end, and vary between five and 12 in number. The last traditional players of the kokle died in the middle decades of the 20th century, and there is little documentary information about playing styles. During the Soviet period modified instruments, many of them chromatic, were developed, and large ensembles of kokles in various sizes were formed on the model of the Russian balalaika orchestras. A standardized 13-string kokle became popular among exiled Latvians in the West, particularly as a teaching aid, largely through the work of New York based musician Andrejs Jansons.

The dūkas (also somu dūkas and dūdas) bagpipe seems to have played a special part in the life of the peasants of the 16th to 18th centuries, as one of the few instruments that was played at weddings and dances. This was probably the consequence of a Livonian law forbidding ‘non-Germans’, i.e. Latvians and Estonians, to play any instruments at weddings except bagpipes and percussion. The violin was probably introduced during the second half of the 17th century, and as it became more widespread it obviously took over some of the functions and repertory of other instruments, particularly the bagpipe.

Dance music of Central European provenance became well established in Latvia in the second half of the 19th century. Waltzes, polkas, anglaises, various quadrilles and promenade dances, etc., were generally accompanied by an instrument ensemble consisting of one or two violins, a zither and a bass instrument such as bumbass, or in the 20th century, in eastern Latvia, by a button-key accordion, played either solo or as one of the instruments in the band.

4. The folk music revival movement.

The roots of the revival date from the late 19th century, when Jurjāns and others began to research and write about Latvian folk music. In the 1920s and 30s there were sporadic attempts to bring traditional music closer to the educated urban population, such as performances by folk singers organized in towns and cities. After the occupation of Latvia by the USSR in 1940 and World War II, certain forms of traditional music such as the folkloric ballet were encouraged in the context of soviet amateur art. In the 1950s and 60s a number of ethnographic ensembles were formed in order to cultivate their local traditions; their participants (or most of them) were traditional folksingers (examples are the Rikava ensemble in the south-east, the Bārta and Suitu sievas ensembles in the south-western coastal area, etc.). Their repertory mingled stylized and traditional forms. At the end of the 1970s the new revival movement took off, especially in towns, with the aim of reviving traditional forms of music. At the same time, it was a movement of protest – initially latent, subsequently overt – against the soviet policy of Russification, and it encouraged the preservation of the national and cultural identity: it was a kind of prelude to the political changes of the 1980s and early 90s. This movement saw itself as countering the stylized forms taken by amateur folkloric art, which was condemned for its willingness to be part of the propagandist showcase of the soviet regime and its betrayal of genuine traditions. (The most important representatives of the 1980s were the Skandinieki, Klinči, Sendziesma and Senleja ensembles.) Since the end of the 1980s, the revival movement has moved towards stylistic pluralism, and will now even admit synthesis with rock music (as in the Iļgi ensemble). It has become multi-ethnic by association with minority traditional music groups (Jewish, Russian, Gypsy, etc.). The Baltica International Folklore Festival, which takes place every year in one of the three Baltic states, has been central to the revival movement since 1988.

5. Minorities.

Most of the documentary records of the traditional music of the Livs (in Latvian, lībieši), a small Finno-Ugrian ethnic group living in north-west Latvia on the Baltic coast, and like the Letts part of the original population of Latvia, are from the first half of the 20th century. It displays no essential differences from Latvian music, and indeed no special relationship with Estonian or Finnish traditional music. Liv ensembles such as Līvlist or Kāndla have been prominent in the revival movement. From the 17th century onwards, the eastern and in particular the Catholic areas of Latvia often provided refuge for large groups of Old Believers from Russia, who came to the Baltic area in several waves after the schism of 1653–6 in the Russian Orthodox Church, when they were subject to persecution. Documentation from the 1930s shows that at this period the Latvian Russians still to some extent preserved their own traditional music, and recordings from the 1990s show that even today there are isolated places where certain of these traditional forms (ballads and dance-songs, some of them in polyphonic performance) can still be traced, if with difficulty. Russian children's ensembles are an important part of the revival movement.

2. Repertory and performing practice.

6. Research and sources.

The earliest sources for traditional Latvian music date from the 16th and 17th centuries; the first notated melody appeared in Syntagma de origine Livonorum by Fridericus Menius (Dorpat, 1632). Systematic collection of traditional music began in the late 1860s with the activities of the educationalist and composer Jānis Cimze (1814–81). The central figure in the late 19th and early 20th century was Andrejs Jurjāns (1856–1922), editor of the first scholarly publication on the subject, Latvju tautas mūzikas materiāli (1894–1926). The most important institution in the inter-war period was the Latvian Folklore Repository (Latviešu Folkloras krātuve), founded in 1925, which among other things organized the recording of traditional music, and assembled 155 wax cylinders and discs and 16,271 transcriptions between 1926 and 1941. The results of the extensive collecting work by the composer Emilis Melngailis (1874–1954) were published in Latviešu mūzikas folkloras materiali (1951–3). The major postwar institution was the Institute of Folklore, founded in 1945 to continue the work of the Latvian Folklore Repository; it was later known as the Department of Folklore of the Institute of Language and Literature at the Academy of Sciences, and reverted to the name of the Latvian Folklore Repository in 1992. It conducted field work expeditions, assembled transcriptions and tape recordings in the archives, and under the direction of Jēkabs Vītoliņš initiated the publication of Latviešu tautas mūzika in five volumes (1958–86). The research work begun by Jurjāns has been continued in the 20th century by, among others, J. Graubiņš, J. Sprogis, M. Goldin, K. Brambats, J. Braun, A. Klotiņš, V. Bendorfs, Ī. Priedīte, Z. Sneibe, V. Muktupāvels, M. Boiko, and A. Beitāne.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

A. Jurjāns: ‘Latviešu tautas mūzika’ [Latvian folk music], Balss (3, 14 Feb 1879)

A. Jurjāns: Latvju tautas mūzikas materiāli [Latvian folk music material] (Riga, 1894–1926)

A. Bielenstein: Die Holzbauten und Holzgeräte der Letten, ii (Petrograd, 1918), 716–35

J. Graubiņš: Talsu novada tautas dziesmas [Folksongs from the Talsi district] (Riga, 1935)

O. Loorits: Die Volkslieder der Liven (Tartu, 1936)

J. Sprogis: Jāņu dziesmu melodijas/Johannis lieder-Melodien (Riga, 1941)

J. Sprogis: Senie mūzikas instrumenti un darba un godu dziesmu melodijas Latvijā [Ancient music instruments and melodies of work and ceremonial songs in Latvia] (Riga, 1943) [with Ger. summary]

E. Melngailis: Latviešu mūzikas folkloras materiāli [Latvian folk music material] (Riga, 1951–3) [contains 4345 melodies]

J. Vītoliņš, ed.: Latviešu tautas mūzika (Riga, 1958–86)

J. Vītoliņš: ‘Die lettischen Hirtenlieder’, Deutsches Jb für Volkskunde, xiii/2 (1967), 213–37

K. Brambats: ‘Die lettische Volkspoesie in musikwissenschaftlicher Sicht’, Musik des Ostens, v (1969), 25–48

V. Urtāns: ‘Drevneishie muzikalniye instrumenti na teritorii Latvii’ [The oldest music instruments in the territory of Latvia], Studia archaeologica in memoriam Harri Moora (Tallinn, 1970), 226–42 [with Ger. summary]

J. Braun: ‘Die Anfänge des Musikinstrumentenspiels in Lettland’, Musik des Ostens, vi (1972), 88–125

I.D. Fridrikh: Russkiy fol'klor v Latvii [Russian folklore in Latvia] (Riga, 1972)

J. Vītoliņš: ‘Tautas mūzika’ [Folk music], Latviešu mūzikas vēsture, J. Vītoliņš and L. Krasinska, i (Riga, 1972), 7–67

V. Bendorfs: ‘Latviešu valodas prosodijas īpatrīou ietekme uz tautasdziesmu melodiku’ [The influence of the characteristics of Latvian prosody on the melodic structure of folksongs], Latviešu mūzika, xii (1977), 76–81

A. Klotiņš: ‘Mūzikas folklora un mēs’ [Musical folklore and us], Literatūra un māksla (24 Nov 1978)

C. Jaremko Niles: The Baltic Folk Zithers: an Ethnological and Structural Analysis (thesis, UCLA, 1980)

K. Brambats: ‘The Vocal Drone in the Baltic Countries: Problems of Chronology and Provenance’, Journal of Baltic Studies, xiv (1983), 24–34

Ī. Priedīte: Ko spēlēja sendienās [What was played in times past] (Riga, 1983)

V. Muktupāvels: Tautas mūzikas instrumenti Latvijas PSR teritorijā [Folk instruments in the territory of the Latvian SSR] (Riga, 1987)

V. Bendorfs: ‘Latviešu tautasdziesmu melodikas elementu senums un cilme’ [The age and origin of elements of the melodic structure of Latvian folksongs], Latvijas PSR Zinātņu Akadēmijas vēstis (1988), no.10, pp.73–7 [with Russ. summary]

Ī. Priedīte: Tautas mūzikas instrumenti [Folk music instruments] (Riga, 1988) [summaries in Ger., Russ.]

Z. Sneibe: ‘Ziņge: melodikas cilme un attīstība’ [The ziņge: the origin and development of its melodic structure], Latvijas PSR Zinātņu Akadēmijas vēstis (1988), no.10, pp.63–72 [with Russ. summary]

V. Bērziņa: Tautasdziesmas gājums [The path of the folksong] (Riga, 1989)

A. Klotiņš and V. Muktupāvels: ‘Traditional Musical Instruments and the Semantics of their Functions in Latvian Folk Songs’, Linguistics and Poetics of Latvian Folk Songs, ed. V. Vīķis-Freibergs (Kingston and Montreal, 1989), 186–217

Z. Sneibe: ‘Latviešu ieražu dziesmu melodiju formveides modeļi un to funkcionālais konteksts’ [Formal models of Latvian ceremonial folksongs and their functional context], Latvijas Zinātņu Akadēmijas vēstis (1991), no.4, pp.34–46 [with Russ. summary]

M. Boiko: ‘Sledï sutartines v Latvii’ [Traces of the sutartinės in Latvia], Pribaltiyskiy muzïkovedcheskiy sbornik, iv (1992), 61–81

M. Boiko: ‘Latvian Ethnomusicology: Past and Present’, YTM, xxvi (1994), 47–65

A. Beitāne: Vokālā daudzbalsība ar augšējo pavadbalsi Šķilbēnu pagastā [Vocal polyphony with a higher accompanying voice in the Šķilbēni parish] (thesis, Latvian Academy of Music, 1995)

M. Boiko: ‘Volksmusikbewegung im Baltikum in den 70er und 80er Jahren: Kontexte, Werte, Konflikte’, Verfemte Musik: Komponisten in den Diktaturen unseres Jahrhunderts, ed. J. Braun, V. Karbusický and H.T. Hoffmann (Frankfurt, Berlin and Berne, 1995), 349–57

M. Boiko: Die litauischen Sutartinės: eine Studie zur baltischen Volksmusik (diss., U. of Hamburg, 1996)

G. Šmidchens: A Baltic Music: the Folklore Movement in Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, 1968–1991 (diss., U. of Indiana, 1996)

Z. Sneibe: ‘Latvian Folk Songs in the 18th–19th Centuries: Tradition and Change’, Historical Studies on Folk and Traditional Music, ed. D. Stockmann and J.H. Koudal (Copenhagen, 1997)

recordings

Latviešu folklora: Alsunga [Latvian folklore: Alsunga], Melodiya M30-42327–8 (1981)

Latviešu folklora: Rikava, Melodiya M32-44793–4 (1982)

Latviešu folklora: Briežuciems un Rekava, Melodiya M30-46001 005 (1984)

Latviešu folklora: Auleja, Melodiya S30 24885 002 (1986)

The Latvian SSR: Musical Folklore, rec. 1926–84, Melodiya M30 46913 005 (1986)

Balsis no Latvijas/Voices from Latvia: Latvian Folklore Ensembles, AUSS (1994)

Voix des Pays Baltes: Chants Traditionnels de Lettonie, Lithuanie, Estonie, Inédit. W 260055 (1994)

Suitu sievas: Lejaskurzeme [The Suiti women: Lower Kurzeme], Annemarie Classics RRLV 0009–2 (1997)

Lau, Heinz

(b Stettin, 8 Sept 1925; d Berlin, 21 June 1975). German composer. He studied with Ernst Gernot Klussman, Jarnach, Wilhelm Keller and Wilhelm Maler, and also, from 1954 to 1957, with Hindemith. In 1963 he was appointed lecturer in improvisation and harmony at the Pädagogische Hochschule in West Berlin, where he was made professor in 1971; in addition, he became editor of musical education programmes for Sender Freies Berlin in 1973. In the same year he was made a member of the Amriswil Academy, Switzerland. His work was important to the German youth music movement from 1950; his songs in particular had a long-lasting influence (e.g. Singt ein Vogel, Scheint die helle Sonne, Die Luft ist blau).

WORKS

(selective list)

Choral: Anbetung des Kindes (J. Weinheber), 1951; O Musica (after Peuerl), 1951; Die Weihnachtsgeschichte, chorus, insts, 1952, rev. 1957; Die Himmel erzählen, 1952; Lob des Tanzes, 1953; Mein Lied für Europa (Forestier), 1953; Dona nobis pacem, 1954; Die helle Sonne, chorus, insts, 1955; Regenkantate, chorus, insts, 1958; Die Weihnachtsgeschichte, 1961; Olympische Ode (Pindar), chorus, insts, 1963; Missa brevis canonica, solo vv, chorus, 1968; Klangstudien, children’s vv, insts, tape, 1970; Die Weihnachtsgeschichte, improvisation for children, 1972

Requiem für eine Verfolgte – in memoriam Anne Frank (Eich, P. Celan, etc.), T, str qt, 1961; Competition, org, solo vv, insts, tape, 1971

Disputation, orch, 1972

Many songs and short choral pieces, chbr works, film and radio music

Principal publishers: Möseler, Pelikan (Zürich)

KLAUS L. NEUMANN

Laub, Ferdinand

(b Prague, 19 Jan 1832; d Gries, nr Bolzano, 18 March 1875). Czech violinist and composer. His father taught him the violin as a child of four and he began to appear publicly when he was six; in 1841 Ole Bull praised his virtuoso playing. He was accepted straight into the second year at the Prague Conservatory, where he studied from 1843 to 1846 under Mořic Mildner, in his last year attracting the attention of H.W. Ernst (who later dedicated to Laub one of his Mehrstimmige Studien) and of Berlioz, who invited him to Paris. In December 1846 he went on a concert tour of Austria and Germany but was prevented from going to Paris by the 1848 Revolution. From 1848 to 1850 he worked in Vienna as a soloist with the orchestra of the Theater an der Wien and studied counterpoint with Sechter. At the end of 1850 he was invited by Balfe to take part in the national concerts at Her Majesty’s Theatre in London (March to August 1851); he also appeared in Berlin, Paris and St Petersburg. In 1853 he succeeded Joachim as Konzertmeister in Weimar, where he came to know Liszt and played chamber music with him. From 1855 to 1857 he was violin professor at the Stern Conservatory in Berlin, and in 1856 was appointed chamber virtuoso to the Prussian king.

Between 1858 and 1865 Laub’s performing career was at its peak. He appeared as soloist in all the major European cities and organized quartet evenings in Berlin (1858–62) at which he systematically performed all the Beethoven quartets; in Vienna (1862–6) he was made chamber virtuoso (1863) and organized successful chamber evenings in competition with Hellmesberger. He appeared with his most eminent contemporaries, including Clara Schumann and Bülow (Berlin, 1858), Rubinstein and Leschetizky (St Petersburg, 1859), Smetana (Göteborg, 1860), Patti and Jaëll (England, 1862) and Joachim (London, 1862). In 1866 he accepted the post of violin professor at the conservatory in Moscow, where he was acclaimed as soloist, chamber player and conductor and was much in demand as a teacher. He made deep friendships with the foremost Russian artists and contributed significantly to the high standard of the city’s musical life; Tchaikovsky dedicated his Third String Quartet op.30 to Laub’s memory in gratitude for the performances of his first two quartets (as leader of the Russian Musical Society’s quartet). A year before his death Laub went for treatment to Bohemia, where he appeared in public for the last time in August 1874.

In his time Laub was renowned for his beautiful tone, his technical virtuosity and his unfailing sense of style. His wide repertory embraced such virtuoso works as the concertos of Mendelssohn, Joachim, Ernst, Paganini and Spohr, and his interpretation of the Beethoven concerto was particularly celebrated. He was one of the first violinists to perform the Bach sonatas. His instruments included an Amati, a 1706 Guarneri and a 1727 Stradivari. He composed a number of technically demanding violin pieces and some vocal works. His son Váša (Václav) Laub (b Berlin, 31 Dec 1857; d Khabarovsk, 23 Nov 1911) studied under his father in Moscow, in Prague under Karel Bendl (1875) and at the organ school (1879). He was a choirmaster and piano teacher in Moscow, military conductor in Port Arthur (from 1900) and the composer of numerous piano and orchestral pieces, songs and choruses.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ČSHS

MoserGV

V.V. Mareš: ‘Ferdinand Laub’, Lumír, viii (1858), 467–70

J.W. von Wasielewski: Die Violine und ihre Meister (Leipzig, 1869, rev. 8/1927/R by W. von Wasielewski), 353

A. Kalvoda: O českém houslistovi Ferdinandu Laubovi: dokumenty [On the Czech violinist Laub] (Křivoklát, 1912)

K. Hůlka: ‘Ferdinand Laub’, HR, vi (1912–13), 24–9

F. Židek: Ferdinand Laub (Prague, ?1945)

L.S. Ginzburg: Ferdinand Laub (Moscow and Leningrad, 1951)

B. Šich: Ferdinand Laub (Prague, 1951) [incl. list of works]

R. Budiš: Slavní čeští houslisté [Famous Czech violinists] (Prague, 1966)

L.S. Ginsburg: ‘Čeští přátelé P.I. Čajkovského’ [Tchaikovsky’s Czech friends], Svazky-vztahy-paralely (Brno, 1973), 11–24

F. Židek: Čeští houslisté tří století [Czech violinists of three centuries] (Prague, 1979, 2/1982)

M.M. Semyakin: ‘Stranitsï zhizni chetïre pokoleniye’ [Pages from the lives of four generations], MAk, ii (1995), 167–71

ALENA NĚMCOVÁ

Laub, Thomas (Linnemann)

(b Langaa, Fyn, 5 Dec 1852; d Gentofte, nr Copenhagen, 4 Feb 1927). Danish church musician and composer. After taking his matriculation examination in 1871 he first studied theology, but from 1873 to 1876 he attended the Copenhagen Conservatory, where he was taught by the distinguished theorist J.C. Gebauer. It was probably due to Gebauer's influence that during these years he became interested in the Cecilian movement within church music. On a trip to Italy in 1882–3 he became acquainted with classical vocal polyphony, and he saw the reform movement for himself in Germany in 1886. He then began his life's work for a revival of Danish ecclesiastical music, work which also came to embrace the medieval Danish ballad and popular song. From 1884 to 1891 he was organist at Helligåndskirke in Copenhagen, following Gebauer, and in 1891 he succeeded Gade as organist at Holmens Kirke, a position he held until two years before his death. The commotion this appointment aroused showed clearly how far he had already departed from the 19th-century tradition of ecclesiastical music in Denmark. From the first, Laub put his energies into purifying what he saw as the corrupt tradition of 18th- and 19th-century psalmody. For him, Gregorian chant was unsurpassed as a melodic basis for ecclesiastical vocal music, and the chorale was the most beautiful expression of devotional music. He strove to re-create this tradition by restoring the melody, rhythm and harmony of the hymns to their original form and by composing anew in the old spirit. He also put his views in writings, as well as in arrangements and his own compositions, of which the most important is the collection Dansk kirkesang (1918). His untiring work and valuable artistic achievements aroused much debate and great opposition during his life, but his efforts have left a deep mark on 20th-century Danish church music. In 1922 the Danish Hymn Society was founded to spread his ideas, and ‘Laubianismen’ became a strong movement within Danish ecclesiastical musical practice.

Laub also wanted to restore the medieval ballad, whose melodies are known mainly from copies made in the 19th century, to what he saw as its genuine form on a foundation of Gregorian chant and modal melody. But although his attempts at restoration, particularly his polyphonic arrangements, hold many beauties, they represent a view of art music on a popular substratum that has been abandoned in the light of research into the ballad genre. Laub shared his interest in popular community singing with other contemporary composers in the years after 1900. In his efforts to re-create a simple song tradition with models in, among others, J.A.P. Schulz, he joined with Nielsen and also with Oluf Ring and Thorvald Aagaard to publish the most popular collection of tunes of the time, Folkehøjskolens melodibog (1922), containing some of the most beautiful of Laub's own secular melodies, which, as Nielsen expressed it, are ‘never at any point self-assertive, but continuously, lovingly, both adorn and subserve the songs’.

WORKS

(selective list)

sacred

80 rytmiske koraler (Copenhagen, 1888)

Kirkemelodier, firstemmig udsatte (Copenhagen, 1888–90)

Salmemelodier i kirkestil (Copenhagen, 1896–1902)

Forspil og melodier: forsøg i kirkestil (Copenhagen, 1909)

Dansk kirkesang: gamle og nye melodier (Copenhagen, 1918, suppl. 1930)

Aandelige sange (Copenhagen, 1925)

24 salmer og 12 folkeviser, ed. M. Wöldike (Copenhagen, 1928)

Liturgisk musik, ed. M. Wöldike (Copenhagen, 1937)

secular

10 gamle danske folkeviser (Copenhagen, 1890)

Danske folkeviser med gamle melodier (Copenhagen, 1899–1904, 2/1930)

with C. Nielsen: En snes danske viser (Copenhagen, 1915–17)

Ti Aarestrupske ritorneller (Copenhagen, 1920)

Tolv viser og sange af danske digtere (Kolding, 1920, 2/1938)

with C. Nielsen, O. Ring and T. Aagaard: Folkehøjskolens melodibog (Copenhagen, 1922, suppl. 1927)

30 danske sange for 3 og 4 lige stemmer (Copenhagen, 1922)

Faerøske og danske folkevisemelodier udsatte for mandskor af Henrik Rung og Thomas Laub, ed. K. Clausen (Copenhagen, 1942)

Danske folkeviser, ed. M. Wöldike and A. Arnholtz (Copenhagen, 1948)

Sange med klaver, ed. H. Glahn and M. Wöldike (Copenhagen, 1957)

WRITINGS

Vor musikundervisning og den musikalske dannelse (Copenhagen, 1884)

Om kirkesangen (Copenhagen, 1887)

‘Studier over vore folkevisemelodiers oprindelse og musikalske bygning’, Dania, ii (1892–3), 1, 149–79

‘Vore folkevisemelodier og deres fornyelse’, Danske studier, xi (1904), 177–209

Musik og kirke (Copenhagen, 1920, 2/1938)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DBL (J.P . Larsen)

C. Nielsen: Levende musik (Copenhagen, 1925, 10/1950; Eng. trans., 1953)

P. Hamburger: Bibliografisk fortegnelse over Thomas Laubs litteraere og musikalske arbejder (Copenhagen, 1932)

P. Hamburger: Thomas Laub: hans liv og gerning (Copenhagen, 1942)

E. Dal: Nordisk folkeviseforskning siden 1800 (Copenhagen, 1956)

M. Wöldike: ‘Erindringer om Laub og Carl Nielsen’, Dansk kirkesangs årsskrift 1967–8, 11ff

A.H. Hauge: Thomas Linneman Laub (1852–1927) and his Influence on the Revitalization of Danish Music (diss., U. of Boston, 1969)

E. Ransby: ‘Tilblivelsen af Thomas Laubs Kirkesangsreform’ [The origin of Thomas Laub's reform of Danish congregational singing], Dansk Kirkesangs årsskrift 1982, 101–112

H. Tongaard and P. Thyssen: ‘Enigheden og afstanden mellem Thomas Laub og Carl Nielsen i deres syn på salmemelodier’ [Agreement and contention between Thomas Laub and Carl Nielsen in their views on Psalm melodies], Dansk Kirkesangs årsskrift 1989–93, 55–70

NIELS MARTIN JENSEN

Laube, Anton

(b Brüx [now Most, Czech Republic], Bohemia, 13 Nov 1718; d Hradčany, Prague, 24 Feb 1784). Bohemian composer. His letter of application in 1771 to succeed F.X. Bixi as Kapellmeister at Prague Cathedral reveals that he was a composer and choirmaster at St Gall, Prague. He was granted the appointment on 29 October 1771, and he held this post until his death.

Laube wrote both sacred and secular music in an early Classical idiom similar to Brixi's. His church compositions have a homophonic texture of striking simplicity. They were performed throughout Bohemia during his lifetime, but soon after his death objections were raised to their almost complete lack of counterpoint. As a composer of instrumental music, Laube was known both in Bohemia and abroad (some of his works were listed in the Breitkopf catalogues, 1763–71). His symphonies, the earliest of which probably date from about 1750, are mostly in three movements, though some follow the Classical four-movement arrangement. The movements in sonata form have distinctly marked secondary themes. Laube's identity with the composer of several Singspiele performed in Berlin in 1776 (titles cited by Graf) has not been established.

WORKS

Inst: 6 syms., CZ-Bm, 1 doubtful; 1 sym., Pnm; 9 syms., Bu (6 microfilm), 1 ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. B, xiii (New York, 1984); Bn Conc., C, Pnm; Bn Conc., d, listed in Breitkopf catalogue (1766); Concertino, F, eng hn, Pnm; 11 serenades, 2 ob, 2 hn, 2 bn, Pnm; Sonata, C, fl, vn, vc, listed in Breitkopf catalogue (1763); 2 trios, E, C, 2 vn, vc, listed in Breitkopf catalogue (1771); Trio, 2 vn, vc, D-Mbs

Vocal: 12 songs, S, pf, B-Br; Die thränende und versöhnte Magdalena (Easter orat), CZ-Bb; masses, TeD, Requiem, other sacred works, mostly Bm, Pnm, Pp, see Podlaha, Kouba

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BrookB

ČSHS

DlabacžKL

WurzbachL [bibliography]

G.J. Dlabacž: ‘Versuch eines Verzeichnisses der vorzüglichern Tonkünstler in oder aus Böhmen’, Materialien zur alten und neuen Statistik von Böhmen, ed. J.A. Riegger, xii (Leipzig and Prague, 1794), 225–98, esp. 253

A. Podlaha: Catalogus collectionis operum artis musicae quae in bibliotheca capituli metropolitani pragensis asservantur (Prague, 1926), pp.iv–v, xxviii, xxxi, nos.804–36

H. Graf, ed.: Das Repertoire der öffentlichen Opern- und Singspielbühnen in Berlin seit dem Jahre 1771 (Berlin, 1934)

J. Kouba and others, eds.: Průvodce po pramenech k dějinám hudby [Guide to sources of musical history] (Prague, 1969)

J. Havlík: Symfonie Antonína Laubeho a Josefa Bárty (diss., U. of Prague, 1975)

MILAN POŠTOLKA

Laubenthal, Rudolf

(b Düsseldorf, 18 March 1886; d Pöcking, nr Starnberg, 2 Oct 1971). German tenor. He studied with Lilli Lehmann in Berlin and made his début in 1913 at the Charlottenburg opera, where he remained until 1923, the year of his Metropolitan début as Walther. He sang in the first American performances of Jenůfa, Die ägyptische Helena and Švanda the Bagpiper. At Covent Garden (1926–30) he sang Erik, Siegfried, Tristan and Walther. He continued to appear in Munich, Vienna and other European theatres until 1937. His repertory included Arnold (Guillaume Tell), Hoffmann and John of Leyden (Le prophète). A handsome man and an intelligent actor, he was renowned as Tristan and Siegfried, and recorded excerpts from both roles.

HAROLD ROSENTHAL/R

Lauber, Anne

(b Zürich, 28 July 1943). French-Canadian composer of Swiss origin. She studied at the Lausanne Conservatoire (1963–7) with Andor Kovách and Jean Perrin, among others, and privately with Darius Milhaud. In 1967 she moved to Montreal, becoming a Canadian citizen in 1972. She pursued postgraduate study at the University of Montreal (MMus 1982, DMus 1986), where her teachers included Serge Garant and André Prévost. She has taught at the University of Quebec (Montreal and Trois-Rivières campuses), Concordia University and the University of Montreal. Lauber's compositions demonstrate her assimilation of many contemporary musical techniques. Her earliest works are tonal. With the Divertimento (1970), however, her style began to evolve towards serialism, an approach employed in the 5 Pieces for Organ (1978). In the film score L’affaire Coffin (1979) and later in Valse concertante (1982) she used both tonal and atonal languages. The lyrical and romantic qualities of her writing have made her music popular with the public. As a conductor, she has worked with the Montreal, Ville d’Anjou and Sherbrooke youth orchestras. (EMC2, M. Gagné)

WORKS

Orch: Divertimento, str, 1970; Conc., str, 1976; Poème pour une métamorphose, 1978; Fantaisie sur un thème connu, pf, orch, 1981; Osmose, 1981; Colin-Maillard, 1982; Valse concertante, pf, orch, 1982; Au-delà du mur du son (P. Tardif-Delorme), sym. tale, 2 nar, orch, 1983; Conc., str qt, str, 1983; Vn Conc., 1984; Conc., vn, str, 1986; Conc. ‘3 Moods’, db, str, 1988; Conc., pf, str, 1988; Ouverture canadienne, str, 1989

Vocal: 3 poèmes de Monika (M. Merinat), B, pf, 1976; Mélodie (S.-D. Garneau), T, pf, 1979; Le petit prince, nar, pf, 1979; Contrastes (Lauber), S, pf, 1980; La joue de la poupée (Mérinat), 2 nar, 6vv, vc, 1982; Jesus Christus (orat, B. Lacroix), 5 solo vv, SATB, orch, 1984; Le songe (A. Grandbois), nar, fl, str qt, 1985; Requiem, 4 solo vv, chorus, orch, 1988–9

Chbr and solo inst: Cinq éléments, fl, vn, sax, bn, tuba, 1974; Sonata no.1, va, pf, 1975; Wind Qnt, 1976–7; Divertissement, fl, gui, 1978; Mollésiennes, fl, pf, 1978; 5 Pieces, org, 1978; Sonata no.2, va, pf, 1979; Monologue, pf, 1980; Movt, cl, pf, 1980; Movt, db, pf, 1980; Movt, fl, pf, 1980; Movt, hn, pf, 1980; Movt, va, pf, 1980; Movt, vc, pf, 1980; Movt, vn, pf, 1980; Arabesque, gui, 1983; Pf Qnt, 1983; 3 Intermezzi, db, pf, 1987; Pf Qt, 1989; Scherzo, pf, 1989

Film scores: L’affaire Coffin, 1979; Marie Uguay, 1981

Principal publishers: Canadian Music Centre, Doberman-Yppan

SOPHIE GALAISE

Lauchery, Etienne

(b Lyons, Sept 1732; d Berlin, 5 Jan 1820). French dancer, choreographer and teacher. He was an influential figure in the history of the ballet en action. A pupil of his father, Laurentius (1713–83), an actor and dancer at the Mannheim Hoftheater, he probably studied in Paris, and then worked as a dancing master and ballet dancer at the Mannheim court (1756–64). In about 1763 he began his career as a choreographer at the court of Hessen-Kassel, creating more than 50 ballets. A printed collection of these ballets (Kassel, 1768) suggests that he was familiar with the theories and practical works of Noverre. The music for most of these ballets was composed by his former Mannheim colleagues Christian Cannabich, C.J. Toeschi and Ignaz Fränzl as well as by Noverre’s collaborators at Stuttgart, F.J. Deller and Rudolph. Lauchery wrote his own music for at least two of his ballets and, as in a letter by Leopold Mozart (11 December 1777), he also composed violin duos. From 1772 to 1778 he directed the ballet and ballet school at Carl Theodor’s court in Mannheim, reviving his most successful ballets from Kassel and creating a series of new ones. In 1778 he moved to Munich with Carl Theodor, but soon returned to Mannheim (1779–81) and then Kassel (1781–87). The establishment of a ballet school at the recently renovated Royal Opera House, probably modelled on that at Mannheim, offered him the opportunity from 1788 to cultivate the new dramatic dance style in Berlin as well.

In total Lauchery created about 100 ballets. The music for many is lost, but the large number of surviving texts reveal the variety of subjects treated by him. Lauchery clearly had an affinity to the comic genre, but he also went his own way in the serious and heroic ballet, even while acknowledging Nouverre’s example. His work, which approached the beginnings of Romantic ballet, was continued by his son and pupil Albert (1779–1853).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Kloïber: Die dramatischen Ballette von Christian Cannabich (Munich, 1928)

S. Dahms: ‘Etienne Lauchery, der Zeitgenosse Noverres’, Mozart und Mannheim: Mannheim 1991, 145–55

S. Dahms: ‘Das Repertoire des “Ballet en action”: Noverre-Angiolini-Lauchery’, De editione musices: Festschrift Gerhard Croll, ed. W. Gratzer and A. Lindmayer (Laaber, 1992), 125–42

S. Dahms: ‘Ballet Reform in the Eighteenth Century and Ballet at the Mannheim Court’, Ballet Music from the Mannheim Court I, ed. P. Corneilson and E.K. Wolf, RRMCE, xlv (1996), pp.ix–xxiii

P. Corneilson and E.K. Wolf: ‘Mannheim Ballet Sources, 1758–1778’, ibid., pp.xxiv–xxxiii

SIBYLLE DAHMS

Lauclos, Henri de.

See L’Enclos, Henri de.

Laúd

(Sp.).

Term (from Arab. ‘Ūd) for the lute, which was introduced to Spain by Arabs during the 13th century. Together with bandurria and guitars, it appears in folk ensembles known as rondallas and is used to accompany song and dance forms such as the jota (see Spain, §II, 4 and 5). The back of the resonator is flat, not pear-shaped as in the ’ūd. In Spain the instrument is played with a púa (plectrum). The laúd español appears also in Puerto Rican folk music. In Cuba a laúd with seven courses of double strings may substitute for a guitar in the accompanimental ensemble for the dance punto guajiro.

JOHN M. SCHECHTER

Lauda

(It.: ‘praise’; pl. laude [laudi]).

The principal genre of non-liturgical religious song in Italy during the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. In its monophonic form, the lauda also constitutes the primary Italian repertory of late medieval vernacular song, and is distinguished from most neighbouring repertories in its strictly urban, non-courtly context. The religious lauda endured into the 19th century, and extant repertory remains an important source of popular Italian texts and music.

1. Social context.

Lauda, §2: Repertory and performance practice

BLAKE WILSON

Lauda

1. Social context.

Changes in the form and style of the lauda were conditioned largely by the shifting currents of religious devotion, politics and styles of music and poetry. The lauda arose in the city-states of central Italy during the 13th century, and was a product of the complementary forces of mendicant (especially Dominican and Franciscan) urban missionary zeal and the emerging guild-based communes of Tuscany and Umbria. The early lauda took shape in close proximity to the practice and the affective rhetorical style of mendicant preaching. The roots of the lyrical lauda tradition can be traced to the ‘Canticle of the Sun’ by St Francis of Assisi (1182–1226), Altissimu, onnipotente bon Signore/tue so le laude, la gloria, et l'onore (I-Af 338, with empty music staves). St Francis urged his followers to ‘go through the world preaching and praising God, … first one of them who knew how to preach should preach to the people and that after the sermon they were to sing the praises of God [laudes Domini] as minstrels of the Lord [joculatores Dei]’. Mendicant sermons and lauda singing shared many themes and goals: the creation in their listeners of the complementary devotional states of penance and praise (see the early lauda text Benedictu, laudatu et glorificatu lu Patre), and the promotion of Marian veneration, particularly in response to rampant heresies that tended, as did the Cathars, to deny the divinity of the incarnate Christ (see Raina potentissima). The two main contexts for lauda singing around the mid-13th century were both lay: Marian confraternities organized primarily by the Dominicans (particularly in response to the preaching of St Peter Martyr in 1244–5), and the great penitential processions of flagellants that were the product of millenarian hysteria, charismatic urban preaching (both authorized and unauthorized) and cities plagued by war and pestilence.

The popular devotional activities of lauda singing and ritual scourging assumed institutional form only after this time, however, and the lay confraternities of laudesi (compagnie delle laude) and disciplinati (battuti, flagellanti) arose in conjunction with the late 13th-century stabilization of the guild-based communal governments and the establishment of the mendicant orders in the same Tuscan and Umbrian cities. Throughout the 14th and 15th centuries relatively unbroken traditions of lauda-singing were maintained by both types of confraternity, but the paraliturgical services of the laudesi confraternities provided the lauda's primary context.

The earliest known laudesi company was founded in 1267 at the Dominican church of Camporegio in Siena (earlier dates are no longer tenable). Most of the laudesi confraternities were founded in the mendicant convents of Tuscan and Umbrian communes shortly after this time, and institutional lauda singing was soon legitimized by the granting of episcopal and papal indulgences. In Florence, which sustained a lauda-singing culture of unparalleled vigour and longevity, all but one of the city's 12 companies appeared during about 1270–1330, and were either newly formed or derived from the older Marian confraternities in which lauda singing had been at most an incidental, ad hoc activity. The evidence is scant for laudesi activity in cities outside Florence such as Lucca, Pisa and Siena, where the mid-century ravages of the Black Death may have severely damaged the infrastructures that supported confraternal institutions. 14th-century Florence remained a favourable environment for the laudesi, and here the once ad hoc devotion was rapidly transformed by several interrelated circumstances that converged with particular strength in Florence at this time: the proliferation of saint's day feasts in general; a dramatic rise in the number of bequests for lauda services (lauda ‘vigil’ or vigilia alle laude) on the feasts of these various saints; the professionalization and elaboration of laudesi activities brought on by the financial and legal obligations of these bequests; and the consequent rise of professional lauda singers, ornate service books (laudari) and a technically demanding repertory of paraliturgical songs. It is in this context that the remarkably florid laude in the Florentine laudario I-Fn BR18 (see ex.2) are to be understood.

The monophonic repertory of the 14th century was performed primarily in the daily ferial services (around the time of Compline) as well as in the annual festal cycles of the confraternities, which were conducted in a host church before a consecrated altar and altar painting. Most lauda vigils included some combination of prayers, readings, a candle procession and offering with lauda singing, a brief sermon and further lauda singing that led to confession. By the late 14th century, the laudesi companies increasingly focussed upon their festal services, particularly those of a patron saint, which might involve the hiring of civic wind and brass players (pifferi and trombetti), extra singers and instrumentalists, a procession with lauda singing and elaborate services on both the eve and the day of the feast with the performance of special laude proper to the feast. During the 15th century the Florentine laudesi companies at the churches of Santo Spirito (the proprietors of I-Fn BR18) and S Maria del Carmine continued to serve the obligations of their bequests for lauda vigils, but otherwise devoted their resources to the annual staging of elaborate sacre rappresentazioni in which one or two interpolated laude were sung. Most laudesi companies had adopted polyphonic singing by about 1430, and expanded their chapels to accommodate the subsequent shifts from two- to three- and four-part singing. Beset by declining membership and economic inflation in the early 16th century, few companies could sustain the expense of polyphonic choirs, and in the vastly changed devotional environment of the Counter-Reformation the laudesi companies ceded their ancient devotion to the clergy of their host churches.

Lauda singing occupied a distinctive if less central place in the activities of the disciplinati confraternities that arose in the early 14th century. No musical sources for the disciplinati survive, but the texts in the extant laudarii reveal a penitential tone and a powerful urge to identify affectively and actively with the suffering and death of Christ and the martyred saints as a means to redemption. Cultivating an ambience of darkness, secrecy and self-denial, the disciplinati singers appear not to have aspired to the elaborate, professional and public character of the laudesi singing; but surviving documents of companies from Bologna, Florence and, above all, Umbrian cities such as Assisi, Perugia, Cortona and Orvieto reveal the integral role of the lauda in a variety of contexts: funerals and suffrages of the dead, Holy Week services, processions and in the privacy of an oratory in conjunction with the central devotion of ritual scourging (the latter two a legacy of the 13th-century penitential processions). The early 14th-century statutes of the Confraternita di S Stefano in Assisi call for ritual scourging followed immediately by the singing of a vernacular lauda, the singer of which is charged with ‘[moving] the hearts of the brothers to tears more than words move the mind’. The lauda played a particularly important role in the disciplinati's Holy Week services, above all during the mandato (foot-washing) service on Holy Thursday. In Umbria the lauda, especially the narrative Passion lauda, underwent a distinctive transformation from devozione to rappresentazione, and by the early 15th century these dramatic laude were fully staged productions.

While laude were sung primarily during the services of laudesi and disciplinati companies throughout the 14th and 15th centuries, lauda singing was gradually adopted during this period in other contexts favourable to popular devotion. Laude were recited or sung in conjunction with mendicant sermons, particularly during Lent, and appeared with increasing frequency in private devotional and clerical settings. The great Florentine lauda poet Feo Belcari (1410–84) was informed of the death of his sister in a Florentine convent with a letter describing how in her final moments she ‘entered into a devout state and began singing the lauda that begins Partiti core et vanne all'amore, then upon her request her close companions gathered and sang a lauda that eased her passage from this life’. Widespread clerical appropriation of lauda composition and performance began near the end of the 15th century, however, when the polyphonic lauda was often promoted in the context of religious reform as a substitute for more complex styles of polyphony. In Florence, the Dominican friar Girolamo Savonarola advocated lauda singing throughout the churches and confraternities of the city, and thereafter the lauda was cultivated almost exclusively in Dominican convents in Tuscany loyal to the friar's memory. Most of the 15th-century sources of polyphonic laude (see §2(ii) below) come from monastic environments in Venice or the Veneto, many of which were connected with a Benedictine reform movement that rejected more complex polyphony. Petrucci's Laude libro primo (1508) is devoted entirely to the works of a Venetian priest, Innocentius Dammonis, and it is likely that this and Petrucci's next lauda collection contain repertory performed both in Venetian convents and by lay and clerical singers in the services of Venetian confraternities (scuole). Petrucci's Laude libro secondo (1507/8) contains a number of works by Mantuan court composers such as Cara and Tromboncino, probably for use in church services, processions and private courtly devotions in Mantua and perhaps also in other north Italian courts such as Milan and Ferrara. The final creative phase of the lauda took place in Counter-Reformation Rome, where the composition, publication and performance of laude for Filippo Neri's Congregazione dell'Oratorio was conducted, once again, in a clerical environment of religious reform.

Lauda

2. Repertory and performing practice.

(i) Monophonic.

(ii) Polyphonic.

(i) Monophonic.

While there are more than 200 extant confraternity laudarii that transmit texts, only two survive with musical notation, along with a number of musical fragments from dismembered laudarii. The late 13th-century Cortona laudario (I-CT 91) belonged to the Confraternita di S Maria delle Laude attached to the church of S Francesco in Cortona, but its 65 laude (with music for 46) were probably drawn by its scribe from the general area of Siena, Arezzo and Cortona. The Florence laudario (I-Fn BR18, olim Magl.II.I.122) was copied during the early 14th century for the Compagnia delle laude di Santo Spirito, a modest laudesi company that met at the Florentine church of Santo Spirito. It contains 97 laude (88 with music) that would have been performed by the one or two singers this company retained into the early 15th century. Ziino (1978) has demonstrated that a group of the surviving musical fragments come from a single laudario which belonged to the Compagnia di S Agnese, a Florentine laudesi company situated in the church of S Maria del Carmine. The paraliturgical function of these confraternity service books is revealed in their format and style: laude are grouped in sections devoted to Mary, a cycle for the liturgical year and, in the richly illuminated Florence laudario, a large sanctorale section. The notation in both collections is the rhythmically neutral quadratic notation used in contemporary chant manuscripts.

The only known authors of medieval laude are Jacopone da Todi, Guittone d'Arezzo and a certain Garzo. The otherwise anonymous poetic repertory is extremely varied in both quality and subject matter. Many texts are didactic in intent, such as some of the older Marian laude with their anti-heretical language (e.g. Madonna sancta Maria in I-CT 91) or laude that narrate the events of a saint's vita (e.g. Vergine donzella in CT 91 and Fn BR18). Most employ a vivid and affective language intended to draw the participant into a devotional state of penance or praise. The subject matter is adapted from a variety of sources, including the Bible, liturgical texts and more popular devotional literature such as Iacobus de Voragine's Legenda Aurea. Apart from the oldest 13th-century texts, which tend to be formally diverse, the medieval lauda repertory is distinguished by the pervasive application of the poetic scheme of the Ballata. Originally a dance-song with a choral refrain (similar to the French virelai and the English carol), the clearly secular ballata form was adapted to sacred texts during the later 13th century, probably within the institutional framework of the new confraternities, and held fast in the lauda repertory to the end of the 14th century when it began to be displaced by a new array of poetic forms linked to an emerging polyphonic practice. In its strictest and most frequent form, the lauda-ballata consists of a two-line, end-rhyming choral refrain (repeated after each successive strophe) and a four-line, soloistic strophe made up of piedi (two lines of identical versification and end-rhyme) and a volta (two lines that repeat the versification and, usually, the music of the refrain). Laude rarely follow this ballata minore scheme strictly, however, and particularly in the Florence laudario one finds not only more irregular line lengths but also variations upon the longer stanzaic forms of the ballata mezzana and ballata maggiore.

Like the texts, the melodies of the lauda repertory range freely in style and character from chant to popular song, variously showing traces of processional intonations, dance-tunes, indigenous popular song styles, litanic, hymnodic and sequential structures, troubadour song, the modes of ecclesiastical chant and an incipient major–minor tonality. Exx.1 and 2 show melodies in two contrasting styles. Onne homo ad alta voce (ex.1), in honour of the Holy Cross, appears in both laudarii and is an example of the simpler lauda style: the melodic motion is conjunct, the word-setting is mostly syllabic (with occasional two- to four-note ligatures on individual syllables) and it lies within the range of any male voice. Like many of the simpler mode 1 (protus) lauda melodies, it sounds rather austere and exhibits some structural irregularities (the piedi – lines 3–4 – differ, and the volta – lines 5–6 – is a varied recapitulation of the refrain). A lauda in honour of St Dominic from the Florence laudario, Allegro canto, popol cristiano (ex.2), reflects the professionalization of the Florentine laudesi: it demands control of a much wider range and engages in an effusive and florid virtuosity that is characteristic of many laude found in the sanctorale section of that Florence manuscript. The overall structure is absolutely regular (strict repetition among the three pairs of piedí, and between refrain and volta), and the major-tonality melodies tend to cascade within clearly-defined octave gamuts in a manner similar to the cantus parts in polyphonic madrigals by contemporary Florentine composers such as Donato da Cascia and Lorenzo Masini.

The two main sources share 20 texts and 14 melodies, and the Florence laudario contains nine melodies that appear two or more times with different texts (contrafacta). Ave, donna sanctissima is transmitted in both sources, and reveals the melodic plasticity of a repertory conditioned by oral and improvisatory traditions. Melodic intervals of a third or more might be filled in, and a variety of ornamental notes ranging from single anticipatory or appoggiatura-like notes to clusters of notes in stock formulae (abundant in ex.2 and other florid laude like it) might be applied. Entire phrases, including finals, might differ significantly, although this is not as common as was once assumed.

It is just this melodic flexibility that argues against the application to the lauda repertory of rigid or artificial rhythmic schemes, such as those proposed by Riemann (Vierhebigkeit), Beck and Aubry (Modal rhythm) and Anglès (‘modified mensural’). Rhythmic solutions to the performance of monophonic laude must be sought in the extra-liturgical environment of the late medieval Italian cities, where the possibilities ranged from unmeasured recitation to dance-song and flexible mensural applications. The rhythmic transcriptions in Liuzzi's monumental La lauda e i primordi della melodia italiana (1935) are untenable, and the facsimiles must be used with great caution. There are numerous scribal errors in both manuscripts with respect to clefs, custodes and melodic transpositions. The Florence laudario is especially problematic, for some time after its initial compilation the codex was damaged and the tops and sides trimmed and repaired, during which process the top staff on every folio was mutilated, the parchment restored and the music recopied. The recopied music is, however, entirely corrupt, a fact taken into account in only one recent edition (RRMMA, xxix, 1995), which proposes emended versions of these passages.

The 13 monophonic Latin songs in a mid-14th-century antiphoner (I-Tn Bobbiese F.I.4) are related to the lauda by virtue of their more popular melodic style and the use of the ballata form. The usual designation of these songs as ‘Latin laude’ is understandable but problematic given their anomalous features against the vast and relatively uniform backdrop of the medieval lauda repertory. As mensurally-notated songs in Latin emanating from environments unconnected with Trecento lauda production and lay confraternity performance (a Benedictine convent near Genoa), they stand outside the lauda tradition. One of these Latin songs, Vernans rosa, is also transmitted in I-Fn BR19, a 14th-century Florentine laudario, but is relegated to an appendix of Latin monophonic and polyphonic works and designated a ‘sequentia’.

Lauda, §2: Repertory and performance practice

(ii) Polyphonic.

Exceptional early examples of polyphonic laude are the two sacred ballata texts set by Trecento composers, Niccolò del Proposto's Dio mi guardi di peggio and Jacopo da Bologna's Nel mio parlar di questa donn'eterna. Though the melodic style of these works is simpler than that found in their composers’ secular compositions, it is unrelated to the contemporary monophonic repertory in the Cortona and Florence laudarii which was largely ignored by or unknown to polyphonic composers.

In Florence more than 60 extant manuscript and print sources from about 1380 to 1560 bear witness to a vast and continuous cantasi come tradition that was unique to that city. These are collections of lauda texts, some copied into private devotional miscellanies, others intended for a wider circulation, that bear the rubric ‘cantasi come’ (to be sung like) followed by the title of a song to which the lauda was to be sung. The oldest collections, such as I-Rvat Chigiano L.VII.266, contain the last appearances of monophonic lauda titles and secular polyphony drawn from late 14th-century Florentine sources. The approximately 65 laude in these early sources with cantasi come links to Florentine polyphony overwhelmingly favour the music of the formally compatible ballata settings and a traditional polyphonic texture of two voices with text in both parts. Landini's settings seem to have been great favourites – the laude O Gesú Cristo padre and Or che non piangi both called for the music of his La bionda trezza, for example – but the two-voice ballatas of Giovanni da Cascia, Gherardello da Firenze, Niccolò da Perugia, Andrea da Firenze, Bartolino da Padova, Guilielmus de Francia, Ciconia and Paolo da Firenze were called upon as well. The link between lauda texts and Trecento polyphony must have been forged in the wealthier Florentine laudesi companies such as that of Orsanmichele, where the elaborate musical establishment brought together as many as a dozen professional laudesi, a music master versed in polyphonic practices, lute and medieval fiddle players, and, from 1378 to 1426, the organist and composer Giovanni Mazzuoli.

In the course of the 15th century the lauda underwent a profound change as it lost its exclusive association with the lay confraternities and the ballata form and entered into the broader and shifting currents of emerging polyphonic styles and new poetic forms. This is most evident in the numerous sources from the next, Medicean period of the Florentine cantasi come tradition (c1430–90). Lauda poetry assumed the new and more varied forms of popular poetry found in the later Frottola (such as the strambotto, barzelletta and capitolo), the chief poets being Feo Belcari, Francesco d'Albizo, Lorenzo de' Medici and Lucrezia Tornabuoni (Lorenzo's mother). The cantasi come rubrics indicate a broad array of music: there are Italian and French songs and a handful of Latin, Spanish, Flemish and German songs, many in extant polyphonic settings found in Florentine sources as well as in sources from northern Italy to Naples. The regional unwritten traditions of viniziane, napolitane and siciliane also found their way to Florence, where they jostled with local repertories of festival music such as canti carnascialeschi, trionfi, May songs, music for Holy Week, the individual creations of singers such as ‘Benolio’ and Piero di Mariano, and a local aria fiorentina for the singing of strambotti, rispetti and balli. Chief among the non-Florentine tributaries are the veneziane or giustiniane, named for Leonardo Giustiniani (c1383–1446), whose laude and popularizing love songs are ubiquitous in late 15th-century cantasi come sources. The central document of this period is I-Fn Magl.VII.690, an autograph manuscript prepared by Feo Belcari between 1468 and his death in 1484, which appears to have determined for subsequent sources (particularly the printed sources, such as the four prints of 1486–1507 ed. Galletti, 1863) the general cosmopolitan nature of the cantasi come sources and many specific links. Belcari's lauda Tutto per noi is always paired in the later sources with the Frye-Binchois Tout a par moy, just as his Merzé ti chiamo Vergine Maria was always linked to the music of Giustiniani's Mercé te chiamo o dolce anima mia (a two-part setting survives in I-Bu 2216). Whereas the prerequisites for a musical model with a foreign text were generally compatibility of poetic form and perhaps a similar sounding incipit, a deeper process of travestimento spirituale was often involved in the borrowing of music associated with popular (or notorious) Italian secular texts. Florentine Carnival songs (e.g. Visin, visin, visin chi vuol spazzar camin, which lent its music to Iesù, Iesù, Iesù, ogniun chiami Iesù) were especially ripe for this treatment. Belcari's lauda Hora mai sono in età extols the virtue of monastic retreat, while its musical model, the Neapolitan barzelletta Hora mai che fora son (in a four-part setting in E-E IV.a.24) is a secular song about a girl who rejects the convent.

Parallel to (but interactive with) the Florentine lauda tradition was a written, modo proprio repertory of polyphonic lauda settings from the Veneto. The majority of manuscripts that contain 15th-century laude in musical settings, copied between about 1420 and 1500, come from monastic environments in Venice (I-Vnm Cl.IX.145) and the Veneto (I-Bu 2216; I-Bc Q15; I-PAVu Aldini 361 and perhaps I-Fn Panciatichiano 27), and from Benedictine monasteries belonging to a reform order, the Congregatio Sanctae Iustinae, that originated in the Veneto (US-Wc ML171 J6; ZA-Csa Grey 3.6.12; I-MC 871). The poetic forms are those popularized by Giustiniani's verse (and music): the strambotto, capitolo, ode, frottola and classical ballata. The laude in these sources are generally in two and three parts, and particularly in ZA-Csa, a retrospective Benedictine anthology copied around 1500, the textures vary from simple note-against-note settings (Giustiniani's Quando Signor Jesú) to contrapuntal settings with broken rhythms, cadence patterns and problematic text underlay that suggest (like the setting of Giustiniani's Piangeti cristiani) the travestimento of a northern-European chanson. The majority of the settings in these sources, however, are in what may be considered an indigenous style of Italian polyphony that emerged in written form during the 15th century: the text-setting is syllabic and homorhythmic, and there is a close rhetorical correspondence between poetic and musical phrases, with clearly articulated, simultaneous cadences in all parts. The two similar versions of L'amor a me venendo in ex.3 date from the first half of the 15th century, and suggest a transition from improvisatory to written practice. The comparatively refined mensural duet in I-PAVu appears to have been derived from the rudimentary, organal texture in the Vnm version through compositional adjustments to part-writing, text underlay and the rhythmic and melodic structure of the lines. This same text appears with new music in Razzi's Libro primo (a three-part setting), and in Petrucci's Laude libro primo (a four-part setting by Dammonis). Such simple frameworks lent themselves to a more florid treatment of the cantus, and works such as Con desiderio io vo' cercando (from I-Bu 2216) probably reflect an older 15th-century tradition of improvisatory singing associated with the musical settings of Giustiniani's poetry (the aria veneziana) that was known in both Venice and Florence (ex.4). Three-part textures were favoured in the later 15th-century lauda repertory, and were sometimes created, as in ex.5, by the addition of a lower part to an older cantus-tenor duet. Giustiniani's very popular lauda O Jesù dolce was strongly associated with a two-part musical setting found (with variations) in both ZA-Csa and Razzi; the Panciatichiano 27 version in ex.5 is a version of this cantus-tenor duet, adjusted to accommodate a bass part that provides a quasi-tonal, root-position movement. Later settings of this text include one for four parts in Petrucci's Laude libro primo, and a five-part setting by Palestrina (Ziino, 1975).

Petrucci's Laude libro primo (1508) and Laude libro secondo (1507/8) may be regarded as the culmination of this Venetian modo proprio tradition, when the lauda reached a height of popularity and influence in tandem with the closely related musical settings of the frottola (c1490–1530). Of the 66 pieces in Petrucci's first book, all by the otherwise obscure Venetian priest Innocentius Dammonis, 51 have Italian texts and 15 Latin. By contrast, Petrucci's second book is devoted mostly to laude by north Italian frottola composers such as Cara, Tromboncino and Lurano, and contains 23 settings of Italian texts and 31 of Latin. The two books exhibit a variety of styles: most of the works are for four voices, some stylistically related to the older three-part, note-against-note lauda textures. The majority are in a style closer to that of the frottola, with a melodic upper voice patterned after the text, moderately active lower voices and a functional bass part. But there are also works in more complex imitative and non-imitative polyphonic textures, which employ more learned devices such as canon, cantus firmus and soggetto cavato (see Glixon).

Petrucci's designation of these books as lauda collections is problematic, however. The fact that a lauda could stylistically resemble a frottola (some were contrafacta of frottolas) but also have a Latin text and complex textures (some of Petrucci's Latin pieces in his second book were lifted from his motet prints) obscured the contours of the lauda as a distinct genre; this may partly explain why it virtually disappeared from northern Italy not long after Petrucci's prints were published. Equally problematic, therefore, is the idea advanced by Osthoff and Lowinsky that the early 16th-century lauda influenced the new style of sacred music in mass and motet settings by composers such as Weerbeke, Compère and Josquin (the first part of whose homorhythmic motet Tu solus qui facis mirabilia was included in Petrucci's second book of laude with the text O mater Dei et hominis). Given the presence of motets and motet textures in Petrucci's two lauda books, and the generic ambiguity of the lauda and the Italian motet in the early 16th century, the extent and nature of the influence of the lauda upon the motet remains unclear.

The next printed collection of laude to appear after Petrucci's two books was Serafino Razzi's Libro primo delle laudi spirituali (1563). This, too, was the culmination of a tradition, the Florentine cantasi come practice, for in the dedicatory letter the printer Filippo Giunta declared that he had long wanted a collection of laude with music ‘abandoning that silly way of saying cantasi come this and come that’. Razzi also compiled four manuscript collections of laude (I-Fn Pal.173) and published the Santuario di laudi (1609). Many of the lauda texts in his Libro primo were written during the early 16th century by Dominican friars, most of them active at some point in Savonarola's convent of S Marco, among them Angelo Bettini, Niccolò Fabroni and Razzi himself. Razzi's publications are extremely important for their transmission of what he called ‘arie antiche’, two- and three-part settings from late 15th-century Florence, many of them travestimenti spirituali of such Carnival songs as Lorenzo de' Medici's Quant'è bella la giovinezza (with the text Quant'è grande la bellezza di te, Vergin santa e pia) and Poliziano's May song Ben venga Maggio (with Lucrezia Tornabuoni's text Ecco'l Messia).

Razzi's 1563 anthology was timed to coincide with the closing months of the Council of Trent, when the reform of sacred music was under consideration, and the Counter-Reformation provided the impulse to the final creative phase of the lauda in Rome. Lauda singing was introduced to the Roman churches by two Florentines, the composer Giovanni Animuccia and the priest Filippo Neri. Neri had sung laude as a boy at S Marco, Florence, in the 1520s, and was an ardent admirer of Savonarola; during the 1550s he introduced lauda singing to the informal gatherings in an oratory that eventually received papal recognition as the Congregazione dell'Oratorio. In his capacity as Neri's maestro di cappella, Animuccia published in Rome in 1563 (with Razzi's encouragement) his Primo libro delle laudi. This began a long series of prints written and published for Neri's Congregazione: Animuccia published another collection in 1570, and there followed another 11 books between 1577 and 1600, edited primarily by Francisco Soto de Langa and Giovenale Ancina. During this same period, post-Tridentine lauda collections were also printed throughout Italy – in Venice, Genoa, Turin, Ferrara, Brescia and Naples. A few of the Roman laude had narrative or dramatic texts and are antecedents of the early Baroque oratorio volgare that evolved primarily in the context of the spiritual exercises conducted in Neri's oratory.

The Florentine origins of the Roman practice are evident in both the text and music. The verse types are still those of the frottola, and the predominantly three- (and occasionally four-) part homophonic textures are similar to those in Razzi's 1563 anthology. Some of the repertory also derives, as does Razzi's, from Florentine practice of the period 1480–1520, including music for Belcari's Giú per la mala via and d'Albizo's Giovanetti con fervore. Animuccia preserved Belcari's original cantasi come link between the text of his Lodate Dio and the music (with a more elaborate melody) for Poliziano's Ben venga maggio.

The lauda declined at the end of the 16th century with the rise of the oratorio, but lauda prints continued to be issued into the early 19th century. Through these, the tradition of travestimento spirituale was perpetuated, as in Matteo Coferati's Corona di sacre canzoni, o laude spirituali (1675), which includes about 140 secular melodies with sacred texts for each.

Lauda

BIBLIOGRAPHY

editions and facsimiles

M. Padoan, ed.: Lodi devote per uso della dottrina christiana (Como, 1621/R)

K. Jeppesen and V.Brøndal, eds.: Die mehrstimmige italienische Laude um 1500 (Leipzig, 1935/R)

F. Liuzzi, ed.: La lauda e i primordi della melodia italiana (Rome, 1935/R)

G. Cattin, ed.: Laudi quattrocentesche del Cod. Veneto Marc. It. IX. 145 (Bologna, 1958)

G. Cattin: Italian Laude and Latin Unica in Ms. Capetown, Grey 3. b. 12, CMM, lxxvi (1977)

F. Luisi, ed.: Laudario giustinianeo (Venice, 1983)

C. Terni, ed.: Laudario di Cortona (Florence, 1988)

B. Wilson and N.Barbieri, eds.: The Florence Laudario: an Edition of Florence, Biblioteca nazionale centrale, Banco rari 18, RRMMA, xxix (1995)

M. Dürrer, ed.: Altitalienische Laudenmelodien: das einstimmige Repertoire der Handschriften Cortona und Florenz (Kassel, 1996)

studies

MGG1 (K. Jeppesen)

MGG2 (M.J. Bloxam)

SmitherHO, i

G.C. Galletti: Laude spirituali di Feo Belcari, di Lorenzo de' Medici, di Francesco d'Albizzo, di Castellano Castellani e di altri, comprese nelle quattro più antiche raccolte (Florence, 1863)

A. d'Ancona: La poesia popolare italiana (Livorno, 1878, 2/1906)

D. Alaleona: ‘Le laudi spirituali italiane nei secoli XVI e XVII, e il loro rapporto coi canti profani’, RMI, xvi (1909), 1–54

A. Tenneroni, ed.: Inizii di antichi poesie italiane religiose e morali: con prospetto dei codici che le contengono e introduzione alle laudi spirituali (Florence, 1909)

E.J. Dent: ‘The Laudi Spirituali in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries’, PMA, xlii (1916–17), 63–95

V. de Bartholomaeis, ed.: Laude drammatiche e rappresentazioni sacre (Florence, 1943/R1967)

B. Becherini: ‘La musica nelle “sacre rappresentazioni” fíorentine’, RMI, liii (1951), 193–241

F. Ghisi: ‘Strambotti e laude nel travestimento spirituale della poesia musicale del Quattrocento’, CHM, i (1953), 45–78

F. Ghisi: ‘La persistance du sentiment monodique et l'évolution de la polyphonie italienne du XIVe au XVe siècle’, L'Ars Nova: Wégimont II 1955, 217–31

G. Vecchi: ‘Tra monodia e polifonia: appunti da servire alla storia della melica sacra in Italia nel secolo XIII e al principio del XIV’, CHM, ii (1956–7), 447–64

H. Anglès: La música de las Cantigas de Santa María del Rey Alfonso el Sabio, iii/2 (Barcelona, 1958), 483–516

G. Cattin: ‘Contributi alla storia della lauda spirituale’, Quadrivium, ii (1958), 45–75

G. Corsi: ‘Madrigali inediti del Trecento’, Belfagor, xiv (1959), 72–83, 329–40

G. Cattin: ‘Il manoscritto Venet. Marc. Ital. IX, 145’, Quadrivium, iv (1960), 1–60

G. Cattin: ‘Le composizioni musicali del Ms. Pavia Aldini 361’, L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento: convegni di studio 1961–1967, ed. F.A. Gallo, 1–2

F. Ghisi: ‘Gli aspetti musicali della lauda fra il XIV e il XV secolo, prima metà’, Natalicia musicologica Knud Jeppesen septuagenario collegis oblata, ed. B. Hjelmborg and S. Sørensen (Copenhagen, 1962), 51–8

P. Damilano: ‘Fonti musicali della lauda polifonica intorno alla metà del secolo XV’, CHM, iii (1962–3), 59–90

P. Damilano: ‘Laudi latine in un antifonario bobbiese del Trecento’, CHM, iii (1962–3), 15–57

F. Ghisi: ‘Antiche canzoni popolari nella “Corona di sacre laudi” di Matteo Coferati (1689)’, Liber amicorum Charles van den Borren (Antwerp, 1964), 69–81

S.W. Kenney: ‘In Praise of the Lauda’, Aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Music: a Birthday Offering to Gustave Reese, ed. J. LaRue and others (New York, 1966/R), 489–99

B.J. Blackburn: ‘Te Matrem Dei laudamus: a Study in the Musical Veneration of Mary’, MQ, liii (1967), 53–76

H. Anglès: ‘The Musical Notation and Rhythm of the Italian Laude’, Essays in Musicology: a Birthday Offering for Willi Apel, ed. H. Tischler (Bloomington, IN, 1968), 51–60

G. Cattin: ‘Le composizioni musicali del Ms. Pavia Aldini 361’, L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento II, ed. F.A. Gallo (Certaldo, 1968), 1–21

G. Cattin: ‘Polifonia quattrocentesca italiana nel codice Washington, Library of Congress, ML 171 J6’, Quadrivium, ix (1968), 87–102

A. Ziino: Strutture strofiche nel laudario di Cortona (Palermo, 1968)

W. Osthoff: Theatergesang und darstellende Musik in der italienischen Renaissance (15. und 16. Jahrhundert) (Tutzing, 1969)

H.E. Smither: ‘Narrative and Dramatic Elements in the Laude Filippine, 1563–1600’, AcM, xli (1969), 186–99

G. Cattin: ‘Tradizione e tendenze innovatrici nella normativa e nella pratica liturgico-musicale della Congregazione di S. Giustina’, Benedictina, xvii (1970), 254–99

F.A. D'Accone: ‘Le compagnie dei laudesi in Firenze durante l'Ars Nova’, L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento II ed. F.A. Gallo (Certaldo, 1970), 253–80

K. von Fischer: ‘Quelques remarques sur les relations entre les laudesi et les compositeurs florentins du Trecento’, L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento III ed. F.A. Gallo (Certaldo, 1970), 247–52

G. Cattin: ‘La poesie di Savonarola nelle fonti musicali’, Quadrivium, xii (1971), 259–80

A. Ziino: ‘“Con humiltà di core”: ipotesi su un caso adattamento musicale’, Quadrivium, xii (1971), 71–9

A. Ziino: ‘Frammenti di laudi nell'Archivio di Stato di Lucca’, Cultura neolatina, xxxi (1971), 295–312

G. Cattin: ‘Nuova fonte italiana della polifonia intorno al 1500 (MS. Cape Town, Grey 3.b.12)’, AcM, xlv (1973), 165–221

A. Ziino: ‘Adattamenti musicali e tradizione manoscritta nel repertorio laudistico del Duecento’, Scritti in onore di Luigi Ronga (Milan and Naples, 1973), 653–77

A. Ziino: Aspetti della tradizione orale nella musical medioevale (Lanciano, 1973)

A. Ziino and F.Carboni: ‘Laudi musicali del 16 secolo: il manoscritto Ferrajoli 84 della Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana’, Cultura neolatina, xxxiii (1973), 273–329

G. Varanini: ‘Il manoscritto Trivulziano 535: laude antiche di Cortona’, Studi e problemi di critica testuale, viii (1974), 52–65

E.M. Cambon: The Italian and Latin Lauda of the Fifteenth Century (diss., Tulane U., 1975)

F.A. D'Accone: ‘Alcune note sulle compagnie fiorentine dei laudesi durante il Quattrocento’, RIM, x (1975), 86–114

A. Ziino: ‘Testi laudistici musicali da Palestrina’, Studi palestriniani [I]: Palestrina 1975 (Rome, 1977), 381–408

G. Cattin: ‘Musiche e le laude di Castellano Castellani’, RIM, xii (1977), 183–230

J. Jaenecke: ‘Eine unbekannte Laudensammlung des 15. Jahrhunderts’, Renaissance-Studien: Helmuth Osthoff zum 80. Geburtstag, ed. L. Finscher (Tutzing, 1977), 127–44

C. Barr: ‘Lauda Singing and the Tradition of the Disciplinati Mandato: a Reconstruction of the Two Texts of the Office of Tenebrae’, La musica al tempo del Boccaccio e i suoi rapporti con la letteratura: Siena and Certaldo 1975 [L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, iv, ed. A. Ziino (Certaldo, 1978)], 21–44

G. Cattin: ‘I “cantasi come” in una stampa di laude della Biblioteca Riccardiana (Ed.r.196)’, Quadrivium, xix (1978), 5–52

V. Moleta: ‘The Illuminated Laudari Mgl1 and Mgl2’, Scriptorium, xxxii (1978), 29–50

A. Ziino: ‘Laudi e miniature fiorentine del primo Trecento’, Studi musicali, vii (1978), 39–83

J.H. Grossi: The Fourteenth Century Florentine Laudario Magliabechiano II, I, 122 (B.R. 18): a Transcription and Study (diss., Catholic U. of America, 1979)

B. Toscani, ed.: Le Laude dei Bianchi (Florence, 1979)

M. Fabbri: ‘Laude spirituali di travestimento nella Firenze della Rinascenza’, Arte e religione nella Firenze de’ Medici (Florence, 1980), 145–58

B. Toscani: ‘Contributi alla storia musicale delle laude dei Bianchi’, Studi musicali, ix (1980), 161–70

G. Varanini, L. Banfi and A.C. Burgio, eds.: Laude cortonesi dal secolo XIII al XV (Florence, 1981–5)

C. Barr: ‘Musical Activities of the Pious Lay Confraternities of Quattrocentro Italy: a Chronicle of Change’, Fifteenth Century Studies, viii (1983), 15–36

G. Cattin: ‘“Contrafacta” internazionali: musiche europee per laude italiane’, Musik und Text in der Mehrstimmigkeit des 14. und 15. Jahrhunderts: Wolfenbüttel 1980 (Kassel, 1984), 411–42

N. Pirrotta: Music and Culture in Italy from the Middle Ages to the Baroque (Cambridge, MA, 1984)

E. Diederichs: Die Anfänge der mehrstimmige Lauda vom Ende des 14. bis zur Mitte des 15. Jahrhunderts (Tutzing, 1986)

O. Mischiati: ‘Per una bibliografia delle fonti stampate della lauda (1563–1746)’, Note d'archivio per la storia musicale, new ser., iv (1986), 203–26

C. Barr: The Monophonic Lauda and the Lay Religious Confraternities of Tuscany and Umbria in the Late Middle Ages (Kalamazoo, MI, 1988)

C. Barr: ‘Music and Spectacle in Confraternity Drama of Fifteenth Century Florence: the Reconstruction of a Theatrical Event’, Christianity and the Renaissance, ed. T. Verdon and J. Henderson (Syracuse, NY, 1990), 377–404

C. Del Popolo, ed.: Laude fiorentine: Il lauderino della Compagnia di San Gilio, 2 vols (Florence, 1990)

J. Glixon: ‘The Polyphonic Laude of Innocentius Dammonis’, JM, viii (1990), 19–53

G. Rostirolla: ‘Laudi e canti religiosi per l'esercizio spirituale della dottrina cristiana al tempo di Roberto Bellarmino’, Bellarmino e la controriforma: Sora 1986, ed. R. Di Maio and others (Sora, 1990), 663–849

M.J. Bloxam: ‘“La contenance italienne”: the Motets on “Beata es Maria” by Compère, Obrecht, and Brumel’, EMH, xi (1992), 39–89

G. Cattin: ‘Le laude intonate sulle musiche del codice Squarcialupi/The Laude set to the Music of the Squarcialupi Codex’, Il codice Squarcialupi MS Mediceo Palatino 87, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana di Firenze, ed. F.A. Gallo (Florence and Lucca, 1992), 243–52

F. Luisi: ‘“Ben venga Maggio”: dalla canzone a ballo alla Commedia di maggio’, La musica a Firenze al tempo di Lorenzo il Magnifico: Florence 1992, 195–218

P. Macey: ‘“Infiamma il mio cor”: Savonarolan Laude by and for Dominican Nuns in Tuscany’, The Crannied Wall: Women, Religion, and the Arts in Early Modern Europe, ed. C.A. Monson (Ann Arbor, 1992), 161–89

P. Macey: ‘The Lauda and the Cult of Savonarola’, Renaissance Quarterly, xlv (1992), 439–83

W. Prizer: ‘“Laude di popolo”, “laude di corte”: some Thoughts on the Style and Function of the Renaissance Lauda’, La musica a Firenze al tempo di Lorenzo il Magnifico: Florence 1992, 167–94

B. Wilson: Music and Merchants: the Laudesi Companies of Republican Florence (Oxford, 1992)

P. Macey: ‘Some New Contrafacta for Canti Carnascialeschi and Laude in Late Quattrocento Florence’, La musica a Firenze al tempo di Lorenzo il Magnifico: Florence 1992 (Florence, 1993)143–66

T. Karp: ‘Editing the Cortona Laudario’, JM, xi (1993), 73–105

R. Nosow: ‘Binchois' Songs in the Feo Belcari Manuscript’, Binchois Studies: New York 1995

B. Wilson: ‘Indagine sul Laudario Fiorentino (Florence, B.N. Banco rari 18)’, RIM, xxxi (1996), 243–80

B. Wilson: ‘Madrigal, Lauda, and Local Culture in Trecento Florence’, JM, xv (1997), 137–77

B. Wilson: ‘Music, Art, and Popular Devotion at the Florentine Cathedral, ca. 1280–1480’, Cantate Domino: Florence 1997 (forthcoming)

P. Macey: Bonfire Songs: Savonarola's Musical Legacy (Oxford, 1998)

B. Wilson: ‘Song Collections in Early Renaissance Florence: the “Cantasi Come” Tradition and its Manuscript Sources’, Recercare, x (1998), 69–104

D. Fallows: A Catalogue of Polyphonic Songs, 1415–1480 (Oxford, 1999)

B. Wilson: ‘Hora mai che fora son: Savonarola and Music in Laurentian Florence’, Proceedings of the International Conference “Una città e il suo profeta: Firenze di fronte al Savonarola” (Florence, forthcoming)

Lauda Sion

(Lat.: ‘praise, O Sion’).

The sequence for Corpus Christi (LU, 945); the text is by Thomas Aquinas, set to a melody originally used for several of Adam of St Victor’s sequences, resembling most closely that of Laudes crucis. It was one of the four sequences retained by the Council of Trent (1543–63). There are settings by Brumel (an alternatim paraphrase of the plainchant) as well as by Lassus, Victoria and Palestrina (three) (see Sequence (i), §11). Among more recent settings is the imaginative work by Edmund Rubbra, for double chorus with soprano and baritone soloists.

JOHN CALDWELL

Lauder, Sir Harry (Maclennan)

(b Portobello, nr Edinburgh, 4 Aug 1870; d Strathaven, 26 Feb 1950). Scottish baritone music-hall singer and composer. As a young man he won prizes at local singing contests and gained attention at concert parties, and after deciding to become a professional entertainer in 1894 he toured Scotland with the violinist Mackenzie Murdoch.

Lauder’s most successful years as a singer coincided with the most popular years of the music hall, between 1900 and World War I. During this time he became known not only in the best London music halls but also, through concert tours, in Europe and North America. During both world wars he was an ardent recruiter, and was knighted for his efforts (1919). He performed at Buckingham Palace and for several American presidents. Later he made many gramophone recordings for the Victor label.

Lauder’s stage personality was a stereotyped Scotsman, with a kilt and a generalized brogue. He often included an interlude of patter before the final verse of a song, sometimes ending with a jolly laugh; he preferred the sentimental appeal of love-songs and images of his home country, and usually ended his performances in a serious vein with Rocked in the Cradle of the Deep or The End of the Road. Lauder composed many of his own songs, of which more than 90 have been published, including a comedy sketch with four songs, The Night Before; the two major published collections of his works are Harry Lauder’s Songs (arr. C. Greenwood, London, 1942) and Francis & Day’s Album issued in five volumes (London, 1907–c1930). All the songs follow accepted popular formulae, and have little in common with Scottish folk music except for the occasional use of bagpipe effects in the accompaniment or a hexatonic scale. They usually have an instrumental introduction, two or more verses and a chorus. Most are firmly in the major mode, with diatonic melodies built on the repetition or sequential use of symmetrical two- or four-bar triadic phrases. Some of Lauder’s tunes have become internationally known in oral tradition, including I love a Lassie (1905), A Wee Deoch-an-Doris (1910), Roamin' in the Gloamin’ (1911) and The End of the Road (1924). The principal publishers of his works were Francis, Day & Hunter (London) and T.B. Harms (New York). He published ten books of stories and memoirs, notably Roamin’ in the Gloamin’ (London, 1927) and Ticklin’ Talks (London, 1934).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DNB (I. Brown)

G. Malvern: Valiant Minstrel: the Story of Sir Harry Lauder (New York, 1943)

Obituary, The Times (27 Feb 1950)

G. Irving: Great Scot: the Life Story of Sir Harry Lauder the Legendary Laird of the Music Hall (London, 1968)

G. Lauder-Frost and W. Wallace: Harry Lauder in the Limelight (Lewes, 1988)

D. Baker and L.F. Kiner: The Harry Lauder Discography (Metuchen, NJ, 1990)

DEANE L. ROOT

Lauder, James

(b c1535; d after 1592). Scottish composer. He was musical servitor to Mary Queen of Scots and King James VI. In 1552–3, as prebendary of the choir of St Giles’s Cathedral in Edinburgh, he was granted leave to travel to England and France to further his musical studies. In 1562 he received payment ‘be the Quenis grace preceptis and speciale command’, and in 1566 he was presented to a chaplaincy in St Giles’s. After Mary’s defeat and flight to England, Lauder was named as one of her valets de chambre at Tutbury Castle in 1569, and subsequently in Scotland there are numerous references to payments to him in court records from the 1570s to the 1590s. When James VI began to set up court in the 1580s, Lauder was sent to London to buy for him ‘two pair of virginallis’, and probably became a member of ‘the Castalian Band’ of poets and musicians at the Scottish court under the leadership of the poet Alexander Montgomerie (though with James as its figurehead). In 1584 Lauder composed his beautiful My Lord of Marche Paven for consort of viols; other consorts are probably his work (e.g. MB, xv, 78), and as a known friend of Montgomerie he may well be the composer of partsong settings of Montgomerie’s poems such as In throu the windoes and Evin dead behold I breathe (MB, xv, 53, 55), which show many stylistic similarities to the pavan. The last we hear of Lauder is in 1593, when he was among those appointed by the Edinburgh Council to examine ‘Mr Jhonn Chalmers, quha desyres the office of maister of the sang schole … as alsua of his knawledge in playing upoun the virginalls’.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Extracts from the Records of the Burgh of Edinburgh, ii: 1528–57 (Edinburgh, 1871), 176; v: 1589–1603 (Edinburgh, 1927), 103

J. Bain, ed.: Calendar of State Papers Relating to Scotland and Mary, Queen of Scots, 1547–1603, ii: 1563–9 (Edinburgh, 1900), 696

J.B. Paul, ed.: Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland, xi: 1559–66 (Edinburgh, 1916), 214

J. Beveridge and G. Donaldson, eds.: Register of the Privy Seal of Scotland, v: 1556–67 (Edinburgh, 1957), ii, 191

K. Elliott, ed.: Music of Scotland, 1500–1700, MB, xv (1957, 3/1975), [song texts ed. H.M. Shire]

H.M. Shire: ‘Musical Servitors to Queen Mary Stuart’, ML, xl (1959), 15–18

H.M. Shire: Song, Dance and Poetry of the Court of Scotland under King James VI (Cambridge, 1969), 75–9, 261–2

K. Elliott and F. Rimmer: A History of Scottish Music (London, 1973), 38–40

K. Elliott: ‘Another one of Thomas Wood’s Missing Parts’, Innes Review, xxxix/2 (1988), 151–8

KENNETH ELLIOTT

Laudes.

Chants sung at Matins, at some of the Little Hours and at Mass in the Mozarabic rite. The Mass laudes correspond to the Roman alleluias. See Mozarabic chant, §§3(vii) and 4(viii).

Laudes regiae.

A set of acclamations sung initially in honour of, and in the presence of, the king or emperor. The oldest set dates from the 8th century; a variety of forms were used in several different contexts throughout the Middle Ages.

In its most characteristic form (found in a Frankish manuscript dating from about 796–800, with text only), the Laudes regiae include (1) the triadic acclamation ‘Christus vincit, Christus regnat, Christus imperat’ (‘Christ conquers, Christ reigns, Christ commands’), the most distinctive element of the Laudes; (2) several acclamations for pope, emperor, and others, each introduced by the ‘hail’ formula ‘Exaudi Christe’ (‘Hear, O Christ!’); these acclamations are interspersed among (3), invocations to each of a list of saints, with the response ‘tu illum adiuva’ (‘help him!’ – ‘him’ being the pope, emperor, or other personage just acclaimed in the ‘Exaudi’); (4) a series of attributes of Christ (‘King of kings …’) each followed by the triad ‘Christus vincit …’; (5) doxologies addressed to Christ; (6) ‘Christe audi nos/Kyrie eleison’, as at the end of litanies; (7) congratulatory wishes, in particular the ancient imperial acclamation ‘multos annos’ (‘long life’).

The whole series was chanted by precentors and responded to either by a schola or by all those present. The chant (first preserved in 10th-century manuscripts) is syllabic with more or less frequent two-note neumes, depending on the version. It uses formulae that are hard to locate stylistically with reference to those of the Roman chant; the Laudes formulae come closest to some of the lection tones (not the psalm tones), but more likely they represent a Frankish adaptation of a Gallican, Visigoth, or Byzantine tone of some kind. The reciting note, flanked by whole tones, leaping up a minor 3rd and dropping a 4th, is either a or d, or g with a b above. This ‘subtonal’ tone is cognate with the older prayer and lection tones of the first millennium.

The Laudes regiae show contact with litanies on one hand (especially the Litany of the Saints) and with military hails for the Roman emperor on the other. Both elements might be traced far back in Roman culture; but it should be noted that the litanies in question are not at all characteristic of Gregorian chant and liturgy, being (apparently) instead the products of Irish or insular devotions and liturgies of the 8th century. And the imperial formulae of pagan Rome had never been put together in such a developed form – a form that gives every sign of Frankish origin, reflecting Carolingian syncretism as well as the desire to adopt imperial customs. The Laudes regiae were the most forceful expression of a tendency towards sets of loosely connected, highly stylized exclamations; this tendency reappeared in many different ways in Frankish chant, contributing to its individuality with regard to the Gregorian repertory.

Originally destined (it would seem) for Charlemagne himself, the Laudes formulae were eventually adapted for bishops or popes, and were perhaps used on a wide variety of occasions even apart from the reception of a princely personage. Some early sources indicate use at Easter or Pentecost, perhaps simply as a festival observance.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E.H. Kantorowicz: Laudes regiae: a Study in Mediaeval Ruler Worship and Liturgical Acclamations (Berkeley, 1946/R)

E.J. Cowdrey: ‘The Anglo-Norman Laudes regiae’, Viator, xii (1981), 37–78

For further bibliography see Plainchant.

RICHARD L. CROCKER

Laudi, Victorino

(b Alcara [now Alcara li Fusi], province of Messina; fl 1597). Italian composer. Schmidl’s statement that he was born at Alcama is incorrect. He was maestro di cappella of Messina Cathedral; his only extant work is Il primo libro de madrigali con dialogo (Palermo, 1597), for five and eight voices. According to Mongitore, he contributed some pieces to a five-voice anthology, now lost, entitled Madrigali di diversi autori siciliani (Palermo, 1603).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SchmidlD

A. Mongitore: Bibliotheca Sicula, ii (Palermo, 1708–14/R), 272–3

P.E. Carapezza: ‘I duo della scuola siciliana’, preface to Scuola polifonica siciliana: Musiche strumentali didattiche, MRS, ii (1971), pp.xi–li [with Eng. trans.]

PIER PAOLO SCATTOLIN

Lauds

(from Lat. laudes: ‘praises’).

One of the services of the Divine Office, traditionally sung during the gradual brightening of the sky that precedes sunrise. Sometimes called ‘matutina laus’ or ‘matutini’, Lauds has its origins in the morning prayer of the early Church: the ‘cathedral’ tradition of the early Office cultivated a service held at daybreak consisting of fixed psalms (the ‘Lauds’ psalms), prayers and canticles. Fixed psalms are characteristic of Lauds in some eastern Churches, as for example in the Byzantine morning office Orthros, but to a limited extent only in the West.

In its modern western form, the service begins with five selections of biblical poetry joining the praise of God and that of the new light. Each of the five is prefaced and followed by an antiphon, often a Proper one linking the theme of the day with that of the hour. The five selections for most Sundays and feasts are as follows (the numbering is that of the Vulgate): Psalm xcii, Dominus regnavit; Psalm xcix, Jubilate Deo; Psalms lxii, Deus, Deus meus, and lxvi, Deus misereatur nostri, together; the Old Testament canticle Benedicite omnia opera (Daniel iii. 57–88 and 56, Song of the Three Young Men); and the psalms sometimes themselves called ‘laudes’, cxlviii–cl, Laudate Dominum de caelis, Cantate Domino canticum novum and Laudate Dominum in sanctis eius. On weekdays the first psalm is Psalm li, Miserere mei, Deus. The second and fourth of the selections change from day to day in an ordinary week according to the following scheme: Monday, Psalm v, Verba mea, the canticle Confitebor tibi, Domine (Isaiah xii.1–6, the Canticle of Isaiah); Tuesday, Psalm xlii, Judica me, Deus, the canticle Ego dixi (Isaiah xxxviii.10–20, the Canticle of Ezekiel); Wednesday, Psalm lxiv, Te decet hymnus, the canticle Exultavit cor meum (1 Samuel ii.1–10, the Canticle of Hannah); Thursday, Psalm lxxxix, Domine refugium, the canticle Cantemus Domino (Exodus xv.1–19, the Canticle of Moses); Friday, Psalm cxlii, Domine exaudi, the canticle Domine audivi (Habakkuk iii. 2–19, the Canticle of Habakkuk); and Saturday, Psalm xci, Bonum est confiteri, the canticle Audite caeli (Deuteronomy xxxii.1–43, the Canticle of Moses). (This was the plan in use during the Middle Ages. In the reformed breviary of Pius X, 1911, substantial changes were made, among them the inclusion of a second complete series of canticles.)

A short lesson, the chapter, is followed in the monastic cursus by a short responsory and a hymn, in the Roman cursus by a hymn only. On Sundays this is Aeterne rerum conditor. A different hymn is prescribed for each ordinary weekday; there are also some Proper hymns for Lauds of feast days. A short versicle and response follow. Lauds reaches its climax in the chanting of the New Testament canticle Benedictus Dominus Deus (Luke i.68–79, the Canticle of Zechariah). The association of this text with daybreak seems particularly felicitous: in it Zechariah speaks of his new-born son, John the Baptist, as one who will ‘go before the Lord to prepare his ways’, and says that ‘the day shall dawn upon us from on high to give light to those who sit in darkness and in the shadow of death, to guide our feet into the way of peace’. The antiphon for this canticle is often marked ‘in evangelio’ in the manuscripts. The term indicates the source of the canticle and also refers to the fact that the text of the antiphon itself is frequently taken from or based on the gospel read in the Mass of the day. This can be seen, for example, in the Sundays after Epiphany. In some manuscripts a series of antiphons is given for each of these Sundays (see I-IV CVI, f.15v, and LXIV, ff.41v–43r; and CAO, i–ii, 1963–5, nos.26, 33–5). They are in different modes and sometimes overlap in their retelling of the Gospel lesson; thus the additional antiphons must have been intended as substitutes for the first (perhaps for the days following the Sunday).

The music for Lauds thus consists of a simple formula for the versicle and response, the tones to which the psalms and canticles are chanted, the hymn, the antiphons and, in the monastic cursus, the short responsory. For a few feasts in some manuscripts of the 12th and later centuries, a prosa is substituted for the hymn; and in place of the versicle there appears another prosa (H. Villetard: Office de Pierre de Corbeil, Paris, 1907, pp.102–3, 153–5), or an alleluia verse prosula, sometimes with the same basic text as the versicle (F-Pn lat.17296, ff.37v, 42r; lat.12044, ff.15r, 18v, 39r; F-LA 263, f.96r; see D. Hughes: ‘Music for St. Stephen at Laon’, Words and Music: The Scholar's View … in Honor of A. Tillman Merritt, ed. L. Berman, Cambridge, MA, 1972, p.150). The concluding formula for Lauds, ‘Benedicamus Domino–Deo gratias’, may be replaced by a poem in two strophes of accentual verse ending with these phrases (see AS, 53).

For bibliography see Divine Office.

RUTH STEINER/KEITH FALCONER

Lauermann, Herbert

(b Vienna, 7 Nov 1955). Austrian composer. After studying composition with Ernst Vogel (1970–75), he enrolled in the Vienna Hochschule für Musik und Darstellende Kunst, where he studied music education (diploma 1979) and composition with Urbanner (diploma 1983). He later taught music at the Gymnasium in the Vienna suburb of Stockerau (1976–94) and at the Vienna Hochschule (from 1987). He first received international acclaim with a performance of his church opera, Simon, at the Carinthian Summer Music Festival in 1984. As a composer, his primary ambition has been to formulate his ideas directly, imaginatively and honestly with the aid of all the compositional means available to him and, at the same time, to engage his listener in a process of musical experimentation that leads to a new level of understanding. Towards these ends, he has sought new formal solutions that serve the direct, sensual experience of sound. His honours include the Theodor Körner prize (1980), the Publicity Prize of Austro Mechana (for his opera KAR) and the Maecenas-Kunstsponsoring-Preis (1994).

WORKS

Stage: Simon (church op, H. Vogg), 1983, Ossiach, 6 Aug 1984; Wundertheater (chbr op, 2 pts, C. Fuchs, after M. de Cervantes), 1987, Vienna, 6 Nov 1988, rev. Klagenfurt, 19 June 1990; KAR (Fuchs), 1993–4, Reisseck Dam, 22 July 1994; see also Orch [Das Ehepaar, 1981]

Orch: Das Ehepaar (F. Tanzer), S, spkr, chbr orch, 1981, rev. for stage 1986; Chbr Sym., 1984; Phantasy on Me, 1984–5; Caccia ‘Ah! Dov’è il perfido?’, 1989; Desert, chbr orch, 1990; Sinfonietta, 1993; Verbum IV ‘An die Sonne’, 1996

Vocal: Beziehungen?, double chorus, conductor, 1981; In Hoffnung treiben (cant., E. Rentrow), 8vv, chbr ens, 1982; Round (Tanzer), female v, cl, vn, pf, 1984–6; 3 Kleine Chöre (T. Riegler, D. Strigl), chorus, 1986; Motetus I (G.M. Hopkins, F. Villon, Tanzer), chorus, 1986; Zeit und Ewigkeit (C. Morgenstern, H. von Melk, Frau Ava), song cycle, medium v, pf, 1988; Abzählreime (children's rhymes), children’s chorus, 1991

Chbr and solo inst: Verbum I, pf, 1978; Echoes (Tanzer), spkr, fl, ob, vn, va, vc, cel/pf, xylorimba, 1979; Verbum II, vn, 1980; Str Qt, 1982; Bagatelles, sax qt, 1986; Variations, ob, pf, 1987; Motetus II, 7 fl, 1990; Höhlenmusik, brass qnt, 1991; Verbum III ‘Poem’, cl, hn, mand, gui, hp, pf, 1992; Trans, 2 pf, perc, 1994; Waves, pf, 1994–5

Principal publisher: Doblinger

RAINER BONELLI

Laufenberg [Loufenberg], Heinrich [Heinricus de Libero Castro]

(b ?Freiburg, c1390; d Strasbourg, 31 March 1460). German-Swiss poet and musician. Although his patronymic refers to Laufenburg (formerly Laufenberg) on the Upper Rhine, east of Rheinfelden, it is never used to indicate his place of origin in the extant archival material. Instead, the acrostics in the didactic poems Regimen and Spiegel menschlichen Heils provide the information that Laufenberg was ‘von frybvrg ein priester’ and ‘ein priest von fribvrg’, which possibly indicates that he came from Freiburg im Breisgau. An entry in the Heidelberg University matriculation records of 20 December 1417 mentions a ‘Heinricus Loffenburg de Rapperswil cler. Constanc. Dyoc.’; this could of course refer to another man, but the town name has also been corrected to ‘Rupperswil’, which is close to the town of Zofingen, where Laufenberg was dean of the collegiate foundation of St Mauritius in 1433 and 1434. However, he had previously been in Freiburg, where the records mention him as capellanus and viceplebanus in 1421, and he bought a house there in 1424. He was probably in Zofingen between about 1430 and 1440: he is documented as absent from his benefice at Freiburg Cathedral from 1436 to 1438, and he is not mentioned again as ‘Heinrich ze Friburg Dechan’ until 1441. He resigned from the office of dean in 1445 and left Freiburg to enter the monastery of the Knights Hospitaller in Strasbourg, a favourite retreat of highly esteemed clerics in their old age. He died there, according to the monastery's necrology, on 31 March 1460.

Laufenberg's literary work consists primarily of two large didactic poems in rhyming couplets, the Regimen of 1429 (a work of about 6000 lines on the subject of health; ed. H.H. Menge, Göppingen, 1976) and the Spiegel menschlichen Heils of 1437 (a translation in about 15,000 lines of the Speculum humanae salvationis). He also wrote a Buch der Figuren (a collection of Marian prefigurations, c15, 370 lines; 1441), a small group of discourses in rhyming couplets and some prose (a didactic dialogue between a father confessor and a female penitent). Of these works only the Regimen has been preserved complete, since it was widely distributed in the 15th century; there are seven extant manuscripts and an incunabulum. The other works were preserved as unica in the library of the Hospitallers in Strasbourg, including the rhymed discourses and the prose work, copied in the same manuscript as Laufenberg's songs, about 120 in all. This manuscript (shelfmark B.121) was transferred to the Bibliothèque de la ville, Strasbourg, at the time of secularization, but was destroyed by fire in 1870.

The songs, the texts of which were edited by Wackernagel before the manuscript was lost, were copied with their melodies in more or less chronological order (many of the songs were dated in the manuscript). Otherwise the transmission pattern of the songs was small and scattered. While a number of the songs in the manuscript bear the ascriptions ‘heinrich’ or merely ‘h’, there are also songs by other authors such as the Monk of Salzburg and Heinrich von Mügeln. The presence of the Monk of Salzburg's songs, along with the contrafactum of a two-voice song, Wolauf, lieben gesellen vnuerczait/Seit willikommen her Martein by the Monk or one of his circle (Wackernagel, 54*; cf C. März: Die weltlichen Lieder des Mönchs von Salzburg, Tübingen, 1999, pp.34–54, 497–501) and Laufenberg's translation of popular hymns and sequences into German, suggests that he was inspired by the older poet. The contrafactum texts, Woluff mit andaht alle cristenheit and Bis wilkommen, Maria, maget rein, were entered some distance apart in the songbook F-Sm B.121, so that in the circumstances polyphonic performance seems somewhat unlikely. No edition of the melodies has appeared, but Wachinger (1979) indicated sources for 17 of the melodies (also mentioning a facsimile of Wackernagel's copies of the melodies, preserved as F-Sn 2371).

The frequently raised question of whether Heinrich Laufenberg was the same man as Heinricus de Libero Castro, a composer included in F-Sm 222 (also lost), is difficult to answer. First, it is striking that the manuscript, the oldest part of which can be traced back to Zofingen, and which finally ended up in the monastery of the Knights Hospitaller, travelled the same way as Laufenberg. It may be that Laufenberg either drew up the codex himself or acquired it at an early date. He repeatedly mentioned his origin as ‘von Freiburg’, which is easily equated with its latinized form ‘de Libero Castro’; Heinricus de Libero Castro is represented in the manuscript by a series of pieces for several voices in simple polyphony but using relatively complex notation. Although the only evidence for Heinrich Laufenberg's engagement with polyphonic composition is his contrafactum of the hymn to St Martin mentioned above, it does not seem out of the question that Heinrich Laufenberg and Henricus de Castro were the same man, but the issue remains unresolved.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H.F. Massmann: ‘Heinrich von Loufenberg’, Anzeiger für Kunde des teutschen Mittelalters, i (1832), cols.41–8

P. Wackernagel, ed.: Das deutsche Kirchenlied von den ältesten Zeit bis zu Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts, ii (Leipzig, 1867/R), nos.701–98 [most extensive edn of texts]

E.R. Müller: Heinrich Laufenberg: eine litterar-historische Untersuchung (Berlin, 1888)

L. Denecke: ‘Laufenberg, Heinrich’, Die deutsche Literatur des Mittelalters: Verfasserlexikon, ed. W. Stammler and K. Langosch (Berlin, 1933–55)

B. Wachinger: ‘Laufenberg, Heinrich’, Die deutsche Literatur des Mittelalters: Verfasserlexikon, ed. K. Ruh and others (Berlin, 2/1977–)

B. Wachinger: ‘Notizen zu den Liedern Heinrich Laufenbergs’, Medium aevum deutsch: Beiträge zur deutschen Literatur des hohen und späten Mittelalters: Festschrift für K. Ruh zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. D. Huschenbett and others (Tübingen, 1979), 349–85

L. Welker: ‘Heinrich Laufenberg in Zofingen: Musik in der spätmittelalterlichen Schweiz’, Schweizer Jb für Musikwissenschaft, new ser., xi (1991), 67–77

LORENZ WELKER

Lauffensteiner, Wolff Jacob

(b Steyr, bap. 28 April 1676; d Munich, 26 March 1754). Austrian lutenist. He was the son of Wolff Jacob Lauffensteiner, towerkeeper in Steyr, and Anna Susanna Werfferin. By 1709 he had settled in Graz as a lutenist. From 1712 he was a valet and lutenist in the service of the Bavarian court, and was in the service of the Bavarian princes during their internment in Graz; he taught them the lute and other instruments. In 1715 he went with the prince's retinue to Munich, entering the private service of the prince, Duke Ferdinand; as valet he accompanied his master in the field and on his travels. In 1739, on the duke's death, he was granted a pension. For his services to the electoral House of Bavaria Duke Clemens August, Archbishop of Cologne, appointed him chamber counsellor (Hofkammerrat).

Lauffensteiner's works include several ensemble concertos in suite or partita form. His music as a whole is highly idiomatic for the lute, in a style uniting traditional French forms, textures and ornaments with a tendency towards italianate cantabile melody over a supporting bass line. In this his pieces, of which over 100 movements survive, come close to those of S.L. Weiss, to whom his music is frequently misattributed in manuscript sources – a measure of its high quality in the estimation of his contemporaries.

WORKS

ensemble

Conc., g, lute, 2 vn, vc, B-Br II 4089 (also for solo lute attrib. S.L. Weiss, lost; see BrookB); conc., F, lute, vn/fl, b, US-NYp Harrach 11; 2 concs., B, F, P-Wu Rps.mus.37 (lute pt only); conc., F, lute, vn, b, A-Su M.III.25 (lute pt only)

Sonata, A, 2 lutes (or lute, vn/va da gamba, vc), D-As Tonk.2°, inc., ed. H. Neeman (Berlin, 1927)

[12] Symphonie da camera, 1750, lost [mentioned in Munich court document]

solo lute

Suites: 4 suites, D, b, F, A, A-GÖ (variants of nos.1 and 2, KR L77), ed. in MAM, xxx (1973); suite, c, CZ-Bm A.13.269, ed. in MAM, xxx (1973); suite, B, D-Mbs 5362 (inc.), GB-HAdolmetsch II.B.2 (attrib. Weiss), US-NYp Harrach 14; 2 suites, D, B, GB-HAdolmetsch II.B.2; suite, D, Harrach family's private collection, Vienna; suite, B, GB-Lspencer, ed. P. Lay and R. Spencer (Harrow, 1987)

Suite movts: 2 menuets, bourée, D-Mbs 5362; 2 menuets, gay, Mbs 5362; sarabande, E, Mbs 5362; gigue, courante, menuet, A, GB-HAdolmetsch II.B.2; 3 preludes, d, A-Wgm 7763/92, 2 ed. in MAM, xxx (1973); menuet, d, D-KNu 1.P.56, ed in F. Giesbert, Lautenbuch ‘Livre pour le lut’ Köln, 18. Jahrhundert (Mainz, 1965)

doubtful

Bourée, B, lute, CZ-POm (attrib. Weiss, A-Su M.III.25); Sonata à 5, 2 vn, 2 va, ‘basso viola’, lost (listed in 1710 catalogue; see Flotzinger)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BrookB

GerberL

E.G. Baron: Historisch-theoretische und practische Untersuchung des Instruments der Lauten (Nuremberg, 1727/R; Eng. trans., 1976)

H. Federhofer: ‘Die Grazer Stadtpfarrmatrikeln als musikgeschichtliche Quelle’, Zeitschrift des Historischen Vereines für Steiermark, xlv (1954), 158–68, esp. 163

R. Flotzinger: ‘Rochus Berhandtzky und Wolff Jacob Lauffensteiner. Zum Leben und Schaffen zweier Lautenisten in kurbayerischen Diensten’, SMw, xxvii (1966), 200–40

HANS RADKE/TIM CRAWFORD

Laugier, Abbé Marc-Antoine

(b Manosque, Basses-Alpes, 25 July 1713; d Paris, 7 April 1769). French writer. A man of wide cultural interests educated by Jesuits, he preached at the French court, edited the austere weekly Gazette de France and spent many years in Germany as an ambassador's secretary. His writings include a 12-volume history of the Venetian republic, works on painting and architecture and a 78-page essay, Apologie de la musique françoise contre M. Rousseau (Paris, 1754), penned during the Querelle des Bouffons in response to Rousseau's Lettre sur la musique françoise.

A staunch advocate of French music, Laugier nevertheless defended his views in the Apologie candidly, thereby avoiding the anti-philosophe stance characteristic of many of the debate's pro-French pamphlets. He disagreed with Rousseau's severe criticisms of French music and his theory of a close association between a nation's music and the character of its language, arguing that many French poets had proved the beauty of the French language and that it was possible to temper its worst effects. Moreover, since for Laugier the essential elements of music were harmony, tempo and melody – music depended far less on language than on génie – it was the composer's imagination that ultimately moved the soul rather than the way in which language shaped musical character and style. The faults Rousseau perceived in French music merely showed that the nation lacked composers of genius. Laugier defended the unrivalled expressive powers of earlier generations of composers, particularly Lully, Campra and Lalande, but agreed with Rousseau that performance standards had declined because performers took too many liberties. Unlike Rousseau, he offered solutions to these problems and appreciated that both French and Italian styles had their merits and failings.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Goldschmidt: Die Musikästhetik des 18. Jahrhunderts (Zürich, 1915/R)

L. Reichenburg: Contribution à l'histoire de la ‘Querelle des Bouffons’ (Philadelphia, 1937/R)

A.R. Oliver: The Encyclopedists as Critics of Music (New York, 1947/R)

A.M. Whittall: La Querelle des Bouffons (diss., U. of Cambridge, 1963)

E. Cook: Duet and Ensemble in the Early Opéra-Comique (New York, 1995)

ELISABETH COOK

Laukhuff.

German family of organ builders. Andreas Laukhuff (i) (b Bretzfeld, 11 March 1798; d Pfedelbach, 12 Dec 1871) learned his craft with J.E. Walcker in Cannstat, near Stuttgart. He married the latter’s daughter and took over direction of the shop in 1823, as his brother-in-law E.F. Walcker had moved to Ludwigsburg. Laukhuff in turn moved to Pfedelbach in 1842, where three sons were born to his second wife: August (1850–86), who assumed direction of the firm in 1871; Adolf (1857–1937); and Andreas (ii) (1858–1933), the leading figure after August’s premature death. The firm moved to larger premises in Weikersheim in 1878 and further developed the then novel idea, initiated under August, of supplying organ parts to others. This ensured commercial stability, the company rapidly growing from 40 employees in 1880 to 300 in 1930; it is still conceivably the world’s largest firm devoted exclusively to organ building. The overall technical development in Germany was embraced, from slider-chests to cone valve chests with mechanical then pneumatic action. Between the World Wars a type of cinema organ, the Lichttonorgel, was developed in conjunction with Edwin Welte. In 1933 the firm passed to Andreas’s sons Otto (1898–1989) and Wilhelm (1903–81); they in turn were succeeded by their sons Hans-Erich (b Würzburg, 15 March 1944) and Peter (b Weikersheim, 17 March 1937). In certain cases, especially for local churches or for export, Laukhuff builds entire instruments, but the firm is universally known in the organ world as a supplier of every possible component for pipe organs, from adjustment nuts to wind-chests and 32' pipes.

KURT LUEDERS

Lauksmin [Lauxmin], Zygmunt

(b Żmudź district, Lithuania, c1596; d 11 Sept 1670). Polish-Lithuanian writer on music. He was a Jesuit and studied philosophy and classical languages at the Vilnius Academy, 1619–22. He taught at the Jesuit colleges of Płock, Nieśwież, Braniewo and Kroża, and also from 1635 at the Vilnius Academy, of which he was pro-rector from 1655 to 1657. In addition to numerous writings on rhetoric and classical languages, he published (anonymously) three musical treatises. Ars et praxis musicae is a practical handbook on the singing of Gregorian chant; it was known to Brossard and has been cited in many subsequent lexicographical writings on music. The Graduale introduces new polyphonic sections to the mass Ordinary and contains revisions of Polish hymns.

THEORETICAL WORKS

Ars et praxis musicae in usum studiosae iuventutis in collegiis Societatis Jesu (Vilnius, 1667, 3/1693); ed. V. Jurkstas (Vilnius, 1977)

Graduale pro exercitatione studentum (Vilnius, 1667, 3/1742)

Antiphonale ad psalmos, iuxta ritum S Romanae ecclesiae, decantandos necessarium (Vilnius, 1667, 3/1742)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

GerberNL

SMP

WaltherML

S. de Brossard: Dictionaire de musique (Paris, 1703/R, 3/c1708/R); ed. and trans. A. Gruber (Henryville, PA, 1980)

A. Chybiński: Słownik muzyków dawnej Polski do roku 1800 [Dictionary of early Polish musicians to 1800] (Kraków, 1949)

J. Trilūpaitienė: ‘Zygmut Lauksmin a życie muzyczne Akademii Wileńskiej’ [Lauksmin and the musical life of the Vilnius Academy], Muzyka, xxxvi/1 (1991), 101–16

MIROSŁAW PERZ

Laul, Reyn Genrikhovich

(b Tallinn, 20 March 1939). Estonian musicologist and composer. He attended the Leningrad Conservatory, where he studied musicology with A.G. Shnitke (graduating in 1964) and composition with V.N. Salmanov (graduating in 1967). He was appointed lecturer in the department of music theory at the conservatory in 1970, later becoming assistant professor (1983) and professor (1993). His main area of research is the theory of musical analysis. He has written books on this subject and in 1990 gained the doctorate with a dissertation that discussed the logical functions of the motif in the form-structuring process. He has also studied the composers of the Second Viennese School. In 1972 he gained the Kandidat degree with the dissertation Stil' i kompozitsionnaya tekhnika A. Shyonberga [The Style and Compositional Technique of Schoenberg] (diss., 1972; Leningrad, 1972), which was the first dissertation on Schoenberg to be written in the Russian Federation. In response to the difficulties he had in defending this work, Laul composed the Kantata dlya baritona i fortepiano na slova otzïva na kandidatskuyu dissertatsiyu Laula o Shyonberge (Cantata for Baritone and Piano to the Words of a Comment on Laul's Candidate Dissertation on Schoenberg, 1973, rev.1997). His other compositions include a set of variations for chamber orchestra (1967), a concerto for string orchestra (1967), a symphony (1973), Musica trista, a work for orchestra in memory of Shostakovich (1976), three piano sonatas (1963, 1971, 1976), a sonata for violin and piano (1965) and a string quartet (1981). His compositions show the influence of Western European music of the first half of the 20th century, particularly the works of Schoenberg and Hindemith. Laul became a member of the Russian Federation Composers' Union in 1969.

WRITINGS

‘O tvorcheskom metode A. Shyonberga’ [On Schoenberg's creative method], Voprosï teorii i ėstetiki muzïki, ix (1969), 41–70

‘Printsipï formoobrazovaniya v simfonicheskikh proizvedeniyakh K. Debyussi’ [The principles of formation in the symphonic works of Debussy], Debyussi i muzïka XX veka, ed. V. Gurkov and others (Leningrad, 1983), 39–63

‘Ob osobennostyakh kompozitsionnoy tekhniki A. Veberna pozdnego perioda tvorchestva’ [On the particularities of Webern's compositional technique in the works of his later period], Teater, muusika, kino, no.4 (1984), 76–86

Moduliruyushchiye formï [Modulating forms] (Leningrad, 1986)

Motiv i formoobrazovaniye [Motif and formation] (Leningrad, 1987)

Logicheskiye funktsii motiva v protsesse formoobrazovaniya [The logical functions of the motif in the process of formation] (diss., Moscow State Conservatoire, 1990; Leningrad, 1990)

‘O funktsional'noy dinamike sonatnoy formï venskikh klassikov (ėtyud po pobochnoy partii)’ [On the functional dynamic of the sonata form of the Viennese classics (a study of second subjects)], Forma i stil', ii, ed. E. Ruchievskaya and others (Leningrad, 1990), 109–28

‘Klassik muzïki so slozhnoy sud'boy (O Shyonberge)’ [A musical classic with a difficult fate (On Schoenberg)], Schönberg, ed. K. Pappel (Tallinn, 1991), 9–19

‘Slozhnïye pozitsionnïye sdvigi motivov v tematicheskom razvitii muzïki Bramsa’ [Complex positional displacements of motifs in the thematic development of the music of Brahms], I. Brams: chertï stilya, ed. A. Shnitke (St Petersburg, 1995), 148–71

‘U istokov formirovaniya stilya Khindemita’ [At the sources of the formation of the style of Hindemith], Trudï kafedrï teorii muzïki, i, ed. L. Ivanova and N. Afonina (St Petersburg, 1995), 32–50

‘Muzïka Shostakovicha v kontekste bol'shevistskoy ideologii i praktiki (opït slushaniya)’ [The music of Shostakovich in the context of Bolshevist ideology and practice (an experiment in listening)], D.D. Shostakovich: sbornik statey k 90-letiyu so dnya rozhdeniya, ed. L. Kovnatskaya (St Petersburg, 1996), 141–57

‘Pamyat' o bolshom muzïkante’ [Memory of a great musician], Pamyati N.S. Rabinovicha: ocherki, vospominaniya, dokumentï, ed. D. Bukin (Washington DC, 1996), 108–12

‘Elements of Chess Strategy in Beethoven's Art of Thematic Process’, A Composition as a Problem, ed. M. Humal (Tallinn, 1997), 58–68

ELENA TITOVA

Launay, Denise

(b Paris, 7 Oct 1906; d Paris, 13 March 1993). French musicologist and librarian. She studied musicology with André Pirro and Paul-Marie Masson at the Sorbonne, counterpoint and fugue with Marcel Caussade and the organ with Dupré at the Paris Conservatoire (also with André Marchal and Gaston Litaize) and qualified as a teacher at the Ecole Normale de Musique in 1936. Subsequently she was a librarian at the Bibliothèque Nationale for over 30 years (1939–71), including seven (1960–67) when she was seconded to the CNRS; she was also organist at Notre Dame de Lorette, Paris (from 1943), and a lecturer at the musicology institute of the University of Paris (from 1970).

Launay's research, informed by her experience as a librarian and organist, was concerned with the 17th and 18th centuries in France, especially sacred music. She produced several editions of French music both sacred (for example works by Du Caurroy, Courbes, Mauduit, Formé, Péchon, Du Mont, Bouzignac, Charpentier, Gaillard and Moulinié) and secular (court airs by Boësset). These complement her writings, the most important of which is La musique religieuse en France du Concile de Trente à 1804, the result of a lifetime of research and the foremost reference work on the subject. Her articles include many contributions, mainly on French musicians of the 17th and 18th centuries, for major dictionaries and encyclopedias.

WRITINGS

‘Guillaume Bouzignac’, Musique et liturgie, no.21 (1951), 3–8

‘La Fantaisie en France jusqu'au milieu du XVIIe siècle’, La musique instrumentale de la Renaissance: Paris, 1954, 327–38

‘Notes sur Etienne Moulinié, maître de la musique de Gaston d’Orléans’, Mélanges d’histoire et d’esthétique musicales offerts à Paul-Marie Masson, ii (Paris, 1955), 67–78

‘A propos d’une messe de Charles d’Helfer: le problème de l’exécution des messes réputées a cappella en France, aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles’, Le ‘Baroque’ musical: Wégimont [IV] 1957, 177–94

‘Les motets à double choeur en France dans la première moitié du XVIIe siècle’, RdM, xxxix–xl (1957), 173–95

with A. Verchaly: ‘Les prolongements de la Renaissance (1600–1650)’, Précis de musicologie, ed. J. Chailley (Paris, 1958), 214–31

‘A propos de quelques motets polyphoniques en l’honneur de St Martin: contribution à l’histoire du motet aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles’, RdM, xlvii (1961), 67–80

‘La Paraphrase des psaumes de Godeau et ses musiciens’, RdM, l (1964), 30–75

‘Essai d’un commentaire de Titelouze par lui-même’, RMFC, v (1965), 27–50

‘Les rapports de tempo entre mesures binaires et mesures ternaires dans la musique française, 1600–1650’, FAM, xii (1965), 166–94

‘A propos de deux manuscrits musicaux aux armes de Louis XIII’, FAM, xiii (1966), 63–7

‘Après le Concile de Trente, la Contre-Réforme en France’, ‘Deux grands savants du temps de la Contre-Réforme: Mersenne et Kircher’, Encyclopédie des musiques sacrées, ed. J. Porte (Paris, 1969–70), ii, 404–14; iii, 646–8

‘L’art du compositeur de musique: essai sur la composition musicale en France au temps d’Henri IV et de Louis XIII’, Musica antiqua III: Bydgoszcz 1972, 209–46 [incl. Pol. summary]

ed.: La Querelle des Bouffons [a repr., with introduction and index, of 61 pamphlets pubd Paris, 1752–4] (Geneva, 1973)

‘Church Music in France: (a) 1630–60’, NOHM, v (1975), 414–37

‘La “Paraphrase des Pseaumes” de Godeau et les musiciens qui l'ont illustrée’, Antoine Godeau, 1605–1672: Grasse 1972, ed. Y. Gérard (Paris, 1975), 235–50

‘La Querelle des Bouffons et ses incidences sur la musique’, IMSCR XII: Berkeley 1977, 225–33

‘Un esprit critique au temps de Jumilhac: Dom Jacques Le Clerc’, EG, xix (1980), 197–219

‘Les musiciens français itinérants au XVIIe siècle’, La découverte de la France au XVIIe siècle: Marseille 1979 (Paris, 1980), 621–33

‘Jehan Alain (1911–1940): sa vie et son oeuvre’, Grand jeu (1981), April 3–13

‘L'enseignement de la composition dans les maîtrises, en France, aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles’, RdM, lxviii (1982), 79–90

‘Les “Enfances” du Grand Motet’, Le grand motet français: Paris 1984, 29–37

‘Le temps de la basse continue: première période (1600–1661)’, Précis de musicologie, ed. J. Chailley (Paris, 2/1984), 195–212

‘Les deux versions musicales d'Andromède: une étape dans l'histoire du théâtre dans ses rapports avec la musique’, Pierre Corneille: Rouen 1984, ed. A. Niderst (Paris, 1985), 413–41

‘Notes sur la préhistoire du Département de la musique’, Etudes sur la Bibliothèque nationale et temoignages reunis en hommage à Thérèse Kleindienst (Paris, 1985), 97–105

‘André Caplet (1878–1925), Le miroir de Jésus, mystère du rosaire: poèmes d'Henri Ghéon’, Beiträge zur Geschichte des Oratoriums seit Händel: Festschrift Günther Massenkeil, ed. R. Cadenbach and H. Loos (Bonn, 1986), 407–37

‘L'italianisme et la musique religieuse en France au temps de Mazarin’, La France et l’Italie au temps de Mazarin: Grenoble 1985, ed. J. Serroy (Grenoble, 1986), 335–48

‘La musique en France de 1600 à 1661 vue à travers la presse contemporaine’, Storiografia della critica francese nel seicento, ed. G. Forestier and others (Bari-Paris, 1986), 303–24

‘Les airs italiens et français dans les ballets et les comédies-ballets’, Jean-Baptiste Lully: Saint Germain-en-Laye and Heidelberg 1987, 31–49

‘La musique à Paris, malgré la Fronde’, La Fronde en questions: Marseille 1988, ed. R. Duchêne and P. Ronzeaud (Aix-en-Provence, 1989), 339–49

‘La musique à Venise vers 1645’, RdM, lxxvii (1991), 269–77

La musique religieuse en France du Concile de Trente à 1804 (Paris, 1993)

EDITIONS

Anthologie du motet latin polyphonique en France (1609–1661), PSFM, 1st ser., xvii (1963)

M.-A. Charpentier: Te Deum (Paris, 1969)

Anthologie du psaume français polyphonique (1610–1663) (Paris, 1974–6)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Duron: Obituary, RdM, lxxix (1993), 405–10 [incl. full list of writings]

CHRISTIANE SPIETH-WEISSENBACHER/JEAN GRIBENSKI

Launis [Lindberg], Armas (Emanuel)

(b Hämeenlinna, 22 April 1884; d Nice, 7 Aug 1959). Finnish composer and ethnomusicologist. After studying composition and the cello at the orchestra school of the Helsinki Philharmonic Society (1901–7) he was a pupil of Klatte at the Stern Conservatory, Berlin (1907–8), and of von Baussnern in Weimar (1909). He taught theory at his old Helsinki school (1906–14) and was a singing master at the Finnish Lyceum in that city (1916–29). In 1922 he founded the Helsinki Folk Conservatory, which he directed until 1930. Thereafter he lived in France. He was principally a composer of operas, in a rather unimaginative and derivative style drawing on Finnish and other folk music (he published several articles on and collections of Samish Yoik tunes and Baltic peasant song). The librettos, which he wrote himself, are of high quality. Some operas exist only in vocal score and are unperformed.

WORKS

(selective list)

Operas: Seitsemän veljestä [The 7 Brothers], 1913; Kullervo, 1917; Aslak Hetta, 1922; Noidan laulu [The Sorcerer’s Song], 1932; Kesä jota ei koskaan tullut [The Summer which Never Came], c1936; Karjalainen taikahuivi [The Karelian Magic Kerchief], 1937; Oli kerran [Once upon a Time], c1939; Jehudith, 1940; Jäiset liekit [The Icy Flames] (ballet-opera), c1957

Inst pieces excerpted from ops, 2 orch suites, chbr pieces, choral/solo songs, incid music

MSS in FIN-Hyf

Principal publishers: Ahjo, Choudens, Weinberger

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H.Tomasi: Armas Launis: notes biographiques (London, 1940)

Armas Launis: henkilötietoja 60-vuotispäivän johdosta (Helsinki, 1944)

HANNU ILARI LAMPILA/ERKKI SALMENHAARA

Laurencie, Lionel de la.

See La Laurencie, Lionel de.

Laurencinus Romanus.

See Lorenzino.

Laurenti.

Italian family of instrumentalists, singers and composers. Its members made significant contributions over a period of nearly 100 years (c1670–c1765) to the musical life of Bologna (where the family originated and, continued, in the main, to live) and other Italian cities, notably Venice. The precise family relationship of different musicians bearing the surname of Laurenti is in several cases impossible to establish, and their occasional confusion in their own day (and in later musicological writings) has made some attributions to individuals hazardous.

(1) Bartolomeo Girolamo Laurenti

(2) Girolamo Nicolò Laurenti

(3) Pietro Paolo Laurenti

(4) Antonia Maria [Novelli] Laurenti [‘La Coralli’, ‘Corallina’]

(5) Angelo Maria Laurenti

(6) Lodovico Filippo Laurenti

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CaffiS

DEUMM (C. Vitali)

FétisB

MGG1 (F. Giegling)

RicciTB

RicordiE

ScheringGIK

O. Penna: Catalogo degli aggregati della Accademia filarmonica di Bologna (MS, 1736, I-Baf); facs. (Bologna, 1973)

G.B. Martini: Serie cronologica de' principi dell'Accademia de' filarmonici di Bologna (Bologna, 1776/R)

F. Vatielli: Arte e vita musicale a Bologna (Bologna, 1927/R)

R. Monterosso: ‘I musicisti cremonesi’, Mostra bibliografica dei musicisti cremonesi: catalogo storico-critico degli autori e catalogo bibliografico, ed. S. Bassi (Cremona, 1951), 3–106

R. Emans: ‘Die Musiker des Markusdoms in Venedig 1650–1708, 2. Teil’, KJb, lxvi (1982), 65–81, esp. 67

O. Gambassi: La cappella musicale di S Petronio (Florence, 1987)

D.E. Freeman: The Opera Theater of Count Franz Anton von Sporck in Prague (Stuyvesant, NY, 1992)

MICHAEL TALBOT/ENRICO CARERI

(1) Bartolomeo Girolamo Laurenti

(b Bologna, 1644; d Bologna, 18 Jan 1726). Composer and violinist. Laurenti studied under the violinist E. Gaibara. He was a founder member of the Accademia Filarmonica in 1666, and joined the orchestra of S Petronio as a first violinist, at one stage sharing a first-violin desk with Torelli and taking some solos. He was also employed at other Bolognese churches and visited numerous Italian cities as a virtuoso. There seems to be no evidence to confirm (or refute) a belief that Corelli studied with him. In 1706 he retired from S Petronio on full pay (a rare privilege indicative of the esteem in which he was held). He had a small quantity of instrumental music published, all in Bologna: 12 Suonate per camera a violino e violoncello op.1 (1691); one sonata in Carlo Buffagnotti's collection of Sonate per camera a violino e violoncello (c1700); and a set of Sei concerti a tre, cioè violino, violoncello ed organo op.2 (1720) of which no example survives. The duo sonatas, pieces in the chamber idiom which dispense with keyboard continuo, are attractive examples of a neglected genre.

Two other musicians bearing the family name belonged to the same generation as Bartolomeo Girolamo and may have been his brothers. Rocco Laurenti (b c1649; d Bologna, 1709) was Perti's organ teacher and was appointed organist at S Petronio in 1676. He was also one of the first members of the Accademia Filarmonica. Leonardo Laurenti (b c1652) was a trumpeter who, having already received occasional employment at S Marco, Venice, was engaged there on a permanent basis in July 1689, remaining until at least 1711. He was among the original members of the Sovvegno di S Cecilia in 1687.

(2) Girolamo Nicolò Laurenti

(b Bologna, 4 June 1678; d Bologna, 26 Dec 1751). Composer and violinist, son of (1) Bartolomeo Girolamo. He replaced his father in the S Petronio orchestra when the latter retired. Instructed in violin-playing by his father as well as by Torelli and T.A. Vitali, Girolamo Nicolò enjoyed a similar career (and a similar longevity). In 1698 he was admitted to the Accademia Filarmonica. Evidently much in demand outside Bologna, he earned Quantz's praise for his direction of the orchestra of the opera house of S Giovanni Grisostomo at Venice in February 1726. He was rewarded with the directorship of the S Petronio orchestra, conferred on him by Perti in 1734. His published works comprise a trio sonata in the Corona di dodici fiori armonici (Bologna, 1706) and a set of six Concerti a tre violini, alto viola, violoncello e basso op.1 (Amsterdam, 1727). There are six of his concertos in manuscript (two in the Henry Watson Library, Manchester, four in the Sächsische Landesbibliothek, Dresden), and single concertos in the Archivio di S Petronio, Bologna (autograph), and the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna. The Biblioteca del Conservatorio Benedetto Marcello, Venice, possesses 25 ‘ricercari’ for unaccompanied violin and one violin sonata by him. The concertos in Dresden, probably dating from the 1720s or early 1730s, are attractive works in post-Vivaldian style.

(3) Pietro Paolo Laurenti

(b Bologna, 26 Aug 1675; d Bologna, 25 March 1719). Composer, string player and singer, son of (1) Bartolomeo Girolamo. According to Fétis he was a Franciscan and managed to accommodate a great diversity of musical activities in both sacred and secular spheres. His first instrument was the violin; he then devoted himself to the cello; but it was as a viola player that he was engaged at S Petronio in December 1691. In the period 1695–1706 he was listed among the violinists but he returned to the ranks of the viola players, 1706–12. He was admitted to the Accademia Filarmonica as a cellist in 1698 and as a composer (having studied with Perti) in 1701. He was elected principe of the academy in 1701 and again in 1716. From 1703 he was maestro di cappella at the Collegio dei Nobili in Bologna. Pietro Paolo was noted as a singer in church when young, and was active as an opera singer in the last nine years of his life. He sang in Lotti's Teuzzone at Bologna in 1711–12 and made his final appearance in 1718–19 at Venice. His works reflect this many-sided career. The surviving instrumental works comprise a published trio sonata, two cello sonatas and a sinfonia in manuscript. Six operas of his were performed in Bologna between 1701 and 1714; 11 of his oratorios are known, all but one performed in Bologna (the first nine are attributed to B.G. Laurenti in older reference works).

WORKS

music lost unless otherwise stated

operas

first performed in Bologna

Attilio Regolo in Affrica, Casa Bevilacqua, 1701; Esone ringiovenito, 1706; L'Iride dopo la tempesta, 1709; Li diporti d'amore in villa, 1710; Sabella mrosa d'Truvlin, 1710; Il teatro in festa, 1714

oratorios

performed in Bologna unless otherwise stated

La conversione alla santa fede del re di Bungo giapponese, Faenza, 1703; Sospiri del cuore umano, 1703; S Radegonda, reina di Francia, Faenza, 1703; I pastori al presepio, 1704; La croce esaltata, 1704; L'eloquenza del mare, 1705; La fede consolata, 1705; Mosè infante liberato dal fiume, 1707; S Sebastiano, 1710; Li giuochi di Sansone, 1718; Il bambino Gesù in braccio al S Felice di Cantalice

other sacred vocal

Domine ad adjuvandum, 8vv, D-MÜs; Domine ad adjuvandum, 2vv, I-Baf

instrumental

1 trio sonata in Corona di dodici fiori armonici (Bologna, 1706); 2 sonatas, vc, bc, D-WD; sinfonia a 4, A-Wn

(4) Antonia Maria [Novelli] Laurenti [‘La Coralli’, ‘Corallina’]

(fl 1714–41). Contralto, possibly the daughter of (1) Bartolomeo Girolamo. She was one of the most celebrated opera singers of her day. Her earliest appearance in opera was in Padua in 1714, and she sang in many northern Italian theatres thereafter. In 1719 F.M. Veracini engaged her for the Dresden opera at the high salary of 2375 thalers. After her departure in 1720 we find her listed as ‘virtuosa di camera di S Maestà il re di Polonia’ (Friedrich August I of Saxony) for a Vivaldi opera staged at Venice in 1721. Under her nickname ‘La Coralli’ she is referred to obliquely in Benedetto Marcello's satire Il teatro alla moda (1720). Antonio Denzio invited her to Prague in 1726. There she married the tenor Felice Novelli on 8 March 1727. The pair returned to Italy and thereafter often performed in the same productions. Laurenti's last known appearance was at Ferrara in the pasticcio Sirbace (1741).

(5) Angelo Maria Laurenti

(b Bologna, 28 June 1688; d Bologna, c1760). Composer, string player and organist, son of (1) Bartolomeo Girolamo. He joined the S Petronio orchestra in 1706 as a viola player and held this appointment until 1742, when he became second and finally (in 1753) first organist of the basilica. His oratorio L’Attalia was performed in Bologna in 1716.

(6) Lodovico Filippo Laurenti

(d 1757). Composer and string player, son of (1) Bartolomeo Girolamo. He was appointed as a viola player to the S Petronio orchestra in February 1712, replacing his elder brother (3) Pietro Paolo. His only known instrumental compositions are a printed set of Suonate da camera pel violoncello e basso op.1, of uncertain date and place of publication. His oratorio La morte di Maria Estuarda, regina di Scozia was performed at Bologna in 1718. In 1725 he reportedly left Bologna to enter the service of a nobleman.

Another Laurenti whose name, like Leonardo's, is not known from Bolognese sources, and whose connection with the family is therefore conjectural, was Saverio Laurenti, joint composer with Antonio Boroni of an opera, La pupilla rapita, staged at Venice in 1763, and of an oratorio, Gioas, re di Giuda (in I-Ras). Nothing further is known of him.

Laurentius de Florentia [Laurentius Masii].

See Lorenzo da Firenze.

Laurenzi [Laurenti, Lorenzi], Filiberto [Filibertus de Laurentiis]

(b Bertinoro, nr Forlì, probably in 1619 or 1620; d ?after 1659). Italian composer. His birthdate may be deduced from the inscription ‘aetatis ann. XXIIII’ appended to the portrait in his 1644 book, but the portrait and its inscription may date from earlier than 1644. From late spring 1631 to 30 September 1633 he was a soprano at S Luigi dei Francesi, Rome. He probably began his career as an opera composer while in Rome: in a manuscript of Castelli's libretto for Il favorito del principe, first performed there in 1640, he is credited with the musical setting (now lost). Late in 1640 he moved to Venice together with the singer Anna Renzi, who was his pupil and with whom he remained associated until at least 1644. Laurenzi is not known to have held a post in Venice, though on 20 November 1641 he dedicated his Concerti ed arie to Giovanni da Pesaro, procurator-elect of S Marco, perhaps in the hope of obtaining employment. This collection includes settings of texts both by contemporary Roman poets such as Domenico Benigni and Ottaviano Castelli and by poets such as Orazio Persiani and Giulio Strozzi who were working in Venice in the mid-17th century. The longest single work in the book is the serenata Guerra non porta, to a text by Giulio Strozzi, written for a celebration for Giovanni da Pesaro. The work, which is scored for various combinations of one to five voices and includes instrumental movements, opens with a short passage for solo soprano and two violins written in the genere concitato. The rest of the volume consists mainly of strophic arias but also includes sets of strophic variations, among them a very florid setting for solo voice of Persiani’s sonnet Già del sacro Leon. For Carnival 1642–3, Venice, Laurenzi contributed most of the music for the opera La finta savia, and a year later he rehearsed and performed in (and may have written the music for) Deidamia, staged at the Teatro Novissimo. For Carnival 1647 in Rome he wrote music for a carro musicale, Il trionfo della fatica, the libretto of which ends with the same duet as that found at the conclusion of the surviving manuscripts of Monteverdi's L'incoronazione di Poppea. The course of his career after 1651, when he collaborated on the opera L'esiglio d'Amore for Ferrara, is uncertain, but he may have been the Filiberto Laurenti mentioned in connection with a performance at S Petronio, Bologna, in 1659.

WORKS

dramatic

Il favorito del principe (op, O. Castelli), Rome, Residence of the French Ambassador, 1640, lib F-Pn

La finta savia (op, G. Strozzi), Venice, SS Giovanni e Paolo, carn. 1642–3 (Venice, 1643); collab. G.B. Crivelli, B. Ferrari, A. Leardini, T. Merula, V. Tozzi; Laurenzi’s arias pubd as Arie … raccolte da G.B. Verdizotti nel dramma della Finta savia, 1v, bc [op.2] (Venice, 1643)

Il trionfo della fatica (carro musicale), Rome, carn. 1647

L’esiglio d’Amore (op, F. Berni), Ferrara, Grande di Corte, 1651 (Ferrara, 1651); collab. A. Mattioli

other vocal

Concerti ed arie, 1–3vv, con una serenata, 5vv, 2 vn, chit [op.1] (Venice, 1641)

Spiritualium cantionum, liber primus, 1v, op.3 (Venice, 1644)

Arie siciliane, 1v; lost, cited in Indice

BIBLIOGRAPHY

OG (‘Finta savia, La’; J. Whenham)

SchmitzG

G. Strozzi: Le glorie della signora Anna Renzi romana (Venice, 1644)

Indice di tutte le opere di musica che si trovano nella Stampa della Pigna di Alessandro Vincenti (Venice, 1649); ed. in Mischiati I

C. Sartori: ‘La prima diva della lirica italiana: Anna Renzi’, NRMI, ii (1968), 430–52

A. Schnoebelen: ‘Performance Practices at San Petronio in the Baroque’, AcM, xli (1969), 37–55

W. Osthoff: ‘Filiberto Laurenzis Musik zu “La finta savia” im Zusammenhang der frühvenezianischen Oper’, Venezia e il melodramma nel Seicento: Venice 1972, 173–97

M. Murata: Operas for the Papal Court, 1631–1668 (Ann Arbor, 1981)

J. Whenham: Duet and Dialogue in the Age of Monteverdi (Ann Arbor, 1982)

B. Glixon: ‘Private Lives of Public Women: Prima Donnas in Seventeenth-Century Venice’, ML, lxxvi (1995), 509–31

JOHN WHENHAM

Laurenzini.

See Lorenzino.

Lauri-Volpi [Volpi], Giacomo

(b Rome, 11 Dec 1892; d Valencia, 17 March 1979). Italian tenor. He studied at the Rome Conservatory with Cotogni and later with Rosati. He made his début (under the name Giacomo Rubini) at Viterbo in 1919 as Arturo (I puritani) and in 1920 sang Des Grieux (Manon) under his own name in Rome. Engaged at La Scala as the Duke of Mantua in 1922, he sang there regularly in the 1930s and 40s. He was a member of the Metropolitan Opera from 1923 to 1933, singing in 232 performances of 26 operas; his roles included Calaf in the American première of Turandot (1926) and Rodolfo in the first Metropolitan Luisa Miller (1929). His only Covent Garden appearances were in 1925 as Chénier and 1936 as the Duke, Cavaradossi and Radames, perhaps his most striking role. He sang Boito’s Nero to open the Teatro Reale dell’Opera, Rome, in 1928 and Arnold in the centenary production of Guillaume Tell at La Scala in 1929. His repertory also included Raoul (Les Huguenots), Otello and Manrico. His bright, ringing tone and beautiful legato made him one of the finest lyric-dramatic tenors of his day; his many recordings capture the virile brio of his exemplary style. He wrote a number of books, including Voci parallele (Milan, 1955) and Misteri delta voce umana (Milan, 1957).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Williams and T. Hutchinson: ‘Giacomo Lauri-Volpi’, Record Collector, xi (1957), 245–72; xii (1958–60), 34–5, 66–7, 108; xx (1971–2), 239 [with discography]

R. Celletti: ‘“Il tenore eroico” del melodramma celeste’, Musica e dischi, no.143 (1958), 47; no.145 (1958), 47; no.146 (1958), 39

P. Caputo, ed.: ‘Tre generazioni di artisti festeggiano Lauri-Volpi’, Musica e dischi, no.200 (1963), 44

J.B. Steane: The Grand Tradition (London, 1974/R), 180–83

HAROLD ROSENTHAL/ALAN BLYTH

Lauro, Antonio

(b Ciudad Bolívar, 3 Aug 1917; d Caracas, 18 April 1986). Venezuelan guitarist and composer. He originally studied the piano at the Caracas Conservatory but later changed to the guitar after hearing the Paraguayan guitarist Agustín Barrios. He wrote works for a wide variety of media, but it is those written and arranged for the guitar that have enjoyed international fame. His output, much of which was published only in his last years, included a concerto, a sonata, Suite Venezolano and Suite, Homenaje a John Duarte; but he is particularly identified with his numerous Valses venezolanos, characterized by rhythmic vitality, teasing hemiolas and lyrical melody. For some years Lauro was a member of the folk music trio Los Cantores del Trópico.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Guitar International, xv/1 (1986) [Antonio Lauro Commemorative issue]

A. Bruzual: Antonio Lauro: un músico total (Caracas, 1995)

JOHN W. DUARTE

Lauro, Domenico [Laurus, Dominicus]

(b Padua, 1540; d ?Mantua, after 1607). Italian composer and priest. The frequency of the name ‘Lauro’ among 16th-century Paduan musicians has led to confusion; it is unlikely that he was the ‘Laurus Patavinus Mantuae’ mentioned by Bernardino Scardeone (De antiquitate Patavinis, Basle, 1560). He was probably a student of Francesco Stivori, since the latter included four of Lauro’s madrigals in his own first two books (RISM 1583¹⁷ and 1585³³) and they also collaborated on a book of three-part madrigals (RISM 1590²²). Lauro apparently went to Mantua in 1598 to be maestro di cappella at the cathedral; Sartori stated (in MGG1) that in 1598 he was maestro di cappella at Padua Cathedral, but his name does not appear in the chapel documents there and there seems to be no reason to doubt statements by Canal, Bertolotti and Zacco that Lauro was then working in Mantua. His extant works include three masses, one motet and 14 madrigals. The four-voice motet Hodie Cristus attributed to ‘Laurus’ must be the work of a much earlier composer, since the manuscript dates from about 1530; both Eitner and Sartori, however, listed the work as being by Domenico Lauro. Lauro’s work is typically Venetian and his masses use the fully developed concerted style.

WORKS

Madrigali … libro primo, 3vv (Venice, 1590²²)

[3] Missae, 8vv, insts, org (Venice, 1607)

Works in 1583¹⁷, 1585³³, 1590¹⁷, 1592³

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BertolottiM

EitnerQ

T. Zacco: Cenni biografici di illustri scrittori e compositori di musica padovani (Padua, 1840)

N. Pietrucci: Biografia degli artisti padovani (Padua, 1858), 69

P. Canal: Della musica in Mantova (Venice, 1881/R)

PATRICIA ANN MYERS

Lauro, Hieronymo del [Alauro, Hieronymo]

(fl 1514–17). Italian composer. 11 frottolas by him have survived in Petrucci’s 11th frottola book (RISM 1514²), Antico’s fourth book (1517²) and Judici’s Libro primo de la fortuna (1530¹; recte 1526). He may well be younger than the major frottolists, including Cara and Tromboncino, since his works do not appear before 1514. He set both the new, more refined verse forms and the established frottola types. His style matched his taste in verse, which avoided the frivolous and favoured the pains and torments of love. As in many frottolas, the cantus parts are almost syllabic, while the inner parts provide a more florid and continuous accompaniment, supported by a simple harmonic bass. An exception is the more solemn Latin ode Laura romanis, a dedicatory piece, prompted perhaps by the opportunity it affords for play on words.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Einstein: ‘Das elfte Buch der Frottole’, ZMw, x (1927–8), 613–24

K. Jeppesen: La frottola, i (Århus and Copenhagen, 1968) [incl. titles of works]

JOAN WESS/WILLIAM F. PRIZER

Lausanne.

City in Switzerland. In the Middle Ages it was a cathedral city and from the 10th century was influenced by the musical traditions of the monastery of St Gallen. From 1536 to 1798 it was dominated by the Bernese and accepted the Reformation and its musical ideas. The cathedral organ, constructed in 1411, was demolished in 1537; the Geneva Psalter by Loys Bourgeois was imposed and later replaced by that of François Gindron, who also composed ‘Proverbs’ and motets. Guillaume Franc, who came from Geneva, taught church music in the College of Lausanne from 1545 until his death in 1570. As in Geneva, secular music declined during the 16th century, and in the 17th and 18th centuries only church music was publicly performed. Nevertheless, a few families played chamber music, and a number of famous musicians visited Lausanne (including Mozart in 1766).

In the 19th century musical life slowly gathered momentum after the foundation in 1812 of a musical society which established an orchestra in 1827 and presented adventurous programmes with some of the best soloists of the time. During the second half of the century local music was particularly influenced by German or German-speaking Swiss musicians who directed the Beau-Rivage Orchestra, founded in 1872 as a professional ensemble of 45 performers. Choral singing also became important, under the direction of Hugo von Senger, Rudolph Herfurth, Jean-Bernard Kaupert and Gustave-Adolphe Koëlla, founder of the conservatoire (1861). During this period the town was visited by Liszt (1836), Mendelssohn (1842), Wagner and Gounod, and later Fauré, Skryabin and Paderewski.

At the beginning of the 20th century Emile Jaques-Dalcroze and Gustave Doret were the dominating personalities; they brought native works allied to the French school into the previously very Germanic repertory. In 1908 at the Théâtre du Jorat, Mézières (near Lausanne), René Morax founded a new type of musical theatre directed towards a wide public, and collaborated with Doret and, later, with Honegger. World War I ended the existence of the Lausanne SO, which had replaced the Beau-Rivage Orchestra, but brought about the meeting between Stravinsky and C.F. Ramuz and their collaboration in The Soldier’s Tale, performed at the Théâtre de Lausanne in 1918. After the war musical life developed more swiftly, particularly through the excellence and variety of the subscription concerts given by the Orchestre de la Suisse Romande under Ernest Ansermet. This ensemble is based in Geneva but plays an essential role in Lausanne life. A rival orchestra was set up and supported by Suisse Romande Radio (1935–8) and, though it could not survive, a need was felt after World War II for a chamber ensemble to complement the Orchestre de la Suisse Romande. The Orchestre de Chambre de Lausanne, founded in 1945 by the conductor Victor Desarzens, has gained an international reputation and taken part in many European festivals. It gives ten subscription concerts a year and often plays on Radio Lausanne; its programmes are eclectic and do much to promote contemporary music, including works by Lausanne composers (A.-H.-G. Fornerod, Raffaele d’Alessandro, Hans Haug, Constantin Regamey, Julien-François Zbinden, Jean Perrin and Jean Balissat).

Lausanne has at least six large mixed choirs, of which two are professional. As well as the concerts of old and new works they present each year, there are chamber concerts organized by the Société pour l’Art, various recitals (though fewer now than in the past) and concerts of organ music. Many of the soloists are trained in the town’s two academies, the Conservatoire de Musique de Lausanne and the Institut de Ribaupierre.

Radio Lausanne has commissioned and performed new works by Honegger, Jean Binet, Jacques Ibert and Henri Sauguet and taken part in the performance of important works by Frank Martin. Large-scale concerts take place in the cathedral or at the suburban Théâtre de Beaulieu, where opera performances are occasionally given. After its inauguration in 1954, this theatre became the centre for the annual Festival de Lausanne (1956–84) featuring guest orchestras and opera companies. Since the founding of Opéra Lausanne in 1988, a winter season of opera has been given at the Théâtre de Lausanne, now known as the Théâtre Municipal.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO (A. Clark)

J. Burdet: La musique dans le pays de Vaud sous le régime bernois, 1536–1798 (Lausanne, 1963)

P. Meylan: René Morax et Arthur Honegger au Théâtre du Jorat (Lausanne, 1966/R)

J. Burdet: La musique dans le canton de Vaud au XIXe siècle (Lausanne, 1971)

J. Burdet: La musique dans le canton de Vaud, 1904–1939 (Lausanne, 1983)

J.-P. Pastori: Le Théâtre de Lausanne 1869–1989 (Lausanne, 1989)

PIERRE MEYLAN/ANDREW CLARK

Lausch, Laurenz

(b ?1737/8; d Vienna, 23 Nov 1794). Austrian music copyist and publisher. He apparently began his commercial music copying business in Vienna on 27 March 1782; by 13 August 1783, when he moved his premises to the Kärntnerstrasse, he was calling himself a music publisher (though the business at that time handled only the retail sale of printed and manuscript music). A few publications from his firm appeared between 1797 and 1801, possibly including the first printed edition of Haydn’s Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser. Lausch dealt primarily, though not exclusively, in vocal music: on 1 July 1786 he advertised parts for Mozart’s Le nozze di Figaro; a similar set for Don Giovanni was announced on 24 May 1788. The German war-song k539, written on 5 March 1788, was available from Lausch as early as 19 March in parts and vocal score.

Although several copies from his shop are signed, it is impossible to identify any one hand as Lausch’s; almost certainly he had several employees, some of whom may have been temporarily subcontracted. By the same token, there is no guarantee that the copies offered by him – including the parts to Figaro, Don Giovanni and k539 – were authorized by local composers. Some works may have been acquired dishonestly: on 7 October 1787 Haydn complained to Artaria that one of his copyists had stolen the op.50 string quartets and passed them on to Lausch (Robbins Landon).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

WeinmannWM

H.C. Robbins Landon, ed.: The Collected Correspondence and London Notebooks of Joseph Haydn (London, 1959), 70–71

D. Bartha and L. Somfai: Haydn als Opernkapellmeister (Budapest and Mainz, 1960), 427

O.E. Deutsch: Mozart: die Dokumente seines Lebens (Kassel, 1961; Eng. trans., 1965, 2/1966; suppl. 1978)

A. Weinmann: Wiener Musikverlag ‘am Rande’ (Vienna, 1970)

A.P. Brown: ‘Notes on Some Eighteenth-Century Viennese Copyists’, JAMS, xxxiv (1981), 325–38

C. Eisen: New Mozart Documents (London and Stanford, CA, 1991)

D. Edge: ‘Recent Discoveries in Viennese Copies of Mozart’s Concertos’, Mozart’s Piano Concertos: Text, Context, Interpretation, ed. N. Zaslaw (Ann Arbor, MI, 1996), 51–65

CLIFF EISEN

Lauska [Louska, Lausca], Franz [Franz Seraphicus; Franz Seraphinus; František Ignác]

(b Brno, 13 Jan 1764; d Berlin, 18 April 1825). Moravian piano teacher and composer. He may have been a pupil of Albrechtsberger when studying in Vienna in 1784. After a period in Italy he served at the Bavarian court in Munich and undertook concert tours. From 1798 he was active in Berlin as a pianist, a composer and principally a teacher, most notably of Meyerbeer and the Prussian royal family. He conducted the Sing-Akademie in rehearsals during Zelter's absence in 1802, and later joined Zelter's Liedertafel, for which he composed many songs. Lauska was a friend of Carl Maria von Weber and probably also knew Beethoven, for whom he read the proofs of several compositions.

Lauska's piano sonatas, capriccios and polonaises are pleasing, uncomplicated works in the idiom of the time, intended for both connoisseurs and amateurs, particularly his own pupils.

WORKS

Pf (most works pubd in Hamburg, Leipzig or Berlin): 25 sonatas; rondos, variations, polonaises, capriccios etc.; pieces for beginners and amateurs

Other inst: Sonate facile, pf, vn, op.18 (Munich, 1802–3); Sonata, pf, vc, op.28 (Berlin, c1881); Introduzzione e rondoletto, pf, vc (Berlin, c1818–19); Conc., hpd/pf, orch, D-Bsb

Songs: 9 deutsche Lieder und Variationen, vv, pf, op.2 (Hamburg, 1792); 12 songs, 1v, gui (Mainz, n.d.); 5 Tafel-Lieder, solo vv, 4 male vv (Berlin, n.d.); other songs for male vv (see Ledebur, 317); separate songs, some in Bsb

Sacred vocal: Mass, Off, inc., CZ-Pu; Quando corpus morietur, 4vv, 1825

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ČSHS

DlabacžKL

EitnerQ

GerberNL

MGG1 (J. Bužga) [incl. detailed list of works]

J.P.S. Schmidt: ‘Nekrolog von Lauska’, Berliner allgemeine musikalische Zeitung (1825), 155, 163, 171, 180

C. von Lederbur: Tonkünstler-Lexicon Berlin's (Berlin, 1861/R), 317

U. Wagner: Das Wirken böhmischer Komponisten im Raum Berlin/Potsdam (diss., U. of Halle, 1988)

UNDINE WAGNER

Laute

(Ger.).

See Lute.

Lautenklavier [Lautenklavecimbel, Lautenwerck]

(Ger.).

See Lute-harpsichord.

Lautenzug

(Ger.).

See Buff stop.

Lauterbach, Johann Christoph

(b Culmbach, Bavaria, 24 July 1832; d Dresden, 28 March 1918). German violinist. In 1850 he entered the Brussels Conservatory as a pupil of Bériot and Fétis, received the gold medal in 1851, and during Léonard's absence the next year took his place as professor of violin. In 1853 he became Konzertmeister and violin professor at the Munich Conservatory. He moved in 1861 to Dresden, where he was second Konzertmeister in the Königliche Kapelle, succeeding to first place in 1873. There he led a string quartet whose members included the cellist Grützmacher, and taught at the conservatory. Lauterbach toured extensively in Europe and spent two seasons in England, appearing in London at the Philharmonic Society on 2 May 1864 and 15 May 1865. He published a few pieces for the violin.

DAVID CHARLTON

Lauterbach & Kuhn.

German firm of music publishers. It was founded in Leipzig in 1902 by Karl Lauterbach and Max Kuhn. In the same year the firm began its relationship with Max Reger, publishing most of his works from op.66 to op.103, including three of the composer’s greatest variation sets, on themes by Bach (op.81), Beethoven (op.86) and Hiller (op.100). Reger’s Sinfonietta for orchestra op.90 (1905), dedicated to ‘meinem lieben Freunden Karl Lauterbach und Dr. Max Kuhn’, was published by the firm. In 1903 it began a series of posthumous Hugo Wolf publications, including Penthesilea (in a truncated edition by Josef Hellmesberger) and the Italian Serenade, both issued in full scores and in arrangements for piano duet by Reger. These were followed by the String Quartet, Das Fest auf Solhaug, Christnacht and the Lieder aus der Jugendzeit (edited by Ferdinand Foll). The firm’s publications usually have distinctive Jugendstil title-pages and outer wrappers. Lauterbach & Kuhn was bought by Bote & Bock at the end of 1908.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Reger: ‘Hugo Wolf’s künstlerischer Nachlass’, Süddeutsche Monatshefte, i/2 (1904)

F. Stein: Thematisches Verzeichnis der im Druck erschienenen Werke von Max Reger einschliesslich seinen Bearbeitungen und Ausgaben (Leipzig, 1953)

NIGEL SIMEONE

Lauto

(It.).

See Lute.

Lauverjat, Pierre

(b ?last quarter of the 16th century; d ?Bourges, after 1625). French composer. At least from 1613 to 1625 he was chaplain of the Ste Chapelle, Bourges, and Master of the Choristers at its choir school. Between 1613 and 1623 Ballard published eight masses for four and five voices. They were apparently highly esteemed: for example, in 1621–2 six were purchased for the choir school of Troyes Cathedral. Obeying the decrees of the Council of Trent he always took a Latin cantus firmus from liturgical sources – hymns, psalms and antiphons. He was an excellent contrapuntist and composed in the style usually employed in France for masses in the early 17th century: his counterpoint is very sparingly ornamented and written according to the traditional modal system, yet it is strongly marked by modern tonality. His melodic writing is rather stiff in his earliest works but becomes freer in those published in 1617 and even more so in those of 1623: his last works display solid musical qualities. It is noteworthy that his requiem mass (1623) contains, besides the Ordinary of the Mass for the Dead (with the two graduals, the Roman and the Parisian), the Libera me and the three nocturns.

WORKS

Missa ‘Confitebor tibi’, 5vv (Paris, 1613)

Missa ‘Fundamenta ejus’, 5vv (Paris, 1613)

Missa ‘Ne morieris’, 5vv (Paris, 1613)

Missa ‘Tu es petrus’, 5vv (Paris, 1613)

Missa ‘Iste confessor’, 4vv (Paris, 1617)

Missa ‘Legem pone’, 4vv (Paris, 1617)

Missa ‘O gloriosa Domina’, 4vv (Paris, 1623)

Missa pro defunctis, 4vv (Paris, 1623)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A.-E. Prévost: Histoire de la maîtrise de la cathédrale de Troyes (Troyes, 1906; repr. in La vie musicale dans les provinces françaises, i, Geneva, 1972)

D. Launay: La musique religieuse en France du concile de Trente à 1804 (Paris, 1993)

DENISE LAUNAY/JAMES R. ANTHONY

Laux, Karl

(b Ludwigshafen, 26 Aug 1896; d Dresden, 27 June 1978). German musicologist. He studied while a POW in England with Blume, and later at Heidelberg University, taking the doctorate in 1926 with a dissertation on Schleiermacher’s theory of education. He worked in music publishing in Mannheim (1926–34) and Dresden (1934–45) and then as a music critic before being appointed rector of the Dresden Musikhochschule (1951–63). He was vice-president of the Gesellschaft für Musikforschung (1959–68) and in 1956 became president of the Robert-Schumann-Gesellschaft in Zwickau. His extensive publications on contemporary music stem from his ten years as a practising music critic; their emphasis is primarily on analysis and cultural history. As a music historian he concerned himself with a wide variety of periods, and particularly with Weber, Bruckner, Joseph Haas, Bach’s sons and Schumann; his book on music in Russia and the Soviet Union (1958) was the first comprehensive work on the subject in German.

WRITINGS

Der Erziehungsgedanke bei Schleiermacher (diss., U. of Heidelberg, 1926)

Joseph Haas: Portrait eines Kunstlers – Bild einer Zeit (Mainz, 1931, 2/1954)

‘Orchester- und Kammermusik’, Atlantisbuch der Musik, ed. F. Hamel and M. Hürlimann (Berlin, 1934, 9/1959), 556–608

Der Thomaskantor und seine Söhne (Dresden, 1939)

Anton Bruckner (Leipzig, 1941, 2/1947)

Musik und Musiker der Gegenwart (Essen, 1949)

Johann Sebastian Bach (Berlin, 1950)

ed., with H.H. Dräger: Bach-Probleme: Festschrift zur Deutschen Bach-Feier (Leipzig, 1950)

‘Dresden ist doch gar zu schön: Schumann in der Sächsischen Hauptstadt: eine Ehrenrettung’, Robert Schumann: aus Anlass seines 100. Todestages, ed. H.J. Moser and E. Rebling (Leipzig, 1956), 25–42

Joseph Haas (Leipzig, 1958)

Die Musik in Russland und in der Sowjetunion (Berlin, 1958)

Ottmar Gerster (Leipzig, 1961)

Die Dresdner Staatskapelle (Leipzig, 1963; Eng. trans., 1964)

ed.: Das Musikleben in der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik (Leipzig, 1963)

‘Carl Maria von Webers Münchner Beitrag zur deutschen Oper’, Festschrift Hans Engel, ed. H. Heussner (Kassel, 1964), 221–30

Carl Maria von Weber (Leipzig, 1966, 3/1989)

‘Wesen und Wandel des philharmonischen Gedankens’, Musa – mens – musici: im Gedenken an Walther Vetter (Leipzig, 1969), 337–46

Kunstansichten: Ausgewählte Schriften Carl Maria von Webers (Leipzig, 1969)

Robert Schumann (Leipzig, 1972)

‘Burkhard-Haas-Hindemith: eine schöpferische Freundschaft: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Donaueschinger Kammermusiktage und zur Joseph-Haas-Biographie’, Musicae scientiae collectanea: Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer, ed. H. Hüschen (Cologne, 1973), 363–72

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Schaefer: ‘Karl Laux 75?’, MG, xxi (1971), 521 only

HORST SEEGER

Lauxmin, Zygmunt.

See Lauksmin, Zygmunt.

Lavagnino, Angelo Francesco

(b Genoa, 22 Feb 1909; d 21 Aug 1987). Italian composer. He studied composition with Mario Barbieri, Renzo Bossi and Vito Frazzi at the Milan Conservatory, and graduated in 1933. He directed the Liceo Musicale in Genoa from 1929 to 1938 and taught courses in film music at the Accademia Musicale Chigiana in Siena from 1949 to 1962. At first he devoted himself to composing concert works, essentially traditional but with some modernist pretensions in a style derived from the school of Pizzetti. After 1950 he turned his attention exclusively to music for film (including documentaries), composing around 250 scores and winning two Nastri d'argento. He produced most of his best work for films on the subject of exploration (e.g. Magia verde, 1954, Continente perduto, 1955, L'ultimo paradiso, 1957, La muraglia cinese, 1958, Calypso, 1959) creating a skilful blend of exoticism and original ideas. He was one of the first Italian specialist composers to work with foreign directors, including Henry Hathaway (Legend of the Lost, 1957), René Clément (Che gioia vivere!, 1961) and Christian-Jacque (Madame Sans-Gêne, 1961). His finest collaboration, however, remains his work on Orson Welles's Othello (1952), where the openly rhetorical nature of the music paradoxically amplifies the metaphysical tone of the film.

WORKS

(selective list)

Op: Malafonte (A.R. Borella), Antwerp, 1952

Orch: Tempo alto, orch poem, 1938; Vn Conc., 1941; Pocket Sym., str, 1949; Sinfonia, 1949

Chbr: Qt, A, str, 1938; Trio, 2 vn, va, 1939; Qnt, C, pf, str, 1942; Sonata, vn, pf, 1943

Sacred: L'annunciazione, sacred conc., 3 vn, str, 1945; Messa chigiana, 1946

Film scores: Othello (dir. O. Welles), 1952; Un americano a Roma (dir. S. Vanzina), 1955; Legend of the Lost (dir. H. Hathaway), 1957; Policarpo ufficiale di scrittura (dir. M. Soldati), 1958; Ferdinando I re di Napoli (dir. G. Franciolini), 1959; Che gioia vivere! (dir. R. Clément), 1961; Madame Sans-Gêne (dir. Christian-Jacque), 1961; Marco Polo (dirs. H. Fregonese and P. Pierotti), 1962; Chimes at Midnight (dir. Welles), 1966; Falstaff (dir. Welles), 1966

Documentary films: Magia verde, 1954; Continente perduto, 1955; L'ultimo paradiso, 1957; La muraglia cinese, 1958; Calypso, 1959

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A.F. Lavagnino: ‘La musica nel disegno animato’, La musica nel film, ed. E. Masetti (Rome, 1950), 63–8

M. Giusti, ed.: ‘Conversazione con Angelo Francesco Lavagnino’, Filmcritica, xxxi (1980), 230–34

E. Comuzio: Colonna sonora: dizionario ragionato dei musicisti cinematografici (Rome, 1992)

SERGIO MICELI

Lavallée, Calixa [Calixte]

(b Ste Théodosie de Verchères [now Calixa-Lavallée], Quebec, 28 Dec 1842; d Boston, 21 Jan 1891). Canadian composer and pianist. Son of Augustin Pâquet dit Lavallée, an instrument builder and bandmaster, and of a mother partly of Scottish descent, Lavallée received his early musical training in St Hyacinthe and Montreal. Having become proficient on the piano, the violin and the cornet, he worked as a travelling theatre musician from about 1857. He won an instrumental competition in New Orleans and was asked by the Spanish violinist Olivera to accompany him on a tour that took him as far as Brazil. In 1861 and 1862 Lavallée was enrolled as a bandsman in a northern regiment during the American Civil War. There followed years as a teacher and travelling musician in Montreal, California, New Orleans and Lowell, Massachusetts, until he was appointed conductor and artistic director of the New York Grand Opera House (more minstrel-show theatre than opera house) in about 1870. After the closing of the theatre in 1872, Lavallée returned for a time to Montreal, where friends raised money to enable him to complete his education at the Paris Conservatoire (1873–5). His teachers included Bazin, Boieldieu fils and Marmontel.

Lavallée returned to Canada convinced of his mission to develop the latent talent of the young dominion through the foundation of a state-supported conservatory and opera company. He set up a studio (an embryonic conservatory) with Frantz and Rosita Jehin-Prume and became choirmaster at a Montreal church. Performances of Gounod’s Jeanne d’Arc and Boieldieu’s La dame blanche under Lavallée’s direction enchanted the public but failed to convince the Quebec provincial authorities that music education should be subsidized. Officials encouraged Lavallée to write a cantata for the welcome of a new governor-general in 1879 but failed to reimburse him for his expenses. In the following year the music committee for the Fête Nationale des Canadiens-français, an event planned to coincide with the St John the Baptist Day celebrations on 24 June, invited Lavallée to write a patriotic tune to which Judge Adolphe B. Routhier then provided the words O Canada; first performed at the festival, this has become the national anthem of Canada. The accepted English version of the text is substantially that written in 1908 by R. Stanley Weir.

Soon after composing the anthem, Lavallée once again moved to the USA, where he received the recognition he had missed at home. He became music director of the Roman Catholic cathedral in Boston and a teacher at the Carlyle Petersilea Music Academy there. His opéra comique, The Widow, was performed in several American cities in 1882, and many of his works were published, including TIQ, a melodrama on ‘the Indian question’ and the US government’s approach to it. He became active in the Music Teachers’ National Association, organizing some of the first all-American concerts from 1884. He became the MTNA’s president in 1886 and represented the USA at the London conference of the National Society of Professional Musicians in 1888. Lavallée died of tuberculosis. His remains were transferred to Montreal in 1933.

Nearly all of Lavallée's unpublished music is lost and, since the published works were those written for the broad public, it is easy to get the impression that Lavallée catered to popular taste. All accounts, however, indicate that he was a serious musician, at home in the classics as much as in the operettas of his day. The piano piece Le papillon enjoyed popularity in Europe as well as North America for many decades. Lavallée’s greatest talent lay in melodic invention. Logan summed up his place in Canadian music: ‘… though others preceded him and were more effective than he as a formative force in promoting musical education and taste in Canada, Lavallée must be regarded as the first native-born Canadian creative composer – first in time, in genius, in versatility of achievement and in meritorious musicianship’. Twenty compositions by Lavallée are included in The Canadian Musical Heritage, i, vii, x, xv, xxi, xxii.

WORKS

stage

Lou-Lou (comic op, 3), 1872, not perf., lost

The Widow (oc, F.H. Nelson), Springfield, IL, 1882, vs (Boston, 1882)

TIQ, or The Indian Question Settled at Last (melodramatic musical satire, 2, W.F. Sage, P. Hawley), vs (Boston, 1883)

orchestral and choral

Ouverture – Patrie, 1874; Sym., 4vv, orch, ded. City of Boston, c1885; both lost

Cantata en l’honneur du Marquis de Lorne (N. Legendre), perf. Quebec, 11 June 1879, lost

Hymne à la paix, lost; orch version by E. Lapierre, CBC Music Library, Montreal

Tu es Petrus, offertorium (Boston, 1883)

3 ovs., band (Boston, 1885–8): Bridal Rose, Golden Fleece, King of Diamonds

chamber, piano, songs

2 str qts; Pf Trio; Sonata, vn, pf; Suite, vc, pf: all lost

Grande fantaisie, op.75; Meditation: both cornet, pf (Boston, c1880)

L’oiseau mouche, op.11, pf (Montreal, c1866)

Grande marche de concert, op.14; Souvenir de Tolède, op.17; Le papillon, étude de concert, op.18: all pf (Paris, c1875)

Marche funèbre, hommage à Pie IX, pf (Montreal, c1878)

Valse de salon, op.39; Mouvement à la pavane, op.41: both pf (Boston, 1886)

O Canada, chant national (Quebec, 1880)

Andalouse, bolero, op.38, 1v, pf (Boston, 1886)

Many other pf pieces and songs, Eng. and Fr. texts, some lost

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DCB (G. Potvin)

EMC2 (G. Potvin)

J.D. Logan: ‘Canadian Creative Composers’, Canadian Magazine, xli (1913), 486–94

S. Salter: ‘Early Encouragements to American Composers’, MQ, xviii (1932), 76–105

E. Lapierre: Calixa Lavallée (Montreal, 1936/R)

H. Kallmann: A History of Music in Canada 1534–1914 (Toronto, 1960/R), 132ff, 239ff

HELMUT KALLMANN

Laval University.

University in Quebec; its Ecole de Musique was founded in 1922.

Lavaux, Nicolas [?Amable]

(fl Paris, 1736–67). Oboist and composer. The preface to his op.1 contains an apology for his incomplete knowledge of French. The earliest mention of him is in a privilege of 1736 granted for his six sonatas op.1 and his airs for musettes and vielles: he is described as ‘maître de musique et ordinaire de la musique’ to the Prince of Carignan (Victor-Amédée of Savoy), Intendant of the Paris Opéra. Lavaux appeared at least twice in the Concert Spirituel, probably in his own compositions, in 1741 (a concerto) and 1749 (an oboe-violin duet). An Amable Lavaux listed as an oboist in the Concert Spirituel troupe of 1755 (and named by Fétis as a Parisian flute teacher) is probably the same person as Nicolas. Several of Lavaux's dance pieces were composed for the Théâtre de la Comédie Italienne (which may suggest an Italian origin). In July 1767 he testified on behalf of the Bureau d'Abonnement Musical when the legality of musical subscription series was in question.

Lavaux's instrumental duets enjoyed a long-lived popularity. His sonatas op.1 were listed in Bailleux's catalogue between 1767 and about 1786, and the Bureau d'Abonnement Musical listed the sonatas op.7 from 1769 until 1782. When the Parisian music teacher Toussaint Bordet advertised his own new duets in 1758, he pointed out that they were in the style of the duets of Lavaux. Bordet's description of these as ‘more interesting than difficult’ equally fits those of Lavaux.

WORKS

printed works published in Paris, unless otherwise stated

6 sonates, 2 fl/other insts, op.1 (1739)

Airs, musettes/vielles (1739), cited in Privilège Général

[Premier](-Quatrième) Divertissement (c1740–50); nos.1, 3, dances for any insts; no.2, fl/ob/vn, inst acc.; no.4, 3 suites en duo

Sonates, 2 vn, op.7 (n.d.), ?lost

Transcrs., hpd, F-Pa

Works in: Minuetti diversi (c1745); Vaudeville, menuets, contredances et airs détachés chantés (c1745); Deuxième livre ou recueil d'airs en duo (1755); Amusement des compagnies (The Hague, 1761); Recueil de contredanse, menuet et cotillon écrie par Caillat, 1767, Pn; Sixième recueil nouveaux d'airs (c1775)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

M. Brenet: ‘La librairie musicale en France de 1653 à 1790, d'après les Registres de privilèges’, SIMG, viii (1906–7), 401–66

M. Benoit: Versailles et les musiciens du roi, 1661–1733 (Paris, 1971)

A. Devries: Editions et commerce de la musique gravée à Paris dans la première moitié du XVIIIe siècle: les Boivin, les Leclerc (Geneva, 1976)

PEGGY DAUB

La Venture, Johannes à.

See Longueval, Antoine de.

Lavenu.

English family of music publishers and musicians. Lewis Lavenu (d London, 17 Aug 1818), a flautist, was in business as a music publisher in London from early 1796. From 1802 to 1808 he was in partnership with Charles Mitchell, the firm being known as Lavenu & Mitchell. At Lavenu's death his widow Elizabeth Lavenu succeeded to the business. She married the violinist Nicolas Mori as (see Mori family, (1)) her second husband in 1826, and he continued the firm as Mori & Lavenu from about 1827.

Mori was succeeded at his death in June 1839 by his stepson Louis Henry Lavenu (b London, 1818; d Sydney, 1 Aug 1859), who had studied at the RAM (composition with Bochsa and Potter) and had served as a cellist at the opera and for the Westminster Abbey Festival of 1834 before becoming a partner in the family firm. He maintained the firm until 1844 when it was taken over by Addison & Hodson. Lavenu also composed and published a few of his songs and short piano pieces; his operetta, Loretta: a Tale of Seville, on a libretto by Alfred Bunn, was successfully produced at Drury Lane on 9 November 1846. Dissatisfied with his position, Lavenu emigrated to Australia in 1854 and became music director at the theatre in Sydney.

The house of Lavenu was among the most prolific music publishing firms of the early 19th century, with a wide range of new vocal and instrumental music in its catalogue. From 1832 to 1839 it was one of the principal English publishers of Mendelssohn's works, Mori having led the orchestra at many of the composer's Philharmonic Society concerts. It also ran a circulating music library, and by 1808 had obtained royal patronage as music sellers to the Prince of Wales.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Humphries-SmithMP

H. Love: The Golden Age of Australian Opera (Sydney, 1981)

PETER WARD JONES

Lavergne [La Vergne, Delavergne], Antoine-Barthélemy (de)

(b ?1670; d Paris, 1726). French organist and composer. He was organist of the church of St André-des-Arts in Paris from at least 1703, and held the same position at St Etienne-du-Mont from 1705 in succession to his teacher, Jean-Baptiste Buterne. He was assisted (in 1723) and replaced (in 1726) in that parish by Claude-Nicolas Ingrain. Lavergne composed an opera La princesse d’Elide to a libretto by Roy, based on Molière, intended for the Académie Royale de Musique but not performed. It was published by Ballard in 1706 and follows the model of Lully’s opéras-ballets.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

LabordeMP

MGG1 (D. Launay)

M. Benoit and N. Dufourcq: ‘Documents du minutier central: musiciens français du XVIIIe siècle’, RMFC, viii (1968), 243–56; x (1970), 197–220

GUY BOURLIGUEUX

La Viéville, Jean Laurent le Cerf de.

See Le cerf de la viéville, jean laurent.

La Vigne, Nicolas Martin de.

See Derosiers, Nicolas.

Lavigna, Vincenzo

(b Altamura, nr Bari, 21 Feb 1776; d Milan, 14 Sept 1836). Italian composer and teacher. From 1790 to 1799 he studied in Naples at the Conservatorio di S Maria di Loreto under Fenaroli and Valente. In 1801 he moved to Milan, where, thanks to the protection of Paisiello, his first opera, La muta per amore, ossia Il medico per forza, was performed at La Scala in 1802. In the same year he became maestro al cembalo at La Scala, and in 1823 teacher of solfège at the Milan Conservatory. Between 1802 and 1810 he wrote operas and ballets, which enjoyed a fair degree of success at La Scala and other north Italian opera houses. These works are quite traditional, functional if somewhat severe, with inspired melodies and well-conceived harmony. Upon retiring from his post at La Scala in 1832 Lavigna taught privately. From 1832, having been denied admission to the Milan Conservatory, Verdi studied counterpoint and composizione ideale with Lavigna. Lavigna admired Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Bach, and taught his students using practical examples drawn from the works of these composers.

WORKS

stage

La muta per amore, ossia Il medico per forza (farsa giocosa, G.M. Foppa), Milan, Scala, 14 June 1802

Gengis-Khan (ballet), Milan, Aug 1802

L'idolo di se stesso, Ferrara, Comunale, carn. 1803

Emilio e Carolina, ossia La fortunata riconciliazione (ballet), Milan, Scala, 1804

L'impostore avvilito (melodramma giocoso, L. Romanelli), Milan, Scala, 11 Sept 1804, I-Mr*

Eraldo ed Emma (op, Romanelli), Milan, Scala, 1805, collab. S. Mayr and F. Orlandi

Coriolano (op, Romanelli), Turin, Regio, 15 Jan 1806

Le metamorfosi (dramma eroicomico, Foppa), Venice, Fenice, spr. 1807

Hoango (op, G. Boggio), Turin, Regio, carn. 1807; rev. as Orcamo (melodramma serio, Romanelli), Milan, Scala, 28 Feb 1809

Di posta in posta (melodramma giocoso, Romanelli), Milan, Scala, 2 July 1808

Palmerio e Claudia (op, ? after Romanelli), Turin, Regio, 20 Jan 1809

Chi s'è visto s'è visto (dramma, A. Anelli), Milan, Scala, 23 April 1810

Dances for Teseo (cant., V. Monti), collab. V. Federici and A. Rolla

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DEUMM (P. Mioli)

O. Serena: I musicisti altamurani (Altamura, 1895)

C. Censi: ‘Gli studi e i maestri’, Musica, vii/36 (1913), 2–3

G. de Napoli: ‘Nel centenario verdiano: due musicisti altamuresi maestri a Verdi’, Rassegna pugliese di scienze, lettere ed arti, xxx/Oct (1913)

G. de Napoli: ‘Il maestro di Giuseppe Verdi, V. L.’, La Lettura (1928), Feb, 138–44

G. de Napoli: La triade melodrammatica altamurana: Giacomo Tritto, Vincenzo Lavigna, Saverio Mercadante (Milan, 1931)

GIOVANNI CARLI BALLOLA/ROBERTA MONTEMORRA MARVIN

Lavignac, (Alexandre Jean) Albert

(b Paris, 21 Jan 1846; d Paris, 28 May 1916). French teacher and musicologist. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire with Marmontel, Bazin, Benoist and Ambroise Thomas, winning premiers prix in solfège (1857), piano (1861), harmony and accompaniment (1863) and counterpoint and fugue (1864), and a second prix for organ (1865). In 1871 he returned to the Conservatoire as a lecturer in solfège; four years later he was made a professor and from 1891 he taught harmony classes. He wrote songs and light piano pieces, but is better known for his writings, both pedagogical and historical. His numerous works for use in teaching solfège and harmony remain in wide circulation. The Cours complet … de dictée musicale, written at the request of Thomas, then director of the Conservatoire, prompted the introduction of dictation courses in several European conservatories. Lavignac’s Ecole de la pédale, a collection of material drawn from various piano methods, was apparently the first book devoted entirely to this subject. His most important historical project was the founding of the Encyclopédie de la musique et Dictionnaire du Conservatoire which he edited until his death. Publication was resumed in 1920 under the editorship of Lionel de La Laurencie, on whose death in 1933 the work was abandoned. The Encyclopédie covers both history and practical techniques of music and is noteworthy for its sizable portion on non-European music; the dictionary section never materialized. In La musique et les musiciens he discusses form as an elastic process, an attitude maintained by his pupil Debussy. Lavignac defends the binary concept of sonata form and describes the ‘liberty and adventure’ that faces a composer. Even so, he extols the virtues of pre-established tonal and formal paradigms, revealing his standing on the cusp of tradition and change at the century’s end.

WRITINGS

Cours complet théorique et pratique de dictée musicale (Paris and Brussels, 1882)

Preface to M. Simon: Cours complet … des principes de musique (Paris, 1886)

Ecole de la pédale (Paris, 1889, ?2/1927)

La musique et les musiciens (Paris, 1895, rev., enlarged 1950; Eng. trans., 1899, with addns by H.F. Krehbiel, 4/1903)

Le voyage artistique à Bayreuth (Paris, 1897, rev. 1951 by H. Busser; Eng. trans., 1898, as The Music Dramas of Richard Wagner, 2/1904/R)

Les gaités du Conservatoire (Paris, 1899)

with 20 others: Collection complète des leçons d’harmonie (Paris, 1900)

L’éducation musicale (Paris, 1902, 4/1908; Eng. trans., 1903)

Notions scolaires de musique (Paris and Brussels, 1905–6)

Cours d’harmonie théorique et pratique (Paris, 1907)

Abrégé de la théorie des principes fondamentaux de la musique moderne (Paris, 1909, 2/1914)

Théorie complète des principes fondamentaux de la musique moderne (Paris and Brussels, 1909)

Solfège des solfèges (Paris, 1910–11; Eng. trans., 1924, as Singing Exercises)

ed.: Encyclopédie de la musique et Dictionnaire du Conservatoire (Paris, 1920–31) [vols.i–iii only, work continued by L. de La Laurencie]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Pierre: Le Conservatoire national de musique et de déclamation: documents historiques et administratifs (Paris, 1900)

R. Terry: ‘Music Education in France’, British Journal of Music Education, ii (1985), 227–51

ELISABETH LEBEAU/JAMES R. BRISCOE

Lavín, Carlos

(b Santiago, 10 Aug 1883; d Barcelona, 27 Aug 1962). Chilean composer and ethnomusicologist. He studied music in Valparaiso and Santiago, but most of his early education was acquired independently. A Chilean government scholarship enabled him to study with Pénau and Caplet in Paris and with Hornbostel at Berlin University (1922–34), during which period he visited folk-music archives and institutes in Spain, France, Germany, Romania and Greece. His interest in folk music, that of the Araucanian Indians, had been stimulated largely by the achievements of Felix de Augusta, and he had begun fieldwork in 1907. After his return from Europe he was on the research staff of the institute of folklore at the University of Chile (1945–8) and he directed the folk-music archive of the Institute for Musical Research (1948–60). He published essays on indigenous music and other musical subjects, and he contributed entries on Spanish American musicians to the Riemann Musik Lexikon (Mainz, 1959).

WORKS

(selective list)

La encantada (ballet), 1925; Cadencias tehuelches, vn, pf, 1926; Lamentaciones huilliches, A, orch, 1926; Suite andine, pf, 1926; Las misiones, pf, 1930; Fiesta araucana, orch, 1932; Danza blanca (ballet), 1936; film scores

BIBLIOGRAPHY

V. Salas: La creación musical en Chile, 1900–1951 (Santiago, 1951)

J. Urrutia-Blondel: ‘Carlos Lavin compositor’, RMC, no.99 (1967), 61–84

I. Vásquez de Acuña: ‘Evocación de don Carlos Lavín’, RMC, no.162 (1984), 125–31

JUAN A. ORREGO-SALAS/LUIS MERINO

La Violette, Wesley

(b St James, MN, 4 Jan 1894; d Escondido, CA, 29 July 1978). American composer. He was brought up in Spokane, Washington, and graduated in 1917 from the Northwestern University School of Music. After serving with the US Army in France during World War I, he attended the Chicago Musical College (DMus 1925), where he was eventually appointed dean. From 1933 to 1940 he taught at De Paul University, Chicago, and also served as director of De Paul University Press, established for the publication of American music. During this period he was president of the Chicago section of the ISCM and was active in organizing the first Yaddo Festival. Subsequently he settled in southern California and taught both privately and at the Los Angeles Conservatory; he also lectured on philosophy, religion and the arts. La Violette is the author of Music and its Makers (Chicago, 1938) and wrote several books on religious mysticism, one of which, The Crown of Wisdom (Los Angeles, 1949), was nominated for the Nobel Prize for Literature. Frequently atonal and often contrapuntal, as in the Second String Quartet, La Violette’s music is nevertheless conservative and straightforward, with broad lines and marked rhythms. His mysticism is reflected most clearly in the vocal works, many of which are settings of his own texts.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Shylock (op, La Violette, after W. Shakespeare), 1929; Schubertiana (ballet), 1935; The Enlightened One (op, La Violette), 1955

Orch: Penetrella, str, 1928; Osiris, 1929; Vn Conc. no.1, 1929; Sym. no.1, 1936; Pf Conc., 1937; Vn Conc. no.2, 1938; Conc., str qt, orch, 1939; Sym. no.2 ‘Miniature or Tom Thumb’, 1940; Music from the High Sierras, 1941; Sym., band, 1942

Chbr and solo inst: Str Qt no.1, 1926; Pf Qnt, 1927; Sonatina, 2 vn, pf, 1931; Str Qt no.2, 1933; Sonata, vn, pf, 1934; Str Qt no.3, 1936; Sonata, vn, pf, 1937; Sonata, fl, pf, 1941; Qnt, fl, str qt, 1943

Vocal and choral works, incl. The Road to Calvary (cant., La Violette), 1952; Song of the Angels (choral sym., La Violette), 1952

MSS in US-Wc

Principal publishers: De Paul UP, Delkas

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anderson2

C.R. Reis: American Composers of Today (New York, 1930, enlarged 4/1947/R as Composers in America: Biographical Sketches)

B. Kremenliev: ‘Wesley La Violette’, Music of the West Magazine, vii/9 (1951–2), 9

F. Kelley: ‘Prez among Doctors’, Metronome, lxxii/9 (1956), 24 only

MICHAEL MECKNA

Lavista, Mario

(b Mexico City, 3 April, 1943). Mexican composer. He began his formal studies in 1963 with Chávez (composition) and Halffter (analysis) at the National Conservatory. In 1967 he went to Paris, where he studied composition with Marie and also attended courses given by Xenakis and Pousseur. The following year he was a pupil of Stockhausen in Cologne and took part in the Darmstadt summer courses. He returned to Mexico in 1969 to teach composition at the National Conservatory and founded the group Quanta which specialized in improvisation. In 1972 he was invited to work at the electronic music laboratory of Japanese radio and television (NHK) in Tokyo, where his compositions included Contrapunto. He founded the journal Pauta – one of the most important music publications in Spanish – in 1982, and in 1987 he was appointed a member of the Academy of Arts in Mexico. Outside Mexico he has lectured, and been performed, widely, particularly in the USA, where Lacrymosa was given its première by the American Composers Orchestra in 1994. As a teacher of composition and analysis he has had a strong influence on recent generations of Mexican musicians.

Lavista’s early works explore contemporary techniques, for example in Cluster or Kronos (for 15 alarm clocks). As his music has evolved, he has assimilated an eclectic range of influences to form an unmistakable style. Like Berio, he has explored new timbres from traditional instrument sources particularly in the use of wind multiphonics. In the dimensions of time and pitch space, Cage’s strong influence has resulted in markedly static sonorities. The gradual transformation of such sonorous textures across a work’s span is characteristic. Formal aspects of the music often derive too from literary sources – particularly epigrams, such as that inspired by Gulliver, which heads Lyhannh; and pictorial images, as in Jaula for prepared piano, a work triggered by ‘musical’ pictures by Arnaldo Cohen and Rufino Tamayo, whose Las músicas dormidas portrays two reclining figures whom Lavista has imagined dreaming his own music.

WORKS

Dramatic: Judea (film score, N. Echevarría), 1973, Los inocentes (incid music, W. Archibald), 1977; María Sabina (film score, Echevarría), 1978; Niño Fidencio (film score, Echevarría), 1982; Aura (op, 1, J. Tovar after C. Fuentes), 1988; Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (film score, Echevarría), 1988

Vocal: Monólogo, B, fl, db, vib, 1966; 2 canciones (O.Paz), Mez, pf, 1966; Homenaje a Beckett (J.E. Pacheco), SATB, 1968; Hacia el comieinzo (O. Paz), 1984; 3 nocturnos (R. Bonifaz Nuño, O. Paz), Mez, orch, 1986; Ofrenda, a rec, 1986

Orch: 6 piezas, str, 1965; Continuo, 1971; Ficciones, 1980; Lyhannh, 1982; Aura, 1989 [from op]; Clepsidra, 1990; Lacrymosa, 1994

Chbr and solo: 5 piezas, str qt, 1965; Divertimento, fl, ob, cl, bn, hn, 5 wood blocks, 3 short wave radios, 1968; Diacronía, str qt, 1969; Game, fl ens, 1971; Diafonía, pf, perc, 1973; Diálogos, vn, pf, 1974; Antífona, fl, 2 bn, perc, 1974; Quotations, vc, pf, 1976; Trío, vn, vc, pf, 1976; Canto del alba, fl, 1979; Dusk, db, 1980; Cante, 2 gui, 1980; Nocturno, G-fl, 1981; Marsias, ob, wine glasses, 1982; Reflejos de la noche, str qt, 1984; Cuicani, fl, cl, 1985; Madrigal, cl, 1985; Vals, fl, cl, str qt, 1986; Responsorio in memoriam Rodolfo Halffter, bn, perc, 1988; Cuaderno de viaje, vc, 1989; El pífano, retrato de Manet, pic, 1989

Other: Kronos, 15 alarm clocks, 1969; Espaces trop habités, tape, 1969; Alme, synth, 1971; Contrapunto, synth, 1972; Talea, music box, 1976; Pieza para caja de música, music box, 1977; Lamento a la muerte de Raúl Lavista, amp b fl, 1981

Pf: Pieza para un pianista y un piano, 1970; Cluster, 1973; Pieza para dos pianistas y un piano, 1975; Jaula, prep pf (any number), 1976; Simurg, 1980; Nocturno, 1980; Correspondencias, 1983, collab. Muench

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L.J. Cortez, ed.: Mario Lavista, textos en torno a la música (Mexico City, 1988) [incl. writings by Lavista]

Y. Moreno: La composición en México en el siglo XX (Mexico City, 1994)

RICARDO MIRANDA-PÉREZ

La Volée, Jean de

(fl1663–88). French harpsichord player, violinist and composer. Some time after 1660 he travelled to England and was admitted as one of ‘the King's French musicians’ by a warrant of 23 July 1663, along with Nicolas Fleury and Claude Desgranges. In May 1673 he sought naturalisation as John Volett, probably as a defence against the Test Act, which prohibited Catholics and aliens from holding official positions at court and in government. His name appears in a list of violinists who performed in Crowne's Calisto (1675), and he was still in England during winter 1687/8, when he received a New Year's gift from Catherine of Braganza.

His surviving works are in the form of string trios for two trebles and bass. Two of the sources are fragmentary (GB-Lbl, Och), but a third (B-Bc) comprises complete parts for 41 pieces arranged in suites. The style is similar to trios by Grabu and Lebègue, with the upper parts crossing frequently, and there are some attractive dance movements, though many lack the harmonic sophistication of comparable works by Locke.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AshbeeR

E. Boswell: The Restoration Court Stage 1660–1702 (London, 1960)

A. Walkling: ‘Masque and Politics at the Restoration Court: John Crowne's Calisto’, EMc, xxiv (1996), 27–62

PETER LEECH

Lavolta.

See Volta (i).

Lavotta, János

(b Pusztafödémes, 5 July 1764; d Tállya, 11 Aug 1820). Hungarian composer and violinist. His title of nobility was ‘izsépfalvi és kevelházi’. He was taught the violin by his father, János Lavotta sr, an official of the council of government at Pozsony (now Bratislava) and later at Buda. He attended secondary schools at Nagyszombat (Trnava) and Pozsony, and studied law at Pozsony and Pest. He continued his musical education in Pozsony with Bonaventura Sabodi, Ferenc Hossza, Joseph Zistler and the military bandmaster Glanz. After a short period of military service at Pozsony, Lavotta went to Vienna in 1784 for further musical studies, and in 1786 moved to Pest. From 1788 to 1791 he was an official of the council of government and in 1791–2 tutor to the sons of Count Károly Zichy. It was not until 1792 that Lavotta decided upon a musical career. In 1792–3 he conducted, as music director, the orchestra of the Hungarian Actors’ Society in Pest and Buda. From about 1797 to 1799 he lived in Miskolc, and in 1802–4 in Kolozsvár (now Cluj-Napoca), where he was director of the theatre orchestra. From 1804 Lavotta led an unsettled life, wandering restlessly and seeking hospitality at the country houses of noblemen, although he had a music shop at Debrecen in 1816–17. While visiting his friend Fülep Eöri, a doctor in Tállya, he died, his health completely ruined by alcoholism.

Like János Bihari and Antal Csermák, Lavotta belonged to the generation of violin virtuosos and composers that was responsible for the creation of a new Hungarian national style, the classical verbunkos. Lavotta was the first member of the Hungarian upper class in that era to devote himself entirely to music, and he was also the first professional musician to be recognized as an equal by the upper class. As a composer he showed less refinement than Csermák, and lacked the powerful originality of Bihari. As well as displaying the new national style, his works also show the influence of the German and Polish music of his time. Apart from dances he composed various pieces of programme music, including Nobilium hungariae insurgentium nota insurrectionalis hungarica (1797), a suite in 18 movements. In this work Lavotta attempted for the first time to adapt the new Hungarian music to more advanced, cyclical forms. For these and similar attempts to combine the melodic and formal resources of eastern and western Europe Lavotta’s contemporaries extolled him as a cultivated innovator, in contrast to Bihari, who was the instinctive, unrefined gypsy. Only two series of his compositions appeared in print during his lifetime, Ungarische Werbungs Tänze for two violins and bass (Vienna, 1810), and Verbunkós nóták oder Aecht ungarische National-Tänze for piano (Vienna, 1814). Shortly after his death some of his verbunkos dances were published in various collections, such as Magyar nóták Veszprém vármegyéből (‘Hungarian dances from County Veszprém’, vols.1 and 4), edited by Ruzitska (Vienna, 1822–4), Nemzeti Magyar tántzok (‘Hungarian national dances’), edited by A. Mohaupt (Pest, 1823–4), Pannonien oder auserlesene Sammlung ungarischer Tänze, vol.2, and Flora oder vaterländische Tänze aus Ungarn älterer und neuerer Zeit, vols.1 and 2, edited by G. Mátray (Vienna, 1826, 1829). His manuscripts, consisting chiefly of verbunkos dances, German dances, minuets, contredanses and polonaises, are in the music collection of the National Széchényi Library in Budapest (H-Bn).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Bernáth: A’ bájoló hegedűs, vagy is A’ híres virtuosus ’s diletant hegedűs Lavotta János életének leirása [The magic violinist, or A biography of the famous virtuoso and dilettante violinist Lavotta] (MS, 1818, H-Bn)

G. Bernáth: Lavotta élete [Lavotta’s life] (Pest, 1857)

M. Markó: Emlékkönyv izsépfalvi és kevelházi Lavotta János halálának századik évfordulójára [Memorial album for the 100th anniversary of the death of Lavotta] (Budapest, 1920)

S. Szilágyi: Lavotta János (Budapest, 1930) [incl. list of Lavotta’s MSS in H-Bn]

B. Szabolcsi: A XIX. század magyar romantikus zenéje [Hungarian Romantic music of the 19th century] (Budapest, 1951)

E. Major and I. Szelényi: A magyar zongoramuzsika 100 éve [100 years of Hungarian piano music] (Budapest, 1956)

B. Szabolcsi and F.Bónis: Magyar táncok Haydn korából [Hungarian dances from the time of Haydn] (Budapest, 1959, 2/1977)

E. Major: Fejezetek a magyar zene történetéből [Chapters from the history of Hungarian music] (Budapest, 1967)

G. Papp: ‘Die Quellen der “Verbunkos-Musik”’, SM, xxi (1979), 151–217; xxiv (1982), 35–97

I. Mona: Magyar zeneműkiadók és tevékenységük 1774–1867 [Hungarian music publishers and their activity 1774–1867] (Budapest, 1989)

F. Bónis: Ungarische Tänze (Vienna, 1993)

FERENC BÓNIS

La Voye-Mignot, de

(d 1684). French mathematician and theorist. His first name is not known. He was admitted as a junior member to the French scientific academy in 1666 and is known to have written on the disciplines of geometry and zoology as well as on music. His Traité de musique (Paris, 1656, enlarged 2/1666; It. trans., 1659; Eng. trans., 1972) is a systematic, practical guide, principally for beginners, to the elements of music and of composition in both simple and figural counterpoint. The second edition is provided with an additional part, which deals in large measure with aesthetics in music and includes definitions of musical terms. The author shows interest in elements of style characteristic of music from Italy and England, both of which he claims to have visited. A manuscript allemande (D-Kl; concordance in S-Uu) attributed to ‘la Voÿs’ may be by him.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Carlez: ‘Le traité de musique de La Voye-Mignot, théoricien du XVIIe siècle’, La Semaine Musicale, x (9 March 1865), 1–4

Institut de France: index biographique des membres et correspondants de l'Académie des sciences (Paris, 1968), 322

H. Schneider: Die französische Kompositionslehre in der ersten Hälfte des 17. Jahrhunderts (Tutzing, 1972)

A. Cohen: Music in the French Royal Academy of Sciences (Princeton, 1981), 6–7

W. Seidel: ‘Französische Musiktheorie im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert’, Entstehung nationaler Traditionen: Frankreich, Geschichte der Musiktheorie, ix (Darmstadt, 1986), 95–100

ALBERT COHEN

Lavrangas, Dionyssios

(b Argostolion, Kefallinia, 17 Oct 1860; d Razata, Kefallinia, 18 July 1941). Greek composer, conductor and teacher. Fascinated as a child by the performances of visiting Italian opera companies, he studied the violin with Nazaro (alias Lazaro) Serao and harmony with Gideon Olivieri and Tzanis-Metaxas. Accounts of his musical training have had to rely on his book T’apomnimonevmata mou (‘My memoirs’, c1940), which has since been proved inaccurate, especially in matters of dating. (For instance it avoids any reference to his birth date, which, from c1930, Lavrangas gave as 1864.) But it is thought that he left in around 1878 for Naples, where he studied privately with Mario Scarano (harmony and counterpoint) and Augusto Ross (piano), later attending the composition courses of Lauro Rossi and Paolo Serao at the S Pietro a Majella Conservatory. He then moved on to Paris, where he remained probably until the end of 1885. He reports having studied for three months with Delibes and later with Massenet at the Conservatoire. He also mentions private lessons with Dubois (harmony), Anthiome (piano) and Franck (organ). During this time he returned occasionally to Kefallinia to conduct and, when his studies were over, it was as a touring opera conductor that he made his living. In 1894 he settled in Athens as director (until about 1896) of the Philharmonic Society. There, together with the conductor Ludovicos Spinellis, he founded the Elleniko Melodrama (Greek Opera) company, which made its début with a performance of La bohème under Spinellis (1900). By 1935, when Lavrangas retired, the company had staged 13 Greek and 38 foreign (mainly Italian) operas in Athens, the provinces and abroad. Lavrangas was also active at the Athens Conservatory as a teacher of the piano, harmony and choral singing (1900–05), at the Piraeus League Conservatory (?c1905–10), at the Hellenic Conservatory as artistic director of the opera school (1919–24) and at the National Conservatory as a teacher of solfège and sight-reading (1926–34). In addition he became head of the music department of the publishing house of Fexis (c1900), and he wrote music criticism for Eleftheron vima and Ethnos in the 1920s. He was awarded the Golden Cross of King George and the National Award for Arts and Letters, both in 1919.

Lavrangas’s work with the Elleniko Melodrama helped to establish opera in Greece, but he had less influence than Kalomiris on the development of Greek composition. His works make conservative use of folk elements, with a colourful orchestration, derived from Bizet and Delibes, which helps to compensate for the simplicity of harmony and development. In the operas he was substantially indebted to Massenet and other French composers, but he learnt from Italian opera his flowing melody, effective at moments of drama (e.g. the Puccinian touches at the conflagration scene of Dido) or comedy (e.g. the Rossinian Fakanapas). The revival, in 1992, of Act 1 of Dido suggests an acute and professional sense of stage timing. He took little care of his manuscripts, which are widely scattered; some works may have been destroyed during the 1953 earthquake in the Ionian Islands.

WORKS

(selective list)

operas

Elda di Vorn (3, F. Guidi), ?1886, lost; Galatea (5, Guidi, after S. Vassiliadis), ?1887, lost; La vita è un sogno (4, E. Golisciani), c1890, lost; Ta dyo adelfia [The Two Brothers] (3 scenes, I. Tsakassianos, Lavrangas), 1899–1900, Athens, 24 April 1900, vocal score extant; Mayissa [Sorceress] [after La vita è un sogno: Act 4] (1, Lavrangas), 1901, Athens, 8 Oct 1901; O lytrotis [The Redeemer] (3, Z. Papantoniou), c1902, Corfu, 24 Feb 1934

Dido (4, P. Dimitrakopoulos), c1906, Athens, 10 April 1909; Mavri petalouda [Black Butterfly] (1, S. Sperantzas), 1923, Athens, 25 Jan 1929, vocal score extant; Aida, 1928 or before, lost [after Verdi]; Ikaros, 1930 or before; Ena paramythi [A Fairy Tale] (comic op, 3, D. Bogris), 1930, vocal score extant; Fakanapas (comic op, 2, Lavrangas, after Scribe), 1935, Athens, 2 Dec 1950; Frosso (3, Lavrangas), 1938, unperf.

other dramatic works

I aspri tricha [The White Hair] (operetta, 3, N. Laskaris, H. Anninos), Athens, 22 March 1917, vocal score extant; Sporting Club (operetta, 3, Lavrangas, S. Vekiarellis), Athens, 4 Aug 1917, ?lost; Dipli fotia [Double Flame] (operetta, 3, Dimitrakopoulos), Athens, 10 Jan 1918, ?lost; To dachtylidi tou Pierrotou [Pierrot’s Ring] (film score), Athens, 22 March 1918, lost; Apollon ke Dafni (ballet, 8 scenes), A. Doxas, 1920, New York, 1927, ?lost

Satore [retrograde of erotas = love] (operetta buffa/vaudeville, 3, Doxas), 1927, unperf., vocal score extant; O agapitikos tis voskopoulas [The Shepherdess’s Lover], score for 1st Gk. sound film, Athens, 25 Jan 1932; Kapia nychta sti Sevilli [A Night in Seville] (ballet, 6 scenes), Doxas, 1933, ?lost; O tragoudistis tou kazinou [The Casino Singer] (operetta, 3, Doxas, Sylvio), Athens, 7 July 1934, collab. 9 others; Persefoni (ballet, Z. Papamichalopoulos), 1936, part of vocal score extant

instrumental

Orch: 2 intermezzi lirici, G, D, str, hp, ?1885–7; Barcarolle, G, str, ?before 1900; Remvasmos [Rêverie], C, str, ?before 1900; Gk. Suite no.1, ?1903; Prelude, E, 1905; Romanesca, after 1913, ?lost; Canon, D, vn, vc, hp, str, 1919; Impressions religieuses, 1920; Capriccio sur deux thèmes grecs, vn, pf/orch, 1921; Gk. Suite no.2, 1922; Jota navarra, perf. 1923; Romanesca, intermezzo, d, 1924; Seguidilla, intermezzo, d, 1937; La vita è un sogno, suite, 1939 [from op]; Introduzione e fuga, c, n.d.; Ouverture orientale

Other inst: Nanourisma (La berceuse de ma fille), A modal, vn, pf, 1910 or 1911; Toccatina, Passepied, D, str qnt, 1913–14; Berceuse, vn, pf, perf. 1921, lost; Ispaniki serenata [Spanish Serenade], vn, pf, perf. 1921, lost; Sérénade grecque, G, vn, pf, 1937; Suite, D, str qnt, 1937 [movts. 1–2, 4 based on Canon, Menuet de l’éminence grise, Toccatina, Passepied]; Airs de ballet, pf; Nocturne, E modal, pf; Valse brillante, B, pf; Menuet de l’éminence grise, str qnt

vocal

Choral: Kritikos Ymnos [Hymn of Crete] (Polémis), 3-pt male chorus, pubd in Hestia (8 Nov 1887); O paedes Hellenon [Ye Children of Greece], 2vv, orch, 1889, doubtful authorship; O naftis tou Ioniou [Sailor of the Ionian Sea] (barcarolle, Mavroyenis), F (chorus, orch)/4-pt male chorus, 1889; Pentathlon (I. Polemis), T, B, male vv, orch, 1896; Kreesa [Cretan Woman], 2-pt chorus, pf, ?1898; Asmata tis Thias Liturgias [Chants of the Holy Liturgy], TTBB, 1913; Hymnos ton progonon [Hymn of the Ancestors] (G. Drossinis), unison vv, orch, perf. 1924, version for Bar, ?pf, perf. 1921; Hymnos tis Ellinikis Dimokratias [Hymn of the Hellenic Republic] (I. Polémis), vv, wind band, arr. 1v, pf, perf. 1924; Missa solemnis, D, S, T, B, chorus, org, orch, 1931

Songs (1v, pf): Pethaeno ya se [For Thee I Perish] (M. Avlihos), pubd in To Asty (Aug 1887); 3 hellenika tragoudia (Polémis, Papantoniou), ?before 1918; To traghoudhi tis Smyrnis [The Song of Smyrna] (A. Doxas), 1919; Exotica (Polémis); Ela na yiris [Come, lie down] (G. Tsokopoulos), 1921 or before; Dipli agapi [Double Love] (Polémis), Xypna [Wake Up] (A. Nikolaras); Fthinoporon [Autumn] (K. Hatzopoulos), perf. 1921; Pénthimoi skopoi [Mournful Tunes] (S. Sperantzas), perf. 1921; Elegion (Dimakopoulos), ?1921; Souroupo [Dusk] (K. Tsoukalas), 1930; Arapiki serenata (Lavrangas), 1938; [14] Hellinika tragoudia (Polémis, G. Avazos, G. Athanas, V. Messolonghitis) [incl. 2 nos. from Exotica]; Thymissi [Memory] (G. Markoras); Dyo bouboukia [Two Flower Buds] (M. Hieropoulos); Hymnos tis irinis [Hymn to Peace] (Palamas), A, S, pf/orch; Serenade, A; I lyra mou [My Lyre] (Anacréon); Thymissi [Remembrance] (Y. Markoras); Ta matia sou [Your Eyes] (D. Heliakopoulos)

Many other songs and choral pieces

MSS in Athens at Dionyssios Lavrangas Archive, National State Opera Library

Principal publishers: Fexis, Greek Ministry of Education, Konstantinidis, Union of Greek Composers

WRITINGS

Enchiridion harmonias [Harmony handbook] (Athens, 1903)

Stichia theoretikis ke praktikis anagnosseos ke diaeresseos tis moussikis [Rudiments of score-reading] (Athens, 1912)

Engolpion moussikis technis [Handbook of musical art] (Athens, 1937)

T’apomnimonevmata mou [My memoirs] (Athens, c1940)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I.A. Tsitselis: ‘Lavrangas Dionyssios’, Kefalliniaka symmikta, i (Athens, 1904), 285–7

G. Sklavos: ‘Dionyssios Lavrangas’, Pangefalliniakon imerologion, i (1937), 114–20

A. Hadziapostolou: Historia tou Hellinikou melodramatos (Athens, 1949)

S.A. Evanghelatos: Historia tou theatrou en Kefallinia 1600–1900 (diss., Athens U., 1970)

G. Leotsakos: ‘I haménes ellinikés operes, i o afanismos tou moussikou mas politismou’ [The lost Greek operas, or the destruction of our musical civilization], Epilogos '92 (Athens, 1992), 398–428, esp. 416–19

Y.E. Raftopoulos: Dionyssis Lavrangas, 1860–1941 (Athens, 1993)

GEORGE LEOTSAKOS

Lavrovskaya [Lawrowska], Yelizaveta Andreyevna

(b Kashin, Tver' province, 1/13 Oct 1845; d Petrograd, 4 Feb 1919). Russian mezzo-soprano. She studied at the St Petersburg Conservatory. In 1867 her performance in a student presentation of Gluck's Orfeo greatly impressed the Grand Duchess Yelena Pavlovna, who sent her to Paris to take lessons from Pauline Viardot. In 1868 she made her professional début in the contralto role of Vanya in Glinka's A Life for the Tsar, and later sang Ratmir in Ruslan and Lyudmila. This testifies to her considerable range of voice, for she was to sing Carmen, Mignon and many other mezzo-soprano roles (although she refused to sing the role of Laura in Dargomïzhsky's The Stone Guest for being ‘not sufficiently singable’). She was also well known as a sensitive recitalist and concert singer, not only in Russia but also in western Europe; she sang at the Monday Popular Concerts at the Crystal Palace, London, in 1873 and at the Paris Exhibition in 1878. She was much admired by Balakirev, at whose Russian Musical Society and Free School concerts she regularly appeared, and she sang at the first concert given by Tchaikovsky in 1871. He dedicated to her his Six Romances op.27 (1875), and it was she who in 1877 suggested to him Pushkin's Yevgeny Onegin as a suitable subject for an opera. She made further appearances at the Mariinsky, St Petersburg (1889–90 season), as well as at the Bol'shoy, Moscow (1890–91 season). In 1888 she was appointed professor of singing at the Moscow Conservatory; Tchaikovsky considered her to be an ‘excellent’ teacher. In 1871 she married Prince Tsertelev.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

V.A. Zhdanov and N.T. Zhegin, eds.: P.I. Chaikovskiy: perepiska s N.F. fon Mekk [Correspondence with N.F. von Meck], i: 1876–78 (Moscow, 1934; Eng. trans., 1993)

B. Yagolim: ‘Ye.A. Lavrovskaya: k 30-letiyu so dnya smerti’ [On the 30th anniversary of her death], SovM (1949), no.3, p.76

V.A. Zhdanov, ed.: P.I. Chaikovskiy: pis'ma k blizkim (Moscow, 1955); Eng. trans. as Tchaikovsky: Letters to his Family, ed. P. Young (London, 1981)

V.A. Bagadurov: Ocherki po istorii vokal'noy pedagogiki [Essays on the history of vocal training] (Moscow, 1956)

EDWARD GARDEN

Lavrovsky, Leonid Mikhailovich

(b St Petersburg, 6/18 June 1905; d Paris, 26 Nov 1967). Russian choreographer. See Ballet, §3(iii).

Lavry [Lavri], Marc

(b Riga, 22 Dec 1903; d Haifa, 24 March 1967). Israeli composer and conductor of Latvian birth. He studied in Riga, at the Leipzig Conservatory, and privately with Scherchen and Glazunov. After working as an opera conductor in Saarbrücken (1926–8), he became the musical director and conductor of Rudolf von Laban's dance theatre in Berlin. He went on to conduct the Berliner SO (1929–32) and the Riga Opera (1932–4). In 1935, with the ascent of Nazism, he emigrated to Palestine. Between 1941 and 1947 he conducted the Palestine Folk Opera and Palestine Orchestra, and from 1950 to 1958 he was director of Kol Zion LaGola, an Israeli Radio Broadcast for the Diaspora. He settled in Haifa as an honorary citizen in 1962. As well as writing oratorios, chamber works and orchestral music, he composed many popular songs and incidental scores for theatre productions.

Like other emigrant composers in Israel, Lavry composed in a style influenced by his new surroundings. His symphonic poem Emek (‘Valley’, 1937), based on one of his most popular songs, is considered the first symphonic horra, a traditional dance characterized by short symmetrical phrases, simple harmonies and duple metre. Shir ha'shirim (‘Song of Songs’, 1940) features modal writing, horra patterns and melismatic passages. These compositional attributes are typical of Lavry's style, which became identified with Israeli music more generally during the 1940s. He believed that music should be communicative and thus relatively simple and comprehensible; musical compositions, he argued, should be dominated by melodies however complex. His opera Dan ha'shomer (‘Dan the guard’, 1945) was the first opera to be composed and produced in Israel. Max Brod's libretto tells the story of members of a Kibbutz who are both surrounded by the enemy and facing inner conflicts among themselves. The work combines Hassidic dances, Jewish prayer tunes and Israeli folksongs within a Romantic framework influenced by Puccini.

WORKS

(selective list)

Op: Dan ha'shomer [Dan the guard] (M. Brod), 1945, Tel-Aviv, 1945; Tamar and Judah (3, L.I. Newman), 1958, concert perf., Kol Israel 1959

Orch: Fantastische Suite, 1930; Emek [Valley], sym. poem, 1937; The Adventures of Benjamin III, 1938; Hora, 1939; Vn Conc., 1939; Stalingrad, sym. poem, 1943; Pf Conc. no.1, 1945; Sym. no.1 ‘Tragic’, 1945; Israeli Dances, 1947; Kukiah [Cuckoo Bird], 1947; Pf Conc. no.2, 1947; Yerushalayim, sym. poem, 1953; Va Conc., 1953; Country Dances from Israel, 1954; Negev, sym. poem, 1954; Sym. no.4, 1957; Suite concertante, fl, va, hp, 1959; T'munot me'Yerushalayim [Pictures from Jerusalem], 1960; Fl Conc., 1965; Hp Conc., 1968

Choral: Shir ha'shirim [The Song of Songs] (orat, Brod), S, T, Bar, B, SATB, orch, 1940; Taschach [Liberation], solo vv, SATB, orch, 1951; Zichron Wine Song (A. Broides), solo vv, SATB, 1952; Avodat ha'kodesh [Sacred service], cantor, SATB, orch, 1954; Kitatenu ba'laila tzo'edet [Our Platoon Marches in the Night] (Broides), chorus, orch, 1956; Esther ha'malka [Queen Esther] (orat, H. Lavry), solo vv, 3 choruses, orch, 1959; Gideon (orat, H. Hefer), 1962; Al mordot ha'Carmel [The Slopes of Carmel] (Sh. Huppert), sym. poem, A, SATB, orch, 1963; Orit mesaperet [Orit Tells] (children's cant., M. Deshe)

Other vocal (for 1v, pf, unless otherwise stated): 7 Songs, 1937–48; Songs for Children, 1946; Chalamti chalom [I've Dreamed a Dream] (Sh. Shalom), 1949; Song of the Emek (R. Elias), 1v, orch, 1949; Kineret (A. Hameiri), 1949; Hora (R. Avinoam), 1952; Land of Carmel, 1962; Selected Songs, 1964

Chbr and solo inst: Jewish Suite, str qt, 1931; Al nahar'ot Bavel [On the Banks of Babylon], str, 1936; Hora, str qt, pf, 1939; 4 Pieces, vn, pf, 1950; 3 Jewish Dances, vn, pf, 1951; 5 Country Dances, pf, 1952; Israeliana I, pf, 1955; 3 Pieces, hp, 1959; Ima [Mother], A, hp, str, 1964

Principal publishers: Israeli Music Publications

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P. Gradenwitz: Music and Musicians in Israel (Tel-Aviv, 1959, rev. 2/1977)

Y. Cohen: ‘Marc Lavry’, Neimey Zmirot Israel [The heirs of the psalmist] (Tel-Aviv, 1990), 94–7

J. Hirschberg: Music in the Jewish Community of Palestine 1880–1948 (New York, 1995)

MIRI GERSTEL

Law, Andrew

(b Milford, CT, 21 March 1749; d Cheshire, CT, 13 July 1821). American singing teacher and tune book compiler. He graduated from Rhode Island College (Brown University) in 1775 and was ordained as a Congregational minister in 1787. Active in music for half a century, Law was the most travelled American musician of his age, and the most prolific compiler of sacred music collections. At first he remained in New England, based at the family home in Cheshire, teaching singing schools and compiling tune books, which were printed by his brother William. From 1783 he travelled mostly outside New England, teaching from his tune books and hiring others to do the same, in an attempt to extend his influence southwards. In 1793, declaring a preference for more technically accomplished psalmody, he organized his publications into a comprehensive vocal method, The Art of Singing, and worked to promote this method in New England (to 1798) and Philadelphia (1798–1802). He then devised a staffless shape-notation (1803), issued tune books using it, and worked towards its acceptance mostly from Philadelphia, where he lived from 1806 until 1813. After 1813 he resumed his travels and continued to teach and publish until his death. A contentious, self-righteous Calvinist, Law received little financial benefit from the ascendancy of his reform views, partly because in his shape-note tune books he stubbornly refused to employ a staff.

WRITINGS

Select Harmony (Cheshire, CT, 1779, 2/1782–7)

The Rudiments of Music (Cheshire, CT,1783, 4/1793)

The Art of Singing (Cheshire, CT, 1794–6, 4/1810) [three-part work made up of The Musical Primer, The Christian Harmony and The Musical Magazine]

Harmonic Companion (Philadelphia, 1807, 4/1819)

Essays on Music (Philadelphia, 1814–21)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Lowens: Music and Musicians in Early America (New York, 1964), 58–88

R. Crawford: Andrew Law, American Psalmodist (Evanston, IL, 1968/R)

RICHARD CRAWFORD/NYM COOKE

Lawes, Henry

(b Dinton, Wilts., bap. 5 Jan 1596; d London, 21 Oct 1662). English composer and singer, elder brother of William Lawes. He was the leading English songwriter of the mid-17th century.

1. Life.

Lawes may have been a chorister at Salisbury Cathedral, where his father was a lay vicar. He was employed by John Egerton, Earl of Bridgewater, to teach his daughters music; this may have been as early as 1615 or possibly after 1622 (when John Attey seems still to have held the position). There is some evidence that he may also have been patronized by William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, whose house at Wilton was within a few miles of where Lawes was born. He was ‘pistoler’ of the Chapel Royal on 1 January 1626 and Gentleman on 3 November in the same year. His appointment as one of Charles I’s musicians ‘for the lutes and voices’ dated from 6 January 1631.

In this capacity he must have taken part in various court masques of the 1630s. He may have written music for Thomas Carew’s masque Coelum Britannicum (18 February 1634), but none survives. He did, however, collaborate with his brother William in providing songs for Davenant’s masque The Triumph of the Prince d’Amour (23 February 1636), and may also have been involved in Aurelian Townshend’s Masque for Lady Hatton (1 March 1636). He supplied extensive musical episodes for plays put on at Oxford on 29–30 August 1636 for the king’s visit: William Strode’s The Floating Island and William Cartwright’s The Royal Slave.

Beyond the court Lawes was closely involved in the production of Milton’s Comus, performed at Ludlow Castle on 29 September 1634 to mark the Earl of Bridgewater’s appointment as Lord President of the Council of Wales. Lawes seems to have been responsible for approaching Milton to write the piece, and it was he who first published it in 1637. As music master to the earl’s children, Lawes wrote the songs (mainly for himself, as the Guardian Spirit and the shepherd Thyrsis) and no doubt coached his charges in their parts, including Lady Alice Egerton as the Lady. Milton and Lawes probably also collaborated over Arcades, another family entertainment, possibly to celebrate the 75th birthday of the childrens’ grandmother, Alice, dowager Countess of Derby, in May 1634.

In 1638 Lawes published settings of George Sandys’s metrical psalms and ten years later Choice Psalmes. It was for the latter that Milton wrote his famous sonnet:

[To my Friend M^r. Henry Lawes]
Harry, whose tunefull and well measur’d song
First taught our English Music how to span
Words with just note and accent, not to scan
With Midas eares, committing short and long.

During the Commonwealth Lawes was a much sought-after teacher ‘for the Voyce or Viole’; among his pupils were Mary Harvey (Lady Dering) and the singer Mary Knight. Fashionable concerts were held at his house: the Duchess of Newcastle ‘went with my Lord’s brother to hear music in one Mr. Lawes his house, three or four times’. His circle seems to have included aristocrats and intellectuals, among them those associated with the poet Katherine Philips (the ‘Matchless Orinda’), as well as pupils past and present. To the daughters of the old Earl of Bridgewater, he dedicated his first book of Ayres and Dialogues (1653), ‘most of them being Composed when I was employed by Your ever Honour’d Parents to attend Your Ladishipp’s Education in Musick’. The preface to this book condemns his fellow countrymen’s predilection for foreign music and recounts the famous story of his setting of the list of contents of Cifra’s Scherzi et arie (1614), which had been much acclaimed and hailed as ‘a rare Italian Song’. In the preface to his Second Book of Ayres, and Dialogues (1655) he again mounted this hobby horse, complaining of the unthinking admiration with which Italian music was accepted in England (at, he felt, his own expense).

In 1656 Davenant’s First Dayes Entertainment at Rutland House and The Siege of Rhodes were performed. A contemporary report of the former states that ‘the first song was made by Hen: Lawes, y^e other by Dr. Coleman who were the Composers’. For The Siege of Rhodes, which was a proper opera ‘with the Story sung in Recitative Musick’, Lawes wrote the vocal music for the first and last acts, the other composers being Cooke and Locke; all the music is lost. A third book of Ayres and Dialogues by Lawes appeared in 1658, and John Playford published 37 more songs posthumously in 1669, ‘transcribed from his Originals, a short time before his Death, and with his free consent for me to Publish them, if occasion offer’d’.

At the Restoration Lawes was reinstated in both his old positions in the King’s Musick and the Chapel Royal and was made, in addition, ‘Composer in ye Private Musick for Lutes and Voices’; his anthem Zadok the priest was sung at the coronation on 23 April 1661. Later that year Pepys mentioned that Lawes ‘lies very sick’ (30 December), and he died the following October, naming ‘Elianor my deare and loving wife’ as executrix. He died on 21 October 1662 and was buried in Westminster Abbey four days later. Portraits of him include one dated 1622 in the South Canonry at Salisbury Cathedral, another (roughly 20 years later) in the Faculty of Music, Oxford (fig.1), and the engraving by Faithorne (made from the latter) published in his collection of 1653.

2. Works.

Although he was primarily a songwriter, Lawes wrote a fair amount of sacred music. The 1638 psalms comprise 24 tunes in various metres to be fitted to Sandys’s metrical versions of the psalms. Tuneful and dignified, some of them, for example those known as ‘Whitehall’ (Psalm viii), ‘Falkland’ (Psalm xii), ‘Battle’ (Psalm xxxi), ‘Psalm 32’ and ‘Farley Castle’ (Psalm 52), are still in use as hymn tunes. Although the Choice Psalmes (1648) also take their texts from Sandys, they are quite different in style. The idiom is that of vocal chamber music, with three voices in a pseudo-declamatory imitative style supported by basso continuo. The collection was intended as a memorial volume to Lawes’s brother William, who was killed at the Siege of Chester in 1645; in addition to 30 of Henry’s settings there are an equal number by his brother, some canons, and several elegies on William's death by other composers.

About two dozen anthems by Lawes are known, though only six survive complete (mainly in GB-Lbl Add.31434). The verse anthem My soul the great God’s praises sing may be regarded as representative. Setting Carew’s metrical version of Psalm civ, the solo verse sections adopt the declamatory style of Lawes’s songs, while the full sections are mostly homophonic (and somewhat inexpertly handled). Its symphonies, though arranged for organ, are adapted from one of his brother’s five-part consort ayres. Its inclusion in Select Psalmes of a new Translation, to be Sung in Verse and Chorus of Five Parts, with Symphonies of Violins, Organ, and Other Instruments, Novemb. 22. 1655 (published as a wordbook without music), shows that in essentials Lawes had anticipated the Restoration orchestral anthem well before 1660; indeed, the manuscript in which it appears (Lbl Add.31434) probably dates from the mid-1640s.

Lawes’s known songs number 433. The most important printed sources are his three books of ayres and dialogues and the collections published by Playford between 1652 and 1669 (fig.2). The autograph songbook (GB-Lbl Add.53723, facs. in ES, iii, 1986) containing 325 songs is also very important. Although he may not have begun to compile it until after 1636 or so, it probably represents the output of 30 or more years up to 1650, arranged in roughly chronological order. In this manuscript there is clearly a gradual transition from the unsophisticated solemnity and rather stiff manner of the earlier songs to altogether freer settings with wonderfully flexible declamation and great subtlety and variety of feeling. These latter are the songs of Lawes’s maturity and probably date from the years following his appointment as a musician to the king in 1631, when he came into contact with the circle of court poets. Among these he favoured most the exquisite Carew: there are 37 settings of his poems in the manuscript (concentrated mainly between ff.95v and 121), as well as 16 of Waller’s, 14 of Herrick’s and some of the most celebrated anthology pieces of Suckling and Lovelace. The last part of the manuscript is dominated by settings of the little-known poet Dr Henry Hughes, who seems to have belonged to the entourage of Queen Henrietta Maria in the early 1640s.

Some of Lawes’s settings, such as that of Herrick’s Bid me but live (MB, xxxiii), are simple strophic songs in triple time, enlivened by syncopations and hemiola rhythms. On the other hand Suckling’s No, no, fair heretic (MB, xxxiii), though basically strophic, is set in the declamatory style. The music closely follows the argumentative nature of the verse, necessitating modification of detail in the second stanza to suit a different phraseology, but the final epigrammatic couplet of each stanza is in tuneful triple time, thus giving shape and point to the song as a whole. The essentially rhetorical nature of Lawes’s declamation is well illustrated in the through-composed setting of Carew’s When thou, poor excommunicate (MB, xxxiii). Vocal contour, rhythm, punctuation, phrasing and cadences are all perfectly adapted to the self-dramatizing manner of this type of poetry. Only rarely does Lawes attempt true recitative. Each of his published songbooks begins with one, but none is quite so effective as Lanier’s Hero and Leander. His setting of Cartwright’s ‘Ariadne’s Lament’ (‘Theseus! O Theseus, hark! but yet in vain’; in Ayres and Dialogues, 1653, and also in Lawes’s autograph songbook) invites comparison but is much less charged with dramatic feeling. There is no sign of Monteverdi’s influence, though he may well have provided the inspiration.

Early editions of Carew (1640), Waller (1645), Milton (1645), Suckling (1646) and Cartwright (1651) all advertised the fact that Lawes had set their songs, as did the titles of individual poems by Herrick and Lovelace. Burney suspected that such praise by poets for a composer could only mean that the music was in some way deficient and he duly found cause for censure. Even as to ‘just note and accent’ he pointed out certain faults, although a closer look at the particular instances he cites suggests that he was hasty as well as unsympathetic in his judgment. Undoubtedly sympathy is needed in approaching the songs of Lawes, for experience shows that details that look stiff and awkward on paper come vividly to life when properly performed. Indeed the decline in his reputation since his own day may be attributed to the fact that his songs became material for study and analysis rather than for performance. Any critical rehabilitation will therefore need to take into account the style required for their performance; there are signs that as this is done some former critical judgments will have to be reversed.

WORKS

Editions:Henry Lawes: 10 Ayres for Contralto (or Baritone) and Keyboard, ed. T. Dart, English Songs, i (London, 1956) [D]English Songs 1625–1660, ed. I. Spink, MB, xxxiii (1971) [S]

all published in London

sacred vocal

A Paraphrase upon the Psalmes of David: by G[eorge] S[andys]: set to New Tunes for Private Devotion, 1v, bc (1638)

Choice Psalmes put into Musick, 3vv, bc (1648⁴), 4 ed. C. Dearnley, The Treasury of English Church Music, iii (London, 1965)

25 anthems (all but 6 inc.), 4 ed. C. Bartlett, Three Psalms and a Carol (Wyton, Cambs., 1989)

secular

for details of songs see Day and Murrie, Bickford Jorgens and Spink (forthcoming)

433 songs and dialogues, 1–3vv; Ayres and Dialogues … First Booke (1653), 2 in D; The Second Book of Ayres, and Dialogues (1655), 4 in D; Ayres and Dialogues … Third Booke (1658), 4 in D; in 1652⁸, 1652¹⁰, 1653⁷, 1659⁵, 1663⁶, 1667⁶, 1669⁵/R, 1673⁴, 1678⁴; principal MS sources: F-Pn, GB-Eu, Lbl* (facs. in ES, iii, 1986), Ob, US-NYp; 27 in S

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BDECM

SpinkES

E.J. Dent: Foundations of English Opera (Cambridge, 1928/R)

C.L. Day and E.B. Murrie: English Song Books, 1651–1702 (London, 1936/R)

W.McC. Evans: Henry Lawes, Musician and Friend of Poets (New York, 1941/R)

E.F. Hart: ‘Introduction to Henry Lawes’, ML, xxxii (1951), 217–25, 328–44

V. Duckles: ‘English Song and the Challenge of Italian Monody’, Words to Music, ed. V. Duckles and F.B. Zimmerman (Los Angeles, 1967), 3–42

R.J. McGrady: ‘Henry Lawes and the Concept of “Just Note and Accent”’, ML, l (1969), 86–102

P.J. Willetts: The Henry Lawes Manuscript (London, 1969) [GB-Lbl Add.53723]

I. Spink: Henry Lawes (Oxford, forthcoming)

IAN SPINK

Lawes, William

(b Salisbury, bap. 1 May 1602; d Chester, 24 Sept 1645). English composer and musician, younger brother of Henry Lawes. Another brother, John, was also a musician. William wrote copiously for voices and instruments, with facility equal to Henry’s, whose fame lay mainly in vocal music, and with more versatility. An abiding claim to attention lies in his innovatory chamber works, especially those for viols or violins with continuo. He was equally the leading composer of dance, and of music for drama (including the masque), in the period 1630–45.

2. Works: introduction and sources.

3. Instrumental music.

4. Vocal and stage music.

DAVID PINTO

1. Life.

On attaining a position as lay vicar at Salisbury Cathedral in 1602, Thomas Lawes moved his young family to Sarum Close. His son William, six years younger than Henry, may have received his earliest education at the free school in the close, or even sung with his brothers as a chorister in the cathedral. A posthumous account by Thomas Fuller, a friend of Henry Lawes, reveals that William’s talent was early recognized by Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford, who had him apprenticed to John Coprario. At the earl’s Wiltshire estates nearby in Amesbury, Lawes could have encountered Alfonso Ferrabosco (ii), who was an honoured visitor. An unsubstantiated report by Henry Hatcher (1843) places William in the private music of Charles, Prince of Wales, before the age of 23, and states that the association continued after Charles became king in 1625. Records confirm no court post before 1635, when Lawes obtained a situation for the lute vacated by the death of John Laurence; still, such an appointment was unlikely without casual involvement in the day-to-day supply of music, perhaps from some courtier’s retinue. After 1626 (the death of Coprario) and in the period before 1635, the activities of Lawes can only be guessed from musical sources. The Shirley Partbooks (see below) are a type of work required of a novice; undertaken by Lawes for provincial gentry, copying Jacobean fantasy repertory and adding new dances. In the footsteps of Henry (and John too, a singing-man at Westminster Abbey), William began by about 1630 to establish a reputation in the capital for performance on the new 12-course theorbo that led to the renown later recalled by poets. Early on he was friendly with, or influenced by, musicians of St Paul’s Cathedral such as John Tomkins. His standing was high enough by 1633 for Bulstrode Whitelocke to select him in partnership with Simon Ives (afterwards a London wait) as composer for James Shirley’s prestigious masque mounted by the Inns of Court to demonstrate loyalty to the crown, The Triumph of Peace (performed 1634). To the following decade can be assigned composition of all the brilliant chamber works, alongside a presiding involvement with court masques, and provision of play songs for the royal troupes in the theatres at Blackfriars and at the palaces, in chief at Whitehall’s Cockpit-in-Court.

By 1639 court routine was interrupted, as the resort by royal authority to military measures obliged it to migrate erratically. At some point, perhaps soon after autumn 1642 when the king found in Oxford an alternative home to rebellious London, Lawes enlisted as a soldier; by then it became clear that the exchequer could no longer maintain manpower inessential to the war effort. He may have been present at the Siege of York in April–June 1644, the occasion of a casual round written for the royalist garrison at Cawood (the Archbishop of York’s castle). He met his death in 1645 during the action around the Siege of Chester, where the king arrived on 23 September, possibly with Lawes in his entourage. A circumstantial account by Fuller reveals that in order to save him from exposure to shot Lawes had been appointed commissary in General Charles Gerrard’s regiment of foot, based first in Oxford but active in Wales from May 1644. The ruse backfired when he joined a sortie led by Gerrard from the north of the city in the late afternoon of 24 September, which was halted by a counter-attack and subjected to murderous crossfire. Here, or in the neighbouring engagements that lasted until dusk, Lawes died. The king, engrossed by the loss of a kinsman in the action, found time to institute a special mourning for Lawes, whom he apparently honoured with the title ‘Father of Musick’. The occasion was excuse for royalist poets to score political points, notoriously in a pun by Thomas Jordan: ‘Will. Lawes was slain by such whose wills were laws’. Similar estimates of Lawes, varying in their appositeness, were published once the major action of the war was over: by Robert Herrick in Hesperides (1647–8), Robert Heath in Clarastella and John Tatham in Ostella (both 1650). The greatest tribute came by the publication of his three-part psalm settings, edited by his brother Henry who matched them with an equal quantity of his own. These Choice Psalmes (1648) contain commendatory verse by literati including Aurelian Townshend and James Harington, and occasioned the first publication of John Milton’s celebrated sonnet extolling Henry Lawes: a magnanimous gesture from an opponent, to royal servants, in the highly charged atmosphere before the king’s execution. The volume also included eight moving musical tributes from colleagues, including Simon Ives, John Jenkins, John Wilson and Henry himself. William left no known family. A rakish youthful portrait supposed to be of him (see illustration) was given to the Oxford Music School in the 18th century by Philip Hayes, professor of music. Other likenesses of the period have with equally meagre documentation been suggested as portrayals.

2. Works: introduction and sources.

Lawes's large output was disseminated solely by manuscript during his life. Choice Psalmes was the first publication made of any part, and consists of 30 three-part sacred vocal settings accompanied by figured bass, one elegy and ten sacred canons. Lawes ranked high among composers selected by John Playford (i) for his publications of popular airs after 1651; but among many genuine two-part dances there, simpler versions of movements from the esoteric chamber works may have misrepresented his achievements to the succeeding generation. A good selection of his secular vocal music, including popular arrangements into the form of glees of original single songs, also reached print from that date until 1678. The work that had brought him widest notice in his lifetime, The Royall Consort, circulated in accurate manuscript copies until 1680, at which point it finally succumbed to the decisive shift in fashion towards the italianate high Baroque. His other great collections fared less well, and were probably relegated by the time of the monarchy’s restoration in 1660. An appreciation of his considerable output for the Caroline court of the 1630s is thus heavily dependent upon the autographs, which survive principally in the Oxford Music School collection (now in the Bodleian Library) to which they were possibly donated or bequeathed with prescience by Henry Lawes.

The chief of these are two holograph scores, GB-Ob Mus.Sch.B.2 and B.3, both bound in brown calf and stamped with the arms of Charles I after the manner of presentation volumes to royal musicians. (Matthew Locke’s working score, GB-Lbl Add.17801, bears an identical stamp; so does the earlier set of books containing repertory of the Jacobean wind ensemble, now Cfm Mu 734, and an organ part for Coprario’s violin works, Lbl R.M.24.k.3: as pointed out by Robert Ford in a private communication). The first book bears the initials W.L., the second H.L. In them Lawes scored suites of fantasies and dances for viols in four to six parts. The first volume contains in addition drafts of incidental music for court masques, rounds and canons, suites for two bass viols to the organ, a violin fantasy in D major, and a suite for two lutes; the second, pavans and fantasies for the ‘Harpe Consorts’, and the first six suites of the ten that form The Royall Consort, in the ‘new version’ revised for two violins, two bass viols and two theorbos. The other Music School autographs are: partbooks D.238–40, containing string parts for the violin fantasia-suites, the harpe consorts and the bass viol duets; D.229, harp and organ parts for these works and for the setts for viols in five and six parts. The British Library holds three distinct autographs: a sole surviving bass partbook for the viol consort works; the personal songbook; and the Shirley Partbooks, copied about 1626 and later for the Shirley family, baronets (later Earls Ferrers) of Staunton Harrold, Leicestershire: respectively GB-Lbl Add.17798, 31432, 40657–61. A set of three holograph partbooks for lyra viol consorts (Och 725–7) contains works by Lawes, Simon Ives and Robert Tailour. Contents of these are part-duplicated by one final known autograph partbook from a now incomplete set, also for three lyra viols: US-CA, Houghton Library MS Mus.70. For The Royall Consort, non-autograph partbooks in varying states of wholeness and accuracy abound, as to a lesser degree they do for the other major chamber works.

3. Instrumental music.

Lawes was represented in the 20th century as a natural successor to the fantasy writers of the Jacobean age, composing abstract contrapuntal works for viols with organ continuo. His fantasies in five and six parts are indeed a highpoint of his output and of the genre, but are unusual in several ways. They were written mostly in the later 1630s, about a decade after the decease of all the major Jacobean writers, at a time when few of Lawes’s senior contemporaries apart from John Jenkins still cultivated the forms. (Others yet alive like Martin Peerson and William Cranford of St Paul’s are minor figures, even if by their experiments they offer precedents for the harmony and linear style of Lawes.) Lawes leads to the smaller-scale four-part fantasy of Matthew Locke only in that he prefigured the method of grouping fantasies into considered ‘setts’. His practice was to place fantasies unsystematically with pavans and almans, the staider dances that had already entered the Jacobean contrapuntal repertory as ‘grave music’. He also extended the role played by organ continuo, giving it a more independent part than before. He had no exact successor in the field of these larger-scale ‘setts’ (the term ‘suite’ appears to be anachronistic by about two decades), apart from John Hingeston, composer to the court of Oliver Cromwell, who may indeed have worked to similar ends: furnishing audience music for court entertainment. Lawes’s mannerisms are extremer than those of any other writer before or after on several counts. He is set apart by a wilful angularity in his part-writing that flouts strict contrapuntal imitation, linked to an additional dissolution of polyphonic norms by free admittance of a discord created by irregularly resolved or even unresolved harmonic progression, or by dissonant auxiliary notes. These practices recur in the other genres he handled, and owe much to his training on lute and lyra viol. Another persistent trait is the early Baroque admittance of 6-3 chording as equally valid to 6-4, a practice discarded by the second half of the century. The general style leads directly on from the earlier Jacobean interest in the Italian mannerist madrigal, and its empirical theorizing, both found in Coprario. The clearest parallel, however unlikely as a direct influence, is the radical, even post-contrapuntal, part-writing developed by Monteverdi in the epoch-making five-part madrigals of his fourth book (1603), where inner voices of the fabric are subordinated to the chamber treble dialogue over a characterful bass line. Lawes when writing for instruments alone achieved comparable successes to these, in succinctness of dramatic effect and in the vivid expression of extreme emotional states. His fantasies expand the bounds of the form less by length than by increased sectionalism, by variety in mood and (to judge from surviving indications of practice) by tempo change; also a richness of incidental detail created through his idiomatic handling of instrumental writing. His flair for textures large or small so as to vary them through informal concertato interplay, without allowing either of the customarily paired treble parts to dominate, is masterly (ex.1). Little modified, this style re-emerges for late appearances of a form that as danced was obsolete by his adulthood, the pavan. His almans in six parts are in the same solid configuration; but those for five parts are lighter, and rescored from danced originals.

The violin works of ‘trio sonata’ structure stand at the like remove from the previous generation. These ‘fantasia-suites’, perhaps written around the time of his royal appointment, are patterned on the models pioneered for the court ensemble by Coprario: fantasies in two series for one and two violins, both accompanied by bass viol and a semi-independent polyphonic part for chamber organ (ex.2). The three-movement form is completed by two aires (dances): an alman and galliard, capped by an extra ‘close’ or coda of no great substance. Lawes expanded on his master’s practice, again hardly so much by sheer length as by imbuing every phrase with telling detail, and well-situated dissonance that, without distorting, emphasizes paragraphs of clear tonal direction. Unlike Coprario’s suites, both series by Lawes observe a set key-order, sign of the growing feeling for tonality in the 1630s found also in the works of Jenkins. The irregular linear style takes its point of departure from Coprario but is more daring; it is paralleled less in the violin writing of the early Italian Baroque, if a pattern is sought for its vivid rhetoric, than in the solo vocal monody, such as that by Marco da Gagliano or Saracini (again implying no immediate borrowing).

The suites for two bass viols pay homage to the previous reign; they re-use dances of Ferrabosco (ii) in a keyboard short score, against which is set extravagant division writing, much as variations were extemporized. Lawes reset some of his own dances in this way, a mark of the rapid acceptance of his work in the later 1630s.

The music for lyra viols is close to the extemporized aspects of suite-formation, as it must initially have begun. Lawes often wrote in the scordatura Harp way tunings (ex.3 shows a saraband for solo lyra viol in the ‘harp way sharp’ tuning, defhf); for ensembles of three lyras, where sonorous fantasies after the example of Coprario and Ferrabosco are found, he preferred the very wide accord known as ‘eights’, with strings tuned in pairs of 4ths and 5ths (fhfhf, as unisons on adjacent strings were shown through stopped-fret position). The three instruments alternate at three different levels, alto–tenor–bass. Phraseology here is closer to popular dance-strains, as in the solo lyra viol music. The ensemble works show the same feeling for idiomatic writing that shines out in the least of the solo trifles, where occur early examples of repetition bass, which otherwise took long to attain the status of art music in England.

The rest of Lawes’s output is more innovatory and has closer links to the violin’s dance fashions, which dominated court music in his decade. The Royall Consort began as dance sequences in the so-called string quartet scoring (two treble, tenor and bass instruments with continuo), perhaps so written before Lawes’s official connection with court, and comparable to similar sequences by Charles Coleman that are also datable to the early or mid-1630s. In this scoring, and with these writers rather than any other, the standard dance-order in Baroque suites in England seems to have begun. Lawes was possibly the leader in composing fluid alman–corant–saraband sequences, followed in a couple of instances by morrises, and preceded by the occasional pavan or pavan–alman: all regular and danceable. Probably originating as loose ordres in the keys D minor–D major, they lack a series title in autograph sources. He later expanded and regrouped these suites, at the same time rescoring them and adding others in more varied keys. This process was first appreciated by Lefkowitz (1960) who demonstrated with insight how sources are divided into ‘old’ and ‘new’ versions, and correlated the two scorings with the comments of Edward Lowe, professor of music at Oxford after the Restoration. Lowe attributed to the composer a dissatisfaction with the role of the tenor part: this is borne out in the altered scoring, which attests that Lawes reworked the tenor and bass parts into two equal basses that alternate the functions of the original tenor and basso seguente, ‘because the Middle part could not bee performd with equall advantage to be heard as the trebles were’ (in Lowe’s phrase). Lawes then raised the level of the collection by adding some abstract pieces: two fantasies, to make full use of a potential six-part scoring available through the practice of doubling theorbos on the basso continuo line. Extra pavans were included, one of them in C major, which while nominally in the usual four real parts uniquely took the opportunity to expand into six-part divisions in its variation repeats (ex.4). The example of Lawes may have stimulated the appeal of this scoring (two trebles, two bass, continuo) in the two decades after the mid-1630s; but even at the beginning of the period a tendency was emerging to discard it for the underlying trio sonata scoring (two trebles, bass, continuo). The Royall Consort owed its longevity and acclaim, recorded with incredulity by Charles Burney, to the assurance with which its two-treble writing foreshadowed the future.

Dances in suite form (alman–corant–corant–saraband or alman–alman–corant–saraband) for a ‘harpe consort’ of violin, bass viol, harp (metal-strung Irish harp) and theorbo continuo occur in the composer’s partbooks, added after the violin suites. With only a few precursors (possibly by Coprario) in one manuscript (GB-Och 5), they were fitted to the personnel of the court ensemble. As single dances some had wide popularity, which may reveal their origins: less in simplified adaptations from complex scorings, than in the expansion of aires for treble, bass or even song. Later, Lawes appended to them pavans and fantasies: these were not disseminated beyond the inner circle, but reveal his budding intentions to refit all his chamber suites at the same level of seriousness. For the pavans, there are fully written-out variation repeats found in the autographs.

The one surviving suite for two lutes is peripheral, in that the first piece is an accommodation of an alman by René Mesangeau, for single lute in one of the accords nouveaux, published first in Paris by Ballard (RISM 1638⁷, p.22). To it Lawes simply added a contrepartie, perhaps as a tombeau for the originator (d 1638). Both parts to the two following corants, to which he put his name, seem to be his own work. For keyboard, most extant music consists of palpable arrangements from his more popular dances and symphonies. It has been assumed that Lawes’s abilities did not extend so far as this medium. One alman however, setting a known masque tune by Orlando Gibbons, was copied by Benjamin Cosyn with an attribution to Lawes, as part of a keyboard alman–corant–saraband suite in F-Pc Rés.1185. As with Mesangeau, the practice implicates Lawes in person in the arrangement, since the associated saraband is clearly his own composition. One other suite, also possibly original in this form, was in its several versions popular long enough for inclusion in Musicks Hand-Maid (1663); constituent dances vary between sources. Called ‘The Golden Grove’ after its alman, it may refer to the Welsh seat of the Earl of Carbery, who preceded General Gerrard in the general command in Wales during the Civil War. If truly composed de suite by Lawes, as his string music shows him well capable, he was in advance of the times, since elsewhere in surviving sources this lead is not followed for about half a decade after his death.

Datings for the major works of the 1630s, as for all of Lawes’s output, is tentative; but the indications from sources favour an order of Royall Consort (old version), setts for three lyras, violin works, ‘harpe consorts’, five-part viol setts, bass viol divisions and six-part viol setts, Royall Consort (new version) and additions to harp consorts.

4. Vocal and stage music.

The declamatory solo songs by Lawes are overshadowed, in quantity and in a superior gift for representing a poem’s rhetoric through ‘just note and accent’, by those of his brother Henry. Rather than try to compete, William may have preferred to set light ‘ballads’ for salon society in current dance styles, in either duple or triple metre, the sort of strains that often variegate his songs of declamatory form. His output is strongly weighted in this direction by many songs for plays and other unidentified entertainments. It is not possible fully to assess the output for vocal ensemble above three parts, either sacred or secular, since little is known. Defects in transmission here affect other pre-Civil War composers, including those like Henry Lawes who officially worked for the Chapel Royal. Fortunately, enough survives of William’s self-confident work for the court masque of the time to make the musical part assessable, principally that for The Triumph of Peace (1634), as printed by Lefkowitz (1970). His and Henry’s innovatory three-part through-composed psalm settings are in a distinct polyphonic idiom; with some advance in harmonic modernity, they work a vein of sacred song similar to examples (some with continuo) by Thomas Tomkins, Thomas Ford and Jenkins. Apart again are 12 ‘psalms to the common tunes’, in verse anthem form. They employ up to three professional adult male voices in the verses, but devote the chorus passages, in strong contrast, to organ-accompanied Geneva tunes, presumably for unison rendition by congregation.

The solo songs are best represented in his own songbook which, like Henry’s, appears to have begun as a retrospective collection – around the time 1638–9 in William’s case. Work datable after 1641 is not represented within it; another marker is the series of seven contiguous Herrick settings, which probably dates from an association during Herrick’s stay in London in 1640 (Henry’s songbook carries a similar cluster). Some of the earlier stage work that Lawes copied is variant in its literary text. Possibly a sign of revision, it makes it harder to correlate with dated occasions for performance; whether for example the dialogue setting from Ben Jonson’s The King’s Entertainment at Welbeck (1633) is really the composer’s earliest known commission is for that reason dubious. However songs and incidental music from 1634 up to the outbreak of war, for plays mounted at court by the King’s Men and Queen Henrietta’s Company, and for the chief court masques, were undoubtedly quick to follow the success of The Triumph of Peace. Lawes was associated with ‘Beeston’s Boys’ from their beginning, a mysterious rival troupe formed in 1637 with royal complaisance. The following schedule is founded on suggestions by Lefkowitz, some dates being necessarily approximate:

1633	Ben Jonson, Entertainment at Welbeck
1634	John Fletcher, The Faithful Shepherdess (revived)
	William Davenant, Love and Honour (revived 1637)
	James Shirley, The Triumph Of Peace
1636	William Cartwright, The Royal Slave (Oxford production)
	Davenant, The Triumphs of the Prince d’Amour
	Jonson, Epicoene, or The Silent Woman (revival)
	Shirley, The Duke’s Mistress
1637	Francis Beaumont, Fletcher, Cupid’s Revenge (revival)
	Jasper Mayne, The City Match
	John Suckling, Aglaura (or second version, 1638)
1638	William Berkeley, The Lost Lady
	Davenant, Britannia triumphans
	Davenant, The Unfortunate Lovers
	John Ford, The Lady’s Trial
	Suckling, The Goblins
1639	Fletcher, The Mad Lover (revival)
	Henry Glapthorne, Argalus and Parthenia
1639–40	William Cavendish (with Shirley), The Country Squire
	Suckling, The Tragedy of Brennoralt
1641	Richard Brome, A Jovial Crew
	John Denham, The Sophy
	Shirley, The Cardinal

undated	Thomas Middleton, The Widow (revival)
	Shirley, The Triumph of Beauty (school masque)

William’s forthright, extrovert style has been adjudged more closely related to those of John Wilson and Nicholas Lanier (ii) than to the subtler melody of his brother, and the better suited to theatre taste. Some of his long-popular catches were also designed for the stage. This work bespeaks a sardonic temperament akin to Cavalier poets like Sir John Suckling, to whom working conditions brought him close, and whose quick wits were similarly not drawn to fine delineation of internal states of mind. He was however at home with deliberate large-scale tonal schemes, as found in his masque music, in a way that presages later entertainments and opera (see Masque, §4).

Though without a post in the Chapel Royal, William composed two anthems (now lost) for use there, one involving novel use of symphonies for cornetts and sackbuts. Of the other anthems of uncertain date, two had widespread cathedral use, including The Lord is my Light, long in the repertory owing to its measured and powerful declamation. The ‘psalms to the common tunes’ juxtapose high-church practice with low. Verses in florid continuo style are joined to simple choruses made up of hymn tunes intended for a Calvinist laity, both segments fitted to standard texts by Sternhold, Hopkins and others. It is possible that this unprecedented alloy of genres was evolved to allay the stresses of civil war siege, either in the Oxford garrison or elsewhere, as in York. The shorter, published three-part psalms too may have been promoted by wartime conditions. Most were written to the metrical verse paraphrases of George Sandys, published in 1636. Henry Lawes as editor drew attention to their origin in the king’s service. This could imply use in the campaigning chapel from the year 1639 onwards, when a full complement of singers may have been unavailable. As a set, they pointedly harp on themes of the god of battles and the exile of Judah; they include much contorted writing. One penitential setting furthermore (Psalm vi; not Sandys) had its bizarre head-motif prominently quoted at the beginning of the last of Lawes’s six-part viol suites to be written (c1641). With these psalms was printed an even more dissonant lament, for Lawes’s friend John Tomkins (d 1638): Music, the master of thy art is dead (ex.5).

5. Assessment.

The distinctive voice of Lawes is positioned in the early phase of the Baroque as squarely as Monteverdi, and represents the understanding at its fullest of the Italian seconda pratica among English composers in the reign of Charles I, up to 1642: the household musician George Jeffreys is the only other convert as total. The instrumental work of Lawes is notable as an advance on the practice of native Jacobean writers by the power and grace of its ‘aire’ or melodiousness, comparable in fluency to the otherwise very different John Jenkins. Lawes was paramount in assimilating (rather than just appreciating) all available influences, including French suite-form; this gives his instrumental works an importance that is no longer disputable. Still, the degree of upheaval to musical traditions in the mid-17th century, and the hesitations before a secure foundation was relaid after civil war, have made the place of Lawes, an unusually direct victim of extra-musical forces, as hard to establish as any composer of his time. His provision for masques is, for all its serviceability, as unrevivable in full as are the ephemeral entertainments to which it is tied. For instruments, his powerful chamber works were a culmination of court tastes in the early Stuart age, partly influenced from France by the vagary of dynastic marriage; the failure of the court left no obvious path open to successors. Large-scale fantasies, the stylized dances of variation division suites, fantasia-suites for violins, and lyra viol ensembles, outlasted him by little more than 15 years. He was more influential for the new bourgeois audience in what may have seemed to him slighter attainments: the metrical Choice Psalmes; the generality of his dances, both those from The Royall Consort (but not its grand pavans and fantasies) and the compilations made by Playford in print and by others in manuscript. His compositional practice, in its harmonic boldness and melodic abruptness, could not be ignored by contemporaries of rank, and seeded itself effectively in the common parlance – specifically in younger men like Matthew Locke and Christopher Gibbons, and thereafter more diffusely. Even a senior traditionalist colleague, John Jenkins, was affected in style and choice of forms. There is no direct evidence however that Henry Purcell paid note to the achievement of Lawes; to judge from scathing remarks in the preface to his Sonnata’s (1683), he may even have deliberately slighted its preoccupation with mere dance forms, the mark of an era when Gallic influence was highest and the detour away from strict counterpoint most extreme. Even so it speaks highly for Lawes that without his direct or indirect example the harmonic profundity of later composers including Purcell, who turned the educated ear most decisively back to the disciplines of counterpoint, would have been inconceivable.

other instrumental ensemble

WORKS

Editions:The Rounds, Catches and Canons of England, ed. E.F. Rimbault (London, 1865) [R]Masque of Comus (Milton), ed. F. Bridge (London, 1908/R1956) [B]William Lawes: Select Consort Music, ed. M. Lefkowitz, MB, xxi (1963, 2/1971) [L]Trois masques à la cour de Charles Ier d’Angleterre, ed. M. Lefkowitz (Paris, 1970) [M]English Songs, 1625–1660, ed. I. Spink, MB, xxxiii (1971) [S]Four Hundred Songs and Dances from the Stuart Masque, ed. A.J. Sabol (Providence, RI, 1978, enlarged 2/1982) [A]British Library Manuscripts, Part II, English Song 1600–1675, 2nd ser., ii, ed. E.B. Jorgens (New York, 1986) [facs. of autograph songbook GB-Lbl Add.31432] [J]

For further source information see Lefkowitz, 1960

*	incl. autograph

†	incl. inc. copy

through-numbering of bowed-string works based on DoddI

instrumental consort

instrumental consort

The Royall Consort (nos.1–67), ‘old version’, 2 tr, t, b insts, bc (2 theorbos), GB-Ob; ed. D. Pinto (London, 1995):

Setts nos.1–3, d, 4 movts (nos.10–13) Lbl; Setts nos.4–6, D, 2 movts (nos.26–7) Lbl; Sett no.7, a; Sett no.8, C; Sett no.9, F; Sett no.10, B

The Royall Consort (nos.1–67), ‘new version’, 2 vn, 2 b viols, bc (2 theorbos); ed. D. Pinto (London, 1995):

Sett no.1, d, Ob*, Och, 6 movts (nos.2–7) Lbl; Sett no.2, d, Lbl, Ob*, Och, 2 movts (nos.11–12) W; Sett no.3, d, Lbl, Ob*, Och; Sett no.4, D, Lbl, Ob*, Och; Sett no.5, D, Lbl, Ob*, Och; Sett no.6, D, Ob*, Och, 5 movts (nos.37–41) Lbl; Sett no.7, a, Lbl, Och; Sett no.8, C, Lbl, Och; Sett no.9, F, Lbl, Och; Sett no.10, B, Lbl, Och

Arr. tr, b: nos.54, 58, 61, 1655⁵; no.41, 1662⁸

Consort setts (nos.68–83), 2 tr, a/t, t, b viols, org, GB-Lbl*, Ob*, US-NH, F.B. Zimmerman’s private collection, Philadelphia; ed. D. Pinto (London, 1979):

Sett no.1, g, 2 movts (nos.68–9) GB-Ob, ed. in L, 1 movt (no.70), Ob [2 tr, t, b insts, seeother instrumental ensemble: Other suites]; Sett no.2, a, 1 movt (no.73), version in g, tr, b insts, Ob, US-NH [see alsokeyboard, ‘Mr Laws flat tune’], 1 movt ed. in L; Sett no.3, c, 1 movt (no.75), 2 tr, b insts), GB-Lbl*, W, 1 movt, d (no.76), 2 tr, t, b insts, Lbl, 1 movt (no.77, as sym. in anthem attrib. H. Lawes), tr, b insts, Lbl, 1 movt ed. in L, 1 movt ed. in [Arkwright] (1909–10); Sett no.4, F, 1 movt (no.79), 2 tr, ?2 b insts, G, D-Hs [2 tr, t, b insts, seeother instrumental ensemble: Other suites], ed. L. Ring (London, 1965); Sett no.5, C, 1 movt (no.83), 2 tr, b insts, GB-Lbl*, ed. H. Mönkemeyer (Wilhelmshaven, 1966)

Consort setts (nos.84–100), 2 tr, a/t, t, 2 b viols, org, GB-Lbl*, Ob*, Och, F.B. Zimmerman’s private collection, Philadelphia; ed. D. Pinto (London, 1979):

Sett no.1, g, 2 movts (nos.85–6) ed. A. Dolmetsch and P. Grainger (New York, 1944); Sett no.2, C, ed. H. Mönkemeyer (Wilhelmshaven, 1966); Sett no.3, F, ed. L. Ring (London, 1967); Sett no.4, B, 1 movt (no.96) ed. in L; Sett no.5, c, ed. in L

other instrumental ensemble

Setts for division viols (nos.101–7), 2 b viols, org:

Sett no.1, g, GB-Ob*, ed. J. Richards (London, 1972); 2 movts (nos.101, 103), 2 tr, t, b insts, bc, Ob [seeother instrumental ensemble: Other suites], 1 movt (no.102), tr, b insts, Ob, 1655⁵

Sett no.2, C, Ob*; nos.104–5, ‘Paven and Almane of Alfonso’ Ferrabosco (ii), ed. in L; no.106 inc., no.107 resetting of Royall Consort no.33

Setts ‘For the Violls’ (nos.108–113), 2 tr, 2 b viols, GB-Ob*; ed. R. Taruskin (Ottawa, 1983); ed. R. Nicholson, William Lawes: Fantasies and Aires (London, 1985):

Sett no.1, c, 1 movt (no.109) Lbl*, 1 movt (no.110), d, Lbl*; Sett no.2, C, 1 movt ed. in M

Fantasia-suites (nos.114–37), vn, b viol, org, GB-Lbl, Ob*, Och, L. Ring’s private collection, Hexham, Northumberland; ed. in MB, lx (1991):

Sett no.1, g, ed. in L; Sett no.2, G, 1 movt (no.118) 1655⁵, 2 tr, ?2 b insts, D-Hs; Sett no.3, a; Sett no.4, C; Sett no.5, d, ed. C. Arnold (London, 1957); Sett no.6, D; Sett no.7, d, ed. in L; Sett no.8, D, ed. in Lefkowitz (1960)

Fantasia-suites (nos.138–61), 2 vn, b viol, org, F-Pc, GB-Lbl, Ob*, Och, L. Ring’s private collection, Hexham, Northumberland:

Sett no.1, g, ed. in L; Sett no.2, G, ed. G. Dodd (London, 1977); Sett no.3, a, 1 movt (no.144) ed. in M; Sett no.4, C, ed. G. Dodd (London, 1967); Sett no.5, d, ed. C. Arnold (London, 1957); Sett no.6, D, ed. in L; Sett no.7, d, ed. in L; Sett no.8, D, 1 movt (no.159) pr. in Meyer (1946)

Harpe consorts (nos.162–91), vn, b viol, harp, bc (theorbo), GB-Ob*:

Sett no.1, g, Och, 1662⁸, 1 movt (no.162) Mch, 2 movts (nos.162–3) 1651⁶ [seekeyboard], ed. in L; Sett no.2, g, Och; Sett no.3, G, Och, 3 movts (nos.170–71, 173) 1651⁶ [seekeyboard]; Sett no.4, d, Och, 1655⁵, 1 movt (no.177), kbd, Och [see alsosecular vocal: ‘O my Clarissa’, 2nd version], 1 movt ed. in Lefkowitz (1960); Sett no.5, D, Och, 1655⁵; Sett no.6, D, Och, 1 movt (no.182) 1655⁵ [seekeyboard]; no.187, G, Och; no.188, G (pavan), ed. in L; no.189, D, on pavan for harp by ‘Cormacke’ [McDermott], ed. in L; no.190, on ‘Paven of Coprario’, 2 b insts, ed. in L; no.190, d (fantasy)

Other suites, 2 tr, t, b insts, bc; ed. D. Pinto, William Lawes: The Royall Consort (old version) (London, 1995):

Sett no.1, g (nos.101, 103, 338, 70, 339, 337), GB-Ob; 2 movts (nos.101, 103), 2 division b viols, org, Ob [see alsokeyboard: Consort setts andinstrumental consort], 4 movts Lbl, 3 movts Och, 2 movts W; 3 movts ed. L. Ring (London, 1964)

Sett no.2, G (nos.79, 320, 80, 322–3), Ob, 2 movts Lbl, 1 movt Lbl, Ob, 2 movts D-Hs [seeinstrumental consort: Consort setts]

Airs in d (nos.78, 260, 264), GB-Lbl, Och [seekeyboard]

Symphonies, mainly from masques The Triumph of Peace, 1634 [TP], The Triumphs of the Prince d’Amour, 1636 [TPA], Britannia triumphans, 1638 [BT]: all ed. in M:

in C: no.200 (TP), GB-Lbl, Ob*, 1649⁸, ed. in Dent (1928), ed. in A; no.201 (TP), Lbl, Ob*, 1666⁴; no.209 (BT), Lbl, Ob*, 1649⁸; no.210 (TP) probably by S. Ives, sources in Holman (1975–6), also Ob (attrib. Lawes), 1649⁸; no.215 (TPA), Lbl, Ob*, 1655⁵, ed. in Dent (1928), ed. in A

in c: no.231 (BT), Ob*, US-NH, 1655⁵; no.232 (from ‘Deere, leave thy home’: seesecular vocal), GB-Lbl, Ob*, 1655⁵; no.239 (TPA), Ob*

in G: nos.311–12 (TPA), Och (tr, a, b insts), US-NH, 1655⁵

in g: no.343, GB-Lbl (tr, a, b insts), US-NH, 1651⁶, ed. in B; no.345, GB-Lbl (tr, a, b insts), US-NH, 1651⁶

in a: no.380 (TP), GB-Lbl, Ob*, 1678⁴

Aires and dances, tr, b insts unless otherwise stated, GB-Lbl, Llp, Ob, Och, W, US-NH, 1651⁶, 1655⁵, 1662⁸, 1666⁴ (cittern), 1672⁵, 1678⁴:

in C: nos.200–15 [no.205, arr. as ‘Come lovely Cloris’: seesecular vocal]; in c: nos.221–39; in D: nos.246–51; in d: nos.256–88; in e: nos.296–300; in F, nos.306–7; in G: nos.311–28; in g: nos.336–70 [no.346, arr. as ‘Clorinda when I goe away’: seesecular vocal]; in a: nos.380–87; in B: nos.391–8

Fantasies, preludes, dances, 1–3 lyra viols (by tuning):

Harpway sharp (defhf): nos.421–35, 441–51, A-ETgoëss, IRL-Dm, GB-HAdolmetsch, Lbl*, US-NH*, 1652⁷

Harpway flat (edfhf): nos.461–7, 471–81, A-ETgoëss, GB-HAdolmetsch, Lbl, Mp, R. Spencer’s private collection, Woodford Green, Essex, 1661⁴

High harpway sharp (fdefh): nos.491, 496–9, IRL-Dm, GB-HAdolmetsch

High harpway flat (fedfh): nos.511–14, 521–7, HAdolmetsch, Mp, US-CA*, 1661⁴

Eights (fhfhf [A'–D–A–d–a–d']): nos.541–6, 555–79, IRL-Dm, GB-HAdolmetsch, Mp, Ob, Och*, Chester, Cheshire Record Office, US-CA*, no.567 ed. in M, nos.568, 573 ed. in L

French set (efdef): no.591, R. Spencer’s private collection, Woodford Green, Essex

(ffcdh): no.596, GB-Mp

keyboard

all for virginals/harpsichord

Suite (based with variants on alman by O. Gibbons), a, F-Pc, GB-Lbl, Och, 1 movt in S.R. Lancelyn Green’s private collection, Bebington, Wirral, Merseyside, 1 movt in 1651⁶; ed. in M, 1 movt ed. in MB, xx (1962)

Symphony, Saraband, a (nos.343, 345 in g: seeother instrumental ensemble: Aires and dances), US-NYp, 1663⁷

‘The Golden Grove’ alman and suite, a (nos.361–3 in g), GB-Och, Lbl, Llp, variant in 1663⁷; tr, b insts (nos.361–4), g, Ob, 1662⁸; cittern (nos.361–2), 1666⁴; 1 movt ed. in M

Saraband, a, Llp, Och, 1663⁷; (following ‘Golden Grove’, nos.361–2)

Country Dance, a, addn to ‘Golden Grove’, Och

‘Mr Laws flat tune’, g [cognate of no.73; seeinstrumental consort: Consort setts], US-NYp, ed. in CEKM, xliv (1982), variant for lyra viol, GB-Mp [see alsosecular vocal: ‘Corinna false!’]

Alman, Corant (nos.162–3), g, with anon. Saraband, Ob [see Harpe Consort no.1]

Alman, Corant (nos.170–71), G, Llp, 1663⁷ [see Harpe Consort no.3]

Saraband, G, 1663⁷ (in suite with nos.170–71 from Harpe Consort no.3)

Alman (no.182 from Harpe Consort no.6), D, US-NYp

Jig (no.251), D, NYp; tr, b insts, 1662⁸

Symphonies, C (nos.200–01), Huntingdon, Cromwell Museum, GB-Lbl

Saraband (no.264), d, Ctc, Lbl, Och; 2 tr, t, b insts, Och; lute, R. Mathew: The Lutes Apology (1652); lyra, Cu; tr viol, The English Dancing Master, ed. J. Playford (1651): ascribed only in Ctc

Jigg, G (no.313), arr. B. Cosyn as ‘Coranto’, US-NYp; tr, b insts, GB-Och, 1655⁵; vn, The Dancing Master (4/1670) as ‘The Lord Chamberlins Delight’

Coranto, g (no.339a, seeother instrumental ensemble: Other suites), arr. B. Cosyn, US-NYp

Symphony, a (no.380), Huntingdon, Cromwell Museum

See alsoother instrumental ensemble: Harpe consorts

plucked strings

Suite: alman (arr. from R. Mesangeau, 1638⁷), 2 corantos, 2 lutes, GB-Ob*; ed. L. Sayce and C. Wilson (London, 1998)

Alman, 2 corantos, cittern (incl. no.396), 1666⁴, seekeyboard: ‘The Golden Grove’ suite

secular vocal

dramatic works and printed poetry collections containing songs are given in parentheses

A hall, a hall, to welcome our freind (J. Suckling: The Tragedy of Brennoralt, 1639), 3vv, GB-Lbl*

Ah cruell love (To Pansies) (R. Herrick: Hesperides, 1648), 1v, Lbl*

A health to the northerne lasse (Suckling: The Goblins, 1638), 3vv, Lbl*, US-NYp

A knot of good fellows, catch, 3vv, 1667⁶; M

All these lye howling (J. Fletcher: The Mad Lover, revived 1639), glee, 2vv, NYp

Amarilis, teare thy haire, 1v, GB-Lbl*, 1669⁵ (adaptation, attrib. H. Lawes); ed. in Lefkowitz (1960)

And may your language be of force (W. Davenant: The Triumphs of the Prince d’Amour, 1636), madrigal, 3vv, chorus 4vv, Ob*; A, M

A pox on our gaoler (W. Cartwright: The Royal Slave, 1636), catch, 4vv, 1667⁶; R

A round, a round, boys (R. Brome: A Jovial Crew, 1641), catch, 3vv, 1667⁶

Aske me noe more where Jove bestowes (T. Carew), 1v, Lbl*, 1678⁴; ed. in Lefkowitz (1960)

Behold how this conjunction thrives (Davenant: The Triumphs of the Prince d’Amour, 1636), 1v, chorus 4vv, Eu (inc.), Ob*†; A, M

Beliza, shade your shining eyes, 1v, Lbl*

Be not proud, pretty one (Love’s Affection), 1v, Lbl*, Ob (a 3), 1669⁵ [also with text: I can love for an hour, Eu (inc.), Lbl, Ob (inc.)]

Bess black as a charcole, catch, 3vv, 1667⁶

Brisk clarett and sherry, catch, 3vv, Ob* (only incipit texted)

Britanocles the great and good appears (Davenant: Britannia triumphans, 1638), 5vv, Ob*; M

Call for the ale, catch, 4vv, Lbl, Ob*, 1652¹⁰; R

Can bewtye’s spring admitt, 1v, Lbl*

Cease, warring thoughts (J. Shirley: The Triumph of Beautie, before 1645), madrigal, 3vv, Eu (inc.), Ob*†; ed. in Lefkowitz (1960)

Charon, O Charon, hear a wretch opprest (Charon and Amintor), dialogue, 2vv, 1669⁵; S

Charon, O gentle Charon, let me wooe thee (Charon and Phylomel), dialogue (Herrick: Hesperides, 1648), 2vv, Lbl*, Ob, 1652⁸

Clorinda, when I goe away (‘Elizium’: seeother instrumental ensemble: Aires and dances), 1v, Ob†, US-NYp

Cloris, I wish that Envye were as just, 1v, GB-Lbl*

Come, Adonis, come away (J. Tatham: Ostella, 1650), 1v, US-NYp (2vv), 1659⁵, 1678⁴; S

Come, Amarillis, now let us be merry, catch, 4vv, 1667⁶

Come away, see the dawning of the day (Shirley: The Triumph of Peace, 1634), ?4vv (?inc.), GB-Ob*; M

Come, Cloris, hye wee to the bower (H. Reynolds), 3vv (inc.), Eu (inc.), Ob (inc.)

Come follow me brave hearts, catch, 3vv, 1667⁶

Come, heavy hart, whose sighs thy sorrowes shew, dialogue, 2vv, Lbl*

Come, let us cast the dice (Shirley, or W. Cavendish: The Country Captain, 1640), catch, 3vv, Lbl, 1651⁶

Come, let us have a merry heart, catch, 3vv, 1667⁶

Come lovely Cloris, 3vv, 1672⁵ [see alsoother instrumental ensemble: Aires and dances]

Come, my Daphne, come away (Strephon and Daphne) (Shirley: The Cardinal, 1641), dialogue, 2vv, Lbl*, 1652⁸

Come, my lads, catch, 6vv, Ob* (only incipit texted)

Come, quaffe apace this brisk Canary wine, catch, 3vv, 1652¹⁰

Com, shepherds, com, com away (Beaumont and Fletcher: The Faithful Shepherdess, 1607, revived 1634), 1v, US-NYp; ed. in Cutts (1963)

Come, take a carouse, 3vv, GB-Lbl*

Corinna false! it cannot be, 1v, 1678⁴ [attrib. H. Lawes; seeinstrumental consort: Consort setts, no.73]

Cupids wearie of the court, 1v, Lbl*, US-NYp, 1678⁴

Dainty fine aniseed water, catch, 3vv, 1652¹⁰

Damon, good morrowe, may the morning queene, ?3vv (?inc.), GB-Eu (inc.), Ob (inc.)

Deere, leave thy home and come with me (A Sonnet) (W. Herbert), madrigal, 4vv (inc.), Eu (inc.), Ob*†

Deerest, all faire is in your browne, 1v, Lbl*, US-NYp; M

Doris, see the am’rous flame, 1v, GB-Lbl*

Dost see how unregarded now (Sonnet) (Suckling: Fragmenta aurea, 1646), 1v, Lbl*

Drink tonight of the moonshine bright, catch, 3vv, Lcm, 1652¹⁰; R

Erly in the morne, 1v, Lbl*

Fair as unshaded light (To the Queene, entertained … by the Countesse of Anglesey) (Davenant: Madagascar, 1638), 1v, 1678⁴; ed. in Gibbs (1972)

Faith, be noe longer coy (A Motive to Love) (Wit’s Interpreter, 1655), 1v, Lbl*, US-NYp, 1652⁸, 1666⁴ [as Fie, be no longer coy, for cittern, with text added]; S

Far well, faire sainct (On his mistress crossing the sea) (T. Cary, in R. Fanshawe: Il pastor fido, 1647), 1v, GB-Lbl*, 1678⁴

Feare not, deere love (Secresie Protested) (T. Carew, 1640), madrigal, 5vv (inc.), Ob*†

Fill, fill the bowele, glee, 2vv, US-NYp

Gather ye rosebuds while ye may (Herrick: Hesperides, 1648), 1v, GB-Lbl*, Ob, US-NYp, 1652⁷, 1666⁴ [for cittern, with text added]; S

Gather ye rosebuds while ye may (Herrick: Hesperides, 1648), 3vv, GB-Eu (inc.), Gu, Lbl, Ob (inc.), 1652⁸ [arr. from preceding setting]; S

God of winds, when thou art growne brethles, 1v, Lbl*

Goe, bleeding hart, before thou die, madrigal, 3vv (inc.), Ob*

Good morrow unto her (Shirley), 3vv, Eu (inc.), Ob (inc.), US-NYp

Goose law’d with Goose for cousin Gander’s land, catch, 3vv, 1652¹⁰; R

Had you but herd her sing, 1v, GB-Lbl*, 1678⁴

Hang sorrow and cast away care, catch, 3vv, Lbl, 1652¹⁰; R

Harke, harke, how in every grove (Cupid’s Call) (Shirley, 1646), 1v, US-NYp

Harke, jolly lads, catch, 3vv, GB-Ob* (only incipit texted)

Hast you, nimphs, make hast away (Nimph and Shepherd), dialogue, 2vv, 1669⁵

Ha we to the other world, catch, 4vv, 1652¹⁰; R

Heark, faire one (R. Lovelace: Lucasta, 1649) (text only)

Hence, flatt’ring hopes, 1v, Lbl*

Hence, ye prophane, far hence away (Shirley: The Triumph of Peace, 1634), 1v, chorus 4vv, Ob*; ed. in Dent, A and M

Here’s a jolly couple, 1v, US-NYp

He that will not love (Not to Love) (Herrick: Hesperides, 1648), 1v, GB-Lbl*, 1669⁵

I burne, and beg of you to quench or cool me (To the Dewes) (Herrick: Hesperides, 1648), 1v, Lbl*

I can love for an hour (Love’s Flattery) (Wit’s Interpreter, 1655), 1v, US-NYp, 1653⁷; S

I can love for an hour (Love’s Flattery) (Wit’s Interpreter, 1655), 1v, GB-Eu (inc.), Lbl, Ob (inc.) [music as Be not proud, pretty one]

I doe confesse, catch, 3vv, Ob* (only incipit texted)

If you a wrinkle on the sea have seene, 1v (inc.), Lbl*

If you will drink Canary, catch, 3vv, Lbl, Ob*, 1652¹⁰; R

I keepe my horse, I keepe my whore (The Cuttpurse Song) (T. Middleton: The Widow), 1v, US-NYp

Ile tell you of a matter, catch, 3vv, 1652¹⁰

I’m sick of love (To the Sycamore) (Herrick: Hesperides, 1648), 1v, GB-Lbl*, Ob

In envye of the night (Shirley: The Triumph of Peace, 1634), 1v, Lbl*, US-NYp; ed. in Lefkowitz (1960), A and M

It is folly to be jolly, catch, 3vv, 1658⁵

It tis hir voice, 1v, GB-Lbl*

I would the god of love would dye (Shirley, 1646), 1v, Lbl*

Lets cast away care, catch, 3vv, Ob*, 1651⁶; R

Listen near to the ground, catch, 3vv, 1658⁵

Love, I obey, shoot home thy dart, 1v, Lbl*, 1678⁴

Love is lost and gone astray, glee, 2vv, in J. Playford: A Brief Introduction to the Skill of Musick (London, 4/1662)

Lovers rejoice, your paines shall be rewarded (Beaumont and Fletcher: Cupid’s Revenge, revived 1637), 1v, Lbl*

Love’s a child and ought to be won with smyles (H. Glapthorne: Poems and Argalus and Parthenia, 1639), 1v, Lbl*, 1678⁴

Love throws more dangerous darts, 3vv (inc.), Eu (inc.), Ob (inc.)

May our three gods so long conjoyne (Davenant: The Triumphs of the Prince d’Amour, 1636), 4vv, Ob*; A, M

Music, the master of thy art is dead (On the memory of my friend, John Tomkins) (? W. Lawes), madrigal, 3vv, 1638, Ob*, 1648⁴

Never let a man take heavily, catch, 3vv, Ob*, 1652¹⁰; R

Noe, noe, faire heriticke (Suckling: Aglaura, 1638), 1v, US-NYp [also attrib. H. Lawes]; S

Now in the sad declenshion of thy time, 1v, GB-Lbl*

Now, my lads, now let’s be merry (catch), 3vv, 1667⁶

Now that the spring hath fill’d our veins (W. Browne in Merry Drollery, 1661), glee, 2vv, Lbl, 1652⁸

Now the sun is fled downe, dialogue (Cartwright: The Royal Slave, 1636), 2vv, chorus 5vv, F-Pc, US-NYp [also attrib. H. Lawes]; S

O draw your curtaynes and apeere (Davenant: Love and Honour, 1634), lv, GB-Lbl*, US-NYp, 1678⁴; ed. in Gibbs (1972)

O let me still and silentt lye, 1v, NYp

O love, are all those arrowes gone, 1v, GB-Lbl*

O my Clarissa, thou cruel faire, 1v, Och, US-NYp, 1652¹⁰, 1666⁴ [for cittern, with text added]

O my Clarissa, thou cruel faire, 3vv, GB-Gu, Lbl, 1653⁷; ed. in M [version for harpe consort ed. in Lefkowitz (1960)]

On, on, compassion shall never enter heere, 1v, chorus 3vv, Lbl*

Orpheus, O Orpheus, gently touch thy Lesbian lyre (Trialogue between Alecto, Orpheus and Euridice), 3vv, Lbl*, 1678⁴

O tell me, Damon, canst thou prove (Wit’s Interpreter, 1655), 1v, US-NYp, 1652⁸ [probably by W. Webb]

O the fickle state of lovers (F. Quarles), glee, 2vv, GB-Ob, US-NYp, 1653⁷ [also attrib. H. Lawes]

O thinke not Phoebe cause a cloud (Shirley, 1646), 1v, GB-Lbl*

Perfect and endles circles are, 1v, Lbl*, Llp

Pleasures, bewty, youth attend yee (Love in the Spring) (J. Ford: The Lady’s Trial, 1638), 1v, Lbl*, US-NYp, 1669⁵; S

Renounce this humour and attend, 1v, NYp

Sacred love whose vertues power, dialogue, 2vv, NYp

See how Cawoods dragon looks, catch, 3vv, 1658⁵; R

See how in gathering of their may, catch, 3vv, GB-Lbl, 1652¹⁰

Singe, singe his praises that do keep our flocks (Fletcher: The Faithful Shepherdess, revived 1634), 3vv (inc.), Eu (inc.), Ob (inc.); ed. in Cutts (1963)

Sing out pent soules (Lovelace: Lucasta, 1649) (text only)

Soe well Britanocles o’re seas doth raigne (Song of Galatea) (Davenant: Britannia triumphans, 1638), 1v, choruses 3, 5vv, Ob*; M

Some drink boy, some drink (Suckling: The Goblins, 1638), catch, 3vv, Lbl, Ob*, 1667⁶

Somnus, the ’umble god (J. Denham: The Sophy, 1641), 1v, US-NYp

Stand still and listen, catch, 3vv, GB-Ob*, 1652¹⁰

Stay, Phoebus, stay (Songe) (E. Waller), 1v, GB-Lbl*

Still to bee neate, still to bee dresst (B. Jonson: Epicoene, or The Silent Woman, 1609, revived 1636), 1v, US-NYp; ed. in Lefkowitz (1960)

Sullen care, why dost thou keepe, 1v, NYp

Suppose her fair, suppose I know itt, 1v, NYp, 1678⁴ [also attrib. A. Coates]

Tell me noe more her eyes (H. Moody in Wit’s Interpreter, 1655), 1v, GB-Lbl*, US-NYp, 1652⁸

That flame is born of earthly fire (Love’s Constancy), 1v, F-Pc, GB-Lbl*, 1669⁵

The angry steed, the phyph and drum (Davenant: The Triumphs of the Prince d’Amour, 1636), 1v, chorus 4vv, Ob*; A, M

The balmes rich swet, the myrrhs sweet teares (Davenant: The Triumphs of the Prince d’Amour, 1636), 2vv, chorus 4vv, Ob*; A, M

The catts as other creatures doe, 3vv, Lbl*, US-NYp; M

The larke now leaves his wattry nest (Davenant), dialogue, 2vv, NYp; ed. in Gibbs (1972)

The pot, the pipe, the quart, the can, catch, 4vv, GB-Lbl, 1658⁵; R

There can bee noe glad man (Wit and Drollery, 1661), 1v, chorus 3vv, US-NYp

The wise men were but seven, catch, 3vv, GB-Lbl, 1652¹⁰, 1666⁴ [for cittern, with text added]; ed. in Lefkowitz (1960) and R

Thinke not I could absent myself this night (Shirley: The Triumph of Peace, 1634), 2vv, chorus 4vv, GB-Ob*; ed. in Dent (1928), A and M

Those lovers only hapye are, 1v, Lbl*

Though I am not Bachus preist, catch, 3vv, Ob* (only incipit texted)

Thou that excellest, 1v, Lbl, US-NYp

Tis no shame to yeild to beauty, 1v, chorus 3vv, NYp

Tis not, boy, thy amorous looke, dialogue, 2vv, GB-Lbl*

To bed, to bed (Davenant: Britannia triumphans, 1638), 5vv, Ob*; M

Tom, Ned and Jack, catch, 3vv, Ob* (only incipit texted)

To whome shall I complaine, 1v, Lbl*, US-NYp, 1678⁴; S

Upp, ladies, upp, prepare your taking faces (Cupid’s Progress), 1v, GB-Lbl*, US-NYp, 1669⁵; M

Virgins, as I advise, forbeare, 1v, GB-Lbl*, 1678⁴

Vulcan, O vulcan, my love (Venus and Vulcan), dialogue, 2vv, 1653⁷

Warrs are our delight, catch, 6vv, Lbl, Ob*, 1652¹⁰; M

Wee shoe noe monstrous crockadell (J. Mayne: The City Match, 1637), 1v, US-NYp

What hoe, wee come to bee merry (Ford: The Lady’s Trial, 1638), 3vv, GB-Lbl*

What if I die for love of thee, dialogue, 2vv, Lbl, Och, US-NH

What should my mistresse doe with haire (One that loved none but deformed women) (Shirley, ? intended for The Duke’s Mistress, 1636), glee, 1v, chorus, 2vv, NYp

What softer sounds are these (Joy and Delight) (Jonson: Entertainment at Welbeck, 1633), dialogue, 2vv, GB-Lbl*

When by thy scorne foule murderess (The Apparition) (J. Donne, 1633), madrigal, 3vv (inc.), Eu (inc.), Ob (inc.)

When death shall snatch us from these kidds (Thirsis and Dorinda) (text: A. Marvell, 1681), dialogue, 2vv, Lbl

When each lynes a faithfull drinker, 3vv, Lbl*, US-NYp

When I by thy faire shape (Lovelace: Lucasta, 1649), 1v, NYp

Wher did you borrow that last sigh (W. Berkeley: The Lost Lady, 1638), 1v, GB-Lbl*, US-NYp

Wherefore do my sisters stay? (Shirley: The Triumph of Peace, 1634), madrigal, 1v, chorus 3vv, GB-Ob*, ed. in Dent (1928), A and M

Whieles I this standing lake swathed up with ewe (Justiciae Sacrum) (Cartwright, 1651), 1v, Lbl*

White though yee bee (On the Lillyes) (Herrick: Hesperides, 1648), 1v, Lbl*, 1669⁵

Whither goe yee?, catch, 3vv, Ob*

Why doe you dwell soe longe in clouds (Shirley: The Triumph of Peace, 1634), 3vv (inc.), Eu (inc.), Ob (inc.); ed. in Cutts (1963), Walls (1976) and M

Why move these princes of his traine so slow? (Davenant: Britannia triumphans, 1638), 1v, choruses 2, 4, 5vv, Ob*; M

Why should fond man be led about, 3vv (inc.), Eu (inc.), Ob (inc.)

Why should great bewty vertuous fame desire (Davenant), 1v, Lbl*, US-NYp, in H. Lawes: Second Book of Ayres and Dialogues, 1–3vv (London, 1655) ed. in Gibbs (1972) and S

Why soe pall and wan, fond lover (Suckling: Aglaura, 1637), 1v, Carlisle, Bishop Smith’s Partbooks, US-NYp ed. in Lefkowitz (1960) and S

Wise nature that the dew of sleep prepares (Davenant: Britannia triumphans, 1638), 1v, chorus 3vv, GB-Ob*; M

Yee feinds and furies, come along (Davenant: The Unfortunate Lovers, 1638), 1v, Lbl*, 1678⁴; ed. in Gibbs (1972)

Your love, if vertuous, will shew forth (T. Jordan: A Royal Arbor, 1664) (text only)

sacred vocal

anthems; full unless otherwise stated

All people that on earth doe dwell, verse, 3vv, GB-Och; ed. G. Dodd (London, 1970)

All yee tht feare him, praise the Lord, verse, 3vv, DRc, Och

Before the mountains were brought forth, Lbl, Ob (text only)

Behold how good and joyful a thing it is, 3vv, 1648⁴

Cast mee not, Lord, out from thy face, verse, 3vv, Och

Come sing the great Jehovah’s praise, 3vv, Lbl, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

Gloria Patri et Filio, 3vv, 1648⁴

Have mercy on us, Lord, verse, 3vv, Och; ed. G. Dodd (London, 1970)

How hath Jehovah’s wrath, 3vv, Lbl, 1648⁴

How like a widow, 3vv, 1648⁴

How long wilt thou forget me, O Lord, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

I am weary of my groaning, 3vv, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

In resurrectione, 3vv, 1648⁴

In the substraction of my yeares, 3vv, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

I to thy wing for refuge fly, 3vv (inc.), Ob*

Judah in exile wanders, 3vv, 1648⁴

Let all in sweet accord clap hands, 3vv, Lbl, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

Let God arise, verse, 1v, Lbl, Och, Y

Let God, the God of battell, rise, 3vv, Lbl, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

Lord, as the hart imbost with heat, 3vv, Lbl, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

Lord, in thy wrath reprove mee not, verse, 3vv, Och

Lord, thy deserved wrath asswage, 3vv, Lbl, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

Memento, memento, Domine, 3vv, 1648⁴

My God, my rock, regard my cry, 3vv, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

My God, O why hast thou forsook, 3vv, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

Ne irascaris, Domine, 3vv, 1648⁴

Oft from my early youth, 3vv, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

O God, my God, wherefore doest thou forsake me, verse, 3vv, DRc, Och

O God, my strength and fortitude, verse, 3vv, Och

O Lord, consider my distresse, verse, 3vv, Och

O Lord, depart not now from mee, verse, 3vv, DRc, Och

O Lord, in yee is all my trust (The Lamentation), verse, 3vv, Och

O Lord, of whom I doe depend (Humble Suite of a Sinner), verse, 3vv, Och

O Lord, turne not away thy face (The Lamentation of a Sinner), verse, 3vv, Och

O sing unto the Lord a new song, 3vv, 1648⁴

Out of the horrour of the deep, 3vv, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

Praise the Lord enthron’d on high, 3vv, Lbl, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

Sing to the king of kings, 3vv, Lbl, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

The Lord is my light, verse, 4vv, DRc, Lbl, Och, Y, W. Boyce, Cathedral Music (London, 1760–78), ii

They that go down into sea in ships, Y (inc.)

They who the Lord their fortresse make, 3vv, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

Thou mover of the rowling spheres, 3vv, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

Thou that art inthron’d above, 3vv, 1648⁴

To thee I cry, Lord, hear my cries, 3vv, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

To thee, O God, my God, 3vv, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

To the God whom we adore, 3vv, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

When man ffor sinne thy judgment feeles, verse, 1v, Lbl

Who is this that cometh out of the wildernesse, Lbl (text only)

Yee nations of the earth, 3vv, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

canons

Gloria in excelsis Deo, 3vv, 1648⁴

Happy sons of Israel, 3vv, Lbl, Ob*†, 1648⁴

Jesus is harmonious, 3vv, Lbl, 1648⁴

Lord, thou hast been favourable, 3vv, Lbl, Ob*†, 1648⁴

Regi, regis, regum (2 versions), 4vv, Ob*, 1648⁴

Re, me, re, ut, sol, 3vv, Ob*

She weepeth sore in the night, 4vv, Lbl, Ob (inc.), 1648⁴

These salt rivers of mine eyes, 3vv, 1648⁴

Tis joy to see, 3vv, Lbl*, 1648⁴

Why weepst thou, Mary? 3vv, 1648⁴

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BDECM

BurneyH

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P. Holman: Four and Twenty Fiddlers: the Violin at the English Court, 1540–1690 (Oxford, 1993)

D. Pinto: For the Violls: the Consort and Dance Music of William Lawes (London, 1995)

P. Walls: Music in the English Courtly Masque, 1604–1640 (Oxford, 1996)

A. Ashbee, ed.: William Lawes (1602–1645): Essays on his Life, Times and Work (Aldershot, 1998)

Lawrence, Ashley (Macdonald)

(b Hamilton, NZ, 5 June 1934; d Tokyo, 7 May 1990). British conductor of New Zealand birth. After graduating from Auckland University, he moved to London and studied at the RCM and with Rafael Kubelík, joining the conducting staff of the Royal Ballet in 1962. In association with the choreographer Kenneth MacMillan as director of ballet, Lawrence became music director for the ballet of the Deutsche Oper, Berlin, in 1967, and then for the Stuttgart Ballet at the Württembergisches Staatstheater in 1969. He returned to Britain two years later as principal conductor of the BBC Concert Orchestra (1971–89), and in 1972 became, in addition, principal conductor of the Royal Ballet (music director, 1973–89). He made a special study of the needs of musical performance in relation to dance; his experience in a wide repertory from light to symphonic music helped to set and maintain musical standards of unusual distinction in the dance performances he conducted at Covent Garden and elsewhere, notably in the major ballet scores by Stravinsky and Tchaikovsky, and in Mahler’s Das Lied von der Erde. His regrettably few recordings include Britten’s ballet The Prince of the Pagodas and works by Delius and Grainger.

NOËL GOODWIN

Lawrence, Gertrude [Klasen, Gertrud Alexandra Dagmar Lawrence]

(b London, 4 July 1898; d New York, 6 Sept 1952). English actress, singer and dancer. She was a child performer in pantomime and musicals and from 1916 appeared in revue in London. She introduced ‘Parisian Pierrot’ by her lifelong friend Noël Coward in his revue London Calling (1923), and her New York début in the London show André Charlot’s Revue of 1924 (in which she sang ‘Limehouse Blues’) brought her immediately to the attention of leading American songwriters; her first successful song was You were meant for me by Noble Sissle and Eubie Blake. George and Ira Gershwin wrote the musicals Oh, Kay! (1926, including ‘Someone to Watch Over Me’) and Treasure Girl (1928) for her. Lawrence also performed spoken drama in both England and the USA, notably Private Lives (1930) with Noël Coward, but in 1933 appeared on Broadway in Porter’s Nymph Errant, her songs including the witty ‘The Physician’. After a period divided between London and New York, she resumed her position as a leading Broadway musical actress when she appeared in Weill’s Lady in the Dark (1940), which was written for her and included the sultry song ‘The Saga of Jenny’. In 1950 she suggested to Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II a musical adaptation of the film Anna and the King of Siam; the work that resulted, The King and I (1951), marked the climax of her career and was her last stage role.

Lawrence was a most distinguished, fervent, inexhaustible, and sophisticated actress: Atkinson described her as ‘a unique phenomenon – a superb performer in any medium, exuberant, supple, and animated, a formidable craftsman in the arts of the stage’. According to Rodgers, despite a narrow vocal range and ‘an unfortunate tendency to sing flat … Gertrude had a distinctive quality all her own’, and a ‘style and feel for music [which] would compensate for her faulty pitch’. Lawrence made at least 13 recordings, wrote the autobiography A Star Danced (New York, 1945), and her life was the subject of the film Star! (1968).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Aldrich: Gertrude Lawrence as Mrs. A (New York, 1954)

B. Atkinson: Broadway (New York, 1970)

R. Rodgers: Musical Stages (New York, 1975), 270ff

S. Morley: A Bright Particular Star: A Biography of Gertrude Lawrence (London, 1981)

B. McClung: American Dreams: Analyzing Moss Hart, Ira Gershwin, and Kurt Weill’s ‘Lady in the Dark’ (diss., U. of Rochester, Eastman School of Music, 1995)

DEANE L. ROOT

Lawrence, Marjorie (Florence)

(b Dean’s Marsh, nr Melbourne, 17 Feb 1909; d Little Rock, AR, 13 Jan 1979). Australian soprano, active in France and the USA. She studied in Paris and made her opera début at Monte Carlo in 1932 as Elisabeth in Tannhäuser. In 1933 she first appeared, as Ortrud, at the Paris Opéra, where, during the next three years, she sang Brünnhilde, Salome (Hérodiade), Rachel (La Juive), Aida, Donna Anna, Brunehild (Sigurd), Brangäne and Valentine. She made her Metropolitan début in New York as the Walküre Brünnhilde on 18 December 1935, continuing to appear there for six seasons, mostly in the Wagnerian repertory but also as the heroines of Alceste, Salome and Thaïs. (She later became a naturalized American.) Although she had polio in 1941, she resumed her career in 1943 in specially staged performances during which she was always seated. In 1946 she returned to Paris as Amneris. Lawrence possessed a large, vibrant and expressive voice. Her singing, though not always secure, gave pleasure because of its physical impact and distinctive sound. She left vivid examples of her art on disc, notably her Brünnhilde, Brunehild, Senta and Salome.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Lawrence: Interrupted Melody: the Story of my Life (New York, 1949)

J. Rockwell: Obituary, New York Times (15 Jan 1979)

W. Hogarth: ‘Majorie Lawrence’, Record Collector, xxxii (1987), 2–18

MAX DE SCHAUENSEE/ALAN BLYTH

Lawrowska, Yelizaveta Andreyevna.

See Lavrovskaya, Yelizaveta Andreyevna.

Lawson, Colin (James)

(b Saltburn-by-the-Sea, Yorks. (now Cleveland), 24 July 1949). English clarinettist. He was a pupil of Thea King before and during his university education at Oxford and Birmingham and at Aberdeen, where he gained a PhD (1976) in performance practice. Most of his performing activity has been on early clarinets with the Hanover Band, the English Concert and the London Classical Players, and guest soloist with many other period ensembles. He has toured widely in Europe, Canada and the USA as a concerto soloist. He researched and, in 1988, commissioned a basset clarinet to perform his restoration of the original text of Mozart’s Clarinet Concerto. His research has also found a practical outcome in his many pioneering recordings of music for chalumeau and early clarinets, including Spohr’s Clarinet Concerto no.1 and, on copies of Mühlfeld’s original instruments, Brahms’s sonatas. Combining performance with an academic career at Sheffield University, Lawson has written many articles on the early clarinet.

WRITINGS

The Chalumeau in Eighteenth-Century Music (Ann Arbor, 1981)

Mozart’s Clarinet Concerto (Cambridge, 1996)

ed.: The Cambridge Companion to the Clarinet (Cambridge, 1995)

GEORGE PRATT

Law Wing-fai

(b Haikou, Hainan, 29 July 1949). Hong Kong Chinese composer and teacher. Brought up in Macau and Hong Kong, Law studied composition with Hsu Tsang-houei at the Taiwan Normal University, graduating in 1972. He absorbed a wide variety of Western influences while studying with John Crawford at the University of California, Riverside (MA 1979). Returning to Hong Kong, he worked initially in the film industry before teaching composition at Lingnan College (1980–84); he subsequently became head of the composition department of the Hong Kong Academy of the Performing Arts. In 1995 he studied electronic and computer music at Stanford. Law’s music has won numerous prizes and has been widely performed in major Asian cities.

Alone among Hong Kong composers of his generation, he stayed away from colonial musical life during his formative years and this resulted in the formation of a highly original, unpredictable style that strongly challenges the performer and shows a special sensitivity to instrumental colours. Pieces for chamber ensemble such as Dionysus Fantasia (1979) and Sun Soundic (1983) have been performed to great acclaim. The 1972 première of Silkworm marked the first successful attempt to apply avant-garde techniques to a Chinese instrument, in this case the pipa. An accomplished guitarist, Law has displayed his partiality to plucked strings in the prominence of the pipa in many of his works. In the late 1990s he was influenced strongly by the shapes and principles of Chinese calligraphy, reflected in pieces such as Visions Beyond (1996) and A Thousand Sweeps (1997).

WORKS

Dance dramas: Honglou Zui Yu, 1983; Song of the Good Earth, 1983; Sun and Moon (Fame and Love), 1985; Femme Fatale, 1987; Chinese Song of the Earth II, 1990; Homeland, 1990; Rouge, 1991; Suppressed Romance, 1991; Parting at River Yi, 1993

Incid music: Dragon Dance, 1980; The Emperor and the Nightingale, 1985; Synopsis, 1990

Orch: Qian [Bamboo Lot], 1977; When Clouds Rise, 1978; Rice Field Dance, 1979; Pipa Conc., 1986; Musica Concertata, 1987; Ov., 1989; Sphere Supreme, 1992; Phantasm, vc, orch, 1993; Praeludium, 2 ob, 2 hn, str, 1994; Visions Beyond, 1996; A Thousand Sweeps, pipa, orch, 1997

Chin. orch: Soundscapes, 1983; Perc Conc., 1986; Puck Ballade, 2 pipa, orch, 1990; Tang Capriccio, 1996

Chbr: Mulberry Grove Dance, fl, gui, 1975; Si Zhu Kou [A Link of Silk and Bamboo], fl, va, pf, 1978; Dionysus Fantasia, 3 fl, pf + cel, 2 perc, 1979; Sun Soundic, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, tape, 1983; Sleeve Dance, 2 pf, perc, 1984; The Drunken Tai Bai, dizi, sheng, yangqin, zheng, 1985; Incense Offerings, xiao, erhu, pipa, zheng, 1986; Plus One, str qt, 1987; Caprice in G, vn, pf, 1988; Fantasia, hpd, gui, 1988; Kunk, 4 pf, 2 perc, 1989; Qian Si [Stretching Strands of Silk], pipa, str qt, 1994; Ink Spirit, pipa, str qt, 1995, arr. pipa, Chin. str orch, 1996; Season without a Name, fl, ob, cl, str qt, pf, 1996; Vortex, 2 pf, 1996

Solo inst: 3 Little Pieces with a Spiritual Touch, pf, 1972; Silkworm, pipa, 1972; Misty, pipa, 1974; Cantilena for One Finger, pipa, 1985; Intermezzo, gui, 1988; Toccata, mar, 1991; Of Butterflies and Frogs, pf, 1992; Shake ’n Roll, pipa, 1995; In One Stroke, pipa, 1996

Vocal: Neither out far nor in deep, A, cl, 1978; Garden Song, SATB, pf, 1982; Hope, children’s choir, pf, 1991; Chou Si, 3 high vv, orch, Chin. orch, 1993; My Ambition, children’s chorus, pf/orch, 1993; Yu Lin Ling [A Bell Ringing in Heavy Rain], SATB, pf, 1993; What is the Taste of Sorrow, A, vn, pf, 1994; Chou Nu Er, SATB, pf, 1996; When Mountains Roar, chorus, 4 Chin. insts, orch, 1997

Over 30 film and TV scores

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D.P.L. Law: ‘Hong Kong’, New Music in the Orient, ed. H. Ryker (Buren,1991), 225–48

B. Mittler: ‘New Music from Hong Kong and Taiwan’, CHIME, no.9 (1996), 4–44

W.C. Tsui, ed.: Hong Kong Composers’ Guild Directory (Hong Kong, 1997), 169–74

HARRISON RYKER

Lay, François.

See Lays, François.

Laye, Evelyn

(b London, 10 July 1900; d London, 17 Feb 1996). English soprano. She first appeared as Nancy Ping in Mr Wu (Brighton, 1915) and made her London début at the Gaiety in The Beauty Spot (1918). In the 1920s she played the title roles in such shows as Die lustige Witwe (1923), Madame Pompadour (1924), Die Dollarprinzessin (1925), Betty in Mayfair (1926), Lilac Time (1928) and The New Moon (1929). The role of Sari Linden in Coward’s Bitter Sweet was written for her and, although she did not create the role, she introduced it to Broadway to great acclaim in 1929. Her films included The Night is Young (1936), in which she introduced Romberg’s ‘When I Grow Too Old to Dream’. After touring for most of the 1940s and early 50s she returned to the West End in the long-running Wedding in Paris (1954), and was subsequently in Charlie Girl and Phil the Fluter (both 1969). She appeared as Mme Arnfeldt in Sondheim’s A Little Night Music (1979) and was still appearing on stage as late as 1992. She was made a CBE in 1973 and wrote the autobiography Boo, to my Friends (London, 1958).

Layer [level, structural level]

(Ger. Schicht).

In Schenkerian analysis (see Analysis, §II, 4–6), one of a set of polyphonic representations of a piece or movement in which only some of the piece's harmonic and contrapuntal content is given. Layers are hierarchical; each subsumes and elaborates upon the content of the preceeding one until the final layer – represented by the score of the piece itself – is arrived at. (For examples of layer analyses, see Analysis, figs.16–17 and 21–2.)

The conceptual starting-point of a piece is its ‘background’ layer (Ger. Hintergrund); this is represented by the fundamental structure, or Ursatz, comprising a linear descent to the first note of the tonic triad (Urlinie) supported by the harmonic progression from the tonic to the dominant and back to the tonic (this is called the bass Arpeggiation). The layer whose representation most resembes the score of the piece itself, lacking only some detail, is called the ‘foreground’ (Ger. Vordergrund); this is usually the only layer before the score itself that shows the piece's rhythmic design and thus corresponds bar-for-bar with the piece. Between the background and the foreground lies the ‘middleground’ (Ger. Mittelgrund), made up of one or more layers. Schenker somtimes numbered these erste Schicht (‘first [middleground] layer’), zweite Schicht etc., the number of middleground layers being dependent upon the complexity of the piece and the amount of analytical detail he wished to show.

The analytical process is a reductive one; that is, it begins with the surface of a piece and proceeds to the foreground, the middleground layers and ultimately the Ursatz. But since analysis was, for Schenker, essentially the reverse of composition, he presented and discussed the layers in reverse order of their derivation, beginning with the simple Ursatz and ending with remarks on the content of the piece itself. In explaining the content of a subsequent layer, it would then be necessary to illustrate with musical notation (and, usually, to describe also in words) the various methods of Prolongation used to achieve increasing harmonic and contrapuntal complexity. The number of prolongations increases as one approaches the foreground; for this reason the musical representation of the foreground layer and the accompanying verbal commentary (if present) are the longest. Most of Schenker's analyses end with some remarks on the piece itself, the layer beyond the foreground; Schenker called this the Ausführung (literally ‘elaboration’, but more accurately rendered as ‘realization’).

For very short pieces it is possible to align all the analytical layers vertically, so that the methods of prolongation needed to get from one to the next may be studied conveniently. For pieces of moderate length, however, it is more practical for the foreground layer to be presented as a separate graph.

WILLIAM DRABKIN

Layolle, Alamanne de [Aiolli, Alamanno]

(b ?Lyons, c1521–5; d Florence, 19 Sept 1590). Italian composer and organist. He grew up in Lyons, where his father, the Florentine composer Francesco de Layolle, settled in 1521. A Lyonnaise document of 1551 calls him ‘a player of instruments’. According to Fétis, he was named organist at St Nizier, Lyons, in the preface to his volume of four-voice Chansons et vaudevilles published by Gorlier in 1561 (now lost). (Plantin’s catalogue states that the same volume contained pieces for four to six voices.)

In 1565 Layolle emigrated to Florence, where he followed a career as a performer (organist at the Badia Fiorentina, 1570–75) and teacher (among his pupils was the daughter of Benvenuto Cellini, who mentioned him in the celebrated Autobiography). He also seems to have been associated with the Florentine printing firms of Giunta and Marescotti, for frequent legal disputes among the three parties are recorded during the 1570s and 80s. He may have collaborated with the latter in producing the 1582 collection of three-voice madrigals ‘by the most excellent authors of our times’ since he is represented by more works than any other composer in the volume. These madrigals, three of which use texts previously set by his father, and a five-voice setting of the Benedictus are the only known vocal works by him. His most important surviving work is the Intavolatura di M. Alamanno Aiolli, a holograph volume (I-Fl 641) now much mutilated and reduced in content, discovered in 1961. This collection contains 16 keyboard arrangements (several incomplete) of some of the best-known works of the time, among them Janequin’s La guerre and Lassus’s Susanne un jour, as well as selections from the sixth intermedio of the comedy La pellegrina, presented in Florence in 1589. The arrangements are distinguished by Layolle’s aptitude for inventing and developing new material that greatly enhances the original pieces in their new settings, and by his ability to write sensitively and idiomatically for the keyboard.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

G. Tricou: ‘Les deux Layolles et les organistes lyonnais du XVIe siècle’, Mémoires de la Société littéraire, historique et archéologique de Lyon (1898), 229; repr. in Documents sur la musique a Lyon au XVI siecle (Lyons, 1899)

F.A. D’Accone: ‘The Intavolatura di M. Alamanno Aiolli’, MD, xx (1966), 151–74

F. Dobbins: Music in Renaissance Lyons (Oxford, 1992)

FRANK A. D’ACCONE

Layolle, Francesco de [Francesco dell’Aiolle, dell’Aiolli, dell’Ajolle, dell’Aiuola]

(b Florence, 4 March 1492; d Lyons, c1540). Italian composer and organist. There was some confusion about his identity because Einstein suggested that there were two musicians with this name. Archival research, however, has confirmed that he was the first, and at that time the only, member of his family to become a professional musician. His musical career began shortly after his 13th birthday, when he was appointed a singer in the chapel of the Florentine church of the SS Annunziata. There he became acquainted with the organist and composer Bartolomeo degli Organi, from whom he eventually received private instruction. The master-pupil relationship was evidently a close one, and in later years he married Maddalena Arrighi, a younger sister-in-law of Bartolomeo. He was a friend of Andrea del Sarto, who in 1511 painted Layolle’s portrait, together with his own and that of the architect Jacopo Sansovino, in a fresco depicting the journey of the Magi in the atrium of the SS Annunziata. Layolle remained in Florence until 1518. According to his pupil Benvenuto Cellini, he had by that time established a reputation as ‘a fine organist and an excellent musician and composer’. In 1521 he settled in Lyons, where he lived until his death.

He also enjoyed the friendship of several Florentine men of letters, among them the poet Luigi Alamanni, who dedicated the sonnet Aiolle mio gentil cortese amico to him and spoke flatteringly of him in two other works (Egloga prima and Selve). The writer Antonio Brucioli introduced him, Alamanni and Zenobi Buondelmonte as interlocutors in one of his Dialoghi della morale philosophia (Venice, 1538, 2/1544). These men were among the principal figures in a group of Florentine republicans who unsuccessfully conspired to overthrow the Medici government in the spring of 1521. When the plot was discovered, Alamanni and Buondelmonte fled to Lyons, where Layolle gave them shelter. Although this and subsequent actions leave no doubt that Layolle’s sympathies lay with the republicans, the records of the judicial proceedings, in which the conspirators were condemned in absentia, show that he was not directly involved in the plot.

In Lyons he was employed as the organist at the Florentine church of Notre Dame de Confort and also composed, collected and edited music for a few of the printing firms there. After a brief association with the bookseller Etienne Gueynard, marked by the publication in 1528 of the Contrapunctus seu figurata musica, he joined forces with Jacques Moderne. During the decade 1530–40 they worked in close collaboration; from the prefaces to the 1532 and 1540 editions of the Liber decem missarum it may be deduced that Layolle not only contributed to but also edited the various volumes of sacred music issued by Moderne. Possibly in the early 1530s Moderne also published the six volumes of his sacred works that are now lost. Their association continued until the composer’s death, the date of which, although not documented, has generally been accepted as 1540, the last year in which new music of his appeared in dated publications of Moderne. Bibliographical evidence seems to confirm this date, for it was apparently in 1540 that Moderne issued Layolle’s volume of the Cinquanta canzoni, which closes with a lament on the composer’s death.

Layolle entered fully into the artistic and intellectual life of Lyons. Lionardo Strozzi, writing in 1534, spoke of often making music there with members of the Florentine community, among them Layolle. In 1537 the poet Eustorg de Beaulieu published a rondeau in praise of ‘a beautiful garden on the Saône in Lyons belonging to maistre François Layola, a most expert musician and organist’. He was also a close friend of the banker Luigi Sostegni, who in 1538 forwarded some of his compositions to Rome. In his letter of acknowledgment the poet Annibale Caro stated that they were well received.

Layolle cultivated all the principal forms of vocal polyphony current in his time. Although it would appear that he was primarily a composer of secular music, his church music must also have included the contents of the six lost volumes of motets, each of which (according to a contemporary catalogue of the Colombina Library, Seville) contained 12 works. Since at present only 11 of his extant motets can be assigned to these publications, some 61 remain lost. In addition there are three masses, one listed in the Colombina catalogue and two others mentioned by Zacconi in his Prattica di musica (Venice, 1592), which likewise seem not to have survived. Layolle apparently contributed more pieces to the Contrapunctus of 1528 than the three ascribed to him in the volume. Sutherland, on the basis of internal musical evidence, showed that all of its pieces are the work of one composer, most probably Layolle.

The extant sacred works illustrate his mastery of the most advanced techniques of his day and reveal that he was one of the first Italians to fuse successfully Italianate tonal-harmonic precepts with Franco-Flemish contrapuntal techniques. Missa ‘Adieu mes amours’, uses both parody and cantus firmus techniques: throughout the work only the first phrase of the chanson melody is used, employed as a tenor ostinato in various rhythmic patterns. Presentation of the entire melody is reserved for the last Agnus Dei, when in an expanded five-part texture, it is set out in the tenor beneath a freely composed canon for two altos. This mass also shares some thematic similarities with one of his motets, Libera me, Domine, which follows it in both editions of the Liber decem missarum. The parody technique is more fully exploited in Missa ‘O salutaris hostia’, where several voices of the polyphonic model are drawn upon simultaneously. Missa ‘Ces fascheux sotz’, composed between 1532 and 1540, is also a parody mass in which Gardane’s two-part chanson is extensively reworked into a complex and spirited fantasy for four voices.

The variety of contrapuntal techniques and the beauty of the melodies and harmonies in the motets also confirm Layolle’s place in the front rank of composers of his generation. It is possible that Layolle paraphrased a traditional melody in the first section of the lovely Christmas motet for four voices, Noe, noe, noe. The cantus firmus technique is prominent in Media vita and Salve, virgo singularis; in the four-voice Ave Maria an ostinato derived from the antiphon’s first phrase, provides the basis of the structure. Canons are successfully interwoven into the fabric of Ave virgo sanctissima, Libera me, Domine and Congregati sunt. Another setting of Ave Maria is a three-part canon.

Apart from a few early works, the bulk of his secular Italian music survives in two collections, the Venticinque canzoni a cinque voci (1540) and the Cinquanta canzoni a quatro voci, published by Moderne. Entitled canzoni, these pieces are in fact madrigals. Their texts, drawn from a number of poets – among them, Petrarch (the most frequently represented), Alamanni, Machiavelli and the brothers Strozzi – are typical of those set by the earliest masters of the genre. They also display many of the general musical characteristics found in contemporary madrigals. Several of the four-voice canzoni were in fact published in some of Arcadelt’s madrigal books; however, they were either omitted or ascribed correctly to Layolle in most later editions of the same volumes. One work, Lasciar il velo, was popular enough to be mentioned by Doni in his Dialogo della musica (Venice, 1554). It was also published in lute transcriptions by both Crema (1546) and Gintzler (1547), as well as in an ornamented vocal arrangement by Maffei (1562).

Two works in the collection of five-voice canzoni have French texts and are based on popular chansons. Another, Sì ch’io la vo seguire, makes use of a cantus firmus, unusual for madrigals of this period. The remaining works with French texts, published by Moderne in the first five volumes of Le parangon des chansons, display a diversity of styles. Notable among them are the canonic duo Les bourguignons, which celebrates the raising of the siege of Péronne in 1536, and Ce me semblent, written in the manner of the Parisian chanson made popular by Claudin.

WORKS

Edition:Music of the Florentine Renaissance: Francesco de Layolle, Collected Works, ed. F.A. D’Accone, CMM, xxxii/3–6 (1969–73) [D iii–vi]

sacred

Missa ‘Adieu mes amours’, 4vv, D vi; Missa ‘Ces fascheux sotz’, 4vv, D vi (on Gardane’s chanson); Missa ‘O salutaris hostia’, 4vv, D vi

7 penitential psalms, 4vv, D vi

35 motets (1 attrib.), 2–6vv, D v

secular

Venticinque canzoni a cinque voci (Lyons, 1540) [includes 2 chansons], D iii

Cinquanta canzoni a quatro voci (Lyons, ?1540) [includes anon. lament], D iv

3 madrigals and 9 chansons in other collections, D iii

3 masses and c61 motets, lost

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EinsteinIM

G. Tricou: ‘Les deux Layolles et les organistes lyonnais du XVIe siècle’, Mémoires de la Société littéraire, historique et archéologique de Lyon (1898), 229

R. Gandolfi: ‘Intorno al codice membranaceo … N.2440’, RMI, xviii (1911), 537–49, esp. 540

H.E. Wooldridge: The Oxford History of Music, ii (London, 1932), 101

N. Bridgman: ‘Giovanni Camillo Maffei et sa lettre sur le chant’, RdM, xxxviii (1956), 3–34, esp. 22

C.W. Chapman: ‘Printed Collections of Polyphonic Music Owned by Ferdinand Columbus’, JAMS, xxi (1968), 34–84

D. Sutherland: Francesco de Layolle (1492–1540): Life and Secular Works (diss., U. of Michigan, 1968)

S.F. Pogue: Jacques Moderne, Lyons Music Printer of the Sixteenth Century (Geneva, 1969), 34

D. Crawford: ‘Reflections on Some Masses from the Press of Moderne’, MQ, lviii (1972), 82–91

D.A. Sutherland, ed.: The Lyons Contrapunctus (1528), RRMR, xxi–xxii (1976)

R.J. Agee: ‘Ruberto Strozzi and the Early Madrigal’, JAMS, xxxvi (1983), 1–17, esp. 9

FRANK A. D’ACCONE

Layriz [Layritz], Friedrich (Ludwig Christoph)

(b Nemmersdorf, Franconia, 30 Jan 1808; d Unterschwaningen, Franconia, 18 March 1859). German theologian and hymnologist. He studied theology, philosophy and philology at the universities of Leipzig (PhD 1829) and Erlangen, where he joined the theology faculty in 1833. In 1837 he became rector of Merkendorf and in 1842 of St Georgen, near Bayreuth. In 1846, as the result of a fierce controversy with Elias Sittig on the subject of hymnological reform, he was forced to leave for Unterschwaningen.

Layriz was an important figure in the early stages of the 19th-century revival and reform of Lutheran liturgy and music. He campaigned with energetic persistence for the polyrhythmic rather than the isometric form of the chorale, and for a return to the old melodies and the original manner of singing them. Although the effect of his work was felt mainly in Bavaria, it also helped to prepare for Johannes Zahn's later hymnological research. He worked with similar zeal for the restoration of the original hymn texts and for a revival of the old Lutheran liturgy. His hymn collections include CXVII geistliche Melodien meist aus dem 16. und 17. Jahrhundert in ihren ursprünglichen Rhythmen (Erlangen, 1839, enlarged 2/1844–50, 3/1862), Kern des deutschen Kirchenlieds von Luther bis auf Gellert (Nördlingen, 1844) and CC Chorälen meist aus dem XVI. und XVII. Jahrhundert in ihren ursprünglichen Tönen und Rhythmen (Nördlingen, 1844, enlarged in four vols., 2/1849–53, 3/1854–5). Among his numerous writings in support of his theories are Offener Sendbrief an die protestantische Geistlichkeit Bayerns … in Betreff der Gesangbuchs-Reform (Bayreuth, 1843), which prompted the disagreement with Sittig, and Die Liturgie eines vollstimmigen Hauptgottesdienstes nach lutherischen Typus nebst Ratschlägen zu deren Wiederherstellung (Nördlingen, 1849), as well as several essays and reviews. A number of his hymn melodies may be found in Zahn, while some of his poetry also came into regular congregational use.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BlumeEK

ZahnM

Beleuchtung des offenen Schriftenwechsels zwischen den Herren DD. Sittig und Layriz in Betreff der Gesangbuchs-Reform (Ansbach, 1844)

E.S.F. Sittig: Offene Antwort auf den offenen Sendbrief des Herrn Dr. Fr. Layriz (Nuremberg, 1844)

S. Kümmerle: Encyklopädie der evangelischen Kirchenmusik (Gütersloh, 1888–95/R)

H.J. Moser: Die evangelische Kirchenmusik in Deutschland (Berlin, 1954), 238–9, 242, 298

FRANZ KRAUTWURST

Lays [Lai, Laïs, Lay], François

(b Barthe-de-Nesthes, 14 Feb 1758; d Ingrande, Angers, 30 March 1831). French baritone. He learnt music as a theology student in the monastery of Guaraison, but before he was 20 his fame as a singer had spread, and by April 1779 he was in Paris. His name, spelt Laïs, first appears in the role of Petrarch in Candeille’s Laure et Pétrarque, 2 July 1780. He is next mentioned in Piccinni’s Iphigénie en Tauride, 23 January 1781. (Fétis’s statement that the title role of Floquet’s Seigneur bienfaisant was written in 1780 for Lays is not corroborated by Lajarte.) Lays sang at the Opéra until October 1823. He also appeared regularly at the concerts of Marie Antoinette and the Concert Spirituel. He was professor of singing at the Conservatoire from 1795 until 1799, and was principal singer in the chapel of Napoleon from 1801 until 1814, when he was dismissed by Louis XVIII. From 1819 to his retirement in 1826 he was professor of singing at the Ecole Royale de Chant et de Déclamation.

Lays’s violent partisanship of the Revolution led to quarrels with his colleagues, but with no further result than to cause him to write a pamphlet and, later, to force him to appear in parts distasteful to him and to sing before the Bourbons after the Restoration. He was a poor actor, except in parts specially written for him; Fétis pronounced him not even a good singer, saying that his taste was poor and that he had several bad tricks. Nevertheless he had warmth and animation, and the beauty of his voice, which, though a baritone, extended into the tenor range, so far atoned for everything that for a long time no opera could be successful in which he had not a part.

WRITINGS

Lays, artiste du théatre des arts, à ses concitoyens (Paris, 1793)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

GroveO (E. Forbes)

T. de Lajarte: Bibliothèque musicale du Théâtre de l’Opéra (Paris, 1878/R)

GEORGE GROVE/R

Layton, Billy Jim

(b Corsicana, TX, 14 Nov 1924). American composer. His early musical experience was in school bands and dance orchestras, playing the saxophone and the clarinet and writing arrangements. After serving in the Air Force during World War II, he attended the New England Conservatory (BMus 1948), where he studied composition with Francis Judd Cooke and Carl McKinley. He continued his studies at Yale University (MMus 1950) with Quincy Porter, among others, and at Harvard (PhD 1957), where his teachers included Gombosi (musicology) and Piston (composition). He remained at Harvard as assistant professor until 1966, when he was appointed to the music department at SUNY, Stony Brook (chair, 1966–72). His honours include the Prix de Rome (1954).

Layton may be regarded as a progressive conservative in the tradition of Busoni’s ‘Junge Klassizität’. In a polemical essay of 1965 (‘The New Liberalism’, PNM, iii/2, 1965–6, pp.137–42), he attacked both the radical purists of constructivism and the apostles of chance music. He favoured instead a centrist ‘new liberalism’, which he defined as ‘a new, rich, meaningful, varied, understandable and vital music which maintains contact with the great cultural tradition of humanism in the West’. This fairly describes his own music. The seven compositions he wrote within a 12-year period are marked by meticulous craftsmanship, timbral sensitivity and structural resourcefulness. Animated by his early experience of jazz and popular music and his later musicological studies, Layton integrated a wide variety of techniques including metrical modulation and multiple ostinatos, free atonality and harmonic serialism, cantus firmus and isorhythm, jazz improvisation and blues chord changes, and passages of indeterminate notation imbedded in a determinate context. His structures range from continuous processes to highly complex arrangements of disjunct images encompassing both absolute stasis and intense activity.

WORKS

5 Studies, op.1, vn, pf, 1952; An American Portrait, sym. ov., op.2, 1953; 3 Dylan Thomas Poems, op.3, chorus, brass sextet, 1954–6; Str Qt, op.4, 1956; 3 Studies, op.5, pf, 1957; Divertimento, op.6, cl, bn, trbn, hpd, perc, vn, vc, 1958–60; Dance Fantasy, op.7, orch, 1964

Principal publisher: G. Schirmer

BIBLIOGRAPHY

W. Mellers: Music in a New Found Land (New York, 1964), 230–34

R. Browne: ‘Billy Jim Layton: Dance Fantasy’, PNM, iv/1 (1965–6), 161–70

G. Chase: America’s Music (New York, 2/1966), 678ff

AUSTIN CLARKSON

Layton, Robert

(b London, 2 May 1930). English musicologist. He studied at Worcester College, Oxford (1949–53), taking the BA under Rubbra and Wellesz in 1953. He also studied with Moberg at the universities of Uppsala and Stockholm (1953–5). After three years of teaching he joined the BBC (1959) to take charge of music presentation. In 1961 he became responsible for music talks, becoming senior music talks producer (1970) and senior music producer (1982–90). His main preoccupation has been with Scandinavian music; he has written extensively on Berwald and Sibelius. Layton is also concerned with other 19th- and 20th-century music, in particular with the symphonic process. He broadcasts regularly, and is a regular contributor to Gramophone and a co-editor of the Stereo Record Guide. He was general editor of the BBC Music Guides (1974–90).

WRITINGS

Franz Berwald (Swed. trans., Stockholm, 1956; Eng. orig., London, 1959)

‘Music in the United States’, Twentieth Century Music, ed. R.H. Myers (London, 1960, enlarged 2/1968), 232–40

Sibelius (London, 1965, 4/1993)

‘Franz Berwald’; ‘Serge Prokofiev’, ‘Dmitri Shostakovich’, ‘Martinů and the Czech Tradition’, ‘Vagn Holmboe and the Later Scandinavians’, The Symphony, ed. R. Simpson (Harmondsworth, 1966–7R, 2/1972), i, 175–87; ii, 166–80, 197–217, 218–29, 230–42

Sibelius and his World (London, 1970)

with H. Searle: Twentieth-Century Composers, iii: Britain, Scandinavia and the Netherlands (London, 1972)

trans.: E. Tawaststjerna: Sibelius (London, 1976–97)

Dvořák Symphonies and Concertos (London, 1978)

ed.: Companion to the Concerto (London, 1988, 2/1996 as Guide to the Concerto)

ed.: Companion to the Symphony (London, 1993, 2/1995 as Guide to the Symphony)

DAVID SCOTT/R

Lazăr, Filip

(b Craiova, 6/18 May 1894; d Paris, 3 Nov 1936). Romanian composer and pianist. At the Bucharest Conservatory (1907–12), he studied theory with Dumitru Kiriac-Georgescu, harmony and composition with Castaldi and the piano with Emilia Saegiu; his studies were continued at the Leipzig Conservatory (1913–14) under S. Krehl (harmony and composition) and Teichmüller (piano). As a concert pianist he toured Europe and the USA, introducing a great deal of new music in his recitals (he was a member of the ISCM). His dedication to modern music also found expression in his organizing activities as a founder member of the Romanian Composers’ Society (1920) and as a founder and chairman of the Triton society in Paris (1928); in addition he worked as a piano teacher in France and Switzerland (1928–36). The variety of styles in Lazăr’s music shows his breadth of outlook. In his first period (1919–28) Romanian folk elements were firmly asserted – gypsy-like urban folktunes appear in such works as the Concerto grosso and the instrumental suites and sonatas. Later Lazăr turned his attention to current musical developments, serialism and neo-classicism, but without losing sight of the peasant music of his native land. Despite its stylistic diversity, all of his music is distinguished by conciseness and vigour of form, a refined harmony that allows for freely treated dissonances and polytonal chords, generally polyphonic textures and a brilliant orchestration, with emphasis on the percussion and on percussive writing for the piano.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: La bouteille de Panurge (ballet, after A. Coeuroy), 1918; Les images de Béatrice, op. 18 (op-cant., Coeuroy), 1928

4 pf concs. opp.18, 19, 23, 24, 1930–34

Other orch: Suita română, D, 1921; Suite valaque, 1925; Tziganes, 1925; Concerto grosso, op.17, 1927; Le ring, 1928; Muzică pentru radio, 1931

Vocal: Dor de crîng (F. Lazăr), chorus, 1924; Paparudele [The Rainmakers] (Lazăr), chorus, 1924; 3 pastorales, 1v, pf, 1927

Chbr and solo inst: Pf Sonata no.1, 1913; Sonata, e, vn, pf, 1919; 2 suites, pf, 1924–5; Două dansuri populare româneşti, pf, 1925; Pf Sonata no.2, 1929; Trio, ob, cl, bn, 1934; Str Trio, 1935; Hp Trio, ?1936

Principal publishers: Durand, Oxford University Press, Universal, Muzica

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (G. Breazul)

V. Tomescu: Filip Lazăr (Bucharest, 1963)

J. Bruyr: L’écran des musiciens (Paris, 1933), 74–81

I. Sava: Muzicanţii pe acoperiş: muzicieni evrei de la noi şi din lume [Undercover musicians: Jewish musicians here and throughout the world], i (Bucharest, 1995), 165–6

VIOREL COSMA

Lazare-Lévy.

See Lévy, Lazare.

Lazarev, Aleksandr

(b Moscow, 5 July 1945). Russian conductor. He studied at the Central Music School in Moscow and subsequently at the Moscow and Leningrad conservatories. In 1971 he won first prize in the Moscow Young Conductors Competition, and the following year was a prizewinner in the Herbert von Karajan Competition in Berlin. He conducted Don Carlos at the Bol'shoy in 1973, and was immediately offered a permanent post there. In 1978 Lazarev founded his own ensemble, the Soloists of the Bol'shoy Theatre, to promote contemporary music, and from 1987 to 1995 he was music director of the Bol'shoy, taking the company on several international tours, including visits to the Edinburgh Festival in 1990 and 1991 and to the Metropolitan Opera in 1991. From 1988 to 1994 he was also Generalmusikdirektor of the Duisburg SO. Meanwhile he began to appear increasingly as a guest conductor with Western orchestras, including the Berlin PO, the Bavarian RSO, the Orchestre National de France, the Royal Liverpool PO (with which he made his UK début in 1987), the LPO and the CBSO. He made his London début in 1991, conducting Henze's Tristan and Seventh Symphony with the BBC SO, and from 1992 to 1995 was the orchestra's principal guest conductor; with the BBC SO he made recordings of works by Tchaikovsky, Medtner, Skryabin and Nikolay Korndorf. Since 1992 Lazarev has also appeared regularly at the Verona Arena and at La Scala. His operatic recordings include Rimsky-Korsakov's May Night, made with Cologne forces.

RICHARD WIGMORE

Lazari, Alberto

(b Perugia; fl 1635–7). Italian composer. He became a Carmelite friar and held the post of organist at the collegiate church at Massa Lombarda in 1635. He belonged to two cultural academies in nearby cities, the Accademia degli Spennati at Faenza and the Accademia degli Offuscati at Cesena (the latter in 1637). Lazari’s publications were both of church music: Armonia spirituale a 1–6 voci con letanie della Beata Vergine e una messa concertata a 3 voci (Venice, 1635) and Armonie spirituali a 1–4 voci con le lettanie della Beata Vergine a 4 e 8 se piace con il basso continuo, libro secondo, op.2 (Venice, 1637). He was one of many minor figures in northern Italy at the time to adopt the small-scale concertato motet for use in smaller churches. His mass is in the same style, though the litanies of 1637 have an optional ripieno choir. He seems to have been less than competent when writing for larger forces, his part-writing and melodies lacking in invention. On the other hand the duet In sanctitate fulgida (1637) is a good example of the expressive type of small motet common at this time in which ornamentation, though elaborate, helps to shape melodies, and triple-time writing tends towards arioso style. Both his publications include a number of dialogues. (J. Roche: North Italian Church Music in the Age of Monteverdi, Oxford, 1984)

JEROME ROCHE

Lazari, Ferdinando Antonio.

See Lazzari, Ferdinando Antonio.

Lazarini, Scipione.

See Lazzarini, Scipione.

Lázaro, Hipólito

(b Barcelona, 13 Dec 1887; d Barcelona, 14 May 1974). Spanish tenor. Success in amateur zarzuela performances led to his operatic début at Barcelona in La favorita. He then studied with Enrico Colli in Milan. In 1913 he sang in Mascagni’s Isabeau at Genoa under the composer, who subsequently engaged him for the première of his Parisina at La Scala. In 1914 he made his first tour of South America where he enjoyed some of his greatest successes. He appeared at the Metropolitan in 1918, making a strong impression there with the high tessitura of I puritani. Back in Italy he received acclaim for his part in the première of Mascagni’s Il piccolo Marat at the Costanzi, Rome, in 1921, and he repeated his success, also under Mascagni, in Paris in 1928. He was in the première of La cena delle beffe in 1924, but withdrew from further performances after disagreements with the composer, Giordano. His contentious disposition probably hindered the development of his career in the 1930s, although he continued to sing to the end of his life, giving a farewell concert in New York in 1944 and making his final operatic appearances in Havana in 1950. A bright, penetrating voice with magnificent high notes is heard on recordings that also show him to have been capable of some delightful as well as some deplorable stylistic effects. He also wrote an egotistical autobiography El libro de mi vida (Havana, 1949, 2/1968).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.B. Richards: ‘Hipolito Lazaro’, Record Collector, xvi (1964–6), 53–94

J.B. STEANE

Lazarof, Henri

(b Sofia, Bulgaria, 12 April 1932). American composer of Bulgarian origin. He graduated from the Sofia Academy in 1948, then studied at the New Jerusalem Academy of Music (1949–52), with Petrassi at the Accademia di S Cecilia, Rome (1955–7), and at Brandeis University (1957–9, MFA 1959). In 1959 he joined the faculty of UCLA, initially as a teacher of French language and literature, then in 1962 as professor of composition.

Lazarof's music is highly chromatic and full of intricate detail. It is characterized less by elaborate counterpoint than by textural invention, sometimes achieved with the help of unusual deployments of orchestral instruments, such as the three instrumental groups (two of strings, one of winds) in the Concerto for oboe and chamber orchestra (1997). The intensity of the music's abstract, expressionist idiom is occasionally relieved by diatonicism and by gestural references to earlier styles, such as the section of Tableaux (after Kandinsky) (1990) entitled ‘Hommage à Chopin’. The many prominent musicians who have championed Lazarof's music, including James Galway and Gerard Schwartz, attest both to the music's surface appeal and its enduring rewards.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Piccola Serenata, 1959; Va Conc., 1959–60; Conc., pf, 20 insts, 1960–61; Structures sonores, 1966; Mutazione, 1967; Omaggio, chbr conc., 19 insts, 1968; Ricercar, va, pf, orch, 1968; Vc Conc., 1968; Rhapsody, vn, orch, 1969; Textures, pf, 5 ens, 1970; Koncordia, str, 1971; Spectrum, tpt, orch, tape, 1972–3; Fl Conc., 1973; Volo (3 canti di requiem), va, 2 str ens, 1975; Chbr Sym., 1976; Conc. for Orch, 1977; Sym. no.1, 1978; Sinfonietta, 1981; Celebration, 4 brass choirs, 1984; Conc. for Orch no.2 ‘Icarus’, 1986; Vn Conc., 1987; Concertante 1988, 2 hn, 16 str, 1988; Cl Conc., 1990; Tableaux (after Kandinsky), pf, orch, 1990; Vc Conc. no.2, 1991; Sym. no.2, 1991; Divertimento III, vn, str orch/str qt (1993); 3 Pieces, 1995; The Summit Concertante, tpt, brass, perc, 1996; Conc., ob, chbr orch, 1997; Fantasia, hn, orch, 1997; Va Rhapsody, va, orch, 1997

Choral: The First Day, mixed chorus/(mixed chorus, ww qnt) (1964); Canti, mixed chorus, 1971; Choral Sym. no.3 (Lazarof), A, Bar, SATB, orch, 1994; Encounters with Dylan Thomas, S, chbr ens, 1997; In Celebration (Sym. no.4) (G. van Swieten, S.T. Coleridge, Bible: Ecclesiastes, Ps xcviii), mixed chorus, orch (1998)

Chbr: Str Qt no.2, 1961–2; Inventions, va, pf, 1962; Tempi concertati, vn, va, 7 insts, 1964; Concertino da camera, ww qnt (1965); Rhapsody, vn, pf, 1966, orchd 1969; Espaces (Chbr Conc.), 2 fl, cl, b cl, 2 vn, 2 vc, 2 pf, 1966; Cadence III, vn, 2 perc, 1970; Continuum, str trio, 1970; Adieu, cl/b cl, pf, 1974; Chbr Conc. no.3, 12 solo insts, 1974; Suite, perc, 5 insts, 1975; Intonazione, 2 pf (1981); Fanfare, 6 C-tpt (1982); Serenade, str sextet (1986); Octet ‘La laurenziana’, str (1988); Varianti, 4 hn (1988); Pf Trio, 1989; Divertimento II, cl, hn, vn, va, vc, pf, 1991; Prayers, 10 players, 1991; Duo solitaire, vn, vc, 1992; Lucerniana, cl, b cl, hn, hp, vn, vc, pf/cel, 2 perc, 1992; Divertimento III, vn, str qt/str qts/str orch (1993); Necompe, 8 perc (1993); Impromptus, str qt (1995); Offrande, cl, vn, va, vc, pf, 1996; Preludes and Interludes to a Drama, fl, ob, 2 cl, bn, hn, tpt, perc, vn, va, vc (1996); Str Qt no.4, 1996; Invenzione concertata, brass qnt, 1997; Str Qnt, 1997; Antiphonies, brass, perc (1997); Chronicles, str trio (1997)

Solo inst: Largo, org (1963); Lamenti, org, 1965; Cadence I, vc (1970); Cadence IV, pf (1977); Intonazione e variazione, org, 1980; Vox, org (1981); Chronicles, pf, 1982; Lyric Suite, vn (1984); Momenti, vc (1988); Intrada, hn, 1995; 6 Bagatelles, va, 1997

Works with tape: Quantetti, pf, tape, 1963; Cadence II (Cadence for Milton), va, tape, 1969; Partita, brass qnt, tape, 1971; Cadence V, fl, tape, 1972; Cadence VI, tuba, tape, 1973; Concertazioni, tpt, 6 insts, tape, 1973

Principal publishers: Presser, Associated, Bote & Bock, Israeli Music Publications

SCOTT WHEELER

Lazarus, Henry

(b London, 1 Jan 1815; d London, 6 March 1895). English clarinettist and basset-horn player. He held a unique position in the musical life of Victorian England, playing in every important festival and series of concerts during his 54-year career. He was educated at the Royal Military Asylum in Chelsea, where he studied the clarinet with the bandmaster John Blizzard. He then became assistant to Charles Godfrey, bandmaster of the Coldstream Guards. After ten years’ service he bought his discharge and joined the Duke of Devonshire's private band.

Lazarus's first solo appearance was in a supporting role at Mme Dulcken's concert of 2 May 1838 at the Hanover Square Rooms. He soon became a prominent figure at all the regular chamber music concerts, and his many appearances as a soloist with the Philharmonic Society date from 1844. It was not until Joseph Williams retired from the society as the orchestra's first clarinet that Lazarus was able to take up this position; from 1841 to 1860 he had had to be content with that of second clarinet. However, he had long associations as principal with the Royal Italian Opera (1838–83) and the Birmingham Festival (1840–85), and he also played for the Sacred Harmonic Society Concerts.

Lazarus was no less successful as a teacher, his most important pupil being Charles Draper. In 1854 he was appointed to the staff of the RAM and in 1858 to Kneller Hall. His New and Modern Method was published in 1881, and when the RCM was opened in 1883 he became its first clarinet professor. He retired from playing in 1891 and from teaching in 1894.

Lazarus used a variety of clarinets, beginning with a simple-system pair by Key, changing to ones by Fieldhouse to which he added ingenious Boehm improvements, and finishing with a pair by Albert. Although he never owned a Boehm clarinet he used a Boehm basset-horn and recommended the system to his pupils. His elegant style and pure tone were ideally suited to the occasional pieces in vogue at the time, but his more important contribution lay in the great number of larger-scale chamber works and obbligatos which he introduced to the public. Composers who dedicated works to him include Arthur Clappé, Hamilton Clarke, Charles Swinnerton Heap, Charles Oberthür, George Osborne, James Waterson and Joseph Williams. Lazarus himself was also a prolific composer of fantasias, cavatinas and variations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G.B. Shaw: Music in London 1890–94, ii (London, 1932/R), 109–10

J. Brymer: ‘Henry Lazarus’, The Clarinet, no.2 (1950), 15–17; no.24 (1956), 18–20

P. Weston: Clarinet Virtuosi of the Past (London, 1971)

P. Weston: ‘Lazarus' Instrument Collection’, National Association of College Wind and Percussion Instructors' Journal, xxiii/2 (1974–5), 3–7

P. Weston: More Clarinet Virtuosi of the Past (London, 1977)

PAMELA WESTON

Lazzari [Lazari], Ferdinando Antonio

(b Bologna, March 1678; d Bologna, 19 April 1754). Italian composer and organist. He entered the Franciscan order in Bologna on 29 September 1693. While still a novice he was pressed into service both as a singer and an organist; it seems probable that the absence of his name from the monastery registers for several years after this was due to his having been sent away to study music further, a supposition strengthened by the fact that on his return to the monastery in Bologna in 1702 he was immediately named magistero della cappella of S Francesco (31 May 1702). He retained this position until the end of 1705, when he became maestro di cappella of S Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, Venice. In 1712 Lazzari was invited to return to Bologna to participate in festivities on the canonization of St Catherine of Bologna; his music for the occasion was performed on 12 July. He returned to his post in Venice, but after an illness which severely damaged his eyesight he received permission to return to his native Bologna, where he remained until his death.

WORKS

Crudelissimi regnantis, motet for the Feast of Holy Innocents, 8vv, 2 tpt, 2 vn, violetta, vc, org, I-Bc*; 5 motets, chorus, orch A-Wn

Sonata a 6, I-Bsp

Orats: Mosè gittato nel Nilo, Foligno 1700; S Maria Maddalena de'Pazzi, Bologna, 1704; L'innocenza diffesa da S Antonio da Padova, Cremona, 1705: lost

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

La MusicaD

L. Busi: Il Padre G.B. Martini (Bologna, 1891/R), 232ff

NONA PYRON

Lazzari, (Joseph) Sylvio [Silvio; Lazzari, Josef Fortunat Sylvester]

(b Bozen [Bolzano], 30 Dec 1857; d Suresnes, nr Paris, 10 June 1944). French composer of Austro-Italian parentage. The only son of a wealthy family, he travelled widely during his youth and entered the Paris Conservatoire in 1883, studying with Gounod, Guiraud and later Franck. He became a French national in 1896. Respected as a conductor, he held several posts in French theatres including the Gaîté-Lyrique in Paris. His most important works are his songs and operas. From the outset his music displays a seriousness of purpose and employs Wagnerian and Franckian devices. The songs are never mere salon pieces, and often set poetry of some complexity. The early piano pieces, such as the Suite op.14, are dense in texture and counterpoint and employ some Baroque pastiche, while the songs are perhaps closest to those of Duparc.

Armor was the first of several operas set in Brittany, and its prélude was widely performed as a concert piece. La lépreuse, which several critics considered Lazzari’s finest work, is based on a Breton legend concerning a young girl afflicted with leprosy. Breton folk melodies are employed and unaccompanied plainsong from the requiem mass is introduced as well as a carillon scene as the girl and her lover die. Its original title caused some scandal and was later modified to L’ensorcelé. La tour de feu, the first opera to use cinema as an integral part, also has a Breton theme, it was revived in Innsbruck in 1984.

In contrast to these operas on naturalistic themes, Lazzari also produced a series of abstract instrumental works, among which the Violin Sonata, the String Quartet, the Symphony and the wind Octet are constructed from a complex interplay of motives and display a concern for thematic unity. The symphonic poem Effet de nuit is clearly reminiscent of the language of Wagner’s Tristan and of Franck’s pieces in a similar genre. In the late 1920s Lazzari composed some film music, but even in this he did not abandon his chromatic style.

WORKS

operas

Lulu (pantomime, 1, F. Champsaur), Paris, May 1889

Armor (3, E. Jaubert), 1896, Prague, Landes, 7 Nov 1898, F-Po, vs (Paris, 1897)

La lépreuse [L'ensorcelé] (tragédie légendaire, 3, H. Bataille), 1900–1, OC (Favart), 7 Feb 1912, Pn; (Paris, 1912)

Melaenis (5, G. Spitzmüller, after L. Bouilhet), 1907, Mulhouse, Municipal, 25 March 1927, vs (Paris and Leipzig, 1913)

Le sauteriot (drame lyrique, 3, H.P. Roché and M. Périer, after E. de Keyserling), 1913–15, Chicago, Opera, 19 Jan 1918, Po, vs (Paris, 1920)

La tour de feu (drame lyrique, 3, Lazzari), 1925, Paris, Opéra, 28 Jan 1928, Po, vs (Paris, 1928)

vocal

1 voice, piano, unless otherwise stated

Vieux motif (L.B.) (1884); L’amour d’après Ninette (G. Richard) (1887); A l’absente (P. Verlaine, J. Lahor, anon.), 6 songs (1892); L’oiseau; Au printemps; La jeune fille et la rose (Lazzari), 4vv, pf (1893); 3 mélodies (P. Verlaine, L. Bowitsch, L. Benedite), op.19 (1894); L’automne (A. de Lamartine), 3vv, pf ad lib (1894); 3 duos (Lazzari), op.21, S, Bar, pf (1894); 2 poèmes (M. Dumont, P. Verlaine), op.30 (1901), no.1 orchd; Apparition (S. Mallarmé) (1903), also orchd; 3 poésies d’E. Blémont d’après H. Heine (1906); Le cavalier d’Olmedo (after L. de Vega) (1918), also orchd; Le nouveau Christ (H. Bataille) (1918), arr. Bar, orch; La fontaine de pitié (Bataille) (1920), also orchd

Green (Verlaine) (1920); Le cavalier (Saint-Georges de Bouhélier) (1921), also orchd; Chanson sur la fleuve (The Thousand and One Nights) (1921); Elle l’enchaîna dans une grotte (M. Maeterlinck) (1921), also orchd; Sur l’eau (T. Klingsor) (1921); Les yeux (Bataille) (1923), also orchd; Chanson d’amour et de souci; Chanson du meunier, also orchd; Le chien de Jean de Nivelle (Klingsor) (1923), also orchd; Chanson de Marguerite dans la prison (after J.W. von Goethe) (1923); Les étoiles bleues (M. Rollinat) (1923); Qu’importe (A. Silvestre) (1926); Berceuse triste; L’oubli (Klingsor) (1927); Chanson du mendiant (1928), also orchd; Langueur nocturne (Lahor) (1930)

instrumental

Orch: Concertstück, op.18, pf, orch, 1887, (1894) F-Pn; Marche pour une fête joyeuse (1903); Effet de nuit, tableau symphonique after Verlaine, orch (1904); Sym., e (1914); Rapsodie, vn, orch (1922); Suite, F, op.23, 1922; Faust (incid music, Goethe) (1925); pieces for salon orch, incl. Perdu en mer (1926), Escualdune (visions basques) (1927), Fête bretonne (1927), La chanson du moulin (1928), Cortège nocturne (1929)

Chbr: Pf Trio, op.13 (1889); Sonata, op.24, vn, pf (1894); Str Qt, op.17a (1904); Barcarolle, vc, pf (1912); Octet, op.20, fl, ob, cl, eng hn, 2 bn, 2 hn (1920); Scherzo, vn, pf (1931)

Pf: Valse brilliante, op.4 (1884); Valses caractéristiques (1886–8); Suite, op.14 (1891); 3 pièces, op.16 (1892); 2 miniatures (1895); Petite esquisse (1903); Rapsodie hongroise, 4 hands (1903); Romanzetta, 1923; Cordace (Danse grecque), pf (1925)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO (R. Langham Smith) [incl. further bibliography]

G. Pioch: ‘Alfred Bruneau, Sylvio Lazzari, Ernest Moret’, Le théâtre lyrique en France (Paris, 1937–9) iii, 37–49 [pubn of Poste National, Radio-Paris]

Information musicale (20 Nov 1942) [incl. several articles on Lazzari]

P. Landormy: La musique française après Debussy (Paris, 1943)

P. Landormy: La musique française de Franck à Debussy (Paris, 1943)

R. Dumesnil: La musique française entre les deux guerres 1919–39 (Geneva, 1946)

P. Bertrand: Le monde de la musique (Geneva, 1947)

G. Samazeuilh: Musiciens de mon temps (Paris, 1947)

W. Asholt: ‘La lépreuse von H. Bataille/S. Lazzari (1896/1912)’, Oper als Text: romanistische Beiträge zur Libretto-Forschung, ed. A. Gier (Heidelberg, 1986), 299–318

RICHARD LANGHAM SMITH

Lazzari, Virgilio

(b Assisi, 20 April 1887; d Castel Gandolfo, 4 Oct 1953). Italian bass, active in the USA. He sang with the Vitale Operetta Company, 1908–11, then studied in Rome with Cotogni. He made his operatic début at the Teatro Costanzi, Rome, in 1914. After singing in South America, in 1917 he made his North American début at Boston, later becoming a naturalized American. He sang in Chicago (1918–33), then made his Metropolitan début as Don Pédro (L’Africaine), remaining with the company until 1951 and singing 20 roles. From 1934 to 1939 he appeared at the Salzburg Festival, where he sang Pistol (Falstaff), Bartolo and Leporello, which he recorded and in which he made his only Covent Garden appearance (1939). His most famous role was that of Archibaldo (Montemezzi’s L’amore dei tre re), which he sang first in 1916 in Mexico City and as late as 1953 in Genoa. Lazzari was considered one of the best singing actors in his particular repertory.

HAROLD ROSENTHAL/R

Lazzarini [Lazarini], Scipione

(b Ancona, c1620; d after 1674). Italian composer and teacher. He was an Augustinian monk and teacher of theology at Ancona, where he also ran a school of music; he was known chiefly as a teacher of composition. His earliest known work is a motet for three voices and continuo, Si linguis hominum (RISM 1646²). Nearly 30 years later he published two collections, both called Motetti a due e tre voci (both Ancona, 1674), as his opp.1 and 2; the second of these (1674¹) includes one work by each of three of his pupils, A.G. Giamaglia, Filippo Giamaglia and M.F. Nascimbeni. In the following year he published Salmi vespertini parte a cinque voci e parte a tre voci e due violini op.3 (Ancona, 1675). The style of the motets is conservative and reflects the polyphonic tradition of the 16th century, which was still current at Ancona. The psalms, however, show some concessions to contemporary practice, particularly in the use of accompanying instruments.

Le.

The sharpened form of Lah in Tonic Sol-fa.

Leach, James

(b Townhead, Lancs., bap. Rochdale, 25 Dec 1761; d Blackley, nr Manchester, 8 Feb 1798). English psalmodist. A handloom weaver by trade, with little education, he devoted his leisure hours to the singing and composition of psalmody for Methodist meetings. Soon after the publication of his first collection in 1789, he became a full-time musician and music teacher. As an alto singer he took part in the Handel Festivals in Westminster Abbey and in other festivals. He moved to Salford about 1795, and died three years later as the result of a stagecoach accident.

Leach was one of the best practitioners of the Methodist style of church music, consisting of florid psalm and hymn tunes and metrical ‘anthems’ or set pieces frankly based on the livelier secular and operatic music of the time. Some of his pieces have instrumental accompaniment (e.g. for two clarinets and figured bass). They have much word repetition, echo effects and so on, but never contain counterpoint with overlapping words; thus they observe Wesley's rule against obscuring the sense. His music was enormously popular, especially at class meetings, love feasts and revival meetings. The three collections, A New Sett of Hymns and Psalm Tunes (London, 1789), A Second Sett of Hymns and Psalm Tunes (London, 1794) and A Collection of Hymn Tunes and Anthems (published posthumously by his widow), were drawn on in countless 19th-century publications, especially in America. Two of them were reprinted in full as late as 1884, with a sketch of the composer's life and work by Thomas Newbigging.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DNB (J.C. Hadden)

T. Newbigging: Memoir, in J. Leach: Psalmody (London, 1884)

NICHOLAS TEMPERLEY

Lead.

The principal line, or player in a band or section of a band. In jazz the term is normally used of the principal line in each of the three wind sections (trumpets, reeds and trombones) of a big band, jazz orchestra or stage band; ‘to take the lead’ or ‘to play lead’ or simply ‘to lead’ means to play the melody or lead line. The lead singer in a rock or pop group typically sings the main melody, and the lead guitarist is responsible for solos and melodic statements.

Leadbelly [Ledbetter, Huddie]

(b Mooringsport, LA, 21 Jan 1885; d New York, 6 Dec 1949). American songster, blues singer and guitarist. By the age of 15 he was well known in the Caddo Lake region of Louisiana as a musician. He learnt to play the 12-string guitar early in the 1900s and accompanied Blind Lemon Jefferson in the streets and bars of Dallas. In 1918 he was sentenced for murder in Texas; reprieved in 1925, he was again sentenced for intent to murder in 1930 to the Louisiana State Penetentiary, in Angola. There he was discovered in 1933 by the folklorist John A. Lomax, who recorded him for the Library of Congress and secured his parole. Leadbelly went to New York with Lomax the following year, and from 1935 to 1940 was extensively recorded for the Library of Congress. These recordings, which are remarkable for their variety, included a beautiful version of Jefferson’s Match Box Blues, played with a knife on the guitar strings, and the haunting If it wasn’t for Dicky (both 1935, Elek.). Among his earliest commercial recordings, made for the American Recording Company, were the powerful Honey I’m all out and down (1935, Mlt.) and the ballad Becky Deem, she was a gamblin’ gal (1935, ARC); although dramatically performed, they were anachronistic to black audiences and did not sell well.

In New York Leadbelly found a welcome audience among jazz supporters, who viewed him as the last of the blues singers, and he had a moderate success as a performer in night-clubs and on college campuses. He was courted by the political left, which prompted his recording The Bourgeois Blues. His Good Morning Blues (1940, Bb), with a spoken introduction defining blues, was his most admired song. In his last years he made a very large number of recordings for specialist folk labels, including several with the virtuoso harmonica player Sonny Terry, notably On a Monday (1943, Asch). During his ‘Last Session’ in 1948 he recorded a free-ranging reminiscence with many traditional and work-songs, among them I ain’t goin’ down to the well no more (1948, FW).

Leadbelly was the most prolific of all songsters and claimed a repertory of 500 songs. He was a notable custodian of the Texan black song tradition, and his work is distinguished for its wide range and variety, his full-throated singing with rough vibrato, and his accomplished, highly rhythmic playing of the 12-string guitar. These features are abundantly evident on an early version of his best-known song, Goodnight Irene (1943, Asch). Among many other songs, Rock Island Line (1949, Playboy), recorded after his return from Paris and shortly before his death, became virtually an anthem of the skiffle craze in England, resulting in a temporary devaluation of his reputation as a musician. In 1975 his life was made the subject of the commercially unsuccessful film Leadbelly, with the singing provided by HiTide Harris.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lead Belly Letter (Ithaca, NY, 1990–) [quarterly]

J.A. Lomax and A. Lomax, eds.: Negro Folk Songs as Sung by Leadbelly (New York, 1936)

M. Jones and A. McCarthy: A Tribute to Huddie Ledbetter (London, 1946)

M. Asch and A. Lomax, eds.: The Leadbelly Songbook (New York, 1962)

J. Lester and P. Seeger: The 12-String Guitar as Played by Leadbelly (New York, 1965)

E. Lambert: ‘Leadbelly's Last Sessions’, JazzM, no.171 [recte 172] (1969), 11–14

P. Oliver: The Story of the Blues (London, 1969/R)

F. Ramsey: Leadbelly: a Great Long Time (New York, 1982)

C. Wolfe and K. Lornell: The Life and Legend of Leadbelly (New York, 1992)

PAUL OLIVER

Leader [concertmaster]

(Fr. chef d'attaque; Ger. Konzertmeister; It. violino primo).

In modern orchestras, the principal first violinist, who sits immediately to the left of the conductor as viewed by the audience. As principal first violinist, the leader has significant but varying duties, often including the marking of parts, liaison between orchestra and management and responsibility for sectional rehearsals; but the precedence accorded to the principal first violinist over the principals of other sections is largely a product of the leader's historical role. Until the early 19th century instrumental music, regardless of the size of the ensemble, was usually directed by one (or more) of the performers. Some degree of direction from the keyboard was common during the 18th century, but there are many references to violin direction (including C.P.E. Bach's account of his father's preference for that method), and it became more pervasive with the gradual abandonment of the keyboard continuo during the later 18th century. Reichardt in 1776 (Ueber die Pflichten des Ripien-Violinisten) envisaged a violinist-director (Anführer). Dittersdorf and Haydn led their symphonies from the violin, and Clement and Schuppanzigh exercised the same role at concerts in Vienna around 1800. Even in the opera house direction from the first violin was common at the beginning of the 19th century. In some places control was shared between a keyboard player (or time beater), who paid attention to the singers, and a leader who directed the orchestra; this system survived in Italy until the mid-19th century. When Spohr went to Gotha as Konzertmeister in 1805 he found a co-Konzertmeister who directed from the keyboard in vocal music, but played viola in purely instrumental pieces; Spohr directed these from the violin and soon assumed control of vocal performances too. About the same time Gottfried Weber (AMZ, ix, 1806–7, col.805) advocated replacing direction from the violin or the keyboard with direction by the baton, as at the Paris Opéra. Spohr was among those who abandoned the violin for the baton; he employed it in rehearsal with the London Philharmonic Society in 1820 (where joint direction by a leader and a keyboard player was the norm until the 1830s), but, unable to persuade them to accept this method in public, he directed the performance as leader. At the Leipzig Gewandhaus, direction from the violin remained until Mendelssohn took over as conductor in 1835, and, in Mendelssohn's absence, concerts were still occasionally directed by the leader, Ferdinand David. The transition to baton conducting took place at different times in different parts of Europe, but by the middle of the 19th century leaders had mostly assumed their modern subordinate position.

The leader of a jazz band is the musician who ‘fronts’ or organizes the band.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Carse: The Orchestra in the XVIIIth Century (Cambridge, 1940/R)

A. Carse: The Orchestra from Beethoven to Berlioz (Cambridge, 1948/R)

A. Jacobs: ‘Spohr and the Baton’, ML, xxxi (1950), 307–17

D.K. Holoman: ‘The Emergence of the Orchestral Conductor in Paris in the 1830s’, Music in Paris in the Eighteen-Thirties: Northampton, MA, 1982, 374–430

C. Brown: Louis Spohr: a Critical Biography (Cambridge, 1984)

C. Brown: ‘The Orchestra in Beethoven's Vienna’, EMc, xvi (1988), 4–20

M. Chusid: ‘A Letter by the Composer about Giovanna d'Arco and some Remarks on the Division of Musical Direction in Verdi's Day’, Performance Practice Review, iii (1990), 7–57; rev. in Studi Verdiani, vii (1991), 12–56

L. Jensen: ‘The Emergence of the Modern Conductor in Nineteenth-Century Italian Opera’,Performance Practice Review, iv (1991), 34–63

D. Charlton: ‘ “A maître d'orchestre … conducts”: New and Old Evidence on French Practice’, EMc, xxi (1993), 340–53

CLIVE BROWN

Leading note

(Fr. [note] sensible; Ger. Leitton; It. [nota] sensibile; Lat. subsemitonium).

The seventh Degree of the major, harmonic minor, or ascending melodic minor scale, so called because it lies a semitone below the tonic and therefore has a strong tendency to lead up to it. In medieval monophony leading-note resolutions were infrequent, being confined to pieces in the Lydian and Hypolydian modes. With the development of polyphony in the late Middle Ages and Renaissance, however, the note immediately below the final tended to be sharpened in practice (see Musica ficta), and leading-note motion became an identifying feature of the Cadence. In the major–minor tonal system this resolution could itself imply a harmonic progression V–I; for this reason the leading note may be thought of as the most characteristic melodic scale degree.

Some writers use the term ‘upper leading note’ for the flattened supertonic, or the natural second degree when it lies a semitone above the tonic or final (e.g. in the Phrygian mode). One also encounters ‘leading harmony’, a term conceived by analogy with ‘leading note’ to mean any harmony that behaves like a Dominant in its inclination towards resolution on the tonic.

League of Composers.

An organization founded in 1923 in New York by members of the International Composers’ Guild to promote the composition and performance of contemporary music. Before it merged with the US section of the ISCM in 1954, the league had commissioned 110 works by outstanding American and European composers (including Copland, Bartók and Barber), sponsored American stage premières of Stravinsky’s The Rite of Spring, Oedipus rex and The Wedding, and presented some of the first radio broadcasts of contemporary music sponsored by the Pan American Association of Composers. It also gave concerts and receptions honouring Schoenberg, Hindemith, Milhaud and other composers who had recently emigrated to the USA. Its quarterly Modern Music (1924–46/R) contained critical reviews of new works and articles by leading composers. The executive chairmen were Claire R. Reis (1923–48) and Copland (1948–50). The League/ISCM has presented premières and significant performances of music by such composers as Schoenberg, Berg, Webern, Stravinsky, Copland, Schuman, Cowell, Thompson, Moore, Cage, Druckman, Shapey, Davidovsky, Carter, Babbitt, Wuorinen, Perle and Martino. In 1976 it helped organize the World Music Days in Boston. The organization also sponsors an annual National Composers Competition, recordings of contemporary music and an annual concert series in New York.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C.R. Reis: Composers, Conductors, and Critics (New York, 1955/R)

M. Meckna: ‘Copland, Sessions, and Modern Music: the Rise of the Composer-Critic in America’, American Music, iii (1985), 198–204

RITA H. MEAD/R

Leal, Eleutério Franco

(b ?Lisbon, c1758; d Lisbon, c1840). Portuguese composer. He taught in the seminário (choir school) of Lisbon Cathedral and was cathedral mestre de capela from about 1780 until 1819, when he was retired because of chronic illness. His surviving music is in a fluent italianate style resembling that of David Perez. Regras de acompanhar, his treatise on accompanying for use in the seminário, consists mainly of examples and contrapuntal exercises progressing from two to four parts in all keys containing up to four sharps or flats.

WORKS

Mass, 4vv, org; 8 vesper pss and Mag, 4vv, org; all P-EVc

In convertendo, 4vv, bc, La

3 masses, 4vv, org; 3 vesper pss, 4vv, org; all Lf

Cr, 4vv, insts; Responsory for Matins of Our Lady, 4vv, 2 vc, org, 1817: both Ln

Regras de acompanhar, para uso do Real seminario da Santa Igreja Patriarchal, Ln

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DBP

M.A. Machado Santos, ed.: Biblioteca da Ajuda: catálogo de música manuscrita, iii (Lisbon, 1960), 23–4

J.A. Alegria: Arquivo das músicas da Sé de Évora: catálogo (Lisbon, 1973), 25, 31

ROBERT STEVENSON

Leap [skip]

(Ger. Sprung; Fr. saut; It. taglio).

A melodic interval greater than a major 2nd, in contrast to a step. Melodic lines that move by leap are called ‘disjunct’.

Lear [née Shulman], Evelyn

(b Brooklyn, NY, 8 Jan 1926). American soprano. She studied at the Juilliard School and later in Berlin. Engaged by the Berlin Städtische (later Deutsche) Oper, she made her début in 1959 as the Composer. In 1961 she created the title role in Klebe’s Alkmene in Berlin and in 1963 Jeanne in Die Verlobung in San Domingo at the opening celebrations of the rebuilt Nationaltheater, Munich. She made her Metropolitan début as Lavinia in the first performance of Mourning Becomes Electra (1967). With her first performance in Vienna of Berg’s Lulu in 1962 she became closely associated with the role, singing it in London with the Hamburg company that year and recording it under Böhm. She made her Covent Garden début in 1965 as Donna Elvira. Her repertory included both Cherubino and Countess Almaviva, Fiordiligi, Pamina, Handel’s Cleopatra, Mimì, Desdemona, Tatyana, Marie (Wozzeck), Emilia Marty and Octavian. From 1972 she began to undertake heavier roles, including Tosca and the Marschallin. She created Arkadina in Pasatieri’s The Seagull (1974), Magda in Robert Ward’s Minutes to Midnight (1982) and Ranyevskaya in Kelterborn’s Kirschgarten (1984, Zürich). Her voice, though not large, was of distinctively warm and affecting quality, well produced and projected. In 1985 she made her farewell at the Metropolitan as the Marschallin and sang Countess Geschwitz at Florence, repeating the role in Chicago (1987) and San Francisco (1989). Lear was also a distinguished recitalist, singing in seven languages. She married the baritone Thomas Stewart.

HAROLD ROSENTHAL/R

Leardini, Alessandro

(b Urbino; fl 1643–62). Italian composer. He wrote two intermezzos for the opera La finta savia (libretto by Giulio Strozzi; remainder of music by Laurenzi, Merula, G.B. Crivelli, B. Ferrari and V. Tozzi), performed at Venice in 1643. His Argiope (text by P. Micheli and G.B. Fusconi) was given there in 1649, but it may already have been composed for Carnival 1646. In one anthology (RISM 1648¹) he is described as being in the service of ‘Cavaliere Sforza’, probably Francesco Maria Sforza (1612–80), a Knight of Malta from 1634 and later Marquis of Caravagio. The motet by him in that collection is representative of the new progressive style of Roman church music. He was maestro di cappella at the Mantuan court from at least 1649 to 1652; in 1649 his opera Psiche (libretto by D. Gabrielli; music in I-Vnm) was performed there on the occasion of the marriage of the Duke of Mantua. The occasional, courtly nature of Psiche accounts for its considerable use of the chorus, its instrumental writing for up to six parts and possibly also its wealth of arias. In 1651 Leardini’s Introduzzione al balletto dei dodeci Cesari Augusti (text by A. Tarachia) was performed at Mantua, and in 1652 his Festa della barriera (devised by P.E. degli Obizzi; music lost) was given at the Teatro Grande there. Four solo cantatas, dated 1662 (?recte 1652), also survive (in I-MOe).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

A. Tarachia: Feste celebrate in Mantova alla venuta de’ serenissimi Arciduci Ferdinando Carlo e Sigismondo Francesco d’Austria, et Arciduchessa Anna Medici (Mantua, 1652)

A.M. Monterosso Vacchelli: ‘“Psiche”, tragicommedia di Alessandro Leardini’, Scritti in onore di Luigi Ronga (Milan and Naples, 1973), 389–414

JEROME ROCHE

Lebah, I Madé

(b Peliatan, ?1912; d Denpasar, 18 Nov 1996). Balinese musician. As a youth he travelled slightly south to the village of Sukawati, where he learnt the legong dance repertory from one of its primary exponents, Dewa Ketut Blacing, and then taught it to the gamelan in his own village, Peliatan, in Bali's south-central regency of Gianyar. He also worked closely with the celebrated composer I Wayan Lotring. Lebah was especially renowned as a drummer for legong and for the delicate gamelan accompaniment to performances of arja theatre. In 1931 the Dutch administration in Bali sent the Peliatan gamelan group, of which he was a leading member, to perform at the Exposition Coloniale Internationale in Paris. Throughout the 1930s Lebah was a principal collaborator with Colin McPhee, the composer-musicologist who lived and worked on Bali. The two thoroughly explored the musical life of the island, an experience that provided Lebah with unusually extensive first-hand knowledge. He travelled abroad again in 1952 on a highly successful tour organized by the British entrepreneur John Coast that impressed the intricacy of Balinese music and dance on the world. He continued to teach into the 1980s; among his students were many foreigners who subsequently taught Balinese music in their home countries.

MICHAEL TENZER

Le Bailly, Henry [Bailly, Henry du; Bailly, Henry de]

(d Paris, 25 Sept 1637). French composer, lutenist and singer. He worked at the court of Henry IV, where he was valet de chambre du roi et maître joueur de luth (1601), and at the court of Louis XIII. According to Jean Héroard, doctor to the young Louis XIII, the child king liked hearing Le Bailly sing songs to him to help him sleep. He was listed as musicien ordinaire du Roy in 1627, and until he retired in favour of Paul Auget in January 1625 he was, jointly with Antoine Boësset, surintendant of the music of the chambre du roy. He took part in several ballets de cour at least until 1622, including the Ballet de la follie (1614), the Ballet de Madame (1615, also known as the Ballet de Minerve) and the Ballet de Monsieur le Prince (1615). Two songs that he wrote for them were printed in Gabriel Bataille’s Airs mis en tablature de luth (Paris, 1614–15), and three others in Jacques Mangeant’s Recueil des plus beaux airs (Caen, 1615). Marin Mersenne, in the chapter ‘De l’art d’embellir’ in his Traité de l’harmonie universelle (Paris, 1627), gives an example of Le Bailly’s ornamentations for Boösset’s song N’espérez plus mes yeux (example in E.T. Ferand: Improvisation in Nine Centuries of Western Music, Mw, xii, 1956; Eng. trans., 1961). Mersenne and others testify to the admiration felt for Le Bailly by his contemporaries, and 30 years after his death his memory was still fresh. Bénigne de Bacilly, in his Remarques curieuses sur l’art de bien chanter (Paris, 1668/R, 4/1681; Eng. trans., 1968) cited him as someone ‘à qui l’on doit la première invention des passages et diminutions’.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. McGowan: L’art du ballet de cour en France (1581–1643) (Paris, 1963)

G. Durosoir: L’air de cour en France (1571–1655) (Liège, 1991)

AUSTIN B. CASWELL, GEORGIE DUROSOIR

Lebano, Felice

(b Palermo, 1867; d Buenos Aires, 1916). Italian harpist and composer. He completed his musical education at the Naples Conservatory, studying the harp under Alfonso Scotti (1805–89), whom he succeeded at the conservatory. He resigned in 1886 to play in the principal cities of Europe, later extending his concert tours to include Brazil, Uruguay and Chile. He settled in Buenos Aires and accepted a professorship at the conservatory there. His compositions, all for harp, include Serenata andalusa, Serenata, Pensiero poetico, two polonaises and many transcriptions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

B. Bagatti: Arpa e arpisti (Piacenza, 1932), 65

M.G. Scimeca: L’arpa nella storia (Bari, 1938), 154

A.N. Schirinzi: L’arpa storia di un antico strumento (Milan, 1961), 110

ALICE LAWSON ABER-COUNT

Lebanon.

Country in the Middle East. It has a population of 3.29 million (2000 estimate) and an area of 10,452 km² and is bordered by Syria to the north and east, the Mediterranean Sea to the west and Israel to the south. Several major cities, including the capital, Beirut, are located on Lebanon's coastal strip west of the Mt Lebanon range. Further to the east is the fertile Biqa valley, and on the border with Syria is another mountain range, known as the Anti-Lebanon. Its population lives in rural villages and in cities, to which many village dwellers have migrated in recent decades. Its economy, which was adversely affected by the Lebanese civil war (1975–1990), is based on agriculture, commerce and tourism; Lebanon enjoys a mild Mediterranean climate. The official language is Arabic, and the country's population includes Christians, Muslims and Druzes, as well as members of other faiths. Lebanon has been noted for its openness to the West over many centuries and its highly cosmopolitan social life.

The cultural history of Lebanon is linked to that of the broader Middle East and reflects the influence of the social and political forces that have dominated the region. At the same time, given its internal cultural variety and its insular geographic terrain, Lebanon maintains a distinct legacy of folk and liturgical practices. Since Lebanon gained independence from the French in 1943, its pedagogical institutions, composers and performers have contributed substantially to its musical life.

I. Historical background

II. Religious traditions

III. Folk traditions

IV. Modern developments

ALI JIHAD RACY

I. Historical background

An account of the development of music in ancient Lebanon is difficult to construct particularly because primary sources are scarce. However, inferences can be made on the basis of extant artifacts, visual depictions, literary texts and evidence of contacts across the Middle East. For example, the seafaring Phoenicians, a Canaanite, Semitic people who formed coastal city-states on the shores of Lebanon as far back as the 3rd millennium bce, appear to have employed music and dance extensively in religious rituals, funeral rites and festive processions honouring specific deities (see Jewish music, §II, 3). Ancient references and terracotta female figurines from the period post-1000 bce indicate that the instruments used included the kennārā (lyre), the flute, the frame drum and the cymbals.

Furthermore, significant exchange of artists and musical artifacts existed among neighbouring civilizations, including those of ancient Egypt (see Egypt, §I), ancient Greece (see Greece, §I) and the biblical area of Palestine (see Jewish music, §II). Contacts also appear to have existed with Mesopotamia, notably during the periods of Assyrian, Babylonian and Persian rule. Ancient Mesopotamia is believed to have developed a thriving musical culture, which influenced the musics of both ancient Egypt and Greece.

Following the conquest of Alexander the Great in 332 bce, the culture of the eastern Mediterranean region assimilated various Greek influences. Later, under Roman rule, the cults of various Roman gods and goddesses and the musical practices associated with each of these cults became prevalent. At the same time, the development of Greco-Roman culture was influenced by certain eastern Mediterranean rituals, notably those connected with Adonis, deity of Byblos, a coastal town known as Jbail in modern Lebanon. Objects excavated in Lebanon from this era depict festive music-making, using instruments such as the aulos (double pipe), the lyre, the harp, the panpipes and the tambourine.

The ascent and gradual decline of the Byzantine empire was followed by the Arab conquest, which led to the establishment of the Umayyad dynasty (660–750 ce). During this period, Lebanese culture assimilated new music-related practices and institutions, particularly under the influence of Islam. During the succeeding Abbasid era (750–1258), Arab music and poetry flourished in the courts of Baghdad; non-Arab, especially Persian, influences were also important (see Iran, §II). The economic life of Lebanon prospered under the Abbasids, and this period saw the crystallization of many of the country's religious, especially Christian, liturgical practices still in use at the beginning of the 21st century.

During the European Crusades (1096–1291), the Maronite Christian community in Lebanon came into direct contact with the French. Following the period of rule of the Mamluks and the subsequent fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks, who ruled the eastern Mediterranean as part of their larger empire (1516–1914), the region's music came under direct Ottoman influence. Ottoman musical culture is usually associated with mehter (Janissary military bands), the influence of Sufi orders on musical practice, the organization of various manual (including musical) crafts under professional guilds and the development of an influential Ottoman court music (see Ottoman music).

The late Ottoman period in particular witnessed a rise of Western political, religious and musical influence in Lebanon. In 1866 American missionaries established the Protestant Syrian College, later called the American University of Beirut. In 1873 Edwin Lewis, an American missionary and professor at the college, wrote a short theoretical treatise in English explaining Arab music theory to Westerners interested in the music of the Middle East, and the first Protestant hymnal in Arabic was introduced, incorporating an introduction in Arabic outlining the theory of Western music and enabling Arabic speakers to interpret the notation of Western hymn tunes. The Lebanese Christian Mikhā'īl mushāqa proposed a division of the octave into 24 equal quarter tones, which was frequently contested. During the late Ottoman period, Western band instruments also became widely known in Lebanon; for example, contemporary accounts indicate that during 1908 an Ottoman band performed every Friday at the garden pavilion of Burj (later Martyrs) Square in Beirut. The early 20th century also witnessed the appearance of commercial sound recording and the rise of several locally active record companies, such as Baida Records (later Baidaphon), which was established by members of a Beiruti family around 1910.

II. Religious traditions

1. Christian.

The Christian Lebanese are usually considered under four distinct denominational categories.

(a) A group of ‘uniate’ Christians comprises approximately 37% of Lebanon's population. These Christians are united in terms of their acceptance of the Catholic faith but also maintain their own rites, which may be in different languages. This group includes the Maronites (approximately 30% of the country's population), who identify with the Syrian St Maron (Mārūn, d c410); the Greek Catholics, also known as Melkites or locally as ‘Catholics’, who identify with Rome but retain certain liturgical ties with the Antiochian Orthodox Church (approximately 6% of the country's population); and other smaller groups, including the Syrian Catholics, the Armenian Catholics and the Chaldeans. (See also Syrian church music.)

(b) Eastern Christians are theologically and ritually separate from the Roman papacy and include Orthodox Christians (also called Greek Orthodox), specifically those affiliated with the Antiochian patriarchate (approximately 10% of Lebanon's population); members of the Armenian Church (also known as the Gregorian Church); Nestorians, or followers of the Eastern or Assyrian Church; and Syrian Jacobites. The last two sects constitute very small minorities and use the Syriac language in their rites.

(c) Roman Catholics, locally known as ‘Latins’, follow the edicts of the Vatican and use a Roman-based liturgy. They comprise less than 1% of the country's population.

(d) Protestants also comprise less than 1% of the country's population.

The Christian liturgies display significant variety. For example, some of the Eastern-based denominations, in particular the Syrian Orthodox (Jacobite) and Assyrian churches, attribute a separate group of madrāshā (strophic hymns) to St Ephraem (c306–73), a renowned hymnodist, poet and commentator on religious texts. The Maronite liturgy, which uses the ancient Syriac language and also used Arabic after the Islamic conquest of Syria in 638, has essentially been transmitted orally, although transcriptions were undertaken by the French musicologist and Benedictine Dom Jean Parisot in the 19th century and by others. By the end of the 20th century, there were five somewhat distinct categories of Maronite chant: Syro-Maronite chant, which is many centuries old; Syro-Maronite-Arabic chant, with Syriac-based melodies and Arabic texts; melodic improvisations by a soloist using texts in Syriac or Arabic; original melodies based upon Western, Arab or Syriac models or a combination of these, with texts in classical Arabic; and melodies deriving from other liturgical or ethnic sources, notably Western melodies. In general, the singing is monophonic, and strophic structure and conjunct motion are typical. Although the formal performances are purely vocal, on certain festive occasions a hand-held bell or double bell, cymbals and a marwaha (a circular plaque to which rattling rings are attached) may be used.

The liturgical tradition of the Orthodox Church similarly derives from earlier religious practices. The origins of the neo-Byzantine chant in use by the end of the 20th century may be traced to the 13th century; the chant took its later form under the influence of Middle Eastern music, particularly the Ottoman modal tradition. In 1832 its theory and practice were codified by the Greek archbishop and music scholar Chrysanthos of Madytos in the light of contemporary musical practice. Similarly, in Lebanon the deacon, composer and scholar Mitrī al-Murr (1880–1969) provided a systematic compilation of older chants that were translated from Greek to Arabic (which became the official language of the local liturgy), accompanied by his own corrections and compositions. The liturgy incorporates chants, recitations and regular speech and tends to allow a degree of musical improvisation and melismatic elaboration by the soloist, often to the accompaniment of a vocal drone or ison (a Greek term referring both to the tonic of the melody and to the sustained note as such). The Orthodox Church maintains a neumatic system of notation, which was modified at various times during the past several centuries; it was rendered more accessible by the work of Chrysanthos in the early 19th century and elucidated further in Lebanon by the archimandrite and modern Byzantine theorist Antūn Hibbī. As Hibbī explained, the liturgical system follows the Chrysanthian practice of dividing the octave into 68 commas or small pitch units that form the various non-tempered intervals. Furthermore, the melodic material is based on a system of eight modes or ‘tunes’ (oktōēchos), at least some of which are directly equated with individual Arab-Turkish maqāmāt (melodic modes).

2. Muslim.

The Muslim community in Lebanon is represented by the two main branches of Islam, namely the Sunnites or Sunnis (followers of orthodox Islam) and the Shi‘as, who pay special homage to ‘Alī, the Prophet's cousin, son-in-law and fourth successor (see Islamic religious music). In both sects, the fundamental duties of Islam are followed and the Qur'an is revered as God's word revealed through his messenger, the Prophet Muhammad. Islamic devotion places great emphasis upon Qur'anic chanting, a practice that lies beyond traditional definitions of music and is generically known as tajwīd or tilāwa (‘recitation’). Performed on a variety of solemn occasions, chanting is improvised by a soloist without any accompaniment or metric pattern and is performed in accordance with the established system of melodic modes. The recitations typically consist of phrases followed by brief pauses and may vary in the manner of delivery; the murattal style is like a recitative, while the mujawwad style is highly florid and melismatic.

The adhān (‘call to prayer’) is similarly of great importance. It is traditionally performed from the minarets five times each day by one caller, who uses a specific text and improvises the melody to a certain extent, following a somewhat stylized melodic outline based upon the Arab modal tradition. A prominent figure among the Beiruti Sunnis is Shaykh Salāh al-Dīn Kabbāra, who trained at the Islamic al-Azhar University in Cairo and became an adept chanter of both the Qur'an and the adhān.

Semi-liturgical, for example Sufi, or mystical chants can also be heard, especially on religious holidays and during the fasting month of Ramadan. Such chants may be broadcast from minaret loudspeakers or on the radio and generally include the religious qasīda (poem), which is soloistic and improvised and uses a spiritual poem as text. The tawshīh is also performed; this has a mystical text and is predominantly precomposed. It consists basically of alternations between a munshid (lead religious singer), who performs melismatic and rhythmically flexible solo verses, and a bitānah (religious chorus), the members of which generally sing in a more syllabic and rhythmically regular style.

Among the Shi‘as, most of whom have traditionally lived in southern Lebanon and the Biqa valley, a ceremony is held annually to commemorate the martyrdom of the Prophet's grandson Husayn in the city of Karbala in 680 ce. This ceremony is known as ‘āshūrā’ or ta‘ziya (‘consolation’) and incorporates a type of passion play depicting the martyrdom and a form of chant narrating the tragic event and expressing the community's profound sense of sorrow.

3. Druze.

The Druzes comprise about 6% of the population of Lebanon and live mainly in mountain villages. The Druze religious sect originated as an offshoot of Ismā‘īlī Islam in the 11th century but is generally considered religiously distinct. Within this community, which is known for its conservatism, tightly-knit social structure and emphasis on chivalry and honour, religious doctrines are accessible only to the ‘uqqāl (religious initiates). Devotional practices tend to be private, often taking place at the khalwāt (the initiates' secluded places of worship). Prayers also occur at funerals, being performed at the place of burial by a shaykh (religious person), who begins to chant alone and is subsequently joined by other shaykhs.

III. Folk traditions

Traditional secular music in Lebanon may be studied in terms of three closely related traditions.

1. Rural.

Lebanese villagers may sing to express love or voice social criticism while reaping their crops or threshing wheat. A mother may sing a tahnīn (lullaby) to her child, and a shepherd may entertain himself by playing the minjayra or the mijwiz. The minjayra is a flute made from either reed or metal, which is held diagonally; the player may place it against his lips or may put the end in his mouth against his upper front teeth. The mijwiz consists of two parallel reed-pipes played using circular breathing.

Laments are performed at funerals, especially in Christian and Druze communities. The word nadb refers generically to the various types of lament performed at the funeral but is also used to designate a particular genre performed exclusively at funerals by either men or women. Men, whose singing tends to be more florid, usually perform in the courtyard of the deceased's house and during the funeral procession to the burial site, whereas women primarily sing indoors, typically around the deceased's body. Nadb proper is strophic and consists of alternations between the naddāb (lead lament-singer; female naddāba), who is usually a village poet, and others who respond with a chorus refrain, usually the first line of the text. This genre has a distinctive melodic structure with a slightly descending contour (ex.1). The text expresses the sorrow of the community and extols the virtues of the deceased. A qasīdat rithā’ (poem of eulogy) may be sung with considerable melismatic elaboration by a male performer, typically a zajal poet; and songs performed by men or women may be borrowed from other occasions, especially the wedding, and adapted to the funerary context.

The firāqiyya (from firāq: ‘departure’) is the speciality of female lament-singers. A woman, either a professional naddāba or one of the deceased's relatives, may sing alone; or several women may take turns in singing separate firāqiyyāt verses. The descending contour of the melodic phrase is shown in ex.2; the last phrase ends on a sustained note, which may terminate in a falsetto effect like a sigh.

Finally, the funeral ceremony may feature a village brass band in which Western band instruments are used; such bands perform particularly during the funeral procession, and their repertory includes adaptations of local traditional tunes, older Arab and Turkish marches and ‘Arabized’ renditions of European funerary compositions.

Numerous songs and dances are performed at village weddings. Highly animated heroic chants collectively known as hidā' are performed by a male soloist in alternation with a chorus refrain (ex.3a and b), mostly during wedding processions. Occasionally stylized sword duels or sayf wa tirs (‘sword and shield’) may take place, usually accompanied by a brass band instrument or instruments. Women perform a solo wedding chant called zalāghīt or zaghārīd in praise of the bride or groom; each phrase begins with the cheering expression āwīhā and the last phrase ends with ululation (an extended, high-pitched trill).

During the wedding party, food and beverages, usually including ‘araq (a distilled aniseed-flavoured liquor), are served, and song genres typically performed include the abū al-zuluf and the ‘atābā. The abū al-zuluf is a strophic love song performed by an individual man or woman, usually with a short chorus refrain after each verse (ex.4); the melody displays a degree of improvisatory flexibility. The ‘atābā consists of verses sung by a man or woman alone, usually with an added refrain (mījānā) and typically opening with the expression yā mījānā (ex.5). Sometimes these songs are accompanied by a mijwiz or an urban instrument such as the ‘ūd.

Women in the group may take turns to perform the raqsa, a somewhat reserved solo dance, to the accompaniment of singing, rhythmic clapping and the sound of a dirbakka, a conical clay hand-drum with a characteristically deep and resonant sound. The same type of dancing may also be performed by men. Another essential component of the wedding festivity is the dabka (‘stomping’), a collective line-dance performed by either men or women. Holding hands with their shoulders touching, the dancers follow the same basic steps as their semicircular formation gradually moves anticlockwise. The dancers are accompanied by a minjayra or mijwiz player who stands in the middle facing the line (fig.1). The overall structure of the dance music is cyclic. Within each of many sequentially repeated short segments, one of the dancers sings a verse of a typical dabka song genre such as the dal‘ūnā, which is strophic and has a melody that exists in several well-known variants (ex.6). Following the verse, the other dancers sing a refrain, and the instrument continues to accompany in unison. This leads to a climactic phrase, sometimes called zakhkha or rabta, during which the dancers do not sing; their dancing becomes highly animated and the dance leader at the head of the line performs more elaborate steps and leaps. The instrumental accompaniment changes accordingly and consists mostly of repeated, strongly accentuated phrases.

Itinerant Gypsies may take part in the musical lives of the villages and to some extent those of the towns. At weddings or during holidays, Gypsy musicians may play the tabl and zamr, an outdoor instrumental combination consisting of a large double-sided drum and a double-reed wind instrument. Gypsy entertainers also perform on the buzuq, a long-necked fretted lute comparable to the Turkish saz; this is sometimes used to accompany a female Gypsy dancer who may play small finger cymbals while dancing.

2. Bedouin.

Musical practices that are directly related to those of the Middle Eastern tribal nomads of the desert tend to have a lesser profile. They are found most typically in rural villages of the northern Biqa valley, usually around the town of Baalbek, a geographical area that appears to have been particularly exposed to Bedouin influence. Examples include the use of the Bedouin rabāba, a single-string bowed instrument with a body consisting of a quadrilateral frame covered with skin on both sides. The rabāba player is usually a shā‘ir (poet or poet-singer) who traditionally uses the instrument to accompany his own sung poetry, for example to entertain in intimate social gatherings. The instrument generally provides a heterophonic accompaniment to the highly embellished vocal line. Song genres performed include the shurūqī and the ‘atābā. The shurūqī or qasīd (‘poetry’) has a flexible strophic structure with individual phrases displaying a ‘zigzag’ contour; the text generally tells of chivalry or heroism. The theme of the ‘atābā is love; within its couplets, homonyms occur at the end of each of the first and second halves (hemistiches) of the first line and at the end of the first half of the second line. Like the shurūqī, the ‘atābā is strophic and allows a considerable degree of rhythmic and melodic flexibility; but in the ‘atābā each of the four hemistiches tends to ascend quickly then descend gradually, with the fourth ending on the final note.

Bedouin rituals are emulated to some extent. In social gatherings, particularly at the homes of eminent villagers, serving coffee is observed as a custom and cherished as an emblem of generosity and social esteem. Occasionally, a Bedouin mihbāj (a large wood coffee-grinder consisting of a mortar and a pestle) is used; in proper ceremonial contexts this serves as a household utensil, a symbol of status and a medium of entertainment (fig.2). In the hands of a skilled player it can produce intricate rhythmic patterns.

See also Bedouin music.

3. ‘Zajal’.

Zajal, the composing and singing of poems in Lebanese colloquial Arabic, is a self-contained and deeply-rooted tradition. A zajal poet is typically male and may be known as qawwāl (‘one who speaks’) or simply as shā‘ir (poet). He often represents his village or religious community, performing at funerals or entertaining at festive events. He may also take part in poetry contests with other poets or teams of poets; such contests have frequently been held in theatres and broadcast on television. During the 20th century numerous zajal poets achieved fame, notably Joseph al-Hāshim (b 1925), better known by his professional title Zaghlūl al-Dāmūr.

Zajal poets are expected to improvise their own poetry and to sing it well. They sing verses followed by refrains performed by a small chorus of men; both poet and chorus may accompany themselves on the duff (small tambourine). The poets also use a particular set of poetical-musical genres; each genre has a distinctive melodic design and poetic metre, and some also have a rhyme scheme. Genres that have longer and more complex metric and melodic structures, in particular the ma‘anná, tend to appear at the beginning of the performance, followed by those that have shorter and livelier patterns. Poetry contests may take the form of an animated philosophical debate or a humorous exchange of insults; such performances typically end with a compromise followed by ghazal (love poetry).

1. Western-based classical repertory and music education.

IV. Modern developments

The modern urban musical culture of Lebanon embraces many indigenous traits but also manifests extensive Western influence. The traditional features, which are mostly shared with neighbouring Arab countries, include melodic complexity and extensive use of embellishment; a certain emphasis on vocal music; a preference for monophonic or heterophonic textures; the use of improvisation as well as pre-composition; microtonal as well as diatonic melodic intervals; melodies based on an established system of melodic modes (maqāmāt); and rhythms following a system of metric modes (īqā‘āt). Such features are also apparent in the use of urban instruments such as the ‘ūd (short-necked unfretted lute), the qānūn (trapezoid plucked zither with triple courses of mostly nylon strings), the nay (rim-blown reed flute), the Western violin, which is locally known as kamanja or kamān and is tuned differently from its Western counterpart (normally g, d', g', d''), the riqq (small tambourine) and the tabla (vase-shaped hand-drum). Other instruments and instrumental combinations (several violins, cellos, a double bass and in some instances electronic instruments) may be incorporated in the modern Arab firqa (larger instrumental ensemble).

2. Broadcasts.

3. Urban music.

4. Recent trends.

1. Western-based classical repertory and music education.

Lebanon's extensive exposure to European, especially French, culture has led to the development of Western-style musical ensembles and pedagogical institutions. Wadī‘ Sabrā (1876–1952) came from a Protestant Lebanese family and studied at the Paris Conservatoire with Albert Lavignac (1846–1916); he became a highly skilled pianist and a prolific composer of chamber, symphonic and operatic works. In 1910 he opened a school of music in Lebanon, the Dār al-Mūsīqā, of which he was director for the rest of his life; it became known as the National School of Music in 1925 and the National Conservatory in 1929. Anīs Fuleihān (1900–70) was a Lebanese teacher and composer born in Cyprus who formed and conducted symphonic ensembles in Lebanon and Tunisia; he also worked in the United States and became known for his numerous piano works, symphonies and symphonic suites. Tawfīq Sukkar was the director of the National Conservatory between 1964 and 1969 and taught Western solfège and theory there; he also directed the Echo des Cèdres choir and incorporated Arab microtones in his polyphonic works. The Armenian Lebanese Boghos Gelalian (b 1927) taught Western music theory at the National Conservatory and influenced many Lebanese students and composers.

Numerous Lebanese teachers have contributed to the propagation of Arab musical knowledge. Salīm al-Hilū (1893–c1979) studied in Naples and in Cairo, where he became acquainted with the music scholar and journalist of Lebanese origin Iskandar Shalfūn (1872–1936); al-Hilū subsequently established a music school in Haifa. In 1943 he began to teach Arab music theory and the ‘ūd at the Lebanese National Conservatory and thereafter prepared a standard text on the theory of Arab music and a notated anthology of muwashshah compositions. George Farah (b 1913) wrote a method for the ‘ūd and was appointed director of the Eastern music department of the National Conservatory in 1945.

From 1991 Lebanon's National Conservatory was directed by Walīd Gholmieh (Ghulmiyya) who was known both for his urban folkloric works and for his symphonies and symphonic poems such as al-Qādisiyya (1977) and al-Mutanabbī (1979). After the end of the Lebanese civil war, enrolment in the Conservatory increased considerably, and branches were established in cities throughout the country. At the end of the 20th century, programmes of study available included a course lasting for a minimum of six years leading to the award of a baccalaureate in music and a four-year course leading to the award of a licence in music. The Conservatory also offers other more advanced degrees and publishes a series of books on subjects related to music. In 1999 it established a national chamber ensemble and a national symphony orchestra.

Musical instruction is also provided by the Université Saint-Esprit de Kaslik, which was founded by the Maronite Order in 1949 and is located in the Kaslik suburb of Jounié, north of Beirut. In 1970 the university's Institute of Musicology was established through the efforts of Father Louis Hage (al-Hāj, b 1938), who directed the institute until 1986. Hage held a licence in theology from the San Anselmo Academy in Rome and a doctorate in musicology from the Sorbonne. In 1992 the institute was transformed into the faculty of music of the Université Saint-Esprit, of which Hage became dean in 1999. A School of Music and a Centre for Sacred Music are attached to the faculty. The School of Music provides theoretical and practical instruction in French, Arabic and English and offers a series of certificates. The most advanced of these is equivalent to a high school diploma and entitles the student to apply for graduate study in the music faculty, which offers a series of degrees culminating in a doctorate.

Since the early 20th century, numerous other institutions and teachers have contributed to the development of the musical life of Lebanon. Father Būlus Ashqar (1881–1962) studied at the Accademia di S Cecilia in Rome and in France and taught Western music theory and religious music at a church in the town of Antilyas; his students included the Rahbānī brothers. Instruction was also offered by the music school of the Lebanese Academy of Fine Arts founded by Alexis Butrus in 1943. Bertrand Robillard (d 1964) was a particularly influential instructor at the academy who also taught the Rahbānīs; he encouraged his local students to study counterpoint rather than chordal harmony. The Fine Arts Academy, which was founded by Samī Salībī in Ras Beirut in 1956 and remained open until 1988, offered courses in art and instruction primarily on Western musical instruments.

The American University of Beirut has sponsored local artists and visiting (mainly Western) ensembles since its foundation in the late 19th century. Salvador Arnita (‘Arnīta), a Palestinian-born organist and composer who trained in Italy, directed the university choir and taught courses in Western theory and harmony. His works included three symphonies, four concertos for piano, organ and flute and an Arabian suite. In 1944 the university introduced non-credit courses in music and in 1965 music became part of the department of fine arts. In 1966 the BA in Western music and music history was introduced. Among the teachers was the Lebanese concert pianist Diana Takieddine. Students of the short-lived programme included the Lebanese music teacher and composer Kifāh Fākhūrī and Ali Jihad Racy, who performed regularly in concerts at and on television at that time and broadcast a weekly radio programme on world music.

By the mid-20th century, the Fulayfil brothers, whose careers are associated with the music of police bands in Lebanon, had composed numerous anthems, which were widely admired; some are still taught in Lebanese schools. The Jeunesses Musicales of Lebanon, which was established in 1956, sponsored local performers such as the buzuq player Matar Muhammad and introduced Lebanese artists to audiences abroad. Important researchers included the journalist Ilyās Sahhāb, who wrote on Arab music, and his brother Victor Sahhāb, the author of numerous histories of leading figures in the Arab music of Egypt and Lebanon.

2. Broadcasts.

Radio has played an important role in disseminating local traditional and popular musics in modern Lebanon. The al-Sharq al-Adnā (Near East) station established by the British around 1940 transmitted its programmes from Cyprus but opened a recording studio in Lebanon in the early 1950s, giving many local composers and singers an outlet before the station's closure in 1956. The Lebanese official radio station was established under the French as Radio al-Sharq (Radio of the East) around 1937 and was taken over by the Lebanese government in 1946. Before its decline during and after the civil war, the Lebanese radio station had employed a cadre of administrators, technical staff, lyricists, composers, musicians and ensemble conductors; those employed included the composer Halīm al-Rūmī (d 1983), who was at one time the director of the station's music division, and the composer and conductor Tawfīq al-Bāshā (b 1924), who composed for and directed major folkloric musical productions and whose works combined Arab modal melodies with distinctive polyphonic textures. In addition to its regular Arabic broadcasts, the Lebanese radio station offered programmes in French and English and kept an archive of sound recordings. By the end of the 20th century, Lebanon had about six public and private TV stations and several radio stations, most of which were privately owned.

3. Urban music.

In addition to the Western-based classical repertory created by Lebanese composers, Lebanese urban music incorporates five strands that tend to overlap both historically and stylistically.

(i) Baladī.

The term baladī (from balad: ‘country’) refers to various folksong categories that are urbanized in terms of style and context of presentation. Baladī songs follow the urban mainstream model, using the standard Arab intonation and a few basic maqāmāt; the singer is accompanied by an urban ensemble including traditional Arab instruments. The songs are preceded by short orchestral preludes usually of the standard dūlāb type. The genres most typically performed are the shurūqī (sung in maqām huzām) and the ‘atābā (sung in maqām bayyātī).

A city-based genre called mawwāl Baghdādī, which allows for considerable improvisatory elaboration, is sometimes considered part of the baladī style; its name and some of its textual idiosyncrasies suggest a historical connection with Iraq. Important baladī artists of the early 20th century included the singers Farajallah Baidā, Muhiyy al-Dīn Ba‘yūn (1868–1934), who played the buzuq (also called tunbūr) and sang mawwāl Baghdādī, and Yūsuf Tāj, who was known for his use of a distinctive extended ornament resembling vibrato. More recent performers include Ilyās Rubayz, Īliyyā Baidā (1909–78), Wadī‘ al-Sāfī and Sabāh. Baladī songs were issued on 78 r.p.m. discs and later on LPs and cassettes both within Lebanon and among Lebanese emigrant groups, particularly in the United States; they were also broadcast regularly on Lebanese radio, especially before the Lebanese civil war.

(ii) Pedagogical art music.

This is sometimes termed turāth (‘heritage’) or qadīm (‘old’). It is used both as learning material for students wishing to master the Arab musical tradition and as an art music performed by skilled musicians in intimate gatherings as well as in theatres. The repertory includes old Arab genres, notably the muwashshah, a precomposed vocal genre that uses a variety of often complex īqā‘āt and is generally linked to the literary and musical legacies of Moorish Spain. The use of taqāsīm (instrumental modal improvisations on traditional solo instruments) and comparable vocal improvisations is prominent. This category of urban music also includes Ottoman-based precomposed instrumental genres such as the bashraf, the samā‘ī and the longa. During the 1980s turāth pieces including muwashshahāt were performed in Western-style concerts by a Lebanese choir directed by the Lebanese conductor Salīm Sahhāb (b 1941), who trained in Russia. More recently, the indigenous repertory of art music has been performed by the violin virtuoso Nidaa Abou Mrad (Nidā‘ Abū Murād, b 1959), who trained as a music therapist in France; he has performed in public and made numerous CD recordings of older compositions, including Egyptian ‘classics’ of the late 19th century.

(iii) Tarab or fann.

Music in the Arab mainstream style with Lebanese elements is known as tarab (‘ecstasy’ or ‘enchantment’) or fann (‘art’) and has been highly influential, especially between the early 1950s and the mid-1970s. The songs are mainly sung in Lebanese colloquial Arabic and are often based on the theme of love; they may sometimes voice social critique and humour. The music shares its instrumentation and performance style with other Arab, especially Egyptian, mainstream counterparts. The mainstream style was influenced by the influx of Palestinian musicians, especially after 1948, and centres around the ughniyya, a generic term for ‘song’.

A Lebanese ughniyya typically features a mutrib (lead solo vocalist) with a firqa and often a chorus. It usually begins with a short orchestral prelude, displays an overall strophic design and incorporates a short interlude in free rhythm generally termed the mawwāl section, which is improvisatory in nature and most often consists of one ‘atābā verse. The mainstream style has also embraced an instrumental dance component, which has been associated with several well-known instrumentalists and instrumental ensembles.

Numerous mainstream singers achieved fame in Lebanon and some became known throughout the Arab world. These included Mary Jibrān (b 1911), a Lebanese-born singer who worked mostly in Syria and Egypt, and, in later years, the female singers Nūr al-Hudā (whose repertory included Egyptian songs), Najāh Salām and Zakiyya Hamdān. More recent celebrities include Sabāh (Jeannette Faghghālī, b 1927) and Wadī‘ al-Sāfī. Sabāh is the daughter of the zajal poet Shahrūr al-Wādī; she mastered the Lebanese ‘atābā and abū al-zuluf genres, acted in Egyptian films, worked closely with several Egyptian composers and sang a large number of popular mainstream songs especially during the 1950s and 60s (fig.3). Wadī‘ al-Sāfī (Wadī‘ Fransīs, b 1921) ascended to stardom in 1939 and became known as a performer of Lebanese urban songs deriving from or emulating the local mountain village style. He became widely admired for his exceptional voice, his skill in improvisation and his ability to evoke tarab in his listeners (fig.4).

(iv) Urban-based ‘folklore’.

This was especially prominent during the 1960s and 70s. Its generic appellation, fūlklūr, was coined in reference to its association with Lebanon's local lore, especially that of the mountain villages. However, its domain is essentially urban; it expresses the nostalgic feelings of the urban dwellers about rural traditions and implies an interest in creating an art form which represents Lebanon as both modern and culturally distinct. This new style is directly associated with the pioneering work of the Rahbānī Brothers ‘Āsī (1923–86) and Mansūr (b 1925) (see Rahbānī), who were among the most influential and prolific composers and lyricists not only in Lebanon but in the entire Arab world. The Rahbānīs were joined from time to time by their younger brother Elias (Ilyās, b 1938) and worked as a team that included the Lebanese singer Fayrūz.

The early songs of Fayrūz and the Rahbānīs included numerous adaptations of older folk and popular tunes, many of which became unrivalled hits by the late 1950s. After 1956 the International Baalbek Festivals were held annually until the outbreak of the civil war, resuming when the war ended; these were established under the supervision of a government-sponsored committee and became one of the primary venues for performances of the Rahbānīs' folkloric musical plays. Featuring Fayrūz as well as other singers such as Nasrī Shams al-Dīn, Sabāh and Wadī‘ al-Sāfī, the typical Rahbānī play incorporated dialogues basically in the colloquial Arabic of the villages of central Lebanon, songs and dances. The plots, characters and costumes generally centred around village life but sometimes depicted historical events.

The Rahbānīs' songs incorporated elements from local folk traditions, the Arab musical mainstream and Western art music. They were essentially precomposed throughout, with little or no opportunity for improvisation, and the music was characterized by attention to compositional detail, a special interest in tone colour and a luminescent quality that was unique to the Rahbānīs' orchestral textures. Three instruments were central to the Rahbānī musical idiom, namely the buzuq, the duct flute or recorder, and the accordion. The metal strings of the buzuq produce a bright sound and are well suited for drone effects. The duct flute was played almost exclusively by an exceptionally talented musician, Joseph Ayyūb; it has a pure high-pitched sound quite different from the breathy sound produced by the nay. The accordion, which was constructed to produce the microtones of Arab music, similarly added to the ensemble a certain timbral crispness. These instruments were supported by a riqq, a tabla and, often, a double bass; the Rahbānīs usually added legato strings and a piano, which was used to fill out the orchestral texture with light arpeggiated motifs. The distinctive quality of Fayrūz's voice contributed further to the unique Rahbānī sound.

Almost all of the dances used in the Rahbānīs' plays were newly choreographed for performance with specific songs. The ‘folkloric’ dances were inspired by the village dabka, and the dancers' costumes were based on traditional folk dress (fig.5). Created by professional dance-trainers, some of whom were Lebanese Armenians, the new versions of the dances were reminiscent of Russian and Balkan folkdances in certain respects. The rise of the new dance form is usually traced back to the 1956 visit of the Russian choreographer Igor Moiseyev to Lebanon at the invitation of the wife of Lebanese President Sham‘ūn; Moiseyev prescribed specific ways of developing the new dance form.

In terms of their thematic and stylistic content, many of the Rahbānīs' works were not strictly ‘folkloristic’. Some of their songs addressed non-‘folkloric’, including pan-Arab, topics, and many of Fayrūz's songs featured popular Western dance rhythms, including those of Latin America, as well as Western instruments. Several late Rahbānī plays had urban themes, albeit with folk allusions and subplots.

Other artists who contributed to the development of the ‘folkloric’ movement included the composer Philemon (Filimūn) Wihbah (d 1985) and the composer and singer Zakī Nāsīf (b 1916).

After the civil war, the ‘folkloric’ legacy was superseded to some extent by other developments, some of which were closely related. After the separation of Fayrūz and ‘Āsī in the late 1970s and ‘Āsī's death in 1986, Mansūr continued to compose musical plays concerning a variety of historical, philosophical and moral issues (see Rahbānī, (2)). The pianist and composer Ziyād Rahbānī (see Rahbānī, (4)), the son of ‘Āsī Rahbānī and Fayrūz, used certain sonorities and patterns of instrumentation from the earlier Rahbānī music but also incorporated elements from Western music, especially jazz. Comparable innovations may be found in the works of the composer, singer and ‘ūd virtuoso Marcel Khalifé (Khalīfa, b 1950). Early in his career, Khalifé led the al-Mayādīn ensemble and composed and performed songs addressing various socialist and pan-Arab issues. He also created works directly influenced by the European symphonic model. During the 1990s he composed a piece for two ‘ūds accompanied by a riqq and a bass instrument.

(v) The new popular style.

Since the 1980s a new popular style has gradually developed, which is in some respects a derivative of both the earlier Arab mainstream and the ‘folkloric’ music. This more recent ‘pop’ is associated with a new generation of young male and female artists, many of whom rose to fame through the Lebanese television talent show Studio al-Fann.

The new style has a Lebanese character but borrows substantially from Western popular music; it has close counterparts in many Arab countries. Short love songs are the norm. A few common maqāmāt are widely used, although major and minor melodies are also quite prevalent. The style is characterized further by the extensive use of short and highly accentuated Arab dance rhythms played on the tabla and riqq and often reinforced by a Western drum kit, producing an accentual drive reminiscent of American rock music. The ensemble accompanying the lead vocalist also includes electronic instruments, the most important being the keyboard and the bass guitar. Many songs feature intricate harmonic textures and influences from other Mediterranean styles such as the Spanish flamenco. The new music has been transmitted throughout the Middle East through satellite communication and has developed a significant visual component; the Arab ‘television song’ or ‘video clip’ is often colourful and elaborately produced and is becoming popular throughout the Arab world.

4. Recent trends.

At the beginning of the 21st century, a number of general tendencies may be discerned in the music of Lebanon. These include a further intensification of Western influence, which is already deeply entrenched; rapid musical change leading to the decline of many traditional genres and performance practices; an increase in national and international cultural links through the use of electronic and satellite technology and the further blurring of geographical and artistic boundaries; and a renewed interest in indigenous musical traditions and their potential role in the emerging global context.

Numerous Lebanese artists have been active abroad. The pianists Abdel Rahman El Bacha (‘Abd al-Rahmān al-Bāshā, b 1958) and Walīd Akel (‘Aql, 1945–97) and the trumpeter Nassim Maalouf (Nasīm Ma‘lūf, b 1941) have performed in France; the ‘ūd player and composer of fusion works Rabī‘ Abū Khalīl has appeared in Germany; and those who have worked in the USA include the pianist Diana Takieddine, the pianist and composer Walīd Howrānī and the composer and performer of Arab music Ali Jihad Racy (b 1943), who in 1978 became professor of ethnomusicology at the University of California at Los Angeles.

Many international artists have visited Lebanon, especially performers from the West; before the civil war visiting musicians included Karlheinz Stockhausen, Herbert von Karajan, Ella Fitzgerald, Joan Baez and Miles Davis, and during the last few years of the 20th century performances have been given in Lebanon by Luciano Pavarotti, James Brown, the Whirling Dervishes of Turkey and the Indian tablā player Zakir Hussain.

(1) Ludwig August Lebrun [Brün, Le]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

C. Poché: ‘Vers une musique libanaise de 1850 à 1950’, Les cahiers de l'Oronte, no.7 (1969), 77–100

J. Porte, ed.: Encyclopédie des musiques sacrées, ii (Paris, 1969)

S. Jargy: La poésie populaire traditionelle chantée au Proche-Orient arabe, i: Les textes (Paris, 1970)

L. Hage: Le chant de l'église maronite, 12 vols (Kaslik, 1972–2000)

K. Boullata and S. Boulus, eds.: Fayrouz: Legend and Legacy (Washington DC, 1981)

A.J. Racy: ‘Lebanese Laments: Grief, Music and Cultural Values’, World of Music, xxviii/1 (1986), 27–40

A. Haydar: ‘The Development of Lebanese Zajal: Genre, Meter and Verbal Duel’, Oral Tradition, iv (1989), 189–212

A.K. Rasmussen: Individuality and Social Change in the Music of Arab Americans (diss., UCLA, 1991)

A.J. Racy: ‘Music’, The Genius of Arab Civilization: Source of Renaissance, ed. J.R. Hayes (New York, 3/1992), 149–71

A.J. Racy: ‘Heroes, Lovers and Poet-Singers: the Bedouin Ethos in the Music of the Arab Near-East’, Journal of American Folklore, cix (1996), 404–24

recordings

A Musical Anthology of the Orient: Lebanon, coll. C. Poché, UNESCO Collection, Musicaphon BM 30 SL 2030 (1972)

Laments of Lebanon, coll. A.J. Racy, Folkways FE 4046 (1985)

For further discography see Boullata and Boulus, eds. (1981).

LeBaron, (Alice) Anne

(b Baton Rouge, LA, 30 May 1953). American composer and harpist. She studied composition with Frederic Goossen at the University of Alabama (BA 1974) and with Semegen and Arel at SUNY (MA 1978). After attending the 1980 summer course at Darmstadt she continued her composition studies with Kagel and Ligeti as a Fulbright Scholar (1980–81) and with Chou Wen-chung, Davidovsky and Beeson at Columbia University (DMA 1989). LeBaron has received many commissions and awards, including several from the NEA, a Guggenheim fellowship (1991) and a Cal Arts/Alpert Award (1996). During 1993–6 she served as composer-in-residence in Washington, DC, sponsored by Meet the Composer and in 1997 she joined the music faculty of the University of Pittsburgh.

Although an internationally recognized harpist who has pioneered extended techniques, the ‘prepared harp’ and electronic modification of harp sounds (all heard in her recording Blue Harp Studies), LeBaron's primary focus is composition. Whether writing for her own augmented harp palette, for the unusually constituted LeBaron Quintet (trumpet, tuba, electric guitar, harp and percussion) or for conventional ensembles, she uses evocative, colourful timbres. Her early works are primarily dissonant (e.g. Metamorphosis: in 3 Stages, 1977); as early as 1974, however, with the Concerto for Active Frogs, she displayed post-modernist tendencies by combining recorded sounds of frogs with live performers working from a graphic score. In the 1980s she made greater use of microtones, non-Western music, sounds from nature, electronics and new instruments (e.g. Lamentation/Invocation, 1984). In the 1990s she added influences of popular music, for example in Dish (1990) and in American Icons (1996) with its references to jitterbug, cartoon riffs and Latin dance music. She has often combined improvisation with structured elements, as in Telluris theoria sacra for chamber ensemble (1989) and her opera The E. & O. Line (1991), which mixes non-notational traditions of ‘bebop’ and blues with her own contemporary classical style.

WORKS

(selective list)

many works from early 1970s withdrawn

Stage: The E. & O. Line (blues chbr op, 2, T. Davis) 1993, Washington, DC, U. of the District of Columbia, 29 Oct 1993; Blue Calls Set you Free (chbr op, 1, Davis, after Orpheus and Euridice), 1994, Washington, DC, Mt Vernon College, 16 Sept 1994; Croak (The Last Frog) (musical drama, 2, LeBaron and L.B. Jacobson), 1997, Washington, DC, Marvin Center, 10–13 April 1997

Orch: Strange Attractors, 1987; Southern Ephemera, 1994; Lasting Impressions, 1–3 nar, chbr orch, 1995; Mambo, brass qnt, 2 orch, 1995; American Icons, 1996; Double Conc., 2 hp (one player), chbr orch, 1996

Chbr and solo inst: Jewels, improvisation, hp+ metal rack, pf hp, elev gui, 1979; Metamorphosis: in 3 Stages, fl + pic, ob, cl, hn, trbn, hp, perc, 1977; Rite of the Black Sun, after A. Artaud, 4 perc, opt. 7 dancers, 1980; Dog-Gone Cat Act, improvisation, hp, 1981; Noh Reflections, vn, va, vc, 1985; Telluris theoria sacra, fl + pic, cl + b cl, vn, va, vc, pf, perc, 1989; Bouquet of a Phantom Orchestra, tpt, tuba, elec gui, hp, perc, 1990; Devil in the Belfry, vn, pf, 1993; Southern Ephemera, fl + a fl, vc, 2 Harry Partch insts (surrogate kithara, harmonic canon), 1993; Sukey, str qt, 1994; Going Going Gone, str qt, 1997; Green Card, tpt, tuba, elec gui, hp, perc, 1997; Solar Music, fl + pic + a fl + b fl, hp, 1997

Vocal: Concerto for Active Frogs (theatrical work), B-Bar, small mixed chorus, percussionist, 2nd player (vn/va/vc/ob/sax/cl), 3rd player (bn/trbn/tuba/db), tape, 1975; The Sea and the Honeycomb (A. Machado, trans. R. Bly), S/Mez, fl + pic, cl + b cl, pf, 2 perc, 1979; Lamentation/Invocation (E. Honig, after Orphic legend), Bar, cl, vc, hp, 1984; Dish (J. Hagedorn), S, elec vn, perc, elec db, pf, 1990; Story of my Angel (H. Finster), S, SA, pf, opt. live elecs, 1993; Christmas Lights, Mez, vn/fl, hp, 1994, arr. vn, hp; The Turtle Tango, opt. nar, children's chorus, pf/accdn, 1995

Tape, inst with tape: Planxty Bowerbird, hp, 1982; Eurydice is Dead (dance score), 1983; I am an American … my Government will Reward you, hp, 1988; Blue Harp Studies nos.1 and 2, 1991; Rhythms (dance score), 1994; Gimme a Bigfoot, hp, 1995; Sachamama, fl, a fl, 1995

Principal publishers: Golden Croak, Norruth

Principal recording companies: CRI, Ear-Rational, Mode, Music & Arts, Tellus, Trans Museq

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. LeBaron with D. Bouliane: ‘Darmstadt 1980’, PNM, xix (1980–81), 420–41

J.M. Edwards: ‘North America since 1920’, Women and Music: a History, ed. K. Pendle (Bloomington, IN, 1991), 225

C. Gagne: Soundpieces 2: Interviews with American Composers (Metuchen, NJ, 1993)

B. Shoemaker: ‘Anne LeBaron’, Down Beat, lx/11 (1993), 12 only

T. May: ‘Listening to the Silence of Frogs’, Washington Post (6 April 1997)

J. MICHELE EDWARDS

Le Bé, Guillaume

(b Troyes, 1525; d Paris, 1598). French typecutter. He became an apprentice at the age of 15 in the household of Robert Estienne, where he learnt from Claude Garamond the art of cutting punches. After a five-year stay in Italy he returned to Paris at the end of 1550. There he worked for Garamond and then in 1552 set up in business as one of the first independent type founders; his last type was cut in 1592.

Le Bé was well known for his Hebrew types, but his Roman and Greek types were almost as popular. Between 1554 and 1559 he engraved three music types on commission from the firm of Le Roy & Ballard (illustrated on f.26 of his type specimen book, annotated in his own hand, F-Pn nouv.acq.fr.4528). A fourth music type attributed to Le Bé is listed in an 18th-century inventory of the successor firm of Ballard. A plainsong music type was cut by him but evidently not sold to Le Roy à Ballard, since it is listed as still a part of Le Bé’s stock in an inventory drawn up at the time of his death. This inventory also lists music punches and matrices of all kinds designed by other makers; many of these are unidentified, but several are attributed to Attaingnant, Danfrie, Granjon, Villiers and Du Chemin.

After Le Bé’s death his son Guillaume (c1563–1645) and subsequently his grandson, also Guillaume (d 1685), inherited the business. They were also type cutters but probably did not make any new music types; nevertheless they continued to sell from the stock of punches and matrices they inherited. The foundry was sold by the Le Bé heirs in 1730. A document in the hand of the second Guillaume Le Bé, with additions in a later hand, known as the Le Bé Memorandum, traces the history of type making, particularly in France. It contains references (not always accurate) to music types cut by Granjon, Sanlecque, Jean Jannon and Du Chemin.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Omont: ‘Spécimens de caractères hebreux, grecs, latins et de musique gravés à Venise et à Paris par Guillaume Le Bé (1546–1574)’, Mémoires de la Société de l’histoire de Paris et de l’Ile de France, xv (1888), 273–83

E. Howe: ‘The Le Bé Family’, Signature, viii (1938), 1–27

F. Lesure and G. Thibault: Bibliographie des éditions d’Adrian le Roy et Robert Ballard (1551–1598) (Paris, 1955), suppl., RdM, xl (1957), 166–72

S. Morison: L’inventaire de la fonderie Le Bé (Paris, 1957)

H. Carter: Sixteenth-Century French Typefounders: the Le Bé Memorandum (Paris, 1967)

D. Heartz: Pierre Attaingnant, Royal Printer of Music (Berkeley, 1969)

SAMUEL F. POGUE

Lebègue [Le Bègue], Nicolas

(b Laon, c1631; d Paris, 6 July 1702). French composer, organist and harpsichordist. He was of humble origin. Of his early musical education in Laon nothing definite is known, though it may be assumed that his uncle (and namesake), a maître joueur d’instrument, played some part in it. Uncertainty also surrounds the date and circumstances in which he moved to Paris. By 1661, however, he had clearly been there long enough to have established his reputation, for in the chapter records of Troyes Cathedral for that year he is called ‘fameux organiste de Paris’ (this, the earliest document to refer directly to Lebègue, relates to a payment for his playing at the cathedral when he was passing through Troyes). Although he must surely have held a Paris appointment by this time – Dufourcq (1954) suggested that it could have been at the church of the Mathurins in the rue St Jacques – the only such post he is known to have held was at St Merri from 18 December 1664 until his death. In 1678 he also became organiste du Roi, a duty and privilege that he shared with Nivers, J.-D. Thomelin and J.-B. Buterne, attending the royal chapel during the October quarter.

To judge from the number of reprints and copies of his keyboard works Lebègue enjoyed considerable success as a composer. No less considerable was his reputation as an expert on organ building: in this capacity he advised church authorities as far afield as Bourges, Blois, Chartres, Soissons and Troyes. In addition he must be reckoned one of the most influential teachers of the ensuing generation of French organists, numbering among his pupils Grigny, Dagincourt and Nicolas Geoffroy and probably Gilles Jullien and Gabriel Garnier (the last-named succeeded him at court).

Lebègue's keyboard music dominates his output. There are five keyboard publications – two livres de clavecin and three d’orgue – and a number of unique manuscript pieces, notably in two sources (at US-BEm), one of which contains seven harpsichord pieces attributed by Curtis (1970) to Lebègue, the other 20 unique organ pieces. Numerous manuscript copies of Lebègue's organ pieces have survived, far exceeding those of any other French organist of the period, and underlining the esteem in which he was held by his contemporaries.

Lebègue's harpsichord music owes much to that of Chambonnières and Louis Couperin, but there are notable differences. In his titles Lebègue eschewed picturesque elements and topical allusions and his music is correspondingly less personalized, more formal. The formality is reflected, furthermore, in the organization of his suites: the allemande–courante coupling becoming the standard opening, preceded only in his first book by unmeasured preludes. After the courante there follows a mixture of gavottes, minuets, canaris, gigues, sarabandes, chaconnes, ballets and bourrées, often with their doubles. Despite the censure in Pirro (1924), apropos of the first livre de clavecin, that ‘the preludes seem to absorb in advance all the fantasy which might disturb the ordre consacré of these dances’, Lebègue’s harpsichord music contains his most poised and elegantly turned work for keyboard. Moreover, such pieces as the Chaconne in C (first book) and the Chaconne grave in G (second book) attain a stature fully worthy of Louis Couperin.

Lebègue’s contribution to the organ repertory is substantial and correspondingly important. His first livre d’orgue, comprising eight suites, shows him as an innovator, rejecting the more severely contrapuntal style found in the organ music of Louis Couperin and Nivers (not to mention Roberday), evolving the récit en taille (which he considered the most beautiful of all the genres of organ music) and coining the trio à deux dessus, the trio à deux claviers et pédalle and the dialogue entre le dessus et la basse. The independent pedal required in some of these genres marks a new departure in French organ technique. The exceptional nature of this first book, demanding an instrument of considerable resource and an organist no less well endowed, is thrown into relief by the character of Lebègue’s second livre d’orgue, containing versets for the Mass and the Magnificat; it is much more modest in design and was intended for the organist of only ‘une science médiocre’. His third book, comprising ten offertories, four symphonies, nine noëls, a picturesque piece entitled Les cloches and eight élévations, was published at the peak of his career and is unique in classical French organ literature. Dufourcq designated its contents as ‘paraliturgical’, which perhaps characterizes the secular spirit that dominates the collection. Although Lebègue’s organ music is considerably less interesting than that of Grigny, for instance, it is to him that we owe the evolution of the musical language that his more illustrious pupil was to perfect.

The scale of Lebègue's extant vocal music is small in comparison to the keyboard music; some appears to have been lost, judging from references in 18th-century sources. That which survives comprises a pseudo-plainchant hymn tune and a printed volume of motets for solo voice and basso continuo. The first edition of the latter, published in 1687, ascribes the music to ‘Mr Noel’, though it includes a preface praising Lebègue's skill; the second edition, published posthumously in 1708, gives Lebègue as the composer. Mr Noel was presumably a pseudonym concealing Lebègue's reticence about his first published vocal music. The motets were, according to the preface, composed for the Benedictine nuns of the convent of Val de Graçe, and are expertly written. They are also novel in respect of the organ's role from time to time as a concertante voice in the texture.

WORKS

Editions:N. Lebègue: Oeuvres de clavecin, ed. N. Dufourcq (Monaco, 1956) [D]N. Lebègue, Archives des maîtres de l’orgue, ix, ed. A. Guilmant and A. Pirro (Paris, 1909) [G]

instrumental

Les pièces d’orgue (Paris, 1676), G

Les pièces de clavessin (Paris, 1677/R), D

Second livre d’orgue (Paris, ?1678/R), G

Troisième livre d’orgue (Paris, ?1685/R), G

Second livre de clavessin (Paris, ?1687), D

7 pieces, hpd, US-BEm De La Barre 6

Several pieces, org, F-Pn, G appx; authorship questioned by Dufourcq (1972)

20 pieces, org, US-BEm Lebègue MS

vocal

Motets pour les principales festes de l'année, 1v, bc, & plusieurs petits ritournelles, org/viols (Paris, 1687/R)

1 hymn, in Hymni sacri et novi (Paris, 1698)

Vespers, 2 choirs; lost, cited in De Fontenay, Dictionnaire des artistes (Paris, 1776)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Pirro: biographical note to Nicolas Lebègue: Oeuvres complètes d'orgue, ed. A. Guilmant and A. Pirro, Archives des maîtres de l'orgue, ix (Paris, 1909/R)

A. Tessier: ‘L’oeuvre de clavecin de Nicolas Le Bègue’, RdM, iv (1923), 106–12

N. Dufourcq: Nicolas Lebègue … étude biographique (Paris, 1954)

N. Dufourcq: ‘A travers l’inédit: Nicolas Lebègue’, RMFC, i (1960), 205–6

A. Curtis: ‘Musique classique française à Berkeley: pièces inédites de Louis Couperin, Lebègue, La Barre, etc.’, RdM, lvi (1970), 123–64

N. Dufourcq: Le livre de l’orgue français, 1589–1789, iv: La musique (Paris, 1972)

M.L. Liberman: The Organ Works of Nicolas Lebègue in the Context of Contemporary Theory and Practice (diss., Northwestern U., 1984)

N. Dufourcq: ‘Autour de Nicolas Lebègue: un recueil de motets inédits’, RMFC, xxv (1987), 7–26

E. Gallat-Morin: Le livre d'orgue de Montréal (Montreal, 1988)

E. Gallat-Morin: ‘Une nouvelle découverte à Montréal dans la bibliothèque musicale de Jean Girard: des oeuvres vocales rares de Lebègue, de Bacilly et du Mont’, Revue de musique des universitaires canadiennes, xvii (1997), 17–29

EDWARD HIGGINBOTTOM

Le Bel, Barthélemy

(b Anjou, Isère, c1483; d Geneva, 16 Oct 1553). French composer. After being ordained a priest in the early years of the 16th century he was appointed ‘master of the boys of the vestment’ at St Pierre Cathedral, Geneva, where Antoine Brumel had had a similar post some years before. He later held a similar position at the Ste Chapelle, Dijon. Having previously sought the patronage of Charles de Lorraine, Duke of Guise, he announced that the Emperor Charles V would be welcome at Dijon after his victory over François I at Pavia. He was arrested and interrogated on 17 March 1525 by the municipal judge. On 1 March 1552 he requested permission to reside in Geneva and to pursue his musical art. He died there at the age of 70. None of his compositions are known to have been printed during his lifetime, but a Latin motet for four voices was published in Geneva in 1554 (1554¹³) and in the following year a three-voice setting of the Ten Commandments and three four-voice settings of prayers by Clément Marot (1555¹⁶), which, in spite of their French texts, were described as being ‘in the form of motets’. (This no doubt refers to their imitative rather than purely homophonic style.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P. Pidoux, ed.: Le psautier huguenot du XVIe siècle, ii (Basle, 1962), 175

F. Lesure: ‘Some Minor French Composers of the 16th Century’, Aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Music: a Birthday Offering to Gustave Reese, ed. J. LaRue and others (New York, 1966/R), 538–44, esp. 542

FRANK DOBBINS

Lebel, Firmin

(b Noyon, early 16th century; d Rome, 27–31 Dec 1573). French choir director and composer, active in Italy. The earliest known documents concerning his career indicate that he was a chaplain at S Maria Maggiore and the director of its Cappella Liberiana. As such, he may have had the young Palestrina in his charge. On 25 October 1545 Lebel became maestro di cappella at S Luigi dei Francesi, a position that he retained for 16 years until September 1561, when he was succeeded by Annibale Zoilo. His directorship was an extremely successful one; he managed to enlarge the chapel from a group of two adults and two boys in 1548 to one of seven adults and two or three boys in 1552. On leaving S Luigi on 4 September 1561, he joined the papal chapel; so great was his reputation that Pius IV issued a motu proprio waiving the usual entrance examination and in 1563 Lebel was elected puntatore annuale of the chapel. His service was short-lived, for on 31 August 1565 he and 13 other singers were dismissed in the wake of reforms (drawn up by a commission headed by the Cardinals Borromeo and Vitelli) that aimed to reduce the size of the chapel. Lebel spent his remaining years in Rome where he held several benefices including one at S Maria Maggiore. On 4 March 1574 the papal singers sang a Requiem in his honour at S Luigi dei Francesi. Whether Firmin Lebel was related to Barthélemy Le Bel (c1483–1553), a musician active in Geneva, is not known.

Three motets by him survive: Ave verum corpus for five voices (in I-Rvat C.S.38), Puer natus est for six voices (in C.S.38), and Sancta Maria succurre miseris for five voices (in C.S.17). (Both the works in C.S.38 are available in modern editions in Psalterium, ed. R. Casimiri, Rome, 1922.) Regardless of the merit of his compositions – and they show Lebel to be a competent composer – his importance rests on his activities as maestro di cappella of a number of the most important churches of Rome.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Casimiri: ‘Firmin Le Bel di Noyon’, NA, i (1924), 64–77

A. Cametti: ‘Firmino Lebel: maestro in S. Luigi dei Francesi a Roma’, RMI, xxxii (1925), 196–205

R. Casimiri: ‘Firmin Lebel e la data di sua morte’, NA, iii (1926), 46–57

H.-W. Frey: ‘Die Kapellmeister an der französischen Nationalkirche San Luigi dei Francesi in Rom im 16. Jahrhundert, I: 1514–1577’, AMw, xxii (1965), 272–93

L.L. Perkins: ‘Notes bibliographiques au sujet de l’ancien fond musical de l’église de Saint Louis des Français à Rome’, FAM, xvi (1969), 57–71

R. Sherr: ‘Competence and Incompetence in the Papal Choir of the Age of Palestrina’, EMc, xxii (1994), 606–29

ALLAN W. ATLAS

Lebendig

(Ger.: ‘lively’).

See Vivace.

Lebertoul, Franchois [Le Bertoul, François; Franchois]

(fl 1409–?1428). Franco-Flemish composer. An entry in a register of Cambrai Cathedral for the year 1409–10 describes him as frequentanti chorum; evidently he was employed at this time to sing with the choir on the major feast days of the liturgical year. He may also have been the ‘Messire Bertoul grand vicaire’ mentioned in Cambrai accounts from 1427–8. Five chansons are currently attributed to him, all of which are in GB-Ob Can.misc.213; the style of the rondeaux suggests that they may date from the early 1420s, although some of the ballades may be earlier. His most impressive work is the ballade Au pain faitich which is characterized by complex cross-rhythms, vocal flourishes and striking harmonic shifts. The triple ballade O mortalis homo/O pastores/O vos multi, which comments on the vanity of human endeavour, is somewhat unusual in that it has three separate texts, all in Latin.

WORKS

Edition: Early Fifteenth-century Music, ed. G. Reaney, CMM, xi/2 (1959) [R]

ballades

Au pain faitich ne me veul plus tenir, 3vv, R 45

Depuis un peu un joyeux parlement, 3vv, R 43

O mortalis homo/O pastores/O vos multi, 3vv, R 47

rondeaux

Las, que me demanderoye, 3vv, R 42

Ma doulce amour et ma mestresse, 3vv, R 41

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PirroHM

E. Dannemann: Die spätgotische Musiktradition in Frankreich und Burgund vor dem Auftreten Dufays (Strasbourg, 1936/R)

H. Besseler: Bourdon und Fauxbourdon (Leipzig, 1950, rev., enlarged 2/1974 by P. Gülke)

D. Fallows: A Catalogue of Polyphonic Songs, 1415–1480 (Oxford, 1999)

CRAIG WRIGHT/R

Lebeuf [Le Beuf], Jean

(b Auxerre, 7 March 1687; d Auxerre, 10 Aug 1760). French historian. His early training was in religion and humanistic studies in his native city and in Paris (from 1701). In 1712 he returned to Auxerre as canon, and shortly afterwards as sous-chantre, at the cathedral – a post he held until 1743. His principal interests – church history, archaeology and music in the liturgy – manifested themselves early in his career, and he published over 200 essays on various aspects of these subjects throughout his life. He actively corresponded with leading church figures of the day and travelled widely in pursuit of knowledge. In 1740 he was named a member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.

Lebeuf’s principal contributions to music relate to the history, theory and practice of plainchant. He was a proponent of reform in liturgical practice, and he played an active role in promoting revisions in the music for the Gallican service. Many of his ideas, first stated in letters and articles in the Mercure de France, reappear in his major work devoted to music, Traité historique et pratique sur le chant ecclésiastique (1741). This work resulted from his preparation (undertaken in 1734) of a revised antiphonary and gradual for the diocese of Paris. It is divided into two parts: ‘Traité historique’, which deals with the history, organization and forms of plainchant; and ‘Traité pratique’, intended to serve as a handbook for the teaching and performance of plainchant, the basic contents of which Lebeuf attributed to his former teacher, Claude Chastelain. Of interest in the treatise are his concern with retaining, in the face of church reforms, certain traditional characteristics of Gallican chant, such as ornate passage-work and agréments; his favouring of a revised system of solmization syllables to permit the singing of chromatically altered notes in chant (ut, re, ma, mi, fa, fi, sol, la, sa, si, ut); and his descriptions of the varied use of discant (‘déchant’) and fauxbourdon in the development of liturgical practice in France.

WRITINGS

books

Traité historique et pratique sur le chant ecclésiastique (Paris, 1741/R)

articles

in historical studies

‘De l’état des sciences dans l’étendue de la monarchie française, sous Charlemagne’ (Paris, 1734); repr. in Leber, xiv, 338ff

‘Dissertation sur l’état des sciences dans les Gaules depuis la mort de Charlemagne, jusqu’à celle du Roy Robert’, Recueil de divers écrits pour servir d’éclaircissemens à l’histoire de France, et de supplément à la notice des Gaules, ii (Paris, 1738), esp. 95ff

‘Dissertation sur l’état des sciences en France depuis la mort du roi Robert, jusqu’à celle de Philippe-le-Bel’, Dissertation sur l’histoire ecclésiastique et civile de Paris, suivies de plusieurs éclaircissemens sur l’histoire de France, ii (Paris, 1741); repr. in Leber, xiv–xv, esp. xiv, 551ff

in academic journals

‘Notice sommaire de deux volumes de poësies françoises et latines [by G. de Machaut], conservés dans la bibliothèque des Carmes-Déchaux de Paris, avec une indication du genre de musique qui s’y trouve’, Mémoires de littérature, tirés des registres de l’Académie royale des inscriptions et belles-lettres, depuis l’année MDCCXLIV, jusques & compris l’année MDCCXLVI, xx (Paris, 1753), 377–98

in ‘Mercure de France’

‘Lettre écrite de … en Brie, contenant quelques remarques sur le chant ecclésiastique’ (Sept 1725), 1987–98

‘Dessein d’un recueil d’hymnes nouvelles avec les plus beaux chants, selon chaque mesure’ (Aug 1726), 1729–59

‘Lettre sur le système de chant inventé depuis peu par un prêtre de S. Sulpice’ (Feb 1728), 217–38; ‘Continuation des remarques’ (Nov 1728), 2350–60; (Dec 1728), 2571–85

‘Observations sur la composition du chant ecclésiastique de plusieurs nouveaux bréviaires’ (June 1728), 1162–69, 1300–08

‘Réponses aux questions proposées dans le Mercure du mois de Novembre dernier, à l’occasion de quelques contestations musicales, formées à Troyes en Champagne’ (May 1729), 844–55

‘Lettre … à M. H[erluyson] chanoine de l’église cathédrale de [Troyes] sur le choix que les musiciens ont fait de Ste. Cécile pour leur Patronne’ (Jan 1732), 21–46; (June 1732), 1081–8

‘Lettre sur les orgues’ (Aug 1737), 1750–54

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

P. Papillon: Bibliothèque des auteurs de Bourgogne (Dijon,1745/R), i, 388ff

J.-M. Quérard: La France littéraire, ou Dictionnaire bibliographe (Paris, 1827–64/R), v, 13–14

C. Leber: Collection des meilleurs dissertations, notices et traités particuliers relatifs à l’histoire de France (Paris, 1838), xiv–xv

P. Aubry: La musicologie médiévale: histoire et méthodes (Paris, 1900/R), 31ff

A. Cioranescu: Bibliographie de la littérature française du dix-huitième siècle, (Paris, 1969), ii, 1055ff

D. Launay: La musique religieuse en France du concile de Trente à 1804 (Paris, 1993)

P. Vendrix: Aux origines d'une discipline historique: la musique et son histoire en France aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (Geneva, 1993)

ALBERT COHEN/PHILIPPE VENDRIX

Lebhaft

(Ger.: ‘lively’, ‘sprightly’, ‘brisk’).

A tempo mark. In the second movement of his Piano Sonata in A op.101 Beethoven translated lebhaft, marschmässig as vivace alla marcia; but in the first movement etwas lebhaft und mit der innigsten Empfindung becomes allegretto ma non troppo. The introduction to Act 3 of Lohengrin is headed sehr lebhaft. The derivative Belebt implies animato.

Lebič, Lojze

(b Prevalje, Koroška, 23 Aug 1934). Slovene composer and conductor. He studied archaeology at Ljubljana University until 1957, then composition with Kozina and conducting with Švara at the Ljubljana Academy of Music. He conducted the Tone Tomšič chorus (1959–63) and the Radio-Televizije chamber chorus of Ljubljana (1962–71). In 1971 he became musical editor of Radio Ljubljana and from 1972 to 1986 was a professor at the Ljubljana Pedagogical Academy. In 1986 he became a professor of music theory in the department of musicology at the University of Ljubjana. Lebič was secretary of the Yugoslav section of the ISCM from 1981 to 1991. He became a member of the Slovenian Academy of Arts and Science in 1995.

Lebič’s music is strongly influenced by the Polish avant garde, but follows a separate line of development, with a strong feeling for melodic lines and a ‘symphonic’ interaction of the various elements used. This is well illustrated in the chamber works Meditacija and Ekspresije, in which the harmonic implications of the contrapuntal lines are carefully worked out, despite an apparently free coordination. The development of these characteristics in kons (b) (1968) shows a strong dramatic sense, while in kons (a) (1970) phonetic material is integrated into the delicate textures. In the cantata Požgana trava (‘Scorched Grass’) the full orchestra is used with similar care to balance the recitative-like vocal lines. Lebič’s orchestral masterpiece, Korant, reconciles on the one hand the huge orchestral tutti with the subtle sounds of the chamber works, and on the other static harmony with vigorous rhythmic activity and variety.

Lebič’s later music focusses on the advanced techniques of the violin, especially in cooperation with the Slovenian violinist Tomaž Lorenz; the exploration of less frequently encountered instruments (recorder and accordion); a considerable use of advanced vocal and choral resources, particularly in Fauvel ’86 and Ajdna; and a reassessment of orchestra techniques in the monolithic Queensland Music (1989) and the dramatic Sinfonija z orglami (1993).

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Sinfonietta, 1962; Sentence, wind, 2 pf, perc, 4 vc, 2 db, 1967; Korant, 1969; Nicina, 1971; Glasovi [Voices], hp, pf, hpd, gui, mand, perc, str, 1974; Tangram, chbr orch, 1977; Uvertura, 3 inst groups, 1985; Queensland Music, 1989; Simfonija z orglami [Sym. with Org], 1993

Vocal: Požgana trava [Scorched Grass] (cant., D. Zajc), Mez, orch, 1965; Novembrske pesmi, 1v, orch, 1981–2; Štiri Kocbekova pesmi [4 Songs on Kocbek’s Poetry], 1v, pf, 1983; Fauvel ’86, chorus, pf, perc, ens, tape (1986); Hvalnica sveta [Hymn to the World], 2 choruses, pf, synth, perc, 4 gui, ens, tape, 1988; Hvalnica sveta [Hymn to the World], 2 choruses, pf, synth, perc, 4 gui, ens, tape, 1988; Ajdna (Glasba o časus) [Music about Time], chorus, recs, perc, synth, 1994–6

Chbr: Sonata, vn, pf, 1959; Sonata, cl, pf, 1960; Inscriptiones, fl, cl, tpt, trbn, perc, hp, vc, 1965; Meditacija za 2, va, vc, 1965, rev. 1972; Ekspresije, pf trio, 1968, rev. 1972; kons (b), 3 cl, perc, hp, str qt, 1968; kons (a), fl, cl, hn, perc, pf, hp, str trio, 1970; Atelier, vn, pf, 1973; Epicedion, vn, chordal inst, 1978, rev. 1982; Quartet, perc, 1979; Invisibilia, vn, pf, 1981; Str Qt, 1983; Od blizu in daleč [From Near and Far], recs, 1991; … illud tempus, tpt, org, 1996

Solo inst: Impromptus, pf, 1967–74; Sonet, pf, 1976; Chalumeau, cl, 1977; Okus po cašu, ki bezi [A Taste of Time Fleeting Away], org, 1978; Chalumeau II, ob, 1985; Rubato, va, 1989; In voce cornu, hn, 1990; Rej, accdn, 1995

Principal publishers: Breitkopf & Härtel, Deutsche Verlag für Musik, Društvo slovenskih skladateljev (Ljubljana), Peters

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Rijavec: Slovenska glasbena dela [Slovenian musical works] (Ljubljana, 1979), 141–8

N. O’Loughlin: ‘The Music of Lojze Lebič’, MZ, xix (1983), 71–81

B. Učakar: ‘Lebičev Korant’, Delo (7 March 1991)

F. Schneider: ‘O komorni glasbi Lojzeta Lebiča / Zur Kammermusik von Lojze Lebič’, Slovenska glasba v preteklosti in sedanjosti, ed. P. Kuret (Ljubljana, 1992), 299–306

V. Globokar, L. Lebič and J. Jež: ‘Pogovor z Vinkom Globokarjem in Lojzetom Lebičem ib njuni 60-letnici’, Naši zbori, xlvi/3–4 (1994), 69–74

NIALL O’LOUGHLIN

Lébl, Vladimír

(b Prague, 6 Feb 1928; d Prague, 8 June 1987). Czech musicologist. He began studying medicine, but after three years transferred to music and ethnography at the arts faculty of Prague University, where he was a pupil of Očadlík and Sychra. He took the doctorate with a dissertation on Janáček in 1953. He then became a lecturer at the department of music history at Prague University (1953–7), chief of the music section of the Prague Theatre Institute (1957–63), and research fellow at the musicology institute at the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences in Prague (1963). He obtained the CSc degree in 1966 with a monograph on the life and work of Vítězslav Novák. From the late 1950s he was active as a music critic (contributing to Hudební rozhledy, Divadlo, Literární noviny and other journals) and as an administrator, notably in the Czechoslovak Composers’ Union. Later he concentrated on research into the history of music, particularly Czech music in the 20th century, and into acoustics, electronic music and musique concrète, taking his standpoint mainly from the work of the French experimental studio of Pierre Schaeffer. In the 1960s, with the music director and theorist Eduard Herzog, he was instrumental in propagating electronic music among Czech and Slovak composers, presenting before the public electronic works by Vostřák, Kopelent and others. Of particular value were the courses on electronic music that he organized in Prague and Plzeň jointly with Czechoslovak Radio and the Czechoslovak Composers’ Union (1965–7). In 1966 he became head of the sound research laboratory at the musicology institute of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, a new department which he built up largely by himself. Lack of financial support halted his laboratory work; in later years his broad outlook, experience and organizational talents were used in teams based at the Musicology Institute examining the theory and history of musicology. This resulted in two major publications (1983, 1988).

WRITINGS

Pět kapitol o Leoši Janáčkovi [Five chapters on Janáček] (diss., U. of Prague, 1953)

Cesty moderní opery [Paths of modern opera] (Prague, 1961)

Vítězslav Novák: život a dílo [Life and work] (CSc diss., U. of Prague, 1966; Prague, 1964)

with L. Mokrý: ‘O současném stavu nových skladebných směrů u nás’, [The present state of new directions of composition in Czechoslovakia], Nové cesty hudby (Prague, 1964), 11–35

Elektronická hudba (Prague, 1966)

‘Metahudba’ [Metamusic], Podoby: literární sborník, ii (1969), 172

‘Nástin typologie zvukového materiálu’ [An outline of the typology of sound material], HV, vi (1969), 260–80

‘Některé komunicační problémy elektronické hudby’ [Some communication problems of electronic music], HV, vii (1970), 267–77

‘O mezních druzích hudby’ [On marginal types of music], Nové cesty hudby, ed. E. Herzog (Prague, 1970), 216–47

‘Moderní hudba’ [Modern Music], Československá vlastivěda, xi/3, ed. M. Očadlík and R. Smetana (Prague, 1971), 227–85

‘Příspěvek k morfologii zvukové struktury’ [The morphology of sound structures], HV, viii (1971), 3–18

‘Houslový koncert Albana Berga’ [Berg's Violin Concerto], HV, ix (1972), 3–41

with others: Dějiny české hudební kultury 1890–1945 [The history of Czech musical culture] (Prague, 1972–81)

‘Objektivní a subjektivní problematika zvukové barvy’ [Objective and subjective problems of timbre], HV, xi (1974), 211–48

‘Gustav Mahler als Kapellmeister des Deutschen Landestheaters in Prag’, HV, xii (1975), 351–70

‘Pražske mahlerovství let 1898–1918’ [The Mahlerism of Prague 1898–1918], HV, xii (1975), 99–135

with others: ‘Teorie hudební vědy’ [Theory of musicology], HV, xii (1975), 291–322 [discussion]

‘Případ Vojcek’ [The case of Wozzeck], HV, xiv (1977), 195–227 [with Ger. summary]

with J. Ludvová: ‘Dobové kořeny a souvislosti Smetanovy Me vlasti’ [Historical roots and connections of Smetana's My Homeland], HV, xviii (1981), 100–141

‘Pražské ohlasy Debussyho tvorby v letech 1905–1921’ [Prague's response to Debussy's music 1905–21], HV, xix (1982), 195–234

with others: Hudba v českých dějinách od středověku do nové doby [Music in Czech history from the Middle Ages to modern times] (Prague, 1983, 2/1987)

‘Tvorba Jana Klusáka v letech 1959 až 1962’ [The work of Klusák 1959–62], HV, xxiii (1986), 112–42

‘Odkaz Josefa Berga’ [The heritage of Berg], OM, xiv (1987), 34–9

with others: Hudební věda [Musicology] (Prague, 1988)

‘Životopis Miloslava Kabeláče’ [Kabeláč's biography], HV, xxv (1988), 8–63

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Bek: ‘Muzikologické dílo Vladimíra Lébla’ [The musicological works of Lébl], HV, xxv (1988), 3–7

JOSEF BEK

Le Blan, Pierre-Joseph

(b Zinnik [now Hennegau], bap. 18 July 1711; d Ghent, bur. 25 May 1765). Flemish carillonneur and composer. Known by 1729 as a carillonneur and clockmaker in his home town, Le Blan appeared from 1743 in Veurne exercising these two occupations. In 1746 he succeeded Pierre Schepers as town carillonneur at Ghent, becoming town clockmaker in 1751. He acted several times as a consultant in carillon building (Ghent, Bruges, Dunkirk). In 1763 he gave a concert on a carillon with small glass bells which he had invented. One work is known, a Livre de clavecin (Ghent, 1752/R) containing six suites.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

VannesD

P. Bergmans: ‘Le carilloneur gantois Le Blan et son “Livre de clavecin”, 1752’, Beiaardkunst I: Mechelen 1922, 88–92

E. Closson and C. van den Borren, eds.: La musique en Belgique (Brussels, 1950)

DAVID FULLER/LUC ROMBOUTS

Leblanc [first name unknown]

(b ?c1750; d Paris, March 1827). French composer and violinist. By 1767 he had published La chasse, a violin sonata; he wrote light works for the Paris stage, beginning with La noce béarnaise in 1787. He was director of the orchestra of the Théâtre-Française Comique et Lyrique until at least 1791, and was a composer of operas and pantomimes for the Théâtre d’Emulation until 1801. At least the overture and accompaniments for Beffroy de Reigny’s extremely popular Nicodème dans la lune (1790) are by him, but it was his misfortune to compose for the short-lived, smaller theatres, and his successes were quickly forgotten. He composed much music, often anonymously, for the pantomimes, ballets and melodramas of the boulevard theatres. A fall in his fortunes obliged him to accept the position of second violin at the Théâtre sans Prétention, and he was later reduced to copying music to support himself.

WORKS

stage

first performed in Paris

La noce béarnaise (oc, 3, Lutaine), Beaujolais, 14 Nov 1787, ov., entr’acte arr. hpd/pf, vn (Paris, n.d.), 2 ariettes (Paris, n.d.)

Gabrielle et Paulin, ou Les amours du printemps (vaudeville, 1), Beaujolais, 10 May 1788, 2 airs (Paris, n.d.)

Le lord et son jockey (opéra bouffon, 3 Lutaine), Beaujolais, 8 Oct 1788

La soubrette rusée (opéra bouffon, 1) Beaujolais, 3 Oct 1789

La folle gageure (cmda, 1, F.-P.-A. Léger), Français Comique et Lyrique, 30 June 1790

Rosine et Zély (oc), Français Comique et Lyrique, 4 Sept 1790

Le berceau d’Henri IV (oc, 2), Français Comique et Lyrique, 1 Dec 1790

Le mariage de Nanon, ou La suite de Madame Angot (oc, 1, A.F. Eve), Emulation, 1796

La fausse mère, ou Une faute d’amour (opérette), Emulation, 1798

La bergère de Saluces, ou La vertu à l’épreuve (drame-pantomime, 4, Noël), Jeunes Artistes, 29 Jan 1799

Le sérail, ou La fée du Mogol (féerie, 3, Hapdé and Dabaytua), De la cité, 23 Dec 1799

La forêt enchantée, ou Isaure et Florestan (féerie), Gaîté, 1800

Les deux nuits (oc, 2, Coffin-Rosny and Béraud), Gaîté, 31 May 1802

Ecbert, premier roi d’Angleterre, ou La fin de l’heptarchie (mélodrame, 3, P.-A.-L.-P. Plancher [V. Valcour]), c1802

Esther (mélodrame, 3, Plancher), 1802 or 1803

La belle Milanaise, ou La fille-femme, page et soldat, Gaîté, 28 June 1804

Le sabot miraculeux, ou L’isle des Nains, Salle de Jeux Forains, 8 Jan 1811

Saphirine, ou Le réveil magique (mélo-féerie, 2, J.-T. Merle and E.T.M. Ourry), Gaîté, 25 July 1811

Riquet à la houpe (mélo-féerie, 2 Simonnin), Gaîté, 28 Sept 1811

L’armure, ou Le soldat moldave (mélodrame, 3, J.-G.-A. Cuvelier de Trie and Léopold [L. Chandezon]), Gaîté, 20 Oct 1821

Azémire, ou Les réfugiés péruviens (mélodrame), ?unperf.

Elisa, ou Le triomphe des femmes (mélodrame), ?unperf.

Contribs to: L.-A. Beffroy de Reigny: Nicodème dans la lune, 1790

instrumental

La chasse, vn, b (Paris, by 1767)

Sonates, vn, bc

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB; GerberNL

P.L. Jacob, ed.: Bibliothèque dramatique de Monsieur de Soleinne (Paris, 1843–5/R); suppl. by C. Brunet: Tables des pièces de Théâtre Paris, 1914)

F. Clément and P. Larousse: Dictionnaire lyrique, ou Histoire des opéras (Paris, 1867–81, 2/1897 ed. A. Pougin as Dictionnaire des opéras, 3/1905/R)

C.D. Brenner: A Bibliographical List of Plays in the French Language 1700–1789 (Berkeley, 1947, 2/1979)

LELAND FOX

Le Blanc, Didier

(fl ?Paris, 1578–84). French music editor and composer. His Airs de plusieurs musiciens … réduiz a 4 parties (Paris, 1579; ed. in MMFTR, iii, 1925) contains 42 airs and is dedicated, in a sonnet signed by the composer, to the lutenist and printer Adrian Le Roy. The Second livre d'airs des plus excelants musiciens … réduiz a 4 parties (Paris, 1579; ed. in SCC, iii, 1995) also contains 42 airs and a shorter dedicatory poem by Le Blanc to Pierre Dugué. The title-pages of the collections explain that the contents are four- and five-voice arrangements of melodies by several composers to strophic poems by Desportes and others (Jamin, Baïf, Ronsard, Belleau and Du Bellay are acknowledged in the first book). Some of the tunes are those used in the four-voice settings of the same texts by Caietain and Beaulieu published in 1576 and 1578; others are quite independent. The style of these airs is generally homophonic and metrical, exploiting alternation of duple and triple metres and respecting the poetic prosody without the strictly quantitative approach of musique mesurée; a few airs have unusual concluding cadences with an anticipation of the final chord. Le Blanc also contributed eight contrapuntal duets based on motives from four- and five-voice chansons by Lassus to the second edition of Le Roy & Ballard's first book of bicinia (RISM 1578¹⁷; ed. in SCC, xv, 1992), and a trio arrangement of Willaert's six-voice A la fontaine to the same publishers' second book of chansons for three voices (1578¹⁵). His only original composition is a homophonic four-voice Te Deum printed at the end of an anthology of Magnificat settings (1584¹).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Lesure and G. Thibault: Bibliographie des éditions d'Adrian le Roy et Robert Ballard (1551–1598) (Paris, 1955); suppl., RdM, xl (1957), 166–72

G. Durosoir: L'air de cour en France: 1571–1655 (Liège, 1991)

FRANK DOBBINS

Leblanc, Georgette

(b Tancarville, 8 Feb 1875; d Le Cannet, nr Cannes, 27 Oct 1941). French soprano. She studied in Paris, making her début in 1893 at the Opéra-Comique as Françoise in the first performance of Bruneau’s L’attaque au Moulin. She also sang Fanny in Massenet’s Sapho. Engaged at the Théâtre de la Monnaie (1894–6), she sang Anita (La Navarraise), Thaïs and Carmen. In Brussels, she began a 20-year association with Maurice Maeterlinck, who wanted her to create the heroine of Pelléas et Mélisande; Debussy, however, insisted that Mary Garden should sing the role. Instead, Leblanc sang Ariane at the first performance of Dukas’ Ariane et Barbe-bleue at the Opéra-Comique (1907). She first sang Mélisande in 1912 at Boston, where she also acted in the play. In 1930 she published Souvenirs (1895–1918), an account of her liaison with Maeterlinck.

ELIZABETH FORBES

Le Blanc [Leblanc], Hubert

(d ?1728). French Doctor of Law, abbé and amateur viol player. After a period as secrétaire d'état de la guerre in Paris, he was obliged to retire to Flanders from 1723 to 1726. His personality, and to some extent his writing, is marked by a certain eccentricity; however, his Défense de la basse de viole contre les entréprises du violon et les prétentions du violoncel (Amsterdam, 1740/R; repr. serially in ReM, ix, 1927–8; Eng. trans. in Jackson) contains useful information about Parisian musical taste and performing practices during the first quarter of the 18th century. It is divided into three parts: a comparison between French pièces and Italian sonatas; an argument in favour of the viol because of its delicacy and ability to play harmony as compared with the violin, which is more suited to large halls and higher pitch; and specific advice about tuning the viol as well as fingering and shifting. His description of Marais' six different bow strokes and ‘imperceptible’ bow changes is helpful, as are comments about such violinists as Geminiani and Guignon. According to Rutledge, Le Blanc also wrote Le Czar Pierre Premier en France (Amsterdam, 1741).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Bol: La basse de viole du temps de Marin Marais et d'Antoine Forqueray (Bilthoven, 1973)

B.G. Jackson: ‘Hubert Le Blanc's Défense de la viole’, JVdGSA, x (1973), 11–28, 69–80; xi (1974), 17–58; xii (1975), 14–36 [Eng. trans. and commentary]

J. Rutledge: ‘Hubert Le Blanc's Concept of Viol Sound’, JVdGSA, xvii (1980), 28–37

J. Boer and G. van Oorschot: A Viola da Gamba Miscellany: Utrecht 1991

G.J. Buelow, ed.: The Late Baroque Era: from the 1680s to 1740 (London, 1993)

MARY CYR

Leblanc du Roullet, Marie François Louis Gand.

See Roullet, marie françois louis gand leblanc.

Lebloitte dit Des Prez, Jossequin.

See Josquin des Prez.

Leborne, Aimé (Ambroise Simon)

(b Brussels, 29 Dec 1797; d Paris, 1 or 2 April 1866). French composer and teacher of Flemish birth. He attended the free school in Versailles, winning prizes in 1809 and 1810, and entered the Paris Conservatoire in 1811 where he studied with Cherubini. In 1818 he won the second prize in the Prix de Rome contest, and in 1820 obtained the first prize with the cantata Sophonisbe, enabling him to travel in Italy and Germany for three years. On his return to Paris he taught solfège at the Conservatoire (an appointment which he had held since 1820), and composed several opéras comiques, some of which were collaborations. He was named librarian of the Opéra in 1829 and of the royal chapel five years later. After Reicha’s death in 1836 Leborne became professor of counterpoint and fugue at the Conservatoire, and from 1840 he taught composition, retaining this post until his death. He was named a Chevalier of the Légion d’Honneur in 1853.

Leborne was a renowned teacher; several of his pupils won the Prix de Rome. He brought out a new edition of Catel’s Traité d’harmonie with numerous practical additions (1848), and wrote his own treatise on harmony which was never published. His operas, which displayed much coloratura writing, were produced between 1827 and 1838 with little success.

WORKS

opéras comiques unless otherwise stated; first performed in Paris

Sophonisbe (cant., Vieillard), 1820

Les deux Figaro (op, 3, V. Tirpenne), Odéon, 22 Aug 1827, collab. M. Carafa

Le camp du drap d’or (3, P. de Kock), OC (Feydeau), 23 Feb 1828, collab. Baton, Rifaut

Finales to Acts 1, 2, Carafa’s La violette (3, F.A.E. de Planard, after Comte de Tressan: Gerard de Nevers), OC (Feydeau), 7 Oct 1828 (Paris, ?1829)

Cinq ans d’entracte (2, A. Féréol), OC (Bourse), 15 June 1833

Lequel? (1, P. Duport, J.-A.F.-P. Ancelot), OC (Bourse), 21 March 1838

Songs

WRITINGS

Traité complet d’harmonie, de contrepoint, et de fugue (MS, n.d.)

ed.: C. Catel: Traité d’harmonie (Paris, 1848) [enlargement of original edn (Paris, 1802)]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

VannesD

Obituary, Le ménestrel (8 April 1866)

C. Pierre: Le Conservatoire national de musique et de déclamation: documents historiques et administratifs (Paris, 1900)

MARIE LOUISE PEREYRA/JEFFREY COOPER

Le Boscu d'Arras [Le Bossy], Adan.

See Adam de la Halle.

Le Bouteiller [Boutillier], Jean

(fl Bourges, 1530–42). French composer. He was maître des enfants at the Ste Chapelle, Bourges, between November 1530 and October 1535; he then served in the same capacity at Chartres Cathedral until 1542. His only known works are two motets and four chansons, all for four voices, printed at Paris by Attaingnant between 1534 and 1540. The chansons set the texts (one by Marot) in light syllabic counterpoint similar to that of Janequin and Certon.

WORKS

2 motets, 4vv, 1534³, 1534⁴; ed. A. Smijers and A.T. Merritt, Treize livres de motets parus chez P. Attaingnant en 1534–1535, i–ii (Paris, 1934)

4 chansons, 4vv, 1532¹², 1539¹⁵, 1539¹⁷, 1540¹⁴; 1 ed. H.M. Brown, Theatrical Chansons of the Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries (Cambridge, MA, 1963); 1. ed. in RRMR, xxxviii (1981)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FRANK DOBBINS

Le Bret

(fl c1740). French composer. He is known only through two harpsichord suites, one of which was published. The only known exemplar of the publication (Paris, private collection) lacks title-page and provides no clues for dating beyond the style of the music. The two suites, omitting a concluding pair of minuets in the first, survive in a copy by the Abbé Pingré (F-Psg). Most of the movements are character pieces, although some bear dance names. The point of departure is clearly Couperin and Rameau; but certain elements (notably a penchant for left-hand accompaniments consisting of repeated chords, rare in French music) point to the likelihood that Le Bret knew some sonatas of Scarlatti. The collection, entitled simply Oeuvre de Mr. Le Bret, is competent and even interesting. (B. Gustafson and D. Fuller: A Catalogue of French Harpsichord Music, 1699–1780, Oxford, 1990)

DAVID FULLER/BRUCE GUSTAFSON

Le Breton.

See Berton.

Lebrun.

German family of musicians.

(2) Franziska [Francesca] (Dorothea) Lebrun [née Danzi]

(3) Sophie Lebrun [Dülken]

(4) Rosine Lebrun [Stentzsch]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BrookB

BurneyGN

BurneyH

FétisB

FlorimoN

GerberL

GerberNL

LipowskyBL

MGG1 (R. Münster)

SchillingE

WalterG

Musikalische Real-Zeitung (30 Dec 1789; 13, 27 Jan 1790; 28 April 1790)

Musikalische Korrespondenz der Teutschen Filarmonischen Gesellschaft (6 Jan 1791; 16 Feb 1791)

C.F.D. Schubart: Ideen zu einer Ästhetik der Tonkunst (Vienna, 1806/R)

W.T. Parke: Musical Memoirs (London, 1830)

C.F. Pohl: Mozart und Haydn in London (Vienna, 1867/R), ii, 372

F. Grandaur: Chronik des königlichen Hof- und Nationaltheaters in München (Munich, 1878)

R. Fuhrmann: Mannheimer Klavier-Kammermusik (Marburg, 1963)

B. Haynes: Music for Oboe, 1650–1800: a Bibliography (Berkeley, 2/1992)

B. Höft: ‘Komponisten, Komponistinnnen und Virtuosen’, Die Mannheimer Hofkapelle in Zeitalter Carl Theodors, ed. L. Finscher (Mannheim, 1972), 59–70

T. HERMAN KEAHEY (1), BRIGITTE HÖFT (2), ROBERT MÜNSTER (3), ROLAND WÜRTZ/ROBERT MÜNSTER (4)

(1) Ludwig August Lebrun [Brün, Le]

(b Mannheim, bap. 2 May 1752; d Berlin, 12/15/16 Dec 1790). Oboist and composer. He was the son of Alexander Lebrun, an oboist from Brussels who played in the Mannheim orchestra. He seems to have studied the oboe with his father and played in the Mannheim orchestra as a boy, becoming a court musician at the age of 15. He retained that position for the remainder of his life in spite of almost continual absence on concert tours. In 1778 he married the singer (2) Franziska Danzi. The couple performed in many European cities including London (1778) and Paris (1779), where the Mercure de France noted ‘a soft, velvety quality, a sweetness which one can hardly believe possible’ in his playing. During a later stay in London, the oboist W.T. Parke complained that ‘he occasionally played out of tune’. By the mid-1780s the couple's salaries were at the top of the Mannheim scale (3000 gulden), but they had to return much of this to compensate the other court musicians for their absence. Their international success reached a highpoint in Berlin in 1789. On a return visit in autumn 1790, Ludwig fell ill from inflammation of the liver and exhaustion, and he died in December; Franziska died only five months later.

Lebrun appears to have been above the jealousy and rivalry normal in his profession. Regarding a joint performance with Carlo Besozzi, Forkel's Musikalischer Almanach (1782) announced that the two ‘fought like giants. Neither “lost”.’ Schubart stated that Lebrun ‘attained the maximum in perfection on the oboe’ (Deutsche chronik, ii, 1775, no.52, p.411. Among Lebrun's compositions the most important are his oboe concertos, which were doubtless intended for his own performance. The extant works fall into two groups, the first consisting of seven published by Sieber (Paris). These are in the mature Mannheim Classical style and were published in both for oboe and flute versions, with orchestra consisting of strings only (plus horns in no.2). They have an infectious charm and elegance of style which captured contemporary admiration. A second group published by André (Offenbach), perhaps as late as 1804, represents a substantial change of style. These were unquestionably conceived for oboe (though they were also published in versions for flute) and call for larger resources. Two are in minor keys, and a more dramatic mood prevails, foreshadowing early Romantic style.

WORKS

Concs. (only solo insts listed): no.1, G, ob, fl, DK-Kk [solo part only] (Paris, by 1776–7), microfilm US-PRV; no.2, C, ob/fl, DK-Kk (Paris, by 1781), microfilm US-PRV; no.3, F, ob/fl (Paris, by 1781), microfilm PRV; no.4, C, ob/fl (Paris, by 1782–4), ed. W. Lebermann (Hamburg, 1964), arr. for cl, A-Wn; no.5, ob/fl (Paris, n.d.), ?lost; no.6, F, ob/fl (Paris, n.d.), no.7, G, ob/fl (Paris, n.d.), microfilm of both US-PRV; 6 ob concs., d, g, C, B, C, F (Offenbach, before 1805), no.1 ed. H. Töttcher (Mainz, 1977), no.3 ed. D. Ledet (Monteux, 1988); Conc., F, D-DS, doubtful; Conc., formerly US-NYp, lost

Chbr: 6 Trios, 2 vn, vc, op.1 (Mannheim, by 1774); 6 Trios, vn, fl/ob/vn, b, op.2 (Paris, n.d.); 6 Duos, vn, va, op.4 (Mannheim, by 1774), ed. Y. Morgan (Winterthur, 1996); Sonata, fl, b, DK-Kk; Qt, ob, vn, va, vc, formerly D-DO, lost

Kbd: 6 hpd sonatas, CH-MSbk

Stage: dances in Adele de Ponthieu (ballet), US-NYp, Favorite Airs, arr. kbd (London, 1782); dances in Armida (pasticcio), London, 1782, arr. hpd, vn (London, 1782)

(2) Franziska [Francesca] (Dorothea) Lebrun [née Danzi]

(b Mannheim, 24 March 1756; d Berlin, 14 May 1791). Soprano and composer, wife of (1) Ludwig August Lebrun. She was the daughter of Innocenz Danzi and elder sister of Franz Danzi. She made her début in 1772 at the Schwetzingen Schlosstheater in Sacchini’s La contadina in corte and sang in the court opera at Mannheim, holding the title virtuosa da camera. In 1777 she triumphed in the role of Anna in Holzbauer’s Günther von Schwarzburg, which was composed for her voice. She spent the next year in London and in 1778 married (1) Ludwig August Lebrun. While retaining her court position (from 1778 at Munich), she visited several European countries with her husband, making guest appearances in operas and concerts. On 3 August 1778 she sang the principal role in Salieri’s Europa riconosciuta at the opening of La Scala, Milan. Early in 1779 she appeared with her husband at the Concert Spirituel in Paris, where she caused a stir by fitting Italian texts to the solo parts of symphonies concertantes. For the opera seasons of 1779–81 she was again engaged at the King’s Theatre in London. Thomas Gainsborough painted her portrait in 1780 (fig.2). While in London she composed and published two sets of six sonatas for violin and keyboard (op.1, 1780/R; op.2, 1780), which were soon also issued in Paris, Amsterdam, Offenbach, Berlin, Mannheim and Worms.

On 13 March 1785 she performed at an academy organized by Mozart at the Burgtheater in Vienna. She spent the season of 1786–7 in Naples, where she appeared at the Teatro S Carlo. The couple were invited to Berlin for the carnival seasons of 1789–90 and 1790–91. Her husband’s sudden death there affected Lebrun severely and led to a rapid decline in her health, and she made only two subsequent public appearances.

(3) Sophie Lebrun [Dülken]

(b London, 20 June 1781; d Munich, 23 July 1863). Pianist, daughter of (1) Ludwig August and (2) Franziska Lebrun. Her teachers included Andreas Streicher (piano) and her uncle Franz Danzi (singing). Well known and respected from an early age as a pianist, she undertook concert tours to Switzerland, Italy and Paris. Weber, Spohr and Meyerbeer sought her acquaintance. Her compositions, mainly sonatas and concertos according to Lipowsky, were not published and are lost. She married the Munich court piano maker J.L. Dülken on 27 December 1799. Her daughters Louise (b 1805) and Fanny (b 1807) married the brothers Max and Anton Bohrer (both Munich court musicians), and her daughter Violande (b 1810) became a concert singer.

(4) Rosine Lebrun [Stentzsch]

(b Munich, 29 April 1783; d Munich, 5 June 1855). Singer and actress, daughter of (1) Ludwig August and (2) Franziska Lebrun. Like her sister (3) Sophie, she studied the piano with Streicher and singing with her uncle Franz Danzi. She was successful as an opera singer, and after her marriage to the Munich actor K.A.A. Stentzsch (3 November 1800) she turned to acting, though she was still occasionally an understudy for operatic performances. From the end of 1801 to her retirement on 1 January 1830 she was a member of the Munich theatre company; her daughter Charlotte Stentzsch (d 1877) was a member from 1822 to 1848.

Lebrun [Le Brun, Brun, Braun], Jean

(b Lyons, 6 April 1759; d Paris, 1809). French horn player. He went to Paris about 1780 to study with Punto and Rudolphe, making his début at the Concert Spirituel in 1781; in nine years he performed there over 30 times. In 1786 he was appointed principal horn at the Opéra, where he remained until 1792. When Palsa died that year in Berlin, Lebrun succeeded him as principal horn in the Prussian court orchestra in Berlin and as first in the famous duo with Türrschmidt, with whom he toured until Türrschmidt's death in 1797. He remained based in Berlin, continuing to tour as a soloist until at least 1808. After the Battle of Jena he returned to Paris. According to Fétis, his personality did not attract many friendships: alone, in depair, he ended his own life in 1809.

Lebrun invented a lacquer for coating the inside of the horn's tubing, eliminating any irregularities of the inner surface, and preventing verdigris. Although he used a silver cor solo by Raoux, he recommended brass as the ideal material, and arrived at an optimum thickness for this metal which contributed to evenness of tone quality between stopped and open notes. He is credited with having invented a cone-shaped mute with a hole in its base that gave a more desirable sound quality.

Gerber's appraisal of Lebrun's playing makes special mention of his voice-like tone quality, singing style and tasteful ornamentation, as well as his incomparable intonation and accuracy. Fétis, who heard him in 1802, was impressed by his strength, range, sound and ability to combine demanding cor basse handstopping with a refined cor alto register. Together with Punto, Lebrun was responsible for elevating the horn's status as a solo instrument. He also supplied Framery with information on the horn for his Encyclopédie méthodique: Musique, i (Paris, 1791/R).

Lebrun wrote a quantity of concertos for himself in nearly every key, but none was published and their whereabouts are unknown.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

GerberNL

MCL

PierreH

SchillingE

AMZ, i (1798–9), 621; ix (1806–7), 372; x (1807–8), 84, 265, 589, 814

C. von Ledebur: Tonkünstler-Lexicon Berlin's (Berlin, 1861/R)

R. Morley-Pegge: The French Horn (London, 1960, 2/1973)

H. Fitzpatrick: The Horn and Horn-Playing and the Austro-Bohemian Tradition from 1680 to 1830 (London, 1970)

HORACE FITZPATRICK/JEFFREY L. SNEDEKER

Lebrun, Louis-Sébastien

(b Paris, 10 Dec 1764; d Paris, 27 June 1829). French tenor and composer. At the age of seven he entered the maîtrise of Notre Dame, Paris, where he studied composition and received singing lessons, remaining there until 1783 when he became musical director of the church of St Germain-l’Auxerrois. Encouraged to take up theatrical singing, he made his début at the Paris Opéra in 1787 as Polynices in Sacchini’s Oedipe à Colone. In the same period he appeared at the Concert Spirituel in the dual role of singer and composer of several scènes and an oratorio. Despite his limited acting ability he remained on the stage and transferred to the Théâtre Feydeau in 1791, leaving it in 1799. The following year he was involved in the grandiose ceremonies at the Invalides, where works by Le Sueur and Méhul were performed. To obtain stereophonic effects two orchestras and two choirs were placed in different parts of the building; Lebrun led the second choir (Mongrédien, 1986). He then rejoined the Opéra as an understudy, becoming a singing tutor in 1803. In 1807 he was admitted as a tenor into the imperial chapel, where he was promoted to director of singing after three years. His responsibilities may also have lain outside the chapel, for Choron and Fayolle (1810–11) described him as ‘leader of the vocal division of the music of His Majesty’.

Among his stage works, most of which are opéras comiques, Marcelin (1800) and Le rossignol (1816) were quite successful. The former was presented in Madrid, Vienna, St Petersburg, Budapest, Prague and Stockholm. Le rossignol was famed for its virtuoso exchanges between the soprano and the solo flute, of which the original interpreters were Mme Albert-Hymm and J.-L. Tulou. It was performed 227 times in Paris up to 1852, though Clément and Larousse ascribed its longevity merely to the general shortage of operas brief enough to precede an evening of ballet. During its performance at the Théâtre Louvois on 13 February 1820, Charles-Ferdinand de Bourbon, the Duke of Berry and heir to the throne, was assassinated. Le rossignol was played in New York (1833) and London (Drury Lane, 1846).

WORKS

stage

opéras comiques, unless otherwise indicated; first performed in Paris

L’art d’aimer, ou L’amour au village (1, [?L.-H.] Dancourt), Montansier, 1790; Ils ne savent pas lire (1), Montansier, 1791; Emilie et Melcour (1, L. Hennequin), Louvois, 3 July 1795; Le bon fils (1, Hennequin), Feydeau, 17 Sept 1795; L’astronome (1, Desfaucherets), Feydeau, 1798, F-Po, pubd, according to Fétis; Le menteur maladroit (1), Molière, 1798; Un moment d’erreur (1), Louvois, 1798; La veuve américaine (2), Louvois, 1799, Pc

Le maçon (1, C.A.B. Sewrin), Feydeau, 4 Dec 1799, Pc; Marcelin (1, F. Bernard-Valville), Feydeau, 22 March 1800, Pc, pubd according to Fétis, excerpts pubd separately; Eléonore et Dorval, ou La suite de la cinquantaine (1), Montansier, 1800; Les petits aveugles de Franconville (1, A. Croizette), Montansier, 1802; Le rossignol (opera or comic opera, 1, C.G. Etienne), Opéra, 23 April 1816 (n.d.), excerpts pubd separately; Zéloïde, ou Les fleurs enchantées (opéra-ballet, 2, Etienne), Opéra, 19 Jan 1818, Po; L’an II (genre unknown, 5), unperf., fragments, Pc

other works

Sacred: TeD for the victories of Wagram and Enzersdorf, perf. Paris, Notre Dame, 1809; Messe solennelle de Ste Cécile, perf. Paris, St Eustache, 1815; Messe en trio, with str, perf. Paris, St Maur, 1826

Secular: orat, perf. Paris, Concert Spirituel, 1787; La mort d’Abel, scène, perf. Concert Spirituel, 1787, Pc; other scènes, perf. Concert Spirituel, 1788–9, lost; Recueil d’airs et romances (Paris, n.d.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Choron-FayolleD

FétisB

PierreH

Castil-Blaze: Chapelle-musique des rois de France (Paris, 1832)

F. Clément and P. Larousse: Dictionnaire lyrique, ou Histoire des opéras (Paris, 1867–9, 4 suppls. to 1881) [2/1897, ed. A. Pougin, suppl. 1904, 3/1905/R]

J. Mongrédien: ‘La musique du sacre de Napoléon 1er’, RdM, liii (1967), 137–74

D.H. Foster: ‘The Oratorio in Paris in the 18th Century’, AcM, xlvii (1975), 67–133, esp. 113

J. Mongrédien: La musique en France des Lumières au Romantisme (Paris, 1986; Eng. trans., 1996)

DAVID CHARLTON (with SARAH HIBBERD)

Le Brung [Le Brun, Lebrun], Jean

(fl early 16th century). French composer. According to Fétis and Thoinan, he was a bass singer in the chapel of King Louis XII of France (reigned 1498–1515), but this information cannot be verified from extant court payment records. If it is correct, his service almost certainly ended before 1510, since he was not one of 28 royal singers named in papal supplications of 1510–14. Although relatively little of his music appears in the central musical sources for the French royal court, the melodic conciseness and harmonic lucidity of his motets and chansons, within predominantly imitative textures, is reminiscent of the works of Jean Mouton and contemporaneous court composers, though rather more piquant in dissonance treatment. A majority of Le Brung’s motets for five or six voices employ ostinatos in the tenor. The four-voice motets are marked by greater textural variety and formal clarity. Le Brung made varied use of plainchant melodies in several motets, particularly in his setting of the Tract Domine non secundum and an alternatim setting of Salve regina. The chansons, most of which are through-composed, are marked by smooth imitative counterpoint and unadventurous harmonies.

WORKS

Bona dies per orbem, 6vv, CH-Zz 169; Congratulamini mihi omnes, 4vv, A-Wn 18825 (also attrib. Josquin, Richafort), ed. in SCMot, vi (1989), xiv (1995); Credo in Deum Patrem, 5vv, 1540⁶; Descendi in ortum meum, 4vv, 1519³, ed. in SCMot, v (1992); Domine, non secundum peccata nostra, 3–6vv, F-CA 18; Magnificat primi toni, 4vv, 1534⁷, ed. A. Smijers, Treize livres de motets parus chez Pierre Attaingnant en 1534 et 1535, v (Monaco, 1960); O summe rerum, 3vv, 1542⁸, ed. T. Noblitt, Georg Rhau: Musikdrucke aus den Jahren 1538–1545 in praktischer Neuausgabe, ix (Kassel and Concordia, MO, 1989); Recumbentibus undecim discipulis/Illi autem profecti, 5vv, 1519², ed. in SCMot, v (1992); [Salve regina …] Vita, dulcedo, 4vv, D-Mbs 34; Saule, Saule, quid me persequeris/Sancte Paule, 5vv, 1534¹⁰, ed. A.T. Merritt, Treize livres de motets parus chez Pierre Attaingnant en 1534 et 1535, viii (Monaco, 1962); Tota pulchra es, ?5vv, D-Bga XX.HA StUB Königsberg 7 (formerly B of Königsberg, Universitätsbibliothek, MS 1740)

Cela sans plus, 5vv, A-Wn 18746; Ma mere veult que je file, 4vv, 1549²⁵; N’avés point veu mal assenee, 5vv, 1572², ed. in SCC, xviii (1990); Si vous n’avez aultre, 5vv, 1545¹⁵

misattributed works

Mirabile mysterium, 5vv, 1539⁸ (by Jacquet of Mantua; also attrib. Jacquet Berchem); Alligiés moy, 6vv, 1540⁷ (by Josquin; also attrib. Barbe, Willaert)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

E. Thoinan: Les origines de la chapelle-musique des souverains de France (Paris, 1864)

M.E. Kabis: The Works of Jean Richafort, Renaissance Composer (diss., New York U., 1957)

D. Gehrenbeck: Motetti de la corona: a Study of Ottaviano Petrucci’s Four Last-Known Motet Prints (Fossombrone, 1514, 1519) (diss., Union Theological Seminary, 1970)

JOHN T. BROBECK

Le Caine, Hugh

(b Port Arthur, Ontario, 27 May 1914; d Ottawa, 3 July 1977). Canadian scientist and composer. He undertook graduate studies, specializing in nuclear physics, at Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, and at the University of Birmingham; during World War II he worked on the development of radar. In 1954 he established the ELMUS Laboratory of the National Research Council, Ottawa, and thereafter gave his attention to designing electronic music instruments and to advising major Canadian studios. His design achievements include the Sackbut (1945), the Multitrack Tape Recorder (1953), the Serial Sound Structure Generator (1964) and the Sonde (1967). Among his compositions is Dripsody (1955). This short work, derived entirely from the sound of a falling drop of water, is often used in studio teaching as a model for musique concrète composition.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Cross: A Bibliography of Electronic Music (Toronto, 1967)

G. Young: The Sackbut Blues (Ottawa, 1989)

GUSTAV CIAMAGA

Le Camus, Sébastien

(b c1610; d Paris, c9 March 1677). French instrumentalist and composer. In about 1640 he received a musical post in Louis XIII’s household and in 1648 took the position of intendant de la musique to Gaston d’Orléans. When Louis XIV married Marie-Thérèse in 1660 Le Camus was appointed her surintendant de la musique, sharing the post with J.-B. Boësset. His musical ascendancy continued when, on Louis Couperin’s death the following year, he shared his post of ordinaire de la musique de la chambre with Nicolas Hotman. When Hotman died, Le Camus shared the position with Gabriel Caignet. These two posts yielded a high salary and the inventory taken at Le Camus’s death testifies to his considerable wealth. Among his effects were six theorbos, two treble viols (one ‘de la façon de Bruges’) and a harpsichord. Le Camus’s court appointment went to his son Charles, who sold it to Estienne Le Moyne three years later. In 1688 Charles married the daughter of the viol player Léonard Ithier.

Rousseau relates how Le Camus, when he played the treble viol, imitated ‘all that a beautiful and accomplished voice can do … to the point that even the memory of the beauty and tenderness of his execution erases all that has been heard up to the present on this instrument’; Mme de Sévigné described Le Camus as ‘made of the gods’, while La Barre considered him, along with Boësset, D’Ambruys and Lambert, as ‘the first to compose airs which express the words’. Le Camus’s airs appeared frequently in collections by Ballard from 1656 to 1717. His son re-edited 32 Airs à 2 et 3 parties de feu Monsieur Le Camus (Paris, 1678) to assure publication in a definitive edition with their ‘veritable bass’, and warmly recommended their performance with a theorbo ‘to charm the most delicate ears’. These airs demonstrate Le Camus’s polished technique and his penchant for a lively, independent bass line. The majority are in binary form, but some are rondeaux. Grammatically his language is akin to that of Louis Couperin, with a taste for successions of 7ths and ambiguous treatment of the third, sixth and seventh degrees of the scale.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BenoitMC

J. Rousseau: Traité de la viole (Paris, 1687/R)

N. Dufourcq: ‘Autour de Sébastien Le Camus’, RMFC, ii (1961–2), 41–53

M. Benoit: Versailles et les musiciens du roi (Paris, 1971)

R.A. Green: ‘The Treble Viol in 17th-Century France and the Origins of the pardessus de viole’, Chelys, xxiii (1986), 64–71

LUCY ROBINSON

Le Cène, Michel-Charles.

Dutch music printer. He succeeded to the firm of Estienne Roger.

Le Cerf de la Viéville, Jean Laurent, Seigneur de Freneuse

(b Rouen, 1674; d Rouen, 10 Nov 1707). French writer on music. He was educated by the Jesuits and studied philosophy and law before assuming his father’s post as Keeper of the Seals of the Parliament of Normandy in 1696. Spurred on by the appearance of the Paralèle des italiens et des françois (1702) of his Normandy neighbour, François Raguenet, Le Cerf brought out in 1704 the Première Partie of his Comparaison de la musique italienne et de la musique françoise modelled on the writings of Claude and Charles Perrault. In a series of three dialogues conducted by a count, a countess and a chevalier (representing Le Cerf’s own voice), he began to limn out the musical aesthetic prevailing in France during the late 17th century. Taking Raguenet’s Paralèle (which is, in fact, a rejection of French music and its practice in favour of Italian counterparts) as a point of departure, Le Cerf espoused a simple, rational, ‘natural’ art over one based primarily on sensual beauty, an art that finds its expression in the ideals represented in the music of Lully. A review appeared in the 1 August 1704 issue of the Journal des Sçavans, the periodical in which the physician and medical journalist, Nicolas de Boisregard Andry, later wrote critically of Le Cerf (7 December 1705 and 12 August 1706).

Raguenet swiftly and systematically replied in scornful and ironic tones to Le Cerf in his Défense du parallèle (Paris, 1705). But at least in musical-aesthetic terms, he proved no match for the fluent though often digressive Le Cerf, who was proceeding with the publication of the compendious Seconde Partie of the Comparaison. In addition to three further dialogues, it includes song texts, historical surveys of music, opera and Lully, and a ‘traité du bon goût en musique’. More particularly, he also produced in 1705 a Réponse à la Défense du Parallèle. The Troisième Partie of the Comparaison begins with a fragmentary text for a sacred opera followed by two series of essays, one on church music, the other on the differences between French and Italian music; the final essay, ‘Jugement sur les Italiens & sur les François’, is written in a spirit closer to that of Raguenet’s Paralèle than any other part. Le Cerf, it must be said, admired other Italian music he heard in Rouen and Paris, especially the latest sonatas of Corelli and cantatas of Bononcini.

Le Cerf, piqued by the impertinence of a writer who he referred to alternately as ‘Mr. le Journalist’ and ‘Mr. le Médecin’, produced a scathing essay, L’art de décrier ce qu’on n’entend point (1706), in which he devoted 25 pages to a rigorous ‘Exposition de la mauvaise foi d’un extrait du Journal de Paris’. According to Philippe Le Cerf, who provided unique details of his brother’s life in the April 1726 Mercure galant, Le Cerf intended to produce a fourth part to the Comparaison, which was to have included a critical catalogue of French operas, but died of a cerebral haemorrhage before completing it.

WRITINGS

Comparaison de la musique italienne et de la musique françoise (Brussels, 1704–6/R); repr. in P. Bourdelot and P. Bonnet-Bourdelot: Histoire de la musique et de ses effets, ed. J. Bonnet, ii–iv (Paris, 1715/R, 7/1743); index, ed. C.B. Schmidt (Geneva, 1993); Eng. trans. of extract from 6th dialogue in StrunkSR1

Réponse à la Défense du Parallèle (Paris, 1705)

L’art de décrier ce qu’on n’entend point, ou Le médecin musicien (Brussels, 1706)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO (Albert Cohen, Julie Anne Sadie)

J. Ecorcheville: De Lulli à Rameau 1690–1730: l’esthétique musicale (Paris, 1906)

H. Prunières: ‘Lecerf de la Viéville et l’esthétique musicale classique au XVII^e siècle’, BSIM, iv (1908), 619–54

P.-M. Masson: ‘Musique italienne et musique française: la première querelle’, RMI, xix (1912), 519–45

R. Wangermée: ‘Lecerf de la Viéville, Bonnet-Bourdelot et l’“Essai sur le bon goust en musique” de Nicolas Grandval’, RBM, v (1951), 132–46

M.B. Ellison: The ‘Comparaison de la musique italienne et de la musique françoise’ of Le Cerf de la Viéville: an Annotated Translation of the First Four Dialogues (diss., U. of Miami, 1973)

G. Cowart: The Origins of Modern Musical Criticism: French and Italian Music 1600–1750 (Ann Arbor, 1981)

C.B. Schmidt, ed.: Jean Laurent Le Cerf de la Viéville: Comparaison de la musique italienne et de la musique françoise: Index (Geneva, 1993)

JULIE ANNE SADIE (with ALBERT COHEN)

Le Chevalier, Amédée

(b Savoy, c1650; d Amsterdam, bur. 5 Dec 1720). French publisher and music printer. He set himself up in Amsterdam as ‘muziekmeester’ and on 1 December 1689 obtained a 15-year licence for music publication. On 24 July 1690 he made an agreement with D. Robethon, by which the latter promised to finance the production of 1000 copies of his first publication, Les trios des opéra de Monsieur de Lully (2 vols., 1690, 1691). This was printed in Amsterdam by Blaeu, who worked for Le Chevalier until Le Chevalier himself became established as a printer in 1692. His publications are known from the catalogue at the end of J. de Gouy’s Airs à quatre parties sur la Paraphrase des pseaumes de Godeau (1691) and from two advertisements in the Amsterdamsche courant (27 December 1691 and 1 July 1692). The second of these states that Le Chevalier sold not only his own publications but also music printed by A. Pointel. Le Chevalier’s catalogue regularly included anthologies (Recueil d’airs nouveaux, RISM 1691³, Scelta delle più belle ariette, 1691⁴ and Premier livre de trio, n.d.), Pièces choisies by C. Rosier (1691), Il giardino armonico by J. Schenck (1691) and the airs of Lully’s Bellérophon (1692). He also prepared the first Amsterdam edition of J. Rousseau’s Méthode claire, certaine et facile (1691). In 1698 the magistrate in Ghent allowed him to establish himself in the city as a music printer without going through the prescribed period of apprenticeship. According to Vander Straeten, he had returned to Holland by 1702. In 1716 he is mentioned in the Album studiosorum of Leiden University as ‘musicus’. There are two manuscripts containing works of his in the Landesbibliothek at Karlsruhe.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GoovaertsH

Vander StraetenMPB

D.F. Scheurleer: ‘Eene Amsterdamsche uitgave van Lully en Colasse, 1690’, TVNM, ix/4 (1914), 250–59

I.H. van Eeghen: De Amsterdamse boekhandel 1680–1725, iii (Amsterdam, 1965), 202–3

HENRI VANHULST

Lechler, Benedikt [Johannes]

(b Füssen, 24 April 1594; d Kremsmünster, 18 Jan 1659). German music copyist, composer and lutenist, active in Austria. From 1607 to 1615 he studied at the Imperial College of the Austrian Nobility, Vienna, and then became director of the school at Admont Abbey, Styria, where he also had charge of the music. In 1617 he went to the Benedictine monastery at Kremsmünster, where he remained for the rest of his life. He was first employed as a lutenist and administrative official. In 1628, after he had become a full member of the Benedictine order and changed his first name from Johannes to Benedikt, he was given charge of the sacred music; the court music was in the hands of Alessandro Tadei, but after Tadei left, on 20 May 1629, Lechler directed that too. His desire to provide the chapel, school and theatre of the monastery with suitable compositions prompted him to undertake extensive travels in Italy in 1632–3, including a visit to Rome, where he became acquainted with Carissimi. He was relieved of most of his musical responsibilities by 1651, presumably because of failing health.

Lechler's greatest significance is as a music copyist, collector and anthologist. Between 1633 and 1650 he assembled four large collections in score, devoted principally to sacred vocal music (A-KR, L 10, 12, 13 and 14), as well as several smaller manuscripts. These scores, preserved at the Benedictine abbey at Kremsmünster, Austria, include music by the foremost Italian composers of the time (Carissimi, Donati, Grandi, Merula and Monteverdi), as well as music by composers active in Vienna and elsewhere in the southern portions of the German-speaking lands (Emperor Ferdinand III, Michael Kraf, Heinrich Pfendner, Johann Stadlmayr, Christoph Straus and Giovanni Valentini (i)). Lechler's manuscripts are important sources of information concerning the use of instruments in large-scale vocal works; several transcriptions contain detailed indications concerning instrumentation not found in the printed sources.

Lechler's sacred compositions (preserved primarily in A-KR L 14) include three masses (two of them parody masses), a requiem, hymns, motets and a Magnificat setting. Most are large-scale compositions for voices and instruments, many featuring echo effects, solo-tutti indications and independent instrumental sonatas. The vocal writing often pits small groups from within the ensemble against one another or against the full tutti. Nonetheless, the music recalls earlier polychoral writing rather than the modern concertato style, since it remains predominantly homophonic and generally pits the upper voices against the lower voices in antiphonal passages. Although Lechler occasionally incorporates passages in solo and duet textures, he does not make extensive use of recitative or aria styles. In addition to his sacred vocal works, two polychoral instrumental canzonas, incidental pieces for theatrical productions, and works for solo lute survive (in A-KR).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Huemer: Pflege der Musik im Stifte Kremsmünster (Wels, 1877), 17ff

A. Kellner: Musikgeschichte des Stiftes Kremsmünster (Kassel, 1956), 193ff

T. Schmitt: Kompositionen des Ordinarium Missae im süddeutschen Konzertierrenden Stil des 17. Jahrhunderts (diss., U. of Saarland, 1981), 56–65

A. LINDSEY KIRWAN/STEVEN SAUNDERS

Lechner, Leonhard [Lechnerus, Leonardus Athesinus]

(b valley of the River Adige, South Tyrol, c1553; d Stuttgart, 9 Sept 1606). German composer and music editor of Austrian birth. He was the leading German composer of choral music in the later 16th century.

KONRAD AMELN

1. Life.

The cognomen ‘Athesinus’, which Lechner always used on the title-pages of his printed volumes and manuscripts, shows that he came from the valley of the River Adige (Athesis). He is first heard of in the accounts of the Bavarian court for 1570 as a chorister in the Hofkapelle of the hereditary Prince Wilhelm at Landshut, which was founded in 1568. It had been disbanded by 1570, and one of those dismissed was Lechner, who received a severance payment of ten florins. The first director of the Landshut Kapelle was Ivo de Vento, previously court organist under Lassus at Munich, and he was followed by Antonius Gosswin. Lechner clearly learnt a great deal from both men, but it was always Lassus whom he later referred to, with gratitude and reverence, as his teacher. Up to 1568, and probably from about 1564, he must therefore have belonged to the Munich Hofkapelle, directed by Lassus, and have lived in Lassus's house with the other choristers. It is doubtful whether he was personally taught by Lassus, since he did not mention this in the preface to his first printed volume of music in 1575 (nor indeed in any other source): he simply stated that his passionate love of music was fired by great models and that he had tried not merely to learn how to sing but also to compose music himself. It is not known where he spent the early 1570s, but in the preface to his Latin motet volume of 1581 he wrote that he had once ‘roved far and wide, visiting various places’. It is reasonable to assume that it was during these years of apprenticeship that he did so and, moreover, that he spent some time in Italy: Italian influences are discernible from his earliest compositions onwards, and his anthology Harmoniae miscellae (1583), which includes works by 12 Italian composers, some of them virtually unknown in Germany, shows a familiarity with Italian music that he could hardly have acquired without going to Italy.

It is clear from the 1575 preface that at that time Lechner was an assistant teacher at the St Lorenz school, Nuremberg, then the town's largest grammar school. This was a very junior position, which is no doubt why he insisted that he wished to be regarded and judged not as a schoolmaster but as a musician and composer. The town council soon honoured him with the title of ‘archimusicus’, and his salary, 90 florins a year, was now the same as the Kantor's ‘because he is such an outstanding composer and musician’. A number of leading citizens became his patrons and friends during his ten years at Nuremberg; he dedicated to them nearly all the volumes of music that poured from his pen during these years, no doubt for performance in the flourishing musical societies to which they belonged. The works ranged from light three-part Italianate pieces, through German sacred and secular songs for four and five voices to Latin motets and liturgical works; and they included editions and reworkings too. Several of these publications went into more than one edition, while individual pieces appeared in anthologies or circulated in manuscript form. In this way Lechner soon became known as a leading composer far beyond the confines of Nuremberg. He often received commissions to write works for festive occasions, among them the ceremonial opening of Altdorf University in 1575 (the work was published in Motectae sacrae), and the magnificent wedding of the Augsburg patrician Sebald Welser to the daughter of a Nuremberg councillor on 15 January 1582; on the latter occasion there were performances not only of a mass by Lechner – the Missa prima of the 1584 volume – but also of an epithalamium for three choirs totalling 24 voices, to a text by Lechner's friend the poet Paul Melissus Schede.

In spite of such honours and fruitful activity, in spite too of the ties of friendship and feelings of gratitude that bound him to Nuremberg, Lechner became increasingly dissatisfied with his subordinate position as an assistant schoolmaster. Having previously rejected a number of other offers, he accepted an invitation in the autumn of 1583 to present himself before Count Eitelfriedrich IV von Hohenzollern-Hechingen, who received him cordially and appointed him his Kapellmeister. Lechner thanked him by dedicating his 1584 volume to him, and he took up his appointment at Hechingen in the spring of that year. The Hofkapelle, though not large, was of a high standard and well equipped, and it seemed that Lechner could look forward to a period of activity no less satisfying than his years at Nuremberg. His salary was 160 florins a year, with additional income in kind, and his duties embraced music for the chamber and for mealtimes on the one hand and for the chapel and church on the other. Difficulties first began to make themselves felt in the matter of church services, for Count Eitelfriedrich was a fervent supporter of the Counter-Reformation, while Lechner was an equally fervent Lutheran (he was converted from Catholicism in his 18th year). The oration delivered at his funeral stated that he had

constantly and steadfastly supported … our true Christian religion … so that when, for the sake of his art, he was obliged to … eke out a living under the papacy he nevertheless expressly refrained from practising the [Catholic] religion and the exercise of its rites, as may be shown by the orders that were drawn up against him and still exist.

This can only refer to Hechingen, the only Catholic court that Lechner served. Denominational differences in Germany at that time had become increasingly polarized. Following the victory of the Catholic princes in the ‘Cologne feud’ over Archbishop Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg, who had turned Lutheran, the Counter-Reformation gained ground, and further support came in the form of an endowment of 2000 florins made by Count Eitelfriedrich in 1584, the annual interest on which was intended to allow two boys from his county to study ‘with our lords the Jesuits’ and thus contribute towards combating ‘the seductive and accursed heresies of the Lutherans and Calvinists and similar superstitious religious sects’. This suggests how passionately the count was prepared to persecute supporters of the Reformation, and it is easy to see why Lechner was unwilling to remain for long at his court and soon began looking for another post. In June 1585 he applied unsuccessfully to the Dresden court despite letters of recommendation from Lassus and Duke Wilhelm V of Bavaria.

Since Count Eitelfriedrich was reluctant to lose his Kapellmeister, Lechner soon took advantage of his absence to leave the court secretly. He fled to nearby Tübingen, which lay on Württemberg soil, and he was warmly welcomed there into the circle of the humanist scholar and poet Nikodemus Frischlin. Count Eitelfriedrich tried to persuade him to return in a letter of 25 July 1585 containing a friendly admonition and a promise to release him from his service ‘without delay and with every honour and favour’. The following day Lechner drafted a letter in reply in which he declined to return and threatened that he ‘would enlist the help of men of learning’ and ‘publish details of how things stood at that court’; if the count were to cast aspersions upon him and if he, Lechner, were then forced to answer those charges, he would ‘have the very devil to pay’. This letter is so unlike Lechner's other surviving writings – and so exceptional a response of a court servant to his master – that it seems reasonable to assume that the quarrelsome Frischlin, who later, in an academic address, violently attacked the aristocracy and lampooned the rulers of his own country, lent him his moral support in this uncompromising refusal. As a result of it the count became his bitter enemy and sent letters to several princes and to the Nuremberg town council, requesting them to hunt down his runaway Kapellmeister, take him into custody and return him to Hechingen. Lechner, however, sought refuge with Duke Ludwig of Württemberg, convincing him of his innocence and receiving an appointment as a tenor at the Stuttgart Hofkapelle, where he had to make do with a far smaller salary than he had been used to. The duke also supported him in other ways: he used his influence with the Nuremberg council on behalf of Lechner's family there and in January 1586 helped him settle his differences with Count Eitelfriedrich, as a result of which he was able to visit Nuremberg safely and bring his wife and son back with him to Stuttgart. Duke Ludwig authorized grants to cover his increased expenses and rewarded the numerous works he dedicated to him with honoraria of between 6 and 20 florins; there are records of payments to him nearly every year from 1586 to 1600. Some of these works were printed, but most remained in manuscript and are nearly all lost; consequently far less is known of the music of the last 20 years or so of Lechner's life than of that from the previous ten.

In the Stuttgart court records Lechner is described first as ‘former Hohenzollern Kapellmeister’, then as ‘musician’, ‘tenor’, ‘member of the Kapelle’ and, from 1586 onwards, ‘composer’. He was assistant to the Hofkapellmeister, Ludwig Daser, who was succeeded on his death in 1589 by his son-in-law Balduin Hoyoul, by virtue of his seniority. It was only when Hoyoul himself died in November 1594 that Lechner became Hofkapellmeister, and he was officially installed in April 1595. At that time the Kapelle included 24 singers and 24 instrumentalists. The then ruler, Duke Friedrich, issued a service manual entitled Staat und Ordnung eines Kapellmeisters, which came into force on 10 May 1595. It contained precise instructions for the education, upkeep and instruction of the eight choristers, who were given board and lodging in the Kapellmeister's house, and much space was given over to strict orders enjoining the musicians, above all the instrumentalists, ‘dutifully to obey the Kapellmeister in all musical matters’. It is clear that the achievements of the Kapelle had suffered from a lack of discipline, generally because the instrumentalists disputed the right of the Kapellmeister, who had risen from the ranks of the singers, to criticize their playing and dictate to them. Lechner was soon to discover that this was still true, for on 1 March 1596 he petitioned the duke to command the instrumentalists to perform their duties as he had ordered; otherwise he could accept no responsibility for the inadequacy of their performances. Duke Friedrich immediately issued a decree threatening severe punishments. Lechner was thus able to ensure that the standards of the Kapelle gradually improved and that court festivities once more gave them an opportunity to distinguish themselves. When an English legation came to Stuttgart in November 1603 with its own retinue of musicians in order to hand over to Duke Friedrich the Order of the Garter that had been conferred on him, the two groups of musicians organized a competition, which the Württembergers won, though narrowly.

The fact that Lechner brought about such an improvement in the Hofkapelle is all the more remarkable considering that he was frequently ill during the last years of his life; mention of this fact occurs in the funeral oration, and from 1586 onwards court accounts frequently contain entries relating to payments to him towards a spa tax, showing that he visited various resorts, including what is now Baden-Baden in 1593 and Bad Boll in 1605, in search of a cure. Yet in spite of his ill-health he continued to direct the Kapelle and write music up to the very end of his life. For the marriage of the Württemberg Princess Sibylle Elisabeth and Duke Johann Georg, later the Elector of Saxony, he wrote a large-scale psalm setting, Laudate Dominum, quoniam bonus est, for 15 voices divided into three choirs, which was performed at Dresden by members of the Stuttgart Hofkapelle on 16 September 1604. Lechner's illness probably prevented his travelling to Dresden, for by this time he was frequently obliged to hand over direction of the Hofkapelle to the alto Tobias Salomo. In 1604 Salomo described himself in a petition as vice-Kapellmeister, even though he had not officially been so designated; Lechner complained to the duke, but in vain. He died two years later and was buried with great ceremony in the upper Spitalkirche, close to the altar, where only members of the ruling house and the highest court officials were laid to rest.

2. Character.

The oration at Lechner's funeral emphasized that he was ‘not only well informed about all matters of religion and faith but was thoroughly versed in them too’, for he was in the habit of reading all manner of histories and other books, particularly the Bible and ‘works of pure theology’. Kade (1869) was typical of scholars of an earlier age when he saw him as a ‘fickle and passionate character’ and as an ‘easily roused, hot-tempered artist in whom Germanic coarseness mingled with the fiery nature of his foreign blood’. A careful investigation of all relevant sources that have since come to light reveals an essentially different picture. Lechner's letters – except for the one of 1585 from Tübingen to Count Eitelfriedrich (see §1 above) – and the prefaces to his printed works reveal a well-bred, highly cultivated man of superior intellect and some discrimination, whose essential modesty was tempered by a justifiable self-assurance. Like all who hailed from South Tyrol, he was of pure German extraction; that he was not ‘fickle’ is shown by his ten years of uninterrupted activity at Nuremberg and his 22 years in the service of the dukes of Württemberg. Though a committed Lutheran, he remained tolerant and associated freely with Catholic musicians, performing their works and sending young musicians to advance their education at Catholic courts in Austria and Italy.

3. Works.

Possibly the oldest of Lechner's known compositions are two six-voice canons, Allein Christus ist gestorben für mich and Und andre Müntz darzue, which are dedicated to Theodor Lindner, Kantor at the Nuremberg Spitalkirche (and brother of Friedrich Lindner). The two pieces are copied in Lechner's own hand in a manuscript belonging to Lindner (D-BAs HV Msc 576) and are dated 24 June 1575 (see Krautwurst, 1992). Lechner's first published works, a collection of 30 Latin motets for four to six voices, also appeared in 1575, when he cannot have been much more than 20, but they show that he was already a fully mature composer. They show too that he was unmistakably a product of the Lassus school, although there is a certain Italian influence too, particularly in the use of madrigalisms, which he employed more regularly than any of his German and Dutch contemporaries. The volume also includes an eight-part psalm, which is one of the earliest German examples of Venetian double-choir polyphony. In his Latin sacred works Lechner continued to be heavily indebted to the Dutch school, but he was always far more than an imitator of Lassus, though he was long so regarded. The four masses that survive by Lechner are all parody masses. Probably the earliest mass is that based on Lassus's motet Omnia quae fecisti (composed in 1562). The mass is transmitted incompletely in a manuscript from Neresheim dated 1578 (now in D-Rtt). The work probably originates from Lechner's time in Munich. Three of Lechner's masses were printed in the Liber missarum of 1584. The Missa ‘Non e lasso martire’ was composed in 1575 and is based on a madrigal by Cipriano de Rore. The Missa ‘Domine Dominus noster’ was performed on 15 January 1582 at the wedding of Sebald Welser and Margarete Imhoff at St Sebaldus in Nuremberg. It takes as its model Lassus's motet of that name. The Missa ‘Non fu mai cervo’ was first performed in January 1584 and is based on a madrigal by Luca Marenzio.

The individuality of Lechner's style can be more clearly seen in his settings of vernacular texts. He generally based his German villanellas on Italian models which had been introduced to Germany by Ivo de Vento in 1573 and which came into fashion with the work of Jacob Regnart, some of whose three-part pieces he published in five-part versions in 1579. But he began to go his own way in this genre as early as 1576. He refined it by dispensing with obscene texts, while retaining its loosely structured form, and by adopting a solid contrapuntal technique and madrigal-inspired means of expression. By so doing he created a new type of Gesellschaftslied. His four- and five-part secular songs show similar characteristics. In his 1586 volume ‘in the style of secular canzoni’, he combined elements of the Dutch style with those of the Italian madrigal in order to give more intense expression to the spiritual and intellectual content of the texts. This aim is particularly evident in the settings of sacred German texts that he included in his volumes of 1582 and 1589. Certain poems, for instance Nun schein, du Glanz der Herrlichkeit and O Tod, du bist ein bittre Gallen, exerted a particularly powerful influence on him. In setting them he created a new kind of German song motet and at the same time reached such a pitch of excellence in it that he himself was the only composer to surpass it, in late works such as the cycle Deutsche Sprüche von Leben und Tod. The late works, which survive in a manuscript of 1606, consist in the main of four- and five-part settings of German words which show that he pursued his own independent course and was in advance of his time and unique in the forms he used. He was the first composer to set a complete cycle of German poems. He collaborated with the leading poets of his day; in Nuremberg he worked with Schede and the goldsmith Paul Dulner, who both provided him with texts which in power of language and imagery were far superior to all other contemporary German verse. Some of the other texts in the 1606 manuscript are most probably by Georg Rudolf Weckherlin (1584–1653), the brother-in-law of Lechner's son, Gabriel, and are no less impressive.

With Lechner's four-part Passion of 1593, his most extensive work, the German motet Passion reached its peak. Its full title, given in a print cited in book fair catalogues but either lost or never published, emphasized that he had based it on ‘the old Latin church tone’. This Passion tone moves from one voice to another, thus constantly repeating itself, whereas it is not used at all in other German motet Passions. In this respect Lechner revealed his debt to liturgical tradition, while at the same time using a particularly free form and introducing every stylistic means at his disposal so that the Gospel narrative is endowed with devotional fervour and compassion and impresses itself all the more poignantly upon the listener.

4. Reputation.

The rediscovery during the past 50 years of much of Lechner's work has revealed the extent to which he managed to reconcile a commitment to tradition with the freedom of artistic creativity. The personal style of his late works was known to few of his contemporaries. Christoph Demantius included these lines of verse in his first published volume of secular music in 1595: ‘Orlandus valuit permultum cantibus olim, Langius et Lechner non valuere minus’. The comparison with Lassus was obviously intended to flatter Lechner; Gregor Lange seems then to have been overrated. Lechner's earlier works at least were widely known, and some of them were mentioned by theorists as models and examples, but his music soon fell into oblivion, mainly because of fundamental changes in style that coincided with the introduction of the continuo about 1600. The renewed interest in early music in the 19th century brought to light only a few of his minor works. His life was investigated, but prejudice, allied to inadequate knowledge of the sources, led to mistaken judgments and misinterpretations. It was not until his fine later works were rediscovered in 1926 that the way was open for a true evaluation of him. A complete edition was inaugurated in 1954 and has facilitated the appreciation of him at his true worth as a leading German composer of choral music.

WORKS

Edition:Leonhard Lechner: Werke, ed. K. Ameln and others (Kassel, 1954–) [A]

published in Nuremberg unless otherwise stated

sacred vocal

Motectae sacrae, 4–6vv … addita est in fine motecta, 8vv (2 choirs) (1575); A i

Sanctissimae virginis Mariae canticum, quod vulgo Magnificat inscribitur, secundum octo vulgares tonos, 4vv (1578); A iv

Sacrarum cantionum, liber secundus, 5, 6vv (1581); A vi

Liber missarum … adjunctis aliquot introitibus in praecipua festa, ab Adventu Domini usque ad festum Sanctissimae Trinitatis, 5, 6vv (1584); A viii

Septem psalmi poenitentiales … additis aliis quibusdam piis cantionibus, 6 and more vv (1587); A x

3 motets, 1583² [see ‘Editions’]

Historia der Passion und Leidens Christi, 4vv, perf. Stuttgart, 1593, D-Kl [announced in Messkatalog of 1594 as pubd Nuremberg, 1594; edn lost or possibly never pubd]; A xii

Allein Christus ist gestorben für mich, 6vv, D-BAs HV Msc 576

Und andre Müntz darzue, 6vv, BAs HV Msc 576

lieder

Neu teutsche Lieder, nach art der welschen Villanellen gantz kurtzweilig zu singen, auch auff allerley Seytenspil zu gebrauchen, 3vv (1576, 3/1586 as part of Der erst und ander Theil der teutschen Villanellen); A ii

Der ander Theyl neuer teutscher Lieder, nach art der welschen Villanellen, 3vv (1577, 2/1586 as part of Der erst und ander Theil der teutschen Villanellen); A ii

Neue teutsche Lieder, 4, 5vv (1577) [incl. sacred lieder]; A iii

Neue teutsche Lieder, erstlich durch … Jacobum Regnart … componirt mit drey Stimmen, nach art der welschen Villanellen, jetzund aber … mit fünff Stimmen gesetzet … con alchuni madrigali in lingua Italiana, 5vv (1579); A v

Neue teutsche Lieder, 4, 5vv (1582) [incl. sacred lieder]; A vii

Neue lustige teutsche Lieder nach art der welschen Canzonen, 4vv (1586); A ix

Neue geistliche und weltliche teutsche Lieder, 4, 5vv (1589); A xi

3 sacred and secular Lieder, 4vv, 1585³⁷

Neue geistliche und weltliche deutsche Gesänge samt 2 lateinischen, 4, 5vv, MS dated 1606, D-Kl (inc.); A xiii

secular vocal

Madrigal, 5vv, 1585¹⁷

occasional

Illustrissimo heroi ac domino … Ioachimo Ernesto, antiquissimi stemmatis Anhaldini … harmoniam hanc panegyricam composuit, 6vv (1582); A xiv

Eadem epitaphia (Martini Crusii), musicis modis, 6vv, in Martini Crusii … De imp. rom. Friderico … Barbarossa … oratio (Tübingen, 1593); A xiv

3 wedding works, 6, 15, 24vv, perf. Nuremberg, 1582–3, Dresden, 1604; motet in honour of August, Elector of Saxony, 6vv, 1585: D-Dla, Ngm, Welser-Archiv, Neunhof, nr Nuremberg [A xiv–xv]

Wedding work, 5vv, Nuremberg, 1582, lost

editions

Harmoniae miscellae cantionum sacrarum, 5, 6vv (Nuremberg, 1583²)

O. de Lassus: Selectissimae cantiones, 6 and more vv [2 parts] (Nuremberg, 1579)

Lassus: Liber missarum, 4, 5vv (Nuremberg, 1581)

(2) Jean-Marie Leclair [le second; le cadet]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BlumeEK

BoetticherOL

EitnerQ

MGG1 (K. Ameln; also Hohenzollern’, §5, E.F. Schmid

NDB (K. Ameln)

WaltherML

E. Grüninger: Christliche Leichpredigt bey der Begraebnuss weylund des … Leonhardi Lechneri, fuerstlichen wuertembergischen Capellmeisters. Gehalten zu Stuttgarten in der Spitalkirchen den 11. Sept. Anno 1606 (Tübingen, 1607)

O. Kade: ‘Leonhard Lechner und sein Streit mit dem Grafen Eitel Friedrich von Hohenzollern im Jahre 1585’, MMg, i (1869), 179–97 esp. 179

M. Fürstenau: ‘Kurfürst August von Sachsen, Graf Eitel Friedrich von Hohenzollern-Hechingen und der Kapellmeister Leonhard Lechner’, Mitteilungen des Königlich Sächsischen Vereins für Erforschung und Erhaltung vaterländischer Geschichts- und Kunstdenkmäler, xx (1870), 55–69

R. Eitner: ‘Leonhard Lechner’, MMg, x (1878), 137–43

A. Sandberger: Beiträge zur Geschichte der bayerischen Hofkapelle unter Orlando di Lasso, i, iii (Leipzig, 1894–5/R)

G. Bossert: ‘Die Hofkantorei unter Herzog Ludwig’, Württembergische Vierteljahrshefte für Landesgeschichte, new ser., ix (1900), 253–91

G. Bossert: ‘Die Hofkapelle unter Herzog Friedrich’, Württembergische Vierteljahrshefte für Landesgeschichte, new ser., xix (1910), 317–74

T.W. Werner: ‘Die im herzoglichen Hausarchiv zu Zerbst aufgefundenen Musikalien aus der zweiten Hälfte des 16. Jahrhunderts’, ZMw, ii (1919–20), 681–724

H.J. Moser: ‘Das deutsche Chorlied zwischen Senfl und Hassler als Beispiel eines Stilwandels’, JbMP 1928, 43–58

M. Schreiber: Leonhard Lechner Athesinus 1553–1606: sein Leben und seine Kirchenmusik (Birkeneck, nr Freising, 1932)

A.A. Abert: Die stilistischen Voraussetzungen der ‘Cantiones sacrae’ von Heinrich Schütz (Wolfenbüttel, 1935/R)

M. Schreiber: Die Kirchenmusik des Kapellmeisters Leonhard Lechner Athesinus (Regensburg, 1935)

H. Osthoff: Die Niederländer und das deutsche Lied, 1400–1640 (Berlin, 1938/R)

L. Hübsch-Pfleger: Das Nürnberger Lied im deutschen Stilwandel um 1600 (diss., U. of Heidelberg, 1942)

B.P. Baader: Der bayerische Renaissancehof Herzog Wilhelms V. (1586–1579) (Leipzig, 1943)

K. Ameln: ‘Lechners Lebenswerk und seine Beurteilung im Wandel der Zeit’, Hausmusik, xvii (1953), 2–6

K. Ameln: ‘Leonhard Lechners Bekenntnis’, Musik und Kirche, xxiii (1953), 19–24

U. Martin: ‘Der Nürnberger Paul Dulner als Dichter geistlicher und weltlicher Lieder Leonhard Lechners’, AMw, xi (1954), 315–22

K. Ameln: ‘Leonhard Lechner’, Musik und Kirche, xxvi (1956), 223–31

K. Ameln: Leonhard Lechner (um 1553–1606): Leben und Werk eines deutschen Komponisten aus dem Etschtal (Lüdenscheid, 1957)

U. Martin: Historische und stilkritische Studien zu Leonhard Lechners Strophenliedern (diss., U. of Göttingen, 1957)

U. Martin: ‘Die Nürnberger Musikgesellschaften’, Mitteilungen des Vereins für Geschichte der Stadt Nürnberg, xlix (1959), 185–225

K. Ameln: ‘Leonhard Lechner, ein eigenwüchsiger Meister der deutschen Chormusik’, Württembergische Blätter für Kirchenmusik, xxvii (1960), 117–22

K. Ameln: ‘Leonhard Lechner, Kapellmeister und Komponist, um 1553–1606’, Lebensbilder aus Schwaben und Franken, vii (1960), 69–91

H. Weber: Die Beziehungen zwischen Musik und Text in den lateinischen Motetten Leonhard Lechners (diss., U. of Hamburg, 1961)

E.F. Schmid: Musik an den schwäbischen Zollernhöfen der Renaissance (Kassel, 1962)

W. Boetticher: Aus Orlando di Lassos Wirkungskreis (Kassel, 1963)

K. Ameln: ‘Leonhard Lechner in his Time’, Cantors at the Crossroads: Essays on Church Music in Honor of Walter E. Buszin, ed. J. Riedel (St Louis, 1967), 75–86

K. Ameln: ‘“Ohn Gott muss ich mich aller Freuden massen”: eine Villanellenweise von Leonhard Lechner als Gemeindelied’, JbLH, xiv (1969), 188–9

W. Blankenburg: ‘Zu den Johannes-Passionen von Ludwig Daser (1578) und Leonhard Lechner (1593)’, Musa–mens–musici: im Gedenken an Walther Vetter (Leipzig, 1969), 63–6

C. Gottwald: ‘Humanisten-Stammbücher als musikalische Quellen’, Helmuth Osthoff zu seinem siebzigsten Geburtstag, ed. W. Stauber, U. Aarburg and P. Cahn (Tutzing, 1969), 89–103

H. Leuchtmann: ‘Drei bisher unbekannte Parodiemessen von Morales, Lechner und Lasso: Neufunde in einer Neresheimer Handschrift von 1578’, Musik in Bayern, xx (1980), 15–37

I. Capelle: ‘Zur Verwendung des Passionstons in den durchkomponierten Passionen des 16. Jahrhunderts, insbesondere in der Johannes-Passion Leonhard Lechners’, Festschrift Arno Forchert, ed. G. Allroggen and D. Altenburg (Kassel, 1986), 61–76

F. Körndle: ‘Untersuchungen zu Leonhard Lechners Missa secunda, Non fu mai cervo’, Augsburger Jb für Musikwissenschaft, iii (1986), 93–159

S.E. Dumont: German Secular Polyphonic Song in Printed Editions, 1570–1630: Italian Influences on the Poetry and Music (New York, 1989), i, 165–87

M. Klein: ‘Neuere Studien über Leonhard Lechner’, Schütz-Jahrbuch 1992, 62–77

F. Krautwurst: ‘Zwei Widmungskanons von Leonhard Lechner im Stammbuch des Nürnberger Spitalkantors Theodor Lindner’, Festschrift Hubert Unverricht, ed. K. Schlager (Tutzing, 1992), 137–48

Leclair.

French family of violinists and composers. Of the eight children of Antoine Leclair, master lacemaker and cellist, and Benoîte Ferrier, the musical careers of six can be traced. Four are separately noted below; Jeanne (1699– after 1762) was a player and teacher of the violin in Lyons, and François (1705– after 1762) was a professional musician there.

(1) Jean-Marie Leclair

(3) Pierre Leclair

(4) Jean-Benoît Leclair

NEAL ZASLAW

(1) Jean-Marie Leclair

[l’aîné] (b Lyons, 10 May 1697; d Paris, 22 Oct 1764). Composer, violinist and dancer. He is considered the founder of the French violin school.

1. Life.

Before his 19th year, Leclair mastered violin playing, dancing and lacemaking. He was then listed among the dancers at the Lyons opera, together with Marie-Rose Casthagnié whom he married on 9 November 1716. He may also have been active as a dancer and violinist in Rouen, where according to Gerber his patron was Mme Mezangère (La Laurencie however doubted the Rouen connection).

Leclair was in Turin in 1722, where he may have been drawn by employment at royal wedding festivities; he was evidently active there as a ballet-master, though he did not hold an official position. Possibly he received violin lessons from G.B. Somis.

Going to Paris in 1723, Leclair came under the patronage of one of the richest men in France, Joseph Bonnier, while he prepared his op.1 for publication. These sonatas were recognized for their originality and, according to one contemporary, they ‘appeared at first a kind of algebra capable of rebuffing the most courageous musicians’. Another wrote: ‘Le Clair est le premier qui sans imiter rien, Créa du beau, du neuf, qu'il peut dire le sien’ (‘Le Clair is the first person who, without imitating anything, created beautiful and new things, which he could call his own’).

In June 1726 J.J. Quantz visited Turin where, he noted in his diary, Leclair was studying with Somis. Leclair provided ballets (now lost) as postludes to two operas at the Teatro Regio Ducale, Turin, in 1727. In Paris the following year he published a second book of violin sonatas and made his début with 12 appearances at the Concert Spirituel, where he was vigorously applauded in performances of his own sonatas and concertos. He also travelled to London, where John Walsh issued a book of his sonatas, and to Kassel, where he performed at court with Pietro Locatelli. This performance may have been an enactment of the battle between the French and Italian styles which so interested writers of the period. J.W. Lustig recounted that Leclair played ‘like an angel’ and Locatelli ‘like a devil’; that Leclair employed extreme rhythmic freedom and moved his listeners by the beauty of his tone, while Locatelli astonished his listeners with a deliberately scratchy tone and left-hand pyrotechnics. Leclair apparently worked with Locatelli at this time, perhaps returning to Amsterdam with him; 18th-century commentators noted Locatelli's influence in the sonatas of op.5. Another of his teachers at this period was the Parisian composer, harpsichordist and conductor André Chéron, to whom he subsequently dedicated his op.7.

Leclair's first wife had died childless, and on 8 September 1730 he married Louise Roussel, who engraved his op.2 and all his subsequent works. Their only child, Louise, also an engraver, married the painter Louis Quenet.

Numerous performances and publications in Paris led to official recognition when late in 1733 Leclair was appointed by Louis XV ordinaire de la musique du roi. He responded by dedicating to the king his third book of violin sonatas, of which the sixth in C minor (later dubbed ‘Le tombeau’) is his best-known composition. In his new capacity Leclair associated with some of the best French musicians of the day, including his friend the viol player Antoine Forqueray and his rival Pierre Guignon. The court favoured older French music – Lully for the chamber, Lalande for the chapel – but Leclair was allowed at least once to perform one of his concertos for the queen's entourage, when ‘his delicate and brilliant playing was greatly applauded’. This employment ended in 1737 when Leclair and Guignon quarrelled over the directorship of the king's orchestra. The two agreed to alternate monthly, with Leclair leading off; but after the first month he resigned and left Paris rather than sit second to Guignon.

Leclair next accepted an invitation to the court of Orange in the Netherlands from Anne, Princess of Orange and daughter of George II of England. Princess Anne had become an accomplished harpsichordist under Handel's tutelage; their mutual esteem may be surmised from his dedication to her of his op.9 and her decorating him with the Croix Néerlandaise du Lion. From 1738 to 1743 Leclair spent three months each year at the court. After July 1740 the remaining nine months were spent at The Hague, where he had become maestro di cappella to a wealthy commoner, François Du Liz, who maintained an establishment of 20 musicians. This arrangement ended with Du Liz's bankruptcy in January 1743; Leclair returned to Paris to publish his fourth and final book of violin sonatas. In 1744 he spent some time in Chambéry playing for the Spanish Prince Don Philippe, to whom he subsequently dedicated op.10. He then returned to Paris, and remained there, apart from an occasional visit to Lyons.

Leclair spent the next few years in semi-retirement, on a pension from the Bonnier de la Mosson family, teaching the violin and composing. On 4 October 1746, in his 50th year, his only opera, Scylla et Glaucus, had its première at the Académie Royale de Musique. In his letter of dedication he wrote ‘Today I enter upon a new career’, surely an allusion to Rameau who similarly embarked on an operatic career in his 51st year. Leclair's opera, stylistically in the Rameau tradition, had a mixed reception, received 18 performances in two months and was then dropped from the repertory.

In 1748 Leclair was taken into the service of a former pupil, Antoine-Antonin, Duc de Gramont, for whose private theatre at Puteaux (now a suburb of Paris) he became composer and musical director. Leclair continued to work for the duke after 1751, when the duke's financial extravagances forced the sale of the Puteaux estate and a return to Paris. For the duke he composed a number of vocal and instrumental pieces, now lost except for the vocal part of one ariette (Sadler and Zaslaw, 1980–81). About 1758 Leclair and his wife parted and set up separate households, Leclair buying a small house in a dangerous part of Paris. He was murdered late one evening in 1764 as he entered his house. The Paris police conducted a thorough investigation and found three suspects: the gardener who found the body; Leclair's nephew, Guillaume-François Vial, with whom he had fallen out; and Mme Leclair herself. The murder is often said to be shrouded in mystery, but the evidence (in the French Archives Nationales) is so clearly against the nephew, who was a violinist and the author of L'arbre généalogique de l'harmonie (1767), that the only remaining mystery is that he was never brought to trial.

2. Works.

Leclair's achievement as a composer lay in his modification of the Corellian sonata style to accommodate French taste. The result was the goûts réunis prophesied by Couperin, the vermischter Geschmack later recommended by Quantz. He imbued the Italian sonata style with elements drawn from the Lullian dance and from the pièce of the French viol players and harpsichordists. Leclair was often able to combine the two styles and to arrive at a new synthesis. In this he was a child of his time, for comparable syntheses were attempted by many of his contemporaries. Leclair was one of the most successful. In his concertos he stayed close to Vivaldian models in the fast movements, more often introducing the French taste in the slow movements.

In his melody Leclair ranged from the détaché style of the Lullian dances and French viol players to the cantabile melodies of the Italian violinists, with a moderately ornamented line, fully written out. His melodic style shows a preference for an accumulation of shorter phrases as compared with the seamless Fortspinnung of Bach; shorn of their overlay of Rococo ornamentation, his melodic lines show a basic structure and style close to that of such models as Corelli and Lully. His harmony is varied and colourful, and includes occasional bold strokes such as enharmonic modulations and intensely chromatic progressions. One cannot speak of an ‘early’ or ‘late’ style in Leclair's music. His remarkably consistent style was as advanced in 1723 as it was outmoded in 1753. Although none of his works can be dated other than by the terminus ad quem provided by their first publication, there is some evidence that Leclair, like Corelli, composed the bulk of his music early in his career and published it little by little; the increase in harmonic complexity found by Preston in the four books of violin sonatas is perhaps due to Leclair's preferring to publish the less problematic works first. He handled the favourite forms of the period with mastery, though without introducing innovations or prefiguring the development of the ‘sonata form’ of the early Classical style.

Technically, Leclair made considerable demands. For the left hand there were excursions into high positions, multiple stops (for virtually entire movements), double trills, and left-hand tremolo. The bow arm had to master tied-bow staccatos, rapid string crossings and a variety of subtle articulations. In his own day Leclair was renowned for his brilliant and accurate performance of multiple stops. Insofar as he wrote out his ornaments and sometimes required the use of notes inégales, Leclair performed in the French tradition. But in most aspects of violin technique, including his use of the longer, so-called ‘Tartini bow’, his manner of performance was Italian. An account of 1738 praised his ability to play well in either style.

Leclair's pupils – leaving aside a number of noble dilettantes – included L'abbé le fils, Elisabeth de Haulteterre, Petit, Geoffroy, Guillaume-Pierre Dupont, Jean-Joseph Rudolphe and, perhaps, Gaviniès and Le Chevalier de Saint-Georges (but not, as erroneously claimed, Dauvergne or Mahoni dit Le Breton). Leclair is rightly considered the first great figure of the French violin school, and his influence on French violinists persisted to the end of the 18th century.

WORKS

all published in Paris

op.

[1]	Premier livre de sonates (a, C, B, D, A, e, F, G, A, D, B, b), vn, bc (1723/R), 2 also for fl; ed. in RRMBE, lxxvii (1995)
[2]	Second livre de sonates (e, F, C, A, G, D, B, D, E, c, b, g), vn, bc (c1728/R), 5 also for fl; ed. in RRMBE, lvii (1988)
3	Sonates (G, A, C, F, e, D), 2 vn/tr viols (1730/R); ed. M. Pincherle (Paris, 1924); ed. S. Beck (New York, 1946); ed. Rost (Locarno, Wilhelmshaven and Amsterdam, 1963)
4	Sonates en trio (d, B, d, F, g, A), 2 vn, bc (c1731–3); ed. M. Pincherle (Paris, 1922)
5	Troisième livre de sonates (A, F, e, B, b, c, a, D, E, C, g, G), vn, bc (1734/R); ed. in RRMBE, iv–v (1968–9)
6	Première recréation de musique d’une exécution facile (D), 2 vn, bc (1736/R) [suite with ov.]; ed. H. Ruf (Kassel, 1976)
7	6 concertos (d, D, C, F, a, A), vn, str, bc (1737), no.3 for fl/ob, str, bc
8	Deuxième recréation de musique d’une execution facile (g), 2 rec/vn, bc (c1737) [suite with ov.]; ed. H. Ruf (Kassel, 1967)
9	Quatrième livre de sonates (A, e, D, A, a, D, G, C, E, f, g, G), vn, bc (1743/R), 2 also for fl; 6 pubd as op.1 (London, c1755); ed. in RRMBE, x–xi (1969–72)
10	6 concertos (B, A, D, F, e, g), vn, str, bc (1745)
11	Scylla et Glaucus (opéra tragédie, prol, 5, d'Albaret), Paris, Académie Royale de Musique, 4 Oct 1746, MS with autograph corrections, F-Po; score pubd (1746); rev. Lyons, Concert de l’Académie des Beaux-Arts, c1755, see Vallas
12	Second livre de sonates (b, E, D, A, g, B), 2 vn/tr viols (c1747–9/R); ed. M. Pincherle (Paris, 1950)
13	[3] Ouvertures et [3] sonates en trio (G, D, D, b, A, g), 2 vn, bc (1753/R); ov. no.3 is arr ov. to 1746 Scylla et Glaucus; sonata no.1 is arr. op.2 no.8; no.2 is arr. op.1 no.12; no.3 is arr. op.2 no.12
[14]	Trio (A), 2 vn, bc (1766), posth. [suite with ov.]; ov. is ?arr. ov. to c1755 Scylla et Glaucus; 2nd movt arr. from op.9 no.11; 3rd movt arr. from prol to Scylla et Glaucus; 4th movt arr. from op.5 no.4
[15]	Sonate (F), vn, bc (1767), posth.; ed. in RRMBE, xi (1972); see Preston (1967)
2 minuets, vn, bc, in [Ir](-IXe) Recueil de menuets nouveaux français et italiens tels qu’ils se dansent aux bals de l'Opéra (Paris, 1740s)

Other pieces by Leclair pubd in 18th-century anthologies are reprs. of movts from pubd works with op. nos.

Lost: ballet music for G.M. Orlandini's Semiramide, Turin, Regio, carn. 1722, lib also lost, ? same music as ballet music for D. Sarro's Didone abbandonata, Turin, Regio, carn. 1727, lib pubd; ballet music for Orlandini's Antigona, Turin, Regio, carn. 1727, lib pubd; Près des bois enchantés (cantata), poem pubd in Mercure de France (Jan 1736), music announced for pubn, Paris, 1767; divertissement for Le danger des épreuves (comedy, 1, J. de La Porte or Senneterre), Paris, de Puteaux, 19 June 1749, lib pubd (Paris, 1749); Apollon et Climène, 2nd entrée of Amusements lyriques, Paris, de Puteaux, Feb 1750, lib pubd (Paris, 1750); arias and dances for several Fr. plays perf. in Paris, de Puteaux, 1751–64, unpubd, see La LaurencieEF, Pincherle; Tablature idéale du violon jugée par feu M. le Clair l’aîné être la seule véritable (Paris, 1766)

(2) Jean-Marie Leclair [le second; le cadet]

(b Lyons, 23 Sept 1703; d Lyons, 30 Nov 1777). Violinist and composer, brother of (1) Jean-Marie Leclair. In 1732 the city councillors of Besançon engaged him as director of their Académie de Musique, but the city fathers of Lyons lured him back after less than a year with the offer of an annual pension. In return Leclair agreed to remain at Lyons as music director of the Académie des Beaux-Arts and to teach the violin to anyone requiring lessons. In all this he was so successful that in 1741 the city fathers augmented his pension and passed an appreciative motion which read in part:

His talent for playing the violin, with a perfection which daily brings him approbation, leaves the public nothing to desire. Such a talent is of considerable importance in sustaining the concerts and the Opéra of this city, since by his efforts the instrumental music in both places is performed in a much more regulated manner. Besides, he daily trains youngsters of good family in the art of violin-playing, so that one can say that persons of all ages profit from Mr Leclair's ability.

The honour and financial rewards accorded Leclair by the people of Lyons were accompanied by a growing reputation elsewhere. In 1738 a report published in Paris listed him among French violinists who ‘already have a great reputation’, and the following year he published a book of 12 violin sonatas, dedicated to Camille Perrichon, Louis XV's commandant for Lyons. On 25 January 1748 he married Jeanne-Suzanne Crus de la Chesnée; they had a son in 1749 and a daughter in 1751. Around this time Leclair's op.2, six sonatas for two violins or viols, was published. The rest of his life was spent in Lyons. The syndics of the Lyons Concert named him secretary in perpetuity and from time to time performed his works. There is mention of such works as Le Rhône et la Saône, a ‘Divertissement champêtre’ (1736), and in 1768 a ‘symphony’, some arias and a motet, but all of these works are lost.

Leclair's published music suggests that he was an excellent violinist as well as an able composer. Many movements have a decided charm, but others are pedestrian. The style of the music is close to that of Jean-Marie l’aîné. According to Marpurg (1754) Jean-Marie le second was as great a virtuoso as Jean-Marie l’aîné; as a composer, however, he was but a pale reflection of his older brother.

WORKS

Premier livre de sonates (e, G, F, A, G, B, A, D, g, C, a, E), vn, bc, op.1 (Paris, 1739)

Sonates (A, D, E, G, F, D), 2 vn/tr viols, op.2 (Paris, c1750)

Le Rhône et la Saône (cant., P. Dubruit de Charville), Lyons, 1730s; lost, see Vallas, 187

Divertissement champêtre (anon.), Lyons, 1736; lost, see Vallas

1 motet, 14 Dec 1768; 1 symphonie, 2 March 1768; ariettes avec orchestre, 13 July, 7 Sept, 23 Nov 1768: all lost, see Vallas, 195

(3) Pierre Leclair

(b Lyons, 19 Nov 1709; d Lyons, 2 April 1784). Violinist and composer, brother of (1) Jean-Marie Leclair. He spent most of his life as a violinist in Lyons. He married on 30 January 1730. A certain ‘Pr. Le Claire, of Lyons’ was active as an engraver of music in Ghent around 1750; this may be the same man. In 1764 Pierre, living in Versailles, published his op.1, Six sonates de récréation à deux violons. His op.2, Six sonates de chambre, also violin duets, remained in manuscript (F-LYm). He died poor and was given a pauper's burial.

(1) Simon Leduc [l'aîné]

(4) Jean-Benoît Leclair

(b Lyons, 25 Sept 1714; d after 1759). Comédien, violinist and composer, brother of (1) Jean-Marie Leclair. He appeared, with his father and two older brothers, among the musicians performing in the annual Voeu du Roi in Lyons on 8 August 1735. On 1 August 1736 the city of Moulins engaged him as director of its newly formed Académie de Musique and offered a position to his fiancée, Catherine (Pierrette) de la Porte: the couple married a fortnight later in Moulins. Their contract was to run ‘until 1 January 1738 at least’; by July 1737, however, they had left Moulins, and by February 1739 were back in Lyons, where they had a daughter and were proprietors of a shop.

Nearly a decade later Leclair was head of a travelling troupe of actors, dancers and musicians. His troupe played at Leuven in 1748, at Brussels and Liège in 1749, at Ghent in 1750, at Liège again in 1750–51, at Utrecht in 1751 and finally at Liège once more in 1758–9. His activity as composer is known only from the libretto of a divertissement performed on 27 April 1749 in Brussels to celebrate the return of Duke Charles of Lorraine from the negotiation of a peace treaty. The work, a ballet héroïque entitled Le retour de la paix dans les Pays-Bas (B. de la Roche), was composed and directed by Leclair, and the dancers included three of his children.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GerberL

La LaurencieEF

PierreH

SartoriL

L. Vallas: Un siècle de musique et de théâtre à Lyon 1688–1789 (Lyons, 1932/R)

E. Appia: ‘The Violin Sonatas of Leclair’, The Score no.3 (1950), 3–19

M. Pincherle: Jean-Marie Leclair l’aîné (Paris, 1952/R)

M. Lemoine: ‘La technique violonistique de Jean-Marie Leclair’, ReM no.226 (1955), 117–43

R.E. Preston: ‘The Treatment of Harmony in the Violin Sonatas of Jean-Marie Leclair’, RMFC, iii (1963), 131–44

G. Nutting: ‘Jean-Marie Leclair, 1697–1764’, MQ, I (1964), 504–14

J.-F. Paillard: ‘Les concertos de Jean-Marie Leclair’, Chigiana, xxi, new ser., i (1964), 47–62

N. Zaslaw: ‘Some Notes on Jean-Benoît Leclair’, RBM, xix (1965), 97–101

R.E. Preston: ‘Leclair’s Posthumous Solo Sonata: an Enigma’, RMFC, vii (1967), 155–63

N. Zaslaw: ‘Handel and Leclair’, CMc no.9 (1969), 183–9

M.-T. Bouquet: Storia del teatro regio di Torino, i: Il teatro di corte dalle origini al 1788 (Turin, 1976)

N. Zaslaw: ‘Leclair's “Scylla and Glaucus”’, MT, cxx (1979), 900–04

G. Sadler and N. Zaslaw: ‘Notes on Leclair's Theatre Music’, ML, xli (1980), 147–57; xlii (1981), 12l only

P. Schwarze: Styles of Composition and Performance in Leclair's Concertos (diss., U. of North Carolina, 1983)

J. Cizéron: ‘La vie musicale lyonnaise au XVIIIe siècle’, Académie musicologique du Forez, vi (1986), suppl.

A. Borowitz: ‘Finale Marked “Presto”: the Killing of Leclair’, MQ, lxxii (1986), 228–38

N. Zaslaw: ‘Scylla et Glaucus: a Case Study’, COJ, iv (1992), 199–228

Leclair, Louise Roussel

(b Paris, 9 Sept 1700; d c1774). French music engraver. Known first under her maiden name of Louise Roussel, she was the daughter of the engraver and print dealer Claude Roussel, whose business was in the rue Saint-Jacques and who himself engraved several musical works. Her first productions date from 1723 (the Second livre de sonates pour violon by Henry Eccles). In 1728 she engraved jean-marie Leclair's second book of sonatas, and soon afterwards, in 1730, she married him and changed her signature to Louise Leclair. Works by many of the great violinist composers of the period, including Jacques Aubert, Jean Barrière, Corelli, Pietro Gianotti, Leclair, Simon Leduc, Carl Stamitz and Tartini, are found under her signature. In smaller quantities, she also engraved chamber music works (by Haydn, Stamitz and F.-J. Gossec), symphonies by J.C. Bach, and some vocal works. Among the publishers who employed her most frequently were Venier, Vernadé, Bayard, La Chevardière and Le Menu. After the death of her husband in 1764, from whom she had been separated in 1750, she published two of his works (opp.14 and 15); she ceased any activity after 1774. She took great pains with the legibility of the works she engraved, and her style is characterized by its clarity and elegance of presentation on the page.

Her daughter Louise Leclair was also a music engraver, and after her marriage to the painter Louis Quenet she took her husband's name. She seems to have produced only a limited number of works between 1765 and 1770.

ANIK DEVRIÈS

Le Clerc, Charles-Nicolas

(b Sézanne en Brie, 20 Oct 1697; d Paris, 20 Oct 1774). French music publisher and violinist, younger brother of Jean-Pantaléon Le Clerc. The brothers have often been confused owing to the similarity of their activities and the infrequent use of Jean-Pantaléon’s first name. Charles-Nicolas Le Clerc’s name appears for the first time in the list of violinists of the Académie Royale de Musique in 1729 and in that of the 24 Violons du Roi in 1732. He held the former post until 22 May 1750 and the latter until 1761. His talents as a violinist were frequently mentioned during that period in accounts of concerts published in the Mercure de France.

Le Clerc began publishing music in 1736 and remained in the business until his death; the first privileges registered in his name date from 9 March 1736 and 17 November 1738; his first catalogue (1738) shows an impressive list of works. His shop was in the rue St-Honoré and bore the signs ‘A la Ville de Constantinople’ (1737–8), ‘A l’Image Ste Geneviève’ (1759–60) and ‘A Ste Cécile’ (1760–74). The fact that he specialized in music publishing indicates that he was something of a pioneer, and also distinguishes his career from that of his brother and the Boivin dealers (primarily commission agents). The only works he sold to the public were those he had commissioned and had engraved. After 1760 he became a commission agent. He was the first in France to have the idea of establishing a repertory of engraved works on which he had sole rights, following the principle which Ballard had been applying for generations with printed music. He published largely foreign music by well-known Italian, German and Flemish composers; some French composers (e.g. J.-M. Leclair and Guillemain) were also listed. Up to 1760 he published mainly instrumental music, later including opéras comiques, ariettes and cantatilles. His music stock was sold in lots by his widow a few months after his death. One lot was bought in December 1774 by Mathon de la Cour on behalf of the Bureau du Journal de Musique and another in February 1775 by the composer Taillart the elder.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DEMF

HopkinsonD

M. Brenet: ‘Quelques musiciens français du XVIIIème siècle: les Le Clerc’, RHCM, vi (1906), 291–7

G. Cucuel: ‘Quelques documents sur la librairie musicale au XVIIIe siècle’,SIMG, xiii (1911–12), 385–92

G. Cucuel: ‘Notes sur quelques musiciens, luthiers, éditeurs et graveurs de musique au XVIIIe siècle’, SIMG, xiv (1912–13), 243–52

M. Ruhnke: ‘Die Pariser Telemann-Drucke und die Brüder LeClerc’,Quellengeschichte der Musik: Wolfgang Schmieder zum 70. Geburtstag, ed. K. Dorfmüller and G. von Dadelsen (Frankfurt, 1972), 149–60

A. Devriès: Edition et commerce de la musique gravée à Paris dans la première moitié du XVIIIe siècle: les Boivin, les Leclerc (Geneva,1976)

A. Devriès and F. Lesure: Dictionnaire des éditeurs de musique français (Geneva, 1979), 95–9

ANIK DEVRIÈS

Leclerc, Félix (Eugène)

(b La Tuque, Quebec, 2 Aug 1914; d Ile d’Orléans, nr Quebec City, 8 Aug 1988). Canadian songwriter, singer and writer. He began his career as a radio announcer and scriptwriter in Quebec City in the late 1930s and then joined the CBC in Montreal as a writer and producer in 1941. Although he had little musical training Leclerc began to write songs to his own poems; his first, Notre sentier, was written at the age of 18. He was heard in Montreal by the artistic director of Philips records, Jacques Canetti, who brought him to Paris in 1950 to make a successful début at l’ABC where he remained for five weeks. Subsequently he toured in France and Switzerland. In 1951 his song Moi, mes souliers was awarded a Grand Prix du Disque by the Académie Charles-Cros.

Leclerc became known in Europe as ‘le Canadien’, and was the first French-Canadian chansonnier to achieve wide recognition in the French-speaking world. He appeared in the films Les brûlés (1958), Félix Leclerc, troubadour (1959) and La vie (1967); he last performed on stage in 1972. In his songs he followed no popular trends and avoided sophistication in both text and music. With a deep, robust baritone voice he sang of Quebec’s landscape, people and customs. To one critic, his songs ‘smacked of the rich damp earth, of the forests and lakes, of ripe apples and of new-mown hay’.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EMC2 (D. Ménard, C. Rioux and B. Roy)

L. Bérimont: Félix Leclerc (Paris, 1964)

J.-C. Le Pennec: L’univers poétique de Félix Leclerc (Montreal and Paris, 1967)

B. L’Herbier: La chanson québécoise (Montreal, 1974)

J. Bertin: Félix Leclerc, le roi heureux (Montreal, 1988)

GILLES POTVIN/R

Le Clerc [Leclercq], Jacques

(b Langres, c1620; d St Pierre de Melun, 1 Jan 1679). French musical theorist. He took his vows as a Benedictine monk at Limoges in 1641 and became sub-prior of the abbey of the Trinité in Vendôme. Like many of his Benedictine colleagues of the congregation of St. Maur, Le Clerc was a scholar with varied interests. First and foremost a linguist, he was interested in Latin pronunciation, mathematics and music, the latter as both a theorist and a practitioner. He is chiefly known for the misattribution to him in early literature of P.-B. de Jumilhac’s La science et la pratique du plain-chant (1673). Nevertheless, among manuscripts left by him (in F-Pn) are original writings related to chant. Two are of interest: Méthode facile et accomplie pour apprendre le chant de l’église sans l’aide d’aucune gamme (dated 1665, f.fr.20001) and Règles du chant et de la prononciation grecque et latine (an extended work, comprising five treatises, which is incomplete and is found in portions of f.fr.19103 and 20002).

Le Clerc’s aim was to re-establish plainchant as it had been practised before its ‘corruption’ by humanism. His argument was fourfold: the strictures of the Council of Trent and of post-Tridentine reform conform to tradition in criticizing both long melismas and an allegedly defective prosody; writing on ways of modifying traditional rhythm, Le Clerc noted a tendency to abandon distinctions between different kinds of chant; the disfigurement of chant resulting from the preceding observation reduces it to the level of any other kind of music; and these observations alone should provide Benedictines with the tools necessary to ‘re-establish Gregorian chant in its original purity’.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R.P. Tassin: Histoire littéraire de la Congrégation de Saint-Maur (Brussels, 1770/R), 99, 274

D. Launay: ‘Un esprit critique au temps de Jumilhac: Dom Jacques Leclerc, bénédictin de la Congrégation de Saint-Maur’, Études grégoriennes, xix (1980), 197–219

P. Ranum: Méthode de la prononciation latine dite vulgaire ou à la française: petite méthode à l’usage des chanteurs et des récitants d’après le manuscrit de Dom Jacques Le Clerc (Arles, 1991)

J. Duron, ed.: Plain-chant et liturgie en France au XVIIe siècle (Paris, 1997)

PHILIPPE VENDRIX

Le Clerc, Jean-Pantaléon

(b ?Sézanne en Brie, before 1697; d after 1759). French publisher and violinist, the elder brother of Charles-Nicolas Le Clerc . He lived at the ‘Croix d’Or’, rue du Roule, Paris, from 1728 to 1758. Having entered the 24 Violons du Roi on 17 July 1720, he remained a member until 1760. A periodical advertisement dated October 1728 announced the start of his career as a music commission agent. Up to 1753 his name was often associated with that of Boivin, both on the title-pages of works and in music advertisements. There seems to have been a tacit agreement between the two dealers; they shared the Parisian music market and the same works are listed in their respective catalogues. Their trade was supplied by the composers themselves, mainly by those having had their works engraved at their own expense. They also represented French and foreign publishers such as Ballard, Charles-Nicolas Le Clerc and Michel-Charles Le Cène.

Three catalogues dated 1734, 1737 and 1742 provide an inventory of the music on sale at the ‘Croix d’Or’; the list is supplemented by a further undated catalogue published in 1751. Some of the works listed were commissioned by Le Clerc himself; they are recorded in the ‘Registres des Privilèges’ and in an engraved catalogue (the French national archives contain the only surviving copy, attached to a deed dated 13 April 1752 by which his brother Charles-Nicolas acquired the rights to works in the catalogue). Composers listed in this catalogue include Quantz, Telemann, Bourgouin, Croes, Lavaux, Charles Wiseman, Deltour, Noblet and T.L. Bourgeois; chamber music, dances (minuets, quadrilles, airs) and songs represent the works published by Le Clerc.

On 7 June 1751 Le Clerc retired and handed over the commission agency to his daughter Anne-Cécile on her marriage to the organist Claude Vernadé. He authorized her to run the business under the name of Le Clerc and this explains the alternation of the names of Le Clerc, Le Clerc-Vernadé and Vernadé on the title-pages of works sold between 1751 and 1758. In 1758 La Chevardière took over from Mme Vernadé and described himself as the successor of M. Le Clerc.

It is possible that Le Clerc was also a composer. Some dances signed Le Clerc are contained in contemporary anthologies entitled Nouveaux menuets françois et italiens .… mis en ordre par Mr. Le Clerc (Paris, 1730), but this is not sufficient evidence that he was the author. The last known reference to Le Clerc is a deed drawn up by a notary in 1760 which mentions that at that time he kept a haberdashery in Paris.

For bibliography see Le Clerc, Charles-Nicolas.

ANIK DEVRIÈS

Lecocq, (Alexandre) Charles

(b Paris, 3 June 1832; d Paris, 24 Oct 1918). French composer. One of five children of a poor family, he was born infirm and from the age of five or six was forced to use crutches. He soon concentrated on music, playing first a flageolet and later the piano. By the age of 16 he was sufficiently accomplished a pianist to give lessons. After a period of instruction in harmony by Crèvecoeur, he entered the Paris Conservatoire in 1849, where he studied harmony with Bazin and composition with Halévy, and made friends with his fellow students Bizet and Saint-Saëns. At the end of his second year he gained second prix in counterpoint and was primus accessit in Benoist’s organ class. But the weakness of his legs made organ playing tiring and difficult. He was forced to leave the Conservatoire prematurely, in 1854, to help support his parents by giving piano lessons and by playing at dances and for lessons of the dancing-master Cellarius. He first attracted attention as a composer in 1856 when, out of 78 entrants in a competition organized by Offenbach for the Théâtre des Bouffes-Parisiens, he and Bizet shared first place with their settings of an operetta libretto Le docteur Miracle.

In spite of this success, Lecocq had to wait for recognition. A few of his one-act operettas were performed during the 1860s, but it was not until 1868 that he enjoyed his first real success with Fleur-de-thé, an operetta with a Japanese setting, after the current fashion. He finally achieved prominence after the 1871 revolution. In Brussels, where Lecocq lived for several years from 1870, the popular acclaim accorded his operettas Les cent vierges (1872), La fille de Madame Angot (1872) and Giroflé-Girofla (1874), all of which were later produced with great success in Paris and abroad, established him as a natural successor to Offenbach. Settling once again in Paris, he confirmed his international reputation with La petite mariée (1875) and Le petit duc (1878), both of which have remained in the French operetta repertory. After a lapse of more than a year caused by illness and domestic problems, his career resumed with Janot (1881), Le jour et la nuit (1881) and Le coeur et la main (1882), but these were his last real successes. He accepted that fashion had changed, and his output gradually decreased as he turned to other genres. Plutus (1886), an attempt to write in a more serious vein, was produced by the Opéra-Comique; it failed, and received only eight performances. He also composed a ballet, Le cygne, for the Opéra-Comique (1899). During the 1890s he took up the scores of his earlier works, wrote prefaces on their background and made critical comments on individual numbers. His last important operetta was La belle au bois dormant (1900); thereafter he composed little. He was made a Chevalier of the Légion d’honneur in 1900 and an Officier in 1910.

Much of Lecocq’s music is characterized by a light touch, but he could also adopt a more lyrical and elevated style than Offenbach and termed several of his operettas opéras comiques. His greatest popular triumph, La fille de Madame Angot, has remained a classic among operettas, and demonstrates Lecocq’s abundant flow of pleasing melodies, his deft exploitation of rhythm for a lively theatrical effect, impressive building up of extended numbers, and typically French shaping of phrases.

WORKS

all printed works published in Paris

stage

operettas, first performed in Paris, and published there in vocal score, unless otherwise stated

ob	opéra bouffe
optte	opérette

Le Docteur Miracle (oc, 1, L. Battu and L. Halévy), Bouffes-Parisiens, 8 April 1857 (1877)

Huis-clos (1, A. Guénée and A. Marquet), Folies-Nouvelles, 28 or 29 Jan 1859

Le baiser à la porte (optte de salon, 1, J. de la Guette), Folies-Nouvelles, 26 March 1864 (c1890)

Liline et Valentin (optte de salon, 1, de la Guette), Champs-Elysées, 25 May 1864 (?c1864)

[Les] ondines au champagne (optte, 1, H. Lefèbvre, Pélissié and Merle), Folies Marigny, 3 Sept 1865 or 1866 (1876)

Le myosotis (optte bouffe, 1, Cham and W. Busnach), Palais-Royal, 2 or 3 May 1866 (1866)

Le cabaret de Ramponneau (1, Lesire), Folies Marigny, 11 Oct 1867 (?c1867)

L’amour et son carquois (ob, 2, Marquet and Delbès), Athénée, 30 Jan 1868 (1868)

Fleur-de-thé (ob, 3, Chivot and Duru), Athénée, 11 April 1868 (1868)

Les jumeaux de Bergame (oc, 1, Busnach), Athénée, 20 Nov 1868 (1876), orch score (1884)

Le carnaval d’un merle blanc (folie parée et masquée, 3, H. Chivot and A. Duru), Palais-Royal, 10 Dec 1868

Gandolfo (optte, 1, Chivot and Duru), Bouffes-Parisiens, 16 Jan 1869 (1869)

Deux portières pour un cordon (1, Lucian [L. Dubuis and Lefèbvre]), Palais-Royal, 19 March 1869 (?c1869)

Le rajah de Mysore (optte bouffe, 1, Chivot and Duru), Bouffes-Parisiens, 21 Sept 1869 (1869)

Le beau Dunois (ob, 1, Chivot and Duru), Variétés, 13 April 1870 (1870)

Sauvons la caisse (1, de la Guette), Tertulia, 22 Sept or Dec 1871 (?c1871)

Le testament de M. de Crac (ob, 1, J. Moinaux), Bouffes-Parisiens, 23 Oct 1871 (1872)

Le barbier de Trouville (bluette bouffe, 1, A. Jaime and Noriac), Bouffes-Parisiens, 19 Nov 1871 (1872)

Les cent vierges (ob, 3, Clairville, Chivot and Duru), Brussels, Fantaisies-Parisiennes, 16 or 17 March 1872 (1872)

La fille de Madame Angot (oc, 3, Clairville, V. Koning and P. Siraudin), Brussels, Fantaisies-Parisiennes, 4 Dec 1872 (1873)

Giroflé-Girofla (opéra bouffe, 3, E. Leterrier and A. Vanloo), Brussels, Fantaisies-Parisiennes, 21 March 1874 (1874)

Les prés Saint-Gervais (oc, 3, V. Sardou and P. Gille), Variétés, 14 Nov 1874 (1874)

Le pompon (oc, 3, Chivot and Duru), Folies-Dramatiques, 10 Nov 1875 (1875)

La petite mariée (ob, 3, Leterrier and Vanloo), Renaissance, 21 Dec 1875 (1876)

Kosiki (oc, 3, Busnach and A. Liorat), Renaissance, 18 Oct 1876 (1877)

La marjolaine (ob, 3, Leterrier and Vanloo), Renaissance, 3 Feb 1877 (1877)

Le petit duc (oc, 3, H. Meilhac and Halévy), Renaissance, 25 Jan 1878 (1878)

La Camargo (oc, 3, Leterrier and Vanloo), Renaissance, 20 Nov 1878 (1879)

Le grand Casimir (optte, 3, J. Prével and A. de Saint-Albin), Variétés, 11 Jan 1879 (1879)

La petite mademoiselle (oc, 3, Meilhac and Halévy), Renaissance, 12 April 1879 (1879)

La jolie Persane (oc, 3, Leterrier and Vanloo), Renaissance, 28 Oct 1879 (1879)

Janot (oc, 3, Meilhac and Halévy), Renaissance, 21 Jan 1881 (1881)

La roussotte (vaudeville-opérette, 3, Meilhac, Halévy and A. Millaud), Variétés, 26 or 28 Jan 1881 (1881), collab. Hervé and M. Boulard

Le jour et la nuit (ob, 3, Leterrier and Vanloo), Nouveautés, 5 Nov 1881 (1882)

Le coeur et la main (oc, 3, C. Nuitter and A. Beaumont), Nouveautés, 19 Oct 1882 (1883)

La princesse des Canaries (ob, 3, Chivot and Duru), Folies-Dramatiques, 9 Feb 1883 (1883)

L’oiseau bleu (oc, 3, Chivot and Duru), Nouveautés, 16 Jan 1884 (1884)

La vie mondaine (ob, 3, E. de Najac and P. Ferrier), Nouveautés, 13 Feb 1885 (1885)

Plutus (oc, 3, Millaud and Jollivet), OC (Favart), 31 March or May 1886 (1886)

Les grenadiers de Mont-Cornette (3, Daunis, Delormel and E. Philippe), Bouffes-Parisiens, 4 Jan 1887 (?c1887)

Ali-Baba (oc, 4, Vanloo and Busnach), Brussels, Alhambra, 11 Nov 1887 (1887)

La volière (oc, 3, Nuitter and Beaumont), Nouveautés, 11 or 12 Feb 1888 (?1888)

L’égyptienne (oc, 3, Chivot, Nuitter and Beaumont), Folies-Dramatiques, 8 Nov 1890

Nos bons chasseurs (vaudeville, 3, P. Bilhaud and M. Carré), Casino de Paris, 10 April 1894

Ninette (oc, 3, Clairville, Hubert, Lebeau and C. de Trogoff), Bouffes-Parisiens, 28 Feb 1896 (1896)

Ruse d’amour (saynète, 1, S. Bordèse), Boulogne, Casino, 26 June 1898 (1897)

La belle au bois dormant (oc, 3, G. Duval and Vanloo), Bouffes-Parisiens, 19 Feb 1900 (1900, 2/c1905)

Yetta (oc, 3, F. Beissier), Brussels, Galeries St-Hubert, 7 or 8 March 1903 (1903)

Rose Mousse (comédie-musicale, 1, A. Alexandre and P. Carin), Capucines, 28 Jan 1904 (1904)

La salutiste (opéra monologue, l, Beissier), Capucines, 14 Jan 1905

Le trahison de Pan (oc, 1, Bordèse), Aix-les-Bains, Casino, 13 Sept 1911 (1912)

Undated: Le chevrier (oc, 2, C. Narrey and M. Carré fils) (c1888)

Unperf.: Renza; Ma cousine

other works

2 choruses

Over 100 songs

Les clercs de la Basoche, orch

Deux morceaux religieux: Andante nuptial, Offertoire, vn, org/pf (1883), also arr. orch; Mélange sur La fille de Madame Angot, ob, pf (1884); Allegretto, vc, pf (1885); Sonata, vn, pf

c60 dances and salon pieces, pf, 2 pieces arr. orch

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO

L. Schneider: Les maîtres de l’opérette française: Hervé, Charles Lecocq (Paris, 1924), 125–283

G. Lebas, ed.: ‘Lettres inédites de Lecocq à Saint-Saëns’, ReM, v/3–5 (1923–4), 119–31; v/9–11 (1923–4), 121–44; vi/6–8 (1924–5), 216–24

L. Schneider: Une heure de musique avec Charles Lecocq (Paris, 1930)

P. Landormy: La musìque française de Franck à Debussy (Paris, 1943, 2/1948)

R. Traubner: Operetta: a Theatrical History (New York, 1983)

ANDREW LAMB

Le Cocq, François

(fl early 18th century). Flemish composer and guitarist. He was a musician in the chapel royal, Brussels, mentioned in 1729 as being retired. He also taught guitar to the wife of the Elector of Bavaria. His music for five-course guitar survives in two manuscripts (B-Bc Littera S, 5615, dated 1730 (facs. (Brussels, 1979)), and Br II.5551D), both with the title Recueil des pieces de guitarre. They were copied by a friend of Le Cocq, Jean Baptiste Ludovico de Castillion, provost of the ecclesiastical college of Ste Pharailde in Ghent. Manuscript S, 5615 (of which the other is an abridged version) has a lengthy preface by Castillion describing the tuning, stringing and fretting of the guitar, and explaining note values, time signatures and ornaments. He recommends the use of bourdons on both fourth and fifth courses and mentions the use of overwound strings for this prupose. The music, notated in French tablature, is in two sections, the first comprising 117 pieces grouped by key and attributed to Le Cocq, the second containing music by earlier composers (Corbetta, Colista, Pérez de Závala, Granata, Sanz, Visée and Derosiers). At the end there is a glossary of musical forms and terms. Several of Le Cocq’s pieces are incorporated into the suites in Santiago de Murcia’s Passacalles y obras (GB-Lbl Add.31640).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Hall: The Guitar Anthologies of Santiago de Murcia (diss., Open U., Milton Keynes, 1983), i, 39–45

C. Russell: ‘Santiago de Murcia: the French Connection in Baroque Spain’, JLSA, xv (1982), 40–51

M. Hall: ‘Santiago de Murcia and François Le Cocq’, JLSA, xvi (1983), 3–6

C. Russell: ‘François Le Cocq’s Influence on Santiago de Murcia: Problems with Dates, Sources and Recomposition’, JLSA, xvi (1983), 7–11 [see also ‘Communications’, JLSA, xvii–xviii (1984–5), 139–40]

C. Russell: François Le Cocq, Belgian Master of the Baroque Guitar’, Soundboard, xxiii (1988–9), 283–93

MONICA HALL

Lecocq, Jean [Jehan]

(fl 1540–60). Composer. He may be identifiable with Joannes Gallus.

Le Coincte, Louis.

See Le Quointe, Louis.

Leçon de ténèbres

(Fr.).

A name applied in France, especially during the 17th and 18th centuries, to a musical setting of a portion of the Lamentations of Jeremiah for use in one of the three services of Tenebrae in Holy Week; the form Leçons de ténèbres usually denotes a set of three lessons for one such service. See Lamentations.

Le Conte [Comes, Cont, Conti, del Conte, El Conte, Il Conte], Bartholomeus [Bartolomeo]

(fl 1547–65). French singer and composer, active in Italy. His home diocese was Limoges or Noyon. He first appears in the historical record with El Conte: Bartholomei Comitis gallici … motetta … suavissime sonantia for five voices (Venice, 1547). From November 1550 to January 1554 he was a tenor in the choir of Siena Cathedral. He proceeded to Rome, where he briefly sang in the Capella Giulia (21 March – 31 May 1554). He entered the choir of the papal chapel on 9 September 1555, and was among the papal singers deputed to the Council of Trent in February 1561. He received permission to go abroad on 24 September 1564, and wrote the following spring to say he had accepted employment from ‘a lord of his own country’; his resignation was accepted on 13 April 1565. In documents connected with a shake-up of the papal chapel later that year, Le Conte’s voice was disparaged and he was described as ‘a terrible heretic’ (hereticus pessimus); he was expelled from the chapel on 1 October.

Besides Le Conte’s 20 five-voice motets of 1547, we have a four-voice madrigal, Di ciò, cor mio, ascribed to ‘Il Conte’ in Il vero terzo libro di madrigali … a note negre (1549³¹; ed. in CMM, lxxiii/4, 1980), and a four-voice motet, Agnus Christus in cruce, printed without ascription in Susato’s second book of motets (1553⁹). This was reprinted, along with five of the 1547 motets, under the name of ‘Comes’ in Berg & Neuber’s Evangelia (1555^11-12, 1556⁸). There is also a five-voice madrigal, Mordi, mordi, ben mio, ascribed to ‘Bartolomeo Il Conte’ in the first book of madrigals of Francesco Usper (1604²⁰). Le Conte was a capable if conventional composer. He chose particularly weighty texts and was the first to set each of his madrigal poems. His vocal lines express the verbal rhythms fluently and the scoring is varied, though his harmonic range is limited and the pacing of the motets is rather uniform.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

VanderStraetenMPB, vi

A. Ducrot: ‘Histoire de la Cappella Giulia au XVIe siècle depuis sa Fondation par Jules II (1513) jusqu’à sa restauration par Grégoire XIII (1578)’, Mélanges d’archéologie et d’histoire, lxxv (1963), 179–240, 467–559, esp. 217

R. Sherr: ‘Competence and Incompetence in the Papal Choir in the Age of Palestrina’, EMc, xxii (1994), 607–29

F.A. D’Accone: The Civic Muse: Music and Musicians in Siena during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (Chicago, 1997), 318–29

JEFFREY DEAN

Le Conte, Pierre-Michel

(b Rouen, 6 March 1921). French conductor. At the Paris Conservatoire he studied the bassoon with Gustave Dhérin and conducting with Eugène Bigot and Louis Fourestier. Throughout his career he worked chiefly in French radio. He was conductor for radio in Nice from 1946 to 1949 and in Toulouse from 1950 to 1952, and from 1960 to 1973 he was resident conductor of the ORTF Opera Orchestra in Paris. He also conducted other orchestras, both in France and elsewhere; he conducted the Paris Conservatoire Orchestra at the Aix-en-Provence Festival in 1947, and in 1972 he toured the USSR with a programme of French music. He also taught conducting classes at the Paris Conservatoire for many years.

Le Conte favoured 19th-century symphonic works, but as a radio conductor he was also concerned with performing contemporary works, chiefly operatic. He conducted many first performances, including those of Les amants captifs (1960) and Fille de l’homme (1964) by Pierre Capdevielle, Françaix’s La princesse de Clèves (1965) and Le dialogue des Carmélites (1969), and Germaine Tailleferre’s La petite sirène (1958). He also had a particular talent for conducting lighter music.

CHRISTIANE SPIETH-WEISSENBACHER/R

Lectionary

(from Lat. lectionarium).

A liturgical book of the Christian Church, either Western (Latin and derived rites) or Eastern, containing scriptural or other readings for the Eucharist or Divine Office; see Liturgy and liturgical books, §II, 2(ii) and 3(ii), and §IV, 3(v), see also Ekphonetic notation.

Lectionary notation.

See Ekphonetic notation.

Lecuna, Juan Vicente

(b Valencia, 20 Nov 1899; d Rome, 15 April 1954). Venezuelan composer and pianist. He studied the piano with Salvador Llamozas at the Caracas National School of Music, where he graduated in 1917. Between 1918 and 1926 he lived in New York City as a freelance pianist, while studying with E. Kuypers and A. Savine. By 1926 he returned to Venezuela, where he initiated a financial career while still composing. By 1936 he had earned a diplomatic post at the Venezuelan Embassy in Washington. This began a long period of foreign residencies which put him in contact with several important composers and performers in the Americas and Europe, including Nicanor Zabaleta and Claudio Arrau, to whom he dedicated his Sonata for harp and his Suburbio for piano respectively. In 1941 he worked with Straube at the Peabody Conservatory. He was commissioned by the Venezuelan Ministry of Education in 1942 to look into the state of public school music education in Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Chile. During these visits he lectured extensively on Venezuelan music. He eventually established a close collaboration with the Chilean composer Domingo Santa Cruz, and was made an honorary member of the fine arts faculty at the University of Chile in 1944. He also received the artistic guidance of composer Jaime Pahissa in Buenos Aires, and of Manuel de Falla (exiled in the province of Córdoba, Argentina), with whom he cultivated a warm friendship. After a short return to Venezuela in 1946, he spent his last years as a member of the Venezuelan legation to the Vatican.

Lecuna is distinguished by the refinement and balance of his style, best represented in his piano music. His works reflect post-Impressionist or neo-classical tendencies but always include nationalistic elements. Lecuna’s neo-classicism evokes Renaissance and Baroque Spain. His best known composition, the set of Sonatas de Altagracia for piano, recalls the structure and texture of the sonatas of Scarlatti, and incorporates rhythmic motives characteristic of Venezuelan traditional dances.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Rumbera, 1926–35; Danza, 1954; Movimiento, 1951–4

Pf: Merengue, ?1926–35; Morocota, ?1926–35; Pasillo, ?1926–35, Rumbera, ?1926–35; La criolla vestida, ?1930–35; Rapsodia venezolana, 1935; Canción de cuna, 1936; La bandola, 1937; Calinerie, 1937; 5 sonatas de Altagracia, 1937–47; 4 pièces, pf (Paris, 1938): Vals caraqueño, 1937, Criolla (La criolla desnuda), 1930–33, Joropo, 1935, Danza (Suburbio), 1934; El preludio, 1938; Rapsodia venezolana, 2 pf, 1949–50; Música para niños, 1952; Chant sans paroles; Preludio

Other insts: Sonata, hp, 1942; Str Qt, 1943–4

1v, pf: Spleen (P. Verlaine), 1917; Green (Verlaine), 1918; Rêverie (A. de Musset), 1918

Principal publishers: Alphonse Leduc, Fundación Vicente Emilio Sojo (Caracas), Universidad Central de Venezuela, Ministerio de Educación de Venezuela

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.A. Calcaño: La ciudad y su música: crónica musical de Caracas (Caracas, 1958), 447–9

M. Otero: ‘Juan Vicente Lecuna en perspectiva’, Homenaje a Juan Vicente Lecuna Caracas, 1993 [programme notes; catalogue]

N. Tortolero: Sonido que es imagen … imagen que es historia: Iconografía de compositores venezolanos (Caracas, 1996)

JUAN ORREGO-SALAS/CARMEN HELENA TÉLLEZ

Lecuona (Casado), Ernesto

(b Guanabacoa, 7 Aug 1896; d S Cruz de Tenerife, 29 Nov 1963). Cuban composer. Born into a musical family, he played the piano from an early age and wrote his first song when he was 11. He studied the piano with Carlo Alfredo Peyrellade, Saavedra and Hubert de Blanck. He graduated from the National Conservatory in Havana in 1913, receiving first prize and a gold medal, and soon made his first appearance as a composer–pianist. Then, after further studies with Joaquín Nin, he made several tours of Latin America, Europe and the USA as the leader of a dance band, Lecuona’s Cuban Boys, which became quite well known. For some years he lived in New York, where he wrote for musicals, films and the radio. In his concerts he usually performed his songs and dances for piano, as well as light pieces by other late 19th- and early 20th-century Cuban composers. His salon piano pieces, using ‘white’ peasant and Afro-Cuban rhythms, found wide favour, and many of his songs, too, achieved great popularity. Indications have surfaced that in later years he wrote in a more formal style, with greater use of development and classical forms, and a more elaborate structure. A piano trio performed only once in Havana and fragments of a string quartet point to a more modern, almost Stravinskian harmony.

WORKS

(selective list)

Op: El maizal (G. Sánchez de Galarraga), 1929, La Habana, Payret, 7 March 1930

Zars (all first performed in La Habana): Lola Cruz (Sánchez de Galarraga), 1923, Auditorium, 15 Sept 1935; La niña Rita (Riancho y Castells), 1927, Regina, 29 Sept 1928; El batey (Sánchez de Galarraga), 1928–9, Regina, 9 April 1929; El cafetal (Sánchez de Galarraga), 1929, Regina, 1 March 1929; María la O (Sánchez de Galarraga), 1930, Payret, 1 March 1930; Rosa la china (Sánchez de Galarraga), 1932, Martí, 27 May 1932; La plaza de la Catedral (F. Meluzá Otero), 1942, Nacional, 19 March 1944

Orch: Rapsodia negra, pf, orch, 1943; Suite, 1945

Songs (texts by Lecuona unless otherwise stated): Desengaño (Sánchez de Galarraga) (1926); Noche azul (1927); Andalucía (1928); Aquella tarde (1928); Malagueña (1928); Canto carabalí (Sánchez de Galarraga) (1929); Canto negro (Sánchez de Galarraga) (1929); Siboney (1929); Como arrullo de palmas (1931), Damisela encantadora (1936); Mujer (1937); Dame de tus rosas (1939); La canción del regreso (Meluzá Otero) (1939); Mi mariposa (1941); El crisantemo (1943); Siempre en mi corazón (J.L. Seña), 1943

Chbr: Pf Trio; Str Qt, inc.

Pf: Danza negra (1934)

Principal publisher: Editoria Musical de Cuba, Marks (New York)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Piñeiro: Cronología de E. Lecuona (La Habana, 1985)

O. Martínez: Ernesto Lecuona (La Habana, 1989)

C. De León: Ernesto Lecuona (La Habana, 1995)

AURELIO DE LA VEGA

Lecuona Casado, Ernestina

(b Matanzas, 16 Jan 1882; d Havana, 3 Sept 1951). Cuban composer and pianist. Member of a remarkable musical family (including Ernesto Lecuona, her brother, and Leo Brouwer, her grandson), she studied at the Academia del Centro Asturiano in Havana and continued at the Municipal Conservatory (now the Amadeo Roldán School of Music) and then with Madame Calderón of the Paris Conservatoire. In 1932 she met the singer Esther Borja, her most faithful interpreter, with whom she toured Latin America, performing in theatres, on radio and on film. She also performed as a solo pianist in Cuba and abroad and gave concerts for two pianos with her brother, to whom she dedicated three pieces, Danza negra and the boleros Mi vida es soñar and Anhelo besarte. In 1937 she was a founder member of the Orquesta Feminina de Concierto. Her compositions are mostly small-scale, including canciones, hymns, waltzes and other Latin-American dances, and she often wrote replies to the works of other composers: her ¿Me odias?, a criolla, was a reply to Te odio by Felix B. Caignet; further works of this kind are the bolero No lo dudes (1932) and the bolero-canción Ahora que eres mía (1936). Some of her compositions have been recorded.

WORKS

(selective list)

Cancions: Luisa, habanera, 1897: ¿Por qué no me quieres?, criolla-bolero, 1929; Ahora que eres mía, bolero-canción, 1936; Cierra cierra los ajos (E. Costales), 1938; Cuando duermes, 1938; Ya que te vas, 1948

Boleros: Amarte es mi destino, 1932; No lo dudes, 1932; Mi sueño eres tú, 1936; Tú seras en mis noches (Costales), 1939

Waltzes: Jardin azul (G.S. Galarraga), 1929; Soñé con tu amor (C.P. Belinchón), 1939; Déjame amarte aunque sea un día más; No lo supiste comprender

Other works, incl. Himno a Maria Inmaculada y a Santa Teresa de Jesús; Pancho y Ramona, danzon; El diabilito, son; Oye mi son, son; ¿Me odias?, criolla

ALICIA VALDÉS CANTERO

Leczinska [Leszczynska], Marie, Queen of France

(b Breslau, 23 June 1703; d Versailles, 24 June 1768). French ruler, musician and patron of music. The daughter of King Stanislaus I of Poland and Catherine Opalinska, in 1725 she married Louis XV. At Versailles, she cultivated musical and artistic talents and encouraged her daughters towards similar pursuits. She played several instruments, including the harpsichord and vielle, and also sang. According to the Duke of Luynes, she participated in evening chamber music with Farinelli and other famous musicians. In 1735, she established twice weekly Concerts de la Reine at Marly and Versailles, where operas recently performed in Paris were heard, along with works from the Concert Spirituel. After 1745, with the presence of Madame de Pompadour at court, the queen's interest in formal musical entertainment declined; however, she occasionally entertained child prodigies, including the young Mozart (New Year's Day, 1764).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P. Daval: La musique en France au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1961)

N. Dufourcq: La musique à la cour de Louis XIV et de Louis XV d'après les Mémoires de Sourches et Luynes, 1681–1758 (Paris, 1970)

P.F. Rice: The Performing Arts at Fontainebleau from Louis XIV to Louis XVI (Ann Arbor, 1989)

MARY CYR

Ledang, Ola Kai

(b Namsos, 25 July 1940). Norwegian ethnomusicologist. He studied the organ at the Trondheim Music School (diploma 1962), civil engineering at the Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim (1963), and musicology at the University of Oslo (MA 1966). After holding a scholarship at the Norwegian Folk Music Institute in Oslo (1964–70) he became a lecturer and subsequently professor (1987) at the University of Trondheim; he has also been a music critic for the Oslo newspapers Dagbladet, Verdens gang and Morgenbladet. His research has been particularly concerned with Norwegian folk instruments, African music and the social aspects of music. He has also edited a collection of traditional ballads (Trøndervisan, ed. G. Hordvik, F.M. Åstedt and O.K. Ledang, Trondheim, 1986).

WRITINGS

‘Instrumentell analyse av einstemmig musikk’, Forskningsnytt fra Norges almenvitenskapelige forskningsråd, no.3 (Oslo, 1966), 13–18

Song, syngemåte og stemmekarakter: samanliknande gransking av 28 lydbandopptak av ein norsk religiøs folketone [Song, singing style and voice character: comparative examination of 28 audio tape recordings of a Norwegian religious popular melody] (Oslo, 1967)

‘Some Musicological Applications of the Sonagraph’, SMN, i (1968), 21–38

‘On the Acoustics and the Systematic Classification of the Jaw's Harp’, YIFMC, iv (1972), 95–103

‘Instrument-Player-Music: on the Norwegian Langleik’, Festschrift to Ernst Emsheimer, ed. G. Hilleström (Stockholm, 1974), 107–18, 273–4

‘Frå religiøse folketonar til rytmesalmar’ [From religious popular melodies to rhythmic hymns], Årbok for Trøndelag, xiv (1980), 125–34

‘Open Form in African Tribal Music’, SMN, ix (1983), 9–26

‘Frå afrikansk stammemusikk til europeisk barokk: om samanhangen mellom afro-amerikansk musikk og europeisk barokkmusikk’, Arena, ix (1986), 26–39

‘Revival and Innovation: the Case of the Norwegian Seljefløyte’, YTM, xviii (1986), 145–56

‘Europeisk barokkmusikk i koloniperspektiv’, SMN, xiii (1987), 45–81

ed.: Musikklidenskapelig: 13 essays om Musikkvitenskapelig institutt 1962–1987 [Passionate about music: 13 essays on the Institute of Musicology] (Oslo, 1987)

‘Magic, Means, and Meaning: an Insider's View of Bark Flutes in Norway’, Selected Reports in Ethnomusicology, viii (1990), 105–23

‘The Soundscape: Progenitor of Music and Instruments’, Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis XI: Smolenice 1992, 151–6

KARI MICHELSEN

Ledbetter, Huddie.

See Leadbelly.

Ledenyov, Roman (Semyonovich)

(b Moscow, 4 Dec 1930). Russian composer. He studied under Rakov and Anatoly Aleksandrov at the Moscow Conservatory, after which he completed a postgraduate course and joined the staff there. He served as secretary to the board of the Composers' Union of the RSFSR (1970–73) and in 1972 received the award Honoured Artist of the RSFSR. He began by writing in a style that owed much to Prokofiev but that also incorporated a great deal of dissonant harmony and a small amount of 12-tone technique (as in the impressive Violin Concerto) before, in the early 1960s and largely under the influence of Andrey Volkonsky, lurching towards the then avant garde and producing a number of often miniature works for small ensembles which curiously combine the brevity of Webern with something of the Russian nationalist spirit of Lyadov. It is probably through shorter works such as these that he made his most remarkable contribution. To this period belong the very attractive Kontsert-poėma (‘Poem Concerto’) for viola and orchestra and the Kontsert-noktyurn (‘Nocturne Concerto’) for flute and orchestra (both of 1964). After a period of ill-health, he changed path radically towards the neo-nationalism of Sviridov, in which spirit he produced many songs and concertos in which a mixture of Tchaikovsky, Musorgsky and Glazunov is filtered through a strangely modern nostalgia, resulting in much kitsch but, deliberately, little irony. The best piece of this last period is the massive Symphony Rus' Green and white-snowed, composed over several decades, in which the spirit of the music of Glazunov, early Rachmanionff, Lyadov and other masters of the Russian silver age is treated to a loving reappraisal.

WORKS

Ballet: Tale of Green Balloons (1, Ye. Bïkova, Yu. Skott, after V. Logovskoy), 1967

Vocal: Ode to Joy (cant., P. Neruda), 4vv, orch, 1958; Russkiye pesni [Russ. Songs] (trad. Russ.), 1v, pf, 1958; Songs of Freedom (orat, African and Asian poets), 1v, chorus, orch, 1961; Native Country (cant., N. Nekrasov), female v, chorus, orch, 1977; Lay of Igor''s Host, orat, solo vv, chorus, orch, 1977; 3 stikhotvoreniya [3 Poems] (N. Rubtsov), 1988; 3 vokaliza, chorus, 1988; Vremeni goda [The Seasons], chorus, inst ens, 1988

Orch: Detskaya syuita [Children's Suite], small orch, 1957; Ode to the Party, 1961; Kontsert-noktyurn [Nocturne Conc.], fl, orch, 1964; Kontsert-poėma [Poem Conc.], va, orch, 1964; Vn Conc., 1964; Noktyurnï, 3 pieces, chbr orch, 1968; Kontsert-ėlegiya, vc, orch, 1980; kontsert-romans, pf, orch, 1981

Chbr and solo inst: Sonata, cl, pf, 1952; Sonata pamyati S. Prokof'yeva [in Memory of Prokofiev], 1956; Str Qt, 1958; Detskiy al'bom [Children's Album], 98 pieces, 1961; 6 p'yes [6 Pieces], str qt, hp, 1966; 10 ėskizov [10 Sketches], ens, 1967; 7 nastroyeniy [7 Moods], ens, 1967; Mini suite, org, 1968; Brief Tunes, 5 pieces, str qt, 1969; I Play the Clarinet, suite, cl, pf, 1972; 4 risunka [4 Drawings], ens, 1972; Pieces for children, 1977 [90 in all]; Elegicheskiy sekstet [Elegaic Sextet], str, 1983; 2 Ensembles, ww, 1987

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Gerlach: Fünfzig sowjetische Komponisten der Gegenwart (Leipzig and Dresden, 1984)

V. Kelle: ‘Smïsla zhivaya osnova’ [The living core of meaning], SovM (1984), no.9, pp.13–18 [on the Elegiac Sextet]

V. Likht: ‘Pomogat' obnovleniyu iskusstva’ [To help the renewal of art], SovM (1989), no.9, pp.4–11 [interview with Ledenyov]

G. McBurney: ‘The Music of Roman Ledenev’, Tempo, clxxvii (June, 1991), 24–31

R.L. Nikolayevich: O dokhovnom renessanse v russkoy muzïke 1960–80kh godov [About the Spiritual Renaissance of Russian music from the 1960s to the 1980s (St Petersburg, 1998), 198–207

GERARD McBURNEY

Lederer, Joseph [Anton]

(b Ziemetshausen, Swabia, 15 Jan 1733; d Ulm, 22 Sept 1796). German composer. After an elementary education in Ulm, he entered the Augustinian seminary ‘Zu den Wengen’ and then the monastery, where he was a prebendary, teacher of theology and musician. According to Weyermann, ‘he was talented, very industrious and studied harder than most of his fellow friars, but he was the most intolerant monk, and insulted the town’s Protestants at every opportunity’, for which he was reproached by his superiors. Lederer’s works include numerous theological writings and a chronicle of the monastery (Augsburg, 1783). His compositions are mostly musical comedies and operettas written for the monastery’s Gymnasium. He usually wrote his own texts, some of which are extant (D-Us), and he was given the honorary title ‘kaiserlich und königlich gekrönten Dichter’ for his activities as a poet. His stage works were occasionally performed outside Ulm, and Schikaneder presented his comedy Der Chargenverkauf several times in Salzburg in 1780–81. Most of Lederer’s published output is sacred music. He described his six masses (1776) as ‘short, light, and melodic’, intended primarily ‘for the use of country choirs and in nunneries’. In 1775, through his brother Ambrosius Lederer, he dedicated the masses and a poem to Prince Ernst of Oettingen-Wallerstein, indicating in the poem that his models as a composer were Gluck and Haydn. Lederer himself engraved his harpsichord concerto on copper. His only extant instrumental work, the Apparatus musicus, containing pieces for beginners, was a product of his teaching activities in the monastery, as was his treatise Neue und erbauliche Art zu solmisiren (Ulm, 1756, rev. 2/1796 as Neue und erleichterte Art zu solmisiren).

WORKS

Stage (most perf. Ulm, music lost, some libs in D-Us): 22 Singspiele, 1765–88; 4 Trauerspiele, 1761–75

Vocal: Stabat mater (Augsburg, 1752); Laus Dei (Augsburg, 1761); 6 masses, 2 solo vv, chorus, insts (Augsburg, 1776); 5 vespers, 5 psalms, Mag, Stabat mater, 4vv, insts (Ulm, 1780, 2/1789); cant., S, insts, in Apparatus musicus oder Musikalischer Vorrath (Augsburg, 1781); Off, 4vv, insts, D-Tl; 6 masses, op.4 (Augsburg, 1785), mentioned in Weyermann

Inst: Hpd Conc. (Ulm, n.d.), lost; Apparatus musicus, incl. 18 versettes, 17 preambles, minuet, trio, 3 sonatas, rondo with 5 variations (Augsburg, 1781), 1 preamble ed. U. Siegel, Musik des oberschwäbischen Barock (Berlin and Darmstadt, 1952, 2/1954)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Weyermann: Neue historisch-biographisch-artistische Nachrichten von Gelehrten und Künstlern … aus der vormaligen Reichsstadt Ulm (Ulm, 1829), ii, 267ff [incl. list of writings and works]

ADOLF LAYER

Lederman (Daniel), Minna

(b New York, 3 March 1896; d New York, 29 Oct 1995). American editor and writer on music and dance. She had professional training in music, dance and drama before graduating in 1917 from Barnard College. In 1923 she was a founding member of the League of Composers, and the following year she helped launch its Review (renamed Modern Music in 1925), the first American journal to manifest an interest in contemporary composers. As the sole editor (1924–46), she developed the journal’s distinctive literary style and was responsible for bringing into its pages the writings of such rising young composers as Blitzstein, Bowles, Cage, Carter, Copland, Sessions and Virgil Thomson, thereby nurturing an entire generation of composer-critics. Equally important were the articles by scholars, critics and European composers including Bartók, Berg and Schoenberg. For over two decades Modern Music was a lively force in the international music world, chronicling developments in concert music, jazz, musical theatre, film, radio and dance in the USA, Europe and Latin America. In 1974 Lederman established the archives of Modern Music in the Library of Congress, and she wrote about the journal and her experience as editor in The Life and Death of a Small Magazine (Modern Music, 1924–1946) (Brooklyn, NY, 1983). She wrote on criticism and dance for Modern Music, edited the music anthology Stravinsky in the Theatre (New York, 1949/R), and contributed to American Mercury, Saturday Review of Literature, The Nation and other periodicals.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Obituary, New York Times (1 Nov 1995)

C.J. Oja: ‘The Mother of Them All: Remembering Minna Lederman’, Institute for Studies in American Music Newsletter, xxv/2 (1995–6), 1–2, 14 only

M. Swed: ‘Remembering Modern Music’, MQ, lxxx (1996), 58–60

R. ALLEN LOTT

Ledesma (Hernández), Dámaso

(b Ciudad Rodrigo, 3 Feb 1868; d Salamanca, 13 June 1928). Spanish folklorist, organist and composer. His talent as a musician was nurtured during his early childhood. After serving as an organist at a local church, Ledesma became organist at the cathedral in Ciudad Rodrigo (1889–98) and at Salamanca Cathedral (1898), a post he held until his death. He was ordained a priest in Salamanca. He was a famous improviser and a prolific composer of organ and liturgical music, but he is best remembered for his Folk-lore ó Cancionero salmantino (Madrid, 1907/R), which contains 404 melodies collected from the rich oral tradition of his native province. This was awarded a prize in an open competition by the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de S Fernando (Madrid), and was later published by the Diputación Provincial de Salamanca; the collection remains one of the most outstanding in Spanish folklore. An unpublished second volume containing 903 items was left to his disciple Bernardo García-Bernalt Huertos in 1929.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Villalba Muñoz: ‘El estudio de la cancíon popular castellana y el cancionero salmantino de Dámaso Ledesma’, La Ciudad de Dios, lxxvii (1908), 311–19

I.J. Katz: ‘The Traditional Folk Music of Spain: Explorations and Perspectives’, YIFMC, vi (1974), 64–85

E. Casares Rodicio, ed.: Música en la Generación del 27 (Madrid, 1986) [incl. autobiographical letter, 153]

B. García-Bernalt Huertos: Folklore musical salmantino para coro, piano y orquesta (Salamanca, 1995) [incl. works by Ledesma]

ISRAEL J. KATZ

Ledesma, Mariano Rodríguez de.

See Rodríguez de Ledesma, Mariano.

Ledesma, Nicolás

(b Grisel, Zaragoza, 9 July 1791; d Bilbao, 4 Jan 1883). Spanish composer. He was a choirboy at Tarazona Cathedral, where he was taught music by Francisco Javier Gibert and José Angel Martinchique. He later moved to Zaragoza, where he studied the organ with Ramón Ferreñac. From an early age he was organist and choirmaster in various collegiate churches: Borja (1807), Tafalla (1809), Calatayud (where he is known to have been about 1824) and finally Bilbao (1830), where he remained until his death. Ledesma was a prolific composer of masses, Lamentations, motets and villancicos. Although his music reflects the bombastic and theatrical tendencies of his age, he had a sound technique and a certain nobility of invention. He was also active with Eslava in efforts to renew and purify religious music.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.M. Esperanza y Solá: ‘D. Nicolás Ledesma’, Treinta años de crítica musical (Madrid, 1906), ii, 41–58

J. López-Calo: Catálogo musical del archivo de la Santa Iglesia Catedral de Santiago (Cuenca, 1972, rev. 2/1992–3 as La música en la Catedral de Santiago), 273ff [with addl bibliography]

JOSÉ LÓPEZ-CALO

Ledger, Philip (Stevens)

(b Bexhill-on-Sea, Sussex, 12 Dec 1937). English organist, harpsichordist and choral conductor. He made his mark as an organist while still in his teens and was awarded the Limpus and Read prizes when he took his Fellowship of the Royal College of Organists. At Cambridge, where he was a music scholar at King’s, he gained first-class honours in both parts of the music tripos and a distinction in the MusB examination. His first appointment as master of the music at Chelmsford Cathedral in 1961 made him the youngest cathedral organist in the country. He soon showed, however, that his potential ranged beyond the organ loft, and in 1965 he became director of music at the newly founded University of East Anglia at Norwich. For three years he was dean of the School of Fine Arts and Music, and he laid the foundations of a new Music Centre at the university, opened in 1973. Ledger’s all-round musicianship attracted the attention of Benjamin Britten and in 1968 he became closely associated with him as an artistic director of the Aldeburgh Festival. He conducted at the opening concert in the rebuilt Maltings at Snape and participated in recordings of a number of Britten’s works. He also conducted at the Promenade Concerts in London, appeared as harpsichord soloist and continuo player, gave organ recitals at the Royal Festival Hall, and played as a pianist with the Melos Ensemble.

In 1974 he was appointed director of music at King’s College, Cambridge, a post he held until 1982, consolidating the achievements of David Willcocks and making many admired recordings. In 1982 he became principal of the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama in Glasgow, and in 1993 was appointed an honorary professor at the University of Glasgow. Ledger has edited music by Byrd, volumes 2 and 3 of Anthems for Choirs, and The Oxford Book of English Madrigals (London, 1978), while his interest in the music of Purcell is reflected in a performing edition of King Arthur (with Colin Graham), in which he conducted the English Opera Group in performances in Britain and abroad. He was created a CBE in 1985 and holds many other honours.

STANLEY WEBB/R

Ledger line.

See Leger line.

Lediard, Thomas

(b London, 20 Oct 1684; d London, June 1743). English stage designer and writer. In spite of his training as an architect, Lediard was occupied very early on with diplomatic matters. For several years he served the Duke of Marlborough and around 1720 established himself as secretary to the British embassy in Hamburg. Sir Cyril Wich, then British envoy to the Hanseatic towns, acted as tenant of the Gänsemarkt opera house and soon engaged Lediard to design the scenery for festive prologues, serenades and operas which were sponsored by the resident diplomats and which were performed in honour of their respective royal families. Lediard developed a unique style which relied on conventional 17th-century Italian and German models but which was highlighted by the (sometimes superabundant) use of allegorical devices and emblems as well as ingenious lighting and the employment of transparent scenery. Back in London he presented an allegorical opera, Britannia (1732), with music by J.F. Lampe. When it proved a failure, he turned to writing and later was appointed Surveyor of Westminster Bridge.

WRITINGS

on music and theatre only

Eine Collection Verschiedener Vorstellungen (Hamburg, 1729, enlarged 2/1730 as Eine Collection Curieuser Vorstellungen) [incl. engravings of his stage designs]

The German Spy, in Familiar Letters (London, 1738; Ger. trans., 1764 as Der deutsche Kundschafter)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DNB (J.K. Laughton)

H.C. Wolff: ‘Laterna-magica-Projektionen auf dem Barocktheater’, Maske und Kothurn, xv (1969), 97–104

D.R. Martin: ‘Eine Collection Curieuser Vorstellungen (1730) and Thomas Lediard, an Early Eighteenth-Century Operatic Scenographer’, CMc, xxvi (1978), 83–98

D. Schröder: Zeitgeschichte auf der Opernbühne: Barockes Musiktheater in Hamburg im Dienst von Politik und Diplomatie, 1690–1745 (diss., U. of Hamburg, 1996)

DOROTHEA SCHRÖDER

Ledoux, Claude

(b Auvelais, 23 Feb 1960). Belgian composer and pianist. He trained at the Liège Conservatoire (1977–89), where he studied composition with Rzewski, Boesmans and Jean-Louis Robert, and electro-acoustics with Patrick Lenfant. He also came into contact there with Pousseur. He spent several periods studying abroad, notably with Ligeti (1985 and 1990) and in Paris (1987–9), where he attended the IRCAM seminars on computer music. Between 1992 and 1996 he paid four long visits to the East, which made a profound impression on him. From 1990 he taught music theory at the Maastricht Conservatory, and from 1992 composition at the Mons Conservatoire. Ledoux's style reflects the European avant garde's return to the idea of consonance. Following psychoacoustic principles he bases his musical language primarily on the analysis of the full range of harmonic spectra (see Spectral music). The modelling of these acoustic phenomena is translated into instrumental gestures and gives rise to melodic principles by which microtonal inflections act as a means of varying the timbre.

WORKS

(selective list)

Et le rêve s'en fut … , vn, cl, perc, pf, 1982; Chant, 3 perc, hp, pf, synth, 1983; Evanescence, orch, 1985; Liaisons, ob/eng hn, 3 inst trios, 1985; Ricciolina (chbr op, P. Baton), 1985, Liège, Opéra Royal de Wallonie, 1985; Musique concertante pour l'embarquement de Cythère, cl, tuba, pf, orch, 1986; Un ciel fait d'herbes II (M. Imberechts), Mez, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1990; 4 visages de femmes, orch, 1992; Miroirs de la transparence, vn, trbn, pf, 1993; Les ruptures d'Icare L, str qt, 1993; Torrent, vc, inst ens, 1995; Le cercle de RANGDA, pf, orch, 1998

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Ledoux: ‘La fin de l'artisanat?’, Ars musica 1990, 29–31

M.-I. Collart: ‘De la multiplicité des imaginaires culturels: conversation avec Claude Ledoux’, Courant d'airs [Liège], no.92 (1998), 14–21

PASCAL DECROUPET

Leduc [Le Duc].

French family of musicians, composers and music publishers. The origins of the family are unclear, but musicians of this name lived in Paris at the beginning of the 17th century and probably earlier, in the neighbourhood where the Leduc publishing house has remained. A Pierre Le Duc, maker of musical instruments, lived in the rue St-Honoré from 1602 and died childless in about 1635. His relationship to other Leducs is unknown. (See alsoAlphonse Leduc.)

(2) Pierre Leduc [le jeune]

(3) (Antoine-Pierre) Auguste Leduc

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BrookSF

DEMF

HopkinsonD

JohanssonFMP

La LaurencieEF

MGG1 (R. Cotte)

PierreH

B.S. Brook: ‘Simon Le Duc l'aîné, a French Symphonist at the Time of Mozart’, MQ, xlviii (1962), 498–513

A. Devriès: ‘Deux dynasties d'éditeurs et de musiciens: les Leduc’, RBM, xxviii–xxx (1974–6), 195–213

B.S. Brook: ‘An Eighteenth Century Paradox’, Simon Le Duc (1742–1777): Five Symphonic Works, ed. B.S. Brook and D. Bain, The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. D, iv (New York, 1983), xi–xxx

JEAN HARDEN (1, 2), RICHARD MACNUTT (3)

Leduc

(1) Simon Leduc [l'aîné]

(b Paris, 15 Jan 1742; d Paris, Jan 1777). Violinist, composer and publisher. A pupil of Gaviniès, he was a second violinist in the Concert Spirituel orchestra in 1759 and made his début as soloist in 1763. In 1763 he was one of the first violins in the Concert Spirituel orchestra, and he continued to appear as an orchestral player and soloist until his death. He earned consistently favourable reviews in the Parisian press and received an understated compliment in Leopold Mozart's travel diary of 1763–4: ‘He plays well’.

Despite his success, however, Leduc decided to devote the greater part of his efforts to pursuits other than virtuoso performance. He took great care in teaching his brother Pierre, whom he apparently considered a greater violinist than himself. He composed exceptionally fine orchestral and chamber music, publishing some of it under a privilege granted on 17 March 1768, retroactive from 16 December 1767. (Simon never published any works but his own, the general privilege of 1 September 1767 notwithstanding; it was Pierre who undertook to develop a fully-fledged publishing business.)

In 1773 Leduc assumed the directorship of the Concert Spirituel with Gaviniès and Gossec, and soon earned the applause of the press for a noticeable improvement in the quality of these concerts. He was clearly a well-loved director; shortly after his death, the orchestra, trying to prepare one of his symphonies for a forthcoming performance, was collectively so overcome with grief that the rehearsal had to be suspended. His friends paid tribute to his memory in a religious service on 22 March 1777, at which Gossec's Messe des morts was performed.

Leduc's compositions, exclusively instrumental, compare favourably with those of any other young composer of his time. The writing is skilful and idiomatic, particularly for the violin; the harmonies are inventive, expressive, and often unusually chromatic. Painstakingly notated nuances, frequent dynamic contrasts and expressive harmonic progressions contribute to a style which has been called a ‘French Storm and Stress’.

WORKS

printed works published in Paris

Orch: 2 concertos, vn solo, op.7 (1771), announced in 1771; earliest extant edns pubd separately (1775, 1776); Suite de noëls … mêlés de solo et d'echo concertants, perf. 1773, unpubd, lost; Simphonie concertante, 2 solo vn (1775), 1st edn ‘à 16 parties’, lost; 2nd edn ‘à 10 parties’ (1779); Sym. no.1 in 3 simphonies à 8 parties … by Leduc, C. Stamitz, Gossec (1776); Syms. nos.2–3 in 3 symphonies à 4 ou à 8 parties … by J.C. Bach and Leduc (1777); 3me concerto, vn solo (?1778–81); Symphonie concertante, 2nd vn part only, F-AI, Fonds Aiguillon (1st movt identical to Sym. no.2); 6 trios, op.2 (1768), 3 for 2 vn, b, 3 for orch

Chbr: 6 sonates, vn, acc. ?va, b/hpd, op.1 (1767); 6 trios, op.2 (1768), 3 for 2 vn, b, 3 for orch, 1st vn part lost; 6 duos, 2 vn, op.3 (1771) [incl. catalogue of all Leduc's works with op. nos.]; 2me livre de sonates, vn, bc, op.4 (1771); 6 trios, 2 vn, b, op.5 (1771); 6 petits duos, 2 vn, op.6 (1771); Sonate, vn, b acc. (1782); 1 op. of [?6] qts, lost [cited in P. Leduc's posth. catalogue of S. Leduc's works]; 5 divertimenti à 4, D-Bsb according to EitnerQ [? = preceding work]

Sonate, vn solo, 1760, F-Pc

Leduc

(2) Pierre Leduc [le jeune]

(b Paris, 17 Oct 1755; dBordeaux, 18 Oct 1826). Violinist, publisher and seller of musical instruments, brother of (1) Simon Leduc. He made his début as a violin soloist at the Concert Spirituel in the spring of 1770 and appeared frequently thereafter, receiving consistently favourable reviews. He studied with his brother Simon, whose works made up the bulk of Pierre’s concert repertory. The brothers sometimes appeared together, on which occasions Simon yielded the first violin part to Pierre.

In March 1775 Leduc first advertised as a publisher, not as his brother’s partner but as an independent businessman. (Although Simon had published works under the Leduc name, these were exclusively his own.) Pierre published works by contemporary composers and thus founded the Leduc publishing house as an enduring enterprise. In 1782 Pierre enlarged his firm by acquiring the stock of Preudhomme and in 1784 took over La Chevardière. Many sources say that he also absorbed Venier in 1781 or 1782, but this is not correct; Venier was active until late 1782 at least, and his stock was acquired by Charles-Georges Boyer in 1784. Leduc published a great variety of music, particularly orchestral and serious chamber music at first, then a quantity of less weighty material for amateurs during the 1790s. He did not completely stop playing the violin; his name continued to appear in the lists of violinists in the Concert Spirituel, although he seems to have devoted most of his attention to publishing from about 1776. By January 1804, after a brief but disastrous experiment in making pianos, he had turned the business over to his son (3) August Leduc. From 1808 until at least 1811, however, he was again active in Paris as a music seller and a publisher, especially of music periodicals, in partnership with his youngest son Pierre-Jean-Jacques Leduc (1792–1855). By 1819 he had moved to Bordeaux where he may have taught music but was no longer active as a publisher, and where he died in poverty in 1826.

Pierre Leduc composed nothing of consequence, although he may have contributed an occasional arrangement to his publication Journal de harpe. His wife, born Marie-Madeleine-Claude Henry, wrote a few harp accompaniments published under the name Mme Leduc in that periodical. An Essai sur la mélioration de la guitare ou lyre-guitare à clavier by Pierre Leduc survives (in F-Pc).

Leduc

(3) (Antoine-Pierre) Auguste Leduc

(b Paris, 1779; d Paris, 25 May 1823). Music publisher, son of (2) Pierre Leduc. He probably assumed the directorship of his father's publishing house at some time between April 1803 and January 1804. He established his business in Paris at 267 rue de la Loi, but in 1805–6 the house was renumbered 78, and in 1807 the street reverted to its pre-Revolutionary name of rue de Richelieu. After his death the firm was run by his second wife, Augustine-Julie Bernier, as Mme Veuve Leduc. In August 1830 one Pierrot advertised as her successor, and in 1831 she was bankrupted; but from 1835 to 1837 she was again in business, at 47 rue Neuve-Vivienne, before selling out to Janet Frères. Finally, in 1846, she was listed at 19 rue Vivienne.

Whereas Pierre Leduc had been active both in soliciting interesting new works and in reprinting from the plates acquired from other publishers, Auguste was comparatively unenterprising and not very prolific. He, and later his widow, published full scores of a handful of operas, including three by Carafa in the 1820s; each week he continued to issue (at least until 1821) the Journal hebdomadaire, a periodical collection of vocal music which had been started by La Chevardière in 1764. But the contents of the Journal, like most of Leduc's output, tended to be second-rate. Among his more significant publications were Choron's Principes de composition des écoles d'Italie (1808) and a reprint of the full scores, edited by Choron, of the 26 Haydn symphonies that his father had published in 1802–3. He must also be credited with a rare flash of enlightenment for putting out the song Le dépit de la bergère (c1820), probably Berlioz's first appearance in print. Almost all Leduc's publications were printed from engraved plates, but in about 1807 he flirted briefly with lithography – one of the earliest French publishers to do so.

Leduc, Alphonse.

French firm of music publishers. It was founded in Paris in 1842 by Alphonse Leduc (b Nantes, 11 March 1804; d Paris, 17 June 1868), who was not a blood relation of Pierre and Auguste Leduc. He studied harmony at the Paris Conservatoire under Reicha and became an excellent player of the bassoon, flute and guitar as well as a prolific composer. Pougin estimated his output to be at least 1300 works, including an elementary piano method (op.130, frequently reprinted), 960 piano solos (632 of them in dance forms), 94 songs and 103 works for bassoon, flute or guitar. On his death he was succeeded by his son, Alphonse-Charles (b Paris, 29 May 1844; d Paris, 4 June 1892), whose widow, Emma, daughter of the pianist Henri Ravina, directed the firm from his death until 1902, when their son, Alphonse-Henri, called Emile (b Paris, 17 Nov 1878; d Paris, 24 May 1951), and Paul Bertrand took over. Emile’s two sons, Claude-Alphonse and Gilbert-Alphonse, became his partners in 1938 and succeeded to the business in 1951. Since 1985 their nephew, Basile Crichton and Claude’s son, François, have directed the firm. Trade has been carried on under the name Alphonse Leduc except for a brief period (1902–c1915) when the firm was styled ‘Emile Leduc, Paul Bertrand & Cie’; about 1915 Bertrand (d 1953) left to join Heugel.

The firm’s first premises were at 14 rue Chabanais; by November 1842 they had moved to 8 rue Vivienne and by August 1844 to 78 passage Choiseul. In 1846 or 1847 the business of Auguste Leduc was acquired, and by May 1847 the firm had moved to 18 rue Vivienne. In 1852 it moved to 2 rue de la Bourse, in 1862 to 4 rue Ménars, in 1866 to 35 rue Le Peletier, and in November 1874 to 3 rue de Grammont; in February 1929 it moved to 175 rue St-Honoré.

Although the firm's output has probably amounted to some 30,000 publications over a period of nearly 170 years, few significant works by major composers were acquired until 1934, when Leduc started publishing Messiaen's compositions – at first intermittently, but almost exclusively from 1961. The chief importance of the firm lies rather in its contribution to music teaching in France by the publication of numerous elementary and advanced instrumental and vocal methods and studies as well as a vast quantity of instrumental music. In December 1883 Leduc took over the weekly journal Art musical from Girod (who had acquired it from its founder Léon Escudier); its final appearance was in September 1894, after which it was absorbed by Maurice Kufferath’s Guide musical. Important developments in recent years have been the acquisition of Heugel (1980) and Hamelle (1993), both of which are now subsidiaries of Alphonse Leduc.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DEMF [incl. a list of plate nos.]

HopkinsonD

N. Simeone: Olivier Messiaen: a Bibliographical Catalogue of Messiaen's Works: First Editions and First Performances (Tutzing, 1998), 227–9

RICHARD MACNUTT

Leduc, Jacques (Pierre Edouard)

(b Jette, nr Brussels, 1 March 1932). Belgian composer. He studied at the Brussels Conservatory and later took composition lessons with Absil; in 1961 he won the Belgian second Prix de Rome with the cantata L’aventure op.8. He taught harmony, counterpoint and fugue at the Brussels Conservatory (1957–97). Since 1976 he has been rector of the Chapelle Musicale Reine Elisabeth, Waterloo. A member of the Belgian Royal Academy (1983), Leduc has also been president of Société Belge des Auteurs, Compositeurs et Editeurs since 1992. Leduc's music is distinguished by its rhythmic vitality, contrapuntal textures and by a respect for classical forms. CeBeDeM directory

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Nous attendons Sémiramis (comédie lyrique, G. Sion), op.38, 1972, Belgian TV, 6 Feb 1973

Orch: Antigone, sym. poem, op.5, 1960; Ob Concertino, op.10, 1962; Divertissement, fl, str, op.l2, 1962; Le printemps, sym. sketch, op.25, 1967; Ouverture d’été, op.28, 1968; Sym., op.29, 1969; Pf Conc., op.31, 1970; 5 croquis, op.34, 1971; Instantanés, op.37, 1972; Dialogue, cl, chbr orch, op.39, 1972; Suites de danses, op.57, 1976; 3 esquisses concertantes, op.62, 1978

Choral works, songs, many chbr and inst pieces

MSS in B-Bcdm

Principal publishers: CeBeDeM, Leduc, Maurer, Schott

HENRI VANHULST

Le Duc, Philippe.

See Duc, Filippo.

Led Zeppelin.

English rock group. It was formed in 1968 by Jimmy Page (James Patrick Page; b Heston, Middx, 9 Jan 1944; guitar and production) with Robert (Anthony) Plant (b West Bromwich, 20 Aug 1948; vocals and harmonica), John Paul Jones (John Baldwin; b Sidcup, 3 June 1946; bass guitar and keyboards) and John (Henry) Bonham (b West Bromwich, 31 May 1948; d Windsor, 25 Sept 1980; drums). Page, like Jones, had been a session musician in London in the mid-1960s, and played the guitar for such artists as the Who, Jackie DeShannon, Them, the Stones, the Kinks and Joe Cocker, before joining the Yardbirds in 1966. When they disbanded, Page formed the New Yardbirds, which became Led Zeppelin, to fulfil concert obligations and develop ideas he had worked on with the Yardbirds. They released nine studio albums, one live album and a documentary film, The Song Remains the Same (1976). When Bonham died in 1980, the group disbanded. The band's manager, Peter Grant, negotiated unprecedented fees for the group in their contract with Atlantic Records and for their concert appearances and insured that the band retained creative and financial control to an unprecedented degree.

There are a number of characteristics for which the band was particularly known. Bonham's drumming (notably in his use of a single bass drum), in combination with Jones's bass guitar, produced a large, bottom-heavy sound. The bass line was frequently mirrored by the electric guitar, sometimes distorted, playing an octave higher, creating a monolithic and powerful effect. Many songs were based around distinctive angular riffs composed mainly by Page, though also by Jones: these include metrical complexities such as those found on Black Dog, The Ocean, Kashmir, The Crunge and Four Sticks. Page's melodic style was firmly footed in the blues; his main concern was with timbre: he fulfilled the function of both rhythm and lead guitar, and played electric and acoustic instruments as well as pedal steel guitar and mandolin. In one section of Dazed and Confused he used a violin bow to play the instrument and in live performances also used a theremin, both of which became his trademarks. In the studio Page was fond of overdubbing multiple guitar parts to enrich the sound; Achilles Last Stand is probably the best example of this. Many of the songs benefited from Jones’s exceptional skills as an arranger (e.g. Thank you and Ramble on). Plant's powerful voice was also a hallmark of the band's sound: he had remarkable flexibility as a rock singer, capable of conveying a wide range of emotion with his control of volume, timbre and dissonance. His powerful, exaggerated blues-shouter style has been particularly influential. The band's sound can be attributed partly to Page's innovatory production, notably his positioning of microphones, particularly when recording the drums.

These characteristics, found in such songs as Communication Breakdown, Whole Lotta Love, Immigrant Song and Black Dog, have defined Led Zeppelin for many critics who have, as a result, labelled them as the progenitors of heavy metal. They have also exerted enormous influence on the course of hard rock and heavy metal, imitated by such bands as AC/DC, Deep Purple, Iron Maiden, Rainbow, Aerosmith and Nirvana. Assessment of the band is frequently limited to the first four albums. The last of these, which includes the epic Stairway to Heaven, is often viewed as the group's defining moment. Its album cover was pivotal in shaping their mythical status with the press and public, as it included no title or identifying information: instead each member was represented by a symbol. Later albums, however, continue to demonstrate the group's stylistic diversity: Physical Graffiti (Swan Song, 1975) contains some of the band's hardest rock in such songs as Custard Pie and The Wanton Song, as well as Kashmir; Coda (Swan Song, 1982) includes the punk-inspired Wearing and Tearing.

In addition to the group's explosive electric sound, acoustic music was always important, beginning with the opening of Babe I'm gonna leave you from the first album, Led Zeppelin (Atl., 1969). This piece is an example of Page's fondness for juxtaposing acoustic and electric music, also found in such songs as Stairway to Heaven. The influence of those involved in the British folk revival of the 1960s can be heard in such songs as Black Mountain Side, White Summer and the Celtic-folk beginning of Over the Hills and Far Away. All their studio albums, except Presence (Swan Song, 1976), include acoustic music, especially Led Zeppelin III (Atl., 1970). Following the release of the latter, an acoustic set became part of most live performances. This was later replicated by other heavy bands and MTV's ‘Unplugged’ concert series.

While blues was always an important influence for the group, they drew inspiration from many other musical sources. Apart from I can't quit you babe and You shook me (both from Led Zeppelin), they rarely covered blues material verbatim. Instead they composed their own blues-derived songs, such as Since I've been Loving you and Tea for One, or radically altered existing blues songs, as in The Lemon Song. This draws lyrics and melody from Howlin' Wolf's Killin' Floor and further lyrics from Robert Johnson's Travelling Riverside Blues, combining these with a new opening riff that alternates with that of Killin' Floor. In addition to blues and folk music, traditional Arabic and Indian music were important influences, found in such works as Friends, In the Light, Four Sticks and especially Kashmir, which pushed musical boundaries and lyrically captured something of the band's wanderlust. The Eastern influence in these pieces consists of structural devices such as the use of modes, vocal ornamentation, the heterophonic doubling of melody lines and the shape of melodic gestures. The extraordinary Kashmir was based on one of Page's open tunings and featured a hemiola between the riff (in 3/4) and the drums (in 4/4) and the use of real and synthesized orchestras. For lyrics, Plant sometimes drew on Tolkien and Celtic or other history and mythology in such works as Stairway to Heaven, Immigrant Song, Ramble On and Misty Mountain Hop.

After Led Zeppelin, Plant released a number of solo albums. Shaken 'n Stirred (Es Paranza, 1985) was the most experimental, while The Honeydrippers (Es Paranza, 1984) set new standards with songs such as Sea of Love. Now and Zen (Es Paranza, 1988) included samples from the Led Zeppelin repertory. Page's first post-Zeppelin project was a soundtrack for the film Deathwish II. In the mid-1980s he released two albums with Paul Rodgers, formerly of Free and Bad Company, as The Firm. In addition he recorded one solo album, Outrider (Geffen, 1988), and collaborated with the singer David Coverdale (formerly of Whitesnake) for Coverdale/Page. Page and Plant reunited in 1994 for a live album and tour entitled No Quarter, playing mostly reworked Led Zeppelin songs with a band that included Egyptian and Moroccan musicians and the Indian singer Najam Akhtar. They released an album of original material called Walking into Clarksdale in 1998 (AH.). Jones produced Music from the Film Scream for Help in 1985, but has worked most successfully as a producer with artists such as the Mission, the Butthole Surfers and Diamanda Galas with whom he toured in 1995. He has also released the album Zooma (Discipline Global Mobile, 1999).

In 1991 Led Zeppelin, two volumes containing transcriptions of 52 of the band’s songs, was published by Chappell Music.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Welch: ‘Jimmy Page: Paganini of the Seventies’, Melody Maker (14–28 Feb 1970) [three-part interview]

W. Burroughs: ‘Rock Magic: Jimmy Page, Led Zeppelin and a Search for the Elusive Stairway to Heaven’,Crawdaddy, no.49 (1975), 34–40

C. Crowe: ‘The Durable Led Zeppelin: a Conversation with Jimmy Page and Robert Plant’, Rolling Stone (13 March 1975)

R. Yorke: The Led Zeppelin Biography (Novato, CA, 1976, 2/1993)

N. Preston: Led Zeppelin Portraits (London, 1983)

S. Davis: The Led Zeppelin Saga: Hammer of the Gods (New York, 1985, 2/1995)

Guitar World (July 1986) [Jimmy Page edition]

J.D. Considine: ‘Led Zeppelin: the Seventies’, Rolling Stone, no.587 (1990), 56–60

R. Godwin: The Illustrated Collector's Guide to Led Zeppelin (Burlington, 1984, 4/1994)

C.R. Cross and E.Flannigan: Led Zeppelin: Heaven and Hell (New York, 1991)

D. Lewis: Led Zeppelin: a Celebration (London, 1991)

D. Headlam: ‘Does the Song Remain the Same? Questions of Authorship and Identification in the Music of Led Zeppelin’, Concert Music, Rock and Jazz since 1945, ed. E.W. Marvin (Rochester, NY, 1995), 313–63

S. Fast: Listening to Led Zeppelin: Ritual, Otherness and Body in the Music [forthcoming]

SUSAN FAST

Lee, Dai-Keong

(b Honolulu, HI, 2 Sept 1915). American composer. He was a pupil of Frederick Jacobi at the Juilliard Graduate School (1938–41) and also studied with Sessions, Copland, and at Columbia University (MA 1951) with Otto Luening. Among his awards are two Guggenheim fellowships (1945, 1951) and many commissions. His works have been performed by major orchestras and conductors throughout the USA, and several of them have been recorded, including the Prelude and Hula, the Polynesian Suite and the Symphony no.1.

Lee writes in a variety of styles. His Polynesian background is reflected in the use of percussion instruments such as the Tahitian wood block, the use of the Polynesian tetratonic scale in Prelude and Hula and Hawaiian Festival Overture, the quotation of Hawaiian chants in Mele olili and the borrowing of native dance styles (Tahitian dance, hula) in the Polynesian Suite, written to celebrate Hawaii's statehood in 1959. Other less exotically tinged works, such as the neo-classical Symphony no.1, are modal but freely dissonant. Throughout his career Lee has been interested in music for the stage; in 1951 he wrote Open the Gates, an opera based on the life of Mary Magdalene, and he has since produced a number of short operas in the tradition of Weill, such as Ballad of Kitty the Barkeep. Among his best-known stage works is the incidental music for Teahouse of the August Moon.

WORKS

Stage: Open the Gates (op, R. Payne), 1951; Waltzing Matilda (ballet), 1951; Phineas and the Nightingale (op, R. Healy), 1952, withdrawn; Teahouse of the August Moon (incid music, J. Patrick), 1953, arr. orch suite, 1954; Speakeasy (Healy), 1957, withdrawn; 2 Knickerbocker Tales (op, 1, Healy, Lee), 1957; Noa Noa (musical play), 1972; Ballad of Kitty the Barkeep (op, Healy, Lee), 1979 [based on Speakeasy]; Jenny Lind (musical play, after P.T. Barnum: Recollections), 1981 [based on Phineas and the Nightingale]; other early works, withdrawn

Orch: Prelude and Hula, 1939; Hawaiian Festival Ov., 1940; Golden Gate Ov., 1941; Introduction and Scherzo, str orch, 1941; Sym. no.1, 1941–2, rev. 1946; Pacific Prayer, 1943, rev. as Canticle of the Pacific (Lotus sutra), chorus, orch, 1968; Vn Conc., 1947, rev. 1955; Sym. no.2, 1948–9; Polynesian Suite, 1958; Mele olili (Joyful Songs) (ancient Hawaiian chants), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1960; Conc. grosso, str orch, 1985; other works, withdrawn

Other works: chbr pieces, incl. Pf Sonatina, ?1943, Introduction and Allegro, vc, pf, 1947, Incantation and Dance, vn, pf, 1948; film scores; songs

Principal publisher: Belwin-Mills

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EwenD

N. Butterworth: A Dictionary of American Composers (New York, 1984)

ALLAN B. HO

Lee, George Alexander

(b London, 1802; d London, 8 Oct 1851). English composer. He began his career as a tenor singer at Dublin in 1822 and became composer and director of music at the Theatre Royal. For performances there of Tom Cooke's Malvina he added the song ‘Awake, awake, brave Scots to glory’ to the tune of La marseillaise. In 1826 he returned to London, where his first engagement was at the Little Theatre in the Haymarket. The following year he began to write incidental music for plays at Covent Garden; his opera The Sublime and the Beautiful was produced there in 1828, and another, The Nymph of the Grotto, or A Daughter’s Vow, written in collaboration with Giovanni Liverati, in 1829. Lee became involved in managerial ventures, at the Tottenham Theatre (1829–30), Drury Lane (1830–31) and the Strand Theatre (1832). He was also involved in a publishing concern, probably with a relative, that brought out some of his own works. He adapted two of Auber’s operas for the English stage: Fra Diavolo as The Devil’s Brother (Drury Lane, 1831) and Le lac des fées as The Fairy Lake (Drury Lane, 1839). In 1831 he directed the Lenten oratorios at Drury Lane. In 1834 his comic opera The Dragon, a one-act work, was performed at the English Opera House (Lyceum). Later he was composer and musical director at the Olympic Theatre (1845) and Vauxhall (1849). During his career he composed many songs and ballads; several, such as The Macgregors’ Gathering, were published a number of times.

About 1830 Lee established a liaison with the popular ballad singer Mrs Waylett, to whom he was devoted and whom he married about 1840, after Waylett died.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DNB (R.F. Sharpe)

The Harmonicon, vii (1829), 48; ix (1831), 76–8, 158

G. Biddlecombe: English Opera from 1834 to 1864 with Particular Reference to the Works of Michael Balfe (New York, 1994)

T. Fenner: Opera in London: Views of the Press 1785–1830 (Carbondale, IL, 1994)

ALFRED LOEWENBERG/GEORGE BIDDLECOMBE

Lee, Louis.

German cellist and pianist, brother of Sebastian Lee.

Lee, Maurice.

German pianist and composer, brother of Sebastian Lee.

Lee, Noël

(b Nanjing, 25 Dec 1924). American pianist and composer. He studied piano and harmony from an early age and in 1948 received an artist’s diploma from the New England Conservatory in Boston as well as a degree from Harvard University, where he studied with Irving Fine, Tillman Merritt and Walter Piston. He then settled in Paris, studying composition with Nadia Boulanger. His numerous awards include the Prix de Composition Lili Boulanger (1953), the Louisville Orchestra Young Composer’s Award (1954), the National Academy of Arts and Letters Award (1959) and commissions from the French Cultural Ministry and the French National Radio. He has composed more than 150 works in many genres; his style combines neo-classical, dodecaphonic and freely atonal idioms, and is characterized by ingenious use of rhythm and colour.

As a pianist Lee has performed throughout Europe, Australia, South America and the USA. He has made some 200 recordings, several of which have been awarded the Grand Prix du Disque; they include the complete piano works of Debussy and Ravel, the first complete recording of all the piano sonatas of Schubert, much two-piano and piano duet music (with Christian Ivaldi) and major works for violin and piano (with Gérard Poulet). Lee has also prepared a critical edition of Debussy’s music for two pianos and edited selected piano works of Hummel.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Caprices on the name Schoenberg, pf, orch, 1975; Triptyque, vn, pf, orch, 1986

Chbr: Dialogues, vn, pf, 1958; Convergences, fl, hpd, 1972; Variations antiques, fl, pf, 1981; Three Fantasy Pieces, fl, gui, 1992

Pf: Sonatine, 1959; Four Etudes, set I, 1961; Four Etudes, set II, 1967; Chroniques, 1977; Diversions, 4 hands, 1979; Five Preludes Prolonged, 1992; Distances, 1996

Many songs with orch, insts, or pf

Principal publisher: Schott

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CC1 (P. Gillis)

H. Pollack: Harvard Composers (Metuchen, NJ, 1992), 245–52

CHARLES TIMBRELL

Lee, Peggy [Egstrom, Norma Dolores]

(b Jamestown, North Dakota, 26 May 1920). American popular singer, songwriter and actress. She began singing in a church choir, then on the radio, and from 1936 toured with dance bands. Her first hit was Why don’t you do right? (1942) with Benny Goodman’s band. In 1943 she married the guitarist Dave Barbour, with whom she wrote the song Mañana (1947), and in 1944 she left the swing bands and began a career on her own. Through the 1950s she had several hit songs, notably with Fever (1958), and recorded many successful albums for Capitol. She had a successful film début in a remake of The Jazz Singer (1953) and portrayed an alcoholic blues singer in Pete Kelly’s Blues (1955). She continued to make recordings and perform in concert until the late 1980s but was increasingly troubled by ill-health.

Lee’s voice was small, with a compass of little more than an octave and a half; her distinction lay in her characterization of songs, achieved through vocal colour and inflection with careful attention to the subtleties of language, to musical arrangements and to stage manner and presentation. Though she was first a singer in the swing style, unlike many of her colleagues she did little improvisation. She wrote or collaborated on over 500 songs, including the song score for Disney’s animated feature Lady and the Tramp (1955). She published the autobiography Miss Peggy Lee (New York, 1990).

HENRY PLEASANTS/R

Lee, Samuel

(b ?Dublin; d Dublin, 21 Feb 1776). Irish publisher, music seller and violinist. He was one of the most prominent and active musicians in Dublin during the 1750s and 60s. In 1745 he was admitted to the City Music, of which he was appointed bandmaster in 1752 at a salary of £40, increased to £60 in 1753. During this period he was appearing regularly as principal violinist at the summer open-air concerts at Marlborough Green between 1750 and 1756 and as conductor of the annual performance of Handel’s Messiah at the Great Musick Hall in Fishamble Street. In July 1751 he became violinist and musical director in the syndicate which leased Crow Street Musick Hall for the six years before it was taken over, rebuilt and opened as a theatre.

Samuel Lee was founder of the music shop and publishing firm which carried out business at Little Green, off Bolton Street (1752–63), the Harp and Hautboy, Fownes Street (1764–8), and 2 Dame Street (1769–1821). From Samuel’s death in 1776 his widow Anne had charge of the firm, with their son Edmond as assistant; Edmond himself carried on the business thereafter until John Aldridge took it over in 1821. The business operated under the name Walker & Lee in 1781 and John Lee in 1789. John, another son of Samuel, traded as a publisher, music seller and instrument maker at 64 Dame Street (1775–8) and 70 Dame Street (1778–1803).

BRIAN BOYDELL

Lee, Sebastian

(b Hamburg, 24 Dec 1805; d Hamburg, 4 Jan 1887). German cellist. He studied with J.N. Prell and made his début in Hamburg in 1831. He gave acclaimed performances in Leipzig, Kassel and Frankfurt en route to Paris, appearing with great success at the Théâtre des Italiens in April 1832. He continued to tour for the next five years, performing in London in 1836. In 1837 he returned to Paris to join the Opéra, where he was solo cellist from 1841 to 1843. After that, he devoted himself to teaching and composition, returning to his native city of Hamburg on his retirement in 1868. He published a cello method op.30 and four sets of solo and duo studies. His many concert works are largely forgotten, but he produced useful editions of Classical works for the cello and an edition of the Méthode of Baillot, Levasseur, Catel and Baudiot.

Lee had two younger brothers who became musicians. Louis Lee (b Hamburg, 19 Oct 1819; d Lübeck, 26 Aug 1896), a cellist and pianist, made his first tour at the age of 12, playing in northern Germany and Copenhagen, then settled in Hamburg, where he became a cellist in the theatre orchestra, organized chamber music recitals with Hafner (later with Boïe), taught at the conservatory 1873–84 and was principal cellist of the Philharmonic Society; he composed chamber music and symphonies and wrote incidental music to Schiller’s Die Jungfrau von Orleans and Wilhelm Tell. Maurice Lee (b Hamburg, Feb 1821; d London, 23 June 1895), a pianist, spent the latter part of his life teaching in London, where he won a reputation as a composer of popular salon music.

LYNDA MacGREGOR

Lee, Vanessa [Moule, Ruby]

(b London, 18 June 1920; d London, 15 March 1992). English soprano. She secured the role of understudy to Jessica James, who was playing Maria Ziegler in Ivor Novello’s The Dancing Years at the London Casino in 1947. When James injured her throat, Lee sang the role from the wings, her voice convincing Novello to write his next show for her (King’s Rhapsody, 1949). Her crystal-clear soprano voice, shown to best effect in ‘Someday my heart will awake’ from that show, combined with her film-star looks gave her instant public success. Her stage name was coined by Novello who, having invented the stage name of Vivien Leigh, decided to stay with the same initials. Novello also paid for cosmetic surgery to reduce the size of her nose, and there was mixed opinion as to whether this had adversely affected her singing voice. Had Novello not died during the run of King’s Rhapsody, he would have consolidated her reputation with another lead role. After a well-received performance as Lady Windermere in Coward’s unhappy musicalization of Wilde’s play (After the Ball, 1954) and tours in the title role of Die lustige Witwe and as Maria in The Sound of Music, she retired from the stage having married another of Novello’s regular performers, Peter, later Lord, Graves.

PAUL WEBB

Lee Chan-Hae

(b Seoul, 8 Oct 1945). Korean composer. She studied composition at Yonsei University (BA) and the Catholic University of America in Washington, DC (MM); she was later appointed professor of composition at Yonsei University. Her works are typically contrapuntal and favour progressive structural developments over strict forms. In music that is simple and direct, Lee chooses subject matters that reflect her Christianity and her interest in music education. Glorification (1991), for three percussionists, is her fifth piece based on John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress. It presents the pitch sequence D–E–B–G, gradually opening with central snare drums and moving outwards to low timpani and high tom-toms; halfway through, gongs, cymbals and bells take over as metal triumphs over wood and skin. Though the subject is Christian, the reference is to the East Asian philosophical system of music classification according to instrument materials.

Lee’s teaching at Yonsei has restricted the time she can devote to composition. Her output includes Hyesang [Bestowing] (1980) and Ch’ŏsaeng [Newborn] (1981), both for two solo voices with chamber ensemble, two works for solo wind, Kalp’iri [Leaf Oboe] (clarinet, 1986) and Three Fragments (flute, 1989), The Cross, for mixed chorus (1988), and Martyr, for string orchestra (1990). Her music has been performed in Europe, the USA and Australasia. She has been a visiting scholar at Wayne State University and Oakland University; in 1989 she presented a seminar course on the Kodály method in Hungary.

KEITH HOWARD

Leeds.

City in England. It is one of the most active centres of music in Britain, and has become widely known for the Leeds International Pianoforte Competition, held there every three years since 1963, the Leeds Musical Festival with its strong choral tradition, and (since 1978) the productions of Opera North. In the 19th century the parish church became a focal point for reform and enterprise in sacred music. Citizens of Leeds have been involved in cultural activities at every level, and the city’s wealth of musical opportunity testifies to a long tradition of community responsibility.

1. Concert life, choirs and church music.

The first publicly supported musician in Leeds, John Carr, was appointed organist of the parish church of St Peter on the installation of an organ (built by Robert Price of Bristol) in 1714. During Carr’s term, which ended in 1756, occasional concerts were given by visiting virtuosos, mainly in the Assembly Room (seating 400). From 1757 regular subscription concerts were arranged by Carr’s successor, John Crompton. At the peak of these were performances of Handel’s Messiah and Judas Maccabaeus in the parish church in 1770, of which the proceeds went to Crompton’s benefit. For three years from 1762 William Herschel, the Hanoverian bandmaster, oboist and violinist previously active in Halifax and later famous as an astronomer, conducted annual subscription concerts. The improved standard of choral music by 1768 was marked in the chapel at Holbeck by the patriotic offering of ‘Purcell’s grand Te deum and [Handel’s] grand Coronation Chorus’ for the anniversary of the accession of George III. The popularity of Handel’s music in Yorkshire at that time was enhanced by the publication of the oratorio texts by T. Lesson of Doncaster. After 1771, when the infirmary was opened, the fact that oratorio was thought to have a beneficial influence on the sick very much contributed to its popularity as a form. In 1769 a two-day Handel festival took place in Trinity Church. As elsewhere in England there was a Handel festival in 1784; benefits went to the hospital. Handel festivals in 1793 and 1795 were less successful. As the Assembly Room was too small and the interior of the parish church too awkward for the large-scale performances considered necessary, oratorio musicians of Leeds took part in the festivals in York which were organized primarily for the benefit of the hospitals of the county.

The organist of the parish church from 1791 to 1807 was David Lawton, who in 1795 performed the first (unspecified) piano concerto heard at a subscription concert. The Music Hall (built 1794) in Albion Street was replaced in 1825 by a more ambitious New Music Room, designed in Grecian style by John Clark of Edinburgh. In 1827 an Amateur Society was formed for the purpose of ‘cultivating a more extensive taste for music and ensuring the frequency and success of public concerts’ (The Harmonicon, v, 1827, p.161).

Rapid increase in population, greater prosperity and growing religious tolerance led to the building of many churches and chapels. New organs were installed: in St Paul’s (1820) and Zion Chapel (1826) by Greenwood of Leeds; in St John the Evangelist (1828) by Robinson of Leeds; and in Brunswick Chapel by J. Booth of Wakefield. The specification for the latter was ambitious in tonal design; the congregation approved its installation only after a ballot. Samuel Wesley played three inaugural recitals. After the removal of legislation restricting Catholic worship an organ was installed in the new St Patrick’s Chapel.

In 1837 W.F. Hook (1798–1875) became vicar of Leeds and immediately began a campaign of reform and reconstruction. Between 1839 and 1841 the parish church was rebuilt in Perpendicular style by a local architect, R.D. Chantrell, in accordance with the liturgical requirements of the high church party to which Hook belonged. Though unmusical, Hook was concerned for the proper performance of church music; he invited John Jebb to give a series of lectures in the Church Institute, and on Jebb’s advice appointed James Hill, a lay clerk from St George’s Chapel, Windsor, to train the choir. In the following year Hook instituted a system of payment for choristers and appointed Wesley organist. The standards sustained at Leeds parish church influenced the musical life of the whole community. After publishing his brilliant and revolutionary pamphlet, A Few Words on Cathedral Music and the Musical System of the Church, with a Plan of Reform in 1849, Wesley left for Winchester. His work in Leeds was carried on by his former articled pupil William Spark, who had followed him from Exeter and had become organist of St George’s Church, and by Robert Burton, Wesley’s successor at the parish church. In the middle of the century business and professional citizens began to exert a beneficial influence on the arts. In 1848 ‘Soirées musicales’ encouraged a small and distinguished membership to read through unfamiliar music: at the first meeting, for example, a ‘selection from Purcell’s King Arthur and Tempest pieces but little known in the country’. The next year, on Spark’s proposal, a Madrigal and Motet Society (from 1867 the Choral Society) was founded.

A new chapter in the musical history of Leeds began with the opening in 1858 of the town hall, designed in classical style by Cuthbert Broderick, with an organ – built to Spark’s specification and at which he presided for more than 40 years – by Gray & Davison. In the same year the first of what was intended to be a series of triennial festivals took place. Complex rivalries between choirs meant that the second festival, conducted by Michael Costa, was not held until 1874. Arthur Sullivan was appointed conductor of the next festival in 1880, after which it was held every third year (from 1970 every second year). Sullivan conducted on seven occasions, and resigned the appointment only when his health demanded it. During his era the Leeds Festival assumed international status with new works commissioned from such composers as Raff, Dvořák, Massenet, Humperdinck, Parry, Stanford, Elgar and Sullivan himself. Sullivan included unfamiliar works by the madrigalists and by Palestrina, Bach, Handel and Mozart, and ensured they were interpreted according to the latest ideas of performing practice. At the 1880 festival the progress of science was marked by the electric lighting of the town hall and – even more – by the transmission of some of the performance to neighbouring towns over land-line by the National Telephone Company.

From the turn of the century choral performance suffered as a result of complacency; an irascible Stanford, after conducting the festival of 1901, wrote a powerful criticism of chorus and chorus master to the Lord Mayor. Stanford conducted two more festivals. Thereafter came a succession of virtuoso conductors, none, however, with full organizational responsibility. Elgar’s Caractacus (1898) and Walton’s Belshazzar’s Feast (1931) both had their premières in Leeds, the latter conducted by Malcolm Sargent. The centenary festival in 1958 was directed by the Earl of Harewood. The festival chorus, which draws members from all over West Yorkshire and on which much of the success of the festival has traditionally depended, has had many fine chorus masters, among them Herbert Bardgett, who achieved a wide reputation.

In the late 19th century musical institutions became more numerous. The Leeds Philharmonic Society, founded by T. Dobbs in 1870, was first conducted by James Broughton and then by his brother Alfred (both were chorus masters for the festival at different times). In 1896 Adolph Beyschlag, previously engaged in Mainz, Frankfurt, Belfast and Manchester, was appointed conductor of what the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung at the time described as ‘the famous Yorkshire choir’. He was succeeded by Stanford, who conducted the society from 1897 to 1909, during which time performances were given in London and Paris; later conductors included Fricker, Bairstow and Sargent. In 1895 there was a choral contest, adjudicated by C.H. Lloyd, under the aegis of the Leeds Prize Musical Union. Alfred Benton, organist of the parish church, assisted by H.C. Embleton, a wealthy amateur and friend of Elgar, formed in 1886 the Leeds Choral Union, which travelled widely in England and visited France and Germany before being disbanded in 1939; Henry Coward, the most notable choral director of his day, was among its conductors. In 1950 Melville Cooke, organist of the parish church, established the Leeds Guild of Singers, comprising 26 members, so that the Bach bicentenary performances could bear some relation to authentic standards.

In the 19th century chamber music soirées and musical evenings were organized by George Haddock, owner of a famous collection of historic violins, and his brother Thomas. Recitals and concerts are regularly given in the art gallery and in the town hall under the aegis of the city council, and also in the summer in the Long Gallery of Temple Newsam House. In 1963 the International Pianoforte Competition was established through the enterprise of a local teacher, Fanny Waterman, and Marion Thorpe (then Countess of Harewood). Winners have included Michael Roll, Radu Lupu and Murray Perahia.

2. Orchestral music.

From its inception the Leeds Festival depended on London for its orchestra, a fact reflecting the somewhat chequered history of orchestral music in what was for so long a choral stronghold. An amateur West Riding Orchestral Union was active in the 1840s but after the town hall had been opened it was considered that the magnificent organ, built at a cost of £5000, should do all that an orchestra could for normal occasions, and less expensively. The organists of Leeds, however, had their own ideas: Spark instituted Saturday evening orchestral concerts in the town hall, and Robert Burton ‘Saturday Pops’ at the Coliseum. The social necessity of musical recreation had been pointed out in 1853 by the ‘Rational Recreation Society’. This body had sought to arrange cheap concerts for the workers of the area, but found that support came from the more prosperous middle class, and later provided Herbert Fricker, the city organist, with audiences for his Saturday Orchestral Concerts, begun in 1903. By that time competition for the talents of more modest music-makers came from the brass bands of the neighbourhood, prominent among which was the Leeds Forge Band, founded by Samson Fox of Harrogate, benefactor of the Royal College of Music. Fricker’s organization merged into the Leeds SO, and in 1928 this became the Northern PO (conducted 1933–7 by John Barbirolli). In 1945 the city council and certain neighbouring authorities began to consider maintaining a full-time professional orchestra at an estimated cost of £50,000 a year. Two years later the Yorkshire SO (conductor Maurice Miles) was founded; despite high aims and promising beginnings, the enterprise came to an end in 1955, largely through local rivalries and loyalties to other organizations such as the Hallé Orchestra, which had a long involvement in Yorkshire musical life. Throughout that period the Leeds Symphony Society (founded in 1890), successor to the Amateur Orchestral Society, maintained a high standard of amateur competence; since 1970 its conductor has been Martin Blake. In 1977 David Lloyd-Jones, artistic director of the newly-formed Opera North (see §3 below), established the English Northern Philharmonia as its resident orchestra.

3. Opera.

The Grand Theatre, at the time one of the largest in the country, with seating for 2600, opened in 1878 to accommodate such touring companies as the Carl Rosa and D’Oyly Carte. The first Ring cycle given in the English provinces was staged in Leeds by the Denhof Opera Company in 1911. The British National (1923) and Covent Garden (1955) opera companies included the city on their tours. West Riding Opera, an ambitious amateur company, was founded in 1954, giving an annual production in the Civic Theatre conducted from 1978 by Martin Blake, conductor of the Leeds SO. In 1977, with the support of the city (which had taken over the Grand Theatre in 1971) and the Arts Council, Opera North (initially English National Opera North) was founded and given the Grand Theatre as its base. The first artistic director and conductor was David Lloyd-Jones; he was succeeded as music director by Paul Daniel. The company’s success has helped to encourage other cultural institutions to move from London. By 1995 Opera North had staged more than 100 operas. Many modern works have been introduced by, among others, Berg, Britten, Delius, Krenek, Stravinsky, Tippett and Walton. In 1994 the company had a spectacular success with Benedict Mason’s Playing Away, an opera set in the world of contemporary soccer.

4. Music publishers and instrument makers.

From the early 18th century music publishers abounded in Leeds, at first publishing mostly sacred music. John Penrose published The Psalm-tunes in 4 Parts (4th edn., rev. A. Barker) in 1700, John Swale A Collection of Psalm Tunes in 1718 and Thomas Wright A Book of Psalmody by John Chetham (11/1787). The works of the Leeds composer Henry Hamilton were engraved by Christopher Livesley, who was active from about 1790 to 1810. Other publishers include Joseph Ogle (c1736), Griffith Wright, father of Thomas, and in the 19th century Joshua Mutt, W. Clifford, John Swallow and William Jackson; in the 20th century much educational music and music literature has been published by E.J. Arnold & Son. There were several string instrument makers active in Leeds during the 19th century, and the firm of J. & J. Hopkinson, piano makers, had its main branch there from about 1835. The organ in the town hall was renovated by Abbott & Smith in the 19th century, and rebuilt to the design of Donald Hunt, then organist of the parish church, by Wood & Wordsworth in 1971.

5. Education.

Vocal music in schools grew out of religious instruction and from about 1850 led to marathon performances of ‘sacred choruses’. After 1886 there were Leeds School Board Concerts in which the choir of 1000 voices was conducted by W. Goodson. The demands of more specialized musical education were met for a time by the Leeds College of Music, active from 1874 to 1904. A new dimension was brought into the musical life of the city by the establishment of a music department in the university before World War I; this prospered under Professor James Denny and during the vice-chancellorship of Lord Boyle. Through the initiative of Alexander Goehr, professor of music from 1971 to 1976, works outside the conventional limits have been included in university programmes. Ian Kemp was professor of music from 1976 to 1981, succeeded by Julian Rushton. In 1961 the education committee set up the Leeds Music Centre, which in 1965 came under the control of a full-time director and resumed the title of Leeds College of Music. A division of the college specializes in experimental compositional procedures and music technology. The Brotherton Library of the university has the Cowden Clarke Collection; the music and local history sections of the city library hold manuscripts and early editions formerly owned by the Irwin family of Temple Newsam, and the city museum has a collection of instruments.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO (M. Dreyer)

Order of Service for the Day of Public Thanksgiving by the Wesleyan Reformers (Leeds, 1850)

Leeds Musical Festival Programmes (Leeds, 1880–)

F.R. Spark and J. Bennett: A Full History of the Leeds Musical Festivals, 1858–89 (Leeds and London, 1892)

Leeds College of Music Quarterly News (Leeds, 1897–1902)

E. Hargrave: Musical Leeds in the Eighteenth Century, Thoresby Society Publications, xxviii (Leeds, 1928), 320–21

D. Webster: Parish Past and Present: 275 Years of Leeds Parish Church Music (Leeds, 1988)

S. Lindley: ‘Leeds Town Hall: Retrospect and Prospect’, MT, cxxx (1989), 639–40

W. Thompson and others: Piano Competition: the Story of the Leeds (London, 1990)

PERCY M. YOUNG

Leedy, Douglas

(b Portland, OR, 3 March 1938). American composer, conductor and musicologist. He studied at Pomona College and the University of California, Berkeley (MA 1962); in 1958 he was a Crofts Fellow at the Berkshire Music Center. After playing the horn in the Oakland SO and San Francisco Opera and Ballet orchestras (1960–65), he travelled to Poland (1965–6) on a joint US-Polish government grant to investigate contemporary Polish music. He subsequently designed the electronic music studio at UCLA, where he taught and directed two ensembles (1967–70); later teaching appointments included positions at the Centro Simón Bolívar, Caracas, and Reed College. In 1980, after turning to private teaching, he became involved in early music performance, serving as the first music director of the Portland Baroque Orchestra (1984–5) and the coordinator of the Portland Handel Festival (from 1985). He has written extensively on intonation and alternative tunings, as well as on the performance of ancient Greek and Latin verse.

Leedy's music of the 1960s is lyrical and often highly theatrical. During the early 1970s, following Harry Partch and Lou Harrison, and influenced by La Monte Young, Terry Riley and the Carnatic singer K.V. Narayanaswamy (1974, 1979–80), he abandoned 12-note equal-tempered tuning. Using mean-tone temperament as the basis of a modal, rhythmic style, he imagined a different evolution for Western music. Towards the end of the 1980s, however, he found himself increasingly at odds with what he saw as the West's cultural and economic imperialism; little remains in his later music, therefore, of traditional Western methods and values.

WORKS

(selective list)

Dramatic: Decay (dir. R. Moran), tape collage, actors, pf(s), insts, tape, 1965, collab. I. Underwood; Music for Perc, 2 actors, large battery, 1965; Teddy Bears Picnic, actors, elecs, 1969; Sebastian (chbr op, Leedy, after J.S. Bach documents), 1971–4; Is This a Great Country, or What?, multimedia, 1995

Inst: Early works, 1953–9; Pieces, pf 4 hands, 1960; Trio, fl, hn, pf, 1960; Perspectives, hn, 1964; Qnt 1964, cl, bn, tpt, db, org, 1964; Antifonia, 2 tpt, 2 trbn, 1695; Exhibition Music, 4 or more insts/vv, 1965; Octet ‘Quaderno rossiniano’, fl, cl, bn, hn, vn, vc, pf, perc, 1965; Str Qt, 1965–75; Usable Music for Very Small Insts with Holes, 1966; Usable Music II, B, chbr ens, 1966; The Entropical Paradise: 6 Sonic Environments, synths, 1969; 88 is Great, pf 18 hands, 1969; Music for Meantone Hpd, 1974–86; Canti, fl, va, gui, mar, vib, db, 1975; Sur la couche de miettes, chbr ens, 1981; Toccata, Utremifasolla and Chorale, hpd, 1982; Goldberg Canons, str, cont, 1984 [after J.S. Bach: Verschiedene Canones, bwv1097]; Music for Meantone Org, 1984; Fantasia ‘Wondrous Love’, org, opt. chorus, 1990; Triste encuentro, pf/insts, 1992; 3 Syms., orch, 1993; Pf Sonata, 1994; Str Qt no.2 ‘White Buffalo’, 1995; Sym. no.4 ‘The Dreaming Attention’ (Leedy), vv, orch, 1996; Sym. no.5 ‘Apām napāt’ (Rig Veda), vv, shawms, natural hns, perc, 1997; Sym. no.6 ‘Helios’ (Homeric hymns), vv, hps, zithers, mbiras, rebab, perc, 1997; Sym. no.7 ‘Selene’ (Homeric hymns), vv, hps, zithers, mbiras, rebab, perc, 1997

Vocal: Early works, 1953–9; Dulces exuviae (Dido's Lament) (Vergil), SSAATTBB, 1969; Electric Zodiac, vv, synth, 1969; Gloria, S, SATB, orch, 1970; Ps xxiv, 6 S, SATB, orch, 1971; Chorale Fantasy ‘Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern’, 1v/vv, org, 1972; Symphoniae sacrae (Bible, J. Frank), Mez, viol, hpd, 1976; 4 Hymns (Rig Veda), chorus, gamelan, 1982–3; Pastorale (Horace), SATB, pf 4 hands, 1988; Celilo (random text), vv, hp, perc, 1996; No More Beethoven!, 1v/vv, opt. elec gui, 1997; realizations of Rigvedic hymns, Upanishads and Greek/Latin lyric and epic verse, 1v, drone/hp, lyre; see also Inst

Principal publishers: E.C. Schirmer, Fallen Leaf, Material Press

Principal recording companies: Seraphim, Capitol

WRITINGS

‘A Personal View of Meantone Temperament’, The Courant, i/3 (1983), 3–19

‘Tuning Systems’, GroveA

‘A Question of Intonation’, Journal of the Conductors’ Guild, viii/4 (1987), 107–20

‘A Venerable Temperament Rediscovered’, PNM, xxix/2 (1991), 202–11

‘Giving Number a Voice’, Xenharmonikon, no.15 (1993), 56–9

‘Some Experiments in Singing Ancient Greek and Latin Verse’, Music in Performance and Society: Essays in Honor of Roland Jackson, ed. M. Cole and J. Koegel (Warren, MI, 1997), 3–35

CHARLES SHERE

Leedy Manufacturing Co.

American firm of drum makers. It was established in Indianapolis in 1900 by Ulysses G. Leedy and Samuel L. Cooley as Leedy & Cooley, and made ‘everything for the band and orchestra drummer’. Leedy (b Fostoria, OH, 1867; d Indianapolis, IN, 7 Jan 1931), a professional musician and amateur drum maker, became sole owner in 1903 and expanded the firm's production to include over 900 items, among them orchestral bells, vibraphones and numerous sound-effect instruments to accompany silent movies. Most important were the timpani designed by the factory superintendent Cecil Strupe and patented in 1923. These used a foot pedal with a ratchet-and-pawl system clutch, linked to cables connected to the tensioning screws; the copper bowls were formed in a specially designed hydraulic press rather than hammered over wooden moulds. This design served as the model for the first English pedal timpani manufactured by the Premier Drum Co. Leedy drums were exported to England during the 1920s, but later only the parts were shipped and the drums themselves assembled by the Hawkes firm. Used mainly by smaller symphonic as well as school orchestras, they were never as popular as the Ludwig model, owing to the rather awkward necessity of lifting the knee in order to reach the high horizontal pedal and resealing the clutch before raising or lowering the pitch. Leedy was purchased by C.G. Conn in 1927 and its production combined with that of Ludwig & Ludwig, which was acquired by Conn in 1930 (see Ludwig). The Leedy-Ludwig division continued to operate until its sale to the Slingerland Drum Co. in 1955; production of Leedy instruments ceased in 1958.

EDMUND A. BOWLES

Leef, Yinam

(b Jerusalem, 21 Dec 1953). Israeli composer. He studied at the Rubin Academy of Music, Jerusalem with Kopytman, and at the University of Pennsylvania, where his teachers included Wernick, Crumb and Rochberg. A senior lecturer at the Rubin Academy of Music, he is one of Israel's prominent young composers. Early pieces such as Gilgulim (1976–8) and Scherzos and Serenades (1989) reflect a modern, internationally-oriented posture characterized by post-serial materials and techniques, and a strong sense of colour. Later works, such as the Symphony no.2 ‘Visions of Stonecity’ (1995) and the Viola Concerto (1998), blend serial techniques with modal, Jewish and Middle Eastern elements and textural echoes of Bartók and Messiaen. This style can be traced back to earlier vocal pieces such as The Invisible Carmel (1982). His works have been performed in Israel, East Asia and throughout Europe and the USA; the First Symphony and the Violin Concerto have been recorded.

WORKS

(selective list)

Gilgulim, ob, cl, bn, 1978, arr. vn, va, vc, 1980; Str Qt, 1978; Laments, orch, 1979; Canaanite Fantasy, pf, 1981; Sym. no.1, 1981–92; The Invisible Carmel (Zelda), S, ob + eng hn, cl + b cl, vn, db, perc, 1982; Vn Conc., 1983; Octet, 8 miniatures, 1984 [after W. Kandinsky]; A Place of Fire (Zelda), Mez, 11 insts, 1985; Fanfares and Whispers, tpt, orch, 1986; Sound, Shadows … , chorus 8vv, 1987; How Far East, How Further West? (Canaanite Fantasy no.2), pf, 1988; Scherzos and Serenades, orch, 1989; Elegy, str qt, 1991; Sym. no. 2 ‘Vision of Stonecity’, orch, 1995; Yizkor (In memoriam), fl, 1995; Tryptique [Hommage to Partos], cl, 3 str insts, pf, 1997; Va Conc., 1998

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Smoira-Cohn: Music Here and Now (Jerusalem, 1988)

R. Fleisher: Twenty Israeli Composers (Detroit, 1997)

ODED ASSAF

Leemans, Hébert [Aybert] Philippe Adrien

(b Bruges; d Paris, 10 June, 1771). Flemish cellist and composer, resident in Paris. According to Vannes he was ‘fils probable d’Adrien Pierre’, presumably referring to the Adrien Leemans who was organist at St Donatien in Bruges from about 1738 to 12 October 1750. Leemans probably arrived in Paris in the 1750s. In the dedication of his op.3 quartets (1769) to the Marchioness of Lestang, he stated that he had long been in the service of a Parisian patron; but his name appears in contemporary periodical literature only between 1765 and 1771, and all of his known compositions date from this brief period. In the Mémoire signifié du Sieur Peters (1767), he is listed as ‘professeur de chant et de violoncelle’, and a publication announcement in the Mercure de France of March 1769 referred to him as a virtuoso, but did not specify his instrument. The dedication to his ariette Que l’attente me tourmente (1768) indicates that he was music teacher to the Countess of Polignac; further dedications show that he frequented other fashionable salons, particularly that of the Marquis and Marchioness of Seignelai. He had no official position with any of the Parisian orchestras, nor is he ever mentioned as a soloist. In 1767 Leemans began to publish his works using movable type, a process which was rare in Paris, then the centre of engraving in Europe; it resembled the system invented in Leipzig by J.G.I. Breitkopf and was equally unsuccessful.

Leemans devoted his talents to teaching titled students and composing works appropriate to their taste. His symphonies are well constructed, employing the prevailing italo-Mannheim style infused with French lyricism; all but two contain four movements including a minuet. The smaller chamber pieces are charming works which, to expand their sales, allow for the substitution of instruments: this flexibility, which obviously inhibited idiomatic instrumental writing, reveals much about the nature of his clientèle. Leemans’s modest gifts are heard to excellent advantage in his ariettes, attractive little songs with simple and deft orchestral accompaniments.

WORKS

all printed works published in Paris; detailed list with partial thematic catalogue in BrookSF

Inst: 6 sinfonie, op.1 (c1765); 3 simphonies [op.2] (1766); 1ère [–2e] symphonie à grand orchestre (1767); Trio, 2 vn, bc/vc (1767); 6 qts, op.3 (1769), 3 for fl, bn, vn, vc, 3 for ob, vn, bn, vc or 2 vn, 2 vc or 2 vn, va, vc; 3 simphonies à grand orchestre, op.4 (1771); 1er recueil de 6 quatuors d’airs choisis [Grétry, Philidor], str qt, op.5 (1771)

Vocal: Recueil de duos, 2vv (1765), lost: 1er[–2e] recueil d’airs (1771), lost; La constance, cantatille (1767), lost; La vaine promesse, romance (c1768); 14 ariettes with insts, pubd singly (1766–71); 5 airs, 2vv, F-Pn; Air, 1v, hp, Pn

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BrookSF

EitnerQ

FétisBS

Vander StraetenMPB, iv

VannesD

E.G.J. Gregoir: Littérature musicale: documents historiques relatifs à l’art musical et aux artistes-musiciens (Antwerp, 1872–6)

M. Brenet: ‘Les débuts de l’abonnement musical’, BSIM, ii/2 (1906), 256–73

B.S. Brook: ‘Leemans of Bruges and Paris’, RBM, xv (1961), 47–54

M. Benoit, N. Dufourcq and M. Rambaud: ‘Documents du minutier central: musiciens français du XVIIIe siècle’, RMFC, vii (1967), 217–33, esp. 222

BARRY S. BROOK, RICHARD VIANO

Leero [leerow] viol.

See Lyra viol.

Lees, Benjamin

(b Harbin, China, 8 Jan 1924). American composer of Russian parentage. When very young, Lees moved with his parents to the USA and took American citizenship through their naturalization. He was educated in California. After military service (1942–5) he studied at the University of Southern California (1945–8) under Halsey Stevens (composition), Kanitz and Dahl. Impressed by his compositions, Antheil undertook to teach him, and after some four years’ study recognition came with a Fromm Foundation Award in 1953. In 1954 Lees received a Guggenheim Fellowship allowing him to work in Europe. His aim was to remain uninfluenced by the turbulent American scene and to create his own style. He worked away from the academic centres where many American composers had studied, living at Longpont-sur-Orge, France (1954–5 and 1957–61), Vienna (1955–6) and Helsinki (1956–7). He returned to the USA in 1961 with many mature and impressive works, thereafter dividing his time between composition and teaching, at the Peabody Conservatory (1962–4, 1966–8) and in New York at Queens College (1964–6), the Manhattan School (1972–4) and the Juilliard School (1976–7). He has fulfilled many commissions, notably the String Quartet no.3 (for the Tokyo String Quartet), the Concerto for Brass Choir and Orchestra (for the Dallas SO), the String Quartet no.4 (for the Aurora String Quartet) and a Horn Concerto for the Pittsburgh SO. He has had many works played by major American symphony orchestras. In 1981 he received an award from the NEA.

Lees’s music is basically traditional in approach; his musical development, comparatively free from the influence of avant-garde fashions and schools, has been steady and consistent. From an early interest in the bittersweet melodic style of Prokofiev and the bizarre and surrealist aspects of Bartók’s music, he progressed naturally under the unconventional guidance of Antheil. He extended the tonal system with semitonal inflections, both harmonic and melodic, around not only the 3rd, but also the root, 5th and octave of the major and minor chords. Rhythmically his music is active, with frequent changes of time signature and shifts of accent present even in his early works, particularly the award-winning String Quartet no.1 and Sonata for two pianos, and his masterly Second Quartet. Having refined his style, he embarked on a series of large-scale works in which his secure command of orchestral technique and form is everywhere apparent. The Second Symphony with its recurring motifs and slow-movement finale (also a feature of the Third Symphony) is particularly notable. Of comparable stature are the Concerto for Orchestra (influenced by Bartók’s), the virtuoso Violin Concerto and the cantata–oratorio Visions of Poets. The ironic musical juxtapositions found occasionally in these earlier works dominate the Third Symphony and the bizarre Medea of Corinth. In the 1970s Lees concentrated on orchestral and chamber music, returning to writing songs at the end of the decade. His interest in orchestral and chamber music continued thereafter with a group of symphonies, concertos (some with multiple soloists) and other orchestral pieces and the moving Fourth Quartet.

WORKS

(selective list)

stage and vocal

Ops: The Oracle (1, Lees), 1956; The Gilded Cage (3, A. Reid), 1970–72, withdrawn; Scarlatti Portfolio (ballet), 1978

Other works: Songs of the Night (J.R. Nickson), S, pf, 1952; 3 Songs (Nickson, W. Blake), A, pf, 1959; Cyprian Songs (Nickson), Bar, pf, 1960; Visions of Poets (W. Whitman), S, T, chorus, orch, 1961; 3 Songs (Nickson), A, pf, 1969; Medea of Corinth (R. Jeffers), S, Mez, Bar, B, wind qnt, timp, 1970; The Trumpet of the Swan (E.B. White), nar, orch, 1972; Staves (Nickson), S, pf, 1979; Omen (Nickson), S, pf, 1980; Paumanok (Whitman), Mez, pf, 1980

instrumental

5 syms.: 1953; 1958; 1968; ‘Memorial Candles’, Mez, vn, orch, 1985; ‘Kalmar Nyckel’, 1986

Other orch: Profile, 1952; Declamations, pf, str, 1953; Pf Conc. no.1, 1955 ; Divertimento-burlesca, 1957; Interlude, str, 1957; Vn Conc., 1958; Conc. for Orch, 1959; Concertante breve, 1959; Prologue, Capriccio and Epilogue, 1959; Ob Conc., 1963; Conc. for Str Qt and Orch, 1964; Spectrum, 1964; Conc., chbr orch, 1966; Fanfare for a Centennial, brass, perc, 1966; Pf Conc. no.2, 1966; Silhouettes, 1967; Etudes, pf, orch, 1974; Labyrinths, wind band, 1975; Passacaglia, 1975; Conc. for Ww Qnt and Orch, 1976; Variations, pf, orch, 1976; Mobiles, 1980; Double Conc., vc, pf, orch, 1982; Conc. for Brass Choir and Orch, 1983; Portrait of Rodin, 1984; Hn Conc., 1992; Borealis, 1993; Echoes of Normandy, 1994

Chbr: Sonata, hn, pf, 1951; Str Qt, no.1 1952; Evocation, fl, 1953; Sonata no.1, vn, pf, 1953; Movement da camera, fl, cl, pf, vc, 1954; Str Qt no.2, 1955; 3 Variables, ob, cl, bn, hn, pf, 1955; Invenzione, vn, 1965; Duo, fl, cl, 1967; Study no.1, vc, 1969; Collage, wind qnt, perc, str qt, 1973; Sonata no.2, vn, pf, 1973; Soliloquy Music for King Lear, fl, 1975; Dialogue, vc, pf, 1977; Str Qt no.3, 1980–81; Sonata, vc, pf, 1981; Pf Trio, 1983; Str Qt no.4, 1989; Sonata no.3, vn, pf, 1991

Pf: 4 sonatas, 1949, 1950, 1956 (Sonata breve), 1963; Sonata, 2 pf, 1951; Toccata, 1953; Fantasia, 1954; 10 Pieces, 1954; 6 Ornamental Etudes, 1957; Kaleidoscopes, 1959; Epigrams, 1960, withdrawn; 3 Preludes, 1962; Odyssey, 1970; Fantasy Variations, 1984

Principal publisher: Boosey & Hawkes

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EwenD

D. Cooke: ‘The Music of Benjamin Lees’, Tempo, no.51 (1959), 20–29

D. Cooke: ‘The Recent Music of Benjamin Lees’, Tempo, no.64 (1963), 11–21

D. Cooke: ‘Benjamin Lees’s Visions of Poets’, Tempo, no.68 (1964), 25–31

N. O’Loughlin: ‘Benjamin Lees’s String Quartet Concerto’, Tempo, no.82 (1967), 21–5

N. O’Loughlin: ‘Two Works by Benjamin Lees’, Tempo, no.93 (1970), 19–24

N. Slonimsky: ‘Benjamin Lees in Excelsis’, Tempo, no.113 (1975), 14–21

B. Johnson: ‘Benjamin Lees, Quo vadis?’, Tempo, no.175 (1990), 11–17

NIALL O’LOUGHLIN

Leeuw, Cornelis (Janszoon) de

(b Edam, c1613; d Amsterdam, c1660). Dutch publisher, composer and editor. He gave up his musical career for that of publisher, joining the Amsterdam booksellers’ guild in about 1648. He edited and published both musical and non-musical books, often for the Remonstrant Church where he was precentor, until 1658 when he went bankrupt. He had little success with his polyphonic settings of Joost van den Vondel's psalms and Diederik Camphuysen’s Stichtelycke rymen or with his own songbook Christelycke plichtrymen, but his editions of the Dutch version of the Genevan Psalter, with all melodies for the first time in the same (alto) clef, enjoyed great popularity. In fact, his method of editing the psalms soon became the standard and remained so for several centuries.

WORKS

printed works published in Amsterdam unless otherwise stated

Een kindeken is ons gebooren, 3vv (1644³)

[12] Stichtelycke rymen (D. Camphuysen), 3–8vv, bc (1646)

Davids tranen, of boetepsalmen (J. van den Vondel), 4vv, bc (1646)

Traen ooghen traen, 4vv, in D. Camphuysen: Stichtelycke rymen (1647); authorship doubtful

Wie kan die op aerde woonen, song, 3vv; 19 canons: in Christelycke plichtrymen (1648–9); song ed. in Enschedé (1903)

Psalm xli.7, 4vv, c1651; Psalms xxiii, cxxviii, 4vv; 12 canons, 1658–; 2 canons, 1661: in De CL Psalmen Davids (Datheen) (several edns, c1650–c1661)

Psalms i, viii, 4vv, in Uytbreydingh over de psalmen Davids (Camphuysen) (1652, 1662–97)

9 lofzangen, 4vv, in C. le Jeune: De CL Psalmen Davids (Schiedam, 1665)

lost

[6] Wegh-wijser (Camphuysen), 4vv (1638)

Hollandtsche vreughd’ (C. Wittenoom and others), 4vv, bc (1642–c1644) [2 vols.]

Vierdagen (H. Grotins and others), 3vv, bc (1640–42): Lofsangen op de geboorte Christi; ’t Leven Christi; Christelycke betrachtinge op het lijden Christi op Goede Vrijdagh; Sondagh, ofte geestelijcke nut des verrijsenis Christi; Olijf-bergh, ofte vertooningh des hemelvaerts Christi; Pinxter, ofte zendingh des Heyligen Geestes op d’apostelen Christi

editions

published in Amsterdam

G.G. Gastoldi: Balletten met drie stemmen (1648) [with 4th voice part added by Leeuw]

Christelycke plichtrymen (1648–9)

De CL Psalmen Davids (Datheen) (several edns, 1650–c1661)

Uytbreydingh over de Psalmen Davids (Camphuysen) (1652)

Davids Psalmen (H. Bruno) (1656)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

JoãoIL

J.W. Enschedé: ‘Cornelis de Leeuw’, TVNM, vii/2 (1902), 89–148; vii/3 (1903), 157–232

D.F. Scheurleer: Nederlandsche liedboeken (The Hague, 1912–23)

R.A. Rasch: ‘The Balletti of Giovanni Giacomo Gastoldi and the Musical History of the Netherlands’, TVNM, xxiv/2 (1974), 112–45

R.A. Rasch: ‘Cornelis de Leeuw (ca.1613–ca.1661)’, TVNM, xxvii/1 (1977), 1–27

RANDALL H. TOLLEFSEN/RUDOLF A. RASCH

Leeuw, Reinbert de

(b Amsterdam, 8 Sept 1938). Dutch composer, conductor and pianist. After studying Dutch for two years at the University of Amsterdam, he studied piano (with Jaap Spaanderman) and music theory at the Muzieklyceum in Amsterdam starting in 1958. In 1962 he passed the final examination in music theory with distinction, and in 1964 gained the diploma in solo piano. From 1963 he was employed as a lecturer in music theory at the Conservatory in The Hague, where he unofficially studied composition with van Baaren.

In his various capacities as a pianist, composer, conductor and also as programme planner and organizer, de Leeuw has given decisive impetus to innovations in musical practice in the postwar Netherlands. In 1966 he was involved in the campaign to persuade the artistic directors of the Concertgebouw Orchestra to put more contemporary music into its programme, and in 1969 he formed part of the Aktiegroep De Notenkrakers (Nutcrackers Action Group) which argued in favour of making Dutch musical life more democratic. The ‘Rondom-Concerten’ (round-about concerts), which de Leeuw himself organized starting in the 1970s, encouraged well thought-through and thematic programming, particularly for 20th-century music.

De Leeuw became internationally known as an interpreter of the piano works of Satie and late Liszt. De Leeuw has been the conductor of the Schönberg Ensemble since it was founded in 1974. As a pianist and composer he produced exemplary interpretations of the work of the composers of the Second Viennese School, and also those of Antheil, Messiaen, Kagel, Kurtág, Reich, Ligeti, Vivier, Ustvol'skaya, Gubaydulina and the Dutch composers Louis Andriessen and Jan van Vlijmen. His fascination with Satie, Liszt, Ives and Messiaen had previously been apparent from his publications. From 1965 to 1968 de Leeuw worked on the cultural journal De gids. A number of essays written for this periodical were published in one volume under the title Muzikale anarchie (1973). He had previously written the first Dutch biography of Charles Ives in collaboration with J. Bernlef (1969).

From 1968 to 1971 de Leeuw was a member of the Arts Council, the Advisory Board of the Ministry of Cultural Affairs and a member and chairman of the Amsterdam Arts Council (1967–75). He was chairman of GeNeCo, the Netherlands Composers’ Association (1979–83) and the Fonds voor de Scheppende Toonkunst (1986–92). He was guest artistic director of the Aldeburgh Festival (1992) and since 1994 has been artistic director of the Tanglewood Contemporary Music Festival.

De Leeuw is the composer of a small but much discussed output, which developed from serialism (String Quartet, 1963) gradually towards a more neo-romantic idiom (Abschied, 1973). Together with Louis Andriessen, Schat, van Vlijmen and Misha Mengelberg he composed Reconstructie, an anti-imperialist opera with a libretto by Mulisch and Claus. With van Vlijmen he composed Axel (1977), based on a text by Mulisch after Count Villiers de l’Isle-Adam.

De Leeuw received the Sikken Prize in 1991 and in 1992 was awarded the 3M Muzieklaureaat, the most prestigious Dutch music prize. In 1994 the University of Utrecht presented him with an honorary doctorate for his work as a pianist and as a conductor of the Schönberg Ensemble.

WORKS

(selective list)

Op: Reconstructie (Mulisch and Claus), Amsterdam, 29 June 1969, collab. L. Andriessen, Schat, van Vlijmen and M. Mengelberg; Axel (Mulisch, after Count Villiers de l’Isle-Adam), Amsterdam, 1977, collab. van Vlijmen

Other: Solo I, vc, 1961; Str Qt, 1963, Music for Pf I, 1964; Interplay, orch, 1965; Music for Pf II, 1966; Hymns and Chorals, wind, elecs, 1970; Abschied, sym. poem, orch, 1973; Etude, str qt, 1985

WRITINGS

with J. Bernlef: Charles Ives (Amsterdam, 1969)

Muzicale anarchie (Amsterdam, 1973)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Schönberger: ‘Reinbert de Leeuw’, Key Notes, i (1975), 3–18

R. Koopmans: ‘On Music and Politics: Activism of Five Dutch Composers’, Key Notes, iv (1976), 19–36

T. Szántó: ‘Round-About Music with Reinbert de Leeuw’, Key Notes, vii (1978), 15–16

P. Peters: ‘Reinbert de Leeuw: uiteindelijk klinkt de ideale uitvoering alleen in je hoofd’ [Ultimately the ideal version can be heard only in your head], Mens en melodie, xlv (1990), 6–11

EMILE WENNEKES

Leeuw, Ton [Antonius Wilhemus Adrianus] de

(b Rotterdam, 16 Nov 1926; d Paris, 31 May 1996). Dutch composer, teacher and writer on music.

1. Training and career.

2. Works.

3. Ideology and style.

ROKUS DE GROOT

1. Training and career.

His youth spent in Breda was culturally rather isolated, the radio being his main access to music. Nevertheless his interests ranged wide including medieval, Renaissance, contemporary and non-Western styles. In his teenage years a leaning towards philosophy and religion was fostered through personal contact with the Dutch writer Pieter van der Meer de Walcheren, who was himself connected to the French Roman Catholic revival which centred around Jacques Maritain. After private music lessons with Louis Toebosch (1946), he studied composition privately with Badings (1947–9). He was in Paris from 1949 to 1950, where he took analysis with Messiaen at the Conservatoire and orchestration privately with Thomas de Hartmann; five years of ethnomusicology with Jaap Kunst followed. In 1954 he started work as a music producer for the Nederlandse Radio Unie, where he stayed until 1959 playing an important role in bringing contemporary and non-Western traditions to the Dutch public. He was next appointed head of composition at the Amsterdam Conservatory (1959–86), of which he became general director (1971–3) and artistic director (1973–86). He was also senior lecturer of contemporary music in the musicology department of the University of Amsterdam (1963–83), and in 1981 he was composer-in-residence at UCLA, Berkeley.

Throughout most of his professional life de Leeuw gave guest lectures and guided workshops internationally, speaking in particular about interaction between different cultures. Of particular significance to his own music were visits made to Iran and India in 1961, at the invitation of the Dutch ministry of education, to assess the possibilities of cultural exchange. He was the chief organizer and chairman of the Musicultura meetings (1974–84) in the Netherlands, devoted to bringing into contact composers, musicians and musicologists from across the world.

They continued under his guidance as international composers’ workshops (1984–96), organized by the Gaudeamus Foundation. His book Muziek van de twintigste eeuw has contributed significantly to music education in the Netherlands and abroad and many of his composition students have played, and continue to play, a prominent role in musical life, among them Jos Kunst, Straesser, Keuris, Janssen and Hoenderdos. After 1986 de Leeuw devoted himself entirely to composition, living in Paris and Vétheuil. His various prizes include the Prix Italia (1956, radio oratorio Job), the Prix des Jeunesses Musicales (1958, String Quartet no.1), Prize of the City of Amsterdam (1970, Lamento pacis), and twice the Matthijs Vermeulen Prize (1982, Car nos vignes sont en fleur, and 1997, posthumously, complete output).

2. Works.

As a student of Badings and for a while after, de Leeuw was influenced by Bartók, Hindemith and Pijper, for example in the Sonata for two pianos (1950), which exhibits Pijper’s germ cell technique. However, after hearing Webern at the Darmstadt summer courses in 1953, he rapidly turned to an exploration of total chromaticism and serialism, one of the first Dutch composers so to do. Mouvements rétrogrades (1957) typifies de Leeuw’s careful approach, each of its ten movements twice presenting a rhythmic mirror form. Based on a pan-chromatic harmonic grid of four augmented triads, the music is related by the composer to the image of a revolving crystal that remains the same in itself, but continually reflects light in different ways. In the same year as the Mouvements, de Leeuw wrote the serial Electronic Study, and, as with serialism, his electronic work played an important introductory role to the medium for many in the Netherlands. The String Quartet no.1 (1958) still employs a strict serial technique, applied to durations (including rests) and dynamics. However, allied to Webern and Japanese traditional music – especially through the surrounding of note patterns by silence – it is consciously distant from, as de Leeuw saw it, the latent Expressionism in serialism. A meeting with Cage at the 1958 World Exhibition in Brussels helped to distance de Leeuw further from serial thought, though he was not entirely sympathetic to Cage’s concepts of chance and indeterminacy.

De Leeuw’s visit to India in 1961 led to his hearing the dhrupad singers Ustad Moinuddin and Ustad Aminuddin Dagar in Delhi; they made a lasting impression and provoked a deep interest in melodic, rhythmic and timbral sophistication. The opening of Symphonies of Winds (1963) reflects this Indian experience: it is a cumulative presentation of a fixed field of melodic formulas, modelled upon the classical Indian ālāp, which was to inspire the opening of many later compositions too, e.g. Mountains (1977) and Résonances (1984–5). However, Symphonies of Winds also presents a quotation from Symphonies of Wind Instruments by Stravinsky, to whom the piece is dedicated, the work thus marking the start of a period in which de Leeuw turned to past Western music, as well as to non-Western traditions.

The 1960s were years of intense experimentation in many areas, including the use of chance, automatic writing, open forms, multiple layering, guided improvisation, and new explorations of the performance space and physical and social aspects of music-making. In many of these cases Japanese traditional arts served as a reference. The fact that haiku-texts permit many possible readings was taken by the composer as a starting point for several different musical interpretations of the sounds of a particular text within one piece, as in Men Go their Ways (1964), the one-act opera De droom (1963), and Haiku II (1968). In the last of these, the lines of a haiku are fragmented into single words and sounds out of which new combinations of words and sounds are made as fresh ‘interpretations’ of the original haiku. In this piece space also plays a structural role: the soprano sings at six different positions, connected by promenades. Other compositions displaying an important spatial element are Spatial music I-IV (1966–8) and Lamento pacis (1969), to texts from Erasmus’s Querela pacis. This piece exemplifies de Leeuw’s preoccupation in the late 1960s with mental disorientation and socio-political disintegration; in the third part spatial dispersion serves to transform the vocal-instrumental ensemble into unrelated individual musicians. The dedications of Lamento’s three movements also reflect other interests of de Leeuw at the time: Gesualdo, Zeami (the co-founder of nō theatre) and Ockeghem. One of the concepts derived from nō is the simultaneity of autonomous musical layers, employed in part 2; there are also concrete sound references to nō and gagaku. Controlled improvisation modelled on non-Western practices such as in Arabic and Indian classical music, is found in, for example, Spatial music IV; a fund of patterns is specified which the players are invited to individualize by means of free decoration.

In the 1970s de Leeuw moved towards the use of elementary melodic and rhythmic units, with the wish to ‘rebuild’ music after serialism. While diatonic patterns are present within the pan-chromaticism since the early 1960s (e.g. in Symphonies), language becomes substantially diatonic and modal from the 1970s on. As well as reference to modality in the titles of Mo-Do (1974) and Modal music (1978–9) modal practice is manifest in the use of ‘selective’ scales, specific melodic patterning and guided performer ornamentation in these works, as well as in Music for Oboe (1969), Sweelinck Variations (1973), and Gending for Javanese gamelan (1985). Inspired by Javanese music, the first part of Gending is cyclic in nature. The beginning and ending of the cycles are marked by specific acoustic means which de Leeuw called ‘colotomic marking’, after a term used by his teacher Kunst to denote the punctuation of phrase structure in Javanese gamelan music using the larger gongs. This colotomic practice remained characteristic until the end of de Leeuw’s life. In his last 15 years, he composed prolifically, fully developing a concept of extended modality in works such as Invocations (1983), Résonances (1985), Les chants de Kabir (1985) and his last composition, 3 Shakespeare Songs (1994–5). The opera Antigone (1991) is a fine example of both extended modality and de Leeuw’s metaphysics; human existence is seen as part of a divine play, in which the individual functions as an actor, not as a director. The fundamental musical structure is essentially undramatic, all parts derived from the same pitch-duration cycle.

3. Ideology and style.

During much of de Leeuw’s career, the idea of interaction between cultures – most specifically as a West–East relationship – was a powerful creative incentive. However, such compass points are not confined to geographical or cultural entities, but stand for ideas about complexes of attitudes and musical structures: the West, a goal-oriented music of ‘becoming’ rooted in dynamism, tension and development particularly since the 19th century; the East, a music of ‘being’, oriented towards balance, with an endlessly varied potential for activity. Leeuw himself at first identified strongly with those composers whom he viewed as standing apart from 19th-century Western mentality such as Debussy, Stravinsky (‘the first true anti-romantic’) and Webern, as well as with pre-tonal European and non-Western styles. One important characteristic for him was the use of silence, implying an absence of intention, with Cage and Japanese traditional arts serving as points of reference during the 1960s.

However, from the 1970s on, there began a long process of reconciliation between occident and orient with modality at its core. Structurally, modal practices were attractive as possible means by which to transcend the tonal-atonal debate, as an antidote to the expansionist tendency of postwar serialism, and, more generally, as a stimulus to set aside equal temperament. At the same time he saw modality as the common historic source of Western and Eastern traditions: de Leeuw’s writings frequently compare medieval Western mode to the Indian concept of rāga, Arabic maqām, and Javanese patēt. His work participated in the ‘universalist’ discussions by musicologists and composers during the 1970s, and he saw confirmation of his own concentration on modality in the re-emergence of certain modal characteristics in the early 20th century (Debussy, Stravinsky) and later (Messiaen). However, such technical aspects were always viewed as one side of a coin, the other side of which was spiritual. In his later writings de Leeuw refers to ‘trans-subjectivity’, a concept influenced by Hindu and Buddhist texts, which involves liberation from cultural and ego-oriented conditioning, as the basis for creativity. He stresses the importance of an ‘ecology of sound’, inviting the rediscovery of an ‘ethics’ of music-making and listening.

With the development of ‘extended modality’ in the 1980s ‘becoming’ and ‘being’ became aspects of an integrated compositional approach. A fundamental aspect of de Leeuw’s thought is the use of fixed series of pitches, usually diatonic and with characteristic focal notes, termed by the composer a ‘model’. The model is constantly looped – a musical reflection of natural cycles – though usually not sounded in its entirety. Rather it is subjected to various means of selection, through the application of pitch or duration structures which act as filters, the overall duration nevertheless remaining intact. In ex.1 from Résonances, (a) is the model; (b) is a selection according to pitch, the A flat serving as a trigger, alternately sustained or ‘releasing’ interim pitches; (c) selects through duration, changing note every six beats. Such a dialectic between pitch and duration results essentially in a monodic music. However, where a denser weave is required, heterophony results through simultaneous multiple selection, while harmony is achieved through parallellism and resonance (by sustaining pitches); drones are omnipresent.

The essential paring down of de Leeuw’s final period was the outcome of a style which always had a tendency towards textural transparency and severity, together with a refined sense of timbre. The involvement of the repeating model also reveals a long-term connection with his early employment of serialism. However, it is treated as a pool of possibility, not, as with a series, stated whole. As such it is analagous to the idea of ‘being’, while the selection process suggests ‘becoming’. It is the heart of de Leeuw’s philosophy: nothing need be sought, everything is already present.

WORKS

dramatic

Alceste (TV op, 3, de Leeuw, after Euripedes), 1962, TV, 13 March 1963

De droom [The Dream] (op with ballet, 3 scenes, de Leeuw, after East Asia legend, incl. Jap. haiku, trans. H.G. Henderson), 1963, Amsterdam, Stadsschouwburg, 16 June 1965

De bijen [The Bees] (ballet), 1964

Krishna en Radha (ballet), 1964

Litany of Our Time (TV incid music), 1970

Antigone (music drama, 2 pts, de Leeuw, after Sophocles), 1989–91, Amsterdam, Westergasfabriek, 25 June 1993

orchestral and large ensemble

Conc. grosso, str, 1946; Treurmuziek in memoriam Willem Pijper, 1946; Sym., str, perc, 1950; Sym., str, 1951; Plutos Suite, 1952; Vn Conc. no.1, 1953; Suite, youth orch, 1954; Mouvements rétrogrades, 1957; Nritta, 1961; Ombres, 1961; Vn Conc. no.2, 1961; Symphonies of Winds, 1963; Spatial Music I, 1966; Syntaxis II, 1966; Spatial Music IV, 12 insts, 1968; Music for Str, 1970; Music for Org and 12 players, 1970–71; Spatial Music V, 1971; Canzone, 10 brass, 1973–4; Gending, gamelan, 1975; Alba, chbr conc., small orch, 1982, rev. 1986; Résonances, 1985; Conc., 2 gui, str, 1988; Danses sacrées, pf, chbr orch, 1989–90

choral

Missa brevis, SATB, 1952; 4 koorliederen (anon., medieval Dutch), SATB, 1953; Prière (Qur’an), SATB, 1953; Psalm 118, 3-pt mixed chorus, 2 trbn, org ad lib, 1966; Lamento pacis I-II-II (Erasmus), mixed chorus, insts, 1969; The Magic of Music I (Indian music theory text), 2-pt chorus, 1970; Cloudy Forms (Shitao), male vv, 1970; The Birth of Music (American-Indian myth), mixed vv/male vv, 1975; Car nos vignes sont en fleur (Bible: Song of Songs), 12-pt mixed chorus; Invocations (Lat., Pss), Mez, 4-pt mixed chorus, ens, 1983; Chimères (G. de Nerval), 2Ct, T, 2Bar, B, 1984; Les chants de Kabir, 2Ct, T, 2Bar, B, 1985; Transparence (Fr., Arab mystics), 18-pt mixed chorus, (3 tpt, 3 trbn)/(tpt, 2 hn, 2, trbn, tuba), 1986; 5 hymnes (Kabir), mixed chorus, 2 pf, 2 perc, 1987–8; A cette heure du jour (Old Sumerian, Fr. trans. by P. Selk), 4-pt mixed chorus, 1991–2; Elégie pour les villes détruites (Bible), 4-pt mixed chous, 1994

chamber and solo instrumental

Str Trio, 1948; Introduzione e passacaglia, org, 1949; Sonata, fl, pf, 1949; Sonata, vn, pf, 1951; Trio, fl, cl, pf, 1952; 5 Sketches, ob, cl, bn, va, vc, 1952; Sonatine, vn, pf, 1955; Str Qt no.1, 1958; The Four Seasons, hp, 1964; Schelp [Shell], fl, va, gui, 1964; Str Qt no.2, 1964; Nightmusic, fl, 1966; Music for Vn, 1967; Music for Ob, 1969; Reversed Night, fl, 1971; Spatial Music II, perc ens, 1971; Midare, mar, 1972; Sweelinck-variaties, org, 1972–3; Music for trbn, 1973–4; Mo-du, amp clvd/hpd, 1974; Rime, fl, hp, 1974; Modal music, accdn, 1978–9; Interlude, gui, 1984; Apparences I, vc, 1987; Apparences II, cl qt, 1987; Hommage à Henri, cl, pf, 1989; Trio, fl, b cl, pf, 1990; Music for Db, 1989–91; Fauxbordon, fl, cl + b cl, pf, synth, mar, mand, vn, va, 1991–2; rev. 1993; Music for Mar, Vib and Jap. Temple Bells, 2 players, 1993; Sax Qt, 1993; Str Qt no.3, 1994

Pf: Scherzo, 1948; Sonatine, 1949; Sonata, 2 pf, 1950; Variations sur une chanson populaire française, pf/hpd, 1950; 4 Preludes, 1950; 5 études, 1951; 4 ritmische etudes, 1952; 3 Afrikaanse etudes, 1954; 6 dansen, 1955; Men Go their Ways, 1964; Linkerhand en rechterhand, 1976; Les adieux, 1988

solo vocal

With pf: Berceuse presque nègre (P. van Ostaijen), medium v, pf, 1948; Diablerie (J. Engelman), S, pf, 1948; Goden en zangers [Gods and Singers] (A. Roland Holst), S, pf, 1948; Die Weise von Liebe und Tod (R.M. Rilke), high v, pf, 1948; De ueren van de bittere passie Jesu Christi (anon., medieval Dutch), medium v, pf, 1949; 5 liederen (F. García Lorca), high v, pf, 1952; 2 liederen (G. Mistral), S, pf, 1953; 8 europese liederen, medium v, pf, 1954; Haiku (Eng. trans. by H.G. Henderson), S, pf, 1963

Other: De toverfluit [The Magic Flute], S, fl, vc, pf, 1954; Brabant (H. Laurey), medium v, orch, 1959; Haiku II (Eng. trans. by H.G. Henderson), S, orch, 1968; Vocalise, solo v, 1968; 4 liederen, medium v, 3 rec, 1955; And they shall reign for ever (Bible: Revelations), Mez, cl, hn, pf, perc, 1981; Natasja (vocalise), B, 1990; 3 Shakespeare Songs, Mez, large ens, 1994–5

electro-acoustic

Job (radio orat, Bible: Job), solo vv, mixed chorus, orch, elecs, 1956; Electronic Study, 1957; Antiphony, ww qnt, 4-track tape, 1960; Syntaxis I, tape, 1966; Spatial Music III, 4 inst groups, tape, 1967; Mountains, cl, tape, 1977; The Magic of Music II (Indian music theory text), v, tape, 1977; Chronos, tape, 1980; Clair obscur, tape, 1982

Principal publisher: Donemus

WRITINGS

‘New Trends in Modern Dutch Music’, Sonorum speculum, no.4 (1960), 124–33; no.5 (1960), 174–81

‘Mouvements rétrogrades’, Sonorum speculum, no.8 (1961), 14–15

‘Elektronische Probleme in den Niederlanden’, Melos, xxx/5 (1963), 161–3

Muziek van de twintigste eeuw (Utrecht, 1964, 3/1991; Swed. trans., 1967; Ger. trans., 1995, as Sprache der Musik im 20. Jahrhundert)

‘Music in Orient and Occident: a Social Problem’, World of Music, xi/4 (1969), 6–17

‘L’interaction des cultures dans la musique contemporaine/Interaction of Cultures in Contemporary Music’, Cultures, i/3 (1973–4), 13–32

‘Introduction’; ‘The East-West Theme’; ‘Analysis of Gending’; ‘Five Reflections’, Key Notes, no.3 (1976), 66–74

‘Questions, Ideas and Expectations: Premises and Aims of an East-West Encounter’, World of Music, xx/2 (1978), 19–33

‘The Adaptation of Asian Music Forms in Contemporary Music’, Final Report of the Asian Composers’ Conference: Hong Kong 1981 (Hong Kong, 1983), 40–47

‘Van de jaren zestig tot heden: het moderne muziekleven aan de hand van vijf karakteristieken’ [From the 1960s to the present: modern musical life in five characteristics], Muziek in de 20e eeuw, ed. J. Nuchelmans (Baarn, 1995), 52–66

‘Back to the Source’, Ton de Leeuw, ed. J. Sligter (Luxembourg, 1995), 73–93

‘We Live Atop a Volcano’, Key Notes, no.30 (1996), 4–7

BIBLIOGRAPHY

K.H. Wörner: ‘Holländische Musiker der Gegenwart’, SMz, cii (1962), 5–8

J. Wouters: ‘Ton de Leeuw: “Ombres”’, Sonorum speculum, no.14 (1963), 11–13 [in Eng., Ger.]

J. Wouters: ‘Composers’ Gallery: Ton de Leeuw’, Sonorum speculum, no.19 (1964), 1–28 [in Eng., Ger.]

V. McDermott: ‘Current Chronicle: the Netherlands’, MQ, lii (1966), 511–14

E. Vermeulen: ‘“Lamento pacis” by Ton de Leeuw’, Sonorum speculum, no.39 (1969), 23–32 [in Eng., Ger.]

D. Manneke: ‘Ton de Leeuw “Music for Strings”’, Sonorum speculum, no.48 (1971), 17–26 [in Eng., Ger.]

J. Wouters: Negen portretten van Nederlandse componisten, i (Amsterdam, 1971), 17–49

D. Manneke: ‘Ton de Leeuw: “Music for Organ and 12 Players”’, Sonorum speculum, no.49 (1971–2), 7–12

S. Moore: ‘Reflections on Musicultura 1974–1976’, Sonorum speculum, no.57 (1974), 30–40 [in Eng., Ger.]

E. Helm: ‘Holland Musicultura: Begegnung mit der Musik des nahen Ostens’, Melos/NZM, iii (1977), 46–7

E. Helm: ‘The Music of Ton de Leeuw’, Key Notes, no.9 (1979), 3–12

B. Baas: ‘Dutch 20th-Century Piano Music, Part II: Catching Up with International Trends’, Key Notes, no.14 (1981), 30–43

L. Dominick: ‘Mode and Movement in Recent Works of Ton de Leeuw’, Key notes, no.17 (1983), 15–23

R. de Groot: ‘Aspects of Ton de Leeuw’s Musical Universe’, Key Notes, no.23 (1986), 17–31

W. Markus: ‘Music and Time: Observations on Arnold Schoenberg and Ton de Leeuw’, Key Notes, no.23 (1986), 14–16

R. de Groot: Compositie en intentie van Ton de Leeuws muziek: van een evolutionair naar een cyclisch paradigma [The composition and intention of Ton de Leeuw’s music: from an evolutionary to a cyclic paradigm] (diss., U. of Utrecht, 1991)

R. de Groot: ‘Componist tussen Oost en West: cel en kristal, ontwikkelingen in de muziek van Ton de Leeuw’ [Composer between east and west: cell and crystal, developments in the music of Ton de Leeuw], Holland Festival Almanack 1993 (Amsterdam, 1993), 44–51

J. Kolsteeg: ‘Antigone According to de Leeuw & de Leeuw’, Key Notes, no.28 (1994), 4–7

B. Robindoré: ‘Where there is no Vision, the People Perish’, Key Notes, no.28 (1994), 20–24 [interview]

R. de Groot: ‘The Concept of Extended Modality in Recent Works by Ton de Leeuw’, Ethnomusicology in the Netherlands: Present situation and Traces of the Past, ed. W. van Zanten and M.J. van Roon (Leiden, 1995), 93–112

J. Sligter, ed.: Ton de Leeuw (Luxembourg, 1995)

Lee Young-ja

(b Wŏnju, Kangwŏn province, 4 June 1931). Korean composer. She studied with La Un-Yong at Ewha Women’s University in Seoul (BA 1954, MA 1956), with Aubin and Noël Gallon at the Paris Conservatoire (1958-61), with Marcel Quinet at the Conservatoire Royal de Musique in Brussells (1969–72), at the Manhattan School of Music (1969) and at Sorbonne University (diploma 1989). She was professor and director of the composition department at Ewha Women’s University (1961–83), occasional lecturer at Seoul National University and other universities in Korea and guest lecturer at the Sorbonne (1989). She was awarded the 8th Korean National Composer’s Prize (1986) and, for her Cantata, the National Grand Prize (1995). The most senior of Korean women composers, her works have been performed in the Americas, Asia, Australasia and Europe as well as in Korea.

Lee’s works retain a French influence. Her Sonatine for piano (1972) starts with a fluid andantino that quickly develops oscillating bass ostinatos and blocks of descending chord clusters. The three-movement Piano Sonata (1985) begins with dissonant clusters coupled to rhythmic patterns imitating traditional percussion bands. The second movement describes han, Korean repression, using high block chords without vertical harmonic support. The finale emphasizes a regular oscillating bass reminiscent of a country blacksmith. Stylistically similar is Auto-Portrait for harp and piano (1990), first performed in Seoul by its dedicatees, her two daughters. Two six-note scales are distributed on the two instruments, each unfolding like a monologue or in rapid glissandos and melodic flurries like a waterfall. Other representative works include the Piano Concerto (1973) and Mouvements concertante for violin and orchestra (1973).

WORKS

Orch: Suite, 1971; Movements symphoniques, 1972; Mouvements concertante, vn, orch, 1973; Pf Conc., 1973; Festival Ov., 1975; Gaech'ŏnjŏl Sym., 1991

Chbr and solo inst: 2 Preludes and Bagatelle, pf, 1952; Qnt, cl, vn, vc, db, pf, 1953; Trio, cl, bn, pf, 1955; Sonata, vc, pf, 1956; Sonata, vn, pf, 1956; 2 Poems, pf, 1958; Theme and Variations, pf, 1961; Trio, ob, bn, pf, 1967; Suite, vc, pf, 1967; Suite Romantic, pf, 1967; Ballade, cl, pf, 1970; Sonatine, pf, 1972; Sonata ‘Requiem’, fl, 1983; Sonata ‘Yeol’ [Rank], pf, 1985; Sonata ‘Jong’ [Bell], pf, 1985; Reflections, cl, fl, 1986; Reminiscence, pf, 1988; Music for Ob and Pf, 1989; Auto-Portrait, hp, pf, 1990; Qnt ‘Chant d’amour d’un papillon’, fl, hp, vn, va, vc, 1992; Aquarelles, hp, 1995; 6 Variations, cl, vn, pf, 1996; 8 Variations on a Korean Childrens’ Song ‘Om-ma-ya, Nu-na-ya’, pf, 1996

Vocal (1v, pf, unless otherwise stated): 5 Art Songs, 1955; 2 Art Songs, 1967; 3 Love Songs, S, hp, 1991; 3 Melodies (Chŏn Sangbyŏng), SATB, 1995; Cant. ‘Taehan min'guk ch'an'ga kwangbok 50-nyŏn’ [50-Year Independence of the Republic of Korea], S, T, SATB, orch, 1995; 2 Melodies: Ch'orok norae [Green Song], Naehone purŭl noha [Set Fire to my Soul], 1995; 4 Melodies (Yi Haein), S, pf, 1996; 5 Melodies (Chŏn Sangbyŏng), S, pf, 1996; Ps cl, SATB, pf, 1998

WRITINGS

Strict Counterpoint (Seoul, 1974)

Orchestral Works of Olivier Messiaen (diss., Sorbonne U., 1989)

Strict Counterpoint, Inverted Counterpoint, and Canon (Seoul, 1992)

KEITH HOWARD

LeFanu, Nicola (Frances)

(b Wickham Bishops, Essex, 28 April 1947). English composer of Irish descent, daughter of elizabeth Maconchy. She studied music at Oxford University (BA 1968), at the RCM (1968–9) and with Earl Kim in the USA as a Harkness Fellow and Mendelssohn Scholar (1973–4); she also studied with Jeremy Dale Roberts. While establishing herself as a composer, she taught at Francis Holland School (1969–72), Morley College (1972) and St Paul's School for Girls (1975–7); she also taught composition at King's College, London (1977–94), sharing a post with her husband David Lumsdaine. She became professor of Music at York University in 1994. One of the founding members of Women in Music, which she helped to launch with a lecture investigating the neglect of women composers in contemporary Britain (Contact, 1987), she has been a long-standing member of many professional bodies, including the SPNM and the Arts Council. Her honours include a DMus from London University (1988), an honorary fellowship from St Hilda's College, Oxford (1993), certification as an FRCM (1995) and an honorary DMus from Durham University (1995).

LeFanu's highly organized music is characterized by a keen attention to musical line and space, a fascination with instrumental timbre and a desire to communicate. Opera and music theatre have played a pivotal role in her output. Her first critical successes, Soliloquy for solo oboe (1966) and Variations for oboe quartet (1968, winner of a Cobbett Prize and a BBC competition) came while she was still a student. Her first theatrical piece, Anti-World (1972), which sets samizdat Soviet texts, explores issues of freedom and control, themes echoed in some of her later works.

Landscape, whether that of England, Ireland or the Australian outback, has proved to be an important creative stimulus for LeFanu. Her first large-scale orchestral work, The Hidden Landscape (1973), commissioned by the BBC for the Proms, was followed in 1975 by Columbia Falls, inspired by the hills and moors of the state of Maine. Both works demonstrate her effective use of instrumental colour, and her use of gestures to provide foreground detail against a seemingly distant horizon of harmonic structures. Later works that emphasize this sense of space include Deva (1979), the solo cello part of which LeFanu has described as stream becoming river becoming sea as it moves from the top to the bottom of its register against the landscape of the instrumental accompaniment. Moon Over Western Ridge, Mootwingee (1985) for saxophone quartet, written after a month in the outback of Western New South Wales, uses quarter-tones to create a vividly atmospheric sense of distance, clearly evoking a distinctive landscape. A number of later instrumental compositions explore microtonality, notably the Saxophone Concerto (1989) and Lament 1988 (1988), a work that marked both Nelson Mandela's 70th birthday and the 200th anniversary of Australia's invasion by European settlers.

LeFanu's vocal works set a wide range of texts, including traditional poetry from Europe, the USA and Asia. Her song cycle The Same Day Dawns (1974), on a collection of short Eastern texts, shares a central monodic line between a soprano voice and accompanying instruments. Both intimate and dramatic, the work directly conveys its themes of love, loneliness and death. Communicating social and humanist issues through storytelling is an important aspect of LeFanu's operatic works. Mary O'Neill (1986), a radio opera for 17 unaccompanied voices (commissioned by the BBC), tells the story of an Irish émigré and her descendants in Argentina, exploring issues of tolerance, dispossession and Empire. The three full-scale operas of the 1990s, The Green Children (1990), Blood Wedding (1992) and The Wildman (1995), continue, in very different musical ways, to explore themes of community and difference. The Green Children, involving children both during the compositional process and in performance, uses a relatively simple modal language. A number opera, it tells of two green children who are gradually accepted into an initially suspicious community. Blood Wedding, after the play by Lorca, is the story of unsanctioned love set against the rigid, matriarchal society of southern Spain. Here LeFanu employs a highly chromatic musical language with planes of microtonality and modality centred around a strong melodic line to convey the dusty intensity and passion of Lorca's world. The Wildman is based on the East Anglian myth of the merman, a tale that allows for an exploration of basic questions of tolerance and the human condition. The ambiguous central character, who re-learns human speech over the course of a commanding series of soliloquies, gradually re-discovers the human world through his interaction with other characters.

The Old Woman of Beare (1981), a powerful monodrama for soprano and 13 instruments, successfully unites many of the central concerns of LeFanu's work, in particular her exploration of character and her evocation of place. The text, after a 10th-century Irish poem, uses the distinctly female imagery of the ocean's tides to convey an aging courtesan's reflection on the passing of her life and sexuality. The complex vocal line, ranging from speech to song and often accompanied by a talking drum, together with finely crafted instrumental lines, clearly depicts the dramatic coast of Western Ireland, the old woman's tempestuous life and her regret at its passing.

WORKS

stage

first performed in London in year of composition unless otherwise stated Anti-World (music-theatre piece, 1, N. Gorbanevskaya, A. Voznesensky), 1972; The Last Laugh (ballet), 1972, London, 1973; Dawnpath (chbr op, 1, LeFanu, after Amerindian texts), 1977; The Old Woman of Beare (monodrama, LeFanu, after 10th-century Irish), S, ens, 1981; The Story of Mary O'Neill (radio op, LeFanu and S. McInerney), 1986, BBC broadcast, 1989; The Green Children (children's op, 2, K. Crossley-Holland), 1990; Blood Wedding (op, 2, D. Levy, after F.García Lorca), 1992; The Wildman (op, 2, Crossley-Holland), 1995, Aldeburgh, 1995

vocal

Choral: Christ Calls Man Home (Eng. medieval), 2S, 3 SATB, 1971; The Valleys Shall Sing (Pss), SATB, 2 bn, 2 tpt, 3 trbn, 1973; The Little Valleys, SSSS, 1975; For We are the Stars (Amerindian texts), 4S, 4A, 4T, 4B, 1978; Verses from Ps xc, S, 2 SATB, 1978; Like a Wave of the Sea (trad. Hindi, L. Carroll, Bible), SATB, early insts, 1981; Rory's Rounds (trad.), children's vv, 1983; Stranded on my Heart (nursery rhymes, R. Tagore, J. Fuller and others), T, SATB, str, 1984 [rev. as The Silver Strand, SATB, 1989]; The Spirit Moves (Pss, Upanishads), SATB, 1992; On the Wind: a Lament (LeFanu, A. le M. Hartigan), lament, SATB, 1997

Other vocal: Il cantico dei cantici II (Bible), S, 1968; But Stars Remaining (C. Day Lewis), S, 1970; Rondeaux (Fr. medieval), T, hn, 1972; Paysage (G. Apollinaire), Bar, 1973; The Same Day Dawns (various), S, fl + a fl, cl + b cl, vn, va, perc, 1974; A Penny for a Song (Jap. and Irish texts, W. de la Mare), S, pf, 1981; Trio II: Song for Peter (E. Dickinson, T. Hughes, A. Chekhov), S, cl, vc, 1983; I am Bread (B. Kennelly), S, pf, 1987; Wind Among the Pines: 5 Images of Norfolk (S. Takahashi), S, orch, 1987; Sundari and the Secret Message, nar, fl + pic, vc, sitar, tabla, elec kbd, 1993; La cancion de la luna (Lorca), Ct, str qt, 1994; A Travelling Spirit, S, rec, 1997

instrumental

Orch: Preludio I, 1967 [rev. as Preludio II, 1976]; The Hidden Landscape, 1973; Columbia Falls, 1975; Farne, 1980; Variations, pf, orch, 1982; Conc., a sax, str, 1989; Concertino, cl, str, 1997; Duo concertante, vn, va, orch, 1999

Chbr and solo inst: Soliloquy, ob, 1966; Variations, ob, vn, va, vc, 1968; Chiaroscuro, pf, 1969; Abstracts and a Frame, vn, pf, 1971; Songs and Sketches, 6 or more vc, 1971; Omega, org, 1972, rev. 1984; Collana, solo perc, fl + a fl, cl + b cl, vn, vc, db, 1976; Deva, solo vc, a fl, cl, bn, hn, vn, va, db, 1979; Trio I, fl + pic, vc, perc, 1980; SPNM Birthday Fanfare, 2 tpt, 1983; Moon over Western Ridge, Mootwingee, sax qt, 1985; Invisible Places, cl qnt, 1986; Lament 1988, ob + eng hn, cl + b cl, va, vc, 1988; Lullaby, A-cl, pf, 1988; Nocturne, vc, pf, 1988; Str Qt no.1, 1988; Ervallagh, a sax, 1993; Dawn's Dove, rec, 1995; Sextet: A Wild Garden – Fásach, fl + a fl + pic, cl + b cl, vn, vc, pf, perc, 1997; Str Qt no.2, 1997; Gathering paths, installation, perc, tape, 1998, collab. B. Freeman and D. Lumsdaine

Principal publisher: Novello

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FullerPG

R. Cooke: ‘Nicola LeFanu’, MT, cxvi (1975), 961–3

J.W. LePage: ‘Nicola LeFanu, Composer’, Women Composers, Conductors and Musicians of the Twentieth Century: Selected Bibliographies, iii (Metuchen, NJ, 1988), 115–128

N. LeFanu: ‘Master Musician: an Impregnable Taboo?’, Contact, xxi (1987), 4–8

N. LeFanu: [Interview], CMR, xi (1994), 183–5

SOPHIE FULLER

Lefébure.

See Lefèvre.

Lefebure, Louis Antoine [André].

See Lefebvre, Louis Antoine.

Lefébure, Yvonne

(b Ermont, 29 June 1898; d Paris, 23 Jan 1986). French pianist and teacher. She received a premier prix in Cortot’s class at the Paris Conservatoire in 1912, followed by premiers prix in harmony, accompaniment, counterpoint and fugue. Her early performances included concertos with the Lamoureux and Colonne orchestras and recitals throughout Europe. In 1950 Casals invited her to perform at the first Prades Festival. Throughout her career she championed French music, especially the works of Dukas, Fauré, Ravel and Maurice Emmanuel. A renowned pedagogue, she taught at the Ecole Normale de Musique (1924–39), the Paris Conservatoire (1952–67) and at the Conservatoire Européen (1971–85). She also founded a summer festival at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, where her masterclasses drew pianists from around the world. Her students included Catherine Collard, Imogen Cooper and Samson François. An international competition was established in her name in 1990. Her recordings include searching accounts of Fauré’s Thème et variations, Dukas’s Variations, interlude et finale sur un thème de Rameau and Mozart’s Concerto in D minor, with Furtwängler conducting the Berlin Philharmonic.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Timbrell: French Pianism (White Plains, NY, and London, 1992, 2/forthcoming)

Y. Carbou: La leçon de musique d’Yvonne Lefébure (Paris, 1995) [incl. discography]

CHARLES TIMBRELL

Lefébure-Wély, Louis (James Alfred)

(b Paris, 13 Nov 1817; d Paris, 31 Dec 1869). French organist and composer. At the age of 15 he succeeded his father as organist at St Roch. In 1835 he won a premier prix for organ at the Paris Conservatoire, where he studied with Benoist. His exceptional pedal technique led Franck to dedicate his Final to him, and Alkan his 12 études pour les pieds seulement. He then studied composition at the Conservatoire with Berton and Halévy. From 1847 to 1858 he was organist at the Madeleine, and then at St Sulpice from 1863 to his death. He also gave harmonium recitals in France and abroad, and often played at organ inaugurations, including a notable occasion with Franck on the new Cavaillé-Coll organ at Ste Clotilde. Lefébure-Wély’s popular appeal may well have helped raise public awareness of the French Romantic organ, exemplified by the work of Cavaillé-Coll.

Lefébure-Wély’s 200 compositions include works for piano, chamber ensemble, orchestra (including three symphonies) and the theatre (an opéra comique Les recruteurs, 1861). His organ pieces, many of which have recently become available in modern editions, include pastorales, versets, élevations and communions, which were sentimental, lyrical works, and offertories, marches and sorties, which were louder and more akin to the operetta choruses then in vogue. He was awarded the Légion d’Honneur in 1850.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (J. Bonfils) [with work-list]

C. Noisette de Crauzat: ‘De la virtuosité dans l’orgue français au XIXe siècle: Lefébure-Wély’, Romantisme, xvii/57 (1987), 45–51

H. de Rohan-Csermak: ‘Lefébure-Wély symphoniste: aspects instrumentaux et techniques de son oeuvre d’orgue’, Orgues méridionales, xxxii (1988), 14–31

DAVID SANGER

Lefebvre.

See Lefèvre.

Lefebvre, Charles Edouard

(b Paris, 19 June 1843; d Aix-les-Bains, 8 Sept 1917). French composer. A son of the celebrated painter Jules Lefebvre (1805–82), he studied law before enrolling at the Paris Conservatoire, where he was taught by Ambroise Thomas and Gounod. In 1870 he shared the Prix de Rome with Henri Maréchal for his cantata Le jugement de Dieu. After his stay in Italy he toured Greece and the orient, returning to Paris in 1873. Twice awarded the Prix Chartier, in 1884 and 1891, he replaced Benjamin Godard in 1895 as professor of the ensemble class at the Conservatoire. He spent most of his life in Paris, where he devoted himself to composition as well as teaching. His article ‘Les formes de la musique instrumentale’ is published in EMDC, II/v (Paris, 1930), 3121–3129.

As a composer Lefebvre was highly regarded by French critics during the late 19th century. They recognized, however, that his contribution, comprising virtually all the important musical genres, was not up to the level of the leading French composers of the time. The style and texture of his instrumental pieces might be compared to those of Mendelssohn, whom he admired greatly. In Judith he anticipated the 20th-century French predilection for opera-oratorio typical of Les Six, particularly Milhaud and Honegger.

WORKS

(selective list)

all printed works published in Paris

stage

operas unless otherwise stated

Lucrèce (3, E. Blau), 1877–8

Le trésor (oc, 1, F. Coppée), op.53, Angers, 1883 (?1884)

Zaïre (4, P. Collin, after Voltaire), op.66, Lille, 1887 (1887)

Djelma (3, C. Lormon), Paris, Opéra, 25 May 1894 (1894)

other vocal

Solo vv, chorus, orch: Le jugement de Dieu (H. Dutheil), 1870, cant. [Prix de Rome]; Psaume xxiii [Domini est terra], op.25, 1871 (1876); Judith, biblical drama (Collin), op.31 (1877); Melka, légende fantastique (Collin), op.53 (1880); Eloâ, lyric poem (Collin, after A. de Vigny), op.70 (1888); Sainte-Cécile, lyric poem (E. Guinand), op.99 (1896); La fille de Jephté, lyric poem (de Vigny), op.120 (1908)

Unacc. chorus: Au bord du Nil (V. Hugo), op.49, 1879 (?c1879); Divine Hébé (C.-M.-R. Leconte de Lisle), op.69, 1886 (?c1886); Choeur d’Esther (R. Racine), op.74, 1888 (n.d.); Sombre nuit (Racine), op.127 (1912); Les anges gardiens (Collin) (n.d.); Isis (n.d.)

35 songs

instrumental

Orch: Sym., d, op.50, 1879 (?c1879); Ouverture de Fiesque, 1866; Le jugement de Dieu, ov., 1873; Ouverture dramatique, g, 1875; Ouverture Toggenburg (1905); Dalila, op.40 (1875); [2] Suites, opp.57, 59 (n.d.); Une sérénade, op.65 (1884); Cortège villageois, op.75, 1890 (n.d.); Suite, op.116 (n.d.); Andante et choral, hp, op.117 (1906); Prélude dramatique (1912); Cortège nuptial (1924); Esquisses pastorales, suite (n.d.)

Other works: Pieces for org, solo pf, pf 4 hands

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Imbert: Profils d’artistes contemporains (Paris, 1897) [with catalogue of works]

Orbus: ‘La vie intime d’un grand musicien: Charles Lefebvre’, Revue des deux mondes, c/lviii (1930), 346–76

ELAINE BRODY/CORMAC NEWARK

Lefebvre, Claude

(b nr Le lac d’Ardres, Pas-de-Calais, 11 Nov 1931). French composer. He studied composition at the Paris Conservatoire with Milhaud (1958–9), then at the Basle Musikakademie with Pierre Boulez (1960–61). He was professor of analysis and composition at the Metz conservatory for 30 years (1966–96); in Metz, he founded the Centre Européen pour la Recherche Musicale in 1978, and the Rencontres Internationales de Musique Contemporaine, of which he was artistic director 1972–93. He taught courses in contemporary music at Metz University, 1978–96. In 1996 he became artistic director of the Rendez-vous Musique Nouvelle at Forbach. In 1980 he received the SACEM Grand prix for chamber music. As well as being a composer with a particular interest in harmonic experimentation, Lefebvre is also a prolific poet who has set a number of his own texts.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Cheminements, 16 str, 1969; Etwas weiter, 24 insts, 1972; Tourbillonnements, youth orch (21 insts, 2 perc), 1979; L’insoumise, 2 tpt, pf, str orch, 1991

Vocal: Océan de terre (G. Apollinaire), S, fl, cl, tpt, vc, tape, 1981; Oregon (G. Lefebvre), S, brass qnt, 1984; Virage … (Lefebvre), mixed vv, 1987; Sur le lac … la main (Lefebvre), children’s chorus, 1989; Sur le seuil … l’enfant (Lefebvre), Bar, pf, 1990; X … (Lefebvre), Bar, 12 insts, 1990; Vertigo (Lefebvre), S, str sextet, 1993; Mort“!” (P. Verlaine), Bar, pf, 3 brass insts, 1996

Chbr and solo inst: D’un arbre de nuit, fl, vc, pf, 1971; Naissances, ob, str trio, 1971; Verzweigungen-Ramifications, org, 1976; Mémoires souterraines, fl, cl, amplified vc, 1980; D’un arbre-océan, pf, 1991; L’homme et la mer, org, 1997; Musique pour René Char, hn, vc, 1998

JEAN-NOËL VON DER WEID

Lefebvre, Denis

(fl 2nd half of the 17th century). French composer. The only fact known about him is that he was maître de musique at Roye, Picardy, before going about 1660 to Paris, where he was perhaps associated with the Jesuits. He may have been related to the Denis Lefebvre, a native of Péronne, who was a singer and chaplain at the Ste Chapelle early in the century. His three sets of Cantiques spirituels et hymnes de l'église for two voices (Paris, 1660, 1666, 1674; 2/1710) have texts translated from the Latin (perhaps by Jean Rotrou), and some of their melodies are paraphrased from Gregorian chant. Gastoué regarded these pieces as the real source of popular religious song in France. Lefebvre also published a book of 19 four-part Airs à boire and the Premier livre d'airs à quatre parties (both Paris, 1660).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Gastoué: ‘Sur quelques vieux cantiques’, Variations sur la musique d’église (Paris, 1912), 19–24

A. Gastoué: Le cantique populaire en France (Lyons, 1924)

DAVID TUNLEY

Lefebvre [Le Fevre], Jacques

(fl early 17th century). French composer. He was a composer to the king until 1619. The 36 vocal pieces constituting his Meslanges de musique are in the polyphonic tradition of the previous century. The one extant copy is incomplete, but, to judge by the few works that can be restored from the four partbooks remaining, he was a fine exponent of the light and witty Renaissance chanson. His few airs, two of which are printed in La Borde, include one or two in the more progressive medium of voice with basso continuo.

WORKS

Meslanges de musique, 2–6, 8vv (Paris, 1613)

2 airs in 1615¹¹, 1 in 1626¹¹; 1 in Airs de cour pour voix et luth (1603–1643), ed. A. Verchaly (Paris, 1961)

Airs de cours et airs à boire, lv, bc, F-Pn

Various edns of individual songs in 18th- and 19th-century anthologies; 2 chansons, 3vv, ed. in Tunley

BIBLIOGRAPHY

La BordeE

D. Tunley: ‘Jacques le Fevre and his “Meslanges de Musique”’, MT, cxv (1974), 381–2

DAVID TUNLEY

Lefebvre [Lefebure, Lefevre], Louis Antoine [André]

(b Peronne, c1700; d La Ferté-sous-Jouarre, 20 July 1763). French composer. He was organist at the royal church of St Louis-en-l’Isle (Paris) and from about 1756 at Blancs-Manteaux. He composed almost exclusively vocal music, mainly motets, airs and cantatilles, through which he seems to have made a considerable name in Paris, for when reporting the publication of his third cantatille, L’absence, the Mercure de France (June 1747, p.137) commented on his growing reputation. Lefebvre wrote 23 such works and a cantata Atalante et Hippomène (1759) in which, as in some of the cantatilles written towards the end of his life, the Rococo characteristics of the form give way to those of the nascent Classical style, not only in the phrase structure of the melodic lines but also in the instrumental writing of the accompaniments. His later cantatilles thus mark a new trend in French vocal chamber music; indeed the publisher Le Clerc contracted him to provide new accompaniments to some 60 cantatilles by Louis Lemaire, but he died before carrying this out. He also composed some sacred music, his motets being performed fairly regularly at the Concert Spirituel for a period from 1749 onwards.

WORKS

all printed works published in Paris

23 cantatilles, most for 1v, insts (c1745–59)

Atalante et Hippomène (cant.) 2vv, insts (1759)

Divertissements: L’amour justifié, 2vv, insts (?1761); Le réveil de Flore, 3vv, insts (n.d.)

12 motets, 4 pubd (n.d.), 8 in MS collections; airs, duos etc.; TeD, lost

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D. Tunley: The Eighteenth-Century French Cantata (London, 1974, 2/1997)

M. Benoit, ed.: Dictionnaire de la musique en France aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (Paris, 1992)

DAVID TUNLEY

Lefèbvre, Louise-Rosalie.

See Dugazon, Louise-Rosalie.

Lefebvre, Marie-Thérèse

(b Montreal, 16 May 1942). French-Canadian musicologist. She studied musicology at the University of Montreal, Quebec (BMus 1975), where she also pursued her graduate studies (MA 1977, PhD 1981) and in 1981 was appointed professor of musicology. She teaches romantic, modern and Canadian music history as well as analysis and methodology and her teaching and research specialities are Canadian music, 20th-century Quebec music, and women and music in Quebec. An active contributor to the musical life of Quebec, she was, from 1983 to 1986, president of the Association pour l’Avancement de la Recherche en Musique du Québec (ARMuQ), the only Canadian association whose goal is the advancement of research into Quebec music. From 1986 to 1988 she was adviser to the State Minister for Culture in the Gabon Republic where she taught at the University of Omar Bongo. Author of numerous articles on Canadian music, she received in 1988 a prize from the Quebec Music Council for her book Jean Vallerand et la vie musicale au Québec. In 1997 she became dean of the music faculty at the University of Montreal.

WRITINGS

‘Histoire du Conservatoire national de musique 1922–1950’, Cahiers de l’ARMuQ, iii (1984), 37–51

‘Le rôle de l’Eglise dans l’histoire de la vie musicale du Québec', Thèmes canadiens, vii (1985)

Serge Garant et la révolution musicale au Québec (Montreal, 1986)

La création musicale des femmes au Québec (Montreal, 1991)

ed., with D. Olivier: ‘Gilles Tremblay: Réflexions’, Circuit, v/1 (1994), 5–99

‘La musique de Wagner au Québec au tournant du vingtième siècle’, Canadian University Music Review/ Revue de musique des universités canadiennes, xiv (1994), 60–76

ed.: ‘Gilles Tremblay: Analyses’, Circuit, vi/1 (1995), 9–55

Jean Vallerand et la vie musicale au Québec (Montreal, 1996)

‘Pour débusquer l’inconnu: chronologie de Serge Garant’, Circuit, vii/2 (1996), 57–73

‘Formation musicale de Serge Garant à Sherbrooke, 1941–1951’, Cahiers de la société québécoise de recherche en musique, i/1–2 (1997), 19–24

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EMC2 (S. Galaise)

SOPHIE GALAISE

Lefebvre, Philippe

(b Roubaix, 2 Jan 1949). French organist. After studying with Jeanne Joulin at Lille, then with Pierre Cochereau, he was organist at Arras Cathedral at the age of 19, entered the Paris Conservatoire and gained premiers prix in organ and improvisation (1971), counterpoint (1972) and fugue (1973). He was appointed cathedral organist at Chartres in 1976, director of the Conservatoire National de Région at Lille in 1980, and organist at Notre Dame, Paris, in 1985. A great improviser, he has moved from a neo-Romantic language close to that of Cochereau to a much more dissonant contemporary style. Lefebvre commands a solid technique and exceptional virtuosity, qualities shown to advantage in his performances of the organ repertory from Franck to Dupré, with special emphasis on the works of Vierne and Liszt.

FRANÇOIS SABATIER

Lefebvre, Xavier.

See Lefèvre, Xavier.

Lefèvre [Lefebvre, Fêvre, Lefeure, Lefébure].

French 16th- to 19th-century organ builders. The name belonged to at least 23 builders from several families, each possibly related. The first important member of the family that was based mainly in south-west France was Antoine Lefèvre (i) (fl c1524–60), who was first apprenticed to an organ builder in Arras, and from about 1510 worked with his brother-in-law, the Parisian organ builder Pierre Dugué. Antoine settled in Paris and married Jeanne Cointerel d'Aubervilliers. In 1524 he built an organ for St Mathurin, Paris. From 1528 he worked in the provinces: he is known to have been in Sens, where he made a will, and Auxerre, where he built the cathedral organ. While in Auxerre his wife died, and he subsequently returned to Paris where his two daughters married; he continued to build smaller instruments (e.g. St Sulpice), before retiring to work in the timber trade in 1559.

His son, Jean Lefèvre (i) (b ?Paris, c1550; d Toulouse, after 1598), was working for Gabriel D'Argillières in 1580, and is recorded as being in Burgundy sometime before 1590, when he was in Avallon. In 1593 he was in Lyons with his son, Antoine (ii). Jean's masterpiece, built in 1596, was the organ at Toulouse Cathedral, the specification of which shows the influence of D'Argillières.

Antoine Lefèvre (ii) (b Paris, c1571; d Toulouse, April 1651) studied with his father and later with Jean de Segré. He worked for his father in Lyons and Toulouse, and was organist at St André, Bordeaux, 1619–24. There is evidence that he was at Lourdes in 1644. He seems to have introduced the style of organ building associated with Titelouze to south-west France. Another Antoine Lefèvre (iii) (b ?c1660; d Toulouse, 1709) worked in Bagnères de Bigorre in 1695, later settling in Bordeaux where he maintained the cathedral organ until his death. The nature of his relationship to the family has not been established.

Another family by the name of Lefèvre was based in Normandy. Hector Lefèvre (b c1575; d Rouen, before 1629) was the second son of a metal-founder from Rouen who had moved to the Monnaie in Paris. Hector was trained by his uncle on his mother's side, the Parisian organ builder Dabenet, later working for Nicolas Pescheur and then for Carlier. His work on the organ at St Esprit-en-Grève led to a trial and his imprisonment. Freed on bail paid by Pierre Pescheur, he obtained a post in Rouen and lived there quietly with his son, Nicolas (ii) (d Rouen, 1635/40). Hector's brother, Nicolas (i) (b Petit-Andely, c1580; d Mantes, after 1630), was an organist as well as an organ builder, working at Angoulême (1606–8), Rouen (1609), Mantes and then Chevreuse (St Martin, 1610). Clément (b Rouen, 1630; d Rouen, 29 Sept 1709), son of Nicolas (ii), was organist of Notre-Dame-la-Ronde in 1663. He rebuilt the organ of St Nicaise, Rouen, in 1684. From 1681 he worked with his son Germain (b Rouen, bap. 6 Oct 1656; d Rouen, 1694), until the latter's death; together they built a four-manual and pedal organ at St Herbland, Rouen (1685–8), and an almost identical organ at St Denis, Rouen (1688–97). The St Herbland organ is now at Bolbec. On the completion of this organ Germain became organist at St Herbland, remaining there until his death. Another son of Clément, Claude (b Rouen, bap. 29 Dec 1667), crossed the Atlantic in 1707 after a financial scandal. His letters from Cartagenas, where he built three organs, and Caracas, where he built one or two others, are printed in Dufourcq (1934–5, p.394). Charles (i) (b Rouen, bap. 22 May 1670; d 8 Sept 1737), a third son of Clément, worked as an organ builder with his father after his brother Germain's death. He restored the organ of St Maclou (1696–1707) and built that at St Vivien (1710–12, enlarged 1719). His last organ was for St Nicolas, Rouen (1730–31). He was organist of St Vivien from 1698 to 1735.

Jean-Baptiste Nicolas (b Rouen, bap. 6 Feb 1705; d Rouen, 26 March 1784), son of Charles (i), was the most famous of the Lefèvres, of comparable importance to F.-H. Clicquot and Riepp. Characteristics of his style were an extension of the manual compass up to e''' but a curtailment of the upper range of the pedal from the old e' to c' only; an extension of some of the Cornets from c' down to f; an increase in the number of ranks of the Fournitures and Cymbales, often up to five each; the addition of 8' flutes to both Grand orgue and Positif of narrow-scale leaded metal from c; the addition of extra Trumpets (frequently in large numbers), his normal arrangement being two on the Grand orgue and one each on the Positif and Récit, besides those on the Pédale and Bombarde (on organs having one); the use of a Bombarde 16'; up to five Cornets, one on each manual; and the addition on the Pédale of a Nazard and a 16' Trompette.

A list of the principal organs of Jean-Baptiste Nicolas Lefèvre is given in Dufourcq (1934–5, p.305f). Chief among these were the instruments at Caudebec-en-Caux (1738–40; including a new Flûte allemande dessus); St Etienne, Caen (1743–7); Abbaye de Montivilliers (1746); St Maclou, Rouen (1761); St Martin, Tours (1761; the largest French classical organ, with St Sulpice, Paris, showing it has the following specification: Grand orgue: 32, 32, 16, 16, 8, 8, two 8' flutes, 4, 2, VI, V, IV, Gros nazard, Grosse tierce, Nazard, Quarte de nazard, Tierce, Larigot, Cornet, two Trompettes, two Clairons; Positif: 8, 16, 8, two 8' flutes, 4, 2, V, IV, Nazard, Quarte, Tierce, Larigot, Cornet, Trompette, Cromhorne, Voix humaine, Clairon; Bombarde: 8, 4, Cornet, Bombarde, two Trompettes, Clarion; Récit: Cornet, Trompette; Echo: Cornet; Pédale, 36 notes: 16, 8, 8, 4, 4, Gros nazard, Grosse tierce, Nazard, Quarte, Tierce, Bombarde (24'), two Trompettes, two Clairons); Evreux Cathedral (1774); St Pierre, Caen (1753, 1778; including a new Bombarde on the Grand orgue, a new Flûte of three octaves, Quarte and Hautbois on the Positif and a new Bombarde on the Pédale); Verneuil (1779). Jean-Baptiste Nicolas was also organist of St Nicaise, Rouen, in 1737, at which time he appears to have succeeded his father at St Vivien, Rouen, where he was organist until 1782.

Another son of Charles (i), Louis (bap. 23 May 1708; bur. Rouen, 23 Dec 1754), worked alone or with his brother Jean-Baptiste Nicolas. In 1739 he restored the organ of St Vivien, Rouen, and together with his brother he restored and reconstructed the organ of Notre Dame, Caudebec-en-Caux, Normandy (1738–40; four manuals and pedal, the keyboards with bone naturals and ebony accidentals). The inventory of his possessions made on 17 January 1755 is printed in Dufourcq (1934–5, pp.390–92).

Other organ builders bearing the name Lefèvre were apparently not related to the main Lefèvre family. Jacques Liévin (b Hesdin, 1621; d ?Rouen, after 1665), son of a half-brother of the De Héman nephews, was their pupil in Paris and later their colleague. He married a sister of Pierre Desenclos, with whom he worked at Mitry and at St Médard, Paris. He later went to Rennes, where he built the organ of the abbey of St Georges in 1654 (now in St Sauveur), and to Dôle (1657), and built the organ at Voeu Abbey, Cherbourg (1661). Jean (fl 1650–66) was an organist and Carmelite priest; as an organ builder he restored the instrument at St Vivien, Rouen. Pierre (b Troyes, c1678; d Paris, 1737) was an employee of Alexandre Thierry from 1689, and set up on his own account from 1693, working between Paris and Troyes. It was probably he who worked at Joinville and Verdun about 1697. He also made mechanical organs. Charles (ii) (fl Abbeville, mid-19th century) built the organ at St Sépulchre, Abbeville.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

N. Dufourcq: Documents inédits relatifs à l'orgue français (Paris, 1934–5)

N. Dufourcq: Esquisse d'une histoire de l'orgue en France du XIIIe au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1935)

M. Vanmackelberg: Les orgues d'Abbeville (Abbeville, 1966); suppl., L'orgue, nos. 160–61 (1976), 54–63

F. Douglass: The Language of the Classical French Organ (New Haven, CT, 1969)

GUY OLDHAM/PIERRE HARDOUIN, KURT LUEDERS

Lefevre, André.

See Lefebvre, Louis Antoine.

Le Fèvre, François

(fl Paris, 1558–60). French composer. He seems to have specialized in occasional pieces for the court of Henri II. His chanson Que dira l'on du noble advenement de ce vainqueur, celebrating the return of Duke François de Guise after the capture of Calais from the English, was printed in 1558 along with panegyric verses by François Habert. Its musical style is reminiscent of Janequin's Bataille. Two years later Du Chemin's 14th book of chansons included a piece by Le Fèvre entitled Le roy boit, based on the popular refrain J'ay veu le cerf du bois saillir; it is also possible that the same composer was responsible for an unascribed piece celebrating the siege and capture of Calais, Hardis Français et furieulx Normans from the same book. Eitner identified Le Fèvre with ‘Lefe’ to whom Attaingnant attributed two four-voice chansons – Puisque ton dard m'a mis soubz ta puissance and Troys mois y a que j'attens ung bonjour (1548^8-9).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerS

D. Heartz: Pierre Attaingnant, Royal Printer of Music (Berkeley, 1969)

FRANK DOBBINS

Le Fevre, Jacques.

See Lefebvre, Jacques.

Lefevre, Louis Antoine.

See Lefebvre, Louis Antoine.

Lefèvre [Lefèbvre, Lefévre, Le Févre, Lefévre], (Jean) Xavier

(b Lausanne, 6 March 1763; d Paris, 9 Nov 1829). French clarinettist and composer of Swiss birth. He studied the clarinet with Michel Yost in Paris, joined the Gardes Françaises in 1778 and was a member of the Garde National from 1789 to 1795. Between 1783 and 1791 he performed at the Concert Spirituel; he also played in the Opéra orchestra from 1791 to 1817 and was principal clarinettist in the Imperial Chapel (later the Royal Chapel) from 1807 until 1829. In 1814 he was made Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur.

Lefèvre taught at the Paris Conservatoire from its foundation (1795) until 1824. Many of his pupils became well-known performers and composers including César Jannsen, Claude-Gabriel Péchignier, Claude François Buteux and Bernhard Crusell. His thorough clarinet method (1802) was used there for many years, and translated into German and Italian. He was the first to use the now standard range from e to c '''' and trill fingerings from e to e''', and played with the reed against the upper lip. His compositions include concertos, symphonies concertantes and chamber music, all of which use the clarinet prominently. Lefèvre noted in his method that he had the Parisian maker Jean-Jacques Baumann add a c'/g'' key to the standard five-keyed clarinet; this happened in about 1790, although the fingering chart in the method was intended for a five-key instrument. It was added to clarinets during the early 19th century by the use of a pillar attached to a metal base by Baumann, Simiot and other French makers.

It is not known whether Lefèvre was related to the woodwind maker François Lefèvre (d 1856) or to Lefèvre of Nantes, a manufacturer of clarinet mouthpieces during the first half of the 19th century.

WORKS

most published in Paris

Vocal: Vive le roi, 3vv; Canon; Les frères La Rochejaquelin, 1v, pf; La ronde anglaise

Orch: 7 cl concs., nos.4, 6 ed. S. Dudley (Paris, 1975); 2 symphonies concertantes, solo cl, bn (after 1801), lost; Symphonie concertante, solo ob, cl, bn (after 1801), lost

Wind band: many minor works, incl. marches, Pas de manoeuvre, Hymne à la victoire

Chbr: 3 airs variés, cl; at least 6 qts, cl, vn, va, b, no.4 ed. D. Harman (Monteux, 1986); at least 6 trios, 2 cl, bn, 1 pubd (Zürich, 1974); at least 54 duos in 9 sets, 2 cl, 6 pubd (Molenaar, 1966); 6 duo concertants, ed. G. Dobrée, op.9, nos.1–2 (London, 1988); 6 duos, ed. J. Lancelot (Paris, 1976); 12 petits duos très faciles, 2 cl, in 2 sets, as 6 petits duos (Paris, c1970), 6 petits duos faciles (Paris, 1995); 80 airs en duo in 2 bks, 2 cl; 6 duos in 2 sets, cl, bn; 3 sonates, cl, bc, op.12, 3 ed. G. Dobrée (Oxford, 1987); 12 sonates from the Méthode de clarinette, no.3 ed. E. Borrel (Geneva, 1951), no.5 ed. R. Viollier (Geneva, 1949), no.6 ed. P. Harris (London, 1988), no.7 ed. F. Robert (Paris, 1973), no.9 ed. P. Harris (London, 1988), 5 Sonatas ed. P. Harris (Oxford, 1988), 2 Sonatas ed. H. Ruf (Mainz, 1987); Sonata, vn, b (Paris, 1923)

Pedagogical: Méthode de clarinette (Paris, 1802/R), incl. 12 sonatas, cl, bc

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

PierreH

Waterhouse-LangwillI

F.J. Fétis: ‘Nécrologie, Notice sur J.X. Lefèvre’, Revue musicale, vi/17 (1829), 397–9

F.G. Rendall: The Clarinet (London, 1954, rev. 3/1971 by P. Bate)

L.V. Youngs: Jean Xavier Lefèvre: his Contributions to the Clarinet and Clarinet Playing (diss., Catholic U., Washington DC, 1970)

J.J. Estock: A Biographical Dictionary of Clarinetists born before 1800 (diss., U. of Iowa, 1972)

D. Harman: Six Quartets for Clarinet, Violin, Viola and Cello, by Jean Xavier Lefèvre (1763–1829) (diss., U. of Rochester, 1974)

A.R. Rice: ‘Clarinet Fingering Charts, 1732–1816’, GSJ, xxxvii (1984), 16–41

J. Jeltsch: ‘“Baumann à Paris” … présentation d’un jeu de clarinettes et éléments biographiques’, Larigot, xvi (1995), 18–27

ALBERT R. RICE/FRéDéRIC ROBERT

Lefèvre d’Etaples, Jacques.

See Faber Stapulensis, Jacobus.

Leffloth, Johann Matthias [Löffeloth, J. Matthäus]

(b Nuremberg, bap. 6 Feb 1705; d Nuremberg, bur. 2 Nov 1731). German organist and composer. Leffloth was the son of Johann Matthias Leffloth, organist at St Margaretha in Nuremberg, from whom he received his first musical training; he probably also received some instruction from W.H. Pachelbel. Some time after 1722 he became organist at St Leonhard. Schubart presents the only noteworthy biographical sketch, an extravagant account which lauds Leffloth as a genius of marked musical individuality, particularly in the Adagio, who might have changed the course of music but for his early death.

Leffloth’s tonal and thematic materials are firmly rooted in Baroque tradition, but his keyboard style frequently calls for hand crossing and a degree of dexterity unusual for this period. Although he is often mentioned as a composer of keyboard concertos, only two of his works designated concerto remain, both written for solo violin and obbligato keyboard. They are more properly considered as early duo sonatas rather than as keyboard concertos in the usual sense. A sonata for viola da gamba and obbligato keyboard published in Handel’s collected works, vol.xlviii, has often been attributed to Leffloth (also ed. in HM, cxii, 1953). The title-page of the manuscript (in D-Bsb) indicates Leffloth as composer; Handel’s name has been added in pencil and then crossed out by a different hand. Einstein described another manuscript in Darmstadt to which Leffloth’s name has been added below Handel’s, but he stated that this is a copy by Christoph Graupner of an original Handel sonata. Leffloth’s keyboard style is generally much more progressive than that revealed here, and the sonata should not be counted among his works.

WORKS

Raths wahl in Wehrd, cant., D-Nst (text only)

Divertimento musicale, consistente in una partita, hpd (Nuremberg, c1726)

Conc., F, vn/fl, hpd, c1730, Mbs; ed. in Karpel

Conc., D, vn/fl, hpd, c1734, Bsb; ed. in NM, clxxxiv (1955)

Lost: Sonata e fuga, kbd (Nuremberg, c1726); 6 sonatas, vn/fl, bc (Nuremberg, c1729); Conc., G, hpd, ob, str, cited in Breitkopf catalogue (1763); 2 sonatas, G, A, vn, hpd, cited in Breitkopf catalogue (1763)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C.F.D. Schubart: Ideen zu einer Ästhetik der Tonkunst (Vienna, 1806/R)

M. Seiffert: Geschichte der Klaviermusik (Leipzig, 1899/R)

A. Einstein: ‘Zum 48. Bande der Handel-Ausgabe’, SIMG, iv (1902–3), 170–72

H. Daffner: Die Entwicklung des Klavierkonzerts bis Mozart (Leipzig, 1906/R)

A.M. Karpel: A Comprehensive Project in Piano Performance and an Essay on the Works of Johann Matthias Leffloth (diss., U. of Iowa, 1974)

DOUGLAS A. LEE

Lefkowitz, Murray

(b Mineola, NY, 20 April 1924). American musicologist. He studied the violin at the University of South California and received the BMus in 1950; the following year he took the MMus in musicology, and in 1963 the PhD under Raymond Kendall and Pauline Alderman with a dissertation on Lawes. Between 1951 and 1953 he studied with Jack Westrup and Egon Wellesz at St Antony's College, Oxford, He taught in the school systems of Los Angeles and Hollywood from 1954 to 1964 and was on the staff of San Fernando Valley State College from 1964 to 1967. He was professor of music, chairman of the departments of music history and musicology, and director of music at the graduate school of Boston University from 1967 to 1986. He retired in 1989.

Lefkowitz has performed and taught as a violinist and viola da gamba player. His scholarly interests are English music of the 16th and 17th-centuries; and the music of the English masque and theatre; he is particularly noted for his publications on William Lawes, including a biography and editions of his masques and consort music.

WRITINGS

‘New Facts Concerning William Lawes and the Caroline Masque’, ML, xl (1959), 324–33

William Lawes (London, 1960)

William Lawes: his Life and Works (diss., U. of Southern California, 1963)

‘The Longleat Papers of Bulstrode Whitelocke: New Light on Shirley's Triumph of Peace’, JAMS, xviii (1965), 42–60

‘Matthew Locke at Exeter’, The Consort, no.22 (1965), 5–16

‘Shadwell and Locke's Psyche: the French Connection’, PRMA, cvi (1979–80), 42–55

EDITIONS

William Lawes: Select Consort Music, MB, xxi (London, 1963, 2/1971)

Trois masques à la cour de Charles I d'Angleterre (Paris, 1970)

PAULA MORGAN

Le Flem, Paul

(b Radon, Orne, 18 March 1881; d Tréguier, Côtes d’Armor, 31 July 1984). French composer. Of Breton origin, his earliest musical experiences were hymns and story-tellers heard in his grandmother’s house. His first teacher was Joseph Farigoul, chief bandmaster to the French fleet at Brest. After an undistinguished sojourn at the Paris Conservatoire under Lavignac (1899–1902), he obtained the licence de lettres at the Sorbonne and left for Russia as a private tutor (1902–3). On his return he enrolled at the Schola Cantorum, where he took courses in composition (d’Indy), counterpoint (Roussel) and plainsong (Gastoué), remaining until 1909. His first important works date from this period: the Violin Sonata (1905), the Symphony in A (1906–7), Aucassin et Nicolette (1908) and the piano works Par landes, Par grèves, Avril and Vieux Calvaire (1907–10). After World War I his composing career marked time while he turned to other activities, as critic (Comoedia, 1921–37), choral director (Chanteurs de St Gervais, 1925–39), and teacher (counterpoint at the Schola Cantorum, 1921–39). His chance to resume composition came with the Paris World Fair of 1937 (La fête du printemps). For the next few years his work lay mainly in the theatre, with Le rossignol de St Malo (1938), La clairière des fées (1943) and La magicienne de la mer (1946), but from 1958 onwards he returned to symphonic forms, including Symphonies nos.2 (1956–8), 3 (1967) and 4 (1971–4) and the Concertstück for violin and orchestra (1965). The onset of blindness prevented him from completing more than three of his Preludes for orchestra (1975).

Over a period of nearly 80 years, Le Flem’s work evolved from an aesthetic blending d’Indy’s formal rigour with a harmonic language steeped in a modality inherited from Fauré and Debussy, towards a more freely tonal language, the formal aspect of which favoured a series of sections which gradually excluded thematic repetition and development. In the second half of his career (1938–75) he increasingly used harmonies of superimposed 4ths, the language constantly oscillating between a modal diatonicism based essentially on pentatonic scales and a pronounced chromaticism. The scenery, scents, stories and legends of Brittany were deeply stamped on his entire output, yet Le Flem rarely used authentic folk material, preferring to recreate his own images of a reinvented folk culture.

WORKS

Principal publisher: Lemoine

stage

Endymion et Séléné (légende lyrique, 1, Le Flem), 1903; Aucassin et Nicolette (chantefable, Le Flem), 1908; Kercado (ballet), 1933; Macbeth (mimodrame after W. Shakespeare, incid music), 1935; Le rossignol de St Malo (fantaisie lyrique, 1, Gandrey-Réty), 1938; La clairière des fées (fantaisie lyrique, 1, F. Divoire), 1943; La magicienne de mer (légende lyrique, 1, J. Bruyr), 1946; Dionysos (incid music), 1948; La maudite (op, 2, Le Flem), 1967–70

orchestral

En mer, 1901; Sym., A, 1906–7; Les voix du large, 1911; Fantaisie, pf, orch, 1913; Danses, 1912, orch 1919; Pour les morts, 1912, orch 1919; 7 pièces enfantines, n.d.; Le village, 1943; Hommage aux frères Lumière (1955), Impromptu (1956), Sym. no.2, 1956–8; Jeux de mouettes, 1957; Concertstück, vn, orch, 1965; Sym no.3, 1967; Sym no.4, 1971–4; 7 préludes (unfinished, 1975)

vocal

6 chants populaires grecs, 1902; Caïn (cant., Le Flem), 1902; Mandoline, Soleils couchants (P. Verlaine), 1v, pf, 1904; Ariettes Oubliée (P. Verlaine), 1v, pf, 1905; Chanson triste d’un conte (G. Kerjean), 1v, pf, 1905; Crépuscule d’Armor (Le Flem), female chorus, orch, 1908; Tu es petrus, chorus, org, 1909; Le grillon du foyer (D. Thaly), 1v, pf, 1911; Clair de lune (L. Even), 1v, pf, 1911; La neige (Even), chorus, 1912; La procession (Even), chorus, 1912; Vray Dieu qui m’y confortera (anon.), chorus, 1912; Invocation (Even), 1v, orch, 1912; Lamento, chorus, 1920; Paysage, chorus, 1923; 5 chansons de Croisade, 1v, pf, 1923; La fête du printemps, female chorus, orch, 1937; In paradisum, chorus, 1942; Je chante par couverture (C. de Pisan), 1v, pf/hp, 1946; Sui-je, sui-je, sui-je belle? (E. Deschamps), 1v, pf/hp, 1946; Le doigt dans l’eau: courir sur un miroir (B. Péret), 1v, pf, 1955; Morven le Gaëlique (M. Jacob), 5v, fl, ob, cl, bn, va, pf, 1963; Hommage à Rameau, chorus, 1964; various Breton folksongs for chorus

chamber and solo instrumental

Rêverie grise, vn/vc, pf, 1901; Pièce, str qt, 1903; Sonata, vn, pf, 1905; Par landes, 1907; Par grèves, pf 1907; Claire de lune sous bois, 1909; Danse désuète, hp, 1909; Pièce lente, org, 1909; Pf Qnt, 1910; Vieux Calvaire, pf, 1910; Le chant des genêts, pf, 1910; Avril, pf, 1910; 7 pièces enfantines, pf, 1912; Pièce, fl, vc, 1925; Pièce, hn, pf, 1952; Pour la main droite, pf, 1961

film and radio scores

Les paralytiques volent (légende radiophonique, H. Pollès), 1936; Le grand jardinier de France: Lenôtre (film, J. Tedesco), 1942; Tess d’Urberville (radio), 1948; La folie de Lady Macbeth (radio, M. Maeterlinck), 1949; Cöte de granit rose (film, J. Fajolles), 1954

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Coeuroy: La musique française moderne (Paris, 1924)

P. Landormy: La musique française après Debussy (Paris, 1943)

G. Bernard-Krauss: Hundert Jahre französischer Musikgeschichte in Leben und Werk Paul Le Flems (Frankfurt, 1993)

P. Gonin: Esthétique de l’oeuvre de Paul Le Flem de 1905 à 1920 (Lyon, 1994)

PHILIPPE GONIN

Le Franc, Martin.

See Martin le Franc.

Le Froid de Méreaux.

See Méreaux family.

Le Gallienne, Dorian (Léon Marlois)

(b Melbourne, 19 April 1915; d Melbourne, 27 July 1963). Australian composer and critic. His father was French, and his mother Australian. He studied composition at Melbourne University Conservatorium and at the RCM (1938–9). In 1951, as a British Council Commonwealth Jubilee Music Scholar, he returned to England to study with Gordon Jacob. In 1950 he became music critic for Melbourne’s Argus and in 1957 for The Age. His career was marred by poor health, from 1951 seriously affecting his heart, but he continued to compose. He was subject to diverse influences: the English lyrical style popular in Australian instrumental music of the 1930s, light French wit and buoyancy, and the bitonality of early Stravinsky and later Bartók. This eclecticism is evident in the engaging Sinfonietta and the Symphony, a work of impressive drive and rigorous intellectual argument which Covell believed to be ‘the most accomplished and purposive symphony written by an Australian’. From 1961 to his death Le Gallienne was working on a second symphony; only the first movement, known as the Symphonic Study, was completed. Its material, with its sparse ascetic lines, tonal friction, sharp colour and thin texture, shows the new direction in which he was moving.

Le Gallienne also wrote a number of significant film and TV scores. His film music is an important part of the resurgence of the Australian film industry. His first film score, for Tim Burstall’s The Prize (1959), won a bronze medal at the Venice Film Festival of 1960. The Dance of the Angels (1962), The Crucifixion (1962) and the children’s TV series Sebastian and the Sausages demonstrate a confident, eclectic style perfectly matched to the filmed images.

WORKS

(selective list)

Nocturne, pf, 1937; Sonata, fl, 1943; Sonata, vn, 1945; Contes héraldiques (ballet), 1947; Concert Ov., E, 1952; Sym., 1953; Voyageur (ballet), 1954; Duo, vn, va, 1956; Sinfonietta, 1956; Trio, ob, vn, va, 1957; 4 Divine poems (J. Donne), 1v, pf, 1961

Film scores, incid music

MSS in La Trobe Library, AUS-Msl

Principal publisher: Allans

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Covell: Australia’s Music: Themes of a New Society (Melbourne, 1967), 160ff

J. Murdoch: Australia’s Contemporary Composers (Melbourne, 1972)

N. Nickson: ‘Dorienne Le Gallienne’, Australian Composition in the Twentieth Century: a Symposium, ed. F. Callaway and D. Tunley (Melbourne, 1976), 67–80

J. Brownrigg: ‘Seeking The Prize: Some Background to the Film Music of Dorian Le Gallienne’, One Hand on the Manuscript, ed. N. Brown and others (Canberra, 1995), 95–106

NOEL NICKSON/JEFF BROWNRIGG

Legánÿ, Dezső

(b Szombathely, 19 Jan 1916). Hungarian musicologist. After completing his studies at the University of Pécs (LLD 1937) he studied with Kodály, Viski, Bartha and Szabolcsi at the Liszt Academy of Music, where he began teaching and was professor (1951–8). He was later professor at the Béla Bartók Conservatory of Music (1958–73). He was also a lecturer at the Free University courses (1954–8) and a teacher at the Bartók High School (from 1958) before being appointed to the Institute of Musicology of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (1972), where he was head of the department of Hungarian music history (1973–83). His main areas of research are Hungarian music history and European Romanticism; he has written extensively and has translated much of the west European and Russian literature. In 1973 he took the kandidátus degree with a dissertation on Erkel’s works in their historical context and in 1981 he gained the DMusSc. He joined the musicological committee of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (1973) and became a board member of the Liszt Society (1974). In 1982 he was elected an honorary member of the American Liszt Society.

Legánÿ’s wife Erzsébet Hegyi (b Nagykanizsa, 4 Nov 1927) studied with Kodály, Bárdos, Forrai and Gárdonyi at the Liszt Academy of Music, where she has taught harmony and solfège from 1951; she is also visiting professor in harmony and form analysis at the Zoltán Kodály Education Institute for foreign music teachers in Kecskemét (opened in 1975), and in 1971 began giving regular summer courses at the Kodály Institute in Wellesley, Massachusetts. Her writings include a two-volume collection of examples from Bach’s cantatas (Budapest, 1971–4), two books on solfège according to the concept of Kodály (Kecskemét, 1975 and Budapest, 1979) and Énektanárképzés Kodály pedagógiai művei alapján (‘The training of music teachers, based on Kodály’s works’, Budapest, 1977).

WRITINGS

‘Népi és egyéni műalkotás a zenetörténetben’ [Popular and individual creation in the history of music], MTA nyelv- és irodalomtudományi osztályának közleményei, iv (1953), 294–9

‘Tématípusok Bartók utolsó műveiben’ [Thematic patterns in Bartók’s last works], Zenetudományi tanulmányok, iii (1955), 505–17 [with Eng. and Ger. summaries]

Henry Purcell (Budapest, 1959, enlarged 2/1981)

A magyar zene krónikája: zenei művelődésünk ezer éve dokumentumokban [Chronicle of Hungarian music: 1000 years of documentation on musical culture] (Budapest, 1962)

‘A Zeneakadémia születése’ [The founding of the Music Academy in Budapest], Írások Erkel Ferencről és a Magyar zene Korábbi Századairól, ed. F. Bónis (Budapest, 1968), 75–104

‘Erkel és Liszt Zeneakadémiája’ [Erkel’s and Liszt’s Academy of Music], Szabolcsi Bence 70. születésnapjára, ed. F. Bónis (Budapest, 1969), 247–66; (1973), 103–13 [with Eng. and Ger. summaries]

‘Erkel Hunyadi lászlója’, Magyar zene, xi (1970), 97–108

Erkel Ferenc művei és korabeli történetük [Erkel’s works and their contemporary history] (diss., Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 1973; Budapest, 1975)

‘Kodály, Zoltán’, Sohlmans musiklexikon, ed. H. Åstrand (Stockholm, 2/1975–9)

Liszt Ferenc Magyarországon, 1869–1873 [Liszt in Hungary, 1869–73] (Budapest, 1976; Eng. trans., 1983 as Ferenc Liszt and his Country, 1869–1873)

Kodály Zoltán levelei [Letters of Zoltán Kodály] (Budapest, 1982)

‘Die jüngere musikalische Vergangenheit von Budapest’, Život i delo Petra Konjovića: Belgrade 1983, 29–36 [with Eng. summary]

ed.: Franz Liszt: unbekannte Presse und Briefe aus Wien, 1822–1866 (Vienna, 1984)

Liszt Ferenc Magyarországon, 1874–1886 [Franz Liszt in Hungary, 1874–86] (Budapest, 1986; Eng. trans., 1992 as Ferenc Liszt and his Country, 1874–1886)

‘Travaux préliminaires en vue d'une histoire musicale de la Hongrie’, Etudes Finno-Ougriennes, xxi (1989), 119–32

VERA LAMPERT

Legar [Legare, Legard], Mr.

See Laguerre, John.

Légat de Furcy [Furci, Fursy; Legal Defurcy], Antoine

(b Maubeuge, c1740; d after 1789). French composer, harpsichordist and organist. Directed towards an ecclesiastical career, he studied philosophy in Paris, where he also took lessons in harmony and keyboard playing from Charles Noblet, befriended Rameau and took part in the concerts of the Prince of Conti. Between 1759 and 1769 he served as organist at St-Germain-le-Vieil. He was organist at the Carmelite monastery in the Place Maubert from 1770 at least until 1787, by which time he had also become organist at Sainte-Croix-de-la-Bretonnerie. He was primarily active as a singing and harpsichord teacher and as a composer of charming keyboard pieces and of many light cantatilles and ariettes. Gerber, who wrote of him in 1790 as still living, praised the taste of his earlier works, which he attributed to the influence of the Prince of Conti, but which he found lacking in his more recent efforts. Légat de Furcy also attempted a career as a theatrical composer, but none of his several operas was performed or published. According to Choron and Fayolle, he collaborated with La Borde in his Essai sur la musique (1780), and the rather long notice of him in that work may be autobiographical.

WORKS

all printed works published in Paris

vocal

Les soirées de Choisy le roy, chansons, 3 vols. (1762, 1764, n.d.)

Mes loisirs, ariettes, etc (1774)

At least 13 cantatilles; ariettes with insts; numerous airs pubd singly, in Mercure de France (1757–78) and in contemporary anthologies

Solfèges (n.d.); Seconds solfèges (1784); Nouvelles solfèges (1787)

Ops, all unperf., lost: Le philtre (pastorale, 3, Poisinet de Sivry); Le saut de Leucade ou Les désespérés (oc, Mentelle); Palmire ou Le prix de la beauté (oc, after Voltaire); Les rendez-vous (oc); Le jardinier de Sidon (comédie, 2, Pleinchesne); Apollon et Daphné (tragédie, 3, Saint Marc), inc.

instrumental

Les leçons de Minerve, ariettes, hpd, 2 vols. (1779, 1785)

Ovs. to Prati’s L’école de la jeunesse, Grétry’s Andromaque and Evénements imprévus, arr. pf/hpd, vn ad lib

Airs, arr. kbd/other insts, in contemporary anthologies

6 sonates en duo, 2 fl, lost; pf pieces, MS, cited by FétisB

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Choron-FayolleD

FétisB

GerberL

GerberNL

La BordeE

Tablettes de renommée des musiciens (Paris, 1785/R)

G. Servières: Documents inédits sur les organistes français (Paris, 1924), 34–5

B. Gérard: ‘La musique dans les églises de la Cité aux XVIIo et XVIIIo siècles’, RMFC, xvi (1976), 153–86, esp. 168, 170

ROGER J.V. COTTE

Legato [ligato]

(It.: ‘bound’; Fr. lié; Ger. gebunden).

Of successive notes in performance, connected without any intervening silence of articulation. In practice, the connection or separation of notes is relative, and achieved through the presence or absence of emphasis, Accent and attack, as much as silences of articulation; degrees of connection and separation vary from legatissimo (representing the closest degree of connection), tenuto, portamento, legato, portato, non legato, mezzo-staccato, Staccato (the natural antonym of legato), to staccatissimo, and some of these terms have connotations going beyond simple degrees of connection or separation.

In 20th-century notation, legato is generally indicated by means of the Slur across a succession of notes; the beginnings and ends of slurs are now generally marked by articulations (of bowing or tonguing in string and wind instruments, and of phrasing in keyboard instruments). The slur often, however, had a vaguer general meaning of ‘legato’ in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Successions of notes in modern notation are seldom left without any indication of articulation, but if they are, the performer will normally presume that a legato style of playing is called for.

This notion, that legato playing represents an ‘ordinary’ style of performance rather than a special effect, perhaps originated in the cavatina style of early 19th-century Italian opera and its imitation in Romantic instrumental music, or before that in the cantabile slow-movement styles of the 18th century. In earlier centuries, both legato and staccato styles of playing were normally available as special effects, the normal style of playing and singing often being something between the two: in medieval and Renaissance music, the ligature seems sometimes to have been a prescription of a special legato effect. The degree of legato to be used also depended on repertory and instrument: for example, Diruta (Il transilvano, Venice, 1593, 1609) distinguished between a legato organ style and a detached harpsichord style for dance music. For Baroque and early Classical fast movements, a non-legato style was regarded as usual, whereas the legato was normally reserved for long notes and slow movements (C.P.E. Bach, Versuch, 1753; Quantz, Versuch, 1752, etc.; this style of performance is still called for by Türk, Clavierschule, 1804). In some 18th-century music, slurs over arpeggiated chords imply a kind of legatissimo, where all notes are to be held down until the chord changes.

For translations from relevant early authorities, see Donington; for useful general advice on legato and staccato in early music, see Badura-Skoda, Ferguson and Keller.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Keller: Phrasierung und Artikulation (Kassel, 1955; Eng. trans., 1965, 2/1973)

E. and P. Badura-Skoda: Mozart-Interpretation (Vienna and Stuttgart, 1957; Eng. trans., 1962/R as Interpreting Mozart on the Keyboard)

R. Donington: The Interpretation of Early Music (London, 1963, 5/1992)

H. Ferguson: Keyboard Interpretation (London, 1975)

C. Brown: Classical and Romantic Performing Practice (Oxford, 1998)

GEOFFREY CHEW

Legatura

(It.).

See Ligature (i).

Legendary [passionary]

(from Lat. legendarius; passionarius, passionale, liber passionalis).

A liturgical book of the Western Church containing the Lives of the Saints to be read on their feast days at the night Office (Matins). Not always intended for liturgical use, portions of the lives could be omitted; the texts are often divided into 3, 6, or 9 lessons. The legendary is not to be confused with the martyrology, an expanded calendar with only brief notices of the saint's names and places of death or martyrdom. See also Liturgy and liturgical books, §II, 3(v).

Légende

(Fr.).

A piece intended to illustrate a legend, or to have a ‘legendary’ (i.e. narrative) character. In the 19th century the term was one of the many titles used for the character-piece. The most famous examples are Liszt's two légendes entitled St François d'Assise: la prédication aux oiseaux and St François de Paule marchant sur les flots (1862–3), composed for piano but arranged for orchestra soon afterwards; each of these has a preface recounting the legend illustrated by the music, and in their orchestral guises the pieces are effectively short symphonic poems. In most légendes, however, such as the two in Paderewski's pieces op.16, no specific legend is indicated. Schumann used the expression ‘im legenden Ton’ for the central section of the first movement of his C major Phantasie for piano; here the varied repetitions of a chant-like theme in anapaestic rhythm are probably designed to suggest the intoning of an ancient fable.

KENNETH L. HAMILTON

Le Gendre, Jean

(fl 1533–57). French singer, composer and theorist. He was a member of the royal chapel of François I and Henri II of France. Glarean called him ‘Antuacensis’, which may refer to his place of origin.

With the exception of Laudate Dominum, a motet appearing in Glarean's Dodecachordon (modern edition in MSD, vi/2, p.356), other compositions by Le Gendre are found only in Parisian editions. Between 1533 and 1547 Attaingnant printed five of his chansons in various collections and Du Chemin brought out eight more between 1549 and 1557. His many French settings of psalms and canticles, more syllabic than the chansons, were printed by Fezandat in 1552–3. A treatise, Brieve introduction en la musique tant au plain chant que chose faites, published by Attaingnant in 1545, is apparently lost. Le Gendre must have been well known in French circles by the middle of the 16th century, for Rabelais in the Quart livre listed him among the notable musicians, and in the Discours (1558) Gentillet praised the sweet sound of his motets.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Lesure and G. Thibault: ‘Bibliographie des éditions musicales publiées par Nicolas du Chemin (1549–1576)’, AnnM, i (1953), 269–373; iv (1956), 251–4; vi (1958–63), 403

D. Heartz: Pierre Attaingnant, Royal Printer of Music (Berkeley, 1969)

CLEMENT A. MILLER

Léger

(Fr.: ‘light’).

As a tempo designation, particularly in its adverbial form légèrement (or légérement), a term widely used in the early 18th century by French composers. J.G. Walther (1732) defined it as a mark of expression to indicate a light performing style, but there can be little doubt that François Couperin, who used it along with très légérement, d'une légéreté modérée, d'une légéreté gracieuse and d'une légéreté tendre, regarded it as a fairly precise indication of tempo as well as of mood. So did Rousseau (1768), who placed it between gai and vite as the equivalent of the Italian vivace.

For bibliography see Tempo and expression marks.

DAVID FALLOWS

Leger [ledger] line

(Fr. ligne postiche, ligne supplémentaire; Ger. Hilfslinie, Nebenlinie; It. linea d’aiuto).

In Western notation a short line drawn above or below the staff for notes that are too high or too low to be printed on the staff itself. Leger lines are occasionally found in manuscripts containing plainchant or early polyphony, but as clefs were placed on any line of the staff in the Middle Ages, scribes were usually careful to see that leger lines were unnecessary. M.A. Cavazzoni’s Recerchari, motetti, canzoni for organ (1523) is an early example of their extensive use (see illustration).

Legge, Walter

(b London, 1 June 1906; d St Jean, Cap Ferrat, 22 March 1979). English music administrator and writer. He received no formal musical training but from 1925 spent all his time attending rehearsals and musical performances and acquiring a fine ear, understanding of style and unusual linguistic prowess (Frank Walker's Hugo Wolf draws on Legge's research in Austria) as well as a capacious knowledge of the repertory. In 1927 the HMV record company engaged him to write literary material in connection with its classical records. Legge persuaded HMV to let him form subscription societies for producing limited recorded editions: sets of Haydn's string quartets, Sibelius's music, Wolf's songs and Beethoven's piano sonatas played by Schnabel were among his successes. In 1932 he formed the London Lieder Club to build audiences for masterpieces of German song; from then until 1937 he was a deputy music critic of the Manchester Guardian. In 1938–9 he was Beecham's assistant artistic director at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden. During World War II he was in charge of ENSA concerts for troops and war workers.

Throughout these years Legge had worked for the Gramophone Company as manager for artists and repertory. In 1945 he toured Europe securing outstanding talent and in the following 19 years produced recorded performances of opera, song, orchestral and chamber music that have become classic examples of the medium: Columbia's 1951 Bayreuth recordings, the Tosca conducted by de Sabata, Verdi's Falstaff and Strauss's Der Rosenkavalier conducted by Karajan, Callas's many records, piano music played by Dinu Lipatti, the violin legacy of Ginette Neveu, the operetta series involving Elisabeth Schwarzkopf (Legge's second wife – he had formerly been married to the English mezzo-soprano Nancy Evans), and many records conducted by Klemperer, are particularly connected with Legge as producer.

Legge always worked to raise standards of musical execution and interpretative artistry. In 1945 he formed and coached unremittingly the Philharmonia String Quartet, then the eponymous string orchestra, and finally the Philharmonia Orchestra, an elite whose virtuosity transformed British concert life, at first under Beecham, later under Karajan, Cantelli, Toscanini, Klemperer and Giulini. He formed the Philharmonia Chorus in 1957, trained by Wilhelm Pitz, initially for Beethoven's Ninth Symphony under Klemperer; this too was immediately recognized as a choir without peer. Legge was from 1946 an associate director of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna; from 1958 to 1963 he was a director of the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden. In 1964 he tried to dissolve the Philharmonia Orchestra and Chorus for commercial reasons, but it immediately re-formed on a self-governing basis as the New Philharmonia (the ‘New’ was dropped in 1977). He left his record company, by then EMI Ltd, to live on the Continent, whence he continued to promote concerts and recitals and to produce records for other companies, as well as to write occasional articles about music. A man who set high standards and held forceful, uncompromising views, he did much to benefit standards of performance and especially recording in the post-war decades.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

B. Dean: The Theatre at War (London, 1956)

V. Newman: Ernest Newman: a Memoir by his Wife (London, 1963)

W. Mann: ‘Walter Legge (1906–79)’, Gramophone, lvi (1978–9), 1875–6

E. Schwarzkopf: On and Off the Record: a Memoir of Walter Legge (London and New York, 1982)

A. Sanders: Walter Legge: a Discography (Westport, CT, 1984)

A. Sanders, ed.: Walter Legge: Words and Music (London, 1998) [collection of correspondence, reviews and other writings]

WILLIAM S. MANN/R

Leggero [leggiero]

(It.: ‘light’).

A performance direction which belongs characteristically to the 19th century and is also found in the adverbial forms leggermente and leggiermente, occasionally misspelt by Beethoven leggeramente (op.120) and leggieramente (opp.47, 74 and 95). Normally it called for a light, detached style of playing in rapid passages. But it can be interpreted more loosely: legato passages are marked leggeramente in the 25th of Beethoven's Diabelli Variations; the forte opening of the scherzo in Beethoven's E Quartet op.74 is marked leggieramente; and Mendelssohn has leggero simultaneously with forte and legato in the finale of his G minor Piano Concerto. Verdi used the superlative form leggerissimo, e.g. for Alfredo in the ‘Brindisi’ from La traviata and for Preziosilla in Act 2 of La forza del destino; Elgar used the form leggierissimo in the second movement of his Cello Concerto.

See also Tempo and expression marks.

DAVID FALLOWS

Leggiadro

(It.: ‘pretty’, ‘graceful’).

A performance instruction found as early as the 18th century. J.G. Walther (Musicalisches Lexicon, 1732) gave for leggiodro (presumably a misprint) and leggiadramente (the adverbial form) the entry: ‘sehr schön, über die Massen annehmlich, mit einer artigen Manier’ (‘very beautiful, exceptionally charming, with a pleasing manner’).

Leghorn

(Eng.).

See Livorno.

Legiensis, Johannes.

See Gallicus, Johannes.

Leginska [Liggins], Ethel

(b Hull, 13 April 1886; d Los Angeles, 26 Feb 1970). American pianist, composer and conductor of English birth. She studied at the Hoch Conservatory in Frankfurt, with Leschetizky in Vienna for three years, and in Berlin. She adopted the name Leginska early in her professional career, and became widely known as the ‘Paderewski of woman pianists’. She made her official début in London at the age of 16 and then gave concert tours in Europe before moving to the USA in 1913, where she achieved her greatest success in the 1916–17 season. A great favourite with the public, she was noted for her demanding programmes and her innovations, such as playing an entire Chopin programme without an interval. In 1914 she began to compose, studying with Bloch in 1918. Her relatively small output includes songs, piano and chamber music, symphonic poems, a fantasy for piano and orchestra and two operas. It is to her credit that Leginska was able to secure performances of her larger works at a time when women’s compositions were rarely heard in public.

In 1926 Leginska retired as a pianist to concentrate on composition and conducting. After studying conducting with Goossens and Robert Heger in 1923 she established herself as one of the first female conductors, directing major orchestras in Munich, Paris, London and Berlin in 1924, and New York and the Hollywood Bowl in 1925. She also conducted the Boston PO, the Boston Woman’s SO and the Woman’s SO of Chicago. In 1930–31 she conducted at leading European opera houses, and in 1935 directed the première of her one-act opera Gale by the Chicago City Opera.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Neuls-Bates: ‘Leginska, Ethel’, Notable American Women, ed. E.T. James, J.W. James and P.S. Boyer (Cambridge, MA, 1971, suppl. 1980)

CAROL NEULS-BATES

Legley, Vic(tor)

(b Hazebrouck, 18 June 1915; d Ostende, 28 Nov 1994). Belgian composer. His early musical studies were in Ypres; in 1934 he went to the Brussels Conservatory, where he won prizes in counterpoint, fugue, chamber music and viola (1937). After his demobilization in 1941 he became a composition pupil of Absil and took the Belgian second Prix de Rome in 1943. He played the viola in a string quartet and in the Belgian radio orchestra (1936–48), activities which left their mark on his composition. On leaving the orchestra he became music producer for the Flemish department of Belgian radio; from 1962–76 he was head of serious music for the third programme, and this position enabled him to propagate new music from Belgium and elsewhere. He was also active as a teacher: he was appointed professor of harmony at the Brussels Conservatory in 1949, and of composition in 1959; he became professor of composition and analysis at the Chapelle Musicale Reine Elisabeth in 1950, retiring in 1980. Legley was made a member in 1965 and president in 1972 of the Belgian Royal Academy.

From 1980–90 he was president of SABAM (the Société Belge des Auteurs, Compositeurs et Editeurs). Although clearly influenced by Absil in his early music, Legley steadily developed an individual style in which highly charged emotion is kept in check by firm technique and refined taste. Most of his pieces are instrumental: his string quartets contain some of his best work, and the eight symphonies constitute landmarks in his career. The fourth and fifth were commissioned by the Festival of Flanders. Some of his works (e.g. La cathédrale d’acier) have been frequently performed outside Belgium; the Violin Concerto no.2 was the set work used in the finals of the 1968 Queen Elisabeth Competition. After 1952 he made particular efforts to reach the public, but without sacrificing his dignity and his individuality. Typical of this approach are Middagmuziek, the Serenade for strings, the Kleine carnavalouverture and La cathédrale d'acier. Legley often spoke and wrote in defence of Belgian music, sat on several competition juries and also represented his country at conferences and festivals. In 1987 he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the Brussels Vrije Universiteit.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Sym. Variations on an Old Flemish Song, 1941; 6 syms.: 1942, 1947, 1953, 1964, 1965, 1976; Sym. no.7, sym. band, 1988; Sym. no.8, 1993; Suite op.18, 1944; Symphonie en miniature, 1945; Vn Conc. no.1, 1947; Pf Conc., 1952; Kleine carnavalouverture, 1954; Timp Conc., 1955; Serenade, str, 1957; La cathédrale d’acier, 1958; Ouverture pour une comedie de Goldoni, 1958; Hp Conc., 1966; Vn Conc. no.2, 1966; Paradise Regained, 1967; Espaces, str, 1970; Va Conc., 1971; Conc. d’automne, op.85, a sax, orch, 1974; Conc. grosso, op.87, vn, a sax, str, 1976; Before Endeavours Fade, 1977; Feest-ouverture, 1978

Chbr: 5 str qts: 1941, 1947, 1956, 1963, 1970; Sextet, pf, wind qnt, 1945; Middagmuziek, fl, cl, bn, hn, str qt, db, 1948; Conc., 13 insts, 1948; Serenade, 2 vn, pf, 1954, rev. fl, vn, pf, 1957; 5 Miniatures, sax qt, 1958; 2 hp suites, 1968, 1972; Pf Qt no.1, 1973; several sonatas, other chbr and solo inst works

Vocal: The Veil, 1v, str qt, c1945; De boer die sterft [The Dying Peasant] (radio drama, H. Teirlinck), 1950; De gevallen vriend [The Fallen Friend] (J. de Haes), double chorus, 1951; La farce des deux nues (op, 4 scenes, H. Closson), 1939–63; Mythologie, op.82, S, pf, 1973; La terra e la morte, op.83 (C. Pavese), female chorus, 1974; Mijn gegeven woord, op.90 (H.C. Pernath), T, pf, 1976

Transcrs. for brass band

Principal publishers: Metropolis, CeBeDeM

MSS in B-Brtb

WRITINGS

‘Muziek en radio’, Mededelingen van de Koninklijke Vlaamse academie voor wetenschappen, letteren en schone kunsten van België, xxix/1 (1967)

‘Actuele aspecten voor een compositieleer’, Mededelingen van de Koninklijke Vlaamse academie voor wetenschappen, letteren en schone kunsten van België, xxxii/2 (1970)

‘Muziek en traditie’, Mededelingen van de Koninklijke Vlaamse academie voor wetenschappen, letteren en schone kunsten van België, xxxvi (1974)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CeBeDeM directory

R. Wangermée: Vic Legley (Brussels, 1953)

K. de Schrijver: Levende componisten uit Vlaanderen, ii (Antwerp, 1955)

Music in Belgium (Brussels, 1964)

C. Mertens: Hedendaagse muziek in België (Brussels, 1967)

C. Tessely: In hulde aan Victor Legley (Buren, 1980)

CORNEEL MERTENS/DIANA VON VOLBORTH-DANYS

Legnani, (Rinaldo) Luigi

(b Ferrara, 7 Nov 1790; d Ravenna, 5 Aug 1877). Italian guitarist, instrument maker and composer. Although trained from his earliest years as an orchestral string player, Legnani devoted himself to singing and especially to the guitar. He made his début as a tenor in Ravenna in 1807, and appeared there again from 1820 to 1826 in operas by Rossini, Pacini and Donizetti. He launched his career as a concert guitarist in Milan in 1819. In 1822 he appeared in Vienna with such sensational success that he was considered the worthy successor to Mauro Giuliani (who had left Vienna in 1819 to return to Italy). This city received Legnani with much praise again in 1833 and 1839.

In the intervening years, besides touring Italy, Germany and Switzerland as a guitarist, Legnani struck up a friendship with Paganini, who considered him ‘the leading player of the guitar’. They planned to play together as a duo in a series of accademie to be held in Turin (stipulating three contracts, for 7, 16 and 23 August 1836); but, probably owing to Paganini’s poor state of health, these were cancelled by mutual agreement on 30 October that year (the rescissory deed is in US-Wc). Contrary to what some biographers have reported, there is as yet no evidence to affirm that Legnani and Paganini appeared together in public. In about 1850 Legnani retired to spend his remaining years in Ravenna constructing fine guitars and violins. His famous ‘Legnani model’ guitar, with a screw-adjusted neck, was widely copied by guitar makers in central Europe between about 1830 and 1880 (notably by J.G. Staufer of Vienna).

Legnani composed over 250 works, which were published principally by Ricordi (Milan), Cipriani (Florence), Artaria, Cappi & Diabelli, Leidesdorf, Weinberger (Vienna), André (Offenbach am Main), B. Schotts Söhne (Mainz), Meissonnier, Pacini and Richault (Paris). They include works for solo guitar (a method, fantasias, potpourris, capriccios, variations on well-known operatic themes, cavatinas etc.), duets for flute and guitar and a concerto for guitar and orchestra (of which only the parts for guitar, first violin, viola and bass have survived). Of particular interest are the Variations concertantes sur un thème original de Rossini op.28 for guitar and piano, composed in collaboration with Marcus Leidesdorf (1787–1840) and also published in a version for guitar and piano with string quartet accompaniment.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SchillingE

J. Zuth: ‘Die Leipziger AMZ (1798–1848) als gitarristische Quelle’, Die Gitarre, i (1919–20), 84–5, 102–4

R. Ferrari: ‘Luigi Legnani’, Der Gitarrefreund, xxvii (1926), 101–4, 117–20, 135–8; xxviii (1927), 7–10

R. Ferrari: Luigi Legnani (Modena, 1932)

D. Rossato: ‘Luigi Rinaldo Legnani’, Il Fronimo, vii/27 (1979), 5–15

D. Prefumo: ‘L'attività concertistica di Luigi Legnani nei resoconti dei giornali dell'epoca’, Il Fronimo, x/41 (1982), 8–23

G. Gazzelloni: Introduction to L. Legnani: Gran studio op.60 (Heidelberg, 1990)

D.G. James: Luigi Rinaldo Legnani: his Life and Position in European Music of the Early Nineteenth Century (diss., U. of Arizona, 1994) [incl. edn of 36 capricci op.20]

GIUSEPPE GAZZELLONI

Legni

(It.).

See Woodwind instruments.

Legnica

(Ger. Liegnitz).

Town, now in Poland, ruled for part of the 17th century by Georg rudolph.

Legno

(It.: ‘wood’).

Strumenti di legno, or simply legni, are woodwind instruments. In string-instrument playing Col legno means setting the strings in motion with the bowstick. In some orchestral scores ‘legno’ denotes a woodblock.

Legouix, (Isidore) Edouard

(b Paris, 1 April 1834; d Boulogne, Seine-et-Oise, 15 Sept 1916). French composer. His father was the founder of a Parisian publishing house whose management later passed to Edouard’s brother Gustave (1843–1916) and Gustave’s son Robert. Edouard studied at the Paris Conservatoire with Henri Reber (harmony) and Ambroise Thomas (composition), winning the premier prix for harmony in 1855 and an honourable mention in the Prix de Rome in 1860. He soon devoted himself to a career in light opera and operetta; his one-act Un Othello (1863) was the first of several successes. The craftsmanship of his works is notable and, according to Feschotte, some survived long after the composer's death in the French broadcast repertory. The operas tended to be fashionable and escapist; Clément and Larousse particularly noted the extravagance of the plot and incoherence of ideas in Les dernières grisettes.

WORKS

stage works first performed in Paris and printed works published in Paris, unless otherwise stated

Un Othello (?opérette, 1, C. Nuitter and A. Beaumont [A. Beaume]), Champs-Elysées, 1863, vs (?1863); Le lion de St-Marc (opéra-bouffe, 1, Nuitter and Beaumont), St-Germain, 24 Nov 1864 (1866); Ma fille (opérette, 1, A. Bouvier), Délassements-Comiques, 20 March 1866; Malbrough s’en va-t-en guerre [Act 2] (opéra-bouffon, 4, W. Busnach and P. Siraudin), Athénée, 13 Dec 1867, collab. Bizet, E. Jonas and Delibes

Le vengeur (opéra-bouffe, 1, Nuitter and Beaumont), Athénée, 20 Nov 1868, vs (1869); Deux portières pour un cordon (pochade, 1, Lucian [L. Dubuis and Lefèbvre]), Palais-Royal, 19 March 1869, vs (?c1869), collab. Hervé, Lecocq and G. Maurice; L’ours et l’amateur des jardins (bouffonerie musicale, 1, Busnach and Marquet), Bouffes-Parisiens, 1 Sept 1869, vs (1869); La tartane (opérette, 1), ? London, c1872, vs pubd as The Crimson Scarf (London, 1872)

Les dernières grisettes (opéra-bouffe, 3, Nuitter and Beaumont), Brussels, Fantaisies-Parisiennes, 12 Dec 1874; Le mariage d’une étoile (opérette, 1, V. Bernard and E. Grangé), Bouffes-Parisiens, 1 April 1876, vs (1876); Madame Clara, somnambule (folie, 1), Palais-Royal, March, 1877; Une nouvelle Cendrillon (opérette bouffe, 1, E. Adenis), 1885, vs (1885)

Unperf. [pubd in vs in Magasin des demoiselles]: Quinolette, c1870 (opérette, 1, P. Nac); La clef d'argent, c1870 (opérette, 1, Beaumont); La fée aux genêts (opérette)

Doubtful: Après la noce (1, P. Boisselot) [listed in StiegerO]

Other works: songs; pf works, many pubd

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

MGG1 (J. Feschotte)

F. Clément and P. Larousse: Dictionnaire lyrique, ou Histoire des opéras (Paris, 1867–81, 2/1897; ed. A. Pougin as Dictionnaire des opéras, 3/1905/R)

A. Wirsta: ‘Un autographe inédit de Gabriel Fauré’, Les sources en musicologie, ed. M. Huglo (Paris, 1981), 165–7

DAVID CHARLTON

Le Grand.

A number of French 18th-century musicians bore this name (or ‘Legrand’), and the habit of omitting first names makes it difficult to distinguish one from another. The best-known is Jean-Pierre Le Grand (b Tarbes, 8 Feb 1734; d Marseilles, 31 July 1809), organist and composer. A son of Pierre LeGrand, organist of Lescar Cathedral (Béarn), he left Bordeaux for Paris, where he was appointed organist of St Germain-des-Prés (1 April 1758). The eccentricities that seem to have characterized his work there may also have caused his wife, whom he married in 1765, to leave him and sue for separate maintenance (1776–7). In 1770 he left Paris to return to his ‘own country’. Certain documents connect him with Montpellier Cathedral in 1779; in 1780 he went to Marseilles, where he remained until his death, serving as maître de musique at the opera and the Concert. His career was crowned by his election to the Academy of Marseilles (1801).

A premier livre of six sonatas for harpsichord by ‘J.-P. Le Grand, m^e de clavecin & organiste de l'Abbaye de S. Germain-des-Prés’, advertised in 1763, is almost certainly the work to which Leopold Mozart referred in a letter of 1 February 1764: ‘M. Le Grand, a French harpsichordist, has completely abandoned his goût, and his sonatas are completely in our style’. No copy of the work has been found, nor has any of the other music attributed to Jean-Pierre Le Grand been located: orchestral music, motets, masses, the cantata L'hymne des Lys (1783) and choruses for Racine's Athalie (1792).

Leopold Mozart's reference to a ‘Le Grand’ has drawn more attention to the name than it might otherwise have received. Louis-Alexandre Le Grand (b ?Châlons-sur-Marne; d Paris, 30 Nov 1773) was a pupil of Daquin and his successor as organist of the convent of the Cordeliers (July 1772). He was also organist at St Côme (from before 1759), St Nicolas-des-Champs (c1761–5, again from 1771) and the Premonstratensians in rue de Sèvres. Either he or a Louis Le Grand, an organist living in the rue de Grenelle on 28 November 1741 (Laborde), was probably the Le Grand recommended as among the best harpsichord teachers in Paris by Pascal Taskin in a letter of 6 October 1765. Another Le Grand, an organist at Bordeaux, was one of the experts invited to examine the new organ in Angoulême Cathedral in 1786. According to Fleury, ‘The canons, charmed by the personal relations which they had with M. Le Grand … proposed that he should become their organist … which he accepted’. Mathieu and Etienne LeGrand were active as king's musicians in 1765. A LeGrand performed organ concertos of his own on at least three occasions at the Concert Spirituel between February 1763 and April 1764; petits and grands motets by a LeGrand were given there between 1771 and 1773.

The only substantial work bearing the name of LeGrand is a set of six Pièces de clavecin en sonates avec accompagnement de violon (Paris, c1755–8), whose author is identified as organist of the abbey church of Sainte-Croix and the parochial church of St Rémy in Bordeaux. The music, certainly inspired by Mondonville's like-named collection of 1734, is of high quality with imaginative themes and an independent and active violin part which everywhere engages in imitative and canonic dialogue with the harpsichord. The LeGrand who composed L'amour à la mode, cantatille à voix seule avec symphonie (Paris, after 1754) was a harpsichord teacher living in the rue Geoffroy L'Angevin. Nothing in the style of the music prevents it from being by the composer of the Pièces de clavecin en sonates (RISM attributes both publications to Louis-Alexandre LeGrand); but a long, busy, one-movement sonata by ‘Le Grand’ in 20 sonate per cembalo (Paris, 1758) would need its incessant Alberti basses explained away by the hypothesis of its having been an experimental work in a new style. Somewhat better are two manuscript sets of variations by a ‘Le Grand’ (F-Pn D.14218). Les trois roses, ou Les graces, a three-act comédie mêlée d'ariettes with words by Rozoi and music by Le Grand, performed at Versailles on 10 December 1779 (Paris, 1780), is known only through an advertisement in the Mercure de France (17 January 1780, p.48).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

LabordeMP

MGG1(‘Legrand’; J. Bonfils, H.A. Durand [incl. detailed bibliography])

M.P. de Fleury: ‘Les anciens orgues de la cathedrale d’Angoulême’, Bulletin de la Société archéologique et historique de la Charente, 5th ser., xi (1889), 215–67

G. Servières: Documents inédits sur les organistes français (Paris, 1922)

B. Guatafson and D. Fuller: A Catalogue of French Harpsichord Music, 1699–1780 (Oxford, 1990)

DAVID FULLER

Legrand, Michel

(b Paris, 24 Feb 1932). French composer and arranger. A musical prodigy, Legrand enrolled at the Paris Conservatoire at the age of 11. He attended from 1943 to 1950, studied conducting with Nadia Boulanger and harmony with Henri Chaland, and graduated as a first-prize winner in composition. In the 1950s, he became a popular band leader, singer and songwriter, also writing and conducting ballets for Roland Petit. A brilliant orchestrator, he won a prize in 1953 from the Académie Charles Cros for his arrangements for a recital recording by Catherine Sauvage. In 1954, he became the band leader and conductor for Maurice Chevalier, and travelled with him to New York. That same year he issued the first LP, I Love Paris. In the late 1950s his arrangements for the album Legrand Jazz (Col., 1958) featured the playing of Miles Davis, Ben Webster and John Coltrane, and he also began writing film music, thereafter dedicating himself almost exclusively to the medium. His first important collaborations were with some of the masters of French cinema, including Godard, Carné and Jacques Demy, with whom he worked on eight films. He achieved his greatest success with Demy’s Les parapluies de Cherbourg (1964), which brought worldwide recognition to both the director and the composer. In the late 1960s, Legrand moved to the United States and for the next three decades divided his efforts equally between France and Hollywood, not always with the same measure of success.

Legrand’s career has alternated between contemporary subjects and period pieces, and he has used many different styles in his scores. From an early age Legrand’s style leaned towards light popular music and jazz, and he often emphasizes thematic unity, though many scores are often overshadowed by a central popular theme. Les parapluies de Cherbourg, with lyrics by Demy met with considerable critical acclaim. The director’s vision was to make a musical film in a completely different vein from the Hollywood musical tradition, a ‘mixture of poetry, colour and music’. The film is entirely sung, in free verse, the direction was regulated by the music, and all aspects of the productions were subordinate to the musical rhythm. The score contains a wide range of styles, from haunting ballads such as I Will Wait For You, to jazz, tangos, mambos and several light popular melodies. Thereafter, Legrand had a number of successes including The Thomas Crown Affair (1968), Summer of ’42 (1971), and his jazz score for Lady Sings the Blues (1972), the biographical film of Billie Holiday.

In recent years, Legrand has struggled to adapt his craft to contemporary musical styles. His popular idiom, well-received in the 1960s and 70s, subsequently lost some of its appeal, and has often been modified to reflect evolving aesthetics, though not always successfully. His recent achievements include the Streisand film Yentl (1983), the jazz score for Dingo (1992), co-written with Miles Davis, and the sweeping, dark music of Les misérables (1996). He has been nominated for Academy Awards for his contributions to Les parapluies de Cherbourg, Les demoiselles de Rochefort, The Happy Ending, Pieces of Dreams, Best Friends, The Thomas Crown Affair, Summer of ’42 and Yentl, winning Oscars for the last three. He is the son of musician and film composer Raymond Legrand (b 1908) and brother of singer Christiane Legrand (b 1930).

WORKS

(selective list)

Over 170 film scores, incl. Chien de pique (1960); Terrain vague (1960); Lola (1961); Une femme est une femme (1961); Eva (1962); Les sept péchés capitaux (1962); Cléo de 5 à 7 (1962); La baie des anges (1963); Les parapluies de Cherbourg (1964); Bande à part (1964); Les demoiselles de Rochefort (1967); The Thomas Crown Affair (1968); Ice Station Zebra (1968); The Happy Ending (1969); Peau d’âne (1970); Pieces of Dreams (1970); Les mariés de l’an deux (1970); Le Mans (1971); Brian’s Song (1971); Summer of ’42 (1971); Lady Sings the Blues (1972); Portnoy’s Complaint (Lehman, 1972)

Impossible Object (Frankenheimer, 1973); A Doll’s House (Losey, 1973); F for Fake (Welles, 1975); Ode to Billy Joe (Baer, 1976); The Other Side of Midnight (Jarrott, 1977); The Hunter (Kulik, 1980); Atlantic City (Malle, 1981); Best Friends (Jewison, 1982); Never Say Never Again (Kershner, 1983); Yentl (Streisand, 1983); Micki and Maude (Edwards, 1985); Dingo (de Heer, 1992); The Pickle (Mazursky, 1993); Prêt-à-Porter (Altman, 1995); Les misérables (Lelouch, 1996)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T.M.F. Steen: ‘The Sound Track’, Films in Review, xiii/2 (1962), 115–6

F. Porcile: ‘Collaborateurs de création du jeune cinéma français’, Cinéma 64, no.89 (1964), 50–66

P. Cook: ‘The Sound Track’, Films in Review, xvi (1965), 170–72; see also xx (1969), 308–10; xxii (1971), 225–8; xxii (1971), 425–8

J. Collet: ‘An Audacious Experiment: the Soundtrack of “Vivre sa vie”’, Focus on Godard, ed. R.S. Brown (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1972), 160–62

L. Tomkins: ‘Michel Legrand’, Crescendo International, xiii (1975), no.7, p.6; no.8, p.20

P. Cook: ‘The Sound Track’, Films in Review, xxvii (1976), 308–10

L. Lyons: ‘Profile: Michel Legrand’, Down Beat, xliii/3 (1976), 34

R.S. Brown: ‘Music and “Vivre sa Vie”’, US Quarterly Review of Film Studies, v/3 (1980), 319–33

D. Rabourdin: ‘Entretien avec Michel Legrand’, Cinéma 81, nos.271–2 (1981), 68–71

A. Duroy: ‘Pour “Le Cadeau”, Clio Goldsmith et Pierre Mondy ont enregistré une chanson en duo, signé Michel Legrand!’, Ciné Revue, no.62 (1982), 5

P. Cook: ‘The Sound Track’, Films in Review, xxxv (1984), 48–50

MARK BRILL

Le Grand, Nicolas Ferdinand

(b ?France, c1650–c1660; bur. Amsterdam, 27 July 1710). Dutch composer presumably of French extraction. He must have come to Amsterdam during the early 1680s. He served as a musician at the Stadsschouwburg, where he also sang in Dutch Singspiels. In 1697 he participated in a collegium musicum together with Carl Rosier, François Desrosier, Hendrik Anders and others. His compositions are exclusively vocal, with a fair number of surviving continuo songs on Dutch texts by contemporary Amsterdam poets such as Abraham Alewijn, Kornelis Sweerts and Frans Rijk. Like some of his Dutch contemporaries (e.g. Konink and Anders), he employed the expressive Italian style in alternation with the more subdued and balanced French style.

WORKS

published in Amsterdam unless otherwise stated

Tweede deel der mengelzangen (25 Dutch songs) (K. Sweerts), 1v, bc (1695)

1 song (Sweerts), 1v, vc, in Mengelzangen en zinnebeelden (1697)

Cantate e ariette, libro primo, 1v, inst, bc (1698), lost

Harderszangen (A. Alewijn), 1v, bc, op.2 (?1699), lost; 2nd edn (Haarlem, 1716)

Cantate e ariette, libro secondo, 1v, inst, bc (1702), lost

Triomf der Batavieren (Alewijn, F. Rijk and others), 1v, bc (1709)

RUDOLF A. RASCH

Le Grant, Denis [Dionysius Magni]

(d March 1352). French composer. He was master of the French royal chapel in 1349 and Bishop of Senlis from 23 December 1350. His only identifiable composition is the chace Se ie chans, preserved in I-IV 115, f.52v; the piece is mentioned in Gace de la Buigne's Roman des Deduis (vv.6309–18). The beginning of Se ie chans – itself a textual quotation from the Ars Antiqua motet Coument/Se ie chante/Qui prendroit in F-MO H196, ff.310v–311v, and/or of a ballade text in GB-Ob Douce 308, f.225r) – reappears as the refrain of Guillaume de Machaut's ballade Pour ce que tous mes chans fais, suggesting both intimate links with Parisian musical milieus of the early 14th century and a homage of Machaut to a senior colleague. Under the latinized form of his name, Denis le Grant is mentioned after Johannes de Muris, Philippe de Vitry and Henricus Helene as one of the 12 masters listed in the triplum of the ‘musician motet’ Apollinis/Zodiacum. His identity with the Dionisius Normannus of the ‘musician motet’ Musicalis/Scientia, suggested by Hoppin and Clercx, remains to be verified.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Hoppin and S. Clercx: ‘Notes biographiques sur quelques musiciens français du XIVe siècle’, L'Ars Nova: Wégimont II 1955, 64–92, esp. 71–2

K. Kügle: The Manuscript Ivrea, Biblioteca capitolare 115: Studies in the Transmission and Composition of Ars Nova Polyphony (Ottawa, 1997), 158–62

KARL KÜGLE

Legrant [Lemacherier], Guillaume

(fl 1405–49). French composer. His true name was Guillaume Lemacherier. He is listed among the clerks in the Ste Chapelle, Bourges in 1405, and in 1407 was made a chaplain; he remained in Bourges until 1410. In October 1418 he entered the chapel of Pope Martin V and remained as a papal singer there until at least the summer of 1421. He possessed several church benefices in the diocese of Rouen, including one which he held as late as 1449. It is most unlikely that the ‘Guillaume le Grain’ listed as a singer in the chapel of Duke Charles of Orléans in 1455–6 was identical with this composer. One of his Credos was composed by 1426.

Guillaume Legrant’s surviving compositions include sacred and secular works. His Gloria and two Credos are each alternately for two and three parts and are among the earliest compositions to distinguish between solo and choral polyphony. The four extant chansons by Legrant are all virelais and survive in only one source.

WORKS

Edition: Early Fifteenth-century Music, ed. G. Reaney, CMM, xi/2 (1959) [R]

3 single mass movements: Gloria, 3vv, R 5; Credo, 3vv, R 6 (dated 1426 in GB-Ob can.misc.213); Credo, 3vv, R 7

4 virelais: La doulce flour, 3vv (acrostic: LE GRANT GUILLAUME), ed. in CMM, xi/4 (1969), pp.62–3; Ma chiere mestresse, 3vv, R 2; Or avant gentilz fillettes, 3vv, R 3; Pour l’amour de mon bel amy, 3vv, R 1

Lost composition, title unknown, keyboard arrangement in Paumann’s ‘Fundamentum organisandi’, and in the Buxheim Keyboard Manuscript, R 4

Ct to Pierre Fontaine’s rondeau, A son plaisir volentiers serviroye (ed. in J. Marix: Les musiciens de la cour de Bourgogne au XVe siècle (Paris, 1937/R)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Schuler: ‘Zur Geschichte der Kapelle Papst Martins V’, AMw, xxv (1968), 30–45

P.M. Higgins: Autoine Busnois and Musical Culture in Late Fifteenth-Century France and Burgundy (diss., Princeton U., 1987), 267

P. Higgins: ‘Music and Musicians at the Sainte-Chapelle of the Bourges Palace, 1405–1515’, IMSCR XIV: Bologna 1987, iii, 689–701

D. Fallows: A Catalogue of Polyphonic Songs 1415–1480 (Oxford, 1999)

CRAIG WRIGHT/R

Legrant, Johannes

(fl c1420–40). French composer. Biographical information on Legrant is scarce. He may be the ‘Johannes le Grant’, bas vicaire, mentioned in a pay record of 1423–4 from the collegiate church of St Vincent, Soignies. A ‘Heer Jan le Grant’ is recorded as a singer at Antwerp Cathedral between 1441 and 1443. The style of his extant compositions and their sources suggest that he was active during the first half of the 15th century. His rondeau Les mesdisans ont fait raport exhibits points of imitation in all three voices and is notable for its clearly directed melodies and extended sequences. Imitative entries are also abundant in the two-voice Gloria: in the concluding Amen a point of imitation is extended as a two-part canon. The rondeau Se liesse est de ma partie displays the type of melodic elegance and rhythmic interplay among voices associated with the early songs of Du Fay and Binchois. Legrant's authorship of the ballade Entre vous has been questioned on stylistic grounds (Reaney, 1959). Although attributed to ‘Johannes legrant’ in its unique source (GB-Ob 213), the song possesses features more characteristic of the music of another composer, Guillaume Legrant, five of whose six surviving works also appear in the Oxford manuscript.

WORKS

Editions:Dufay and his Contemporaries, ed. J.F.R. Stainer and others (London, 1898/R1963) [S]Sechs Trienter Codices, ed. G. Adler and O. Koller, DTÖ, xxii, Jg. xi/1 (1904/R) [A]Early Fifteenth-century Music, ed. G. Reaney, CMM, xi/2 (1959) [R]A 15th-century Repertory from the Codex Reina, ed. N. Wilkins, CMM, xxxvii (1966) [W]M.K. Hanen: The Chansonnier El Escorial IV. a.24 (Henryville, PA, 1983) [H]

sacred

Gloria, 2vv, R

Gloria, 3vv, R (I-Bc Q15 has an ‘alius Ct’)

Credo, 3vv, R

Unicus dei filius [= Las, je ne puis oïr nouvelle], 3vv, I-TRmp 90

ballade

Entre vous, nouviaux mariées, 3vv, R, S

rondeaux

Las, je ne puis oïr nouvelle [= Unicus dei filius], 3vv, A, R, H

Layssies moy coy, 3vv, R, S

Les mesdisans ont fait raport, 3vv, A, R, W

Se liesse est de ma partie, 3vv, R, S

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (G. Reaney)

H. Besseler: Bourdon und Fauxbourdon (Leipzig, 1950, rev., enlarged 2/1974 by Gülke)

G. Montagna: ‘Johannes Pullois in the Context of his Era’, RBM, xlii (1988), 83–117, esp. 101

M. Gozzi: Il manuscritto Trento, Museo provinciale d'arte, cod. 1377 (Tr 90): con un'analisi del repertorio non derivato da Tr 93, i (Cremona, 1992)

D. Fallows: Introduction to Oxford, Bodleian Library MS Canon. Misc. 213, i (Chicago, 1995), 32, 33, 44

CRAIG WRIGHT/SEAN GALLAGHER

Legrense, Johannes.

Mistaken (but widely used) reading of ‘Legiensis’, one of the alternative surnames of Johannes Gallicus.

Legrenzi, Giovanni

(b Clusone, nr Bergamo, bap. 12 Aug 1626; d Venice, 27 May 1690). Italian composer and organist. He was one of the most gifted and influential composers of the latter half of the 17th century. Active in most fields of composition, he was an important force in the development of the late Baroque style in northern Italy.

STEPHEN BONTA

1. Life.

Legrenzi was a son of Giovanni Maria Legrenzi, violinist at the parish church in Clusone and a minor composer. Caffi’s statement that he studied in Venice with Giovanni Rovetta and Carlo Pallavicino is neither supported by documentary evidence nor suggested by what is known about his early years. On 30 July 1645, newly arrived from Clusone, he became organist at S Maria Maggiore, Bergamo, and was elected a resident chaplain there on 2 May 1651, having been ordained earlier that year. On 6 September 1653 he sought and was granted the title of first organist. On 30 December 1654 he failed for some unstated reason to be reconfirmed as organist. After several inconclusive votes by the governing body he was reinstated on 23 February 1655 but left at his own request on 31 December of that year. He was, however, still serving there in some capacity in April 1656. His published output from this period consists primarily of church music.

Legrenzi’s years at S Maria Maggiore, Bergamo, coincided with the final period of its musical glory. The three maestri di cappella with whom he served, G.B. Crivelli, Filippo Vitali and above all Maurizio Cazzati, were handsomely supported in their endeavours, as is indicated by the huge sums spent annually on music for the most important feast, the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary. But by far the largest expenditure was in 1665 and 1666, when Legrenzi returned as visiting maestro. Musicians were assembled from such distant points as Venice, Ferrara, Mantua and Lucca, the total forces in 1665 comprising 43 musicians, only 11 of whom were attached to the basilica. Legrenzi’s other activities in Bergamo included membership of the Accademia degli Eccitati.

Later in 1656, probably with the assistance of Cazzati, he became maestro di cappella of the Accademia dello Spirito Santo at Ferrara, an institution devoted, like the Scuola Grande in Venice, to the performance of sacred music and oratorios. Ferrara was a more vital musical centre than Bergamo and provided him with both the incentive and the opportunity to write operas and oratorios. His first opera, Nino il giusto, dates from 1662. Ferrara also provided him with indispensable aristocratic connections, which he cultivated assiduously. The most important of these was with Ippolito Bentivoglio, who was active in the affairs of the academy, a supporter of opera, librettist for at least two of Legrenzi’s dramatic works and a lifelong patron and friend, who appears to have assisted him in obtaining first performances in Venice in 1664 and Vienna in 1665. Except for three operas, one oratorio and several sonate da camera and dances, Legrenzi’s output during these years continued to be devoted to church music. He appears to have left Ferrara in June 1665 after the completion of his third opera, Zenobia e Radamisto. But strong ties with Ferrara continued, as is seen from his numerous letters to Bentivoglio up to 1685 and in the performance of five oratorios there between 1677 and 1678.

With his departure begins a period of almost five years in which there is no certain information on his positions, except for those he sought unsuccessfully or refused. These include many of the most important posts in northern Italy and several beyond. During these years he published only church music. From a letter of 14 April 1665 it is clear that he had been offered a post in Modena, probably as successor to Marco Uccellini as maestro di cappella of the cathedral. He refused it, as well as an offer he claimed in the same letter to have received from S Maria Maggiore, Bergamo, to return as maestro di cappella in succession to G.B. Pederzuoli. A letter of 17 July 1665 shows that Legrenzi had enlisted the help of Carlo II Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, in a bold scheme to obtain the post of Kapellmeister at the Habsburg court in Vienna. His attempt was unavailing; the post was occupied by Antonio Bertali until 1669. According to his own account he was subsequently appointed a director of music at the court of Louis XIV but was unable to assume the position because of a grave illness that incapacitated him for a year. The post to which he had been named was probably that of sous-maître of the royal chapel, which since 1663 had been divided among four men, Henri du Mont, Pierre Robert, Thomas Gobert and Gabriel Expilly. The appointment probably dated from 1668, the year in which Gobert retired. Legrenzi is next found in 1669 competing for the post of maestro di cappella of Milan Cathedral as successor to Michelangelo Grancini, but G.A. Grossi was elected. In August 1670 he enlisted the aid of Cardinal Girolamo Buonvisi, a patron from his Ferrarese days, in obtaining a similar post with Ranuccio II Farnese, Duke of Parma; but there was no vacancy, the incumbent, Marco Uccellini, continuing in the post. These years also saw the staging in Venice of two of his operas: L’Achille in Sciro in 1664, and Zenobia e Radamista (with revised libretto and entitled Totila) in 1665.

By 1670 at the latest Legrenzi was living in Venice, where he began to hold posts in numerous religious institutions, always, it seems, with an eye on attaining a position in one of the major churches in northern Italy. In 1670 he was appointed maestro di musica of the Ospedale dei Dereletti. In September 1671 he was a candidate for the post of maestro di cappella of S Petronio, Bologna, in succession to Cazzati. During the protracted deliberations, which included four votes on the candidates, his prospects rose and fell, and at one point they were better than those of the ultimate winner in 1674, G.P. Colonna. Sometime in 1671 Legrenzi had also been appointed maestro di coro to the Congregazione dei Filippini at S Maria della Fava, a post he appears to have relinquished in 1680. In 1676 he abandoned his position at the Ospedale dei Derelitti in favour of one as maestro di coro of the Ospedale dei Mendicanti, to which he was elected on 7 June. In a letter seeking his release from the Derelitti that presumably dates from 1676, Legrenzi enumerated the works he had composed while serving that institution: four Masses, more than 70 psalms and 80 motets, five services of Compline, hymns, string sonatas and keyboard sonatas. It is not known whether any of these works survive, although it is conceivable that some of the motets were published in his opp.10 (1670) and 15 (1689), while some sonatas appeared in his second op.10 (1673).

On 30 April 1676 Legrenzi made his first attempt at becoming maestro di cappella of S Marco, as successor to Cavalli. He lost by one vote to Natale Monferrato, for long the vicemaestro and Legrenzi’s superior at the Mendicanti. Given the closeness of the vote it is odd that he did not compete two weeks later for the vacant post of vicemaestro, since it was this post that he sought and obtained on 5 January 1681, succeeding Antonio Sartorio; he was sole candidate and was elected unanimously.

During his early years as vicemaestro, Legrenzi retained his post at the Mendicanti, succeeding Monferrato as maestro there on 26 January 1683, and relinquishing the position on 16 August 1683. Upon his appointment at S Marco there was a marked increase in the number of singers and instrumentalists hired. The increase continued until his election as maestro on 16 April 1685, following Monferrato’s death, at which time it appears the alarmed procurators of S Marco acted to limit further expansion. In fact during Legrenzi’s years at S Marco both the cappella and the concerto attained their largest recorded size. On 23 April 1686 the procurators authorized a choir of 36 voices, nine to a part, but this balance was never achieved in Legrenzi’s time: in 1687 the choir consisted of six sopranos, seven altos, thirteen tenors and ten basses. On 21 May 1685 they had moved to reduce the number of instrumentalists to 34: eight violins, eleven violettas (violas), two viole da braccio (?cellos), three violones, four theorbos, two cornetts, one bassoon and three trombones. But the procurators were eminently pleased with his service, as they unanimously granted him the highest recorded salary as both vicemaestro and maestro: his salary as maestro from 1687 amounted to 470 ducats, ‘to the person and not to the office’.

Legrenzi’s years as vicemaestro were his last and most prolific in the field of opera, two appearing in Venice each year between 1681 and 1684. As maestro he turned again to the composition of sacred music, writing responsories for Holy Week, a collection of motets (op.15) and a mass dedicated to the Madonna of Loreto, but none of the music he composed for the S Marco cappella seems to have survived. He was also involved in the special services held in 1687 in celebration of the last victories of the Venetians in their costly wars with the Turks.

In his last years his house opposite S Lio, where he lived with his sister Giovanna, was a centre of musical life. At one concert held there early in 1688 three French sisters sang duets and trios by Lully, and some of his own instrumental works were performed. From 1687 he was also the moving force behind the foundation of the sovvegno (a mutual-aid society) of musicians in Venice. After 1687 his activities at S Marco were curtailed by an illness that was to prove fatal. He was buried in S Maria della Fava. Of all the students he is reputed to have taught there is certain information on only one, his nephew Giovanni Varischino, to whom he bequeathed his unpublished works: Varischino subsequently published at least two collections (opp.16–17) and may have published a third (op.18), of which no copies are extant.

Legrenzi’s rise to fame, honour and wealth was remarkable. As a young man from the provinces his resources were so meagre that he required a title of patrimony, granted in 1649, in order to be ordained. But by 1653 he was able to underwrite the costs of educating three boys (one of them his brother Marco) at the Accademia Mariana at Bergamo. At his death he owned property in Clusone.

Legrenzi, Giovanni

2. Works.

Legrenzi’s music represents the final stage in the formation of the late Baroque style. It is characterized by clarity of design achieved through the co-ordination of well-defined tonal drives and incisive themes employed in various repetitive schemes; a contrapuntal style in which line is subordinated to harmony and rhythm is metrically conceived; integration of the bass into the thematic process; and skilful employment of the new violin idiom without its more virtuoso special effects. Most of the means for creating the large-scale tonal forms of the late Baroque are present: the pervasive use of antecedent–consequent structures defined by half- and full closes; the co-ordination of thematic materials and textures to reinforce these structures; the resourceful use of sequences, deceptive cadences and internal repetitions to enhance tonal drive through the deferment of the full close; and adept modulations. Perhaps his most important contribution is found in his fugal writing (especially in the instrumental works), which displays a broad variety of approaches, ranging from that of the ricercare on several subjects, as developed by Frescobaldi and Giovanni Gabrieli, to the use of contrasting episodic materials (later so characteristic of Bach). Yet though most ingredients of the late Baroque style are present in his music, it lacks the breadth and expansiveness associated with this style; it is essentially shortwinded. His style, which remains virtually the same regardless of genre, displays little sign of development or change throughout his career, only of refinement.

In his sacred music, which shows the influence of Merula and Cazzati, he wrote in four of the stylistic categories cultivated by his predecessors: the concertato for few voices, which he used for motets and psalm settings for one to three voices, which often resemble his cantatas in their sectional form and use of recitative; the concertato for larger numbers of voices, which he employed in mass, vesper and compline settings, which call for solo voices, chorus and strings; massive Venetian polychoral works, used in his mass and psalm settings and a Dies irae; and several examples of the stile antico, including his five-part mass of 1689, which is, however, thoroughly infected with the new tonal procedures. One motet, Intret in conspectu tuo, exists only in a copy made by Handel, who drew on it for the section ‘To thy dark servant’ in the chorus ‘O first created beam’ in Samson.

Legrenzi’s sonatas are his most forward-looking works. They show the strong influence of the ensemble canzonas of Merula, Neri and Cazzati in their themes and designs, yet there is in them a surer feeling for the development of dynamic form through the interplay of theme and key. They in turn exerted a strong influence, particularly in the handling of structure, on the sonatas and concertos of Torelli, Vivaldi and Bach. Most are either for two violins and continuo or violin, cello and continuo or are trio sonatas for two violins, cello and continuo. In op.8 there are two late examples of the Venetian polychoral sonata, reduced now to six parts, and in op.10 two for either viols or members of the violin family. Those for four and five parts in op.8 and op.10 appear to have been written with the possibility of orchestral performance in mind. Bach wrote a fugue (bwv574) said to be on a subject by Legrenzi, but the source is yet to be identified.

As an opera composer, Legrenzi was not as productive as his contemporaries Antonio Sartorio and Carlo Pallavicino. The operas that do survive show a close connection with his sonatas and dances, from which eight movements appear as opening sinfonias. This connection is hardly surprising, since before his first operas, composed for Venetian audiences, appeared in 1675, he was known primarily as a composer of liturgical music and violin sonatas. The operas are of the heroic-comic type, with complicated plots, large casts and marvellous machines, and this is particularly the case in La divisione del mondo, Germanico sul Reno, Totila, Ottaviano Cesare Augusto and Giustino. Other operas incorporate one or two special effects, such as fires or storms, and most require many supernumeraries. The ease with which he accommodated himself to the operatic style of the day surprised some: Legrenzi’s first Venetian librettist, Fattorini, praised him for the way he ‘exceeded the expectation of many in cultivating charm and delight, violating his own genius, which was accustomed to hard and studious matters’.

Legrenzi’s operatic style, like that of his contemporaries, comprised many short arias, with occasional short recitatives. Some of his operas dating from the 1670s contain more than 90 arias; this had been reduced to almost 60 by the works of the 1680s. Unlike his Venetian contemporaries, Legrenzi supplied an active continuo part, closely related to the material of the vocal line. His arias fall into two basic types: those in fast common time with diatonic melodies and much use of dactylic rhythms; and those in slow triple time, which occasionally employ chromatic and diminished intervals for expressive effect. Both types range from simple syllabic settings to settings with extensive roulades, which, because of their unpredictable angularity, often lack the grace found in arias by his successors. Legrenzi employed a wide range of unifying procedures, often combining two or more in the same aria: a motto, ostinato, da capo form, strophic form and the ABB form associated with Cesti. His use of melodic instruments in arias was normally restricted to homorhythmic ritornellos at the very end. On occasion these ritornellos precede rather than follow the aria. When upper melodic instruments are used in the course of an aria, it is almost always in alternation with the voice. Many of the characteristics of Legrenzi’s aria style as found in his operas, oratorios, cantatas and motets are seen in ex.1. He also lavished care on his orchestral parts, both in ritornellos and in accompaniments to arias.

Legrenzi’s dramatic works were well received in his own day and at least two, Giustino and La morte del cor penitente, were being performed in the decade following his death. But changes in taste in the 1690s caused operas by Legrenzi and his contemporaries to be superseded by the work of younger composers such as C.F. Pollarolo and G.A. Perti.

Legrenzi, Giovanni

WORKS

operas

drammi per musica in 3 acts, first performed in Venice, unless otherwise stated

Nino il giusto (prol., 3, ? I. Bentivoglio), Ferrara, S Stefano, 1662

L’Achille in Sciro (prol., 3, Bentivoglio, Ferrara, S Stefano, carn. 1663, arias GB-Och, I-Nc

Zenobia e Radamista (Bentivoglio), Ferrara, S Stefano, 1665; as Tiridate (rev. N. Minato), Venice, S Salvatore, carn. 1668, Nc

La divisione del mondo (G.C. Corradi), S Salvatore, carn. 1675, F-Pn

Eteocle e Polinice (T. Fattorini), S Salvatore, carn. 1675, Pn (facs. in DMV, vi, 1983), I-MOe, Nc

Adone in Cipro (after G.M. Giannini: Adone), S Salvatore, carn. 1676, arias MOe, Nc, Rc, Rvat, Vqs

Germanico sul Reno (introduzione, 3, Corradi), S Salvatore, carn. 1676, MOe

Totila (M. Noris), SS Giovanni e Paolo, carn. 1677, Vnm (facs. in IOB, ix, 1978)

Antioco il grande (G. Frisari), S Giovanni Grisostomo, carn. 1681, arias GB-Lbl, I-Bca, MOe, Nc, Rvat, Vlevi, Vqs

Creso (Corradi), S Giovanni Grisostomo, carn. 1681, arias GB-Lbl, Ob, I-Bca, Rvat, Vqs

Pausania (Frisari), S Salvatore, aut. 1681, arias B-Bc, D-Bsb, I-MOe, Rvat, Tn, Vqs

Lisimaco riamato da Alessandro (G. Sinibaldi, rev. A. Aureli), S Salvatore, carn. 1682, arias Tn, Vqs

Ottaviano Cesare Augusto (N. Beregan), Mantua, Ducale, May 1682

I due cesari (Corradi), S Salvatore, carn. 1683, arias B-Bc, I-Vqs

Giustino (Beregan), S Salvatore, 12 Feb 1683, Nc, Rc (ed. in Collezione settecentesca Bettarini, xii, Milan, 1980), Vnm

L’anarchia dell’imperio (T. Stanzani), S Salvatore, aut. 1683, arias GB-Lbl, I-MOe

Publio Elio Pertinace (P. d’Averara), S Salvatore, 22 Jan 1684, arias GB-Lbl, I-MOe

Ifianassa e Melampo (G.A. Moniglia), Pratolino, aut. 1685

oratorios

Oratorio del giuditio (Bentivoglio), Vienna, Capella dell’Imperatrice, 1665, lost

Gli sponsali d’Ester, Modena, Palazzo Ducale, 1676; Ferrara, Accademia della Morte, 1667, lost

Il Sedecia, Ferrara, Accademia della Morte, 1676, score I-Rvat

La vendita del core humano, Ferrara, Accademia della Morte, 1676; as Il prezzo del cuore humano, Vienna, Cappella dell’Imperatore, 1692, score Rvat, MOe

Il Sisara, Ferrara, Chiesa di S Filippo Neri, 1678, lost

Decollatione di S Giovanni, Ferrara, S Filippo Neri, 1678, lost

La morte del cor penitente, Vienna, Cappella dell’Imperatore, 1705, score A-Wn

sacred

op.

1	Concerti musicali per uso di chiesa (Venice, 1654)
3	Harmonia d’affetti devoti, 2–4vv, libro primo (Venice, 1655)
5	[13] Salmi a 5 (Venice, 1657)
6	Sentimenti devoti, 2–3vv, libro secondo (Venice, 1660)
7	Compiete con le lettanie & antifone della BV a 5 (Venice, 1662)
9	Sacri e festivi concenti, messa e psalmi a due chori (Venice, 1667)
10	Acclamationi divote, 1v (Bologna, 1670)
11	[2nd edn of op.10] (Venice, 1680), lost, see Sartori (1966); MS copy, I-Vnm
15	Sacri musicali concerti, 2–3vv, libro terzo (Venice, 1689)
17	Motetti sacri, 1v, ed. G. Varischino (Venice, 1692)

Missa, 5vv, 1689, LT; Missa, 4vv, insts, D-Bsb; Ky, Gl, Cr, 1v, orch, GB-Ob

Compline, 5vv, D-Bsb; Mag, 4vv, insts, Bsb; Mag, 3vv, Bsb; Laudate pueri, 5vv, insts, Bsb; Intret in conspectu tuo, 6vv, bc, GB-Lbl[in Handel’s hand]; In nativitate Domini invitatorium, 8vv, insts, I-Vnm; Nolite timere, Md; Credidi propter, A, insts, D-Bsb; Dies irae, prosa per mortuis, F-Pn; 30 other pss and motets, D-Bsb; 15 motets, F-Pn [copied by Brossard]; 4 motets, GB-Ob (formerly T); Spirate aurae serenae, S, 2 vn, org, in 1695¹

secular vocal

12	Cantate e canzonette, 1v (Bologna, 1676); ed. in RRMBE, xiv–xv (1972)
13	Idee armoniche, 2–3vv (Venice, 1678)
14	Echi di riverenza di cantate e canzoni, libro secondo (Bologna, 1678)

Son tutto furore, S, bc, in 1670³; Amor ti punge il seno, I-Rvat; Vuoi farmi piangere, Rvat; Cintia dolente, Nc; No, no, non ti dolor, in Arie e ariette, 1–2vv, bc, Nc; Disperarsi, 2vv, bc, F-Pn; Non può viver, aria, 1v, bc, Pn; Volo vivere, A, bc, D-Bsb
Notte, madre d’orrori, serenade, S, bc, Bsb; 12 cants., 1v, bc, Bsb; 3 chamber cants., 1v, bc, Mbs; Voti di musicale plauso, cant., 1662, MS in private collection of P. Camerini, Montruglio, nr Vicenza

instrumental

2	[18] Sonate a 2–3, libro primo (Venice, 1655), incl. 1 sonata by G.M. Legrenzi, ed. S. Bonta (Cambridge, MA, 1984); 1 sonata ed. in HM, xxxi (1949)
4	[30] Sonate da chiesa e da camera … a 3, libro secondo (Venice, 1656); 6 ed. in Le pupitre, iv (Paris, 1968)
8	[16] Sonate a 2, 3, 5, & 6, libro terzo (Venice, 1663); 4 ed. in Le pupitre, iv (Paris, 1968)
10	[16] La cetra, sonate a 2–4, libro quarto (Venice, 1673) [recte op.11], ed. S. Bonta (Cambridge, MA, 1992), no.13 and 4 ed. in HM, lxxxiii and lxxxiv (1951)
16	Balletti e correnti a 5, 1ibro quinto, ed. G. Varischino (Venice, 1691)
18	Sonate, 2–7 insts con trombe e senza, overo flauti, ? ed. G. Varischino (Venice, ?1695), lost, see Sartori (1966)

Legrenzi, Giovanni

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CaffiS

NewmanSBE

SmitherHO

Mercure galant (August 1677), 75–86 [on Totila]; (March 1683), 232–50; (April 1683), 20–89

H. Nüssle: Giovanni Legrenzi als Instrumentalkomponist (diss., U. of Munich, 1917)

G. Tebaldini: ‘Giovanni Legrenzi’, Musica d’oggi, xix (1937), 125–31

P. Fogaccia: Giovanni Legrenzi (Bergamo, 1954)

S.T. Worsthorne: Venetian Opera in the Seventeenth Century (Oxford, 1954/R), 37, 43, 48, 105

R. Monterosso: ‘Medaglioni di musicisti lombardi, ii: Giovanni Legrenzi’, Musicisti lombardi ed emiliani, Chigiana, xv (1958), 55–60

S. Bonta: The Church Sonatas of Giovanni Legrenzi (diss., Harvard U., 1964)

J.A. MacDonald: The Sacred Vocal Music of Giovanni Legrenzi (diss., U. of Michigan, 1964)

C. Sartori: ‘Un catalogo di Giuseppe Sala del 1715’, FAM, xiii (1966), 112–16, esp.114

A. Meli: ‘L’esordio di Giovanni Legrenzi da Clusone in Santa Maria Maggiore dal 1645 al 1655’, Eco di Bergamo (23 Aug 1970)

S. Bonta: ‘A Formal Convention in 17th-Century Italian Instrumental Music’, IMSCR XI: Copenhagen 1972, 288–95

C. Sartori: ‘Due Legrenzi ricuperati’, AcM, xlvi (1974), 217–21

E. Selfridge-Field: Venetian Instrumental Music from Gabrieli to Vivaldi (Oxford, 1975, 3/1994)

C. Vitali: ‘Una lettera vivaldiana perduta e ritrovata, un inedito monteveriano del 1630 e altri carteggi di musicisti celebri ovvero splendori e nefandezze del collezionismo di autografi’, NRMI, xiv (1980), 404–12

R. Emans: Die einstimmigen Kantaten, Canzonetten und Serenaden Giovanni Legrenzis (Bonn,1984)

U. Scarpetta: ‘L'ultimo monumento dello stile a cappella: la Missa Lauretana di Legrenzi’,La musica nel Veneto dal XVI al XVIII secolo, ed. I. Cavallini and F. Passadore (Adria, 1984), 175–89

B. Glixon: Recitative in Seventeenth-Century Venetian Opera: its Dramatic Function and Musical Language (diss., Rutgers U., 1985)

R. Bossard: Giovanni Legrenzi, Il Giustino: Eine Monograph, Studie (Baden-Baden, 1988)

L.G. Cockerham: The Chamber Sonatas and Dances of Giovanni Legrenzi (diss., U. of Kansas, 1988)

J.D. Swale: ‘Legrenzi's Operas: Dramatic Structures for an Autocratic Age’, MMA, xv (1988), 89–99

M. Baroni and R. Dalmonte: ‘Relationships between Music and Poetry in the Arias of Giovanni Legrenzi’, CMR, iv (1989), 23–44

E. Rosand: Opera in Seventeenth-Century Venice: the Creation of a Genre (Berkeley, 1991)

T. Brugnoni: ‘“Curiose mutanze, novità, stravagange”: un esempio di scenografia veneziana del tardo seicento nei bozzetti per le scene di Germanico sul Reno’, RIM, xxvii (1992), 125–44

F. Passadore and F. Rossi, eds.: Giovanni Legrenzi e la cappella ducale di San Marco (Florence, 1994)

J.D. Swale: Echoes of Reverence: the Life and Music of Giovanni Legrenzi (forthcoming)

Legros [Le Gros], Joseph

(b Monampteuil, Laon, 7 or 8 Sept 1739; d La Rochelle, 20 Dec 1793). French tenor and composer. Having been a choirboy at Laon Cathedral, Legros developed a powerful, sweet-toned haute-contre suited to the high tessitura of French opera. Recruited by Rebel and Francoeur, he made his début at the Paris Opéra in 1764, shortly before the retirement of Jélyotte, in Mondonville's Titon et l'Aurore. Although a stiff actor he became the Opéra's leading haute-contre until his retirement (accelerated by obesity) in 1783.

Legros played the title roles in Rameau's principal tragédies lyriques, and created over 30 other roles. He adapted without apparent difficulty to the new italianate style, singing Sandomir in Philidor's Ernelinde in 1767 and at subsequent revivals. He was the first Achilles in Gluck's Iphigénie en Aulide (1774) and on its revival the following year led a patriotic demonstration with the aria ‘Chantez, célébrez votre reine’. His popularity influenced the adaptation of the castrato role of Orpheus in the French version of Gluck's opera to suit his range (exceptionally, the compass is extended to e''). Legros subsequently created the principal tenor roles in Gluck's Alceste, Armide, Iphigénie en Tauride and Cynire (rather than Narcissus) in Echo et Narcisse. For Piccinni he created Médor (Roland), the title role in Atys and Pylades (Iphigénie en Tauride); his last role was the eponymous hero in Sacchini's Renaud.

Legros was director of the Concert Spirituel from 1777, and promoted music by Haydn and Mozart; but too often he allowed commercial considerations to outweigh his artistic judgment. With L.-B. Desormery he rewrote the second entrée of Grenet's opéra-ballet, Le triomphe de l'harmonie (performed at the Opéra as Hylas et Eglé in 1775). He composed another opera, Anacréon, which was not performed, and some songs. (BrookSF; ES (F. Serpa); FétisB; PierreH)

JULIAN RUSHTON

Leguar [Leguerre], Mr.

See Laguerre, John.

Leguay, Jean-Pierre

(b Dijon, 4 July 1939). French organist and composer. He was a pupil of Marchal, Litaize and Rolande Falcinelli, in whose class he gained a premier prix for organ and improvisation at the Paris Conservatoire (1966). He also studied at the Conservatoire with Simone Plé-Caussade and Messiaen. He subsequently won improvisation competitions at Lyons (1967) and Haarlem (1969), and was awarded a special prize in the international competition for composition at Erding in Germany in 1985. The following year the Académie des Beaux-Arts in Paris awarded him the P.-L. Weiller composition prize. Leguay was organist of Notre Dame des Champs, Paris, from 1961 to 1984, and became organist of the Cathedral of Notre Dame in 1985. He was also appointed professor of organ and the history of music at the Limoges Conservatoire in 1968, moving to the Dijon Conservatoire in 1989. Leguay, who is blind, belongs to the Marchal tradition of organ playing, and his dissonant, highly coloured musical language has won him an established reputation as an improviser. His own organ works are designed to illustrate the specific characteristics of different types of organ. He has recorded his Sonate I and several of his Préludes, and made a disc of improvisations. Leguay's discography also includes works by Brahms, Liszt, Vierne, Gigout, Beethoven, Mozart and Haydn.

FRANÇOIS SABATIER

Lehár, Franz (Christian)

(b Komáron, Hungary, 30 April 1870; d Bad Ischl, 24 Oct 1948). Austro-Hungarian composer and conductor. He was the leading operetta composer of the 20th century, being primarily responsible for giving the genre renewed vitality. His most successful operetta, Die lustige Witwe, has established a lasting place in the opera as well as the operetta repertory and, along with Offenbach and Johann Strauss II, Lehár has remained one of the most popular composers of light music.

ANDREW LAMB

1. Life.

The family came originally from the eastern Sudetenland. Lehár’s father, also Franz (1838–98), received his music education in Sternberg (now Šternberg), played the horn in the orchestra of the Theater an der Wien, and was for nearly 40 years a military bandmaster and composer of dances and marches. In 1869 he married the Hungarian Christine Neubrandt, and in the following years they moved between various Hungarian garrison towns. The mother-tongue of their offspring was Hungarian and the family name acquired the accent to indicate a long vowel (the stress being on the first syllable). In 1880 the father’s regiment moved to Budapest, but to improve his German the young Lehár was sent to Sternberg where his uncle was the town’s music director. During the summer Lehár played the violin in his uncle’s spa orchestra at Bad Ullersdorf in Moravia, and at the age of 12 he entered the Prague Conservatory, studying the violin with Antonín Bennewitz and theory with Anton Foerster. He also took some private lessons in composition from Zdeněk Fibich and received some advice from Dvořák.

In autumn 1888 Lehár took up a position as theatre violinist at Barmen-Elberfeld in the Rhineland. Then, called up for military service, he joined the band of the 50th Austrian infantry regiment, playing under his father and alongside his future operetta colleague, Leo Fall. In 1890 he was made bandmaster of the 25th infantry regiment in Losoncz and in 1894 of the naval corps in Pola. He gave up the position when his opera Kukuška was about to be performed, but its failure in Leipzig in November 1896 forced him to return to military service as bandmaster of the 87th infantry regiment in Trieste. On his father’s retirement he took over his position with the 3rd Bosnian-Hercegovinan infantry regiment in Budapest, and finally in 1899 was appointed bandmaster of the 26th infantry regiment, a post which brought him to Vienna. He had been composing dances and marches and in Vienna achieved success with the waltzes Asklepios (1901) and Gold und Silber (1902). In 1902 he finally left military service and in that year he conducted at the summer theatre in the Prater and then at the Theater an der Wien. There and at the rival Carltheater his operettas Wiener Frauen and Der Rastelbinder were performed within the year, the latter being a particular success. Their successors, Der Göttergatte and Die Juxheirat (both 1904), were failures, but in 1905 Lehár was called in to set Die lustige Witwe, a libretto originally intended for Richard Heuberger. Its success in Vienna and abroad was the greatest in operetta history, heralding a new international era for Viennese operetta through the works of Lehár, Straus, Fall and later Kálmán.

A relative failure followed, in Der Mann mit den drei Frauen (1908), but in 1909–10 three works were produced within the space of three months, of which Der Graf von Luxemburg and Zigeunerliebe both achieved wide international popularity. Lehár was by now building on his reputation and producing works which were more ambitious in both subject matter and musical style, but they failed to attract the same wide public. After the war (during which he conducted many concerts for the armed forces), the arrival of new styles of popular music from the USA increasingly made it appear that Lehár’s period of greatest popularity was over. However, a new period of success arrived with an association with Richard Tauber, which began when the latter sang in Zigeunerliebe at Salzburg in 1921 (though the tenor lead at the Viennese première was sung by Carl Clewing) and continued with Der Zarewitsch (1927) and Friederike (1928; more a play with music than an operetta, in which Tauber portrayed Goethe) before there came the most widely popular, Das Land des Lächelns (1929). This work, which was first produced in Berlin where Lehár’s premières were now staged, was a revision of an earlier work, Die gelbe Jacke (1923), with the most famous of all Lehár’s Tauber songs, ‘Dein ist mein ganzes Herz’, among the additions to the score.

At this time Lehár was occupied with revisions and film versions of his operettas, and he also composed some original film scores. His only entirely new stage work after 1928 was Giuditta, a still more ambitious work written for the Vienna Staatsoper where it was produced in 1934 with Tauber and Jarmila Novotná in the leading roles and with 120 radio stations relaying the performance. Lehár never again found the subject or the frame of mind for a new work. In 1935 he founded his own publishing house, Glocken Verlag, to take over the rights to many of his works from the bankrupt Karczag publishing house. From other publishers he also acquired the rights to most of his other works, with the notable exception of Die lustige Witwe, the lucrative rights to which were retained by Doblinger. He concentrated mainly on these publishing activities, his most substantial piece of composition being the revision of Zigeunerliebe as the opera Garabonciás diák (‘The Wandering Scholar’) for Budapest (1943). During World War II he remained in Vienna and Bad Ischl, suffering the equivocal situation that, whereas his wife was Jewish and several of his friends and collaborators died in concentration camps, Die lustige Witwe was one of Hitler’s favourite works. Always wrapped up in his music and unwilling to become involved in politics, his failure to protest against Nazi atrocities at first made him an object of suspicion outside Germany. Suffering ill-health, in 1946 he moved to Zürich where his wife died in September 1947; in summer 1948 he returned to Bad Ischl where he himself died soon afterwards. His villa in Bad Ischl is now a Lehár museum, and memorials were erected in front of the Kursaal, Bad Ischl, in 1958 and in the Stadtpark, Vienna, in 1980.

Lehár, Franz

2. Works.

The extent of the development of Lehár’s musical style was unusually great, if not unique, for an operetta composer, and his works divide naturally into the early successes before World War I and the subsequent phase culminating in the Tauber successes. His earlier works, both independent pieces such as Gold und Silber and the early stage successes, show above all a natural and profuse flow of melody. Like the younger Johann Strauss he had the ability to make melodies take an unexpected but natural-sounding turn and to maintain interest through the contrasted shape and rhythm of succeeding melodies. Although he introduced the full range of social dance rhythms into his works, the centrepiece was of course the waltz, though a more tender, swaying type of waltz than that which typified the previous generations of waltz composers. His technical grasp, gained through a thorough theoretical and practical education, and his study of musical development in both serious and popular music, enabled him to give his fluent melodic output a substance that is not often found in music of its type. His vocal writing was particularly sympathetic, with phrasing and melodic shaping disguising the underlying rhythm, and he was especially adept at using counterpoint for melodic, rhythmic and also dramatic purposes. Lehár was also unusual for operetta composers of his time in orchestrating his own scores, which he did with notable skill and imagination, having learnt from the innovations of Dvořák, Puccini and Richard Strauss. He took a particular delight in portraying local colour (Slav in Der Rastelbinder, Balkan in Die lustige Witwe, Polish in Die blaue Mazur, Spanish in Frasquita, Russian in Der Zarewitsch and Chinese in Das Land des Lächelns). He was himself an excellent violinist and eagerly seized the opportunity for violin solos (in Zigeunerliebe, Die blaue Mazur and Paganini for instance), and the solo violin was always a particular feature in heightening the sensuousness of his love-scene waltzes.

Nowhere is the freshness of his invention better displayed than in Die lustige Witwe, the work with which his name is most closely associated and one which shows remarkably little trace of the rather stereotyped patterns into which operetta was inclined to sink. Probably no leading pair of roles had so individual and effective a pair of entrance songs as Hanna Glawari and Danilo Danilowitsch, and this originality is maintained throughout the score. Lehár was perhaps lucky that the Viennese operetta was at the time suffering something of an eclipse following the deaths of the leading practitioners of the previous generation such as Suppé, Johann Strauss II, Millöcker and Zeller, so that opportunities were there for new composers. He was lucky too that the Theater an der Wien company was composed of relative newcomers who were not in a position to demand show numbers to suit their own taste, and in particular he was able to avoid writing numbers for performers who were comics rather than singers. In fact the chief comic role, Njegus, has no solo singing. Lehár was thus more than usually free to follow his own inclination without extraneous influences. Above all, however, he was fortunate in having the good text on which an operetta, far more than an opera, is dependent. The waltzes, which were de rigueur in Viennese operetta, were able to occur as an integral part of the action, and the book strikes an ideal balance between reality and fantasy, with a fine combination of romance and wit and a succession of interesting situations.

These factors were in varying degrees and combinations missing from his other works, obscuring the worth of individual numbers with no less melodic appeal. Even in the early works Lehár’s aim to raise the standard of his work was evident, not least in the frequent revisions which he made at all stages of his career. In the years just before World War I his attempts to extend the scope of his operettas led to the use of more serious subjects. Zigeunerliebe contained elements of melancholy and fantasy, Eva featured a factory girl and dealt with social relationships, while the whole of Act 2 of Endlich allein (1914) has the leading couple alone on a mountain top. Lehár gradually extended his harmonic language, showing an awareness of the developments of Debussy, Richard Strauss and Puccini. Indeed he was taking Viennese operetta towards a Puccinian plane at a time when Puccini himself was flirting with Viennese operetta à la Lehár in La rondine. (The two composers were close friends and mutual admirers, and Lehár was even suggested as a candidate for completing Turandot.) However, these attempts at raising the quality of operetta brought with them suggestions of pretentiousness and sentimentality, heightened by the introduction of historical characters such as Paganini and Goethe. The incompatibility of his more serious aspirations and the traditional lightness of operetta was heightened further as Lehár began employing the new popular music styles of the time, such as the blues, foxtrot, onestep, tango and shimmy.

It was this lack of a focal point that was solved first by the advent of Tauber, who had the personality to draw audiences to Lehár’s works and to do justice to the more ambitious vocal music which Lehár was able to compose for him from Paganini onwards. If Lehár’s melodic flow was now less consistent, his shaping of vocal line was still exemplary. The typical Tauber song, with its virile initial upward thrust, became very popular but was apt to seem stereotyped when repeated in successive works (‘O Mädchen, mein Mädchen’ in Friederike, ‘Dein ist mein ganzes Herz’ in Das Land des Lächelns and ‘Freunde, das Leben ist Lebenswert’ in Giuditta) and when seized upon by hosts of tenor imitators. The final resolution of the conflict between Lehár’s ambitions and the essential features of operetta came with Giuditta. Writing for an opera house and for opera singers, Lehár at last had the scope he needed, and the work perhaps does justice to the mature Lehár as Die lustige Witwe does to the younger man. It was a work for which Lehár had a particular affection and one which he arranged to have engraved in full score, though the fact that it falls uneasily between opera house and operetta theatre has restricted its subsequent acceptance.

In his last works Lehár produced his own unique style of operetta, more integrated than the revue manner then in fashion. After Giuditta the traditional relationship between opera and operetta finally disappeared, and Lehár, in pursuing his own course, has even been described as the destroyer of operetta. Yet it is fairer to suggest that, with the advent of new styles of popular music from the USA, operetta had already run its course as a truly international form of entertainment, and that in his final works Lehár gave the genre a final fling just as he had earlier given it new life with Die lustige Witwe.

Lehár, Franz

WORKS

for complete list see Czech (1957), and Peteani

stage

Operettas unless otherwise stated

WW	Vienna, Theater an der Wien

Der Kürassier, 1891–2 (Op, G. Ruther), inc.

Rodrigo, 1893 (Op, 1, R. Mlčoch), unperf.

Kukuška (Op, 3, F. Falzari), Leipzig, Stadt, 27 Nov 1896; rev. as Tatjana (Falzari and M. Kalbeck), Brünn, Stadt, 21 Feb 1905

Arabella, die Kubanerin, 1901 (G. Schmidt), inc.

Das Club-Baby, 1901 (V. Léon), inc.

Wiener Frauen [Der Klavierstimmer] (3, O. Tann-Bergler and E. Norini), WW, 21 Nov 1902, vs (Vienna, 1902); rev. as Der Schlüssel zum Paradies (3, Norini and J. Horst), Leipzig, Stadt, Oct 1906

Der Rastelbinder (prelude, 2, Léon), Vienna, Carl, 20 Dec 1902, vs (Vienna, 1902)

Der Göttergatte (prelude, 2, Léon and L. Stein), Vienna, Carl, 20 Jan 1904, vs (Vienna, 1904); rev. as Die ideale Gattin (3, J. Brammer and A. Grünwald, after L. Fulda: Die Zwillingsschwester), WW, 11 Oct 1913, vs (Vienna, 1913); rev. as Die Tangokönigin (Brammer and Grünwald), Vienna, Apollo, 9 Sept 1921, vs (Vienna, 1921)

Die Juxheirat (3, J. Bauer), WW, 22 Dec 1904, vs (Vienna, 1904)

Die lustige Witwe (3, Léon and Stein, after H. Meilhac: L’attaché d’ambassade), WW, 30 Dec 1905, vs (Vienna, 1906)

Peter und Paul reisen ins Schlaraffenland (Zaubermärchen, 1, F. Grünbaum and R. Bodanzky), WW, 1 Dec 1906, 7 nos. (Vienna, 1906)

Mitislaw der Moderne (1, Grünbaum and Bodanzky), Vienna, Die Hölle, 5 Jan 1907, 3 nos. (Vienna, ?1907)

Der Mann mit den drei Frauen (3, Bauer), WW, 21 Jan 1908, vs (Vienna, 1908)

Das Fürstenkind (prelude, 3, Léon, after E. About), Vienna, Johann Strauss, 7 Oct 1909, vs (Vienna, 1909); rev. as Der Fürst der Berge, Berlin, Nollendorfplatz, 23 Sept 1932

Der Graf von Luxemburg (3, A.M. Willner and Bodanzky), WW, 12 Nov 1909, vs (Vienna, 1909); rev. version, Berlin, Volkes, 4 March 1937, vs (Vienna, 1937)

Zigeunerliebe (romantische Operette, 3, Willner and Bodanzky), Vienna, Carl, 8 Jan 1910 (Vienna, 1910); rev. as Garabonciás diák [The Wandering Scholar] (E. Innocent Vincze), Budapest, Király, 20 Feb 1943

Eva [Das Fabriksmädel] (3, Willner and Bodanzky), WW, 24 Nov 1911, vs (Vienna, 1911)

Rosenstock und Edelweiss (Spl, 1, Bauer), Vienna, Die Hölle, 1 Dec 1912

Endlich allein (3, Willner and Bodanzky), WW, 30 Jan 1914, vs (Vienna, 1914); rev. as Schön ist die Welt! (3, L. Herzer and F. Löhner), Berlin, Metropol, 3 Dec 1930, vs (Vienna, 1930)

Der Sterngucker (3, Löhner), Vienna, Josefstadt, 14 Jan 1916; rev. version (3, Löhner and Willner), WW, 27 Sept 1916, vs (Vienna, 1916); rev. as La danza delle libellule (3, C. Lombardo), Milan, Lirico, 3 May 1922; as Libellentanz (Lombardo and Willner), Vienna, 31 March 1923, vs (Vienna, 1923); rev. as Gigolette (Lombardo and G. Forzano), Milan, Lirico, 30 Oct 1926

A pacsirta [The Lark] (3, F. Martos), Budapest, Király, 1 Jan 1918; as Wo die Lerche singt (Willner and H. Reichert, after Martos), WW, 27 March 1918, vs (Vienna, 1918)

Die blaue Mazur (2, Stein and B. Jenbach), WW, 28 May 1920, vs (Vienna, 1920)

Frühling (Spl, 1, R. Eger), Vienna, Die Hölle, 20 Jan 1922, vs (Berlin, 1922); rev. as Frühlingsmädel (3, Eger), Berlin, Zoo, 29 May 1928

Frasquita (3, Willner and Reichert), WW, 12 May 1922, vs (Vienna, 1922); rev. version, Paris, OC (Favart), 5 May 1933

Die gelbe Jacke (3, Léon), WW, 9 Feb 1923, vs (Vienna, 1923); rev. as Das Land des Lächelns (romantische Operette, 3, Herzer and Löhner, after Léon), Berlin, Metropol, 10 Oct 1929, vs (Berlin, 1929)

Cloclo (3, Jenbach), Vienna, Bürger, 8 March 1924; rev. version, Vienna, Johann Strauss, 4 Sept 1924, vs (Berlin, 1924)

Paganini (3, P. Knepler and Jenbach), Vienna, Johann Strauss, 30 Oct 1925, vs (Berlin, 1925)

Der Zarewitsch (3, Jenbach and Reichert, after G. Zapolska), Berlin, Deutsches Künstler, 16 Feb 1927, vs (Berlin, 1927)

Friederike (Spl, 3, Herzer and Löhner), Berlin, Metropol, 10 Oct 1928, vs (Berlin, 1928)

Giuditta (musikalische Komödie, 5 scenes, Knepler and Löhner), Vienna, Staatsoper, 20 Jan 1934 (Vienna, 1933)

other works

Film scores: Die grosse Attraktion, 1931; Es war einmal ein Walzer, 1932; Grossfürstin Alexandra, 1934; Die ganze Welt dreht sich um Liebe, 1936; Une nuit à Vienne, 1937

Concert orch pieces: Eine Vision: meine Jugend, sym. fantasy; 2 other sym. poems; 2 vn concs., unpubd; other music

Dances: c65 waltzes incl. Stadtpark-Schönheiten, Asklepios-Walzer (Pikanterien-Walzer), Gold und Silber, Ballsirenen-Walzer [after Die lustige Witwe], Wilde Rosen (Chrysanthemum-Walzer); other dances

Over 50 marches incl. Jetzt geht’s los!, Jupiter-Marsch [after Der Göttergatte], Piave-Marsch

c90 songs, pf sonatas, other pf pieces

Lehár, Franz

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Decsey: Franz Lehár (Munich, 1924, 2/1930)

G. Knosp: Franz Lehár: une vie d’artiste (Brussels, 1936)

S. Czech: Franz Lehár: sein Weg und sein Werk (Berlin, 1940, 2/1948)

M. von Peteani: Franz Lehár: seine Musik, sein Leben (Vienna, 1950, 2/1985)

I. Kwasnik-Teuber: Franz Lehár: sein Leben und Werk (Kevelaer, 1953)

W. Macqueen-Pope and D.L. Murray: Fortune’s Favourite (London, 1953)

S. Czech: Schön ist die Welt: Franz Lehárs Leben und Werk (Berlin, 1957)

B. Grun: Gold and Silver: the Life and Times of Franz Lehár (London, 1970)

M. Schönherr: Franz Lehár: Bibliographie zu Leben und Werk (Vienna, 1970) [summary in ‘Beiträge zu einer Franz-Lehár-Bibliographie’, ÖMz, xxv (1970), 330–31]

M. Bartolotto: ‘Sul teatro d'operetta’, NRMI, v/3 (1971), 420–42

M. Schönherr: Die Instrumentation bei Lehár (Baden, 1978); abridged and with Eng. summary in Lamb, 1992

A. Lamb: ‘Opera on the Gramophone: Die lustige Witwe’, Opera, xxxii (1981), 128–37, 243–7

L’avant-scène opéra, no.45 (1982) [Die lustige Witwe issue]

A. Lamb: ‘Lehár's “Count of Luxembourg”’, MT, cxxiv (1983), 23–5

G.V.R. van Ham: Franz Lehár (Madrid, 1984)

O. Schneidereit: Franz Lehár: eine Biographie in Zitaten (Berlin and Innsbruck, 1984)

Franz Lehár: Thematic Index (London, 1985)

M. Lichtfuss: Operette im Ausverkauf: Studien zum Libretto des musikalischen Unterhalthungstheaters im Österreich der Zwischenkriegszeit (Vienna, 1989)

V. Klotz: Operette: Porträt und Handbuch einer unerhörten Kunst (Munich, 1991)

A. Lamb, ed.: Light Music from Austria: Reminiscences and Writings of Max Schönherr (New York, 1992)

Lehel, György

(b Budapest, 10 Feb 1926; d Budapest, 26 Sept 1989). Hungarian conductor. He studied privately with Pál Kadosa (composition) and László Somogyi (conducting), and made his début in 1946. After working for Hungarian radio he was appointed principal conductor and music director of the radio orchestra (the Budapest SO) in 1962. With this orchestra he made his British début at the 1968 Cheltenham Festival, where he conducted the first performances of Crosse's Chamber Concerto op.8, and Maconchy's Three Cloudscapes. He also toured with the orchestra, and was a guest conductor with others, in the USSR, USA, Japan and Europe; in 1974 he was appointed permanent guest conductor of the Basle RSO. His many recordings include much of Liszt, and Bartók (for the complete recorded edition), and new Hungarian music which he consistently championed; many contemporary Hungarian composers dedicated works to him. He received the Liszt Prize (1955, 1962) and the Kossuth Prize (1973) and was named Artist of Merit in 1967.

PÉTER P. VÁRNAI

Le Héman.

See De Héman family.

Le Heurteur [Hurteur], Guillaume

(fl 1530–45). French composer and choirmaster. The only known biographical information comes from the title-page of his book of motets published by Attaingnant in 1545. It states that Le Heurteur was a priest, serving as canon and preceptor of the choirboys at St Martin, Tours. Virtually all his music appeared in Parisian or Lyonnaise prints between 1530 and 1545.

Le Heurteur’s surviving works include four masses, two Magnificat settings, some 22 motets and 26 chansons. A lost Attaingnant book of settings of texts from the Song of Songs mentioned Le Heurteur on the title-page and would no doubt substantially increase the corpus of motets attributed to him. All the masses call upon pre-existing material: the Missa ‘Impetum’, for example, is based on the anonymous motet Impetum inimicorum ne timueritis printed by Attaingnant in 1528 and the Missa ‘Ung jour Robin’ on Sermisy’s chanson. The Missa ‘Osculetur me’ may well be based on one of Le Heurteur’s lost motets on texts from the Song of Songs. His sacred music shows much variety in its contrapuntal style as well as reflecting the French predilection for a more harmonic orientation. In the masses and motets block-like chordal textures are interspersed with a host of contrapuntal procedures. Only rarely do these consist of relatively strict imitation; more often Le Heurteur’s counterpoint brings voices together in homorhythmic groupings or combines a fast-moving melody with a slower-moving ‘harmonic’ support. A comparison of the two Magnificat settings shows the extent of the contrapuntal variety in his music. Both pieces include sections for two, three, four and six voices. The two-part sections resemble texturally the 16th-century bicinium in their combination of initial imitation with a mixture of homorhythmic passages and florid writing in semiminims. The six-part section of the Magnificat primi toni is essentially chordal whereas the analogous passage in the Magnificat quarti toni exemplifies in its canonic writing Le Heurteur’s most conservative counterpoint.

The chansons for four voices are freely composed and reflect in their short phrases, concise formal structures, frequent cadences, transparent textures and melodic stereotypes, the style of the Parisian chanson. Their fabric, however, incorporates a somewhat greater measure of linear independence than is characteristic of a typical chanson by, for example, Sermisy. Le Heurteur’s chansons for two or three voices are based on four-voice models by Sermisy, Derrick Gerarde, Jacotin or Rocquelay. They are not mere arrangements of pre-existing chansons, for Le Heurteur transformed his borrowed material thoroughly, changing chordal four-voice chansons into linear duos or trios, while still retaining a recognizable image of the original.

WORKS

Edition:Treize livres de motets parus chez Pierre Attaingnant en 1534 et 1535, ed. A. Smijers and A.T. Merritt (Paris and Monaco, 1934–64) [S]

masses and magnificat settings

Missa ‘Fors seulement’, 4vv, 1534¹

Missa ‘Impetum’, 4vv, 1532⁷

Missa ‘Osculetur me’, 4vv, 1532⁴; ed. E. Stein, Twelve Franco-Flemish Masses of the Early Sixteenth Century (Rochester, NY, 1941)

Missa ‘Ung jour Robin’, 4vv, 1534¹

Magnificat primi toni, 4vv, 1534⁷; S v

Magnificat quarti toni, 4vv, 1534⁸; S vi

motets

Cantica canticorum Salomonis Guill. le Heurteur (Paris, 1541), lost

Operum musicalium liber primus (Paris, 1545) [17 motets]; 1 ed. in S iii

5 other motets, 2, 4, 5vv, 1534⁶, 1534⁹, 1538², 1543¹⁹, 1549¹⁶; 1 ed. in S iv, 1 in S vii, 1 ed. A. Bornstein, Antonio Gardano: Il primo libro a due voci de diversi autori (Bologna, 1994)

Nisi Dominus aedificaverit domum, attrib. Le Heurteur in 1535¹, 1555¹⁵, is by Jean Lhéritier

chansons

26 chansons, 2–4vv: D-Mbs 1508; 1530³; Chansons musicales a quatre parties (Paris, 1533); 1533¹; 1534¹²; 1534¹⁴, Trente et une chansons musicales (Paris, 1535) (attrib. Janequin 1541¹³ and 1543²³); 1535⁶ (attrib. Cadéac 1540¹⁷); 1538¹⁴; 1539¹⁹, 1 also in S-Uu 87 (ed. in Hambraeus); 1540¹¹ (attrib. Bon Voisin 1538¹³); 1541^5-6; 1544¹⁴ (attrib. Gardano 1545⁶); 1553²² (1 also attrib. Moulu, and attrib. Sermisy 1578¹⁴); 1 ed. in FCVR, i (1928/R), 1 ed. in FCVR, viii (1929/R), 5 ed. B. Thomas and A. Robson, Pierre Attaingnant: Fourteen Chansons (1533) (London, 1972), 2 ed. A. Seay, Antonio Gardane: Il primo libro de canzoni francese a due voci (Colorado Springs, 1979), 1 ed. A Seay, Pierre Attaingnant: Second livre (1536) (Colorado Springs, 1980), 6 ed. in RRMR, xxxvi–xxxvii (1982), 2 ed. in SCC, xxv (1993), 1 ed. in SCC, xxvi (1993)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Lesure: ‘Les chansons à trois voix de Clément Janequin’, RdM, xliv (1959), 193–8

B. Hambraeus: Codex carminum gallicorum: une étude sur le volume ‘Musique vocale de manuscrit 87’ de la Bibliothèque de l’Université d’Upsala (Uppsala, 1961)

F. Lesure: ‘Latin Church Music on the Continent: France in the Sixteenth Century (1520–1610)’, NOHM, iv (1968), 237–53

D. Heartz: Pierre Attaingnant, Royal Printer of Music (Berkeley, 1969)

D. Heartz: ‘Au pres de vous: Claudin’s Chanson and the Commerce of Publishers’ Arrangements’, JAMS, xxiv (1971), 193–225

L.E. Miller: The Chansons of French Provincial Composers, 1530–1550: a Study of Stylistic Trends (diss., Stanford U., 1977)

L.F. Bernstein: ‘The “Parisian Chanson”: Problems of Style and Terminology’, JAMS, xxxi (1978), 193–240

L.F. Bernstein: ‘French Duos in the First Half of the Sixteenth Century’, Studies in Musicology in Honor of Otto E. Albrecht, ed. J.W. Hill (Kassel, 1980), 43–87

LAWRENCE F. BERNSTEIN

Lehmann, Hans Ulrich

(b Biel, canton of Berne, 4 May 1937). Swiss composer. He studied the cello with Rolf Looser at the Biel Conservatory (until 1960), theory with Paul Müller-Zürich at the Zürich Conservatory (until 1962), composition with Boulez and Stockhausen at the Basle Musikakademie (1960–63) and musicology with Kurt von Fischer at Zürich University (1960–66). He has taught at the Basle Musikakademie (1961–72), Zürich University (1969–90), the University of Berne (1990) and the Zürich Conservatory (1972–98). He has also served as director of the Zürich Conservatory and Musikhochschule (1976–98), president of the Swiss musicians' union, STV (1983–6) and president (from 1991) of the Swiss musical copyright association, SUISA. His honours include the music prize of the Conrad Ferdinand Meyer-Stiftung, Zürich (1973), the composers prize of STV (1988) and the music prize of the city of Zürich (1993).

Lehmann's works are characterized by nuanced shaping of quiet moments. Many of his compositions are inspired by lyric and ‘concrete’ poetry, and strive to motivate a mode of hearing open to confrontation with unfamiliar sounds and processes. His works from the early 1960s show the influence of Boulez’ musical language and serial structures. After Rondo (1967) Lehmann increasingly integrated retrospective (‘rückenwickelt’) elements into his works. A gradual change in style led to the ‘Schrilles’ section of Tractus (1971) and continued from 1973 towards an intuitive and emotional understanding of form (Tantris, 1976–7). Many of his works were written for specific performers; this allowed him, especially in chamber works, to develop a flexible rhythmic notation requiring the creative participation of the musicians. In the 1990s he rendered the subtle complexity of these compositions in large-scale works using conventional rhythmic-metric notation (ut signaculum, 1991–2; battements, 1994–5).

WORKS

Orch: zu blasen, 23 wind, 1975–6; Chbr Music II, small orch, 1979; Prélude à une étendue, chbr orch, 1993–4; battements, perc, chbr orch, 1994–5

Vocal: Rondo (H. Heissenbüttel), S, orch, 1967; à la recherche (lit), vv, 2 org, 1973; Tantris (J. Joyce), S, fl, vc, 1976–7; Duette (F. Mon), S, fl, vc, 1980; theolalie (K. Marti), S, fl, vc, 1980–81; Canticum II (e.e. cummings), S, inst ad lib, 1981; Alleluja, S, cl, Jap. temple bells, org, 1985; ut signaculum (Song of Songs/Solomon, Cummings), S, Bar, chbr orch, 1991–2; Sprich (R. Ausländer), A, t rec, 1993; Book of Songs (Cummings), Bar, fl, vc, perc, 1998–9; twi-Light (Cummings), S, chbr orch, 1999

Chbr and solo inst: Structures transparentes, cl, vc, pf, 1961; Quanti, fl, chbr ens, 1962; Régions, fl, 1963; Mosaik, cl, 1964; Spiele, ob, hp, 1965; Conc., fl, cl, str, 1969; Monodie, 1 wind, 1970; Régions, S III, cl, trbn, vc, 1970; dis-cantus I, ob, 11 str, 1971; Sonata ‘da chiesa’, vn, org, 1971; Tractus, fl, ob, cl, 1971; stro(i)king, 1 perc, 1982; Mirlitonnades, fl, 1983; Triplum, 3 bassett-hn/b cl, 1984; Charakterstücke, pf, 1985; sich fragend nach frühester erinnerung, 4 rec, 1985; Str Qt, 1987–8; de profundis, cb cl, vc, perc, 1988–9; Esercizi, vc, 1989; el mar, cb/b cl, 1993–4

Principal pubishers: Ars Viva, Breitkopf & Härtel, Gravis, Hug & Co.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

KdG (C. Steiner)

I. Stoïanova: ‘Hans Ulrich Lehmann: un essai de portrait verbal’, SMz cxvi (1976), 80–87

H. Lachenmann: ‘Laudatio für Hans Ulrich Lehmann’, Dissonanz, no.13 (1987), 4–7; repr. in H. Lachenmann: Musik als existenzielle Erfahrung: Schriften 1966–1995 (Wiesbaden, 1996), 287–92

H.U. Lehmann: ‘“Nuancen und Details”. Aus der Werkstatt eines Komponisten’, Neue Zürcher Zeitung (6–7 Feb 1993)

CHRISTOPH STEINER

Lehmann, Lilli

(b Würzburg, 24 Nov 1848; d Berlin, 17 May 1929). German soprano. She studied with her mother, the singer Marie Loewe, in Prague, and made her début there in 1865 as the First Boy in Die Zauberflöte, later taking over the part of Pamina. In 1868 she was engaged at Danzig, and in 1869 she sang for the first time at the Berlin Hofoper, as Marguerite de Valois in Les Huguenots. The following year, after appearances in Leipzig, she was engaged permanently in Berlin. She took part in the first complete Ring cycle at Bayreuth (1876), delighting Wagner with her singing as Woglinde, Helmwige and the Woodbird. She made her London début at Her Majesty’s Theatre in June 1880 as Violetta in La traviata, and also sang Philine in Thomas’ Mignon. In 1882 she was heard in Vienna for the first time, and in 1884 she returned to London, appearing at Covent Garden as Isolde and as Elisabeth in Tannhäuser.

In 1885 Lehmann broke her contract with the Berlin Hofoper and went to New York, where she made her début at the Metropolitan as Carmen. During her first season she also sang Brünnhilde in Die Walküre, Sulamith in the first American performance of Goldmark’s Die Königin von Saba, Berthe in Le prophète, Marguerite in Faust, Irene in Rienzi and Venus in Tannhäuser. She took part in the first New York performances of Tristan und Isolde (1886), Goldmark’s Merlin (1887), Siegfried (1887) and Götterdämmerung (1888), as well as the first complete Ring cycle given in the USA (March 1889). In 1891 she returned to Berlin and in 1896 she sang Brünnhilde at Bayreuth. During her final season at the Metropolitan (1898–9) she sang Fricka in Das Rheingold, and at Covent Garden, where she returned in 1899, her last appearances were as Isolde, Sieglinde, Ortrud, Leonore, Donna Anna and Norma. Between 1901 and 1910 she sang at the Salzburg Festival (Donna Anna and the First Lady in Die Zauberflöte) and also became the festival’s artistic director. She continued to appear on the concert platform until 1920. She had started to teach in Berlin as early as 1891, and among her many famous pupils were Olive Fremstadt and Geraldine Farrar.

Lehmann’s enormous repertory ranged from the light, coloratura parts of her youth to the dramatic roles which she sang with superb authority and technical skill during the middle and later years of her career. As it grew more powerful, her voice retained all its flexibility, and she could turn from Wagner or Verdi to Mozart or Bellini with astonishing ease; Henderson wrote that dramatically ‘she was possessed of that rare combination of traits and equipment which made it possible for her to delineate the divinity in womanhood and womanhood in divinity, the mingling of the unapproachable goddess and the melting pitying human being’. However, not all of Lehmann’s critics were unstinting in their praise. Hugo Wolf, writing in the Wiener Salonblatt of 25 January 1885, objected to her making a virago of Isolde, and he felt that her interpretation of the part was neither rounded nor fully worked out, though it contained many beautiful, even gripping details.

Lilli’s younger sister, the soprano Marie Lehmann (b Hamburg, 15 May 1851; d Berlin, 9 Dec 1931), was also taught by their mother. She made her début in 1871 at Leipzig as Aennchen in Der Freischütz and then sang at Breslau, Cologne, Hamburg and Prague. In 1872 she sang in the performance of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony at the laying of the foundation stone of the Bayreuth Festspielhaus, and in 1876 took part in the first complete Ring cycle at Bayreuth, singing Wellgunde and Ortlinde. From 1882 to 1896 she was engaged at the Vienna Hofoper. Her repertory included Marguerite de Valois (Les Huguenots), Donna Elvira (Don Giovanni), Adalgisa (Norma) and Antonina in Donizetti’s Belisario. She returned to Bayreuth in 1896 to sing the Second Norn in Götterdämmerung.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Ehrlich [A. Payne], ed.: Berühmte Sängerinnen der Vergangenheit und Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1895)

L. Lehmann: Meine Gesangskunst (Berlin, 1902, 3/1922; Eng. trans., 1902, as How to Sing, enlarged 3/1924/R)

L. Lehmann: Mein Weg (Leipzig, 1914, 2/1920; Eng. trans., 1914/R)

E. Newman: The Life of Richard Wagner (London, 1933–47/R)

J. Kapp: Geschichte der Staatsoper Berlin (Berlin, 1937)

W.J. Henderson: The Art of Singing (New York, 1938)

W.H. Seltsam: Metropolitan Opera Annals (New York, 1947)

I. Kolodin: The Story of the Metropolitan Opera (New York, 1953)

H. Fetting: Die Geschichte der Deutschen Staatsoper (Berlin, 1955)

H. Rosenthal: Two Centuries of Opera at Covent Garden (London,1958)

G. Skelton: Wagner at Bayreuth (London, 1965, enlarged 2/1976)

ELIZABETH FORBES

Lehmann, Liza [Elizabeth] (Nina Mary Frederica)

(b London, 11 July 1862; d Pinner, 19 Sept 1918). English soprano and composer. She was the daughter of Amelia Chambers (widely known under the initials A.L. as a teacher, composer and arranger of songs) and Rudolf Lehmann, a German painter. She studied singing with Alberto Randegger and Jenny Lind in London, and composition with Niels Raunkilde in Rome, Wilhelm Freudenberg in Wiesbaden and Hamish MacCunn in London. She made her début at a Monday Popular Concert on 23 November 1885, and during the next nine years undertook many important recital engagements in England, receiving encouragement from Joseph Joachim and Clara Schumann. After a farewell concert at St James’s Hall on 14 July 1894, she retired, marrying Herbert Bedford, a painter and composer, and concentrating thenceforth on composition. She had already published some songs, and in 1896 In a Persian Garden appeared, a cycle of selected quatrains from Edward FitzGerald’s version of the Rubāiyāt of Omar Khayyām, for four soloists and piano; its exotic text and lyrical style appealed to contemporary taste, and it became popular. More song cycles and a number of musical comedies followed. In 1910 Lehmann undertook the first of two successful tours of the USA, accompanying her own songs in recitals. From 1911 to 1912 she was the first president of the Society of Women Musicians. She later became a professor of singing at the GSM and wrote Practical Hints for Students of Singing. Her memoirs make fascinating reading, giving a witty and humorous insight into musical society of the period in London and the USA. Her elder son died during World War I; her younger son became the father of Steuart and David Bedford.

Lehmann and Maude Valérie White were England’s foremost female composers of songs. Although both made solo settings of Tennyson’s In memoriam (Lehmann’s is on an extensive scale), they excelled in lighter material. Some of Lehmann’s procedures, such as her penchant for four-voice cycles and for piano links between songs, seem fossilized as period taste while others remain fresh and have been undervalued. She wrote many children’s songs, ranging from the pert triviality of ‘There are fairies at the bottom of our garden’ to the melodic and harmonic passion of ‘Stars’ from The Daisy-Chain. ‘Ah, moon of my delight’ from In a Persian Garden betokens a gift which would surely have flourished in the musical theatre had she been in a position to devote her career to it; as it was, her two comedy scores were received favourably, while in Everyman, a somewhat austere essay produced in a double bill with Debussy’s L’enfant prodigue, she furthered the English morality genre.

WORKS

(selective list)

printed works published in vocal score in London

stage

The Twin Sister (incid. music, L. Fulda), London, 1 Jan 1902, 2 songs (1902); Sergeant Brue (musical farce, 3, O. Hall [pseud. of J. Davis] and J.H. Wood), London, 14 June 1904 (1904); The Vicar of Wakefield (romantic light op, 3, L. Housman, after O. Goldsmith), Manchester, 14 Nov 1906, London, 12 Dec 1906 (1907); Everyman (opera, 1), London, 28 Dec 1915 (1916)

other works

Vocal with orch: Young Lochinvar (W. Scott), Bar, chorus, orch (1898); Endymion (scena, H.W. Longfellow), S (1899); Once upon a Time, cant. (1903); The Golden Threshold (S. Naidu), S, A, T, Bar, chorus, orch (1906); Leaves from Ossian, cant. (1909)

Song sets and cycles (complete list): 8 German Songs (1888); 12 German Songs (1889); 9 English Songs (1895); In a Persian Garden (E. FitzGerald, after O. Khayyām), S, A, T, B, pf (1896); In memoriam (Tennyson) (1899); The Daisy-Chain (L. Alma-Tadema, R.L. Stevenson and others), S, A, T, B, pf (1900); Cameos: 5 Greek Love-Songs (1901); 5 French Songs (G. Boutelleau, F. Plessis) (1901); More Daisies, S, A, T, B, pf (1902); Songs of Love and Spring (E. Geibel), A, Bar, pf (1903); The Life of a Rose (L. Lehmann) (1905); Bird Songs (A.S.) (1907); Mr. Coggs and Other Songs for Children (E.V. Lucas) (1908); Nonsense Songs (from L. Carroll: Alice in Wonderland), S, A, T, B, pf (1908); Breton Folk-Songs (F.M. Gostling), S, A, T, B, pf (1909); Four Cautionary Tales and a Moral (H. Belloc), 2vv, pf (1909); Liza Lehmann Album (1909); 5 Little Love Songs (C. Fabbri) (1910); Prairie Pictures (Lehmann), S, A, T, B, pf (1911); Songs of a ‘Flapper’ (Lehmann) (1911); Cowboy Ballads (J.A. Lomax) (1912); The Well of Sorrow (H. Vacaresco: The Bard of the Dimbovitza) (1912); 5 Tenor Songs (1913); Hips and Haws (M. Radclyffe Hall) (1913); Songs of Good Luck (Superstitions) (H. Taylor) (1913); Parody Pie, S, A, T, B, pf (1914); 3 Snow Songs (Lehmann), 1v, pf, org, female vv (1914); 3 Songs for Low Voice (Meredith, Browning) (1922)

Many single songs, incl. Mirage (H. Malesh) (1894); To a Little Red Spider (L.A. Cunnington) (1903); Magdalen at Michael’s Gate (H. Kingsley) (1913); The Poet and the Nightingale (J.T. White) (1914); The Lily of a Day (Jonson), 1917; There are Fairies at the Bottom of Our Garden (R. Fyleman), 1917; When I am Dead, My Dearest (C. Rossetti), 1918

Other vocal works, incl. The Secrets of the Heart (H. Austin Dobson), S, A, pf (1895); Good-Night, Babette! (Austin Dobson), S, Bar, vn, vc, pf (1898); The Eternal Feminine (monologue, L. Eldée) (1902); The Happy Prince (recitation, O. Wilde) (1908); 4 Shakespearean Part-Songs (1911); The Selfish Giant (recitation, Wilde), 1911; The High Tide (recitation, J. Ingelow) (1912); Behind the Nightlight (J. Maude, N. Price) (1913)

Chbr and inst works, incl. Romantic Suite, vn, pf (1903); Cobweb Castle, pf (1908)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GänzlBMT

SchmidlD

L. Lehmann: The Life of Liza Lehmann, by Herself (New York, 1918)

G. Bush: ‘Songs’, Music in Britain: the Romantic Age, 1800–1914, ed. N. Temperley (London, 1981), 280–82

D. Hyde: New-Found Voices: Women in Nineteenth-Century English Music (Liskeard, 1984), 69–71

L. Foreman: ‘British Opera Comes of Age: 1916–61’, British Opera in Retrospect (n.p., 1986) [pubn of the British Music Society], 106–7

S. Bedford: English Song Series, iv: Lehmann, Collins Classics 15082 (1997) [disc notes]

S. Fuller: Women Composers During the British Musical Renaissance, 1880–1918 (diss., U. of London, 1998)

STEPHEN BANFIELD

Lehmann, Lotte

(b Perleberg, 27 Feb 1888; d Santa Barbara, CA, 26 Aug 1976). German soprano, active in England and the USA. She studied in Berlin, and began her career in 1910 with the Hamburg Opera. In 1916 she moved to Vienna, scoring an instant success as the Composer in the newly revised version of Strauss’s Ariadne auf Naxos; she was later to be his first Dyer’s Wife in Die Frau ohne Schatten (1919, Vienna) and Christine in Intermezzo (1924, Dresden). She remained in Vienna until 1938, when political events drove her from Austria. During her long Viennese career she sang a wide range of French and Italian roles (Puccini specially esteemed her Suor Angelica), as well as the German repertory with which she became most closely associated. From 1924 she was a great favourite at Covent Garden, returning almost every year until 1938, by which time she had also established herself in the USA, where she became a naturalized citizen.

Internationally, Lehmann’s most famous roles were Beethoven’s Leonore, and Wagner’s Elisabeth, Elsa, Eva and above all Sieglinde. But the part with which she became increasingly identified was that of Strauss’s Marschallin – a portrayal of which Richard Capell wrote: ‘The lyric stage of the time knew no performance more admirably accomplished; it seemed to embody a civilization, the pride and elegance of old Vienna, its voluptuousness, chastened by good manners, its doomed beauty’. Over her long and fruitful career Lehmann developed and refined her lieder style, and her recitals, which continued until 1951, won her a following no less devoted than her operatic public. Her many recordings, most of which have been transferred successfully to CD, convey a vivid impression of her warm, generous voice and urgent, impulsive style. She wrote a volume of autobiography, Anfang und Aufstieg, published in Vienna in 1937 (as Wings of Song, London, 1938), and several studies in interpretation. After retirement she taught at the Music Academy of the West, Santa Barbara, and gave masterclasses.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

B. Glass: Lotte Lehmann: a Life in Opera and Song (Santa Barbara, CA, 1988) [with discography by G. Hickling]

A. Jefferson: Lotte Lehmann 1888–1976 (London, 1988) [with discography by F. Juynboll]

DESMOND SHAWE-TAYLOR/R

Lehms, Georg Christian

(b Liegnitz, 1684; d Darmstadt, 15 May 1717). German poet and librettist. He was educated at the Gymnasium in Görlitz and at the University of Leipzig, where he became acquainted with Christoph Graupner. In 1710 he was appointed poet and librarian to the court of Darmstadt; by 1713 he had risen to the position of princely counsel. His works include a dictionary of German poetesses (1715); romances and occasional poems published under the name ‘Palidor’; several dramatic librettos, few of which survive; and five cycles of sacred cantata texts (1711, 1712, 1714, 1715, 1716) intended for use by the two Darmstadt Kapellmeister, Graupner and Gottfried Grünewald. The cantatas of the first cycle, Gottgefälliges Kirchen-Opffer, received attention outside Darmstadt as well: J.S. Bach set two of the librettos while still in Weimar (bwv54 and 199) and eight more in Leipzig during the years 1725 and 1726 (bwv110, 57, 151, 16, 32, 13, 170, 35).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Noack: Christoph Graupners Kirchenmusiken (Leipzig, 1916)

F. Noack: Christoph Graupner als Kirchenkomponist (Leipzig, 1926/R)

E. Noack: ‘Georg Christian Lehms, ein Textdichter Johann Sebastian Bachs’, BJb 1970, 7–18

H. Streck: Die Verskunst in den poetischen Texten zu den Kantaten J.S. Bachs (Hamburg, 1971)

A. Dürr: Die Kantaten von Johann Sebastian Bach (Kassel, 1971, 6/1995)

W. Newmann, ed.: Sämtliche von Johann Sebastian Bach vertonte Texte (Leipzig, 1974)

JOSHUA RIFKIN/KONRAD KÜSTER

Lehotka, Gábor

(b Vác, 20 July 1938). Hungarian organist. He began his studies at the age of nine. At the Liszt Academy of Music his teachers were Sebestyén Pécsi and Ferenc Gergely for organ, and Rezső Sugár and Endre Szervánszky for composition; he graduated in 1963. He made his début that year, and has since toured France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Sweden, Italy, Germany, Russia and Poland. In 1975 he was appointed a professor at the Liszt Academy of Music in Budapest. One of Hungary’s leading organists, he has an excellent technique, and his rhythmic playing and strong sense of style is particularly suited to the music of Bach, in which he specializes. He is a fervent advocate of mechanical-action organs, and has chosen to record on historical Hungarian instruments. Among the first performances he has given is that of Ligeti’s Volumina, and of several Hungarian works. He was a founder member of the Liszt Society in 1973 and was awarded the Liszt Prize in 1974.

PÉTER P. VÁRNAI/R

Lehr, André

(b Utrecht, 9 Nov 1929). Dutch campanologist. He entered the service of the Eijsbouts bellfoundry at Asten in 1949 and was director of the firm from 1976 to 1991. He also lectured at the Dutch Carillon School in Amersfoort and the Royal Carillon School ‘Jef Denyn’ in Mechelen. Since 1991 he has devoted himself entirely to research. He was one of the founders of the National Carillon Museum in Asten, of which he has been curator and director since 1961, and the Athanasius Kircher Foundation for research on bells and automatic musical instruments.

As well as the production of many bells and carillons at Eijsbouts, Lehr directed the restoration of many historical instruments and designed several astronomical clocks. In addition, he conducted research on the history of bellfounding and individual bellfounders (including François and Pieter Hemony), the acoustic properties and tuning of bells, the history of the carillon and carillon playing, and the shaping of bells and carillons. The emphasis in his research is on the bells and carillons of the Low Countries.

WRITINGS

‘The History of the Hemony-Carillon Tuning’, Acustica, i (1951), 101–4

De klokkengieters François en Pieter Hemony [The bellfounders François and Pieter Hemony] (Asten, 1959)

Historische en muzikale aspekten van Hemony-beiaarden [Historical and musical aspects of Hemony carillons] (Amsterdam, 1960)

‘Middeleeuwse klokkengietkunst’ [The medieval art of bell founding], Klokken en klokkengieters: bijdragen tot de campanologie (Culemborg, 1963), 13–158 [with Eng. summary]

‘On Vibration Patterns before Chladni’, Janus: revue internationale de l’histoire des sciences, de la médecine, de la pharmacie et de la technique, lii/2 (1965), 113–20

with R. de Jong and R. de Waard: De zingende torens van Nederland [The singing towers of the Netherlands] (Zutphen, 1966–76)

‘Alexius Jul(l)ien, Lotharings klokkengieter te Weert en Lier’ [Alexius Jul(l)ien, bellfounder from Lorraine, in Weert and Lier], ’t Land van Rijen, xviii (1968), 54–87

Van paardebel tot speelklok: de geschiedenis van de klokgietkunst in de Lage Landen [From horse-bell to playing bell: the history of bellfounding in the Low Countries] (Zaltbommel, 1971, 2/1981)

Leerboek der campanologie [Textbook on campanology] (Asten, 1976)

Een klankanalyse van de 16de eeuwse Van Wou-klokken in de Domtoren van Utrecht [An analysis of the sound of the 16th-century Van Wou bells in the Domkerk tower in Utrecht] (Asten, 1980)

with others: Voorlopige inventaris van de werkstukken van de Enkhuizer klokkegieters [Preliminary inventory of the products of the bellfounders of Enkhuizen] (Asten, 1981)

‘Met losgemaakte ringkraag en in hevig zweet: een orïenterende verkenning in oude beiaardtracturen’ [With loosened collar and intense sweating: an introductory guide to early carillon actions], Jaarboek van het Vlaams Centrum voor Oude Muziek, i (1985), 109–222

Klokken en klokkenspelen in het oude China tijdens de Shang- en Chou-dynastie: een muziek-historische studie [Bells and chimes in old China during the Shang and Chou dynasties: a study in musical history] (Asten, 1985)

‘A Carillon of Major Third Bells’, Music Perception, iv (1987), 245–80

The Designing of Swinging Bells and Carillon Bells in the Past and Present (Asten, 1987)

‘A Statistical Investigation of Historical Swinging Bells in West Europe’, Acustica, lxxiv (1991), 97–108

with L. Boogert and J. Maassen: 45 Years of Dutch Carillons 1945–1990 (Asten, 1992)

Campanologie: een leerboek over klank en toon van klokken en beiaarden [Campanology: a textbook on the sound and tone of bells and carillons] (Mechelen, 1996)

‘Designing Chimes and Carillons in History’, Acustica, lxxxiv (1997), 320–36

JOOST VAN GEMERT

Lehrstück

(Ger.: ‘teaching piece’).

A 20th-century neologism closely associated with the work of Bertolt Brecht, who probably invented the term; he used it to describe a theatrical genre for amateur performance whose principal function was to teach the participants (through performance and discussion) rather than to engage the attention of an audience. Written at a time when the Nazis were gaining power in Germany, Brecht’s Lehrstücke attempt in particular to teach political attitudes, often explicitly Marxist.

Brecht wrote his texts when he was experimenting with novel yet highly simplified forms of presentation derived from agit-prop drama, Gebrauchsmusik and his own theories of ‘epic theatre’. Music plays an important part in all of them, and a dominant one in the Lehrstücke composed by Weill, Hindemith and Eisler. Their settings stretched the boundaries of music theatre by integrating a variety of techniques from conventional opera and theatre with elements from oratorio, revue, dance and film. The composers also underlined the didactic purpose of a Lehrstück, treating it as a means by which amateurs could be taught specific musical accomplishments and a new interpretative dimension added to the dialectic.

Brecht’s attitude to his seven Lehrstücke was pragmatic, and he frequently revised them. The first three were revised extensively, with the result that their definitive texts do not correspond with those set to music.

Der Lindberghflug, for example, was first published in 1929 as a play for radio. It was set jointly by Hindemith and Weill and presented at the Baden-Baden Festival in the same year, in a manner indicating that some parts of it were ideally to be supplied by the radio loudspeaker and some by the listener at home. Later in 1929 Weill alone composed a second setting, the published Der Lindberghflug, as a cantata for the concert hall that revealed little of its origins in radio. In 1930 Brecht published an expanded version of his text under the title Flug der Lindberghs, describing it as a ‘Radio Lehrstück for boys and girls’ (in 1950 he altered the title to Der Ozeanflug, added a prologue and suppressed the name of Lindbergh, who had been a Nazi sympathizer; the title of Weill’s cantata was also changed). This work contained no explicitly didactic content until Brecht made his 1930 version, and although suitable for amateurs Weill’s cantata is thus not a true Lehrstück.

A work actually called Lehrstück, with music by Hindemith, was written for the same Baden-Baden Festival of 1929, and the vocal score was published in that year. Brecht later published a revised and expanded version of the text as Das Badener Lehrstück vom Einverständnis. Der Jasager, with music by Weill, was written and first performed in 1930. After criticism from the children who performed it, Brecht wrote a second version and a complementary Lehrstück, Der Neinsager. Weill set neither of these texts. Brecht’s most important Lehrstück, Die Massnahme, was first performed with music by Eisler in 1930. Paul Dessau composed the music for Die Ausnahme und die Regel (1930), and Kurt Schwaen for Die Horatier und die Kuriatier (1934).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG2 (K.-D. Krabiel)

S. Günther: ‘Lehrstück und Schuloper’, Melos, x (1931), 410–13

M. Esslin: Brecht: a Choice of Evils (London, 1959)

J. Willett: The Theatre of Bertolt Brecht (London, 1959, 3/1967)

H. Braun: Untersuchungen zur Typologie der zeitgenössischen Schul- und Jugendoper (Regensburg, 1963)

B. Brecht: ‘Zu den Lehrstücken’, Gesammelte Werke, ed. E. Hauptmann, xvii (Frankfurt, 1967), 1022–35

R. Steinweg: Das Lehrstück (Stuttgart, 1972, 2/1976)

K.-D. Krabiel: ‘Das Lehrstück von Brecht und Hindemith: von der Geburt eines Genres aus dem Geist der Gebrauchsmusik’, Hindemith-Jb, xxiv (1995), 146–79

IAN KEMP

Le Huray, Peter (Geoffrey)

(b Norwood, London, 18 June 1930; d Cambridge, 7 Oct 1992). English musicologist. He was organ scholar of St Catharine's College, Cambridge, 1949–52, and went on to undertake research under Thurston Dart; after National Service he was a research fellow and was appointed assistant lecturer at Cambridge (1958) and then full lecturer and Fellow of St Catharine's College (1961). He was Barclay Acheson Professor of International Studies at Macalester College, Minnesota, 1969–70.

Le Huray was editor of the Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association, 1962–7, and a member of the editorial committee of Early English Church Music, 1969–91. His research was principally concerned with church music in England from the Reformation to the Restoration and the conditions under which it developed. He supervised, with David Willcocks, the revision of Fellowes's Tudor Church Music editions. In later years he became increasingly interested in the history of music aesthetics and in performing practice. With James Day he produced an important anthology of 18th- and early 19th-century writings on music (1981) from the works of 40 philosophers and critics. His Authenticity in Performance (1990) contributed to the debate on historically informed performance; he had a particular interest in historical keyboard fingering. With John Stevens he was responsible for establishing the Cambridge Studies in Music series. As an organist he broadcast frequently and appeared as soloist at the Proms. He was president of the Incorporated Society of Organists, 1970–72, and from 1991 the chairman of the British Institute of Organ Studies; he wrote on aspects of organ performing practice and technique for The Diapason and Organists Review.

WRITINGS

The English Anthem, 1603–60 (diss., U. of Cambridge, 1959)

‘The English Anthem, 1580–1640’, PRMA, lxxxvi (1959–60), 1–13

‘Towards a Definitive Study of Pre-Restoration Anglican Service Music’, MD, xiv (1960), 167–95

Music and the Reformation in England, 1549–1660 (London, 1967, 2/1978)

with R.T. Daniel: the Sources of English Church Music, 1549–1660, EECM, suppl.i (1972)

‘The Role of Music in Eighteenth- and Early-Nineteenth Century Aesthetics’, PRMA, cv (1978–9), 90–99

‘English Keyboard Fingering in the 16th and Early 17th Centuries’, Source Materials and the Interpretation of Music: a Memorial Volume to Thurston Dart, ed. I. Dent (London, 1981), 227–57

with J. Day: Music and Aesthetics in the Eighteenth and Early-Nineteenth Centuries (Cambridge, 1981, abridged 2/1988)

with J. Butt: ‘In Search of Bach the Organist’, Handel and Scarlatti: Tercentenary Essays, ed. P. Williams (Cambridge, 1985), 185–206

Authenticity in Performance: Eighteenth-Century Case Studies (Cambridge, 1990)

‘Dom Bédos, Engramelle, and Performance Practice’, Aspects of Keyboard Music: Essays in Honour of Susi Jeans, ed. R. Judd (Oxford, 1992), 13–33

‘Music and the Arts in Pre-Renaissance and Renaissance Worship: a Question of Expression’, Companion to Contemporary Musical Thought, i (London, 1992), 156–207

‘Organ Pitch and Organ Accompaniments in Elizabethan and Jacobean Church Music’, JBIOS, xvi (1992), 8–13

‘Some Thoughts about Cantus Firmus Composition, and a Plea for Byrd's Christus resurgens’, Byrd Studies, ed. A. Brown and R. Turbet (Cambridge, 1992), 1–23

EDITIONS

The Treasury of English Church Music, ii [1545–1650] (London, 1965)

with D. Brown and W. Collins: T. Weelkes: Collected Anthems, MB, xxiii (1966)

M. Locke: Anthems and Motets, MB, xxxviii (1976)

DAVID SCOTT/ROSEMARY WILLIAMSON

Leiber and Stoller.

American songwriting and production team. Jerry Leiber (b Baltimore, 25 April 1933) and Mike Stoller (b Belle Harbor, Long Island, NY, 13 March 1933) met in Los Angeles in 1950 while the former was at high school and the latter was studying music at Los Angeles City College. An aspiring lyricist, Leiber began collaborating on rhythm and blues songs with pianist Stoller. By 1952 they had convinced the rhythm and blues performer Little Willie Littlefield to record their composition Kansas City. It subsequently became a standard, performed by many artists including The Beatles. Despite successfully having their songs recorded, Leiber and Stoller were frustrated with the results, which only vaguely resembled their ideas as to how their compositions should be arranged, played and sung. Consequently, beginning with Big Mama Thornton’s recording of Hound Dog in 1953, Leiber and Stoller began to attend sessions at which their songs were being recorded. Although not called as such at that time, they effectively became the producers of their own records.

In 1954 they started their own label, Spark Records, concentrating on The Robins, a Californian vocal group. A year later they moved to Atlantic Records in New York, with the first independent producer’s contract in the history of the record industry. Half of The Robins remained in Los Angeles, Leiber and Stoller adding two new members on the East Coast, and renaming the group The Coasters. Between 1956 and 1964 they wrote and produced 18 chart hits with the group. They also wrote Jailhouse Rock, among others for Elvis Presley, and Save the last dance for me, On Broadway and There goes my baby for The Drifters. The last of these songs they also produced, incorporating string accompaniment for the first time into a rhythm and blues record.

In 1964 Leiber and Stoller began their own record companies, Red Bird and Blue Cat, employing other songwriters such as Ellie Greenwich and Jeff Barry, and achieving hits with The Dixie Cups (Chapel of Love) and The Shangri-Las (Remember (walkin’ in the sand) and Leader of the Pack), all in 1964, and The Ad Libs (Boy from New York City) in 1965. They continued to act as writers and producers for many artists, including Ruth Brown, King Curtis, Ben E. King, Joe Turner, the Isley Brothers and, in the 1970s, Stealers Wheel, T-Bone Walker and Procol Harum.

Leiber and Stoller were innovatory in several respects. They pioneered a variety of studio techniques, including altering the speed of a performance after it had been recorded and the splicing together of different takes. A superior lyricist, Leiber often wrote what he termed ‘playlets’, where every member of the group sang the role of an actual character. In every respect each one of their compositions was tailor-made for the abilities and limitations of the particular artists scheduled to record it. Recognizing the seminal import of the recorded performance in post-war popular music, Leiber and Stoller claimed that they wrote records, not songs: more than anyone else they pioneered the modern concept of the producer of a recorded performance. In 1987 Leiber and Stoller were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

SONGS

(selective list)

lyrics by Leiber and music by Stoller; all dates those of the release of the first recording

Kansas City (K.C. Lovin’), 1952; Hound Dog, 1953; Framed, 1954; I Smell a Rat, 1954; Jack-O-Diamonds, 1954; Love Me, 1954; Riot in Cell Block 9, 1954; Black Denim Trousers, 1955; Chicken and the Hawk, 1955; Down in Mexico, 1955; Smokey Joe’s Cafe, 1955; Turtle Dovin’, 1955; Ruby Baby, 1956; Fools fall in love, 1957; Idol with the Golden Head, 1957; Jailhouse Rock, 1957; Loving You, 1957; Santa Claus is back in town, 1957; Searchin’, 1957; Treat me nice, 1957; Young Blood, 1957; (You’re so square) Baby, I don’t care, 1957

Alligator Wine, 1958; Don’t, 1958; King Creole, 1958; The shadow knows, 1958; Trouble, 1958; Yakety Yak, 1958; Along came Jones, 1959; Charlie Brown, 1959; I’m a hog for you, baby, 1959; Love Potion No.9, 1959; Poison Ivy, 1959; Run, Red, Run, 1959; That is rock and roll, 1959; There goes my baby, 1959; Three Cool Cats, 1959; What about us?, 1959; Bad Blood, 1961; Little Egypt, 1961; Saved, 1961; Stand by me, 1961 [under pseud. of Elmo Glick, addl material by B.E. King]

Girls, Girls, Girls, 1962; I’m a woman, 1962; Some Other Guy, 1962, collab. R. Barrett; Bossa Nova Baby, 1963; On Broadway, 1963; Only in America, 1963, collab. C. Weil and B. Mann; D.W Washburn, 1964; Is that all there is?, 1968

BIBLIOGRAPHY

B. Miller: The Drifters (London, 1971)

B. Miller: The Coasters (London, 1974)

R. Palmer: Baby, that was Rock & Roll: the Legendary Leiber and Stoller (New York, 1978)

ROB BOWMAN

Leibfried, Christoph

(b Würzburg, 1566; d Basle, 1635). German organist and composer, nephew of the organist Johann Woltz. Leibfried matriculated at Tübingen University in 1587. In May 1599 he is recorded as ‘Wirceburgensis Francus’ in the matriculation lists of the law faculty at Basle University and on 5 July 1599 he was promoted to Doctor of Law.

Although Woltz, whose famous Nova musices organicae tabulatura (RISM 1617²⁴/R) is one of the most comprehensive collections of German organ tablature of the late Renaissance, undoubtedly influenced his nephew’s musical tastes, it appears that it was Leibfried who actually collected, copied, edited and formatted most of the tablature. Nearly a quarter of the pieces transmitted in the first part are also found in four organ tablature manuscripts prepared and copied by Leibfried between about 1585 and 1600 (CH-Bu F IX 42, 43, 44 and 51); collectively they contain nearly 500 intabulations by such composers as Handl, Ferretti and Lassus. That it was Leibfried rather than Woltz who was responsible for the compilation of the Nova … tabulatura is suggested by the close readings shared by Leibfried’s manuscripts and the Woltz print, by the numerous extant printed collections of vocal music that Leibfried owned and clearly used to create his own intabulations and, most importantly, by the contents of CH-Bu F IX 51. This recently discovered manuscript of organ tablature, copied on a paper type also found in the Woltz print, shows Leibfried at work on the title-page and index of his uncle’s volume, as well as on the layout and design for several of the initial pieces. Several engravings by Leibfried are contained in Johannes Kepler’s Mysterium Cosmographicum (1596). Leibfried met the German astronomer and mathematician while a student at Tübingen.

WORKS

all MSS in CH-Bu

Carmen gratulatorium, 4vv; Clausula fugata vice, 4vv; Dulcis amor pietas, 5vv; Fuga, 5vv; Nunc quoniam Themidis, 5vv

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Hug: Johann Woltz und seine Orgeltabulatur (diss., U. of Tübingen, 1960)

J. Kmetz: Die Handschriften der Universitätsbibliothek Basel: Katalog der Musikhandschriften des 16. Jahrhunderts: quellenkritische und historische Untersuchung (Basle, 1988)

JOHN KMETZ

Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm

(b Leipzig, 3 July 1646; d Hanover, 14 Nov 1716). German philosopher. As he lived in Hanover from 1678, he may well have met Handel when he was there in 1710–11 and 1716. Nothing, however, is known about this or whether his known contact there with Steffani concerned musical matters. The writings of this great philosopher and all-round scholar reveal a profound knowledge of the theoretical basis of music. In his dissertation De arte combinatoria (1666) he described the principle of a universal language, and in 1678 produced a fully developed artificial language which he believed could be translated into music. Between 1705 and 1711 his studies in the theory of music were stimulated by his correspondence with Conrad Henfling, a mathematician from Ansbach. In a letter dated 30 August 1706 which deals with many music-theoretical issues, Henfling set out detailed calculations for a method of temperament. After making some revisions of his own, Leibniz had Henfling’s work published as ‘Epistola de novo suo systemate musico’ (in Miscellanea berolinensia, 1710; Ger. trans. in Musiktheorie, ii (1987), 169–81; iii (1988), 171–81). Leibniz also analysed temperament in the second of two letters to Christoph Goldbach (1712), which contains a detailed discussion of a system developed by Christiaan Huygens. In his first letter to Goldbach, Leibniz cited, among other things, the well-known definition ‘musica est exercitium arithmeticae occultum nescientis se numerare animi’ (‘music is the hidden arithmetical exercise of a mind unconscious that it is calculating’), which expresses the idea that the unconscious realization of mathematical proportions is the ultimate cause of the sensuous effect of music; he associated this with a tradition going back to antiquity which has since been taken up scientifically in the theories of consonance formulated by Heinrich Husmann. In the theory of harmony, dissonances were as natural to him as shadows in the theory of light.

The above-mentioned definition of music places Leibniz’s knowledge of music theory in a wider framework, within the tradition of Pythagorean harmony. The ancient idea of a harmony of the universe, a harmony of the spheres, was revived as a result of humanist thought but was more or less refuted by many thinkers, among them Robert Fludd, Athanasius Kircher and Marin Mersenne. Kepler alone pursued the idea scientifically and produced as evidence in his Harmonices mundi libri V (1619) intervallic proportions deriving from the orbit of the planets. Leibniz knew this tradition, revered Kepler above all such thinkers and often expressed markedly similar ideas. Harmony is a central concern of his philosophy, especially his system of ‘prestabilized harmony’, to which his concepts of analogy, representation, rhyme etc. are related. His philosophical harmony is, however, more abstract and metaphysical than that of Pythagoras; above all, it lacks intervallic proportions as connected laws. Yet he was aware of these too, as many references make clear, and there are indications from his last years that he was planning a philosophical synthesis with harmonic content. He had a preference for church music and valued simple hymns above all, yet he also wrote an authoritative assessment of opera for Marci of the Hamburg Opera.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Haase: Leibniz und die Musik (Hommerich, 1963)

R. Haase: ‘Leibniz und die harmonikale Tradition’, Leibniz-Kongress II: Hannover 1972, i (Wiesbaden, 1973), 123–34

D. Heikamp: ‘Ontologische Prämissen in der Musikphilosophie Adornos: der Rückgriff auf Leibniz’, GfMKB: Berlin 1974, 470–72

B. Baas: ‘“L'animal musicien”: philosophie et musique chez Leibniz’, Musique en jeu, xxv (1976), 49–72

H.-D. Klein: ‘Leibniz und die Krise der seriellen Musik’, Musicologica austriaca, ii (1979) 26–36

R. Haase, ed.: Der Briefwechsel zwischen Leibniz und Conrad Henfling (Frankfurt, 1982)

W. Schulze: ‘Ein harmonikales Analogon: Leibniz' Strammbaum-Modell in der Dissertatio de arte combinatoria’, Studia Leibnitiana, xix/1 (1987), 98–116

W. Schulze: ‘Henflings Brief über sein neues Musik-System’, Musiktheorie, ii (1987), 183–6

P. Bailhache: ‘Le système musical de Conrad Henfling’, RdM, lxxiv (1988), 5–25

G. Deleuze: Le pli: Leibniz et le Baroque (Paris, 1988; Eng. trans., 1993)

A. Luppi: Lo specchio dell’armonia universale: estetica e musica in Leibniz (Milan, 1989)

K. Oversand: ‘Barokkens fold: Deleuze, Leibniz og Bach’, SMN, xvi (1990), 53–78

P. Bailhache: Leibniz et la théorie de la musique (Paris, 1992)

U. Leisinger: Leibniz-Reflexe in der deutschen Musiktheorie des 18. Jahrhunderts (Würzburg, 1994)

A. Luppi: ‘La musica sacra e il valore teologico della musica in G.W. Leibniz’, Revista internazionale di musica sacra, xv (1994), 25–52

RUDOLF HAASE

Leibowitz, René

(b Warsaw, 17 Feb 1913; d Paris, 29 Aug 1972). French music theorist, teacher, conductor and composer of Polish-Latvian origin. He spent his early years in Warsaw and, following a stay in Berlin, came to Paris in 1929 or 1930. It was there that he met musicians associated with Schoenberg, including Dessau, Kolisch and Erich Itor Kahn. Leibowitz’s claims of having met Schoenberg and studied with Webern in the early 1930s remain unsubstantiated: it appears that his knowledge of the their music was acquired primarily through intensive study of their scores, an activity he continued throughout the war years, which he spent fleeing the German occupying forces in Vichy France. He made personal contact with Schoenberg in 1945, and with Adorno in 1946.

Leibowitz played a crucial role in the dissemination of the music of the Second Viennese School after its wartime suppression in Nazi-occupied countries. In 1947 he organized a chamber music festival, ‘Hommage à Schoenberg’, in which he conducted the first Paris performances of several Second Viennese School compositions. Of greater international significance, however, were his books: Schoenberg et son école (Paris, 1947), the first monograph on Schoenberg, Berg and Webern outside the German language, was followed by Qu’est-ce que la musique de douze sons? (Liège, 1948) an analysis of Webern’s Concerto, op.24, and Introduction à la musique de douze sons (Paris, 1949), a more thoroughgoing formulation of the 12-note technique. His private classes in Paris, which attracted Boulez, Globokar, Henze, Nigg and Diego Masson among others, gave many students their first access to the scores of Schoenberg and Webern, most of which were otherwise unobtainable in the decade after the war. He also taught at the Darmstadt summer courses (1948–9, 1954–5).

Leibowitz’s position within the intellectual milieu of French surrealism and existentialism – through his acquaintance with intellectuals such as Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Jean-Paul Sartre and Maurice Merleau-Ponty – was decisive in his successful integration of Schoenberg’s Germanic musical thought into a context that was originally alien to it. However during the 1950s his writings came under attack: accusations of dogmatic orthodoxy and academicism came from Boulez and others of his generation, who favoured a more radical, generalized approach to serial composition, while for Babbitt in America, his codification of 12-note technique lacked rigour. Though none of his later books, such as those on opera and musical interpretation, proved as influential as the pioneering texts of the 1940s, Leibowitz remained productive, as composer and conductor as well as scholar. His compositions, while indebted to the French tradition in their approach to instrumental colour, maintain an allegiance to the Schoenberg school, both in their use of classical 12-note technique, and in their textural transparency and expressive gestures. As a conductor, he advocated an analytically based approach to interpretation and scrupulous fidelity to the score. Among his recordings is a complete cycle of the Beethoven symphonies with the RPO, recorded for RCA in 1962 and reissued in 1992 on the Chesky label.

WORKS

(selective list)

stage

La nuit close (drame musical, 3 scenes, G. Limbour), op.17, 1947–50

Circulaire de minuit (op, 3, Limbour), op.30, 1952–3

Les espagnols à Venise (ob, 1, Limbour), op.60, 1963, Grenoble, 27 Jan 1970

Labyrinthe (op, 1, Leibowitz, after C. Baudelaire), op.85, 1969

Todos carán (op, 3, Leibowitz, after a Goya painting), op.91, 1972

orchestral

Sym., op.4, 1939–41; Conc., op.5, vn, pf, 17 insts, 1941–2; Chbr Sym., op.16, 12 insts, 1946–8; Perpetuum mobile ‘The City’ (dramatic sym., W.C. Williams), op.24, spkr, orch, 1951; Pf Conc., op.32, 1954; Concertino, op.35, va, small orch, 1954; Vn Conc., op.50, 1959; 3 bagatelles, op.51, str, 1959; Art for Art’s Sake, fantasy for jazz orch, op.52, 1959; Concertino, op.53, trbn, orch, 1960; Vc Conc., op.58, 1962; Rhapsodie symphonique, op.63, 1964–5; Capriccio, op.79, fl, str, 1967

vocal

Choral: 4 Stücke (F. Hölderlin), op.13, 1944–6; The Grip of the Given (cant., L. Abel), op.21, chorus, fl + pic, cl + b cl, tpt, hp, vn/va, vc, 1949–50; Träume vom Tod und vom Leben (sym. funèbre, H. Arp), op.33, solo vv, chorus, orch, 1954–5; The Renegade (cant., Abel), op.40, chorus, ob, cl, b cl, hn, 2 vn, va, vc, 1956; A Prayer (sym. cant., J. Joyce), op.68, A, male chorus, orch, 1965; 2 Settings (W. Blake), op.71, chorus, 1966; Laboratoire central (M. Jacob), op.88, spkr, female chorus, small orch, 1970; 3 Poems (P. Reverdy), op.92, 4 solo vv/chorus, pf, 1971

1v, orch/ens: Tourist Death (A. MacLeish), concert aria, op.7, S, chbr orch, 1943; Sérénade (Hölderlin and C. Brentano), op.38, Bar, fl, ob, cl + b cl, hn, hp, vn, va, vc, 1955; Capriccio (Hölderlin), op.41, S, fl, b cl, hp, va, vc, cel, vib, xyl, perc, 1956; Chanson dada (T. Tzara), op.76b, child’s v, cl, hn, vc, pf, 1968; Sonett (e.e. cummings), op.77, S, fl, cl, hn, vn, vc, 1967; Legend (H. Crane), op.82, S, pf, orch, 1968; Scene and Aria (G. Heym), op.89, S, orch, 1970

1v, pf: 6 mélodies (E. Dowson, G. Apollinaire, W.C. Williams, P. Eluard, C. Einstein, M. Leiris), op.6, Bar, pf, 1937–42; 3 mélodies (P. Picasso), op.9, S, pf, 1943; 4 mélodies (Leiris), op.18, S, pf, 1949; 5 chansons (Abel, Williams, Joyce, Crane, E. Pound), op.25, S, pf, 1950–51; Damocles (Leiris), op.49, S, pf, 1958; 2 mélodies (A. Césaire), op.67, S, pf, 1965; 3 poèmes (G. Bataille), op.73, B, pf, 1966; 2 poèmes (Leiris), op.76a, 1966; 4 lieder (Einstein), op.80, female v, pf, 1967

chamber and instrumental

Str Qts: no.1, op.3, 1939–40; no.2, op.22, 1948–50; no.3, op.26, 1951–2; no.4, op.45, 1957–8; no.5, op.59, 1962–3; no.6, op.65, 1965; no.7, op.72, with B solo to text by A. Césaire, 1966; no.8, op.83, 1968

Other chbr: 10 Canons, op.2, ob, cl, bn, 1939; Chbr Conc., op.10, wind qnt, str trio, db, 1943–4; Wind Qnt, op.11, 1944; Sonata, op.12a/b, vn/fl, pf, 1944–8; Explanation of Metaphors (R. Queneau), op.15, spkr, 2 pf, hp, perc, 1947; Pf Trio, op.20, 1950; 5 Pieces, op.29, cl, pf, 1952; Str Trio, op.42, 1956–7; Humoresque, op.44, 6 perc, 1957; Marijuana, variations non sérieuses, op.54, vn, trbn, vib, pf, 1960; 4 Bagatelles, op.61, trbn, pf, 1964; Motifs (G. Limbour), op.74, spkr, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1966–7; Suite, op.81, wind qnt, str trio, db, 1967; Variationen, op.84, sax qt, 1969; Petite suite, op.90, 6 cl, 1970

Pf: Sonata, op.1, 1939; 4 Stücke, op.8, 1942–3; 3 pièces, op.19, 1949–50; Fantasie, op.27, 1952; 6 petits morceaux (en forme de suite), op.28, 1952; Sonata [no.2] quasi una fantasia, op.43, 1957; Concertino, op.47, pf 4 hands, 1958; Toccata, op.62, 1964; 3 études miniatures, op.64, 1965; Petite suite, op.75, 1966; Rondo capriccioso, op.78, 1967; 3 intermezzi, op.87, 1970

Other solo inst: Fantasie, op.56, vn, 1961; 3 Caprices, op.70, vib, 1965

MSS in CH-Bps

Principal publishers: Bomart, Universal

WRITINGS

Schönberg et son école (Paris, 1947; Eng. trans., 1949/R)

Qu’est-ce que la musique de douze sons? (Liège, 1948)

Introduction à la musique de douze sons (Paris, 1949/R, 3/1981)

L’artiste et sa conscience (Paris, 1950)

L’évolution de la musique, de Bach à Schoenberg (Paris, 1952)

Histoire de l’opéra (Paris, 1957)

with J. Maguire: Thinking for Orchestra: Practical Exercises in Orchestration (New York, 1960)

Schoenberg (Paris, 1969)

Le compositeur et son double: essais sur l’interpretation musicale (Paris, 1971)

Les fantômes de l’opéra (Paris, 1973)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

W. Ogdon: ‘Concerning an Unpublished Treatise of René Leibowitz’, Journal of the Arnold Schoenberg Institute, ii/1 (1977), 34–41

J. Maguire: ‘René Leibowitz (1913–1972)’, Tempo, no.131 (1979), 6–10; no.132 (1980), 2–10

J. Maguire: ‘René Leibowitz’, PNM, xxi/1 (1982), 241–56

R. Kapp: ‘Die Schatten des Urbilds des Doubles – Vorsichtige Annäherung an eine Figur: René Leibowitz’, Musiktheorie, ii (1987), 15–31; Eng. trans., Tempo, no.165 (1988), 2–16

R. Kapp: ‘Bibliographie: Materialien zu einem Verzeichnis der Schriften von René Leibowitz’, Musiktheorie, ii (1987), 275–83

R. Kapp: ‘René Leibowitz in Darmstadt’, Von Kranichstein zur Gegenwart: 50 Jahre Darmstädter Ferienkurse, ed. R. Stephan and others (Stuttgart, 1996), 77–87

S. Meine: ‘Der Komponist als Interpret – Der Interpret als Komponist: René Leibowitz im Briefwechsel mit Theodor W. Adorno’, Musiktheorie, xi (1996), 53–65

S. Meine: Ein Zwölftöner in Paris: Studien zur Biographie und zur Wirkung von René Leibowitz (1913–1972) (diss., Hochschule für Musik und Theater, Hanover, 1998)

SABINE MEINE

Leich.

Middle High German for ‘lai’. See Lai, §1(ii).

Leichnamschneider [Leichamschneider, Leichnambschneider, Leicham Schneider].

Austrian family of brass instrument makers of Swabian origin. Working in Vienna, they evolved the first specifically orchestral model of horn with crooks about 1700. (Johann) Michael Leichnamschneider (b Osterberg, nr Memmingen, c1670/ ? bap. 26 Aug 1676; d Vienna, 2 Dec 1751) took his oath as a citizen of Vienna in 1700 and married in 1701. In 1703 he furnished horns with crooks and tuning-bits – the earliest of their kind – to the abbey of Kremsmünster. In 1713/14 he supplied instruments to Göttweig Abbey; his signed receipt is preserved there. A Johannes Leichnamschneider (d Vienna, after 1741), was possibly a brother of Michael (in which case, b Osterberg, bap. 26 June 1679); the two men, however, maintained separate workshops throughout their working lives. Johannes supplied the monastery of Zwettl with a pair of Jägerhörner in 1708 and a pair of trumpets in 1718. A pair of ‘French hunting horns’ (1711) by him were owned by the Duke of Chandos. The pair of silver parforce horns with gold mounts made by Johannes in 1725 for Lord Tredegar lend support to the theory that he worked with Count Sporck, the first patron of artistic horn playing: Michael Rentz, a copper engraver to the courts of Vienna and Prague and a protégé of Sporck, engraved the hunting scenes of the gold garlands of these horns.

The name of Franz Leichnamschneider (b c1716; d Vienna, 6 Nov 1767), presumably the son of Michael, appears on a gold-mounted silver trumpet that Maria Theresa presented to the Viennese court orchestra in 1746. The instrument is associated with, but not part of, a set of five silver trumpets by Michael Leichnamschneider dated 1741; all six are in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Johann Leichnamschneider, a copper engraver, appears in the parish records of St Stephansdom in 1747. Although the name was not uncommon, he may perhaps have been related, and perhaps worked as an associate, engraving garlands and collars.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Waterhouse-LangwillI

H.A. Fitzpatrick: The Horn and Horn-Playing, and the Austro-Bohemian Tradition from 1680 to 1830 (London, 1970)

J. Berkovec: ‘Frantisěk Antonín Sporck a jeho kapela’, HV, xxvi (1989), 32–40

R. Maunder: ‘Viennese Wind-Instrument Makers, 1700–1800’, GSJ, li (1998), 170–91

HORACE FITZPATRICK/JANET K. PAGE

Leichner, Eckhardt.

German musician who made several sacred contrafacta of secular works by Johann Hermann Schein.

Leichtentritt, Hugo

(b Pleschen [now Pleszew], 1 Jan 1874; d Cambridge, MA, 13 Nov 1951). German musicologist, music critic and composer. At the age of 15 he was sent to the USA where he studied liberal arts at Harvard University (BA 1894) and music with John Knowles Paine; he continued his musical studies in Paris (1894–5) and at the Hochschule für Musik in Berlin (1895–8). Subsequently he studied music history and aesthetics at Berlin University under Fleischer and Friedlaender (1898–1901), taking the doctorate there in 1901 with a dissertation on Keiser's operas. While lecturing in composition, music history and aesthetics at the Klindworth-Scharwenka Conservatory, Berlin (1901–24), he taught composition privately in Berlin and wrote music criticism for several journals, including the Allgemeine Musik-Zeitung, Die Musik, Signale für die musikalische Welt and the Vossische Zeitung, and was German correspondent of the Musical Courier and the Musical Times. His compositions, which include a comic opera Die Sizilianer (1920), concertos, song cycles, piano and chamber music, and a symphony, enjoyed a measure of success in Germany and he was a close friend of Busoni and Reger. In 1933 he left Germany to settle in the USA at the invitation of Harvard University, where he was a lecturer in music until his retirement in 1940; thereafter he lectured at Radcliffe College and New York University (1940–44). Concurrently he was a contributing editor of Oscar Thompson's The International Cyclopedia of Music and Musicians (New York, 1939), contributed articles to the Musical Quarterly and had four books published by the Harvard University Press.

Leichtentritt hoped to re-establish himself in the USA as a respected writer on music and (especially) composer, and the failure of his music to gain acceptance greatly disappointed him. As a critic his hopes were only partly realized, and as a musicologist his strong opinions and characteristic directness of expression damaged his reputation. After his death his personal library was purchased by the University of Utah, and his manuscripts and papers were deposited in the Library of Congress.

Leichtentritt was an extremely thorough and painstaking scholar. For his monumental Geschichte der Motette (1908) he analysed over 600 motets in manuscript. His book on Handel (1924), in addition to treating the known facts of Handel's life, gives a comprehensive survey of his works, discussing in some detail his operas and oratorios, most of which were unperformed at that time. The short volume Geschichte der Musik (1909) was intended as an outline history of music to guide the student and lay person interested in the evolution of Western music. Two works represent the culmination of Leichtentritt's writings and the synthesis of his thought: Music, History, and Ideas (1938), which he developed from his Harvard lectures, examines music as a part of general culture, expounding its relationship to the other arts, political and social conditions, philosophy and religion; and Music of the Western Nations (1956), in which music is viewed as an expression of the cultural status of the various nations.

WRITINGS

Reinhard Keiser in seinen Opern: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der frühen deutschen Oper (diss., U. of Berlin, 1901; Berlin, 1901)

‘Ein Urahne des Berliozschen Requiem’, AMz, xxx (1903), 677–81

‘Über Pflege alter Vokalmusik’, ZIMG, vi (1904–5), 192–202

Frédéric Chopin (Berlin, 1905)

ed.: L. Bussler: Der strenge Satz in der musikalischen Kompositionslehre (Berlin, rev. 2/1905)

‘Aufführungen älterer Musik in Berlin’, ZIMG, vii (1905–6), 368–72

‘Was lehren uns die Bildwerke des 14.–17. Jahrhunderts über die Instrumentalmusik ihrer Zeit?’, SIMG, vii (1905–6), 315–64

Geschichte der Motette (Leipzig, 1908/R)

ed.: A.W. Ambros: Geschichte der Musik, iv (Leipzig, 3/1909/R; Eng. trans., 1938 as Everybody's Little History of Music)

Musikalische Formenlehre (Leipzig, 1911, 4/1948; Eng. trans., 1951 as Musical Form, 2/1961)

ed.: L. Bussler: Kontrapunkt und Fuge im freien (modernen) Tonsatz (Berlin, 2/1912)

ed.: J.C. Lobe: Katechismus der Musik (Leipzig, 1913, 3/1926)

‘The Renaissance Attitude toward Music’, MQ, i (1915), 604–22

Ferruccio Busoni (Leipzig, 1916)

‘Die Quellen des Neuen in der Musik’, Melos, i (1920), 28–33

Analyse der Chopin'schen Klavierwerke (Berlin, 1921–2)

‘Nationalism and Internationalism in Music’, Sackbut, ii/12 (1921–2), 13–16

‘Philipp Jarnach’, Musikblätter des Anbruch, v (1923), 258–62

‘Das Händelsche Opernwerk’, Die Musik, xvi (1923–4), 551–7

‘German Music of the Last Decade’, MQ, x (1924), 193–218

Händel (Stuttgart, 1924)

Ignatz Waghalter (New York, 1924)

‘Harmonic Daring in the 16th Century’, MM, v/1 (1927–8), 12–21

‘Schönberg and Tonality’, MM, v/4 (1927–8), 3–10

‘Schubert's Early Operas’, MQ, xiv (1928), 620–38

‘Arnold Schönbergs Op.19’, Die Musik, xxv (1932–3), 405–12

‘Bartok and the Hungarian Folk-Song’, MM, x (1932–3), 130–39

‘Handel's Harmonic Art’, MQ, xxi (1935), 208–23

‘On Editing Netherlands Music’, Musical Mercury, ii (1935), 5–11

‘On the Prologue in Early Opera’, PAMS 1936, 88–95

Music, History, and Ideas (Cambridge, MA, 1938, 2/1947/R)

‘The Reform of Trent and its Effect on Music’, MQ, xxx (1944), 319–28

Serge Koussevitzky, the Boston Symphony Orchestra and the New American Music (Cambridge, MA, 1946)

ed. N. Slonimsky: Music of the Western Nations (Cambridge, MA, 1956)

EDITIONS

Hieronymus Praetorius: Ausgewählte Werke, DDT, xxiii (1905/R)

Deutsche Hausmusik aus vier Jahrhunderten, i (Berlin, 1907, 2/1921)

J. Schenk: Scherzi musicali, UVNM, xxviii (1907)

Andreas Hammerschmidt: Ausgewählte Werke, DDT, xl (1910/R)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C.E. Selby, ed.: A Catalogue of Books and Music Acquired from the Library of Dr. Hugo Leichtentritt by the University of Utah Library (Salt Lake City, 1954)

N. Slonimsky: ‘Hugo Leichtentritt (1874–1951)’, Music of the Western Nations (Cambridge, MA, 1956), v–viii

J.E. Seiach: Leichtentritt's ‘History of the Motet’: a Study and Translation (Chapters 7–15) (diss., U. of Utah, 1958)

C.E. Steinzor: ‘Hugo Leichtentritt’, American Musicologists, c.1890–1945: a Bio-Bibliographical Sourcebook to the Formative Period (New York, 1989)

RODNEY H. MILL/MICHAEL VON DER LINN

Leiden.

City in the Netherlands. In about 1400 the city employed a number of pipers and trumpeters to take part in processions. There were three main churches, the Pieterskerk (12th century with 14th-century additions), the Pancraskerk (14th century, now Hooglandse Kerk) and the Onze Lieve Vrouwekerk (14th century) which has not survived. In the 15th century the municipality repeatedly tried to improve the singing, including the discant, in these churches. A choirbook from the Lopsterklooster near Leiden contains some examples of Christmas songs for two voices. Improvement in church singing was particularly fostered by the colleges of the Getijdenmeesters throughout the country. The St Pieter Getijdencollege acquired an excellent reputation in the 16th century. Its extant choirbooks, dating from 1549 and subsequent years, include masses, motets and Magnificat settings by Clemens non Papa, Josquin Des Prez, Willaert, Crecquillon and others.

In 1572 Leiden accepted the Reformation and consequently secular forms of music-making became more prominent than ecclesiastical. In 1593 Cornelis Schuyt, the most important figure in the city’s musical history, was appointed city organist alongside his father. The terms of his appointment are characteristic of the task of a Protestant organist at that time: to play the organ before and after services and on weekdays. In 1636 it was decided that the organ should be used to accompany psalm-singing during services. From 1639 to 1643 the main organ of the Pieterskerk was enlarged by the organ builders Van Hagerbeer. In 1994 a restoration was begun to bring the instrument back to its 17th-century state, although leaving some later additions intact. The small choir organ of the Pieterskerk, originally built by Jan van Covelens (c1470–c1532), was transferred to the Marekerk in 1733 and enlarged there by Rudolph Garrels. The Hooglandse Kerk has an organ built by Peter Janszoon de Swart around 1565 and later thoroughly changed by the Van Hagerbeers (1637–8).

The first music printed in the northern Netherlands, the Missale Trajectense, was produced in Leiden in 1514 by Jan Seversz. Music printing became important towards the end of the 16th century when the Flemish printer Christoffel Plantin from Antwerp established a branch firm in Leiden, which was managed by his son-in-law Francis Raphelengius. There the vocal and instrumental works of Cornelis Schuyt were printed, as were the Rimes françoises et italiennes (1612) of Sweelinck.

There is evidence of an early kind of collegium musicum, called the Broederschap en Gemeene Vergadering in de Muzyk, active in 1578. In 1611 Cornelis Schuyt dedicated his six-part consort music to five Leiden ‘amatori e fautori della musica’, suggesting the existence of an ensemble in which the composer took part himself. In the second half of the 17th century there was a collegium which assembled weekly. A century later the city had two public concert rooms, one at the Brede Straat, the other at the Papegracht. Incidental opera performances were given in the Schouwburg.

During the 17th century many foreign musicians settled in Leiden, mainly lute and viol teachers, including Joachim van den Hove from Antwerp and Dudley Rosseter, son of Philip Rosseter. Instrument making flourished for some time, the most famous exponent being the violin maker Hendrick Asseling, son of the lute maker Andries Asseling. Leiden University, founded in 1575 as the first university in the northern Netherlands, attracted many foreign musicians. The office of musicus academiae existed from 1686; the first to act as such was J.H. Weyssenbergh (Albicastro) from Vienna. The Album studiosorum of the university mentions such musicians and composers as Albertus Groneman (1732), Anton Wilhelm Solnitz (1743), Johann Christian Schickhardt (1745) and Pieter Hellendaal (1749). C.F. Ruppe, who became kapelmeester in 1790 and a lecturer in music in 1816, was the last official university musician. He composed cantatas and in 1800 founded the first choral society in Leiden.

Musical life flourished in the 19th century through the activities of various music societies. Music Sacrum, the city’s oldest orchestra (founded 1828), gave eight concerts a year. The Maatschappij voor Toonkunst (founded 1834) established a music school which for well over a century has greatly stimulated musical activities and which, in 1961, became the Streekmuziekschool Leiden en Omstreken. Between 1864 and 1879 several music festivals were organized by local choirs.

Leiden has no professional orchestra but several amateur ones, two of which are student societies. The main concert hall is the Stadsgehoorzaal, dating from the late 19th century and modernized in the 1960s and again in 1996. Concerts are given by local amateur groups, professional chamber music ensembles and occasionally by The Hague Residentie Orchestra and the Rotterdam PO.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G.W. Groen: Ons eeuwfeest (1834–1934): Maatschappij voor toonkunst te Leiden (Leiden, 1934)

D.J. Balfoort: Het muziekleven in Nederland in de 17de en 18de eeuw (Amsterdam, 1938, enlarged 2/1981)

C.C. Vlam and T. Dart: ‘Rosseters in Holland’, GSJ, xi (1958), 63–9

E. Pelinck and C.C. Vlam: ‘De ordinaris muzikanten van de Leidse Universiteit’, Leids Jaarboekje (1963), 50–60

Leids Jaarboekje (1968) [devoted entirely to music]

A. Annegarn: Floris en Cornelis Schuyt: muziek in Leiden van de vijftiende tot het begin van de zeventiende eeuw (Utrecht, 1973)

R. Rasch and T. Wind: ‘The Music Library of Cornelis Schuyt’, From Ciconia to Sweelinck: donum natalicum Willem Elders, ed. A. Clement and E. Jas (Amsterdam, 1994), 327–353

J. van Biezen: Het Nederlandse orgel in de renaissance en de barok, in het bijzonder de school van Jan van Covelens (Utrecht, 1995)

JAN VAN DER VEEN/THIEMO WIND

Leider, Frida

(b Berlin, 18 April 1888; d Berlin, 4 June 1975). German soprano. She made her début at Halle in 1915, and filled other engagements at Rostock, Königsberg and Hamburg until her move in 1923 to the Berlin Staatsoper, where she was principal dramatic soprano for some 15 years. She appeared there in numerous Mozart, Verdi and Strauss operas as well as in Fidelio and in the big Wagner roles that brought her international fame. In 1924 she made her Covent Garden début as Isolde and Brünnhilde, at once becoming the favourite Wagnerian soprano of the house, to which she returned every year until 1938; her other roles there included Donna Anna, Leonora (Il trovatore) and Gluck’s Armide. Between 1928 and 1938 she was a regular Brünnhilde, Isolde and Kundry at Bayreuth. Her American career was centred on Chicago, where she was heard in Fidelio, Der Rosenkavalier, La Juive and Un ballo in maschera, in addition to her Wagnerian parts.

Leider was a splendid artist with a dark-coloured, ample and well-trained voice of lovely quality, and a fine-spun legato and purity of phrase that enabled her to excel in Mozart and Italian opera as well as in Wagner. During her best years she made many valuable recordings, often in company with Melchior, Schorr and her other regular Wagnerian associates. These have all appeared in CD transfers, worthy mementos of her treasurable art.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Leider: Das war mein Teil (Berlin, 1959; Eng. trans., 1966/R, as Playing my Part) [with discography by H. Burros]

D. Shawe-Taylor: ‘Frida Leider (1888–1975)’, Opera, xxxix (1988), 905–8

DESMOND SHAWE-TAYLOR/R

Leidesdorf, Marcus (Maximilian Josef).

Austrian music publisher. He was a partner in the firm of Ignaz Sauer.

Leiding, Georg Dietrich.

See Leyding, Georg Dietrich.

Leidzén, Erik W(illiam) G(ustav)

(b Stockholm, 25 March 1894; d New York, 20 Dec 1962). American composer, arranger and conductor of Swedish birth. He studied at the Swedish Royal Academy of Music, Stockholm, emigrated to the USA in 1915, and by 1923 assumed leadership of the Salvation Army New England Staff Band. In 1926 he moved to New York, where he became music director of the Salvation Army’s Centennial Memorial Temple. He consequently composed hundreds of vocal and instrumental pieces for the Army, and wrote orchestral transcriptions and original works for the Goldman Band, many of which were published by Carl Fischer and Charles Colin. It has been suggested that he also made substantial contributions to many marches by E.F. Goldman and band works by Ernest Williams, including the Symphony in C minor. He was head of the theory department at the Ernest Williams School for eight years, director of the Swedish Glee Club of Brooklyn and the Arma Company band and a teacher at the National Music Camp, Interlochen, Michigan. Between 1951 and 1962 he taught at the Salvation Army’s Star Lake Musicamp. In 1954 he conducted the US Air Force Orchestra in the première of his Irish Symphony. His published writings include An Invitation to Band Arranging (Bryn Mawr, PA, 1950).

WORKS

Orch: 11 ovs., incl. Holiday Ov., 1939; 9 suites, incl. Suite in C, str, 1939; 2 syms., incl. Irish Sym., 1939; 7 chorale preludes, incl. Doxology, 1946; 8 rhapsodies, incl. 2 Swedish Rhapsodies, 1950–52; Concertino, trbn, band, 1952; Sinfonietta, brass band, 1955; None Other Name, 1958; 33 works, solo inst, band; 63 sacred works, brass; 65 marches; c85 transcrs. of works by J.S. Bach, Bartók, Berlioz, Dvořák, Glier, Musorgsky, Rimsky-Korsakov, Wagner, others

Chbr and solo inst: Wind Septet, 1914; 2 suites, pf, 1915; 9 programmatic pieces, pf, 1916–40; Str Qt, 1920; Petite suite suédoise, vn, pf, 1922; Variations on a Theme of Chopin, 2 pf, 1932

Vocal: 114 works, chorus; 64 solo songs; 21 hymns, carols

Principal publishers: Associated, Belwin-Mills, Colin, Carl Fischer, Salvation Army, G. Schirmer

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Fossey: This Man Leidzén (London, 1966)

R.W. Holz: A History of the Hymn Tune Meditation and Related Forms in Salvation Army Instrumental Music in Great Britain and North America 1880–1980 (diss., U. of Connecticut, 1981)

R.W. Holz: ‘Erik William Gustav Leidzén: his Contributions to Concert Band Literature’, Journal of Band Research, xxv/1 (1989–90), 78–92 [incl. complete list of works]

R.W. Holz: Erik Leidzén: Band Arranger and Composer (Lewiston, NY, 1990)

RAOUL F. CAMUS (text, bibliography), RONALD W. HOLZ (work-list)

Leier (i)

(Ger.).

See Lyre.

Leier (ii)

(Ger.)

. A Hurdy-gurdy, as in Drehleier, Radleier and Bettlerleier. A Leierkasten, on the other hand, is a Barrel organ.

Leiferkus, Sergey (Petrovich)

(b Leningrad [now St Petersburg], 4 April 1946). Russian baritone. He studied in Leningrad, where he was engaged at the Malïy Opernïy Teatr from 1972 to 1978. He first sang at the Kirov (now the Mariinsky) Theatre in 1977 as Prince Andrey (War and Peace) and went on to sing Rossini's Figaro, Robert (Iolanta), Don Giovanni and other roles. In 1982 he sang the Marquis in Massenet's Grisélidis at Wexford, returning for Hans Heiling, Boniface (Le jongleur de Notre-Dame) and the Fiddler (Königskinder). He has sung Don Giovanni and Yevgeny Onegin for Scottish Opera, Zurga (Les pêcheurs de perles) and Escamillo for the ENO and Scarpia and Zurga for Opera North. In 1987 Leiferkus toured Britain with the Kirov Opera as Yevgeny Onegin and Tomsky (The Queen of Spades). He made his Royal Opera début as Luna in 1989, returning as Prince Igor, Ruprecht (The Fiery Angel), Iago, Onegin, Scarpia and Telramund. In 1992 he sang Tomsky at Glyndebourne and made his Metropolitan début as Onegin, returning as Iago in 1994. Among his other roles are Nabucco, Amonasro, Telramund and Rangoni (Boris Godunov). Leiferkus's operatic recordings, all displaying his rich, intense timbre and incisive diction, include Don Pizarro, Iago and Telramund as well as four of his finest Russian roles: Tomsky, Mazeppa, Rangoni and Ruprecht. He is also a fine recitalist, and has made outstanding recordings of Russian songs that reveal his brilliant gifts of characterization and, as in Musorgsky's The Peepshow and Song of the Flea, an ebullient sense of humour.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Forbes: ‘Sergey Leiferkus’, Opera, xli (1990), 175–80

ELIZABETH FORBES

Leifs [Thorleifsson], Jón

(b Sólheimar, 1 May 1899; d Reykjavík, 30 July 1968). Icelandic composer and conductor. In Reykjavík he studied the piano with Herdís Matthíasdóttir and Martha Stephensen, and took violin lessons with Oscar Johansen. At the Leipzig Conservatory, from 1916, he studied the piano with Robert Teichmüller, theory and counterpoint with Stephan Krehl and Emil Paul, conducting with Otto Lohse and composition with Aládar Szendrei and Paul Graener. Shortly after graduating in 1921 he married the Jewish-born pianist Annie Riethof; during their honeymoon his fascination with Icelandic folk music began, and although he had at first decided to pursue a conducting career, he now resolved to create a national style of composition based on folk material. In a series of articles published in 1922–4 he argued that the severe, acrimonious character of Icelandic folk music was a direct expression of the national character, forged by the country's harsh landscapes and frequent natural disasters. His earliest work based on folk music (op.2, 1922) uses the elements of tvísöngur (a type of two-voice polyphony featuring motion in parallel 5ths) and rímur (a monophonic genre characterized by frequent changes of metre) that were to become fundamental to his musical style.

Many of Leifs's compositions from the 1920s are in small forms, and often betray a conflict between traditional and avant-garde expression of nationalism in music. Towards the end of the decade, as his style became more uniform in its emphasis on parallel 5ths and triadic block chords, he began to tackle larger forms. In 1930 he completed two of his largest works thus far, the Organ Concerto op.7 and the op.13 Thjóðhvöt (‘Iceland Cantata’). The concerto is in many ways his most radical score, its introduction and finale filled with cluster-like harmonies made up of superimposed diminished 7th chords, while the main body juxtaposes a traditional Icelandic funeral chorale and a highly chromatic passacaglia theme in 30 variations. The music of the seven-movement cantata (among the more significant early works) is saturated with allusions to the principal folk music genres; however, it avoids direct quotation of folk material, his first large-scale composition to do so.

In the 1920s Leifs devoted much time to collecting Icelandic folksongs. An expedition in 1925 was followed by two others (1926, 1928) in co-operation with E.M. von Hornbostel and the Berlin phonograph archives; the musical results were occasionally used in his own compositional work, for example in Íslensk rímnadanslög (‘Icelandic Dances’) op.11. His conducting activities included a tour of Norway, Iceland and the Faroe Islands with the Hamburg PO in 1926, giving inhabitants of both island communities their first opportunity to hear a symphony orchestra in concert.

Except for a period (1935–7) during which he served as head of the Icelandic State Radio's music division, Leifs continued to live in Germany after the Nazis came to power, and his music enjoyed considerable success there in the early 1930s. Although not a Nazi sympathizer, he believed that the promotion of folk-derived art might usher in a Nordic cultural renaissance, a notion not altogether foreign to National Socialist ideology. During this time he began work on his magnum opus, the Edda trilogy of oratorios; the works draw on Old Icelandic mythology in an attempt, as Leifs put it, to ‘reclaim the Nordic cultural heritage from the clutches of Wagner’. In the late 1930s, Leifs's career in Germany gradually came to a halt. He would later claim that he had been blacklisted by the Nazis, and although there is no evidence of an official ban, it seems clear that his wife's racial origins were partly responsible for the dwindling interest in his work, along with decreasing sympathy for modernism in the Nazi state. His frustration at the poor reception accorded to his Organ Concerto in 1941 (effectively ending his participation on the German musical scene) inspired him to compose his largest purely instrumental score, the Saga-Symphony op.26. Each of its five movements is based on a character from the Icelandic sagas, and the acerbic qualities of the Icelandic heroes are perfectly complemented by the harsh austerity of Leifs's style. This period also saw the planning of Baldr, a choreographic ‘music-drama without words’ that would occupy Leifs for five years. The work's thirteen movements are a compendium of Leifs’s favourite techniques; the finale includes a volcanic eruption (inspired by an eruption of Mount Hekla in 1947) that points forward to the works of his last decade. Like other of his large scores, Baldr remained unperformed during the composer's lifetime.

His Icelandic citizenship offered protection during the war years, and in 1944 the family was permitted to leave Germany for Sweden. Following a divorce from his wife Leifs returned to Iceland in 1945, and devoted much energy to securing the professional interests of Icelandic composers. He was a founding member of the Society of Icelandic Composers in 1945 and in 1948 of STEF, the Icelandic performing rights society. In 1947 the death of his younger daughter was a devastating blow which led him to compose in her memory four of his most affecting works, including the Requiem, the stark simplicity of which has made it one of his more admired compositions. The 1950s, which brought a second marriage, saw his self-confidence shattered following a series of ill-received Scandinavian performances (including the Saga-Symphony in 1950 and movements from Edda I in 1952). His creativity was rekindled following his third marriage in 1956, and his last 12 years were among his most prolific, including his four tone poems depicting natural phenomena in Iceland (Geysir, Hekla, Dettifoss, Hafís), as well as the completion of Edda II.

Leifs's music is often primitive, with slow-moving chordal progressions punctuated by harsh, percussive accents. Harmonic movement by 3rds and augmented 4ths is pervasive, as are parallel 5ths and metric shifts derived from folk music. While many of his earlier works, such as Minni Íslands (‘Iceland Overture’), make use of actual folk melodies, his mature style is marked by an internalization of indigenous musical elements. In his orchestral music, his use of unusual instruments such as the ancient Nordic lur (Baldr) and extended percussion sections, including chains, anvils and sirens (Hekla), creates an unusually powerful blend of archaic and modern styles. In his vocal works, he frequently restricts himself to more limited tonal resources to great effect, with large sections often built around an alternation of major and minor 3rds over a static open 5th (Requiem).

Leifs’s music was performed rarely in the decade following his death, though his works gradually became better known both locally and internationally in the wake of Ragnarsson’s thesis in 1980. The première performance of the ballet score Baldr by the Iceland Youth SO and Paul Zukofsky in 1991 was a significant milestone, as was the first staging of the work in 2000. A 1995 film, Tár úr steini (‘Tears of Stone’), dealing with his life and career in Nazi Germany, was a critical and commercial success. The centenary of his birth in 1999 provided the occasion for a number of first performances; including Hafís (‘Ice Drift’), Helga kviða Hundingsbana (‘The Lay of Helgi the Hunding-Slayer’ and Grógaldr (‘The Spell of Gróa’). Leifs's compositional style has only rarely been imitated by later composers. Nevertheless, his music continues to define Icelandic nationalism in its most extreme manifestation, and commentators often resort to visual imagery when describing his music, relating it to the austere, yet overpowering, Icelandic landscape.

WORKS

Stage: Galdra-Loftr (incid music, J. Sigurjónsson), op.6, 1915–25; Baldr (choreog. drama), op.34, T, SATB, orch, 1943–7

instrumental

Orch: Trilogia piccola, op.1, 1919–24; Org Conc., op.7, 1917–30; Variazioni pastorale (Variationen über ein Thema von Beethoven), op.8, 1920–30, arr. str qt, 1937; Galdra-Loftr Ov., op.10, 1927; Sinfónía I ‘Söguhetjur’ [Saga Heroes] (Saga-Sym.), op.26, 1941–2; Réminiscence du nord, op.40, 1952; 3 peintures abstraites, op.44, 1955–60; Geysir, op.51, 1961; Hinsta kveðja [Elegy], op.53, 1961; Víkingasvar [A Viking's Answer], op.54, wind ens, perc, va, db, 1962; Fine I, op.55, 1963; Fine II, op.56, 1963; Hughreysting [Consolation], op.66, 1968

Chbr: Quartetto I ‘Mors et vita’, op.21, str qt, 1939; Quartetto II ‘Vita et mors’, op.36, str qt, 1948–51; Quintetto, op.50, fl, cl, bn, va, vc, 1960; Scherzo concreto, op.58, pic, fl, ob, eng hn, cl, bn, trbn, tuba, va, vc, 1964; Quartetto III ‘El Greco’, op.64, str qt, 1965

Solo inst: Vökudraumur [Reverie], pf, 1913; Torrek, op.1 no.2, pf, 1919; 4 Pieces, op.2, pf, 1922; Praeludium e fuga, op.3, vn, 1924; Org Prelude, op.5 no.1, 1924; 25 íslensk thjóðlög [Icelandic Folksongs], pf, 1925; Íslensk rímnadanslög [Icelandic Dances], op.11, pf, 1929; Ný rímnadanslög [New Icelandic Dances], op.14b, pf, 1931, arr. male vv, 1955; 3 Org Preludes, op.16, 1931; Nocturne, op.19a, hp, c1934; Türmglockenspiel über Themen aus Beethovens Neunter Symphonie, carillon, 1958; Das Leben muss trotz Allem stets weiter gehen, carillon, 1958; Strákalag [Boy's Song], op.49, pf, 1960

choral

Orats: Edda I ‘Sköpun heimsins’ [The Creation of the World], op.20, T, Bar, SATB, orch, 1935–9; Edda II ‘Líf guðanna’ [The Lives of the Gods], op.42, Mez, T, B, SATB, orch, 1951–66; Edda III ‘Ragnarök’ [The Twilight of the Gods], op.65, Mez, Bar, female chorus, male chorus, SATB, orch, 1966–8, inc.

With orch (SATB unless otherwise stated): Minni Íslands [Icelandic Ov.] (J. Hallgrímsson, E. Benediktsson), op.9, 1926; Thjóðhvöt [Iceland Cant.] (D. Stefánsson), op.13, 1929–30; Landsýn [Landfall] (Hallgrímsson, Benediktsson), op.41, TB, orch, 1955; Vorvísa [Spring Verse] (Hallgrímsson), op.46, 1958; Jónasar minni Hallgrímssonar [Jónas Hallgrímsson in memoriam], op.48, 1961; Hekla (Hallgrímsson), op.52, 1961; Dettifoss (Benediktsson), op.57, Bar, SATB, orch, 1964; Darraðarljóð [Song of Dorrud] (Njál's Saga), op.60, 1964; Hafís [Drift Ice] (Benediktsson), op.63, 1965

Mixed vv (unacc. unless otherwise stated): Kyrie, op.5 no.2, 1924; Íslenskir söngdansar [Icelandic Dance-Songs] (H. Hafstein, Benediktsson), op.17a, vv, insts ad lib, c1931; 3 íslensk sálmalög [3 Icelandic Hymns] (E. Jónsson, H. Pétursson), op.17b, SATB, org, c1932–40; 3 söngvar eftir Jónas Hallgrímsson [3 Verses by Jónas Hallgrímsson], op.28, 1943; Íslendingaljóð [Poems of Icelanders] (Icelandic folk tales, Hafstein, Th. Erlingsson, E. Ólafsson and others), op.30, 1943; 3 althýðusöngvar [3 Folksongs] (Icelandic folk tale, G. Kamban, Pétursson), op.32, 1945; Requiem (folk verses, Hallgrímsson), op.33b, 1947

Male vv (unacc. unless otherwise stated): Íslendingaljóð [Poems of Icelanders] (Bólu-Hjálmar, Hallgrímsson, B. Thorarensen), op.15a, 1931; Sjávarvísur [Ocean Verses] (Benediktsson, Th. Gíslason), op.15b, c1931; 3 aettjarðarsöngvar [3 Patriotic Songs] (Thorarensen, Benediktsson), op.27, 1927–43; Íslendingaljóð [Poems of Icelanders] (folk verses, Hafstein, Hallgrímsson, P. Ólafsson, M. Jochumsson and others), op.29, 1943; Erfiljóð [Elegies] (Hallgrímsson, Bólu-Hjálmar, E. Skallagrímsson and others), op.35, Mez, TB, vn, 1947; Fjallasöngvar [Mountain Verses] (folk verses, J. Dalaskáld and others), op.37, Mez, Bar, TB, timp, perc, db, 1948; Thorgerðarlög [Songs of Thorgerdur] (folk tales, S. Friðjónsson and others), op.38, TB, fl, va, vc, 1948; 2 söngvar [2 Songs] (L. Thorarensen), op.39, 1948–61; Veðurvísur [Weather Verses] (Hallgrímsson), op.47b, 1961

other vocal

Solo vocal with orch: Guðrúnarkviða [The Lay of Gudrun] (Poetic Edda), op.22, Mez, T, B, orch, 1940; Nótt [Night] (Th. Erlingsson), T, B, orch, 1964; Helga kviða Hundingsbana [The Lay of Helgi the Hunding-Slayer] (Poetic Edda), op.61, A, B, orch, 1964; Grógaldr [The Spell of Gróa] (Poetic Edda), op.62, A, T, orch, 1965

1v, pf (unless otherwise stated): 3 erindi úr Hávamálum [3 Verses from Hávamál], op.4, 1924, arr. 1v, orch, 1935; 3 íslensk sálmalög [3 Icelandic Hymns] (H. Pétursson], op.12a, 1929; Faðir vor [The Lord's Prayer], op.12b, 1v, org, 1929; 2 sönglög [2 Songs] (J. Jónsson), op.14a, 1929–30, arr. 1v, orch, 1936; 2 sönglög (Benediktsson), op.18a, 1932–3; Ástarvísur úr Eddu [Love Verses from the Edda], op.18b, 1931–2; 2 íslensk thjóðlög [2 Icelandic Folksongs] (J. Sigurjónsson, folk verse), op.19b, c1932; 3 sönglög (S. Grímsson, H. Laxness), op.23, 1941; 3 söngvar úr Íslendingasögum [3 Songs from Icelandic Sagas], op.24, 1941; Söngvar söguhljómkviðunnar [Songs of the Saga Sym.], op.25, 1941–2; Forníslenskar skáldavísur [Old Scaldic Verses from Iceland], op.31, 1944–5; Torrek (E. Skallagrímsson), op.33a, 1947; Skírnarsálmur [Baptismal Psalm], op.43, 1v, org, 1957; Minningarsöngvar um aevilok Jónasar Hallgrímssonar [Memorial Songs on the Death of Jónas Hallgrímsson], op.45, 1958; Stattu steinhús [Stand, House of Stone] (Hallgrímsson), op.47a, 1958

Arrs.: Wiegenlied (J. Jónsson), op.14 no.2, SATB, c1935, arr. male vv, c1940; Reimweise (Benediktsson), op.18a no.2, 1v, orch, 1936; Es ist ein Ros entsprungen, SATB, 1958; Heilsuheimt [Health Regained] (Th. Valdimarsson), SATB, 1965 [arr. of L. van Beethoven op.132/2]

WRITINGS

‘Íslenzkt tónlistareðli’, Skírnir, xcvi (1922), 130–43

Tónlistarhaettir (Leipzig, 1922)

‘Isländische Volkslieder: zwei Forschungsberichte’, ZMw, xi (1928–9), 365–73

‘Isländische Volkslieder: dritter Bericht’, Mitteilungen der Islandfreunde, xix (1931–2), 2–12, 32–41

Islands künstlerische Anregung: Bekenntnisse eines nordischen Musikers (Reykjavík, 1951)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

KdG (M. Hillenstedt)

H.H. Ragnarsson: Jón Leifs, Icelandic Composer: Historical Background, Biography, Analysis of Selected Works (thesis, Cornell U., 1980)

C.-G. Åhlèn: ‘Jón Leifs: ett tonsättarporträtt’, Tonfallet (1989), no.5, pp.5–28

H.H. Ragnarsson: ‘Jón Leifs’, Andvari, cxv (1990), 5–38

G. Bergendal: New Music in Iceland (Reykjavík, 1991)

H.H. Ragnarsson: ‘A New 20th-Century Voice’, Gramophone Explorations, no.1 (1996), 64–5

M. Kohler: ‘Jós Leifs: der reine isländische Klang’, Nordeuropa-Forum, vii/2 (1997), 46–8

Á. Guðmundsson: ‘Isländische Mitläufer und Opfer der Nationalsozialisten’, Island, iv/1 (1998), 6–14

C.–G. Åhlèn: Jón Leifs: Tónskáld í mótbyr [Leifs: a composer in adversity] (Reykjavík, 1999)

J.-L. Caron: ‘Jón Leifs (1899–1968)’, Bulletin de l'Association française Carl Nielsen, no.20 (1999) [Leifs issue]

Á.H. Ingólfsson: ‘Beethoven í Tjarnargötunni: Um Jón Leifs og áhrif meistarans’, [Beethoven by the pond: Leifs and the master’s influence], Ritmennt, iv (1999), 84–101

Á.H. Ingólfsson: ‘Composing Iceland: Jón Leifs’, Nordic Sounds (1999), no.2, pp.3–8

J. Pickard: ‘Jón Leifs (1899–1968)’, Tempo, no.208 (1999), 9–16

H. Schwab: ‘Jón Leifs und die “gigantischen Vorgänge eines isländischen Vulkanausbruchs”: zum Thema “Musik und Landschaft” in den skandinavischen Ländern’, Island, v/1 (1999), 3–16

ÁRNI HEIMIR INGÓLFSSON

Leigh, Mitch [Mitchnik, Irwin]

(b Brooklyn, NY, 30 Jan 1928). American composer. After studying with Hindemith at Yale, he began his career as a jazz musician. In 1954 he started composing for television and radio commercials and in 1957 founded Music Makers to produce them. After writing incidental music for a revival of Shaw’s Too True to be Good (1963) and the Broadway play Never Live Over a Pretzel Factory (1964), he composed the musical play Man of La Mancha (D. Wasserman and J. Darion, after Cervantes; New York, Washington Square Theatre, 22 November 1965). This show, with its hit song ‘The Impossible Dream’, achieved wide international acclaim, but its successors, Chu Chem (1966), Cry for us All (1970), Home Sweet Homer (1976), Saravá (1979) and Ain’t Broadway Grand (1988), were less successful. Leigh was also the composer, conductor and co-producer of the film Once in Paris (1978). At home in a wide range of styles, he has put his versatility to effective use in his treatment of varied subjects.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GänzlEMT

S. Green: The World of Musical Comedy (New York, 1960, 4/1980)

G. Bordman: American Musical Theatre (New York, 1978, 2/1986)

ANDREW LAMB

Leigh, Walter

(b Wimbledon, 22 June 1905; d nr Tobruk, Libya, 12 June 1942). English composer. His early musical education came from his mother, a Prussian-born concert pianist, then from Harold Darke. He attended University College School, Hampstead, and Christ’s College, Cambridge, graduating in 1926. Subsequently, he studied composition with Hindemith in Berlin (1927–9). In 1931–2 he was musical director of the Festival Theatre in Cambridge, after which he lived in London working as a freelance composer. In World War II he joined a tank regiment and was killed in action.

Leigh’s work for amateurs and for the stage reflects Hindemith’s concern for practical music-making. The style is straightforward but musicianly, and his dramatic pieces helped to raise the standard of light music in England with their combination of fine craftsmanship and melodic flair. His most successful stage work was the comic opera Jolly Roger (1933), which ran for over three months at the Savoy Theatre before transferring to the Lyceum.

Owing to the diversity of his output, Leigh’s style is not easy to define. Works worthy of note include the Sonatina for viola and piano (performed at the 1932 ISCM Festival in Vienna), the avant-garde percussion score for the documentary film Song of Ceylon and the virtuoso showpiece Music for Three Pianos (1932). His best-known work is probably the charming neo-classical Concertino for harpsichord and string orchestra (1936).

WORKS

(selective list)

stage

all first performed in London

Das blaue von Himmel (incid music, H. Chlumberg), Arts, 16 Feb 1930

Alladin, or Love Will Find the Way Out (pantomime, prol, 3, V.C. Clinton-Baddeley), Lyric Hammersmith, 22 Dec 1931

The Pride of the Regiment, or Cashiered for His Country (comic op, 2, Clinton-Baddeley and S. Mackenzie), St Martin’s, 6 July 1932

Jolly Roger, or the Admiral’s Daughter (musical burlesque, 3, Clinton-Baddeley and Mackenzie), Savoy, 1 March 1933

Genesis 2 (incid music, A. Menton), Fortune, 10 June 1934

Public Saviour No.1 (incid music, J. Frushard), Piccadilly, 8 July 1935

The Frogs (incid music, Aristophanes), 1936

Parnell (incid music, E.T. Schauffler), New, 4 Nov 1936

Victoria Regina (incid music, L. Housman), Lyric, 21 June 1937

Nine Sharp (revue, 2, H. Farjeon), Little, 26 Jan 1938 [music arr. J. Pritchett]

The Little Revue (2, Farjeon), Little, 21 April 1939 [music arr. J. Pritchett]

In Town Again (triple revue, Farjeon), Criterion, 6 Sept 1940

Diversion (revue, 2, Farjeon), Wyndham’s, 28 Oct 1940

Diversion no.2 (revue, 2, Farjeon), Wyndham’s, 1 Jan 1941

other works

Orch: 3 pieces for amateur orch, 1929; Music for Str Orch, 1931; Interlude, 1932; Jubilee Overture ‘Agincourt’, 1935; Concertino, hpd/pf, str orch, 1936; A Midsummer Night’s Dream Suite, 1936

Chbr: Str Qt, 1929; Sonatina, va, pf, 1930; 3 movts, str qt, 1930; Trio, fl, ob, pf, 1935; Sonatina, tr rec/fl, 1939

Pf: Music for 3 Pianos, 1932; 3 waltzes, c1936; Eclogue, 1940

Songs (1v, pf): Echo’s Lament for Narcissus (B. Jonson), 1926; Come Away Death (W. Shakespeare), 1928; Bells (J. Bunyan), 1929; How Sweet I Roamed (W. Blake); O Men from the Fields (P. Collum); The Mocking Fairy (W. de la Mare)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Grove6

MGG1

W.J. Turner: Facing the Music: Reflections of a Music Critic (London, 1933)

R. Wimbush: ‘Walter Leigh’, MRR, lxviii (1938), 138–41

H.J. Foss: Obituary, MT, lxxxiii (1942), 255 only

JACK WESTRUP/KENRICK DANCE

Leighton, Kenneth

(b Wakefield, 2 Oct 1929; d Edinburgh, 24 Aug 1988). English composer and teacher. A chorister at Wakefield Cathedral, he studied classics (1947–50) and composition with Bernard Rose (1950–51) at Queen's College, Oxford. In 1951 he won the Mendelssohn Scholarship, which enabled him to study in Rome with Petrassi. Other awards included the Royal Philharmonic Society Prize (1950 and 1951), the Busoni Prize (1956) for the Fantasia contrappuntistica, the Trieste Prize (1965) for his Sinfonia sacra, the Bernhard Sprengel Prize (1965) and the Cobbett Medal (1968). After positions at the universities of Leeds (1953–5) and Edinburgh (1955–68), Leighton returned to Oxford in 1968 as lecturer in music and Fellow of Worcester College. He took the doctorate from Oxford in 1970, and in the same year was appointed Reid Professor of Music at Edinburgh University. He was made an honorary doctor of the University of St Andrews in 1977 and a FRCM in 1982.

Leighton's music has a compelling balance of intellectual rigour and romanticism, manifest in his highly lyrical melodic idiom, dynamic rhythms, colourful orchestration and virtuoso solo writing. These qualities are exemplified in the highly acclaimed concertos and the solo works for piano and organ. His early serialism, as evinced in the Variations (1955) for piano, owes more to Berg and Dallapiccola than to Schoenberg, showing a concern with thematic transformation within a tonally orientated chromaticism; his later works display a mellower diatonicism, especially the choral works. Also distinctive are his exploitation of 4ths and 2nds, his predilection for fizzing toccata-like textures and resonant sonorities, and his intricate, often fugal use of counterpoint. Alongside a large number of sacred works his concern with religious symbolism is shown by his frequent use of plainsong, chorales and chants as thematic resources (e.g. Fantasy on an American Hymn Tune, the Piano Sonata op.64 and the Alleluia pascha nostrum). In the late works, for example the Third Symphony, a magisterial setting of poems in praise of music for tenor and orchestra, and the equally ravishing solo cantata Earth, Sweet Earth, there is an added visionary energy and opulence, with sonorities reminiscent of Messaien.

WORKS

(selective list)

vocal

Stage: Columba (op, 3, E. Morgan), op.77, 1978

Choral: Veris gratia, cant., op.6, 1950; A Christmas Carol (R. Herrick), op.21, Bar, chorus, org/(pf, str), 1953; The Birds (Aristophanes and others), op.28, S/T, chorus, str, pf, 1954; The Light Invisible (Sinfonia Sacra) (T.S. Eliot, Bible: Lamentations), op.16, T, chorus, orch, 1958; Crucifixus pro nobis, op.38, S/T, SATB, org, 1961; Missa Sancti Thomae, op.40, SATB, org, 1962; Mass, op.44, S, A, T, B, double chorus, org, 1964; Missa brevis, op.50, SATB, 1967; An Easter Sequence, op.55, boys'/female vv, org, tpt ad lib, 1968; Laudes animantium, op.61, solo vv, boys' vv, double chorus, 1971; 6 Elizabethan Lyrics (T. Nash, B. Jonson, J. Fletcher, W. Shakespeare, T. Middleton, T. Heywood), op.65, SSAA, 1972

Sarum Mass, op.66, solo vv, chorus, org, 1972; Laudate pueri, op.68, 3 choruses, 1973; Sym. no.2 ‘Sinfonia mistica in memoriam F.L.’, op.69, S, chorus, orch, 1974; Laudes montium, op.71, Bar, chorus, semi-chorus, orch, 1975; Hymn to Matter, op.74, Bar, chorus, str, perc, 1976; Sequence for All Saints (Eng. Hymnal), op.75, B, SATB, congregation, org, 1977; Columba mea, op.78, A, T, chorus, cel/pf, hpd, str, 1978; Missa Cornelia, op.81, SSA, org, 1979; Missa Sancti Petri, S, T, B, SATB, org, 1979; Fanfare on Newtoun (W. Cowper), SATB, 2 brass qts, org, 1983; The World's Desire (A Sequence for Epiphany), op.91, S, A, T, B, SATB, congregation ad lib, org, 1984; Missa Christi, S, T, B, SATB, org, 1988; motets, anthems, canticles, etc.

Solo vocal-inst: Animal Heaven (Diptych) (W. Whitman, J. Dickey), op.83, S, rec, vc, hpd, 1980; These Are Thy Wonders (G. Herbert), op.84, S/T, org, 1981; Sym. no.3 ‘Laudes musicae’ (T. Browne, E.B. Browning, P.B. Shelley), op.90, T, orch, 1984; Earth, Sweet Earth (Laudes terrae), op.94, T, pf, 1986

orchestral

Sym., op.3, str, 1949; Veris gratia, op.9, ob, vc, str, 1950; Pf Conc. no.1, d, op.11, 1951; Passacaglia, Chorale and Fugue, op.18, 1957; Pf Conc. no.2, op.37, 1960; Festive Ov., 1962; Sym. no.1, op.42, 1964; Dance Suites nos.1–3, D, opp.53, 59, 89, 1968, 1970, 1983; Pf Conc. no.3 ‘Conc. festivo’, op.57, 1969; Conc., op.58, org, timp, str, 1970; Dance Ov., op.60, 1971; Conc., op.88, fl/rec, hpd, str, 1982; other concs. for vn, va, ob, 2 pf, str; see vocal [sym. nos.2–3]

chamber and solo instrumental

Sonata no.1, op.4, vn, pf, 1949; Str Qt no.2, op.33, 1957; Pf Qnt, op.34, 1959; 7 Variations, op.43, str qt, 1964; Pf Trio, op.46, 1965; Metamorphoses, op.48, vn, pf, 1966; Sonata, op.52, vc, 1967; Contrasts and Variants (Qt in 1 Movt), op.63, pf qt, 1972; Fantasy on an American Hymn Tune, op.70, cl, vc, pf, 1974; Es ist genug, op.80, vn, org, 1979; Alleluia pascha nostrum (Meditations on Plainsong Melodies from the 12th Century), op.85, vc, pf, 1981; Fantasy Octet ‘Homage to Percy Grainger’, op.87, 4 vn, 2 va, 2 vc, 1982

Kbd: Sonata no.2, op.17, pf, 1953; Variations, op.30, pf, 1955; Fantasia contrappuntistica ‘Homage to Bach’, op.24, pf, 1956; Prelude, Scherzo and Passacaglia, op.41, org, 1963; Conflicts, fantasy, op.51, pf, 1967; Festive Fanfare, org, 1968; Improvisation, org, 1969; Sonata, op.64, pf, 1972; 6 Fantasies on Hymn Tunes, op.72, org, 1975; Martyrs (Dialogues on a Scottish Psalm-Tune), op.73, 2 org, 1976; Improvisations (De profundis), op.76, hpd, 1977; Ode, org, 1977; Missa de Gloria (Dublin Festival Mass), op.82, org, 1980; Household Pets, suite, op.86, pf, 1981; Sonata, op.92, pf duet, 1985; Veni redemptor, op.93, org, 1985; 4 Romantic Pieces, op.95, pf, 1986; Prelude, Hymn and Toccata, op.96, 2 pf, 1987; Veni creator spiritus, prelude, org, 1987; other kbd works

MSS in GB-Er

Principal publishers: Lengnick, Novello, OUP, Ricordi, Roberton, Royal School of Church Music

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.V. Cockshoot: ‘The Music of Kenneth Leighton’, MT, xcviii (1957), 193–6

R. Fulton: ‘Robin Fulton Talks to Kenneth Leighton’, New Edinburgh Review (1970), no.5, pp.25–7

G. Cox: The Musical Language of Kenneth Leighton (diss., Queensland U., 1972)

H. Truscott: ‘Two Traditionalists: Kenneth Leighton and John McCabe’, British Music Now, ed. L. Foreman (London, 1975), 145–54

J. Thomas: ‘Contemporary Music and the Avant-Garde’, Organists' Review, lxix (1985), 21–6, esp.23

Obituary, MT, cxxix (1988), 620 only

D. Webster: ‘Kenneth Leighton (1929–1988)’, MO, cxi (1988), 328 only

A. Thomson: ‘Kenneth Leighton (1929–1988): a Personal Memoir’, Organists' Review, lxxv (1989), 165 only

RICHARD COOKE/MALCOLM MILLER

Leighton, Sir William

(b ?Plash, Shropshire, c1565; bur. London, 31 July 1622). English amateur poet, editor and composer. He was probably born at Plash Hall near Cardington, Shropshire, about 1565. He attended Shrewsbury School from 1578 and married Winifred (or Willingford), daughter of Sir Simon Harcourt probably about 1590. They had one son, Harcourt, who fought at Naseby, and two daughters.

During the 1590s Leighton became involved in the familiar activities of the landed gentry, attaching himself to the court and public life of London and dealing in leases and mortgages. Richard Topcliffe in a letter to Sir Robert Cecil (11 October 1600) stated that Leighton was ‘sometime a follower of the Earl of Essex’, to whom he was distantly related. In 1601 he was Member of Parliament for Much Wenlock, and on 11 December 1602 was sworn in as a member of the Honourable Band of Gentlemen Pensioners. Leighton was knighted at the coronation of James I, in honour of whom he wrote in 1603 a set of 221 stanzas entitled Vertue Triumphant, or a Lively Description of the Foure Vertues Cardinall.

The first record of his activities is that of an action he brought in Chancery, 27 June 1594, against Ralphe Marston for recovery of a debt incurred in 1589. He was in Chancery again in November 1596 seeking recovery of the deeds of properties in Walton, Sandon and High Offley in Staffordshire from three defendants. There are various Public Records concerning actions, indentures, deeds, fines and so on, involving properties in Shropshire, Staffordshire and Derbyshire, including a long and bitter Star Chamber case involving Leighton, Topcliffe, Edward Bellingham, the Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield, Thomas Fitzherbert and others over the Fitzherbert lands in Derbyshire.

From about 1604 Leighton’s financial position deteriorated. An increasing number of actions were brought against him for debt, and seemingly endless recognizances were recorded. In 1608 he was outlawed by letters patent, and sometime between 1606 and 1609 he appears to have left the Gentlemen Pensioners, due no doubt to the outlawry or even imprisonment. In 1609 the King’s Bench repeatedly ordered him to surrender to the Marshalsea Prison; for some time he failed to comply, but he was in prison by 1612.

In 1612 Leighton wrote a collection of semi-religious poems to show ‘the least part of my unfained and true repentance’ under the title The Teares or Lamentations of a Sorrowfull Soule. It was entered at Stationers’ Hall on 25 January 1612/13 and printed by Ralph Blower. The following year, as he promised, Leighton published through William Stansby a collection of 55 settings of many of these poems by 21 English composers. Leighton wrote the first eight of the 18 consort songs, which are all for four voices and broken consort. There follow 12 unaccompanied four-part and 25 unaccompanied five-part settings. The quality varies from the merely competent (Leighton) to the highly creditable (Byrd). In each case the first stanza is underlaid and the singers are recommended to sing the other stanzas from the book of poems. The volume is in double folio and the parts are laid out in table-book format, like the contemporary lute-songs of Dowland and others. The instrumentation of numbers 1–18 is the same as that used by Morley and Rosseter in their consort lessons: lute, bandora, cittern, bass viol, flute and treble viol. In the manner in which it uses a broken consort to set devotional verse, Leighton’s collection has an affinity with Richard Allison’s Psalmes of David in Meter (1599), for which he supplied a commendatory poem, and Robert Tailour’s Sacred Hymns (1615). Of the unaccompanied four-part pieces, Weelkes’s Most mighty and all-knowing God shows the influence of the consort song, with the principal part in the altus.

Leighton had left prison by 1615. On 11 January 1615/16 his wife was buried at St Dunstan-in-the-West, where the family had lived since 1613 or possibly earlier (their only other known place of residence was in Molestrand Oars Rents, Southwark, between 1605 and 1607). Nothing is known of him after that time, beyond the settlement of a recognizance to Randolph Groome in a Chancery report of 1623. This settlement might explain the lack of a will and the entry in the burial register of St Bride’s, Fleet Street, for 31 July 1622 which reads ‘William Layton: A pentioner’.

WORKS

The Teares or Lamentacions of a Sorrowfull Soule, ed. W. Leighton (London, 1614); ed. C. Hill, EECM, xi (London, 1970); consort songs for 4vv, unaccompanied songs, 4, 5vv

WRITINGS

Vertue Triumphant, or a Lively Description of the Foure Vertues Cardinall (London, 1603)

The Teares or Lamentations of a Sorrowfull Soule (London, 1613)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Le HurayMR

V.L. Moore: ‘Psalmes, Teares and Broken Music’, Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, xlvi (1964), 411–28

CECIL HILL/DAVID GREER

Leimma.

See Limma.

Leinati, Giovanni Ambrogio.

3. Gewandhaus and other orchestras.

Leinbach, Edward William

(b 1823; d 1901). American composer. See Moravians, music of the, §3.

Leinsdorf [Landauer], Erich

(b Vienna, 4 Feb 1912; d Zürich, 11 Sept 1993). American conductor of Austrian birth. He began serious piano studies at the age of eight; from the age of 11 he studied the piano with Paul Emerich, and later had cello lessons with Emerich’s sister. He also studied theory and composition with Paul Pisk. In the summer of 1930 he attended a conducting masterclass at the Salzburg Mozarteum; he then studied briefly at Vienna University and for two years (1931–3) at the Music Academy there. On his graduation he made his conducting début in the Musikvereinsaal. His early experience included a stint as a singing coach (1931–4) and he was rehearsal pianist for Webern’s Singverein der Sozialdemokratischen Kunststelle. He became Bruno Walter’s assistant at Salzburg in 1934 and in 1937 he went to the Metropolitan Opera as assistant conductor. He made his début with Die Walküre in 1938, impressing with his energy and technical assurance. He conducted more Wagner and Strauss’s Elektra and, despite opposition from Melchior (who disliked his insistence on rehearsals) and Flagstad (who wanted to establish Edwin McArthur in the house), he was put in charge of the German wing after Bodanzky’s death in 1939. He became an American citizen in 1942.

In 1943 Leinsdorf succeeded Rodzinski as music director of the Cleveland Orchestra, but during his army service (1944) Cleveland made other plans. He again worked at the Metropolitan, took guest engagements (among them with the Cleveland Orchestra) and was conductor of the Rochester PO (1947–56). In 1956 he became music director of the New York City Opera, but in spite of his energetic attempts to enliven its repertory and style of performance the appointment was not well received. In 1957 he returned to the Metropolitan as conductor and music consultant. In 1962 he succeeded Münch as music director of the Boston SO. He expanded the repertory and restored some of the technical finesse that had been lost in previous years. After some genuine excitement at the beginning (as Münch’s personal and musical polar opposite, he had advantages as well as problems) it became evident that the arrangement was not a success. In 1969 he left Boston and began once more to travel as guest conductor with many major orchestras, touring with the Cleveland Orchestra in 1973 and working at Tanglewood and Bayreuth. From 1977 to 1980 he was principal conductor of the Berlin RSO. His honours included a fellowship in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and honorary degrees from several colleges and universities in the USA.

Leinsdorf was curious and informed about many matters in and out of music, and articulate to the point of virtuosity in his adopted as well as his mother tongue. He wrote an autobiography Cadenza: a Musical Career (Boston, 1976) and the book The Composer’s Advocate: a Radical Orthodoxy for Musicians (Cambridge, MA, 1981). A collection of his writings, Erich Leinsdorf on Music, was published in Portland in 1991. Of quick intelligence, he had a remarkable capacity for recovering from difficult professional reverses. Because of the restraint he learned to apply to his nervous, restless temperament he was at times an inhibited performer; allowing the music insufficient breathing space. Words, particularly German, inspired him, and some of his most memorable achievements were with Schumann’s Szenen aus Goethe’s ‘Faust’, the earlier version of Strauss’s Ariadne auf Naxos (unfamiliar ur-versions being a special interest of his) and Brahms’s German Requiem. Among Leinsdorf’s many recordings are direct, energetic readings of Un ballo in maschera, Tristan und Isolde, Die Walküre and Turandot.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Stoddard: ‘Erich Leinsdorf’, Symphony Conductors of the U.S.A. (New York, 1957), 258

A. Blyth: ‘Erich Leinsdorf Talks’, Gramophone, xlvii (1969–70), 740 only

J. Badal: ‘An Interview with Erich Leinsdorf’, Fanfare, viii/1 (1984–5), 123–7

MICHAEL STEINBERG/JOSÉ BOWEN, CHARLES BARBER

Leinster School of Music.

See Dublin, §10.

Leiper, Joseph.

See Riepel, Joseph.

Leipzig.

City in central Germany. Located in the province of Saxony, at the confluence of the Pleisse, Parthe and Weisse Elster rivers, it has long flourished as an international commercial centre, with three annual trade fairs. Never the seat of a bishop or royalty, it has been governed instead by a prosperous citizenry. Known as the home of J.S. Bach, the Gewandhaus Orchestra and music publishers such as Breitkopf & Härtel and C.F. Peters, Leipzig suffered in modern times from the bombings of World War II and the isolationist policies of communist rule. Since the German reunification of 1989, however, the city has gone far towards regaining its former glory.

I. To 1763

II. After 1763

GEORGE B. STAUFFER

Leipzig

I. To 1763

Traces of a settlement on the site of Leipzig go as far back as the 7th century, with first mention of a fortified village, ‘Urbs Libzi’, in 1015. The town gained municipal status in 1160. Located at the juncture of east–west and north–south trade routes, Leipzig flourished as a crossroads city. The spring Easter Fair and autumn St Michael’s Fair can be traced to the 12th century; the New Year’s Fair was added in 1458. All three benefited from monopolistic privileges granted by Maximilian I and other rulers who, in turn, received tax revenues. Leipzig rose to prominence during the Renaissance; by the Baroque period it rivalled Frankfurt and Hamburg as a trade city. In an age of absolutism, it stood apart as a city of wealthy burghers, with large, extravagant merchant houses.

The University, founded in 1409, gradually became one of Germany’s celebrated intellectual institutions; it has played an active role in the town’s cultural life. During the Reformation Leipzig hosted Luther’s dispute with Johann Eck in the Pleissenburg on the southern edge of town. Luther later returned to preach in the Thomaskirche in 1539, the year Leipzig embraced the Protestant religion. Leipzig suffered greatly during the Thirty Years War (1618–48), when it was besieged five times by the Swedish army and its population dropped from 17,500 (1623) to 14,000 (1648). After the devastating plague of 1680, the town entered a sustained period of prosperity and growth that lasted until the Seven Years War (1756–63). During this period Leipzig’s population reached its 18th-century peak, 32,384 (1753), and the town benefited from influxes of skilled foreign refugees (Huguenots from France in 1685; Protestants from Salzburg in 1732). The Thomasschule, with its distinguished Kantors, made Leipzig the centre of Lutheran church music in Germany; at the same time, the economic triumph of the trade fairs laid the foundation for the middle-class music institutions that were to emerge in the 19th century.

1. Church music.

Six churches were central to sacred music in Leipzig before 1763. The earliest is the Nikolaikirche, the town church named after the patron saint of merchants. Its cornerstone was laid in 1160, and the church completed by 1200. It was rebuilt in the late Gothic style in 1513–25, and a Baroque tower was added after 1730. The interior was fully recast in classical style, with palm leaves crowning the pillars, in 1785–6. It survives in this form. First mention of an organ appears in 1457. A new instrument was installed in 1598 by Johann Lange (stop-list in Praetorius, Organographia, 179), followed by another instrument, by Zacharias Thayssner, in 1694. The Latin school long associated with the Nikolaikirche dates from 1512 and counts among its students Leibniz and Wagner. Its building, renovated many times, is now used as an antiquities museum by the university.

The Thomaskirche originated as part of a priory established by Augustinian canons in 1212; the church itself was completed later in the century. In 1482–96 it was reconstructed as a hall church with a massive roof said to be the steepest (63^o) in central Europe (fig.1). The Thomaskirche embraced the Protestant religion on Whit Sunday 1539, with Luther in the pulpit. The cloisters were torn down four years later. In 1570 north and south balconies were added to the interior, which was remodelled in 1639, and again in 1885–9. The church survived World War II with limited damage and still stands in good condition. The first documentated Thomaskirche organ is that of Joachim Schund, built in 1356. It was replaced by an instrument of 1590 by Johann Lange (Praetorius, 180), which was repaired in 1721–2 by Johann Scheibe. A second organ, present on the west balcony in 1489, was shifted in 1639 to its own small gallery on the east wall, where it remained until it was removed in 1741.

The Paulinerkirche and its accompanying cloisters were built by Dominican monks in 1229. The church was refashioned as a hall church in 1512–21, and in 1543 the complex was taken over by the university. The church was renovated in 1710–13, furnished with a new west portal, and opened for Lutheran services. Henceforth it was also known as the Universitätskirche. It survived World War II fully intact but was razed by the communist government in 1968 to make way for new buildings. An organ of 1528 (Praetorius, 116) was replaced by a new instrument of 1626–7 by Heinrich and Esajas Compenius, which in turn was supplanted by a larger instrument built by Johann Scheibe in 1710–16 and tested by Bach in 1717.

The Barfüsserkirche, or Franziskanerkirche, was erected by Franciscan friars in 1235 and rebuilt as a modest-sized Gothic church in 1488. In 1543 the house was dissolved and the buildings sold by the town council. The church was renovated for Lutheran use and renamed the Neukirche in 1699. In the 19th century the Neukirche was rededicated as the Matthäikirche. The church was badly damaged during World War II and the ruins were pulled down in 1950. The Neukirche contained an organ constructed by Christoph Donath in 1704 and rebuilt by Scheibe in 1721. The Peterskirche was founded as an Augustinian chapel in 1213 in the former village of St Petri. It was reconstructed as a hall church in 1507, but in 1539 it was taken over by the town and used for secular purposes. In 1712 it was renovated and opened for Lutheran services. It was replaced by a new Peterskirche (at Schletterplatz) in 1886 and subsequently torn down. The Johanniskirche was founded in 1278. Located outside the city wall, it served mainly as a memorial church for the cemetery that surrounded it. It was destroyed in World War II except for its Baroque tower of 1748–9, which was pulled down in 1963. A small organ, completed in 1695 by Tobias Gottfried Trost, was replaced with a larger instrument in 1744 by Johann Scheibe, who worked under Bach’s supervision.

Gregorian chant was performed in all the churches. The well-known St Thomas Gradual (D-LEu St Thomas 391) from the 13th century suggests the existence of a lively chant tradition with local variants. With the advent of polyphony, the Thomasschule emerged as the most important centre of music-making. The deed of 1254 already mentions the presence of an Augustinian singing school. The choral music was directed by monks, of whom Johannes Steffani (served 1435–49) is the first known leader. The first important Thomaskantor (the position was formalized in the 15th century) was Georg Rhau (1518–20), who embellished Luther’s Pleissenburg debate with music performed by the Thomasschule choristers (known then and now as ‘Thomaner’) and the Stadtpfeifer (town pipers). Rhau soon left Leipzig because of his Lutheran sympathies, and it was in Wittenberg that he achieved fame as a printer of masses, motets and hymns for the new church. When Leipzig embraced the Reformation in 1539 the Thomaskantor became a city officer. With the sale of monastic properties four years later, the Thomasschule became a city grammar school (fig.1), and the Kantor served as the third-ranking official (after the Rector and Conrector) in the administrative staff, charged with teaching music, Latin and other subjects. The Thomaskantor supervised choral music in the Thomaskirche and the Nikolaikirche. Both churches had separate organists. Early Thomaskirche organists include E.N. Ammerbach (1561–95), whose Orgel oder Instrument Tablatur (1571) represents the first printed organ music, and Andreas Düben (1595–1625), forebear of the Dübens active in Sweden.

Beginning with Sethus Calvisius (1594–1615), a gifted mathematician and astronomer as well as composer, the Thomaskantor post was occupied by a series of distinguished musicians who brought Leipzig church music to a golden epoch. Calvisius was followed by J.H. Schein (1616–30), who introduced progressive Italian madrigal and concerto styles. Schein’s ground-breaking collections of liturgical music – Opella nova (1618, 1626), Fontana d’Israel (1623) and Cantional (1627) – were all issued from Leipzig. By the 17th century the town council had become such a patron of the arts that Demantius, Praetorius, Scheidt, Schütz and others active elsewhere dedicated works to it. The next Kantor was Tobias Michael (1631–57), whose devotion to Italian style is evident in Musicalische Seelenlust (1634–7). Michael also issued a second edition of Schein’s Cantional (1645) and managed to maintain high standards at the Thomasschule despite difficulties imposed by the Thirty Years War.

During the tenure of Sebastian Knüpfer (1657–76) the Thomaskantor was also granted formal charge of civic music, as town director musices. Knüpfer’s compositions were much admired by his contemporaries, and later by Bach as well, who performed his polychoral motet Erforsche mich, Gott in the 1740s. Knüpfer was followed by Johann Schelle (1677–1701), who replaced the Latin anthems that traditionally followed the Gospel in the service with settings of German texts that reflected the Gospel reading. The new ‘cantatas’ often included hymn verses and other rhymed poetry. Schelle also introduced the chorale cantata – music to a German text that, together with the sermon, focussed on the hymn of the day. Schelle’s changes were challenged by Mayor Christian Ludwig von Adlershelm, who in December 1683 ordered that the Latin anthems be restored. Von Adlershelm’s objections were overruled by the town council. During Schelle’s tenure the responsibilities of the Thomaskantor were expanded to include the music in the Paulinerkirche.

Schelle was succeeded by Johann Kuhnau (1701–22), who had studied at the university and, from 1684, served as Thomaskirche organist. Kuhnau continued the practice of using cantatas with German texts and ably directed Leipzig’s sacred and civic music (fig.2). But he had to contend with new and taxing demands on the Thomasschule choristers, who were now required to form choirs not only for the Thomaskirche and Nikolaikirche, as before, but for the Neukirche (from 1699) and Peterskirche (from 1712) as well. Kuhnau complained that the pool of usable singers was too small. Moreover, in 1704 Telemann initiated a highly successful programme of concerted music in the Neukirche, using student singers and instrumentalists from the collegium musicum he had founded two years before. This robbed Kuhnau of potential players.

When J.S. Bach followed Kuhnau in 1723, he inherited these problems but was better able to work in harmony with the organist-music director of the Neukirche. Bach was the town council’s third choice for Thomaskantor, named to the position only after Telemann and Christoph Graupner declined. Nevertheless, during his first six years he seems to have compiled five annual cycles of cantatas – approximately 300 works – as well as the Magnificat (1723), the St John Passion (1724), the St Matthew Passion (1727) and other special works. From 1729 Bach stepped back from church composition, either because of disillusionment with inadequate performance conditions or because of the desire to pursue other creative endeavours. After directing the collegium from 1729 to 1736, he turned increasingly to the study and performance of Latin church music, an interest that culminated in the compilation of the B minor Mass (1748–9), which was not intended for use in the Leipzig worship service. By 1739 the town council minutes show Bach responding to a threat to cancel a Good Friday Passion performance by saying that ‘he did not care, for he got nothing out of it anyway, and it was only a burden’.

The next Kantor, Gottlob Harrer (1750–55), maintained Bach’s practice of performing Latin church music on occasion. Harrer’s own works display a mixture of old and new Italian styles. He was followed by Bach’s student J.F. Doles (1756–89).

Leipzig, §I: To 1763

2. Opera.

The formal beginning of opera in Leipzig can be traced to the licence granted by Elector Johann Georg III to Nicolaus Adam Strungk of Dresden in 1692 to operate a public opera house and present 15 performances during each of the three trade fairs. Strungk acquired a plot on the Brühl, just inside the city wall on the north-east corner of town, and commissioned Italian architect Girolamo Sartorio, builder of opera houses in Hanover, Amsterdam and Hamburg, to construct the town’s first opera house. The house opened on 8 May 1693 during the Easter Fair with a performance of Strungk’s Alceste, which featured a German libretto fashioned from Aurelio Aureli’s well-known Italian text by Paul Thymich, a language instructor at the Thomasschule, and a cast of local singers that included Thymich’s wife, Anna Catharina, in the role of Alcestis. Local composers, local performers and mostly German texts were to become mainstays of the Leipzig opera with its audience of wealthy citizens, university students and fair visitors.

Other composers to write for the Leipzig house included Telemann, Christian Ludwig Boxberg, Gottfried Grünewald, Johann David Heinichen, Melchior Hoffmann and Johann Gottfried Vogler. Although the music to most of this repertory is lost, the surviving librettos show a marked taste for both mythological and historical themes – Strungk’s Nero (1693) or Agrippina (1699), Telemann’s Ferdinand und Isabella (1703) or Die Satyren in Arcadien (1719) and Heinichen’s Hercules (1714), for instance – and comic subjects – Grünewald’s Der ungetreue Schäffer Cardillo (1703) and Heinichen’s Der angenehme Betrug oder Der Karneval in Venedig (1709), for example. The Leipzig librettos show a strong inclination towards informality, with opera seria gods speaking to the audience about everyday situations in everyday language, much like the figures in the madrigal texts of Bach’s cantatas. Like opera elsewhere, Leipzig productions often dwelt on the spectacular. Strungk’s Phocas (1696) called for a burning tower, a wild bear and a storm. For singers the Leipzig opera relied principally on students for the male roles and wives and daughters of men associated with the company for the female roles. Grünewald, Telemann, Graupner, Fasch, Heinichen and others took time from their academic studies at the university to sing in the opera. The instrumentalists, too, were drawn chiefly from the student ranks, much to the annoyance of Kuhnau, who complained that the opera was draining the resources for church music-making.

After Strungk’s death in 1700 the Leipzig opera was directed by Telemann, who ran the operation with great vigour from 1702 to 1704 by recruiting the students from his collegium musicum. Following Telemann’s departure for Sorau (he continued to contribute works afterwards), Hoffmann served as principal director until his death in 1715. After Hoffmann’s tenure Leipzig opera declined. A gradual accumulation of debts led to the closing of Sartorio’s opera house in 1720, and the building was razed in 1729. For the next 30 years opera was provided by itinerant Italian troupes that performed on temporary stages (indoor and out) during the fair times. The most famous visitors were the Mingotti brothers, Angelo and Pietro, whose virtuoso ensembles sometimes included castratos. Riemer reports seeing the opera Adelaide, Königin aus Italien and the intermezzo Amor fa l’uomo cieco with excellent Italian soloists (including castratos and prima donnas) during the 1744 Easter Fair. Also significant was the appearance of the Singspiel in the form of Der Teufel ist los (an adaptation of Charles Coffey’s The Devil to Pay) presented first by a visiting troupe under Johann Friedrich Schönemann in 1750 and then by Heinrich Gottfried Koch’s local company in 1752. Visiting or temporary troupes remained the chief source of opera in Leipzig until the construction of the Comödienhaus after the Seven Years War (1756–63).

Leipzig, §I: To 1763

3. Public concerts.

In the period preceding the Seven Years War, the most important contributors to public concert life were the professional town musicians and the various student-collegium ensembles. The Stadtpfeifer can be traced back as far as 1479, when Hans Nayll and his two sons were hired by the town council to provide municipal music. Despite their name, the Stadtpfeifer played a wide variety of instruments, including strings and woodwinds as well as brass. They performed in church, at weddings, banquets and other special events, and for visits by the Elector and other dignitaries. From 1599 they also played twice a day on the market square from the tower balcony of the town hall (erected in 1555–6, renovated in Baroque style in 1672). Three Kunstgeiger, or art fiddlers, were added to the payroll in the early 17th century, and in 1631 the two groups were placed under the supervision of the Thomaskantor. In Bach’s time, both the Stadtpfeifer and the Kunstgeiger were four in number.

The Hora decima musicorum Lipsiensium, oder Musicalische Arbeit zum Ab-blasen (1670), 40 five-part sonatas dedicated to the Leipzig Town Council, and the Fünffstimmigte blasende Music (1685), both by Stadtpfeifer Johann Christoph Pezel (1639–94), and the Vier und zwantzig neue Quatricinia (1696) by Stadtpfeifer Gottfried Reiche (1667–1734) reflect the proud tradition of Leipzig balcony music. Harmonized chorales also formed a regular part of the repertory.

The collegium musicum groups that convened with increasing regularity from the mid-17th century onward played an equally important role in public music-making. The university, founded in 1409, had long fostered student music-making in the form of serenades, evening music and Tafelmusik. Contemporary documents mention university students performing in Auerbachs Keller as early as 1625, a tradition that seems to be reflected in Schein’s Studenten-Schmauss (1626), a collection of five-part songs written to serve as ‘praiseworthy companionship for wine or beer’. Formal collegia musica – student ensembles meeting on a weekly basis to read through vocal and instrumental music – began to appear after 1650. Nikolaikirche organist Adam Krieger led a collegium in about 1657, and additional groups headed by Pezel and others are mentioned later in the century.

Credit for making the collegium musicum a force in Leipzig cultural life must go to Telemann, who formed a group around 1702 while studying law at the university. Under his energetic direction, the ‘Telemann collegium’ grew to 40 players and gave well-organized weekly performances in coffee houses (which appeared in great numbers after being introduced to Leipzig in 1694). Telemann’s group also provided sacred music in the Neukirche, where Telemann was awarded the post of organist in 1704 on the promise that he would bring his student players with him. After Telemann’s departure in 1705, his collegium was directed by Melchior Hoffmann (1704–15), Johann Gottfried Vogler (1715–20), Georg Balthasar Schott (1720–29), J.S. Bach (1729–36 and 1739–41) and Carl Gotthelf Gerlach (1736–9 and 1741–c1745). Apart from Bach, all served as organist of the Neukirche. During Bach’s tenure, the ensemble met on Friday evenings in Zimmermann's Coffee House during the winter and Wednesday afternoons in Zimmermann’s Coffee Garden during the summer. A second collegium, such as that directed by Johann Friedrich Fasch from 1708–11 or that by Johann Gottlieb Görner from 1723–56, often ran parallel to Telemann’s. During the trade fairs both collegia added a special weekly concert and arranged the schedule so that fair visitors could hear music four evenings per week.

The concerts featured a mixed fare of appealing, progressive vocal and instrumental music. Gottfried Heinrich Stölzel, who played in Telemann’s collegium from 1707 to 1710, described the programme as beginning with an overture, continuing with vocal and solo concertos and closing with a Sinfonie. This parallels the music that Bach performed during his collegium tenure: overtures (including pieces by Johann Bernhard Bach), violin and harpsichord concertos, secular cantatas (including the famous ‘Coffee Cantata’), instrumental sonatas and possibly book 2 of Das wohltemperirte Clavier. The collegia also took part in performances of allegiance music written for the Saxon royal family, which often involved large-scale polychoral pieces performed on the market square, such as Bach’s Preise dein Glücke, gesegnetes Sachsen, bwv215.

A third collegium appeared in 1743. Organized by Leipzig merchants and termed the ‘Grosse Concert-Gesellschaft’, the ensemble performed in the hotel ‘zu den drei Schwanen’ to a subscription audience that grew to over 200 people by 1750. It was this group, directed at first by Johann Friedrich Doles and then by Gerlach and Johann Schneider, that outlasted the others. By 1763 it had grown to include a string section of 8–8–3–2–2 and a full complement of woodwind and brass.

Leipzig

II. After 1763

From the devastation of the Seven Years War, with its ten million-taler retribution payment to Prussia, Leipzig moved to another period of economic prosperity that continued unabated until World War II. Already in the late 18th century Goethe noted the exceedingly vital nature of the town, with its ‘unbelievably splendid buildings, which turn their faces to two streets and encircle enclosed courts with sky-high walls, and contain an entire bourgeois world’. By 1824, the population had reached 40,000; by 1849, 62,400, thanks to the arrival of railways in the 1830s and the rapid growth of light industry. The 18th-century gardens surrounding Leipzig (the Apel and Bose Gardens were the most famous) were gradually filled in with new dwellings and factories. By 1885 Leipzig could claim 170,340 inhabitants, and in 1892, with the incorporation of the surrounding industrial suburbs, 400,000. Middle-class music institutions and music-making flourished. The piano firm of J.F. Blüthner, for instance, whose grand pianos with aliquot scaling are still admired, began the production of highly successful upright pianos in 1864.

Leipzig was bombed by the Allies in 1943–4 and, with the collapse of the Nazi regime in 1945, was taken over by the Soviets. In October 1989 it was the site of the largest single demonstration against the East German government, a demonstration that was critical in bringing about the downfall of communist rule. It is deeply symbolic that in the Leipzig rally the most important spokesman for the cause of peaceful negotiation was Kurt Masur, conductor of the Gewandhaus Orchestra. Reunification with West Germany took place soon thereafter. Leipzig is currently undergoing a programme of refurbishment, and its population at the end of the 20th century approached 500,000.

1. Church music.

2. Opera.

4. Choirs and choral societies.

5. Education.

6. Music publishing.

7. Libraries and museums.

8. The Bach heritage.

1. Church music.

After 1763 church music gradually declined in importance as the Gewandhaus Orchestra (as it came to be known) and the opera moved to the centre of the city’s musical life. Thomaskantors Doles and J.A. Hiller (served 1789–1804) simplified the style of the weekly cantatas and incorporated historical works (by Handel, Hasse, Jommelli and others) into the Sunday service music. A.E. Müller (1804–9) resurrected Bach’s vocal compositions and performed several cantatas that had not been heard since the composer’s death. Under Kantors Moritz Hauptmann (1842–68) and Gustav Schreck (1893–1917), in particular, the Thomanerchor emerged as a single vocal ensemble whose activities ranged beyond the Sunday service. Through their direction it became a singing group of national standing and later a symbol of Leipzig, performing with the Gewandhaus and other orchestras and giving noted tours. Under the direction of Karl Straube (1918–39), who as Thomaskirche organist (1902–18) won considerable renown as a Reger interpreter, the Thomanerchor began to travel outside Germany and, in a series of radio broadcasts from 1931 to 1937, presented Bach’s complete cantatas (often in abridged arrangements, however).

After Straube the Thomanerchor was led by Günther Ramin (1940–56), Kurt Thomas (1957–60), Erhard Mauersberger (1961–72), and Hans-Joachim Rotzsch (1972–92). Under G.C. Biller, who took over the Thomanerchor in 1992, the group functions as an 80-voice choir, carrying on traditions established over the previous century: weekly performances of Bach’s cantatas and motets at the Saturday Vespers service, annual performances of Bach's Christmas Oratorio and Passions, recordings and radio and television broadcasts, and international concert tours. In recent times other church choirs have also been active, chiefly on a local level (see §4, below).

During the 19th century the Thomaskirche and Nikolaikirche acquired large, distinguished German Romantic organs that survive today: the instrument in the Thomaskirche was completed in 1889 by Wilhelm Sauer and enlarged in 1908 (under Straube’s direction); the instrument in the Nikolaikirche was completed in 1862 by Friedrich Ladegast and enlarged in 1902 by Sauer. A neo-Baroque tracker instrument, by Alexander Schuke, was added to the north gallery of the Thomaskirche in 1967.

2. Opera.

Opera, in the form of Italian opera buffa and German Singspiel, sprang to life once again soon after the Seven Years War. Johann Adam Hiller’s highly successful revival of Der Teufel ist los in 1766 marked the beginning of the revival, as did the construction, the same year, of the Comödienhaus, a 1186-seat theatre ‘auf der Rannischen Bastei’ (now Richard-Wagner-Platz). Used for opera and theatre, it quickly became the home of ambitious music productions, with new works appearing each year.

Easter Fair 1773 was marked by the memorable visit of Giuseppe Bustelli’s opera troupe from Dresden, and four years later Bustelli’s successor, Pasquale Bondini, obtained the right to present the Churfürstlich Sächsische Hofcomödianten in Leipzig as well as Dresden. Upon Bondini’s death in 1789 the licence went to the Seconda brothers: Franz, who presented Italian operas, and Joseph, who presented Singspiele and comic operas in German (including 15 performances of Die Zauberflöte in 1793). Although the Comödienhaus was purchased by the town of Leipzig in 1796, its music productions continued to be given by visiting or temporary troupes. Hiller, F.C. Gestewitz, F.A. Pitterlin, J.P.C. Schulz, F.I. Danzi, C.I. Engel and others served as conductors during this time. Repertory included works by Hiller, C.G. Neefe, Georg and F.L. Benda, Dittersdorf, Grétry and others. Die Entführung aus dem Serail was performed in 1783, followed by Don Giovanni and Le nozze di Figaro in 1788, all under Bondini’s direction. The Italian troupe of Domenico Guardasoni also presented large-scale operas during the years 1782-94, including Così fan tutte.

In 1817 the Comödienhaus was rebuilt by J.J.F. Weinbrenner, working under the supervision of K.T. Küstner, who had taken over the opera licence from Franz Seconda. A resident Leipzig company was finally established and the newly refurbished house soon became a centre for Romantic opera. Conductors included J.F. Schneider, H.A. Präger, Albert Lortzing, Julius Rietz and A.F. Riccius, with important guest appearances by H.A. Marschner for the first performances of Der Vampyr (1828), Der Templer und die Jüdin (1829) and Des Falkners Braut (1832), and Robert Schumann for the première of Genoveva (1850). The repertory also encompassed works by Spohr, Mozart, Weber, Lortzing and Wagner, whose operas were often featured soon after their premières (Tannhäuser in 1853, Lohengrin in 1854). The Gewandhaus Orchestra, which since its formation in 1781 had commonly taken part in the Comödienhaus productions, was formally contracted by the city in 1840 to serve as the house’s resident instrumental ensemble.

In 1868 a new house, with a capacity of 1900, was opened at the northern end of the Augustusplatz. Designed by C.F. Langhans, the Neues Theater (fig.3) represented the first large-scale 19th-century music hall in Leipzig. It was bordered on the north by a swan lake. The Comödienhaus (which was henceforth also known as the Altes Theater) remained in use for dramas and operettas. Conductors in the Neues Theater included Gustav Schmidt (1868–76), Joseph Sucher (1876–8), Anton Seidl (1878–80), Arthur Nikisch (1880–88), Gustav Mahler (1886–8) and Alfred Szendrei (1918–24). In the 1870s and 80s the opera director Angelo Neumann and theatre director August Förster joined forces to mount the first complete production of Wagner’s Ring outside Bayreuth (1878) and noted cycles of the operas of Mozart (1880) and Gluck (1882). Between 1923 and 1933 opera director Gustav Brecher and director Walther Brügmann presented ambitious productions of unconventional contemporary works, including the first performances of Krenek’s Jonny spielt auf (1927) and Weill’s Der Zar lässt sich photographieren (1928), Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny (1930) and Der Silbersee (1933). During the Mahagonny première a riot broke out, and the house had to be cleared by police. After Brecher’s departure in 1933, due to the Nazi takeover, Paul Schmitz served as Generalmusikdirektor, sponsoring a Mozart cycle in 1941 and the première of Orff’s Catulli carmina in 1943.

Both the Neues Theater and the Comödienhaus were destroyed during World War II, and from 1945 to 1960 opera productions moved to temporary quarters in the Haus Dreilinden in Lindenau. The present Opernhaus, located on Augustusplatz at the site of the Neues Theater, was completed in 1960. Designed by Kunz Nierade, it combines a classical exterior (as a tribute to that of the Neues Theater) with a modern interior along socialist lines. With a large theatre (cap. 1636) and three smaller stages, it is one of the best-equipped opera halls in Europe. Under the leadership of Joachim Herz (1957–76) Leipzig opera regained its pre-war strength, presenting traditional and contemporary productions including the first performances in Germany of Prokofiev’s War and Peace and Shostakovich’s Katerina Izmaylova. Following the reunification, opera, musical comedy and ballet were placed under one central administration, and in 1990 Udo Zimmermann was appointed opera director. A champion of the avant garde, Zimmermann has sponsored premières of works by Stockhausen, Jörg Herchet and other contemporary composers as well as unorthodox productions of operas from the traditional repertory. The Opernhaus is also the site of ballet evenings (Uwe Scholz, director), song recitals, exhibitions and forums.

3. Gewandhaus and other orchestras.

After the Seven Years War, the concerts of the Grosse Concert-Gesellschaft resumed under the direction of Johann Adam Hiller, and in 1765 a short-lived ensemble, the Gelehrten-Konzert, was established at the university. Ten years later Hiller formed the Musikübende Gesellschaft, and it was this group that swiftly rose to prominence. With a chorus and orchestra composed chiefly of students and other non-professionals, the ensemble appeared in highly successful subscription concerts and Lenten concerts spirituels.

In 1781 a concert hall was constructed within the Gewandhaus, or Clothiers’ Exchange, a former fair building located in the Universitätsstrasse (at that time called Alter Neumarkt). Built at the command of Burgomaster C.W. Müller to a design by J.F.C. Dauthe, it was the first adequate concert space in Leipzig, with a capacity of approximately 500. On 25 November 1781 the first ‘Gewandhaus Concert’ took place with Hiller leading a Musikübende Gesellschaft ensemble of 27 players, 12 singers and two soprano soloists. Since the Gewandhaus was a city building, the activities of the orchestra were supervised by the mayor and a 12-member ‘Konzert-Direktion’. Programmes were given on Thursday evenings, in a season that ran from Michaelmas to Easter. Hiller served as director of the Gewandhaus ensemble until 1785. He was followed by J.G. Schicht (1785–1810), J.P.C. Schulz (1810–27) and C.A. Polenz (1827–35).

The Gewandhaus Orchestra was an important ensemble of the Classical era. Mozart appeared with the orchestra in May 1789 in a programme of his own music featuring two symphonies and two piano concertos. Beethoven’s first, third and fifth symphonies were performed in the Gewandhaus soon after their Viennese premières, and Haydn’s The Creation was presented in 1800, followed by The Seasons in 1801. The choir of the Thomasschule often provided choral support at the Gewandhaus concerts. Members of the orchestra, in turn, accompanied the Thomanerchor in church performances and also played for operas in the Comödienhaus. These ties have continued to the present day.

The transition from notable ensemble to cultural institution took place under the leadership of Mendelssohn, who served as director from 1835 to 1847. He built the Gewandhaus into a first-rate orchestra through unflagging zeal: he broadened the repertory, conducted all works (before his tenure instrumental music was led by the Konzertmeister), introduced the use of the baton for greater precision and raised funds through benefit concerts. He was assisted by the masterful playing of Konzertmeister Ferdinand David (who gave the première of Mendelssohn’s E minor Violin Concerto in 1845) and the supportive journalism of Schumann in the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik (which continued the tradition of music criticism begun in 1798 by Friedrich Rochlitz in the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung). Mendelssohn sponsored important first performances: Schumann’s first, second and fourth symphonies, Schubert’s ‘Great’ C major Symphony and his own Third Symphony and Ruy Blas overture. In 1843 Berlioz conducted a performance of his Symphonie fantastique (with 49 players). Mendelssohn also championed earlier music, especially that of Bach, in a series of ‘Historical Concerts’. In 1840 he performed one of Bach’s three-clavier concertos, with Liszt, Ferdinand Hiller and himself as soloists. The next year he presented the St Matthew Passion. In addition to his work with the Gewandhaus Orchestra, Mendelssohn also founded the Leipzig Conservatory in 1843 (see §5 below). In 1842 the Gewandhaus hall was remodelled and side galleries were added (fig.4), to a design by Albert Geutebrück.

After Mendelssohn’s death the Gewandhaus Orchestra was conducted from 1847 to 1854 by Julius Rietz (fig.5), N.W. Gade and David, and from 1854 to 1860 by Rietz alone. Although Rietz admired Mendelssohn’s stewardship, he disliked the music of the New German School and generally avoided the works of Wagner and Liszt (whose symphonic poems he termed ‘sins against art’). Rietz’s successor, Carl Reinecke, had similar tastes, and during his tenure of 1860–95 the Gewandhaus’s association with traditional repertory became firmly established. Although Wagner made a guest appearance in 1862 (to conduct the Tannhäuser and Meistersinger overtures), it was Brahms who developed a close relationship with the orchestra; he played his First Piano Concerto in 1859 and conducted the première of the Violin Concerto (in 1879, with Joseph Joachim as soloist) and the first Leipzig performances of all his symphonies. Under Reinecke Brahms’s music became a staple of the Gewandhaus programmes, with all four symphonies commonly appearing in a single season.

In the early 1880s the need for a larger space led to the construction of a new hall, to a design by Martin Gropius and Heino Schmieden, in the Grassistrasse to the south-west of the town ring. Called the Neues Gewandhaus, after the orchestra’s first home, the building contained a large auditorium seating approximately 1600 and a smaller hall, for chamber music, seating 700. An opening concert on 11 December 1884 of Bach, Mendelssohn and Beethoven was followed later that month by the first performance of Bruckner’s Seventh Symphony, with the composer present. By 1888 Tchaikovsky could remark during a visit: ‘The famous Gewandhaus concerts, which have made this relatively modest-sized town of Leipzig into one of Germany’s musical centres, are remarkable for a first-class orchestra and a conservative programme’. In 1892 a Mendelssohn monument, by Werner Stein, was erected in front of the hall.

Arthur Nikisch, who followed Reinecke in 1895, maintained the conservative tradition, presenting, for instance, a complete cycle of Bruckner’s symphonies in 1919–20. But he also restored Berlioz, Liszt and Wagner to the repertory, and introduced the works of Richard Strauss, Reger, Schoenberg and Delius. He also presented evenings of early music, in the spirit of Mendelssohn’s ‘Historical Concerts’. In 1916 Nikisch took the Gewandhaus Orchestra to Switzerland on its first foreign tour, and in 1918 he began the custom of performing Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony on New Year’s Eve.

Nikisch was followed in 1922 by Wilhelm Furtwängler. Although Furtwängler was a superb interpreter of Romantic music, the Gewandhaus failed to prosper during his tenure, possibly because he divided his time between Leipzig and Berlin (where he served as conductor of the Berlin PO). Bruno Walter revitalized the orchestra upon succeeding Furtwängler in 1929 but was forced to step down in 1933, victim of the Nazi government’s anti-Semitic policies. Walter was followed by Hermann Abendroth, who led the orchestra during the difficult period of Nazi rule. The music of Mendelssohn was banned in Germany in 1936, and in November of that year his statue was removed from the front of the Gewandhaus and destroyed.

In December 1943 the Gewandhaus was destroyed by Allied bombing raids. After the war the orchestra performed in the auditorium of the Kongresshalle am Zoo (reconstructed in 1946), first under Herbert Albert (conductor 1946–9), then Franz Konwitschny (1949–62) and Václav Neumann (1964–8). In 1970 Kurt Masur was named Gewandhauskapellmeister. Masur, a strong advocate of traditional repertory, fully restored the orchestra to its former stature and convinced the city of the need for a new Gewandhaus building. In October 1981 a second Neues Gewandhaus – the third home of the orchestra – was dedicated in a festive programme that included Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony. Located at the southern end of Augustusplatz, the structure was designed by a team of architects headed by Rudolf Skoda. The main hall seats 1920 and contains a large and magnificent pipe organ by Alexander Schuke; a smaller hall, used for chamber music, seats 500. In 1993 a new Mendelssohn monument, designed by Jo Jastram, was erected in front of the building.

During his tenure as Gewandhaus conductor, Masur emerged as a leading spokesperson for the citizens of Leipzig. In addition to championing the Neues Gewandhaus, he played a leading role in the peace negotiations of October 1989 (see above) and pushed for the restoration of Mendelssohn’s house (see §7 below). In 1995 he also initiated Gewandhaus Day, an event that takes place each summer and features an open-air concert by the orchestra. In 1991 Masur was also named music director of the New York PO; he stepped down from the Gewandhaus in 1996 in order to devote his full attention to New York. Herbert Blomstedt was appointed Masur’s successor in Leipzig. In 1997 the Gewandhaus Orchestra consisted of a pool of 187 players, who perform for instrumental concerts, opera, and church performances with the Thomanerchor.

The most important orchestral ensembles after the Gewandhaus have been those associated with radio broadcasting. The Leipzig SO, founded in 1923 by Hermann Scherchen, was linked one year later with the Mitteldeutsche Rundfunk and began transmitting programmes regularly as the Rundfunk-Sinfonieorchester from the Albert-Halle (destroyed in World War II). After 1930 it also gave public concerts, often in conjunction with the Arbeiter-Sänger-Bund. Its conductors have included, in addition to Scherchen, Alfred Szendrei, Carl Schuricht, Hans Weisbach, Fritz Schröder, Hermann Abendroth, Herbert Kegel, Wolf-Dieter Hauschild and Max Pommer. The orchestra presently includes 165 musicians, who perform as the Sinfonieorchester and Kammerphilharmonie of the Mitteldeutsche Rundfunk.

4. Choirs and choral societies.

The growing interest of the middle class in choral singing led to the formation of a rich array of choirs and choral societies after 1800. Many groups achieved distinction. The Singakademie, Leipzig’s first amateur mixed choir, was formed by Johann Gottfried Schicht and Jacob Bernhard Limberger in 1802. Patterned after Fasch’s successful Berlin Sing-Akademie (founded 1791), the group often collaborated with the Gewandhaus Orchestra. Its early directors included J.P.C. Schulz (1810–27), C.A. Pohlenz (1827–43), E.F. Richter (1843–7) and Julius Rietz (1848–51). The Riedel-Whistling Verein, a mixed chorus of approximately 250 voices founded by Karl Riedel in 1854, and renamed Riedel’scher Verein the following year, presented the first complete performance of Bach’s B minor Mass in 1859 (in German, with Liszt in attendance) and participated in the cornerstone-laying ceremony for the Festspielhaus in Bayreuth in 1872 (Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony, with Wagner conducting). Its early directors included Riedel (1854–88), Hermann Kretzschmar (1888–97) and Georg Göhler (1897–1913). The Bach-Verein was set up in 1875 at the urging of Bach biographer Philipp Spitta to perform Bach’s cantatas in complete and unarranged form. It lasted until 1920. The Bach-Verein’s most important conductors were Heinrich von Herzogenberg (1876–85), Hans Sitt (1886–1903) and Karl Straube (1903–20). Under Straube, the choir played a prominent role in the Leipzig German Bach Festivals.

There were many additional choirs, often with distinct political or vocational focal points: the Liedertafel (1815); the Pauliner-Verein (1822), a university men’s chorus; the Zöllner-Verein (1833), Männergesang-Verein (1843) and Zöllnerbund (1857), three men’s choruses founded by Carl Friedrich Zöllner; the Leipziger Kunst- und Gewerbeverein (1854); the Lehrergesangverein (1876); the Psalterion (1866), founded by Salomon Jadassohn; the Leipziger Männerchor (1891), established by Gustav Wohlgemuth and built into a member of the politically orientated Deutscher Sängerbund; and the Arion (1903), a university men’s chorus. By 1900 many choruses in Leipzig could claim between 300 and 600 members. In 1925 it was estimated that approximately 14,000 citizens participated in choral groups.

A formal Gewandhaus Choir was established in 1920 by Straube, who was succeeded as director by Ramin in 1935. Since 1992 it has been led by Eckehard Schreiber (who heads the Gewandhaus Youth and Children’s Choirs as well). Also important in the 20th century have been the radio choir, first formed in 1947 and reconstituted in 1992 as the MDR Chor, and church choirs such as those of the Friedenskirche, Taborkirche and Bethanienkirche.

5. Education.

Before the 19th century, music instruction in Leipzig was offered mainly by the town’s professional musicians: the Thomaskantor provided singing and instrumental lessons for Thomasschule students; the Stadtpfeifer and Kunstgeiger trained apprentices; and the Thomaskantor and other composers and players offered private instruction in performance. In 1771 Hiller founded a vocal institute with the purpose of training children at first, and then adults as well, in the art of singing. It developed into a type of music school, with pupils participating in the Musikübende Gesellschaft. After Hiller’s departure for Mitau in 1785, however, it languished.

With the rapid expansion of public concert life after 1800, it became clear that a more broadly based system of music education was needed. This was provided by the Leipzig Konservatorium, founded by Mendelssohn in 1843 with a staff of six teachers and 22 students. With the chartered purpose of giving ‘higher education in music’ through instruction extending ‘to all branches of music, seen as a science as well as an art’, the conservatory prospered, and by the 20th century it had become an institution of international standing. From the beginning the school maintained close ties with the Gewandhaus Orchestra: the conductors and members of the orchestra served as instructors at the school, and the orchestra, in turn, recruited young players primarily from the conservatory. This symbiotic relationship resulted in ‘the Gewandhaus tradition’, in which playing techniques and interpretative nuances were passed down from one generation of orchestra members to the next. Originally located in a small building in the courtyard of the original Gewandhaus, in 1887 the conservatory moved into an imposing classical building (designed by Hugo Licht) opposite the Neues Gewandhaus in the Grassistrasse. This building was badly damaged in World War II and rebuilt in a simplified style.

In accordance with Mendelssohn’s charter, the conservatory has offered distinguished instruction not only in performance but in theory and musicology as well. Many concepts of analysis and interpretation (such as hermeneutics) were developed there. Instructors have included Mendelssohn, Schumann, Reger and Karg-Elert. First called the Konservatorium der Musik, then the Königliches Konservatorium der Musik, and then Staatliche Hochschule für Musik (during the socialist era), the conservatory is now known as the Hochschule für Musik und Theater Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy, informally the Mendelssohn Akademie.

In 1919 Thomaskantor Karl Straube established an institute of church music for the purpose of providing instruction in the art of liturgical music. Straube was succeeded by Günther Ramin, upon whose death in 1956 the institute was dissolved by the socialist regime. In 1992 it was reopened, under the leadership of Christoph Krummacher, as a subsidiary of the Mendelssohn Hochschule für Musik und Theater.

6. Music publishing.

Book publishing appeared early in Leipzig (by 1485, at least) and flourished in the town’s favourable commercial climate. By 1700 Leipzig had surpassed Frankfurt as the centre of German book printing, with such ambitious projects as Zedler’s Universallexikon (1732–54, 64 volumes) winning considerable renown.

Before 1763, Leipzig’s role in music publishing was modest, however. As a centre of Lutheran orthodoxy, it excelled chiefly in the production of Gesangbücher, or hymnbooks, in which the music was printed by woodcutting, engraving or unrefined movable type. Michael Blum (first evangelical hymnal, 1530), Valentin Schumann (hymnal of 1542, with almost 120 chorales), and Valentin Bapst (hymnal of 1545, with foreword by Luther and woodcutting of great artistry) were among the most important Reformation printers; Gottfried Vopelius’s outstanding Neu Leipziger Gesangbuch (Leipzig, 1682) carried the tradition into Bach’s time. Early publishers of polyphonic music included Nicolaus Faber, Wolfgang Günther, Michael Lantzenberger, Jacob Apel and Lorenz Cober. Using movable type, Abraham Lamberg printed sacred vocal works by Calvisius, Demantius and Schein, as well as Bodenschatz’s important Florilegium Portense anthologies (1603, and reprints into the 18th century). By 1700 music printing in Leipzig was carried out mostly by engraving, which was time-consuming, expensive and useful only for small runs (200 copies or so, for J.S. Bach’s editions).

It was after the Seven Years War that Leipzig rose to prominence, due in large part to the appearance of the Breitkopf firm, founded as a book-publishing operation in 1719 by Bernhard Christoph Breitkopf. While Breitkopf’s involvement with music was limited to text sheets and selected volumes of songs (the Schemellische Gesangbuch, 1736, and Singende Muse an der Pleisse, 1742, both produced with a double impression), his son Johann Gottlob Immanuel unveiled a movable mosaic type in 1754–5 (first used for Electress Maria Antoni Walpurgis’s Il trionfo della fedeltà) that could be employed for 1500 copies or more. Using the new process, Immanuel produced over 50 editions, including music by Graun, Telemann, Quantz, Johann Stamitz, J.A. Hiller, C.P.E. Bach and J.S. Bach (the four-part chorales, 1784–7). At the same time, he also carried out an extensive trade in hand-produced manuscript copies, advertised in non-thematic catalogues (from 1761) as well as thematic catalogues (1762–87). Gottfried Christoph Härtel purchased the firm in 1796, and in 1806 introduced Senefelder’s lithographic process, which revolutionized music printing. During the next 50 years, Breitkopf & Härtel, as the company was renamed, became the leading music publisher in the world, issuing first editions of Beethoven (25 works), Chopin, Berlioz, Liszt and others. By 1875 its music catalogue contained more than 15,000 items. The complete works of J.S. Bach (61 volumes, 1851–99), published in association with the Bach-Gesellschaft, established the standard for modern editions; it was soon followed by the Beethoven edition (1862–5; 13,400 plates) and the complete works of Mendelssohn, Mozart, Schumann, Schubert and many others. Breitkopf also published encompassing anthologies such as Denkmäler deutscher Tonkunst (DDT, 1892–1931) and Denkmäler der Tonkunst in Bayern (DTB, 1900–31).

Other celebrated Leipzig music-publishing firms include C.F. Peters, founded by Franz Anton Hoffmeister and Ambrosius Kühnel in 1800 and taken over by Carl Friedrich Peters in 1814; Hofmeister, founded by Friedrich Hofmeister in 1807; Merseburger, founded by Carl Merseburger in 1849; and Eulenburg, founded by Ernst Eulenburg in 1874. By the end of the 19th century Leipzig could claim more than 60 music-publishing firms. All profited from the introduction of the rotary press, which greatly facilitated the mass production of inexpensive music editions.

Music publishing in Leipzig prospered until World War II, when the situation changed drastically. C.F. Peters was seized by the Nazis, and its owner, Henri Hinrichsen, was sent to the Auschwitz concentration camp, where he died in 1942. Hinrichsen’s son Walter left Leipzig in 1936 and founded C.F. Peters in New York; a second son, Max, left in 1937 and formed Hinrichsen Edition in London. After the war, a third branch, C.F. Peters Corporation was set up in Frankfurt in 1950; meanwhile Leipzig operations were taken over by the state and continued as Edition Peters. Breitkopf & Härtel was destroyed by the bombings of 1943, and much valuable manuscript and archival material was lost. After 1945 the firm split into a Leipzig division, which was taken over by the state, and a Western division, which was established in Wiesbaden, where it remains today. Hofmeister, too, was transformed into a state operation. Merseburger, Eulenburg and other firms fled to the West.

In 1958 the Leipzig operations of Breitkopf & Härtel, Hofmeister and the Deutscher Verlag für Musik (formed in 1954) were amalgamated under the rubric VEB (Volkseigener Betrieb). With state support, the VEB constituents issued numerous inexpensive facsimiles, reprints and musicological publications. After the reunification of 1989, VEB was dissolved. Edition Peters ceased operations, Breitkopf & Härtel became a branch of the Wiesbaden firm (which also absorbed the Deutscher Verlag) and Hofmeister returned to private ownership, issuing notable new publications such as Denkmäler Mitteldeutscher Barockmusik.

Leipzig has also been a centre for music magazines, journals and periodicals, including Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung (1798, initiated by Breitkopf & Härtel), Neue Zeitschrift für Musik (1834, established by Schumann), Die Sängerhalle (1861), Musikalisches Wochenblatt (1870), Zeitschrift für Instrumentenbau (1880), Zeitschrift der Internationalen Musik-Gesellschaft (1899) and Deutsche Musikdirektoren-Zeitung (1899).

7. Libraries and museums.

The central music library of Leipzig is the Musikbibliothek, which in 1991 was incorporated into the Leipziger Städtische Bibliotheken complex in the Altes Grassimuseum (Wilhelm-Leuschner-Platz). The Musikbibliothek is an amalgamation of several public and private collections, including those of K.H.L. Pölitz (prints and manuscripts of chamber and vocal music from 1750–1820), Carl Ferdinand Becker (17th- and 18th-century material), Kurt Taut (autographs of lesser 19th-century composers), Rudolph Hagedorn (Wagner collection, containing some 2000 items) and the Leipzig Singakademie. The superb collection of the Musikbibliothek Peters, founded by Max Abraham in 1894 as part of C.F. Peters and seized during World War II by the Nazis, was incorporated into the library in 1953.

Also noteworthy is the Deutsche Bücherei (Deutscher Platz). Established in 1913 as a repository for all books published in the German language, it now contains over 7·5 million items. It is housed in a main building (built by Oskar Pusch from 1914 to 1916) and a storage tower complex (1983). In 1991 the Bücherei was placed under the administrative aegis of the Deutsche Bibliothek, Frankfurt. The Stadtarchiv (Altes Rathaus) houses the town archives, which encompass early documents pertaining to music activities.

The music instrument collection of Leipzig University in the Grassimuseum contains as its core the Cologne collection of Wilhelm Heyer, purchased for the university in 1926 through funds provided by Henri Hinrichsen. Although the collection suffered grave losses in the war, it remains unusually rich in early keyboard instruments, including a 1533 harpsichord and a 1543 clavichord by Domenicus Pisaurensis and a 1726 pianoforte by Bartolomeo Christofori. The collection has been the home of the Capella Fidinia, which since 1957 has given performances on period instruments or reconstructions under the direction of Hans Grüss. It has also served as a training ground for early-instrument restorers. Recent directors have been Hubert Henkel and Winfried Schrammek.

The Stadtgeschichtliches Museum (Altes Rathaus) contains the Mendelssohn Room (established in 1970) and other historic spaces, as well as the famous 1746 portrait of Bach painted by local artist Elias Gottlob Haussmann. The Mendelssohn House has been set aside as a memorial to Felix Mendelssohn, who lived there with his wife and five children during his last three years (1844–7). Also of special interest to music scholars are the Deutsches Buch- und Schriftmuseum and the German Paper Museum (with an extensive collection of watermarks), both housed in the Deutsche Bücherei. (For the Bach-Archiv and Bach-Museum, see §8 below.)

8. The Bach heritage.

It is not surprising that Leipzig, as the city in which Bach held his final and most important post, would play a central role in the posthumous resurrection, preservation and study of his music, in what is termed, in German, Bach-Pflege. This began in 1802 with Forkel’s ground-breaking biography Über Johann Sebastian Bachs Leben, Kunst und Kunstwerke, published by Hoffmeister & Kühnel, which also issued (with Forkel’s editorial assistance) the Oeuvres complettes de Jean Sebastien Bach (1801–4), the first attempt at a complete edition of Bach’s organ and harpsichord music. Around the same time Thomaskantor A.E. Müller began to perform Bach’s church cantatas, still largely unknown at the time, within the context of services in Leipzig.

In the 1840s Mendelssohn’s inspired performances of Bach’s music in the Gewandhaus, the Thomaskirche and other venues culminated in the erection of the first Bach monument (now known either as the Old Bach Monument or the Mendelssohn Bach Monument), designed by Eduard Bendemann and set up in the linden-lined promenade just to the west of the Thomasschule in 1843 (fig.6). Between 1844 and 1852 C.F. Peters issued the complete Bach organ works in eight volumes, and in 1850 Carl Ferdinand Becker, Moritz Hauptmann, Otto Jahn and Robert Schumann founded the Bach-Gesellschaft for the purpose of publishing a complete edition of Bach’s music. The volumes of the resulting complete works of Bach, issued by Breitkopf & Härtel between 1851 and 1899, set a new scholarly standard for urtext editions. The Bach-Gesellschaft was dissolved in 1900 upon the completion of the complete works, and the Neue Bach-Gesellschaft was set up the same year. The first issue of the Bach-Jahrbuch (BJb), sponsored by the newly formed society, appeared in 1904. While the old and new Bach societies were concerned with editing Bach’s music and documenting his life, the Bach-Verein, founded in 1875, focussed on performing Bach’s sacred vocal works ‘in original form’ (see §4 above).

The growing idolization of Bach during the 19th century led to the rediscovery of the composer’s bones in the burial plot of the Johanniskirche in 1894 and their ceremonial reburial inside the church. The 20th century began inauspiciously with the razing of the Thomasschule for a new rectory building in 1902, but this was followed six years later by the erection of a second Bach monument (now known as the New Bach Monument), commissioned by the Bach-Verein and designed by Carl Seffner, who claimed to have recreated Bach’s facial features from studies of the composer’s skull made by the Leipzig anatomist Wilhelm His. The imposing statue, located in the middle of the Thomaskirchhof, has become a mecca for Bach worshippers.

The period following World War II ushered in new Bach institutions and events, despite the difficulties caused by the socialist regime and a divided Germany. Bach’s bones were moved from the ruins of the Johanniskirche in 1950 to the choir of the Thomaskirche, where they remain. The Bach-Archiv, a research institute established by Werner Neumann, was set up chiefly to co-edit the Neue Bachausgabe with the Johann-Sebastian-Bach-Institut in Göttingen (located in what was then West Germany). The Bach-Archiv’s other projects include the publication or editing of the Bach-Dokumente, the Bach-Jahrbuch, the Bach Compendium and the Leipziger Beiträge zur Bach-Forschung. Directed since 1986 by Hans-Joachim Schulze, it is located today opposite the Thomaskirche, in the restored Bosehaus of 1711, which also houses the Bach Museum (permanent display plus special temporary exhibits) and the Neue Bach-Gesellschaft. For a time, the Bach-Archiv was a subsidiary of the Nationale Forschungs- und Gedenkstätten Johann Sebastian Bach der DDR, established in 1979 but dissolved in 1989.

The year 1964 witnessed the beginning of the International Bach Competition, initially held every three years, and biennial from 1998, in areas of performance such as organ, harpsichord, violin and voice. The longstanding practice of performing a Bach cantata each Saturday in the Thomaskirche at the afternoon Vespers service continues, and during the summer months outdoor concerts are given at the New Bach Monument in front of the Thomaskirche.

Leipzig, §II, 8: After 1763: The Bach heritage

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Grove6 (P.M. Young); MGG2 (P. Krause and others)

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A. Schering: ‘Über die Kirchenkantaten vorbachischer Thomaskantoren’, BJb 1912, 86–123

R. Sachse: Die ältere Geschichte der Thomasschule zu Leipzig (Leipzig, 1912)

A. Schering: ‘Die alte Chorbibliothek der Thomasschule in Leipzig’, AMw, i (1918–19), 275–88

H. Hofmann: ‘Gottesdienst und Kirchenmusik in der Universitäts-Kirche zu St. Pauli-Leipzig seit der Reformation (1543–1918)’, Beiträge zur sächsischen Kirchengeschichte, xxxii (1919), 118–19

R. Kötzschke: Geschichte der Universitäts-Sängerschaft zu St. Pauli in Leipzig, 1822–1922(Leipzig, 1922)

F. Kemmerling: Die Thomasschule zu Leipzig: eine Kurzgeschichte von ihrer Gründung 1212 bis zum Jahre 1927 (Leipzig, 1927)

A. Schering: Johann Sebastian Bachs Leipziger Kirchenmusik: Studien und Wege zu ihrer Erkenntnis(Leipzig, 1936, 2/1954)

G. Hempel: ‘Der Leipziger Thomanerchor im Vormärz’, Musik und Gesellschaft, xii (1962), 356–9

R. Petzoldt: Der Leipziger Thomanerchor (Leipzig, 1962; Eng. trans., 1962)

B. Knick: St. Thomas zu Leipzig, Schule und Chor: Bilder und Dokumente zur Geschichte der Thomasschule und des Thomanerchores (Wiesbaden, 1963)

F. Ostarhild: St. Nikolai zu Leipzig: Geschichte des Gotteshauses und der Gemeinde 1160–1960(Leipzig, 1964)

G. Stiller: Johann Sebastian Bach und das Leipziger gottesdienstliche Leben seiner Zeit(Berlin, 1970; Eng. trans., 1984, as Johann Sebastian Bach and Liturgical Life in Leipzig)

H. Stiehl, ed.: 750 Jahre St. Thomas zu Leipzig (Berlin, 1962, 2/1971 as St. Thomas zu Leipzig, 4/1984)

E.-H. Lemper, H. Magirius and W. Schrammek: Die Thomaskirche zu Leipzig (Berlin, 1974, 3/1984)

W. Hanke: Die Thomaner (Berlin, 1979, 2/1985)

H. Magirius: Die Nikolaikirche zu Leipzig (Berlin, 1979, 2/1991)

A. Glöckner: ‘Leipziger Neukirchenmusik 1729–1761’, BMw, xxv (1983), 105–12

H. Stiehl: ‘Das Innere der Thomaskirche zur Amtszeit Johann Sebastian Bachs’,Beiträge zur Bachforschung, iii (1984), 1–96

A. Glöckner: ‘Johann Kuhnau, Johann Sebastian Bach und die Musikdirektoren der Leipziger Neukirche’, Beiträge zur Bachforschung, iv (1985), 23–32

A. Glöckner: Die Musikpflege an der Leipziger Neukirche von 1699 bis 1761 (diss., U. of Halle, 1988)

Universitätskirche Leipzig: ein Streitfall?(Leipzig, 1992)

K. Löffler: Die Zerstörung: Dokumente und Erinnerungen zum Fall der Universitätskirche Leipzig (Leipzig, 1993)

c: opera

H. Blümer: Geschichte des Theaters in Leipzig (Leipzig, 1818)

J.O. Opel: ‘Die ersten Jahrzehnte der Oper zu Leipzig’, Neues Archiv für Sächsische Geschichte und Altertumskunde, v (1884), 116–17

F. Berend: Nicolaus Adam Strungk, 1640–1700: sein Leben und seine Werke, mit Beiträgen zur Geschichte der Musik und des Theaters in Celle, Hannover und Leipzig(Freiburg, 1915)

F. Schulze: Hundert Jahre Leipziger Stadttheater (Leipzig, 1917)

G.F. Schmidt: ‘Die älteste deutsche Oper in Leipzig am Ende des 17. und Anfang des 18. Jahrhunderts’, Festschrift zum 50. Geburtstag Adolf Sandberger(Munich, 1918), 209–57

F. Reuter: Die Geschichte der deutschen Oper in Leipzig (1693–1720) (diss., U. of Leipzig, 1922)

F. Reuter: ‘Die Entwicklung der Leipziger, insbesondere italienischen Oper bis zum siebenjährigen Kriege’, ZMw, v (1922–3), 1–16

Festschrift zur Eröffnung des neuen Leipziger Opernhauses (Leipzig, 1960)

H. Hopp: ‘Das neue Opernhaus in Leipzig’, Deutsche Architektur, x (1961), 69–77

G. Braun: Die Leipziger Allgemeine Theater-Chronik in ihrer Bedeutung für die Theaterkritik und Theatergeschichte des 19. Jahrhunderts (diss., U. of Berlin, 1963)

G. Rudolff-Hille: Das Theater auf der Ranstädter Bastei (Leipzig, 1969)

R. Brauer: ‘Zur Geschichte des Leipziger Neuen Theaters von 1868 bis 1932’, Oper heute, x (1987), 20–40

W. Hobohm: ‘Georg Philipp Telemann und die bürgerliche Oper in Leipzig’, HJb 1990, 49–61

J. Schebera: Gustav Brecher und die Leipziger Oper, 1923–1933 (Leipzig, 1990)

S. and H. Neef: Deutsche Oper im 20. Jahrhundert: DDR, 1949–1989 (Berlin, 1992)

F. Hennenberg: 300 Jahre Leipziger Oper: Geschichte und Gegenwart (Munich, 1993)

d: concert life

C.G. Thomas: Unpartheiische Kritik der vorzüglichsten … zu Leipzig aufgeführten Concerte und Opern (Leipzig, 1798–?1800; continued as Musikalische kritische Zeitschrift, ?1800–06)

C.A. Grenser: Geschichte der Musik, hauptsächlich aber des grossen Konzert- und Theaterorchesters in Leipzig (MS, 1840, Leipzig, Stadtgeschichtliches Museum)

W. Seyfferth: Die Gewandhauskonzerte in Leipzig (Leipzig, 1865)

K.W. Whistling: Der Musikverein Euterpe zu Leipzig 1824–1874 (Leipzig, 1874)

A. Dörffel: Geschichte der Gewandhausconcerte zu Leipzig (Leipzig, 1884/R)

G.H. Müller: Das Stadt-Theater zu Leipzig (Leipzig, 1887–91)

R. Kade: ‘Die Leipziger Stadtpfeifer’, MMg, xxi (1889), 194–5

E. Kneschke: Die Hundertundfünfzigjährige Geschichte der Leipziger Gewandhaus-Concerte, 1743–1893 (Leipzig, 1893)

P. Langer: Chronik der Leipziger Singakademie zu Leipzig, 1802–1902 (Leipzig, 1902)

C. Reinecke: Erinnerungen an den alten Gewandhaussaal in Leipzig (Bielefeld, 1902)

A. Göhler: Der Riedel-Verein zu Leipzig: eine Denkschrift zur Feier seines fünfzigjährigen Bestehens (Leipzig, 1904)

F. Schmidt: Das Musikleben der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft Leipzigs im Vormärz (1815–48)(Langensalza, 1912)

A. Schering: ‘Die Leipziger Ratsmusik von 1650 bis 1775’, AMw, iii (1921), 17–53

J. Hohlfeld: Geschichte der Sängerschaft Arion (Sängerschaft in der D.F.) 1909–1924 (Leipzig, 1924)

R. Falk: Geschichte der Sängerschaft Arion zu Leipzig 1849–1929 (Leipzig, n.d.)

E. Creuzberg: Die Gewandhaus-Konzerte zu Leipzig, 1781–1931 (Leipzig, 1931)

E. Preussner: Die bürgerliche Musikkultur (Kassel, 1935, 2/1950)

A. Werner: Freie Musikgemeinschaften alter Zeit im mitteldeutschen Raum (Wolfenbüttel,1940)

M. Teichmann: Die Geschichte des Leipziger Männerchors (Leipzig, 1941)

H.-J. Nösselt: Das Gewandhausorchester (Leipzig, 1943)

H. Heyer, ed.: Festschrift zum 175jährigen Bestehen der Gewandhauskonzerte 1781–1956(Leipzig, 1956)

G. Hempel: ‘Das Ende der Leipziger Ratsmusik im 19. Jahrhundert’, AMw, xv (1958), 187–97

W. Neumann: ‘Das Bachische Collegium Musicum’, BJb 1960, 5–27

F. Hennenberg: Das Leipziger Gewandhausorchester (Leipzig, 1962, 5/1984; new edn, Frankfurt, 1992; Eng. trans., 1962)

G. Hempel: ‘Die bürgerliche Musikkultur Leipzigs im Vormärz’, BMw, vi (1964), 2–14

W. Pretzsch: Das Rundfunk-Sinfonie-Orchester Leipzig: eine chronologische Betrachtung zum 40jährigen Bestehen des Orchesters (Leipzig, 1964)

H.-J. Rothe: 225 Jahre Gewandhausorchester (Leipzig, 1967)

Rundfunk Sinfonieorchester Leipzig (Leipzig,1974) [with introduction by F. Hennenberg]

J. Forner, ed.: Die Gewandhaus-Konzerte zu Leipzig 1781–1981 (Leipzig, 1981, 2/1982)

H.-J. Schulze: ‘Besitzstand und Vermögensverhältnisse von Leipziger Ratsmusikern zur Zeit Johann Sebastian Bachs’, Beiträge zur Bachforschung, iv (1985), 33–46

R. Skoda: Neues Gewandhaus Leipzig: Baugeschichte und Gegenwart eines Konzertgebäudes(Berlin, 1985)

D. Döring: ‘Das Musikleben im Leipziger Collegium Gellianum in den vierziger und fünfziger Jahren des 17. Jahrhundert’, Beiträge zur musikalischen Quellenforschung: Bad Köstritz 1988, 1989 and 1990

R. Richter: Gewandhaus zu Leipzig: Miszellen zum Jubiläum 1981 bis 1991 (Leipzig, 1991)

C. Böhm and S.-W.Staps, eds.: Das Leipziger Stadt- und Gewandhausorchester: Dokumente einer 250jährigen Geschichte (Leipzig,1993)

e: education

J.E. Kneschke: Das Conservatorium der Musik in Leipzig (Leipzig, 1868)

K.W. Whistling: Statistik des Königlichen Conservatoriums der Musik zu Leipzig 1843–1883(Leipzig, 1883)

P. Röntsch, ed.: Bericht über die ersten 75 Jahre des Königlichen Konservatoriums zu Leipzig, erstattet zum 2. April 1918 (Leipzig, 1918)

B.F. Richter: ‘J.S. Bach und die Universität zu Leipzig’, BJb 1925, 1–10

M. Wehnert, J.Forner and H. Schiller: Hochschule für Musik Leipzig (Leipzig, 1968)

H.C. Wolff: ‘Die Geschichte der Musikwissenschaft an den Universitäten Leipzig und Berlin’, SPFFBU, H4 (1969), 17–27

G. Pietzsch: Zur Pflege der Musik an den deutschen Universitäten bis zur Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts (Hildesheim, 1971) [repr. of articles pubd in AMf(1936–43)]

f: music publishers and journals

A. Göhler: Verzeichnis der in den Frankfurter und Leipziger Messkatalogen der Jahre 1564 bis 1759 angezeigten Musikalien (Leipzig, 1902/R)

H. von Hase: ‘Breitkopfsche Textdrucke zu Leipziger Musikaufführungen zu Bachs Zeit’, BJb 1913, 69–88

M. Bruckner-Bigelwald: Die Anfänge der Leipziger Allgemeinen musikalischen Zeitung(Hilversum, 1965)

H.-M. Plesske: Leipzigs Musikverlage einst und jetzt (Leipzig, 1966)

H. Lindlar: C.F. Peters Musikverlag: Zeittafeln zur Verlagsgeschichte 1800–1867–1967(Frankfurt, 1967)

Pasticcio auf das 250-jährige Bestehen des Verlages Breitkopf & Härtel: Beiträge zur Geschichte des Hauses(Leipzig, 1968)

R. Elvers, ed.: Breitkopf und Härtel 1719–1968: ein historischer Überblick zum Jubiläum(Wiesbaden, 1968)

R. Schmitt-Thomas: Die Entwicklung der deutschen Konzertkritik im Spiegel der Leipziger Allgemeinen musikalischen Zeitung (1798–1848) (Frankfurt, 1969)

G.B. Stauffer, ed.: Bach Perspectives, ii: J.S. Bach, the Breitkopfs, and Eighteenth-Century Music Trade (Lincoln, NE, 1996)

g: additional studies

R. Beer: Der Bach-Verein zu Leipzig in den Jahren 1875–1899 (Leipzig, 1900)

B.F. Richter: ‘Stadtpfeifer und Alumnen der Thomasschule in Leipzig zu Bachs Zeit’, BJb 1907, 32–78

A. Heuss: Bach-Fest anlässlich der Enthüllung des Bach-Denkmals in Leipzig, 16. bis 18. Mai 1908 (Leipzig, 1908)

H. Heyde: ‘Der Instrumentenbau in Leipzig zur Zeit Johann Sebastian Bachs’, 300 Jahre J.S. Bach: sein Werk in Handschriften und Dokumenten, Musikinstrumente seiner Zeit, seine Zeitgenossen, ed. U. Prinz, Internationale Bachakademie in den Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, 14 Sept – 27 Oct 1985 (Tutzing, 1985), 73–88 [exhibition catalogue]

S. Lieberwirth: Die Gewandhaus-Orgeln (Leipzig, 1986)

J. Forner: Johannes Brahms in Leipzig: Geschichte einer Beziehungen (Leipzig, 1987)

H. Heyde: ‘Der Holzblasinstrumente in Leipzig in der 2. Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts’,Tibia, xii (1987), 481–6

U. Böhme: Die Sauer-Orgel in der Thomaskiche zu Leipzig (Leipzig, 1991)

H. Henkel: ‘Musikinstrumente im Nachlass Leipziger Bürger’, Johann Sebastian Bachs historischer Ort, ed. R. Szeskus (Wiesbaden, 1991), 56–67

M. Hübner: ‘Der Bach-Verein zu Leipzig, 1875–1920’, BJb 1997, 97–115

Leise

(Middle High Ger. Leis).

A devotional, Germanic song stanza in the nature of a refrain, found particularly in the later Middle Ages. Supposedly deriving its name from the words ‘Kyrie eleison’ as they appear repeatedly in the litany, the Leise is normally considered a part of the general category Ruf and is distinguished within that category by being characteristically in a four-line form without musical repeats. The earliest known example is thought to be the 9th-century Freising song to St Peter, Unsar trothîn hât farsalt (D-Mbs Clm 6260, f.158v). In the early stages of specifically German polyphony (beginning with the lost early 15th-century Strasbourg manuscript F-Sm 222) Leisen were often set; other examples include Christ ist erstanden (based on the opening of the sequence Victimae paschali laudes and traced to the mid-12th century) and Nun bitten wir den heiligen Geist (based on the sequence Veni Sancte Spiritus and traced to the mid-13th century).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG2 (‘Leisen und Rufe’; V. Mertens) [incl. further bibliography]

H. Teuscher: Christ ist erstanden: stilkritische Studie über die mehrstimmigen Bearbeitungen der Weise von den Anfängen bis 1600 (Kassel, 1930)

J. Riedel: Leisen Formulae: their Polyphonic Settings in the Renaissance and Reformation (diss., U. of Southern California, 1953)

H. Hucke: ‘Die Neumierung des althochdeutschen Petrusliedes’, Organicae voces: Festschrift Joseph Smits van Waesberghe (Amsterdam, 1963), 71–8

DAVID FALLOWS

Leisentrit, Johannes [Johann]

(b Olomouc, May 1527; d Bautzen, 24 Nov 1586). German theologian, hymnologist and composer of Moravian birth. He studied theology at Kraków and was ordained in 1549. After a short period spent teaching in Vienna and Prague, he was sent to the diocese of Meissen by the Archbishop of Prague. The last Catholic Bishop of Meissen appointed him canon of Bautzen Cathedral in 1551. In 1559 he became dean, and in 1560 official-general for the diocese of Lusatia. When the bishopric of Meissen became Protestant in 1561, the papal nuncio in Prague appointed him ‘administrator and commissioner-general of the see of Meissen for Upper and Lower Lusatia’. The fact that Lusatia remained predominantly Catholic must be attributed to his pastoral endeavours, which were reflected in many catechetic and other writings, and to his astute and moderating ecclesiastical policy. He was one of the great reformers of the early years of the Counter-Reformation. The crowning achievement of his ministry was his great hymnbook Geistliche Lieder und Psalmen (Bautzen, 1567/R), which was only the second Catholic hymnbook to appear in the 16th century (the first was Michael Vehe's of 1537). It has 480 folios containing 250 hymns and 180 melodies and is magnificently adorned with woodcuts and marginal decorations. It is the largest and finest hymnal of the Counter-Reformation. Leisentrit fully explained his intentions in an extensive preface. Two further editions with different prefaces appeared during his lifetime, in 1573 and 1584; in the last of these, published as Catholisch Gesangbuch voller Geistlicher Lieder und Psalmen, the repertory of texts and melodies is considerably expanded. The hymnal was circulated not only in Leisentrit's own diocese of Lusatia but throughout Germany. At the instigation of the Bishop of Bamberg an abridged version was published at Dillingen in 1576; this was the first German Catholic diocesan hymnbook. Leisentrit used a number of Protestant hymnbooks, including Nicolaus Herman's Sonntags Evangelia (1561) and Valentin Triller's Schlesisch Singebüchlein (1555), as his sources; he also appears to have drawn on the repertory of the Bohemian Brethren. In addition to Vehe’s hymnal his Catholic sources included hymns by his friend Christoph Schweher of Budweis (now České Budějovice) that were first printed in the hymnal Christliche Gebet und Gesäng (Prague, 1581) but whose texts appeared in Leisentrit's hymnal in 1567; for the third edition he also used texts from R. Edlingius's Teutsche evangelische Messen, Lobgesange (Cologne, 1572) and the Tegernsee hymnal (1577). He took over many of the melodies of Hecyrus, Herman and Triller and, as he stated in a letter to Hecyrus appended to the first edition, composed some of the others himself. Some 70 melodies appeared in his hymnbook for the first time.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ADB (F. Schnorr von Carolsfeld)

G. Rupertus: Oratio funebris in obitum Johannes Leisentritii a Julisberg (Bautzen, 1586)

J. Kehrein: Katholische Kirchenlieder, Hymnen, Psalmen aus den ältesten deutschen gedruckten Gesangbüchern und Gebetbüchern zusammengestellt (Würzburg, 1859–65/R)

P. Wackernagel: Das deutsche Kirchenlied von der ältesten Zeit bis zum Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1864–77/R), ii–iii

W. Bäumker: Das katholische deutsche Kirchenlied in seinen Singweisen, i–ii (Freiburg, 1886/R, 1883/R) [incl. several melodies]

W. Crecelius: ‘ Über die Quellen von Leisentrits Gesangbuche’, Archiv für die Geschichte deutscher Sprache und Dichtung, i (1873), 337–54

W. Gerblich: ‘Johann Leisentrit’, Neues Lausitzer Magazin, cvii (1931), 1–78

W. Lipphardt: Johann Leisentrits Gesangbuch von 1567 (Leipzig, 1963)

J. Gülden, ed.: Johann Leisentrits Bautzener Messritus und Messgesänge (Münster, 1964)

W. Lipphardt: Afterword to facs. repr. of J. Leisentrit: Geistlicher Lieder und Psalmen (1567) (Kassel and Leipzig, 1966); see also review by K. Ameln, Jb für Liturgik und Hymnologie, xi (1967), 191–2

D. Hofmann: ‘P. Johannes Werlin aus Seeon: Satztechnische Untersuchungen an vierzeiligen Liedern’, Musik in bayerischen Klöstern (Regensburg, 1986), 9–60

WALTHER LIPPHARDT/CLYTUS GOTTWALD

Leisner, David

(b Los Angeles, 22 Dec 1953). American guitarist and composer. He studied at Wesleyan University; his teachers included John Duarte, David Starobin and Angelo Gilandino (guitar), John Kirapatrick and Karen Tuttle (interpretation), and Richard Winslow (composition). In 1975 he won second prize at the Toronto International Guitar Competition and in 1981 a silver medal at the International Guitar Competition of Geneva. He made his New York début in 1979 at Merkin Hall. He taught guitar at Amherst College, 1976–8, and in 1980 was appointed to the New England Conservatory. Leisner is a champion of contemporary American guitar works, and has given the first performances of works by Virgil Thomson and Glass, among others. He also played an important role in the rediscovery of the works of Johann Kaspar Mertz, especially with his recording The Viennese Guitar (1980). In 1984 he contracted the condition of focal dystonia, affecting his right hand; he compensated for this by using solely the thumb and index finger, and eventually regained full use of his hand. His compositions include the Four Pieces for guitar (1979–86), the Simple Songs (1982) and Five Songs of Devotion (1989) for voice and guitar, as well as chamber and orchestral works.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Kozinn: ‘Expanding the Classical Guitar Repertoire’, Guitar Player, xviii/10 (1984), 61–7

J. Holenko: Interview, Soundboard, xviii/4 (1992), 14–21

C. Lehman: Interview, Guitar Review, no.98 (1994), 15–20

THOMAS F. HECK

Leisring [Leissringk, Leisringius], Volckmar

(b Gebstedt, Thuringia, 1588; d Buchfarth, nr Weimar, 1637). German composer and theorist. From 1605 to 1611 he studied theology at Jena. In 1611 he became Rektor, Kantor and town clerk of Schkölen, near Naumburg. In 1618 he became pastor at Nohra, near Erfurt. In the preface to the second edition of his Cymbalum Davidcum (1619) he states that because of the divine call to the ministry, he had resolved to give up composing. Hence, most of his music dates from before 1618. The few publications after 1618 were either composed previously at Jena (Taedae nuptiales) or were later editions of earlier works. From 1626 until his death he was pastor at Buchfarth and nearby Vollhardsroda. Leisring was a conservative composer. Most of his works feature homophonic double-choir writing. Of the 35 motets in Cymbalum David, 14 are for eight-voice double choir and even those in five or six parts frequently show a division between high and low voices. His Corona musices is an encomium on the origin, nature and effects of music. Breviarium artis musices, which is similar in layout to Heinrich Faber’s Compendiolum musicae (1548; many subsequent editions), contains, like many other didactic books of the time, chapters on modes, clefs, voices, intervals, modulation, tactus and so on.

WORKS

Brautlied aus dem XXVI. Capitel Syrachs (Jena, 1609), lost

Cantio magnificus et prudentissimi, 6vv (Jena, 1609)

Canticum gratulatorium in Faustum (Jena, 1610)

Cymbalum Davidicum, 5–6, 8vv (Jena, 1611)

Strenophonia oder ein new Jahr Geschenck, 4–6, 8vv (Jena, 1615)

Taedae nuptiales in 16 anmutigen Hochzeitgesängen, 4–8vv (Erfurt, 1624)

2 sacred songs in Cantionale sacrum, i (Gotha, 1646); 1 in Cantionale sacrum, ii (Gotha, 1655)

Trotz sei dem Teufel, 8vv, D-Mbs

O filii et felice rex, 8vv, D-Dmb

2 motets, 5vv, D-LEm

Several other MS compositions listed in EitnerQ

WRITINGS

Corona musices quam ex lectissimus et suavissimis, a ex musarum charitumque viridario decerptis flosculis (Jena, 1611)

Breviarium artis musices, oder ein kurtzes unnd einfeltiges Musikbüchlein für die junge Knaben (Jena, 1615)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

FétisB

GerberNL

WaltherML

E. Ulrici: Chronologie von Schkölen (Osterfeld, 1903)

A. Werner: Städtliche und fürstliche Musikpflege in Weissenfels (Leipzig, 1911)

A. Werner: ‘Die alte Musikbibliotheck und die Instrumentensammlung an St Wenzel im Naumburg’, AMw, viii (1926), 390–415

HORACE FISHBACK/PETER JANSON

Leister, Karl

(b Wilhelmshaven, 15 June 1937). German clarinettist. He was an outstanding principal in the Berlin PO from 1959 to 1993, mainly under Herbert von Karajan, who had a profound influence on him. Leister learnt first from his father, a founder member of the RIAS SO, Berlin. From 1953 to 1957 he studied at the Berlin Hochschule für Musik under Heinrich Geuser; he played in the orchestra of the Berlin Komische Oper from 1957 to 1959, when he joined the Berlin PO. In 1994 Leister took up a teaching post at the Hochschule für Musik in Berlin. He has made over 100 recordings, including much chamber music and the concertos of Mozart, Spohr and Weber, and in 1984 gave the première of the Clarinet Quintet by Helmut Eder. In 1983 he began an association with the Ensemble Wien-Berlin and in 1986 founded the Berliner Solisten. His tone is pure and rounded, with minimal vibrato.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P. Weston: Clarinet Virtuosi of Today (London, 1989), 177–82

R. Taylor: ‘Playing in the Sunshine: an Interview with Karl Leister’, The Clarinet, xxii (1994–5), no.1, pp.34–9; no.2, pp.42–5

PAMELA WESTON

Leitão de Avilez, Manuel.

See Avilez, Manuel Leitão de.

Leite, António (Joaquim) da Silva

(b Oporto, 23 May 1759; d Oporto, 10 Jan 1833). Portuguese composer. After studying for the priesthood he decided on a career in music instead. He probably studied with Girolamo Sertori, an Italian living in Oporto in the 1780s. He became well known as a teacher and in 1787 published at Oporto his own text, Rezumo de todas as regras, e preceitos da cantoria, for his students. By 1788 he was a teacher at the Real Colégio dos Meninos Orfãos and organist at the convents of S Clara and S Bento da Avé-Maria, becoming mestre de capela of the latter by 1792. Most of his sacred compositions were written for the virtuoso singers attached to that convent. He was also a fine guitarist and published 6 sonatas de guitarra (Oporto, 1792) and an Estudo de guitarra (Oporto, 1796), illustrated with numerous minuets, marches, contredanses and other pieces. A manual on accompanying techniques, O organista instruido, written about the same time, was not published. In 1806 he published in Oporto a Novo directorio funebre, which contained a translation of the reformed funeral liturgy as well as funeral hymns for use in the service. In 1807 his two operas, Puntigli per equivoco and L’astuzie delle donne, were produced at the Teatro de S João and the next year his ‘famous’ Restoration Symphony was performed at Vila Nova de Gaia on 11 December. By 1808 he was mestre de capela of Oporto Cathedral.

As a composer of sacred music he vied with Jommelli. Notable among his sacred compositions are a Tantum ergo (London, 1815), for four voices and string orchestra with elaborate flute obbligato, and Hora de Noa (in P-Ln), for four sopranos, violin and organ, in which the highly ornamented voice lines are set in close, interweaving polyphony. In his modinhas and sonatas Leite showed singular gifts for captivating melody, piquant rhythm and colouristic instrumental effects.

WORKS

Ops, perf. Oporto, 1807: Puntigli per equivoco; L’astuzie delle donne

Sacred: 6 masses, 23 motets, 33 other Lat. pieces, dated 1784–1829, P-Ln; Tantum ergo, 4vv, str, fl obbl (London, 1815)

Other: 6 sonatas, gui, vn and 2 hn ad lib (Oporto, 1792); Os génios premiados (cant.), Real Academia, Oporto, 1807; Restoration Sym., perf. 1808; Hymno patriotico, orch, for coronation of João VI (Paris, 1820); 6 pieces in Jornal de modinhas (1792–5)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DBP

M. de Sampayo Ribeiro: A música em Portugal nos séculos XVIII e XIX (Lisbon, 1936), 39, 127

B.D. Rocha da Silva Guimarães: Primeira esboço duma bibliografia musical portuguesa (Oporto, 1957), 86–7

ROBERT STEVENSON

Leite (Dias Batista), Clarisse

(b São Paulo, 11 Jan 1917). Brazilian composer, pianist and teacher. At the São Paulo Drama and Music Conservatory she studied piano with Zilda Leite Rizzo, composition with José Wancolle and Teodoro Noguiera, and orchestration with Orestes Farinello. In 1930 the conservatory granted her a fellowship to study in France. Two years later she won the Gomes Cardin gold medal for piano. She then taught at various institutes in São Paulo state, including the Escola Superior de Música S Marcelina in São Paulo, the Pius XII Music College in Bauru, the Lavignac Conservatory in Santos, the Beethoven Institute in São Vicente and the Conservatory in Tatuí. In 1983 she became a member of the International Academy of Music. She has also been state supervisor of music in Bauru, and given masterclasses in Criciúma, São Paulo, Bauru and Ribeirão Preto. Her compositions are exclusively for piano and invoke Brazilian folk genres as, for example, in her Quilombo dos palmares and her Suite nordestina. She has also written two piano concertos (1972 and 1975), the first of which was performed in Tokyo in 1977.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Marcondes, ed: Enciclopédia da música brasileira, erudita, folclórica, popular (São Paulo, 1977)

M. Ficher, M.F. Schleifer and J.M. Furman: Latin American Classical Composers: a Biographical Dictionary (Lanham, MD, and London, 1996)

GERARD BÉHAGUE

Leitgeb, Joseph [Ignaz].

See Leutgeb, Joseph.

Leith Hill Musical Festival.

Festival established in England in 1905 by Ralph Vaughan Williams. See Festival, §6.

Leitmotif

(from Ger. Leitmotiv: ‘leading motif’).

In its primary sense, a theme, or other coherent musical idea, clearly defined so as to retain its identity if modified on subsequent appearances, whose purpose is to represent or symbolize a person, object, place, idea, state of mind, supernatural force or any other ingredient in a dramatic work. A leitmotif may be musically unaltered on its return, or altered in rhythm, intervallic structure, harmony, orchestration or accompaniment, and may also be combined with other leitmotifs in order to suggest a new dramatic situation. A leitmotif is to be distinguished from a reminiscence motif (Erinnerungsmotiv), which, in earlier operas and in Wagner’s works up to and including Lohengrin, tends to punctuate the musical design rather than provide the principal, ‘leading’ thematic premisses for that design. The term was adopted by early commentators on Wagner’s music dramas to highlight what they believed to be the most important feature contributing to comprehensibility and expressive intensity in those works. It is often used more loosely to refer to recurrent thematic elements in other musical forms and even in examples of non-musical genres, such as the novels of Thomas Mann, who acknowledged Wagner’s influence.

The earliest known use of the term ‘leitmotif’ (see Grey, 1988) is by the music historian A.W. Ambros, who wrote, in or before 1865, that both Wagner in his operas and Liszt in his symphonic poems ‘seek to establish a higher unity across the whole by means of consistent leitmotifs’ (durchgehende Leitmotive). From Ambros the term gravitated, via F.W. Jähns’s study of Weber (1871), to Hans von Wolzogen’s thematic guide to the Ring, published in 1876 – the year of the cycle’s first complete performance. Wagner used it in print in his essay Über die Anwendung der Musik auf das Drama (1879), in the course of a complaint that ‘one of my younger friends [presumably Wolzogen] … has devoted some attention to the characteristics of “leitmotifs”, as he calls them, but has treated them more from the point of view of their dramatic import and effect than as elements of the musical structure’.

The use of the term ‘motif’ in writing about music goes back at least as far as the Encyclopédie (1765), and before 1879 Wagner had employed a variety of expressions when discussing thematic elements in his works: ‘melodisches Moment’, ‘thematisches Motiv’, ‘Ahnungsmotiv’, ‘Grundthema’, ‘Hauptmotiv’. As Wagner’s comments in 1879 indicate, he sensed that Wolzogen, whose ‘guide’ was little more than a pamphlet, was in danger of oversimplifying and trivializing his achievements in his desire to make the music dramas more accessible; Wolzogen’s remarks reinforce the fact that ‘leitmotif’, and its subsequent usage, tells us as much (if not more) about the reception of his works as about his working methods or creative intentions.

Wagner, with his wide experience as a conductor, was undoubtedly aware of the extensive use of reminiscence motifs in earlier opera from Méhul and Cherubini to Marschner and Spohr, and his close friend, Theodor Uhlig, in writings on Tannhäuser and Lohengrin, had drawn attention to the role of recurrent thematic elements in Wagner’s own work as early as 1850. Indeed, although Wagner was particularly concerned in Oper und Drama (written in 1851, before he had begun any extensive compositional work on the Ring cycle) to underline the importance of formal units (periods) constructed to ensure that all aspects of the music responded as vividly as possible to the promptings of the text, in practice he still recognized the necessity for a small number of easily identifiable and malleable motifs, along the lines of Beethoven’s most pithy and memorable thematic cells. These would, however, originate in a melody quite different from the foursquare and often florid vocal phrases of traditional opera, and embody such a power and directness of expression that the emotion concerned would be recalled when the motif itself returned, even if action or text no longer alluded directly to its original associations.

A major problem for motif-labellers has been that this original association is almost always multivalent – the music depicting the grandeur of Valhalla also portrays the nobility of Wotan, for example – and might well be ambiguous. It is now generally accepted that Wolzogen mislabelled the principal love motif of the Ring as ‘Flight’, taking over this designation from an earlier commentary by Gottlieb Federlein (1872). And the motif which, after Wolzogen, is invariably designated ‘Redemption through Love’ was seen by Wagner himself – at least in a letter of 1875 – as representing the ‘glorification of Brünnhilde’. Such factors indicate why most commentators on Wagner express reservations about motif-labelling while finding it difficult to discard the activity altogether. After all, despite his own reservations about Wolzogen’s efforts, Wagner’s presentation and manipulation of his thematic material lay at the heart of his musico-dramatic technique, as he made clear in Über die Anwendung der Musik auf das Drama.

Discussing the ‘simple nature-motif’ (ex.1) and the ‘equally simple motif’ heard ‘at the first appearance of the gods’ castle Valhalla in the morning sunlight’ in Das Rheingold (ex.2: Wagner transposed the motif from D to C for ease of comparison), Wagner observed that ‘having developed both these motifs in close correspondence with the mounting passions of the action, I was now able [in Die Walküre, Act 2] to link them – with the aid of a strangely distant harmonization – to paint a far clearer picture of Wotan’s sombre and desperate suffering than his own words ever could’ (ex.3). Later in the essay, seeking to emphasize the structural rather than the semantic role of his motivic techniques, Wagner described how the ‘remarkably simple’ motif of the Rhinemaidens’ innocent jubilation (ex.4) recurs in varied guises throughout the drama until, in Hagen’s ‘Watch’ (Götterdämmerung, Act 1), ‘it is heard in a form which, to my mind at least, would be unthinkable in a symphonic movement’ (ex.5). Wagner’s point is that the malevolent, distorted versions of the gold motif that pervade the music at this point would sound like ‘empty sensationalism’ in a symphony, but the dramatic context justifies the nature of the musical transformation and the structural emphasis which requires its protracted employment in this ‘distorted’ form.

Wagner himself understandably sought to underline such larger-scale structural concerns. But the concentration of Wolzogen and others on the identification of local motivic associations is no less understandable, since their principal purpose was not to provide the most far-reaching analysis but to defend the composer against charges of illogicality and incomprehensibility. Just as commentaries on symphonies and sonatas can be valuable on all levels, from simple, non-technical programme notes to elaborate analyses (provided the simple and the elaborate are not confused), so there is room, and need, for such variety in commentaries on opera. There is no evidence that the activities of Wolzogen and his followers seriously inhibited attempts at more sophisticated analytical studies of Wagner’s harmonic and formal procedures, though these were slower to emerge. And while the more sophisticated anti-Wagnerians were able to use such naive motif-spotting as Wolzogen’s to support arguments about the essential crudity of Wagner’s compositional principles (Hanslick, for example, wrote in praise of Verdi’s Falstaff that ‘nowhere is the memory spoonfed by leitmotifs’), many Wagner scholars have built on the foundations laid by Wolzogen, and Wagner himself, to refine and elaborate the study of musical meaning in the music dramas, and the role that leitmotifs play in establishing that meaning. It is motivic evolution and development, in the context of large-scale tonal structuring and formal organization, that has become the focus of attention in the attempt to understand the ways in which Wagner’s musical language, and his attitude to drama, changed over the years between Das Rheingold and Parsifal.

From the very beginning of scene 1 of Das Rheingold, motifs ‘lead’ in the sense that they do not merely pervade the musical fabric but establish its expressive atmosphere and formal processes. They do not invariably originate in the vocal line as Oper und Drama had prescribed, and Wagner soon begins to move beyond their exact or varied repetition at textually appropriate moments into the kind of transformation that creates deeper dramatic resonances and larger-scale musical continuities, suggesting that musical thinking itself is beginning to promote dramatic associations. At the end of scene 1 of Das Rheingold, the motif associated with the ring, and with the world’s wealth (Wagner’s own interpretation of the idea, according to his sketches), is transformed orchestrally into the Valhalla motif at the start of scene 2, a process leading the listener to connect Alberich’s precious acquisition with Wotan’s no less highly valued possession, and the power they both embody. As the cycle proceeds, a clear contrast emerges between, on the one hand, the immediate connection of word – or visual image – and tone that first fixes important motivic elements and, on the other hand, the consequent power of music to reinforce a connection that text and action may leave implicit: for example, the use of Alberich’s curse when Fafner kills Fasolt (Das Rheingold, scene 4), and the references to the Siegfried motif when Brünnhilde and Wotan proclaim the need for a fearless hero (Die Walküre, Act 3).

The interruption of work on the Ring in 1857 brought a significant change of direction. Up to that point, Wagner’s aesthetic had centred on the belief that the most profound art work was a theatrical event to which words and music made significant contributions. But it now began to evolve, under the impact of Schopenhauer, and the sheer force of his own musical inspiration, to the point where music became the central feature – however important the initial conception of theatrical event and text remained in relation to the music he eventually composed. The result, in simple terms, is that leitmotifs become even less specific in meaning and even more subject to musical elaboration; in all the later dramas there is a sense in which the motifs ‘lead’ the music beyond literal and immediate signification while still, inevitably, remaining linked to, and helping to determine, the progress of the drama. Scholars have wrestled with the inherent complexity of this interaction between the ‘symphonic’ and the ‘dramatic’. In particular, Ernst Kurth (1920) proposed a distinction between leitmotifs, which reflect the dramatic situation directly, and ‘developmental motifs’ (Entwicklungsmotive), which achieve independence not only of such representational functions but also of the kind of clearcut shaping that makes a leitmotif easily identifiable. ‘Developmental motifs’ are figures that promote the ongoing evolution of the music – a process quite distinct from the actual development (by sequential transposition or any other variation procedure) of the leitmotifs themselves.

Kurth recognized that leitmotivic analysis on its own cannot possibly do justice to the significatory power of Wagner’s music. More recently, Carolyn Abbate (1989) declared that his music ‘actually projects poetry and stage action in ways far beyond motivic signs’; she also asserted that ‘Wagner’s motifs have no referential meaning; they may, and of course do, absorb meaning at exceptional and solemn moments, by being used with elaborate calculation as signs, but unless purposely maintained in this artificial state, they shed their specific poetic meaning and revert to their natural state as musical thoughts’. No doubt an analysis of Tristan that doggedly attempted to confine the meaning of every occurrence of the opening cello phrase to ‘Tristan’s suffering’, or any other of the various tags that have been attached to it, would be absurdly naive and literal. But variation and diversity of meaning are not to be confused with meaninglessness; it seems undeniable that the listener ‘comprehends’ the intense, elaborate developments and derivations in Tristan subliminally, sensing meaning through the sheer force and insistence of its evolving musical logic.

One result of the increasing flexibility of motivic signification in the later Wagner is that the motifs themselves seem to invite reduction to a few unifying archetypes. Robert Donington, Deryck Cooke, Carl Dahlhaus and many others have shown how a few ‘primal motifs’ in the Ring – Donington (1963) has four, featuring Broken Chords, Conjunct Motion, Chromatic Intervals and Changing Notes – may be regarded as generating a great number of offshoots. Robin Holloway (1986) argued that in Parsifal, even more pervasively than in the Ring or Tristan, the leitmotifs grow from ‘a sonorous image-cluster … the nucleus that gives life to the work’s expressive substance’. Holloway’s interpretation illustrates the tendency of leitmotivic analysis to seek out ever more intricate and all-embracing unifying factors. The role of leitmotif in Wagner’s compositional design also remains a central topic in discussion of the extent to which his structures are ‘tightly’ or ‘loosely’ knit (see Abbate, 1989, 1991). No less valuable has been the concern of scholars working in the field of German studies to re-examine the significance of Wagner’s motivic theory and practice in the light of evolving concepts of drama (see Brown, 1991).

One example of Wagner’s importance in the history of music is the difficulty of avoiding the concept of leitmotif in studies of so many of his contemporaries and successors. Roger Parker has found it useful to discuss Verdi’s Aida in the light of the observation that ‘particularly in its treatment of “motive” and “recurring theme”, it is the most nearly Wagnerian of Verdi’s operas’ (1989). Direct influence or attempted imitation are not implied in this case, but with slightly later composers the probability of literal influence is much stronger, whether the composer is relatively close in style to Wagner, as Richard Strauss was in Salome and Elektra, or strikingly distant, as with Debussy in Pelléas et Mélisande. There are in fact very few composers of significance on whom Wagner’s stylistic influence was direct and extensive: Humperdinck is one such.

These composers’ operas show that, whatever the musical style, through-composition renders some degree of leitmotivic working a useful means of achieving continuity and directedness. Yet discussion of the topic is bedevilled by the problems facing motivic analysis in general: that is, of recognizing the point at which ‘connection’ and ‘derivation’ cease to be more convincing than ‘contrast’ and ‘difference’. John Tyrrell (1982) commented on K.H. Wörner’s attempt to demonstrate all-embracing thematic connections in Janáček’s Kát’a Kabanová that ‘too wide an interpretation of permissible manipulations allows almost anything to creep in’. By contrast, Peter Evans (1979) has shown how the presence of pervasive motivic working can be plausibly demonstrated in Britten’s operas, despite a style that owes more to Verdi than to Wagner.

George Perle (1980) has attempted to argue that Alban Berg, in Wozzeck, used the leitmotif principle more effectively – that is, less predictably and mechanically – than Wagner himself had done. In his discussions of Wozzeck and Lulu Perle also distinguished between leitmotif and ‘Leitsektion’: ‘a total musical complex’ that serves a referential function. The notion of referential musical function may be further elaborated if not only exact or near-exact recurrences but also the equivalences that are revealed by reduction to the unordered collections known as pitch-class sets are admitted: Allen Forte’s work on Wozzeck (1985) and Tristan (1988) represents the most extensive demonstration of that procedure. Such manipulations might appear to have little to do with the leitmotif principle as it relates to Wagner, moving away as they do from the particular profile of the theme on the musical surface. So, too, Schoenberg’s Erwartung, in its atonal athematicism, might be felt to be more a reaction against Wagner’s influence than a celebration of it. Yet Carl Dahlhaus contended that the brief structural segments of Erwartung, ‘not unlike Wagnerian periods, are not infrequently defined by means of a characteristic musical idea, which constitutes the predominant motif, albeit not the only one’ (1978; Eng. trans., 1987). If motivic elaboration of any kind is seen in terms of the leitmotif principle, then it becomes possible to extend the range of Wagner’s ‘influence’ still further. The most ambitious operatic enterprise of the late 20th century, Stockhausen’s Licht, could scarcely be less Wagnerian in style, yet the material of the entire seven-opera cycle derives from a ‘super-formula’, in which melodies representing the three central characters, Michael, Eva and Luzifer, are superimposed. The virtually constant presence, in the background, of these melodies may represent an approach to motivic composition very different from that of Wagner (see Kohl, 1990). We might nevertheless sense a genuine bond with those ‘plastic nature motifs, which, by becoming increasingly individualized, were to serve as the bearers of the emotional subcurrents within the broad-based plot and the moods expressed therein’, to which Wagner referred in 1871, in the Epilogischer Bericht on the Ring, when he attempted to describe what he believed his first task had been when embarking on the work almost 20 years before.

ARNOLD WHITTALL

Leitmotif

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A.W. Ambros: Culturhistorische Bilder aus dem Musikleben der Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1860, 2/1865)

G. Federlein: ‘“Das Rheingold” von Richard Wagner: Versuch einer musikalischen Interpretation’, Musikalisches Wochenblatt, ii (1871), 210–389

F.W. Jähns: Carl Maria von Weber in seinen Werken (Berlin, 1871)

R. Wagner: Gesammelte Schriften und Dichtungen (Leipzig, 1871–83, 4/1907), iv, vi, x [incl. Oper und Drama (1851), Epilogischer Bericht (1871), Über die Anwendung der Musik auf das Drama (1879)]

G. Federlein: ‘“Die Walküre” von Richard Wagner: Versuch einer musikalischen Interpretation’, Musikalisches Wochenblatt, iii (1872), 211–503

H. von Wolzogen: Thematischer Leitfaden durch die Musik von R. Wagners Festspiel ‘Der Ring des Nibelungen’ (Leipzig, 1876; Eng. trans., 1882)

H. von Wolzogen: ‘Die Motive in Wagners “Götterdämmerung”’, Musikalisches Wochenblatt, viii (1877), 109–446; ix (1878), 430–542; x (1879), 249–531

K. Mayrberger: Die Harmonik Richard Wagner’s an den Leitmotiven aus ‘Tristan und Isolde’ (Bayreuth, 1881); Eng. trans. in Music Analysis in the Nineteenth Century, ed. I. Bent (Cambridge, 1994), i, 221–52

H. von Wolzogen: ‘Parsifal’: ein thematischer Leitfaden durch Dichtung und Musik (Leipzig, 1882); Eng. trans. in Music Analysis in the Nineteenth Century, ed. I. Bent (Cambridge, 1994), ii, 88–105

J. von Santen-Kolff: ‘Geschichtliches und Aesthetisches über das Erinnerungsmotiv’, Bayreuther Blätter, viii (1885), 312–20

T. Uhlig: Musikalische Schriften (Regensburg, 1913)

M. Seiling: ‘Das indirekte Leitmotiv’, Bayreuther Blätter, xl (1917), 29–37

R. Meister: ‘Die Bedeutung der Leitmotive im Drama’, Bayreuther Blätter, xli (1918), 220–37

E. Kurth: Romantische Harmonik und ihre Krise in Wagners ‘Tristan’ (Berne, 1920)

G. Abraham: ‘The Leit-motif since Wagner’, ML, vi (1925), 175–90

R. Engländer: ‘Zur Geschichte des Leitmotivs’, ZMw, xiv (1931–2), 356–7

K.H. Wörner: ‘Beiträge zur Geschichte des Leitmotivs in der Oper’, ZMw, xiv (1931–2), 151–72

L. Sabanayev: ‘Remarks on the Leit-motif’, ML, xiii (1932), 200–06

H. Pleasants, ed.: Eduard Hanslick: Vienna’s Golden Years of Music 1850–1900 (New York, 1950, 2/1963 asMusic Criticisms 1846–99) [selected writings]

R. Donington: Wagner’s ‘Ring’ and its Symbols (London, 1963, 3/1974)

C. Dahlhaus: ‘Zur Geschichte der Leitmotivtechnik bei Wagner’, Das Drama Richard Wagners als musikalische Kunstwerk (Regensburg, 1970), 17–40

C. Dahlhaus: Die Musikdramen Richard Wagners (Velber, 1971; Eng. trans., 1979)

C. Dahlhaus: Zwischen Romantik und Moderne: Vier Studien zur Musikgeschichte des späteren 19. Jahrhunderts (Munich, 1974; Eng. trans., 1980)

F. Noske: The Signifier and the Signified: Studies in the Operas of Mozart and Verdi (The Hague, 1977)

C. Dahlhaus: ‘Ausdrucksprinzip und Orchesterpolyphonie in Schönbergs “Erwartung”’, Schönberg und andere: gesammelte Aufsätze zur neuen Musik (Mainz, 1978), 189–94; Eng. trans. in Schoenberg and the New Music (Cambridge, 1987), 149–55

D. Cooke: I Saw the World End: a Study of Wagner’s ‘Ring’ (London, 1979)

D. Cooke: ‘Wagner’s Musical Language’, The Wagner Companion, ed. P. Burbridge and R. Sutton (London, 1979), 225–68

P. Evans: The Music of Benjamin Britten (London, 1979, 2/1989)

C. Dahlhaus: Die Musik des 19. Jahrhunderts (Wiesbaden, 1980; Eng. trans., 1989)

G. Perle: The Operas of Alban Berg, i: ‘Wozzeck’ (Berkeley, 1980)

J. Deathridge: Review of Wagner publications, 19CM, v (1981–2), 81–9

D. Borchmeyer: Das Theater Richard Wagners: Idee – Dichtung – Wirkung (Stuttgart, 1982; Eng. trans., 1991)

J. Tyrrell: Leoš Janáček: Kát’a Kabanová (Cambridge, 1982)

R. Parker and M.Brown: ‘Motivic and Tonal Interaction in Verdi’s “Un ballo in maschera”’, JAMS, xxxvi (1983), 243–65

J. Deathridge and C. Dahlhaus: The New Grove Wagner (London, 1984)

B. Millington: Wagner (London, 1984)

P. Britton: ‘Stockhausen’s Path to Opera’, MT, cxxvi (1985), 515–21

A. Forte: ‘Tonality, Symbol, and Structural Levels in Berg’s “Wozzeck”’, MQ, lxxi (1985), 474–99

R. Holloway: ‘Experiencing Music and Imagery in “Parsifal”’, Parsifal, ed. N. John (London, 1986), 23–41

A. Forte: ‘New Approaches to the Linear Analysis of Music’, JAMS, xli (1988), 315–48 [pp.324–38 concern the Tristan prelude]

T.S. Grey: Richard Wagner and the Aesthetics of Form in the Mid-19th Century (1840–60) (diss., U. of California, Berkeley, 1988)

A. Groos and R.Parker, eds.: Reading Opera (Princeton, NJ, 1988)

C. Abbate: ‘Wagner, “On Modulation” and “Tristan”’, COJ, i (1989), 33–58

R. Langham Smith: ‘Motives and Symbols’, Claude Debussy: Pelléas et Mélisande, ed. R. Nichols and R. Langham Smith (Cambridge, 1989), 78–106

R. Parker: ‘Motives and Recurring Themes in Aida’, Analyzing Opera, ed. C. Abbate and R. Parker (Berkeley, 1989), 222–38

D. Puffett: ‘“Salome” as Music Drama’, Richard Strauss: Salome (Cambridge, 1989), 58–87

S. Corse: Wagner and the New Consciousness: Language and Love in the ‘Ring’ (London and Toronto, 1990)

A. Forte: ‘Musorgsky as Modernist: the Phantasmic Episode in “Boris Godunov”’, MAn, ix (1990), 3–45

J. Kohl: ‘Into the Middleground: Formula Syntax in Stockhausen’s Licht’, PNM, xxviii/2 (1990), 262–91

P. McCreless: ‘Motive and Magic: a Referential Dyad in Parsifal’, MAn, ix (1990), 227–65

J. Riedlbauer: ‘Erinnerungsmotive in Wagners “Der Ring des Nibelungen”’, MQ, lxxiv (1990), 18–30

C. Abbate: Unsung Voices: Opera and Musical Narrative in the 19th Century (Princeton, NJ, 1991)

H.M. Brown: Leitmotiv and Drama: Wagner, Brecht and the Limits of ‘Epic’ Theatre (Oxford, 1991)

M.C. Tusa: Euryanthe and Carl Maria von Weber’s Dramaturgy of German Opera (Oxford, 1991)

J. Daverio: Nineteenth-Century Music and the German Romantic Ideology (New York, 1993)

T.S. Grey: ‘ … wie ein rother Faden: on the Origins of “leitmotif” as Critical Construct and Musical Practice’, Music Theory in the Age of Romanticism, ed. I. Bent (Cambridge, 1996), 187–210

Leitner, Ferdinand

(b Berlin, 4 March 1912; d Forch, nr Zürich, 3 June 1996). German conductor. At the Berlin Hochschule für Musik he studied composition with Schreker and conducting with Julius Prüwer (a pupil of Brahms and Richter). He worked first as a piano accompanist to singers and instrumentalists (such as the violinist Georg Kulenkampff and the cellist Ludwig Hoelscher). In 1935 he was assistant to Fritz Busch at Glyndebourne. Leitner began his career as a conductor in 1943 at the Theater am Nollendorfplatz in Berlin. After engagements as a conductor at the Staatsopern in Hamburg (1945–6) and Munich (1946–7), he made a name for himself at the Stuttgart Opera, arriving in 1947 as director of opera and taking over as musical director from 1950 to 1969. In these two decades he helped to make Stuttgart a leading European centre for opera. As well as many of Günther Rennert’s productions, Leitner conducted 13 productions by Wieland Wagner in Stuttgart (the last being Lulu in 1966) and gave the world premières of Orff’s Oedipus der Tyrann (1959) and Prometheus (1968). From 1969 to 1984 Leitner was principal conductor of the Zürich Opera. In addition he made frequent appearances as a guest conductor at the Munich and Hamburg Staatsopern and at Chicago (including the Peter Sellars production of Tannhäuser in 1988). For more than a decade he made annual visits as conductor of the German season at the Teatro Colón, Buenos Aires. He also made guest appearances as a concert conductor throughout the world. He regularly conducted the Concertgebouw Orchestra, the Rotterdam PO and the Residentie Orkest in the Hague, of which he was chief conductor from 1976 to 1980. From 1988 to 1990 he was principal guest conductor of the RAI Orchestra of Turin. He made some 300 recordings, including complete performances of Busoni’s Doktor Faust and Orff’s Antigonae and Prometheus.

Leitner’s extensive, wide-ranging repertory centred on the operas of Mozart, Wagner and Richard Strauss, and extended to Berg’s operas and works by younger contemporaries such as Bernd Alois Zimmermann and Aribert Reimann. He had a special affinity with the symphonies of Bruckner and of Karl Amadeus Hartmann. Leitner avoided emotional excess in his performances and had a particular mastery of the art of accompanying singers without sacrificing the score’s symphonic character.

WOLFRAM SCHWINGER/MARTIN ELSTE

Leitton

(Ger.).

See Leading note.

Leittonwechselklang

(Ger.).

See under Klang (ii).

Leiviskä, Helvi (Lemmikki)

(b Helsinki, 25 May 1902; d Helsinki, 12 Aug 1982). Finnish composer. She studied composition at the Helsinki Music Institute (now the Sibelius Academy) with Melartin (1919–27) and continued her studies in Vienna with Arthur Willner (1928–9). She worked as a librarian at the Sibelius Academy and as a music critic. Leiviskä’s début took place in 1935 with a concert of her own compositions, most notably her Piano Concerto (1935). Her early works are Romantic, but after World War II she developed a highly contrapuntal style that in the last works moved towards free tonality; at the same time her music became more serious, sometimes even austere. Leiviskä’s main compositions include three symphonies (1947, 1954 and 1971) and – perhaps her best-known work – the Sinfonia brevis (1962), a single-movement piece with a concluding triple fugue.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Kansantanssisarja [Folk Dance Suite], 1929, rev. 1971; Muunnelmia ja finaali [Variations and Finale], 1929; Suite no.1, 1934; Pf Conc., d, 1935; Triple Fugue, 1935; Suite no.2, 1938; 2 Intermezzos, 1945; Sym. no.1, B, 1947; Impromptu energico, 1948; Sym. no.2, d, 1954; Sinfonia brevis, 1962, rev. 1972; Sym. no.3, 1971

Vocal: Metsäruusu (O. Manninen), 1v, orch, 1932, rev. 1946; Vangittu kotka (L. Pohjanpää), 1v, orch, 1932, rev. 1946; Tähtien laulu (Pohjanpää), 1v, orch, 1932, rev. 1946; Lapsifantasioita (U. Kailas), 1937, rev. 1972; Litania, mixed chorus, org, 1937; Pimeän peikko (E. Leino), mixed chorus, orch, 1942; Mennyt manner (Leino), solo vv, mixed chorus, orch, 1957

Chbr: Pf Qt, A, 1926, rev. 1935; Sonata, g, vn, pf, 1945

Pf: Suite antique, 1929; Sonatina, F, 1939

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Leiviskä: ‘Helvi Leiviskä’, Suomen säveltäjiä, ed. E. Marvia (Porvoo, 1966)

E. Tarasti: ‘Kuka oli Helvi Leiviskä?’, Rondo (1995), no.5, pp.32–5

E. Salmenhaara: Uuden musiikin kynnyksellä 1907–1958, Suomen musiikin historia [The history of Finnish music], iii (Porvoo, 1996)

KIMMO KORHONEN

Le Jeune, Claude [Claudin]

(b Valenciennes, 1528–30; d Paris, bur. 26 Sept 1600). French composer. He was one of the most prolific and significant composers of the second half of the 16th century and one of the chief exponents of musique mesurée à l’antique; his application of this and other theories of musical and textual relationships had a lasting influence on French sacred and secular music.

FRANK DOBBINS, ISABELLE HIS

1. Life.

Le Jeune probably received his early music education at or near Valenciennes, then part of the Imperial Low Countries. His name first appears in 1552 as the composer of four chansons in anthologies published at Leuven which also contain works by his older compatriots Clemens non Papa, Crecquillon and Waelrant. He was a Protestant and from about 1560 enjoyed the protection of a group of Huguenot nobles that included William of Orange, Agrippa d’Aubigné, Henri de Turenne, Duke of Bouillon and Henri of Navarre (later Henri IV). By 1564 he may have settled at Paris; his Dix pseaumes were published there, dedicated to two more Huguenot patrons, François de la Noue and Charles de Téligny. He participated in the Académie de Poésie et de Musique established by Baïf and Courville in 1570. In autumn 1581 he collaborated with Baïf, d’Aubigné and Ronsard in providing entertainments for the marriage of the Duke of Joyeuse to Marie de Lorraine, the queen’s half-sister. Like Nicolas de La Grotte he received from the king a commission, perhaps to devise a ‘Guerre’ to accompany a symbolic tournament; he also contributed an ‘Epithalame’ which was published, with the ‘Guerre’, in his posthumous Airs of 1608. By January 1582 he had succeeded the lutenist Vaumesnil as ‘maistre des enfants de musique’ at the court of François, Duke of Anjou, brother of Henri III. After the death of François in 1584 he made use of a royal privilege, granted by Henri III in January 1582, to publish his Livre de meslanges with Plantin at Antwerp; another edition appeared at Paris in 1586.

According to Mersenne Le Jeune wrote a ‘confession de foi’ hostile to the Catholic League and tried to flee Paris during the siege of 1590. His Dodecacorde and other manuscripts were saved from burning at the hands of the guards at the St Denis gate only by the intercession of his Catholic friend Jacques Mauduit. He probably took refuge at La Rochelle, a Protestant stronghold, where the Dodecacorde was published in April 1598 (fig.1). According to a privilege granted by Henri IV in September 1596 he held the position of maistre compositeur ordinaire de la musique de nostre chambre. He was buried in the Protestant cemetery of La Trinité, Paris. Except for the printed collections mentioned above and a number of pieces in anthologies, his works remained in manuscript at the time of his death; eight collections were published posthumously between 1601 and 1612 by Pierre Ballard (fig.2). The dedications are mostly by his sister Cécile or his niece Judith Mardo and are mostly addressed to his former Protestant friends, pupils and patrons.

2. Works.

Le Jeune’s surviving output includes 348 psalms, 133 airs(several were reprinted in revised versions), 65 secular chansons, 42 sacred chansons, 43 Italian canzonettas, 11 motets, one mass (or possibly two), a Magnificat and three instrumental fantasias. His work shows the influences of both the school of Flemish composers following Josquin and the Parisian school which cultivated the harmonic air de cour with its lightly accompanied prosodic recitation embellished with melismas. Willaert’s influence is particularly evident in the formal aspects of Le Jeune’s Magnificat and motets. His three instrumental fantasias also demonstrate his contrapuntal skill and are similar in style to the sonatas, sinfonias and ricercares of his Venetian contemporaries; two are in four parts, and a third in five parts is based on Josquin’s motet Benedicta es coelorum regina. Although the influence of Willaert and Zarlino is marked, there is no proof that Le Jeune visited Italy; the chromatic madrigalisms that occur in some of his chansons and airs are of the type found in the works of his French contemporaries Bertrand, Boni, Costeley, La Grotte, Du Caurroy and others. However, his 43 Italian pieces for four and five voices are masterly elaborations of three-voice villanellas by Nola, Moro, Celano, Mazzone and various anonymous composers of the 1550s and 60s, which may indicate contact with models emanating from Venice rather than from Naples.

The four chansons attributed to Le Jeune in Phalèse’s anthologies of 1552 (RISM 1552¹², 1552¹³) are settings of archaic texts in the outmoded polyphonic style of Crecquillon’s generation. They may be student works or may have been misattributed to Le Jeune by the publishers; for example, Bonjour m’amye cannot be his since it had appeared anonymously as early as 1531 (RISM 1531¹). By the 1560s he had gained repute and the name ‘Claudin’ (maybe de Sermisy) appears with those of Clemens non Papa and Lassus among the ‘musici praecipii et excellentissimi’ listed in the manuscript of Lassus’s Penitential Psalms (in D-Mbs). The ten four-voice psalms (1564) are free settings of Bèze’s translations in the polyphonic motet style of Goudimel. A seven-voice dialogue Mais qui es tu? at the end of this collection shows Le Jeune’s mastery of the larger ensemble, as does his later seven-voice canonic setting, using Lupi Second’s melody, of Guéroult’s Susanne ung jour (RISM 1572²). The seven-voice dialogue Amour quand fus tu né? (published posthumously in 1603) is only a slightly ornamented and structurally adapted version of Willaert’s 1559 setting of Sasso’s sonnet Quando nascest’ amor translated into French verse by Desportes.

In comparison with the northern chanson, in which a craftsmanlike exploitation of polyphonic techniques was more highly prized than subtleties of verbal expression, the Parisian chanson of the 1560s was lighter and freer, aiming at an intimate unity of text and music by characterizing the spirit of the poem. This approach to word-setting undoubtedly contributed to Baïf’s experiments, though it was subordinated to his new syllabic prosody, the rapid pace of which often disguised a lack of tunefulness. From the time that he joined Baïf’s movement Le Jeune wholeheartedly embraced its ideals, to the extent that a certain esotericism cultivated by the group affected his work. Some delay in the publication of his ‘measured’ pieces may have been due to the restrictions on copying and circulating any works performed in the Académie. The Académie’s principal aim was the revival of the humanist ideal, based on Greek music, of a setting subjected to its text, expressing its sense and avoiding any textural complexity (e.g. canon and imitation) that might obscure the words or the metre. The introduction into poetry of a metrical scheme based on values doubled or halved was neither altogether new nor confined to the French language, since it had preoccupied first the troubadours and trouvères and later the humanist or didactic composers who had set Latin poems of Horace and Virgil in the early 16th century, as well as the more recent composers of Protestant psalms, hymns and chansons spirituelles. Le Jeune’s largely homophonic settings of Vers mesurés strictly reflect the quantitative metres prescribed by the Académie by equating the long syllables with minims and the short with crotchets, although both values are often varied by melismatic subdivision. The predetermined, extra-musical metres (elegiacs, sapphics and so on) revolutionized the traditional rhythms of polyphony, often producing lilting patterns of great freedom and charm, while the simple vertical textures resulting from the strict alternation of two basic note values focussed attention on the harmonic structure and encouraged experiment. Though originally unrhymed, the texts of Le Jeune’s Airs of 1608 and Pseaumes en vers mesurez (1606) have rhymes added, perhaps posthumously.

In 1583 the hitherto elitist art of musique mesurée a l’antique developed by the Académie was made public by the printing of airs by Le Jeune to ‘measured’ poems by Baïf (RISM 1583⁹). The novel rhythmic vitality and variety of these pieces are matched in the 43 Italian pieces, published in the two books of Meslanges (1585 and 1612); these are formally canzonette alla napolitana, mostly based on structural and melodic models by Italian masters of the villanella. Another facet of the Académie’s work was the attempted revival of the Greek genera; Le Jeune experimented in particular with the chromatic tetrachord approximately reproduced by two semitones and a minor 3rd. The tetrachord formula, found in Quelle eau (1585), gave rise to Le Jeune’s most remarkable chromaticisms, notably in his settings of Durand’s elegy Qu’est devenu ce bel oeil? (from the second book of Airs, 1608) and the chanson spirituelle by Guéroult Hellas, mon Dieu (from Second livre des meslanges, 1612). According to his friend Artus Thomas and the organist Jehan Titelouze, Le Jeune excelled his predecessors in his understanding of the modes, as illustrated by the alternate rousing and calming effects on a gentleman of two airs performed during the wedding festivities of the Duke of Joyeuse in 1581.

The 12 psalms of the Dodecacorde, like the Octonaires of 1606, were conceived as a cycle according to the order of the 12 modes prescribed by Zarlino. These two collections were even used as illustrations of the system in didactic contexts in the 17th and 18th centuries (respectively F-Pn n.a.fr.4679 and S. de Brossard: Catalogue des livres de musique … escrit en l’année 1724, F-Pn Rés.Vm⁸ 21). Other collections, such as the Printemps (1603) and the Airs of 1608 are also organized by mode, but were probably thus arranged at the time of publication. The French psalm texts of the Dodecacorde are by Marot and Bèze and the orthodox Genevan melodies are always present as a cantus firmus in long note values. The number of voices varies between two and seven for the different stanzas, each of which is set to different music, thus creating exceptionally extended cycles with alternating polyphony and homophony; for example, Psalms xxxv and cii incorporate 13 and 16 sections respectively. The second psalm in the collection follows a procedure typical of Le Jeune’s larger works (e.g. Le printemps, no.13); the voices accumulate in successive stanzas so that the work ends with a grand sonorous climax.

Le Jeune also twice set the Huguenot psalter, once in simple four- and five-voice harmony with the Genevan melody in the tenor or dessus (1601), and once in three-voice counterpoint with the melody either quoted in one voice or freely paraphrased (1602, 1608, 1610). The many editions of the four- and five-voice psalms printed at Paris, Geneva, Amsterdam, Leiden and London until the last quarter of the 18th century are proof of their great popularity. The Pseaumes en vers mesurez (1606) are settings of 21 French translations and three Latin paraphrases of the psalms by Baïf and d’Aubigné for two to eight voices; the collection also includes two graces set for four voices and a French translation of the Te Deum set for six voices. According to d’Aubigné, Eustache Du Caurroy was converted to musique mesurée on hearing two of Le Jeune’s psalms performed by over 100 singers at Paris, perhaps in 1605. The Octonaires de la vanité et inconstance du monde (1606) consist of the 36 eight-line strophes by the Calvinists Antoine de la Roche Chandieu, Simon Goulart and Joseph du Chesne, arranged in 12 groups of three settings in each mode (two for four voices and one for three); according to the preface by his sister, Le Jeune died before completing a further group of settings for five and six voices.

The ‘Préface sur la musique mesurée’ to Le Jeune’s settings of Baïf’s Le printemps (1603) extols the composer as the first to revise the affective and subtle rhythmic skill of the ancients and to combine it with the harmonic perfection achieved during the previous two centuries; the accompanying ode by Artus Thomas praises his sweet harmony and counterpoint, his science and mathematical secrets, his melodic artifices and his fine sense of movement. Mersenne claimed that Le Jeune used a keyboard instrument when composing, and ascribed his popularity to the variety and vivacity of his rhythms, his talent for melody and his skill in handling large ensembles of voices and viols. Occasional lapses in contrapuntal technique (dissonances resolved by leap, crossing of parts, leaps of a major 6th etc.) may have been the cause of censure by the severe contemporary masters from Flanders and Italy (reported by Mersenne). However, his music is distinguished by an instinctive choice of memorable motifs, rhythmic verve and élan and elegant forms and textures. His sonorous ensembles inspired French sacred music of the next generation and his musique mesurée provided models for the air de cour and ballet de cour.

Le Jeune’s music influenced some of 20th-century composers, notably Messiaen, whose Cinq rechants (1948) were conceived ‘in homage to the Printemps’, which he presented in analysis at the Paris Conservatoire.

WORKS

Editions: C. Le Jeune: Airs of 1608, ed. D.P. Walker, AIM Miscellanea, i–iv (1951–9) [W]Anthologie de la chanson Parisienne au XVI^e siècle, ed. F. Lesure (Monaco, 1953) [L]

published in Paris unless otherwise stated

psalms

Dix pseaumes de David, 4vv, en forme de motets avec un dialogue, 7vv (T. de Bèze) (1564); dialogue ed. in MMFTR, viii (1928), psalms ed. in Labelle, iii

Dodecacorde (12 psalms) (C. Marot, De Bèze), 2–7vv (La Rochelle, 1598); ed. in RRMR, lxxiv–lxxvi (1989)

Les 150 pseaumes, 4, 5vv (1601; La Rochelle, 2/1608; Paris, 3/1613; Amsterdam, 4/1629; Leiden, 5/1635; Paris, 6/1650; Schiedam, 7/1664; edn entitled The First 12 Psalms … adapted to the English Version, London, ?1775); ed. in RRMR, xcviii (1995)

Premier livre, contenant 50 pseaumes de David mis en musique, 3vv (1602); ed. in Lamothe, ii

Pseaumes en vers mesurez (26 pss, TeD) (J.A. de Baïf, A. d’Aubigné), 2–8vv (1606); ed. in MMRF, xx–xxii (1905–6/R)

Second livre contenant 50 pseaumes de David, 3vv (1608); ed. in Lamothe, ii

Troisième livre des pseaumes de David, 3vv (1610); ed. in Lamothe, ii

2 psalms 5, 6vv, in Second livre des meslanges (1612) [also incl. other sacred and secular works, see below]; ed. in MMFTR, viii (1928)

other sacred vocal

Octonaires de la vanité et inconstance du monde (36 works) (A. de la Roche Chandieu, S. Goulart, J. du Chesne), 3, 4vv (1606); ed. in MMFTR, i (1924), viii (1928); ed. and trans. A. Seay, as Reflections on the Vanity and Inconstancy of the World (New York, 1967–9)

Missa ad placitum, 4–7vv (1607); ed. M. Sanvoisin, Le pupitre, ii (Paris, 1967)

Second livre des meslanges (Mag, 3 motets, sacred chanson), 3–7, 10vv (1612) [also incl. pss and secular works]; sacred chanson ed. in MMFTR, viii (1928)

5 motets S, bvv, in Livre de meslanges (1585) [see below]; 1, 3vv, 1565²

Chanson spirituelle, 7vv, 1572²; 2, 4–5vv, Livre de meslanges (1585)

Mass, 5vv, I-Td Succio A 2 (c1570–95), doubtful

secular vocal

Livre de meslanges (26 chansons, 36 canzonettas, Lat. echo composition) (Ronsard, Desportes, Marot, La Boétie, La Péruse), 4–8, 10vv (Antwerp, 1585) [incl. 5 from 1572², 1583⁷, 1583⁹]; all ed. in His; 13 chansons ed. in MMRF, xvi (1903/R); 12 ed. in SCC, xvi–xvii (1989–90); canzonettas ed. F. Dobbins, The Madrigals of Claude Le Jeune (Oxford, 1999)

[33] Airs mis en musique, 4, 5vv (1594) [incl. 20 from 1585¹³, 1585¹⁴]; 2 in L

Le printemps (33 airs mesurés, 6 chansons) (Baïf, Desportes), 2–8vv (1603) [incl. 6 airs from 1594 edn]; ed. in MMRF, xii–xiv (1900–01/R)

[68] Airs, 3–6vv (1608) [incl. works from 1594 and 1603 vols.]; [W], i–ii

Second livre des [59] airs, 3–6vv (1608) [incl. works from 1594 and 1603 vols.]; [W], iii–iv

Second livre des meslanges (31 chansons, 3 airs, 2 airs mesurés, 7 canzonettas), 4–8vv (1612) [also incl. pss, other sacred and instrumental works, and 12 chansons from 1572², 1575⁴, 1577⁶, 1583⁸, 1584³]; 2 in L; 15 ed. in SCC, xvi–xvii (1989–90); 7 ed. F. Dobbins, The Madrigals of Claude Le Jeune (Oxford, 1999)

60 chansons, airs, canzonettas, motets, 4, 5vv, 1552¹², 1552¹³, 1572², 1575⁴, 1577⁶, 1583⁷, 1583⁸, 1583⁹, 1585¹³, 1585¹⁴, 1597¹⁰, 1597¹⁵, 1605⁹; 3 in L; 18 ed. in SCC, xvi–xvii (1989–90)

instrumental

3 fantasias in Second livre des meslanges (1612)

Psalm, chanson spirituelle, lute, N. Vallet: Secretum musarum (Amsterdam, 1615/R in Complete Works of Nicolaes Vallet, iii, Utrecht, 1992)

Canzonetta, chanson spirituelle, lute, 1592²² (Geneva, 1977)

7 other works, lute, 1601¹⁸

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MersenneHU

O. Douen: Clément Marot et le psautier huguenot (Paris, 1878–9/R)

D.P. Walker: ‘The Aims of Baïf’s Académie de poésie et de musique’, JRBM, i (1946–7), 91–100

F.A. Yates: The French Academies of the Sixteenth Century (London, 1947/R)

D.P. Walker: ‘The Influence of musique mesurée à l’antique, particularly on the airs de cour of the Early Seventeenth Century’, MD, ii (1948), 141–63

F. Lesure and D.P. Walker: ‘Claude Le Jeune and musique mesurée’, MD, iii (1949), 151–70

D.P. Walker: ‘Some Aspects and Problems of musique mesurée à l'antique: the Rhythm and Notation of musique mesurée’, MD, iv (1950), 163–86

F.A. Yates: ‘Poésie et musique dans les “Magnificences” au mariage du duc de Joyeuse, Paris, 1581’, Musique et poésie au XVIe siècle: Paris 1953, 241–64

K. Levy: The Chansons of Claude Le Jeune (diss., Princeton U., 1955)

D.R. Lamothe: Claude Le Jeune, le psautier huguenot et la musique religieuse à la cour pendant les règnes de Charles IX, Henri III et Henri IV (diss., U. of Strasbourg, 1980)

N. Labelle: Les différents styles de la musique religieuse en France (Henryville, PA, 1981)

P. Bonniffet: Un ballet démasqué: l’union de la musique au verbe dans ‘Le printans’ de Jean-Antoine de Baïf et Claude Le Jeune (Paris and Geneva, 1988)

I. His: Les Mélanges de Claude Le Jeune (diss., U. of Tours, 1990)

Claude Le Jeune et son temps: Chambéry 1991

I. His: ‘Les modèles italiens de Claude Le Jeune’, RdM, lxxvii (1991), 25–58

I. His: ‘Claude Le Jeune et le rythme prosodique: la mutation des années 1570’, RdM, lxxix (1993), 201–26

R. Freedman: ‘Claude Le Jeune, Adrian Willaert, and the Art of Musical Translation’, EMH, xiii (1994), 123–48

I. His: ‘Italianism and Claude Le Jeune’, EMH, xiii (1994), 149–170

O. Messiaen: Traité de rhythme, de couleur et d'ornithologie, i (Paris, 1994), 181–232

I. His: ‘Sous lesquels ont esté mises des paroles morales: un cas de contrafactum de psaumes entre 1598 et 1618’, RdM, lxxxv (1999), 189–225

Lejeune, Jacques

(b Talence, 12 July 1940). French composer. After studying at the Schola Cantorum, he entered Pierre Schaeffer’s electro-acoustic music class at the Paris Conservatoire and became a member of the Groupe de Recherches Musicales in 1969. In 1978 he was appointed director of the Ateliers de Musique Electroacoustique in Paris. In 1994 he received the Prix Musica Nova, and founded the Paysaginaire association to promote contemporary music.

In his music the diversity of the material he employs, his analogies between realistic images and morphological figures, the use of various kinds of texts and the interaction of external sources (projections, reciter, instrumentalist-cum-actor, singer) all give rise to a multi-directional theatricality of sound. The human or animal presence, a basic element of sound, orientates his work towards a certain kind of realism with a ‘character motif’ superimposed on it. Other features of his compositions include vocal elements or brief gestures conveyed in sound (steps, breathing, objects), stylized organic material, and the use of sudden breaks.

WORKS

(all for tape unless otherwise stated)

D’une multitude en fête, 1969; Petite suite, 1970; Géodes, 1970; Teralogos, 1970; Cri, 1971; Oedipe-Underground (Y. Rivais), spkr, tape, 1972; 7 paroles en croix (G. Durand), spkr, tape, 1973; Parages, 1973–4; Blancheneige, 1975; Paysaginaire, fl ens, tape, 1976; Entre terre et ciel, 1979; Symphonie au bord d’un paysage, 3 synth, tape, 1981; L’oiseau et l’enfant, 1982; Symphonie romantique, 1982; Intermède pour la nuit des oiseaux, 1983; L’invitation au départ, 1983; Cantus tenebrarum, 1984; Impromptu-Nuage, 1985; Les palpitations de la forêt, 1985; Le cantique de la résonance, 1985; Une danse macabre, 1986; Clair d’oiseaux, cl, children’s chorus, tape, 1986; Messe aux oiseaux, 1986–7; Ave Maria, 1987; Étude paraphrase sur le motif du personnage, 1987; Marseillaise avec choeurs et personnages, 1988; 3 études pour l’espace de diffusion, 1988; Le Cantique des Cantiques, 1989; La Prière des anges, org, tape, 1990; Pour entrer et sortir d’un conte, 1990; L’ange blessé, S, hp, 1991; Opéra d’eau, 1991; Messe miniature, S, fl, 1992; L’oiseau-danse-la-pluie, pf, tape, 1992; La petite suite Laforgue (J. Laforgue), 1v, 1992; Messe des anges, 6 female vv, 1992–3, arr. SATB; Messe pour les enfants, children’s chorus, org, 1993; Clin d’oeil à Jean de la Fontaine, 6 female vv; Le petit chapon rouge, S, tape, 1993; Clamor meus veniat, 1994; Oraison funèbre de Renart, S, str qt, 1994; Fragments gourmands, 1v, tape, 1995; Chansons zoomorphes, S, gui, tape, 1996; L’église oubliée, 1996; Seconde leçon de ténèbres pour le Mercredi Saint, S, tape, 1996

Principal recording companies: INA-GRM, Agon

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Lejeune: ‘La forme dans le paysage’, Lien (Ohain, 1990)

BRUNO GINER

Lekeu, Guillaume (Jean Joseph Nicolas)

(b Heusy, nr Verviers, 20 Jan 1870; d Angers, 21 Jan 1894). Belgian composer. He settled in Poitiers in 1879, studying violin, piano and cello and composing prolifically from the age of 15. His early works show great thematic and rhythmic inventiveness. He moved to Paris in June 1888, and made a pilgrimage to Bayreuth the following year. He studied counterpoint and fugue with Franck from September 1889, and after Franck's death, fugue and orchestration with d'Indy, who advised him to compete for the Belgian Prix de Rome in 1891: he won a deuxième second prix with his cantata Andromède. Ysaÿe, on hearing parts of the work in Brussels, was so impressed that he commissioned what turned out to be Lekeu's most celebrated work, the Violin Sonata (1892). Lekeu spent most of 1890 and 1892 in Verviers, where several of his works were performed. The premières of the Violin Sonata and the Trois poèmes for voice and piano took place in March 1893 at the Cercle des XX in Brussels, and in June of the same year Ysaÿe conducted the first performance of the Fantaisie sur deux airs populaires angevins. Lekeu spent 1893 working on his Piano Quartet, which he never completed. He died of typhoid fever. D'Indy completed the unfinished Cello Sonata and Piano Quartet (the former a student work dating from 1888).

Lekeu was greatly affected by the perfervid emotional temperature of the Franck circle, and the two great influences on his work, as on others of the circle, were late Beethoven and Wagner (of Franck's own music Lekeu tended to re-create the spirit rather than the letter). His credo is best summed up in his own words: ‘Je me tue à mettre dans ma musique toute mon âme’. The Piano Sonata, the Piano Quartet and the Violin Sonata are among those works suffused with a kind of feverish, almost preternatural intensity, and his weaknesses are the outcome of the then currently fashionable necessity to think, as well as to feel, in the grand manner. However, signs of an individual intelligence in the making are detectable on almost every page; for instance, in the ‘Nocturne’ (no.3 of the Trois poèmes for voice and piano to Lekeu's own words) the late Romantic afflatus gives place to early glimmerings of impressionism, and in the orchestral Fantaisie sur deux airs populaires angevins folksong proved to be (as with d'Indy) a revitalizing and purifying influence.

WORKS

printed works published in Paris unless otherwise stated

stage

Les burgraves (essai scénique, V. Hugo), 1887, introduction symphonique, première partie, scène du serment, only

Barberine (essai scénique, A. de Musset), 1889, Act 1, scenes i and ii, prelude to Act 2, only

vocal

Noël, 2 S, str qt, pf, 1888, lost

Andromède (poème lyrique et symphonique, J. Sauvenière), S, A, T, B, SATB, orch, 1891, vs (Liège, 1892)

Chant lyrique (A. de Lamartine), SATB, orch, 1891, vs, 1891 (Verviers, 1994)

Prière à la nuit (J. Rameau), inc., SATB, orch, 1891

Prolog im Himmel (J.W. von Goethe), 2 T, Bar, org, orch, inc.

Ronde extraite du 1er Faust (Goethe, trans. G. de Nerval), Bar, orch, inc.

Songs (for 1v, pf): Les deux bonnes soeurs (C. Baudelaire), 1887, lost; Lied de matelot, 1887, inc.; La fenêtre de la maison paternelle (Lamartine), 1887; Les pavots (Lamartine), 1887 (1909); L'ombre plus dense (G. Lekeu), 1889 (Liège, 1903); Quelque antique et lente danse (G. Lekeu), 1889 (Brussels, 1895); L'âme des calices défunts (A. Silvestre), 1891, lost; Chanson de mai (J. Lekeu), 1891 (Liège, 1892); Trois poèmes (G. Lekeu), 1892 (1894): 1 Sur une tombe, 2 Ronde, 3 Nocturne, also arr. Mez, str qt (str orch), pf, 1892 (1909); Chant d'amour (Lamartine), inc.; De ce passé qui semblait éphémère, inc.

orchestral

Adagio méditatif, b cl, orch, 1887, lost; Marche funèbre d'Ophélie, 1887, inc.; Prélude pour le troisième acte de Phèdre, tragédie de J. Racine, 1888, inc.; Première étude symphonique: Chant de triomphale délivrance, 1889; Fantaisie contrapuntique sur un cramignon liégeois, ob, cl, bn, hn, str, 1890 (1925); Seconde étude symphonique: 1 Hamlet, 1890 (1980), arr. pf, 1890; 2 Ophélie, 1890; Adagio, str qt, str orch, 1891 (1908); Epithalame, str qnt/str orch, 3 trbn, org, 1891; Fantaisie sur deux airs populaires angevins, 1892 (1908), arr. pf 4 hands, 1892; Introduction et adagio, tuba obbl, brass, 1892 (Huntsville, TX, 1992); Larghetto, 1 vc, str qnt/str orch, 2 hn, bn, 1892; Poème, inc., vn, orch; Tancrède, inc.

chamber

Str qt: Méditation, 1887; Menuet, 1887; Molto adagio sempre cantante doloroso, 1887; f, 1887; d, 1887; 1887, lost; Lento, 1888; Prélude, 1888; G, 1888

Trios: Trio en sol majeur, 2 vn, vc, op.3 nos.1 and 2; Adagio molto espressivo e cantabile, 2 vn, vc, 1887; Tempo di minuetto, vn, va, vc, 1887; Moderato ma non troppo, vn, va, vc, 1888; Thema con variazioni, vn, va, vc, 1888 (1984); Piano Trio, c, 1891 (1908); Adagio, inc., vn, va, vc; Allegretto moderato, inc., vn, vc, pf

Vn: Andante varié, vn, pf, op.1 no.1, 1885; Choral, 2 vn, pf, op.2 no.1, 1885; Grande marche triomphale, 2 vn, pf, op.2 no.2, 1885; Choral, vn, pf, op.3, 1885; sonata, inc., d, op.3, 1885; Fuguetta, 2 vn, pf, 1885; Andante serioso, vn, pf; Canon, 2 vn, 1887; Poco allegro, vn, pf, 1887; Tempo di minuetto, 2 vn, pf, 1887; Adagio molto espressivo, 2 vn, pf, 1888; Andante più tosto adagio, vn, pf, 1888; Minuetto, 2 vn, 1888; sonata, G, 1892 (1894); Premier duo, 2 vn

Quatuor contrapuntique, 1887, lost; Trois morceaux, vc, pf, 1887, lost; sonata, inc., vc, f, 1888 (1923), completed by d'Indy; Piano Quartet, inc., b, 1893 (1895), 2nd mvt completed by d'Indy; Andante grazioso e cantabile molto, 2 vc

piano

Allegro marcato, 1887; Andantino semplice e molto espressivo, 1887; Morceaux égoïstes: 1st ser.: Lamento, 1887, lost, 2 Chant pastoral, 1887, lost, 3 Moderato poco allegro più tosto allegretto, 1887, 4 Lento doloroso, 1887, 2nd ser.: 1 lost, 2 Andante, 1887, 3 Andante malinconico, ma non lamentoso, 1888, 4 lost, 5 Andante, 1888; Tempo di Mazurka, 1887 (Poitiers, 1888); Andante, 1888; Andante sostenuto, pf 4 hands, 1889; Etude, 1889; Fuga a 4 voci, 1889; Sonata, g, 1891 (1899); Berceuse, 1892; Trois pièces, 1892 (Liège, 1892): 1 Chansonnette sans paroles, 2 Valse oubliée, 3 Danse joyeuse; Adagio religioso col più grand' espressione; Andante; Andante cantabile; Berceuse et valse (pot-pourri/intermède comique); Moderato maestoso, inc.; Moderato quasi largo; Moderato sempre molto espressivo e appassionato; 3 untitled pieces, D, G, g

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Lorrain: Guillaume Lekeu, sa correspondance, sa vie et son oeuvre (Liège, 1923)

M.O. Maus: Trente années de lutte pour l'art–Les XX–La libre esthétique 1884–1914 (Brussels, 1926/R)

R. Stengel: Guillaume Lekeu (1870–1894): Un musicien belge mort à 24 ans (Brussels, 1944)

P. Prist: L'enfant de génie de la musique contemporaine: Guillaume Lekeu (1870–1894) (Brussels, 1946)

L. Vallas: Vincent d'Indy, i: La Jeunesse (1851–1886) (Paris, 1946), ii: La maturité – la vieillesse (Paris, 1951)

L. Vallas: La véritable histoire de César Franck (1822–1890) (Paris, 1955)

P.G. Langevin: ‘Guillaume Lekeu le “Rimbaud” de la musique’, ReM, nos. 324–6 (1979), 29–72

M. Kahane and N. Wild, eds.: Wagner et la France (Paris, 1984)

L. Verdebout: ‘Guillaume Lekeu et son temps’, Cahiers du CACEF, no.115 (1984), 19–42

L. Verdebout ed.: Guillaume Lekeu: Correspondance – Introduction, chronologie et catalogue des oeuvres (Liège, 1993)

P. Vendrix, ed.: Guillaume Lekeu et son temps [Liège 1994] (Liège, 1995)

S. Dado, C. Pirenne and L. Verdebout: ‘Quelques documents inédits relatifs à Guillaume Lekeu’, Revue de la société liégeoise de musicologie, no.5 (1996), 33–68

CHRISTOPHER PALMER/LUC VERDEBOUT (text), LUC VERDEBOUT (work-list, bibliography)

Lelarge, Jacques-George

(b Liège, bap. 15 April 1713; d ?Liège, after 1793). Flemish composer and organist. His godfather, Jacques-Georges Schepers, canon of St Paul, entered him as a choirboy at the collegiate church of St Paul, Liège, where he would have been a pupil of Corneille de Tiège. On 4 June 1734 he was appointed organist at St Martin, replacing Henri Plasman and working alongside Hubuert Renotte, the then succentor. On 7 July 1745 he left St Martin to succeed Renotte as organist at St Lambert; his vacant post was then filled by Nicolas-Léonard Pennas. Lelarge was famous not only for his interpretative abilities as an organist, but also as an expert on the instrument and an excellent teacher, as shown by his manuscript tutor Traité d'harmonie par demandes et réponses. On 5 March 1784 he asked to be released from his duties in favour of J.-P.-V. Lhoest. He died towards the end of 1793 or the beginning of 1794. None of his compositions survives.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AudaM

VannesD

A. van der Linden: ‘Sur un manuscrit inédit: le Traité d'harmonie de J.G. Lelarge, organiste de la Cathédrale de Liège, 1782’, Association française pour l'avancement des sciences (1939), no.63, p.1436

A. van der Linden: ‘Note sur l'abbé Lelarge’, RBM, iv (1950), 72–3

J. Quitin: ‘Orgues, organiers et organistes de l'église cathédrale Notre-Dame et Saint-Lambert à Liège aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles’, Bulletin de l'Institut archéologique liégeois, lxxx (1967), 5–58

PHILIPPE VENDRIX

Lelei, Georg Simon.

See Löhlein, Georg Simon.

Leleu, Jeanne

(b Saint Mihiel, 29 Dec 1898; d Paris, 11 March 1979). French pianist and composer. Her father was a bandmaster, her mother a piano teacher. At the age of nine she began studying at the Paris Conservatoire, where her teachers included Marguerite Long, Cortot and Widor. In 1923 she won the Prix de Rome with her cantata Béatrix. This was followed by two other prizes (Georges Bizet and Monbinne). She became a professor at the Paris Conservatoire in 1947, first for sight-reading, then for harmony. In style her compositions belong to no school. Clear, rhythmically alive, adventurous in harmony, her Suite symphonique caused a sensation in Rome, where it was first heard. In 1937 she played her own Piano Concerto with success in Paris, at the Concerts Lamoureux. Her Transparences, with its imaginative orchestral textures, was described by Florent Schmitt as ‘a marvel of freshness, finesse and feminine grace’, showing a high degree of invention, sensibility, richness and knowledge. Her ballets, Un jour d'été and Nautéos, have been praised for their grace, wit and invention, and both have enjoyed considerable success in the theatre.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Le cyclope (incid music, Euripides), 1928; Un jour d'été (ballet), Paris, Opéra-Comique, 1940; Nautéos (ballet), Monte Carlo, 1947

Orch: Esquisses italiennes, 1926; Suite symphonique, wind, 1926; 2 danses, 1927; Transparences, 1931; Pf Conc., 1935; Femmes, suite, 1947; Virevoltes, suite, 1950

Other works: Pf Qt, 1922; Béatrix (cant., J. Gandrey-Réty), 1923; pf pieces, songs

Principal publishers: Heugel, Leduc

DAVID COX

Leleu, Jehan [Jennot].

See Lupi, Johannes.

Lelio.

See Riccoboni, Luigi Andrea.

Lemacher, Heinrich

(b Solingen, 26 June 1891; d Cologne, 16 March 1966). German teacher and composer. From 1911 to 1916 he studied at the Cologne Conservatory, as well as at the University of Bonn with Schiedermair. After military service (1916–18) he lived in Cologne as a composer, critic and private teacher. In 1924 he founded the Seminar für Privatmusiklehrer within the Reichsverband Deutscher Tonkünstler und Musiklehrer, which he led until 1933. From 1925 until his retirement in 1956 he taught composition, theory and history at the Cologne Hochschule für Musik, where he was made professor in 1928. During this time he also taught at the Rheinische Musikschule and at the University of Cologne. Co-founder of the Gesellschaft für Neue Musik, Cologne (1921), the Internationale Gesellschaft für Neue Katholische Kirchenmusik (1927) and the Deutscher Komponisten-Verband (1954), he was one of the leading composers of Catholic church music in Germany from the 1920s to the 1960s. His ambition, as composer and as teacher, was to overcome the stylistic constriction of the ‘music within walls’ supported by the Cecilian movement, and re-establish the links between sacred and secular music by means of good Gebrauchsmusik. His instrumental music was composed above all with music education and domestic music-making in mind. Hermann Schroeder and Bernd Alois Zimmermann were among his pupils.

WORKS

(selective list)

for detailed list see Dahlberg

instrumental

14 orch works, incl. Rheinische Suite, op.86; AGFA-Variationen, op.145; Bn Conc., op.164

Chbr music, incl. Quadriga, op.199, 4 hn

Music for pf, 2 pf, org

vocal

40 Masses, incl. 17 for mixed chorus; 6 for mixed chorus, org; 6 for male chorus; 1 for high vv; 4 for 2vv, org; 1 for v, org; 2 for chorus, congregation, org; 2 for double chorus

Other sacred pieces: 34 mass propers, 2 requiems, c300 motets, 20 cants.

Secular vocal: many works for mixed chorus and male chorus, lieder, cants., melodramas

Arrs. of Palestrina, Lassus, Haydn, Mozart, Bruckner [collab. Fellerer/Mies]

Principal publishers: Böhm, Coppenrath, Gerig, Schwann, Tonger

WRITINGS

Zur Geschichte der Musik am Hofe zu Nassau-Weilburg (diss., U. of Bonn, 1916; Bonn, 1916)

‘Einzelunterricht Arbeitsgemeinschaften’, Handbuch der Musikerziehung, ed. E. Bücken (Potsdam, 1931), 326–72

‘Die Lehre von der Erfindung und Gestaltung in der Vokalmusik’, Hohe Schule der Musik, ed. J. Müller-Blattau (Potsdam,1935)

Handbuch der Hausmusik (Graz, 1948)

ed., with K.G. Fellerer: Handbuch der katholischen Kirchenmusik (Essen, 1949)

with H. Schroeder: Lehrbuch des Kontrapunktes (Mainz, 1950)

125 Jahre Gürzenichchor Köln (Cologne,1953)

with H. Schroeder: Generalbassübungen (Düsseldorf, 1954, 7/1977)

ed., with W. Kahl and J.Schmidt-Görg: Studien zur Musikgeschichte des Rheinlandes: Festschrift L. Schiedermair (Cologne, 1956)

with H. Schroeder: Harmonielehre (Cologne, 1957)

with H.W. Schmidt: Almanach der Hausmusik (Cologne, 1958)

with H. Schroeder: Formenlehre der Musik (Cologne, 1962, 2/1968/R; Eng. trans., rev., 1967, by R. Kolben)

Spasso ostinato (Cologne, 1964)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (P. Mies)

P. Mies: ‘Heinrich Lemacher: über das Verhältnis von Wort und Ton in seinen Werken’, ZFM, Jg.95 (1928), 146–8

P. Mies: ‘Grundprinzipien der Messekomposition bei H. Lemacher’, Cäcilienvereinsorgan/Musica sacra, lxii (1932), 340–45

P. Mies: ‘Heinrich Lemacher: sein Werk und seine Stellung in der Musik’, Sinfonia sacra, ii (1948), 86–91

F. Oberborbeck: ‘Heinrich Lemacher: zu seinem 60. Geburtstag am 26. Juni’, ZfM, Jg.112 (1951), 299–302

W. Hammerschlag and A.Schneider: Musikalisches Brauchtum: Festschrift für Heinrich Lemacher (Cologne, 1956)

W. Thomson: Review of Eng. trans. of Formenlehre, Notes, xxiv (1967–8), 713–14

J. Dahlberg: Studien zur geistlichen Chormusik Heinrich Lemachers (Regensburg, 1983)

JOSEF DAHLBERG

Lemacherier, Guillaume.

See Legrant, Guillaume.

Le Maire, Jean

(b Chaumont-en-Bassigny, Haute-Marne, c1581; d c1650). French mathematician, engineer and inventor. He lived in Toulouse and Paris. His widespread interests led to the development of novelties in such diverse areas as architecture, language, mnemotechnics and typography. In music he is credited with devising an equal-tempered scale, with adding a seventh syllable (za) to the hexachordal solmization system, with constructing a new type of lute (the Almérie – an anagram of his name), and with proposing a novel musical notation (‘musique almérique’). Although Mersenne (MersenneHU, and in his correspondence) strongly supported Le Maire's ideas, others did not, and controversy regarding his inventions spread throughout France and elsewhere in Europe.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Pirro: ‘Jean le Maire et l'Almérie’, BSIM, iv (1908), 479–82

C. de Waard, ed.: Correspondance du P. Marin Mersenne (Paris, 1932–), esp. ix (1965), 563–9

A. Cohen: ‘Jean Le Maire and La Musique Almérique’, AcM, xxxv (1963), 175–81

J.R. Knowlson: ‘Jean Le Maire, the Almérie, and the “musique almérique”: a Set of Unpublished Documents’, AcM, xl (1968), 86–9

ALBERT COHEN

Lemaire (de Belges), Jean

(b Bavai, Hainaut, c1473; d after 18 March 1514). French poet and historiographer. He may have been a choirboy at Notre Dame-la-Grande, Valenciennes, since he wrote that there, ‘en ma premier jeunesse j'avoie chanté “Benedicamus”’ (Oeuvres de Jean Lemaire de Belges, ed. J. Stecher, Paris, 1882–91, iv, 489). Between 1498 and 1503 he was employed by Duke Pierre II de Bourbon and then by Pierre's brother-in-law, Count Louis de Ligny. In June 1504 Lemaire took up a position at the court of Margaret of Austria, and in 1512 he entered the service of Anne of Brittany and Louis XII. The last surviving document relating to his life is a letter of 18 March 1514.

La plainte du désiré (ed. D. Yabsley, Paris, 1932), lamenting the death of Louis de Ligny on 23 December 1503, invokes several composers including Josquin, Agricola, Hilaire Penet, Evrart, Conrad and Pregent, calling for the alliance of music and poetry. Lemaire's allegory on the spiritual harmony between France and Italy, La concorde des deux langages (ed. J. Frappier, Paris, 1947; facs. with commentary by M. Françon, Cambridge, MA, 1964), abounds in musical imagery, mingling old and new – monochords, psalteries and guitars, Sapphic odes and virelais – and includes the names of Amphion, Arion, Orpheus, Ockeghem, Josquin, Agricola and Compère. Not only did he use technical terms like ‘pedal points’ and ‘alternating verses’, but he attempted to characterize the different styles of contemporary composers with such phrases as ‘entrebriser musicque’ for Agricola, ‘verbes coulourez’ for Josquin, ‘armonie tres fine’ for Ockeghem and ‘termes doulx’ for Compère. A four-voice chanson, Mille regretz de vous abandonner, is ascribed to ‘J. Lemaire’ in Attaingnant's Vingt et sept chansons musicales desquelles les plus convenables à la fleuste (RISM 1533¹). Later sources, however, attribute it to Josquin, who is generally accepted as being its composer. Josquin also set Lemaire's Plus nulz regretz for four voices; a setting of Soubz ce tumbel qui est dur conclave in one of the chanson albums of Margaret of Austria (B-Br 228) has been attributed to Josquin (Picker, 1965), while the French text of the motet-chanson Cueurs desolez/Plorans ploravit (in the same manuscript, which contains settings by Josquin, Appenzeller and an anonymous composer) may also be by Lemaire.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Doutrepoint: Jean Lemaire de Belges et la Renaissance (Brussels, 1934)

M. Picker: The Chanson Albums of Marguerite of Austria (Berkeley, 1965)

M. Picker: ‘Josquin and Jean Lemaire: Four Chansons Re-examined’, Essays presented to Myron P. Gilmore, ed. S. Bertelli and G. Ramakus (Florence, 1978), ii, 447–56

F. Dobbins: Music in Renaissance Lyons (Oxford, 1992), 17, 27–31

FRANK DOBBINS

Lemaire, Louis

(b 1693 or 1694; d Tours, c1750). French composer. Trained as a chorister at Meaux Cathedral and taught by Sébastien de Brossard, who was organist there, Lemaire became well known in Paris as a composer of vocal music. His name first appeared in an anthology of airs published by Ballard in 1712, followed two years later by a volume devoted to his own. A more substantial work, Les quatre saisons, appeared in 1724. This was a collection of four cantatas and his only contribution to the genre, for he preferred to cultivate the cantatille, a form best described as the Rococo version of the Baroque French cantata. Lemaire was the most prolific of all cantatille composers, publishing 66 of them between 1728 and 1750 and, together with Mouret and Lefebvre, he lifted this form to the height of its popularity. Between 1728 and 1736, 21 of his cantatilles were heard at concerts in the Tuileries, and many were included in the various anthologies of this kind of work that appeared frequently after 1730. Most of Lemaire's cantatilles were written for high voice with instrumental accompaniment, usually for violins and flutes and occasionally for musette and for vielle (or hurdy-gurdy). He also composed two books of motets (or saluts) which were sung at the Concert Spirituel between 1728 and 1733.

WORKS

published in Paris

Airs à chanter (1714–19); 8 vols. mentioned in Le Clerc catalogue of 1742, only 6 extant

Les quatre saisons (4 cants.): Le printemps, S, vns, fls, obs, bc; L’été, S, vns, fls, bc (incl. bns); L’automne, S, B, vns, fls, bc (incl. bns); L’hyver, B, SAB, b viol obbl, bc (1724/R in the Eighteenth-Century French Cantata, xvii (New York, 1991))

Suite pour la vielle et la musette (c1725)

Recueils d'airs sérieux et à boire, vaudeville et ronde de table, 6 vols. (1725–30)

Motets, 1–2vv, some with insts, 2 vols. (c1728)

Concerts spirituels ou Recueil d'airs sur toutes sortes de sujets de piété (1729)

Recueil d'airs sérieux et à boire, mêlez de vaudeville, ronde de table, duo, récit de basse, airs tendres et chansons à danser (1738)

Recueil d'airs sérieux et à boire, mêlez de brunette, ronde de table, duo, récit de basse, musette et vaudeville (1740)

Fanfares ou Concerts de chambre, vn, fl, ob, musette, vielle, bn, tpt, perc (1743)

66 cantatilles (1728–50, some R in the Eighteenth-Century French Cantata, xvii (New York, 1991), 5 lost

Airs in Ballard's Recueil d'airs sérieux et à boire (1712–24), Nouveau recueil de chansons choisies (1723–36) and other anthologies

Sacred contrafacta in Nouvelles poésies spirituelles et morales (1730–37)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D. Tunley: The Eighteenth Century French Cantata (London, 1974, 2/1997)

A.C. Eastwood: Stylistic Development and melodic Transmission in some Secular Song Books Published in Paris (1695–1740) (diss., U. of W. Australia, 1987)

DAVID TUNLEY

Le Maistre [Meistre, Maystre], Matthaeus

(b ?Roclenge-sur-Geer, Liège, c1505; d Dresden, before April 1577). Flemish composer. Kade's early hypothesis that he had at one time been active in Milan, and was identical with Mathias Hermann Werrecore, also known as Mathias Fianergo, was refuted by Haberl. A manuscript (A-Gu 13), which was apparently taken to Graz from Munich in 1573, supports Sandberger's conjecture that the ‘Mathesz Nidlender’ reported in the Munich court chapel is Le Maistre. Furthermore, two Munich choirbooks are unique sources for several masses and motets by him. In 1554 he succeeded Johann Walter as Kapellmeister of the Dresden Kantorei, then consisting of 40 musicians. Since he had lost the patrimony of his old home on his conversion to Protestantism, the elector compensated him in 1565 with a grant for life. Additional income came from compositions dedicated to the authorities of Zwickau. He suffered from illness for some years before his retirement in June 1568, when he was given a pension of 195 florins; his successor, Antonio Scandello, had already taken over his duties five months previously. In January 1577 he wrote the foreword to his last work to be printed. His son, Valerian, was a musician in the imperial chapel.

Le Maistre was a conservative musician. On his conversion to Lutheranism he adopted the Protestant style of Johann Walter and Georg Rhau. Their approach, however, was somewhat old-fashioned and seemed to confirm Le Maistre's own Renaissance idea of music as ‘ars’. Understandably therefore his works met with little appreciation in his lifetime, although musically and intellectually they were far above average standard. His masses were predominantly influenced by elements of post-1500 Netherlandish style, and most are parody or cantus-firmus masses. Not until his old age did he make a valuable contribution to the Protestant mass with his Missa super ‘Ich weiss mir ein fest gebauets Haus’, which also makes use of O du Lamm Gottes, das der Welt Sünde trägt in the ‘Qui tollis’. Most of the motets, too, show characteristics of an earlier style. The Catechesis numeris musicis inclusa, consisting of seven motets in simple three- to four-part form, is intended primarily for didactic purposes and is a musical memorial to the Protestant re-latinization of texts in the second half of the 16th century.

Le Maistre's most important compositions are his sacred and secular songs in German. They are a late echo of the tradition of the German partsong, which had reached its peak in the works of Ludwig Senfl. Le Maistre's pieces, however, could not give any new impetus to the genre, which was already regarded as out of date by mid-century. The Geistliche und weltliche teutsche Geseng (1566) owed much to the example of the fine collection Neue deudsche geistliche Gesenge, edited by Georg Rhau (RISM 1544²¹). In his sacred pieces he made use of a wide range of compositional techniques, from simple homophonic songs to the great motets using cantus firmus and imitation. The texts of the more ‘modern’ compositions of his second collection (1577) were addressed more to the youth of his day. Didactic, declamatory texts, many of which were translated back into Latin, reveal his humanistic, pedagogic tendencies. In the secular songs he followed the earlier tradition of setting the cantus firmus in the tenor; however, some madrigalian influences can be seen in the part-writing of individual love-songs. He also composed two ingeniously constructed quodlibets.

WORKS

Editions: Handbuch der evangelischen Kirchenmusik, i–iii, ed. K. Ameln (Göttingen, 1933–40) [contains 13 pieces] [H]Luthers Kirchenlieder in Tonsätzen seiner Zeit, ed. K. Ameln (Kassel, 1934) [contains 6 pieces] [L]

Magnificat octo tonorum (Dresden, 1557), lost, listed in WaltherML

Catechesis numeris musicis inclusa, 3vv (Nuremberg, 1559) [7 motets]

Geistliche und weltliche teutsche Geseng, 4–5vv (Wittenberg, 1566) [91 pieces]; 2 ed. O. Kade in AmbrosGM, v, 421, 424 [p.nos. refer to 1882]; H i, 2, 234–5, 336

Liber primus [15] sacrarum cantionum, 5vv (Dresden, 1570)

Officia de nativitate et ascensione Christi (Dresden, 1574); ?lost, listed in WaltherML

Schöne und auserlesene deudsche und lateinische geistliche Gesenge (Dresden, 1577) [20 German and 4 Latin pieces]; H i, 2, 249, 252, 275, 277, 279; L 6, 27, 39, 44, 91, 100

Missa super ‘Ich weiss mir ein fest gebauets Haus’, 5vv, 1568¹; motets in 1554¹¹, 1564¹, 1568²¹, 1571¹⁷

Mass, 4vv, D-Mbs 43; Missa ‘Doulce memoire’, 6vv, inc., Z 100, 4; Missa ‘Pis ne me peult’, 5vv, Mbs 43; Missa ‘Praeter rerum seriem’, 6vv, Mbs 43; Missa ‘Regnum mundi’, vv, ed. in MAM, xiv (1965); Missa ‘Wo der Herr nicht bauet das Haus’, 5vv, inc., Z 100, 4

5 motets, Mbs 43; 22 proper motets, Mbs 28

Further masses and motets in libraries in Ansbach, Dresden and Zwickau

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BlumeEK

BoetticherOL

WaltherML

O. Kade: Mattheus le Maistre (Mainz, 1862) [contains edns of 20 pieces]

F.X. Haberl: ‘Matthias Hermann Werrecorensis’, MMg, iii (1871), 197–210

A. Sandberger: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Bayerischen Hofkapelle unter Orlando di Lasso (Leipzig, 1894–5) [1st and 3rd vols. only]

D.C. Gresch: Mattheus Le Maistre: a Netherlander at the Dresden Court Chapel (diss., U. of Michigan, 1970)

R. Caspari: Liedtradition im Stilwandel um 1600 (Munich, 1971)

D.C. Gresch: ‘Mattheus Le Maistre's Polyphonic Officia’, MQ, lx (1974), 94–113

W. Steude: Untersuchungen zur mitteldeutschen Musiküberlieferung und Musikpflege im 16. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1978), 120

H. Pottie: ‘Mattheus Le Maistres Motettenbundel van 1570’, RBM, xliii (1989), 197–210

LOTHAR HOFFMANN-ERBRECHT

Lemare, Edwin (Henry)

(b Ventnor, Isle of Wight, 9 Sept 1866; d Hollywood, CA, 24 Sept 1934). English organist and composer. He was a chorister and organ pupil under his father at Holy Trinity, Ventnor. He spent three years under Steggall at the RAM and in 1892 became an organ professor and examiner for the Associated Board of the RAM and the RCM. By this stage he had already made his reputation by playing more than 100 recitals (two a day) in 1884 on the one-manual Brindley & Foster organ in the Inventions Exhibition. In 1886 he started giving bi-weekly recitals at the Park Hall, Cardiff, and was appointed organist of Sheffield parish church. In 1892 he returned to London as organist of Holy Trinity, Sloane Street, following his vicar to St Margaret’s, Westminster, in 1897.

Lemare was one of the most brilliant players of his day and a gifted extemporizer. A 100-recital tour of the USA and Canada during 1900–01 led to his engagement as organist of the Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh (1902–5). In 1917 he became municipal organist in San Francisco and until 1929 held further appointments in Portland, Maine, and in Chatanooga; he also made 24 player rolls for the Aeolian company and 96 for Welte in Freiburg. His compositions include about 100 organ works, notably the popular Andantino in D. He also made several hundred organ transcriptions of orchestral repertory, including many of Wagner’s works. He wrote an autobiography, published in Organs I have Met: the Autobiography of Edwin H. Lemare, 1866–1934, together with Reminiscences by his Wife and Friends (Los Angeles, 1956, 2/1992).

PAUL HALE, WILLIAM OSBORNE

Lemaure, Catherine-Nicole

(b Paris, 3 Aug 1704; d Paris, 1786). French soprano. Entering the Paris Opéra chorus in about 1719, she sang Astraea then Libya in the 1721–2 revival of Lully’s Phaëton. She quickly came to sing such principal parts as Hippodamie in the première of Mouret’s Pirithoüs and the title role in Lacoste’s Philomèle (both 1723). Her temperament was capricious and volatile, however, and she left the Opéra without warning in 1725 after a performance of A.C. Destouches and M.-R. Lalande’s Les élémens. She returned in 1726, but her rivalry with Mlle Pélissier caused disputes among ‘les politiques de l’Opéra’ and she disappeared again in 1727–30, returning to sing in Campra’s Hésione. She sang Oriane (Lully’s Amadis, 1731) with triumphant success, created Iphise (Montéclair’s Jephté, 1732) and sang the title role in Destouches’ Issé (1733 revival). She sang Iphigenia in the 1734 revival of Desmarets’ Iphigénie en Tauride. Threatened with imprisonment if she did not appear in the 1735 revival of Jephté, Lemaure deliberately sang poorly and when she refused to continue, was escorted (still in costume) to Fort l’Evêque, where she was detained overnight before returning the following day to take up her role with better grace. Her 1740 performances of Iphise and Oriane were greeted with enthusiastic ovations, and in 1744 she supplanted Pélissier as Iphise in Rameau’s Dardanus, a role Pélissier had created. Lemaure retired in 1744, but was still cited with admiration well into the 1760s and 70s.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ES (E. Borrel); GroveO (P. Weller) [incl. further bibliography]

J.-B. de la Borde: Essai sur la musique ancienne et moderne (Paris, 1780), iii, 521–2

PHILIP WELLER

Lemberg

(Ger.).

See L'viv.

Lemene, Francesco de.

See De Lemene, Francesco.

Le Menu.

French firm of music publishers. Christophe Le Menu de Saint-Philbert (b c1720; d Paris, 16 Sept 1774), known as Le Menu, published privately from 1741 issuing his Méthode de musique, motets ‘avec simphonie’ and cantatilles. He established himself as a music publisher in 1758 in the rue du Roule ‘A la clef d’or’, publishing vocal music (cantatilles, ariettes, operas), symphonic or concerted music and chamber music. Like his contemporaries, Le Menu also published a music periodical, the Journal de pièces de clavecin de M. Clément (1762–74). Among the names found in his catalogues, which appeared between 1763 and 1774, are Alexandre, Cambini, J.-B. Cardonne, Cramer, J.A. Lorenziti, Mozart, Roeser and Vanhal.

After his death, his widow and daughter (who in February 1775 married Charles-Georges Boyer) ensured his succession: the names ‘Dames Lemenu et Boyer’, associated between 1776 and 1783, are found on a considerable number of publications of chamber music, symphonies, concertos and comic opera overtures. Madame Le Menu had transferred the ownership of the firm to her son-in-law on 21 January 1779 as a wedding gift but it was only in 1783, after Boyer had established himself on his own account, that she finally ceased publishing under her own name. After July 1790, Madame Le Menu retired to her property in Saint-Germain-en-Laye and in August 1790 the publisher Louis Lobry moved into her premises to manage his own stock.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DEMF

HopkinsonD

JohanssonFMP

ANIK DEVRIÈS

Lemeshyov, Sergey (Yakovlevich)

(b Knyazevo, Tver' province, 27 June/10 July 1902; d Moscow, 26 June 1977). Russian tenor. He studied at the Moscow Conservatory and with Stanislavsky at the Bol'shoy Opera Studio. He made his début in 1926 in Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg). In 1931 he joined the Bol'shoy Theatre. Lemeshyov’s lyrical voice, with its individual tone, and the integrity of his characterizations imbued his performances with special charm, and they were noted for their intelligence, fastidious detail and fine acting. His repertory included Lensky, Bayan (Ruslan and Lyudmila), Vladimir (Prince Igor), Berendey and Levko (The Snow Maiden and May Night), Vladimir Dubrovsky in Nápravník’s Dubrovsky, Gounod’s Faust and Romeo, the Duke of Mantua and Almaviva. As a director he produced La traviata at the Malïy Theatre, Leningrad, and Werther at the Bol'shoy, both in 1951. He published Put' k iskusstvu (‘The Path to Art’, Moscow, 1968). He was made People’s Artist of the USSR in 1950.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. L'vov: S.Ya. Lemeshyov (Moscow and Leningrad, 1947)

Ye. Groshyova: Sergey Yakovlevich Lemeshyov (Moscow, 1960)

I.M. YAMPOL'SKY

Lemière [Le Mière, Le Mierre, Lemierre] de Corvey, Jean-Frédéric-Auguste

(b Rennes, 3 Aug 1771; d Paris, 24 April 1832). French composer. Educated at the cathedral school in Rennes, he wrote his first compositions (including the opera Constance) before receiving formal musical training. On moving to Paris in 1792 he studied harmony with H.-M. Berton and composed, in quick succession, a number of opéras comiques. His military career, however, led him to participate in many European campaigns and caused long breaks in his musical activities: between 1798 and 1818 he wrote only two stage works and very little chamber music. When Lemière returned to Paris in 1817 to resume a theatrical career he found that this had lost much of its impetus; he was obliged to supplement his military pension by proofreading music and died, of cholera, in a state of relative poverty.

Lemière’s chamber works include romances praised for their simple but stylish character and descriptive compositions for the piano (then in vogue) evoking the dramatic effects of revolution and war. His opéras comiques, which were mainly in one act, proved less popular than those written by Boieldieu, Dalayrac and Berton. A number were praised for their spirited, melodious qualities, their elegant orchestration and comic situations; Andros et Almona (1794) was particularly noted for its large-scale choruses imitating the religious worship of Muslims and Brahmins and was considered the composer’s most successful work. At times, however, Lemière lacked inspiration, and a review of Les rencontres (1828) in the Mercure de France suggested that his musical style had become outdated. Towards the end of his career he arranged two operas by Rossini for the French stage.

WORKS

printed works published in Paris unless otherwise stated

stage

opéras comiques, first performed in Paris unless otherwise stated

Constance (?oc, 1), ? Rennes, 1790

Les chevaliers errants (1), Montansier, 20 March 1792

Crispin rival (1), Montansier, 1793

Le poëme volé (1), Montansier, 1793

La reprise de Toulon par les Français (fait historique, 1, A.-V.P. Duval), OC (Favart), 21 Jan 1974, ov. and 1 air (Paris, c1794)

Andros et Almona, ou Le Français à Bassora (3, L.B. Picard and Duval), OC (Favart), 5 Feb 1794

Le congrès des rois (cmda, 3, Desmaillot [A.F. Eve]), OC (Favart), 26 Feb 1794, collab. Dalayrac, Grétry, Méhul and 8 others

Les suspects (1, Picard and Duval), 19 May 1795

Babouc (4), Feydeau, 1795

La blonde et la brune (1), Feydeau or Louvois, 1795

La moitié du chemin (3, Picard and Duval), Louvois, 1796

La paix et l’amour (1), Lille, 5 Dec 1797

Les deux orphelines (1, C.-A. de Bassompierre [Sewrin]), Molière, 26 May 1798

Les deux crispins (1, Lemière de Corvey), Molière, 16 June 1798

La maison changée (1), Molière, 1798

Le porter d’eau (1), ‘en provence’, 1801

Henri et Félicie (3, Lemière de Corvey), ‘en provence’, 1808

Les rivaux de village, ou La cruche cassée (1, J.B.R. Viollet d’Epagny), OC (Feydeau), 24 Dec 1819 (Paris, ?c1819), arrs. pubd separately

La fausse croisade (2, Le Poitevin de Saint-Alme and Viollet d’Epagny), OC (Feydeau), 12 July 1825

Les rencontres (3, J.B.C Vial and Mélesville [A.-H.-J. Duveyrier]), OC (Feydeau), 11 June 1828, F-Pc, collab. G. Catrufo

Arrangements: La dame du lac (after Rossini), Odéon, 31 Oct 1825 (c1825); Tancrède (after Rossini), Odéon, 1827 (1827)

Spurious: L’écolier en vacances (1, Picard, M.F. Loraux), OC (Favart), 13 Oct 1794 [by L.E. Jadin]

other works

Orch: Hymne funèbre, orch, chorus, perf. Montansier, 25 Aug 1792 (1794); Chant de guerre (scène patriotique à grand orchestre, C.J. Trouvé), op.15 (1794); La grande bataille de Jéna gagnée sur les prussiens, symphonie militaire, orch, op.36 (?1806), arr. pf (1806)

Chbr: Le tombeau de Mirabeau le patriote, pf (c1791); 2 pf sonatas, opp.3, 8 (n.d.); Sonata, pf 4 hands, op.9 (n.d.); La révolution du 10 août, potpourri national, pf, op.11 (c1793); 6 romances tirées de Gonzalve de Cordoue, acc. fortepiano/hp, op.12 (1794); Seconde suite de 6 romances tirées de Gonzalve de Cordoue, acc. fortepiano/hp, op.13 (1794); 7 romances de différents auteurs, acc. pf/hp, op.14 (c1795); 6 romances tirées de Rosalie et Gerblois, acc. fortepiano/hp, op.17 (1795); La révolution du 9 thermidor, potpourri national, pf, op.20 (1795); 3 duo concertants, hp, pf, opp.23–4, 28 (?1805); Trio, hp, hn, bn (n.d.); 3 vn sonatas (n.d.); other romances in Le porte-feuille du troubadour, ed. Lemière de Corvey (1821), and pubd separately; other chbr and pf works, contredanses, studies

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

Grove6 (J. Cooper)

MGG1 suppl. (G. Bourligneux)

L. Michaud, ed.: Biographie universelle (Paris, 1843–65)

C. Pierre: Les hymnes et chansons de la Révolution (Paris, 1904)

H. Gougelot: Catalogue des romances françaises parues sous la Révolution et l’Empire, i (Melun, 1937)

H. Gougelot: La romance française sous la Révolution et l’Empire, i (Melun, 1938)

G. Favre: La musique française de piano avant 1830 (Paris, 1935)

ELISABETH COOK

Lemlin [Lemblin, Lemlein], Lorenz

(b Eichstätt, c1495; d after 1549). German composer. He probably attended the cathedral school in Eichstätt, receiving his first music instruction from the Kapellmeister Bernhard Adelmann. In 1513 he entered Heidelberg University, where he received the bachelor’s degree on 13 November 1514. He was a priest, and active in the Heidelberg court chapel, where he became Kapellmeister under Elector Ludwig V (d 1544). As the teacher of the choirboys Jobst vom Brandt, Georg Forster, Caspar Othmayr and Stephan Zirler he was at the head of the ‘Heidelberger Liedmeister’, who were still in close contact in later years. Forster’s song publications included the works of his colleagues and in 1549 he dedicated to Lemlin Der dritte Teyl, schöner, lieblicher, alter, und newer deutscher Liedlein (RISM 1549³⁷).

Lemlin’s creative powers were too limited for him to be considered the leader of a school of songwriting. Certainly the ‘Liedmeister’ were indebted to their teacher for many suggestions about composition, but these did not result in a homogenous style. Lemlin’s output was relatively small and was not widely circulated in the first half of the 16th century. The 15 surviving secular songs are conservative in their imitative pairing of parts at the beginning and in their rigid cantus firmus treatment. Such a technique shows appreciation of the considerably more inspired examples by Paul Hofhaimer and Heinrich Finck. Lemlin's most popular work, the six-voice Der Gutzgauch auf dem Zaune sass, has in its imitation of the cuckoo’s call the lightheartedness of a real folksong. His motets are more homophonic with shorter phrases, reflecting the influence of the humanist ode compositions and the new stylistic tendencies of the late Netherlands masters.

WORKS

sacred

Converte nos Deus, 2vv, 1545⁶; Deus adiuva me, 3vv, 1541²; Deus in adiutorum, 4vv, 1542⁶; Grates nunc omnes, 8vv, 1564¹; In convertendo Dominus, 4vv, 1542⁶; In manus tuas, Domine, 4vv, 1538¹; Memento mei, 5vv, 1540⁷; Nisi Dominus, 4vv, 1542⁶; Oramus Domine, 8vv, D-Kl 4^o Mus.38, no.4; Vivo ego dicit Dominus, 3vv, 1542⁸

secular

Edition: Georg Forster: Frische teutsche Liedlein (1539–1556), I–II, ed. K. Gudewill and H. Siuts, EDM, 1st ser., xx (1942/R), lx (1969) (G i–ii]

Ach höchster Hort, vernimm mein Wort, 4vv, G i, 76; Ach höchste Zir, auff all mein Gir, 4vv, G i, 20; Der Gutzgauch auf dem Zaune sass, 6vv, G ii, 42; Der Mey wil sich mit Gunst beweisen, 4vv, G i, 66; Des Spilens ich gar kein Glück nit han, 4vv, G i, 121; Ein Beumlein zart, 4vv, G i, 37; Ernstliche Klag, 4vv, G i, 155; Ich Armer klag, 4vv, G i, 38; Ich gwahrts noch gut, 4vv, G i, 162; Lust und Freud tet mich umbgeben gar, 4vv, 1549³⁷; Mich jammert sehr, 4vv, G i, 128; Tag, Nacht ich ficht, 4vv, G i, 82; Von Herzen gern, on all Beschweren, 4vv, G i, 131; Was sterblich Zeyt, mir Freuden geyt, 4vv, 1549³⁷

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ReeseMR

C.P. Reinhardt: Die Heidelberger Liedmeister des 16. Jahrhunderts (Kassel, 1939)

H. Albrecht: Caspar Othmayr: Leben und Werk (Kassel, 1950)

G. Pietzsch: Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der Musik am kurpfälzischen Hof zu Heidelberg bis 1622 (Mainz, 1963)

H. Haase: Jobst vom Brandt (1517 bis 1570) (Kassel, 1967)

LOTHAR HOFFMANN-ERBRECHT

Lemmens, Jaak Nikolaas [Jacques Nicolas]

(b Zoerle-Paarwijs, Antwerp, 3 Jan 1823; d Zemst, nr Mechelen, 30 Jan 1881). Belgian organist. He studied first with his father and then with Christian Girschner and Fétis at the Brussels Conservatory, which he entered in 1839. After winning first prizes for piano (1842) and organ and composition (1846), and embarking upon a career as an organist at Diest, he was awarded a government bursary to complete his studies with Adolf Hesse in Breslau (1846). He won second prize in the Prix de Rome competition in 1847 with his cantata Le roi Lear, and was appointed professor of organ at the Brussels Conservatory in 1849. After marrying the English soprano Helen Sherrington in 1857 (see Lemmens-Sherrington, Helen), he paid frequent visits to London, and settled there in 1869. He returned to Belgium in 1878 and founded the Ecole de Musique Religieuse at Mechelen, which became the Lemmens Institute in 1879. With Canon Van Demme, he also founded the Société de Saint-Grégoire for the improvement of church music.

As a pupil of Hesse, who himself had studied with Rinck (a direct line of descent can be traced back through Kittel to J.S. Bach), Lemmens was one of the best organists of his time, and was highly regarded as a teacher. The perfection of his legato and his pedal technique, evidence of which survives in his Ecole d’orgue (1862), ensured his success both in Belgium (his pupil Alphonse Mailly was considered one of the best exponents of the Belgian school) and abroad, particularly in France, where the recital he gave at St-Vincent-de-Paul on 25 February 1852 was a lesson to all the French organists present, including Boëly, Benoist, Franck, Alkan, Lefébure-Wély and Fessy. No doubt the idea that Lemmens inherited the tradition of Bach and passed it on directly to his successors (Guilmant, Widor, Loret and then Dupré) should be regarded with caution, since only the second of the two distinct pedal techniques (toe alone, and heel and toe) described in records from the end of the 18th century survived into the second third of the 19th century. As an organist, however, Lemmens made a great contribution to the introduction of the works of Bach into both Belgium and France.

As a composer, Lemmens wrote for the taste of his time. His organ music was sometimes meditative (among his early organ pieces are several entitled Prière) and sometimes more demonstrative (his Fanfare), and his fugues derived from the revival of interest in the music of Bach (an example followed by his pupil Guilmant). His tendency to base many of his works on Catholic plainsong, in particular three sonatas with the sub-titles ‘Pontificale’, ‘O filii’, and ‘Pascale’ (the last-named on the theme of the Victimae paschali), may in turn have influenced Widor.

WORKS

Oeuvres inédites (Leipzig, 1883–7) [4 vols. of motets, hymns, works for org incl.: 20 préludes diatoniques, 12 morceaux faciles, 12 pièces d’orgue (vol.1); Messe des doubles et des fêtes solennelles, Messe de requiem (vol.2)]

Vocal: Te Deum, 4vv, orch; motets, acc. org; Le roi Lear (cant., A. Pujol), 1847; songs, 1v, pf

Orch: 2 symphonies

Org: 10 improvisations (Brussels, 1848); Scherzo symphonique, Fanfare (pubd in Ecole d’orgue, 1862); Four Organ Pieces in the free style (London, 1866); 3 sonatas: no.1, D, ‘Pontificale’, no.2, E, ‘O filii’, no.3, A, ‘Pascale’ (Paris, 1876); offertories; studies; other pieces

Hmn: 4 morceaux de salon: Fughette, Nocturne, Romance sans parole, Invocation (1865); 3 morceaux: Hélène-Polka, Mélodie, Cantabile (1865); Berceuse et rêverie (1867); Marche des volontaires (1878)

Pf: 2 sonatas, mentioned in FétisB

Pedagogical: Ecole d’orgue basée sur le plain-chant romain (Brussels, 1862)

WRITINGS

Du chant grégorien, sa mélodie, son rythme, son harmonisation (Ghent, 1886)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Duclos: Introduction to J.-N. Lemmens’s Du chant grégorien (Ghent,1886), pp.xv–xlix

N. Dufourcq: ‘La pénétration en France de l’oeuvre d’orgue de J. S. Bach’, ReM, no.131 (1932), 27–39

E. Closson: ‘Lemmens et l’école française de l’orgue’, Musica sacra [Bruges], xl (1933)

N. Dufourcq: ‘A propos du cinquantenaire de la mort de Cavaillé-Coll: Lemmens et Cavaillé-Coll, publication de lettres’, L’orgue, nos.53–68 (1949–53)

F. Douglass: Cavaillé-Coll and the Musicians (Raleigh, NC, 1980)

F. Sabatier: ‘Jacques Nicolas Lemmens’, Guide de la musique d’orgue, ed. G. Cantagrel and others (Paris, 1991), 509–11

FRANÇOIS SABATIER

Lemmens Institute.

Belgian institute of church music. Founded by Jaak Nikolaas Lemmens, it opened in Mechelen in 1879. See also Low countries, §5.

Lemmens-Sherrington [née Sherrington], Helen

(b Preston, 4 Oct 1834; d Brussels, 9 May 1906). English soprano, wife of Jaak Nikolaas Lemmens, whom she married in 1857. She came of a family who had lived for several generations at Preston. Her mother was a musician. In 1838 they emigrated to Rotterdam, and there Helen Sherrington studied with Verhulst. In 1852 she entered the Brussels Conservatory and took first prizes for singing and declamation. On 7 April 1856 she made her first appearance in London and soon rose to the position of leading English soprano, both in sacred and secular music; after the retirement of Clara Novello in 1860 she had no rival. She appeared in English opera from 1860 to 1865, and at Covent Garden in 1866, but found her place more in concert and oratorio. During the 1870s she formed part of the vocal quartet most in demand for festivals, with Janet Patey, Sims Reeves and Charles Santley. After her husband’s death in 1881 she retired to Brussels, but continued to sing occasionally in England. Her last appearance was in 1894.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DNB (H. Davey)

Obituary, MT, xlvii (1906), 395

GEORGE GROVE/BRUCE CARR

Lemnitz, Tiana (Luise)

(b Metz, 26 Oct 1897; d Berlin, 26 Jan 1994). German soprano. She studied with Anton Kohmann in Frankfurt and made her début at Heilbronn in 1920 in Lortzing’s Undine; from 1922 to 1928 she sang at Aachen. She became leading lyric soprano at Hanover (1928–33) and then, after a year in Dresden, joined the Berlin Staatsoper in 1934, remaining there until she retired in 1957. In Berlin her roles ranged from Mimì and Micaëla to Aida and Desdemona, from Pamina and Mařenka to Sieglinde. Later she sang the Marschallin, Milada (Smetana’s Dalibor), Jenůfa, and Nastas'ya (Tchaikovsky’s The Enchantress).

Lemnitz made her Covent Garden début in 1936 as Eva and returned for Octavian, Elsa, Pamina and Sieglinde; her career was otherwise mostly confined to central Europe. She was also a distinguished singer of lieder. Her warm, appealing voice and presence made her an ideal interpreter of the lyric roles of Mozart, Weber, Wagner and Strauss. Among the best of her many recordings are the arias from Der Freischütz and Lohengrin, her exquisite Pamina in Beecham’s classic recording of Die Zauberflöte and her Octavian in Kempe’s Die Rosenkavalier.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Seeliger: ‘Tiana Lemnitz’, Record Collector, xv (1963–4), 29–43 [with discography by R. Seeliger and B. Park]

A. Blyth: Obituary, Opera, xlv (1994), 427–8

HAROLD ROSENTHAL/ALAN BLYTH

Lemoine.

French family of music publishers. Antoine-Marcel Lemoine (b Paris, 3 Nov 1763; d Paris, 10 April 1816), a guitarist, author of a guitar method, violist, theatre orchestra director and composer, founded a firm in Paris in 1796; his publications included Méhul’s Messe solennelle, composed for Napoleon’s coronation (1804). His eldest son, François (1782–1839), published independently under the name Lemoine aîné (1812–39, succeeded by his widow, 1839–49). Another son, Henry Lemoine (b Paris, 21 Oct 1786; d Paris, 18 May 1854), succeeded him in 1816. A successful piano teacher and a harmony student of Reicha, he published most of Chopin’s music and firmly established the company’s production of educational materials with Berlioz’s Traité d’instrumentation (1844) and his own methods for piano, harmony and solfège.

Achille-Philibert Lemoine (b Paris, 15 April 1813; d Sèvres, 13 Aug 1895), son of Henry Lemoine, became a partner in 1850 and was director from 1852 to 1895. In 1858 he added engraving and printing to the business and began publication of Le Panthéon des pianistes (about 600 compositions). He acquired Schonenberger’s catalogue (1875) and in 1885 inaugurated a branch in Brussels with Le chant classique, edited by Gevaert. His son Henry-Félicien (b Paris, 8 April 1848; d Paris, 24 April 1924) became a partner in 1871 and was director from 1895 to 1924. The three other sons joined in 1885: Gaston Lemoine (1852–1930); Léon Lemoine (b Paris, 1855; d Paris, 1916), who left the firm in 1900; and Achille Lemoine (1857–1948).

Henry-Jean Lemoine (b Paris, 10 April 1890; d Paris, 20 Nov 1970), son of Gaston and successor to Henry-Félicien, entered the firm in 1907. He became a partner (1920) and director (1924–70). He acquired the extensive theatrical and symphonic catalogue of Lucien Grus in 1933. André Lemoine (b Paris, 5 April 1907), son of Henry-Félicien, became a partner (1946) and later co-director. Max Lemoine (b Paris, 27 June 1922), son of Henry-Jean, became a partner (1955), later also a co-director and finally sole director from 1979. Max Lemoine retired in 1987 when his son Pierre took over.

Composers published by Lemoine include Donizetti, Franck, Gounod, Offenbach and Vierne, and, from the 20th century, Emmanuel, Le Flem, Tailleferre, Henri Tomasi, Damase and Piazzolla. Among the younger composers are José Luis Campana, Durieux, Jarrell, Redgate and Jean-Marc Singier. An important collection of original guitar compositions has been built up, and Le Panthéon des pianistes is being revised as an Urtext edition. Pedagogy continues to be an important part of Lemoine’s activity. (DEMF, ii)

ROBERT S. NICHOLS/JEREMY DRAKE

Le Moine, Estienne

(b ?1640s; d ?Paris, late 1715 or before 10 Jan 1716). French theorbo player. A number of musicians and painters named Le Moine are known from the reigns of Louis XIII and Louis XIV. It is not clear that Estienne was the one listed as a singer at the coronation of Louis XIV in 1654, or who took part in court ballets in the 1650s alongside Louis Couperin, Germain Pinel and others. He probably is the Le Moine praised by Charles Robinet as part of a group comprising harpsichord, theorbo and viol (1668). The first definite reference to him is his warrant as theorbo player in the musique de la Chambre du roi, dated 26 March 1680. Thereafter he is mentioned in court accounts as one of the half-dozen musicians of the Chambre, initially with Louis de Mollier and Pierre de la Barre (lutes), Jean Henry D'Anglebert (harpsichord), and Marin Marais (viol), until 1715. He is generally listed as viol player, though that may simply reflect the original title of his post. Both Le Gallois and Titon du Tillet place him first among theorbo players. In view of the small number of surviving pieces by him (8 in F-B 279.152, F-Pn Rés.1106, Vm 76265, D-Bsb 40601, US-BEm 775), his strength may have been primarily in accompaniment.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BenoitMC

Y. de Brossard: ‘La vie musicale en France d'après Loret et ses continuateurs 1650–1688’, RMFC, x (1970), 155, 188

M. Benoit: Versailles et les musiciens du roi, 1661–1733 (Paris, 1971)

D. Ledbetter: Harpsichord and Lute Music in Seventeenth-Century France (diss., U. of Oxford, 1985), i, 207–8; ii, p.xxxii, 163

DAVID LEDBETTER

Lemoyne, Gabriel.

French pianist and composer, son of Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne.

Lemoyne [Moyne], Jean-Baptiste

(b Eymet, Dordogne, 3 April 1751; d Paris, 30 Dec 1796). French composer. He was brought up by his uncle, the maître de chapelle at Périgueux. In 1770 he went to Berlin with a theatre company, and he held a minor appointment with the Crown Prince of Prussia while he studied under J.G. Graun, Kirnberger and J.A.P. Schulz. He then obtained a post in Warsaw, where his opera Le bouquet de Colette was produced with his pupil Antoinette Clavel (Mme de Saint-Huberty) in the cast; she was later to contribute much to his first Parisian success, Phèdre, by her performance in the title role. Lemoyne was in Paris by about 1780. His first serious opera, Electre, was dedicated to Marie-Antoinette with flattering references to Gluck, whose methods he claimed to follow. The work was poorly received; Gluck dissociated himself from Lemoyne, and the latter accordingly took Piccinni as a model for Phèdre. In 1787 he visited Italy, presumably to study the musical style then rapidly coming into vogue in Paris.

In spite of its universal critical rejection, Electre is Lemoyne's most interesting work. It makes striking use of free, short and abbreviated musical forms, and in the heroine's role uses a highly expressive recitative, seasoned with musical repetitions akin to the technique of leitmotif. The orchestration is frequently crude, but the quiet ending, as Orestes is pursued off the stage by the Furies, is noteworthy; Lemoyne repeated the effect, with more subtlety, in Phèdre and Nephté. The weakest parts of Electre are those in which purely musical invention is required, rather than declamation and orchestral effects; the dances are poor, and the longer arias weak in melody and design. Phèdre contains only a residue of the leitmotif technique, and although Lemoyne improved in aria writing and his operas became less uneven in quality, his originality became diluted. Nephté contains some fine scenes, and was his greatest success in tragedy – he was called on to the stage after the first performance, a favour then quite unusual at the Opéra – and it gave rise to the Abbé Toscan's pamphlet in which Lemoyne is considered to have surpassed Gluck by adding melodic sweetness to dramatic power. Lemoyne had less talent for comedy, but the slight charms of Les prétendus, enhanced by the unusual orchestral use of the piano, kept it in the repertory for 294 performances until 1827. Lemoyne's later works, including some with Revolutionary themes, are of decreasing interest and aroused little enthusiasm.

Lemoyne's son, Gabriel Lemoyne (b Berlin, 14 Oct 1772; d Paris, 2 July 1815) was a pianist and composer. He went to Paris as a boy with his father and studied the piano under C.-F. Clément and J.-F. Edelmann. About 1800 he undertook a concert tour in France and the Netherlands with the violinist Lafont; but he lived chiefly by teaching the piano in Paris. He also edited a journal for the publication of rondeaux, romances, and similar small-scale compositions. He wrote three opéras comiques, one (L'entresol, 1802) in collaboration with L.A. Piccinni. His output consists mainly of vocal romances and instrumental music, which includes some chamber works, two piano concertos (Paris, 1813) and, for solo piano, sonatas, caprices, fantasias and a toccata. Tasteful rather than adventurous, his music is typical of a prolific and complicated period in the development of piano music.

WORKS

PO	Paris, Opéra
PFE	Paris, Théâtre Feydeau

Le bouquet de Colette (op, 1), Warsaw, 1775

Electre (tragédie, 3, N.F. Guillard, after Voltaire: Oreste), PO, 2 July 1782 (Paris, n.d.)

Phèdre (tragédie lyrique, 3, F.-B. Hoffman), Fontainebleau, 26 Oct 1786 (Paris, n.d.)

Nadir, ou Le dormeur éveillé, 1787, unperf., F-Po

Les prétendus (comédie lyrique, 1, M.A.J. Rochon de Chabannes), PO, 2 June 1789 (Paris, n.d.)

Nephté (tragédie lyrique, 3, Hoffman, after T. Corneille: Camma), PO, 15 Dec 1789, Po (Paris, n.d.)

Les pommiers et le moulin (comédie lyrique, 1, N.J. Forgeot), PO, 20 Jan 1790 (Paris, n.d.)

Louis IX en Egypte (op, 3, Guillard and F.-G.J.-S. Andrieux), PO, 15 June 1790, Po, Pc

L'ivrogne vertueux, c1791 (oc, 2, L.-A. Beffroy de Reigny), unperf., Po

Elfride [Elfrida] (drame héroïque, 3, Guillard), Paris, OC (Favart), 17 Dec 1792

Silvius Nerva, ou La malédiction paternelle, 1792 (Beffroy de Reigny), unperf., Po

Miltiade à Marathon (op, 2, Guillard), PO, 5 Nov 1793, Po

Toute la Grèce, ou Ce que peut la liberté (tableau patriotique, 1, Beffroy de Reigny), PO, 5 Jan 1794, Po

Le compère Luc (oc, 2, Beffroy de Reigny), PFE, 19 Feb 1794

Le batelier, ou Les vrais sans-culottes (tableau patriotique, 1, Rézicourt), PFE, 12 May 1794

Le mensonge officieux (1, Forgeot), PFE, ?13 March 1795

L'île des femmes, 1796 (opera, 2), unperf.

Other stage works: Storm scene for Gossec: Toinon et Toinette, Berlin, 1772; many airs de ballet for productions at PO, Po; many excerpts from above operas pubd separately; Ode sur le combat d'Ouessant, perf. Paris, Concert Spirituel, 1778; airs

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

G.L.G. Toscan: De la musique et de Nephté: aux mânes de l’abbé Arnaud (Paris, 1790)

F.M. Grimm: Correspondance littéraire, philosophique et critique (Paris, 1812–14); complete version, ed. M. Tourneux (Paris, 1877–82/R)

J. Rushton: ‘An Early Essay in “Leitmotiv”: J.B. Lemoyne's “Electre”’, ML, lii (1971), 387–401

JULIAN RUSHTON

Lemper, Ute

(b Münster, 4 July 1963). German singer, actress and dancer. She began to study music in her home town at the age of nine, and later took acting classes at the Max Reinhardt Seminary in Vienna. In 1986 she played in the Vienna production of Lloyd Webber's Cats, subsequently appearing in Berlin in Peter Pan and then toured as Sally Bowles in Cabaret to Lyons, Düsseldorf, Rome and Paris. She also began to give recitals of songs by Kurt Weill and to record his music. Although her style seemed classical, she used transpositions, and her interpretations aroused controversy among Weill critics. Her recordings, however, were bestsellers. A close collaboration with the composer Michael Nyman includes his Songbook and Six Celan Songs as well as contributions to his music for Peter Greenaway’s film Prospero's Books. With the conductor Robert Ziegler, Lemper revived songs from the 1920s Berlin cabaret repertory by Hollaender, Spoliansky, Nelson and others. In 1997 she played Velma in the London production of Chicago, subsequently transferring to the Broadway production, and in 2000 appeared in Weill’s Die sieben Todsünden at the Covent Garden Festival, London. A performer of remarkable physical energy and charisma, Lemper has developed her voice from a somewhat ‘white’ tone to a fuller, more dramatic sound.

PATRICK O'CONNOR

Le Munerat, Jean

(b ? Bourges, c1430–40; d ?Paris, 1499). French singer and scholar. He was the author of two tracts on verbal accentuation in plainchant. His early years seem to have been spent in Bourges, where he became a canon of Notre Dame de Sales (his familiarity with the Bourges chant tradition is clear from his writings). Later he was in Paris at the Collège de Navarre, where he enrolled in the 1450s as a student in the arts faculty and from 1465 in theology. He described himself as a ‘scholastic theologian’, that is, engaged in religious studies, and as a concentor, probably the associate of the cantor or precentor in singing the soloist portions of chant in the collegiate chapel services. In 1497 he was appointed rector of the University of Paris, though his tenure lasted only five months.

Of his 12 known publications, five are editions of liturgical books and five relate to various religious topics. In two others on music (ed. in Harrán) he countered the attacks, within the Collège, of certain ‘humanists’ (i.e. grammarians), who contended that music played havoc with the sacred texts. Le Munerat used every argument he could to refute their assertions and demonstrate that music, on the strength of its long tradition preserved in the chant books, could rightly ignore grammatical quantity in items subject to musical as against verbal logic. In the first treatise, De moderatione et concordia grammatice et musice (Paris, 1490), he reviewed the respective roles of music and grammar in determining the accentuation of words in plainchant, with a view to coordinating them in celebrating the liturgy, referring for examples to chants from the uses of Paris, Bourges and Sens (to which the Parisian church was subordinate). He continued the argument in the very brief Qui precedenti tractatu nullam adesse rationem vel demonstrativum (Paris, 1493).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Mother Thomas More [M. Berry]: ‘The Performance of Plainsong in the Later Middle Ages and the Sixteenth Century’, PRMA, xcii (1965–6), 121–34

G. Ouy: ‘Le Collège de Navarre, berceau de l'humanisme français’, Enseignement et vie intellectuelle, IXe–XVIe siècle (Congrès national des sociétés savantes, XCV/1: Reims 1970) (Paris, 1975), 276–99

D. Harrán: In Defense of Music: the Case for Music as Argued by a Singer and Scholar of the Late Fifteenth Century (Lincoln, NE, 1989)

DON HARRÁN

Lenaerts, René Bernard (Maria)

(b Bornem, 26 Oct 1902; d Leuven, 27 Feb 1992). Belgian musicologist. He trained for the church and was ordained priest in 1927 and canon in 1955. While he was at the theological seminary at Mechelen he also studied at the Lemmens Institute, and took the doctorate in Germanic philology at Leuven in 1929 with a dissertation on Netherlandish polyphonic song in the 16th century. He pursued further musicological studies under André Pirro in Paris (1931–2), and began his teaching career in secondary schools at Geel and Antwerp. He then taught at the Catholic University of Leuven, as junior lecturer (1944), lecturer (1946) and as full professor of musicology (1949–73); his great achievement there was to develop an excellent department of musicology. In 1953 he was visiting professor at Columbia University and the University of California, Berkeley. From 1958 to 1971 he was reader in Renaissance music history at Utrecht University (in succession to Smijers).

In 1955 he became a member of the committee of the IMS and an active member of the Royal Academy of Belgium. For a number of years he also served on the committees of the Belgian and Dutch associations for music history and was on the editorial staff of Revue belge de musicologie. In 1959 he became editor of Monumenta Musicae Belgicae. His numerous travels in Germany, England, Italy and Spain in search of unknown Netherlandish polyphonic music in 15th- and 16th-century manuscripts resulted in several articles and editions and in the compilation of catalogues of old Netherlandish polyphony. His perceptive and fluently written contributions, substantial despite their habitual brevity, to congress reports, Festschriften, periodicals and encyclopedias, are based on a thorough study of musical source material, long experience as a teacher and a wide knowledge of cultural history.

WRITINGS

Het Nederlands polifonies lied in de zestiende eeuw (diss., U. of Leuven, 1929; Mechelen and Amsterdam, 1933)

‘Notes sur Adrien Willaert’, Bulletin de l’Institut historique belge de Rome, xv (1935), 107–17, 236

Oude Nederlandsche muziek (Brussels, 1937)

‘La chapelle de Saint-Marc à Venise sous Adriaen Willaert (1527–1562)’, Bulletin de l’Institut historique belge de Rome, xix (1938), 205–55

‘Van Monteverdi tot Bach’, Algemene muziekgeschiedenis, ed. A. Smijers (Utrecht, 1938, 4/1947), 169–244

Johann Sebastian Bach (Diest, 1943)

‘The 16th-Century Parody Mass in the Netherlands’, MQ, xxxvi (1950), 410–21

‘Contribution à l’histoire de la musique belge de la Renaissance’, RBM, ix (1955), 103–21

Belangrijke verzamelingen Nederlandse muziek uit de zestiende eeuw in Spanje (Brussels, 1957)

De Nederlandse muziek uit de vijftiende eeuw (Leuven, 1959)

‘Erasmus en de muziek’, Erasmus plechtig herdacht op 30 april 1969 (Brussels, 1969), 75–88

‘Musical Structure and Performance Practice in Masses and Motets of Josquin and Obrecht’, Josquin des Prez: New York 1971, 619–26

‘Die Kirchenmusik der Niederländer’, Geschichte der katholischen Kirchenmusik, ed. K.G. Fellerer, i (Kassel, 1972), 438–48

‘De componist Philippus de Monte en de nieuwe uitgave van zijn werk’, Academiae analecta, lxiv (1983), 25–39

‘Philippus de Monte als Motettenkomponist’, KJb, lxvi (1984), 49–58

EDITIONS

with J. Robijns: Pierre de la Rue: Drie missen, MMBel, viii (1960)

Nederlandse polyfonie uit Spaanse bronnen, MMBel, ix (1963)

Die Kunst der Niederländer, Mw, xxii (1962; Eng. trans., 1964)

with others: Philippi de Monte opera: New Complete Edition (Leuven, 1975–88)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AMe

J. Coppens and M.-L. Stockman: ‘Lenaerts, René’, Bibliographia Academica [Katholieke U. of Leuven], x [1957–63] (1964), 417–18 [incl. list of pubns]

J. Robijns and others, ed.: Renaissance-Muziek 1400–1600: donum natalicium René Bernard Lenaerts (Leuven, 1969) [incl. J. Robijns: ‘Professor Dr. René Bernard Lenaerts bij zijn 65ste verjaardag’, 7–11; ‘Bibliographie van Professor Dr. R.B. Lenaerts’, 13–19]

H. Willaert: ‘Lenaerts, René Bernard’, Winkler Prins encyclopedie van Vlaanderen, ed. R.F. Lissens and others, iv (Brussels, 1974), 159–60

J. Robijns: ‘In memoriam Mgr. René Lenaerts (26 oct. 1902 – 27 fev 1992)’, Jb: Koninklijke Academiae voor Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schone Kunsten van België (1992), 320–26

GODELIEVE SPIESSENS/SYLVIE JANSSENS

L’Enclos [Lenclos, Lanclos, Lauclos, la Douardière], Henri de

(b ?Touraine, 1592–3; d 1649). French lutenist and composer. Of minor gentry, he married Mlle de Raconis from a noble family from Orléans. He became skilled in arms and horsemanship as well as at music, and played the lute. As an officer he was attached to the household of the Duke of Elbeuf and later to that of the Marshal of S Luc. Following his conversion to the ranks of the freethinkers he soon came to scorn music. In 1632 he killed a nobleman of the royal household in a duel and was obliged to go into exile. Mersenne spoke highly of him as a lutenist and ranked him equal to the Gaultiers and Blancrocher. Ennemond and Denis Gautier were his friends and Denis composed Tombeau de L’Enclos in his memory. There are pieces by him in Lord Herbert of Cherbury’s Lutebook (GB-Cfm) and in L. de Moy: Le petit bouquet de frise orientale (MS dated 1631, D-ROu). He also contributed to Suittes faciles pour une flute ou un violon et basse continue (Amsterdam, 1703). His daughter was Ninon de L’Enclos, celebrated leader of Parisian society, to whom he taught singing and the lute.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MersenneHU

T. Dart: ‘Lord Herbert of Cherbury’s Lute-Book’, ML, xxxviii (1957), 136–48

T. Dart: ‘Miss Mary Burwell's Instruction Book for the Lute’, GSJ, xi (1958), 3–62

F. Lesure: ‘Recherches sur les luthistes parisiens à l'époque de Louis XIII’, Le luth et sa musique, ed. J. Jacquot (Paris, 2/1976), 209–23

D. Poulton: ‘The Dolmetsch Library, Haslemere, MS II B I’, The Consort, xxxv (1979), 327–41

JOËL DUGOT/DAVID LEDBETTER

L’Enclos, Ninon de.

French singer and lutenist, daughter of henri de L'enclos.

Lendvai, Ernő

(b Kaposvár, 6 Feb 1925; d Budapest, 31 Jan 1993). Hungarian musicologist. He studied the piano at the Liszt Academy, Budapest (1945–9). He was appointed director of the Szomrbathely Music School (1949) and the Győr Conservatory (1954) as well as professor at the Szeged Conservatory (1957); he also lectured on musical analysis at the Liszt Academy (1954–6 and from 1973). After serving as a music producer for Hungarian radio (1960–65) he concentrated on music research.

Lendvai was an outstanding Bartók scholar who through his radical methods and searching analyses transformed the previously accepted view of Bartók’s style. His writings show a preoccupation with melodic, harmonic and formal structure and describe the synthesizing character of Bartók’s music, in which the traditions of European art music and eastern folk music are assimilated. Defining the proportions of its construction, he based his analysis on the golden section, the proportionate relationship found in natural objects and used particularly in classical architecture. Lendvai’s first papers (in Zenei szemle, xx, 1947–8), published while he was a student, were analyses of Bartók’s Improvisations, Night Music and Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion, which he followed with a general study, ‘Bevezetés a Bartók-művek elemzésébe’, and a book on Bartók’s style with detailed analyses of the Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion and Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta. He then turned to Bartók’s stage works and Cantata profana and subsequently analysed nearly all Bartók’s major works. In The Poetic World of Bartók (1971), intended for the general reader, Lendvai discussed the Two Portraits, Two Images, Four Orchestral Pieces, Dance Suite, Violin Concerto, Divertimento and the six string quartets. He also undertook some research into Kodály’s compositions, and specialized in interpretative analysis; in 1967 he published a book on Toscanini’s interpretations of Beethoven.

WRITINGS

‘Bevezetés a Bartók-művek elemzésébe’ [Introduction to the analysis of Bartók’s works], ZT, iii (1955), 461–503; Fr. trans. in Bartók: sa vie, son oeuvre (Budapest, 1956, 2/1968), 88–136; Ger. trans. in Bartók: Weg und Werk (Budapest, 1957, 2/1972), 95–137

Bartók stílusa [Bartók’s style] (Budapest, 1955)

‘Bartók und die Zahl’, Melos, xxvii (1960), 327–31

‘A Kékszakállú herceg vára’ [Prince Bluebeard’s Castle], Magyar zene, i/1–6 (1960–61), 339–87

‘Der wunderbare Mandarin’, SMH, i (1961), 363–431

‘Bartók pantomimja és táncjátéka’ [Bartók’s pantomime and ballet], ZT, x (1962), 69–187

‘Duality and Synthesis in the Music of Béla Bartók’, New Hungarian Quarterly, no.7 (1962), 91–114; enlarged in Module, Proportion, Symmetry, Rhythm (London, 1966), 174–93

Bartók’s Dramaturgy: Stage Works and Cantata Profana (Budapest, 1964; Hung. orig., 1993)

‘A műalkotás egysége Verdi Aidájában’ [The unity of the composition in Verdi’s Aida], Magyar zene, v (1964), 490–522; Ger. trans. in ‘Verdis Formgeheimnisse’, Studi verdiani: Venice 1966, 157–71

‘Bartók und der goldene Schnitt’, ÖMz, xxi (1966), 607–15

Toscanini és Beethoven (Budapest, 1967); Eng. trans. in SMH, viii (1966), 217–90

‘Über die Formkonzeption Bartóks’, SMH, xi (1969), 271–80

Bartók költői világa [The poetic world of Bartók] (Budapest, 1971)

Béla Bartók: an Analysis of his Music (London, 1971)

‘Allegro barbaro’, Mosonyi Mihály és Bartók Béla emlékére, ed. F. Bónis (Budapest, 1973), 257–78

Bartók és Kodály harmóniavilága [The harmonic world of Bartók and Kodály] (Budapest, 1975)

‘Modalitás, atonalitás, funkcio’, Kodály Zoltán emlékére, ed. F. Bónis (Budapest, 1977), 57–122

The Workshop of Bartók and Kodály (Budapest, 1983)

Verdi és a 20. század (Budapest, 1984)

Verdi and Wagner (Budapest, 1988)

‘Sulla concezione formale in Bartók’, Danubio: una civiltà musicale, ed. C. de Incontrare and A. Zanini (Trieste, 1993), 317–28

Symmetries of Music: an Introduction to Semantics of Music, ed. M. Szabó and M. Mohay (Kecskemét, 1993; Hung. orig., 1994)

MÁRTA PAPP

Lendvay, Kamilló

(b Budapest, 28 Dec 1928). Hungarian composer. At the Budapest Academy of Music (1949–57) he studied composition with Viski and conducting with László Somogyi. He was musical director of the State Puppet Theatre (1960–66) and the Hungarian Army Ensemble (1966–8), and subsequently of the Capital Operetta Theatre (1972–4) after working there as conductor (from 1970). In 1973 he was appointed professor and head of theory at the Budapest Academy. He has received the Erkel (1962, 1964, 1978), Bartók-Pásztory (1989) and Kossuth (1998) prizes, and in 1996 named Outstanding Artist of the Hungarian Republic. Lendvay's output demonstrates an admirable assimilation of his earlier Bartók-influenced style and concepts of the Polish and Second Viennese Schools. The first works to adopt the latter were the Four Duos for flute and piano and the orchestral Quattro invocazioni of 1965. His sensitivity towards instrumental colour is particularly notable in the Concertino and in A csend harmóniája (‘Harmony of Silence’), scored for orchestra and prepared piano. His use of the Renaissance crumhorn, his neo-Baroque cantata Jelentek (‘Scenes’, 1978–81) and the Chaconne, with its quotations of Bach, all recall the humanism of a lost age.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: A bűvös [The Magic Chair] (TV op, 1, F. Karinthy and G. Devecseri), 1972; A tisztességtudó utcalány [The Respectful Prostitute] (op, 1, Lendvay, after J.-P. Sartre), 1976–8

Orch, band: Mauthausen, 1958; Tragikus nyitány [Tragic Ov.], 1958; Concertino, wind, pf, hp, perc, 1959; 3 farsangi maszk [3 Carnival Masks], concert band, 1960; A rendíthetetlen ólomkatona [The Indomitable Tin Soldier] (H.C. Andersen), nar, orch, 1961; Vn Conc. [no.1], 1961–2; 4 invocazioni, 1965; Kifejezések [Expressions], str orch/11 str, 1974; Pezzo concertato, vc, orch, 1975; A csend harmóniája [Harmony of Silence], prep pf, orch, 1980; Festspiel Ov., concert band, 1984; Vn Conc. no.2, 1986; Chaconne, 1987–8; Conc. tpt, wind orch, 1990; Double Conc., vn, hpd, str, 1991; Conc., s sax, 12 female vv, orch, 1966; Rhapsody, 1997

Vocal: Kocsiút az éjszakában [A Ridge at Night] (E. Ady), A, ens, 1970; Pro liberate (Z. Kőháti), T, Bar, male chorus, orch, 1975; Jelentek [Scenes] (cant., T. Mann), S, B-Bar, 1978–81; Via crucis, SATB, 10 insts, 1988–9; Stabat mater, Mez, SATB, org, orch, 1992

Chbr and solo inst: Str Qt, 1962; 4 Duos, fl, pf, 1965; Disposizioni, hpd, 1975; Fifthmusic, vc, 1978–9; Senza sordina, tpt, pf, 1983; As you like it, 2 pf, 1984; 24 Duos, 2 vn, 1985; Conc. semplice, hpd, str, 1986; Respectfully yours, Mr Goodman, cl, 1988; 3 Movts, bn, pf, 1994

Principal publishers: Editio Musica Budapest, Akkord

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Kárpáti: ‘Hungarian Composers Today: some Trends among Younger Composers’, Tempo, no.88 (1969), 11–13, 40

M. Hollós, ed.: Az életmű fele: zeneszerzőkportrék beszélgetésekben [Half a life's work: portraits of composers in conversation] (Budapest, 1997)

RACHEL BECKLES WILLSON

Lenear.

See Lanier family.

Lenepveu, Charles Ferdinand

(b Rouen, 4 Oct 1840; d Paris, 16 Aug 1910). French composer. He abandoned a projected legal career in 1862 and entered Ambroise Thomas’ composition class at the Conservatoire, where he won the Prix de Rome in 1865. His stage career began in 1867–8, when he won a competition organized by the Académie des Beaux-Arts for a comic opera. Lenepveu had to fight hard to hold the Opéra-Comique to a performance of the piece, Le Florentin, which finally received its première in 1874. Its comparative lack of success may have been due to lack of encouragement by the Opéra-Comique management: it enjoyed more success in French provincial theatres. Saint-Arroman detected the influence of Gounod, Verdi and Meyerbeer in both Le Florentin and the larger-scale Velléda (1882), after which Lenepveu turned to a more meditative, religious mode of self-expression. He seems to have been diffident about promoting his stage works – Velléda was performed at Covent Garden mainly through the efforts of Adelina Patti, its dedicatee.

Lenepveu taught harmony at the Paris Conservatoire from 1880 to 1894 and composition from 1894, and published Cent leçons d’harmonie (1896–8). He was made Chevalier de la Légion d’Honneur in 1887, and elected to the Institute in 1896.

WORKS

printed works published in Paris unless otherwise stated

Stage: Le Florentin (oc, 3, J.-H. Vernoy de Saint-Georges), Paris, OC (Favart), 25 Feb 1874, vs (?1874); L’anniversaire (oc, 1, A. Bisson), unperf., vs (1876); Le retour de Jeanne (oc, 1, Bisson), unperf., vs (1881); Velléda (4, A. Challamel and J. Chantepie, after Chateaubriand: Les martyrs), London, CG, 4 July 1882, vs (London, 1883)

9 choral and orch works, incl.: 2 requiems, 1871, 1893; Scene from Hernani (V. Hugo), Act 5 (1881); Hymne funèbre et triomphale (Hugo), Rouen, 1889 (1895); Ode triomphale à Jeanne d’Arc (P. Allard), Rouen, 1892 (1895)

Other works for orch and for solo pf (1869–97)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. de Saint-Arroman: Charles Lenepveu: étude biographique (Paris, 1898) [orig. pubd as a series of articles in Le journal musical, iii (1898)]

H.R. Cohen, ed.: Les gravures musicales dans L’illustration (Quebec, 1982) [incl. picture of the mise en scène for Le Florentin at the Opéra-Comique, 1874]

JOHN WAGSTAFF/R

Léner Quartet.

Hungarian string quartet. Its members all studied at the National Hungarian Royal Academy of Music in Budapest. Jenö Léner, the leader, Joseph Smilovits, the second violinist, and Sandor Roth, the viola player, were pupils of Jenő Hubay; Imre Hartman, the cellist, was a pupil of David Popper. At the outbreak of revolution in 1918 the four musicians, by this time members of the Budapest Opera orchestra, retired to a remote Hungarian village to study chamber music. A year later they made their début in Budapest. In 1920 they appeared in Vienna before an international gathering of musicians, among them Ravel, who invited them to Paris the following year. Within a few years they had established themselves throughout Europe and, after their New York début in 1929, in the USA, as one of the world’s most distinguished ensembles. Their frequent recitals in London between 1922 and 1939 included complete performances of the Beethoven quartets, one of which formed part of the centenary celebrations in 1927, and a series illustrating the historical development of the string quartet. The quartet was disbanded in 1948.

Their playing was remarkable above all for rich and mellow tone-quality combined with an unusually homogeneous blend of the four instruments, finesse and beauty of phrasing, and immaculate ensemble. The extraordinary smoothness and finish of their performances were universally acknowledged; but there were critics who found them over-sophisticated at times – particularly in works demanding rugged strength. Their playing of Mozart won the most consistently high praise. Among their many recordings are the complete quartets of Beethoven, and works by Brahms, Debussy, Dvořák, Haydn, Mozart (including a famous recording of the Oboe Quartet with Leon Goossens), Ravel, Schubert, Schumann and Wolf. Works dedicated to them include Respighi’s Quartetto dorico (1924), as well as a quartet by Eugene Goossens and a trio by Casella which, with other papers, were lost at the beginning of the war. Léner was the author of Technique of String Quartet Playing (London, 1935). The original ensemble dissolved in 1939 and, after a spell in South America, in 1942 Jenö Léner started a new group with László Steinhardt, Gábor Rejtö and Ralph Hirsch in the USA. The quartet failed to regain its former eminence and Léner’s death in 1948 brought its end.

ROBERT PHILIP/TULLY POTTER

Leng, Alfonso

(b Santiago, 11 Feb 1894; d Santiago, 11 Nov 1974). Chilean composer. In 1905 he enrolled as a piano student at the Santiago National Conservatory, but he remained there for less than a year. He then joined a group of self-taught musicians of the same generation, among them García-Guerrero, Lavin, Bisquertt and Cotapos, and together they began studying music. During this time he was invited to join Los Diez, a group of outstanding writers, painters and musicians. Concurrently he studied dentistry at the University of Chile, graduating in 1910, and subsequently established himself as an odontologist of international repute. His Piano Preludes (completed 1906) pointed to the development of a style deeply rooted in German late Romanticism, a style which reached a high level of individuality and maturity in the Doloras for piano (1914) and in La muerte de Alsino (1920). Throughout his life he wrote a number of songs with Spanish, German and French texts, developing a freer harmonic idiom leading to atonality, as in the piano sonatas of 1950 and 1973. He was awarded the National Arts Prize in 1957.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: La muerte de Alsino, sym. poem, 1920; Canto de invierno, 1933; Fantasia, pf, orch, 1936

Vocal: Ps lxxvii, chorus, orch, 1967; c20 songs (J.W. von Goethe, P. Verlaine, R.M. Rilke and others)

Pf: Preludes, completed 1906; 5 doloras, 1914; 2 sonatas, 1950, 1973

Principal publisher: Instituto de Extensión Musical

BIBLIOGRAPHY

V. Salas Viú: La creación musical en Chile, 1900–1951 (Santiago, 1952)

Compositores de América/Composers of the Americas, ed. Pan American Union, xv (Washington DC, 1955–72)

RMC, no.98 (1966) [Leng issue]

R. Escobas and R. Yrarrázaval: Música compuesta en Chile (Santiago, 1969)

S. Claro and J. Urrutia Blondel: Historia de la música en Chile (Santiago, 1973)

JUAN A. ORREGO-SALAS

Lengnick.

English firm of music publishers. It was founded in 1893 by Alfred Lengnick (d 1904) in London. Lengnick had been appointed the British agent for the Simrock catalogue, and the company expanded quickly. After his death the company was acquired by Schott and was incorporated as a limited company in 1924; during the 1930s it was acquired by Bernard de Nevers. Although it was sole British agent for several European publishers, its main success lay with the promotion of the Simrock catalogue, especially the works of Brahms and Dvořák. But it did maintain its own publishing programme, first specializing in educational music and later expanding to include symphonic and chamber works by contemporary British composers, including Alwyn, Arnold, Maconchy, Reizenstein, Rubbra, Simpson and Wordsworth. Alfred Lengnick & Co. eventually bought the complete Simrock catalogue up to and including 1954. In 1964 it moved to South Croydon. It was acquired in 1989 by Filmtrax, which purchased the copyrights of University College Cardiff Press. Complete Music Ltd purchased Lengnick in 1991; by the late 1990s the firm was based in Beaconsfield. Other composers published by Lengnick include Hoddinott, George Newson, Adam Gorb and Richard Dubugnon.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

‘Alfred Lengnick & Co’, MO, xxxv (1911–12), 805–7

ALAN POPE

Leningrad.

See St Petersburg.

Lenja, Lotte.

See Lenya, Lotte.

Lenners, Claude

(b Luxembourg, 11 May 1956). Luxembourg composer. After pursuing courses in computing, he studied music in Luxembourg (with Alexander Müllenbach) and Strasbourg. In 1989 he won an award from the Académie de France which enabled him to work at the Villa Médicis in Rome until 1991. While there, he completed his octet Durch kühle Nacht which won the Prix Henri Dutilleux in 1990. In 1992 he won a prize at the Darmstadt Summer Course. In 1993 he began teaching composition and music analysis at the Luxembourg Conservatory and, from 1999, also acoustic and computer music. His works display a notable sensitivity to musical colour, and are mostly written for chamber ensembles or for orchestra. Euphonia I for 16 instruments (string quartet, wind quartet, brass quartet and a ‘Bartók Quartet’ of two pianos and two percussionists) was given its first performance by the Ensemble InterContemporain at IRCAM in 1996. Lenners also had an interest in jazz and composed works for small jazz groups. In 1999 he founded the Luxembourg association ‘Pyramide’ for electroacoustic music.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Pentagramma, ob, cl, bn, sax, perc, hp, kbds, 2 str orch, 1985; Songs between Star-Light and Earth-Night (L. Welch), Mez, orch, 1988; Nachtschattengesänge, 1990; Das Buch der Unruhe, 1997; Unter fremden Sternen, vc, orch (1998); Paeton, pf, str (1999)

Chbr and solo inst: Dialog I, 2 perc, 1984; Dialog II, trbn, perc, 1984; Les insectes (L. Schlechter), S, cl, gui, 1984; Brush & Trunks, S, 4 cl, perc, 1986; Melisma, sax qt, 1986; Frammenti fuggitive, s sax, 2 gui, 1988; Quaderno romano, fl, pf (1988–96); Pulsations, perc qt, 1989; Durch kühle Nacht, fl, ob, cl, hn, perc, vn, va, vc, 1990; Zenit, fl, ob, s sax, 1990; Hinter der Blitzen rot, str trio, 1991; Alba, pf, 1992; Dialog III, pic, glock, 1992; Monotaurus, a sax, 1992; Amalagama, wind qnt, 1993; Found in a Bottle, cl, hn, bn, str qnt, 1994; Langue de feu, S, cl, db, pf, 2 perc, 1994; Tête-à-tête I, fl, vn, 1994; Gruppenlied mit Dame, S, fl, cl, gui, db, pf, 2 perc, 1995; Klagelied, S, fl, cl, gui, pf, db, vib, perc, 1995; Vol de nuit, fl, cl, db, pf, perc, 1995; Dialog V, cl, perc, 1996; Euphonia I, 16 insts, 1995; Hetaera Esmeralda, S, 2 hp, perc (1997); Octopus, perc (1997); Apollo, vn solo (1999); works for jazz trio or qt

Principal publishers: Lemoine, Leduc

LOLL WEBER

Lennon, John (Winston) [John Winston Ono]

(b Liverpool, 9 Oct 1940; d New York, 8 Dec 1980). English pop and rock singer, guitarist, pianist and songwriter and member of the Beatles. He was abandoned as a child by his father and then his mother, and while in his teens began playing the guitar. His first group the Quarry Men co-opted another local boy, Paul McCartney, developed into the Beatles and became the most successful pop act of all time. By temperament their most restless member, Lennon launched his solo career even before the Beatles’ dissolution in 1970. He met his future wife, the Japanese artist Yoko Ono, in 1966, at the height of the group's success; inspired by her avant-garde leanings, the couple made experimental recordings such as Two Virgins (Apple, 1968). By 1969 Lennon had an ad hoc group of his own, the Plastic Ono Band, whose singles included the anthemic anti-war chant Give Peace a Chance and Cold Turkey, a harrowing depiction of his fight with heroin addiction (both Apple, 1969). A series of media stunts, most notably the ‘bed-in for peace’, confirmed his taste for high-profile protest, yet his music was often stark and characterized by self-lacerating introspection. His second album of post-Beatles songs, Imagine (Apple, 1971), revisited the blues influenced rock and roll of his youth, but is best known for the melodic craftsmanship of its idealistic title track. Lennon moved to New York in 1971, where his erratic enthusiasms led his work through left-wing activism, mystical passivity and Fifties nostalgia. A short estrangement from Ono in 1973 inspired his fraught but compelling album Walls & Bridges (Apple, 1974), the prelude to a five-year spell of domestic seclusion. His return to public life in 1980 was marked by a new album, Double Fantasy (Geffen), but was curtailed by his assassination outside his home. While little of Lennon's solo music has equalled that of the Beatles in mass appeal, the later recordings sealed his enduring reputation for wit, artistic honesty and a passionate engagement with world affairs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Wenner: Lennon Remembers (New York, 1972)

R. Coleman: John Lennon (London, 1984)

J. Wiener: Come Together: John Lennon in his Time (New York, 1984)

A. Goldman: The Lives of John Lennon (New York, 1988)

J. Robertson: The Art and Music of John Lennon (London, 1990)

P. Du Noyer: We All Shine On: John Lennon Songs 1970–1980 (London, 1997)

PAUL DU NOYER

Lennon, John Anthony

(b Greensboro, NC, 14 Jan 1950). American composer. He studied at the University of San Francisco (BA 1972) and the University of Michigan (MM 1975, DMA 1978), where his composition teachers included William Albright, Eugene Kurtz, George Wilson and Leslie Bassett. He has taught at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville (1977–94), and Emory University (1994– ). Among his awards are the Prix de Rome (1980), a Guggenheim Fellowship (1981), a Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst residency (1986) and grants from Meet the Composer (1982–7) and the Fromm Foundation (1986). His works have been commissioned by the Boston Symphony Players, the Pittsburgh SO, the Kronos Quartet and the Mannes Trio.

Lennon’s music exhibits the influence of both 19th-century Romanticism and French Impressionism in its lyricism and sensitivity to atmosphere and timbre. Although rooted in tonality, his work eschews the overt use of functional harmony. Voices (1981), recorded by the Kronos Quartet, features pitch repetition, pedal points and melodic 5ths as points of tonal reference; melodic lines, however, are rarely diatonic, employing considerable chromaticism and dissonance.

WORKS

Orch: Metapictures, chbr orch, 1981; Sym. Rhapsody, conc., a sax, orch, 1984; Spectra, 1986; Far from These Things, chbr orch, 1987; Suite of Fables, nar, orch, 1990; Zingari, gui, orch, 1991; Elegy, hp, str, 1996; Sonatina, 1997

Chbr and solo inst: Distances within Me, a sax, pf, 1979; Death Angel, pf, 1980; Another’s Fandango, gui, 1981; Voices, str qt, 1981; 6 Aphorisms, gui, 1985; Echolalia, fl, 1985; Ballade Belliss, vn, pf, 1987; Sirens, pf trio, 1992; Spiderdance, cl, pf, 1995; Aeterna, s sax, 1996; Gigolo, gui, 1996; Thirteen, gui, 1996; Sonatina, gui, 1997

Vocal: Colors where the Moon Never Could (Lennon), S, vn, va, vc, cel, perc, 1975; Ghostfires (J. Joyce), Mez, chbr ens, 1983; 7 Translations (M. Tatsuji, T. Shigeji, Ausonius, K. Hakushu, Alcuin of York, anon. trans. H. Waddell, G. Bownas, A. Thwaite), S, chbr ens, 1988; Cor prudentis, SATB, 1995

Principal publishers: Peters, E.C. Schirmer

JAMES CHUTE

Leno, Antonio [Antonius] de.

See Antonius de Leno.

Le Noble.

See Schwartzenberg, jean-louis.

Lenormand, René

(b Elbeuf, 5 Aug 1846; d Paris, 3 Dec 1932). French composer. The son of an industrialist, he studied the rudiments of music with his mother and soon showed a gift for composition. To meet his father’s wishes he underwent training in business, but abandoned it in 1868 to devote himself to music and went to Paris to work with Berthold Damcke, the intimate friend of Berlioz. His first works, published from 1869 onwards, were well received and performed under the aegis of the Société Nationale de Musique, in the foundation of which in 1871 he played a part. Dividing his time between composition and teaching, Lenormand founded and directed the Société de Musique d’Ensemble (1885) and, even more importantly, the Lied en Tous Pays (1907). The purpose of the latter society was to make modern mélodies and lieder better known in France and abroad by way of concerts in which Lenormand also took part, giving spoken introductions and accompanying the singers on the piano.

Lenormand composed in a wide variety of genres but excelled in the mélodie, where he paid equal attention to melodic technique and to prosody and exercised the greatest care in choosing poems (verse or prose) to set. Unusually for a French composer, until about 1911 he showed the influence of the German lied, but from 1909 onwards a taste for the East and Africa led him to write a considerable number of mélodies marked by exoticism. Taking texts by Arab, Persian, Chinese and Indian poets, he steeped himself in the formal, rhythmic and modal characteristics of the folk music of each of these cultures and created an imaginary folk music, without direct quotation, in a very personal style. Although this area of his output, in particular, has been neglected, Lenormand was one of the most engaging exponents of the French mélodie.

He was the father of the playwright Henri René Lenormand.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Le cachet rouge (drame lyrique, 2, H.R. Lenormand, after A. de Vigny), op.53, c1900, Le Havre, 1925; La nuit de Juillet (mimodrame, 1, P. Veber), op.47, 1892, Paris, 1926

Inst: Sonata, c, op.4, vn, pf (1874); Sonata, F, op.6, vc, pf (1875); Pf Trio, op.30 (1882); Au courant de la plume, op.15, pf, c1887; Valses sérieuses, op.42, pf (1895); Le voyage imaginaire, op.41, orch, 1895; Pf Conc., pf, orch, c1900; Nouvelles valses sérieuses, pf: op.82 (1907), op.83 (1911); Pièces exotiques, op.92, pf (1911); Rythmes à danser, pf, op.110 (1925); De ci, de là, op.109, pf, c1925; Pf Qnt, op.112, c1925

Songs (1v, pf): 6 mélodies, op.1 (G. de Nerval, A. Brizeux, De la Renaudière), 1867; 15 mélodies, op.14, c1875; Les fleurs du mal (C. Baudelaire), op.33, (1891); 4 mélodies (P. Veber), op.36 (1891); Mélodies tristes (A. le Braz, P. Verlaine, E. Beaufils, Lenormand), op.39 (1893); 7 mélodies (E. Fouinet, A. Oeris, E. Beaufils, H.F. Amiel), op.44 (1896); 4 mélodies (H.R. Lenormand), op.66 (1901); Mélodies exotiques, op.90 (1909); Soleil, op.101, 102, 103 (Georgian, Daghestan and Arab texts), opp.101–3 (1923); Instants (H. Spiess), op.107 (1931); 15 rubaiyat (O. Khayyam), op.117 (1926); Couleurs (Serb, Arab, Berber and African texts), opp.118–19, 121, 123 (1931)

Other vocal: 3 choruses, op.32, children’s chorus, pf, c1881; Chansons d’étudiants, op.80, S, T, Bar, male chorus ad lib (1910); 3 Duos (P. Verlaine, F. Gregh, Lenormand), op.77, c1905

Principal publishers: Hamelle, Heugel, Senart

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (G. Ferchault)

R. Lenormand: Etude sur l’harmonie (Paris, 1913)

H. Woollett: Un mélodiste français: René Lenormand (Paris, 1932)

JACQUES TCHAMKERTEN

Lenot, Jacques

(b Saint-Jean d'Angély, 29 Aug 1945). French composer. Trained as a school teacher, a profession to which he belonged for ten years, he participated in the 1966 Darmstadt summer courses, attending lectures given by Stockhausen, Ligeti and Kagel. Messiaen was instrumental in arranging the premières of one of his works at the 1967 Royan Festival. After a brief visit to Rome, during which he studied with Bussotti, he gave up teaching in order to devote his time exclusively to composition. In 1974, on Donatoni's invitation, he attended the courses of the Accademia Chigiana in Siena. In 1997 he settled near the Strait of Dover in the village of Groffliers.

As a composer, Lenot has remained outside of prominent contemporary musical movements and groups. The elegance of his music often derives from personal experience, such as memories of landscapes, and from other arts (i.e. cinema, literature); many of his works bear descriptive titles. Influenced by serialism (after hearing his Symphony (1975–6) Fleuret wrote that he was ‘the natural heir of Boulez and Bussotti’), Lenot's style is notable for its diversity of sound organizations, its contrasts and its attention to timbre. His instrumental economy sometimes produces the sense of a ‘secretly elegiac mood’ (M. Fleuret), which, like the subtle shifts of his echoic writing, is particularly evident in his chamber music (Paysages avec figures absentes, 1994). His rigorous compositional manner is sustained by his concern with precision and solid formal organization. Although he has composed in many genres, he has concentrated particularly on works for the piano (Etudes, 1985–6; Preludes, 1991–6) and the organ (Trois livres, 1991–5).

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Avventi (ballet), 1973, rev. 1974; Un déchaînement si prolongé de la grâce (caprice, 3 tableaux, J.-P. Derrien), 12 solo vv, str qt, 1986, Paris, 1986: 1 Le prologue de la grâce, 2 Trois Liebesliederwalzer, 3 Un enchaînement si prolongé de la grâce, 4 A propos de la grâce, 5 Le soliloque de la grâce

Orch: Diaphanéis, 55 str, 1966; Figurations, va, vn, vc, orch, 1970; Pf Conc. no.1, 1975; Sinfonia, 1975–6; Epitaphe (Allégorie d'exil no.2), wind, perc, 1977; Epilogue (Allégorie d'exil no.10), 1978; Pour mémoire III, str, 1980; Dans le tumulte des flots II, vn, 2 str trios, ens, 1982; Nuit d'été, 5 interludes, vc, orch, 1984; Utopia, 1985; In lieblicher Bläue …, 1987; Au bord des fleuves de Babylone, org, orch, 1992–3; Intermezzo, hn, orch, 1995; Hommage à Schubert, 1996; Al ol, 1998; La vie éternelle rayonne sur les feuilles du jardin, vc, orch, 1998–99

Vocal: 5 sonnets (L. Labbé), S, Ct, 7 insts, 1971–3; Karl exultate, S, orch, 1974; Allégories d'exil (G. Trakl), S, fl, cl, vn/va, vc, 1975; Sablier noir (C. Vachon), 17 songs, Mez, pf, 1979; Pour mémoire II (F. Farel), S, orch, 1980; D'autres Belvédères (Lenot), SATB, pf, orch, 1981; Dal dolce pianto al dolorose riso (Michel-Ange), Bar, pf, 1981–91; L'ere du vaisseau (J.-M. Buffarot), mixed chorus, orch, 1981; Stabat mater, 2 Ct, T, Bar, B, ens, 1983; Lied 5b, S, hn, str qt, pf, 1985–96; Celui qui est couronné … (Derrien), Ct, 24 insts, 1987; Le tombeau de Henri Ledroit (J. de La Fontaine), S, solo vv, mixed chorus, ob d'amore, vc, org, 18 insts, 1988; Incidents lyriques (G. Pesson), 1v, a fl, A-cl, vn, va, vc, 1992

Chbr: Barbelés intérieurs, 2 pf, wind ens, perc, 1968; Immer, trio pour 7 claviers, 2 pf, glock, xyl, vib, mar, cloches, 1972; Per Versant II, vc, org, 11 str, 1972; Et incarnatus est, fl, ob, cl, 15 insts, 1974; Sette Framenti, quatuor à cordes, 1976; Comme au loin, 10 wind insts, 1976–7; Dolcezze ignote all’estasi (Allégorie d’exil no.4), 26 insts, 1977; Exergue (Allégorie d’exil no.1), vc, 17 insts, 1977; Un grand principe de violence commandait à nos moeurs, 16 insts, 1980; A l’aube, le rivage (from L’esprit des lieux, bk II), fl, eng hn, cl, bn, 2 hn, trbn, 1981; Bientôt le soleil retrouvera ses antiques disciples (from L’esprit des lieux, bk I), hp, 16 insts, 1981; Célébration (Allégorie d'exil no.6), str trio, 1978, rev. 1984; Comme de ce pur instant de mer qui précède la brise, 3 cl, 1981 [from L'esprit des lieux, bk II]; Im fröhlichen Ton, 12 vc, 1982–3, rev. 1990; Utopia glossa quinta, a fl, A-cl, vn, va, pf, 1982; Lied 2 ‘Dryades et Pan’, vc, pf, 1985 [after K. Szymanowski]; Lied 3 ‘Ruhe, meine Seele’, cl, vc, pf, 1985 [after R. Strauss]; Lied 4 ‘Aiguillettes en ariettes’, fl, vn, ob, bn, 1985 [after M. Lambert]; Lied 5 ‘Soave sia il vento’, ob, hn, str sextet, pf, 1985 [after W.A. Mozart]; Conc., 13 insts, 1987; Lied 9 ‘L’Archange’, cl, 9 insts, 1987; Aux rives ultérieures, vn, 10 insts, 1988; Trio, hn, vc, pf, 1989; Livre de viole ‘Nous allons, mal rêveur, dans le bague des fables’, 4 viols, 1990; Maurice Fleuret: In Memoriam, org, 8 wind insts, 1990; Paysage avec figures absentes, fl, cl, pf, vn, vc, 1994; 3 Pieces, va, pf, 1995; Distant Voices, s sax, pf, 1996; In Lovely Blueness, vc, pf, 1996; Le sylphe, fl, hn, hp, 1997; Wie aus der Ferne, vc, 11 insts, 1998; Quasi sospeso, pf trio, 1998; Str Qt no.1, 1998; Vogel als Prophet, a fl, cl, vib, hn, hp, 1998; La nuit venue, fl, hp, 1999

Solo inst: Beau calme nu, fl, 1973; E anela l'alba, cl, 1974; Piangendo (Allégorie d'exil no.3), pf, 1977, rev. 1978; Enclaves, vc, 1978; D'obscures étoiles, pf, 1978; Sonata no.2, pf, 1978; Sonata no.3, pf, 1979; Sonata no.4, pf, 1980; L'ange au sourire, bn, 1981; Livre d'orgue no.1, 1982–3; Utopia glossa quarta, b fl, 1982; 12 études, pf, 1985–6; Cir(c)é, ob d'amour, 1986; De la mélancolie, va, 1987; Preludes I, pf, 1991–6; Livre d'orgue no.2, 1993; Preludes II, pf, 1996

Principal publishers: Amphion, Ricordi, Salabert, Suvini Zerboni

Principal recording companies: Accord, Adda, Harmonia Mundi, Salabert

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P. Gueit: ‘Un compositeur français d'aujourd'hui: Jacques Lenot’, La musique française contemporaine, Revue internationale de musique française, no.30 (1989), 79–92 [incl. work-list]

R. Fleuret: ‘“Symphonie”: allégories d'exil no.4’, Chroniques pour la musique d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1992), 163–7

PIERRE MICHEL

Lenox.

Town in Massachusetts, USA, site of the annual Berkshire Festival. The Lenox Arts Center, a laboratory for experimental music-theatre, was founded there in 1971. See also Tanglewood.

Lentando

(It.: ‘becoming slower’).

See Rallentando. See also under Tempo and expression marks.

Lento

(It.: ‘slow’).

One of the earliest tempo marks to be used in music. Mentioned in passing by Zarlino (‘movimenti tardi e lenti’), it was used by Praetorius (Polyhymnia caduceatrix, 1619; Puericinium, 1621), Thomas Selle (1636) and Schütz. Praetorius (1619) gave the equation lento vel adagio: tardè: mit langsamen Tact, and in Syntagma musicum, iii (2/1619/R) equated adagio: largo: lento: langsam. The word never achieved the same popularity as adagio, largo and grave; but in French music from Lully onwards it became one of the major tempo marks in its adverbial French form lentement. Sans lenteur was a particular favourite of François Couperin. Rousseau (1768) gave the French adjective lent and its adverb lentement as being the same as the Italian largo, which he considered the slowest of all tempos; but there is no evidence that his opinion was generally held and he may well simply have been avoiding the dangers of translation by cognate. In the Polonaise of his B minor orchestral suite J.S. Bach marked lentement in the violin part but moderato e staccato in the flute part: even if this is an oversight it strongly suggests that he thought of lentement and moderato in the same way.

For bibliography see Tempo and expression marks.

DAVID FALLOWS

Lenton, John

(? bap. London, 4 March 1657; d London, May 1719). English violinist, singer and composer. He was possibly the John Linton baptized on 4 March 1657 at St Andrew’s, Holborn, and the John Leciton who married Judeth How, possibly a daughter of William Howes, on 19 February 1673 at St George’s Chapel, Windsor. He was sworn into a place in the Twenty-Four Violins on 2 August 1681, and retained it under James II and subsequent monarchs. His suites to celebrate William III’s return to London (?1697) and the New Year 1699 show that he contributed to the court orchestral repertory. He was sworn in as a Gentleman Extraordinary of the Chapel Royal on 10 November 1685, and eventually became Groom of the Vestry in 1708. However, he probably spent most of his time after 1688 in the theatre rather than at court. He wrote at least 12 suites for plays produced between 1682 and 1705, mostly for Betterton’s company at Lincoln’s Inn Fields.

Lenton seems to have turned in later life to writing, editing and publishing. A Consort of Musick of Three Parts (1692) and its sequel (1697) were a joint venture with Thomas Tollett. The Gentleman’s Diversion (1693), known from a single, incomplete copy (GB-CDp), seems to be the earliest extant violin tutor; Lenton must have played regularly with Henry Purcell for some years, so the rules that it gives for holding the violin, bowing, fingering and ornamentation have a special interest. Most of the book is taken up with duets ‘made purposely upon this occasion’ by the author and 14 of his contemporaries, including ‘M^r. P’ [?Purcell]. He engraved part of it himself and probably acted as publisher. He also ‘carefully Corrected’ Wit and Mirth, iv (London, 1706) and performed the same service for The Dancing-Master (London, 1710). Lenton’s music deserves more attention than it has received; his theatre suites are well written, with lively tunes and some passages of expressive harmony, though he lacks Purcell’s contrapuntal skill. Some suites probably have missing viola parts.

WORKS

stage

incidental music for plays; performed at London, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, unless otherwise stated, for sources see Price, unless otherwise stated

The Royalist (T. D’Urfey), a 3, Dorset Garden, 1682, US-NH

Venice Preserv’d (T. Otway), a 4, revival c1696, GB-Lbl*

Heroic Love (G. Granville), a 3–5, 1698

The Pretenders (T. Dilke), a 3, a 4, 1698

The Fate of Capua (T. Southerne), a 3, a 4, 1700

The Ambitious Stepmother (N. Rowe), a 4, 1700

Tamerlane (Rowe), a 4, 1701

The Royal Captive, a 3, c1702

The Fair Penitent (Rowe), a 4, 1703

Abra-Mule (J. Trapp), a 4, 1704

Liberty Asserted (J. Dennis), a 4, 1704

The Gamester (S. Centlivre), a 4, 1705

Suite, a 3, US-NH

Suite, vn pt, GB-Lbl*

other works

A Consort of Musick of 3 Parts (London, 1692), with T. Tollett, inc. (b pt only)

A 3 Part Consort of New Musick (London, 1697, 2/1699), with Tollett, inc. (tr pt only) [? as Les Trios pour toutes sortes d’instruments (Amsterdam, 1699–1700)]

Tunes played before the King at his Returne, ?1697, vn pt, GB-Lbl

Instrumental Musick for New Yeares Day, 1699, vn pt, see Lubrano

5 pieces, vn, bc, 4 pieces, 2 vn, in The Gentleman’s Diversion

Suite, d, a 2, Cfm; Suite, B, vn pt, Lbl; Round O Gloucester, g, a 2, Lcm; air, B, a 3, US-NYp; Hunmanby, air, vn, GB-Lbl; 2 pieces, vn, 1693⁵

11 songs and catches, 1685⁴, 1685⁵, 1685⁷, The Catch Club or Merry Companions (London, 1720), Lbl, see Day and Murrie

Awake, fair Venus, dialogue, Lbl*

theoretical works

The Gentleman’s Diversion, or the Violin Explained (London, 1693, 2/1702 as The Useful Instructor on the Violin) [incl. 5 pieces, vn, bc and 4 pieces, 2vn]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AshbeeR, i, ii, v, viii

BDA

BDECM

HawkinsH

C.L. Day and E.B. Murrie: English Song-Books 1651–1702 (London, 1940)

C.A. Price: Music in the Restoration Theatre (Ann Arbor, 1979)

M. Boyd and J. Rayson: ‘The Gentleman’s Diversion: John Lenton and the first Violin Tutor’, EMc, x (1982), 329–32

C. Sharpe: A Re-Evaluation of English Violin Tutors Published in the Late 17th and Early 18th Centuries (thesis, U. of Birmingham, 1991)

J. and J. Lubrano: Rare Printed and Manuscript Music, catalogue 46 (Great Barrington, MA, 1993)

P. Holman: Four and Twenty Fiddlers: the Violin at the English Court 1540–1690 (Oxford, 1993, 2/1995)

PETER HOLMAN

Lentz, Daniel K(irkland)

(b Latrobe, PA, 10 March 1942). American composer. He studied music and philosophy at St Vincent College (BA 1962), music history and composition at Ohio University (MFA 1965) and composition with Arthur Berger, Lucier and Shapero at Brandeis University (1965–7); as a composition fellow at the Berkshire Music Center (1966) he worked with Sessions and Rochberg. From 1966 to 1968 Lentz was visiting lecturer in composition at the University of California, Santa Barbara, and was a Fulbright fellow in electronic music (the first of its kind) in Stockholm in 1967–8. In 1991 he joined the staff at Arizona State University West. In addition to composing, recording and teaching, he has toured regularly as a solo performer and has founded and directed several ensembles. His numerous honours include First Prize at the Gaudeamus International Composers’ Competition in the Netherlands (1972); awards from the University of California at Berkeley and from Arizona State, Brandeis and Brown universities; several NEA grants and an award from the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst to work in Berlin (1979–80). He has received numerous commissions.

During the 1970s and early 80s Lentz worked primarily with his own ensembles, such as the California Time Machine, the San Andreas Fault and the Daniel Lentz group. His first groups performed highly theatrical, multimedia and conceptual music; with these groups he developed techniques for live multi-track recording. Compositions for his later groups often make extensive use of synthesizers, computers and sound technology. Works composed since the late 1980s, particularly An American in LA, WolfMASS and Apologetica, contain a more elaborate, expressive style of writing for voices, chamber ensembles and orchestra. His use of technology is deeply interwoven with his compositional structures, treatment of texts and conceptions of performance. In works such as Missa Umbrarum and The Crack in the Bell the text is reduced and fragmented – sometimes to the level of phonemes – and then repeated and layered with each new section. The composer has described this procedure as ‘spiral form’ (see Hitchcock). In other works Lentz employs a cascading echo system and electronic delay and replay devices aimed at creating sonic shadows or, in the case of Zeitghosts, ‘digital ghosts’. His chosen texts are often darkly comic or spiritually exalted. His music evolves through a myriad of tensions, oppositions and soaring changes. In The Crack in the Bell and WolfMASS, the use of electronic delays, layering and echoing produces a colour to tones that subtly shift and shimmer. Lentz here employs multiple rhythms that alter rapidly bar by bar; this creates a sense of heightened rhythmic tension. WolfMASS, which incorporates traditional American melodies in the context of a Latin Mass, is also slyly humorous. In later works such as Apologetica and Temple of Lament the themes are more sombre and searching; in the latter work portamento evokes a sense of longing, while the beauty of its sound suggests redemption.

WORKS

Theatre and multimedia pieces: Ecumenical Council, 1965; Gospel Meeting, 1965; A Piano: Piece, 1965; Paul and Judy Meet Startrek, 1966; Paul and Judy Meet the Time Tunnel, 1966; Hi-yo Paint, 1968; Air Meal Spatial Delivery, conceptual piece, 1969; Work of Crow, 1970

Orch: 10 Minus 30 Minutes, str, 1970; Topanga Tango, chbr orch, 1985; An American in LA, 1989; Apache Wine, chbr orch, 1989

Pfmrs, echo delay: Canon and Fugue (Canon and Fugle), 1971; King Speech Songs, 1972; You can’t see the forest … Music, 1972; Missa umbrarum, 1973; Song(s) of the Sirens (Les sirènes), 1973; 3 Pretty Madrigals, 1976; Dancing on the Sun, 1980; Music by Candlelight (Love and Death), 1980; Uitoto, 1980; Is it Love, 1984; Bacchus, 1985

Vocal: I, a Double Conc. (Senescence sonorum), amp body sounds, chorus, orch, 1970; Fermentation Notebooks: 1 Kissing Song, 2 Rising Song, 3 Drinking Song, 28–48 unacc. vv, no.3 with wine glasses, 1972; O-Ke-Wa (N. American Eclipse), 12 solo vv, bells, rasps, drums, 1974; Sun Tropes, 7 solo vv, recs, kalimbas, 1975; Composition in Contrary and Parallel Motion, 16 solo vv, perc, 4 kbd, 1977; The Elysian Nymph, 8 solo vv, 8 mar, 1978; Wolf is Dead, vv, perc, 1979, rev. 6 solo vv, 8 kbd, 1982; On the Leopard Altar (Aztec Altar), 1v, 2 kbd, 1983; Wail Song, 1v, 5 solo vv, 8 kbd, 1983; 9 other works, 1965–76; Lullaby, vv, hp, 3 kbd, 1978; Adieu, vv, hp, 3 kbd, 1983; The Dream King, 1v, variable chbr ens, 1985; The Crack in the Bell, vv, 3 kbd, opt. chbr orch, 1986; La tache, 69, spkr, wine glass, 1986; WolfMASS, 1v, chorus, 3 MIDI kbd, 2 perc, 1987; Abalone, blues B, variable chbr ens, 1988; OrgasMASS, 1v, 3 MIDI kbd, elec wind inst, 1988; Cathedral of Ecstasy, 1v, elec wind inst, 3 MIDI kbd, 1990; Talk Radio, 1v, fl, cl, perc, kbd, vn, va, vc, tape, 1991; b.e. coming(s), S, Bar, cl, perc, 2 kbd, 1991–3; White BEE, 1v, tape, 1993; Apologetica, A, Ct, chorus, str orch, 2 perc, 2 MIDI kbd, 1996

Chbr: 3 Episodes from Exodus, org, perc, 1962; Pf Piece for Little Kids with Big Hands, 1962; 3 Haiku in 4 Movts, str qt, 1963; 8 Dialectics 8, 18 insts, 1964; Fünke (Rhapsody), fl, vib, drums, db, pf, 1964; Point Conception, 9 pf, 1981; Lascaux (Chumash Tombs), wine-glasses, 1984; Time’s Trick, ens, 1984; Bacchus, wine-glasses, live multi-tracking, 1985; Wild Turkeys, 3 kbd, 1986; A California Family (Group Portrait), vn, pf, perc, tape, 1989; Blues for Mary J., fl, tpt, hn, va, vc, pf, 1996; Apparitions of JB, perc + digital perc, 1997; Zeitghosts, cl, s sax, 2 perc, kbd, 1997

El-ac: No Exit, tape, 1963; Montage Shift, tape, 1963; Eleison, tape, 1965; Medeighnia’s, tape, 1965; Sermon: Saying Something with Music, str qt, elecs, 1966; The Last Concert, in 3: Love and Conception, Birth and Death, Fate and Death, pf, elecs, 1968; Pastime, str inst, elecs, 1969; Temple of Lament, S, 2 MIDI kbd, digital orch, 1996

Recorded interviews in US-NHoh

Principal publishers: Soundings, Source

Principal recording companies: EMI, Fontec, New Albion

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Wiley Hitchcock: Music in the United States: an Historical Introduction (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1969, 3/1988)

D. Cope: New Directions in Music (Dubuque, IA, 1971, 3/1981), 65

D. Lentz: ‘Music Lib’, Soundings [Berkeley], nos.3–4 (1972), 24–35

G. Eister: ‘Dan’l Lentz: Words and Music’, Soundings [Berkeley], no.10 (1976), pt 4

J. Dilibeto: ‘Daniel Lentz’, Down Beat, lii/6 (1985), 38–9

J. Schaefer: New Sounds: a Listener’s Guide to New Music (New York,1987)

G. Smith and N.W. Smith: New Voices: American Composers Talk about their Music (Portland, OR, 1995)

ARTHUR J. SABATINI

Lentz, Johannes Nicolaas [Johann Nicolaus]

(b Gau-Bickelheim, nr Bad Kreuznach, 1719/20; d Rotterdam, 31 Jan 1782). Dutch composer of German birth. The first known record of him is in Rotterdam in 1749, the year of his marriage. He was a wine merchant, but was closely associated with musical circles in Rotterdam. One of his daughters married the violinist Cornelis Antoni Steger, a leading figure in the city's cultural life. Lentz was buried in Antwerp. His works are in a light-textured, pre-Classical style full of Empfindsamkeit.

WORKS

Concerto, hpd, 2 vn, va, vc, with Sonata, vn, obbl hpd (Amsterdam and Rotterdam, 1753), hpd pt only survives

II. concerti, B, C, obbl hpd, 3 vn, va, vc (Rotterdam, n.d.)

THIEMO WIND

Lenya [Lenja], Lotte [Blamauer, Karoline Wilhelmine]

(b Vienna, 18 Oct 1898; d New York, 27 Nov 1981). American singing actress of Austrian birth. After studying dance in Zürich (1914–20) she moved to Berlin to embark on a dancing career. Two years later she turned to the spoken theatre, where by the end of the decade she had established a brilliant reputation in plays by, among others, Wedekind, Marieluise Fleisser and, above all, Brecht and his outstanding musical collaborator, Kurt Weill. Her marriage to Weill in 1926 was followed by a striking appearance at the 1927 Baden-Baden Festival in his and Brecht's one-act ‘Songspiel’ Mahagonny. With her creation of Jenny in Die Dreigroschenoper (1928, Berlin) and her subsequent recordings and film version of that role, her international reputation was assured. While continuing a noteworthy career as an actress, she sang the part of Jenny in the Berlin version of Weill's Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny (with new material specially composed for her) and created three further roles in works by Weill: Anna I in the ballet chanté Die sieben Todsünden (1933, Paris), Miriam in The Eternal Road (1937) and the Duchess in The Firebrand of Florence (1945), the latter two receiving their premières in New York where the couple had emigrated in 1935.

Soon after Weill's death in 1950 Lenya began to devote much of her time to the revival of some of his important works from the German years, most notably through her re-creation, in Blitzstein's English translation, of Jenny in the long-running New York production of Die Dreigroschenoper (from 1954). Her live and recorded performances won for her and for Weill a new or renewed reputation in many lands, and established a ‘classical’ and much imitated Weill singing style whose abrasive timbre and low tessitura (generally requiring transposition down a 4th) were markedly different from those of Lenya's Berlin years, when she sang with an almost boyish soprano. What had survived from those years, and most remarkably matured, was a combination of dramatic insight and musical instinct, of intelligence, wit, coolness and passion, which arose from a strictly inimitable empathy with Weill's music. Although her tastes in both popular and classical music were broad and she enjoyed a critical succès d'estime in the Broadway production of Cabaret (1966), as a performer she confined herself almost entirely to the songs of her husband and to the one extended work he composed especially for her, Die sieben Todsünden; this was enough to establish her as one of the outstanding diseuses of her time.

No less important to Weill's later reception was Lenya's role in creating the Kurt Weill Foundation for Music (1962), a non-profit organization richly endowed by Weill's posthumous royalties (the couple was childless) and dedicated to the study and propagation of his music. Much information on Lenya's career and personality can be found in the holdings of its Weill-Lenya Research Center in New York and the pages of its biannual newsletter. Her papers are now housed in the Weill-Lenya Archive at the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library of Yale University.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Marx, ed.: Weill-Lenya (New York, 1976)

D. Spoto: Lenya: a Life (New York, 1989)

L. Symonette and K. Kowalke, eds.: Speak Low (when you Speak Love): the Letters of Kurt Weill and Lotte Lenya (Berkeley, 1996)

D. Farneth, ed.: Lenya the Legend: a Pictorial Autobiography (New York, 1998)

DAVID DREW/J. BRADFORD ROBINSON

Lenz, Wilhelm von

(b Riga, 20 May/1 June 1809; d St Petersburg, 7/19 Jan 1883). Russian official and writer on music of German descent. He was educated in Riga until 1827. The next year he continued his musical studies in Paris as a pupil of Liszt, to whom he claimed to have introduced the piano music of Weber, an idea now discredited; he also met Chopin and became friendly with Berlioz. He went to London for lessons with Moscheles, and, after further travels, he was appointed an Imperial Russian Councillor of State in St Petersburg, where he developed his writing on music, particularly on Beethoven.

Lenz's most important book was Beethoven et ses trois styles, in which he severely attacked Ulïbïshev for the latter's denunciatory judgment on the late works of Beethoven, which he had expressed in the ‘Aperçu’ to his book on Mozart. More importantly, he elaborated the idea, orginally suggested by Fétis, that Beethoven's works may be divided into three periods: early, middle and late. Lenz's tripartite division is made on the arbitrary and unreliable order of opus numbers rather than solely on stylistic grounds. Lenz's biographical writing is based on Ries, Wegeler, and above all Schindler (to Schindler's disgust). His uncritical enthusiasm for Beethoven as both man and musician, along with his romantic bias towards portraying Beethoven as an artistic martyr, provides an example of the kind of writing against which Thayer reacted in his monumental biography. Less recognized, however, is the remarkable thoroughness of Lenz's ‘Kritische Katalog’ of Beethoven's collected works, including editions and revisions.

WRITINGS

Beethoven et ses trois styles: analyses des sonates de piano suivies de l'essai d'un catalogue critique chronologique et anecdotique de l'oeuvre de Beethoven (St Petersburg, 1852/R); ed. M.D. Calvocoressi (Paris, 1909/R)

Beethoven: eine Kunststudie, i–ii (Kassel, 1855); iii/1–2, iv–v: Kritische Katalog sämtlicher Werke Ludwig van Beethovens mit Analysen derselben (Hamburg, 1860); ed. A. Kalischer (Berlin, 1908, 4/1922/R)

Die grossen Pianoforte-Virtuosen unserer Zeit aus persönlicher Bekanntschaft: Liszt, Chopin, Tausig, Henselt (Berlin, 1872; Eng. trans., 1899/R) [Eng. trans. also in MMR, viii (1878), nos.88–91]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Schindler: Biographie von Ludwig van Beethoven (Münster, 1840, 3/1860/R; ed. E. Klemm (Leipzig, 1970); Eng. trans., ed. D.W. MacArdle, as Beethoven as I Knew him) (London, 1966/R)

A. Schmitz: Das romantische Beethovenbild (Berlin and Bonn, 1927/R), 18

V.V. Stasov: ‘Liszt, Schumann i Berlioz v rossii’, Izbrannïye sochineniya [Selected works], ed. Ye.D. Stasova and others, iii (Moscow, 1952), 409–84; Eng. trans., as Vladimir Stasov: Selected Essays on Music (London, 1968/R), 117–94

ELLIOT FORBES/EDWARD GARDEN

Leo, Magister

(fl late 12th century). Composer. He was described by Anonymus 4 (Reckow, i, 22) as one of the ‘antiqui’ who had used the ordines and colores of rhythmic modal notation in their music as a means of ordering long and short note values. In all likelihood Anonymus 4 was referring to none other than Leoninus, whom he discussed and at one point (i, 46) specifically called by that name (‘a tempore Leonis’). If so, ‘Magister Leo’ is probably to be identified with Magister Leonius, a priest and canon of Notre Dame, Paris, active from the 1150s until about 1201. The title ‘Magister’ suggests that he was licensed to teach the liberal arts in the schools out of which the University of Paris would emerge. The attribution of a ‘lost’ treatise to this Magister Leo rests on a misreading (see Dittmer; for correction see Waite).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L.A. Dittmer: A Central Source of Notre-Dame Polyphony, Publications of Mediaeval Musical Manuscripts, iii (Brooklyn, NY, 1959)

W.G. Waite: ‘The Abbreviation of the Magnus Liber’, JAMS, xiv (1961), 147–58

F. Reckow: Der Musiktraktat des Anonymus 4 (Wiesbaden, 1967)

For further bibliography see Leoninus and Organum and discant: bibliography.

IAN D. BENT/EDWARD H. ROESNER

Leo X, Pope.

Patron of music and a member of the Medici family.

Leo, Leonardo [Lionardo] (Ortensio Salvatore de [di])

(b San Vito degli Schiavoni [now San Vito dei Normanni], 5 Aug 1694; d Naples, 31 Oct 1744). Italian composer and teacher. He was one of the leading Neapolitan composers of his day, especially of theatre and church music.

HELMUT HUCKE/ROSA CAFIERO

1. Life.

The son of Corrado de Leo and Rosabetta Pinto, he went to Naples in 1709 and became a pupil of Nicola Fago at the Conservatorio S Maria della Pietà dei Turchini. At the beginning of 1712 his S Chiara, o L’infedeltà abbattuta, a dramma sacro, was performed at the conservatory; from the fact that it was performed again in the viceroy’s palace on 14 February it would seem that Leo’s work attracted unusual attention. On finishing his studies he was appointed supernumerary organist in the viceroy’s chapel on 8 April 1713 and at the same time was employed as maestro di cappella in the service of the Marchese Stella; he is also said to have been maestro di cappella of S Maria della Solitaria.

As early as 13 May 1714 his first opera, Il Pisistrato, was staged. There followed commissions for opera arrangements, intermezzos and serenatas, and in 1718 a second opera, Sofonisba. From Caio Gracco (1720) the list of his opera commissions continues without a break up to his death. In 1723 he wrote his first opera for Venice, and in the same year, with La ’mpeca scoperta, he turned for the first time to the developing genre of Neapolitan commedia musicale; from then on he was regarded as one of the leading composers of comedy.

On Alessandro Scarlatti’s death in 1725 Leo was promoted to first organist of the viceregal chapel. In the following years he lost his supremacy as a composer of serious opera in Naples to his rivals Vinci and Hasse, and between 1726 and 1730 he apparently received no commissions for opera at the Teatro S Bartolomeo in Naples. He did however write serious operas for Rome and Venice, and in Naples he pursued his career as a composer of comic operas. After Hasse’s departure and Vinci’s death in 1730, Leo became the dominant figure in Neapolitan musical life. He succeeded Vinci as pro-vicemaestro and on Mancini’s death in 1737 he became vicemaestro of the royal chapel. He was repeatedly given leave to fulfil commissions for operas elsewhere (1737 Bologna, 1739 Turin, 1740 Turin and Milan), and through the family connections of the Neapolitan royal family he received commissions from the Spanish court. Even greater than his reputation as an opera composer was the esteem he acquired as a composer of oratorios with his settings of Metastasio’s S Elena al Calvario and La morte di Abele.

Leo also became prominent as a teacher: from 1734 to 1737 he taught as vicemaestro at the Conservatorio S Maria della Pietà dei Turchini, in 1739 he succeeded Feo as primo maestro at the Conservatorio S Onofrio and in 1741 he also took over the duties of primo maestro at the S Maria della Pietà dei Turchini in succession to his own teacher, Fago. The Miserere for double choir in eight parts and organ (March 1739) appears to be the first of his works aimed at the reform of church music, closely connected with his activities as a teacher. In both respects he was in competition with Francesco Durante, who taught at the two other conservatories in Naples. On Domenico Sarro’s death (25 January 1744) Leo at last became maestro di cappella of the royal chapel. He immediately composed a series of a cappella compositions (with continuo) for the use of the royal chapel during Lent and reformed the orchestra of the royal opera, but he died after only nine months in office.

2. Works.

Leo was the most versatile and technically the most accomplished among the Neapolitan composers of his time. But he lacked both the genius of Pergolesi and the facility of his rivals Vinci and Hasse (a guard once had to be posted outside his door to force him to finish an opera in time). New versions of his own works play an important part in his output.

Leo’s early works are comparatively conservative in character: chamber cantatas, mostly with only continuo accompaniment, still occupy an important place among them, and it was only gradually that he came to favour Metastasio’s librettos for his operas. Leo helped to raise the musical standards of both commedie musicali and intermezzos. His opera overtures, whose opening movements are in the tradition of the march rather than that of the instrumental concerto, represent an important stage in the development of the pre-Classical symphony.

Leo’s works, even those for the stage, reflected more than those of others of his generation the academic side of his training, to the extent that his ecclesiastical style is echoed even in his opere buffe (albeit with parodistic intent). There was considerable rivalry in the Neapolitan school between the ‘Leisti’, the supporters of Leo, and the ‘Durantisi’, those of Francesco Durante, the first characterized by their ‘scientific’, almost cerebral, approach, with counterpoint to the fore, and the second by a more instinctive approach allied to a tendency to harmonic and melodic simplicity, free of the contrapuntal artifice of Leo’s adherents. In opera, Leo was a great deal more conservative and bound by tradition than his contemporaries Hasse, Vinci and Porpora; the choral episodes of L’olimpiade and Il Ciro riconosciuto, for example, are closer to the motet style than to the celebratory choruses of contemporary opera seria. His comic operas likewise show a solid compositional technique, above all in the ensembles at the ends of acts; Leo is credited with having conferred on comic opera a musical dignity equal to that of opera seria, whose salient characteristics it borrowed. A typical example is the celebrated aria of the leading character, Fazio Tonti, in Amor vuol sofferenza, ‘Io non so dove mi sto’, accompanied by two orchestras in dialogue; its academic and pompous structure, as well as mocking the whole Metastasian style, ironically echoes Leo’s ecclesiastical manner.

Tradition, inadequately supported by evidence (as so often with the biographies and teaching careers of musicians of the Neapolitan school), has it that Leo, besides being a pupil of Scarlatti in Naples, studied with Ottavio Pitoni in Rome (particularly 1726–31, when Il trionfo di Camilla and Il Cid were performed at the Teatro Capranica, and Evergete at the Teatro delle Dame); certainly his earliest operas (at least up to 1730) are characterized by elements clearly derived from the older style, including figured bass and ostinato typical of late Baroque opera and the use of strict contrapuntal techniques, including canon. This assiduous use of counterpoint provided a firm basis for his melodic phrase structure, and certainly Leo showed an innate gift for melody, with numerous borrowings from popular song, especially in comic operas. His buffo works show a care over form and technique, in melodic structure and in the management of ensembles, that hitherto had been the preserve of serious opera.

Of particular interest for the history of the diffusion of Leo’s operas is that a manuscript of Catone in Utica (in Gb-Lam) bears notes in Handel’s handwriting and was used for a performance of the pasticcio Catone (London, King’s Theatre, 1732) directed by Handel himself and including music by Hasse, Porpora, Vivaldi and Vinci as well as Leo.

Leo’s reforming activities in sacred music in his last years are seen both in the composition of a cappella works (with organ) for the church’s times of penance (which, however, are by no means written in the ‘old style’) and in his use of choral cantus firmi and scholarly contrapuntal techniques in church music with orchestral accompaniment. It is clear that his Istituzioni o regole del contrappunto and Lezioni di canto fermo were also produced in his last years. Among his most important pupils were Piccinni, Cafaro and Jommelli. Towards the end of the 18th century his Miserere played an important role in the rediscovery of the ‘church music of the old Italians’ and was widely rated as comparable to the works of Palestrina.

WORKS

presumed lost unless source given

operas

NB	Naples, Teatro di S Bartolomeo
NF	Naples, Teatro dei Fiorentini
NC	Naples, Teatro di S Carlo
NN	Naples, Teatro Nuovo
dm	dramma per musica

Il Pisistrato (dm, 3, D. Lalli), NB, 13 May 1714, I-MC

Eumene (dm, 3, A. Zeno), Reggio nell’Emilia, Pubblico, [May] Fair 1714, collab. F. Gasparini and others [prol, arias and comic scenes by Leo]

Sofonisba (dm, 3, F. Silvani), Naples, Palazzo Reale, 22 Jan 1718; NB, carn. 1718

Caio Gracco (dm, 3, S. Stampiglia), Naples, Palazzo Reale, 19 April 1720; rev., NB, 18 Nov 1720, 1 aria F-Pc

Arianna e Teseo (dm, 3, P. Pariati), NB, 26 Nov 1721 [perf. inc.]; Naples, Pace, carn. 1729, arias in I-Mc, PLcon and Rc, 1 duet Nc

Bajazete, imperador de’ Turchi (dramma tragico, 3, B. Saddumene, after A. Piovene), Naples, Palazzo Reale, 28 Aug 1722, 2 arias D-MÜs, collab. others

Timocrate (dm, 3, Lalli), Venice, S Angelo, carn. 1723, 1 aria and 1 duet MÜs; 1 aria ed. in Strohm (1976)

La ’mpeca scoperta (commedia per musica, 3, F. Oliva), NF, 11 Nov 1723

L’ammore fedele (favola sarvateca, 3, Oliva), NF, 18 April 1724

Lo pazzo apposta (commedia per musica, 3, Oliva), NF, aut. 1724

Turno Aricino (dm, 3, Stampiglia), NB, 3 Dec 1724, 4 arias MÜs, collab. Vinci [recits in Acts 2 and 3 by Leo]

Le fente zingare (commedia, 3, F.A. Tullio), NF, wint. 1724 [rev., with new arias, of 1717 opera by A. Orefice]

Zenobia in Palmira (dm, 3, Zeno and Pariati), NB, 13 May 1725, I-Nc

Il trionfo di Camilla, regina de’ Volsci (dm, 3, Stampiglia), Rome, Capranica, 8 Jan 1726, A-Wn, D-Dl, arias in MÜs, I-Bc and PEsp [music for ints also by Leo]

Orismene, ovvero Dalli sdegni l’amore (dm, 3, C. de Palma), NN, carn. 1726 MC

La donna violante (commedia, 3, Tullio), NF, aut. 1726, lib TAc

La semmeglianza de chi l’ha fatta (commedia per musica, 3, D. Senialbo), NF, aut. 1726, MC, Act 2 Nc*

Il Cid (dm, 3, G.G. Alborghetti), Rome, Capranica, 10 Feb 1727, arias in D-MÜs, I-Rc and Rvat

Lo matrimonio annascuso (commedia per musica, 3, S. de Maltrano), NF, spr. 1727

Argene (dm, 3, Lalli), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, 17 Jan 1728, GB-Lam; NB, 28 Aug 1731, Acts 2 and 3 I-MC, arias in D-MÜs, GB-Cfm and I-Vc

La pastorella commattuta (chelleta ridicola, 3, T. Mariani), NN, aut. 1728, 1 aria Mc

Catone in Utica (tragedia per musica, 3, P. Metastasio), Venice, S. Giovanni Grisostomo, carn. 1729, B-Bc, GB-Lam (facs. in IOB, lxx, 1983), US-Wc, arias in GB-Lcm, I-Mc and MAC; as Catone, arr. Handel with addl arias by Hasse, Porpora, Vinci and Vivaldi, London, King’s, 4 Nov 1732, D-Hs (facs. in IOB, lxxi, 1983), GB-Lam

La schiava per amore (commedia per musica, 3, Mariani), NN, aut. 1729, arias I-Rc

Semiramide (dm, 3, Metastasio), ?2 Feb 1730, 1 aria Bc

La Rosmene (commedia per musica, 3, Saddumene), NN, sum. 1730, arias Mc, Nc, Rsc

Evergete (dm, 3, Lalli and Silvani, after P. Corneille: Héraclius empereur d’Orient), Rome, Dame, 20 Jan 1731, MC, arias in Rc and Rsc

Il Demetrio [1st version] (dm, 3, Metastasio), NB, 1 Oct 1732, F-Pc* (Act 1), I-Mc, arias in Mc Nc and Vc

La vecchia trammera (commedia per musica, 3, Tullio), NN, 1732, collab. A. Orefice

Amore mette sinno [Amor dà senno] (commedia per museca, 3, Saddumene), NN, spr. 1733, collab. 1 other

Nitocri, regina d’Egitto (dm, 3, Zeno), NB, 4 Nov 1733, MC

La Rosilla (tragicommedia, 3, Tullio), NN, aut. 1733, collab. Orefice [rev. of Orefice: La Locinna, 1723]

Il castello d’Atlante (dm, 3, Mariani), NB, 4 July 1734 [ints by Feo], arias Rc

Il Medo (dm, 3, O. Frugoni), Palermo, 1734, B-Bc, collab. Vinci

Demofoonte (dm, 3, Metastasio), NB, 20 Jan 1735, GB-Lbl (attrib. entirely to Leo in catalogue), I-MC, Acts 1 and 2 Nc, arias in Bc, Mc and Nc, 1 duet CATc, collab, F. Mancini, Sarro and Sellitto

La clemenza di Tito (dm, 3, Metastasio), Venice, S Giovanni Grisostomo, 29 Jan 1735, Nc

Emira (dm, 3), NB, 12 July 1735 [ints by I. Prota], GB-Bu (dated 1736, Acts 1 and 3), I-MC, Nc, arias Mc; sinfonia ed. G.A. Pastore (Milan, 1957)

Il Demetrio [2nd version] (dm, 3, Metastasio), Castello di Torremaggiore, 10 Dec 1735

Lucio Papirio (dm, 3, S. Salvi), NB, 19 Dec 1735, 1 Act B-Bc

Onore vince amore (melodrama, 3), NF, aut. 1736

Farnace (dm, 3, Lalli), NB, 19 Dec 1736, A-Wn, F-Pc; sinfonia ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. A, i (New York, 1983)

L’amico traditore (dm, 3), NF, carn. 1737

Siface (dm, 3, Metastasio), Bologna, Malvezzi, 11 May 1737, I-MC, arias in Bas, Bc, CAS, Mc, Nc, PAc and PLcon; rev. as Viriate, Pistoia, sum. 1740, incl. music by others

La simpatia del sangue (dm, 3, P. Trinchera), NN, aut. 1737, F-Pc

L’olimpiade (dm, 3, Metastasio), NC, 19 Dec 1737, B-Bc, D-Bsb, Dl, F-Pc, I-Mc (facs. in IOB, xxxvi, 1978), Nc, Vc, Vnm, arias in Bas, CAS, Gl, Ls, Mc, Nc, PAc and PLcon; sinfonia ed. G.A. Pastore (Padua, 1960)

Il conte (dg per musica, 3, G. Federico), NF, spr. 1738

Sesostri re d’Egitto (Pariati), Lisbon, Trindade, 1738, lib P-Cug

Il Ciro riconosciuto (dm, 3, Metastasio), Turin, Regio, carn. 1739, D-Bsb, F-Pc, I-Mc, MC, Nc, arias in Bc, Ls, Mc, Nc and PAc; sinfonia ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. A, i (New York, 1983)

Amor vuol sofferenza [La frascatana; Il cioè] (commedia per musica, 3, Federico), NN, aut. 1739, A-Wgm, F-Pc, GB-Lbl, I-Mc Nc (Act 1), arias in Bc and Mc, ed. G.A. Pastore (Bari, 1962); rev. with addns by M. Capranica as La finta frascatana (ob), NN, Nov 1744; sinfonia ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. A, i (New York, 1983)

Achille in Sciro (dm, 3, Metastasio), Turin, Regio, carn. 1740, D-Bsb, Tu, I-Mc, MC, Nc, arias in Bc, Mc and Nc

Scipione nelle Spagne (dm, 3, Zeno), Milan, Ducale, carn. 1740, arias in CATc, Mc and Nc

L’Alidoro (commedia per musica, 3, Federico), NF, sum. 1740, MC

L’Alessandro (commedia per musica, 3, Federico), NF, aut. 1741

Il Demetrio [3rd version] (dm, 3, Metastasio), NC, 19 Dec 1741, F-Pc, I-Mc

L’impresario delle Isole Canarie (intermezzi comici musicali, Metastasio), Venice, S Angelo, 1741

L’ambizione delusa (commedia pastorale, 3, D. Canicà), NN, spr. 1742, F-Pc

L’Andromaca (dm, 3, Salvi, after J. Racine), NC, 4 Nov 1742, D-LEm (facs. in IOB, xxxix, 1979, I-Nc*), arias in Bc and PAc; sinfonia ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. A, i (New York, 1983)

Il giramondo (commedia per musica, 3, G. Palomba), Florence, Cocomero, aut. 1743, lib Bc; rev. as I viaggiatori (int per musica, 3), Paris Opéra, 1754, F-Po

Il fantastico, od Il nuovo Chisciotte (commedia per musica, 3, Federico, after M. de Cervantes), NN, 1743

Vologeso re de’ Parti (dm, 3), Turin, Regio, carn. 1744, I-Tci, Tf, arias in Mc and Nc

La fedeltà odiata (commedia per musica, 3, Palomba), NF, spr. 1744

La caduta di Germanico (dm, 3), ?unperf., BRc

Arias for Naples perfs. of Gasparini: Sesostri, re d’Egitto, 1717; Handel: Rinaldo, 1718; Ristori: Temistocle, 1738; Perez: Siroe, re di Persia, 1740, B-Bc; Hasse: Issipile, 1742, arias in I-Bc, Mc, Nc

Music in: Il Demetrio, 1738; Andromeda, 1750, A-Wn

Arias in B-Bc, D-Müs, F-Pn, GB-Cfm, Lam, I-Mc, Nc, Nf and Plcon

Doubtful: Venturina e Sciarappa (int, Saddumene), 1722; Lo Simmele (commedia, 3, Saddumene), NN, 15 Oct 1724, collab. Orefice [possibly all by Orefice]; Carlo in Alemagna, Milan, Ducale, Jan 1740 (see StiegerO); Tiridate, NC, 19 Dec 1740 (see Marinelli Roscioni, 1987, p.8)

serenatas, prologues, feste teatrali

see complete list in Pastore (1994)

Il gran giorno d’Arcadia (serenata), Naples, Palazzo Reale, 1716

Diana amante (serenata), Naples, Palazzo Reale, 4 Dec 1717, I-Nc

Le nozze in danza (serenata), Naples, Palace of the Prince of San Nicandro, 1718

Serenata commissioned by Nicola Grimaldi in praise of his admiral and officers, Naples, Grimaldi Palace, Jan 1719

Onore e Virtù (prol to Baiazete, imperator dei Turchi), Naples, S Bartolomeo, 1722

Serenata [characters: Speranza, Apollo, Dora, Lacone], for the birthday of Empress Elisabeth, Rome, Ambassador’s Palace, 19 Nov 1733

Le nozze di Psiche con Amore (festa teatrale, G. Baldassare), for the wedding of Carlos III of Naples and Maria Amalia of Saxony, Naples, S Carlo, 23 June 1738, D-Bsb, I-Nc; introduction ed. G.A. Pastore (Padova, 1960)

Festa teatrale for the wedding of Prince Philip, Madrid, 1739

Decebalo (festa teatrale), ? on birth of Princess Maria Elisabeth, 1743, F-Pc (inc.), I-Mc (untitled score), arias Nc

Serenata del felice parto della regina di Napoli, 1743, collab. G. Manna and N. Logroscino, unperf.

La contesa dell’Amore e della Virtù (prol), Aug 1774, F-Pc*

Peloro, I-Rvat

Le nozze di Jole ed Ercole, D-MÜp

Flavio e Domizia (componimento pastorale), D-Bsb* (inc.)

chamber cantatas, arias, duets

A complete list is not yet possible; see the catalogues (which differ) in Leo (1905) and Pastore (1957 and 1994). The principal sources are A-Wgm, D-Bsb, Dl, KA, Mbs, SWl, F-Pc, GB-Lbl, I-Bc, CATc, Gl, Mc, Nc, PAc. Numerous songs, including some from the operas, were published in 18th- and 19th-century anthologies.

sacred dramas and oratorios

S Chiara, o L’infedeltà abbattuta, Naples, Conservatorio di S Maria della Pietà dei Turchini, carn. 1712; Royal Palace, 16 Feb 1712

Il trionfo della castità di S Alessio (C. de Petris), Naples, S Maria della Pietà dei Turchini, 4 Jan 1713, F-Pc (?frag.), I-MC

Dalla morte alla vita di S Maria Maddalena, Atrani, nr Amalfi, 22 July 1722

Oratorio per la SS Vergine del Rosario, Naples, Cloisters of S Caterina a Formiello, 1 Oct 1730, D-MÜp

S Elena al Calvario (Metastasio), Bologna, 1734 [? Naples, 1732], A-Wn, B-Bc, D-Bsb, Dl, GB-Cfm, I-Fc, Mc, MC, Nc, Nf, Vlevi; sinfonia ed. R. Engländer (London, c1955), G.A. Pastore (Milan, 1957)

La morte di Abele (Metastasio), Bologna, 1738 [? Naples, 1732], A-Wn, B-Bc, D-Bsb, Dl, Mbs, I-Bc, Nc, Nf, OS, Vgc, arias in Nc, choruses in Mc; sinfonia ed. G.A. Pastore (Milan, 1957), choruses ed. G. Piccioli (Milan, 1959)

S Francesco di Paola nel deserto, Lecce, S Maria degli Angeli, 1738

Il verbo eterno e la religione (C.F. Taviani), Florence, 1741

Oratorio … per il S Natale, Nf (pts)

Santa Geneviefa, Nc; sinfonia ed. G.A. Pastore (Milan, 1957)

Saul et Gionata, c1774, doubtful

Choruses for Sofronia (sacred tragedy), in A. Marchese: Tragedie cristiane, ii (Naples, 1729)

other sacred vocal

See complete list in Pastore (1957 and 1994) and Krause (1987); principal sources: A-KR, Wgm, Wn, B-Bc, D-Bsb, Dkh, Dl, DS, Mbs, GB-Cfm, Lbl, I-Ad, Bc, BGc, Bsf, Fc, Ls, Mc, Nc, PESd, Rsc; several pieces in The Fitzwilliam Music (London, 1825)

Masses: 6 Neapolitan masses (Ky–Gl), 4 for SSATB, insts, 1 for SATB, insts, 1 for SATB a cappella; miscellaneous mass movts, incl. 5 Crs, vv, insts, 3 Cr–San–Ag, vv, insts

Ints, incl. Introit pel Dì delle Ceneri, 1744, SATB, bc, org; others for Holy Week

Grads, incl. Laudate Dominum, SATB, insts; Benedicta et Venerabilis es, Virgo Maria, 2vv, choir, insts, I-Mc; Laudate pueri (Alleluia verse), double choir; others for Holy Week

Offs and comms for Holy Week

2 Mag, 1 for SATB, insts, 1 for SSATB, insts, Mc, Nc

TeD, SATB, insts

c22 ants, incl. Alleluja, 4vv; 4 Christus factus est, S, insts; 7 Dixit Dominus, 4–10vv, insts, 1 ed. in Opera omnia di Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, xiii (Rome, 1942); 2 Gl, 2vv, insts; Haec regina virginum, S, orch, Mc; 4 Miserere, 4–8vv, insts/org; Miserere, 1739, double choir, org; Salve regina, S, insts, ed. in Die Kantate, iv (Cologne, 1958)

Vesper pss, incl. Confitebor tibi, Domine (Ps cx), 5vv

5 lessons, 1 resp, for Holy Week

Lit, 4vv, viol, bc

c10 motets (Nc), incl. 2 Heu nos miseros, 1 ed. R. Ewerhart (Altötting, 1958); Praebe virgo, S, org, ed. in Cantio sacra, xv (Altötting, 1957); 1 for double choir

2 hymns, Pange lingua, double choir, Mr*, BGc, Mc, Nc; A solis, 3vv, bc

Cantata per il miracolo di S Gennaro, 5vv

5 fugues, incl. Tu es sacerdos, SATB, bc, org

instrumental

see complete list in Pastore (1994)

Ov. in 6 ouverture a più stromenti composte da vari autori, op.5 (Paris, c1759)

Sinfonia a 6, 2 vn, 2 ob, 2 hn, hpd, in 1er recueil de sinfonies de différens auteurs italiens (Paris, c1760)

Sinfonia concertata, vn, vc, I-Mc

6 concs., vc, str orch, bc, 1737–8, Mc, Nc (incl. 1 as Sinfonia concertata, autograph); 1 in D, ed. F. Cilea (Milan, 1922), 1 in A, ed. E. Rapp (Mainz, 1938), 1 in c, ed. C. Gatti (Milan, n.d.), 3 ed. in SEM, vii (1973), 1 in f, ed. U. Rapalo (Milan, 1987)

Conc., D, 4 vn, bc, D-Bsb, ed. M. Abbado and E. Polo (Milan, 1939), ed. in Musikschätze der Vergangenheit, xxiv (Berlin, 1952)

Duet in Scielta di 6 duetti … composte da vari autori, 2 ﬂ/vn/bn (Paris, n.d.)

Trios in 6 Trios, ﬂ, vn, bn/vc (London, c1795)

14 toccatas, hpd, I-Mc, Nc, ?1 pubd in The Lady’s Entertainment or Banquet of Music, bks 1–2 (London, 1708): ed. A. Longo, Composizioni per clavicembalo ordinate in forma di suite (Milan, n.d.); some ed. M. Maffioletti, 6 Toccate per cembalo (Milan, 1926); 3 ed. in Antologia di musica antica e moderna per pianoforte, xii (Milan, 1932); ed. A. Bassi (Milan, 1988); ed. C. Prontera (Rome, 1996)

Aria con variazioni, hpd, ?D-Dl, I-Nc, ed. G. Azzoni (Florence, 1906)

didactic works

for complete list see Pastore (1994)

Solfeggi, Partimenti, A-Wn, D-Bsb, MÜp, I-Bc, Mc, Nc, PAc PESc, Ria, Rsc; some pubd in Solfèges d’Italie avec la basse chiffrée (Paris, 1772); also in Nouveaux solfèges d’Italie avec la basse (Paris, c1784); 6 ed. G.F. Malipiero, 6 solfeggi di Leonardo Leo (Milan, n.d.)

Esercizi sulle mutazioni, Nc

Fugues, 4, 6, 8vv, Mc

Istituzioni o regole del contrappunto, 1739, Nc

Istituzioni del contrappunto, 1792, Nc

Lezioni di canto fermo, Nc

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

FlorimoN

GiacomoC

RosaM

SartoriL

J.F. Reichardt: ‘Leonardo Leo’, Musikalisches Kunstmagazin, i (1782), 39–41

[G.B.G. Grossi]: ‘Leonardo Leo’, Biografia degli uomini illustri del regno di Napoli ornata de’ loro rispettivi ritratti, compilata da diversi litterati nazionali, vi (Naples, 1819)

V. Leo: Leonardo Leo e la sua epoca musicale (Brindisi, 1894)

G. Leo: Leonardo Leo celebre musico del sec. XVIII ed il suo omonimo Leonardo Leo di Corrado (Naples, 1901)

G. Leo: I signori Leo e Di Leo ricchi e poveri nel secolo XVII e XVIII in S. Vito de’ Normanni ed il celebre musicista Leonardo Leo (Naples, 1901)

G. Leo: Leonardo Leo musicista del secolo XVIII e le sue opere musicali (Naples, 1905/R)

E.J. Dent: ‘Leonardo Leo’, SIMG, viii (1906–7), 550–66

F. Piovano: ‘A propos d’une récente biographie de Léonard Leo’, SIMG, viii (1906–7), 70–95, 336 only

E. Faustini-Fasini: ‘Leonardo Leo e la sua famiglia’, NA, xiv (1937), 11–18

F. Walker: ‘Cav. Giacomo Leo and his Famous “Ancestor”’, MR, ix (1948), 241–6

F. Schlitzer: ‘Notizie di Leonardo Leo’, Tommaso Traetta, Leonardo Leo, Vincenzo Bellini: note e documenti, Chigiana, ix (1952), 55–60

G.A. Pastore: Leonardo Leo (Galatina, 1957)

G. Roma: Il brindisino Leonardo Leo (Fasano, 1966)

D. Green: ‘Progressive and Conservative Tendencies in the Violoncello Concertos of Leonardo Leo’, Studies in Eighteenth-Century Music: a Tribute to Karl Geiringer, ed. H.C. Robbins Landon and R. Chapman (London, 1970), 261–71

H.C. Wolff: ‘Leonardo Leo’s Oper “L’Andromaca” (1742)’, Studi musicali, i (1972), 285–315

H.C. Wolff: ‘Un oratorio sconosciuto di Leonardo Leo’, RIM, vii (1972), 196–213

G. Hardie: Leonardo Leo (1694–1744) and his Comic Opera ‘Amor vuol sofferenza’ and ‘Alidoro’ (diss. Cornell U., 1973)

G. Hardie: ‘Gennaro Antonio Federico’s Amor vuol sofferenza (1739) and the Neapolitan Comic Opera’, SMA, x (1976), 62–6

R. Strohm: Italienische Opernarien des frühen Settecento, AnMc, no.16 (1976)

F. Degrada: ‘L’opera napoletana’, Storia dell'opera, ed. G. Barblan and A. Basso, i (Turin, 1977), 237–332

B. Cagli and A. Ziino, eds.: Il Teatro di San Carlo 1737–1987, ii: La cronologia, ed. C. Marinelli Roscioni (Naples, 1987) [incl. F. Degrada: ‘“Scuola napoletana” e “Opera napoletana”: nascita, sviluppo e prospettive di un concetto storiografico’, 9–20; H. Hucke: ‘L’“Achille in Sciro” di Domenico Sarri e l’inaugurazione del teatro di San Carlo’, 21–32; G. Morelli: ‘Castrati, primedonne, e Metastasio nel felicissimo giorno del nome di Carlo’, 33–60]

R. Krause: Die Kirchenmusik von Leonardo Leo (1694–1744): ein Beitrag zur Musikgeschichte Neapels im 18. Jahrhundert (Regensburg, 1987)

M. de Santis: ‘Musica sacra a Napoli: i responsori della Settimana Santa di Leonardo Leo’, De musica hispana et aliis: miscelánea en honor al Prof. Dr. José López-Calo, ed. E. Casares and C. Villanueva (Santiago de Compostela, 1990), i, 555–92

F. Cotticelli and P. Maione: Le istituzioni musicali a Napoli durante il viceregno austriaco (1707–1734): materiali inediti sulla Real Cappella ed il Teatro di San Bartolomeo (Naples, 1994)

G.A. Pastore: Don Lionardo: vita e opere di Leonardo Leo (Cuneo, 1994)

P. Pellegrino, ed.: Amor sacro e amor profano: Leonardo Leo e la cultura musicale napoletana del '700 (Lecce, 1996)

Leo da Modena.

See Modena, Leon.

Leodiensis, Iacobus de.

See Jacobus of Liège.

Leo Hebraeus.

See Gersonides.

León, Argeliers

(b Havana, 7 May 1918; d Havana, 23 Feb 1991). Cuban musicologist, ethnomusicologist and composer. He obtained a doctorate in education at the University of Havana (1943) and studied with Pérez Sentenat, Domingo Fontón and Antonio Mompó at the Havana Conservatory. In 1937 he started teaching at the conservatory, where he later formed part of the Grupo de Renovación Musical, set up by Ardévol with his composition students (1944–8). In 1957 he studied with Nadia Boulanger at the Paris Conservatoire. He trained as an ethnomusicologist with Fernando Ortiz (1942) and subsequently became one of his main collaborators. It was then that he started researching into Cuban folk music, with special emphasis on music with African roots. He taught summer courses at the University of Havana and was invited by a number of academic institutions abroad. He has been at the helm of various cultural institutions in Cuba, including the folklore department of the National Theatre of Cuba (1959), the music department of the José Martí National Library (1961–7), the Institute of Ethnology and Folklore of the Cuban Academy of Science (1961–73) and the Casa de las Américas. From these institutions he attended with equal interest to traditional Cuban music and the historical concert repertory, with special emphasis on that of Latin America. He was the director of specialized journals such as Etnología y folklore and the Boletín música of the Casa de las Américas. In 1976 he organized the Instituto Superior de Arte, and remained there as its head until 1990. He carried out research in Africa, especially Nigeria, applying the procedures of structural linguistic analysis to musicological analysis.

As a composer, he tackled several techniques. In works like the Sonatas para la Virgen del Cobre (1946) he applied neo-Classical aesthetics to concepts of a national character, while in Cánticos de homenaje (1958) he used 12-note techniques, being one of the first Cuban composers to do so. His musical language underwent transformations which took him from conventional procedures to aleatorism, neo-serialism and electro-acoustics.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Sinfonia, str, 1946; Sonatas para la Virgen de Cobre, pf, str, 1946; Suite cubana, str, 1946; Sym. no.1, 1946; Concertino, fl, pf, str, 1948; Cánticos de homenaje, 1958; Sym. no.2, 1962; Y cuajó el aire en lanza, gui, orch, 1988

Choral: Elegía a Jesús Menéndez, cant., solo v, nar, chorus, orch, 1961; Creador del hombre nuevo, cant., solo vv, nar, chorus, ww, perc, 1969

Chbr: Str Qt no.1, 1957; Wind Qnt, 1959; Str Qt no.2, 1961; Qnt no.2, fl, ob, cl, bn, gui, 1963

Solo inst: Akorin, pf, 1956; 3 canciones lentas, gui, 1959; Sonata, gui, 1969

El-ac: En homenaje a un amigo, pf, tape, 1977; Saturnalia, tape, 1982

Principal publishers: Biblioteca Nacional José Martí (Havana), Editora Musical de Cuba

WRITINGS

‘Las obras para piano de Amadeo Roldán’, Revista de música [Havana], i (1960), 112–23

Música folklórica cubana (Havana, 1964)

‘Música popular de origen africano en América latina’, América indígena, xxix (1969), 627–64

‘La música como mercancía’, América Latina en su música, ed. I. Aretz (Mexico City, 1977), 238–54

Introducción al estudio del arte africano (Havana, 1980)

Del canto y el tiempo (Havana, 2/1984)

‘A lápiz de Manuel Enríquez’, Pauta [Mexico City], iii/9 (1984)

‘Para leer las firmas abakuá’, Revista Unión [Havana], x/3 (1990)

‘Notes towards a Panorama of Popular and Folk Music’, Essays on Cuban Music: North American and Cuban Perspectives (Lanham, MD, 1991), 1–23

‘Of The Axle and the Hinge: Nationalism, Afro-Cubanism and Music in Pre-Revolutionary Cuba’, ibid., 267–82

VICTORIA ELI RODRÍGUEZ

Leon, Bayani Mendoza de

(b Manila, 24 Nov 1942). Filipino composer. He took the BPhil at the University of Santo Tomas (1963), studied at the Centro Escolar University (BMus in composition) and held a scholarship of the Music Promotion Foundation of the Philippines (1971) and the Fulbright Hays music scholarship (1979–81). He received the MA in Music at the University of California in San Diego in 1982. Among the various posts he has held as a teacher, writer (he is a gifted poet) and administrator are those of chairman of the Concert Philippines Society (1966–70), resident composer of the Kalinangan Ensemble of the Philippine Educational Theatre Association (1968), music director of SAMAHAN Philippine Dance Company and PASACAT Performing Arts Company, San Diego (1981–4) and lecturer in Asian Music Studies at the University of California, San Diego (1981–4). He also became music director of two rondallas (plucked string orchestras): the Paaralong Pilipino Rondalla in 1990 and the Foundation for Filipino Artists Rondalla in 1995.

WORKS

(selective list)

Dramatic: The Golden Earth (dance drama), 1966; Ako [I Am] (zar, 3), 1971; Anting-anting (ballet, 1), 1973; Atlantis (ballet, 1) 1978; Villa Mariquita (zar, 3), 1985; film music

Orch: The Legend of the Sarimanok, 1968; Pag-asa [Hope], 1969; Batong Buhay [Live Stone], sym. poem, 1970; Vertigo, concertino, cl, orch, 1970; Pagkamulat, sym. poem, 1974; Mulawin, 1978

Vocal orch: Alamat ng lupa [Legend of the Land], choral drama, 1968; Sisa, choral fantasy, 1968; Be Still my Heart, S, orch, 1971; Los penitentes, choral poem, 1971; Regina Coeli, 1977

Chbr: Essay, fl, pf, 1972; Perlas, vc, pf, 1972; Arok-Diwa, cl, trbn, 2 vn, 2 gui, timp, 1975; Bahay-Bata, cl, banduria, laud, hp, perc, 1975; Okir, fl, hp, db, 1980; Pandagguhan, fl, vn, vc, pf, 1981; Atmospheres, gui, pf, indigenous ww, perc, 1983; Silay-Parnaso, vn, vc, gui, 1990; Krokis, cl, tpt, trbn, 1991; Lulay, 3vv, 2 vc, gui, 1992; 7 Diversions, vc, pf, 1996

LUCRECIA R. KASILAG

Leon, Felipe Padilla de

(b Penaranda, Nueva Ecija, 1 May 1912; d Manila, 2 Dec 1992). Filipino composer and conductor. He studied at the Conservatory of Music at the University of the Philippines, where he received a teacher’s diploma in composition and conducting (1939), and where he remained as a teacher of theory and composition. Thereafter he was director of the music school at Union College, Manila, and then, during the war, he founded his own music academy; later he lectured on Philippine music in many parts of the country. Formerly music critic for the Manila Times and Taliba, he was director of cultural affairs for the city of Manila; he also held appointments as state cultural adviser (1972), president of the National Music Council of the Philippines (until 1973) and president of the Filipino Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers. Among the many honours he received are the Republic Cultural Heritage Award (1971) and the Araw ng Maynila Cultural Award (1972); he was posthumously named National Artist for Music in 1997. An intensely nationalist composer, he employed native features in an impressionist style.

WORKS

(selective list)

Ops: Noli me tangere (3), 1957; El filibusterismo (3), 1970

Orch and vocal-orch: Banyuhay [New life], sym. poem, 1v, orch, 1947; Cry of Balintawak, sym. poem, 1949; Manila Sketches, 1949; Rosa encantada, sym. poem, 1950; Muntawit [Short songs], 1v, orch, 1950; Concertstück, vn, orch, 1952; Divertimento filipino, 1967; Awit ng buhay [Song of life], sym. drama, Bar, orch, 1969; Rhapsodietta, tpt, perc, 1972; Bataan, sym. poem; Maynila Ov., 1976; Tatlong Tunog-Larawan, 1976; fl conc., 1980; Orchestertuk, 1981

Chbr: Night Dreams, vn, vc, pf, 1939; Serenade, vn, pf, 1944; Rhapsodietta, tpt, perc, 1972; Fantasy, 4 fl, perc, 1975

Pf: Music Time, 61 educational pieces

LUCRECIA R. KASILAG

Leon, J. [?Juan] de

(fl ? 1480–1514). Spanish composer. One song, Ay, que non sé rremediarme, is attributed to him in songbooks from the time of the Catholic Monarchs. He may well be identifiable with Juan de León, who was appointed maestro de canto at Santiago Cathedral on 30 August 1480. In January 1487 he became a canon, but the following month he was stripped of his charge of the musicians, probably because of absence. By September 1499 he was a singer at Málaga Cathedral, where he stayed until 1514 (apart from a short period in Granada). He must thus have known Diego Fernández and Juan del Encina, who both worked at Málaga Cathedral during that period. In 1501 the cathedral chapter granted him a dispensation allowing him to dedicate several hours each morning to the study of music; some time before March 1510 he was appointed precentor but was still allowed to sing in the choir. In 1512 he was granted permission by the chapter to go to Rome to be ordained, but it is not known whether he undertook the journey. In the chapter acts for February 1514 he is referred to as a bass singer (‘contrabaxo’), but this is the last reference to him and he may have died soon afterwards.

His one extant song, a three-voice canción on the theme of courtly love, is found in three sources (E-Mp 1335, ed. in MME, v, 1947; E-Sc 7-I-28, ed. in MME, xxxiii, 1971; I-Bc 109); it is possible that it was transmitted to the court repertory through his contacts with musicians connected with that circle. It is relatively unusual for its use of triple metre and displays a transitional style in its use of homophonic declamation for the first part of a phrase and extended melismas on the penultimate syllable before each cadence.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

StevensonSM

A. López Ferreiro: Historia de la santa a.m. iglesia de Santiago de Compostela, vii (Santiago de Compostela, 1905/R), 333–4

R. Mitjana: ‘Nuevas notas al “Cancionero musical de los siglos XV y XVI” publicado por el maestro Barbieri’, Revista de filología española, v (1918), 113–32

T.W. Knighton: Music and Musicians at the Court of Fernando of Aragon, 1474–1516 (diss., U. of Cambridge, 1984), i, 275

TESS KNIGHTON

León, Tania (Justina)

(b Havana, 14 May 1943). Cuban-American composer and conductor of mixed descent (French, Spanish, African, Chinese). A graduate of the Peyrellade’s Conservatorio de Música in Havana (BA 1963, MA 1964), she began her career as a pianist. After moving to the USA in 1967, she studied composition with Mamlok at New York University (BS 1971, MS 1975) and began a long and productive association as pianist, conductor and composer with the Dance Theatre of Harlem. Since her conducting début, she has fulfilled numerous engagements in the USA, Europe and South Africa, and in 1992 became associate conductor of the Brooklyn PO, whose Community Concert Series she founded in 1977. She has taught at Brooklyn College (from 1985) and served as new music adviser to various organizations, notably the New York PO (1993–6). Among her commissions are several for American orchestras and an opera commission from the city of Munich for Scourge of Hyacinths, first performed by New Music Theatre at the 1994 Munich Biennale.

With her involvement as musical director for The Wiz on Broadway, Godspell and the music theatre works of Robert Wilson during the late 1970s and early 80s, León’s compositional style absorbed American influences such as jazz and gospel. In the 1980s she began to incorporate textual and rhythmic elements from her African and Cuban cultural heritage alongside contemporary classical techniques, for example in De-Orishas (1982) and A la par (1986). Carabalí (1991), which draws on Cuban rhythms, is typical for its rhythmic energy and use of polyrhythm and irregular accents. Her works are technically demanding, and characterized by dense textures, angular melodies, dissonant harmonies and colourful orchestration.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: The Beloved (ballet), fl, ob, cl, bn, pf, vc, db, 1972, collab. J. Hamilton; Tones (ballet), pf, chbr ens, 1972, collab. A. Mitchell; Dougla (ballet), 2 fl, perc, 1974, collab. G. Holder; La ramera de la Cuena (musical, M. Peña), 1974; Maggie Magalita (W. Kesselman), fl, cl, vc, 2 perc, pf, gui, 1980; Belé (ballet), wind, perc, pf, str, 1981; The Golden Windows (R. Wilson), fl + pic + a fl, ob + eng hn, tpt, perc, 1982; Scourge of Hyacinths (chbr op, 2, T. León, after W. Soyinka), Munich, 1 May 1994

Orch: Latin Lights, 1979; Conc. criollo, pf, 8 timp, orch, 1980; Pet’s Suite, orch, 1980, also version for fl, pf; Batá, 1985; Kabiosile, pf, orch, 1988; Carabalí, 1991; Indigena, 1991; Para viola y orquesta, 1994

Chbr: Haiku, fl, bn, 5 perc, 1973; Pet’s Suite, fl, pf, 1980; Ascend, 4 hn, 4 tpt, 3 trbn, tuba, 3 perc, 1983; Permutation 7, fl, cl, tpt, perc, vn, vc, 1985; A la par, pf, perc, 1986; Parajota Delaté (From T to J), fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1988, rev. fl, ob, cl, bn, pf, 1990; Latin File, fl, cl, tpt, gui, pf, 1989; Arenas d’un tiempo, cl, vc, pf, 1992; Son sonora, fl, gui, 1992; Crossings, hn, 4 tpt, 4 trbn, tuba, 1992; sin normas ajenas, fl + pic, ob, cl, 2 perc, pf, str qt, 1994; Hechizos, fl + pic, ob, cl, b cl + s sax + t sax, hn, tpt, trbn, 2 perc, pf + cel + hpd, gui, vn, va, vc, db, 1995; De color, vn, mar, 1996–7; Saóko, brass qnt, 1997

Solo inst: Ensayos sobre una Toccata, pf, 1966; Preludes nos.1–2, pf, 1966; Sonata, vc, 1981; 4 Pieces, vc, 1983; Momentum, pf, 1984; Paisanos semos! (We’s Hillbillies!), gui, 1984; Rituál, pf, 1987

Vocal: Namiac Poems, solo v, mixed chorus, orch, 1975; Spiritual Suite, nar, S, S, mixed chorus, ens, 1976; I Got Ovah, S, pf, perc, 1980; De-Orishas (Yoruban texts and B. Neals), S, S, Ct, T, T, B, 2 perc, 1982; Pueblo mulato: 3 Songs (N. Guillén), S, ob, gui, db, perc, pf, 1987; Heart of Ours: a Piece (R. Sandecki), T, men’s chorus, fl, 4 tpt, 2 perc, 1988; Batéy (León, M. Camilo), S, S, Ct, T, T, B, 6 perc, 1989, collab. Camilo; To and Fro, 1v, pf, 1990; Journey, 1v, fl, hp, 1990; Or Like a … (J. Ashbery), Bar, vc, perc, 1994; 7 Spirituals (D. Ryan, León), Bar/B, orch, 1995; Drume negrita (León, after E. Grenet), 12 solo vv, 1996; El manisero (León, after M. Simons), 12 solo vv, 1996; Singin’ Sepia (R. Dove), 5 songs, S, cl, vn, pf 4 hands, 1996; Sol de doce (P. Mir), 12 solo vv, 1997

El-ac: Voices and Piccolo Flute, tape; Carmen and José (incid music)

Principal publishers: Iroko, Peer-Southern

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D.A. Handy: Black Women in American Bands and Orchestras (Metuchen, NJ, 1981, 2/1998), 66–7

A. Lundy: ‘Conversations with Three Symphonic Conductors’, BPM, xvi/2 (1988), 213–25, esp. 217–20

A. Olivier and K. Weingartz-Perschel: Komponistinnen von A–Z (Düsseldorf, 1988)

J.M. Edwards: ‘North America since 1920’, Women and Music: a History, ed. K. Pendle (Bloomington, IN, 1991), 211–57, esp. 247, 250

R.K. Schwarz: ‘Black Maestros on the Podium, but No Pedestal’, New York Times (11 Oct 1992)

H. Walker-Hill: Piano Music by Black Women Composers: a Catalog of Solo and Ensemble Works (New York, 1992), 53–6

J. MICHELE EDWARDS

León (Ortega), Tomás

(b Mexico City, 21 Dec 1826; d Mexico City, 18 March 1893). Mexican pianist and composer. He studied music from an early age and by the age of 14 was organist at the church of La Profesa in Mexico City. He first appeared in public as a pianist in 1854 with the violinist Franz Rooner and the pianist Ernest Lubeck (with whom he played some duets), and was compared favourably with his European colleagues. In that same year he became a member of the jury in charge of selecting the Mexican national anthem, and from then on played a prominent role in Mexican musical life.

León was considered to be the best pianist and teacher in Mexico City, and became the centre of an important musical circle. The informal musical gatherings which were held at his house were particularly well known and it was here that his best pupils, such as Melesio Morales and Julio Ituarte gave the first performances in Mexico of pieces by Chopin and duet arrangements of Beethoven's symphonies. These gatherings resulted in the foundation of the Sociedad Filarmónica Méxicana, which in turn led to the establishment of the Conservatorio Nacional de Música in 1866, at which León taught without payment from its founding until 1872. During the Franco-Austrian occupation of Mexico, León gave concerts in honour of the Habsburg Emperor Maximilian and was even appointed pianist to the imperial court.

León was considered to be the first great Mexican virtuoso. His repertory, which included works by Hummel, Liszt, Thalberg, Dohler and Gottschalk, as well as Chopin, Beethoven and Bach, serves as evidence of an unusually broad musical sensitivity. His own compositions, almost all for the piano, reflect his own technical abilities and European Romantic influences (for example that of Chopin in his nocturnes). The great majority of his works are salon pieces written with a delicate sense of harmony and a surprising melodic freshness. Some of León's compositions, and in particular his Jarabe nacional, were important as the first nationalist pieces of the Mexican repertory. He was also one of the first Mexican composers to have music published in Europe (by Schonenberger and Schott).

RICARDO MIRANDA-PÉREZ

León Antiphoner

(E-L 8). 10th-century Mozarabic antiphoner. See Sources, MS, §II, 9.

Léonard, Hubert

(b Bellaire, nr Liège, 7 April 1819; d Paris, 6 May 1890). Belgian violinist, composer and teacher. He studied the violin with his father and with August Rouma (1802–74), a pupil of Pieltain active in Liège, and made his début at the Grand Théâtre, Liège, on 13 March 1832. He entered the Brussels Conservatory in 1832, where he studied briefly with François Prume and perhaps with Pieltain. Financial support from the Francotte-Pieltain family enabled him to go to Paris, where he was a pupil of Habeneck at the Conservatoire (1836–9) and played the violin at the Théâtre des Variétés, the Opéra-Comique and the Académie Royale de Musique (until 1844). He became a friend of Henry Vieuxtemps in 1841.

From 1845 to 1848 Léonard made extensive concert tours throughout Europe, in particular Germany. He married Antonia Stiches de Mendi, a Spanish singer, in 1849 and toured with her in 1852. The following year he succeeded Bériot at the Brussels Conservatory; he remained there until 1866, when he moved to Paris and established himself as a virtuoso, chamber music player, composer and teacher. Except for a brief return to Liège, where he taught at the conservatory, during the Franco-Prussian War, he remained in Paris until his death.

As a virtuoso, Léonard lacked the temperament of Vieuxtemps and the bravura technique of Sivori. But his critics and pupils praised his intonation, his singing tone and his classical and noble style that made him an ideal chamber music player. He was among the first to play the chamber music of Brahms in Paris, and was an ardent champion of Saint-Saëns, Fauré, Lalo and d’Indy. His compositions, which include five violin concertos, fantasias on opera melodies, duos and salon pieces, are not original and did not survive their time; his editions of Baroque and Classical works and his cadenzas to concertos by Beethoven and Viotti were more lasting. His didactic works, highly praised during his lifetime, reveal the intellectual and musical gifts that made him a successful teacher; in the words of his pupil Ovide Musin: ‘a great, if not the greatest of all pedagogues … whose method was designed to develop equally and with uniformity the bowing, [left-hand] technique, style, musical knowledge and comprehension necessary to make a complete artist’.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

PazdirekH [incl. list of works]

O. Musin: My Memories (New York, 1920)

E. van der Straeten: The History of the Violin (London, 1933/R), ii

J. Quitin: ‘Hubert Léonard’, Bulletin d’information de la vie musicale belge, viii/6 (1969)

ALBERT MELL

Leonarda, Isabella [Leonardi, Anna Isabella].

See Isabella Leonarda.

Leonardo, Luísa

(b Rio de Janeiro, 22 Oct 1859; d Salvador, Bahia, 12 June 1926). Brazilian composer and pianist. She made her début at the age of eight playing the piano in a concert before Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil, who was both her godfather and patron. In France she studied with A.F. Marmontel and Anton Rubinstein at the Paris Conservatoire (1873–9), where she was awarded a premier prix for piano. She also studied harmony and composition with Albert Lavignac and performed her Grande marcha triunfal with the Pasdeloup Orchestra conducted by Lavignac at the Salle Herz in 1877. Upon her return to Rio de Janeiro in 1879, she gave a number of highly successful concerts, but left the following year to take up an appointment in Portugal as chamber music pianist at the court of Luís I. After two years she returned to Rio, and in 1885 abandoned her career as a pianist for that of a touring company actress. She nevertheless continued to compose, contributing incidental music to the theatre revues in which she took part. In 1901 she retired from the theatre and moved to Salvador, where she taught the piano and singing.

WORKS

(selective list)

Vocal (all for 1v, pf): Solitude, 1873; Ma mère, 1873; 2 barcarolles, 1873; Innocence, 1873; Mes vers fuiraient vers vous (V. Hugo), 1877; Ave Maria, 1919

Orch: Grande marcha triunfal, pf, orch, 1877; Pietosa, 1889; Marcha fúnebre, 1892; Hino a Carlos Gomes, 1903, orchd Sant'Ana Gomes, 1903

Pf: Prière à la mémoire de Thalberg, 1869; Loin de la patrie 1872; Dans la calme de la nuit, 1879; Appassionato, 1879; Un rêve du bal, 1879; Souvenir, 1879; Flor da noite, 1897; Teu sorriso, 1903; Poema do espaço (Suite de 6 morceaux caractéristiques), 1904; Plainte belge (Chopiniana), 1917

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Boccanera jr: Autores e atores dramáticos (Salvador [Bahia], 1923), 355–87

Enciclopédia da música brasileira, i (São Paulo, 1977), 411

IRATI ANTONIO

Leonardo da Vinci

(b Anchiano, nr Vinci, 1452; d château of Cloux, nr Amboise, 2 May 1519). Italian artist and scientist. He was also profoundly occupied with music. In addition to performing and teaching music, he was deeply interested in acoustics and made many acoustical experiments with immediate bearing on music. He wrestled with the concept of musical time and invented a considerable number of ingenious musical instruments and improved existing ones. Leonardo also had some highly original ideas about the philosophy of music that were intimately connected with his philosophy of painting. It is characteristic that in his paragone, which forms an introduction to his treatise on painting, he accorded music the highest place, after painting, among the arts.

No details are known about Leonardo's musical education in Florence, but it is significant that Andrea del Verrocchio, in whose workshop he grew up, was also a musician. One of the earliest biographical sources, the so-called Anonimo Gaddiano (I-Fn Magl.XVII) of the early 16th century, mentions Leonardo as a musician:

he was an elegant speaker and an outstanding performer on the lira, and he was the teacher of Atalante Migliorotti, whom he instructed on this instrument. From Lorenzo il Magnifico, he was sent to the Duke of Milan, together with Atalante Migliorotti, to present to him a lira, for he was unique in playing this instrument.

The ‘lira’ was the lira da braccio, then fashionable among improvisers. Vasari, whose famous biography of Leonardo in his Le vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori ed architetti (Florence, 2/1568) is partly based on the Anonimo Gaddiano, recorded that Leonardo ‘devoted much effort to music; above all, he determined to study playing the lira, since by nature he possessed a lofty and graceful mind; he sang divinely, improvising his own accompaniment on the lira’. Vasari also noted that after Lodovico Sforza became Duke of Milan, Leonardo, already famous, was brought to play for him:

since the duke had a great liking for the sound of the lira; and Leonardo brought there the instrument which he had built with his own hands, made largely of silver but in the shape of a horse skull – a bizarre, new thing – so that the sound [‘l’armonia’] would have greater sonority; with this, he surpassed all the musicians who met there to play. In addition, he was the best improviser of rhymes of his time.

The mathematician Luca Pacioli, for whose De divina proportione Leonardo drew geometric illustrations, also described him as a musician. The Milanese painter Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo extolled Leonardo as one of the outstanding masters of the lira. Among Milanese musicians, Gaffurius had close contact with Leonardo, lent him books and is probably the subject of Leonardo's painting Portrait of a Musician, in the Pinacoteca Ambrosiana, Milan. In a comparison between wind instruments and the larynx, Leonardo referred to a book ‘delli strumenti armonici’, possibly Gaffurius's De harmonia musicorum instrumentorum.

Leonardo's ideas about music are scattered through many of his numerous notebooks; they range from passing thoughts, notes and marginal remarks to ideas for planned research, results of experiments or hypotheses in various degrees of verification. Many of his remarks permit interpretation only on the basis of sufficient familiarity with the natural sciences and technology of his time. A systematic examination and correlation of the enormous amount of material he left reveals an intensive occupation with music.

Leonardo, who regarded himself as ‘uomo sanza lettere’, was neither a humanist nor a philosopher in the strict sense. Of ancient theories of music only some echoes of Pythagoras and Boethius appear in his notebooks. He inquired into the origins of sound (‘What is the nature of a sound produced by a blow?’) and examined the sonorous impact of bodies upon bodies, expanding the age-old Pythagorean notions. He studied the phenomenon of vibration and sympathetic vibration, noting that the percussion of a body makes it oscillate and communicate its oscillation to the surrounding air or to other liquid or solid matter. He studied the propagation of sound waves as differing from that of light waves, the reflection and refraction of sound waves and the phenomenon of echo, the speed of sound and the factors that determine degrees of loudness. Especially characteristic of his approach in this context is his establishment of what can be called a ‘perspective of sound’, that is, the fading of sound in exact ratio to the distance of the ear from the source of sound, paralleling the laws of optical and pictorial perspective that were so important to him as a painter. His ideas about proportions in music go far beyond the traditional theory of intervals and the Pythagorean patrimony. Also, as a musician, he was naturally occupied with the factors that determine musical pitch and experimented with vases of different shapes and apertures. He anticipated by three centuries Chladni's discovery of the geometrical figures produced by setting the edge of a sanded plate in vibration with a fiddle bow.

Leonardo's studies of anatomy and physiology, based on his own dissections, enabled him to examine the structure and function of the musician's hand. His dissection of the respiratory organs of animals gave him interesting ideas about voice production, although, lacking the preserving chemicals, he could not have had the necessary knowledge of the vocal cords. Probably for similar reasons he gave no description or discussion of the inner ear. He discussed the peripheric phonetic organs, such as the facial muscles, the lips and the tongue, and their impact on pronunciation. His study of the tongue led him to an investigation of vocal pitch, comparing the function of the trachea to that of wind instruments such as organ pipes and the slide trumpet. His alleged authorship of a treatise on the voice, De vocie, is controversial.

Leonardo's universal command of technology enabled him to imagine novel musical instruments, and to alter existing ones radically. In his notebooks there are numerous drawings of such instruments, from rapid sketches, often not easily decipherable, to exact blueprints for their execution in the workshop. They reveal his systematic efforts to realize some basic aims: automation of certain instruments and the wider use of various types of keyboard to facilitate playing technique; increasing the speed of playing; extension of tonal range to play, for instance, melodies on drums; and overcoming the quickly fading sound of plucked strings. Among other instruments, he constructed glissando flutes, flutes with key systems anticipating Boehm's invention more than three centuries later, bells with variable pitch, drums of which the pitch could be changed during performance or which could produce chords, and above all, the ‘viola organista’ (see illustration), a keyboard instrument the strings of which were set into vibration by an endless friction band, and which permitted polyphonic playing with dynamic gradation – a virtual string orchestra under the control of ten fingers. Here, as in other cases, Leonardo tried to obtain from one instrument what could normally be produced only by several or by a whole set of instruments.

The sensational reappearance in 1967 at the Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid, of two of Leonardo's notebooks, comprising 700 pages, substantially enriched our information about his novel ideas for the construction of musical instruments. The notebooks include drawings of new types of bellows for organetti and chamber organs, another drawing for the viola organista, and one for the viola a tasti, a keyed string instrument operated by segments of cogwheels.

The depth and originality of Leonardo's meditations on music can be perceived by his definition of music as the ‘figurazione delle cose invisibili’ (‘shaping of the invisible’).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.P. Richter, ed.: The Literary Works of Leonardo da Vinci (London, 1883/R, rev. 2/1937/R by J.P. and I.A. Richter)

G. Panconcelli-Calzia: Leonardo als Phonetiker (Hamburg, 1943)

A. Marinoni: I rebus di Leonardo da Vinci raccolti e interpretati (Florence, 1954)

E. Magni-Dufflocq: ‘Da Vinci’s Music’, Leonardo da Vinci (London, 1957), 227

E. Winternitz: ‘Leonardo’s Invention of the Viola Organista’, Raccolta Vinciana, xx (1964), 1–46

E. Winternitz: Leonardo da Vinci as a Musician (New Haven, CT, 1982)

M. Tiella: ‘Leonardo da Vinci's “Viola Organista”’, Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis IX: Orta San Giulio 1986

EMANUEL WINTERNITZ/LAURENCE LIBIN

Leonardus Athesinus.

See Lechner, Leonhard.

Leonardus Nervius.

See Nervius, Leonardus.

Leonati, Carlo Ambrogio.

(ii) Jean-Baptiste Le Picard

Leoncavallo, Ruggero

(b Naples, 8 March 1857; dMontecatini, 9 Aug 1919). Italian composer and librettist. The son of a well-to-do family in Naples – his father, Vincenzo, was a magistrate – he began his musical studies at the Conservatory in 1866. There he studied the piano with Beniamino Cesi and composition with Lauro Rossi, one of the best known opera composers of the day in the French tradition. He also studied composition under Serao until 1876. Formative in his development were the courses of the poet Giosuè Carducci, an enthusiastic Wagnerian, at Bologna University, which Leoncavallo followed from the autumn of 1876, breaking off, however, the following year without obtaining a degree. At the same time he was fired by the controversy over the art and aesthetic of Wort–Ton–Drama which led to the revival of the new version of Boito’s Mefistofele and the Italian premières of Rienzi (1876) and Der fliegende Holländer (as Vascello fantasma, 1877), conducted by Mancinelli. Influenced by Wagner and grand opera, Leoncavallo wrote both the libretto and the music of his first opera, Chatterton, at about that time, although it was not performed until much later.

Encouraged by an uncle who was employed in the Italian Foreign Ministry, he then tried his fortune in Egypt, but on the outbreak of the Anglo-Egyptian War in 1882 he made his way to Marseilles and thence to Paris, where he lived a bohemian life, earning his living by giving music lessons and playing the piano at café-concerts. Thanks to the support of the baritone Victor Maurel, he received a commission for an opera from the publisher Giulio Ricordi. Leoncavallo had already decided to write a trilogy, to be entitled Crepusculum, which would be the Italian answer to Wagner’s Ring cycle, as he claimed to have expounded to Wagner himself in 1876 when Rienzi received its first Italian performance in Bologna. His work on the project was erratic and he either could not or did not want to complete the task; the first opera, I Medici, took him a long time to write and caused serious difficulties with the publisher that continued until 1899. In spite of the technical proficiency of the orchestration and the choral writing, the opera had little success, and never became part of the repertory. Meanwhile he made himself known in Paris with the performance of extracts from his symphonic poem La nuit de mai, after a poem by Alfred de Musset. After marrying the singer Berthe Rambaud he returned to Milan and became involved in the artistic life of the city, making a living by writing and occasional musical activity; he collaborated on the libretto for Puccini’s Manon Lescaut (1893).

A decisive event for Leoncavallo’s musical future was the success of Mascagni’s Cavalleria rusticana in 1890. An acute analyst of market requirements, he recognized its significance and especially the potential of realism in opera as the quickest way to win popularity, but as with Mascagni, his fame was to rest on one opera into which he poured all his talent. Pagliacci takes the technique of verismo to its limits. Leoncavallo’s patient reconstruction of his subject is necessarily less immediate than Mascagni’s, but he gained from his study of precedents a refinement of detail, a more significant and shrewd use of orchestration, and a more original and expressive harmony. Hanslick rightly defined Leoncavallo as a less original but better musician than Mascagni. A continuity with the late works of Verdi can be found in the transformation of a peaceful strolling player into a truculent and violent man. The difference lies in the moral perspective: Otello degrades himself by murder, but Canio recovers his dignity. Leoncavallo understood the connection between social values and the market for entertainment. While its effect is perhaps obvious and at times overemphatic, it is a necessary and original feature of the opera, whose vitality is still applauded by audiences all over the world. Pagliacci was immediately successful with the Milanese audience at the Teatro Dal Verme in 1892 and paved the way for performances of his two earlier operas: I Medici was performed at the same theatre in the following year, and Chatterton, based on Alfred de Vigny’s poem, was performed at the Teatro Argentina in Rome in 1896.

He completed his version of Murger’s Scènes de la vie de Bohème, on which he had been working since 1892, and its first performance was carefully supervised by his new publisher Sonzogno in Venice in 1897. The long period of composition during which he sought to convey the realities of life in the Latin Quarter of Paris was preceded by fierce controversy with Puccini and the Ricordi publishing house. It was Leoncavallo who first had the idea of making it into an opera, but his Bohème, although it has pages full of vitality, is much more a social document of the period, and after the first years in which the two operas were performed almost side by side, it was Puccini’s version that survived in the repertory. Zazà, on the other hand, the favourite role of Emma Carelli, first performed at the Teatro Lirico in Milan in 1900, was another opera with a theatrical setting and was an international success. But Leoncavallo’s fortunes in Italy gradually declined, not least because being litigious by nature he frequently quarrelled with his publishers.

Although it became difficult for Leoncavallo to have his works performed in Italy they were very successful in Germany, where audiences were favourably inclined to works of the Giovane Scuola. After the success of Pagliacci (given in German as Der Bajazzo) and I Medici, Wilhelm II commissioned an opera from him to celebrate the Hohenzollern dynasty. The story chosen as subject, Der Roland von Berlin, had to be translated into Italian for Leoncavallo to dramatize it, and the result was then translated back into German, in which language it received great acclaim in 1904, with almost 40 performances.

This favourable episode gave him fresh confidence. His awareness of public media led him to the recording companies as early as 1904, and to compose his celebrated Mattinata, which Caruso recorded for the G & T Company. This was soon followed by La jeunesse de Figaro, his first operetta, for the American market. He returned to opera in 1910 with Maià at the Teatro Costanzi in Rome, based on a story by Paul de Choudens, who had written Amica for Mascagni (1905). This was followed by a return to the verismo of Pagliacci (as Mascagni was to do with Il piccolo Marat a few years later) with Zingari (1912, London).

The final phase of his career was concerned mainly with operettas, whose titles indicate their superficiality, from Prestami tua moglie to A chi la giarrettiera?. His last finished opera, Goffredo Mameli (1916), was a grand patriotic work, based on outmoded forms of expression and of little musical interest. More seriously, Leoncavallo had accepted a commission from the artistic director of the Chicago Lyric Opera, Cleofonte Campanini. The task of adapting as operas the plays of Edipo re (to a libretto by the experienced dramatist Giovacchino Forzano) and Prometeo were the most ambitious projects of his career, but his death in 1919 prevented him from completing them. He also left unfinished an opera on a Sardinian subject, La tormenta, which he had begun in 1914. Edipo re was performed in Chicago the year after his death, with Titta Ruffo in the title role. D’Annunzio described Leoncavallo’s death as ‘an excellent finale for that prolific composer of melodramas and operettas whose name combined two noble beasts and who died suffocated by melodic adiposity’.

WORKS

all printed works published in Milan

stage

Chatterton, c1876 (melodramma, 4, Leoncavallo, after A. de Vigny), unperf.; rev. (dramma lirico, 3), Rome, Argentina, 10 March 1896, vs (1896)

Pagliacci (dramma, prol., 2, Leoncavallo), Milan, Dal Verme, 21 May 1892 (1893)

Crepusculum (poema epico in forma di trilogia storica, Leoncavallo): I Medici (azione storica, 4), Milan, Dal Verme, 9 Nov 1893 (1893); pts 2, 3 not comp.

La bohème (commedia lirica, 4, Leoncavallo, after H. Murger), Venice, Fenice, 6 May 1897 (1897); rev. as Mimì Pinson (3), Palermo, Massimo, 14 April 1913, vs (1913)

Zazà (commedia lirica, 4, Leoncavallo, after P. Berton and C. Simon), Milan, Lirico, 10 Nov 1900 (1900); rev. R. Bianchi (1947)

Der Roland von Berlin (historisches Drama, 4, Leoncavallo, after W. Alexis; Ger. trans. G. Droescher), Berlin, Städtische Oper, 13 Dec 1904, vs (1904)

La jeunesse de Figaro (ob, 3, after V. Sardou and M. Vaucaire: Les premières armes de Figaro), ? New York, Nov 1906

Maià (dramma lirico, 3, A. Nessi, after P. de Choudens), Rome, Costanzi, 15 Jan 1910 (1908)

Malbruk (fantasia comica medioevale, 3, A. Nessi, after Boccaccio), Rome, Nazionale, 19 Jan 1910, vs (1910)

La reginetta delle rose (operetta, 3, Forzano), Rome, Costanzi, and Naples, Politeama Giacosa, 24 June 1912, vs (1912)

Zingari (dramma lirico, 2, E. Cavicchioli and G. Emanuel, after A.S. Pushkin), London, Hippodrome, 16 Sept 1912, vs (1912)

Are you There? (farce, 3, A. de Courville and E. Wallace), London, Prince of Wales, Nov 1913

La candidata (operetta, 3, Forzano), Rome, Nazionale, and Turin, Politeama Chiarella, 6 Feb 1915

Goffredo Mameli (azione storica, 2, Leoncavallo and G. Belvederi), Genoa, Carlo Felice, 27 April 1916

Prestami tua moglie (operetta, 3, E. Corradi), Montecatini, Casino, 2 Sept 1916

A chi la giarrettiera? (operetta, 3), Rome, Adriano, 16 Oct 1919

Edipo re (grand op, 1, G. Forzano, after Sophocles), Chicago, Opera, 13 Dec 1920, completed by G. Pennacchio

Il primo bacio (operetta, 1, L. Bonelli), Montecatini, Salone di Cura, 29 April 1923

La maschera nuda (operetta, 3, L. Bonelli and F. Paolieri), Naples, Politeama, 26 June 1925, completed by S. Allegra

Prometeo, unperf., unpubd

Tormenta (3, Belvederi), not completed

Librettos for other composers: Mario Wetter, A. Machado, 1898; Redenzione, G. Pennacchio, 1920

songs

Album Stecchetti: 4 poesie delle ‘Postuma’ (Olindo Guerrini) (1880): 1 October, fantasia, 2 Un organetto suona per la via, pensiero, 3 Donna vorrei morir, melodia, 4 Era d’inverno, pensiero; At Peace (Mrs A. Roberts) (1884); Lost Love (Roberts) (1884); 10 Songs (1893): 1 Dietro le nubi, 2 Addio, 3 Nulla so, 4 Suzon, adieu Suzon!, 5 Un sogno, 6 Non dirmi chi sei, 7, 8, 9 = Album Stecchetti nos. 1, 2, 3, 10 Chitaretta (Leoncavallo); Déclaration (A. Silvestre) (1893); Tonight and Tomorrow (F.E. Weatherly) (1893); Serenata (1893)

Rapsodia primaverile (1893); Canzone della nonna (1894); A Summer Idyll (1895); Invocation à la Muse (1896); A Ninon: Si je vous le disais (1896); Vorrei dirvi che v’amo, serenatella (1897); C’est l’heure mystérieuse (Leoncavallo), serenade (1897); Aprile (1897); C’est bien toi (1898); Nuit de décembre (1900); Les deux sérénades (1903): Sérénade française, Sérénade napolitaine; La chanson de Don Juan (1904); Mattinata (Leoncavallo) (1904); Ninna nanna (Leoncavallo) (1904); Ave Maria, T, hp, hmn ad lib (1905)

Barcarola, 1v, pf, vn (1905); Mai fleuri, rapsodie printanière (1905); Brise de mer (1906); Et nunc et semper (1906); Mandolinata (Leoncavallo) (1907); Se! (Leoncavallo) (1907); Vieni, amor mio (1907); Canzone d’amore (1912); Lasciate amar (1913); For I do love you so (A. De Courville) (1919); Ruit hora: frammento dell’ode barbara di Giosuè Carducci; Napuletana

piano solo

Pantins vivants, danse de caractère (?1898); La joyeuse, waltz (?1898); Valse mélancolique (1901); Cortège de Pulcinella, petite marche humoristique (1903); Flirt-Walzer (1905); Papillon, scherzo (1906); Sarabande, danse ancienne (1906); Viva l’America, march (1906); Airs des ballets espagnols (?1904); Sevillana, Gitana-tango, Playeras ancienne, Granadinas; Nights of Italy, intermezzo (1914)

Undated: Romanesca, morceau de style ancien; Sous les palmiers; Valse coquette; Valse mignonne; Serenata d’Arlecchino; Tarantella

other works

Chorus, orch: Nuit de mai, c1895, not perf., Requiem, for Umberto I, 1900, not perf., Inno alla Croce rossa (1901); Inno della Lega nazionale (1913); Inno franco-italiana (1915)

Orch: Séraphitus-Séraphita, sym. poem after Balzac, Milan, 1894, programme pubd (Milan, 1894); La vita di una marionetta, ballet, c1900

Principal publishers: Sonzogno, Choudens

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO (‘Pagliacci’, M. Girardi)

R. Giani and A. Engelfred: ‘I Medici’, RMI, i (1894), 86–116

E. Hanslick: ‘Der Bajazzo von Leoncavallo’, Die moderne Oper, vii: Fünf Jahre Musik (1891–1895): Kritiken (Berlin, 1896), 96–104

E. Hanslick: ‘Die Bohème von Leoncavallo’, Die moderne Oper, viii: Am Ende des Jahrhunderts (1895–1899): musikalische Kritiken and Schilderungen (Berlin, 1899, 3/1911), 123–32

N. Tabanelli: ‘La causa Ricordi-Leoncavallo’, RMI, vi (1899), 833–54

W. Pastor: ‘Leoncavallos Roland von Berlin: Uraufführung im Berliner Opernhaus’, Die Musik, xiv/2 (1904–5), 45–6

J. Korngold: ‘Ruggiero Leoncavallo: Zazà, 1909’, Die romanische Oper der Gegenwart (Vienna, 1922), 103–6

A. de Angelis: ‘Il capolavoro inespresso di Leoncavallo? Tormenta: opera di soggetto sardo’, RMI, xxx (1923), 563–76

G. Fauré: ‘Leoncavallo’, Opinions musicales (Paris, 1930), 64–7

R. de Rensis: Per Umberto Giordano e Ruggiero Leoncavallo (Siena,1949)

A. Holde: ‘A Little-Known Letter by Berlioz and Unpublished Letters by Cherubini, Leoncavallo, and Hugo Wolf’, MQ, xxxvii (1951), 340–53

J.W. Klein: ‘Ruggero Leoncavallo (1858–1919)’, Opera, ix (1958), 158–62, 232–6

M. Morini: ‘Ruggero Leoncavallo: la sua opera’, La Scala, no.113 (1959), 51–6

J.W. Klein: ‘The Other “Bohème”’, MT, cxi (1970), 497–9

T. Lerario: ‘Ruggero Leoncavallo e il soggetto dei Pagliacci’, Chigiana xxvi–xxvii, new ser. viii (1971), 115–22

R. Mariani: Verismo in musica (Florence, 1976)

J.R. Nicolaisen: Italian Opera in Transition, 1871–1893 (Ann Arbor, 1977)

L’avant-scène opéra, no.50 (1983) [Pagliacci issue]

A. Csampai and D. Holland, eds.: Pietro Mascagni, Cavalleria rusticana/R. Leoncavallo, Der Bajazzo: Texte, Materialen, Kommentare (Reinbek, 1987)

J. Maehder: ‘Il libretto patriottico nell’Italia della fine del secolo e la raffigurazione dell’Antichità e del Rinascimento nel libretto prefascista italiano’, IMSCR XIV: Bologna 1987, iii, 451–66

J. Maehder: ‘Paris-Bilder: zur Transformation von Henry Murgers Roman in den Bohème-Opern Puccinis und Leoncavallos’, JbO, ii (1987), 109–76; It. trans., NRMI, xxiv (1990), 402–55

M. Sansone: ‘The “verismo” of Ruggero Leoncavallo: a source study of “Pagliacci”’, ML, lxx (1989), 342–62

J.-H. Lederer: Verismus auf der deutschprachigen Opernbühne 1891–1926 (Vienna, 1992)

J. Maehder and L. Guiot, eds.: Ruggero Leoncavallo nel suo tempo (Milan, 1993)

L. Guiot and J. Maehder, eds.: Letteratura, musica e teatro al tempo di Ruggero Leoncavallo (Milan, 1995)

L. Guiot and J. Maehder, eds.: Nazionalismo e cosmopolitismo nell’opera fra ’800 e ’900 (Milan, 1998)

MICHELE GIRARDI

Leon de Bagnols, Magister.

See Gersonides.

Leonel [Leonelle, Leonellus] (Power).

See Power, Leonel.

Leonetti, Giovanni Battista

(fl 1604–17). Italian composer and organist. He was a pupil of G.B. Caletti at Crema. He became an Augustinian monk and was organist of S Agostino, Crema, in 1617. Three six-part madrigals by him appear in an anthology (RISM 1604¹⁹). He published two collections of his own at Venice in 1617, Il primo libro de' madrigali a 5 voci (RISM 1617¹⁵), with harpsichord continuo and including two pieces by Caletti, and Missarum octonis vocibus liber primus, with organ continuo and consisting of three masses and an Elevation motet, all conventionally scored for double choir.

JEROME ROCHE

Leonhardt, Gustav (Maria)

(b ’s Graveland, 30 May 1928). Dutch harpsichordist, organist and conductor. After a classical education, he studied the organ and harpsichord with Eduard Müller at the Schola Cantorum in Basle from 1947 to 1950. He made his début in Vienna in 1950, performing Bach’s Art of Fugue on the harpsichord. After a year of musicological study in Vienna, he served as professor of harpsichord at the Vienna Music Academy from 1952 to 1955. From 1954 to 1988 he occupied a similar post at the Amsterdam Conservatory, and was also organist of the Waalse Kerk there with its superb Christian Müller organ of 1733. In 1967 he acted the part of J.S. Bach and played both the organ and the harpsichord in Jean-Marie Staub’s biographical film, Die Chronik der Anna Magdalena Bach. In 1969–70 he was visiting professor at Harvard University, which awarded him an honorary doctorate in 1991.

As a solo harpsichordist and organist, Leonhardt performs an extensive repertory encompassing a catholic selection of music from the early 16th century to the late 18th. His interpretations of the great 17th-century composers, above all Frescobaldi, Froberger and Louis Couperin, have won a wider audience for their music and set a standard of interpretative style. Tasteful ornamentation, subtle rubato nuances within a firm rhythmical pulse, and stylistic authority characterize his harpsichord playing, while his performances on the organ tend to be rather more sober, even severe. Disliking the consciously ‘modern’ type of harpsichord, he prefers those constructed on historical principles, often performing and recording on properly restored antique instruments linked to the music of specific periods and national schools. He has recorded more extensively than any other harpsichordist.

He has gained equal distinction as a chamber player, notably with the Leonhardt Consort, which he founded in 1955. As a conductor of Baroque choral and instrumental music he displays the same stylistic authority as in his solo playing, as can be heard in the complete recorded cycle of Bach's church cantatas he shared with Harnoncourt. Leonhardt was awarded the Erasmus Prize in 1980 and holds a number of honorary doctorates. He edited Sweelinck's keyboard fantasias and toccatas in the complete critical edition issued by the Vereniging voor Nederlandse Muziekgeschiednis (Amsterdam, 1968).

WRITINGS

The Art of Fugue: Bach’s Last Harpsichord Work (The Hague, 1952)

HOWARD SCHOTT

Leoni, Franco

(b Milan, 24 Oct 1864; d London 8 Feb 1949). Italian composer. He studied at the Milan Conservatory with Dominiceti and Ponchielli. His first opera, Raggio di Luna, was produced at Milan in 1890. Two years later he emigrated to England, where his operas Rip van Winkle (1897) and Ib and Little Christina (Savoy Theatre, 1901) were produced. His best-known work, the one-act L'oracolo, was produced at Covent Garden in 1905 conducted by Messager, and with Scotti as the opium dealer Chim-Fen. However, the piece – in the mode of Puccini but dramatically less cogent – did not achieve popular success until it was produced at the Metropolitan in 1915, when Scotti proved it an apt vehicle for his vocal and dramatic abilities. He chose it for his farewell at that house in 1933, after which the work seems to have fallen out of the repertory. There were however revivals at the Curtis Institute (1949) and Philadelphia Opera (1952) and a recording appeared with Gobbi as Chim-Fen in 1977, when the ‘Puccini-and-water’ description of a contemporary critic seemed apt. His later operas were composed after he returned to Italy in 1917; from that date he appears to have shared his time between his own country, France and England. He also wrote several oratorios, among them Golgotha (1909), and light songs, many of them settings of English texts. Golgotha was first given at the Queen’s Hall by the Queen’s Hall Choral Society, of which Leoni was the conductor.

WORKS

(selective list)

operas

Raggio di Luna (C. Zanoni), Milan, 5 June 1890

Rip van Winkle, London, 4 Sept 1897

Ib and Little Christina (after H.C. Andersen), London, Savoy, 14 Nov 1901

L'oracolo, LCG, 28 June 1905

Tzigana (E. Moschini), Genoa, 3 Feb 1910

Francesca da Rimini (M. Crawford), POC, 1914

Le baruffe chiozzotte (after C. Goldoni), Milan, 10 Jan 1920

Falene (C. Linati), Milan, 1920

La terra del sogno, Milan, 1920

Massemarello, ?unperf.

Other works: Sardanapalus (orat), 1891; The Gate of Life (orat), 1891; The Prayer of the Sword (incid music, J.B. Fagan), 1904; Golgotha (orat), 1909

BIBLIOGRAPHY

LaMusicaD

G. Kobbé: The Complete Opera Book (New York and London, 1919, 11/1998)

A. Loewenberg: Annals of Opera (Cambridge, 1943, 3/1978)

ALAN BLYTH

Leoni, Giovanni Antonio

(b ?late 16th century; d ?Rome, after 1651). Italian composer, violinist and teacher. For many years he enjoyed the patronage of Cardinal G.B. Pallotta in Rome, composing and playing music for the vocal and instrumental concerts promoted by the cardinal in S Maria di Loreto, Rome. By 1625 his reputation was such that a motet by him was included in Francesco Sammaruco's collection of Sacri affetti (RISM 1625¹) by ‘eccellentissimi autori’, among them Frescobaldi and Monteverdi. He had many pupils, and his sonatas and sinfonias circulated widely in manuscript. So widespread, indeed, was the anonymous circulation with unauthentic alterations, ornamentations and arrangements that he felt obliged to print 31 solo violin sonatas that he had written some years before. Although its contents are by no means the first printed sonatas for solo violin and continuo, the Sonate di violino a voce sola … libro 1 op.3 (Rome, 1652) is the first publication devoted entirely to this scoring. Leoni's two earlier prints appear to be lost.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M.G. Fiorentino: Le sonate per violino di Giovanni Antonio Leoni (ca.1600–post.1670) (diss., U. of Padua, 1990) [incl. transcrs.]

E. McCrickard: ‘The Roman Repertory for Violin before the Time of Corelli’, EMc, xviii (1990), 563–73 [incl. edn of 1 sonata]

JOHN HARPER

Leoni, Leone [Leo]

(b Verona, c1560; d Vicenza, 24 June 1627). Italian composer. He trained as a priest, probably at the Scuola degli Accoliti, Verona. In his youth he was associated with the ridotto of Count Maria Bevilacqua in Verona. In 1586 he composed the choruses for the tragedy Tamar, performed at the Teatro Olimpico, Vicenza (the music is lost). On 30 April 1588 he petitioned the bishop and canons of Vicenza for the chaplainship of S Giacomo. On 29 June he was ordained as a priest, and on the same day he was named maestro di cappella of Vicenza Cathedral; on 4 October he was formally awarded a salary of 4 ducats. He remained in this post until his death, despite some attempts to find employment elsewhere. In Bella Clori (1591) he described himself as a member of the Accademia Olimpica. In 1593 he became a member of the confraternity of Divine Love. In 1610 he was elected maestro della musica of the newly formed Pia Opera dell’Incoronata.

In his madrigals, Leoni paid particular attention to the relationship between text and music; some of the up-to-date expressive devices experimented with in his madrigals later found their way into his sacred works. His church music is Leoni's most significant contribution. The motets of his Aurea corona (declared to be written ‘in praise of the Most Holy Incoronata of Vicenza’) make use of the stile concertante, in which the instrumental parts are conceived autonomously and not as mere doublings of vocal lines. These pieces are characterized by alternations between solo and tutti sections: the former frequently virtuosic, the latter short and often homorhythmic. The popularity of his few-voiced motets can be gauged from the frequency with which they were reprinted, both in Italy and north of the Alps; Schadaeus’s anthology Promptuarii musici (1611¹, 1612², 1613²) contains no fewer than 16 of his motets and the series of the same title by Donfridi (1622², 1623², 1627¹) includes ten.

WORKS

sacred

Penitenza, primo libro de [21] madrigali spirituali, 5vv (Venice, 1596)

Sacri fiori, [20] mottetti [1 Magnificat], libro primo, 2–4vv, org (Venice, 1606)

[20] Sacrarum cantionum liber primus, 8vv, 2 org (Venice, 1608)

Sacri fiori, secondo libro de [31] mottetti con una messa a quattro qual si può cantar a voci pari ed a chori divisi, 1–4vv, org. (Venice, 1612)

Omnium solemnitatum psalmodia, 8vv (Venice, 1613) [15 psalms, 2 Magnificat]

Aurea corona ingemmata d’armonici, concerti a 10, 4vv, 6 insts (Venice, 1615; survives only in MS copy in D-F) [25 motets]

Sacri fiori, quarto libro de [25] mottetti, 1–4vv, org (Venice, 1622), inc.

Missa ‘Ab austro veniet’, 12vv, A-Wn 16707b; Falsobordone, 4–5vv, I-VId, lost

Sacred works, 1592³, 1612², 1620², 1624³

Sacri fiori, [terzo libro], lost; MischiatiI VII:297

A collection of motets pubd in 1602 appears to be lost. (The latter is cited in an early 17th-century inventory; see G. Turrini: Atti e memorie … di Verona, 5th ser., xviii, p.205.)

secular

Il primo libro de [21] madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1588)

Bella Clori, secondo libro de [22] madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1591)

Il terzo libro de [21] madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1595), 3 repr. in 1605⁷, 2 repr. in 1606⁵

Il quarto libro de [20] madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1598)

Bell’Alba, quinto libro de [21] madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1602)

Secular works found only in anthologies: 1592¹¹ (Latin contrafact text in 1613¹³), 1594⁶, 1598⁶, 1600¹², 1605⁷

Chorus to Tamar, Vicenza, Teatro Olimpico, 1586, lost

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Mantese: Storia musicale vicentina (Vicenza, 1956)

H. Wing: The Polychoral Motets of Leone Leoni (diss., Boston U., 1966)

V. Bolcato and A. Zanotelli: Il fondo musicale dell'Archivio capitolare del Duomo di Vicenza (Turin, 1986)

V. Bolcato: ‘Un nuovo capitolo della storia musicale del Seicento a Vicenza: la cappella dell’Incoronata nella Cattedrale’, Musica, scienza e idee nella Serenissima durante il Seicento: Venice 1993, 43–51

V. Bolcato: Leone Leoni e la musica a Vicenza nei secoli XVI–XVII: catalogo tematico (Venice, 1995)

SERENA DAL BELIN PERUFFO

Leoni, Michael [Lyon, Myer]

(b Frankfurt or Berlin, c1750; d Kingston, Jamaica, 6 Nov 1796). English male alto. He was apparently brought to London to sing in the Duke's Place Synagogue and as a child had two seasons on stage from December 1760, singing in J.C. Smith's The Enchanter ‘with great applause’. In 1770 and 1771 he appeared on stage and at Finch's Grotto Gardens as Master Leoni (Lion, Lyon or Lyons), and then had a season in Dublin. After the rebuilding of the synagogue he was appointed singer at a salary of £40 and he is said to have composed tunes for use at the High Festivals. In November 1774 Horace Walpole heard him sing Handel at a concert and admired the ‘full melancholy melody in his voice, though a falsetta’. At Covent Garden in April 1775 he sang Arbaces in Arne's Artaxerxes, a part originally written for the castrato Tenducci, and in November he created the role of Don Carlos in Linley's The Duenna; this was his great success, to the extent that the theatre did not schedule performances on Friday evenings, when he could not take part. He appeared regularly on the London stage until 1782 but was no actor and his career did not develop. In 1783 he and Tommaso Giordani started an English Opera Company in Dublin but they quickly became bankrupt. He gave a few further performances of Arbaces and Carlos at Covent Garden, and appeared at the ill-fated Royalty Theatre and in the provinces. Sylas Neville heard him at Norwich in 1784: ‘his voice always feigned, is not so good as it was’. He taught the young John Braham, who first appeared on stage at Leoni's benefit in 1787. Soon after this Leoni fled to Jamaica to escape his creditors and became the respected Reader of the synagogue at Kingston until his death.

The hymn tune ‘Leoni’ (The God of Abraham praise) is an old Hebrew yigdal melody transcribed by Leoni at the request of the methodist preacher Thomas Olivers; the words are Olivers’, inspired by the original text.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BDA

FiskeETM

A. Pasquin [J. Williams]: The Children of Thespis, ii (London, 1786, 13/1792)

C.H. Wilson: The Myrtle and Vine (London, 1802)

T. Gilliland: The Dramatic Mirror, ii (London, 1808)

R. Humphreys, ed.: The Memoirs of J. Decastro, Comedian (London, 1824)

J. Julian: A Dictionary of Hymnology (London, 1892)

B. Cozens-Hardy, ed.: The Diary of Sylas Neville (London, 1950)

T.J. Walsh: Opera in Dublin 1705–1797 (Dublin, 1973)

OLIVE BALDWIN, THELMA WILSON

Leoninus [Magister Leoninus; Magister Leonius, Leo, Léonin]

(fl Paris, 1150s–c1201). Composer of polyphony, including organum and, probably, conductus. He is credited by the theorist Anonymus 4 with perhaps the single greatest achievement in the development of early polyphony, the creation of the so-called Magnus liber. This collection is believed to constitute the matrix in which polyphony was transformed from performance practice into ‘composition’ in the modern sense of the word. In its repertory appeared a system of consonance and dissonance that would dominate polyphonic composition for the next three centuries, and also a coherent rhythmic language that, for the first time in Western music, expressed itself in its notation. No works are ascribed to Leoninus in musical sources or by contemporaneous theorists.

The identity of Leoninus has been the subject of much conjecture. Wright (1986), however, has convincingly identified him with a Magister Leonius affiliated with the cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris, during the second half of the 12th century. From the 1150s until the end of the century, Leonius acted for the cathedral as administrator of the collegiate church of St Benoît, on the Left Bank of the Seine. He must have enjoyed some standing at the cathedral for more than a decade before the construction of Notre Dame got underway, in about 1163. By 1192, he was referred to in cathedral documents as ‘magister Leonius presbyter’, indicating that he had been ordained as a priest. He had also become a canon of Notre Dame and an affiliate of the Augustinian monastery of St Victor; the position he held in the cathedral hierarchy was just below that of the eight dignitaries, next in importance after the chancellor. Leonius last appeared in a document dated 1201 and he probably died in that year or shortly thereafter. The obituaries of Notre Dame and St Victor give conflicting death dates, 24 March and 26 December, respectively. The title ‘magister’, used in documents from Notre Dame and by Anonymus 4, indicates that Leoninus had achieved the rank of magister artium, undoubtedly in Paris, and that he was licensed to teach. In addition to his musical activity, he was the author of several poetic works, including a long Hystoria sacre gestis ab origine mundi (a verse paraphrase of the first eight books of the Old Testament) and four subtly crafted letters in verse to such contemporaries as Popes Adrian IV (1154–9) and Alexander III (1159–81).

The only information concerning Leoninus's musical activity is found in the treatise of the English theorist Anonymus 4, written late in the 13th century or early in the 14th. In a parenthetical aside within his discussion of the rules of mensural notation, Anonymus 4 observed:

These rules are used in many books of the antiqui, and this from the time of the great Perotinus, … and likewise from the time of Leo, for his part … And note that Magister Leoninus, so it has been said, was the best worker with organum [optimus organista] who made [‘fecit’] the great book of polyphony [magnus liber organi] on the gradual and antiphonary to embellish the divine service. This was in use up to the time of the great Perotinus, who made a redaction of it [‘abbreviavit eundem’] and made many better clausulas, or puncta, he being the best worker with discant [‘discantor’], and better [at discant] than Leoninus was. But the same cannot be said regarding the subtlety of organum [purum], etc. (ed. Reckow, i, 46)

Several manuscripts transmit versions of the great Parisian liber organi described by Anonymus 4 (ed. Reckow, i, 46, 82; see Sources, MS, §IV, 4), but none of them can be shown to preserve Leoninus's Magnus liber in anything like the state in which he fashioned it. Consequently, there has been much speculation about what Leoninus's liber contained. It is widely accepted that it included two-voice organa for the responsorial chants of the Mass and Office – the gradual, alleluia and great responsory, and also for certain processional antiphons and the formula for the Benedicamus Domino. But Husmann's attempt (1963) to identify the organa belonging to the liber in its original state is not convincing (see Wright, 1989, chap.7). We do not know which of the surviving two-voice organa it included, or which of the extant versions (or parts of versions) of those organa are the work of Leoninus. Given the characterization ‘optimus organista’, Leoninus is often thought of in connection with organum purum, sustained-note composition, and Anonymus 4's comment implies that he was especially known for that idiom. It is for this reason that the two-voice organa in D-W 628, which make prominent use of organum purum, have been thought to preserve Leoninus's work before its recasting by Perotinus and others. But Anonymus 4 probably used the word ‘organum’ in reference to Leoninus's collection in the sense of organum generale, musica mensurabilis or polyphony in general. If so, there is nothing to suggest that Leoninus's work was limited to organum, or to music for two voices. His liber probably also included the conductus, and perhaps also organa and conductus for three voices. (Leoninus's older contemporary at Notre Dame, Albertus cantor (Albertus Parisiensis), d 1177, is the author of a conductus that survives with three voices.) It is virtually certain that Leoninus wrote not only in organum purum, but also in Discant, an idiom in which both (or all) of the voices are rhythmically active. Whatever the genres and idioms he cultivated, his music was composed for the liturgy of Notre Dame; the surviving copies of the Magnus liber conform closely to the liturgical practice of that cathedral.

Leoninus's Magnus liber undoubtedly originated in an essentially improvisatory polyphonic tradition. Exactly why, when and how that tradition was fixed in writing and then subjected to reworking remains unclear. A dynamic, rhythmically charged polyphonic line, along with a feeling for balanced phrases and for the structure of a larger span, was clearly emerging in music at this time. Leoninus's role in ‘making’ the Magnus liber may have entailed wedding the new aesthetic sensibility that arose alongside the new ‘gothic’ scholasticism and architecture with a cantorial practice that could have dated back decades, if not centuries. The style generally associated with Leoninus is one of freely flowing melismatic organum, with an extensive use of stock melodic formulas that are repeated, developed and varied in the upper voice, as in ex.1.

The impulse towards rhythmic organization that is manifest in this music was noticed by Anonymus 4, who devoted his treatise to ‘the measurement of [melodic lines] according to length and shortness, as the antiqui formulated it, and as Leo and many others thoroughly organized them according to rhythmic patterns [ordines] and melodic units [colores]’ (ed. Reckow, i, 22). The style that emerged from that impulse manifests the patterned flow of the rhythmic modes. Whether modal rhythm is present in the organum purum melismas of Leoninus's organum, however, is a matter of controversy. Waite (1954, p.8) said: ‘It was Leonin's incomparable achievement to introduce a rational system of rhythm into polyphonic music for the first time, and, equally important, to create a method of notation expressive of this rhythm’. On the other hand, Reckow (1967, ii, pp.49f) maintained that whatever the position of Anonymus 4 and other theorists may have been, and however later generations of singers may have performed this music, it is by no means the case that Leoninus conceived his organum purum in modal rhythm. But in spite of the ambiguity of passages such as ex.1, other music in the Magnus liber that is likely to be the work of Leoninus does exhibit clear modal patterning. This is true of passages of Copula (in which modal phrases occur in the upper voice over sustained tenor notes) and of many passages in discant (where the two voices move together in measured values). Most of these passages are in the first rhythmic mode (long–short–long), the intrinsically ‘trochaic’ flow of which was probably the starting-point for the development of the whole modal system. Passages in copula and discant such as those in exx.2 and 3, respectively, probably co-existed in the same piece alongside music similar to that of ex.1, the choice of idiom reflecting specifically musical constraints within the piece rather than different stages in the evolution of the Magnus liber.

Further study of the Notre Dame liturgy is needed before it will be possible to separate out Leoninus's music from that of other ‘organistae’ involved with the Magnus liber, and to assess the full scope of his achievement. In particular, scholars must identify those elements in the surviving copies of the liber that hark back to the original improvisatory practice, analyse their use in the music, and come to understand the circumstances under which this music came to be transmitted in writing.

See also Conductus, Magnus liber, Organum, Perotinus and Rhythmic modes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (H. Husmann)

F. Ludwig: ‘Die liturgischen Organa Leonins und Perotins’, Riemann-Festschrift (Leipzig, 1909/R), 200–13

F. Ludwig: Repertorium organorum recentioris et motetorum vetustissimi stili, i/1 (Halle, 1910/R), 15–22

J. Handschin: ‘Zur Leonin-Perotin Frage’, ZMw, xiv (1931–2), 319–32 [reply to Schmidt, below]

H. Schmidt: ‘Zur Melodiebildung Leonins und Perotins’, ZMw, xiv (1931–2), 129–34

H. Tischler: ‘New Historical Aspects of the Parisian Organa’, Speculum, xxv (1950), 21–35, esp. 31

W.G. Waite: The Rhythm of Twelfth-Century Polyphony: its Theory and Practice (New Haven, CT, 1954/R) [contains edn of Magnus liber in D-W 628]

G. Birkner: ‘Notre Dame-Cantoren und -Succentoren vom Ende des 10. bis zum Beginn des 14. Jahrhunderts’, In memoriam Jacques Handschin, ed. H. Anglès and others (Strasbourg, 1962), 107–26

H. Husmann: ‘The Origin and Destination of the Magnus liber organi’, MQ, xlix (1963), 311–30

F. Reckow, ed.: Der Musiktraktat des Anonymus 4 (Wiesbaden, 1967), i, 46, 98; ii, chap.2

F. Reckow: ‘Das Organum’, Gattungen der Musik in Einzeldarstellungen: Gedenkschrift Leo Schrade, ed. W. Arlt and others (Berne and Munich, 1973), 434–96

C. Wright: ‘Leoninus: Poet and Musician’, JAMS, xxxix (1986), 1–35

C. Wright: Music and Ceremony at Notre Dame of Paris, 500–1550 (Cambridge, 1989), 281–8

EDWARD H. ROESNER

Leonova, Dar'ya Mikhaylovna

(b Vïshniy Volochok, Tver' province, 9/21 March 1829; d St Petersburg, 25 Jan/6 Feb 1896). Russian contralto. Some authorities give 4/16 March 1834 as her date of birth, but this is unlikely. She studied at the St Petersburg Theatre School, sang in theatrical shows and vaudevilles from 1850, and made her operatic début in 1852 as Vanya in A Life for the Tsar, having prepared the part with Glinka himself. After further lessons with Glinka and Andrey Lodiy in St Petersburg, she travelled to Europe in 1856 and studied briefly with Meyerbeer and Auber. While abroad she performed Russian folksongs and arias, earning praise from some European critics. Returning to Russia in 1858, she rejoined the Russian opera troupe and sang in St Petersburg and Moscow until 1873, when she was forced to leave the company because of differences with the chief of the repertory division, Pavel Fyodorov.

Leonova had strong dramatic instincts, clear diction and a powerful, ringing voice with a range of two and a half octaves (g to c'''). Throughout her career she championed Russian music, and her best-known roles included Vanya, the Princess in Dargomïzhsky's Rusalka, and Spiridonovna in Serov's Vrazh'ya sila (‘Hostile Power’), the latter two of which she created. She sang the Innkeeper at a partial performance of Boris Godunov in 1873, but had left the company by the time the entire work was given its première a year later. She was also praised for her interpretation of Azucena (Il trovatore) and Ortrud (Lohengrin). Between 1873 and 1876 she toured western Europe, Russia, Japan, China and the United States. In 1879 she went to southern Russia and the Crimea where, with Musorgsky as her accompanist, she gave a series of concerts. She helped Musorgsky greatly during his last years, engaging him to supervise studies at her private singing academy (opened in 1880) and providing him, for a time, with a home at her dacha where he could continue to compose. At his memorial concert in November 1881 she sang two of his songs. She taught at the Moscow Theatre School from 1888 to 1892 and from 1893 gave private lessons in St Petersburg. Her teaching was said to have been most valuable ‘where one had to “act out” a song or aria, especially our “Russian” classics: here her every remark was precious’ (Shkafer, 1936).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D. Leonova: ‘Vospominaniya artistki imperatorskikh teatrov D.M. Leonovoy’, [Recollections of the artist of the Imperial Theatres D.M. Leonova], Istoricheskiy vestnik (1891), no.1, pp.120–44; no.2, pp.326–51; no.3, pp.632–59; no.4, pp.73–85

V. Shkafer: Sorok let na stsene russkoy operï: vospomonaniya 1890–1930 [40 years on the Russian opera stage: recollections 1890–1930] (Leningrad, 1936)

V. Yakovlev: D.M. Leonova (Moscow, 1950)

A. Orlova, ed.: Musorgsky Remembered (Bloomington, IN, 1991)

A. Pruzhansk'y: Otechestvennïye pevtsï, 1750–1917; slovar' [Native singers, 1750–1917: a dictionary], i (Moscow, 1991), 278–80

ROBERT W. OLDANI

Leontovych, Mykola Dmytrovych

(b Selevynzi (now Monastyrok), Podillya (now Vynnyt'sa) province, 1/13 Dec 1877; d Markivka, near Tyl'chyn, 25 Jan 1921). Ukrainian composer, ethnomusicologist and conductor. After graduating from the theological seminary in Kamyanets-Podils'kyi in 1899, he worked as a teacher at various primary and middle schools and also as an organizer and director of amateur choirs and orchestras. He then attended, as an external student, classes at the St Petersburg court chapel choir (1903–04) and later, on the recommendation of Sergey Taneyev, had sporadic lessons with Boleslav Yavorsky in Kiev (1909–14). In spite of the early popularity of his compositions, Leontovych received general recognition when he was brought to Kiev in 1918 to teach at the conservatory and at the Lysenko Institute of Music and Drama; there, he was also one of the organizers of the First Ukrainian State Cappella. In 1919 he returned to Tyl'chyn. He died under tragic and mysterious circumstances. According to official accounts, he was shot by a criminal burgling his parents’ home. Unofficially, rumors persist that he was killed on orders of Cheka, the secret police. In 1922, the Leontovych Musical Society was established; it functioned in Kiev until 1928 when it was forced to hand over its activities to the chief political education committee of the commissariat of education because – or so the authorities claimed – it was propagandizing contemporary Western musical styles such as expressionism. The society was duly renamed the All-Ukrainian Society of Revolutionary Musicians (VUTORM) and this association functioned until the establishment of the Union of Composers of Ukraine in 1932.

Leontovych was undeniably the most brilliant and original exponent of the Lysenko school in Ukrainian music. His musical legacy consists primarily of more than 150 compositions written for unaccompanied choral ensembles and inspired by the texts and melodies of Ukrainian folk songs. With such works as Shchedryk (‘Epiphany Carol’, commonly known as ‘The Carol of the Bells’), Dudaryk (‘The Duda Player’) and Hra v zaichyka (‘Playing Rabbit’) he created a distinct genre: the folklore poem miniature. In them he developed a unique text-based strophic variation form. Leontovych gradually dispensed with Lysenko's aesthetic (a choral-harmonic style based in part on the traditions of the 17th- and 18th-century choral kant), and began to compose in a vividly expressive and figuratively rich fusion of Ukrainian improvisational polyphony, sophisticated imitative counterpoint, Impressionist harmonic subtleties and dramatic complexity, all firmly rooted in folk traditions. He further experimented with this style in a series of choral poems on texts of contemporary poets; these works include L'odolom (‘Icebreaker’) and Litni tony (‘Summer Tones’) to words by H. Chuprynka and Lehenda (‘Legend’) to words by M. Vorony. Leontovych also wrote several religious works (among them a setting of the liturgy and a number of cantatas), and at his death left an unfinished opera based on B. Hrinchenko's fairy tale Na rusalchyn velykden (‘The Water Nymph's Easter’, or ‘Rusalka's Easter’), which appears to pioneer the genre of ritual opera which was to achieve its apotheosis in Stankovych's The Fern's Bloom (1977). With its harmonic sophistication, complexity and immediacy of expression, Rusalka's Easter established a standard for Ukrainian composers to follow. It was edited and orchestrated by Skoryk in 1972 and was first performed in Kiev in 1977. Leontovych's work proved to be a major influence on composers as diverse as Kolyada, Lyatoshyns'ky and Revuts'ky and played an important role in the development of the Ukrainian choral tradition. His works were internationally popularized by Oleksandr Koshets and his Ukrainian Republican Kapelle and are the foundation repertory of many contemporary choral ensembles in Ukraine.

WORKS

Narodni pisni [Folksongs] (Kiev, 1921)

Ukrains'ki narodni pisni (Lips'k, 1923)

ed. P. Kozyts'ky: Muzychni tvory [Musical Works] (Kiev, 1925)

ed. Ya. Yurmas: Muzychni tvory (Khar'kiv and Kiev, 1930)

Khorovi tvory [Choral Works] (Kiev, 1970)

Povnyy zbirnyk narodnikh pisen' [Complete Collection of Folksongs] (Sask, n.d.)

WRITINGS

Praktychnyi kurs navchannia spivu v serednikh shkolakh Ukrainy [Practical course for teaching singing in middle schools of Ukraine] (Kiev, 1920, 2/1989)

Zbirka statey ta materialiv [Collection of articles and materials] (Kiev, 1947)

Tvorchist' Leontovycha: zbirka statey [Works of Leontovych: collection of articles] (Kiev, 1977)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

V. Dovzhenko: M.D. Leontovych: zbirka statei ta materialiv (Kiev, 1947)

M. Hordiychuk, ed.: M.D. Leontovych: narys pro zhyttia i tvorchist' (Kiev, 1956)

V. Ivanov, ed.: Mykola Leontovych: spohady, lysty, materialy [Leontovych: recollections, letters and materials] (Kiev, 1982)

V. Dyachenko: M.D. Leontovych (Kiev, 1985)

VIRKO BALEY

Leopardi, Venanzio [Venantio]

(b Camerino, Marche; d ? after 1675). Italian singer, instrumentalist and composer. In 1629, and again in 1648, he tried unsuccessfully to join the Cappella Sistina as an alto, and in the interim served Cardinal Colonna in Bologna, some German princes and the Collegio Germanico in Rome (May to October 1646). He is listed, along with the boy sopranos Marc’Antonio Sportonio and Domenico del Pane from the Collegio Germanico in the service of the Duke of Modena in the cast of the 1647 Paris production of Luigi Rossi’s L’Orfeo, in which he sang the minor tenor role of Charon. In the early months of that year Leopardi sent a number of interesting letters from Paris to the duke, in Rome, about their sojourn at French court (now in I-MOe, ed. in Prunières, 378–82). He was soon back on the circuit of the Roman churches, and was a salaried tenor at S Luigi dei Francesi in Rome from 1653 to 1664, and possibly until after 1675. In 1656 he was in the service of the Empress Eleonora in Vienna, but his name reappears on Roman payrolls at the Collegio Germanico and at the French church in 1657.

A document of 1645 (in I-MOs; pr. in Culley, 237, 275) states that Leopardi had composed theatre, church and chamber music, but few of his compositions have survived. The cantata Di già dato il tributo, which exists in four contemporary copies (GB-Och, I-MOe, Nc, Rc; transcr. in Prunières, appx, 7–12), is an extended solo lament in several contrasting sections characteristic of the mid-century style. Declamatory and decorated recitative sections with arioso closures surround a brief aria in triple metre. Two other solo cantatas are Le mie cose vanno male (I-Bc) and Voi volete ch’io canti (A-Wn, GB-Och). A motet for three sopranos is also extant (in I-TE).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Prunières: L’opéra italien en France avant Lulli (Paris, 1913/R)

H. Knaus: Die Musiker im Archivbestand des kaiserlichen Obersthofmeisteramtes (1637–1705), i (Vienna, 1967), 68–9, 129

T.D. Culley: Jesuits and Music, i: A Study of the Musicians Connected with the German College in Rome during the 17th Century and of their Activities in Northern Europe (Rome, 1970), esp. 237–8, 275

J. Lionnet: La musique à St-Louis des français de Rome au XVIIe siècle(Venice, 1985)

G. Ciliberti: A.M. Abbatini e la musica del suo tempo (1595–1679): documenti per una ricostruzione bio-bibliografica (Selci-Umbro, 1986)

M. Murata: ‘Singing about Singing, or The Power of Music Sixty Years After’, In cantu et in sermone: for Nino Pirrotta on his 80th Birthday, ed. F. Della Seta and F. Piperno (Florence, 1988), 363–82

MARGARET MURATA

Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor

(b Vienna, 9 June 1640; d Vienna, 5 May 1705). Austrian composer and patron of music. He was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III. A member of the house of Habsburg, he received a broad humanistic education under the tutelage of the Jesuit Neidhard to prepare him for intellectual and spiritual pursuits rather than for the succession to the throne. His training included extensive instruction in playing various instruments (notably the harpsichord, violin and recorder) and in composition, probably at the hands of Antonio Bertali and Markus and Wolfgang Ebner, the last of whom kept a collection of his early works, Spartitura compositionum sacrae regiae maiestatis Hungariae, Leopoldi I, composed and copied between 1655 and 1657. When the first son and chosen successor to Ferdinand III died, however, Leopold succeeded to the royal thrones of Hungary (1655) and Bohemia (1656) and on the death of his father was crowned Holy Roman Emperor on 18–19 July 1658. To ensure the succession he entered into three marriages: in 1667 to Margarita Teresa of Spain (1651–73), in 1673 to Claudia Felicitas of Tyrol (1653–76) and in 1676 to Eleonora Magdalena Theresia of the Palatinate (1655–1720), who gave birth to his successors, Joseph I and Charles VI.

Contemporary accounts of Leopold I stress the following aspects of his personality and habits: his deep religiosity, reflected in his tenacious defence of the Roman Catholic Church and penetrating the entire life of the court; his love of outdoor activities such as hunting and open-air entertainments of various kinds; his knowledge of at least four languages and skill in Italian poetry; and his love of, and excellence in, music. As a politician he relied heavily on the advice of his counsellors and was strongly influenced by the court clergy. Kann, comparing him with Louis XIV, characterized him as

irresolute in action but tenacious in the defense of the status quo, narrow and yet with an artistic mind, impecunious and splendour-loving, homely, unheroic, and unmartial, he was indeed the true antithesis of his more brilliant opponent and cousin.

For the history of music, Leopold I is significant both as a major patron and as a composer. Considering the severe internal as well as external political problems during his reign (including the siege of Vienna by Ottoman forces in 1683 and subsequent campaigns to alleviate the Turkish threat, the attempts to secure the western frontiers of the empire against French invasions, the artificially prolonged Counter-Reformation and the great plague of 1679–80), it is surprising to find an unprecedented cultural growth at the Habsburg court and in the heartland of the empire in general. Building on the foundations laid by his predecessors (especially Ferdinand III), Leopold considerably expanded the court musical establishment – the imperial Hofkapelle – by continuing to employ Italian musicians, among them the composers Antonio Bertali, G.F. Sances, Antonio Draghi, Giovanni Bononcini, M.A. Ziani and Francesco Conti, but also by drawing on native talent, including the composers J.H. Schmelzer, J.K. Kerll, F.T. Richter and J.J. Fux. Although he did not neglect church music or independent instrumental music, his main interest was in dramatic music. Outside the court this interest can be seen in his encouragement of Jesuit drama, probably for religious as well as artistic reasons. At court, secular and sacred dramatic music flourished. Generous financial support for opera productions, including the extravagant expenditure of about 300,000 florins for the performance of Antonio Cesti’s Il pomo d’oro (as opposed to an average of about 20,000 florins per opera production and the average yearly salary of 2000 florins for the Kapellmeister); the judicious hiring of librettists, composers and stage designers, among them the dominating collaborators Nicolò Minato, Draghi, Schmelzer and L.O. Burnacini; participation in performances by members of the imperial family; the emperor’s personal interest and support: these all resulted in a theatrical life at court not equalled at any other court during his reign. Thus, between 1658 and 1705 more than 400 dramatic compositions were presented there: operas and shorter secular dramatic works during Carnival and as celebrations of birthdays and name days of members of the imperial family as well as on other important occasions at court; and oratorios and sepolcri mainly in Lent, notably to commemorate the Passion on Maundy Thursday and Good Friday.

As a composer, Leopold I contributed a large number of works to the repertory performed at court. In style they follow the Venetian tradition as seen especially in composers active in Vienna, such as Bertali and Draghi. His sacred and secular Italian dramatic compositions evince a careful attention to the text, skilful manipulation of recitative and arioso sections, and a preference for a simple and deeply felt melodic style. By contrast his ballet music and his contributions to the developing German-language comedy – mainly short songs and arias – are light and extremely simple and use folk music idioms; they are clearly influenced by Schmelzer. Leopold’s most successful compositions are without question his liturgical works. In them he combined polychoral techniques, the concertato style, and effective melodic writing influenced by characteristics of monody to produce substantial works – especially the Missa angeli custodis, the requiem for his first wife, and the three lections for the burial of his second wife – that proclaim him as no mere aristocratic dilettante, but as a talented and successful composer. He also conducted a private performance of Draghi’s Chi più sa manco l’intende from the harpsichord in 1669.

WORKS

Edition: Musikalische Werke der Kaiser Ferdinand III., Leopold I., und Joseph I., ed. G. Adler (Vienna, 1892–3) [A]

performed in Vienna, unless otherwise stated; principal source A-Wn (for catalogue see Brosche)

operas

?La simpatia nell’odio overo Le amazoni amanti (op tragicomica, 3, G.P. Monesio), ?18 Nov 1664, only 1 aria extant

Apollo deluso [?Act 2] (dramma per musica, 3, A. Draghi), 13 June 1669; collab. G.F. Sances; excerpts in A ii

Creso (dramma per musica, N. Minato), 9 and 10 Jan 1678

Recitatives and arias, incl. those in works by A. Draghi, A. Cesti, G.F. Sances and J.H. Schmelzer; some in A ii

incidental music

Fineza contra fineza (P. Calderón), 22 Dec 1671; excerpts in A ii

Die vermeinte Brueder- und Schwesterlibe (C. Schlegel), Linz, 19 Nov 1680; excerpts in A ii

Der thoreichte Schäffer, 1 March 1683, arias in A ii

Die Ergetzungstund der Sclavinnen aus Samien, 1685

[Comedy], 1686

[Festa], 1695; excerpts in A ii

[Comedy], 19 Feb 1697; excerpts in A ii

oratorios, sepolcri

Il sacrifizio d’Abramo (Conte Caldana), 26 March 1660; scene in A ii

Il lutto dell’universo (F. Sbarra), Wiener Neustadt, 29 March 1668; excerpts in A ii

Il figlio prodigo (G.P. Monesio), between 1674 and 1685

L’ingratitudine rimproverata (Minato), 12 April 1675, music lost

L’amor della redentione, oratorio delli sette maggiori dolori della vergine (Minato), 9 April 1677

Die Erlösung dess menschlichen Geschlechts (J.A. Ruedolf), 30 March 1679; 2 scenes in A ii

Il transito di Giuseppe (Minato), Prague, 1680

Sig des Leydens Christi über die Sinnligkeit (Ruedolf), 26 March 1682; excerpts in A ii; ed. V. Keldorfer (Vienna, 1918)

S Antonio di Padova, Linz, 1684; 4 scenes in A ii

Recitative, 2 arias in A. Draghi: La virtù della croce, A ii

sacred vocal

Missa angeli custodis, 4vv, insts, A i; Missa pro defunctis, 5vv, insts (dated 1673); 3 lections, 5vv, insts (dated 1676), A i; 2 offs, 4, 6vv, insts (1 dated, 1662); Mag, 5vv, insts; Dies irae, 4vv, insts (1673); Stabat mater, 4vv, insts; 5 Marian ants, 1–5vv, insts, 1 in A i; 1 other ant, 5vv, org, A i; 3 lits, 4–6vv, insts; 6 motets, 1–5vv, insts, 1 in A i; 5 pss, 1–4vv, insts, 2 in A i; 12 hymns, 2–6vv, insts, 3 in A i; masses and Stabat mater ed. M. Dietz (Vienna, 1891)

secular

Giudizio d’amore (dialogo musicale)

Del silenzio profondo (serenata)

Rimbomba mia tromba (serenata)

4 canzonettas, 1–3vv, insts, 1655–7; madrigal, 3vv, bc

Sonata, 4 va, bc, 1656; ritornello [sonata] (bc only extant); 102 dances [incl. 16 suites] (melody and bc only extant), 28 in A ii

Lost works, incl. 2 masses, Dies irae, Stabat mater, Compline, 2 Mag, 11 ants, lit, 2 Miserere, 20 motets, cited in Distinta specificatione dell’archivio musicale per il servizio della cappella e camera cesarea, A-Wn, catalogue of Leopold’s private collection

BIBLIOGRAPHY

KöchelKHM

ScheringGO

G. Adler: ‘Die Kaiser Ferdinand III., Leopold I., Joseph I., und Karl VI. als Tonsetzer und Förderer der Musik’, VMw, viii (1892), 252–68

A. von Weilen: Zur Wiener Theatergeschichte: die vom Jahre 1629 bis zum Jahre 1740 am Wiener Hofe zur Aufführung gelangten Werke theatralischen Charakters und Oratorien (Vienna, 1901)

G. Adler: ‘Zur Geschichte der Wiener Messkomposition in der zweiten Hälfte des XVII. Jahrhunderts’, SMw, iv (1916), 5–45

E. Wellesz: ‘Die Opern und Oratorien in Wien von 1660–1708’, SMw, vi (1919), 5–138

P. Nettl: ‘Die Wiener Tanzkomposition in der zweiten Hälfte des 17. Jahrhunderts’, SMw, viii (1921), 45–175

Z. Kalista, ed.: Leopold I: Korespondence … Humprechten Janem Černínem z Chudenic (Prague, 1936)

N. Eisenberg: ‘Studien zur Historiographie über Kaiser Leopold I.’, Mitteilungen des œsterreichisches Instituts für Geschichtsforschung, li (1937), 359–413

G. Tauschhuber: Kaiser Leopold I. und das Wiener Barocktheater (Mühldorf am Inn, 1947)

H.V.F. Somerset: ‘The Habsburg Emperors as Musicians’, ML, xxx (1949), 204–15

F. Hadamowsky: ‘Barocktheater am Wiener Kaiserhof, mit einem Spielplan (1625–1740)’, Jb der Gesellschaft für Wiener Theaterforschung 1951–2, 7–117; pubd separately (Vienna, 1955)

R.A. Kann: A Study in Austrian Intellectual History (New York, 1960)

O. Wessely: ‘Kaiser Leopolds I. “Vermeinte Bruder- und Schwesterliebe”’, SMw, xxv (1962), 586–608

C.D. Harris: Keyboard Music in Vienna during the Reign of Leopold I, 1658–1705 (diss., U. of Michigan, 1967)

H. Knaus: Die Musiker im Archivbestand des kaiserlichen Obersthofmeisteramtes (1637–1705) (Vienna, 1967–9)

H. Seifert: ‘Die Festlichkeiten zur ersten Hochzeit Kaiser Leopolds I.’, ÖMz, xxix (1974), 6–16

G. Brosche: ‘Die musikalischen Werke Kaiser Leopolds I: ein systematisch-thematisches Verzeichnis der erhaltenen Kompositionen’, Beiträge zur Musikdokumentation: Franz Grasberger zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. G. Brosche (Tutzing, 1975), 27–82

J.P. Spielman: Leopold I of Austria (London, 1977)

H. Seifert: Die Oper am Wiener Kaiserhof im 17. Jahrhundert (Tutzing, 1985)

RUDOLF SCHNITZLER (with HERBERT SEIFERT)

Leopold, Silke

(b Hamburg, 30 Nov 1948). German musicologist. She studied singing and the flute at the Hamburg Conservatory (1969–72) and musicology with Dadelsen at Hamburg University (1969–75), taking the doctorate in 1975 with a dissertation on Stefano Landi. For three years she was a research fellow at the Deutsches Historisches Institut in Rome and an editor of Analectica musicologica; in 1980 she was made Dahlhaus's assistant at the Technische Universität in Berlin. In 1987 she completed the Habilitation with a study on poetry and music in early 17th-century Italian solo song, and she was made lecturer at the Technische Universität in 1990. In 1991 she was appointed professor of musicology at Detmold University (and Paderborn Musikhochschule, which is affiliated with the university), and in 1996 she became chair of the music department at the University of Heidelberg. She has also been a visiting lecturer at Harvard (1986) and a visiting professor at the universities of Regensburg (1988), Basle (1990) and Berne (1992–3). She was awarded the Dent medal in 1986, and she was made a member of the Zentralinstitut für Mozartforschung in Salzburg in 1992 and vice-president of the Gesellschaft für Musikforschung in 1993.

Leopold is one of the leading German music scholars of her generation. Her examinations of vocal music, particularly opera, from the 17th to the 19th century address a wide range of topics, including the investigation of sources, the history of genres and sociological issues relating to this repertory. Her work is informed by a profound knowledge of the wider cultural contexts within which the music was composed. A prolific author, she has contributed important articles to the Neues Handbuch der Musikwissenschaft (from 1985), Pipers Enzyklopädie des Musiktheaters and the second edition of Musik und Geschichte und Gegenwart; she is also editor of the series Bärenreiter Studienbücher zur Musik (from 1992) and writes frequently for German radio stations.

WRITINGS

Stefano Landi: Beiträge zur Biographie: Untersuchungen zur weltlichen und geistlichen Vokalmusik (diss., U. of Hamburg, 1975; Hamburg, 1976)

‘Das geistliche Libretto im 17. Jahrhundert: zur Gattungsgeschichte der frühen italienischen Oper’, Mf, xxxi (1978), 245–57

‘“Quelle bazzicature poetiche, appellate ariette”: Dichtungsformen in der frühen italienischen Oper (1600–1640)’, HJbMw 1978, 101–41

‘Madrigali sulle egloghe sdrucciole di Jacopo Sannazzaro: struttura poetica e forma musicale’, RIM, xiv (1979), 75–127

‘Chiabrera und die Monodie: die Entwicklung der Arie’, Studi musicali, x (1981), 75–106

‘Die Hierarchie Arkadiens: Soziale Strukturen in den frühen Pastoralopern und ihre Ausdrucksformen’, Schweizer Jb für Musikwissenschaft, new ser., i (1981), 71–92

Claudio Monteverdi und seine Zeit (Laaber, 1982, 2/1993; Eng. trans., 1991, as Monteverdi: Music in Transition)

‘Haydn und die Tradition der Orpheus-Opern’, Musica, xxxvi (1982), 131–5

‘Remigio Romano's Collection of Lyrics for Music’, PRMA, cxi (1984–5), 45–61

‘Jenseits der Gattungen: Händels “Apollo und Dafne”’, Basler Jb für historische Musikpraxis, ix (1985), 9–24

‘Lyra Orphei’, Claudio Monteverdi: Festschrift Reinhold Hammerstein, ed. L. Finscher (Laaber, 1986), 337–45

‘Kontrapunkt und Textausdruck: Studieneinheit Nr. 8’, Funkkolleg Musikgeschichte: Studienbegleitbrief, no.4 (1987), 11–45

‘“Semele” von John Eccles und Georg Friedrich Händel’, Händel auf dem Theater, ed. H.J. Marx, ii (Laaber, 1988), 29–37

‘Wahnsinn mit Methode: die Wahnsinnsszenen in Händels dramatischen Werken und ihre Vorbilder’, Opernheld und Opernheldin im 18. Jahrhundert: Münster 1989, 71–83

‘Mozart, die Oper und die Tradition’, Mozarts Opernfiguren, ed. D. Borchmeyer (Berne, 1992), 19–34

ed.: Musikalische Metamorphosen: Formen und Geschichte der Bearbeitung (Kassel, 1992) [incl. ‘Von Pasteten und Don Giovannis Requiem: Opernbearbeitungen’, 86–93; ‘Sang als Klang und Klang als Sang: Vokale Bearbeitung von Instrumentalmusik und instrumentale Bearbeitung von Vokalmusik’, 137–46; ‘Bearbeitung ohne Ende: die Interpretation: einige Gedanken zum Schluss’, 108–83]

ed., with J. Steinheuer: Claudio Monteverdi und die Folgen: Detmold 1993

‘Händels Geist in Mozarts Händen: über das “Qui tollis” in der c-moll-Messe’, MJb 1994, 89–111

Al modo d'Orfeo: Dichtung und Musik im italienischen Sologesang des frühen 17. Jahrhunderts, AnMc, no.29 (1995) [enlarged version of Habilitationsschrift, Technical U., Berlin, 1987]

‘Darius Milhauds Streichquartette oder: von der Ernsthaftigkeit des Spielerischen’, Studien zur Musikgeschichte: eine Festschrift für Ludwig Finscher, ed. A. Laubenthal and K. Kusan-Windweh (Kassel, 1995), 727–36

‘Von der Allgewalt vollsten Hingebungseifers: Weibs-Bilder in Wagners Ring’, Richard Wagner: ‘Der Ring des Nibelungen’: Ansichten des Mythos, ed. U. Bermbach and D. Borchmeyer (Stuttgart, 1995), 59–74

‘“Er ist der Vater, wir sind die Buben”: über Mozarts schöpferische Auseinandersetzung mit Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach’, Festschrift Christoph-Hellmut Mahling, ed. A. Beer, K. Pfarr and W. Ruf, i (Tutzing, 1997), 755–69

‘Die Vanitas-Idee in der Musik des frühen 17. Jahrhunderts’, ‘Aspekte der Gegenreformation’, Zeitsprünge: Forschungen zur Frühen Neuzeit, i/3–4 (1997), 645–69 [special issue]

with R. Maschka: Who's Who in der Oper (Kassel, 1997)

ed., with U. Scheideler: Oratorienführer (Stuttgart, 1999)

Georg Friedrich Händel und seine Zeit (Laaber, forthcoming)

Handbuch der musikalischen Gattungen: die Oper im 17. Jahrhundert (Laaber, forthcoming)

‘Sprezzatura, Cirimonie, Dissimulazione: drei zentrale Begriffe der barocken Verhaltenslehre und ihre musikalischen Ausdrucksformen’, Studi musicali (forthcoming)

CHRISTIAN BERGER

Leopolita [Lwowczyk, ze Lwowa], Marcin [Leopolitanus, Martinus]

(d Lwów [now L'viv], 1589). Polish composer and ?poet. What little is known about him derives from Starowolski and Zimorowicz and is otherwise undocumented. He is said to have studied under Sebastian z Felsztyna and Jan Jeleń of Tuchola, and to have been a student at Kraków Academy; he was not, as has been claimed, organist at the court of King Sigismund II Augustus, but he has been identified with a ‘Marcin’ who was engaged in 1560 as a ‘compositor cantus’ at this court. His extant works are the Missa Paschalis (formerly in PL-Kk; ed. in Monumenta musicae sacrae in Polonia, iii, Poznań, 1889, and WDMP, xxxv, 1957), which is based on melodic material deriving from four Polish Easter hymns, four five-part motets, which survive only in organ transcriptions (in PL-WRu; two, one in a reconstruction of the original version, ed. M. Perz in Muzyka w dawnym Krakowie, ed. Z.M. Szweykowski, 1964; one, also reconstructed, ed. M. Perz in Muzyka staropolska, ed. H. Feicht, 1966; one ed. in AMP, xv, 1968), and another motet of which only two vocal parts are extant; two other masses, Missa Rorate and Missa de Resurrectione, were known as recently as the end of the 19th century (then in PL-Kk) but have since disappeared.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SMP

S. Starowolski: Scriptorum polonicorum hekatontas (Frankfurt, 1625, 4/1733; Pol. trans., 1970, as Setnik pisarzów polskich)

B. Zimorowicz: Viri illustres civitatis Leopoliensis (Lwów, 1671); ed. K. Heck (Lwów, 1890)

A. Chybiński: Słownik muzyków dawnej Polski do roku 1800 [Dictionary of early Polish musicians to 1800] (Kraków, 1949)

H. Feicht: ‘O mszy wielkanocnej Marcina Leopolity’ [Concerning Marcin Leopolita's Easter mass], KM, no.6 (1929–30), 109–57; repr. in Opera Musicologica Hieronymi Feicht, iii (Kraków, 1980), 7–86

M. Perz: ‘Motety Marcina Leopolity’, Studia Hieronymo Feicht septuagenario dedicata, ed. Z. Lissa (Kraków, 1967), 155–89

M. Perz: ‘Rękopiśmienne partesy olkuskie’ [Manuscript partbooks from Olkusz], Muzyka, xiv/2 (1969), 18–44

E. Głuszcz-Zẃolińska: Muzyka nadworna ostatnich Jagiellonów [The court music of the last Jagiellonians] (Kraków, 1988)

ELŻBIETA GLUSZCZ-ZWOLIŃSKA

Leotsakos, George

(b Athens, 9 Aug 1935). Greek music critic, musicologist and composer. Although he studied music privately with Kostas Kydoniatis and later with Papaioannou at the Hellenic Conservatory, Athens (graduating in 1964), he considers himself largely self-taught. As a student he began writing music criticism for the Athens morning newspaper, Kathimerini, succeeding Dounias as full-time critic in 1962. Subsequently he worked for several daily papers in Athens, including Messimvrini (1961–3), Ta nea (1965–75), To vima (1975), Proini (1979–80), Eléftheri Gnomi (1983–4), and Epikaerotita (1990–91), as well as the fortnightly Anti (1975–82). In 1999 he became a music critic for Ekti Iméra, the weekly cultural issue of Imerissia. He also served as music editor for the Greek encyclopaedia Papyros-Larousse-Britannica (vols.i–xiii, 1981–3) and the Ekpaedeftiki Helliniki Encyclopedia (vols i–ixb, biographical section), introducing to the latter new materials on dozens of Greek composers, especially those of the 19th and 20th centuries. He was also a producer of Greek art music programmes for Hellenic Radio (1975–6, 1983–7) and in 1975 he was responsible for introducing programmes of traditional Asian music to the Greek public. However, in the early 1970s, he had already abandoned ethnomusicology, which occupied hm from the late 1950s, devoting himself exclusively to research in the history of Greek art music, mostly inspired by his experience of Greek musical life as a critic. He was the first Western musicologist (after the ethnomusicologist A.L. Lloyd in the 1960s) to enter socialist Albania, where in 1981 he began recording its art music. Between that year and 2000 he returned 13 times to gather material and to assist in festivals of Albanian art music. This experience has had a decisive influence on his overall musical philosophy and, partly, on his approach to Greek art music as well. He has composed a small number of instrumental works in a free atonal style interspersed with modal structures; these include 24 Japanese Haiku (1961) for soprano and piano and Khmer (1964–6) for solo flute, which echo his aural impressions from traditional Japanese music and from his 1963 journey to Japan, Thailand and Cambodia, as well, as the triptych Dulciamer (1991) for solo cimbalom.

WRITINGS

‘Music’, Südostoeuropa Handbuch, iii: Griechenland, ed. K.-D. Grothusen (Göttingen, 1980), 544–58

‘Elliniko lyriko théatro: 100 hronia, 1888–1988’ [Greek lyrical theatre: 100 years, 1888–1988] YP 4–6 L/L 14564 66 (Athens, 1988)

‘Emilios Riadis (1880–1935)’, O paratiritis, nos.6–7 (1988), 147–91

‘Nikolaos Halikiopoulos Mantzaros (1795–1872): ya éna mikro tou engolpio’, [Mantzaros: for a short guidebook on the composer], Mousikologia, no.5–6 (1988), 228–71

‘O Manolis Kalomiris se diskous 78 strofon (aformi ya mia proti érevna sta mavra hronia tis zois tou)’ [Kalomiris on 78 rpm records (an opportunity for research on the dark years of the composer’s life)], Mousikologia, no.7–8 (1989), 169–91

‘Dimitrios Lalas, o Makedonas mathitis ke oikeios tou Richard Wagner (1844–1911)’ [Lalas, the Macedonian disciple and family friend of Wagner (1844–1911)], O Wagner ke i Ellada (Athens, 1992), 207–45

‘I haménes ellinikés operes i o afanismos tou moussikou mas politismou’ [Lost Greek operas or the annihilation of our musical civilization], Epilogos ’92 (Athens, 1992), 398–428

‘Orakel und Drama: Christou, 2. Symphonie’, Jani Christou: Hamburg 1993, 51–60

‘Italy as the ‘Alma Mater’ of 19th Century Greek Music and as a Vast Field of Future Historical Research on it’, Mediterraneo Musica: Palemo 1995, 66–79

‘Spyridon-Filiskos Samaras’, Pangosmio Viografiko Lexiko, ixa (1988), 171–2

Lychnos ypo ton modhion [Light under a bushel] (Athens, 1999) [incl. CD]

ed.: Paylou Carrer ‘Apomnimonévmata’ ke Katalogos érgon ke moussikon heirographon [The ‘memoirs’ of Pavlos Carrer and a Catalogue of his works and musical manuscripts] (Athens, 2000)

Éntechni Alvaniki moussiki: historia kai katagrafi enos monadhikou phaenoménou [Albanian art music: the history and recording of a unique phenomemon] (forthcoming)

Spyros Samaras, o megalos adhikiménos: zoi kai dhimiourghia [Samaras, the great injustice: his life and creation] (forthcoming)

DIMITRI CONOMOS

Leoz, Jesús García

(b Olite, Navarre, 10 Jan 1904; d Madrid, 25 Feb 1953). Spanish composer. Born into a family of musicians, he began his career as cantor in his native village and then studied in Pamplona, where he was a member of the Orfeón Pamplonés. When he was 17 he went to Argentina, earning his living as a teacher and pianist. On his return to Spain he studied composition with del Campo and the piano with Balsa; later he was the favourite pupil of Turina, whose nationalist style he followed in his own music while keeping his individuality. He had many popular successes and was twice winner of the National Music Prize.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: La duquesa del Candil (zar), 1947; La alegre alcaldesa (zar), 1949; La zapatera y el embozado (ballet), 1950; Primavera del portal (retablo lírico navideño), 1952; Barataria (op), inc.

Orch: 3 danzas, 1934; Homenaje a Manolete, gui, str, 1948; Sinfonia, 1950

Chbr: Sonata, vn, pf, 1932; Str Qt, 1940; Pf Qt, 1946

Pf: Giga en rondó, 1931; Sonatina, 1933, orchd

Many songs (Lorca, Machado etc.), film scores

Principal publisher: Unión Musical Española

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Fernández Cid: Jesús Leoz (Madrid, 1953)

T. Marco: Historia de la música española: siglo XX (Madrid, 1983; Eng. trans., 1993)

CARLOS GÓMEZ AMAT

Lepescheur.

See Pescheur family.

Le Petit, Johannes.

See Ninot le Petit.

Le Picard [Le Picart].

French and Flemish family of organ builders.

(i) Philippe Le Picard

BIBLIOGRAPHY

N. Dufourcq: Esquisse d’une histoire de l’orgue en France (Paris, 1935), 311

M. Waltmans and M. Smeets: Kerkorgels te Roermond (Heythuysen, 1957)

T.J. Gerits: ‘De Luikse orgelbouwer Jan-Baptist Le Picard: een bijdrage tot zijn leven en werk’, Het oude Land van Loon, xxv (1970), 101–45

G. Schumacher: ‘La facture d'orgues au XVIIIe siècle: la dynastie des Picard et Robustelly’, Bulletin de la Société Liégeoise de Musicologie, xxviii (1980), 1–22

M. Haine and N. Meeùs: Dictionnaire des facteurs d’instruments de musique en Wallonie et à Bruxelles du 9e siècle à nos jours (Liège, 1986), 258–9 [with list of works in Belgium]

G. Quaedvlieg: ‘Jean-Baptiste le Picard en het orgee van de voormalige Predikherenkerk te Maastricht’, Het orgel, xciv (1998), 21

GUY OLDHAM/JEAN-PIERRE FÉLIX

Le Picard

(i) Philippe Le Picard

(b 1620–30; d Noyon, 1701) built a new organ at Montdidier in 1667 and restored that in Amiens Cathedral in 1671. With his son Antoine (fl 1685–1716) he enlarged the organ at Liessies in 1693–5 and restored that in Noyon Cathedral in 1698. Antoine constructed a new organ with three manuals and 36 stops at Saint Hubert Abbey in 1685 (case survives) and repaired that at Amiens Cathedral early in the 18th century. Philippe Le Picard (ii) (b Noyon, 1650–68; d Liège, 15 May 1729), another son, married Marie-Anne Delaplace before 1701. A fine builder, he worked on the organs at St Pierre, Liège (1702); St Lambert’s Cathedral, Liège (1705; with French pedals) and Ste Croix, Liège (1716). The only surviving example of his work is the organ in Gronsveld, near Maastricht (1711). He provided the upkeep and the restoration of many organs in Liège, and is considered as the founder of the school of organ building there.

Le Picard

(ii) Jean-Baptiste Le Picard

(bap. Liège, 23 May 1706; d Metz, 18 May 1779), son of Philippe (ii), spent his whole life in Liège. Also a fine builder in the French style, he made organs with short compass divisions (Récit, c', and Echo, c) and pedal pull-downs. His instruments include those at the Dominicanerkerk, Maastricht (1734–5), in collboration with his brother Jean-François Le Picard (bap. Liège, 18 Oct 1711; d Metz, 21 April 1784); the Benedictine abbey at Liège (1736–7); Vlierbeek Abbey (1737–8); Beaufays Abbey, near Liège (1741–2; extant); Nunhem, near Roermond (1742; two manuals, with pull-downs; the Positif survives as the choir organ in the Martinikerk at Groningen); Houtain-l’Evêque (c1745); Roermond (c1745; now in the Gereformeerde Oosterkerk, Utrecht); Roermond, Groot-Seminarie (1745; case and seven stops survive); Thorn Abbey (1745); Hodimont (1747); Roermond Cathedral (1750–52; three manuals, with pull-downs); St Loup, Namur; St Pierre, Liège (1739–41; case survives); Herkenrode Abbey, Kuringen (1744–6); Onze Lieve Vrouwbasiliek, Tongeren (1750–52; case survives); St Truiden Abbey (1753–6), Chênée (1756). Joseph Le Picard, another son of Philippe (ii) (bap. Liège, 14 July 1704), was an organ builder at Metz.

Le Picq [Le Picque, Lepic, Le Pichi, Picq, Pick, Pich, Pik], Charles [Carlo]

(b Naples, 1744; d St Petersburg, 1806). French choreographer and dancer. As a youth he was influenced by the Noverrian form of ballet en action. His initial contract as figurant at Stuttgart from February 1760, shortly before Noverre’s arrival, was extended in 1761 for six more years, with the additional clause that he be given special instruction by Noverre in ‘Serieux-Tanzen’. By 1766 he was a leading dancer. After Noverre’s departure in 1767 Le Picq transferred to Vienna, where in 1765 he had already come into contact with Hilverding, an early exponent of dramatic dance. He may also have appeared in Warsaw. When Noverre took over at Vienna in late 1767 Le Picq became principal dancer. In 1769 he moved to Italy and, apart from two short visits to Paris to dance under Noverre (1776, 1778), remained until early 1782. He choreographed his first work, a Noverre revival, at Padua in June 1769, thereafter alternating as director of ballets at the S Benedetto in Venice and the Regio Ducal in Milan, briefly working also at the Pergola in Florence. At Milan he staged the first ballet in Hasse’s last opera, Il Ruggiero (1771); on 26 December 1772, in Mozart’s Lucio Silla, he both choreographed the opera’s closing ciaccona and, after Act 1, revived Noverre’s Les jalousies du sérail. Mozart made souvenir sketches of its music (mainly by Joseph Starzer).

For two periods, May 1773 to January 1776 and May 1777 to November 1781, Le Picq was chief choreographer at the S Carlo in Naples. There he staged the internal dances for the revival of Gluck’s Orfeo ed Euridice (4 November 1774). In between these two contracts he made his Parisian début, dancing under Noverre’s direction at the Opéra in Gluck’s Alceste (1776), and worked as choreographer at the S Benedetto in Venice. Afterwards at Naples he became acquainted with the young Martín y Soler, who provided the music for most of his original ballets from 1780 onwards as well as a new setting to replace Gluck’s original for a revival of Angiolini’s Semiramide (13 August 1780). Le Picq moved to London in 1782. At the King’s Theatre he was first dancer, again under Noverre, and then director of ballets (December 1782 to April 1785). His initial successes there led Catherine II to instruct the Russian ambassador in May 1783 to engage him for her court ballets, but prior contracts did not permit his acceptance until 1786. He was ballet-master at St Petersburg until his retirement in 1799, collaborating on several occasions with Martín y Soler, court composer since 1790. Le Picq was instrumental in promoting an Italian translation of Noverre’s Lettres sur la danse, but only two of the original 15 chapters were published (as Due lettere scritte a diversi soggetti, Naples, 1774). In a final expression of gratitude to the master who had promoted his own career, he issued a lavish edition of Noverre’s works at St Petersburg in 1803–4.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MooserA

M.H. Winter: The Pre-Romantic Ballet (London, 1974)

R. Cafiero: ‘Aspetti della musica coreutica fra settecento e ottocento’, Il Teatro di San Carlo 1737–1987, ed. B. Cagli and A. Ziino, ii (Naples, 1987), 309–31

K.K. Hansell: ‘Il ballo teatro e l’opera italiana’, SOI, v (1988), 214–42

KATHLEEN KUZMICK HANSELL

L’Epine [Lépine, Lespine, Picart].

French family of organ builders. Adrian L’Epine (fl Bordeaux, 1711–31) worked on the organs of Bordeaux Cathedral (1711), St Jean-de-Luz (1724) and St Michel, Bordeaux (1731). Jean-François L’Epine (i) (b Abbeville, c1682; d Toulouse, 1762), brother of Adrian, settled in Toulouse about 1725 and worked at Albi, Rodez and Lodève. His son Jean-François L’Epine (ii) l’aîné (b Toulouse, 1732; d Pézenas, 1817) was a pupil and colleague of Bédos de Celles. He built the organs at Pézenas (1755–6; with an early example of a Hautboy on the Récit) and Montpellier Cathedral (in collaboration with Dominique Cavaillé-Coll). He worked for a long time with Isnard at Béziers and at Narbonne (1776–80). Another son of Jean-François L’Epine (i), Adrien (b Toulouse, 1735; d Montargis, 1795), was trained by his father and then in Paris by L.-A. Clicquot. In 1758 he married Clicquot’s daughter, Marie Catherine, and worked in partnership with his brother-in-law whilst gradually establishing his own organ building business. In 1765 he built instruments at the cathedrals of Nantes and Auxerre (where François Callinet was his apprentice); he also worked at Nogent-sur-Seine, Arpajon, and at Notre Dame de Bonne Nouvelle, Paris. He sold a piano organisé to Beaumarchais. Adrien’s masterpiece is the organ at the Ecole Militaire, Paris (1772–3; three manuals, 31 stops including two Dessus de flûte), an instrument which won him a position as one of the two ‘facteurs d’orgue du Roi’. Adrien built two small organs for the Marquis de Brunoy, and the organ for Brunoy’s church at a cost of 14,000 livres. After his wife’s death and the reconstruction of the organ at St Médard, Paris (1778), whose bellows had failed, Adrien retired to Montargis. He was ruined by the Revolution.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. VidaL: ‘Jean-François L’Epine, facteur d’orgue (1732–1817)’, Fédération historique (Montpellier, 1976), 283–330

J.-L. Bergnes: Jean-François L’Epine, facteur d’orgues languedocien (Béziers, 1983)

J.-C. Tosi: Le grand orgue de l’église Saint-Jean Baptiste de Nemours (Courlay, 1993)

GUY OLDHAM/PIERRE HARDOUIN

L’Epine, (Francesca) Margherita [Françoise Marguérite] de

(b c1680; d London, 8 Aug 1746). Italian soprano. Of possible Hugenot extraction, she sang at Venice in 1698–1700, and was described as a virtuoso of the court of Mantua. She arrived in London in 1702, probably from Tuscany with the German composer Jakob Greber, whose mistress she was (the poet laureate Nicholas Rowe satirized her as ‘base Greber’s Peg’), and her sister Maria Gallia, also a singer. L’Epine sang at Lincoln’s Inn Fields in a play called The Fickle Shepherdess, for which she received 20 guineas on 27 May 1703. She appeared twice with Greber at the same theatre in June, in works of his composition, and was singing at Southborough near Tunbridge Wells in the summer. She was courted by more than one peer of the realm and lived with Daniel Finch, Earl of Nottingham, at his seat, Burley, during the autumn and early winter of 1703. In these early years she danced as well as sang in public. From January 1704 she was employed regularly at Drury Lane until January 1708, when she moved with the rest of the opera company to the Queen’s Theatre, remaining there until December 1714. At first her repertory was confined to songs and cantatas in Italian and English, and included many by Purcell, Giovanni Bononcini and Alessandro Scarlatti. She enjoyed the usual benefit each spring. It was at this period that the rivalry between her partisans and those of the English soprano Catherine Tofts grew notorious: on 5 February 1704 a former servant of the latter created a disturbance in the theatre by throwing oranges and hissing when L’Epine was singing. L’Epine’s extramural activities inspired many an unheroic couplet in the press and more exalted circles; on 13 July 1706 an anti-theatrical writer in The Observator asked: ‘Can we help Laughing and Weeping the same time, to see a Secretary retiring from the Great Affairs of State to an Allcove with Donna Margaritta de la Pin, alias Pegg Thorn, to hear her Sing “Colly my Cow”, and “Uptails all”?’.

L’Epine returned to the Continent for a time late in 1704; during the following summer Greber, with whom she lived in Suffolk Street, left England. She sang occasionally at Chelsea College, York Buildings and Hickford’s Room and on 5 February 1706 at court. On 13 April she introduced at Drury Lane a new English cantata ‘written and compos’d after the Italian manner’. The first London opera in which she is known to have appeared was Haym’s adaptation of Bononcini’s Camilla at Drury Lane; she replaced Mrs Tofts as the heroine at the fourth performance (23 April 1706) and sang the part probably until 4 June. On 1 April 1707 she sang in the Pepusch pasticcio Thomyris, and from then until 1714 was in almost all the operas, most of them pasticcios, produced in London: a revival of Camilla (December 1707, in a male part), Love’s Triumph (February 1708), A. Scarlatti’s Pirro e Demetrio (December 1708 and later), Clotilda (March 1709), Almahide (January 1710 and later), Mancini’s Idaspe fedele (March 1710 and later), Gasparini’s Antioco (December 1711) and Ambleto (February 1712), Galliard’s English opera Calypso and Telemachus (in which she played Calypso, May 1712), Ernelinda (February 1713 and later), Dorinda (the revival of January 1714), Creso (January 1714) and Arminio (March 1714 and later). In several of these L’Epine played male parts. At her benefit in Arminio on 1 May 1714 she inserted additional songs and played ‘an Instrument of Invention entirely New, imitating the Harp and Lute’. She sang Goffredo in the revivals of Handel’s Rinaldo on 23 January 1712 and 6 May 1713 and created the parts of Eurilla in his Il pastor fido (22 November 1712), Agilea in Teseo (10 January 1713) and probably Flavia in Silla (2 June 1713).

Early in 1715 L’Epine joined Pepusch at Drury Lane, only returning to the King’s for a royal command performance of Idaspe fedele on 27 August. She had sung in odes by Pepusch as early as 1707, and they gave a concert together at the Great Room, Peter’s Court, on 14 June 1710; she was associated with him for the rest of her life. The date of their marriage, generally given as 1718, is uncertain; they had a son John (baptized at St Clement Danes, 9 January 1724), ‘a child of very promising parts’ according to Hawkins, who died prematurely, probably late in 1738. L’Epine sang in several masques by Pepusch at Drury Lane, including the popular Venus and Adonis (March 1715 and later), Myrtillo (November 1715), Apollo and Daphne (January 1716) and The Death of Dido (April 1716). In the first three she played leading male parts, as she did in English revivals of Camilla, Calypso and Telemachus and Thomyris early in 1717. Many of Pepusch’s cantatas, especially those with Italian words, were probably written for her. The following season she made a single concert appearance at York Buildings on 5 March 1718, but the next winter was back with Pepusch at the rebuilt Lincoln’s Inn Fields Theatre. She sang several of her old parts and in the first performance of Galliard’s Circe (11 April 1719); five days later she introduced ‘a new Trumpet Song’ in Camilla. She retired at the end of this season and took up teaching; several of her pupils gave concerts in the next few years. In June 1720 she came out of retirement to replace Mrs Turner Robinson in one performance each of Domenico Scarlatti’s Narciso, Handel’s Radamisto and Porta’s Numitore during the Royal Academy’s first season at the King’s. She sang once at Drury Lane by special request as late as 21 May 1733.

L’Epine was the leading female singer in the years just before and after the introduction of Italian opera to London, and the first Italian to establish a lasting reputation there. She was immensely popular; Downes in 1708 estimated that she had received ‘by Modest Computation … by the Stage and Gentry above 10,000 Guineas’, though this may be an exaggeration (her salary at the opera in 1707–8 and 1712–13 was £400). About 1710 she received £40 for singing in a private concert at the Duchess of Shrewsbury’s house in Kensington. Burney was impressed by the difficulty of some of her songs: ‘Indeed, her musical merit must have been very considerable to have kept her so long in favour … Our galleries would have made her songs very short, had they not been executed in such a manner as to silence theatrical snakes, and command applause’. The compass of the parts Handel composed for her is d' to a'', though others take her down to c' and up to b''. She was tall, with a fine stage presence, but according to Hawkins ‘remarkably swarthy, and so destitute of personal charms, that Dr Pepusch, who afterwards married her, seldom called her by any other name than Hecate, which she answered to very readily’. She was a fine harpsichordist, and her performance of pieces from the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, then owned by Pepusch, was much admired. She appears with her mother, Nicolini, Tofts, Pepusch, Heidegger and others in a conversation piece by Marco Ricci (see illustration).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BDA

BurneyH

HawkinsH

E.L. Moor: ‘Some Notes on the Life of Françoise Marguerite de L’Epine’, ML, xxviii (1947), 341–6

D.F. Cook: ‘Françoise Marguérite de L'Epine: the Italian Lady?’, Theatre Notebook, xxxv (1981), 58–73, 104–13

WINTON DEAN

Leppard, Raymond (John)

(b London, 11 Aug 1927). English conductor. He studied at the University of Cambridge from 1948 to 1952, where Hubert Middleton and Boris Ord were among his teachers. He made his London début as a conductor at the Wigmore Hall in 1952 and soon became known particularly for his lively interpretations of 17th- and 18th-century music and his inventive continuo playing. In 1957 he returned to Cambridge as lecturer in music and Fellow of Trinity College, remaining there until 1967. By then he had appeared at the leading English opera houses: he made his Covent Garden début in 1959 in the bicentenary production of Handel’s Samson and first appeared at Glyndebourne in 1962 and at Sadler’s Wells three years later. He also frequently conducted orchestral concerts, notably with the English Chamber Orchestra, specializing to some extent in 18th-century music: works by Handel, Haydn and Mozart were prominent in his programmes. From 1973 to 1980 he was principal conductor of the BBC Northern SO. He later moved to the USA and in 1987 was appointed conductor of the Indianapolis SO, which has flourished under his direction.

In 1962 Leppard conducted his own edition of Monteverdi’s L’incoronazione di Poppea at Glyndebourne, inaugurating an important and influential series of revivals there and elsewhere of 17th-century Italian operas, among them Monteverdi’s L’Orfeo and Il ritorno d’Ulisse in patria and works by Cavalli. Leppard’s versions of these operas, particularly Cavalli’s L’Ormindo and La Calisto, while successful with a wide public, and important for the interest they stimulated in early music, have been criticized for their free attitude to the original texts, especially in such matters as transposition of voice parts, rich orchestral writing, cuts and insertions, and remodelling of the librettos. Leppard’s attitude, defined in his paper ‘Cavalli’s Operas’, PRMA, xciii (1966–7), p.67, and in several shorter essays, is essentially an empirical one, based on his keen sense of theatrical timing and effect. Several of his editions have been published (Faber) and a number of recordings have been made which originate from his Glyndebourne performances.

As a harpsichordist and pianist, Leppard’s most marked qualities are his liveliness of rhythm and crispness of articulation. Light, dance-like rhythms, polished phrasing and a keen sense of colour characterize his conducting and lend a special charm to his readings of music by Couperin, Rameau and their contemporaries. His Handel performances are notable more for vitality, shapeliness of line and precision of detail than for rhythmic breadth. His recordings include Monteverdi madrigals, music by Bach and his sons, Handel concertos and many rare works by 18th- and early 19th-century composers.

STANLEY SADIE

Le Prince, Louis

(fl mid-17th century). French composer. Nothing is known about his life, and his only surviving work is a Missa sex vocum ad imitationem moduli ‘Macula non est in te’, published by Ballard in 1663. The fly-leaf indicates that he was then maître de chapelle at Lisieux Cathedral, but there is nothing in the archives there to confirm this. The title refers to the feast of the Immaculate Conception, and the work is typical of French 17th-century pieces in this genre: there are no instrumental or continuo parts, the melodic lines are simple and the counterpoint is skilful with a bias towards tonality. The work is fully discussed in F. George: La messe ‘a cappella’ en France au 17ème siècle: l’exemple de Louis Le Prince (thesis, U. of Tours, 1993).

JEAN-CHARLES LÉON

Le Quointe [Le Quoynte, Le Quoint, Le Coincte], Louis

(b Ypres, 19 Oct 1652; d Saint Omer, 9 June 1717). Flemish composer and organist. He was a chorister at St Maarten, Ypres, from 8 October 1665. After his voice broke he enrolled in the seminary at Ypres and became a Jesuit on 30 September 1675. He spent the rest of his life in various houses of the Jesuit order in the southern Netherlands and northern France, notably at Saint Omer, generally as director of music and organist. He appears to have written a good deal of music, but only the set of Psalmi concertati (1704) and the Bouquet de fleurs seem to survive. The psalm collection suggests that he was a competent composer. The themes are often instrumental in nature, and the rhythms are well varied. There is also a wide range of vocal and instrumental textures, though there are too many duets in thirds.

WORKS

Psalmi concertati, 1–5vv, 4, 5 insts, op.6 (Antwerp, 1704)

Bouquet de fleurs, presénté aux âmes dévotes (14 songs), 1v, bc (Paris, 1722)

lost works

Psalmi breves pro omnibus … vesperis, 1–4vv, 3, 4 insts, op.1

Airs spirituels nouveaux, 1–3vv … pour les violons, les flûtes, les hautbois, le clavecin et l’orgue en forme de duo, et de trio, op.2 (Valenciennes, 1696)

Pièces en trio … à la manière italienne et … française, vn, fl, ob, op.2 (Valenciennes, 1696) [presumably inst. arr. of Airs spirituels]

Psaumes, 1–5vv (Antwerp, 1704)

Missae, litaniae, motetti et Tantum ergo, 5vv/insts, op.3a

Sonates, 2 vn, va, b viol, bc, op.3a [sic]

Missa brevis, motetta, Te Deum et litania, 5vv/insts, op.5

Motetti, 1v, bc, op.7

Motetti, 1v, 3 insts, op.9

Compositione sacre de diversi, 1–5vv, op.11

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Vander StraetenMPB, i

VannesD

R. Monseur, ed.: Catalogue de la bibliothèque du Conservatoire royal de musique de Liège, Fonds Terry: musique religieuse (Liège, 1959)

JOSÉ QUITIN

Le Rat

(fl 1549–57). French composer. He contributed seven four-voice chansons to anthologies published mostly by Du Chemin at Paris between 1549 and 1557 (RISM 1549²⁷, 1550¹¹, 1550¹², 1551⁹, 1553²⁰, 1557¹⁰). The texts are all amorous épigrammes typical of the preceding generation (one is by Clément Marot and another by François I); they are set schematically in the homophonic manner of Sandrin, Certon and Arcadelt, but often alternating duple and triple mensuration.

FRANK DOBBINS

Lerchenfels, Johann Sixt von [Lerchenfelsu, Jan Sixt z].

See Sixt z Lerchenfelsu, Jan.

Lerdahl, Fred [Alfred] (Whitford)

(b Madison, WI, 10 March 1943). American composer and theorist. He studied at Lawrence University (BM 1965) and Princeton (MFA 1968), where his teachers included Kim and Babbitt. On a Fulbright scholarship in 1968–9 he attended the Freiburg Hochschule für Musik, where he was a pupil of Wolfgang Fortner. He has received many other awards, among them the Koussevitzky Composition Prize (1966), two National Institute of Arts and Letters Awards (1971, 1988) and a Guggenheim Fellowship (1974–5); in 1981, 1984 and 1991 he was composer-in-residence at IRCAM in Paris. He has had works commissioned by, among others, the Koussevitzky Music Foundation (Eros, 1975), the Orpheus Chamber Orchestra (Waves, 1988) and the Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center (Marches, 1992). Lerdahl has taught at the University of California, Berkeley (1969–71), Harvard (1971–9), Columbia University (1979–85) and the University of Michigan (1985–91); in 1991 he was appointed Fritz Reiner Professor of Musical Composition at Columbia University.

Lerdahl’s early music, post-Schoenbergian in style, is well exemplified by Wake (1968), in which lines and phrases from Joyce’s Finnegans Wake are assembled so as to echo the novel’s major themes and structure. Instrumentation, melodic design, rhythm and texture are used to elaborate and interpret the text. With Chords (1974, rev. 1983) and Eros (1975), tonal elements were incorporated into his musical language, and his treatment of form became more strict. Eros consists of 21 continuous variations, each 20 bars long. The text, ‘Coitus’, from Lustra (1915) by Ezra Pound, serves as a point of departure: it is intoned in its entirety only once, in the first variation, and is thereafter varied along with the music. A rigorous underlying structure governs the unfolding of all melodic, rhythmic and harmonic details.

From the variation technique of Eros spring Lerdahl’s string quartets (1978–82). Written in ‘expanding variation’ form each variation in the First Quartet is half as long again as the preceding one; thus the initial variation lasts seconds, the final one six minutes. The Second Quartet, an intense sequel to the more inward First, continues this variation procedure with its two parts, nine and thirteen minutes in length. With the Fantasy Etudes (1985) Lerdahl creates a constantly evolving polyphony by overlaying expanding variations. In Quiet Music (1994), based on an almost cyclic variation process, he develops the pianissimo orchestral material to form a seamless sonic excursion much like looking at the same object from changing perspectives.

Lerdahl has also been productive as a theorist. During the 1970s he and the linguist Ray Jackendoff developed an innovative theory of tonal music deriving from generative linguistics and cognitive science; their monograph, A Generative Theory of Tonal Music, appeared in 1983. Lerdahl has continued to explore areas of musical cognition, and has pursued interests in computer-assisted composition. In a series of articles beginning in 1988 he has developed a theory of tonal pitch space and set a theoretical groundwork for late 20th-century composition and analysis. In ‘Timbral Hierarchies’ he posits a hierarchical structure for the organization of timbre based on the grammatical model, while in ‘Cognitive Constraints on Compositional Systems’ he scrutinizes the perceptual reality under which organizational methods of composition purport to work. His work in theory serves as a foundation for his own creative activity as a composer.

WORKS

(selective list)

Pf Fantasy, 1964; Str Trio, 1965–6; Wake (J. Joyce), Mez, vn, va, vc, hp, perc ens, 1968; Chromorhythmos, orch, 1972; Aftermath (cant., Lerdahl), S, Mez, Bar, chbr ens, 1973; Chords, orch, 1974, rev. 1983; Eros: Variations (E. Pound: Coitus), Mez, a fl, va, hp, pf, elec gui, el db, perc, 1975; Imitations, fl, va, hp, 1977, rev. 1992; 2 str qts, 1978, 1982; Waltzes, vn, va, vc, db, 1981; Beyond the Realm of Bird (E. Dickinson), S, chbr orch, 1981–4; Episodes and Refrains, wind qnt, 1982; Fantasy Etudes, chbr ens, 1985; Cross-Currents, orch, 1987; Waves, chbr orch, 1988; Marches, chbr ens, 1992; Without Fanfare, wind, perc, 1994; Quiet Music, orch, 1994

Principal publisher: Boelke-Bomart

Recorded interviews in US-NHoh

NOEL B. ZAHLER

Lerdo de Tejada, Miguel

(b Morelia, 29 Sept 1869; d Mexico City, 25 May 1941). Mexican conductor and composer. He studied music at seminaries in Morelia and Mexico City. Although his formal music education was still limited, he composed a number of salon pieces under the influence of Ernesto Elorduy Medina, Manuel Ponce and Felipe Villanueva Gutiérrez. His song Perjera (with text by Fernando Luna y Drusina) achieved great popularity. After gaining a better command of notation, he composed the zarzuelas Las luces de Los Ángeles and Las dormilonas, whose first performances were enthusiastically acclaimed at the Teatro Principal in Mexico City. In 1901 he organized his own orchestra, which toured the United States and performed at the Panamerican Exposition in Buffalo in 1913. In this same year he completed studies in harmony, orchestration and conducting with Alfredo Pacheco. Other conducting assignments led to his creation of a police orchestra that still bears his name. He toured extensively with this group in the United States and South America and made his last appearance with it in Havana before his death. In addition to the numerous arrangements of traditional songs he made for this ensemble, he composed many songs of his own, including Consentida, Lolita, Tú bien lo sabes, Vas diciendo, and Ya soy feliz. His piano music includes Caracteres (tres danzas): ‘Bulliciosa’, ‘Expresiva’ and ‘Retobada’.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

O. Mayer-Serra: Música y músicos de Latinoamerica (Mexico City, 1947), 268–9

M. Talavera: Miguel Lerdo de Tejada: su vida pintoresca y anecdótica (Mexico City, 1958)

WALTER AARON CLARK

Lerescu, Emil

(b Piteşti, 26 Jan 1921). Romanian composer. After studying with Jora at the Bucharest Academy (1941–6) he became a music teacher in schools in Piteşti (1946–52), Craiova (1952–4) and at the Popular School of Arts in Bucharest (1954–83). Lerescu made his name as a composer through his songs and choral works, which are marked out by their melodiousness and frenetic energy. To a post-Romantic style laced with folk references he gradually added modal and chromatic elements to create a personal compositional language. His operas are imbued with a particularly intense passion.

WORKS

(selective list)

Ops: Ecaterina Teodoroiu (1, N. Tăutu), 1964, rev. 1969, Bucharest, Română, 10 May 1971; Peneş curcanul [Peneş the Foot Soldier] (op-ballad, 1, after V. Alecsandri), 1977, Iaşi, Română, 30 Dec 1981; D-ale carnavalului [Carnival People] (comic op, 3, after I.L. Caragiale), 1978, Bucharest, Orchestra Radio, 17 June 1982; Steaua fără nume [The Star with no Name] (lyric op, 3, after M. Sebastian), 1981; Patima [The Passion] (op, 3, after M. Sorbul), 1995, Bucharest, Palatul Cotroceni, 4 April 1995

Other works: Poeme corale [Choral Poems], 1967; Fântâni şi stele [Fountains and Stars] (song cycle, I. Brad), 1973; Inscripţii corale [Choral Inscriptions], 1975; Toccata, pf, 1987; Gândind la Eminescu [Thoughts on Eminescu], ens, 1988; Terţinele luminii, sonata, pf, 1988; Suita eminesciană, chorus, 1991–6

BIBLIOGRAPHY

V. Cosma: Muzicieni români (Bucharest, 1970)

D. Popovici: Muzica corală românească (Bucharest, 1970)

OCTAVIAN COSMA

Lerescu, Sorin

(b Craiova, 14 Nov 1953). Romanian composer. After studying composition with Olah and Vieru at the Bucharest Academy (1975–9) he attended classes in Darmstadt (1984) and at IRCAM in Paris. In Bucharest Lerescu taught in the Popular School of Arts (1982–5) then the Popular University, and in 1991 became a teacher at the George Enescu Lyceum. In 1982 he founded and became director of the contemporary music ensemble Traiect. Lerescu employs a wide range of modern compositional techniques in his works. Repetition and consonance feature prominently in the symphonies. His chamber works contain passages that suggest a modal language, despite their apparent random and improvised nature, and later works are notable for an increased exploration of timbral resources.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Modalis I, 1979; Sym. no.1, 1984; Modalis II, conc., fl, orch, 1986; Sym., str, 1986; Sym. no.2, 1988; Sym. no.3, 1994

Chbr: Legende, chbr ens, 1977; Str Qt no.1, 1978; Actio, 1980; Music for Sax and Perc, 1980; Phonologos I, kbds, trbn, db, perc, tape, 1983; Sunet – Formă – Culoare [Sound – Form – Colours], insts, tape, 1983; Configuraţii (Str Qt no.2), 1988; Sonata, fl, pf, 1988; Phonologos IV, 6 pfmrs, 1991; Suono-Tempo, 9 insts, 1991; Reflex-Quarto, sax qt, 1992; Eikona, 7 pfmrs, 1993; Phonologos V, 7 pfmrs, 1993; Les jeux sont faits, ens, 1995; Reflex 5, perc groups, 1996

Solo inst: Divertisment, cl, 1977; Piano-Canto, 1980; Solo-Multiplii, cl/perc/trbn/db/vc, 1983–6; Phonologos III, org/pf, 1984; Proportions, fl, 1984

Vocal: Cant. I, T, Bar, vocal ens, 1979; O oră de iubire [An Hour of Love] (G. Tomozei), song cycle, 1982; Cant. II, solo vv, chorus, orch, 1988

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Tartler: Melopoetica (Bucharest, 1984)

I. Anghel: Orientări, direcţii, curente ale muzicii româneşti în a doua parte a secolului XX [Trends, directions and currents in Romanian music in the second half of the 20th century] (Bucharest, 1997)

OCTAVIAN COSMA

Lerethier, Isaac.

See Lhéritier, Isaac.

Le Riche, Antonius.

See Divitis, Antonius.

Lerman, Richard

(b San Francisco, 5 Dec 1944). American composer. He studied at Brandeis University (BA 1966, MFA film/theatre arts 1970) with Shapero, Lucier and others. He has taught at the Boston Museum School (1973–95) and Arizona State University West (from 1994). His compositions develop unexpected textures from natural phenomena and materials, collected with his own specially constructed microphones and transducers. In Travelon Gamelon (1979–), loudspeakers mounted on bicycle handlebars amplify the sounds of the bicycles in motion; these are blended with sounds made by striking the spokes with metal or wood. Concert versions of the work use rhythmic and melodic gamelan instruments rather than bicycles. Eight Pieces from the Sonoran Desert (1997) features sounds made by ants, bees and cactus thorns. Other works allude to social and political themes. Visual and sonic images in Incident at Three Mile Island address the seductiveness and dangers of technology. Threading History: the Japanese-American Experience (1994–5), a collaboration with Mona Higuchi, explores the experience of Japanese-Americans interned in the USA during World War II. Later works involve computer and MIDI techniques. Lerman's honours include fellowships from the NEA and the Guggenheim Foundation.

WORKS

(selective list)

Installations: Hand-Built Microphones, 1983–9; A Footnote from Chernobyl, 1987; Metal Mesh Pieces, 1987; News Filters &' 20'' × 24'' Pacific Transducer Series, 1988; Polaroid Photographs, 1988; Los desaparecidso for Amnesty International, 1989–90, collab. M. Higuchi; Kristallnacht, 1991–8, collab. Higuchi; Sado Island Rice, 1991; Hesselt Corn, 1993; Threading History: the Japanese-American Experience, 1994–5, collab. Higuchi; TRACES, 1997, collab. Higuchi [4 pieces from Eight Pieces from the Sonoran Desert]

Other works: Incident at Three Mile Island, amp tuning forks, lasers, 1979; Travelon Gamelon, concert version for 3 amp bicycles, promenade version for 25 amp bicycles with riders, 1979–; A Matter of Scale, 1986; Audio Transducer Series, music for radio, 1986–98; Music for Plinky & Straw, small amp insts, straws, scissors, 1988; Changing States, transducers, small blowtorch, 1989 [rev. with perc, 1997]; Hawaii Transducer Series, 1989; Changing States Three, 1991, collab. Higuchi, Y. Fukunaga, A. Nakamura and others; Takuhon, 1991, collab. Higuchi, Fukunaga, Nakamura and others; Eight Pieces from the Sonoran Desert, video, sax, cptr, elecs, 1997; Border Fences, 1998; Sounds from the Southern Hemisphere, 1998, collab. D. Quin; Transducer Series Films, 1982–9; many works for 1 pfmr

Principal recording companies: Artifact, Apollohuis, Folkways

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. van Peer: Interviews with Sound Artists Taking Part in the Festival ECHO, the Images of Sound II (Eindhoven, 1993)

ARTHUR J. SABATINI

Lermontov, Mikhail Yur'evich

(b Moscow, 3/15 Oct 1814; d Pyatigorsk, 15/27 July 1841). Russian poet and novelist of Scottish descent. A visit to the Caucasus when he was nine left a lasting impression on him. In 1834 he became a Guards officer. His first published poem Hajji Abrek (1835) had a Caucasian setting; it attracted little attention. He became widely known for a poem attacking society in connection with the death of Pushkin (1837), which was circulated clandestinely; he was consequently expelled from the Guards and transferred to a regiment of the line in the Caucasus. He was pardoned and reinstated (1838) but, as a result of a duel, was again posted to the Caucasus in 1840, where he was killed in a duel.

A typical Romantic in life as in art, Lermontov was influenced by such Western writers as Byron, Goethe and Schiller, yet his own Romanticism is specifically Russian, and his work also contains elements of realism which foreshadow Tolstoy and Chekhov. His rhythmically complex poetry, extremely mellifluous and rich in visual imagery, defies translation. His best-known poem Demon (1829–41) is a version of the Lucifer legend in a Caucasian setting. His fastidious prose also loses much in translation and is little appreciated outside Russia; yet his novel Geroy nashego vremeni (‘A Hero of our Time’, 1840) is one of the masterpieces of Russian fiction.

Many composers have been attracted both by Lermontov’s lyric poetry and by the exotic element in much of his work. There are innumerable settings of his short poems, especially by Russian composers; operas, ballets and symphonic poems by such composers as Asaf'yev, Balakirev, Rachmaninoff and Ippolitov-Ivanov have also been based on his works, as well as Glinka’s Prayer (1855) for solo voice, chorus and orchestra.

WORKS SET TO MUSIC

Geroy nashego vremeni [A Hero of our Time]: Krepost' u kamennogo broda, op by V. Gaygerova, 1941; Knyazhna Mėri [Princess Mary], op by V.A. Dekhterev, Moscow, 1941; op by A.N. Aleksandrov, Moscow, 1946, rev. 1948; ballet by V.M. Deshevov, 1940; Knyazhna Mėri, film score by L.A. Schvarts

Boyarin Orsha [The Nobleman Orsha]: op by Kashperov, 1880; op by K.D. Agrenev-Slavyansky, Tiflis, 1910; ops by G. Fistulari, P. Krotov

Demon [Satan]: op by A.G. Rubinstein, 1875; Tamara, op by Baron Vietinghof-Scheel, St Petersburg, 1886; lyric scenes by A.S. Yur'yevich, St Petersburg, 1891; Thamara, op by L.A. Bourgault-Ducoudray, 1891; Tamara, op by L. Rogowski, 1918; Tamara, sym. poem by Balakirev, 1864; cant. by P.I. Blaramberg, 1869; orat by P. Gilson; Sym. no.3, op.18, and Tamara, 1v, orch, by E. Nápravník; ballet by S.F. Tsintsadze

Maskarad [The Masked Ball]: lyric-dramatic scenes by N.A. Kolesnikov, 1890s; incid music by Glazunov, 1913, perf. 1917; incid music by V.Ya. Shebalin, 1939; op by A.V. Mosolov, 1940; op by V.N. Denbsky, 1941; incid music by A. Khachaturian, 1941; op by Bunin, 1944; op by B.A. Zeidman, 1945; op by Nersesov, 1948; op by A.P. Artamanov, Khar'kiv, 1957; ballet by Yu. Lamputin, ?1960

Mtsïri: sym. poem by Catoire, 1899; sym. poem, op.8, by V.A. Senilov, 1906; sym. poem by O.V. Taktakishvili, 1956; ballet by A. Balanchivadze, Tbilisi, 1964; sym. poem, op.54, by Ippolitov-Ivanov, 1923–4

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO (R. Taruskin)

M.Yu. Karatïgin: ‘Lermontov i muzïka’, Sovremennik (1914), nos.17–20, p.148

E. Kann: M.Yu. Lermontov i muzïka (Moscow, 1939)

I. Eiges: M.Yu. Lermontov v romansakh i pesnyakh sovetskikh kompozitorov (Moscow, 1951)

H. Troyat: L’étrange destin de Lermontov (Paris, 1952, 2/1979)

B. Glovatsky: Lermontov i muzïka (Moscow, 1964)

APRIL FITZLYON

Lerner, Alan Jay

(b New York, 31 Aug 1918; d New York, 14 June 1986). American librettist and lyricist. Born into a wealthy family of dress retailers (the Lerner Shops), he was educated at Choate, Harvard and Oxford. While at Harvard he contributed to the Hasty Pudding shows and after graduation he chose not to go into the family business but instead took a job writing scripts for radio. He met composer Frederick Loewe in 1942 and their first Broadway collaboration was the unsuccessful What's Up? (1943). As he would throughout his career, Lerner wrote both libretto and lyrics. After a few short-lived efforts, the team had a hit with Brigadoon (1947), followed by Paint Your Wagon (1951), My Fair Lady (1956) and Camelot (1960). Lerner and Loewe also scored the popular film musical Gigi (1958).

Lerner also collaborated with other composers, writing the experimental Broadway musical Love Life (1948) with Kurt Weill and the Hollywood musical Royal Wedding (1951) with Burton Lane. After Loewe's retirement in 1960, Lerner collaborated with a variety of composers on a series of commercial failures. His last film score was The Little Prince (1974), with Loewe briefly coming out of retirement, and his last Broadway musical was Dance a Little Closer (1983) with Charles Strouse. Lerner's unique talent lay in his ability to write romantic lyrics that were also filled with intelligence and wit. His libretto and lyrics for My Fair Lady remain one of the most expert pieces of craftsmanship in the American musical theatre and several of his works are continually revived.

WORKS

(selective list)

composers in parentheses

stage

dates are those of the first New York performance

What's Up? (F. Loewe), 11 Nov 1943 [collab. A. Pierson]

The Day Before Spring (Loewe), 22 Nov 1945

Brigadoon (Loewe), 13 March 1947 [incl. The Heather on the Hill, Almost like Being in Love, Come to me, bend to me]; film 1954

Love Life (K. Weill), 7 Oct 1948 [incl. Green-Up Time, Here I'll stay]

Paint Your Wagon (Loewe), 12 Nov 1951 [incl. I talk to the trees, They call the wind Maria]; film 1969

My Fair Lady (Loewe), 15 March 1956 [incl. On the Street where you Live, The Rain in Spain, I could have danced all night, Get me to the church on time, I've grown accustomed to her face]; film 1964

Camelot (Loewe), 3 Dec 1960 [incl. If Ever I could Leave you, Camelot]; film 1967

On a Clear Day You Can See Forever (B. Lane), 17 Oct 1966 [incl. Come back to me, On a Clear Day]; film 1970

Coco (A. Previn), 18 Dec 1969

1600 Pennsylvania Avenue (L. Bernstein), 4 May 1976

Gigi (Loewe), 13 Nov 1973 [see FILM]

Carmelina (Lane), 8 April 1979 [collab. J. Stein; incl. One More Walk around the Garden]

Dance a Little Closer (C. Strouse), 11 May 1983 [incl. There's always one you can't forget, Dance a little closer]

film

those not mentioned above; unless otherwise stated, both lyrics and screenplays by Lerner

Royal Wedding (Lane), 1951 [incl. You're all the world to me]

An American in Paris (G. Gershwin, screenplay only), 1951

Gigi (Loewe), 1958 [incl. Thank heaven for little girls, I remember it well, The Night they Invented Champagne, Gigi]

The Little Prince (Loewe), 1974

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A.J. Lerner: The Street Where I Live (New York, 1978)

A.J. Lerner and B. Green: A Hymn to Him: the Lyrics of Alan Jay Lerner (New York, 1987)

G. Lees: Inventing Champagne: the Worlds of Lerner and Loewe (New York, 1990)

S. Citron: The Wordsmiths: Oscar Hammerstein II and Alan Jay Lerner (New York, 1993)

THOMAS S. HISCHAK

Lerner, Edward R(obert)

(b New York, 19 April 1920). American musicologist. After taking the PhD in musicology at Yale University, where he studied under Leo Schrade, he taught at Columbia University (1958–62). He was on the faculty at Queens College, CUNY (1962–92); he later became professor of music (1969). Lerner's writings concentrate on the music of the Renaissance and Middle Ages, particularly the sacred music of these periods and the works of Alexander Agricola. In addition he has edited the Study Scores of Musical Styles, an annotated anthology of pieces illustrating the course of music history from plainchant to Bach as an aid to undergraduate instruction.

WRITINGS

The Sacred Music of Alexander Agricola (diss., Yale U., 1958)

‘Richard Wagner's Apostle to America: Anton Seidl (1850–1898)’, Columbia Library Columns, viii (1959), 24–32

‘The “German” Works of Alexander Agricola’, MQ, xlvi (1960), 56–66

‘Some Motet Interpolations in the Catholic Mass’, JAMS, xiv (1961), 24–30

‘The Polyphonic Magnificat in 15th-Century Italy’, MQ, l (1964), 44–58

‘Historical Anthologies of Music: a Review and Critique’, College Music Symposium, x (1970), 123–33

‘The Music of Noel Bauldewen’, JAMS, xxvii (1974), 525–7

EDITIONS

Alexander Agricola: Opera omnia, CMM, xxii/1–5 (1961–70)

Study Scores of Musical Styles (New York, 1968)

Opera omnia Henrici Isaac, CMM, lxv (1974–)

PAULA MORGAN

Le Rochois, Marie [‘La Rochois’]

(b Caen, c1658; d Paris, 9 Oct 1728). French soprano and singing teacher, commonly but incorrectly known as Marthe Le Rochois. She may have studied with Michel Lambert, who brought her to the attention of his son-in-law, Lully. She entered the Paris Opéra in 1678 and retired in 1698. Lully chose her to create the major female roles in his Persée, Amadis, Roland, Armide and Acis et Galathée; she was best known for her performance of Armide, the memory of which caused Le Cerf de la Viéville to ‘shiver’ with delight. After Lully’s death in 1687 she sang the main female roles in works by Collasse, Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Desmarest, Marais, André Campra and A.C. Destouches. Titon du Tillet called her the ‘greatest actress and the best model for declamation to have appeared on the Stage’ (Le parnasse françois, Paris, 1732/R). He also wrote:

Although she was of mediocre height, dark complexioned and possessed a rather ordinary figure as seen off-stage, … On stage she made one forget all the most beautiful Actresses; she had the air of a Queen or Goddess, her head nobly placed, with an admirable sense of Gesture; all her actions were correct and natural. She knew what to do during the Ritournelle which played while an Actress came on-stage, and she was a master of pantomime.

But according to Raguenet ‘she was a wretched actress and sang insufferably out of tune’.

On her retirement she received a 1500-livre pension which was augmented by the Duke of Sully. She then purchased a small country house in Certrouville-sur-Seine (now Sartrouville), outside Paris, where she received important musicians, actors and actresses who profited from her ‘pleasant conversation, her knowledge and her good taste’ (Titon du Tillet). Among her students were Marie Antier and Françoise Journet. She died in an apartment in Paris on rue St Honoré and was buried at St Eustache.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Raguenet: Paralèles des italiens et des françois (Paris, 1702, 3/c1710; Eng. trans., 1709/R)

J.-B. Durey de Noinville and L. Travenol: Histoire du théâtre de l’Académie royale de musique en France (Paris, 2/1757/R)

S. Pitou: The Paris Opera: an Encyclopedia of Operas, Ballets, Composers and Performers (Westport, CT, 1983)

JAMES R. ANTHONY

Lerolle, Jacques.

See Rouart-Lerolle.

Le Rouge, G(uillaume) [Rouge, W(illelmus) de]

(fl c1450–65). Franco-Flemish composer. He is known from the ascriptions of a three-voice Missa ‘So ys emprentid’ (I-TRmp 90, ‘W. de Rouge’; Rvat S Pietro B80, anon.; ed. in DTÖ, cxx, 1970), on Frye's song, and the three-voice virelai Se je fayz deuil (US-NHub 91, ‘G. le Rouge’; D-Mbs Cgm 810, anon.; ed. L.L. Perkins and H. Garey, The Mellon Chansonnier, New Haven, 1979, i, 117). Tinctoris (CSM, xxii/2a, 1978, p.47) attributed to ‘Lerouge’ an unknown Missa ‘Mon cuer pleure’, perhaps on the chanson by Pierre Fontaine. The composer is almost certainly the Guillaume le Rouge who was a singer in the chapel of Charles d'Orléans in 1451–65, as he was mentioned by Eloy d'Amerval (who sang in Charles' chapel in 1464–5) in a list of outstanding composers with whom Eloy had had direct contact; Tinctoris too was active in Orléans in the early 1460s. However, Guillaume Ruby [Rubi], organist of Rouen Cathedral in 1399 and singer and scribe in the Burgundian court chapel in 1415–16 and 1431–50, who was assimilated to the singer of Charles d'Orléans by Wright, is never called ‘Le Rouge’ in the documents and seems to be another man altogether. Ruby is mentioned among other Burgundian singers in Binchois' motet Nove cantum melodie (1431). A Guillermus (de) Rosa sang soprano in S Pietro in Vaticano, Rome, in 1462–5 (so he too cannot be the same as Le Rouge) and in the papal chapel in 1469–75/6 (he is listed again at S Pietro as a tenor in 1472); he was a resident canon of St Donatian, Bruges, from 1476 until his death on 28 July 1489. The ‘Rubinus’ recorded as a singer in S Pietro in 1447–8 is likely to be distinct from all three – Rubinus was probably his first name – though Reynolds has suggested he might be identified with Le Rouge.

Le Rouge's Missa ‘So ys emprentid’ is distinguished by its treatment of the cantus firmus, which is given a different rhythmic treatment at each appearance, although the pitches are unaltered. The virelai Se je fayz dueil is of great interest in several respects. It is one of a very few chansons for three voices of equal range, and it also is one of an even smaller group of works that eschew the F-, C- and G-clefs in favour of using flat signs (claves minores) to indicate the position of the semitones. The resulting tonality is that of the A-mode, as yet unrecognized in theory and very uncommon as early as about 1450, when the chanson was probably composed. Perkins and Garey have proposed that Se je fayz dueil may have been conceived originally as a rondeau cinquain and extended for use as a virelai, on the grounds of the extreme contrast between the musical styles of the refrain (imitative counterpoint) and the short strophe (declamatory homophony) and of the unusual signum congruentiae over the strongly-marked medial cadence of the refrain. Strohm (1989) has suggested that the ascription of the rondeau Entre Peronne et Saint Quentin to ‘Rubinus’ in the Glogauer Liederbuch (Berlin, Preussische Staatsbibliothek, Mus.ms.40098 [now in PL-Kj]; anon. in six other sources; ed. in EDM, 1st ser., iv, 1936, p.86) may refer to Le Rouge, but the melodic and rhythmic style of this chanson is so different from that of Se je fayz deuil that the conjecture cannot be confirmed.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F.X. Haberl: Die römische ‘Schola cantorum’ und die päpstlichen Kapellsänger bis zur Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts, Bausteine für Musikgeschichte, iii (Leipzig, 1888/R), 42–3, 49

J. Marix: Histoire de la musique et des musiciens de la cour de Bourgogne sous le règne de Philippe le Bon (Strasbourg, 1939/R), 174

E. Reeser: ‘Een “iso-melische mis” uit den tijd van Dufay’, TVNM, xvi/3 (1942), 151–76, 312–13

L.L. Perkins and H. Garey: Commentary to The Mellon Chansonnier (New Haven, 1979), ii, 10, 317–21

C. Wright: Music at the Court of Burgundy, 1364–1419 (Henryville, PA, 1979), esp. 178, 231–2

R. Strohm: Music in Late Medieval Bruges (Oxford, 1985, 2/1990), esp. 158

P. Higgins: Antoine Busnois and Musical Culture in Late Fifteenth-Century France and Burgundy (diss., Princeton U., 1987), 251

R. Strohm: ‘Instrumentale Ensemblemusik vor 1500: das Zeugnis der mitteleuropäischen Quellen’, Musik und Tanz zur Zeit Kaiser Maximilian I.: Innsbruck 1989, 89–106, esp. 95

C.A. Reynolds: Papal Patronage and the Music of St Peter's, 1380–1513 (Berkeley, 1995), esp. 35–6, 116–18, 303, Table 9

D. Fallows: A Catalogue of Polyphonic Songs, 1415–1480 (Oxford, 1999), 150, 359, 718

JEFFREY DEAN

Le Roux, François

(b Rennes, 30 Oct 1955). French baritone. He studied with François Loup, then at the Opéra-Studio in Paris with Vera Rozsa and Elisabeth Grümmer. In 1980 he joined the Lyons Opéra, remaining with the company for the following five years. His repertory there included the major Mozart baritone roles – Don Giovanni, Papageno, Guglielmo, Count Almaviva and Figaro – but perhaps his most significant role there was Pelléas, which he first sang in 1985 and repeated to acclaim at La Scala, Covent Garden (where he made his début in 1989 as Papageno) and the Vienna Staatsoper. He appeared as Ramiro in L’heure espagnole at Glyndebourne in 1987, and in 1991 created the title role in Birtwistle’s Gawain at Covent Garden. He has sung many new works in concert, including Casken’s My Way of Life (1990) and Still Mine (1994). Le Roux is also a notable interpreter of mélodies, showing an exact understanding of music and text, as his recording of Hahn songs confirms. Among his other notable recordings are Gawvain and his vulnerable, ardent Pelléas with Abbado. Although Le Roux’s voice is not voluminous, he uses it with consistent subtlety and imagination.

ALAN BLYTH

Le Roux, Gaspard

(d Paris, ?1707). French harpsichordist and composer. The earliest mention of him is in March 1690, when the Mercure de France published the opening of a translation of the hymn Veni creator, referring to a figured bass supplied by Le Roux. He was cited merely as a music teacher, but when it was mentioned six years later, he was elevated to ‘famous music teacher’. He was indeed listed with other prominent Parisian organists and harpsichordists in Blegny du Pradel’s Livre commode, contenant les adresses de la ville de Paris (Paris, 1692), and he was in the highest tax bracket for such musicians in 1695. He took a privilege for a book of harpsichord pieces ‘and other music of his composition’, and his Pièces de clavessin appeared the same year (Paris, 1705/R). The inventory of his belongings at the time of his death is cited in a notary’s index for 17 June 1707, but the document itself is lost, and it is not known how long before that date he died (Hardouin).

In the preface to his harpsichord book Le Roux complained of the faulty manuscript copies of his music that were circulating, which forced him finally to acquiesce to the requests of connoisseurs to publish them. Their style bears out the supposition that they were composed at least a decade earlier than their publication, but surviving manuscripts do not indicate any widespread traffic in his works. The volume was reprinted by Roger in Amsterdam (1707/8), however, and that edition came to the attention of J.G. Walther in Germany; he copied out almost half its contents, and he included Le Roux in his Musicalisches Lexicon of 1732.

The book contains 47 pieces, 41 of which are grouped in seven suites (not so named). Le Roux was much indebted to D’Anglebert’s 1689 book of harpsichord pieces, from which he copied directly 15 of the 18 ornament signs, along with their explanations. Four of the suites begin with unmeasured preludes, using the traditional notation of undifferentiated whole notes rather than the mixed note values used in virtually all published preludes by French composers (those in Dandrieu’s third book being the only other exceptions). What distinguishes this collection from all other French harpsichord music is the provision of alternative versions of the pieces. All but two of the dance movements are presented in a second version consisting of two treble lines and figured bass, and the book concludes with second harpsichord parts for five of the pieces and one additional gigue in two-harpsichord score. Le Roux stipulates three performance options in addition to solo harpsichord. The first is the most extraordinary: before struggling to read the full texture the harpsichordist can sing the melody (the top line of the trio score) while providing an accompaniment from the figured bass. The second option is to play the pieces as instrumental trios (Dieupart preceded Le Roux in this idea by providing treble-bass versions of his harpsichord suites in 1701). The third possibility is to create a second harpsichord part based on the second treble line and bass, using the composer’s fully notated examples as models. While the outer voices of the trio versions are derived quite literally from the solo versions, the second treble line is not. Le Roux does not create contrapuntal textures, however, as the added voice often lacks melodic individuality. The composer’s greatest accomplishment was in providing such a large body of sumptuous music for two harpsichords.

One air, in a Recueil d’airs sérieux et à boire (Paris, 1701; ed. in Tessier), and a motet, Thuris odor, are attributed with certainty to Le Roux; two other motets in the same manuscript bear tentative 18th-century attributions to him.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Tessier: ‘Un claveciniste français: Gaspard Le Roux’, ReM, v/3–5 (1923–4), 230–46

P. Hardouin: ‘Notes sur quelques musiciens français du XVIIe siècle’, RdM, xxxviii (1956), 62–7

A. Fuller: Preface to Gaspard Le Roux: Pieces for Harpsichord (New York, 1959)

B. Gustafson and D. Fuller: A Catalogue of French Harpsichord Music, 1699–1780 (Oxford, 1990)

BRUCE GUSTAFSON

Le Roux, Maurice

(b Paris, 6 Feb 1923; d Avignon, 19 Oct 1992). French composer and conductor. He studied with Nat (piano), Fourestier (conducting) and Messiaen (analysis) at the Paris Conservatoire (1944–52), as well as with Leibowitz and Mitropoulos. Precociously gifted, Le Roux composed numerous works for piano, voice or orchestra from the early 1930s onwards. The popularity of Marche de la 2e division blindée, first performed anonymously, set the tone for a career divided between the composition of concert works indebted to the serial avant garde (1946–56) and a significant output of film and ballet scores in a musical language accessible to the general public; as a conductor he performed several works which were then unfamiliar, such as Monteverdi's Orfeo and Vespers, the original version of Boris Godunov, Messiaen's Turangalîla-symphonie (of which he made the first recording in 1961), and works by Xenakis, Varèse and the Second Viennese School. He also produced the successful television series ‘Arcana’, introducing music to a wider public.

Le Roux was musical director of the Orchestre National de l'ORTF (1961–8), musical adviser to the Paris Opéra (1969–73), and inspector-general of music for the Ministry of Culture (1973–88). A richly gifted artist, he found it difficult to concentrate his energies in one area alone.

The scandal unleashed at the Aix-en-Provence Festival in 1953 by Le cercle des métamorphoses, which starts in a rather aggressive style, but quickly evolves into a spare, intense lyricism, was followed by the popular success of several film scores, especially Albert Lamorisse's Ballon rouge (1955). Le Roux also worked in the theatre, writing incidental music for the Renaud-Barrault Company productions of Kafka's Das Schloss (1957) and Shakespeare's Julius Caesar (1960). Le Roux returned to concert music with Un koan (inspired by the mysteries of Zen Buddhism), a work of powerful vigour first given at the La Rochelle Festival in 1973. The striking thing about all his works, from Cahiers d'inventions onwards, is the essentially dramatic nature of the musical discourse.

WORKS

(selective list)

Marche de la 2e division blindée, 1944; Pf Sonata, 1946; Cahiers d'inventions (à 2 voix), pf, 1948; Deux mimes, orch, 1948; 3 psaumes (La Tour du Pin), 1948; Le petit prince (ballet), 1949; Au pays de la magie (H. Michaux), Bar, pf, 1951; Le cercle des métamorphoses, orch, 1953; Divertissement pour Mozart, orch, 1956; Sable (ballet), 1956; Un koan, orch, 1973

25 film scores incl. Crin blanc (dir. A. Lamorisse), 1953; Les mauvaises rencontres, 1955; Ballon rouge (dir. Lamorisse), 1955; Amère victoire, 1957; Vu du pont (dir. S. Lumet), 1961; Martin soldat, 1966; La bien aimée, 1967; La chamade, 1968; Contes immoraux, 1975

Principal publishers: Choudens, Salabert

WRITINGS

Introduction à la musique contemporaine (Paris, 1947)

Claudio Monteverdi (Paris, 1951)

Boris Godounov (Paris, 1980)

GÉRARD CONDÉ

Leroux, Philippe

(b Boulogne, 25 Sept 1959). French composer. He attended the Paris Conservatoire (1978–83), where he studied composition with Malec, analysis with Ballif and electro-acoustic music with Schaeffer and Reibel, gaining three premiers prix. From 1993 to 1995 he was resident at the Académie de France, Rome. He received the Hervé Dugardin prize of the SACEM in 1994, and a second prize from that organization in 1996 for the violin concerto (d')ALLER.

Leroux's approach to colour and harmonic organization owes something to Spectral music. But in its instrumental writing and its emphasis on rhythmic movement his music owes more to Ligeti. Leroux makes frequent use of repetition, but within a framework of continuous variation, playing on oppositions between continuity and discontinuity, proximity and distance, developmental logic and random association. The works of his later period have shown a greater playfulness in their exploration of musical procedures, together with an ongoing concern for clarity and elegance in the presentation of ideas. He has written in a wide variety of genres from pedagogical pieces to electro-acoustic works such as M, produced at IRCAM, in which live electronics prolong and expand a dialogue between two pianos and two sets of percussion.

WORKS

(selective list)

Vigiles, orch, 1979; Intercession, elecs, 1981; Hommage à Andrei Roublev, elecs, 1982; 6 variations sur la légende de Saint-Nicolas, 8vv, 1983; Un corps de louange, orch, 1984; Anima Christi, 4 solo vv, 1985; Le jardin ouvert, ob, bn, hn, tuba, 1985; L'entourage intime, 12vv, 1986; Le vide et le vague, elecs, 1986; Veni Sancte, 3 S, 1987; Fleuve, 14 insts, 1988; Tournoi, elecs, 1989; Ial, Celtic hp, gui, 1990; Je brûle, dit-elle un jour à un camarade (E. Jabés), S solo, 1991; On a crié (orat., after M. Duras), 16 solo vv, chorus, 18 insts, 1991; Phonie douce, ob, a sax, vc, 1991; Air-Ré, vn, mar/vib, 1992; La guerre du faire, elecs, 1992; Histoire préhistorique, chorus, orch, 1992; Air, cl, mar/vib, 1993; PPP, fl, pf, 1993; CONTINUO(ns), fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1994; (d')ALLER, conc., vn, 16 insts, 1995; Images à Rameau, 4 synth/elecs, 1995; AAA, fl, cl, vn, va, vc, pf, perc, 1996; Souffles, wind qnt, 1996; M, 2 pf, 2 perf, elecs, 1997; Plus loin, orch, 1999; teaching pieces for gui, hp, perc

Principal publisher: Billaudot

WRITINGS

‘Analyse des “Intégrations” op.49 d'Ivan Wyschnégradsky’, Cahiers Wyschnégradsky, no.1 (1985)

‘Brèves’, Cahiers de la Villa Médicis, ix/1 (1995)

‘Musique contemporaine: une solution de continuité’, La création après la musique contemporaine (Paris, 1998)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

‘La part de l'inouï’, Barca!, no.10 (1998) [interview]

M. Vilella: Proessus et invention dans ‘CONTINUO(ns)’ de Philippe Leroux (diss., IRCAM, Paris, 1998)

DOMINIQUE DRUHEN

Leroux, Xavier (Henry Napoléon)

(b Velletri, Italy, 11 Oct 1863; d Paris, 2 Feb 1919). French composer. His father was a musical director in the army, his mother Italian. According to several of his contemporaries, Leroux was proud of his fiery Italian blood and would easily rise to an argument, especially when it concerned making cuts to his operas which were initially far too long. A near contemporary of Dukas and Debussy, Leroux appears in several photographs with young composers of that generation, but the path he was to follow was conservative rather than adventurous. He was strongly influenced by the traditional harmony teaching of his professors at the Conservatoire, Dubois and Massenet, and in 1885 he won the Prix de Rome with the cantata Endymion. He continued using a similar harmonic style well into the 20th century.

Leroux was almost exclusively a vocal composer, and it was with his operas that he gained the most recognition. Astarté, given at the Paris Opéra under Taffanel in 1901, achieved a modest success; it was followed in 1903 by La reine Fiamette, which was staged in many countries up to World War II, as was Le chemineau (1907), widely considered his finest work. 1814, a drame lyrique set in the Napoleonic wars, includes elaborate effects (Napoleon dreaming of a Te Deum for example) and choral representations of the voices of Joan of Arc. Eschewing harmonic and rhythmic complexity and untinged by Wagner, Leroux is at his best when using relatively simple musical devices. The pastoral naturalism of Le chemineau has caused some critics to place him with other French verismo composers but this rather ignores the more imaginative side of his work. His contribution to the French mélodie was substantial at least in quantity; his songs include settings of a number of the best symbolist poets. Most celebrated, however, was his early oriental vocalise Le Nil, which was not only reprinted many times, but also orchestrated and arranged for different combinations of instruments. In 1896 Leroux was appointed professor of harmony at the Conservatoire, a post he held until his death; at one time he counted André Caplet among his pupils.

WORKS

(selective list)

stage

first performed in Paris unless otherwise stated

Cléopâtre (incid music, V. Sardou and E. Moreau), Paris, Porte St Martin, 28 Oct 1890; Evangéline (légende acadienne, 4, L. de Gramont, G. Hartmann and A. Alexandre, after H.W. Longfellow), Brussels, Monnaie, 18 Dec 1895; Les Perses (incid music, Aeschylus, trans. A.-F. Hérold) (1896); Vénus et Adonis (scène lyrique, 2, de Gramont), Opéra, 24 Jan 1897; Astarté (4, de Gramont), Opéra, 15 Feb 1901; La reine Fiamette (conte dramatique, 4, C. Mendès), OC (Favart), 23 Dec 1903; William Ratcliff (tragédie musicale, 4, de Gramont, after H. Heine), Nice, 22 Jan 1906; Théodora (drame musical, 3, Sardou and P. Ferrier), Monte Carlo, 19 March 1907; Le chemineau [The Vagrant] (J. Richepin), OC (Favart), 6 Nov 1907; Xantho chez les courtisanes (incid music, J. Richepin) (1910)

Le carillonneur (pièce lyrique, 3, Richepin, after G. Rodenbach), OC (Favart), 20 March 1913; La fille de Figaro (oc, 3, M. Hennequin and H. Delorme), Apollo, 11 March 1914; Les cadeaux de Noël (conte héroïque, 1, E. Fabre), OC (Favart), 25 Dec 1915; 1814 (drame lyrique, 1, L. Augé de Lassus and A. Gandrey), Monte Carlo, Casino, 6 April 1918; Nausithoé (oc, 1, M. de Magre), Nice, Casino municipal, 9 April 1920; La plus forte (drame lyrique, 4, Richepin and P. de Choudens), OC (Favart), 11 Jan 1924; L’ingénu (ob, 3, C. Méré and R. Gignoux, after Voltaire), Bordeaux, Grand, 13 Feb 1931

vocal

1v, pf unless otherwise stated

Endymion (cant., A. de Lassus), chorus, orch, 1885; L'oublier (P. Gille) (1887); Le solitaire (A. Renaud), 3 chansons persanes (1887); Le Nil (Renaud), chanson persane (1890), orchd H. Busser; La nuit (T. de Banville) (1890); Ninon, Ninette (A. Alexandre) (1892) [after J.S. Bach]; Recueillement (P. Verlaine) (1892); Simple villanelle (Alexandre) (1892); Devant la mer (A. Silvestre) (1893); Roses d'octobre (Silvestre) (1893); A un enfant (A. Lenéka) (1894); Chrysanthème (Silvestre) (1894); Le jour (Banville) (1894); Madrigal, Rondeau archaïque, Sérénade (L. de Gramont) (1894)

Les pervenches (A. Mayrarques) (1894); Les anges gardiens (P. Collin) (1895); Offrande (P. Ronsard) (1895); Pluie d'automne (L. de Gramont) (1895); Les estampes (L. de Gramont), 10 songs (1896); Poèmes de Bretagne (Alexandre), 4 songs (1896); Rêve bleu (P. Gillain) (1896); Les ailes inutiles (C. Fuster) (1897); Les cerises (A. de Gramont) (1897); Le flambeau vivant, Hymne (C. Baudelaire) (1897); Pensée de printemps (Silvestre) (1897); La nuit consolatrice (F. Hérold) (1898); Le Rosier d'amour (L. Hettich) (1898); Vieilles choses et jeune amour (C. Fuster) (1899)

Villanelle pour le printemps (L. de Gramont) (1899); Les enfants pauvres (V. Hugo) (1902); 3 mélodies dans le style ancien (L. Besnard) (1903); Nouveaux lieds de Frances: par les chemins de France (C. Mendès), 10 songs (1903); Les sérénades (C. Mendès) (1903); Ton âme (R. Vivien) (1903); La Marguerite (E. Noël) (1905); Plainte d'amour (P. Gravollet) (1905); Chanson (C. Mendès) (1906); La sabretache (Noël) (1908); L’amour d'aimer (J. Mendès), 10 songs (1913); settings of sacred texts acc. org and other insts, incl. Ave Maria, Panis angelicus, Salutation angélique

instrumental

Scherzo fantastique, pf (1884); Les petits violons du roy, divertissement, orch (1888); Préambule, pf (c1892); 6 pièces, pf (1892); Scherzando, pf (c1893); 2 romances, fl, pf (1897), arr. pf (1898); Sonata, hn, pf (1897); Les cendres du passé, orch (1926)

MSS in F-Pn

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO (R. Langham Smith) [incl. further bibliography]

A. Jullien: ‘Astarté’, Le théâtre, no.61 (1901), 3–14

A. Sardoux: ‘La reine Fiamette’, Le théâtre, no.124 (1904), 3–24

D.C. Parker: ‘Xavier Leroux’, Musical Standard, ix (1917), 198

M. Cooper: French Music from the Death of Berlioz to the Death of Fauré (1869–1924) (London, 1951/R)

R. Dumesnil: ‘Réalistes et naturalistes’, Histoire de la musique, iv (Paris, 1958)

R. Delage: ‘Concours préparatoire pour le Prix de Rome de 1905: notes de Xavier Leroux’, SMz, cxvii (1977), 92–3

M. Kelkel: Naturalisme, vérisme et réalisme dans l’opéra (Paris, 1984)

G. Favre: ‘L'opéra de Monte-Carlo à Berlin en 1907’, Annuaire monagasques: revue d'histoire de Monaco, x (1986), 95–104

RICHARD LANGHAM SMITH

Le Roy, Adrian

(b Montreuil-sur-Mer, c1520; d Paris, 1598). French music printer, lutenist and composer. He was born into a wealthy merchant family from northern France. As a young man he entered successively the service of two members of the aristocracy close to the French throne, Claude de Clermont and Jacques II, Baron de Semblançay and Viscount of Tours. In March 1546 he became acquainted with the editor Jean de Brouilly in Paris, bought some properties from him in St Denis and married his daughter Denise (d before 1570). He moved to Brouilly’s house at the sign of Ste Geneviève (later the sign of Mount Parnassus) in the rue St Jean-de-Beauvais – an address which was to become famous as the home of one of the greatest of the French music printing establishments.

On 14 August 1551 Le Roy and his cousin Robert Ballard obtained a privilege from Henri II to print and sell all kinds of music books. Their first publication appeared at the end of the same month. On 16 February 1553, the king gave Le Roy & Ballard the title of royal music printer, which had been vacant since Attaingnant’s death in 1552; it was renewed in 1568 and 1594. The association flourished, and Ballard’s heirs continued to dominate French music printing until the middle of the 18th century (see Ballard). Le Roy acted as artistic director, while Ballard handled the business side.

Some of the printing firm’s success can be attributed to the access both Le Roy and Ballard had to court circles, including the Valois monarchs Henri II, Charles IX and Henri III. Le Roy was a regular member of the salon of Catherine de Clermont, Countess of Retz. There he met artists, musicians and the poets Ronsard, Baïf and Melissus, who wrote dedicatory verses for some of his collections. Le Roy himself wrote a few dedications to Charles IX and the Count of Retz.

Greater artistic success came to Le Roy, however, as a composer of chansons and music for lute, guitar and cittern, instruments on which he was an accomplished virtuoso. He wrote instruction books for the lute (Instruction … de luth, ?1557, Eng. trans., 1568; Instructions pour le luth, 1574) and guitar (Briefve et facile instruction, 1551) as well as several books of tablature for lute (at least six), guitar (five) and cittern containing arrangements of four-voice chansons and psalms, plus several dances and two fantasias. The lute books include highly ornate versions of songs by Arcadelt, Certon, Sandrin and other contemporaries, following the virtuoso style of Albert de Rippe in ornamentation by diminution, arpeggiation and an incipient style brisé. As Le Roy explained in his Instructions of 1574, the technique of arrangement may be simple intabulation (as in his arrangements of chansons by Lassus) or more ‘ finely handled’ divisions with ornate variation and diminution. His five books for four-course guitar include preludes, two ‘fantasies’ and several dances (some followed by more ornate divisions), as well as arrangements of Latin psalms, chansons and voix de ville (two books presenting a separate fully texted vocal line which is doubled in the tablature). The vocal line is doubled too in his Livre d’airs de cour (Paris, 1571) for solo voice and lute, the first publication in which the term air de cour was used (see Air de cour); many of these airs offer more declamatory monodic arrangements of four-voice strophic chansons or voix de ville by La Grotte and others, while some songs are followed by alternative more ornate versions. Le Roy’s own surviving four-voice songs are limited to two chansons (O que d’ennuis, RISM 1554²⁶, and En un chasteau, RISM 1556¹⁶), one strophic air (Quel feu par les vens animé, RISM 1576³) and a Premier livre de chansons en forme de vau de ville (Paris, 1573) containing 23 chansons, most of which reharmonize melodies from Certon’s Premier livre de chansons (1552) with the tenor part transposed to the superius. In addition Le Roy left a treatise, Traicté de musique (1583), with chapters on the rules of counterpoint, consonance, dissonance, syncopation, cadences and modes.

Le Roy’s friendship with musicians helped assure the firm’s pre-eminence. Certon, Arcadelt, Le Jeune, Costeley and Goudimel were personal acquaintances. The most valuable friendship of all was that with Orlande de Lassus, who stayed in Le Roy’s house during a visit to Paris and whom Le Roy introduced at court. A letter dated 14 January 1574, from Le Roy to Lassus, describes the delight that Charles IX took in Lassus’s music and tells him that the king wanted to make him composer of the royal chamber and had urged Le Roy to print his music as soon as possible for fear that it otherwise might be lost. Le Roy & Ballard were chiefly responsible for making Lassus’s older music well known in France and for disseminating his newest works to the rest of the musical world.

After Ballard’s death in July 1588 the firm did not publish anything until 1591, when three books of songs appeared under Le Roy’s name alone. After another pause publishing began again in 1593 and continued until Le Roy’s death. During this period 15 more books were printed, this time under the name of Adrian Le Roy and the widow of Ballard. Le Roy died childless, turning over his interest to Ballard’s heirs.

Le Roy was respected as a pedagogue, but perhaps his most lasting contribution to music history is the influence he exercised as a publisher on French musical taste.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. de Juvigny, ed.: Les bibliothèques françoises de La Croix du Maine et de Du Verdier (Paris, 1772–3), i, 8; iii, 25

A. Sandberger: ‘Roland Lassus’ Beziehungen zu Frankreich’, SIMG, viii (1906–7), 353–401

L. de La Laurencie, A. Mairy and G. Thibault, eds.: Chansons au luth et airs de cour français du XVIe siècle, PSFM, 1st ser., iv–v [recte iii–iv] (1934/R), pp.xxi–xxxii

F. Lesure and G. Thibault: Bibliographie des éditions d’Adrian Le Roy et Robert Ballard (1551–1598) (Paris, 1955; suppl., RdM, xl, 1957, pp.166–72)

D. Heartz: ‘Parisian Music Printing under Henry II: a propos of Four Recently Discovered Guitar Books’, MQ, xlvi (1960), 448–67

J. Cain and P. Marot, eds.: Imprimeurs & libraires parisiens du XVIe siècle … d’après les manuscrits de Philippe Renouard, ii (Paris, 1969)

SAMUEL F. POGUE/FRANK DOBBINS

Le Roy [Roi], Bartolomeo.

See Roy, Bartolomeo.

Leroy, Jehan.

See Regis, Johannes.

Le Sage de Richée, Philipp Franz

(fl c1695). German lutenist and composer of French birth. In early sources he is stated to have been a pupil of Charles Mouton. In 1695 he seems to have been in the service of Baron von Neidhardt in Breslau. He was an aristocrat and must have travelled in a number of countries, gaining a broad knowledge of the lute repertory in Bohemia, Austria and France. One publication of his has survived, Cabinet der Lauten, in welchem zu finden 12 neue Partien, aus unterschiedenen Tonen und neuesten Manier so aniezo gebräuchlich’ (n.p., n.d.; it must have appeared in Breslau and the copy formerly in Riemann’s possession bore the date 1695). It contains 98 pieces engraved in French lute tablature and arranged in 12 suites. The preface mentions Dufaut, Mouton, Losy and Gaultier (though which one is unspecified). The following types of piece occur: praeludium, allemande, courante, sarabande, gigue, gavotte, minuet, bourrée, chaconne, passacaglia, ouverture and rondeau (with echo). One piece is attributed to ‘Graf Logi’ [Losy]; presumably Le Sage de Richée composed all the others himself. Surprisingly, he is seldom mentioned in manuscripts, but the sumptuous appearance of his volume bears witness to the outstanding esteem in which he was held.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Wortmann: Philipp Franz Le Sage de Richée und sein Cabinet der Lauten (diss., U. of Vienna, 1919)

W. Boetticher: Studien zur solistischen Lautenpraxis des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1943), 169ff

E. Pohlmann: Laute, Theorbe, Chitarrone (Bremen, 1968, rev., enlarged 5/1982)

E. Vogl: ‘Loutnová hudba v Čechách’ [Lute music in Bohemia], Časopis národního musea, cxxxiii (1964), 11–20 [incl. Ger. summary]

WOLFGANG BOETTICHER

Lésbio, António Marques

(b Lisbon, 1639; d Lisbon, 21 Nov 1709). Portuguese writer and composer. He added Lésbio (after the island Lesbos) to his family name. He spent his life in Lisbon. Seeing one of his juvenile compositions in 1653, João Soares Rebelo prophesied that he would become one of the best Portuguese contrapuntists. In 1660 he began publishing vilhancico texts in the annually printed booklets for the church festivals of 8 and 25 December and 6 January, remaining a frequent contributor until 1708. On 9 December 1663 and on 5 February 1665 he presided over the seventh and 34th of the 36 sessions of the Academia dos Singulares, and in 1665 and 1668 published two orations in Portuguese and 49 Spanish and Portuguese poems in the proceedings of the academy. On 10 October 1668 he became master of the royal chamber musicians. An ardent supporter of King Pedro II, he published in the following year an 80-octave panegyric, Estrella de Portugal, on the birth of Princess Isabella. On 3 November 1679 he was appointed master of the boys in the choir school of the royal chapel; on 18 July 1670 he was given a sinecure doubling his previous salary. He became curator of the royal music library on 2 November 1692 and royal choirmaster on 15 January 1698. His last publication – Vilhancicos que se cantarão na Igreja de N. Senhora de Nazareth das Religiosas Descalças de S. Bernardo em as Matinas, e Festa do glorioso S. Gonçalo (Lisbon, 1708) – crowned a lifetime spent writing festival verse for which he himself supplied the music. The music of only 16 Spanish villancicos and Portuguese vilhancicos by him has survived (in P-EVp and Ln; two ed. in Stevenson). They range from the delightful Ayreçillos manços for four voices (Christmas 1681) and Es flor del campo el infante for eight, to the imposing eight-part Quem vio hum menino bello, which calls for both harp and organ accompaniment; all show that he was a composer of much grace and polish. In his ten surviving complex-structure villancicos (all but one with Spanish text) he favours buoyant rhythms, but constantly induces variety with oppositions between as many as eight voices and soloists, sudden pauses and harmonic riches that are enhanced on occasion with overt chromaticisms. His accompaniments veer from violins to harp and organ, but always additionally require continuo. In his two extant four-voice accompanied secular songs (tonos), his usual radiant happiness gives way to grief suitably expressed with sudden descending diminished 4ths to herald the word ‘noche’ (‘night’).

Apart from his vernacular works (all at P-EVp) his apparently single extant Latin composition is a double-choir Easter sequence with organ, Victimae paschali laudes (P-Em), again in his frequently favoured high clefs that require downward transposition for performance.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DBP

D. Barbosa Machado: Bibliotheca lusitana, i (Lisbon, 1741/R), 321ff

F.M. de Sousa Viterbo: A livraria de musica de D. João IV e o seu index (Lisbon, 1900), 6 only

R.E. Horch: Vilancicos da Coleção Barbosa Machado (Rio de Janeiro, 1969), 130f

D. Damesceno, ed.: Vilancicos seiscentistas (Rio de Janeiro, 1970), 186f

R. Stevenson, ed.: Vilancicos portugueses, PM, ser. A, xxix (Lisbon, 1976), 49ff

J.A. Alegria, ed.: António Marques Lésbio (1639–1709): villancicos e tonos, PM, ser. A, xlvi (Lisbon, 1985)

M.C. Brito: História de música portuguesa (Lisbon, 1992), 94 only

ROBERT STEVENSON

Lesch, Albrecht

(b ?Munich, ?1340–45; d Munich, 1393 or 1394). German Meistersinger. His identity is still somewhat uncertain: Petzsch in particular (Grove6) argued for an Albrecht Lesch who lived in Munich but in the 15th century (d 1478 or 1479); most scholars, however, tend towards the Albrecht Lesch who lived about 80 years earlier. His profession is unsure, but he may have been a baker. He gained great wealth (he bought a house in 1385) and reputation, as a member of the greater council (1381). Beheim mentioned him in one of his poems (no.428, 54) and his Töne found a firm place in the repertory of the Meistersinger until the 17th century.

Lesch’s songs have so far not been thoroughly investigated. Like Beheim, he tended to restate part of a melody at the end of a stanza, unlike the non-repeating, line-by-line setting of most Meisterlieder. He also occasionally rounded off a melody with a more expansive shapely phrase which encompasses perhaps the last two or three lines of the text. He used formal elements with greater consistency than Beheim. His Ton Goldener Reihen, like other examples of the medieval Reien or Reigen (see Reigenlied), is a medium for the expression of joy – the basic emotion of its text. Yet it does not exhibit certain other features – regularity of structure, frequency of repetition – as consistently as do other Reien. Lesch still used lai technique (Tagweise), but modified it by inserting an additional line of text and melody from time to time in order to stress a point of Christian ideology.

WORKS

Text edition: Albrecht Lesch: ein Münchner Meistersinger des 15. Jahrhunderts, ed. L. Koester (Schloss Birkeneck, 1937)

Die kleineren Liederdichter des 14. und 15. Jahrhunderts, ed. T. Cramer (Munich, 1979), ii, 178–265

Music editions: Die Sangesweisen der Colmarer Handschrift und die Liederhandschrift Donaueschingen, ed. P. Runge (Leipzig, 1896/R) [R]

Das Singebuch des Adam Puschman, ed. G. Münzer (Leipzig, 1906/R) [M]

Die Colmarer Liederhandschrift: Faksimile-Ausgabe ihrer Melodien, ed. F. Gennrich, SMM, xviii (1967)

Die Töne der Meistersinger, ed. H. Brunner and J. Rettelbach (Göppingen, 1980)

töne

fuller details in Brunner and Wachinger

Feuerweise [Mühlweise], Gekrönter Reihen, Gesangweise, Goldener Reihen, Goldenes Schloss, Hofton, Süsser Ton, Tagweise, Zirkelweise

Kurzer Reihen, attrib. Lesch in D-Dl, is spurious

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Petzsch: ‘Folgen nachträglich eingeführter Text- Form-Korrespondenz für Text und Lai-Technik’, Mf, xxviii (1975), 284–7

F. Schanze: Meisterliche Liedkunst zwischen Heinrich von Mügeln und Hans Sachs (Munich, 1983), 274–86

F. Schanze: ‘Lesch, Albrecht’, Die deutsche Literatur des Mittelalters: Verfasserlexikon, ed. K. Ruh and others (Berlin, 2/1985)

H. Brunner and B. Wachinger, eds.: Repertorium der Sangsprüche und Meisterlieder des 12. bis 18. Jahrhunderts, iv (Tübingen, 1988), 229–47

For further bibliography see Meistergesang.

CHRISTOPH PETZSCH/MARTIN KIRNBAUER

Leschenet [Lachenet], Didier

(d Paris, c1603). French composer. In 1559 he became the assistant maître de chapelle at the royal chapel and in 1578 canon at St Quentin. Two years later he received another canonry at Meaux. Although he held the position of singer and composer-in-ordinary of the king's chapel in 1582, he resigned and moved to Meaux in 1584, accepting an additional canonry at Langres at this time. Two years later he became a member of the choir at the Ste Chapelle and was chosen as a cantor on 20 May 1589.

WORKS

Edition: Didier Leschenet: Complete Chansons, ed. J.A. Bernstein, SCC, xviii (1990) [B]

Magnificat, 4vv, 1557⁸

A dieu gentil corsaige, 4vv, 1553²⁰, B; En te contemplant je te prise, 4vv, 1553²⁰, B; Est-il douleur cruelle, 5vv, 1572², B; Gris et tanné me faut porter, 5vv, 1572², B; Helas, pourquoy ne suis-je mariée, 6vv, 1572², B; Je m'y plain fort qu'amours, 6vv, 1572², B

Le cueur est mien, 6vv, 1572², B; Les mesdisantz par leur, 4vv, 1553²⁰, B; Pour vous ami tousjours, 4vv, 1553²⁰, B; Pour vous servir jusques à ce qu'il meure, 1557¹⁵, B; Puis que j'ai belle amie, 5vv, 1572², B; Si par souffrir on peult, 6vv, 1554²⁷; Si vous me donnez jouissance, 1554²⁴, B; Souspirs ardens parcelles, 6vv, 1554²⁷; Vous desirez et cherchez ma presence, 1554²⁴, B

RUTH K. INGLEFIELD

Leschetizky, Theodor [Leszetycki, Teodor]

(b Łańcut, Galicia, 22 June 1830; d Dresden, 14 Nov 1915). Polish pianist, teacher and composer. His father held the position of music teacher to a minor branch of the Potocki family at Łańcut in Austrian Poland, and was his son's first teacher. Leschetizky made his début at the age of nine in Lemberg playing a Czerny concertino (the conductor was Franz Xaver Mozart) and shortly after this the family moved to Vienna, where he became a pupil of Czerny himself. From 1842 to 1848 Leschetizky undertook tours as a virtuoso, but also studied law and had lessons in counterpoint from Sechter. In September 1852 he went to St Petersburg and played before Nicholas I, and then lived in the city for the next 26 years. Having been a piano teacher from his teenage years, he greatly expanded this activity during his sojourn in Russia, while not neglecting his career as a pianist. He became director of music at the court of the Grand Duchess Helen, sister-in-law of the Tsar, and it was under her patronage that Anton Rubinstein founded the St Petersburg Conservatory in 1862, with Leschetizky as head of the piano department. He held the post until 1878, when he returned to Vienna.

His home rapidly became a focus both for aspiring pianists and for various visiting musicians of the day, many of whom would be persuaded to play at the famed fortnightly group classes. In 1878, following the end of an unhappy 22-year marriage to a Russian singer, Leschetizky married his pupil Anna Esipova, and she became the first of his students to make a European reputation. Paderewski began studying with him in 1885, and it was his success, particularly in the USA, that established Leschetizky as the pre-eminent teacher of his day. Many young ladies crossed the Atlantic with the hope of having lessons with him, but were mostly passed on to his assistants and would only have the chance of playing to him very occasionally. Leschetizky was divorced from Esipova in 1892 and successively married two other pupils. His activity as a pianist effectively terminated with a performance of Beethoven's Fifth Piano Concerto at Frankfurt in 1887.

During a career that lasted 75 years, in excess of 1200 pianists are known to have studied with him. Horszowski, who had been his pupil, gave his last recital in 1991, so that from Esipova's successes in the 1880s, Leschetizky's students were active on the concert stage for almost all of the 20th century. Other major figures who were his pupils were Schnabel, Gabrilovich, Friedman, Ney, Moiseiwitsch, Hambourg, Brailowsky, Bloomfield-Zeisler and Goodson. Safonov, Vengerova, Esipova and Langenhan-Hirzel themselves all became well-known teachers.

The impact of having heard the salon composer Julius Schulhoff play in Vienna during the 1840s led Leschetizky to develop a special attention to tone quality, both in his playing and teaching. He considered Schulhoff's ability to put a beautifully phrased quasi-vocal melodic line into bold relief above a subordinated accompaniment to be a simply effective and modern style of playing that revealed new expressive possibilities. His assimilation of this influence, together with a concern that virtuosic passages should always be integrated within the overall structure of the music, enabled him to develop a style that, while retaining the elegance of the Czerny school, consolidated the substance and intended impact of a work. In matters of repertory, Leschetizky concentrated much on Beethoven, with whose music he felt a special affinity owing to his study with Czerny, although the Romantics, particularly Chopin, Schumann and Liszt, also featured highly. It was undoubtedly Leschetizky's advocacy of the Schubert piano sonatas that resulted in these largely forgotten works being introduced into the repertory, most notably by Schnabel.

His inventive and flexible approach to teaching arose from a deep-felt commitment to developing the potential of each student. This extended to him taking a genuine interest in their personal lives. He was a man of unflagging energy and emotional gusto, and it was typical of his personality that much of the advice given was in the form of metaphor and anecdote, yet always specific to the case in point. It was chiefly Leschetizky's assistants (at the height of his fame he employed four) who were responsible for establishing the myth of the ‘Leschetizky Method’, which, as a specific schedule of technical training, did not exist. ‘As far as method is concerned’, Leschetizky said, ‘I teach exactly as Czerny taught me; I have added nothing, changed nothing’. Unlike many teachers of the day he did not insist on long hours of repetitive practice, but encouraged pupils to prepare the music mentally, so that they should have a clear idea of what they wished to achieve. It was the combination of Leschetizky's profound musicality, his wealth of experience in teaching and his ability, through sheer force of personality, to communicate with the pupil that led to his unassailable status as having been the greatest piano teacher of the modern era.

His compositions, which include an early single-movement Piano Concerto in C minor op.9 and a comic opera Die erste Falte (1867, Prague), consist for the main part of well-crafted virtuoso works for piano, mostly in a light vein.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Unschuld von Melasfeld: Die Hand des Pianisten (Leipzig, 1901; Eng. trans., 1903)

M. Brée: Die Grundlage der Methode Leschetizky (Mainz, 1902/R, 4/1914; Eng. trans., 1902)

M. Prentner: Die Leschetizky Methode (London, 1903) [Eng. and Ger.]; also pubd as The Modern Pianist/Der moderne Pianist (Philadelphia, 1903)

A. Potocka: Theodor Leschetizky (New York, 1903)

A. Hullah: Theodor Leschetizky (London, 1906)

E. Newcomb: Leschetizky as I Knew him (New York, 1921/R1967 with work-list and bibliography)

O. Gabrilowitsch: ‘A Great Master at the Piano’, Musical Courier, ci/26 (1930), 6

F. Trumbull: ‘Leschetizky as I Knew him’, The Etude, xlix (1931), 87–8

A. Shattuck: His Memoirs (Neenah, WI, 1961)

E. Hughes, B. Moiseiwitsch and others: ‘Leschetizky Heritage’, Leschetizky Association Bulletin (1963), 12–17

F. Merrick: ‘Memories of Leschetizky’, Recorded Sound, no.18 (1965), 335–9

R.R. Gerig: ‘The Leschetizky Influence’, Famous Pianists and their Technique (Washington DC, 1974/R), 271–86

JAMES METHUEN-CAMPBELL

Lescot, C. François

(b c1720; d c1801). French composer and violinist. He worked as a maître de musique at Auch Cathedral from 1747 to 1764, and at Nantes Cathedral probably from 1764 to 1768. His first three stage works, for which he wrote both librettos and music, were performed at the Théâtre d'Auch during the 1760s, and his motet, Exaltabo te, was twice performed at the Concert Spirituel in Paris in 1764. He moved to Paris and joined the orchestra of the Comédie-Italienne in autumn 1768; there he played in the first violin section until 1774 and second violin until 1785. His name is omitted from orchestral lists for the years 1786–7, but from 1788 he held the position of principal second violin until his retirement with a pension in 1790.

The first stage work Lescot presented in Paris was La négresse (1787), originally in two acts but reduced to one after the first performance. It achieved a limited success, there being little depth to the plot, but the Mercure de France observed that ‘The airs, which are very well arranged by M. Lescot, were chosen with great intelligence and taste’. Vaudevilles also formed the basis of Lescot's next stage work, Les solitaires de Normandie (1788), a vastly more popular piece which enjoyed an initial run of nearly 40 performances and remained in the active repertory of the Comédie-Italienne for three years. Though the melodies, based on pithy repetitive motives, were short, the harmonic language unadventurous and the forms mainly strophic, the music was deemed to enhance the natural simplicity of the tableaux depicted within the work in a manner suited to French taste. The airs and chansons included in Lescot's various recueils embody similar musical characteristics.

WORKS

printed works published in Paris unless otherwise stated

stage

L'amour et l'hymen (prol, 1, Lescot), Auch, 1761 (Auch, 1761)

La fête de Thalie (pastorale, 1, Lescot), Auch, 1761 (Auch, 1761)

La fête de Thémire (pastorale with vaudevilles and ariettes, 1, Lescot), Auch, 1767

La négresse, ou Le pouvoir de la reconnaissance (comédie with vaudevilles and divertissements, 1, P.-Y. Barré and J.-B. Radet), Paris, Comédie-Italienne, 15 June 1787 (c1787)

Les solitaires de Normandie (oc with vaudevilles, 1, A.-P.-A. de Piis and Barré), Paris, Comédie-Italienne, 15 Jan 1788 (c1788)

Candide marié, ou Il faut cultiver son jardin (comédie with vaudevilles, 2, Barré and Radet), Paris, Comédie-Italienne, 20 June 1788 (c1788)

other works

Sacred: Exaltabo te, motet, 1764; Requiem, 1766; De profundis, motet, 1766; other masses, lost

Other vocal: L'absence et le retour de Flore, cantatille, 1759, F-Pn; Iris, cantatille (?1759); L'été, cantatille (n.d.); L'amitié, cantatille, acc. 2 vn, b, 1764, lost; Recueil portatif de chansons, airs, ariettes, et duo (1765); 2 collections of ariettes, duos, romances, acc. bc (c1775, c1782); Recueil d'airs, romances, et duo, acc. 2 vn, bc (c1782); other cantatilles, lost

Inst: 6 duos, 2 vn, op.1 (c1777); 6 trios, 2 vn, b, op.2 (c1781)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

Spectacles de Paris, xviii–xxxix (1769–90)

Almanach musical/Calendrier musical universel, vii–x (1782–9)

Babault: Annales dramatiques, ou Dictionnaire général des théâtres (Paris, 1808–12/R)

C.D. Brenner: A Bibliographical List of Plays in the French Language 1700–1789 (Berkeley, 1947, 2/1979)

D. Tunley: The Eighteenth-Century French Cantata (London, 1974, 2/1997)

ETHYL L. WILL/ELISABETH COOK

L'Escurel, Jehannot de.

See Jehannot de l'Escurel.

Lesina

(It.).

See Hvar.

Leslie.

A tremulant loudspeaker for use with electronic organs, designed by Donald J. Leslie (b c1911) and manufactured from 1940 by the Electro Music Co. in Pasadena, California. Since 1965 the company has been bought by CBS Musical Instruments, the Hammond Organ Co. (1980), Noel Crabbe (1985; licensed to Calo Corp., Batavia, near Chicago, in 1988) and Hammond Suzuki USA (1992); it is now based in Addison, near Chicago. The firm has marketed many models, originally intended only for Hammond organs but subsequently also for other types, in addition to licensing individual manufacturers (including Baldwin, Conn, Gulbransen, Kawai, Kimball, Kinsman, Lowrey, Thomas and Wurlitzer organs, as well as the Rhodes electric piano). In the digital age, several companies have manufactured electronic Leslie simulators, including Dynacord, Korg and Voce, and equivalent circuitry is also built into various electronic organs. Since the 1960s musicians have also used Leslie loudspeakers with other instruments, particularly electric guitars; special preamplifiers were manufactured for this.

The Leslie is normally housed in a separate cabinet, controlled remotely from the organ console, but in some instruments it is incorporated into the console. The sound is diffused from fixed loudspeakers, through a treble unit with rotating twin horns (one is a dummy, for balance) and a rotating curved reflector for the main loudspeaker (itself rotated in several models); both have two speeds, slower for ‘chorus’ and faster for vibrato.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Vail: ‘Don Leslie: the Whirl to Success’, Keyboard, xvi/4 (1990), 121–2; continued as ‘The Leslie Speaker, Part 2’, xvi/6 (1990), 87–9; rev. in The Hammond Organ: Beauty in the B (San Francisco, 1997), 12–15, 130–59

HUGH DAVIES

Leslie, Henry (David)

(b London, 18 June 1822; d Llansantffraid-ym-Mechaim, nr Oswestry, 4 Feb 1896). English choral conductor and composer. He was a pupil of Charles Lucas, and played the cello at the Sacred Harmonic Society and other concerts. From 1847 he was associated with the Amateur Musical Society, first as honorary secretary and later as conductor. In 1855 he took charge of what became known as the Henry Leslie Choir; this celebrated a cappella ensemble – originally 35 in number, but later augmented as occasion demanded – first heard at the Hanover Square Rooms on 22 May 1856, gained first prize in an International Choral Competition held at the Paris Exhibition in 1878. It was dissolved in 1880, but re-formed in 1882 under Alberto Randegger, with Leslie as conductor from 1885 to 1887. Leslie’s London concert programmes were notable for the large amount of English choral music they contained, though they also featured well-known foreign composers. In 1864 Leslie became principal of the National College of Music (dissolved in 1866). From 1863 to 1889 he conducted the Herefordshire Philharmonic Society, and in 1874 founded the Guild of Amateur Musicians. While living in the West Country he interested himself in the training of village choirs; he was a founder of the Oswestry School of Music and the Oswestry Festival. Leslie’s own compositions include symphonies, oratorios, operas, cantatas and partsongs; he edited Cassell’s Choral Music (London, 1867) and other collections intended to popularize partsongs from earlier periods. His work with local choral groups was continued by his son, W.H.P. Leslie (1860–1926), an able business man and a Master of the Musicians’ Company (1924).

WORKS

(selective list)

all printed works published in London

stage

Romance (operetta, J.P. Simpson), 1857, London, CG, 2 Feb 1860, ov., arr. pf, songs (1860); as Bold Dick Turpin, London, St James’s, 1878

Ida, or The Guardian Storks (legendary op, 3, Simpson), op.22, London, CG, 15 Nov 1865, vs (1864)

vocal

Orats: Immanuel, op.8, London, 2 March 1854, vs (1854); Judith (H.F. Chorley), Birmingham, 1858, vs (1859)

Other sacred: TeD and Jub, D, 1846; Let God arise, festival anthem, solo vv, chorus, orch, op.5, 1849, vs (1850); Blow ye the trumpet in Zion, anthem (1876); The First Christian Morn (biblical-pastoral cant), 1880; O have mercy upon me, anthem, 1883; other works

Secular: cants, incl. Holyrood (Chorley), op.17, 1860, vs (1860); The Daughter of the Isles (A. Matthison), 1861 (1862); madrigals, incl. Charm me asleep (R. Herrick), 6vv, op.24 no.3 (1869); My love is fair (G. Peele) (1869); O let me play the fool (W. Shakespeare), 6vv (1885); partsongs, duets, songs, many pubd

instrumental

Orch: Sym., F, 1847; The Templar, ov., 1852; 1 other sym.

Chbr: Qnt, str; Qnt, pf, wind insts; other works, incl. pf pieces

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Obituary, The Year’s Music 1897 (London, 1897), 318–19

J.J. Silantien: The Part-Song in England, 1837–1914 (diss., U. of Illinois, 1980)

H.C. COLLES/E.D. MACKERNESS

Les Musiciens du Louvre.

French period instrument orchestra based in Paris, founded in 1984 by Marc Minkowski to perform Baroque and Classical repertory. The orchestra’s main sphere of activity lies in opera and oratorio, and it performed Lully’s Phaëton for the official opening of the Lyons Opéra in 1993. Among its recordings are Lully’s Phaëton and Acis et Galatée, Charpentier’s Le malade imaginaire, Rameau’s Hippolyte et Aricie and Dardanus, Handel’s Teseo, Amadigi and Ariodante and Stradella’s S Giovanni Battista, which won a Gramophone Award.

NICHOLAS ANDERSON

Lesne, Gérard

(b Montmorency, 15 July 1956). French countertenor. Mainly self-taught, he joined the Clemencic Consort in Vienna in 1979 and since then has appeared with many of the leading European early music ensembles, including the Ensemble Clément Janequin, La Grande Ecurie et la Chambre du Roy, the Chapelle Royale, Hesperion XX and Les Arts Florissants. In 1985 he founded his own vocal and instrumental ensemble, Il Seminario Musicale, with which he has appeared in concerts and festivals throughout Europe. Although he has sung a number of operatic roles, he shows closer affinity with sacred music of the 17th and 18th centuries, for which his lightly textured, pure-toned voice is particularly well suited. His recordings include Stradella's S Giovanni Battista, Charpentier's David et Jonathas, Handel's Poro, Vivaldi's L'incoronazione di Dario, Leçons de ténèbres by Charpentier and Couperin, cantatas by Alessandro Scarlatti, Caldara, Bach, Handel and Bononcini, and sacred music by Monteverdi, Vivaldi, Pergolesi and Jommelli.

NICHOLAS ANDERSON

Lesotho,

Kingdom of.

Country in southern Africa. It has an area of 30,355 km² and a population of 2·29 million (2000 estimate), 98% of whom are Basotho. Basotho music is stylistically similar to that of the other indigenous peoples of southern Africa, including the Xhosa, some of whom live in south-central Lesotho. The Basotho have strong historical, cultural and linguistic links with the Tswana of Botswana and the Sotho (Pedi) of South Africa’s Northern province, but corporate and geographical separation of these peoples since the 18th century have differentiated their musical styles, especially those connected with social identity, rituals of the life-cycle and economic pursuits.

1. Main musical types.

Music is an integral part of Basotho social education and traditionally links hearing with the understanding of the natural and social worlds. The temporal arts (lipapali: ‘games’) of the Basotho are clearly separated from the graphic and plastic arts. Their four basic types include one connected with speaking (ho bua), two with (instrumental) sound-making (ho letsa) and one with singing (ho bina). The contemporary category of ‘music’ is called mmino (literally, ‘song’, from ho bina).

All these types of Basotho music are performed with specific objectives and derive their cultural significance more from the social contexts in which they occur than from their musical form or style. Many forms are found in more than one context; for example the mokorotlo and mohobelo dances, with a change of text, also provide the songs for communal work. In addition to these specific uses, many lipapali occur as forms of competition: this is especially so with the tunes called linong played on the lesiba stick zither, the mohobelo and mokhibo dances, school choir singing and the sefela songs of the migrant workers. These periodic competitions help to maintain the common musical traditions and at the same time define and maintain the social, regional and individual identities of performers and social groups.

2. Instruments.

There are two kinds of instrument: those sounded by the hand (liletsa tsa matsoho) and those sounded by the mouth (liletsa tsa molomo). Each group contains idiophones, chordophones and aerophones, but only those sounded by the hand include membranophones. All the instruments are played solo or in the accompaniment of songs, dances and other activities; ensemble performances rarely occur. While there is not a large variety of musical instruments, a wide range of game and topical songs can be performed on any one instrument, in addition to its characteristic songs. All the instruments have been described in detail by Percival Kirby (1934).

Hand-sounded instruments include both a single- and a double-headed drum, the moropa and the sekupu. Both drums are small, not more than 70 cm in length. The moropa is used to accompany girls’ initiation songs and women’s dancing, while the sekupu is used by certain healers. These healers (mathuela) use dance and song as an integral part of their therapy; historically most have been women. In addition, the sekupu is played to accompany an increasingly popular dance celebration, called litolobonya or pitiki, which is held for the mother of a newborn child and performed exclusively by and for groups of women who are mothers themselves (Coplan, 1994; Wells, 1994). Traditional hand-drumming has thus been almost exclusively a female activity. The hand-sounded group also includes the sevuvu (bullroarer), morutlhoana (shaken rattles), setjoli (rubbed rattles) and the manyenenyene (metal bells). The principal string instruments in this group are the two monochord musical bows: the thomo, which is beaten with a small stick and has a gourd resonator with a hole in the back that is stopped against the body; and the sekhankula or ‘mamokhorong, which is bowed with a small horsehair bow and which has a large, closed tin resonator at the upper end. A third important string instrument is the masholo-sholo, a bowed trough zither made of bamboo (Koole, 1952).

Mouth-sounded instruments include all that are blown, vocalized or mouth-resonated; mouth-resonance is an important feature in the Basotho classification of instruments and is regarded as a part of the instrument and not solely as a performing technique. These include aerophones (lekhitiane), megaphones (liphala), animal-horn trumpets (phalana) and flutes (lekolilo), chordophones (lekope and setolotolo, simple and compound mouth-resonated bows) and idiophones (sekebeku, a jew’s harp; and lesiba, a mouth-resonated stick zither sounded by blowing, on a feather quill affixed to one end of the single string). The lesiba was adapted from the Korana who call it gora (figs.1 and 2).

Basotho musical instruments are used with specific functional objectives, e.g. the primary use of the lesiba is in cattle-herding: birds’ sounds and actions are seen to affect cattle; these sounds can be imitated on the lesiba and the instrument used to control the animals’ behaviour.

3. Songs and dances.

Songs are divided into those that are performed standing still (ho engoe) and those involving coordinated movement and therefore ‘sung with the feet’ (ka maoto). The former are used in girls’ and boys’ initiation ceremonies. The education of boys for initiation (lebollo) consists to a considerable extent of likoma (secret instructional songs). The texts of these songs, which have a special linguistic structure, are of two types. There are myth-like historical songs that trace origins and migrations, cite hardships and punishments and establish the general continuity of the present with the past. Other song texts are concerned with customs, moral principles and with the dangers of life (Guma, 1967). Closely related, conceptually and musically, to the instructional songs are mangae, songs learnt by the initiates to be presented publicly upon their return from isolation. The texts of these songs are a combination of farewells to the past, self-praises and the construction of a poetic image of one’s identity and personality. As each initiate sings and recites praises, his fellow initiates respond in chorus, and the audience comes forward with gifts that mark their acceptance of the boy as a man. The instructional songs impress the significance of their ideas on the initiate, while he learns to express what he has absorbed through mangae.

Since the 1840s, the ‘standing still’ song type has also included religious hymns (sefela) of the Christian churches as well as the songs of spiritualist and prophetic churches. By the 1870s, the term sefela was further extended to refer to a form of lengthy sung poetry performed solo by Basotho workers employed in the new mines of South Africa (Coplan, 1988; 1994; Wells, 1994). The term sefela originally referred to solo verses sung by initiates during mangae initiation graduation songs, and the link with the song forms to which it has been applied appears to be emotional fervour (Coplan, 1987). Other songs in this group are lullabies, responsorial laments for the dead sung by women (koli ea malla), songs of school choirs (monyanyako), a responsorial prayer for rain (thapelo) and songs sung during the arrangements preceding a marriage.

Songs that involve coordinated actions include work-songs for threshing, tanning, grinding and hoeing. Herdboys sing mouse-hunting songs that praise mice and frighten them into being trapped and killed (Mokhali, c1970). Most work-songs are responsorial and iterative, with texts that refer to the tasks performed and the hardships they involve (Guma, 1967).

Songs that serve as the motive force in dramatic dances are central to this type. The mokhibo, a group dance, is performed by women who dance on their knees while gesturing with the upper half of the body. They are supported by a group of singers who encourage them and explain the dance through topical and mundane song texts. The songs, sung by both men and women, are polyphonic and responsorial and are accompanied by a single drum and hand-clapping. The mokorotlo (pl. mekorotlo) is a men’s dance associated with warfare, and its stamping gestures dramatize the strategy and tactics of battle; long responsorial songs describe the fate of men who fall. The dance is performed to highlight the special activities of chiefs, to accompany the ritual hunting of wild animals, during boys’ initiation, and in preparation for other dance performances. Mokorotlo performances are individualistic and competitive, and, like mangae, they are interspersed with praises. At country race meetings, mekorotlo are performed on horseback and individual mounts are praised. At harvest, village work teams sing mekorotlo as they cut and thresh, urged on by a solo praiser. Mohobelo is another men’s dance supported by responsorial songs and characterized by uniform movements of the dancers punctuated by solo dancing. As in the mokhibo women’s dance, these songs are topical and in combination with the dancing serve to maintain group cohesion and social solidarity. There were originally two basic styles of mohobelo, identified with the historical division between high chiefs of northern Lesotho (Ha-Molapo) and those of the south (Matsieng), that of the former being more energetic and faster in tempo than that of the latter; each style had its own corpus of songs. Just as popular with males of all ages is the ntlamo ‘stamping’ dance, adapted from a Zulu workers’ dance of the same name (ndhlamu) encountered in the South African mines. Ntlamo is but one of the many examples of choreological exchange among neighbouring southern African cultures that have occurred since well before European colonization.

There are few occasions when young men and women participate in the same dance. In one version of a dance called moqoqopelo or motjeko, boys and girls dance in a circle while one girl sings of her affection for a boy who responds by dancing (Mokhali, c1970). In another version, young men dance and respond with a short refrain to witty and amusing texts sung by a leader (Guma, 1967). Men and women participate equally in the possession dances of the mathuela healing cult, which was imported from Zulu-speaking regions to the south-east of Lesotho.

4. Modern developments.

Traditionally there was no professionalism in Basotho music, though this has developed in response to changes in Basotho culture and as a result of the rise of patronage and a popular market. Broadcasting and commercial recording have also been changing Basotho music. The exposure of traditional styles to a wider mass audience and the influence of imported song styles and instruments have given rise to both syncretized and entirely new forms of musical expression, especially those of instrumental groups. The sefela songs of the migrants were taken up by both male and female tavern singers, put into the rhythmic, strophic form proper to instrumental backing by pedal organ or German concertina, and called famo after the dance they accompanied. Since the 1960s, these bar songs have been backed by duos comprised of piano accordion (koriana) and a new form of the meropa drum made from a 20-litre tar can, a rubber inner tube head and a row of manyenenyene (consisting of bottle tops), which is beaten with sticks or flexible lengths cut from bus tyres.

There have been extensive resultant changes in interpretation and losses among some of the more restricted and specialized types of music. Still, the music played and sung in the taverns and recorded on cassettes remains unmistakably Basotho in rhythm, melody and other musical characteristics. Other factors that have contributed to change include the market that has emerged for popular music played on Western instruments and new opportunities given to professional composers and performers.

In 1969 Huskisson listed over 40 Basotho composers whose works spanned the Western classical, Basotho traditional and current popular fields. One of these composers, the late J.P. Mohapeloa, published a collection of 92 choral partsongs in three volumes entitled Meloli le lithallere tsa Afrika (‘Melodies and decorated songs of Africa’, 1935–75). These are in Tonic Sol-fa notation, and they provided the first new Basotho school music since the hymnbook Lifela tsa Sione (‘Hymns of Zion’; see Huskisson, 1969) was published in 1844. Another collection of composed songs, which includes a few transcriptions of traditional children’s songs, is Binang ka thabo: lipina tsa Sesotho tsa likolo le lihlopha tsa libini (‘Sing with joy: Sesotho songs for schools and choirs’, 1963). While composition of part-songs arranged in Western harmonization has declined, new composers are now active, and the old songs of Mohapeloa and others are found in a multitude of modern performance contexts.

Recordings of Basotho music are held at the International Library of African Music, Grahamstown, South Africa. More easily available are the cassettes of koriana and meropa tavern songs recorded in studios in South Africa and now released internationally on a number of record labels.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Casalis: The Basutos, or Twenty-Three Years in South Africa (London, 1861)

W.A. Norton: ‘Sesuto Songs and Music’, South African Journal of Science, vi (1910), 314

W.A. Norton: ‘African Native Melodies’, South African Journal of Science, xii (1916), 619

N. Scully: ‘Native Tunes Heard and Collected in Basutoland’, Bantu Studies, v (1931), 247–51

P.R. Kirby: The Musical Instruments of the Native Races of South Africa (London, 1934, 2/1965)

J.P. Mohapeloa: Meloli le lithallere tsa Afrika [Melodies and decorated songs of Afrika] (Morija, Lesotho, 1935–75)

H. Ashton: The Basuto: a Social Study of Traditional and Modern Lesotho (London, 1952; rev., enlarged 2/1967)

A. Koole: ‘Report on an Inquiry into the Music and Instruments of the Basutos in Basutoland’, IMSCR V: Utrecht 1952, 263–70

H. Tracey: ‘Sotho Folk Music’, Basutoland Notes and Records, ii (1960), 37

H. Tracey: ‘Folk Music in Basutoland’, Basutoland Notes and Records, iii (1962), 26

Binang ka thabo: lipina tsa Sesotho tsa likolo le lihlopha tsa libini [‘Sing with joy: Sesotho songs for schools and choirs’] (Mazenod, Lesotho, 1963)

S.M. Guma: The Form, Content and Technique of Traditional Literature in Southern Sotho (Pretoria, 1967)

Y. Huskisson: The Bantu Composers of Southern Africa/Die Bantoe-komponiste van Suider-Afrika (Johannesburg, 1969)

A.G. Mokhali: Basotho Music and Dancing (Rome, c1970)

D. Coplan: ‘Eloquent Knowledge: Lesotho Migrants’ Songs and the Anthropology of Experience’, American Ethnologist, xiv (1987), 413–33

D. Coplan: ‘Musical Understanding: the Ethnoaesthetics of Migrant Workers’ Poetic Song in Lesotho’, EthM, xxxii (1988), 337–68

D. Coplan: In the Time of Cannibals: the Word Music of South Africa’s Basotho Migrants (Chicago, 1994)

R. Wells: An Introduction to the Music of the Basotho (Morija, Lesotho, 1994)

CHARLES R. ADAMS/DAVID B. COPLAN

Lespine.

See L’Epine family.

Lespine, Charles de

(b Paris, ?1580s; d ?Turin, after 1627). French lutenist, composer, poet and dramatist. He first came to notice for his verses for ballets (Ballet des Mores, perf. 1609). Towards the end of 1610 he travelled to England, where he so impressed Queen Anne, wife of James I, with his playing and skills as courtier that she provided handsomely for his stay. After touring Scotland and Ireland he was in Frankfurt in 1612. In early 1618 he accompanied a diplomatic mission from Vienna to the Sultan Osman II, arriving in Constantinople in February. By May he was back in Vienna where, during a ballet at court, news came of the Second Defenestration of Prague. In July he accompanied the Archduke Charles, Bishop of Breslau, to Prague and thence to his residence at Neisse (now Nysa) in Silesia. Following the election of Frederick, Elector Palatine, as King of Bohemia in August 1619 and the consequent upheavals, Lespine took refuge in Warsaw at the court of Sigismund III. After a brief tour of Sweden and Copenhagen he was back in France in 1621. By 1627 he had moved to Turin at the behest of his friend Antoine Boileau, violinist to Chrestienne de France, sister of Louis XIII and wife of Victor Amadeus of Piedmont.

Lespine's literary works (Les Oeuvres de Lespine, Turin, 1627) include occasional poems, texts for three ballets, a verse tragedy and an account of his travels. His lute works are preserved in sources (c1615–c1635) outside France, notably England and Sweden. They represent the style of the generation of Robert Ballard, mostly in vieil ton but also in the newer tunings of the 1620s, and include early moves towards the semi-measured prelude.

WORKS

28 (?27) pieces, in vieil ton: 15 courantes, 5 ballets, 3 voltes, 2 preludes, 1 fantasia, 1 bergamasque, ?1 passamezzo, A-KR, CZ-Pnm, D-Hs, LEm, GB-Cfm, HAdolmetsch, Lbl, Lspencer, RUS-SPan, S-N, SK, US-NYp, R; N. Vallet: Het tweede boeck van de luyt-tablatuer (Amsterdam, 1616), L. de Moy: Le petit boucquet de frise orientale (n.p., 1631), R. Mathew: The Lutes Apology (London, 1652)

25 pieces, in 3 accords nouveaux: 8 courantes, 6 sarabandes, 5 ballets, 4 allemandes, 2 gavottes, GB-En, S-N

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Lachèvre: Charles de Lespine (Paris, 1935)

D. Poulton: ‘The Dolmetsch Library, Haslemere, MS II B 1’, The Consort, no.35 (1979), 327–41

K. Sparr: ‘French Lutenists and French Lute-Music in Sweden’, Le luth et sa musique II: Tours 1980, 61–2

D. Ledbetter: ‘French Lute Music 1600–1650: Towards a Definition of Genres’, The Lute, xxx (1990), 25–47

J. Craig-McFeely: ‘A Can of Worms: Lord Herbert of Cherbury's Lute Book’, The Lute, xxxi (1991), 20–48

DAVID LEDBETTER

Lessard, John (Ayres)

(b San Francisco, 3 July 1920). American composer. As a child he had composition lessons with Cowell. He went on to study with Boulanger, Dandelot and Cortot at the Ecole Normale de Musique, Paris (1937–40); he continued his work with Boulanger at the Longy School of Music (1940–41). After serving in the US Army, he settled in New York. His honours include two Guggenheim fellowships (1946, 1953) and awards from the Alice M. Ditson Fund (1946) and the American Academy of Arts and Letters (1952). In 1962 he joined the music department at SUNY, Stony Brook, where he taught until his retirement in 1990.

Lessard’s compositions evolved from a neo-classical idiom into a style influenced, particularly in the domains of texture and sonic design, by serial procedures. Other notable characteristics include strong linear and contrapuntal structures, coloured in the late works by small tone clusters. Among his early works, the Piano Sonata (1940) received critical acclaim from Virgil Thomson and wide public recognition.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Vn Conc. 1942; Box Hill, ov., 1946; Cantilena, ob, str, 1947; Little Concert, 1947; Conc., wind, 1949; Conc. (fl, cl)/(2 ob, hn), 2 ob, hn, bn, str, 1952; Serenade, str, 1953; Serenade, 1957; Suite, 1959; Sinfonietta concertante, 1961; Hp Conc., 1963; Pastimes and an Alleluia, 1974

Vocal: Ariel (W. Shakespeare), 1v, pf, 1941; Orpheus (Shakespeare), 1v, pf, 1943; Full Fathom Five (Shakespeare), 1v, pf, 1948; When as in Silks my Julia Goes (R. Herrick), 1v, pf, 1951; Don Quixote and the Sheep, Bar, B, orch, 1955; 2 Madrigals, SSATB, 1955; 12 Songs from Mother Goose, 1v, str trio, 1964; Fragments from the Cantos of Ezra Pound (cant.), Bar, chbr ens, 1969; Stars, Hill, Valley, S, pf, 1983; The Pond in a Bowl (Han Yu), S, pf, perc, 1984; The Seasons, S, pf, perc, 1992; 4 Songs (C.N. White), S, pf, 1995; c35 other songs

Chbr and solo inst: Wind Octet, 1952; Sonata, vc, pf, 1956; Trios of Consanguinity, fl, va, vc, 1957; Trio in sei parti, 1966; Quodlibets I–III, 2 tpt, trbn, 1967; Wind Qnt no.2, 1970; Brass Qnt, 1971; Movts I–VIII, tpt, other inst(s), 1976–9; Concert Duo, va, gui, 1981; Divertimento, gui, 1981; Music nos.1–3, gui, perc, 1983; Concert Duo, 2 gui, 1984; Album, gui, 1986; Drift, Follow, Persist, hn, pf, perc, 1988; An Assembled Sequence, perc, 1989; Qnt, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1993; Gather and Disperse, fl, cl, tpt, trbn, 2 perc, pf, 2 vn, 2 vc, 1994; 5 Pieces, hn, perc, 1997; other duets, trios, qnts

Kbd: Sonata, pf, 1940; Mask, pf, 1946; Little Concert, pf, 1947; Toccata in 4 Movts, hpd, 1951; Threads of Sound Recalled, pf, 1980; other pf and hpd works

Principal publishers: ACA, Joshua

STEVEN MACKEY

Lessel, Franciszek

(b Warsaw, c1780; d Piotrków Trybunalski, 26 Dec 1838). Polish composer and pianist, son of Wincenty Ferdynand Lessel. He studied first with his father and at the end of 1799 went to Vienna, where he studied with Haydn. They apparently became close friends and Lessel remained in Vienna until Haydn's death in 1809. Lessel gave at least one concert in Vienna, and some of his compositions were well received there. During his stay in Vienna he made four return visits to Poland, each lasting several months: he gave concerts in Kraków and was also a court musician at Prince Lubomirski's castle at Łańcut. After his return to Poland in 1809 he settled in Warsaw, where he gave concerts of his own music and was for some time musical director of the Amateur Music Society. In the early 1820s, as a result of a personal tragedy, he withdrew from active musical life and undertook non-musical work, including (from 1837) that of inspector of the gimnazjum (grammar school) at Piotrków, where he worked until his death.

Lessel was among the most distinguished Polish composers of the early 19th century and is the chief representative of the mature Classical style in Polish music. He was mainly influenced by Haydn. This influence is most evident in Lessel's choice of genres, his structuring of forms and in his harmony and orchestration. He used polyphony in a manner similar to that of Haydn, including polyphonic passages both in sacred works with orchestra and in instrumental compositions, especially in the finales of multi-movement works. Mozart's influence is evident in the piano pieces, where there is a strong virtuoso element. His piano concerto in C displays characteristics of the ‘style brillant’, especially in the shaping of the sonata-form Allegro. Both themes are in a cantilena style and they are linked by virtuoso passages; the solo instrument dominates and is followed by the orchestra. Lessel's works often contain Polish features, such as the rhythmic patterns of Polish dances (mainly in cyclic works) and popular melodies used as thematic material on a larger scale.

Lessel's creative career falls into two periods. The first spans the years in Vienna and the early years after his return to Poland, when he concentrated on instrumental works, while from about 1815 he composed mainly sacred works with instrumental accompaniment and some chamber pieces. Most of Lessel's works were not published. Many of them are lost, and it is likely that his output was much greater than it appears.

WORKS

stage

Cyganie [The Gypsies] (op, F.D. Kniażnin), unfinished, lost

La dancomanie [The Balletomane] (ballet), lost

vocal

Sacred: Kantata do Świętej Cecylii [Cantata to St Cecilia] (B. Kudlicz), perf. Warsaw, 1812, PL-CZ; Msza polska [Polish Mass] (F. Wężyk), B, 1813, CZ, 4 other masses (3 lost), incl. 1, C major, A-Wm; 2 requiem settings, lost; Graduale Benedictus et Venerabilis, solo vv, orch, PL-CZ; Ave regina, off, 3 solo vv, orch, CZ; 3 motets, lost

Songs: 10 songs (J.U. Niemcewicz), in Śpiewy historyczne (Warsaw, 1816)

instrumental

Orch: Adagio and Rondeau à la polonaise, pf, orch, op.9, 1807 or earlier (Leipzig, ?1807); Potpourri, pf, orch, op.12 (Leipzig, ?1812) [also for vn, pf, entitled Caprice and Variations, op.10, PL-Kc]; Pf Conc., C, op.14 (Leipzig, c1813); Ov., C, op.10 (Leipzig, n.d.); Variations, fl, orch, arr. fl, pf (Kraków, 1953); 6 syms., lost, except no.5, g, Finale, copy in A-Wgm, PL-Wtm (reproduced); 2 concs., hn, orch, Variations, hn, orch, Capriccio, D, ‘clarino’, orch, all lost

Chbr: Str Qt no.1, A, 1800, 1st movt Wtm; 3 Concert Duets, 2 fl, op.1 (Vienna, 1802); Duo and Variations on a theme from Cherubini's Faniska, 2 fl, op.7 (Vienna, 1805); Qt, fl, vn, va, vc, op.3 (Vienna, 1806); Fantaisie caractéristique, pf, vn, va, vc, op.31, 1822, pf pt. Wtm; Str Qt no.8, B, op.19, 1824, F-Pn; Pf Qnt, f, op.25, perf. 1834, lost; 3 Parthiae, 2 cl, 2 bn, 2 hn, A-Wgm, CZ-Pnm; Str Qt no.6, D, va pt. PL-Wtm; Pf Trio, E, op.5 (Leipzig, n.d.); 5 other str qts, Trio, 2 cl, bn, Duet, 2 fl, all lost

Pf: 3 Sonatas, op.2 (Vienna, c1800); 12 Ländler (Vienna, 1806); 2 Fantasias: C, op.8 (Leipzig, c1810), e, op.13 (Leipzig, 1813); Adagio and Fugue, d, pf 4 hands, op.11 (Warsaw and Leipzig, c1813); Variations on the Ukrainian song Jichaw kozak zza Dunaju [Jichaw, the Cossack from the Danube], op.15 no.1 (Warsaw, after 1817); Nowy polonez na fortepian [New Polonaise for the Piano], in Terpsychora, no.8 (Warsaw, 1821); Variations, op.15 no.2, ed. Z. Drzewiecki (Warsaw, 1934); other polonaises, lost

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Ernemann: List of Lessel's works, NZM, xii (1840), 67–8

T. Strumiłło: ‘Śpiewy historyczne do słów J.U. Niemcewicza: ich historia i problematyka’ [The Historical Songs to words by J.U. Niemcewicz: their history and the problems which they present], Studia muzykologiczne, iv (1955), 105–40

Franciszek Lessel w 200 rocznicę urodzin [Lessel on the 200th anniversary of his birth] (Gdańsk, 1980) [pubn of the Pánstwowa Wyźsza Szkota Muzyczna Gdańsk]

C. Erber: ‘Inwentarz notarialny Franciszka Lessla’ [Inventory of everything belonging to Lessel], Muzyka, xxxiv/2 (1989), 37–58

A. Nowak-Romanowicz: Historia muzyki polskiej, iv: Klasycyzm [History of Polish music, iv: Classicism] (Warsaw, 1995)

E. Talma-Davous: ‘VIII Kwartet Lessla odnaleziony’ [The Eighth String Quartet by Lessel is rediscovered], RM, xl/12 (1996), 34–7

ZOFIA CHECHLIŃSKA

Lessel, Wincenty Ferdynand [Lesselt/Lössel, Vinzenz Ferdinand]

(b Jílové, nr Prague, c1750; d Puławy or Warsaw, after 1825). Polish composer of Bohemian descent. The son of a burgrave, he received his musical education in Germany, where his family settled in 1762. He studied composition, the keyboard, violin and viola in Dresden under J.G. Schürer and from 1762 to about 1776 played the viola in the Dresden royal orchestra. By 1780 he was in Warsaw, and the following year he took the post of piano teacher at Prince Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski’s establishment in Puławy. In 1787 he was appointed court Kapellmeister of the theatre at Puławy, for which he composed several operas, and by 1812 he was also music director of the theatre at Sieniawa (the other Czartoryski residence). From 1814 he directed and taught at the organists’ school at Puławy founded by Czartoryski. In 1825 he was living at Puławy and was a singing teacher. His works show technical competence and, like those of many of his contemporary compatriots, are characterized by elements of Polish folk music.

WORKS

stage

first produced at Puławy and all lost, unless otherwise stated

Cyganie [The Gypsies] (op, F.D. Kniaźnin), 1787

Dwaj strzelcy i mleczarka [Two Huntsmen and the Milkmaid] (operetta, L. Anseaume, trans. J. Baudouin), 1787; rev. version (trans. A. Hoffman), 1804; duet frag., PL-Wtm

Matka spartanka [The Spartan Mother] (op, Kniaźnin), 1787

Troiste wesele [Triple Wedding] (op, 5, Kniaźnin), 1787

Piast (melodrama, J.U. Niemcewicz), 1800; rev. version (L.A. Dmuszewski), Sieniawa, 27 Jan 1820

Pantomima, 1805

I plotka czasem się przyda [Even Gossip is Sometimes Useful] (idyll, I. Tański), 1805; sequel [same title], Sieniawa, 1818

Domek na gościńcu [Little House in the High-Road] (1, Dmuszewski), Sieniawa, 1818

Pielgrzym z Dobromila [The Pilgrim from Dobromil] (2, A. Kłodziński), Sieniawa, 31 March 1819

Przyjazd pożądany [Wished-for Arrival] (2, Kłodziński), Sieniawa, 31 March 1820

other works

Cant. for the consecration of the Protestant church, Warsaw, 30 Dec 1781, lost

Sym. for his son’s birthday, sinfonias, marches, polonaises, orch, all lost

Nuta z odmianami z Weledy [Melody of Weleda with Variations], pf 4 hands, vn, lost

3 polonaises: pf, B, PL-Wtm; pf, E, ed. in Prosnak; vn, D; Ariette … variée, pf, 1797, A-Wgm: all ed. in Rudnicka-Kruszewska

Sonatas, polonaises, pf; preludes, org: all lost

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DlabacžKL; PSB

T. Mikulski, ed.: F.D. Kniaźnin: listy [Kniaźnin: letters] (Wrocław, 1951)

J. Prosnak: Kultura muzyczna Warszawy XVIII wieku (Kraków, 1955)

H. Rudnicka-Kruszewska: Wincenty Lessel (Kraków, 1968)

S. Durski: ‘Zabawy teatralne w Sieniawie’ [Theatre amusements in Sieniawa], Pamiętnik teatralny, xix (1970), 28–48

ALINA NOWAK-ROMANOWICZ/R

Lesser, Wolfgang

(b Breslau, 31 May 1923; d Hennigsdorf, nr Berlin, 27 Sept 1999). German composer and music functionary. In 1938 he studied at the Berlin Conservatory. For political reasons he emigrated to London in 1939, and in 1940 he was interned on the Isle of Man. In 1942 he became a member of the Communist Party of Germany. From 1943 to 1947 he served in the British Army, after which he returned to Berlin and studied composition with Wagner-Régeny, Eisler and Kochan at the East Berlin Hochschule für Musik (1950–4). From 1954 to 1961 he was a teacher and composer with the GDR's State People's Art Ensemble, and then established himself as a freelance composer. In 1964 he became vice-secretary of the East German Union of Composers and Musicologists, in 1968 first secretary (until 1978), and in 1985 president (until 1989). In 1971 he became a member of the Kulturkommission within the Central board of East Germany's state party, and also a member of the East German parliament. In addition, he was general secretary of the East German Music Council (1968–79) and chairman of the board of the East German performing rights association (1983–5). His awards include the Vaterländischer Verdienstorden and the National Prize. He is best known for his strongly emotional songs which, in their concise and heavily optimistic expression, recall Eisler; there is an equally lyrical expressiveness in the concertante works. All of Lesser's music is marked by a striving after simplicity and freedom of form.

WORKS

(selective list)

Vn Conc., 1962; Sonata, vn, 1964; Ein Tag in unserer Stadt (M. Streubel), 1v, pf, 1967; Str Qt, 1979–80; Plattdeutsches Liederbuch, mixed chorus, female chorus, male chorus, 1986–7; Str Qt, 1992; 4 Pieces, pf, cl qnt, 1994; Sonata, vc; Sonata, cl; Das Jahr, children's chorus, insts; Liederzyklus (G. Maurer), 1v, pf; Im Vogelflug (Streubel), 1v, pf; Oktoberkinder (children's op); mass songs, scores for theatre, cinema, radio, TV

Principal publishers: Deutscher Verlag für Musik (Leipzig), Internationale Musikbibliothek

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Markowski: ‘Wolfgang Lesser’, MG, xiii (1963), 296–9

H. Schaefer: ‘ … gesellschaftlich konkret: Bemerkungen zum Violinkonzert von Wolfgang Lesser’, MG, xiv (1964), 331–5

ECKART SCHWINGER/LARS KLINGBERG

Lessmann, Otto

(b Rudersdorf, nr Berlin, 30 Jan 1844; d Jena, 27 April 1918). German critic, pianist and composer. Although he was best known as the owner and editor of the influential Allgemeine Musik-Zeitung (1882–1907), Lessmann had earlier studied the piano with Bülow and composition with Friedrich Kiel in Berlin. In 1866 he became a piano teacher at the Stern Conservatory and the following year joined the faculty of the Klavier-Schule Tausig, a position he held until Tausig's death in 1871. From 1872 he was head of the music department of the Kaiserin Augusta Stiftung, in Potsdam, and he also taught at the Klindworth-Scharwenka Conservatory. The relationship with Bülow and Tausig was important in bringing him into personal contact with both Liszt and Wagner, and he became a staunch supporter of the New German School.

Lessmann was widely respected as a critic. His prose was judicious and tempered, and it was informed by many years of practical music-making. Generally speaking he championed the new and unusual in music. This made him the polar opposite of his older contemporary Eduard Hanslick, who was seen as representing the more conservative musicians of the time. Lessmann was a regular visitor to Bayreuth and gave generous coverage to the festivals of the Allgemeiner Deutscher Musikverein, of which Liszt was the lifetime president. Liszt thought well of him as a composer and transcribed his three ‘Tannhäuser’ songs for solo piano. He also wrote a monograph on Liszt (Franz Liszt: eine Charakterstudie, Berlin, 1881).

ALAN WALKER

Lesson (i)

(from Lat. lectio; Fr. leçon).

A formal reading (often so called) from a scriptural text at a liturgical service (the form ‘lection’ is an alternative). The word may be regarded as appropriate in this sense outside the Western Christian tradition (see Ekphonetic notation; Islamic religious music, §I, 3; Jewish music, §III, 2(ii)); this article is concerned only with common origins and the Latin tradition.

The reading of scriptural texts was inherited by the early Church directly from the synagogue of its day and applied from early times to the core writings of the Church itself, the incipient New Testament, as well as to the existing scriptures, the Old Testament, both initially in their Greek form (Justin Martyr, c150 ce). It is not known when such texts were first given a musical inflection according to their grammatical structure (see Cantillation). Signs held to be indicative of this may go back as early as the 7th century in Syrian manuscripts (see Ekphonetic notation, §1), but it is impossible to be certain whether these indicate a properly musical inflection or merely mark pauses, stress and the like in reading. It would be safer to conclude that from the 9th century in the East and from the 10th in the West, on the evidence of theoretical sources and the signs themselves, lessons were being sung to simple formulae.

In the Christian tradition as in the Jewish, distinctions came to be made according to the function of the text (e.g. as between the Old Testament lesson in the Office, the Epistle and the Gospel) and the solemnity of the occasion. While many Western manuscripts do no more than indicate the grammatical structure with signs for pauses, others manage to convey a specifically musical element, as for example in the 15th-century manuscripts GB-Ctc B.11.12 and Trinity College, Oxford, MS c.77 (epistles), and Ctc B.11.13 and Trinity College, Oxford, MS c.23, c.76 (gospels: see Fenlon, 90–94). Theoretical sources (ordinals and the like) indicating the formulae in staff notation to go back to the 12th century, though they are commoner later (Bohn; Wagner, 38–52).

Some lessons called for more elaborate chants; these include passages from the Lamentations of Jeremiah for Tenebrae and the genealogies from the gospels of St Matthew and St Luke sung during the Christmas season (see e.g. AS, 51–2, St Matthew, Christmas Matins; 88–9, St Luke, Epiphany Matins). The recitations of the Passion during Holy Week were sung by three deacons to a special tone, and parts of their texts (especially those from St Matthew and St John) were frequently set in polyphony thereafter.

Lessons were sometimes troped, either in Latin or in the vernacular, the trope in the latter case offering a translation of the Latin text (Wagner, 513–14, with a Latin gospel and a French epistle; Gennrich, nos.5, 6: epistles in Occitan). Wagner’s French example, for the Holy Innocents (28 December), is from a manuscript (F-CHRm 520) that contains similar epistles for St Stephen (26 December), St John the Evangelist (27 December), St Thomas of Canterbury (29 December) and St Nicholas (6 December). The Occitan examples (F-MOf 120, ff.13r, 17r) are both for St Stephen, but unlike the French ones their troping insertions are stanzaic and do not repeat the elaborate special melody of the Latin text: the second, indeed, is a contrafactum of the hymn Veni creator spiritus. Gennrich (p.14) refers to six Catalan versions of the same trope. There is a series of nine epistles for various feasts in F-Pn lat.1139, all but two troped in Latin. The Sarum Use, among others, called for a troped lesson at Midnight Mass before the epistle (Missale ad usum … Sarum, ed. F.H. Dickinson, Burntisland, 1861–83, cols.50–51): there are 3 polyphonic settings in GB-Cmc Pepys 1236 (see Harrison, AnnM, p.104): the same manuscript includes a monophonic mensural setting of the Lamentations by John Tuder and a curiosity of English parochial rites, a monophonic ‘Propheta’ trope (an acted troped lesson for Palm Sunday, not the same as the continental Ordo prophetarum: Harrison, AnnM, 124–8).

The sphere of the lesson is enlarged by consideration of ancillary forms such as the conductus before a lesson, the ‘Jube domne benedicere’ formula before a lesson, and the ‘Haec dicit dominus’ and ‘Tu autem’ formulae afterwards (cf. ‘Jerusalem, Jerusalem’ at the conclusion of the Lamentations). These are sometimes troped, and may be given polyphonic settings, like the lessons themselves. An example of the latter is the Leccio libri sapiencie (Epistle for the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary) in F-Pn lat.1139 (ff.44v–45v, as a later addition to this section of the manuscript). The same manuscript has a monophonic Occitan trope to the ‘Tu autem’ (‘Be deu hoi mais finir’, f.44r; Gennrich, no.3). Göllner offers a virtually complete edition of ‘primitive’ polyphonic settings of lessons and ancillary forms, excluding Lamentations and Passions, based on over 50 sources mainly from the Teutonic sphere.

Liturgical lessons in the Renaissance period (excluding of course motets based on epistle and gospel texts, which can hardly have been intended for liturgical use) are confined largely to Lamentations. An exception must be made for the polyphonic lessons of Lassus, in a severe style: there are two sets of nine lessons each for the Office of the Dead (from the Book of Job), and three for Christmas Matins (first Nocturn, from the Book of Isaiah), as well as two sets of Lamentations.

While polyphonic lessons (apart from Passions and Lamentations) do not seem to have been in use beyond 1600, their monophonic cantillation persisted in the Latin rite until the adoption of vernacular readings in 1970; even so, they may still be heard occasionally, in Latin and the vernacular. Lutheran and Anglican churches have also adopted the sung lesson at times. It is curious to find the accentus (i.e. lesson-tones) of Ornithoparcus (Micrologus musice actiue, 1517) surfacing in the translation by Dowland (1609), the more so as overtly Catholic allusions were mostly eliminated in his version. Whether they ever formed the basis of Anglican practice, however, seems very doubtful.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

HarrisonMMB

P. Bohn: ‘Das liturgische Recitativ und dessen Bezeichnung in den liturgischen Büchern des Mittelalters’, MMg, xix (1887), 29–36, 45–52, 61–8, 78–80

P. Wagner: Einführung in die gregorianischen Melodien (Leipzig, 1921/R), iii: Gregorianische Formenlehre

F. Gennrich: Der musikalische Nachlass der Troubadours (Darmstadt, 1958–60)

F.Ll. Harrison: ‘Music for the Sarum Rite: MS. 1236 in the Pepys Library, Magdalene College, Cambridge’, AnnM, vi (1958–63), 99–144

T. Göllner: Die mehrstimmige liturgischen Lesungen (Tutzing, 1969)

I. Fenlon: Cambridge Music Manuscripts, 900–1700 (Cambridge, 1982)

JOHN CALDWELL

Lesson (ii).

A term originally used in England to denote an exercise in performance or composition but eventually extended to cover almost the entire field of domestic keyboard music as well as some kinds of instrumental chamber music. The last meaning came into use as early as 1599 with Morley’s First Booke of Consort Lessons for treble viol, flute in G, bass viol, lute, cittern and pandora, which was followed by Rosseter’s Lessons for Consort for the same instruments (London, 1609). The word appears on the title-page of the second English version (London, 1574) of Le Roy’s (now lost) Instruction for the lute of 1567 (‘with a briefe instruction how to play on the lute by tablature, to conduct and dispose thy hand unto the lute, with certaine easie lessons for that purpose’). This clearly pedagogic meaning was quickly expanded, and in due course the word appeared as part of a main title, for example in Robert Dowland’s Varietie of Lute Lessons (London, 1610). It does not occur on the title-page of Parthenia (London, 1613¹⁴), the first collection of keyboard music to be printed in England, though it is used in George Chapman’s introductory sonnet. The earliest known application of the word to a single piece occurs in My Ladye Nevells Booke (1591), a manuscript collection of keyboard music by Byrd, no.29 of which is A Lesson of Voluntarie. An early 17th-century source (GB-Lbl Add.30485) contains ‘A lesson of Mr Tallis: two partes in one’; but this wording may not be original, and the piece appears as ‘Canon in subdiapente … with a running Base’ (attrib. Bull), in Lbl Add.31403 (MB, xiv, 1960, no.51).

The word is not found extensively in early 17th-century sources, but it must have continued in use, for after the Restoration it came to denote almost any kind of domestic keyboard piece. The keyboard suite had originated during the Commonwealth: such groups of dances, unified by key, became known as suites of lessons, and a published ‘collection of lessons’ might consist entirely or partly of such suites. Thus we have, for example, Locke’s Melothesia … with a Choice Collection of Lessons (London, 1673); Purcell’s posthumous A Choice Collection of Lessons (London, 1696), which consists of eight suites and some separate movements; and two collections of Suits of … Lessons edited by William Babell (London, c1715 and 1717). Towards the end of the 18th century the educational connotation reappears in such phrases as ‘lessons for beginners’, ‘progressive lessons’ and so on, more ambitious works being labelled ‘sonata’. The most frequent use of the term thus coincides with the era of the keyboard suite, roughly from 1660 to 1750; but the word normally applies to an individual movement. ‘Lesson’ was preferred to ‘sonata’ for solo, as opposed to accompanied, keyboard music.

The French word ‘leçon’ is found comparatively rarely in this sense – in works such as Couperin’s Leçons de ténèbres the reference is of course to the liturgical lesson. The normal French equivalent is simply ‘pièce’, as in the numerous collections of ‘suites de pièces’ published during the 18th century (including Handel’s Suites de pièces, London, 1720, which, however, uses the word ‘lesson’ in its English preface). The 1re leçon in Rameau’s second collection (Paris, 1724) is merely an exercise for the five fingers, and most uses of the word are of this type. Italy had no generic name for a single keyboard piece other than the word ‘sonata’ when used in this sense. (30 of Domenico Scarlatti’s sonatas were published, apparently in London (in 1738 or early 1739), as Essercizi per gravicembalo; subsequent English editions of his sonatas naturally used the title ‘lessons’.) There is a closer parallel in the German word ‘Übung’, though this is a collective noun (as in Johann Krieger: Anmuthige Clavier-Übung, Nuremberg, c1698, and Bach: Clavier-Übung, 4 pts, 1731–c1742).

The use of the word ‘lesson’ in its educational sense was eventually superseded by ‘study’, derived from the French ‘étude’, and ‘exercise’. The latter generally corresponded to the stricter use of ‘leçon’, while ‘étude’ or ‘study’ came to mean a freer kind of instructive piece, culminating in the masterpieces of Chopin; but the use of the terms was subject to a good deal of variation.

JOHN CALDWELL

Lessoth, Troilus à.

See Troilus à Lessoth, Franciscus Godefridus.

L’Estocart, Paschal de

(b Noyon, Picardy, ?1539; d after 1584). French composer. From 1559 he is known to have been in Lyons, where he married in 1565; nothing more is known of his youth other than that he visited Italy several times. On 15 September 1581 he received a ten-year privilège from Henri III to publish his works: these were printed at Geneva by Jean de Laon and are exclusively religious in character. L'Estocart seems to have had connections with certain leading Protestant nobles (Guillaume de La Marck, Duke of Bouillon, his brother Jean, Count of La Marck, and the King of Navarre, who became Henri IV). He was also very friendly with Simon Goulart, a Protestant minister, as well as with a small Genevan literary circle of Huguenot refugees; all this indicates that L'Estocart adhered to the ideals of the Reformation. In 1581 he matriculated at the University of Basle and in the following year he went to the court at Nancy, where on 4 April 1582 he received a gratuity of 60 écus from Duke Charles III as a reward for the dedication of his Quatrains du sieur de Pibrac. In 1583 he was again in Basle. He is next heard of as a member of the Abbot of Valmont's chapel in the Catholic setting of the Puy d'Evreux, which organized an annual competition for composers. L'Estocart won the prize of the Harpe d'Argent for a five-part Latin motet, Ecce quam bonum et quam jucundum.

One of the hallmarks of L'Estocart's style is his daring harmony, and this is particularly marked in his Octonaires de la vanité du monde. He liked harmonies that were used very little by his contemporaries, such as augmented 5ths and augmented 6ths in discords and unusual sequences, and he enlivened his melodic lines with many intervals that are difficult to pitch. His concern was to convey as vividly as possible the sense of the words and to evoke precise ideas. He was one of the most thoroughly italianate of French composers in the second half of the 16th century; however, in that his works are exclusively religious L'Estocart remains an essentially Huguenot composer, and his music has a strength and austerity that well accords with this.

WORKS

Premier livre des octonaires de la vanité du monde, 3–6vv (Geneva and Lyons, 1582); ed. in MMFTR, x (1929)

Second livre des octonaires de la vanité du monde, 3–6vv (Geneva and Lyons, 1582); ed. in MMFTR, xi (1958)

126 quatrains du sieur de Pibrac, 2–6vv (Geneva and Lyons, 1582)

Sacrae cantiones, 4–7vv (Lyons, 1582)

150 pseaumes de David mis en rime françoise par Clément Marot et Théodore de Besze, 4–8vv, avec la mélodie huguenote (Geneva and Lyons, 1583/R)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Albrecht: ‘Musikdrucke aus den Jahren 1576–1580 in Wilster (Holstein)’, Mf, ii (1949), 204–9

E. Droz: ‘Jean de Sponde et Pascal de L'Estocart’, Bibliothèque d'humanisme et Renaissance, xiii (1951), 312–26

J. Chailley and M. Honegger: Introduction to Paschal de L'Estocart: Second livre des octonaires, MMFTR, xi (1958)

S. Fornaçon: ‘L'Estocart und sein Psalter’, Mf, xiii (1960), 188–91

L. Guillo: Les éditions musicales de la Renaissance lyonnaise (Paris, 1991)

MARC HONEGGER

L'Estrange [Le Strange; Lestrange].

English family of amateur musicians and music patrons. The family account books show that Sir Hamon L'Estrange (1583–1654) encouraged his whole family to make music. Resident musicians at their home in Hunstanton, Norfolk, included John Jenkins and Thomas Brewer, and two of Sir Hamon's sons deserve special mention as amateur musicians. One of them, Sir Nicholas L'Estrange (1603–55), amassed a music library, several volumes from which still survive (in GB-Lbl, Lcm, Och, US-Cn). Apart from copying pieces himself, he fastidiously collated his music with other copies belonging to his acquaintances, provided indexes, commissioned scores and annotated the partbooks with directions for performance and other valuable information. His work has been of inestimable value to 20th-century scholars. The other son, Roger L'Estrange (1616–1704), taught by Thomas Brewer, was noted for his skill as a player of the bass viol: an anecdote in his Truth and Loyalty Vindicated (London, 1662) shows that he was able to play at sight with professional musicians such as John Hingeston. As Licenser of the Press he wrote commendations for the publications of Christopher Simpson.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P.J. Willetts: ‘Sir Nicholas Le Strange and John Jenkins’, ML, xlii (1961), 30–43

P.J. Willetts: ‘Sir Nicholas Le Strange's Collection of Masque Music’, British Museum Quarterly, xxix (1965), 79–81

J.T. Johnson: ‘How to “Humour” John Jenkins' Three-Part Dances: Performance Directions in a Newberry Library MS’, JAMS, xx (1967), 197–208

A. Ashbee: ‘A Further Look at Some of the Le Strange Manuscripts’, Chelys, v (1973–4), 24–41

ANDREW ASHBEE

Le Sueur [Lesueur], Jean-François

(b Drucat-Plessiel, nr Abbeville, 15 Feb 1760; d Paris, 6 Oct 1837). French composer and writer on music. He was one of the most prominent French musicians during the Revolution, the Empire and the Restoration, distinguishing himself primarily as a composer of operas and religious music.

1. Life.

He came from a background of modest Picardy peasants and seems to have had no family connections (despite his own claims) with the 17th-century French painter Eustache Le Sueur. He showed musical talent at an early age, which led his family to send him to the choir schools of Abbeville and Amiens. He left Amiens in 1776 and spent the next ten years as a choirmaster at various provincial choir schools. While in Sées, he was summoned to Paris for a few months as assistant choirmaster at the church of the Holy Innocents. It was during his stay in the capital that he had lessons in harmony and composition with the Abbé Nicolas Roze, who remained one of his closest friends.

Le Sueur’s first appointments were as choirmaster of St Etienne in Dijon, St Julien in Le Mans and St Martin in Tours. He aroused the hostility of the chapter in Tours by attempting to introduce novel musical practices in the church; shortly afterwards this involved him in still more serious difficulties at Notre Dame in Paris. During this time he made his mark as a composer with performances of his grands motets at the Concert Spirituel, 1782–6. He returned to the church of the Holy Innocents as choirmaster in 1784, and two years later became choirmaster of Notre Dame. He was to remain there only a year, time enough to cause a great stir by presenting what he called his ‘reform of sacred music’. By introducing ‘imitative’ (i.e. essentially theatrical) music into church and by taking great liberties with Latin texts, including the Ordinary of the Mass, he incurred the wrath of the clergy. All his scores of this period are lost, but the young composer subsequently published several treatises that provide a good idea of his intentions.

At about the same time Le Sueur, who had hitherto restricted himself to sacred music, turned to opera. With the help and advice of Sacchini, then in Paris, he undertook the composition of Télémaque. The work was not performed until 1796, and then in a modified and adapted version with additional spoken dialogue.

After spending a number of years in seclusion not far from Paris, Le Sueur reappeared on the scene during the Revolution. He made his début as an opera composer at the Théâtre Feydeau in 1793 with La caverne. Its success placed him, together with Méhul and Cherubini, firmly in the public’s attention during the Revolution. At the same time he became equally well known for his ten hymns, performed at the great festivals of the Revolution. His contemporaries, most notably Napoleon, particularly admired his Chant du Ier vendémiaire an IX, performed at the Hôtel des Invalides by four orchestras and four choirs, a work in which the composer made remarkable use of the effects of acoustic spatialization. There followed two more operas, Paul et Virginie and Télémaque, which were also given successful performances at the Théâtre Feydeau. Le Sueur was associated with the Institut National de Musique (the forerunner of the Paris Conservatoire) from 1793; when the Conservatoire opened in 1795 he became one of the inspectors of teaching. After a disagreement with the Conservatoire’s director, Bernard Sarrette, he left in 1802, though not before he had eloquently defended himself in his Lettre en réponse à Guillard.

In a difficult situation both materially and morally, Le Sueur was saved by Napoleon, who in 1804 appointed him Paisiello’s successor as director of the Tuileries Chapel, which had been restored in 1802. He held this position on his own during the Empire; during the Restoration he shared it first with Martini (until his death in 1816) and then with Cherubini until 1830, when the royal chapel was closed down. It was at the start of this new period in his life that he gained his greatest triumph with Ossian, ou Les bardes. Although it is an uneven work certain scenes undoubtedly brought a breath of fresh air to the French musical stage, foreshadowing the birth of the Romantic sensibility. In this sense the piece, which did not long survive the Napoleonic era (it was last performed in 1817), provides an important date in the history of French opera. Another opera, La mort d’Adam, adapted from Klopstock’s play, failed at the Opéra in 1809. He also collaborated (no doubt to a very minor degree) in two occasional works of musical drama at the Opéra in 1807, L’inauguration du temple de la victoire and Le triomphe de Trajan, most of the music being written by the composer Louis-Luc Loiseau de Persuis. The second work, wholly devoted to an apologia for the ruler and his regime and conjuring up Roman antiquity, with processions of chariots on stage, was an outstanding success and remained popular even under the restored monarchy. His last opera, Alexandre à Babylone, was never performed.

From 1 January 1818 until his death Le Sueur taught composition at the Conservatoire. After the Tuileries Chapel was closed in 1830 he devoted himself to long labours of erudition and compilation, covering innumerable folios with his delicate, cramped handwriting; a few of these have survived, including numerous works on the history of ancient and medieval music, interspersed with moral, religious and philosophical thoughts. At this time, too, he resumed work on his vast Histoire de la musique, which had been announced as early as 1810 but was never published; the manuscript is lost.

2. Achievements and influence.

The substance of Le Sueur’s ideas on theory and history is found in his four-volume Exposé d’une musique (1787). Here the young musician gave evidence of a resolute and sometimes bold intellect, showing himself a true successor to the great 18th-century theorists, above all Rousseau. He took up some of the major aesthetic problems of imitation. For Le Sueur, the essential aim of music is imitation of nature or human passions; divorced from a literary text, music loses nearly all its meaning. The function of imitation is not, he considered, to make a literal copy of an object, but to evoke in the soul of the listener what he called ‘the sensations which one experiences in looking at an object’ (following along these lines, Rousseau had claimed that ‘even silence could be depicted by sounds’). Thus in the ‘Hymn of the Indian Savages’ in Act 1 of Paul et Virginie, the depiction of the sunrise is achieved by a passage consisting almost exclusively of simple triads that produce a curious, almost religious effect of freshness and peace. This theory of imitation, when interpreted strictly, implies a condemnation of instrumental music which affected many French composers and may explain Le Sueur’s exclusive interest in vocal music.

The discussion of Greek music in the Exposé went no further than the views of the 18th-century theorists, but Le Sueur attempted to discover the rhythms of ancient poetry in French versification, thus reviving an old idea of the poets of the Pléiade. He also claimed to have introduced Greek rhythms into his music (particularly in Télémaque), for instance hexameters, in which a crotchet was equivalent to a long syllable and a quaver to a short.

Of Le Sueur’s three operas performed at the Théâtre Feydeau, La caverne is undoubtedly the most original. A modern work for its period, it breaks with the then sacrosanct principle whereby the stylistic features of different genres were kept separate: in the middle of a sombre and violent drama there are several ariettes in the purest opéra comique tradition. The work was extremely successful at the time of the Terror (fig.2), and was subsequently produced in translation in several European countries.

In some ways Paul et Virginie, and above all Télémaque, originally intended for the Opéra on the eve of the Revolution, are more traditional, but they still display several characteristic features of Le Sueur’s musical style: harmonic asperities, and jarring and rather harsh melodies, together with an expressive tremor and constant tension which prove his incontestable dramatic talent. Ossian, ou Les bardes triumphed as much through circumstance (the presence of the Emperor Napoleon at its second performance, the current taste for things ‘Ossianic’, the magnificence of the stage designs; fig.3) as through the musical quality of the work itself, which is somewhat frigid and conventional. La mort d’Adam, however, failed at the Opéra in 1809 and was subsequently ignored. Despite its static dramatic action, the opera contains several great passages of a remarkable religio-dramatic character. Among them is the finale of the third act, entirely of Le Sueur’s invention, conjuring up a grand epic vision of the struggle between Satan and God for Adam’s soul. Alexandre à Babylone was never produced, despite the composer’s efforts and, after his death, those of his wife. Some historians have even described it as lost. In fact Le Sueur’s widow had the score engraved after his death, though only a few copies are still extant. In this last opera the composer’s style broadened out; the orchestral writing is both more brilliant and more refined, and the choruses have a new musical and dramatic importance. Le Sueur was obviously influenced by Spontini’s great French masterpieces, La vestale and in particular Fernand Cortez. Alexandre à Babylone easily bears comparison with Spontini’s later work, Olimpie.

For 25 years Le Sueur was considered one of the masters of French church music. At a time when opera was suffering a period of decline, the Tuileries Chapel, as even foreign writers agreed, shone with exceptional brilliance, owing to the work of Le Sueur and Cherubini. Le Sueur’s sacred music is extremely simple in style. There are few modulations (he claimed that frequent modulations could not be distinctly perceived in cathedral acoustics), few fugues, and a deliberate use of simple, sometimes barren harmonies, with the voices often doubled at the octave. Nevertheless, there is enormous power and skill in his choral writing and much charm in his melodies; it is music which was not designed to be studied, but to be heard in the surroundings for which it was intended. Between 1826 and 1841, 17 volumes of Le Sueur’s church music were published; unfortunately, these scores do not accurately reflect the form in which the works were performed at the Tuileries Chapel. In preparing these volumes, he combined several of his own works, and recomposed by stringing the works together end to end. The manuscripts of his works, in their original form, are extant, however, and reveal that there were 29 major sacred works (masses, oratorios, motets) and 30 shorter pieces, including some sections not in the printed volumes.

Le Sueur’s musical influence on his pupils was less than has sometimes been maintained, certainly by Fouque as far as Berlioz is concerned. That his effect was certainly strong, however, is shown in the fact that between 1822 and 1839, 12 of the 18 winners of the Prix de Rome were, or had been, his pupils; these included Berlioz, Ambroise Thomas and Gounod. His support and encouragement of Berlioz in the early years was received gratefully and always remembered, but once Berlioz had matured and gained command over his talent, he seems to have been vividly conscious of his former teacher’s limitations and the weaknesses of his instruction: Le Sueur, in fact, played only a modest part in forming Berlioz’s musical personality.

Although Le Sueur was not a prolific composer and limited himself virtually to opera and sacred music, he was able to forge a strong personal style. He had been a modernist in his youth, before the years of the Revolution, but subsequently allowed himself to become confined within unduly narrow principles. Persuaded by Berlioz to hear Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony, he was on his own admission ‘moved and disturbed’; by the next day he had recovered the balance that he regarded as a fundamental artistic canon and declared that ‘music like that ought not to be written’. He remained essentially untouched by the Romantic movement, except in its early and specifically French aspect, and suspected little of the vast musical revolution that had already been set in motion in Germany.

WORKS

Catalogue: J.-F. Le Sueur: a Thematic Catalogue of his Complete Works, ed. J. Mongrédien (New York, 1980)

stage

all first performed and published in Paris

La caverne (drame lyrique, 3, P. Dercy [Palat], after A.-R. Le Sage: Gil Blas de Santillane), OC (Feydeau), 16 Feb 1793, F-Pim*, Po*; (1794/R1986 in FO, lxxiv)

Paul et Virginie, ou Le temple de la vertu (oc, 3, A. du Congé Dubreuil, after B. de Saint-Pierre), OC (Feydeau), 13 Jan 1794 (1796)

Télémaque (tragédie lyrique, 3, Dercy), OC (Feydeau), 11 May 1796 (c1796–1802)

Ossian, ou Les bardes (opéra, 5, Dercy, rev. J.-M. Deschamps), Opéra, 10 July 1804, D-Bsb*, F-Po*; (c1804–5/R1979 in ERO, xxxvii)

Le triomphe de Trajan (tragédie lyrique, 3, J. Esmenard), Opéra, 23 Oct 1807, Po, collab. L.-L. de Persuis

La mort d’Adam (tragédie lyrique religieuse, 3, N.-F. Guillard, after F.G. Klopstock), Opéra, 21 March 1809, Po*; (1822)

Alexandre à Babylone, 1814 (opéra, 3, Baour-Lormian), unperf., Pn; (c1859–60)

other works

c60 sacred pieces, incl. orats, masses, motets, psalms and cants., 17 bks pubd (Paris, 1826–41), other works, F-Pn

c10 hymns and odes for Revolutionary celebrations, 1794–1802

A few songs and solfège exercises

WRITINGS

Exposé d’une musique une, imitative et particulière à chaque solemnité (Paris, 1787)

Lettre en réponse à Guillard sur l’opéra de La mort d’Adam (Paris, 1801)

‘Observations sur les grandes parties de la musique et de la poésie chantée’, Odes d’Anacréon, trans. J.-B. Gail (Paris, 3/1799)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BerliozM

F. Lamy: Jean-François Le Sueur (1760–1837) (Paris, 1912)

W. Buschkötter: ‘Jean François Le Sueur’, SIMG, xiv (1912–13), 58–154

M. Herman: The Sacred Music of Jean-François Le Sueur: a Musical and Biographical Source Study (diss., U. of Michigan, 1964)

J. Coutts: Jean-François Le Sueur: a Study of the Composer and Five of his Operas (diss., U. of Cardiff, 1966)

W. Dean: ‘Opera under the French Revolution’, PRMA, xciv (1967–8), 77–96

J. Mongrédien: ‘La musique du sacre de Napoléon’, RdM, liv (1968), 137–74

J. Mongrédien: ‘La musique aux fêtes du sacre de Charles X’, RMFC, x (1970), 87–100

O.F. Saloman: Aspects of ‘Gluckian’ Operatic Thought and Practice in France: the Musico-Dramatic Vision of Le Sueur and La Cépède (1785–1809) in Relation to Aesthetic and Critical Tradition (diss., Columbia U., 1970)

O.F. Saloman: ‘The Orchestra in Le Sueur’s Musical Aesthetics’, MQ, lx (1974), 616–24

O.F. Saloman: ‘La Cépède’s “La poétique de la musique” and Le Sueur’, AcM, xlvii (1975), 144–54

D. Charlton: ‘Ossian, Le Sueur and Opera’, SMA, xi (1977), 37–48

J. Mongrédien: Jean-François Le Sueur: contribution à l’étude d’un demi-siècle de musique française (1780–1830) (Berne, 1980)

C. Keith: The Operas of Jean-François Le Sueur (diss., U. of Cincinnati, 1981)

T. Hirsbrunner: ‘Zur Dramaturgie der Oper La caverne von Jean-François Lesueur’, Aufklärungen: Studien zur deutsch-französischen Musikgeschichte: Saarbrücken 1981 [with Fr. summary], 128–30

H. Smither: ‘The Concept of Oratorio in the Music and Writings of Jean-François Le Sueur’, IMSCR XIII: Strasbourg 1982, 602–21

G. Buschmeier: Die Entwicklung von Arie und Szene in der französischen Oper von Gluck bis Spontini (Tutzing, 1991)

D. Charlton: French Opera 1730–1830: Meaning and Media (Aldershot, 1999)

JEAN MONGRÉDIEN

Lesung

(Sundanese lisung).

Javanese term (Sundanese: lisung), also found in Sulawesi, for a long rice-stamping trough beaten with heavy poles of coconut palm or other wood by women who make music while stamping the husks off rice grain. In Minangkabau, West Sumatra, it is called a lasuang and in Burai, South Sumatra, a cintuk. The trough is usually made of wood, such as jackfruit wood, which produces a clear tone when beaten. By striking the edges and bottom of oblong or round holes cut in the trough, sounds of varying pitch and timbre are produced in complex interlocking rhythms. In Java, these rhythms are distinguished by three stamping pressures: light, medium and heavy. The pieces are given picturesque and evocative titles. The lesung was formerly used in Java in the gamelan kethoprak. Since World War II rice-husking machines have increasingly replaced traditional methods, and round-the-clock rice-stamping parties at harvest-time, during solar and lunar eclipses and for circumcision celebrations have died out. In Minangkabau lasuang troughs often had seven holes, and seven women used to play lasuang music, but the only remnant of this tradition is the gandang lasuang ensemble, which comprises a lasuang, talempong jao and drum (e.g. a dol). In Aceh province, a small round trough resembling those of mainland South-east Asia is used by each rice-stamper. In Burai, South Sumatra, cintuk have two holes played by four women; low-pitched sounds are produced inside the holes and high-pitched ones on top of the trough.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Kunst: De toonkunst van Java (The Hague, 1934; Eng. trans., rev. 2/1943, enlarged 3/1973)

M.J. Kartomi: ‘Music and Trance in Central Java’, EthM, xvii (1973), 201–7

MARGARET J. KARTOMI

Lesur, Daniel Jean Yves.

See Daniel-Lesur.

Lesure, François(-Marie)

(b Paris, 23 May 1923). French musicologist and librarian. He took a degree in history at the Sorbonne (1946) and also studied at the Conservatoire, at the Ecole Nationale des Chartes (diploma as an archivist-palaeographer, 1950), and at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes-Etudes (diploma, 1948). He was a librarian in the music department of the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris for 20 years before becoming its head keeper in 1970, and was responsible for arranging several exhibitions at the Bibliothèque Nationale (Mozart, 1956; Debussy, 1962; Berlioz, 1969) and in Lisbon and Rome. He was professor of musicology at the Free University of Brussels (1964–77), and in 1973 he succeeded Solange Corbin as director of studies at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes-Etudes.

Lesure’s research has been concerned principally with historical musicology, the sociology of music, 16th-century French music, Debussy and bibliography in all periods; he is co-author (with G. Thibault) of the bibliographies of the 16th-century musical editions brought out by the French publishers Du Chemin and Le Roy & Ballard, and author of the bibliography of the 18th-century musical editions of the publishers Estienne Roger and M.-C. Le Cène. He was in charge of the secretariat of RISM (1953–67) and edited the volumes devoted to printed collections of the 16th and 17th centuries, the printed collections of the 18th century and printed writings about music. He is editor of Le Pupitre, a collection of music published by Heugel (Paris, 1967–), and of Domaine Musicologique, a collection of monographs (Paris, 1986–). All his work bears the mark of his training both as a historian and as an archivist, a training which ensures his punctiliousness with documents and the value of his research. He was president of the Société Française de Musicologie from 1971 to 1974 and from 1988 to 1991, and is editor-in-chief of Debussy’s Oeuvres complètes. The Festschrift Musiques, signes, images: liber amicorum François Lesure, ed. J.-M. Fauquet (Geneva, 1988) was published to mark his 65th birthday.

WRITINGS

‘Claude Goudimel, étudiant, correcteur et éditeur parisien’, MD, ii (1948), 225–30

with D.P. Walker: ‘Claude Le Jeune and musique mesurée’, MD, iii (1949), 151–70

‘Pierre Attaingnant: notes et documents’, MD, iii (1949), 33–40

‘Réflexions sur l’origine du concert parisien’, Polyphonie, v (1949), 47–51

‘La guitare en France au XVIe siècle’, MD, iv (1950), 187–95

‘Autour de Clément Marot et de ses musiciens’, RdM, xxx (1951), 109–19

‘Clément Janequin: recherches sur sa vie et son oeuvre’, MD, v (1951), 157–93

with G. Thibault: ‘Bibliographie des éditions musicales publiées par Nicolas du Chemin (1549–1576)’, AnnM, i (1953), 269–373; iv (1956), 251–3; vi (1958–63), 403–6

‘La communauté des joueurs d’instruments au XVIe siècle’, Revue historique de droit français et étranger, 4th ser., xxxi (1953), 79–109

‘Eléments populaires dans la chanson française au début du XVIe siècle’, Musique et poésie au XVIe siècle: Paris 1953, 169–84

‘Marin Marais: sa carrière, sa famille’, RBM, vii (1953), 129–36

‘Musicologie et sociologie’, ReM, no.221 (1953), 4–11

‘La facture instrumentale à Paris au seizième siècle’, GSJ, vii (1954), 11–52

‘La musique religieuse française au XVIe siècle’, ReM, no.222 (1954), 44–61

‘Les orchestres populaires à Paris vers la fin du XVIe siècle’, RdM, xxxvi (1954), 39–54

ed.: La Renaissance dans les provinces du nord: Arras 1954

with G. Thibault: Bibliographie des éditions d’Adrian Le Roy et Robert Ballard (1551–1598) (Paris, 1955); suppl., RdM, xl (1957), 166–72

‘Danses et chansons à danser au début du XVIe siècle’, Recueil de travaux offert à M. Clovis Brunel, ii (Paris, 1955), 176–84

Musicians and Poets of the French Renaissance (New York, 1955)

‘Le recueil de ballets de Michel Henry (vers 1620)’, Les fêtes de la Renaissance [I]: Royaumont 1955, 205–19

‘Le traité des instruments de musique de Pierre Trichet’, AnnM, iii (1955), 283–387; iv (1956), 175–248; pubd separately (Neuilly-sur-Seine, 1957, 2/1978; Eng. trans., 1973)

‘Mozartiana gallica’, RdM, xxxviii (1956), 115–24

‘Un musicien d’Hippolyte d’Este: Pierre Sandrin’, CHM, ii (1956–7), 245–50

Introduction to G. Morlaye: Psaumes de Pierre Certon réduits pour chant et luth, ed. R. de Morcourt (Paris, 1957)

‘Recherches sur les luthistes parisiens à l’époque de Louis XIII’, Le luth et sa musique: Neuilly-sur-Seine 1957, 209–23

with R. de Morcourt: ‘G.P. Paladino et son “Premier livre” de luth (1560)’, RdM, xlii (1958), 170–83

‘La musicologie en France depuis 1945’, AcM, xxx (1958), 3–17

with N. Bridgman: ‘Une anthologie “historique” de la fin du XVIe siècle: le manuscrit Bourdeney’, Miscelánea en homenaje a Monseñor Higinio Anglés (Barcelona, 1958–61), 161–72

ed.: Recueils imprimés, XVIe et XVIIe siècles, RISM, B/I/1 (1960)

‘Une querelle sur le jeu de la viole en 1688: Jean Rousseau contre Demachy’, RdM, xlvi (1960), 181–99

‘Pour une sociologie historique des faits musicaux’, IMSCR VIII: New York 1961, i, 333–45

ed.: Claude Debussy: textes et documents inédits (Paris, 1962) [incl. ‘Debussy de 1883 à 1885 d’après la correspondance de Paul Vidal à Henriette Fuchs’, 98–101; ‘Bibliographie debussyste’, 129–43]

Introduction to M. Mersenne: Harmonie universelle (Paris, 1636) (Paris, 1963) [facs. edn]

ed.: Recueils imprimés, XVIIIe siècle, RISM, B/II (1964)

Musica e società (Milan, 1966; Eng., trans., 1968, as Music and Art in Society)

Bibliographie des éditions musicales publiées par Estienne Roger et Michel Charles Le Cène (Amsterdam, 1696–1743) (Paris, 1969)

ed.: Ecrits imprimés concernant la musique, RISM, B/VI/1–2 (1971)

ed.: Monsieur Croche et autres écrits (Paris, 1971, 2/1987; Eng. trans., 1977/R) [Debussy’s writings]

‘Archival Research: Necessity and Opportunity’, Perspectives in Musicology, ed. B.S. Brook, E.O.D. Downes and S. van Solkema (New York, 1972), 56–79

L’opéra classique français, 17e et 18e siècles (Geneva, 1972)

‘L’affaire Fétis’, RBM, xxviii–xxx (1974–6), 214–21

Claude Debussy (Geneva, 1975)

‘Ebauche d’un répertoire des éditeurs de musique dans les provinces françaises’, Beiträge zur Musikdokumentation: Franz Grasberger zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. G. Brosche (Tutzing, 1975), 233–58

Maurice Ravel (Paris, 1975)

Musique et musiciens français du 16e siècle (Geneva, 1976) [repr. of articles pubd 1950–69]

Catalogue de l’oeuvre de Claude Debussy (Geneva, 1977)

ed., with C. Sartori: Bibliografia della musica italiana vocale profana pubblicata dal 1500 al 1700 (Geneva, 1977) [rev. of VogelB]

‘Madrigaux italiens et sources poétiques’, RBM, xxxii–xxxiii (1978–9), 78–96

with A. Devriès: Dictionnaire des éditeurs de musique français, i: Des origines à environ 1820, ii: De 1820 à 1914 (Geneva, 1979–88)

ed.: Claude Debussy: Lettres, 1884–1918 (Paris, 1980; Eng. trans., 1987)

ed.: Igor Stravinsky, ‘Le sacre du printemps’: dossier de presse (Geneva, 1980)

Catalogue de la musique imprimée avant 1800: conservée dans les bibliothèques publiques de Paris (Paris, 1981)

ed.: Stravinsky: études et témoignages (Paris, 1982)

ed.: La Musique à Paris en 1830–1831 (Paris, 1983)

ed., with G. Cogeval: Debussy e il simbolismo, Villa Medici, Rome, April – June 1984 (Rome, 1984) [exhibition catalogue]

‘Propos sur la voix à la Renaissance’, Arts du spectacle et histoire des idées: recueil offert en hommage à Jean Jacquot (Tours, 1984), 205–12

ed.: Querelle des Gluckistes et des Piccinnistes (Geneva, 1984)

ed.: Dossier de presse de ‘Pierrot Lunaire’ d'Arnold Schönberg (Geneva, 1985)

‘Musical Academicism in France in the Eighteenth Century: Evidence and Problems’, Music in the Classic Period: Essays in Honor of Barry S. Brook, ed. A.W. Atlas (New York, 1985), 159–80

ed., with H. Macdonald: Hector Berlioz: Correspondance générale, v: 1855–1859 (Paris, 1989); vi: 1859–1863 (Paris, 1995)

‘Ravel et Debussy’, Cahiers Maurice Ravel, no.5 (1990–92), 27–33

‘La recherche musicologique en France depuis 1958: II. Les publications’, AcM, lxiii (1991), 224–37

Claude Debussy avant Pelléas ou les années symbolistes (Paris, 1993)

ed.: Claude Debussy: Correspondance, 1884–1918 (Paris, 1993)

‘Raymond Bonheur: un ermite, ami de Debussy (1861–1939)’, Cahiers Debussy, xvii–xviii (1993–4), 65–72

Claude Debussy: biographie critique (Paris, 1994)

ed.: La musique dans le Midi de la France (Paris, 1996–7)

Dictionnaire musical des villes de province (Paris, 1999)

ed.: Echanges musicaux franco-espagnols, XVIIe–XIXe s. (Paris, 1999)

EDITIONS

with others: Anthologie de la chanson parisienne au XVIe siècle (Monaco, 1953/R)

with A.T. Merritt: Clément Janequin: Chansons polyphoniques (Monaco, 1965–71)

Claude Debussy: Oeuvres complètes (Paris, 1985–)

CHRISTIANE SPIETH-WEISSENBACHER

Leszczynska, Marie.

See Leczinska, marie.

Leszetycki, Teodor.

See Leschetizky, Theodor.

Le Taintenier, Jehan.

See Tinctoris, Johannes.

Letania

(lat.).

See Litany.

Le Tansur, William.

See Tans’ur, William.

Letelier(-Llona), Alfonso

(b Santiago, 4 Oct 1912; d Santiago, 28 Oct 1994). Chilean composer. He studied the piano with Hügel and composition with Allende at the Santiago National Conservatory (1930–35), simultaneously reading agriculture at the University of Chile. In 1938 and 1946 he travelled to Europe for the University of Chile to lecture on and promote contemporary Chilean music. He was a founder-director of the Escuela Moderna de Música in Santiago (1940), also conducting its madrigal ensemble (1940–48). His other appointments included those of professor at the National Conservatory (1946–53), president of the Chilean National Association of Composers (1950–56), dean of music and president of the executive board of the Instituto de Extensión Musical of the University of Chile (1953–62), president of the Goethe Institute of Santiago (1953–63), head of the music department of the Ministry of Education (1969–73) and dean of the arts faculty of the Metropolitan University of Santiago (1984–90). In 1952 he attended a performance of his Variations for Piano at the ISCM Festival in Salzburg, making further visits to Europe in 1958 and 1962.

His early compositions show the influence of French Impressionism and a subtle use of folk idioms (La vida del campo, 1937). Later he embraced a modal style derived from Gregorian chant and the music of the Spanish Renaissance (Vitrales de la Anunciación, 1950). His late style is characterized by increasing use of the methods of the Second Viennese School (the two Stephan George Canciones, 1971). He served on the jury of several international competitions and has received numerous awards, such as the National Prize for the Arts (1958). In 1969 he was elected a permanent member of the Chilean Academy. He published over 50 artices in the Revista musical chilena.

WORKS

(selective list)

Choral: Mass, op.1, SATB, org, orch, 1929; 8 canciones, op.9, 1934–9; 3 Motets, SATB, 1939; Vitrales de la Anunciación (cant., P. Claudel), SSA, chbr orch, 1950; La historia de Tobías y Sara, part 1 (op-orat, Claudel), op.26, 1955; O sacrum convivium, SATB, 1969; 3 madrigales campesinos (O. Castro), SATB, ens, 1970; Mass, SATB, org, chbr orch, 1972

Orch and vocal-orch: La vida del campo, op.14, pf, orch, 1937; Suite grotesca, 1946; Divertimento, op.25, 1956; Suite Aculéo, op.17, 1956; Gui Conc., 1961; Preludios vegetales, op.35, 1968; Conc., str, 1972; Sym. ‘El hombre ante la ciencia’, Mez, orch, 1983–5

Solo vocal: Ballad and Song, S, pf, 1935; Canciones de cuna, op.13, Mez, chbr orch, 1939; Sonetos de la muerte (G. Mistral), op.18, S, orch, 1948; Canciones antiguas (15th and 16th century Sp. poems), Mez, pf, 1951; Estancias amorosas (B. Valdes), op.34, Mez, str, 1966; 2 canciones (S. George), op.36, 1v, chbr orch, 1971

Chbr and solo inst: Str Qt, 1939; Variations, op.22, pf, 1948; Sonata, op.19, va, pf, 1949; Sonatina, vn, pf, 1953; Sax Qt, 1958; 4 Pieces, op.33, pf, 1964

Principal publishers: Instituto de Extensión Musical, Peer-Southern

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Compositores de América/Composers of the Americas, ed. Pan American Union, ii (Washington DC, 1955–72), 104

D. Santa Cruz: ‘El compositor Alfonso Letelier’, RMC, no.100 (1967), 8–23

N. Salas Viú: La creación musical en Chile, 1900–1950 (Santiago, 1952)

R. Escobar and R. Yrarrázaval: Música compuesta en Chile (Santiago, 1969)

RMC, no.109 (1969) [Letelier issue]

S. Claro and J. Urrutia Blondel: Historia de la música en Chile (Santiago, 1973)

J. Orrego-Salas: ‘Alfonso Letelier: el camino de una amistad’, El mercurio, 6 Nov 1994

JUAN A. ORREGO-SALAS

Letelier (Valdés), Miguel

(b Santiago, 30 Sept 1939). Chilean composer and organist. He studied music at the arts faculty of the University of Chile with the Belgian-Argentine teacher Julio Perceval. He completed his studies in composition at the di Tella Institute in Buenos Aires and in organ with Jean Jacques Grünewald in Paris. He was appointed professor of organ and composition at the arts faculty of the University of Chile and has taken part in a number of international organ festivals.

Letelier has tackled composition for various media, from solo instruments to full orchestra. He has also been successful as a writer of incidental music for the theatre. His most important orchestral work is Instantes (1966), in which he uses all the musical resources of the full orchestra and a wide variety of percussion instruments. His musical style is heterogeneous, and he uses a large variety of idioms ranging from archaic Hispanicism to jazz and ultra-modernism.

WORKS

(selective list)

Incid music: Les fourberies de Scapin (Molière), 1961; Don Juan tenorio (J. Zorrilla y Moral), 1976; El mercader de Venecia (W. Shakespeare), 1976; Las mocedades del Cid (Molina), 1977

Orch: Suite ‘Scapin’, 1962, arr. 2 pf, 1962; Instantes, 1966

Vocal: 3 coros (G. Mistral, anon), chorus, 1959; 3 canciones (P. Neruda), 1v, pf, 1961; Nocturno, 1v, cl, gui, vc, pf, 1966; Fantasía, female v, pic, tpt, s sax, b cl, vib, va, db, 1970; 3 canciones (A. de Noailles), 1v, cl, pf, 1981–2

Chbr: Qnt, fl, ob, cl, sax, bn, 1964; Divertimento, fl, ob, cl, 2 vn, va, vc, hpd, 1965; Raveliana, fl, gui, 1984; Rapsodía, vn, pf, cl, 1986

Solo inst: 6 preludios breves (Homenaje a Violeta Parra), gui, 1962; Preludio, variacion y fuga (In memoriam Julio Perceval), org, 1964; Sonata, hpd, 1964; Pequeño libro, pf, 1997

INÉS GRANDELA

Létourneau, Fernand (Wilfred Joseph)

(b St Hyacinthe, PQ, Canada, 24 Sept 1944). Canadian organ builder. He began his career as a voicer at the firm of Casavant Frères in St Hyacinthe in 1965. He stayed with that company for 14 years, the last three of which were spent as the head voicer, working under the tonal direction of Lawrence Phelps and Gerhard Brunzema. In October 1978 Létourneau travelled to Europe to familiarize himself with the organs of France, Germany and the Netherlands. Upon returning to Ste Rosalie, near St Hyacinthe, in 1979, he set up his own company, Létourneau Pipe Organs Ltd/Orgues Létourneau Ltée. In January 1984 the firm moved to a suburb of St Hyacinthe. In 1997 the company was employing 27 full-time staff and had representatives in England, New Zealand and the USA.

By 1997 the firm had built more than 55 new instruments including those at Centenary-Queen Square United Church, Saint John, New Brunswick (1986); Cathedral, St Catherines, Ontario (1990); Gaetz Memorial United Church, Red Deer, Alberta (1988); Ste Catherine-de-Sienne, Trois-Rivières, Quebec (1988, two manuals, 25 stops; the firm considers this organ the ‘flagship’ of the Létourneau style); and several smaller instruments. Major new installations outside Canada include: St Alban’s Anglican Church, Epping, New South Wales (1981); British Embassy Christ Church, Vienna (1988); St Paul’s Collegiate School, Hamilton, New Zealand (1992); Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama (1994); St Matthew’s, Albury, New South Wales (1994); St Francis of Assisi, Ann Arbor, Michigan (1994); First Christian Church, Colorado Springs, Colorado (1995); and Pembroke College, Oxford (1995).

By 1991 the firm had undertaken 43 rebuilds of organs by other manufacturers, including: Ste Praxède-de-Bromptonville, Quebec (Casavant Frères); Cathédrale de l’Assomption, Trois Rivières, Quebec (Casavant Frères); Wesley United Church, Thunder Bay, Ontario (Karn-Warren, 1909); St Andrew’s Presbyterian Church, St John’s, Newfoundland (Conacher, 1901, and Hill, Norman & Beard, 1927); and Christ Church, St Laurence, Sydney (W. Hill & Son, 1893).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Laurier: ‘Fernand Létourneau, facteur d'orgues québecois, se lance sur le marché international’, Le Devoir [Montreal] (12 Sept 1987)

K.J. Raudsepp: Organs of Montreal (Quebec, 1993)

J. Wainwright and D. Titterington: ‘A Curious History Untangled’, Choir and Organ, iii/3 (1995), 31–4

KARL J. RAUDSEPP

Letra

(Sp.: ‘letter’).

(1) The words of a song or a libretto.

(2) From the 15th century to the 17th the term was used, along with ‘mote’, ‘pie’, ‘cabeza’, ‘villancico’ (in its restricted sense), ‘estribo’ and ‘estribillo’, to designate the refrain of a song or poem, especially a given or traditional refrain. As with ‘villancico’ it was sometimes used to refer to the song as a whole, both refrain and stanza. By the 17th century the diminutive ‘letrilla’ came to be more favoured by poets and sometimes musicians to designate a jocular or satirical refrain song.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Querol Gavaldá: Romances y letras a tres vozes, siglo XVII (Barcelona, 1956)

J. Etzion: Preface to El cancionero da La Sablonara (London, 1996)

JACK SAGE/SUSANA FRIEDMANN

Leuckart.

German firm of music publishers. It was founded in 1782 in Breslau by Franz Ernst Christoph Leuckart (1748–1817) and Johann Daniel Korn (the younger) as a fine-art and music shop. As F.E.C. Leuckart, the firm was notably successful in the third generation, when Constantin Sander (1826–1905) took over its management (1849). He made agreements with talented young composers (Robert Franz, Bruch), worked with Liszt, Ferdinand Hiller, Bülow and Thuille, and encouraged the music historian A.W. Ambros to write his Geschichte der Musik. The firm published organ works, instructional literature and dramatic works (including Bruch’s Die Loreley, 1862), and encouraged the work of Eduard Kremser (Altniederländisches Dankgebet) and Thomas Koschat, the Carinthian folksong collector. In 1870 the firm moved to Leipzig, where it was active in promoting individual compositions by Richard Strauss, including Ein Heldenleben op.40 (1899) and Eine Alpensinfonie op.64 (1915), along with works by Pfitzner and Reger. After the death of Constantin Sander, his son Martin (1859–1930) expanded the catalogue to include Catholic liturgical music, contemporary orchestral and chamber music, the collection Leuckarts Hausmusik and choral music (e.g. by Richard Trunk, Armin Knab and Hugo Kaun). For several decades the hospitable Sander home was a meeting-place for distinguished musicians visiting Leipzig for world and local premières. In 1930 Martin Sander’s son Horst (1904–45) inherited the firm and increased its output to almost 10,000 items. It suffered war damage and moved from Leipzig in 1945, remaining in the family’s possession and resuming its activities on the same lines in Munich in 1948.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

175 Jahre Musikverlag F.E.C. Leuckart: Verlagsgeschichte und Gesamtkatalog (Munich, 1957)

J. La Rue: ‘Ten Rediscovered Sale-Catalogues: Leuckart’s Supplements, Breslau 1787–1792’, Musik und Verlag: Karl Vötterle zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. R. Baum and W. Rehm (Kassel, 1968), 424–32

HANS-MARTIN PLESSKE

Leutgeb [Leitgeb], Joseph [Ignaz]

(b Vienna, 8 Oct 1732; d Vienna, 27 Feb 1811). Austrian horn player. Though little is known about his early years, Dittersdorf mentions that he was a virtuoso soloist in Vienna for Prince Hildburghausen in the early 1750s. From November 1761 to January 1763 he is reported to have played horn concertos at least 14 times at the Vienna Burgtheater, performing works of Leopold Hofmann, Michael Haydn and Dittersdorf. Joseph Haydn’s Concerto in D in 1762, Hob.VII d:3, was possibly among these works and is now thought to have been written for him (Heartz). In February 1763 Leutgeb was hired at Esterházy with a high yearly salary only to be dismissed by the end of the month. Later in 1763 he was in Salzburg and is listed as a horn player in the Salzburg court calendar from 1764. He travelled widely as a soloist. He played concerts in Frankfurt in January 1770, and in April of the same year, played three times in Paris at the Concert Spirituel, including in his programme a concerto reportedly of his own composition (now lost). On the first occasion at the Concert Spirituel the Mercure de France praised his superior talent, on another his ability to ‘sing an adagio as perfectly as the most mellow, interesting and accurate voice’. During other periods of leave from Salzburg he played in Vienna and Italy. In 1777 he moved from Salzburg to Vienna, where he set up or, more likely, inherited a cheesemonger’s shop; he received financial help from Leopold Mozart.

Leutgeb’s mastery of the hand-stopping technique is evident in the solo works W.A. Mozart wrote for him in the 1780s and 90s. The concertos k417, 495 and 412/386b (514) and probably the quintet k407/386c were composed for him as were horn parts in other works. The autographs of some of the horn parts contain jocular remarks at Leutgeb’s expense. Leutgeb however remained a friend to the end of Mozart’s life, and is mentioned in Mozart’s last letter; he apparently retired from playing in 1792.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PierreH

N. Miller, ed.: K. von Dittersdorf: Lebensbeschreibung: seinem Sohne in die Feder diktiert (Munich, 1967), 60 only

H. Fitzpatrick: The Horn and Horn-Playing and the Austro-Bohemian Tradition from 1680 to 1830 (London, 1970)

K.M. Pisarowitz: ‘Mozarts Schnorrer Leutgeb’, MISM, xviii/3–4 (1970), 21–7

P.R. Bryan: ‘The Horn in the Works of Mozart and Haydn’, Haydn Yearbook 1975, 189–255

A. Tyson: ‘Mozart's D-major Horn Concerto: Questions of Date and of Authenticity’, Mozart: Studies of the Autograph Scores (Cambridge, 1987), 246–61

D. Heartz: ‘Leutgeb and the 1762 Horn Concertos of Joseph and Johann Michael Haydn’, MJb 1987–8, 59–64

K. Küster: ‘Dokumente einer Freundschaft: das Hornkonzert KV495 und andere’, Mozart: eine musikalische Biographie (Stuttgart, 1990), 248–54; Eng. trans. (Oxford, 1996), 227–33

REGINALD MORLEY-PEGGE/THOMAS HIEBERT

Leuto

(It.).

See Lute.

Leuven

(Fr. Louvain; Ger. Löwen).

Belgian city, since 1995 capital of the new province of Flemish Brabant. Occupied by the Vikings in the 9th century, the town served as the residence of the counts of Leuven from 1003, and in the 12th century became the capital of the Duchy of Brabant. The famous trouvère Adenez li Rois learned his craft at the court of Duke Henry III (d 1261), a trouvère himself. Duke John I (d 1294), nine of whose Flemish songs have been preserved, moved his court from Leuven to Brussels. The centre of sacred music was the collegiate Pieterskerk. In 1054 there was a chapter of seven canons, probably founded by Count Lambert I. Two important later canons were the composers Richardus de Bellengues (also known as Cardot, d 1470) and Thomas Crecquillon (d ?1557), who also studied at the university. In 1498 Henricus de Houterlé founded a chapel at the church, where seven choirboys were trained in Gregorian chant and polyphony. Little else is known of its history until the 18th century, when its directors included Louis (Lodewijk) van Beethoven (the composer's grandfather) and, from 1750 to 1789, the violin virtuoso G.J.J. Kennis, whose violin compositions were published in Brussels, Leuven, London and Paris. Its organists included J.B. Verryt (1636–9), Dieudonné Raick (1726–41) and Matthias van den Gheyn (1741–85). The organ by Jean Crinon (1554–6) was destroyed by a bomb in 1944.

The carillon has long been highly regarded in Leuven. In 1525 the town council bought eight or nine bells from Peter Waghevens in Mechelen for the Pieterskerk. A new carillon was acquired in 1728 and exchanged for the instrument in the Premonstratensian abbey of Park in 1811. This was destroyed during World War I. The present carillon (49 bells) was acquired during the period 1931–5 and renovated in 1990. St Gertrudis has had its own carillon since the 16th century. The university library acquired an English carillon in 1928, which was enlarged from 48 to 63 bells in 1983.

As early as 1439–40, there is mention of a trumpet player and two pipers in Leuven who also acted as tower guards and later became official town musicians. From the second half of the 15th century the town musicians performed twice a day on the town hall steps, often augmented by musicians from neighbouring towns. In the 16th century, Leuven was a printing centre, above all through the work of Pierre Phalèse.

In the 19th century the musician Josephus Terby (1780–1860), the violin virtuoso Charles-Auguste de Bériot (1802–70) and the musicologist Xavier Van Elewyck (1825–88) were active in Leuven. Private music tuition developed from 1835 and in 1881 the music department of the Académie des Beaux-Arts received a special statute. Since 1968 professional music tuition has been provided by the Lemmens Institute, which was originally established in Mechelen. At the Catholic University, founded in 1425, music history has been taught since 1927. R.B. Lenaerts (1902–92) founded a fully fledged department of musicology in 1944.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Huybens: ‘Bouwstenen voor een geschiedenis van de muziek te Leuven: 17e en 18e eeuw’, Jaarboek van de Geschied- en Oudheidkundige Kring voor Leuven en omgeving, xxi (1981), 5–92

G. Huybens, ed.: Muziek te Leuven in de 16de eeuw (Leuven, 1982)

J.P. Felix and G.Huybens: Leuvense orgelgids (Leuven, 1985)

G. Huybens: ‘Het muziekconservatorium te Leuven (1835–1985)’, Het stedelijk kunstonderwijs te Leuven (Leuven, 1985), 95–138

G. Huybens and G.Robberechts: Het Leuvense muziekleven in de 19de eeuw (Leuven, 1986)

G. Huybens and E.Schreurs, eds.: ‘Muzikale schatten uit de Leuvense universiteitsbibliotheek’, Musica antiqua, xiii (1996), 9–44

EUGEEN SCHREURS

Levant, Oscar

(b Pittsburgh, 27 Dec 1906; d Beverly Hills, CA, 14 Aug 1972). American pianist, composer and writer. After training with local teachers in Pittsburgh he moved to New York, where he studied with the pianist Sigismund Stojowski; later he briefly studied composition with Schoenberg. He was active as a pianist with jazz bands and as a composer of popular songs such as Lady, play your mandolin (1930, lyricist: I. Caesar) and Blame it on my youth (1934, lyricist: E. Heyman). His works for the Broadway stage brought his talents to the attention of Hollywood, and after moving to the West Coast he wrote the scores for several films, including Street Girl and Tanned Legs. Levant also appeared in many films both as actor and musician, including Rhythm on the River (1941), The Barkleys of Broadway (1948) and The Band Wagon (1953). He was the solo pianist in An American in Paris (1951), and had achieved prominence as a sympathetic interpreter of Gershwin's music following their meeting in 1929 and subsequent friendship.

Apart from his popular songs and film scores, Levant's compositions include a piano concerto, which he played with the NBC SO in 1942, Nocturne for orchestra (1937) and two string quartets. He was much in demand as a concert soloist and played with many of the leading American symphony orchestras. His writings include three volumes of autobiographical reminiscences (A Smattering of Ignorance, 1940; The Memoirs of an Amnesiac, 1965; The Unimportance of Being Oscar, 1968) which are caustic in content and conversational in tone. (S. Kashner and N. Schoenberger: A Talent for Genius: the Life and Times of Oscar Levant, New York, 1994)

GEORGE GELLES/R

Levarie, Siegmund

(b Vienna, 24 July 1914). American musicologist and music educationist of Austrian birth. He took the diploma in conducting at the Vienna City Conservatory in 1935 and the PhD in musicology from the University of Vienna in 1938. Moving to America, he joined the faculty of the University of Chicago, where he taught from 1938 to 1952. There he organized a collegium musicum, one of the first in the USA, and directed the group in performances of early music. He was dean of the Chicago Musical College from 1952 to 1954, when he was appointed professor at Brooklyn College, CUNY; he served as chairman of the music department there from 1954 to 1962, and taught there, as well as the Graduate School, CUNY, until his retirement in 1984. In addition to his academic duties he was executive director of the Fromm Music Foundation from 1952 to 1956 and directed the Brooklyn Community SO from 1954 to 1958.

Levarie’s interests include music theory and analysis, Machaut and Goethe. His writings cross disciplinary lines, drawing on the fields of education, philosophy and physics.

WRITINGS

Fugue and Form (Chicago, 1941)

‘Music in the Education of the Whole Man’, The Educational Forum, xiii (1948–9), 449–54

with H. Kohut: ‘On the Enjoyment of Listening to Music’, Psychoanalytic Quarterly, xix (1950), 64–87

Mozart's Le Nozze di Figaro: a Critical Analysis (Chicago, 1952/R)

Fundamentals of Harmony (New York, 1954/R, 2/1962)

Guillaume de Machaut (New York, 1954/R)

‘“Solitario bosco ombroso”: eine musikalische Kindheitserinnerung Goethes’, Goethe, xix (1957), 196–202

Musical Italy Revisited (New York, 1963/R)

‘The Italian Province’, ON, xxviii/23 (1963–4), 6

with E. Levy: Tone: a Study in Musical Acoustics (Kent, OH, 1968, 2/1980)

‘La musique d'Ernst Lévy’, SMz, cviii (1968), 178–87

‘The Closing Numbers of Die Schöpfung’, Studies in Eighteenth-Century Music: a Tribute to Karl Geiringer, ed. H.C.R. Landon and R.E. Chapman (New York and London, 1970), 315–22

‘Noise’, Critical Inquiry, iv (1977), 21–31

ed.: Lucy Van-Jung Page, 1892–1972: Recollections of Pupils and Friends (Oxford, 1977)

with E. Levy: A Dictionary of Musical Morphology (Henryville, PA, 1980, 2/1983 as Musical Morphology: a Discourse and a Dictionary)

‘A Pitch Cell in Verdi's Un ballo in Maschera’, JMR, iii (1981), 399–409

‘A Pitch Cell in Beethoven's Seventh Symphony’, Music in the Classic Period: Essays in Honor of Barry S. Brook, ed. A.W. Atlas (New York, 1985), 181–93

‘Harmonic Analysis’, College Music Symposium, xxvi (1986), 66–76

‘Isaac L. Rice: What is Music?’, A Celebration of American Music: Words and Music in Honor of H. Wiley Hitchcock, ed. R.A. Crawford, R.A. Lott and C.J. Ota (Ann Arbor, 1990), 113–31

with H. Kohut: ‘On the Enjoyment of Listening to Music’, Psychoanalytic Explorations in Music, ed. S. Feder, R.L. Karmel and G.H. Pollock (Madison, CT, 1990), 1–20

‘Musical Polarity: Major and Minor’, International Journal of Musicology, i (1992), 29–45

‘Henry Adams, Avant-Gardist in Early Music’, American Music, xv (1997), 429–45

EDITIONS

S. Rossi: Sinfonie a tre voci (1608) (Vienna, 1937)

PAULA MORGAN

Levashyov, Yevgeny Mikhaylovich

(b Moscow, 19 Aug 1944). Russian musicologist. He graduated in 1970 from the Moscow Conservatory and began teaching there the same year; in 1974 he completed his postgraduate studies with Keldïsh at the Institute for the History of Arts in Moscow, where he was then immediately given a senior academic post. In 1994 he completed a second post-doctoral degree with a study on the editorial problems of reconstructing works by Russian composers. He is senior editor of Musorgsky's collected works and is professor and corresponding member of the Moscow Academy of the Arts.

Levashyov's main area of interest is the history and editing of Russian music from the 17th to the 20th centuries, concentrating on the relationship of the music to its sources. Combining innovative scholarship with practical experience, his reconstructions of compositions have provided the basis of many Russian and Western European opera productions, such as Vasily Pashkevich's The Miser and The St Petersburg Bazaar, Glinka's A Life for the Tsar, different versions of Borodin's opera Prince Igor and the original version of Musorgsky's Boris Godunov. He has also written on the musical traditions of the Russian Orthodox church and on Musorgsky's chorus An Angel Clamouring, which he discovered and edited.

WRITINGS

‘Na zare russkogo muzïkal'nogo teatra (o krepostnom teatre grafa A.R. Vorontsova)’ [The dawn of the Russian musical theatre (on Count Vorontsov's serf theatre)], SovM (1967), no.11, pp.76–80

‘Sushchestvoval li kompozitor Matinskiy?’ [Did the composer Matinsky exist?], SovM (1973), no.5, pp.81–8

‘Drama naroda i drama sovesti (pervaya avtorskaya redaktsiya “Borisa Godunova”’ [A drama of the people and a drama of conscience (the original version of Boris Godunov)], SovM (1983), no.5, pp.32–8

‘O zagadkakh oper Borodina i “Slova o polku Igoreve”’ [The enigmas of Borodin's operas and the Lay of the Host of Igor], Muzïkal'naya zhizn' (1985), no.13, pp.15–17; no.14, pp.15–17; no.15, pp.15–17

‘V.A. Pashkevich’, ‘Russkiy muzïkal'nïy teatr posledney treti XVIII veka’ [The Russian musical theatre during the last third of the 18th century], Istoriya russkoy muzïki, ed. Yu. Keldïsh, iii (Moscow, 1985), 46–83, 275–315

‘Istoriya “Russkogo solov'ya”’ [The history of the ‘Russian Nightingale’], Muzïkal'naya zhizn' (1987), no.24, pp.15–17

‘Zhizn' tvorcheskogo naslediya M.P. Musorgskogo i zadachi sovremennogo akademicheskogo izdaniya’ [Musorgsky's creative legacy and the tasks facing a modern scholarly edition], Naslediye M.P. Musorgskiy: sbornik materialov k vïpusku, ed. Ye. Levasheva (Moscow, 1989), 24–62, 201–15

‘A.P. Borodin’, Istoriya russkoy muzïki, ed. Yu. Keldïsh, vii (Moscow, 1994), 286–360

Traditsionnïye zhanrï pravoslavnogo pevcheskogo iskusstva v tvorchestve russkikh kompozitorov ot Glinki do Rakhmaninova: 1825–1917 [The traditional genres of Orthodox church singing in the work of Russian composers from Glinka to Rachmaninoff: 1825–1917] (Moscow, 1994)

‘Istoki ėpicheskogo v khudozhestvennom mïshlenii Borodina’ [The sources for the epic element in Borodin's artistic thinking], Mir iskusstv: al'manakh, ed. B.I. Zingerman and others (Moscow, 1995), 197–215

ed., with others: M.P. Musorgsky: Boris Godunov (Moscow and Mainz, 1996) [incl. ‘K publikatsii “Borisa Godunova” v pervoy avtorskoy redaktsii’] [On the publication of Boris Godunov in its original version], ii, 153–66

with A. Lebedeva-Yemelina: ‘Russkaya muzïka vtoroy polovinï XVIII veka v kontektse ritualov i tseremonialov, prazdnestv i razvlecheniy’ [Russian music in the second half of the 18th century in the context of the rituals, ceremonials, festivities and diversions], U istokov razvlekatel'noy kul'turï Rossii Novogo Vremeni XVIII–XIX veka (Moscow, 1996), 46–73

with A. Vinogradova: Frants Shubert i Aleksandr Alyab'yev: opït sravnitel'noy kharakteristiki kamerno-vokal'nogo tvorchestva: vek XIX – vek XX [Schubert and Alyab'yev: an attempt to provide a comparative description of their chamber and vocal works: the 19th century to the 20th] (forthcoming)

EDITIONS

V.A. Pashkevich: Skupoy [The Miser], Pamyatniki russkogo muzïkalnogo iskusstva, iv (Moscow, 1973); Kak pozhivyosh', tak proslavish', ili Sanktpeterburgskiy gostinïy dvor [How you live is how you become famous, or the St Petersburg bazaar], Pamyatniki russkogo muzïkal'nogo iskusstva, viii (Moscow, 1980) [with Yu. Keldïsh]

with others: : M.P. Musorgsky: Boris Godunov (Moscow and Mainz, 1996) [1869 version]

with Yu. Fortunatov: O.A. Kozlovsky: Orkestrovaya muzïka, Pamyatniki russkogo muzïkal'nogo iskusstva, xi (Moscow, 1997)

LYUDMILA KORABEL'NIKOVA

Levashyova, Ol'ga Yevgen'yevna

(b Blagoveshchensk-na-Amure, Siberia, 17/30 March 1912; d Moscow, 21 Feb 2000). Russian musicologist. She graduated from the department of theory and composition at Moscow Conservatory, and began teaching music history in 1946. She took the kandidat degree in 1948 and in 1951 she was appointed lecturer at the conservatory and a senior research fellow at the Institute for the History of the Arts in Moscow. In 1964 she was awarded the doctorate, having been supervised by Kuznetsov, and she became professor at the conservatory in 1966. She was the author of a series of substantial books on the history of Russian and western European music of the 18th and 19th centuries, and also of publications designed as educational material for the conservatory. She was a member of the editorial committee of the ten-volume Istoriya russkoy muzïki (1983–2000) to which she contributed articles on Russian opera, Russian song, chamber music and Russian composers.

WRITINGS

‘Romans i pesnya’ [The romance and the song], Ocherki po istorii russkoy muzïki 1790–1825, ed. M.S. Druskin and Yu.V. Keldïsh (Leningrad, 1956)

Ėdvard Grig (Moscow, 1962, 2/1975)

‘Frantsuzskoye muzïkovedeniye 18–19 vekov’ [French musicology of the 18th and 19th centuries], Istoriya yevropeyskogo iskusstvoznaniya, ed. B.R. Vipper and T.N. Livanova (Moscow, 1963–9)

ed.: Ė. Grig: izbrannïye stat'i i pis'ma [Collected articles and letters] (Moscow, 1966)

with Yu. Keldïsh and A. Kandinsky: Istoriya russkoy muzïki (Moscow, 1972, 4/1990)

‘Kozłowski i klasyoyzm rosyjaki’ [Kozłowski and the Russian classicism], Musica antiqua III: Bydgoszcz 1972, 825–46 [with Fr. summary]

Puchchini i yego sovremenniki [Puccini and his contemporaries] (Moscow, 1980)

ed., with Yu.V. Keldïsh and A.I. Kandinsky: Istoriya russkoy muzïki: v desyati tomakh [The history of Russian music: in ten volumes] (Moscow, 1983–) [incl. ‘Vvedeniy’ [Introduction], ii, pp.5–28; ‘Inostrannïye opernïye truppï v Rossii: frantsuzskaya komicheskya opera’ [Foreign opera troupes in Russia: the French comic opera], ii, pp.129–52; ‘Razvitiye zhanra “rossiyskoy pesni”’ [The development of the ‘Russian song’ genre], ii, pp.184–215; ‘Russkaya kompozitorskaya shkola i yeyo ėsteticheskiye osnovï’ [The Russian School of composition and its aesthetic basis], ii, pp.256–77; ‘Nachalo russkoy operï’ [The beginnings of Russian opera], iii, pp.5–45; ‘Kamernaya instrumental'naya muzïka’ [Instrumental chamber music], iii, pp.194–225; ‘Vokal'naya kamernaya muzïka’ [Chamber genres with voice], iv, pp.209–35; ‘Narodnïye istoki bïtovogo romansa: pesennïye sborniki’ [The folklore sources of the popular romance: song collections], v, pp.132–46]

Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka, 2 vols. (Moscow, 1987–8)

Ferents List: molodïye godï [Liszt: his youth] (Moscow, 1998)

EDITIONS

Russkaya vokal'naya lirika XVIII veka [18th-century Russian lyrical songs], Pamyatniki russkogo muzïkal'nogo iskusstva, i (Moscow, 1972)

YURY KELDÏSH/LYUDMILA KORABEL'NIKOVA

Levasseur, Jean-Henri

(b Paris, 29 May 1764; d Paris, 1823). French cellist and teacher. He was referred to as le jeune to distinguish him from the cellist Pierre François Levasseur, who was no relation. His father taught singing at the Opéra, and was inspector general there for a short time. Levasseur studied with J.-B. Cupis, and, later, J.-L. Duport. His public début was at the Concert Spirituel on 8 December 1786, where he played a concerto by Duport. He became principal cello at the Opéra in 1789, and was later attached to the chapel of Napoleon and then Louis XVIII. He and J.-B.-A.J. Janson taught the première classe of cello at the Conservatoire when it was established in 1795, and Levasseur contributed to the Conservatoire’s Méthode de violoncelle et de basse d’accompagnement (1805/R); his pupils Nicolas Baudiot and Louis Norblin continued his teaching traditions when they in turn were appointed at the Conservatoire. He published sonatas, duets and studies for the cello. His son, known simply as Levasseur fils, was also a cellist.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BrookSF

FétisB

PierreH

Correspondance des amateurs musiciens (1 Oct 1803, 21 April 1804)

T. Lassabathie: Histoire du Conservatoire impérial de musique et de déclamation (Paris, 1860)

E.G.J. Gregoir: Bibliothèque musicale populaire (Brussels, 1877)

E. Bellasis: Cherubini (Birmingham, 1912/R)

N. Wild: Dictionnaire des théâtres parisiens au XIXe siècle (Paris, 1989)

V. Walden: One Hundred Years of Violoncello: a History of Technique and Performance Practice, 1740–1840 (Cambridge, 1998)

VALERIE WALDEN

Levasseur, Nicholas (Prosper)

(b Bresles, nr Beauvais, 9 March 1791; d Paris, 7 Dec 1871). French bass. He entered the Paris Conservatoire in 1807 and made his début at the Opéra as the Pacha in Grétry’s La caravane du Caire (1813). However, the Opéra’s repertory lacked deep bass roles, and for two seasons he sang in Italian opera at London, making his début at the King’s Theatre in Mayr’s Adelasia e Aleramo (1815). He returned to the Opéra as an understudy but in 1819 joined the Théâtre Italien, first appearing as Almaviva in Le nozze di Figaro. The following year he appeared at La Scala, Milan, in the première of Meyerbeer’s Margherita d’Anjou. At the Théâtre Italien Levasseur sang in many Rossini operas new to Paris, notably in the title role of Mosè (1822), a role he repeated with considerable success when Rossini revised the work for the Opéra (1827) (though Rossini himself reportedly forgot to attend the first performance as he was playing dominoes in the Opéra café). In 1828 he rejoined the Opéra as one of its leading singers, and was one of the celebrated trio that included Nourrit and Cinti-Damoreau. Over the next 12 years he created virtually every important new bass role in the Opéra’s repertory, including Bertram in Robert le diable (1831), whose ‘ironie moqueuse’ in the duo bouffe was particularly praised, Brogni in La Juive (1835), Marcel in Les Huguenots (1836) and Balthazar in La favorite (1840). His pure, expressive voice was, like that of Ponchard, inspired by Gluck, Mozart and the Italian school; he also had a talent for comic effects as well as for serious roles. He left the Opéra in 1845, but at Meyerbeer’s request returned to sing in the première of Le prophète (16 April 1849), and finally retired in 1853. His ease with intimate scenes meant that he was also suited to salon performances, and he was one of the singers involved in Charles Lebouc’s soirées of musique classique et historique organized for audiences of amateurs (see Fauquet). Levasseur taught at the Conservatoire from 1841 to 1869, and on his retirement he was made a Chevalier of the Légion d’Honneur. He became blind shortly before his death.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Bénédit: ‘Levasseur’, Galerie des artistes dramatiques (Paris, n.d.)

J.-M. Fauquet: Les sociétés de musique de chambre à Paris de la Restauration à 1870 (Paris, 1986), esp.198

PHILIP ROBINSON/SARAH HIBBERD

Levasseur [Le Vasseur], Rosalie [Marie-Rose-(Claude-)Josephe]

(b Valenciennes, 8 Oct 1749; d Neuwied am Rhein, 6 May 1826). French soprano. She made her début at the Paris Opéra in 1766 as Zäide in Campra's L'Europe galante and appeared there regularly until 1785. Known as Mlle Rosalie during her first ten years at the Opéra, she was well received in minor roles or as a substitute for Mme Larrivée until, in 1776, she was entrusted with Eurydice and Iphigenia in revivals of Gluck's operas. She was then preferred over her rival, Sophie Arnould, to create the title role in the French Alceste. The mistress from 1770 of the Austrian ambassador Mercy-Argenteau, by whom she had a son, she became Gluck's close friend and favourite interpreter, creating the title roles in Armide (1777) and Iphigénie en Tauride (1779). She was successful in the title role of Philidor's Ernelinde (1777 revival), but less so in Piccinni's works, relinquishing his Angélique (Roland) and Sangaride (Atys) to other singers. Her reputation lay not in vocal beauty but in intelligent use of the voice as an adjunct to accomplished acting.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ES (H. Boschot)

FétisB

J.G. Prod'homme: ‘Rosalie Levasseur, Ambassadress of Opera’, MQ, ii (1916), 210–43

JULIAN RUSHTON

Levaya, Tamara Nikolayevna

(b Barabinsk, Novosibirsk region, 23 Feb 1938). Russian musicologist. She studied musicology at the Gor'kiy (now Nizhniy Novgorod) Glinka State Conservatory, graduating in 1936. She became lecturer in the music history department at the conservatory in 1967, and in 1969 undertook postgraduate studies there with Zhitomirsky. After taking the Kandidat degree in 1976, she was appointed assistant professor (1980) and later professor (1988) of the music history department at the same institution. She gained the doctorate in 1993 with a dissertation that discussed Russian music at the beginning of the 20th century in the artistic context of the age. She has participated in a number of international symposiums and is also a member of a permanent seminar on the arts in the 20th century, which is based at the University of Zagreb. She is a member of the Russian Composers' Union and secretary of the musicology section of its regional organization in Upper Volga.

Levaya's main interest is Russian music of the 20th century, particularly Skryabin and Shostakovich. She has also studied the work of Hindemith and in 1974 published an important study of this composer, which was the first work to be written on him in Russia. She has in addition held a long-term interest in musical art at the beginning of the century, which she has studied as part of a global evolution embracing philosophy, literature, painting and sacred culture.

WRITINGS

‘Devyataya simfoniya Shostakovicha’ [Shostakovich's ninth symphony], Muzïka i sovremennost', v (1967), 3–37

with O. Leont'yeva: Paul' Khindemit: zhizn' i tvorchestvo (Moscow, 1974)

‘Tayna velikogo iskusstva: o pozdnikh kamerno-vokal'nïkh tsiklakh D.D. Shostakovich’ [The secret of great art: on the late chamber-vocal works of Shostakovich], Muzïka Rossii, ii, ed. Ye. Grosheva (Moscow, 1978), 291–328

‘Vozrozhdeniye traditsii’ [The rebirth of a tradition], Muzïka Rossii, vi, ed. Ye. Grosheva (Moscow, 1978), 156–87 [on the concerto grosso in contemporary Soviet music]

‘O stile Khindemita’ [On Hindemith's style], Paul' Khindemit: stat'i i materialï, ed. I. Prudnikova (Moscow, 1979), 262–99

‘Sovetskaya muzïka: dialog desyatiletiy’ [Soviet music: the dialogue of the decades], Sovetskaya muzïka 70-80-kh godov: stil' i stilevïye dialogi, ed. V.B. Val'kova (Moscow, 1986), 9–29

‘Ot romantizma k simvolizmu: nekotorïye tendentsii russkoy muzïkal'noy kul'turï nachala XX veka’ [From Romanticism to symbolism: certain tendencies in Russian musical culture at the start of the 20th century], Problemï muzïkal'nogo romantizma, ed. A.L. Porfir'yeva (Leningrad, 1987), 130–43

‘Muzïkal'naya problematika v “Doktore Faustuse” Tomasa Manna’ [Musical problems in Mann's Doktor Faustus], Sovremennoye zapadnoye iskusstvo: XX vek, ed. B.I. Zingerman (Moscow, 1988), 37–70

‘Novaya sovetskaya muzïka v aspekte “pozdnego mïshleniya”’ [New Soviet music in the aspect of “later thinking”], Sowjetische Musik im Licht der Perestroika, ed. H. Danuser, H. Gerlach and J. Kochel (Laaber, 1990), 101–8

Russkaya muzïka nachala XX veka v khudozhestvennom kontekste ėpokhi [Russian music at the beginning of the 20th century in the artistic context of the epoch] (Moscow, 1991)

‘Skryabin v retrospektive otechestvennoy muzïki XX veka’ [Skryabin from the perspective of Russian and Soviet music in the 20th century], Uchyonïye zapiski gosudarstvennogo memorial'nogo muzeya A.N. Skryabina, i, ed. O.M. Tompakova (Moscow, 1993), 7–15

‘Kubofuturizm: muzïkal'nïye paralleli’ [Cubofuturism: musical parallels], Russian Literature, ed. G.Y. Alleman, E.A. de Haart (Amsterdam, 1994), 45–55

‘Miriskusnicheskaya kontseptsiya sinteza iskusstv i stilevïye printsipï “Novogo russkogo baleta”’ [The concept of the synthesis of the arts and the stylistic principles of the “New Russian Ballet”], Russkaya muzïkal'naya kul'tura XIX - nachala XX veka, ed. T.Yu. Maslovskaya (Moscow, 1994), 3–24

‘Skryabinskaya “formula ėkstaza” vo vremeni i prostranstve’ [Skryabin's “formula of ecstasy” in time and space], A.N. Skryabin: chelovek, khudozhnik, mïslitel', ed. O.M. Tompakova (Moscow, 1994), 95–101

‘Vremya i prostranstvo pozdney sovetskoy muzïki’ [Time and space in later Soviet music], Poisk smïsla: Nizhniy Novgorod 1993, ed. K.Z. Akopian (Nizhniy Novgorod, 1994), 3–24, 209–16

‘Igra ili propoved'? (zametki ob organnïkh kontsertakh Khindemita)’ [Play or preaching? (notes on Hindemith's organ concertos)], Vïbor i sochetaniye: otkrïtaya forma: sbornik statey k 75-letiya Yu.G. Kona, ed. K.I. Yuzhak (St Petersburg, 1995), 117–20

‘Kharms i Shostakovich: nesostoyavsheyesya sotrudnichestvo’ [Kharms and Shostakovich: a collaboration that did not happen], Kharmsizdat predstavlyayet, ed. V. Sazhin (St Petersburg, 1995), 94–6

ed., with B.S. Getselev: Nizhnenovgorodskiy skryabinskiy al'manakh [Nizhniy Novgorod Skryabin miscellany] (Nizhniy Novgorod, 1995) [incl. ‘Skryabin i novaya russkaya zhivopis': ot moderna k abstraktsionizmu’ [Skryabin and the new Russian painting: from modernism to the abstract], 151–74]

‘Shostakovich: poėtika inoskazaniy’ [Shostakovich: the poetics of allegories], Iskusstvo XX veka: ukhodyashchaya ėpokha?, ed. V.B. Val'kova, B.S. Getseler (Nizhniy Novgorod, 1997), i, 200–11

‘A.N. Skryabin’, Istoriya russkoy muzïki, x (forthcoming)

SVETLANA SAVENKO

Levé

(Fr.).

See Upbeat. See also Analysis, §II, 2.

Level.

See Layer.

Leveridge, Richard

(b London, 19 July 1670; d London, 22 March 1758). English bass and composer. For more than half a century Leveridge was a leading singer on the London stage and a popular composer of songs. He emerged as a soloist in April 1695, when the division of London’s one theatre company left him as the leading bass in the company with which Henry Purcell worked until his death in November. Leveridge was the magician Ismeron in The Indian Queen, where he sang the impressive ‘Ye twice ten hundred deities’, and the first incidental song published as sung by him was Purcell’s ‘Take not a woman’s anger ill’. After Purcell’s death the company’s composers were Daniel Purcell, Jeremiah Clarke (i) and Leveridge himself. In 1698 all three provided music for The Island Princess, in which Leveridge’s performance of his own Enthusiastic Song was immensely popular. Regular revival performances, sung by him, were advertised until 1739. Two handsome books of his songs were published in 1697 and 1699, beginning his long connection with the firm of John Walsh (see illustration), and his popular theatre songs also appeared as single sheets. In 1699 he moved to the theatre in Dublin; one of Vanbrugh’s letters states: ‘Liveridge is in Ireland, he Owes so much money he dare not come over, so for want of him we han’t had one Opera play’d this Winter’. He returned in 1702 to a revival of The Island Princess and a new production of Macbeth with music ‘Vocal and Instrumental, all new Compos’d by Mr Leveridge’. He was to sing Hecate in this version for nearly 50 years, and the music held the stage for more than a century after his death. It was published in 1770, but by then was attributed to Matthew Locke. Burney wrote that ‘its rude and wild excellence cannot be surpassed’.

Leveridge continued to sing both songs and dramatic operas but a new element was added with the introduction of operas in the Italian style. Between 1705 and 1708 he was the leading bass, generally with a comic role, in Arsinoe, Camilla, Rosamond, Thomyris and Love’s Triumph. At first the operas were performed in English, but soon the Italian singers and language took over. After a lean period Leveridge sang in the English opera Calypso and Telemachus (1712) and then had a season with Handel’s company. He was in the first performances of Il pastor fido and Teseo and played Argantes in a revival of Rinaldo. He never sang for Handel again, but in 1731 was Polypheme in the first public performance of Acis and Galatea, and several of Handel’s Italian airs were published with English words by Leveridge.

In 1714 he moved to the new theatre at Lincoln’s Inn Fields, which was managed by John Rich, with whom he was to work for the rest of his career. He returned to his English repertory and a new form, the musical afterpiece. These lightweight works were often comic, and for his benefit in 1716 Leveridge produced his own afterpiece, Pyramus and Thisbe. It is an amusing and good-natured parody of Italian opera, and Leveridge wrote the music, adapted the libretto from Shakespeare and sang Pyramus to the Thisbe of the tenor George Pack. His music is lost but the libretto was published and Lampe reset it in 1745. By 1720 Lincoln’s Inn Fields was in financial difficulties and Leveridge retired from the stage to the coffee shop in Tavistock Street, Covent Garden, which he had opened possibly as early as 1714.

He returned to the stage in 1723 and for the next 28 years was the leading bass at Lincoln’s Inn Fields and later at Covent Garden. His repertory expanded to include parts in Rich’s phenomenally successful series of pantomime afterpieces. Seven of these works, from The Necromancer, introduced in 1723, to Orpheus and Eurydice (1740), were given between 60 and 90 performances a season. Leveridge generally sang impressive roles as gods and magicians and his voice, if no longer as flexible as when Purcell wrote for it, remained firm and powerful. He was rarely a performer in the ballad operas but his tunes, with their rhythmic vitality and memorable turns of phrase, were frequently used for ballad opera airs. He composed over 150 songs, from drinking songs and bawdy ballads to songs of romantic love and philosophy. His literary tastes were wide: he set Shakespeare, John Donne, Ben Jonson and Abraham Cowley as well as Thomas D’Urfey, William Congreve, George Farquhar, John Gay and the Rev. Samuel Wesley, and he often wrote his own words. He was a favourite with audiences, who loved songs like his The Roast Beef of Old England, and his very individual annual benefits were generously supported. He enjoyed remarkably good health and reduced his appearances only in his last few seasons. In 1751 he was forced to leave the stage because of the ‘infirmities incident to his great age’ and in his retirement his friends organized a subscription for ‘honest Dick Leveridge, the Father of the English Stage’.

WORKS

facsimile of complete songs and music for ‘Macbeth’ in MLE, A6 (1997)

song collections

A New Book of Songs (London, 1697)

A Second Book of Songs (London, 1699)

A New Book of Songs (London, 1711)

A Collection of Songs (London, 1727)

A Collection of Songs (London, 1728)

stage music

first performed London, Drury Lane, unless otherwise stated

The Island Princess (dramatic op, P. Motteux, after J. Fletcher), Feb 1699, collab. D. Purcell and J. Clarke, 4 songs, GB-Lbl (facs. in MLE, C2, 1985), songs (London, 1699), songsheets

Love and a Bottle (comedy, G. Farquhar), ?Dec 1698, 3 songs pubd singly (London, n.d.)

Macbeth (tragedy with musical scenes, W. Davenant, after W. Shakespeare and T. Middleton), 21 Nov 1702, Cfm, ed. W. Boyce [attrib. Locke] (London, 1770)

Britain’s Happiness (musical interlude, Motteux), London, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, 7 March 1704, music lost, except 1 song (London, 1709)

The Mountebank, or The Humours of the Fair (Motteux), 18 Jan 1705 [musical interlude in Farewell Folly], 2 songs (London, ?1705)

The Beau Demolished (afterpiece), London, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, 9 Feb 1715, 2 songs pubd singly and in The Merry Musician, i (London, 1716)

The Mountebank, or The Country Lass (comic masque), London, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, 21 Dec 1715, 2 songs (London, ?1715)

Pyramus and Thisbe (comic masque, Leveridge, after Shakespeare), London, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, 11 April 1716, music lost, lib (London, 1716/R)

Jupiter and Europa (pantomime), London, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, 23 March 1723, collab. Cobston and J.E. Galliard, Songs (London, 1723)

Single songs in: The Roman Bride’s Revenge (tragedy, C. Gildon), ?Nov 1696; The Relapse (comedy, J. Vanbrugh), Nov 1696; Aesop (comedy, Vanbrugh), ?Dec 1696; Cinthia and Endimion (dramatic op, T. D’Urfey), ?Jan 1697; Woman’s Wit (comedy, C. Cibber), ?Jan 1697; A Plot and no Plot (comedy, J. Dennis), ?May 1697; Caligula (tragedy, J. Crowne), ?March 1698; The Famous History of the Rise and Fall of Massaniello (tragicomedy, D’Urfey), ?May 1699; The Constant Couple (comedy, Farquhar), Dublin, Smock Alley Theatre, 1700; The Lying Lover (comedy, R. Steele), Dec 1703; The Quacks (comedy, O. Swiney), March 1705; The Recruiting Officer (comedy, Farquhar), April 1706; The Leveller, theatre unknown, ?1710; Apollo and Daphne (pantomime, L. Theobald), London, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, revival c1730

Songs sung at the theatre as extra entertainments; among the most frequently performed were:

The Tippling Philosophers (E. Ward), first perf. at Rich’s benefit, London, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, 19 March 1720

The Cobbler’s End, first perf. at Leveridge’s benefit, London, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, 28 March 1728

The Roast Beef of Old England, first perf. at Leveridge’s benefit, London, Covent Garden, 15 April 1735

The Anacreontic Song, ? first perf., London, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, also perf. at Leveridge’s benefit, London, Covent Garden, 12 April 1736

Leveridge’s stage songs were pubd singly, in his own collections, and in periodicals and miscellaneous collections, notably: The Monthly Mask of Vocal Music (London, 1702–11); Wit and Mirth (London, from 1699); A Collection of the Choicest Songs & Dialogues (London, 1703); The Merry Musician (London, 1716–33); The Musical Miscellany (London, 1729–31); The British Musical Miscellany (London, 1733–7)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BurneyH

GroveO (‘Macbeth (i)’; O. Baldwin, T. Wilson)

HawkinsH

‘An Account of Richard Leveridge’, European Magazine and London Review, xxiv (1793), 243, 363

R.E. Moore: ‘The Music to Macbeth’, MQ, xlvii (1961), 22–40

R. Fiske: ‘The Macbeth Music’, ML, xlv (1964), 114–25

O. Baldwin and T. Wilson: ‘Richard Leveridge, 1670–1758’, MT, cxi (1970), 592–4, 891–3, 988–90

J. Milhous and R.D. Hume: Vice Chamberlain Coke’s Theatrical Papers 1706–1715 (Carbondale, IL, 1982)

O. Baldwin and T. Wilson: ‘The Music for Durfey’s Cinthia and Endimion’, Theatre Notebook, xli (1986–7), 70–74

O. Baldwin and T. Wilson: ‘Purcell’s Stage Singers’, Performing the Music of Henry Purcell, ed. M. Burden (Oxford, 1996), 105–29

OLIVE BALDWIN, THELMA WILSON

Lévesque, Elisabeth de Hauteterre.

See Haulteterre, Elisabeth de.

Levey [O’Shaughnessy].

Irish family of musicians.

(1) Richard Michael Levey

(2) Richard M. Levey

(3) William Charles Levey

WILLIAM H. GRATTAN FLOOD, ALEXIS CHITTY/E.D. MACKERNESS

Levey

(1) Richard Michael Levey

(b Dublin, 25 Oct 1811; d Dublin, 28 June 1899). Violinist and conductor. After an apprenticeship with James Barton he joined the Theatre Royal orchestra in Dublin. As leader (from 1834) he composed much music for plays and pantomimes. He went on tour in 1829 with Angelica Catalani, and in 1839 with Balfe’s opera company; he took part in many opera seasons in Dublin and on 20 April 1876 celebrated the 50th anniversary of his association with the Theatre Royal. With Joseph Robinson and others he helped to establish the (Royal) Irish Academy of Music, at which he was professor of violin; he also assisted in chamber music performances. He compiled the Collection of the Dance Music of Ireland (1858) and, with J. O’Rorke, the Annals of the Theatre Royal, Dublin (1880).

Levey

(2) Richard M. Levey

(b Dublin, 25 April 1837; d Landport, Portsmouth, 7 April 1911). Violinist, son of (1) Richard Michael Levey and twin brother of (3) William Charles Levey. He was a virtuoso who appeared at Musard’s concerts in Paris. He later devised an ‘act’ in which he posed as ‘Paganini Redivivus’, having, it was said, a Svengali-like appearance which could be made to resemble Paganini’s ‘ghost’. On tour he enthralled audiences with his imitations of other musical instruments; he could perform the ‘most extraordinary tricks without using the bow’ (The Orchestra, 28 October 1865). He even presented a version of Rossini’s William Tell overture played on one string with the wood of the bow – a unique instance of col legno interpretation.

Levey

(3) William Charles Levey

(b Dublin, 25 April 1837; d London, 18 Aug 1894). Composer and conductor, son of (1) Richard Michael Levey. He studied with his father, and then in Paris. He was for some years musical director at the Drury Lane, Covent Garden and Adelphi theatres. His operettas Fanchette (1864, Covent Garden) and Punchinello (1864, Her Majesty’s) were followed by a ‘musical folly’, The Girls of the Period (1869, Drury Lane). Levey also wrote music for pantomimes and for a production of Antony and Cleopatra; his other works include songs, drawing-room operettas, a Triumphal March composed for the Dublin International Exhibition of 1865 and a descriptive fantasia, The Man of War, for chorus, military band and orchestra (1874).

Levi, Giuseppe.

See Allevi, Giuseppe.

Levi, Hermann

(b Giessen, Upper Hesse, 7 Nov 1839; d Munich, 13 May 1900). German conductor. Descended from a line of distinguished rabbis, he attended the Mannheim Lyceum (1851–3) before withdrawing to study music with Vinzenz Lachner; from 1855 to 1858 he studied at the Leipzig Conservatory with Moritz Hauptmann (music theory) and Julius Rietz (composition and conducting). Following several months in Paris, he became music director at Saarbrücken in 1859; two years later he deputized as associate conductor of the Mannheim Opera, on Lachner's recommendation, before being appointed Kapellmeister of the Hoogduitse Opera at Rotterdam (1862–4). As Hofkapellmeister in Karlsruhe (1864–72), he became a friend of Clara Schumann and, through her, of Brahms. From 1872 he was Hofkapellmeister in Munich, and was made general music director of the city in 1894, retiring in 1896.

A distinguished and serious-minded artist of great personal qualities and musical gifts, Levi was encouraged by the initial reception of his own Schumannesque compositions but became persuaded by 1864 – having also been nudged in this direction by Brahms – to give up composing and dedicate himself to conducting. He was an esteemed interpreter of Brahms, with whom he formed an intimate friendship, influencing such works as the Schicksalslied and the Piano Quintet. Levi became increasingly preoccupied with opera, however, having begun to conduct Wagner's works in 1862, and for many years sought in vain to find a suitable operatic subject for Brahms, a composer whom, as late as 1871, he still hoped would ‘demonstrate the right path for operatic composition’.

Recommended to Wagner by Pauline Viardot-García and Nietzsche, Levi impressed Wagner in 1870 by refusing to conduct an unauthorized performance of Die Walküre at Munich. After meeting Levi in 1871, Wagner drew the conductor into his sphere of influence, going so far as to compliment Levi on not having changed his patently Jewish surname. Levi was increasingly won over as much by Wagner's music as by his artistic message, even defending the aesthetic underlying Das Judenthum in der Musik. In 1875 Levi participated in rehearsals for the first Bayreuth Festival, but was still busy arranging a performance of Brahms's First Symphony so as to advance the composer's dubious reputation in Munich. Though Levi made increasingly desperate attempts to forestall a personal breach between them, Brahms was prepared to renounce their friendship because of Levi's Wagnerism.

Wagner was never in any doubt about Levi's artistic pre-eminence, preferring his conducting to that of Hans Richter, but it did not please him that Parsifal, with its Christian symbolism, was to be conducted by a Jew, and he made clumsy attempts to convert Levi to Christianity. When in July 1881 Wagner showed Levi a letter which urged the composer to keep Parsifal pure and not allow it to be conducted by a Jew, Levi asked to be excused from his assignment, but relented when Wagner assured him that baptism was not a prerequisite. On 26 July 1882 Levi conducted the première of Parsifal to great acclaim, and his inspired renditions of this score until 1894 (except in 1888 when he was ill) place him, along with Richter, Mottl and Seidl, as one of the greatest of the first generation of Bayreuth conductors.

Levi led an illustrious professional life in Munich (1872–96), receiving numerous Prussian and Bavarian state honours. He gave the German premières of operas by Gounod, Delibes, Messager, Chabrier and Berlioz (Benvenuto Cellini and Les Troyens), and made successful translations of three of Mozart's Italian operas, versions routinely used by German opera houses into the 1930s. Levi took his role as Wagnerian aesthetic heir seriously in his patronage of Bruckner, whose success with the Munich public he assured in 1884 when he presented the Adagio from the Seventh Symphony following a performance of Die Walküre. It was Bruckner, not Brahms, whom Levi toasted as symphonist in the 1880s as the successor to Beethoven, and Bruckner, for his part, revered Levi, though 15 years his junior, as his ‘artistic father’. In a letter of 1887 Levi criticized the first version of Bruckner's Eighth Symphony, citing the ‘dubious development’ of the themes and the ‘impossible orchestration’, thereby shattering Bruckner's self-confidence and consigning him to several years of soul-searching revisions. Levi was also a champion of the young Richard Strauss, who dedicated his Overture in C minor (1883) to him. Levi, who had long suffered from poor health, retired in 1896. The ‘spiritual’ quality of Levi's interpretations was widely admired, and the economy of his gestures, as well as his masterly technique, exercised an influence on a number of conductors of the following generation, especially Weingartner.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (R Schaal)

NDB (I. Fellinger)

C.F. Glasenapp: Richard Wagner's Leben und Wirken (Kassel, 1876–7, 3/1894–1911 as Das Leben Richard Wagners, 5/1910–23; Eng. trans. of 3rd edn rev., enlarged 1900–08/R by W.A. Ellis as Life of Richard Wagner [vols. iv–vi by Ellis alone]

H.S. Chamberlain: ‘Richard Wagner's Briefe an Hermann Levi’, Bayreuther Blätter, xxiv (1901), 13–42

E. von Possart: Erinnerungen an Hermann Levi (Munich, 1901)

L. Schmidt, ed.: Johannes Brahms im Briefwechsel mit H. Levi, F. Gernheim sowie den Familien Hecht u. Fellinger, vii (Berlin, 1910/R)

F. Gräflinger: Anton Bruckner (Munich, 1911)

R. Du Moulin Eckart: Cosima Wagner (Munich, 1929–31)

J. Kniese: Der Kampf zweier Welten um das Bayreuther Erbe (Leipzig, 1931)

E. Newman: The Life of Richard Wagner (London, 1933–47/R

P. Gay: ‘Hermann Levi: a Study in Service and Self-Hatred’, Freud, Jews, and other Germans: Masters and Victims in Modernist Culture (New York, 1978), 189–230

H. Zelinsky: ‘Der Dirigent Hermann Levi: Anmerkungen zur verdrängten Geschichte des jüdischen Wagnerianers’, Geschichte und Kultur der Juden in Bayern, ed. J. Kirmew and N. Treml (Munich, 1988), 411–30

L. Dreyfus: ‘Hermann Levi's Shame and Parsifal's Guilt: a Critique of Essentialism in Biography and Criticism’, COJ, vi (1994), 125–45

F. Haas: Zwischen Brahms und Wagner: der Dirigent Hermann Levi (Zürich, 1995)

LAURENCE DREYFUS

Levi, Jul [Levy, Jules]

(b Saloniki, 19 June 1930). Bulgarian composer and operetta conductor. While still a student at the Sofia Higher School he worked for the children's drama section of Bulgarian radio. He was then composer to the army ensemble (1950–58) and conductor and composer for the State Satiric Theatre, Sofia (1958–63). In 1957 he graduated from the Bulgarian State Music Academy. From 1963 to 1991 he was conductor of the State Music Theatre (operetta theatre) in the same city. His music has popular appeal, particularly those works in the lighter genres.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Momicheto, koyeto obichakh [The Girl I Love] (musical), 1963; Panair v Sofiya [Fair in Sofia] (ballet), 1968; Svetit ye malak [The World is Small] (musical), 1970; Neda (op), 1977; 6 other theatre works, 3 pieces for puppet theatre

Orch: Vn Conc., 1953; Sym. no.1, 1958; Ouvertüre-Poem, 1962; Divertimento concertante no.1, tpt, big band, 1961; Sym. no.2, 1970; Divertimento concertante no.2, fl, orch, 1972; Sym. no.3, 1975; Sym. no.4, 1984

Film scores, more than 60 solo/choral songs, folksong arrs.

Principal publisher: Nauka i izkustvo (Sofia)

LADA BRASHOVANOVA/MARIA KOSTAKEVA

Levi ben Gershom [Gershon, Gerson].

See Gersonides.

Levidis, Dimitrios

(b Athens, before ?1885; d Palaeon Phaleron, nr Athens, 29 May 1951). Greek composer, active in France. He studied at the Lottner Conservatory, Athens; at the Athens Conservatory (1898–1905) with Karl Boehmer, Lavrangas and others; at the Lausanne Conservatoire (1906–7) with Alexandre Dénéréaz and at the Munich Academy (1907–8) with Klose (fugue), Mottl (orchestration) and, reportedly, Strauss (composition), winning the Franz Liszt Prize for his Piano Sonata op.16. After a short period in Greece he settled in France (1910), served in the French army during World War I and took French nationality. His music was often performed at the Colonne, Straram, Pasdeloup and Touche concerts, and he was decorated by the French Academy for a paper on the nature of sound. He returned to Athens in about 1932 to teach at the Hellenic Conservatory and at the Music Lyceum. In 1934 he founded the Phaleron Conservatory, later subsumed into the Hellenic Conservatory, and he was president of the Union of Greek Composers (1946–7). He was in Paris again in 1947–8.

A composer of refined technique, Levidis combined a Straussian harmony with Ravelian Impressionism, also exploiting Greek modes, in an appealing style of greater homogeneity than that of many of his Greek contemporaries. However, his elegance was sometimes achieved at the expense of vigour. More expansive in love songs, he could yet be penetrating in dramatic and epic outbursts such as O yirismos stin xesklavomeni patrida (‘The Return to the Liberated Homeland’). Most successful are his orchestral works, where subtle contrasts of texture often achieve impressive dramatic effects. He was a notable experimenter with novel combinations and new instruments: he was among the first to write for the ondes martenot (his Poème symphonique was given on the occasion of the first public appearance of the instrument) and he also provided music for the polychord, a chromatic harp invented by the Greek piano tuner Evangelos Tsamourtzis (1888–1965); the ‘dixtuor (éolien) d’orchestre’ (possibly identical with the ‘Aeolian orchestra’) for which he wrote consisted of strings, piano, celesta, two harps and percussion. Between 1935 and 1949, Levidis worked on his Techniki tis moussikis technis (‘Treatise on the technique of the art of music’), which has remained unpublished.

WORKS

(selective list)

stage and orchestral

Stage: Amour et garde française (operetta, 1, D. Pinel and C. Bussière), ?1911, lost; Au diable (sketch, 1, H. Grantham Hayes), ?1917, lost; O voskos ki i neraida [The Shepherd and the Fairy] (ballet, 1, Levidis), op.39, 1923; To fylachto ton theon [The Talisman of the Gods] (ballet, 3, ?Levidis), op.41, 1925, excerpts, incl. Mikri fantasia, orch; 4 tableaux en un acte (?ballet), op.45; Symphonie mystique, vv, orch, ?dancers, 1928–?49, inc., lost

Orch: Little Suite, D, str, 1902–3/1904–5, pts arr. pf and str qt; Pour une poupée bien sage, 1904, arr. Aeolian orch, 1932 or before; Divertissement, op.25, eng hn, dixtuor éolien, 1911; Variations, a, op.27, chbr orch, ?1911, arr. 3 polychords, fl, eng hn, cl, bn cl, sax, perc, excerpts; Suite Napolitaine, ?orch, ?1920; Suite noire, ?orch, ?1920–21; Suite grise, ?orch, before ?1921, all 3 suites lost; Chant païen, op.37, ob, perc, str, hp, 1921, lost, arr. fl, polychord, lost; Poème symphonique, op.43, vn, orch, 1926, arr. as op.43b, ondes martenot, orch, perf. 1928; Stances (Stances symphoniques), orch/Aeolian orch, 1932, lost; Berceuse pour un gendarme, ?orch, ?before 1948, lost

vocal

Tristesse (J. Lemaire), op.5, S/T, pf/orch, 1899/1902; L’amour de l’Amour (P. d’Amor), op.13, S, pf, 1906, ?orchd; Eolienne, op.14 (d’Amor), S/T, female chorus ad lib, orch, 1906, arr. vv, pf (Paris, 1920); Nazmi (d’Amor), op.19, S, pf, 1909; A Hilda (Lemaire), op.20, S/T, pf/orch, 1910; Lorsque tu ne m’aimeras plus (L. Fortolis), op.29, S/T, pf/orch (Paris, 1911); 4 roubaÿyat perses (Khayam, Hafiz, trans. Levidis), opp.30–32, 40, 1v, pf, 1912–14 (Paris, 1926), arr. 1v, eng hn, dixtuor eolien; Primavera (d’Amor), op.35, 1v, pf (Paris, 1920)

Se ymnoumen [We praise Thee] (Gk., liturgy), T, chorus, 1925, lost; Sirène, Marine (Levidis), op.42, S, orch/(eng hn, dixtuoz éolien)/pf (Paris, 1926); Hommage (Levidis), op.44, 1v, pf (Paris, 1927); De profundis (Levidis), op.46, T, orch, 1929, arr. 3 polychords; Offrande (Levidis), op.48, 1v, orch, ?lost, version for 1v, pf (Paris, 1933); To kyparissi [The Cypress] (Palamas), op.47, orch, 1934/1935, arr. 1v, pf (1960); Tes yeux (Levidis), op.50, 1v, pf/orch, 1932; Lelita (Levidis), op.51, 1v, pf/orch, 1932; Chant nostalgique (textless), op.53, mixed chorus, xyl, cel, perc, 2 hp; Le tombeau (?Levidis), 1v, eng hn, dixtuoz éolien; Ta pallikaria tis Pindou [The Heroes of Pindos] (V. Pezopoulou), chorus, orch, 1940, lost; Nekriki pombi [Funeral Procession] (?Gk. liturgy, ?D. Solomos), op.56, chorus, orch, ?1941, perf. 1946, lost

Ta hellenika ta pelaga [Greek Seas] (G. Ikonomidis), 1v/?vv, orch, early 1941; To proto dakry [The First Tear] (V. Pezopoulou), op.58, S/T, orch/(fl, vc, 2 polychords); O yirismos stin xesklavomeni patrida [The Return to the Liberated Homeland] (I. Polemis), op.61, Mez/Bar, orch, 1941; The Iliad (trans. Y. Lignadis), nar, T, orch, ?1942–3, lost; O levendis ki o haros [The Young Man and Death] (K. Velmyras), op.64, S, Mez, T, orch, 1944, lost except for sketch of vs and notes on orch; La tour d’honneur, nar, orch, 1947, lost; La vâche burlesque, Mez, pf, 1948, ?orchd, lost; Nanourisma [Lullaby] (Polemis), 1v, ?pf, 1948, lost; Agapi [Love] (P. Magnis), 1v, ?pf, 1948, lost; Je voudrais mourir (Levidis, Sister Agnes), op.68, Mez, pf, 1948; 3 Songs (A. Simiriotis), 1v, ?pf, 1950, lost; 2 Songs (G. Delis), 1v, ?pf, 1951, lost

other instrumental

Lacrimae, pf/vn, pf, 1898; Study, a, pf, 1898; Menuet, pf, 1898; Impromptu no.1, b, op.6, pf, 1902/1903, arr. str orch, c1913; Pf Sonata, f, op.16, 1907, ?orchd; Fugue, e, str qt, 1908; Boîte à musique, hpd, 1908; Preludes, C, op.21, d, op.22, org, 1910, orchd; Flûte de Pan, fl, pf, 1914

Pièce chromatique (Piècette chromatique), C, polychord, 1936; Etude chromatique, a, polychord, 1936; Etude romantique (Pièce pour polycorde), e; Variations sous forme de choral, a, vn, polychord; Carillon, 3 polychords, 1v ad lib; Méthode spéciale destinée à l’enseignement du polycorde, op.57, 3 vols., ?1940

MSS in GR-An

Principal publishers: Darimont, Durand, Durdilly-Hayet, Hayet, Maillochon, Ricordi (Paris), Tsamourtzis, Union of Greek Composers

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P.K. Bouboulidis: Neohellines moussourgoi: I. Dimitrios Levidis: symvoli eis tin historian tis neohellenikis moussikis (Athens, 1949)

S.K. Spanoudi: ‘Levidis, Dimitrios’, Helios, xii (Athens, c1950), 168 only

I. Boukouvala-Anagnostou: ‘Hellenikes synthesseis ya piano’, Helleniki dimiourgia, vii (1951), 796–7

D. Levidis: ‘Ai tasseis tis neohellenikis moussikis dimiourgias’ [Tendencies in modern Greek composition], Helleniki dimiourgia, vii (1951), 785–8

G. Sklavos: ‘Dimitrios Levidis’, Helleniki dimiourgia, viii (1951), 67–8

A.S. Theodoropoulou: ‘Dimitrios Levidis’, Nea estia, xlix (1951), 819 only

F. Anoyanakis: ‘I moussiki stin neoteri Hellada’, in K. Nef: Eisagogi eis tin istorian tis moussikis (Athens, 1958), 590–92 [Gk. edn of Einführung in die Musikgeschichte]

G. Leotsakos: ‘O Dimitrios Levidis ke to aenigma tis “Mikris fantasias”’ [Dimitrios Levidis and the riddle of the ‘Little Fantasia’], foreword to D. Levidis: Little Fantasia (Athens, 1982) [in Gk. and Eng.]; repr. in Moussikologhia, no.1 (1986), 9–25

GEORGE LEOTSAKOS

Levin, Robert (David)

(b Brooklyn, NY, 13 Oct 1947). American pianist and musicologist. He studied composition in New York with Stefan Wolpe, 1957–61, and the piano with Louis Martin, 1961–4. At Fontainebleau he was a pupil of Nadia Boulanger, 1960–64, studying the piano there under Alice Gaultier-Léon; he has also taken masterclasses with Clifford Curzon (piano) and Hans Swarowsky (conducting). He has pursued a dual career as pianist and teacher. His positions have included head of theory at the Curtis Institute (1968–73), director-in-residence and faculty member at the Conservatoire Américain, Fontainebleau (1979–83), professor at SUNY, Purchase (1972–86), professor of piano, Staatliche Hochschule für Musik, Freiburg (1986–93), and professor at Harvard University (from 1993). As a pianist, he has played in public since childhood; his formal New York recital début was at Alice Tully Hall in 1987 and in London at the Queen Elizabeth Hall in 1992. He has also played with the CBSO and the Berlin PO under Simon Rattle and the Boston SO under Bernard Haitink.

Although chiefly known as a Mozart pianist, on the fortepiano – on which he has recorded many of the concertos, with the Academy of Ancient Music under Christopher Hogwood – Levin has also championed contemporary music, notably the works of John Harbison (he is co-dedicatee of the Piano Trio), and has played music by Denisov and Shifrin. Levin's recordings also include works by Haydn, Beethoven (the complete piano concertos, with John Eliot Gardiner), Schubert, Schumann, Hindemith and Kurtág. His Mozart piano concerto recordings are notable not only for their spirited and stylish playing but also, like his public performances, for his persuasive and often brilliant improvised cadenzas. Levin has also written completions of several Mozart works, among them movements for horn and orchestra, the double concerto for violin and piano k315f, the Requiem and the wind sinfonia concertante k297B attributed to Mozart, of which he has written an ingenious if controversial study, Who Wrote the Mozart Four-Wind Concertante? (New York, 1988). His writings also include several articles on aspects of Mozartian performing practice.

STANLEY SADIE

Levina, Zara Aleksandrovna

(b Simferopol', 23 Jan/5 Feb 1906; d Moscow, 27 June 1976). Russian composer and pianist. She studied the piano with D.B. Dronseyko-Mironovich at the Odessa Conservatory, graduating in 1923, and from 1925 to 1930 attended the Moscow Conservatory, where her teachers were Glière, Myaskovsky (composition) and Blumenfeld (piano). Levina participated in Procol, the production collective of conservatory students, and, until 1931, as a devotee of the ideas of the Russian Association of Proletarian Musicians she composed songs and marches. She organized the Children's Music Committee of the Composers' Union of the USSR and was its chairman from 1943 to 1947, working with Kabalevsky on children's education.

Although Levina wrote some large-scale compositions, she was first and foremost a master of the romance and of children's songs. Her finest love songs together with the reflective monologues on the poems of O. Shiraz, S. Kaputikyan and E. Moshkovskaya were written in the 1950s and 60s. Earlier, in the atmosphere of the 1930s, she composed heroic and passionate monologues, adopting a spirit of patriotism. Her melodies are simple, but their individuality is achieved through fine detail, delicate harmony, supple modulation and varied texture.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Pf Conc. no.1, 1945; 3 Sym. Waltzes, 1945; Pf Conc. no.2, 1975

Choral: Burevestnik [Stormy Petrel] (after M. Gor'ky), Bar, mixed chorus, pf, 1927 [extract from Put' Oktyabrya [October's Path], collab. Procol members]; Oda soldatu [Ode to a Soldier] (orat-triptych, A. Tvardovsky, L. Nekrasova), solo vv, mixed chorus, org, pf, orch, 1964; choral songs, 1/2 vv, pf

Chbr and solo inst: Pf Sonata no.1, 1925; Sonata no.1, vn, pf, 1925; Poem, va, pf, 1928; Poem, vc, pf, 1931; Sonata no.2, vn, pf, 1952; Pf Sonata no.2, 1953; Yunosheskiy al'bom [Youth's Album], pf, 1972

Solo vocal: 4 romansa (A.S. Pushkin), 1930; Vosstavshaya Vengriya [Hungary in Revolt], 4 monologi (A. Gidash), 1932; 5 romansov (M.Yu. Lermontov), 1940; 5 romansov (O. Shiraz), 1952; Pesni-romansï [Songs and romances] (O. Driz), 1959; Romansï i monologi (African poets), 1960; Akvareli [Aquarelles] (Ye. Moshkovskaya), 10 miniatyurï, 1964; 10 romansov (S. Yesenin), 1975; other popular songs; arrs. of Russ., Belarusian, Amer., Bulg., It., Nor. folksongs

Children's songs: Tsikl detskikh skazok [Children's Fairy Tales] (K. Chukovsky, N. Konchalovskaya), 1944; Kruglïy god [All Year Round] (S. Marshak), 1947; Masha (S. Kaputikyan), 1952; other songs (A. Barto, Marshak); songs for schools; songs and marches for young pioneers

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Nest'yeva: ‘Poslushayte ėtu muzïku!’ [Listen to this music!], SovM (1962), no.12, pp.21–3

N. Mikhaylovskaya: Zara Levina (Moscow, 1969)

Z. Levina: ‘Iz vospominaniy raznïkh let’ [Memories of different years], SovM (1986), no.5, pp.87–90

A. Pakhmutova: ‘Absolyutnoye sluzheniye muzïke’ [An absolute devotion to music], SovM (1986), no.5, pp.84–6

OL'GA MANUL'KINA

Lévinas, Michaël

(b Paris, 18 April 1949). French pianist and composer. He was the son of the philosopher Emmanuel Lévinas. Marguerite Long encouraged him to become a pianist and he entered the Paris Conservatoire as a pupil of Lazare Lévy at the age of five. He took first prizes in piano (Yvonne Loriod’s class), chamber music, accompaniment, and composition (Messiaen’s class). He has an international reputation as a concert pianist, in particular for his study of the works of Liszt and his complete recording of Beethoven’s sonatas. Co-director of the Paris-based ensemble L’Itinéraire (a collective of composers and performers), he has since 1973 championed the music of his contemporaries (Scelsi, Crumb, Lachenmann). Having experienced the influence of Stockhausen, he turned to the aesthetics of ‘son sale’, altering pure sonorities from acoustic sources by various means: mechanical (Appels, 1974), magnetic (Concerto pour un piano espace, 1976), electronic (Ouverture pour une fête étrange, 1979) and computerized (Préfixes, 1991). At IRCAM in the early 1990s he worked on hybridizing the characteristic features of different instrumental sounds (crossing a trombone with a bass drum, or a soprano’s laugh with the eddy of a cymbal, for example). The outcome of these researches manifests itself in his opera Go-gol (1996), after Gogol’s story The Overcoat.

Lévinas’s aesthetic is enriched by a sense of the fantastic (Réminiscences d'un jardin férique, 1987), supported by a liking for birds and the myth of the Ascension (Résonances polyphoniques, 1985).

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: La conférence des oiseaux (spectacle musical, J. -C. Carrière after Attar), 1985; Go-gol (op, M. Lévinas after N.V. Gogol), 1996

Orch: L’orateur muet, 1970; Orchestre, 1973; Ouverture pour une fête étrange, 1979; Réminiscences d’un jardin férique, 1987; La clôche fêlée, 1988

Chbr: Clov et Hamm, trbn, tuba, perc, elecs, tape, 1973; Appels, 11 insts, 1974; Conc. pour un piano espace, pf, 8 insts, tape, 1976; Strettes tournantes-migrations, 9 insts, 1978; Conc. pour un piano espace no.2, pf, 5 insts, 2 tapes, elecs, 1980; Contrepoints irréels III: Rencontres, 4 fl, 1980 (arr. 6 fl, lute, ondes martenot, elec org, perc, elecs, 1980); Les rires du Gilles, 5 insts, tape, 1981; Arcades, va, pf, 1982; Arcades II, va, 12 insts, 1982; La voix des voix, 9 insts, 1984; Troisième arcade ‘Le choeur des arches’, pf, perf, str, tape, 1984; Voûtes, 6 perc, 1988; Canons rythmiques, vc, prep pf, 1991; Préfixes, 17 insts, 1991; Rebonds, fl, cl, vn, vc, 2 pf, 1992–3; Diaclase, brass qnt, 1993

Solo inst: Arsis et Thésis, b fl, 1971; Froissement d’ailes, fl, 1975; Le tambour, lute, tape, 1981; Résonances polyphoniques, db, elec, 1985; 3 études, pf, 1992

Vocal: Voix dans un vaisseau d’Airain ‘Chant en escalier’, 1 v, fl, hn, pf, tape, 1977; Les réciproques, 12 vv, 1986; Les Aragon, Mez, 10 insts, 1998

Principal publisher: Salabert

BIBLIOGRAPHY

‘L’itinéraire’, ReM, nos.421–4 (1991) [special no.]

D. Cohen Lévinas and P.A. Castanet, eds.: Les écrits de Michaël Lévinas (Paris, forthcoming)

PIERRE ALBERT CASTANET

Levine, James

(b Cincinnati, 23 June 1943). American conductor and pianist. He began to learn the piano at four, and made his début with the Cincinnati SO at ten. This led to music lessons with Walter Levin and summer studies at the Marlboro Music Festival (from 1956, including piano lessons with Rudolf Serkin) and the Aspen Music School and Festival (from 1957, where he studied with Rosina Lhévinne). In 1961 he entered the Juilliard School of Music's graduate division to study conducting with Jean Morel and the piano with Lhévinne. He joined the American Conductors Project with the Baltimore SO in 1964 and studied with Alfred Wallenstein, Max Rudolf and Fausto Cleva. There he met Szell, who took him to the Cleveland Orchestra as an assistant conductor (1964–70); there he also created an orchestra from the students of the Cleveland Institute of Music. He helped Robert Shaw found the music institute at Meadow Brook (the summer home of the Detroit SO), taught and conducted at Aspen (1966–70), and directed the University Circle Orchestra.

Although his training with Morel and Szell emphasized, respectively, the French and German symphonic repertory, Levine conducted many operas in Cleveland and Aspen, and in 1970 made his débuts with the WNO (Aida) and the San Francisco Opera (Tosca).The following year he made his Metropolitan Opera début, also with Tosca, and conducted the Chicago SO in Mahler's Second Symphony at the Ravinia Festival. In 1973 he became principal conductor of the Metropolitan and director of the Ravinia Festival (1973–93) and the Cincinnati May Festival (1973–8). In 1975 he was appointed music director at the Metropolitan and in an unprecedented move was named artistic director in 1986. In 1975 he made his Salzburg Festival début with the LSO and returned to collaborate on several productions with Jean-Pierre Ponnelle. At Bayreuth he conducted Götz Friedrich's centennial production of Parsifal (1982–5, 1988), Wolfgang Wagner's Parsifal (1989–93) and the Kirchner/Rosalie Ring (1994–7). Although Levine first specialized in Mozart, Verdi and Mahler, he soon conducted most of Wagner, Puccini and Strauss at the Metropolitan as well as Les Troyens, Carmen and Pelléas et Mélisande. While the Metropolitan has remained conservative in its programming, he has conducted the house premières of Lulu, Erwartung, Mahagonny, Moses und Aron and Oedipus rex, and the world premières of Corigliano's The Ghost of Versailles (1991), Glass's The Voyage (1992) and John Harbison's The Great Gatsby (1999).

Like his teacher Szell, Levine conducts with a precise beat and he has been faithful to his home institutions, deserving his reputation as an orchestra builder. Since his first season at the Metropolitan he has been praised for balance and clarity, although latterly he has been criticized, sometimes unfairly, for slow tempos and an undue emphasis on brilliant orchestral colour. He has recorded extensively with the Vienna PO (including the orchestra's first complete cycle of Mozart symphonies), Chicago SO, Berlin PO and his own Metropolitan Opera Orchestra, with whom, in addition to opera (notably a dramatic, award-winning Ring cycle), he has recorded major symphonic works, including impressive, powerful readings of Beethoven's ‘Eroica’ and Schubert's ‘Unfinished’ symphonies. Levine is an accomplished pianist and has recorded chamber works including cello sonatas (with Lynn Harrell), Schubert's ‘Trout’ Quintet and Schumann's Piano Quintet. He has also accompanied many of the great singers of the day and has made recordings with Christa Ludwig, Kathleen Battle and others. The large number of star singers groomed at the Metropolitan attests his ability to identify and train young vocal talent. With his presence on radio and television, his control over artists and repertory at the Metropolitan, and his enormous legacy on film and disc, Levine remains one of the world's most powerful and influential musical figures.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P. Hart: Conductors: a New Generation (New York, 1979), 221–66, 269–71

H. Matheopoulos: Maestro: Encounters with Conductors of Today (London, 1982), 278–99

P.J. Smith: A Year at the Met (New York, 1983)

J. Levine with R.C. Marsh: Dialogues and Discoveries (New York, 1997)

J. Bowen: ‘James Levine’, Twentieth-Century Conductors, ed. G. Greene (Westport, CT, forthcoming)

JOSÉ A. BOWEN

Le Vinier, Gilles

(fl 1225–52). French trouvère, younger brother of Guillaume le Vinier. He came from a bourgeois family of Arras and was a canon of the churches of Lille and Arras, which he represented in legal proceedings between 1225 and 1234. He established benefices at Arras between 1236 and 1246, the last following the death of his brother Guillaume. One of his songs (R.140) mentions a trip to the Holy Land, although this is not documented elsewhere. A Requiem Mass was prescribed for ‘Dominus Aegidius’, evidently the trouvère, at Arras Cathedral on 13 November 1252. Seven songs are securely attributed to Gilles le Vinier. Two chansons, Amors ki me le comande and Au partir de la froidure, have ‘echo rhymes’ of one- or two-syllable words that match the rhyme sounds of the preceding verses (ex.1). The melodies of three of his four chansons and two jeux-partis have a conventional ABABx structure. He also composed a lai/descort with ten stanzas, the last four of which consist of unpaired verses and music.

WORKS

MS sources: F-Pn fr.844, 845, 847, 12615, n.a. fr.1050, F-Pa 5198, F-AS 657, I-Rvat reg. 1490 (for details see Linker)

chansons

Aler m'estuet la ou je trerai paine, R.140

Amors ki le me comande, R.257

Au partir de la froidure, R.2101a

Beaus m'est prins tans au partir de fevrier, R.1280

lai/descort

A ce m'acort, R.1928, ed. in Jeanroy

jeux-partis

Frere, ki fait mieus a prisier, R.1293

Maistre Simon, d'un essample nuvel, R.572

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Jeanroy, L. Brandin and P. Aubry: Lais et descorts français du XIIIe siècle: texte et musique (Paris, 1901), 16–18, 89–91

A. Metcke: Die Lieder des altfranzösischen Lyrikers Gille le Vinier (diss., U. of Halle, 1906) [incl. complete text edn]

A. Långfors, A. Jeanroy and L. Brandin, eds.: Recueil général des jeux-partis français (Paris, 1926), ii, 112–26 [incl. text edns]

H. Spanke: ‘Sequenz und Lai’, Studi medievali, new ser., xi (1938), 12–68, esp. 47

R. Berger: ‘Archidiacres, officiaux, dignitaires du chapitre d'Arras (1093–1300): essai de chronologie’, Bulletin de la Commission départementale des monuments historiques du Pas-de-Calais, viii (1970), 525

R.W. Linker: A Bibliography of Old French Lyrics (University, MS, 1979), 160–61

ELIZABETH AUBREY

Le Vinier, Guillaume

(b Arras, c1190; d 1245). French trouvère. He was the son of the well-to-do bourgeois Philippe le Vinier and his wife Alent. Though married, Guillaume was a cleric. His younger brother Gilles le Vinier, with whom he exchanged two jeux-partis (Frere, ki fait mieus and Sire frere, fetes m'un jugement), was also a trouvère. Guillaume was among the more prolific and imaginative of the trouvère poets within the Arras circle during the second quarter of the 13th century. Colart le Boutellier (r.891, 1610), Adam de Givenchi (r.112) and Jehan Erart (r.1712) each dedicated one or more poems to him, and the first two each engaged Guillaume in a jeu-parti, as did Andrieu Contredit d'Arras. It is likely that Moniot d'Arras, Thomas Herier and Thibaut IV de Champagne were also partners of his in three other jeux-partis. The fourth strophe of En tous tens was quoted in the Roman de la violette and thus antedates c1225. His stylistic debt to Gace Brulé's songs is expressed specifically in Voloirs de faire and indirectly by means of a citation from Gace's N'est pas a soi in Sire frere.

Guillaume le Vinier's poetic output is varied, including chansons d'amour, jeux-partis, a lai and descort, a chanson de mal mariée, a ballade, songs to the Virgin, and an imaginary dialogue with a nightingale. He had a marked preference for heterometric strophes, nine of his works having three different line lengths and one, En mi mai, having four. The great majority of his strophes have more than eight lines each. Li rossignolés and Quant ces moissons are unusual in that they employ pedes of five lines each. Possibly because of the distinctiveness of his formal constructions, only one of Guillaume's poems, Frere, qui fait mieus, provided the model for a later work. En tous tens, which is termed a ballade in the envoi, is the only strophic work with fewer than eight lines per strophe, being cast in the pattern aaabCB.

Most of the chansons follow bar form. Despite their length, there is almost no literal repetition in the caudas, and varied repetition is employed only sparingly. Moines, ne vous anuit pas, which displays the pattern ABAB CDCD' EF (D' being a 3rd lower than D), is the most noticeable exception to this general rule. The ballade features the repeat pattern, AABCBC, while Voloirs de faire chanson, not in bar form, is extraordinary in that lines 2, 3, 5 and 8 are different modifications of the opening phrase.

The treatment of the pedes of Thomas, je vous vueil demander is unusual in that the first pes ends on the final, while the second does not, thus reversing the normal ouvert–clos order. The melodies all move over a range of at least an octave, and examples with ranges of an 11th are not rare. There is considerable variety in the modal construction. A noticeable number of melodies have finals a 5th above the lowest tone centre of importance and a 4th below the highest. Melodies in authentic modes often begin a 7th above the final and gradually wend their way downwards. The role of the final as a centre of tonal gravity is quite variable. Chancon envoisie is given in part in mensural notation in the Chansonnier Cangé (F-Pn fr.846), following the pattern of the 2nd mode. Occasional hints of regular rhythmic organization may be observed in the disposition of single notes and ligatures in a few other chansons, but these patterns are not followed consistently. In general, modal interpretation of the melodies does not seem appropriate.

Sources, MS

WORKS

Edition: Trouvère Lyrics with Melodies: Complete Comparative Edition, ed. H. Tischler, CMM, cvii (1997)

Amour grassi, si me lo de l'outrage, R.32 (ded. Thomas de Castel)

Amours, vostre sers et vostre hon, R.1869

Bien doit chanter la cui chancon set plaire, R.169 (ded. Gilles Le Vinier)

Chancon envoisie, R.1143; edn and facs. in MGG1

Dame des cieus, R.1353 (M)

[Schwan siglum: see Sources, ms]

De bien amer croist sens et courtoisie, R.1117

Encor n'est raisons, R.1911

En mi mai, quant s'est la saisons partie, R.1192

En tous tens se doit fins cuers esjoir, R.1405; ed. in Gennrich

Espris d'ire et d'amour, R.1946, ed. in Jeanroy, Brandin and Aubry

Flour ne glaise ne vois autaine, R.131

Glorieuse virge pucele, R.611

Ire d'amours et doutance, R.217

Je me chevauchai pensis, R.1587

La flor d'iver sous la branche, R.255

Le premier jour de mai, R.87

Li rossignolés avrillous, R.2042

Mout a mon cuer esjoi, R.1039

Quant ces moissons sont faillies, R.1350

Quant glace et nois et froidure s'esloigne, R.1787

Qui que voie en amour faindre, R.128 (ded. ‘Chastelain’: ? Huon, Chastellain d'Arras)

Remembrance d'amour me fait chanter, R.814 = 758

Se chans ne descors ne lais, R.193; ed. in Jeanroy, Brandin and Aubry

S'onques chanters m'eust aidie, R.1086

Tels fois chante li jouglere, R.903 (ded. Jehan Bretel)

Voloirs de faire chanson, R.1859

works of joint authorship

Amis Guillaume, ainc si sage ne vi, R.1085 (jeu-parti with Adam de Givenchi)

Frere, ki fait mieus a proisier, R.1293 [model for: Anon., ‘A ce que je vuel comencier’, R.1272] (jeu-parti with Gilles Le Vinier)

Guillaume le Viniers, amis, R.1520 (jeu-parti with Andrieu Contredit d'Arras)

Guillaume, trop est perdus, R.2129 (jeu-parti with Colart le Boutellier)

Moines, ne vous anuit pas, R.378 (jeu-parti with ?Moniot d'Arras)

Sire frere, fetes m'un jugement, R.691 (jeu-parti with Gilles Le Vinier)

Sire, ne me celés mie, R.1185 (jeu-parti with ?Thibaut IV)

Thomas, je vous vueil demander, R.842 (jeu-parti with Thomas ?Herier)

authorship uncertain

Vierge pucele roiaus, R.388 [modelled on Raimon Jordan, Lo clar tems vei brunezir, PC 404.4]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Jeanroy, L. Brandin and P. Aubry: Lais et descorts français du XIIIe siècle (Paris, 1901/R)

E. Ulrix: ‘Les chansons inédites de Guillaume le Vinier d'Arras’, Mélanges de philologie romane et d'histoire litteraire offerts à M. Maurice Wilmotte (Paris, 1910/R), 785–814

F. Gennrich, ed.: Romdeaux, Virelais und Balladen aus dem Ende des XII., dem XIII. und dem ersten Drittel des XIV. Jahrhunderts, ii (Göttingen, 1927)

P. Ménard, ed.: Les poésies de Guillaume le Vinier (Geneva, 1970, 2/1983)

M.-H. Fernandez: ‘Le génie ondoyant et divers du trouvère Guillaume le Vinier’, Marche Romane, xxx/3–4 (1980), 93–103

For further bibliography see Troubadours, trouvères.

THEODORE KARP

Le Vinier, Jaques

(fl 1240–60). French trouvère. Since one of his chansons, De loial amour, is addressed to Jehan Bretel, it may be assumed that he was active during the mid-13th century, and it is not unlikely that he was a native of the region around Arras. The primary source for his work is the Vatican chansonnier (I-Rvat Reg.lat.1490). Jaques wrote both chansons d'amour and songs to the Virgin. Unlike most poems of the latter genre, which derive their structure and melody from a pre-existing work, those by Jaques Le Vinier – with the exception of Vierge pucele, which is of contested authorship – apparently use original melodies. Jaques showed no preference for either isometric or heterometric strophes, and employed primarily decasyllabic and heptasyllabic verses. All the melodies are cast in bar form, and as a group show an unusually strong preference for plagal constructions. Most of the melodies are relatively simple; in several, there is a slight increase in rhythmic activity at the cadence.

WORKS

Edition: Trouvère Lyrics with Melodies: Complete Comparative Edition, ed. H. Tischler, CMM, cvii (1997)

Ains que mi chant aient definement, R.654

Bele dame bien aprise, R.1615

Chanter veul de la meillour, R.1999

De loial amour jolie, R.1166

Fine Amours, cui j'ai mon cuer done, R.427

Je sui cieus qui tous jours foloie, R.1721

Loiaus amours qui en moi maint, R.161

Vierge pucele roiaus, R.388 [modelled on: Raimon Jordan, ‘Lo clar tems vei brunezir’] (authorship uncertain)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Järnström: Recueil de chansons pieuses du XIIIe siècle, i (Helsinki, 1910)

H. Petersen Dyggve: ‘Chansons françaises du XIIIe siècle’, Neuphilologische Mitteilungen, xxxi (1930), 1–62

For further bibliography see Troubadours, trouvères.

THEODORE KARP

Levinson, Jerrold

(b Brooklyn, NY, 11 July 1948). American aesthetician. After attending the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1965–9), gaining the BS degree in Philosophy and Chemistry in 1969, he studied at the University of Michigan (1970–74), achieving the doctorate in philosophy in 1974. He was assistant professor of philosophy at SUNY, Albany (1974–5) and at the Farleigh Dickinson University (1975–6). In 1976 he became assistant professor at the University of Maryland, where he was later appointed associate professor (1982–91) and then professor of philosophy in 1991. He has in addition been a visiting professor at the University of London (1991), the John Hopkins University (1993) and the University of Rennes (1998). He has served on the editorial board of the Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism (from 1993) and in 1999 was elected vice-president of the American Society for Aesthetics. Levinson's interest in the aesthetics of music has led to an examination of musical ontology from a historical-contextual perspective, and performance, with an emphasis on performing means. He has propounded theories of evaluating music (Music in the Moment, 1998) and has considered the legitimacy of emotional response in musical appreciation. Within his study of performance he has also examined the distinctness of performing and critical interpretation.

WRITINGS

‘Autographic and Allographic Art Revisited’, Philosophical Studies (1980), 367–83

‘What a Musical Work is’, Journal of Philosophy, lxxvii (1980), 5–28 [see also ‘What a Musical Work is, Again’, Music, Art and Metaphysics (Ithaca, NY, 1990), 215–63]

‘Truth in Music’, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, xl (1981), 131–44

‘Music and Negative Emotion’, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly, lxiii (1982), 327–46

‘Song and Music Drama’, What is Music?, ed. P. Alperson (New York, 1986, 2/1994), 285–301

‘Evaluating Musical Performance’, Journal of Aesthetic Education, xxi (1987), 75–88

‘Musical Literacy’, Journal of Aesthetic Education, xxiv (1990), 17–30

Music, Art and Metaphysics (Ithaca, NY, 1990; Fr. trans., enlarged, 1998, as L'art, la musique, et l'histoire) [incl. ‘The Concept of Music’, 267–78; ‘Hope in the Hebrides’, 336–75]

‘Performative vs. Critical Interpretation in Music’, The Interpretation of Music, ed. M. Krausz (Oxford, 1993), 33–60

‘Film Music and Narrative Agency’, Post-Theory: Reconstructing Film Studies, ed. D. Bordwell and N. Carroll (Madison, WI, 1996), 254–88

The Pleasures of Aesthetics: Philosophical Essays (Ithaca, NY, 1996) [incl. ‘Musical Expressiveness’, 90–125]

‘Evaluating Music’, Musical Worlds: New Directions in the Philosophy of Music, ed. P. Alperson (University Park, PA, 1998), 93–108

Music in the Moment (Ithaca, NY, 1998)

‘Varieties of Musical Pleasure: Thrills, Chills and other Delights’, Tijdschrift voor Muziektheorie, iii (1998), 151–8

Levitin, Yury Abramovich

(b Poltava (Ukraine), 28 Dec 1912; d Moscow, 26 July 1993). Russian composer and pianist. He graduated from the Leningrad Conservatory in the piano class of Savshinsky (1937), and in the composition class of Shostakovich (1942). He became a member of the Composers' Union in 1940. A prolific composer, Levitin was an adherent of academic and traditionalist trends in music, but despite this he devoted much of his time to the portayal of contemporary and topical themes – such as in the oratorio Khirosima ne dolzhna povtoryat'sya (‘Hiroshima must not be Repeated’) – and to embodying in music the events and images of World War II. In his chamber and instrumental music, there is a clear link with the style of his teacher Shostakovich, demonstrated by the dramatic opposition of aggressive motor rhythms, contemplative writing and dance rhythms, as well as by the overall finesse and economy of means. The Epitafiya for soprano, clarinet and string quartet (to a text by Akhmatova) is dedicated to the memory of Shostakovich. Levitin wrote more than 70 film scores, including Tikhiy Don (‘Quiet Flows the Don’), Stalingrad and the epic Osvobozhdeniye (‘Liberation’).

WORKS

(selective list)

Ops: Monna-Marianna (after M. Gor'ky), 1937–9; Molodïr' (children's op, after K. Chukovsky), 1955; Personal'nïy pamyatnik [A Personal Monument] (Levitin, S. Mikhalkov), 1963–4; Zhuravushka (Levitin, D. Vasiliu, after M. Alekseyev), 1977; Do tret'ikh petukhov [Before the Third Cock Crow] (I. Berlyand, I. Petrov, after V. Shukshin), 1981; Kalina krasnaya [The Fair Guelder Rose] (Levitin, after Shukshin), 1982

Orats (for solo vv, chorus, orch): Svyashchennaya voyna [The Holy War], 1942; Rekviyem pamyati pavshikh geroyev [Requiem for the Memory of Fallen Heroes] (V. Lebedev-Kumach), 1946; Otchizna [The Homeland] (Lebedev-Kumach), 1947; Ogni nad Volgoy [Fires Over the Volga] (D. Sedïkh), 1951; Khiroshima ne dolzhna povtoryat'sya [Hiroshima must not be repeated] (M. Matusovsky), 1967; Pamyati poėta [In Memory of a Poet] (N. Zabolotsky), nar, Mez, B, orch, 1980; K pobede [To Victory] (M. Dudin), 1984

Syms.: no.1, 1948; Dni voynï [The Days of War] (L. Pervomaysky, A, Tvardovsky), choral sym., 1974; Olimpiyskaya simfoniya [Olympic Sym.], 1980; numerous other orch works, incl. concs. and 4 sinfoniettas

14 str qts: 1940, 1942, 1943, 1946, 1948, 1951, 1952, 1958, 1968, 1971, 1974, 1976, 1980, 1986

Other chbr and solo inst: Syuita na kirgizskiye temï [Suite on Kyrgyz Themes], str qt, 1945; Qnt, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1948; Pf Trio, 1949; Malen'kaya syuita [Little Suite], vib, mar, pf, 1968; 24 prelyudiy, vn, 1975; Nonet, 1978; numerous inst sonatas

Settings (for 1v, pf) of texts by A. Blok, R. Burns, S. Gorodetsky, M.Yu. Lermontov, S. Marshak, A.S. Pushkin and others

Choruses, film scores, variety music, incid music for theatre

ALLA VLADIMIROVNA GRIGOR'YEVA

Levitzki, Mischa [Levitsky, Misha]

(b Kremenchug, Ukraine, 25 May 1898; d Avon-by-the-Sea, NJ, 2 Jan 1941). American pianist and composer. Born to naturalized American parents during a return to their native Ukraine, Levitzki began violin studies at the age of three. Developing an interest in the piano at six, he worked with Aleksander Michałowski in Warsaw (1905–6). He made his concert début in Antwerp in 1906 before going to New York with his parents. Shortly thereafter his father brought him to the attention of Walter Damrosch, who obtained a scholarship for him at the Institute of Musical Art as a pupil of Stojowski (1907–11). In 1913 Levitzki entered the Berlin Hochschule für Musik, where he became the youngest student of Dohnányi and was awarded the Mendelssohn Prize in 1915. He made his American début on 17 October 1916 at Aeolian Hall, New York; later he toured frequently in the USA, Australia, New Zealand and Asia. Levitzki is best known for his virtuosic performances of the Romantic repertory. His own piano compositions figured prominently in his programmes, as did transcriptions by Liszt, Tausig (Bach) and Sgambati (Gluck). Critics compared his technical prowess and speed of execution to those of Rosenthal. Levitzki’s recordings from 1927 to 1933 reveal an exceptional clarity and delicacy of articulation. His compositions include Valse de concert (op.1), Valse (op.2), Gavotte (op.3), Arabesque valsante (op.6), The Enchanted Nymph, and a cadenza for Beethoven’s Piano Concerto no.3.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Brower: Piano Mastery, 2nd ser. (New York, 1917), 224–32

Obituary, Musical America, lxi/1 (1941), 32

G. Kehler: The Piano in Concert, i (Metuchen, NJ, 1982), 738–41

MINA F. MILLER

Levolto.

See Volta (i).

Levy, Alexandre

(b São Paulo, 10 Nov 1864; d São Paulo, 17 Jan 1892). Brazilian composer of French descent. Belonging to a family of musicians, he received early teaching in the piano and later in composition from European immigrants. He was largely responsible for the foundation of the Haydn Club in São Paulo in 1883, sponsoring and conducting concerts of the symphonic repertory. He went to Europe in 1887 but stayed only for a few months: after a period in Milan, he went to Paris where he studied harmony with Emile Durand at the Conservatoire. On his return he tried to organize a regular symphony orchestra in his native city, but did not find enough support.

Levy was the first important figure in Brazilian musical nationalism. But his most typically nationalist works are based less on folk music traditions than on popular music of the time: modinhas, tangos, maxixes and early urban sambas. Such works include the tone poem Comala, the Tango brasileiro for piano and the Suite brésilienne for orchestra, all written in 1890. The last movement of the suite, ‘Samba’, attempts to describe the frenzy of this dance by using its characteristic syncopations together with the basic rhythmic patterns of the habanera. The melodic material of the movement is based on two traditional urban tunes. Although Levy had no great influence on the later development of the nationalist trend in Brazil, he remains an important figure for his receptiveness to the most characteristic aspects of urban popular music.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DBP [with list of works]

‘Alexandre Levy’, Gazeta musical, ii/4 (1892), 58

G. Pimenta: Alexandre Levy (São Paulo, 1911)

L.H.C. de Azevedo: 150 anos de música no Brasil (1800–1950) (Rio de Janeiro, 1956)

G. Béhague: The Beginnings of Musical Nationalism in Brazil (Detroit, 1971)

V. Mariz: História da música no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1981, 4/1994)

GERARD BÉHAGUE

Lévy, Emile.

See Waldteufel, Emile.

Lévy, Ernst

(b Basle, 18 Nov 1895; d Morges, 19 April 1981). Swiss composer, pianist and writer on music. He studied in Basle and Paris; among his teachers were Hans Huber, Pugno and Egon Petri. From 1917 to 1921 he directed the piano masterclass at the Basle Conservatory. Between the wars he lived in Paris, where in 1928 he founded the Choeur Philharmonique; with this organization he gave first performances in Paris of Brahms’s German Requiem and Liszt’s Christus. Between 1941 and 1966 he was active in the USA, giving piano recitals and teaching at the New England Conservatory, Bennington College, the University of Chicago, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Brooklyn College, CUNY. Thereafter he retired and spent the last 15 years of his life in his native Switzerland.

Lévy’s style as a composer is highly individual and not identifiable with any school. He believed in the principle of tonality as a harmonic force naturally given by the structure of tone. To him composing meant uncovering and unfolding new specific tonal fields. A widely cultured man, he contributed to the revival of the Pythagorean tradition through lectures and writings. His piano recordings, particularly of the last Beethoven sonatas and the Liszt sonata, have become collectors’ items. A detailed catalogue of his works containing also a bibliography, two essays and discography is published by the Archives Musicales Suisses (Zürich, 1989).

WORKS

16 syms.: D, 1914; f, 1916; no.2, 1920; no.3, 1922; no.4, 1924; no.5, 1925; no.7, 1925–6; no.6 ‘Sinfonia strofica’, 1933–4; no.8, 1937; no.9 ‘Shemah Yisrael’, 1938; no.10 ‘Elégie française’, 1944; no.11, 1949; no.12, after G. Peele: Harvester’s Song, 1951; no.13, 1955; no.14, 1962; no.15, 1967

Other orch: Suite no.1 (Suite symphonique), 1935; Vc Conc., 1947; Suite nos.2–4, 1951, 1957, 1959; Partita concertante, vn, orch, 1973; Tpt Conc., str, 1975; Sonata accompagnata, bn, orch, 1980

Vocal: Cant. no.3 ‘Lötschentaler’, cantus firmus v, chorus, orch, 1950; Gaudeamus (Cant. no.4), chorus, wind orch, timp, 1964; 3 other cants., chorus, orch; 8 acc. choruses; 18 unacc. choruses; 15 acc. solo songs

Chbr (4–5 insts): Str Qt no.1, e, 1919; Str Qt no.2, g, 1921; Pf Qnt, 1956; Str Qt no.3, 1958; Inventio dupla, 4 wind, 1974; Str Qt no.4, 1978

Chbr (2–3 insts): Theme and Variations, cl, pf, 1952; Fantaisie dialoguée, org, pf, 1978; 15 trios; 4 str trios; 4 sonatinas, vn, pf; 5 duos; sonatas

Solo inst: 10 org pieces, 7 pf sonatas; pieces for cl, rec, vn, va, vc, pf, clvd, hpd, unspecified inst

MSS in CH-Zma

Principal publisher: Boosey & Hawkes

WRITINGS

(selective list)

with S. Levarie: Tone: a Study in Musical Acoustics (Kent, OH, 1968, 2/1980)

Des rapports entre la musique et la société suivi de réflexions (Neuchâtel, 1979)

with S. Levarie: Musical Morphology: a Discourse and a Dictionary (Kent, OH, 1983)

A Theory of Harmony (Albany, NY, 1985)

SIEGMUND LEVARIE

Levy, Jules.

See Levi, Jul.

Levy, Kenneth (Jay)

(b New York, 26 Feb 1927). American musicologist. He studied music history at Queens College, New York, with Sachs and theory with Karol Rathaus and took the BA in 1947. At Princeton, where his professors included Strunk and Hertzmann, he took the MFA in 1949 and the PhD in 1955. He taught at Princeton from 1952 to 1954 and at Brandeis University from 1954 to 1966, when he returned to Princeton as a professor. He retired in 1995.

Levy's interests include Gregorian, Byzantine and Old Slavonic liturgical chant, medieval polyphony, and the 16th-century French chanson. In his chanson research he has concentrated on the composers and secular forms of the later 16th century, and has drawn on social and political background for a comprehensive view. More recently he has worked on liturgical chant, publishing important articles in this area. He has investigated Byzantine and Western chant, including the Old Roman, Ambrosian, Beneventan and Ravennate repertories, and by careful comparison he has been able to draw tentative conclusions regarding the relationships of certain Western chants to Byzantine models and between modal patterns and performing practices common to East and West. He has also approached the problem of transcription of Slavonic kondakarion notation by proposing ‘counterpart transcriptions’, which relate Slavonic melodic formulae to those occurring in transcribable Byzantine melodies.

WRITINGS

‘New Material on the Early Motet in England: a Report on Princeton Ms. Garrett 119’, JAMS, iv (1951), 220–39

‘“Susanne un jour”: the History of a 16th Century Chanson’, AnnM, i (1953), 375–408

‘Vaudeville, vers mesurés et airs de cour’, Musique et poésie au XVIe siècle: Paris 1953, 185–201

The Chansons of Claude Le Jeune (diss., Princeton U., 1955)

‘Costeley's Chromatic Chanson’, AnnM, iii (1955), 213–63

‘The Byzantine Sanctus and its Modal Tradition in East and West’, AnnM, vi (1958–63), 7–67

‘An Early Chant for Romanus' Contacium trium puerorum?’, Classica et mediaevalia, xxii (1961), 172–5

‘A Hymn for Thursday in Holy Week’, JAMS, xvi (1963), 127–75

‘Die slavische Kondakarien-Notation’, Anfänge der slavischen Musik: Bratislava 1964, 77–92

‘The Slavic Kontakia and their Byzantine Originals’, The Department of Music, Queens College of the City University of New York: Twenty-fifth Anniversary Festschrift, ed. A. Mell (Flushing, NY, 1964), 79–87

‘Three Byzantine Acclamations’, Studies in Music History: Essays for Oliver Strunk, ed. H. Powers (Princeton, NJ, 1968/R), 43–57

‘The Italian Neophytes' Chants’, JAMS, xxiii (1970), 181–227

‘Lux de luce: the Origin of an Italian Sequence’, MQ, lvii (1971), 40–61

‘The Trisagion in Byzantium and the West’, IMSCR XI: Copenhagen 1972, 761–5

‘A Dominican Organum Duplum’, JAMS, xxvii (1974), 183–211

‘A Gregorian Processional Antiphon’, Schweizer Jb für Musikwissenschaft, ii (1982), 91–102

Music: a Listener's Introduction (New York, 1983)

‘Toledo, Rome, and the Legacy of Gaul’, EMH, iv (1984), 49–99

‘Charlemagne's Archetype of Gregorian Chant’, JAMS, xl (1987), 1–30

‘Old-Hispanic Chant in its European Context’, España en la música de occidente: Salamanca 1985, i, 3–14

‘On the Origin of Neumes’, EMH, vii (1987), 59–90

‘Latin Chant Outside the Roman Tradition’, NOHM, ii (2/1990), 69–110

‘On Gregorian Orality’, JAMS, xliii (1990), 185–227

‘Abbot Helisachar's Antiphoner’, JAMS, xlviii (1995), 171–86

‘Gregorian Chant and Oral Transmission’, Essays on Medieval Music: in Honor of David G. Hughes, ed. G.M. Boone (Cambridge, MA, 1995), 277–86

Gregorian Chant and the Carolingians (Princeton, NJ, 1998)

‘A New Look at Old Roman Chant’, EMH, xix (2000), 191–214

EDITIONS

with F. Lesure and others: Anthologie de la chanson parisienne au XVIe siècle (Monaco, 1953/R)

PAULA MORGAN

Lévy, Lazare [Lazare-Lévy]

(bBrussels, 18 Jan 1882; d Paris, 20 Sept 1964). French pianist and teacher. He studied in his native city with an English woman, a Miss Ellis, and then with Diémer at the Paris Conservatoire, where he received a premier prix in 1898. He also studied harmony with Lavignac and counterpoint with Gédalge. He gave concerts throughout Europe and Asia, and was noted especially for his cultivated performances of Schumann and Mozart, whose works he recorded. He was also an early champion of Albéniz, whose Iberia (book I) he played in 1911. Lévy was a distinguished professor of piano at the Paris Conservatoire, first as a temporary teacher (1914–16 and 1921–3) and then as Cortot’s successor (1923–41; reappointed 1944–53). His students included Monique Haas, Clara Haskil and Yvonne Loriod. He composed two string quartets and a number of piano works, and edited keyboard music by Bach, Chopin, Schubert and Schumann.

WRITINGS

with L. Diémer and V. Staub: Méthode supérieure de piano (Paris, 1907)

‘E.R. Blanchet’, Le monde musical (31 May 1936), 158–9

‘La fièvre interprétative’, Revue internationale de musique, nos.5–6 (1939), 395–8

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Methuen-Campbell: Catalogue of Recordings by Classical Pianists, i (Chipping Norton, 1984)

C. Timbrell: French Pianism (White Plains, NY, and London, 1992, 2/forthcoming)

CHARLES TIMBRELL

Levy, Marvin David

(b Passaic, NJ, 2 Aug 1932). American composer. He studied composition with Philip James at New York University (BA 1954) and with Otto Luening at Columbia University (MA 1956). Drawn particularly to music theatre, he composed three successful one-act operas while working as a freelance music critic. On the strength of these works, he was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship, the Prix de Rome and a Metropolitan Opera commission for Mourning Becomes Electra (1967). The success of that work led to a second Metropolitan commission in 1978. The Balcony, however, was not performed as planned, owing to a change of administration at the company, and remained incomplete until it was recast as the musical, The Grand Balcony (1989–92). Levy was a founding member of the Fort Lauderdale Opera, Florida (1989), and served as its artistic director until it merged with the Greater Miami Opera to form the Florida Grand Opera in 1994.

Although he has composed for a variety of media, Levy remains known primarily as an opera composer. Mourning Becomes Electra and its predecessors are expressionistic, employing pitch structures that can best be understood as bitonal. Since 1989 he has developed a more relaxed, populist style, exemplified by The Grand Balcony and the children's opera The Zachary Star (1996). With these works he recalls the style of early compositions, such as his Christmas oratorio, For the Time Being (1959).

WORKS

Stage: Riders to the Sea (op, after J.M. Synge), 1954, withdrawn; The Tower (op, 1, T. Brewster), 1955, Santa Fe, 1957; Sotoba Komachi (op, 1, S.H. Brock, after Kwanami), 1957, New York, 1957; Escorial (op, 1, M.D. Levy and L. Abel, after M. de Ghelderode), 1958, New York, 1958; Mourning Becomes Electra (op, 3, H. Butler, after E. O'Neill: Homecoming; The Hunted; The Haunted), 1967, New York, 1967; The Grand Balcony (musical, 2, after J. Genet: The Balcony), 1978–92; The Zachary Star (family musical, 2/1, M.D. Levy), 1995–6; incid music

Orch: Caramoor Festival Ov., 1958; Sym., 1960; Kyros, 1961; Pf Conc., 1970; Trialogus, 1972; Pascua Florida, 1985; Arrows of Time, 1986

Vocal: 3 Songs (E.St Vincent Millay), Mez, ob, 1955; The Echoes (G.M. Hopkins), S, chbr ens, 1956; During Wind and Rain (T. Hardy), chorus, 1957; For the Time Being (Christmas orat, 2, W.H. Auden), S, S, A, T, Bar, B, chorus, orch, 1959; One Person (cant., E. Wylie), Mez, orch, 1962; Shir Shel Moshe [Song of Moses] (sacred service), T, chorus, org, 1964; Alice in Wonderland (L. Carroll), chorus, insts, 1965; Electra's Farewell (H. Butler, after E. O'Neill), suite, S, orch, 1967 [from Mourning Becomes Electra]; Masada (orat I. Landen, Bible), nar, T, chorus, orch, 1973, rev. 1987; In memoriam W.H. Auden, 1v, chbr orch, 1974; Since Nine O'Clock (C. Cavafy), S, pf, 1977, orch, 1982; Canto de los maranos (cant.), S, orch, 1979; 24 popular songs, 1995

Chbr: Rhapsody, vn, cl, hp, 1955; Str Qt, 1955; Hasidic Suite, hn, pf, 1956; Pf Pieces for Children, 1959

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F.S.: ‘“Mourning” Becomes an Opera’, ON, xxxi/23 (1966–7), 15–16

J.W. Freeman: ‘Drawn from Within’, ON, xxxi/23 (1966–7), 24–5

M. Cross and K. Kohrs: More Stories of the Great Operas (New York, 1980)

ANDREW STILLER

Lévy, Roland Alexis Manuel.

See Roland-Manuel.

Levy [née Itzig], Sara

(b Berlin, 19 June 1761; d Berlin, 11 May 1854). German harpsichordist, music collector and patron. She was a daughter of the Jewish banker Daniel Itzig (1723–99) and great-aunt of Mendelssohn. On 2 July 1783 she married the banker Samuel Salomon Levy (1760–1806). With her siblings, of whom Fanny von Arnstein (1758–1818) and Zippora Wulff (later Cäcilie von Eskeles, 1760–1836) were particularly well known as musical amateurs, she received a thorough musical education. She is said to have been a pupil of W.F. Bach at a later date, and she was certainly in contact with C.P.E. Bach, from whom she commissioned a harpsichord concerto. A number of contemporary documents mention her activity as a harpsichordist in private musical circles, for instance in the house of her brother-in-law Joseph Fliess. Later she frequently performed with the Ripienschule of the Berlin Sing-Akademie founded by C.F. Zelter. She was particularly interested in the music of the Bach family as well as the works of other Berlin composers (J.G. and C.H. Graun, Janitsch and Quantz), and is therefore one of the figures central to the appreciation of Bach in Berlin in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. She gave the Sing-Akademie considerable parts of her extensive collection of music, including autograph manuscripts by W.F. and C.P.E. Bach; after her death, some of the remaining items apparently came into the possession of A.W. Bach, and is now dispersed among many European and North American libraries.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P. Wilhelmy: Der Berliner Salon im 19. Jahrhundert (1780–1914) (Berlin, 1989)

P. Wollny: ‘Sara Levy and the Making of Musical Taste in Berlin’, MQ, lxxvii (1993), 651–88

P. Wollny: ‘“Ein förmlicher Sebastian und Philipp Emanuel Bach-Kultus”: Sara Levy, geb. Itzig und ihr literarisch-musikalischer Salon’, Jüdische Aufklärung, ästhetische Bildung und musikalische Praxis im Berlin des späten 18. Jahrhunderts, ed. A. Gerhard (Tübingen, 1999), 211–49

PETER WOLLNY

Lewandowski, Leon Leopold

(b Kalisz, 14 March 1831; d Warsaw, 22 Nov 1896). Polish violinist, composer and bandmaster. Born into a Jewish intellectual family, he started learning to play the violin at an early age and gave public performances as a child. After leaving secondary school in Kalisz, he studied the violin under K. Baranowski and Jan Hornziel in Warsaw. From 1850 he played in the orchestra of the Wielki Theatre in Warsaw. Then, with the cooperation of A. Kühn, he organized his own orchestra and gave concerts at Nowa Arkadia. He also gave performances at the Mineral Water Institute in the Saski Gardens, and from 1857 until his death he performed in the Variety Theatre, playing mainly dances, of which he composed many. He also organized popular symphony concerts at the Resursa Obywatelska (Citizens' Club) and played in chamber music concerts. For a time he was a member of the string quartet founded by K. Baranowski. Lewandowski left about 350 compositions, which were published from 1855 by numerous Polish and foreign houses. His pieces, most of them in dance genres (mazurkas, polkas, contredanses, polonaises, obereks, kujawiaks, quadrilles, galops, etc), were extremely popular. He also composed interludes to the ballets Wedding at Ojców (J. Stefani, J. Damse, K. Kurpiński), Pan Twardowski (A. Sonnenfeld) and Coppélia (L. Delibes). Other compositions include a Nocturne for orchestra, a concert mazurka for violin, cello, oboe, trumpet and orchestra, and choral songs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SMP

J.W. Reiss: ‘Polska muzyka taneczna w XIX wieku’ [Polish dance music of the 19th century], Muzyka, iv/9–10 (1953), 26–44 [with Eng. summary]

JERZY MORAWSKI

Lewandowski, Louis

(1821–94). German composer. He was also music director and choirmaster of the great synagogue on Oranjenburgerstrasse in Berlin. See Jewish music, §III, 3(iv).

Lewenthal, Raymond

(b San Antonio, TX, 29 Aug 1926). American pianist. He studied with Samaroff at the Juilliard School, then with Cortot and spent a year teaching in Rio de Janeiro. His career has been marked by special concern for neglected composers of the early 19th century, among them Hummel, Jan Ladislav Dussek, Henselt, Thalberg and, notably, Alkan; he has edited an Alkan collection and Henselt’s F minor Piano Concerto. His recordings include études and parts of the symphony for piano by Alkan, the solo version of the Hexameron by Liszt and others, and concertos by Henselt and Rubinstein. He is an articulate spokesman on behalf of his chosen repertory. At his recitals, he achieves atmosphere by means of low lights, high temperatures and quasi-period costume. His performances tend to be marked more by generalized flair than by specific pianistic skills of the first order.

MICHAEL STEINBERG/R

Lewin, David

(b New York, 2 July 1933). American theorist. He studied mathematics at Harvard, then composition with Sessions and theory with Babbitt and Cone at Princeton. He taught at the University of California, Berkeley (1961–7), SUNY, Stony Brook (1967–79), Yale University (1979–85) and was appointed Naumburg Professor of Music at Harvard University in 1985. He served as president of the Society for Music Theory (1985), and received an honorary doctorate from the University of Chicago in 1995. While at Bell Laboratories in 1961, he composed the first computer-generated piece by a professional musician.

The most original and far-ranging theorist of his generation, Lewin’s writings combine mathematical rigour with poetic finesse. In his most influential formal work, he employs ‘group theory’ to explain two fundamental musical concepts, interval and transformation. Applied to atonal and serial repertories, transformational theory stresses the dynamic nature of events and gestures as they engage time and articulate form. Other applications include Wagnerian harmony (adapting Riemann’s harmonic theory to a group-theoretic framework) and rhythm and metre (see also Analysis). Lewin’s more interpretative writings focus on text/music interactions in song and opera, from Mozart to Schoenberg. Two of his most influential articles, ‘Behind the Beyond’ (1968–9) and ‘Music Theory, Phenomenology, and Modes of Perception’ (1986) address the nature and goals of music theory at two distinct moments in its recent development.

WRITINGS

‘The Intervallic Content of a Collection of Notes, Intervallic Relations between a Collection of Notes and its Complement: an Application to Schoenberg’s Hexachordal Pieces’, JMT, iv (1960), 98–101

‘Moses und Aron: some General Remarks, and Analytic Notes for Act I, Scene I’, PNM, vi/1 (1967–8), 18–32; repr. in The Garland Library of the History of Western Music, ed. E. Rosand, xii (New York, 1985), 327–43

‘Inversional Balance as an Organizing Force in Schoenberg’s Music and Thought’, PNM, vi/2 (1967–8), 1–21

‘Some Applications of Communication Theory to the Study of Twelve-Tone Music’, JMT, xii (1968), 50–84

‘Behind the Beyond … a Response to Edward T. Cone’, PNM, vii (1968–9), 59–69

‘Forte’s Interval Vector, my Interval Function, and Regener’s Common-Note Function’, JMT, xxi (1977), 194–237

‘Some Investigations into Foreground Rhythmic and Metric Patterning’, Music Theory: Special Topics, ed. R. Browne (New York, 1981), 101–37

‘Vocal Meter in Schoenberg’s Atonal Music, with a Note on a Serial Hauptstimme’, In Theory Only, vi/4 (1982), 12–36

‘A Formal Theory of Generalized Tonal Functions’, JMT, xxvi (1982), 23–60

‘Image and Background in a Schubert Song’, 19CM, vi (1982–3), 47–59; rev. as Auf dem Flusse … Schubert: Critical and Analytical Studies, ed. W. Frisch (Lincoln, NE, 1986), 126–52

‘Transformational Techniques in Atonal and Other Music Theories’, PNM, xxi (1982–3), 312–71

‘Brahms, his Past, and Modes of Music Theory’, Brahms Studies: Washington DC 1983, 13–27

‘An Interesting Global Rule for Species Counterpoint’, In Theory Only, vi/8 (1983), 19–44

‘Amfortas’s Prayer to Titurel and the role of D in Parsifal: the Tonal Spaces of the Drama and the Enharmonic C/B’, 19CM, vii (1983–4), 336–49

‘Music Theory, Phenomenology, and Modes of Perception’, Music Perception, iii (1986), 327–92

Generalized Musical Intervals and Transformations (New Haven, CT, 1987)

‘Some Instances of Parallel Voice-Leading in Debussy’, 19CM, xi (1987–8), 59–72

‘Klumpenhouwer Networks and Some Isographies that Involve Them’, Music Theory Spectrum, xii (1990), 83–120

‘Musical Analysis as Stage Direction’, Music and Text: Critical Inquiries, ed. S.P. Scher (Cambridge, 1992), 163–76

‘Women’s Voices and the Fundamental Bass’, JM, x (1992), 464–82

‘Some Notes on Analyzing Wagner: The Ring and Parsifal’, 19CM, xvi (1992–3), 49–58

‘A Metrical Problem in Webern’s Op.27’, MAn, xii (1993), 343–54

Musical Form and Transformation: Four Analytic Essays (New Haven, CT, 1993)

‘A Tutorial on Klumpenhouwer Networks, using the Chorale in Schoenberg’s Opus 11 No.2’, JMT), xxxviii (1994), 79–101

‘Figaro’s Mistakes’, CMc, no.57 (1995), 45–60

‘Generalized Interval Systems for Babbitt’s Lists, and for Schoenberg’s String Trio’, Music Theory Spectrum, xvii (1995), 81–118

‘Cohn Functions’, JMT, xl (1996), 181–216

‘Some Notes on Pierrot Lunaire’, Music Theory in Concept and Practice, ed. J.M. Baker, D.W. Beach and J.W. Bernard (Rochester, NY, 1997), 433–57

‘The D major Fugue Subject from WTCII: Spatial Saturation?’, Music Theory Online, iv/4 (1998) 〈smt.ucsb.edu/mto/mtohome.html〉

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D.T. Vuza: ‘Some Mathematical Aspects of David Lewin’s Book Generalized Musical Intervals and Transformations’, PNM, xxvi (1988), 258–87

S. Smoliar: ‘Lewin’s Model of Musical Perception Reflected by Artificial Intelligence’, Computers in Music Research, ii (1990), 1–38

M. Cherlin: ‘On Adapting Theoretical Models from the Work of David Lewin’, Indiana Theory Review, xiv/2 (1993), 19–43

R. Cohn: ‘Introduction to Neo-Riemannian Theory: a Survey and a Historical Perspective’, JMT, xlii (1998), 167–80

RICHARD COHN

Lewin-Richter, Andrés

(b Miranda de Ebro, 22 March 1937). Spanish composer. He studied music with Vladimir Ussachevski, Mario Davidovski and Edgard Varèse at Columbia University, New York (1962–5), and engineering at the Barcelona Polytechnic and Columbia University. He established the Barcelona Electronic Music Studio (1968) and was a founding member of the Phonos Electronic Music Studio in Barcelona and its vice-president since its establishment (1974). From 1968–73 he directed the music ensemble Conjunt Catalana de Musica Contemporanea. He has toured several countries, performing, lecturing, teaching and helping to set up electronic music studios.

Lewin-Richter has composed works in electronic studios at Columbia University, Barcelona, Madrid and Basle. His music always centres on electronic methods, whether using tape alone, combining it with instruments or using collage techniques in instrumental works. The voice also plays a prominent role in many of his works, as a result of his collaboration with the Catalan soprano Anna Ricci. He has written a large amount of music for dance, theatre and the cinema. He has learnt to manipulate magnetic tape using techniques characteristic of American tape music. His skilful use of gradual phase lag has led to some of his major achievements, bringing great beauty and expressiveness to his music.

WORKS

(selective list)

dramatic

Stage: Acción cero (ballet, F. Amat), 1973; Per tante cose (La nostra imatge) (A. Ricci, R. Román), 1974; Verd, estiu, altupne, hivern (ballet, C. Gelabert), 1978; Knosos (ballet, C. Gelabert), 1982; Cogida (ballet, C, Gelabert), 1984; Desfigurat (ballet, C. Gelabert), 1986; 99 Golpes (ballet, C. Gelabert), 1989

Incid music: The Gondola Eye (film score, I. Hugo), 1964; Guernica (Arrabal), 1979; Quorum (film score, A. Ricard), 1983; Batlantic (film score, J. Álvarez), 1985; La tempestad (La Cubana), 1986

vocal

all 1 voice, tape unless otherwise stated

Om, 1976; Secuencia III para Anna, 1976; El viento I (Homenaje a Lorca) (F. García Lorca), 1v, gui, tape ad lib, 1979; Wagler Walricci, 1981; 6 Songs (e.e. cummings), S, db, tape, 1983; In memoriam Manuel Valls, 1984; Isaac el cec (Sephardi poems), 1v, fl, gui, tape, 1984; Semblança (F. Formosa), 1v, fl, gui, tape, 1988

instrumental and electronic

Chbr: Collage (Homenaje a R. Gerhard), fl, cl, pf, perc, vn, vc, 1977; Reacciones III, 5 cl, tape, 1980; Tinell, 5 perc, tape, 1983; Juegos, 2 gui, tape, 1985; Solars vortices, fl, cl, vn, vc, perc, tape, 1985; Diálogos, 2 perc, tape, 1987; Dr Octopus, 5 perc, 1987; Frullato, 4 rec, tape, 1990; Radio 2, str qt, tape, 1996

Solo inst (all with tape): Secuencia I–X: various solo insts, tape, 1972–91; Reacciones I, b cl, 1979; Reacciones II, cl, 1979; Homenaje a Mompou, pf, 1983

Elecs: Estudio I, 1964; Estudio II, 1965; Fontecilla Mix, 1978; El viento II (Homenaje a Lorca), 1979; Baschetiada, 1980; Sancta Maria, 1984; Sones, 1982; Homenaje a Zinovieff, 1988; Strings, 1989; Ludus basiliensis, tape, 1991

Principal publisher: Clivis (Barcelona)

Principal recording companies: Hemisferio, Pegasus, Vox

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Marco: Historia de la música española vi: Siglo XX (Madrid, 1983; Eng trans., 1993, as Spanish Music in the Twentieth Century)

68 Compositors catalans (Barcelona, 1989)

ALBERT LLANAS RICH

Lewis, Sir Anthony (Carey)

(b Bermuda, 2 March 1915; d Haslemere, 5 June 1983). English musicologist, conductor, music administrator and composer. He went to Peterhouse, Cambridge, in 1932. Dent guided his studies at Cambridge and a grant from his college enabled him to study with Nadia Boulanger in 1934. In 1935 he took the BA and the MusB and joined the BBC music department, where he organized the ‘Foundations of Music’ series and later became responsible for all broadcast chamber music and recitals. In 1938 he devised a memorable series ‘Handel in Rome’. After the war he returned to the BBC to plan the Third Programme, which gave its first broadcast in 1946. Lewis took charge of the organization and general direction of all Third Programme music.

In 1947 he was elected Peyton and Barber Professor of Music at Birmingham University, where he continued his pioneering activities. During his 21-year professorship he conducted many revivals of orchestral, choral and stage works, particularly Handel operas; these performances are remembered for the high standards they established. During this time Lewis was also active in the recording studio and made the first English recordings of such works as Monteverdi's Vespro della beata vergine, Lully's Miserere, Purcell's The Fairy Queen and King Arthur and Handel's Semele and Sosarme (which he had conducted and broadcast in 1948).

In 1950 Lewis became honorary secretary of the Purcell Society, a position he held until he became chairman in 1976. About 1950 he proposed the initiation of a national edition of British music to the Royal Musical Association; this idea resulted in the inception of Musica Britannica in 1951. Lewis was its general editor from the beginning; with Thurston Dart, its first secretary, he supervised the production of over 30 volumes in the first 20 years of the series. From 1963 to 1969 he was president of the RMA, and between 1968 and 1982 he was principal of the Royal Academy of Music. As well as his tireless efforts on behalf of musicology (his first editions, for L'Oiseau-Lyre, were published in 1936), and of the stylish performance of the music itself, Lewis also composed; his works include a Choral Overture (1938), an Elegy and Capriccio for trumpet and orchestra (1947), a Trumpet Concerto (1950), A Tribute of Praise (1953) and a Horn Concerto (written for Dennis Brain and published in 1959). He also worked on music committees of the Arts Council. He was knighted in 1972.

WRITINGS

‘Matthew Locke: a Dynamic Figure in English Music’, PRMA, lxxiv, (1947–8), 57–71

‘A Newly-Discovered Song by Purcell’ [The Meditation ZD71], The Score, no.4 (1951), 2–10 [incl. edn]

‘Handel and the Aria’, PRMA, lxxxv (1958–9), 95–107

‘Purcell's Music for The Tempest’, MT, c (1959), 320–22

‘Purcell and Blow's “Venus and Adonis”’, ML, xliv (1963), 266–9

‘Notes and Reflections on a New Edition of Purcell's “The Fairy Queen”’, MR, xxv (1964), 104–8

The Language of Purcell: National Idiom or Local Dialect? (Hull, 1968) [Ferens Fine Art Lecture, U. of Hull, 20 Jan 1967]

‘Some Notes on Editing Handel’s Semele’, Essays on Opera and English Music in Honour of Sir Jack Westrup (Oxford, 1975), 79–83

ed., with N. Fortune: Opera and Church Music 1630–1750, NOHM, v (1975) [incl. ‘English Church Music’, 493–556]

‘Student Performers and Musicologists: Partners or Strangers?’, Challenges in Music Education: Perth, W. Australia, 1974 (Perth, 1976, 195–9

‘Choral Music’, NOHM, viii (1982), 593–607

EDITIONS

J. Blow: Venus and Adonis (Paris, 1939); Coronation Anthems and Anthems with Strings, MB, vii (1953, rev. 2/1969) [with W. Shaw]

G.F. Handel: Apollo and Daphne (London, 1956); Athalia (London, 1967); Semele (London, 1971) [with C. Mackerras]

H. Purcell: Miscellaneous Odes and Cantatas, Works, xxvii (London, 1957) [with T. Dart, D. Arundell and A. Goldsbrough]; Sacred Music, Part IV, Part V, Part VI, Part VII, ibid, xxviii (London, 1959, rev. 2/1967), xxix (1960, rev. 2/1967), xxx (1965), xxxii (1962, rev. 2/1967) [with N. Fortune]; The Fairy Queen, ibid, xii (London, rev. 2/1968) [with N. Fortune]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Dart: ‘A Background for Musica Britannica’, Music 1952, ed. A. Robertson (Harmondsworth, 1952), 18–28 esp. 24

N. Fortune: Obituary, MT, cxxiv (1983), 503 only

DAVID SCOTT/R

Lewis, Edward

(fl London, c1687–c1742). English viol and violin maker. His background and training remain obscure, although it is possible that he worked for the Jaye family in London. His early career was devoted to the viol, and the earliest surviving example, now in the Musée de la Musique in Paris, is a bass viol labelled ‘Edward Lewis in St. Paul Allay in London 1687’. Another bass viol fragment, heavily ornamented with geometrical inlays, is labelled from ‘The Harp, St. Pauls Ally 1703’. Both a Tenor (large viola) and Bass violin (cello) are listed in the sale of Thomas Britton's collection in 1714, but instruments of the violin family attributed to Lewis vary considerably in style and workmanship. A large cello of the period 1690 shows very effective work and a strongly Brescian form in the style of Rayman, but a violin labelled 1704 is far more sophisticated, and shows some degree of Cremonese influence. Another violin branded ‘E. Lewis 1742’ on the table is quite different in workmanship, and the date would imply an improbably long working career. The implications are that like other contemporary London instrument makers, he either employed several workmen, or simply relabelled instruments which he sold in his shop, and that the business may have been continued under his name by others.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

LütgendorffGL

‘Edward Lewis’, The Strad, lxvii (1966–7), 46–7

JOHN DILWORTH

Lewis, George [Zeno(n), George Joseph François Louis]

(b New Orleans, 13 July 1900; d New Orleans, 31 Dec 1968). American jazz clarinettist. He began learning music on the fife, then at about the age of 18 taught himself clarinet. He first played with the Black Eagle Band in Mandeville, Louisiana, where he encountered Isidore Fritz, a player he later acknowledged as having had a major influence on his style. During the early 1920s Lewis worked in New Orleans with Buddy Petit, then formed his own band, which included Henry ‘Red’ Allen. Later he performed with the Eureka Brass Band and the Olympia Orchestra. From 1942 to 1945 he recorded extensively, usually with Bunk Johnson, but also with the trumpeter Kid ‘Shots’ Madison and as the leader of his own small groups; during this period his playing exhibited a soaring intensity of tone combined with graceful lyric invention. His composition Burgundy Street Blues (1944, AM) remains unique in the New Orleans genre, being a solo accompanied by rhythm section only. Despite problems with his embouchure owing to major dental surgery, Lewis achieved national recognition when he played in New York with Johnson and Baby Dodds (1945–6). After returning to New Orleans, he formed the George Lewis Ragtime Band from the nucleus of Johnson’s group. By 1950 Lewis had become established as the seminal figure of the New Orleans black jazz revival. His playing during the following decade almost regained its former timbral purity; a very rapid filigree and seamless registral crossing became hallmarks of his technically fluent and highly individual style. He appeared at the Newport Jazz Festival (1957), made highly successful trips to Europe (1957, 1959) and toured Japan three times (early 1960s). From 1961 until a few weeks before his death he performed regularly at Preservation Hall in New Orleans, leading the Preservation Hall Jazz Band.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveJ (A. Ashforth)

J.A. Stuart [D. Tait]: Call him George (London, 1961)

T. Bethell: George Lewis: a Jazzman from New Orleans (Berkeley, 1977) [incl. discography]

E. Kraut: George Lewis: Streifzug durch ein Musiker-Leben (Menden, 1980) [incl. discography]

L. Fält and H.B.Håkånsson: Hymn to George: George Lewis on Record and Tape (n.p. [?Malmö and Stockholm], 1985)

Oral history material in LNT

ALDEN ASHFORTH

Lewis, George Emanuel

(b Chicago, 14 July 1952). American composer and trombonist. A trombone student of Dean Hey, he attended Yale University (BA 1974), where he joined the Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians (AACM), a Chicago-based collective devoted to experimental music. He studied composition with Muhal Richard Abrams, a founder of the AACM, and worked closely with many other AACM members. From 1980 to 1982 he was music director of The Kitchen, an avant-garde cultural centre in New York. He joined the music department at the University of California, San Diego, in 1991 and served as the Milhaud Professor of Music at Mills College in 1995. He has collaborated with the Count Basie and Gil Evans jazz orchestras, and with Misha Mengelberg, John Zorn, Richard Teitelbaum, Frederic Rzewski, Yuji Takahashi and others.

Lewis's early works include Music for Soprano Saxophone and Trombone (1975) and the Solo Trombone Record (Sackville 2012, 1977). His Shadowgraph pieces (1975–7) extend the performance possibilities of the standard jazz big band, employing unusual instrumentation, improvisation and graphic notation. After combining live and recorded sound in the late 1970s, he developed interactive computer pieces programmed to respond to live improvising soloists (Rainbow Family, 1982–5; Voyager, 1993). In collaboration with David Behrman he produced Mbirascope (1985), which connects a thumb piano to digital audio and video links, and encourages audience participation. Multimedia works of the 1990s explore black American history and popular culture (Changing with the Times, 1993; Virtual Discourse, 1993; North Star Boogaloo, 1996).

WORKS

(selective list)

El-ac: Tone Burst, trbn, tape, 1976; Chicago Slow Dance, any inst(s), tape, 1977; Chbr Music for Humans and Non-Humans, any inst(s), interactive cptr, 1979–84; A Friend, inst, tape, 1980; Homage to Charles Parker, a sax, perc, elec kbd, synth, elecs, 1980; Rainbow Family, any inst(s), interactive cptr, 1982–5; Audio Tick, 3 insts, interactive cptr, 1983; Rio Negro, cptr, 1992; Virtual Discourse, 4 perc, cptr, 1993; Voyager, inst(s), interactive cptr, 1993; North Star Boogaloo, perc, cptr, 1996

Other works: Music, s sax, trbn, 1975; Shadowgraph no.1, 5 sax, 4 tpt, 4 trbn, perc, pf, db, 1975; [Untitled], dream sequence, trbn, 1975; Blues, 2 wind, 2 kbd, 1976; Shadowgraph no.2, 1v, 5 sax, bn, 4 tpt, 4 trbn, perc, pf, db, 1976; Monads, any inst(s), 1977; Shadowgraph no.5, any inst(s), 1977; Triple Slow Mix, 2 insts, tuba, 1977; Imaginary Suite, any inst(s), 1978; Shadowgraph no.3, 5 sax, 4 tpt, 4 trbn, perc, pf, db, 1978; Second Woodstock Frag., pf, 1980; Carthera, trbn, pf, 1981; Tick, 3 insts, 1983; Endless Shout, pf, 1994; Collage, chbr orch, port, 1995; Ring Shout Ramble, sax qt, 1998; other solo and ens works

Recorded interviews in US-NHoh

Principal recording companies: hat ART, Hat Hut, Black Saint, Sackville

WRITINGS

‘Max in a Musical Context’, Computer Music Journal, xvii/2 (1993), 10–11

‘Singing the Alternative Interactivity Blues’, Front, vii/2 (1995)

‘Improvised Music after 1950: Afrological and Eurological Perspectives’, Black Music Research Journal, xvi (1996), 91–122

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Roads: ‘Improvisation with George Lewis’, Composers and the Computer, (New York, 1985), 75–87

STEVEN KEY

Lewis, Henry Jay

(b Los Angeles, 16 Oct 1932; d New York, 26 Jan 1996). American conductor. Following early studies in the piano, clarinet and double bass, he was appointed double bass player in the Los Angeles PO in 1951. He was drafted into the US Seventh Army in 1955, becoming double bass player and conductor in its Stuttgart-based symphony orchestra. In 1957 he returned to the Los Angeles PO. He was married to Marilyn Horne from 1960 to 1976. Lewis made his conducting début with the Los Angeles PO in 1961 substituting for Markevich. In the same period he founded the Los Angeles Chamber Orchestra, taking it on a European tour in 1963. From 1964 to 1965 he was assistant conductor of the Los Angeles PO, and was appointed music director of the Los Angeles Opera in 1965. In 1968 he became music director of the New Jersey SO, and over the next eight years significantly raised its status as a major regional institution. He conducted at La Scala in 1965, and in 1972 became the first black conductor to appear at the Metropolitan Opera. But later success eluded him. Although a frequent guest conductor (in Boston, Chicago, Cleveland, New York, San Francisco and in Europe), he never obtained a major permanent post. His last regular work was as music director for the Hilversum RSO (1989–93) and as director of the Opera-Music Theatre Institute in New Jersey. (SouthernB)

CHARLES BARBER

Lewis, Houston & Hyde.

English music publishers, successors to John Bland.

Lewis, Jerry Lee

(b Ferriday, LA, 29 Sept 1935). American pop singer, pianist and songwriter. With Elvis Presley, Carl Perkins and Johnny Cash, he was one of the ‘million dollar quartet’ of young rockabilly singers on Sam Phillips’ Sun Records label in Memphis, Tennessee in the mid-1950s. Lewis combined a ferocious pianistic technique which drew on boogie-woogie, Western swing, and rhythm and blues piano-playing with a nervous, frenzied singing style. His first hit record was the song most associated with him, Whole Lotta Shakin’ Goin’ On (1956) which introduced the abrupt shifts of tempo and whooping vocal techniques characteristic of much of his rock and roll material. This was followed by best-selling recordings of two Otis Blackwell compositions, Great Balls Of Fire and Breathless. During the 1960s Lewis regularly performed his early hits in concert but on record he turned increasingly towards the honky-tonk vein of country music. His lachrymose approach to ballads was in evidence on versions of the alcoholic’s lament What made milwaukee famous (has made a loser out of me) and Mickey Newbury’s self-pitying She even woke me up to say goodbye. In later years, Lewis’s turbulent personality and private life helped to sustain his status as a legend of rock and roll as did a 1989 biographical film, Great Balls Of Fire, in which Dennis Quaid played Lewis. See also C. Escott and M. Hawkins: Good Rockin’ Tonight: Sun Records and the Birth of Rock ‘n’ Roll (New York, 1991).

DAVE LAING

Lewis, John (Aaron)

(b LaGrange, IL, 3 May 1920). American jazz pianist and composer. He grew up in Albuquerque, New Mexico, where he began to learn the piano at the age of seven. His musical studies continued at the University of New Mexico. In 1946, with fellow black musician Kenny Clarke, he joined Dizzy Gillespie’s bop-style big band in New York. Further studies at the Manhattan School of Music, which led to a master’s degree in 1953, were interrupted in 1948 when the band made a concert tour of Europe. After returning to the USA, Lewis worked for Lester Young, Charlie Parker, Miles Davis, Gillespie, Illinois Jacquet and Ella Fitzgerald. He made some notable recordings with Parker, among them Parker’s Mood (1948, on the album The Genius of Charlie Parker, Savoy) and Blues for Alice (1951, on Charlie Parker, Clef).

In 1951–2 Lewis served as the pianist with the Milt Jackson Quartet; by the end of 1952 this group was renamed the Modern jazz quartet, with Lewis as its musical director. For the next two decades his musical activity centred on the MJQ, for which he wrote many pieces. From 1958 to 1982 he was also music director of the annual Monterey Jazz Festival, and during the late 1950s he was head of faculty for the summer clinics at the Lenox School of Jazz. He also formed the cooperative big band Orchestra USA, which performed and recorded third-stream compositions (1962–5). After the MJQ disbanded temporarily in 1974, Lewis held teaching positions at the City College of New York and at Harvard University. By the early 1980s he was performing with the reunited MJQ and with a sextet, the John Lewis Group, and in 1985, with Gary Giddins and Roberta Swann, he founded the American Jazz Orchestra, which performed until the end of 1992.

Lewis is among the most conservative of bop pianists. His improvised melodies, played with a delicate touch, are usually simple and quiet; the accompaniments are correspondingly light, with Lewis’s left hand often just grazing the keys to produce a barely audible sound. His method of accompanying soloists is similarly understated: he often plays simple countermelodies in octaves which combine with the solo and bass parts to form a polyphonic texture. Occasionally Lewis plays in a manner resembling the stride styles of James P. Johnson and Fats Waller, all the while retaining his light touch.

Many of Lewis’s solos have a degree of motivic unity which is rare in jazz. For example, his 64-bar solo in Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea (1957, on the album The Modern Jazz Quartet, Atl.) derives almost entirely from its first two bars, which in turn derive from the first four notes of the theme (ex.1). As the solo progresses Lewis subjects its opening motif to inversion (bar 9), chromatic alteration (bars 47 and 57) and a variety of other alterations in pitch and shape (bars 25–6, 41), which nevertheless retain their links with the basic figure.

Lewis is similarly conservative as a composer, for his music draws heavily on harmonic and melodic practices found in 18th-century European compositions. Since the 1950s he has written a number of third-stream works combining European compositional techniques and jazz improvisation. Most of these were composed for the MJQ, or for the quartet with instrumental ensembles of various sizes, and are published by MJQ Music. Among his best pieces for the MJQ are Django, the ballet suite The Comedy (1962, Atl.), and especially the four pieces Versailles, Three Windows, Vendome and Concorde, all of which combine fugal imitation and non-imitative polyphonic jazz in highly effective ways.

WORKS

(selective list)

Django (from Modern Jazz Quartet; 1954–5, Prst.); Versailles (from Fontessa; 1956, Atl.); Three Windows (from One Never Knows; 1957, Atl.); Sketch for Double String Quartet, Exposure (from Third Stream Music; 1957, 1959–60, Atl.); England’s Carol (from The Modern Jazz Quartet and Orchestra; 1960, Atl.); Vendome (from European Concert; 1960, Atl.); Concorde (from A Quartet is a Quartet is a Quartet; 1963, Atl.); Three Little Feelings (from Orchestra U.S.A.; 1963, Colpix); Mirjana of my Heart and Soul (from P.O.V.; 1975, Col.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

N. Hentoff: John Lewis (New York, 1960)

M. James: Ten Modern Jazzmen (London, 1960), 65–80

G. Schuller: ‘John Lewis on the Modern Jazz Beachhead’, High Fidelity, x/10 (1960), 54–5, 134–5

F. Thorne: ‘An Afternoon with John Lewis’, JR, iii/3 (1960), 6–9

R.J. Gleason: Celebrating the Duke, and Louis, Bessie, Billie, Bird, Carmen, Miles, Dizzy, and other Heroes (Boston, 1975)

L. Feather: The Pleasures of Jazz: Leading Performers on their Lives, their Music, their Contemporaries (New York, 1976)

T. Owens: ‘The Fugal Pieces of the Modern Jazz Quartet’, Journal of Jazz Studies, iv/1 (1976), 25–46

C.J. Stuessy: The Confluence of Jazz and Classical Music from 1950 to 1970 (diss., Eastman School, 1978), 348, 402

L. Lyons: The Great Jazz Pianists: Speaking of their Lives and Music (New York, 1983), 75–82

F. Davis: ‘Back in Time (John Lewis)’, In the Moment: Jazz in the 1980s (New York, 1986), 227–37

W. Knauer: Zwischen Bebop und Free Jazz: Komposition und Improvisation des Modern Jazz Quartet (Mainz, 1990)

T. Lalo: John Lewis (Montelimar, 1991) [incl. discography by J. Lubin and Lalo]

M. Bourne: ‘Bop Baroque the Blues’, Down Beat, lix/1 (1992), 24–7 [incl. discography]

THOMAS OWENS

Lewis, Meade (Anderson) ‘Lux’

(b Chicago, 4 Sept 1905; d Minneapolis, 7 June 1964). American pianist. He was raised in Louisville and Chicago, where in his teenage years he became a friend of fellow black jazz pianist Albert Ammons; together they learned to play boogie woogie. In 1927 he recorded his celebrated masterpiece Honky Tonk Train Blues (Para.), but by the time of its issue he was working with Ammons at the Silver Taxi Cab Company. During the early 1930s he played at brothels in Michigan. He then returned to Chicago and led a trio. In this setting (not at a car wash or the taxi company, as is commonly believed) he was rediscovered late in 1935 by John Hammond, who recorded a new unaccompanied version of Honky Tonk Train Blues (Para.). Lewis continued recording and later rose to prominence as a member of a boogie-woogie trio with Ammons and Pete Johnson for the first ‘From Spirituals to Swing’ concert at Carnegie Hall on 23 December 1938. The trio accompanied Joe Turner in New York and Chicago, after which Lewis resumed working as an unaccompanied soloist without notable success. His technical ability, energetic cross-rhythms and remarkable invention made him one of the most important figures of the boogie woogie craze of the late 1930s.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

W. Russell: ‘Boogie Woogie’, Jazzmen, ed. F. Ramsey and C.E. Smith (New York, 1939/R), 183–205

M. Harrison: ‘Boogie Woogie’, Jazz: New Perspectives on the History of Jazz, ed. N. Hentoff and A.J. McCarthy (New York, 1959/R), 105–37

‘Meade Lux Lewis: a Blues Man’s Story’, Down Beat, xxvi/4 (1959), 16–17 [interview]

W. Russell: ‘Three Boogie Woogie Pianists’, The Art of Jazz, ed. M. Williams (New York, 1959/R), 95–109, esp. 104–9

D. Hill and D. Mangurian: ‘Meade Lux Lewis’, Cadence, xiii/10 (1987), 16–28 [interview]

MARTIN WILLIAMS/BARRY KERNFELD

Lewis, Richard [Thomas, Thomas]

(b Manchester, 10 May 1914; d Eastbourne, 13 Nov 1990). English tenor. He studied in Manchester with Norman Allin and made his début in 1941 with the Carl Rosa Company, singing Almaviva and Pinkerton. After World War II he resumed his studies in London. In 1947 he sang the Male Chorus (Rape of Lucretia) at Glyndebourne and at Covent Garden, adding Peter Grimes with the resident company the same season and later singing Tamino and Alfredo. For Glyndebourne (1948–74) he sang Don Ottavio, Ferrando, Admetus (Alceste), Idomeneus, Tom Rakewell (British première of The Rake’s Progress, at Edinburgh, 1953), Bacchus, Florestan and Monteverdi’s Nero and Eumaeus. For Covent Garden Lewis created Troilus in Walton’s Troilus and Cressida (1954), Mark in The Midsummer Marriage (1955) and Achilles in King Priam (1962, Coventry) and sang Don José, Hoffmann, Hermann, Captain Vere, and Aaron in the first British staging of Moses und Aron (1965), which he also sang at Boston in its American stage première (1966). He made his San Francisco début in 1955 as Don José, then sang Troilus, Jeník, Grigory, Massenet’s Des Grieux, the Captain (Wozzeck), Alwa (Lulu), Jason, Pinkerton, Eisenstein and Herod. His mellifluous, flexible voice was used with great intelligence, as can be heard on his two recordings of Idomeneo and in recorded extracts from Così fan tutte and Troilus and Cressida. Lewis also had a notable career on the concert platform. He took part in the première of Stravinsky’s Canticum sacrum (1956, Venice), and was a leading exponent of the tenor parts in all the main oratorios. He was particularly renowned for his Gerontius, which he twice recorded.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H.D. Rosenthal: ‘Richard Lewis’, Opera, vi (1955), 144–8

A. Blyth: ‘Richard Lewis 1914–1990’, Opera, xlii (1991), 33–6

N. Ross-Russell: There will I Sing: the Making of a Tenor (London, 1996)

ALAN BLYTH

Lewis, Robert Hall

(b Portland, OR, 22 April 1926; d Baltimore, MD, 22 March 1996). American composer. He studied with Rogers and Hanson at the Eastman School of Music, Rochester, New York (BM 1949, MM 1951, PhD 1964), with Nadia Boulanger and Bigot in Paris (1952–3), and with Apostel, Krenek and Schiske in Vienna (1955–7). In 1954 he attended Monteux’s conducting school. Lewis taught at Goucher College and the Peabody Conservatory from 1958 and, from 1969 to 1980, at Johns Hopkins University, where he became professor in 1972 (all in Baltimore, Maryland). He performed professionally on the trumpet and appeared as a conductor in the USA and abroad. Among his awards are a Kosciuszko Foundation Chopin Award (1951), two Fulbright Scholarships (1955–7), two Guggenheim Fellowships (1966, 1980), an NEA grant (1976) and an award from the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters (1976).

Lewis composed mostly chamber and orchestral music. His earlier compositions were concerned with linear developmental processes using serial methods, but the ordered growth and evolution apparent in his music of the 1960s and 70s reflect a change in style. Beyond his basic predilection for inventive textures, unusual timbres, complex rhythms, fluent polyphony and rich harmony in a freely atonal context, Lewis sought new modes of expression in works since the early 1970s. These include spatial effects (Moto, Due madrigali), quotations (Atto, Kantaten), taped sounds (whale songs in Nuances II), passages in different tempos played simultaneously (Osservazioni II, Moto) and limited use of aleatory techniques. All of these elements are controlled by a strong intellect and by technical skills of the highest order. Many of his works have been recorded.

WORKS

orchestral

Poem, str, 1949; Concert Ov., 1951; Sinfonia; Expression for Orch, 1955; Prelude and Finale, 1959; Designs, 1963; Sym. no.1, 1964; Music for 12 Players, 1965; 3 Pieces, 1965, rev. 1966; Conc. for Chbr Orch, 1967, rev. 1972; Sym. no.2, 1971; Intermezzi, 1972; Nuances II, 1975; Osservazioni II, wind, kbd, hp, perc, 1978; Moto, 1980; Atto, str, 1981; Sym. no.3, 1982–5; Conc., str, 4 tpt, hp, pf, 1984; Destini, str, wind, 1985; Movements on Scenes of Hieronymous Bosch, 1989; Sym. no.4, 1990

chamber

Str Qt no.1, 1956; 5 Movts, pf, 1960; Str Qt no.2, 1962; Toccata, vn, perc, 1963; Music for Brass Qnt, 1966; Trio, cl, vn, pf, 1966; Monophonies I–IX, solo wind, 1966–77; Tangents, double brass qt, 1968; Sonata, vn, 1968; Divertimento, 6 insts, 1969; Inflections I, db, 1969; Inflections II, pf trio, 1970; Serenades I, pf, 1970; Fantasiemusik I, vc, pf, 1973; Combinazioni I, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1974; Osservazioni I, fls, pf, perc, 1975; Serenades II, fl + pic, vc, pf, 1976; Combinazioni III (J. Rubin), nar, ob + eng hn, perc, 1977; Combinazioni IV, vc, pf, 1977; Duetto da camera, vn, pf, 1977; Facets, vc, pf, 1978; Fantasiemusik II, cl, pf, 1978; A due I, fl + pic + a fl, hp, 1981; A due II, ob + eng hn, perc, 1981; Combinazioni V, 4 va, 1982; Serenades III, brass qnt, 1982; Wind Qnt, 1983; Archi, pf, 1984; Fantasiemusik III, sax, pf, perc, 1984; A due III, bn, hp, 1985

vocal

Acquainted with the Night (R. Frost), S, chbr orch, 1951; 5 Songs (R. Felmayer), S, cl, hn, vc, pf, 1957; 2 madrigali (G. Ungaretti), chorus, 1972; 3 Prayers of Jane Austen, small chorus, pf, perc, 1977; Kantaten (anon.), chorus, pf, 1980; Monophony X (anon.), S, 1983

Principal publishers: Doblinger, Presser, Seesaw

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Gonzalez: The Symphonies of Robert Hall Lewis (diss., Peabody Conservatory, 1979)

SAM DI BONAVENTURA/R

Lewis, Thomas Christopher

(b Lambeth, 1833; d Clapham, 7 Jan 1915). English organ builder, bellfounder and piano maker. He practised as an architect before setting up as an organ builder in about 1860 with a workshop in Clapham. Recent research (Gray, 1996) has clarified the firm's metamorphoses. The factory moved to Shepherd's Lane (later Ferndale Road), Brixton, in 1866. In 1883 Lewis and Company was formed and by 1898 John Michell Courage, the brewer (who seems to have served an apprenticeship with Lewis), was the major shareholder. Lewis himself withdrew in 1901, worked briefly for Norman & Beard, and then established himself in business again as ‘Thomas C. Lewis’ in about 1907. He retired about 1913. Lewis and Company was ultimately acquired by the Willis family (1919) and the title disappeared in 1925.

Bellfounding was conducted from the Brixton factory between 1878 and 1888 when the business was sold to Alfred Lawson of the Whitechapel Bell Foundry. Little is known of Lewis's piano-making activities, though he took out patents for pianos in 1866, 1898 and 1899.

Lewis is increasingly recognized as a distinctive and significant figure in late 19th-century English organ building. He was implacably opposed to Henry Willis and the orchestral organ, insisting on the importance of diapason choruses voiced on relatively low pressures, generously scaled, and capped with bright 2's (smaller organs) or big Quint mixtures (larger instruments). Schulze was his inspiration, and as well as the German builder's approach to choruswork, Lewis took up his Lieblich Gedacts, Hohlflötes, Geigen Principals and Rohrflötes. He had less time for Schulze's reeds and developed his own style with the musical purpose of adding colour and vitality to the flue choruses. From France, he adopted Harmonic Flutes, Celestes, Gambas and orchestral reeds. These different elements came together to form a coherent whole in Lewis's magnum opus, the organ for Southwark Cathedral (1897).

In addition to his large organs, Lewis built small church and chamber organs to standard designs; these included his version of the ‘Scudamore’ organ, and a range of ‘Lieblich’ organs first advertised in the 1860s. All were built using good materials – spotted metal pipework was a hallmark of the Lewis style. Consoles were elegant, the larger ones with low jambs (sometimes terraced) and a horizontal layout of drawstops. Lewis experimented with both pneumatic and electric actions, enabling him to provide a generous range of console accessories, including, for example, the ‘key touches’ (combinations) in the concert organ for the Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum, Glasgow (1901).

Lewis's major commissions included: St Mary's Roman Catholic Cathedral, Newcastle upon Tyne (1869); St Peter's, Eaton Square, London (1874); St Andrew's Hall, Glasgow (1877); Ripon Cathedral (1878); the People's Palace, Mile End Road, London (1884). The Kelvingrove organ survives, together with other substantial instruments at St Mary's, Studley Royal (1875), St George's, Cullercoats, near Newcastle upon Tyne (1885) and St Michael's, Inveresk, near Edinburgh (1892). The Southwark Cathedral organ has been rebuilt, as has Melbourne Cathedral (1890), but both still speak with the authentic Lewis voice.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BicknellH

T.C. Lewis: A Protest against the Modern Development of Unmusical Tone (London, 1897)

G. Benham: ‘Interesting London Organs XXXII: Southwark Cathedral’, The Organ, xii (1932–3), 90–98

J. Maidment: ‘Some Reflections on the Work of T.C. Lewis and his Organ in St Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne’, The Organ, lxvi (1987), 133–9

N.J. Thistlethwaite: The Making of the Victorian Organ (Cambridge, 1990)

C. Gray: The Life, Companies and Work of Thomas Christopher Lewis (1833–1915) (thesis, U. of Reading, 1996)

NICHOLAS THISTLETHWAITE

Lewkovitch, Bernhard

(b Copenhagen, 28 May 1927). Danish composer. He was a choirboy at the Roman Catholic St Ansgars Kirche; after his schooling he was admitted to the Royal Danish Conservatory to study the organ, theory and music history. In 1948 he graduated in theory, in 1949 he received a degree as an organist, and in 1950 he took lessons in composition and orchestration with Schierbeck and Jersild. Later he studied for a short while in France. From 1947 to 1963 he was organist at St Ansgars Kirche, and also precentor from 1953. From 1973 he remained connected with the Catholic church in Denmark by working as an organist. He founded and directed the mixed chorus Schola Cantorum and the all-male Schola Gregoriana; these groups, besides singing Lewkovitch’s own compositions, did a great deal to make the sacred music of the Middle Ages and Renaissance better known in Denmark, notably through numerous broadcasts. As a composer, Lewkovitch is strongly attached to the liturgy of the Catholic Church and its music. Even such early works as Mariavise op.1 (1947) display the influence of Gregorian chant, together with a free exploitation of the church modes. In the early 1950s this manner was developed in sacred music (including the Three Psalms op.9 and the Mass op.10) and also in secular pieces to texts by contemporary Danish writers.

In about 1955 there was a change of style brought about by Lewkovitch’s interest in the works of Stravinsky (particularly the Mass) that he was then writing about in the Dansk musiktidsskrift. With the Three Madrigals (1954–5) he abandoned modality to experiment with bi- and polytonality, and eventually to employ 12-note serial methods in the Cantata sacra (1959) and the Improperia per voci (1961), a work that combines dodecaphonic sections with spoken and improvised passages. This adventurous phase brought Lewkovitch considerable renown in Denmark and abroad; his music was performed at the ISCM festivals in Cologne (1960) and Amsterdam (1963). The period culminated in Il cantico delle creature (1962–3), in which there is no conventional notation and no specification of pitch. The piece progresses from barely audible whispering to a rhythmically strict but melodically free declamation, in which words are loosened into syllables, and the syllables recombined. After writing this work Lewkovitch resigned his official connections with the Church, and during the next four years he completed only a few works. When he returned to sustained composition, it was again to write liturgical works in a style akin that of his works from the mid-1950s.

WORKS

(selective list)

sacred vocal

Mariavise (J. Jørgensen), op.1, chorus, 1947; 3 Psalms, op.9, chorus, 1952; Mass, op.10, chorus, 1952; 3 Motets, op.11, chorus, 1952; Mass, op.15, chorus, wind, hp, 1954; Missa brevis, male chorus, 1955; 10 Latin Motets, male chorus, 1957; 3 orationes, T, ob, bn, 1957–8; Cantata sacra, T, fl, eng hn, cl, bn, trbn, vc, 1959; Improperia per voci, chorus, 1961; Il cantico delle creature, 8 male vv, 1962–3; Veni Creator Spiritus, chorus, 6 trbn, 1967; Laudi a nostra signora, chorus, 1969; Stabat mater, chorus, 1970; Sub vesperum, chorus, 1970, rev. 1997; 32 motets, chorus, 1976; Mass, chorus, 2 hn, 1978; Vesper, T, mixed chorus, org, 1979; Salve Regina, boys’ choir, org, 1981; Pater noster, chorus, 2 obbligato wind, 1983; Via Stenonis, T, mixed chorus, bn, 1987; Laude all povera, 10 vv, 1988–9; Anthems to the Blessed Virgin, chorus, 1992, rev. 1994; De lamentatione Jeremiae, chorus, 1994; Alle mine kilder, 48 motets, chorus, 1996

secular vocal

Sommeren (O. Sarvig), op.6, chorus, 1951; Grønne sange (Sarvig), op.7, male chorus, 1951; 6 Songs (Jørgensen), op.8, Bar, pf, 1952; 5 danske madrigaler (F. Jaeger), op.12, chorus, 1952; 3 Madrigals (Tasso), op.13, chorus, 1954–5; 3 canzonetter (G. Chiabrera, J. Vittorelli), Bar, pf, 1956; 8 børnesange [8 Children’s Songs] (H. Rasmussen), 3vv, 1957; 3 Songs (Rasmussen), 3vv, 1958; 3 Songs (Sarvig), male chorus, 1965; Sangvaerk after Danish folksongs, 3vv/1v, pf, 1968; 8 børnesange (Lewkovitch), 1v, pf, 1970; Nocturne, chorus, 1993; Apollo’s Art: 4 engelske madrigaler, chorus, 1994; 3 engelske madrigaler, male choir, 1996; 5 engelske madrigaler, T, cl, hn, bn, 1997

instrumental

Sonatine, pf, 1947; 4 pf sonatas, opp.2–5, 1948, 1949, 1950, 1950; Dansesuite no.1, op.16, pf/orch, 1955; Dansesuite no.2, op.17, pf, 1960; 65 Organ Chorales, 1972; 6 Partitas, org, 1973

Principal publisher: Hansen

WRITINGS

‘Stravinskijs klagesange’, DMt, xxxiv (1959), 37–40

‘Interviews med Stravinsky’, DMt, xxxiv (1959), 145–9

‘Igor Stravinskij igen’, DMt, xxxv (1960), 242–3

‘Hvorfor og til hvad’, DMt, xxxvii (1962), 69–72 [on Improperia]

‘Ord og toner uden noder’, Nutida musik, xii/1 (1968–9), 53–5

Numerous other articles and reviews in Berliner tidsskrift (1955–) and DMt (1952–62)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

B. Wallner: Vår tids musik i Norden från 20-tal till 60-tal (Stockholm, 1968)

H. Lenz: ‘Det er ingen kvalitet i sig selve at vaere komponist’ [There is nothing special about being a composer], DMt, lxi (1986–7), 237–9

JENS BRINCKER

Ley, Henry George

(b Chagford, 30 Dec 1887; d nr Ottery St Mary, 24 Aug 1962). English organist. As a choirboy at St George’s, Windsor, and at the RCM, he studied the organ with Walter Parratt. He won an organ scholarship to Keble College, Oxford, and while still an undergraduate was appointed organist of Christ Church (1909). He was made choragus of the University and joined the staff of the RCM. In 1926 he became precentor at Eton College, where his remarkable playing and genial personality left a lasting impression on generations of schoolboys, and where he persuaded such artists as Jelly d’Arányi, Marcel Dupré and Harold Samuel to perform. He retired in 1945 but continued to examine for the RCO and to give recitals.

STANLEY WEBB

Ley, Salvador

(b Guatemala City, 2 Jan 1907; d Guatemala City, 21 March 1985). Guatemalan composer and pianist. After piano and theory studies with Herculano Alvardo and Louis Roche in Guatemala (1917–22) he moved to Berlin. There he attended the Hochschule für Musik, took private piano lessons from George Bertram (1922–30), and studied theory and composition with Wilhelm Klatte (1923–5) and Hugo Leichtentritt (1928–9). He also studied the piano with Egon Petri at Zakopane in 1931, though his performing career had already begun in 1926. In 1934 he returned to Guatemala and was appointed director of the National Conservatory, a post he held until 1937, and again from 1944 until his emigration to the USA in 1953. Active in the New York area as a coach and accompanist, from 1963 he taught at the Westchester Conservatory of Music in White Plains, New York. In 1970 he moved to St Petersburg, Florida, where he was active as a teacher, coach and organist. He did much to promote Latin-American music in the area, including organizing several Festivals of Latin-American Culture at local colleges.

In 1978 Ley returned to Guatemala to receive a pension from the government awarded in recognition of his services to the musical culture of the country. He remained active as soloist with the National SO and as a teacher at the National Conservatory. He returned to the USA for concert tours in Florida and New York in 1979 and 1980. Ley's music was influenced by the cultural climate he found in Berlin in his youth, and by his friendships and life-long professional associations with Busoni, Schnabel, Walter, Furtwängler, Klemperer and Edwin Fischer. He also made a conscious effort to employ the dance forms, rhythms and melodic gestures of Latin-American – especially Guatemalan – music in his works.

WORKS

Op: Lera (2, G. Campbell), 1960, unperf., except in concert extracts

Orch: Serenade, str, 1949; Obertura jocosa, 1950; Concertante, va, str, 1962

Songs (1v, pf): 5 Songs (E. González Martínez), 1940; 6 Songs (R.M. Rilke), 1942; Der Krieg (M. Claudius), 1950; Chbr Music nos.1 and 5 (J. Joyce), 1958; 6 Songs (Campbell), 1958; Hymn to Being (Campbell), 1962; Yo pienso en tí (J. Batres Montúfar), 1963; Tarde del trópico (R. Dario), 1969; We face each other (Campbell), 1969; The Serpent (T. Roethke), 1970

Chbr and kbd: Danza fantástica, pf, 1950; Piece, va, pf, 1956; Danza exotica, pf, 1959; Semblanza in Memoriam Maryla Jonas, pf, 1959; Suite, fl, pf, 1962; 4 Pf Pieces, 1966

Principal publishers: Elkan-Vogel, Peer

CHARLES MICHAEL CARROLL

Leybach, Ignace Xavier Joseph

(b Gambsheim, Alsace, 17 July 1817; d Toulouse, 23 May 1891). French composer, organist and pianist. He studied first in Strasbourg and later in Paris with Pixis, Kalkbrenner and Chopin. In 1844 he became organist at Toulouse Cathedral. He was a noted pianist and teacher as well as a remarkably prolific composer of superficial works designed for popular consumption, publishing well over 200 operatic fantasias and salon pieces for piano, of which several, notably nocturnes, were often included in anthologies. Among his other works are L'organiste pratique (c1880–90), Le nouvel organiste (1881–3), methods for piano (1888) and harmonium (1864) and several volumes of songs and motets with organ.

SUSAN THIEMANN SOMMER

Leyden, John

(b Denholm, Roxburghshire, 8 Sept 1775; d Batavia [now Jakarta], Indonesia, 28 Aug 1811). Scottish antiquarian and folksong collector. He was a powerful force in Edinburgh's intellectual life from the mid-1790s until his departure for India in 1802. His two outstanding contributions to Scottish folksong scholarship were in helping Walter Scott to collect material for the Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border (1802) and editing the 16th-century political tract The Complaynt of Scotland, adding to it a Preliminary Dissertation which, though prone to irrelevance, is a mine of indispensable material about Scottish folk music and Border customs. Leyden also edited the Scots Magazine for a short period, did pioneering philological work on the Scots dialect and on oriental languages, wrote poetry prolifically and was a qualified surgeon.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Morton: Poetical Remains of the late Dr John Leyden, with Memoirs of his Life (London, 1819)

M.R. Dobie: ‘The Development of Scott's “Minstrelsy”’, Edinburgh Bibliographical Society Transactions, ii/1 (1940), 67–87

C.G. Zug: ‘Sir Walter Scott, Robert Jamieson and the New “Minstrelsy”’, ML, lvii (1976), 398–403

DAVID JOHNSON

Leydi, Roberto

(b Ivrea, 21 Feb 1928). Italian ethnomusicologist. He studied in Milan, where he was music critic for the newspaper Avanti!, 1947–52. He conducted fieldwork in northern Italy (1965–8), collecting traditional songs, and his research led him to create radio broadcasts and theatrical performances featuring this repertory. He was appointed professor of ethnomusicology at the University of Bologna in 1972 and served as a board member of the Centro Nazionale di Studi di Musica Popolare; he is also president of the Società Italiana di Etnomusicologia. His later work focusses on liturgical music and traditional instruments.

WRITINGS

Eroi e fuorilegge nella ballata popolare americana (Milan, 1958)

Musica popolare e musica primitiva (Turin, 1960)

La musica dei primitivi (Milan, 1961)

‘Precisazioni su “Mahagonny” e altre questioni a proposito di Kurt Weill’, RaM, xxxii (1962), 195–209

Canti sociali italiani, i (Milan, 1963)

ed., with S. Mantovani: Dizionario della musica popolare europea (Milan, 1970)

ed.: Il Folk music revival (Palermo, 1972)

with S. Mantovani and C. Pederiva: I canti popolari italiani (Milan, 1973)

ed.: Canti popolari italiani (Milan, 1977, 3/1984)

Musica popolare a Creta (Milan, 1983)

‘Una nuova attenzione per la musica liturgica di tradizione orale’, Musica e liturgia nella cultura mediterranea: Venice 1985, 19–34

ed., with F. Guizzi: Strumenti musicali e tradizioni popolari in Italia (Rome, 1985)

with F. Guizzi: Le zampogne d'Italia (Milan, 1985)

‘Typological Outlines of the Italian Bagpipes’, Studia instrumentorum musicae popularis IX: Orta San Giulio 1986, 108–20

‘Diffusione e volgarizzazione’, SOI, vi (1988), 301–92

Canti e musiche popolari italiane (Milan, 1990)

L'altra musica (Milan, 1991)

with others: ‘Gesangsformen und vokale Gattungen’, Volks und Popularmusik in Europa, ed. D. Stockmann (Laaber, 1992), 145–279

‘Discografia della musica popolare italiana, i: Italia settentrionale’, Fonti musicali in Italia, vii (1993), 141–240

‘Italy’, Ethnomusicology: Historical and Regional Studies, ed. H. Myers (London, 1993), 125–9

Canté bergera: la ballata piemontese dal repertorio di Teresa Viarengo (Vigevano, 1995)

‘Discografia della musica popolare italiana, ii: Italia centrale’, Fonti musicali italiane, i (1996), 163–99

ed.: Guida alla musica popolare in Italia (Lucca, 1996)

ed., with F. Guizzi: Gli strumenti musicali e l'etnografia italiana (1881–1911) (Lucca, 1996)

TERESA M. GIALDRONI

Leyding [Leiding], Georg Dietrich

(b Bücken, nr Nienburg, 23 Feb 1664; d Brunswick, 10 May 1710). German composer and organist. He was the son of a retired riding master of the French lifeguards. He showed a marked propensity for music at an early age. In 1679 he went to Brunswick to study with the organist Jacob Bölsche and in 1684 visited Hamburg and Lübeck to obtain further instruction from Reincken and Buxtehude. Soon, however, he had to return to Brunswick, where he deputized for the ailing Bölsche. After Bölsche’s death in the same year he succeeded him in the posts of organist of St Ulrich and St Blasius, and he later became organist of the Magnikirche as well. At the end of the 1680s he took composition lessons with Johann Theile, Hofkapellmeister at nearby Wolfenbüttel. According to Walther he was ‘primarily a composer for the organ (to which … his many extant keyboard pieces bear testimony)’. Only five of his works survive, however (ed. K. Beckmann, Sämtliche Orgelwerke, Wiesbaden, 1984). Among them are three preludes, in B, C and E, which are noteworthy for the virtuosity of their pedal parts. The other two are a set of chorale variations, Von Gott will ich nicht lassen, and a setting, likewise for organ, of the chorale Wie schön leucht’ uns der Morgenstern (possibly a fragment of a chorale fantasia).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FrotscherG

GerberNL

WaltherML

A.G. Ritter: Zur Geschichte des Orgelspiels, vornehmlich des deutschen, im 14. bis zum Anfange des 18. Jahrhunderts, i (Leipzig, 1884/R), 183

M. Seiffert: ‘Das Plauener Orgelbuch von 1708’, AMw, ii (1920), 371–93

J. Wolgast: Georg Böhm: ein Meister der Übergangszeit vom 17. zum 18. Jahrhundert (diss., U. of Berlin, 1924), 121, appx 11–15

E. Bruggaier: Studien zur Geschichte des Orgelpedalspiels in Deutschland bis zur Zeit Johann Sebastian Bachs (diss., U. of Frankfurt, 1959), 98

HORST WALTER

L.H. Abbreviation for left hand

(also Ger. linke Hand).

Lhéritier [Lerethier], Isaac

(fl c1540). French composer. The Lyons publisher Moderne printed three of his chansons: De loing travail and O vous omnes par trop aventureulx (RISM 1541⁸ and 1543¹⁴ respectively; both ed. in SCC, xxviii, 1993) and, in a lute intabulation by Francescho Bianchini, Quant tu vouldras (1547).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L.L. Perkins: The Motets of Jean Lhéritier (diss., Yale U., 1965), 53–5

S.F. Pogue: Jacques Moderne, Lyons Music Printer of the Sixteenth Century (Geneva, 1969)

LEEMAN L. PERKINS

Lhéritier [Lheretier, Lhiretier, Lirithier], Jean [Johannes]

(b c1480; d after 1551). French composer. According to notarial documents drawn up in Avignon in the 1540s, ‘Johannes Lhéritier’ was a ‘clericus morinensis diocesis’, a native of the former diocese of Thérouanne (in the present-day Pas-de-Calais). A contemporary, Giovanthomaso Cimello, called him a disciple of Josquin Des Prez. If Lhéritier did have direct contact with Josquin, it must have been in France, perhaps during Josquin's brief association with musicians of the royal French court in the early 1500s.

The archives of the Estense court show that a ‘Metregian leretier’ arrived in Ferrara towards the end of 1506 and remained there until 5 June 1508 when Duke Alfonso I gave him leave to return to France. This was probably his first trip to Italy; in the years following the only known archival evidence of his activity comes from Italian centres.

‘Johannes Heritier’ figures in a payment roll drawn up at the papal court of Leo X and dated 1 May 1514 (but with additions made until as late as 17 September 1516); however, he is not identified as either cantor or musicus as are half a dozen of the many other names included. From 28 July 1521 until 8 August 1522 he served as capellanus and maestro di cappella at the French national church in Rome, S Luigi dei Francesi, where he signed his name in the account books as ‘Jo. Lhiretier’. His presence in the city during this period would help to account for the inclusion of motets attributed to Lhéritier in manuscripts of Roman provenance, not only those compiled while he may have been in the region (such as the Medici Codex of 1518, I-Fl B.L.666, with one, and Rvat C.S.26, copied during the papacy of Leo X, with three) but also those copied considerably later (such as the Palazzo Massimo collection of 1532–4, Rmassimo VI.C.6.23–4, with five, and the Cappella Giulia manuscript of 1536, Rvat C.G.XII.4, with seven).

Lhéritier may have left Rome already in either 1522 or 1523, but he cannot be traced again until 20 May 1525, when he was working as a singer in the chapel of Federico Gonzaga, Marquis of Mantua. An exchange of letters involving Federico, his ambassador to Rome, Francesco Gonzaga, and his mother, Isabella d'Este, implies that by then the composer had already been at the Gonzaga court for some time. A fairly lengthy connection of some sort first with Ferrarese and then with Mantuan musical circles is also suggested by the inclusion of five of Lhéritier's motets in the print published in Ferrara by Johannes de Buglhat and his associates (RISM 1538⁵). According to the same correspondence, however, Lhéritier left Gonzaga service before 3 July 1525 for that of the Bishop of Verona, Gian Matteo Giberti.

The Gonzaga correspondence also refers to a benefice that had evidently been given to Lhéritier by the Cardinal of Auch, François de Clermont. This is the earliest reference to what must have been a prolonged association between patron and composer; a series of notarial documents, the first dated 28 April 1540, refers to five separate benefices awarded to Lhéritier by the cardinal, who was the papal legate at Avignon, and a procuratorium drafted there three days after Clermont's death on 2 March 1541 describes the composer as ‘sue capelle magister’. The latest of these documents indicates that Lhéritier was still alive in 1552, but gives no clue concerning where and how he was then employed. Scotto's publication of the Moteti de la fama under Lhéritier's name in 1555 may point to a period of residence in Venetian territories. This hypothesis is also supported by Pietro Gaetano's treatise Oratio de origine et dignitate musices (written between 1566 and 1574). Gaetano, a singer at S Marco, affirmed that Lhéritier had been his praeceptor but provided no information about the date and place of his studies.

Compositions attributed to Lhéritier survive in at least 66 manuscripts and 45 printed collections of the 16th century. The majority originated in Italy, but France, the Netherlands, Spain, Germany, Austria, and even Poland and Bohemia are also represented. His Missa ‘On a mal dit de mon amy’ is of the type that began to be cultivated by Mouton and Févin around 1500 and is aptly designated ad imitationem. The four points of imitation that constitute the substance of Févin's three-voice chanson serve as the starting-point for the new composition at the main structural divisions of the four major sections of the mass (the Agnus Dei was not composed separately, and is to be sung super Kyrie). His Magnificat settings are more traditional in that the liturgical reciting note occurs in each of them, heard at times in extended values and occasionally carried by the tenor, but more often migrating from voice to voice or permeating imitatively the entire texture.

At the focal point of Lhéritier's compositional activity, clearly, was the motet. For texts he favoured antiphons, psalms, responsories and devotional verse, but he drew on other Latin sources as well, including an erotic secular poem, Johannes Pontanus's Cum rides mihi. Slightly more than half of his motets are in a single section; the remainder are divided into two partes. In many, some sort of structural repetition is used to articulate the formal design. This is done most consistently in the responsory settings where the return to the music of the respond in the liturgy is retained in the polyphony. Similar effects are achieved elsewhere by the refrain-like repetition of distinctive material, a dual statement of the concluding section or some analogous procedure. Only in his settings of the Marian antiphons for Compline did Lhéritier consistently employ the liturgical plainsong traditionally associated with a given text. In these works he generally derived the melodic material from the chant, which therefore pervades the musical fabric in imitation; occasionally, however, in motets for five or six voices, the cantus firmus is presented in extended note values, or canonic imitation is used to generate one part from another. He seems to have adopted these traditional techniques primarily to enhance the potential sonorous impact of a work and, particularly where a second text is involved, to deepen the meaning through associative juxtaposition. The only chanson with a reliable attribution to him, Jan, petit Jan, is in the light, declamatory style that was becoming current in France in the 1520s.

The compositional procedure basic to all of Lhéritier's works is syntactic imitation, alternating with homophonic writing where needed for textual or formal reasons, or simply for variety. The entries of the separate voices tend to be more closely and evenly spaced in the later works, resulting in a generally fuller texture. His melodies, like those of Mouton, rise and fall in smooth, nicely balanced arches in which conjunct motion predominates; leaps are usually followed by a turn of direction so that intervening pitches are filled. Phrases generally open with a syllabic declamation of the text at the beginning of a phrase, but may be continued melismatically. That modal consistency was an important consideration is evident from Lhéritier’s use of final and confinal as orientation points within the melodic line and from his selection of internal cadential pitches that conform to the usage described by the theorists (exemplified in much liturgical chant). With his carefully regulated counterpoint and suave melodic writing, Lhéritier was clearly one of the important northern masters who, like Mouton, anticipated essential characteristics of the style associated with Palestrina. His historical significance derives in large measure from the role he played not only in the shaping of those stylistic norms, but also in their dissemination throughout the rest of Europe, especially on the Italian peninsula.

WORKS

only sources not in modern edition listed

Edition: Johannis Lhéritier opera omnia, ed. L.L. Perkins, CMM, xlviii/1–2 (1969) [P]

sacred

Moteti de la fama, libro primo, 4vv (Venice, 1555)

Missa ‘On a mal dit de mon amy’, 4vv (on Févin’s chanson), P 1, DK–Kk Ny.Kgl.Saml.1848–2^o (anon.), I-CMac P (olim E) (anon.)

Alma Redemptoris mater, 4vv, P 218; Alma Redemptoris mater, 5vv, P 84, H-Bu 23 (anon.), E-SI A21 (anon.); Angelus Domini descendit, 4vv, P 225; Ascendens Christus in altum, 4vv, P 139, I-CMac D (olim F) (anon.); Ave domina mea, 4vv, P 66; Ave Maria, gratia plena, 4vv, P 240; Ave mater matris Dei, 4vv, P 95, MOe L.11.8 (anon.); Ave regina celorum, 4vv, P 79, Rvat VM 571 (anon.); Ave verum corpus natum, 5vv, P 321; Ave virgo gloriosa, 3vv, P 330; Ave virgo gloriosa, 4vv, P 285, Rmassimo VI.C.6.23–4 (Lhéritier)

Beata Dei genetrix, 4vv, P 91, CMac D (olim F), inc. (anon.), D-LEu Thomaskirche 51 (anon.), Rp 1018 (anon.; also attrib. Willaert and Conseil); Beata es, virgo Maria, 4vv, P 235, Dl Grimma 51 (Crecquillon; also attrib. Verdelot); Benedicat te Dominus, 4vv, P 276, HRD 9821 (Lhéritier); Deus, in nomine tuo, 5vv, P 149 (also attrib. Willaert); Dum complerentur dies penthecostes, 4vv, P 52, I-CMac P (olim E) (anon.); Hodie Salvator mundi, 4vv, P 60, CMac D (olim F) (anon.; also attrib. Mouton); In te, Domine, speravi, 4vv, P 130; In te, Domine, speravi, 4vv, P 209, Bc Q40 (anon.), P-Cug 32 (anon.) (also attrib. Verdelot); Locutus est Dominus, 9vv, P 336

Miserere mei, Domine, 6vv, P 171; Magnificat quarti toni a voce pari, 4vv, P 20; Magnificat quarti toni, 4vv, P 25, E-Bc 681 (anon.), Tc B18 (II) (lost but cited in original table of contents), Toledo, Catedral, Obra y Fabrica 23 (anon.); Magnificat octavi toni, 4vv, P 37, I-CMac N (anon.); Nigra sum sed formosa, 4vv, P 297; Nigra sum sed formosa, 5vv, P161, CMac D (olim F) (anon.), F-Pn 32 (anon.), I-PCd 5 (anon.), Rmassimo VI.C.6.23–4 (Lhéritier); Nigra sum sed formosa, 6vv, P 254, PCd 4 (anon.); Nisi Dominus edificaverit, 4vv, P 198, D-Kl 24/1–4 (anon.), F-CA 125–8 (olim 124) (Claudin; also attrib. Le Heurteur); O clemens, o pia, 4vv, P 99, I-CMac D (olim F) (anon.); O beatum pontificem, 4vv, TVd 4, lost; O quam magnificum, 4vv, TVd 4, lost; Petrus apostolus, 5vv, P 333, Ls 775 (anon.); Qui confidunt in Domino, 4vv, P 108, CMac N (anon.); Redde mihi letitiam, 6vv, P 183; Regnum mundi, 5vv, P 166, D-Mu 326 (anon.), I-PCd 5 (anon.); Repleatur os meum, 5vv, P 324

Salvator mundi, salva nos, 4vv, P 72, CMac D (olim F) (anon.; also attrib. Mouton); Salve mater Salvatoris, 4vv, P 300; Salve regina, 6vv, P 262; Sancta Maria, succurre miseris, 4vv, P 69, CMac D (olim F) (anon.); Senex puerum portabat, 4vv, P 308, D-LEu Thomaskirche 51 (anon.); Si bona suscepimus, 4vv, P 314, I-Rmassimo VI.C.6.23–4; Sub tuum presidium, 4vv, P 119, Rmassimo VI.C.6.23–4; Sub tuum presidium, 6vv, P 190, PCd 5 (anon.); Surrexit pastor bonus, 6vv, P 291; Te matrem Dei laudamus, 4vv, P 46; Usquequo, Domine, oblivisceris me, 4vv, P 123 (also attrib. Mouton); Virgo Christi egregia, 4vv, P 244

secular

Cum rides mihi basium negasti, 4vv, P 248

Jan, petit Jan, P 347, S-Uu 76c (anon.)

doubtful works

Domine exaudi me, 5vv, attrib. Lhéritier in I-Rmassimo VI.C.6.23–4; attrib. Jacquet in 1539⁵, Primo libro di motetti di Jachet, 5vv (Venice, 1540), 1542⁶

Visita quesumus, Domine, 4vv, attrib. ‘Iritier’ in E-Tc 17; attrib. Jacquet in GB-Lcm 2037, I-Bc Q20; attrib. Jacquet and Willaert in 1538⁵

En l’ombre d'ung buissonet, 4vv, attrib. Lhéritier in 1535⁸; attrib. Lasson in c1528⁹

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P. Aaron: Thoscanello de la musica (Venice, 1523/R; rev. with suppl. as Toscanello in musica, 2/1529/R, 3/1539/R, 4/1562; Eng. trans. collating all edns, 1970), ff.Hiv, Ii

S. Vanneo: Recanetum de musica aurea (Rome, 1533/R1969 in DM, 1st ser., Druckschriften-Faksimiles, xxviii and in BMB, section 2, xvi), f.93r

A.P. Coclico: ‘De musicorum generibus’, Compendium musices (Nuremberg, 1552/R1954 in DM, 1st ser., Druckschriften-Faksimiles, ix)

A. Ferrajoli: ‘Il Ruolo della corte di Leone X (1514–1516)’, Archivio della Società romana di storia patria, xxxiv (1911), 16ff; repr. in Il Ruolo della corte di Leone X (1514–1516), ed. V. De Caprio (Rome, 1984), 363–91

H.-W. Frey: ‘Michelagniolo und die Komponisten seiner Madrigale: Bartolomeo Tromboncino, Jean Conseil, Constanzo Festa, Jakob Arcadelt’, AcM, xxiv (1952), 147–97

F. Lesure: ‘Notes pour une biographie de Jean Lhéritier’, RdM, xlii (1958), 219–20

L.L. Perkins: The Motets of Jean Lhéritier (diss., Yale U., 1965)

H.-W. Frey: ‘Die Kapellmeister an der französischen Nationalkirche San Luigi dei Francesi in Rom im 16. Jahrhundert’, AMw, xxii (1965), 272–93, xxiii (1966), 32–60

M. Picker: ‘The Motet Anthologies of Petrucci and Antico published between 1514 and 1521: a Comparative Study’, Formen und Probleme der Überlieferung mehrstimmiger Musik im Zeitalter Josquins Desprez: Wolfenbüttel 1976, 181–9

R.J. Snow: ‘Toledo Cathedral MS Reservado 23: a Lost Manuscript Rediscovered’, JM, ii (1983), 246–77

W.F. Prizer: ‘A Mantuan Collection of Music for Holy Week, 1537’, Renaissance Studies in Honor of Craig Hugh Smyth, ed. A. Morrogh and others (Florence, 1985), i, 613–25

S.H. Boorman: ‘False Relations and the Cadence’, Altro Polo: Essays on Italian Music in the Cinquecento, ed. R. Charteris (Sydney, 1990), 221–64

LEEMAN L. PERKINS

Lhévinne, Josef

(b Orel, nr Moscow, 1/13 Dec 1874; d New York, 2 Dec 1944). Russian pianist. He studied the piano with Vasily Safonov at the Moscow Conservatory (1885–91), graduating with the gold medal. He then began giving concerts abroad, but was recalled to Russia for military service. In 1898 he married Rosina Bessie, also a pianist. After teaching in Tbilisi (1900–02) and at the Moscow Conservatory (1902–06), Lhévinne returned to his concert career, while living principally in Berlin. He made his American début in New York on 27 January 1906 with Safonov and the Russian SO, and made six concert tours of the USA before the outbreak of World War I, when the Lhévinnes were interned in Berlin because they were Russian. This experience played a large part in their decision to move to New York after the war. In 1924 Lhévinne and his wife joined the staff of the new Juilliard Graduate School (later the Juilliard School). His pupils included Adele Marcus, Sascha Gorodnitzki, Brooks Smith and Homer Samuels.

Lhévinne's few phonograph recordings, not enough to fill a single CD, clearly reflect the prodigious technique that was one of the most famous of his day. This technique was allied to a sure control of tone and phrasing, and a magisterial projection of line. His Chopin recordings, especially the Etude in thirds (op.25 no.6), highlight a sovereign technique put to the service of a grand interpretative vision. He also performed more exhibitionistic works, including Adolf Schulz-Evler's Arabeskan über Themen des Walzers ‘An der schönen blauen Donau’ von Johann Strauss, with compelling poise and musicianship. He was shy and almost without competitive impulse, and in his later years would have made fewer appearances than he did but for his wife's virtual management of his career. He wrote Basic Principles in Pianoforte Playing (1924/R1972).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R.K. Wallace: A Century of Music-Making: the Lives of Josef and Rosina Lhévinne (Bloomington, IN, 1976)

JERROLD NORTHROP MOORE/R

Lhévinne [née Bessie], Rosina

(bKiev, 29 March 1880; d Glendale, CA, 9 Nov 1976). American pianist and teacher of Ukrainian birth. She began piano studies at the age of seven and in 1889 entered the Moscow Conservatory as a pupil of Remesov, later studying with Vasily Safonov; among her fellow students were Rachmaninoff and Skryabin. There she also met Josef Lhévinne, whom she married in 1898 a week after graduating from the conservatory with a gold medal, the youngest woman ever to win that award. In 1906 the Lhévinnes moved to the USA, and then in 1908 to Berlin, where they were interned during World War I, an experience that helped to decide them to settle permanently in New York. During these years Rosina gave a few solo recitals and some two-piano concerts with her husband but devoted most of her time to supervising Josef’s career and to teaching. She joined the faculty of the Juilliard Graduate School in 1924 and remained there until shortly before her death; she came to be regarded as one of the great teachers of her time, and among her many famous pupils were Van Cliburn, John Browning, Arthur Gold, James Levine and Misha Dichter. As a teacher Rosina Lhévinne emphasized the beauty of tone, long line and spontaneity of expression that characterized the late 19th-century school of Russian pianism. She returned to solo playing after Josef’s death, performing the Chopin E minor Piano Concerto with the New York PO when she was 81.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Lhévinne and E. Winer: Music is my Life (Los Angeles, 1968)

R.K. Wallace: ‘The Lhévinnes’ Teaching Legacy’, Piano Quarterly, no.85 (1974), 7–11

R.K. Wallace: A Century of Music-Making: the Lives of Josef and Rosina Lhevinne (Bloomington, IN, 1976)

ELLEN HIGHSTEIN

L’homme armé.

A melody used as the tenor of over 40 mass cycles between about 1450 and the end of the 17th century. Those of Du Fay, Ockeghem, Regis, Faugues and perhaps Busnoys seem to date from the 1450s. Those by Caron and Tinctoris as well as the cycle of six anonymous masses in a manuscript now in Naples (I-Nn VI E 40) are probably from before about 1475. Those of Baziron (described as new in 1484), Obrecht, Josquin (2 settings), Brumel, Compère, Vaqueras, Gaffurius (lost) and De Orto are from the last quarter of the 15th century. Cycles from the early 16th century include those of Pipelare, Forestier, Venedier, La Rue (two settings), Carver and Senfl. Settings by Spanish composers of the 16th century include those of Peñalosa, Ortiz (lost), Morales (one for five voices printed in 1540 and one for four voices printed in 1544) and Guerrero (surviving in two versions). The two masses by Palestrina (for five voices printed in 1570 and for four voices printed in 1582) conclude the main series, though there was a later mass by Carissimi (12 voices), expanded with four more voices in later adaptations by Beretta and Stamegna. Particularly among the 30-odd masses before about 1510, there is clear evidence of composers having built upon, or emulated, other masses on the same tenor.

Although not among the greatest of these works, the cycle of six anonymous masses in Naples (ed. by L. Feininger, Monumenta Polyphoniae Liturgicae Sancta Ecclesiae Romanae, ser.1/iii (1957), and ed. in CMM, lxxxv, 1981) merits attention as one of the most remarkable musical edifices of the 15th century. The first five masses take successive small sections of the melody, each treating it in various ways: the first uses only the first four notes; the second, and most intricate, of the series treats the next nine notes in retrograde, inversion and retrograde inversion. Those five masses are in four voices, while the last is in five voices and employs the entire melody in two of the voices in pure canon at the 5th throughout. The melody is always based on G, but the central tonalities of the six cycles are: C, G (with flat), F, G (without flat), G (with flat), C – as though following a coherent and planned tonal scheme. Each Kyrie has an elaborate trope, with heavy Classical references. Dispute continues as to whether they are all by one composer or by several working to a pre-arranged scheme, as might be deduced from differing stylistic features; but either way there is nothing remotely comparable from these years in either scope or formal ambition.

The melody and its text survive only in the Naples manuscript (ex.1), though much of the material is endorsed by its use in a combinative chanson (perhaps of around 1463) perhaps by Robert Morton. Since no two masses contain precisely the same form of the melody, it is reasonable to assume that it had an unwritten origin and was monophonic. But its tripartite division makes it singularly well suited for use as the cantus firmus in a mass cycle. Other useful features include: the move into a higher register for the middle section coupled with the high A giving a sense of a different tonal centre; the leaps of a 4th and a 5th combined with falling lines at the ends of sections; and the motivic economy of the melody. While many of the early settings (including those of Du Fay, Busnoys and Caron) have the melody on G with a flat signature, Ockeghem and others (including De Orto, Forestier and Palestrina's five-voice setting) have it in G without a flat. But all other tonalities were used: Regis, Faugues, Pipelare and Palestrina's four-voice setting have it on D; Obrecht, followed by Compère, have it on E, while Senfl similarly used the Phrygian mode but beginning on A. Josquin chose F for his mass sexti toni (followed in this only by Morales and Guerrero) and had it on all pitches of the hexachord, starting on C and progressing up to A, for his mass super voces musicales. C is otherwise found only in an anonymous eight-voice Credo in Copenhagen (DK-Kk 1872) and in the much later cycle of Carissimi (where it is always in the bass). Elements of homage or emulation have been suggested, as in the transposition of the melody for particular movements (in the Credo of the masses by Ockeghem, Busnoys and Obrecht, for example), the use of retrograde and inversion, and so on. There was also apparent emulation in the use of elaborate canonic schemes, most particularly in the masses of La Rue and Forestier.

Various theories have been advanced to explain the melody's astonishing career. The appearance of musical sections in units of 31 has prompted the suggestion that many of the early masses were associated with the Burgundian ducal court's Order of the Golden Fleece, which had 31 knights (Taruskin). Two manuscripts of the Cappella Sistina (I-Rvat CS15 and CS35) containing groups of cycles have been connected with calls for a new crusade (Roth). The existence of a much earlier liturgy of the armed man commemorating the soldier Longinus who pierced Christ's side with a lance may also be relevant (Warmington). Moreover the song itself may have been for the mustering of soldiers, conceivably the French initiative of the late 1440s (Lockwood), or perhaps a reaction against this initiative (Chew); and it has been suggested that Ockeghem's mass could have been for the celebration of the end of the Hundred Years War, marked at Tours with a great ceremony on 10 March 1454 (Magro). No single theory is likely to explain all the known masses, though many are probably the result simply of musical tradition (like the In Nomine settings in England). It is hard to think of any other melody in the history of music that has yielded so much music of the highest quality.

Difficulties of dating 15th-century music have led to disputes about which setting was the earliest. Du Fay, as the oldest composer, may seem the obvious choice, though dates proposed for his cycle range from the early 1450s to the late 1460s. Ockeghem's cycle is normally dated to the early 1450s, and its priority is asserted much later by Cerone (El melopeo, 1613, ii, 756). Busnoys' is the most widely distributed of the early masses and seems to be described as the earliest by Pietro Aaron (see Taruskin).

Similarly there has been some discussion of a possible original polyphonic song. Cimello stated in about 1540 that Ockeghem wrote the original song (see Perkins), and Aaron seems to have ascribed it to Busnoys. Neither of these is likely to be the combinative chanson Il sera pour vous conbatu/L'homme armé by Robert Morton, since its top-voice text almost certainly refers to events of 1463, well after the earliest masses. Perhaps there were earlier polyphonic song settings, since there were certainly later ones: the anonymous quodlibet with O rosa bella cited by Tinctoris and found incomplete in the manuscript E-E IV.a.24 (c1460); a quodlibet with D'ung aultre amer by Basiron; a quodlibet with Il est de bonne heure né by Japart; four-voice settings ascribed to Josquin and ‘Falsum’. Plainly the work therefore had a substantial career apart from the mass cycles. Its earlier success influenced several 20th-century composers to re-use it, among them J.N. David in his Fantasia super ‘L’homme armé’ for organ 1929, Helmut Eder, in L’homme armé: Konzert in drei Teïlen, op.50 (1969), Peter Maxwell Davies, who used the second mass of the 15th-Century Naples manuscript in his L’homme armé (1968) and his Missa super L'homme armé (1971), Louis Andriessen in De materie (1989) and Frederic Rzewski in his Piano Sonata (1991).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG2 (A. Laubenthal)

O. Gombosi: Jacob Obrecht: eine Stilkritische Studie (Leipzig, 1925)

D. Plamenac: ‘La chanson de L’homme armé et MS VI. E. 40 de la Bibliothèque Nationale de Naples’, Fédération archéologique et historique de Belgique: Annales, xxv (1925), 229–30

O. Gombosi: ‘Bemerkungen zur “L'homme armé”-Frage’, ZMw, x (1927–8), 609–12; see also ZMw, xii (1929–30), 378 only

L. Lockwood: ‘Aspects of the “L’homme armé” Tradition’, PRMA, c (1973–4), 97–122

J. Cohen: The Six Anonymous L'homme armé Masses in Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale, MS VI E 40, MSD, xxi (1968)

G. Chew: ‘The Early Cyclic Mass as an Expression of Royal and Papal Supremacy’, ML, liii (1972), 254–69

M. Caraci: ‘Fortuna del Tenor “L'homme armé” nel primo Rinascimento’, NRMI, ix (1975), 171–204

J. Cohen: ‘Munus ab ignoto’, SMH, xxii (1980), 187–204

W. Haass: Studien zu den ‘L'homme armé’-Messen des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts (Regensburg, 1984)

L.L. Perkins: ‘The L'homme armé Masses of Busnoys and Okeghem: a Comparison’, JM, iii (1984), 363–96

W.F. Prizer: ‘Music and Ceremonial in the Low Countries: Philip the Fair and the Order of the Golden Fleece’, EMH, v (1985), 113–53

R. Taruskin: ‘Antoine Busnoys and the L'homme armé Tradition’, JAMS, xxxix (1986), 255–93; see also JAMS, xl (1987), 139–53

A. Roth: ‘L'homme armé, le doubté turcq, l'ordre de la toison d'or: zur “Begleitmusik” der letzten grossen Kreuzzugsbewegung nach dem Fall von Konstantinopel’, Feste und Feiern im Mittelalter: Paderborn 1989, 469–79

J. Haar: ‘Some Lessons in Theory from a Sixteenth-Century Composer’, Altro Polo: Essays on Italian Music in the Cinquecento, ed. R. Charteris (Sydney, 1990), 51–81

A. Roth: Studien zum frühen Repertoire der päpstlichen Kapelle unter dem Pontifikat Sixtus' IV. (1471–1484) (Vatican City, 1991)

L. Lütteken: ‘Ritual und Krise: die neapolitanischen “L’homme armé” - Zyklen und die Semantik der Cantus firmus-Messe’, Musik als Text: Freiburg 1993, 207–18

O. Rees: ‘Guerrero's L'homme armé Masses and their Models’, EMH, xii (1993) , 19–54

M. Caraci Vela: ‘Un capitolo di arte allusiva nella prima tradizione di Messe L'homme armé’, Studi musicali, xxii (1993), 3–21

B. Haggh: ‘The Archives of the Order of the Golden Fleece and Music’, JRMA, cxx (1995), 1–43

J. Haar: ‘Palestrina as Historicist: the Two L'homme armé Masses’, JRMA, cxxi (1996), 191–205

F. Fitch: Johannes Ockeghem: Masses and Models (Paris, 1997), 62–4

A. Magro: Jean de Ockeghem et Saint-Martin de Tours (1454–1497): une étude documentaire (diss., U. of Tours, 1998)

F. Warmington: ‘The Ceremony of the Armed Man: the Sword, the Altar, and the L’homme armé Mass’, Antoine Busnoys: Method, Meaning, and Context in Late Medieval Music, ed. P. Higgins (Oxford, 1999), 175–214

DAVID FALLOWS

L’Hoste da Reggio.

See Hoste da Reggio.

Lhotka, Fran

(b Mladá Vožice, 25 Dec 1883; d Zagreb, 26 Jan 1962). Croatian composer and conductor of Czech origin. He studied the horn and composition in Prague under Stecker, Klička and Dvořák. His teaching career began in Yekaterinoslav (now Dnepropetrovsk) and in 1909 he joined the Zagreb Opera orchestra. From 1920 to 1961 he was a professor at the Zagreb Academy of Music, and dean during the years 1923–40 and 1948–52. In his music Lhotka often used Croatian folk materials. He wrote in a late Romantic style, strong in contrasts and brilliant in instrumentation. A vivid rhythmic sense distinguished his work for the ballet, as well as a gift for the musical reflection of a wide range of emotions and dramatic effects. His most popular work, Đavo u selu (‘The Devil in the Village’, 1935), encompasses scenes of rowdy carousing and banal everyday life, hellish and grotesque moments and a wedding finale. Lhotka’s conducting activities included directing the Zagreb chorus Lisinski (1912–20) and the orchestral society of the Croatian Music Institute. He also wrote textbooks.

WORKS

(selective list)

Ballets: Đ avo u selu [The Devil in the Village], Zürich, 18 Feb 1935; Balada o jednoj srednjovjekovnoj ljubavi [Ballad on a Medieval Love Story], Zürich, 6 Feb 1937; Luk [The Arc], Munich, 13 Nov 1939

Other works: Str Qt, G, 1911; Vn Conc., 1913; Conc., str qt, 1924; 2 hrvatske rapsodije, vn, chbr orch, 1928; choruses, songs

Principal publishers: Schott (Mainz), Društvo hrvatskih skladatelja

BIBLIOGRAPHY

K. Kovačević: Hrvatski kompozitori i njihova djela [Croatian composers and their works] (Zagreb,1960)

P. Mlakar: ‘Značajan i plodonosan susret’ [A significant and productive encounter], Zvuk, no.54 (1962), 401–10

K. Kovačević: Muzičko stvaralaštvo u Hrvatskoj 1945–1965 [Musical creation in Croatia 1945–1965] (Zagreb, 1966)

KREŠIMIR KOVAČEVIĆ

Lhotka-Kalinski, Ivo

(b Zagreb, 30 July 1913; d Zagreb, 29 Jan 1987). Croatian composer and singer, son of Fran Lhotka. He studied composition with his father and solo singing at the Zagreb Academy of Music until 1937, when he went to Rome for two years of composition study with Pizzetti. After holding various teaching posts (1939–51) he became a professor of singing at the Zagreb Academy.

Lhotka-Kalinski's early works, of which the most important are Jutro (‘Day’) and the Symphony in E, were mainly romantic and programmatic. An intense study of folksong resulted in his making numerous arrangements for vocal and instrumental groups, and also influenced the melodic patterns of his original music. He gradually abandoned this folk style for a less nationalistic neo-classical idiom which incorporated elements of 12-note and atonal techniques. An excellent singer with a well-developed dramatic sense, he was a natural operatic composer. He gained an enviable reputation with the four brilliant one-act radio and television operas to texts by Branislav Nušić written between 1954 and 1958. This style was greatly expanded in the atonal opera Svjetleći grad (‘The Shining City’), a bitter indictment of what is worthless in society, mirrored musically by a coarsely dissonant harmonic idiom. Among his other works are ballets and film scores.

WORKS

(selective list)

dramatic

Pomet, meštar od ženidbe [Pomet, the Marriage Maker] (comic op, 3, M. Fotez, after M. Držić: Dundo Maroje), 1942–4, Zagreb, 31 Oct 1944

Matija Gubec (historical musical drama, 3, Lhotka-Kalinski, Fotez, T. Prpić), 1947, Zagreb, 8 May 1948

Skup [The Miser] (melodrama, M. Kombol, after Držić), 1950, Zagreb, 13 Sept 1950

Pepeljuga [Cinderella] (melodrama, J. Kušan), 1953, Zagreb, 14 Feb 1953

Velika coprarija [The Great Sorcery] (children's op, 3, B. Chudoba), 1952, Zagreb, 1953

Analfabeta [The Illiterate] (radio op, musical burlesque, 1, Lhotka-Kalinski, after B. Nušić), 1954, Belgrade, 19 Oct 1954, vs (Zagreb, 1957)

Putovanje [The Journey] (TV op, musical satire, 1, Lhotka-Kalinski, after Nušić), 1956, Zagreb TV, 10 June 1957, vs (Kassel, 1958)

Dugme [The Button] (TV op, musical grotesque, 1, Lhotka-Kalinski, after Nušić), 1957, Zagreb TV, 21 April 1958, vs (Zagreb, 1961)

Vlast [Political Power] (TV op, 1, Lhotka-Kalinski, after Nušić), 1958, Belgrade TV, 18 Oct 1958; stage, Belgrade, 15 Oct 1959, vs (Kassel, 1961)

Svjetleći grad [The Shining City] (‘a musical farce of the prisoners of the absurd’, P. Šegedin), 1967, Zagreb, 26 Dec 1967, vs (Zagreb, n.d.)

Tko će svima da ugodi? [Who could Please Everybody?] (musical tale, B. Slanina), 1968, unperf.

vocal

Cants.: Verba fili David, 1940; Hrvatska kronika [Croatian Chronicle], 1952; Kerempuhova pesem [Kerempuh's Song] (Krleža), 1959

Other works: Srebrna cesta [The Srebreno Road], 1v, orch, 1937; Ples smrti [Dance of Death], Bar, orch, 1940; 2 popevke Gorana Kovačića, 1v, pf, 1947; 3 pjesme Mate Balote, 1v, chbr orch, 1949; Bugarštice, 1v, pf, 1951; 3 pjesme Dobriše Cesarića, 1v, pf, 1953; Ojađena svirala [Unhappy Flute], 1v, cl, 1957; Žalobna muzika [Mournful Music], 1v, orch, 1961; 4 epitafa, 1v, ens, 1961; Pjesme moga vremena, 1v, orch, 1963; 3 Krležine, 1v, orch, 1964; Meditacije XX, Bar, chbr orch, 1965; other solo and choral songs, folksong arrs.

instrumental

Orch: Sym., E, 1937; Plesna suita [Dance Suite], 1937; Rimske impresije [Roman Impressions], 1938; Zemlja [The Land], sym. variations, 1939; Jutro [Day], sym. poem, 1941–2; Vedri prizori [Gay Scenes], 1947; Baletni prizori u starom stilu [Ballet Scenes in the Old Style], 1950; Komendrijaši [The Comedians], chbr orch, 1952; Simfonijeta, G, 1953; 7 Bagatelles, ob, bn, str, 1954; Omladinska simfonijeta, chbr orch, 1956; Mala balkanska suita [Little Balkan Suite], 1961; Misli [Thoughts], cl, str, 1963; 6 eseja [Essays], 1964

Inst: Dijalozi, fl, cl, 1966; 5 Monologues, vc, 1969; Little Suite, va, pf, 1969

Pf: Stari dalmatinskih plesovi [Old Dalmatian Dances], 1942; Međimurje malo, suite, 1946; 2 plesa na istarske motive [Dances on Istrian Motifs], 1946; Male priče [Little Stories], 1949; 2 sonatinas, 1950; Iverije, 1957; Mala balkanska suita, 1961; Mikroforme, 1964

Principal publishers: Ars Croatica, Društvo hrvatske kompozitora

WRITINGS

Tehnika pjevanja [The techniques of singing] (Zagreb, 1940)

Umetnost pjevanja [The art of singing] (Zagreb, 1953)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Kirigin: ‘ I. Lhotka-Kalinski Matija Gubec’, Muzičke novine (1948), 7

D. Gostučki: ‘Ivo Lhotka-Kalinski Analfabeta’, Zvuk, no.1 (1955), 21–8

K. Kovačević: Hrvatski kompozitori i njihova djela [Croatian composers and their works] (Zagreb, 1960), 261–74

I. Supičić: ‘Estetski pogledi u novijoj hrvatskoj muzici: pregled temeljnih gledanja četrnaestorice kompozitora’ [Aesthetic approaches in contemporary Croatian music: a survey of the basic concepts of 14 composers],Arti musices, i (1969), 23–61

T. Reich: Susreti sa suvremenim kompozitorima Jugoslavije [Meetings with contemporary Yugoslav composers] (Zagreb, 1972), 141–7

J. Andreis: Music in Croatia (Zagreb, 1974, 2/1982)

A. Koci and others: Jugoslovanska glasbena dela [Yugoslav musical works] (Ljubljana, 1980), 248–53

NIALL O'LOUGHLIN

Lhoyer [L'Hoyer], Antoine de

(b Clermont-Ferrand, 6 Sept 1768; d Paris, 15 March 1852). French guitarist and composer. At the age of 20 he embarked upon a military career, but the French Revolution prompted his emigration in 1791. About 1800 he settled as a guitar teacher in Hamburg, but in 1802 left for St Petersburg where he remained for ten years as a guitarist at the tsar’s court. He returned to France in 1812, and rejoined the army after the Restoration of Louis XVIII in 1814. As a military officer he held various posts in the French provinces in the following years, and may have emigrated to Algeria after 1836.

Lhoyer’s works, which reach op.45, include surprisingly few pieces for solo guitar: Romances for voice and guitar, and music for two or more guitars, and for guitar with other instruments, dominate. Noteworthy, too, is a concerto for guitar and strings, op.16 (Hamburg, 1802). Before his return to France in 1812, Lhoyer employed only the five-string guitar. His remaining works, published in Paris between 1813 and 1826, are for six-string guitar. About half of them are guitar duets; they are generally substantial, large-scale compositions, making Lhoyer one of the most prolific 19th-century composers for the two-guitar genre. His musical style is Classical rather than Romantic, but with a freshness and originality which surpasses that of most contemporary composers for guitar.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

A. Tardieu: Grand dictionnaire biographique des personnages historiques ou dignes de mémoire nés dans le département du Puy-de-Dôme (Moulins, 1878)

M. Ophee: ‘Antoine de l'Hoyer (1768–1836?): a Detective Story and Check List of his Works’, Soundboard, xvii/3 (1990), 33–7

E. Stenstadvold: ‘Antoine de Lhoyer (1768–1852): riscoperta di un chitarrista-compositore trascurato’, Il Fronimo, no.100 (1997), 15–41

ERIK STENSTADVOLD

L’Huyllier [L’Huillier, Luillier]

(fl 1539–50). French composer. His 14 surviving chansons were published in Paris at a time when this form was at the height of its popularity. Like most of his contemporaries, he preferred to set texts with four-line stanzas, usually serious love songs. He was able to balance skilful imitation with homophonic writing, and used brief phrases in triple metre to contrast with the prevailing duple metre. The tenor parts are particularly ornate, but all four voices have considerable melodic interest.

WORKS

all for 4 voices

Au monde estoint douleur, 1546¹⁴; Avecqes vous mon amour finira, 1540¹⁴; Hélas, amy, 1547⁸; Je me veulx tant à son vouloir, 1550¹¹; Le cueur loyal, 1543⁸; O doulx raport, 1541⁶; O ma Vénus, 1547⁸; Pareille au feu, 1546¹⁴; Si je te voy, 1550⁹; Si l’amytié voire, 1543^11-12; Si me voyez face triste, 1550¹¹; Toy seul sans plus peulx, 1539¹⁷; Ung si grand bien, 1544⁷; Vous me laissez pour ung aultre, 1545⁸

CAROLINE M. CUNNINGHAM

Liadov, Anatoly Konstantinovich.

See Lyadov, Anatoly Konstantinovich.

Liaison (i)

(Fr.).

See under Ligature (i).

Liaison (ii).

See Ornaments, §7.

Liang Tsai-ping

(b Gaoyang county, Hebei, 23 Feb 1910; d Taipei, 28 June 2000). Chinese scholar and performer of zheng and qin plucked zithers. At 14 Liang moved to Beijing for schooling where he also studied qin, zheng and pipa with Shi Yinmei. At 20 he studied with qin master Zhang Youhe. He graduated from the Jiaotong University in Beijing, majoring in applied science. While in south-west China in the 1940s, he organized several qin societies with connoisseurs such as Yang Yinliu and Robert van Gulik. In 1945 he attended Yale University under a government scholarship and introduced the art of the zheng to the American public in many performances. After moving to Taiwan in 1949 he worked in the Ministry of Commerce, but continued to teach, perform, and host many musical activities. The active zheng tradition in Taiwan is chiefly due to his tireless efforts. In April 1953 Liang and several friends formed the Chinese Classical Music Association in Taipei. He served as its president for 25 years. Throughout the years, Liang has given over 300 performances in five continents and has made over 30 recordings. On 2 April 1988 he gave his final public performance in Taipei and retired; on 14 April he was honoured by the Council for Cultural Planning and Development, Executive Yuan with a special contribution award. Liang composed many new pieces for the zheng and published several zheng tutors, as well as several scholarly works.

See also China, §IV, 4(ii)(b)

WRITINGS

On Chinese Music (Taipei, 1962)

Music of Cheng: Chinese 16-Stringed Zither (Taipei, 1962/R)

Chinese Musical Instruments and Pictures (Taipei, 1970)

Zhenglu licheng [Musical journey of the zheng] (Taipei, 1984/R)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

RiemannL12

China's Instrumental Heritage: Professor Liang Tsai-Ping, rec. c1960, Lyrichord LYRCD 792 (1993)

The Chinese Cheng – Ancient and Modern, rec. c1965, Lyrichord LLCT 7302 (1997)

Yan Tingjie: Zhongguo xiandai yinyuejia zhuanlue [Brief biographies of contemporary Chinese musicians] (Taipei, 1992)

HAN KUO-HUANG

Liban, Jerzy [Libanus, Georgius]

(b Legnica, 1464; d after 1546). German humanist, theorist and composer, active in Poland. He belonged to a German family in Silesia and his true name was probably Weihrauch. In 1494 he began his studies at Kraków University, and later went to Cologne for a time before returning to Kraków in 1501. From 1506 he was probably associated with the Gymnasium of the church of St Maria, Kraków, first as a cantor and from 1514 as rector. In 1511, 1513 and 1520 Liban lectured at Kraków University. About 1530 he travelled to the abbey of St Florian, near Linz. Among his many writings are two music treatises: De accentuum ecclesiasticorum exquisita ratione and De musicae laudibus oratio (both Kraków, c1539). There are also passages on music in his De philosophiae laudibus oratio (Kraków, 1537). All three treatises are reprinted in MMP, ser.D, vi–viii (1975–6) and edited and translated in MMP, ser.C, i (1984). De accentuum is a lengthy treatise on the use of accentuation in reciting liturgical texts: it shows his humanist inclinations, including among the authorities cited Pico della Mirandola and Erasmus. The other treatise, De musicae, although incorporating the views of Gaffurius, was devoted primarily to ancient music; Liban appended a glossary of Greek musical terms in order to demonstrate that Latin music theory was derived from Greek. He also attempted to relate Greek theories on the ethical aspects of music to the church modes, insisting that attention should be paid to the verbal character of the text when choosing a mode.

The treatises contain some music by Liban. A four-voice hymn Ortus de Polonia Stanislaus (ed. Z. Szweykowski, Muzyka w dawnym Krakowie, Kraków, 1964) written in 1501 and published in De accentuum uses note-against-note technique. Eight Magnificat settings and one psalm, In exitu Israel, all for four voices, were printed as music examples in De musicae. They are all based on chant melodies and use imitative counterpoint. Liban also composed settings of odes, including a no longer extant collection of 26 four-voice settings of poetry by Horace and Boethius, known only from references in De accentuum, and a Sapphic ode (Kraków, 1535; lost) composed in honour of Bishop Piotr Tomicki and sung at his funeral in the church of St Stanisław in Kraków.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PSB

J. Reiss: ‘Georgius Libanus Lignicensis als Musiker’, ZMw, v (1922–3), 17–22

J. Reiss: Przyczynki do dziejów muzyki w Polsce [Contributions to the history of music in Poland] (Kraków, 1923)

J. Reiss: Książki o muzyce od XV do XVII wieku w Bibljotece Jagiellońskiej [Books on music from the 15th to 17th centuries in the Jagellonian Library] (Kraków, 1924–38)

H. Barycz: Historia Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego w epoce humanizmu (Kraków, 1935)

H. Barycz: Ślązacy na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim od XV do XVIII wieku [Silesians at the Jagellonian University from the 15th century to the 18th] (Katowice, 1935; Ger. trans., n.d.)

Z. Jachimecki: Muzyka polska w rozwoju historycznym [Polish music in its historical development], i/1 (Kraków, 1948)

Z.M. Szweykowski, ed.: Z dziejów polskiej kultury muzycznej [From the history of Polish musical culture], i (Kraków, 1958)

H. Kowalewicz and J. Morawski, eds.: ‘Hymny polskie’, Musica medii aevi [Kraków], viii (1991), 10–141

ELŻBIETA WITKOWSKA-ZAREMBA

Libani, Giuseppe

(b Rome, 1845; d Rome, 3 May 1880). Italian composer. He was a wealthy member of the Roman aristocracy, but decided on music as a career. His first opera, Gulnara (Florence, Teatro Pagliano, 1870), did not leave a lasting impression. His next work, Il Conte Verde (Rome, Teatro Apollo, 1873), to a libretto by Carlo d'Ormeville, had the tenor Julián Gayarre in its cast; it was given in about 20 Italian theatres, and remained in the repertory until at least 1885. Libani, who had been unable to attend the première of Il Conte Verde because of his father's illness, was again absent at the première of his final opera, Sardanapolo (Apollo, 1880), as he was by then on his deathbed. This work was praised for its direct and melodious style, and together with Libani's second opera was considered an indication of a talent which because of the composer's early death was not realized.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Cametti: Il teatro di Tordinono poi Apollo (Tivoli, 1938), ii, 545–6

T.G. Kaufman: Verdi and his Major Contemporaries: a Selected Chronology of Performances with Casts (New York, 1990), 573–4

THOMAS KAUFMAN

Liberace [Liberace, Wladziu Valentino; Liberace, Walter]

(b West Allis, WI, 16 May 1919; d Palm Springs, CA, 4 Feb 1987). American pianist and entertainer. He studied with Florence Bettray Kelly in Milwaukee and, by the age of 14, was playing with a trio in an ice-cream parlour. He made his début at the age of 17 at the Society of Musical Arts, Milwaukee, and appeared as soloist with the Chicago SO on 15 January 1940 playing Liszt’s Piano Concerto no.2. He went to New York in 1940 and performed in night clubs, at first adopting the pseudonym Walter Busterkeys, but later using only the name Liberace. He toured with United Service Organization shows and in 1952 made the first of a series of television programmes which, by the time the series ended in 1956, were being shown weekly throughout the USA and Canada. By the mid-1950s Liberace’s recordings had become bestsellers, and his concerts in Carnegie Hall and Madison Square Garden were given before capacity audiences. He created a glamorous stage persona and wore gorgeous outfits that glittered in the cunningly planned stage light (always including candles in one or more candelabra on the piano; see illustration); his championship of the virtues of family, religion and patriotism, although genuine, added to the sentimentality of much of his material. His programmes included arrangements of classical and popular works designed to show off his keyboard technique, with extensive use of elaborate chromatic harmonies and decorative arpeggios. His own compositions include Rhapsody by Candlelight and Boogie-Woogie Variations. Liberace’s last public performance took place at Radio City Music Hall on 3 November 1986. He appeared in the films Sincerely Yours (1955), The Loved One (1965) and When the Boys Meet the Girls (1965).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CBY 1954

‘Liberace’, International Musician, i/10 (1952), 24

Liberace: Liberace: an Autobiography (New York, 1973)

Liberace: The Things I Love, ed. T. Palmer (New York, 1976)

B. Thomas: Liberace (New York, 1987)

D.A. Pyron: Liberace: an American Boy (Chicago, 2000)

MARTHA WOODWARD/R

Liberali [Liberalli], Giuseppe.

See Liveralis, Iossif.

Liberati, Antimo

(b Foligno, 3 April 1617; d Rome, 24 Feb 1692). Italian theorist and composer. He studied law and fine arts and became a notary in his native town. From 1637 to 1643 he was at the Viennese court in the service of the Emperor Ferdinand III and Archduke Leopold. On 6 February 1644 he took minor orders at Foligno. About 1650 he moved to Rome, where he became a pupil of Gregorio Allegri and, after the latter’s death in 1652, of Orazio Benevoli. On 20 November 1661 he was engaged as an alto in the papal choir, to which he belonged until his death; in 1674 and 1675 he was chosen as maestro di cappella. Besides these duties he was organist and maestro di cappella of the German church in Rome, S Maria dell’Anima, and of SS Trinità dei Pellegrini and SS Stimmate di S Francesco.

Little of Liberati’s music survives (mostly single arias in contemporary manuscripts), but it was frequently mentioned in earlier literature and a catalogue of Foligno Cathedral lists the contents of two boxes of music left to the cathedral in his will. The boxes contained 18 volumes of Latin ecclesiastical music, 21 oratorios to Italian texts, a Prologo alla tragedia di S Feliciano e Messalina, a Dialogo per li sererissimi Ferdinando et Adelaide di Baviera, various spiritual cantatas and a dramma in musica, S Eustachio (see Metelli). Liberati is important for his theoretical writings, in which he unequivocally declared himself a champion and adherent of the Roman tradition. His Epitome della musica, which he presented to Pope Alexander VII in 1666, and his Lettera of 1684 clearly show that in his view the only ideal church music was that of Palestrina; therefore any reform must take place within the Palestrina tradition. Liberati’s attitudes to musicians of his day are particularly interesting for the light they throw on musical life at that period, the best-known example being his defence against G.P. Colonna of the so-called parallel 5ths in Corelli’s Violin Sonata op.2 no.3. In his Lettera he expressed exhaustive opinions on 17th-century composers of the Roman school, such as Allegri, Benevoli, Cifra and Nanino. Characteristically, however, he never mentioned such celebrated Roman opera and oratorio composers as Landi, Marazzoli, the Mazzocchi brothers and Luigi Rossi, for he disapproved of the stile nuovo and the seconda pratica. He also opposed the new interpretation of music in the Cappella Sistina. Traditionalism and musical purism are indeed as much the hallmarks of his personality as his uncompromising commitment to the Roman tradition in church music. He was thus one of those who initiated the Palestrina revival in the second half of the 17th century.

WORKS

dramatic

all lost, mentioned in Foligno Cathedral catalogue

S Eustachio (dramma in musica)

Prol to S Feliciano e Messalina (tragedia)

Dialogo for Ferdinando and Adelaide of Bavaria

21 orats

sacred

Laudate Dominum, 4vv, bc, 1683

Aita, ò numi, aita (orat), 5vv, vns; lost, mentioned in O. Mischiati, CHM, iii (1962–3), 131–70

18 vols. of Latin ecclesiastical music; spiritual cants.: lost, mentioned in Foligno Cathedral catalogue

secular

Amanti non va così, I-Nc, Rvat; Amore che cosa sarà, Nc; Amor è un laberinto, Rdp; Con atroce martire, Rc; Con rauco mormorio, Gl; D’un’ erma spiaggia, Nc, F-Pthibault; Era la notte, I-Rn; Gioite o miei pensieri, Nc; Impari ogn’ amante l’amore da me, F-Pthibault; La mia vita è una canzone, I-Rn; No non mi tenete, Nc; Non ve lo posso dire, Rc, F-Pthibault; Ove tra sponde d’oro, I-Nc; Quanto godo e quanto rido, Nc; Sentite l’amore, Rc; Sò ben io quel che dice, Rn

WRITINGS

Lettera scritta … in risposta ad una del Sig. Ovidio Persapegi, 15 Ottobre 1684 (Rome, 1685)

Epitome della musica (MS, ?1666, I-Bc, Rvat)

Ragguaglio dello stato del coro de’ cantori nella cappella pontificia (MS, Rvat)

Due lettere a Giovanni Paolo Colonna in difesa d’un passo dell’opera Seconda Sonata terza d’Arcangelo Corelli (MS, Bc)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

FétisB

HawkinsH

SchmidlD

A. Adami: Osservazioni per ben regolare il coro de i cantori della Cappella Pontificia (Rome, 1711), 206

K.G. Fellerer: Palestrina (Regensburg, 1930, 2/1960), 16, 26

P. Kast: ‘Antimo Liberati: eine biographische Skizze’, KJb, xliii (1959), 49–72

G. Metelli: ‘Un inventario inedito delle musiche di Antimo Liberati’, Esercizi: arte musica spettacolo, viii (1985), 54–7

A. Morelli: ‘Antimo Liberati, Matteo Simonelli e la tradizione palestriniana a Roma nella seconda metà del Seicento’, Studi palestriniani II: Palestrina 1986, 295–307

F. Rambotti and G. Ciliberti: ‘Le produzioni e gli scritti teorici di Antimo Liberati’, Annali della Facoltà di Lettere e Filosofia dell’Università degli Studi di Perugia, xxxv/11 (1987–8), 85–131

SILKE LEOPOLD

Liberec

(Ger. Reichenberg).

City in Czech Republic. A north Bohemian city it has both Czech and German traditions. The roll of its natives includes Christoph Demantius (1567–1643), Joseph Proksch (1794–1864), who founded a music school in the city and was later, in Prague, Smetana's piano teacher, and the composer-conductor Karel Vacek (1902–82).

There are records of a performance of Die Zauberflöte in 1796; opera then gained a regular home in the Zunfttheater, which opened in 1820. This theatre burnt down in 1879 and was replaced four years later by the Stadttheater, raised by public subscription and designed in the German neo-Renaissance style by Fellner and Helmer; there were reconstructions in 1966 and again in 1974–6 (651 seats). Until 1918 the German Stadttheater Reichenberg presented plays, operas and operettas. Friedrich Sommer, who directed the Stadttheater for much of the time between 1922 and 1934, invited leading conductors such as Karl Rankl and Heinrich Jalowetz, and created an ambitious repertory that included works by Wagner, Verdi, Strauss, Musorgksy, Smetana, Dvořák and Janáček. His immediate successors Oskar Basch (1934–6) and Paul Barnay (1936–8) had to struggle against fascist tendencies. Meanwhile, between 1924 and 1938, Czech opera was regularly brought to the city by the Olomouc company.

A permanent Czech theatre, the Severočeské Národní Divadlo (North Czech National Theatre), was established after World War II, and after several changes of name became the F.X. Šalda Theatre in 1957. It was controlled by the regional national committee in Ústí nad Labem from 1963 to 1990, when it came under the jurisdiction of the Liberec municipality. Its opera compnay was progressively consolidated under Jaromír Žid (1946–54), Jindřich Bubeníček (1955–60) and Rudolf Vašata (1960–71), with an emphasis on Czech and Italian works. There was a 20th-century festival in 1962, with operas by Martinů, Krejčí, Pauer, Prokofiev, Britten and Lieberman, and a Verdi cycle in 1963. The theatre orchestra gives concerts, as did, between 1958 and the end of the 1970s, the symphony orchestra of the music school, which worked with the radio station in the city.

There is a great choral tradition. The activities of church choirs were interrupted between 1945 and 1989, but then revived, especially at St Antonín. Ještěd, a mixed choir founded in 1907 by Czech workers, has sung nationally and internationally, as has the children's choir Severáček (‘the little northerner’), founded in 1958.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Stadttheater Reichenberg, nos.1–18 (1828–9)

Severočeské Národní divadlo v Liberci 1945–1948 [The North Czech National Theatre in Liberec] (Liberec, 1948)

Divadlo F.X. Šaldy v Liberci 1945–1960 [The F.X. Šalda Theatre in Liberec] (Liberec, 1960)

20 let Divadla F.X. Šaldy v Liberci 1945–1965 [20 years of the F.X. Šalda Theatre in Liberec] (Liberec, 1965)

30 svobodných let, 30 let českého divadla v Liberci [30 years of freedom, 30 years of the Czech Theatre in Liberec] (Liberec, 1976)

J. Janáček: ‘Divadlo v čase nepohody (Německé divadlo v Liberci v letech 1934–1938)’ [Theatre in hard times (The German Theatre in Liberec 1934–8)], Divadelní revue, iii (1993), 3–16

L. Tůma and R. Hrdinová: 50 let české opery v Liberci [50 years of the Czech Opera in Liberec] (Liberec, 1995)

EVA HERRMANNOVÁ

Liberia, Republic of.

Country in West Africa. Located on the coast of the Atlantic, bordering Sierra Leone, Guinea and Côte d’Ivoire, it has an area of 99,067 km² and a population of 3·26 million (2000 estimate). The population consists of the indigenous peoples and the descendants of English-speaking repatriated Africans who settled on the coast during the 19th century. The country owes its national political structure to the latter groups.

1. Ethnic groups and languages.

2. Music and society.

3. Musical instruments.

4. Main musical styles.

5. Modern developments.

6. Research.

RUTH M. STONE

1. Ethnic groups and languages.

Indigenous peoples include the Belle (Kuwaa), Gbande (Bandi), Gio (Dan), Kpelle (Guerzé), Loma (Toma), Mandingo (Malinke or Manya), Mano, Mende and Vai of the Mande language subfamily; the Bassa, Dei (Dewoin), Grebo, Jabo, Krahn and Kru of the Kwa language subfamily; and the Gola and Kissi (Kisi) of the west Atlantic language subfamily. These subfamilies are part of the Niger–Congo language family. Certain peoples, including the Gio, Kissi, Kpelle, Loma, Mandingo and Vai, are also in adjoining countries, so the music of Liberia shares some features with that of neighbouring territories and should be considered in relation to the music of Guinea, Côte d’ivoire and Sierra leone.

While Liberian music is created by peoples of diverse language backgrounds, it is often performed by and for individuals who are multi-lingual and have interacted extensively with those in other groups. This interaction goes back at least to the 15th century, when the Mande migrations from the grasslands of Mali towards the coast began, continuing on a smaller scale into the 19th century. Throughout these migration periods and into the 20th century, shifting political alliances facilitated contact. There has also been interaction through trade between peoples within Liberia and those living beyond its borders, as well as intergroup interaction promoted by the Poro secret societies acting as pan-group institutions of authority.

The music of Liberia can tentatively be categorized as that performed by indigenous peoples, that performed by descendants of repatriated Africans, and urban popular music performed by both. Yet such distinctions are difficult to maintain as interaction provides a mixture of elements between all types of music. Herzog has noted that a large number of the Jabo signalling texts are in the languages of the more powerful neighbouring peoples, the Grebo and Kru. Radio programmes and recordings also promote this interchange, and the national dance troupe incorporates elements of various types of Liberian music.

2. Music and society.

Most Liberian peoples seem to incorporate ‘music’ within a broader term that describes an event involving music sound, dancing and celebration. The Kpelle term for this type of event is pêlee. When narration and drama are also included, it is called meni-pêlee (chantefable). Related terms are mãla for dance and wule for song. Music sound for the Gio, Gola and Kpelle is the voice or speech of instruments and singers. The voice is termed míé by the Gola and wóo by the Kpelle and Gio. Wóo for the Kpelle may mean the voice of a group of performers, of an individual singer or instrument, or of an individual part of an instrument, such as a string.

There are professional musicians who are socially accepted and publicly recognized for their special skill among the various Liberian peoples, though most of them work part of their time as subsistence rice farmers or wage labourers. Singers are called ayun gbembe among the Gola and ngulei-sîyge-nuu (‘the song-raising person’) among the Kpelle. Gola professional singers are thought to be endowed by their neme, or guardian spirit, and given the ability to invent new songs. Indeed, it is widely believed among the Gola that singers are unfaithful to their spouses and lovers because their true lovers are their spiritual guardians. Throughout Liberia, singers are in demand to perform at festivals, funerals and receptions. Virtuoso performance is intensely appreciated, and ensembles spend much time touring. Solo singers are often women, but male professional storytellers and instrumentalists playing the pluriarc, lamellophone and triangular frame zither are also singers.

Kpelle performing ensembles show parallels to the Kpelle political organization. For instance, the drum-dominated ensembles are usually headed by the pêlee-kalong (‘chief of the play’), who is the group’s liaison with the town chief and the manager who negotiates playing engagements. The posîa, as master of ceremonies, calls for pauses in the music, interprets speeches of praise to the players and keeps the crowd from pressing too close to the players. The musical leader of the group, the master drummer (fêli-ygále-nuu), plays the single-headed goblet drum (see illustration); he plays the most varied and complex part and knows all other parts and how they fit together. Also in the ensemble are the gbùng-gbùng drummer, who gives the ensemble a steady background beat, vocal soloists, dancers and the audience, which may also act as a chorus. A performance incorporates not only music sound, but also intermittent pauses during which the performance is explained or commented on, and token gifts are presented to performers with elaborate speeches.

The phases of a Kpelle performance are coordinated by many cues. The master drummer plays specific rhythmic patterns that cue dancers to execute particular choreographic movements and gives other players cues for tempo, coordination or dynamics. The vocal soloist may also signal to the ensemble that she wants a pause in the music, by inserting certain verbal phrases in her melodic line. Herzog has reported that among the Jabo a musical phrase is played to mock a dancer who stumbles or falls, and another phrase to indicate the end of a musical segment.

Music is performed on various occasions. Those connected with the life-cycle include the initiation of young people into the Poro and Sande secret societies. The extent and elaboration of music for a death depends on the age and status of the deceased. But birth and marriage are relatively minor musical occasions among most Liberian peoples. Music-making may also relate to the annual cycle. It is especially prominent after the rice harvest and on such holidays as Liberian Independence Day, 26 July. Music is performed for cooperatives working on clearing the bush, planting and harvesting. The full moon often coincides with musical entertainment. Social occasions such as games may incorporate music. In the games played by Jabo men, gossip, anecdotes and nicknames are communicated by xylophone playing, with the meaning veiled so that only a few understand the signalling.

Masked dancers appear at various musical occasions. The Kpelle have a masked dancer who is the public manifestation of the Poro and is known as gbetû. The Mano and Gio have a masked dancer on stilts whose face is covered with a black net and who dances for entertainment or in honour of distinguished guests. The Mano also have a masked clown dancer (domia) who carries a rope and pretends to beat those who cannot sing; he tries to show them how to sing, but is himself incompetent.

3. Musical instruments.

The Kpelle and Gio divide instruments into two categories: blown (Kpelle fée) and struck (Kpelle ygále). Instrument names within Kpelle ensembles sometimes reflect their social organization. For instance, in an ensemble of three hand-held slit idiophones, the largest and therefore lowest pitched is kóno-lee (‘mother kóno’), the medium-sized kóno-sama (‘middle kóno’) and the smallest kóno-long (‘child kóno’).

The Liberian peoples also have names for the various pitch registers of the instruments. The Jabo use the terms ke (a small bird with a high-pitched voice) and dolo (a larger bird) to distinguish higher from lower pitches. By compounding these terms with the words for ‘large’ and ‘small’, the Jabo designate four pitch registers for a variety of instruments. The Kpelle, with some variation in terminology, designate strings or other individual parts of instruments by the sound they produce. On one pluriarc the strings, in ascending pitch order, are named as follows: mee, ‘the mother’; mee móng, ‘the mother’s child’; mee móng mgo móng, ‘the mother’s child’s child’; nêyge, ‘the younger sibling’ (of the third string); móng, ‘the child’ (of the fourth string); móng, ‘the child’ (of the fifth string); gbe-ngâ, ‘end’. Many Liberian instruments have, in addition to the timbre of the basic instrument, a metallic rattle consisting of loose metal pieces often attached to drums, lamellophones, struck idiophones and chordophones.

Membranophones include goblet and conical single-headed drums, hourglass and cylindrical double-headed drums and footed drums. Master drummers beat the goblet drum (Kpelle fêli) or the conical drum (Vai samgba) with the hands, both drums having laced skins and attached metal rattles. The Hourglass drum (Kpelle danîng; Mano tama; Gio dama) is also widespread in Liberia. The player uses a hooked stick and can produce a wide range of glides. A cylindrical, stick-beaten drum (Vai gbemgbem; Kpelle gbùng-gbùng) usually provides the ensemble with a steady rhythmic background. Large footed drums, 2 to 4·5 metres long, have been reported among the Gio, Jabo and Mano. When the drums are exceptionally large, platforms may be built in order to play them. Among the Jabo, the large footed drum has the honorary title of ‘God’s wife’ and is the official signalling instrument of the village.

Idiophones are struck, plucked and shaken. Struck idiophones include slit-drums, xylophones, pieces of iron and the glass bottles that have occasionally replaced the iron percussion idiophones. Slit-drums are of two types. The first is a relatively large wooden drum played horizontally (Kpelle kéleng). Among the Jabo such drums have single slits, the lips of varying thicknesses producing different pitches; among the Mano and Gio they have one or two longitudinal slits. Where there are two slits, the tone produced in the area between them is known as the ‘son’s piping voice’; the lower tone of the outer lip is the ‘mother’s resonant response’. A drum with a single slit has a ‘man’s voice only’. The Jabo use these instruments for dance performances, to send messages and to organize meetings of local policing groups. Praise titles may be incorporated into these performances. The second type of slit-drum is a smaller bamboo or wooden idiophone (Kpelle kóno) held vertically and played in ensembles when the bush is being cleared for rice farms. Among the Kpelle, tortoise-shells are also played as slit idiophones in the Sande women’s secret society.

Xylophones (Gio blande; Kpelle bala; Mano balau) are found throughout Liberia and often consist of free logs resting on banana stalks. They are played by boys on rice farms to drive away birds, and are used for signalling. Lamellophones appear in several varieties. One has seven to nine lamellae with a hemispherical gourd or enamel bowl resonator (Kpelle gbelee). It is played as a solo instrument, the player also singing. A larger two- or three-tongued instrument with a box resonator is known as a kónggoma or kongoma (see Sierra leone, §1 and fig.3) among the Vai and Kpelle, as a bonduma among the Gola. It usually accompanies a vocal ensemble that may also include other instruments. Shaken idiophones, which include basket rattles and gourd rattles with external networks of beads, are played chiefly by women. Dancers often wear leg rattles of seed-pods or bells.

Chordophones include the triangular frame zither, the pluriarc and the musical bow. The triangular frame zither (Kpelle konîng) consists of eight or nine strings spanning the triangular wooden frame. The strings are tuned by moving them up or down the frame to change their tension. An attached half-gourd resting on the player’s chest acts as a resonator. Melodic motifs played by this instrument may illustrate an implied text depicting, for instance, a leopard stalking prey or women sowing rice seed. The pluriarc (Kpelle gbegbetele) has piassava bows attached to a round gourd resonator. Metal or rattan strings are stretched across each bow, which has metal rattles attached to its underside. The musical bow (Kpelle gbong-kpala) is played by striking the string with a stick held in one hand, while the other hand stops the lower end of the string at various points. The mouth encircles the string at the upper end, without touching it, to amplify the sound.

Side-blown horns (Kpelle túru) made of wood, ivory or horn are the most common aerophones. They are played in ensembles of four to six horns using hocket technique and voice disguise. Horns are also used in signalling. Globular pottery flutes are used in the secret society for creating the Poro spirit’s voice.

4. Main musical styles.

Melody is generally syllabic and percussive. Ostinato is common, appearing as short, repeated melodic patterns either to accompany a more extended melody or in combination to form a complex ostinato, the patterns of which may be simultaneous, alternating or overlapping. In the latter case, for instance in bush-cleaning songs, hocketing sometimes also occurs. A striking example of hocket occurs in the music of side-blown horn ensembles: in a typical group of four to six horns, each instrument plays only one or two notes of the melody. Melody sometimes approaches a type of recitative that reflects the rhythm, pitches and nuances of speech. The storyteller of a chantefable uses recitative during the musical sections of the story. Vocal glissandos and other melodic devices suggest subtleties of speech. Phonemic pitches in these tone languages do not completely govern melodic pitches, or even melodic direction, although speech tone is clearly reflected in the music, especially at semantically crucial points.

The range of pitches used in Liberian music varies and may include five, six, seven or more notes. Performance is frequently focussed within a pentachord, the voice or instrument shifting from one pentachord to another. The Kpelle have songs that use a pentatonic scale within an octave. This includes a minor 3rd, which is often closer to a major 2nd, implying a tendency towards isotonicism. However, there also appear to be 3rds and 2nds of various sizes, including neutral ones.

Both instrumental and vocal polyphony are important in Liberian music. Of the various harmonic intervals used, 3rds, 4ths, 5ths and 6ths are prominent. Parallel 4ths may form opening or closing patterns on the lamellophone or triangular frame zither. Contrapuntal motion is prominent in songs with an overlapping complex ostinato. Herzog described canonic xylophone songs, performed by two men, with the form built on repetition, imitation and transposition.

Much of the music is based on rhythms of unequal beats, as in ex.1, and thus belongs to a broad stylistic area extending through parts of Africa, the Middle East, Mediterranean Europe and India. An idiophonic accompaniment to a pluriarc entertainment song has a 12/8 pattern shown in ex.2, also composed of unequal beats. This rhythmic pattern appears in a fêli (goblet drum) signal pattern of the Kpelle, where the mnemonic syllables name a bird by imitating its voice.

Performances are typically by ensembles rich in contrasting timbres: voices, drums, rattles and metal idiophones. Entries are usually staggered, giving an accumulation of textures. The metal rattles attached to many instruments add variety to the timbre. Horn players and singers delight in voice disguise to produce animal and bird imitations. Master drummers playing membranophones imitate the sound of a slit-drum or other drums to demonstrate their skill. They even imitate the sound of side-blown horns with their voices, placing their mouths close to the drumhead for resonance.

Men sing primarily in the upper vocal register, women in the lower. Both mostly use mouth resonance. There is some tightness in vocal production, which is pronounced in the men’s voices when they sing bush-clearing songs. Tempo in all music is quite fast. Responsorial singing is widespread. The Kpelle call the soloist ngulei-sîyge-nuu (‘song raiser’) and the chorus the faama-nuai (‘answering people’). Litany and strophic forms are both prominent, a variation being the narrative chantefable with recurring musical chorus and narrated story verses.

In every aspect of Liberian musical style, there appears to be logic and consistency amid variety and richness. But further detailed research is needed to understand this logic more fully as it is perceived and ordered by Liberian musicians and audiences.

5. Modern developments.

In addition to the music of the indigenous peoples, mention must be made of the two other types of music, neither of which has been studied extensively. The music of settler descendants has been explored by Agnes von Ballmoos, who studied the Johnsonville Singers, a group organized in the early 1950s. They perform chiefly religious music, and their songs bear some relationship to spirituals. She has also discussed the Greenwood Singers, a group with a mainly secular repertory; it was founded in 1949 and recorded that year by Alberts, but no longer exists. The music of both the Johnsonville and Greenwood Singers draws heavily on Western rhythmic, melodic and harmonic styles. The urban popular music reflects aspects of Highlife, jazz and American popular music, as well as indigenous music. It is important in Monrovia and is increasingly widespread elsewhere. Kru sailors introduced the palm wine guitar style in ports from Sierra Leone to Fernando Po. This guitar style featured a two-finger picking style and flourished particularly up to the 1950s.

The civil war that began in late 1988 brought major disruption in everyday life and musical performance. Nevertheless, as the tension leading up to the war built throughout the country, powerful songs of protest provided opposition to the repression and abuse that was experienced by the Liberian people. Veiled song texts expressed the feelings of the people on many occasions.

6. Research.

The earliest written accounts of music in Liberia are contained in the observations of 19th-century explorers, missionaries and scholars. On a journey in 1868, Benjamin Anderson observed a chief travelling from Totaquella to Boporu accompanied by an entourage of praise-singing musicians playing drums, horns and an iron percussion idiophone. Johann Büttikofer, who began his travels in 1879, described music and dance performances and included drawings of drums, rattles, a sanza (lamellophone) and a triangular frame zither. The first detailed ethnomusicological work was George Herzog’s study of Jabo music in south-east Liberia (1930, published 1934), which focussed on signalling music and the relationships between language and music. In later literature, Warren d’Azevedo has been concerned with the behaviour of musicians, dancers and other artists in Gola society, and with Gola aesthetic concepts. Bai T. Moore has described categories of songs in Liberian music, and Agnes von Ballmoos has examined music of the descendants of the 19th-century settlers.

Films and recordings of musical performances date from the 1920s. In 1923 H. Schomburgk made a silent film of dance in women’s secret society rituals; Paul Germann filmed Gbande masked and stilt dances (1928, 1929). Early recordings include Herzog’s 226 cylinder recordings of Jabo music (1930) and Robert Morey’s recordings (1935) of Loma, Gbande and Mandingo music. Packard L. Okie, an Episcopalian missionary, collected music in various places (1947–54). Arthur Alberts, on his 1949 West African recording trip, collected music of the Loma and Mano, of the Fanti community on Marshall Island and songs in Monrovia from the community descended from settlers.

Hans G. Himmelheber made six extended ethnographic research trips to Liberia and Côte d’Ivoire (1949–65), during which he recorded Gio, Krahn and Mano music; many of his short research films include sound recordings of musical performances. Leo Sarkisian and Bai T. Moore (under-secretary of information and cultural affairs for Liberia) travelled extensively throughout Liberia in 1965–6 and collected a wide variety of music.

Detailed ethnographic studies of musical practices among the Kpelle, Kru, and Vai were carried out in the 1980s and 90s. Lester Monts documented the changes in musical practice brought about by Islamic influences in a Vai village, and Cynthia Schmidt explored the music of Kru mariners living in Liberia and other West African countries. Ruth Stone studied aspects of music events, particularly rhythm and temporal considerations among the Kpelle.

Many field recordings made in Liberia have been deposited at the Archives of Traditional Music, Indiana University, Bloomington. Films incorporating music and dance performance are available in the Institut für den Wissenschaftlichen Film, Göttingen.

5. Cataloguing and classification.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GEWM, ii (‘Kru Mariners and Migrants of the West African Cost’, C. Schmidt; ‘Islam in Liberia’, L. Monts)

B.J.K. Anderson: Narrative of a Journey to Musardu, the Capital of the Western Mandingoes (New York, 1870), 31

J. Büttikofer: Reisebilder aus Liberia, ii (Leiden, 1890), 334ff

H.H. Johnston: Liberia (London, 1906)

D. Westermann: Die Kpelle: ein Negerstamm in Liberia (Göttingen, 1921), 34, 47, 286

M.J. Herskovits: ‘Kru Proverbs’, Journal of American Folklore, xliii (1930), esp. 259, 269 [transcr. by G. Herzog of two Kru melodies]

R.P. Strong, ed.: The African Republic of Liberia and the Belgian Congo, i (Cambridge, MA, 1930), 64ff, 90

P. Germann: ‘Musik’, Die Völkerstämme im Norden von Liberia (Leipzig, 1933), 62

G. Herzog: ‘Speech-Melody and Primitive Music’, MQ, xx (1934), 452–66

G. Herzog: ‘Drum-Signaling in a West African Tribe’, Word, i (1945), 217

G. Schwab: ‘Tribes of the Liberian Hinterland’, Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology, xxxi (1947), 149, 270

G. Herzog: ‘Canon in West African Xylophone Melodies’, JAMS, ii (1949), 196–7

G.W. Harley: ‘Masks as Agents of Social Control in Northeast Liberia’, Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology, xxxii/2 (1950), 3–41

P.L. Okie: Folk Music of Liberia, FE 4465 (1954) [disc notes]

H. and U. Himmelheber: Die Dan: ein Bauernvolk im westafrikanischen Urwald (Stuttgart, 1958)

W.L. d’Azevedo: ‘Some Historical Problems in the Delineation of a Central West Atlantic Region’, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, xcvi (1962), 512

A.N. von Ballmoos: ‘Liberian Music’, Liberian Research Association Journal, iii/2 (1970), 30

B.T. Moore: ‘Categories of Traditional Liberian Songs’, Liberian Studies Journal, ii (1970), 117

R.M. and V.L. Stone: Music of the Kpelle of Liberia, FE 4385 (1970) [disc notes]

H. Zemp: Musique Dan: la musique dans la pensée et la vie sociale d’une société africaine (Paris, 1971)

A.N. von Ballmoos: The Role of Folksongs in Liberian Society (diss., Indiana U., 1975)

R.M. Stone: Let the Inside be Sweet: the Interpretation of Music Events among the Kpelle of Liberia (Bloomington, IN, 1982)

R.M. Stone: Dried Millet Breaking: Time, Words, and Song in the Woi Epic of the Kpelle (Bloomington, IN, 1988)

R.M. Stone: ‘Travelling Home: Music, Politics, and the Commemoration of a Life’, Five Windows on Africa (Bloomington, IN, 2000) [CD ROM]

Libero Castro, Heinricus de.

Composer, possibly identifiable with Heinrich Laufenberg.

Libert, Gualterius [Liberti, Gualtero]

(fl 1423–8). French composer. A work of his in GB-Ob Can.misc.213 is dated 1423; whether this is the date of composition or of copying is unknown. ‘Gualtero Liberti’ received four florins as a singer (tenth on the list) in the papal chapel in 1428. No link is known between Gualterius and Reginaldus Libert. The opinion that Gualterius was the same man as the English composer Walter Frye is no longer accepted.

Three works are known to be his: Se je me plains, Belle, plaissant plus que nulle autre née/Puisque je sui and De tristresse, de dueil. All appear uniquely in GB-Ob 213, where the last carries a date.

He is evidently not to be identified with Clement Liebert.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F.X. Haberl: ‘Wilhelm du Fay’, VMw, i (1885), 397–530, esp. 456; repr. as Bausteine für Musikgeschichte, i (Leipzig, 1885/R), 60

G. Reaney, ed.: Early Fifteenth-Century Music, CMM, xi/2 (1959), 90–93 [complete edn.]

TOM R. WARD

Libert, Reginaldus [Liebert]

(fl c1425–35). French composer. He is sometimes identified with a Reginaldus who was magister puerorum in Cambrai in 1424. Stylistically his works belong to the period around 1430. The most interesting of these is the Marian mass (in I-TRmp 92). It resembles the Missa Sancti Jacobi of Du Fay in including settings of both Ordinary and Proper. All the movements except the Gloria and Credo are based on an ornamented form of the appropriate chant melody. Musical unification is achieved through the use of similar mensuration patterns throughout.

Two rondeaux are attributed to him in GB-Ob can.misc.213, Mourir me voy and Mon cuer s’en va. Both are set for three voices, with only the highest voice texted. He also wrote a four-voice Kyrie (in I-TRmp 92). (All his works are ed. in CMM, xi/3, 1966, pp.62–96.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. von Ficker: ‘Die Kolorierungstechnik der Trienter Messen,’ SMw, vii (1920), 5–47

E.H. Sparks: Cantus Firmus in Mass and Motet, 1420–1520 (Berkeley, 1963), esp. 403–7

TOM R. WARD

Liberti, Gualtero.

See Libert, Gualterius.

Liberti [van Groeninghen], Henricus [Hendrik]

(b c1610; d Antwerp, 1669). Dutch composer and organist. He may have been the choirboy from ’s-Hertogenbosch, the son of a Libertus van Groeninghen, who was employed at Antwerp Cathedral in 1617. He was certainly in service there by 1620 and was organist from 17 March 1628 to 1669 in succession to John Bull. Only his cantiones natalitiae survive enough to be studied; they are homophonic carols on Dutch texts in a strophic binary form. Liberti’s portrait, painted by Anthony van Dyck about 1630, exists in at least eight copies and was also engraved. Its popularity may have been due to its suitability as a prototype for ‘the exalted artist’.

WORKS

Paduanes et galiardes, 6 insts (Antwerp, 1632), lost

1 or more masses in Fasciculus missarum (Antwerp, 1640), lost

2 cantiones natalitiae, 4 vv, bc, 1648–52, inc.

6 cantiones natalitiae, 4–8 vv, bc, 1650–57, inc.; 3 ed. in EMN, xiii (1981)

6 cantiones natalitiae, 4–5 vv, bc, 1651–3, inc.

TeD, 1635, lost, mentioned in Antwerp Cathedral account books

Song, in Vermaeckelycke Duytsche liedekens (Antwerp, 1663), inc.

Other vocal compositions in 1634², 1648², 1650⁷, 1651³

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Noske: ‘The Cantiones natalitiae’, Essays in Musicology: a Birthday Offering for Willi Apel, ed. H. Tischler (Bloomington, IN, 1968), 123–30

R.A. Rasch: ‘Henricus Liberti, organist van de Onze-Lieve-Vrouwe-Kerk te Antwerpen (1628–1669)’, Visitatio organorum: Feestbundel voor Maarten Albert Vente, ed. A. Dunning (Buren, 1980), 507–18

R.A. Rasch: De cantiones natalitiae en het kerkelijke muziekleven in de Zuidelijke Nederlanden gedurende de zeventiende eeuw (Utrecht, 1985)

RUDOLF A. RASCH

Liberti, Vincenzo

(b ?Spoleto; fl 1598–1609). Italian composer and organist. He was organist of Spoleto Cathedral from 1598 to about 1600, and he is probably the ‘Don Vincenzo’ who was maestro di cappella there in 1602–3; in the latter position he appears to have succeeded Antonio Liberti ‘da Todi’, who may have been his brother. The dedication to Cardinal Scipione Borghese of Liberti’s Il primo libro de madrigali (Venice, 1608) for five voices was signed by G.A. Campelli and refers to the works therein being performed in a musical salon in Spoleto sponsored by Oddo Cecilio. The dedication to Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, Bishop of Spoleto (later Pope Urban VIII), of his Il secondo libro de madrigali (Venice, 1609), also for five voices, was signed by Liberti himself. His choice of texts was ambitious and prompts comparisons with the leading madrigalists of the time, but the music, while technically fluent, scarcely matches their standards.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Fausti: La cappella musicale del duomo di Spoleto (Perugia, 1916)

M.A. Balsano: ‘Vincenzo Liberti pseudomadrigalista spoletino’, Esercizi, v (1982), 67–97 [incl. edns of 2 madrigals]

TIM CARTER

Liber usualis

(Lat.: ‘Book of common practice’).

The short title of a book first issued by the monks of Solesmes in 1896, Liber usualis missae et officii pro dominicis et festis duplicibus cum cantu gregoriano (‘Book of common practice for Mass and Office for Sundays and double feasts, with Gregorian chant’). It is a compendium, though not comprehensive, of prayers, lessons and chants for the more important services of the Roman Catholic Church as prescribed between the Council of Trent (1545–63) and the Second Vatican Council (1962–5). It includes the kyriale; Mass, Vespers and Compline for Sundays and feast days; Prime, Terce, Sext and None for Sundays and feasts of the First and Second Class; Matins for four festivals – Christmas, Easter, Pentecost and Corpus Christi; Lauds for feasts of the First Class; the liturgy for Holy Week; sundry litanies; and votive Masses.

The Liber usualis represents the culmination of a tendency, particularly noticeable in the Western Church, to combine in one volume for practical use selections from liturgical books hitherto kept separate; such combinations had earlier appeared in the Breviary, Missal and Anglican Book of Common Prayer. These multi-purpose, non-comprehensive volumes differ somewhat from early compendia such as those made for the master-general of the Dominican order, Humbert of Romans, in the 13th century (I-Rss XIV lit.1, GB-Lbl Add.23935), which contain the entire Dominican liturgy: these consist of entire books – the gradual, antiphoner etc. – bound together, rather than of conflated selections like the Liber usualis, and were used during visitations to check the accuracy of local books.

The Liber usualis is not an official Vatican liturgical book, but was nevertheless widely used before the Second Vatican Council. It was frequently reprinted and also appeared in editions with introduction and rubrics in English or French. Although the book became a standard teaching aid in university music departments and in seminaries, its usefulness as a source book for medieval chant is severely limited by the fact that it provides little information about the period and provenance of the chants it contains.

See also Liturgy and liturgical books §III.

Libin, Laurence (Elliot)

(b Chicago, 19 Sept 1944). American organologist and curator. He was educated at Northwestern University, Evanston (BMus 1966), and at King's College, University of London (MMus 1968), studying with Thurston Dart. He then returned to the USA to study for the PhD at Chicago University with Howard Mayer Brown and Edward Lowinsky (1968–71). In 1973 Libin became curator of musical instruments at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, and research curator in 1999. He taught at Ramapo College, New Jersey (1972–3), after which he was concurrently lecturer at Columbia University, the City College of New York and New York University (1974–94). His research interests include the history, construction, iconography and collection of all types of musical instruments.

WRITINGS

with H. Lenneberg: ‘Unknown Handel Sources in Chicago’, JAMS, xxii (1969), 85–100

‘The “Restored” Stradivari and Amati Violins of the Metropolitan Museum of Art’, Journal of the Violin Society of America, iv (1977–8), 34–47

Musical Instruments in the Metropolitan Museum (New York, 1978)

with C.A. Hoover and R. Rephann: ‘The Role of the Museum in the Conservation and Preservation of Bowed Stringed Instruments’, Journal of the Violin Society of America, v (1979), 9–30

‘Thomas Appleton and his Organ at the Metropolitan Museum of Art’, The Tracker, xxxvii/4 (1982–3), 12–15

‘A Rediscovered Portrayal of Rameau and Castor et Pollux’, EMc, xi (1983), 510–13

Keynotes: Two Centuries of Piano Design (New York, 1985)

‘A Unique Organized Piano from Pennsylvania’, Organ Yearbook, xviii (1987), 95–108

‘The Eisenbrandt Family Pedigree’, Studia organologica: Festschrift für John Henry van der Meer, ed. F. Hellwig (Tutzing, 1987), 335–42

‘Folding Harpsichords’, EMc, xv (1987), 378–83

‘Major Instrument Collections’, Ethnomusicology I: an Introduction, ed. H. Myers (London, 1992), 423–43

‘John Huber's Pianos in Context’, JAMIS, xix (1993), 5–37

‘The Instruments’, Eighteenth-Century Keyboard Music, ed. R.L. Marshall (New York, 1994), 1–32

‘John Huber Revisited’, JAMIS, xx (1994), 73–83

Our Tuneful Heritage: American Musical Instruments from the Metropolitan Museum of Art (Provo, UT, 1994)

‘The “Lying Harp” and Some Early Square Pianos’, Early Keyboard Studies, viii/3 (1994), 1–8

‘Organs in American Life’, The Organ: King of Instruments, ed. G. Hayes (Easthampton, MA, 1996), 9–17

‘Remarks on the 1581 Hans Ruckers Virginal at the Metropolitan Museum of Art’, Hans Ruckers (X1598), Stichter van een klavecimbelatelier van wereldformaat in Antwerpen, ed. J. Lambrechts-Douillez (Peer, 1998), 76–84

‘Seeking the source of the Gaillard cornemuses’, Musique – Images – Instruments, (1998), 168–77

‘Preserving Pennsylvania German Instruments’, Regional Traditions in Instrument Making: Challenges to the Museum Community, ed. M. Elste (Leipzig and Halle, 1999), 45–9

PAULA MORGAN

Libon, Philippe [Felipe]

(b Cádiz, 17 Aug 1775; d Paris, 5 Feb 1838). Spanish violinist and composer. For six years he studied in London with Viotti, with whom he appeared in concerts. He studied composition with Cimador and subsequently held positions as court violinist at Lisbon (1796), Madrid (1798) and Paris (1800), where he worked until his death, in the service of the empresses Josephine and, from 1810, Marie-Louise. His compositions include six violin concertos, trios for two violins and cello, violin duos, variations and 30 caprices for solo violin.

GUY BOURLIGUEUX

Libraries.

This article provides a survey of institutional libraries containing source materials of Western music. It does not deal with libraries of recorded sound, with privately owned libraries, with collections of instruments, or in a substantive way with collections of non-Western or traditional materials (which are referred to in entries on the cultures concerned). See also Archives and music; Collections, private; International Association of Music Information Centres; Sound archives; Instruments, collections of.

For a comprehensive list of Libraries see volume 28.

RITA BENTON/R

1. Definition.

The English term ‘library’, related to the Latin liber for book (the words in most Western languages, Fr. bibliothèque, Ger. Bibliothek and It. biblioteca, derive from the Greek biblos for book and thēku for container), generally stands for a collection or repository of books. In contradistinction, an archive (often used in the plural) is defined as an organized body of records, often of an official or governmental nature, or the place where they are stored (see Archives and music). Achives (in the first sense) may equally well be included in the holdings of libraries; similarly, many institutions bearing the title ‘archive’ include not only official records but also material more directly musical in nature (e.g. letters or contracts concerning musicians, as well as manuscript or printed compositions), and they are included in the discussion here. Even the term ‘music library’, which could long be taken to refer specifically and restrictively to a collection of music and books about music, encompasses a much more diversified group of materials, with their accompanying equipment.

2. Early history.

Little is known about early music libraries: in part because so little is known of the early history of libraries in general, and in part because it is not known whether early libraries contained music (although recent research suggests that some did). Music libraries as separate entities or separate departments of large libraries did not appear until the late 18th century, but music can be found in libraries from a much earlier date.

Among the earliest known libraries was the collection of cuneiform tablets assembled in the 7th century bce at Nineveh by King Ashurbanipal for the education of his subjects. It contained religious texts and histories as well as other documents. Similar collections of tablets, from Assur (9th century bce) and Tell Harmal, have been thought to contain musical notation. Richard Crocker had drawn attention to what may be music on a tablet from Ras Shamra (c1800 bce). These would, if correctly interpreted, confirm that some of these early libraries held musical documents.

Libraries were cultivated in both Greek and Roman cultures, particularly in the former, when the library at Alexandria was perhaps the most extensive collection in antiquity. Although it probably included writings on music, there is no positive evidence that it did so, and most of the collection was destroyed during the Roman campaign of 47 bce. While such collections were either universal collections or were based on the works of the principal authors, their successors in medieval times, the monastic libraries, were concerned primarily to collect sacred texts, commentaries on the scriptures or patristic writings. Thus few secular manuscripts were preserved in them. Despite this – and the fact that they were generally closed institutions, the contents read and copied only by members of the monastery – they were the guardians of Western culture. Early libraries and archives almost certainly contained documents on musicians and theoretical writings, a hypothesis supported by the widely documented connection between theoretical music and the sciences of the Quadrivium, by the equally general theories as to the ethical and physical virtues of music, and by the place of music in the seven liberal arts.

Three medieval scholars in particular are often cited, both for their encouragement of libraries and for their encyclopedic knowledge. Cassiodorus (d c580), Boethius (d c524) and Isidore of Seville (d 636) all published comprehensive works which included large sections on music. Cassiodorus’s Institutiones was important in transmitting musical theory, and the Etymologiae of Isidore (who owned one of the richest libraries of his time, some of it still extant at the University of Madrid) defined many musical terms, especially those used in connection with the liturgy. Other famous continental monastic libraries came into existence about this time, often through the work of Irish monks under the leadership of St Columba. Particularly important for music is that at St Gallen (founded 614) because of the concern for Gregorian chant and for musical theory expressed by its leaders (e.g. Notker, d 912, and Notker Labeo, d 1022). The monastery was famous for its scriptorium, and the collection there still includes among its important holdings of practical and theoretical music 20 volumes of the 9th to 12th centuries with neumatic notation, some of them Irish in origin. The monastery at Fulda, founded by the English, developed a famous scriptorium, library and school of chant, although little of the library survived the Thirty Years War. Charlemagne, through his efforts to establish the general adoption of Roman chant, founded reading schools and made provision for advanced education at cathedral schools (Lyons, Orléans) or monastic schools (Tours, Corbie, Metz) with associated scriptoria. Rome remained an important centre for manuscripts as late as 855, but the collection seems to have passed into disuse soon after; apparently it was destroyed during the 14th century, so it is not known whether it contained music.

In the Byzantine Empire similar patterns of development can be traced, beginning with the important collection established by Constantine the Great. Musical studies flourished, particularly in St Sabas during the 8th century and later at the Studium monastery in Constantinople. Among the existing monastic libraries, there are important musical collections at St Catherine, at the foot of Mount Sinai, and in the 20 monasteries of Mount Athos. The function of Islam and Arab libraries in disseminating the culture of the Eastern Empire through western Europe, and particularly Spain, should not be underestimated. Toledo, for example, which boasted a famous choir school at the cathedral, had one of the most famous scriptoria in Spain, from which Latin translations of Arabic works, many descended from Greek thinking and often including musical philosophy, spread throughout Europe.

(iii) Other ecclesiastical institutions.

3. Types.

Although some of the information provided in this discussion reappears in the entries on individual institutions, it is here placed in a more general setting, providing an overview of the subject. It may serve to remind those seeking source material of the broad range of avenues open for their exploration.

(i) Monasteries.

(ii) Cathedrals.

(iv) Universities.

(v) National libraries.

(vi) Public libraries.

(vii) Conservatories.

(viii) Music information centres.

(ix) Composers’ and performing rights associations.

(x) Opera houses.

(xi) Music publishers.

(xii) Mass media.

(xiii) Special collections.

(xiv) Private libraries.

(i) Monasteries.

Among the earliest collections known to have music were the libraries of monasteries. During the late Middle Ages some monastery collections fell into neglect or were ravaged by war or insurrection; others avoided or overcame such disasters and grew in importance and wealth. Among the latter were many of the Benedictine order, which retained among its tenets rules for the organization, cataloguing and enlargement of their libraries and their performing repertory. Important Benedictine collections included Monte Cassino (the principal abbey, founded 529), St Germain (590), St Gallen (614), Metz (662), St Peter in Salzburg (700), St Emmeram in Regensburg (739; since suppressed), St Martial in Limoges (848, dissolved in 1771), Montserrat (888), Einsiedeln (934) and Göttweig (1070). Archives of mendicant orders, although tending to exclude secular music, also had sizable collections as at Assisi (Franciscan), Bologna (Dominican), El Escorial, Klosterneuburg and St Victor in Paris (Augustinian). The Jesuit order, not founded until 1539, differed from other mendicant orders in its special cultivation of school-drama, particularly during the era of the Counter-Reformation: somewhere between a Singspiel and an opera, these plays were performed by students, sometimes with professional musicians, in both the vernacular and Latin. Unfortunately only a small proportion of scores and librettos survived the order’s suppression in 1773 by Pope Clement XIV. (E. Tittel, Österreichische Kirchenmusik, 1961, discusses early musical treasures of Austrian monasteries and contemporary evidence concerning their libraries.)

A wave of suppression and secularization of religious houses swept through Europe, beginning in the 1530s with Henry VIII’s abolitions and continuing until the Swiss persecutions of 1838–47. The motives were often economic gain or the issue of state supremacy, but sometimes such movements as agnosticism, materialism or rationalism provided the incentive. Despite the loss of many treasures, numerous books survived because governments provided for the distribution of religious libraries among public institutions, where many still remain. During the French Revolution, for example, the libraries of émigrés and the condemned were added to those of religious houses to form the biens nationaux (national property) – an elaborate scheme both saving the libraries and using their books for the instruction of the uneducated; it involved the establishment of regional distribution depots, a plan for uniform cataloguing and a national union catalogue, but it eventually had to be abandoned (see P. Riberette, Les bibliothèques françaises pendant la Révolution, 1970). It is nevertheless to this type of programme that we owe the survival of many important theoretical treatises, liturgical works and other genres of music still being discovered in unlikely corners of municipal libraries, particularly in France, Italy and Spain. Some monasteries, especially in Austria, Italy and Spain, have been restored to their orders, and the care of books and music once more undertaken by the monks (e.g. St Florian, St Peter at Salzburg, El Escorial, Montserrat, Monte Oliveto, Subiaco and S Maria del Monte near Cesena). The last three are supported by the Italian government as national monuments.

(ii) Cathedrals.

From the 10th century onwards, cathedral libraries gradually became more important than those of monasteries. The former were usually closer to the centres of population and more often were linked with schools for the training of priests and for secular education. Their book collections tended to be broader in content, more modern and better organized. In addition, as headquarters for bishops or archbishops, cathedrals often maintained trained performers to provide the service music. From these origins, and often from the personal possessions of the attached musicians, important musical archives remain in many cathedrals (e.g. Aachen, Bologna, Cologne, Évora, Faenza, Florence, Milan, Salzburg and Tarragona). Non-Catholic cathedrals similarly own valuable music collections (e.g. Canterbury, Durham and Worcester). Some rich collections of cathedral music have been incorporated into governmental archives, or were during socialist rule (e.g. the many works from the Prague Loreta Cathedral, now in the State Archive in Žitenice, and the neumed manuscript of the Metropolitan Cathedral deposited in the Zagreb National Library).

(iii) Other ecclesiastical institutions.

Interesting music collections often belong to parish and diocesan churches and offices: for example Pfarramt St Peter in Görlitz, Diözesanarchiv in St Pölten, the Proske Library in the Bischöfliche Zentralbibliothek in Regensburg (belonging to the Bischöfliches Ordinariat) and the Bistumsarchiv in Trier. Others may belong to church music societies (St Gregoriusvereeniging, Utrecht), to seminaries (Bischöfliches Priesterseminar, Münster; Grand Séminaire, Strasbourg; Seminario Maggiore, Aosta), to the archives of particular orders or denominations (Brüder-Unität, Herrnhut; Biblioteca Oratoriana, Naples), to chapter or bishopric archives kept in or close to cathedrals (Cuenca, Granada, Lisbon, Modena, Piacenza), to museum libraries, of which many are also attached to cathedrals (Évora, St Ambrose in Milan), and to schools of sacred music (Pontificio Istituto di Musica Sacra, Rome; Institut Supérieur de Musique Liturgique, Paris).

(iv) Universities.

The 12th century saw the rise of the first universities, formed from loosely-knit groups of students attached to faculties (e.g. Bologna, Montpellier, Oxford and Paris). For many years the separate colleges or nations maintained their own libraries, each with its own organization, rules and subject emphases; outsiders were usually permitted to use the books. Central university libraries began to appear two centuries later. Oxford, after several false starts, finally centralized in 1411, and Cambridge in 1415. At Prague the Charles University formed a central library soon after its founding in 1348, and before the end of the century Coimbra, Kraków and Orleans had university libraries. With over 50 individual college and school libraries, Paris did not form a central library until the 19th century, basing it on the Sorbonne nucleus.

In addition to works donated by members of the university community and those acquired from defunct monasteries, universities have often received gifts from kings, nobles, bishops and other collectors, and holdings have been increased with the help of endowments and the exchange of duplicates with other libraries. G. Pietzsch (Zur Pflege der Musik an den deutschen Universitäten bis zur Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts, 1971) discusses early holdings of musical material at the universities of Prague (c1370), Heidelberg (1396–1432), Erfurt (1412), Cologne (1474–94) and Greifswald (c1482); at Trier University (founded in 1473), students may have had to use books from the abbey and cathedral (Pietzsch could locate no early library inventory). In countries where historic geographical divisions have prevented establishment of a single national library, large regional or city libraries have merged with university libraries in function and administration (e.g. the Stadt- und Universitätsbibliothek in Frankfurt, the Dessau Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek and the Öffentliche Bibliothek of the Universität Basel). In smaller countries, university libraries have sometimes merged with state libraries (e.g. Lisbon, Oslo and Brno). In countries requiring more than one example for copyright deposit, additional copies are usually designated for universities (e.g. Oxford, Cambridge, and Trinity College, Dublin; for fuller discussion, see Copyright).

Today university libraries often have strong research collections to facilitate the work of their faculty and graduate students. They continue to acquire the libraries of scholars and to serve as archives for composers and performers.

(v) National libraries.

These are a special class of library which are generally responsible for acquiring, cataloguing and maintaining copies of the national bibliographic output and preparing the national bibliography. Much of the stock is acquired through copyright deposit (the legal protection granted to composers and authors in their creative work) or legal deposit (the requirement that copies of works either protected by copyright or published in the country be filed with the national bibliographic agency). These institutions are usually the central governmental libraries, whatever the form of government: e.g. the royal libraries of Belgium, Denmark or Sweden, or the National Diet Library in Japan and the Library of Congressin the USA. Regardless of their present titles, they are often descended from collections maintained by ruling houses for the use of their families, their chapels, their private theatres or other musical establishments (Lisbon, Madrid, Paris and Vienna). In some instances a national museum rather than a library houses the central music collection (e.g. The Hague Gemeentemuseum, Prague National Museum, London British Museum – given autonomy from the museum under the title British Library in 1973 and separated physically in the late 1990s). The music divisions of national libraries are almost always administered as separate departments or divisions. Some divisions are separated physically from other departments (Paris, Vienna) but most are in the same building. The most prolific source for the building of national collections is material received on obligatory deposit

Some national libraries have become their country’s national RISM centres (see Répertoire International des Sources Musicales). Many have maintained central union catalogues of music holdings throughout the country; some assist small libraries that lack qualified personnel for the proper cataloguing of music and retain photocopies of unique items held in remote areas of the country. Several national centres have issued series of printed catalogues of the country’s important music collections (e.g. Italy and Poland). Some socialist countries instituted centralizing of collections, with increasing numbers of ecclesiastical and private collections being absorbed into national libraries, where they are more easily available to users and where trained personnel are available to catalogue and care for the treasures. Since the breakup of the Eastern bloc many of these collections have been reclaimed by their former owners, although not all are willing to undertake the expense of administering this material.

(vi) Public libraries.

Collections open to the public have existed in Europe for at least four centuries. They were originally established by social, religious, commercial or benevolent societies and were limited in appeal and access. Probably the earliest of those supported directly by cities were the council libraries or Ratsbüchereien of 14th-century Germany. Like the others mentioned, it was in fact used mainly by the ‘Bürger’ class of established citizens, although theoretically open to all.

Two factors were chiefly responsible for the development on a much broader scale of truly public libraries: the invention of printing in the late 15th century, and the social, cultural and religious changes brought about by the Reformation in the early 16th. Despite the positive influence of Luther’s 1524 appeal to German mayors, urging them to spare no pains to procure good libraries in large cities, negative forces were at work and reformist zeal caused the destruction of thousands of European monastery libraries. Among the earliest municipal libraries were several in Germany – at Nuremberg (founded 1429), Ulm (1516) and Magdeburg (1525). City halls in other countries had small reference libraries or collections (often little used) received as gifts or taken over from monasteries; but the first real advance towards the more general availability of library facilities occurred during the French Revolution, when public libraries received the possessions of clergy and nobility. But the circulating public library used freely by a broad segment of the population is a phenomenon of the late 19th century and the 20th. Commercial music lending libraries operated by publishers or music dealers made music materials available to subscribers at reasonable rates in many cities in Europe and the United States before the advent of the public lending library.

In the modern municipal or regional public library, music usually forms a part of much broader circulating holdings serving the musical needs of the local population. Some music collections are run as semi-autonomous departments, physically separate from other branches; several have become famous for their research collections (e.g. Civica Biblioteca Musicale Andrea della Corte in Turin, Henry Watson Music Library in Manchester, Musikbibliothek in the Leipzig city system and the New York Public Library of the Performing Arts, although the Research Division is supported by endowments and not the municipal government). Besides government support for administration and growth, these institutions frequently have to depend on gifts from private donors and from commercial, performing or other types of organization (e.g. the library of the Allgemeine Musikgesellschaft in the Zürich Zentralbibliothek, collections of orchestral societies and other performing groups in the public libraries of Milan and Turin, and recordings from the now defunct USA Information Service libraries deposited in various Italian institutions).

Public libraries sometimes serve as repositories for centralizing collections. For instance music from various small parish churches of the area have been deposited at the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek in Munich, where printed catalogues are being prepared. A less typical amalgamation, demonstrating the same trend towards centralization, was the absorption of the former Landesbibliothek in Weimar by the city’s Zentralbibliothek in 1969.

(vii) Conservatories.

Most conservatory libraries originally had a largely practical function, their collections of music editions and textbooks having been assembled for teaching or performance; over the years such collections have often become historic treasures, forming important research materials in their own right. The foundation of some conservatories, however, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, coincided with the foundation of libraries, in which earlier sources – representing a national or local musical tradition – were gathered and preserved. Such is the case with Stockholm (founded 1771), Prague (1811), Parma (1818), Madrid (1830), Brussels (1832), Lisbon (1835) and the various institutions of Naples. The Paris Conservatoire, founded in 1784 to train opera singers, formerly held one of the world’s richest collections of source material; in 1964 these holdings were transferred to the Music Department of the Bibliothèque Nationale, in the interest of better preservation and public service. In the USA some institutions have combined the roles of the conservatory and university. This has resulted in the development of large libraries that serve the dual needs of performance and research (e.g. at the Eastman School of Music of the University of Rochester, and the School of Music of Indiana University).

(viii) Music information centres.

A relatively new type of music library has developed in the various national music information centres, usually financed by the government, sometimes jointly with the music publishing industry. The centres have as their chief purpose the promotion at home and abroad of their national music (with emphasis generally on contemporary art music), and collect scores, parts, recordings, books, articles, analyses of compositions, interviews and press clippings. (See International Association of Music Information Centres.)

(ix) Composers’ and performing rights associations.

In most countries there exist organizations for the protection of artistic properties and to provide their creators with aid and information concerning copyright, performance and other legal rights. These societies often preserve in their archives letters and contracts concerning composers, as well as autograph manuscripts and early editions of their works. Associations include the Société des Auteurs, Compositeurs et Editeurs de Musique, founded in Paris in 1851, the Composers Guild of Great Britain, the Society of Norwegian Composers in Oslo, and the Sociedad General de Autores de España in Madrid. Most of these national organizations are banded together within the framework of the international Confédération Internationale de Sociétés d’Auteurs et Compositeurs (CISAC). In some cases the composers’ associations are related in function or administration to music information centres. (For fuller discussion, see Copyright, §II.)

(x) Opera houses.

Besides the theatrical collections deposited in governmental libraries, many theatres preserve the documents (scores and orchestral material, librettos, programmes, scenic designs, costumes etc.) of their careers virtually intact in annexed libraries or museums. Among the most valuable are those of the Deutsche Staatsoper in Berlin (now partly in the Stadtmuseum), La Scala in Milan and the Paris Opéra. In Parma the Archivio Storico of the Teatro Regio is kept at the theatre but administered as a section of the city’s Biblioteca Municipale.

(xi) Music publishers.

Although the archives of some important defunct or reorganized firms have been deposited in public institutions (e.g. Artaria in the Vienna Stadtbibliothek, Peters in the Leipzig Stadtarchiv), long-established firms with long histories have often retained autograph manuscripts of works they have published, their early editions (and sometimes actual printing plates), letters and contracts with composers, or publication records that may supply missing dates or other important data. For some of these houses, catalogues or other descriptive literature concerning earlier periods have been issued: André in Offenbach, Breitkopf & Härtel in Wiesbaden and Leipzig (although some of that collection was dispersed or lost during World War II; various publishers’ archives are in the Leipzig Sächsisches Staatsarchiv), the Plantin firm in Antwerp, Ricordi in Milan, LeDuc in Paris, and Schott in Mainz. Some firms whose records are not open to the public are nevertheless prepared to provide information to scholars. Alas, as many of the older firms have merged or gone out of business their valuable archives have been lost or sold off (e.g. Novello). (See entries on individual publishers.)

(xii) Mass media.

Broadcasting libraries, which generally preserve both commercial material and their own recordings of broadcast programmes, often have in addition excellent facilities for music reference work as well as collections of manuscripts of unpublished works or arrangements that have been commissioned for particular occasions. Outstanding among these organizations are the BBC in London, the Radio France in Paris, Sveriges Radio in Stockholm, the CBC in Toronto and the German broadcasting companies. In the USA live radio broadcasting of music is the exception rather than the rule, thus they rarely have printed music collections but they often have substantial recording collections. In tune with the prevailing tendency towards centralization, part of the CBS library has passed to the New York Public Library. Through the International Association of Music Libraries, Archives and Documentation Centres (IAML), broadcast librarians are seeking to encourage the mutual exchange of performance materials and recordings as well as cooperative cataloguing of their rich holdings. European broadcasting libraries have much in common with the libraries of major symphony orchestras in Europe and North America.

The scores from motion pictures are generally the property of the studios that produce those films. Increasingly archives from the major movie studios are finding their way from the studios into libraries and archives (e.g. United Artists Corporation including Warner Brothers and RKO in the Wisconsin State Historical Society).

(xiii) Special collections.

This category includes a variety of institutions not otherwise catered for. The archives of many such bodies have already been deposited in large libraries, but enough remain to warrant listing here.

(a) Societies for the propagation of a single composer’s works. Such centres usually also collect documents concerning the composer’s contemporaries. Many of them pursue programmes of research and issue publications (complete works, yearbooks, journals, congress reports); some are intended for staff use rather than for a visiting public, but will usually respond to inquiries. Among the active institutions are the Istituto di Studi Verdiani in Parma, the Joseph-Haydn-Institut in Cologne, the Mozarteum in Salzburg (which is also a conservatory), the Bach-Archiv in Leipzig, the Beethoven-Haus in Bonn and the Museo Donizettiano in Bergamo.

(b) Organizations dedicated to a particular genre or geographical area of musical activity. The Moravian Music Foundation maintains rich libraries at its branches in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, and Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Fraternal lodges frequently have small music collections which may be related to their rites or members (e.g. the library of Freemasonry in Washington, DC). Other collections in this category are the William Ransom Hogan Jazz Archive (at Tulane University), the English Folk Dance and Song Society in London and the Institut del Teatre in Barcelona.

(c) Artistic, historical or scholarly societies. These include the following (titles are self-explanatory): American Antiquarian Society in Worcester, Massachusetts, the Academia das Ciências in Lisbon, the Accademia Nazionale Virgiliana di Scienze, Lettere e Arti in Mantua, the Hispanic Society of America in New York, the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec and the Royal Norwegian Scientific Society.

(d) Societies of friends of music or the arts. These organizations sometimes consist solely of a group of persons joined together for promotion or philanthropic purposes. This is often the case in the USA, where associations called ‘Friends of the Library’ or ‘Friends of Music’ help support the library with donations or fund-raising activities. Such societies may however have a headquarters office and some of these have libraries (e.g. the Academia de Amadores de Música in Lisbon, the Société des Amis des Arts de Strasbourg). The Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, Vienna, dedicated to the furtherance of music by the establishment of various concert series and a conservatory, justified its name, in 1815, by appealing to ‘friends of music’ to donate worthwhile musical works in their possession to the society’s library. The subsequent gifts of Czerny, Köchel, Brahms and many others testifies to the success of the solicitation.

(e) Museums devoted to topics more or less closely related to music, such as the arts, church history, dance, folklore, general history or instruments, often have valuable music holdings (e.g. the Carolino Augusteum in Salzburg, the Musée Guimet in Paris, the Museum für Geschichte der Stadt Leipzig, the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC, the Victoria and Albert Museum in London and the Museo del Risorgimento in Vicenza).

(xiv) Private libraries.

Although private libraries may be available to only a single individual, many of them eventually come into the public domain through gift, purchase or default. Because of the care usually bestowed on the selection of items, private libraries tend to be more homogeneous and complete in their chosen subject areas than other types of collection. Music collectors fall into two main types, the first choosing items with a scholarly purpose or for the sheer joy of collecting, the second with the more immediate, utilitarian aim of having them performed. Some collectors combine both aims. For fuller discussion and a list of important collections, historical and present-day, and information on the present whereabouts of historical collections, see Collections, private.

4. Other functions.

(i) Recordings and sound archives.

After World War II many music libraries began adding sound recordings to their collections. In the public library there are now circulating collections of long playing records, sound cassettes, compact discs and video recordings. In academic and conservatory libraries sound and video collections facilitate the teaching and study of an ever broader range of music. Music libraries have been at the forefront in developing systems to facilitate the use of their growing collections of audio-visual materials in a broad range of formats (see Sound archives).

The enormous popularity of recordings and their increased availability to a much broader segment of the population have brought new users to the music library. As recorded music has become a pervasive cultural and recreational interest for a large segment of library users, the demand for information about composers and performers, as well as about such subjects as opera, instruments, acoustics, aesthetics, forms, history, psychology of music, and popular and world music, has intensified. With the rapid technological changes it is clear that changes in how sound is purveyed in libraries will also change. Difficult questions about copyright and fair use must be resolved before a clear picture of these changes can be drawn.

Technological developments have already brought about remarkable changes in access to the holdings of many libraries. The Internet is allowing libraries to provide their users with increased access to a broad but mediated range of resources and increased connectivity. Lists of library catalogues available via the Internet seem to grow daily. The development of cataloguing networks pioneered in the USA and now increasingly international have made the sharing of bibliographic data relatively easy and efficient. The online public access catalogue, free text searching, electronic inter-library loan networks, the fax machine and optical digital scanners can allow users in far flung places to share information in minutes rather than days. Music libraries are actively participating in this revolution.

(ii) Musicology and libraries.

The worldwide growth of musicology since World War II was a powerful stimulus to the growth of many academic music libraries. Taking as its chief area of investigation the history of western music, although not excluding other aspects of musical research (e.g. ethnomusicology, gender studies, popular music, theory, acoustics, psychology and aesthetics), the discipline is naturally heavily dependent on library resources. The growth in number and size of university departments and independent institutes of musicology has necessitated the creation and enlargement of collections of reference and source materials in order to provide the tools for student and faculty research. Newer institutions have often had to rely on reprint editions and microforms to build up their holdings of rare or early works.

Changes in the focus of this discipline over time are also reflected in the changes in emphasis of music libraries. Among the great concerns of research libraries at the beginning of the 21st century are the preservation of materials published between 1865 and the 1970s whose paper is rapidly deteriorating. Shrinking budgets, ever-expanding lists of new publications and the growth of electronic publication are forcing librarians to make hard choices as they develop their collections. All too often this results in collections containing mainstream publications which mirror each other and precluding the acquisition of materials which give libraries their individual personalities.

Many of the early music librarians came from the scholarly community. Their knowledge of the discipline helped in establishing the foundations of many collections. At present most academic music libraries are led by people trained in both music scholarship and library science. Music librarians grow through their contacts in professional organizations such as IAML and its national branches, the Music Library Association (MLA), the International Association of Sound and Audiovisual Archives (IASA) and the Association of Recorded Sound Collections (ARSC).

Librarians today carry the responsibility of participation and contribution to the several important international cooperative projects dependent on their aid. These enterprises, most of them jointly sponsored by IAML and the IMS, facilitate the location of early prints and manuscripts (Répertoire International des Sources Musicales), current published scholarly literature on music (Répertoire International de Littérature Musicale), musical iconography (Répertoire International d’Iconographie Musicale), and the retrospective indexing of music periodical literature (Répertoire International de la Presse Musicale).

(iii) Supplementary services.

Beyond reference service, providing access to, and usually the circulation of, the collections of music, books on music, sound recordings and videos usually expected today, some music libraries are able to offer certain additional services.

(a) The circulation of performing parts for orchestra, band, choir or glee club. Many libraries make this a special feature of their services (e.g. the Westminster Music Library in London, the Statens Musikbibliotek in Stockholm, and the Free Library of Philadelphia with the Fleischer Collection of orchestral music and the Drinker Collection of choral music).

(b) The administration of live or recorded concerts on the library premises or elsewhere (e.g. in a park in summer), sometimes broadcast, with the double purpose of service and publicity.

(c) Participation in inter-library loan, to broaden the scope and depth of their resources while avoiding the necessity for expensive duplication of materials. Growing numbers of libraries are interconnected by computer networks and fax machines, making possible rapid transmission of the desired material.

(d) The sharing by many music librarians of information about tough questions via several specialized electronic mailing lists where to the delight of their users they are often able to obtain answers to questions that have proved elusive.

5. Cataloguing and classification.

One of the most important tasks for the music library is the provision of a catalogue of its contents. Traditionally, this process has several layers: describing the items held, arranging these descriptions either alphabetically or systematically and providing a retrievable arrangement of the materials themselves in the library shelves. Each of these elements has a history, although the arrangement of the catalogue and the arrangement of the collection itself may not be linked.

The development of codes for the descriptive cataloguing of music has its origins at the end of the 19th century. But the realization that the efforts put into this process could be shared between libraries brought with it a desire for standardization of practices, which reached its zenith in the last quarter of the 20th century. Many musical works appear in a multiplicity of editions and recordings, issued in various countries and often with different forms of title; this led music librarians to develop a scheme for attaching a uniform title to each work so that the bibliographic descriptions would file together in library catalogues; in an online context this should also facilitate searching. Accordingly, IAML endeavoured to establish an international cataloguing code in the 1950s. The International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD), which started to be developed in the mid-1960s, was closely linked to the development of the Machine Readable Cataloging (MARC) format, a data structure for carrying cataloguing information in the automated environment.

Transcription of the bibliographic data from the publication, including physical description and description of the ‘musical format’ (score, vocal score, parts etc.), is provided for each item. Subject information may be carried either though a classification scheme or through the use of subject terms from a standard list; these schemes can be accessed through the catalogue or may be used for the arrangement of the material on the library shelves. Subject headings are usually accessible through the catalogue in American libraries, where the arrangement of the material on the shelves usually follows a classification scheme, while European ones more often use press-marks independent of intellectual content and access to subject content is provided either by subject headings or a classification scheme available in the catalogue.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

libraries and librarianship

K.-H. Köhler: ‘Zwei Grundtypen historischer Musiksammlungen’, IMSCR VII: Cologne 1958, 162–4

Music Libraries and Instruments: Cambridge 1959

V.H. Duckles: ‘Music Libraries and Librarianship’, Library Trends, viii/4 (1960)

L.R. McColvin and H. Reeves: Music Libraries (London, rev. and enlarged 2/1965 by J. Dove)

C.J. Bradley, ed.: Manual of Music Librarianship (Ann Arbor, 1966)

F. Riedel: ‘Zur Geschichte der musikalischen Quellenüberlieferung und Quellenkunde’, AcM, xxxviii (1966), 3–27

V.H. Duckles: ‘Music Literature, Music and Sound Recordings’, Library Trends, xv (1967), 494–521

R. Benton, ed.: Directory of Music Research Libraries, RISM, C/I–V (Iowa City, IA, 1967–72; Kassel, 1975–; 2/1983–) [i: Canada and the United States, 1967, 2/1983; ii: Thirteen European Countries, 1970; iii: Spain, France, Italy, Portugal, 1972; iv: Australia, Israel, Japan, New Zealand, 1979; v: Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Yugoslavia, ed. L. Pruett, 1985]

Music Librarianship and Documentation: Adelaide 1970

F. Lesure: ‘Archival Research: Necessity and Opportunity’, Perspectives in Musicology, ed. B.S. Brook, E.O.D. Downes and S. Van Solkema (New York, 1972), 56–79

C.J. Bradley, ed.: Reader in Music Librarianship (Washington DC, 1973) [mostly reprs. of articles published since 1897, incl. many from Notes and FAM; bibliographies]

S.E. Thorin: International Directory of Braille Music Collections (Washington DC, 1984)

E.T. Bryant: Music Librarianship: a Practical Guide (London, 2/1985 with G.A. Marco)

B.L. Bell: An Annotated Guide to Current National Bibliographies (Alexandria, VA, 1986)

FAM, xxxiv/2–3 (1987) [special issue on national bibliographies and music]

A. Veinstein, ed.: Bibliothèques et musées des arts du spectacle dans le monde (Paris, 4/1992)

World Guide to Special Libraries (Munich, 3/1995)

M.H. Harris: History of Libraries in the Western World (Metuchen, NJ, 4/1995)

Directory of Special Libraries and Information Centers (New York, 23/1999)

World of Learning (London, 49/1999) [lists learned societies, incl. libraries]

cataloguing

Code international de catalogage de la musique, ed. IAML (Frankfurt, 1957–83) [i: The Author Catalog of Published Music, ed. F. Grasberger; ii: Limited Code, ed. Y. Fédoroff; iii: Rules for Full Cataloging, ed. V. Cunningham; iv: Rules for Cataloging Music Manuscripts, ed. M.L. Göllner; v: Cataloging of Sound Recordings, ed. S. Wallon and K. Dorfmüller]

Code for Cataloging Music and Phonorecords, ed. Music Library Association and American Library Association (Chicago, 1958)

Music Cataloging Bulletin, ed. Music Library Association (Ann Arbor, 1970–; suppls. every five years)

Proceedings of the Institute on Library of Congress Music Cataloging Policies and Procedures: Washington DC 1971, ed. D. Sommerfield (Ann Arbor, 1975)

B. Redfern: Organising Music in Libraries (London, 2/1978–9)

D. Seibert: The MARC Music Format: from Inception to Publication (Philadelphia, 1982)

M. Gentili-Tedeschi, ed.: Guida a una descrizione catalografica uniforme dei manoscritti musicali (Rome, 1984) [see also ‘Music Manuscripts’, Guida a una descrizione uniforme dei manoscritti e al loro censimento, 1990, pp.103–4]

D.W. Krummel: ‘The Origins of Modern Music Classification’, Festschrift Albi Rosenthal, ed. R. Elvers (Tutzing, 1984), 181–98

L. Coral and others: ‘Automation Requirements for Music Information’, Notes, xliii (1986–7), 14–18

ISBD(NBM): International Standard Bibliographic Description for Non-Book Materials (London, 2/1987)

H. Hell: ‘Musikalien im Schlagwortkatalog’, Forum Musikbibliothek (1988), 185–201

L. Coral: ‘The ISBD (NBM) Revision: an Historical Review’, FAM, xxxvi (1989), 55–7

M. Dewey: Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index (Albany, NY, rev. 20/1989 by J.P. Comaromi and others)

R.P. Smiraglia: Music Cataloging: the Bibliographic Control of Printed and Recorded Music in Libraries (Englewood, CO, 1989)

R.P. Smiraglia: ‘Uniform Titles for Music: an Exercise in Collocating Works’, Cataloging & Classification Quarterly, ix/3 (1989), 97–114

D. Lerch: ‘Der Computer-Katalog und die Zukunft der Regelwerke’, Forum Musikbibliothek (1989), 141–8; (1990) 256–75

J. Weitz: Music Coding and Tagging: MARC Content Designation for Scores and Sound Recordings (Lake Crystal, MN, 1990)

R.B. Wursten: In Celebration of Revised 780: Music in the Dewey Decimal Classification, Edition 20, ed. R.B. Wursten (Canton, MA, 1990) [incl. A.S. Wajenberg: ‘Online Music Subject Retrieval Using the New Schedule’, pp.53–9]

M.R. Damiani: Le norme di catalogazione della musica a stampa: una panoramica internazionale (diss., Università degli Studi di Pavia, Scuola di Paleografia e Filologia Musicale, 1990–91)

ISBD(PM): International Standard Bibliographic Description for Printed Music, ed. IAML (Munich, 2/1991)

M. Muller-Benedict: ‘Klassifikatorische Inhaltserschliessung im Fachgebiet Musik’, FAM, xxxix (1992), 185–8

L. Coral: ‘Indexing and Retrieving Special Materials in Online Catalogues’, FAM, xl (1993), 110–15

C. Elliker: ‘Classification Schemes for Scores: Analysis of Structural Levels’, Notes, l (1993–4), 1269–320

H. Hemmasi: ‘The Music Thesaurus: Function and Foundations’, ibid., 875–82

J.P. Cassaro: ‘Music Cataloguing and the Future’, FAM, xli (1994), 245–50

R. Hartsock: Notes for Music Catalogers: Examples Illustrating AACR 2 in the Online Bibliographic Record (Lake Crystal, MN, 1994)

D. Baumann: ‘Music Documentation in Switzerland: the Future of Shared Cataloguing and RISM A II’, FAM, xliv (1997), 23–31

S.L. Vellucci: Bibliographic Relationships in Music Catalogs (Lanham, MD, 1997)

M. Gorman and P.W. Winkler: Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules (Chicago, 2/1998)

H. Hemmasi: Music Subject Headings, compiled from Library of Congress Subject Headings (Lake Crystal, MN, 2/1998)

Apart from the catalogues and descriptive literature cited in the list of music libraries in volume 28, much information on the location of sources can be gleaned from the bibliographies and repertory guides cited in Bibliography of music, §2; Répertoire International des Sources Musicales; and composer and genre articles.

Libretto

(It.: ‘small book’; Fr. livret; Ger. Textbuch).

A printed or manuscript book giving the literary text, both sung and spoken, of an opera (or other musical work). The word has also come to mean the text itself (for discussion of the literary text see GroveO, ‘Libretto (ii)’).

1. General.

2. Italy.

3. Other main centres.

4. The 20th century.

RICHARD MACNUTT

1. General.

For three centuries the principal purpose of the published libretto was to provide for those attending a performance of an opera the text and a list of the characters. In most operatic centres until late in the 19th century, and in many until early in the 20th, a new libretto was customarily printed for each production and was available before the first performance. From simple beginnings the libretto gradually developed in extent and scope to become a detailed and reliable source of information on many aspects of the performance of individual operas, and it sometimes provides the sole surviving record of the very existence of an opera.

Up to about 1900 the libretto generally gives information about the date of the production, the size and constitution of the orchestra (often with the names of the principals), the names of the composer, the poet, the singers (which enables their mobility, careers and repertories to be studied), the musical director, the impresario, the scene designers, the machinists and other stage staff, the choreographer and the dancers; sometimes it also gives details of the dances performed and, especially in Italy, full synopses of the ballets that were traditionally given on the same bill as operas. Evidence of censorship is often present, especially in Italy and France. It is evident therefore that the libretto, as well as providing valuable testimony about textual variants between different productions of individual operas, makes possible the study of the repertories and histories of opera houses, local customs, censorship and many other factors relating to the mounting of particular operas and to the history of opera in general.

Although librettos are now recognized as important tools for researchers, when originally published they were intended for nothing more than immediate, practical use. Until well into the second half of the 19th century they were the basic source of information for the operagoer, who would purchase a copy inside or outside the theatre (profits being the perquisite of the librettist) together with the playbill, and would be able to follow the text during the performance, thanks to undimmed lighting and assisted if necessary by wax tapers. Librettos were usually pocket-sized, printed on cheap paper, sewn into wrappers and rife with typographical errors: ephemeral objects, quickly redundant. Especially valuable to scholars are copies that survive with contemporary annotations – noting a change of cast, a cut or, all too rarely, details of stage movement or revisions by a librettist or impresario.

Towards the end of the 19th century the flexibility brought by electricity to theatre lighting, combined with the evolution of the opera programme and the standardization of the repertory, transformed the libretto into an object intended to have a more enduring function, with much of its topical content discarded – a source to be read or referred to not so much in the theatre as at home, before and after the performance.

A number of collected editions, providing permanent records of the writings of several eminent librettists, have been published, invariably in more elegant form than the original separate editions. The earliest date from the 17th century.

2. Italy.

The earliest librettos, published in Florence, were printed in small quarto format (about 21 cm high) and contained between 12 and 20 leaves. The first to appear was for the first opera, Peri's setting of Rinuccini's Dafne, performed in Carnival 1598 and published by Giorgio Marescotti in 1600. The title-page names the poet, the sponsor of the performance (Jacopo Corsi), the person in whose honour it was given, the place and date of publication and the publisher. The only other preliminary to the text is the list of characters (without the singers' names), here called ‘interlocutori’ – for which alternative terms include ‘personaggi’, ‘intervenienti’ and ‘attori’. The libretto concludes with verses addressed to Corsi – the first tribute of a kind that was to become a common feature of 17th-century librettos. The title-page of the second published libretto, Rinuccini's Euridice (1600), mentions the occasion for the performance; the preliminaries include a three-page dedication from Rinuccini to Maria de' Medici, an important historical note that refers to the previous performances of Dafne, expresses Rinuccini's approval of the suitability of the modern music for the setting of tragedies, names Peri as the composer, and justifies his own alterations to the conclusion of the fable.

These two librettos contain only brief stage directions; those for Monteverdi's Arianna and Ballo delle ingrate (published in Compendio delle sontuose feste, Mantua, 1608) are more extensive. Gradually during the first half of the century further information began to be given and librettos were more commonly printed in a smaller format (octave, duodecimo or sextodecimo). Exceptions were sometimes made for special occasions, when a more sumptuous publication, perhaps illustrated with scene designs, might be produced; one of the earliest such examples is the libretto for Marco da Gagliano's La Flora (Florence, 1628), text by Andrea Salvadori, which includes illustrations of five scenes, designed by Giulio Parigi and engraved by his son Alfonso.

It was usual for an ‘argomento’ (an outline of the plot before the action commences) to be printed. From about 1650 this was sometimes divided by the words ‘che si finge’ into two sections, the first having historical or documentary precedent while the second was the invention of the author. From the 1620s for about a century the argomento was occasionally published separately from, or instead of, the libretto. An early example is Marco da Gagliano's sacred drama La regina Sant'Orsola (text by A. Salvadori): the argomento was published in 1624 and the libretto in the following year. In 1638 an ‘Argomento e scenario’ was published for Manelli's La Delia (text by G. Strozzi): this formula was occasionally reverted to during the following half-century.

It was also customary to print an address to the reader (headed, for example, ‘ai lettori’ or ‘l'autore a chi legge’); this was sometimes written and signed by the composer, impresario or printer but more often by the librettist. The names of the performers were seldom printed in 17th-century Italian librettos. A rare exception occurs in the publisher's informative preface to Andromeda (the opera that inaugurated in 1637 the first public opera house, the S Cassiano in Venice); this names and makes brief comments on the composer, singers, dancers and choreographer. One of the earliest librettos to print a formal cast list was Alessandro vincitor di se stesso, text by F. Sbarra, music by A. Cesti and M. Bigongiari (1654, Lucca), but it was not until about 1700 that the singers were regularly named in Italian librettos; when they were, the posts they held at court were often stated and, where relevant (particularly for castratos), their nicknames.

Librettos vary in content and appearance according to their publisher and the place of performance, but by early in the 18th century most contained not only the features already mentioned but others as well. Among these were lists of scenes and of machines and effects, a ‘protesta’ (an affirmation of the poet's belief in the Catholic Church, despite what might be inferred from the characters and subject matter of the opera), alternative arias (usually printed as a supplement at the end) and cuts observed in the performance. The latter were often indicated (from the late 17th century) by versi virgolati, double commas in the margin to indicate passages which either were not set to music at all or were omitted from the performance for the sake of brevity (fig.1): this procedure allowed the poet's work to be read unabridged. Paste-over slips were also used to make changes or to correct mistakes.

During the first half of the 18th century it became customary to name the musical director and costume designer and, in the second half, the producer, copyist, orchestral principals, chorus and even (though rarely) the understudies; occasionally notices were printed about the precise dates of performance during the season and the availability of the music. From the early years of the 19th century it became usual to name the prompter and lighting director and from the 1820s the whole orchestra was sometimes listed.

Dance was an important ingredient of opera until the mid-19th century and the libretto is one of the best sources of information about it. There are numerous references to ballets, dances, dancers and choreographers in 17th-century librettos, but it was not until the mid-18th century that synopses of full-length ballets and lists of all the participants began to be printed in the libretto, normally on a few pages at the end or, less frequently, between the acts of the opera. This practice lasted until the 1860s, after which ballet synopses were published as separate booklets on their own, a custom that had been initiated as early as the 1770s.

During the 19th century there were many further innovations in the development of the Italian libretto. Printed wrappers, replacing plain ones, were introduced no later than 1814, and by the early 1830s the back wrappers had started to be used for announcing the ballets to be performed or for advertising publications. At about this time publishers began to print the price of the libretto, on either the wrappers or the title-page, and to give typographical emphasis to star names in the cast list; and in the mid-1830s polychrome printing on both title-page and wrappers was introduced. Until the 1840s the libretto was not normally printed by the publisher of the music but by a general publisher who had the concession from the theatre. Thereafter the more powerful music publishers also began to take over publication of the text. In addition to the fully detailed librettos printed for particular performances, copies of regularly performed operas were printed for general sale without any performance or production details; these could be adapted for use for a specific performance by the substitution of a newly printed title-page and cast-leaf or by paste-over addenda slips. New forms of in-house control were instigated: from 1843 Ricordi included librettos within their regular system of plate numbers, from 1860 they applied blind date stamps to indicate the year and month of issue, and from 1865 both they and Lucca sometimes used printed date stamps. Until 1874 wrappers were generally printed by letterpress, often embellished by typographical ornaments, but in that year Ricordi published the first Italian libretto (Verdi, Macbeth, designed by Prina) whose wrappers set out to give a visual impression of the flavour of the opera, usually by depicting a scene from the work. Macbeth was printed in monochrome, but from 1877 chromolithographic wrappers on librettos, just as on vocal scores, were frequently used.

3. Other main centres.

The development of the libretto in Italy strongly influenced the form in which the artefact was published elsewhere. The first libretto for a German opera was for Schütz's Dafne, to a text by Martin Opitz after Rinuccini, published in 1627. This quarto names both the composer and the librettist and contains a dedicatory poem and a list of characters. Among the earliest Italian operas to be performed in Germany was Antonio Bertali's L'inganno d'amore (1653, Regensburg): Benedetto Ferrari's libretto, printed in Italian, includes a synopsis in German and is embellished with seven engraved scene designs by Giovanni Burnacini, the pioneer of Venetian theatrical machinery. Burnacini's earlier designs for La Gara, text by Alberto Vimina, had also been published in the same manner (Vienna, 1652). This was a libretto of the commemorative type, published after the performance; it included a description of each act and an account of the impression made by the spectacle. Burnacini's son, Ludovico, worked principally in Vienna, where nine librettos between 1661 and 1700 carried engravings of his scene designs, including Cesti's Il pomo d'oro (1668) and Draghi's Il fuoco eterno (1674). Viennese 17th-century librettos tended to follow the Italian models and usually named the librettist, composer and machinist but not the singers. German librettos did not always name even the librettist, and rarely the composer. That for Handel's first opera, Almira (published in Hamburg, 1704), gives no names at all but lists in the preliminaries the dances and scenes. The arias are in German and Italian, a German translation being provided for the latter. Later in the 18th century and early in the 19th the participants are sometimes named in both German and Viennese librettos, and translations into German often given for foreign-language texts. Three editions of Gluck's Orfeo (Vienna, 1762) were published at about the time of the première – one with Italian and French text, one with German and one with Italian only; all three name the singers. The first printing of Idomeneo (Munich, 1781) names the composer, librettist, translator and also the singers (the only libretto of one of Mozart's major operas to name them); it has an argomento and list of scenes, and a German translation faces the Italian text. The second edition, which reflects the changes made in the rehearsals for the original production (see Mozart's letters to his father in early 1781), has Italian text only. There are exceptions, but in general the German and Viennese libretto from about 1750 is sadly uninformative, usually having a list of characters (‘Personen’) but no other preliminaries. The 1805 Vienna libretto of Fidelio provides an example of this, while Weber's Der Freischütz (Berlin, c1821) names the singers but, in common with many other German librettos, contains the text of only the ‘Arien und Gesänge’.

The first opera produced in France was Luigi Rossi's Orfeo, to a text by F. Buti; an abrégé in French was published but not a libretto. The first French libretto was probably Buti's text for Carlo Caproli's Le nozze di Peleo e di Theti (1654, Paris); this was published with dual Italian and French texts and named the singers. In the same year an English translation, The Nuptials of Peleus and Thetis, was published in London – probably the earliest libretto to be published in England, though no performance was given. The librettos of the first French opera, Michel de La Guerre's Le triomphe de l'amour, text by C. de Beys, and that of Cambert's Pomone, which inaugurated the Paris Opéra, were published at the end of 1654 and in 1671 respectively. In 1672 the first of Lully's operas was given. The original editions of his librettos are quartos and many have an engraved frontispiece depicting a scene from the work. In most of them the names of the singers and dancers, and sometimes also the leading instrumentalists, are given before the prologue and first act (fig.2); further names are occasionally inserted at points within the text. For works produced at the Opéra the quarto format was maintained throughout the 18th century, after which the octavo format used by the other Paris theatres was adopted. From the 1720s comic operas appeared in a new type of publication that was to become popular in England with the advent of ballad opera: the music of some or all of the airs, though usually only the melodic lines, was printed within or as a supplement to the libretto. This format was continued, principally by the publisher Duchesne, in librettos of many comic operas and parodies from the 1730s to the 1770s, especially those of C.-S. Favart. Until the late 1820s publishers issued librettos in plain wrappers; thenceforward printed wrappers were gradually adopted and frequently carried advertisements.

In England the early librettos were usually quartos, similar to the contemporary playbooks. The libretto for the first English opera, William Davenant's The Siege of Rhodes, music by Matthew Locke and others, is particularly informative: it names the place of performance, the singers, the composers of each entry and of the instrumental music, and it gives precise descriptions of the scenery and includes an address from Davenant to the reader. Other pre-1700 librettos normally have a dedication or preface but do not name the singers, though publisher's advertisements are sometimes included.

From the beginning of the 18th century the normal format changed to small quarto or octavo. From this period English librettos invariably name the composer, librettist, singers and dancers and often include a preface or dedication. Arsinoe (1705) has a preface by the composer, Thomas Clayton, in which he defines his aims in introducing the Italian manner to the English stage. The libretto of Handel's first London opera, Rinaldo (1711), has the Dedication, Preface and Argument in English, Giacomo Rossi's address to the reader in Italian and Aaron Hill's English translation of the text facing Rossi's Italian original; the printing of dual texts became routine for most operas performed in a foreign language in London until about the end of the 19th century. In 1728 the libretto of The Beggar's Opera was published in two octavo editions, the first having the melodic lines of the airs printed as a supplement, the second having them interspersed with the text, preceded by the overture in score. This remained the standard format in which the early ballad operas appeared (the tunes usually being printed from woodcuts).

Innovations later in the 18th century include the occasional provision of a frontispiece depicting a singer or a scene from the production, while an abridged form of libretto was introduced for some English-language operas, in which the text of only the vocal numbers was printed and the spoken dialogue omitted. An early example, for Der Freischütz at Drury Lane in 1824 (published retrospectively in the series Dolby's British Theatre, 1825), includes six pages of ‘critical remarks’ on the music, a description of the costumes, and stage directions supplied by the editors ‘from their own personal observations, during the most recent performances’. An advertisement for further titles in the series appears on the printed wrappers (introduced in the 1820s). From the late 1840s Covent Garden librettos often include a full list of the orchestra and give the name of the conductor. In the 1850s Davidson's began a series of ‘Musical Libretto-Books’ in which the original and English texts were printed in double column and ‘the music of the principal airs’ interspersed; some of Davidson's librettos have extensive prefaces commenting on the history of the opera and previous productions. By the 1860s it is not uncommon to find advertisements for miscellaneous goods and services printed on the wrappers and on several pages at the front and back of the libretto itself.

4. The 20th century.

During the 20th century the libretto became associated with publishers and recording companies rather than with opera houses, although very occasionally an opera programme printed the complete libretto (particularly for a concert performance, when a translation was normally included). Most opera publishers still issue librettos, for both new and repertory operas, printed on better paper and in thicker wrappers than formerly; their contents are generally confined to normal title-page information, copyright claims, a list of the characters and scenes, a statement of the place and date of the first performance, possibly a preface and synopsis, the text itself, and advertisements for other publications. Boxed sets of gramophone records normally contained a booklet (up to 30·5 cm square) that included the text, often in several (usually four) languages, laid out in columns; the same procedure is usually followed for the booklets (12·5 × 14·5 cm) that accompany compact discs.

A number of private individuals and institutions have assembled significant collections of librettos. The most internationally representative is probably that formed by Albert Schatz, now in the Library of Congress, Washington; other particularly fine collections are those of the British Library, London, the Manoel de Carvalhoes collection at the Accademia di S Cecilia, Rome, and the Ulderico Rolandi collection at the Fondazione Cini, Venice. Further extensive collections are at the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna, the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich, the Herzog August Bibliothek, Wolfenbüttel, the Biblioteca Marciana, Venice, the Central Library of the Mariinsky Theatre at St Petersburg, the New York Public Library, the university libraries of California (at Berkeley) and Texas (at Austin), and the conservatory libraries of Bologna, Brussels, Milan, Naples and Paris. The best-known catalogues of librettos are O.G.T. Sonneck's Library of Congress: Catalogue of Opera Librettos Printed before 1800 (Washington DC, 1914), a monumental work, extensively annotated, in which librettos are listed by title, librettist and composer, and Claudio Sartori's I libretti italiani a stampa dalle origini al 1800 (Cuneo, 1990–95), which lists all Italian and Latin libretto texts published up to and including 1800 and states the location of copies worldwide; 16 indexes are provided.

The importance of librettos not only as texts but as documentary evidence of multifarious aspects of operatic history has now come to be fully appreciated and has in recent years inspired a major bibliographical undertaking known as the US RISM Libretto Project, with its seat at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville. The object is to coordinate the cataloguing in machine-readable form of all historical librettos in collections in the USA, beginning with the Schatz Collection. The records (which are entered into the Research Libraries Information Network, where they are accessible as work proceeds) include not only the standard bibliographic descriptions but the indexing of all performance and production personnel named in the source, the names of the characters and the city and theatre of production.

1. General musical characteristics.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AllacciD

Grove6 (E.J. Dent, P.J. Smith)

GroveO (R. Macnutt) [incl. further bibliography]

LoewenbergA

MGG1 (A.A. Abert)

SartoriL

SolertiMBD

StiegerO

StrunkSR1

G. and C. Salvioli: Bibliografia universale del teatro drammatico italiano (Venice,1903), i

A. Solerti: Le origini del melodramma (Turin, 1903/R)

A. Solerti: Gli albori del melodramma (Milan, 1904–5/R)

P. Bergmans: ‘Une collection de livrets d'opéras italiens 1669–1710’,SIMG, xii (1910–11), 221–34

R. Haas: ‘Zur Bibliographie der Operntexte’, Deutsche Musikgesellschaft: Kongress I: Leipzig 1925, 59–61

V. Raeli: ‘Catalogazione statistica delle collezioni di libretti per musica’, Musica d'oggi, xii (1930), 356–8

F. Biach-Schiffmann: Giovanni und Ludovico Burnacini: Theater und Feste am Wiener Hofe (Vienna and Berlin, 1931)

U. Rolandi: Il libretto per musica attraverso i tempi (Rome, 1951)

S.T. Worsthorne: Venetian Opera in the Seventeenth Century (Oxford, 1954/R)

U. Manferrari: Dizionario universale delle opere melodrammatiche (Florence, 1954–5)

R. Allen, ed.: The First Night Gilbert and Sullivan, Containing Complete Librettos of his Fourteen Operas, Exactly as Presented at their Première Performances (New York, 1958, 2/1975)

A. Caselli: Catalogo delle opere liriche pubblicate in Italia (Florence, 1969)

P.E. Gossett: The Operas of Rossini: Problems of Textual Criticism in Nineteenth-Century Opera (diss., Princeton U., 1970)

P.J. Smith: The Tenth Muse: a Historical Study of the Opera Libretto (New York, 1970)

A.C. Ramelli: Libretti e librettisti (Milan, 1973)

M. Chusid: A Catalog of Verdi's Operas (Hackensack, NJ, 1974)

R.L. and N.W. Weaver: A Chronology of Music in the Florentine Theater 1590–1750 (Detroit, 1978)

H.F.G. Klein: Erst- und Frühdrucke der Textbücher von Richard Wagner: Bibliographie (Tutzing, 1979)

SMC, iv/1–3 [Opera 1, ed. D.J. Neville], iv/4 [Opera 2, ed. R. Macnutt, M.H. Rose and L. Levetus] (1979)

J.J. Fuld: The Book of World-Famous Libretti: the Musical Theater from 1598 to Today (New York,1984)

J. Rosselli: The Opera Industry in Italy from Cimarosa to Verdi: the Role of the Impresario (Cambridge, 1984)

W. Dean and J.M. Knapp: Handel's Operas 1704–1726 (Oxford, 1987)

Libya [Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Republic]

(Arab. Jamahiriya Al-Arabiya Al-Libiya Al-Shabiya Al-Ishtirakiya Al-Uzma).

Country in North Africa. It has an area of approximately 1,759,540 km² and covers various cultural areas. Its coastline of approximately 2000 km between Egypt and Tunisia is part of the Mediterranean region, although most of its territory lies in the Sahara desert, extending from the Sudan to southern Algeria; to the south, it borders the sub-Saharan African states of Chad and Niger.

Since ancient times Libya has been situated at a cultural crossroads, where different musical currents co-exist without destroying each other. Two factors contribute to the cohesion of Libyan society, which comprised an estimated 6·39 million people at the beginning of the 21st century, namely uniformity of religion (all groups of the population, whatever their origins, are Muslim) and a single official language, Arabic. Some minority dialects are used in the sung poetry of various regions. Traditional music continues to flourish, preserving certain features of ancient societies, which include the reservation of musical instruments for certain social groups, although such differences have been abolished in the institutions of contemporary Libya.

2. Musical repertories.

3. Musical instruments.

4. Musicians.

MONIQUE BRANDILY

1. General musical characteristics.

Arabo-Andalusian music, which has its own theoretical system, is traditional art music rather than traditional folk music. This article will concentrate on orally transmitted musical traditions, often of a functional nature, which act as markers of identity and have not been conceptualized into an explicit theory. While these traditions are shaped by rules that are often complex, these rules remain implicit; they are learnt by participation in the music and transmitted by imitation.

Notwithstanding their diversity, these musical traditions have certain common features that demarcate them as Saharan traditions and distinguish them from the music of sub-Saharan Africa and the traditions of the northern shores of the Mediterranean. They are all monodic; various percussion instruments are used to accompany a single melodic line, either vocal or instrumental, the range of which is often limited to a 5th or 6th. (Tuareg female fiddle players are an exception, often playing an octave leap at the beginning of or during a piece.) Instrumental ensembles therefore comprise a single melodic instrument (a chordophone or an aerophone) accompanied by percussion instruments, which vary with region and repertory. Vocal performance is most frequently of the responsorial type, alternating between a solo voice and a homophonic chorus. There is sometimes a slight overlap between the verse and the refrain, and most of this music is metrical.

2. Musical repertories.

The most obvious distinctions between the different repertories are based on functional criteria linked to the circumstances in which the music is performed.

Despite the latent disapproval of certain prominent fundamentalist Muslims, the population in general has a positive attitude towards musical performance on certain occasions, notably the periods of communal festivity that punctuate the religious calendar (in particular the end of the month of Ramadan) and wedding ceremonies. The music performed at wedding ceremonies in towns differs in certain respects from that performed at rural weddings. Differences that are regional or peculiar to certain communities are especially marked where traditional customs persist, and the celebration has not entirely lost its ritual aspects; this is particularly the case in certain oases, which until quite recently were separated by distances assessed in terms of several days' journey by caravan. The advent of motor transport has reduced travelling time, but distinctive cultural features several centuries old have not necessarily disappeared.

The more directly religious repertories are connected with the popular Sufism of the various religious fraternities found in Libya. The music, which is closely linked to their ceremonies, may be a sequence of alternating song (a soloist and a male chorus) accompanied by an ensemble of bandīr frame drums; a similar ensemble may be used to accompany a solo oboe. Music may also be performed by a more varied percussion ensemble, with voices merely repeating the name of God rhythmically in order to achieve ecstasy.

Private music does not involve the whole community. Included in this category are songs performed by women among themselves and music performed in isolation by herdsmen, who sing and play music that may have amorous or nostalgic themes. Herdsmen may play either the tazammart (small flute) or the magruna (double clarinet).

3. Musical instruments.

(i) Aerophones.

There are three reed instruments with different areas of distribution, namely the magruna, the zokra (bagpipe) and the ghayta or gaita (oboe); the latter is also found far beyond the boundaries of Libya. The flute, which is common in neighbouring Arab regions, is not played widely in Libya, but the sedentary populations (originally slaves) of the south-western oases play the tazammart. This differs from the Arab nay both organologically and in performance technique; it has four finger-holes, which are grouped in pairs, and the musician adds a vocal drone while playing the instrument.

The magruna has two melodic pipes made of reed or sometimes brass, each with five finger-holes; there is no hole at the back. The pipes are fixed together in parallel, so that the holes of each can be stopped at the same time by the same finger and will sound in unison. A small mouthpiece to hold the reed is inserted into each pipe. The reeds are of the idioglot type (cut directly in the wall of the pipe); their beating length is carefully regulated by a cotton ligature sliding over the tongues to keep them synchronized. The far end of each pipe has a horn-shaped bell. These features distinguish the magruna from the Egyptian double clarinet, which has no bells and only one melodic pipe; the second pipe of the Egyptian instrument has no finger-holes and acts as a drone. Players of the magruna use a circular breathing technique and can therefore play for a long time without interrupting the flow of sound.

The zokra has two melodic pipes fixed together like those of the double clarinet; they differ from the pipes of the magruna in that each pipe only has four finger-holes. Consequently the entire repertory of the zokra can be performed on the magruna, but the reverse is not true. The reeds of the zokra are about twice as long as those of the magruna. The bag, which acts as an air reservoir, is made of a whole kidskin with the feet tied. In general, the Libyan zokra resembles the Tunisian mezwid bagpipe, although the latter has pipes with five finger-holes rather than four and therefore has features in common with both the Libyan zokra and the magruna. (In Tunisia the name zokra designates an oboe.)

The ghayta is widely distributed both within and beyond the Mediterranean area. It is made of turned wood; the pipe has a conical bore and flares at the end. The ghayta has a double reed with a disc (usually made of metal) on which the musician's lips can rest and is played using a continuous breathing technique. Some ghaytas are entirely covered by a thin sheet of brass to prevent them from splitting in dry atmospheric conditions.

(ii) Chordophones.

These are played mainly by two minority groups: the Tubu (sometimes called the Tibu or Teda in Libya), who are originally from Chad and live in large numbers in the Khufrah and Fezzan regions of the extreme south, and the Tuareg, who live mainly along the western frontiers of the country (see Tuareg music). There are two varieties of chordophone in Libya, namely the keleli (plucked lute) played by the Tubu, and the fiddle, played by both the Tubu and the Tuareg.

The keleli has a hemispherical resonator, which may be made of gourd, wood or enamelled sheet metal; this is covered with a soundtable of stretched skin laced into position. Its two strings have no pegs and are attached to the neck by ligatures; a third, shorter string is sometimes added, tuned an octave above the lower string. The body of the instrument can be turned into a kiiki fiddle simply by replacing the gut strings of the lute with a single ‘string’ made of a hank of horsehair, which is played with a bow consisting of a curved stick with another length of horsehair stretched between its ends.

The Tuareg imzad fiddle (sometimes called inzad or amzad) is also a monochord and is always played by women. Its resonator consists of a hemispherical gourd covered with skin laced in place, but its diameter is considerably larger than that of the Tubu kiiki, and the skin of its soundtable is usually decorated with symbolic designs in henna. The string is fixed to the neck, and, like the Tubu kiiki, the instrument has no pegs, but performance technique differs in the way in which the bow is held; a musician playing the kiiki moves the bow outwards, while a performer on the imzad draws it in the opposite direction. The two-stringed Arab rabāb does not seem to be played in Libya, but the imzad is sometimes known as the rabāba.

(iii) Membranophones.

The membranophones have resonating bodies of various shapes and dimensions, which may be made of wood or pottery. These instruments differ from one repertory and region to another, but for the sake of clarity their organological characteristics have been adopted here as the prime criterion of presentation.

(a) Double-headed drums.

The tabl is a cylindrical drum with two laced skins. The player rests it on the ground and strikes the upper skin with bare hands. The tabl is in widespread use, particularly to enliven the evening before a wedding ceremony, and may be used to accompany a singer or a magruna. The term tabl may also be used to refer to a kettledrum. The nuba drum, although much heavier and larger, is slung from the player's shoulder by a strap and beaten on both skins with a straight drumstick; it is mainly used during the dhikr religious ceremonies performed by various fraternities of the popular Sufism which flourishes in Libya.

The term Ganga is used to refer to double-headed drums, which belong to two different organological categories: one variety of ganga is a tubular or cylindrical drum and the other a frame drum. Tubular gangas are 40 to 60 cm deep and are played in pairs, one drum being regarded as a female voice and the other as a male. This idea is common in sub-Saharan Africa and indicates the southern African origin of these instruments. They are carried using a shoulder strap and the upper skin is struck with a curved beater, the lower skin is played with the bare hand, though some drummers never strike the lower skin.

The other form of ganga has a supple wooden frame (often of the kind used to make large flour sieves); this is held vertically with the left hand, while the right hand strikes one of the skins with a cross-shaped curved beater similar to that used to play the tubular ganga. The tubular ganga has snares on the lower skin, which produce a characteristic ‘chirping’ sound when the skin against which they are stretched vibrates (sympathetically, when the other skin is struck). Such drums are played for entertainment and may accompany a ghayta or a magruna, but are not used in religious ceremonies.

The Tubu in the Khufrah and Fezzan regions play the nang'ara, a large drum which has two laced skins. In performance, it is placed on the ground or suspended in a vertical position; its upper skin is struck by two men who each use two straight sticks. Blacksmith musicians (a special caste among the Tubu) accompany their songs by striking a drum called the kidi with their bare hands.

(b) Single-headed drums.

This category includes drums of many shapes and sizes, the bodies of which may be made of wood or pottery. Pottery drums are always of the goblet type, although there are many variations in form and dimension. This category includes the type widely distributed throughout North Africa under the name of darbouka (see Darbukka), which has an almost hemispherical body on which the skin is stretched. The conical drum is more specifically Libyan; Gharyan, in the west of the country, is one of the main centres where it is made. The skin of the darbouka, which may be goatskin or fish-skin, is glued in place. Some darboukas are played in ensembles of three instruments of different sizes, which produce varying pitches; the smallest is about 15 to 20 cm high and is named qullāl or al-darbouka al-ghadāmsī, from the name of the town of Ghadamis on the Tunisian border. These drums are women's instruments, particularly among the Berbers.

Other goblet drums have wooden cases and are considerably larger (about 80 cm high). The debedha, which has a rounded body like that of the darbouka, has a head made of sheepskin with a central cap placed on it to weight it; in this respect it resembles the debedba of the Hon region, the body of which is cylindrical. Libyan musicians consider that these drums have been in use much longer than pottery drums and that they produce the finest sound of all the local drums.

Bandīr frame drums without jingles are mainly played at religious dhikr ceremonies, as are the small baz kettledrums. Some fraternities prefer to use the small tār frame drums, which are approximately 20 cm in diameter and have jingles attached, and the drum also known as al-bandīr al-Aīssāwī, which has two rows of jingles.

The large tindé mortar drum is particular to the Tuareg and is played by women as an accompaniment to non-religious songs on various occasions.

(iv) Idiophones.

The most important instruments in this category are the large metal castanets called shakshaka (known in Morocco as qarqabou); these are plates about 30 cm long shaped into a hollow cup and are joined in pairs by a leather strap. They are played by a professional musician, who holds a pair of them in each hand, and are usually found in ensembles with ganga drums and ghaytas or magrunas.

Cymbals are used by certain religious orders in their ceremonies, while everyday utensils such as spoons and bottles are often used as percussion instruments for entertainment; for instance, empty jerrycans balanced on a small pile of sand or a bale of fabric are struck with bare hands and make satisfactory substitutes for drums.

4. Musicians.

The institutions of modern Libya are founded on the principle of equality of all citizens. This rules out official recognition of castes of musicians, but the caste system persists strongly in minority groups of non-Arab cultures (mainly the Tuareg and Tubu peoples) and is apparent in the exclusive use of certain instruments and repertories by certain groups within these cultures.

Members of the musician caste are often blacksmiths. Among the Tubu, their instrument is the kidi drum, while among the Tuareg it is the ganga of either variety. Members of this caste are the only ones who perform praise-songs in public for a fee. As well as qualification by caste, gender is a factor in the performance of certain repertories; the Tuareg women, who do not constitute a caste but enjoy high social status, play the imzad, which is played exclusively by men in all neighbouring societies. Age is a relatively minor consideration, in contrast to many African societies in which the repertories performed by children and those performed by adults are substantially different.

The Arab, or Arabic-speaking Libyan population as a whole, does not recognize castes of musicians, but specialization in music has implications for the social status of those involved. There is a distinction between those who perform merely for the love of music and those who perform for a fee. In general, musicians are semi-professionals; they participate in the activities of the social group as a whole, and payment for their music is merely incidental. In the southern provinces, most of these musicians are of African origin. The men play the ghayta, the magruna or the zokra and the women specialize in certain song repertories, especially for wedding ceremonies; but while music is an indispensable feature of certain occasions, the performers' activities carry no particular social cachet.

During the closing decades of the 20th century, a new category of professionals developed in the urban environment; these musicians take part in ‘folk’ performances of traditional music and dance adapted to some extent to modern tastes, and their activities are broadcast on television and local radio.

(1) Prince Karl [Carl] (Alois Johann Nepomuk Vinzenz Leonhard) von Lichnowsky

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

AMe (M. Brandily)

J. Rouanet: ‘La musique arabe’, EMDC, I/v (1922)

L. Balout and A. Sautin: ‘Le jeu de l'imzad’, Annales de l'Institut d'Études Orientales, xvi (1958)

M. Brandily: ‘Le son ininterrompu, remarques sur quelques exemples africains’, Africa-Tervuren, xxvi (1980)

M. Guettat: La musique classique du Maghreb (Paris, 1980)

M. Brandily: ‘Le même et l'autre, sur l'appellation de quelques instruments de musique en Libye’, Les fantaisies du voyageur: xxxiii variations Schaeffner (Paris, 1982) [pubn of the Société Française de Musicologie]

M. Brandily: ‘Qu'exprime-t-on par et dans la musique traditionelle? Quelques exemples libyens’, Maghreb Review, xi/2–4 (1986)

M. Brandily: ‘La pratique musicale traditionelle en Libye et ses instruments’, Maghreb Review, xviii/1–2 (1993)

Al musyqat al sha'abyat fi al jamhurya al ‘arabya al Libya (Tripoli, n.d.) [pubn of the Organisation Générale pour le Théâtre, la Musique et les Arts Populaires]

Libye: musiques traditionelles, coll. M. Brandily [forthcoming]

Licenza (i)

(It.: ‘licence’).

(1) In the 17th and 18th centuries a passage or cadenza inserted into a piece by a performer.

(2) In the same period, an epilogue inserted into a stage work (opera or play) in honour of a patron’s birthday or wedding, or for some other festive occasion. This usually consisted of recitatives and arias but choruses were sometimes included. The licenza could be an integral part of the main work (as in Fux’s Costanza e Fortezza, 1723) or it could be written later by a different composer and librettist; in 1667 the Emperor Leopold I composed his own licenza for the Viennese performances of Cesti’s Le disgrazie d’amore.

WILLIAM C. HOLMES

Licenza (ii)

(It.: ‘licence’).

The directions ‘Con alcuna licenza’ or ‘con alcune licenze’ indicate either that a piece is to be performed somewhat freely in the matter of tempo or expression (the slow movement of Tchaikovsky’s Fifth Symphony is marked ‘Andante cantabile, con alcuna licenza’) or that in its composition some liberty has been taken with strict forms and procedures (e.g. the fugue in Beethoven’s Hammerklavier Sonata op.106).

WILLIAM C. HOLMES

Licette, Miriam

(b Chester, 9 Sept 1892; d Twyford, 11 Aug 1969). English soprano. She studied under Marchesi, Jean de Reszke and Sabbatini, making her début in Rome as Butterfly (1911). After further successful European appearances, she returned to England, where she became one of the leading lyric sopranos of her day, singing with the Beecham Opera Company (1916), the British National Opera Company (1922), and at Covent Garden (1919–1929). Her roles included Mimì, Desdemona, Eva and Louise, and she was specially admired in Mozart. Her voice was pure and steady, with firmly placed tone and a remarkably even scale, well represented in Beecham's complete recording in English of Faust (1930).

J.B. STEANE

Lichfild [Lichfield], Henry

(fl 1613). English composer. The preface of his only publication, The First Set of Madrigals of 5. Parts, Apt both for Viols and Voyces (London, 1613/14; ed. in EM, xvii, 1922, 2/1969/R), reveals that he was in the service of Lady Cheyney (Cheney) of Toddington, near Luton. He was not employed primarily as a domestic musician but possibly, as Edmund Fellowes suggested, as a household steward. In her will Lady Cheyney, who died in 1614, left £20 to Lichfild.

Lichfild's madrigals were composed in his leisure hours under the encouragement of Lady Cheyney, and were first performed by the ‘instruments and voyces’ of her family. They are unpretentious pieces that take no account of the technical and expressive elaboration of the form already displayed in the work of Weelkes and Wilbye, but return to the simplest canzonet manner that Morley had established in England 20 years earlier. Lichfild handled this undemanding manner cleanly but without enterprise, and his music is acceptable, though lacking in individuality.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E.H. Fellowes: English Madrigal Verse, 1588–1632 (Oxford, 1920, enlarged 3/1967 by F.W. Sternfeld and D. Greer)

E.H. Fellowes: The English Madrigal Composers (Oxford, 1921, 2/1948/R)

DAVID BROWN

Lichnowsky.

Austrian family of patrons of music. Several members of the Austrian branch of this aristocratic family supported the arts in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

(2) Countess Henriette von Lichnowsky

(3) Count Moritz (Josef Cajetan Gallus) von Lichnowsky

(4) Prince Felix von Lichnowsky

ELLIOT FORBES/WILLIAM MEREDITH

(1) Prince Karl [Carl] (Alois Johann Nepomuk Vinzenz Leonhard) von Lichnowsky

(b Vienna, 1756/1758/1761; d Vienna, 15 March 1814). He lived mostly in Vienna but also maintained an estate at Hradec nad Moravicí, near Troppau (now Opava, Czech Republic). From 1776 to 1782 he studied law in Leipzig and Göttingen. In Göttingen he also had contact with Forkel and started to collect works by J.S. Bach. In 1788 he married Maria Christiane (1765–1841), daughter of Countess Maria Wilhelmine of Thun-Hoherstein. Prince Karl was a pupil and patron of Mozart; they belonged to the same masonic lodge. A year after his marriage he invited Mozart to accompany him on a trip to Prague, Dresden, Leipzig and Berlin. The trip did not bring Mozart the hoped-for improvement in his financial situation, on top of which he apparently had to lend the Prince 100 gulden (letter, 23 May 1789). Two years later Prince Karl won a judgment against Mozart for over 1400 gulden for non-payment of a debt of an unknown nature. Half of Mozart's salary was attached as part of the judgment. Whether or not Lichnowsky was responsible for bringing Beethoven to Vienna, as Czerny states, he did invite the composer to live in his house once he arrived. He also regularly engaged a string quartet, led by Schuppanzigh, for music sessions, in which the composer participated. In return, Beethoven dedicated to him the piano trios op.1, the Sonata ‘Pathétique’ op.13, the Piano Sonata op.26, the Second Symphony and the piano variations woo69. He is the only member of the aristocracy explicitly thanked in the Heiligenstadt Testament of 1802, and Beethoven praised him in a letter of 1805 as ‘one of my most loyal friends and promoters of my art’. In 1800 Prince Karl offered Beethoven an annuity of 600 gulden as support until he should receive a suitable post. A rupture occurred in 1806: it is usually attributed to an incident involving French officers at Lichnowsky’s palace in Troppau, although Jürgen May argues that other factors (such as the Prince’s financial situation) were also responsible. Nonetheless, in 1809 Prince Karl joined with Archduke Rudolph and Prince Kinsky in committing enough of an income to Beethoven to prevent his having to leave Vienna to take up a Kapellmeister position in Kassel. However, as the economic hardship brought about by the occupation of Vienna by Napoleon’s army worsened, the money was not forthcoming and Beethoven resorted to filing a lawsuit against Lichnowsky and Kinsky. Lichnowsky had an eccentric character; he was described as a ‘cynical degenerate and a shameless coward’ by Countess Lulu Thürheim and died (according to his autopsy report) of a malady resulting from his ‘licentious way of life’.

(2) Countess Henriette von Lichnowsky

(b Vienna, 10 May 1769; d after 1829). Sister of (1) Karl von Lichnowsky. She also befriended Beethoven in Vienna and received the dedication of his rondo op.51 no.2 in 1802. After her marriage to the Marquis of Carneville she moved to Paris, where she was associated with musicians, including Chopin.

(3) Count Moritz (Josef Cajetan Gallus) von Lichnowsky

(b Vienna, 17 Oct 1771; d Vienna, 17 March 1837). Pianist and composer, brother of (1) Karl von Lichnowsky. He was married to Maria Anna Carmelli di Castglione-Faleta, 1797–1817, and the actress Josephine Stummer (with whom he had a daughter in 1814), 1820–37; the second marriage caused a rupture with his family. He was also a patron and friend of both Mozart and Beethoven, and a constant promoter of Beethoven’s interests. Beethoven dedicated the Prometheus Variations op.35 (1803) and the Piano Sonata op.90 (Vienna, 1815) to him. His involvement with Beethoven was at its height in the 1820s when he tried to secure him a position as court composer, tried to bring him and the poet Grillparzer together for an opera text, offered advice in Beethoven’s business affairs and participated vigorously in the arrangements for the first performance of the Ninth Symphony. He was a fine amateur musician and published a set of seven piano variations on Paisiello’s ‘Nel cor più non mi sento’ (Vienna, 1798). In his last years he became acquainted with Chopin.

(3) Aegidius [Ferdinand] Karl Lickl

(4) Prince Felix von Lichnowsky

(b Vienna, 5 April 1814; d Frankfurt, 18 Sept 1848). Son of the poet Eduard Maria and grandson of (1) Karl von Lichnowsky. He was a member of the National Assembly at Frankfurt, and became a friend of Franz Liszt, with whom he corresponded.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Schindler: Biographie von Ludwig van Beethoven (Münster, 1840, enlarged 2/1845, 3/1860; Eng. trans., 1966, as Beethoven as I Knew Him)

‘Franz Liszts Briefe an den Fürsten Felix Lichnowsky’, Bayreuther Blätter, xxx (1907), 25–48

T. Frimmel: Beethoven-Handbuch (Leipzig, 1926/R), ii, 345ff

C. Preihs: ‘Mozarts Beziehungen zu den Familien von Thun-Hohenstein’, Neues Mozart-Jb 1943, 63–86

P. Nettl: Beethoven Encyclopedia (New York, 1956/R, 2/1967/R as Beethoven Handbook)

E. Forbes, ed.: Thayer’s Life of Beethoven (Princeton, NJ, 1964, 2/1967)

C. Czerny: Errinerungen aus meinem Leben, ed. W. Kolneder (Strasbourg, 1968), 9, 19

J. Racek: ‘Z hudební minulosti zámku Hradce u Opavy’ [From the music history of Hradec Castle in Opava], Casopis Slezskeho musea, xxii (1973), 1–21

L. Gräfin Lichnowsky: ‘Aus der Geschichte unserer Familie’, Beethoven-Bildnis des Isidor Neugass und die Familie Lichnowsky, ed. M. Staehelin (Bonn, 1983), 41–50

H. Krones: ‘“ … er habe ihm seine Liebsgeschichte in Musik setzen wollen”: Ludwig van Beethovens e-moll Sonate, op.90’, ÖMz, xliii (1988), 592–601

W. Brauneis: ‘“ … wegen schuldigen 1435 f 32 xr”: neuer Archivfund zur Finanzmisere Mozarts im November 1791’, MISM, xxxix (1991), 159–63

W. Brauneis: ‘Zwei adelige Musiksalons im Wien des späten Jahrhunderts: zur Topographie der Palais Thun-Hohenstein und Lichnowsky’, Mitteilungsblatt der Wiener-Beethoven Gesellschaft, iii (1991), 9–12

Y. Kobayashi: ‘Frühe Bach-Quellen im altösterreichischen Raum’, Johann Sebastian Bach: Beiträge zur Wirkungsgeschichte, ed. I. Fuchs and S. Antonicek (Vienna, 1992), 35–46

J. Moore: ‘Beethoven and Inflation’, Beethoven Forum, i (1992), 191–222

J. May: ‘Beethoven and Prince Karl Lichnowsky’, Beethoven Forum, iii (1994), 29–38

H.C.R. Landon: The Mozart Essays (London, 1995), 213–23

K.M. Kopitz: ‘Das Beethoven-Erlebnis Ludwig Tiecks und Beethovens Zerwürfnis mit Fürst Lichnowski’, ÖMz, liii (1998), 16–23

Lichtenegger, Mathilde.

See Mallinger, Mathilde.

Lichtenfels, Hainrich.

See Faber, Heinrich.

Lichtenhahn, Ernst

(b Arosa, canton of Graubünden, 4 Jan 1934). Swiss musicologist. He studied musicology at Basle University with Schrade and Arnold Schmitz, and German literature with Walter Muschg; at the same time he completed a course at the Basle Academy for school music (1959). In 1961 he became an assistant lecturer at Basle University Musicology Institute; he took the doctorate at Basle in 1966 with a dissertation on Schumann and became lecturer on instruments in 1968. In 1969 he was appointed to the chair of musicology at Neuchâtel University, where he has taught both historical musicology and ethnomusicology. In addition to studying European music history, particularly that of the 18th and early 19th century, Lichtenhahn has specialized in the works of Swiss composers and the history of musicology in Switzerland.

WRITINGS

‘Über einen Ausspruch Hoffmanns und über das Romantische in der Musik’, Musik und Geschichte: Leo Schrade zum sechzigsten Geburtstag (Cologne, 1963), 178–98

Die Bedeutung des Dichterischen im Werk Robert Schumanns (diss., U. of Basle, 1966; Basle, 1974)

ed.: L. Schrade: De scientia musicae studia atque orationes (Berne, 1967) [Schrade’s collected articles and bibliography]

‘“Ars perfecta”: zu Glareans Auffassung der Musikgeschichte’, Festschrift Arnold Geering, ed. V. Ravizza (Berne, 1972), 129–38

‘Die “Popularitätsfrage” in Richard Wagners Pariser Schriften’, Schweizer Beiträge zur Musikwissenschaft, i (1972), 143–61

‘Aus Paul Sachers Briefwechsel mit Arthur Honegger’, ÖMz, xxxi (1976), 208–15

ed., with T. Seebass: Musikhandschriften aus der Sammlung Paul Sacher (Basle, 1976) [incl. facs.]

‘Sinfonie als Dichtung: zum geschichtlichen Ort von Schumanns “Rheinischer”’, Schumanns Werke: Text und Interpretation: Düsseldorf 1985, 17–27

‘Othmar Schoeck, der “letzte Romantiker”: Missverständnis und Einsicht’, Auseinandersetzung mit Othmar Schoeck: Berne 1986, 151–66

‘Der musikalische Stilwandel im Selbstverständnis der Zeit um 1750’, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach und die europäische Musikkultur: Hamburg 1988, 65–77

‘Musikwissenschaft in der Schweiz: Entwicklungen, Erträge und Projekte der letzten Jahre’, AcM, lxi (1989), 327–41

‘“Neue geniale Wendungen”: die musikalische Improvisation um 1800’, Improvisation: Luzern 1990, 100–11

‘Aspekte einer Geschichte der Kammerorchester’, Fünfzig Jahre Collegium Musicum Zürich … die Konzerte des Kammerorchesters Collegium Musicum Zürich 194 1/2–1991/2, ed. S. Ehrisman (Zürich, 1994), 73–108

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Ballmer and T. Gartmann, eds.: Tradition und Innovation in der Musik: Festschrift für Ernst Lichtenhahn (Winterthur, 1993) [incl. list of writings, 233–7]

JÜRG STENZL

Lichtenstein, Karl August, Freiherr von

(b Lahm, nr Kronach, 8 Sept 1767; d Berlin, 10 Sept 1845). German composer and theatre manager. After spending his childhood in Gotha, where his father was a government official, and further education at Göttingen, he served for a while with the English army before entering Hanoverian service; his opera Glück und Zufall, to his own libretto, was performed at Hanover in 1793. In 1797 he was appointed manager of the court opera in Dessau, whose new house opened on 26 December 1798 with a performance of his opera Bathmendi. Apart from his administrative responsibilities and the works he wrote, he and his wife frequently performed in operas. His Singspiel Die steinerne Braut proved very successful in 1799; a duet from it was published in the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung.

In 1800, following financial difficulties after an ambitious and artistically successful guest season at Leipzig, Lichtenstein left Dessau for Vienna, where he became Kapellmeister and artistic director under Baron von Braun, Intendant of the Hoftheater, for three years. Bathmendi was a failure when, newly revised, it was given on 16 April 1801. Five years later Lichtenstein gave up theatrical activities and returned to diplomacy, as minister to the Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen, but in 1811 he went to Bamberg and in 1813 became director of the theatre. He also took up composing again, with Die Waldburg (1811), Imago (1813–14) and a considerable number of other stage works. In 1814 Lichtenstein moved from Bamberg to Strasbourg, as musical director. He returned to Bamberg in 1817, and in 1823, after a brief stay in Dresden, he settled in Berlin, where his opera Die Edelknaben was given. After a period of responsibility for the spoken theatre, he took up an appointment at the opera in 1825. He was pensioned in 1832 though he continued to adapt, translate and even compose stage works.

In addition to his own operas, Lichtenstein provided librettos for other composers (including a revision of Agnes von Hohenstaufen for Spontini in 1837), and he translated or arranged nearly 20 operas by some of the leading composers of the day.

WORKS

Glück und Zufall (komische Oper, 2, Lichtenstein), Hanover, 26 April 1793

Knall und Fall, Bamberg, 1795

Bathmendi (grosse allegorisch-komische Oper, 2, E.W. Behrisch), Dessau, Hof, 26 Dec 1798; rev. version, Vienna, Hof, 16 April 1801

Die steinerne Braut (Spl, Lichtenstein), Dessau, Hof, 25 April 1799

Ende gut, alles gut (komische Oper, 1, F.X. Huber), Dessau, Hof, 26 Oct 1800

Mitgefühl (Liederspiel, 1, Troitschke), Dessau, Hof, 26 Oct 1800

Der Kaiser als [und der] Zimmermann, oder Frauenwerth (grosse komische Oper, 3, Lichtenstein, after J.-N. Bouilly), Strasbourg, 22 June 1814

Imago, die Tochter der Zwietracht, 1813–14, ?unperf.

Das Mädchen aus der Fremde (Operette, 3), Bamberg, National, 1821

Die Waldburg, 1811 (2, Lichtenstein), Dresden, 11 June 1822

Die Edelknaben, oder Zur guten Stunde (Spl, 2, Lichtenstein, after N. Dezède), Berlin, Kgl, 27 May 1823

Jerusalem (lyrisches Drama, 2, Lichtenstein), Bamberg, National, 1824

Singethee und Liedertafel (Spl, 2, Lichtenstein), Berlin, 25 March 1825

Die deutschen Herren in Nürnberg (grosse Oper, 3, Lichtenstein, after E.T.A. Hoffmann), Berlin, 14 March 1834

Der Gluthengeist, ? Darmstadt

Trübsale eines Hofbankiers (komische Oper), sent to Dessau in 1838, ? unperf.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ADB (R. Eitner)

SteigerO

WurzbachL

G. Schilling: Das musikalische Europa (Speyer, 1842), 210

E. Bernsdorf: Neues Universal-Lexikon der Tonkunst, ii (Dresden, 1857)

C. Schäffer and C. Hartmann: Die königlichen Theater in Berlin: statistischer Rückblick (Berlin, 1886)

F. Leist: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Theaters in Bamberg (Bamberg, 1862, enlarged 2/1893 as Geschichte des Theaters in Bamberg zum Jahre 1862)

M. von Prosky: Das herzogliche Hoftheater zu Dessau: in seinen Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart (Dessau, 1884, 2/1894)

G. Fischer: Musik in Hannover (Hanover and Leipzig, 1903) [2nd edn of Opern und Konzerte im Hoftheater zu Hannover bis 1866]

F. Schnapp, ed.: E.T.A. Hoffmanns Briefwechsel, iii (Munich, 1969)

F. Schnapp, ed.: E.T.A. Hoffmann: Tagebücher (Munich, 1971)

PETER BRANSCOMBE

Lichtenstein, Ulrich von.

See Ulrich von Liechtenstein.

Lichtenthal, Peter [Pietro]

(b Pressburg [now Bratislava], 10 May 1780; d Milan, 18 Aug 1853). Austrian writer on music and composer. A doctor of medicine by profession, having earned his degree in Vienna, he settled in Milan in 1810 as a censor for the government. He was a close friend of Mozart's son Karl, and an ardent proponent of Mozart's chamber music. He composed about 50 works, including seven ballets for the Teatro alla Scala, church music, orchestral music (about 15 symphonies), chamber music, songs, piano and organ works. A number of these were published; most of his manuscripts are in the Milan Conservatory library.

Lichtenthal's importance lies in his writings, in particular his four-volume Dizionario e bibliografia della musica (1826), which although full of factual errors, and being in significant measure a translation of the dictionaries of Gerber (1790–92), Koch (1802) and Castil-Blaze (1821) and the bibliography of Forkel (1792), is nevertheless a landmark in the development from dilettantism to modern, systematic bibliographic method.

WRITINGS

Harmonik für Damen (Vienna, 1806)

Der musikalische Arzt, oder Abhandlung von dem Einflusse der Musik auf den menschlichen Körper (Vienna, 1807; It. trans., 1811/R)

Orpheik, oder Anweisung, die Regeln der Komposition auf eine leichte und fassliche Art gründlich zu erlernen (Vienna, 1816)

Cenni biografici intorno al celebre maestro Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (Milan, 1816/R)

Dizionario e bibliografia della musica (Milan,1826/R)

Estetica, ossia Dottrina del bello e delle belle arti (Milan, 1831)

Mozart e le sue creazioni (Milan, 1842)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

FétisB

MGG1(C. Sartori)

SchmidlD

G. Vecchi: ‘ Idee estetyczne-muzyczne we Włoszech pierwsze połowie XIX. wieku i estetyka P. Lichtenthala (1831) i R. Boucherona (1842)’ [The notion of music aesthetics in Italy in the first half of the 19th century and the aesthetics of P. Lichtenthal (1831) and R. Boucheron (1842)], Incontro con la musica italiana e polacca VII: Warsaw 1975, 11–38 [with It. summary]

M. Dona: ‘Peter Lichtental, musicista e musicologo’, Ars iocundissima: Festschrift für Kurt Dorfmüller, ed. H. Leuchtmann and R. Münster (Tutzing, 1984), 49–63

ALFRED LOEWENBERG/BRUCE CARR

Lichtenwanger, William (John)

(b Asheville, NC, 28 Feb 1915). American music librarian. He attended the University of Michigan, where he took the BM in 1937 and the MM in 1940; he also did postgraduate work at Indiana University. From 1937 to 1940 he was music librarian at the University of Michigan. He then joined the staff of the Library of Congress, where he was head of the reference section in the music division, 1960–74. His particular interests as a librarian were music reference problems and services and musical lexicography. He was also active as an editor of reference works and Notes (the quarterly journal of the music library association), for which he edited ‘Bibliography of Asiatic Musics’ (1947–51) and which he supervised, 1960–63. He compiled two important directories of instrument collections (1961, 1974), was music editor of, and a contributor to, Church Music and Musical Life in Pennsylvania (1947) and Collier's Encyclopedia (New York, 1949–51), and was joint editor of the index to Modern Music (1976).

WRITINGS

ed.: Church Music and Musical Life in Pennsylvania in the Eighteenth Century, iii (Philadelphia, 1947/R)

with L.E. Gilliam: The Dayton C. Miller Flute Collection: a Checklist of the Instruments (Washington DC, 1961)

‘Another Treble Flute d'Allemagne by P.-J. Bressan’, GSJ, xv (1962), 45–8

‘Star-Spangled Bibliography’, College Music Symposium, xii (1972), 94–102

A Survey of Musical Instrument Collections in the United States and Canada (Ann Arbor, 1974)

ed., with C. Lichtenwanger: W.D. Shirley: Modern Music, Published by the League of Composers, 1924–1946: an Analytic Index (New York, 1976)

‘The Music of “The Star-Spangled Banner” from Ludgate Hill to Capitol Hill’, Quarterly Journal of the Library of Congress, xxxiv/3 (1977), 136–70; pubd separately (Washington DC, 1977)

‘The Music of the Star-Spangled Banner: Whence and Whither?’, College Music Symposium, xviii/2 (1978), 34–81

‘94-553 and All That: Ruminations on Copyright Today, Yesterday, and Tomorrow’, Notes, xxxv (1978–9), 803–18; xxxvi (1979–80), 837–48

‘When “Notes” Was Young: 1945–1960’, Notes, xxxix (1982–3), 7–30

ed.: Oscar Sonneck and American Music (Urbana, IL, 1983)

‘Oscar Sonneck Writes to Carl Engel’, American Music, i/2 (1983), 60–69

The Music of Henry Cowell: a Descriptive Catalog (Brooklyn, NY, 1986)

‘Richard S. Hill and the “Unsettled” Text of “The Star Spangled Banner”’, Richard S. Hill: Tributes, ed. C.J. Bradley and J.B. Coover (Detroit, 1987), 71–184

‘Thor Johnson: a Personal Memoir’, A Celebration of American Music: Words and Music in Honor of H. Wiley Hitchcock, ed. R.A. Crawford, R.A. Lott and C.J. Oja (Ann Arbor, 1990), 97–104

‘Music and Copyright Law in the United States’, Music Publishing & Collecting: Essays in Honor of Donald W. Krummel, ed. D. Hunter (Urbana, IL, 1994), 69–94

PAULA MORGAN

Li Chunyi

(b Tianjin, 12 Feb 1920). Chinese musicologist. He attended the No. 1 Provincial Middle School of Hebei province and Department of Economics, College of Industry and Commerce in Tianjin. In 1942–3 he attended the National Opera College in Chongqing, where he majored in theory and composition.

He worked in north-east China (Manchuria) as a music instructor in the Guandong Social Education Service (1948–9); music instructor, research fellow and director of the Research Centre for Music at Dongbei Lu Xun Academy for the Arts (1949–52); and deputy dean and director of the Research Centre and Library of the Dongbei College of Music (1953–6) which he and An Bo established jointly in 1949. In 1956 he was appointed director of the Division of Ancient Chinese Music History at the Chinese Music Research Institute in Beijing. He has been a research fellow of that institute (renamed as Music Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Arts) in Beijing ever since. Since 1948 Li had numerous publications in ancient Chinese music aesthetics, history, archaeology and theory.

WRITINGS

Woguo yuanshi shiqi yinyue chutan [Preliminary study of Chinese music in the primitive period] (Beijing, 1957)

Zhongguo gudai yinyue shigao [Draft history of ancient Chinese music], i (Beijing, 1958/R)

Zhongguo shanggu chutu yueqi zonglun [Survey of ancient excavated musical instruments in China] (Beijing, 1996)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Han Kuo-huang: ‘Three Chinese musicologists: Yang Yinliu, Yin Falu, Li Chunyi’, EthM, xxiv (1980), 483–529

Zhongguo yinyue cidian, xubian [Dictionary of Chinese music, supplementary vol.] (Beijing, 1992), 103–4

HAN KUO-HUANG

Licino, Agostino

(fl 1545–6). Italian composer. His only known works are two volumes of canonic duos, Primo libro di duo cromatici … da cantare et sonare (Venice, 1545) and Il secondo libro di duo cromatici … da cantare et sonare (Venice, 1546). All that is known about his life is stated in these volumes: he was from Cremona, he worked in the service of Benedetto Guarna of Salerno, and he intended his duets for the instruction and enjoyment of his patron's sons and their friends. Though printed without text, they were intended, according to the title-page, to be sung or played.

The two volumes contain canons in each of the eight modes at various intervals of time and pitch, although the majority are at the 5th above or below. The modal organisation of the first volume suggests that the collection started as a systematic modal cycle with five canons each in modes 1 through 4; the second volume is less systematic, containing six examples in modes 5 and 7, nine in mode 6 and four in mode 8. Licino's treatment of mode suggests familiarity with Pietro Aaron's treatises. In both volumes each mode is defined by the final, system and ambitus of the leading voice, and is strengthened by cadence points. Authentic and plagal modes are separated by the use of high and low clef combinations. The rigorous use of exact imitation in a modal context supports claims of pedagogical intent. The duos are diatonic; the ‘cromatici’ of the titles refers to their many black notes and hence fast passages, rather than to accidentals.

HOWARD MAYER BROWN/NAOMI JOY BARKER

Lick.

A term used in jazz, blues and pop music to describe a short recognizable melodic motif, formula or phrase. Improvising jazz and blues musicians have at their disposal a repertory of licks, some of their own invention by which they can be identified, some borrowed from other players, and a solo may be little more than the stringing together of a number of such fragments. In some styles (e.g. slow blues) and for some ubiquitous chord progressions (e.g. I–II–V–I in major or minor keys) a common stock of licks is in circulation.

ROBERT WITMER/R

Lickl.

Austrian family of musicians.

(1) Johann Georg Lickl

(2) Karl Georg Lickl

PETER BRANSCOMBE

Lickl

(1) Johann Georg Lickl

(b Korneuburg, Lower Austria, 11 April 1769; d Fünfkirchen [now Pécs], Hungary, 12 May 1843). Composer and conductor. Orphaned at an early age, he studied music under Witzig, the Korneuburg church organist. In 1785 he went to Vienna, teaching music and studying with Albrechtsberger and Haydn. He was appointed organist at the Carmelite church in the Leopoldstadt, where Eybler was choirmaster. From about 1789 (or later) he was on the music staff of Schikaneder's Freihaus-Theater auf der Wieden, from 1793 contributing complete or partial scores to a series of popular Singspiele, including Der Zauberpfeil, Das Zigeunermädchen, Die Haushaltung nach der Mode, Der Bruder von Kakran, Der Kampf mit dem Fürsten der Finsternis, Fausts Leben, Taten und Höllenfahrt, Der vermeinte Hexenmeister, Der Orgelspieler and Der Durchmarsch. For the new Theater an der Wien he wrote Der Brigitten-Kirchtag in 1802, and in 1812 he supplied the Theater in der Leopoldstadt with a comic opera, Slawina von Pommern. Despite these successes, sacred music was his particular interest, and in 1804 he composed a mass for Empress Maria Theresa, followed by one for Princess Esterházy. In 1805 he was appointed regens chori at Fünfkirchen Cathedral, where he lived and worked for nearly 40 years. During this period he wrote a quantity of church music, including 24 masses, two requiems and many smaller pieces, chamber music for wind instruments and a number of keyboard works.

Lickl

(2) Karl Georg Lickl

(b Vienna, 28 Oct 1801; d Vienna, 3 Aug 1877). Physharmonica player and composer, son of (1) Johann Georg Lickl. He became a civil servant but was a talented amateur musician who gained particular fame as a virtuoso on, and composer and theorist for, the physharmonica.

Lickl

(3) Aegidius [Ferdinand] Karl Lickl

(b Vienna, 1 Sept 1803; d Trieste, 22 July 1864). Composer and conductor, son of (1) Johann Georg Lickl. After study with his father and gaining some eminence as a pianist he moved to Trieste in the 1830s, where he became a popular teacher, conductor and composer. His opera La disfida di Berletta was staged in February 1848, the oratorio Der Triumph des Christentums was performed in Vienna in 1855, and he wrote a quantity of church music.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ADB (R. Eitner)

GerberNL

WurzbachL

A. Gross: Obituary, Allgemeine Wiener Musik-Zeitung, no.84, vol.iii (1843), 349–50

E. Bernsdorf, ed.: Neues Universal-Lexikon der Tonkunst, ii (Dresden, 1857), 759

K. Moeck: ‘The Beginnings of the Woodwind Quintet’, NACWPI Journal, xxvi/2 (1977), 22–33

K. Birsak: ‘Die Bläsercassation KVC 17.11 ist von Georg Lickl’, Jahresschrift: Salzburger Museum Carolino Augusteum, xxiii–xxiv (1977–8), 88–90

Lidarti, Christian Joseph [Cristiano Giuseppe]

(b Vienna, 23 Feb 1730; d ?Pisa, after 1793). Austrian composer of Italian descent. He studied at a Cistercian monastery in Klagenfurt and afterwards at the Jesuit seminary in Leoben. While enrolled in philosophy and law courses at the University of Vienna, he studied the harpsichord and harp and began to teach himself composition. In Vienna the Kapellmeister Giuseppe Bonno, his uncle, reproached him for his dilettantism and directed him to study the classic theorists. In 1751 he went to Italy to complete his musical education. After short stays in Venice and Florence, he spent five years in Cortona as a music teacher and composer and studied with Jommelli in Rome in 1757. From then until at least 1784 he was a player in the chapel of the Cavalieri di S Stefano in Pisa. In 1761 he became a member of the Accademia Filarmonica in Bologna and later in Modena. His last dated composition is from 1793. Lidarti's regular association and correspondence with his colleagues such as Martini, Jommelli and Burney indicates that they held him in high esteem. Five letters to Martini spanning the years 1762–84 are in the Bologna Conservatory library.

Lidarti's instrumental works (of which there are nearly 200) are bipartite in structure and show a preference for forms such as the minuet, even in sonata finales. They are lightly ornamented and often approach near-equality in voicing. Van der Straeten depicts Lidarti as a cellist, a fact omitted from his autobiography but borne out by the unusual technical demands placed on the cello in much of his chamber music, especially the quartets, in which the cello is more prominent than in the majority of quartets of that time. His compositions maintain a serene songlike quality, interrupted only by occasional fugal or canonic passages.

WORKS

(selective list)

Inst: Sonata, 2 vn, bc, in 6 Sonatas … by Salvatore Galleotti and … Lidarti (London, 1762); 6 str qts (Pisa, after 1762); 6 sinfonie, 2 vn, va, b, other insts ad lib, op.2 (Paris, c1768); 6 trii, 2 vn, b, op.3 (Paris, c1770); 6 Sonatas, 2 fl/vn, bc (hpd) (London, c1770); 6 Duetts, vn, vc (London, c1795); others, A-Wgm (incl. sonata, viola pomposa, bc, attrib. in EitnerQ) B-Bc; D-Hs, MÜs; GB-Lbl; I-Mc, MOe, Nc

Vocal: La tutela contrastata fra Giunone, Marte e Mercurio, col giudizio di Giove, componimento drammatico, 1767, A-Wn; arias, D-Dl, I-MTventuri; sacred works, Baf, Fc, PAc, PIst

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BurneyFI

MGG1 (L.F. Tagliavini)

C.G. Lidarti: Aneddoti musicali (MS, I-Bc)

E.S.J. van der Straeten: History of the Violoncello (London, 1915/R)

R. Meylan: ‘La collection Antonio Venturi, Montecatini-Terme (Pistoia), Italie’, FAM, v (1958), 31–44

E. Grolman: Cristiano Giuseppe Lidarti: Six String Quartets (diss., U. of Missouri, 1986)

GUIDO SALVETTI/ELLEN GROLMAN SCHLEGEL

Lidel, Andreas.

See Lidl, Andreas.

Lidholm, Ingvar (Natanael)

(b Jönköping, 24 Feb 1921). Swedish composer. In 1940 he entered the Royal Swedish Academy of Music to study the violin with Barkel, the piano with Brandel and conducting with Mann, but in 1943 he broke off his studies to join the royal chapel as a viola player. He stayed there until 1946, also studying composition with Rosenberg during this period. Later he was associated with other Rosenberg pupils (Blomdahl, Bäck, Johanson and others) in the influential Monday Group. He conducted the partly amateur Örebro Orchestra from 1947 to 1956, during which period he visited France, Switzerland and Italy (1946–7), the Darmstadt summer courses (1949) and England for further composition studies with Seiber (1954). He has also served as director of chamber music for Swedish Radio (1956–65), professor of composition at the Royal Swedish Academy of Music (1965–75) and director of planning for the radio music department (1974–9) and consultant (1979–84).

Lidholm’s early works, especially the often performed Toccata e canto for chamber orchestra, the songs and piano pieces, reveal a Nordic tone and an affiliation to Nielsen and Hindemith. Of the Monday Group composers he was at first the most concerned with Stravinsky and early vocal polyphony, as is evident from the very successful choral Laudi (1947); but subsequent contacts with new tendencies in Europe profoundly altered his thinking. As early as 1949 he took up 12-note serialism in the Klavierstück, and this was followed by his adoption of later serial practices and of improvisatory sequences, as in the orchestral Poesis (1963), with its central piano cadenza. However, within this development he has maintained and even emphasized certain distinctive characteristics, such as his marked sensitivity to choral scoring (his major works hold a pre-eminent place in modern Swedish choral music), his colourful orchestral language and his lyricism, which permeates even the large-scale works.

Although Lidholm has composed in most genres, he is at his best in vocal works, in which he has evolved a style often at variance with those of his colleagues, such as Blomdahl and Bäck. If the earlier pieces lie within the middle ground of modern music, the pedagogical A cappella-bok, begun in 1956, raises all manner of artistic problems and seeks their solution. Its basis is a single 12-note series with tonal associations (to assist singers), but gradually a whole range of techniques is brought into play, culminating in the great Canto LXXXI. The symphonic cantata Skaldens natt (‘The Poet’s Night’) uses words as symphonic elements, while in Nausikaa ensam textless vocal effects are skilfully applied. All of Lidholm’s vocal techniques are brought to a masterly integration in … a riveder le stelle.

His technical development in the orchestral genre is represented in a twin set of works characterized by the brilliance of the orchestral writing: Greetings from an Old World, written for the 1976 USA bicentenary, in which Heinrich Isaac's Innsbruck ich muss dich lassen forms part of the thematic material; and Kontakion, commissioned by the Royal Stockholm PO for its first Soviet tour in 1979, in which the quotation of a Russo-Byzantine hymn (very similar to the one used by Britten in his Cello Suite op.87) is given a sombre, requiem-like character. Ett drömspel, his first opera, which had a highly successful première at the Swedish Royal Opera in 1990, is a compendium of many aspects of his style. The mood moves from mild elegy to roaring aggression, often using a chamber orchestra texture. A long a cappella hymn (De profundis, 1983) closes the first act and the work ends with a sombre quotation from Kontakion.

WORKS

(selective list)

Dramatic: Riter (ballet, E. Lindegren), orch, tape, 1960; Holländarn (TV op, H. Grevenius, after A. Strindberg), 1967; Inga träd skall väcka dig (TV drama), 1974; Ett drömspel (op, 2, Strindberg), 1978–89, Stockholm, 1990

Orch: Toccata e canto, chbr orch, 1944; Conc., str, 1945 [after Str Qt]; Vn Conc., 1951; Musik för stråkar, 1952; Ritornell, 1955; Mutanza, 1959; Motus-colores, 1960; Poesis, 1963; Greetings from an Old World, 1976; Kontakion, 1979

Vocal: Laudi, chorus, 1947; 6 Songs, 1v, pf, 1946–8; Cant., Bar, orch, 1949; 4 Choruses, unacc., 1953; A cappella-bok, 1956–, incl. Canto LXXXI (E. Pound), 1956; Skaldens natt [The Poet’s Night] (C.J.L. Almqvist), S, chorus, orch, 1957–8; Nausikaa ensam (E. Johnson), S, chorus, orch, 1963; … a riveder le stelle (Dante), 1v, chorus, 1971–3; The Persians (dramatic scena, Aeschylus), T, Bar, nar, male chorus, 1978; 2 Madrigals (Strindberg), chorus unacc., 1981; De profundis (Strindberg), chorus unacc., 1983; Inbillningens värld (J.H. Kellgren), male chorus, 1990

Chbr and inst: Str Qt, 1945; Sonata, fl, 1946; Pf Sonata, 1947; 10 miniatyrer, pf, 1948; Klavierstück, 1949; Pf Sonatina, 1950; Little Str Trio, 1953; Invention, cl + b cl/va + vc/pf, 1954; 4 Pieces, vc, pf, 1955; Stamp Music, score on postage stamp, 1971

Principal publishers: Gehrman, Nordiska Musikförlaget, Universal

WRITINGS

‘Tankar kring Ritornell för orkester’, Modern nordisk musik, ed. I. Bengtsson (Stockholm, 1957), 204–15

‘Rörelser, färger…’, Nutida musik, iv/2 (1960–61), 23–5 [on Motus-colores]

‘Poesis for Orchestra’, Three Aspects of New Music (Stockholm, 1968), 57–80; Ger. trans. in Melos, xxxvi (1969), 63–76

BIBLIOGRAPHY

KdG (L. Lesle)

I. Bengtsson: ‘ Sven-Erik Bäck och Ingvar Lidholm’, Melos, xxii (1956), 345–9

H. Herresthal: ‘Greetings from an Old World av Ingvar Lidholm’, Nordiskamusikdagar/ Nordische Musiktage: Stockholm 1978, 143–54

N.L. Wallin: ‘Struktur och funktion: funderingar kring Ingvar Lidholms “Greetings”’, ibid., 167–204

B.E. Brolsma: The Music of Ingvar Lidholm: a Survey and Analysis (Ann Arbor, MI, 1981)

G. Larsson: ‘Ingvar Lidholms Kontakion’, Artes [Stockholm] (1982), no.4, pp.96–107

G. Schönfelder: ‘Kontakion’ Beiträge zur Ästhetik der reuere schwedischen Musik (Stockholm, 1984), 255–89; Eng. trans. in Contemporary Music through the Telescopic Sight (Stockholm, 1993), 111–46

L. Reimers: ‘Lidholm-veckan på Stockholms Konserthus’, Kungl. musikaliska akademien årsskrift 1986 (Stockholm, 1987), 35–8

B. Wallner: ‘ Att uppenbara tonens skönhet: Ingvar Lidholm – ett tonsättarporträtt’, Nutida musik, xxx/1 (1986–7), 45–57

B. Wallner: ‘Ingvar Lidholms röda tråd: andens fria forskning’, Konsertnytt, xxii/Oct (October, 1986–7), 3–23

J. Tillman: Ingvar Lidholm och tolvtonstekniken: analytiska och historiska perspektiv på Ingvar Lidholms musik från 1950-talet (diss., U. of Stockholm, 1995)

HANS ÅSTRAND

Lidl [Lidel], Andreas

(b ?Vienna; d London, before 1789). Austrian baryton and viola da gamba player. He was in the Eszterházy Kapelle from 1769 to 1774; it is recorded in the Eszterházy archives that on 23 July 1770 ‘paper with 8 staves was purchased for Herr Lidl to write paradon music for His Highness Prince Nicolaus’. Pohl records that Schubart heard him in Augsburg in 1776 and that he went to London in 1778, where he lived for ten years. In Pohl’s lists (1867) of virtuosos in London Lidl is given as baryton player in 1776 and viola da gamba player in 1778. Contemporary newspaper advertisements show that Lidl played in London on 28 May 1777 for his own benefit, under the direction of ‘Mr Bach’. The programme included a duet for violin and baryton, played by Franz Lamotte and Lidl, followed by a viola d’amore concerto played by Stamitz. Fétis said ‘il brillait encore à Berlin, 1784’; and Burney said that he was dead by 1789. To Junker we owe the information that his performance enchanted through ‘sweet grace, with German strength unexpectedly linked with most harmonious melody’. He also increased the wire understrings to 27 so that the self-accompaniment could be fully chromatic. Burney’s reference to Lidl states that he played with exquisite taste and expression and includes an amusing account of what he considered to be the outlandishness of self-accompaniment on the baryton.

At a meeting of the Society of Antiquaries in London on 22 November 1849 Mr Lidel, grandson of Andreas Lidl, exhibited his grandfather’s baryton (made by Tielke in 1687, and given to him by the Bishop of Salzburg). The instrument was also exhibited at a meeting of the Musical Society of London on 2 July 1862.

WORKS

all published in London

op.

1	6 Trios, vn/fl, vn, vc (1776)
2	6 Quartettos (1778); 3 for 2 vn, va, vc; 3 for fl, vn, va, vc
3	6 Duettos, vn, va/vc/vn (1778)
4	6 Sonatas, vn, va, vc (1778)
5	3 Quintettos, fl, vn, 2 va, vc (c1780)
6	A 2nd Sett of 6 Duettos (c1780); 3 for vn, va; 3 for vn, vc
7	A 2nd Sett of 6 Quartettos (c1780); 5 for 2 vn, va, vc; 1 for ob, vn, va, vc
8	A 3rd Sett of 6 Duettos, vn, vn/vc (1785)
Songs pubd singly and in 18th-century anthologies

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BurneyH

EitnerQ

FétisB

C.L. Junker: Musikalischer Almanach auf das Jahr 1782 (Alethinopel [Berlin], 1782)

W. Sandys and S.A. Forster: History of the Violin (London, 1864), 131

C.F. Pohl: Mozart und Haydn in London (Vienna, 1867/R), i, 52; ii, 96, 374

C.F. Pohl: Joseph Haydn, i (Berlin, 1875, 2/1878/R), 251; ii (Leipzig, 1882/R), 16, 18

S. Gerlach: ‘Die chronologische Ordnung von Haydns Sinfonien zwischen 1774 und 1782’, Haydn-Studien, ii/1 (1969–70), 34–60, esp. 50

J. Harich: ‘Haydn Documenta IV’, Haydn Yearbook 1970, 47–168, esp. 67, 84

G. Hellwig: Joachim Tielke: ein Hamburger Lauten- und Violenmacher der Barockszeit (Frankfurt, 1980), 190

PETER PLATT/TERENCE PAMPLIN

Lidón (Blázquez), José

(b Béjar, Salamanca, 2 June 1748; d Madrid, 11 Feb 1827). Spanish composer and organist. He was first taught by his father, organist of the parish church of S María, Béjar, then in 1758 entered the Real Colegio de Niños Cantores in Madrid. He became second organist at Orense Cathedral and, from 1768, fourth organist at the royal chapel in Madrid. In 1771 he was appointed ‘maestro de estilo italiano’ of the choristers at the Real Colegio and in 1787 was made first organist and assistant master at the royal chapel. From 1780 to 1792 he also worked for the house of Osuna as a composer and harpsichord teacher to the Duchess of Benavente and directed her private orchestra. The orchestra's repertory included works by Haydn, who, from 1783, was contracted to send all his compositions to the duchess. In 1805 Lidón was appointed master of the royal chapel and rector of the Colegio de Niños Cantores, succeeding Antonio Ugena. He retained his post during the Napoleonic invasion (1808–14), as a result of which Fernando VII, although confirming his duties in 1814 as chapel master and rector, demoted him to a lower category, thereby preventing his participation in the music of the royal household. Among his pupils were Joaquín Asiain, Pedro Carrera y Lanchares, Ramón Garay, Melchor López and Lidón's nephews Alfonso, Andrés and Mariano.

Lidón was one of the most important Spanish composers of his generation. He composed over 70 sacred works, of which only his Ave maris stella for four voices and strings has been published. His keyboard works, which number more than 40, include versos, glosas, tientos or intentos (some in three sections), preludes, fugues and sonatas. Some of the sonatas are in binary form while others develop ‘en forma de versos’ or are made up of a prelude and variation on a pre-existant hymn. His keyboard music contains a mixture of tradition and modernity: plainchant themes and imitative motifs, though with a profusion of melodic repetition typical of the galant style. Some of his works, such as the Sonata de sexto tono, could be considered close to the pre-Romantic aesthetic. Lidón's heroic drama Glaura y Cariolano (1791) is notable as an attempt to create an Italian opera seria in Spanish. The plot is based on an episode from the conquest of Chile. The work, which is in two acts, is written in a deliberately simple style, using a vocal quartet and orchestra but without choruses or dances.

Two of Lidón's brothers were also musicians. The elder, Lorenzo (1740–95), was organist from 1760 at the monastery of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe, where he was known as Fray Lorenzo de Béjar.

WORKS

Stage: Glaura y Cariolano (drama heroico, 2, I. García Malo, after A. de Ercilla: La Araucana), 1791, Madrid, Príncipe, 1792, E-Mn; El barón de Illescas (zarzuela, L.F. de Moratín), music lost; Los das hermanos (tonadilla), lost

Vocal: more than 70 sacred works, some acc., incl. at least 5 masses, vespers, complines, hymns, 33 Lamentations, lits, Misereres, ps settings, Salve regina settings, seqs, Mp, GU, MO, ORI, SA, Convento de la Encarnación, Madrid, Santuario de Aránzazu, Guipúzcoa, Parroquia de S Esteve de Olot, Gerona; villancicos, Mn, Mp, GU, MO

Org: 6 fugas para órgano con sus intentos formadas sobre el canto de 6 himnos (Madrid, ?1778, 2/?1781), MS in SEG; 6 piezas, o sonatas … en forma de versos grandes de octavo tono (Madrid, 1787), MS in Mn; 12 Pange lingua, Mn; 12 glosas sobre el Tantum ergo, Mn; Juego de versos, MO; 4 versos o sonatas, c1799; Preludio y fuga sobre el Pange lingua español, ALB; Preludio, fuga y Pange lingua, ALB; other works, VAcp; 3 intentos ed. S. Rubio, Organistas de la Real capilla, i (Madrid, 1973); Glosado and Pange lingua, ed. J.M. Muneta, Música de tecla de la Catedral de Albarracín, i: Música de órgano (Teruel, 1981); 10 piezas ed. D. García Fraile and G. Bovet, José Lidón: obras completas para organo, i (Fleurier 1996)

Chbr: 1 vn sonata, 1 va sonata, both Mp; Qt, hn, str, 1800, Mp, ed. T. Garrido, Música espagñola para orquesta de cuerda (siglos XVIII y XIX) (Madrid, 1998)

Theoretical: Colección de bajetes, in F.M. López: Reglas generales, o Escuela de acompañar al órgano o clave (MS, Mn); Compendio teórico y práctico de la modulación, Bc, ?identical with Arte de modular cited in Mitjana; Reglas para aprender a acompañar, c1820, Santuario de Aránzazu, Guipúzcoa, ?identical with Tratado de acompañamiento: reglas muy útiles para los organistas y aficionados al piano para acompañar con método, cited by Mitjana; Directorio del órgano, cited in MGG1 suppl.; Tratado de fuga o paso, cited by Soriano Fuertes and Mitjana

BIBLIOGRAPHY

LaborD

NewmanSCE

SubiráHME

M. Soriano Fuertes: Historia de la música española, iv (Madrid, 1859), 297 [incl. list of works in E-Mp]

B. Saldoni: Diccionario biográfico-bibliográfico de efemérides de músicos españoles (Madrid, 1868–81/R), i, 247–51; ii, 85; iv, 268

R. Mitjana y Gordón: ‘La musique en Espagne’, EMDC, I/iv (1920), 1913–2351

H. Anglès and J. Subirá: Catálogo musical de la Biblioteca nacional de Madrid, i (Barcelona, 1946) [with addl bibliography]

S. Rubio: ‘José Lidón (1746–1827): organista de la Capilla Real’, TSM, lvi (1973), 53–5

A. Martín Moreno: Historia de la música española, iv: Siglo XVIII (Madrid, 1985/R)

L. Robledo: ‘La música en la corte de José I’, AnM, xlvi (1991), 205–43

M.A. Gómez Pintor: ‘Fuentes documentales para el estudio de las casas de Osuna y Arcos’, RdMc, xvi (1993), 3459–75

D. García Fraile: ‘Un drama heroico en verso castellano: Glaura y Cariolano de Joseph Lidón, representado en Madrid, en el tercer centenario del descubrimiento de América’, Teatro y música en España: Salamanca 1994, 145–76

MARÍA GEMBERO USTÁRROZ

Lié

(Fr.).

See Legato.

Lie, Sigurd

(b Drammen, 23 May 1871; d Vestre Aker, 30 Sept 1904). Norwegian composer. He was first taught music by August Rojahn, the organist of Kristiansand Cathedral. He studied the violin with Gudbrand Bøhn and theory and composition with Iver Holter at Lindeman’s conservatory in Christiania, where he was also a violinist in a theatre orchestra. In 1891 he went to Leipzig, where for two and a half years he studied theory and composition with Reinecke and Rust and the violin with Arno Hilfs at the conservatory. His first music was published in 1892 – six songs to texts by his friend Vilhelm Krag. A piano quintet written at Leipzig was performed in 1894 after his return to Christiania, and its acclaim led to a state stipend. He went to Berlin and studied composition with Heinrich Urban (1894–5), writing, among other things, a suite for strings and a concert piece for violin and orchestra based on the folksong Huldra aa’n Elland.

In 1895 Lie was invited to become the leader of the Harmonien music society in Bergen. He soon added to his duties the conductorship of the Musikforening, which in 1897 performed his Erling Skjalgsøn, a large work for baritone solo, male chorus and orchestra. During the winter of 1898–9 he was conductor of the orchestra of Fahlstrøm’s Centre Theatre in Christiania and in October 1899 he gave a concert of his own works which established him as one of the most promising Norwegian musical talents. He divided the next two years between periods of study in Berlin and engagements in Bergen, where in October 1901 he conducted the first three movements of his Symphony in A minor. In the following year his health deteriorated seriously; he was forced to defer taking up a conducting appointment in Christiania and to spend the winter of 1902–3 in a sanatorium. There he tried to finish his symphony for performance in Christiania, but in order to meet the deadline he required the assistance of his friend and former teacher Iver Holter, who also conducted the first complete performance in February 1903. His health improved during 1903 and in spring 1904 he took the Handelsstandens Sangforening of Christiania on a successful tour of northern Norway; but after a concert in the autumn he collapsed and died shortly after.

In a short working life plagued by illness, Lie produced a sizable output, including a String Quartet in D minor, a violin sonata, a number of orchestral pieces, character-pieces for piano, choral pieces and some 80 songs. Few of his works, apart from the songs, have been published. Undoubtedly his prominence in Norwegian musical life of the ambitious nationalistic period was as much an investment in his promise of future achievements as it was a reward for his actual accomplishments. Nevertheless, a number of his songs, including the famous Sne (‘Snow’, text by Helge Rode), choral pieces (especially those for male voices) and, among his instrumental works, the two fine Norwegian dances for violin and piano, have deservedly maintained a firm place in the repertory. A complete edition of his songs can be found in H.M. Græsvold and T. Mathisen, eds.: Siguard Lie: Sanger (Kristiansand, 1999).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

NBL (J. Arup)

O.M. Sandvik and G. Schjelderup: Norges musikhistorie (Christiania, 1921)

N. Grinde: Norsk musikkhistorie (Oslo, 1971, 3/1981; Eng. trans., 1991)

H.M. Groesvold and T. Mathisen, eds.: Sigund Lie: Sanger (Kristiansand, 1999)

JOHN BERGSAGEL

Liebe [Lieben, Lieber], Christian

(b Freiberg, Saxony, 5 Nov 1654; d Zschopau, Saxony, 3 Sept 1708). German composer and organist. He received his earliest musical training at Freiberg, where Christoph Frölich was cathedral Kantor and schoolmaster; he also acquired a wide knowledge of ancient languages. In 1676 he became a theology student at the University of Leipzig. At Leipzig he was probably encouraged to compose church music by Johann Schelle, who was appointed Kantor at the Thomaskirche early in 1677. From 1679 Liebe was employed as music master in an aristocratic household at Dresden. His reputation as a keyboard player led in 1684 to his appointment as organist at Frauenstein, Erzgebirge, where he also became Rektor of the school. From 1690 until his death he was Rektor of the school at Zschopau, where in addition to his teaching duties he devoted himself to music and the musical life of the town, as composer, organist and organizer of church musical events. His sacred works were known about 1700 as far afield as Gottorf, Stettin and Strasbourg, as well as more locally at Freyburg, Grimma and Leipzig; he may have had direct connections with some of these towns.

The majority of Liebe’s surviving works are cantatas, some with accompaniments for up to nine instruments, including rich wind scoring. The concerto-aria cantatas contain aria sections with several verses, or, in place of a straightforward sequence of arias, chorale verses and short concertato passages with or without simple concluding chorales. Of the 22 compositions by Liebe at Strasbourg, 16 form a sequence from the liturgical year. According to Mattheson the funeral aria Es ist nun aus mit meinem Leben was still widely known and used towards the mid-18th century.

WORKS

cantatas

at D-Bsb.: Ich habe einen guten Kampf gekämpfet, 5vv, 2 vn, 2 viols, bn, org, also F-Ssp; Komm heiliger Geist, vv, 2 vn, 2 shawms, bc; Meine Schafe hören meine Stimme, B, 5 inst, bc; Und du Bethlehem, 4vv, 5 insts, bc

at Dlb: Ach, liebster Jesu komm herein, 5vv, 2 vn, 2 viols, bn, bc; Als der Tag der Pfingsten erfüllet war, 4 vv, 3 ob, bn, 2 vn, bc; Aus der Tiefen rufe ich, 4vv, 2 vn, 2 viols, bn, bc; Das neugeborne Kindelein, 5vv, 2 clarini, timp, 2 vn, 2 viols, bn, bc; Der Herr ist Gott, 4vv, 2 clarini, 2 vn, bn, bc; Ihr wisset die Gnade unsers Herrn, 4vv, 4 ob, vn, 2 viols, violone, 4 hp, bc; Komm an, du sanftes Brausen, 5vv, vn, 4 viols, bn, bc; Machet die Tore weit, 4vv, 2 clarini, 2 vn, bn, bc; O heiland aller Welt, 4vv, 2 vn, bc

at F-Ssp: Alle Bitterkeit und Grumm und Zorn, 4vv, vn, 2 viols, bc; Darum seid barmherzig, 4vv, 2 vn, 2 viols, bc; Der Engel des Herrn, 4vv, 2 clarini, 2 vn, 2 viols, bn, bc; Der Mensch vom Weibe geboren, 4vv, 3 ob, bn, 2 vn, bc; Es ist unsonst, daβ ihr früh aufsteht, 4 vv, 2 vn, 2 viols, bn, bc; Gnade! Gnade! Jesu, Gnade, 5vv, 2 vn, 2 viols, bn, org; Herr, höre und sei mir gnädig, 4vv, 2 vn, 2 viols, bc; Ich bleib, o Jesu, ganz der deine, 4vv, insts, bc; Ich danke dir, Gott, 4vv, vn, 3 viols, bc; Liebet eure Feinde, 4vv, clarino, 2 vn, va/trbn, bc; Machet euch Freund, 4vv, 3 ob, bn, 2 vn, bc; Mein Freund, ich tue dir nicht unrecht, 4vv, 3 ob, bn, bc; Meine Seele erhebet den Herrn, 4vv, clarino, timp, 2 vn, va, bc; Sehet euch für den falschen Propheten, 4vv, 3 ob, bn, 2 vn, bc; Sei nun wieder zufrieden (Ps cxvi.7–9), 5vv, 2 vn, 2 shawms, 4 cornetts, bn, org, bc; Siehe, des Herrn Auge siehet auf die, 4vv, 2 vn, 2 viols, bn, bc; Trachet am ersten nach dem Reich Gottes, 4vv, vn, 2 viols, bn, bc; Und du, Kindlein, 4vv, 3 ob, bn, bc; Wenn du es wüβtest, 4vv, 3 ob, bn, 2 vn, bc; Wohl dem, dem ein tugendsam Weib beschert ist, 4vv, 2 vn, 2 viols, bn, org

Doubtful: Das Verlangen der Elenden hörest du, Herr, 4vv, vn, 2 viols, bc, MÜG

motets

at Bsb: Alleluja, ach mein herzliebes Jesulein, 8vv, bc; Selig ist der Mann, 8vv, bc

Waschet euch, reiniget euch, 8vv, bc, Bsb

at Dlb: Das Wort ward Fleisch, 5vv, bc; Fürchtet euch nicht, 5vv, bc; Ich halte es dafür, 5vv, bc

Es ist nun aus mit meinem Leben, funeral aria, mentioned in Mattheson

other sacred

Missa brevis, A, 5vv, 4 inst, F-Ssp

Gloria, C, 6vv, 2 clarini, timp, 2 vn, 3 viols, vle, bc, D-Bsb

Mag (Ger.), 4vv, tpts, timp, F-Ssp

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

GerberL

MatthesonGEP

A. Schering: ‘Die alte Chorbibliothek der Thomasschule in Leipzig’, AMw, i (1918–19), 275–88

W. Braun: ‘Die alten Musikbibliotheken der Stadt Freyburg (Unstrut)’, Mf, xv (1962), 123–45, esp. 125, 130, 139

F. Krummacher: ‘Zur Sammlung Jacobi der ehemaligen Fürstenschule Grimma’, Mf, xvi (1963), 324–47, esp. 340, 346

F. Krummacher: Die Überlieferung der Choralbearbeitungen in der frühen evangelischen Kantate (Berlin, 1965), 292ff

D. Parr Walker and P. Walker: German Sacred Polyphonic Vocal Music between Schütz and Bach (Ann Arbor, 1992)

KARL-ERNST BERGUNDER

Liebermann, Lowell (Seth)

(b New York, 22 Feb 1961). American composer, conductor and pianist. At the age of 16, Liebermann gave the Carnegie Hall première of his First Piano Sonata, which later received prizes from both the Music Teachers National Association and the Yamaha Music Foundation. At the Juilliard School, he studied composition with Diamond and Persichetti (DMA, 1987), and piano with Jacob Lateiner, also receiving private tuition in conducting from László Halász. He served for a time as assistant conductor of the Nassau (Long Island) Lyric Opera Company (1982) and has remained a frequent conductor and performer of his own music.

A prolific composer, maintaining a steady output of around six substantial works a year, Liebermann has also become one of the most widely performed Americans of his generation. His music has been championed by a number of distinguished performers, among them the pianist Stephen Hough, who was responsible for the first performances (and later a Grammy-nominated recording) of both piano concertos. His works for flute have rapidly established themselves in the instrument’s repertory: the Sonata for flute and piano was recorded seven times in the ten years following its 1988 première, attracting the attention of James Galway, for whom Liebermann subsequently composed a solo concerto (1992) and a Concerto for Flute and Harp (1995). His two-act opera The Picture of Dorian Gray (1995) was the Monte Carlo company’s first commission from an American composer. In 1998 he was appointed composer-in-residence with the Dallas SO.

Though labelled conservative by some critics, Liebermann’s music is notable for its stylistic resourcefulness and polished craftsmanship. It resists identification with any particular school of composition. While his earliest works were chromatic and contrapuntal in texture, often verging on atonality, the Sonata notturna (1983) brought clearer harmonic direction, with an emphasis on formal articulation and thematic unity. The Variations on a Theme by Bruckner (1986), also for solo piano, marked a further watershed, its structural intricacies masked by a new melodic breadth. Something of the character of Shostakovich, a freely acknowledged influence, can be felt in the terse power of the Concerto for Violin, Piano and String Quartet (1989). The Second Piano Concerto, on the other hand, produced only three years later, is an expansive work close to the Romantic virtuoso tradition.

WORKS

Op: The Picture of Dorian Gray (2, Liebermann, after O. Wilde), op.45, 1995, Monte Carlo, Salle Garnier, 8 May 1996

Orch: Concertino, op.8, vc, chbr orch, 1982 [from Sonata no.1, op.3]; Sym. no.1, op.9, 1982; Pf Conc. no.1, op.12, 1983; The Domain of Arnheim, op.33, 1990; Fl Conc., op.39, 1992; Pf Conc. no.2, op.36, 1992; Conc., op.48, fl, hp, orch, 1995; Paean, op.49, wind band, 1995; Revelry, op.47, 1995; Kontrapunktus, op.52, taiko, orch, 1996; Pic Conc., op.50, 1996; Loss of Breath, op.58, 1997

Vocal: 2 Choral Elegies (A. Tennyson), op.2, SATB, 1977; War Songs (H. Melville), op.6, B, pf, 1980, orchd as op.7, 1981; 3 Poems (S. Crane), op.11, B, orch, 1983; 6 Gesänge (N. Sachs), op.14, S, pf, 1985, orchd as op.18, 1986; Missa brevis, op.15, T, B, SATB, org, 1985; Final Songs (R. Tagore and others), 6 songs, op.21, B, pf, 1987; Night Songs (M. Van Doren, R. Graves, R. Jarrell), 3 songs, op.22, Bar, pf, 1987; Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking (W. Whitman), op.41, Mez, str qt, 1993; A Poet to his Beloved (W.B. Yeats), 6 songs, op.40, T, fl, str qt, 1993; Appalachian Liebeslieder (L. Stover), op.54, S, Bar, 2 pf, 1996; 3 Dream Songs (L. Hughes), op.53, Bar, pf, 1996; Struwwelpeterlieder (H. Hoffmann), op.51, S, va, pf, 1996; 6 Songs (H.W. Longfellow), op.57, T, pf, 1997

Chbr: 2 Pieces, op.4, vn, va, 1978; Sonata no.1, op.3, vc, pf, 1978, orchd as Concertino, 1982; Str Qt no.1, op.5, 1979; Sonata, op.13, va, pf, 1984; Sonata, op.23, fl, pf, 1987; Sonata, op.24, db, pf, 1987; Qnt, op.26, cl, str trio, pf, 1988; Sonata, op.25, fl, gui, 1988; Conc., op.28, vn, pf, str qt, 1989; Fantasy on a Fugue by J.S. Bach, op.27, fl, ob, cl, bn, hn, pf, 1989; Pf Qnt, op.34, 1990; Pf Trio, op.32, 1990; Variations on a Theme by Mozart, op.42, 2 pf, 1993; Sonata no.1, op.46, vn, pf, 1994; Sonata, op.56, fl, hp, 1996; Sonata no.2, op.61, vc, pf, 1998; Str Qt no.2, op.60, 1998

Nocturnes, pf: no.1, op.20, 1986; no.2, op.31, 1990; no.3, op.35, 1991; no.4, op.38, 1992; no.5, op.55, 1996

Other pf: Sonata no.1, op.1, 1977; Sonata no.2 (Sonata notturna), op.10, 1983; Variations on a Theme by Bruckner, op.19, 1986; 4 Apparitions, op.17, 1987; Gargoyles, op.29, 1989; Album for the Young, op.43, 1993

Other solo inst: De profundis, op.16, org, 1985; Fantasy, op.30, b koto, 1990; Soliloquy, op.44, fl, 1993; 8 Pieces, op.59, b fl/a fl/fl, 1997

Principal publisher: Presser

RICHARD FREED

Liebermann, Rolf

(b Zürich, 14 Sept 1910; d Paris, 2 Jan 1999). Swiss composer and opera manager. He studied law at Zürich University and took music lessons at the José Berr Conservatory there. In 1937–8 he was private secretary and music assistant to his conducting teacher, Scherchen, in Vienna. He returned to Switzerland as a music critic, studying composition (particularly 12-note technique) with Vogel in Ascona. Appointments followed as producer at the Zürich Radio Studio (1945–50) and as manager of the Beromünster RO until 1957. In that year he was made musical director of NDR, Hamburg, and two years later he became general manager of the Hamburg Staatsoper, which he made into one of the centres of modern music theatre, giving many works their world première. He occupied a similar position with the Paris Opéra from 1973 to 1980 and returned to his previous post in Hamburg from 1985 to 1988. Honours he received included an honorary doctorate from the universities of Berne and Spokane, Washington, an honorary professorship from the Hamburg Senate (1966), membership of the Berlin and Hamburg fine arts academies, and honorary membership of the Mozarteum in Salzburg and of the Royal Society of Arts, London. As a composer he made an international reputation through his operas and, more sensationally, through the Concerto for Jazzband and Symphony Orchestra – an early attempt to bring jazz and conventional performers together – and the Concert des échanges for machines. Liebermann used 12-note technique in a free and individual way, with a predilection for bitonality and with tonal references. The structures are clear, and the vocal lines of the operas are eminently singable. On taking up his Hamburg appointment in 1959, he withdrew almost completely from composition until the early 1980s.

WORKS

(selective list)

Dramatic: Das neue Land (Festspiel, A. Ehrismann), Basle, 1946; Leonore 40/45 (opera semiseria, H. Strobel), Basle, 1952; Penelope (opera semiseria, Strobel, after Molière), Salzburg, 1954; Die Schule der Frauen (opera buffa, Strobel), as The School for Wives, Louisville, 1955, orig., Salzburg, 1957; La forêt (op, H. Vida), Geneva, 1987; Cosmopolitan Greetings (multimedia jazz op, A. Grinsberg), collab. G. Gruntz, Hamburg, 1988; Freispruch für Medea (op, 2, U. Haas), Hamburg, 1995; incid music, radio scores

Vocal: Une des fins du monde (cant., J. Giraudoux), Bar, orch, 1944; Chinesische Liebeslieder (Li Bai, trans. Klabund), T, hp, pf, str (1945); Musik (C.P. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine), spkr, orch, 1948; Chinesisches Lied (Klabund, H. Leeb), A, T, pf, 1949; Streitlied zwischen Leben und Tod (cant., after R. Kothe), 4 solo vv, chorus, orch, 1950; Capriccio, S, vn, wind orch, perc, db, 1959; 3 × 1 = CH + x, S, chorus, 12 perc

Orch: 5 polyphone Studien, chbr orch (1943); Furioso, 1947; Suite über 6 Schweizer Volkslieder (1947); Sinfonie, 1949; Conc., jazz band, orch (1954); Geigy Festival Conc., Basle drum, orch (1958); Liaison, vc, pf, orch, 1983; Conc., pf, orch, 1995

Other works: Pf Sonata, 1951; Concert des échanges, machines, perf. Lausanne, 1964; Essai 81, vc, pf, 1981

Principal publishers: Ars Viva, Universal, Sikorski

WRITINGS

with B. Sizaire and S. Wendt: Actes et entractes (Paris, 1976, Ger. trans., 1977, as Opernjahre)

Und jedermann erwartet sich ein Fest: Musiktheater (Frankfurt, 1981)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H.H. Stuckenschmidt: ‘Rolf Liebermann’, SMz, xcii (1952), 137–43

H. Liepman: ‘195 Sekunden alle 15 Minuten 6 Monate lang’, Melos, xxx (1963), 357–62

J. Müller-Marein and H. Reinhardt, eds.: Das musikalische Selbstporträt (Hamburg, 1963)

H.J. Pauli: ‘Liebermanns Konzert für Maschinen’, Melos, xxx (1963), 363 only

I. Scharberth and H. Paris, eds.: Rolf Liebermann zum 60. Geburtstag (Hamburg, 1970)

C. Riess: Rolf Liebermann, ‘Nennen Sie mich einfach Musiker’ (Hamburg, 1977)

H. Bünte: Porträts aus dem Musikleben (Frankfurt, 1987)

PETER ROSS

Lieberson, Goddard

(b Hanley, Staffs., 5 April 1911; d New York, 29 May 1977). American recording executive and composer. Brought to the USA in childhood, he grew up in Seattle. After studying composition with George Frederick McKay at the University of Washington and Bernard Rogers at the Eastman School, he worked as a teacher and critic in Rochester. In 1936 he went to New York, where he continued to write criticism (sometimes under the pseudonym ‘John Sebastian’) and composed; he was one of the founders in 1938 of the American Composers Alliance. He joined the classical music (Masterworks) department of Columbia Records in 1939, becoming the company’s president as well as a vice-president and director of CBS (of which Columbia Records was a division) in 1956. Lieberson brought the sensibilities of a creative musician to a position of great power and influence that has more commonly been filled by people trained in the law, finance or marketing. In 1940 he supervised the first recordings of Berg’s Violin Concerto and Schoenberg’s Pierrot lunaire (conducted by the composer). He then went on to direct important series of recordings of modern American music, works by black composers, Broadway musicals, documentaries and the spoken word.

Most of Lieberson’s well-crafted, mildly dissonant compositions were written in the 1930s. His novel Three for Bedroom C (1947) was made into a film and a collection of his essays was published privately in 1957. The composer Peter Lieberson is his son. The Lieberson Fellowships, granted to young composers by the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters, were established in his memory in 1978.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Alice in Wonderland (incid music, L. Carroll), 1936; Yellow Poodle, ballet, 1936

Orch: Five Modern Painters, 1929; Satire in Tango Rhythm, 1935; Homage to Handel, 1937; Sym., 1937

Chbr and solo inst: Sonata for Qnt, ob, bn, va, vc, pf, 1934; Sonata for Str Qt, 1937; pf works

Choral works, incl. Three Chinese Poems, SATB, 1936

MSS in US-NH and US-NYcu

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CBY 1976

C. Reis: Composers in America: Biographical Sketches (New York, 1938 [3rd edn of American Composers], enlarged 4/1947/R)

S. Chapin: ‘Remembering Goddard Lieberson’, Symphony, xlii/1 (1991), 38–42, 74–6

R. Long: ‘A Classic at Columbia: Goddard Lieberson’, Audio, lxxvi/Sept (1992), 32–40

LEONARD BURKAT/MICHAEL MECKNA

Lieberson, Lorraine Hunt.

See Hunt-Lieberson, Lorraine.

Lieberson, Peter

(b New York, 25 Oct 1946). American composer, son of Goddard Lieberson. After completing a degree in English literature at New York University (1972), he studied informally with Babbitt for several years. He pursued further study at Columbia University (MA 1974), where his teachers included Wuorinen and Sollberger. A performance of his Variations for solo flute by the Group for Contemporary Music (1972) led to commissions and performances from, among others, Speculum Musicae, Oppens, Fred Sherry and Tashi. In 1972 Lieberson was an assistant to Leonard Bernstein and assistant producer of the Young People's Concerts for CBS; he also founded and conducted two contemporary music groups, the Composer's Ensemble and New Structures Ensemble.

Between 1976 and 1981 Lieberson studied Tibetan Buddhism, attending a seminary in Boulder, Colorado, and founding a meditation programme in Boston. When he began doctoral studies in composition at Brandeis University in 1981 with Donald Martino, Boykan and others, he had already begun work on his Piano Concerto, commissioned by the Boston SO for its centennial and written for Peter Serkin. The work, a large romantically virtuoso score in three connected movements, reflects the Buddhist concepts of ‘Earth’, ‘Man’ and ‘Heaven’. Its most overt musical influences are of Stravinsky and the syncopations of popular song, though the piece employs a 12-note set (dominated by major 2nds) and its derivations in a gradual expansion from dense, rhythmically active textures (‘Earth’) to airy, widespread, shimmering colours (‘Heaven’) As a result of the work's success, the Boston SO commissioned Lieberson to write a symphony. Drala (1986), the title of which comes from two Tibetan words implying the transcendence of aggression and achievement of a higher spiritual plane, introduced a theme of pacifism though self-control that was to become characteristic of Lieberson's work. Other compositions on Buddhist themes have included Ziji (Shining out, 1987), which creates an outgoing, energetic ‘American’ sound, and Raising the Gaze (1998), the complicated, changing metres of which express the spirit of dance. In 1997 Lieberson completed his first opera, Ashoka's Dream, based on the narrative of a famous Indian emperor who sought first to control his own weaknesses, then to bring compassion and peace to his subjects. Prominent writing for percussion is a notable feature of this sonorous, yet transparent score. Later works include concertos for the horn (for William Purvis), the piano (for Serkin) and the cello (for Yo-Yo Ma)

Although Lieberson taught briefly at Harvard (1984–8), he resigned his post to become international director of the Buddhist Shambhala Training centre in Halifax, Nova Scotia. His honours include the Rapoport Prize (1972), the Ives scholarship of the National Institute of Arts and Letters (1973) and the Goddard Lieberson Fellowship (1984) He married the mezzo-soprano Lorraine Hunt Lieberson in 1999.

WORKS

Op: Ashoka's Dream (2, D. Pennick), 1997, Santa Fe, NM, 26 July 1997

Orch: Pf Conc., 1980–83; Drala, sym., 1986; The Gesar Legend, 1988; World's Turning, 1991; Va Conc., 1992–4; Fire, 1995; Processional, 1995; Hn Conc., 1999; Pf Conc. no.2, 1999; Vc Conc., 1999–2000

Vocal: 3 Songs (Pennick), S, 14 insts, 1981: Listen and hear, The palm and its lines; The reed is broken; Stiller Freund (R.M. Rilke), Mez, pf, 1997; Song Cycle (Rilke), 1v, ens, 1999–2000

Chbr and solo inst: Variations, fl, 1971; Conc. for 4 Groups of Insts, (fl, ob, cl), (2 vn, va), (bn, vc, db), (hp, pf) 1972–3; Conc. for Vc with Accompanying Trios, vc, (fl, ob, tpt), (2 vn, va), (Man, hp, 5 timp), (b cl, pf, db), 1974; Accordance, a fl, ob, b cl, glock + vib, hp, pf, va, db, 1975–6; Tashi Qt, vn, cl, vc, pf, 1978–9; Lalita, variations, fl + pic, ob, cl + b cl, hn, vn, va, vc, db, pf, perc, 1983–4; Feast Day, fl + pic + a fl, ob, vc, pf/hp, 1985; Ziji, cl, hn, vn, va, vc, pf, 1987; Raising the Gaze, fl + pic;, cl + b cl, vn, va, vc, pf, 2 perc, 1988; Elegy, vn, pf, 1990; Wind Messengers, 3 fl, 2 ob, 2 cl, 2 b cl, 2 bn, 2 hn, 1990; A Little Fanfare, fl, tpt, vn, hp, 1991; King Gesar (Pennick, after A.D. Neel), nar, fl + pic, cl + b cl, hn, trbn, vc, 2 pf, perc, 1991–2; A Little Fanfare II, cl, vn, va, vc, pf, 1993; Variations, vn, pf, 1993; Rumble, medley, va, db, perc, 1994, Str Qt, 1994

Pf: Fantasy, 1975; Bagatelles, 1983; Fantasy Pieces, 1989; Breeze of Delight, Dragon's Thunder, Memory's Luminous Wind; Scherzo, 1989; Garland, 1994

Principal publisher: G. Schirmer

STEVEN LEDBETTER

Liebert [Lyebert, Hebert], Clement

(documented 1433–54). Franco-Flemish composer. He sang in the papal chapel from February to June 1433 and in the Burgundian court chapel from 1441 to 1454. The song Comment porray in the lost Strasbourg manuscript (F-Sm C.22) is ascribed ‘C. Liebert’ and seems to date from the 1430s. The view that the name could be a miscopying for ‘G. Libert’ seems incompatible with the musical style of the piece.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F.X. Haberl: Bausteine für Musikgeschichte, i (Leipzig, 1885), 66

J. Marix: Histoire de la musique et des musiciens de la cour de Bourgogne sous le regne de Philippe le Bon (Strasbourg, 1939/R), 245–53

DAVID FALLOWS

Liebert, R.

See Libert, Reginaldus.

Liebesflöte

(Ger.).

Flûte d’amour. See Flute, §II, 3(iii).

Liebesfuss

(Ger.; Fr. pavillon d'amour).

In a woodwind instrument, a globular or pear-shaped bell with a narrow opening, a distinguishing feature of such instruments as the Clarinette d'amour and the oboe d'amore. See Bell (ii) and Oboe, §III, 1.

Liebesgeige

(Ger.).

See Viola d'amore.

Liebhold [Liebholdt]

(fl Udestedt, nr Weimar, early 18th century). German composer. According to Walther, writing in 1740, Liebhold was ‘found a few years ago, frozen to death on the highway not far from Weimar’. This and other details of his life – such as a change of name and his refusal of the sacraments – point to a rejected composer, perhaps an organist or Kantor, who became an itinerant musician, playing the oboe, horn and violin in taverns. His cantatas and motets, which considerably enriched the repertory of village choirs, are based on a variety of miniature forms, both homophonic and polyphonic. Liebhold’s predilection for writing ‘utility music’ for the church year, and particularly for Christmas and New Year, is shown by most of the cantatas and motets (including several cycles) so far ascribed to him, whose distribution from Königsberg (now Kaliningrad) to Brussels is proof of their popularity. A special cycle of 47 cantatas, based on the symbola (religious mottoes) of various members of the ducal or electoral family of Saxony and their relatives, is extant at Schotten, Hesse. Liebhold probably intended to publish them and dedicate them to the elector in order to gain some form of sponsorship from the court. Walther wrote that he sent to a friend Liebhold’s cantata cycles rather than Telemann’s and made a fair copy of them. According to J.N. Forkel, however, Telemann referred to ‘a certain Liebhold, of no fixed abode’, who ‘collected musical snippets and glued them together into an unfortunate hotch-potch’. This opinion (shared by Moser) is contradicted by Liebhold’s actual music, which is always technically assured, contains programmatic and symbolic details and is representative of the Thuringian choral tradition of his time.

WORKS

cantatas for 4 voices, instruments, unless otherwise stated

Auf, ihr ernstlichen Gemüter, 10 March 1735; Ist mir aller Trost entschwunden, B solo, insts: B-Bc

Alle, die gottselig Leben wollen; Der jüngste Tag wird bald sein Ziel erreichen; Gott hat uns selig gemacht; Ihr seid alle Gottes Kinder; Ihr Völker, bringet her dem Herrn; Mein Kind, willst du Gottes Diener sein; Mein Jesu, ist dirs denn verborgen; Mein Jesus bleibet mir ein Heil und Hülfs-Panier; Wie lieblich sind deine Wohnungen: all D-Bsb

Ich will meinen Geist ausgiessen; Preise, Jerusalem: Mücheln

Des Menschen Sohn ist kommen, B solo, insts; Mein ganzes Wissen soll Jesus sein, B solo, insts: D-MÜG

In Deo est salus et gloria mea: Gdańsk, St Jan

105 cantatas, D-SCHOT

22 motets a 4: Befiehl dem Herrn; Da die Zeit erfüllet war; Das ist meine Freude [2 settings]; Das ist das ewige Leben; Das Wort ward Fleisch; Der Herr wird sein Volksegnen; Ehre sei Gott in der Höhe; Es ist in keinem andern Heil; Freuet euch, ihr Gerechten; Gott, du krönest das Jahr; Gott, gib Fried; Güldner Fried uns sehr ergötzet; Habe deine Lust; Ich bin arme und elend; Ich verlasse mich auf Gott; Jauchzet ihr Himmel; Kommt herzu und lasset; Kündlich gross ist das gottselige geheimnis; Lobe den Herrn, meine Seele; Uns ist ein Kind geboren [2 settings]: RUS-KAg, ed. in DDT, xlix–l (1915/R)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

WaltherL

K. Schmidt: ‘Beiträge zur Kenntnis des Kantatenkomponisten Liebhold’, AMw, iii (1921), 247–69

G. Schünemann: ‘J. Gottfried Walther und H. Bokemeyer’, BJb 1933, 86–118

O. Brodde: ‘Von dem thüringer Motettenmeister Liebhold’, ZMw, xvi (1934), 248–60

H.J. Moser: Die evangelische Kirchenmusik in Deutschland (Berlin, 1954)

J. Schlichte: ‘Ein vergessener Bestand von Manuskripten evangelischer Kirchenmusik des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts in Schotten’, Mf, xxxi (1978), 451–2

G. KRAFT/DOROTHEA SCHRÖDER

Lieblich Gedackt

(Ger.).

See under Organ stop.

Liechtenstein, Ulrich von.

See Ulrich von Liechtenstein.

Lied

(Ger.: ‘song’).

A song in the German vernacular.

I. The polyphonic lied

II. The Generalbass lied, c1620–c1750

III. Lieder c1740–c1800

IV. The Romantic lied

V. The 20th century

NORBERT BÖKER-HEIL/DAVID FALLOWS (I), JOHN H. BARON (II), JAMES PARSONS (III), ERIC SAMS/GRAHAM JOHNSON (IV), PAUL GRIFFITHS (V)

2. 14th and 15th centuries.

I. The polyphonic lied

1. Introduction.

3. 1500–c1630.

4. German choral song, 1630–1950.

1. Introduction.

The term ‘polyphonic lied’ is generally used in German to describe a polyphonic composition for any combination of forces, with or without the human voice, which is either songlike in character or derives its particular identity from the technical elaboration of a pre-existing lied melody, for instance as a cantus firmus. In the terminology of music history this wide definition in fact applies only to the heyday of the polyphonic lied in the 15th and 16th centuries. The earliest polyphonic songs with German text date from around 1400. From the mid-15th century a growing repertory made greater use of folk-like melodies and texts than did the dominating French song repertory of the time; this in its turn led to the major flourishing of an indigenous and distinctive tradition in the first half of the century, supported by the flourishing German music printers of those years. After about 1570, German song fell under foreign, especially Italian, influence, and from the mid-17th century it was found concealed within other forms of vocal and vocal-instrumental chamber music, so that the term ‘polyphonic lied’ ceased to have a defining function. Only towards 1800 did one kind of polyphonic lied – the choral song – achieve some degree of independent significance, particularly from a musico-sociological point of view.

2. 14th and 15th centuries.

Whoever the legendary Monk of Salzburg may have been, his six two-part German songs in the Mondsee-Wiener Liederhandschrift were presumably composed before 1400 and are the oldest written examples of the polyphonic lied. In both text and melody they are successors of the late Minnesang and apparently reflect the practices of polyphonic improvisation rather than following the brilliant technical achievements of the Ars Nova and the Italian Trecento. In the song Das Nachthorn the lower part consists almost entirely of tonic and dominant, to be blown on the ‘pumhart’ (pommer, or lower-register shawm). The Tagelied is more decisively developed: its lower part is sung by the ‘Wächter’ (watchman), while the upper part consists of a trumpet prelude followed by a love dialogue between ‘him’ and ‘her’.

The songs of Oswald von Wolkenstein, a knight from the Tyrol, surpass those of the monk in quantity and quality. Among his 120 or more songs (including love songs, sacred songs and songs with biographical and political texts) are 36 in two or three parts in which the diction of the later Minnesang mingles with popular themes. The widely travelled Oswald, who was both poet and composer, was not only familiar with the original practice of two-part organum (as witness his frequent use of parallel octaves and 5ths) but also with the melodically and rhythmically varied cantilena style of the western chanson. Nearly half of Oswald's polyphonic songs have been shown to have borrowed their music from elsewhere, mostly from the French song repertory of the years 1360–1420; his contribution is mainly in the new texts, often brilliant inventions that share nothing with the originals for their music. On the other hand, much of his polyphony – irrespective of whether it is his own – is resolutely German and fits well into the tradition stretching from the monk to the next surviving repertory, that of the Lochamer Liederbuch. The canon Gar wunniklaich is probably an original composition. Though eclectic in some respects, the works of this ‘edler und vester Ritter’ (‘noble and perfect knight’) do not lack warmth and sentiment. His best-known song, Wach auff, myn hort, was sung throughout the German-speaking world until the end of the 15th century. As in some of Oswald’s other works, its vocal line is set against a textless upper part (ex.1).

While Oswald left several personally supervised copies of his works, polyphonic songs from the second half of the 15th century have survived mainly anonymously in civic manuscript collections. The Lochamer Liederbuch (c1452–60), which probably originated in Nuremberg, contains 35 monophonic, two two-part and seven three-part compositions. Of the 128 works collected in the Schedelsches Liederbuch, mostly copied out personally in the 1460s by Hartmann Schedel (a Nuremberg doctor and historian), 69 are polyphonic lieder, 18 are textless and the rest are chansons and Latin or Italian pieces. The Glogauer Liederbuch (c1480) is even more varied, including 70 German songs along with 224 other compositions of every kind, though mainly of western origin. These collections demonstrate on the one hand how strongly the musical repertory of the cultured German middle classes had been penetrated by Franco-Flemish and Burgundian influence, and on the other the unmistakable identity of the specifically German song, now known as the Tenorlied. The characteristics of the Tenorlied first appear clearly in the three-part Der wallt hat sich entlawbet from the Lochamer Liederbuch. Its distinctive feature is that a pre-existing vocal line used as a cantus firmus (Liedweise or Tenor, often in the highest voice) forms the axis of the polyphonic construction. Clear musical caesurae mark the divisions between the lines of the text, and the melodic and rhythmic movement is usually well balanced, although declamation of the words is sometimes emphasized by a change from simple to compound time. Texturally these songs move between a simple three-part note-against-note or ‘contrapunctus simplex’ construction, and a two-part ‘framework’ form, with soprano and tenor contrapuntally independent and a countertenor filling in between them. In many cases the character of the Tenor and the text will have determined the choice of form; thus the elegant Easter hymn Du Lenze gut, to a text by Conrad von Queinfurt (d 1382), is notably more elaborate contrapuntally than the simple popular song Elslein, liebstes Elslein (both from the Glogauer Liederbuch). Unadulterated folksongs are rare in polyphonic collections, where most melodies have obviously been modified to fit polyphonic settings, or were originally composed. Purely instrumental performance is also a possibility, and the keyboard arrangements surviving in early tablatures such as the Buxheimer Orgelbuch may thus be included in the repertory of the polyphonic lied.

3. 1500–c1630.

Soon after 1500 the polyphonic lied became an established genre through the printing of the first books by Erhard Oeglin (Augsburg, 1512), Peter Schoeffer (Mainz, 1513) and Arnt von Aich (Cologne, c1519). Although these do not give the composers’ names, later editions do mention famous musicians, among them Adam von Fulda, Erasmus Lapicida, Isaac, Heinrich Finck and Hofhaimer. A new stylistic standard evolved under the influence of these masters: four-part compositions became the norm, and while in the 15th century any borrowed material frequently lay in the highest sounding part it now appeared almost without exception in the tenor, while the soprano, alto and bass were distinguished from this melodic cantus firmus by their livelier rhythms and often more disjunct melodic lines. The so-called ‘Hofweisentenores’ (courtly tenors) in particular were set to polyphony in this style (ex.2; see also Hofweise). The lyrical texts, faintly reminiscent of the Minnesang, place them in a more sophisticated social context and their melodies, many of which were original, sometimes tend towards the formal style of the mastersingers. Hofweise settings represent the apogee of the Tenorlied and determined the style contained in the early printed editions.

The best-known example of the early German polyphonic lied, Isaac’s four-part Isbruck, ich muss dich lassen, is actually in no way typical of this style; with its soprano cantus firmus and chordal accompaniment, it tends more in the direction taken by Isaac’s pupil Ludwig Senfl in his popular songs. In this versatile composer’s output (nearly 250 songs), every type of poetic verse deemed appropriate in his day for musical setting is represented – coarse ditties and delicate love-lyrics, popular dance-songs and sophisticated morals, sacred songs and political diatribes. Senfl explored and developed the stylistic potential of the Tenorlied in every conceivable way, drawing on his thorough knowledge of Netherlandish polyphony. When he introduced the thematic material of the cantus firmus into all the contrapuntal parts in through-imitation (‘Durchimitation’) he had already reached the limits of traditional treatment of the Tenorlied, as when, in his five- and six-part compositions, he had doubled the Tenor canonically or combined two or three different borrowed melodies to be sung simultaneously. On the whole, however, Senfl’s compositions, like those of his contemporaries Thomas Stoltzer, Arnold von Bruck, Balthasar Resinarius, Sixt Dietrich and Benedictus Ducis, are firmly within the tradition of the Tenorlied.

The traditional Tenorlied style is also evident in the works of the younger composers attracted to Heidelberg around 1530 by the teacher Laurenz Lemlin – Othmayr, Jobst vom Brandt, Georg Forster and Stephan Zirler. Their assignment of texts to melodies and their cantabile accompaniment style were new, however, indicating the lied’s changing social function, a change outwardly shown by the large-scale publications of lieder after 1530. In contrast to the courtly repertory of earlier publications, the collections of Hans Ott (1534 and 1544), Christian Egenolff (1535), Peter Schoeffer and Mathias Apiarius (1536), Hieronymus Formschneider (1536), Georg Forster (1539–56) and others look towards the wider circles of the musical middle class and the student world with their Gesellschaftslieder or community songs. Everything points to an attempt to satisfy the needs of communal music-making in all possible situations: varying numbers of parts (from two to eight; the general instruction for performance by any combination of voices and instruments (‘zum Singen und auf allerlei Instrumenten dienlich’); and even the fact that from 1536 all the parts of a polyphonic composition were usually supplied with words (albeit clumsily) in reprints of older Tenorlieder which originally had textless accompaniments. Georg Forster gave the most comprehensive survey in his five-volume collection Ein Ausszug guter alter und neuer teutscher Liedlein, parts of which were reprinted several times, and which contains 380 songs by at least 50 different composers. The quodlibets collected by Wolfgang Schmeltzl in 1544 should be mentioned in this context as curiosities (see Quodlibet).

With Othmayr’s death in 1553 the heyday of the secular Tenorlied came to an end; the compositions of Paul Kugelmann (1558), Matthaeus Le Maistre (1566), Antonio Scandello (1568, 1570 and 1575) and Caspar Glanner (1578 and 1580) were only echoes. At the same time, however, the sacred cantus firmus song had found a lasting foothold in Protestant church music, as witnessed by outstanding works such as the Wittenberg songbooks of Johann Walter (i) (1524, with an introduction by Martin Luther) and Georg Rhau (1544). Divergent stylistic trends were already apparent in these collections: on the one hand the influence of florid counterpoint which led to the motivic through-imitation found in the song motet; on the other the development of simple, chordal hymn settings (‘Cantionalsatz’, ‘Cantionalstil’) with the melody in the highest part (e.g. those by Lucas Osiander, 1586). In Protestant church music the old cantus firmus principle has remained important, because, like plainchant, it is particularly well suited to preserving the sacred vocal line as an invulnerable liturgical basis. The Lutheran church was for a long time the mainstay of the sacred polyphonic lied, with important contributions by Rogier Michael, Johannes Eccard, Seth Calvisius, H.L. Hassler and Michael Praetorius, while Catholic and Calvinist composers such as Lassus, Aichinger and Mareschall used this form relatively little.

In about 1570 the secular polyphonic song received a decisive new impetus from Lassus who, although he did still occasionally set old texts to music, did so in a freer form, often like a motet or chanson and only rarely using the old cantus firmi. While Lassus was enriching his lieder with the elaborate modes of expression of the madrigal, Jacob Regnart, in 1576 and after, very successfully sowed the seeds in Germany of the popular villanella. Lassus’s pupils (Ivo de Vento, Johannes Eccard and Leonhard Lechner) also sought a stylistic synthesis of madrigal, villanella and canzonetta in their lieder, as did such minor German musicians as Christian Hollander, Alexander Utendal, Jacob Meiland, H.G. Lange, Thomas Mancinus and the Fleming Lambert de Sayve. The highpoint of this later period of polyphonic lied was indisputably reached in the works of Hans Leo Hassler of Nuremberg. He studied in Italy under Andrea Gabrieli, and wrote about 60 lieder to his own texts, beginning in 1596 with Neue teutsche Gesang nach Art der welschen Madrigalien und Canzonetten for four to eight voices. His perfect synthesis of Italian style (e.g. that of Gastoldi’s ballettos) with German lyricism influenced virtually all musicians who devoted themselves to the polyphonic lied in this period (J.C. Demantius, Melchior Franck, Valentin Haussmann, Johann Staden and Daniel Friderici).

4. German choral song, 1630–1950.

On the threshold of the high Baroque period, polyphonic lieder in canzonetta style for a few performers quickly gave place to the solo lied over a figured bass accompaniment (the so-called Generalbass lied; see §II below). Meanwhile, the first experiments with other stylistic innovations of the seconda pratica occurred in the more heavily scored lied derived from the madrigal. Concertante vocal parts with obbligato instruments, interludes in recitative style and instrumental ritornellos gave this polyphonic vocal chamber music an almost unlimited stylistic potential, beside which the principle of the strophic lied relying entirely on its cantabile melody hardly survived. Throughout the secular works of Schein the true polyphonic lied figured only slightly (Venuskränzlein, 1609), and thereafter it appeared virtually only in company with cantatas or dramatic quodlibets, as, for example, in the works of Sebastian Knüpfer, Johann Theile, W.C. Briegel and Daniel Speer, and also in J.V. Rathgeber’s multi-volume Augsburgische Tafelkonfekt (1733–46). Almost the only exception is Heinrich Albert, whose ‘Arien’ (in collections published from 1638 to 1650) adhere to the strong Königsberg tradition of polyphonic lieder. Relatively untouched by current trends, however, the sacred polyphonic lied developed on the stylistic basis of simple chordal hymns in cantional style (Schein, 1627, Schütz, 1628, and later Johannes Crüger), and numerous ad hoc wedding and funeral songs were written by, for instance, Hammerschmidt, Rosenmüller and Adam Krieger. It reached its climax in the 400 or so chorale settings of Bach, received an additional impulse from C.F. Gellert’s Geistliche Oden und Lieder set polyphonically by C.P.E. Bach, J.F. Doles and J.A. Hiller, and finally died out in about 1800 in occasional works of the simplest hack variety. More demanding forms of vocal-instrumental cantus firmus technique survived in chorale concertos, cantatas and settings of the Passion.

Towards 1800 J.A.P. Schulz made one of the first attempts to revive the secular polyphonic song. Any hope of its sustained success, however, lay only in a new awakening of communal interest. Polyphonic songs for freemasons had already led the way, but in Austria the political situation left little scope for communal gatherings and Vienna’s contribution was confined to a few unimportant four-part choruses by the Haydns. The new choral song was, however, well nurtured in Berlin by the members of C.F. Zelter’s exclusive Liedertafel (1809) and in Zürich, where from 1810 H.G. Nägeli tried with his male-voice choir to improve popular musical education on a broad basis. The members of the Liedertafel were committed to artistic collaboration: Zelter himself wrote 100 choral songs, some to texts by Goethe; Nägeli, too, promoted his ideas by compiling eight collections of his own songs. Early attempts to form male-voice choirs, often with patriotic motives, were encouraged by compositions such as Weber’s settings of Theodor Körner’s poems. Schubert’s polyphonic songs, mostly with piano accompaniments, stand apart from this line of development; they were written largely as household music for solo voices, and rank with many of his classic solo lieder in their imaginative, expressive style. Their artistic quality excels not only that of the works of his contemporaries Konradin Kreutzer, Spohr and H.A. Marschner, but even that of Mendelssohn’s and Schumann’s choruses. The male-voice choir movement spread fast, though no great 19th-century composer was closely connected with it; P.F. Silcher satisfied the growing demand for new repertory with his 144 successful Volkslieder (1826–60). In the hands of minor composers, German choral song sank into the abyss of kitsch. Brahms, however, wrote his a cappella choruses, mostly for mixed voices, with dedicated seriousness and discrimination, creating a synthesis of the old folksong and its more studied counterpart, on occasion even relying directly on medieval sonority. Liszt, Cornelius, Bruckner and in particular Wolf and Reger, who all worked with demanding late Romantic harmonies, partially blurred the line between the true partsong and large-scale choral composition. Reger was also responsible for reviving the sacred choral song. After the great masters came a long line of worthy composers of Volkslieder, such as Franz, Schreck and Jenner, while Arnold Mendelssohn began the renaissance of the choral madrigal.

Although the beginning of the 20th century saw a great stimulus to the male-voice choir tradition through the publication of the Kaiserliederbuch in 1907, it was the youth movement, begun in 1918 and led by Fritz Jöde and Walther Hensel with their song circles (the Finkensteiner Bund and the Musikantengilde), that guided the choral song into new channels. Enthusiastic reverence for the rediscovery of old folksongs and art songs gave composers the task of forging a new type of choral song, uniting the modern tendency away from tonality with a strongly historical stylistic pattern, while respecting as far as was possible the technical limitations of amateur music. In the Protestant church a similar problem was posed by the revival of evangelical church music, especially from Luther’s time. A large number of composers have made a significant contribution to 20th-century polyphonic song, both sacred and secular, including Schoenberg, Krenek, Hindemith, Pepping, J.N. David, Kurt Thomas, Distler, Günther Raphael, H.F. Micheelsen, E.L. von Knorr, Armin Knab, Hermann Grabner, Kurt Hessenberg, Hans Lang, Günther Bialas, Helmut Bornefeld, Hermann Reutter and Cesar Bresgen. Most of them worked within the framework of a very free tonality in a strongly contrapuntal style, and often with recourse to historical forms. Because the song – and especially the polyphonic song – is essentially a traditional genre, it has been unable to lend itelf to the post-1950 musical avant garde.

II. The Generalbass lied, c1620–c1750

1. Introduction.

The German Generalbass or continuo lied of the 17th and early 18th centuries is a secular, strophic song for one or occasionally more voices, with an instrumental bass accompaniment and sometimes with additional instruments playing obbligatos or ritornellos. The musical style varies from simple, syllabic, homophonic dance-songs to relatively ornate, more melismatic, contrapuntal art songs, but in all cases there is a careful synchronization of musical and poetic prosody. The genre flourished especially from the mid-1630s to the 1670s, but there are a few earlier and numerous later examples; its locale was mostly Protestant Germany. While it was an outgrowth of traditional German 16th-century songs, there were clear influences of Dutch, French and Italian songs. The lieder survive almost exclusively in prints in score or choirbook format; there are only a few manuscripts.

The history of the continuo lied is inextricably linked with the history of its poetry. Many lieder collections were compiled by poets who determined the nature of the collection and invited minor composers to write music to fit the texts. When a composer compiled the collection, the music was usually more ornate, although from 1640 to 1670 nearly all lieder conformed to established patterns of simplicity. The collections were written for the amusement of literati, students, the cultivated middle classes of such cities as Hamburg and Leipzig, and a few noblemen; German continuo lieder thus were similar to Dutch solo songs, but simpler and often cruder than the solo songs of France, Italy and Spain, which were designed exclusively for aristocratic audiences.

2. The Opitz lied (to c1660).

The continuo lied before 1660 was dominated by Martin Opitz, whose Buch von der deutschen Poeterey (1624) established firm rules for High German poetry. Under the influence of French and Dutch poets (e.g. Ronsard and Heinsius), Opitz preached clarity and consistency in diction, metre and rhyme, and advocated moral or pastoral subject matter.

Contrast between the older, earthy German dialect texts and the reform texts can be seen in Johann Nauwach's Teutsche Villanellen (1627), the first collection of German continuo lieder. It contains both the old and new kinds of verse, both set syllabically. The long, gangling, asymmetrical, falsely-rhymed traditional verse had awkward musical rhythm which upsets both poetic and musical metre. Opitz's symmetrically structured concise, rhyming verses, on the other hand, have music with a strong metre that does not contradict the strict, heavily accented iambs of the poetic metre. This same contrast can be seen in the only two earlier isolated continuo lieder: Schein's wedding song Mirtillo hat ein Schäfelein (1622) foreshadows the Opitzian lied, while the anonymous Ein … Kipp [Wipp] und Münster Lied (1623) has poetically awkward metre with italianate music typical of songs of the decades immediately preceding Opitz.

Thomas Selle's two collections Deliciarum juvenilium decas (1634) and Mono-phonetica (1636), the next continuo lied publications, have little to do with the mainstream of the genre. Selle's lieder use long melismas, frequent word-painting, echoes and other expressive devices which link them more to Italian than German tradition. The absence of any reform verse denies them the historical importance achieved by the lieder included in Caspar Kittel's Cantade und Arien (1638), for Kittel, despite clearcut italianisms in the music, set exclusively Opitz's poems. He introduced Italian strophic variations (‘cantade’) to Germany, and here as well as in his simple homophonic strophic arias he followed Opitz's verse metre, rhyme and phraseology concisely and without contradiction.

The most important composer of the early continuo lied is Heinrich Albert, whose eight collections (1638–50) had more influence during the 1640s and 50s than any others. The collections include solo and polyphonic lieder, sacred and secular. Only a few texts are actually by Opitz; the rest are by a group of lesser-known but in many cases more gifted poets, all of whom were indebted to Opitz's reforms. A few texts are translations from French. The solo songs are strophic and syllabic, with strict adherence to correct poetic accent and only occasional Italian expressive devices such as word-painting or echoes. Ex.3 shows how the structure of Albert's music corresponds to Opitz's text: the alexandrine line has a regular caesura after the sixth syllable which is clearly stressed in the music, and the German iambs are strictly maintained within a regular musical metre.

During the 1640s many collections of continuo lieder were compiled and composed by different men in different places. (Kretzschmar has classified these works by locale, e.g. Hamburg, Saxony.) The most important collections besides Albert's are those by Andreas Hammerschmidt (Oden, 1642–9) and Johann Rist (Des edlen Daphnis aus Cimbrien Galathee, 1642⁹). Hammerschmidt, who is also well known for his dances, is the more interesting musically. He included polyphonic madrigals in the third volume, and the more ornate style of his strophic continuo lieder shows both his skill as a composer and his independence from Albert. Occasionally Hammerschmidt included a violin obbligato and recast a solo song polyphonically. He generally followed the reform verse, though in a few instances he purposely used plattdeutsch phrases. A few lieder are dance-songs incorporating the musical rhythms of the saraband or the courante. Rist, on the other hand, was primarily a poet, and his texts are set very simply by minor composers living in or near Hamburg, such as Heinrich Pape and Johann Schop (i). There is no polyphony, no ornamentation of any kind, no use of obbligato instruments; he stood completely in the shadow of Opitz and Albert. Perhaps because of the simplicity of its text and music, Rist's collection was exceptionally popular.

Other collections of the 1640s continued the new tradition of continuo lied established by the above composers. J.E. Kindermann devoted his two-volume Opitianischer Orpheus (1642) exclusively to the poems of Opitz. Like Hammerschmidt he was a composer of dances and included dance-like lieder and some more ornate musical flourishes. In general, however, he followed the simple Albert-Rist pattern. There is one dialogue, which introduces an unusual recitative-like passage, and elsewhere Kindermann used some imitation between the continuo and the voice. Gabriel Voigtländer's large collection, Allerhand Oden (1642), also of the Albert-Rist type, contains 100 poems and 95 melodies with both old German verse and reform verse. There are other collections by Christoph Antonius, Göring and Johann Weichmann.

The influence of Albert and Opitz continued in the 1650s with collections by Grefflinger (1651), J.A. Glaser (1653), C.C. Dedekind (1657) and Rist. Rist published another collection, Des edlen Daphnis aus Cimbrien besungene Florabella (1651) and also school plays with continuo lieder. Similar lieder appeared in other plays, ballets, pastorals and romans, most notably those by Harsdörffer with music by S.T. Staden. The latter also published the isolated continuo lied Poetische Vorstellung (1658), which is rich in symbolism. J.J. Löwe and J.J. Weiland's Tugend- und Schertz-Lieder (1657) includes a strophic madrigal and use of echo, both of which demonstrate a superficial Italian influence on the basically Albert-Rist type. Georg Neumark's two lied collections (1652 and 1657) are probably the most significant of the decade. They include dialogues, dance-songs (some apparently of Polish origin) and violin obbligatos. Despite these and other interesting features the songs are still in the Albert-Rist style and do not approach Hammerschmidt's ornateness. Caspar von Stieler's Die geharnschte Venus (1660, published under the pseudonym Filidor) is another large collection following Rist's models; ex.4, Die ernstliche Strenge, shows how dance-songs fit a reform scheme. The typical courante rhythm in no way contradicts the poetic amphibrachic metre, with phrases and rhymes neatly coinciding.

Adam Krieger stands out as the greatest of all continuo lied composers. He himself published only one collection of Arien (1657), which is incomplete and survives only in a sacred contrafactum. The lieder were for one to three voices with violin obbligato and may have resembled Neumark's collections. Much more can be said about the later, posthumous collection of Arien (1667, enlarged 1676). The compiler, David Schirmer, was a distinguished poet who supplied Krieger with many texts. The songs, mostly solos with continuo and with ritornellos for five instruments, vary from pastoral love songs or tragedy songs to frivolous and lascivious dance-songs and drinking-songs for the entertainment of Krieger's student friends. The influence of Opitz and Neumark is offset by the introduction of expressive dramatic Italian vocal contours.

Perhaps the best poet of the continuo lieder was Philipp von Zesen, who expanded on Opitz's verse forms with dexterity and whose poetry shows greater aesthetic and human insight. His principal collections span several decades, the most important being Dichterische Jugendflammen (1651) and Dichterisches Rosen- und Lilientahl (1670). The music is often borrowed from Dutch lieder; Zesen had close ties with the Netherlands and even wrote some Dutch verse. Since the poet is far superior to the composer, Zesen's very simple melodies and accompaniment are too easily ignored by literary historians, but they clearly were popular and are fine examples of the continuo lied. The influence of Rist is especially pronounced in the music, though Zesen's style owes little or nothing else to Rist.

3. The late Baroque lied.

Just as the earlier continuo lied followed Opitz, so from the 1660s Caspar Ziegler's treatise Von den Madrigalen (1653, enlarged 2/1685) played an ever-increasing role. Ziegler introduced and adapted into German the concepts of Italian madrigal verse; poems were no longer strophic or in the set number of lines of sonnets and other types, but could be of any length, while the lengths of individual lines had to be either the shorter type, seven or eight syllables, or the longer, 11 or 12. From Opitz, Ziegler accepted the rules of High German spelling, accent and rhyme, the regularity of metre, and the lofty subject matter. Sebastian Knüpfer applied this theory in Lustige Madrigalien und Canzonetten (1663), and David Schirmer composed numerous madrigals in this fashion. Ziegler's madrigal ideas were still applied in the 18th century, most notably in the recitatives of cantata texts set by, among others, Bach.

By the 1670s two important new musical stimuli to the lied were changing it in a way that led to its virtual disappearance as a genre. The Italian cantata and German opera became much more popular, and when collections of German songs appeared they were full of either opera and cantata arias or imitations of such arias. No longer was the text of paramount importance, and the Albert-Rist tradition still maintained by Krieger and, to a lesser extent, even by Knüpfer gave way to an operatic style. Only Laurentius von Schnüffis's four more conservative collections (1682–95) and a few others had links with the earlier lied. After 1670 the music became more florid, more melismatic and more difficult, as can be seen, for example, in P.H. Erlebach's Harmonische Freude musicalischer Freunde (1697). Da capo form replaced the strophic forms and the vocal line was operatic. Similar arias were written by Jakob Kremberg in Musicalische Gemüths-Ergötzung (1689) alongside more traditional strophic types, and the songs in Musicalischer Ergetzigkeit (1684) contain echoes and other musical repetition which distort the order of the text. Such songs were in general too difficult for the amateur, who had relished the Generalbass lied before 1670, and as a result they did not have the popularity of the earlier lieder. Amateurs continued to sing the older songs, or turned to the new collections of sacred music in similar style. The professional singer concerned himself with opera and the cantata and, though capable of singing the more complicated arias in the new collections, would probably have had little use for them.

As a result, there was a drastic decline in the number of Generalbass lied collections during the last quarter of the century. At the beginning of the 18th century sacred collections of solo songs with continuo accompaniment were popular, beginning with J.A. Freylinghausen's Geistreiches Gesangbuch (1704), but these songs belong more to the history of chorales and church music than to that of the continuo lied. A few collections of secular continuo lieder appeared sporadically. Christian Schwartz's Musae teutonicae (ii, 1706), for example, contains strophic folklike love songs for tenor or bass and accompaniment. The rather mediocre poetry was set by J.A. Schope. In many cases the tunes were taken from other sources and words were fitted to them. Whereas in the mid-17th century borrowed melodies were adjusted to fit new poetry, in the first half of the 18th the new poetry was usually forced to fit the existing metre of the borrowed music, often resulting in serious conflict between the prosody of the text and the music. Albrecht Kammerer's manuscript book (1715) includes keyboard dances with added texts; the texts might be well-known folksongs or newly composed, but in any case they seem to be optional and arbitrary.

A new upsurge in the lied began in the 1730s, but at first the collections were primarily for keyboard with incidental texts. A collection of strophic dance-songs and drinking-songs by J.V. Rathgeber, Ohren-vergnügendes und Gemüth-ergötzendes Tafel-Confect (1733–46), includes solo songs and duets as well as polyphonic quodlibets or parodies of earlier instrumental works. The work has special importance for its folk melodies, but as lieder the pieces are crudely constructed. The same borrowing occurs in Sperontes' Singende Muse an der Pleisse (1736–45), where the author added words to dances and marches. This ornate printed collection was the most popular in the 18th century, and because of its longevity as household music it is an important milestone in the social history of German music. It contains about 250 songs for one voice and keyboard accompaniment. Although in later editions the accompaniment is fully written out and the text appears with the top part, in the first editions the accompaniment is still a basso continuo and the text appears only by itself, after the music, seemingly as an afterthought.

J.F. Gräfe's Samlung verschiedener und auserlesener Oden (1737–43), written in competition with Sperontes' collection, contains 144 old poems with new music by various composers (including C.P.E. Bach), all for solo voice and continuo. Telemann's collections, which seem not to have been as popular as his other works, and J.V. Görner's Sammlung neuer Oden und Lieder, consisting of 70 songs mostly on texts by Friedrich von Hagedorn, resemble the mid-17th-century lied in care of setting and in musical form. Görner's long preface, an aesthetic treatise on poetry, links the volume to the tradition of Opitz and his followers. Both represent a resurgence of the continuo lied in the 1740s which continued into the second half of the century.

III. Lieder c1740–c1800

If there is a meeting-ground for German musical thought starting around the fifth decade of the 18th century, it is a belief in the primacy of song. As Mattheson put it in 1739 in Der vollkommene Capellmeister, ‘All playing is merely an imitation and accompaniment of singing’. C.P.E. Bach elaborated the point when he revealed in his autobiographical sketch of 1773 that his chief effort in recent years had been ‘playing and composing as songfully as possible’, thereby rising to ‘the noble simplicity of song’. In his Clavierschule (1789) D.G. Türk reaffirmed the sentiment: the ‘instrumentalist plays best who comes closest to the singing voice or who knows how to bring out a beautiful singing tone. When it comes to true music, what are all of these motley passages against a melting, heart-lifting, genuine melody!’. Yet for critics today, accustomed to fixing the birth of German song to 19 October 1814 – the day on which Schubert composed Gretchen am Spinnrade – the temptation to ignore such comments has been strong. Indeed, few musical genres have been more misunderstood than the 18th-century lied. Whether measured against Schubert’s contributions or the rise to pre-eminence of purely instrumental music in the last quarter of the 18th century, the typical response has been to dismiss virtually all lieder from Johann André to Zumsteeg as little more than a succession of ‘tuneful trifles’, ‘blanched tunes’ eked out by ‘anemic chords and arpeggios’.

Such an attitude has worked to obscure vastly more than it has opened up for inquiry. Foremost has been the fact that, like the 19th-century lied, that of the 18th century was sparked by German poets embarking on a new path. The desire for ‘naturalness’ and simplicity stemmed not, as has been asserted, from ‘folksong’ and Herder in the 1770s, nor Krause in 1753 and the so-called First Berlin School, but rather the move from the Baroque to the neo-classicism advocated in the 1730s by Gottsched and, later, his disciple Scheibe, the Hamburg poet Friedrich von Hagedorn and the Ansbach poet Johann Peter Uz, both of whom set forth literally in their verse criteria for the fledgling art form. What is more, the traditionally poor press accorded German song in the age of Haydn and Mozart has concealed its didactic standing – one spanning from Telemann when in the preface to his Oden (1741) he spoke of his desire to inaugurate a ‘renewed golden age of notes’ worthy of Homer, to Beethoven in An die ferne Geliebte (1816), wherein, in keeping with the sentiments of the poetry, he created songs ‘without the adornments of art’.

The new direction sought by German poets effectively starts with J.C. Gottsched, professor of poetry at the University of Leipzig beginning in 1730 and self-appointed guardian of German classicism. As he declared in his Versuch einer critischen Dichtkunst (1730), the song composer must strive for ‘nothing more but an agreeable and clear reading of a verse, which consequently must match the nature and content of the words’. Those words ought to aspire to an ‘exact observation of nature’, thereby enabling the poet to avoid the artificiality associated with the Baroque and also making it possible to satisfy the maxim from Horace’s Ars poetica with which Gottsched’s treatise begins: ‘In short, everything you write must be modest and simple’. It was an aesthetic shared by Hagedorn, who, in the preface to his Oden und Lieder of 1742 (although his ideas were in circulation before that date), provided a thumbnail sketch of the lied as it would be cultivated for the next 70 years or so. Quoting from a 1713 essay by Ambrose Philips from the short-lived British literary journal The Guardian (Hagedorn had served as private secretary to the Danish ambassador to the court of St James), he made no bones as to the kind of poetry from which he sought to distance himself: that variety of verse whose authors ‘starve every Thought by endeavouring to nurse up more than one at a time’ and where ‘one Point of Wit flashes so fast upon another that the Reader’s Attention is dazled by the continual sparkling of their Imagination’. In such poetry ‘you find a new Design started almost in every Line, and you come to the end, without the Satisfaction of seeing any one of them executed’. Far better to imbue a poem with ‘great Regularity, and the utmost Nicety; an exact Purity of Stile, with the most easie and flowing Numbers; an elegant and unaffected Turn of Wit, with one uniform and simple Design’. The poet would be best advised to follow the example of Sappho, Anacreon or Horace, for ‘you will find them generally pursuing a single Thought in their Songs, which is driven to a Point, without … Interruptions and Deviations’. In his Abhandlungen von den Liedern der alten Greichen (c1744) Hagedorn affirmed his poetics in the name of classical antiquity, just as Uz would in the introduction of his Lyrische Gedichte (1749) in his encomium to ‘gentle feelings, the likeness of nature, the noble simplicity of unadorned expressions, or the beautiful essence of long ago antiquity’. (Uz thus anticipated by six uyears Johann Joachim Winckelmann’s famous 1755 formulation on the ‘noble simplicity and quiet grandeur’ of Greco-Roman sculpture.) Repeating the credo in the poem Die Dichtkunst from the same publication, Uz implores his muse: ‘O poetry, withhold from me your glossy demeanour! Strive not for overweening ornament, rather sound here your gentle song that it may inspire the enraptured shepherd to take up unadorned song’. Note well the invocation to nature, a trait common to Hagedorn as well. Deprecating (as the English poet Richard Payne Knight later would) ‘the giant of unwieldy size, / Piling up hills on hills to scale the skies’, Hagedorn set his verse within what he called the ‘middleground’ of ‘blessed nature’, for it is nature that leads to ‘happiness and enjoyment’. Such poetry therefore partakes of the Horatian golden mean, the ideal disposition that enables one to attain a harmony of mind and spirit, the same harmony seen by such writers as Kant and Schiller as forming the basis of Enlightenment.

Nature, too, provided the model for Gottsched’s pupil J.A. Scheibe, who, now in Hamburg (Hagedorn’s city), set forth guidelines as to how the composer might respond to such poetry, devoting an entire issue of his journal Critischer Musicus (no.64, 17 November 1739) to the matter. Citing the authority of the ancients, for whom ‘order and nature’ counted above all, he advised the would-be song composer to begin with a consideration of the poem’s overall form. Given the invariably strophic nature of contemporaneous poetry – what Hagedorn had meant by ‘one uniform and simple Design’ – the musician who would ‘give an ode or a lied an expressive, skilful and affecting tune or melody’ must take care that the music suit every strophe; also, the composer must observe ‘the type of verse and the metre’ of the poem and match them in music. (Gottsched in his Versuch had defined the ode as ‘the comprehensive name for all lieder’). The composer must not create a cadence, repeat a word nor extend a syllable in one strophe where to do so would be inappropriate in another. That done, the composer’s last step is the creation of a relatively short melody, one that stays close to the harmonic home base and adheres to ‘a moderate range’, is ‘free, flowing, pure and really natural’ in order that it may be sung ‘at once and without particular effort by someone inexperienced in music’. Lied composers at work in north Germany at this time include J.V. Görner and Telemann in Hamburg, J.F. Gräfe in Brunswick, and C.H. and J.G. Graun in Berlin. In keeping with the history of the genre well into the next century, it ought to be said that while composers adopted all of Scheibe’s suggestions when writing lieder, in other genres they favoured greater complexity. To be sure, one would not recognize the future composer of Montezuma from his contributions to the important lied collection Oden mit Melodien (Berlin, 1753–5), or, for that matter, the composer of the Missa solemnis in An die ferne Geliebte.

In positing the 18th-century lied’s inception in Hamburg rather than Berlin, it ought to be said immediately that the statement in no way diminishes the latter city’s role in the history of the genre. Nevertheless it is surely time to eschew the evolutionary march-of-progress approach so familiar from 19th-century music historiography with its schoolmasterly ‘periods’ and ‘schools’ (e.g. R.G. Kiesewetter, Geschichte der europäisch-abendländischen oder unsrer heutigen Musik, 1834). Hence, the origin of the lied as part of the aesthetic speculations of a younger generation of poets and musicians reacting against what today we would call the Baroque calls into question the continued use of such phrases as ‘First Berlin School’ or ‘Second Berlin School’ of lied composition. It is more exact to speak of the ‘north German lied’ given the locales of composers such as C.G. Neefe in Bonn and A.B.V. Herbing in Magdeburg and publication patterns both before 1770 (the traditional date for the start of the ‘Second Berlin School’) and thereafter. This caveat made, musicians at Frederick the Great’s court contributed greatly to the lied, particularly C.G. Krause who, with K.W. Ramler (librettist of Graun’s Der Tod Jesu), published the previously mentioned Oden mit Melodien; in 1755 a second volume was brought out, and in 1767–8 the four-volume Lieder der Deutschen containing 240 songs. Noteworthy too is Krause’s Von der musikalischen Poesie (1752), one of four major music treatises by authors at Frederick’s court (the three others are C.P.E. Bach’s on keyboard playing, Quantz’s on playing the flute, and J.F. Agricola’s Anleitung zur Singekunst, a translation, with additions, of Tosi’s Opinioni de’ cantori antichi e moderni). The significance of Krause’s study notwithstanding, it has been frequently misrepresented. In large measure he did little more than endorse Gottsched, Hagedorn and Scheibe’s neo-classical views on the lied within the context of a theoretical investigation concerned primarily with the kind of opera cultivated by Hasse and Graun; and, as a reading of the treatise reveals, nowhere within his circumscribed coverage of the lied did he state, as has been claimed, that it should aspire to the folklike (Volkstümlich). The terms he did use are either Natürlich or Einfältig (natural or artless). Along with the Graun brothers, other lied composers in Berlin before 1770 were Marpurg, Kirnberger and C.P.E. Bach, who composed both secular and sacred songs and whose collection of Gellert settings, Geistiche Oden und Lieder (1758), shos the genre at last throwing off its ties to the old Baroque continuo lied; as Bach noted in the preface: ‘I have added the necessary harmonies to my melodies. In this way I have not had to relinquish them to the whimsy of bumbling-fingered bass players’. Nevertheless keyboard parts, like the melodies themselves, were generally diatonic in the extreme and devoid of ornamentation, and frequently double the melodic line itself in the right hand (the voice part and right hand of the keyboard are often notated on the same staff) or else shadow it a 3rd below. Block homophonic accompaniments prevail, less often Alberti basses, with descending passing notes filling in the typically harmonic movement by root only at cadences. Harmonic rhythm as a rule is slow, sometimes for an entire bar or phrase, and the phrases themselves are invariably balanced. So simple were the accompaniments that – as the ubiquitous title Lieder am Clavier implies – they could be played simultaneously by the singer. With the rise of a growing middle class with leisure time for amateur music-making, such ‘artlessness’ was well appreciated by both consumers and music publishers.

The lied also provided the German lands with what might be termed a national musical identity. Starting with Leibniz in the 1680s writers increasingly expressed themselves on the ‘enforced blindness’ that characterized the German ‘mode of life, speech, writing, indeed even of thinking’ and the ‘Sklayerei’ to things French; as Christian Thomasius, a lecturer at the University of Leipzig, observed in 1687: ‘if our German forefathers were to rise from the dead … they might think they were in a foreign land’. Thus Telemann in his 1741 collection spoke of his desire not only for a ‘renewed golden age of notes’, but also to ‘show foreigners how more maturely we are able to think than do you!’ Similarly, Krause dedicated his 1753 collection not ‘to weighty erudition but to the science of joy and pleasure’ as a suitable antidote to the superfluities of Italian opera, an art form he saw as the province of the upper classes; in contrast, the simple tunes and accompaniments of lieder promote ‘the pleasure and happiness of all society’, a view upheld half a century later when Koch, in his Lexicon, described the lied as ‘the one product of music and poetry whose content today appeals to every class of people and every individual’.

In the last quarter of the century the lied continued much along the same lines, although keyboard parts were becoming more active. Formal designs, too, were becoming more adventurous, as the numerous modified strophic and through-composed songs by Reichardt and Zelter in Berlin and Zumsteeg in Stuttgart, not to mention those by Haydn and Mozart, attest. Yet even as the century was witnessing such landmark musical events as Haydn’s op.33 string quartets (written, as he declared, in ‘an entirely new and special way’) in 1781 or Mozart’s move from Salzburg to Vienna the same year, the lied retained its distinctive diatonic clarity and fondness for sparse textures, evident in such disparate works as Mozart’s masterly Abendempfindung k523 or Das Lied der Trennung k519. Although the former – Mozart’s only through-composed song – displays a wider-ranging tonal scheme than most lieder from the century, and the latter an inventive modified strophic design with a poignant move from tonic minor to relative major in the antepenultimate strophe, both nonetheless hark back to Hagedorn’s ‘elegant and unaffected Turn of Wit’. The same may be said of the first song cycle, Beethoven’s An die ferne Geliebte, with its carefully worked-out and balanced key scheme and reprise of music from the first song in the concluding sixth. As Kerman has shown convincingly, the cycle is a ‘quiet herald’ of Beethoven’s final style period, one marked in part by simple song and directness of expression. Beethoven’s decision to embrace the lied’s ‘free, flowing, pure, and really natural’ style is even more interesting when placed against the perspective of the genre’s role within German musical thought throughout the greater part of the 18th century. Just as Uz had praised song devoted to ‘the noble simplicity of unadorned expressions’, so too did Christoph Martin Wieland in his widely read Geschichte des Agathon (1766–7) write of ‘music that soothed the passions and gently moved the soul’. Revealingly enough, such music, Wieland reflected, should be marked by the ‘tenderness of virtue and the touching joy of unadorned nature’. In 1781 Reichardt went so far as to claim that the lied is ‘truly that upon which the steadfast artist relies when he begins to suspect his art is on the wrong track’: the musician’s ‘polestar’. How fitting, then, that Beethoven, after a compositionally lean period immediately before An die ferne Geliebte, renewed his dedication to his art by setting to music the modest poem by Aloys Jeitteles, situated within Hagedorn’s ‘blessed nature’, where ‘at the sound of songs all time and space recede’. How fitting, indeed, for as is disclosed in the concluding sixth lied, such song, metaphorically accompanied by the ‘lute’s sweet sound’, springs from ‘a full heart, without the adornments of art’.

Given that it is nowadays unfashionable to view music or any aspect of history in terms of ‘great men’, the time is perhaps at hand to appreciate the 18th-century lied for what it was rather than what it was not, a state of affairs that requires as well a more realistic means of assessment. The creation of musicians who aspired neither to the plaudits of posterity nor to the permanence of a musical canon not then invented, the lied attracted composers who, by and large, were happy to satisfy the era’s appetite for ‘pleasing’ music; ‘pleasing’, a concept according to the Chronik von Berlin for May 1791, ‘which has gained citizenship throughout the realm of thinking beings’. Consequently it is not to the lieder of Mozart or Haydn that one ought necessarily to turn for a true indication of the genre, but rather to the little-known and frequently anonymous contributors of such publications as Angenehme und zärtliche Lieder (Dessau, 1760), the 25 Lieder in Musik gesetzt (1786) by Corona Schröter (which includes the first setting of Goethe’s Der Erlkönig), the Frohe und gesellige Lieder für das Clavier of Carl Gottlob Hausius (1796) or the literally countless collections of social strophic songs published expressly for German freemasons, such as the intriguingly titled Mildheimisches Lieder-Buch von acht hundert lustigen und ernsthaften Gesängen über alle Dinge in der Welt und alle Umstände des mencshlichen Lebens, die man besingen kann (Gotha, 1815), not to mention the work by such a peripatetic figure as J.F.H. Dalberg or the forgotten likes of F.W. Rust or J.F. Christmann. At a time when Mozart’s Don Giovanni could be described in the Journal des Luxus und der Moden of February 1791 as ‘very artificial and overloaded’, the songs in publications or by composers such as these arguably provide a more accurate barometer of musical taste in German-speaking lands during the second half of the 18th century than more ‘elevated’ fare, a point seemingly affirmed by the statement by Türk quoted above.

Pleasant and easy-going, well ordered and imbued with both ‘nature and facility’, it is tempting to view the lied before Schubert as the quintessential music of the age that Kant once referred to as ‘the century of Frederick’ the Great. The genre provided both a yardstick, even a paradigm, against which progress in the natural sciences could be measured and, if need be, the medium of escape from the cares of an increasingly all-too-modern, frenetic world. Here the unchanging simplicity of the music itself, founded on an aesthetic that sought to mirror the ‘touching joy of unadorned nature’, provides the most compelling evidence for this claim. And it explains in part why Gottfried Wilhelm Fink, editor of the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, could ask in 1826 ‘has there even been an age more prolific in song than ours?’ It accounts, too, for the growth in the number of song collections published, from a mere 779 issued between 1736 and 1799 to more than 100 a month by the year of Fink’s musing – in other words, from a rate of one collection a month during those 64 years to a hundred times as many by 1826.

1. Intellectual, social and musical sources.

IV. The Romantic lied

In the 19th century the German vernacular song developed into an art form in which musical ideas suggested by words were embodied in the setting of those words for voice and piano, both to provide formal unity and to enhance details; thus in Schubert's Gretchen am Spinnrade (19 October 1814 – a date usually taken to mark the birth of the German Romantic lied) the image of the spinning wheel in the title evokes the recurrent circling semiquavers of the accompaniment, while the text later suggests (by its exclamation and repetition) the cessation and resumption of the semiquaver figure at the climax of the song. The genre presupposes a renaissance of German lyric verse, the popularity of that verse with composers and public, a consensus that music can derive from words, and a plentiful supply of techniques and devices to express that interrelation.

2. Schubert.

3. Loewe and Mendelssohn.

4. Schumann and Franz.

5. Wagner, Liszt and Cornelius.

6. Brahms.

7. Wolf.

1. Intellectual, social and musical sources.

The lied thus defined essentially began with its greatest poet, Goethe. But minor poets like Hölty and Müller and gifted amateurs like Mayrhofer had their importance. The seminal quality of the new verse was not its literary merit but its emotional tone, which blended both higher and lower lyric styles. The former expressed mid-18th-century sentiment in classical metres, in such poems as Klopstock's Die Sommernacht (1776). At the same time Claudius and others of peasant stock were writing simple popular lyrics like Abendlied in rhymed folksong couplets or quatrains. Primitive, national or traditional verse of all kinds and from all lands was a growing influence strongly fostered by Herder (Volkslieder, 1778–9) and a source of resurgent interest in the Ballad. Classical and popular styles, metres and themes are found together in the verses of Hölty (d 1776), who wrote fluently in either style and could also combine the two, as in his anacreontic or elegiac verses. All these styles and forms were practised by Goethe and Schiller, who both added a further dramatic dimension to lyric verse by writing songs for plays (e.g. Faust and Wilhelm Tell).

This lyric renaissance, though multi-faceted, has a discernible central theme: personal, individual feeling is poignantly confronted with and affected by powerful external forces, whether of nature, history or society. The human being and the human condition are typically conceived as isolated yet significant (as in the landscape painting of Caspar David Friedrich). In the words of Charles Rosen (The Romantic Generation, 1996, p.236):

To ennoble both landscape poetry and painting, the late eighteenth century turned to the example of music, pre-eminent as the art of time, and this gave landscape literally a new dimension and allowed the revolutionary conceptions of Nature to be carried out in the arts of painting, prose and poetry. From the poems, the songs of Beethoven and Schubert inherited the new sense of time and found the most striking musical expression for it.

This new poetry, particularly when it pitted the individual against the great outdoors in the manner of Friedrich's landscapes, was both heroic and vulnerable, solitary as well as aspiring to the universal, grandiose at the same time as intimate. The tension generated by these contrasts accerlated the development of the lied, which was intially something small and homely but which gradually acquired a surprisingly protent expressive power disprportionate to its size. A musical form that had been temporal and peripheral became enduring and of central significance in the hands of the right composers; indeed, as Rosen (op. cit) has pointed out, it took on a timeless quality, seemingly to contain traces of both past and present, as well as pointed to the future. The abandoned fragment and the mysterious understatement, the very stuff of Romanitc poetry, could be ideally amplified and elucidated through musical means; as the 19th century progressed, German writers (Novalis, Hölderlin, the Schlegel brothers, Heine, Müller, Mörike, Kerner) ploughed the depths of neurotic intrspection in verse, and composers followed in their footstpes reaping a musical harvest of unprecedented riches. It was fortunate, and not entirely fortuitous, that German poetry found its natural counterpart in the increasingly sophisticated musical language available to contemporary German-speaking composers. (it is significant that such great poets as Keats and Byron were to find no comparable musical echo among their English contemporaries.) The Protean and far-reaching implications were clear: Romantic lyrics could be adapted to the expression of national and social aspirations as well as the traditional subjects of lyric verse, both religious and secular. It made a particular appeal to the rapidly expanding German-speaking educated classes, whose feelings it embodied, and to whom the cultural journals and almanaks of the time, where much of the new poetry was published, were specifically addressed. A middle class was well placed to appreciate not only the new personal and emotional content of this poetry but also its stylistic blend of elevated courtly style with popular lyric.

The Romantic lied directly mirrored these literary developments by combining the styles and themes of opera, cantata or oratorio with those of folk or traditional song, and reducing the result to terms of voice and keyboard. The poetry of individual feelings could thus ideally be expressed by one person who might, in theory at least, be poet, composer, singer and accompanist simultaneously. The piano (from about 1790 the titles of songbooks refer to ‘Fortepiano’ rather than ‘Klavier’) had so evolved that it could render orchestral sound-effects in addition to the homelier lilt or strumming of the fiddle or guitar. Thus string tremolandos were reproduced at the keyboard to symbolize the sights and sounds of nature, from thunder and lightning to brooks and zephyrs, symbols that could then be used as images of human feeling in the lyric mode. Recitative and arioso could be enriched by the simpler movement and structure of popular song melody and the directness of its syllabic word-setting, and these, too, could in turn be used as symbols of emotional immediacy.

Yet the new art lay dormant for some decades. The intellectual climate was unpropitious to further growth, which though fostered by the popularity of poetry was retarded by the denial of equal rights to music. Many 18th-century songs were entitled simply ‘Gedichte’ for voice and piano. Gluck's Oden und Lieder beim Klavier zu singen in Musik gesetzt exemplify his famous dictum (preface to Alceste, 1769) that music in mixed forms was ancillary to poetic expression. This doctrine, evidently unconducive to the development of the lied as an independent art form, was warmly espoused by the north German songwriters J.F. Reichardt, J.A.P. Schulz and C.F. Zelter, as well as the renowned Swabian ballad composer J.R. Zumsteeg, and Conradin Kreutzer who was active largely in Vienna.

They were all composers of opera or Singspiele, and imported the expressive devices of those forms into their songs. But as Gluckians they did so only sparingly and with restraint. Not surprisingly, this attitude was approved by Goethe, whose texts they often set. But he knew instinctively that a new art was about to be born, remarking in a letter to Zelter (21 December 1809) that no lyric poem was really complete until it had been set to music. ‘But then something unique happens. Only then is the poetic inspiration, whether nascent or fixed, sublimated (or rather fused) into the free and beautiful element of sensory experience. Then we think and feel at the same time, and are enraptured thereby.’

The process had been anticipated by Mozart in Das Veilchen k476 (Goethe) and Abendempfindung k523 (anon.). Each poem prefigured aspects of Romantic individualism; each setting is musically varied yet unified, in response to the poetic mood, by the use of vocal recitative and keyboard symbolism (light staccato for the tripping shepherdess, sighing 6ths for the evening winds). These and other Mozart songs were published in Vienna in 1789, and hence were readily available to Schubert, who used analogous motifs (staccato in the pastoral Erntelied, wind-effects in Abendbilder, Der Lindenbaum etc.).

Another precursor was Beethoven, who can plausibly be claimed to have created the lied. Although his songs remain in the 18th-century tradition of self-effacing enhancement of the words, his inventive genius often restored the balance, partly by the detail of his illustrative writing (for example, not just birdsong but nightingales, larks, doves and quails) but also by the variety and imagination of his more conceptual musical equivalents (from the welling of tears in Worre der Wehmut op.83 to the crushing of fleas in Aus Goethes Faust op.75). Each such motivic usage is integrated into a prevailing unity of musical mood, for example in the song cycle An die ferne Geliebte op.98, where such purely musical elements as folksong melody, harmony, variation form, and cyclic unity are themselves used as expressive devices. A typical example of the conceptual lied-motif would be the repeated chords which for Beethoven the songwriter signify ‘stars’ (Adelaide op.46, bar 33; Die Ehre Gottes aus der Natur op.48, bars 19ff; Abendlied unterm gestirnten Himmel woo150, bars 10ff and 44f). This idea has a precursor in Haydn's Creation, at the moment when stars were created.

In these ways Beethoven (and to some extent Haydn, as in The Spirit's Song, a setting of English words) asserted the composer's right to independence, a right further implicit in Beethoven's familiar phrase ‘durchkomponiertes Lied’, that is, a continuous musical structure often superimposed on a strophic poem. In contrast, Weber favoured, both by precept (letter to F. Wieck, 1815) and by example, a consistently 18th-century attitude; form as well as declamation were to derive from the poem, and the music was to forgo autonomy.

2. Schubert.

It was Schubert who, by fusing the verbal and musical components of the lied, first synthesized in significant quantity the new element predicted by Goethe. His essential apparatus was a mind infinitely receptive to poetry, which he must have read voraciously from early boyhood on. His 660 or so settings (including duets, trios and quartets, as well as songs in Italian) demonstrate familiarity with hundreds of textual sources, including novels and plays as well as poems, and ranging from the complete works of acknowledged literary figures to the sometimes overabitious verses f his friends and, on one occasion at least (Abschied d578), his own heartfelt, if undeniably amateur, efforts. His passionate response to imaginative writing impelled him to bring the musical component of song to a level of expressiveness and unity never since surpassed.

It is arguable that Schubert made no innovation; even the continuous narrative unity of Die schöne Müller in and Winterreise was already inherent in Müller's verses. Even with such a pre-ordained structure, however, the hand of the master is to be discerned in what he chose to leave out or change. For example, in transposing the order of Müller's poems (in Die Nebensonnen and Mut) Schubert infused the closing minutes of Winterreise with a spellbinding intensity which owes almost as much to his literary sensibility as to his musical genius. All Schubert’s infinite variety of styles and forms, melodic lines, modulations and accompaniment figures are essentially the result of responsiveness to poetry. Equally notable is his evident sense of responsibility. His revisions confirm that he was actively seeking to re-create a poem, almost as a duty; he would rewrite, rethink, give up and start again, rather than fail a poem that had pleased him, and his aim was to find an apt expressive device that could also be used as a structural element. Each such device occurs, at least in embryo, in his predecessors, whether the quasi-operatic techniques and popular elements of the north German school or the inspired motivic ideas of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. From the former he absorbed the ideas of simplified folklike melody, interpolated recitative, a range of forms from miniature strophic or modified strophic to extended cantatas, and expressive sound-effects. Thus the ‘typically Schubertian’ brooks and rivers that flow so effortlessly through his piano parts took their rise in north Germany. So did the musical metaphors of human motion and gesture: walking or running rhythms; tonic or dominant inflections for question and answer; the moods of storm or calm; the major–minor contrasts for laughter and tears, sunshine and shade; the convivial or melancholy melodies moulded to the shape and stress of the verse. All these abound in Schubert's precursors, notably Zumsteeg, on whose work his own is often closely and deliberately modelled.

Schubert's debt to the musical resources of Zumsteeg's generation is so evident in his earliest surviving song, Hagars Klage, as to suggest a set composition exercise. The music, though manifestly immature, rises fresh from deep springs of feeling about human fate, here a mother's concern for her dying child and a father's inexplicable cruelty to his youngest son, factors which seem to have some resonances in the psyche of the 14-year-old composer and his tempestuous relationship with his own father. (The early songs Der Vatermörder and Leichenfantasie, not to mention Erlkönig, also explore father-son relationships.) Like Schumann (particularly in 1840) and Brahms after him, but unlike the fastidious and secretive Hugo Wolf, there are often telling, if contentious, biographical conclusions to be drawn from Schubert's choice of texts at different points in his career. Although music cannot in itself be autobiographical, it is a unique feature of song that a composer is susceptible, when selecting a text, to poetry that happens to chime with current moods, feelings or predicaments, in the manner of any ordinary reader – indeed, some sort of personal identification may well be needed in order to kindle a musical response. In this context it is unsurprising that the pubescent composer, already fighting with a disapproving father for a measure of musical independence, should have alighted on Hagars Kalge as a first-time model in preference to Zumsteeg's many other ballads; what songs were about mattered to Schubert from the start, and that fact is at the heart of his subsequent greatness. The composer identifies with poet, character, scene and singer and strives to concentrate lyric, dramatic and graphic ideas into an integrated whole. It was this concentration that distilled the whole essence of the Schubertian lied, but the process was a gradual one and took time to master. Long, diffuse ballads or cantatas on Zumsteegian lines continued for some years, as in Die Bürgschaft and Die Erwartung. They seek with varying success to unify disparate elements such as melody, often inset for dramatic purposes to indicate a song within a song (as at ‘Ich singe wie der Vogel singt’ in Der Sänger), recitative, and interpolated descriptive or narrative music (the interludes in Der Taucher or Die Bürgschaft). It is no coincidence, however, that Schubert's earliest masterpieces are settings of shorter and more readily unifiable lyrics on his favourite theme of intense personal concern, whether of a girl for her absent lover (Gretchen am Spinnrade), a father for his doomed son (Erlkönig) or an awestruck observer for the immensities of nature (Meeres Stille). Each is imagined against a background of moods and scenes suitable for quasi-dramatic re-creation in sound. Further, all three poems are by Goethe, whose genius lay in making the universal singable, and these songs were selected by Schubert for earliest publication as reflecting the greatest poet and the most modern spirit of the new age.

They made an instant and intense appeal to an intellectual avant garde, the apostles of Romantic individualism. Thus 300 copies of Erlkönig were sold within 18 months; the correspondence of Schubert's own circle and its adherents (comprising lawyers and civil servants as well as musicians and artists) is full of excited references to new songs; the Schubertiads in his honour were staunchly supported by his numerically few but culturally influential devotees. This professional middle-class audience was the musical segment of the wider public for the poetic renaissance described earlier. The musical components of the songs corresponded to the new poetry of which they were the setting and hence the equivalent: a blend of classical and popular, dramatic and lyric, complex and simple. The music of the palace had united with the music of the people to produce the music of the drawing-room. In the process the focus of artistic attention had shifted from the larger scale to the smaller, and from the plot or scene to the individual. So the musical motive power of each of these songs, and of Schubertian lied in general, comes from a dramatic source condensed into lyric terms. It is opera with orchestra reduced to voice and keyboard, with scenery and costumes thriftily expressed in sound, transported from the theatre to the home, and economically entrusted to one or two artists rather than to a company. And one stylistic source of the keyboard accompaniment effects and motifs in Schubert's songs is the piano scores of opera and oratorio (which may help to explain why Schubert's keyboard writing is sometimes held to be unpianistic). Thus the ominous figure of the night ride in Erlkönig recalls the dungeon scene of Fidelio, while the becalmed semibreves of Meeres Stille have their counterparts in Haydn's Creation. Each such sonorous image is set vibrating by verbal ideas, and the increasing range and resonance of response from these early masterpieces, through Die schöne Müllerin and the Rückert songs (both 1823) to the final year of Winterreise and the Heine settings, is the history of Schubert's development as a songwriter. In addition to obvious onomatopoeic devices and other self-evident equivalences, there are hundreds of deeper, more personal and less readily explicable verbo-musical ideas, corresponding, for example, to springtime, sunlight, evening, starlight, sleep, love, grief, innocence and so on, and occurring in infinitely variable permutation. Songs in which such expressive motifs are embodied represent the apotheosis of Schubert's lieder, whether the linking force is rhythm (Geheimes), harmony (Dass sie hier gewesen), melody (all strophic songs), tonality (Nacht und Träume), variation form (Im Frühling), imitation (Der Leiermann), quasi-impressionism (Die Stadt), or incipient leitmotif used either for dramatic (Der Zwerg) or descriptive ends (the river music of Auf der Donau or the brook music of Die schöne Müllerin). The ‘star’ chords already noted in Beethoven, to take just one instance out of hundreds, can be observed in a wide range of illustrative or structural use, as in Adelaide, Die Gestirne, Der Jüngling auf dem Hügel, Todesmusik, Abendstern, Die Sterne, Der liebliche Stern, Totengräber-Weise, Im Freien and many other songs.

3. Loewe and Mendelssohn.

By comparison with those of Schubert, the approximately 375 songs of Carl Loewe lack the dimension of musical independence. Loewe maintained the 18th-century tradition of subordination to words designedly, because he was above all a musical raconteur without the emotional range needed to match the great German lyrics (although his 30 Goethe settings include many of the better-known poems). In search of the narrative ballads that best suited him, he used no fewer than 80 different poets, including many in translation. Loewe ran little risk of allowing over-concentrated dramatic and scenic invention to impede the action, nor, conversely, was he usually content with a strophic repetition that relied overmuch on the poem to provide variety and development. In both respects he improved on his mentor Zumsteeg. Comparison with Shubert shows a very different musical mind at work: Loewe's setting of Goethe's Erlkönig is thought be some enthusiasts to be superior to Schubert's, but it lacks the elemental and visceral power of the more famous song: Loewe eschews the thundeing intensity of horse's hooves in order to achieve his ingratiating depiction of the supernatural. On the other hand, Schubert's Eine altschottische Ballade, his 1828 setting of Herder's translation from Percy's Relinques, seems at first hearing to be undeveloped in comparison to Loewe's melodramatic and famous ballad. Schubert's work has its own terse power however, and greater familiarity with both works does not necessarily confirm a preference for Loewe's setting. Instead of condensed drama or formular narrative Loewe offered a storybook with pictures – expository melody with descriptive accompaniments. His harmony, though mainly monochrome, adds an occasional surprising splash of colour. The vocal line adopts the style appropriate to the reciter of the poem, ranging from monotone (as for the century-long sleep of the hero of Harald op.45) to a free cantilena (in songs about singing, such as Der Nöck op.129). The voice can further be put to illustrative use to suggest a harp (Der Nöck) or a bell (Des Glockentürmers Töchterlein op.112a), as well as by the skilful exploitation of other techniques and styles, including bel canto. Developed preludes and postludes are rare because the piano accompaniments tend to begin and end with the voice, as the narrative form requires. But there are often extended interludes, exploiting particularly the upper register, which are especially effective in illustrating narratives of the supernatural, such as the elves and sprites of Die Heinzelmännchen op.83 or Hochzeitlied op.20. So broad was Loewe's command of expressive vocabulary that any song is likely to offer a thesaurus of such devices; Die verfallene Mühle op.109 is a typical if rarely heard example. But his practice of stringing such effects on the narrative thread of the poem was not conducive to change and development. It is true to say that his earliest songs are his best-known, and probably his best, but there are many treasures to be discovered in the 17-volume complete edition including a surprisingly beautiful Frauenliebe which offers a refreshing alternative to Schumann's celebrated reading of Chamisso's poems. On the other hand, his abundant and continuous invention, and its clear relation to the texts, make Loewe an exemplary if neglected master of the lied, understandably admired by Wolf and Wagner and influential for both. His work still holds the platform, particularly in Germany (it is a brave native English speaker who essays Loewe, whose music often requires a death-defying speed for textual delivery). If at times he seems neglected, his posthumous standing need only be compared with that of the once-celebrated Marshcner, whose 400 songs have utterly disappeared from the repertory.

Mendelssohn is Loewe's antithesis. His approximately 90 songs include no true ballads; indeed, there is rarely any hint of drama, character or action. The music is autonomous in most, and one can readily imagine them arranged as ‘Lieder ohne Worte’ (which may have been the origin of that title). Although Mendelssohn was taught for many years by the doyen of the north German school, Carl Zelter, only the very earliest songs (such as Romanze op.8) show any influence of opera or Singspiel, or any hint of musical subordination to the words. On the contrary, the texts seem almost to have been chosen to be dominated by the music; thus the most frequent of Mendelssohn's 30 poets was his versifying friend Klingemann, with eight settings (as against five by Goethe). Songs and sketches alike suggest that the main aim was formal perfection, normally conceived as strophic with a varied last verse or coda. The piano offers unobtrusive accompaniment in arpeggios or four-part harmony; the tonality is diatonic with occasional altered chords, often diminished 7ths over a bass pedal. But none of these effects seems clearly related to the poems; and in general there are few overt equivalents for verbal ideas, as though the music had no deep roots in language. Yet Mendelssohn was both original and influential, especially on Brahms. His genius for expressive melody, well exemplified by Auf Flügeln des Gesanges (op.34 one of five Heine settings), was manifest from the first. Indeed, publication of his earliest songs in Paris in 1828 may have stimulated the development of the Mélodie there. His aim of formal perfection was both salutary and timely; and there are many German poems of the period for which melodic and formal beauty are in themselves close equivalents. In such settings, where the musical expression relies on vocal lilt and cadence, structural pattern and design – Lenau's An die Entfernte op.71 or Geibel's Der Mond op.86 – Mendelssohn excels. More than a mere footnote to the songwriting achievements of Mendelssohn are the lieder of his sister, whose roughly 300 songs show a considerable creative personality; indeed it is arguable that Fanny Mendelssohn was temperamentally better suited than her brother to explore the passionate and dramatic aspects of the medium.

4. Schumann and Franz.

Mendelssohn's praxis compared with Loewe's suggests that the Schubertian compound of words and music was still unstable and could readily split into its narrative and lyric components, losing some energy in the process. Schumann was well placed to reunite them. Like Mendelssohn he was a melodist; like Loewe he was literary. But he too began with the 18th-century notion that the music of a song should just express the poem, which implied not only that songwriting was an inferior art (as he at first believed, according to a letter of June 1839 to Hirschbach) but also that the composer had a secondary role – whereas Schumann was by temperament a dominant innovator and leader. Hence perhaps his own tentative début as a songwriter at 18. The following decade as a pianist and composer gave him the necessary foundation of independent musicianship; the emotional crisis of his betrothal to Clara Wieck heightened his receptivity to poetry. The mixture was explosive: his total of 140 songs written in the 12 months beginning February 1840 is unmatched even by Wolf or Schubert for quality and quantity of output in a single year, and it includes most of the best and best-known of his nearly 260 lieder.

These recombine the two basic elements of the lied, the verbal equivalence exploited by Loewe and the musical independence stressed by Mendelssohn, thus revealing Schumann as the true heir of Schubert, with whose quasi-verbal expressive style he had always felt the deepest affinity (according to passages in the Jugendbriefe and Tagebücher) and whose immense legacy of songs was increasingly available for study throughout the 1830s. Schumann had complete command of the musical metaphor exploited by Schubert. In particular, his introduction of contrasting sections in related keys (such as the mediant minor) without genuine modulation yielded new and subtle contrasts. But his personal innovation was a new independence, to the point of dominance, in the piano part. The paradigm of a Schumann song is a lyric piano piece, the melody of which is shared by a voice. As Mendelssohn played songs on the piano and called them Lieder ohne Worte, so Schumann sang piano pieces and turned them back into lieder. Thus the preludes and postludes to his songs tend to be self-expressive solos rather than merely illustrative as were Loewe's.

This piano style, together with Schumann's literary leanings and his personal feelings, led him to write love songs in groups or cycles arranged by poet, often with a deliberately unified tonality. It seems as though Schumann understood better than anyone before him that ‘the song cycle is the embodiment of the Romantic ideal: to find – or create – a natural unity out of a collection of different objects without compormising the independence or the disparity of each member … the large form must appear to grow directly from the smaller forms’ (Rosen, op. cit., 212). Heine (Dichterliebe op.48 and Liederkreis op.24) and Eichendorff (Liederkreis op.39), both master lyricists of intense and changing moods, were Schumann's favourite poets in early 1840, with 41 and 14 settings respectively. Later in the same year his songwriting became more objective, beginning with the 16 Chamisso songs, including Frauenliebe und -leben, lyrics that reflected his lifelong social concern.

Schumann's second songwriting phase began with the Rückert and Goethe songs of 1849. His harmonic language had become more intensely chromatic, and the consequent absence of diatonic tensions and contrasts meant than a new principle of organization was needed. In the Wielfried von der Neun songs of 1850 Schumann sought a solution through use of the short adaptable motif, already adumbrated by Schubert and Loewe, which could be changed and developed to match the changing thoughts of the verses; but his increasing illness probably inhibited his further development of such ideas, which later became the province of Wagner in opera and of Wolf in the lied. The extent to which the songwriting of Schumann's later years represented the deliberation of illness rather than a consciously adopted new style remains controversial. Some of his later lieder, once almost universally thought to be ineffective and rambling, found increasing favour with performers and critics in the late 20th century, alongside many other non-vocal works of the final period. Moreover censensus now seems to be that Schumann, even if his powers were weakened by illness, possessed talent superior to that of most of his songwriting contemporaries of unimpaired health. Another important developement in Schumann studies has been emergence of Clara Schumann as a prolific and significant composer, and the subject of a spate of biographichal study and re-evaluation. If she is not the equal of Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel as a song composer, it is probably because the lied interested her less than instrumental forms. Certainly the study of Schumann's songs would have been easier if Clara had made an annotated performing edition fo his lieder, which she regularly accompanied; unfortunately, many of their secrets (particularly as regards tempos) died with her and Brahms. Schumann himself acknowledged Clara's influence by publishing some three of her songs as part of their joint op.37 (1840), a cycle from Rückert's Liebesfrühling which celebrated nuptial bliss. Mendelssohn had led the way with this kind of family collaboration 12 years earlier in his songs opp.8 and 9, in which six of the 24 songs are by his sister Fanny.

With Schumann songwriting was conscious, even cerebral; he was the first theorist of the lied, which he described as the only genre in which significant progress had been made since Beethoven (NZM, xix, 1843, pp.34–5). This he attributed to the rise of a new school of lyric poets – Eichendorff and Rückert, Heine and Uhland – whose intensity of emotion and imagery had been embodied in a new musical style. As example he chose the op.1 of Robert Franz, himself a notable theorist of the lied as well as a practitioner with about 280 songs. For Franz, musical expression of poetry in the 18th-century tradition was a sine qua non. He was explicit, too, about his aims and methods: ‘In my songs the accompaniment depicts the situation described in the text, while the melody embodies the awareness of that situation’. He claimed that in addition to all the techniques developed by previous songwriters he (and he alone) had deliberately sought to draw on the resources of Bach and Handel, the Protestant chorale, and traditional folksong; and it is true that Franz included modal as well as chromatic harmony.

His own invention, however, especially of melody, was not quite abundant enough to give his songs the musical autonomy characteristic of the best 19th-century lieder, so that his work seems old-fashioned by comparison with that of his contemporaries. As in Mendelssohn's songs, a deliberate limitation of scope resulted in the absence of dramatic or narrative songs. The piano parts are unobtrusive to a fault, and there are few independent preludes or postludes because the musical material is so economically tailored to the poem. Mendelssohnian too is Franz's extensive use of the undistinguished verses of a close friend (Osterwald, with 51 settings). There are also certain palpable defects, such as an overreliance on the sequential treatment of melody (as in Für Musik op.10) and an overinsistence on formal perfection, with sometimes contrived effects. The compensation is a Schubertian devotion to lyric verse, typified in his passionate identification with Heine (67 settings, the greatest concentration in the lied repertory). Thus in Aus meinen grossen Schmerzen op.5 the piano part is itself a small-scale song because the poem is about the fashioning of small songs; the illustrative arpeggios at ‘klingend’ are woven into the texture with unobtrusive dexterity; and the slight divergence of vocal and instrumental lines at the end makes the poetic point most tellingly. The craftsmanship is self-effacingly immaculate. Though a minor composer, Franz is a major lied writer, greatly admired by Schumann, Liszt and Wagner; his work is long overdue for reappraisal.

5. Wagner, Liszt and Cornelius.

The admiration of both Liszt and Wagner is relevant because they too belong to lied history, even though their creative gestures were generally too wide and sweeping for the lyric form. Their early songs are rather inflated in style, as in Wagner's 1840 setting of Heine's Die Grenadiere in French. Liszt himself later acknowledged this aspect of his own early songs (letter to Josef Dessauer, Franz Liszts Briefe, ed. La Mara, ii, 1893, p.403), and although he stood far nearer than Wagner to the lyric mode (writing 83 songs as against Wagner's 20), he was not a native German speaker, which caused him some uncertainty of style and scansion (see the first versions of Über allen Gipfeln and Die Loreley). In general Liszt's songs are eclectic and experimental, and their inspiration seems to have been social or personal rather than literary, drawing on 44 poets in five languages, with texts ranging from acknowledged masterpieces to trivial salon verses. They are treated with musical unity and fidelity to the text, and they tend to be dominated by local colour or sound-effects. Thus even the late Die drei Zigeuner illustrates the surface rather than the substance of Lenau's poem. Although the listener may protest that the song is musically exciting as a portrait of gypsy music, the poet makes a broader philosophical point which is overwhelmed by Liszt's pianistic illustrations. The much later setting by the Swiss composer Othmar Schoeck is to be preferred for its understanding of Lenau's intentions, and the preservation of the poem's shape.

Liszt was well aware of his difficutlies with the form, these problems, as his revisions show. His integrity as well as his development can be measured by comparing various versions of a single song, as, for example, the three settings of Goethe's Mignons Lied (1842–60); his perseverance was comparable only to Schubert's and was equally motivated by genuine devotion. He may also have been fired by Schumann's songwriting, for his own 62 German settings began in 1840 (when the two met) with a Heine poem set by Schumann in that year, I'Am Rhein. Although lack of deep knowledge and response to language may leave Liszt as only a tributary to the lied, he was nevertheless a powerful influence in the mainstream, and through several channels. He was an active propagandist, both in his prose writing (essay on Franz in Gesammelte Schriften, iv, 1855–9) and more generally through his piano transcriptions of lieder (Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, Mendelssohn and Franz as well as his own songs). His keyboard techniques were a source of new effects and sonorities, and his harmonic originality was also seminal (for example, some passages in Die Loreley of 1840 and Ich möchte hingehn of 1847 are strikingly predictive of Tristan). Finally, his gift for simple but refined melody, especially in his late settings of unpretentious texts, enabled Liszt to achieve unusual effects of poignancy and even irony, with altered chords and semitonal clashes (as in Es muss ein Wunderbares sein, 1857), which look forward to the 20th century, in particular to the songs of Richard Strauss.

Wagner's later songs, notably the five Wesendonk lieder of 1857–8, are also forerunners of Tristan (avowedly so in the third and fifth, implicitly in the rest). Despite their voice and piano scoring they were clearly conceived in broad orchestral terms rather than as re-creations of lyric poetry. In a small, intimate genre like the lied, it is often the minor master like Franz or Peter Cornelius who excels. Cornelius, too, was praised by Liszt and Wagner, and for much of his life he fell directly under their shadow, since he worked for each in turn as an amanuensis. If they were turbulent tributaries, he was a mainstream backwater, receiving multiple influences but contributing little. Yet his very receptivity, to plainsong and Baroque traditions as well as to the latest developments in harmony and declamation, gave him, like Franz, a broad-based originality. Cantus firmus (in the Vater unser cycle op.2) and chorale (in the Weihnachtslieder op.8) appear as unifying devices. Free tonal fluctuations are used for colour or contrast within a diatonic style or, as in the juxtaposition of E major within D major at the word ‘Jubel’ in op.2 no.2, as a deliberate equivalent for a verbal image. Vocal melodies often linger on one note or move by step, as though the words were recited. Such devices and many more, including meaningful motifs, are put at the service of lyric verse.

Alone among lied composers Cornelius was his own favourite poet, with 50 settings of his approximately 100 songs. This was both strength and weakness. Its advantage was that Cornelius had a genuine if slender poetic gift, and as a composer he was well placed to know what musical equivalence was appropriate and how it could be achieved. But the essence of the lied was diluted by using his own poetry: pre-existing familiarity must inevitably lessen the impact of verse on the musical mind. Further, his lyrics themselves tended to be rather wistful and colourless, and hence not especially striking or memorable when wearing their matching music. The repetitive or limited emotional content, form and metre of the verses is often reflected in repeated rhythms and melodies of restricted range. Thus the well-known Ein Ton (op.3 no.3), in which the voice part has but a single note, in its way symbolizes not only the poem but the whole Cornelian approach to the lied. Yet this quietly inward and spiritual work in music and poetry, based on domestic scenes of worship (Weihnachtslieder) or betrothal (Brautlieder, 1856–8) and often grouped, like Schumann's songs, into sequences or cycles, has its own enduring value. Among other works of the so-called New German School, the songs of Adolf Jensen have received little attention, regrettably so since there are his Spanish-inspired settings, for example, a verve and theatrical flair not to be found in Cornelius's deeply felt lieder. Indeed, Jost (MGG2) has identified the lieder of Jensen as the missing stylistic link between the songs of Schumann and Wolf.

6. Brahms.

In his approximately 200 songs Brahms was both more and less objective than Cornelius. He was neither poet nor connoisseur, and never set any verse of his own, but his choice of texts regularly reflects his own inner moods and needs. Hence his comparative neglect of such major poets as Goethe (only five settings) and Mörike (three) and his devotion to such minor lyricists as Daumer (19) and Groth (11) whose specialities were erotic and nostalgic sentiment respectively. Similarly, Brahms had a predilection for anonymous texts, notably so-called folksongs, whether originally German or translated (46 solo settings, including four from the Bible). Such verses have no identifiable creative personality of their own, and are thus easily adapted for autobiographical purposes. In that sense Brahms departed radically from the 18th-century tradition of re-creating the poem, but in that sense only. In other respects he was both by temperament and by training the supreme traditionalist. He received perhaps the most thorough grounding of all great lied composers, and was a practised songwriter at an early age: Heimkehr (1851) and Liebestreu (1853) are already mature in their grasp of word-music relations and synthesis. Apart from some essays in the extended Schubertian ballad style, the Magelone-Lieder op.33, almost all Brahms's songs are carefully unified formal structures consciously elaborated from certain basic ideas by a process described by the composer in a discussion with Georg Henschel (M. Kalbeck, Johannes Brahms, 1904–14, ii/1, pp.181ff). In his insistence on craftsmanship he reverted to the practice of Mendelssohn, whom he much admired and whose influence is apparent in even the earliest songs. He felt that a strophic poem should be set in verse-repeating forms, and in fact nearly half his own songs are strophic, most of the rest being simple ternary forms. Even Brahms's expressive devices are academic and formular. Like Franz and Cornelius, Brahms had assimilated the forms and techniques of early music, including the modality of folksong (Sonntag) and the four-part texture of chorale (Ich schell mein Horn), together with such devices as augmentation (Mein wundes Herz), inversion and contrary motion (Vier ernste Gesänge). Like Schubert, of whose songs he was collector and orchestrator as well as general devotee, Brahms preferred a song texture of melody plus bass, and indeed he advocated this approach not only as a procedure but as a criterion. The essential Brahms song model is the instrumental duo, the violin or clarinet sonata, whence the typical long-breathed melodies (Erinnerung), some of which are embodied in the violin sonatas (for example, Regenlied in the finale of op.78).

Brahms's song melodies rarely have purely vocal inflections, and thus it is rare in Brahms to find a syllable prolonged or shifted in response to its poetic significance or proper scansion. Similarly, the use of harmonic or textural colouring for analogous reasons is as rare in Brahms as it is common in Schubert or Wolf. The tonal schemes are usually long-range, much as in instrumental forms. Though often complex, the piano parts are essentially integrated with or subordinate to the vocal lines, rather than being dominant or independent. They are mainly accompaniment figurations (arpeggios or broken chords) altered and disguised; textural and rhythmic variety are cultivated as deliberately yet unobtrusively in the songs as in the duo sonatas.

Against this background Brahms's expressive vocabulary tends to sound so purely musical that its quasi-verbal significance may not be readily apparent. Thus the favourite hemiolas used at cadence points had for Brahms the idea of a calming and broadening finality, as of a river reaching the sea (Auf dem See) or, more metaphorically, eternal love (Von ewiger Liebe). His other motivic elements tend to be similarly unobtrusive and predictably related to personal feeling rather than to the poem as such; thus the descending octaves that signify death in Auf dem Kirchhofe and Ich wandte michare almost incongruous in Feldeinsamkeit. This autobiographical element gives Brahms's lieder a special and unique development over 40 years of personal and musical experience, with heights of nostalgia and longing scaled by no other songwriter, culminating in the Vier ernste Gesänge of 1896.

7. Wolf.

Hugo Wolf represented the opposite end of the spectrum of lied composition; hence, no doubt, his fanatical anti-Brahmsian, pro-Wagnerian, stance as a critic. His procedures in his own 300 songs were intuitive and poetry-orientated. As an originator rather than a traditionalist he had to create his own models by assimilating the wide variety of vocal and keyboard techniques and devices needed to express the deep emotive content of verse. In one sense this involved a return to the 18th-century concept of poetic dominance; like Schumann, Wolf published songbooks devoted to particular poets (Mörike, Goethe, Eichendorff) under the title ‘Gedichte von …’. Far more vital, however, were the 19th-century metamorphoses of poetic elements into musical substance. Wolf was no theorist, but his descriptions of the word-music relation instinctively drew on metaphors of organic unity and symbiosis: music absorbs and thrives on the essence of poetry like a child on milk, or a vampire on blood. These similes are pertinent to Wolf's own creative function. From the first he battened on poetry and language, absorbing their rhythms, overtones and cadences. In several ways his development as a songwriter is reminiscent of Schumann's career. Like Schumann, he acquired relevant linguistic disciplines through his years as a critic. By composing in all forms he gradually accumulated a personal compendium of expressive device designed to subserve compositional ends which – again like Schumann's – were essentially associated with words and ideas. The parallel is completed by Wolf's choice of texts (the early Heine and Chamisso settings strongly under the Schumann influence, later independent treatments of translations from the Spanish) and most spectacularly by Wolf's delayed and Schumannesque outburst of concentrated songwriting in 1888 – as if the word-music hybrid compensated for its slow germination and growth by a sudden and profuse flowering.

The basic Wolf song style is keyboard writing enriched by vocal and instrumental counterpoint. As with Franz, Wolf's years of training and practice in choral music yielded a four-part piano texture that could be used expressively in its own right for religious songs (Gebet) and also serve as background material on which to embroider expressive motifs. In the depiction of individual emotion (as distinct from the re-creation of great poetry) towards which Wolf evolved in the Spanish, Italian and Michelangelo songs, the four parts can become so independent as to suggest string quartet writing (Wohl kenn ich Euren Stand). Such linear thinking also yields a variety of counterpoints for expressive purposes, like the duet between voice and piano in Lied eines Verliebten, or within the piano part itself in the postlude to Fühlt meine Seele (the latter a frequent image in the love songs generally). Wolf’s keyboard style is related to that of the contemporary piano reductions of Wagner operas by Klindworth and others, including such masters of expressive techniques as Liszt and Rubinstein. His own pianistic prowess disposed him to add bravura illustrative interludes (Die Geister am Mummelsee) like those found in Loewe, and to write songs whose piano parts are in effect independent solos, as so often in Schumann. To this basic concept Wolf often added a voice part that was not only itself independent, as in Brahms, but was also moulded to the words in their every inflection, whether of sound or sense; Auf dem grünen Balkon is an example. This characteristic fluidity of melodic line is wholly Wolfian, differing from its Wagnerian equivalent as poetry recitation differs from stage declamation. Thus, the sustained notes Wagner gave Isolde in Tristan (Act 1 scene iii) express the feeling of the character, while the same effect in Wolf's Die ihr schwebet expresses the beauty of the individual word ‘geflügelt’. The same distinction applies to Wolf's use of the extended harmonic language of Wagner and Liszt: for Wolf harmonic complexity expressed the symbolic connotations of poetry. Wolf regarded the development of his own detailed motivic language as his most significant contribution; it is a language that varies, in ways too detailed to summarize, from the illustration of a single word (such as ‘traurig’, in Alles endet, with a deliberately altered minor chord) to the development and contrast of motifs throughout a whole song (Auf einer Wanderung). It includes local colour effects, instrumental imitations and a Debussian sensitivity to the placing and spacing of chords and notes. It offers musical equivalents not only for the subject matter of poetry but also for its technical devices such as dialogue and irony. All this is further enhanced by the extremes of his emotional range – hilarity and desperation, comedy and tragedy. Finally he added a new dramatic dimension within the lyric frame, for his songs encompass dance and incidental music as well as lighting, costume and scenery. The Wolfian lied thus continued the Schubertian tradition, culminating in a complete theatre of the mind, a Gesamtkunstwerk for voice and piano.

Wolf's creative maturity was perhaps too brief to permit radical change or development; the four-part textures of the Italian songs, for example, are already outlined in the Mörike volume. But there is a discernible trend: the dramatic or theatrical element became more rarefied, more generalized. The Spanish songs, and more particularly the Italian, are a musical comédie humaine. Social life is conceived as a stage, with ordinary men and women the players. In this respect the Romantic lied ended as it had begun, with individual concern set against a broader social background as its principal theme. But the element of conflict had evaporated. Neither nature nor society was conceived as puzzling or hostile in the Wolfian lied. Rather, in the poems Wolf chose, the human heart and mind increasingly engender their own delight and despair, without reference to an external cause. Increasingly, too, Wolf turned to translations for his texts, and not to original German verse (as Brahms had similarly had recourse to the Bible in German translation). The end of the century seems to signal an end of the German poetic renaissance, and hence a decline in the power of the lied.

The same may apply to audiences. The Schubert song had become accredited and established; Schumann and his successors, especially Brahms, had come to command a wide public for their songs. But Wolf was offering a new genre. Just as Schubert had reduced Mozart and Beethoven operas and Haydn oratorios to the miniature domestic frame, so Wolf adopted Wagner. That allegiance and that idiom imposed difficulties of appreciation, further restricting the appeal of an arct already limited to the poetry lovers among music lovers. So Wolf’s work took longer to gain ground and find adherents. As before, dissemination of the new art was through friends and admirers and their immediate circle. The Wolf-Verein in Vienna corresponded to the Schubertiads of 70 years earlier, but with fewer active members (a relation that persists in posterity). It is as if the springs that had powered the early years of the lied had, for whatever reason, relaxed. An art of strong direct expressiveness culminated in an art of refinement, nuance, subtlety, and perfection within limitations.

The high road had narrowed and arguably reached an impasse. So had some earlier byways, such as accompanied recitation, despite one example from Schubert (Abschied d829), three from Schumann (e.g. Die Flüchtlinge) and six from Liszt (e.g. Lenore). A much more rewarding development was the addition of vocal lines, as in the duets and partsongs with or without accompaniment written by all the major masters of the lied, and still, despite neglect, an essential aspect of their art. But most significant of all was the addition of extra instruments. Schubert had used instrumental obbligato for quasi-verbal effect (e.g. the pastoral sound of the clarinet in Der Hirt auf dem Felsen). Schumann orchestrated his song Tragödie, presumably in order to enhance its dramatic content. Liszt's song orchestrations and Wagner's Wesendonk lieder pointed clearly along that road; so, less demonstratively, did Brahms's songs with viola obbligato, op.91. A crucial stage was reached with Wolf's 20 orchestral versions, including one (Der Feuerreiter) for chorus instead of solo. But these new departures meant a farewell to the lied as here considered, namely as a musical expression of the poetry of individual or social concern within the framework of domestic music-making. At the same time, poetry and its musical setting were losing their power to unify and stimulate any special segment of European society, German or other. The hegemony of the lied was in decline.

V. The 20th century

The lied was essentially a 19th-century genre, and its history in the 20th century is that of a brief and rapid continued development followed by a sudden decline. Schoenberg and Strauss, to take two representative composers, both wrote many lieder before 1918 and few thereafter: Schoenberg's opp.1–22 (1897–1916) include 45 lieder, his subsequent works only three. The reasons for this falling of interest have certainly as much to do with public tastes and requirements as with compositional techniques and aesthetics. Hindemith, the 20th-century composer of practical music par excellence, recognized that there was little call for lieder from the amateurs of his time. In general, the lied since World War I has been the province of specialist composers (Kilpinen, Schoeck, Reutter), or else it has been cultivated to meet commissions from those few lieder artists interested in the 20th-century repertory (notably Fischer-Dieskau in the 1960s and 70s).

1. 1900–18.

Before World War I the genre was flourishing, even if many lied composers were in thrall to the examples of Brahms and Wolf. Reger was proving himself the heir of Brahms, although he was not a naturally lyrical musician and his lieder suffer more than his instrumental works from clogged counterpoint and a resurrection of Baroque devices and attitudes. Strauss, on the other hand, was cultivating a dramatic, declamatory style, with a free use of melisma and opulent accompaniments; his allegiances were to Wolf, Wagner and Liszt. The possibility of a novel departure in the lied was offered by the new symbolist poetry, concentrating on the significant moment rather than on narrative, and in particular by the work of Richard Dehmel. Dehmel's poems were set by Reger and Strauss around the turn of the century, and also by Schoenberg (in opp.2, 3 and 6, 1899–1905), who remarked in a letter to the poet that his verses had helped him ‘to find a new tone in the lyrical mood’. This ‘new tone’ involved a floating harmonic stasis and an exquisiteness of texture, a sumptuous clarity illuminating the instant, and it contrasts with that of the rhetorical monologue lieder which were Strauss’s great strength and which were being composed by Schoenberg at the same time. It is to be found most clearly and purely in the Dehmel settings of Schoenberg and his pupil Webern (Fünf Dehmel Lieder, 1906–8).

If a modern poet was thus encouraging composers to press forward the expressive possibilities of the lied, another contemporary, Mahler, had already found his stimulus in the quasi-folk poetry of Des Knaben Wunderhorn. In fact, the Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen (1883–5), to his own words, had displayed his mature lied style before he had composed his first settings from that collection, but it was there that he found the qualities – observation of nature, religious feeling and a Romantic sense of apartness, all expressed without selfconsciousness – which most appealed to him as a song composer in the 1890s. Where others found new subject matter for the lied in symbolist verse, Mahler took up the old Romantic themes, but presented them with a new nakedness of expression. The set of Lieder aus ‘Des Knaben Wunderhorn’ was conceived with orchestral accompaniment, as were the later settings of Rückert (the cycle Kindertotenlieder and five other songs, 1901–4) and Hans Bethge's Chinese translations (the symphony–song cycle Das Lied von der Erde, 1908–9), for only with a full and sensitively used instrumental ensemble could Mahler bring to his texts the weight, exactitude and complexity of response that made possible the extremely subjective character of his lieder. With Mahler the lied was taken from the drawing-room or recital platform to the concert hall: it was no longer a polite genre.

Mahler's favouring of the orchestra, as well as his choice of texts from Des Knaben Wunderhorn and Die chinesische Flöte, was not without effect on his contemporaries. Strauss was least influenced, for he had established both his song style and his orchestral brilliance before 1890; his lieder, even – or perhaps especially – those with orchestra, remained more comfortable, smoother and richer than those of Mahler. Schoenberg, however, produced a quite Mahlerian work in his Sechs Orchesterlieder op.8 (1903–5), two of which are to Wunderhorn poems, and he developed the Mahlerian orchestra of varied chamber ensembles to a culmination in the Vier Lieder op.22 (1913–16). (His other set of orchestral songs, Gurrelieder, 1901–11, is almost an oratorio.) The influence of Mahler is also present in the lieder of Zemlinsky and of Schoenberg’s two principal pupils, particularly in Berg's Sieben frühe Lieder (1905–8, orchestrated 1928) and Webern's Vier Lieder op.13 for voice and small orchestra (1914–18), which include two settings from Die chinesische Flöte. Webern, however, distilled Mahler's style to produce the fine lyricism and urgency that characterize many of his lieder from after World War I as well.

Alongside the influence of Mahler on the Second Viennese School must be placed their continuing interest in new poetry. For Schoenberg and Webern, Dehmel was succeeded by Stefan George, whose still more rarefied images helped bring atonality to birth in Schoenberg's cycle Das Buch der hängenden Gärten op.15 (1908–9) and Webern's opp.3–4 (1908–9), both for voice and piano. Rilke, Altenberg, Mombert, Trakl and Kraus were all set by Schoenberg, Berg and Webern during the next decade, the intense, visionary and often brief poems fitting well with the qualities of early atonal music, delicate, erratic and adrift.

Strauss has already been mentioned as relatively unaffected by the means and matter introduced by contemporary poets and composers. He was not alone. Medtner wrote lieder in a somewhat Brahmsian manner, and Wolf had a direct follower two decades after his death in Joseph Marx, who even set those poems from Heyse's Italienisches Liederbuch which his model had omitted. Pfitzner, with his conscientious respect for Schumann, Eichendorff and the spirit of German high Romanticism in general, went on composing lieder essentially in the old mould throughout the first four decades of the century, contributing some fine examples to close a rich tradition.

2. After 1918.

It was perhaps no accident that the lied tradition as Pfitzner might have seen it was also perpetuated after 1918 by two composers from outside the Austro-German territories, the Swiss Othmar Schoeck and the Finn Yrjö Kilpinen; for they were able on occasion, despite their ties with the tradition (Schoeck was a pupil of Reger), to produce something new and distinctive in conventional modes. Their works contrast markedly with the lieder of composers who, in the 1920s, attempted to recapture the 19th-century manner from the perspective of later experiences. Krenek, for example, made such a deliberate effort in his Schubertian Reisebuch aus den oesterreichischen Alpenop.62 (1929), and the cycle has a feeling of irony, of stylistic displacement, which is quite lacking from the lieder of Pfitzner or Schoeck. In general, however, the neo-classical movement had little effect on the lied: most composers associated with it were looking to periods well before the early Romantic. Hindemith's Das Marienleben op.27 (1922–3, controversially revised in 1936–48) is a rare instance of an important song cycle composed on neo-Baroque lines.

Nor did Schoenberg and Berg pay much attention to the lied after World War I. For Schoenberg words had given a framework in the atonal period of opp.15 and 22; the development of 12-note serialism provided once more the means for elaborating independent musical structures, and it was not until 1933 that he returned, for the last time, to song composition with the Drei Lieder op.48. Berg, who had been a compulsive writer of lieder in his youth, produced only one song in his last 20 years. Webern, however, cultivated the lied almost to the exclusion of other genres between 1914 and 1925. Most of his works of this period are accompanied by a small group of instruments, enhancing his nervously mobile and intensely lyrical responses to the texts. The influence of Pierrot lunaire in this (though it is noteworthy that Webern's Zwei Lieder op.8 for voice and eight instruments antedate Schoenberg's work) is particularly clear in the Sechs Lieder op.14 (1917–21), setting Trakl poems for voice, two clarinets and two strings. Hindemith also drew something from Pierrot in his Trakl cycle, Die junge Magd op.23 no.2 (1922) for contralto, flute, clarinet and string quartet.

Pierrot lunaire itself has not been considered here, since its use of Sprechgesang perhaps disqualifies it from classification as a cycle of lieder; but it could be regarded as the tradition's culmination, remaining unique despite imitation, exacerbating the expressive possibilities of both voice and accompaniment. One source of the work, the cabaret song (a genre to which Schoenberg had contributed in 1901), was developed in a quite different direction by the composers associated with Brecht: Weill, Eisler and Dessau. Their lieder, often using popular dance rhythms, tinges of jazz and a dance band instrumentation, were explicitly designed to appeal widely and to encourage activism in the socialist cause. Eisler, a Schoenberg pupil, was the greatest exponent of this style, and notable examples of his work include the Solidaritätslied op.27 (1931) and Das Einheitsfrontlied (1934), both to Brecht texts. The genre originated with the ‘Songspiel’ version of the Brecht-Weill Mahagonny (1927) and persisted after World War II as an important part of musical life in the German Democratic Republic.

In the 1930s, therefore, one might distinguish three categories of lied composition: the mass-directed political style; the direct continuation of the 19th-century tradition by Pfitzner and others, and also by new composers such as Hermann Reutter; and the beginning of an exploration of lyricism on 12-note serial lines. Webern, like Schoenberg and Berg, had turned away from the lied on mastering the new technique, but he returned to it for two final sets with piano accompaniment, opp.23 and 25 (1933–4). During the next 20 years some of the finest lieder were composed by musicians from outside Austria and Germany: Martin in his Sechs Monologe aus ‘Jedermann’ for contralto or baritone with piano or orchestra (1943), Babbitt in his Stramm setting Du for soprano and piano (1951) and Dallapiccola in his Goethe Lieder for female voice and three clarinets (1953).

Writing during the same period, Strauss could reasonably have thought his Vier letzte Lieder (1948) bore their epithet for the genre. Even Henze, with the abundant lyrical gift displayed in so much of his music, contributed only his Fünf neapolitanische Lieder for voice and small orchestra (1956) and a few numbers in Voices for two soloists and chamber ensemble (1973) which might count as lieder. Other composers at that time wrote lieder for particular singers, notably Benjamin Britten and Aribert Reimann for Fischer-Dieskau, but the culture of intimate, personal and national expression that had produced the lied seemed moribund by the 1970s. (The national aspect had been undermined by the gathering of foreign composers to set German poetry, a phenomenon crucial to the history of the lied since 1918.) The writing of lieder was then revived by a new generation of German composers, among whom Wolfgang Rihm has composed several sets, usually on verse conveying emotional extremity to the point of insanity (e.g. Hölderlin-Fragmente, 1976–7; Wölffli-Liederbuch, 1980–81), as if at the end of the tradition could come only mad songs. Berio in some works, notably Coro for chorus and orchestra (1975–6), has explored the lied tradition as part of the larger history of song; his one composition with the title Lied is a recorder piece.

2. From 1956 to ‘Le Grand Macabre’.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

general

KretzschmarG

W.K. von Jolizza: Das Lied und seine Geschichte (Vienna, 1910/R)

G. Müller: Geschichte des deutschen Liedes vom Zeitalter des Barock bis zur Gegenwart (Munich, 1925/R)

O. Bie: Das deutsche Lied (Berlin, 1926)

E. Bücken: Das deutsche Lied (Hamburg, 1939)

polyphonic lied

ReeseMMA

ReeseMR

W. Gurlitt: ‘Burgundische Chanson- und deutsche Liedkunst des 15. Jahrhunderts’, Musikwissenschaftlicher Kongress: Basle 1924 , 153–76

L. Nowak: ‘Das deutsche Gesellschaftslied in Österreich von 1480 bis 1550’, SMw, xvii (1930), 21–52

O.A. Baumann: Das deutsche Lied und seine Bearbeitungen in den frühen Orgeltabulaturen (Kassel, 1934)

H. Osthoff: Die Niederländer und das deutsche Lied (1400–1640) (Berlin, 1938/R)

H. Rosenberg: ‘Frottola und deutsches Lied um 1500’, AcM, xviii–xix (1946–7), 30–78

K. Gudewill: ‘Zur Frage der Formstrukturen deutscher Liedtenores’, Mf, i (1948), 112–21

K. Gudewill: ‘Beziehungen zwischen Modus und Melodiebildung in deutschen Liedtenores’, AMw, xv (1958), 60–88

C. Petzsch: ‘“Hofweisen”: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des deutschen Liederjahrhunderts’, DVLG, xxxiii (1959), 414–45

W. Salmen: ‘European Song (1300–1530)’, NOHM, iii (1960/R), 349–80

H. Besseler: ‘Renaissance-Elemente im deutschen Lied 1450–1500’, SMH, xi (1969), 63–8

H.-J. Feurich: Die deutschen weltlichen Lieder der Glogauer Handschrift (ca. 1470) (Wiesbaden, 1970)

R. Caspari: Liedtradition im Stilwandel um 1600 (Munich, 1971)

N. Böker-Heil, H. Heckmann and I. Kindermann, eds.: Das Tenorlied, CaM, ix–xi (1979–86)

generalbass lied c1620–c1750

C.F. Becker: Die Hausmusik in Deutschland in dem 16., 17. und 18. Jahrhunderte (Leipzig, 1840/R)

K. Goedeke: Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung, iii (Dresden, 1859, 2/1887)

W. Niessen: ‘Das Liederbuch des Leipziger Studenten Clodius’, VMw, vii (1891), 579–658

J. Bolte: ‘Die Lieder-Handschriften des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts, iii: Das Liederbuch der Prinzessin Luise Charlotte von Brandenburg’, Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie, xxv (1893), 33–4

P. Spitta: ‘Die Anfänge madrigalischer Dichtung in Deutschland’, Musikgeschichtliche Aufsätze (Berlin, 1894)

K. Vossler: Das deutsche Madrigal (Weimar, 1898/R)

M. Friedlaender: Das deutsche Lied im 18. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1902/R)

M. Breslauer: Das deutsche Lied (Berlin, 1908/R)

A. Einstein: ‘Ein unbekannter Druck aus der Frühzeit der deutschen Monodie’, SIMG, xiii (1911–12), 286–96

W. Vetter: Das frühdeutsche Lied (Münster, 1928)

H. Abert: ‘Entstehung und Wurzeln des begleiteten deutschen Sololieds’, Gesammelte Schriften und Vorträge, ed. F. Blume (Halle, 1929/R), 156–72

H.J. Moser: Corydon, das ust Geschichte des mehrstimmegen Generalbassliedes und des Quodilbets (Brunswick, 1933/R1966)

E.-F. Callenberg: Das obersächsische Barocklied (Freiburg, 1952)

H.C. Worbs: ‘Die Schichtung des deutschen Liedgutes in der zweiten Hälfte des 17. Jahrhunderts’, AMw, xvii (1960), 61–70

R.H. Thomas: Poetry and Song in the German Baroque: a Study of the Continuo Lied (Oxford, 1963)

J.H. Baron: Foreign Influences on the German Secular Solo Continuo Lied in the Mid-Seventeenth Century (diss., Brandeis U., 1967)

J.H. Baron: ‘Dutch Influences on the German Secular Solo Continuo-Lied in the Mid-Seventeenth Century’, AcM, xliii (1971), 43–55

Weltliches und geistliches Lied des Barock: Lund, Sweden, 1978

W. Braun: ‘Weltliche Vokalmusik’, Die Musik des 17. Jahrhunderts (Wiesbaden and Laaber, 1981), 131–84

Studien zum deutschen weltlichen Kunstlied des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts: Wolfenbüttel 1990

c1740–c1800

A. Reissmann: Das deutsche Lied in seiner historischen Entwicklung (Kassel, 1861)

E.O. Lindner: Geschichte des deutschen Liedes im XVIII. Jahrhundert, ed. L. Erk (Leipzig, 1871/R)

M. Blumner: Geschichte der Sing-Akademie zu Berlin (Berlin, 1891)

M. Friedlaender: Das deutsche Lied im 18. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart and Berlin,1902/R)

I. Pollak-Schlaffenberg: ‘Die Wiener Liedmusik von 1778–1789’, SMw, v (1918), 97–151

E. Alberti-Radanowicz: ‘Das Wiener Lied von 1789–1815’, SMw, x (1923), 37–78

F. Blume: Goethe und die Musik (Kassel, 1948)

H.J. Moser, ed.: Das deutsche Sololied und die Ballade, Mw, xiv (1957; Eng. trans., 1958)

A. Sydow: Das Lied (Göttingen, 1962)

H.W. Schwab: Sangbarkeit, Popularität und Kunstlied Studien: zu Lied und Liedästhetik der mittleren Goethezeit (Regensburg, 1965)

R.A. Barr: Carl Friedrich Zelter: a Study of the Lied in Berlin during the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries (diss., U. of Wisconsin, 1968)

after 1800

E. Schuré: Geschichte des deutschen Liedes (Berlin, 1870, 3/1884/R)

A. Reissmann: Geschichte des deutschen Liedes (Berlin, 1874)

H. Kretzschmar: ‘Das deutsche Lied seit Robert Schumann’, Gesammelte Aufsätze über Musik und anderes, i (Leipzig, 1910), 1–35

O. von Hazay: Gesang: seine Entwicklung (Leipzig, 1911, 2/1915 as Entwicklung und Poesie des Gesanges)

F.E. Pamer: ‘Deutsches Lied im 19. Jahrhundert’, AdlerHM

H.J. Moser: Das deutsche Lied seit Mozart (Berlin, 1937, enlarged 2/1968)

M. Castelnuovo-Tedesco: ‘Music and Poetry: Problems of a Songwriter’, MQ, xxx (1944), 102–11

G. Baum: ‘Wort und Ton im romantischen Kunstlied’, Das Musikleben, iii (1950), 136–40

J. Müller-Blattau: Das Verhältnis von Wort und Ton in der Geschichte der Musik (Stuttgart, 1952)

J.H. Hall: The Art Song (Norman, OK, 1953)

M. Beaufils: Le lied romantique allemand (Paris, 1956, 2/1956)

H.J. Moser: Das deutsche Sololied und die Ballade, Mw, xiv (1957)

P. Radcliffe: ‘Germany and Austria’, A History of Song, ed. D. Stevens (London, 1960/R, 2/1970/R), 228–64, esp. 237–64)

M. Bortolotto: Introduzione al lied romantico (Milan, 1962)

H.W. Schwab: Sangbarkeit Popularität und Kunstlied, Studien zu Lied und Liedästhetik der mittleren Goethezeit, 1770–1814 (Regensburg, 1965)

F.A. Stein: Verzeichnis deutscher Lieder seit Haydn (Berne, 1967)

E. Sams: The Songs of Robert Schumann (London, 1969, 3/1993)

D. Ivey: Song: Anatomy, Imagery, and Styles (New York, 1970)

J.M. Stein: Poem and Music in the German Lied from Gluck to Hugo Wolf (Cambridge, MA, 1971)

E.F. Kravitt: ‘Tempo as an Expressive Element in the Late Romantic Lied’, MQ, lix (1973), 497–518

W. Oehlmann: Reclams Liedführer (Stuttgart, 1973, 4/1993)

E.F. Kravitt: ‘The Orchestral Lied: an Inquiry into its Style and Unexpected Flowering around 1900’, MR, xxxvii (1976), 209–26

W. Dürr: Das deutsche Sololied im 19. Jahrhundert: Untersuchungen zu Sprache und Musik (Wilhelmshaven, 1984)

L. Kramer: Music and Poetry: the Nineteenth Century and After (Berkeley, 1984)

K. Whitton: Lieder: an Introduction to German Song (London, 1984)

E. Staiger: Musik und Dichtung (Zürich, 5/1986)

K. Muxfeldt: Schubert Song Studies (diss., SUNY, 1991)

Schumann und seine Dichter: Düsseldorf 1991

V.K. Agawu: ‘Theory and Practice in the Analysis of the Nineteenth-Century Lied’, MAn, xi (1992), 3–36

H. Platt: Text-Music Relationships in the Lieder of Johannes Brahms (diss., CUNY, 1992)

T.J. Roden: The Development of the Orchestral Lied from 1815 to 1890 (diss., Northwestern U., 1992)

S. Youens: Hugo Wolf: the Vocal Music (Princeton, NJ,1992)

L. Correll: The Nineteenth Century German Lied (Portland, OR, 1993)

W.M. Frisch: The Early Works of Arnold Schoenberg, 1893–1908 (Berkeley, 1993)

D. Gramit : ’Schubert and the Biedermeier: the Aesthetics of Johann Mayrhofer’s Heliopolis’ ML, lxxiv (1993), 355–82

M.W. Hirsch: Schubert’s Dramatic Lieder (Cambridge, 1993)

S. Gut: Aspects du lied romantique allemande (Arles, 1994)

S.A.M. Reichert : Unendliche Sehnsucht: the Concept of Longing in German Romantic Narrative and Song (diss., Yale U.,1994)

L.D. Snyder: German Poetry in Song: an Index of Lieder (Berkeley, 1995)

R. Hallmark, ed.: German Lieder in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1996)

E.F. Kravitt: The Lied: Mirror of Late Romanticism (New Haven, CT, 1996)

D. Stein and R. Spillman: Poetry into Song: Performance and Analysis of Lieder (New York, 1996)

S. Youens: Schubert’s Poets and the Making of Lieder (Cambridge, 1996)

R. Brinkmann : Schumann and Eichendorff: Studien zum Liederkreis Opus 39 (Munich, 1997)

L. Kramer: Franz Schubert: Sexuality, Subjectivity, Song (Cambridge, 1998)

A.L. Glauert : Hugo Wolf and the Wagnerian Inheritance (Cambridge, 1999)

Liederbuch

(Ger.: ‘songbook’).

A term applied to certain 15th- and 16th-century German collections of polyphonic songs or short lyric poems that were usually sung. F.W. Arnold was perhaps the first to use it in an article, ‘Das Locheimer Liederbuch nebst der Ars organisandi von Conrad Paumann’ (Jahrbücher für musikalische Wissenschaft, ii, 1867, pp.1–234), although the term ‘Liederhandschrift’ was more common, particularly when referring to the sources of Minnesang. It is not at all clear, however, the extent to which the term ‘Liederbuch’ was used during or before the 19th century. It does not appear in the manuscripts of those collections most commonly associated with it such as the Lochamer Liederbuch and the Glogauer Liederbuch; moreover, 15th- and 16th-century manuscripts and publications frequently use in their titles ‘Lied’, ‘Liedlein’, ‘Gesänge’, ‘geistliche Gesänge’ etc., but not ‘Liederbuch’.

The term is also applied to collections of poetry that could be sung or were likely to have been sung (e.g. Das Liederbuch des Jakob Kebitz) or collections that contained some poetry with music and some without (e.g. Das Liederbuch des Hartman Schedel).

‘Liederbuch’ as used today refers to those manuscripts of polyphonic music found in partbooks, of which the earliest is thought to be the Glogauer Liederbuch. Not all the pieces found in these ‘songbooks’ are to be sung; many are obviously intended for instruments or for a combination of voices and instruments.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

RiemannL12

NOHM, iv: The Age of Humanism, 1540–1630 (1968), 419–38

H. Rupprich: Die deutsche Literatur vom späten Mittelalter bis zum Barock, Geschichte der deutschen Literatur, iv/1 (Munich, 1970), 193ff [contains list of MSS now known by term ‘Liederbuch’]

See also Sources, MS, §IX.

WESLEY K. MORGAN

Liederkreis (i) [Liederkranz, Liederzyklus]

(Ger.: ‘song circle’).

A term used to mean a circle (or cycle) of songs, for example Schumann’s Liederkreis op.24. (See Song cycle.)

LUISE EITEL PEAKE

Liederkreis (ii)

(Ger.: ‘song circle’).

A circle or club of people dedicated to the cultivation of popular song. Examples are the ‘Mittwochskränzchen’ (‘Cour d’amour’) that met during the early 1800s in Goethe’s Weimar home, the Stägemann circle in Berlin, 1815–18, that included the young poet Wilhelm Müller, the Dresden Liederkreis (‘Dichtertee’), c1804–24, in which Weber met the poet Kind, and the ‘Schubertianer’ or friends of Schubert in Vienna, who held regular meetings during the 1820s. Liederkreis activities were varied, recreational as well as creative. They included singing simple group songs, playing charades and other games with songs, and listening to song performances staged with costumes, ‘attitudes’ or elaborate ‘living pictures’. To supply the demand parody texts were often set to song melodies from, for example, Das Mildheimische Liederbuch (ed. R.Z. Becker, 1799, 4/1810); either the melodies were rearranged or the verse newly set. Collections that reflected the work of a Liederkreis were titled accordingly, like J.H.C. Bornhardt’s Liederkranz für Freunde des leichten Gesanges (Hamburg, c1810) and similar publications by F. Methfessel, A.E.F. Langbein and G. Weber, or collections of texts and parodies by F.A. Tiedge, Das Echo oder Alexis und Ida: ein Zyklus von Liedern (Halle, 1812) or F.W. Gubitz, Abends-Atemzüge: ein Liederkreis (Berlin, c1815, 2/1859).

LUISE EITEL PEAKE

Liederspiel

(Ger.: ‘song-play’).

A kind of dramatic entertainment developed in Germany in the early 19th century in which songs are introduced into a play. It differs from the older Singspiel principally in its inclusion of songs that as lyric poems already enjoyed some currency; the melodies (normally with simple instrumentation) were new, though some of the songs from such works later came to be regarded as folksongs. Ensembles and choruses were not at first admitted, and the music had an almost entirely lyrical rather than a dramatic character. Despite statements to the contrary, the Liederspiel differs generically from the French vaudeville and the British ballad opera, in both of which the melodies were normally familiar airs specially provided with new words, whereas normally in the Liederspiel the words were pre-existing and the melodies new.

The first Liederspiel was Lieb' und Treue, by J.F. Reichardt, staged at the Berlin Royal Opera House on 31 March 1800 with text by the composer, using poems by Goethe, Herder and Salis, as well as folksongs. The somewhat enlarged second edition of the libretto (Berlin, 1800) contains 12 songs, including the Swiss folksong ‘Wenn ich ein Vöglein wär’, Goethe's ‘Heidenröslein’ and three other poems, and two each by Herder and Salis. An afterword by the author mentions that the songs are reproduced as they were set for the piano, without preludes and interludes; and that the complete score (suitable also for domestic performance) could be obtained from the composer at a cheap price.

Reichardt was the principal theoretician and apologist for the Liederspiel as well as being its best-known author and composer. The Leipzig Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung for 22 July 1801 contains his article about the Liederspiel, which he says was born of the desire to encourage simple, pleasant songs as opposed to brilliant and difficult operatic music. Lieb' und Treue was written for a domestic occasion; the idea came to Reichardt when he so often found himself invited to perform the song ‘Ach was ist die Liebe’ from his own Singspiel Die Geisterinsel (a version of The Tempest, first given at Berlin in 1798). As Lieb' und Treue drew from certain quarters criticism that its tone was too sentimental, Reichardt followed it with a comic and gay example, Juchhei (later known as Der Jubel) which included military songs. In the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung article, Reichardt chided Himmel for the inappropriately heavy orchestration of his Liederspiel Frohsinn und Schwärmerey (libretto by C.A. Herklots, Berlin, 1801), though it enjoyed considerable popularity. Eberwein, Bergt and Lindpainter were among other successful exponents of the genre.

Mendelssohn's Die Heimkehr aus der Fremde and Schumann's Spanisches Liederspiel are examples of later works misleadingly entitled ‘Liederspiel’. Schletterer in his valuable study (1863) of the Singspiel is not strictly accurate in his statement that the Liederspiel led to the racy vaudeville developed in Germany and Austria by Angely and others.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.F. Reichardt: ‘Etwas über das Liederspiel’, AMZ, ii (1799–1800), 709–17

J.F. Reichardt: Liederspiele (Tübingen, 1804)

J.F. Reichardt: Musik zu J.F. Reichardts Liederspielen (Strasbourg, 1804)

H.M. Schletterer: Das deutsche Singspiel von seinen ersten Anfängen bis auf die neueste Zeit (Augsburg, 1863/R)

L. Krauss: Das deutsche Liederspiel in den Jahren 1800–1830 (diss., U. of Halle, 1921)

R. Moering: ‘Johann Friedrich Reichardts Liederspiele’, Das deutsche Singspiel im 18. Jahrhundert: Amorbach 1979, 191–211

S. Johns: Das szenische Liederspiel zwischen 1800 und 1830: ein Beitrag zur Berliner Theatergeschichte (diss., U. of Tübingen, 1988)

PETER BRANSCOMBE

Liedertafel

(Ger.: ‘song-table’).

Originally a small group of poets, singers and composers that came together to perform partsongs in an informal setting. The term was coined by Zelter, at whose instigation the first group was formed in Berlin on 21 December 1808 from his celebrated larger Singakademie. Its inaugural meeting was held on 24 January 1809. As Zelter explained in a famous letter to Goethe, the 25 members of the Liedertafel would meet together over a meal, and German partsongs would be performed. Original compositions were strongly encouraged: those whose contributions were well received would receive a medallion and have their health drunk, while the most successful would be crowned with a wreath by the ‘Meister’ (the 25th member) who presided over the evening’s entertainment.

The Liedertafel’s convivial atmosphere disguised a higher purpose: to advance the cause of German song and poetry. In this respect, it harked back to the medieval guilds of Meistersinger, while there was also some similarity to the musical gatherings that had been a feature of late 18th-century Freemasonry. Zelter’s lead was soon followed, and Liedertafel sprang up throughout Germany: in Frankfurt an der Oder (1815), Leipzig (1815), Thüringen (1818), Magdeburg (1819), Münster (1822), Hamburg (1823), Minden (1824), Bremen (1827) and Bielefeld (1831). In 1819 the Jüngere Berliner Liedertafel was founded by Klein and Berger, seeking a wider membership than its older relation.

A second strand in the Liedertafel tradition was initiated by H.G. Nägeli, who in 1810 founded a male singing society in Zürich to support the pedagogical ideals of Pestalozzi. His example inspired Kocher’s Sonntag-Abend Gesellschaft in Stuttgart in 1824, which in turn led to similar groups in Ulm (1825), Munich (1826), Frankfurt (1828), Schweinfurt (1833) and elsewhere. These generally eschewed the name ‘Liedertafel’ in favour of ‘Liederkranz’ (‘song circle’), to stress their larger and less exclusive membership. During the latter 19th century, both terms gave way to ‘Männergesangverein’ as larger singing clubs were established in such cities as Vienna and Cologne. The term Liedertafel was subsequently applied to society gatherings at which selected members of the Männergesangverein performed for their invited guests.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Krüger: ‘Ueber Liedertafeln’, NZM, xi (1839), 138–43

P. Greverus: Ueber Liedertafeln und Liederfeste (Oldenburg, 1844)

W. Bornemann: Die Zeltersche Liedertafel in Berlin, ihre Entstehung, Stiftung und Fortgang (Berlin, 1851)

H. Kuhlo: Geschichte des Zelterschen Liedertafels (Berlin, 1909)

H. Dietel: Beiträge zur Frühgeschichte des Männergesanges (diss., U. of Berlin, 1938)

P. Nitsche: ‘Die Liedertafel im System der Zelterschaen Gründungen’, Studien zur Musikgeschichte Berlins im frühen 19. Jahrhundert, ed. C. Dahlhaus (Regensburg, 1980), 11–26

A. Heemann: Männergesangvereine im 19. und frühen 20. Jahrhunderte (Frankfurt, 1991)

EWAN WEST

Liederzyklus.

See Liederkreis (i).

Liedform

(Ger.: ‘songform’).

Term given by A.B. Marx (1838) not to a single musical form but to a group of small-scale forms all of which exhibit balanced musical phraseology, a modulatory scheme and cadential parallelism, within overall closure. The term was adopted by many later German theorists (e.g. Jadassohn, Schering), and has remained in use throughout the 20th century. It was translated for English-speaking readers as ‘Song form’, a term adopted by some American writers (e.g. Goetschius).

The appellation does not relate to songs as such, though ‘Lied-’ probably alludes to folksong, in the belief that the essentials of musical form are all present in miniature within the organic structures of folk melody. (Marx provided an appendix of folksongs in Die Lehre von der musikalischen Komposition, i, 1837, pp.440–41, with discussion pp.378–86.) Marx’s definition of ‘Lied’ (Die Lehre, ii, 1838, p.20) states:

Any piece of music that comprises a main melodic line and one or more accompanying lines, and the essential content of which is contained within a single period … we designate ‘Lied’, regardless of whether it is for voice or not.

In practice, the term is applied predominantly to short instrumental pieces, especially to movements of sonatas, notably slow movements and the themes of variation movements, and to characteristic piano pieces of the sort that became common after 1830.

Liedform may be constructed in a single section, in two sections or in three; only the second and third are widely called Liedform. Underlying the concept is the organic notion of melodic line, springing from a single motif and typically constructed as two parallel phrases, antecedent and consequent (a, a'). If proliferated further motivically, formal coherence might become threatened. If so, it might divide into two sections, which could be of the form AA or AA' (e.g. Mozart, Piano Sonata in A k331, first movement theme), or possibly of AB or AxBx (e.g. Beethoven, Piano Sonata op.57, second movement theme), in which case the first section may be marked by a cadence in the dominant or relative key, the second with a return to the tonic (e.g. Mendelssohn, Variations sérieuses op.54, theme). In more developed two-section forms the second section tends to greater length, the form often being A BA (e.g. Schumann, Albumfürdie no.1, ‘Melodie’), in which the roots of sonatina form can be seen. English usage terms such two-section constructions Binary form, and they cover all the Baroque dances and many Romantic genres such as the prelude, mazurka and étude. If even greater proliferation were to take place, the second section might itself bifurcate to yield the three-section Liedform, ABA or ABA' (e.g. the second-movement theme of Beethoven’s Piano Sonata op.90: A(=a¹, a²) B(=b¹, b²) A'(=a¹', a²')), which English usage calls Ternary form.

Liedforms may be elaborated by the addition of introductions, interludes, codas and postludes; and they may be compound, as in the da capo aria and the minuet and trio, resulting in such forms as: AB CD A'B', and ABA' CDC' ABA'.

For Marx, all possible musical forms existed, like biological life-forms, in an infinite conceptual series rising from simplest (motif, phrase, period) to most complex (sonata form, compound forms). On this series, the Liedforms were the first fully articulated, free-standing, unified forms – the first ‘art forms (Kunstformen)’. To the modern reader the Liedform may seem confusing, since it blurs the distinctions between basic structural types (binary, ternary). To Marx, who deplored fixed forms, and for whom form was the externalization of content, its very organic fluidity was its virtue. Heinrich Schenker took this even further: while adopting the term, he rejected all specifications based on the motif and working-out, or on periodic construction, and reasserted the form’s basis in ‘the content of the whole and its components’ (Der freie Satz, 1935, §308).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A.B. Marx: Die Lehre von der musikalischen Komposition, praktisch-theoretisch (Leipzig, 1837–47)

P. Goetschius: The Homophonic Forms of Musical Composition (New York, 1898)

S. Burnham, ed.: Musical Form in the Age of Beethoven: Selected Writings on Theory and Method: A.B. Marx (Cambridge, 1997)

IAN D. BENT

Liedhorn.

A higher-pitched version of the Ballad horn.

Liedmotette

(Ger.: ‘song motet’).

A type of 17th-century motet in free, lightly imitative style with occasional cantus firmus elements. See Motet, §III, 3(i).

Lied ohne Worte

(Ger.).

See Song without words.

Liège

(Flem. Luik).

City in Belgium. An independent episcopal principality within the jurisdiction of the Holy Roman Empire, it was annexed to France in 1795 and in 1815 to the Netherlands before becoming part of Belgium (1830). It was the centre of a vast diocese and of a principality that included the towns of Huy, Tongres, Leuven and Maastricht, and in the 19th century it became an industrial and commercial centre.

The offices instituted under Bishop Etienne (c850–920) included music, notably the antiphon Magna vox, from very early on considered the principality's hymn. Notger (bishop, 972–1008) encouraged music in the school of St Lambert's Cathedral and also in collegiate churches, convents and abbeys. The first choir schools were founded towards the end of the 13th century. At that of St Lambert, the model for the principality, from 1291, 12 duodeni (poor children) were instructed to read and sing the offices by day and night under the cantor, with a phonascus or succentor. 12 further singers, often clerics, were soon added so that polyphonic works could be sung. The average choir included six to eight choirmen, six children and a few instrumentalists, or a choirmaster, an organist, four choirmen and four children. Bursaries were set up in the 17th century to enable the most gifted duodeni to study abroad, mainly in Rome. The organ was introduced in 1212 and full-time instrumentalists as early as the 16th century; by the 18th the cathedral group comprised four violins, a cello and a double bass. The choir schools continued until 1797, when the French republican government closed down the churches.

The instrument makers Jan Verrijt and Daniel van der Diestelen were active in the 16th century. In the early 17th century and the 18th, André Séverin, Guillaume Robustelly and the Le Picard family built organs and Georges Palate and Jean-Joseph de Lannoy string instruments.

The tradition of theoretical writing and the system of choir schools, while guaranteeing continuous musical activity, tended to rigidify both discourse and musical practice, as can be seen in Jacques de Liège's Speculum musicae (beginning of 14th century) and in the repertory played. The Turin manuscript, for example (Biblioteca Reale, Vari 42), compiled in the abbey of St Jacques about 1320–40, contains only works of the Ars Antiqua. In the late 14th century and the early 15th, the reputation of musicians from Liège led to greater mobility on the part of singers and composers and an opening out to different repertories; the most gifted young musicians left Liège for Italy (among them Johannes Ciconia, Arnold and Hugo de Lantins, Johannes Lymburgia, Johannes de Sarto and Johannes Brassart) or the Holy Roman Empire.

With the destruction of the city by Charles the Bold in 1468 almost all musical and documentary records were lost, and at first musicians continued to emigrate. The bishoprics of Erard de la Marck (1505–38) and Georges d'Autriche (1544–57) brought stability, and Jean Guyot and Petit Jean de Latre breathed new life into their contemporaries and pupils: Gérard de Villers, Johannes Mangon, Johannes Claux, Pierre de Rocourt, Pierre de Xhénemont, Lambertus de Monte, Adamus de Ponta and Ludovicus Episcopius. Little secular music survives, but sacred music is preserved in numerous printed or manuscript anthologies (D-AAm, Chb I-III). This rebirth of musical activity sparked off new waves of emigration, mainly to the Holy Roman Empire (Antoine Goswin and Johannes de Fossa to Munich; Jean Guyot and Gérard Hayne to Vienna, Petit Jean de Latre to Utrecht; others to Spain to join the Capella Flamenca; fewer went to Italy, although there were still bursaries to finance advanced courses in Rome). Spa and Chaudfontaine, two popular watering-places, afforded musicians a supplement to their income.

The Counter-Reformation found fertile ground in the principality since so many musicians were employed at the choir schools, churches or convents. An echo of the new principles promulgated by the Council of Trent is found in the Grand livre de choeur de la cathédrale Saint-Lambert, a Liège anthology from the turn of the century (including works by Hodemont, Hayne, Remouchamps, Raymundi and Coolen). Instrumental music was also present in this movement, as in the Liber fratrum cruciferorum leodiensium (B-Lu 153), probably compiled for the organist Gérard Scronx in 1617. Sacred music was still the main output of local composers in the 17th century, as with Hodemont, Hayne, Pietkin and Lamalle, or organ music in the case of Chaumont and Babou. Still, however, the most brilliant composers did not stay in Liège, Henri Dumont making his career in Paris, Daniel Danielis in the Holy Roman Empire and France – a tendency that continued in the 18th century with André-Modeste Grétry and Antoine-Frédéric Gresnick. The 18th century was marked by the Hamal dynasty; Jean-Noël and Henri Hamal, like Grétry, Gresnick and Delange, travelled to Italy thanks to bursaries from the Fondation Darchis.

Music publishing came to Liège about 1630, apparently through Léonard Street; the output of printed material increased in the 18th century with François-Joseph Desoer, Jean-Etienne Philippart, the Latours and Benoit Andrez. Publishers also produced music journals: Andrez the Echo ou Journal de musique françoise (1758), Philippart Le rossignol (1765) and Bertrand L'année musicale (1771). Désiré Duguet, Isidore Gout and the Muraille family were publishers active in the 19th century. Victor Jaendel and André Bernard made string instruments up to the middle of the 20th century; Toussaint-Joseph Dumoulin, Victor Chèvremont, Jean-Lambert Hoeberecht and the Renson family built pianos.

In the 17th century, theatrical performances with music were given in the private rooms of educational institutions, including the city's principal hall, in the care of the Jesuits. In the 1750s Jean-Noël Hamal's burlesque operas in Walloon dialect were staged in the Hôtel de Ville. At the same time a theatre, La Baraque (also known as the Théâtre de la Douane), was opened on the Marché de la Batte for opera buffa and opéra comique given by itinerant companies. La Redoute opened its doors in 1762 and was the main stage for productions until 1805. The Société d'Emulation, founded in 1779, organized concerts mainly devoted to the music of local composers. The Société Philharmonique also gave concerts.

Musical life in Liège languished under French rule: the choir schools closed down and the bishop-princes were driven away. The Théâtre de la Douane was destroyed by fire in 1805 and replaced temporarily by a hall at the abbey of St Jacques which was apparently very successful. Under the Dutch, a music school was founded in 1821; this became the Ecole Royale de Musique de Liège in 1826. Daussoigne-Méhul was appointed director (1827–62) and an orchestra was set up comprising both teachers and students. In 1820, the Théâtre Royal de Liège was inaugurated. The theatre and the school, which became the Conservatoire Royale de Musique in 1831, constituted from then on the two centres of musical activity in Liège. The town developed a reputation based largely on its virtuoso violinists, who constituted a veritable school, founded by Léonard-Joseph Gaillard. It produced a stream of young virtuosos including F.C.J. Dupont, Désiré Heynberg, Jacques Dupuis, Lambert Massart, Mathieu Crickboom, Léon Van Hout, Joseph Jacob and Eugène Ysaÿe. Auguste Rouma and the virtuoso and composer Henri Vieuxtemps were influential teachers. In 1839 the Société des Concerts du Conservatoire took over the running of the conservatoire orchestra, now the Orchestre Philharmonique de Liège et de la Communauté Française. The conservatoire was endowed at its foundation with a library that included some private collections (Léonard Terry, Joseph Debroux etc.).

The influence of César Franck, who left Liège for Paris in 1835, dominated the work of Liège composers, including Guillaume Lekeu and later Joseph Jongen and Armand Marsick. Désiré Pâque, Victor Vreuls, Jean Rogister, Albert Dupuis, Maurice Dambois, Fernand Quinet and Albert Huybrechts seemed unaffected by modern developments; it was only in the post-war period that a new impulse was given to composition. Pierre Froidebise, who used serial techniques, and André Souris, together with the Association pour le Progrès Intellectuel et Artistique de la Wallonie, influenced Henri Pousseur and Philippe Boesmans. In 1970 the Centre de Recherches Musicales de Wallonie was formed on Pousseur’s initiative. Frederic Rzewski, professor of composition at the conservatoire, influenced a new generation of composers that included Claude Ledoux. The Ensemble Musique Nouvelle de Liège promotes new music. Modernity has also been fervently championed in jazz: Bobby Jaspar, Jacques Peltzer, Sadi and René Thomas achieved distinction in bebop, and Robert Jeanne, Félix Simatine, Steve Houben and Guy Cabay followed in their footsteps.

Since 1967 the Théâtre Royal de Liège has been the home of the Opéra Royal de Wallonie. Concert venues include the conservatoire concert hall (built 1887), the Palais de Congrès, the Palais des Sports (where large-scale opera performances are given), the Société d'Emulation, the Maison de la Culture and the Chapelle de Vertbois. Festivals and concert series have proliferated since 1945: the Concerts de Midi, the Festival des Nuits de Septembre, the Festival de la Guitare and the Festival du Jazz de Comblain-au-Pont. Musicology in Liège, established by Antoine Auda, was developed by Suzanne Clercx-Lejeune (University of Liège) and José Quitin (who in 1972 refounded the Société Liégoise de Musicologie, originally of 1909) and, later, Maurice Barthélemy, Anne-Marie Mathy-Bragard, Philippe Vendrix and Pascal Decroupet.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO (C. Pitt)

J. Martiny: Histoire du Théâtre de Liège depuis son origine jusqu'à nos jours (Liège, 1887)

A. Auda: La musique et les musiciens de l'ancien pays de Liège (Liège, 1930)

C. van den Borren: Pièces polyphoniques profanes de provenance liégeoise (XVe siècle) (Brussels, 1950)

J. Quitin: ‘Les maîtres de chant de la cathédrale Notre-Dame et Saint-Lambert à Liège du XVe au XVIe siècles’, RBM, viii (1954), 5–18

J. Quitin: Les maîtres de chant et la maîtrise de la collégiale Saint-Denis à Liège, au temps de Grétry: Esquisse socio-musicologique (Brussels, 1964)

J. Quitin: ‘Orgues, organistes et organiers de l'église cathédrale Notre-Dame et Saint-Lambert à Liège aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles’, Bulletin de l'Institut archéologique liégeois, lxxx (1967), 5–58

J. Quitin: ‘La musique à Liège sous le règne de Georges d'Autriche (1544–1557)’, Fédération archéologique et historique de Belgique: Congrès XL: Liège 1968

F. Peters and M.A. Vente: L'orgue et la musique d'orgue dans les Pays-Bas et la Principauté de Liège du 16e au 18e siècle (Antwerp, 1971)

A.-M. Bragard: ‘Musique’, Le Siècle des Lumières dans la Principauté de Liège (Liège, 1980), 379–410

J. Quitin: ‘Importance et rôle international des maîtres de l'Ecole liégeoise de violon’, Bulletin de la Société liégoise de musicologie, xxxi (1980), 1–23

R. Wangermée and P. Mercier, eds.: La musique en Wallonie et à Bruxelles (Brussels, 1980–82)

M. Haine and N. Meuus, eds.: Dictionnaire des facteurs d'instruments de musique en Wallonie et à Bruxelles (Liège, 1985)

J.-P. Schroeder: Histoire du jazz à Liège (Liège, 1985)

E. Contini: Une ville et sa musique: les concerts du Conservatoire Royal de Musique de Liège de 1827 à 1914 (Liège, 1990)

X. Frisque: ‘Un reflet de l'Ecole liégeoise de chant grégorien àtravers les manuscrits de l'ancienne collégiale Sainte-Croix à Liège’, Bulletin de la Société liégoise de musicologie, lxviii (1990), 1–30

M. Barthélemy: Catalogue des imprimés musicaux anciens du Conservatoire Royal de Musique de Liège (Liège, 1992)

C. Pirenne: ‘La musique et le chant au Séminaire de 1735 à 1794’, Grand Séminaire de Liège 1592–1992 (Liège, 1992), 103–17

P. Vendrix: ‘La tradition lyrique à Liège’, L'opéra: un rêve, une réalité (Liège, 1992), 12–23

M. Haine and P. Vendrix, eds.: ‘Mille ans de vie musicale au Pays de Liège’, RBM, xlvii (1993) 5–220

P. Vendrix: ‘Au carrefour des influences: la chanson française dans la Principautéde Liège au XVIe siècle’, Bulletin de la Société liégoise de musicologie, lxxxvi (1994), 14–20

P. Vendrix ed.: La genèse d'un opéra: le théâtre de Liège en 1820 (Liège, 1995)

J. Quitin: La vie musicale à Liège entre deux révolutions: 1789–1830 (Liège, forthcoming)

PHILIPPE VENDRIX

Liégeois, Nicolas.

See Champion family, (2).

Liège Organbook

[B-Lu 153]. See Sources of keyboard music to 1660, §2(iv).

Liegnitz

(Ger.).

Town, now Legnica in Poland. It was ruled for part of the 17th century by Georg rudolph.

Lienas, Juan de

(fl c1617–54). Mexican composer. What little is known of his life comes from cursory ascriptions and statements in two large manuscript collections, the Carmen Codex at the Convento del Carmen in Villa Obregón, Mexico City, and the Newberry Choirbooks (US-Cn Case VM 2147 C36). Several manuscripts refer to him with the title ‘Don’, implying that Lienas was a Spanish nobleman or, more likely, a native American cacique of noble birth. Some references are derogatory, one calling him a ‘galán tieso rollizo’ (chubby, stuck-up fop), another the ‘chiabato Lienas’ (which Schleifer translated as ‘billy-goat Lienas’). The same disgruntled scribe attributed compositions to Lienas with such flippant remarks as ‘del cornudo Lienas’ and ‘del famoso cornudo’, which some scholars have taken as indicating that Lienas was married.

Jesús Bal y Gay assumed that the Carmen Codex was from the Convento del Carmen in Mexico City. Schleifer (1973) suggested instead the Convento de Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación, the institution that once possessed the Newberry Choirbooks. Stevenson (1974), however, pointed out that the Carmen Codex includes parts for male voices (not present at the Encarnación convent), and that the Encarnación chapel was not constructed until 1639. He concludes that the Carmen Codex was probably written between 1617 and 1639 for the Convento del Carmen, and the Newberry Choirbooks at a slightly later period (c1639–54) for the Encarnación convent. Lienas’s works in the two sources differ considerably in style. The Carmen Codex is steeped in the stile antico, whereas the Newberry Choirbooks explore polychoral sonorities for two or even three choirs, deployed antiphonally with vigorous, rhythmic energy. Among Lienas’s finest compositions are the polychoral Credidi, loosely based on a cantus firmus and unified through a recurring motif, and the mass for five voices a cappella.

WORKS

Edition:El Códice del Convento del Carmen, ed. J. Bal y Gay, Tesoro de la música polifónica en México, i (Mexico City, 1952) [B]

Misa super fa re ut fa sol la, 5vv, B

Magnificat, 10vv, US-Cn; Magnificat primi toni, 8vv, Cn; Magnificat tertii toni, 5vv, Cn; B

Requiem, 5vv, B

2 Lamentations, 4vv, Cn, B; 5vv, B

Coenantibus autem, 4vv, B; Credidi propter, 8vv, Cn; Dixit Dominus, 4vv, Cn, B; Dixit Dominus, 8vv, Cn; Domine ad adiuvandum, 8vv, Cn; Himnus in die Nativitatis, 6vv, Cn; In manus tuas, 4vv, Cn; Laudate pueri, 8vv, Cn; Miserere mihi Domine, 3vv/8vv, Cn; Nunc dimittis, 8vv, Cn; Salve nos Domine, 4vv, Cn; Salve regina, 4vv, Cn, B; Salve regina, 8vv, Cn; Te lucis ante terminum, 5vv, Cn; Tristis est anima mea, 8vv, Cn

BIBLIOGRAPHY

StevensonRB

C. Chávez: Introduction to El Códice del Convento del Carmen, ed. J. Bal y Gay (Mexico City, 1952)

R. Stevenson: ‘Mexican Colonial Music Manuscripts Abroad’, Notes, xxix (1972–3), 203–14

E.A. Schleifer: ‘New Light on the Mexican Choirbooks at the Newberry Library’, Notes, xxx (1973–4), 231–41

R.M. Stevenson: ‘El “Carmen” reivindicado’, Heterofonía, no.36 (1974), 17–20 [Eng. summary, 40]

E.A. Schleifer: The Mexican Choirbooks of the Newberry Library (Case MS VM 2147 C36 (diss., U. of Chicago, 1979)

R. Stevenson: ‘La música en el México de los siglos XVI a XVIII’, La música de México, ed. J. Estrada, i/2 (Mexico City, 1986), 6–74, esp. 57–8

R. Stevenson: ‘Catalogue of the Newberry Library Mexican Choirbooks (Case MS VM 2147 C36)’, Inter-American Music Review, ix/1 (1987–8), 65–73, esp. 69–70

R. Stevenson: ‘Mexican Baroque Polyphony in Foreign Libraries’, ibid., 55–64, esp. 58–9

R. Stevenson: ‘Mexico City Cathedral Music 1600–1675’, ibid., 75–114, esp. 84–7

CRAIG H. RUSSELL

Lienau.

German firm of music publishers. Emil Robert Lienau (b Neustadt, Holstein, 28 Dec 1838; d Neustadt, 22 July 1920) studied philosophy and music under Moscheles and Julius Rietz in Kiel and Leipzig. In 1863 he joined the publishing business of Schlesinger in Berlin, bought it in 1864 and continued it under the old firm name, adding ‘Robert Lienau’; in 1875 he bought the Viennese firm of Haslinger. He retired from the business in 1898 and handed the management of the firms to his sons, first to Robert Heinrich Lienau (b Neustadt, 27 July 1866; d Berlin, 8 Nov 1949), and from 1907 to Friedrich Wilhelm Lienau (b Berlin, 6 Jan 1876; d Vienna, 15 Nov 1973) as well. In 1910, when the firm owned more than 25,000 titles, the brothers acquired the Viennese publishing firm of Rättig, and later also the Berlin firms of Krentzlin (1919), Wernthal (1925) and Köster (1928). Friedrich Wilhelm Lienau withdrew from the Berlin business in 1938 and directed sections of Haslinger in Vienna as an independent firm. The business in Berlin was managed by Robert Heinrich Lienau's children: Rosemarie from 1949 (b Berlin, 19 June 1903; d 19 Sept 1996) and Robert Lienau from 1958 (b Berlin, 1 May 1905). The firm was taken over by Maja Maria Reis and Cornelia Grossman on 31 December 1990 and administrated by Musikverlag Zimmermann.

The elder Robert Lienau carefully continued the classical tendency of the firm of Schlesinger (Beethoven, Weber, Chopin) with Bruckner's Eighth Symphony and expanded the catalogue considerably (from the purchase of Haslinger) with works by Schubert, Johann Strauss (father and son), Lanner and Ziehrer. His sons followed with Sibelius (opp.46–57), Juon and Jarnach, also including modern composers such as Hauer and Berg (opp.1–2). The firm specializes in neglected operas (Cimarosa, Donizetti), music for recorder and guitar, musicological literature and school music.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DeutschMPN

Verzeichnis des Musik-Verlags der Schlesingerschen Buch- und Musikhandlung (Rob. Lienau) Berlin und des Carl Haslinger qdm. Tobias (Rob. Lienau) Wien (Berlin and Vienna, 1890)

W. Altmann, ed.: Johannes Brahms: Briefwechsel, xiv (Berlin, 1920/R)

R. Lienau: Erinnerungen an Johannes Brahms (Berlin, 1934)

R. Elvers: 150 Jahre Musikverlag (Adolf Martin Schlesinger, Robert Lienau) (Berlin, 1960)

Musikverlage in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und in West-Berlin (Bonn, 1965)

C. Frese, ed.: Geschichte eines Musikverlages 1810–1985: Robert Lienau Berlin vormals Schlesinger (Berlin, 1985)

RUDOLF ELVERS

Lienike.

See Linike family.

Liepmannssohn, Leo

(b Landsberg, 18 Feb 1840; d Berlin, May 1915). German antiquarian music dealer. At the time when Liepmannssohn joined A. Asher & Co. (one of the best-known retail and second-hand booksellers in Europe) as an apprentice, the trade included a relatively small amount of music. He was thus prompted to develop his own strong musical interests into an independent business, which he ultimately established at Paris as Liepmannssohn & Dufour in January 1866. By the summer of 1872, when he disposed of the concern, he had issued no fewer than 37 catalogues, all of which included a section of music, while ten were entirely devoted to this subject. After a brief partnership in A. Asher & Co. following his return to Berlin, Liepmannssohn opened his own business there in 1874. In 1903 he sold it to Otto Haas, who had joined him early in that year, and who continued to trade under the name of Liepmannssohn.

Besides its own famous series of stock catalogues (discussed in A. Rosenthal: ‘Die Lagerkataloge des Musikantiquariats Leo Liepmannssohn (1866–1935)’, Festschrift Hans Schneider zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. R. Elvers and E. Vögel (Munich, 1981), 193–216), the firm became widely known for more than 70 auction sales of music held between 1881 and 1934. Many notable collections of rare music and musical literature passed through its hands and the catalogues themselves are monuments of scholarship. Some, compiled by scholars such as Johannes Wolf and Georg Kinsky, have become reference works. The sales included the libraries of Spohr, Riemann, Commer, Eitner, André's heirs, J.E. Matthew and Wolffheim.

ALEC HYATT KING

Lier, Bertus van

(b Utrecht, 10 Sept 1906; d Roden, 14 Feb 1972). Dutch composer. He took lessons in music theory at the Toonkunst Muziekschool in Utrecht from the age of eight. Later he studied the cello with Max Orobio de Castro and composition with Pijper at the Amsterdam Conservatory (1926–32), and conducting with Scherchen in Strasbourg (1933). During his school years van Lier had participated in performances of Euripides’ Bacchae and the Cyclops and Sophocles’ Antigone, and this had two important consequences: his acquaintance with Pijper, who composed the incidental music for these performances, and his lifelong fascination with ancient Greek tragedy. In later years he was also active in the field of musicology: J.S. Bach, Schubert and Mozart were his favourite topics of research. From 1960 on he lectured at Groningen University, which awarded him an honorary degree in 1964.

His compositional style was, in the first period, strongly influenced by the polytonal structures of Pijper, though he did go on to employ tonal centres, as in the Third Symphony (1939). Textures built out of the superimposition of a number of melodic lines remain characteristic throughout his output of the later years. However, with his at times dense orchestration, the results can be a little overloaded, for example in the Bassoon Concerto (1950) and the Sinfonia (1954).

As a frequent conductor of Bach’s St Matthew Passion, van Lier had noted that movement no.30 of the work contains a quotation from the Song of Songs. This led him to undertake extensive research on the text, finally resulting in the composition of his own Het hooglied (‘The Holy Song’) for soprano, tenor, bass, mixed chorus and chamber orchestra (1949). Along with the ballet music Katharsis (1945), it counts among his most successful and impressive works.

WORKS

Stage: De Magere (incid music to puppet play, B. Verhagen), 1927; Aias (incid music, Sophocles, trans. van Lier), 1933; Katharsis (ballet), 1945; Antigone (incid music, Sophocles, trans. van Lier), 1952

Orch: Sym no.1, 1928; Sym no.2, 1931, rev. 1945; Vc Concertino, 1933; Sym. no.3, 1939; Bn Conc., 1950; Sinfonia, 2 str orchs, ww, hn, perc, 1954; Divertimento facile, 1957; Variatie op een Uilenspiegel-thema [Variations on an Eulenspiegel Theme], 2 vn, orch, 1958; Concertante muziek, ob, vn, orch, 1959; Intrada reale e sinfonia festiva, 1964; Suite, 1966 [based on melodies from Haerlems oudt liedt-boeck]; Variations and Theme, 1967

Choral: 2 poésies de Ronsard, 1931; Canticum (P.H. Damsté), female vv, pf, str orch, 1939; Ps xxiii, 1940; O Nederland let op uw saeck (cant.), chorus, str, perc, 1945; Ik sla de trom (J. Greshoff), male vv, orch, 2 pf, 1948; Het hooglied [The Holy Song] (Bible: Song of Songs), S, T, B, chorus, orch, 1949; Cantate voor Kerstmis (J.J. Thomson), chorus, orch, 1955; 4 hollandse kwartijnen (P.C. Boutens), 1956; Vijf mei: zij [May 5th: They] (K. Josselin de Jong), boys’ chorus, chorus, orch, 1962; Ps xxxvi, Bar, chorus, orch, 1964

Solo vocal: La fille morte (P. Fort), medium v, pf, 1926; 4 verzen van Leopold, S, orch, 1933; De dijk [The Dyke] (J. Engelman), nar, orch, 1937; Vrijheid [Freedom] (Engelman), high v/boys’ chorus, pf/org, 1945; A tfile fun a ghettojid [A Prayer of a Ghetto Jew] (Kwiatkowska), low v, pf, 1948; 3 oud-persische kwartijnen [3 Old-Persian Quatrains] (P.C. Boutens), S, a fl, ob d’amore, pf, 1956; Eens [Once] (A. Roland Holst), medium v, pf, 1966

Chbr and solo inst: Nouvelles, pf, 1921; Sonate pour une poupée, pf, 1925; Suite of 7 dances, pf, 1926; Pf Sonatina no.1, 1927; Str Qt, 1929; Pf Sonatina no.2, 1930; Sonata, vc, 1931; Kleine Suite, vn, pf, 1935; Dance, pf, 1943; Liedje en canon, pf, 1944

Principal publisher: Donemus

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Badings: ‘Bertus van Lier’, De hedendaagsche Nederlandsche muziek (Amsterdam, 1936), 95–102

B. van Lier: Buiten de maatstreep [Beyond the barline] (Amsterdam, 1948) [incl. essays on J.S. Bach, Mozart and Schubert]

J. Wouters: ‘Bertus van Lier: Sonatine no.2 and Three Ancient Persian Quatrains’, Sonorum speculum, no.13 (1962), 9–14

J. Wouters: ‘Bertus van Lier’, Sonorum speculum, no.29 (1966), 1–17

W. Paap: ‘Bertus van Lier’, Mens en melodie, xxvii (1972), 99–102

MARIUS FLOTHUIS

Liera viol.

See Lyra viol.

Liess, Andreas

(b Klein Kniegnitz, Silesia [now Ksiéginice Małe], 16 June 1903; d Weidling, nr Vienna, 21 May 1988). Austrian musicologist. After studying with Max Schneider at the University of Breslau (1922–5), he moved to Vienna, where he attended lectures in musicology by Adler, von Ficker and Wellesz (1925–8). He took the doctorate in 1928 with a dissertation on Debussy’s harmony and continued his studies in Paris (1927–33). He made his living at first as a freelance journalist, but in 1952 he was appointed lecturer in music history at the Vienna Conservatory. He became reader in 1958 at the Vienna Music Academy (now Hochschule für Musik) and professor in 1972. His essential concern as a historian was to present music history in its broadest cultural-historical aspects. He did much for the understanding of French music in German-speaking countries.

WRITINGS

Die Grundelemente der Harmonik in der Musik von Claude Debussy (diss., U. of Vienna, 1928)

Claude Debussy: das Werk im Zeitbild (Strasbourg, 1936, 2/1978)

Claude Debussy und das deutsche Musikschaffen (Würzburg, 1939)

Joseph Marx: Leben und Werk (Graz, 1943)

Wiener Barockmusik (Vienna, 1946)

Johann Joseph Fux, ein steirischer Meister des Barock (Vienna, 1948)

Die Musik im Weltbild der Gegenwart: Erkenntnis und Bekenntnis (Lindau and Vienna, 1949)

Deutsche und französische Musik in der Geistesgeschichte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (Vienna, 1950)

Franz Schmidt: Leben und Schaffen (Graz, 1951)

J.M. Vogl, Hofoperist und Schubertsänger (Graz, 1954)

‘Debussy, Claude Achille’, ‘Fux, Johann Josef’, MGG1

Carl Orff: Idee und Werk (Zürich, 1955, 2/1977, rev. 1980 by H. Gassner; Eng. trans., 1965)

Fuxiana (Vienna, 1958)

Die Musik des Abendlandes im geistigen Gefälle der Epochen (Vienna, 1970)

Protuberanzen, i: Zur Theorie der Musikgeschichte (Vienna, 1970)

Der Weg nach innen (Ortung ästhetischen Denkens heute) (Zürich, 1973)

Kritische Erwägungen zu einer Ganzheitsphilosophie der Musik (Vienna, 1980)

Zwei Essays zu Carl Orff: De temporum fine comoedia (Vienna, 1981)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Berger: ‘Die historische Dimension im musikphilosophischen Denken von Andreas Liess und Th.W. Adorno’, IRASM, ii (1971), 5–35

R.M. Rozinek: Begegnung mit Andreas Liess (Suhr, 1984)

RUDOLF KLEIN

Lieto, Bartolomeo.

See Lieto Panhormitano, Bartolomeo.

Lieto fine

(It.: ‘happy ending’).

A term used to denote the happy conclusion of a drama or operatic libretto, a basic ingredient of the genre of opera, particularly during the first two centuries of its development. One aim in the choice and construction of operatic plots was to please the taste and political aspirations of the aristocratic patrons, but patronage and social considerations offer only a partial explanation for the procedure of the early librettists and composers: it was in tune with the optimistic view of society during the Enlightenment period. A large proportion of operas written after the 1820s project a tragic vision of life which extends from Norma via Aida and Carmen to Madama Butterfly and Lulu.

Lieto Panhormitano [Panormitano, Palermitano], Bartolomeo

(b Palermo; fl Naples, 1558). Italian music theorist and ?composer. He was a priest and author of the Dialogo quarto de musica (Naples, 1559/R), which instructs those unable to read mensural notation how to intabulate part-music for viola a mano (probably a vihuela) or lute. The work includes 14 tables, each showing the gamut, clefs, staves, accidentals and the corresponding ciphers for Italian lute tablature. The pitch of the lowest note in the bass part determines which table should be consulted, and the parts are then intabulated in the order soprano, bass, tenor and alto. The treatise also contains information on selecting a properly proportioned lute, placing frets and tuning. He wrote other treatises, now lost, including one on transposition and reading ligatures, and another on counterpoint. Although he referred to himself in the Dialogo as a noted composer of masses, motets, hymns and madrigals, no works by a composer of this name have survived.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BrownI

WolfH

J.M. Ward: ‘Le problème des hauteurs dans la musique pour luth et vihuela au XVIe siècle’, Le luth et sa musique: Neuilly-sur-Seine 1957, 171–8

P. Manzi: ‘Bartolomeo Lieto obliato musicista del Cinquecento’, Almanacco dei bibliotecari italiani (1973), 101–10

J.M. Ward: ‘Changing the Instrument for the Music’, JLSA, xv (1982), 27–39

ARTHUR J. NESS

Lieurance, Thurlow (Weed)

(b Oskaloosa, IA, 21 March 1878; d Boulder, CO, 9 Oct 1963). American composer. He studied the cornet and played in various bands around Neosho Falls, Kansas. His first compositions range from marches for band (lost) to the oratorio Queen Esther (1897). He served as a bandmaster during the Spanish-American War, then studied harmony and arranging at Cincinnati College of Music for a short period. After two seasons in the Castle Square Opera Company chorus Lieurance returned to Kansas in about 1901 as a singing and piano teacher. In 1903 he visited the Crow Reservation in Montana and thereby began a life-long fascination with the music and customs of Amerindians. He made many attempts to obtain a position with the US government for the purpose of collecting Amerindian music but his offers were consistently declined, though he may have worked as a collector with the Wanamaker expedition of 1908. His first field recordings date from 1911; the results of this and subsequent trips comprise a large and important collection of Amerindian music now in the Archive of Folk Culture at the Library of Congress. Between 1917 and 1926 he led a touring group on the Chautauqua circuit which presented his arrangements of Amerindian melodies. After appointment as a faculty member of the Municipal University of Wichita he continued to devote most of his energies to studying Amerindian culture and was one of several composers who attempted to develop an indigenous American music based on Amerindian materials. One of his large-scale compositions, Minisa, won a Presser award; the majority of his works are songs and piano pieces, many of which he arranged for other forces. His best-known work, the song By the Waters of Minnetonka (also known as Moon Deer), has enjoyed widespread and enduring popularity.

WORKS

printed works published in Philadelphia unless otherwise stated

Stage: Drama of the Yellowstone, lost

Orch: Minisa, 1930; Sym. Sketches – Paris, France, 1931; Trails Southwest, 1932; The Conquistador, 1934; Colonial Exposition Sketches, lost; Medicine Dance; Water Moon Maiden

Choral: Queen Esther (orat), vv, pf, 1897; [11] Indian Love Songs (E.D. Proctor, A. Fletcher, Lieurance), SSA (1925); [10] Indian Songs (L. Wolf, C. Roos, Proctor, E. Guiwits, F. Densmore, J.M. Cavanass, Lieurance), SATB (1934); 11 partsongs; many arrs.

Songs, 1v, pf: 5 Songs (W. Felter) (1907); 9 Indian Songs (Proctor, Felter, K. Jones, Lieurance) (1913); By the Waters of Minnetonka (Moon Deer) (Cavanass) (1917); Songs of the North American Indian (Cavanass, Fletcher, Lieurance) (1920); Songs from the Yellowstone (Lieurance) (1920–21); 8 Songs from Green Timber (Roos) (1921); Forgotten Trails (Roos), 4 songs (1923); 3 Songs, each in his own Tongue (W.H. Carruth) (1925); 6 Songs from Stray Birds (R. Tagore) (1937); From the Land in the Sky (Lieurance), 3 songs (1941); Singing Children of the Sun (Cavanass, Fletcher, Wolf, Jones, Guiwits, Roos, Lieurance), 16 songs (1943) [incl. 8 repr. from previous collections]

Chbr: over 200 salon pieces for various combinations of 1v, fl, vn, pf, 1904–55, incl. solo pf works; many arrs.

MSS held by Wichita State University, KS; autobiography and correspondence in US-NAu

Principal publisher: Presser

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[?T.W. Lieurance]: ‘Legend of a Famous Lieurance Song’, The Etude, xxxix (1921), 94

[?T.W. Lieurance]: ‘From Broadway to the Pueblos’, The Etude, xli (1923), 231–2

[?T.W. Lieurance]: ‘Thurlow Lieurance (An Authentic Biography)’, The Etude, xli (1923), 232

H.G. Kinscella: ‘Lieurance Traces American Indian Music to Oriental Origins’, Musical America, xxxvii/24 (1923), 3–4

D.A. Lee: ‘Thurlow Lieurance and Music of the American Indians’, Sonneck Society Bulletin, viii/2 (1982), 44–5

T. Browner: ‘“Breaking the Indian Spirit”: Thoughts on Musical Borrowing and the “Indianist” Movement in American Music’, American Music, xv/3 (1997), 265–84

DOUGLAS A. LEE

Lifar, Serge

(b Kiev, 20 March/2 April 1905; d Lausanne, 15 Dec 1986). French dancer of Russian birth. See Ballet, §3(ii).

Ligabue, Ilva

(b Reggio nell’Emilia, 23 May 1932). Italian soprano. Trained at the Scuola della Scala, Milan, she made her début there in 1953 as Marina in I quattro rusteghi. Engagements followed elsewhere in Italy and in Germany; she achieved a major success at Glyndebourne in 1958 as Alice (Falstaff) and returned as Fiordiligi and Donna Elvira. In 1961 she sang Bellini’s Beatrice at La Scala and made her American début with the Chicago Lyric Opera as Margherita (Mefistofele). She also sang Alice at Covent Garden (1963) and appeared at the Vienna Staatsoper, in Buenos Aires and elsewhere. A lyric soprano of great tonal beauty and musical sensibility, she had a captivating stage presence. Her recordings include Alice with Solti and Bernstein, and Asteria in Boito’s Nerone.

NOËL GOODWIN

Ligato.

See Legato.

Ligature (i).

A notational symbol that combines within itself two or more pitches and by its shape defines their rhythm. It is in fact a rhythmicized neume of two or more notes. Between the 12th century and the 16th the ligature had a variety of causes, meanings and uses. Several of its ambiguities arise from its attempt to serve both as a neume (denoting several notes to be sung to a single syllable) and as a part of the rhythmic system; others arise because it was often merely a calligraphical flourish with no meaning beyond that of the note values it represented.

Its rhythmic implications follow a system that is historically logical but somewhat complicated in practice. Once established, towards the end of the 13th century, the system remained unchanged in principle but was used more and more selectively until by the 16th century only a single form of ligature was in common use. With the advent of type-set music the ligature eventually became extinct.

The earliest ligatures derive directly from the rising and falling two-note neumes of chant notation, the pes and the clivis (ex.1a). By the 12th century these had taken, in central French notation, the forms shown in ex.1b. How often these signs had any rhythmic implications in monophonic chant is still much discussed; but there seems to be general agreement that when they had rhythmic meaning they implied some kind of a drive towards the second note, which would become more accented and longer.

With the advent of modal notation for polyphony some time around 1200, the two signs in ex.1b became fundamental building-blocks of the system (see Rhythmic modes and Notation, §III, 2). The number of notes in each neume and the combination of such neumes in ordines defined the rhythms in the modal system; in the majority of cases these two neume-shapes were to be interpreted as breve–long (as in ex.2).

When the fully-fledged system of ligatures was described for the first time by Franco of Cologne (c1280) these two basic shapes retained their most common meanings, as in ex.2. Both shapes were described as being cum proprietate (‘with propriety’, i.e. with the first note in its standard form) and cum perfectione (‘with perfection’, i.e. with the last note in its standard form).

Alterations were made to these fundamental patterns by the addition or subtraction of stems, by turning notes round, or (for final notes only) by changing the shape of a ligature to an oblique form. Thus to turn round the last note of ex.2a as in ex.3a was to make it sine perfectione and to change its value from long to breve; the addition of a descending stem to that note would then restore its propriety, and therefore its original value (ex.3b).

Exx.3b and 2b are the two shapes fundamental to an understanding of ligatures. Any of the changes just mentioned had the effect of turning a long into a breve or equally – and this is perhaps the confusing point – turning a breve into a long. Thus to add a descending stem to the first note of ex.3b would have exactly the same effect as subtracting the descending stem from the first note of ex.2b – changing the value of that note from a breve to a long (ex.4). Similarly with final notes: the subtraction of the stem from the second note of ex.3b changed it from a long to a breve. For a descending ligature, however, a different technique was used. Here, to avoid confusion with liquescent neumes, the ligature was altered by conversion to the oblique form (ex.5). In all other cases the oblique form was identical in meaning with the normal square form of ligature: it changed only the final note, and then only when the ligature descended to that note.

This system, deriving directly from the concepts of propriety and perfection in the basic ligature forms in exx.3b and 2b, has two important characteristics: the scheme in the rising form of ligature is different from that in the falling form; and it applies only to the first and last notes of ligatures. Ex.6 shows all the possibilities.

Two further features complete the system. A rising stem denotes the beginning of a ligature cum opposita proprietate (‘with opposed propriety’): this is a ligature of two notes, each worth a semibreve (ex.7a). Whatever else may be happening in the ligature the two notes immediately following that rising stem are always semibreves (ex.7b). All other notes – that is to say, notes other than the first and last in a ligature and ones not covered by the cum opposita proprietate convention – have the value of a breve (ex.8), though a descending stem after any such note can turn it into a long (ex.9).

It is perhaps worth adding two points to the above explanation. First, while exx.2–9 are all in black-full notation they apply equally in the void notation that became customary in the 15th century. Second, the values of notes in ligature are of course subject to the same modifications as any other notes when used within the mensural system (see Notation, §III, 3).

This system grew up in the notation of melismatic tenors in the motet repertory of the late 13th century (though it is as well to bear in mind that many early motets are written in modal notation, an earlier system that works rather differently). In the 14th century it was used particularly in the untexted lower voices of secular songs and in the more melismatic sections in sacred music. Here, and in later music, scribes seem to have avoided placing ligatures so that more than one syllable must be sung to the ligature; and indeed the few discussions of texting in the theorists of the 15th and 16th centuries specifically forbid the singing of more than one syllable to a ligature. Yet there are many cases where there is no alternative to breaking the ligature for texting; and this rule should therefore be taken only as the norm, not as of universal application. As early as the 13th century the conflicting meanings of a neume (to denote several pitches for a single syllable) and of a ligature (to denote a particular rhythmic configuration) can often be seen leading to notational confusion.

In the 15th century, ligatures became increasingly rare. Some theorists of the time suggested that a ligature should be written whenever possible, and that to do otherwise would be to insult the musician. But there is very little evidence of this precept being followed at all rigorously. On the other hand, that state of mind may go some way to explaining why there is relatively little agreement among 15th-century sources in terms of ligatures that appear spasmodically. Several scholars have attempted, for example, to trace relationships between manuscripts by charting the ligature variants; but while such variants have often been recorded in the critical commentaries to editions, the findings in terms of manuscript filiation have in general proved inconclusive.

By the end of the 15th century there was in any case considerably less opportunity to write ligatures. As the minim and the semiminim became the most common note values, fewer and fewer occasions arose where a ligature of breve and long note values (as in exx.8 and 9) could be used. The cum opposita proprietate ligature of two semibreves therefore became almost the only form to appear; it can be found even in the 17th century. But long before that the ligature was in most cases only a scribal flourish, a more elegant way of writing notes. That ligatures were included in many printed editions of the 16th century – and even, occasionally, of the 17th – is no more significant than the retention of printers’ ligatures for normal letter-press typography.

For bibliography see Notation.

PETER WRIGHT

Ligature (ii).

The metal band with two screws by which the reed of a clarinet or saxophone is secured to the mouthpiece. It replaces the earlier method of binding the reed with a waxed thread or twisted cord, still regarded as the correct method in Germany. The screw ligature was initially introduced by Iwan Müller in his Méthode de clarinette (Paris, 1821), along with his revolutionary 13-keyed clarinet. Metal ligatures with one screw were introduced during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Modern ligatures are made in clear plastic; with material having a Velcro binding; and with a string or cord binding tightened by one or two screws.

ALBERT R. RICE

Ligeti, György (Sándor)

(b Dicsőszentmárton [Diciosânmartin, now Tîrnăveni], Transylvania, 28 May 1923). Hungarian composer. After being exposed to two tyrannies in his youth, Nazi and Stalinist, he left Hungary following the 1956 Russian suppression of his country’s independence and found himself, in western Europe, confronted by another stern ideology, that of the Darmstadt-Cologne avant garde. The effect was twofold. He was liberated to pursue long-cherished ideals of musical advance, but at the same time his critical, contrary spirit was sharpened. Unlike many of his young colleagues in the west, he was suspicious of system, rejoiced in the delightfulness and evocativeness of sound, and steadily reintroduced – though in quite new ways, guided by an exact ear – things that serial orthodoxy had refused, such as simple harmonies, ostinatos and palpable melodies. Just when this process of recuperation might have led him, in the early 1980s, to join the new dominant movement of postmodernist collage and retrospect, he found further stimulation and contradiction in non-European musical cultures, especially Caribbean, central African and East Asian. Always paradoxical, he found this music of the world enhancing his sense of himself as musically a Hungarian, and began to publish or republish many of the compositions he had written decades earlier.

1. Years in Hungary.

3. After ‘Le Grand Macabre’.

PAUL GRIFFITHS

1. Years in Hungary.

Ligeti was born into a Jewish family of some artistic distinction: his paternal grandfather had been a professional painter, and the violinist Leopold Auer (‘Ligeti’ being a Hungarianization of the surname) was a paternal great-uncle. Soon after his birth the family moved to the provincial centre of Kolozsvár, where he studied with Farkas at the conservatory (1941–3) and during the summers privately with Kadosa in Budapest. In 1944 he was called up into the labour corps, and not until September 1945 was he able to resume his studies, at the academy of music in Budapest, where his teachers included Farkas again, Veress and Járdányi. He graduated in 1949, and the next year returned as a teacher of harmony and counterpoint.

By this point he had already begun to make a mark as a composer. The cultural situation in Hungary, with Moscow setting the pace and Kodály a national monument, demanded a steady output of choral settings in folk style. Ligeti was able to use such opportunities in order to perfect his technique, and at the same time to write more adventurous music, especially in his songs and piano pieces of 1946–8. After that, between 1949 and 1953, came a period of despotism in Hungary, when musical innovation was as impossible as political dissent. Ligeti continued to produce the expected choral songs, and the unexpected, unwanted music that mostly went into his desk drawer: an example is his Musica ricercata (1951–3), a sequence of eleven piano pieces, of which the first uses only two pitch classes, the second three, and so on. In 1954 the totalitarian grip began to relax, and Ligeti responded with works more ambitious and challenging than anything he had composed hitherto: his First Quartet and a pair of Weöres choruses. But he was limited by what he knew (principally Bartók among the 20th-century masters) and his dream was of a largely amorphous but complexly figured music that, as yet, he did not have the means to create. Information about the new electronic music being generated in Cologne, and a broadcast of Stockhausen’s Gesang der Jünglinge, filled him with hope.

2. From 1956 to ‘Le Grand Macabre’.

On fleeing Budapest, in December 1956, he travelled to Vienna, and from there to Cologne, where for a year or so he spent a lot of time listening and learning new techniques. He was fascinated by Webern, in whom he found a model of manifest construction allied with extreme expressive effect, and he familiarized himself with the thinking of his Western contemporaries. He wrote the classic analysis of a piece from the apogee of total serialism (Boulez’s Structures 1a), but he voiced too an awareness of the dangers and limitations of such means of organization. With Koenig as his mentor, he then worked on three electronic pieces, of which Artikulation is a comic pendant to Gesang, a piece in which synthetic sounds mimic vocal behaviour. In 1958 he taught for the first time at Darmstadt, whither he regularly returned during the next decade. He also worked on realizing his dream of unmeasured rhythm, fantastical complexity and sonic drama in Apparitions for orchestra (1958–9), in which – simultaneously with but independently of Xenakis, Penderecki and Stockhausen – he introduced orchestral clusters. In 1959 he returned to Vienna, but he was back in Cologne in June 1960 for the first performance of Apparitions. That event was the foundation of his international reputation; the next year he began giving annual courses at the academy of music in Stockholm.

Apparitions led him to a more homogeneous and static handling of orchestral clusters in Atmosphères (1961), which is almost a single cloud, drifting through different regions of colour, harmony and texture, whether in the form of sustained tones (remarkably for the period, there is only one percussion instrument: a piano whose strings are brushed towards the close) or of what he called ‘micropolyphony’, consisting of dense weaves of canons at the unison, in which the lines move at different speeds and are not separately identifiable. Atmosphères was soon performed around the world and more than once recorded; it was also widely imitated. Ligeti himself, however, was on to other things. He wrote one more cluster composition, Volumina (1961–2) – though even here there are essential differences, in that the piece is for a solo player (an organist) and graphically notated. His other works from immediately after Atmosphères were ironic sketches (Die Zukunft der Musik, in which he as mute ‘lecturer’ chalked up on a blackboard instructions to his audience; the Poème symphonique for a hundred clockwork metronomes running down at different speeds, and so creating micropolyphony of unparallelled complexity) and a more substantial comedy, Aventures, a wordless sequence of quasi-operatic situations for three singers and seven instrumentalists.

The completion of a second such work, Nouvelles aventures (1962–5), was interrupted by the composition of the large-scale Requiem (1963–5), in which similar kinds of extravagant vocal behaviour are used in the setting of the Dies irae while other sections are composed in choral-orchestral micropolyphony. In the finale, the Lacrimosa, the resulting hazy clusters are sometimes and suddenly replaced by the clear light of simple intervals, including octaves and tritones, and Ligeti pursued the possibilities of harmonic centres in Lux aeterna for unaccompanied voices (1966) and Lontano for orchestra (1967). This was not a return to conventional tonality – Ligeti preferred chords with no clear diatonic sense (such as a major second superimposed on a minor third) – but, together with the principle of canon, it allowed him access to the continuity of conventional tonal music. Lontano is partly a salute, across a gulf of elapsed time, to the late Romantic symphony.

In Lontano, as in Atmosphères, Ligeti made his music of long, slow gestures, but there was another basic element in his world, that of rapid mechanical activity. (‘Clocks and clouds’ he would call these two kinds of music in the title of a later work, borrowing a phrase from an essay by Karl Popper.) Asked to write a piece for harpsichord, he found how such frantic speed, if applied to iterated formulae, could produce an impression of gradual change, and the result was Continuum (1968). He was also concerned to explore an alternative case of clocks becoming clouds – the confusion of intonation when a large number of voices, as in the Requiem, are singing micropolyphony – and in Ramifications (1968–9) he produced a work for two bodies of strings playing similar music in different tuning systems, a quarter-tone apart.

In other works of this period, including the Second Quartet (1968), Ten Pieces for wind quintet (1968) and Chamber Concerto (1969–70), he used multi-movement form to present several different faces of his music in succession. There are clock movements and cloud movements, and often these movements of diverse kinds will be made to ‘rhyme’ by means of cross-reference: such a conception of musical form goes back to previous works in two movements, the Cello Concerto and Apparitions, and further to the two-movement, opposing-but-similar forms of Bartók. The Double Concerto for flute, oboe and orchestra (1972) is again an example of this paired-movement type, and again an essay in microtonal intonation, profiting from recent developments in woodwind technique.

The works of 1968–72 were thus works of synthesis and expansion – expansion to embrace microtones and also, in the orchestral Melodien (1971), well defined melodies that emerge from and fold back into more characteristically Ligetian textures of held chords and fast arpeggios. In part the greater range of his music at this time came from the greater range of his travels. In 1969–70 a Deutsche akademischer Austauschdienst scholarship took him to Berlin, and he divided his time between that city and Vienna until 1973; in 1972 he was visiting professor at Stanford University; and in 1973 he accepted a permanent appointment to the Musikhochschule in Hamburg, where he made his main home. While in California he had come across the music of Partch, Reich and Riley, and gained a commission from the San Francisco SO, which he fulfilled with San Francisco Polyphony (1973–4). This piece and Clocks and Clouds (1972–3) were relics of a failed operatic project, in that they used sketches he had made for an Oedipus which was aborted on the death of Göran Gentele, who had commissioned the work for the Swedish Royal Opera, had written the libretto, and was to have been the director.

The opera Ligeti went on to write for Stockholm was Le Grand Macabre (1974–7), based on a play by the Belgian dramatist Michel de Ghelderode, and concerned, like the Requiem, with death and survival – the most meaningful subjects for a composer who had lived through World War II and had then been contributing to the debate about the death and survival of musical expression. The opera’s central character – Nekrotzar, the Grand Macabre of the title – arrives on earth (or on a Ligetian revision of the earth, featuring a Breughelesque peasant, a pair of Monteverdian lovers and a court led by an inconsequential countertenor monarch) to announce the end. When the midnight hour is reached, however, he is the only one to die: the others go on into a life after death – a life not so different from the life they were living before, only perhaps more difficult in being less serious.

Composing Le Grand Macabre gave Ligeti the chance to bring together many of his discoveries (the still orchestral textures and luminous figurations of the Chamber Concerto and Double Concerto, the kind of comic-strip speed, precision and irony that had appeared in the Requiem, mechanical musical actions inherited from Continuum) and to try out new things, including the introduction to a decrepit world with ignoble instruments (in the prelude for motor horns), and the picturing of that world by reference to works and styles of the past. Some parts of the score consist of semi-quotation and collage, but the final passacaglia goes beyond retrospection to indicate how chains of quasi-diatonic chords might be fabricated so that their harmonic implications were continually estranged and subverted. Again as in the Requiem, the conclusion offers a glimpse of something new.

Following its première in Stockholm, Le Grand Macabre enjoyed an extraordinary number of productions for a modern opera, being seen in Hamburg (1978), Saarbrucken (1979), Bologna (1979), Nuremberg (1980), Paris (1981) and London (1982). The composer was most appreciative of the Bologna staging, on account of the designs by Roland Topor, but he grew dissatisfied with the work itself, and in 1996 gave the score a thorough overhaul in preparation for the 1997 Salzburg production.

3. After ‘Le Grand Macabre’.

If there were seeds for Ligeti’s future output in his opera, there were intimations too in a work he wrote while the opera was in train: the set of three pieces for two pianos, Monument – Selbstportrait – Bewegung (1976). The ‘self portrait’ is an essay in repetitive patterning which pays homage to other practitioners of the art; the full title is ‘Selbstportrait mit Reich und Riley (und Chopin ist auch dabei)’. Unlike Reich and Riley at this time, though, Ligeti was interested in making symmetry asymmetrical, and here he uses a technique of having keys held down silently, so that gaps will appear in the arpeggios that run across them. That technique was to appear again in one of the 1985 Etudes for solo piano, ‘Touches bloquées’. More generally significant for the future is the algorithmic process of ‘Monument’, whereby the movement unfolds as if of itself, through the operation of carefully chosen rules. Ligeti’s examination of Boulez’s Structures Ia had not been profitless, but in his music the rules and their workings are laid out to view, and only become inaudible once the self-generation has reached a high level of complexity. There are parallels here with the drawings of M.C. Escher, which Ligeti had also come across during his time in California. As for ‘Bewegung’, it is a fluid version of ‘Monument’ (once again, these are a pair of similar opposites) and – though more disguised in this regard than the ending of the opera – a passacaglia, belonging to the formal type that appealed to Ligeti perhaps for its contrapuntal challenges and for its clear balance of repetition and change. Soon after the opera he wrote two more pieces of this kind, both for harpsichord: Hungarian Rock and Passacaglia ungherese.

These were, though, his last compositions for some years, while he struggled with a commissioned piano concerto and with the crisis in musical evolution. By the late 1970s the avant garde to which he had been attached, however sceptically, was no longer functioning as such: the time of shared ideals was over, and instead of being a challenge to established musical culture, the postwar generation had become the new establishment. Ligeti wanted to distance himself from that fate, but he was equally determined to avoid the postmodern flow back to the forms, styles and rhetoric of a century before. The work he eventually produced, after a long silence, was ostensibly a work of exactly that retrieving sort: the Horn Trio (1982), which pays homage to Brahms in its instrumentation and to Romantic music more widely in some of its structures and gestures. What is imitated, though, is often deliberately misinterpreted: on the most obvious level, Ligeti often asks the horn player to produce natural harmonics, and not only does this bring about – as in Ramifications and the Double Concerto – a play of different tunings but it also, in a more conventional context, gives an effect of oddity and misbehaviour. The Horn Trio maintains another feature of the old avant garde that younger postmodernists were abandoning: a sense of European culture as part of a global network. In particular, the music is invigorated by interactions between compound metres such as Ligeti had heard in recordings of Caribbean music, and the resulting syncopations are again very far from Brahms.

They are perhaps not so far, though, from the folk music of Hungary and the Balkans, as Ligeti seems to have recognized by returning, in 1983, to the medium that had most occupied him during his years in Budapest: the unaccompanied chorus. Of the two sets of choruses he wrote that year, the Magyar etüdök return also to his favourite Hungarian poet, Sándor Weöres, while the Drei Phantasien are settings of Hölderlin. Both works are far more sophisticated than anything he could have produced 30 or 40 years before – they are texturally complex and elaborately constructed – but their modal and rhythmic roots are in the Hungarian choral tradition.

However, the hoped-for renewal was slow in coming, and there was another hiatus before, in 1985, the appearance of the first book of Etudes for piano and the beginning in earnest at last of the Piano Concerto. Prompts for these works seem to have come from three sources: Ligeti’s widening acquaintance with non-European music (especially the Banda-Linda polyphony of the Central African Republic and the semi-commercial music of Latin America and the Caribbean), which encouraged his exploration of polymetre; the boost that his interest in iterative processes (already apparent in Monument) received from the new art of computer graphics, based on the Mandelbrot set; and his growing recognition that there were alternatives to the impasses of atonality (as practised by a worn-out avant garde) and tonality (as re-embraced by minimalists and postmodernists). Some of those alternatives lay in new scales and new tunings, and in the Piano Concerto he again used natural harmonics on the horn (and other instruments). There were also new possibilities in dividing a totally chromatic texture between different modes, as he had done in Atmosphères by drawing out ‘white-note’ (diatonic) and ‘black-note’ (pentatonic) clusters. The effect of this procedure in the Etudes, where the modes are presented not as clusters but as melodies and ostinatos of supple and complex rhythm, is to suggest a direct continuation from Bartók or, more especially, Debussy – a connection confirmed by the poetry of the music and by some of the titles (‘Fanfares’, ‘Arc-en-ciel’).

The title of the sixth Etude, ‘Automne à Varsovie’, alludes to the Warsaw Autumn festival that had been one of the main showcases for contemporary music since the mid-1950s, to the hazardous political and economic condition of Poland in the early 1980s, and to the presence here, as in Selbstportrait, of Chopin, recalled in the almost continuous semiquaver arpeggiation. Against this the music moves mostly in descending chromatic scales, superimposed in up to four layers going at different speeds: at one point, for instance, there are scales whose notes occur at intervals of four, five and seven semiquavers (though with certain notes given double duration). As in the finale of the Horn Trio, the slowly descending chromatic scale evokes a common passacaglia bass of baroque laments, but now there is nothing above the bass other than smaller or larger versions of itself. The piece is, like Mandelbrot images, self-similar on different levels, and out of this oppressive sameness it creates a powerful effect of stalemate and ominousness.

For the composer, though, the 1985 Etudes were liberating. Not only did he go on to complete the Piano Concerto (1985–8), where similar processes of mechanized recollection appear in each of the five movements, but from there he continued into a second book of Etudes (1988–94) and a third (begun in 1995). While these later Etudes go further into the possibilities of musical algorithms, evocative imagery, frenetic activity, polymetre and abundant texture, at the same time Ligeti began to look further into new temperaments in his Violin Concerto (1989–93), which is again in five movements. As in the Piano Concerto, the brass sometimes play natural harmonics and there are instruments of uncertain intonation (ocarinas, slide whistles, recorder); in addition, one violin and one viola from the orchestra are tuned to harmonics on the double bass, and so make available the most delicate abrasions between equal temperament and natural resonance.

However, the concerto also reveals how music may be neither atonal nor tonal without the need of retunings. For example, its second movement, ‘Aria, Hoquetus, Choral’, is based on a melody which is diatonic but unable to settle into any stable key or metre, a melody of folkish style which recalls central Europe without finding a home. As the tripartite title suggests, the tune goes on to gain contrapuntal interruptions and harmonic reinterpretations (notably from a faltering ocarina quartet and a brass section also mouldering with mistuned harmonics); the movement is partly determined by repetitive process, but this relatively abstract kind of construction produces, in a characteristic way, concrete effects of resemblance to older music and of expressive force. The Sonata for solo viola is a further set of (six) movements in which memory and meaning are as if manufactured.

While writing these major instrumental works of the 1980s and 1990s, Ligeti had in mind a second opera, which at first was to have been a setting of The Tempest, but which he later planned as a version of the Alice books of Lewis Carroll – subject matter well suited to his mathematical fantasy and to his appreciation of what is extreme but compact, absurd but humane, various but ordered. The variety of his own music makes it difficult to give an account of his style that would happily embrace, say, Atmosphères and the Viola Sonata. In terms of inquisitive, fundamental-seeking, exploratory process, though, and of reaction (usually surprising and contradictory) to the world around him, he has been always the same man.

WORKS

dramatic

Aventures & Nouvelles aventures (Ligeti), stage version of vocal works, 1966

Le Grand Macabre (op, 2, M. Meschke and Ligeti, after M. de Ghelderode), 1974–7, Stockholm, Royal Opera, 12 April 1978; rev. 1996, Salzburg, 1997

orchestral

Régi magyar társas táncok [Old Hungarian Parlour Dances], str, fl/cl ad lib, 1949

Baladǎ şi joc [Ballad and Dance], school orch, 1950

Concert Românesc, 1952

Apparitions, 1958–9

Atmosphères, 1961

Requiem, S, Mez, chorus, orch, 1963–5

Cello Concerto, 1966

Lontano, 1967

Ramifications, str, 1968–9

Melodien, 1971

Double Concerto, fl, ob, orch, 1972

Clocks and Clouds, female vv, orch, 1972–3

San Francisco Polyphony, 1973–4

Piano Concerto, 1985–8

Violin Concerto, 1989–93

ensemble

Fragment, 10 insts, 1961, rev. 1964

Aventures, 3vv, 7 insts, 1962, rev. 1963

Nouvelles aventures, 3vv, 7 insts, 1962–5

Chamber Concerto, 13 insts, 1969–70

Mysteries of the Macabre, arr. E. Howarth, coloratura S, ens, 1991

chamber and solo instrumental

Baladǎ şi joc [Ballad and Dance], 2 vns, 1950

2 Movements, str qt, 1950

Sonata, vc, 1948–53

6 Bagatelles, wind qnt, 1953 [arr. from Musica ricercata]

String Quartet no.1 ‘Métamorphoses nocturnes’, 1953–4

10 Pieces, wind qnt, 1968

String Quartet no.2, 1968

Hyllning för Hilding Rosenbergs födelsedag (med besvärjandet av Bartóks anda), vn, vc, 1982

Trio, vn, hn, pf, 1982

Die grosse Schildkröten-Fanfare vom Südchinesischen Meer, tpt, 1985

Mysteries of the Macabre, arr. E. Howarth, tpt, pf/ens, 1988

Sonata, va, 1991–4

unaccompanied choral

Idegen földön [Abroad] (B. Balassa, Hung. and Slovak trad.), women’s vv, 1945–6

Betlehemi királyok [The Magi] (A. József), 1946

Bujdosó [Wandering] (Hung. trad.), 1946

Húsvét [Easter] (Hung. trad.), women’s vv, 1946

Magány [Solitude] (S. Weöres), 1946

Magos kősziklának [By the Huge Rock] (Hung. trad.), 1946

Ha folyóvíz volnék [If I Could Flow Like the River] (canon a 4, Slovak trad.), 1947

Kállai kettős [Kálló Two-Step] (Hung. trad.), 1950

Lakodalmas [Weddding Dance] (Hung. trad.), 1950

Hortobágy (Hung. trad.), 1951

Haj, ífjúság! [Youth] (Hung. trad.), 1952

Pletykázó asszonyok [Gossip] (canon a 4, Weöres), 1952

Inaktelki nóták [Songs from Inaktelke] (Hung. trad.), 1953

Pápainé [Widow Pápai] (Hung. trad.), 1953

Mátraszentimrei dalok [Songs from Mátraszentimre] (4 songs, Hung. trad.), 1955

Éjszaka [Night], Reggel [Morning] (Weöres), 1955

Lux aeterna, 16 vv, 1966

3 Phantasien (F. Hölderlin), 16 vv, 1983

Magyar etüdök [Hung. Studies] (Weöres), 16 vv, 1983

Nonsense Madrigals, 6 men’s vv, 1988–93

songs with piano

3 Songs (Weöres), S, pf, 1946–7; 4 lakodalmi tánc [4 Wedding Dances] (Hung. trad.), 3 female vv, pf, 1950; 5 Songs (J. Arany), S, pf, 1952; Der Sommer (Hölderlin), S, pf, 1989

piano solo

2 Capriccios, 1947

Invention, 1948

Musica ricercata, 11 pieces, 1951–3

3 bagatelles, 1961

Etudes, premier livre, 1985: no.1 Désordre, no.2 Cordes vides, no.3 Touches bloquées, no.4 Fanfares, no.5 Arc-en-ciel, no.6 Automne à Varsovie

Etudes, deuxième livre, 1988–94: no.7 Galamb borong [Melancholy Dove], no.8 Fém [Metal], no.9 Vertige, no.10 Der Zauberlehring, no.11 En suspens, no.12 Entrelacs, no.13 L’escalier du diable, no.14 Coloana infinita

Etudes, troixième livre, 1995–: no.15 White on White, no.16 Pour Irina, no.17 A bout de souffle

other keyboard

2 pf: Monument–Selbstportrait–Bewegung, 1976

pf 4 hands: Induló [March], 1942; Polifón etüd, 1943; 3 lakodalmi tánc [3 Wedding Dances], 1950 [arr. from 4 lakodalmi tánc, female vv, pf, 1950]; Sonatina, 1950–51 [partly arr. from Musica ricercata]

org: Ricercare: Omaggio a Frescobaldi, 1953 [arr. from Musica ricercata]; Volumina, 1961–2, rev. 1966; 2 Studies: Harmonies, 1967, Coulée, 1969

hpd: Continuum, 1968; Hungarian Rock (Chaconne), 1978; Passacaglia ungherese, 1978

player pf: Etude 14a, 1993

tape

Glissandi, 1957

Pièce électronique no.3, 1957–8, realized 1996

Artikulation, 1958

other works

Die Zukunft der Musik, lecturer, audience, 1961

Poème symphonique, 100 metronomes, 1962

Rondeau, actor, tape 1976

juvenilia

works the composer deems unworthy of performance

Orch: Little Serenade, str, 1945, rev. 1947; Mifiso la sodo, small orch, 1948; Grande symphonie militaire op.69, 1951

Vocal with insts: Cant. no.1 ‘Et circa horam nonam’ (Lat. liturgy), Mez, 2 choruses, insts, 1944–5; Cant. no.2 ‘Venit angelus’ (Lat. liturgy), Mez, chorus, insts, 1945; Bölcsőtől a sírig [From the Cradle to the Grave] (Hung. trad.), S, Mez, ob, cl, str qt, 1948; Ifjúsági kantáta [Cant. for Youth] (P. Kuczka), 4 soloists, chorus, orch, 1948–9; Tavaszi virág [Spring Flower] (music for a puppet play, Z. Körmöczi), 7 soloists, ens, 1949; Román népdalok és táncok [Romanian Folk Songs and Dances], Mez, Bar, small orch, 1950

Unacc. choral: 3 Attila József Choruses, 1945; Burját-Mongol aratódal [Buriatic-Mongolian Harvest Song], 1945; Bicinia biciae (7 duos, József, trad., textless), S, Bar, chorus, 1945; Dereng már a hajnal [The Dawn’s Already Rising] (B. Fodor), 1945; Nagy idök [Great Times] (Petöfi), 1948; Tél [Winter] (Weöres), 1950; Az asszony és a katona [The Woman and the Soldier] (Hung. trad.), 1951

Chbr: Due, vn, vc, 1945; Duo, vn, pf, 1946

Songs: 3 Attila József Songs, 1950; Petőfi bordala [Petőfi’s Drinking Song] (Petőfi), 1950; Középlokon esik az esö [It’s Raining in Középlok] (Hung. trad.), 1951

Pf: Grande sonate militaire op.69, 1951; Chromatische Phantasie, 1956

MSS in CH-Bps

Principal publishers: Schott, Universal, Peters

WRITINGS

‘Neue Musik in Ungarn’, Melos, xvi (1949), 5–8

‘Neues aus Budapest: Zwölftonmusik oder “Neue Tonalität”?’, Melos, xvii (1950), 45–8

Preface to B. Bartók: String Quartet no.5 (Vienna, [1957])

‘Pierre Boulez: Entscheidung und Automatik in der Structure Ia’, Die Reihe, iv (1958), 38–63; Eng. trans. in Die Reihe, iv (1960), 36–62

‘Zur III. Klaviersonate von Boulez’, Die Reihe, v (1959), 38–40; Eng. trans. in Die Reihe, v (1961), 56–8

‘Über die Harmonik in Weberns erster Kantate’, DBNM, iii (1960), 49–64

‘Wandlungen der musikalischen Form’, Die Reihe, vii (1960), 5–17; Eng. trans. in Die Reihe, vii (1965), 5–19

‘Die Komposition mit Reihen und ihre Konsequenzen bei Anton Webern’, ÖMz, xvi (1961), 297–302

‘Neue Notation: Kommunikationsmittel oder Selbstzweck?’, Notation Neuer Musik, ed. C. Dahlhaus (Mainz, 1965), 35–50

‘Viel Pläne, aber wenig Zeit’, Melos, xxxii (1965), 251–2 [letter to Ove Nordwall of 28 Dec 1964]

‘Über Form in der Neuen Musik’, Form in der Neuen Musik, DBNM, x (1966), 23–35

‘Bemerkungen zu meiner Orgelstück “Volumina”’, Melos, xxxiii (1966), 311–13

‘Weberns Melodik’, Melos, xxxiii (1966), 116–18

‘Zustände, Ereignisse, Wandlungen: Bemerkungen zu meinem Orchesterstück “Apparitions”’, Melos, xxxiv (1967), 165–9

‘Spielanweisungen zur Erstfassung des zweiten Satzes der “Apparitions”’, Musica, xxii (1968), 177–9

‘Über neue Wege im Kompositionsunterricht’, in G. Ligeti, W. Lutosławski and I. Lidholm: Three Aspects of New Music (Stockholm, 1968), 9–44

‘Auf dem Weg zu “Lux aeterna”’, ÖMz, xxiv (1969), 80–88

‘Auswirkungen der elektronischen Musik auf mein kompositorisches Schaffen’, Experimentelle Musik: Berlin 1968, 73–80

‘Apropos Music und Politik’, Ferienkurse ’72, DBNM, xiii (1973), 42–6; Eng. trans. in PNM, xvi/2 (1977–8), 19–24

‘Zur Entstehung der Oper “Le Grand Macabre”’, Melos/NZM, iv (1978), 91–3

‘Musik und Technik’, Ruckblick in die Zukunft: Beiträge zur Lage in den achtziger Jahre, ed. H. Rossner (Berlin, 1981), 297–324

‘Aspekte der Webernschen Kompositionstechnik’, Anton Webern, ii, Musik-Konzepte (1984), 51–104 [special issue]

‘Computer und Komposition: Subjektive Betrachtungen’, Tiefenstruktur der Musik: Festschrift Fritz Winckel zum 80. Geburtstag, ed. C. Dahlhaus (Berlin, 1987), 22–30

‘Ma position comme compositeur aujourd’hui’, Contrechamps, nos.12–13 (1990), 8–10

‘Konvention und Abweichung’, ÖMz, xlvi (1991), 34–9 [on Mozart’s ‘Dissonance’ Quartet K465]

‘Rhapsodische, unausgewogene Gedanken über Musik, besonders über meine eigenen Kompositionen’, NZM, Jg.154, no.1 (1993), 20–29

(1) Wincenty [Vincentius] Lilius [Gigli, Vincenzo]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

monographs, collections and catalogues

O. Nordwall: Ligeti–Dokument (Stockholm, 1968) [incl. letters, sketches, scores, lectures, etc.]

E. Salmenhaara: Das musikalische Material und seine Behandlung in den Werken ‘Apparitions’, ‘Atmosphères’ und ‘Requiem’ von György Ligeti (Regensburg, 1969)

O. Nordwall: György Ligeti: eine Monographie (Mainz, 1971)

Musik und Bildung, vii/10 (1975) [Ligeti issue]

P. Griffiths: György Ligeti (London, 1983, 2/1996)

P. Michel: György Ligeti: compositeur d’aujourd’hui (Paris, 1985)

E. Restagno, ed.: Ligeti (Turin, 1985)

O. Kolleritsch, ed.: György Ligeti: Personalstil – Avantgardismus – Popularität (Vienna, 1987)

H. Sabbe: György Ligeti: Studien zur kompositorischen Phänomenologie, Musik-Konzepte, no.53 (1987)

R.W. Richart: György Ligeti: a Bio-Bibliography (New York, 1990)

Für György Ligeti: Hamburg 1988 [HJbMw, xi (1991)]

W. Burde: György Ligeti: eine Monographie (Zürich, 1993)

NZM, Jg.154, no.1 (1993) [Ligeti issue]

U. Dibelius: György Ligeti: eine Monographie in Essays (Mainz, 1994)

S. Ferguson: György Ligetis Drei Stücke für zwei Klaviere: eine Gesamtanalyse zur grundsätzlichen Problematik der musikalischen Notation als Grundlage der Analyse von Musikwerken (Tutzing, 1994)

C. Floros: György Ligeti: jenseits von Avantgarde und Postmoderne (Vienna, 1996)

interviews

GLIC – György Ligeti in Conversation (London, 1983)

J. Häusler: ‘Interview mit György Ligeti’, Melos, xxxvii (1970), 496–507; Eng. trans. in GLIC, 83–102

J. Häusler: ‘Wenn man heute ein Streichquartett schreibt’, NZM, Jg.131 (1970), 378–81; Eng. trans. in GLIC, 102–10

G. Ligeti: ‘Fragen und Antworten von mir selbst’, Melos, xxxviii (1971), 509–16; Eng. trans. in GLIC, 124–37

U. Stürzbecher: Werkstattgespräche mit Komponisten (Cologne, 1971), 32–45

M. Lichtenfeld: ‘György Ligeti gibt Auskunft’, Musica, xxvi (1972), 48–50

C. Gottwald: ‘Gustav Mahler und die musikalische Utopie’, NZM, cxxxv (1974), 7–11, 288–91, 292–5

C. Gottwald: ‘Tendenzen der Neuen Musik in den USA’, Melos/NZM, i (1975), 266–72

P. Várnai: Beszélgetések Ligeti Györgyel [Conversations with György Ligeti] (Budapest, 1979); Eng. trans. in GLIC, 13–82

C. Samuel: ‘Entretien avec György Ligeti’, in R. Topor: Le grand macabre: Entwurfe fur Buhnenbilder und Kostume zu Gyorgy Ligetis Oper (Zürich, 1980), 17–31; Eng. trans. in GLIC, 111–23

M. Lichtenfeld: ‘Musik mit schlecht gebundener Krawatte’, NZM, Jg.142 (1981), 471–3

D. Bouliane: ‘Entretien avec György Ligeti’, Sonances, iii/1 (1983), 9–27

M. Lichtenfeld: ‘Gespräch mit György Ligeti’, NZM, Jg.145, no.1 (1984), 8–11

S. Wiesmann: “‘The Island is Full of Noise”’, ÖMz, xxxix (1984), 510–14

P. Michel: ‘Entretiens avec György Ligeti’, György Ligeti: compositeur d’aujourd’hui (Paris, 1985), 127–82

E. Politi: ‘Entretien avec Ligeti’, Contrechamps, no.4 (1985), 123–7

W. Krützfeld: ‘György Ligeti über Chancen und Möglichkeiten der Computer-Music’, Schnittpunkte, Signale, Perspektiven: Festschrift zur Eröffnung des Neubaus der Hochschule für Musik (Hamburg, 1986), 60–61

C. Gottwald: ‘Entretien avec Ligeti’, InHarmoniques, no.2 (1987), 217–29

D. Bouliane: ‘Geronnene Zeit und Narration: György Ligeti im Gesprach’, NZM, Jg.149, no.5 (1988), 19–25

D. Bouliane: ‘Stilisierte Emotion’, MusikTexte, nos.28–9 (1989), 52–62

R. Dufallo: ‘György Ligeti’, Trackings (New York, 1989), 327–37

R. Oehlschlägel: ‘Ja, ich war ein utopischer Sozialist’, MusikTexte, nos.28–9 (1989), 85–102

S. Satory: ‘Colloquy: an Interview with György Ligeti in Hamburg’, Canadian University Music Review, x (1990–91), 101–17

D. Gojowy: ‘György Ligeti über eigene Werke’, Für György Ligeti: Hamburg 1988 [HJbMw, xi (1991)], 349–63

L. Duchesneau: ‘Sur la musique de Claude Vivier’, Circuit, ii/1–2 (1991), 7–16

T. Szitha: ‘A Conversation with György Ligeti’, Hungarian Music Quarterly, iii/1 (1992), 13–17

L. von Saalfeld: “‘Ich glaube nicht an grosse Ideen, Lehrgebäude, Dogmen, …”’ NZM, Jg.154, no.1 (1993), 32–6

L. Duchesneau: ‘György Ligeti on his Violin Concerto’, Ligeti Letter, no.2 (Hamburg, [1995]), 1–7

articles

H. Kaufmann: ‘Strukturen in Strukturlosen: über György Ligetis Atmosphères’, Melos, xxxi (1964), 391–8

H. Kaufmann: ‘Eine moderne Totenmesse: Ligetis Requiem’, Neues Forum, no.13 (1966), 59–61

H. Kaufmann: ‘Ein Fall absurder Musik: Ligetis Aventures und Nouvelles Aventures’, Spurlinien (Vienna, 1969), 130–58

H. Keller: ‘The Contemporary Problem’, Tempo, no.89 (1969), 25–8

O. Nordwall: ‘György Ligeti’, Tempo, no.88 (1969), 22–5

H. Kaufmann: ‘Ligetis Zweites Streichquartett’, Melos, xxxvii (1970), 181–6

C. Gottwald: ‘Lux aeterna: ein Beitrag zur Kompositionstechnik György Ligeti’, Musica, xxv (1971), 12–17

R. Stephan: ‘György Ligeti: Konzert für Violoncello und Orchester: Anmerkungen zur Cluster-Komposition’, Die Musik der sechziger Jahre, ed. R. Stephan (Mainz, 1972), 117–27

I. Fabian: ‘Jenseits von Tonalität und Atonalität: zum 50. Geburtstag von György Ligeti’, ÖMz, xxviii (1973), 233–8

K. Kropfinger: ‘Ligeti und die Tradition’, Zwischen Tradition und Fortschritt, ed. R. Stephan (Mainz, 1973), 131–42

O. Bernager: ‘Autour du Concerto de chambre de Ligeti’, Musique en jeu, no.15 (1974), 99–101

C. Miereanu: ‘Une musique électronique et sa “partition”’, Musique en jeu, no.15 (1974), 102–9

P. Op de Coul: ‘Sprachkomposition dei Ligeti: “Lux aeterna”: nebst einigen Randbemerkungen zu den Begriffen Sprach- und Lautkomposition’, Über Musik und Sprache, ed. R. Stephan (Mainz, 1974), 59–69

W.-A. Schultz: ‘Zwei Studien über das Cello-Konzert von Ligeti’, Zeitschrift für Musiktheorie, vi/2 (1975), 97–104

H.-C. von Dadelsen: ‘Über die musikalischen Konturen der Entfernung: Entfernung als räumliche, historische und ästhetische Perspektive in Ligetis Orchesterstück Lontano’, Melos/NZM, ii (1976), 187–90

W. Klüppelholz: ‘Aufhebung der Sprache: zu György Ligetis Aventures’, Melos/NZM, ii (1976), 11–15

R. Febel: ‘György Ligeti: Monument – Selbstportrait – Bewegung (3 Stücke für 2 Klaviere)’, Zeitschrift für Musiktheorie, ix (1978), no.1, pp.35–51; no.2, pp.4–13

B. Reiprich: ‘Transformation of Coloration and Density in György Ligeti’s Lontano’, PNM, xvi/2 (1977–8), 167–80

O. Nordwall: ‘György Ligeti 1980’, ÖMz, xxxv (1980) 67–78

C.D. Morrison: ‘Stepwise Continuity as a Structural Determinant in György Ligeti’s Ten Pieces for Wind Quintet’, PNM, xxiv/1 (1985–6), 158–82

J.W. Bernard: ‘Inaudible Structures, Audible Music: Ligeti’s Problem, and his Solution’, MAn, vi (1987), 207–36

R. Piencikowski: ‘Les points sur les i: le Concerto de chambre de Ligeti’, InHarmoniques, no.2 (1987), 211–6

D. Bouliane: ‘Les Six Etudes pour piano de György Ligeti, ou L’art subtil de créer en assumant les référents culturelles’, Canadian University Music Review, ix (1988–9), 36–83; repr. in Contrechamps, nos.12–13 (1990), 98–132

C. ten Hoopem: ‘Statische Musik: zu Ligetis Befreiung der Musik vom Taktschlag durch präzise Notation’, MusikTexte, nos.28–9 (1989), 68–72

M. Searby: ‘Ligeti’s Chamber Concerto: Summation or Turning Point?’, Tempo, no.168 (1989), 30–34

R. Toop: ‘L’illusion de la surface’, Contrechamps, nos.12–13 (1990), 61–93

P.N. Wilson: ‘Interkulturelle Fantasien: György Ligetis Klavieretüden Nr.7 und 8’, Melos, li (1992), 63–84

M. Hicks: ‘Interval and Form in Ligeti’s Continuum and Coulée’, PNM, xxxi/1 (1993), 172–90

J.P. Clendinning: ‘The Pattern-Meccanico Compositions of György Ligeti’, PNM, xxxi/1 (1993), 192–234

J.W. Bernard: ‘Voice Leading as a Spatial Function in the Music of Ligeti’, MAn, xiii (1994), 227–53

R. Steinitz: ‘Music, Maths and Chaos’, MT, cxxxvii/March (1996), 14–20; ‘The Dynamics of Disorder’, MT, cxxxvii/May (1996), 7–14; ‘Weeping and Wailing’, MT, cxxxvii/Aug (1996), 17–22

Light, Edward

(c1747–c1832). English composer and inventor. He created seven plucked, fretted chordophones compounded from lute, lyre and harp structures. In 1798 he invented the harp-guitar, and later also invented a harp-lute-guitar. Between 1810 and 1813 he invented a harp-lute, which was patented in 1818, and at some time he invented an apollo lyre, with 12 strings. In 1815 a harp-lyre was advertised in the Caledonian Mercury, and in 1816 he patented a ‘British’ harp-lute and a dital harp. Extant examples of his work are sometimes labelled as being made for him by A. Barry (18 Frith Street, Soho) and Wheatstone & Co. The title-page of his undated Collection of Psalms &c. indicates that he was organist of Trinity Chapel, St George’s, Hanover Square, and ‘Lyrist to H.R.H. The Princess [Charlotte] of Wales’. His teaching activity required his presence in London, and instrument labels and title-pages show that at various times he lived at 16 Harley Street; 34 Queen Anne Street, Portland Chapel; 3 and 8 Foley Place; 43 Portland Place (where his partner Angelo Benedetto Ventura also lived) and 38 Berners Street.

He arranged, composed and published much of his own teaching material. Most of his published collections include parts for his inventions. These are mostly binary pieces or strophic works, simple in harmony and texture and of short duration, and reflect the short-term need for simple instruments and music as an alternative to the pedal harp and its music before the piano became widely available.

For an instrument by Light see Harp-lute (ii), fig.2b.

WORKS

all published in London

Vocal: The Ladies’ Amusement, 1v, gui (1783); 6 English Songs, 1v, 1/2 vn, hpd, op.1 (c1800) [with 6 It. and Fr. songs]

Ensemble music: A Collection of Songs and Instrumental Pieces, harp-lute, pf (c1805); A Collection of Songs, arr. harp-lute, lyre, gui (c1810); A Collection of Psalms, Hymns, etc, arr. harp-lute, lyre (?1814)

Harp-lute solo: Preludes, Exercises and Recreations (c1810); National Airs, Songs, Waltzes, etc (c1810); Divertimentos, i (?1817)

theoretical works

The Art of Playing the Guitar (London, ?1785)

A First Book, or Master and Scholar’s Assistant, Being a Treatise on, and Instructor for, Learning Music (London, 1794)

A Tutor, with a Tablature, for the Harp-Lute-Guitar (London, c1810)

New and Compleat Instructions for Playing on the Harp-Lute (London, ?1812)

A New and Complete Directory to the Art of Playing on the Patent British Lute-Harp (London, c1816)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Busby: Concert Room and Orchestra Anecdotes, ii (London, 1825), 275–6

L. Fryklund: Förteckning över Edward Lights musikaliska verk (Hälsingborg, 1931)

S. Marcuse: Musical Instruments: a Comprehensive Dictionary (New York, 1966, 2/1975)

A. Baines: Non-keyboard Instruments, Victoria and Albert Museum Catalogue of Musical Instruments, ii (London, 1968)

STEPHEN BONNER

Lightstone, Pauline.

See Donalda, Pauline.

Ligne, Charles-Joseph(-François-Lamoral-Alexis), Prince de

(b Brussels, 23 May 1735; d Vienna, 13 Dec 1814). Flemish writer. As the head of one of the most prominent aristocratic families in the southern Netherlands, he had a primarily military and diplomatic career in the service of Austria. His wit and his cheerful disposition won him the friendship of writers (including Voltaire, Rousseau, Casanova and Goethe) and of monarchs (Catherine II, Frederick II, Joseph II and Louis XVI). He expressed his ideas on the theatre in his Lettres à Eugénie sur les spectacles (1774, 2/1796). He himself wrote some 30 dramatic works, including masquerades performed in Brussels and comédies mêlées d'ariettes et de vaudevilles intended for society theatres (Colette et Lucas, 1779; Le désenchantement des compagnons d'Ulysse, 1796; La noce interrompue, 1796; Le sultan du Congo, ou Mangogoul, 1796). During the 1770s he was involved in the financial and artistic management of the Théâtre de la Monnaie in Brussels, which experienced a period of unprecedented brilliance at this time. His opéra comique in three acts, Céphalide, ou Les autres mariages samnites, was staged in 1777 with music by Ignaz Vitzthumb and Giovanni Cifolleli. Although Ligne does not seem to have had any musical training he was a well-informed music lover who, while retaining his admiration for Delalande and Rameau, recognized, and was a patron to, such composers as Grétry, Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. A francophone Austrian and a close friend of Queen Marie-Antoinette, he played an outstanding part in Gluck's coming to Paris. He translated the libretto of Iphigénie en Aulide for the composer, and wrote him a comédie mêlée d'ariettes entitled Diane et Endymion, which Gluck was too ill to complete.

His son Charles-Antoine de Ligne (b Brussels, 25 Sept 1759; d Croix-au-Bois, Champagne, 14 Sept 1792) published three volumes entitled Recueil de 6 airs français pour le clavecin ou piano-forte (Vienna, n.d.).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Leuridant: ‘Colette et Lucas’: une comédie du prince de Ligne (Brussels, 1914)

M. Oulié: Le Prince de Ligne, un grand seigneur cosmopolite au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1926)

C. van den Borren: ‘Le prince de Ligne à la bibliothèque du conservatoire de Bruxelles’, Annales prince de Ligne, xi (1930), 74–80

F. van den Bremt: ‘Een verloren gewaand werk Céphalide ou Les autres mariages samnites van I. Vitzthumb, op tekst van prins Karel-Jozeph de Ligne’, Miscellanea musicologica Floris van der Mueren (Ghent, 1950), 183–91

B. Guy: ‘Le théâtre du prince de Ligne’, Nouvelles annales prince de Ligne, iii (1988), 7–21

B. Guy: ‘Ligne mélomane’, Nouvelles annales prince de Ligne, vi (1991), 63–74

P. Mansel: Le charmeur de l'Europe: Charles-Joseph de Ligne (1735–1814) (Paris, 1992)

M. Couvreur: ‘Un amateur de ballets longs et de jupons courts: le prince Charles-Joseph de Ligne’, Le théâtre de la Monnaie au XVIIIe siècle, ed. M. Couvreur (Brussels, 1996), 197–239

MANUEL COUVREUR

Ligne postiche [supplémentaire]

(Fr.).

See Leger line.

Ligniville, (Pierre) Eugène (François), Marquis of, Prince of Conca

(b nr Nancy, 1730; d Florence, 10 Dec 1788). Italian composer and music organizer of French birth. From a noble family of Lorraine, he studied at the university of Pont-à-Mousson but lived most of his mature life in Italy. From 1757 he was at Mantua, going to Bologna in July 1758 for the examination to enter the Accademia Filarmonica (test piece in I-Bc). In 1761 he moved to Florence (where the House of Lorraine ruled the grand duchy of Tuscany) as a court chamberlain and postmaster general. In 1768 Grand Duke Pietro Leopoldo made him director of the court music and he was thus able to have important musical works performed, including cantatas and oratorios by Handel (according to a letter to Martini dated 30 May 1772). On 2 April 1770 he received Mozart at the grand-ducal palace; Leopold Mozart, in a letter dated 3 April, called him ‘the best contrapuntist in all Italy’ and reported that ‘he presented Wolfgang with the most difficult fugues and themes, which Wolfgang played and worked out as easily as one eats a piece of bread’. Under the direct influence of Ligniville’s Stabat mater (Florence, 1768) Mozart composed his own five-part Kyrie k89/73k and copied out nine of its 30 canonic movements (ka238/a17). Martini wrote to Ligniville about this work on behalf of the Accademia Filarmonica: ‘Your excellency makes flourish again in this century that study that had somewhat declined, by spreading through your Stabat the most singular and artful canons, which have been practised by the most celebrated masters of centuries gone by’. Ligniville also published two canonic settings of the Salve regina (Bologna, c1760–62; Florence, c1770). A three-part madrigal by him is in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, and a Dixit for four voices and orchestra at the Bodleian Library, Oxford (Tenbury collection).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BurneyFI

FétisB

E. Anderson, ed.: The Letters of Mozart and his Family (London, 1938, rev. 2/1966 by M. Carolan and A.H. King, rev. 3/1985 by S. Sadie and F. Smart)

A. Schnoebelen: Padre Martini's Collection of Letters in the Civico Museo Bibliografico Musicale in Bologna: an annotated index (New York, 1979)

J.A. Rice: ‘An early Handel revival in Florence’, EMc, xviii (1990), 63–71

FERRUCCIO TAMMARO

Lilburn, Douglas (Gordon)

(b Wanganui, 2 Nov 1915). New Zealand composer. He studied music under J.C. Bradshaw at Canterbury University College (1935–6). In 1936 Percy Grainger awarded him the Grainger Prize for his tone poem Forest, which committed him to music rather than literature, for which he had decided gifts. At the RCM, London (1937–40), his teacher Vaughan Williams made a lifelong impression, through both his personality and his music. In 1940 he returned to New Zealand to discover he had won three out of four prizes awarded as part of the centennial celebrations with his Drysdale Overture (1937), Festival Overture (1939) and Prodigal Country (1939) for baritone, chorus and orchestra. From 1941 to 1947 he worked as a freelance composer and teacher in Christchurch and was composer-in-residence at the Cambridge Summer Music Schools (1946–9, 1951). Frederick Page invited him in 1947 to become part-time tutor in the newly formed music department at Victoria University of Wellington. Appointed lecturer in 1949, associate professor in 1963 and professor with a personal chair in music in 1970, he also founded the university’s electronic music studio which he directed from 1966 to 1979. He trained a generation of young composers, some of whom have won international recognition. The University of Otago awarded him an honorary doctorate in 1969 and a Festschrift was published to commemorate his retirement from Victoria University. Other honours include the CANZ (Composers Association of New Zealand) citation for services to New Zealand music (1978) and the Order of New Zealand (1983).

Lilburn is a New Zealand composer with an authentic voice, an individual utterance and the power to evoke both a real and visionary landscape. He overcame the, at times, formidable difficulties of working on an outer fringe of European musical culture and forged from unpromising material (a negligible folk inheritance, a pastiche English church and pastoral tradition) a highly articulate, unmistakable personal style that has undergone metamorphosis through three principal periods. The first, rhapsodic and astringently Romantic, absorbed influences of Sibelius and Vaughan Williams and culminated in the Second Symphony (1951). The second traversed Bartók, Stravinsky, the Second Viennese School and contemporary Americans to end in the Third Symphony (1961). The third phase was devoted to electro-acoustic music.

Lilburn’s early works include the Phantasy String Quartet, which won the Cobbett Prize (1939), and the overture Aotearoa (1940), first performed by Warwick Braithwaite at a New Zealand centenary matinée concert at His Majesty’s Theatre, London. (Aotearoa, ‘Land of the Long White Cloud’, is the Maori name for New Zealand; the title was given by Braithwaite.) This work projects a shimmering impression of a sea-spumed coast with the pure light that floods Katherine Mansfield’s short stories when she writes of the sea. Lilburn’s gift for the nuances and character of landscape found further telling expression in Landfall in Unknown Seas (1942), for speaker and strings, a musical framework to Allen Curnow’s poem, composed as a tercentenary celebration of Tasman’s discovery of New Zealand.

Sensitive to the visual world as much as to words and music, Lilburn responded to the work of a group of young poets and painters active in Christchurch after his return to New Zealand. They included the poet Denis Glover and the artists Leo Bensemann and Rita Angus. Thenceforth a number of compositions were to have their origin in poems and paintings, and he gradually transmuted early influences into his own lyrical and tersely energetic style. Quick to appreciate individual performers’ abilities and to improvise where a sparse musical context provided few opportunities, he wrote effective chamber works, such as the Chaconne for piano (1946) and the Violin Sonata (1950). Diversions (1947) was written for the visit of the Boyd Neel String Orchestra. His fine song cycle Elegy (1951), to poems of Alistair Campbell, portrays the harsh, dramatic Clutha Valley of central Otago, a region with which he has a particular sympathy. The South Island back country permeates another cycle, Sings Harry (1953), in which Glover celebrated a solitary, idiosyncratic New Zealand character. Lilburn’s work in the traditional media virtually came to an end in his Symphony no.3 (1961), a beautifully crafted, epigrammatic work in a single movement; the long melodic sweep has yielded to an explosive, disturbingly spiky style in a work of the utmost cohesion and unity.

Always a practical composer, Lilburn had a strong dramatic sense when writing for film and theatre, owing much in this respect to Ngaio Marsh and other producers. A sense of occasion is also to be found in his electro-acoustic works, which include music for the ballet, theatre and television, all fresh explorations of the sound sources of a uniquely Pacific world. In The Return (1965), for instance, he used Campbell’s haunting poem, a merging of classical and Polynesian imagery. Behind Three Inscapes (1972) lie those same insights that throughout his career enabled him to project an essence of the New Zealand landscape.

Lilburn’s forceful, generous personality made him an important advocate of composers’ rights, as when, almost singlehandedly, he led a successful campaign in 1959 against the government’s proposed regressive copyright legislation. Composition in New Zealand has a continuity, commitment and purpose it would signally have lacked but for him.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Forest, ov., 1936; Drysdale Ov., 1937; Festival Ov., 1939; Aotearoa, ov., 1940; Allegro, str, 1942; Song of Islands, 1946; Diversions, str, 1947; Sym. no.1, 1949; Sym. no.2, 1951; Suite, 1955; A Birthday Offering, 1956; Sym. no.3, 1961

Vocal: Prodigal Country (A. Curnow, R. Hyde, W. Whitman), chorus, orch, 1939; Landfall in Unknown Seas (Curnow), spkr, str orch, 1942; Elegy, in memoriam Noel Newson (trad., R. Herrick, W. Blake, W. Shakespeare), 2vv, str, 1945; Elegy (A. Campbell), song cycle, 1v, pf, 1951; Sings Harry (D. Glover), song cycle, 1v, pf, 1953; 3 Poems of the Sea (trad.), nar, str, 1958; 3 Songs, Bar, va, 1958

Chbr: Phantasy Str Qt, 1939; Str Trio, 1945; Str Qt, e, 1946; Sonatina, cl, pf, 1948; Sonata, vn, pf, 1950; Duo, 2 vn, 1954; Brass Qt, 1957; Wind Qnt, 1957; 17 Pieces, gui, 1970

Pf: Chaconne, 1946; Sonatina no.1, 1946; Sonata, 1949; Sonatina no.2, 1962; 9 Short Pieces, 1966

El-ac: The Return (Campbell), 1965; Poem in Time of War, 1967; Summer Voices, 1969; 3 Inscapes, 1972; Carousel, 1976; Winterset, 1976; Of Time and Nostalgia, 1977; Triptych, 1977; Soundscape with Lake and River, 1979

Material in SOUNZ (New Zealand Music Centre)

WRITINGS

A Search for Tradition (Wellington, 1984) [talk given at the first Cambridge Summer School of Music, Jan 1946]

A Search for a Language (Wellington, 1985) [open lecture at the University of Otago, March 1969]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

V. Harris and P. Norman, eds.: Douglas Lilburn: a Festschrift for Douglas Lilburn on his Retirement from the Victoria University of Wellington (Wellington, 2/1980) [orig. pubd as Canzona, i/3 (1980)]

P. Norman: The Beginnings and Development of a New Zealand Music: the Life and Work of Douglas Lilburn (1940–65) (diss., U. of Canterbury, Christchurch, 1983)

D.R. Harvey, ed.: A Bibliography of Writings about New Zealand Music, Published to the End of 1983 (Wellington, 1985)

J.M. Thomson: Biographical Dictionary of New Zealand Composers (Wellington, 1990), 85–90

R. Tremain: ‘Douglas Lilburn's Third Symphony’, Music in New Zealand, no.11 (1990–91), 14–23

J.M. Thomson: Oxford History of New Zealand Music (Auckland, 1991), 222–45

L. Futschek: ‘Lilburn and the Symphony’, Canzona, xv/36 (1993), 5–22

C. Bourke: ‘Douglas Lilburn: an Interview’, Music in New Zealand, no.26 (1995–6), 30–37

J.M. THOMSON

Lilien, Ignace

(b Lemberg [now L'viv], 29 May 1897; d The Hague, 10 May 1964). Dutch composer and pianist. In 1914 he was forced by the outbreak of World War I to move to the Netherlands, where he settled in The Hague. He trained as an engineer at the Technical University in Delft, thereafter devoting his life both to his work as a chemical engineer and to music. He studied the piano with Theodor Pollak, counterpoint with Heinrich Ehrlich and orchestration with E. Suk. His second opera, Great Catherine, was opposed by the Nazis at its première in Wiesbaden. However, his art seems to have culminated in his Expressionist song cycles, mostly to his own words: Fünf trunkene Lieder, Veronica (1920), Quatre chansons des mendiants (1923), Mietskaserne (1932).

From 1928 Lilien lived in the Bohemian town of Reichenberg (now Liberec), where in 1935 he completed the symphonic poem Là-bas (after Baudelaire) and his ‘Modern Times’ Sonata for violin and piano. Its last movement became so popular that it was published separately as the Rondo brésilien. He returned to the Netherlands in 1939 and composed 30 songs on Dutch words, including Maria Lecina.

After World War II Lilien toured in South America, and he incorporated elements of South American folk music in such works as the symphonic poem Les palmes dans le vent (1955). The school cantata A Negro Girl Goes to School, dealing with the racial problems in the USA, is noteworthy among his late compositions.

WORKS

(selective list)

Ops: Beatrys (3, H. Teirlinck), 1922, Antwerp, 24 March 1928; Great Catherine (comic op, 3, G.B. Shaw), Wiesbaden, 1932

Vocal-orch: Nyuk tsin (orat), 1961

Orch: 4 syms.; Là-bas (sym. poem, after Baudelaire), 1935; 5 nocturnes, pf, orch, 1937; Conc., vn, pf, orch, 1954; Les palmes dans le vent, sym. poem, 1955; Conc. da camera, fl, str, 1962, rev. 1963

Songs: 5 trunkene Lieder (Lilien), 1v, pf, 1920; Veronica (Lilien), 1920; 4 chansons des mendiants (Lilien), 1923; Mietskaserne (Lilien), 1932; Maria Lecina; many other songs, some to South Amer. texts

Inst: Sonata ‘Modern Times’, vn, pf, 1935; Sonatine apollinique, 10 wind insts, 1939; Voyage au printemps, wind qt, 1950–52; 24 hiéroglyphes, pf, 1956

Principal publisher: Donemus

BIBLIOGRAPHY

W. Paap: ‘De opera Beatrijs van Ignace Lilien’, Mens en melodie, xi (1956), 392

W. Paap: ‘Nyuk Tsin, dramatisch oratorium van Ignace Lilien’, Mens en melodie, xix (1964), 124 only

W. Paap: Obituary, Mens en melodie, xix (1964), 174 only

F. van Ruth, ed.: Ignace Lilien 1897–1964: compendium (forthcoming)

FRANS VAN RUTH

Liliencron, Rochus Freiherr (Wilhelm Traugott) von

(b Plön, Holstein, 8 Dec 1820; d Koblenz, 5 March 1912). German musicologist. He was educated at Plön and Lübeck before studying theology, law and philology at the universities of Kiel and Berlin, receiving the doctorate in 1846 for a dissertation entitled Über Neidharts höfische Dorfpoesie. After a short period of Old Norse studies at Copenhagen and qualifying as a lecturer at the University of Bonn, he entered the diplomatic service during the first Schleswig-Holstein war (1848). He taught Old Norse language and literature at the University of Kiel in 1851 and philology from 1852 at Jena. From 1855 to 1858 he was at the court of the Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Meiningen, where he directed the court orchestra, supervised the library and was also privy-councillor. The newly founded historical commission of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Science commissioned him in 1858 to collect German folksongs of the Middle Ages. This work resulted in the publication of Die historischen Volkslieder der Deutschen (1865–9). Subsequently he settled in Munich as editor of the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie (with F.X. von Wegele), which was his life's work until 1907. He became prelate and prior of the monastery of the Order of St John in Schleswig in 1876 and continued his activity as a scholar and writer there before moving his family to Berlin in 1909 and Koblenz in 1911. His collection of folksongs arranged for male-voice choir, Volksliederbuch für Männerchor (1907), commissioned by Emperor Wilhelm II, was widely disseminated.

Liliencron was one of the pillars of German musicology. His importance rests mainly on his editorial, organizational and cultural-historical work. With his expertise in philology and literature and training in theology, he contributed much as editor of ADB (Leipzig, i–liii, 1875–1907). He was also president of the editorial commission of the Denkmäler deutscher Tonkunst, 45 volumes of which appeared under his supervision (1901–11). He received many awards in recognition of his work, including membership of the Munich Academy of Science (1869) and an honorary doctorate from the University of Kiel (1890).

WRITINGS

with W. Stade: Lieder und Sprüche aus der letzten Zeit des Minnesangs (Weimar, 1854)

Die historischen Volkslieder der Deutschen vom 13. bis 16. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1865–9/R)

Deutsches Leben im Volkslied um 1530 (Berlin, 1885/R)

Die horazischen Metren in deutschen Kompositionen des XVI. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1887); also in VMw, iii (1887), 26–91

Liturgisch-musikalische Geschichte der evangelischen Gottesdienste von 1523 bis 1700 (Schleswig, 1893/R)

Die Aufgaben des Chorgesanges im heutigen evangelischen Gottesdienste (Oppeln, 1895)

Chorordnung für die Sonn- und Festtage des evangelischen Kirchenjarhres (Gütersloh, 1900)

Frohe Jugendtage, Lebenserinnerungen, Kindern und Enkeln erzählt (Leipzig, 1902)

ed.: Volksliederbuch für Männerchor (Leipzig, 1907)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

NDB (H.J. Rieckenberg)

H. Kretzschmar, ed.: Festschrift zum 90. Geburtstage Sr. Exzellenz des Wirklichen geheimen Rates Rochus Freiherrn von Liliencron (Leipzig, 1910/R)

E. Schröder: ‘Rochus Freiherr von Liliencron’, Bettelheims Biographisches Jb und deutscher Nekrolog, xvii (1912), 185–91

A. Bettelheim: Leben und Wirken des Freiherrn Rochus von Liliencron (Berlin, 1917)

H.J. Moser: Das musikalische Denkmälerwesen in Deutschland (Kassel, 1952)

H.J. Moser: Die evangelische Kirchenmusik in Deutschland (Berlin, 1954)

GAYNOR G. JONES

Lili‘uokalani, Queen of Hawaii [Kamaka‘eha, Lydia Lili‘u Loloku Walania; Kamaka‘eha Pākī, Lydia; Dominis, Mrs John O.; Dominis, Lydia K.; Dominis, Lili‘u K.]

(b Honolulu, 2 Sept 1838; d Honolulu, 11 Nov 1917). Hawaiian composer. She sang, played the piano, organ and various plucked string instruments, and was a choir director at Kawaiaha‘o Church. Lili‘uokalani reigned from 1891 to 1893, but was deposed by a group of Hawaiian residents with American ties during an economic depression.

She began her musical training at the Chiefs’ Children’s School (1842–8), becoming a skilled sight-reader. In her autobiography she commented that she was the first Hawaiian to become proficient in writing with Western musical notation. Her first published work, in 1867, was the hymnlike He mele lāhui Hawai‘i, used until 1876 as the Hawaiian national anthem. Her Nani nā pua Ko‘olau (‘The Flower of Ko‘olau’) was one of the first Hawaiian songs to have been published on the American mainland (1869). She continued publishing in the USA, where her songs became popular (in 1898 she claimed to have written hundreds of songs, about a quarter of them printed). She was familiar with both Hawaiian and western European music and made an effort to synthesize the two. A number of her songs are of the hīmeni type (secular texts with both melodic style and verse-chorus form indebted to Anglo-American hymnody), and are sophisticated in harmony and appealing in melody. Her poignant love song Aloha ‘oe (‘Farewell to thee’, 1877/8) exemplifies these characteristics. She also wrote down and may have composed Hawaiian solo and dance chants.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveW (L.A. Wright) [incl. selective work-list with D. Gillett and further bibliography]

Lili‘uokalani: Hawaii’s Story by Hawaii’s Queen (Boston, 1898)

Obituaries: New York Times (12 Nov 1917); Pacific Commercial Advertiser [Honolulu] (11–19 Nov 1917); Star-Bulletin [Honolulu] (12–17, 19 Nov 1917)

G.S. Kanahele, ed.: ‘Aloha‘oe’, ‘Lili‘uokalani’, Hawaiian Music and Musicians: an Illustrated History (Honolulu, 1979), 11–13, 227–32

A.L. Korn and B.B. Paterson: ‘Liliuokalani’, Notable Women of Hawaii, ed. B.B. Peterson (Honolulu, 1984)

A.K. Stillman: ‘Published Hawaiian Songbooks’, Notes, xiiv (1987–8), 221–39

B. Smith and D. Gillett: , eds.The Queen’s Songbook, Her Majesty Queen Lili‘uokalani (Honolulu, 1999)

Lilius [Gigli].

Family of musicians of Italian origin, active in Poland. Their family relationships with one another are mostly unknown.

(2) Szymon [Simon] Lilius [Liliusz, Lilio, Lelia]

(3) Franciszek [Franciscus] Lilius

ZYGMUNT M. SZWEYKOWSKI

Lilius

(1) Wincenty [Vincentius] Lilius [Gigli, Vincenzo]

(b Rome; d ?Warsaw, c1640). Composer. In the 1590s he was active at the archducal court at Graz, then in King Zygmunt III’s chapel at Kraków and Warsaw from about 1600 until his death. He edited a collection of polychoral motets, Melodiae sacrae (Kraków, 1604²), containing works for five to eight and 12 voices by members of the royal chapel, among them a 12-part motet of his own,Congratulamini mihi omnes.

Lilius

(2) Szymon [Simon] Lilius [Liliusz, Lilio, Lelia]

(d ?Warsaw, after 1652). Organist and organ builder. He was connected with the court and active in Warsaw before 1622, when he settled at nearby Kazimierz Dolny. He built, among others, the famous organ in this town.

Lilius

(3) Franciszek [Franciscus] Lilius

(d ?Gromnik, nr Tarnów, Aug or Sept 1657). Composer, son of (1) Wincenty Lilius. He was for a time active as a musician and composer in King Zygmunt III’s chapel in Warsaw. In 1625 he was in Rome as a pupil of Frescobaldi, and from 1630 to 1657 he was director of music at Kraków Cathedral. About 1636 he took holy orders and in later years received a number of benefices. He left Kraków in 1655, when during the war with Sweden the enemy threatened the city: he went to Tarnów or, more probably, to Gromnik and died in one of these places. For 25 years he was the leading musician in Kraków. His output consists mainly of few-voiced concertatos and polychoral works for eight to 20 voices; most are known only from inventories. He also composed a number of a cappella works in the prima pratica style that were chiefly for male voices and thus intended for the Cappella Rorantistarum at Kraków Cathedral. The works in concerto style were very popular and, although not printed, were also performed in Wrocław, Gdańsk and as far afield as Lüneburg. All these works follow the style of the Roman school, but the polychoral music shows features characteristic of the Venetian school, for instance the occasional use of contrasted sections, passages for solo voice or a few voices and the participation of instruments.

WORKS

Thematic Catalogue:Franciszek Lilius Missa brevissima, ZHMP, xxxi (1989), xxv–lii

4 songs, 4vv, in Nabożne piésni [Religious songs], ed. B. Derej (Kraków, 1645/R)

14 masses (8 inc.), PL-Kk, GD, incl. Missa brevissima, ed. in ZHMP, xxxi (1989)

10 motets: Confitebor tibi, Domine, 4vv, Kk; Dextera Domini, formerly UA-Kan, extant only in pre-war transcr. by A. Chybiński: Domine rex Deus, 5vv, PL-Kk; Exaltabit cor meum, 3vv, bc, D-Bsb; Haec dies, 2vv, bc, formerly PL-GD, ed. Z.M. Szweykowski, Muzyka w dawnym Krakowie (Kraków, 1964); Jubilate Deo, 5vv, 2 vn, va, 2 trbn, bn, bc, formerly UA-Kan, ed. in WDMP, xl (2/1963); Laudate Dominum, 2vv, bc, D-Bsb, ed. in A. and Z. Szweykowski (1997) appx; Muteta super Nicolai Solemnia, 6vv, 3 vn, 3 trbn, bc, Bsb; Recordare Domine, 4vv, PL-Kk; Tua Jesu dilectio, 2vv, bc, formerly GD, ed. in WDMP, lvi (1965)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Chybiński: ‘Muzycy włoscy w krakowskich kapelach katedralnych (1619–1657)’ [Italian musicians at Kraków Cathedral (1619–57)], Przegląd muzyczny, iii/2–5, 7–8 (1927), [incl. list of works]

Z.M. Szweykowski: ‘Franciszek Lilius i jego twórczość na tle wczesnego baroku w Polsce’ [Franciszek Lilius and his music in the context of the early Baroque period in Poland], Muzyka, v/1 (1960), 78–94; vii/4 (1962), 51–67

T. Jasiński: ‘De conceptione BVM Franciszka Liliusa: do problemów notacji i rytmiki wielogłosowości XVII wieku’ [Franciszek Lilius's De conceptione BVM: problems of notation and rhythm in 17th-century polyphony], Roczniki teologiczno-kanoniczne, xxxiv (1987), 194–206

D. Popinignis: ‘Dwie niekompletne msze Franciszka Liliusa zachowane w bibliotece gdańskiej PAN’ [Two incomplete masses by Franciszek Lilius in the PAN library at Gdańsk],Muzyka, xxxvii/1 (1992), 59–66

A. and Z. Szweykowski: Włosi w kapeli królewskiej polskich Wazów [Italians in the royal chapel of the Polish Vasa Kings] (Kraków, 1997)

Liljefors, Ingemar (Kristian)

(b Göteborg, 13 Dec 1906; d Stockholm, 14 Oct 1981). Swedish composer and pianist, son of Ruben Liljefors. He studied at the Swedish Royal Academy of Music (1923–7, 1929–31) and in Munich (1927–9); in 1933 he passed the organists’ examination. He taught the piano (1938–43) and then harmony at the Stockholm Musikhögskolan. In 1933 he participated in the founding of the Fylkingen concert society, which he chaired until 1946; from 1947 to 1963 he was chairman of the Society of Swedish Composers. He was assistant music critic of the Stockholms-tidningen (1941–54). His early compositions combined Swedish folk elements with Stravinskian rhythm; later he made moderate use of new techniques in music of meditative and lyrical expressiveness.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Suite, op.2, 1935; Rhapsody, op.5, pf, orch, 1936; Berget, op.6, tone poem, 1937; Pf Conc., op.11, 1940; Sym., op.15, 1943; Lyric Suite, op.18, small orch, 1942; 2 divertimentos, opp.21, 23, str, 1945, 1946; Pf Concertino, op.22, 1949; Vn Conc., 1956–7; Sinfonietta, op.30, 1961; 2 Intermezzos, str, 1965; Divertimento no.3, 1968

Inst: 2 pf trios, op.12, 1940, op.29, n.d.; Sonatine, C, pf, 1954; Sonatine, D, vn, pf, 1954; Trio, vn, va, pf, 1961; Str Qt, 1963; Sonatin no.2, pf, 1964; Sonatin no.3, 1965; Sonatin, vn, 1968

Vocal: En tijdh-spegel, chorus, orch, 1959; Till musiken (cant., B. Bergman), S, SATB, fl, gui, 2 vn, vc, db ad lib, 1965; songs

Principal publisher: Föreningen Svenska Tonsättare

WRITINGS

Harmonilärans grunder, med ackordanalys enligt funktionsteorin (Stockholm, 1937)

Harmonisk analys enligt funktionsteorin (Stockholm, 1951)

Romantisk harmonik ur pedagogisk synvinkel (Stockholm, 1967)

Harmonik och sats: Schubert till Ravel (Stockholm, 1976)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Å. Brandel: ‘Kring trettitalisterna’ [On the musicians of the 1930s], Musikrevy, xiv (1959), 267–71

ROLF HAGLUND

Liljefors, Ruben (Mattias)

(b Uppsala, 30 Sept 1871; d Uppsala, 4 March 1936). Swedish composer and conductor. In the years 1895–6 and 1897–9 he studied composition with Jadassohn in Leipzig and with Draeseke and Reger in Dresden, and conducting with Kutzschbach. He was conductor of the Göteborgs Filharmoniska Sällskap (1902–11) and was then active principally in Gävle as a music teacher at the graduate school and conductor of the Gävleborgs Orkesterförening (1912–31). He was the editor of Upländsk folkmusik (Stockholm, 1929). His works reveal him to be a technically skilled composer rooted in the Scandinavian tradition (particularly Sjögren and Grieg) and in certain respects also influenced by Brahms and Reger; his choral works and solo songs were especially admired.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Pf Conc., 1899; Sym., E, 1906; Concert Ov., 1908; Romans, vn, orch

Vocal: Blomsterfursten [The Flower King], chorus, orch, 1907; Bohuslän, cant., chorus, orch, 1908; pieces for male chorus, songs

Inst: Pf Sonata, f (1938); Vn Sonata, e

Principal publishers: Gehrman, Raabe & Plothow

BIBLIOGRAPHY

K. Håkanson: ‘Ruben Liljefors’, Ur nutidens musikliv, iii (1922), 65

AXEL HELMER

Lill, John (Richard)

(b London, 17 March 1944). English pianist. He studied at the RCM (1955–64) and privately with Kempff at Positano. A respectable career, with débuts at the Royal Festival Hall (1963, in Beethoven's ‘Emperor’ Concerto) and at Carnegie Hall, New York, in 1969, was given considerable impetus after he was joint winner of the 1970 Tchaikovsky Competition in Moscow; since then he has appeared with orchestras and in recital throughout the world, and on television. His commanding physical power and technique in the Chopin, Liszt, Rachmaninoff and Prokofiev works that form part of his large repertory are not always complemented by an equivalent care for atmosphere and tone-colour; however, particularly in Beethoven, the vigour and large scale of his playing are often greatly impressive. His recordings include the complete concertos and sonatas of Beethoven, the concertos of Brahms and the complete sonatas of Prokofiev. He is a frequent jury member for national and international competitions, and was made an OBE in 1978.

MAX LOPPERT/R

Lille.

Town in northern France, formerly the capital of Flanders. The foundation charter of the collegiate church of St Pierre (1066) provided for the maintenance of a maître de chapelle and a school for choirboys. Several 13th-century manuscripts record the activities of the trouvères of Lille; they include songs by Pierre li Borgnes, Maroie de Dregnau, Jehan Fremaus and Li Tresoriers de Lille. In 1306 an organ was built in St Pierre. During the famous ‘Feast of the Pheasant’ in 1454, on the occasion of a projected crusade against the Turks, motets and songs by Du Fay and Binchois were performed. Four songs and a Missa ‘O admirabilis’ have preserved the names of two 15th-century composers: Francus de Insula (i.e. from Lille) and Simon de Insula. In the 16th century the choir school attached to the collegiate church was evidently held in high repute, for Emperor Charles V asked the chapter to send him choirboys for his own chapel (1543).

In 1667, Lille was conquered by Louis XIV, and operas and ballets began to be performed in the town. The composer Pascal Collasse was granted a privilege in 1690 to have an opera house built, but in 1696 it was burnt down after a performance of Charpentier’s Médée. A new house was opened two years later; in a single year (1720) more than ten operas were performed (by Lully, Collasse, Charpentier, Destouches, Campra etc). At this time the company comprised six actors, four actresses, 12 singers and dancers of both sexes and an orchestra of 13 (the composer Mondonville was first violinist between 1734 and 1737). Grétry, staying in Lille in 1783, stated that the orchestra could compare favourably with that of the Théâtre Italien in Paris. In the same period several musical societies flourished: the Concerts d’Amateurs, Concerts de M.M. les Abonnés, Concerts Spirituels, etc. In 1787, the Lille-born architect Lequeux built a new opera house, which burnt down in 1903. In 1800 the Société du Concert (founded 1798) gave the first performance in France of Haydn’s Creation. The following year a singing school was founded for 12 boys and 12 girls; in 1816 it became a music school, a branch of the Paris Conservatoire. The Lille public first heard Berlioz’s Requiem in 1838, when Habeneck conducted a performance of the Lacrymosa. On 14 June 1846, under the direction of Berlioz, the orchestras of Lille, Douai and Valenciennes (150 performers) gave his Chant des chemins de fer, a cantata composed on the occasion of the inauguration of the Northern Railways. Composers born in Lille in the 19th century include Lalo, Emile Mathieu and Grovlez.

The best-known French operas of the later 19th century were performed in Lille soon after their Paris premières: Gounod’s Faust (1860), Bizet’s Carmen (1878) and Lalo’s Le roi d’Ys (1889). In the 1880s Wagner extracts were played by the Société des Concerts Populaires; later, complete performances of Lohengrin (1892), Die fliegende Holländer (1893) and Tannhäuser (1897) were given. Among operatic premières in Lille have been Henri Büsser’s Vénus d’Ille (1964), Eugène Bozza’s La duchesse de Langeais (1967) and Tony Aubin’s Goya (1974). In 1981 Opéra du Nord was formed, with its Grand Opéra based in Lille, but five years later the company closed down for financial reasons although the Atelier Lyrique at Tourcoing, founded by J.C. Malgloire, remained active.

The church of St Pierre was destroyed during the Revolution; the new cathedral, Notre Dame de la Treille, has a plainchant school. Organ recitals are given in the churches of St Maurice, St Etienne (a Romantic organ, enlarged by Cavaillé-Coll in 1887 and restored in 1995) and Sts Pierre et Paul (an organ built by Muller in 1958). The Théâtre de l’Opéra (opened 1919; cap. 1300) is used for recitals, concerts and opera, and the Théâtre Sébastopol (c1905; cap. 1250) for operetta and variety shows. The Orchestre National de Lille, founded by Jean-Claude Casadesus in 1976, has its own hall, the Auditorium du Nouveau Siècle (cap. 1940). Several chamber ensembles have originated at the Conservatoire National de Région, one of the most important provincial academies of music. A music and dance festival has taken place every autumn since 1971.

GEORGES DOTTIN

Lillo, Giuseppe

(b Galatina, Lecce, 26 Feb 1814; d Naples, 4 Feb 1863). Italian composer. He was first taught by his father, the conductor Giosuè Lillo; he completed his studies at the Naples Conservatory, where his teachers included Furno (harmony and counterpoint), Francesco Lanza (piano) and Zingarelli (composition). He made a successful début with a mass for four voices and orchestra. In 1834 his first opera, La moglie per 24 ore, ossia L’ammalato di buona salute, was also a success. He then composed mainly for the theatre, winning much popularity with the Naples public; this first period culminated with L’osteria di Andujar (1840), his most celebrated work. Various failures followed, and he began teaching the piano. From about 1840 he was joint music director at the S Carlo with Giacomo Cordella. During a visit to Paris in 1847–8 he received support from Spontini. He held posts at the Naples Conservatory, including professor of harmony from 1859.

Lillo’s theatrical works show him to be a product of Neapolitan opera buffa in the 1800s and a faithful follower of Rossini, with a rich melodic vein in which the vocal virtuosity is always subjected to expressive aims; his piano music, which seems outdated, is of less significance.

WORKS

operas

first performed in Naples unless otherwise stated

oss – opera semiseria

La moglie per 24 ore, ossia L’ammalato di buona salute (ob, 2, A. Passaro), Real Collegio di Musica, carn. 1834

Il gioiello (oss, 2, L. Tarantini), Nuovo, aut. 1835

Odda di Bernaver (os, 2, G.E. Bidera), S Carlo, 28 Feb 1837

Rosmunda in Ravenna (tragedia lirica, 2, L.A. Paladini), Venice, Fenice, 26 Dec 1837

Alisa di Rieux (oss, 3, G. Rossi), Rome, Argentina, spr. 1838

La modista (oss, 2), Florence, Pergola, 9 May 1839

Il conte di Chalais (os, 2, S. Cammarano after Lockroy), S Carlo, Oct 1839

Le disgrazie di un bel giovane, ossia Il zio e il nipote (opera giocosa, 2, Tarantini), Florence, Pergola, spr. 1840

Le nozze campestri (dramma per musica, 1, G. Schmidt), Naples, S Carlo, 30 May 1840, I-Mc, collab. G. Cordella, G. Puzone and S. Sarmiento

L’osteria di Andujar (opera comica, 3, Tarantini), Fondo, 30 Sept 1840

Cristina di Svezia (tragedia lirica, 3, Cammarano), S Carlo, 21 Jan 1841

Lara (tragedia lirica, 2, Tarantini), S Carlo, carn. 1842

Il cavaliere di S Giorgio, ossia Il mulatto (oss, 2, J. Ferretti), Turin, Carignano, aut. 1846

Caterina Howard (opera tragica, 4, G. Giachetti), S Carlo, 26 Sept 1849

La Delfina (oss, 2, M. d’Arienzo), Nuovo, March 1850

La gioventù di Shakespeare, ossia Il sogno d’una notte estiva (commedia lirica, 3, G.S. Giannini), Nuovo, 29 Dec 1851

Ser Babbeo (oss, 3, L.E. Bardare), Nuovo, 8 May 1853

Il figlio della schiava (dramma lirico, 3, Giannini), Fondo, 9 July 1853

other works

Sacred choral works, incl. Mass, 4vv, orch (1834); syms., other orch works; Str Qt; Qt, pf, fl, vn, vc; Pf Trio; pf solo works, incl. variation sets on opera themes

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DEUMM (F. Bussi)

ES (G. Saponaro)

FétisB

FlorimoN

RicordiE

SchmidlD

L.A. Villanis: L’arte del pianoforte in Italia da Clementi a Sgambati (Turin, 1907)

S. Martinotti: Ottocento strumentale italiano (Bologna, 1972)

FRANCESCO BUSSI

Lilly [Lillie], John

(bap. Croydon, Cambs., 28 Jan 1612; d London, 25 Oct 1678). English theorbo and division viol player, music copyist and composer. Probably the son of Henry Lilly, vicar of Croydon, his early career was centred in Cambridge. He is perhaps the ‘Mr Lilly’ who assisted in the performance of William Johnson's ‘Valetudinarium’ at Queens' College on 6 February 1638. In 1645 and 1647 his two daughters were baptized at St Michael's in the city. His viol playing is praised in a poem ‘To Mr Lilly, Musick-Master in Cambridge’ in Nicholas Hookes's collection Amanda (1653). At the Restoration he joined the King's Private Musick as a theorbo player, and remained active in court service until his death. He was patronized by the North family and taught Roger North the theorbo. He was also a friend of the composer John Jenkins. He was active in the Westminster Corporation of Music from at least 1664, but lived in Baldwins Gardens, Holborn. 25 solos for lyra viol by Lilly are known, some published by John Playford (RISM 1651⁶, 1652⁷, 1661⁴, 1669⁶), the others in manuscript (A-ETgoëss, GB-Cu, Lbl, Mp and Ob). Numerous manuscripts in his hand have been identified, among them sets of parts written for Christopher, 1st Baron Hatton, probably copied in the 1630s, and, in his later years, others for Edward Lowe, professor of music at Oxford and organist of the Chapel Royal.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AshbeeR, i, v, viii

BDECM

DoddI

P.J. Willetts: ‘John Lilly, Musician and Music Copyist’, Bodleian Library Record, vii/6 (1967), 307–11

D. Pinto: ‘The Music of the Hattons’, RMARC, no.23 (1990), 79–108

P.J. Willetts: ‘John Lilly: a Redating’, Chelys, xxi (1992), 27–38

J.P. Wainwright: ‘The Christ Church Viol-Consort Manuscripts Reconsidered’, John Jenkins and his Time: Studies in English Consort Music, ed. A. Ashbee and P. Holman (Oxford, 1996), 189–241

J.P. Wainwright: Musical Patronage in Seventeenth-Century England: Christopher, First Baron Hatton (1605–1670) (Aldershot, 1997)

ANDREW ASHBEE

Lilt.

Originally a verb meaning to sing in a low clear voice and usually implying sweetness of tone and a light cheerful manner, or to sing a song without words. Scottish literary sources suggest that ‘lilting’ was a mostly feminine activity; in The Flowers of the Forest Scott wrote: ‘I’ve heard them lilting at the ewes milking, Lasses a-lilting before dawn of day’; Robert Fergusson, in Poems, wrote: ‘Nae mair … shepherds … wi’ blytheness skip, Or lasses lilt and sing’. James Hogg, in The Jacobite Relics of Scotland, seemed to associate lilting with sadness (‘A lilt o’ dool and sorrow’) though he may simply have been using the term in another sense, as a noun, to mean any wordless melody. This may be the sense in which the term is used in the Skene MS (GB-En Adv.5.2.15, c1630) where six short pieces for lute are labelled ‘lilts’.

The term is equally applicable to the singing of dance melodies, and in Ireland lilting competitions frequently form part of Fleadh Cheoil (music festival) programmes, in which competitors sing dance tunes in as spirited and interesting a manner as possible, using vocables only. The Scottish equivalent, however, is termed ‘diddling’.

15th- and 16th-century usage hinted at pastoral associations. Richard de Holand’s Buke of the Howlat (1450) includes the ‘lilt-pipe’ in a list of musical instruments, perhaps suggesting a shepherd’s pipe such as the stock-and-horn, cognate with the Dutch lullepijp, a bagpipe or shepherd’s pipe. A. Hume (Hymns, 1594) writes more specifically in this respect: ‘The beastes … which soberly they hameward drive, With pipe and lilting horn’.

In the Shetland Islands the term lilt is used as a noun to denote an important and desirable affective quality in the performance of dance tunes on the fiddle or other melody instrument. To perform a tune with a good lilt is to ‘make one feel like dancing’ by imparting a singing yet light and dancing rhythmic flow to a melody, a suitable degree of variation in the infra-rhythmic structure (‘notes inégales’) of the phrases being all important (see P. Cooke: The Fiddle Tradition of the Shetland Isles, Cambridge, 1986, p.98).

FRANCIS COLLINSON/PETER COOKE

Lim, Liza

(b Perth, 30 Aug 1966). Australian composer. Despite her relative youth, Lim has one of the highest European profiles of any Australian composer. Her works have been given first performances by ensembles such as the Arditti Quartet, Ensemble Modern and Ensemble Intercontemporain. Born to Chinese parents, she received her early schooling mainly in Brunei, but has lived in Australia since 1978, studying at the Victorian College of the Arts and Melbourne University, and later in Amsterdam with Ton de Leeuw. She has received several Australian Council fellowships, as well as an inaugural Young Australian Creative Fellowship in 1996.

Her earliest works, many of which are now withdrawn, are clearly influenced by Ferneyhough’s music of the late 1960s (e.g. his Sonatas for string quartet): rhythmically intricate and carefully crafted, they are essentially miniaturist, to the point of risking short-windedness. A confident grasp of broader formal design becomes evident in her first major work, Garden of Earthly Desire, and is reinforced in the ambitious chamber opera The Oresteia. This work, which Lim describes as a sequence of ‘shamanistic possessions’, rather than a conventional drama, provides the first major evidence of a lasting fascination with ritual, as well as a taste for abrasive sonorities, both vocal (rasping throat sounds) and instrumental (e.g. overblowing, multiphonics and high bow pressure). Coupled with a constant use of glissandos and microtonal ornamentation, a kind of theatre close to Xenakis is created, though there is also some affinity with Partch.

In the mid-1990s, two new preoccupations emerged. One is a fascination with ancient non-Western languages and meditative practices, as in the impressive choral Sri Vidya; and with non-Western instruments, notably the koto, the tablature of which she learned before writing Burning House. However, there is no sense of a return to Lim’s Asian origins: the music remains emphatically Western, and the treatment of the instrument is by no means traditional. The other is her involvement in a series of site-specific multimedia works, the music of which is not, for the most part, notated. One example is Bar-do’i-thos-grol, which comprises seven two-hour performances spread over seven days.

WORKS

Op: The Oresteia (memory theatre, Lim, B. Kosky, Aeschylus, Sappho, T. Harrison), 1991–3

Inst: Pompes funèbres, str qt, 1988; Garden of Earthly Desire, fl + pic, ob, cl, mand, gui, hp, vn, vc, db, perc, 1988–9; Amulet, va, 1992; Diabolical Birds, pic, b cl, pf, vib, vn, vc, 1992; Hell, str qt, 1992; Koto, fl + pic, ob d’amore, flugelhorn, va, koto, 2 vc, perc, 1993; Cathedral, orch, 1994; Street of Crocodiles, fl, ob, a sax, a trbn, cimb + cymbal, str trio, str qt, 1995; Gothic, 8 str, 1995–6; The Alchemical Wedding, large chbr orch, 1996; INGUZ (fertility), cl, vc, 1996; The Heart’s Ear, fl, cl, str qt, 1997; PERTH (initiation), fl, perc, 1997

Vocal: Voodoo Child (Sappho), S, pic, cl, trbn, perc, pf, vn, vc, 1989; Li Shang Yin (Li Shang Yin), S, chbr orch, 1993; Sri Vidya: Utterances of Adoration (Sanskrit), 48vv, orch, 1994–5; Burning House (lzumi Shikibu), 1v, koto (1 pfmr), 1995

Installations: Afterward: From a Tower (a translation), 4vv, 1994; Bar-do’i-thos-grol (Tibetan Book of the Dead), 3vv, 3 players, 1994–5; The Cauldron: Fusion of the 5 Elements, 6vv + insts, 1996

Principal publisher: Ricordi

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Lim with B. Kosky and S. Lascica: ‘The Oresteia’, Sounds Australian, no.38 (1993), 19–23

A. Ford: ‘No beginning and no end …’, Composer to Composer (Sydney, 1993), 158–62

J. Jenkins and R. Linz: ‘The Oresteia; Bar-do’i-thos-grol (Tibetan Book of the Dead)’, Arias: Recent Australian Music Theatre (Melbourne, 1997), 135–7

C. Milliken: ‘Liza Lim’, MusikTexte, no.71 (1997), 39–40

RICHARD TOOP

Lima.

Capital of Peru. Called ‘City of the Kings’, it was founded in 1535 by Francisco Pizarro, who laid the cornerstone of the cathedral. By 1540 he had employed at least six professional lay musicians and the same number of dancing-masters, who organized the dances for religious and secular celebrations. While Gonzalo Pizarro was in power (1546–8, during the civil wars) he founded a capilla de músicos whose members were considered excellent (‘lindos oficiales’) by the chronicler Garcilaso.

In Peru as in Mexico, the Amerindians took immediately to the music of the friars sent to evangelize them. Pedro de la Gasca (1492–1565), Peru’s first lawgiver, summoned representatives of all three mendicant orders to Lima in 1549 and told them to learn Quechua, set up schools and teach the Amerindians such ‘good things’ as how to sing according to the rules of art and how to sol-fa (‘dezir el sol, fa, mi, re’). A ruling of the Third Lima Council (1583) required systematic music instruction at every Amerindian mission. By 1622 Bernabé Cobo could cite the music of Santiago del Cercado, a settlement (founded 1571) of converted Amerindians annexed to the city and administered by the Jesuits, as equal to that heard in most Spanish cathedrals. In 1622 the parish church owned two organs, four sets of shawms, two trumpets, viols of various sizes and other instruments for feast-day use. Throughout the 17th century this orchestra was one of the most sought after in the city. Some of the city’s most important instrumentalists were Amerindian musicians trained by the Jesuits. There were Amerindian instrument makers (violeros) and dancing-masters living outside the Cercado in 1613.

The first polyphony printed in the New World was a Quechua four-part chanzoneta in sprightly march time, Hanacpachap cussicuinin (Juan Pérez Bocanegra, Ritual formulario, Lima, 1631, pp.708–9; copies in the Biblioteca Nacional de Perú and US-Wc). The earliest extant New World opera was mounted in the vice-regal palace at Lima (19 October 1701): Tomás de Torrejón y Velasco’s setting of Pedro Calderón de la Barca’s La púrpura de la rosa.

Lima Cathedral, the seat of an archbishop from 1549, had a distinguished succession of maestros de capilla during the viceregal epoch (to 1821). Domingo Álvarez signed the first Lima Council constitutions (1552). The succentor Cristóbal de Molina (fl 1534–64), teacher of Pizarro’s mestizo daughter Francisca, arrived in Peru already ‘known in Italy and France’. The cathedral organist and maestro de capilla during the period 1612–14, Estacio de la Serna, had been royal chapel organist at Lisbon; he and his successors throughout the 17th and 18th centuries left music which is generally of excellent technical quality. As at Mexico City, the Lima maestro de capilla ran a cathedral choir school, directed singers and instrumentalists, maintained a choral library and composed new music for the chief annual festivals. There was also continuous musical activity at the vice-regal court, documented from the mid-16th century. Notable among the viceroys were the Conde de Lemos (1667–72), in whose retinue were Tomás de Torrejón y Velasco and Lucas Ruiz de Ribayaz, and the Marqués de Castell dos Rius (1707–10), with Roque Ceruti and a group of French instrumentalists in his service. The monasteries of nuns, in particular during the 17th century the Encarnación and Concepción monasteries, offered music of a high standard.

Lima exceeded even Mexico City in its lavish support of drama. The plays presented by contracted troupes from 1613, especially the Calderonian autos sacramentales (from 1670 to the turn of the century), nearly always included solo songs, vocal ensembles, instrumental music and accompanied dances. With Ceruti and Bartolomé Mazza (c1725–99) the Lima lyric stage began to be dominated by emigrant Italian composers; Mazza composed nearly all the extant Lima stage music for two decades. His company was famous and notorious for its singing actresses. The first documented public opera performance in Lima, called ‘coliseo de comedias’, was Las variedades de Proteo in 1762.

In the popular music of the colonial period diverse musical traditions co-existed, of Spanish, indigenous and African origin. African drum dances were noted by the authorities from 1549. Gathered in fraternities with Catholic names, the various African ethnic groups (naciones) organized dances for the procession in the week after Corpus Christi. By 1748 Africans brought to Lima from the coasts of Guinea and Senegal and from the Congo numbered some 10,000, and in 1791 their music formed the subject of an article in Mercurio Peruano (xlviii–xlix). Dances created in Lima spread by trading routes through what are now Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina, notably the zamacueca (also called mozamala, cueca, zamba, chilena and marinera). The tradition of Limeña popular music has continued in the 20th century with the various kinds of music known as musica criolla.

The Peruvian national anthem, composed by the Lima native José Bernardo Alcedo, was first performed in the Lima Teatro on 24 September 1821. Alcedo, Manuel de la Cruz Panizo (1839–89) and several other contemporary local composers were of partly African descent. Among Peruvian composers active in Lima in the early republican period Pedro Abril Tirado (1780–1856) stands out. However, concert and operatic life continued to be controlled mainly by European emigrants including Francesco Paolo Francia (1834–1904), Anton Neumane [Neumann] (1818–71), Carlo Enrico Pasta (1817–98), Claudio Rebagliatti (1833–1909) and his brother Reynaldo. Claudio directed the most important of the numerous philharmonic societies established in the 19th century; active from 1866 to 1870, it presented his 28 de julio en Lima (1868), a programmatic work incorporating typical airs of the city. The present Sociedad Filarmónica, founded in 1907, provides annual concert seasons and maintains various orchestras and chamber groups.

Until 1850 when the Teatro Variedades was opened, a monopoly on theatre had been imposed since colonial times by the Hospital de S Andrés, which owned the old coliseum; then known as the Teatro Principal, it was rebuilt several times on the same site. A new building was opened in 1874 with Il trovatore, and destroyed by fire in 1883. The new Teatro Principal seating 1400 was inaugurated in 1889 with the zarzuela El hermano Baltasar; it was replaced by the Teatro Municipal, opened in 1909 (from 1929 called Teatro Segura). In 1878 the Teatro Politeama opened with Il trovatore and in 1886 the Teatro Olimpico (later called Teatro Forero, now the Municipal) with the operetta La mascotte. The first native of Lima to compose an opera on a national subject was José María Valle Riestra (1859–1925), whose Ollanta was repeated 12 times after its première at the Principal in 1900.

The Orquesta Sinfónica Nacional gave its first concert in 1938 with 70 members in the Teatro Municipal under Theo Buchwald. He was succeeded by Hans-Günther Mommer (1960–63), Armando Sánchez Málaga (1963–4), Luis Herrara de la Fuente (1964–6), José Belaúnde Moreyra (1966–9), Carmen Moral, Leopoldo la Rosa Urbani (1970–74), Luis A. Meza and José Carlos Santos. Two orchestras have been called Orquesta Filarmónica de Lima, one active from 1980 to 1984 and another conducted from 1994 by Miguel Hart-Bedoya. In 1961 the Coro Nacional was founded.

The Academia Nacional de Música Alzedo, founded in 1929, was renamed the Conservatorio Nacional de Música in 1946 and the Escuela Nacional de Música in 1972. In 1994 it restored the name Conservatorio Nacional de Música and became an autonomous institution. Its directors have included the composers Carlos Sánchez Málaga, José Malsio, Enrique Iturriaga, Celso Garrido-Lecca and Edgar Valcárcel. The director in 1995 was Nelly Suares de Velit.

The chief collection of pre-Hispanic Peruvian musical instruments is housed at the Museo de Antropología y Arqueología. The largest collection of colonial music manuscripts belongs to the Archivo Histórico Arzobispal. Since 1985 the Pontifícia Universidad Católica has housed the Archivio de Música Tradicional Andina which collects audiovisual material in music and dance. The Biblioteca Nacional and the conservatory have important collections of Peruvian music. S Marcos University, founded in 1551, is the oldest on the continent.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

StevensonRB

O. Mayer-Serra: Música y músicos de Latinoamérica (Mexico City, 1947), 3, 710–11, 765–72

R. Barbacci: ‘Apuntes para un diccionario biográfico musical peruano’, Fénix, no.6 (1949), 414–510

C. Vega: El origen de las danzas folklóricas (Buenos Aires, 1956)

C. Raygada: ‘Guía musical del Perú’, Fénix, no.12 (1956–7), 3–77; no.13 (1963), 1–82; no.14 (1964), 3–95

R. Stevenson: The Music of Peru: Aboriginal and Viceroyal Epochs (Washington DC, 1960)

A. Sas: ‘La vida musical en la Catedral de Lima durante la colonia’, RMC, nos.81–2 (1962), 8–53

A. Sas: La música en la Catedral de Lima durante el Virreinato (Lima, 1971–2)

R. Stevenson: Foundations of New World Opera, with a Transcription of the Earliest Extant American Opera, 1701 (Lima, 1973)

E. Pinilla: Informe sobre la música en el Perú (Lima, 1981)

J.A. Lorens: Música popular en Lima: criollos y andinos (Lima, 1982)

J.C. Estenssoro: ‘Música y comportamiento festivo de la población negra en Lima colonial’, Cuadernos hispanoamericanos, nos.451–2 (1988), 161–8

J.C. Estenssoro: Música y sociedad coloniales: Lima 1680–1830 (Lima, 1989)

J.C. Estenssoro: Música, discurso y poder en el régimen colonial (thesis, U. Católica del Perú, 1990)

ROBERT STEVENSON, J. CARLOS ESTENSSORO

Lima, Braz Francisco de [Bras Francisco de, Biaggio Francesco]

(b Lisbon, ?3 May 1752; d Lisbon, 25 Sept 1813). Portuguese composer. On 15 January 1761 he entered the Conservatorio di S Onofrio a Capuana at Naples, along with his elder brother Jerónimo Francisco de Lima. He then distinguished himself in his studies at the Seminário da Patriarcal in Lisbon, and on 19 March 1785 his oratorio Il trionfo di Davidde was performed at the royal palace at Ajuda (score in P-La). From 1785 he also composed sacred works, some of which are in the Lisbon Cathedral archives. He eventually abandoned music in favour of a business career.

For bibliography see Lima, jerónimo francisco de.

ROBERT STEVENSON

Lima, Cândido de (Oliveira)

(b Vila de Punhe, nr Viana do Castelo, 22 Aug 1939). Portuguese composer. He studied music at the conservatories of Braga, Lisbon (piano, 1967) and Oporto (composition, 1970), and philosophy in Braga (1968–73). He attended summer courses in Darmstadt (1970–72) and international music courses in various European cities. He studied at the University of Paris, obtaining the master’s degree (1976), the Diploma of Further Studies (1978) and a doctorate (1983), the last two under the supervision of Xenakis. He also studied with Xenakis at the Institute of Aesthetics and Science of the Arts of the Sorbonne, took a doctorate in aesthetics at the Sorbonne and periodically attended the IRCAM and CEMAMu (Paris).

In 1970 he was appointed professor of composition at Oporto University, a position he held until 1986, when he became professor of composition and musical aesthetics at the Escola Superior de Música in Oporto. He has had an important role in the development of courses, seminars, conferences and radio and television production, and as a critic and essayist. In 1973 he founded the Grupo Música Nova, which he directs and in which he plays the piano. With them he has given many premières of works by both Portuguese and foreign composers, at home and abroad. Lima is above all a thinker. His music is of a distinctly experimental nature, dominated, in his own words, by the desire to express ‘the ephemeral and the eternal, the gods’ gift of translating everything into music’. He is the author of books on the subjects of aesthetics and musical education.

WORKS

(selective list)

Dramatic: A morte de um caixeiro viajante (incid music, A. Miller), 1973–4; Polígnos em som e azul (op without words, V. da Silva), 2 fl, ob, 2 cl, bn, vib, gui, str qt, 3 pf, tape, 1988–9

Vocal: Dança do vento (A.L. Vieira), 5 equal vv, pf, org, 1962; 4 poemas impressionistas (S. da Gama, F. Pessoa), 1v, pf, 1963–4; Desfraldando (Pessoa), 1v, pf, 1965; Magnificat (Pessoa, A. de Campos), 1v, wind insts, perc, 1965; Começar a haver meia-noite (Pessoa), 1v, pf, 1965; Impressões do crepúsculo (Pauis) (Pessoa), 1v, vn, pf, 1967; 15 canções para a juventude (popular, A. Portela and others), 1v, pf, 1967; Mare-a-mare, 1v, fl, cl, hn, bn, va, vc, pf, tape, 1978–80; Sol-oeils (Pessoa and others), 12/24vv, 1978–9

Orch: 7 canções estáticas, vn, orch, 1966–71; Epitáfio, 1970–71; Oceanos cósmicos, orch, tape, 1975–9; Toiles I, str, 1977–8; É-toiles, 1977–8 [arr. of Toiles I]; A-mèr-es, orch, tape, 1978–9; Momentos-memórias II, Portuguese gui, gui, hpd, str, 1985; Homena, 1989

Chbr: 3 estudos para jovens, pf, pf 4 hands, 1960–64; Momentos-memórias I, pf, perc, 1964–85; Canzoni liriche, vn/fl, pf, 1968; Miniaturas (fl, ob, vn)/(vn, gui), 1969; Projecções, mime, spkr, hmn, pf, lighting, 1969–79; Enigma I e II, perc, 1974; Oscillations, chbr ens, 1975–6; Sang-ge, 3 bn, 1976; Coros e danças medievais, band, perc, 1978; Autómatos da Areia, tape, pf, perc, 1978–85; Ryt(hm)os, 14 insts, 1982–3; Improvisações, 1982–9; Cantica I, cl, sax, perc, 1984; Nô, chbr ens, 1986–7; Canções de Ur, chbr ens, tape, 1987; Cantica–cantica, 2 insts, tape, 1987; Octophonon, 4 cl, 1989; Para dois poemas: impromptu, vn, pf, tape, 1989; Nanghe, fl, vn, vc, pf, tape, 1990; Il tempo dell’acqua, b cl, db, 1991; Bleu-rouge (Regards), chbr ens, multimedia, tape, 1992; Tapisserie I (Croquis), chbr ens, 1992; Tapisserie II (Masques), chbr ens, 1993; Momentos-memórias III, chbr ens, 1994; Vozes à luz (à memória), str qt, 1996

Solo inst: 5 estudos, pf, 1960–64; 4 estudos rítmicos, pf, 1963–4; Esboços, gui, 1969; Projecções II, pf, tape, 1969–79; Meteoritos, pf/(pf, tape), 1973–4; Sang-ge, bn, 1976; Iliam, pf, 1980–81; Galets, pf, tape, 1982–3; Cori memori, org, 1985; Aquiris [iri-nube-inoutecer], pf, 1993; Blink, pf, 1993; Poisson–miroir, hpd, 1994; Juego del sol, pf, 1995; Ncàãncôa, cl, 1995

Elec: Oceanos, tape, 1978–80; Músicas da Terra, tape, 1982; Toiles II, cptr, tape, 1978–80; Toiles IV, cptr, 1978–80; Toiles III, cptr, tape, 1978–81; Músicas da Terra, tape, 1982; Lendas de Neptuno, tape, 1987; Músicas dos objectos e do acaso: resíduos (Tapiès), multimedia, 1991

Principal recordings: Portugalsom, Numérica

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Panorama da música de câmara do século XX (Oporto, 1996) [concert programme]

ADRIANA LATINO

Lima, Jerónimo Francisco de

(b Lisbon, 30 Sept 1743; d Lisbon, 19 Feb 1822). Portuguese composer. He studied at the Seminário da Patriarcal in Lisbon, and from 1761 to 1767 at the Conservatorio di S Onofrio a Capuana in Naples, together with João de Sousa Carvalho. On his return to Lisbon he was appointed organist and mestre at the Seminário da Patriarcal and began to write in a variety of genres, including serenatas and drammi per musica da cantarsi written for court or private performance. Among them was Le nozze d’Ercole e d’Ebe, given in 1785 at the Spanish Ambassador’s palace in Lisbon to celebrate a double wedding between the Spanish and Portuguese royal families. In 1787 he was in the service of the English writer William Beckford during the latter’s stay in Sintra, near Lisbon, and his music is favourably mentioned by Beckford, who, however, was not pleased with the £200 bill that Lima presented on his departure. He was also composing much sacred music and replaced Carvalho as primeiro mestre de capela of the Seminário in 1798. Lima’s two three-act drammi giocosi were first performed during Carnival at the court’s winter palace at Salvaterra de Magos: Lo spirito di contradizione in 1772, and La vera costanza in 1785. Lo spirito di contradizione, which was revived at the Teatro de S Carlos in Lisbon in 1985, reveals in its accompanied recitatives and rich orchestration the possible influence of Jommelli, the favourite composer of the Lisbon court.

WORKS

all in MS in P-La, unless otherwise indicated

Lo spirito di contradizione (dg, 3, G. Martinelli), Lisbon, Salvaterra, carn. 1772

Gli orti esperidi (serenata, P. Metastasio), Lisbon, Ajuda Palace, 5 April 1779

Enea in Tracia (dramma per musica, 1, Martinelli), Lisbon, Ajuda Palace, 17 Dec 1781

Teseo (dramma per musica da cantarsi, 1, Martinelli), Lisbon, Queluz Palace, 21 Aug 1783

O hymeneo (pequeno drama para se cantar, M.J. Dias Azedo and A. da Silva Morais), 1783, only lib extant

La vera costanza (dg, 3), Lisbon, Salvaterra, carn. 1785

Le nozze d’Ercole e d’Ebe (dramma per musica da cantarsi, 2), Lisbon, residence of Count F. Nuñez, 13 April 1785

O templo da gloria, 1802, only lib extant

La Galatea (cant.), 5vv, insts

Dixit Dominus, 8vv, P-EVc

Magnificat, 4vv, bc, VV

Numerous sacred works, Lf (see Pereira Leal)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DBP

J. Mazza: Dicionário biográfico de músicos portugueses (Lisbon, 1944–5)

B. Alexander, ed.: The Journal of William Beckford in Portugal and Spain, 1787–1788 (London, 1954)

L. Pereira Leal: Introduction to PM, ser. B, xxiii (1973)

M.C. de Brito: Opera in Portugal in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, 1989)

MANUEL CARLOS DE BRITO

Lima, João de Souza.

See Souza Lima, João de.

Lima, Paulo Costa

(b Salvador, 26 Sept 1954). Brazilian composer, teacher and writer. From 1969 to 1973 he took his undergraduate studies in composition, theory and analysis, and cello at the school of music of the Federal University of Bahia (UFBa). He then studied composition at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (BA 1977), where his main teachers were Herber Brün and Ben Johnston. At the same institution he received his MSc in music education (1978), studying with Charles Leonard and Richard Cowell. In 1995 he began to study for a doctoral degree in education at UFBa and a doctorate in arts at the University of São Paulo. Since 1979 he has been teaching theory and composition at the UFBa School of Music. He was director of the school of music of UFBa (1988–92) and vice-rector for continuing education at UFBa (1996–8).

Lima is considered one of the most talented composers of his generation. Between 1976 and 1997 he produced 53 compositions, mostly for solo instruments and various chamber combinations, and also a few choral and orchestral works, and two electronic pieces, all in eclectic styles in which local folk and popular inspiration are combined (at times in a humorous fashion) with modern, experimental techniques. His music has been widely performed in Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, Europe and the USA. He has received numerous commissions and fellowships, and won various composition prizes. He has also written prolifically on analytical issues, the compositional process, and music and psychoanalysis.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Béhague: Sonidos de las Américas Festival (New York, 1996) [American Composers’ Orchestra; programme book]

GERARD BÉHAGUE

Limbe.

Mongolian side-blown flute. The limbe is traditionally played by males in Eastern Mongol groups (see Mongol music), including Central Khalkhas in Mongolia, using the technique of circular breathing (bitüü am'sgal). An older regional name for side- and end-blown flutes is bishgüür. The limbe (classical Mongolian lingbu, Tibetan gling-bu) consists of a tube with a stopped upper end which may have from six to twelve holes cut into its side. In the latter case, these comprise a mouth-hole, a hole covered by a thin membrane to increase carrying power, six finger-holes (nüh) and four sound exit holes (two on the upper side and two in a parallel position below), which may be covered by any suitable material to give the instrument a deeper pitch. It is traditionally made from either reed or metal; contemporary instruments may be made from plastic. Ligatures hold the two halves of reed instruments firmly together.

Eastern Mongols distinguish ‘male’ (er) and ‘female’ (em) limbe: the male is wide-bored, short and blown hard; the female narrower, longer and blown softly. Traditionally the instrument is used while herding, to encourage mother camels to accept their calves and, along with the morin Huur (‘horse-head fiddle’), to accompany urtyn duu (‘long-song’). During the communist period (1921–92) a tuner (höglögch), facilitating a European scale when twisted, was added between the body and the endpiece. In contemporary Mongolia, the limbe is played by males and is used in folk music ensembles.

The limbe is imitated by passing air through the nose, called hamraar limbedeh (‘to play limbe by the nose’), or vocally, called amaar limbedeh (‘to play limbe by the mouth’).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

J. van Oost: ‘La musique chez les mongols des Urdus’, Anthropos, x–xi (1915–16), 358–96

E. Emsheimer: ‘Preliminary Remarks on Mongolian Music and Instruments’, The Music of the Mongols, i: Eastern Mongolia, (Stockholm, 1943), 66–100

Chants mongols et bouriates, Vogue LDM 30138 (1973) [notes by R. Hamayon]

D. Nalsalmaa: ‘Oyuny Soyol 4: Ardyn, duu, högjim’ [‘Spiritual culture 4: folksong, music’], BNMAY-yn Ugsaatny Züi [Traditions of the BNMAY], I: Halhyn Ugsaatny Züi: XIX–XX Zuuny Zaag Üe [Khalkha traditions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries] (Ulaanbaatar, 1987), 358–78

C.A. Pegg: Mongolian Music, Dance and Oral Narrative: Performing Diverse Identities (Seattle, forthcoming) [with CD]

CAROLE PEGG

Limbrick, Simon

(b London, 8 Feb 1958). English percussionist and composer. He studied at the RCM with Michael Skinner, Janos Keszic and Alan Cumberland (1976–9), and subsequently studied the tabla with Latif Ahmed Khan. In 1990 he completed his MA in electro-acoustic composition at City University in London. Limbrick performs regularly as solo percussionist with the Nash Ensemble. He was a founder member of the cult systems orchestra The Lost Jockey, collaborated with the choreographer Rosemary Lee on a large-scale community dance work at Fort Dunlop, Birmingham, and together with the Dutch composer Harry de Wit has written several film scores. He has also composed for Mary Wiegold’s Songbook, Roger Heaton and Ensemble Bash, and was composer-in-residence at London’s Blackheath Concert Halls between 1995 and 1996. Various compositions have been written especially for Limbrick, including works by Javier Alvarez, Brian Elias, Vic Hoyland and Andrew Poppy. He has also given the world premières of Frederic Rzewski’s Lost and Found, Claude Vivier’s Cinq Chansons and James Dillon’s Ti-Re-Ti-Ke-Dha. Many of his own compositions have been influenced strongly by Indian and African music.

JAMES HOLLAND

Limenius

(fl 128 bce). Athenian composer of paeans and prosodia. An inscription found at Delphi which can be dated precisely to 128 bce contains a lengthy composition, embodying both of these forms, provided with instrumental notation. A separate but related inscription testifies that it was performed in the same year. Two introductory lines identify it as a ‘paean and prosodion to the god [Apollo] which was composed and provided with kithara accompaniment by Limenius of Athens, son of Thoenus’. A second inscription, perhaps made ten years earlier, contains a paean and hyporcheme (huporchēma) to Apollo in vocal notation. The name of the composer is effaced and only the ostensible adjective ‘Athenian’ remains. It has, however, recently been proposed (see Bélis) that this second inscription was composed by a certain Athenaeus and that the two paeans are contemporary. In any event, the two works are now commonly known as the Delphic Hymns.

A separate inscription from Delphi identifies Limenius as a performer on the kithara. As a professional musician taking part in the Pythaïs (the theōria, or liturgical embassy, to the cult centre of Pythian Apollo at Delphi), he was required to belong to one of the guilds of the Artists of Dionysus. Limenius's membership was based on his professional status as a kitharist, and he himself wrote of the sacred ‘swarm of artists’ (‘hesmos … technitōn’) in his paean (20f), which gives an unusually detailed impression of the place of music in the liturgy. A similar phrase occurs in the companion piece (16f).

Limenius's paean and prosodion were composed in honour of the Artists of Dionysus (see Technitai), who performed it at the Pythian Festival of 128 bce. Elpinikos and Cleon, already encountered as leaders of the boys' choir at the games of 138 bce, are named in the festival decree, as is a certain Philion. The paean itself extends to 33 lines of cretic and paeonic rhythm, after which the prosodion begins a new rhythmic pattern. The three large sections of the paean – providing an invocation, a narrative of several deeds of Apollo, and a final prayer to Apollo, Artemis and Leto – are subdivided into smaller sections that modulate back and forth between Lydian and Hypolydian tonoi. The tone of the text is elevated, as would be expected of a paean, and musical allusions abound. At one point (if the reconstruction of the text is correct), the images employed for the aulos and the kithara in the previous paean are reversed: now it is the kithara that provides the ‘coiling mele’, while the aulos produces a honeyed song with a sweet voice. The final section of the paean tells of the slaying of Tityus by Apollo and the unsuccessful attack on Delphi by the Gauls, both of which recall the very end of the first Delphic hymn. The prosodion provides a closing prayer, in which the Greek gods Apollo, Artemis and Leto are appropriated for the protection of the Roman Empire. The correspondence between accentual and melodic pitch in this paean – as in some other late Greek musical compositions – probably reflects an archaicizing tradition.

See also Hymn, §I.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Reinach: Les hymnes delphiques à Apollon avec notes musicales (Paris, 1912)

M.G. Colin: ‘L'auteur du deuxième hymne musical de Delphes’, Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres (1913), 529–32

P. Moens: De twee delphische hymnen met musieknoten (Purmerend, 1930)

R.P. Winnington-Ingram: Mode in Ancient Greek Music (Cambridge, 1936/R), 32ff, 45

E. Pöhlmann, ed.: Denkmäler altgriechischer Musik (Nuremberg, 1970), 58ff

A. Bélis: ‘A proposito degli “Inni delfici”’, La musica in Grecia: Urbino 1985, 205–18

M.L. West: Ancient Greek Music (Oxford, 1992), 288–308, 317–18

T.J. Mathiesen: Apollo’s Lyre: Greek Music and Music Theory in Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Lincoln, NE, 1999), 44–56

For recordings see Greece, §I (Bibliography, (ii)).

WARREN ANDERSON/THOMAS J. MATHIESEN

Limma [leimma]

(Gk.: ‘remainder’).

In ancient Greek music theory the interval that remains when two whole-tone intervals are subtracted from a perfect 4th. The whole tone is the difference between a perfect 5th and a perfect 4th. The limma is also the difference between three octaves and five perfect 5ths, in other words, the diatonic semitone. Several ancient writers defined the limma, among them Ptolemy (Harmonics, i.10), Theon of Smyrna (On Mathematics Useful for the Understanding of Plato, ed. E. Hiller, Leipzig, 1878/R, 66–70), who relied on Adrastus, Gaudentius (Harmonic Introduction, ed. C. von Jan, Musici scriptores graeci, Leipzig, 1895/R, 342.7ff) and Boethius (De institutione musica, ii.28). Another, generic name for the limma in ancient Greek music was diesis (‘passing through’), although it was used to refer to a variety of smaller intervals as well (see Diesis (ii)).

In the Pythagorean theory of ratios and proportions the limma is represented by 256:243, the difference between a perfect 4th (4:3) and two whole tones (9:8 + 9:8 = 81:64). By referring to the excess of a 4th over two whole tones as a remainder and not as a semitone, the term ‘limma’ reveals its Pythagorean as opposed to its Aristoxenian nature. Aristoxenian music theory divides the octave into exactly six whole tones, the 5th equalling three and a half whole tones and the 4th two and a half. ‘Limma’ may also indicate the Greek musico-theoretical procedure of continuous subtraction (antanairēsis): an octave (2:1) minus a 5th (3:2) produces a 4th; a 5th minus a 4th produces a whole tone (an interval that Nichomachus also called a limma: Manual of Harmonics, ed. Jan, op. cit., 250.11); a 4th minus two whole tones produces the limma; the whole tone minus the limma produces the apotomē (‘cutting off’) or large semitone (2187:2048); the apotomē minus the limma produces the Pythagorean comma (531,441:524,288), the interval by which six whole tones exceed an octave (the whole tone minus two limmas also produces the comma, as Boethius noted in De institutione musica, iii.6–7).

Aristides Quintilianus (On Music, i.18) also defined the shortest rest as one limma.

ANDRÉ BARBERA

Limonaire.

French family of mechanical organ makers. Coming originally from the Basque region, Antoine Limonaire started making pianos in Paris in 1840. His sons, Eugène and Camille, made fairground attractions in Paris until around 1880 when they began making mechanical organs. They concentrated on small- to medium-sized, well-voiced, prompt-acting organs for the fairground and the dance hall (see Fairground organ), calling their largest models ‘Orchestrophones’. Their organs became renowned for their characteristically ‘Parisian’ sound. For a short while (1898–9) they operated a factory in London. Limonaire-Frères bought the Gavioli business in 1912, including the Waldkirch factory where Gavioli were making organs for the German market. The brothers ceased to make fairground and dancehall organs in 1918, but continued the production of automatic café pianos until the business finally shut in 1930.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E.V. Cockayne: The Fairground Organ (Newton Abbot, 1970)

J. van Dinteren: ‘More Light on Limonaire’, Music Box, vii (1975–6), 281–4

A.W.J.G. Ord-Hume: Barrel Organ (London, 1978)

ARTHUR W.J.G. ORD-HUME

Lin, Cho-Liang

(b Hsin-Chu, Taiwan, 29 Jan 1960). American violinist of Chinese extraction. He played in his first concert at the age of seven and in 1972 won the Taiwan National Youth Competition, enabling him to study with Robert Pikler at the Sydney Conservatorium until 1975. He was a pupil of Dorothy DeLay at the Juilliard School, New York (1975–8), and in 1977 won first prize in the Queen Sophia International Competition in Madrid. He made his US début in 1979 at the Mostly Mozart Festival and in 1981, through the influence of Isaac Stern, undertook an extensive tour of mainland China and East Asia. He has since achieved an international reputation as a soloist and chamber musician (in a trio with the pianist Yefim Bronfman and the cellist Gary Hoffman) and is also on the faculty of the Juilliard School. Outstanding among his many recordings are the violin concertos of Sibelius, Stravinsky and Prokofiev. His elegant playing is based on perfect intonation, an impeccable technique and a strong feeling for the architecture of the music. He plays a Guarneri del Gesù violin ‘The Duke of Camposelice’, dated 1734.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

B. Sand: ‘Youthful Authority’, The Strad, xcviii (1987), 298–302

K. Smith: ‘From East to West and Back’, The Strad, cvi (1995), 896–903

MARGARET CAMPBELL

Linarol, Francesco [Francesco Lirer; Francesco de Machettis; Franciscus Bergomensis]

(b ?Bergamo, c1520; d Venice, 1577). Italian viol maker. Little is known about his life. He made the earliest extant Venetian viol, a tenor dating from about 1540 (now in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna). In 1576 he was mentioned on the death certificate of a daughter. He was one of the most important figures in the Venetian school of viol making of the 16th century. His son Ventura (b 1539/40) built a number of viols and violins to a high level of craftsmanship and is known to have been an occasional player of violin and violone at S Marco between 1586 and 1607. Ventura’s son Giovanni (fl c1620) continued the family instrument-making business.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L.C. Witten: ‘Apollo, Orpheus and David’, JAMIS, i (1975), 5–55

M. Edmunds: ‘Venetian Viols of the Sixteenth Century’, GSJ, xxxiii (1980), 74–91

GIULIO ONGARO

Linceo.

See Colonna, Fabio.

Lincer, William

(b Brooklyn, 6 April 1907; d New York City, 31 July 1997). American violinist and viola player. He began his violin studies at the age of five and two years later he gave his first recital in Aeolian Hall in New York City. He continued his studies at the Institute of Musical Art, where his teachers included Leopold Lichtenberg, Samuel Gardner, and Erica Morini. Upon graduation, he formed the Lincer Quartet, pursued postgraduate courses at Harvard University, and gave numerous lectures on music appreciation throughout the country. For seven years, as viola player with the Jacques Gordon String Quartet, he toured extensively throughout the USA and Canada. In 1938, on the occasion of this ensemble's première of a string quartet by Frank Bridge, he was awarded the Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge Individual Gold Medal for Chamber Music. In 1942, Lincer became principal viola with the Cleveland Orchestra, and a year later principal viola of the New York PO, a position he retained until his retirement at the end of the 1972 season. With the orchestra he gave the US or New York premières of many works, including viola concertos by Bloch, Hohvaness, Klenner, Rivier and Starer. Although Lincer began to teach the viola in 1927, he did not become associated with a music school until 1960, teaching first at the Manhattan Schools of Music (1960–69) and then at the Juilliard School, where he served as professor of viola and chamber music until shortly before his death. When he was a teenager, Lincer suffered a severe hand injury and was told his performing days were at an end. He did not accept this verdict and was able to retain his hand through knowledge gained from extensive research in physiology. In later years he put this knowledge to work in his unique style of viola pedagogy. The William Lincer Foundation, established in 1999, sponsors an annual composer competition designed to enlarge the repertory for the viola.

AMEDEE DARYL WILLIAMS

Linck, Johannes

(b Züllichau [now Sulechów], Silesia, 1561; d Görlitz, 20 July 1603). Silesian Kantor and poet. He succeeded Wolfgang Rauch as Kantor at the Lutheran school and church in Linz, upper Austria, on 8 July 1586, and although repeatedly censured for bad behaviour towards the students, he retained this post until 1600, when Leonhard Prenner became his successor. On 12 September 1602 Linck left Linz for Görlitz, where he taught from 24 October 1602 until his death. He was crowned poeta laureatus in 1602. He is known for his collection of spring poems Eacina sive carminum vernorum praecidanea (Görlitz, 1603) and for many Latin poems either on music or on composers or persons connected with music. The Deliciae poetarum germanorum huius superiorisque aevi illustrium, iii (Frankfurt, 1612, 1092ff) contains two poems by him entitled De musica (1 ed. in Wessely, MF, 1954). In addition he wrote an elegy on the death of the Silesian poet Georg Calaminus (1547–95), a poem in praise of the composer Valentin Haussmann for the latter's Neue Teutsche Weltliche Lieder (Nuremberg, 1592) and another praising the composer Andreas Raselius for his Teutsche Sprüche auss den Sontäglichen Evangeliis (Nuremberg, 1594).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

O. Wessely: ‘Linz und die Musik’, Jb der Stadt Linz 1950 (1951), 96–197, esp. 122

O. Wessely: ‘Die Pflege der Musik an der evangelischen Landschaftsschule in Linz’, Festschrift zum 400jährigen Jubiläum des humanistischen Gymnasiums in Linz (Linz, 1952), 52–63

J. Schmidt: ‘Lateinisches Linz’, Mitteilungen des Instituts für österreichische Geschichtsforschung, lx (1952), 206–19

O. Wessely: ‘Neue Beiträge zur Pflege der Musik an der evangelischen Lanschaftsschule und Landhauskirche zu Linz’, Mitteilungen des Oberösterreichischen Landesarchivs, iii (Linz, 1954), 300–36

O. Wessely: ‘Tubingensia’, Mf, vii (1954), 397–402

H. Schardinger: ‘Studien zur Geschichte des Linzer Gymnasiums aus der Zeit der Landschaftsschule’, Historisches Jb der Stadt Linz (Linz, 1957)

OTHMAR WESSELY/WALTER KREYSZIG

Lincke, Joseph

(b Trachenburgh, 8 June 1783; d Vienna, 26 March 1837). Silesian cellist and composer. He was taught the violin by his father and the cello by Oswald. Orphaned at the age of ten, he supported himself by copying music until he was appointed violinist in the Dominican monastery at Breslau at the age of 12. There he continued to study the cello, and eventually became first cellist at the theatre at Breslau, where Weber was then Kapellmeister. In 1808 he went to Vienna and was invited by Ignaz Schuppanzigh to join Count Razumovsky's private string quartet (1808–16, reformed 1823); he consequently played many of Beethoven's works under the direct guidance of the composer, including the two cello sonatas op.102, which were written for him, and the Piano Trio op.97. Lincke seems to have been particularly successful in interpreting Beethoven's music and was on intimate terms with the composer. He also took part in Schuppanzigh's public concerts and in 1816 became chamber musician to Countess Erdödy at Pancovecz, near Zagreb. In 1818 he returned to Vienna as solo cellist at the Theater an der Wien, and he became solo cellist at the Kärntnertortheater; from 1831 he played in the Hofoper orchestra. Although Lincke’s tone was considered weak in large ensembles, his expressive playing was much loved by Viennese audiences. His compositions included a concerto, variations and caprices, but no copies are known to survive.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Frimmel: Beethoven-Handbuch (Leipzig, 1926/R), i

J. Herrmann: ‘E.A. Förster, Joseph Lincke: zwei schlesische Musiker in Lebenskreis Beethovens’, Schlesien, xi (1966)

V. Walden: An Investigation and Comparison of the French and Austro-German Schools of Violoncello Bowing Techniques: 1785–1839 (diss., U. of Auckland, 1994)

C.F. POHL/SUZANNE WIJSMAN

Lincke, (Carl Emil) Paul

(b Berlin, 7 Nov 1866; d Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Harz, 3 Sept 1946). German composer and conductor. He studied with Rudolf Kleinow in Wittenberge (1880–84) and learnt to play the bassoon, horn and percussion. He played in dance orchestras in Berlin and was occasional conductor and house composer at variety theatres. He enjoyed success with popular songs including Wenn die Blätter leise rauschen, Ach Schaffner, lieber Schaffner and Die Gigerlkönigin, and from 1893 to 1897 was conductor and resident composer at the main variety theatre in Berlin, the Apollo. After a period as conductor at the Folies-Bergère, Paris (1897–9), his revue-operetta Frau Luna made his name and also his fortune through his own publishing company, Apollo-Verlag. It was followed by further stage scores and orchestral pieces. Orchestral items such as the ‘Glühwürmchen-Idyll’ from Lysistrata (1902) achieved wide international popularity, while songs such as the march from Berliner Luft (1904) established him as a symbol of Berlin as Offenbach was of Paris or Johann Strauss of Vienna.

In the 1920s and 30s Frau Luna, Im Reiche des Indra and Lysistrata, originally written as items on variety programmes, were revised and expanded to incorporate hit numbers from Berliner Luft and other shows. Particularly through Frau Luna in this extended form, Lincke’s music retained its local popularity, in due course being exploited by the Nazis. Lincke was made a freeman of Berlin in 1941 and named professor in 1942. Though his music seeks to achieve no great dramatic characterization, it is skilfully constructed and full of lilting, often rousing melodies.

WORKS

(selective list)

operettas

librettos by H. Bolten-Baeckers and performed in Berlin at the Apollo unless otherwise stated

published in vocal score in Berlin at time of first production

Venus auf Erden (1), 6 June 1897; Frau Luna (1), 1 May 1899, rev. version (2), Döbeln, Stadt, 1929; Im Reiche des Indra (1), 18 Dec 1899; Fräulein Loreley (1), 1 April 1900; Lysistrata (1), 1 April 1902; Nakiris Hochzeit (2), 6 Nov 1902; Berliner Luft (2), 28 April 1904; Grigri (2, with J. Chancel), Cologne, Metropol, 25 March 1911; Casanova (3, J. Glück, W. Sternberg, after Lebrun), Chemnitz, Stadt, 5 Nov 1913; Ein Liebestraum (3, A.O. Erler and Neumann), Berlin Radio, 20 July 1940, Hamburg, Reeperbahn, 1940; over 20 other short operettas and revues

other works

Orch: Folies-Bergère Marsch, Geburtstagsständchen, other light pieces

Many popular songs, choruses and light orch music, pubd Berlin

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gänz/EMT

E. Nick: Paul Lincke (Hamburg, 1953)

O. Schneidereit: Operette von Abraham bis Ziehrer (Berlin, 1966)

O. Schneidereit: Paul Lincke und die Entstehung der Berliner Operette (Berlin, 1974)

ANDREW LAMB

Lincoln, Harry B(arnard)

(b Fergus Falls, MN, 6 March 1922). American musicologist. He graduated from Macalester College in 1946 and took the PhD at Northwestern University in 1951 with a dissertation on Annibale Zoilo. He was on the faculty at SUNY, Binghamton until his retirement in 1992. Lincoln has edited and written about Italian secular music of the 16th and early 17th centuries. His edition of the madrigal collection L'amorosa Ero makes available in a practical modern transcription a group of pieces by some of the major madrigal composers of the late 16th century; since all of these pieces used the same text and mode they provide an interesting comparison of the ways in which different composers approached text setting in madrigals. Lincoln is also one of the principal exponents of the application of computer technology to musical research, particularly to thematic indexing.

WRITINGS

Annibale Zoilo: the Life and Works of a Sixteenth-Century Italian Composer (diss., Northwestern U., 1951)

‘I manoscritti chigiani di musica organo-cembalistica della Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana’, L'organo, v (1964–7), 63–82

ed.: Directory of Music Faculties in American Colleges and Universities, U.S. and Canada (Binghamton, NY, 1967, 3/1970)

‘Musicology and the Computer: the Thematic Index’, Computers in Humanistic Research, ed. E.A. Bowles (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1967), 184–93

‘Some Criteria and Techniques for Developing Computerized Thematic Indices’, Elektronische Datenverarbeitung in der Musikwissenschaft, ed. H. Heckmann (Regensburg, 1967), 57–62

‘The Thematic Index: a Computer Application to Musicology’, Computers and the Humanities, ii (1967–8), 215–20

‘A Computer Application in Musicology: the Thematic Index’, Information Processing: Edinburgh 1968, ed. A.J.H. Morrell (Amsterdam, 1969), 957–61

ed.: The Computer and Music (Ithaca, NY, 1970)

‘The Current State of Music Research and the Computer’, Computers and the Humanities, v (1970–71), 29–36

Index to Graduate Degrees in Music, U.S. and Canada (Binghamton, NY, 1971)

‘Uses of the Computer in Music Composition and Research’, Advances in Computers, xii (1972), 73–114

‘Preliminary Studies of Melody as Wave Form’, Informatique et musique: Orsay 1981, 43–54

‘Some Observations on Madrigal Settings of Petrarch's I' vo piangendo’, Mediaevalia, xii (1986), 339–49

The Italian Madrigal and Related Repertories: Indexes to Printed Collections, 1500–1600 (New Haven, CT, 1988)

The Latin Motet: Indexes to Printed Collections, 1500–1600 (Ottawa, 1993)

EDITIONS

The Madrigal Collection ‘L'amorosa Ero’ (Brescia, 1588) (Albany, NY, 1968)

Seventeenth-Century Keyboard Music in the Chigi Manuscripts of the Vatican Library, CEKM, xxxii (1968)

with S. Bonta: Study Scores of Historical Styles (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1986–7)

PAULA MORGAN

Lincoln, Henry Cephas

(b ?1789; d ?1864). English organ builder. He joined his father John Lincoln (fl 1789–1820) about 1810 following an apprenticeship with Flight & Robson. For much of his career H.C. Lincoln's ‘manufactory’ was at 196 High Holborn, London; he did little significant work after 1845, though he was still working on the Buckingham Palace Ballroom organ in 1855.

Lincoln's published lists (c1824 and 1843) indicate a considerable output of new organs throughout Britain and abroad. He held the royal warrant from about 1819, probably as a result of building ‘a very superb organ’ of 28 stops for the Brighton Pavilion (1818). His work included new organs for fashionable churches in London and Brighton, and during the early 1840s he made his contribution to the new ‘German system’, working with h.j. Gauntlett on at least four organs, including the vast instrument for St Olave, Tooley Street, Southwark (1844), with its 27-stop Great based on a 32' bourdon. It proved to be beyond Lincoln's resources and was completed by Hill in 1846.

Lincoln's best work dates from the final phase of the English long-compass organ. His three-manual instrument, built originally for St John's Chapel, Bedford Row, London (1821), survives at Thaxted, Essex. The fine Regency case contains an instrument which (despite its dilapidated condition) gives a fair impression of Lincoln’s work, with its clear-toned (metal) flutes, imitative reeds and gentle diapasons.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D. Maskell: ‘Organs by Lincoln’, Musical Standard (30 March 1867), 203 only

J. Boeringer: ‘The Organs of the Lincolns’, JBIOS, i (1977), 11–17

N.J. Thistlethwaite: The Making of the Victorian Organ (Cambridge, 1990)

NICHOLAS THISTLETHWAITE

Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts.

New York arts complex opened during the 1960s. See New York, §3.

Lincolniensis.

See Grosseteste, Robert.

Lincoln’s Inn.

One of the London Inns of Court. See London (i), §III.

Lincoln’s Inn Fields Theatre.

London theatre opened in 1661. See London (i), §V, 1.

Lind [Lind-Goldschmidt], Jenny [Johanna Maria]

(b Stockholm, 6 Oct 1820; d Wynds Point, Herefordshire, 2 Nov 1887). Swedish soprano. She was nicknamed ‘the Swedish nightingale’. In 1830 she was enrolled at the Royal Opera School, Stockholm. She made her début in 1838 as Agathe in Der Freischütz; later that year she sang Pamina and Euryanthe. She appeared in La vestale, Robert le diable (1839), Don Giovanni (as Donna Anna), Lucia di Lammermoor (1840) and La straniera, and as Norma, which she sang for the first time in 1841. Her voice began to show signs of fatigue, the middle register being particularly worn, and she went to Paris to consult the younger Manuel Garcia, who imposed a period of rest before taking her as a pupil. When she returned to Stockholm, appearing in Norma in October 1842, an improvement in her voice and technique was immediately apparent. The middle register remained veiled in tone and relatively weak for the rest of her career, but the notes from c'' to a'' had become marvellously strong and flexible, and her range extended to g'''.

Lind’s new roles included Valentine (Les Huguenots), Ninetta (La gazza ladra), Countess Almaviva, and Amina (La sonnambula), which she sang for the first time in 1843. During the next season she added Il turco in Italia, Gluck’s Armide and Anna Bolena to her repertory. In 1844 she went to Germany, making her début in Berlin in Norma and in 1845 singing Vielka in Meyerbeer’s Ein Feldlager in Schlesien, written for her but created by Leopoldine Tuczek-Ehrenburg. Returning to Stockholm, she sang Marie (La fille du régiment) for the first time.

Lind made her Viennese début at the Theater an der Wien in April 1846 as Norma. She then toured extensively in Germany, taking part, with Mendelssohn, in the Lower Rhine Festival at Aachen during May and June, when she sang in Haydn’s Creation and Handel’s Alexander’s Feast. She also appeared at Munich, Stuttgart, Karlsruhe, Mannheim and Nuremberg. Returning in January 1847 to Vienna, she scored an immense success as Marie. Her triumphant London début was at Her Majesty’s in May of the same year, when she sang (in Italian) Alice in Robert le diable before Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, followed by La sonnambula (see illustration) and La fille du régiment with even greater success. She also created Amalia in I masnadieri (22 July) and sang Susanna. Having decided to give up the theatre, she sang in Sweden during the winter, making her last Stockholm appearance as Norma in April 1848. She then sang for a second season at Her Majesty’s followed by an extensive tour of Great Britain. In December she sang Mendelssohn’s Elijah at the Exeter Hall, London. Persuaded to give six extra farewell performances at Her Majesty’s, she made her final stage appearance there as Alice on 10 May 1849. In 1850 she embarked on an eight-month concert tour throughout the USA, visiting 93 cities. She continued to sing in concerts and oratorios, both in Germany and in England, where she lived from 1858 until her death. In 1883, the year of her last public performance, she became professor of singing at the RCM.

Lind’s stage reputation was based largely on four operas, La sonnambula, Robert le diable, La fille du régiment and Norma. Her interpretation of Norma failed because of her temperamental inability to realize the character fully; thus Amina, Alice and Marie were probably her most satisfying operatic achievements (though her own preference was for Julia in La vestale).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

B. Lumley: Reminiscences of the Opera (London, 1864/R)

H.S. Holland and W.S. Rockstro: Memoir of Madame Jenny Lind-Goldschmidt: her Early Art-Life and Dramatic Career, 1820–1851 (London, 1891/R)

J.M.C. Maude: The Life of Jenny Lind (London, 1926/R)

J. Bulman: Jenny Lind: a Biography (London, 1956)

G. Denny: Jenny Lind, the Swedish Nightingale (New York, 1962)

W.P. Ware and T.C. Lockard, eds.: The Lost Letters of Jenny Lind (London, 1966)

A.F. Block: ‘Two Virtuoso Performers in Boston: Jenny Lind and Camilla Urso’, New Perspectives on Music: Essays in Honor of Eileen Southern, ed. J. Wright and S.A. Floyd (Warren, MI, 1992), 355–72

ELIZABETH FORBES

Lindberg, Armas.

See Launis, Armas.

Lindberg, Christian

(b Danderyd, 15 Feb 1958). Swedish trombonist. His training was at the Swedish Royal Academy of Music in Stockholm, with Sven-Erik Eriksson (1976–84), at the RCM, London, with John Iveson (1979–80) and with Ralph Sauer and Roger Bobo in Los Angeles (1983). He played with the Stockholm Opera Orchestra for the 1977–8 season and since then has pursued a spectacular career exclusively as a soloist, with over 100 concerts a year in major venues. He made his début in 1984 playing the Tomasi Trombone Concerto with the Swedish RSO under Jukka-Pekka Saraste. He has given the premières of over 50 works for trombone and orchestra, including de Frumerie's Trombone Concerto (1986), Sandström's Motor Bike Concerto (1989), Xenakis's Troorkh and Hillborg's Trombone Concerto (1993), Takemitsu's Fantasma/Cantos II and Sandström's Don Quijote (1994), and Pärt's An den Wassern and Muldowney's Trombone Concerto (1996). He has also collaborated with Berio on a Trombone Concerto, of which he gave the première in the Zürich Tonhalle and at the Sydney Opera House in 1999. He nevertheless does not eschew the traditional concertos by Michael Haydn, Leopold Mozart, Albrechtsberger and David, all of which he has edited for Edition Tarrodi. His playing is characterized by perfectly centred attacks in all registers at all dynamics and a charismatic intensity of delivery, as can be heard in over 30 recordings. Lindberg was given the honorary title of Prince Consort Professor by the RCM in 1994, and was appointed a professor at the Swedish Royal Academy of Music in 1996.

EDWARD H. TARR

Lindberg, (Johan) Jakob

(b Djursholm, 16 Oct 1952). Swedish lutenist and guitarist. He studied the guitar and the lute with Jörgen Rörby from 1967 to 1971, before reading music at Stockholm University. From 1972 to 1976 he attended the RCM in London, studying with Diana Poulton (whom he succeeded as professor of lute in 1979) and the guitarist Carlos Bonnell. He made his solo début at the Wigmore Hall in 1978. A leading exponent of both Renaissance and Baroque music, Lindberg feels a special affinity with the works of Dowland and Weiss. He is noted as a song accompanist and as a soloist and continuo player with leading Baroque orchestras. In 1985 he formed the Dowland Consort, specializing in music of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods. His recordings include the complete music for lute and strings of Vivaldi and Haydn, and the complete solo lute works of Bach and Dowland. He is the dedicatee of Richard Popplewell's Variations on Brigg Fair for solo lute (1988). He owns one of the few surviving lutes by Sixtus Rauwolf (Augsburg, c1595).

STEPHEN HAYNES

Lindberg, Magnus

(b Helsinki, 27 June 1958). Finnish composer. He studied composition with Rautavaara and Heininen at the Sibelius Academy (1977–81), and during the same period worked at the Stockholm electronic music studio and attended Donatoni's courses in Siena, and in 1980 and 1982 those of Lachenmann and Ferneyhough in Darmstadt. He has studied with Globokar and in Paris has worked with Grisey, and on several occasions in IRCAM. In Finland in 1977 he was, with Kaija Saariaho, Esa-Pekka Salonen and others, one of the founding members of the society Korvat auki (Ears Open), devoted to the study and performance of contemporary music neglected by established institutions.

Lindberg is a freelance composer, working to commissions and under the auspices of a state scholarship. He has taught composition at summer courses such as those arranged by the chamber orchestra Avanti! in Porvoo, Finland, since 1987, and courses at the Centre Acanthes in Avignon (1992), Darmstadt (1996), at the IRCAM Summer Academy in Paris (1997), in Santiago de Compostela (1997) and at the Royal College of Music in Stockholm, where he was Acting Professor (1996–7). He has planned programmes for the Helsinki Biennale, the Meltdown Festival in London and the Helsinki Festival. In 1997 he was the principal featured composer at both the Ars Musica festival in Brussels and the Musica festival in Strasbourg. In Strasbourg he also performed as a pianist and conducted the Finnish Radio SO. He has also conducted the Avanti!, Ictus and ASKO ensembles, and has performed in the experimental Toimii (It Works) ensemble of Helsinki since 1980. Commissions have come from varied ensembles and institutions, including the London Sinfonietta, the Tapiola Choir, radio stations of a number of countries, IRCAM, the Svenska Rikskonserter, the Los Angeles PO and the Orchestre de Paris. His concertante work Kraft won the 1986 UNESCO Rostrum of Composers, the 1987 Nordic Council and the 1988 Koussevitzky International Critics Award.

At the outset Lindberg was captivated by serialism and other organizational methods he discovered in the music of Stockhausen, Babbitt and others, and his early works, before Zona (1983, rev. 1990), were often based on complex formal schemes which controlled rhythm, pitch and register. He has since widened his horizons to include such different worlds as those of Berio, Zimmermann, Varèse, Stravinsky, Sibelius, Purcell, French spectral music, elements of minimalism, free jazz, progressive rock and ethnic music of East Asia. He takes care, however, to meld these different ingredients into a highly individual unity of style and expression that avoids any sense of postmodern stylistic shifting.

While works like Kraft (1985) and UR (1986) were concerned above all with rhythm and rough sonority, abrupt contrasts and weighty sound masses, subsequent works such as Twine (1988) for piano and the orchestral trilogy made up of Kinetics (1989), Marea (1990) and Joy (1990) were based on harmonic considerations, combining the similarity relationships of pitch class set theory and the principles of Spectral music. Corrente (1992) marks a shifting of interest from gestural writing to a more goal-oriented formal thinking. Characteristic of Lindberg's music, from especially this piece onwards, is a sense of continuity and direction, an ultimate end, that controls a work's development from beginning to end according to a carefully designed plan, as his orchestral works Aura (1994), Arena (1995) and Feria (1997) elegantly bear witness. At the same time, contrapuntal considerations became more important and reached their peak in Engine (1996), composed using a rule-based computational environment (‘Patchwork’, developed by Mikael Laurson). Lindberg is one of the few contemporary composers who writes genuinely fast music; this property and its consequence, instrumental virtuosity, greatly contribute to make his music exciting and easily accessible.

He has also been interested in a kind of instrumental musique concrète (Action-Situation-Signification, 1982), an experiment necessary for the conception of Kraft, and he often integrates live electronics in his pieces (e.g. UR, Joy and Related Rocks, 1997). One field he has left almost completely untouched is vocal music, but he has pointed out that his growing interest in counterpoint may be an attempt to come closer to vocal writing. Lindberg's style, in which melody and harmony are very well balanced without losing any of their innate richness, approaches a kind of classicism, as critics have remarked. This may be one of the reasons behind Lindberg's great success and growing reputation as ‘the most exciting composer of his generation’ (Financial Times, 1997).

WORKS

orchestral

Donor, 1975; Drama, 1981; Sculpture II, 1981; Tendenza, 21 players, 1982; Ritratto, 18 players, 1983; Kraft, cl, perc, pf, solo vc, elecs, orch, 1985; Kinetics, 1989; Joy, 23 players, elecs, 1990; Marea, 1990; Pf Conc., 1991, rev. 1994; Corrente, 16 players, 1992; Corrente II, 1992; Coyote Blues, 14 players, 1993; Aura, 1994; Away, cl, perc, pf, str, 1994; Zungenstimmen, large brass ens, 1994; Arena, 1995; Arena 2, 16 players, 1996; Engine, 16 players, Feria, 1997; Fresco, 1998; Cantigas, 1999; Vc Conc., 1999; Gran Duo, 2000

chamber, vocal, tape

Music for 2 Pianos, 1976; 3 Pieces, h, vn, va, vc, 1976; Etwas zarter, tape, 1977; Klavierstück, pf, 1977; Arabesques, fl, ob, cl, bn, hn, 1978; Espressione I, vc, 1978 [arr. 2 vc by A. Karttunen, 1997]; Jag vill breda vingar ut (G. Björling), Mez, pf, 1978; Ohne Ausdruck, tape, 1978; Untitled, vocalise, 20vv mixed chorus, 1978; 3 Short Pieces, pf, 1978; Layers, unspecified, 1979; Play I, 2 pf, 1979; Quintetto dell'estate, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1979; Sonatas, vn, pf, 1979; Espressione II, vn, 1980; … de Tartuffe, je crois, pf, str qt, 1981; Linea d'ombra, fl, a sax/cl, gui, perc, 1981; Action-Situation-Signification, cl, pf, perc, vc, tape, 1982; Ablauf, cl, bass drums, 1983, rev. 1988; Ground, hpd, 1983; Zona, vc, a fl, b cl, perc, hp, vn, db, 1983; rev. 1990; Metal Work, accdn, perc, 1984; Projekt Faust, nar, cl, 2 bass drums, vc, 1984; Stroke, vc, 1984; Faust (J. Siltanen), tape, 1986; UR, cl, pf, vn, vc, db, elecs, 1986; Twine, pf, 1988; Jeux d'anches, accdn, 1990; Moto, vc, pf, 1990; Steamboat Bill Jr., cl, vc, 1990; Decorrente, cl, gui, vib, pf, vc, 1992; Cl Qnt, cl, str qt, 1992; Duo concertante, cl, vc, ens, 1990, rev. 1992; Songs from North and South (e.e. cummings, trad. Indian), children's chorus, 1993; Kiri, cl, vc, gui, perc, elecs, 1993; Related Rocks, 2 pf, 2 perc, elecs, 1997

Principal publishers: Boosey & Hawkes, Chester, Hansen

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Nieminen: ‘Focus on the Composer Magnus Lindberg’, Finnish Music Quarterly, ii/3 (1986), 31–41

F. Spangemacher: ‘Punk und Muttermilch: ein Gespräch mit dem finnischen Komponisten Magnus Lindberg’, NZM, Jg.152, no.1 (1991), 25–8

J. Anderson: ‘The Spectre Sounds of Magnus Lindberg’, MT, cxxxiii (1992), 565–7

Cahiers de l'IRCAM: compositeurs d'aujourd'hui, no.3, ed. R. Nieminen (1993) [Lindberg issue]; Eng. trans. as Magnus Lindberg (Helsinki, 1996)

M. Heiniö: ‘Magnus Lindberg’, Suomalaisia säveltäjiä [Finnish composers], ed. E. Salmenhaara (Keuruu, 1994)

K. Korhonen: Finnish Composers since the 1960s (Jyväskylä, 1995)

M. Heiniö: Aikamme musiikki [Contemporary music], Suomen musiikin historia [A history of Finnish music], iv (Porvoo, 1995)

K. Aho and others: Finnish Music (Keuruu, 1996)

P. Szersnovicz: ‘Les horizons de Magnus Lindberg’, Le monde de la musique, no.213 (1997), 58–62

A. Häyrynen: ‘Musique et modernité en Finlande’, Musica: festival international des musiques d'aujourd'hui Strasbourg (Strasbourg, 1997), 33–40

ILKKA ORAMO

Lindberg, Oskar (Fredrik)

(b Gagnef, Dalarna, 23 Feb 1887; d Stockholm, 10 April 1955). Swedish composer, church musician and teacher. He served as organist in Gagnef from the age of 14 and studied at the Swedish Royal Academy of Music, where he graduated as a church musician (1906) and a music teacher (1908), and where he studied composition with Ellberg and Hallén. Subsequently he conducted at Sondershausen and made other journeys abroad. He was organist at the Trefaldighetskyrka, Stockholm (1906–14), and at the Engelbrektskyrka (1914–55). At the same time he taught music in Stockholm high schools and harmony at the conservatory (from 1919, as professor from 1936). In 1926 he was made a member of the Swedish Royal Academy of Music, of which he was a board member (1937–9 and 1945–55).

Lindberg came from a family with deep roots in Dalarna: several of his ancestors had been peasant violinists, and he himself was steeped in folk music, from which he took many of his themes. He became prominent in the Young Swedes group (c1910–20; other members were Rangström and Atterberg) and developed a rich late Romantic orchestral style, where the influences of Rachmaninoff and Sibelius were balanced with those of folk music, most successfully in his slightly impressionist nature scenes. The compilation of the 1939 hymnbook was largely his work and it contained 14 hymns of his own composition.

WORKS

(selective list)

Opera: Fredlös, 1936–42; Stockholm, 1943

Orch: Sym., F, op.16, 1909; Ov., E, 1909; Ov., b, 1911; Från de stora skogarna, sym. poem, 1918; Vår, ov., D, 1924; Per spelman, han spelte, op.32, rhapsody, 1930; 4 other sym. poems, 5 suites

Choral: Requiem, op.21, 1920–22; 5 large choral orch works and 11 cantatas

Org: Sonata, op.23, 1924; several chorale preludes

Other works: songs with orch/pf/org, chbr music, pf pieces

Principal publisher: Nordiska Musikförlaget

HANS ÅSTRAND

Lindblad, Adolf Fredrik

(b Skenninge, 1 Feb 1801; d Löfvingsborg, nr Linköping, 23 Aug 1878). Swedish composer. He was adopted as a child by a merchant who gave him his name and tried to teach him his trade; however he showed an early interest in music, played the flute and piano and composed. In Hamburg (1818–19) he came into contact with the contemporary German culture led by Goethe, Jean Paul, Tieck and Beethoven, who became his idol. Through his future wife he met P.D.A. Atterbom, the leading Swedish Romantic poet and teacher at Uppsala University, in 1822. While studying music at Uppsala (1823–5) he was welcomed into the group of older artists and humanists including the professor and composer Erik Gustaf Geijer. From 1825 to 1827 he travelled in Germany and went to Paris. He studied for a time with Zelter in Berlin, where he became a close friend of Zelter’s young pupil, Mendelssohn (their correspondence, 1825–47, is in the Mendelssohn archives of D-Bsb; other letters in S-Sk).

Back in Sweden, Lindblad directed a music and piano school from 1827 to 1861 using the Logier method. His pupils included Crown Prince Oscar I and his son Prince Gustaf, Ludvig Norman and other Swedish composers. His opera Frondörerna (‘The Rebels’), performed in 1835, was less successful than Lindblad had expected, but his Symphony in C met with great acclaim at a Leipzig Gewandhaus concert in 1839. The symphony and other instrumental works as well as several volumes of his songs were printed by German publishers. Jenny Lind, who had lived with Lindblad’s family when young and can be considered his pupil, sang his songs all over the world. Lindblad’s strong attachment to her was expressed in his 1845 collection of songs, which gave rise to a controversy in the press. He was criticized for the harmonic boldness of the songs, an element foreign to Swedish taste at the time. The battle ended with a laudatory article by Ludwig Spohr in Kassel, but wounded by this publicity and the poor reception of his instrumental works, Lindblad withdrew into a small, close-knit circle of fellow musicians and writers for the rest of his life, and wrote only chamber music and the kind of song that appealed to contemporary Swedish taste. He was elected a member of the Swedish Royal Academy of Music in 1831.

Lindblad’s chief historical significance lies in his 215 songs (a complete edition was published in nine volumes by Hirsch, Stockholm, between 1878 and 1890), which began a new tradition in Swedish lieder; he also wrote the texts for about a third of them. He had published Der Nordensaal, a collection of 12 folksong arrangements, in Berlin as early as 1826. His own songs were often modelled on Swedish folk melodies, especially his simple and concentrated settings of the poems of his friend, Atterbom. Genuine folk ballads and later pastiches of these also inspired two dramatic songs, Bröllopsfärden (‘The Wedding Journey’, c1830) and Den skeppsbrutna (‘Shipwrecked’, c1840). In a number of colourful narrative songs, such as Sotargossen (‘The Chimney-sweep’), Krigsinvaliden (‘The War Veteran’) and the popular Skjutsgossen på hemväg (‘The Driver on his way home’), he painted a realistic and humorous picture of daily life in town and country. The songs are often strophic or built on a pattern of two contrasting stanzas which return more or less varied. A good example of strophic variations is the self-revealing Nattviolen (‘The Night Violet’, c1860), in which the recitative develops into ecstatic melody. The finest of all are his nature songs, including En sommardag (‘A Summer’s Day’), Aftonen (‘Evening’), I dalen (‘In the Valley’), Måntro, jo jo (‘Perhaps, oh yes!’) or Nära (‘Nearby’); a few have German texts: Am Aarensee, Der schlummernde Amor (Claudius) and eight Heine songs (c1860), among them Morgens steh ich auf und frage and Still ist die Nacht. The opera Frondörerna and the Symphony in C show an uncommon talent for orchestration. Among his other works, mostly in manuscript (S-Skma), are a Symphony in D, two string quintets, seven string quartets, a trio for piano, violin and viola, a sonata and short pieces for piano, and two works for soloists, chorus and piano, Om vinterkväll (‘In the Winter Evening’) and Drömmarne (‘The Dreams’, also orchestrated).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C.R. Nyblom: Adolf Fredrik Lindblad: minnesteckning [Lindblad: reminiscences] (Stockholm, 1881); repr. in Författarnas estetiska studier (Uppsala, 1884), 1–102

L. Norman: ‘Adolf Fredrik Lindblad som instrumentalkompositör’, Svensk musiktidning, iii (1883), 178

‘Adolf Fredrik Lindblads kompositioner’, Svensk musiktidning, xxi (1901), 34–6

L. Dahlgren, ed.: Brev till Adolf Fredrik Lindblad fran Mendelssohn (Stockholm, 1913) [letters from Mendelssohn and others]

A. Ringström: ‘Adolf Fredrik Lindblad som ung’, Vår sang, i (1928), 47–9, 99–102, 127–9, 163–5

F.H. Törnblom: ‘Adolf Fredrik Lindblad som operakompositör’, STMf, xvii (1935), 108–24

F.H. Törnblom: ‘Adolf Fredrik Lindblad och Jenny Lind’, STMf, xxiii (1941), 43–55

K. Linder: Den unge Adolf Fredrik Lindblad (1801–27) (diss., U. of Uppsala, 1973)

M. Tegen: ‘Adolf Fredrik Lindblad’, Musiken i Sverige, iii, ed. L. Jonsson and M. Tegen (Stockholm, 1992), 329–40

KERSTIN LINDER

Lindblad, Otto Jonas

(b Karlstorp, Småland, 31 March 1809; d Norra Mellby, Skåne, 26 Jan 1864). Swedish composer, choral director and violinist. During his ten years as a pupil at Växjö Cathedral School he devoted much time to playing the violin and singing in male-voice trios and quartets. In 1829 he entered Lund University, where he studied humanities while earning a living as a private teacher. He received his essential musical training from Mathias Lundholm, Ole Bull’s teacher, who lived in Lund from 1832 to 1836. In 1836 Lindblad played in the orchestra of the Heuser opera company and toured with part of it as orchestra leader. He also directed the Lund University Male Chorus (founded 1831) for more than ten years, soon making it famous abroad and stimulating the organization of similar choruses in Copenhagen and Christiania. In 1841 Lindblad took part in the music festival in Hamburg as an honorary guest. There he also had a few composition lessons from K.-A. Krebs. In 1846 he made a long tour through Sweden with his male quartet, which was received with great enthusiasm. His musical activities and long illnesses had prolonged his studies, but in 1844 he eventually graduated as filosofie magister. He received some money from the university for his work with the student chorus and earned more through musical soirées at which he and his friends gave a small concert and then played for dancing. But his economic situation was so bad that he became a parish clerk in Norra Mellby, 40 miles north of Lund. From 1847 to his death he was leader of the congregational singing in the two parish churches, both without an organ, and he was one of the first in the country to organize a parish church choir. He was elected a member of the Swedish Royal Academy of Music in Stockholm in 1857. Monuments to him have been erected in Lund and in Sösdala near Norra Mellby.

Lindblad’s compositions are nearly all vocal. His solo songs with piano accompaniment do not attain the level of his many male-voice a cappella songs; one of these, Ur svenska hjärtans djup (‘From the depths of Swedish hearts’), to a text by C.W.A. Strandberg, is the hymn for the King of Sweden. The lyrical Orfeus sjöng (C.A. Hagberg’s translation of Shakespeare’s ‘Orpheus with his lute’) and Till skogs en liten fågel flög (‘A small bird flew towards the forest’), on a theme resembling that of the second movement of Beethoven’s Piano Sonata op.13, are also often sung. Lindblad’s setting of Sätherberg’s Vintern rasat ut (‘Winter raged out’) is among the best-known Swedish spring songs, while Ångbåtssång (‘Steamship song’), to Lindblad’s own words, is a memory of the close contacts between the universities of Lund and Copenhagen. The Lund University library has a collection of Lindblad’s manuscripts and printed compositions as well as his autobiography and letters.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SBL (F. Bohlin) [incl. list of works]

G.A. Feuk: Otto Lindblad och hans sångare 1840–1846 [Otto Lindblad and his singers] (Lund, 1882)

T. Nerman: Otto Lindblad: ett sångaröde (Uppsala, 1930)

B. Möller: Lundensisk studentsång under ett sekel [A century of student singing at Lund] (Lund, 1931)

L. Jonsson: Ljusets riddarvakt: 1800 talets studentsang utövad som offentlig samhällskonst [The knightly guard of light: student songs of the 1800s as official communal art form] (diss., U. of Uppsala, 1990)

FOLKE BOHLIN

Linde, (Anders) Bo (Leif)

(b Gävle, 1 Jan 1933; d Gävle, 2 Oct 1970). Swedish composer. After theory lessons with Bengtsson he studied composition with Larsson and the piano with Wibergh at the Stockholm Academy of Music (1948–52). In 1953–4 he studied conducting in Vienna and travelled in Italy and Spain. He taught music theory at the Stockholm Borgarskola (1957–60) and then lived in Gävle as a composer and music critic. Linde was associated with a group of young composers characterized as ‘50-talisterna’ (‘belonging to the 1950s’), a group which looked back to the 1930s, particularly to Larsson, and to composers such as Britten and Shostakovich. He wrote with great facility and technical skill, notably in the vocal pieces.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Sinfonia fantastica, op.1, 1951; Preludio e finale, op.16, str, 1955; Vn Conc., op.18, 1957; Sinfonia, op.23, 1960; Conc. for Orch, 1962; Vc Conc., op.29, 1965

Chbr: Str Qt, op.9, 1953; Vn Sonata, op.10, 1953; Divertimento, op.25, fl, vc, pf, 1962; Str Trio, op.37, 1968; Sonata a 3, op.38, pf trio, 1968

Choral: Symfoni i ord, op.33, 1966

Songs: 4 ballader, op.6; 2 naiva sånger, op.20; Sånger om våren, op.40; 4 allvarliga sånger

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Jacobsson: ‘Bo Linde’, Tonfallet (1983), no.12, 5–16

K. Wedin: ‘Tankar om Bo Linde’, Musikrevy, xxxviii (1983), 8–10

HANS ÅSTRAND

Linde, Hans-Martin

(b Werne, nr Dortmund, 24 May 1930). Swiss recorder player, flautist, conductor and composer of German birth. He studied the flute with Gustav Scheck and conducting with Konrad Lechner at the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik, Freiburg (1947–51), then became solo flautist of the Cappella Coloniensis of WDR at Cologne. A chance meeting with August Wenzinger in Cologne led to his appointment to the Schola Cantorum at Basle in 1957 and his joining the Schola Cantorum Basiliensis. He directs the vocal ensemble and in 1971 became joint director of the concert group. His high international reputation as a recorder player and flautist (he plays modern and Baroque flutes), is founded on an impeccable virtuoso technique and a scholarly sense of style. Linde tours widely and his extensive and important recordings include flute concertos by Leclair, Mozart, Stamitz and Dittersdorf, and recorder concertos by Sammartini, Vivaldi and Naudot. With his own Linde-Consort, augmented as required, he has recorded works ranging from early English consort music to Baroque orchestral and choral works. He has appeared as a guest conductor with several orchestras in Europe and the USA, and has conducted a number of 18th-century operas, including Keiser’s Tomyris (1988, Ludwigshafen) and Vivaldi’s Griselda (1989, Lugwigshafen). His compositions include a concerto for recorder and strings (1993), and he has written Kleine Anleitung zum Verzieren alter Musik (1958), and Handbuch des Blockflötenspiels (1962/R; Eng. trans. 1981). (J.M. Thomson: Recorder Profiles (London, 1972), 43–6)

J.M. THOMSON

Lindegren, Johan

(b Ullared, 7 Jan 1842; d Stockholm, 8 June 1908). Swedish organist, teacher, composer and scholar. He attended the Swedish Royal Academy of Music from 1860 to 1865, studying composition with the elder Behrens, the piano with van Boom and the violin with Randel. From 1861 he was répétiteur of the Stockholm Opera as well as a singer with the opera chorus, and from 1876 he taught counterpoint at the conservatory; he became a music teacher at the Jacobshögskolan in 1881 and director of the choir of Stockholm Cathedral (Storkyrka) in 1884. In addition to his official duties he was increasingly active from the 1870s as a private teacher of counterpoint and composition. As a musicologist his chief interest was in church music; he edited the journal Tidning för kyrkomusik (1881–2), took part in the preparation of the music for the Swedish church handbook (1895) and published an edition (1905, 2/1906) and a study (1907) of Swedish chorales.

Lindegren was known during his lifetime mainly as a contrapuntist and teacher, and his pupils included a number of notable Swedish composers, among them Beckman, Alfvén, Melchers, Bäck, Håkanson and Wiklund. One of the best of his own compositions is the string quintet (c1870); in his piano works, such as the Fuga uti fri stil (1866) and the canon Stor sonat in B minor op.2 (1869), he combined his contrapuntal mastery with idiomatic, virtuoso writing for the instrument. In 1903 he was elected a member of the Swedish Royal Academy of Music.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

O. Blom: ‘Johan Lindegrens lif och verksamhet’, Kyrkomusik och skolsång, iv (1910), 111, 115

C.-A. Moberg: ‘Johan Lindegren’, Kyrkosångsförbundet, xvii (1942), 39

H. Alfvén: ‘Min lärare Johan Lindegren’, Musikmänniskor, ed. F.H. Törnblom (Uppsala, 1943), 121–31

H. Alfvén: ‘Johan Lindegren’, Första satsen: ungdomsminnen (Stockholm, 1946), 193–207

ROBERT LAYTON

Lindelheim, Joanna Maria [‘The Baroness’]

(d London, Dec 1724). German or Flemish soprano, active in England. According to Burney, she was trained in Italy and sang at many German courts before appearing in London concerts in 1703. She was a pupil of Haym, with whom she lived for some 20 years. She sang at the Queen’s Theatre, Haymarket, in Jakob Greber’s Gli amori d’Ergasto in 1705, and in 1706 at Drury Lane in Haym’s arrangement of Giovanni Bononcini’s Camilla as ‘Mrs Joanna Maria’. Called ‘The Baroness’ in the Camilla score, she appeared under that title subsequently, in a Drury Lane revival of Camilla in 1707, and the pasticcios Love’s Triumph and Tomiri and Haym’s arrangement of Alessandro Scarlatti’s Pirro e Demetrio at the Queen’s Theatre in 1708. She became a singing teacher but continued to appear in concerts at least up to 1717.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BurneyH

L. Lindgren: ‘The Accomplishments of the Learned and Ingenious Nicola Francesco Haym (1678–1729)’, Studi musicali, xiv (1987), 247–380

WINTON DEAN

Lindeman.

Norwegian family of musicians.

(1) Ole Andreas Lindeman

(2) Ludvig Mathias Lindeman

(3) Peter Brynie Lindeman

(4) Trygve Henrik Lindeman

NILS GRINDE

(1) Ole Andreas Lindeman

(b Surnadal, 17 Jan 1769; d Trondheim, 26 Feb 1857). Organist, composer and teacher. He attended the cathedral school in Trondheim and in 1788 went to study law in Copenhagen. However, his prevailing interest was in music, and he studied with I.G. Wernicke, who had been schooled in the tradition of Bach by his teacher J.P. Kirnberger. In 1799 Lindeman was appointed organist at the Vår Frue Kirke (church of Our Lady) in Trondheim, a post he held for the rest of his life. He edited the first book of Norwegian chorales, which was published in 1835 and officially authorized in 1838. With this book and his work as a music teacher, he had considerable influence on Norwegian church music in the 19th century. He composed a number of small piano pieces, mainly dances in the galant style, and some songs. His son Fredrik Christian Lindeman (b Trondheim, 4 Dec 1803; d Trondheim, 29 July 1868) was organist at the Vår Frelsers Kirke while studying in Christiania (Oslo), and from 1857 to 1868 he was organist at the Vår Frue Kirke in Trondheim. Another son, Just Riddervold Lindeman (b Trondheim, 26 Sept 1822; d Trondheim, 21 Jan 1894), was organist of Trondheim Cathedral from 1858 until his death and composed organ works, piano pieces and songs.

(2) Ludvig Mathias Lindeman

(b Trondheim, 28 Nov 1812; d Christiania, 23 May 1887). Organist, music scholar and composer, son of (1) Ole Andreas Lindeman. The most important musician of the family, he received his music education, largely within the tradition of Bach, from his father, for whom he deputized as organist from the age of 12. In 1833 he began studies of theology in Christiania, but he devoted himself to music from 1839, when he became organist of the Vår Frelsers Kirke, a position he retained for the rest of his life. His concert activity included a successful London journey in 1871, when he participated in the inauguration of the Albert Hall organ. He was very active as a collector of folksongs and editor of church music, and was also a cellist, playing from 1834 to 1840 in the theatre orchestra of Christiania; he held a teaching post at the theological seminary from 1849 to 1887. Also at Christiania, jointly with his son Peter Brynie, he founded an organ school in 1883, which grew to the status of conservatory by 1894.

The first product of Lindeman's interest in folk music, the Norske fjeldmelodier harmonisk bearbeidede, was published in 1841, but he only began to collect systematically when he received a public stipend in 1848. In the next several years he travelled extensively in the southern part of Norway, and between 1850 and 1885 he published several folksong collections, of which Aeldre og nyere norske fjeldmelodier in particular has been of fundamental and lasting importance for the study of Norwegian folk music. His most important achievement as a church musician was the chorale book, officially authorized by the Norwegian church in 1877 and used until its replacement in 1926. In addition to Lindeman's harmonizations of earlier melodies, the book includes a number of his own melodies, which have gradually found their way into Norwegian church singing. In the older tunes he made a number of rhythmic changes. Instead of going back to the old forms, he attempted to give new life to the melodies by such means as dotting certain accented notes, thereby strengthening the regular stress pattern. His other compositions, chiefly organ works, include two sets of chorale variations, three fugues on B–A–C–H and two collections of preludes, as well as church and ceremonial cantatas and piano pieces. Most of Lindeman's compositions reveal his admiration for the music of the Baroque era. They are stylistically quite different from the more Romantic works of his compatriots Halfdan Kjerulf and Edvard Grieg, who nevertheless were influenced by Lindeman's folk music collection.

EDITIONS

church music

Melodier til W.A. Wexels christelige psalmer (Christiania, 1840)

Martin Luthers aandelige sange (Christiania, 1859)

Norsk messebog (Christiania, 1870, 2/1885)

Melodier til Landstads Salmebog (Christiania, 3/1873)

Koralbog: indeholdende de i Landstads salmebog forekommende melodier (Christiania, 1878)

folk music

Norske fjeldmelodier harmonisk bearbeidede (Christiania, 1841)

Norske folkeviser udsatte for fire mandsstemmer (Christiania, 1850)

Aeldre og nyere norske fjeldmelodier: samlede og bearbeidede for pianoforte (Christiana, 1853–67/R)

Halvhundrede norske fjeldmelodier harmoniserede for mandsstemmer (Christiania, 1862)

30 norske kjaempevise-melodier harmoniserede for 3 lige stemmer (Christiania, 1863)

Norske kjaempevise-melodier harmoniserede for blandede stemmer (Christiania, 1885)

Kingo-Tona: fra Vang, Valdres, ed. O.M. Sandvik, Norsk musikkgranskning årbok 1939 (Oslo, 1940)

(3) Peter Brynie Lindeman

(b Christiania, 1 Feb 1858; d Oslo, 1 Jan 1930). Organist and editor, son of (2) Ludvig Mathias Lindeman. He studied music with his father and at the Stockholm Conservatory, and for many years directed the Christiania Conservatory, which he and his father had founded in 1883. From 1880 to 1923 he was an organist in Christiania, and he edited the journal Musikbladet from 1908 to 1921. He composed an oratorio and other vocal church music, chamber music, piano and organ works. His brother Kristian Theodor Madsen Lindeman (b Christiania, 8 March 1870; d Trondheim, 5 Nov 1934) was cathedral organist in Trondheim from 1894 until his death, and was a prolific composer, especially of choral works.

(2) Christian Bernhard Linike

(4) Trygve Henrik Lindeman

(b Christiania, 30 Nov 1896; d Oslo, 24 Oct 1979). Music teacher, son of (3) Peter Brynie Lindeman. He studied in Christiania, Copenhagen and Rome and in 1926 succeeded his father as director of the Oslo Conservatory, holding this post until 1969. His editions include several textbooks.

PEDAGOGICAL WORKS

Laerebok i taktering for kordirigenter (Oslo, 1939)

Elementaer musikklaere (Oslo, 1943)

Tonetreffing og musikkdiktat (Oslo, 1951)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

NBL (O.M. Sandvik)

T. Lindeman: Den trönderske familie Lindeman (Trondheim, 1924)

O.M. Sandvik: Kingo-Tona: Ludvig Mathias Lindemans optegnelser i Valdres 1848 (Oslo, 1941) [on Lindeman's transcrs. from Valdres]

O.M. Sandvik: Ludvig Mathias Lindeman og folkemelodien (Oslo, 1950)

A. Hernes: Ole Andreas Lindeman og hans tid (Oslo, 1956)

Ø. Gaukstad: ‘Ludvig Mathias Lindemans komposisjoner: bibliografi I’, Norsk musikkgranskning årbok 1959–61, 96–165

Ø. Gaukstad: ‘Ludvig Mathias Lindeman: bibliografi II’, Norsk musikkgranskning årbok 1962–71, 81–240

Ø. Gaukstad: ‘Ludv. M. Lindeman på samlerferd i Gudbrandsdalen 1864’, Norsk musikkgranskning årbok 1962–71

A. Roynstrand, ed.: Ludvig Mathias Lindeman: Samlerferd 1851: Oppskrifter og ei dagbok (Oslo, 1978)

E.R. Keyn: Ludvig M. Lindemans orgelkomposisjoner (thesis, U. of Oslo, 1984)

A.S. Bertelsen: ‘Salmesangstriden i Norge på 1800-tallet: om musikalsk form og estetiske prinsipper’, SMN, xvi (1990), 141–59

I. Karevold: Kontinentale impulser i en norsk musikerslekt før 1850 (Göteborg, 1996)

Lindeman, Osmo

(b Helsinki, 16 May 1929; d Helsinki, 15 Feb 1987). Finnish composer. He studied at the Sibelius Academy in Helsinki with Fougstedt (diploma 1959) and in Munich with Orff. As a lecturer in theoretical subjects at the Sibelius Academy (1961–84) he worked to develop the institution’s tuition in electronic and computer music. He began composing in a freely tonal style (Symphony no.1, 1958), then proceeded to dodecaphony and web-like textures (Piano Concerto no.1, 1963; Symphony no.2, 1964; Piano Concerto no.2, 1965) before moving to the use of aleatory techniques in the spirit of the Polish school (Concerto for chamber orchestra, 1967). A visit to Poland in 1968 led him to concentrate exclusively on electronic music and develop a studio at his home. In 1972 his Ritual won first prize in the Italian section of the ISCM. Kinetic Forms (1969) introduced stereophony into Finnish electronic music, and he used the same technical approach – a rapid digital sequencer – in his Mechanical Music for Stereophonic Tape and Tropicana. Although he did at times use concrete devices (such as the hum of voices in Spectacle, 1974), pure electronic sound and abstract constructions remained his ideal. His music for film won the Jussi award.

WORKS

Orch: Sym. no.1, 1959; Pf Conc. no.1, 1963; Sym. no.2 (Sinfonia inornata), 1964; Pf Conc. no.2, 1965; Variable, 1967; Huutokauppa [The Auction] (ballet, W. Chorell), 1967

Chbr: Str Trio, 1958; Partita per percussione, 1966; Music, chbr orch, 1966; Conc., chbr orch, 1965

El-ac: Kinetic Forms, 1969; Mechanical Music for Stereophonic Tape, 1969; Tropicana, 1970; Midas, 1970; Ritual, 1972; Spectacle, 1974

Film music: Punainen viiva [The Red Line], 1959; Kaasua, komisario Palmu [Step on it, Inspector Palmu], 1962

WRITINGS

Elektronisen musiikin teknologia [Electronic music technology] (Helsinki, 1974)

Johdatus musiikinteoriaan [An introduction to music theory] (Keuruu, 1976)

Elektroninen musiikki [Electronic music] (Keuruu, 1980)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Salmenhaara, ed.: Suomalaisia säveltäjiä [Finnish composers] (Helsinki, 1994)

M. Heiniö: Aikamme musiikki [Contemporary music], Suomen musiikin historia [The history of Finnish music], iv (Helsinki, 1995)

K. Aho and others: Finnish Music (Helsinki, 1996)

MIKKO HEINIÖ

Lindemann, Johannes

(b Gotha, ?1550–55; d Gotha, after 1633). German composer, music editor and teacher. He was related to Luther. He was educated at the famous grammar schools of Schulpforta and Gotha and in 1568 he enrolled at Jena University. For many years he was Kantor at Gotha. On 1 January 1598, probably referring to his work in this post, he described himself as being in his 27th year as an employee of Duke Johann Casimir of Saxony, whose service he must thus have entered in 1572, the year in which the regency of Gotha had been transferred to the duke from the house of Saxe-Coburg. He evidently played an active part in the musical life of Gotha. He communicated with a number of other musicians, among them Philipp Avenarius, Melchior Franck and Bartholomäus Helder. As late as 1634 he was a member of the town council. His work as a musician and teacher enhanced the social standing of music in the area, to the undoubted benefit of several of his younger contemporaries, especially Michael Altenburg. He also did much to foster in Thuringia an interest in recent Italian music. He may have studied in Italy; certainly he had contacts there, in particular with Gastoldi. His most important work is Amorum filii Dei decades duae … Zwantzig Weyhenachten Gesenglein … zum Theil unter … Madrigalia und Balletti (Erfurt, 1594, 1596 and 1598), a three-volume anthology of contrafacta of five-part Italian secular pieces. Eight are by Gastoldi, and the Latin title of the collection may perhaps be seen as recalling Gastoldi's pieces Amor, tu che congiungi and Filli vezzosa e lieta. Lindemann's uncle, Cyriak Lindemann, probably knew Georg Fabricius, one of the leading hymnologists of the Reformation period, who studied in Italy for four years. Johannes Lindemann's particular significance as one of the first to marry the Italian madrigal with the chorale tradition of central Germany and Thuringia is thus brought into focus. An illustration is afforded by his chorale In dir ist Freude, a contrafactum of Gastoldi’s L'innamorate; it became one of the best-known Protestant chorales. Nearly all of Lindemann's music is lost, though there are isolated hymns in the Cantionale sacrum (Gotha, 1646–8) and in the other Thuringian collections.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.C.W. Lindemann: ‘Magister Johannes Lindemann’, MMg, x (1878), 73–9

G. Kraft: Die thüringische Musikkultur um 1600 (Würzburg, 1941), i

A. Fett: Musikgeschichte der Stadt Gotha von den Anfängen bis zum Tode G.H. Stölzels (1749): ein Beitrag zur Musikgeschichte Sachsen-Thüringens (diss., U. of Freiburg, 1952)

I. de Sutter: ‘Een Kerklied in Renaissance-stijl’, Adem, xviii (1982), 85–7

G. KRAFT/CLYTUS GOTTWALD

Linden, Albert vander.

See Vander Linden, Albert.

Linden, Jaap ter

(b Rotterdam, 10 April 1947). Dutch Baroque cellist, viol player and conductor. While studying the cello at the Royal Conservatory in The Hague, ter Linden began to play the viol. However, before settling to a career in music, he also pursued studies in psychology. Together with Ton Koopman, ter Linden founded the Baroque quartet Musica da Camera in 1966. Later he joined Musica Antiqua Köln and the English Concert, and in 1979 was a founder member of Ton Koopman’s Amsterdam Baroque Orchestra as principal cellist, a position he held until 1998, making many important recordings with the orchestra. Ter Linden has also made numerous CDs of chamber music, notably with Wilbert Hazelzet, Andrew Manze and Lars Ulrik Mortensen, and has recorded the Bach cello suites. He is widely respected by his colleagues for his inspiring and selfless musicianship. Ter Linden has worked as guest conductor of the Portland Baroque Orchestra, the European Union Baroque Orchestra and the Amsterdam Nieuw Sinfonietta. He is professor of the Baroque cello and the viol at the Royal Conservatory in The Hague.

LUCY ROBINSON

Linder, Alf

(b Hammarö, 28 July 1907; d Stockholm, 21 Dec 1983). Swedish organist. He studied at the Swedish Royal Academy of Music (1925–33, organ with Otto Olsson), in Leipzig (1938–9, with Günther Ramin and Johann Nepomuk David) and in Berlin (1940–42, with Fritz Heitmann and Hermann Grabner). After his début in 1933 in the Gustav Vasa church in Stockholm, he was appointed organist at the Oscarskyrkan, with its famous Marcussen organ, in 1943, remaining in the post until his death. He also taught at the Swedish Royal Academy from 1938 (becoming professor in 1958), served as organist at the Konserthus (1940–54) and toured widely at home and abroad. Linder was one of the first virtuoso Swedish organists and the first to perform all Bach’s organ music and made many recordings, including the complete Buxtehude organ works (in 1944). He gave model performances of Reger’s organ music. He was made a member of the Swedish Royal Academy of Music in 1954.

HANS ÅSTRAND

Lindgren, (Karl) Adolf

(b Trosa, 14 March 1846; d Stockholm, 8 Feb 1905). Swedish music critic and historian. He studied philosophy and music theory at Uppsala from 1863, graduating in 1873, and from 1874 until his death was music critic to the newspaper Aftonbladet. With Vult von Steijern he founded the Svensk musiktidning (1881–1913), which became the most important music journal in Sweden, and was its editor until 1884. He wrote articles for numerous Scandinavian journals and newspapers and was music correspondent for several music journals in Germany. Lindgren’s writings on music, of which the most important are the sections on music in the first edition of the encyclopedia Nordisk familjebok (1875–99), are discerning and competent. They are regarded as one of the bases for the development of Swedish musicology.

WRITINGS

(selective list)

Musikens katekes (Stockholm, 1877) [trans. of J.C. Lobe: Katechismus der Musik, Leipzig, 1851]

Satser i svensk verslära (Uppsala, 1880)

Om Wagnerismen (Stockholm, 1881)

Svenske hofkapellmästare 1782–1882 (Stockholm, 1882)

‘Nunnans dröm (en 600årig folkvisa)’, Nyare bidrag till kännedom om de svenska landsmålen ock svenskt folklif, vi (1888), 7

‘August Södermans manuskriptsamling’, Svensk musiktidning, viii–ix (1888–9)

‘En tabulaturbok i Kalmar’, Ny illustrerad tidning, xxix (1893), 400, 411, 417, 436

‘Om polskemelodiernas härkomst’, Nyare bidrag till kännedom om de svenska landsmålen och svenskt folklif, xii (1893), 5

‘Till frågan om den nordiska folkvisans ursprung’, Nordisk tidskrift för vetenskap, konst och industri, new ser., viii (1895), 551–63

Musikaliska studier (Stockholm, 1896)

Drei harmonische Studien (Leipzig, 1910)

‘Ur svenska musikens hävder’, in K. Valentin: Populär allmän musikhistoria (Stockholm, 1916)

Several opera librettos, texts of choral works, etc.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SBL (L. Stenkvist)

S. Söderman: ‘Adolf Lindgren’, Svensk musiktidning, xxv (1905), 21–3

Å. Davidsson: Bibliografi över svensk musiklitteratur 1800–1945 (Uppsala, 1948, 2/1980)

S. Dahlstedt: Fakta och förnuft (diss., U. of Uppsala, 1986)

KATHLEEN DALE/AXEL HELMER

Lindgren, Pär (Jörgen)

(b Göteborg, 16 Jan 1952). Swedish composer. With a background in rock music, he first trained as a guitar teacher at the Framnäs School of Music (1970–74), then studied composition with Bucht and Bodin at the Royal College of Music in Stockholm (1975–9). In 1980 he began to teach in the field of electro-acoustic music at the college and in 1998 became professor of composition there.

Electro-acoustic music was his main concern from the late 1970s but more recently a sophisticated, versatile and finely structured instrumental music has become increasingly prominent. He is frequently inspired by non-European music, as in Oaijé (first prize at the International Rostrum for Composers in Paris, 1996), the peculiar sound and line play of which was influenced by Arabic patterns. Visual ideas of form are sometimes converted into billowing patterns, as in Fragments of a Circle, conceived after Leonardo da Vinci’s drawings of the movements of water, or in Sea Cuts and Islands, where the abstracted patterns have been taken from nature. Via algorithms and computer programmes he consistently seeks to realize his visions as audible music. His dream is of a translucently clear and flickering complex music which stands in a new relationship with tradition.

WORKS

Orch: Brutet ackord [Broken Chord], variation no.2, 14 str, 1982; Bowijaw, str orch, 1984; Sånger av ljus [Songs of Light], S/bamboobow, chbr orch, 1985; Meander, 2 pf conc., orch, 1985–8; Fragments of a Circle, 1989–91; Oaijé, lines and figurations, 1992–3; Tutu, chbr orch, 1996; Wing, str orch, 1996; Islands, trbn conc., 1997

Chbr: Odypasse, wind qnt, 1976; Supermenageriet [The Super-Menagerie], fl, vn, vc, gui, tape, elecs, 1977; Arabesques of Decay, fl, ob, cl, gui, hp, perc, 1978; Mania, fl, vn, pf, 1978–9; Metamorphose, perc solo, 1985; Mimesis, 2 prep pf, tape, 1986–7; Stilla [Calm], variation on a popular Indian melody, vib, 1987; Guggi-Guggi, trbn, tape, 1990–91; Two for Three, perc, 1993; logá: minor inventions, fl, bn, 1993; Woodpecker’s Chant, perc, 1994; Beep-Ooh, cl, perc, 1995; Sea Cuts, 2 vn, va, vc, db, 2 perc, 1995

Vocal: Apparatus (P. Lagerkvist), 1v, cl, 1977; Den förstenade [The Petrified] (textless), S, tape, 1982; Shadowes that in darknesse dwell, fantasy on a song by John Dowland (textless), S, chbr ens, 1982–3

El-ac and other media: Trait blanc, 1977; Supermenageriet, 1977; Storstaddjungel [City Jungle] (film score), 1977, collab. T. Zwedberg; Electric Music, 1978; Terra nova, (theatre music), 1979, collab. M. Edlund; Högspänning [Voltage], 1979–80; Hoppla vi lever [Houp la! We are Alive], (theatre music), 1980; Nattkorridor, 1980; Rummet [The Room], 1980; Det andra rummet [The Other Room], 1980; Brutet A [Broken A], variation no.1, 1981; Brutet ackord, variation no.3, 1981; Fas I [Phase I], 1981; Öppningar [Openings], elec music to a picture by Jörgen Lindgren, 1982; Den förstenade [The Petrified], 1982; Cirkusbågen [The Circus Bow], 1983; Sound Direction, 1983; Ikaros, variation no.1, 1983; Syntetics, 1984; Houdinism, 1984; Mimesis, 1986–7

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Jennefelt: ‘Om den unge svenske elektronmusik’, DMt, liii (1978–9), 260–62

J. Beckman: ‘Tendenser i svensk elektronmusik’, DMt, lviii (1983–4), 33–5

G. Bergendal: ‘Förvandlingar på flera plan’, Nutida musik, xxxiv/4 (1991), 12–15 [on Meander]

H.-G. Peterson: ‘Hackspetten som guide till Pär Lindgrens labyrinter’, Nutida musik, xxxviii/2 (1995), 37–46

ROLF HAGLUND

Lindlar, Heinrich

(b Bergisch Gladbach, 6 Aug 1912). German musicologist and critic. He studied music in Cologne (1932–5) and musicology at the universities of Cologne, Bonn and Berlin with Schering and Bücken (1935–9). He took the doctorate at Cologne in 1939 with a dissertation on Pfitzner’s songs with piano accompaniment. After war service and a period as a POW until 1949, he was a lecturer in the Cologne Tonkünstlerseminar (1949–57) and subsequently at the Cologne Musikhochschule (1957–87), where he specialized in new music. From 1949 he was also music critic for various daily newspapers and periodicals. In 1965 he was given an additional lectureship at the Musikhochschule in Freiburg, and in 1969 he was made head of the Rheinische Musikschule in Cologne, a position he held until 1976. Lindlar has consistently championed contemporary music, notably in his writings and in his work as editor of Kontrapunkte (1958–65) and the series Musik der Zeit (1952–60). He commissioned the first comprehensive studies of Webern, Fortner and Stockhausen. The Hungarian Academy of Arts and Sciences awarded him the Bartók medal in 1984.

WRITINGS

Hans Pfitzners Klavierlied (diss., U. of Cologne, 1939; Würzburg, 1940)

‘Gian Francesco Malipiero: Aufriss einer Werkchronologie’, Musica, xi (1957), 128–32

Igor Strawinskys sakraler Gesang: Geist und Form der christ-kultischen Kompositionen (Regensburg, 1957)

ed.: Meyers Handbuch über die Musik (Mannheim, 1961, 5/1978–9 as Rororo Musikhandbuch)

Robert Vorberg Musikverlag 1862–1962 (Bad Godesberg, 1962)

77 Premieren: ein Opera-Journal (Rodenkirchen, 1965) [collected opera reviews 1958–64]

ed.: Herman Reutter: Werk und Wirken: Festschrift (Mainz, 1965) [incl. ‘Randnoten zu Reutters Liedschaffen’, 18–25]

Hundert Jahre Edition Peters (Frankfurt, 1968)

‘Spätstil? Zu Schostakowitschs Sinfonien Nr.13, 14, 15’, SMz, cxiii (1973), 340–45

ed.: 130 Jahre Rheinische Musikschule Köln (Cologne, 1975) [incl. ‘Zur Geschichte des Musikschulwesens in Köln seit 1815’]

Lübbes Strawinsky-Lexikon (Bergisch Gladbach, 1982/R)

Lübbes Bartók-Lexikon (Bergisch Gladbach, 1984/R)

‘Musikalische Zitate: Diakritisches zu Schostakowitsch und Strawinsky’, Dmitri Schostakowitsch: Cologne 1985, 345–54

150 Jahre Bote & Bock Musikverlag (Berlin, 1988)

Wörterbuch der Musik (Frankfurt, 1989)

Igor Strawinsky: Lebenwege/Bühnenwerke (Zürich, 1994)

Igor Strawinsky: Liederwelten und geistliche Werke (Zürich, 1997)

Loreley-Report: Heine im Wandel der Rheinliedromantik (Cologne, 1997)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Lindlar: ‘Lindlar, Heinrich’, Rheinische Musiker, vii, ed. D. Kämper (Cologne, 1972), 74–7 [incl. list of pubns]

Heinrich Lindlar: Leben mit Musik: Aufsätze und Vorträge, Köln 1960–1992: Festgabe (Berlin, 1993) [incl. list of writings]

HANSPETER KRELLMANN/DIETRICH KAEMPER

Lindley, Robert

(b Rotherham, 4 March 1776; d London, 13 June 1855). English cellist. His father, a respected amateur, started teaching him the violin when he was five, and the cello four years later. By the time he was 16, he had made such progress that the younger Cervetto, hearing him play, undertook to give him free tuition. Almost immediately, Lindley was summoned to the Brighton Theatre to deputize for a soloist; his performance apparently caused a sensation and he was engaged by the theatre, where he frequently played before the Prince Regent. In 1794 Lindley succeeded John Sperati as principal cello at the Italian Opera in London and at all the major concerts. Dragonetti joined the Opera the same year and he and Lindley became working companions, sharing a desk at the Opera, the Philharmonic, the Ancient Concerts and provincial festivals for many years. At the Opera they were particularly well known for their accompaniments of recitativo secco, at a time (up to c1837) when keyboard instruments were absent from the continuo group. Rockstro recorded that ‘the general style of their accompaniment was exceedingly simple, consisting only of plain chords, played arpeggiando; but occasionally the two old friends would launch out into passages as those shown in the following example; Dragonetti playing the large notes, and Lindley the small ones’ (ex.1).

Lindley and Dragonetti also became famous in the 1820s and 30s for their exciting performances of Corelli's violin and trio sonatas in arrangements for cello(s) and double bass. In 1823 Lindley was appointed professor at the newly opened RAM; Charles Lucas was possibly his most distinguished pupil. From 1836 to 1839 Lindley and Nicolas Mori gave Classical Chamber Concerts at Willis's Rooms, in competition with Blagrove's Quartett Concerts. Lindley retired in 1851.

Lindley’s technique appears to have been outstanding, and his tone remarkable for its fine quality and volume. B.H. Romberg, hearing him in London, told Salomon ‘He is the devil’, and departed for Germany; that he left in jealous rage is probably apocryphal. Edmund van der Straeten, however, quoted Vidal’s comment: ‘[Lindley’s] playing was cold, and in technique and style he remained far behind Romberg, Lamarre, Bohrer and Servais’. Lindley played an Italian cello long attributed to Giovanni Grancino; in 1884, however, the label was removed, and the original label, still in good condition underneath, assigns the instrument to Carlo Giuseppe Testore, 1690. Lindley's compositions, many of which were written for didactic purposes, are unremarkable; they include four cello concertos, duos for two cellos and for cello and violin, solos, a cello tutor and a piano piece, Caprice bohème.

His son William (b London, 18 Oct 1801; d Manchester, 12 Aug 1869) was also a cellist. A pupil of his father, he played in the orchestras at the King's Theatre, the Concerts of Ancient Music and the Philharmonic Society in the 1820s, sometimes appearing with Robert Lindley and Dragonetti in trio sonatas. He showed great promise, but his delicate health and extreme nervousness prevented him from gaining prominence as a soloist, and he eventually withdrew from public performance. Another son, Charles (d 1842), played the cello; Robert Lindley's daughter Eliza (1814–99) married the composer John Barnett.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brown-StrattonBMB

DNB (J.A. Fuller Maitland)

Grove2 (‘Recitative’; W.S. Rockstro)

H. Phillips: Musical and Personal Recollections During Half a Century (London, 1864)

E. van der Straeten: The History of the Violoncello (London, 1915/R)

P.A. Scholes: The Mirror of Music, 1844–1944: a Century of Musical Life in Britain as Reflected in the Pages of the ‘Musical Times’ (London, 1947)

F.M. Palmer: Domenico Dragonetti in England (1794–1846): the Career of a Double Bass Virtuoso (Oxford, 1997), 99–103, 114–18, 127–34

LYNDA MacGREGOR/CHRISTINA BASHFORD

Lindner, Friedrich

(b Legnica, c1542; d Nuremberg, bur. 15 Sept 1597). German music editor, copyist, composer and writer on music. He became a choirboy at the Saxon electoral court at Dresden. On 29 September 1558, after his voice had broken, he entered the Schulpforta Gymnasium near Naumburg an der Saale, with a scholarship from the Elector of Saxony, and he later studied at the University of Leipzig. When Jacob Meiland was building up the musical establishment at the Ansbach court in 1564–5, he engaged Lindner, whom he knew from Dresden and Leipzig, as a tenor. Over the next few years Lindner was kept busy as a copyist, sending hymnals and Passions that he had copied to various courts and cities: for example, he sent a Passion by Meiland to Eger (now Cheb) and took part in the performance of it at St Niklas there in Holy Week 1571. He succeeded Meiland as vice-Kapellmeister at Ansbach in 1573. The temporary dissolution of the musical establishment at Ansbach led him in the late autumn of 1574 to take up the post of Kantor at the church and grammar school of the Egidienkirche, Nuremberg, and he held it until his death.

On 29 June 1575 Lindner directed the music at the dedication of the University of Altdorf, for which he himself had written a five-part setting of the antiphon Veni, Sancte Spiritus (see below). In 1576 he sent to the Emperor Rudolf II a Mantuan choirbook and received 40 gulden for it. At about this time he also came into contact with the Hassler family; it is not improbable that he was one of Hans Leo Hassler's teachers and that he encouraged him to make his journey to Venice. When in 1588 twelve leading Nuremberg citizens founded a new Musicalische Krentzleins-Gesellschaft, a private musical society, they engaged Lindner as one of their four professional musicians, and he retained this appointment too until his death.

During a period of over 20 years – from 1573, just before he was appointed at Nuremberg, until about 1595 – Lindner wrote out some 25 large folio choirbooks, each of about 20 folios; 16 of them survived in Nuremberg libraries (ten in D-Nla and six in Ngm). They contain 426 works (see Rubsamen), predominantly in five and six parts and entirely in Latin. This comprehensive Lutheran repertory is unparalleled in the other south German sources of the period. Lassus is particularly well represented, with 118 works, and it is clear, as Sandberger (1927) pointed out, that Lindner was one of his principal champions and was responsible in no small measure for his popularity at the time in southern Germany. Other well-represented composers include Teodore Riccio (with 26 works), Blasius Ammon (21) and Giovanni Contino (19).

In 1585, as a result of his long-standing connections with Italy, Lindner began editing a series of nine collective volumes, dominated by Italian music, both sacred and secular, and printed at Nuremberg by Catharina Gerlach; the series ended with the printer's death in 1591 and the transfer of her business to the Kauffmann family. The volumes are: Sacrae cantiones (RISM 1585¹), Continuatio cantionum sacrarum (1588²), Gemma musicalis (1588²¹), Liber secundus Gemmae musicalis (1589⁸), Missae quinque quinis vocibus (1590¹), Corollarium cantionum sacrarum (1590⁵), Tertius Gemmae musicalis liber (1590²⁰), Magnificat (1591¹) and Bicinia sacra … in usum iuventutis scholasticae collecta (1591²⁷). The first eight of these anthologies are almost wholly devoted to works by Italian composers, many of whom, according to one preface (1590²⁰), had themselves sent their works to Lindner. Nuremberg thus became one of the earliest and most important gateways through which Italian music of the prima pratica, and to some extent of the seconda pratica, passed into Germany. In the Continuatio cantionum sacrarum Lindner included two motets by Hassler, his first published works. The last volume (1591²⁷) stands apart from the other eight. Intended for singing and playing in school and in the home, its contents comprise 12 textless ‘ricercari sive fantasiae’ (no doubt solfeggi or instrumental exercises) and 68 texted pieces, 32 of them by Lassus, which together with other Dutch and German compositions considerably outnumber those by Italians. The upper partbook also contained a short music primer and introduction to singing, but this book is missing from the only known copy (in GB-Lbl).

The above-mentioned Veni, Sancte Spiritus (in D-Ngm) is Lindner's only extant complete work. It is a cantus firmus structure, with the melody placed in even notes in the bass and the other parts weaving essentially non-imitative, flowing counterpoint above it. The five-part motet Hodie Christus natus est (formerly in D-Bsb) is lost; another motet (in H-BA) survives incomplete.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (F. Krautwurst)

A. Sandberger: ‘Bemerkungen zur Biographie Hans Leo Hasslers und seiner Brüder sowie zur Musikgeschichte der Städte Nürnberg und Augsburg im 16. und zu Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts’: introduction to DTB, viii, Jg.v/1 (1904/R)

A. Sandberger: Introduction to Orlando di Lasso: Sämmtliche Werke, xxi (Leipzig, 1927)

G. Schmidt: Die Musik am Hofe der Markgrafen von Brandenburg-Ansbach (Kassel, 1956)

W.H. Rubsamen: ‘The International “Catholic” Repertoire of a Lutheran Church in Nürnberg (1574–1597)’, AnnM, v (1957), 229–327

FRANZ KRAUTWURST

Lindner Choirbooks.

See Sources, MS, §IX, 21(iv).

Lindpaintner, Peter Josef von

(b Koblenz, 8/9 Dec 1791; d Nonnenhorn, Lake Constance, 21 Aug 1856). German conductor and composer. As a small child, Lindpaintner, whose father was a tenor at the court of the Bishop-Elector of Trier, accompanied the court into exile in Augsburg after the French secularization of Trier. In 1806 the elector arranged for him to study composition with Peter Winter in Munich. Though Winter was an ineffective teacher, Lindpaintner made progress in composition, and his first opera, Demophoon, was successfully performed in Munich in 1811. The following year he became music director at the Isartortheater, and over the next six years produced another eight operas, of which the most successful were Der blinde Gärtner (?1813), Die Sternkönigin (1815), Pervonte (1816) and Die Rosenmädchen (1818). Schilling relates that he became complacent about his abilities during this period but that, having been convinced by an old friend that he had much more to learn, he resumed the study of composition, with the contrapuntist Joseph Graetz.

In 1819 Lindpaintner took up the post of Kapellmeister at Stuttgart, where he remained for the rest of his life. Here he established his reputation as one of the finest German conductors and continued to compose assiduously for the stage. A number of his operas were enthusiastically received, though few held the stage for long. Der Bergkönig (1825) and Der Vampyr (1828), which appeared in the same year as Marschner’s more striking opera of the same name, responded to the burgeoning enthusiasm for supernatural subjects treated in the manner of Spohr and Weber, though they did not achieve equal popularity. Schilling observed in 1837: ‘Unfortunately their texts are mostly of too little dramatic worth to allow his operas to obtain the recognition by the wider musical public that their musical worth deserves’. His comic opera Die Macht des Liedes (1836) and his later grand operas Die sicilianische Vesper (1843) and Lichtenstein (1846) gained moderate acclaim. Some of his ballet music (Aglaja, Zephyr und Rose and Zeila) and incidental music, to works such as Schiller’s Der Lied von der Glocke, achieved a more lasting success.

Lindpaintner also enjoyed a reputation as a composer of lieder, sacred music and instrumental works. His songs, particularly Die Fahenwacht and Roland, were widely popular; among his sacred music, which included cantatas, masses and psalms, the oratorio Der Jüngling von Nain held a high place. His concertos and concertinos were notably successful, especially the two concertante symphonies for five wind instruments and orchestra. Lindpaintner’s mastery of instrumentation was widely acknowledged, and his reorchestration of Handel’s Judas Maccabeus was seen as one of his finest works. Lindpaintner’s achievements were acknowledged by the bestowal of the aristocratic ‘von’ in 1844, but in his later years his reputation as a composer declined. In 1854 Hans von Bülow castigated ‘the supreme impropriety of the pretensions with which Kapellmeister Lindpaintner now represents himself as the old master of the departing epoch, forgetting that Spohr alone can bear this honour’.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Some of Lindpaintner’s letters are in D-Bsb, and his Thematisches Verzeichnis meiner sämtlichen Werke, which includes biographical information, is in CH-S

SchillingE

StiegerO

W. Neumann: Peter von Lindpaintner (Kassel, 1856)

R. Krauss: Das Stuttgarter Hoftheater von den ältesten Zeiten bis zur Gegenwart (Stuttgart, 1908)

R. Hänsler: Peter Lindpaintner als Opernkomponist (Stuttgart, 1928)

E. Schenk: ‘Robert Schumann und Peter Lindpaintner in Wien’, Festschrift Joseph Schmidt-Görg zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. D. Weise (Bonn, 1957), 267–82

S. Johns: Das szenische Liederspiel zwischen 1800 und 1830 (Frankfurt, 1988)

R. Nägele: Peter Joseph von Lindpaintner: sein Leben, sein Werk (Tutzing, 1993)

CLIVE BROWN

Lindroth, Scott (Allen)

(b Cincinnati, 16 Jan 1958). American composer. After graduating from the Eastman School (BMus 1980), he studied at Yale University (MM 1982). In 1990 he was appointed to a teaching position at Duke University. He has received a Revson/New York PO Fellowship, the Prix de Rome (1985) and a Guggenheim Fellowship (1988). A meticulous craftsman, Lindroth often employs ‘detailed rhythmic structures which operate at both … local and structural levels’ (Lindroth). This rhythmic organization reflects the influence of Boulez, Messiaen, Nancarrow and Reich, also recalling Cage in its use of telephone numbers and chance processes to determine rhythmic patterns. Lindroth’s melodic gestures reflect jazz, minimalism and postwar European modernism.

Lindroth’s works from the late 1980s combine rigorous rhythmic structures with an increased expressivity. Treatise on Tailors’ Dummies (1988) incorporates references to Brahms and Wagner, as well as to the 1930s popular song Temptation. Subsequent compositions borrow from Sousa marches (Clash and Glitter, 1989) and the string figurations of Corelli and Vivaldi (Duo for Violins, 1990). Characteristically, works begin with a diatonic cell, usually a jazzy motif, that alternately expands into a long, lyrical melody and explodes into a polyrhythmic mass. In Stomp (1988) the result is a cheerful miniature. Big Band (1994), written for the Chicago SO, combines the orchestral clatter of Messiaen with the jazz style of Stan Kenton’s band. The opening triadic material of Light (1991, rev. 1993), while reminiscent of Górecki and Pärt, is followed by a polyrhythmic explosion that lies outside the expressive range of those composers’ works.

WORKS

Orch: A Fire’s Bright Song, 1981, rev. 1987; 2 Part Invention, 1986; Clash and Glitter, 1989; January Music, 1993; Big Band, 1994

Chbr and solo inst: 2 Pieces, a sax, ens, 1979; Chasing the Trane Out of Darmstadt, 1982; Pieces of Pf, 1982; Syntax, synclavier, 1985; Relations to Rigor I, 15 pfmrs, 1986; Stomp, fl, ob, cl, hn, trbn, pf, hp, vn, va, vc, 1988; Vn Duo, 1990; Whistle Stop, ob, 1990; Pf Duo, 1992; … mid the steep sky’s commotion, brass qnt, 1993; 2 Qts, a sax, mar, perc, pf: no.1, 1993, no.2, 1994; Glide, fl, cl, bn, hn, vn, va, vc, perc, hp, 1996; Mar Duo, 1997; Str Qt, 1997

Vocal: Treatise on Tailors’ Dummies, S, fl, t sax, b cl, bn, accdn, pf, perc, 1988; In the Middle of the Road, A, a fl, pf, 1989; Light, Mez, cl + b cl, vn, vc, xyl + glock, pf + cel, 1991, rev. 1993; The Dolphins, S, pf, 1995

El-ac: Relations to Rigor II, fl, b cl, vn, vc, mar, pf, tape, 1987; Terza Rima, ob, live elecs, 1995

Recorded interviews in US-NHoh

Principal publishers: Dorn, Davidge

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Wheeler: ‘Beyond the Flat Surface: Foam and Rhetoric in Machover, Hyla and Lindroth’, CMR, x (1994), 75–100

SCOTT WHEELER

Lindsay, Alex

(b Invercargill, NZ, 28 May 1919; d Wellington, 5 Dec 1974). New Zealand violinist. He studied in London with W.H. Reed in the late 1930s and after two years' naval service returned to New Zealand and joined the New Zealand SO. He resigned during controversy over the orchestra's musical direction and in 1947 formed his own string orchestra, modelled on the Boyd Neel Orchestra. The orchestra continued for some 20 years and played a leading role in the country's music. Lindsay was in London again as a member of the LPO and LSO between 1963 and 1967, then returned to New Zealand and became leader of the New Zealand SO. His playing was much admired for its cantabile tone of great beauty.

FREDERICK PAGE/R

Lindsay Quartet.

English string quartet. It was formed at the RAM in 1966 by Peter Cropper, Michael Adamson, Roger Bigley and Bernard Gregor-Smith, under the tutelage of Sidney Griller. Having won all the RAM prizes for quartet playing, in 1967 the ensemble was given a Leverhulme scholarship to Keele University, where it took the name of the founder, Lord Lindsay, and worked with Alexandre Moskowsky, formerly of the Hungarian Quartet. Research into Bartók’s music continued with Vilmos Tátrai, Sándor Végh and Rudolf Kolisch; the players also studied the Classical and Romantic repertory with members of the Amadeus Quartet. In 1969 the group was a prizewinner at the international competition in Liège. In 1972 Ronald Birks took over from Adamson as second violinist. In 1974 a residency was taken up at Sheffield University and in 1979 at Manchester University. In 1981 the ensemble made the first of a number of tours of the USA and Canada. In 1984 it began yearly festivals in Sheffield and in 1987 started to bring some of those programmes to London. Meanwhile in 1986 Bigley left, to be replaced as viola player by Robin Ireland. Since then the Lindsay Quartet has consolidated its position at the top of the profession in Britain. When it is on form, it is musically at least the equal of any ensemble in the world. Its performances of late Beethoven quartets or the Schubert C major Quintet (with Douglas Cummings as guest), both in the concert hall and in the recording studio, have confirmed Peter Cropper as the most idealistic quartet leader since Adolf Busch. Even its most fervent admirers, however, have to admit that on a bad day the group can seem overwhelmed by technical matters (especially problems of intonation) which lesser musicians take in their stride. In a restless search for spiritual refreshment, ‘the Lindsays’ have tackled a vast repertory when others might have settled for perfecting a smaller corpus of work. It follows that their huge range of recordings runs the gamut from the sublime (including much of their Beethoven cycle) to the mediocre. Apart from the Viennese Classics, they have given illuminating performances of Czech and Hungarian music; and they have given the premières of many works, notably Tippett’s fourth and fifth quartets – the latter commissioned by them – and Jean Françaix’s Clarinet Quintet. Their probing interpretations of all the Tippett quartets have been recorded. In the Mozart string quintets they have collaborated with Patrick Ireland (their viola player’s father) and Louise Williams. The clarinettist Janet Hilton has also been a frequent guest, in concert and on record. They play on two Stradivarius violins, a Mori Costa viola and a Ruggieri cello.

TULLY POTTER

Lindy [lindy hop].

A lively and often acrobatic social dance of American origin that originated in the Savoy and other Harlem ballrooms and private clubs during the 1920s. Its association with the successful transatlantic flight of Charles Lindberg (1927) further increased its popularity. It became progressively more athletic in the late 1930s and 1940s when it was performed to the music of the swing bands; during this period the dance was also called the Jitterbug. The exhibitionist nature of the dance was characterized by ‘breakaway’ sections, in which the dancers improvised their own steps; it was known for its ‘air’ steps (athletic stunts and movements performed in the air) and the ‘geechie walk’ (a strutting step performed with a shimmy). Examples of compositions that were suitable for lindy dancing include Stomping at the Savoy, by Benny Goodman, Edgar Sampson, and Chick Webb (performed by Chick Webb’s Savoy Orchestra on a recording of 1934), Sing, Sing, Sing by Louis Prima (recorded by Benny Goodman and his orchestra in 1937), and Count Basie’s One O'clock Jump (1937) and Jumpin’ at the Woodside (1938). In the 1950s, the lindy served as the basis for some of the dances associated with rock and roll.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. and J. Stearns: Jazz Dance: the Story of American Vernacular Dance (New York, 1968)

L.F. Emery: Black Dance in the United States from 1619 to 1970 (Palo Alto, CA, 1970)

R.P. Crease: ‘Divine Frivolity: Hollywood Representations of the Lindy Hop, 1937–1942’, Representing Jazz, ed. K. Gabbard (Durham, NC, 1995), 207–28

PAULINE NORTON

Linea d’aiuto

(It.).

See Leger line.

Linear.

Characterized by conjunct motion in a given part; thus one of the chief characteristics of the musical texture commonly called ‘contrapuntal’. The expression ‘linear counterpoint’, a literal translation of a term introduced by Ernst Kurth in his Grundlagen des linearen Kontrapunkts (Berne, 1917), is strictly speaking a tautology; however, it remains useful as a means of emphasizing the melodic or ‘horizontal’ aspect of counterpoint as opposed to the harmonic or ‘vertical’.

JULIAN RUSHTON

Linear progression.

SeeZug (i).

Linecke.

See Linike family.

Lineff, Eugenie.

See Linyova, Yevgeniya.

Ling, Jan Nils

(b Örebro, 12 April 1934). Swedish musicologist. He studied the piano at the Swedish Royal Academy of Music (1955–8), and musicology at Uppsala University with Moberg, Bengtsson and Emsheimer (1958–67), taking the doctorate at Uppsala in 1967 with a dissertation on the nyckelharpa. Concurrently he worked in Stockholm as a cataloguer in the Swedish Broadcasting Company’s sound archive (1959–60), an assistant at the Swedish Centre for Folksong and Folk Music Research (1959–67), lecturer at the Museum of Music History (1961–7) and lecturer in ethnomusicology and organology at Uppsala University (1961–7). He also held posts as a lecturer in form and music history at the Örebro Institute for Music Education (1966–9) and at the Göteborg Conservatory (1967–70). He was head of the department of musicology at Göteborg University (1970–92), appointed lecturer in 1970 and professor in 1977; he later became the vice-chancellor of the university (1992–7). His main areas of research are music history, ethnomusicology and the sociology of music; his publications include articles on various aspects of these subjects (particularly in connection with Swedish music) and a book on Swedish folk music. In 1975 he became a member of the Swedish Royal Academy of Music, and in 1984 the Festschrift Tvärspel: festskrift till Jan Ling [Cross-play: Festschrift for Jan Ling], ed. Å. Blomström and others (Göteborg, 1984), was published to mark his 50th birthday.

WRITINGS

Svensk folkmusik (Stockholm, 1964)

with M. Jersild: ‘A Method of Cataloguing Vocal Folk Music’, Arv, xxi (1965), 103–14

Levin Christian Wiedes vissamling: en studie i 1800-talets folkliga vissång (Uppsala, 1965)

Nyckelharpan: studier i ett folkligt musikinstrument (diss., U. of Uppsala, 1967; Stockholm, 1967)

with B. Erdmann: Musiklivet på en industriort (1970)

Musiksociologiska projekt i Göteborg (Göteborg, 1970); Eng. trans., IRASM, ii (1971), 119–30

‘Från Marseillaisen till Internationalen’, Ord och bild, lxxxiii (1974), 272–88

‘Försök till en musikalisk dialektik’, Kultur och klasskamp, ed J.N. Ling and others (Stockholm, 1974), 103–33

‘Musiklivet i Skaraborg: preliminar undersökningsplan för en musiksociologisk studie’, STMf, lvii/1 (1975), 69–75

ed.: Musik i Staraborg (Vara, 1978)

‘Adornos Bedeutung für die Musik und Musikwissenschaft in Schweden’, Adorno und die Musik, ed. O. Kolleritsch (Graz, 1979), 83–93

Folkmusik: en Brygd (Göteborg, 1979)

ed.: Folkmusikboken (Stockholm, 1980)

Europas musikhistoria II: folkmusiken 1730–1980 (Solna, 1989; Eng. trans., 1997)

with E. Kjellberg: Klingande Sverige: musikens vägar genom historien (Göteborg, 1991)

‘Joint Field Research in the Cultural Dialogue: Musicology and Music Society in Sweden’, Music in the Dialogue of Cultures, ed. M.P. Baumann (Wilhelmshaven, 1991), 185–98

‘Hugo Alfvén und die Idee der absoluten Musik’, Weltgeltung und Regionalität, ed. R. Bohn and M. Engelbrecht (Frankfurt, 1992), 241–52, 308–13

with A.-M. Nilsson: ‘The Medieval Music of the Monastery, the Cathedral and the Pauper's Dwelling’, Medieval Studies: Skara 1988, 37–56

‘From ‘Empfindsamer’ Style to Down-Home Village Nostalgia’, Analisi musicale II: Trent 1991, 321–40

ed., with S. Gustavasson and L. Tegborg: The Multicultural Baltic Region, ii: Language, Music and Religion (Uppsala, 1994/R)

‘Volks- und kunstmusik um die Jahrhundertwende: ihre Stellung bei Hugo Alfvén’, Ethnomusikologie und historische Musikwissenschaft: gemeinsame Ziele, gleiche Methoden?: Erich Stockmann zum 70. Geburtstag, ed. C.-H. Mahling and S. Münch (Tutzing, 1997), 245–56 [also congress report, 1991 Mainz]

VESLEMÖY HEINTZ

Linger, Carl

(b Berlin, March 1810; d Adelaide, 16 Feb 1862). Australian composer and conductor of German birth. The son of an engraver and amateur musician, he is said to have taught the piano at the age of 12, before studying composition with Karl Reissiger and Bernard Klein at Berlin University and the Institute for Church Music. He then studied in Venice and Milan before returning to Berlin, where his compositions first attracted attention. He left Hamburg on 23 March 1849 bound for South Australia; unable at first to find musical employment he bought 80 acres of farming land at Smithfield. Subsequent hardship forced him to seek employment in Adelaide in 1851 as a pianist and music teacher, but his career was more assured with his appointment in 1854 as leader of the orchestra of the choral society (founded in 1843), which he developed into a proficient group able to perform the first complete Messiah in Adelaide (1859). He founded the Adelaide Liedertafel in 1857, and was widely acclaimed at his death for his contributions to colonial cultural growth.

Linger's compositions dating from the Berlin years include sacred songs, two operas, two symphonies, lieder, motets and incidental music: some of these remain in manuscript. The works composed in Adelaide include three masses, settings of hymns and psalms and a concert overture (1856). But he is remembered only as the composer of the Song of Australia (C. Carleton) which won the Gawler Institute National Song competition (December 1859) and which, despite contenders from other states, has retained a lasting and affectionate place in South Australian music.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Divall: ‘Carl Linger: a Brief Biography’, Musica Australis Archives (Sydney, 1970) [incl. list of works]

ELIZABETH WOOD

Lingke, Georg Friedrich

(b 1697; d in or nr Weissenfels, 1777). German musical amateur and music theorist. His place in music history rests in his authorship of treatises largely concerned with questions of harmonic practice. A nobleman with an estate, Nöbeditz, near Weissenfels, he held the position of councillor of mines for the Kingdom of Poland-Saxony. According to J.A. Hiller, author of the preface to Lingke's Kurze Musiklehre, he was one of those ‘musical dilettantes who pondered musical truths and familiarized themselves with [music] theory, without being especially strong in musical performance’. Hiller said that Lingke played both lute and harpsichord. He knew the trumpet virtuoso J.E. Altenburg, whom he consulted on matters of musical practice. In 1742 he was elected the eighth member of Mizler's Societät der Musikalischen Wissenschaften, a corresponding society of music theorists and composers, including J.S. Bach, Handel and Telemann. Lingke was one of the few non-professional musicians permitted entry into that rather exclusive group.

Most of Lingke's work concerns elementary concepts of music theory, such as major and minor scales, their origins, and their relationships in a tonal hierarchy. Among his treatises, the Uibungs-Wahrheiten (c1750) remains the most informative. In addition to elementary theory, and a brief discussion of thoroughbass, Lingke made a number of interesting statements of importance to Baroque musical aesthetics concerning a theory of affections based on intervals and scales. Another part of the work discusses whether melody or harmony takes precedence in composition, a question popularized in the works of Rameau (on the side of harmony) and Mattheson (for melody); Lingke believed that neither harmony nor melody comes first, but rather both arise simultaneously in the act of composing. This simple, rational and practical viewpoint had apparently not occurred to any of his contemporaries.

THEORETICAL WORKS

Einige zum allgemeinen Nutzen deutlicher gemachte musikalische Erwegungs- und andere leichter eingerichtete Uibungs-Wahrheiten (Leipzig, c1750, 2/1760)

Vertheidigungsschreiben an den Herrn Verfasser der sieben Gespräche zwischen der Weisheit und Musik [J. Mattheson, 1751] (Frankfurt and Leipzig, 1753)

Die Sitze der musicalischen Haupt-Sätze in einer harten und weichen Tonart (Leipzig, 1766)

Kurze Musiklehre in welcher nicht allein die Verwandtschaft aller Tonleitern, sondern auch die jeder zukommenden harmonischen Sätze gezeigt, und mit praktischen Beyspielen erläutert werden (Leipzig, 1779)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.F.A. and O.F.J. Lingke: Chronologie der Familie Lingke (Köthen, 1909)

F. Wöhlke: Lorenz Christoph Mizler: ein Beitrag zur musikalischen Gelehrtengeschichte des 18. Jahrhunderts (Würzburg, 1940)

GEORGE J. BUELOW

Linguaphone.

A term sometimes applied to any idiophone whose primary sounding agents consist of tongues or slats of metal or vegetable material attached at one end. See Lamellophone.

Liniensystem

(Ger.).

See Staff.

Linike [Lienike, Linecke, Linicke, Linigke, Lünicke].

German family of musicians. They were active during the early 18th century, but their relationships remain obscure.

(1) Ephraim Linike

(3) Johann Georg Linike

DOUGLAS A. LEE

Linike

(1) Ephraim Linike

(b 1665; d Berlin, bur. 24 Dec 1726). Violinist. He was appointed to the electoral chapel in Berlin in 1690. From 1701 to 1704 he served as royal chamber musician in Berlin, then in a similar capacity in the court at Schwedt. He returned to Berlin in 1711 and remained there until his death.

Linike

(2) Christian Bernhard Linike

(b 3 June 1673; d Cöthen, bur. 3 Jan 1751). Cellist and chamber musician in Berlin until the dissolution of the court chapel in 1713. He was employed by Margrave Christian Ludwig of Brandenburg until 1716 when he joined the chapel of Prince Leopold at Cöthen. He remained active there for the rest of his life, part of this time in company with J.S. Bach and the gamba player Christian Ferdinand Abel. C.B. Linike is reported to have written some small keyboard works (formerly in D-Bsb) and ten sonatas.

Linike

(3) Johann Georg Linike

(b c1680; d Hamburg, after 1737). Composer and violinist. The most prolific and best-known member of the Linike family, according to Mattheson he was a student of Johann Theile in Berlin. He was active as a violinist as early as 1705, and was second violinist in the court chapel at Berlin by 1710. After that group was dissolved in 1713 he moved to the court of Weissenfels as director of music; it was from there that he maintained the correspondence with Mattheson printed in Critica musica. He visited London in 1721 and remained at least until winter 1724–5. After 1725 he became the first violinist in the opera orchestra at Hamburg under the direction of Reinhard Keiser. Linike’s works show relatively conservative Baroque traits in the prevalence of imitative entries at the beginning of movements, a pervasive two-part texture, and a tendency towards consistent motivic extension within individual movements.

WORKS

Quando sperasti, cant., S, str, D-Bsb

Ov., 2 ob, 2 vn, va, vc, b, S-Uu

Moratorium, tpt, ob, fl, vn, b, 12 April 1737, D-SWl

Conc., hpd, vn, str, ROu

3 concs., fl, vn, va, bc, ?SWl

Sonatas: 5 for vn, ob, bc, Dl; 4 for 2 fl, bc, ROu (2 inc.); 5 for 2 fl, bc, SWl [2 ovs., 2 suites, 1 trio]; 1 for hpd, vn obbl, DS; 1 for fl/ob, bc, ROu; 2 for vn, bc, SWl; 2 for vn/ob, bc, SWl; 4 for fl, bc, SWl

Lost works: 6 symphonies; Wettstreit der Poesie, Musik und Malerei, ?cant., Hamburg, 1725: cited in Ledebur; Symphony; Ho una pena intorno al cor, cant., 1v, str: cited in Fétis; Sonata, fl, vn, bc; Trio, ob, vn, bc; Lungi da me pensier, cant., 1v, str; Crudo amore, cant., 1v, str: cited in Breitkopf catalogues; 2 prol, recits for G.F. Handel, Giulio Cesare, Hamburg, 1725

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BrookB

EitnerQ

FétisB

LedeburTLB

SchillingE

J. Mattheson: Critica musica, ii (Hamburg, 1725/R), 250–54

W. Kleefeld: ‘Das Orchester der Hamburger Oper 1678–1738’, SIMG, i (1899–1900), 219–89

Lining out.

A method of performing a (metrical) psalm or hymn within Protestant nonconformist churches, in which the minister, elder or precentor reads or chants each line, or pair of lines, and the congregation responds by singing the same words. The congregational melody is not necessarily identical with that sung by the leader. The custom began in England about 1745 as an aid for the illiterate (see Psalms, metrical, §III, 1(iv)) and was first laid down in the Directory for the Publique Worship of God, prepared by the Westminster Assembly of Divines in 1744 (which came into force the following January). Lining out had disappeared in England by 1800 but it is practised today by Gaelic-speaking congregations in the Highlands and Western Isles of Scotland, by urban congregations of Gaels in Glasgow and Edinburgh, and in some Baptist churches in the rural south-eastern USA. See Old Way of Singing.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

N. Temperley: ‘The Old Way of Singing: its Origins and Development’, JAMS, xxxiv (1981), 512–44

T.E. Miller: ‘Oral Tradition Psalmody Surviving in England and Scotland’, The Hymn, xxxv (1984), 15–22

N. Temperley: ‘Lining Out and Psalm Singing’, The Hymn, xxxv (1984), 170–73

Linjama, Jouko (Sakari)

(b Kirvu, 4 Feb 1934). Finnish composer and organist. He studied the organ with Enzio Forsblom and composition with Aarre Merikanto and Joonas Kokkonen at the Sibelius Academy, Helsinki (1954–60), and then with Gottfried Michael Koenig and Bernd Alois Zimmermann at the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik, Cologne. In 1963 he attended Stockhausen’s new music courses in Cologne. He taught theory at the Sibelius Academy (1964–8) and in 1964 began working as a composer and organist in Tuusula, a suburb of Helsinki. He won first prizes in the Finnish Broadcasting Company competitions for choral compositions (1969, with Missa de angelis) and for songs (1973) as well as the Church music prize in 1977. Linjama is primarily a composer of church music: organ works and vocal music on religious texts form the major part of his output. Song and partsong cycles on secular texts also feature strongly, but instrumental music other than for organ is of less interest to him. Characteristic of his style are contrapuntal textures, triadic harmony, and melody influenced by plainchant, although some 12-note writing, cluster harmony and pitch fields also occur.

WORKS

choral

(selective list)

With insts: Missa de angelis, op.12, chorus, eng hn, cl, bn, hn, trbn, 1969; Kunnianosoitus Aleksis Kivelle [Homage to Aleksis Kivi] (orat), nar, Bar, chorus, orch, 1971; Formulae colloquiorum (anon.), op.29, 3 solo vv, male vv, 2 cl, 2 bn, 1975; Scola morum floruit, op.54, T, 2 choruses, wind, 1983; Mailman Algusta ia Loomisesta [On the Beginning of the World and the Creation] (orat, Bible, trans. M. Agricola), op.55, S, Bar, SATB, orch, 1983; Suomalainen Requiem [Finnish Requiem], S, A, SATB, org, 1999

Unacc.: 7 Songs (A. Kivi), op.16, male vv, 1968–71; Min dag min kväll min natt [My Day, my Evening, my Night] (G. Björling), op.30, male vv, 1975; La sapienza (orat, L. da Vinci), op.40, 2 SATB, 1980; Partita (H. Maskulainen), op.42, SATB, 1979; Kirkkauden tiellä [On the Road to Splendour] (T. Pekkanen), op.44, T, SATB, 1980; Kalevala-sarja [Kalevala Suite], op.49, SATB, 1981; Cantate, annuntiate, op.61, SATB, 1984; 7 Nocturnos (Vuorela), op.69, male vv, 1986; Nijn quin Omenapw (motet, Bible, trans. Agricola), S, T, SATB, 1991

solo vocal

Canticum gradum, op.1, S, org, 1959; Gaude virgo gloriosa (L. Heikkilä), op.4, S, org, 1961; Millaista on [How it is] (orat, S. Beckett, trans. J. Mannerkorpi), op.7, Bar, 6 male vv, orch, 3 tape recorders, 1964, rev. 1968; Terra mariana (Heikkilä), op.10, S, org, 1968; 5 saamelaislaulua [5 Sami Songs] (A. Guttorm), op.18, S, a fl, pf, 1971; Maan ääri siintää loitto [The Margin of Earth, Distant, Fading] (Vuorela), op.32, S, pf, 1972–6; Vedet virtaavat vuorilla [The Waters are Flowing on the Mountains] (Vuorela), op.19, Bar, pf, 1972; Och mellan rymd och hav [And Midst Space and Sea] (Björling), op.35, S, pf, 1976–7; Linnut, ruohot, taivaat ja maa [Birds, Grasses, Heavens and Earth] (A.-M. Raittila), op.68, S, orch/cl, pf, 1986; Sinusta kaukana [Far from You] (Chinese poems, trans. P. Nieminen), T, pf, 1995; 7 Songs (Meri), T, pf, 1995; Luther-triptyykki [A Luther Triptych], T, wind qt, str qt, 1997

instrumental

Org: Sonatina supra b–a–c–h, op.3, 1961; Veni creator spiritus, sonata, op.9, 1968; Magnificat, op.13, 1970; Conc., op.15, 1970; Triptychon, op.17, 2 org, 1971; Partita, op.23, 1973; Pies cantiones (1582) per organo piccolo, op.33, 1976; Missa cum jubilo, op.31, 1977; Consolation, op.37, 1978; Toccatina, danza e contradanza per organo piccolo, op.50b, 1981; Organum supra b–a–c–h, op.52, 1982; Toccata in D, op.63, 1985; 3 liturgista lasimaalausta [3 Liturgical Stained Glasses], 1993

Other inst: 5 Metamorphosen für 5 Instrumente über 5 Canons op.15 von Anton Webern, op.5, vib, gui, cel, hpd, pf, 1963; La migration d’oiseaux sauvages, op.36, orch, 1977; Str Qt no.1, op.39, 1978; Str Qt no.2, op.41, 1979; Conc., op.50a, org, mar, vib, 2 wind qts, 1981; Echo I, op.89, ob, org, 1991; Echo II, vc, pf, 1992; 9 minimuunnelmaa [9 Minivariations], fl, ob, cl, pf, 1993

Principal publisher: Finnish Broadcasting Co., Fazer, Sulasol

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Gräsbeck: ‘Jouko Linjaman Missa de angelis’, Musiikki, i/2 (1971), 43–50

M. Heiniö: ‘Jouko Linjama’, Suomalaisia säveltäjiä [Finnish composers], ed. E. Salmenhaara (Helsinki, 1994), 253–6

M. Heiniö: Aikamme musiikki [Contemporary music], Suomen musiikin historia [A history of Finnish music], iv (Porvoo, 1995)

Jyrki Linjama: ‘Jouko Linjaman säveltäjäprofiilista’ [Composer profile], Sävellys ja musiikinteoria, vi/1 (1996), 20–32

ILKKA ORAMO

Linjama, Jyrki

(b Jyväskylä, 23 April 1962). Finnish composer. He studied composition at the Sibelius Academy, Helsinki, with Rautavaara and Heininen (1979–89) and pursued further studies in The Hague (1987–8), in Budapest with Zolt Durkó (1989–91) and at the Hochschule der Künste in Berlin (1991–2), where his teacher was Szalonek. In 1992 he became lecturer in music theory at the University of Turku.

The post-serial approach of some of Linjama’s early works soon took a more expressive direction. Elegia for strings (1987) and the First Violin Concerto (1989), built on a series of variations with a dominating virtuoso solo part, are neo-Expressionist in character, suggesting the spirit of Alban Berg. In recent works, such as pas de deux (1994), he has moved further away from serial techniques without renouncing the density of language characterized by dissonant harmony, short melodic phrases, complex rhythm and an ear for timbral variations. Fragile lyricism combined with violent outburst tends to create great tension in his orchestral works, whereas most of his chamber and vocal music is more sparse in character.

WORKS

Orch: Elegia, str, 1987; 2 vn concs., 1989, 1991; pas de deux, 1994

Chbr and solo inst: 5 bagatellia [5 Bagatelles], pf, 1981; Aufschwung, vc, pf, 1983, rev. 1991; Music for Fl and Hpd, 1984; 2 chansons, va, pf, 1984, rev. 1991; Metamorphoses, hpd, 1986; Hymni, accdn, cl, vn, 1990; Omaggio, vn, 1992; Sonatina, pf, 1995; Taivas on sininen ja valkoinen [Blue and White is the Sky above], vn, pf, 1996; Partita, gui, str qt, 1996; Consolation (Omaggio a Rilke), accdn, 1997; Johdanto, muunnelmia ja kehtolaulu [Introduction, Variations and Lullaby], kantele, 1997; Sonata, gui, 1997; Hildegardiana, org, 1998

Vocal: 3 varhaista laulua [3 Early Songs] (A.-M. Raittila), S, pf, 1982, rev. 1991; Legenda (trad. Indian, in Ger.), S, fl, 1986; Venetsialainen yölaulu [Venetian Night Song] (L. Nummi, It. folk poem), SATB, 1988; Kyrie, SSAA, 1989; Konsa kosijat (Kanteletar), SSA, 1994; Pääsiäismotetti [Easter Motet], SATB, org, 1995; Iltalaulu [Evening Song] (Kalevala), SSA, 1996; In hoc natali gaudio, 4 Piae Cantiones Motets, SATB, 1996; Juhlakantaatti [Festive Cant.] (Bible, in Finnish), 2S, SATB, org, 1997; 2 madrigaalia [2 madrigals], S, pf, 1998

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Linjama: Amadeus ja pianokonserton säveltämisen taide [Amadeus and the art of composing a piano concerto] (Helsinki, 1991)

K. Korhonen: ‘Buffeted by the Winds of Change: Young Composers of the 1990s’, Finnish Music Quarterly, xi/2 (1995), 16–18

K. Korhonen: Finnish Composers since the 1960s (Jyväskylä, 1995)

M. Heiniö: Aikamme musiikki [Contemporary music], Suomen musiikin historia [History of Finnish music], iv (Porvoo, 1995)

ILKKA ORAMO

Linke, Norbert

(b Steinau, Silesia, 5 March 1933). German composer and musicologist. He studied composition at the Hamburg Musikhochschule with Klussmann, and German studies and musicology at Hamburg University (DPhil 1959). He taught at the Darmstadt Training College and became professor of music at the University-Polytechnic, Duisburg in 1976. He has also served as music critic for Die Welt (1964–72), as a member of the board of directors of GEMA (1972–6), and as chair of the Silesian music study group at the Institute for German Music in the East (from 1995). His awards include the Johann Wenzel Stamitz prize, Stuttgart (1977).

Linke first received recognition as a composer when his Konkretionen II for string quartet was performed at Darmstadt during the 1963 summer courses. In the work, he aimed to suspend the perception of time by means of a ‘renunciation of any striving towards a goal or sense of direction’, thus attaining a ‘wider mobility’ that ‘makes possible a direct interaction between presentation in time and placing in space’ (Dibelius). Later compositions added parodistic elements in the form of quasi-quotations. His stylistic versatility has ranged from strictly serial works (Benn-Epitaph), to more accessible creations (Organ Pops, 1970). Many of his works, such as Steinauer Messe (1972), Diri Dana (1974), Retro (1974–5) and Jugendzeit (1984), refer to his native Silesia and its neighbours, Poland and the Czech Republic. He has also made arrangements of Silesian folksongs.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Strati, 1965–8; Divisioni, 1967; Pf Conc., 1971; Striccio, 1976–7

Choral: Canticum I ‘ … und nahm Gestalt an’ (E. Lasker-Schüler), 1962; Das Verlorene (J. Böhme), chorus, insts, 1964; Canticum II ‘was sterblich war … ’ (N. Lenau), 1968; Steinauer Messe, 1972; Canticum III ‘ … bedecke mit deinem Fittich’ (F.G. Klopstock, Linke), 1973; Diri Dana, chorus, pf, insts, 1974; Denn ihr werdet Gott schauen, 1978

Solo vocal: Lyrical Sym. S, orch, 1961–8; Benn-Epitaph, Bar, 5 insts, 1966; Kontakt für Geeske, female v, 1972; Tschechische Lieder, 1975–6; … und hätte der Liebe nicht, 1978; An die Mächtigen, 1979; Dort in anderm Lande, 1986–92

Chbr: Coloratura, 3 fl, 1963–4; Konkretionen II, str qt, 1963; Varim I, pf 4 hands, 1963; Konkretionen IV, brass trio, 1967; Profit tout clair, 9 insts/chbr orch; Fresco, hp, vc, 1970; Zeitplan, elecs (5 pfmrs), tape, 1972; Metamorphosen, pf qt, 1975; Pf Qt ‘Metamorphosen über ein tschechisches Landarbeiter-Lied’, 1975; Louika, capriccio, vn, pf, 1976; Jugendzeit, cl qnt, 1982; Balkanesca, 1984; Geist der Schwachheit/Geist der Stärke, 1991; Konkordanza, va, org, 1992; Str Qnt ‘Einige Auskünfte über die Rätsel dieser Welt’, 1993

Solo inst (for org, unless otherwise stated): Polyrhythmika 1–3, pf, 1961–8; Fantasia und Zortzico, cl, 1965; Rital, 1969; Piccotelli, pf, 1970; Choral suite, 1972; Zug-Stücke, pf, 1977; Hommage à … , 1981; Stücke, 1981; Beethoven-Studien, 1982; Elegien, 1982; Meditationen, 1982; Hommage à Schostakowitsch, 1984; Bach-Fragmente, 1985; Luther-Fragmente, 1985; Veni creator spiritus, 1988

Other works: Organ Pops; 1970; Retro (polnisches Liederspiel), 1974–5

Principal publishers: Breitkopf & Härtel, Bote & Bock, Gravis, Möseler

WRITINGS

Die Orchesterfuge in Spätromantik und Moderne (diss., U. of Hamburg, 1959)

Musik zwischen Konsum und Kult (Wiesbaden, 1973)

Zur Bewertung von Musik(Wiesbaden, 1974)

Philosophie der Musik (Regensburg, 1976)

Heilung durch Musik (Wilhelmshaven, 1977)

Johann Strauss/Sohn (Reinbeck, 1982/R)

Kein schöner Land (Niedernhausen, 1983/R)

Musik erobert die Welt (Vienna, 1987)

Es musste einem was einfallen (Tutzing, 1992)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Lück, ed.: Das Komponistenportrait (Cologne, 1972) [incl. complete work-list]

E.-M. Houben: ‘Silesia cantat: Errinnerungen an die schlesische Heimat in Kompositionen von Norbert Linke’, Oberschlesisches Jb (1991), 149

RUDOLF LÜCK/LOTHAR HOFFMANN-ERBRECHT

Linko, Ernst

(b Tampere, 17 July 1889; d Helsinki, 28 Jan 1960). Finnish pianist and composer. He studied the piano at the Helsinki Music School with Sigrid Schnéevoigt and Karl Ekman (1909–11), and continued his studies in Berlin with Martin Krause, in St Petersburg with Leonid Nikolayev and in Paris with J. Battalla. He also studied composition with W. Klatte in Berlin. After his début in Helsinki in 1913 he performed in many European countries and the USA. From 1916 to 1959 he taught music at the Helsinki Music School (which became in 1924 the Helsinki Conservatory and in 1939 the Sibelius Academy); from 1936 he was its principal and he was a professor there for the last 20 years of his teaching career. He composed mainly for the piano, but also wrote some songs (both his wife and daughter were sopranos). His music was grounded in Romanticism, and he imitated Baroque and Classical styles but without the distance that would justify the term neo-classical.

WORKS

(selective list)

Pf concs.: d, 1916; E, 1920–22; A, 1931; D, 1957

Other orch: Symphonie chévaleresque, 1949

Chbr: Nocturne, vc, pf, 1919; Pf Trio, 1921; Str Qt, E, 1930

Pf: Sarja vanhaan tyyliin [Suite in Old Style], 1912; Suite miniature, 1915; Pf Sonata, 1916; 24 preludes, 1917; Prelude and Fugue, 1918; Variazioni & fuga all'antica sulla tema di Haendel, 1922; Hommage à Domenico Scarlatti, 1924; Pieni sarja vanhaan tyyliin [Little Suite in Old Style], 1925; Pieni kuvitelma [Little Fancy], 1925; 3 bagatelles, 1926; 3 danze moderne, 1926; Pf Sonata, f, 1927, Fantasy, f, 1930; Pf Sonata, G, 1930; 2 sonatinas, B, f, 1935

c45 songs, 1v, pf

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Sajakorpi: Taiteilijaprofiili Ernst Linko (Tampere, 1989)

E. Salmenhaara: Uuden musiikin kynnyksellä [At the threshold of new music], Suomen musiikin historia [A history of Finnish music], iii (Porvoo, 1996)

ILKKA ORAMO

Linkola, Jukka (Tapio)

(b Helsinki, 21 July 1955). Finnish pianist, composer and conductor. He studied the piano and music theory at the Sibelius Academy, Helsinki; he also played jazz, made arrangements and made his first forays into composing. From 1974 he worked as a rehearsal pianist and conductor for the Helsinki City Theatre. In 1976 he founded the Jukka Linkola Octet, which became one of the pillars of Finnish jazz, and in 1991 was appointed conductor of the big band UMO. He has conducted several other jazz ensembles.

He initially composed music for his octet and for big band, then widened his scope towards classical music, into which he incorporated jazz elements. Characteristic is Crossings (1983) for tenor saxophone and orchestra, in which the soloist’s fluid improvisations meet massive orchestral soundscapes. After this period of fusion, which lasted until the late 1980s, he adopted a quasi neo-classical idiom, characterized by freely tonal melody, capricious rhythms, smoothly dissonant, often bitonal or parallel, harmony and attention to instrumental colour. His first large-scale stage work, the ballet Ronja ryövärintytär (‘Ronia the Robber’s Daughter’, 1988), showed the influence of the ballet scores of Stravinsky, Prokofiev and Bartók; the style of his operas is more austere. He has received awards (such as the Jussi Award in 1987 and 1989 for two of his film scores), and has won first prize in competitions, including the Paris Opera Screen competition in 1993 (for the surrealistic TV opera Angelika, which also received the Cannes Midem Award in 1994), and the Concours International de Composition of Le Havre in 1994 (for Structures).

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Peter Pan (musical), 1985; Max and Moritz (musical), 1987; Ronja ryövärintytär [Ronia the Robber’s Daughter] (ballet, 2, A. Lindgren), 1989; Angelika (TV op, I. Tiihonen), 1990; Elina (op, 3, P. Saaritsa), 1992; Antti Puuhaara (musical), 1994; Täyttyneiden toiveden maa [The Land of Fulfilled Hopes] (op, Linkola), 1998

Film: Lumikuningatar [The Snow Queen], 1986; Ihmiselon ihanuus ja kurjuus [The Glory and Misery of Human Life], 1988; Kaikki pelissä, 1994; Vita lögner [White Lies], 1994

Orch: Crossings, conc., t sax, orch, 1983; Suite from The Snow Queen, 1987; Tpt Conc. no.1, 1988; Suite from Ronia the Robber’s Daughter, 1989; Land of the Four Winds, pf, orch, 1990; Panda, 1992; Tuba Conc., 1992; Tpt Conc. no.2, 1993; Suite from White Lies, 1994; Circles, 2 pf, orch, 1996; Euphonium Conc., 1996; Fl Conc., 1996; Conc., sax, sym. band, 1998

Chbr: Suite, brass qnt, 1985; Between Two Stages, Mez, vc, pf, 1988; Suite, perc ens, 1988; 3 Bagatelles, brass septet, 1989; Chalumeaux Suite, cl ens, 1990; Qnt, fl, 2 vn, va, vc, 1990; 2 Miniatures, pf trio, 1991; Short Stories, conc., brass ens, 1992; Canzonetta, va/tpt, pf, 1993; Autumn Conc., str qnt, brass qnt, 1996

Vocal: Just nu [Just Now] (L. Salmén), 1988; Främlingen [The Stranger] (Salmén), Mez, 2 Bar, chorus, 2 pf, 1989; Silta [The Bridge] (N. Rauhala), 1992; Voimakkaille [To the Strong Ones] (E. Södergran), 1992; Muisti [The Memory] (I. Tiihonen), 1993; Evoe!, male chorus, 2 pf, 1993

Jazz: Grand Mystery, 1985; Structures, 1987, rev. 1993; other pieces for big band and jazz ens

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Salmenhaara, ed.: Suomalaisia säveltäjiä [Finnish composers] (Keuruu, 1994)

K. Korhonen: Finnish Composers since the 1960s (Jyväskylä, 1995)

M. Heiniö: Aikamme musiikki [Contemporary music], Suomen musiikin historia [History of Finnish music], iv (Porvoo, 1995)

K. Aho and others: Finnish Music (Keuruu, 1996)

ILKKA ORAMO

Linley.

English family of musicians.

(1) Thomas Linley (i)

(2) Elizabeth Ann Linley

(3) Thomas Linley (ii)

(4) Mary [Polly] Linley

(5) Ozias Thurston Linley

(6) William Linley

GWILYM BEECHEY/LINDA TROOST

(1) Thomas Linley (i)

(b Badminton, Gloucs., 17 Jan 1733; d London, 19 Nov 1795). Composer and concert director. His father, William, was a carpenter who moved to Bath in the late 1740s. Linley showed a marked gift for music when young and studied with Thomas Chilcot, organist of Bath Abbey. Later he studied in London with William Boyce, and also perhaps with the Italian harpsichordist Paradies, who lived in England from 1746 until about 1770. Linley directed concerts in Bath from the mid-1750s to about 1774, and also appeared in London as a solo performer. His capacities as a singing teacher were amply proved by the extraordinary abilities of his own children, several of whom were precocious soloists. He had 12 children by his wife Mary Johnson, whom he married in 1752 and who was later wardrobe mistress at Drury Lane (1776–c1800). All but three of his children predeceased him, and this naturally saddened his final years. Besides those noted below, three were connected with the musical or theatrical professions: Samuel (1760–78), an oboist; Maria (1763–84), an oratorio singer at Drury Lane from 1776 to 1783; and Jane Nash (1768–1806), an amateur singer who married Charles Ward, secretary of Drury Lane Theatre.

Linley’s first London success was with the opera The Royal Merchant in 1767, and his growing reputation in Bath led to his appointment at Drury Lane in 1774, where he became joint director of the oratorios with John Stanley until 1786, and after that with Samuel Arnold. He made his permanent home in London in 1776 when he became one of the four joint proprietors of Drury Lane Theatre with his son-in-law Sheridan.

From 1775, when The Duenna was produced, until his death, Linley arranged and composed music for over 30 plays, pantomimes and other entertainments. Sometimes only a song or two was required; at other times he composed, orchestrated or compiled a complete score (fig.2). His harmonization of the continuo score to The Beggar’s Opera (1777) proved very successful. As director of music, he also arranged the oratorios performed at the theatre each Wednesday and Friday during Lent, and he composed numerous songs, glees, elegies and cantatas. In general, Linley excelled in the simple melody of great pathos as in ‘No flower that blows’ from Selima and Azor (1776). His music modulates more freely than those of his peers, and his work after the mid-1780s shows the influence of Haydn. In the last decade he made greater use of material from his earlier work and from other composers, although, because of time constraints, about half the music in The Duenna (1775) is also borrowed.

Linley was elected a member of the Royal Society of Musicians in 1777. He was buried in Wells Cathedral, where his son William erected a memorial tablet to him (now in the cloister). A tribute to Linley’s achievements in The Gentleman’s Magazine (1795, p.973) aptly summed up his life’s work. The article was published anonymously, but its author may well have been Linley’s old friend and colleague, William Jackson of Exeter. It said that:

His works are not distinguished by any striking marks of original genius, but they uniformly manifest taste, feeling, and a full knowledge of his art. The publick are indebted to him for many beautiful airs; he has harmonised with great judgement the melodies of former writers; and, if it was not in his power to astonish by sublime effects, his compositions always soothe and charm by delicacy, simplicity and tenderness.

WORKS

stage

vocal scores published soon after first performance, unless otherwise stated

LCG	London, Covent Garden
LDL	London, Drury Lane

The Royal Merchant (op, 3, T. Hull, after J. Beaumont and P. Massinger: The Beggar’s Bush), LCG, 14 Dec 1767

The Duenna, or The Double Elopement (comic op, R.B. Sheridan), LCG, 21 Nov 1775; see (3) Thomas Linley (ii)

New Brooms! (prelude, G. Colman (i), LDL, 21 Sept 1776; vs unpubd

Macbeth (tragedy, 5, W. Shakespeare), LDL, 25 Nov 1776, addl choruses and accs. to Leveridge’s music; vs unpubd

Selima and Azor (comic op, 3, G. Collier, after J.F. Marmontel), LDL, 5 Dec 1776

The Beggar’s Opera (ballad op, 3, J. Gay), LDL, 29 Jan 1777, new orch accs.; 1 song pubd in W. Shield: Introduction to Harmony (London, 1800)

The Camp (musical entertainment, 2, Sheridan and R. Tickell), LDL, 15 Oct 1778

A Monody on the Death of Garrick (musical interlude, Sheridan), LDL, 11 March 1779; text pubd as Verses to the Memory of Garrick, fs unpubd

Fortunatus (pantomime, H. Woodward and Sheridan), LDL, 3 Jan 1780

Pastoral interlude in The Generous Imposter (comedy, 5, T.L. O’ Beirne, after P.N. Destouches: Le dissipateur), LDL, 22 Nov 1780

The Gentle Shepherd (pastoral op, Tickell, after A. Ramsey), LDL, 29 Oct 1781, 1 song, ov. and orch accs.

Robinson Crusoe, or Harlequin Friday (pantomime, Sheridan), LDL, 29 Jan 1781 [some music attrib. by Watkins (1817) to (2) E.A. Linley]

The Carnival of Venice (comic op, 3, Tickell), LDL, 13 Dec 1781, only song texts pubd

The Triumph of Mirth, or Harlequin’s Wedding (pantomime, T. King), LDL, 26 Dec 1782

The Spanish Rivals (musical farce, 2, M. Lonsdale), LDL, 4 Nov 1784

Arthur and Emmeline (musical entertainment, 2, ? J.P. Kemble, after D. Garrick’s alteration of J. Dryden: King Arthur), LDL, 22 Nov 1784, ? incl. music by H. Purcell; vs unpubd

The Strangers at Home (comic op, 3, J. Cobb), LDL, 8 Dec 1785; rev. as The Algerine Slave, LDL, 17 March 1792

Hurly-Burly, or The Fairy of the Well (pantomime, Cobb and King), LDL, 26 Dec 1785; vs unpubd

Richard Coeur de Lion (comic op, 2, J. Burgoyne, after M. Sedaine), LDL, 24 Oct 1786, mostly Grétry’s original music

Love in the East, or Adventures of Twelve Hours (comic op, 3, Cobb), LDL, 25 Feb 1788

Funeral Dirge in Romeo and Juliet (tragedy, 5, Garrick, after Shakespeare), LDL, 17 Nov 1788

Individual songs in: The School for Scandal (comedy, 5, Sheridan), LDL, 8 May 1777; The Quaker (comic op, 2, C. Dibdin), LDL, 7 Oct 1777; Zoraida (tragedy, 5, W. Hodson), LDL, 13 Dec 1779; Dissipation (comedy, 5, M. Andrews, after Garrick: Bon Ton), LDL, 10 March 1781; The Fair Circassian (tragedy, 5, S. Pratt), LDL, 27 Nov 1781; The Heiress (comedy, 5, Burgoyne, after C. Lennox: The Sister and D. Diderot: Le père de famille), LDL, 14 Jan 1786; The School for Greybeards (comedy, 5, H. Cowley, after A. Behn: The Lucky Chance), LDL, 25 Nov 1786; The New Peerage, or Our Eyes May Deceive us (comedy, 5, H. Lee), LDL, 10 Nov 1787; Cymon (dramatic romance, 5, Garrick, after Dryden), LDL, 31 Dec 1791; The Glorious First of June (musical entertainment, 2, Sheridan and Cobb), LDL, 2 July 1794 [attrib. by Watkins (1817) to (2) E.A. Linley]

other works

6 Elegies, S, T, B, hpd, vc (London, 1770)

12 Ballads, S, pf (London, 1780)

At least 19 pieces in The Posthumous Vocal Works of Mr. Linley and Mr. T. Linley (London, c1798)

Other songs pubd separately or in collections; some vocal pieces in GB-BA, Lbl, Lcm; several pieces, hpd

(2) Elizabeth Ann Linley

(b Bath, 7 Sept 1754; d Bristol, 28 June 1792). Soprano, daughter of (1) Thomas Linley (i). She was taught by her father and made early appearances in concerts at Bath and Bristol. She made her London début at Covent Garden in 1767, with her brother (3) Thomas Linley (ii), in Thomas Hull’s masque The Fairy Favour, and made regular appearances in the London oratorio seasons, 1769–73, and at the Three Choirs Festival from 1770 to 1773, often with her sisters Mary and Maria. After a broken engagement to Thomas Matthews, which inspired Samuel Foote’s comedy The Maid of Bath (Haymarket Theatre, 26 June 1771), she eloped to France with Richard Brinsley Sheridan in 1772 and married him in April 1773. The incident may have inspired her husband’s libretto The Duenna (1775). She then withdrew from public life, but continued to sing at benefits and to give private concerts at her home, where she was sometimes accompanied at the keyboard by the music historian Charles Burney. Some of the music she supposedly composed appears in her father’s theatre works, and she wrote lyrics for at least one of her brother Thomas’s cantatas. She also wrote poetry and moving elegies on her brother’s death, and kept the accounts at Drury Lane.

Many tributes to her vocal talent were published in her lifetime and afterwards. She was considered by many to be the finest English soprano of her time. Of the approximately 50 portraits of her, several were painted by both Reynolds and Gainsborough (see fig.3).

(3) Thomas Linley (ii)

(b Bath, 7 May 1756; d Grimsthorpe, Lincs., 5 Aug 1778). Composer and violinist, son of (1) Thomas Linley (i). He was one of the most precocious composers and performers that have been known in England. He gave evidence of exceptional musical ability at a very early age and was soon studying music with his father. He played a concerto at a concert in Bristol on 29 July 1763, when aged just 7, and from 1763 to 1768 he studied music with Boyce. With his sister (2) Elizabeth Ann Linley he first appeared in London in The Fairy Favour in 1767 singing, dancing a hornpipe and playing the violin. In 1768 he went to Italy and studied the violin with Nardini in Florence for about three years. He met Mozart there in April 1770 and Burney in September of the same year. He returned to England in 1771 and became a regular performer in concerts in Bath and London. He was leader at Drury Lane from 1773 to 1778 and often played concertos between the acts of oratorios.

Only a fairly small proportion of Linley’s music survives, but these few works are enough to reveal his fluent and congenial melody, his contrapuntal facility and his imaginative orchestration. The anthem Let God arise (Worcester Festival, 1773) exhibits great mastery of solo, choral and instrumental forces, and his later, large-scale works show how rapidly his skills matured. The music for The Duenna was written in 1775 in collaboration with his father, and in great haste, but Linley’s songs intensify Sheridan’s characterizations and save the comic opera from shallowness. He composed a quarter of the music and arranged, in a unifying galant style, the tunes selected by Sheridan and Elizabeth Ann, which make up about half the score.

The Lyric Ode (1776), set to a text by his fellow-Bathonian French Laurence, shows great variety in mood, ranging from majestic Handelian fugues to lightsome fairy music for oboe and to the wild romanticism of music for spectres. Linley’s musical heritage is acknowledged through the echoes of Purcell, Handel, J.C. Bach and especially Arne. Linley’s tragic early death in a boating accident while on holiday with his family at Grimsthorpe Castle was one of the greatest losses that English music has suffered.

Gainsborough painted Linley’s portrait three times. One portrait (c1773) is in the Dulwich Picture Gallery (fig.4), and another in Greenwich, Connecticut. The third, a double portrait with his sister Elizabeth, is in Williamstown, Massachusetts.

WORKS

stage

LCG	London, Covent Garden
LDL	London, Drury Lane

The Duenna (comic op, R.B. Sheridan), LCG, 21 Nov 1775, ov., songs, ensembles; GB-Lgc (part autograph), Lbl, vs (London, 1776), ov. pubd in parts

The Tempest (comedy, 5, Sheridan, after W. Shakespeare), LDL, 4 Jan 1777, storm chorus, etc; Lbl, Lcm

The Cady of Bagdad (comic op, 3, A. Portal), LDL, 19 Feb 1778, Lbl

Ov. to The Triumph of Mirth, or Harlequin’s Wedding (pantomime, T. King), LDL, 26 Dec 1782; see (1) Thomas Linley (i)

other vocal

Let God arise (anthem, Ps 68), S, S, T, B, chorus, orch, Worcester Festival, 8 Sept 1773; ed. in RRMCE, vii (1977)

A Lyric Ode (2, F. Laurence), S, S, S, T, B, chorus and orch, LDL, 20 March 1776; US-Ws, GB-Lbl; lib pubd as A Lyric Ode on the Fairies, Aerial Beings, and Witches of Shakespeare; ed. as The Shakespeare Ode in MB, xxx (1970, 2/1985)

The Song of Moses (ode, J. Hoadly, after Exodus), LDL, 12 March 1777; Lbl

13 or more songs, madrigals, cants. and elegies in The Posthumous Vocal Works of Mr. Linley and Mr. T. Linley (London, c1798)

Other songs, madrigals, Lbl

instrumental

6 vn sonatas, 1768; La settima sonata, 1769: only one, A, survives, Lbl

At least 20 vn concs. by 1775: only one, F, survives complete, Lbl; the third movt of his father’s ov., The Gentle Shepherd, D, 1781, was adapted from one of the younger Linley’s concs.

(4) Mary [Polly] Linley

(b Bath, 4 Jan 1758; d Clifton, Bristol, 27 July 1787). Soprano, daughter of (1) Thomas Linley (i). She was taught by her father and frequently sang with her sister Elizabeth Ann at concerts, festivals and in the oratorio seasons. In 1769, at the age of 11, she performed at Covent Garden in Colman’s Man and Wife or The Shakespeare Jubilee and in Thomas Hull’s The Spanish Lady; these were probably her first London appearances. She was a precocious performer and had many early opportunities to display her gifts. She appeared at the Three Choirs Festival 1771–6, and sang regularly in London until her marriage on 26 July 1780 to the amateur dramatist Richard Tickell (1751–93), who wrote librettos for her father. Both Gainsborough and Richard Cosway painted her portrait.

(5) Ozias Thurston Linley

(b Bath, bap. 22 Aug 1765; d London, 6 March 1831). Organist and clergyman, son of (1) Thomas Linley (i). He studied music with his father and with the astronomer and musician William Herschel. He took his degree at Oxford in 1789 and then entered the church as a minor canon at Norwich; in May 1816 he went to Dulwich College as Organist Fellow and remained there until his death. Some of the anthems and chants he wrote for Dulwich and for St Margaret’s Chapel, Bath, survive in manuscript at the Royal College of Music in London. He was renowned for his wit and eccentricity.

1. Structure, tunings and playing techniques.

(6) William Linley

(b Bath, 27 Jan 1771; d London, 6 May 1835). Composer and director of theatre music, son of (1) Thomas Linley (i). The youngest of the Linley children, he was educated at Harrow and St Paul’s School, and studied music with his father and with the composer and viol player C.F. Abel. He had a fine singing voice that inspired Coleridge to write a sonnet about him. He was a civil servant in India, 1790–96 and 1801–06. In the late 1790s he took over his father’s post as composer to Drury Lane and wrote musical works of mostly limited success, often supplying his own librettos. He also provided the incidental music to the famous Shakespeare forgery Vortigern (1796). He settled in London in 1807 and wrote several sets of songs, elegies, glees and some sacred music, and in 1816 issued a two-volume anthology of settings of Shakespearean lyrics by various composers. He was a member of many clubs and won a Glee Club prize in 1821 for his glee At the dread hour.

WORKS

stage

all first performed at Drury Lane, London

Harlequin Captive, or The Magic Fire (pantomime, W. Linley or C. Powel), 18 January 1796, GB-Lgc

Vortigern (tragedy, 5, W. Ireland [as W. Shakespeare]), 2 April 1796; 2 songs (London, 1796)

The Honey Moon (comic op, 3, W. Linley), 7 Jan 1797, vs (London, 1797); 1 song arr. as rondo, pf, by J. Monro (London, ?1805)

A Trip to the Nore (musical entertainment, A. Franklin), 9 Nov 1797; 2 songs (London, c1797)

The Pavilion (musical entertainment, 2, Linley), 16 Nov 1799, Lbl; rev. as The Ring, or Love me for myself, 21 Jan 1800

Merchant of Bruges (tragicomedy, 5, D. Kinnaird, after R. Brome: The Beggar’s Bush), 14 Dec 1815; opening glee and chorus (London, ?1816)

Flights of Fancy, ‘fairy’ glees, 4vv (London, 1799)

6 Canzonetts, pf/hp (London, 1800)

8 Songs (O. Goldsmith, T. Moore, W. Bowles), T/S, pf (London, 1809)

ed.: Shakspeare’s Dramatic Songs (London, 1816) [partly original, partly selected]

8 Pastoral Canzonetts, S, S, pf (London, ?1816)

Requiem II (W. Linley) in A Requiem to the Memory of the Late Samuel Webbe, ed. J. Fane, Earl of Westmoreland (London, ?1820)

8 Glees (London, ?1832)

Other glees, elegies pubd individually and in collections

Sacred music, 1789–1816; songs, 1800–12; hymns, 1817; glees; elegies: Lbl (some autograph)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BDA

FiskeETM

SainsburyD

A Monody (after the manner of Milton’s Lycidas) on the Death of Mr Linley (London, 1778)

M. Cooke: A Short Account of the Late Mr. Thomas Linley, Junior (MS, 1812, GB-Lbl)

J. Watkins: Memoirs of the Public and Private Life of the Right Honourable Richard Brinsley Sheridan (London, 1817)

[?W. Ayrton:] ‘Memoir of Thomas Linley’, The Harmonicon, iii (1825), 215–21

J. Sinclair: Sketches of Old Times and Distant Places (London, 1875), 147–64

E. Green: Thomas Linley: his Connection with Bath (Bath, 1903)

E. Green: Thomas Linley, Richard Brinsley Sheridan, and Thomas Matthews: their Connection with Bath (Bath, 1903)

E. Green: Richard Brinsley Sheridan and Thomas Linley: their Residences at Bath (Bath, 1904)

T.S. Cotterell: Some Notes on the Life in Bath of Elizabeth Anne Linley (London, 1929)

C. Black: The Linleys of Bath (London, 1911, 2/1926/R)

R. Fiske: ‘A Score for The Duenna’, ML, xlii (1961), 132–41

M. Bor and L. Clelland: Still the Lark: a Biography of Elizabeth Linley (London, 1962)

C. Camden: ‘Songs and Choruses in The Tempest’, Philological Quarterly, lxi (1962), 114–22

G. Beechey: Thomas Linley, Junior: his Life, Work and Times (diss., U. of Cambridge, 1965)

C. Price, ed.: The Letters of Richard Brinsley Sheridan (Oxford, 1966)

G. Beechey: ‘Thomas Linley, Junior, 1756–1778’, MQ, liv (1968), 74–82

C. Price, ed.: The Dramatic Works of Richard Brinsley Sheridan (Oxford, 1973)

R. Fiske: ‘The Duenna’, MT, cxvii (1976), 217–19

I. Woodfield: The Celebrated Quarrel between Thomas Linley (Senior) and William Herschel: an Episode in the Musical Life of 18th-Century Bath (Bath, 1977)

G. Beechey: ‘Thomas Linley, 1756–78, and His Vocal Music’, MT, cxix (1978), 669–71

L. Troost: ‘The Characterizing Power of Song in Sheridan’s The Duenna’, Eighteenth-Century Studies, xx (1986–7), 153–72

H.D. Johnstone and R. Fiske, eds.: Music in Britain: the Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 1990)

J. McVeagh: ‘Robinson Crusoe’s Stage Debut: the Sheridan Pantomime of 1781’, Journal of Popular Culture, xxiv (1990), 137–52

Linley, Francis

(b Doncaster, 1771; d Doncaster, 13 Sept 1800). English composer, organist and music dealer. As far as is known he was no relation of the Linley family of Bath. He was blind from birth. He studied the organ with Edward Miller, organist of Doncaster parish church from 1756 to 1807. In the early 1790s Linley went to London to become organist of St James’s Chapel, Pentonville, and married a blind lady of considerable fortune. Together they purchased Bland’s music-selling business in Holborn in 1797, but this venture soon failed, and after his wife had deserted him Linley went to America. In 1799 he returned to England and settled again in Doncaster. An obituary notice in the Doncaster, Nottingham and Lincoln Gazette of 19 September 1800 says that Linley was 29 at the time of his death and that he was a freemason. Linley’s compositions include songs, keyboard pieces, an organ tutor (c1800), and some solos and duets for flutes. A Prelude in G is in Old English Organ Music for Manuals, ii (ed. C.H. Trevor, London, 1966).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DNB (L.M. Middleton)

Humphries-SmithMP

J.D. Brown and S.S. Stratton: British Musical Biography (Birmingham, 1897/R)

H.C.R. Landon, ed.: The Collected Correspondence and London Notebooks of Joseph Haydn (London, 1959)

GWILYM BEECHEY

Linley, George

(b Leeds, 1798; d London, 10 Sept 1865). English author and composer. As a young man he amused himself with writing satirical literature directed against the magnates of Leeds. He moved to London, where he did literary work of various kinds and wrote the words or the music – frequently both – of some of the most popular songs of his day, including Ever of thee, I cannot mind my wheel, mother and Thou art gone from my gaze. His operas include Francesca Doria (1849), The Toymaker (1861, an adaptation of Adam’s La poupée de Nuremberg) and Law versus Love (1862). He also wrote the librettos of a number of operas including Balfe’s Catherine Grey (1837), the first 19th-century English opera without spoken dialogue. His smaller vocal compositions include partsongs, hymns, and nursery rhyme settings, as well as editions and arrangements of folksong melodies. His Musical Cynics of London (London, 1862) is a satirical poem ridiculing H.F. Chorley, the music critic for The Athenaeum. It attacks not only Chorley’s musical criticism but also his books, plays, librettos, translations, appearance, voice and dinner parties. Linley also wrote the text to Edouard Silas’s Joash, a sacred drama presented at the Norwich Triennial Festival in 1863. The text was censured as ‘unlyrical’ and ‘undignified’ by Chorley in his Athenaeum review.

FRANK KIDSON/ROBERT BLEDSOE

Lin Minyi.

See Lam Manyee.

Linnet, Anne

(b Århus, 30 July 1953). Danish composer and rock musician. She made her début as a rock singer and composer in 1971 with the jazz- and soul-inspired band Tears. In 1974 she formed an all-woman band, Shit og Chanel, which issued five recordings. She studied with Per Nørgård and Hans Abrahamsen at the conservatory in Århus (1976–85), graduating first in music education and then in composition, and was the first woman to complete the composition course at a Danish conservatory. In 1977 she made a solo recording, Kvindesind, in which she set poems by the Danish writer, Tove Ditlevsen. During the 1980s she wrote much theatre music and, with her bands, issued further recordings, including Anne Linnet Band (1981) and Marquis de Sade (1983). Her 1988 record of simple love songs, Jer er jo lige her (‘I'm Right Here’), sold 400,000 copies, making it the best-selling Danish album ever. Linnet composed the songs' lyrics as well as the music. Simplicity and a sense for the musical declamation of the Danish language characterize Linnet's popular music; her singing voice is distinctive rather then melodious. The more serious compositions have not enjoyed the same success, but Linnet does not consider that these two kinds of music exist in separate spheres, since both aim for a direct and intense personal expression and make equal use of her technical abilities.

WORKS

(selective list)

Inst: For symfoniorkester, orch, 1978; Quatuor brutale, str qt, 1978; Tivoli, perc, 1980; Spring Capricious, orch, 1985; Metal Blue Explo, 4 perc; Seul I, II, III, vn

Vocal: Sang til hjertet, 1v, hp, db, 1978; Hosiana, chorus, 1979

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D. Kjeldsen: Anne Linnet og Marquis de Sade (diss., U. of Copenhagen, 1992)

J. Levinsen: ‘Det' så udansk’, DMt, lxvii (1992–3), 122–5

INGE BRULAND

Lin Shicheng

(b Nanhui county, Shanghai, March 1922). Chinese pipa player. Lin's musical training began with his father, himself a talented multi-instrumentalist. He also trained as a doctor of (Chinese) medicine, graduating in 1941. In 1942 Lin began pipa lessons under the tutelage of Shen Haochu (1899–1953), a leading player in the Pudong school of performance. After working for some years in Shanghai, Lin was appointed in 1956 to the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. Lin has been influential as recitalist, as teacher and as an editor of pipa scores and methods.

WRITINGS

Pipa yanzoufa [Pipa performance technique] (Beijing, 1958)

Pipa sanshi ke [30 lessons for pipa] (Beijing, 1984)

Pipa jiaoxuefa [Pipa study method] (Shanghai, 1989)

Lin Shicheng pipa qu xuan [Selection of pipa pieces by Lin Shicheng] (Hong Kong, 1990)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

Fei Yun: ‘Yongnian Huapu cheng meimiao de qinsheng: ji pipa yanzoujia, yinyue jiaoyujia Lin Shicheng’ [Using the old Hua score to make splendid sounds: a record of pipa musician and music educator Lin Shicheng], Youmei de xuanlü piaoxiang de ge – Jiangsu lidai yinyuejia, ed. Yi Ren (Nanjing, 1992), 283–6

J. Myers: The Way of Pipa: Structure and Imagery in Chinese Lute Music (Kent, OH, 1992), 30–31

Zhongguo yinyue cidian xubian [Dictionary of Chinese music, supplementary vol.] (Beijing, 1992), 114

Chine: l'art du pipa, Ocora C 680 046 (1993)

JONATHAN P.J. STOCK

Linterculus

(Lat.).

See Kit.

Linus.

This Greek name or term appears first in Homer: a lyre-playing youth ‘sings of Linus’, or ‘sings a Linus song’ (Iliad, xviii.569–72). The scene, a vintage festival, contains no suggestion of mourning; but Hesiod (Evelyn-White, frag.1) spoke of Linus whom ‘all bards and kithara players bewail (thrēneusin; the thrēnos was a ritual lament)’. Three centuries later, Herodotus (ii.79.2–3) offered a similar description, and the tragic poets (Aeschylus, Agamemnon, 121; Sophocles, Ajax, 627; Euripides, Helen, 172, Orestes, 1395) used ailinon as a lyric cry of grief. Usually it has been translated ‘alas for Linus!’ but it is often equated with the Phoenician ai lanu, ‘woe to us!’. The contradiction can be resolved only by accepting the hypothesis that the Linus song of the Iliad was a form of lament for the vintage, imagined as undergoing a kind of death.

Genealogies of Linus, who emerged as a mythological figure at a comparatively late stage in Greek history, likewise display two quite different orientations. The more persistent and developed of these, a tradition of the central mainland and especially Thebes (a city with a brilliant musical culture), singled out Apollo and one or another of the Muses as his parents. He came increasingly to be given musical attributes: in a wide variety of sources he appears, for example, as Heracles' teacher and the rival of Apollo, as a master singer or kithara player and a composer of thrēnoi, and as the discoverer of several technical innovations and ultimately of music itself. Whether this elaborate and occasionally fantastic development began with the personification of a vintage song remains uncertain. The legends of Linus's death are also varied: in one he is killed by his father Apollo for presuming to be equal to the god as a musician (Pausanias, Description of Greece, ix.29.6; cf Diogenes Laertius, Lives, i.4); in another he is killed by his pupil Heracles for reprimanding his awkwardness in playing the lyre (Apollodorus, ii.4.9).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H.G. Evelyn-White, ed. and trans.: Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns and Homerica (London and Cambridge, MA, 1914, 2/1936/R)

H. Abert: ‘Linos (1)’, Paulys Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, xiii/1 (Stuttgart, 1926), 715–17

W.F. Otto: Die Musen und der göttliche Ursprung des Singens und Sagens (Düsseldorf, 1955, 2/1956), 40–45

WARREN ANDERSON/THOMAS J. MATHIESEN

Linyova, Yevgeniya (Ėduardovna) [Lineff, Eugenie]

(b Brest-Litovsk [now Brest, Belarus], 28 Dec 1853/9 Jan 1854; d Moscow, 24 Jan 1919). Russian polyphonic folksong collector. After receiving professional training as a singer, she performed in operatic productions in Vienna, Budapest, London, Paris and Moscow (1882–3, Bol'shoy). She also worked clandestinely for an illegal revolutionary publishing organization, translating the works of Marx and Engels (1882–4). At the end of the 1880s she ceased both her career as a professional singer and her revolutionary work, and made her first folksong recordings, which are no longer extant. After her marriage she and her husband were émigrés in the UK (1891–2) and USA (1892–6). There she founded and directed a choir, whose performances of Russian folksongs in New York and Philadelphia, and at the Chicago World Trade Fair (1893), were received enthusiastically and earned money to support an émigré press.

Upon her return to Russia, Linyova began to record Russian folksongs using the phonograph, to which she had been introduced in the USA. From 1897 to 1901 she undertook expeditions to the provinces of Voronezh, Tambov, Nizhegorod, Vladimir, Kostroma, Novgorod and Vologda, and published a small proportion of the songs she collected in her celebrated two-volume selection of Great Russian folksongs. She was awarded a gold medal for her research publications in 1905. From 1903 to 1913 she undertook further fieldwork in Ukraine, Slovakia and Serbia, and made a special study of the Dukhobors and Molokans in the Caucasus. She also participated in international musicological conferences in Vienna (1909) and London (1911). She conducted her research in association with the Moscow Music-Ethnography Commission and centred her educational activities meanwhile on the People’s Conservatory, which was founded in 1906 on her own initiative to provide free training in choral singing for those of modest means.

Although Linyova was not the first to record folksong in Russia, it is her name that is associated with the advent of phonographic recording in Russian ethnological musicology and her transcriptions of choral songs that are considered to be the closest to the originals. She identified the basic principle of Russian polyphonic folksong as being the singing of several variations of a song melody simultaneously with the voices always coming to a unison close. Her theories, which support the ideas of Yu.N. Mel'gunov, influenced Adler’s conception of heterophony. Although subsequent to her research several types of Russian polyphonic folksongs have been distinguished, her work retains its validity and continues to have a widespread impact on Russian musicology. Many of her recordings are still preserved and are held, together with some of her manuscripts, at the Institute of Russian Literature, St Petersburg; the remainder of her manuscripts are held at the State Central Museum of Musical Culture in Moscow.

WRITINGS

‘O poyezdke Ye.Ė. Linyovoy s tsel'yu zapisïvaniya narodnïkh pesen pri pomoshchi grafofona’ [Linyova’s journey to record folksongs with the aid of a phonograph], Ėtnograficheskoye obozreniye, xxxiv (1897), 222–4

‘Yu.N. Mel'gunov kak issledovatel' russkoy narodnoy pesni’ [Mel'gunov as a researcher of Russian folksong], Russkaya musïkal'naya gazeta, nos.23–4 (1903)

‘Über neue Methoden des Folklores in Russland’, IMusSCR III: Vienna 1909, 233–44

‘Psalms and Religious Songs of Russian Sectarians in the Caucasus’, IMusSCR IV: London 1911, 187–201 [Eng. summary, pp.63–4]

‘Poyezdka v Kraynu letom 1913 g.’ [Expedition to Krayna, summer 1913], Russkiy fol'klor, iii (1958), 313

FOLKSONG COLLECTIONS

Russian Folk-Songs as Sung by the People and Peasant Wedding Ceremonies Customary in Northern and Central Russia (Chicago, 1893) [incl. preface by H.E. Krehbiel]

Velikorusskiye pesni v narodnoy garmonizatsii (St Petersburg, 1904–9; Eng. trans., 1905–12 as The Peasant Songs of Great Russia as they are in the Folk’s Harmonization: Collected and Transcribed from Phonograms by Eugenie Lineff)

‘Opït zapisi fonografom ukrainskikh narodnïkh pesen: iz muzïkal'no-ėtnograficheskoy poyezdki v Poltavskuyu guberniyu v 1903’ [An attempt to record Ukrainian folksongs: from the ethnomusicological visit to the Poltava government in 1903], Trudï muzïkal'no-ėtnograficheskoy kommissii, i (Moscow, 1906), 221–66; Eng. trans. as Folk Songs of the Ukraine (Godfrey, IL, 1958)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ye. Kann-Novikova: Sobiratel'nitsa russkikh narodnïkh pesen Yevgeniya Linyova [The collector of Russian folksongs] (Moscow, 1952)

J. Arbatski: Ėtyudï po russkoy muzïki [Studies in Russian music] (New York, 1981), 81–121

I.I. Shevchenko: ‘Iz perepiski Ye.Ė. Linyovoy i V.V. Stasova’ [From the correspondence of Linyova and Stasov], Iz istorii russkoy fol'kloristiki, iii, ed. A.A. Gorelov (Leningrad, 1990), 104–16

M.A. LOBANOV

Linz.

City in Austria on the Danube. Its musical history can be traced back to the mid-14th century. Masses were sung at the Deutschordenskirche (from 1348), at the parish church (from 1355) and at the church of the Minorite convent (from 1397), where the pupils of the parish school performed under their teacher, the choirmaster. There were no important figures among either the choirmasters (from 1355) or the organists (from the mid-16th century). From about 1550 there are records of town musicians whose tasks included sounding calls from the tower (Turmblasen), playing at weddings, funerals and dances, and assisting in the parish church as well as, briefly, in the Lutheran Landhauskirche. The town’s first organ builder was Hans Lar (1485). When the household of Emperor Friedrich III was in Linz (1485–93) it brought with it its own court orchestra, imperial trumpeters and pipers and the celebrated lutenist Albrecht Morhanns. In 1490 Paul Hofhaimer was in Linz under the auspices of Maximilian I; a longer visit by the emperor in 1501 brought a performance of Ludus Dianae by Conradus Celtis to the town, complete with four-part odes by an anonymous composer. Musicians from Linz such as Johann Pruelmair and Asmus von Linz were members of Maximilian’s household; Matthias Serna and Christoph Hoffmaister were employed by Ferdinand I. Ferdinand’s court Kapellmeister, Arnold von Bruck, lived in Linz from 1548 until his death.

The affinity of urban populations for Lutheranism meant that the Lutheran Landschaftsschule and Landhauskirche became important centres of musical culture in the second half of the 16th century, and such composers as Nicolaus Rosthius, Wolfgang Rauch, Daniel Scheuchmair, Johannes Brassicanus and Martin Zeiller held positions there. Johannes Kepler, a teacher at the Landschaftsschule, wrote his Harmonices mundi libri V (Linz, 1619); this work and a contemporary composition by Elias Ursinus mark the beginnings of music printing in Linz. The repertory of chorales of the Lutheran community in Linz was published by the senior minister and music theorist Daniel Hitzler, in exile in Strasbourg (1634).

With the closing-down of the Lutheran school and church as a consequence of the early Counter-Reformation (1624) the Jesuits, with their college (founded in 1610) and seminary (founded in 1628), became particularly important in the musical life of the town. Their pupils assumed responsibility for church music in the Jesuit church, in that of the Ursulines (from 1680) and at sacred performances organized by religious fraternities. The composers Romanus Weichlein, Franz Weichlein, Joseph Riepel and J.B. Lasser were pupils of the Jesuits in Linz. At the theatre of the Jesuit school 343 Latin dramas were performed between 1608 and 1764; the music for 15 of these was provided by F.T. Richter, Andreas Rochner, J.B. Staudt, J.M. Kämpfl and Georg Butz. Linz’s first opera production took place on 7 January 1677 with Antonio Draghi’s Ercole acquistatore dell’immortalità in the presence of Leopold I. During the next 100 years such performances remained isolated events, associated with great occasions at the court, but regular opera performances began in the 1760s. Mozart visited Linz in 1783 and wrote his Linz Symphony k425 for a concert at the theatre.

The 19th century began with the formation of new musical organizations, one of which, the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde (later Linzer Musikverein) arranged the town’s musical activities for 100 years. The music academy that it established in 1822 later became the Bruckner-Konservatorium. Towards the middle of the century, the town’s first choral unions were founded. The oldest of these, the Liedertafel Frohsinn (1845), of which Anton Bruckner was twice choirmaster (1860–61 and 1868), later became the Sängerbund Frohsinn. During the next 60 years other choral societies were founded, the most important of which are the Männergesangverein Sängerbund (1857), the Oberösterreichischer und Salzburgischer Sängerbund (1865), the Arbeitersängerbund (1880), and the Christlich-Deutscher Gesangverein (1905). The Neue Ständische Theater was built in 1803 after a fire had destroyed its predecessor in 1800. The theatre, in which plays, operas, operettas and ballets were performed, has always laid particular emphasis on new productions. Since 1870 many young singers have begun their careers there before moving to the Vienna Opera.

Although one active organization, the Konzertverein, was founded in 1919, the theatre in particular was affected by the world economic crisis in the post-World War I period. Of the musical institutions planned after the Nazis occupied Austria in 1938 (an opera house, a symphony orchestra etc.), only the academy of music survived the end of World War II. The theatre has been rebuilt twice, and since about 1920 it has been known as the Landestheater. In 1958 Clemens Holzmeister designed a new theatre complex comprising a small Kammerspiele (cap. 421) and the new Landestheater (cap. 756). This has, however, proved too small and acoustically problematic. The Landestheater also maintains a tradition of premières, in particular of works by Upper Austrian composers as well as rare works (Wagner's Rienzi, Krenek). A municipal music council, now the Linzer Veranstaltungsgesellschaft, organizes orchestral and chamber concerts, solo recitals, youth concerts and industrial concerts. There are also public and private concerts given by Catholic and Lutheran church choirs, amateur music-making and student concerts.

Since the 1970s the musical life of Linz has flourished. 1974 saw the opening of the Brucknerhaus on the banks of the Danube, a fine complex of concert and congress halls designed by the Finnish architect Heikki Siren (Brucknersaal, cap. 1520, Stiftersaal, cap. 392, Keplersaal, cap. 168). The excellent organ in the large Brucknersaal was built by Flentrop; the Anton Bruckner organ competition takes place there every four years. The Internationale Brucknerfest Linz, founded in 1974, is held annually in September and October. At the Linzer Klangwolke, an open-air festival for up to 200,000 people held since 1979 on the banks of the Danube during the Bruckner Festival, music by Bruckner, Mahler and even Pink Floyd is broadcast widely by high-tech sound. The idea of music outside the confines of the concert hall is regarded as the new trademark of Linz. Ars Electronica, a festival ‘between art, technology and society’, is held annually in June.

The Anton Bruckner-Institut Linz, founded by Franz Grasberger, has been accommodated in the Brucknerhaus since 1978. Its publications include a series of Dokumente und Studien and reports on symposia at the institute. The Oberösterreichisches Landesmuseum contains a good collection of historical musical instruments of the 16th to 19th centuries. Since 1985 the Posthof has been a centre for rock, pop, dance and cabaret.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Preiss: ‘Die Musikpflege in Linz um die Wende des 18. Jahrhunderts’, Jb der Stadt Linz 1935 (1936), 104 only

O. Wessely: ‘Linz und die Musik: von den Anfängen bis zum Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts’, Jb der Stadt Linz 1950 (1951), 96–197

O. Wessely: ‘Das Linzer Musikleben in der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts’, Jb der Stadt Linz 1953 (1954), 283–442

O. Wessely: ‘Anton Bruckner und Linz’, Jb der Stadt Linz 1954 (1955), 201–82

W. Formann: ‘Richard Tauber: unsterbliche Stimme aus Linz, Oberösterreicher’, Lebensbilder zur Geschichte Oberösterreichs, ii (Linz, 1962), 192–207

O. Wessely: ‘Musik und Theater in Linz zu Bruckners Zeit’, Anton Bruckner und Linz, Landhaus, 20 June – 11 Oct 1964 (Vienna, 1964), 35–40

O. Wessely: ‘Von Mozart bis Bruckner: Wandlungen des Linzer Musiklebens 1770 bis 1870’, ÖMz, xxv (1970), 151–8

H. Kreczi: Das Bruckner-Stift St. Florian und das Linzer Reichs-Bruckner-Orchester 1942–1945 (Graz, 1986)

H. Leopoldseder: Linzer Klangwolke: Kunsterlebnis zwischen Himmel und Erde: die Geschichte eines Markenzeichens (Vienna, 1988)

K. Gerbel and H. Leopoldseder, eds.: Die Ars Electronica: Kunst im Zeitsprung (Linz, 1989)

E. Schmutz: ‘Studien zur Linzer Musikgeschichte vor und nach 1945’, Historisches Jb der Stadt Linz (1989), 103–249

R. Kannonier: ‘Musik nach 1945 in Österreichs Bundesländern: Oberösterreich’, ÖMz, xlvi (1991), 115–18

Musikstadt Linz, Musikland Oberösterreich: Linz 1990

H. Kreczi: ‘Bruckner-Orchester Linz und Brucknerhaus’, Anton Bruckner-Dokumente und Studien, ix (Vienna, 1992), 308 only

U. Otter and R. Schollum: ‘Die Jahre 1913–1959: organisatorisches und pädagogisches Wirken’, Historisches Jb der Stadt Linz (1993), 59–321

OTHMAR WESSELY/HARALD GOERTZ

Lioncourt, Guy de

(b Caen, 1 Dec 1885; d Paris, 24 Dec 1961). French composer and teacher. In 1904 he entered the Schola Cantorum, where his first teachers included Gastoué (Gregorian chant) and Roussel (counterpoint). He was accepted into d’Indy’s composition class in 1905, and appointed secrétaire-inspecteur des cours (1912) and professor of counterpoint (1914). After taking his composition diploma in 1916, he remained at the Schola, teaching and editing its monthly publication Tablettes. In 1931, on d’Indy’s death, he was made sub-director of the institution and professor of composition. Following disagreements that shook the Schola in 1935, he was one of those who left to found the Ecole César Franck, which he directed. His music is that of a stalwart of the Schola; in particular, he placed a high value on plainsong and produced a large body of liturgical works. He edited the fourth (and final) volume of d’Indy’s Cours de composition musicale (Paris, 1951). He published a volume of memoirs, Un témoignage sur la musique et sur la vie au XXme siècle (Paris, 1956), a valuable record of the Schola under d’Indy by one who was devoted to the ‘Maître’; it contains a list of his works.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Jan de la lune (drama, prol, 3, R. de Pampelonne, after F. Boissin), op.58, 1915–21; Le mystère de l’Emmanuel (liturgical drama, L. David), op.62, 1924; Le mystère de l’Alleluia (liturgical drama, David), op.65, 1925–6; Le mystère de l’Esprit (liturgical drama, David), op.96, 1939–40; incid music

Choral orch: Hyalis, le petit faune aux yeux bleus (after A. Samain), op.35, solo vv, chorus, orch, 1909–11; La belle au bois dormant (after C. Perrault), op.48, solo vv, chorus, orch, 1912–15; Les dix lépreux (R. des Granges), op.52, 1v, female chorus, orch, 1918–19; Le reniement de St Pierre, op.74, solo vv, chorus, orch, 1928; Le dict de Mme Saincte Barbe (Comte de Lapparent, after old Fr.), op.86, solo vv, chorus, str, hp, 1937; Le navrement de Notre-Dame (L. Chancerel), op.100, solo vv, chorus, orch, 1943

Liturgical: 3 masses, b, op.47, 4vv, 1914–22, A, op.99, 3vv, org, 1942, d, op.106, 2vv, org, 1948; many motets etc; org pieces

Inst: Pf Qnt, op.27, 1908; 3 mélodies grégoriennes, op.60, sax, org, 1923; Pf Qt, e, op.63, 1925; Str Qt, a, op.83, 1933; pf pieces, etc

Numerous songs, some with orch; secular choral pieces

Principal publishers: Durand, Fortin, Schola Cantorum

PAUL GRIFFITHS

Lionel (Power).

See Power, Leonel.

Lionnet, Jean

(b Versailles, 1 May 1935; d Viroflay, 13 Oct 1998). French musicologist. He studied at the Institut des Hautes Etudes Cinématographiques in Paris, where he obtained the diploma in sound engineering in 1959. From 1962 to 1976 he worked in the cinema industry. After moving to Rome in 1965, he began research in 1976 for RISM with the responsibility for cataloguing musical manuscripts in Italy. In 1990 he returned to France and became a researcher at the Centre de Musique Baroque at Versailles. His principal subjects of research were music in Rome, especially performing practice and the papal chapel, French music of the 17th century and the circulation of music in the Baroque period.

WRITINGS

‘Les activités musicales de Flavio Chigi, cardinal, neveu d’Alexandre VII’, Studi musicali, ix (1980), 287–301

‘La “Salve” de Sainte-Marie Majeure: la musique de la chapelle Borghese au 17ème siècle’, Studi musicali, xii (1983), 97–120

‘Una svolta nella storia del collegio dei cantori pontifici: il decreto del 22 guigno 1665 contro Orazio Benevolo, origine e conseguenze’, NRMI, xvii (1983), 72–103

‘André Maugars: riposta data a un curioso sul sentimento della musica d’Italia’, NRMI, xix (1985), 681–707

‘La Cappella Pontificia e il regno di Napoli durante il Seicento’, La musica a Napoli durante il Seicento: Naples 1985, 541–54

‘Un musicista dimenticato: Dionigio Fregiotti’, Händel e gli Scarlatti a Roma: Rome 1985, 285–96

La musique à Saint-Louis des Français de Rome au XVIIe siècle (Venice, 1985)

‘La musique à “Santa Maria della Consolazione” au 17ème siècle’, NA, new ser., iv (1986), 153–202

‘Palestrina e la Cappella Pontificia’, Studi palestriniani II: Palestrina 1986, 125–37

‘Une partition inconnue d’Alessandro Scarlatti’, Studi musicali, xv (1986), 183–212

‘L’évolution du répertoire de la Chapelle Pontificale au cours du 17ème siècle’, IMSCR XIV: Bologna 1987, ii, 272–9

‘Performance Practice in the Papal Chapel during the 17th Century’, EMc, xv (1987), 3–15

‘Une “mode française” à Rome au XVIIe siècle’, RdM, lxxvii (1991), 279–90

‘La “Sapienza” e la musica nel Seicento’, Roma e lo studium urbis: spazio urbano e cultura dal Quattro al Seicento: Rome 1989, ed. P. Cherubini (Rome, 1992), 376–85

‘La diffusion des manuscrits musicaux en Europe au XVIIe siècle’, Les samedis musicaux du château de Versailles, 9 May–5 Sept (Versailles, 1992), 67–85 [programme book]

‘La musique à San Giacomo degli Spagnoli au XVIIème siècle et les archives de la Congrégation des Espagnols de Rome’, La musica a Roma attraverso le fonti d’archivio: Rome 1992, 479–505

‘The Borghese Family and Music during the First Half of the Seventeenth Century’, ML, lxxiv (1993), 519–29

‘Le répertoire des vêpres papales’, Collectanea II: Studien zur Geschichte der päpstlichen Kapelle, ed. B. Janz (Rome, 1994), 225–48

‘Les événements musicaux de la légation du cardinal Flavio Chigi en France, été 1664’, Studi musicali, xxv (1996), 127–54

EDITIONS

H. du Mont: Dialogus de anima, Patrimoine musical français, Monumentales, ii/1 (Versailles, 1992); Cantica sacra, ibid., ii/3/i (Versailles, 1996)

M.-A. Charpentier: Canticum pro pace, Patrimoine musical français, Monumentales, i/3/i (Versailles, 1994)

La Cappella Giulia, i: I vespri nel XVIII secolo (Rome, 1995) [incl. works of P.P. Bencini, Paolo Lorenzani, Francesco Grassi and Girolamo Galavotti]

JEAN GRIBENSKI

Lion's roar.

See String drum.

Lipatti, Dinu [Constantin]

(b Bucharest, 19 March 1917; d Geneva, 2 Dec 1950). Romanian pianist and composer. The name Dinu was a diminutive of his baptismal name. He came from a musical family: his father had studied the violin with Sarasate and Carl Flesch, his mother was a good pianist, while Enescu was his godfather and a major influence on his career. His first serious studies were at the Bucharest Conservatory with Mihail Jora and Floria Musicescu, with whom he maintained lifelong ties. At the conservatory, where he remained from 1928 to 1932, his self-discipline and striving for perfection were already evident. Lipatti was awarded only second prize in the 1934 Vienna International Piano Competition, causing Cortot to resign from the jury, and subsequently invite the young pianist to study with him in Paris. There Lipatti also took lessons with Yvonne Lefébure (Cortot’s assistant at the time) and studied composition with Dukas and Nadia Boulanger, whom he called his ‘musical guide and spiritual mother’. In 1934 he played Liszt’s First Concerto with the orchestra of the Ecole Normale conducted by Cortot, and in 1935 gave the first Paris performance of Enescu’s F minor Sonata. Lipatti gave his first major Paris recital at the Salle Pleyel in 1939, but when war intervened he returned to Bucharest to perform, teach, compose and write music criticism. In 1943 the first signs of lymphogranulomatosis, a rare form of cancer, were diagnosed, and although he took up a professorship at the Geneva Conservatory in 1949, and played and recorded the Schumann Concerto with the Philharmonia under Karajan in London, he drastically reduced the number of his European appearances and cancelled projected tours of Australia and the Americas. In 1946 he had signed an exclusive contract with Columbia and, temporarily revived by the new drug cortisone, was able to make recordings at his home in Geneva under the supervision of Walter Legge. Lipatti’s final recital, which was recorded, was given in September 1950 in Besançon where, despite extreme illness, he gave incomparable performances of Bach’s First Partita, Mozart’s A minor Sonata, two Schubert impromptus and the complete Chopin waltzes, except no.2, which he was too exhausted to play, offering Myra Hess’s transcription of Bach’s ‘Jesu, joy of man’s desiring’ as a last-minute substitute.

A tireless searcher for musical truth and a musician of rare sensibility and delicacy, Lipatti needed four years of preparation on Beethoven’s ‘Emperor’ Concerto and three years on Tchaikovsky’s First Concerto if his exacting standards were to be met. His recorded legacy is small but beyond price, and includes major works by Bach, Mozart, Schumann, Chopin and others. His account of Ravel’s Alborada del gracioso is unmatched in its blend of startling brilliance and poetry. Tributes to Lipatti were unstinting. For Yehudi Menuhin he was ‘a manifestation of a spirit realm, resistant to all pain and suffering’, while for Cortot his playing was, quite simply, ‘perfection’. Boulanger was as haunted by ‘that serene face with its dark velvet eyes’ as by the musical force and clarity that emanated from him; and for Poulenc he was ‘an artist of divine spirituality’. Lipatti’s own compositions include works for one and two pianos with orchestral accompaniment, and a Sonatina for the left hand which was recorded by his pupil, Béla Siki, and which shows, in relatively gentle vein, the influence of Bartók.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

W. Legge: ‘Dinu Lipatti’, Gramophone, xxviii (1950–51), 193–5; repr. in The Gramophone Jubilee Book, ed. R. Wimbush (London, 1973), 202ff

M. Lipatti: Hommage à Dinu Lipatti (Geneva, 1952)

A. Lipatti: La vie du pianiste Dinu Lipatti, écrite par sa mère (Paris, 1954)

B. Siki: ‘Dinu Lipatti’, Recorded Sound, no.15 (1964), 232–7

D. Tănăsescu: Lipatti (Bucharest, 1965) [with discography and list of works]

DESMOND SHAWE-TAYLOR/BRYCE MORRISON

Lipavský, Josef [Lipawsky, Joseph]

(b Vysoké Mýto, Bohemia, 22 Feb 1772; d Vienna, 7 Jan 1810). Czech composer and pianist. After studying the organ with Ignác Haas at Hradec Králové and philosophy at Prague, he went to Vienna to read law. There he completed his musical training in piano and composition with Georg Pasterwiz, Johann Baptist Vanhal and possibly Mozart, to whom he dedicated his variations op.1 (1791). He soon made a reputation as a composer and pianist. After teaching music to the daughters of Count Adam Teleki for two years, he was appointed, at the count's recommendation, as exchequer to the imperial Privy Chamber Treasury in Vienna.

Although Lipavský wrote some chamber and orchestral works, as well as songs and Singspiele, most of his works are for solo piano. The piano works have early Romantic elements, such as the emphatic melodic nature of the middle voices (with passing notes in parallel 6ths), block chords with expressive harmonic suspensions and Schubertian shifts between major and minor. They demand only modest performing abilities, but their fluent technique and clear texture won them a favourable critical reception.

WORKS

printed works published at Vienna unless otherwise stated

instrumental

Orch: 12 minuets, first perf. Vienna, Redouten-Saal, 24 Nov 1799, A-Wn; sym., str, D-Mbs, doubtful

Chbr: Grande sonate, pf, vn, op.9 (c1800–02); Grande sonate, pf, vn, vc, op.10 (c1800–02); Grande sonate, E, pf, vn, vc, op.11 (1802); Sonata, G, pf, fl, oeuvre dernier (n.d.)

Hpd/pf: La chasse, characteristic sonata, op.18 (1803); 3 romances ou andante, op.19 (1803); [2] Sonate non difficile, op.21 (1803); Grande sonate pathétique, f, op.27 (Leipzig, 1805); Grande sonate, E, op.32 (c1808); more than 15 sets of variations, on themes by Cherubini, Dalayrac, Haydn, Kozeluch, Méhul and others, some pubd, 1 set ed. in MVH, xv (1966); over 20 other works, incl. rondos, minuets, polonaises, fugues

6 fugues, org/pf, op.29 (1806)

vocal

Singspiele, lost: Die Nymphe der Silberquelle (3), Vienna, Wiedner, 24 Sept 1794; Bernardon; Der gebesserte Hausteufel (2)

Other works: motet, D, S/T, fl, orch, CZ-Bm, Pnm; Lasset uns fröhlich des Lebens geniessen, tercet, B, Pnm; Minna, song, 1v, pf, op.15 (1803); Lieder österreichischer Wehrmänner (n.d.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DlabacžKL

GerberNL

MGG1 (A. Van der Linden)

WurzbachL

Musikalische Korrespondenz der teutschen Filarmonischen Gesellschaft (Speyer, 1791), 370

J.F. von Schönfeld, ed.: Jb der Tonkunst von Wien und Prag (Vienna, 1796/R), 40, 82

AMZ, v (1802–3); vi (1803–4); vii (1804–5); viii (1805–6); xix (1817)

J.G. Meusel: Teutsches Künstlerlexikon (Lemgo, 2/1808–14/R) [incl. list of works]

MILAN POŠTOLKA

Lipiński, Karol Józef

(b Radzyń, 30 Oct 1790; d Urłów, nr Lemberg, 16 Dec 1861). Polish violinist, conductor, composer and teacher. He learnt the violin and rudiments of music from his father Feliks (1765–1847), conductor of the orchestra of the Potocki family. In 1799 Feliks Lipiński was appointed conductor of the Count Starzeński Orchestra in Lemberg, of which young Karol became a member. Under the influence of his friend the cellist F. Kremes, Lipiński studied the cello for a certain time but soon returned to the violin, developing the beautiful, strong and deep tone which was to become characteristic of his playing. In 1810 he became first violinist and later conductor of a theatre orchestra in Lemberg, where three operas by him were performed (1813–14). In 1814 he went to Vienna and met Spohr, who encouraged him to study the violin further. On his return to Lemberg he resigned from the theatre and concentrated on practising and composing. After reading in the newspapers about Paganini, he decided to hear him and in 1817 left for Italy, giving concerts on his way in Hungary and Croatia. He met Paganini in April 1818 in Padua and played with him twice (17 April and 24 May 1818) in Piacenza. Between 1819 and 1828 he played in many Polish, German and Russian towns. He met Paganini for the second time in 1829 in Warsaw, during the coronation of Nicholas I of Russia as King of Poland, and their playing initiated a press controversy as to who was the greater. When he returned to Lemberg he gave up public performance so as to perfect his technique. In 1835 he toured western Europe and after spending some time in Germany, he played in Paris (3 March 1836) and then in London and Manchester. After his return to Poland, he performed in Vienna, Prague and several Russian towns, including Kiev, Moscow and St Petersburg. In 1839 he was appointed Konzertmeister by the Saxon king in Dresden. From that time on, all his activities centred on Dresden, where apart from the royal orchestra he formed his own string quartet and taught, among others, Wieniawski and Joachim. In 1861 he retired to his estate at Urłów.

One of the best violinists in the first half of the 19th century, Lipiński represented the orthodox Classical school of Viotti and Spohr, with an emphasis on good tone quality. Lipiński’s mastery of all the other elements of technique made his style unique. His compositions include three symphonies (op.2), capriccios, concertos, rondos alla polacca, fantasies and variations on themes from popular operas, many dances and occasional pieces. They were published in Germany, France and Poland, but since they are unoriginal in technique and invention, they were soon forgotten. His brother Feliks (?1815–69), violinist and composer, was one of his pupils. Feliks played in Kraków, Warsaw, Lemberg and, in 1840, in Germany, Russia and France. His few compositions (which include an Allegro de concert dedicated to Liszt) are of little value.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Powroźniak: Karol Lipiński (Kraków, 1970; Eng. trans., 1986)

V. Grigor'ev: Karol Lipiński (Moscow, 1977)

Karol Lipiński: Wrocław 1988 [incl. F. German: ‘Karol Lipiński i Fryderyk Chopin’, 69–77; H. John: ‘Dzialalnosc Karola Lipińskiego w latach 1839–1849 w Dreznie: dokumentacja na podstawie zródel archiwalnych’ [The activities of Karol Lipiński during the years 1839–1849 in Dresden: based on original archival documents], 34–46; P. Swierc: ‘Spotkania Karola Lipińskiego z innymi skrzypkami-wirtuozami’ [Karol Lipiński’s encounters with violin virtuosos], 47–58]

M. Zduniak and M. Passella, eds.: Karol Lipiński: zycie, działność, epoka [Lipiński: life, career, epoch] (Wrocław, 1990)

JÓZEF POWROŹNIAK/ZOFIA CHECHLIŃSKA

Lipkin, Malcolm (Leyland)

(b Liverpool, 2 May 1932). English composer. He studied the piano with Green (1944–8) and composition with Stevens at the RCM (1949–53) and privately with Seiber (1954–7). During the 1950s his Fourth Piano Sonata (1955), Piano Concerto (1957) and the widely performed First Violin Sonata (1957) established his name. Lipkin's compositions are meticulously crafted. His early works show the influence of Bartók and Stravinsky and are marked by extended melodies, motor-rhythms and clear tonal frameworks, as in the Second Violin Concerto (1960–62). However, from the Sinfonia di Roma (Symphony no.1) (1958–65) onwards, his style changed, with pithy, fragmented ideas and rhythmic cells becoming the basis of composition. His idiom became austere, dissonant, with the tonality obscured and an emphasis on spare textures and sinewy counterpoint as in his second and third symphonies The Pursuit (1975–9) and Sun (1979–86). The Wind Quintet (1985), Piano Sonata no.5 (1986) and Piano Trio (1988) are all characterized by periods of forceful energy created by driving ostinatos. In the Variations on a Theme of Bartók (1989), more pronounced tonal centres and overt lyricism are reintroduced, although still combined with a rigorous exploitation of cellular thematic ideas. Lipkin's music often springs from extra-musical associations. Clifford's Tower (1977) and the Oboe Concerto (1988–9) are responses to man's inhumanity to man; Sinfonia di Roma arose from environmental concerns; and The Pursuit and Sun take as their genesis quotations from 17th-century poets reflecting the transience of human life.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Movt, str, 1956–7, rev. 1960; Pf Conc., 1957; Sinfonia di Roma (Sym. no.1), 1958–65; Vn Conc. no.2, 1960–62; Pastorale, hn, str, 1963; Mosaics, chbr orch, 1966, rev. 1969; Conc., fl, str, 1974; The Pursuit (Sym. no.2), 1975–9; Sun (Sym. no.3), 1979–86; Conc., ob, chbr orch, 1988–9; From across La manche, str, 1998

Choral: Ps xcvi, SATB, chbr orch, 1969; Ps cxvii, SATB, 1969; The White Crane, young vv, orch, 1972; 2 Ps (xcii, cxxi), SATB, 1972–3; The Knight of the Grail (anon.), A, SSA, pf, 1993

Vocal: 4 Departures (R. Herrick), 1v, vn, 1972; 5 Songs (P.B. Shelley), S, pf, 1978

Inst: Pf Sonata no.3, 1951, rev. 1979; Pf Sonata no.4, 1955, rev. 1987; Bagatelles, pf, 1955; Sonata no.1, vn, pf, 1957; Suite, fl, vc, 1961; Str Trio, 1963–4; Metamorphosis, hpd, 1974; Interplay, rec, b viol, hpd, perc, 1975; Interplay, fl, vc, pf, 1975; Recollections, perc, 1976; Clifford's Tower, wind qnt, str trio, 1977; Trio, fl, va, hp, 1982; Naboth's Vineyard, recs, vc, hpd, 1982; Wind Qnt, 1985; Pf Sonata no.5, 1986; Prelude & Dance, vc, pf, 1987; Pf Trio, 1988; Variations on a Theme of Bartók, str qt, 1989; Dance Fantasy, vn, 1991; 5 Bagatelles, ob, pf, 1993; Duo, vn, vc, 1994; Sonata no.2, vn, pf, 1997; Pierrot Dancer, va, pf, 1998

MSS in GB-Lbl

Principal publisher: Chester

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Good: ‘The Music of Malcolm Lipkin’, MT, cx (1969), 1237–40

A. Burn: ‘Malcolm Lipkin's Pursuit’, MT, cxxiv (1983), 25–7

C. Headington: ‘Malcolm Lipkin and his Recent Music’, Tempo, no.169 (1989), 28–33

M. Miller: ‘Lipkin's Oboe Concerto’, Tempo, no.176 (1991), 65–6

M. Miller: ‘Malcolm Lipkin’, MO, cxv (1992), 187 only

ANDREW BURN

Lipkin, Seymour

(b Detroit, 14 May 1927). American pianist, conductor and teacher. He received his musical training at the Curtis Institute as a piano pupil of Saperton (1938–41), Serkin and Horszowski (1941–7). Essentially self-taught as a conductor, he worked with Koussevitzky at the Berkshire Music Center for three summers (1946, 1948 and 1949) and served as apprentice conductor to Szell with the Cleveland Orchestra (1947–8). Lipkin made his conducting début with the Cleveland Little SO in 1948, the year that he won the Rachmaninoff Piano Competition. He made his New York piano début as soloist with the New York PO under Munch (1949), and subsequently performed with most of the major American orchestras. After more than two decades of concert activities limited to conducting, Lipkin resumed his piano career with a New York recital in 1981. Since then he has performed almost all of Beethoven’s major works for piano, including complete cycles of the sonatas and concertos. A faculty member of the Curtis Institute (from 1969) and the Juilliard School (from 1986), Lipkin is artistic director of the Kneisel Hall Chamber Music Festival in Blue Hill, Maine (since 1987). Between 1988 and 1992 he served as artistic director of the University of Maryland International Piano Festival and William Kapell Competition.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Lipkin: ‘Master Class: Performing Beethoven’s Slow Movements’, Piano Today, xvii/1 (1996), 51–3

MINA F. MILLER

Lipkowska [née Marschner], Lydia (Yakovlevna) [Lipkovskaya, Lidiya]

(b Babino, 25 May/6 June 1882; d Beirut, 22 March 1958). Russian soprano. She studied at the St Petersburg Conservatory, and sang in St Petersburg at the Imperial Opera (1906–8 and 1911–13) and in private opera companies (1913–15). In 1909 she sang in Paris and then in the USA, appearing with the companies of Boston (1909) and Chicago (1910), and singing with the Metropolitan Opera (1909–11). She made her Covent Garden début as Mimì in 1911, later appearing as Wolf-Ferrari's Susanna, Gilda and Violetta. At Monte Carlo in 1914 she took part in the first performances of Ponchielli's I Mori di Valenza with Georgy Baklanov and Giovanni Martinelli. After emigrating to France in 1919, she appeared with different émigré opera troupes in western Europe, toured the USSR (1928–9) and later lived and taught in Romania; among her students was the soprano Virginia Zeani. Her repertory included Lakmé, Lucia, Rimsky-Korsakov's Marfa (The Tsar's Bride), the Snow Maiden and Ol'ga (Ivan the Terrible), and Tchaikovsky's Tat'yana and Iolanta. According to contemporary critics she was a good actress with an attractive presence and a pure voice capable of expressing uncomplicated emotions. She made 29 recordings between 1911 and 1914 which reveal her refinement of tone.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S.Yu. Levik: Zapiski opernogo pevtsa [Notes of an opera singer] (Moscow, 1955, 2/1962; Eng. trans., 1995, as The Levik Memoirs)

M. Scott: The Record of Singing, i (London, 1977), 25–7

HAROLD BARNES/ALAN BLYTH

Lipman, Samuel

(b Los Gatos, CA, 7 June 1934). American music critic and pianist. He studied piano with Lev Shorr, Alexander Libermann and Rosina Lhévinne, attended San Francisco State College (BA 1956) and did graduate work in political science at the University of California, Berkeley (MA 1958); he then taught political science at Berkeley (1957–8). He was appointed to the faculty of the Aspen Music School in 1971 and to that of the Waterloo Music Festival, New Jersey, in 1976; he was named artistic director of the festival in 1985. He became music critic of Commentary in 1976, publisher of the New Criterion in 1982 and in the same year was appointed to the National Council on the Arts. He won the Deems Taylor Award in 1977 and 1980 for criticism and again in 1980 for his collection of essays Music after Modernism (1979). His other writings include The House of Music: Art in an Era of Institutions (1982). As a pianist, he has appeared in the USA and abroad; he gave the first New York performance of Elliott Carter’s Piano Concerto in 1975.

Lipman’s critical writings are uncompromisingly rigorous, demanding of composer, performer and management alike the highest standard of artistic excellence. He deals both with the works themselves and with the philosophical meaning of music, and comments with acerbity on the place of serious music in a media-orientated, middlebrow culture. Lipman is closely allied with the group of neo-conservative thinkers that includes Norman Podhoretz and Hilton Kramer.

PATRICK J. SMITH

Lipovšek, Marijan

(b Ljubljana, 26 Jan 1910; d Ljubljana, 25 Dec 1995). Slovenian pianist and composer. He graduated from the Ljubljana Conservatory in 1932 where he was a composition pupil of Osterc and a piano pupil of Ravnik; his studies were continued in the Prague Conservatory masterclasses given by Suk, Hába and Kurz (1933), in Rome with Casella (1939–40) and in Salzburg with Marx (1944). From 1933 to 1939 he taught at the Ljubljana Conservatory, and then at the academy of music, of which he was rector between 1968 and 1970; he also lectured on theoretical musical subjects at the university (1962–83). He was director of the Slovenian Philharmonic (1956–64), editor-in-chief of the Slovenska glasbena revija (1951–60) and editor of the music publications of the Association of Slovenian Composers (until 1970). Lipovšek was active as a pianist, accompanist, chamber musician and writer on music. He composed in neo-Baroque and neo-classical styles until the 1960s, then in a freely Expressionist idiom.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Suite no.1, str, 1939; Sym., 1939, rev. 1949, 1970; Domovina [Homeland], sym. poem, 1950; Suite no.2, str, 1951; Rhapsodie no.1, vn, orch, 1955; Toccata quasi apertura, 1956; Suite no.3, str, 1959; Rhapsodie no.2, vn, orch, 1962; Tpt Conc., 1969; Antichaos, sym. sketch, 1978

Chbr and solo inst: Sonata, vn, pf, 1941; Balada, vc, pf, 1944; Dvajset mladinskih pesmi [20 Youth Melodies], pf, 1944; Trije impromptuji, pf, 1953; Voznica, variations on a folk poem, pf, 1956; Štiri sporočila [4 Messages], str qt, 1973; Sonata, vn, pf, 1974; Trio brevis, str trio, 1982; Sonata, vn, 1983

Vocal: 16 samospevov [16 Songs], high v, pf, 1946; Orglar [Organist] (cant.), 4 vv, chorus, orch, 1949; Sončece sij! [Shine, little Sun!], song cycle, S, pf, 1955, arr. S, orch; Verzi, 6 songs, 1965; Pesmi iz mlina [Songs from the Mill], 6 songs, Mez, pf, 1980, arr. Mez, orch, 1988

Other songs, choruses, film scores

Principal publisher: Edicije DSS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Kartin-Duh: ‘Oblikovni koncept rapsodij M. Lipovška’ [Compositional Concepts in Lipovšek's Rhapsodies], MZ, xiii (1977), 68–76 [with Eng. summary]

F. Križnar and T. Pinter: Sodobni slovenski skladatelji/Contemporary Slovenian Composers, ed. I. Bizjak (Ljubljana, 1997), 140–43, 296

ANDREJ RIJAVEC/IVAN KLEMENČIČ

Lipovšek, Marjana

(b Ljubljana, 3 Dec 1946). Slovenian mezzo-soprano. She studied at Graz and in Vienna, joining the Staatsoper in 1979 and then singing at Berlin, Hamburg, Frankfurt and Madrid. In 1986 she created Rosa Sacchi in Die schwarze Maske at Salzburg, where she has subsequently sung the Nurse (Die Frau ohne Schatten), Octavia (L'incoronazione di Poppea), Mistress Quickly, Marina (Boris Godunov), Clytemnestra and Countess Geschwitz (Lulu). Her repertory also includes Dorabella, Carmen, Ulrica (Un ballo in maschera), Azucena, Amneris, Brangäne, Marfa (Khovanshchina), the Composer, Octavian and Delilah. In 1990 Lipovšek made her Covent Garden début as Clytemnestra and her Metropolitan début as Fricka, a role she has also sung in Munich, Barcelona, Chicago and at La Scala. In 1994 she sang Judith (Bluebeard's Castle) in Florence and in 1995 her first Kundry in Munich. Her operatic recordings include Marfa, Brangäne, Waltraute, Marina, Mistress Quickly and the Sphinx in Enescu's Oedipe; all display her rich, vibrant, warm-toned voice, with its notably strong middle and lower registers, and her vivid gifts of characterization. Lipovšek also has a flourishing career as a concert singer, and has made admired recordings of works ranging from Bach's Passions to Das Lied von der Erde and Oedipus rex.

ELIZABETH FORBES

Lipowsky, Felix Joseph

(b Wiesensteig, 25 Jan 1764; d Munich, 21 March 1842). German historian and music lexicographer, son of Thaddäus Ferdinand Lipowsky. He studied the piano with Aemilian Vogt, attended the Gymnasium in Amberg and studied jurisprudence at the University of Ingolstadt. From 1791 to 1817 he was active in important Bavarian governmental and diplomatic positions. Among his many writings on Bavarian history, the Baierisches Musik-Lexikon is of particular importance to music, as it describes many musicians not otherwise traceable, though the biographical dates are frequently incorrect. Of his compositions (including four ballets for the Munich court theatre, 1787–97), only one Mass in G minor of 1789 survives (in D-Mbs). Writings on music are also found in Winter’s Portraite der berühmtesten Componisten der Tonkunst (Munich, n.d.), the National-Garde Almanach (1814–15), and in some of his other non-musical works.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F.J. Lipowsky: Baierisches Musik-Lexicon (Munich, 1811/R) [corrections in AMZ, xiii (1811), 343, 697]

A. von Schaden: Gelehrtes München im Jahr 1834 (Munich, 1834) [incl. list of writings]

J. Gerstner: ‘Züge aus dem Leben des … Joseph Felix Lipowsky … nach dessen … Selbstbiographie’, Oberbayerisches Archiv für vaterländische Geschichte, xii (1851), 84–112

ROBERT MÜNSTER

Lipowsky, Thaddäus Ferdinand

(b St Martin, Upper Austria, 28 Dec 1738; d Wiesensteig, 18 May 1767). German composer, father of Felix Joseph Lipowsky. He studied in Salzburg, where in 1759 he was evidently one of Leopold Mozart’s best pupils in theory and the violin. After 1763 he was clerk of the court in the then Bavarian electoral enclave of Wiesensteig. After playing for the Bavarian Elector Maximilian III Joseph (1766) he was called to Munich as Hofkammerrat, but died just before taking up this post. Of his works, which include one Latin school comedy (Salzburg, 1759), church music, concertos, quartets and keyboard trios, only two oratorios survive (in A-Ssp) and a Te Deum (in D-Po). A Symphonia a 4, which is ascribed to ‘Giuseppe Lipaphzki’ (in D-Mbs) and cannot be the work of Joseph Lipavsky, may also be by him.

For bibliography see Lipowsky, Felix Joseph.

ROBERT MÜNSTER

Lipp, Franz Ignaz

(b Eggenfelden, Lower Bavaria, 1 Feb 1718; d Salzburg, 15 Aug 1798). Austrian composer and organist. He went to Salzburg as a 14-year-old choirboy and was appointed court and cathedral organist in 1754. At first his duties were restricted largely to performance at the cathedral; only after the death of Adlgasser in 1777 did Lipp become active as an accompanist at court. Less than a year later, Leopold Mozart wrote to his son: ‘You can easily imagine how beastly things are now that … Lipp accompanies at court. Whenever Ceccarelli sings, he complains loudly and publicly’. It is probably no coincidence that on his return to Salzburg in 1779, Mozart took over Lipp's court duties.

Lipp was a prolific composer of church music; manuscripts of his works dating from 1745 to 1796 survive in numerous libraries in and around Salzburg. Of his secular music only two string trios survive. Lipp's works are written in a conservative style and despite his long composing career he made few compositional advances. Leopold Mozart at first thought favourably of Lipp; in 1757 he wrote that Lipp ‘also plays the violin, sings with a beautiful tenor voice, and composes not badly’. W.A. Mozart, however, considered Lipp to be a model of inadequacy, fit for ridicule; in 1778 he wrote ironically of one of his own performances: ‘I preluded in the manner of Fischietti, played off a galanterie sonata in the style, and with the fire, spirit and precision, of Haydn, and then played fugues with all the skill of a Lipp, Hülber and Aman’.

WORKS

5 masses, A-LA, Sd, Ssp, CH-E, D-WS; 9 offs, A-Sd, CH-E, D-WS; 3 Vespers, A-Sn, Ssp; 2 Nona (per Hepdomadam and per Domenica), Ssp; 4 lits, Sd, Wn, D-PO, TEI

Other sacred: 15 Salve regina, A-LA, Sn, D-BGD, FW; 10 Stella coeli extirpavit, A-Sn (3 for SATB, 2 vn, bc, ed. K. Ruhland, Altötting, 1993); 5 Tantum ergo, Sd; 2 Miserere, Ssp; Alma redemptoris, Sn; 13 sacred arias, Ssp, D-PO; hymn, Ssp; Passion according to St Matthew, D-LFN; 4 pss, A-Ssp

Inst: 2 trios, 2 vn, b, A-Ssp

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Kellner: Musikgeschichte des Stiftes Kremsmünster (Kassel, 1956)

T. Aigner: ‘Der Eggenfeldener Lehrersohn Franz Ignaz Lipp (1718–1798)’, Heimat an Rott und Inn: Heimatbuch für die Landkreise des Rottals (1969), 1–5

E. Hintermaier: Die Salzburger Hofkapelle von 1700 bis 1806: Organisation und Personal (diss., U. of Salzburg, 1972), 223–6

T. Aigner: ‘Wenn Mozart mit aller Kunst des Lipp fugierte’, Wiener Figaro, xlv/Dec (1978), 3–10

H. Schuler: Mozarts Salzburger Freunde und Bekannte: Biographien und Kommentar (Wilhelmshaven, 1996), 144–6

CLIFF EISEN

Lipp, Wilma

(b Vienna, 26 April 1925). Austrian soprano. She studied in Vienna with Anna Bahr-Mildenburg and Alfred Jerger, and made her début there as Rosina in 1943, joining the Staatsoper two years later. As the Queen of Night in 1948, she won wider fame; this was also the role of her débuts at La Scala (1950, under Klemperer) and Paris (during the 1953 Staatsoper visit). At Covent Garden she played Gilda (1951) and Violetta (1955); at Glyndebourne, Konstanze (1957); and at San Francisco, Nannetta (the role in which she made her American début in 1962). Her career, which began in soubrette and coloratura roles, later progressed to more lyrical ones, including Ilia (Idomeneo), a notable Pamina, Countess Almaviva, Alice Ford and Eva. Lipp’s pure, sweet tone and accurate coloratura are displayed in her recordings of the Queen of Night under Karajan and Böhm.

ALAN BLYTH

Lipparino [Lipparini], Guglielmo

(b Bologna; fl 1600–37). Italian composer. He studied with Tiburtio Massaino and became an Augustinian monk at S Giacomo Maggiore, Bologna. His principal employment was at Como Cathedral, where he directed the music from after 1609 until 1633. Later he lived in Bologna. His surviving output consists largely of sacred music, though his first two publications are of secular canzonets, and there is also a collection of instrumental canzonas; all his madrigals are lost. The church music includes masses, psalms, litanies and motets for both large and small resources. Whereas the first book of motets of 1609 is written for quite large forces, by the 1620s Lipparino was also writing in the popular small-scale concertato style, even for litanies. His harmonic style could be unadventurous, although the five-part Alma Redemptoris in the first set of Sacri concerti is well varied both harmonically and rhythmically. The 1637 psalms are still in the double-choir style, though the second choir functions more like an optional ripieno, added to and contrasting with concertato passages for the first choir.

WORKS

all published in Venice except anthologies

Il primo libro delle canzonette, 3vv (1600)

Il secondo libro delle canzonette, 3vv, ed. L.F. Scappi (1605)

Il primo libro de motetti, 7–8vv, e uno, 15vv (1609)

Canzoni a 2, 4, 8 (1619)

Messe, 8–9vv, con il Te Deum, 8vv, bc (1623)

Letanie della Beata Vergine, 1–3vv, bc (org) (1623)

Sacri concerti, 5vv, bc (org), libro I, op.11 (1629) [repr.]

Sacri concerti, 4–6, 8, 10vv, bc, libro II (1627)

Le sacre laudi che si cantano nella Santa Casa di Loreto, 3–5, 8vv, op.12 (1634)

Sacri concerti, 1–4vv, con le Letanie della BVM et alcune sonate a 2, 3, bc, op.13 (1635)

Salmi concertati, 8vv, bc, op.14 (1637)

2 motets, 1611¹, 1613²

Madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1614), according to FétisB; 2 other sets pubd by 1619; a volume of pieces a 2; Messe da morti, 5vv: lost

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

G. Gaspari: ‘Dei musicisti bolognesi al XVII secolo e delle loro opere a stampa: ragguagli biografici e bibliografici’, Atti e memorie delle RR. Deputazioni di storia patria per le provincie dell'Emilia, new ser., v/2 (1880), 37–44

S.L. Astengo: Musici agostiniani anteriori al secolo XIX (Florence, 1929), 27ff

J. Roche: North Italian Church Music in the Age of Monteverdi (Oxford, 1984)

JEROME ROCHE

Lipphardt, Walther

(b Wiescherhöfen, nr Hamm, 14 Oct 1906; d Frankfurt, 17 Jan 1981). German musicologist. He began his musicological studies in 1925 with Moser at Heidelberg University, continued under Gurlitt in Freiburg and returned under Besseler to Heidelberg, where he also studied German philology and history; later he studied medieval Latin with O. Schumann in Frankfurt. He took the doctorate at Heidelberg in 1931 with a dissertation on old German Marian lamentations. A schoolteacher from 1934, he was also lecturer in music history and church music at the Hochschule für Musik in Frankfurt from 1946. He retired from his various postitions between 1968 and 1970. In 1973 he was made an honorary Doctor of Theology at Graz University.

Aside from an early interest in the folksongs of ethnic Germans, Lipphardt’s main work was in hymnology, particularly the history of the chorale and the sacred song. He produced a series of fascimile editions of Catholic songbooks from the 16th century. His collection for mixed choir, Gesellige Zeit (Kassel, 1933–5), became particularly well known. Lipphardt was a member of the editorial board of the series Das Deutsche Kirchenlied and edited works by Leonhard Lechner for the collected edition. As part of his research into medieval liturgical drama he made a complete edition of the Easter plays.

WRITINGS

Die altdeutschen Marienklagen (diss., U. of Heidelberg, 1931)

‘Studien zu den Marienklagen’, Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur, lviii (1934), 390–444

‘Die lothringische Volksliedlandschaft’, Zeitschrift für Hausmusik, v (1936), 172–86

‘Die Sudetendeutschen und ihr Lied’, Deutsche Musikkultur, iii (1938), 205–13

‘Das Volkslied der deutschen Ostmark’, Zeitschrift für Hausmusik, vii (1938), 157–70

‘Die Volkslieder der Gottschee’, Zeitschrift für Hausmusik, viii (1939), 127–35

‘Neue Wege zur Erforschung der linienlosen Neumen’, Mf, i (1948), 121–39

Die Weisen der lateinischen Osterspiele des 12. und 13. Jahrhunderts (Kassel, 1948); see also ‘Einige unbekannte Weisen zu den Carmina Burana aus der zweiten Hälfte des 12. Jahrhunderts’, Festschrift Heinrich Besseler, ed. E. Klemm (Leipzig, 1961), 101–26

Die Geschichte des mehrstimmigen Proprium Missae (Heidelberg, 1950)

‘Studien zur Rhythmik der Antiphonen’, Mf, iii (1950), 47–60, 224–36

‘Das Herodesspiel von Le Mans nach der Handschriften Madrid Bibl. Mac.288 und 289 (11. und 12. Jhd.)’, Organicae voces: Festschrift Joseph Smits von Waesberghe (Ansterdam, 1963), 107–22

‘Der gegenwärtige Stand der Gregorianik-Forschung’, IMSCR IX: Salzburg 1964, ii, 156–66

ed.: Der karolingische Tonar von Metz (Münster, 1965)

‘Adam Reissners hanschriftliches Gesangbuch von 1554 als Quelle deutscher Volksliedweisen des 16. Jahrhunderts’, Jb für Volksliedforschung, xii (1967), 42–79

‘Das erste in Böhmen gedruckte katholische Gesangbuch Prag 1581 und sein Verfasser Christoph Hecyrus aus Budweis’, Musica bohemica et europaea: Brno V 1970, 33–45

‘Das Generalbassbegleitete deutsche geistliche Lied in Böhmen 1650–1750’, Musica cameralis: Brno VI 1971, 115–26

‘Studien zur Musikpflege in den mittelalterlichen Augustiner-Chorherrenstiften des deutschen Sprachgebietes’, Jb des Stiftes Klosterneuburg, vii (1971), 7–102

‘Die liturgische Funktion deutscher Kirchenlieder in den Klöstern niedersächsischer Zisterzienserinnen des Mittelalters’, Zeitschrift für katholische Theologie, xciv (1972), 158–98

‘Niederdeutsche Reimgedichte und Lieder des 14. Jahrhunderts in den mittelalterlichen Orationalien der Zisterzienserinnen von Medingen und Wienhausen’, Niederdeutsches Jb, xcv (1972), 66–130

‘Die Visitatio sepulchri (III. Stufe) von Gernrode’, Daphnis, i (1972), 1–14

‘Die Visitatio sepulchri in den Zisterzienserinnenklöstern der Lüneburger Heide’, Daphnis, i (1972), 119–28

‘Frankfurter Gesangbuch-Drucke vor 1569’, Jb der Hessischen kirchengeschichtlichen Vereinigung, xxiii (1973), 3–9

‘Hanauer Gesangbuchdrucke von 1605–1800’, Hanauer Geschichtsblätter, xxiv (1973), 101–40

‘Aufgaben und Wege der Hymnologie als theologische Wissenschaft’, Grazer Universitätsreden, xiii (1974), 84–98

Gesangbuchdrucke in Frankfurt am Main vor 1569 (Frankfurt, 1974)

‘Hymnologische Quellen der Steiermark und ihre Erforschung’, Grazer Universitätsreden, xiii (1974)

‘Das katholische deutsche Kirchenlied in den böhmischen Landern wärhrend des 16. Jahrhunderts’, De musica disputationes pragenses, ii (1974), 20–55

Mittelalterliche Musikhandschriften aus dem Kloster Medingen (Uelzen, 1974)

ed., with K. Ameln and M. Jenny: Das deutsche Kirchenlied: Verzeichnis der Drucke von den Anfängen bis 1800, i, RISM, B/VIII/1 (1975)

‘Lateinische Osterspiele im Alpenraumes und ihr Zusammenhang’, ‘Musik in den spätmittelalterlichen Passionsspielen und Osterspielen von Bozen, Sterzing und Brixen’, Tiroler Volksschauspiel: Beiträge zur Theatergeschichte des Alpenraums, ed. E. Kühebacker (Bolzano, 1976), 110–26, 127–66

‘Musik in den osterreichischen Klostern der Babenbergerzeit’, Musicologica austriaca, ii (1979), 48–68

EDITIONS

Leonhard Lechner: Werke, iv: Sanctissimae virginis Mariae Canticum (Kassel, 1960); viii: Liber missarum sex et quinque vocum (Kassel, 1964); xiii: Newe geistliche und weltliche teutsche Gesang (Kassel, 1973); x: Sieben Psalmi poenitentiales 6 vocibus compositi 1587 (Kassel, 1988)

Lateinische Osterfeiern und Osterspiele (Berlin, 1975–)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Heine: ‘Walther Lipphardt 65 Jahre alt’, Mitteilungen der Arbeitsgemeinschaft für mittelrheinische Musikgeschichte, no.23 (1971), 269–73 [incl. complete list of pubns from 1959]

Obituaries: Hymn, xxxii (1981), 111–12; Musica, xxxv (1981), 198–9; Musik und Gottesdienst, xxxv (1981), 69–70; Musik und Kirche, li (1981), 106–7

HANS HEINRICH EGGEBRECHT/PAMELA M. POTTER

Lippius, Johannes

(b Strasbourg, 24 June 1585; d Speyer, 24 Sept 1612). Alsatian theologian and music theorist. The few details of Lippius's life may be found in the introduction to his Synopsis musicae novae. He was educated by his father in the rudiments of music and attended the Strasbourg Gymnasium. After graduating he travelled extensively in Germany, attending the universities at Jena, Leipzig and Wittenberg. He received a master's degree at Wittenberg and studied music for some time with the distinguished Kantor of the Thomasschule in Leipzig, Sethus Calvisius. According to J.G. Walther, Lippius received a doctor's degree from the University of Giessen in 1612 and immediately accepted a position as professor of theology at Strasbourg. Before he could reach there, however, he died at Speyer.

Lippius's theoretical works include six disputations prepared for presentation at the universities of Wittenberg and Jena, and one work of more general philosophical content. But as a music theorist his fame rests on a further work, the Synopsis musicae novae, which is largely a republication of the earlier Disputatio musica secunda and tertia. Although music remained for Lippius, as for most 16th-century theorists, a part of the Quadrivium, he shared the 17th-century German composer's view that it does have a direct moral influence on the human spirit: ‘Music is a mathematical science … involving the artful and prudent composition of a harmonic cantilena in order especially to move man moderately to the glory of God’.

The primary thrust of the Synopsis musicae, contributing an important Baroque keystone to 17th-century German theory, replaced Renaissance contrapuntal theory with a method of four-part composition over the bass. The most important component of this theory was the triad, the trias harmonica, rooted in theological symbolism as the musical equivalent of the Trinity. ‘The simple harmonic triad is the true and three-in-one sounding root of all the most perfect and complete harmony found in the world … and the image and shadow of that great divine mystery, which alone is to be adored, the Unitrinity.’ Lippius was the first to use the term ‘trias harmonica’ and one of the first to recognize in theory the actual practice of the early 17th century, primarily in Italian music, in which the bass is the most important functional part of a texture of several voices. ‘The fundamental melody which is the bass is put forth in the system, having determined the counterpoint in the region of the radical [upper] parts of the harmonic triad, where the bass occupies the lowest and first part.’ The unmistakable reflection of this method is the basso continuo technique of the early 17th-century Italian monodists.

As had Burmeister a decade before him, Lippius raised composition to the level of a rhetorical art. The text is the determining factor in writing music, and each part composed on the bass must express the affections of the words. Compositions are either pure or ornate. In the latter the composer employs embellishments, figures and ornaments ‘like the wise, artful orator, using them to polish his harmonic oration according to circumstances of person, time and place of the text to achieve his goals’. Lippius cited the music of Marenzio and Lassus as the best examples of this musical-oratorical art. Many theorists of the 17th as well as the early 18th century, including Baryphonus, Crüger, Printz, Werckmeister, J.G. Ahle and J.G. Walther, referred to and elaborated on his theoretical propositions.

WORKS

theoretical works

Disputatio musica prima (Wittenberg, 1609)

Disputatio musica secunda (Wittenberg, 1609) [see Synopsis … below]

Disputatio musica tertia (Wittenberg, 1610) [see Synopsis … below]

Themata musica ut multis forte paradoxa (Jena, 1610)

Breviculum errorum musicorum (Jena, 1610)

Themata fontem omnium errantium musicorum aperientia (Jena, 1610)

Synopsis musicae novae omino verae atque methodicae universae (Strasbourg, 1612) [largely a republication of 2nd and 3rd items above]; ed. and trans. B.V. Rivera (Colorado Springs, CO, 1977)

Philosophiae verae ac sincerae synopticae, i: Praeparatio per musicam diam; ii: Perfectio interior realis per metaphysicam (Erfurt, 1614)

other works

Fuga in unisono post tactus, 4, seu tempora duo, a 4, in M. Schnell: Ton philon sygcharistika (Strasbourg, 1605)

Fuga omogonos kai kykloeides post tempus unum cum dimidio, a 9, in J.L. Kress: Mele syncharestika (Strasbourg, 1605)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

WaltherML

B.V. Rivera: German Music Theory in the Early 17th Century: the Treatises of Johannes Lippius (Ann Arbor, 1979)

B. Rivera: ‘The Seventeenth-Century Theory of Triadic Generation and Invertibility and its Application in Contemporaneous Rules of Composition’, Music Theory Spectrum, vi (1984), 63–78

J.B. Howard: ‘Form and Method in Johannes Lippius's Synopsis musicae novae’, JAMS, xxxviii (1985), 524–50

J. Lester: Between Modes and Keys: German Theory 1592–1802 (Stuyvesant, NY, 1989)

GEORGE J. BUELOW

Lippman, Edward A(rthur)

(b New York, 24 May 1920). American musicologist. He was educated in New York, receiving the BS from the City College of New York, the MA from New York University, and the PhD in 1952 from Columbia University with a dissertation on music and space. He joined the faculty at Columbia in 1954 and was appointed professor in 1969; he retired in 1989. Lippman is one of the leading American writers on the philosophy and aesthetics of music. His book Musical Thought in Ancient Greece (1964) is an important exposition of Greek philosophy of music and one of the few compilations of this size and scope in English. Lippman has also written on 19th-century Romanticism, particularly the music and writings of Schumann and Wagner.

WRITINGS

Music and Space: a Study in the Philosophy of Music (diss., Columbia U., 1952)

‘Symbolism in Music’, MQ, xxxix (1953), 554–75

‘Hellenic Conceptions of Harmony’, JAMS, xvi (1963), 3–35

‘The Sources and Development of the Ethical View of Music in Ancient Greece’, MQ, xlix (1963), 188–209

‘Spatial Perception and Physical Location as Factors of Music’, AcM, xxxv (1963), 24–35

Musical Thought in Ancient Greece (New York, 1964)

‘Theory and Practice in Schumann’s Aesthetics’, JAMS, xvii (1964), 310–45

‘The Place of Music in the System of Liberal Arts’, Aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Music: a Birthday Offering to Gustave Reese, ed. J. LaRue and others (New York, 1966), 545–59

‘The Problem of Musical Hermeneutics’, Art and Philosophy: a Symposium, ed. S. Hook (New York, 1966), 307–35

‘The Tonal Ideal of Romanticism’, Festschrift für Walter Wiora, ed. L. Finscher and C.-H. Mahling (Kassel, 1967), 419–26

A Humanistic Philosophy of Music (New York, 1977)

‘The Formation of Wagner's Style’, Music and Civilization: Essays in Honor of Paul Henry Lang, ed. E. Strainchamps, M.R. Maniates and C. Hatch (New York, 1984), 102–16

‘Progressive Temporality in Music’, JM, iii (1984), 121–41

Musical Aesthetics: a Historical Reader (New York, 1986)

‘Wagner's Conception of the Dream’, JM, viii (1990), 54–81

A History of Western Musical Aesthetics (Lincoln, NE, 1992)

‘The Place of Aesthetics in Theoretical Treatises on Music’, Music Theory and the Exploration of the Past, ed. C. Hatch and D. Bernstein (Chicago, 1993), 217–32

‘Reflections on the Aesthetics of Strophic Song’, Festschrift Walter Wiora zum 90. Geburtstag, ed. C.-H. Mahling and R. Seiberts (Tutzing, 1997), 173–85

PAULA MORGAN

Lippmann, Friedrich

(b Dessau, 25 July 1932). German musicologist. He studied musicology with Anna Amalie Abert, Adam Adrio and Blume, philosophy and German in Berlin at the Free University (1951–3) and Humboldt University (1953–6) and at the University of Kiel, where he took the doctorate in 1962 with a dissertation on the structure of early 19th-century Italian opera seria. After working as a research fellow at the Haydn Institute in Cologne (1962–4) he moved to Rome as director of the music history section of the German Historical Institute (1964–96). He became editor of Analecta musicologica in 1966, and of Concertus musicus in 1973. He retired in 1996. Lippmann is internationally recognized as a leading scholar of 18th- and early 19th-century Italian opera, and his studies on Bellini, Paisiello, Cimarosa, Mozart and Haydn trace in detail the stylistic developments in works by these composers. He has also written important articles on Donizetti, Wagner and Rossini. In 1993 he was honoured with a Festschrift for his contributions to opera scholarship (Napoli e il teatro musicale in Europa tra Sette e Ottocento: Studi in onore di Friedrich Lippmann, ed. B.M. Antolini and W. Witzenmann, Florence, 1993).

WRITINGS

Studien zu Libretto, Arienform und Melodik der italienischen Opera seria im Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts (diss., U. of Kiel, 1962; AnMc, no.6 (1969) as Vincento Bellini und die italienische Opera seria seiner Zeit)

‘Die Melodien Donizettis’, AnMc, no.3 (1966), 80–113

‘Giovanni Pacini: Bemerkungen zum Stil seiner Opern’, Chigiana, new ser., iv (1967), 111–24

‘Per un’esegesi dello stile rossiniano’, NRMI, ii (1968), 813–56

‘Die Sinfonien-Manuskripte der Bibliothek Doria-Pamphilj in Rom’, AnMc, no.5 (1968), 201–47; no.7 (1969), 120–44; no.9 (1970), 299–355

‘Mozart-Aufführungen des frühen Ottocento in Neapel’, AnMc, no.7 (1969), 164–79

‘Rossinis Gedanken über die Musik’, Mf, xxii (1969), 285–98

‘Wagner und Italien’, Verdi-Wagner: Rome 1969 [AnMc, no.11 (1972)], 200–47

‘Su “La straniera” di Bellini’, NRMI, v (1971), 565–605

‘Der italienische Vers und der musikalische Rhythmus: zum Verhältnis von Vers und Musik in der italienischen Oper des 19. Jahrhunderts, mit einem Rückblick auf die 2. Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts’, AnMc, no.12 (1973), 253–369; no.14 (1974), 324–410; no.15 (1975), 298–333

‘Ein neuentdecktes Autograph Richard Wagners: Rezension der Königsberger “Norma”-Aufführung von 1837’, Musicae scientiae collectanea: Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer, ed. H. Hüschen (Cologne, 1973), 373–9

ed.: Mozart und Italien: Rome 1974 [AnMc, no.18 (1978)] [incl. ‘Mozart und der Vers’, 107–37]

‘Donizetti e Bellini: contributo all’interpretazione dello stile donizettiano’, Studi donizettiani I: Bergamo 1975, 179–99

‘Verdi und donizetti’, Opernstudien: Anna Amalie Abert zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. K. Hortschansky (Tutzing, 1975), 153–73

‘Musikhandschriften und -drucke in der Bibliothek des Fürstenhauses Massimo, Rom: Katalog’, AnMc, no.17 (1976), 254–95; continued as ‘Briefe Rossinis und Donizettis in der Bibliothek Massimo, Rom’ no.19 (1979), 330–35

‘Zur “italianità” der italienischen Oper im 19. Jahrhundert’, Die Couleur locale in der Oper des 19. Jahrhunderts, ed. H. Becker (Regensburg, 1976), 229–56

‘Belliniana’, Il melodramma italiano dell’Ottocento: studi e ricerche per Massimo Mila, ed. G. Pestelli (Turin, 1977), 281–317

‘Giovanni de Macque fra Roma e Napoli: nuovi documenti’, RIM, xiii (1978), 243–79

‘Volksharfen in Italien’, AnMc, no.19 (1979), 380–92

ed.: Joseph Haydn und Ludwig van Beethoven: Bonn and Cologne 1980 [AnMc, no.22 (1984)] [incl. ‘Motivische Arbeit bei Hasse’, 197–208]

‘Mozart und Cimarosa’, HJbMw, v (1981), 187–202

‘Rossini – und kein Ende’, Studia musicologica, x (1981), 279–91

‘Haydns “La fedeltà premiata” und Cimarosas “L'infedeltà fedele”’, Haydn-Studien, v/4 (1982), 1–15

‘Haydn und die Opera buffa: Vergleiche mit italienischen Werken gleichen Textes’: Joseph Haydn: Cologne 1982, 113–40

‘Un'opera per onorare le vittime della repressione borbonica del 1799 e per glorificare Napoleone: I pittagorici di Vicenzo Monti e Giovanni Paisiello’, Musica e cultura a Napoli: Naples 1982, 281–302

ed.: Die stilistische Entwicklung der italienischen Musik zwischen 1770 und 1830: Rome 1978 [AnMc, no.21 (1982)] [incl. ‘Über Cimarosas Opere serie’, 21–60]

‘“Die Feen” und “Die Liebesverbot”, oder Die Wagnerieserung diverser Vorbilder’, Wagnerliteratur – Wagnerforschung: Munich 1983, 14–46

‘Sulle composizioni per cembalo di Gaetano Greco’, La musica a Napoli durante il Seicento: Naples 1985, 285–306

‘Eine unbekannte frühe Tokkate Händels? (Handschrift Neapel, Konservatorium, MS71, F.19v-23v)’, AnMc, no.23 (1985), 67–74

‘Zu Paers und Mayrs Vertonungen des “Leonoren”-Stoffes’, Festschrift Martin Ruhnke zum 65. Geburtstag (Neuhausen-Stuttgart, 1986), 219–34

ed.: Johann Adolf Hasse und die Musik seiner Zeit: Siena 1983 [AnMc, no.25 (1987)] [incl. ‘Hasses Arienstil und seine Interpretation durch Rudolf Gerber’, 17–65]

ed.: Italien und Deutschland: Wechselbeziehungen in der Musik seit 1850: Rome 1988 [incl. ‘Hanslick und die italienische Musik’, 107–54]

‘“Casta diva”: la preghiera nell'opera italiana della prima metà dell'Ottocento’, Riecercare, ii (1990), 173–209

‘“Il mio ben quand verrà”: Paisiello creatore di una nuova semplicità’, Studi musicali, xix (1990), 385–405

‘Die Entwicklung der “Aria marziale” in der italienischen und französischen Oper im zeitlichen Umkreis der Französischen Revolution’, Musica senza aggettivi: studi per Fedele d’Amico, ed. A. Ziino (Florence, 1991) 253–96

‘Mozart und Paisiello: zur stilistischen Position des “Lucio Silla”’, Mozart Congress: Salzburg 1991 [MJb 1991], 580–93

‘Il “grande finale” nell'opera buffa e nell'opera seria: Paisiello e Rossini’, RIM, xxvii (1992), 225–55

‘Tendenzen der italienischen Opera seria am Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts – und Mozart’, Studi musicali, xxi (1992), 307–58

‘Romani e Bellini: i fatti e i principi della collaborazione’, Felice Romani: melodrammi, poesie, documenti, ed. A. Sommariva (Florence, 1996), 83–113

‘Rossini 1815: “Elisabetta regina d'Inghilterra”’, AnMc, no.30 (1997)

‘Mozart und Paisiello in der Opera buffa’, AnMc, no.31 (1998)

EDITIONS

Joseph Haydn: Messe Nr.12 ‘Harmoniemesse’ 1802, Werke, xxiii/v (Munich, 1966)

Lipscomb, Mance

(b Navasota, TX, 9 April 1895; d Navasota, 30 Jan 1976). American songster and guitarist. He taught himself to play guitar and accompanied his father, a rural fiddler. As a youth he assisted the Texas Ranger, Frank Hamer. Before being recorded at the age of 66, he was a sharecropper and farm labourer in Navasota. He had acquired an extensive reputation in Texas for his effortless playing of dance accompaniments, such as Buck Dance (1961, Rep.) and Sugar babe, it’s all over now (1960, Arhoolie), and for his singing of old ballads like Ella Speed. From 1960 he was a popular performer at concerts and festivals, still playing fluently until forced by ill-health to retire in 1973. In 1971 he was the subject of a film, A Well-spent Life, directed by Les Blank. Because of his previous isolation, Lipscomb represented the songster tradition in its purest form. His recording of Freddie (1960, Arhoolie) is the only collected version of this ballad; he often drew on his earliest recollections, as in Take me Back (1964, Arhoolie) or Captain Captain (1961, Rep.), a memory of his life as a field hand on a Brazos River plantation. Like all songsters, however, he was catholic in his tastes, and could easily follow these pieces with a popular song like Shine on harvest moon or a spiritual such as Motherless Children (both 1964, Arhoolie). As a guitarist he must be numbered among the most gifted in the black folk idiom.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SouthernB

M. McCormick: Mance Lipscomb: Texas Sharecropper and Songster, Arhoolie F1001 (1960); reissued on Arhoolie CD–306 (1989) [disc notes]

P. Oliver: Conversation with the Blues (London, 1965/R)

P. Welding: Mance Lipscomb, Vol. 4, Arhoolie F1033 (1967); reissued on Arhoolie CD–465 (n.d.) [disc notes[

D. Garwood: ‘Lipsomb's Guitar Technique’, Blues Magazine, ii (1976), no.1, p.25; no.2, p.22 [incl. guitar tablature]

G. Alyn, ed.: I Say Me for a Parable: the Oral Autobiography of Mance Lipscomb, Texas Bluesman (New York, 1993)

PAUL OLIVER

Lipsius, Marie [‘La Mara’]

(b Leipzig, 30 Dec 1837; d Schmölen, nr Wurzen, Saxony, 2 March 1927). German writer on music. Her father was the rector of the Thomasschule in Leipzig, and her main teacher was Richard Müller, the founder of the Leipzig University Choral Society. She began to write musical articles under the pen name of ‘La Mara’ early in life. She saw Liszt for the first time in 1855, and joined his Weimar circle a year later. There she attended a number of soirées put on by Liszt and his companion Princess Carolyne von Sayn-Wittgenstein in the Altenburg, and was struck by the animated conversations about music which seemed to her to be ‘spun with threads of gold’. Liszt was still at the height of his powers as a pianist, and she left memorable desciptions of his playing. This encounter changed her life: although she wrote on a great variety of musical topics (publishing important studies of Mozart, Schubert, Chopin, Beethoven and others), the bulk of her literary work was connected with Liszt. La Mara was 56 years old when she began to publish Liszt’s voluminous correspondence (a task that Liszt had already entrusted to her during his lifetime), and 81 when she finally put down her pen. 12 volumes of his correspondence, edited across a period of 25 years, were each dated by La Mara ‘October 22’ (Liszt’s birthday), a remarkable gift to his memory.

As a critic La Mara had the advantage of knowing many of the composers about whom she wrote (there are also essays on Clara and Robert Schumann, Wagner and Berlioz). But that also worked against her. She did not hesitate to censor some of Liszt’s correspondence in order to shield his private life, and modern scholars have critized her for that. Liszt’s Briefe an eine Freundin (vol.3 of the collected letters) were badly mauled in an effort to protect the identity of the ‘Freundin’ (Agnes Street-Klindworth, an earlier love of Liszt’s). Nevertheless, by editing 4000 of the composer’s letters, collected with difficulty across a long period of time, La Mara placed herself in the forefront of Liszt studies. It may be possible to improve on her work, but not to replace it.

WRITINGS

Musikalische Studienköpfe (Leipzig, 1868, enlarged 2/1875–82) [many edns to 1913]

Musikerbriefe aus fünf Jahrhunderten (Leipzig, 1886)

ed.: Franz Liszt’s Briefe (Leipzig, 1893–1905; Eng. trans. of vols.i–ii, 1894/R)

ed.: Briefe hervorragender Zeitgenossen an Franz Liszt (Leipzig, 1895–1904)

ed.: Briefwechsel zwischen Franz Liszt und Hans von Bülow (Leipzig, 1898; Fr. trans., 1899 as Franz Liszt et Hans von Bülow: correspondance)

ed.: Briefe von Hector Berlioz an die Fürstin Carolyne von Sayn-Wittgenstein (Leipzig, 1903)

ed.: Aus der Glanzzeit der Weimarer Altenburg: Bilder und Briefe aus dem Leben der Fürstin Carolyne von Sayn-Wittgenstein (Leipzig, 1906)

Beethovens unsterbliche Geliebte: das Geheimnis der Gräfen Brunsvik und ihre Memoiren (Leipzig, 1909)

ed.: Briefwechsel zwischen Franz Liszt und Carl Alexander, Grossherzog von Sachsen (Leipzig, 1909)

Liszt und die Frauen (Leipzig, 1911, 2/1919)

Durch Musik und Leben im Dienste des Ideals, ii (Leipzig, 1917, 2/1925)

ed.: Franz Liszts Briefe an seine Mutter (Leipzig, 1918)

ed.: Beethoven und die Brunsviks: nach Familienpapiere aus Therese Brunsviks Nachlass (Leipzig, 1920)

An der Schwelle des Jenseits: letzte Erinnerungen an die Fürstin Carolyne Sayn-Wittgenstein (Leipzig, 1925)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Obituary, Wurzener Tageblatt (3 March 1927)

A. Walker: Franz Liszt, i (London and New York, 1983), 11–13; ii (1989), 210–11; iii (1996), 535–6

ALAN WALKER

Liquescent.

A term for a feature of Western neumatic notation. Liquescence arises in singing diphthongs and certain consonants to provide for a semi-vocalization of that vowel or consonant as a passing note to the next pitch. It is indicated by special neume shapes in all the regional notations of Western chant. Mocquereau listed the following situations where liquescence occurs: on the consonants l, m, n, r, d, t and s, when these are succeeded by another consonant; on the double consonant gn; on i and j, when these follow another consonant; on m and g, when these have a vowel on either side; and on the diphthongs au, ei and eu. Liquescent neumes include the following, in which it is understood that the last note of each neume is semi-vocalized: the Epiphonus, two notes in ascending order, the liquescent podatus (see Pes (ii)); the Cephalicus, two notes in descending order, the liquescent Clivis; and the Ancus, three notes in descending order, the liquescent Climacus. (For illustrations see Notation, Table 1; Bannister and Suñol contain illustrations of liquescent neumes in the notations of different regions.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Mocquereau: ‘Neumes-accents liquescents ou semi-vocaux’, Le répons-graduel Justus ut Palma, PalMus, 1st ser., ii (1891), 37–86

C. Vivell: ‘Liqueszierende Choralnoten’, Gregorianische Rundschau, iv (1905), 65

R. Baralli: ‘Le figure dell’“Ancus” o “Climacus liquescens” nei manoscritti gregoriani, loro significato ed esecuzione’, Rassegna gregoriana, vii (1908), cols.401–10, 481–98

H.M. Bannister: Monumenti vaticani di paleografia musicale latina (Leipzig, 1913/R)

G.M. Suñol: Introducció a la paleografia musical gregoriana (Montserrat, 1925; Fr. trans., rev., enlarged 2/1935)

H. Freistedt: Die liqueszierenden Noten des gregorianischen Chorals: ein Beitrag zur Notationskunde (Fribourg, 1929)

J.B. Göschl: Semiologische Untersuchungen zum Phänomen der gregorianischen Liqueszenz: der isolierte dreistufige Epiphonus praepunctis, ein Sonderproblem der Liqueszenzforschung (Vienna, 1980)

D. Hiley: ‘The Plica and Liquescence’, Gordon Athol Anderson, 1929–1981, in memoriam, ed. L.A. Dittmer (Henryville, PA, 1984), 379–92

A. Haug: ‘Zur Interpretation der Liqueszenzneumen’, AMw, l (1993), 85–100

Liquidation.

See Neutralization (ii).

Lira (i) [lyra].

A term used to refer to various string instruments. For the general use of the term, see Lyra (ii).

MARGARET DOWNIE BANKS

Lira (ii).

Short-necked fiddle of Greece. In contemporary usage, the name ‘lira’ is applied to two structurally distinct instruments: a pyriform instrument, found principally on the Greek islands and in the northern mainland areas of Thraki and Makedonia; and a rectangular, bottle-shaped, three-string instrument of Turkish origin called the Podiaki lira (kemedzes), found primarily near the mainland Greek-Turkish border.

The pear-shaped lira is bipartite, with a back (kafki: ‘skull’), neck (lemos) and pegdisc (kefali: ‘head’) carved out of a single block of hardwood and a belly, made of a separate piece of coniferous wood, which is typically flat and in which are carved two D-shaped soundholes (matia: ‘eyes’). Usually made by the player in whatever size desired, lires in Crete have been produced in four sizes and styles, including the small liraki, the large vrodolira, the common, medium-size lira and the viololira, a waisted instrument similar in shape to the violin.

The three gut or wire strings are fastened at the upper end to sagittal posterior pegs (striftalia: ‘turners’) and at the lower to a projection of the soundbox (oura: ‘tail’), to a tailpiece or to a string-holder (kteni: ‘comb’). Traditionally, liras have no nut, but many have a small wooden string support (pano kavallaris: ‘rider’) which functions as a nut for the longer middle string. Tuning is in perfect 5ths (at relative, not absolute pitches); alla turca tuning, in perfect 4ths and 5ths, is sometimes used. A unique feature of the pear-shaped lira is the use of a soundpost (stilos: ‘pillar’, or psihi: ‘soul’) placed through the soundhole directly beneath the treble side of the bridge and wedged between the bridge and the back, which supports and lifts the treble side of the bridge slightly off the belly. The Greek and Dalmatian pyriform liras and the Bulgarian gadulka appear to be the only bowed string instruments that use this specific bridge/soundpost arrangement.

Until about World War II, the bow of the lira had a convex camber, a rudimentary tightening mechanism and several small pellet-bells (yerakokoudouna) attached for rhythmic accompaniment. The bow is held palm-up and the strings are stopped from the side with the fingernails. Contemporary players commonly use violin bows. When seated, lira players may hold the instrument vertically upon the left thigh (see illustration) or between the legs; if standing, they support it against the chest or belt.

Used primarily as a melody instrument to perform dance-tunes, the lira is played with rapid, separate bow strokes, near the tip of the bow. Customarily played by men only, the lira may be played alone, in combination with Western European instruments, or with the daouli (drum), the laouto (lute) or the dahares (tambourine). In many areas of Greece, the lira tradition has been in decline and has been replaced by the violin. See Greece, §IV.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Downie: ‘The Modern Greek Lyra’, JAMIS, v–vi (1979–80), 144–65

L. Liavas: ‘Ē kataskeuē tēs achladoschemēs lyras sten Kriti kai sta Dodekanisa/The Construction of the Pear-Shaped Lyre in Crete and the Dodecanese’, Ethnografia, iv–v (1983–5), 117–42

R.M. Brandl and D. Reinsch: Die Volksmusik der Insel Karpathos: die Lyramusik von Karpathos … 1930–1981 (Göttingen, 1992)

Y. Bouhalakis: Pairēs methodos Kritikēs lyras/Complete Cretan Lyra Method (Athens, 1995)

MARGARET DOWNIE BANKS

Lira da braccio.

One of the most important bowed string instruments of the Renaissance, used especially by courtly Italian poet-musicians of the 15th and 16th centuries to accompany their improvised recitations of lyric and narrative poetry. In its fully developed form, not documented before the late 15th century, the lira da braccio had a body shaped like a violin, but with a wide fingerboard, a relatively flat bridge and a leaf-shaped pegbox with frontal pegs (fig.1). It normally had seven strings, five on the fingerboard and two off-board drones. In 16th-century sources it is often called simply ‘lira’, or even ‘viola’. Sometimes writers (for example, Ganassi in Regola rubertina, 1542) called it ‘lira di sette corde’ or ‘lira moderna’, to differentiate it from the antique lyre from which it was supposed (erroneously) to derive.

1. The instrument and its playing technique.

Lanfranco (in Scintille di musica, 1533) and writers after him gave the tuning for the seven-string lira da braccio as d/d'–g/g'–d'–a'–e'', that is, like a violin with a low d string and with the bottom two pairs of strings in octaves. Although Lanfranco called the two G strings ‘bordoni’, the Pesaro manuscript cited below makes clear that the D strings were in fact the off-board drones. Praetorius (2/1619) was the only theorist to depict the instrument with frets, and he gave the pitch of the top string as d'' not e'', a 4th and not a 5th above the second string.

The instrument was designed for chordal playing. The bows, therefore, were either very long or, if short, designed so that the hair and the stick were as far apart as possible, as pictorial sources attest. The many pictures reproduced by Winternitz and Witten show, too, that the instrument was supported against the left shoulder, but held with the pegbox considerably lower than the body of the instrument, although in some pictures smaller instruments are held horizontally or even with the pegbox slightly raised.

Disertori was the first to attempt to reconstruct the playing technique of the lira da braccio, by examining the possibility that the instrument was used to play late 15th- and early 16th-century frottolas; he drew attention to the fact that some pictures show players apparently stopping the off-board drones by means of a metal ring attached to their left thumb. A further reconstruction of playing technique for modern performers of the lira da braccio has been provided by Jones who has analysed chord possibilities and fingerings for the instrument. An idea of the chordal character of lira accompaniments can be gained from studying the fragments of ‘recitative’ (only the vocal part survives) sung as an invocation to Pan by Andrea dalla Viola accompanying himself on a lira da braccio at the first performance of Agostino Beccari’s Il sacrificio in 1554 (the music is in Einstein, Solerti and Jones).

The most tangible evidence, though, of the way the lira da braccio was actually played comes from a late 16th-century manuscript in Pesaro’s Biblioteca Oliveriana (1144, olim 1193), first studied by Rubsamen (JAMS, xxi, 1968, pp.286–99). The short section of the manuscript devoted to the lira includes several charts showing standard chord positions on the instrument, one complete setting of the romanesca for solo lira and a fragment of a passamezzo. The manuscript shows that the lira normally played triple and quadruple stops, but there are certain limitations to the chord positions available on the instrument. The notes of a chord always have to lie on adjacent strings, for example, since the bow cannot skip over middle strings. And the player can stop strings below an open one only occasionally because of the difficulty of the left-hand technique. Indeed, the Pesaro manuscript often indicates that one finger is required to stop all three middle strings (jeu barré). Thus the instrument could not play all chords in all inversions; the C major triad, for example, lies most conveniently under the fingers in 6-4 position. The romanesca, the beginning of which appears in ex.1, consists largely of a melody accompanied by multiple-stopped triads, a feature that suggests that the top two or three strings were reserved for melodic writing or passage-work, and the lower ones for chords.

The range of the instrument and its playing technique indicate, too, that performers must customarily have sung in a range below that of their accompaniment. Ganassi (Lettione seconda, 1543) said as much when describing the technique as the ‘prattica del dire i bassi accompagnado con il suon della Lyra’ (‘the practice of singing basses accompanied by the lira’). And Mersenne (1636–7), in writing about the lirone, explained that ‘the bass voice is more suitable than the others for joining to this instrument so as to offset the roughness of the fourth, which ofttimes is met without the fifth below. But it produces a very good effect when the voice produces the fifth’. That is, the singer can supply the root of a 6-4 chord. And a sung bass line offsets nicely the soprano passage-work and the chords that can go below g only when the drones are called into play.

Only a few museums possess lire da braccio in a state approaching their original condition. The most beautiful by far is one by Giovanni d’Andrea da Verona, dated 1511, now in the instrument collection of the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna (fig.2). The belly is shaped like a male torso and the front of the pegbox shows a grotesque male face; the back, on the other hand, is carved in the form of a female torso with a mask and acanthus leaves superimposed and with a female face on the back of the pegbox. The length of its body is 51·5 cm, thus longer than either of the other two most notable surviving instruments, the undated one by Giovanni Maria da Brescia in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (with a body length of 38·7 cm), and the undated anonymous one in the Brussels Conservatory (with a body length of 43·2 cm).

2. History.

Although its tuning by 5ths resembles that of the Rebec, the lira da braccio is more closely related to the medieval Fiddle, and, indeed, it might best be regarded as a member of the fiddle family with especially well-defined characteristics. By the second half of the 13th century, Jerome of Moravia described some fiddles with drone strings, and drones are often to be seen in 14th-century pictures of fiddles with two to five strings. The characteristic violin-like shape of the lira, on the other hand, seems not to have evolved until the late 15th century. Winternitz (MGG1) described three principal stages in the development of the instrument’s shape: a relatively long, thin body with a gently incurved waist without corners, and with either C-shaped, round, square or rhomboid soundholes (fig.3); a body divided into two parts, a relatively narrow upper and a shorter, broader lower section, almost invariably with C-holes (fig.4); and the fully developed violin-like shape with three bouts, corners and f-holes. However, iconographical sources dating from the end of the 15th century to the early 16th century show that all of these shapes existed simultaneously, thereby refuting the theory of development (see Jones).

These three shapes appear in innumerable pictorial sources (many of them reproduced in the various studies by Winternitz and Witten) and especially Italian pictures, for the instrument was developed and cultivated chiefly in Italy during the 15th and 16th centuries, and appeared in other European countries only to the extent that Italian culture had an influence. In line with the instrument’s supposed ancient lineage it is most often shown in the hands of mythological or allegorical characters, or sometimes as a member of angel consorts. Above all, the lira da braccio was associated with Orpheus (taming the animals, subduing the infernal spirits or leading Euridice out of hell) and Apollo (winning the contest with Marsyas or Pan, or leading the Muses), to judge from the quantity of pictorial evidence. But the instrument is also shown being played by Homer, King David, Musica, angels and various others.

The relationship of the instrument to ancient culture explains why it was taken up by those 15th-century Italian poet-improvisers, the Brandolini brothers, Leonardo Giustiniani in Venice, Pietrobono in Ferrara, Atalante, Benedetto Gareth in Naples, Serafino all’ Aquila in the service of Ascanio Sforza in Rome, the philosopher Marsilio Ficino, the painters Raphael and Leonardo da Vinci and so on, who often sang their epic and narrative verses, their strambotti in ottava rima, their capitoli and other narratives in terza rima, odes, sonnets, ballate and other poetic forms, to the accompaniment of the lira da braccio. It is not surprising, then, that Baccio Ugolino played the instrument as Orpheus in the Mantuan performance of Angelo Poliziano’s Orfeo in 1471, and that it was associated with ancient gods and heroes in dramatic and quasi-dramatic entertainments in Italy throughout the 16th century. Among the greatest virtuosos of the 16th century was the composer Alessandro Striggio, whom Cosimo Bartoli (Ragionamenti, 1567) described as being able to play on the instrument four parts at once with such lightness and so musically that the listeners were astounded (‘eccellentissimo nel sonar la viola e far sentir in essa quattro parti a un tratto con tanta leggiadria et con tanta musica che fa stupire gli ascoltanti’).

The instrument played some part in 16th-century ensembles as well as accompanying solo singing, its chief role. Italian intermedio orchestras sometimes called for lire. As an ensemble instrument it may sometimes have played a single line in the soprano register, and it may sometimes have served as a proto-continuo instrument, taking advantage of its special qualities by adding chords beneath the given melodic line. The Lirone or lira da gamba, a bass counterpart to the lira da braccio, played between the knees like a viol, was developed in the 16th century, and seems to have gained more and more prominence as the century wore on. The lira da braccio disappeared from use early in the 17th century, and was never revived. A late mention of the lira occurs in the title of a violin piece by Biagio Marini published in 1626. His Capriccio per sonare il violino con tre corde à modo di lira was written at a time when the lira da braccio was already out of fashion, but its sounds were still remembered (the piece is reproduced in Jones).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EinsteinIM

MGG1 (E. Winternitz)

SolertiMBD

A. Hajdecki: Die italienische Lira da Braccio (Mostar, 1892/R)

G.R. Hayes: Musical Instruments and their Music, 1500–1750, ii: The Viols and other Bowed Instruments (London, 1930)

B. Disertori: ‘L’arciviolatalira in un quadro del seicento’, RMI, xliv (1940), 199–211

B. Disertori: ‘Pratica e tecnica della lira da braccio’, RMI, xlv (1941), 150–75

E. Haraszti: ‘La technique des improvisateurs de langue vulgaire et de latin au Quattrocento’, RBM, ix (1955), 12–31

E. Winternitz: Musical Instruments and their Symbolism in Western Art (New York, 1967, 2/1979)

H.M. Brown: Sixteenth-Century Instrumentation: the Music for the Florentine Intermedii, MSD, xxx (1973), 223–25

L.C. Witten: ‘Apollo, Orpheus, and David’, JAMIS, i (1975), 5–55

E. Winternitz: Leonardo da Vinci as a Musician (New Haven, CT, and London, 1982)

V. Ivanoff: Das Pesaro-Manuskript (Tutzing, 1988)

S.S. Jones: The Lira da braccio (Bloomington, IN, 1995)

HOWARD MAYER BROWN/STERLING SCOTT JONES

Lira da gamba [lira doppia; lira grande].

See Lirone.

Lira organizzata

(It.; Fr. vielle organisée).

A Hurdy-gurdywith one or two ranks of organ pipes and bellows housed in its body. On some instruments a crank operates both the wheel that activates the strings and the bellows that makes the pipes sound; on others there is a separate mechanism for the bellows worked by the foot. On most instruments a mechanism permitted the player to engage either the strings or the pipes, or both together. Some instruments are guitar-shaped while others (for example, one in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London) are larger and in box shape.

The instrument seems already to have existed in the middle of the 18th century in France. It reached a peak of popularity about 1780, but its vogue did not last long. It was the favourite instrument of Ferdinand IV, King of Naples, who had learned to play it from Norbert Hadrava, the Austrian Legations Secretary. Hadrava, who had probably heard such instruments in Paris or Berlin, devised some improvements for it, and he and Ferdinand commissioned works for it from Adalbert Gyrowetz, Ignace Pleyel, Johann Sterkel and Haydn, who composed five concertos for two lire organizzate and orchestra (hVIIh:1–5), and eight Notturnos for two lire organizzate and other instruments (hII:25–32).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Ohmiya, ed.: Joseph Haydn Werke VI: Concerti mit Orgelleiern (Munich, 1976)

H. Czakler: ‘Zum Problem der Lira organizzata’, Joseph Haydn: Vienna 1982, 76–81

C. Flagel: ‘La vielle organisée’, Cahiers des Alpes-Maritimes, no.9 (1991), 28–35

J.A. Rice: ‘Stein’s “Favorite Instrument”: a Vis-à-vis Piano – Harpsichord in Naples’, JAMIS, xxi (1995), 30–64

HOWARD MAYER BROWN/R

Lireggiare

(It.).

A term used in F. Rognoni Taeggio's Selva de varii passaggi secondo l'uso moderno (Milan, 1620), to mean slurring several notes in one bowstroke on the violin. It is still defined in the same way in J.G. Walther's Musicalisches Lexicon (Leipzig, 1732). For a discussion of the term, see BoydenH.

See also Bow, §II, 2(iii–v).

Lirico spinto.

See Spinto.

Lirithier, Johannes.

See Lhéritier, Jean.

Lirone [lira da gamba, lira in gamba, lyra de gamba, gran lira, lira grande, lirone perfetto, lyra perfecta, lira doppia, arciviolata, arciviolatalira, arcivioladaslyras, lyrone, lyra, lira]

(It.).

A larger relative of the Lira da braccio, in use from approximately 1500 to 1700, primarily in Italy. Both types of lira were bowed chordal instruments, their chief use being to accompany the voice, but the lirone was played between the knees rather than under the chin because of its size. It accommodated many more strings – as few as nine and as many as 20 – and was therefore capable of playing in a greater number of keys. Its repertory was more comprehensive than that of the lira da braccio, covering nearly all genres from the frottola to opera and oratorio (whereas the lira da braccio was more specifically associated with the accompaniment of the poetry and song of the Italian humanists).

2. History in Venice, Florence and Rome.

3. Other Italian and European centres.

4. Associations with other instruments.

5. Surviving instruments and iconography.

6. Modern-day revival.

ERIN HEADLEY

1. Structure, tunings and playing techniques.

The following conclusions can be drawn about the lirone's structural characteristics from iconographical sources and surviving instruments: it had a body size between that of a tenor and a bass viol, shallow ribs (about half the width of the ribs of a viol or cello), a flat back, and a quasi-violin outline, often with pinched or squared-off corners. It had a short neck and fingerboard, it was fretted, and the pegbox was leaf-shaped with frontal pegs. The bridge was nearly flat (fig.1), and the instrument had serpentine soundholes and a rosette. All the surviving examples are listed in §5 below.

The main function of the lirone was to provide sustained chords for the accompaniment of the voice. Its ingenious tuning system (re-entrant throughout; see Re-entrant tuning) meant that from three to six strings, one or two of them usually open, could be bowed together, which lent extra resonance and gave a particularly ethereal sound. Five extant tunings are known, from Cerreto (1601), Praetorius (2/1619) and Mersenne (1636–7). All these systems (ex.1) make it possible to play a series of chords using the same fingering pattern across the entire fingerboard. Major chords are fingered on the second and third frets, minor ones on the first and third. Augmented, diminished, 7th and 9th chords are obtainable, as are common suspensions (4–3, 7–6, etc.). The system most generally used by modern players is a modified version of the Mersenne tuning (ex.2) which makes available a good balance of sharp and flat keys and thus works well for the most common keys. An exceptional feature of the lirone's tuning is that it affords pure 3rds in all keys: with flats on one side of the bridge and sharps on the other, it is possible to obtain, for example, pure 3rds in both E and B major chords. One instrument also shows double frets, so that alternative chord fingerings can be played in tune as well. Some lironi have bourdon strings to the side of the bridge and pegbox; Cerreto, Praetorius and Mersenne included these in their tunings. Bourdons undoubtedly stem from the lira da braccio tradition; although useful for playing music that is harmonically unadventurous, they are less relevant to repertory such as the large-scale mid-17th-century lament with its kaleidoscopic key changes.

Some of the most valuable information about how the instrument was played comes from Agazzari (1607), who stated that ‘the player of the lirone must bow with long, clear, sonorous strokes’. Given the tuning and simple left-hand technique, the player's main responsibility was evidently to provide shapely, sustained harmonies to support the vocal line. Agazzari also recommended the use of a long bow, and experience suggest this should have a flexible stick and black hair. The bow should not be held above the frog (as with later viol technique), but on the frog itself, to make available the maximum length of bow hair and to enable the player to produce deep strokes well into the string; the effect is thus more ‘vocal’ than instrumental. Agazzari also advised emphasizing the 3rds and 6ths of chords: this is an excellent way to ‘centre’ the sound, and also to obtain maximum projection. To assist resonance and produce a clear sound, Cerreto advised that only the upper strings of a given chord be stopped. For moving quickly from one harmony to another, the technique of jeu barré (using the index finger of the left hand as a temporary nut by placing it across a block of strings) is indispensable. Mersenne's examples demonstrate playing in higher positions on the fingerboard; the resulting sound is akin to that of the ‘halo’ effect produced by a choir of violins.

The most common way of notating a lirone part was by means of a figured or unfigured bass. Both Mersenne and Cerreto included tablature examples, but tablature is impractical for such a consistent and simple fingering system on an instrument with so many strings. One seeming disadvantage of the lirone's tuning is that for half the keys, only root-position chords, and for the remaining keys, only second-inversion chords, are available, with consequent problems of octave displacement in the bass line and inner parts. Francesco Rognoni Taeggio (1620), however, dismissed these as minor annoyances and went on to praise the instrument's soul-lifting, harmonious legato. Practitioners of the 16th century were perhaps less concerned than modern-day musicians about imperfections of part-writing, as may be attested by the fact that both Giulio Caccini and Alessandro Striggio (i) were reported to have played the lirone without a supporting bass instrument. Whatever its imperfections, the lirone was a valued member of the continuo fraternity for nearly two centuries. Its distinct and unique sonority destined it for laments, incantations and invocations, and contemporary writers marvelled at its ability to inspire and elevate the spirit. The wonderful effect of sustained chords on a single string instrument may have originated in the Middle Ages, but it flowered in the Renaissance with the lira da braccio, and reached its full development with the lirone in the Baroque. Although the instrument fell out of use in the early 18th century, its haunting, other-worldly tone colour is echoed in the string accompagnato of Passion music.

2. History in Venice, Florence and Rome.

The first written reference to a large lira is in a letter to Francesco Gonzaga in 1505 from the maker and player Atalante Migliorotti, who described a new type of lira that he was constructing: ‘I shall add strings so that there are 12 … in pure and consummate harmony’. Presumably the instrument was first used for playing frottolas, laudi and other compositions with slow-moving harmonies. References to lironi appear in documents of Venetian religious confraternities from the 1530s until 1631, when a number of lirone players died, presumably in the Great Plague of that year. The continuo body listed in 1618 for the Scuola Grande di S Rocco (where the composers Giovanni Picchi and Giovanni Priuli both worked) included two small organs, three larger ones, two lironi, three theorbos and a violone.

In Florence the lirone was used as early as 1560 to accompany singing for the services of the Compagnia dell'Arcangelo Raffaelo, and Caccini himself was known to have played the ‘gran lira’ while singing inside a false tomb at a religious feast in 1584. His early monody Angel' divin' (I-Fn Magl. XIX.66), with its slow-moving harmonic accompaniment, is a good example of likely repertory for the lirone at the end of the 16th century. In secular music, the ‘arciviolatalira’ (a peculiarly Florentine name for the instrument) had an important role in intermedio repertory (Alessandro Striggio's Fuggi, speme mia, dating from 1565, is one of the most beautiful examples), and in the basso continuo ensembles of early Florentine operas, such as Jacopo Peri's Euridice (1600) and Francesca Caccini's La liberazione di Ruggiero (1625). The last known reference to the playing of the instrument in Florence is dated 1669, but presumably the Medici court lirone player Pietro Salvetti (d 1697) continued to play to the end of his life.

Rome was another important centre for the lirone. The preface to Cavalieri's Rappresentatione di Anima, et di Corpo (1600) recommends the use of the lira doppia (which the composer may well have come across during his time at the Florentine court). Stefano Landi included a lira in the list of continuo instruments in the printed score of his sacred opera Il Sant'Alessio (1634). In 1639 André Maugars described the marvel of hearing the lirone in Roman villas and in oratories; he may well have heard any of the six oratorios attributed to Luigi Rossi, or others by Marco Marazzoli, Domenico Mazzocchi or Bernardo Pasquini, all of which include substantial and extremely beautiful laments written to be accompanied by the lirone.

3. Other Italian and European centres.

Striggio, who was born in Mantua, was probably the Lirone’s greatest musical ambassador. He worked mainly for the Medicis in Florence, but his extensive travels took him all around Italy, as well as to London, Flanders, Paris, Innsbruck, Vienna, Landshut, Munich, Augsburg and Brno. He played large and small lire for Maximilian II in Brno, Duke Albrecht V in Munich, and Duke Wilhelm in Landshut (the last of whom, in a letter of 3 August 1574, described Striggio's lirone in some detail). The Graz inventory of 1580 listed a ‘lira in camba’ on which the Bavarian coat of arms was embossed; the Baden-Baden Hofkapelle collection of 1582 included several lyre da gamba; and later, the Austrian emperors Ferdinand III and Leopold I included the lyra in their religious compositions. According to Mersenne, the lyra de gamba was used in France for the accompaniment of psalms; and a grande lire was included in the 1589 inventory of the French luthier Robert Denis (ii). In the south, Cerreto recorded a number of lirone players working in Naples around 1600, while various references to lire are found in 17th-century Sicilian church archives, and Spanish players' names appear in early biographical sources. Finally, the printed inventory (1666) of the Milanese nobleman Manfredo Settala includes one 11-string arciviola (which ‘con arco longa rende melodia soavissima’) and four other lironi.

4. Associations with other instruments.

There are a few examples of lironi playing with trombone consorts, the most notable being Striggio's lament for the 1565 intermedii (in which the instruments are placed off-stage); here the gentle regal-like quality of the lirone binds the ensemble very effectively. The lirone also joins a viol consort in Francesca Caccini's Ruggiero. Although the organ and the lirone might be expected to cancel each other out – and the lirone was often used in place of the organ – the two actually blend surprisingly well, particularly if the organist avoids the middle register: a marvellous layered chordal effect can be achieved with the keyboard player's right hand covering the register above the lirone, the left hand playing the bass and the lirone in the middle of the texture. Numerous references to the lirone playing with plucked instruments, particularly the chitarrone, abound, but Luigi Rossi went further to combine it with the harpsichord in his oratorios (albeit it with a supporting bowed bass). A combination of a bowed bass instrument (bass violin, violone etc.) and lirone is very effective; the bass instrument should probably play at 8' pitch.

5. Surviving instruments and iconography.

There are seven surviving examples, only some of which were originally lironi. The earliest, by L. Morella (1530 or 1550) is now housed in the Conservatório Nacional, Lisbon; a similar instrument, but more crudely designed and executed, is the anonymous example of about 1550 in the Musée des instruments de musique, Brussels. There are three in the Musikinstrumenten-Museum, University of Leipzig: two may originally have been viols (by Antonio Brensio and Gasparo or Francesco da Salò), while the third is in fragments (pegbox, neck, tailpiece and end block). Before World War II this last instrument was part of the Kraus Collection in Florence, and it is depicted (not always accurately) in a number of 17th-century paintings. The lirone by Wendelin Tieffenbrucker (c1590), now in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, is perhaps the most elegant and eye-catching with its festooned body shape, but it may have been cut down from a cello. More recently, an anonymous figure-of-eight example has been discovered in a private collection in Burg Sternberg, Germany (see David).

Besides woodcuts, prints and drawings, there are a number of important and reasonably accurate 17th-century paintings of lironi, including Pier Francesco Mola's Homer (Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden; fig.2), Ferdinand Bol's Dame mit lira da gamba (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna), an anonymous Apollo with lira da gamba (source unknown, mid-17th century; see Disertori), Jan Roos's Orphée charmant les animaux (private collection, Gênes; and A.D. Gabbiani's Ferdinando de’ and his musicians Medici (Palazzo Pitti, Florence); the last portrays Pietro Salvetti holding his cello and bow, with his lirone propped next to him.

3. The trips to England, 1824–7.

6. Modern-day revival.

Since the early 1980s the lirone has enjoyed a successful revival, beginning with Erin Headley's research, performances and recordings, and has once more been restored to its rightful place in the continuo ensemble. It is no longer a rare event to hear the instrument in Baroque opera, oratorio or vocal chamber music. The lirone has been taken up professionally by other players, most notably Imke David, Paulina van Laarhoven and Hildegard Perl, while distinguished makers include Henner Harders, Peter Hütmannsberger, Günter Mark and John Pringle. In 1997 the Lira-Forum was founded by Igor Pomykalo in Vienna for the exchange of information about lire da braccio, lironi, lyra viols and related instruments.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MersenneHU

PraetoriusSM, ii

PraetoriusTI

S. di Ganassi dal Fontego: Regola rubertina (Venice, 1542); ed. W. Eggers (Kassel, 1974); Eng. trans., JVdGSA, xviii (1981), 13–66

L. Zacconi: Prattica di musica (Venice, 1592/R)

S. Cerreto: Della prattica musica vocale et strumentale (Naples, 1601/R, 2/1611)

A. Agazzari: Del sonare sopra 'l basso (Siena, 1607, 2/1608); Eng. trans. in Strunk SR1

A. Banchieri: Conclusioni nel suono dell'organo (Bologna, 1609/R, 2/1626 as Armoniche conclusioni nel suono dell'organo; Eng. trans., 1982)

P. Cerone: El melopeo (Naples, 1613/R)

F. Rognoni Taeggio: Selva di varii passaggi (Milan, 1620/R)

A. Maugars: Response faite à un curieux sur le sentiment de la musique d'Italie, escrite à Rome le premier octobre 1639 (Paris, c1640, copies in F-Pn and Pm); ed. J. Heuillon (Paris, 1991, 2/1992); ed. H.W. Hitchcock with Eng. trans. (Geneva, 1993)

A. Kircher: Musurgia universalis (Rome, 1650/R)

B. Disertori: ‘L'arciviolatalira in un quadro del seicento’, RMI, xliv (1940), 199–211

D. Arnold: ‘Music at the Scuola di San Rocco’, ML, xl (1959), 229–41

D. Arnold: ‘Music at a Venetian Confraternity in the Renaissance’, AcM, xxxvii (1965), 62–72

H.M. Brown: ‘Psyche's Lament: some Music for the Medici Wedding in 1565’, Words and Music: the Scholar's View … in Honor of Tillman Merritt, ed. L. Berman (Cambridge, MA, 1972), 1–28

H.M. Brown: Sixteenth-Century Instrumentation: the Music for the Florentine Intermedii, MSD, xxx (1973)

C.A. Miller: The Writings of Jerome Cardan on Music, MSD, xxxii (1973)

H.E. Smither: A History of the Oratorio, i (Chapel Hill, 1977)

J.W. Hill: ‘Oratory Music in Florence, I: Recitar cantando, 1583–1655’, AcM, li (1979), 108–36

J.W. Hill: ‘Oratory Music in Florence, II: at San Firenze in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, AcM, li (1979), 246–67

W.F. Prizer: ‘Isabella d'Este and Lorenzo da Pavia, “Master Instrument-Maker”’, EMH, ii (1982), 87–127

C.A. Elias: ‘Musical Performance in 16th-Century Italian Literature: Straparola's Le piacevoli notti’, EMc, xvii (1989), 161–73

D. Butchart: ‘The Letters of Alessandro Striggio: an Edition with Translation and Commentary’, RMARC, xxiii (1990), 1–78

I. David: Della lira da gamba (thesis, Schola Cantorum Basiliensis, 1995)

Lisbon

(Port. Lisboa).

Capital city of Portugal.

1. To 1870.

In 1147 Afonso Henriques regained Lisbon from the Moors and made it his capital. Gilbert of Hastings (Bishop of Lisbon 1147–66) introduced features of Sarum Use, which prevailed locally until 1536, and started the building of Lisbon Cathedral in 1149. Diniz, who ruled from 1261 to 1325, founded the royal chapel in the Alcáçova Palace in 1299. Afonso IV (1325–57) increased to ten the number of chaplains obliged to sing Mass daily in the royal chapel. In his Leal Conselheiro, a collection of moral essays finished about 1438, King Duarte records that three-part singing was then normal in the royal chapel (alto, tenor and contratenor), and classifies the music sung as either composed (canto feito) or improvised (descanto); six was the minimum number of singing boys, and it was the duty of the mestre de capela to rehearse the vocal music, choosing music appropriate to the church year. Duarte’s mestre de capela Gil Lourenço came from Aragon, as did Tristão da Silva, who served under Duarte’s son Afonso V (1432–81).

Still influenced by Sarum Use, Afonso V sent his mestre de capela Alvaro Afonso to England about 1454 to obtain a copy of the regulations used in Henry VI’s chapel; the superb manuscript supplied by Dean William Say survives (P-EVp, CV/1–36d). Alvaro Afonso also composed the Vesperae, matutinum, & laudes cum antiphonis, & figuris musicis to celebrate Afonso’s victory over the Moors at Arzila in 1471; this is lost, however, as are the works of his successors João de Lisboa (fl 1476), Matheus de Fonte (1516), Fernão Rodrigues (1521), João de Vilhacastim (1548) and Bartholomeu Trosylho (1551). The native mestres da Capela Real before 1700 whose works survive are António Carreira, Filipe de Magalhães, Filipe da Cruz and António Marques Lésbio. New royal chapel statutes of 1592 increased the ensemble to 24 adult singers, 22 boys (four of whom sang polyphony), two baixões (curtals), a cornettist and two organists in addition to the mestre de capela.

During the reign of Manuel I (1495–1521) Lisbon city waits were contracted in Flanders; their number was fixed at five (a shawm quartet and a sackbut) in 1628. A century later blacks had so pre-empted processional music that an ordinance was passed in 1717 restricting their number among municipal musicians.

By 1649 the royal music library, which was lost in the earthquake of 1755, was considered the best at any European court. Through a papal bull of 1716 the royal chapel was raised to a patriarchal chapel, and from 1719 to 1728 Domenico Scarlatti was associated with the chapel. In 1754, a year before the disastrous earthquake, the personnel included four organists and 74 singers of whom 34 were well-paid Italians, the highest paid being the castratos; the first four violinists were also Italians. The large number of singers was partly a result of the unification of the patriarchate and archbishopric in 1740 (which continued until the restoration of the archbishopric in 1834). Marcos Portugal became both royal mestre de capela and maestro of the Teatro de S Carlos in 1800. With the Napoleonic wars and the departure of the royal family for Rio de Janeiro in 1808 (whither Marcos Portugal followed them in 1810) three rich centuries of court musical life came to a close.

The three most prolific directors of Lisbon Cathedral’s music in the 17th century were Duarte Lobo (1594–1643), João Álvares Frouvo (1647–82) and Francisco da Costa e Silva. Of the three 19th-century mestres, João Jordani (1793–1860), born in Lisbon of Italian parents, Joaquim Casimiro Júnior and Domingos Benavente (1825–76), only Casimiro brought distinction to the post (1860–62). The first cathedral organist known by name is António Fernandes (1540); João de Burgumão (d 1571) was engaged as organist of the royal chapel in 1544. The parish church of S Nicolau had an organ as early as 1374, played by an organist named Garcia. Philip II complained that Lisbon lacked any organist to equal Hernando de Cabezón in 1581; as a result the Spanish organists Estacio de la Serna, S. Martínez Verdugo and Diego de Alvarado were imported to Lisbon during his reign. However, the only Lisbon organist to publish his collected works during the Spanish regime (1580–1640) was Manuel Rodrigues Coelho, whose Flores de musica was published in 1620 by Pedro Craesbeeck, who emigrated from Antwerp to Lisbon in 1592. The Catalan immigrant Jayme de la Tê y Sagau ran a Lisbon printing establishment and during the 1720s published 77 of his solo cantatas with continuo and 12 Cantadas humanas a solo by Emanuele d’Astorga (1726). More significant for Portuguese music were the modinhas (popular songs) published between 1792 and 1795 by P.A. Maréchal and François Milcent in the Jornal de modinhas.

The Conservatório Nacional, created by a royal decree of 5 May 1835, absorbed the faculty of the Seminário da Patriarcal founded by João V in 1713. It was directed from 1835 to 1842 by J.D. Bomtempo, founder of the Sociedade Filarmónica (1822), which organized the first Portuguese public concert series. The conservatory counted among its more notable teachers in the later 19th century the bassoonist Augusto Neuparth (1862–87) and the cellist Ernesto Wagner (1878–99).

The Portuguese court developed a passion for opera during the reigns of João V (1706–50) and José I (1750–77). Castratos took the women’s parts. The first operas by a Portuguese composer were F.A. de Almeida’s La pazienza di Socrate and La Spinalba (for carnivals of 1733 and 1739 respectively), and both were mounted in the Royal Palace Theatre. Operas given at the Academia da Trindade, a public theatre opened in 1735, and its successor, the Teatro de Rua dos Condes, included works by Schiassi and Leo. The Casa da Opera, which opened on 31 March 1755 with David Perez’s Alessandro nell’Indie, was destroyed by the earthquake of 1 November of the same year (see illustration). Luisa Todi began her meteoric career at the Teatro do Bairro Alto in 1771 and after touring Europe spent the last 24 years of her life in Lisbon (from 1796). Marcos Portugal’s early stage works were presented at the newly opened Teatro do Salitre between 1785 and 1792 and between 1800 and 1807 he composed 13 opere serie for S Carlos, a new theatre inaugurated on 30 June 1793 with Cimarosa’s La ballerina amante.

The Irmandade de S Cecília dos Músicos de Lisboa, the first Portuguese musicians’ protective and benevolent association, was founded at Lisbon in 1603, with Pedro Thalesio as a prime mover. Twice reorganized (in 1755 by P.A. Avondano and in 1838 by J.A.R. Costa), it continued to collect dues for the relief of indigent members or for the souls of the departed, examined postulants for membership and acted as a restrictive union to prevent non-members from obtaining paid musical engagements. At its height (during the reign of João V) it sponsored important annual St Cecilia celebrations; the librettos of the villancicos sung between 1719 and 1723 show that these festivals then bordered on opera.

2. From 1870.

The new impetus in concert life in the last decades of the 19th century is particularly associated with institutions such as the Orquestra 24 de Junho (1870), conducted by, among others, Francisco Barbieri, Edouard Colonne and Ruddorf; the Sociedade de Concertos de Lisboa (1875); and the Real Academia dos Amadores de Música (1884), whose orchestra was directed by the German conductor Victor Hussla, and whose music school offered an alternative to the Conservatório Nacional. While the Recreios Wyttoyne (1875), the Real Coliseu de Lisboa (1887) and the Avenida (1888) theatres specialized in comic operas and zarzuelas, the Coliseu dos Recreios, built in 1890, presented both symphonic concerts and opera performances at reduced prices. Well-known orchestras visited Lisbon, including the Berlin PO under Nikisch in 1901 and again under Richard Strauss in 1908, the Colonne Orchestra in 1903 and the Lamoureux Orchestra in 1905. In 1917 the pianist José Vianna da Motta became director of the Conservatório Nacional. In the early 20th century several orchestras were founded, some of which were short-lived, such as the Portuguese SO (Orquestra Sinfónica Portuguesa), under Pedro Blanch (1911–28), the Lisbon SO (Orquestra Sinfónica de Lisboa), under David de Sousa and later José Vianna da Motta (1913), the Filarmonia de Lisboa, under Francisco de Lacerda (1923), the Orquestra dos Concertos Sinfónicos de Lisboa, under Pedro de Freitas Branco (1928–31), the Portuguese RSO (Orquestra Sinfónica da Emissora Nacional, 1934) and the Orquestra Filarmónica de Lisboa (1937). Choral societies were also created, such as the Sociedade Coral Duarte Lobo, directed by Ivo Cruz (1931) and the Sociedade Coral de Lisboa, directed by Frederico de Freitas (1940). Concert societies founded in the first half of the 20th century included the Sociedade de Concertos (1917), the Sociedade Nacional de Música de Cámara (1919), Divulgação Musical (1925), the Círculo de Cultura Musical (1934), ‘Sonata’ (1942) and the Juventude Musical Portuguesa (1948). The Círculo de Cultura Musical, in particular, introduced to Lisbon composers such as Prokofiev, Casella, Poulenc, Honegger and Hindemith.

The Teatro de S Carlos, which had been closed since 1927, reopened in 1940 as part of the celebrations commemorating 800 years of Portuguese independence. After 1946 it was directly managed by the state. During the 1950s and 60s many international stars appeared at the theatre, although its repertory remained largely conservative. In 1963 the Fundação Nacional para a Alegria no Trabalho created a Portuguese opera company based at the Teatro da Trindade. This company was disbanded in 1975 and most of its singers were integrated in the Teatro de S Carlos. In the early 1980s the theatre had its own permanent orchestra and the nucleus of a resident opera company, but by the mid-1990s only the chorus survived.

Created in 1956, the Gulbenkian Foundationbrought significant changes to the musical life of Lisbon. In 1962 the Gulbenkian Chamber Orchestra was established (renamed the Gulbenkian Orchestra in 1971), followed in 1964 by the Gulbenkian Choir and in 1965 the Ballet Gulbenkian. Since 1977 the foundation has organized the annual Encontros Gulbenkian de Música Contemporânea, featuring the music of major foreign and national contemporary composers, and since 1980 it has promoted the annual early music festival, Jornadas de Música Antiga. It also continues to promote regular concerts in its own auditoriums and elsewhere in Lisbon.

The central role of Lisbon in the music life of Portugal was, if anything, reinforced during the 20th century. Most of the country's leading composers lived and worked in the capital, including Luís de Freitas Branco, Armando José Fernandes, Frederico de Freitas, Fernando Lopes Graça and Joly Braga Santos, Constança Capdeville and Jorge Peixinho. In recent decades new orchestras have been created (Nova Filarmonia Portuguesa, Orquestra Metropolitana de Lisboa in 1992), and new concert halls have been built, such as those at the Centro Cultural de Belém. Independent music groups in the city include the Grupo de Música Contemporânea de Lisboa, founded in 1970 by Jorge Peixinho, and the early music group Segréis de Lisboa. In 1980 a musicology department was created at the Universidade Nova de Lisboa, and in 1983 an Escola Superior de Música was opened in the city.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. da Fonseca Benevides: O Real Theatro de São Carlos (Lisbon, 1883/R)

F. da Fonseca Benavides: O Real Theatro de S. Carlos de Lisboa: memorias, 1883–1902 (Lisbon,1902/R)

F.M. de Sousa Viterbo: ‘Os mestres da capella real nos reinados de D. João III e D. Sebastião’,Archivo historico portuguez, iv (1906), 461–73; v (1907), 43–59

F.M. de Sousa Viterbo: ‘Mestres da capela real desde o dominio filipino (inclusivé) até D. José I’, Archivo historico portuguez, v (1907), 426–31, 452–61

J.J. Marques: Cronologia da ópera em Portugal (Lisbon, 1947)

M.A. Machado Santos, ed.: Biblioteca da Ajuda: Catálogo de música manuscrita (Lisbon, 1958–68)

A. Sibertin-Blanc: ‘The Newly Installed Organ in Lisbon Cathedral’, The Organ, xlvi (1966–7), 119–22

C.P. Leça: ‘História dum Festival (o Festival Gulbenkian de Música, de 1957 a 1970)’, Colóquio-Artes, vii (1972), 40–51

R. Stevenson: ‘Liszt at Madrid and Lisbon: 1844–45’, MQ, lxv (1979), 493–512

M.I. Cruz: O Teatro Nacional de S. Carlos (Oporto, 1992)

M.V. Carvalho: Pensar é morrer, ou O Teatro de São Carlos: na mundança de sistemas sociocomunicativos desde fins do séc. XVIII aos nossos dias (Lisbon, 1993)

M.J. de La Fuente: ‘João Domingos Bomtempo e o Conservatório de Lisboa’, João Domingos Bomtempo, 1775–1842, Instituto da Biblioteca Nacional e do Livro, 1993 (Lisbon, 1993), 11–55 [exhibition catalogue]

For further bibliography see Portugal.

ROBERT STEVENSON/MANUEL CARLOS DE BRITO (1), MANUEL CARLOS DE BRITO (2)

Lïsenko, Nikolay Vital'yevich.

See Lysenko, Mykola Vytaliyovych.

Lisinski, Vatroslav [Fuchs, Ignacije]

(b Zagreb, bap. 8 July 1819; d Zagreb, 31 May 1854). Croatian composer. Lisinski was the leading composer of early Romanticism in Croatia. Having left school in 1837, after also studying music privately with J. Sojka and J.K. Wisner von Morgenstern, he graduated in arts and law and began work as an unpaid clerk. His first compositions were enthusiastically received, and he rapidly progressed from minor works to an opera, Ljubav i zloba (‘Love and Malice’, 1845). This was the first opera in modern Croatian and South Slavonic music, and its performance was recognized as a significant event by the Revue et gazette musicale (19 April 1846) and the Wiener allgemeine Theaterzeitung (8 May 1846). Lisinski now decided to concentrate wholly on music, and left for Prague to study at the conservatory; but finding that he was over the age limit, he was obliged to take private lessons with J.B. Kittl and K.F. Pitsch. The music of this period (solo songs, an overture Bellona, part of his second opera Porin) testifies to his rapid development.

With his return to Zagreb, the most difficult phase of his life began. Legalizing his name as Vatroslav Lisinski, he set about, in the exceptionally hard circumstances of the years after 1848, making his way as a professional musician, working as teacher, composer and conductor. Having failed to live by giving piano lessons and on occasional donations, and being at same time subjected to political oppression, he was forced by 1853 to abandon music and, disillusioned, to accept a post as a clerk. He wrote his own funeral march, Jeder Mensch muss sterben (lost) shortly before his death from dropsy at the age of 34.

Lisinski may be described as a typical early Romantic. Born into the musical life of Croatia at the time of the national revival of the years before 1848, he expertly reflected the enthusiasm and sense of energy of those days as well as their lyrical overtones. In 11 years of activity between 1841 and 1852, he wrote 145 original works. To a large extent, these follow the general characteristics of early Romanticism; but in some of them, he was the first to draw on Czech and Croatian folk melody, and should thus be considered not only the founder of nationalistic Croatian music but a predecessor in this respect of Smetana and Dvořák. Parts of Porin also show that he tried to make use of broader Slavonic characteristics (as for instance, in Sveslav’s Act 4 aria ‘Strogi oče na nebesi’: ‘Our father’, which suggests an awareness of Glinka). In his use of leitmotif for Porin himself, he seems to be on the threshold of music-drama. By his advanced harmonic sense and his sensitive use of the orchestra (both as Romantic full orchestra in Bellona and as chamber ensemble in Der Abend), Lisinski was able to create several works that are in no way inferior to similar achievements in the rest of Europe. Dominating his contemporaries so completely as he did, Lisinski did not at first effectively influence the general development of Croatian music; since World War I, however, he has been recognized as the founder of modern Croatian and South Slavonic music.

WORKS

Edition:V. Lisinski: Izabrana djela [Selected works], ed. L. Županović (Zagreb, 1969) [Z]

stage

Ljubav i zloba [Love and Malice] (op, 2, D. Demeter), 1845, Zagreb, 28 March 1846, Z vi

Porin (knightly op, 5, Demeter), 1848–51, Zagreb, 2 Oct 1897, Z vii

orchestral

5 works in Z iv

7 overtures, incl. no.4 ‘Jugoslavenka’, E, 1848; no.5 ‘Bellona’, D, 1849; no.6, D, 1851

Several other works, incl. Der Abend, idyll, 1850

other works

28 choral pieces, 20 in Z ii, incl. Putnik [The Traveller]; Tam gdje stoji gradić bijeli [Where the White Town Stands]; Prelja [The Spinning Woman]: all 1844; Dobrou noc [Good Night]; Na Krkonošich [On Krkonoše]: both 1849; Moja ladja [My Barge]; Laku noć [Good Night]: both 1850; Pogrebnica [Funeral March], 1851; Cum invocarem, 1852

69 songs, 1v, pf, 30 in Z i, incl. Miruj, miruj, srce moje [Quiet, Quiet, oh my Heart]; Prosjak [The Beggar]; Der Zufluchtsort: all 1846; Máj [May]; Vojenska píseň [Soldier’s Song]; Co blaho mé? [What Enchants me?]; Jinochovo přání [The Lad’s Wish]; Po boji [After the Battle]; Vltava; Slavíček a starost [Nightingale and Worry]; An die Tanne: all 1849; Osamljen [Solitary]; Ribar [The Fisherman]; Tuga [Sorrow]: all 1850; Život [Life]; Růže [Roses]: both 1852

30 pf pieces, mostly dances and marches, incl. Mazur, a, 1849, in Z iii

Collections of folk tunes, Z v

WRITINGS

Theorie der Tonsetzkunst [after lectures of K.F. Pitsch] (MS, Hrvatski Glazbeni Zavod, Zagreb)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Vranyczany-Dobrinović: ‘V. Lisinski – životopisni nacrt’ [V. Lisinski – a sketch of his life], Narodne novine, xxii (1856), 467, 471, 473, 477, 481, 485, 489

F.K. Kuhač: Vatroslav Lisinski i njegovo doba [Lisinski and his time] (Zagreb, 1887, 2/1904)

A. Kassowitz-Cvijić: Vatroslav Lisinski u kolu Ilira [Lisinski in the Society of the Illyrians] (Zagreb, 1919)

V. Klaić: Vatroslav Lisinski, 1819–1854 i prve dvije hrvatske opere [Lisinski and the first two Croatian operas] (Zagreb, 1919)

V. Novak: Vatroslav Lisinski (Belgrade, 1925)

L. Županović: Vatroslav Lisinski (1819–1854), život, djelo, značenje [His life, his work, his significance] (Zagreb, 1969)

J. Andreis: Music in Croatia (Zagreb, 1974, 2/1982)

L. Županović: Stoljeća hrratske glazbe (Zagreb, 1980), 166–92; Eng. trans. Centuries of Croation Music, ii (Zagreb, 1989), 59–104

LOVRO ŽUPANOVIĆ

Lisitsian, Pavel [Pogos] Gerasim

(b Vladikavkaz, 24 Oct/6 Nov 1911). Armenian baritone. He studied in Leningrad, and made his début there in 1935. He first sang with the Bol'shoy Opera in 1940 and was for many years the company’s leading baritone. He appeared at the Metropolitan as Amonasro in 1960, when he undertook a concert tour of the USA. He was a notable Yevgeny Onegin, Yeletsky, Escamillo, Napoleon (War and Peace) and Janusz (Halka), and also sang in the standard Italian and Russian repertories. He was, in addition, acknowledged as an authoritative interpreter of Russian song. Lisitsian had one of the century’s most beautiful baritone voices allied to considerable artistry, as can be heard on his many recordings; he was also a fine actor.

ALAN BLYTH

L'isle, Alain de.

See Alain de Lille.

Lisle, Claude-Joseph Rouget de.

See Rouget de lisle, claude-joseph.

Lissa, Zofia

(b Lwów, 19 Sept 1908; d Warsaw, 26 March 1980). Polish musicologist. She completed her musical education (piano and organ) at the Lwów Conservatory in 1924 and then studied musicology with Adolf Chybiński, philosophy, psychology and art history at Lwów University (1925–9). She graduated in musicology in 1929 and took the doctorate in 1930 with a dissertation on Skryabin's harmony. In 1947 she completed the Habilitation at Poznań with a work on musical humour and in 1954 she took the doctorate in historical sciences at the University of Poznań with a work on musical aesthetics. After ten years teaching theoretical subjects at the Lwów Conservatory (1931–41) she spent a year in the Uzbek Republic and then worked in Moscow (1943–6), where from 1944 she was a cultural attaché of the Polish Embassy. She was appointed successively reader (1948–51), professor (1951–7) and director (1957) of the musicology institute at Warsaw University. As an administrator she was active in many Polish and foreign institutions including the Union of Polish Composers, the Committee for History and Theory of Art of the Polish Academy of Sciences, the Council of Culture of the Ministry of Culture and Art, and the IMS directorate.

Lissa's scholarly interests were extensive but focussed chiefly on the problems of the aesthetics of music, the methodology of the history and theory of music, and the history of recent Polish music. She wrote the first Polish book on film music, and was the first to carry out large-scale investigations of musical aesthetics. Her work was founded on Marxist method.

WRITINGS

O harmonice Aleksandra Skriabina (diss., U. of Lwów, 1930; KM, no.8, 1930, pp.320–53)

‘Politonalność i atonalność w świetle najnowszych badań’ [Polytonality and atonality in the light of the most recent research], KM, nos.6–7 (1930), 192–237

Zarys nauki o muzyce [A short music textbook] (Lwów, 1934, enlarged 4/1966)

‘Geschichtliche Vorform der Zwölftontechnik’, AcM, xvii (1935), 15–21

O istocie komizmu muzycznego [The essence of musical humour] (Habilitationsschrift, U. of Poznań, 1947; Kraków, 1938)

‘Uwagi o metodzie marksistowskiej w muzykologii’ [Questions of Marxist methods in musicology], Księga pamiątkowa ku czci Prof. Adolfa Chybińskiego w 70-lecie urodzin (Kraków, 1950), 50–119

Muzykologia polska na przełomie [A turning-point in Polish musicology] (Kraków, 1952) [articles 1947–51]

with J.M. Chomiński: Muzyka polskiego Odrodzenia (Warsaw, 1953, 2/1954 rev. in Odrodzenie w Polsce, ed. B. Leśnodorski, v, Warsaw, 1958, pp.7–112; Eng. trans., 1955, as Music of the Polish Renaissance)

‘La formation du style national dans la musique instrumentale polonaise de la Renaissance’, La musique instrumentale de la Renaissance: Paris 1954, 149–61

‘O obiektywności praw w historii i teorii muzyki’ [Objective laws in the history and theory of music], Studia muzykologiczne, iii (1954), 7–112; pubd separately (Kraków, 1954)

Podstawy estetyki muzycznej [Questions of music aesthetics] (diss., U. of Poznań, 1954; Warsaw, 1953; Ger. trans., 1954) [articles 1950–53; one chapter, ‘O specyfice muzyki’ [On the specific qualities of music], pubd separately (Warsaw, 1953; Ger. trans., 1957)]

Historia muzyki rosyjskiej [History of Russian music] (Kraków, 1955)

‘Prawa dialektyki w muzyce’ [Laws of musical dialectics], Studia muzykologiczne, iv (1955), 75–104

‘“Koncert na orkiestrę” Witolda Lutosławskiego’ [Lutosławski’s Concerto for Orchestra], Studia muzykologiczne, v (1956), 196–299

‘Trzecia symfonia Bolesława Szabelskiego’ [Szabelski’s Third Symphony], Muzyka, i/1 (1956), 34–72

‘“Wozzek” Albana Berga’, Muzyka, i/3 (1956), 107–34

‘O historycznej zmienności percepcji muzycznej’ [The historical change in the perception of music], Przegląd humanistyczny, iii/4 (1959), 43–56; Ger. trans. in Festschrift Heinrich Besseler, ed. E. Klemm (Leipzig, 1961), 475–88; Eng. trans. in Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, xxiv (1965), 273–86

‘Rozważania o stylu narodowym w muzyce na materiale twórczości Karola Szymanowskiego’ [A consideration of national style in music in Szymanowski’s creative work], Z życia i twórczości Karola Szymanowskiego, ed. J.M. Chomiński (Kraków, 1960), 7–72

‘Über die Verbindungen zwischen der Harmonik von A.N. Skrjabin und der Harmonik von F. Chopin’, The works of Frederick Chopin: Warsaw 1960, 335–40

‘Zagadnienie czasu muzycznego w estetyce Augusta Wilhelma Schlegla’ [Consideration of musical time in Schlegel’s aesthetics], Estetyka, i (1960), 291–316

Estetyka muzyki filmowej (Kraków, 1964; Ger. trans., 1965)

Szkice z estetyki muzycznej [A sketch of music aesthetics] (Kraków, 1965; Ger. trans., 1969) [10 papers from Pol. and foreign periodicals, 1938–64]

‘Folk Elements in Polish Music from the Middle Ages up to the 18th Century’, Musica antiqua Europae orientalis: Bydgoszcz and Toruń 1966, 354–82

‘Ost-West-Probleme in der modernen Musikgeschichtsschreibung’, ibid., 19–41

‘Uwagi o Ingardenowskiej teorii dzieła muzycznego’ [Reflections on Ingarden’s theory of a musical work], Studia estetyczne, iii (1966), 95–113; Ger. trans., Studia filozoficzne (1970), no.4, pp.331–50

‘Hegel und das Problem der Formintegration in der Musik’, Festschrift für Walter Wiora, ed. L. Finscher and C.-H. Mahling (Kassel, 1967), 112–19

‘O istocie dzieła muzycznego’ [The essence of a musical work], Muzyka, xiii/1 (1968), 3–30; Ger. trans. in Mf, xxi (1968), 157–82

Polonica Beethovenowskie (Kraków, 1970)

Studia nad twórczością Fryderyka Chopina [Studies of Chopin’s works] (Kraków, 1970) [9 papers from Pol. and foreign periodicals, 1955–67, in orig. languages]

‘Faktura fortepianowa Beethovena i Chopina’, Muzyka, xv/4 (1970), 42–66; Ger. trans. as ‘Beethovens Einfluss auf den Klaviersatz Chopins’, Beethoven Symposium: Vienna 1970, 175–98

‘Z zagadnień współczesnej periodyzacji historii kultur muzycznych świata’ [Questions of modern periodization in the history of world musical culture], Musica antiqua III: Bydgoszcz 1972, 7–29 [with Eng. summary]; Eng. trans. in Polish Musicological Studies, i (1977), 216–36

‘Die Rolle der Tradition in der Musik Volkspolens (1945–1970)’, Studien zur Tradition in der Musik: Kurt von Fischer zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. H.H. Eggebrecht and M. Lütolf (Munich, 1973), 201–15

‘Klavierpolonaise und -mazurka im 19. Jahrhundert’, Gattungen der Musik in Einzeldarstellungen Gedenkschrift Leo Schrade, ed. W. Arlt and others (Berne and Munich, 1973), 813–39

‘Zur Theorie der musikalischen Rezeption’, AMw, xxxi (1974), 157–69

BIBLIOGRAPHY

W. Rudziński: ‘Zofia Lissa, laureat nagrody Związku Kompozytorów Polskich’ [Zofia Lissa, prizewinner of the Polish Composers’ Union], Muzyka, iii/1–2 (1952), 57–9

E. Dziębowska, ed.: Studia musicologica aesthetica, theoretica, historica: Zofia Lissa w 70. roku urodzin (Kraków, 1979) [incl. list of writings]

Z. Helman: ‘Zofia Lissa 1908–1980’, Zeitschrift für Musikpädagogik, xviii (1982), 27–9; Eng. trans. in Polish Musicological Studies, ii (1986), 7–24

ZYGMUNT M. SZWEYKOWSKI

List [Fleissig], Emanuel

(b Vienna, 22 March 1888; d Vienna, 21 June 1967). Austrian bass. He was a chorister at the Theater an der Wien, then emigrated to the USA, where he sang in vaudeville and then studied with Josiah Zuro. Returning to Vienna in 1920, he made his début at the Volksoper in 1922 as Méphistophélès. The next year he went to the Charlottenburg opera, Berlin, and from 1925 to 1933 was a member of the Staatsoper. He made his Covent Garden début in 1925 as Pogner and returned (1934–6) as Hunding, Hagen, King Mark, Ramfis and Ochs, his most famous role. He sang at the Metropolitan (where he made his début as the Landgrave in Tannhäuser) from 1933 to 1950 and at San Francisco, Chicago and Buenos Aires. At Salzburg between 1931 and 1935 he sang Osmin, the Commendatore, Rocco and King Mark, and at the 1933 Bayreuth Festival, Fafner, Hunding and Hagen. Forced to leave Germany, he became a naturalized American and did not return to Berlin until 1950. List had a deep, rich bass which, with his imposing presence, admirably fitted him for the Wagner villains he so tellingly portrayed. He recorded several of his Wagner roles, including Hunding on Bruno Walter’s famous 1935 recording of Die Walküre, Act 1.

HAROLD ROSENTHAL/R

List, Eugene

(b Philadelphia, 6 July 1918; d New York, 1 March 1985). American pianist. He made his début with the Los Angeles PO at the age of 12, and the following year returned to Philadelphia to study with Olga Samaroff. At 16, as winner of a Philadelphia Orchestra competition, he gave the American première of Shostakovich’s First Concerto. In 1942 he gave the American première of Chávez’s Piano Concerto with the New York PO under Mitropoulos. He spent the next four years in the army and gave a notable concert in Potsdam in 1945 at the meeting of Truman, Churchill and Stalin. From 1946 he toured with his wife, the violinist Carroll Glenn; in 1952 they were the soloists in Paris for the first performance of Manuel Rosenthal’s Aesopi convivium, under the composer’s direction. A spirited performer, List was an enthusiastic champion of music outside the standard repertory: he performed works by Viotti, Domenico Puccini and MacDowell; he played an important part in restoring Gottschalk’s music to the repertory, resurrecting a number of pieces that were thought to be lost and commissioning arrangements of several others. He was also involved in discovering Liszt’s Duo Sonata for violin and piano (see A. Walker: ‘Liszt’s Duo Sonata’, MT, cxvi, 1975, p.620), and edited the complete works of Stephen Foster. From 1964 to 1975 he taught at the Eastman School, Rochester, and then at New York University.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Bloch: ‘Eugene List: a Tribute’, Journal of the American Liszt Society, no.17 (1985), 156–7

H.C. Schonberg: Obituary, New York Times (2 March 1985)

GEORGE GELLES/BETH E. LEVY

List, Garrett

(b Phoenix, AZ, 10 Sept 1943). American trombonist. He attended California State University, Long Beach, where he studied with Bertram McGarrity, and the Juilliard School (BM 1968, MM 1969); he also studied privately with Hall Overton. As a performer of new music and an organizer of contemporary music concerts, he participated in the first performances of works by a wide range of composers including Berio, Maderna, Cage and his associates, Coleman, Braxton and other jazz musicians. He was an original member of The Ensemble, the performing group for the ‘New and Newer Music’ series at Lincoln Center, New York, and served as the ensemble’s co-conductor with Dennis Russell Davies during the 1973–4 season. He was also music director of The Kitchen from 1975 to 1977. From 1971, through his association with Musica Elettronica Viva, a group devoted to live electronic music and improvisation, he came into contact with Dave Holland, Karl Berger and Bob Moses. He has received commissions from the St Paul Chamber Orchestra for conventionally conceived compositions, and founded, with Bayard Lancaster and others the A-1 Band to perform and record his jazz-fusion works. In 1975 List accompanied the Creative Associates of SUNY, Buffalo, on a tour of Eastern Europe; in 1980 he took up a teaching position at the Liège Conservatoire, Belgium.

In his music List combines elements of jazz with ethnic idioms and more conservative aspects of contemporary art music. Because of his closeness to jazz and other popular forms, he has been notably successful in composing a ‘music of the people’. In such works as Standard Existence (1977), which includes a setting of a passage of Studs Terkel’s Working, List’s use of music as a political force is apparent. He is included in W. Zimmermann:Desert Plants: Conversations with 23 American Musicians (Vancouver, 1976).

WORKS

Large ens: Orch Etudes, 12 pieces, 1972–9; 9 Sets of 7, chbr orch, 1975; Songs, chbr orch, 1975; I am Electric, jazz band, 1976; The Girls (S. Terkel), nar, small orch, 1977; Escape Story (E. Friedman), soloists, orch, 1979; Fear and Understanding, jazz band, 1981

Chbr and solo inst: 2 Wind Studies, 9–16 wind, 1971; Songs, 7–12 insts, 1972; Your own Self, any inst(s), 1972; Elegy: to the People of Chile, any inst(s), 1973; Requiem for Helen Lopez, pf, 4–6 insts, 1981; Flesh and Steel, pf, gui(s), inst(s), 1982; Baudelaire, inst(s), 1983; Hôtel des étrangers, 5–21 insts (incl. 1v), 1983; pieces for solo trbn

Vocal: American Images (cant., found texts), 1v, inst(s), 1972; Standard Existence (S. Terkel, J. Apple, List), 1v, inst(s), 1977; over 30 songs, incl. Now and How (List), 1972, Fly Hollywood (E. Friedman), 1v, chbr ens, 1974, Fire and Ice (R. Frost), 1979, My Mother’s Belly (B. Cendrars, trans. A. Levitt), 1979, You are more Beautiful than the Sky and the Sea (Cendrars, trans. Levitt), 1979

Other: The Man Ray Cycles (4 film scores), 1983; Time and Desire (dance score), tape, trbn, 1984–5

Principal publisher: Serious Music

JOAN LA BARBARA

List, George (Harold)

(b Tucson, AZ, 9 Feb 1911). American ethnomusicologist. He was educated at the Juilliard School of Music, receiving a diploma in flute performance in 1933. He continued with graduate studies at Juilliard before obtaining the BS (1941) and the MA (1945) from Columbia University. He obtained the PhD with a dissertation on tonality in Mozart (1954) from Indiana University, where his principal teacher was George Herzog. He has received numerous grants including fellowships from the National Endowment for the Humanities, Indiana Historical Society, American Philosophical Society and a Fulbright research award. He began teaching at Colorado College before moving to Miami University, Ohio (1946–53). In 1954 he joined the faculty of Indiana University, becoming professor of folklore in 1969 and professor emeritus when he retired in 1976. While at Indiana he served as the director of the Archives of Traditional Music (1954–76) and the Inter-American Programme in Ethnomusicology (1966–76) and was editor of The Folklore and Folk Music Archivist (1958–68). His principal fields of interest include ethnomusicology and folklore, Latin American folk music, North American folk music and music of the Hopi Indians.

WRITINGS

An Analysis of the Relationship of Non-Stepwise Melodic Movement to Tonality in Selected Works of W.A. Mozart (diss., Indiana U., 1954)

‘Speech Melody and Song Melody in Central Thailand’, EthM, v (1960), 16–32

‘Archiving Sound Recordings’, Phonetica, vi (1961), 18–31

‘The Boundaries of Speech and Song’, EthM, vii (1963), 1–16

‘Acculturation and Musical Tradition’, IFMC, xvi (1964), 15–21

‘The Reliability of Transcription’, EthM, xviii (1974), 353–77

‘Ethnomusicology: a Discipline Defined’, EthM, xxiii (1979), 1–4

‘African Influences in the Rhythmic and Metric Organization of Colombian Costeno Folksong and Folk Music’, LAMR, i (1980), 6–17

Music and Poetry in a Colombian Village: a Tri-Cultural Heritage (Bloomington, IN, 1983)

‘Hopi Melodic Concepts’, JAMS, xxxviii (1985), 143–52

‘Two Flutes and a Rattle: the Evolution of an Ensemble’, MQ, lxxv (1991), 50–58

Singing About It: Folksong in Southern Indiana (Indianapolis, 1991)

Stability and Variation in the Hopi Song (Philadelphia, 1993)

‘The HopiKachina Dance Song, Concepts and Context’, EthM, xli/3 (1997), 413–32

GREGORY F. BARZ

Liste, Anton Heinrich

(b Hildesheim, 14 April 1772; d Zürich, 31 July 1832). German composer. His father, the cathedral organist in Hildesheim, was his first teacher. In 1789 he went to Vienna to study with J.G. Albrechtsberger; reports that he also studied with Mozart are unconfirmed. He was music teacher to the children of Count Clemens August of Westphalia from 1793, then in 1804 settled in Zürich, where he was orchestra director from 1804 to 1807. He also established himself there as a teacher and founded a choir, with which he performed large-scale works by Haydn, Handel and others, as well as operas by Mozart and Rossini. Several of his works were published by H.G. Nägeli. Liste was an active freemason, and composed a cantata for the reopening of the Zürich lodge in 1811.

Liste’s style betrays the influence of Beethoven and shows a fondness for experiment. His G major Piano Sonata is cast in one movement, while the Sonata for Piano Duet op.2 ends with a fugue. In the central section of the slow movement of his Bassoon Sonata op.3, he dispenses with bar-lines altogether. Liste’s music was highly regarded in his day, receiving frequent favourable reviews in the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung.

WORKS

(selective list)

MSS in CH-Zz, D-Bsb

Vocal: 12 Maurergesänge, TB, op.9; Cant. (H. Lavater), TTBB, pf, op.5 (Zürich, 1811/2); Miriam und Deborah (Passion music), S, S, orch, op.44, 1818; 6 songs, 1v, pf, op.17 (Bonn, 1828); Sehnsucht nach dem Righi, 1v, pf (Munich, 1825); 6 Kriegslieder (J. Usteri), TTBB; Das Lied vom Zeitgeiste (J.C. Bär), TTBB, pf ad lib

Orch: Pf Conc., c1812, lost; Sinfonie quasi fantasia mit Fuge, c1818, lost; Pf Conc., op.13 (Leipzig, c1822)

Other inst: 2 Pf Sonatas, G, E (Zürich, 1804); Sonata, bn, pf, op.3, 1807, ed. W. Waterhouse (Vienna, 1994); Sonata, pf duet, op.2 (Leipzig, c1808); Pf Sonata, op.6 (Leipzig, 1815); 3 characteristic pieces, op.10 (Leipzig, 1823)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

FétisB

GerberNL

G. Bürkli: Biographie von Anton Liste (Zürich, 1847)

CHRIS WALTON

Listenius, Nikolaus

(b Hamburg, c1510). German theorist. He studied at Wittenberg University from 1529, gaining the Master of Arts degree in 1531. The university register states that he came from Salzwedel in Brandenburg. About 1536 he taught at the Lateinschule there and led the sacred music. At that time Elector Joachim II of Brandenburg admonished him for attempting to substitute the Lutheran liturgy for the Catholic without permission. In 1533 Listenius’s treatise Rudimenta musicae was published by Rhau with a preface by the north German reformer, Johannes Bugenhagen. Listenius published a corrected version called Musica (1537/R; ed. and trans. A. Seay, Colorado Springs, CO, 1975) which became very popular as a school primer in Germany and Austria, and had appeared in more than 40 editions before 1583. The treatise was primarily for teaching singing and is arranged in a novel manner. Each subject is treated in a series of short, simple rules copiously illustrated with music examples. In the section on mensural music Listenius used the canon (still called fuga) for his examples. For the first time, in addition to the traditional terms ‘musica theoretica’ and ‘musica practica’, he introduced the term ‘musica poetica’, by which he meant instruction in composition. With ‘musica poetica’, after the work is completed something written remains; for instance a doctrine or a composition. The aim is to produce a self-contained and complete work (‘opus consummatum et effectum’), so that after the death of the author a perfect and independent work (‘opus perfectum et absolutum’) is left behind. The term remained in general use in Germany for over a century.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

K.W. Niemöller: Untersuchungen zu Musikpflege und Musikunterricht an den deutschen Lateinschulen vom ausgehenden Mittelalter bis um 1600 (Regensburg, 1969)

P. Cahn: ‘Ars poetica und musica poetica: Quintilian und Horaz in der Musiktheorie und Kompositionslehre des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts’, Ainigma: Festschrift für Helmut Rahn, ed. F.R. Varwig (Heidelberg, 1987), 23–34

P. Cahn: ‘Zur Vorgeschichte des “Opus perfectum et absolutum” in der Musikauffassung um 1500’, Zeichen und Struktur in der Renaissance: Münster 1987, 11–18

W. Seidel: Werk und Werkbegriff in der Musikgeschichte (Darmstadt, 1987), 3–4

W. Braun: Deutsche Musiktheorie des 15. bis 17. Jahrhunderts, ii: Von Calvisius bis Mattheson (Darmstadt, 1994)

H. von Loesch: ‘“Musica” und “opus musicum”: zur Frühgeschichte des musikalischen Werkbegriffs’, Festschrift für Helga de la Motte-Haber, ed. R. Kopiez (Würzberg, 1998), 337–42

KLAUS WOLFGANG NIEMÖLLER/EGBERT HILLER

L'istesso tempo.

See Istesso tempo, l'.

Liszt, Franz [Ferenc]

(b Raiding, (Doborján), 22 Oct 1811; d Bayreuth, 31 July 1886). Hungarian composer, pianist and teacher. He was one of the leaders of the Romantic movement in music. In his compositions he developed new methods, both imaginative and technical, which left their mark upon his forward-looking contemporaries and anticipated some 20th-century ideas and procedures; he also evolved the method of ‘transformation of themes’ as part of his revolution in form, made radical experiments in harmony and invented the symphonic poem for orchestra. As the greatest piano virtuoso of his time, he used his sensational technique and captivating concert personality not only for personal effect but to spread, through his transcriptions, knowledge of other composers’ music. As a conductor and teacher, especially at Weimar, he made himself the most influential figure of the New German School dedicated to progress in music. His unremitting championship of Wagner and Berlioz helped these composers achieve a wider European fame. Equally important was his unrivalled commitment to preserving and promoting the best of the past, including Bach, Handel, Schubert, Weber and above all Beethoven; his performances of such works as Beethoven's Ninth Symphony and Hammerklavier Sonata created new audiences for music hitherto regarded as incomprehensible. The seeming contradictions in his personal life – a strong religious impulse mingled with a love of worldly sensation – were resolved by him with difficulty. Yet the vast amount of new biographical information makes the unthinking view of him as ‘half gypsy, half priest’ impossible to sustain. He contained in his character more of the ideals and aspirations of the 19th century than any other major musician.

1. Early childhood.

2. From Vienna to Paris.

4. The death of Adam Liszt.

5. Contacts with Parisian society.

6. Marie d’Agoult.

7. Years of pilgrimage, 1835–9.

8. The Glanzzeit, 1839–47.

9. Liszt and the piano.

10. Arrangements.

11. To Weimar.

12. The War of the Romantics.

13. Liszt as conductor.

14. Liszt as author and editor.

15. Symphonic poems.

16. ‘Faust-Symphonie’.

17. B minor Piano Sonata.

18. Organ works.

19. Songs.

20. From Weimar to Rome, 1859–64.

21. Liszt enters the lower orders.

22. Oratorios: ‘St Elisabeth’ and ‘Christus’.

23. Liszt as teacher.

24. Growing ties to Hungary.

25. The music of Liszt’s old age.

26. Last visit to England, 1886.

27. Death.

28. Style, reception, posterity.

WRITINGS

ALAN WALKER (text, bibliography), MARIA ECKHARDT, RENA CHARNIN MUELLER (work-list)

1. Early childhood.

Liszt was born in that part of western Hungary which after World War I was ceded to Austria and became known as the Burgenland. German was his native tongue and he grew up unable to speak Hungarian. In this he was no different from many thousands of Magyars born at that time and place. Intensely patriotic, Liszt frequently declared himself for Hungarian causes, and in the 1840s he sometimes appeared on stage wearing Hungarian national costume in order to make his personal protest against Austrian domination of his country. His sense of national pride was shared by his ancestors, one of whom (his paternal grandfather, Georg Liszt) had ‘magyarized’ the family name by changing the spelling from ‘List’ to ‘Liszt’.

Liszt’s father, Adam Liszt (1776–1827), worked for many years as a clerk on the Esterházy estates in western Hungary. A gifted amateur singer, pianist and cellist, Adam often took part in the summer concerts at Eisenstadt, where he became acquainted with Joseph Haydn. Not long before his son's birth, Adam was transferred to the village of Raiding, one of the Esterházy sheep stations, where he was officially described as an ‘ovium rationista’ (sheep accountant). As a young man Adam had trained for the priesthood at the Franciscan monasteries of Malacka and Tyrnavia (in Slovakia) but had been dismissed ‘by reason of his inconstant and changeable nature’. Adam never forgot the Franciscans, however; he often visited their local monasteries and named his son Franciscus in their memory. Liszt's mother, Maria Anna Lager (1788–1866), came from a working-class family in Krems (lower Austria) and spent much of her adolescence in poverty, working as a chambermaid in Vienna. 12 years younger than Adam, she met him in Mattersdorf in the summer of 1810, and they married in January 1811. Franz was their only child.

The boy’s musical genius asserted itself in his sixth year. He overheard his father playing a concerto by Ferdinand Ries and was later able to sing one of its themes from memory. Thereafter Adam gave his son regular lessons, and the boy made such rapid progress that within 22 months he had mastered a large repertory of music by Mozart, Bach, Clementi, Hummel and others, and showed exceptional ability as an improviser. Adam presented his son to the public for the first time in Oedenburg, in November 1820, when the nine-year-old boy played the Concerto in E by Ries and extemporized on popular melodies. Such was the success of this concert that Adam arranged a more ambitious one in nearby Pressburg. It coincided with an assembly of the Hungarian Diet and the boy’s playing captured the attention of a number of Hungarian noblemen – including Counts Amadé, Szapáry, and Michael Esterházy – who later came forward with money to support the boy’s education abroad. The Pressburger Zeitung reported that his playing ‘was beyond admiration and justifies the highest hopes’ (28 November 1820).

Adam had already begun to seek out the best teachers for his son. Hummel was considered in Weimar, but his fee was prohibitive. So Adam turned to Carl Czerny in nearby Vienna. Many years later, Czerny recalled their first meeting in his autobiography:

One morning in the year 1819 … a man with a small boy of about eight years approached me with a request to let the youngster play something on the fortepiano. He was a pale, sickly looking child who, while playing, swayed about on the stool as if drunk, so that I often thought he would fall to the floor. His playing was also quite irregular, untidy, confused, and he had so little idea of fingering that he threw his fingers quite arbitrarily all over the keyboard. But that notwithstanding, I was astonished at the talent which Nature had bestowed on him. He played something which I gave him to sight-read, to be sure, like a pure ‘natural’; but for that very reason one saw that Nature herself had formed a pianist.

Not long after this scene took place, Czerny accepted the young Liszt as a pupil. In the early spring of 1822 Adam, having secured an unpaid leave of absence from Prince Nickolaus Esterházy, moved his family to Vienna. Since Czerny’s teaching day was already full, he arranged to instruct the boy every evening in his home and refused to accept a fee. For theory lessons Adam placed his son in the charge of Antonio Salieri, who taught him counterpoint and score-reading in all the clefs and likewise waived his fee.

Although Liszt was with Czerny for only 14 months the lessons laid the groundwork for an infallible technique. Under Czerny’s guidance the boy embarked on his first serious conquest of the keyboard and was soon able to play scales and arpeggios in all possible combinations ‘with masterful fluency’. ‘Never before had I had so eager, talented, or industrious a student’, wrote Czerny. The boy worked his way through Clementi’s Gradus ad Parnassum and Czerny’s own School of Velocity, and he studied works by Hummel, Moscheles, Bach and Beethoven. Since Czerny forced him to learn everything very quickly, and to commit it to memory, the youthful Liszt became a formidable sight-reader. He also published his first composition: a variation on a theme of Diabelli, one of a set of 50 commissioned by the publisher from composers then living in Austria. Within a year, Czerny had overcome his initial reluctance to the idea of presenting Liszt to the Viennese public and allowed Adam to arrange several concerts. At one of these (1 December 1822), the Allgemeine Zeitung reported that Liszt’s playing bordered on the incredible and referred to him as ‘a little Hercules … fallen from the clouds’. Emboldened by this reception, Adam conceived the idea of leaving Austria altogether and taking his son on tour to Paris. Czerny thought that such a move was premature and motivated by the pursuit of ‘pecuniary gain’, but a farewell concert was nonetheless announced for 13 April 1823.

Because of Czerny’s friendly relations with Beethoven, the master received Liszt and his father at the beginning of April 1823. Beethoven’s Conversation Books record a meeting during which Liszt (or his father) invited him to the farewell concert in the small Redoutensaal on 13 April. Beethoven was also asked for a theme on which Liszt might improvise. Legend later had it that Beethoven mounted the platform and bestowed a public Weihekuss on the young boy’s brow. However, the Conversation Books imply that Beethoven neither attended the concert nor provided the theme (Konversationenhefte, iii, 168, 199). The ‘kiss of consecration’, which became such an important memory for Liszt in later life, could not have taken place at the concert but may well have occurred in Beethoven’s lodgings.

Before setting out for Paris, Adam took his son back to Pest to show him off to the Hungarians. A ‘homecoming’ concert took place on 1 May 1823, and the placards carried the patriotic declaration: ‘I am Hungarian!’ As if to emphasize the point, Liszt appeared at the piano wearing a braided Hungarian national costume.

2. From Vienna to Paris.

The Liszt family left Vienna on 20 September 1823. En route to Paris, Adam wrote a letter of appreciation to Czerny (dated 2 November) which summed up everything he felt about the great pedagogue: ‘Together with my wife and child I kiss your hands with utmost gratitude for this good work which you have lavished on our boy. Never will you be able to escape our heartfelt thanks’. Adam plotted the journey through Munich, Augsburg, Strasbourg and Stuttgart in order to draw a comparison with the young Mozart who had made a similar tour with his father 60 years earlier. After much acclaim and many gifts along the way, Liszt and his parents arrived in Paris in December 1823. In those days the stagecoach terminated at rue du Mail, near the Erard piano factory. The Liszts and the Erards formed a lifelong friendship and the venerable head of the firm, Sébastien Erard, presented Liszt with a magnificent grand piano of seven octaves, containing his newly invented ‘repetition action’. This device allowed extremely rapid note reiteration and turned the piano into an instrument of virtuosity, with new possibilities that Liszt was among the first to explore.

Liszt applied for admission to the Paris Conservatoire but was refused. Accompanied by his father and Erard, he attended an interview with the director, Luigi Cherubini. The discussion was stiff and formal, the result disappointing: the rules would not permit Cherubini to admit foreigners, even one so famous as Liszt. Since Cherubini himself was a foreigner and there were foreign students already enrolled, Liszt’s vivid explanation (‘Zur Stellung des Künstlers’, 1835) has always seemed incomplete and casts Cherubini in a poor light. In fact the regulation against foreigners was designed to protect the piano department, which had recently been overwhelmed with applicants. It stemmed from a new government decree, sought and approved a few weeks earlier by the piano faculty itself. French citizenship was seen as the key to the problem of maintaining a proper balance across the student body. The setback ultimately worked to Liszt’s advantage. Adam engaged two private teachers for his son, Antoine Reicha for theory and Ferdinando Paer for composition, both of them based in Paris. Under their guidance his natural talent was allowed to develop unfettered. At the Conservatoire it might have been restricted and could have led to the same sort of clash with authority that was shortly to befall Berlioz and, later, Debussy and Ravel. Meanwhile, the boy was free to continue his tours and build a career in his own way.

3. The trips to England, 1824–7.

Notable among those tours were three visits to England where the young Liszt enjoyed some early triumphs. Father and son crossed the English Channel for the first time in May 1824 and stayed in lodgings at 18 Great Marlborough Street, a property that belonged to the firm of Erard. Liszt’s London début took place at the Argyll Rooms on 5 June, under the auspices of the Royal Society of Musicians, ‘surrounded by eminent professors, amateurs and admirers of the fascinating science of music’ (Morning Post, 7 June). On 21 June Liszt returned to the Argyll Rooms where he played Hummel’s B minor Concerto under the direction of Sir George Smart, before a distinguished audience that included Clementi, Ries, Kalkbrenner and Cipriano Potter (fig.1). Erard provided one of his latest grand pianos for these appearances. At his Drury Lane concert on 29 June the theatre posters informed the public that ‘the incomparable Master Liszt has in the most flattering manner consented to display his inimitable powers on the New Grand Piano Forte invented by Sébastien Erard’. From London the Liszts journeyed to Manchester, where Franz played at the Theatre Royal, again on an Erard grand especially sent there for him. The climax of this first visit to England took place when they were received by George IV at Windsor Castle. Liszt played for more than two hours and caused particular delight with his improvisation on the Minuet from Don Giovanni.

A second, much shorter visit took place in June 1825. Once again Liszt gave concerts in London and Manchester and played before George IV. The Manchester handbills announced that he was ‘only 12 years old’, when he was in fact 13 – not the first time that Adam obscured the true age of his son. At the second Manchester concert, on 20 June, Liszt was featured as a composer and the orchestra began with ‘A New Grand Overture, by Master Liszt’. This was almost certainly the overture to Liszt’s opera Don Sanche, on which he had already started work and which was scheduled for production in Paris later that year. On their way back through London the Liszts visited St Paul’s Cathedral and were deeply impressed by the singing of massed choirs of several thousand children of the Free Schools. Liszt never forgot the spectacle, nor the sea of sound that it made, and drew upon its memory many years later at the climaxes of his oratorio Christus.

When they got back to Paris in July, Adam Liszt was contacted by the Ministry of Arts and informed that the score of Don Sanche was required within eight days for scrutiny by the jury (which included Luigi Cherubini, Adrien Boieldieu and Henri Berton). The opera was performed on four consecutive nights, 17–20 October 1825, and then taken off. For many years the score of Don Sanche was thought to be lost, but the manuscript was rediscovered in 1903 and given its first performance in modern times on 20 October 1977 in London.

As a youth Liszt showed mystical leanings and was attracted to the church. He was familiar with the lives of the saints and had already read the Imitation of Christ by Thomas a Kempis. He spent many hours in prayer, began to suffer from religious mania and expressed a desire to become a priest. Adam Liszt, who had at first encouraged his son’s devotions, resisted such a radical idea. Liszt later told Lina Ramann that his father had said: ‘You belong to art, not to the Church’ (Ramann, H1880–94, i, 97), a judgment that Liszt revised 40 years later when he took holy orders.

Liszt crossed the English Channel for a third time in May 1827. In London he and his father stayed at lodgings in Frith Street, Soho. Once again he appeared at the Argyll Rooms and this time created a stir with his performance of Hummel’s A minor Concerto. Muzio Clementi was observed at the morning rehearsal sitting at the back of the hall, ‘his brilliant, dark eyes glistening as he followed the marvellous performance’ (Salamon). It was during this visit that Liszt composed a Scherzo in G minor, the manuscript of which bears the date ‘May 27’. The piece indicates an advanced grasp of harmony for one so young, and more than a passing acquaintance with Beethoven’s pieces in the same genre (ex.1).

According to Adam Liszt, his 15-year-old son was already composing industriously and had in his portfolio a number of compositions, including a sonata for four hands, a trio, a quintet and two piano concertos, all of which have disappeared. In 1826 he published his ‘Etude en douze exercices’ (see A8), a set of pieces which are important since they later formed the basis of the 12 Etudes d’exécution transcendante. A sufficient number of juvenile works remain to dispel the idea that Liszt was a late starter in the field of composition.

4. The death of Adam Liszt.

Liszt left England with his father in August 1827. They had now been touring more or less incessantly for three years and Adam arranged a short holiday at Boulogne-sur-Mer to take the waters. Within days, however, Adam had succumbed to typhoid fever; he died in Boulogne on 28 August and was buried in haste the next day, in the Cimetière de l’Est, following a funeral service at the church of St Nicolas. The experience proved to be deeply traumatic for Liszt; the topic of death and dying became a preoccupation which often came out in his music (e.g. in his Apparitions, De profundis and Pensée des morts). While his later tours sometimes took him close to Boulogne (and on one occasion, in 1840, into the city itself), the memory was so painful that he never visited his father’s grave. A funeral march (A10, composed two days after his father’s death) is believed to be the young Liszt’s musical tribute to his father.

It was Liszt’s sad duty to write to his mother and inform her of his father’s death. During the tours Anna Liszt had stayed with a sister in Graz; she was reunited with her famous son in Paris after a separation of three years. Adam left his family in straitened circumstances and the 16-year-old Liszt assumed the responsibility of being the sole breadwinner. He was obliged to sell his Erard grand piano to pay off some debts, and to seek a regular income as a fashionable teacher of the sons and daughters of the French aristocracy. At first he and his mother rented an apartment at 38 rue Coquenard, and then at 7 rue de Montholon in the district of Montmartre.

Among his pupils was the countess Caroline de Saint-Cricq, the 17-year-old-daughter of the Minister of Commerce in the government of Charles X. The couple fell in love, and although the relationship was innocent, the count banned Liszt (‘a mere musician’) from the house after discovering the pair prolonging a music lesson far into the night. Shortly afterwards Caroline was married to a wealthy landowner with estates near Pau in southern France, and left Paris. As a result of the rejection, which followed so hard on the death of his father, Liszt suffered a nervous breakdown. His absence from the concert platform during the 1827–8 season led to rumours of his death, and Le corsaire published a false obituary notice of him (23 October 1828). On the day of his ‘demise’, however, Liszt was at home on the rue de Montholon quietly celebrating his 17th birthday. It is clear, nevertheless, that he was in poor health. The journal Observateur des Beaux-Arts openly declared that Liszt’s illness was directly connected to the death of his father. Wilhelm von Lenz visited him shortly afterwards, and described Liszt as ‘a pale and haggard young man’. Anna Liszt told von Lenz that Liszt ‘busied himself no more with music’ and was almost always at church. Seized again with religious mania, Liszt often prostrated himself on the flagstones of St-Vincent-de-Paul and was deterred from entering a seminary only by the joint pleadings of his mother and his father confessor, Abbé Bardin. It was the July Revolution of 1830 that roused him from his lethargy. Hearing the sound of gunfire, he rushed outside and witnessed hand-to-hand fighting in the streets. He joined the crowds in shouting support for General Lafayette, who had taken up the people’s cause. When Anna Liszt later reflected on these turbulent times, she observed: ‘The cannons cured him!’ Liszt began to sketch out a ‘Revolutionary Symphony’ whose manuscript bears the dates ‘27, 28, 29 juillet – Paris’, the ‘Three Glorious Days’. Only the first movement was finished; it later became the Symphonic Poem Héroïde funèbre, in which form it was associated with the revolutionary wars of 1848–9.

Liszt became a voracious reader (he was by now fluent in French, henceforth his language of preference) and absorbed the writings of Sainte-Beuve, Hugo and Balzac. He also fell under the spell of the Saint-Simonians, whose avowed aim of combining socialism with the teachings of Christ made a deep appeal to him. For a time Liszt attended the sect’s clandestine revivalist meetings, conducted by its charismatic leader Father Enfantin, during which he would sometimes improvise on the piano for the congregation. He never became a Saint-Simonian, however, despite some later misleading comments by Heine. After the sect’s headquarters at 6 rue Monsigny were raided by the police, its leaders gaoled or forced into exile, Liszt found a more lasting outlet for his idealism in the revolutionary teachings of Abbé Felicité de Lamennais. Liszt described Lamennais as a ‘saint’, and visited him at his home at La Chênaie, in Brittany (1834). Lamennais had already broken with the Catholic Church as a result of the publication of his magnum opus Paroles d’un croyant, which Pope Gregory XVI had attacked in his encyclical Singulari nos (July 1834). For several weeks Liszt sat at the feet of his mentor at La Chênaie, during which time Lamennais came to regard Liszt as ‘one of the most beautiful and noble souls that I have met on this earth’. It was at La Chênaie that Liszt composed his Apparitions for piano. Later he dedicated to Lamennais his socialistic march Lyon, inspired by the revolt of the silkworkers of that city. It bears the motto ‘To live working, or to die fighting’.

5. Contacts with Parisian society.

Liszt became acquainted with a number of musical contemporaries at this time, including Berlioz, Chopin, Alkan, Hiller and others. His first encounter with Berlioz took place a few months after the July Revolution. He attended the first performance of Berlioz’s Symphonie fantastique in the company of the composer (5 December 1830), and shortly afterwards produced his piano transcription of the unpublished score. (Liszt’s transcription was published in 1834, while Berlioz’s orchestral score did not appear until 1845; Schumann’s famous review of the work in the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik was based on Liszt’s piano score.) A warm friendship developed between the pair which lasted for more than 20 years before entering a long decline. While Berlioz speaks of Liszt with affection in his Mémoires, and regarded him as unrivalled as a pianist, he was more cautious of his compositions; with the passing years his lukewarm attitude to Liszt’s orchestral works, together with the latter’s growing support of Wagner, caused the friendship to languish.

Another meeting was with Chopin, who arrived in Paris as a refugee from Warsaw in the autumn of 1831. Liszt attended Chopin’s début at the Salle Pleyel on 26 February 1832, and even appeared on the same platform as Chopin on 3 April and 15 December. Chopin cemented these early connections by dedicating his set of 12 Etudes op.10 to Liszt. Nevertheless, the idea of a great friendship between Liszt and Chopin is unsubstantiated. Chopin soon came to dislike what he perceived to be Liszt’s theatricality and his striving after effect. After 1835 Liszt lived mainly abroad and the two composers barely saw one another. Since Chopin died in 1849, he never lived to appreciate the more mature Liszt of later years.

Paganini made his Paris début in March 1831, but Liszt was on a prolonged visit to Switzerland and did not hear him until his next appearance there in April 1832. In a famous letter to his pupil Pierre-Etienne Wolff, Liszt recorded some of his impressions: ‘What a man, what a violin, what an artist! Heavens! What sufferings, what misery, what tortures in those four strings!’ (Briefe, C1893–1905, i, 6–8). The letter is especially interesting because of the music examples Liszt includes to indicate those violinistic devices which had particularly caught his ear. The musical influence of Paganini cannot be overstated. One immediate outcome was the fantasy on La clochette (1833), the theme of which was used by Paganini in the finale of his B minor Concerto, and which bristles with difficulties. The six Etudes d’exécution transcendante d’après Paganini followed (1838–40), based on the Italian master’s formidable caprices for solo violin, and containing pianistic textures of terrifying complexity.

6. Marie d’Agoult.

In the Paris of the 1830s the salon was the centre of intellectual and artistic life. Here mingled all the radical ideas of post-Revolutionary France. The fashionable hostesses of the stately homes of the Faubourgs St-Germain and St-Honoré vied with one another to entertain the most interesting personalities. Among the writers were Sainte-Beuve, Hugo, Balzac and George Sand; the painters included Delacroix, Devéria and Ary Scheffer. Soon this volatile mixture was enriched by a flood of refugees from Warsaw, including Chopin and the Polish nationalist poet Mickiewicz. Merely to call the roll is to name many of the leaders of the Romantic movement itself. This was the milieu in which the young Liszt developed many of his abiding notions about music and its relationship with the other arts.

Towards the end of 1832 Liszt was introduced to Countess Marie d’Agoult, the woman who was to become his lover, bear him three children and share his life for the next 12 years. Marie was 28; Liszt was 22. She was unhappily married to an older husband by whom she already had two daughters, Louise and Claire. Her marriage to Count Charles d’Agoult, a French cavalry officer, had taken place on 27 May 1827, before a glittering assembly in the fashionable Church of the Assumption, and the marriage contract had been witnessed by Charles X. Five years later the union was dead in all but name, and when Liszt met her Marie was living an independent life. Born Marie-Catherine-Sophie de Flavigny, she was descended from the powerful Bethmann family of Frankfurt, which had built up a fortune through its banking enterprises. There is no evidence that the Bethmanns were Jewish, despite their name and much debate on the matter. It was Bethmann money that paid for Marie’s dowry and helped her to buy her palatial home, the Château de Croissy, which lay 9 km outside Paris.

At first Liszt and Marie took pains to keep their liaison secret. Throughout 1833 and 1834 they arranged various trysts – sometimes at his cramped bachelor apartment in Paris (jocularly referred to by them as the ‘Ratzenloch’ – or rat-hole), and sometimes at Croissy. The fact that they were apart for much of this time generated a clandestine correspondence (first published in 1933–4) which provides clear evidence of the turbulent nature of the relationship. Whether under normal circumstances Marie would ever have abandoned hearth and home for Liszt is a matter of debate. In December 1834, however, Marie’s six-year-old daughter Louise died, and that precipitated a crisis. Marie became suicidal and threatened to drown herself. She travelled to Paris, was reunited with Liszt, and became his lover in the full physical sense. That must have been no later than March 1835; their first daughter, Blandine-Rachel, was born in December of that year.

7. Years of pilgrimage, 1835–9.

In order to escape the scandal Liszt and Marie eloped to Switzerland. Liszt was troubled by the possible consequences to his own life in leaving Paris with a mistress who was already a wife and a mother, and he sought counsel from Abbé de Lamennais, who advised against it and travelled to Croissy in a fruitless attempt to dissuade Marie from abandoning her family. The couple went first to Basle and thence to Geneva where they rented a house at 1 rue Tabazan. There was already an active artistic and intellectual élite in the city, and Liszt soon found himself in the middle of a circle which included the politician James Fazy, the botanist Pyrame de Candolle and the economist Simonde de Sismondi. Liszt’s arrival in the city coincided with the opening of the newly founded Geneva Conservatoire and Liszt accepted an invitation from its founding president François Bartholini to head its piano faculty. He was assisted by two of his students, Pierre-Etienne Wolff and his colourful young pupil Hermann (‘Puzzi’) Cohen who had pursued him from Paris in order to continue his lessons with Liszt. During Liszt’s brief tenure at the Geneva Conservatoire he was invited to write a piano method. Despite many rumours to the contrary, he never produced such a work. The only pedagogical works he ever completed were the volumes of Technische Studien (1868–73) published after his death, with which the non-existent method is sometimes confused.

Throughout the spring and summer of 1835 Liszt and Marie d’Agoult made various incursions into the Swiss countryside; they visited Lake Wallenstadt, William Tell’s Chapel and (in the company of George Sand) the Chamonix Valley. Liszt’s impressions of the sights and sounds of Switzerland – its pastures, storms and mountain springs – were captured in the pieces of his Album d’un voyageur, later reworked as the ‘Swiss’ volume of the Années de pèlerinage. Such compositions as Chapelle de Guillaume Tell and Vallée d’Obermann betray their time and place, and are in a sense autobiographical.

On 18 December 1835, Marie d’Agoult gave birth to Blandine-Rachel at Geneva. Liszt openly claimed paternity on the birth certificate, where he is described as ‘a professor of music … who freely acknowledged that he is the father of the child’; the identity of Marie d’Agoult was camouflaged as Catherine-Adélaïde Méran, ‘a lady of property … born in Paris’. Such a deception had less to do with protecting the identity of Countess d’Agoult than with protecting her husband the Count from future liability. Under French law, any child born to Marie would have been regarded as the offspring of her husband. ‘Liszt and I had but one thought: to avoid this monstrosity’ (Vier, H1955–63, i, 393–4). (Two other children were born of the union and Liszt again claimed paternity: Cosima (24 December 1837) and Daniel (9 May 1839). All three children achieved distinction. Blandine married Emile Ollivier, a prominent lawyer who became Prime Minister of France under the government of Napoleon III; Cosima became the wife, first of Hans von Bülow and then of Richard Wagner, directing the Bayreuth festivals after Wagner’s death; Daniel died when he was only 20, but he had already won the national prize of France for classical studies in Latin and Greek while still in his adolescence.)

In the spring of 1837 Liszt’s curiosity had been aroused by reports from Paris of the sensational piano playing of Sigismond Thalberg; he returned to the city in order to defend his crown. The famous ‘ivory duel’ between the two pianists took place in the home of the exiled Italian Princess Cristina Belgiojoso on 31 March 1837. Arranged as a charity concert for expatriate Italians, the affair attracted wide publicity. Thalberg played his fantasy on Rossini’s Mosè in Egitto and Liszt followed with his fantasy on Pacini’s Niobe. It is often said that Thalberg suffered a defeat as a result of the comparison, but the facts speak otherwise. Jules Janin wrote a long and judicious account of the affair for the Journal des débats (3 April) which concluded: ‘Two victors and no vanquished; it is fitting to say with the poet “Et ad huc sub judice lis est”’. Afterwards, when invited to express her own opinion, Princess Belgiojoso uttered a diplomatic aphorism which has become enshrined in the literature: ‘Thalberg is the first pianist in the world – Liszt is unique’. Liszt, in brief, could not be compared.

The friendship with George Sand led to an invitation to Liszt and Mme d’Agoult to join her at her country château in Nohant. Liszt spent the next three months there in the company of Sand and her friends (including the poet Claude de Mallefille, the actor Pierre Bocage and Sand’s current lover Michel de Bourges). Sand had installed an Erard grand piano in Liszt’s room. It was at Nohant that Liszt began his long series of transcriptions of the Schubert songs, somewhat earlier than is generally supposed, and by July 1837 he had already completed seven of them.

Liszt and Marie d’Agoult resumed their ‘years of pilgrimage’, wending their way from Nohant to Italy; by August they had reached Lake Maggiore. After exploring the eastern shores of Lake Como they lingered at Bellagio, there to await the birth of their second daughter, Cosima. Liszt made frequent trips to nearby Milan where he encountered the music publisher Giovanni Ricordi. In Liszt’s own words he walked into Ricordi’s music shop, sat down at the piano and began to improvise, whereupon Ricordi came rushing out of his office exclaiming: ‘This must be Liszt or the Devil!’ (Gesammelte Schriften, ii, 168). The music publisher lent Liszt his villa in the Branzia and his box at La Scala, and placed at his disposal a library of 1500 scores. One artistic result of the encounter was his piano transcriptions of Rossini’s Les soirées musicales, which Liszt featured in his local recitals to the delight of the Milanese.

In the spring of 1838, while he was in Venice, Liszt read in the newspapers of the flood disaster in Pest. The Danube had overflowed its banks, inundating large areas of Hungarian lowlands, destroying homes and crops, and creating famine. This national crisis proved to be a turning-point in his life. Liszt travelled to Vienna in April 1838 and gave ten recitals for the victims of the floods; six had been planned but four more were given by popular demand. These recitals marked his official return to the concert platform and attracted wide attention. His playing had undergone a radical transformation during his years of travelling, and was received with universal acclaim. Clara Wieck (who later had serious reservations about Liszt’s playing) attended these concerts and wrote: ‘He can be compared to no other player … he arouses fright and astonishment. He is an original … he is absorbed by the piano’ (B. Litzmann: Clara Schumann: ein Künstlerleben, i, Leipzig, 1902, p.199). Carl Czerny was also in attendance and remarked that the playing of his most famous pupil had emerged from the monstrous complexities that had dogged it in earlier years and was now characterized by clarity and wonderful brilliance. Clara Wieck and Czerny became the dedicatees of Liszt’s most demanding pieces to date: the Six Etudes d’exécution transcendante d’après Paganini were inscribed to Clara and the 12 Grandes études (A40) to Czerny. Through his Vienna concerts Liszt raised the sum of 24,000 gulden, the largest donation to be sent to Hungary from a private source.

Liszt joined Marie d’Agoult in Rome to await the birth of their third child, Daniel. The couple then moved to Lucca to escape Rome’s summer heat, and thence to the small fishing village of San Rossore. Inspired by Italian art and literature, Liszt had already begun work on the ‘Italian’ volume of his Années de pèlerinage, and produced the first versions of the three Sonetti del Petrarca, Il penseroso (after Michelangelo’s celebrated statue), Sposalizio (after Raphael’s painting, Lo sposalizio della vergine) and above all the last work of the collection, entitled Après une lecture du Dante and commonly known as the ‘Dante’ Sonata. This period marked the end of his relationship with Mme d’Agoult, fuelled as it was by dashed hopes and fractured feelings, a situation which their joint diary and their personal correspondence makes plain. As Liszt was pondering his future, he heard of the failure of the Beethoven Memorial Committee in Bonn to raise money for a statue to the composer at the place of his birth. Rather than see the scheme collapse, he offered to raise the funds himself, through concerts. The monument that stands in Bonn today (executed by Ernst-Julius Hähnel and unveiled in August 1845, the 75th year of Beethoven’s birth) was made possible largely through Liszt’s personal generosity.

8. The Glanzzeit, 1839–47.

During the years 1839 to 1847 Liszt unfolded a virtuoso career unmatched in the history of performance. He is still the model followed by pianists today. He was the first to play entire programmes from memory; the first to play the full range of the keyboard repertory (as it then existed) from Bach to Chopin; the first consistently to place the piano at right-angles to the stage, so that its open lid reflected the sound across the auditorium; the first to tour Europe from the Pyrenees to the Urals. Even the term ‘recital’ was his. He introduced it on 9 June 1840 at a concert in London at the Hanover Square Rooms. It was Liszt’s way of announcing that his career was taking a new direction; henceforth he would present concerts without the benefit of assisting artists. As early as May 1839 he had given some solo concerts in Italy (not yet called ‘recitals’) and had jocularly observed that he was affecting the style of Louis XIV: ‘Le concert, c’est moi!’ he exclaimed (Briefe, C1893–1905, i, 25). His recitals have never been fully chronicled, but he gave well over 1000 during these fleeting years. He played in Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Austria, Britain, Ireland, Romania, Turkey and Russia. And he undertook all this before the age of the railway, when travel was difficult and had to be accomplished mostly by post-chaise over rough terrain, often at night.

The Glanzzeit began with six Beethoven Memorial Concerts in Vienna, between 18 November and 4 December 1839. At the first concert, Liszt gave the première performance of his new transcription of Beethoven’s Pastoral Symphony in the presence of the Dowager Empress and her retinue. The Viennese press spoke truer than it knew when it hailed Liszt as ‘Protector of Beethoven’. Liszt’s lifelong championship of the composer was intensified, and as the tours unfolded he introduced his audiences to works such as the Hammerklavier Sonata and the Diabelli Variations, which were still generally unknown.

From Vienna, Liszt made his way to Hungary and arrived in Pest in November 1839. It was his first return to his native land since his childhood and he was given the sort of reception normally reserved for potentates. He was by now the best-known living Hungarian, far better known abroad than the country’s leading politicians. Hungary was locked in a struggle for independence from Austria, and found in Liszt a national hero. Everywhere he went he was greeted with the phrase ‘Eljen! Liszt Ferenc’ (Hail! Franz Liszt). He made patriotic gestures such as donning national costume and playing in public his arrangement of the Rákóczy March – a melody which was at that time banned by the Austrian authorities. On 4 January 1840 Liszt was presented with a ceremonial sword of honour on behalf of a grateful nation in a moving ceremony at the National Theatre. His speech of thanks offers telling proof of his support of Hungary’s political aspirations.

Liszt renewed his contact with gypsy music and Hungarian folk music at this time. He visited a gypsy encampment and wrote a vivid description of what he observed (Gesammelte Schriften, vi, 135–7); he also heard a number of the best gypsy bands, and was inspired to produce a series of pieces called Magyar dallok (‘Hungarian National Melodies’). These compositions were later revised and published under the generic title ‘Hungarian Rhapsodies’ (1851–3). They contain colourful evocations of gypsy bands, including the cimbalom-like effects in the Tenth Rhapsody (ex.2). The ‘gypsy scale’ is also in evidence, with its mournful augmented 2nds, as in the first part of the 13th Rhapsody (ex.3). Liszt has been maligned for mistaking some of the music played by gypsies (containing popular melodies of the day) for genuine Hungarian folksongs; his book Des bohémiens (1859) further clouded the issue, made him some prominent enemies in his homeland and caused the rhapsodies themselves to fall into disrepute. In 1840 there was general confusion even within Hungary itself as to what constituted gypsy as opposed to Hungarian music. Modern scholarship has revealed that Liszt did indeed incorporate genuine Magyar folk melodies into his rhapsodies, albeit ones he heard filtered through gypsy improvisations.

In Leipzig Liszt got to know Robert Schumann, who wrote some important reviews of his Gewandhaus concerts (given in March 1840) for the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik (1840, no.12, pp.118–20). Schumann described Liszt’s performance of Weber’s Concert-stück as ‘extraordinary’, but could find only qualified praise for the Finale of the Pastoral Symphony, which he called ‘a wilful choice’ because the original was very well known to the Gewandhaus audience. ‘We had at least seen the lion shake his mane’, Schumann concluded.

A climax of sorts was reached in Berlin in 1841. After a sensational series of concerts in the Singakademie (attended by Mendelssohn, Meyerbeer and Spontini, as well as the entire Prussian royal family), Liszt was driven to the Brandenburg Gate in a coach drawn by a team of white horses, with crowds lining the Unter den Linden bidding him farewell. ‘Not like a king, but as a king’, wrote Rellstab in one of the best accounts we have of this visit. Such images of the profligate Liszt still haunt the literature and colour the way we view his life. The behaviour of his audiences has been compared to the mass hysteria associated with revivalist meetings or 20th-century rock stars, and prompted Heine to identify the phenomenon as ‘Lisztomania’. Female admirers sought souvenirs in the form of hair clippings, cigar stubs and the dregs from his coffee cups. There is a rich supply of anecdotes from those years, part of that stock-in-trade material which his popular biographers have not been slow to use. Generally overlooked in the hullabaloo surrounding the Berlin concerts is a remarkable musical achievement: during his ten-week sojourn in the Prussian capital Liszt gave 21 concerts and played 80 works, 50 of them from memory. Few modern pianists could match that feat.

One of the best documented journeys was the long and arduous tour of the British Isles in 1840–41. It was arranged by the impresario and conductor Louis Lavenu, who assembled a small troupe of four or five musicians including the Welsh singer John Orlando Parry, whose diaries give a colourful account of those times. Liszt was the star attraction, and he was tempted by Lavenu’s invitation because he needed the money to cover the rising expenditures of his family in Paris. The party appeared in such places as Oxford, Chichester and Exeter in the south, and Manchester, Halifax, Preston, Rochdale and Darlington in the north. In November 1840 Lavenu took his group across the Irish Sea where they performed in Dublin, Cork and the smaller market towns of southern Ireland. The tour, which later encompassed Scotland, was dogged by misfortune, attracted small audiences and confronted out-of-tune pianos and other mishaps, all faithfully reported in Parry’s diaries. Lavenu lost more than £1000 on the venture (a small fortune in those days) and Liszt’s fees remained unpaid. 45 years elapsed before Liszt returned to Great Britain.

While England may have failed to rally to the ‘King of Pianists’, the rest of Europe responded with enthusiasm. Hans Christian Andersen attended one of the Hamburg recitals in 1842, and left a graphic pen-portrait of the pianist.

As Liszt sat before the piano, the first impression of his personality was derived from the appearance of strong passions in his wan face, so that he seemed to me a demon nailed fast to the instrument whence the tones streamed forth – they came from his blood, from his thoughts; he was a demon who would liberate his soul from thraldom; he was on the rack. His blood flowed and his nerves trembled; but as he continued to play, so the demon vanished. I saw that pale face assume a nobler and brighter expression; the divine soul shone from his eyes, from every feature; he became as beauteous as only spirit and enthusiasm can make their worshippers.

Pursuit of ecstasy and its transmission to the public were primary goals, and they turned Liszt into the quintessential romantic.

Liszt acquired many honours and decorations during these years, and he was willing to wear them on stage. For this he was regularly lampooned by the press, especially in France (fig.6). However, Liszt’s display of these decorations had less to do with vanity than with a desire to raise the status of musicians generally. In Madrid he received the Order of Carlos II from Queen Isabel. In Turkey the Sultan, Abdul-Medjid Khan, presented him with the Order of Nichan-Iftikar. In Belgium the king bestowed on him the Order of the Lion of Belgium. In Moscow he was introduced to Tsar Nicholas I, who did not give him a decoration at all but presented him instead with a pair of performing bears. Perhaps this symbol of a circus reflected Nicholas’s true opinion of Liszt. The Tsar, having made a noisy entrance at one of Liszt’s concerts, had begun to talk loudly during the playing; whereupon Liszt stopped. When Nicholas inquired the cause, Liszt bowed stiffly and said: ‘Music herself should be silent when Nicholas speaks’. It was, as Sacheverell Sitwell pointed out, the first time that ‘music herself’ had answered back.

Even as he enjoyed his greatest triumphs as a virtuoso, Liszt’s troubled relationship with Marie d’Agoult and the uncertain future of their three children were casting shadows over his private life. Mme d’Agoult had returned to Paris in November 1839 to seek a reconciliation with her estranged family; while the Flavignys were ready to embrace her, they could not embrace her children by Liszt. The three infants were housed with their grandmother, Anna Liszt, who gave them much love and affection and acted in every respect as their mother. Liszt visited his children whenever he was in Paris, and held himself financially responsible for them, paying for their upkeep and education. In 1844, the rupture with Marie d’Agoult became permanent as a result of his widely publicized dalliance with the dancer Lola Montez, and they did not see each other again for 16 years. Marie d’Agoult assuaged her bruised feelings by adopting the pen name ‘Daniel Stern’ and writing her roman à clef, Nélida, in which Liszt is depicted as an impotent painter, Guermann Regnier, with herself as the wronged heroine. Liszt always refused to recognize himself in this novel, although the character-assassination was damaging.

The most arduous tour of the Glanzzeit was the one that took him through the Danube principalities and Ukraine, during an 18-month period in 1846–7. Starting in Vienna, in March 1846, he wandered through Prague, Pest, Temesvár and Arad (Transylvania), gradually moving east to Bucharest and Iaşi, in Moldavia. By February 1847 he had reached Kiev; from there he progressed to Odessa, sailed across the Black Sea and arrived at Constantinople where he played in the Tchiragan Palace before the Sultan in June 1847. For these concerts Erard had sent over one of his best grand pianos which Liszt described as ‘a magnificent instrument’. By July he was back in Ukraine and gave ten concerts in Odessa. The very last recital he gave for money took place in Elisavetgrad, in September. He was still only 35 years old. Had Liszt died at that moment, the title of the first modern pianist could not have been withheld from him.

9. Liszt and the piano.

During the 1830s and 40s Liszt made an unprecedented advance in piano technique, introducing a range of new technical and expressive possibilities. This breakthrough, coupled with the related evolution in the instrument itself, its greater strength, its bigger sound and wider dynamic range, allowed a richer variety of pianistic textures. The instrument could encompass symphonic and vocal works, and imitate a wealth of colouristic and timbral effects. Modern piano technique owes much to Liszt’s pioneering developments during these years. Pianists still turn to his music for its technical resources. When Busoni began to study the piano afresh at the age of 30, in order to remedy what he considered to be defects in his own playing, Liszt’s music was his chief guide. Out of the laws he found there Busoni rebuilt his technique. ‘Gratitude and admiration’, he wrote, ‘made Liszt at that time my master and my friend’.

The works most representative of Liszt’s virtuoso years are the six ‘Paganini’ Studies and the 12 ‘Transcendental’ Studies. The sets were published with the titles Etudes d’exécution transcendante d’après Paganini and Grandes études respectively, before they were revised in 1851 with their final titles of Grandes études de Paganini and Etudes d’exécution transcendante. In their earlier versions these works remain among the most daunting challenges in the piano literature, and they offer telling proof of Liszt’s pre-eminence among the pianists of his time.

The ‘Paganini’ Studies, with the exception of La campanella, are based on the caprices for solo violin, and each study concentrates on a particular technical or musical device, equivalent to those in the original violin works:

1. G minor, tremolando (based on Paganini’s Caprice no.6, with introduction and coda based on Caprice no.5); 2. E major, scales and octaves (Caprice no.17); 3. G minor, leaps and rapid note reiteration (La campanella); 4. E major, arpeggios and crossing hands (Caprice no.1); 5. E major, echo effects and glissandos (Caprice no.9); 6. A minor, theme and variations (Caprice no.24)

The 12 ‘Transcendental’ Studies A173 are closely related to the ‘Paganini’ Studies in style and virtuosity. These pieces exist in three versions (Mazeppa has an additional version dating from 1840 as well as an orchestral version as a symphonic poem), since the 12 Grandes études A40 are elaborate reworkings (with the exception of no.7, later called Eroica) of the juvenile Etude A8 (1827). It was not until the final version that Liszt added the poetic titles. The tonal plan of these 12 studies follows that of the original 1826 set. Liszt unfolds a descending circle of 5ths, with each alternate study in the relative minor of its predecessor. Since 24 studies were announced for the 1838 publication, we infer that Liszt originally intended to continue the key scheme and complete the circle. Robert Schumann reviewed this 1838 version for the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, and aptly described them as ‘Studies in storm and dread … fit for ten or 12 players in the world’.

The 1851 revisions of both sets of studies were designed to allow the pieces to ‘speak’ more effectively. Liszt smoothed out some of the more intractable difficulties and clarified the textures, giving the pieces a leaner, more brilliant sound. The revisions made these works more widely accessible and accommodated the changing requirements of the modern piano, with its heavier action. Nevertheless, even with the more complicated textures ironed out, these works make enormous demands on the pianist.

A comparison between the later versions of each study and the corresponding juvenile model reveals the immense strides that Liszt made as a pianist over 25 years (ex.4. The original 1826 (untitled) version of Wilde Jagd was unremarkable, influenced as it was by Cramer and Czerny. Yet it contains the seeds of one of the most difficult concert studies ever written for the piano.

Liszt’s hands were long and narrow (fig.7), and lack of webbing between the fingers allowed him to take wide stretches with comparative ease. Because his fingertips were blunted rather than tapered, they gave maximum traction across the surface of the keyboard. Another physical advantage for Liszt was that his fourth fingers were unusually flexible, and this made it easier for him to play shimmering textures with several things going on inside the same hand simultaneously. His keyboard textures often assume that the player can stretch a 10th without difficulty (ex.5). Liszt’s fingerings are of absorbing interest. They arise naturally from the keyboard and from the anatomy of the human hand. The layout of the double-3rds scale in the Sixth ‘Paganini’ Study seems perverse, until we consider the alternatives. Liszt forms the hand into a two-pronged fork (second and fourth fingers only), an unusual shape which permits him to move across the keyboard at high velocity (ex.6).

‘Interlocking scales’ show Liszt at his inventive best. One of the basic models may be found in the first volume of Technische Studien; it finds a home in such shining passages as found in La campanella (ex.7). The challenge turns out to be mental rather than physical. Rather than dividing his resources between two hands, each with five digits, Liszt in effect sees a single interlocked hand of ten digits.

One of Liszt’s most sensational effects still bears his name: ‘Liszt octaves’. They are played with alternating hands, thumbs overlapping, creating the illusion of regular double octaves at unattainable speeds. Difficult as they sound, such passages are highly economical. The player achieves double the power with half the output. A well-known example occurs in the Second ‘Paganini’ Study, in E major (ex.8).

The more dramatic devices in Liszt’s music required larger halls for their full effect. It was Liszt who took the piano out of the salon and placed it in the modern concert hall. When, in early 1837, he gave a recital before 3000 people in Milan, at La Scala, he was democratizing the instrument. Nevertheless, in order to achieve this end he had to overcome much prejudice. There were many musicians whose thinking was rooted in the 18th century, and who regarded the piano – much as the harpsichord had been regarded before it – as a chamber instrument to be played before a small circle of connoisseurs. Chopin, Hummel and Moscheles had all made their reputations in this way. When Chopin played in the salons of Paris before a select audience drawn from high society, he gave his incomparable performances on the silvery toned Pleyel, with its light action. Liszt had often played the Pleyel and found it wanting: he disparagingly called it ‘a pianino’. The seven-octave Erard, with its heavier action and larger sound, was more suited to his pianistic style. This was the instrument that he preferred during his tours of the 1830s and 40s. Even so, it could not always withstand the onslaught of his more powerful pieces, and Liszt occasionally broke a string or snapped a hammer. Not until the firms of Steinway and Bechstein produced their reinforced instruments in the 1850s did Liszt’s repertory of the 1840s come into its own.

In Erard’s double-escapement action Liszt perceived some unexplored possibilities. His music abounds in streams of rapid note reiterations which, when properly executed, delude the ear into believing that the piano has been turned into a sustaining instrument. One of the finest examples occurs in the Tarantella from Venezia e Napoli, a supplement to the Italian Années de pèlerinage (ex.9). Into a similar category falls the tremolando, a dangerous device in the wrong hands. Some of his later compositions (Les jeux d’eaux à la Villa d’Este, for example, or his arrangement of Isolde’s ‘Liebestod’ from Tristan) rely heavily on the effect and can be ruined in performance. Liszt advised that the tremolando be played as rapidly as possible, with the keys already halfway depressed and brought to life by the slightest trembling of the hand. A notorious example occurs towards the end of the ‘Dante’ Sonata (ex.10).

Leaps were a particular speciality. Liszt himself enjoyed taking risks and he sometimes asks the pianist to perform some difficult feats. The first version of Au bord d’une source (1840) contains an invitation to disaster, which is generally declined in favour of the revision of 1855 (ex.11). The glissando was another effect with which Liszt dazzled his audience. The Tenth Hungarian Rhapsody, Les patineurs, and Totentanz all contain extended glissandos of an unprecedented range and power (ex.12). In a letter to Olga von Meyendorff, incidentally, Liszt advised her to use ‘only the nail, either of your thumb or of your index or third finger, without even the tiniest area of flesh’ (his italics; Waters and Tyler, C1979, p.390).

In the 1830s Liszt developed some unconventional marks of expression. The impulse to do so arose from a youthful desire to control every aspect of interpretation, especially tempo rubato.

The 1838 version of the Transcendental Studies offers an abundance of such devices. In later years, when he revised much of his early output, Liszt dropped them, presumably because he felt that such matters are best left to each individual player. Their chief interest today is that they tell us how Liszt himself might have interpreted his own music.

10. Arrangements.

Apart from his many original studies and character-pieces, Liszt made many keyboard arrangements. They fall broadly into two categories: paraphrases and transcriptions. These terms were coined by Liszt himself (he lay claim to them, together with the term ‘Réminiscence’, in his annotated copy of Ramann’s biography) and their meanings are distinct. In a paraphrase the arranger is free to vary the original and weave his own fantasy around it. A transcription, on the other hand, must be a faithful re-creation of the original. Liszt’s paraphrases of operas by Mozart, Bellini, Donizetti and Verdi sometimes encapsulate an entire act in a 15-minute concert piece, juxtaposing and combining the themes en route. A well-known example occurs in his paraphrase of Bellini’s Norma, whose coda combines two of the opera’s main themes – ‘Deh! non volerli’ and ‘Ite sul colle’.

Liszt’s transcriptions, by contrast, are usually so literal that they have been called gramophone records of the 19th century. Comparison between Liszt’s arrangements and those of his contemporaries demonstrates why Liszt’s remain of lasting interest. For him there were no stock devices or standard piano textures. Liszt’s inventiveness enabled him to create individual pianistic solutions to the variety of problems encountered in translating music from one medium to another. After examining Liszt’s impeccable transfers of the Beethoven symphonies Tovey remarked that ‘they prove conclusively that Liszt was by far the most wonderful interpreter of orchestral scores on the pianoforte the world is ever likely to see’ (Essays in Musical Analysis, i, 193).

The arrangements had much to contend with after Liszt’s death. Since the operas and symphonies they had enterprisingly pioneered were by then well known the crusading impulse for playing such transcriptions in public had diminished. By the turn of the 20th century there was also a growing insistence on ‘authentic’ performance, a new emphasis on scholarly objectivity embodied by the Urtext. Arrangements in general came to be regarded as second-class music. Between the two world wars few pianists ventured to play this repertory in public. Out of temper with the times, an inimitable treasury of piano music was ignored and forgotten. Brahms, no Liszt admirer, used to declare that in Liszt’s operatic paraphrases lay ‘the true classicism of the piano’. It is in this spirit that they have been revived in modern times, and the best of them – those on Norma, Rigoletto and Faust – are likely to remain in the repertory for as long as the operas after which they are modelled.

11. To Weimar.

While giving concerts in Kiev, in February 1847 Liszt had met Princess Carolyne von Sayn-Wittgenstein, the second great love of his life. Carolyne was 28 years old, seven years younger than Liszt. She was already separated from her husband, Prince Nicholas von Sayn-Wittgenstein (an aide-de-camp to Tsar Nicholas I), to whom she had been forcibly joined in a marriage of convenience when she was only 17 years old. This had become a source of bitter contention in her life, and soon after meeting and falling in love with Liszt she began a 13-year fight to secure an annulment. Polish by birth, Carolyne had inherited from her father vast estates in Ukraine. This had turned her into a victim of circumstance: the Wittgensteins would have been happy to comply with her wish for an annulment, but not if it meant losing control over her fortune. There was one daughter of the union, Princess Marie. Carolyne’s home was at Woronince, about 150 miles southwest of Kiev, where she held dominion over 30,000 serfs. Liszt stayed as her house guest at Woronince for three months, from the autumn of 1847 until January 1848. This was a crucial turning-point in both their lives, and in February 1848 the Princess followed Liszt to Weimar.

As early as 1842 the Grand Duke of Weimar had offered Liszt the position of Kapellmeister-in-Extraordinary, a job his itinerent life style had hitherto prevented him from taking up. The post held many attractions for him. He had long wanted more leisure to compose. Weimar was a small yet important cultural centre that could boast a century’s unbroken association with the arts. It was the city of Goethe and Schiller. Moreover, it possessed an orchestra and an opera house, important resources that would help Liszt to realize his ambitions to conduct and compose large-scale orchestral works.

To students of the Romantic era it may seem strange that Liszt, one of its leading representatives, was willing to bind himself to a minor German court at a time when great musicians had long since broken away from this system of patronage and were proud to proclaim their independence. Liszt attached himself to Weimar and his courtly duties, because he and the Grand Duke, Carl Alexander, were bonded together by mutual admiration and common ideals. Liszt wanted to create ‘an Athens of the North’, as he put it, and he believed that Carl Alexander would dip into the royal purse to make this possible. Liszt ultimately left Weimar disillusioned, but the 13 years he spent there from 1848 to 1861 saw the creation of some of his best work.

Throughout most of the Weimar years Liszt and Princess Carolyne occupied a large house on the outskirts of the city, called the ‘Altenburg’. In this house Liszt did most of his composing and teaching, his favourite location being the so-called ‘Blue Room’ overlooking the garden. He also taught his first generation of pupils in the Altenburg, including Hans von Bülow, Peter Cornelius, Karl Klindworth, Carl Tausig, and William Mason, who left one of the best memoirs of those years. The Altenburg soon became a Mecca for modern musicians. Berlioz, Wagner, Anton Rubinstein and the young Brahms were all guests at one time or another. The princess also put on large parties, to which were invited not only musicians but painters, sculptors, poets, dramatists, scientists and politicians. The English novelist George Eliot visited Weimar in 1854 and left a record of her encounters with Liszt and Carolyne (Fraser’s Magazine, July 1855). Liszt may well have been the real-life model for ‘Klesmer’, the concert pianist in Eliot’s novel Daniel Deronda, whose views on talent, genius, musicality and priest-like devotion to work are so akin to those of Liszt that it is safe to assume that Eliot took them almost verbatim from Liszt himself.

Liszt’s biographers have tended to marginalize Carolyne. Ernest Newman dismissed her as ‘a half-cracked blue-stocking’ who constantly meddled in Liszt’s affairs. Clearly this was not Liszt’s view of her, and the archival evidence supports him (it includes nearly 2000 of her unpublished letters to him, mostly in Weimar). Carolyne was receptive to his ideas and sympathetic to his artistic aims and she provided Liszt with a comfortable home during his most productive years. It is doubtful that he could have achieved so much without Carolyne’s support. In his will (1860), he wrote of Carolyne: ‘All my joys come from her, and all my sorrows go to her to be appeased’.

Liszt’s first achievement in Weimar was to increase the size of the orchestra and bring in better players. He also involved himself in the musicians’ personal welfare, and improved both their salaries and their pensions. Within two years he had formed a permanent ensemble of 45 players, and for special events he could call on the outlying orchestras of Erfurt and Jena to create a combined orchestra of 100 players or more. The appointment of Joachim as his leader in 1850 was a major step forward. Unfortunately, the two musicians quarrelled over artistic matters, particularly over the value of the new music that Liszt was continually promoting, and the violinist joined the Brahms-Schumann circle in opposition to Liszt.

12. The War of the Romantics.

The Weimar years were notable for the struggle between ‘progressive’ and ‘conservative’ forces in 19th-century music, with Wagner, Berlioz and Liszt on one side, and Brahms, Schumann and Mendelssohn on the other. The conservatives were associated with Leipzig (whose conservatory had at one time been directed by Mendelssohn, with Schumann briefly serving on its staff); the group was championed by the powerful Viennese critic Eduard Hanslick, and Liszt bore the brunt of many of his criticisms. Liszt, for his part, staged several great Wagner and Berlioz festivals in Weimar and attracted national attention to these composers. As a result Leipzig was closed for many years to Liszt and his music. When the Dante Symphony received its first performance there in 1857 it was greeted with catcalls and boos.

The ‘War of the Romantics’ generated much acrimony. The central problem agitating the world of music in the 1850s was the fate of sonata form. There were two chief alternatives open to composers: either to perpetuate the forms handed down by the Viennese classics; or to modify and develop them. Broadly speaking, Mendelssohn and Brahms chose the former; Liszt chose the latter. His work shows three distinct departures. First he evolved the single-movement cyclic sonata structure which rolled the separate movements of a sonata into one and had its final outcome in the symphonic poem – Liszt’s alternative to the Classical symphony. Secondly, he developed the technique of thematic transformation whereby the contrasting ideas in a work spring from one or two basic musical thoughts. And thirdly, he believed that the language of music could be fertilized by the other arts – poetry and painting in particular – and so began a controversy which continued throughout the 19th century. There are still musicians who think that Liszt fostered the notion that music is a ‘representational’ art, that it can depict a poem, a flower, a picture, or a storm. What Liszt actually said (in the ‘General Preface’ to the symphonic poems) was rather different:

It is obvious that things which can appear only objectively to perception can in no way furnish connecting-points to music; the poorest of apprentice landscape painters could give with a few chalk strokes a much more faithful picture than a musician operating with all the resources of the best orchestra. But if those same things are subjected to dreaming, to contemplation, to emotional uplift, have they not a peculiar kinship with music; and should not music be able to translate them into its mysterious language?

Hanslick’s influential book Vom Musikalisch-Schönen (1854) challenged the notion that music could represent anything beyond itself – a powerful theoretical position that has retained a lot of support. When the first of Liszt’s symphonic poems appeared in 1856, Hanslick disparaged them in a second edition of his book. Meanwhile, Franz Brendel had turned Robert Schumann’s old magazine, the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, into a mouthpiece for Liszt and the new music, a move that troubled Schumann’s friends, and the ‘war’ spilled over into the columns of the European press. The crusading impulse in Liszt drove him to form the Neu-Weimar-Verein, an association of about 30 musicians (including Raff, Cornelius, Bülow and Klindworth) which held regular meetings in Weimar, promoted concerts of new music and generally sought to protect the interests of younger composers.

In 1859 the Verein was absorbed into the New German School, a term that was formally adopted at the national gathering of the Tonkünstler-Versammlung (‘Congress of Musical Artists’), held that year in Leipzig. This move drew a powerful protest from Brahms and Joachim, among others, who circulated a ‘Manifesto’ across Germany, dissociating themselves from this organization, and canvassing for signatories willing to object to its principles as ‘contrary to the innermost spirit of music, strongly to be deplored and condemned’. (The text was in fact written by Brahms, and was leaked to the offices of the Berliner Musik-Zeitung Echo, which published it prematurely, with only four signatories.)

The Wagner and Berlioz festivals were in keeping with Liszt’s sense of mission for Weimar, and his enthusiasm for exploring and proselytizing new works. At the first Berlioz week (1852), Berlioz himself conducted his Roméo et Juliette and La damnation de Faust, while Liszt directed a performance of the revised version of the opera Benvenuto Cellini (which is dedicated to Maria Pavlovna, the Grand Duchess of Weimar). During the festivities, the Grand Duke of Weimar invested Berlioz with the Order of the White Falcon, one of the Duchy’s highest honours for which he was nominated by Liszt. A second Berlioz week (1855) featured Berlioz conducting his L’enfance du Christ. Once again Berlioz was honoured at the conclusion of the festival when he was made an honorary member of the Neu-Weimar-Verein.

Liszt’s support of Wagner was of still more lasting importance. Shortly after Liszt had taken up residence in Weimar, Wagner had participated in the failed Dresden Uprising, and had fled Saxony with a price on his head. Wagner made his way to Liszt (the pair had met as early as 1842), who not only sheltered him in the Altenburg (in May 1849) but arranged a loan of money and a forged passport to get Wagner out of Germany and into the sanctuary of a Swiss exile. For ten years Liszt supported Wagner with gifts of money, and kept alive his flagging spirits with personal trips to Switzerland. He also wrote letters to various heads of state to help Wagner secure a pardon. Above all, he made sure that Wagner’s music was kept alive in Germany. He gave the première of Lohengrin (28 August 1850) after 46 rehearsals, a number without precedent for an opera (Wagner dedicated the work to Liszt and presented him with the manuscript of the full score), and he regularly mounted Der fliegende Holländer and Tannhäuser, as well as orchestral excerpts from all three operas at various German music festivals. He even tried to persuade the Grand Duke of Weimar to invite Wagner to settle in the city and build a theatre there for the performance of Tristan, long before Wagner thought of settling in Bayreuth. These gestures were openly acknowledged by Wagner, and in his Mein Leben he is often fulsome in his praise of Liszt. Nonetheless, the relationship was marred by Wagner’s self-absorption and his constant demands on Liszt’s purse. When Wagner’s pardon came through in 1860 and his fortunes improved, he could have done much to repay Liszt artistically but failed to do so.

13. Liszt as conductor.

Liszt’s activities as an orchestral conductor have been overshadowed by his fame as a pianist and composer. He first mounted the podium in January 1840 to conduct an orchestral concert in Pest that included the overture to Mozart’s Die Zauberflöte and Beethoven’s Choral Fantasy. Two years later he conducted a performance of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony in Berlin, and in 1843 he directed a complete performance of Die Zauberflöte in Breslau. He had also conducted several times in Weimar before settling there, directing the orchestra in performances of Beethoven’s ‘Eroica’ and seventh symphonies.

Liszt’s conducting soon began to command attention, partly because of the novelty of his programmes, and partly because of his new approach to technique. He was engaged in various European centres as a guest conductor, including the Ballenstedt Festival (1852), the Karlsruhe Music Festival (1853), and the Niederrheinisches Musikfest in Aachen (1857; fig.9). During the ten years in which he regularly directed orchestras Liszt cultivated a repertory of body signals which were considered revolutionary at the time but which have become commonplace. He often abandoned a regular square-cut beat in favour of great arcs that offered the shape of the phrase (as Furtwängler was later to do). He sometimes put down the baton and conducted with hand gestures alone (like Stokowski). To dramatize the difference between pianissimo and fortissimo he would crouch low over the podium for the former and raise himself to his full height for the latter, arms outstretched. The most telling signals came from his face, which registered all the emotions of the music as he tried to get the players to work as one. He also introduced tempo rubato, an almost unheard-of effect for an orchestra in the 1850s. His extant orchestral parts are filled with dynamic markings that show he strove to unfold different layers of sound simultaneously. We can hardly imagine what the orchestral players of his time would have made of such injunctions as ‘the instruments must sound like ghosts’ (Hunnenschlacht), or ‘like blasphemous mocking laughter’ (Dante Symphony), or to the double-bass players in the Dante Symphony, ‘take the E high’. Lina Ramann astutely declared that ‘Liszt at the head of an orchestra is a continuation of Liszt at the piano’ (Ramann, H1880–94, i, 92). Liszt disparaged the old-fashioned Prussian Kapellmeister, whose metronomic approach led him to refer to them as ‘windmills’. In his manifesto ‘On Conducting’ (outlined in a letter to Richard Pohl, Briefe, C1893–1905, i, 142–5), he declared: ‘We are helmsmen, not oarsmen’, implying that it was the conductor’s job to set the compass and plot the course, while the players rowed the boat. He elevated the conductor to ‘musician-in-chief’, shaming those who thought their job was done if they could get the band to start and finish together. Had Liszt not resigned his position in Weimar after a mere ten years (he stepped down from the podium almost for good in 1859) he might well have been recognized as the founder of modern conducting. As it was, people soon forgot about this side of his professional activity, and his reforms were taken up by his disciples Hans von Bülow (whom Liszt helped to get started in this field), Hans Richter and Felix Weingartner.

14. Liszt as author and editor.

Liszt wrote many articles to coincide with his Weimar concerts. His essays on Wagner’s Lohengrin, Berlioz’s Harold en Italie, and Schubert’s Alfonso und Estrella (the première of which he gave in 1854) arose from the requirement to provide local audiences with some background reading material. It used to be thought that Princess Carolyne was the author of this prose (just as Countess d’Agoult was considered to be the author of the earlier Lettres d’un bachelier ès musique, 1835–1841). So certain were scholars of this point that in 1937 Emile Haraszti declared that ‘Liszt never wrote anything but his private letters’ (‘Le problème Liszt’). Research has shown that Liszt was actually the writer of much of this prose (with one notable exception: Des bohémiens et de leur musique en Hongrie, 1859, 2/1881, which was supervised by Princess Carolyne, who added the anti-Semitic material to the second edition without the aging composer’s knowledge). We know that he received practical assistance with first drafts from his literary-minded mistresses, but he always edited the results and held himself responsible for the published texts. Nine holograph documents are known to exist, comprising 240 pages, either in Liszt’s handwriting or containing his autograph corrections (they are catalogued in Walker, H1983–96, ii, 369–70). That is a large body of evidence which shifts the burden of proof on to those who continue to declare that Liszt was not the author of his own prose. It must be admitted that the literary quality of his texts has been much criticized. His book on Chopin upset Chopin’s family, who asserted that the biographical sections were inaccurate; and his book on gypsy music displeased Hungarians for turning the gypsies into the creators of Magyar folk music. Liszt’s literary style tends to be verbose and self-centred though full of pithy aphorisms and maxims. ‘The Artist is the bearer of the Beautiful’; ‘For the formation of the Artist, the first pre-requisite is the development of the human being’; ‘Criticism begins with self-criticism’; ‘It is not the Artist who chooses his profession, it is his profession which chooses him.’ Such ideas, so vividly expressed, reveal Liszt to be a genuine musical thinker. His books shed much light on his theoretical picture of music, on music’s connection to the other arts, on the condition of artists in society, on the role of virtuosity, and on many other topics.

Liszt was also active as an editor. He published editions of Beethoven’s 32 Piano Sonatas (1857), John Field’s Nocturnes (complete edition c1860–70), the complete Etudes of Chopin (1878) and collections of sonatas by Schubert (1871–80) and Weber (1871–83). Liszt’s editions are surprisingly free of Romantic or subjective excess and show a level of respect for the text unusual for the time. We do not readily think of him as a scholar and editor, yet his introduction to the Schubert sonatas presents us with a set of editorial principles that would be acceptable today, the chief one being the clear separation of the original text from his own (few) interpretative suggestions.

15. Symphonic poems.

Until he arrived in Weimar, Liszt had written very little for the orchestra. He lacked confidence in this field but resolved to master it. At first he was assisted by August Conradi, a composer of light music whom he had engaged as a copyist as early as 1844. Liszt used to submit to Conradi a short score marked with instrumental cues. Conradi would then prepare a full score which embodied Liszt’s instructions, and perhaps make some further suggestions of his own. From this version Liszt would rehearse the work and make revisions in the light of practical experience. The process might be repeated several times until Liszt was satisfied. Conradi lived in Weimar for about 18 months, from February 1848 until the summer of 1849. His work was eventually taken over by Joachim Raff who assisted Liszt until 1854. Since Raff later put out some inflated claims about his own role in Liszt’s composing process (his letters on this topic, suggesting that he was an equal collaborator, were published posthumously in Die Musik, 1902–3) a question mark was placed over the authenticity of Liszt’s orchestral music. Peter Raabe was able to remove it when he embarked on a careful comparison of all the known sketches with the published scores, and demonstrated that every note of the final versions is by Liszt himself (Raabe, H1931, ii, 71–9 contains a compressed account of his extensive discussion).

Around 1853 Liszt introduced the term ‘Symphonische Dichtung’ (‘Symphonic Poem’) to describe a growing body of one-movement orchestral compositions, programmatically conceived. ‘New wine demands new bottles’, he once declared. The language of music was changing; it seemed pointless to Liszt to contain it in forms that were almost 100 years old. In the symphonic poems there are shifts in structural emphasis: recapitulations are foreshortened while codas assume developmental proportions and themes are reshuffled into new and unexpected chronologies, with contrasting subjects integrated by means of thematic metamorphosis. He wrote 12 such pieces in Weimar (a 13th, Von der Wiege bis zum Grabe, is a product of his old age). The first group of six was published in 1856, the second between 1857 and 1861. All are dedicated to Princess Carolyne, and bear titles which reveal the source of their inspiration: Tasso, Les préludes, Orpheus, Prometheus, Mazeppa, Festklänge (all published 1856); Héroïde funèbre, Hungaria, Ce qu’on entend sur la montagne (all 1857); Die Ideale (1858); Hamlet, Hunnenschlacht (both 1861).

Several of the symphonic poems deal with exceptional heroes – Hamlet, Mazeppa, Orpheus, Tasso, Prometheus – characters who confront overwhelming odds or find themselves in an impossible dilemma. Liszt identified with such protagonists throughout his life. Each symphonic poem was published with a preface which discloses the source of its extra-musical inspiration: Kaulbach’s painting Hunnenschlacht, Victor Hugo’s poem ‘Mazeppa’, the Etruscan vase in the Louvre on which was depicted Orpheus playing his lyre, and so forth.

With the exception of Les préludes, none of the symphonic poems has entered the standard repertory, although the best of them – Prometheus, Hamlet and Orpheus – repay attention. Their historical importance is undeniable; both Sibelius and Richard Strauss were influenced by them, and adapted and developed the genre in their own way. For all their faults, these pieces offer many examples of the pioneering spirit for which Liszt is celebrated.

16. ‘Faust-Symphonie’.

The symphonic poems were still in Liszt’s portfolio when he composed the Faust-Symphonie, his orchestral masterpiece, in a white heat of inspiration within the short space of two months, between August and October 1854 (a final section was added in 1857). Liszt had been introduced to Goethe’s Faust by Berlioz in 1830, and had long nourished a desire to reflect that literary masterwork in music. (Appropriately, Liszt’s score is dedicated to Berlioz.) For many years his itinerant life style had placed one obstacle after another in his path, and had prevented the realization of his plan. Once settled in Weimar, however, a city which still resonated with Goethe’s presence, the work took possession of him and he put the best of himself into it.

One of the best discussions of the Faust-Symphonie was also one of the first. Written by Liszt’s disciple Richard Pohl, and published in 1862, this essay is notable for a richness of detail which could only have come directly from Liszt himself (Pohl, H1883, pp.247–320). The first thing to observe is the work’s title: ‘A Faust Symphony in Three Character Sketches after Goethe: (1) Faust, (2) Gretchen, (3) Mephistopheles’. Liszt does not attempt to tell the story of Goethe’s drama, but rather creates musical portraits of the three main protagonists. The ‘Faust’ movement itself lasts nearly half an hour and reveals Liszt to be an orchestrator of the first rank. The work’s keyless beginning has attracted commentary. It depicts Faust as thinker, contemplating the mysteries of the universe. Some theorists have seen in this passage not merely a descending sequence of augmented chords, but one of the earliest 12-note rows in musical history (ex.14a). Liszt’s method of thematic metamorphosis is particularly suited to revealing the contradictory sides of Faust’s personality. In turn we are introduced to a series of motifs (passion, love, pride, and so forth), all of which are subjected to character change. The doubt motif (ex.14b) and the Motif of Love (ex.14c), for example, are different sides of the same coin. The ‘Gretchen’ movement was composed straight into full score, a feat that commands respect given the complexity of the music. Liszt regarded the orchestra as the sum total of many chamber ensembles – a notion later pursued by Mahler and Richard Strauss – to be endlessly mutated and produce a sonic surface of kaleidoscopic variety. The ‘Gretchen’ theme is introduced first as a duet for oboe and viola, and later turns up as a woodwind quartet and then as a string quartet.

The finale – ‘Mephistopheles’ – shows Liszt at his ingenious best. Mephistopheles is the spirit of negation, or, as Goethe describes him, ‘Der Geist, der stets verneint’. The problem for Liszt was how to depict him in music. Since Mephistopheles cannot create, but only destroy, Liszt gives him no themes of his own, but allows him to penetrate those of Faust, which are mocked and cruelly distorted. The evil spell under which Faust labours is strengthened by a self-quotation from one of Liszt’s earlier works, Malédiction (or ‘curse’) for piano and strings. The entire finale is a vast metamorphosis of the first movement (only Gretchen’s theme remains uncorrupted), an original idea that was later taken up by Bartók in his B minor Violin Concerto. Faust’s flight from Mephistopheles is portrayed by a fugue (an appropriate form since the word itself denotes ‘flight’), whose main subject is a metamorphosis of the doubt motif, Faust’s most vulnerable character trait (ex.14d). The symphony was originally planned as a purely instrumental work, a version in which it is often played. Three years after its completion in 1854, however, Liszt added a new ending, a setting of the Chorus Mysticus, for solo tenor and male chorus. He himself conducted the first performance on 5 September 1857, on the occasion of the unveiling of the Goethe-Schiller monument in Weimar.

17. B minor Piano Sonata.

Among the crowning achievements of the Weimar years was the composition of the Piano Sonata in B minor. Completed in February 1853, it represents one of the most original contributions to sonata form to come out of the 19th century. Not only are its four movements rolled into one, but they are themselves composed against a background of a full-scale sonata scheme – exposition, development and recapitulation – which unfolds about half an hour’s unbroken music. In short, Liszt has composed ‘a sonata across a sonata’, possibly the first time in musical history that such a thing had been attempted. Beethoven had occasionally linked the movements of his sonatas and symphonies, of course; one thinks of the Fifth Symphony and the Appassionata Sonata, whose respective finales emerge from the previous movements without interruption. But the B minor Sonata is different. The material is constantly making contributions to two sonata forms simultaneously. This ‘double-function’ structure was to have no successor until Schoenberg did something similar in his First Chamber Symphony more than 50 years later. It may be expressed as follows:..\Frames/F922802.html

No other work of Liszt has attracted anything like the same degree of scholarly attention. Not the least of its many fascinations has to do with hidden programmes, the pursuit of which has kept three generations of experts busy despite Liszt’s total silence on the matter: he simply called his work a ‘sonata’. For someone who attached titles and programmatic descriptions to about 90% of his output, his silence as to extra-musical meanings is eloquent. It was nonetheless suggested by Peter Raabe that the Sonata is a musical portrait of the Faust legend, complete with Faust, Gretchen and Mephisto themes. Others have seen in the work a depiction of the Garden of Eden, with themes symbolizing God, Lucifer, Adam and Eve. Yet others regard the work as an autobiographical portrait of Liszt himself. The Sonata is clearly sufficiently robust and intriguing to bear many interpretations, including that of an abstract instrumental composition.

Much of the structure is generated from a small group of thematic cells, first heard in the Introduction (Lento assai/Allegro energico), but without reference to a definite key (ex.15a–c). The descending ‘gypsy’ scale with which the sonata begins (ex.15a), is used by Liszt to close down all the major structural junctures of the form, somewhat like the acts of a play. Liszt’s metamorphosis technique is shown to good effect in the first subject, which is derived from a combination of themes (b) and (c), now firmly established in the tonic key (ex.15d). Particularly rich in the deployment of its contrasting themes is the second subject stage of the structure, in the relative major, whose main musical ideas are drawn from the introductory material. Compare, for example, themes ‘e’ and ‘f’ with theme ‘c’ (ex.15).

The great Andante sostenuto (itself a compound ternary form) occupies the same world of blissful contemplation as the slow movements of late Beethoven with which Liszt was so familiar. One of its contrasting themes offers a distant glimpse of the second subject (theme ‘f’) which helps to bind the movement to its broader context. The Andante is set in Liszt’s ‘beatific’ key of F major. Liszt’s choice of keys is rarely the result of random selection, and is frequently determined by a higher expressive purpose, a wide topic still waiting to be explored. The ‘Paradiso’ section of the ‘Dante’ Sonata (A44/7), Bénédiction de Dieu dans la solitude and Les jeux d’eaux à la Villa d’Este (with a quotation from the Gospel According to St John) all have religious connotations and are all cast in this same key. By incorporating a three-part fugato into his sonata, Liszt once more reminds us of Beethoven. The telescoping of two forms which are basically incompatible is not easy: where, exactly, does one place the fugato if both forms are to survive intact? Liszt maintains the structure’s ‘double function’ by turning his fugato into both a third movement and an extended return to the recapitulation, in B minor (bar 533). Liszt originally intended the sonata to end with a loud flourish, a form in which it has occasionally been performed. The manuscript shows that the inspired quiet ending (a tranquil recollection of the Andante sostenuto) was an afterthought.

The sonata was published in 1854 with a dedication to Robert Schumann (a reciprocal gesture for the dedication of Schumann’s C major Phantasie to Liszt, some years earlier). It had to wait a further three years for its first public performance, given by Hans von Bülow in Berlin on 22 January 1857. The work’s reception was not promising. Otto Gumprecht described it as ‘an invitation to hissing and stamping’ (Nationalzeitung), while Gustav Engel thought that it conflicted both with nature and with logic (Spener’schen Zeitung). From this critical setback the sonata recovered only slowly, and Liszt’s pianistic masterpiece received few performances before the turn of the century. One of the best known was the private performance that Karl Klindworth gave to Richard Wagner in London, on 5 April 1855 (for Wagner’s fervent reaction see his letter to Liszt; Briefwechsel, C1887, ii, 69).

18. Organ works.

It is no accident that Liszt’s interest in the organ was aroused in Weimar. There was a powerful tradition of organ playing there which went back to Bach. Some of the old church organs scattered across Thuringia had remained unchanged since Bach’s time, and Liszt often travelled to various towns and villages in the company of his disciple, the organist Alexander Gottschalg, in search of these venerable instruments. In Weimar, Liszt brought to completion his piano transcriptions of six of Bach’s organ preludes and fugues; these engrossing transfers taught him much about the nature of the organ. According to Gottschalg, Liszt was a respectable organist but he lacked fluency on the pedals. However, he held some unconventional ideas on registration. He heard Gottschalg play Bach’s Toccata and Fugue in D minor on the full organ, on one manual (the usual practice in Germany at that time), and Gottschalg later recalled (NZfM, 15 November 1899) that Liszt remarked:

In terms of technique it is totally satisfying … but where is the spirit? Without this, Bach is a Book of Seven Seals! Surely Bach did not play his works in such a manner; he, whose registrations were so admired by his contemporaries! When you are playing on a three-manual instrument, why should the other two manuals be ignored?

Gottschalg later played the work with new registrations to his colleague, the great Weimar organist Gottfried Töpfer, who exclaimed: ‘You must always play it like that!’ With the composition of such large-scale works as Ad nos ad salutarem and the Fantasy and Fugue B–A–C–H, Liszt led the organ out of church and into the concert hall. It was with the former composition, incidentally, that Liszt’s pupil Alexander Winterberger inaugurated the new organ at Merseburg Cathedral (1855), then the largest instrument in Europe, with four manuals, 81 stops and 5686 pipes.

19. Songs.

Liszt came to maturity as a song composer during his Weimar years. He wrote his first songs ten years earlier, while he was resident in Italy (the Tre sonetti di Petrarca were first sketched there), and by the time he got to Weimar he had composed a dozen or more. He now revised and added to them, and eventually produced an impressive total of more than 80 songs and collections. The songs have been strangely neglected. They rarely turn up in modern lieder recitals, and some of them are unknown even to specialists. This is surprising, for a closer acquaintance with the best of them suggests that they represent a ‘missing link’ between Schumann and Hugo Wolf. Liszt’s native language was German, and the years that he lived and worked in Weimar – where Goethe and Schiller had earlier been active – brought him into daily contact with German poetry. Some of his best settings are of the German poets Heine, Hoffmann von Fallersleben (Weimar’s ‘poet-in-residence’), Uhland, Rellstab, and of course Goethe and Schiller themselves.

Liszt had at his disposal a number of gifted singers attached to the Court Opera, who were ready and able to do the songs justice. Singers such as the tenor Franz Götze, the contralto Emilie Genast, the soprano Rosa von Milde-Agthe and her husband, the baritone Feodor von Milde, all had highly musical ears, which allowed Liszt to make unusual demands on them. They also had the supreme advantage of being coached and accompanied by Liszt himself, and may therefore be said to have sung his songs with authority. The von Mildes could have made more lucrative careers elsewhere; but when they were asked about that Feodor gave the unanswerable reply that they stayed in Weimar simply because Liszt was there. The Sunday afternoon ‘matinées’ held in the large music room of the Altenburg (Liszt’s home in Weimar) provided a perfect setting for the performance of these pieces, within the circle of Liszt’s own admirers, and often with Liszt himself at the keyboard.

One of Liszt’s greatest songs is his setting of Heine’s Die Lorelei (1841, rev. 1854–9). The introduction contains a striking anticipation of the opening bars of Tristan, which had not yet been composed (ex.16). The version of Die Lorelei for voice and orchestra is one of several that Liszt made (others include Die drei Zigeuner and Mignon’s Lied). In general the Weimar songs are characterized by an unparalleled freedom of the vocal line, which often unfolds across an advanced harmonic texture. Moreover, Liszt’s penchant for plunging back and forth from one extreme key to another often means that his melodies are fraught with enharmonic subtleties. It is one thing to employ this technique on the piano (where the player simply manipulates a keyboard), quite another to employ it through the human voice, where these pitches have to be created by throat and larynx. A good example occurs in Vergiftet sind meine Lieder, where the singer is asked to approach a high F and quit it as an E (ex.17).

Liszt often asked his singers to ‘colour’ their voices where the poem required it. Scattered throughout his manuscripts are such unusual imperatives as: ‘fast gesprochen’ (almost spoken), ‘mit halber Stimme’ (with a half-voice), ‘geheimnisvoll’ (mysterious), ‘phlegmatisch’ (dull or heavy) and ‘hintraumend’ (day-dreaming). Not the least remarkable thing about the songs is the speed with which some of them were composed – often within the space of two or three hours. Liszt tended to work quickly as a matter of course, but there are few better examples of his moving with somnambulistic certainty towards his goal. Another quality is brevity. Liszt has the reputation of long-windedness, especially in some of the orchestral works. But the songs show that he could be direct, concise and economical. His setting of Heine’s Vergiftet sind meine Lieder lasts a mere one-and-a-half minutes, and comes across with the force of an aphorism.

20. From Weimar to Rome, 1859–64.

Liszt’s tenure at Weimar was never easy. A major source of frustration was that the court theatre was also used for plays, and the Intendant Franz Dingelstedt (whom Liszt himself had brought to Weimar) quickly came into conflict with Liszt. In December 1859 Dingelstedt encouraged a hostile demonstration in the theatre against Cornelius’s opera Der Barbier von Bagdad, which Liszt interpreted as a slight against himself, and he resigned. His will (1860) expresses his frustration with Weimar, and does not spare Carl Alexander from criticism for the lack of support that Liszt had hoped to receive from his royal benefactor:

At a certain period (about ten years ago) I had visions of a new epoch for Weimar, similar to that of Carl August, in which Wagner and I should have been the leading spirits, as Goethe and Schiller were formerly. The meanness, not to say villany, of certain local circumstances, all kinds of jealousies, ineptitudes both external and internal, have prevented the realization of this dream, which would have brought honour to the present Grand Duke.

There was a dark side to Liszt’s personal life in Weimar which fuelled his feelings of discontent. The action to have Carolyne’s marriage annulled (started in March 1848) had trailed much unhappiness in its wake. Carolyne’s case rested on a charge of vis et metus (‘violence and fear’). She brought witnesses who were present at the marriage service to testify that her father had forced her into matrimony. Prince Nicholas defended the action, and denied that the wedding was forced. He argued further that the marriage had been in existence for a number of years and that the matrimonial bond had been strengthened with the birth of their daughter, Princess Marie. In 1854 Carolyne refused a summons from Tsar Nicholas I to return to Russia to explain her non-compliance with a property settlement; she was stripped of her citizenship and her lands were sequestered. The following year his successor Tsar Alexander II condemned her to exile.

Perhaps it was the stress of unremitting litigation, with its persistent uncertainty of a marriage to Carolyne, that led Liszt in 1853 to begin a clandestine relationship with Agnes Street-Klindworth (1825–1906), the daughter of Georg Klindworth, Metternich’s master spy. This attractive woman, who worked in her father’s espionage network, had been sent to Weimar to spy on the diplomatic officials there. The full story of her love affair with Liszt has only recently come to light with the discovery of the censored passages in the third volume of Liszt’s Briefe, which La Mara originally published in a mutilated edition under the bland title of Briefe an eine Freundin. Carolyne learnt of the affair, accepted it as the price of her unusual situation, and realized that the only hope of regularizing her union with Liszt lay with the Vatican’s approval of the annulment of her marriage.

In May 1860 Carolyne set out for Rome, carrying with her a personal petition to Pope Pius IX. For 18 months she argued her case at the Vatican. On 8 January 1861 the Holy Congregation, especially convened by Pius IX to examine the matter, finally ruled in Carolyne’s favour. (The annulment document is reproduced in Walker, H1983–97, ii, 573.)

Liszt closed down the Altenburg in August 1861, and joined Carolyne in Rome, where their wedding was planned for his 50th birthday, 22 October 1861, in Carolyne’s parish church of S Carlo al Corso. So certain was Carolyne of this marriage that she had already postdated her will to ‘Rome, 23 October 1861’ and signed it ‘Carolyne Liszt’. What followed has all the elements of fiction, but is fact. At the last moment an emissary from the Vatican arrived at the church with instructions to the priest, Father Francesco Morelli, not to proceed with the service. It transpires that Monsignor (later Cardinal) Gustav Hohenlohe had been working secretly to bring about Carolyne’s downfall, and had procured witnesses to testify that she had perjured herself with false testimony before the Russian Consistory that had first granted her an annulment. (The complex story is told in Walker and Erasmi, H1991, pp.12–16.) Hohenlohe’s motive was straightforward. His youngest brother Prince Konstantin had in October 1859 married Carolyne’s daughter Marie in Weimar, at which time control over Carolyne’s fortune had passed to the newly-weds, part of a complex financial settlement approved by Tsar Alexander II. The Hohenlohes feared that if Carolyne remarried she or her future offspring would have legal reasons to re-negotiate this agreement, since Princess Marie might have been declared a bastard offspring of a marriage that no longer existed – a potential calamity the Hohenlohes were determined to forestall. Carolyne was unable to overcome their intransigence. They knew better than most that since a Catholic marriage was a sacrament, an annulment case could be reopened and re-examined at any time. In order to avoid a life of endless litigation, and also to secure a rapprochement with her daughter, from whom she had become estranged, she gave up her long fight to marry Liszt.

Liszt now found himself in Rome by default, uncertain of what to do and where to go. He took temporary lodgings at 113 via della Purificazione and installed a small upright Boisselet piano on which he composed a number of pieces, including his two concert studies Waldesrauschen and Gnomenreigen. He also formed contacts with the musical life of Rome, and regularly visited S Pietro and the Cappella Sistina, where he became fascinated by the music of Palestrina and by plainchant. Among the further fruits of these visits were his Evocation à la Chapelle Sixtine and transcriptions of the ‘Confutatis’ and ‘Lacrymosa’ from Mozart’s Requiem. He began intensive research into the history of church music, developed an interest in the Cecilian movement and became acquainted with its leader, Franz Xaver Witt.

It was also a time of personal anguish. He had not only lost his son Daniel, in December 1859, but his elder daughter, Blandine, died in September 1862 after giving birth to her first child (his ‘Weinen, Klagen’ variations were inspired by that mournful event). Liszt’s Lear-like estrangement from his only surviving child, Cosima, who was soon to desert Hans von Bülow in order to live with Richard Wagner, clouded his life with unhappiness. In 1867 he travelled to Lucerne to confront Wagner but failed to move either him or Cosima. (Liszt later described the encounter as ‘like visiting Napoleon on St Helena’.) The two composers broke off all contact for five years. Especially hard for him was to learn that Cosima had turned Protestant shortly after her marriage to Wagner, in 1870. Liszt became old in Rome. The Roman historian Gregorovius described him unforgettably as: ‘… a striking, uncanny figure – tall, thin, and with long grey hair. Frau von S[chorn] maintains that he is burnt out and that only the outer walls remain, from which a little ghost-like flame hisses forth’ (F. Gregorovius: Romische Tagebucher, 1852–1874, ed. F. Althaus, Stuttgart, 1893, p.201). In an attempt to bring some repose into his troubled life he entered a two-year retreat at the Madonna del Rosario, an almost deserted monastery on Monte Mario, which lay just outside Rome and was run by Dominican monks. He was visited there by Pius IX and an entourage of clerics, including Gustav Hohenlohe (on 11 July 1863). The music-loving pontiff sang a Bellini aria, with Liszt accompanying; afterwards Liszt performed the second of his recently composed Franciscan Legends, St François de Paule marchant sur les flots. The encounter was widely reported in the press and led to rumours that Liszt was about to be appointed director of the choir of the Cappella Sistina. Liszt never coveted that job, however, and there is no evidence that the pontiff was about to dismiss the incumbent Salvatore Meluzzi. Nevertheless, the story led to a mischievous ‘conspiracy theory’ (promoted by Haraszti among others) which argued that in exchange for the directorship of the choir, Liszt would agree to enter Holy Orders and thus make himself unavailable for marriage to Princess Carolyne. Despite all evidence to the contrary the theory still haunts the literature. What is undeniable is that a personal friendship developed between Liszt and Pius IX (who took to calling him ‘my dear Palestrina’), and that the pontiff often summoned Liszt to give private recitals, both in the Vatican and at his summer home at Castel Gandolfo.

21. Liszt enters the lower orders.

Liszt received the tonsure on 25 April 1865, with Monsignor Gustav Hohenlohe officiating. For the rest of his life he would be known as ‘Abbé Liszt’. He moved into Hohenlohe’s private apartments in the Vatican, pursuing theological studies to prepare himself for the next step. That took place on 31 July when he entered the four minor orders – Doorkeeper, Lector, Acolyte and Exorcist – again with Hohenlohe participating. Doubt has been cast on Liszt’s sincerity. For many years it was a standard fixture in the literature that his motive was to escape the yoke of matrimony. Such a view is unsustainable since the lower orders impose no vows of celibacy and Liszt remained free to marry. Liszt himself expressed it well when he said that his action ‘harmonized with all the antecedents of my youth’, that he had no desire to become a monk ‘in the severe sense of the word’ (he never became a priest), and that it was enough for him ‘to belong to the hierarchy of the church to such a degree as the minor orders allow me to do’ (Briefe, C1893–1905, ii, 81). Nevertheless, his son-in-law Emile Ollivier called it ‘a spiritual suicide’; like others within Liszt’s inner circle, Ollivier was aware of the psychological upheavals from which Liszt had recently emerged, and on which the cassock had a calming effect. Liszt’s ties with the clergy were further strengthened when on 14 August 1879 he was made an honorary Canon of Albano.

Liszt lived in the Vatican for about 14 months, until Hohenlohe was made a cardinal and gave up his apartments there. On 22 November 1866, St Cecilia’s Day, Liszt moved into the S Francesca Romana – with its unsurpassed views of the Forum and the Colosseum – which remained his principal Roman residence until the building was secularized in 1871. Not long after his arrival, the Boston firm of Jonas Chickering presented Liszt with its prize-winning grand piano, specially sent from Paris after being awarded a gold medal at the Great Exhibition of 1867. Liszt held masterclasses on this instrument every Wednesday afternoon, and gathered around him some interesting Italian pupils, including Giovanni Sgambati. Many visitors descended on Liszt, most famously the young Edvard Grieg who brought along some of his compositions for Liszt’s approval, including the recently composed piano concerto which Liszt read at sight.

22. Oratorios: ‘St Elisabeth’ and ‘Christus’.

During the Roman years Liszt brought to fruition his two largest choral works: the oratorios Die Legende von der heiligen Elisabeth and Christus. Shortly after his arrival, he had written to Franz Brendel: ‘After having, as far as I could, solved the greater part of the Symphonic problem set me in Germany, I mean now to undertake the Oratorio problem’. And he added: ‘to me it is the one object in art … to which I must sacrifice everything else’ (Briefe, C1893–1905, ii, 8).

Liszt had been familiar with the life and works of St Elisabeth of Hungary since his childhood. Two events acted as the catalyst for his musical setting of the life of this saint. In 1855 Moritz von Schwind completed a series of frescoes in the ‘Elisabeth gallery’ of nearby Wartburg Castle (part of the continuing restoration of this historic shrine which lay within the domains of the grand duke of Weimar, and was soon to celebrate its 800th anniversary) depicting various scenes from the life of Elisabeth – ‘Arrival at the Wartburg’, ‘The Crusaders’, ‘The Miracle of the Roses’, ‘The Banishment’, and so forth. Liszt got to know these frescoes well, and resolved to provide them with musical counterparts. He began work on St Elisabeth in 1857, with a libretto prepared by Otto Roquette (based on an outline by Princess Wittgenstein). In 1858 Liszt’s oratorio received a further stimulus when he read the newly published life of St Elisabeth, by the Hungarian writer János Danielik. He wrote to Danielik asking if he could see the various plainchant notations connected with the liturgical hymns and prayers the writer had consulted for his book. Since Danielik was not a musician, this task was passed to the composer Mihály Mosonyi, who went to the Pest National Library at Liszt’s urging in search of the sources.

These plainchants form the basis of much of the important thematic material of St Elisabeth. Liszt himself provides a summary of them at the end of the score, a disclosure which reveals his deep involvement in the task of presenting these ancient melodies in a modern setting. 1. In festo, sanctae Elisabeth; 2. Hungarian Hymn to St Elisabeth, from the ‘Lyra Coelistis’; 3. Hungarian popular melody; 4. Pilgrims’ Song – dating from the time of The Crusades; 5. The ‘Cross motif’.

No other composition cost him so dear, or was written over such a long period of time, as his oratorio Christus. He first conceived the idea of an oratorio on the life of Christ as early as 1853, but was unable to finish it until after 1866. Almost from the start he had trouble in finding a suitable libretto. At various times he considered approaching the poet Georg Herwegh, Peter Cornelius and Princess Carolyne for help in selecting the texts; but in the end he undertook the task himself. His sources were the Bible, the Catholic liturgy and various medieval Latin hymns. The first movement to emerge was ‘The Beatitudes’ (no.6), which was actually performed in Weimar at the wedding of Princess Carolyne’s daughter, in 1859. But the bulk of the mammoth score was written in his cell at the Madonna del Rosario, during the years 1863–5, that is, at the very time he was preparing himself for the Lower Orders. Liszt referred to Christus as ‘my musical will and testament’. And after the years of struggle were over he observed: ‘The composition of Christus was an artistic necessity for me. Now that it is done, I am content’ (Göllerich, A1908, p.5).

Christus calls for very large choral and orchestral forces, as well as six soloists, an offstage female choir and an organ. Since the oratorio lasts about three and a half hours without cuts, there are severe logistical and financial problems standing in the way of regular performances. Nevertheless, when properly presented and performed in a spacious church by devoted interpreters, the impression can be overwhelming.

Christus has been criticized for its loose and somewhat episodic structure. Liszt eschewed his usual method of thematic transformation, and relied instead on the realization of certain plainchant melodies with which he expected a Catholic audience to be familiar. A simple example occurs in the music of the Nativity where the plainchant ‘Angelus ad pastores ait’ (‘And the Angel said unto the shepherds’) is transformed into a pastorale melody on the english horn (ex.18). The great ‘Stabat mater dolorosa’ (a 20-minute movement which could well stand by itself in the concert hall) offers a further example of this interesting process. Liszt set all ten stanzas of the poem, ascribed to Jacapone da Todi (13th century), and clothed them in a radically altered form of the old plainchant melody with which these verses had been associated from the 15th century, and which Liszt found in the Liber usualis. The result is a strikingly modern texture, deeply rooted in history, which makes a profoundly emotional impact.

The first performance of the complete oratorio took place in the Herder Church, Weimar, on 29 May 1873. Richard and Cosima Wagner were in the audience (a sign of the recent rapprochement between the two composers). Although Wagner delivered an ambiguous judgment on the work, students of the two composers will not fail to observe some striking connections between the ‘Agony in the Garden’ (no.11) and Wagner’s later music drama Parsifal.

23. Liszt as teacher.

From 1869 Liszt pursued what he called his ‘vie trifurquée’, or threefold life, in which he divided each year between Rome, Weimar and Budapest. The grand duke of Weimar had never ceased to inquire when Liszt would return to the city, and in February 1869 Liszt acceded to his request. A new home was found for him, the former Hofgärtnerei, or Court Gardener’s house, which adjoined the Goethe Park. The grand duchess herself supervised the furnishings, and the firm of Bechstein provided a grand piano whenever Liszt was in residence. It was in the music room that he held his famous masterclasses three times a week.

Liszt was one of the greatest teachers of his generation. He taught from his earliest years in Paris, and was still giving lessons during the last month of his life, nearly 60 years later. More than 400 students are said to have studied with him, although this number is impossible to prove; so much depends on how the phrase ‘a pupil of Liszt’ is defined. Some of those who later claimed him as a teacher received only one or two lessons from him (Liszt called them ‘one-day flies’), others none at all. (A comprehensive list is given in Walker, H1983–96, iii, 249–52.)

Liszt invented the masterclass, a concept which has come to dominate instrumental teaching. It was his belief that young masters would stimulate one another and achieve ever higher standards of perfection. The custom was for one pupil to play, Liszt and the others looking on, after which Liszt would make some observations about the performance and perhaps play portions of the work himself. These were moments to treasure. Simply to be in the same room as Liszt, as more than one pupil testified, turned one temporarily into a better pianist. His first generation of great students, whom he taught during the 1850s, had included Tausig, von Bülow, Klindworth and Hans von Bronsart, and it was arguably the finest group to pass through his hands. But the later generation also included some impressive talents, such as d’Albert, Rosenthal, von Sauer, Joseffy, Friedheim, Siloti and Sophie Menter. Clearly this exceptional group of peers formed one of the most critical audiences imaginable. If a young pianist could survive such a baptism of fire he could survive whatever lay in store in the world outside.

Liszt’s pupils were like the members of an extended family. Once admitted to his inner circle they were allowed privileges normally denied to students of other teachers. They accompanied him on trips to such nearby towns as Jena, Erfurt and Eisenach to hear concerts, to attend social functions and to celebrate special anniversaries. A number of students kept diaries, recording their life together, and helped to fulfil Liszt’s own best maxim: ‘Create memories!’

Liszt was not interested in playing the pedagogue. He had no method, no system, and little technical advice to offer his students. When playing the piano, the physical problems associated with it were his last consideration. A favourite aphorism was: ‘Technique should create itself from spirit, not from mechanics’. He expected his students to ‘wash their dirty linen at home’, as he put it, a phrase that became much dreaded among his students. Of course, by observing Liszt himself play – watching the lie of his hands on the keyboard, seeing how certain passages were fingered, studying his pedal-effects – his pupils undoubtedly received the best possible guidance, and learnt far more than they might have done from a dry, academic description of these events. Liszt generally liked to have before him some poetical image in order to draw an appropriate interpretation from his pupils. ‘Do I care how fast you can play your octaves?’ he once thundered at a pupil in the middle of the celebrated octave passage of Chopin’s A Polonaise. ‘What I want to hear is the canter of the Polish cavalry before they gather force and destroy the enemy’ (Lamond, E1949, p.68).

This emphasis on musical interpretation made Liszt’s classes exceptional. He would take apart a Beethoven sonata, phrase by phrase, in an effort to get his pupils to comprehend the meaning behind the notes, and in so doing he established traditions of performance which survive to this day. His comments were spiced with anecdote, metaphor and wit. To a young student tapping out the opening chords of the Waldstein Sonata he remarked drily: ‘Do not chop beefsteak for us’. And to another who had blurred the rhythm in Gnomenreigen (usually played too fast for him): ‘There you go, mixing salad again’. He sat through many performances of La campanella, with its infamously high Ds which force the player’s right hand to leap back and forth at speed across the void. To those who hesitated before striking the key he would declare: ‘Do not look for the house number’. Liszt also believed in preserving artistic individuality; he was not interested in making carbon copies of himself. This stood in marked contrast to his contemporaries. Kullak, Breithaupt, Deppe and others were known for their methodology and for drilling their pupils into conformity, like soldiers. The theory was that the ‘soldiers’ would eventually come marching out of the conservatories of Berlin, Cologne and Leipzig, and conquer the world. Not a single great pianist appears to have been produced by such methods, although one or two may have emerged despite them.

Many pen-sketches have come down to us from those times, written by August Göllerich, Carl Lachmund, Amy Fay and others. Lachmund, an American who studied with Liszt during the years 1882–4, once heard him play Feux-follets (A173/5).

The spirit and passion that this man still possesses at the age of 71 is marvellous; and how his hands flew from passage to passage! I had taken a position next to the keyboard … My heart bubbled with the captivating joy he put into this music. I smiled; my interest was all intense, self-forgetful, and before I realized it, I gave vent to my delight in a loud laugh. Just then he stopped. He looked up, as I thought, a little surprised; I blushed and reproached myself for having broken the spell, and in a way he might have misconstrued into levity. But I think he understood. (Lachmund, 68)

Liszt had many hangers-on who took advantage of his kindness. Hans von Bülow, much feared for his banter, was perhaps somewhat cruel when he remarked that ‘at the best pianist’s house one can hear the worst pianists playing’. In the summer of 1881, when Liszt was indisposed, Bülow took over the Weimar masterclasses and almost caused a revolution at the Hofgärtnerei when he expelled the incompetents and ne’er-do-wells. Bülow insisted that he was doing no more for Liszt than he would do for his own dog by ridding it of its fleas. Shortly afterwards, however, Liszt was back and with him the ‘fleas’. There were many in Weimar who criticized the hot-house atmosphere of the Hofgärtnerei, generated by an unthinking admiration of Liszt; and it was said (somewhat unkindly) that admiration was the price of admission to the class. Walter Damrosch visited Weimar in 1882 and came away with an unflattering picture of Liszt surrounded by ‘a pitiful crowd of sycophants … a band of cormorants in the shape of ostensible piano students’. This drew a powerful response from Carl Lachmund, who pointed out that the ‘band of cormorants’ had included some of the most famous names in piano playing, including Arthur Friedheim, Moriz Rosenthal, Frederic Lamond and Alexander Siloti (Walker, ed., E1995, p.xxiv).

Liszt never charged for his lessons. He lived by the motto ‘Génie oblige!’ He was troubled when the German newspapers published details of Theodor Kullak’s will, revealing that the great pedagogue had left more than a million marks generated from his lucrative teaching practice. (Kullak’s Neue Akademie der Tonkunst had become the biggest private teaching institution of its kind in Germany.) ‘As an artist, you do not rake in a million marks without performing some sacrifice on the altar of Art’, Liszt declared to Lina Ramann (E1983, pp.297–8). He wrote a letter to the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung in which he urged Kullak’s sons to create an endowment for needy musicians (5 September 1885). From anyone else, such an idea would have been presumptuous. But through his personal example, Liszt had earned the right to propose it.

24. Growing ties to Hungary.

Liszt was in Hungary when Rome fell to Victor Emmanuel’s troops in 1870, and Pius IX was besieged within the Vatican. Unable to return to Rome, Liszt languished for a while in his native land. His continued presence there led his friends and supporters to think of ways in which he might be persuaded to accept an official position. Although he wrote that he was ‘terrified of being thrown back into an active career’ (Hugo, ed., C1953, p.145) it was from this time that the bonds that already tied him to Hungary were made secure.

In June 1871 Liszt accepted the title of Royal Hungarian Counsellor from Emperor Franz Joseph. The position carried with it an annual stipend of 4000 forints and entitled Liszt to sit in the Hungarian legislature – a privilege he never used. Another distinction to come his way imposed a heavier burden. In March 1875 Liszt was appointed the first president of the newly formed National Hungarian Royal Academy of Music. This institution (which has been renamed the Liszt Academy of Music) opened its doors on 14 November 1875. Hitherto, the best Hungarian musicians had been obliged to study abroad in the absence of any institute of higher learning at home. Liszt understood that this process must be reversed in order to develop the musical life of the nation. He helped to draw up the curriculum and appoint the faculty, a task in which he was assisted by his distinguished contemporary Ferenc Erkel. He insisted that all students of composition study the piano, and all piano students study composition. Admission standards were high and each candidate was obliged to exhibit skills in improvisation, sight-reading from full score and transposition. This enlightened policy yielded rich dividends. By the end of the century Bartók, Kodály and Dohnányi, three of the country’s most prominent musicians, had already graduated from the Academy. Liszt refused to accept any remuneration for the Academy’s presidency; his rent-free apartment was the only ‘payment’ he ever received.

For the last 15 years of his life Liszt became an eternal wanderer. It has been estimated that he travelled at least 4000 miles each year – from Rome to Budapest, from Budapest to Weimar, and from Weimar back to Rome – in an endless circle, with occasional trips to Vienna, Bayreuth and Paris thrown in. That is an exceptional figure for a man in his twilight years, exposed to the rigours of road and rail in the 1870s. And it increases dramatically when we add the long journeys he made each year to the festivals of the Allgemeiner Deutscher Musikverein (whose honorary president he became in 1882) held in such scattered places as Hanover, Karlsruhe and Leipzig. This ceaseless travel is often depicted in popular biographies as proof of a restless personality driven by deep insecurities. The facts speak otherwise: Liszt’s travels were mainly a result of the demands on his time and talent by others. In Weimar it was to support Carl Alexander; in Budapest it was to help the fledgling Academy of Music; in Rome to maintain his personal loyalty to Princess Carolyne. Remove these causes and you remove the need for Liszt to have travelled at all. There was no monetary or material gain for him in any of these places, and since he invariably paid his own travel expenses, he was often out of pocket. This strained his already precarious financial situation, since he now made little money from the sale of his music, and on the rare occasions he played in public he invariably donated his services to charitable causes. The large donation he gave for the erection of the Bach monument in Eisenach in 1883 impoverished him for the better part of that year.

25. The music of Liszt’s old age.

As Liszt grew older he gave vent to music of darkness and depression. This is the language of outcries and asides, of whispers and laments. It stands in opposition to the exuberant, life-enhancing compositions of his younger years. One of the more urgent tasks awaiting Liszt scholarship is to demonstrate how the strange, remote language of his old age flows from his earlier style. The shift is extreme, and for many years these pieces lacked an audience. It is an indication of the renewed interest in Liszt’s life and work that they have meanwhile obtained a devoted following. Compositions such as Trübe Wolken (Nuages gris) (1881) have acquired the status of an icon; with its gently grinding dissonances, its free approach to tonality, and its abandoned ending (ex.19), it has a claim to be a gateway to modern music. This impressionistic music looks forward to Debussy. We recall that during the last year of Liszt’s life he and Debussy met in Rome (in January 1886) on three separate occasions. The young Frenchman heard Liszt play Au bord d’une source. He never forgot Liszt’s use of the pedal, which he likened to ‘a form of breathing’.

Liszt was a pioneer in building new chords. The pile-up of 3rds in Ossa arida (1879) had no precedent and this texture retains its striking originality. It was inspired by the vision of Ezekiel (‘O ye dry bones, hear the word of the Lord’). Liszt depicts the raising up of the flesh from dust by gathering up all the notes of the diatonic scale in a rising column (ex.20a), and then sounding them simultaneously (ex.20b). A similarly original approach to building chords occurs in the pile-up of 4ths at the beginning of the Third Mephisto Waltz (1883) (ex.21). The chord (*) cannot be explained in terms of traditional harmony, but is best regarded as a ‘4ths’ chord in its last inversion.

At the terrifying climax of Unstern! (1881) Liszt pits two mutually exclusive chords against each other (ex.22). Peter Raabe observed that it is as if ‘a prisoner were hammering on the walls of his cell, well knowing that no one would hear him’ (Raabe, H1931, ii, 63). We begin to understand what Liszt meant when he once told Princess Sayn-Wittgenstein that his one remaining ambition was ‘to throw a lance into the boundless realm of the future’.

In one sense, such pieces represent a natural extension of the earlier Liszt, with his love of harmonic adventure, intense chromaticism and tonal ambiguity. What is new is the bitterness of heart which pervades this disturbing repertory. The late pieces are autobiographical. Around 1877 Liszt began to suffer from bouts of depression. He told Lina Ramann: ‘I carry a deep sadness of the heart which must now and then break out in sound’. His ‘deep sadness’ arose from a variety of difficult personal circumstances, including the deaths of family members and close acquaintances. His physical condition also began to deteriorate, and he suffered from a variety of ailments including dropsy, ague and, towards the end of his life, cataracts, which made it difficult for him to read and write letters, let alone compose. On 2 July 1881 he fell down the stairs of the Hofgärtnerei and sustained injuries so severe that he was confined to bed for much of that summer. It was his traumatic entry into old age. (The medical report of his Weimar physician Dr Richard Brehme is published in Walker, H1983–96, iii, 404.) Small wonder that this late music is replete with funeral marches, elegies and memorial music of all kinds. Liszt referred laconically to these compositions as his ‘mortuary pieces’. The expression may have been droll, but it reflects his constant preoccupation with death. Some of these compositions are marked by an economy of means so severe that the works seem starved of the very notes required to sustain them. Endings are unresolved, as in the Second Mephisto Waltz (ex.23). Liszt never lost interest in the problem of tonality, and foresaw its disintegration. He was one of the first composers to experiment with bitonality. A telling example occurs in his funeral march for László Teleky (whose tragic political career ended in suicide, in 1861). It is based on a four-note ostinato from the gypsy scale (ex.24). The tonal ambiguity, the question of whether it is heard in G minor or B minor, remains unresolved. Liszt carried such experiments even further in his keyless Bagatelle ohne Tonart (Bagatelle sans tonalité, 1885). The unusual title is Liszt’s own; the manuscript remained unpublished until 1956, although the piece was performed in public by his pupil Hugo Mansfeldt a few days after Liszt wrote it, to the mystification of its first listeners (Walker, ed., E1995, pp.358–61).

Liszt once defended the dissonances of the ‘Music of the Future’ by declaring that the 12-note chord in ex.25 would soon become the basis of harmony and that chords of the future would consist of the arbitrary exclusion of certain intervals. ‘In fact’, he went on, ‘it will soon be necessary to complete the system by the admission of quarter- and eighth-notes until something better turns up!’ (Briefe, C1893–1905, i, 363). This was a shrewd prophecy of some of the experiments to which music would be subjected in the 20th century.

As Liszt’s 75th birthday approached, various countries came forward with plans to celebrate the event. Of the many invitations he received (some from as far away as St Petersburg), one held a special significance for him. For years his English disciple Walter Bache had mounted an annual Liszt concert in London at his own expense, and had drawn hostility for his trouble. When Bache pressed his master to return to Britain, after an absence of more than 40 years, Liszt found it impossible to refuse. Word spread quickly and invitations flowed in from Buckingham Palace, the Philharmonic Society and the Royal Academy of Music. Liszt became somewhat perturbed and wrote to Bache:

26. Last visit to England, 1886.

My very dear friend: They seem determined in London to push me to the piano. I cannot allow this to happen in public, as my 75 year old fingers are no longer suited to it, and Bülow, Saint-Saëns, Rubinstein, and you, dear Bache, play my compositions much better than what is left of my humble self.

Liszt spent nearly three weeks in England, in April 1886. He travelled from Budapest and arrived in Paris on 20 March, where a number of celebrations awaited him, including a performance of the ‘Gran’ Mass under Edouard Colonne in the church of St Eustache. For much of the time he was a guest of the Hungarian painter Mihály Munkácsy, who completed his celebrated oil painting of Liszt at this time. On 3 April Liszt left Paris and was met at Calais by the conductor Alexander Mackenzie and Alfred Littleton of Novello & Co. Together they crossed the English Channel to Dover where they were greeted by Walter Bache. The party then proceeded to Westwood House, Sydenham, where Liszt stayed for his entire sojourn as a guest of Henry Littleton, the head of Novello’s.

Despite his earlier resolve not to play the piano, Liszt performed a number of times, much to the delight of his many admirers. On 6 April he appeared at the Royal Academy of Music where he presented a cheque for £1100 to the principal, Sir George Macfarren. This large sum had been raised chiefly by Walter Bache (a professor of piano at the Academy) for the establishment of a Liszt Scholarship. Afterwards, in response to the cheers of the students, Liszt played (among other things) his Cantique d’amour. ‘No piano has ever sounded the same to me, before or since’, wrote the composer Orsmond Anderton, who was a student at that time. On 7 April Liszt appeared at Windsor Castle and played for Queen Victoria. They had last met 41 years earlier in Bonn, at the Beethoven Festival. Victoria wrote in her diary that he had then been ‘a wild phantastic looking man, who was now a quiet benevolent looking old Priest, with long white hair, and scarcely any teeth. We asked him to play, which he did, several of his own compositions. He played beautifully’.

The following evening Walter Bache put on a great reception for Liszt at the Grosvenor Gallery, to which more than 400 people were invited, representing the fields of music, art, literature and the church. It was there that Liszt was publicly reunited with Joachim, and their historic handshake was captured by the London Graphic (17 April). Sir George Grove attended and recorded his impressions of Liszt’s playing: ‘so calm, clear, correct, refined – so entirely unlike the style of the so-called “Liszt School”’. Typically, he attended two recitals given by his young pupils Frederic Lamond (15 April, James Hall) and Bernhard Stavenhagen (16 April, Princes Hall), who was making his London début. Liszt had by now become a familiar sight in London, with his snow-white hair and his abbé’s soutane; according to The Times (12 April 1886) the London cab drivers doffed their caps whenever he passed and addressed him as ‘Habby Liszt’.

Liszt arrived back in Weimar, via Paris, on 17 May. The burdens of old age were clearly visible. He was by now partially blind and his body was so bloated with dropsy that the students who met him at the railway station had to support him as he alighted from the train. The next day Cosima turned up at the Hofgärtnerei, a visit that took Liszt by surprise since she had had no contact with him since Wagner’s death in 1883. We lack a record of the conversation, but two things emerged. Liszt accepted an invitation to attend his granddaughter Daniela’s marriage to the art historian Henry Thode, on 4 July; and he also promised to lend his presence to the Bayreuth Festival later that same month. Cosima had taken over direction of the festival, which was on the verge of collapse, and the presence of Liszt had become a matter of urgent public relations. It is difficult to disagree with Liszt’s ironic description of himself as ‘Bayreuth’s poodle’. On 1 June Liszt travelled to Halle to consult the famous eye surgeon Alfred Graefe, who recommended the removal of a cataract on his left eye. An operation was scheduled for September, but Liszt died before it could be performed.

After a brief stay at Colpach Castle in Luxembourg as a guest of Mihály Munkácsy (Liszt gave his last public recital in Luxembourg on 19 July, which may have been the last time he ever touched a keyboard), he caught the night train and reached Bayreuth on 20 July. He arrived suffering from a high fever and a racking cough, and had to take to his room at 1 Siegfriedestrasse. Cosima’s festival duties prevented her from offering her father hospitality at Wahnfried (his usual abode during Wagner’s lifetime), a decision for which posterity has criticized her. She visited Liszt every morning on her way to the Festspielhaus, however, and they chatted and had coffee together. For much of the day he was left in the company of his students, who had followed him to Bayreuth in the hope of continuing their lessons with him.

27. Death.

Lina Schmalhausen’s unpublished diary gives an authentic and harrowing account of Liszt’s last ten days. After being examined by the Wagners’ local physician, Dr Karl Landgraf, he attended a performance of Parsifal on Friday 23 July. He insisted on leaving his bed on Sunday 25 July in order to attend the Bayreuth première of Tristan. He sat slumped at the back of the box, a handkerchief clasped to his mouth to stifle his coughing; he came forward only during the intermissions to show himself and acknowledge the applause directed towards him. During the night of Tuesday 27 July, Liszt began to hallucinate and was drenched in sweat. For the first time Cosima seems to have realized the seriousness of her father’s condition and sought a second opinion from Dr Fleischer, a physician from Erlangen University, who diagnosed pneumonia. She barred the students from the room and enforced Fleischer’s ban on alcohol; both decisions may have been mistakes since Liszt was now deprived of the company he most enjoyed, and the wine and cognac upon which he had long relied for daily sustenance. Liszt’s condition worsened so Cosima made up a bed for herself in the adjacent room. In the early hours of Saturday 31 July, Liszt leapt up in bed clutching his chest and crying out ‘Luft! Luft!’ Miska, his manservant, attempted to restrain him but Liszt had great reserves of energy and flung him aside. Then he collapsed, his breathing became laboured and he entered a coma from which he never emerged. The next morning Fleischer was summoned back to the house; he now thought that it may have been a mistake to ban alcohol and a cocktail of heavy wine and champagne was forced down Liszt’s throat. Cosima thought that he came to for a few moments and vainly tried to catch his words. Then she left to supervise the arrangements for a supper party to be held at Wahnfried that evening. It was the last time she saw her father alive. Liszt died at 11.30 pm on Saturday 31 July, according to the death certificate in the Bayreuth archives. From all the anecdotal evidence, death appears to have been caused by heart infarction. There is no evidence that Liszt whispered the word ‘Tristan’ at the end, an idea put about by the Bayreuth circle after his death.

The funeral took place on Tuesday 3 August. Since Liszt’s will (1860) could not be located, his last wishes were not carried out: he was not buried in the habit of the Franciscan order and his desire to be buried simply, ‘without pomp and if possible at night’, was likewise ignored. Nor did he receive absolution from a Catholic priest; the officiating cleric was a Protestant and Liszt was buried in the Bayreuth Stadtfriedhof, a Protestant cemetery, with crowds of curiosity seekers, visitors to the Wagner festival, lining the funeral route.

After the interment a dispute arose over Liszt’s last resting place. Princess Carolyne (Liszt’s executrix) was agitated at the prospect of Liszt’s body remaining in ‘pagan Bayreuth’ and took extraordinary measures to have it moved. The Franciscans wanted it returned to Budapest; Grand Duke Carl Alexander requested that it be brought back to Weimar; there were even arguments put forward in favour of Rome and of Liszt’s natal village, Raiding. But Cosima’s will prevailed, and her father still lies under Wagner’s shadow. The debate has roused passion across the years, but it is worth recalling Liszt’s own words on the matter. ‘I will not have any other place for my body than the cemetery … in use in the place where I die’. (Briefe, C1893–1905, vi, 228–9).

One of the chief obstacles faced by Liszt’s music is that of finding satisfactory interpreters. It tends to attract those players who think that their duty is done if they play it fast and loud. Moreover, since they tend to play the same small handful of pieces, they never experience the enormous range of his creative output, and thus deprive themselves of an important learning experience. His music, moreover, is not performer-proof but rests to an unusual degree on the personality of the player. The reason for this is clear. Liszt composed with the outlook of a performer, and performed with the insight of a composer. He was always the best interpreter of his own music, and even those critics who generally disliked his compositions, like Hanslick and Brahms, were invariably impressed when he himself played them. The great Liszt interpreters of the past – Petri, Rosenthal, Rachmaninoff, Beecham – brought refinement, subtlety and colour to everything they did, with the necessary quality of virtuosity held in check until they had no alternative but to release it.

28. Style, reception, posterity.

Liszt usually composed swiftly and easily, and he often worked on several compositions at the same time. His pupil Berthold Kellermann tells us that Liszt ‘wrote full scores with fluent speed, from the bottom to the top, as fast as someone else would write a letter’ (Kellermann, E1932, pp.31–2). On one occasion, in the 1870s, Kellermann came across Liszt in his Munich hotel room working on a new orchestral composition. After bidding his pupil welcome he chatted to him amicably ‘while continuing to write uninterruptedly at his score’. Liszt subjected many of his compositions to frequent revision, a practice for which he is celebrated. For him a composition was rarely ‘finished’, but went on evolving through the years. It does not follow that later versions replace earlier ones. Some of his works exist in three or four radically different versions, all of which are there to be played. It is hardly surprising, in view of the speed with which he worked, that Liszt’s manuscripts tend to be untidy and a number of them border on the illegible. The best-known of his holographs, that of the Sonata in B minor, is tidier than most, but even it shows numerous corrections and paste-overs typical of his working methods.

In the past 25 years or so a number of manuscripts have been brought to light previously described as ‘unknown’, ‘uncertain’, or even ‘unfinished’. Compositions including De profundis (an early work for piano and orchestra, dating from 1834, lacking mainly the last few bars), a piano trio arrangement of Vallée d’Obermann (from the Swiss book of Années de pèlerinage), a third piano concerto (in E major), and an unfamiliar paraphrase on Verdi’s Ernani (1847) are among those pieces that have in recent years been resurrected to a fanfare of publicity. This newly uncovered music does not always show Liszt at his best, and it is fair to ask whether he actually had good reason for not wanting to finish it – let alone publish it. He could not have known that his penchant for saving sketches (unlike Brahms and Chopin, who destroyed them) would one day attract the scrutiny of scholars, and it is doubtful that he would have welcomed their attention. Nevertheless, while these pieces may not be important enough to warrant a reassessment of Liszt’s place in history, there is merit in the notion that even the chippings from a master’s workbench are of value, and may occasionally throw light on his compositional process as a whole.

Liszt’s fate has always been inseparable from that of the Romantic era in general. During the first half of the 20th century, much of the Romantic repertory fell into deliquescence, and Liszt’s reputation suffered more than most. Even during his final years, the pendulum of history had started to swing away from him, and once the leaner textures of Stravinsky, Schoenberg and Bartók (who nonetheless greatly admired Liszt) took over, much of Liszt’s music seemed flamboyant and excessive by contrast. Between the two world wars his reputation was kept alive mainly by his piano music, and by a relatively small number of pianists devoted to it. Only when the Romantic revival got underway, in the 1950s, could Liszt be viewed in a new and altogether more favourable light. The continuing publication of his letters (more than 7000 of them, to 800 correspondents across the world), together with the gradual appearance of a trustworthy Complete Edition of his works (projected as 70 volumes), is bringing Liszt into better perspective. The largeness of his personality, the all-encompassing breadth of his musical interests, the stunning originality of many of his compositions, together with his commanding influence among the musicians of his time, are today far better understood, and these qualities are likely to keep his name alive. The Grand Duke of Weimar once told Busoni: ‘Liszt was what a prince should be’. Pianist, composer, teacher, conductor, writer and musical administrator, he enlarged everything that he touched. And through his many benefactions he advanced the dignity of the profession.

organ, harmonium, pedal piano

WORKS

Editions: Franz Liszt: Muskalische Werke, ed. F. Busoni, P. Raabe, P. Wolfrum and others (Leipzig, 1907–36) [MW]Liszt Society Publications (London, 1950–) [LSP]F. List: Opernïye transkriptsii dlya fortep'yano [Piano Transcriptions from Operas], ed. V.S. Belov and K.S. Sorokin (Moscow, 1958–64) [RS]Franz Liszt: Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke/New Edition of the Complete works, 1st ser. ed. Z. Gárdonyi, I. Sulyok, I. Szélenyi and others, 2nd ser. ed. I. Sulyok and I. Mező (Kassel and Budapest, 1970–) [NLE ser./vol.; nos. in square brackets denote vols. in preparation]Franz Liszt: Sämtliche Orgelwerke/Complete Organ works, ed. M. Haselböck (Vienna, 1986–) [UE]

Catalogue: R. Charnin Mueller and M. Eckhardt: Thematisches Verzeichnis der Werke Franz Liszts (Munich, in preparation) [LW]C – no. in L. Chiappari: Liszt: ‘Excelsior’, op.1400: Catalogo delle composizioni cronologico, tematico, alfabetico (Pisa, 1996)R – no. in P. Raabe: Franz Liszt: Leben und Schaffen, ii (Stuttgart, 1931, rev. 2/1968 by F. Raabe)S – no. in H. Searle: ‘Liszt, Franz’, Grove6

B&H	Breitkopf & Härtel [single issues]

EMB	Editio Musica Budapest

†	first edition

names within square brackets after title denote original composers of transcribed or arranged works

organ with other instruments

orchestral

solo instrument and orchestra

sacred choral with orchestra

sacred choral music

accompanied sacred solo vocal music

secular choral music with orchestra

secular choral music a cappella, or with ensemble or keyboard

unidentified fragments

lost works

planned compositions or transcriptions

editions

corrections and additions to works by other composers

doubtful works

piano



LW	S	R	C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Composed

A1	147	26	1	Variation über einen Walzer von Diabelli	1822
Published : Vienna: Diabelli, 1824†
Collected editions : NLE ii/1; MW ii/7
Remarks : 24th variation in Vaterländischer Künstlerverein, the collection of 50 ‘Veränderungen’ solicited by Diabelli from 50 composers
A2				[2] Walzer (Walse)
Remarks : from Sieben Walzer, pubd in 3 settings, pf/(vn, pf)/(pf, gui); no complete copy of pf setting is known; Die Amazonen, by Robert von Gallenberg, first perf. Vienna, 9 Aug 1823; no.2 also pubd as Waltz, a Souvenir, in The Musical Gem, London, 1832, p.92; see D1
			3	1, A	1823
Published : Vienna: Artaria, 1825†
	208a		4	2, A, ‘aus dem Ballet: Die Amazonen’	? 1823/1825
Published : Vienna: Artaria, 1825†; London: Mori & Ball, 1832
Collected editions : NLE i/13 (no.2 only)
A3	148	27	6	Huit variations	1824
Published : Paris: Erard, 1825†, as op.1
Collected editions : MW ii/7; NLE i/9
Remarks : ded. S. Erard; see also A6, Q6
A4	149	28	7	Sept variations brillantes sur un thème de Rossini	1824
Published : Paris: Erard, 1824†, as op.2; London: Boosey, ?1825, as op.2
Remarks : ded. Mme E. Panckoucke; based on ‘Ah come nascondere la fiamma’ from Ermione
A5	150	29	8	Impromptu brillant sur des thèmes de Rossini et Spontini	1824
Published : Paris: Erard, 1825†, as op.3; London: Boosey, ?1825, as op.3; Vienna: Mechetti, 1841 (rev.)
Collected editions : NLE ii/1
Remarks : ded. Countess Eugénie de Noirberne in Erard and Boosey pubns; uses themes from Rossini’s La donna del lago and Armida and Spontini’s Olimpie and Fernand Cortez
A6	151	30	11	Allegro di bravura	1824–5
Published : Paris: Erard, 1825†, as op.4/1; Leipzig: Probst, 1825; Vienna: Weigl, 1826
Collected editions : NLE i/11; MW ii/7
Remarks : ded. Count Thadé Amadé; 1826 pubn with A7 as Deux allegri di bravura I; used in Q6; see also Q2
A7	152	31	12	Rondo di bravura	1824–5
Published : Paris: Erard, 1825†, as op.4/2; Vienna: Weigl, 1826
Collected editions : NLE i/11; MW ii/7
Remarks : ded. Count Amadé; 1826 pubn with A6 as Deux allegri di bravura; used in Q6
A8	136	1	22–33	Etude[s] pour le piano-forte en quarante-huit exercices dans tous les tons majeurs et mineurs … par le jeune Liszt … op.6: 1 Allegro con fuoco, C; 2 Allegro non molto, a; 3 Allegro sempre legato, F; 4 Allegretto, d; 5 Moderato, b; 6 Molto agitato, g; 7 Allegretto con molto espressione, E; 8 Allegro con spirito, c; 9 Allegro grazioso, A; 10 Moderato, f; 11 Allegro grazioso, D; 12 Allegro non troppo, b; [13 Preludio, Allegro maestoso, F, unpubd]	1826
Published : Paris and Marseilles: Dufaut & Dubois–Boisselot, 1827, as op.6; Leipzig: Hofmeister, 1839 (later issue)
Collected editions : NLE i/18
Remarks : 1st edn ded. L. Garella; only 12 études pubd; Hofmeister’s 1839 edn is given erroneously as op.1 and titled Etudes pour le piano en douze exercices; the earliest version of no.13 was sold at Sotheby’s in May 1991 (no.302); the later version sold at Stargardt in Nov 1997 (no.837), is marked ‘Preludio’, because it is the beginning of the 2nd series of the études; used as basis for A39, which was the basis for A172, B38, C13, G7
A9	153	19	34	Scherzo (Allegro molto quasi presto)	1827
Published : in AMz, xxii–xxiii (1896)†
Collected editions : NLE i/13; MW ii/9
A10	[?745]		40	Marche funèbre	1827
Published : in Liszt Saeculum, no.51 (1993), 59–60
Remarks : written 2 days after his father’s death in Boulogne on 28 Aug 1827
A11	241	107	41–42	Zum Andenken (Zwei ungarische Werbungstänze von László Fáy und János Bihari)	1828
Published : Budapest: in Gárdonyi (G1936)†
Collected editions : LSP iii; NLE ii/1
A12a	385	116	43	Grande fantaisie sur la tyrolienne de l’opéra la fiancée de Auber	1829
Collected editions : NLE ii/1
				(a) 1st version	1829
Published : Paris: Troupenas, 1829†, as op.1
				2nd version	late 1830s
Published : Paris: Troupenas, 1839; Vienna: Mechetti, 1839; London: Wessel, 1840
				3rd version	c1842
Published : Hamburg and Leipzig: Schuberth, 1842/3
A12b	385a		704	(b) Tyrolean melody	1829
Published : Manchester: Andrews, in Athenaeum musicale, 1856; London: Curwen, 1958, in Five Liszt Discoveries
Remarks : (b): ded. F. Chopin in Wessel edn; short piece based on theme of (a), an alternative version in G, renumbered by Searle (formerly s233c)
A13	421a		44	Introduction et variations sur une marche du Siège de Corinthe	?1830
Published : facs., in FAM, xxiii (1976), 104 (introduction only)
Collected editions : [NLE ii/2]
Remarks : based on Rossini’s ‘Questo nome qui suonò vittoria’ from Maometto II (Le siège de Corinth); possibly the work mentioned in letter to Haslinger and in handwritten inventory (D-WRgs N8) as ‘Maometto et Moïse’, 1841/2, and in letter to Marie d’Agoult, 1841, as ‘Maometto-Fantaisie: Moïse-Fantaisie’
A14	252a	91	48	La romanesca
Remarks : ded. Mme H. Seghers in Pacini edn; s247, renumbered in Grove6
				1st version	1832–3
Published : in Gazette musicale de Paris (6 April 1833), suppl.†; Paris: Pacini, 1840; Leipzig: Cranz, 1840; Vienna: Haslinger, 1840
Collected editions : NLE ii/4; LSP vii
				2nd version	c1852
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1852 (‘Nouvelle edition’)
Collected editions : LSP vii
A15	420	231	50	Grande fantaisie di bravura sur La clochette de Paganini	1832–4
Published : Paris: Schlesinger, 1834†, as op.2; Vienna: Mechetti, 1839, as op.2
Collected editions : MW ii/2; NLE ii/1
Remarks : ded. H. Vial; ‘La campanella’ theme used also in A52, A113, A173
A16a, b, c				Symphonie fantastique [Berlioz, op.4]
Remarks : (a): 1st edn costs paid by Liszt, movts later issued separately by different publishers; (c): new arr. of 4th movt from (a), with introduction from rev. (b)
	470	134	54a	(a) Episode de la vie d’un artiste, Grande symphonie fantastique par Hector Berlioz	1833, rev c1876
Published : Paris: Schlesinger, 1834†, 1836; Vienna: Trentsensky & Vieweg, 1836, Witzendorf, c1844–5; Leipzig: Leuckart, c1876 (rev., 2nd edn)
Collected editions : NLE ii/16
	395	135	53a, b	(b) L’idée fixe, Andante amoroso d’après une mélodie de Hector Berlioz	1833
Published : Milan: Ricordi, 1846; Vienna: Mechetti, 1846 and 1847; Paris: Brandus, 1847
Collected editions : NLE ii/1
	470	136	54b	(c) Marche au supplice de la Sinfonie fantastique	1865
Published : Leipzig and Winterthur: Rieter-Biedermann, 1866
Collected editions : [NLE ii/11]
A17	556	241	56	Die Rose [Schubert, d745]	1833
Published : Leipzig: Hofmeister, 1835†; Vienna: Haslinger, 1838 (Nouvelle édition), in Hommage aux dames de Vienne
Collected editions : NLE ii/20
Remarks : ded. Countess d’Apponyi
A18	154	13	62	Harmonies poétiques et religieuses	1833–4
Published : in Gazette musicale de Paris (7 June 1835), suppl.; Leipzig: Kistner, 1853 (rev.)
Collected editions : MW ii/5; NLE i/9
Remarks : ded. A. de Lamartine; orig. conception incl. orch
A19	155	11	59–61	Apparitions: 1 Senza Lentezza quasi Allegretto; 2 Vivamente; 3 Fantasie sur une valse de F. Schubert: Molto agitato ed appassionato	1834
Published : Paris: Schlesinger, 1835†
Collected editions : LSP ii; NLE i/9; MW ii/5
Remarks : no.1 ded. Countess Clara de Rauzan, no.2 ded. Viscountess Frédéric de Larochefoucauld, no.3 ded. Mme la marquise de Camaran; no.3 may be the earliest Schubert transcription, later transcr. in A131
A20	409a	170	66	Réminiscences de La Juive [Halévy]	1835
Published : Paris: Schlesinger, 1836†; Berlin: Schlesinger, 1842 (2nd edn)
Collected editions : RS ii/1; NLE ii/1
Remarks : ded. C. Kautz; mentioned in letter to Anna Liszt from Geneva, 28 July 1835
A21	157	9	70	Fantaisie romantique sur deux mélodies suisses	1835–6
Published : Basle: Knop†; Milan: Ricordi; Leipzig: Hofmeister, 1837
Collected editions : MW ii/5; LSP v; NLE ii/2
Remarks : ded. V. Boissier; melodic material used in A40b and A159
A22	397	151	71	Réminiscences de Lucia di Lammermoor [Donizetti]	1835–6
Published : Paris: Latte; Leipzig: Hofmeister; Milan: Ricordi, 1840†
Collected editions : MW ii/1; NLE ii/2 (2nd version); RS ii/1
Remarks : ded. Mme Vanotti
A23	398	152	72	Marche funèbre et Cavatine de Lucie de Lammermoor [Donizetti]	1835–6
Published : Paris: Latte; Mainz: Schott, 1841†
Collected editions : MW ii/1; NLE ii/2; RS ii/1
A24	419	230	74/1	Grande fantaisie sur des motifs de Niobe (Divertissement sur la cavatine de Pacini ‘I tuoi frequenti palpiti’)	1835–6
Published : Paris: Latte†; Vienna: Hofmeister; Milan: Ricordi†; Vienna: Haslinger, 1838 (rev.)
Collected editions : MW ii/1; NLE ii/2
Remarks : ded. Mme la Comtesse Miramont
A25	422	234	75	La serenata et L’orgia, grande fantaisie sur des motifs des Soirées musicales [Rossini]	1835–6
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1836†; Milan: Ricordi; Paris: Troupenas, 1837; Mainz: Schott (rev. edn)
Collected editions : NLE ii/1 (2nd version)
Remarks : ded. J. Montgolfier
A26	423	235	76	La pastorella dell’Alpi e Li marinari, 2me fantaisie sur des motifs Soirées musicales [Rossini]	1835–6
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1836–7†; Milan: Ricordi; Paris: Troupenas, 1837; Mainz: Schott (rev. edn)
Collected editions : NLE ii/1
Remarks : ded. H. de Musset
A27a	[156]	[8/10–12]	[94–6]	Trois airs suisses/Schweizerische Alpenklänge: 1 Improvisata sur le Ranz des vaches (Départ pour les Alpes; Aufzug auf die Alp) [F. Huber], 2 Nocturne sur le Chant Montagnard (Bergliedchen) [E. Knop], 3 Rondeau sur le Ranz des chèvres (Geissreiher) [F. Huber]	1835–6
Published : Basle: Knop, 1836†; Milan: Ricordi, 1837 (rev.)
A27b				2nd version Trois morceaux suisses: 1 Ranz des vaches, Mélodie de Ferd. Huber avec variations; 2 Un soir dans la montagne, nocturne [Knop]; Rondeau sur le Ranz des chèvres (Geissreiher) [Huber]	1876–7
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1877
Collected editions : NLE ii/14
Remarks : 1st version also pubd 1842 as Album d’un voyageur, III (see A40c)
A28				Walse, A	?1835
Published : Bryn Mawr: Presser/Thorpe Music, 1996†
Remarks : orig. in the possession of the family of Pauline Viardot, who studied the piano with Liszt in the 1830s
A29	473	139	141	Marche des pélerins de la Sinfonie Harold en Italie [Berlioz]	1836/7–62
Published : Leipzig-Winterthur: Rieter-Biedermann, 1866† (2nd version)
Collected editions : NLE ii/16
Remarks : 2 versions; see also D5
A30	474	140	57	Ouverture du Roi Lear [Berlioz]	1836–7
Collected editions : LSP, 1987†; NLE ii/16
Remarks : Liszt had already been working on this transcription since March 1836 when Berlioz suggested in a letter dated 22 May 1837 ‘If you have the time, transcribe the overture of King Lear’
A31	471	137	55	Ouverture des Francs-Juges [Berlioz]	?1836–7
Published : Paris: Richault, 1844–5†; Mainz: Schott, 1845†
Collected editions : NLE ii/16
A32a	209	32a	97	Grande valse di bravura (Le bal de Berne)	1836
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1836†, in Album musical; Leipzig: Hofmeister, 1836; London: Wessel; Paris: Latte; Milan: Ricordi, 1837
Remarks : ded. P. Wolff and (in Wessel edn) Mme C. Ludlow; designated op.6, also known as Valse de Mariotique; see also A32b, A82, A84, B1
A32b	214/1–3	32b	578–80	3 caprices-valses no.1: Valse di Bravoure, B	1850–52
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1852; Vienna: Haslinger
Collected editions : LSP iv (no.3); NLE i/13; MW i/10 (nos.1–2)
Remarks : 2nd version of A32a; see also A57, A84, A88
A33	252	88	99/1	Rondeau fantastique sur un thème espagnol (El contrabandista)	1836
Published : Leipzig: Hofmeister; Milan: Ricordi; Paris: Latte, 1837†
Collected editions : NLE ii/2
Remarks : ded. George Sand; based on a melody by M. Garcia as sung by M. Malibran; see also S26
A34	390	129	100/1	Réminiscences des Puritains de Bellini	1836
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1837†; Mainz: Schott (Nouvelle édition)
Collected editions : RS ii/2; NLE ii/5
Remarks : ded. Princess Cristina Belgiojoso; see also A74
A35	412	221	101	Grande fantaisie sur des thèmes de l’opéra Les Huguenots (Réminiscences des Huguenots) [Meyerbeer], 2 versions	1836–42
Published : Paris: Schlesinger; Milan: Ricordi, 1837†; Berlin: Schlesinger, 1842 (nouvelle édition)
Collected editions : NLE ii/2; RS i/2, iv/1
Remarks : ded. M. d’Agoult 1st perf. Leipzig, 24 March 1840
A36	424	236/1–12	124–35	Soirées musicales [Rossini]:	1837
Published : Milan: Ricordi 1838†; Paris: Troupenas, 1842
Collected editions : NLE ii/3
Remarks : ded. Countess Julie Samoyloff (née Comtesse Phalen); 4-hand and 2 pf versions not by Liszt, but pubd by Schott; nos.2 and 9 for 2 pf pubd Schlesinger
				1 La promezza, 2 La regata veneziana, 3 L’invito, 4 La gita in gondola, 5 Il rimprovero, 6 La pastorella dell’Alpi, 7 La partenza, 8 La pesca, 9 La danza, 10 La serenata, 11 L’orgia, 12 Li marinari
A37a	464/3, 11	128/3, 11	306	[Symphonies de Beethoven no.3:] Marche funèbre	1837
Published : Vienna: Mechetti, 1843, in Beethoven Album†; Leipzig: B&H, 1865 (rev.)
A37b	464/5–7	128/5–7	136–8	Symphonies de Beethoven [nos.5–7 1st version]	1837
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1840 (nos.5–6)†; Vienna: Haslinger (no.7)
A37c	464	128	874–9	Symphonies de Beethoven, partitions de piano (nos.1–9)	1863–4
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1865 (nos.1, 2, 3 complete, 4, 8, 9)†, (nos.5–7 rev.)
Collected editions : NLE ii/17, (nos.1–4), ii/18 (nos.5–7), ii/19 (nos.8–9)
Remarks : ded. J.A.D. Ingres in Richault and B&H 1840 edns; see also A37a, C4
A38a	476	142a	139	Esmeralda [L. Bertin]	1837
Published : Paris: Troupenas, 1837†
Remarks : vs of complete opera attrib. to Liszt. The selections appear to have been extracted from the complete vs. See M. Short, Liszt Society Journal, xvii (1992), 25–36
A38b	447a	142a	139	Esmeralda [L. Bertin]	1837
Published : Paris: Troupenas, 1837†
				Air chanté par Massol [Quasimodo’s Aria] (‘Mon Dieu! j’aime’)
A38c	477a	142b	139	Esmeralda [L. Bertin]	1837
Published : Paris: Troupenas, 1837†
				Trois morceaux detachés d‘Esmeralda arrangé par F. Liszt
				No.11 – Entracte, Recitatif et Romance, ‘Quoi! lui’
				No.13 – Air, ‘Mon Dieu! j’aime’
				No.10– Scène et Trio, ‘D’ici vous pourrez voir, sans être vu’

A39	137	2a	112–23	Vingt-quatres grandes études pour le piano	?1837–1839
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1839†; Milan: Ricordi†; Paris: Schlesinger, 1839†; London: Mori & Lavenu, 1839 (only nos.1–8)
Collected editions : MW ii/1; NLE
Remarks : ded. C. Czerny; as A8, only 12 were pubd; ded. Chopin in the Ricordi edn (1837), bk II (nos.8–12); see also A8, A172, B38, C13
A40a, b, c	156	8	78–96	Album d’un voyageur (compositions pour le piano, 1re année, Suisse [3 bks])	1837–8
Published : Paris: Latte, 1840 (only book ii, as 2nd Année); Paris: Richault, 1841 (only book i); Vienna: Haslinger, 1842† (collected edn)
Collected editions : NLE i/6 (bks I (nos.1, 3, 6), II), ii/14 (bk III, 2nd version); LSP ii (bk I no.1), v (bk I nos.3–4, bk II complete); MW ii/4
Remarks : Bk 1 ded. Mr de L. [F. de Lamennais] (no.1), F. Denis (2b), B. Liszt (3), E. Pivert de Senancour (4), V. Schoelcher (5); Bk II ded. H. Reiset; Bk III ded. Mme Adolphe Pictet (10), M. Potocka (11), T. Walsh (12); no.1 orig. separate piece, composed 1833–4; Bk III orig. pubd as Trois airs suisses, see A27a; see also A159
				Bk I Impressions et poésies:
	156/1	8/1	78	1 Lyon
	156/2	8/2a	79	2a Le lac de Wallenstadt
	156/3	8/2b	80	2b Au bord d’une source
	156/4	8/3	81	3 Les cloches de G …
	156/5	8/4	82	4 Vallée d’Obermann
	156/6	8/5	83	5 La chapelle de Guillaume Tell
	156/7	8/6	84	6 Psaume

				Bk II Fleurs mélodiques des Alpes:
	156/8	8/7a	85	7a Allegro, C
	156/9	8/7b	86	7b Lento, e/G
	156/10	8/7c	87	7c Allegro pastorale, G
	156/11	8/8a	88	8a Andante con sentimento, G
	156/12	8/8b	89	8b Andante molto espressivo, g
	156/13	8/8c	90	8c Allegro moderato, E
	156/14	8/9a	91	9a Allegretto, A
	156/15	8/9b	92	9b Allegretto, D
	156/16	8/9c	93	9c Andantino con molto sentimento, G
				Album d’un voyageur (op.10, nos.1–3)

				Bk III Paraphrases:
	156/17	8/10	94	10 ‘Ranz’ de vaches (Montée aux Alpes: Improvisata)
	156/18	8/11	95	11 Un soir dans les montagnes (Nocturne pastoral)
	156/19	8/12	96	12 Ranz de chèvres de F. Huber (Allegro finale)

A41	392	131	142/1	Hexaméron (Morceau de concert; Grandes variations de bravoure sur le marche des Puritains) [Bellini]	1837–38
Published : Milan: Ricordi; Vienna: Haslinger, 1839†
Collected editions : MW ii/2; NLE ii/3
Remarks : ded. Princess Cristina Belgiojoso; 6 variations by different composers (Thalberg, Pixis, Herz, Czerny, Chopin, Liszt) Liszt wrote the introduction, the piano version of the theme, variation 2, transitional material and the finale; see also C2, H5
A42	558	243/1–12	144–55	[12] Lieder von Schubert	1837–8
Published : Vienna: Diabelli, 1838; Paris: Richault†; New York: Dover, 1996
Collected editions : NLE ii/20
Remarks : nos.1–11 ded. Countess d’Aragon in Richault edn, no.12 ded. M. d’Agoult in Ricordi edn
				1 Sei mir gegrüsst, 2 Auf dem Wasser zu singen, 3 Du bist die Ruh, 4 Erlkönig, 5 Meeresstille, 6 Die junge Nonne, 7 Frühlingsglaube, 8 Gretchen am Spinnrade, 9 Ständchen (Horch, horch! die Lerch’), 10 Rastlose Liebe, 11 Der Wanderer, 12 Ave Maria
A43	219	41	169a, b	Grand galop chromatique	1838
Published : Paris: Latte; Leipzig: Hofmeister; Milan: Ricordi; Breslau: Grosser, 1838†; Paris: Latte (simplified version); Paris: Leduc, 1886 (Nouvelle édition)
Collected editions : MW ii/10; NLE i/13
Remarks : ded. Count Rudolf Apponyi; 2nd Trio is derived from the Galop de Bal (see A64); the simplified version was also pubd as a work by J. Strauss; 1st perf. Vienna, Café Sperl, 25 Nov 1839; see also B2
A44	399	153	171–3	Nuits d’été à Pausilippe:	1838
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1839†
Collected editions : NLE ii/4
Remarks : ded. Mme la Marquise Sophie de Medici; based on songs and duet by Donizetti
				1 Barcarola (Il barcajuolo), 2 Notturno (L’alito di Bice), 3 Canzone napoletana (La torre di Biasone)
A45	557	242	181	Lob der Tränen (Bénédiction des larmes) [Schubert]	1838
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1838†; Braunschweig: Meyer, n.d.
Collected editions : NLE ii/20
Remarks : based on the song d711
A46	559	244	182	Der Gondelfahrer [Schubert]	1838
Published : Vienna: Spina, 1838†; Vienna: Cranz, 1883 (new edn)
Collected editions : NLE ii/3
Remarks : based on ‘Es tanzen Mond und Sterne’, d809, for 4 male vv
A47	411	220	174	Soirées italiennes (6 amusements pour piano sur motifs de Mercadante):	1838–9
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1840†
Collected editions : NLE ii/4
Remarks : ded. Archduchess Elisabeth of Austria
				1 La primavera (Canzonetta), 2 Il galop, 3 Il pastore svizzero (Tirolese), 4 La serenata del marinaro, 5 Il brindisi (Rondoletto), 6 La zingarella spagnola (Bolero)
A48	425	250	183	Mélodies hongroises (d’après Schubert)	1838–9
Published : Vienna: Diabelli, 1840†, Cranz, (3rd edn); Milan: Lucca, 1840; Vienna: Diabelli, 1846 (simplified edn)
Collected editions : NLE ii/3
Remarks : ded. Count Gustav Neipperg; based on Schubert’s Divertissement à la hongroise d818
A49	560	245/1–14	186–99	Schwanengesang (Chant du Cygne) [Schubert]: 1 Die Stadt, 2 Das Fischermädchen, 3 Aufenthalt, 4 Am Meer, 5 Abschied, 6 In der Ferne, 7 Ständchen ‘Leise flehen meine Lieder’, 8 Ihr Bild, 9 Frühlingssehnsucht, 10 Liebesbotschaft, 11 Der Atlas, 12 Der Doppelgänger, 13 Die Taubenpost, 14 Kriegers Ahnung	1838–9
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1838 (nos.3, 7)†; 1840 (nos.1, 2, 4–6, 8–14)†, 1842 (nos.4, 12; new edn), n.d. (nos.7, 9); Paris: Hainauer, 1865 (no.7; rev.); Leipzig, 1901 (no.7) [in L. Ramann: Liszt-Pädagogium]; Paris: Schlesinger (no.3); Milan: Ricordi (no.7); Prague: Halla (no.7)
Collected editions : NLE ii/21
Remarks : ded. Archduchess Sophie in later Haslinger edn; no.7 ded. Mme la comtesse d’Aragon (née Visconti) in Ricordi edn; based on Schubert’s song cycle d957
A50	561	246/1–12	212–23	Winterreise [Schubert]: 1 Gute Nacht, 2 Die Nebensonnen, 3 Mut, 4 Die Post, 5 Erstarrung, 6 Wasserflut, 7 Der Lindenbaum, 8 Der Leyermann, 9 Täuschung, 10 Das Wirtshaus, 11 Der stürmische Morgen, 12 Im Dorfe	1838–9
Published : Paris: Richault; Milan: Ricordi, 1840†; Milan: Ricordi, 1838 (no.4), 1840; Vienna: Haslinger, 1838 (no.4); London: Cocks, 1840
Remarks : ded. Mme la comtesse d’Aragon (no.4, Ricordi 1838) and Princess Eleonore Schwarzenberg (Cocks 1840); based on songs from Schubert’s cycle d911
A51	458	294	430	Piece based on Italian opera melodies [Mercadante’s Il Giuramento]	1838–9
Collected editions : NLE ii/2
Remarks : according to K. Hamilton (entry in D-WRgs catalogue, 1989), probably the fantasy played by Liszt, 10 Sept 1838, at a benefit concert in Milan under the title Réminiscences de La Scala
A52	140	3a	163–8	[6] Etudes d’exécution transcendante d’après Paganini (Bravour-Studien nach Paganini’s Capricen)	1838–40
Published : Paris: Schonenberger, 1840†
Collected editions : NLE i/2
Remarks : ded. Clara Schumann; based on Paganini’s 24 Caprices op.1 and B minor Vn Conc., last movt, ‘La campanella’ [Liszt no.1/Paganini no.6, 2/17, 3/Vn Conc., 4/1, 5/9, 6/24]; see also A15, A113, A173
A53	159	10d/1–4	200–03	Venezia e Napoli [1st version]:	1838–40
Collected editions : MW ii/5; NLE i/7
Remarks : see A197
				1 Lento, 2 Allegro, 3 Andante placido, 4 Tarantelles napolitaines
A54	552	237	180	Ouverture de l’opéra Guillaume Tell [Rossini]	?1838–41
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1842†
Collected editions : NLE ii/20
A55	161	10b/1–7	156–62	Années de pèlerinage, deuxième année, Italie, 2 versions	1838–61
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1846 (1st version nos.4–6)†; St Petersburg: Au Ménestrel, ?1847 (no.5; ?1st edn); Mainz: Schott, 1858 (collected edn, 2nd version)†
Collected editions : MW ii/5 (1st version, nos.4–6), ii/6 (2nd version, complete); NLE i/7 (2nd version)
Remarks : no.1 inspired by Raphael’s ‘Brera’ Madonna, Milan, no.2 by Michelangelo’s statue for Giuliano de’ Medici’s tomb, Florence, nos.4–6 poems by Petrarch, nos.47, 104, 123, comp. 1846, publ. 1846 sep. for pf and pf/tenor; no.7 after poem by V. Hugo ; A197 (1859–61) added as ‘Supplement 2de Volume’; see also A102, A197, J44, N14
				1 Sposalizio, 2 Il penseroso, 3 Canzonetta del Salvator Rosa, 4 Sonetto del Petrarca no.47 (Benedetto sia’l giorno), 5 Sonetto del Petrarca no.104 (Pace non trovo), 6 Sonetto del Petrarca no.123 (I’vidi in terra angelici costumi), 7 Après une lecture du Dante, fantasia quasi sonata
A56	393	132	209	Fantaisie sur des motifs favoris de l’opéra La sonnambula [Bellini], 2 versions	1839–?42
Published : Paris: Launer, 1842†; Leipzig: Schuberth, 1853 (2nd edn), 1874 (2nd edn, repr.)
Collected editions : NLE ii/4
Remarks : ded. Princess Augusta of Prussia
A57a	210	33a	211	Valse mélancolique	1839
Published : Vienna: Haslinger; Paris: Schlesinger, 1840†; 1841†
Collected editions : LSP iv; MW ii/10
Remarks : c1369 = Valse mélancolique (c211) in Mil'shteyn (H1956); see A66
	731	33a	1369	Valse élégiaque	1839
Published : Berlin: Bote & Bock, n.d.
A57b	214/1–3	32b, 33b	578–80	3 caprices-valses no.2: Valse mélancolique, E	1850–52
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1852†; Vienna: Haslinger, 1852 (2nd edn)
Remarks : 2nd version of A57a
A58	466	121	210	Adelaide	1839–40
Published : Paris: Schlesinger†; Leipzig: B&H, 1840†, (Nouvelle édition), 1877 (rev.)
Collected editions : NLE ii/4
Remarks : ded. Marquise Martellini
A59	[242/13]	[105/13]	[237]	Rákóczi Marsch	1839–40
Published : Budapest: in SMH, xxviii (1986)
Collected editions : NLE i/18
Remarks : see A60b/13, with simplified version (incomplete), A132, S28
A60a, b, c, d, e	242	105a/1–11	225–35	Magyar dallok/Ungarische Nationalmelodien/Mélodies hongroises [Hefte i–iv]:	1839–40
Collected editions : RS viii; NLE i/18 (nos.1–3, 8–10); LSP vii (nos.1–3, 6, 8–10)
A60a	242	105a/1	225	i: 1 Lento, c
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1840†; Paris: Latte, 1841 (2nd edn)
Remarks : ded.: Count Leo Festetics (nos.1–6), Count Casimir Esterházy (7), Count Albarti (9); nos. 1–7 also pubd Latte, 1841, as Album d’un voyageur, 3me année, Mélodies hongroises; no.4 used later in A60d/2 and A132/6, no.5 in A60d/1 and A132/6, no.6 in A60b/12 and A132/5, no.7 in A133/4, no.10 in A60b/13 and A132/16, no.11 in A60d/3 and A132/3 and 6
	242	105a/2	226	i: 2 Andantino, C
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1840†; Paris: Latte, 1842 (2nd edn); Paris: in Monde musicale, iii (1842), suppl.
	242	105a/3	227	i: 3 Sehr langsam, D
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1840†; Paris: Latte, 1842 (2nd edn)

	242	105a/4	228	i: 4 Animato, C
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1840†; 1843 (simplified edn), 1845 (rev.); Paris: Latte, 1842 (2nd edn), 1844; Paris: in Monde musical, iii (1842), suppl.
	242	105a/5	229	i: 5 Tempo giusto, D
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1840†; 1843 (simplified edn), 1845 (rev.); Paris: Latte, 1842 (2nd edn), 1844
	242	105a/6	230	i: 6 Lento, g
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1840†; Paris: Latte, 1842 (2nd edn)
	242	105a/7	231	ii: 7 Andante cantabile, E
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1840†; Paris: Latte, 1842 (2nd edn)
	242	105a/8	232	iii: 8 Lento, f
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1843†
	242	105a/9	233	iii: 9 Lento, a
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1843†
	242	105a/10	234	iv: 10 Adagio sostenuto a capriccio, D
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1843†
	242	105a/11	235	iv: 11 Andante sostenuto, B
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1843†, 1843 (simplified edn), 1845 (rev.); Paris: Latte, 1844

A60b				Magyar Rhapsodiak/Ungarische Rhapsodien/R[h]apsodies hongroises	1846–7
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1847 (nos.12–17)
Collected editions : NLE i/18 (nos.13, 15, 17); RS viii
				[R[h]apsodies hongroises, cahiers v–x]:
	242	105b/12	236	v: 12 Héroïde élégiaque, mesto, e
	242	105b/13	237	vi: 13 Tempo di marcia, a [Rákóczy March]
	242	105b/14	238	vii: 14 Lento a capriccio, a
	242	105b/15	239	viii: 15 Lento tempo e stilo zingarese, d
	242	105b/16	240	ix: 16 Preludio – Andante deciso, E
	242	105b/17	241	x: 17 Andante sostenuto, a

A60c				[Ungarische Rhapsodien]:
Collected editions : ded.: Count Leo Festetics, Baron Anton Augusz, Baron Banffy, Count D. Teleky, P. Nyáry, R. Eckstein (all no.13), Baron Fery Orczy (nos.14, 15), Baron Béne Egressy (no.16); no.12 based on A60a/6, used later in A132/5; another version of no.13 exists as Ungarische Nationalmelodie erleichtert (Heft vi), see also A132 and A224; no.14 used later in A132/11, no.15 in A132/7, no.16 in A132/10, no.17 in A132/13, no.18 in A132/12, no.19 in A132/8, no.20 in A132/6 and 12, no.21 in A132/4 and H12, no.22 in A132/9 and 14
	242	105c/18	242	18 Introduction (Adagio), c
	242	105c/19	243	19 Lento patetico, f
	242	105c/20	244	20 Allegro vivace, g
	242	105c/21	245/1	21 Lento, tempo di marcia funebre, e

A60d	243	105d/1–3	257–9	Ungarische National-Melodien:	1840–?44 or 46
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1842–3†, 1846 (2nd version)
Collected editions : MW ii/12; NLE i/18
Remarks : based on A60a nos.5, 4, 11; used later in A132
		105d/1	257	1 Tempo giusto, D
		105d/2	258	2 Animato, C
		105d/3	259	3 Prelude – Allegretto, B

A60e	242	[105/5]	[R[h]apsodies hongroises]: 22 Pesther Karneval (Le Carneval de Pest)	1846–8
Published : see A132/9, 1st version
A61	[173]	[14]	[347]	Harmonies poétiques et religieuses, 1st version	1840–48
Published : Huizen: Muziekuitgeverij XYZ, 1997†
Collected editions : NLE i/9 (nos.1–3)
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein; incl. 12 pieces (Liszt’s inventory, D-WRgs); orig. idea for set 1835; titles and order are from MS sources in Liszt’s 1847 draftbook (WRgs 60/N9) and the French source of the Miserere/Pater Noster (F-Pbn MS 163); no.9 is the earlier version of Andante lagrimoso (A158/9); see also A158, J2, J3
			294	1 Elevez-vous voix [Invocation]
	173a		295	2 Hymne de la nuit (1st version)
	173a		296	3 Hymne du matin (1st version)
	695a		501	4 Litanies de Marie
				5 [Miserere d’après Palestrina]
				6 Pater noster, d’après la psalmodie de l’église
				7 Hymne de l’enfant à son réveil
				8 [Les morts]
				9 La lampe du temple
				10 [unidentified piece, E]
				11 [?Bénédiction de Dieu dans la solitude]
				12 [?Ave Maria]
A62	525	188	827	Totentanz	1839–65
Published : Leipzig: Siegel, 1865†
Collected editions : NLE i/16
Remarks : ded. H. von Bülow; later rev. for pf, orch (see H8; see also C24)
A63a	142	4a	249	Morceau de salon, étude de perfectionnement de la Méthode des méthodes (de piano de Fétis), 1st version	1840
Published : Paris: Schlesinger, 1841†
Collected editions : MW ii/3; [NLE]
A63b	143	4b	648	Ab irato (Etude de perfectionnement de la Méthode des méthodes de Fétis), 2nd version	1852
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1852†
Collected editions : LSP viii; NLE i/2; MW ii/3
Remarks : the main theme is the same as that of Les Préludes (G3)
A64	220	42	250/2	Galop de bal	1840
Published : St Petersburg: Bernard, 1840†
Collected editions : NLE i/13
Remarks : ded. A. Koczuchowski; see also A43
A65	231	53	251/1	Heroischer Marsch im ungarischen Styl	1840
Published : Leipzig: Cranz, 1840†
Collected editions : NLE i/13
Remarks : ded. King Ferdinand of Portugal; uses main theme of G13; see also C16, S28
A66	164	64/2	252	Albumblatt, E (Deux feuilles d’Album no.1)	1840
Published : NZfM, 1841 (no.15)†; Leipzig: Friese, 1841; Hamburg: Schuberth, 1850 (with A57)
Collected editions : based on Valse mélancolique, 1st version (A57a)
A67	234	100	255	Hussitenlied	1840
Published : Prague: Hoffmann, 1840–41†; Paris: Richault, 1841
Collected editions : NLE ii/5
Remarks : ded. Count Chotek of Chotkowa and Wognin based on a song melody by J.T. Krov (Těšme se blahou nadějć); see also B3
A68	451	284	262	Freischütz Fantasie [Weber]	1840
Published : unpubd
Collected editions : NLE ii/5
Remarks : based on Und ob die Wolke sie verhülle (Act 3) and Waltz (Act 1)
A69	465	127	263	Grand septuor [Beethoven]	1840
Published : Hamburg: Schuberth, 1842†
Collected editions : NLE ii/22
Remarks : ded. Grand Duchess Marie Pavlovna; see also B4
A70	467	122	264–9	Sechs geistliche Lieder [Beethoven, op.48 (C.F. Gellert)]: 1 Gottes Macht und Vorsehung, 2 Bitten, 3 Busslied, 4 Vom Tode, 5 Die Liebe des Nächsten, 6 Die Ehre Gottes aus der Natur	1840
Published : Hamburg: Schuberth, 1840†
Collected editions : NLE ii/4
Remarks : ded. Mlle Zoë de la Rue
A71a	400	154	270	Réminiscences de Lucrezia Borgia [Donizetti]	1840–48
Published : Paris: Latte; Vienna: Mechetti, 1841†
Collected editions : RS iv/1
				1st version (1840): Fantaisie sur des motifs favoris de Lucrezia Borgia (Chanson à boire, orgie)
A71b	400	154	270	Réminiscences de Lucrezia Borgia [Donizetti]	c1848
Published : Vienna: Mechetti, 1849
Collected editions : RS ii/1; NLE ii/5
				2nd version: grande fantaisie: i Trio du seconde Acte, ii Chanson à boire- (Orgie) Duo-finale
A72	547	217	271	Lieder [Mendelssohn]	1840; rev.1874–5
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1840†; Leipzig: B&H, 1876 (rev. edn)
Collected editions : [NLE ii/22]
Remarks : ded. Frau Cécile Mendelssohn; based on 7 songs from opp.19a, 34, 47
A73	562	247/1–4	278–81	Franz Schuberts geistliche Lieder: 1 Litaney, 2 Himmelsfunken, 3 Die Gestirne, 4 Hymne [from Rosamunde]	1840
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1841†
Collected editions : [NLE ii/4]
Remarks : based on d343 (no.1), 651 (no.2), 444 (no.3), 797 (no.4; part of Geisterchor)
A74	391	130	261	I puritani, introduction et polonaise [Bellini]	1840–41
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1841†; London: Cramer, Addison & Beale, ?1841 (2nd edn)
Collected editions : RS ii/2; NLE ii/5
Remarks : sep. version of Polacca from A34
A75	167b		1303	Miniatur Lieder	1840s
Published : unpubd
A76	235	98	299/1	God Save the Queen	1841–9
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1849†
Collected editions : NLE ii/5
Remarks : 1st version includes material from ‘Messiah’ and ‘Judas Maccabeus’ by Handel, and ‘Rule Brittannia’
A77	394	133	300	Réminiscences de Norma [Bellini]	1841
Published : Paris: Latte; Mainz: Schott, 1844†
Collected editions : RS ii/2; NLE ii/5
Remarks : ded. M. Pleyel; see also C3
A78	413	222	302/1	Réminiscences de Robert le diable [Meyerbeer]	1841
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger; Paris: Schlesinger, 1841†
Collected editions : MW i/2; NLE ii/5
Remarks : ded. Princess Ekaterina Dmitriyevna de Soutzo; see also W2
A79	416	225	304	Le moine (Der Mönch) [Meyerbeer]	1841
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1842
Collected editions : [NLE ii/5]
Remarks : ded. Baron Ferdinand Ziegesar
A80	418	228	305	Réminiscences de Don Juan [Mozart]	1841
Published : Paris: Schlesinger; Berlin: Schlesinger, 1843†
Collected editions : [NLE ii/5]
Remarks : ded. King Christian VIII of Denmark; see also C26
A81				Die Zelle in Nonnenwerth (Ach, nun taucht die Klosterzelle)	1841–80
A81a	534		316a	1st version	1840
Published : Paris: Latte: in Album de piano du Monde musical, 1843†
Collected editions : LSP, 1978
A81b	[274/1]	[618a]	316b	2nd version (Elegie für das Pianoforte)	1841
Published : Cologne: Eck, 1843†, 1844; Paris: Schlesinger, 1844; Leipzig: Hofmeister, 1872
A81c	167	64/2	316c/318	3rd version (Feuilles d’album, no.2)	1849
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1850†
A81d	534	213	316d	4th version (Elegie)	?1880
Published : Cologne: Tonger, 1883†; in Neue Musik-Zeitung, iv (1883) (rev.)
Collected editions : NLE i/17; LSP vii
Remarks : ded. Prince Felix Lichnowsky (1st version), M. d’Agoult (2nd version); based on N6; see also D21
A82				253	Valse de Marie
Published : 1842
Collected editions : Budapest: in SMH, xxviii (1986), 237–48
Remarks : not the same as Valse Mariotique or Valse de Mariotte, the latter another name for the Grande valse di bravoura; see A32a, b
A83	166	63	317	Albumblatt in Walzerform	1842
Published : in Göllerich (H1908), suppl.†
Collected editions : MW ii/10; NLE i/13
A84a	212	35	320a	Petite valse favorite (Souvenir de St Pétersbourg)	1842
Published : Hamburg: Schuberth; Leipzig: Schuberth; Paris: Latte; St Petersburg: Odéon; Milan: Ricordi, 1843†
A84b	212	35	320b	[Petite valse favorite]	1843
Collected editions : NLE i/13
Remarks : MS “Petersbourg 3 Juin 1843” ded. Mme Maria Kalergis; enlarged version of A84a
A84c	213	36	577	Valse-impromptu	1850–52
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1852
Collected editions : MW ii/10; NLE i/13
Remarks : based on A84a–b
A85	248	92	321a/b	Canzone Napolitana	1842
Published : Dresden: Meser, 1843†, 1848 (Edition nouvelle)
Collected editions : NLE ii/6
Remarks : ded. Mlle C. de Groeditzberg
A86				Deux mélodies russes (Arabesques)
	250	102/1	322	1 Le rossignol, air russe d’Alabieff	1842
Published : Leipzig: Cranz, 1842†, 1879 (Nouvelle édition)
Collected editions : EMB, 1952; NLE ii/6
	250	102/2	323	2 Chanson bohémienne	?1843
Published : Hamburg: Cranz, A., 1843† 1879 (rev.)
A87	577	291	324a, b	Autrefois (Romanze) [M. Wielhorski]	1842
Published : Moscow: Jürgenson, 1843†; Berlin: Fürstner, 1860
Collected editions : NLE ii/6
A88a	401	155	326	Valse à capriccio sur deux motifs de Lucia et Parisina [Donizetti]	1842
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1842†
Collected editions : MW ii/1; NLE ii/6
Remarks : see A88b
A88b	214/1, 2, 3	32b	578–80	3 caprices-valses no.3: Grande valse de bravoure, A	1850–52
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1852†; Vienna: Haslinger, 1852
Remarks : 2nd version of A88a; see also A32b and A57b
A89			327	Die Gräberinsel der Fürsten zu Gotha, Herzog Ernst II von Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha	1842
Collected editions : EMB, 1985†; NLE ii/6
Remarks : ded. Fürsten Ernst II of Saxe-Coburg
A90	697	660	328/1	Fantasie über Motive aus Figaro und Don Juan [Mozart]	1842
Collected editions : MW, 1912†; EMB, 1998
A91	484	103, 149	608	Souvenir de Russie, feuillet d’album	1842
Published : St Petersburg: Bernard, ?1842†
Collected editions : NLE ii/24
Remarks : later rev. for inclusion in Bunte Reihe transcriptions (see A170)
A92	462	119	341	Sechs Präludien und Fugen für die Orgel [Bach]	1842–50
Published : Leipzig: Peters, 1852†
Collected editions : NLE ii/22
A93	384	115	325	Mazurka pour piano composée par un amateur de St Pétersbourg	?1842
Published : Moscow: Jürgenson, 1842†
Collected editions : NLE ii/6
A94	168	75	319	Elégie sur des motifs du Prince Louis Ferdinand	1843
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, ?1843/1847†, ?1852 (rev.)
Collected editions : NLE i/17
Remarks : ded. Princess Augusta of Prussia
A95	211	34	370	Ländler, A	1843
Published : London: Curwen, 1958†, in Five Liszt Discoveries
Collected editions : NLE i/13
A96	240	99	372	Gaudeamus igitur	1843
Published : Breslau: Hainauer, 1843†
Collected editions : NLE ii/6
Remarks : concert paraphrase, not related to A246
A97	531	209	373–8	Buch der Lieder für Piano allein, I: 1 Die Loreley, 2 Am Rhein, 3 Mignon’s Lied, 4 Es war ein König in Thule, 5 Der du von dem Himmel bist, 6 Angiolin dal biondo crin	1843
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1844†
Collected editions : NLE i/15
Remarks : based on 1st version of songs N1, 3, 5, 8–10
A98	533	203	379	Il m’aimait tant!	1843
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1843†
Collected editions : NLE i/15
Remarks : based on N4
A99	478	143	382	Russischer Galopp [Bulhakov]	1843
Published : St Petersburg: Jürgenson, 1843†
A100	695	663	384	Klavierstück, F	1843
Collected editions : NLE†
A101				Quasi Mazurka	?c1843
Published : unpubd
Remarks : ded. Princess Radziwill
A102	158	10b	393–5a, b	Tre sonetti del Petrarca: 1 Benedetto sia’l giorno, 2 Pace non trovo, 3 I’ vidi in terra angelici costumi	1843–6
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1846†; Moscow: Au Ménestrel, ?1846 (no.2); Mainz: Schott, 1858 (rev.)
Collected editions : NLE i/7; MW ii/6
Remarks : based on Petrarch sonnets nos.47, 104 and 123; see also A55 and N14
A103	541	211	583–5	Liebesträume, 3 notturnos: 1 Hohe Liebe (In Liebesarmen), 2 Seliger Tod (Gestorben war ich), 3 (O lieb, o lieb, so lang du lieben kannst)	1843–50
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1850†, 1886 (2nd edn)
Collected editions : NLE i/15; MW
Remarks : based on songs N18 according to a letter of 1843 (US-Wc); no.3 orig. meant for pubn as song in Eck’s Sechs Lieder (1844), but lost in post; see also A233
A104	165	62	297	Feuilles d’Album	1844
Published : Paris: Latte; Mainz: Schott, 1844†
Collected editions : NLE i/13; MW ii/10
Remarks : ded. Gustave Dubousquet
A105	233		397	Marche hongroise	1844
Collected editions : RS, 1956†; NLE i/13
A106	236	93	399	Faribolo Pastour	1844
Published : Paris: Bureau Central, 1844†
Collected editions : NLE (single issue); in Liszt Society Journal, xvi (1991), suppl., 28–33
Remarks : ded. Countess Carolyne d’Artigaux
A107	236	94	400	Chanson du Béarn	1844
Published : Paris: Bureau Central, 1844†
Collected editions : NLE ii/6; in Liszt Society Journal, xvi (1991), suppl., 34–41
Remarks : ded. Countess d’Artigaux
A108	402	156	401	Marche funèbre de Dom Sébastien [Donizetti]	1844
Published : Paris: Bureau Central, 1844†
Collected editions : MW ii/1; NLE ii/6
Remarks : ded. Queen Maria da Gloria of Portugal
A109	563	248/1–6	402–7	Sechs Melodien von Franz Schubert: 1 Lebewohl, 2 Mädchens Klage, 3 Das [Zügen glöcklein] Sterbeglöcklein (La cloche des agonisants), 4 Trockne Blumen, 5 Ungeduld (1), 6 Die Forelle (1)	1844
Published : Paris: Richault, 1844†
Collected editions : NLE ii/7
Remarks : no.1 not by Schubert, but Richault’s edn does not give the names of the actual composer, A.H. von Weyrauch (b Riga, 1788), and poet, K.F.G. Wetzel; nos.2–6 based on d191, 871, 795/18, 795/7, 550
A110	487	161	454	Spanisches Ständchen [L. Festetics]	1844
Collected editions : NLE ii/18†
A111a	172	12	420–25	Consolations	1844–50
				1st version: 1 Andante con moto, E; 2 Un poco più mosso, E; 3 Lento, quasi recitativo, E; 4 Quasi adagio/cantabile con divozione, D; 5 Andantino, E; 6 Allegretto, E
A111b				2nd version: 1 Andante con moto, E; 2 Un poco più mosso, E; 3 Lento placido, D; 4 Quasi adagio, D; 5 Andantino, E; 6 Allegretto sempre cantabile, E
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1850†
Collected editions : NLE i/9; MW ii/8; Munich: Henle, 1992
Remarks : the title appears to have been a suggestion from Marie Lamartine, citing the two ‘consolations’ Liszt as an artist had to offer the world, ‘génie et La Charité’; the 1st version was engraved by Kistner but withdrawn and rev. Liszt in 1850; no.3 used the melody taken into Hungarian Rhapsody no.1, A132/1; no.4 is based on a melody by Grand Duchess Marie Pavlovna of Weimar; see D11, E22
A112				Seconde marche hongroise (Ungarischer Sturmmarsch)
Collected editions : ded. S. Teleky; see also B46, G35
	232	54a	371a, b	1st version	1844
Published : Paris: Schlesinger, 1844†
Collected editions : NLE i/16
	524	54b	1097	2nd version, e	1875–6
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1876 (rev.)
Collected editions : NLE i/16
A113				[Variations de bravoure pour piano sur des thèmes de Paganini]	1845
Collected editions : EMB, 1989†
Remarks : see also A15, A52, A173
A114	253	89	428	Grosse Concert-Phantasie über spanische Weisen [Fandango, jota et cachuca]	1845
Published : Leipzig: Licht & Meyer, 1887†
Collected editions : NLE ii/6
Remarks : ded. L. Ramann; see A195, Q11
A115	428	258	429	Feuille morte (Elégie d’après Sorriano)	1845
Published : Paris: Troupenas, ?1845†
Collected editions : LSP, xiv; NLE ii/6
A116	189a	44a	426	[Piano piece, A]	?1845
Collected editions : NLE i/9
Remarks : Ballade no.1, frag., 1845, first pubd in Hung. trans. (1965) of Mil'shteyn (H1956); MS in RUS-Mcl; see A117
A117	170	15	427/1	Ballade no.1	1845–9
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1849†; Paris: Meissonnier, 1849 (later issue)
Collected editions : NLE i/9; MW ii/8; Munich: Henle, 1996
Remarks : ded. Prince Eugen Wittgenstein; pubd by Meissonnier as Chant du Croisé (not Liszt’s title); other alternative titles incl. Dernière illusion, Galop bohémien; see A116
A118	144	5	515–17	Trois [grandes] études de concert (1 Il lamento, A, 2 La leggierezza, f, 3 Un sospiro, D)	1845–9
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1849†; Paris: Meissonnier, 1849 (later issue)
Collected editions : NLE i/10; MW ii/3; Munich: Henle, 1987
Remarks : ded. E. Liszt; individual titles are not Liszt’s and not in edns pubd during his lifetime
A119	218	40	298	Galop, a	1846
Collected editions : MW ii/10†; NLE i/13; LSP iv
A120	412a		302/2	Cavatine de Robert le diable (Robert, toi que j’aime) [Meyerbeer]	1846
Collected editions : LSP, 1996 (transcr.); NLE
Remarks : based on music in Ricordi’s Antologia Classica di Musica suppl., 1842, 1st perf., before pubn, Copenhagen, ?1841 (see Autexier)
A121	576	290	463	Jubelouvertüre [Weber]	1846
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1847†
Collected editions : [NLE ii/23]
A122	574	288	383	Ouvertüre zu Oberon [Weber]	1846
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1847†
Collected editions : RS i; [NLE ii/23]
A123	426	251	466/1	Schuberts Märsche für das Pianoforte solo	1846
Published : Paris: Richault, 1846†; Berlin: Fürstner, 1880 (new edn)
Collected editions : ded. F. von Koudelka; based on d819 and d968b; see also B35, G24
A124	388	125	449–50	Capriccio alla turca sur des motifs de Beethoven (Ruines d’Athènes)	1846
Published : Vienna: Mechetti, 1847†
Remarks : see A177, C6, H9
A125	386	117	452	Tarantelle di bravura d’après la tarantelle de La muette de Portici [Auber]	1846
Published : Paris: Mechetti, 1847†; Milan: Ricordi (2nd edn)
Collected editions : MW i/10; NLE ii/8
Remarks : ded. M. Pleyel
A126	507	198	453	Klavierstück nach Motiven aus der 1. Beethoven-Kantate	1846†
Published : Bonn: Hallberger, 1846
Collected editions : NLE i/11
Remarks : based on B6, L1
A127	564	248	455	Die Forelle [Schubert], 2nd version	1846
Published : Vienna: Spina, 1856†; Vienna: Diabelli, 1846 (2nd version)
Collected editions : NLE ii/7
Remarks : see A109
A128	565	249/1–6	456–61	Müllerlieder [Schubert]: 1 Das Wandern, 2 Der Müller und der Bach, 3 Der Jäger, 4 Die böse Farbe, 5 Wohin?, 6 Ungeduld (2)	1846
Published : Vienna: Spina, 1846†; Hamburg: Cranz, 1879 (simplified edn)
Collected editions : NLE ii/7
Remarks : ded. R. Spina; based on d795
A129	575	289	462	Ouvertüre zum Freischütz [Weber]	1846
Published : Paris: Brandus, 1847†
Collected editions : RS i/1; [NLE ii/23]
Remarks : although Liszt did not write down this piece until 1846, he and Valerie Boissier perf. the ‘Ouv. du Freischütz’ for pf 4 hands in Paris in Jan 1832
A130	485	150	481–3	Lieder [Dessauer]	1846–7
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1847†
Collected editions : [NLE ii/8]
A131	427	252	649–57a, b	Soirées de Vienna ([9] Valses caprices d’après Schubert)	1846–52
Published : Vienna: Spina, 1852/3†; Paris: Bureau Central, ?1852†
Collected editions : NLE ii/10
Remarks : ded. S. Löwy; based on Schubert dances for pf: no.1: d365 734, 783; no.2: d365, 145, 365; no.3: d145, 783, 365, 145; no.4: d365; no.5: d365, 969; no.6: d969, 779; no.7: d783; no.8: d783, 969, 783; no.9: d365
A132	244			[19] Ungarische Rhapsodien
Collected editions : MW ii/12; NLE i/3 (nos.1–9), i/4 (nos.10–19)
Remarks : ded. 1: E. Zerdahélyi, theme from 1st version of A111/3; 2: ded. Count László Teleky, based on Romanian theme; see also T5; 3: ded. Count Leo Festetics, based on A60a/11; 4: ded. Count Casimir Esterházy, based on A60a/7; 5: ded. Countess Sidonie Revicsky, based on A60a/6 and A60b/12; 6: ded. Count Anton Apponyi, based on A60a/4–6, A60a/11, A60c/20, and A60d; 7: ded. Baron Fery Orczy, based on A60b/15; 8: ded. Baron Anton Augusz, based on A60c/19; 9: based on A60e/22, 2nd version ded. H.W. Ernst; 10: ded. B. Egressy, based on A60b/16; 11: ded. Baron Orczy; 12: ded. J. Joachim, based on A60c/18, A60a/10: ded. Count Festetics, based on A60a/17; 14: ded. H. von Bülow, based on A60a/21, 22, used in H12; [s105/13]: Ráckóczy (1) = version between A60a/13 and A132/15; 16: ded. M. Munkácsy, for Munkáscy’s arrival home from France, 1st perf., Budapest, 25 Feb 1882; 18: in honour of the 1885 Hungarian National Exposition, pubd in Ausstellungsalbum ungarischer Tondichter, ed. I. Bartalus; 19: based on two melodies in Elegáns csárdások, from K. Ábrányi’s Csárdás nobles
A132/1		106/1	466	1 Lento quasi recitativo, c	1846–51
Published : Leipzig: Senff, 1851†
A132/2		106/2	467	2 Lento a capriccio, c	1846–51
Published : Leipzig: Senff, 1851†; Milan: Ricordi
A132/3		106/3	468	3 Andante, B	1846–53
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1853†; Berlin: Schlesinger
A132/4		106/4	469	4 Quasi adagio, altieramente, E	1846–53
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1853†; Berlin: Schlesinger (later issue)
A132/5		106/5	470	5 Héroïde élégiaque, e	1846–53
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1853†; Paris: Brandus; Berlin: Schlesinger
A132/6		106/6	471	6 Tempo giusto, D	1846–53
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1853†; Berlin: Schlesinger
A132/7		106/7	472	7 Lento, d	1846–53
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1853†; Berlin: Schlesinger
A132/8		106/8	473	8 Lento a capriccio, f	1846–53
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1853†
Collected editions : RS, 1956 (facs.)
A132/9a		106/9a	474	9 Pesther Carneval (Le carnaval de Pesth), E
				1st version	1846–8
Published : Paris: Brandus, 1848†; Vienna: Haslinger, 1848†; Berlin: Schlesinger, 1848 (later issue)

A132/9b		106/9b	474	2nd version	1846–53
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1853
A132/10		106/10	475	10 Preludio, E	1846–53
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1853†
A132/11		106/11	476	11 Lento a capriccio, a	1846–53
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1853†
A132/12		106/12	477	12 Introduzione, mesto, c	1846–53
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1853†
A132/13		106/13	478	13 Andante sostenuto, a	1846–53
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1853†
A132/14		106/14	479	14 Lento, quasi marcia funebre, f	1846–53
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1853†
A132/15a		[105/13]	[237]	(1) Marche de Rákóczy, Edition populaire	1851
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1851
A132/15b		106/15a	480	(2) 15 Rákóczi-Marsch, a	1846–53
Published : Paris: Schlesinger, 1853†; Mainz: Schott, 1853†
A132/16		106/16	1267	16 Allegro, a	1882
Published : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1882†, n.d. (Veränderte Ausgabe); Vienna: Weinberger
A132/17		106/17	1268	17 Lento, d	1884
Published : Paris: in Le figaro, ?1885†; Leipzig: Hofmeister, 1886; Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1886
A132/18		106/18	1333	18 Lento, c	1885
Published : Budapest: Rózsavőlgyi, 1885†, Táborszky & Parsch, 1885 (later issue)
A132/19		106/19	1334	19 Lento, d	1885
Published : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1885†; Leipzig: Hofmeister; EMB, 1985 (facs.)

A133	566	253	530	Liebeslied (Widmung) [Schumann]	?1846–1860s
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1848†; Paris: Richault, 1849
Remarks : rev. version unpubd, US-Wc
A134		[579a]		Andantino [Freudvoll und Leidvoll]	1847
Collected editions : part transcr. of N23
A135				Albumblätter für Marie Wittgenstein:	1847
Published : unpubd
Remarks : easy pieces inscribed in Princess Marie-Sayn Wittgenstein’s album
				1: Lilie (Andantino, C)
				2: Mazurek: Gdy w czystem polu [Mazurka: When on the Clean Earth], A
				3: Hryć
				4: Krakowie, F
A136			260	‘Spirto gentil’ de l’opéra La favorite [Donizetti]	1847
Published : in Liszt Society Journal, xvii (1992), suppl., 25–33
Remarks : based on a version of the aria in Ricordi’s Antologia di Gazetta Musicale di Milano (no.7, July 1842), but Liszt probably did not encounter this issue until 1847
A137	403	157	488	Grande paraphrase de la marche de Donizetti composée pour Sa Majesté le sultan Abdul Medjid-Khan	1847
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1848†, n.d. (simplified edn)
Collected editions : NLE ii/8
Remarks : 1 composed in Woronince, Oct 1847, based on N11; 2–6 based on N12, N24, N25, N26 and N27 respectively
A138	431a	293	489	Concert paraphrase on an operatic theme [Verdi: Ernani]	1847
Published : unpubd
Remarks : written while Liszt was on tour in Constantinople, June 1847; identified by Schnapp (A1942), p.132; see also A203
A139				[6 transcriptions]:	1847
Collected editions : NLE i/18†
Remarks : 1 composed in Woronince, Oct 1847, based on N11; 2–6 based on N12, N24, N25, N26 and N27 respectively
	536	210	490	1 Oh, quand je dors
	535	204	491	2 Comment, disaient-ils
	537	205	492	3 Enfant, si j’étais roi
	538	206	493	4 S’il est un charmant gazon
	539	207	494	5 La tombe et la rose
	540	208	495	6 Gastibelza
A140	405	160	496	Schwanengesang und Marsch aus Hunyadi László [F. Erkel]	1847
Published : unpubd
Collected editions : NLE ii/8
Remarks : ded. S. Bohrer; Erkel’s op was first perf. in Pest, 1844
A141	553	238	498–9	Deux transcriptions d’après Rossini:	1847
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1852†
Collected editions : NLE ii/23
Remarks : 1: see F1, K5
				1 Air du Stabat mater (Cujus animam), 2 La charité
A142	579/3		500	Stabat mater	1847
Collected editions : NLE i/12†
Remarks : erroneously considered to be part of Christus (I7); not related to A141
A143	249	101/1–3	504–6	Glanes de Woronince:	1847
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1849†; Moscow: Muzgiz, 1952
Collected editions : NLE ii/8
Remarks : ded. Princess Marie Sayn-Wittgenstein; no.1 based on Polish melody Oj, nye hogy Grigu, no.2 on Chopin’s Mädchen’s Wunsch (op.74/1), no.3 on Ukrainian folksong, Vijuty vitri, vijuty bujni; see also A193
				1 Ballade d’Ukraine (Dumka), 2 Mélodies polonaises, 3 Complaintes (Dumka)
A144	387	118	1345–6	Drei Stücke aus der Oper La muette de Portici von Auber	1847/8
Collected editions : NLE ii/5
Remarks : nos.1 and 2 are a single piece, Introduction (E, 4/4) and Cavatine (?Berceuse, A); no.3 (Klavierstuck über ein fremdes Thema Andantino, a, 4/4) apparently not from Auber’s opera
A145		64a		Andante amoroso	?1847
Published : Paris: Brandus, 1847†
A146	422	275	524	Ouvertüre zu Tannhäuser [Wagner]	1847/?1849
Published : Dresden: Meser, 1849†
Collected editions : MW arrs./i; NLE ii/23
A147	481	146	497	La célèbre Zigeunerpolka	1848
Published : Leipzig: Schlesinger, 1849†
Collected editions : NLE ii/8
A148	169	66a	518	Romance	1848
Published : Vienna: Hofmeister, 1908†
Collected editions : NLE i/11; LSP, vii
Remarks : ded. J. Koscielska; arr. of song Oh, pourquoi donc (N30)
A149	431	264	519	Salve Maria de Jerusalem [Verdi: I Lombardi]	1848
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1848†
Collected editions : MW iii/2; NLE ii/9
Remarks : ded. M. Kalergis
A150	454	287	520	Schlummerlied von C.M. von Weber mit Arabesken	1848
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1848†
Collected editions : NLE ii/8
Remarks : ded. F. Kroll
A151	452	285	523	Leyer und Schwert [Weber]	1848
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1848†
Collected editions : NLE ii/8
Remarks : ded. Princess Augusta of Prussia
A152	453	286	525	Einsam bin ich, nicht alleine [Weber]	1848
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1848
Collected editions : MW i/10; [NLE ii/23]
Remarks : ded. P. Bérard based on incidental music for P.A. Wolff’s Preziosa
A153	510	201	521	Marche héroïque	?1848
Collected editions : NLE i/15
Remarks : transcr. of M16; see also B7
A154	488	162	526	Er ist gekommen in Sturm und Regen [R. Franz]	1848
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1849†
Collected editions : NLE ii/9
Remarks : ded. Mlle Jousselin based on song from op.4
A155	493	172	527/1–2	Septett [Hummel]	1848
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1849†, 1869 (rev.)
Collected editions : NLE ii/23
Remarks : see also U12
A156	548	218	528–9	Mendelssohn’s Wasserfahrt und Der Jäger Abschied [Mendelssohn]	1848
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1849†
Collected editions : NLE ii/9
Remarks : based on choral songs op.50 nos.4 and 2
A157	489	163	531–42	[12] Lieder von Robert Franz:	1848
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1849†
Collected editions : NLE ii/9
				i: Schilflieder op.2: 1 Auf geheimen Waldespfaden; 2 Drüben geht die Sonne scheiden; 3 Trübe wird’s; 4 Sonnenuntergang; 5 Auf dem Teich
				ii [3 Lieder]: 6 Der Schalk, op.3/1; 7 Der Bote, op.8/1; 8 Meeresstille, op.8/2
				iii [4 Lieder]: 9 Treibt der Sommer, op.8/5; 10 Gewitternacht, op.8/6; 11 Das ist ein Brausen und Heulen, op.8/4; 12 Frühling und Liebe, op.3/3
A158	173	14/1–10		Harmonies poétiques et religieuses, 2nd version:	1848–53
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1853†
Collected editions : LSP ii; MW ii/7; NLE i/9
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein; no.4 based on no.8 of 1st version, no.9 on no.9 of 1st version (see A61); see also H3, J2
			347	1 Invocation
			348	2 Ave Maria
			349	3 Bénédiction de Dieu dans la solitude
			294/350	4 Pensée des morts
			294	5 Pater noster
			294	6 Hymne de l’enfant à son réveil
			294	7 Funérailles (October 1849)
			294	8 Miserere, d’après Palestrina
			294	9 Andante lagrimoso
			294	10 Cantique d’amour
A159	160	10/1–9	103–11	Années de pèlerinage, suite de compositions, 1re année, Suisse:	1848–55
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1858†
Collected editions : MW ii/6; NLE i/6
Remarks : no.1 based on A40/1, 5, no.3 on A40b/7c, no.5 on A40c/2; see also A21, D18
				1 Chappelle de Guillaume Tell (after Schiller), 2 Au lac de Wallenstadt (after Byron), 3 Pastorale, 4 Au bord d’une source (after Schiller), 5 Orage (after Byron), 6 Vallée d’Obermann (after Senancour), 7 Eglogue (after Byron), 8 Le mal du pays (Heimweh), 9 Les cloches de Genève (after Byron)
A160	404	159	552	Halloh! Jagdchor und Steyrer aus der Oper Tony	1849
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1849†
Collected editions : MW iii/12; NLE ii/9
Remarks : based on composition by Duke Ernst of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
A161	468	123	553–8	Beethovens Lieder von Goethe:	1849
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1849†
Collected editions : MW iv/1 (nos.3 and 6); NLE ii/23
				1 Mignon, 2 Mit einem gemalten Bande, 3 Freudvoll und leidvoll, 4 Es war einmal ein König, 5 Wonne der Wehmut, 6 Die Trommel gerühret
A162	469	124	559	An die ferne Geliebte (Liederkreis) [Beethoven]	1849
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1850†
Collected editions : NLE ii/24
A163	444	277	560	O du mein holder Abendstern, Rezitativ und Romanze aus der Oper Tannhäuser [Wagner]	1849
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1849†
Collected editions : MW arrs./i; NLE ii/23; RS iii/1
Remarks : ded. Grand Duke Carl Alexander; see also D7
A164				Festmarsch zur Säcularfeier von Goethes Geburtstag
Collected editions : ded. Grand Duke Carl-Friedrich; see also B19, G5
A164a	227	48a	562		1849
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1849†
Collected editions : NLE i/14; MW ii/10
A164b	521	48b	725		1859
Published : Hamburg: Schuberth, 1859†; Cologne: Schuberth, ?1872 (2nd edn)
A165	414	223	569–71	Illustrations du Prophète [Meyerbeer]:	1849–50
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1850†
Collected editions : MW i/2; NLE ii/9
Remarks : ded. M. D’Agoult
				1 Prière, Hymne triomphale, Marche du sacre, 2 Les patineurs, Scherzo, 3 Choeur pastoral, Appel aux armes
A166	410	219	572	Concertparaphrase über Mendelssohn’s Hochzeitsmarsch und Elfenreigen aus dem Sommernachtstraum	1849–50
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1860†
Collected editions : MW ii/2; NLE ii/9
Remarks : ded. S. Bohrer
A167	176	18	573	Grosses Konzertsolo (Grand solo de concert)	1849–50
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1851†
Collected editions : MW ii/18; NLE i/15
Remarks : ded. A. Henselt; ‘Grand solo écrit pour le concours de piano (Conservatoire de Paris, 1850)’; see also C18, H11
A168	221	43	581	Mazurka brillante	1850
Published : Leipzig: Senff, 1850†
Collected editions : LSP v; MW ii/10; NLE i/13
Remarks : ded. A. Koczuchowski
A169	238	96	582	La cloche sonne	c1850
Published : London: Curwen, 1958†; Budapest: Muszika, 1961
Collected editions : NLE ii/10
Remarks : ded. A. Koczuchowski
A170	484	149	586–610	Bunte Reihe [F. David]	1850–51
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1851†, 1874 (2nd edn)
Collected editions : NLE ii/24
Remarks : no.22 pubd earlier as Souvenir de Russie (see A91)
A171	223	44	619–20	Two Polonaises, c, E	1850–51
Published : Leipzig: Senff, 1852†, 1875 (simplified edn)
Collected editions : MW ii/10; NLE i/13
A172	139	2/1–12	623–34	Etudes d’exécution transcendante	1851 (except no.4 (1))
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1852† (except no.4 (1))
Collected editions : MW ii/2 (except no.4 (1)); NLE i/1
Remarks : 1851 set ded. C. Czerny, no.4 (1) ded. V. Hugo; no.4 (1) = version between 4 (2) and earlier version in A39; see also A8, B38, C13, G7
				1 Preludio, C 2 in a, 3 Paysage, F
	138	2c	248	4 [Mazeppa] (1)	1840
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1847†; Paris: Schlesinger, 1847
Collected editions : MW ii/1
				4 Mazeppa, d (2)
				5 Feux follets (Irrlichter), B
				6 Vision, g
				7 Eroica, E
				8 Wilde Jagd, c
				9 Ricordanza, A
				10 Allegro agitato molto, f
				11 Harmonies du soir, D
				12 Chasse neige, b
A173	141	3b	635–40	Grandes études de Paganini	1851
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1851†
Collected editions : MW ii/3; NLE i/2
Remarks : ded. C. Schumann; orig. title ‘Grandes études de Paganini transcendantes pour le piano’; see also A15, A52, A113
A174	177	20	641	Scherzo und Marsch	1851
Published : Brunswick: Meyer, 1854†
Collected editions : MW ii/8; NLE i/13
Remarks : ded. T. Kullak
A175	455	460	642	Polonaise brillante [Weber]	1851
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1851†
Remarks : ded. A. Henselt; see also H10
A176				Zwei Stücke aus Tannhäuser und Lohengrin [Wagner]	1852
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1853†; RS; Leipzig: B&H, 1875 (new edn)
Collected editions : MW arrs./i; NLE ii/10
Remarks : ded. H. von Bülow
A176/1	445	278/1	661/1	1 Einzug der Gäste auf der Wartburg
A176/2	445	278/2	661/2	2 Elsas Brautzug zum Münster
A177	389	126	658	Fantasie über Beethovens Ruinen von Athen	1852
Published : Leipzig: Siegel, 1865†
Collected editions : NLE ii/12
Remarks : ded. N. Rubinstein; see also A124, C6, H9
A178	396	141	660	Bénédiction et serment, deux motifs de Benevenuto Cellini [Berlioz]	1852–3
Published : Leipzig: Meyer, 1854†
Collected editions : MW ii/2; NLE ii/10
Remarks : based on material in Act 2.vi and Act 1.vii; see also B10
A179	178	21	668	Sonate, b	1852–3
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1854†
Collected editions : MW ii/8; NLE i/5; Munich: Henle, 1973 (facs.)
Remarks : ded. R. Schumann in return for Schumann’s ded. to Liszt of his Phantasie op.17; 1st perf., Berlin, 22 Jan 1857, by Bülow
A180				Ungarischer Romanzero	1853
Collected editions : NLE ii/10
A181	171	16	669	Ballade no.2	1853
Published : Kistner, 1854†
Collected editions : MW ii/8; NLE i/9; Munich: Henle, 1996 (new edn)
Remarks : ded. Count Charles de Linange (Karl von Leiningen, half-brother of Queen Victoria)
A182	228	49	670	Huldigungs-marsch	1853
Published : Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1858†, 1863 (2nd edn)
Collected editions : NLE i/15
Remarks : ded. Grand Duke Carl Alexander; see also G8
A183	421	233	671–2	Andante finale und Marsch aus der Oper König Alfred [Raff]	1853
Published : Magdeburg: Heinrichshofen, 1853†; Hamburg: Schuberth, 1871 (2nd edn)
Collected editions : NLE ii/10
Remarks : ded. K. Klindworth; see also B11
A184	229	50	684	Vom Fels zum Meer (Deutscher Siegesmarsch)	1853–6
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1865†
Collected editions : NLE i/15; MW ii/10
Remarks : ded. Wilhelm I of Prussia; see also B14, G11
A185	446	279	688–9	Aus Lohengrin [Wagner]: 1 Festspiel und Brautlied, 2 Elsa’s Traum und Lohengrins Verweis	1854
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1854†, 1861 (new edn), 1875 (rev.)
Collected editions : NLE i/10
A186	174	57ab	686a, b	Berceuse	1854–62
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1854†; Leipzig: Heinze (Peters), 1865 (2nd edn)
Collected editions : MW ii/9; NLE i/11(b)
A187	434	267	772	Rigoletto: paraphrase de concert [Verdi]	?1855
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1860†
Collected editions : NLE ii/11
Remarks : based on the Act 4 qt; first perf. Berlin, 6 Jan 1860, by Bülow
A188	226	47	714	Festvorspiel-Prelude (Preludio pomposo)	1856
Published : Stuttgart: Hallberger, 1857†, Cotta’sche Buchhandlung, 1863
Collected editions : NLE i/11
Remarks : ded. K. Tausig; see also G18, U8
A189	514	181	789	[Episode aus Lenaus Faust] Der Tanz in der Dorfschenke (Erste Mephisto-Walzer)	1856–61
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1862†
Collected editions : NLE i/15
Remarks : ded. K. Tausig; pf version preceded orch version (G16), contrary to earlier chronologies; solo version of G16/1 was made by Robert Freund in early 1870s and pubd Schuberth, 1872; see also B15
A190	513	180	1053	Gretchen: 2. Satz aus der Faust-Symphonie	1857–74
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1876†, 1880 (rev.)
Collected editions : NLE i/16
Remarks : based on G12; see also C19
A191	542	212	721–2	Weimars Volkslied (Von der Wartburg)	1857
Published : Weimar: Kühn, 1857†, 1873 (2nd version)
Collected editions : NLE i/15
Remarks : see B16, see also E6, G9, L10, M32, N53
A192	2	477	749–51	Drei Stücke aus der heiligen Elisabeth: 1 Orchester (Einleitung), 2 Marsch der Kreuzritter, 3 Interludium	1857–62
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1872†
Collected editions : NLE i/16
Remarks : see also B27, E25, I4
A193	480	145	509–14	Six chants polonais [Chopin, from op.74]	1857–60
Published : Leipzig: Schlesinger, 1860†
Collected editions : NLE ii/8
Remarks : ded. Princess Marie Hohenlohe; see also A143
A194	542a	211a	740	Ich liebe dich	?1857–60
Collected editions : NLE i/15†
Remarks : based on N52
A195	254	90	863	Rhapsodie espagnole (Folies d’Espagne et jota aragonesa)	1858
Published : Leipzig: Siegel, 1867†
Collected editions : NLE ii/2
Remarks : ded. Empress Eugenie; see also A114, Q11
A196	522	51	738	Festmarsch nach Motiven von E.H. z. S.-C.-G	1858–9
Published : Hamburg: Schuberth, 1860†
Collected editions : NLE i/15
Remarks : based on themes from Duke Ernst of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha’s opera Diana von Solange, 1858; see also B21, G23
A197	162	10/1–3	767–9	Années de pèlerinage, supplément aux Années de pèlerinage 2de Volume:	1859
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1861†
Collected editions : MW ii/6; NLE i/7
Remarks : part based on A53; see also A55
				Venezia e Napoli: 1 Gondoliera, canzone del Cavaliere Peruchini (La biondina in gondoletta), 2 Canzone (‘Nessun maggior dolore, canzone del Gondoliere nel Otello di Rossini’), 3 Tarantella da Guillaume Louis Cottrau (Presto e canzone napolitana)
A198	179	23	770	Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen, Präludium [J.S. Bach]	1859
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1863†; Leipzig
Collected editions : MW ii/9; NLE ii/12
Remarks : ded. A. Rubinstein; based on Cantata no.12/i; see also A214
A199	433	266	771	Miserere du Trovatore [Verdi]	1859
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1860†
Collected editions : NLE ii/11
A200	439	272	773	Phantasiestück über Motive aus Rienzi ‘Santo Spirito cavaliere’ von Richard Wagner	1859
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1861†
Collected editions : NLE ii/11
A201	520	187	741	Künstlerfestzug zur Schillerfeier 1859	1859–60
Published : Weimar: Kühn, 1860†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1883 (rev.)
Collected editions : NLE i/15
Remarks : see also B22, G20, L9
A202				Trois odes funèbres:
Collected editions : no.1 ded. C. von Bülow, 3 ded. L. Damrosch; no.1 in memory of Liszt’s son Daniel (d 13 Dec 1858), 2 based on A55/2; see also B23, D9, E7, G25/2, S57
A202/1	516	183	788	1 Les Morts	1859–60
Published : Berlin: in Göllerich (A1908)†
Collected editions : NLE i/11
A202/2	699	664	890	2 La notte	1864–6
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1883 (rev.)
Collected editions : NLE i/11†
A202/3	517	184	920	3 Le Triomphe funèbre du Tasse	1866–9
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1878†
Collected editions : NLE i/16
A203	432	265	419	Ernani: [2nd] paraphrase de concert [Verdi]	?1859
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1860†
Collected editions : MW iii/2; NLE ii/11
Remarks : see A138
A204	440	273	797	Spinnerlied aus dem Fliegenden Holländer [Wagner]	1860
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1862†
Collected editions : RS iii/1; MW arrs./i; NLE ii/11
Remarks : ded. L. Jungmann
A205	475	142	798	Danse des Sylphes de La damnation de Faust [Berlioz]	1860
Published : Berlin: Rieter-Biedermann, 1866†
Collected editions : NLE ii/11
A206	549	226	799	Festmarsch zu Schillers 100jähriger Geburtsfeier [Meyerbeer]	1860
Published : Paris: Brandus, 1860†
Collected editions : NLE ii/11
A207	511	202	794–6	Geharnischte Lieder: 1 Nicht gezagt, 2 Vor der Schlacht, 3 Es rufet Gott uns mahnend	c1860
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1861
Collected editions : NLE i/15
Remarks : see M22, M23, M24
A208	407	166	829	Valse de l’opéra Faust de Gounod	1861
Published : Paris: Muraille, 1861†; Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1863 (2nd edn)
Collected editions : NLE ii/11
Remarks : ded. Baron Alexis Michels; based on Act 2 duet O nuit d’amour
A209	532	[209]	830	Die Loreley (Ich weiss nicht, was soll’s bedeuten)	1861
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1862†
Collected editions : NLE i/15
Remarks : based on N5; see also A97/1
A210	443	276	831a, b	Pilgerchor aus Tannhäuser [Wagner]	1861
Published : Berlin: Fürstner, 1864†, 1885 (rev.)
Collected editions : NLE ii/12
Remarks : originally for organ, pubd 1863 (see E10]); the 1885 pf version is based on E10
A211				Zwei Lieder [E. Lassen]
Collected editions : NLE ii/13
Remarks : ded. Baroness Olga von Meyendorff
A211/1	494	173	832	1 Löse Himmel meine Seele	1861
Published : Dresden: Heinze (Peters), 1865†
A211/2	495	174	1015	2 Ich weil in tiefer Einsamkeit	1872
Published : Leipzig: Heinze (Peters), 1872†
A212	567	255/1–2	833–4	Zwei Lieder [R. Schumann]:	1861
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1861†
Collected editions : NLE ii/11
Remarks : no.1 based on Schumann, op.36/4, no.2 on op.27/2
212/1				1 An den Sonnenschein
212/2				2 Rotes Röslein
A213	508	199	835	Pastorale (Schnitterchor aus dem Entfesselten Prometheus)	1861
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1861†
Collected editions : NLE i/15
Remarks : based on L8; see also B24; G6
A214	180	24	840	Variationen über das Motiv … von Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen und des Crucifixus der H-moll Messse [Bach]	1862
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1864†
Collected editions : MW ii/9; NLE i/5
Remarks : ded. A. Rubinstein; partly based on Cantata no.21 but not related to A198; Ramann (Liszt-Pädagogium, Leipzig, 1902) lists a version for orch but no source survives; 1st perf. Hanover, 28 April 1875; see also A198, E17
A215	182	67	841	Ave Maria für die grosse Klavierschule von Lebert und Stark (Die Glocken von Rom)	1862
Published : Stuttgart: Cotta’sche Buchhandlung, 1863†
Collected editions : MW ii/9; NLE i/11
A216	183	68	842–3	Alleluja et Ave Maria ([Arcadelt])	1862
Published : Leipzig: Peters, 1865†
Collected editions : NLE ii/11
Remarks : melody attrib. Arcadelt but actually by L. Dietsch; see E14
A217	461	114	844	A la Chapelle Sixtine (Miserere d’Allegri et Ave verum corpus de Mozart)	1862
Published : Leipzig: Peters, 1865†
Collected editions : EMB i/11; NLE ii/12
Remarks : see also B26, E15, G26
A218	145	6	850–51	Zwei Konzertetüden:	1862
Published : Stuttgart: Cotta’sche Buchhandlung, 1863†; Berlin: Trautwein, 1869
Collected editions : MW ii/3; NLE i/2; Munich: Henle, 1994
Remarks : ded. D. Pruckner; composed for the Lebert and Stark Klavierschule; the order here (reversed in MW ii/3) reflects Liszt’s instructions; titles probably not Liszt’s, but used by him in the 1870s
A218/1				1 Waldesrauschen
A218/2				2 Gnomenreigen
A219	175	17/1–2	860	Deux légendes:
Published : Budapest: Rózsavőlgyi, 1865 (no.1)†, 1866 (no.2)†
Remarks : ded. C. von Bülow; no.1 inspired by Petites fleurs de St François d’Assise (Paris, 1860), chap.16, no.2 by drawing by E. Steinle, and G. Miscimarra: Vita di San Francesco di Paolo, chap.35; 1st perf., Budapest, 29 Aug 1865; see also G27, J13
A219/1			860	1 St François d’Assise: la prédication aux oiseaux	1862/3
Collected editions : EMB (simplified edn); MW ii/9; NLE i/9
A219/2			859	2 St François de Paule marchant sur les flots	1863
Collected editions : MW ii/9
A220	550	229	895–6	Confutatis und Lacrymosa aus dem Requiem K.626 von Mozart	?1862
Published : Leipzig: Siegel, 1865†
Collected editions : NLE ii/24
A221				Mazurka	1863
Published : unpubd
A222	[3]	[478]	855–6	Zwei Orchestersätze aus dem Oratorium Christus	1862–6
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1872†
Collected editions : NLE i/16
Remarks : based on I7 nos.4 and 5; see also A228, B30, E19, G31
A222/1				1 Hirtengesang an der Krippe
A222/2				2 Die heiligen drei Könige (Marsch)
A223	503	196	869	Slavimo slavno Slaveni!	1863
Published : in L. Ramann: Liszt-Pädagogium (Leipzig, 1902)†
Collected editions : NLE i/11
Remarks : based on J16; bars 1–38 arr. str qt in RUS-SPsc, transcr. partly by A. Siloti, probably in St Petersburg, c1880; see also E18
A224	244	106/15b	480	Ungarische Rhapsodien XV (Rákóczi-Marsch)	?1863
Published : Hamburg: Schuberth, 1871†
Collected editions : MW ii/12; NLE i/3
Remarks : based on A60a/10 and A60b/13; see also B33, C25, G29
A225	518	185	865	Salve Polonia (Interludium aus dem Oratorium Stanislaus)	?1863
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1884†
Collected editions : NLE i/17
Remarks : based on G28; see also A302, Q1, Q17
A226	185	70	880	Vexilla regis prodeunt (Kreuzeshymne)	1864
Collected editions : NLE i/12†
Remarks : transcr. of hymn with text by Venantius Fortunatus; see also G30
A227	502	197	882	Weihnachtslied II: Christus ist geboren	1864
Published : Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1865†
Collected editions : NLE i/15
Remarks : based on J15b
A228	530	190	883	L’hymne du pape (Inno del papa, Der Papsthymnus)	1864
Published : Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1865†
Remarks : see also B29, E19, G31, I7
A229	184	69	886	Urbi et orbi, bénédiction papale	1864
Collected editions : NLE i/12†
A230	415	224	892–3	Illustrations de l’Africaine [Meyerbeer]	1865
Published : Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1866†, 1875 (2nd edn)
Collected editions : NLE ii/12
Remarks : ded. A. Jaëll
A230/1				1 Prière des matelots
A230/2				2 Marche indienne
A231	408	167	894	Les sabéennes, berceuse de l’opéra La reine de Saba [Gounod]	1865
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1865†
Collected editions : NLE ii/12; RS iii/2
A232	417	227	905	Fantaisie sur l’opéra hongroise Szép Ilonka [Mosonyi]	1865–7
Published : Budapest: Rózsavőlgyi, 1867†
Collected editions : NLE ii/13; RS iii/2
Remarks : ded. M. Mosonyi
A233	192	60	907–11	Fünf kleine Klavierstücke:	1865–79
Published : Robert Lee, 1963 (complete); EMB, 1969 (single issue)
Collected editions : MW ii/10 (nos.1–4)†; LSP i (nos.1–4)
Remarks : ded. Baroness Olga von Meyendorff; no.1, 1865; same theme as A103/2
A233/1				1 Sehr langsam, E
A233/2				2 Lento assai, A
A233/3				3 Sehr langsam, F
A233/4				4 Andantino, F
A233/5				5 Sospiri! (Andante)
A234	189		912	Piano piece, A	1866
Collected editions : LSP, ix (1988)
Remarks : originally thought by Searle (Grove5) to be an early version of A299; 1st perf. by William Wright, BBC (Scotland), 22 June 1987
A235	491	168	913	Hymne à Ste Cécile [Gounod]	1866
Published : unpubd
Collected editions : NLE ii/12
A236	237	95	47	La marseillaise [Rouget de Lisle]	1866–72
Published : Hamburg: Schuberth, 1872
Collected editions : MW vii/2; NLE ii/13
Remarks : not the same as work composed in 1830
A237	409	169	927	Les adieux, réverie sur un motif de l’opéra Roméo et Juliette [Gounod]	1867
Published : Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1868†, 1875 (2nd edn)
Collected editions : NLE ii/12; RS iii/2
A238	501	192	928–9	Aus der Ungarischen Krönungsmesse: 1 Benedictus, 2 Offertorium	1867
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1871†
Collected editions : NLE i/16
Remarks : see also B31, D10, E23, F3, H14, I9
A239	447	280	930	Isoldes Liebestod aus Tristan und Isolde [Wagner]	1867
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1868†
Collected editions : [NLE ii/24]
A240	435	268	932	Don Carlos [Verdi]	1867–8
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1868†
Collected editions : [NLE ii/13]; RS iii/2
A241	190	65	944	La marquise de Blocqueville, un portrait en musique	1868
Published : Paris: in Le Figaro (14 April 1886)†
Collected editions : NLE i/12
Remarks : ded. Marquise de Blocqueville (Louise Davout)
A242	146	7	950–61	Technische Studien	1868–73
Published : Hamburg: Schuberth, 1886† (inc.)
Collected editions : EMB, 1983 (complete)
Remarks : 1886 edn pubd by A. Winterberger after Liszt’s death, without 3rd part (12 grosse Etüden), mentioned in letter from Liszt to A.W. Gottschalg, 20 Oct, 1871
A243	506	195	946	Ave maris stella	1868
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1871†
Collected editions : NLE i/16
Remarks : based on J19; see also E27, K3
A244	463	120	862	Fantasie und Fuge, g [Bach]	1869
Published : Stuttgart: Cotta’sche Buchhandlung, 1868†
Collected editions : NLE ii/24
Remarks : ded. Dr S. Lebert; based on bwv542 (for org)
A245	492	171	962–9	Tanzmomente [J. von Herbeck]	1869
Published : Vienna: Gotthard, 1870†
Collected editions : NLE ii/13
Remarks : ded. Princess Marie Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst
A246	509	200	983	Gaudeamus igitur (Humoreske)	1869–70
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1871†
Collected editions : NLE i/16
Remarks : ded. K. Gille; not related to A96; see also B34, L11
A247	504	193	975a, b	Ave Maria, II, aus den ‘9 [12] Kirchenchorgesängen’	1869–72
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1871†, 1874 (2nd version)
Collected editions : NLE i/12
Remarks : based on J24, see also E24, K4; 1st version, D, 1871, 2nd version, D, 1873/4
A248	523	55	988	Ungarischer Marsch zur Kronungsfeier in Ofen-Pest am 8. Jun 1867	1870
Published : Hamburg: Schuberth, 1871†; Leipzig: Schuberth, 1876 (rev.)
Remarks : see also B32, G33
A249	194	110	990	Mosonyis Grabgeleit	1870
Published : Budapest: Tàborszky & Parsch, 1871†
Collected editions : NLE; LSP iii
Remarks : W5 1st version (W5) as Michael Mosonyi, see also A335/7, B50, P5; composed on the death of Mosonyi (31 Oct 1870), perf. Budapest, 16 Nov 1870
A250			992	Präludium und Fuge über das Motiv B.A.C.H.	[1855, for organ?]
Published : Rotterdam: Vletter (de), 1859†
Collected editions : NLE i/5
Remarks : earliest version; see also E3
	529	22	993	Fantasie und Fuge über das Thema B–A–C–H.	1870
Published : Leipzig: Siegel, 1871†
Collected editions : MW ii/9; NLE i/5
A251	485a	157a	994	Der Schwur am Rütli [F. Draeseke]	1870
Published : unpubd
Remarks : transcr. of cantata
A252	233	56	989	Ungarischer Geschwindsmarsch (Magyar Gyors induló)	1870–71
Published : Pressburg: Schindlers Verlag, 1871†
Collected editions : MW i/14
A253				Polnisch	1870s
Published : unpubd
Remarks : on the verso of the Kaiser Wilhelm national hymn (1876)
A254	448	281	1005	‘Am stillen Herd’ aus den Meistersingern [Wagner]	1871
Published : Berlin: Trautwein, 1871†
Collected editions : MW arrs./i; [NLE ii/13]; RS iii/1
Remarks : ded. M. von Schleinitz
A255	246	113	1233/1	Puszta-Wehmut (Die Werbung)	1871
Published : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1885†
Collected editions : NLE ii/13
Remarks : arr. of song by L. Gizycka (née Zámoyská) on a poem by N. Lenau
A256	191	59	1014	Impromptu (Nocturne)	1872
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1877†
Collected editions : MW ii/9; NLE i/12
Remarks : ded. Baroness Olga von Meyendorff
A257	568	256	1016	Frühlingsnacht (Überm Garten durch die Lüfte) [Schumann]	1872
Published : Dresden: Heinze (Peters), 1872†
Collected editions : NLE ii/13
Remarks : based on Schumann’s song op.39/12
A258	573	261	1027	Einleitung und Ungarischer Marsch (Bevezetés és magyar indulo)	1872
Published : Budapest: Rózsavőlgyi, 1873†
Remarks : ded. I. Széchényi
A259	441	274	1028	Ballade aus dem fliegenden Holländer [Wagner]	1872
Published : Berlin: Meser (Fürstner), 1873†
Collected editions : MW arrs./i; [NLE ii/13]; RS iii/1
A260	526	189	1030	Epithalam zu Eduard Reményis Vermählungsfeier	1872
Published : Budapest: 1872†
Collected editions : NLE i/12
Remarks : arr. of D12; see also W7
A261	486	158	1034–5	Szózat und Ungarischer Hymnus [B. Egressy and F. Erkel]	1872
Published : Budapest: Rózsavőlgyi, 1873†
Collected editions : NLE i/16
Remarks : ded. Count Gyula Andrássy; based on G34; pf 4 hands version (s628b) probably by H. Gobbi; see A335
A262	239	97	1004	Vive Henri IV	1872–80
Collected editions : LSP vii†; [NLE ii/14]
A263	245	108	1047–51	Fünf ungarische Volkslieder:	1873
Published : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1873†
Collected editions : LSP iii; [NLE ii/13]
Remarks : based on folksong arrs. by the elder K. Ábrányi
				1 ‘Csak titokban akartalak szeretni’ (Lassan [Lento], D)
				2 ‘Jaj beh szennyes az a maga kendöje’ (Mérsekélve [sic] [Allegretto], G)
				3 ‘Beh szomorú ez az élet én nékem’ (Lassan [Andante], G)
				4 ‘Beh! sok falut, beh! sok várost bejártam’ (Kissé élénken [Vivace], c)
				5 ‘Erdó, erdó, sürü erdó árnayában’ (Búsongva [Lento], f)
A264a	569	257	1017–23	Lieder von Robert und Clara Schumann [nos.1–7 by Robert]: 1 Weihnachtslied, 2 Die wandelnde Glocke, 3 Frühlings Ankunft, 4 Des Sennen Abschied, 5 Er ist’s, 6 An die Türen will ich schleichen	1874
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1875†
Collected editions : NLE ii/24
Remarks : based on op.79 nos.16, 17, 19, 22, 23, and op.98a nos.3, 8
A264b	569	257	1024–6	Lieder von Robert und Clara Schumann [nos.8–10 by Clara]: 8 Warum willst du andere fragen, 9 Ich hab’ in deinem Auge, 10 Geheimes Flüstern	1874
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1875†
Collected editions : NLE ii/24
Remarks : based on op.12/3, op.13/5, op.23/3
A265	479	144	1054	Dantes Sonett ‘Tanto gentile e tanto onesta’	1874
Published : Leipzig: Schlesinger, 1875†
Remarks : based on a song by H. von Bülow
A266	196/195a	76	1056/1–2	Elegie I (Schlummerlied im Grabe)	1874
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1875†
Collected editions : LSP iii; MW ii/9; NLE i/10
Remarks : in memory of M. Moukhanoff; see also B36, D13
A267	186	71/1–12	1075–86	Weihnachtsbaum:	1874–6, no.7 rev. 1879–81
Published : Berlin: Fürstner, 1882†; Moscow: Gutheil, ?1882†; New York: Schirmer, 1922, 1950 (no.7)
Collected editions : MW ii/9; NLE i/10
Remarks : ded. D. von Bülow; no.2 arr. vv, org/hmn (J42); see also B43
				1 Altes Weihnachten, 2 O heilige Nacht! (Weihnachtslied nach einer alten Weise), 3 Die Hirten an der Krippe (In dulci jubilo), 4 Marsch der hl. drei Könige (Adeste fideles), 5 Man zündet die Kerzen des Baumes an (Scherzoso), 6 Carillon, 7 Schlummerlied, 8 Altes provençalisches Weihnachtslied, 9 Abendglocken, 10 Ehemals, 11 Ungarisch, 12 Polnisch
A268	92/542b	562	1103a, b	Carl August weilt mit uns, Festgesang zur Enthüllung des Carl-August-Denkmals in Weimar	1875
Published : Leipzig: Licht & Meyer, 1887†
Remarks : b = Fanfare; 1st perf. Weimar, 3 Sept 1875; see also I6
A269	449	282	1098	‘Walhall’ aus dem Ring des Nibelungen [Wagner]	1875
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1876†
Collected editions : MW arrs./i; [NLE ii/13]; RS iii/1
A270	551	232	1347	Una stella amica, mazurka [Pezzini]	?1875
Published : Rome: Manganelli, 1876†
Collected editions : NLE ii/13
A271	214a	60b	1105	Carrousel de Mme P[elet]-N[arbonne]	?1875–81
Collected editions : NLE i/12†
Remarks : apparently Liszt’s only humorous piece, about the owner of the house in Weimar where the Meyendorff family lived
A272	197b		1106b	Kaiser Wilhelm!, national hymn	1876
Published : unpubd
Remarks : probably inspired by a meeting with the Kaiser during ceremonies on 3 Sept 1875 (see A268)
A273	555	240	1107	Danse macabre [Saint-Saëns]	1876
Published : Paris: Durand, 1877†
Collected editions : NLE ii/14
Remarks : ded. S. Menter
A274	528	296	1108	Festpolonaise	1876
Published : Berlin: in Göllerich (H1908)†
Collected editions : NLE i/17
Remarks : ded. Princess Marie of Saxony, for her wedding, 15 Jan 1876
A275	571	259	1110	Die Rose, Romanze aus der Oper Zemir und Azor [Spohr]	1876
Published : Brunswick: Bauer, 1877†
Collected editions : [NLE ii/13]
A276	436	269	1013	Aida, danza sacra e duetto final [Verdi]	?1876
Published : Milan: Ricordi, 1879†
Collected editions : {NLE ii/13]; RS iii/2
Remarks : ded. A. (Toni) Raab; Liszt first saw the opera in Budapest on 19 Feb 1876
A277	197	77	1125	Elegie II	1877
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1878†
Collected editions : LSP iii; MW ii/9; NLE i/10;
Remarks : ded. L. Ramann; see also D14
A278	187	73	1127	Sancta Dorothea	1877
Collected editions : LSP vii; MW ii/9†; NLE i/12
Remarks : MS apparently rescued from the rubbish bin by R. Strauss
A279	195	111	1128	Dem Andenken Petöfis	1877
Published : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1877†
Collected editions : LSP iii
Remarks : based on P5 and used later in A335, also B50; first perf. Budapest, 28 Feb 1877
A280	204	86	1132	Recueillement	1877
Published : Naples: Associazione musicale industriale, 1884†
Collected editions : MW ii/9; NLE i/12
Remarks : written at the invitation of F. Florimo for the erection of a monument to Bellini in Naples
A281	456	292	1133	Valse d’Adèle, transcription brillante	1877
Published : Paris: Heugel, 1877†
Collected editions : NLE ii/11
Remarks : transcr. of waltz for the left-hand by Count Zichy; 1st perf. Budapest, 15 Feb 1877
A282	546	216	1143	Der blinde Sänger	1877
Published : St Petersburg: Bessel, 1881†
Collected editions : NLE i/17
Remarks : after A. Tolstoy
A283	163	10/1–7	935–41	Années de pèlerinage, troisième année:	1877–82
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1883†; Venice: Tasolini, 1987 (facs.)
Collected editions : MW ii/6; NLE i/8
Remarks : no.1 ded. D. von Bülow, no.5 ded. H. von Bülow; no.1, see also D15, E30; nos.2–3 inspired by the cypresses of S Maria degli Angeli, Rome; no.5 title from Virgil’s Aeneid (bk i, ll.461–2); no.6 in memory of Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico; no.7 title from Canon of the Mass
				1 Angelus! Prière aux anges gardiens, 2 Aux cyprès de la Villa d’Este, thrénodie (Andante 3/4), 3 Aux cyprès de la Villa d’Este, thrénodie (Andante non troppo lento, 4/4), 4 Les jeux d’eaux à la Villa d’Este, 5 Sunt lacrymae rerum, en mode hongrois, 6 Marche funèbre, 7 Sursum corda
A284	437	270	1135	Agnus Dei della Messa di Requiem di G. Verdi	1877–82
Published : Milan: Ricordi, 1879†
Collected editions : NLE ii/14
Remarks : see also E29
A285	496	176	1144–7	Aus der Musik zu Hebbels Nibelungen und Goethes Faust:	1878
Published : Breslau: Hainauer, 1879†
Collected editions : NLE ii/14
Remarks : ded. Baroness Ingeborg von Bronsart
				i Nibelungen: 1 Hagen und Krimhild, 2 Bechlarn
				ii Faust: 1 Osterhymne, 2 Hoffest: Marsch und Polonaise
A286a	50	72	1154–74	[Choräle] Zwölf alte deutsche geistliche Weisen:	1878–9
Collected editions : MW v/7; NLE i/10†; UE v
Remarks : proposed ded. Baron Robert von Keudell; composed for Cardinal Gustav Hohenlohe; vocal versions pubd in MW as Deutsche Kirchenlieder und liturgische Gesänge; texts by A. von Löwen, G. Neumark, M. Rinckart and F. von Spee; see also J34
				1 Crux ave benedicta, 2 Jesu Christe (Die fünf Wunden), 3 Meine Seele erhebet den Herrn (Gott sei gnädig und barmherzig), 3a Es segne uns Gott, 4 Nun danket alle Gott, 5 Nun ruhen alle Wälder, 6 O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden, 7 O Lamm Gottes! 8 O Traurigkeit, 9 Vexilla regis, 10 Was Gott tut, das ist wohlgetan, 11 Wer nur den lieben Gott lässt walten
A286b	50	72	1175–86	Zwölf alte deutsche geistliche Weisen [Deutsche Kirchenlieder und liturgische Gesänge]:	1878–9
Collected editions : MW v/7†
Remarks : in Chiappari and Grove6 these pieces were listed as choral works with kbd (as in MW), but there is no evidence that they were intended for other than kbd perf.; see also J34
				1 Was Gott tut, das ist wohlgetan, 2 O Traurigkeit, 3 Nun ruhen all Wälder, 4 Meine Seel’ erhebet den Herrn, 5 O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden, 6 O Lamm Gottes, 7 Wer nur den lieben Gott lässt walten, 8 Es segne uns Gott, 9 Vexilla regis, 10 Crux benedicta, 11 Jesu Christe, 12 Nun danket alle Gott
A287	504a	534	1187	Via Crucis [Les 14 stations de la croix]	1878–9
Collected editions : NLE i/10
Remarks : based on J33; see also B52, E31
A288	515	182	1241	Zweiter Mephisto-Walzer	1878/9–1881
Published : Berlin: Fürstner, 1881†
Collected editions : MW i/1; NLE i/17
Remarks : ded. C. Saint-Saëns; the solo pf and 4-hand versions were composed at the same time and used later as the basis for the orch work; see also B54, G37
A289	734–5		800, 1370	Ländler, D, allegretto (Air cosaque)	1879
Published : London: Curwen, 1958†
A290	181	25	1194	Sarabande und Chaconne aus dem Singspiel ‘Almira’ von Handel	1879
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1880†
Collected editions : NLE ii/14
Remarks : ded. Walter Bache
A291	483	148	1196	Tarantelle, transcrite et amplifiée pour le piano à deux mains [Dargomïzhsky]	1879
Published : Moscow: Jürgenson, 1880†
Collected editions : NLE ii/14; RS ii/2
Remarks : ded. N. Helbig; original for 3 hands
A292	572	260	1197	Revive Szegedin, marche hongroise de Szabady	1879
Published : Paris: Heugel, 1892†; St Petersburg: Somogyi-könyvtár, 1986 (facs.)
Collected editions : NLE ii/14
Remarks : ded. A. Gouzien; based on Massenet’s Marche héroïque de Szabadi, ded. Liszt, an arr. of piece by I. Szabadi Frank
A293	429	262	1198	Polonaise aus der Opera Jewgeny Onegin [Tchaikovsky]	1879
Published : Moscow: Jürgenson, 1880†; Hamburg: Rahter, 1880†
Collected editions : NLE ii/15; RS iii/2
Remarks : ded. K. Klindworth; based on the polonaise from Act 3
A294	54	514	1200	O Roma nobilis [G. Baini]	1879
Collected editions : MW v/7† (for chorus, org); NLE i/17†
Remarks : intended as kbd work, but pubd in MW (1936) for chorus (source lost); see also J36
A295	197a	60a	1195	Toccata	?1879
Collected editions : NLE i/12†
A296	207a	297	1212	Variation, prélude à la polka de Borodine	1880
Published : Hamburg: Rahter, 1881 (rev.); Leipzig: Belaieff, 1893 (rev.); Bonn: in Tcherepnin paraphrase, 1959 (facs.)
Collected editions : [NLE ii/15]
Remarks : variation on the ‘Chopsticks’ theme, composed for the 2nd edn of the set by Borodin, Cui, Lyadov and Rimsky-Korsakov; s256 was renumbered as s207a
	256	297	1213	Variation über das Thema [Chopsticks]	1880
A297	573a	113/1	1215	Seconda mazurka variata da Pier Adolfo Tirindelli	1880
Published : Turin: Giudici & Strada, 1880†
Collected editions : [NLE ii/15]
A298	490	165	1216–17	Liebesszene und Fortunas Kugel aus Die sieben Todsünden (Phantasiestück) [A. von Goldschmidt]	1880
Published : Hanover: Simon, 1881†
Collected editions : [NLE ii/15]
A299	527	66b	1223	Romance oubliée	1880
Published : Hanover: Simon, 1881†
Collected editions : LSP vii; NLE i/12
Remarks : see also A234, D16, W9
A300	188	74	1211/1224	In festo transfigurationis Domini nostri Jesu Christi	1880
Collected editions : LSP vii; MW ii/9; NLE i/12; UE vi
A301	499a		1221	San Francesco (Preludio per il Cantico del sol di S Francesco)	?1880
Collected editions : NLE i/17†
Remarks : arr. from I8; see also A307, E35, F2, S59
A302	519	186	1092–3	Deux Polonaises de l’oratorio Stanislaus	?1880–84
Collected editions : NLE i/17†
Remarks : probably intended for publication with the pf score (A225) of G28, but unpubd until 1983; see also Q1, Q17
A303	198	58	1214	Wiegenlied (Chant du berceau)	1881
Published : London: Curwen, 1958†; in Five Liszt Discoveries
Collected editions : NLE i/12
Remarks : ded. A. Friedheim; see also A310, B55, G38 and S61
A304	554	239	1218	O! wenn es doch immer so bliebe	1881
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1881†
Collected editions : NLE ii/15
Remarks : ded. Mme Rubinstein based on songs by A. Rubinstein
A305	199	78	1238	Trübe Wolken (Nuages gris)	1881
Collected editions : LSP i; MW ii/9† [1927]; NLE i/12
A306	570	254	1243	Provençalisches Minnelied	1881
Published : Berlin: Fürstner, 1881†
Collected editions : NLE ii/15
Remarks : based on Schumann’s song op.139/4
A307	499	191	1244	Cantico di San Francesco	1881
Collected editions : NLE i/17
Remarks : based on In dulci jubilo from I8; see also A301, E35, F2, S59
A308	545	194	1247–8	Ave Maria [IV]	1881
Published : London: Curwen, 1958†, in Five Liszt Discoveries
Collected editions : NLE i/12; UE vi, ix
Remarks : see also K8
A309/1	534	214	1250/1	A magyarok Istene (Ungarns Gott)	1881
Published : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1881†
Collected editions : NLE i/17
Remarks : the pf 4 hands arr. cited by Chiappari (no.1250/2) is spurious; see also E37, G40, L16, M37
A309/2	[534]	[214]	1251	A magyarok Istene (Ungarns Gott), pf left hand	1881
Remarks : version of A309/1 arr. for G. Zichy
A310	512	179	1253	Von der Wiege bis zum Grabe	1881
Published : Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1883†
Collected editions : NLE i/17
Remarks : ded. Count M. Zichy; possibly after an engraving by Zichy, see A303, B55, G38, S61; 1st perf. Budapest, 23 March 1884
A311	215	37	1262–5	[4] Valses oubliées	1881 (no.1), 1883 (nos.2–3), 1884 (no.4)
Published : Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1881 (no.1)†, 1884 (nos.2–3)†, 1884 (no.1; later issue); Bryn Mawr: Presser, 1954 (no.4)†; in Uj zenei szemle, vii (1956) (no.4)
Collected editions : LSP iv (nos.1–3); MW ii/10 (nos.1–3); NLE i/14 (nos.1–4)
Remarks : nos.2 and 3 ded. O. von Meyen dorff; pieces composed separately (incl. Q21) and later connected by title as a set
A312	208	80	1328	Unstern! Sinistre, disastro	1881
Collected editions : LSP i; MW ii/9†; NLE i/12
A313	224	46	1239	Csárdás macabre	1881–2
Collected editions : NLE i/14; RS vii; LSP, 1952†
Remarks : planned ded. Saint-Saëns, but ded. S. Teleky; MS sent to the publisher Táborszky, 1882, and ed. Bartók, 1912, for MW, but not issued by either; see also B56
A314	438	271	1270	Réminiscences de Boccanegra [Verdi]	1882
Published : Milan: Ricordi, 1883†
Collected editions : NLE ii/15; RS iii/2
Remarks : based on the revised version of the op, perf. Milan, 24 March 1881
A315	450	283	1271	Feierlicher Marsch zum heiligen Gral aus Parsifal (Marche solennelle du Saint Gral de Parsifal) [Wagner]	1882
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1883†
Collected editions : MW arrs./i; NLE ii/15; RS iii/1
A316	498	177	1272–4	Drei Lieder aus J. Wolffs Tannhäuser:	1882
Published : Berlin: Barth (A. Junne), 1883†
Collected editions : NLE ii/15
Remarks : based on songs by O. Lessmann
				1 Der Lenz ist gekommen (Frühlingslied), 2 Trinklied, 3 Du Schaust mich an (Liebeslied)
A317	217	39	1288	Mephisto-Polka	1882–3
Published : Berlin: Fürstner, 1883†
Collected editions : LSP v; MW ii/10; NLE i/14
Remarks : ded. L. Schmalhausen
A318	430	263	1304	Valse de concert	1882–3
Published : Budapest: Harmonia, 1883†
Collected editions : NLE ii/15
Remarks : transcr. of J. Végh’s Suite en forme de valse, pf 4 hands (Budapest, 1882)
A319				La lugubre gondola [Dritter Elegie]	1882–5
Remarks : 2nd version ded. Bassani; associated with premonition of Wagner’s death; orig. planned for chbr ens (see D19), begun Dec 1882, rev. Jan 1883 as 2nd version of A319a; unused 1882 material used later as A319a
A319a	200/1	81/1	1279	1st version, 6/8
Published : Leipzig: Fritzsch, 1886†; Siegel, 1886 (later issue)
Collected editions : Heyer, 1926 (facs.); LSP i; MW ii/9; NLE i/12
A319b	200/2	81/2	1280	2nd version, 2/4
Published : Leipzig: Fritzsch, 1886†
Collected editions : MW ii/9; NLE i/12
A320	201	82	1285	R.W.–Venezia	1883
Collected editions : LSP i; MW ii/9†; NLE i/12
A321	202	85	1282	Am Grabe Richard Wagners	1883
Collected editions : NLE i/12†; LSP ii
Remarks : composed on 22 May, the birth date of Wagner, who had died on 13 Feb 1883; see also B42, D20, E26, E38, L15, W8
A322	203	79	1286	Schlaflos, Frage und Antwort (Insomnie!, Question et réponse), nocturne	1883
Collected editions : LSP iii; MW ii/9†; NLE i/12
Remarks : after a poem by T. Raab
A323	497	175	1278	Symphonisches Zwischenspiel (Intermezzo) zu Calderons Schauspiel Über allen Zauber Liebe	1883
Published : Breslau: Hainauer, 1883†
Collected editions : [NLE ii/24]; RS iii/2
Remarks : Liszt attended a performance in Weimar, 24 April 1883, cond. E. Lassen
A324	251	104	1332	Abschied, russisches Volkslied	1885
Published : Leipzig: Fritzsch, 1885†
Collected editions : NLE ii/15
Remarks : ded. A. Siloti
A325	216	38	1287	Dritter Mephisto-Walzer	1883
Published : Berlin: Fürstner, 1883†
Collected editions : LSP i; MW ii/10; NLE i/14
Remarks : ded. M. Jaëll; LaMara mentions a version for pf 4 hands (copy in US-CAh); orch version apparently by A. Reisenauer
A326	230	52	1289	Bülow-Marsch	1883
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1884†
Collected editions : MW ii/10; NLE i/14
Remarks : ded. Meiningen Court Orchestra; orch version mentioned on MS title-page and in 1884 pubn, but orchestration probably by C. Goepfart; see also B59, C30
A327	482	147	1337	Tarantelle [C. Cui]	1885
Published : Paris: Durand, 1886†; Moscow: Muzgiz, 1952
Collected editions : [NLE ii/15]
Remarks : ded. M. Argenteau
A328	544	215	1296	Magyar király-dal (Ungarisches Königslied)	1883
Published : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1884†
Collected editions : NLE i/17
Remarks : based on N81; see also B60, L17
A329	554/2	239/2	1219	Der Asra	?1883
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1884†
Collected editions : [NLE ii/15]
Remarks : based on song by A. Rubinstein
A330	460	295	1291	Kavallerie- Geschwindmarsch	?1883
Published : Esslingen: Weissmann, 1883†
Collected editions : NLE ii/2
A331	671	395	1309	In domum Domini ibimus (Zum Haus des Herren ziehen wir), Präludium für Orgel oder Klavier	1884
Published : Berlin: in Göllerich (H1908)†
Collected editions : NLE i/17; UE vi
Remarks : arr. from J46; see also E40
A332	233a	56a	1266	Siegesmarsch-Marche triomphale	1884
Published : in Magyar zene, xiv (1973)†; New York: Mach, 1982
Collected editions : NLE i/14
A333				2 Czárdás
Remarks : see also W11
	225/1	45/1	1305	Czárdás	1884
Published : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1886†; Paris: Delanchy, 1885
Collected editions : LSP iii; NLE i/14
	225/2	45	1306	Czárdás obstiné	1884
Published : Berlin: Táborszky & Parsch, 1886†
A334				Trauervorspiel und Trauermarsch
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1888†
Collected editions : LSP i; MW ii/9; NLE i/12
Remarks : no.2 ded. A. Göllerich and based on material from M. Mosonyi’s music composed on the death of I. Széchényi; see also A335/3
	206/1	83	1319	1 Preludio funebre	1885
	206/2	84	1320	2 Marcia funebre	1885
A335	205	112/1–7	1321–7	Historische ungarische Bildnisse:
Remarks : the order of movts is that of the 1st edn and Grove5; orig. 5 pieces, titled Ungarische Oden, comprising nos.1, 2, 4–6; nos.3 and 7 added 8 June 1885; no.3 based on music by M. Mosonyi (see A334), no.5 on B. Egressy’s Szózat (used earlier in A261 and G34), no.6 on A279 and P5, no.7 on A249; see also B50, T36
				1 Stephan Széchényi	1885
Published : Budapest: in Új zenei szemle, vii (1956)†; EMB 1958 (nos.2–7), 1959 (no.1)
Collected editions : NLE i/10
				2 Franz Deák	1885
				3 Ladislaus Teleky	1885
				4 Josef Eötvös	1885
				5 Michael Vörösmarty	1885
				6 [Michael] Alexander Petőfi	1885
				7 Michael Mosonyi	1885
A336	207	87	1329	En rêve, nocturne	1885
Published : Vienna: Wetzler, 1888†
Collected editions : LSP i; MW ii/9; NLE i/12
Remarks : ded. A. Stradal
A337	696	661	1330	Vierter Mephisto Walzer	1885
Published : in Új zenei szemle, vii (1956)†; Eastwood, Southend-on-Sea: Basil Ramsey, 1978 (completed L. Howard)
Collected editions : LSP ii; NLE i/14
A338	216a	60c	1331	Bagatelle ohne Tonart (Bagatelle sans tonalité)	1885
Published : EMB, 1956†
Collected editions : NLE i/14
Remarks : earlier titles incl. Bluette fantasque and Vierter Mephisto Walzer (ohne Tonart); several iconographies reproduce H. von Mansfeldt’s forgery (1885) of the orig. MS, see Walker (H1983–96), iii, 445–6

piano four hands



LW	S	R	C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Composed

B1	615	298	98	Grande valse di bravura	1836
Published : Milan: Ricordi, c1837†; Vienna: Haslinger, 1838; Berlin: Schlesinger, 1842; Leipzig: Schuberth, 1844
Remarks : ded. P. Wolff; arr. of A32a
B2	616	299	170	Grand galop chromatique	1838
Published : Leipzig: Hofmeister, 1838; Milan: Ricordi, 1838†
Remarks : arr. of A43
B3	620	308	256	Hussitenlied	1840–41
Published : Prague: Hoffmann, 1841†
Remarks : arr. of A67
B4	634	347	292	Grand septuor de Beethoven (Septett von Beethoven), op.20	1840–42
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1842†
Remarks : arr. of A69
B5	628a		73	Marche [funèbre] et cavatine de Lucia di Lammermoor [Donizetti]	?1844
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1844†
Remarks : Raabe’s assertion that this version is not by Liszt is incorrect; arr. of A23
B6	584	340	431	Fest-Cantate für die Inaugurations-Feier des Beethoven-Denkmals in Bonn	1845
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1846†
Remarks : arr. of L1
B7	587	343	522	Marche héroïque	?1848
Published : Milstein’s date from 1872 edn cannot be verified
Remarks : based on M16 (‘Arbeiterchor’), arr. of A153
B8	624	314	612	Fantasie und Fuge über den Choral ‘Ad nos, ad salutarem undam’ [from Meyerbeer: Le prophète]	1850
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1852†
Remarks : see E1
B9	627	348	663	Sonnambula de Bellini, Grosse Concert-Fantasie	1852
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1876†
Remarks : arr. of A56
B10	628	349	675	Bénédiction et Serment, deux motifs de Benvenuto Cellini [Berlioz]	1852–3
Published : Leipzig: Meyer, 1854†
Remarks : arr. of A178
B11	631	353	673–4	Andante finale und Marsch aus der Oper König Alfred [Raff]	?1853
Published : Hamburg: Schuberth, 1871†
Remarks : arr. of A183
B12	591	317	754	Les Préludes	1853–8
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1859†
Remarks : arr. of G3
B13	595	321	699	Festklänge	1854–61
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1861†
Remarks : arr. of G10
B14	618a	[435]	709	Vom Fels zum Meer (Deutscher Siegesmarsch)	?1855
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1865†
Remarks : arr. of A184 dated ?1855 by C[hiappari]; Liszt’s arr. unpublished; the Schlesinger 1865 arr. is by Bülow
B15	599	325	838–9	Zwei Episoden aus Lenaus Faust	?1856–61
Published : Hamburg: Schuberth, 1862†
Remarks : ded. K. Tausig; arr. of G16
B16	588	344	724	Weimars Volkslied	1857
Published : Weimar: Kühn, 1857†
Remarks : see A191, E6, L10, M32, N53
B17	592	318	755	Orpheus	1858
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1859†
Remarks : arr. of G9
B18	593	319	756	Prometheus	?1858
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1862†
Remarks : arr. of G6; see also C14, L8
B19	606	302	757	Festmarsch zur Goethe-jubiläumsfeier (Goethe-Festmarsch)	?1858
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1859†, 1870 (rev. edn)
Remarks : arr. of G5
B20	590	316	753	Tasso: lamento e trionfo	1858
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1859†
Remarks : arr. of G2, see also C10
B21	607	303	739	Festmarsch nach Motiven von E.H. z. S.C.-G.	1858–9
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1860†
Remarks : arr. of G23, see also A196
B22	605	331	774	Künstlerfestzug zur Schillerfeier 1859	1859
Published : Weimar: Kühn, 1860†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1865 (later issue)
Remarks : arr. of G20, see also A201
B23/1–3				Trois odes funèbres
Remarks : see A202/1–3, G25/1–3
	601	327	791	1 Les morts	1860
Remarks : ded. In memory of Daniel Liszt

	602	328	914	2 La notte	1866
	603	329	921	3 Le triomphe funèbre du Tasse	1866–9

B24	585	341	836	Pastorale: Schnitterchor aus dem Entfesselten Prometheus	1861
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1861†
Remarks : arr. of L8
B25	445	278	661/2	Zwei Stücke aus Tannhäuser und Lohengrin: 1 Einzug der Gäste auf Wartburg, 2 Elsas Brautzug zum Münster [Wagner]	?1862
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1862†
Remarks : ded. H. von Bülow; arr. of A176
B26	633	346	897	A la Chapelle Sixtine (Miserere d’Allegri et Ave verum corpus de Mozart)	1862–65
Published : Leipzig: Peters, 1866†; Milan: Lucca, n.d.
Remarks : arr. of A217, see also G26, E15
B27	578	334	915–18	Vier Stücke aus der Legende von der Heiligen Elisabeth: 1 Orchester Einleitung, 2 Marsch der Kreuzritter, 3 Der Sturm, 4 Interludium	?1862–6
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1868†
Remarks : arr. from I4; see also A192, E25
B28	604	330	866	Salve Polonia
Remarks : arr. of G28, see also A225, A302, Q17
				1st version Salve Polonia! (Boże coś Polske!)	1863
Published : unpubd
				2nd version Salve Polonia, Interludium aus dem Oratorium Stanislaus	1884
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1884†
B29	625	336	898	Der Papsthymnus	1865
Published : Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1865†
				based on I7 no.8, see also A228, E19a, G31
B30	579	335	925–6	Zwei Orchestersätze aus dem Oratorium Christus: 1 Hirtenspiel an der Krippe, 2 Die heiligen drei Könige	?1866–73
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1873†, Kahnt, 1880
Remarks : arr. of I7 (nos.4–5)
B31	581	338	972–3	Aus der ungarischen Krönungsmesse: 1 Benedictus, 2 Offertorium	1869
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1871†
Remarks : arr. of I9 (nos.4–5), see also A238, D10, E23, F3, H14
B32	609	306	995	Ungarischer Marsch zur Krönungsfeier in Ofen-Pest am 8. Juni 1867	1870
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1871†
Remarks : arr. of G33, see also A248
B33	608	310	996	[Rákóczi March, sym. arr.] Rákóczi-Marsch	1870
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1871†
Remarks : based on rev. version of G29, see also C25
B34	586	342	999	Gaudeamus igitur, Humoreske	?1870
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1872†
Remarks : ded. K. Gille; arr. of L11, see also A246
B35	632	354	1000–3	Vier Märsche von Franz Schubert	?1872–9
Published : Berlin: Fürstner, ?1880†
Remarks : ded. W. and L. Thern; arr. of G24 from D818, 819, 968b; 1st perf., Budapest, 26 March 1872, by Liszt and M. Reitter Pázmándy
B36	612	333	1057	Elegie I	1874
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1875†
Remarks : ded. in memory of Mme. Marie Moukhanoff; arr. of D13; see also A266
B37	589	315	1061	Ce qu’on entend sur la montagne (Bergsymphonie)	1874
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1875†
Remarks : arr. of G1, see also C9, E12
B38	594	320	1058	Mazeppa	1874
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1875†
Remarks : arr. of G7, see also A8, A39, A172, C13
B39	596	322	1060	Hungaria	1874
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1875†
Remarks : arr. of G13; see also A65, B39, C16
B40	597	323	1059	Hamlet	1874
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1875†
Remarks : arr. of G22, C22
B41	621	309	1062–7	[6] Ungarische Rhapsodien	1874
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1875†
Remarks : ded.: 1 H. von Bülow, 2 J. Joachim, 3 A. Apponyi, 4 L. Teleki, 5 S. Reviczky, 6 H.W. Ernst; based on orch version (G21), by Liszt and F. Doppler, of A132 nos.14, 12, 6, 2, 5, 9 (in that order)
B42	580	337	1095	Excelsior! (Preludio zu den Glocken des Strassburger Münsters)	1874
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1876†
Remarks : ded. H.W. Longfellow; arr. of L15 no.2, see also E26
B43	613	307	1113–24	Weihnachtsbaum [nos.1–12] (2 versions)	1875–81
Published : Berlin: Fürstner, 1882; Milan and Lucca (simultaneous 1st edns, L’albero di natale)†; EMB, 1989
Remarks : entire set ded. Daniela von Bülow, no.11 ded. K. Ábrányi; based on A267, with different order of nos.; see also J42
B44	596c		1091	Die Ideale	1874–7
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1880†
Remarks : arr. Sgambati/Liszt of G15
B45	629	351	381	Tscherkessen-Marsch aus Russlan und Ludmilla [Glinka]	1875
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1875 (2nd edn)
Remarks : based on ‘March of Chernomor’; arr. of A103, 2nd version
B46	610	305	1099	Ungarischer Sturmmarsch (Seconde marche hongroise)	1875
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1876†
Remarks : arr. of G35, see also A112 2nd version
B47	634a	352a	1106	Adagio (Der welcher wandelt diese Strasse) [Mozart: Die Zauberflöte]	?1875–81
Published : EMB, 1992† (incl. text)
B48	634b	296	1109	Festpolonaise	1876
Published : Berlin: in Göllerich, (H 1908)†
B49	596a	[419]	1137	Héroïde funèbre	1877
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1878†
Remarks : arr. of G4, see also C15; Raabe’s suggestion that this arr. was by Bülow is incorrect
B50	614	313	1129	Dem Andenken Petőfis/Petőfi szellemének	1877
Published : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1877
Remarks : based on P5, see also A279, A335
B51	596b	[422]	1138	Hunnenschlacht	1877
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1878†
Remarks : arr. of G17, see also C21; Raabe’s suggestion that this transcr. was by Bülow is incorrect
B52	583	339	1188	Via Crucis	1878 –9
Published : EMB, 1987†
Remarks : arr. of J33, see also A287, E31
B53	582	350	1190	O Lamm Gottes, unschuldig (N. Decius)	1878 –9
Published : unpubd
Remarks : see A286a no.7 and A286b no.6
B54	600	326	1242	Zweiter Mephisto-Walzer	1878 –9
Published : Berlin: Fürstner, 1881†
Remarks : this version and A288 were composed at the same time and later formed the basis for the orchestral version (G37)
B55	598	324	1254	Von der Wiege bis zum Grabe	1881
Published : Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1883†
Remarks : ded. M. Zichy; arr. of G38, see also A310, S61
B56	617	301	1275	Csárdás macabre	1881–2
Remarks : ded. J. Végh; arr. ?Végh/Liszt of A313; Ramann’s pubn (Berlin: Barth, n.d.) cannot be verified
B57	622	311	1269	Ungarische Rhapsodie zu den Budapester Munkácsy-Feierlichkeiten [no.16, Allegro]	1882
Published : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1882†
Remarks : ded. M. Munkácsy; arr. from A132
B58	[216]	[38]	[1287]	Dritter Mephisto Walzer	1883
Published : unpubd
Remarks : arr. of A325; MS copy in US-CAh
B59	619	304	1290	Bülow-Marsch	1883
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1884†
Remarks : ded. Meiningen Hofkapelle, arr. of A326, see also C30
B60	626	345	1311	Magyar király-dal (Ungarisches Königslied)	1883
Published : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1884†
Remarks : see A328, L17, N81

two pianos

(4-hand and 8-hand)



LW	S	R	C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Composed

C1	257	355	63	Grosses Konzertstück über Mendelssohns Lieder ohne Worte	1834
Published : unpubd
Remarks : 1st perf. Paris, 9 April 1835, Liszt and Mme Herminie Vial
C2	654	377	143	Grandes variations de Concert (Hexaméron) sur un thème des Puritains [Bellini] [2 versions]	1840–70
Published : Hamburg: Schuberth, 1870† (2nd version)
Collected editions : RS iv/2
Remarks : ded. Princess Cristina Belgiojoso; 1st perf., Hamburg, 28 Oct 1840, by Liszt and ‘Puzzi’ [H. Cohen]; see also A41, H5
C3	655	378	301	Réminiscences de Norma [Bellini]	?1845–?74
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1874
Collected editions : RS iv/2
Remarks : arr. of A77
C4	657	376	645	9. Symphonie de Beethoven	1851
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1853†
Remarks : see A37
C5	653	375	644	Franz Schuberts Grosse Fantasie op.15 [d760]	after 1851
Published : Vienna: Spina, 1862†
Remarks : see H13
C6	649	371	659	Fantasie über Motive aus Beethovens Ruinen von Athen	1852
Published : Leipzig: Siegel, 1865†
Collected editions : RS iv/2
Remarks : see A177, H9
C7	641	363	678	Festklänge	1853
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1856†
Remarks : see B13, G10
C8	650	372	676	Piano Concerto no.1	?1853–6
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1857†
Remarks : see H4
C9	635	357	696	Ce qu’on entend sur la montagne (Bergsymphonie)	1854–6
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1857†
Remarks : arr. of G1, see also B37, E12
C10	636	358	692	Tasso	1854–6
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1857†
Remarks : arr. of G2, see also B20
C11	637	359	693	Les Préludes	?1855
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1856†
Remarks : arr. of G3, see also B12
C12	638	360	694	Orpheus	1855–6
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1856†
Remarks : arr. of G9, see also B17
C13	640	362	700	Mazeppa	1855
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1857†
Remarks : arr. of G7, see also A8, A39, A172/4, B38
C14	639	361	705	Prometheus	1855–6
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1856–7†
Remarks : arr. of G6; see also B18, L8
C15	642	364	695	Héroïde funèbre	1854–6
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1856–7†
Remarks : arr. of G4, see also B49
C16	643	365	691	Hungaria	1855–6
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1857†
Remarks : arr. of G13, see also A65, B39
C17	646	368	735	Die Ideale	1855–6
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1858†
Remarks : arr. of G15, see also B44
C18	258	356	715 a, b, c	Concerto pathétique	1856
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1866†, 1877 (2nd version)
Remarks : ded. I. von Bronsart; arr. of A167, see also H11
C19	647	369	716	Eine Faust-Symphonie [Goethe]	1856
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1862†, 1870 (new rev. edn)
Remarks : arr. of G12, see also A190
C20	648	370	719	Eine Symphonie zu Dantes Divina Commedia	1856–7
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1858–9†
Remarks : arr. of G14; see also E8, N44, T6
C21	645	367	727	Hunnenschlacht	1857–60
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1861†
Remarks : ded. W. Kaulbach; arr. of G17, see also B51
C22	644	366	766	Hamlet	1858–60
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1861†
Remarks : arr. of G22, see also B40
C23	651	373	775	Piano Concerto no.2	1859
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1863†
Remarks : arr. of H6
C24	652	374	790	Totentanz	?1859–65
Published : Leipzig: Siegel, ?1865†
Remarks : arr. of H8, see also A62
C25		439	997	[Rákóczi-Marsch, sym. arr.] Rákóczi-Marsch	1870
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1871†
Remarks : see B33; based on rev. version of G29
C26	656	379	307	Réminiscences de Don Juan [Mozart]	1876–7
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1877†
Collected editions : RS iv/2
Remarks : arr. of A80
C27	657a		1191	Beethoven: Piano Concerto no.3	1878–9
Published : Stuttgart: Cotta’sche Buchhandlung, 1879†
Remarks : transcr. with cadenzas by Liszt
C28	657a		1192	Beethoven: Piano Concerto no.4	1878–9
Published : Stuttgart: Cotta’sche Buchhandlung, 1879†
Remarks : transcr. with cadenzas by Liszt
C29	657a		1193	Beethoven: Piano Concerto no.5	1878–9
Published : Stuttgart: Cotta’sche Buchhandlung, 1879†
Remarks : transcr. with cadenzas by Liszt
C30	657b		1313	Bülow-Marsch	?1884
Published : unpubd
Remarks : see B59, A326; 2 pf, 8 hands

chamber music



LW	S	R	C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Composed

D1	208a		3–4	[2] Walzer (Walse), pf/vn, pf	1825
Published : Vienna: Artaria, 1825†; London: Mori & Ball, 1832
Collected editions : LSP xi
Remarks : see A2
D2	717		18	Trio, vn, vc, pf	1825
Collected editions : mentioned in letter of A. Liszt (14 July 1825) to Czerny; MS vn part Drouot Nov 1997; MS pf part Stargardt July 1998
D3	127	461	51	Duo (Sonata), vn, pf	1835
Published : New York: Southern Music, 1964†
Remarks : based on Chopin's Mazurka op.6 no.2
D4	128	462	69	Grand duo concertant sur la romance de ‘Le Marin’ (C.P. Lafont), vn, pf	1835
Published : Paris: Richault, 1852†; Mainz: Schott, 1852†
Remarks : 1st perf., Geneva, 29 Sept 1835
D5	472	138	102	Harold en Italie [Berlioz], pf, va; 2 versions	1836–early 1850s
Published : Leipzig: Leuckart† (1st edn); Paris: Brandus, 1879/80 (2nd edn)
Remarks : see A29
D6	379	470	1362	Le carnaval de Pesth (Rhapsodie hongroise, no.9), vn, vc, pf	1848
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1892†
Collected editions : LSP xi
Remarks : arr. of A132/9
D7	380	464	664	O du mein holder Abendstern [Wagner: Tannhäuser], vc, pf	1852
Published : Journal of the American Liszt Society, xxxv, 1994 (facs. and reconstruction by W. Wright)
Remarks : ded. B. Cossmann; arr. of A163; only the concert ending is by Liszt
D8	383	469	888	Die drei Zigeuner, vn, pf	1864
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1896
Remarks : ded. E. Reményi; based on N62 (1st version)
D9	377a	464a	891	La notte, vn, pf	1864–?6
Remarks : based on G25/2; see also A202/2, B23
D10	381	465	970–71	Aus der Ungarischen Krönungsmesse: 1 Benedictus, 2 Offertorium, vn, pf	1869
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, ?1870†
Remarks : arr. from I9; see also A238, B31, E23, F3, H14
D11			420, 424	Consolations nos.1 and 4, vc, pf/org; based on vc and pf transcr. of A111b by J. de Swert; a new transition section by Liszt for concert perfs. with K. Fitzenhagen and E. de Munck, 1870–71	1870
Collected editions : LSP x
D12	129	466	1029	Epithalam zu Eduard Reményi’s Vermählungsfeier, vn, pf	1872
Published : in Apolló, i (1872)†; Budapest: Táborszky, 1873
Remarks : composed for Reményi’s wedding to Gizella Fáy on 10 Feb 1872, but not perf. until 16 Feb, by Siposs and Reményi; see also A260, W7
D13a, b, c	130	471a	1055a	Elegie I, pf, hp, hmn	?1874
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1875†
Remarks : ded. in memory of Mme Marie Moukhanoff; see also A266, B36
		471b	1055b	vc, pf	1875
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1875†
Collected editions : LSP x
		471c	1055c	vn, pf; vn part arr. F. Plotényi	1876
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1876†
D14	131	472	1126	Elegie II, vn/vc, pf	1877–8
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1878†, ?1885† [full orch version by A. Hahn authorised by Liszt]
Collected editions : LSP x
Remarks : ded. L. Ramann; see also A277
D15	378	473	1225	Angelus! Prière aux anges gardiens, str qt	1880–82
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1883†, 1887† [str qnt version]
Collected editions : LSP x
Remarks : arr. of A283/1, see also E30; version for str qnt (cb arr. Walter Bache) also issued by Schott, 1887; 1st perf., qt: Weimar, before 29 April 1882; qnt: Prague, Umělecká Besedá, 22 Feb 1883
D16a, b, c	132			Romance oubliée, va/vn/vc, pf	1880
Published : Hanover: Simon, 1881†
Remarks : ded. H. Ritter; see also A299, W9

		467a	1222/1a
		467b	1222/1b
		467c	1222/1c
Collected editions : LSP x
D17	379b		1234	Puszta-Wehmut, vn, pf	1880
Published : unpubd
D18	723		1391	Tristia, Vallée d’Obermann, vn, vc, pf	?1880
Collected editions : LSP xi
Remarks : identified and reconstructed by W. Marggraf in 1986; based on A159/6; E. Lassen’s arr. substantially rev. by Liszt
D19	134	468	1281	Die Trauergondel (La lugubre gondola), vn/vc, pf	1882–5
Published : EMB, 1974†
Collected editions : LSP x
Remarks : begun Dec 1882 but only completed for piano (A319); final chamber version from 2nd version of A319
D20	135	474	1283	Am Grabe Richard Wagners, str qt, hp ad lib	1883
Collected editions : LSP x
Remarks : based on L15; see also A321, B42, E38, W8
D21	382	463	1299	Die Zelle in Nonnenwerth (Elegie; Nonnenwerth IV) vn/vc, pf	?1883
Published : Cologne: Tonger, 1883†
Collected editions : LSP x
Remarks : based on N6 (s274/2); authenticity doubtful according to Searle, but 1st perf. Budapest, 16 March 1885; see also A81a–d
See also Q18, S61

organ, harmonium, pedal piano

for organ unless otherwise stated



LW	S	R	C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Composed

E1	259	380	611	Fantasie und Fuge über den Choral ‘Ad nos, ad salutarem undam’ [from Meyerbeer: Le prophète], org/pedal pf	1850
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1852†
Collected editions : EMB i; UE i
Remarks : ded. G. Meyerbeer; see also B8 4th ‘Illustration du prophète’
E2	675	406	665	Kirchliche Fest-Ouvertüre über den Choral ‘Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott’ [Nicolai], org/pedal pf	1852
Published : Leipzig: Hofmeister, 1852†
Collected editions : EMB iv; UE vii
E3	260	381	712a, b	Praeludium und Fuge über den Namen B–A–C–H	1855–70
Collected editions : EMB ii; UE ii
Remarks : ded. A. Winterberger; see also A250
				1st version	1855–6
Published : Rotterdam: Vletter, 1856–62†
				2nd version	1869–70
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, c1872–3
E4	[20/2]	[496b]	486	Ave Maria [I]	?1856–9
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1860†
Collected editions : EMB ii; UE iv
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein; arr. of J1 (2nd version)
E5	660 [12]	402 [12]	804	Aus tiefer Noth schrei ich zu dir [Bach, bwv38], org/hmn/pedal pf	?1856–60
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1869†
Collected editions : EMB iv; UE vii
Remarks : J.G. Töpfer; pubd with E9
E6	672	398	899a, b	Weimar’s Volkslied
Remarks : see A191, B16, L10, M32, N53
				1st version	?1857–?63
Collected editions : UE iii†
				2nd version, org/hmn	?1872–73
Published : Weimar: Kühn, 1873†
Collected editions : EMB iv; UE iii
E7	268/2	390/2	792	Les morts, oraison (Die Todten, Oration)	1860
Published : Leipzig: Siegel, 1890†
Collected editions : EMB iii; UE iii
Remarks : ded. C. von Bülow; arr. of G25/1; see also A202/1
E8	[109]	[426]	801	Einleitung, Fuge und Magnificat aus der Symphonie zu Dantes Divina commedia, org/hmn/pedal pf	1860
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1869†
Collected editions : EMB ii; UE vi
Remarks : ? Gottschalg-Liszt, ded. R. Wagner; arr. from G14
E9	660[/1]	402[/2]	803	Einleitung und Fuge aus der Kantate ‘Ich hatte viel Bekümmernis’ [Bach, bwv 21], org/hmn/pedal pf	1860–66
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1869†
Collected editions : EMB iv; UE vii
Remarks : ded. J.G. Töpfer; pubd with E5
E10	[676]	407/1–2	805a, b	Chor der jüngeren Pilger (Der Gnade Heil) [Wagner: Tannhäuser], org/hmn/pedal pf
Remarks : 1st version ded. F. Müller: see also A210
				1st version	1860
Published : Dresden: Meser, 1863†
Collected editions : EMB iv; UE vii
				2nd version	1862
Collected editions : EMB iv; UE vii
E11	[98]	[415]	802	Orpheus, sym. poem, org/hmn/pedal pf	1860–72
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1873†
Collected editions : EMB iii; UE iv
Remarks : see also C12, G9, W6
E12	[261a]	[412]	837	Andante religioso, org/hmn/pedal pf	?1861–2
Published : Leipzig: Klinkhardt, 1862†, Schuberth 1869 (2nd edn)
Collected editions : EMB i; UE iv
Remarks : ded. J. Schneider (1st edn), K. Gille (2nd edn); arr. Gottschalg/Liszt based on G1; see also B37, C9
E13	661	403	854	Adagio von Bach [from vn sonata bwv1017], org/hmn/pedal pf; arr. Gottschalg/Liszt	1861–3
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1869†
Collected editions : EMB iv; UE vii
E14	659	401	849	Ave Maria von Arcadelt, org/hmn	1862–3
Published : Erfurt: Körner, 1865†
Collected editions : EMB i; UE iii
Remarks : ded. A.W. Gottschalg; see also A216
E15	658	400	845	Evocation à la Chapelle Sixtine (Miserere d’Allegri et Ave verum corpus de Mozart), org/hmn/pedal pf	1862–5
Published : Erfurt: Körner, 1865†
Collected editions : EMB ii; UE ii
Remarks : ded. A.W. Gottschalg; see also A217, B26, G26
E16	662	404	852–3	Fr. Chopins Präludien [op.28 nos.4 and 9]	?1862–3
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1869†
Collected editions : EMB iv; UE vii
E17	673	382	867	Variationen über den Basso continuo des ersten Satzes der Kantate ‘Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen …’ und des Crucifixus der H-moll-Messe von J.S. Bach	?1862–3
Published : Leipzig: Körner, 1865†
Collected editions : EMB iv; UE ii
Remarks : ded. A.W. Gottschalg; composed after the death of Liszt's daughter, Blandine, on 9 Sept 1862; see also A198, A214
E18	668	397	870	Slavimo slavno, Slaveni! (Andante maestoso)	1863
Published : Vienna: in Jb des Sängerbund Dreizehnlinden (1910–11)†
Collected editions : EMB i; UE iii
Remarks : arr. of J16
E19				Der Papst-Hymnus [Pio IX] (Tu es Petrus; Hymne du Pape)
Remarks : (a) reworked for chorus and orch I7 no.8; (b) 1st version based on I7 no.8, simplified for 2nd version (unpubd) and ded. Don Zeffirino Falcione; see also A228, B30
E19a	261	391	871	hmn/org	1863–5
Published : Erfurt: Körner, 1865†
Collected editions : EMB iii; UE iii
E19b	664	[391]	931	1st version, org/hmn/pedal pf	1867
Published : Paris: Repos, 1867†
				2nd version, org	1867

E20	262	383	887	Ora pro nobis, litanei, hmn/org	1864
Published : Erfurt: Körner, 1865†
Collected editions : EMB iii; UE iii
Remarks : ded. Cardinal Prince Gustav Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst; after motifs brought from Palestine by Princess Catharina Hohenzollern
E21	663	405	900	Regina coeli laetare [Lassus], org/hmn/pedal pf	?1865
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1869†
Collected editions : EMB iv; UE vii
E22				[4] Consolations, org/hmn/pedal pf	1866–79
Remarks : based on A111b nos.3–6 (no.1 orig. D), 2–3 arr. Gottschalg-Liszt; see also D11
		[12/3]		1 [3], A	?1879
	759		613	2 [4], Adagio, D	c1866–7
Published : Weimar: Kühn, 1867†
Collected editions : EMB ii; UE iv
		[12/5]	614	3 [5], E	c1872–3
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1873†
Collected editions : EMB ii; UE iv
		[12/6]	615	4 [6], Tröstung, E	?c1879
Published : Langensalza: Beyer, 1884†
Collected editions : UE iv
E23	667	411b	948	Offertorium aus der ungarischen Krönungsmesse, org/hmn/pedal pf	?1868
Published : Hamburg: Schuberth, 1873†
Collected editions : EMB iii; UE iv
Remarks : arr. from I9, see also A238, B31, D10, F3, H14
E24	[504/1]	[193a]	976	Ave Maria [II], D, hmn	1869
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1871
Collected editions : EMB i; UE vi
Remarks : arr. of J24, see also A247a, K4
E25	[2]	[477]	847	Einleitung zur Legende der Heiligen Elisabeth, org/hmn/pedal pf	1872
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1873†, Schuberth, 1873
Collected editions : EMB ii; UE iv
Remarks : arr. Müllerhartung/Liszt from I4, see also A192, B27
E26	666	393	1096	Preludio (zu den Glocken des Strassburger Münsters: ‘Excelsior!’), org, vv ad lib	1874–5
Collected editions : EMB ii; UE vi
Remarks : arr. of L15/1; see also B42
E27	669	394	1139–40	Zwei Kirchenhymnen, org/hmn:
Remarks : ded. Cardinal Prince Gustav von Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst; no.2 (1st version) based on J19
				1 Salve Regina, nach dem gregorianischen Kirchengesang	1877
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1880†
Collected editions : EMB iii; UE vi
				2 Ave maris stella
Collected editions : NLE i/16†
				1st version, hmn, 4/4	1871–7
				2nd version, org, hmn, 6/4 [2/3]	1877
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1880†
Collected editions : EMB i, UE vi
E28	263/187a	388	1131	Resignazione (Ergebung), kbd	1877–81
Published : Berlin: facs. in A. Göllerich (H1908)
Collected editions : EMB iii; NLE i/12; UE vi
Remarks : for kbd, but inst not specified; pubd as pf work in NLE
E29	[437]	[270]	1134	Agnus Dei de la Messe de Requiem [Verdi], org/hmn/pf	1877–8
Published : Milan: Ricordi, 1879†, 1883 (rev.)
Collected editions : EMB iv; UE vii
Remarks : 1883 edn with added version for armonipiano; see also A284
E30	378/1	389	1136/1	Angelus! Prière aux anges gardiens, hmn	1877–82
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1883†
Collected editions : EMB i; UE vi
Remarks : ded. D. von Bülow; arr. of A283/1, see also D15
E31	674a	534	1189	Via crucis	1878–9
Published : EMB, 1986†
Collected editions : EMB iii (partial edn); UE v
Remarks : part pubd EMB iii entitled ‘Kreuzandachten’ after Göllerich; arr. of J33, see also A287, B52
E32	265	386	1203/1	Gebet (Preghiera), org/hmn	1879
Remarks : ded. A.W. Gottschalg; transposed 2nd version added to E33
				1st version, Andante
Published : Langensalza: Beyer, 1884
Collected editions : EMB iii; UE vi
				2nd version, Andante pietoso
E33	264	384	1202	Missa pro organo lectarum celebrationi missarum adjumento inserviens	1879
Published : Rome: Manganelli, 1879†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1880
Collected editions : EMB iii; UE v
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein; based on J5 (2nd version), see also E32 and E24
E34	670	396	1206	Rosario: 1 Mysteria gaudiosa, 2 Mysteria dolorosa, 3 Mysteria gloriosa, org/hmn	1879
Collected editions : EMB iii†; UE v
Remarks : arr. of J37 (without no.4)
E35	665	392	1220	San Francesco (Preludio per Il cantico del Sol di San Francesco)	1880
Collected editions : EMB iii†; UE vi
Remarks : from I8; see also A301, A307; theme based on ‘In dulci jubilo’
E36	[58]	[515]	1261/1	O sacrum convivium, org/hmn	c1880–85
Collected editions : UE vi†
Remarks : see J40
E37	674	399	1252	A magyarok Istene (Ungarns Gott), org/hmn	1881
Published : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1881†
Collected editions : EMB iii; UE vi
Remarks : see also A309, L16, M37
E38	267	387	1284	Am Grabe Richard Wagners, org/hmn	1883
Collected editions : EMB i†; UE vi
Remarks : see A321, B42, D20, L15, W8
E39	266	385	943	Requiem für die Orgel	1883
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1885†
Collected editions : EMB iii; UE v
Remarks : perf. at C. Sayn-Wittgenstein’s requiem mass, Rome, 17 June 1887; arr. of J22
E40	671	395	1309	In domum domini ibimus (Zum Haus des Herren ziehen wir), Kirchliches Präludium (À l’église)	1884
Published : Berlin: in Göllerich (H1908), appx
Collected editions : EMB iii
Remarks : see also A331, J46
E41	268/1	390/1	1312	Introitus	1884
Published : Leipzig: Körner, 1887†
Collected editions : EMB ii; UE vi
E42			1343	Ave verum corpus [Mozart, k618], org/hmn;	1866
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, n.d. (after 1886)†
Collected editions : EMB iv; UE vii
Remarks : not the same as E15
See also: A267/1–4, A286, A294, A300, A308, J43, J44

organ with other instruments



LW	S	R	C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Composed

F1	679	410	828	Aria ‘Cujus animam’ aus dem Stabat Mater von Rossini, org, trbn	c1860–70
Collected editions : UE viii
Remarks : ded. C.E. Grosse; not rel. to A141/1; see K5
F2	677	409	848/1,2	Hosannah (Alleluja del Cantico del Sol), org, trbn ad lib	1862–3
Published : Weimar: Kühn, 1867†
Collected editions : EMB ii, UE viii
Remarks : I8, 1st version
F3	678	411a	1006–7	Aus der Ungarischen Krönungsmesse, vn, org/hmn: 1 Offertorium, 2 Benedictus	1871
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1871†; 1873
Collected editions : UE viii
Remarks : arr. from I9; the order here reflects the liturgical sequence, as in the 1st edn; see also A238, B31, D10, E23, H14

orchestral



LW	S	R	C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Composed

G1	95	412	508a, b, c, d	Ce qu’on entend sur la montagne (Bergsymphonie), méditation symphonie after Hugo; 4 versions	1847–56
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1857†
Collected editions : MW i/1
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein; see also B37, C9, E12
G2	96	413	575/a, b, c, d	Tasso: lamento e trionfo, sym. poem; after Goethe and Byron; 4 versions	1847–54
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1856†
Collected editions : MW i/1
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein; orig. for the centenary of Goethe's birth, as Ouvertüre de Tasso von Goethe, and 1st perf. Weimar, 28 Aug 1849, cond. Liszt; later expanded into sym. poem; see also B20, C10
G3	97	414	551a, b	Les Préludes, sym. poem ‘after A. de Lamartine’	1849–55
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1856†
Collected editions : MW i/2
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein; orig. Ouvertüre des Quatre élémens, rev. 1850–52 as independent orch work, with final title and association with Lamartine from mid-1853; 1st perf. Weimar, 23 Feb 1854, cond. Liszt; see also B12, C11, L2, N44
G4	102	419	576a, b	Héroïde funèbre, sym. poem; 2 versions	1849–50, rev. 1854–6
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1857†
Collected editions : MW i/4
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein; see also B49, C15, 1st movement of Q1 until 1853
G5	115	433	561a, b	Festmarsch zur GoetheJubiläumsfeier; 2 versions	1849–57
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1859†
Collected editions : MW i/11
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn Wittgenstein; based on A164; see also B19
G6	99	416	622	Prometheus, sym. poem; 2 versions	1850–55
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1856†
Collected editions : MW i/3
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein; orig. Ouvertüre to L8, perf. Weimar, 24 Aug 1850, cond. Liszt; rev. as sym. poem, perf. Brunswick, 18 Oct 1855, cond. Liszt; see also B18, C14
G7	100	417	647a, b	Mazeppa, sym. poem after V. Hugo	1851–4
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1856†
Collected editions : MW i/3
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein; based on material used in A175/4; sketch, 1845, 1st perf., Weimar, 16 April 1854, cond. Liszt; see also A8, A39, A172, B38, C13
G8	357	434	679a, b	Huldigungsmarsch; 2 versions	1853–7
Published : Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1858†, 1863 (2nd edn)
Collected editions : MW i/11
Remarks : ded. Grand Duke Carl Alexander; arr. of A182, 1st version orch. Raff
G9	98	415	682	Orpheus, sym. poem	1853–4
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1856†
Collected editions : MW i/2
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein; 1st perf. Weimar, 1854: 16 Feb as introduction to Gluck's opera, 10 Nov, as sym. poem; see also B17, C12, E11, W6
G10	101	418	677	Festklänge, sym. poem; 2 versions	1853–61
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1856†, 1861 (rev.)
Collected editions : MW i/4
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein; 1st perf. with Schiller's play Huldigung der Künste (music by C. Stör), Weimar, 9 Nov 1854, cond. Liszt; see also B13, C7
G11	358	435	685	Vom Fels zum Meer! Deutscher Siegesmarsch	?1853
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger: ?1860†
Collected editions : MW i/12
Remarks : ded. King Wilhelm I of Prussia; arr. of A184, see also B14
G12	108	425	697a, b	Eine Faust-Symphonie in drei Charakterbildern, after J.W. von Goethe; 2 versions, 1st for orch, 2nd for T, male vv, orch	1854–7, 1861
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1861†
Collected editions : MW i/8–9
Remarks : ded. Berlioz; drafted from late 1830s, Chorus mysticus added 1857, rev. up to 1861; 1st perf., Weimar, 5 Sept 1857, cond. Liszt; see also A190, C19
G13	103	420	690	Hungaria, sym. poem	1854
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1857†
Collected editions : MW i/5
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein; 1st perf. Pest, 8 Sept 1856, cond. Liszt; see also A65, B39, C16
G14	109	426	507	Eine Symphonie zu Dantes Divina Commedia	1855–6
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1859†
Collected editions : MW i/7
Remarks : ded. R. Wagner; planned 1839, themes 1847–8, elaborated 186855–6; see also C20, E8, N44, T6
G15	106	423	734	Die Ideale, sym. poem after Schiller	1856–7
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1858†
Collected editions : MW i/6
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein; 1st perf., Weimar, 5 Sept 1857, cond. Liszt; see also B44, C17
G16	110	427	782–3	Zwei Episoden aus Lenaus Faust: 1 Der nächtliche Zug, 2 Der Tanz in der Dorfschenke (Erster Mephisto Walzer)	1857–61
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1866†
Collected editions : MW i/10
Remarks : ded. K. Tausig; no.1 uses the Pange lingua gloriosa for the feast of Corpus Christi; orch. version of no.2 based on A189; see also B15
G17	105	422	726	Hunnenschlacht, sym. poem after paintings by W. von Kaulbach	1857
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1861†
Collected editions : MW i/6
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein; uses melody Crux fidelis (on Pange lingua); projected 1855; 1st perf. Weimar, 29 Dec 1857, cond. Liszt; see also B51, C21
G18	356	431	732	Festvorspiel	1857
Published : Stuttgart: Hallberger, 1858†
Collected editions : MW i/11
Remarks : arr. of A188; 1st perf. Weimar, 4 Sept 1857
G19				Weimar’s Volkslied, Sym. orch, C	1857
Remarks : See A191, B16, E6, L10, M32, N53
G20	114	432	733	Künstlerfestzug zur Schillerfeier, 1859	1857
Published : Leipzig: Kühn, 1860†
Collected editions : MW i/11
Remarks : Based on themes from L9, G15; see also A201, B22
G21	359	441	742–7	[6] Ungarische Rhapsodien	1857–60
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1874–5†
Collected editions : orch version by Liszt and F. Doppler of A132 nos.14, 12, 6, 2, 5, 9 (in that order); see also B41
G22	104	421	765	Hamlet, sym. poem	1858
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1861†
Collected editions : MW i/5
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein; composed for a private perf. of Shakespeare's play in Weimar, 25 June 1858, cond. Liszt, then much rev; perf. Sondershausen, 2 July 1876, cond. M. Erdmannsdörfer; see also B40, C22
G23	116	436	737	Festmarsch nach Motiven von E.H. z. S.-C.-G.	1858–9
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1860†
Remarks : based on themes from Duke Ernst of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha's opera Diana von Solange, 1858; see also A196, B21
G24	363	449	784–7	Franz Schuberts Märsche: 1 Vivace, b, 2 Trauermarsch, e, 3 Reitermarsch, D, 4 Ungarischer Marsch, d	1859–60, rev. 1870
Published : Berlin: Fürstner, 1870–71†
Remarks : based on Schubert's d818, 819, 968b; see also B35
G25	112	429		Trois odes funèbres:
Remarks : no.1 ded. C. von Bülow, no.3 ded. L. Damrosch; no.1 see also A202, B23, E7, no.2 B23, D9, no.3 used as epilogue to G3; see also A202, B23, S57
			793a, b	1 Les morts (Lamennais), male vv ad lib	1860
Collected editions : MW i/12†
			889	2 La Notte, c, after Michelangelo	1860–4
Published : MW i/12†
			919	3 Le triomphe funèbre du Tasse	1866
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1877†
Collected editions : MW i/2
G26	360	445	846	A la Chapelle Sixtine (Miserere d’Allegri et Ave verum corpus de Mozart)	1862
Published : EMB, 1993†
Remarks : see A217, B26, E15
G27	354	440	858–9	Deux légendes: 1 St François de Paule marchant sur les flots, 2 St François d’Assise: la prédication aux oiseaux	1863
Published : EMB, 1984†
Remarks : see A219 (where order of pieces is reversed); contrary to Schnapp's assertion, the piano version preceded the orchestral; see also J13
G28	113	430	864	Salve Polonia 1st version (Boze coś Polskę) 2nd version (Interludium aus dem Oratorium St Stanislaus)	1863–84
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1884/5† (2nd version)
Remarks : based on Pol. song ‘Boze coś Polskę’, text by A. Felinski, and the Dą browski Mazurek (since 1927 the Pol. national anthem); see also A225, A302, Q1, Q17
G29	117	439	904	Rákóczi-Marsch, Symphonisch bearbeitet	1863–7
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1871†
Remarks : see A228, B33, C25; A60b and A132 are different arr. of same melody
G30	355	442	881	Vexilla regis prodeunt (Kreuzeshymne)	1864
Published : unpubd
Remarks : transcr. of hymn with text by V. Fortunatus; see also A226; J33 different arr. of same melody
G31	361	443	885	Der Papsthymnus	1864
Published : unpubd
Remarks : see also A228, B30, E19, I7 no.8
G32	351	446	903	Mazurka-Fantasie von Hans von Bülow	1865
Published : Leipzig: Leuckart, 1868†
Remarks : based on Bülow's op.13
G33	118	438	987	Ungarischer Marsch zur Krönungsfeier in Ofen-Pest am 8. Juni 1867	1870
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1871†
Collected editions : MW i/12
Remarks : see A248, B32
G34	353	448	1032–3	Szózat und Hymnus (Zwei vaterländische Dichtungen von Vörösmarty and Kölcsey) [B. Egressy and F. Erkel]	1872
Published : Budapest: Rózsavölgyi, 1873†
Remarks : ded. Count Gyula Andrássy; 1st perf. Budapest, 19 March 1873, cond. Liszt; see also A261, A335/5
G35	119	437	1100	Ungarischer Sturmmarsch	1875
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1876†
Collected editions : MW i/12
Remarks : ded. Count S. Teleky; see also A112, B46
G36	352	447	1142	Peter Cornelius: Zweite Ouvertüre zum Barbier von Bagdad	1877–80
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1905†
G37	111	428	1231	Zweiter Mephisto-Walzer	1880–81
Published : Berlin: Fürstner, 1881†
Collected editions : MW i/10
Remarks : ded. Saint-Saëns; based on A288 and B54; contrary to previous assertions, the pf versions preceded the orch version; 1st perf., Budapest, 9 May 1881, cond. S. Erkel
G38	107	424	1255	Von der Wiege bis zum Grabe Du berceau jusqu’a la tombe, sym. poem: 1 Die Wiege, 2 Der Kampf um’s Dasein, 3 Zum Grabe, die Wiege des zukünftigen Lebens)	1881–2
Published : Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1883†
Collected editions : MW i/10
Remarks : ded. Count M. Zichy; possibly after an engraving by Zichy, Du berceau jusqu'au cercueil, pubd 21 April 1881 in Fővárosi Lapok; see also A303, A310, B55, S61
G39	364	450	1259–60	Danses galiciennes von J. Zarembski [Zarębski]	1881–2
Published : Berlin: Simrock, 1882†
Remarks : Liszt inserted a mazurka by Zarębski between two Danses galiciennes; see also H14, L17e
G40	[534]	[214]	1277	A magyarok Istene (Ungarns Gott), orch	1881
Published : unpubd
Remarks : Schnapp 82; see also A309, E37, L16, M37

solo instrument and orchestra

for piano and full orchestra unless otherwise stated



LW	S	R	C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Composed

H1	145	452	58	Malédiction, pf, str orch	1833–40
Collected editions : MW i/13
Remarks : a version for sextet (pf, str), also exists
H2	120	453	64	Grande fantaisie symphonique über Themen aus Berlioz' ‘Lelio’	1834
Published : Leipzig: Peters, 1981†
Collected editions : based on Chant du pêcheur and Chant des brigands
H3	691	668	65	De profundis (Psaume instrumental)	1834
Published : Eschweiler: Ács, 1989† (2 pf); Chicago: Rosenblatt, 1990†; Toronto: Maxwell, 1990†
Remarks : ded. Abbé Lamennais; mentioned in letter to Anna Liszt from Geneva, 28 Aug 1835; H8 (early version) uses some of the thematic material
H4	124	455	52	Piano Concerto no.1, E	1835–56
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1857†
Collected editions : MW i/13
Remarks : ded. H. Litolff; sketches for main theme exist from 1832; 1st perf. Weimar, 17 Feb 1855, with Liszt, cond. Berlioz; see also C8
H5	392	131	142/2	Grandes variations de concert (Hexaméron) sur un thème des Puritains [Bellini]	1837–9
Published : Paris: Troupenas, ?1839†
Remarks : see A41, C2
H6	125	456	247	Piano Concerto no.2, A	1839–61
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1863†
Collected editions : MW i/13
Remarks : ded. H. von Bronsart; 1st perf. Weimar, 7 Jan 1857, Bronsart, cond. Liszt; see also C23
H7			299/2	Grande paraphrase de concert ‘God Save the Queen’ et ‘Rule Britannia’	1841
Collected editions : MS at Stargardt, July 1998, item 908
H8	126	457	246/1,2	Totentanz (2 versions)	1847–?1862
Published : Leipzig: Siegel, 1865†
Collected editions : MW i/13
Remarks : ded. H. von Bülow; inspired (1839) by Orcagna's frescoes in the Campo Santo di Pisa and Holbein etchings; 1st perf. The Hague, 15 April 1865, with Bülow, cond. Verhulst; see also A62, C24
H9	122	454	550	Fantasie über Motive aus Beethovens Ruinen von Athen	1848–52
Published : Leipzig: Siegel, 1865†
Remarks : ded. N. Rubinstein; shares thematic material with A124; 1st perf. Pest, 1 June 1853, with Bülow, cond. F. Erkel; see also A177, C6
H10	367	460	563	Polonaise brillante von Weber [op.17]	1849
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1851†
Remarks : ded. A. Henselt; see also A175
H11	365		574	Concerto pathétique (2 versions)	1849/50–85
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1896†
Remarks : 1st version based on A167; orchd version Liszt/Raff, unpubd; 2nd version based on C18, orchd E. Reuss, rev. Liszt, pubd posthumously; 1st perf. Tivoli, Villa d’Este, between 10 and 15 Sept 1885, cond. Liszt
H12	123	458	667	Fantasie über ungarische Volksmelodien	1849–52
Published : Dresden: Heinze (Peters), 1864†
Remarks : ded. H. von Bülow; based on A132 no.14; 1st perf. Pest, 1 June 1853, with Bülow, cond. F. Erkel
H13	366	459	643	Franz Schuberts grosse Fantasie op.15 [d760]	1851
Published : Vienna: Spina, 1857†
Remarks : see C5
H14	362	444	1102	Benedictus aus der Ungarischen Krönungsmesse, vn, orch	1875–7
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1877†
Remarks : ded. A. Kömpel on MS; see also A238, B31, D10, F3, I9

sacred choral with orchestra



LW	S	R	C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Composed

I1	5	480	1073	Sainte Cécile (légende, D. Gay), Mez, mixed chorus ad lib, orch/pf/(with hmn, hp)	1845–74
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1876†
Remarks : ded. L. Haynald, Archbishop of Kalocsa; orig. version begun 1845 for Queen Maria da Gloria of Portugal
I2	9	484	706	Missa solennis zur Erweihung der Basilika in Gran, S, A, T, B, mixed chorus, orch	1855–8
Published : Vienna: Imperial Printing House, 1859†; Leipzig: Schuberth, 1871 (rev.)
Remarks : 1st perf. 31 Aug 1856, Esztergom
I3	13	489	707/1a, b	Der 13. Psalm (Herr, wie lange willst du meiner so gar vergessen)
Remarks : 2nd version ded. P. Cornelius; 1st version 1st perf. Berlin, 6 Dec 1855, 2nd version 1st perf. Karlsruhe, 22 Aug 1864; org part (c707/2) not a separate work, but added for perf. in Amsterdam, 25 April 1866
				1st version: S, Mez, T, Bar, mixed chorus, orch	1855–8
				2nd version: T, mixed chorus, orch	1859–63
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1864†, 1878 (rev. edn)
I4	2	477	748	Die Legende von der heiligen Elisabeth (orat, O. Roquette), S, A, 3 Bar, B, chorus, orch, org	1857–62
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, vs 1867†, fs 1869, 1882 (Fr. version); London: Novello, 1884 (Eng. version)
Remarks : ded. King Ludwig II of Bavaria; 1st perf. Pest, 15 Aug 1865; see also A192, B27, E25
I5	14	490	822	Der 18. Psalm (Coeli enarrant gloriam Dei; Die Himmel erzählen die Ehre Gottes)
Remarks : intended ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein
				1st version, male vv, (orch, org ad lib)/(ww, brass, perc ad lib)	1860
Published : Weimar: [autographiert Carl Götze], 1861†
				2nd version, male vv, (org)/(ww, brass, perc ad lib)	1870
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1871†
I6	48	503	1104	Der Herr bewahret die Seelen seiner Heiligen (Ps xcvi. 10–11), mixed chorus, 2 tpt, 3 trbn, tuba, org, timp	?1860s–1875
Published : Leipzig: Licht & Meyer, 1887†
Collected editions : MW v/6
Remarks : for memorial concert unveiling the Carl August monument, Weimar, 3 Sept 1875; see also A268
I7	3	478	710	Christus (orat, Bible and Catholic liturgy), S, A, T, Bar, B, mixed chorus, orch, org		1866–72	Leipzig: Schuberth, 1872†
Remarks : planned from 1853; nos.6–7 also separate works (J9, J14); 1st perf. Weimar, 29 May 1873; see also A222, A228, B30, E19, G31
				I Oratorium in Nativitate Domini (Weihnachts-Oratorium): 1 Rorate coeli (Einleitung), 2 Angelus Domini (Pastorale und Verkündigung des Engels), 3 Stabat Mater speciosa (Hymnus), 4 Hirtenspiel an der Krippe (Pastorale), 5 Et ecce stella (Die heiligen drei Könige Marsch)
				II Post Epiphaniam: 6 Beati pauperes spiritu (Die Seligkeiten), 7 Pater Noster (Gebet), 8 Tu es Petrus (Die Gründung der Kirche); 9 Et ecce motus magnus (Das Wunder), 10 Hosanna, benedictus qui venit (Der Einzug in Jerusalem)
				III Passio et resurrectio: 11 Tristis est anima mea, 12 Stabat Mater dolorosa (Jacopone da Todi), 13 O filii et filiae (Hymnus Paschalis), 14 Resurrexit!
I8	4	479	857a, b, c	Cantico del Sol di San Francesco	1862
Collected editions : UE ix†
Remarks : 2nd version ded. A. Senfft von Pilsach; 1st version 1st perf. Rome, Palazzo Altieri, 23 March 1863; see also A219, E14, F2; 2nd version 1st perf. Pressburg, 21 Dec 1884; see also A301, A307, E35, F2, S59
				1st version, Cantico di San Francesco, Bar, male vv, orch, org/ (Bar, male vv ad lib, pf, org/hmn)
	[4]	[479]	[857a, b, c]	2nd version, Cantico del Sol di San Francesco d’Assisi, Bar, male vv, orch, org	1879–82
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1884†
Collected editions : MW v/5
I9	11	487	924	Ungarische Krönungsmesse, S, A, T, B, mixed chorus, orch	1866–9
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1870† fs, vs 1871
Remarks : for coronation of Emperor Franz Joseph I and Empress Elisabeth as king and queen of Hungary, 1st perf. Buda, 8 June 1867, cond. W.G. Preyer; Ps cxvi (J6) added 1869; see also A238, B31, D10, E23, F3, H14, J6;
I10	7	481	120a, b	Cantantibus organis (Antiphona in festo Sta Caeciliae, A, mixed chorus, orch/A, mixed chorus hmn, pf, hp ad lib	1879
Published : Rome: Manganelli, 1880†; Leipzig, Kahnt, 1881
Collected editions : MW v/5
Remarks : for the inauguration of a Palestrina monument, Rome, May 1880; see also L10, Q17, S53, S54

sacred choral music

a cappella, or with ensemble or keyboard



LW	S	R	C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Composed

J1				Ave Maria (I)
Collected editions : MW v/6
Remarks : version 1 lost; composed 1843 according to Schnapp (A1942), no.39, possibly used in A61, A158/6; version 2 MS incl. inc. Ital. text; version 3 with complete Ital. text; version 4 pubd with text in Fr., Ger. (P. Cornelius) and Hung. (K. Ábrányi)
	20/1	496a	357a	1st version, B, mixed chorus 6vv, org ad lib	1842
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1846†
	20/2	496b	357b	2nd version, A, mixed chorus 4vv, org	1852
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1853†
				2nd version ded. Pater Stanislaus Albach; see also E4
J2	19	508	443	Hymne de l'enfant à son réveil (O père qu'adore mon père (A. de Lamartine)
Remarks : version 1 lost; composed 1843 according to Schnapp (A1942), no.39, possibly used in A61, A158/6; version 2 MS incl. inc. Ital. text; version 3 with complete Ital. text; version 4 pubd with text in Fr., Ger. (P. Cornelius) and Hung. (K. Ábrányi)
				1st version, female, vv, hmn/pf, hp ad lib	?c1844
				2nd version, 3 equal vv, pf/hmn	?1860–62
				3rd version, 3 equal vv, pf/hmn	1865
				4th version, female vv, hmn/pf, hp ad lib	1874
Published : Budapest: Táborsky & Parsch, 1875†
Collected editions : MW v/5
J3	21/1	518a	484a	Pater noster (I)
Remarks : MS title same as in A61/6
				1st version, male vv	1846
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1846†
	21/2	518b	484b	2nd version, TTBB, org	1852, rev.
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1853†
Collected editions : MW v/6
J4				Five choruses on French texts, 4 mixed vv (nos.1–4), 3 equal vv (no.5):
Published : probably for choral competition Nos patriae fines, mentioned in letter to Anna Liszt, March 1846; no.4 uses Auvergne folksong melody, see Schnapp (A1942), no.43; no.5 text inc., and not numbered; another chorus probably lost; see also S46
Collected editions : ?1846
Remarks : Budapest: EMB, 1989† (no.2 only)
	18/2	506/2	287	1 L'Eternel est son nom (J. Racine)
	18/3	506/3	288	2 Chantons, chantons l'auteur de la lumière (Racine)
	18/4	506/4	289	3 untexted, in A (Allegretto, moderato con grazia)
	18/5	506/5	290	4 Combien j'ai douce souvenance (Chateaubriand)
	18/1	506/1	286	[5] Qui m'a donné la naissance
J5				Missa quattuor vocum ad aequales, 4 male vv, org
Remarks : 1st version ded. Pater Albach; pubd 1848 according to Ramann, vol.ii/2, p.503, but unconfirmed
	8/1	485a	547a	1st version	1846–7
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1853†
	8/2	485b	547b	2nd version	1869
Published : Paris: Repos, 1869†; Leipzig: B&H, 1870 (new edn)
Collected editions : MW v/3
J6	15a	[487/3]	981	Psalm cxvi (Laudate Dominum), male vv, pf	1849–69
Published : Hamburg: Schuberth, 1869†
Remarks : see I9
J7	24	533a	680	Te Deum (I), male vv, org	1853
Collected editions : MW v/7†
J8	23	504	681	Domine salvum fac regem (Ps xx), T, male vv, org/orch	1853
Collected editions : MW v/5†
Remarks : orchd for ww by Raff
J9	25	529	708	Les béatitudes (Die Seligkeiten) (Matthew v, 3–10), Bar, mixed vv, org	1855–9
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1861†
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein: see also I7 no.6
J10	15/2	491b	779b, c	Der 23. Psalm (Mein Gott, der ist mein Hirt), (J.G. Herder, after Bible)
Remarks : 1st version 1st perf. 18 June 1860; pubd 1864 without chorus (K1); 3rd version lost, see S53
				1st version, T/S, male chorus, hp/pf, org/hmn	?1859–61
				2nd version, T/S, male vv ad lib, hp/pf	1859–62
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1864†
Collected editions : MW v/6
				3rd version, chorus, orch
J11	17	493	780	Der 137. Psalm (An den Wassern zu Babylon) S, female vv, vn, hp/pf, org/hmn	1859–62
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1864†, 1880s (rev.)
Collected editions : MW v/6
Remarks : see also K2; orch version lost, see S54
J12	27	533b	781	Te Deum (II), mixed vv, org, brass and perc ad lib	1859
Collected editions : MW v/7†
Remarks : for the wedding of Marie Sayn-Wittgenstein to Prince Constantine von Hohenlohe, Weimar, 15 Sept 1859
J13	28	494	823	An den heiligen Franziskus von Paula, Gebet (?M. von Sabinin), solo male vv, male chorus, hmn/org, 3 trbn and timp ad lib	c1860–1874
Published : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1875†
Collected editions : MW v/5
Remarks : see A219/2, G27/2
J14	29	519	824	Pater noster (II), A, 4 mixed vv, org	?1860
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1864†
Collected editions : MW v/6
Remarks : as Pater noster I in MW, Grove6 and Raabe; used in I7 (no.7)
J15a				Christus ist geboren (Weihnachtslied I) (T. Landmesser) (1st setting Mässig bewegt, 4/4)	1863
Published : Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1865†
	31/1	536a	872a	1st version, D, mixed vv, org
	31/2	536/1	872b	2nd version, E, male vv, org
J15b				Christus ist geboren (Weihnachtslied II) (T. Landmesser) (2nd setting Andante pietoso, 2/4)	1863
Published : Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1865†
Remarks : See A227
	32/1	536b	873a	1st version, F, mixed vv, org/hmn
	32/2	536/2	873b	2nd version, G, male chorus a cappella, org postlude ad lib
J15c	32/3	536d	873c	[Weihnachtslied II], 3rd setting (Andante pietoso, 2/4), G, SSA a cappella
J16	33	531	868	Slavimo slavno, slaveni! (O. Pozzo [U. Pucić]), male vv, org	1863–6
Collected editions : MW v/6†
Remarks : for the millennium celebration for St Cyril and St Methodius; 1st perf. Rome, S Girolamo deglia Schiavoni, 3 July 1863; see also A223, E18
J17	35	501	901a, b	Crux! (Hymne des marins avec Antienne approbative de N[otre]T[out][Saint]P[ère] Pie IX (Guichon de Grandpont), male vv, a cappella/(female/children/s vv, pf)	1865
Published : Brest: Imp. Anner., 1865†
Collected editions : MW v/6
J18	10	486	902	Missa choralis (Organo concinente), chorus, org	1859–65
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1869†
Collected editions : MW v/3
J19				Ave maris stella (V. Fortunatus)	1865/6–1868
Collected editions : MW v/6
Remarks : ded. J. Laussot; see also A243, E27, K3
	34/1	499a	906a	1st setting, G, male vv, org/hmn
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1870†, 1871, 1882
	34/2	499b	906b	2nd setting, B, male vv, org/hmn
Published : Paris: Repos, 1868†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1871, 1882
J20	30	526	825	Répons et Antiennes (Responsoriens und Antiphonen), male vv, org ad lib	1860
Collected editions : MW v/7†
J21	36	502	933	Dall'alma Roma, 2vv, org ad lib	1867–8
Collected editions : UE ix†
Remarks : see I7/8, E19
J22	12	488	934	Requiem (Messe des morts), 2 T, 2 B, male vv, org, brass ad lib	1867–8
Published : Paris: Repos, 1869†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1871, (rev., incl. J30)
Collected editions : MW v/3
Remarks : in memory of Liszt's mother and children Daniel and Blandine; see also E39
J23	37	513	949	Mihi autem adhaerere (Offertoire de la messe du patriarche séraphique San François) (from Ps lxxiii), male vv, org	1868
Published : Paris: Repos, 1869†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1871 (2nd edn), 1882
Collected editions : MW v/6
J24	38	497	974	Ave Maria (II), D, mixed vv, org	1869
Published : Regensburg: Pustet, 1870†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1871, 1882
Collected editions : MW v/6
Remarks : ded. J. Laussot and Cherubini Choral Society, Florence; see also A247a, E24, E32, E33, K4
J25	39	510a, b	978a, b	Inno a Maria Vergine, (mixed vv, hp, org)/(mixed vv, hp, pf 4 hands, hmn)	1869
Collected editions : MW v†
J26				Pater noster (III)
Remarks : 1st setting ded. J. Laussot and Cherubini Choral Society; no.1 in 9 Kirchenchorgesänge, also in 12 Kirchenchorgesänge; 2nd setting ded. J. Laussot
	41/1	521a	979a	1st setting, F, mixed vv, org/pf	1869
Published : Regensburg: Pustet, 1870†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1871, 1882
	41/2	521b	979b	2nd setting, B, male vv, org/hmn/pf	1869
Collected editions : MW v/6†
J27				Tantum ergo (T. Aquinas)	1869
Collected editions : MW v/6
Remarks : 1st setting ded. F. Witt in 1st edn; no.4 in 9 Kirchenchorgesänge; also in 12 Kirchenchorgesänge, ded. J. Laussot; 2nd setting ded. J. Laussot, no.4 bis in 9 Kirchenchorgesänge; also in 12 Kirchenchorgesänge
	42/1	532a	980b	1st setting, female vv, org
Published : Regensburg: Pustet, 1871†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1871 (2nd edn), 1882 (rev.); London: Curwen, 1896
	42/2	532b	980a	2nd setting, male vv, org
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1871†, 1882 (2nd edn)
J28	40	516a	984	O salutaris hostia (I), (T. Aquinas), B, female vv, org	1869
Published : Regensburg: Pustet, 1871†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1871 (2nd edn), 1882 (3rd edn); London: Curwen, 1896
Collected editions : MW v/6
Remarks : ded. F.X. Haberl, no.3 in 9 Kirchenchorgesänge; ded. J. Laussot; in 12 Kirchenchorgesänge
J29	43	516b	985	O salutaris hostia (II), E, mixed vv, org	1869–?1870
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1871†, 1882
Collected editions : MW v/6
Remarks : ded. J. Laussot; no.8 in 9 Kirchenchorgesänge; in 12 Kirchenchorgesänge
J30	45	511	991	Libera me, male vv, org	1871
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1871†, 1882 (2nd edn)
Remarks : ded. J. Laussot; used in J22
J31	44	500	1010	Ave verum corpus (T. Aquinas), mixed vv, org ad lib	1871
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1871†, 1882
Collected editions : MW v/6
Remarks : ded. J. Laussot
J32				Anima Christi, sanctifica me, male vv, org	1874
Remarks : ded. J. Laussot; no.10 in 12 Kirchenchorgesänge
	46/1	495a	1072a	1st version, 4/4 (Lento ma non troppo)
Collected editions : MW v/6†
	46/2	495b	1072b	2nd version, 3/4 (Andante, non troppo lento)
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1882†
Collected editions : MW v/6a, b
J33	53	534	1112	Via Crucis, les 14 stations de la croix (P. Gerhardt and J. Rist), solo vv, chorus, org/pf	1876–9
Collected editions : MW v/7†; EMB, in Musicotheca classica, ix, n.d.
Remarks : offered to Pustet, Regensburg, 1884, but refused; see also A287, B52, E31
				Einleitung: Vexilla Regis. O Crux, Ave!; Station 1. Jésus est condamné à Mort; Station 2. Jésus est chargé de la Croix; Station 3. Jésus tombe pour la première fois; Station 4. Jésus rencontre sa très sainte mère; Station 5. Simon la Cyrénéen aide Jésus à porter sa Croix; Station 6. Sancta Veronica (‘O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden’); Station 7. Jésus tombe pour la seconde fois; Station 8. Les femmes de Jérusalem (‘Nolite flere super me, sed super vos ipos et super filios vestros’); Station 9. Jésus tombe pour une troisième fois; Station 10. Jésus est dépouillé de ses vêtements; Station 11. Jésus est attaché à la Croix (‘Crucifige’); Station 12. ‘Eli, eli, lamma Sabacthani.’ (‘Consummatum est’; ‘O Traurigkeit, o Herzeleid’); Station 13. Jésus est deposé de la Croix; Station 14. Ave Crux, spes unica. Amen.
J34	51	507	1152	Meine Seel' erhebt den Herrn! (Gott sei uns gnädig und barmherzig; Der Kirchensegen) (Ps lxvii, 2–3, 8), mixed vv, org	1878
Published : unpubd
Remarks : ded. R. Pohl; orig. for keyboard, see A286
J35	52	530	1153	Septem sacramenta, responsories, Mez, Bar, mixed vv, org: 1 Baptisma, 2 Confirmatio, 3 Eucharistia, 4 Poenitentia, Extrema unctio, 6 Ordo, 7 Matrimonium	1878–84
Published : Rome: Manganelli, 1879; autographies nos.3 and 7 only
Collected editions : MW v/7†
Remarks : inspired by drawings by F. Overbeck, now in the Nationalgalerie, Berlin; 1st perf. Weimar, 10 July 1879; see also L. Ramann (E1983, p.136)
J36	546a		1199	O Roma nobilis	?1879
Collected editions : MW v/7†
Remarks : melody by G. Baini; see also A294
J37	56	527	1204–5	Rosario, nos.1–3 mixed vv, org/hmn, no.4 Bar/unison male vv, org/hmn: 1 Mysteria gaudiosa, 2 Mysteria dolorosa, 3 Mysteria gloriosa, 4 Pater noster	1879
Collected editions : MW v/7†; UE ix (no.4)
Remarks : offered to Pustet, Regensburg, in 1879, but declined; see also E34
J38	55	517	1209	Ossa arida, unison male vv, org 4 hands/pf 4 hands	1879
Collected editions : MW v/6†
J39				Pro Papa, mixed vv, org	1880
Published : Rome: Manganelli, 1881†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1882
Collected editions : MW v/6
Remarks : ded. Pope Leo XIII
	59	523/2	1229	1 Tu es Petrus
	59	523	1228	2 Dominus conservet eum
J40	58	515	1236	O sacrum convivium, A solo, female vv ad lib, org, hmn	1880–85
Collected editions : MW v/6†; UE ix
Remarks : see E36
J41	47	483	1258	Sankt Christoph, female vv, pf, hmn, hp ad lib	1881
Published : unpubd
J42	49	535	1111a	Weihnachtslied (O heilige Nacht), T, female vv, org/hmn	1881
Published : Berlin: Fürstner, 1882†
Collected editions : MW v/6
Remarks : ded. N. Helbig; based on A267/2
J43	61	408	1293	Nun danket alle Gott (M. Rinckart), male/mixed vv, brass, perc, org ad lib	1883
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1884†
Collected editions : MW v/7; UE vi
Remarks : ded. C. Hase; for the consecration of the organ in Riga
J44	60	498	1297	Sposalizio [Trauung] nach dem gleichnamigen Bilde Raphael's (Geistliche Vermählungsmusik; Ave Maria), (unison A vv)/(A solo, A chorus), org/pf 4 hands	?1883
Published : B&H, 1890†
Collected editions : MW v/6; UE ix
Remarks : based on A55/1; 1st edn also with Ger. text, Geist der Liebe, segne uns!
J45	16/2	492a	1232b	Der 129. Psalm (De profundis), B/A, pf/org	1883–6
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1886†
Remarks : orig. intended for inclusion in St Stanislaus (Q17)
J46	57	509	1308	In domum Domini ibimus (Zum Haus des Herren ziehen wir) (Ps cxxi), mixed vv, org, brass, perc	1884
Collected editions : MW v/5†
Remarks : 1st perf. Bayreuth, Catholic Church, 1892, by Göllerich on 6th anniversary of Liszt's death; see also A331, E40
J47	62	512	1315	Mariengarten (Quasi cedrus!; Jardin de Marie), (Ecclesiastes xxiv. 13–15, 12), A, T, solos ad lib, SSAT, org	c1884
Collected editions : MW v/6†
Remarks : sent to Pustet, Regensburg, in 1884 but declined
J48	63	525	1316	Qui seminant in lacrimis (Ps cxxv), mixed vv, org	1884
Collected editions : MW v/6†
J49	64	522	1339	Pax vobiscum!, 4 male vv, org	1885
Published : Zürich: Hug, 1885†; Leipzig: Licht & Meyer, ?1885; Weimar: Licht & Meyer, 1886
Collected editions : MW v/6
Remarks : ded. B. Hilpert and Strasbourg Male Choir
J50	65	524	1340	Qui Mariam absolvisti (T. da Celano), Bar, unison mixed vv, org/hmn	1885
Published : Leipzig: in Der Chorgesang, 1886†, Kistner, 1886
Collected editions : MW v/6†
J51	66	528	1341	Salve Regina, mixed vv	1885
Collected editions : MW v/6†
Remarks : 1st melody, Gaude Mater Polonia, occurs in sketches for St Stanislaus (Q17)
J52	22	520	616	Pater noster (IV), C, 4 mixed vv, org
Published : unpubd
Remarks : apparent composition date in MS, 1850, unverifiable

accompanied sacred solo vocal music



LW	S	R	C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Composed

K1	15/1	491a	779a	Der 23. Psalm (Mein Gott, der ist mein Hirt) (J.G. Herder, after Bible), T/S, hp/pf, org/hmn	1859–62
Published : Leipzig; Kahnt, 1864†, ? mid-1880s (rev.)
Remarks : Fr. edn also pubd Kahnt; see also J10, S53
K2	17	493	780	Der 137. Psalm (An den Wassern zu Babylon), A, vn, hp/pf, org/hmn	1859
Remarks : 1st perf. Weimar, 30 Oct 1859; orch version mentioned in letter to C. Sayn-Wittgenstein, 12 Jan 1872; see also J11, S54
K3	680	641	945	Ave maris stella, 1v, pf/hmn	?1868
Published : Paris: Repos, 1868†; Leipzig; Kahnt, 1872
Collected editions : MW vi/6†; UE ix
Remarks : see also A243, E27, J9
K4	681	639	977	Ave Maria, D, 1v, org/hmn	1869
Collected editions : MW v/6†; UE ix
Remarks : see also J24 and A247a, E24, E32, E33
K5	682	643a	1071	Cujus animam [Rossini: Stabat mater], T, org	?1874
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1874†
Collected editions : MW v/7; UE ix
Remarks : see also A141/1, F1
K6	16/1	492b	1232a	Der 129. Psalm (De profundis), Bar, male vv, org	1880–81
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1883†
Remarks : see also J45 and Q17
K7	343	643	1237	Sancta Caecilia (Fiat cor meum immaculatum ut non confundar), A, org/hmn	1880–85
Collected editions : MW vi/6†; UE ix
Remarks : music different from I1
K8	341	640	1246	Ave Maria, G, 1v, hmn/pf	1881
Published : Berlin: Plothow, 1906†
Remarks : a version with orch is by Goepfart; see also A308
K9	342	642	1317a, b, c	Le crucifix (V. Hugo), female vv (3 versions)	1879–84
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1884†
Collected editions : MW v/6; UE ix
Remarks : 1st and 2nd versions 1879, 3rd version 1881, rev. 1884
K10	683a		1366	Gebet (E. Geibel) [F. Korbay], 1v, org	?1883
Remarks : see also N80/2

secular choral music with orchestra



LW	S	R	C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Composed

L1	67	537	442	Festkantate zur Enthüllung des Beethoven-Denkmals in Bonn (Was versammelt hier die Menge) (O.L.B. Wolff), 2 S, 2 T, 2 B, orch	1845
Published : New York: Peters, 1989† (vs)
Remarks : 1st perf. Bonn, 13 Aug 1845; see also A126, B6
L2	80	547	415–18	Les quatre élémens (J. Autran): 1 La terre, 2 Les aquilons, 3 Les flots, 4 Les astres, male vv, orch	1844–8
Published : unpubd
Remarks : based on M20, orchd Conradi and Liszt; 1st perf. Marseilles, 1845; used in G3
L3	81	548	444	Le forgeron (Le fer est dur, frappons, frappons) (F. de Lamennais), T, B, male vv, orch	1845–8
Published : unpubd
Remarks : based on M21, orchd Conradi and Liszt; see also T7
L4	[79]	[549]	[332]	Titan (Auf des Athos blauen Felsenspitzen) (F. von Schober), Bar, male vv, orch	1848
Published : unpubd
Remarks : based on M14 (2nd version), orchd Conradi and Liszt
L5	83	553	548	Ungaria-Kantate (Aus Osten aus der Sonne Tor) (F. von Schober), S, T, B, male qt (soli), male choir, vv, orch/pf	1848
Collected editions : EMB, 1961†
Remarks : 1st planned 1842, see poem ‘In Musik gesetzt von Franz Liszt’, in Schober's Gedichte (Stuttgart, 1842); orchd Conradi and Liszt; 1st perf. Weimar, 21 May 1912, cond. P. Raabe
L6	708		1398	Rinaldo (cant., Goethe), T, male vv, orch/pf	1848
Published : unpubd
Remarks : based on music by unidentified composer; orchd Conradi and Liszt
L7	[85]	[555]	[568]	Chor der Engel aus Goethe's Faust (pt 2) (Rosen, ihr blendenden), mixed vv, hp/pf	1849
Published : unpubd
Remarks : orchd Conradi and Liszt; see also M29
L8	69	539		Chöre zu Herders entfesseltem Prometheus (R. Pohl)
Remarks : 1st version 1st perf. Weimar, 24 Aug 1850; see also A213, B24, G6
			621a	1st version; S, A, 2 T, 2 B, mixed vv, orch	1850
			621b, c	2nd version, S, A, 2 T, 2 B, double chorus, orch	1855–9
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1861† (fs), 1874 (vs), 1877 (rev. fs)
L9	70	540	683a, b, c	An die Künstler (F. Schiller)
Remarks : 1st version: wind arr. by Raff, 1st perf. Karlsruhe, 3 Oct 1853, cond. Liszt; 2nd version ded. R. Wagner; for full orch; 1st perf. Weimar, 24 Feb 1854, cond. Liszt; 3rd version 1st perf. Weimar, 5 Sept 1857, cond. Liszt, org part added after 1st perf.
				1st version, 2 T, 2 B, male vv, wind ens	1853
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1854†; Weimar: Kühn, 1854
				2nd version, 2 T, 2 B, male vv, orch	1853–4
Published : Weimar: Kühn, Autography, 1854†; Berlin: Schlesinger
				3rd version, 2 T, 2 B, male vv, orch	1856–7
Published : Weimar: Kühn, 1856†
L10				Weimar's Volkslied (Von der Wartburg) (P. Cornelius), 2 versions:
Remarks : 1st perf. Weimar, 3 Sept 1857, for the Carl-August-Feier; pubn incl. pf acc., see M32a; mixed vv MS incl. pf acc.; see also A191, B16, E6, G19, N53
	87/1	557a	720a	1st version E, male vv, wind orch, perc	1857, rev. ?before 1875
Published : Weimar: Kühn, 1857†
	[87]	[557]	[720]	2nd version, C, unison mixed vv, brass orch
Published : 1857
L11	71	541	982	Gaudeamus igitur, (Humoreske, Zur Feier des hundertjährigen Jubiläums der Akademischen Konzerte zu Jena 1870), solo vv ad lib, male/mixed chorus, orch	1869–70
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1871†
Remarks : ded. K. Gille; 1st perf. Jena, 1870, cond. K.E. Naumann; see also A246, B34
L12	68	538	986	Zur Säcularfeier Beethovens (II. Beethoven-Kantate) (A. Stern), S, A, T, B, mixed chorus, orch	1869–70
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1870†
Remarks : ded. Grand Duchess Sophie of Saxe-Weimar; addl verses by F. Gregorovius; 1st perf. 29 May 1870, for the Allgemeinen deutschen Musikverein
L13	376	652	1012	Die Allmacht von Franz Schubert (Gross ist Jehova, der Herr) (J.L. Pyrker), T, male vv, orch, org/hmn	1871
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1872†
Remarks : based on Schubert's song d852/2; 1st perf. Budapest, 29 March 1871, cond. Liszt
L14	345	638	1040–46	Wartburg Lieder (Der Braut Willkommen auf Wartburg) (J.V. Scheffel), T, 2 Bar, mixed vv, orch/pf:	1872–3
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, vs 1873†, ?1876
Collected editions : MW vii/3
Remarks : orig. version incl. Die verzauberte Prinzessin, Klingsor aus Ungarland and longer introduction, deleted by Liszt before 1873 pubn; fs unpubd; 1st perf. Wartburg, 23 Sept 1873
				1 Introduction, 2 Wolfram von Eschenbach, 3 Heinrich von Ofterdingen, 4 Walther von der Vogelweide, 5 Der tugendhafte Schreiber, 6 Biterolf und der Schmied von Ruhla, 7 Reimar der Alte
L15	6	482	1074	Die Glocken des Strassburger Münsters: 1 Vorspiel, 2 Excelsior! 3 Die Glocken (H.W. Longfellow), Mez, Bar, mixed chorus, orch, org	1874–5
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1875†
Remarks : ded. Longfellow: uses the pitches of the Strasbourg Cathedral bells; 1st perf. Budapest, 10 March 1875; see also A321, B42, E26, E38, T31, W8
L16	339	635	1249	A magyarok Istene (Félre kiskelküek)/Ungarns Gott (Hinweg, Kleinmütige) (A. Petőfi, trans. Neugebauer), Bar, male vv, wind orch, perc	1881
Remarks : orchd for National Choral Festival, Debrecen; 1st perf. 19 Aug 1882; see also A309, E37, M37
L17	93	563	1294a–f	Magyar király-dal (Aldott légyen Magyarok királya) Ungarisches Königslied (Sei gesegnet König der Magyaren) (K. Ábrányi trans. L. Neugebauer), 6 settings (1 male vv a cappella, 2 mixed vv a cappella, 3 male vv, pf, 4 mixed vv, pf, 5 male/mixed vv, orch/orch, 6 childrens’ vv)	1883
Published : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1885†
Remarks : composed for the opening of the Budapest Opera House (24 Sept 1884), but 1st perf. Pressburg, 21 Dec 1884; see also A328, B60, N81

secular choral music a cappella, or with ensemble or keyboard



LW	S	R	C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Composed

M1	74	545/1	312a	Das deutsche Vaterland I (Was ist das deutsche Vaterland?), (E.M. Arndt), in D, maestoso, 4 solo vv, chorus male vv, pf	1841
Published, Collected editions : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1842†
Remarks : ded. King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia; see also M27, S33; 1st edn mentions orch version (S33), presumed lost; 1st perf. Leipzig, 16 Dec 1841
M2	72/1	542/1	308	Rheinweinlied (Wo solch ein Feuer) (G. Herwegh) [Vierstimmige Männergesänge no.1], male vv, pf	1841, rev. 1884
Published, Collected editions : Mainz: Schott, 1843†
Remarks : ded. J. Lefebvre; 1st perf. Jena, 30 Nov 1841 (not Leipzig, 6 Dec, as reported in AMZ, xliii (1841), 1070
M3	72/2	542/2	309	Studentenlied aus Goethe's Faust (Es lebt’ eine Ratt im Kellernest) [Vierstimmige Männergesänge no.2], male vv	1841–2
Published, Collected editions : Mainz: Schott, 1843†
Remarks : ded. W. Speyer; revision for perf. before 12 Jan 1857 mentioned in letter to J. Herbeck
M4	72/3	542/3	310	Reiterlied (Die bange Nacht ist nun herum) (Herwegh), 1st version [Vierstimmige Männergesänge no.3], B (Allegro eroico), male vv	1841–2
Published, Collected editions : Mainz: Schott, 1843†
Remarks : ded. S. Teleky
M5	72/4	542/4	311	Reiterlied (Die bange Nacht ist nun herum) (Herwegh), 2nd version [Vierstimmige Männergesänge no.4], C (Mässig ritterlich), male vv	1841–2
Published, Collected editions : Mainz: Schott, 1843†
Remarks : ded. S. Teleky
M6	90/10	560/10	367	Der Gang um Mitternacht (Ich schreite mit dem Geist) (Herwegh) [Sechs Männerchöre no.4]
				1st version (Tempo deciso, allegro moderato), male chorus 4vv	?1841–1843
				2nd version [Für Männergesang no.10] (Mässig), T, male chorus	1860
Published, Collected editions : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1861†
M7	90/2	560/2	359	Ständchen (Hüttelein, still und klein) (F. Rückert), T, male vv
				1st version, A (Allegretto amoroso, 3/4)	?1841–1843
				2nd version [Sechs Männerchöre no.6], A (Allegretto, 4/4)	late 1840s
				3rd version [Für Männergesang no.2], G (Allegretto, 4/4)	?1841–1843, rev. 1857–60
M8	90/9	560/9	366	Saatengrün (Saatengrün, Veilchenduft; Frühlingstag) (L. Uhland)
				1st version [Sechs Männerchöre no.3], male vv, pf/?hp ad lib	c1843
				2nd version [Für Männergesang no.6], A major, male vv	1860/61
Published, Collected editions : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1861†
M9	90/8	560/8	365	Die alten Sagen kunden
				1st version [Sechs Männerchöre no.2], B (Andante espressivo), 4 male vv, pf	?1841–5
				2nd version [Für Männergesang no.8], a, 4 solo vv, male chorus	1860/61
Published, Collected editions : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1861†
M10	90/3	560/3	360	Wir sind nicht Mumien (Hoffmann von Fallersleben), male vv, pf
Remarks : ded. Prince F.W. Constantin von Hohenzollern-Hechingen; 1st version pubd with M11, M12, M13
				1st version [Vierstimmige Männergesänge no.1]	1842
Published, Collected editions : Cologne: Eck, 1844†
				2nd version [Für Männergesang no.3]	1860/61
Published, Collected editions : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1861†
M11	76	546	331	Das düstre Meer umrauscht mich, 4 male vv, pf [Vierstimmige Männergesänge no.2]	1842
Published, Collected editions : Cologne: Eck, 1844†
Remarks : ded. Prince Constantin von Hohenzollern-Hechingen; pubd with M10, M12, M13
M12				Über allen Gipfeln ist Ruh’ (Wanderers Nachtlied) (Goethe)
Remarks : ded. Prince F.W. Constantin von Hohenzollern-Hechingen; pubd with M10, M11, M13; 2nd version pubd in Festalbum zur Säkularfeier von Goethe's Geburtstag; 3rd version pubd with M28 (2nd version)
	75/1	544/1	330a	1st version (Lento, 3/4), 4 male vv	1842
Published, Collected editions : Cologne: Eck, 1844†
	75/2	544/2	330b	2nd version (Lento, 4/4), 4 male vv	1849
Published, Collected editions : Hamburg and New York, 1849†
				3rd version (Langsam, 4/4), 4 male vv, 2 hn	1856
Published, Collected editions : Hamburg, Leipzig and New York: Schuberth, 1856†
M13	90/12	560/12	369	Gottes ist der Orient (Goethe), 4 male vv
Remarks : ded. Prince F.W. Constantin von Hohenzollern-Hechingen; 1st version pubd with M10, M11, M12
				1st version [Vierstimmige Männergesänge no.4], B major (Andante maestoso)	1842
Published, Collected editions : Cologne: Eck, 1844†
				2nd version [Für Männergesang no.12], A major	1860–61
Published, Collected editions : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1861†
M14	79	549	332	Titan (Auf des Athos blauen Felsenspitzen) (F. von Schober)
Remarks : also with orch, see L4; 1st version pf part inc.
				1st version, solo male v, pf	1842
Published, Collected editions : unpubd
				2nd version, Bar, male vv, pf	1842–7
Published, Collected editions : unpubd
M15			385	Heil! Unsrer Glocke heil! (F. von Dingelstedt), unison male vv, pf	1843
Published, Collected editions : unpubd
Remarks : ded. H. von Hohenlohe-Oehringen; composed for the Stuttgart society ‘Glocke’
M16	82	552	396	Arbeiterchor (Herbei, herbei, den Spath’ und Schaufel ziert) (H.F. de Lamennais, trans. P. Kaufmann) B solo, 4 male vv, chorus, male vv, pf	?1843–48
Published, Collected editions : Budapest: Zenemükiado Vallalát, 1954
Remarks : engraved by Haslinger but withdrawn by Liszt because of 1848 revolution; transcr. A. Webern, 1924 (B, mixed vv, orch), 1st perf. Vienna, 13 March 1925, vs (Vienna, 1924); see also A153, B7
M17	78	550	392a, b	Trinkspruch (Giesst Wein in die Gläser, ihr Zecher!) [Sechs Männerchöre no.1], male vv, pf	1843/4
Published, Collected editions : in ZfM, x (1929)† London: Curwen, 1958
Remarks : ded. Stubenvoll (Munich) male-voice qt; see also M9, M8, M6, M18, M7
M18	90/7	560/7	364	Soldatenlied aus Faust (Burgen mit hohen Mauern und Zinnen) (Goethe), 4 male vv, tpts and timp ad lib
				1st version [Sechs Männerchöre no.5] (Allegro marziale)	1844
				2nd version [Für Männergesang no.7]	1860/61
Published, Collected editions : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1861†
M19	73	543	445	Es war einmal ein König (Flohlied) (from Goethe: Faust), B/Bar, male vv, pf	1844/5
Published, Collected editions : Weimar: Nationale Forschungs-und Gedenkstätten, 1986 (facs.)
M20	80	547	415–18	Les quatre élémens (J. Autran)
Remarks : 1st complete perf. Budapest, 28 March 1993; see also G3, L2; no.2 for the Trotebas choral society, 1st perf. Marseilles, 6 Aug 1844, acc. Liszt and Darborville; no.4 pf acc. inc.
				1 La terre, male vv, pf	1844–5
				2 Les aquilons, male vv, 2 pf/pf 4 hands	1844
				3 Les flots, male vv, pf	1845
				4 Les astres, male vv, pf	c1845
M21	81	548	444	Le forgeron (Le fer est dur, frappons, frappons) (F. Lamennais), T, B, male vv, pf	1845
Published, Collected editions : Budapest: Zenemükiado Vallalát, 1962†
Remarks : see L3, T7
M22	90/4	560/4	361	Trost I (Vor der Schlacht; Es rufet Gott uns mahnend) (T. Meyer-Merian)
Remarks : ded. C. Brenner; transcr. pf with M23 and M24 as Geharnischte Lieder, see A207; 1st version pubd with M23, M24
				1st version [Drei vierstimmigen Männerchöre no.1] (Tempo deciso, allegro non troppo), 4 male vv, pf	1845
Published, Collected editions : Basle: Knop, 1845†
				2nd version [Für Männergesang no.4], E (Gehalten und fest betont), 4 male vv	1860
Published, Collected editions : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1861
M23	90/5	560/5	362	Nicht gezagt (Nicht gezagt! Nicht geklagt!) (Meyer-Merian)
Remarks : ded. A. Muller; transcr. pf with M22 and M24 as Geharnischte Lieder, see A207
				1st version [Drei vierstimmigen Männerchöre no.3], A, male vv, pf	1845
Published, Collected editions : Basle: Knop, 1845†
				2nd version [Für Männergesang no.5], G, 5 male vv, pf	1860
Published, Collected editions : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1861
M24	90/6	560/6	363	Trost II (Es rufet Gott) (Meyer-Merian)
Remarks : ded. ‘Herr Architekt Heimlicher’; transcr. pf with M22 and M23 as Geharnischte Lieder, see A207; 1st version pubd with M22, M23
				1st version [Drei vierstimmigen Männerchöre no.2] (Mässig in tempo, erhaben im Vortrag), male vv, pf	1845
Published, Collected editions : Basle: Knop, 1845†
				2nd version [Für Männergesang no.6] (Mässig, sehr fest betont), male vv	1860
Published, Collected editions : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1861†
M25	81a	564a	464	A patakhoz (A patakcsa) [To the Brook], (J. Garay), 4 male vv	1846
Published, Collected editions : in Apollo, iii (1874), 13†
M26	77	551	465a, b	Die lustige Legion (A. Buchheim), male vv, pf ad lib	?1846
Published, Collected editions : Vienna: Diabelli, 1848† (parts only)
M27	74	545/2	312b	Das deutsche Vaterland II (Was ist das deutsche Vaterland?) (E.M. Arndt), in C, lebendig und lebhaft, male vv a cappella	1848
Published, Collected editions : Philadelphia: Curtis Institute, 1969 (facs.)
Remarks : ded. Students of Berlin, Vienna, Königsberg, Breslau, Halle and Jena; see also M1
M28	84	554	567	Licht, mehr Licht (Goethe's letzte Worte) (F. von Schober)
Remarks : pubd in Festalbum zur Säkularfeier von Goethe's Geburtstag, 1st perf. Weimar, 25 Aug 1849, cond. Liszt; 2nd version pubd with M12 (3rd version)
				1st version, male vv, 3 trbn, tuba	1849
Published, Collected editions : Hamburg: Schuberth, 1849†
				2nd version, male vv, 2 tpt, 3 trbn	1856
Published, Collected editions : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1856
M29	85	555	568a, b, c	Chor der Engel aus Goethe's Faust (pt 2) (Rosen, ihr blendenden) (a) male vv, pf, (b) female vv, hp, pf/hmn, (c) mixed vv, hp/pf	1849
Published, Collected editions : Hamburg and New York: Schuberth, 1849† (3rd version)
Remarks : pubd in Festalbum zur Säkularfeier von Goethe's Geburtstag; see also L7
M30	86	556	617	Festchor zur Enthüllung des Herder-Denkmals in Weimar (A. Schöll), male vv, pf/brass orch	1850
Published, Collected editions : Leipzig: Leipziger illustrierte Zeitung (2 Nov 1850)†
Remarks : orchd J. Raff for 1st perf. Weimar, 25 Aug 1850
M31	90/1	560/1	358	Vereins-Lied (Frisch auf, zu neuem Leben) (Hoffmann von Fallersleben) [Für Männergesang no.1], male vv	1855, rev. 1857, rev. 1860
Published, Collected editions : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1861† (3rd version)
Remarks : 1st perf. Weimar, 2 July 1855; rev. for song festival, Crefeld, Aug 1857
M32	87/1–7	557a–g	720a–g	Weimar's Volkslied (Von der Wartburg) (P. Cornelius)
Remarks : (a) pf acc. pubd in orch score (see L10), 1st perf. Weimar, 3 Sept 1857; (c) rev. version unpubd; (e) arr. B. Sulze; (f) pubd with M34; see also A191, B16, E6, G19, L10, N53
				(a) in E, male vv, pf	1857, rev. ? before 1875
Published, Collected editions : Weimar: Kühn, 1857†
				(b) in F, male vv, pf ad lib
Published, Collected editions : Weimar: Kühn, 1873†
				(c) in E, 4 male vv	?1860, rev.
Published, Collected editions : Weimar: Kühn, 1860†
				(d) in F, male vv, org	1875
Published, Collected editions : unpubd
				(e) in E, mixed vv, pf ad lib
Published, Collected editions : Weimar: Kühn, 1875†
				(f) in E, 3 equal vv	?1870s
Published, Collected editions : Leipzig: Licht & Meyer, 1887, as Zwei Terzette no.1 (facs.)
				(g) in F, 3 children's vv	?1870s
Published, Collected editions : Weimar: Kühn, 1875†, in Zech: Liederbuch, no.73
M33	26	505	764	Festgesang zur Eröffnung der zehnten allgemeinen deutschen Lehrerversammlung (Wir bau’n und bestellen das edelste Feld) (Hoffmann von Fallersleben), male vv, org ad lib	1858
Published, Collected editions : Weimar: Kühn, 1859†
Remarks : ded. German Schoolteachers’ Association
M34a	89	559	777	Mit klingendem Spiel (Morgenlied), children's vv	1859
Published, Collected editions : Weimar: Böhlau, 1860†, in Vaterländisches Liederbuch, ed. A.W. Gottschalg and others
Remarks : same music as M34b, with different text
M34b	88	558	778	Morgenlied (Die Sterne sind erblicken) (Hoffmann von Fallersleben), women's vv	1859
Published, Collected editions : Weimar: Böhlau, 1861†, suppl. to Vaterländisches Liederbuch; Neues Vaterländisches Liederbuch, 1877
Remarks : same music as M34a, with different text
M35	90/11	560/11	368	Festlied zu Schillers Jubelfeier 10 November 1859 (Dingelstedt) [Für Männergesang no.11], Bar, male vv	1859, rev. 1860
Published, Collected editions : in Leipziger illustrierte Zeitung (12 Nov 1859)†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1861 (2nd version)
Remarks : 1st perf. Weimar, 10 Nov 1859
M36	91	561	1011a, b	A lelkesedés dala (Das Lied der Begeisterung; Was nützt mir der Erde reichstes Gut) (K. Ábrányi the younger)
Remarks : ded. Hungarian Choral Society
				1st version, male vv	1871
Published, Collected editions : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1871†
				2nd version [Ger. only], male vv, org	1874
Published, Collected editions : Táborszky & Parsch, 1874†
M37	339	635	1249	A magyarok Istene (Félre kiskelküek)/(Ungarns Gott (Hinweg, Kleinmütige) (A. Petőfi, trans. Neugebauer), Bar, male vv ad lib, pf	1881
Published, Collected editions : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1881†; MW vii/3
Remarks : see also A309, E37, L16
M38	94	564	1342	Gruss (Glück auf), male vv	1885
Published, Collected editions : Leipzig: Licht & Meyer, 1885†
Remarks : ded. Riga Liedertafel

songs

for solo voice and piano unless otherwise stated



LW	S	R	C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Composed

N1				Angiolin dal biondo crin (C. Boccella)
Remarks : see A97/6
	269/1	593a	208a	1st version	1839
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1843†
	269/2	593b	208b	2nd version	?1849
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1856†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860
Collected editions : LSP vi; MW vii/2
N2	684	644	282	Barcarole vénitienne de Pantaleoni	1840
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1852†;
Remarks : ded. Mme Thérèse de Bacheracht
N3				Im Rhein, im schönen Strome (H. Heine)
Remarks : ded. Princess Augusta of Prussia; an early text variant begins ‘Am Rhein’; see also A97/2
	272/1	567a	291a	1st version	1840
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1843†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
	272/2	567b	291b	2nd version	1855
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1856†; Berlin: Schlesinger, 1856 (2nd edn), 1860 (new edn)
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N4	271	566	293	Il m'aimait tant! (E. de Girardin; Ger. trans. by M.G. Friedrich and T. Rehbaum)	1840–42
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1843†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
Remarks : see A98
N5				Die Loreley (Heine)
Remarks : ded. M. d'Agoult; see also A97/1, A210
	273/1	591a	313a	1st version	1841
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1843†
	273/2	591b	313b	2nd version	1854–9
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1856†, Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860
Collected editions : MW vii/2
	369	647	812	3rd version, 1v, orch	1860
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1862†
N6				Die Zelle in Nonnenwerth (Ach, nun taucht die Klosterzelle) (F. Lichnowsky)
Remarks : A81, D21; 1st version ded. M. d'Agoult; another version (between versions 1 and 2), with unattrib. Fr. text, uses same melody as 1st version; 4th version ded. E. Genast; 5th version ded. E. Merian-Genast in MS only
	274/1	618a	314a	1st version	1841
Published : Cologne: Eck, 1843 (2nd issue)
	301b	618b	314a/441	2nd version En ces lieux tout me parle d'elle (E. Monnier)	1844
Published : Paris: Latte, 1844†
	274/3	618c	314/441	3rd version: Elégie (En ces lieux)	1845
Published : unpubd
	274/2	618b	314b	4th version (Ach, nun taucht die Klosterzelle)	1858
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†; Weimar: NFG [GSA], 1961 (facs.)
Collected editions : MW vii/3
	274/2,3	618b,c	5th version (Lichnowsky)	1860	Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†
Published : MW vii/3
N7				Was Liebe sei (C. von Hagn)
Remarks : ded. Grand Duchess Sophie of Weimar
	288/1	575a	333/1	1st setting	1842
Published : Cologne: Eck, 1844†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
	288/2	575b	333/2	2nd setting	1854–5
Collected editions : MW vii/2†
	288/3	575c	333/3	3rd setting	1878–9
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1879†
Collected editions : MW vii/3
N8				Mignons Lied (Kennst du das Land) (J.W. von Goethe)
Remarks : see A97/3
	275/1	592a	335a	1st version	1842
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1843†
	275/2	592b	335b	2nd version	1854
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1856†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860
Collected editions : MW vii/2
	275/3	592c	335c	3rd version	1860
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1863†
Collected editions : MW vii/2
	370	648	813	4th version, arr. 1v, orch	1860
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1862†
N9				Es war ein König in Thule (Goethe)
Remarks : see A97/4
	278/1	594a	336a	1st version	1842
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1843†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
	278/2	594b	336b	2nd version	1856
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1856; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N10				Der du von dem Himmel bist
Remarks : ded. Princess Augusta of Prussia; see also A97/5
	279/1	568a	337a	1st version	1842
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1843†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
	279/2	568b	337b	2nd version	1849
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1856†
Collected editions : MW vii/2
	279/3	568c	337c	3rd version	1860
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†
Collected editions : MW vii/2
	279/4	568d	337d	4th version	1870
Collected editions : MW vii/2†
N11				Oh! quand je dors (V. Hugo)
Remarks : see A139/1
	281/1	569a	338a	1st version	1842
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1844†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
	282/2	569b	338b	2nd version	1849
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1859†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N12				Comment disaient-ils (Hugo)
Remarks : see A139/2
	276/1	570a	339a	1st version (trans. Rehbaum)	1842
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1844†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
	276/2	570b	339b	2nd version	1849–59
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1859†; Leipzig: Kahnt, ?1860
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N13	306a		564	Quand tu chantes bercée (Hugo)	1842
Published : Budapest: in Magyar zene, xv (1974) (facs.)
Remarks : ded. M. Juva Branca
N14				Tre sonetti di Petrarca
Remarks : order of nos.1 and 2 reversed in 2nd version; see also A55/4–6, A102
	270/1	578a	204–206a	1st version: 1 Pace non trovo (Sonnet no.104), 2 Benedetto sia'l giorno (Sonnet no.47), 3 I' vidi in terra angelici costumi (Sonnet no.123)	1842–6
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1846†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
	270/2	578b	204b	2nd version	1864–82
Published : Mainz: Schott, 1883 (2nd edn)
Collected editions : MW vii/3
N15	701	673	1365	Dem Felsengipfel stieg ich einst hinan	1843?
Published : unpubd
N16				Morgens steh' ich auf und frage (Heine)
	290/1	576a	387a	1st version	1843
Published : Cologne: Eck, 1844†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
	290/2	576b	387b	2nd version	1849–59
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1859; Leipzig: Kahnt, ?1860
Collected editions : LSP vi; MW vii/2
N17				Die tote Nachtigall (P. Kaufmann)
	291/1	577a	388a	1st version	1843
Published : Cologne: Eck, 1844†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
	291/2	577b	388b	2nd version	1870s
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1879†
Collected editions : LSP vi; MW vii/3
N18				Liebesträume
Remarks : no.3 orig. intended for pubn by Eck in Sechs Lieder, according to letter (unpubd) of Dec 1843; see also A103, A233
	307	587	565	1 Hohe Liebe (In Liebesarmen ruht ihr trunken) (L. Uhland)	1850
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1850†
Collected editions : MW vii/2
	308	588	566	2 Gestorben war ich (Uhland)	1845–6
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1850†
Collected editions : MW vii/2
	298	589	439	3 O lieb, so lang du lieben kannst (F. Freiligrath)	1843–50
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1847, 1850 (rev.)
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N19	287	607	386	Du bist wie eine Blume (Heine)	1843–9
Published : Cologne: Eck, 1844†; Berlin: Schlesinger, 1859
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N20	310	600	391	Nimm einen Strahl der Sonne (Ihr Auge) (L. Rellstab)	1843–9
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N21	277	625	389	Bist du (Mild wie ein Lufthauch) (E. Metschersky)	1844
Published : Cologne: Eck, 1844†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1879 (rev.)
Collected editions : MW vii/3
N22				Die Vätergruft (Uhland)
	281	601	408		1844
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1860†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860
Collected editions : MW vii/2
	371	649	1344	arr. 1v, orch	1886
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1886†; London: Novello, Ewer & Co.
N23				Freudvoll und Leidvoll (Goethe)
Remarks : ded. A. Scheffer; see also A134
	280/1	579a	409a	1st setting	1844
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1848†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
	280/1	579c	409c	1st setting, 2nd version	1849
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†
Collected editions : MW vii/2
	280/2	579b	409b	2nd setting	?1848
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1848†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
N24				Enfant, si j’étais roi (Hugo)
Remarks : see A139/3
	283/1	571a	410a	1st version	1844
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1844†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
	283/2	571b	410b	2nd version	1849
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1859†; LSP vi; Leipzig: Kahnt, ?1860
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N25				S'il est un charmant gazon (Hugo)
Remarks : see A139/4
	284/1	572a	411a	1st version	1844
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1844†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
	284/2	572b	411b	2nd version	1849–59
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1859†; Leipzig: Kahnt, ?1860
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N26	285	573	412	La tombe et la rose (Hugo)	1844
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1844†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
Remarks : see A139/5
N27	286	574	413	Gastibelza (Bolero) (Hugo)	1844
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1844†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
Remarks : see A139/6
N28	295	598	414	Wo weilt er? (Heimath) (Rellstab)	1844
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N29	289	608	334a,b	Vergiftet sind meine Lieder (Heine)	1844–9
Published : Hamburg: Eck, 1844†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1859; Berlin: Schlesinger, 1859; Paris: [unknown], 1870s (rev.)
Collected editions : LSP vi; MW vii/2
N30	301a	638a	390	Oh, pourquoi donc (Les pleurs des femmes romance oubliée) (C. Pavloff)	?1844
Published : Moscow: Grotrian, 1844†; Leipzig: Tonger, 1878 (rev.)
Collected editions : MW iii; LSP xiv
Remarks : ded. Mme, Caroline Pavloff; see A148
N31	296	606	437	Ich möchte hingehn (G. Herwegh)	?1844–1856
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1859†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860 (rev.)
Collected editions : LSP vi: MW vii/2
Remarks : ded. [L. Köhler]
N32				Lieder aus Schillers ‘Wilhelm Tell’: 1 Der Fischerknabe (Es lächelt der See), 2 Der Hirt (Ihr Matten lebt wohl), 3 Der Alpenjäger (Es donnern die Höh'n)
Remarks : ded. A. Scheffer
	292/1	582a	432	1st version	1845
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1847†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
	292/2	582b	433	2nd version	1850s
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1859†, 1860
Collected editions : MW vii/2
	372	645	701–3	arr. 1v, orch	1855
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1872†
N33				Es rauschen die Winde (Rellstab)
	294/1	596a	436a	1st version	1845
Collected editions : MW vii/2†
	294/2	596b	436b	2nd version	?1849
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N34				Wer nie sein Brot mit Tränen ass (Goethe)
	297/1	609a	438/1	1st setting	1845, Berlin
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1848†; Leipzig: Schlesinger, 1859 (2nd edn); Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860
Collected editions : MW vii/2
	297/2	609b	438/2	2nd setting	1849
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†
Collected editions : MW vii/3
N35				Schwebe, schwebe, blaues Auge (F. von Dingelstedt)
	305/1	581a	440a	1st version	1845
Published : MW vii/1†
	305/2	581b	440b	2nd version	1849–60
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N36				Ein Fichtenbaum steht einsam (Heine)	1845–60
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†
Collected editions : LSP vi; MW vii/2
	309/1	599a	711/1	1st setting
	309/2	599b	711/2	2nd setting
N37				Jeanne d'Arc au bûcher (A. Dumas, trans. M.G. Friedrich) [versions 1–4]
Published : Paris, Latte, 1846 (1st version)†; Mainz: Schott, 1876 (versions 2–3 with orchd versions)†, Schott, 1876 (4th version)
Remarks : lst version orchd Conradi and Liszt, 2nd and 3rd versions orchd Liszt; 1st perf. Pest, 1877
	293/1	586a	435a	1st version	1845
				2nd version	1858
				3rd version (‘scène dramatique’), 1v, pf/hmn	mid-1860s
	293/2	586b	435b	4th version	1874/5
Collected editions : MW vii/3
	373	646	763	(A. Dumas, Ger. trans., unknown), arr. lv, orch	1848–75
N38				Über die Aeolsharfe	1846
Published : Unpubd
N39	299	627	487	Isten veled (Lebe wohl) (P. Horvath, trans. C.F. Zerffi)	1847
Published : Prague: Hoffmann, 1847†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1879
Collected editions : LSP vi; MW vii/3
N40	300	585	502	Le juif errant (J. Béranger)	1847
Published : unpubd
N41				Göttliche Gedanken, selige Gefühle	1848
Published : unpubd
N42				Kling leise, mein Lied (J. Nordmann)
	301/1	580a	543a	1st version	1848
Collected editions : MW vii/1†
	301/2	580b	543b	2nd version	1849–60
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N43	303	584	544	Weimars Toten (F. von Schober)	1848
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1849†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
N44	304	565	545	Le vieux vagabond (Béranger)	1848
Collected editions : MW vii/1†
Remarks : based on themes used in G3 and G14
N45	302	583	549	Die Macht der Musik (Duchess Helen of Orleans)
Remarks : ded. Grand Duchess Marie Pavlovna
				1st version	1848
Published : Leipzig: Kistner, 1848†
Collected editions : MW vii/1
				2nd version	1848
N46				Über allen gipfeln ist Ruh’ (Goethe)
Remarks : see also M12
	306/1	610a	546a	1st version	1848
Published : Vienna: Haslinger, 1848†
	306/2	610b	546b	2nd version	1859
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1859†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N47	685	644b	1364	Es hat geflammt die ganze Nacht (Lied der Grossherzogin Marie Pavlovna)	1849–54
Published : unpubd
N48	311	602	717	Anfangs wollt’ ich fast verzagen (Heine)	1849–60
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†, 1880
Collected editions : MW vii/2
Remarks : composed and rev. 1849, copied by Conradi before Sept 1849, rev. again over the next ten years; an 1880 Fr. edn contained a new ending
N49	314	590	666	Es muss ein Wunderbares sein (O. von Redwitz)	1852
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1859†, 1860 (rev.)
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N50	324	616	698	Blume und Duft (In Frühlings Heiligtume) (F. Hebbel)	1854
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†
Collected editions : MW vii/3
N51	312	595	718	Wie singt die Lerche schön (Hoffmann von Fallersleben)	1855
Published : Würzburg: Deutsches-Musen-Almanach (1856), suppl.; Berlin: Schlesinger, 1860 (rev.); Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N52	315	617	728	Ich liebe dich (F. Rückert)	1857
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†
Collected editions : MW vii/3
Remarks : pubd with 2 versions of ending; see also A194
N53	313	597	723	Weimars Volkslied (Von der Wartburg) (P. Cornelius)	1857
Published : Leipzig: Kühn, 1857†
Remarks : see A191, B16, E6, G9, L10, M32
N54	316	603/1–2	730–31	Muttergottes-Sträusslein zum Mai-Monate (J. Müller)
Remarks : a 3rd song, Die Glöckchen, is lost (see S45)
				1 Das Veilchen (Spende, Veilchen, deine Düfte).	1857
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1859†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860, 1879 (new edn)
Collected editions : MW vii/2
				2 Die Schlüsselblumen (Dort am grünen Hügel)	1857
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1859†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1859, 1860
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N55	314	604	758	Lasst mich ruhen (Hoffmann von Fallersleben)	1858
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, 1859†; Leipzig: Kahnt, 1859
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N56	318	605	759	In Liebeslust (Hoffmann von Fallersleben)	1858
Published : Leipzig: Schlesinger, 1859†, Kahnt, 1859
Collected editions : MW vii/2
N57	683	644a	1363	Serbisches Lied (Ein Mädchen sitzt am Meeresstrand)	?1858
Published : Stuttgart: Göpel, n.d.†
N58	319	611	806	Ich scheide (Die duftenden Kräuter auf der Au) (Hoffmann von Fallersleben)	1860
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†
Collected editions : LSP vi; MW vii/2
N59	321	613	807	Die stille Wasserrose (E. Geibel)	1860
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†
Collected editions : MW vii/3
N60	322	614	808	Wieder möcht ich dir begegnen (Cornelius)	1860
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†
Collected editions : MW vii/3
N61	323	615	809	Jugendglück (O süsser Zauber in Jugendmut) (R. Pohl)	1860
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†
Collected editions : MW vii/3
N62				Die drei Zigeuner (N. Lenau)
Remarks : ded. E. Merian-Genast; see also D8
	320	612	810a, b	1st version	1860
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†
Collected editions : MW vii/3
	374	650	811	2nd version	1860
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1871†
N63	375	651/1–6	814–19	Sechs Lieder von Schubert, 1v, orch: 1 Die junge Nonne, 2 Gretchen am Spinnrade, 3 Mignons Lied (Kennst du das Land), 4 Erlkönig, 5 Der Doppelgänger, 6 Abschied	1860
Published : Leipzig: Förberg, 1863†; (nos.1–4); nos.5–6 unpubd
Remarks : ded. E. Merian-Genast; based on Schubert's d828 (no.1), d118 (no.2), d321 (no.3), d328 (no.4), d957/13 (no.5), unknown (no.6)
N64	340a		923	No brani menya, moy drug [Do not reproach me, my friend] (A. Tolstoy)	1866
Collected editions : Moscow: Mil’shteyn, 1958†
Remarks : ded. Countess Sofia Tolstoy
N65	325	619	1009	Die Fischertochter (C. Coronini [Cronberg])	1871
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1879†
Collected editions : MW ii/3
N66	338	634	1314	Und wir dachten der Toten (Die Trompete von Gravelotte [sic] [‘Und nun kam die Nacht’]) (Freilignath)	?1871
Collected editions : MW vii/3
N67	326	623	1038	La perla (Sono del mare bianca la figlia) (Therese von Hohenlohe; trans. Rehbaum)	1872
Published : Rome: Blanchi, 1876†
Collected editions : MW ii/3
N68	327	620	1039	J'ai perdu ma force et ma vie (Tristesse) (A. de Musset; trans. A. Meissner)	1872
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1879†
Collected editions : LSP vi; MW vii/3
N69	328	621	1068	Ihr Glocken von Marling (E. Kuh)	1874
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1879†
Collected editions : LSP vi; MW vii/3
Remarks : ded. Princess Marie Hohenlohe
N70	329	622	1069	Und sprich (Sich auf dem Meer) (R. von Biegeleben)	1875–9
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1879†
Collected editions : MW vii/3
Remarks : ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein
N71	330	624	1141	Sei still (Ach, was ist Leben) (Nordheim [H. von Schorn])	?1877–1879
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1879†; in J. Kapp (H1909) (facs.)
Collected editions : MW vii/3
N72	331	628	1148	Gebet (In Stunden der Entmutigung) (F. Bodenstedt)	1878
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1879†
Collected editions : LSP vi; MW vii/3
N73	332	629	1149	Einst (Bodenstedt)	1878
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1879†
Collected editions : LSP vi; MW vii/3
N74	333	630	1150	An Edlitam (In meinem Lebensringe) (Bodenstedt)	1878
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1879†
Collected editions : MW vii/3
Remarks : Edlitam is an anagram of Matilde, the name of the poet's wife
N75	334	631	1151	Der Glückliche (Wie glänzt nun die Welt) (A. Wilbrandt)	1878
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1879†
Collected editions : MW vii/3
N76	335	626	1207	Go not, happy day (A. Tennyson; trans. L. Kirschbaum for the MW)	1879
Published : London: Kegan Paul, 1880†, Stanley Lucas, Weber, 1880†
Collected editions : MW vii/3; LSP vi
Remarks : set at the invitation of Sir William Cusins; Liszt’s only setting of a text in English
N77	336	632	1226	Verlassen (Mir ist die Welt so freudenleer) (from G. Michell: Irrwege)	1880
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, 1880†; Munich: Schneider, 1975 (facs.)
Collected editions : MW vii/3
N78	337	633	1227	Des Tages laute Stimmen schweigen (F. von Saar)	1880
Published : Weimar: Briefe, vol. viii, 1905 (facs.)
Collected editions : LSP vi: MW vii/3
Remarks : ded. Princess Marie Hohenlohe
N79	344	637	1210	O Meer in Abendstahl (Abend am Meer, A. Meissner)	?1881–3
Published : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1881†
Collected editions : MW vii/3; UE ix
Remarks : ded. M. Breidenstein, duet for solo vv
N80	368	653	1300–01	Zwei Lieder von Francis Korbay, 1v, orch: 1 Le matin (Bizet), 2 Gebet (Geibel)	1883
Published : unpubd
Remarks : see K10
N81	340	636	1295	Magyar király-dal (Ungarisches Königslied) (K. Ábrányi)	?1883
Published : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1884†
Collected editions : MW vii/3
Remarks : see A328, B60, L17
N82	377	451	1318a,b	Der Zaubersee (Bűvös tó) [G. Zichy], ballade, T, orch	1884
Published : unpubd
Remarks : 1st perf. 10 Jan 1885, cond. Richter

opera

476

Don Sanche, ou Le château d'amour (op, 1, Mme Théaulon and de Rancé, after Claris de Florian)

1824–5

Paris: Jean Chantavoine, 1912†

melodramas

for reciter with piano accompaniment unless otherwise stated

P1	346	654	736	Lenore (Der Bräutigam) (G.A. Bürger)	1857–8	Leipzig: Kahnt, 1860†	MW vii/3
P2	347	655	776	Vor hundert Jahren (F. Halm), orch acc.	1859	unpubd
P3	348	656	820	Der traurige Mönch (In Schweden steht ein grauer Turm) (N. Lenau)	1860	Leipzig: Kahnt, 1872†	MW vii/3	ded. F. Ritter (née Wagner)
P4	686	659	821	Helges Treue (M. Strachwitz)	1860	Hamburg: Schuberth, 1874†	MW vii/3	ded. B. Dawison (actor)
P5	349	657	1070	Des toten Dichters Liebe (Der Hein wiederhallt von der Nachtigall Sang) [A holt költó szerelme (Zeng a liget a csalogány dalain)] (M. Jókai, trans. A. Dux)	1874	Budapest: Táborsky & Parsch, 1874†	MW vii/3	1st perf. Budapest, 16 March 1874, by Liszt and Róza Laborfálvy Jókai; see also A249, A279, A335, B50
P6	350	658	1101	Der blinde Sänger (Der Fürst ritt um Morgen) (A. Tolstoy)	1875–7	St Petersburg: Bessel, 1877†	MW vii/3

incomplete works

Q1	690	667	45a, b	Symphonie révolutionnaire, orch	1830–53	Stuttgart-Berlin: Cotta, 1931, facs.; repr. 1968		projected movts (1849): 1 Héroïde funèbre, 2 Tristis est anima mea, 3 Rákóczi et Dombrowski, 4 Marseillaise, 5 Psaume ii; only no.1 completed (see G4); see also Q17
Q2			46	Allegro di bravura, orch; see A6	1830
Q3	754a		49	Grand solo caractéristique à propos d'une chansonette de Panséron, pf	1832			mentioned in letter, 12 Dec 1832, to Valérie Boissier; Sotheby MS Nov 1987
Q4				La belle en robe des Dimanches, song	1830s			facs. in L. Eősze (1980), no.43
Q5	701b		140	Marie, poème, pf/? chbr ens	1835–mid 1840s	unpubd			facs. in T. Marix-Spire (H1954)
Q6	125a		224	Concerto, pf, orch	1835–9	EMB, 1989†			uses themes from A3, A6, A7
Q7	700	665	1349	Carnaval de Venise [Paganini], pf	early 1840s
Q8	235	98	283	Fantaisie sur des thèmes anglais (God Save the Queen), pf/orch	early 1840s	announced but not pubd Hamburg: Schuberth, 1841; MS frag. July 1998
Q9				Manfred, vv, orch	1842–4			see Schnapp 38
Q10	695	663	384	Piano Piece, F; MS in D-WRgs	?1843
Q11a, b	738		207	Spanish folksong arrangements, pf, 2 versions	?1844			listed in Conradi and Liszt: Programme général (A1843–9); MSS in D-WRgs; see also A114, A195
Q12	693	662	284–5	Zwei Klavierstücke ungarischen Characters (Deux pièces en style hongrois): no.1, d, no.2, b	1845		LSP iii† no.1
Q13	687	670	485	Sardanapale (op, Rotondi, after Byron)	1846–early 1850s	unpubd			lib commissioned by Princess Cristina Belgiojoso; intended for the Vienna Hofoper
Q14	689	672	503	Singe, wem Gesang gegeben (L. Uhland: Freie Kunst), male vv, orch; orchd Conradi/Liszt	?1848	unpubd
Q15	703		646	Psalm ii, (Quare fremuerunt gentes et populi), T, mixed vv, orch	1851			orig. intended for Q1
Q16				[Dies Irae] (Melodie in dorischer Tonart), pf; MS in US-NYpl	1861	unpubd
Q17	688	671	1052	Die Legende vom heiligen Stanislaus (orat, P. Cornelius and others, after L. Siemienski)	1869–85	Madison, WI: A-R Edns, 1998†		ded. C. Sayn-Wittgenstein; begun 1869 as an orat, although orch section Salve Polonia (G28) dates from 1863; listed in F. Schnapp (A1942), no.90; see also A225, A302, B28, J45, J51
Q18	692a	674	1230	Die vier Jahreszeiten, str qt	?1874	unpubd
Q19	698	666	1235	La mandragore, ballade [Delibes], pf	1881	unpubd		transcr./sketch from the op Jean de Nivelle, 1st perf. Budapest, 17 March 1881, cond. Delibes
Q20				3tes Conzert, pf, orch; MS in A-Wn, an earlier undatable and different sketch to a ‘3me Concerto’ in D-WRgs	1880s
Q21	215	37		Petite valse (Nachspiel zu den 3 vergessenen Walzern)	?1883–84			see A311

unidentified fragments



LW	S	R	C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Composed

R1				Scherzo, pf	1830
R2				Variazione II, pf
R3				Albumblatt, A	?1840
R4				?opera paraphrase, pf	?1840
Remarks : inscribed ‘A chaque chose sa saison’

lost works

numbers listed in Schnapp refer to F. Schnapp (A1942)



LW	S	R	C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Composed

S1	702		2	Tantum ergo (T. Aquinas), chorus a cappella	1822
Remarks : mentioned in letter to Ramann, 4 Nov 1874; listed in Schnapp (no.1)
S2			5	Lieder, songs	1824
Remarks : mentioned by Adam Liszt in letter (20 March 1824) to Carl Czerny; listed in Schnapp (no.2)
S3	724		9	Rondo, pf	1824
Remarks : mentioned by Adam Liszt in letter (29 July 1824) to Czerny; listed in Schnapp (no.3)
S4	724		10/1	Fantasia, pf	1824
Remarks : mentioned by A. Liszt in letter (29 July 1824) to Czerny; listed in Schnapp (no.4)
S5	725		14	Sonata, f, pf	1825
Remarks : mentioned in letter to Ramann, 10 Oct 1881; facs. of 1881 MS written from memory in L. Ramann (E1983)
S6	725		15	Sonata, pf	1825
Remarks : mentioned in letter to Ramann, 10 Oct 1881; listed in Schnapp (no.6)
S7	725		16	Sonata, pf	1825
Remarks : mentioned in letter to Ramann, 10 Oct 1881; listed in Schnapp (no.7)
S8	713		20	Piano concerto, pf, orch	1825
Remarks : mentioned by A. Liszt in letter (14 July 1825) to Czerny; listed in Schnapp (no.8)
S9	713		21	Concerto, pf, orch	1825
Remarks : mentioned by A. Liszt in letter (14 July 1825) to Czerny; listed in Schnapp (no.9)
S10	755		17	Sonata, pf 4 hands	1825
Remarks : mentioned by A. Liszt in letter (14 July 1825) to Czerny; listed in Schnapp (no.10)
S11	718		19	Quintet	1825
Remarks : mentioned by A. Liszt in letter (14 July 1825) to Czerny; listed in Schnapp (no.12)
S12				Charles Mayer – Coda pour l’étude no.3, A, pf	1826–7
Remarks : for L. Garella; according to Boissier (E1927), 1st perf. Paris, 8 March 1832, by Liszt; listed in Schnapp (no.13)
S13			35	Fantasia on Rule Britannia, pf, perf. London, Argyll Rooms (Covent Garden Playbill), 2 June 1827	1827
S14			36	Duet from Rossini's Semiramide, vn, pf	1827
Remarks : by Liszt and N. Mori; 1st perf. London, Argyll Rooms, 2 June 1827; see W. Wright: ‘Liszt's London Appearances in 1827’, Liszt Society Journal, xvi (1991), 8–12
S15			37	The Fall of Paris, military air with variations, fl, pf	1827
Remarks : by Liszt and A. Minasi; 1st perf. London, Drury Lane, 5 June 1827; see W. Wright: ‘Liszt's London Appearances in 1827’, Liszt Society Journal, xvi (1991), 8–12
S16			38	Fantasia, vn, pf	1827
Remarks : by Liszt and Mori: 1st perf. London, Drury Lane, 8 June 1827; see W. Wright: ‘Liszt's London Appearances in 1827’, Liszt Society Journal, xvi (1991), 8–12
S17	[121]	[452]	39	Grand Concerto, a, pf, orch	1827
Remarks : mentioned by Moscheles, see C. Moscheles, ed.: Aus Moscheles’ Leben (Leipzig, 1872), i, 138; listed in Schnapp (no.14); 1st perf. London, Argyll Rooms, 9 June 1827; not 1st version of H1
S18	720		1390	Allegro moderato, E, vn, pf	1829
Remarks : listed in Schnapp (nos.16, 16a)
S19	715		1392	Piano Concerto in the Italian Style, pf, orch	1830s
Remarks : mentioned in Göllerich (H1908), 281
S20	754b		1385	Ballade, pf	1832
Remarks : mentioned in letter to V. Boissier, 12 Dec 1832, and in Grove 1–4
S21				Introduction und Walzer (Walse), pf	?1833
Remarks : ded. J. Reiset; MS described by G. Kinsky in his catalogue (p.239) of the Koch Sammlung (ed. M.-A. Souchay, Stuttgart, 1953)
S22	629b		67	Sonate, pf	1835
Remarks : mentioned in letter to Anna Liszt, Geneva, 28 July 1835; listed in Schnapp (no.19), with incipit
S23	726a		68	Valse, E, pf	1835
Remarks : mentioned in letter to Anna Liszt, Geneva, 28 July 1835, as intended for the album of Mme Goussart; listed in Schnapp (no.20)
S24			77	Méthode de piano pour le Conservatoire de Genéve	1835–6
Remarks : ?pubd Sampierdarena (Lyons, 1836), see Chiappari; listed in Schnapp (no.21)
S25			74/2	Divertissement sur la cavatine de Pacini ‘I tuoi frequenti palpiti’	1835–6
Remarks : pubd Leipzig: Hofmeister, 1837†
S26	252	88	99/2	Rondeau fantastique sur un thème espagnol (El contrabandista), pf, orch	1836
Remarks : mentioned in letter to M. d'Agoult, 9 Feb 1841; listed in Hofmeister's 1843 catalogue; see also A34
S27	390	129	100/2	Réminiscences des Puritains de Bellini, pf, orch	1836
Remarks : mentioned in letter to M. d'Agoult, 6 Dec 1839; listed in Schnapp (no.28)
S28			251/2	Marche hongroise, pf, orch	1840
Remarks : London perf. mentioned in RGMP (14 June 1840); listed in Schnapp (no.31), possibly A59 or A65
S29				Euryanthe-Fantaisie [Weber], pf	1840
Remarks : mentioned in letter to M. d'Agoult, 29 Dec 1840; based on the Act 3 chorus Die Thale dampfen; 1st perf. Cork, 2 Jan 1841; listed in Schnapp (no.32)
S30			299/3	Grosse Fantasie über ‘God Save the Queen’ und ‘Rule Britannia’, pf 4 hands	1841
Remarks : listed in Schnapp (no.33)
S31	743a		303	Fantasia on themes from Halévy's Guitarero	1841
Remarks : 1st perf., Kassel, 19 Sept 1841; listed in Schnapp (no.35)
S32	765a		340	L'aube naît (V. Hugo), song	1842
Remarks : mentioned in letter to M. d'Agoult, 7 May 1842; listed in Schnapp (no.36)
S33	[74]	[545/1]	[312a]	Das deutsche Vaterland I (Was ist das deutsche Vaterland), in D, maestoso, male vv, brass orch	1842
Remarks : see also M1
S34			329	Paraphrase über Weber's Aufforderrung zum Tanz, pf	1842
Remarks : 1st perf. Berlin, 19 Feb 1842; listed in Schnapp (no.37)
S35	748		1381	Die Zauberflöte Overture [Mozart], pf	?1843
Remarks : mentioned in Conradi and Liszt: Programme général, (A1843–9); listed in Schnapp (no.46)
S36	744		1378	Paraphrase of Act 4 of Kullak's Dom Sébastien, pf	?1843/4
Remarks : mentioned in Conradi and Liszt (A1843–9); perf. Vienna, 22 March 1846
S37	741		1373	La carnaval romain overture [Berlioz], pf	after 1844
Remarks : mentioned in Conradi and Liszt (A1843–9); listed in Schnapp (no.40)
S38	739		1374	Coriolanus Overture [Beethoven], pf	1846–7
Remarks : mentioned in letter to V. Stasov, 14 Sept 1847; listed in Schnapp (no.44)
S39	740		1375	Egmont Overture [Beethoven], pf	1846–7
Remarks : mentioned in Conradi and Liszt: Programme général (A1843–9); perf. Liszt and Luisa Cognetti, Rome, 15 Dec 1885, listed in Schnapp (no.45)
S40	758		1388	The Organ, sym. poem after J.G. Herder, org	1850s
Remarks : mentioned in Grove1–4
S41	710		1394	Funeral march, orch	1850
Remarks : mentioned in H. Raff (C1901–2), 389; possibly Héroïde funèbre (see G4; see also S51)
S42	753		618	Alfonso und Estrella [Schubert], pf	1850–51
Remarks : transcr. of Act 1; mentioned in letters (1851) to Raff and Léon Escudier
S43	752		1384	Gelb rollt [A. Rubinstein], pf	after 1854
Remarks : based on Rubinstein's song op.34/9; mentioned in Grove1–4
S44			713	Cantique d'amour, hp	1856
Remarks : for J. Eyth-Pohl; listed in Schnapp (no.55)
S45	765		729	[Muttergottes-Sträusslein zum Mai-Monate, no.3], Die Glöckchen (J. Müller), 1v, pf	1857
Remarks : intended as no.3 of N54; mentioned in C. Sayn-Wittgenstein's MS catalogue (A1848–58)
S46	762		760	Air de Chateaubriand, song	1858
Remarks : ‘p[our] chant’ in C. Sayn-Wittgenstein's catalogue (A1848–58); possibly J4/4; listed in Schnapp (no.57)
S47	763		761	Strophes de [G.] Herlossohn, song	1858
Remarks : mentioned in C. Sayn-Wittgenstein's catalogue (A1848–58); listed in Schnapp (no.58)
S48	764		762	Kränze pour chant, song	1858
Remarks : mentioned in C. Sayn-Wittgenstein's catalogue (A1848–58); listed in Schnapp (no.59)
S49	692	669	826	Violinkonzert für Reményi, vn, orch	1860
Remarks : no MS exists, despite citations in Raabe and Searle
S50				Polonaise martiale, pf	1860
Remarks : listed in Schnapp (no.62)
S51	761		1389	Chopin's Marche funèbre, op.35, org, vc, pf	1860s
Remarks : from Sonata op.35; mentioned in A. Habets, ed.: Borodine et Liszt (Paris, 1893; Eng. trans., 1895); see also S41
S52				Trauermarsch, orch	1861
Remarks : not the same as S41; Sitwell (H1934) gives the wrong date
S53	15/1	491	779c	Psalm xxiii, chorus, orch	1862
Remarks : listed in Schnapp (no.64); see also J10, K1
S54	[17]	[493]	[780]	Der 137. Psalm (An den Wassern zu Babylon), chorus, orch	1862
Remarks : mentioned in letter to C. Sayn-Wittgenstein, 12 Jan 1872; see also J11, K2
S55	743		1377	Soldiers’ chorus from Faust [Gounod], pf	1864
Remarks : mentioned in letter to H. von Bülow, 20 Dec 1866; listed in Schnapp (no.67); 1st perf. Rome, 20 Dec 1866
S56	749		1382	Radovsky's Preussischer Armeemarsch, pf	after 1866
Remarks : mentioned in Thouret's Katalog der Musikbibliothek im Schlosse zu Berlin (?1895)
S57	757		922	Le triomphe funèbre du Tasse, 2 pf	1866–9
Remarks : listed in Schnapp (no.68)
S58			947	Ave Maris Stella, hp	1877
Remarks : mentioned in letter to Kahnt, 12 Dec 1877; listed in Schnapp (no.77)
S59	760	[409]	1245	Cantico del sol di S Francesco, org	1881
Remarks : mentioned in letter to C. Sayn-Wittgenstein, 6 Oct 1881; see also A301, A307, E35, F2, I9
S60	768		1257	Der ewige Jude [C.F.D. Schubart], melodrama, pf orch	1881
Remarks : mentioned in Gottschalg (E1910) and Grove1–4; listed in Schnapp (no.79)
S61	133	475	1256	Die Wiege, 4 vn	1881
Remarks : version for 4 vn listed in Göllerich (H1908), but 1st perf. Rome, 22 Oct 1881, was for str qt; listed in Schnapp (no.84); see also A303, A310, B55, G38
S62	711		1395	Csárdas macabre, orch	?1882
Remarks : mentioned in Göllerich (A1908), 278 and listed in Schnapp (no.81); transcr. by G. Darvos not based on authentic material
S63	721		1276	Prelude, vn, ?pf	1882
Remarks : ded. L. Helbig; listed in Schnapp (no.83)

planned compositions or transcriptions

all listed in Chiappari, but most unnumbered



LW	S/C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Composed

T1		Consuelo (op, George Sand)	1842
Remarks : ded. 1842; mentioned in RGMP (29 Oct and 5 Nov 1843)
T2		Le corsaire, op	1842
Remarks : mentioned in letter to M. d'Agoult, 11 April 1842
T3	c1379	Trauermarsch, pf	?1843–4
T4		Les djins, Les Haleines vv, orch	1840s
Remarks : mentioned in sketchbook inventory
T5		Rêves et fantaisies, pf	1840s
Remarks : alternative title for a version of A132/1
T6		La divina commedia (J. Autran), ?op	1845
Remarks : possibly used in G14
T7		Les laboreurs (Les matelots; Les soldats) (F. Lamennais), male vv, pf	1845
Remarks : planned as continuation of M21; mentioned in letters to Lamennais, 28 April and 1 May 1845; see also L3
T8		Richard in Palestine (op, W. Scott)	1846
Remarks : mentioned in letter to M. d’ Agoult, 3 Jan 1847
T9		Marguerite, op	1846
Remarks : mentioned in letters to Grand Duke Alexander (6 Oct 1846) and M. d'Agoult (14 April 1846)
T10		Spartacus (op, O.L.B. Wolff)	1848
T11		Le ciel et la terre (Himmel und Erde), oratorio	1849
Remarks : supposedly to text by Wagner, after Byron; mentioned in letter to Wagner, 28 Oct 1849
T12		Faust, op	1850
Remarks : mentioned in letter to M. d'Agoult, 27 Jan 1846; probably based on A. Dumas or lib by G. de Nerval; ?abandoned in favour of G12
T13		Symphonie, D [Schubert], 2 pf	1850
Remarks : mentioned in letters to B&H, 4 Jan 1850; perhaps pubd under Klindworth’s name; listed in Chiappari, p.320
T14		Tempête (Musik zu Shakespeare's Sturm), orch	1853
Remarks : mentioned in letters to C. Sayn-Wittgenstein (23 Sept 1853) and F. von Dingelstedt (22 Nov 1855 and 20 Feb 1856)
T15		Musik zur Orestie, orch	1853–5
Remarks : mentioned in letters to C. Sayn-Wittgenstein (23 Sept 1853) and F. von Dingelstedt (22 Nov 1855)
T16		2 masses	1856
T17		Kahma, La bohémienne (op, O. Roquette)	1858
Remarks : lib in D-WRgs
T18		János (Janká, der ungarische Rosshirt) (op, S. Mosenthal, after C. Beck)	1858
Remarks : mentioned in letters to C. Sayn-Wittgenstein, 29 March, and 19 and 27 April 1858
T19		Schlusschor aus dem Barbier von Bagdad (Salemaleikum) [P. Cornelius], pf	1859
T20		Liturgie catholique: liturgie romaine, vocal	1860–61
T21		Die Weltgeschichte in Tönen und Bildern: Nimrod, Jerusalem, Der Turm von Babel, The Glory of Greece, orch	1862
Remarks : after W. von Kaulbach’s murals in Berlin
T22		Beethoven String Quartets, pf	1863
T23		St Etienne, roi d'Hongrie (M. Jokai, after K. Ábrányi), chorus, orch	1869
T24		Schiffsjung, vocal	1870
T25		Messe du couronnement, pf 4 hands	1870
T26		Chopin [2 works], pf, orch	1871
Remarks : mentioned in Gottschalg (E1910)
T27		Fiedler der heiligen Cäcilia (T. Körner), chorus, orch	1871
Remarks : mentioned in Gottschalg (E1910)
T28		Miserere, chorus, orch	1874
T29		Psalm xv, chorus, orch	1874
T30		Magnificat, chorus orch	1874
T31		The Golden Legend (melodrama), pf/orch	1874–5
Remarks : continuation of L15
T32		Psalm xiv, chorus, orch	1875
T33	s577a, c1350–61	John Field: Nocturnes nos.1–9, 14 and 18, and Nocturne pastorale, E, pf 4 hands	1877
Remarks : nos.1–9 advertised by Schuberth in NZM, lxxiii (1877), 21 Dec; see U7
T34		Le devin du village, pf	1883
Remarks : mentioned in letters to Michaelis; Liszt's failing eyesight prevented work on this piece
T35		Consolations des misères de ma vie (J.-J. Rousseau), pf	1883
Remarks : mentioned in letter to Michaelis
T36		Ungarische Bildnisse, orch	1885
Remarks : transcr. of A335
T37		Csárdás di Somogy, pf	1886
T38		Le troubadour [op by A. Mackenzie], pf	1886
Remarks : mentioned in Sitwell (H1934), 353
T39		Das Geburtsfest, op
T40		Die Braut, op
T41		Der Saalstrudel, op
T42		Semele, op
Remarks : planned libretto by Karl Ritter, after F. von Schiller
T43		St Hubert (H. Riedl), op
T44		Camoens, op
T45	s706, c1397	Benedictus, vv
T46		Die beide jungen Gesellen, op

editions



LW	C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Revised Liszt

U1	Rev.20	M. Clementi: Préludes et exercices, pf	1826
Published : Paris: Dufaut & Dubois–Boisselot, 1826/7†, Saint-Etienne, 1868 (new edn)
Remarks : Liszt’s own Etudes (A8) are mentioned on title page of 1st edn as 3rd vol.
U2	Rev.2	J.S. Bach: Fantaisie chromatique, pf	before 1846
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, before 1846
U3		J.S. Bach: Fugue, a, pf	before 1846
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, before 1846
U4	Rev.3–5	J.S. Bach: 3 préludes et fugues [5vv, 3vv, 5vv], c, pf	before 1846
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, before 1846
U5	Rev.24	G.F. Handel: Prélude at Fugue, e, pf	before 1846
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, before 1846
U6	Rev.30	D. Scarlatti: Katzenfuge, pf	before 1846
Published : Berlin: Schlesinger, before 1846
U7	Rev.22	J. Field: 18 nocturnes, pf	c1850–70
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, 1850 (nos.1–6), c1860–70 (complete)
Remarks : according to Raabe only nos.1–10 and 12 rev. Liszt (Raabe, p.363); Liszt’s preface also pubd in Gesammelte Schriften, iv; see T33
U8		Das Pianoforte: Ausgewählte Sammlung älterer und neuerer Original-Compositionen, 2 vols.
Published : Stuttgart: Hallberger, 1857 (vol.i), n.d. (ii)
Remarks : vol.i incl. A188
U9	Rev.7–15	Ludwig van Beethovens Sämtliche Kompositionen: erste vollständige Gesammtausgabe unter Revision von Franz Liszt und C. Geissler
Published : Wolfenbüttel: Holle, 1857–61
Remarks : Liszt apparently responsible only for pf sonatas and pf qts; see Raabe, p.363
U10	Rev.23	A.W. Gottschalg: Repertorium für Orgel, Harmonium oder Pedalflügel	c1860–77
Published : Leipzig and New York: Schuberth, 1869† (vol.i), 1873† (ii), 1877† (iii)
Remarks : rev and with addl material by Liszt; 2 more vols. planned but not pubd (list of contents in vol.iii)
U11	Rev.27	J.N. Hummel: Mädchenlieder	1861
Published : Weimar: Böhlau, 1861
Remarks : collab. Hoffmann von Fallersleben; ed. A. Bräunlich and A.W. Gottschalg
U12	Rev.25	J.N. Hummel: Grosses Septett op.74	?1866
Published : Leipzig: Schuberth, c1866–7
Remarks : also pubd as qnt (pr, str); see also A155)
U13	Rev.35–6	C.M. von Weber: Ausgewählte Sonaten und Solostücke für das Pianoforte: 2 vols., i: sonatas opp.24, 39, 49, 70; ii: Momento capriccioso op.12, Grande polonaise op.21, Rondeau brillant op.62, Aufforderung zum Tanz op.65, Polacca brillante op.72, Conzertstück op.79	1868–74
Published : Stuttgart: Cotta'sche Buchhandlung, 1871† (i), 1875 (i, rev.), 1875† (ii), 1883 (ii, rev.)
Remarks : vol.i and opp.12, 72, 79 with addl ‘variants’ by Liszt; see also Raabe, p.364
U14/1–3	Rev.31	F. Schubert: Ausgewählte Sonaten, Solostücke und Compositionen, i–iii, pf [i:d760, 845, 850, 894; ii: d145, 146, 365, 734, 779, 780, 783, 899, 924, 935; iii: ed. Liszt, rev. Lebert]	1868–74
Published : Stuttgart: Cotta'sche Buchhandlung, 1871† (i), 1875 (rev.) (vols.i–ii), 1880† (iii)
Remarks : i–ii: new finale for d760 and all with addl ‘variants’; iii rev. S. Lebert; see also Raabe, p.363
U15	Rev.34	R. Viole: Die Gartenlaube, 100 études op.50, pf	?1869
Published : Leipzig: Kahnt, c1869–70
Remarks : see also Raabe, p.363
U16	Rev.18	F. Chopin: 24 Preludes op.28	1877–8
Published : Leipzig: B&H, 1878†
Remarks : see also Raabe, p.363
U17	Rev.32	F. Schubert: Ausgewählte Sonaten, Solostücke und Compositionen, iv–v, pf 4 hands [iv: incl. d602, 733, 783, 813, 818, 819; v: incl. d823/2–3, 940, 968a]	1877–9
Published : Stuttgart: Cotta’sche Buchhandlung, 1880†
Remarks : collab. S. Lebert, works ed. by him not listed here; see also Raabe, p.363
U18		J. Haydn: Collection complète des oeuvres, pour piano seul … nouvelle édition … par F. Liszt [10 bks]	n.d.
Published : Paris: Richault, n.d.
Remarks : Liszt’s contribution unknown
See also A296, C28–30

corrections and additions to works by other composers



LW	S/R/C	Original composer, work	Composition date (Liszt)

V1		Hermann [H. Cohen]: Les contre-temps, grande valse brillante, pf	1838–9
Remarks, publication : corrections to MS copy
V2		B. Smetana: Stammbuch Blätter, bk 3	1854
Remarks, publication : variants to nos.13 (op.5/1), 15 (op.5/3), 16 (op. posth.), 17 (op.4/3), 18 (op.5/4); only nos. 17–18 accepted by Smetana; orig. pubd Prague, 1858 (opp.4–5), 1903 (op. posth.); Liszt’s versions pubd Prague: Supraphon, 1968
V3	cRev.29	J. Raff: Valse, A, pf	?1854
Remarks, publication : introduction and finale by Liszt: pubd in L. Ramann: Liszt-Pädagogium (Leipzig, 1901), v
V4	s405a, c752	L. Festetics: Magyar nóták: Pásztor lakodalmas (Mélodies hongroises: Les noces du pâtre), pf	1858
Remarks, publication : corrections to autograph (lost), pubd Vienna: Glöggl, 1859; see E. Major (J1940)
V5	s554a, r239a, c1348	A. Rubinstein: Etude, C, pf	after 1867
Remarks, publication : introduction and addl material; MS in US-Wc
V6	cRev.18	F. Chopin: Sonata, b, op.58, pf	?c1870–71
Remarks, publication : variants to finale; facs. of frags. in R. Bory: La vie de Chopin par l’image (Geneva, 1936), 166 and S. François: ‘Le très grand pianiste, Chopin’, Génies et réalités (Paris, 1965)
V7	cRev.6	G. Beliczay: Aquarellen, op.26, pf	1871
Remarks, publication : corrections to autograph; incl. in orig. pubn, Leipzig: B&H, c1882/3
V8/1–2		H. Maréchal: 1 Bonjour! Aubade (E. Bertin), 2 Les cloches du soir (M. Desbordes Valmore) lv, pf	c1872/3
Remarks, publication : corrections to orig. pubn, Paris: Colombier, c1870 (no.1), c1872/3 (no.2); MS in F-Pn
V9	cRev.21	F. Erkel: I. Király-hymnus (E.Szigligeti), chorus, orch	1873
Remarks, publication : corrections to MS score; excerpts in M. Eckhardt (A1986), 218–23
V10		A. Ritter: In der Christmette, vn, org	after 1873
Remarks, publication : corrections to orig. pubn, Leipzig: Schuberth, 1873: rev. copy in H-Bl
V11		composer unknown, 4 dances, e, G, g, G, vn, pf	1875
Remarks, publication : corrections and addns; MS in F-Pgm
V12	s383a, c1240	K. Ábrányi (the elder): Virág-dal (Chant des Fleurs), pf	1880
Remarks, publication : introduction, corrections and addns to orig. pubn, Budapest, c1876; incl. addns etc., Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1986; ed. M. Eckhardt (A1986), 203–14
V13		L. Gizycka-Zamoyska: Sérénade allemande, pf	1880
Remarks, publication : corrections to orig. pubn, Leipzig: Kahnt, 1880; copy in H-Bl
V14	c1386	J.S. Bach: Chaconne from bwv1004, transcr. G. Zichy, pf left hand	1880
Remarks, publication : variants to Zichy’s transcr., MSS lost; incl. variants, Hamburg and St Petersburg: Rahter-Büttner, 1881; listed in Schnapp (no.78)
V15	s167a, r113a, c1302	C. Tausig: Valses-caprices d’après J. Strauss, III. Wahlstimmen [op.250]	?1883–5
Remarks, publication : introduction and finale by Liszt; facs. in Liszt Society Journal, xiv (1989), suppl., 18–19; pubd E. Mach (1980) as ‘Ruhig’
V16	cRev.33	B. Smetana: Polka de salon, F, op.7/1, pf	1885
Remarks, publication : introduction and finale by Liszt; orig. pubd Prague, 1854; with addns in L. Ramann: Liszt-Pädagogium (Leipzig, 1901), v; facs. in HR, ii (1909)
V17		Beethoven: Die Ehre Gottes aus der Natur, op.48/4, arr. A.W. Gottschalg, male vv, org
Remarks, publication : corrections to MS copy, in D-WRgs
V18		R. Schumann: Die Davidsbündler, op.6/14, arr. Gottschalg, org
Remarks, publication : corrections to MS copy, in D-WRgs
V19		H. Gobbi: 7ème valse, op.19, pf
Remarks, publication : corrections to orig. pubn, Pest: Táborsky & Parsch, c1868; rev. copy in H-Bl
V20		O. Lessmann: Tarantella-Impromptu, op.25, pf
Remarks, publication : corrections to orig. pubn, Berlin: Fürstner, c1880; rev. copy in Bl

doubtful works



LW	S	R	C	Title (subtitle/alternative title)	Composed

W1			10/2	Fünf Variationen über die Romanze aus der Oper ‘Joseph’ von Méhul, pf	1824
Published/Collected editions : NLE ii/1
Remarks : attrib. Liszt but by F.X. Mozart (op.23)
W2	630	352	315	Réminiscences de Robert le diable [Meyerbeer], pf 4 hands	1841–3
Published/Collected editions : Berlin: Schlesinger, ?1843†
Remarks : see A78
W3	747		1380	Poco adagio, pf	[1847]
Remarks : from I2; mentioned in Catalogue of the Music Loan Exhibition of the Worshipful Company of Musicians, London 1904 (London, 1909), 286
W4	766		884	Der Papsthymnus, song	1864
Published/Collected editions : Leipzig: Kahnt, n.d.†
Remarks : based on E19a
W5	756		998	Mosonyi’s Grabgeleit	1870
Published/Collected editions : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1871†
Remarks : arr. of A249
W6	723a		1008	Orpheus, chbr ens	1871
Remarks : composed by L.A. Zellner; 1st perf., Budapest, 16 Feb 1871, with Liszt and Reményi
W7	611	332	1031	Epithalam zu Eduard Reményi‘s Vermählungs-feier	1872
Published/Collected editions : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, 1872†
W8	767		1399	Excelsior!, 1v, org	1874
Published/Collected editions : Hamburg: Schuberth, n.d.
Remarks : see also L15
W9	712		1222/2	Romance oubliée, orch	1881
Published/Collected editions : Hanover: Bachmann, n.d.
Remarks : doubtful; see also A299, D16
W10	543	214	1250/2	Ungarns Gott, pf 4 hands	?1881
W11	618	300	1307	Csárdás obstiné	?1884
Published/Collected editions : Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, ?1886
W12	623	312	1336	[18.] Ungarische Rhapsodie	1885
Published/Collected editions : ?Budapest: Táborszky & Parsch, ?1885†
Remarks : arr. of A132/18, mentioned in A1908
W13	623a		1335	[19.] Ungarische Rhapsodie (nach Ábrányi)	?1885
Published/Collected editions : Vienna: [unknown], n.d.†
Remarks : arr. of A132/19
W14	126a		1338	Piano Concerto in the Hungarian style, pf, orch	1885
Published/Collected editions : New York: 1909†
Remarks : it is unlikely that the concerto mentioned by Liszt in 1885 and referred to by Göllerich (A1908) and Gottschalg (E1910) is the work arr. S. Menter and orchd Tchaikovsky (pubd New York, 1909, as Hungarian Gypsy Songs); Liszt’s autograph frag. (‘3tes Conzert’, Q20) does not contain gypsy elements
W15	737	109	1371/2	Trois morceaux en style de danse ancien hongrois, pf
Remarks : orig. pieces not by Liszt; see E. Major: ‘Három – tévesen Liszt Ferencnek tulajdonitott kompozicióról’, Zenei szemle, x (1926) 21–8
W16	736		1371/1	Kerepesi csárdás, pf
Remarks : doubtful according to Searle; mentioned in H-Bn catalogue (1911)

WRITINGS

editions

Franz Liszt: Gesammelte Schriften, 6 vols., ed. and trans. L. Ramann, except i (Leipzig, 1880–83/R)

i: Friedrich Chopin (1852) (trans. La Mara [M. Lipsius])

ii/1: Zur Stellung des Künstlers (1835); Über die zukünftige Kirchenmusik (1835); Über Volksausgaben bedeutender Werke (1836); Über Meyerbeers Hugenotten (1837); Thalbergs Grande fantaisie und Caprices (1837) [on op.22 and opp.15 and 19]; Robert Schumanns Klavier-Kompositionen (1837) [on opp.5, 11 and 14]; Paganini: ein Nekrolog (1840)

ii/2: Reisebriefe eines Baccalaureus der Tonkunst (1835–40) [letters to G. Sand, A. Pictet, L. de Ronchaud, M. Schlesinger and M. d’Ortigue]

iii: Dramaturgische Blätter (1849–56) [incl. articles on 19th-century ops]

iv: Aus den Annalen des Fortschritts (1855–9) [essays on Berlioz, Robert and Clara Schumann, Franz, Sobolewski and Field]

v: Streifzüge: kritische, polemische und zeithistorische Essays (1850–58)

vi: Die Zigeuner und ihre Musik in Ungarn (1859, rev. 1881)

Franz Liszt: Sämtliche Schriften, ed. D. Altenburg (Wiesbaden, 1989–) [in progress; 9 vols. projected]

iii: Die Goethe-Stiftung

iv: Lohengrin et Tannhäuser

v: Dramaturgische Blätter

Franz Liszt: Artiste et société: édition des textes en français, ed. R. Stricker (Paris, 1995)

articles

originally published in Gazette musicale de Paris (later RGMP) unless otherwise stated

(a) Lettres d’un bachelier ès musique

‘Lettre d’un voyageur: à M. George Sand’ (6 Dec 1835)

‘A un poète voyageur’ [George Sand] (12 Feb 1837)

[A George Sand] (16 July 1837)

‘A M. Adolphe Pictet’ (11 Feb 1838)

‘A Louis de Ronchaud’ (25 March 1838)

‘La Scala’ [Maurice Schlesinger] (27 May 1838)

‘A Heinrich Heine’ (8 July 1838)

‘Lake Como’ [Louis de Ronchaud] (22 July 1838)

‘A Lambert Massart’ (2 Sept 1838)

‘Le Persée de Benvenuto Cellini’ (13 Jan 1839)

‘De l’état de la musique en Italie’ [Maurice Schlesinger], Revue musicale (28 March 1839) [Thursday issue of RGMP]

‘La Sainte Cécile de Raphaël’ [Joseph d’Ortigue] (14 April 1839)

‘Venise’, L’artiste (16 June–11 Aug 1839) [in five instalments]

‘A Hector Berlioz’ (24 Oct 1839)

‘Gênes et Florence’, L’artiste (3 Nov 1839)

‘A Léon Kreutzer’ (19 Sept 1841)

ed. J. Chantavoine: Pages romantiques (Paris, 1912/R) [reprints of selected Gazette musicale articles]

ed. C. Suttoni: An Artist’s Journey: lettres d’un bachelier ès musique, 1835–1841 (Chicago, 1989) [Eng. trans.]

ed. R. Stricker: Lettres d’un bachelier ès musique (Paris, 1991)

(b) Other articles

‘De la situation des artistes et de leur condition dans la société’ (3 May, 10 May, 17 May, 26 July, 30 Aug, 11 Oct and 15 Nov, 1835) [incl. the article ‘De l’avenir de la musique d’église’]

‘Des publications à bon marché’ (3 Jan 1836)

‘Sur un concert au conservatoire’, Le monde (11 Dec 1836)

‘M. Thalberg: Grande Fantaisie, oeuvre 22’ (14 May 1837)

‘Reponse à M. le professeur Fétis’ (14 May 1837)

‘Trois morceaux dans le genre pathétique, par C.V. Alkan’ (22 Oct 1837)

‘Les oeuvres pianistiques de Robert Schumann’ (12 Nov 1837)

‘Sur Paganini, à propos de sa mort’ (23 Aug 1840)

‘Lettre au directeur de La Revue des Deux Mondes’ (22 Nov 1840)

‘Le concert Chopin’ (2 May 1841)

‘Sur le concert à Hamburg’ (19 Sept 1841)

‘Des Esquisses par F. Kroll et des Esquisses mignonnes par Ch. Reinecke, pour le piano’, La musique (1 July 1849)

Also prefaces to some of his compositions, incl.: Album d’un voyageur, 1835–6; Vallée d’Obermann, 1835–6; Transcriptions of Beethoven symphonies, 1838; each of his 13 Symphonic Poems, 1854–81; 2 Légendes: 1, St François d’Assise: la prédication aux oiseaux, 2, St François de Paule marchant sur les flots, 1864; Via Crucis, 1878

books and essays from later years

De la fondation Goethe à Weimar (Leipzig, 1851)

Lohengrin et Tannhäuser de Richard Wagner (Leipzig, 1851)

F. Chopin (Paris, 1852, new edn 1879/R; several Eng. trans., incl. 1863, 1877 and 1899 as Life of Chopin, 1963 as Frederic Chopin) [orig. pubd by instalments in La France musicale, 5 Feb–17 Aug 1851]

Des bohémiens et de leur musique en Hongrie (Paris, 1859, 2/1881/R; Eng. trans., 1926/R, as The Gypsy in Music) [orig. pubd by instalment in La France musicale, July–Aug 1859]

Über John Fields Nocturne (Leipzig, 1859)

R. Schumann’s musikalische Haus- und Lebensregeln (Leipzig, 1860)

Robert Franz (Leipzig, 1872)

a: catalogues, bibliographies

BIBLIOGRAPHY

b: genealogies and iconographies

c: letters to and from liszt

d: other correspondence

e: memoirs, recollections and reminiscences

f: liszt as author

g: folkloristic studies

h: biographical studies

i: analysis and criticism

j: other studies

k: specialist publications

a: catalogues, bibliographies

A. Conradi and F. Liszt: Programme général des morceaux exécutés par F. Liszt à ses concerts de 1838 à 1848 (MS, 1843–9, D-WRgs)

C. Sayn-Wittgenstein: Catalogue of works (MS, 1848–58, D-WRgs)

F. Liszt: Thematisches Verzeichnis der Werke, Bearbeitungen und Transcriptionen von F. Liszt (Leipzig, 1855, 2/1877)

L. Friwitzer: ‘Chronologisch-systematisches Verzeichnis sämtlicher Tonwerke Franz Liszts’, Musikalische Chronik, v (1887)

A. Göllerich: Franz Liszt (Berlin, 1908), 272–331

A. Göllerich: ‘Zur Erinnerung an Franz Liszt’, NZM, lxxxiii (1887), 145–6, 169–70, 203 only, 237 only, 272–5, 375–6, 428–9, 440–41

G. Kinsky: Musikhistorisches Museum von Wilhelm Heyer in Cöln: Katalog, iv (Cologne, 1916)

P. Raabe: Franz Liszt (Stuttgart, 1931, 2/1968), ii, 241–364; suppl., 7

L. Koch: Liszt Ferenc bibliográfiai kísérlet [Towards a Liszt bibliography] (Budapest, 1936)

F. Schnapp: ‘Verschollene Kompositionen Franz Liszts’, Von deutscher Tonkunst: Festschrift zu Peter Raabes 70. Geburtstag, ed. A. Morgenroth (Leipzig, 1942), 119–53

H. Searle: The Music of Liszt (London, 1954, rev. 2/1966), 155–95

M. Eckhardt and C. Knotik: Franz Liszt und sein Kreis in Briefen und Dokumenten aus den Beständen des Burgenländischen Landesmuseums (Eisenstadt, 1983)

M. Eckhardt: Franz Liszt’s Music Manuscripts in the National Széchényi Library, Budapest (Budapest, 1986)

M. Eckhardt, ed.: Liszt Ferenc Memorial Museum (Budapest, 1986)

C. Suttoni: ‘Franz Liszt’s Published Correspondence: an Annotated Bibliography’, FAM, xxvi (1979), 191–234; rev. Journal of the American Liszt Society, no.25 (1989) [whole issue]; 3/ in preparation

E.H. Auman and R.A.White, eds.: The Music Manuscripts, First Editions, and Correspondence of Franz Liszt (1811–1886) in the Collections of the Music Division, Library of Congress (Washington DC, 1991)

M. Saffle: Franz Liszt: a Guide to Research (New York, 1991)

R. Charnin Mueller: ‘Liszt’s Catalogues and Inventories of his Music’, SMH, xxiv (1992), 231–50

M. Eckhardt, ed.: Liszt Ferenc hagyatéka [Franz Liszt’s estate] (Budapest, 1993); i: Könyvek [Books]; ii: Zenemüvek [Music]

E. Liepsch: ‘Der Nachlass Franz Liszt in Weimar’, Das Goethe- und Schiller-Archiv 1896–1996: Beiträge aus dem ältesten deutschen Literaturarchiv, ed. J. Golz (Weimar, 1996), 347–52

R. Charnin Mueller: Thematisches Verzeichnis der Werke Franz Liszts (in preparation)

b: genealogies and iconographies

J. Hárich: ‘Liszt Ferenc családja és az Esterházy hercegek’ [Franz Liszt’s family and the Princes Esterházy], Napkelet, ix (Budapest, 1934)

D. Bartha: Franz Liszt, 1811–1886: sein Leben in Bildern (Leipzig, 1936)

R. Bory: La vie de Franz Liszt par l'image (Geneva, 1936)

W. Füssmann and B. Mátéka: Franz Liszt: ein Künstlerleben in Wort und Bild (Langensalza, 1936)

H.E. Wamser: Abstammung und Familie Liszts (Eisenstadt, 1936)

I. Cekey: Liszt Ferenc származása és hazafisága [The descent and national identity of Franz Liszt] (Budapest, 1937)

E. Ritter von Liszt: Abstammung, Familie, Begebenheiten (Vienna and Leipzig, 1937)

A. Valkó: ‘A Liszt család a levéltári iratok tükrében’[Archive documents in the National Széchényi Library concerning the Liszt family], Magyar Zene, i (1961), 388–99, 498–507

H. Weilguny and W. Handrick: Franz Liszt: Biographie in Bildern (Leipzig, 1961)

A. Buchner: Franz Liszt in Böhmen (Prague, 1962; Eng. trans., 1962)

Z. László and B. Mátéka: Franz Liszt: sein Leben in Bildern (Kassel, 1967; Eng. trans., 1969)

E. Békefi: Liszt Ferenc származása és családja [Liszt’s family and its origins] (Budapest, 1973)

E. Burger: Franz Liszt: eine Lebenschronik in Bildern und Dokumenten (Munich, 1986; Eng. trans., 1989)

A. Fodor: Liszt Ferenc arcai: fotáportré [The faces of Ferenc Liszt: photographic portraits] (Budapest, 1986)

c: letters to and from liszt

Briefwechsel zwischen Wagner und Liszt (Leipzig, 1887)

La Mara [M. Lipsius], ed.: Franz Liszts Briefe, i–viii (Leipzig, 1893–1905; Eng. trans. of vols. i–ii, 1894/R); i: Von Paris bis Rom; ii: Von Rom bis an’s Ende; iii: Briefe an eine Freundin [Agnes Street-Klindworth]; iv–vii: Briefe an die Fürstin Sayn-Wittgenstein; viii: Neue Folge zu Band I und II

La Mara [M. Lipsius], ed.: Briefe hervorragender Zeitgenossen an Franz Liszt, iii (Leipzig, 1895–1904)

La Mara [M. Lipsius], ed.: Briefwechsel zwischen Franz Liszt und Hans von Bülow (Leipzig, 1898)

La Mara [M. Lipsius], ed.: Briefwechsel zwischen Franz Liszt und Carl Alexander, Grossherzog von Sachsen (Leipzig, 1909)

La Mara [M. Lipsius], ed.: Franz Liszts Briefe an seine Mutter (Leipzig, 1918)

H. Raff: ‘Franz Liszt und Joachim Raff im Spiegel ihrer Briefe’, Die Musik, i (1901–2), 36–44, 113–23, 285–93, 387–404, 499–505; ii (1902–3), 688–95, 861–71, 977–86, 1161–72, 1272–86, 1423–41

A. Stern, ed.: Liszts Briefe an Carl Gille (Leipzig, 1903)

E. Istel, ed.: ‘Elf ungedruckte Briefe Liszts an Schott’, Die Musik, v/3 (1905–6), 43–52

V. Csapó, ed.: Liszt Ference levelei baró Augusz Antalhoz, 1846–78 [Liszt’s letters to Baron Antal Augusz] (Budapest, 1911)

E. Reuss, ed.: Franz Liszt in seinen Briefen (Stuttgart, 1911)

J. Kapp: ‘Aus Weimars musikalischer Glanzzeit: mit mehreren unveröffentlichen Briefen Franz Liszts’, Die Musik, xi/4 (1911–12), 223–32

J. Kapp, ed.: ‘Autobiographisches von Franz Liszt’, Die Musik, xi/1 (1911–12), 10–21

N. de Gutmansthal: Souvenirs de François Liszt: lettres inédites (Leipzig, 1913)

R. Bory, ed.: ‘Correspondance inédite de Liszt et de la Princesse Marie Sayn-Wittgenstein’, ReM, ix/7–11 (1927–8), 47–59

R. Bory: ‘Diverses lettres inédites de Liszt’, Schweizerisches Jb für Musikwissenschaft, iii (1928), 5–25

F. Schnapp, ed.: Liszts Testament: aus dem Französischen ins Deutsche übertragen (Weimar, 1931)

D. Ollivier, ed.: Correspondance de Liszt et de la Comtesse d’Agoult, 1833–1840, ii (Paris, 1933–4)

F. Schnapp, ed.: ‘Briefe Franz Liszts und seine Familie’, Die Musik, xxviii (1935–6), 662–72

D. Ollivier, ed.: Correspondance de Liszt et de sa fille Mme Emile Ollivier (Paris, 1936)

D. Ollivier: Autour de Madame d’Agoult et de Liszt (Paris, 1941)

H.E. Hugo, ed.: The Letters of Franz Liszt to Marie zu Sayn-Wittgenstein (Cambridge, MA, 1953)

M. Prahács, ed.: Franz Liszt: Briefe aus ungarischen Sammlungen, 1835–1886 (Budapest and Kassel, 1966)

E.N. Waters and W.R.Tyler, eds.: The Letters of Franz Liszt to Olga von Meyendorff, 1871–86 (Washington DC, 1979)

L. Eösze: 119 Római Liszt-Dokumentum (Budapest, 1980) [containing letters to Liszt’s pupil Giovanni Sgambati]

L. Vendel-Mohay: Liszt-emlékek Szekszárdon [Liszt memories in Szekszárd] (Szekszárd, 1986)

P-A. Huré and C. Knepper, eds.: Franz Liszt: correspondance (Paris, 1987)

H.R. Jung, ed.: Franz Liszt in seinen Briefen (Berlin, 1987)

H. Kesting, ed.: Franz Liszt-Richard Wagner Briefwechsel (Frankfurt, 1988)

M. Eckhardt, ed.: Liszt Ferenc válogatott levelei: ifjúság – virtuóz évek – Weimar (1824-1861) [Selected letters of Franz Liszt: youth – the virtuoso years – Weimar] (Budapest, 1989)

K. Hamburger, ed.: Franz Liszt: lettres à Cosima et à Daniela (Liège, 1996)

P. Pocknell, ed.: ‘Franz Liszt: Fifteen Autograph Letters (1841-1883)’, Journal of the American Liszt Society, no.39 (1996) [whole issue]

d: other correspondence

La Mara, ed.: Briefe von Hector Berlioz an die Fürstin Carolyne von Sayn-Wittgenstein (Leipzig, 1903)

R. Wagner: Briefe an Hans von Bülow (Jena, 1916)

S. Joubert, ed.: Une correspondance romantique: Madame d’Agoult, Liszt, Henri Lehmann (Paris, 1947)

A. Troisier de Diaz, ed.: Emile Ollivier et Carolyne de Sayn-Wittgenstein: correspondance, 1858–1887 (Paris, 1984)

C. Dupêchez, ed.: Marie d’Agoult-George Sand: correspondance (Paris, 1995)

A. Williams, ed. and trans.: Franz Liszt: Selected Letters (Oxford, 1999)

e: memoirs, recollections and reminiscences

G. Sand: Lettres d’un voyageur (Paris, 1837, many later edns)

G. Sand: Histoire de ma vie, xx (Paris, 1854–5, many later edns)

G. Eliot: ‘Three Months in Weimar’, Fraser’s Magazine, li (1855), 699–706

G. Eliot: ‘Liszt, Wagner, and Weimar’, Fraser’s Magazine, lii (1855), 48–62

W. von Lenz: Die grossen Pianoforte-virtuosen unserer Zeit (Berlin, 1872)

D. Stern [M. d’Agoult]: Mes souvenirs, 1806–33 (Paris, 1877); ed. C. Dupêchez (Paris, 1990)

D. Stern [M. d’Agoult]: Mémoires, 1833–1854, ed. D. Ollivier (Paris, 1927/R), ed. C. Dupêchez (Paris, 1990)

A. Fay: Music-Study in Germany, ed. M. Fay Peirce (Chicago, 1880/R, many later edns)

J. Wohl: François Liszt: souvenirs d’une compatriote (Paris, 1887; Eng. trans., 1887)

A. Marmontel: Les pianistes célèbres (Paris, 1887), 303–22

B. Walker: My Musical Experiences (London, 1890)

A. Habets, ed.: Borodine et Liszt (Paris, 1893; Eng. trans., 1895)

C.E and M. Hallé, eds.: Life and Letters of Sir Charles Hallé (London, 1896; abridged 1972 by M. Kennedy as The Autobiography of Charles Hallé)

J. Vianna da Motta: Einige Beobachtungen über Franz Liszt (Munich, 1898)

W. Weissheimer: Erlebnisse mit Richard Wagner, Franz Liszt und vielen anderen Zeitgenossen nebst deren Briefen (Stuttgart, 1898)

W. Mason: Memories of a Musical Life (New York, 1901)

C. Salaman: ‘Pianists of the Past’, Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, clxx (1901), 307–50

E. Sauer: Meine Welt (Stuttgart, 1901)

A. von Schorn, ed.: Zwei Menschenalter: Erinnerungen und Briefe (Berlin, 1901, 2/1913)

La Mara [M. Lipsius], ed.: Aus der Glanzzeit der Weimarer Altenburg: Bilder und Briefe aus dem Leben der Fürstin Carolyne von Sayn-Wittgenstein (Leipzig, 1906)

A.W. Gottschalg: Franz Liszt in Weimar und seine letzten Lebensjahre: Erinnerungen und Tagebuchnotizen (Berlin, 1910) [with 48 letters by Liszt]

C. Wagner: Franz Liszt: ein Gedenkblatt von seiner Tochter (Munich, 1911)

K. von Schlözer: Römische Briefe, 1864–1869 (Stuttgart, 1913)

La Mara [M. Lipsius]: Durch Musik und Leben im Dienste des Ideals, ii (Leipzig, 1917)

L. de Hegermann-Lindencrone: In the Courts of Memory (New York, 1925)

La Mara [M. Lipsius]: An der Schwelle des Jenseits (Leipzig, 1925)

V. Boissier: Liszt pédagogue (Paris, 1927/R; Eng. trans., 1974)

M. Herwegh: Au printemps des dieux (Paris, 1930)

G. Végh, ed.: ‘Liszt Ferenc kiadatlan naplója’ [Ferenc Liszt’s unpublished diary: memento journalier, 1861–1862], Muzsika (Budapest), ii/1–2 (1930), 22–33

M. Herwegh: Au banquet des dieux (Paris, 1931)

M. Herwegh: Au soir des dieux (Paris, 1931)

B. Kellermann: Erinnerungen: ein Künstlerleben, ed. S. Hausmann and H. Kellermann (Zürich, 1932)

A. Apponyi: Erlebnisse und Ergebnisse (Berlin, 1933; Eng. trans., 1935, as The Memoirs of Count Apponyi)

R. Bory: Liszt et ses enfants, Blandine, Cosima & Daniel (Paris, 1936)

T. Walter: Liszt Ferenc árvizi hangversenyei Bécsben, 1838–9 [Liszt’s charity concerts in Vienna, 1838–9, after the flood in Hungary], ed. Béla Csuka (Budapest, 1941)

F. Lamond: Memoirs (Glasgow, 1949), 63–75

J. Vier: François Liszt, l’artiste – le clerc: documents inédits (Paris, 1950)

P. Benary: ‘Liszt und Wagner in Briefen der Fürstin von Wittgenstein’, Mf, xii (1959), 468–73

A. Friedheim: Life and Liszt: the Recollections of a Concert Pianist (New York, 1961)

H. Weilguny: Das Liszthaus in Weimar (Weimar, 1963) [incl. Borodin’s recollections of Liszt]

C. Czerny: Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben (Baden-Baden, 1968)

W. Jerger: Franz Liszts Klavierunterricht von 1884–1886 dargestellt an den Tagebuchaufzeichnungen von August Göllerich (Regensburg, 1975; Eng. trans., rev., 1996)

M. Eckhardt, ed.: ‘Diary of a Wayfarer: the Wanderings of Franz Liszt and Marie d’Agoult in Switzerland, June–July 1835’, Journal of the American Liszt Society, xi (1982), 10–17 [based on Liszt’s personal diary of the time]

L. Ramann: Lisztiana: Erinnerungen an Franz Liszt in Tagebuchblättern, Briefen und Dokumenten aus den Jahren 1873–1886/87, ed. A. Seidl and F. Schnapp (Mainz, 1983)

D. Altenburg and R. Kleinertz, eds.: Franz Liszt: Tagebuch, 1827 (Bayreuth, 1986)

A. Williams, ed: Portrait of Liszt, by Himself and his Contemporaries (London, 1990)

A. Walker, ed.: Living with Liszt: from the Diary of Carl Lachmund, an American Pupil of Liszt, 1882–84 (Stuyvesant, NY, 1995, 2/1998)

f: liszt as author

E. Haraszti: ‘Franz Liszt: Author Despite Himself’, MQ, xxxiii (1947), 490–516

M. Eckhardt: ‘New Documents on Liszt as Author’, New Hungarian Quarterly, no.95 (1984), 181–94

A. Walker: ‘The Scribe of Weimar’, Franz Liszt: the Weimar Years (New York, 1989), 368–96

C. Suttoni: ‘Liszt the Writer’, Liszt & the Arts: a Collection of Papers Presented at a Liszt Centennial Celebration … Columbia University (New York, 1996), 64–73

g: folkloristic studies

S. Brassai: Magyar- vagy Czigány-Zene? Elmefuttatás Liszt Ferencz ‘Czigányokról’ in Könyve felett [Hungarian or gypsy music? Reflections on Franz Liszt’s book ‘On the Gypsies’] (Kolozsvár, 1860)

E. Haraszti: ‘La question tzigane-hongroise’, IMSCR I: Liège 1930, 140–45

Z. Gárdonyi: Die ungarischen Stileigentümlichkeiten in den musikalischen Werken Franz Liszts (diss., U. of Berlin, 1931)

Z. Gárdonyi: Liszt Ferenc magyar stilusa/Le style hongroise de François Liszt (Budapest, 1936)

B. Bartók: ‘Gypsy Music or Hungarian Music?’, MQ, xxxiii (1947), 240–57

B. Sárosi: Cigányzene [Gypsy music] (Budapest, 1971), 141–51

B. Bartók: ‘Liszt Problems’, Béla Bartók Essays, ed. B. Suchoff (London, 1976), 501–10

Liszt und die Nationalitäten: Eisenstadt 1994

h: biographical studies

J.W. Christern: Franz Liszt, nach seinem Leben und Werke, aus authentischen Berichten dargestellt (Hamburg, 1841)

L. Rellstab: Franz Liszt: Beurtheilungen–Berichte–Lebensskizze (Berlin, 1842; 2/1861)

G. Schilling: Franz Liszt: sein Leben und Wirken aus nächster Beschauung (Stuttgart, 1844)

La Mara [M. Lipsius]: Musikalische Studienköpfe, i (Leipzig, 1868, enlarged 2/1875–82) [many edns to 1913], 233–75

J. Schubert: Franz Liszts Biographie (Leipzig, 1871)

L. Ramann: Franz Liszt als Künstler und Mensch, i–iii (Leipzig, 1880–94; vol.i, Eng. trans. 1882)

O. Lessmann: Franz Liszt: eine Charakterstudie (Berlin, 1881)

L. Nohl: Liszt, i (Leipzig, 1882; Eng. trans., 1884/R, as Life of Liszt)

R. Pohl: Franz Liszt, Gesammelte Schriften über Musik und Musiker, ii (Leipzig, 1883/R)

O. Lessmann: Franz Liszt: eine Huldigung (New York, 1883)

R. Ledos de Beaufort: Franz Liszt: the Story of his Life (Boston, 1886, 2/1910) [incl. N. Helbig: ‘Franz Liszt in Rome’, 207–25]

A. Göllerich: Liszt, ii (Leipzig, 1887) [completion of Nohl, 1882]

B. Vogel: Franz Liszt: Abriss seines Lebens und Würdigung seiner Werke (Leipzig, 1888)

La Mara [M. Lipsius]: Classisches und Romantisches aus der Tonwelt (Leipzig, 1892)

O. Lüning: Franz Liszt: ein Apostel der Ideale (Zürich, 1896)

A. Hahn: Franz Liszt: sein Leben und seine Werke (Frankfurt, 1898)

E. Reuss: Franz Liszt (Leipzig, 1898)

R. Louis: Franz Liszt, Vorkämpfer des Jahrhunderts, ii (Berlin, 1900)

C. Bache: Brother Musicians: Reminiscences of Edward and Walter Bache (London, 1901)

M.D. Calvocoressi: Franz Liszt: biographie critique (Paris, 1905)

A. Göllerich: Franz Liszt (Berlin, 1908)

J. Kapp: Richard Wagner und Franz Liszt: eine Freundschaft (Berlin, 1908)

J. Kapp: Franz Liszt (Berlin, 1909, 20/1924)

J. Chantavoine: Liszt (Paris, 1910, 4/1920/R)

J. Kapp: Liszt-Brevier (Leipzig, 1910)

J.G. Huneker: Franz Liszt (New York, 1911/R)

La Mara [M. Lipsius]: Franz Liszt (Leipzig, 1911)

La Mara [M. Lipsius]: Liszt und die Frauen (Leipzig, 1911, 2/1919)

A. Sallès: Le centenaire de Liszt: Liszt à Lyon (Paris, 1911)

A. von Schorn: Das nachklassische Weimar (Weimar, 1911–12)

H. Thode: Franz Liszt (Heidelberg, 1911)

P. Bekker: Franz Liszt (Bielefeld, 1912)

J. Kapp: ‘Hector Berlioz über Franz Liszt’, Der Merker, iv (1912–13), 86–9

G. Hollitzer: Liszt Ferenc és a weimari irodalmi élet [Franz Liszt and the literary life of Weimar] (Budapest, 1913)

La Mara [M. Lipsius]: ‘Beethovens Weihekuss’, AMz, xl (1913), 544–6

J. Kapp: ‘Franz Liszt und Robert Schumann’, Die Musik, xiii/2 (1913–14), 67–85

P. Raabe: Grossherzog Carl Alexander und Liszt (Leipzig, 1918)

A. Mackenzie: Liszt (London, 1922)

R. Bory: Une retraite romantique en Suisse: Liszt et la Comtesse d’Agoult (Geneva, 1923, 2/1930)

K. Grunsky: Franz Liszt (Leipzig, 1924)

G. de Pourtalès: La vie de Franz Liszt (Paris, 1925, 2/1950; Eng. trans., 1926)

W. Wallace: Liszt, Wagner and the Princess (London and New York, 1927)

C. van Wessem: Franz Liszt (The Hague, 1927)

P. Raabe: Franz Liszt (Stuttgart, 1931; 2/1968)

E. Newman: The Life of Richard Wagner (London, 1933–47/R)

E. Newman: The Man Liszt: a Study of the Tragi-Comedy of a Soul Divided Against Itself (London, 1934/R)

S. Sitwell: Liszt (London, 1934, 2/1955/R)

H. Engel: Franz Liszt (Potsdam, 1936)

E. Haraszti: ‘Liszt à Paris: quelques documents inédits’, ReM, nos.162–5 (1936), 241–58

A. Hevesy: Liszt, ou Le roi Lear de la musique (Paris, 1936)

L. Nowak: Franz Liszt (Innsbruck, 1936)

B. Ollivier: Liszt: le musicien passionné (Paris, 1936)

E. Haraszti: ‘Deux franciscains: Adam et Franz Liszt’, ReM, nos.171–4 (1937), 269–71

P. Raabe: Deutsche Meister (Regensburg, 1937), 28–57

M. Tibaldi Chiesa: Vita romantica di Liszt (Milan, 1937, 2/1941)

P. Raabe: Wege zu Liszt (Regensburg, 1943)

C. Gray: Contingencies and Other Essays (London, 1947)

A.M. Pols: Franz Liszt (Bloemendaal, 1951)

I. Revesz: ‘Liszt es Lamennais’, ZT, i (1953), 115–23

T. Marix-Spire: Les romantiques et la musique: le cas George Sand (Paris, 1954)

B. Voelcker: Franz Liszt, der grosse Mensch (Weimar, 1955)

J. Vier: La comtesse d’Agoult et son temps (Paris, 1955–63)

I. Csekey: Liszt Ferenc Baranyában [Liszt in Baranya] (Pécs, 1956)

Y.I. Mil'shteyn: F. List (Moscow, 1956, 2/1971; Hung. trans., 1965)

W. Serauky: ‘Robert Schumann in seinem Verhältnis zu Ludwig van Beethoven und Franz Liszt’, Robert Schumann: aus Anlass seines 100. Todestages, ed. H.J. Moser and E. Rebling (Leipzig, 1956), 68–72

C. Haldane: The Galley Slaves of Love: the Story of Marie d’Agoult and Franz Liszt (London, 1957)

I. Csekey: ‘Franz Liszt in Pécs (Fünfkirchen)’, Mf, xi (1958), 69–75

J. Hecker: Die Altenburg: Geschichte eines Hauses (Weimar, 1961, 2/1983)

G. Kraft: Franz Liszt: Leben, Werk, und Vermächtnis (Weimar, 1961)

P. Rehberg and G. Nestler: Franz Liszt (Zürich, 1961)

Z. László: Az ifjú Liszt (1811–1839) [The young Liszt] (Budapest, 1962)

SM, iv (1963) [Liszt-Bartók issue]

T. Balan: Franz Liszt (Bucharest, 1963)

K. Hamburger: Liszt Ferenc (Budapest, 1966; Ger. trans., 1973, 2/1987; Eng. trans., 1987)

E. Haraszti: Franz Liszt (Paris, 1967)

E. Horvath: Frauen um Franz Liszt (Eisenstadt, 1971)

E. Perényi: Liszt: the Artist as Romantic Hero (Boston, 1974)

D. Legány: Liszt Ferenc Magyarországon [Liszt and his country], i: 1869–1873 (Budapest, 1976; Eng. trans., 1983); ii: 1874–1886 (Budapest, 1986; Eng. trans., 1992)

R. Stevenson: ‘Liszt at Madrid and Lisbon: 1844–45’, MQ, lxv (1979), 493–512

Z. Dömötör, M. Kovács and I. Mona: Liszt tanulmányok [Liszt studies] (Budapest, 1980)

B. Gavoty: Liszt: le virtuose, 1811–1848 (Paris, 1980)

A. Walker: Franz Liszt, i: The Virtuoso Years, 1811–1847 (New York and London, 1983, 2/1990); ii: The Weimar Years, 1848–1861 (New York and London, 1989); iii: The Final Years, 1861–1886 (New York, 1996; London, 1997)

C. Rueger: Franz Liszt (Berlin, 1986)

A. Rosenthal: ‘Franz Liszt and his Publishers’, Liszt saeculum, xxxviii (1986), 3–40

L. Chiappari: Franz Liszt: la vita, l’artista, l’uomo (Novara, 1987)

P.-A. Huré and C. Knepper, eds.: Liszt et son temps (Paris, 1987)

C. Dupêchez: Marie d’Agoult, 1805–1876: le grand amour de Liszt (Paris, 1989, 2/1994)

S. Gut: Franz Liszt (Paris, 1989)

R. Haschen: Franz Liszt (Berlin, 1989)

D. Watson: Liszt (London, 1989)

P. Scholcz and C. Lelie: Franz Liszt in Amsterdam (Vinkeveen, 1991) [programme book]

A. Walker and G. Erasmi: Liszt, Carolyne and the Vatican: the Story of a Thwarted Marriage (Stuyvesant, NY, 1991)

E. Baeck and H. Baeck-Schilders: Liszt in Antwerp (Vinkeveen, 1996) [programme book]

i: analysis and criticism

(i) piano music

F. Busoni: ‘Die Ausgaben der Liszt’schen Klavierwerke’, AMz, xxvii (1900), 457–8, 506, 584–6; repr. in F. Busoni: Von der Einheit der Musik (Berlin, 1922), 45–67; Eng. trans. in The Essence of Music and Other Papers (London, 1957/R), 1539–54

Liszt-Pädagogium: Klavier-Kompositionen Franz Liszts nebst uneditierten Veränderungen, Zusätzen und Kadenzen nach des Meisters Lehre pädagogisch glossiert (Leipzig, 1902/R1986, with foreword by A. Brendel)

H. Arminski: Die ungarischen Phantasien von Franz Liszt (diss., U. of Vienna, 1929)

H. Dobiey: Die Klaviertechnik des jungen Franz Liszts (diss., U. of Berlin, 1932)

W. Howard: Franz Liszt: Rhapsodie Nr.5, ein Kapitel Romantik (Berlin, 1932)

I. Philipp: La technique de Liszt (Paris, 1932)

R. Kókai: Franz Liszt in seinen frühen Klavierwerken (diss., U. of Freiburg, 1933)

H. Landau: Die Neuerungen der Klaviertechnik bei Franz Liszt (diss., U. of Vienna, 1933)

R. Klasinc: Die konzertante Klaviersatztechnik seit Liszt (diss., U. of Vienna, 1934)

W. Rüsch: Franz Liszts Années de pèlerinage: Beiträge zur Geschichte seiner Persönlichkeit und seines Stiles (diss., U. of Zürich, 1934)

H. Westerby: Liszt, Composer, and his Piano Works (London, 1936/R)

D. Presser: Studien zu den Opern- und Liedbearbeitungen von Franz Liszt (diss., U. of Cologne, 1953)

A. Walker, ed.: Franz Liszt: the Man and his Music (London, 1970, 2/1976) [incl. L. Kentner: ‘Solo Piano Music (1827–61)’, 79–133; ‘The Interpretation of Liszt’s Piano Music’, 202–20; J. Ogdon: ‘Solo Piano Music (1861–86)’, 134–67; D. Wilde: ‘Transcriptions for Piano’]

C. Suttoni: Piano and Opera: a Study of the Piano Fantasies Written on Opera Themes in the Romantic Era (diss., U. of New York, 1973)

I. Kecskeméti: ‘Two Liszt Discoveries – 1: an Unknown Piano Piece’, MT, cxv (1974), 646–8

R.M. Longyear: ‘The Text of Liszt’s B minor Sonata’, MQ, lx (1974), 435–50

A. Brendel: Musical Thoughts and Afterthoughts (London, 1976), 77–103

E. Hilmar: ‘Kritische Betrachtungen zu Liszts Transcriptionen von Liedern von Franz Schubert: Allgemeines und Spezielles zur Niederschrift des “Schwanengesangs”’, Liszt-Studien, i (1997), 115–23

S. Winklhofer: ‘Liszt, Marie d’Agoult, and the “Dante” Sonata’, 19CM, i (1977–8), 15–32

S. Winklhofer: Liszt’s Sonata in B minor: a Study of Autograph Sources and Documents (Ann Arbor, 1978, 2/1980)

A. Main: ‘Liszt’s Lyon: Music and the Social Conscience’, 19CM, iv (1980–81), 228–43

J. Drillon: Liszt Transcripteur, ou, La charité bien ordonnée (Arles, 1986)

G. Winkler: ‘Noch einmal: Franz Liszts “XX. Ungarische Rhapsodie”: Rekonstruktion einer Unterstellung’, Burgenländische Heimathblätter, xl (1986), 176–84

A. Forte: ‘Liszt’s Experimental Idiom and the Music of the Early Twentieth Century’, 19CM, x (1987), 209–28

R.L. Todd: ‘The “Unwelcome Guest” Regaled: Franz Liszt and the Augmented Triad’, 19CM, xii (1988), 93–115

A. Brendel: Music Sounded Out (London, 1990), 154–85

A. Kaczmarczyk: ‘The Genesis of the Funérailles: the Connections Between Liszt’s Symphonie révolutionnaire and the Cycle Harmonies poétiques et religieuses’, SMH, xxxv (1993–4), 362–98

M. Saffle: Liszt in Germany, 1840–1845: a Study in Sources, Documents, and the History of Reception (Stuyvesant, NY, 1994)

Z. Domokos: ‘“Orchestrationen des Pianoforte”: Beethovens Symphonien in Transkriptionen von Franz Liszt und seinen Vorgängern’, SMH, xxxvii/2–4 (1996), 249–341

K. Hamilton: Liszt: Sonata in B minor (Cambridge, 1996)

D.B. Cannata: ‘Perception and Apperception in Liszt’s Late Piano Music’, JM, xv/2 (1997), 178–207

(ii) orchestral music

R. Wagner: Ein Brief über Liszts symphonische Dichtungen (Leipzig, 1857)

F. Draeseke: Liszts symphonische Dichtungen, Anregungen für Kunst und Wissenschaft, ii (1857); iii (1858)

F. Brendel: Franz Liszt als Symphoniker (Leipzig, 1859)

F. Draeseke: ‘Liszts Dante-Symphonie’, NZM, liii (1860), 193–6, 201–4, 213–15, 221–3

A. Hahn: Franz Liszt: Symphonische Dichtungen, mit einer Einleitung von P. Pochhammer (Berlin, 1910)

A. Huess: ‘Eine motivisch-thematische Studie über Liszts sinfonische Dichtung “Ce qu'on entend sur la montagne”’, ZIMG, xiii (1911–12), 10–21

P. Raabe: Die Entstehungsgeschichte der ersten Orchesterwerke Franz Liszts (Leipzig, 1916)

E. Haraszti: ‘Les origines de l'orchestration de Franz Liszt’, RdM, xxxi (1952), 81–100

E. Haraszti: ‘Genèse des Préludes de Liszt qui n’ont aucun rapport avec Lamartine’, RdM, xxxii (1953), 111–40

G. Króo: ‘Gemeinsame Formprobleme in den Klavierkonzerten von Schumann und Liszt’, Robert Schumann: aus Anlass seines 100. Todestages, ed. H.J. Moser and E. Rebling (Leipzig, 1956), 136–43

B. Szabolcsi: Liszt Ferenc estéje [The twilight of Ferenc Liszt] (Budapest, 1956; Eng. trans., 1959/R)

L. Somfai: ‘Die musikalischen Gestaltwandlungen der Faust-Symphonie von Liszt’, SMH, ii (1962), 87–137

W. Felix: ‘Liszts Schaffen um 1848: Versuch zur Deutung seiner Programmatik’, Liszt-Bartók: Budapest 1961, 59–67

L. Somfai: ‘Die Metamorphose der “Faust-Symphonie” von Liszt’, Liszt-Bartók: Budapest 1961 , 283–93

A. Walker, ed.: Franz Liszt: the Man and his Music (London, 1970, 2/1976) [incl. H. Searle: ‘The Orchestral Works’, 279–317; R. Collet: ‘Works for Piano and Orchestra’, 248–78]

A. Main: ‘Liszt after Lamartine: “Les Préludes”’, ML, lx (1979), 133–48

A. Bonner: ‘Liszt’s “Les Préludes” and “Les quatre éléments”: a Reinvestigation’, 19CM, x (1986), 95–107

R. Charnin Mueller: Liszt’s ‘Tasso’ Sketchbook: Studies in Sources and Revisions (diss., U. of New York, 1986)

K. Johns: The Symphonic Poems of Franz Liszt (Stuyvesant, NY, 1997)

P. Pocknell: ‘Liszts Klavierbearbeitung eines Themas aus den Idealen: zur Geschichte eines Autographs’, Liszt und die Weimarer Klassik, ed. D. Altenburg (Laaber, 1997), 115–32

(iii) songs

E. Reuss: Liszts Lieder (Leipzig, 1907)

E. Hughes: ‘Liszt as Lieder Composer’, MQ, iii (1917), 390–409

J. Wenz: Franz Liszt als Liederkomponist (diss., U. of Frankfurt, 1921)

M. Cooper: ‘Liszt as a Song Writer’, ML, xix (1938), 171–81

C. Headington: ‘The Songs’, Franz Liszt: the Man and his Music, ed. A. Walker (London, 1970, 2/1976), 221–47

I. Kecskeméti: ‘Two Liszt Discoveries – 2: an Unknown Song’, MT, cxv (1974), 743–4

W.J. Dart: ‘Revisions and Reworkings in the Lieder of Franz Liszt’, SMA, ix (1975), 41–53

S. Montu-Berthon: ‘Un Liszt méconnu: mélodies et lieder’, ReM, nos.342–4, 345–6 (1981) [Liszt issue in 2 vols.]

P. Friedheim: ‘First Version, Second Version, Alternative Version: some Remarks on the Music of Liszt’, MR, xliv (1983), 194–202

J. Douglas: ‘Franz Liszt as a Song Composer’, NATS Journal, xliii/4 (1986–7), 4–15

R. Charnin Mueller: ‘Reevaluating the Liszt Chronology: the Case of Anfangs wollt ich fast verzagen’, 19CM, xii (1987–8), 132–47

A. Walker: ‘Liszt and the Lied’, Hungarian Quarterly, no.144 (1996), 155–9

(iv) choral music

L. Ramann: Liszt als Psalmensänger (Leipzig, 1886)

La Mara [M. Lipsius]: ‘Franz Liszt und sein unvollendetes Stanislaus-Oratorium’, Österreichische Rundschau, xxix (1911), 150–57

E. Segnitz: Franz Liszts Kirchenmusik (Langensalza, 1911)

H. Sambeth: Die gregorianischen Melodien in den Werken Franz Liszts (diss., U. of Münster, 1923)

R. Collet: ‘Choral and Organ Music’, Franz Liszt: the Man and his Music, ed. A. Walker (London, 1970, 2/1976), 318–49

P. Merrick: Revolution and Religion in the Music of Liszt (Cambridge, 1987)

M. Eckhardt: ‘Zur Werkgeschichte der Psalmen 23 und 137 Franz Liszts’, Das Goethe- und Schiller-Archiv 1896–1996: Beiträge aus dem ältesten deutschen Literaturarchiv, ed. J. Golz (Weimar, 1996), 353–72

P. Munson: ‘The Librettos for Liszt’s Oratorio “St Stanislaus”’, ML, lxxvii (1997), 532–50

j: other studies

F. von Schober: Briefe über F. Liszt’s Aufenthalt in Ungarn (Berlin, 1843)

E. Segnitz: Franz Liszt und Rom (Leipzig, 1901)

G. Galston: Studienbuch (Berlin, 1910, 2/1926)

J. Kapp: Franz Liszt und die Frauen (Leipzig, 1911)

P. Roberts: Etudes sur Boieldieu, Chopin et Liszt (Rouen, 1913)

A. Schering: ‘Über Liszts Persönlichkeit und Kunst’, JbMP 1926, 31–44

ReM, ix/7 (1927–8) [Liszt issue]

W. Danckert: ‘Liszt als Vorläufer des musikalischen Impressionismus’, Die Musik, xxi (1928–9), 341–4

J. Heinrichs: Über den Sinn der Lisztschen Programmusik (diss., U. of Bonn, 1929)

W. Howard: Liszts Bearbeitung des ‘Cujus Animam’ aus dem Stabat Mater von Rossini (Berlin, 1935)

MQ, xxii/3 (1936) [Liszt issue]

B. Bartók, I. Hubay and others: Liszt a miénk! [Liszt is ours!] (Budapest, 1936)

B. Bartók: Liszt-problémák (Budapest, 1936)

Z. Gárdonyi: Liszt Ferenc magyar stilusa/Le style hongrois de François Liszt (Budapest, 1936)

A. Molnár: Liszt Ferenc alkotásai az esztétika tükrében [Liszt’s compositions in the light of aesthetics] (Budapest, 1936)

K.T. Bayer: ‘Franz Liszt in der Dichtung’, Deutsche Musikkultur, i (1936–7), 226–32, 285 –96

E. Haraszti: ‘Le problème Liszt’, AcM, ix (1937), 123–36; x (1938), 14–31

B. de Miramon Fitz-James: ‘Liszt et La divine comédie’, RdM, xix (1938), 81–93

E. Major: Liszt Ferenc és a magyar zenetörtenet [Liszt and Hungarian music history] (Budapest, 1940)

A. Toth: Liszt Ferenc a magyar zene utjan [Liszt along the path of Hungarian music] (Budapest, 1940)

A. Einstein: ‘Franz Liszt: écrivain et penseur’, RdM, xxiii (1944), 12–24

P.B. Reis: Liszt na sua passagem por Lisboa em 1845 (Lisbon, 1945)

B. Bartók: ‘Gypsy Music or Hungarian Music?’, MQ, xxxiii (1947), 240–57

B. Paillard and E. Haraszti: ‘Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner in the Franco-German War of 1870’, MQ, xxxv (1949), 386–411

E. Haraszti: ‘Un romantique déguisé en tzigane’, RBM, vii (1953), 26–39, 69–94

F. Noske: La mélodie française de Berlioz à Duparc (Amsterdam and Paris, 1954; Eng. trans., rev. R. Benton and F. Noske, 1970/R)

ZT, iii (1955) [Liszt-Bartók issue]

D. Berthoud: Davila: fils de Liszt? (Neuchâtel, 1956)

W. Felix: ‘Die Reformideen Franz Liszts’, Festschrift Richard Münnich zum achtzigsten Geburtstage (Leipzig, 1957), 104–15

G. Kraft: ‘Franz Liszt und die nationalen Schulen in Europa’, Festschrift Richard Münnich zum achtzigsten Geburtstage (Leipzig, 1957), 85–103

New Hungarian Quarterly, no.7 (1962) [Liszt-Bartók issue]

I. Kecskeméti: ‘Unbekannte Eigenschrift der XVIII. Rhapsodie von Franz Liszt’, SMH, iii (1962), 173–9

Bericht über die zweite internationale musikwissenschaftliche Konferenz Liszt-Bartók (Budapest, 1963)

Z. Gárdonyi: ‘Neue Tonleiter und Sequenztypen in Liszts Frühwerken’, SMH, xi (1969), 169–99

S. Gut: Franz Liszt: les éléments du langage musical (Paris, 1975)

L. Bárdos: Liszt Ferenc a jövö zénesze [Liszt the innovator] (Budapest, 1976)

A. Holschneider: Was bedeutet uns Franz Liszt? (Göttingen, 1977)

D. Legány: ‘Liszt in Rom – nach der Presse’, SM, xix (1977), 85–107

V. Jankélévitch: Liszt et la rhapsodie: essai sur la virtuosité (Paris, 1979, 2/1989)

A. Walker: ‘Schumann, Liszt and the C major Fantasie, op.17: a Declining Relationship’, ML, lx (1979), 156–65

W. Handrick: Das Liszthaus in Weimar (Weimar, 1980)

J.R. Turner: ‘Nineteenth-century Autograph Music Manuscripts in the Pierpont Morgan Library: a Check List’, 19CM, iv (1981), 49–69, 157–83

W. Huschke: Musik im klassischen und nachklassischen Weimar, 1756–1861 (Weimar, 1982)

P. Autexier: Mozart & Liszt sub rosa (Poitiers, 1984)

D. Legány: Franz Liszt: Unbekannte Presse und Briefe aus Wien, 1822–1886 (Budapest, 1984)

D. Redepenning: Das Spätwerk Franz Liszts: Bearbeitungen eigener Kompositionen (Hamburg, 1984)

W. Marggraf: Franz Liszt in Weimar (Weimar, 1985)

Ferenc Liszt: Budapest and Veszprém 1986 [SM, xxviii (1986)]

Franz Liszt: Paris 1986 [ReM, nos.405–7 (1987)]

K. Hamburger: Liszt kalauz [Liszt guide] (Budapest, 1986)

H. Rain: Les enfants du génie: Blandine, Cosima et Daniel Liszt (Paris, 1986)

Silences, no.3 (Paris, 1986) [Liszt centenary issue]

J. Kárpáti: Ferenc Liszt Academy of Music (Budapest, 1989)

D.I. Allsobrook: Liszt: my Travelling Circus Life (London, 1991)

R. Charnin Mueller: ‘Sketches, Drafts and Revisions: Liszt at Work’, Wissenschaftliche Arbeiten aus dem Burgenland: Die Projekte der Liszt-Forschung (1991), 22–34

R. Stricker: Franz Liszt: les ténèbres de la gloire (Paris, 1993)

P. Pocknell: ‘Liszt, the Klindworths, and Austro-Hungarian Affairs’, Hungarian Quarterly, no.143 (1996), 132–49

M. Haine: Franz Servais et Franz Liszt: une amitié filiale, (Liége, 1996)

M. Saffle and J. Deauville, eds.: New Light on Liszt and his Music: Essays in Honour of Alan Walker’s 65th Birthday (Stuyvesant, NY, 1997) [incl. essays by D. Legány, C. Suttoni, M. Eckhardt, D. Wilde and others]

1. Judaism and pagan antiquity.

k: specialist publications

International Liszt Centre Quarterly (1972–8); continued as Liszt saeculum (1978–)

The Liszt Society Journal [London] (1975–)

Europäisches Liszt-Symposion: Eisenstadt 1975, 1978, 1983; Vienna 1991 [Liszt-Studien, i–iv (1977–93)]

Journal of the American Liszt Society (1977–)

Liszt-Bulletin (1979–87); continued as Bulletin van de Stichting Franz Liszt Kring (1987–91); continued as Journal of the Franz Liszt Kring (1991–)

Liszt societies.

The first Liszt Society was formed in Budapest in 1893 and is still active today. For many years it stood alone in the promotion of Liszt’s life and work. In 1950 a British Liszt Society was founded with E.J. Dent as president and Humphrey Searle as honorary secretary; other distinguished founding members included William Walton, Constant Lambert and Sacheverell Sitwell. In its early days the British Liszt Society published a number of Liszt’s late compositions which at that time were unknown and unavailable. With the revival of interest in the Romantic movement generally, Liszt societies have sprung up in many different countries, including Germany, Italy, France, Sweden, Australia and the United States. There are now about 25 such organizations across the world. The American Liszt Society is particularly active. Formed in 1964, it mounts a major musical festival each year which often features lesser-known works from Liszt’s vast output.

A number of Liszt societies publish journals and newsletters. Those of the American and British Liszt societies are important and usually contain articles at the leading edge of Liszt research. An especially valuable publication is the journal of the Franz Liszt Kring of the Netherlands. In 1974 the Budapest Liszt Society launched its Grand Prix du Disque, a prestigious international award conferred annually by a jury of experts on the best recording of works by Liszt.

ALAN WALKER

Li Taixiang [Li Tai-hsiung]

(b Malan, Taidong, 20 Feb 1941). Taiwanese composer, violinist and conductor. Born among the indigenous Amei people, he grew up in Taibei, studying the violin at the National Institute of the Arts (1954–62). After graduation he led the Taibei SO. In 1964 he spent some time teaching among the Amei. He took an active part in the burgeoning of contemporary music in the late 1960s, when many of his early compositions were performed. In 1973 he received a Rockefeller Foundation scholarship to the Center for Experimental Music at the University of California at San Diego. During music festivals which he organized in cooperation with the composer Xu Boyun and the choreographer Lin Huaimin, he introduced the prepared piano, electronic music, the laser and other multi-media stage effects to Taiwanese audiences. At the annual festival of his works which he organized between 1978 and 1983, Chuantong yu zhanwang (‘Tradition and Future’), he presented music ranging from Classical pastiche and experimental music to film and pop music. Li aims to compose ‘new but Chinese’ music. In his early piano trio Lianxing sanbian (1971–3) he uses rhythmic structures and vocal techniques (such as microtonal slides) from the Chinese operatic tradition. He also consciously employs elements from the Amei musical tradition. Many features typical of Amei music, such as a tendency towards minimalism and the use of free counterpoint in polyphonic and antiphonal singing, can be found in such works as Dashenji (1975) and Taixuyin (1979).

WORKS

(selective list)

Dramatic: Dashenji [Great Sacrifice to the Gods] (ballet), male v, orch, chorus, 1975; Huanyuan [Redeeming the Vow] (op), pipa, vv, ens, tape, 1978; Da feng qi xi [A Strong Wind Rises] (grand op), 1983; Minsheng bian (A Chaper from the Book of Songs) (ballet), Chin. insts, perc, 8 pf, 1983; Qiwang [King of Chess] (grand op), 1987; many film scores

Orch: Chunwang [Spring Hopes], nanhu, orch, 1986; Du Fu meng Li Bai [Du Fu dreams of Li Bai], nanhu, orch, 1986; Jiuge [Wine Song], huqin, orch, 1986

Chbr and solo inst: Sonata, vn, 1962; Str Qt, 1965; Su [Revive], str qt, 1966; Lianxing sanbian [Three Times Connected Movement], pf trio, 1971, rev. 1973; Yu – Chan – Ximending [Rain – Zen – Shopping District], tape, 1975; Qingping yue [Clear and Steady Music], perc, Chin. insts; Taixuyin [Chant of the Great Void] (Lin Lu), ens + vv, 1979; Huanjing: sanzhang [Environment: 3 Pieces], 2 pfmrs, tape, 1981; San shi [3 Patterns], pf qnt, prep pf, elecs, visual effects, 1983; Pf Qt, 1986; Liu shui – Gucuo – Jiujia [Running Water – Remainders of Old – The Bar], 4 xyl

Vocal: Prelude and Fugue, chorus, 1965; Dadi zhi ge [Song of Mother Earth], 1v, perc, tape, 1977

MSS in C.C. Liu Collection, Institute of Chinese Studies, University of Heidelberg

Principal publisher: Council for Cultural Planning and Development, Taibei

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Diao Yuwen: ‘Yu Li Taixiang qixiang, gong xiang “yinyue shengyan”’ [Enjoy a great banquet of music with Li], Yinyue guantou, no.33 (1985), 34–41

B. Mittler: ‘Mirrors and Double Mirrors: the Politics of Identity in New Music from Hong Kong and Taiwan’, CHIME, no.9 (1996), 4–44, esp. 16–17

B. Mittler: Dangerous Tunes: the Politics of Chinese Music in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic of China since 1949 (Wiesbaden, 1997), 205–13

BARBARA MITTLER

Litaize, Gaston (Gilbert)

(b Ménil-sur-Belvitte, Vosges, 11 Aug 1909; d Bruyères, Vosges, 5 Aug 1991). French organist and composer. Blind from birth, he worked with Marty (organ, composition) at the Institut National des Jeunes Aveugles (1926–31), then at the Paris Conservatoire with Dupré (organ), Caussade (fugue), Büsser (composition) and Emmanuel (music history). He won the premiers prix for organ and improvisation (1931), fugue (1933) and composition (1937), then the Prix Rossini for his cantata Fra Angelico (1936) and the second Prix de Rome (1938). He was organist at Notre-Dame-de-la-Croix, Paris (1930), St Genès, Thiers (1932), St Léon-IX, Nancy (1933), Saint Cloud (1934), and finally at St François-Xavier, Paris (1946). He also made concert tours in France, western Europe, the USA and Canada, and made an award-winning disc of Couperin’s Messe pour les paroisses. He taught harmony at the Institut National des Jeunes Aveugles (1939), and organ at the St Maur-des-Fossés Conservatoire (1975), where he gained numerous disciples. From 1944 to 1975 he was director of religious programmes for the radio, directing five weekly broadcasts, including a Sunday mass, celebrated each week in a different church where he was organist. This experience spawned numerous works based on liturgical plainchant.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D. Launay: ‘Les oeuvres pour orgue de Gaston Litaize’, L’Orgue: Cahiers et mémoires, xxxiv (1985), 9–21

F. Sabatier: ‘Gaston Litaize’, Guide de la musique d’orgue (Paris, 1991)

GILLES CANTAGREL

Litaniae Lauretanae

(Lat.: ‘the Litany of Loreto’).

See Litany, §5.

Litany

(from Lat. litania, letania; Gk. litaneia, from litē: ‘prayer’).

A prayer form, usually characterized by the announcement of varying invocations (e.g. names of deities or saints) or supplications (Lat. deprecationes, preces etc.) by a leader, each of which is followed by a fixed congregational response. This genre may be distinguished from other responsorial forms by the relative brevity, sometimes parity, of the call and response elements, giving it something of an insistent quality. Often quite rhythmic, litanies frequently accompany processions. Thus the term can signify the procession itself or the day upon which the procession occurs.

2. Early and Eastern Christianity.

3. Litanies in non-Roman Western liturgies.

4. Monophonic litanies in the Roman liturgy.

5. Litaniae Lauretanae.

6. Polyphonic litanies before 1600.

7. Polyphonic litanies after 1600.

8. English litanies.

MICHEL HUGLO/EDWARD FOLEY (1–4), DAVID NUTTER/JOHN HARPER (6), JOHN HARPER (5, 7–8)

1. Judaism and pagan antiquity.

No generic term exists in biblical Hebrew for ‘litany’, and the two occurrences of the Greek ‘litaneia’ in the Septuagint (2 Maccabees iii.20, x.16) are not references to this prayer genre. It is nevertheless possible to identify litanic patterns in the Old Testament, for example in Psalm cxxxvi and Daniel iii.52–90. Notable extra-biblical litanies include the selihot – prayers often in litany form originally composed for Yom kippur and other fast days and based on the string of divine attributions in Exodus xxxiv.6–7; and the hosha‘not – litanies (originally prayers for rain) for the Feast of Tabernacles, used to accompany a procession around the Temple altar. Both selihot and hosha‘not were later employed in the Synagogue. (See Jewish music, §III, 1.

A few litanic texts have survived from ancient traditions independent of Judaism, notably Babylonian (see S. Langdon: Babylonian Liturgies, Paris, 1913) and Egyptian (see A. Scharff: Aegyptische Sonnenlieder, Berlin, 1922). Epictetus (c55–c135 ce) used the phrase ‘Kyrie eleison’ in his instruction on divination (Discourses, ii.7) and Lactantius (c250–c325) referred to a prayer recited by the soldiers of Licinius (d 325) that included refrains such as ‘te rogamus’ and ‘tibi commendamus’ (De mortibus persecutorum, xlvi.6). The distinction between a repeating Acclamation, a form commonly found in ancient rituals such as the Roman imperial cult (see McCormick), and a litany pattern is, however, not always clear. There is, nevertheless, general agreement that as a specific type within the broader call–response genre, the litany, though fluid in form and often difficult to identify precisely, was probably common in many ancient rituals.

2. Early and Eastern Christianity.

The ambiguity surrounding the litany form in antiquity is also true of early Christianity. Neither the term nor the form appears in the New Testament. 1 Timothy ii.1–2 expresses the need for supplication (gk. deēsis), prayer (proseuchē) and intercession (enteuxis) for kings and those in authority, but these terms by no means imply the use of litany forms. In the First Epistle of Clement (c96 ce) the word ‘ektenē’ is used (lix.2) to introduce the prayer in the Eucharist that ends the Epistle, but like ‘litaneia’ in the Septuagint it does not indicate a litany form. Polycarp (c69–c155) provided a litany-like instruction about whom to remember in prayer (Epistles, xii.3), but it is not clear whether the prayer itself took the form of a litany. Justin Martyr (c100–c165) commented on the existence of intercessory prayer at the Eucharist (First Apology, 65), where in later centuries a litany would occur, but again it would be a mistake to conclude that he was referring to a litany. The Acts of Thomas (3rd century) contains two sets of invocations (27, 50) that are litanic in structure but without any set response. Clear evidence for a litany in Christian worship appears only at the end of the 4th century, in the region of Antioch. According to the Apostolic Constitutions (VIII, vi.4, 9) a litany with the response ‘Kyrie eleison’ was included in the Eucharist, and Egeria noted something similar at evening prayer (Itinerarium, xxiv.5). From this time on, evidence for litanies in Christian worship becomes widespread.

According to Taft there are three litanic types in the Byzantine tradition, all of which had appeared by at least the 4th century and, together with their variations, continue in use to the present day. The synaptē (Gk.: ‘joined together’) consists of short petitions initiated by the deacon (hence its alternative name diakonika) to which the people respond ‘Kyrie eleison’. The synaptē meta tōn aitēseōn (‘with requests’) or simply aitēsis (‘request’) is also usually a diakonika, with ‘Kyrie eleison’ as the response to the first few petitions and the more common ‘Grant it, O Lord’ thereafter. The aitēsis includes a petition for an ‘angel of peace’, often at the end, suggesting that this was originally a litany of dismissal. The ektenē (‘intense’), originally sung in stational processions at the various stopping points (‘stations’) along the route, is also normally led by the deacon and is characterized by a direct address to God and by the triple ‘Kyrie eleison’ offered by the congregation in response to each petition.

3. Litanies in non-Roman Western liturgies.

(i) Ambrosian.

In the Ambrosian liturgy of Milan, the Gloria immediately following the entrance chant at Mass is replaced on the first five Sundays of Lent by a litany led by the deacon: the Divinae pacis (ed. de Clerck, pp.156–8; music ed. Gajard) with the response ‘Domine miserere’, on the 1st, 3rd and 5th Sundays; and the Dicamus omnes (ed. de Clerck, pp.206–7) with the response ‘Kyrie eleison’, on the 2nd and 4th. Both litanies conclude with a congregational triple ‘Kyrie eleison’ reminiscent of the ektenē. It is noteworthy that in this liturgical tradition the Triduum litaniarum or Minor Litanies are celebrated on the Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday after – rather than before – the Ascension.

(ii) Celtic.

The ancient liturgy of the British Isles, Galicia and Brittany is rich in litanic material. In the Stowe Missal (IRL-Da D.II.3) dating from 792 (with later additions) there is at the beginning of Mass a version of the litany of saints which opens with a triple ‘Christe audi nos’ and is preceded by a penitential antiphon ‘Peccavimus, Domine, peccavimus’ (the same material is also found in CH-SGs 1395). Rather than marking the start of public worship, however, it is probable that this litany was part of the priest’s private preparation. Later in the same Mass, after the Psalm and before the Gospel, there is a litanic Deprecatio sancti Martini pro populo, whose Latin original de Clerck has dated to the end of the 4th century or beginning of the 5th. Litanies were also a popular form of private devotion, as the 9th-century Book of Cerne and a number of Irish litanies (ed. Plummer) illustrate. None of these Celtic litanies, whether public or private, is notated (see Celtic chant).

(iii) Gallican.

The best-known litanic tradition from Gaul is that attributed to St Mamertus (d c475), Bishop of Vienne, who, according to his nephew Sidonius Apollinaris (Epistles, v.14), instituted processional liturgies on the three days before the feast of the Ascension when the city was beset by calamity. Characteristically, these litanies include few invocations of saints but instead contain petitions (preces) for the various needs of the community. This popular devotion, later called the Minor Litanies or Rogations, was prescribed for the whole of Gaul by the Council of Orléans in 511 (see Processional, §1); it was adopted in England in 747 by the Council of Clovesho and was introduced at Rome under Leo III (d 816). Other evidence of litanic material in Gallican worship comes from the Council of Vaison in 529, which provides what could be the earliest testimony for the use of ‘Kyrie eleison’ in Western worship. The Kyrie became a common element in the Gallican Preces, as a few medieval manuscripts (e.g. F-Pn lat.776 and 903) illustrate. (For a list of surviving Preces of Gallican origin, see Gallican chant, §13.)

(iv) Mozarabic.

One of the largest collection of Preces-type litanies is found in the Mozarabic rite (see Mozarabic chant, §3(x); see also Meyer, whose edition contains over 130). On each of the first five Sundays in Lent a different litany, with responses such as ‘Miserere et parce populo tuo’, was sung between the psalmi (or threni on certain Lenten ferials) and the Epistle. Similar litanies, many of them metrical and some acrostic, appear in the Divine Office on penitential days. Melodies for a few Mozarabic litanies to be used at the burial service survive with decipherable notation in manuscripts from south-west France (see Huglo).

4. Monophonic litanies in the Roman liturgy.

It is thought that Pope Gelasius I (pontificate 492–6) first introduced a litany into the Roman Mass when he apparently replaced the spoken non-litanic intercessory prayers after the Gospel (the orationes sollemnes, which still survive in the Roman Good Friday liturgy) with the Deprecatio Gelasii (ed. de Clerck, 170–72). Earlier evidence of this type of prayer can be found in the Deprecatio sancti Martini pro populo of the Stowe Missal (see §3(ii) above). In its structure and language the Gelasian Deprecatio is related to the aitēsis; ‘Domine exaudi et miserere’ is the response to the first 14 petitions, ‘Praesta, Domine, praesta’ to the next four, and there is a concluding petition for an ‘angel of peace’.

The biddings of the introductory rite litany were later removed by Gregory the Great (pontificate 590–604), to be replaced by the ‘Kyrie’ and ‘Christe eleison’ repetitions that would evolve into the ninefold Kyrie of the Roman rite (Ordo romanus XV, n.16; M. Andrieu: Les Ordines romani du haut moyen âge, Leuven, 1931–61). However, the question of which litany – the Gelasian (as most have assumed) or another one – has not been entirely resolved. Baldovin has suggested that by the 5th century the Roman liturgy had taken over from the Eastern Church the practice of processional liturgy with its accompanying ektenē-style litanies (see §2 above) – certainly by 529 the Council of Vaison seems to have known of this practice – and that it was such an introductory processional litany that Gregory simplified by removing the biddings, the remaining repetitions of ‘Kyrie’ and ‘Christe’ (the latter a Western invention; see Gregory, Epistles, ix.26) being eventually regularized into the standard ninefold form, possibly as a reaction against Arianism (see Jungmann, p.187).

Another Roman Mass litany that developed from Eastern Church practice was the Agnus Dei, introduced by the Syrian pope Sergius I (pontificate 687–701). According to the Ordines romani (III, 2) this litany needed to be extended until the fraction was complete; as a result it was often troped, the people responding ‘miserere nobis’ to the various invocations. With the curtailment of the fraction rite this expandable litany was eventually shortened to three verses only, a process that had already occurred in some places by the 9th century.

Before accepting the Gallican tradition of ‘Minor’ Litanies or Rogations, Rome instituted its own Rogation feast on 25 April (later known as the ‘Major’ Litanies), possibly to replace the pagan festival of Robigalia, whose processions and sacrifice were intended to protect the crops from blight (robigo). While the origins of this tradition are obscure, evidence for it may be found in the correspondence of Gregory the Great (2nd Epistle). It is not certain, however, whether this annual processional Rogation litany is to be identified with the sevenfold (septiformis) penitential procession called by Gregory the Great in 590, which began at seven separate churches and ended at Mary Major, during which the people chanted ‘Kyrie eleison’ (Gregory of Tours, Decem libri historiarum (‘History of the Franks’), x.1).

For the Divine Office, the Rule of St Benedict (c530) required a ‘supplicatio litanie, id est Kyrie eleison’ at the end of Matins (ix.10), and an unspecified litany after Lauds (xii.4, xiii.11) and Vespers (xvii.8); a simple repetition of ‘Kyrie eleison’ (xvii.5) appears to have concluded the other Hours. The repeated ‘Kyrie’ was to become a standard text at the close of various Western monastic Hours, especially Lauds, Prime and Compline. Three distinctive forms of litany emerged in the West that influenced the development of the Preces: (1) an Irish form, consisting of an invitation to prayer, a statement of the intention and a short prayer response; (2) a Gallican form, consisting of psalm verses arranged as versicle and response; (3) a mixed form employing both Irish and Gallican elements. Preces-type litanies flourished in the Divine Office during the Carolingian reform, especially under the monastic reforms of Benedict of Aniane (d 821). By the time of Cluny, the litany of the saints had also been added to the end of Prime.

While some processions at Rome were accompanied by Preces-type litanies, invocation litanies, especially of saints, were the more prevalent. The classic litany of saints includes a long list of saints’ names followed by the petition ‘ora pro nobis’, after which follows a series of intercessions requesting deliverance from physical or moral calamity, to which the people respond ‘libera nos, Domine’ or ‘te rogamus audi nos’; the triple repetition of the Kyrie at the beginning and end became common after about 800. The importance of this litany within the Roman liturgy is demonstrated by its inclusion in the Church’s most significant consecratory rituals, for example, baptism at the Easter Vigil, ordinations, religious professions and dedications of churches.

Precedents for litanies of the saints can be found in various Greek litanic prayers, which by at least the 6th century and possibly earlier began to include petitions to saints (see Schermann). According to Lapidge, there was in use in Antioch by the 7th century a Greek litany of the saints whose progression of saints would later be reiterated in Western litanies. Such a litany (the earliest example being GB-Lbl Cotton Galba A.xviii) reached England by at least the 8th century, when it was translated into Latin (Lapidge, p.20). It appears that this type of invocational litany found particularly widespread usage in the British Isles, from where it spread to the Continent by the second half of the 8th century. Litanies of the saints were widely employed for public and private devotion in the Frankish territories by the 9th century, their listing of saints usually influenced by local custom.

An early classification of litanies of saints is found in the Institutio de diversitate officiorum of Angilbert of Saint-Riquier (d 814), who noted the existence of ‘laetania generalis’, ‘gallica’, ‘italica’ and ‘romana’. Parallel sources allow a partial deciphering of this fourfold classification: for instance, the Gallican type often begins with a series of invocations to the various persons of the Trinity and ends with prayers for peace and good weather; the Italic form, on the other hand, usually begins with a series of ‘Exaudi’ petitions (e.g. ‘Exaudi Deus voces nostras’). Scholars have not satisfactorily identified the characteristics of the ‘laetania generalis’ or ‘romana’.

Notated versions of litanies of the saints survive from the 11th century (I-VCd 186, f.147) and, in the case of those employing the familiar tetrachordal structure, from the 12th (Nn VI.E.11, f.138). The list of saints and the musical setting of this litany was standardized for the Roman Church in the liturgical books of Pius V (1566–72). Until the reforms of the 1960s the litany was chanted as part of the Paschal Vigil (LU, 776ff) and the Greater and Lesser Litanies (LU, 835ff).

The many uses of the litany of the saints generated special forms, of which one of the most distinctive, appearing by the mid-8th century, was the Frankish Laudes regiae. Influenced by the ‘emperor-litany’ of late antiquity and the acclamations sung for the Byzantine emperor, Laudes regiae praising the victorious Christ, the emperor, pope and other rulers (Kantorowicz, p.14) were often employed in royal or pontifical worship, sometimes joined to the Kyrie at Mass. They normally began with the words ‘Christus vincit, Christus regnat, Christus imperat’, but to each saint’s name the response was ‘tu illum [illam, illos] adiuva’ rather than the more common ‘ora pro nobis’ of other saints’ litanies.

Hrabanus Maurus (d 856) composed a metrical version of the litany of saints for private devotional usage. By the late 9th century monks of St Gallen had created poetic versions of the litany with refrains for use in public processions. In the following examples of processional songs the refrain is to be repeated after each stanza: Rex sanctorum angelorum totum mundum adiuva (text in AH, l, 1907, pp.242–3; music in MMMA, i, 1956, p.1020) and Ardua spes mundi (AH, 237–8; MMMA, 1019), both attributed to Ratpert (d c890); Humili prece (AH, 253–5; MMMA, 1021) by Hartmann (d 925); and Votis supplicibus (AH, 246–7) by Waldramm (d end of the 9th century). A metrical litany is also found in some editions (e.g. PL, clviii, 931–6) of the works of Anselm of Canterbury (d 1109).

By the end of the 12th century there was a further mutation of the litany of the saints, this time in the form of the Marian litanies, in which Mary is invoked under a variety of titles. The two most famous are the Litany of Loreto (see below, §5) and the Litany of Venice (thus called because it was popular at the basilica of S Marco). This saint-specific form of the litany signalled the development of innumerable other litanies to Christ and individual saints. Such litanies became so prolific (150 such formulae are found in J.E. Grubhofer’s Katholisches Litaneienbuch, Passau, 1848) that in 1601 Clement VIII prohibited their future use in public without official approval. Approval was eventually granted to litanies of the Holy Name of Jesus (1886), the Sacred Heart of Jesus (1889), St Joseph (1909), and the Precious Blood of Jesus (1960).

5. Litaniae Lauretanae.

The series of invocations known as the Litaniae Lauretanae (the Litany of Loreto; the Latin term is normally in the plural) is the most widespread of the litanies to the Blessed Virgin Mary. It has been associated with the Annunciation shrine of Loreto, near Ancona in Italy (the Santa Casa of Loreto) since at least its first attested use there in 1558. Though it only acquired this title in the 16th century, this form of the litany to the Virgin is found in a 12th-century manuscript from St Martial of Limoges (F-Pn lat.5267, f.80r ff). It belongs to a large group of medieval litanies, many of them consisting of Marian invocations, whose roots appear to reach back to the Akathistos Hymn of the Byzantine Church from the 5th and 6th centuries. Its texts are partly biblical, but also derive from 12th-century Cistercian writings (notably those of St Bernard). The version printed at Dilligen in 1558 was probably written by the Jesuit Peter Canisius (1521–97).

The pilgrimage to Loreto found full popularity in the 16th century, and it was then that the Litaniae Lauretanae spread throughout Europe, recommended for both private and public devotion. This was in part due to the fervour of the Jesuits, but further assisted by Pope Sixtus V whose Bull ‘Reddituri’, issued on 11 July 1587, gave official sanction to the litany in preference to a proposal to replace it with a set of entirely scriptural invocations. In 1601 it was established as the only approved Litany of Our Lady: all other Marian litanies were prohibited by Clement VIII’s Constitution ‘Sanctissimas’, and a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Rites dated 2 August 1631 forbade any alteration of the Litaniae Lauretanae without permission of the Holy See. Permitted additions include the invocations ‘Regina sacratissimi rosarii’ (1675), ‘Regina sine labe originali concepta’ (1846), ‘Regina pacis’ (during World War I) and ‘Regina in caelum assumpta’ (1950). Though never incorporated into the Breviary, the Litaniae Lauretanae was included in a supplement containing the feast of the Immaculate Conception (approved 1615).

The litany consists of a succinct and well-ordered series of petitions. The melody is typical of such formulaic chants, and may be compared with the tones of the Litany of the Saints; it is built up of four different elements (ex.1). The process of melodic borrowing, adaptation and transformation can be observed in the principal version and an alternative (LU, 1857–60; Processionale monasticum, 281–4), and in four additional versions (Processionale monasticum, 284–7). These and other tones can be traced in some of the 16th- and 17th-century polyphonic settings.

The Santa Casa of Loreto was famous for its music, and many important maestri and organists served there between 1513 and 1801, among them Costanzo Porta, Annibale Zoilo and Antonio Cifra. The catalogue of music in the library lists many settings of the Litaniae Lauretanae for various combinations of voices and instruments, mainly by Italian composers connected with the shrine. The text of the litany was set by composers major and minor throughout Catholic Europe from the late 16th century to the 19th, especially by Italians in the 17th century (see §7 below).

6. Polyphonic litanies before 1600.

The anthology of polyphonic litanies assembled by Victorinus in Thesaurus Litaniae and printed in Munich by Adam Berg (RISM 1596²) forms a substantial collection of settings by composers working in Italy and the southern part of the Holy Roman Empire in the preceding 25 years. The largest number are by Lassus and Palestrina, but among the others are settings by Aichinger, Christian Erbach, H.L. Hassler, Rinaldo del Mel, Philippe de Monte, Jacob Reiner, Annibale Stabile and Victoria (for full list see Roth, 1959). In 1583 Berg had published the double-choir Litaniae deiparae virginis Mariae by Costanzo Festa (d 1545), designated for use on Saturday (a day of commemoration of the BVM) and on vigils and feasts of the BVM. The attribution to Festa is now questioned, and 16th-century liturgical settings date from about 1570 onwards. However, there are two settings of the Litany of the Saints, both lacking the opening invocation to the Trinity and the closing Agnus Dei, among the works of Gaffurius, maestro di cappella at Milan Cathedral from 1481 to 1522. These motet-litanies, Virgo dei digna and Salva mater Salvatoris, show an incipient double-choir technique, dividing the invocations (‘Sancta Maria’, ‘Sancte Ambrosi’) and responses (‘ora pro nobis’) between the upper and lower voices to produce a simple antiphonal effect. The highest voice of each voice-pair incorporates the traditional plainchant melody as a cantus firmus.

Litanies set by composers during the 16th century include the Litany of Saints (Litaniae de omnibus sanctis; settings by Jacob Haym, Lassus and others), the Litany of Jesus (Litaniae de Domine or Nomine Jesu; settings by Palestrina and Lassus), the Litany of the Blessed Sacrament (Litaniae de venerabili sacramento, also known as the Litaniae corporis Christi or Litaniae sacrosanctae eucharistiae; settings by Palestrina) and, rarely, the Litany of the Dead (Litaniae pro defunctis; one anonymous setting in RISM 1596²). By far the most frequently composed litanies were those of the Virgin. The Litaniae deiparae virginis Mariae (settings by Mel and Monte) was eventually supplanted by the Litaniae Lauretanae. Composers who set this text in the 16th century include G.M. Nanino (1571), Costanzo Porta (1580), Victoria (1583), Lassus (1596) and Giulio Belli (1600). In addition, Marian litanies with free texts were frequently composed (settings by Asola, Valerio Bona, Palestrina and Bartolomeo Ratti; for a complete list see Roth, 1959). Palestrina’s published litanies for four voices contain an additional setting of the antiphon Ave Maria inserted after the prima pars.

The invocation–response structure of the litany lent itself to alternatim or polychoral treatment. In the alternatim settings the invocations were intoned by a priest or cantor and the responses sung by the choir; many of these settings are in falsobordone style. Double-choir litanies for eight and more voices were composed by Lassus, G.M. Nanino, Porta, Palestrina and Victoria. There is doubt about the attribution to Macque of a litany for eight voices, found only in a 19th-century manuscript copy (in D-MÜs). The northward dissemination of the genre is evident in the number of litanies in the Thesaurus litaniarum (RISM 1596²) by south German composers and Italians working north of the Alps. In Antwerp a novel typographical layout was adopted by Phalèse for his one-volume collection of litanies by anonymous composers, the Litaniae septem deiparae virgini musici decantandae (1598), in which all the voice parts are arranged on facing pages in choirbook format suggesting processional usage.

7. Polyphonic litanies after 1600.

The 17th century was the most prolific period of litany composition in Italy, especially before 1650. Some 600 polyphonic litanies in over 300 publications have been identified (Blazey, 1990). About 300 are found in 46 publications devoted entirely to litanies; others appear in collections of music for Vespers (35), Compline (27) and the Mass (15), in 98 motet collections, and in 84 other publications. Archival evidence confirms the recitation of litanies in Roman churches especially on vigils and feasts of the Virgin, on Saturdays after Compline, during processions, and at meetings of confraternities. Similar practices are found elsewhere throughout Italy. Litanies were particularly important in Venice during the plague years (1629–31) and in Bologna and Loreto.

The text of Litaniae Lauretanae (see §5 above) is most often set. Some settings were published with Marian antiphons (Lorenzo Ratti, 1630, Cazzati, 1658, Francesco Foggia, 1672) or with antiphons and motets (P.A. Ferrario, 1607, G.F. Anerio, 1611, Giacobbi, 1618, Orazio Tarditi, 1644). Lodovico Viadana’s Letanie che si cantano nella Santa Casa di Loreto, et nelle chiese di Roma ogni Sabbato et feste della Madonna (1605) consists of 12 settings scored for three to eight and 12 voices. Litanies for two or three choirs are more numerous in the first half of the century, including the five by Cifra (1613), who was maestro at Loreto from 1609 to 23, and Giovanni Gabrieli’s (1615). Some settings are strictly liturgical (Viadana a 4, 1605, Cavaccio a 4, 1611, Stefano Bernardi a 4, 1613), some use falsobordone (Viadana a 8, 1605), and others truncate the text (Giulio Belli a 6, 1607, F. Anerio a 5, RISM 1622¹, Merula a 5, 1628, Isabella Leonarda a 4, 1674). Concertato settings include those by Grandi (a 5, 1614, and a 3, RISM 1626³), Monteverdi (a 6, 1620), Giovanni Rovetta (a 3, 1635) and Merula (a 5, 1640). Instruments are used in settings by Cazzati (1663), Olivo (1670), Passavini (1671), G.B. Bassani (1690) and Perti (undated). In France Du Mont’s Cantica sacra (1652) contains a litany, and M.-A. Charpentier’s nine litanies for three to eight voices, written in the 1680s and 90s, include three with instruments.

The Italian tradition continued in the 18th and early 19th centuries with Andrea Basili, G.B. Casali and G.B. Borghi in Loreto; Pitoni, Biordi and Fiovarini in Rome; and F.N. Fago, Leonardo Vinci, Zingarelli and Giuseppe Nicolini in Naples. North of the Alps the output includes works by Gletle (31 litanies, 1681) and J.C.F. Fischer (eight, with strings and optional trumpets, horns and trombones, 1711) in Augsburg; Heinichen and J.D. Zelenka (processional litanies, 1725) in Dresden; H.I.F. von Biber, K.H. Biber, J.E. Eberlin, Michael Haydn and Leopold Mozart in Salzburg; and by a large number of composers in Vienna, including Albrechtsberger, Caldara, J.J. Fux, J.A. Hasse, J.G. Reinhardt, Georg Reutter (ii), Tůma, G.C. Wagenseil, Salieri and Ignaz Umlaf. There are also examples from monastic composers: Königsperger, Ägidius Schenk, Wrastill and Aumann in Austria, and Berthold Hipp in Switzerland. W.A. Mozart’s four litanies include two liturgical settings (k125, k243) and two Loreto litanies (k109/74e, k195/186d). These youthful works, dating from 1771–6, show influences from Italy and from Zelenka, but owe far more to the Salzburg tradition.

In the 19th century minor composers in the Italian and German-speaking states continued to write litanies, including some with orchestra, some as litanie pastorali (or lytaniae rurales), and some influenced by the church music reforms. In France Auber’s Litanies de la Sainte Vierge (after 1852) are scored for choir and orchestra, those by Saint-Saëns (1917) for solo voice and organ, and those by Poulenc (1936, Litanies à la vierge noire) for three-part female chorus and organ.

Polyphonic settings of Luther’s litany in German (1529) include those by Johannes Rhau (1598), Sigefrid (1602), Vulpius (1604), Michael Praetorius (1610), H.L. Hassler (1619), Schein (1627) and Heinrich Schütz (1657). An 18th-century text is used in C.P.E. Bach’s two litanies (1786). The Orthodox Liturgy of St John Chrysostom includes several litanies, and there are settings in Church Slavic from the first half of the 20th century by Dobri Khristov, Aleksandr Nikolskii and Rachmaninoff, and more recently by Lozko Stoyanov. Arvo Pärt’s Litany for soloists, choir and orchestra (1994) also draws on texts of St John Chrysostom, but in the translation used in the American Orthodox Church.

8. English litanies.

An English form of the litany (derived in part from Luther's litany of 1529) first appeared in the second edition of Marshall's Primer (1535). In 1544 Henry VIII ordered processions to be said and sung causa necessitas before his invasion of France. In the spirit of the reforming movement to ensure that the people understood what they were reciting, Thomas Cranmer wrote a new English litany for these processions, issued with simple chant to replace the usual Latin form. This abbreviated and conflated existing texts, drew on other parts of the Latin liturgy and inserted Lutheran texts. It reduced the petitions to the saints, dominant in the Latin litany, to three. This litany was subsequently printed in The King's Primer (1545). Cranmer's scheme for translating and adapting other processions ‘to be used upon festival days’ did not proceed; instead a Royal Injunction of October 1545 ordered that the 1544 litany be sung ‘every Sunday and festival day, and none other’ before High Mass, thus displacing the Latin repertory of processions. Royal Injunctions issued in 1547 after the accession of Edward VI further ordered that the litany be recited not in procession but kneeling in the middle of the church. In the first Book of Common Prayer (1549), Cranmer's litany was placed between the services of Holy Communion and Baptism, with all references to the saints excised. In the second Book of Common Prayer (1552 and all subsequent versions) it was relocated after Morning Prayer, with a rubric instructing that it be recited after that service ‘upon Sundays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, and at other times when it shall be commanded by the Ordinary’.

The 1544 litany was issued with formulaic, syllabic chants adapted from the Latin Rite, and these remained in use, though by the 19th century there were significant regional variants in choral foundations. The two earliest surviving polyphonic versions of the litany responses, anonymous in the Wanley partbooks (GB-Ob Mus.Sch.E.420–22), set these chants in four parts in a simple syllabic style typical of contemporary English preces, responses and festal psalms. Each is followed in the source by a polyphonic setting of the Lord's Prayer. There are later 16th- and 17th-century settings by Batten (two), Butler, Byrd, William King, Henry Loosemore, Robert Lugge, Molle, Pickaver, Ramsey (two), Tallis (two), Thomas Tomkins (two) and Thomas Wanless, as well as three incomplete, anonymous litanies. Most do not refer to the chant, but they remain functional: none aspires to the more elaborate contemporary settings found in Italy. There are also settings of the Latin translation of Cranmer's litany by Henry Loosemore, Molle, Ramsay and Thomas Wilson. Peter Philips used Latin Roman Catholic texts for his Marian litanies (RISM 1630²). Most of the extant English settings were edited and published by Jebb, whose study of the choral litany remains a considerable work of scholarship. After the Restoration interest in setting the litany declined. In the late 20th-century revisions of Anglican liturgies new litany texts have been devised. Jonathan Harvey's Winchester Litany (1986) sets one of the new English texts in a contemporary idiom, but in a syllabic manner typical of the 16th century.

2. Modal structures, rhythm and metre.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

a: monophonic

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P.M. Martins: Ladainhas de Nossa Senhora em Portugal(Lisbon, 1961)

R. Federhofer-Königs: ‘Mozarts “Lauretanische Litaneien” KV109 (74e) und 195 (186d)’, MJb 1967, 111–20

H. and R. Federhofer: ‘Eighteenth Century Litaniae lauretanae from the Repertory of the Viennese Province of the Franciscan Order, Studies in Eighteenth-Century Music: a Tribute to Karl Geiringer, ed. H.C.R. Landon and R.E. Chapman (New York and London, 1970), 198–212

J.G. Kurtzmann: ‘Some Historical Perspectives on the Monteverdi Vespers’, AnMc, no.15 (1975), 29–86

F.W. Riedel: Kirchenmusik am Hofe Karls VI (1711–1740)(Munich, 1977)

J.W. Hill: ‘Oratory Music in Florence, II: at San Firenze in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, AcM, li (1979), 246–67

L. Kantner: Aurea luce: Musik an St Peter in Rom 1790–1850 (Vienna, 1979)

G. Dixon: ‘Lenten Devotion: some Memorias in Baroque Rome’, MT, cxxiv (1983), 157–61

J. Roche: ‘Musica diversa di Compietà: Compline and its Music in Seventeenth-Century Italy’, PRMA, cix (1982–3), 60–79

L.M. Kantner: ‘Hasses Litanei für den Kaiserhof’, Johann Adolf Hasse und die Musik seiner zeit: Siena 1983 [AnMc, no.25 (1987)], 419–28

J.H. Moore: ‘Venezia favorita da Maria: Music for the Madonna Nicopeia and Santa Maria della Salute’, JAMS, xxxvii (1984), 299–355

D.A. Blazey: ‘The Mid-Baroque Concertato Litany in Northern Italy: Inherited Problems and Borrowed Solutions’, Tradizione e stile: Como 1987, 123–53

W. Horn: Die Dresdener Hofkirchenmusik 1720–1745: Studien zu ihren Voraussetzungen und zu ihrem Repertoire (Kassel, 1987)

D.A. Blazey: The Litany in Seventeenth-Century Italy(diss., U of Durham, 1990)

J.S. Krutmann: ‘Mozarts Litaneien’, Mozarts Kirchenmusik: Freiburg 1991, 52–72

N. O’Regan: ‘Processions and their Music in Post-Tridentine Rome’, Recercare, iv (1992), 45–80

J.I. Armstrong: Litaniae Lauretanae: Sacred Music at the Viennese Imperial Court c1700–1783 (diss., U of Wisconsin, Madison, 1993)

U. Ringhandt: ‘Die “Litaneien” von Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach als “musikalische Lehrgedicht”’, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach: Beiträge zu Leben und Werk, ed. H. Poos (Mainz, 1993), 197–219

R. Federhofer-Königs: ‘Lauretana-Vertonungen aus der Barockszeit’, Studien zur Musikgeschichte: eine Festschrift für Ludwig Finscher, ed. A. Laubenthal and K. Kusan-Windweh (Kassel, 1995), 189–96

M. Marx-Weber: ‘Bemerkungen zu Bonifazio Grazianis Litaneien’, Festschrift für Winfreid Kirsch, ed. P. Ackermann, U. Kienzle and A. Nowak (Tutzing, 1996), 75–81

d: english litanies

HarrisonMMB

Le HurayMR

E. Burton, ed.: Three Primers put forth in the Reign of Henry VIII (Oxford, 1834, 2/1848)

J. Jebb: The Choral Responses and Litanies of the United Church of England and Ireland(London, 1847–57)

W.H. Frere: ‘Edwardine Vernacular Services before the First Prayer Book’, Journal of Theological Studies, i (1900), 229–46; repr. in Walter Howard Frere: a Collection of his Papers in Liturgical and Historical Subjects, ed. J.H. Arnold and E.G.P. Wyatt (Oxford, 1940), 5–21

F.E. Brightman: The English Rite (London, 1915, 2/1921)

J.E. Hunt, ed.: Cranmer’s First Litany, 1544, and Merbecke’s Book of Common Prayer Noted, 1550(London, 1939) [incl. facs. of both items]

G.J. Cuming: A History of Anglican Liturgy(London, 1969, 2/1982)

Literati

(Lat.).

A term for laymen in 16th century (and later) Bohemia, who formed ‘literary brotherhoods’ (Cz. literátské bratrství) and cultivated polyphony. See Cantional, §1.

Literes (y Carrión), Antonio (de)

(b Artá, Mallorca, ? 18 June 1673; d Madrid, 18 Jan 1747). Spanish composer. He began his formal musical training in 1686 in the choir school of the Spanish royal chapel and studied the violón with Manuel de Soba. In 1693 he was acknowledged by the patriarch of the chapel to be a skilled player of the viol, violin and violón, and competent as a composer. Upon examination he was awarded the position of violón in the chapel and interim instructor of the choirboys. Later he became principal violón in the royal chapel under the Bourbon King Philip V and esteemed as a composer for both his sacred and his secular works. In 1720 the patriarch of the royal chapel noted that Literes’s talents as a composer and violón player were far superior to those of his colleagues.

Documents pertaining to the royal chapel make it clear that Literes was composing music for the chapel in the 1690s. Once Sebastián Durón had abandoned the position of maestro de capilla in 1796, Literes was called upon to compose ‘villancicos for the feast of Corpus Christi, Lamentations for Holy Week and whatever might be necessary for the service of the Quarenta Horas’. In 1734, after a disastrous fire in the Alcázar palace destroyed the music archive of the royal chapel, Literes, José Nebra and the then maestro de capilla Joseph de Torres were charged with the enormous task of rebuilding the collection and composing new music to replace what had been lost. This in itself is proof of Literes’s fecundity and ability to compose in every genre of his day, from sacred Latin pieces in the severe style to flamboyantly modern songs and arias and villancicos in both a traditional Spanish and a pan-European style. His reputation was such that he had been commissioned to compose an oratorio on the life of St Vicente for Lisbon Cathedral on 22 January 1720, along with a villancico cycle for the previous evening.

In addition to his duties with the royal chapel, from 1697 Literes was increasingly called upon to perform in the royal theatre orchestra, and probably participated in revivals of plays with music by Juan Hidalgo and productions of new works by Durón and Juan de Navas. This exposure evidently bore fruit, as Literes succeeded the exiled Durón as the leading theatre composer for a limited period, composing several zarzuelas (four with texts by José de Cañizares) and a fully sung serenata-like work, Los elementos, described as an ‘ópera armónica al estilo italiano’. Four of the zarzuela scores and that of Los elementos survive.

Literes had several pieces published in the first years of the 18th century by the Imprenta de Música of Joseph de Torres. He was also one of the first Spanish composers (along with Juan de Serqueira and Torres) to write and publish cantatas; many of these were probably intended for aristocratic patrons, but a number of Literes’s cantatas are taken from theatre works. Los elementos was dedicated to the Duchess of Medina de las Torres (for her birthday), and Literes probably composed for the Duchess of Osuna as well; his son José (Joseph) Literes Sánchez (d Madrid, 26 Sept 1746) played the violón and cello in her court orchestra. In July 1722 a ‘don Antonio Literes’ was paid for providing the score to ‘la Palestra y Academia’, either a court entertainment with this title or music to be performed during an intellectual, musical and literary competition. This was probably Antonio Literes himself, and not his son Antonio Literes Montalbo (d Madrid, 2 Dec 1768), an organist at the royal chapel and a colleague of Nebra (who also worked for the Duchess of Osuna).

Literes’s importance as a theatre composer extended beyond the court and the aristocracy to the commercial public theatres of Madrid; he was perhaps the first court composer to benefit from the open policy of the newly installed Bourbon monarchy, which allowed court musicians to perform and compose for fiestas other than those at the royal court. According to the surviving accounts of the Cruz and Príncipe theatres, revivals of zarzuelas with music by Literes were heard with consistent success season after season as late as 1734, although they were originally composed before 1720. In 1711 he was paid for the music to Antes difunta que ajena, a zarzuela performed in the public Teatro del Príncipe in July. The most striking example is Accis y Galatea. Following its court première in 1708, it became the most acclaimed work of the first half of the century in the public theatres, enjoying popular support for two decades.

While he continued to compose for the royal chapel, Literes’s ascendancy at court was eclipsed by the newly arrived Italian composers favoured by the queen, in spite of the fact that Literes clearly belonged to the small group of Spanish court composers who self-consciously adopted the foreign forms and techniques early in the century. Some of his pieces in Spanish forms preserve a traditionally Spanish approach to the text and to affective expression, with controlled treatment of dissonance. At the same time, his scores contain many set pieces written in an italianate or pan-European style: da capo arias with highly melismatic vocal lines, fragmentation of the poetic text, rapid figurations in the instrumental parts and italianate expressive devices. Literes was indeed a leader in an epoch of stylistic plurality. Contemporaries who condemned stylistic importations and innovations in the music of others judged his music as preserving truly Spanish qualities of ‘sweetness’ and ‘elegance’.

In spite of his talent Literes died in debt, largely because much of his salary from his early years at court remained unpaid. Among the few items noted in the inventory of his possessions was a ‘violón from Cremona, made by Stradivarius himself’.

WORKS

stage

Júpiter y Danae (zar, 3, ? T. Añorbe y Corregel), Madrid, Alcázar or Buen Retiro, 6 Jan 1700, E-Mn

Los elementos, Mn

Accis y Galatea (zar, 2, J. de Cañizares), Madrid, Alcázar or Buen Retiro, 19 Dec 1708, Mn, P-EVp, 1 tonada (Madrid, ?1708)

Con música y por amor [Act 1] (zar, 2), Madrid, Buen Retiro, 1709, 2 songs E-Mn [Act 2 by J. de Navas]

Antes difunta que ajena (zar), Madrid, Príncipe, 22 July 1711, music lost

Hasta lo insensible adora (zar, 2, Cañizares), Madrid, Cruz, 16 May 1713, EVp

El estrago en la fineza (zar, 2, Cañizares), Madrid, Cruz, 9 May 1718, EVp

cantatas

10 Cantadas humanas, E-Mn

5 Cantadas al Sacramento, GCA-Gc

Ah del rústico, 1v, obs, vns, bc, 1710, E-E; Aliento humano desvolo, S, bc, Scalo (Madrid, n.d.); Dexame ingrata Ilorar, S, bc, Mn, GB-CDp; Déjame tirano Dios, 1v, P-Ln; Estaba Fili hermosa, S, bc, E-VAc

other works

Liturgical: 3 missas de facistol, 4vv, E-Mp; 8 Mag, Mp; 14 Vespers pss, 4vv, Mp; 10 hymns, Mp; Miserere mei Deus, 8vv, vns, violón, hp, hpd/org, bc E; Sanctorum meritis, 4vv, VAcp

Tonos and villancicos: E-Bc, Mn, SE, GCA-Gc, Mexico City, Biblioteca Nacional

Instrumental: Obertura, obs, hns, vns, violón, bc E-NArv (doubtful)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Cotarelo y Mori: Historia de la zarzuela (Madrid, 1934), 76ff

N. Álvarez Solar-Quintes: ‘Antonio Literes Carrión y sus hijos (nuevos documentos para su biografía)’, AnM, v (1950), 169–89

A. Martín Moreno: ‘El compositor mallorquín Antonio Literes (1673–1747)’, TSM, xi/1 (1978), 24–6

A. Martín Moreno: Historia de la música española, iv: Siglo XVIII (Madrid, 1985), 45–7, 386–8

A.E. Lemmon: ‘Antonio Literes y José de Nebra: el inicio de la presencia italiana en el Archivo musical de la Catedral de Guatemala’, Domenico Zipoli: intinerari iberoamericani della musica italiana nel Settecento: Prato 1988, 265–72

L.K. Stein: Songs of Mortals, Dialogues of the Gods: Music and Theatre in Seventeenth-Century Spain (Oxford, 1993)

J.J. Carreras: ‘La cantata de cámara española de principios del siglo XVIII: el manuscrito M2618 de le Biblioteca nacional de Madrid y sus concordancias’, Música y literatura en la peninsula ibérica 1600–1750: Valladolid 1995, 65–126

A. Bombi: ‘Los elementos: estilo, género, y funciones’, Scherzo, no.117 (1997), 122–5

J.J. Carreras: ‘From Literes to Nebra: Spanish Dramatic Music Between Tradition and Modernity’, Music in Spain during the Eighteenth Century, ed. M. Boyd and J.J. Carreras (Cambridge, 1998), 7–16

LOUISE STEIN

Lithander, Carl Ludvig

(b Röicks, Dagö, Estonia, 26 Jan/6Feb 1773; d Greifswald, 17 Dec 1843). Swedish composer and pianist of Russian birth. In 1790 he moved to Stockholm, where he graduated as an officer in the engineering corps. From 1814 he lived in London for four years as a composer and piano teacher. He also gave piano recitals in Sweden, Germany, Holland and Denmark. Lithander, who used several Swedish folk tunes in his compositions, wrote in the style of Mozart and Haydn. His piano sonata in C major is dedicated to Muzio Clementi. He died as a music director and an organist in Greifswald. His brother, Fredrik Emanuel Lithander (1777–1823), was a composer and piano teacher in Finland and Russia.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Säckpiparen,Spl, 1, unperf; Lantara,op, Stockholm, 16 Nov 1817

Inst: 2 divertimentos, fl, pf; La Réminiscence, fl, pf; 2 sonatas, pf, C (London, ?1818), f (Hamburg, ?1822)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Lappalainen: ‘Finnish Viennese Classical Composers and Europe’ Balticum: a Coherent Musical Landscape in 16th and 18th Centuries, ed. I. Vierimaa (Helsinki, 1994), 91–102

E. Salmenhaara, ed.: Suomalaisia säveltäjiä Helsinki ([Finnish composers], 1994), 267–73

SEIJA LAPPALAINEN

Lithographisches Institut.

Austrian firm of music publishers. It was established in Vienna and owned by Adolph Count von Pötting and Ferdinand Count Pálffy von Erdöd, though managed during its relatively brief existence by Schubert's friend Franz von Schober (b 17 May 1798; d 13 Aug 1882), often wrongly named as an owner. The firm's first advertisement for printed music appeared in the Wiener Zeitung of 26 February 1821; there were two further announcements in the same year and three more in 1822. In 1823 the publishing activity increased: on 18 November the first issue of the series Der Neue Amphion appeared, reaching 23 issues the following year. The editor was Friedrich August Kanne (1778–1833), who from 1821 also edited the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung mit besonderer Rücksicht auf den österreichischen Kaiserstaat (founded 1817), which he brought into the Lithographisches Institut in 1824.

The publishing programme, apart from single works by Hieronymus Payer, Sechter and Voříšek, reveals only Singspiele and works by insignificant composers, including several by Kanne himself. Schubert is represented by the Lied an den Tod (d518), which appeared as a supplement to the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung on 26 June 1824 (separate edition on 2 July), and by four songs published in 1828 (d939, 909, 768, 881: later called op.96).

When the Chemische Druckerey and S.A. Steiner & Co. (see Haslinger) changed to music engraving in 1821, the Lithographisches Institut took over part of their lithographic production. In 1826 the firm seems to have ceased music publishing, though a retail shop continued until at least 1833.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

WeinmannWM

A. Mayer: Wiens Buchdrucker-Geschichte 1482–1882, ii (Vienna, 1887)

A. Weiss: Franz Schober (Vienna, 1907)

ALEXANDER WEINMANN

Lithophone

(from Gk. lithos: ‘stone’; Fr. lithophone; Ger. Lithophon, Steinspiel; It. litofono).

A sounding stone or series of resonant stone slabs or plaques (for the Hornbostel-Sachs classification see Idiophone). Lithophones occur in several forms: oblong bars suspended horizontally; vertically suspended plaques; or (as has been recently introduced) circular stone discs arranged chromatically. They may also occur in the form of rocks, boulders, stalagmites, stalactites etc., which are sonorous when struck and show evidence of having been used as idiophones; such lithophones may more appropriately be termed ‘rock gongs’.

In Asia, ringing stones are found in Annam, China, Korea, Samoa, and in southern India (e.g. the ‘musical columns’ found in many medieval temples). Prehistoric lithophones found in Indo-China (Annam) include three stone slabs (discovered actually in use in 1958) in which the surfaces show the typical flaking technique of Stone Age man, the edges apparently fashioned for tuning purposes. A Vietnamese lithophone (goong lu) discovered in 1949 is now in the Musée de l’Homme, Paris (fig.1). This instrument has 11 slabs 65 to 100 cm in length, and yields two sonorous pentatonic octaves. Further examples of goong lu, with sets of 12, 15 and 32 stones, have been more recently discovered, and are now at the Phu Khanh Museum, the Institute of Musicology of Vietnam, and the Institute of Research in Musicology and Choreography, Hanoi. Lithophones dating back to Neolithic times, from Indo-China, are preserved in the Horniman Museum, London.

Stone chimes are among the most ancient and valued instruments of the Chinese (see Qing). The foremost of these is the bianquing said to have existed as far back as c2000 bce. The bianquing comprises a set of calcareous L-shaped stone slabs (tequing) suspended vertically in a rectangular frame. From the 5th century bce the standard number of stones was 16, arranged in two rows of eight. The stones are tuned to the 12 notes of the lü octave and its four additional notes. They are struck on the long side with wooden mallets or padded sticks. Related instruments include the Korean p’yŏn’gyŏng (also with 16 stone chimes) and t’ŭkkyŏng (a survival of one historical type of Chinese teqing, comprising a single L-shaped chime), the Vietnamese biên khánh, and the Japanese kei, a vertically suspended plaque which is more commonly made of metal.

Sonorous stones occur in many and widely scattered regions. In Ethiopia, stone chimes are used as church bells in certain Christian places of worship. In Togo, the picancala, a lithophone consisting of four to five flat pieces of basalt arranged in a circle on straw, struck with two spherical stones, is played by young men to announce the millet harvest in mid-November. Resonant stones have been found in Venezuela and Ecuador, and in Europe on the islands of Chios and Sardinia. Ringing rocks used for the production of musical notes have been discovered in Nigeria. Hammered depressions provide evidence of their having been used as percussion instruments. Rock gongs are used currently, their purposes varying from use in religious services to providing accompaniment to singing and dancing.

Some of the most remarkable lithophones in existence are to be found in the English Lake District. A set of 16 musical stones embracing two diatonic octaves and one note is in the Fitz Park Museum, Keswick. These stones were discovered in 1785: eight in the bed of the river Greta and eight on the nearby mountain of Skiddaw. There is also in the same museum the Richardson rock harmonica comprising five chromatic octaves of stone slabs measuring 15 to 93 cm in length. The slabs lie over a soundbox and are insulated at the nodal points on ropes of straw (fig.2). The instrument (which was completed in 1840) was ‘invented and manufactured by Messrs Richardson and Sons after 13 years’ incessant labour and application from rocks dug out of the mighty Skiddaw’. The Richardson family became expert performers on this unique construction which is reputed to have at times embraced a compass of seven octaves and various bell effects. They toured extensively, performing on two occasions at command performances before Queen Victoria. A rock harmonica of similar proportions is privately housed in Keswick. This instrument, also from Skiddaw, was completed in 1886. An instrument contemporary with the Richardson rock harmonica was the lithokymbalom, of alabaster slabs, built by Franz Weber and displayed in Vienna in 1837.

Modern western composers have (to date) made sparing use of the lithophone. It occurs as Steinspiel in Carl Orff’s Die Kluge, Die Bernauerin, Astutuli, Trionfi, Antigonae and Oedipus. It is also used by George Crumb in Ancient Voices of Children (1970).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Tran Van Khê: Viet-Nam: les traditions musicales (Paris, 1967; Ger. trans., 1982 [with new appx, incl. lithophones])

M. del R. Alvarez Martinez and L. Siemens Hernandez: ‘The Lithographic Use of Large Natural Rocks in the Prehistoric Canary Islands’, The Archaeology of Early Music Cultures [II]: Berlin 1988, 1–10

P. Yule and M. Bemmann: ‘Klangsteine aus Orissa: die frühesten Musikinstrumente Indiens?’, Archeologia musicalis (1988), no.1, pp.46–50 [in Ger., Eng., Fr.]

E. Hickmann: ‘Lithophone aus Ekuador’, Archeologia musicalis (1988), no.1, pp.52–5 [in Ger., Eng., Fr.]

Ngô Dông Hai: ‘Das Lithophon, ein Originalinstrument aus der vietnamesischen Antike’, Archeologia musicalis (1988), no.1, 50–52 [in Ger., Eng., Fr.]

M. Dauvois and X. Boutillon: ‘Caractérisation acoustique des grottes ornées paléolithiques et de leurs lithophones naturales’, La plundisciplinalité en archéologie musicale: St Germain-en-Laye 1990, 207–56

A.M. Till: ‘The Till Family Rock Band’, Experimental Musical Instruments, vii (1992), 12–13

M. Clark: ‘The Qing Lithophones of China’, Experimental Musical Instruments, x/1 (1994), 29–35

C. Fagg: ‘What is a Lithophone, and What is a Rock?’, GSJ, xlvii (1994), 154–5

JAMES BLADES/R

Lithuania.

Country in eastern Europe. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was created in the 13th century. Lithuania was the last European state to convert to Christianity (1387–1413). In 1386 Grand Duke Jogaila was crowned King of Poland, and for 350 years Lithuania and Poland were united. During this period Russia, Prussia and Austria made territorial claims, and the Lithuanian-Polish state was partitioned three times. After the third partition (1795) Lithuania was a province of the Russian empire for almost 125 years. Tsarist oppression, with press and stage censorship, the closing of Vilnius University and the imposition of the Russian language in schools, theatres and publishing, provoked a national liberation movement. Following the revolution in Russia, Lithuania was proclaimed a sovereign state in 1918. In 1919 Poland began an occupation of southeastern Lithuania, including Vilnius (the capital), that lasted almost 20 years; Kaunas served as the capital during this period. After Lithuania was annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940 there were mass deportations to Siberia, particularly of the intelligentsia. In 1941 Lithuania was occupied by Hitler's army; in 1944, when they were expelled, a second Soviet occupation began. Lithuania lost almost a third of its population through deportations, armed resistance and emigration. On 11 March 1990 the sovereign Lithuanian state was restored.

I. Art music

II. Traditional music

JUOZAS ANTANAVIČIUS (I), JADVYGA ČIURLIONYTĖ/R (II)

Lithuania

I. Art music

By the 14th century there was professional music in the courts of the Grand Dukes, and missionary monks had probably introduced Gregorian chant. Traditional instruments such as the kanklės and medinės triūbos may have been used in court ceremonies; court inventories mention the organ, clavichord, cymbals, harp, lute, kobsa, pan pipes, recorder and trumpet. Lithuanian and Polish musicians active in the 16th and 17th centuries included Stephanus Vilnensis [de Vylna], Kazimieras Stanislovas Rudamina, Wacław z Szamotuł, Mikołaj Gomółka, Cyprian Bazylik, Jan Brant, Krzystof Klabon, Simonas Berentas (1585–1649) and Marcin Kreczmer (1631–96). Lithuanian composers wrote masses and motets modelled on Netherlandish polyphonic works of the 15th and 16th centuries. The first Lithuanian book of psalms with musical notation was the Catechismusa Prasty Szadei (Königsberg, 1547) by Martynas Mažvydas. The Reformation encouraged the spread of the Protestant chorale and of psalms in Lithuanian and Polish. The Jesuits founded Lithuania's first university (1579), at Vilnius, as well as 11 school theatres which played a major part in musical life from the 16th century to the 18th. In 1667 Žygimantas Liauksminas (c1596–1670), professor at Vilnius University, published a manual of musical notation and choral singing, Ars et praxis musica. During the 17th century musical ensembles were maintained at the courts of Vilnius, Nesvyžius, Grodno and Slonim; some Lithuanian aristocrats were themselves composers, including members of the Radvila and Ogiński families.

With the decline of the educated Lithuanian aristocracy in the late 18th century, culture became increasingly democratized. The Vilnius City Theatre (active with interruptions 1785–1866) included melodramas and vaudevilles by Lithuanian composers in its repertory. The German composer and conductor J.D. Holland, who taught music theory, counterpoint and composition at Vilnius University (1802–26), established its chair of musicology in 1803. Amateur composers, most of them organists, were the first to aim at creating a national Lithuanian musical style; their works (harmonized traditional songs, masses and piano pieces) were not of a very high standard. The founders of a professional national school of composition were Česlovas Sasnauskas (1867–1916), Juozas Naujalis (1869–1934), Mikas Petrauskas (1873–1937) and most notably M.K. Čiurlionis (1875–1911). Their works are in the late Romantic tradition, sometimes tending towards Expressionism and Constructivism (Čiurlionis used his own serial technique in his piano preludes of 1904–5). Birutė (1906) by Petrauskas, usually considered the first Lithuanian opera, is in fact a play with incidental music; Petrauskas's more mature opera Eglė, Queen of the Grass-Snakes was completed in 1920. Other notable operas of the early 20th century were the historical-heroic Gražina (1933) by Jurgis Karnavičius (1884–1941), with simple and appealing music related to traditional melodies, and Trys talismanai (1934) by Antanas Račiūnas (1905–84). Other composers who helped to establish a national style during the inter-war years, often drawing on traditional Lithuanian music, were Yuozas Gruodis (1884–1948), Stasys Šimkus (1887–1943), Juozas Tallat-Kelpša, Balys Dvarionas (1904–72), Stasys Vainiūnas (1909–82) and Juozas Pakalnis (1912–48). In the 1930s some composers tried to unite the national style with a more modern musical language, notably Gruodis, Karnavičius, Kazimieras Viktoras Banaitis (1896–1963), Vladas Jakubėnas (1904–76), Vytautas Bacevičius (1905–70), Jeronimas Kačinskas (b 1907) and Julius Gaidelis (1909–83). In 1904 the first Lithuanian music journal, Vargonininkas (‘The Organist’, edited by Naujalis), appeared. Lithuanian emigrants to Russia, Latvia, Poland, the USA and Germany performed Lithuanian works in those countries and distributed gramophone records of Lithuanian music. The Archive of Lithuanian Folklore was created in 1935, and Juozas Žilevičius set up the Lithuanian Music Archive in Chicago.

With the Soviet annexation of Lithuania (1940) came the cultural dictatorship of Soviet Realism, the breaking of contact with modern Western music, and strict ideological censorship. Many placatory works of programme music were written. In 1948, as in all other Soviet republics, a union of composers and musicologists was founded. Until the 1960s most composers wrote in neo-romantic and neo-classical styles, striving for simplicity and ‘closeness to the people’. More progressive tendencies were inhibited by the communist-inspired opposition to ‘formalism’. But the conservative musical language gave rise to some notable works by composers including Dvarionas, Račiūnas, Vainiūnas, Julius Juzeliūnas (b 1916), Eduardas Balsys (1919–84) and Vytautas Klova (b 1926). Composers who had emigrated (mostly to the USA), among them Bacevičius, Kačinskas and Gaidelis, and later Darius Lapinskas (b 1934), used more modern compositional techniques. The ‘thaw’ of the 1960s enlarged the horizons of composers in Lithuania; Juzeliūnas created an original harmonic system based on elements of traditional music, and Blasys used 12-note techniques. Other exponents of modern trends were Benjaminas Gorbulskis (1925–86), Vytautas Montvila (b 1935), Vytautas Barkauskas (b 1931), Vytautas Laurušas (b 1930), Vytautas Jurgutis (b 1930), Antanas Rekašius (b 1928), Algimantas Bražinskas (b 1937), Teisutis Makačinas (b 1938), Jurgis Juozapaitis (b 1942) and Borisas Borisovas (b 1937). Among prominent representatives of modern Lithuanian music are Feliksas Bajoras (b 1934), Bronius Kutavičius (b 1932) and Osvaldas Balakauskas (b 1937). In the late 1970s and early 80s a nostalgic, contemplative and minimalist tendency emerged, expressed in images of time standing still, an intimate lyricism, meditative atmospheric effects and repetitive techniques. Such works were written by Kutavičius, Bajoras, Juozapaitis, Mindaugas Urbaitis (b 1952), Algirdas Martinaitis (b 1950), Jonas Tamulionis (b 1949), Vidmantas Bartulis (b 1954) and Onutė Narbutaitė (b 1956). Younger composers are Rytis Mažulis (b 1961), Nomeda Valančiūtė (b 1961), Šarūnas Nakas (b 1962), Eglė Sausanavičiūtė (b 1963), Remigijus Merkelys (b 1964) and Antanas Jasenka (b 1965).

The music education system includes the Lithuanian Music Academy (in Vilnius, with one department in Kaunas), five conservatories (Vilnius, Kaunas, Klaipėda, Šiauliai, Panevėzys), three secondary schools specializing in music, and about 80 state music colleges. The Lithuanian Composers’ Union consisted of about 120 composers and musicologists in 1996. Musicologists engaged in research into Lithuanian art music are Algirdas Ambrazas (b 1934), Jonas Bruveris (b 1939), Juozas Gaudrimas (b 1911), Ona Narbutienė (b 1930) and Vytautas Landsbergis (b 1932), who held the political office of President of the Supreme Council from 1990 to 1992.

See also Vilnius.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO (A. Tauragis)

MGG2 (‘Litauen’; J. Antanavičius)

A. Miller: Teatr i muzyka na Litwie 1745–1865 (Vilnius, 1935)

S. Yla, ed.: Lietuvių nacionalinė opera (Vilnius, 1960)

A. Tauragis: Lithuanian Music: Past and Present (Vilnius, 1971)

J. Bagdanskis: The Lithuanian Musical Scene (Vilnius, 1974)

V. Venkus: ‘Musïkal'nïy teatr: operï i operettï’, Iz istorii litovskoy muzïki, iii (Leningrad, 1978), 19–44

L. Mel'nikas: ‘Litovskaya fortepiannaya i organnaya muzïka’ [Lithuanian piano and organ music], Mezhnatsional'nïye svyazi v sovetskoy muzïkal'noy kul'ture (Leningrad, 1987), 193–207

R. Mikenaite: XX a. polifonija ir jos apraskos siuolaikineje lietuviu muzikoje: Mokymo priemone [20th-Century polyphony in Lithuanian music: an instructional aid] (Vilnius, 1987)

L. Melnikas: ‘Einflüsse der italianischen Musik auf die Entwicklung der Musikkultur Litauens im 17. und in der ersten Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts’, Muzikzentren: Persönlichkeiten und Ensembles (Michaelstein and Blankenburg, 1988), 13–15

J. Trilupaitiene: ‘Muzikai feodalineje Lietuvoje’ [Musicians in feudal Lithuania], Menotyra: Iskusstvovedenie, xvii (1990), 56–68

J. Trilupaitiene: ‘M. Gomolka i muzïkal'naya kultura Litvï v XVI veke’ [Gomółka and musical culture in Lithuania in the 16th century], Pribalticheskiy muzïkovedicheskiy sbornik, iv (1992), 93–101

J. Vyliute: ‘Die litauische Oper in den Jahren 1940–1990’, Opera kot socialni ali politicni angazma/Oper als soziles oder politisches Engagement (Ljubljana, 1992), 196–203

J. Trilupaitiene: ‘Baroko muzikos bruozai Lietuvoje’ [Characteristics of Baroque music in Lithuania], Gama, no.2 (1993), 20–23

V. Bakutite: ‘Das Objekt und das Subjekt der Geschichte der litauischen Musik (am Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts und im 19. Jahrhundert)’, Music History Writing and National Culture (Tallinn, 1995), 7–16

J. Trilupaitiene: Jezuitu muzikine veikla Lietuvoje [The musical activities of the Jesuits in Lithuania] (Vilnius, 1995)

based on MGG2 (v, 1376–81) by permission of Bärenreiter

Lithuania

II. Traditional music

Music played an important ritual role in the culture of the early Baltic tribes who settled the southeastern coast of the Baltic from the late 3rd century bce. By the end of the first millennium, there was a corpus of mythic and heroic epics that were delivered at funerary rites (these were later also used at court). The principal genre of traditional Lithuanian music is song (daina), with a rich repertory of songs used for feast days, dancing, weddings and family occasions, work and military songs, children's songs, comic songs, ballads and laments. Some songs are of ancient origin; many reflect daily life, others historical events (the struggle for Lithuanian independence in the early 20th century was vividly depicted in song). The present article discusses traditional Lithuanian music with origins before industrialization and the Soviet era. Until the mid-20th century Lithuania was an agricultural country, as is reflected in the themes and imagery of songs that deal with village working life and the close link with nature. A non-Christian concept of the world is retained in early traditional poetry: nature is personified and appeals are made to vegetation, trees, the ‘broad field’, the wind, sun and earth. A detached attitude to events prevails, man's life being seen as part of the natural cycle. The songs are generally lyrical and light, with no dramatic extremes. Narrative songs are lyrical in character; the ideas are compressed and dialogue alternates abruptly with narrative and lyric-dramatic elements. The poetry is rich in fixed symbols and epithets. Certain concepts, especially those of time and space, are given hyperbolic expression, while family relationships, particularly those of mother and child, brother and sister, are tenderly portrayed.

1. Song genres.

1. Song genres.

Besides the features common to traditional features Lithuanian music and poetry in general, there are certain regional genres and musical dialects, elements of which may date from before the 10th century, when Baltic and Slavonic tribes, and to some extent the Finno-Ugrians, were in close contact. The Dzūkija region in south-east Lithuania (adjoining Belarus) has retained the greatest quantity of stereotyped musical forms linked with work and ritual. These include many melodies with a range of three to five notes: children's, shepherds’ and dance songs with accented rhythm, as well as many raudos (funeral laments) and wedding laments sung by the new bride, making use of free recitative. Work songs are richly represented and include songs for harvesting rye, oats and flax, for ploughing, haymaking, threshing, grinding corn, spinning and weaving. The cycle of harvest songs, sung by reapers during harvesting and at the concluding ritual, is particularly interesting; the melodies have a narrow range and are based on a unifying model, varied by different rhythmic patterns and freely prolonged ‘notes of repose’ (the minor 3rd or 4th), which also occur in more developed modal melodies.

Some of the more important ancient ritual and festive songs are related to the calendar, including Kalėdos (Christmas), winter and New Year songs; Užgavėnės (Shrove Tuesday) carnival songs, which involve the wearing of masks, the burning of a dummy and a circuit of the ‘broad fields’ to invoke a good harvest by loud singing; spring songs, including invocations of spring (in eastern Dzūkija), Velykos (Easter) songs, which accompany the customary young men's walk through the village offering congratulations, and swinging-songs sung to produce a plentiful harvest of flax and rye; and Kupolinės (Midsummer Night) festivities celebrated with blazing bonfires and the weaving of garlands. Round-dances depict the events before a wedding, the matchmaking and choice of a bride or groom. All these rituals and song texts have roots in the pre-Christian period.

2. Modal structures, rhythm and metre.

The songs of the Dzūkija area are exclusively monodic. Their versatile modal structures are based on melodic patterns of small intervals, which occur in rudimentary form in the earliest surviving examples. The ancient heptatonic modal melodies probably developed from the narrow-range systems and later increased in number. The most widespread modes were the G, A and C modes; the D and E modes were less common. The F mode is not characteristic except in the sutartinė concords (see §4 below). The harmonic minor is not characteristic either; the raising of the seventh degree is usually artificial. Alterations of A-mode melodies into the harmonic minor and attempts to perform them in two parts were perhaps prompted by the button accordion, introduced into Lithuania late in the 19th century. The pentatonic mode used in the east was probably derived from the Finnish tribes.

Except in simple isometric structures, the rhythmic organization of melodies is varied. Certain types of melody are notable for their rhythmic freedom, embellishments and the prolongation of culminating notes, and even in early songs the poetic accentuation is sometimes subordinated to the rhythms of the melody. In general, both melodic and textual rhythms are asymmetrical. The verse has a striking variety of speech inflections and displaced stresses; diphthongs, accented consonants and other phonetic irregularities apparently facilitated the development of free versification.

The most widespread musical metres are duple, quadruple and triple; asymmetrical metres are less common. Mixed metres take the following forms: predominantly 3/4 with occasional bars of 4/4 or vice versa; insertions – expansions or emotional interjections of a single bar – within regular metres; and repeated heterometric formulae of 5 + 3 quavers (ex.1), 4 + 5 quavers and, rarely, 5 + 3 + 3 quavers.

3. Song forms.

The textual form of stanzas of free verse developed with a miniature musical form of two or three melodic lines; for example, a three-line stanza with five syllables (two bars) in each of the first two lines, and seven syllables (three bars) in the third.

Although the versification has great variety, the eight-bar melody is usually strictly constructed with specific motifs between cadences, melodic movement from the fourth degree to the second, and characteristic use of the tritone. The length of melody is independent of the number of syllables in the line. The most common forms are AABA, ABAC and ABCA. Melodies of three three-bar phrases (as in ex.2) belong to a special group. Mixed forms consist of regularly alternating two- and three-bar phrases, such as 2 + 3 + 2 + 3 (ex.3) or 3 + 2 + 3 + 2 arranged as ABAC (10 bars) or AABCA (13 bars).

The repetition of one or two of the last lines of a stanza at the beginning of the next is characteristic of earlier melodies; the repetition of the last two lines of a stanza is a later phenomenon. The stress of text and melody at the end of a song do not necessarily coincide: if the text has a feminine ending and the melody finishes on a strong beat, the last syllable of the text is omitted. Dzūkijan melody is notable for its structural clarity, aphoristic quality and developed lines. The singers vary almost every stanza of the song, adding barely audible embellishments. The tempo is usually moderate and relaxed.

4. Polyphony.

The polyphonic genre sutartinė (‘concord’ or ‘singing in concord’) which has been retained in northern Aukštaitija (south-east Lithuania, around the upper River Nemunas) is apparently one of the earliest forms of the synthesis of traditional poetry, music and dance. Sutartinės may be vocal, instrumental or mixed, or may be sung by dancers (see §5 below). Until the mid-20th century instrumental sutartinės were played on wind instruments associated with shepherds and on the kanklės, a type of zither (see §6 below). The principal characteristic of the sutartinė is its construction on simultaneous 2nds which are not resolved (see ex.4). The melodies consist of two similar parts: the text is sung to the first and meaningless refrains to the second, sung a 2nd higher or lower than the first. Numerous modifications include passing 4ths and the unison. There are three basic types of sutartinė: contrapuntal, sung by two singers; canonic, sung by three singers entering in turn (each with a break) forming an endless chain of two-part counterpoint; and those which are mainly for dancing and performed antiphonally by two pairs of singers. The rhythm of the sutartinė is duple with clearcut scansion and sharply accented syncopation. The texts are concerned with working and community life. The large number of meaningless euphonious refrains points to the age of the sutartinė, of which the earliest do not have a semantic text but consist entirely of interjections. The sutartinė is disappearing but about 2000 live performances were collected (some on gramophone records) in the first half of the 20th century. Sutartinės were sung and danced by women only. Primitive simple songs, in which the first voice sings a two-bar text and the second answers with a refrain, are related to the sutartinė. Like the sutartinės they were sung in spring by women going round the fields.

Two- and three-part diatonic homophonic singing, based on the three principal degrees (tonic, dominant and subdominant), is also widespread in Aukštaitija; it is increasingly important in collective singing, and threatening to supplant Dzūkijan monody. The origin of this genre has not been explained although it is known to have existed by the late 18th century. Žemaitija (western Lithuania) is also an area of homophonic part-singing, but the style of performance is different. Although the melodies have the same harmonic support as those of Aukštaitija, many of them are performed by solo singers in an improvisatory manner, and are marked by great rhythmic freedom and ornamentation. The principal support of the melody is the fifth of the scale which is accented rhythmically and dynamically, giving the melody a melancholy character.

5. Dances.

Dances are performed only collectively, the dancers themselves singing. One of the earliest dances, the sutartinė (see §4 above), is performed by women in groups of two pairs who sing a dialogue while crossing or changing places and forming circles and chains, sometimes in imitation of work movements. The steps are mainly small, without leaps, and the tempo is moderate. The texts, mostly humorous, are sung only by the dancers and without instrumental accompaniment.

Ritual round-dances form a separate group. Those for Christmas (Kalėdos) have restrained dance-figures, given meaning by the ritual context: the texts reflect a pre-Christian ideology. Among the dances usually accompanied by an instrumental ensemble are wedding round-dances. Many round-dances imitate work movements, for example Linelis (‘Flax’) or Dobilas (‘Clover’) representing the growth and use of these plants, Kalvis (‘The Smith’) and Kurpius (‘The Shoemaker’). In figurative round-dances the dancers imitate the movements of birds and animals, for example the men's dance Oželis (‘Little Billy-Goat’) or Blezdingėlė (‘The Swallow’) in which girls dance waving their kerchiefs.

Rateliai (game-dances) have rich choreographic patterns, the dancers being symmetrically grouped, but the movements do not illustrate the content of the song; they are restrained, without any leaps, consisting of running and lateral, double, triple and polka steps. The speed is moderate, sometimes with several tempos in one dance. Later dances – the polka, waltz and quadrille – have been adopted from the West.

Traditional song and dance ensembles enjoy great popularity. Some attempt to reproduce authentic traditional art, and make a significant contribution to research; others use traditional material to create a new style which is accessible to contemporary audiences.

6. Instruments.

The most varied and interesting early instruments survive in north Lithuania in the sutartinė area (see §4 above). Wind music, based like the sutartinė on simultaneous 2nds, was played there as late as the first half of the 20th century.

Skudučiai (sing. skudutis) are a set of separate stopped wooden pipes with two sickle-shaped cuts in the rim (fig.1a). The pipes are 8 to 20 cm long; each produces only one note and the tuning of the sets varies. In a group of two to five players each uses one, two or three pipes thus producing three, four or five simultaneous 2nds played in rhythmic patterns.

The ragas is a wooden trumpet used in the same type of ensemble as the skudučiai. It is made by splitting a piece of ash wood lengthways and hollowing out a channel in the two halves; these are then fastened together with birch bark and a mouthpiece is cut out at the upper end. Each ragas produces one note, and the set consists of five, tuned in 2nds (fig.2).

The trimitas or daudytė, a long cylindrical wooden trumpet with a small conical bell, is made from alder, ash or spruce in the same way as the ragas. It is 100 to 250 cm long and produces a natural scale. Used by the skerdžius (senior shepherd) or at weddings and celebrations, it is played singly or in pairs.

The ožragis (goat horn, fig.1b) has four or five finger-holes and produces the notes of a major pentachord; it is used by the skerdžius when herding livestock.

The birbynė, a wind instrument made of maple or ash, has a conical barrel with five or six finger-holes; a mouthpiece of the clarinet type is inserted at the upper end and a cow-horn bell is attached at the lower. The birbynė produces a gentle tone and is used as a solo instrument.

The lumzdelis, a duct flute made of the wood or bark of the bird-cherry (prunus padus), willow or aspen, is 15 to 40 cm long. The upper end is bevelled into a beak shape, and it has six to nine finger-holes producing a diatonic scale with a range of a 7th. The lumzdelis is a shepherd's instrument played while driving livestock to pasture, with characteristic use of trills and grace notes. Two are sometimes played together.

Of the string instruments, the kanklės (a type of plucked zither, fig.3) is the best-known Kantele. Its size varies, but the body is basically trapeziform and is hollowed out of one piece or made from boards of lime, oak, aspen or ash glued together; the soundboard is of spruce, the soundholes are circular and usually ornamented, and it has between five and ten strings. It is played resting on the knees; the strings are plucked with the right hand and damped with the left. Its earliest use seems to have been for a kind of meditation; it is used for solo performances of sutartinės (see §4 above) and has also been played in other instrumental ensembles and to accompany song.

The most widespread percussion instruments are the tambourine, the kelmas (a drum, made from a hollowed-out tree stump covered with skin) and skrabalai (a set of small wooden bells; fig.4).

The village instrumental ensemble consisted of a violin (adopted from the West in the late 16th century), a birbynė and a ‘bass’ (cello). From the mid-19th century onwards Lithuanian musicians began to include instruments of other peoples (accordion, concertina, clarinet, cymbals, guitar, mandolin) in ensembles alongside traditional Lithuanian instruments, especially as foreign dances such as the polka, waltz, mazurka and quadrille became popular. In the 20th century some traditional instruments, including the kanklės and birbynė, were modified for use in art music; professional orchestras with traditional instruments were formed and some composers wrote works for them in traditional styles. Traditional instruments are taught at conservatories and at the Academy of Music in Vilnius.

7. Research.

Ludwig Rhesa included seven traditional tunes in a collection of traditional song texts published in Königsberg in 1825. This was followed by publications by Simonas Stanevičius (1829), Georg Nesselmann (1853), Friedrich Kurszatis (1876), Oskar Kolberg (1879), Adalbert Bezzenberger (1882), Christian Bartsch (1886–9) and Antanas Juška (1880–82; 1883; 1900). Major 20th-century collections are listed in the bibliography. The publication of a catalogue of traditional Lithuanian songs, Lietuvių liaudies dainų katalogas, began in 1972; a multi-volume collection of traditional songs, Lietuvių liaudies dainynas, began to appear in 1980. The most comprehensive archives of traditional music are the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore (c120,000 items) and the Archive of Ethnic Music at the Lithuanian Academy of Music (c85,000 items).

I. History and definition of liturgy

BIBLIOGRAPHY

collections

C. Bartsch: Dainų Balsai: Melodien litauischer Volkslieder (Heidelberg, 1886–9)

A. Juszkiewicz: Melodje ludowe litewskie [Lithuanian folk melodies], ed. O. Kolberg and I. Kopernicki (Kraków, 1900)

A. Sabaliauskas: Lietuvių dainų ir giesmių gaidos [Melodies of Lithuanian songs and choral rounds] (Helsinki, 1916)

T. Brazys: Lietuvių tautinių dainų melodijos [Lithuanian folksong melodies] (Kaunas, 1927)

U. Katzenelenbogen: The Daina (Chicago, 1935)

J. Čiurlionytė: Lietuvių liaudies melodijos [Lithuanian folk melodies] (Kaunas, 1938)

J. Čiurlionytė: Lietuvių liaudies dainos vaikams [Lithuanian folksongs for children] (Kaunas, 1948)

V.F. Beliajus: The Dance of Lietuva: 54 Circle and Folk Dances from Lithuania (Chicago, 1951)

A. Juška: Lietuviškos dainos [Lithuanian songs], ed. A. Mockus and J. Čiurlionytė (Vilnius, 1954)

J. Čiurlionytė: Lietuvių liaudies dainų rinktinė [A selection of Lithuanian folksongs] (Vilnius, 1955) [in Lith. and Russ.]

A. Juška: Lietuviškos svodbinės dainos [Lithuanian wedding songs], ed. V. Maknys, V. Paltanavičius and Z. Slaviūnas (Vilnius, 1955)

Z. Slaviūnas: Sutartinės: lietuvių liaudies daugiabalsės dainos [Sutartinės: polyphonic Lithuanian folksongs] (Vilnius, 1958–9; Russ. trans., 1972)

S. Paliulis: Lietuvių liaudies instrumentinė muzika: pūčiamieji instrumentai [Lithuanian folk instrumental music: wind instruments] (Vilnius, 1959)

A. Landsbergis and C. Mills: The Green Linden (New York, 1964)

L. Burkšaitienė and D. Krištopaitė, eds.: Aukštaičių melodijos [Melodies from the Aukštaitija region] (Vilnius, 1990)

studies

T. Brazys: ‘Die Singweisen der litauischen Dainos’, Tauta ir žodis, iv (1926), 3–50

B. Sruoga: ‘Lithuanian Folk Songs’, Folk-Lore, xliii (1932), 301

J. Balys: ‘Lithuanian Folk Dance’, JEFDSS, ii (1935), 139–42

J. Żilevičius: ‘Native Lithuanian Musical Instruments’, MQ, xxi (1935), 99–106

Z. Slaviūnas: ‘Lietuvių kanklės’, Tautosakos darbai, iii (1937), 244–318 [with Eng. summary]

Z. Slaviūnas: ‘Lietuvių etnografinės muzikos bibliografija’, Tautosakos darbai, v (1938), 281–300

A. Paterson: Old Lithuanian Songs (Kaunas, 1939)

J. Čiurlionytė: ‘Kaip užrašnėti liaudies melodijas’ [How to write down folk melodies], Tautosakos rinkėjo vadovas, ed. J. Balys (Kaunas, 2/1940), 77–111

E. Geist: Antikes und Modernes im litauischen Volkslied (Kaunas, 1940)

V.F. Bieliajus: The Dance of Lietuva (Chicago, 1951)

J. Lingys, Z. Slaviūnas and V. Jakelaitis: Litovskiye narodnïye tantsï [Lithuanian folkdances] (Vilnius, 1953, enlarged 2/1955)

J. Balys: Lithuanian Narrative Folksongs (Washington, 1954)

P. Stepulis: Kanklės (Vilnius, 1955)

J. Balys: Lithuanian Folksongs in America (Boston, 1958)

J. Čiurlionytė: Litovskoye narodnoye pesennoye tvorchestvo [Lithuanian folksong culture] (Moscow, 1966)

J. Čiurlionytė: ‘Die Sutartinė: eine besondere Art des litauischen mehrstimmigen Volksgesanges’, DJbM, xii (1967), 116–23

Z. Slaviūnas: ‘Zur litauischen Vokalpolyphonie’, Deutsches Jb für Volkskunde, xiii (1967), 223–43

G. Četkauskaitė: ‘Lietuvių muzikinio folklore klasifikacijos principai’ [The classification principles of Lithuanian folk music], Liaudies kūryba, i, ed. A. Stravinskas and others (Vilnius, 1969), 144–61

J. Čiurlionytė: Lietuvių liaudies dainų melodikos [Outlines of Lithuanian folksongs] (Vilnius, 1969)

A. Venckus: ‘Šešiagarsės lietuvių liaudies muzikos dermės’ [The hexatonic modes of Lithuanian folk music], Liaudies kūryba, i, ed. A. Stravinskas and others (Vilnius, 1969), 68–78

G. Krivickiené-Gustaityté: Vilnius Lietuvių liaudies dainose [Vilnius in Lithuanian folksongs] (Chicago, 1970) [with Eng. summary]

L. Sauka: ‘Lietuvių laidotuviu raudu metras’ [The metre of Lithuanian funeral laments], Lietuvos TSR Mokslu Akademijos darbai, ser. A, xxxix/2 (1972), 121–34

M. Baltrenene: Litovskiye narodnïye muzïkal'nyïe instrumentï [Lithuanian folk instruments] (diss. Leningrad Institute for Theatre, Music and Cinematography, 1974) [in Russ.]

B. Kazlauskiene: Vestuvins dainos: jaunojo puseje [Classification of Lithuanian wedding songs] (Vilnius, 1977) [with Ger. summary]

R. Apanavicius: ‘Lietuvių liaudies muzikos instrumentu tobulinimas’ [Improvements in Lithuanian folk musical instruments], Menotyra, xiii (1985), 20–32

R. Astrauskas: ‘Kai kurie lietuvių liaudies dainų ritmikos bruožai’ [Some rhythmic features of the Lithuanian folksong], ibid., 50–69

Z. Kelmickaite: ‘Tradicinis muzikinis folkloras siandienineje lietuvių kulturoje’ [Traditional musical folklore in the modern culture of Lithuania], ibid., 4–10

R. Sliuzinskas: ‘Anhemetonikos bruožai lietuvių liaudies dainų melodikojc’ [Anhemitonic features in Lithuanian folksong melodies], ibid., 34–49

L. Burkšajtenė: ‘Funktsional'nïye osobennosti melodiki litovskikh svadebnïkh pesen’ [Functional characteristics of Lithuanian wedding song melodies], Muzïka v svadebnom obryade finnougrov i sosednikh narodnov, ed. I. Rüütel and K. Pak (Tallinn, 1986), 56–65 [in Russ.]

H.D. Rinholm: ‘Lithuanian Folksong Poetics: Remarks on Imagery in Text and Context’, Linguistics and Poetics of Latvian Folk Songs: Essays in Honour of the Sesquicentennial of the birth of Kr. Barons, ed. V. Vikis-Freiburgs (Kingston, ON, 1989), 123–35

L. Madetoja: ‘Liettualaisista kansansävelmistä’ [Lithuanian folk melodies], Etnomusikologian vuosikirja, iii (1989–90), 212–32

N. Laurinkienè: Mito atšvaitai lietuvių kalendorinese dainose [Mythological reflections in Lithuanian calendar songs] (Vilnius, 1990)

M. Baltrėniėne and R. Apanavičius: Lietuvių liaudies muzikos instrumentai [Lithuanian folk music instruments] (Vilnius, 1991)

Ritual and Music: Vilnius 1997 [incl. R. Astrauskas: ‘The Lithuanian Calendar Rites and Music: On the Issue of Cycle Unity’, 55–67; G. Kirdiene: ‘Die Litauische Geigen-Volksmusik in den Hachzeitsriten-und Zeremonien’, 96–114]

R. Sliuzinskas: ‘Dudy w tradycyjnej muzyce instrumentalnej litwy’ [The bagpipe in the traditional music of Lithuania], Muzyka, xliii/3 (1998), 113–18

Li Tingsong

(b Shanghai, 1906; d 11 Aug 1976). Chinese Pipa plucked lute player. Li Tingsong was one of the leading pipa performers of his generation, taking up the instrument aged 16 and studying principally with Wang Yuting (1872–1951). Active in the nationalist music reform movement of the 1920s–30s, Li’s career was thereafter a combination of solo and ensemble performance, the editing of classical scores and teaching. In this latter role, he held posts at music conservatories in Beijing, Tianjin, Shenyang, Harbin and Jilin.

Li was also attached as a special performer to the China Music Research Institute (Zhongguo yinyue yanjiusuo) in Beijing, an appointment he received in 1952. As part of his research there, Li carried out extensive investigation of pipa scales and temperament, but he was best known for his mastery in performance.

See also China, §IV, 4(ii)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

Zhongyang yinyue xueyuan minzu qiyue xi and yinyue lilun xi, eds.: Minzu yueqi chuantong duzouqu xuanji: pipa zhuanji [Selected collection of traditional solos for national instruments: pipa vol.] (Beijing, 1980), 17–37

Li Guangzu, ed.: Pipa guqu: Li Tingsong yanzou pu [Classic pieces for pipa: performing score of Li Tingsong] (Beijing, 1982)

Zhongguo yinyue cidian [Dictionary of Chinese music], YYS pubn (Beijing, 1985), 228

Zheng Ruzhong: ‘Zhiwei minyue, hongyang minyue: ji pipa yanzoujia Li Tingsong’ [Devoted to folk music, expander of folk music: a record of pipa musician Li Tingsong], Youmei de xuanlü piaoxiang de ge – Jiangsu lidai yinyuejia, ed. Yi Ren (Nanjing, 1992), 167–9

recordings

Chine: musique classique, Ocora V 559039 (1988)

Pipa daquan [Anthology of the pipa], China Record Co. XJH-15 (1990)

Special Collection of Contemporary Chinese Musicians, Wind Records CH-07 (1996)

JONATHAN P.J. STOCK

Litofono

(It.).

See Lithophone.

Litolff.

German firm of music publishers. Gottfried Martin Meyer founded the firm on 1 June 1828 at Brunswick as a combined music press and shop; it soon grew into a flourishing business. After Meyer’s death in 1849, his widow carried on the business successfully and in 1851 she married Henry Litolff, who became active in the firm. Later the name was changed to Henry Litolff’s Verlag. An added impetus to the publishing was given by Litolff’s extensive international connections and friendships with Berlioz, Fétis, Moscheles, Liszt, Bülow, the Wieniawski brothers, Heller, Joachim, H.W. Ernst and others. Meyer’s son Theodor Litolff (1839–1912), who had been adopted by Henry Litolff, took over the business when his stepfather returned to concert-giving. It was Theodor’s untiring work as a far-sighted administrator and ingenious inventor, improving the fast-running printing press, the printing from zinc engravings and the combined printing of music and words, that gained an international reputation for the firm. In 1862 he began to publish Beethoven’s works in regular editions, and this led in 1864 to the series Litolffs Bibliothek Classischer Compositionen, a collection of carefully edited classical compositions which achieved worldwide distribution. Soon the format was successfully adopted by other German and by foreign publishers. Litolff also quickly became a leading publisher of teaching material, most of which was carefully prepared by his brother-in-law Adolph Bente (1840–1913), who worked with him for nearly 50 years; this included new piano and violin tutors, the Instruktives Liederalbum and Buch der Lieder. Litolff also attracted leading writers such as Louis Köhler (whose Praktischer Lehrgang des Klavierspiels had sold over a million copies by 1914), Gurlitt, Riemann, Heinrich Germer, Johann Wohlfahrt and Heinrich Götze. The series of monthly issues entitled Die musikalische Welt: Monatshefte ausgewählter Compositionen unserer Zeit, edited by Franz Abt and Clemens Schultze (19 vols., 1872–90), was aimed at the domestic music market, and Litolff’s light music publications were immensely popular.

In 1912 the firm passed to Theodor’s son Richard Litolff (1876–1937), who from 1899 had received energetic support from his brother-in-law Clemens Schultze-Biesantz, a notable editor and publisher. In 1937 the management was taken over by Richard’s widow (d 1957). Under her careful management, in which she was advised by Franz Rühlmann, particular attention was paid to educational and domestic music (with the series Scholasticum and Hausmusik der Zeit) and to music of contemporary composers including Trapp, Graener, Heinrich Kaminski, Knab, Karl Hasse and Höffer. Musicological works were published for the first time, including Sandberger’s Neues Beethoven-Jahrbuch (from 1935), writings of Max Seiffert, H.J. Moser, Friedrich Blume and Franz Rühlmann, several volumes of the series Das Erbe Deutscher Musik, a collected edition of the works of Weber and the series Das Weltliche Konzert im 18. Jahrhundert (from 1932).

On 9 August 1940 Litolff was taken over by the music publishers Peters of Leipzig. It continues to publish under its own name from the Peters firm at Frankfurt; its catalogue specializes in works by contemporary composers.

For bibliography see Litolff, Henry.

FRITZ STEIN

Litolff, Henry (Charles)

(b London, 7 Aug 1818; d Bois-Colombes, 5 Aug 1891). French composer and pianist. He was the son of the Alsatian dance violinist Martin Louis Litolff, who was taken prisoner by the English during the Peninsular War in Spain and settled in London, where he married a Scotswoman, Sophie Hayes. Until he was 12 Henry was taught by his father, and from 1830 to 1835 he studied with Ignaz Moscheles. At the age of 17, he eloped to Gretna Green with 16-year-old Elisabeth Etherington; he moved to Melun and in the same year to Paris, where he became acquainted with Fétis, Henri Pape and Pierre-Joseph-Guillaume Zimmermann, who encouraged him in his concert career (Zimmermann was probably his teacher). At Fétis’s request he went to Brussels (1839–41), also at that time separating from his wife. He gave concerts in Brussels and then moved to Warsaw; although there is no trace of him for the next three years he was, according to Fétis, conductor of the National Theatre orchestra.

In 1844 Litolff returned to Germany; he had been periodically troubled by a nervous disorder. He gave concerts in Leipzig and in Dresden, where he was befriended and helped with his malady by the Bülow family; he taught Hans von Bülow for at least a year. After a successful concert tour to Berlin (1845), he returned to England hoping to divorce his first wife; the attempt was abortive and he incurred a severe fine and prison sentence. He escaped (helped by the gaoler’s daughter) to the Netherlands, where he became popular with Dutch audiences. About 1846 he made friends with the music publisher Gottfried Meyer and his wife Julie in Brunswick. After Meyer’s death in 1849 Litolff became a citizen of Brunswick; he succeeded in divorcing his first wife, and married Julie Meyer on 30 March 1851, also assuming control of the publishing firm and changing its name to Henry Litolff’s Verlag. During his residence in Brunswick he organized festivals, creating for Brunswick a musical life that was enhanced by such musicians as Berlioz, Liszt, Bülow and Anton Rubinstein. Although he had continued to perform throughout Europe during this period, he gave his full attention to concert-giving about 1854, and in 1855 was appointed Kapellmeister at the court of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. In 1858 he divorced his second wife and settled in Paris, which remained his home for the rest of his life.

While Litolff’s previous interests had been performing and composing (mainly for the piano) he now concentrated on composing and conducting. During the 1860s he was well known in Paris as a conductor and piano teacher. He remained there during the Commune, and was involved in organizing official musical celebrations during the siege of Paris in 1871. In 1860 he married Louise, the daughter of Count Wilfrid de Larochefoucauld. After her death in 1873 he married a 17-year-old girl who evidently had nursed him back to health in the preceding year. According to his personal letters he was enfeebled in his last years.

Litolff’s finest compositions are the four surviving piano concertos that he entitled concertos symphoniques; this term represented a new attitude towards the broadening of the Classical keyboard concerto form. Liszt, who admired Litolff, thought so highly of the concerto symphonique conception that he dedicated his own Concerto no.1 to Litolff and drew on his techniques. These concertos are really symphonies with piano obbligato, the thematic material usually being reserved for the orchestra; the scherzo movements contain some of his most brilliant writing. Litolff was probably also the first to use the triangle and the piccolo in the keyboard concerto.

Litolff’s solo piano music was intended mainly for the salon, ostentatiously brilliant, improvisatory, seeking unity of mood and descriptively titled; most of it is in ABA form, with a simple melody either preceded or followed by a bravura section. Like much 19th-century lyrical piano music his pieces are unicellular – a whole movement is based on a single motif that is fully exploited but never divided, determining the development rather than being only a part of it. As a structural device it has parallels in other 19th-century techniques and is naturally apt to the presentation of a single mood. His greatest failing in this regard (recognized by his contemporaries) was excessive literal repetition.

His other works – French and German operas, lieder, chansons and chamber music – are similarly representative of the prevalent stylistic forms of his time. Although remembered chiefly for only one piece (the Scherzo of the Concerto symphonique no.4), Litolff remains important to the study of Romantic piano writing, particularly for his association with and influence on Liszt.

WORKS

printed works published in Brunswick unless otherwise stated

stage

Catherine Howard, Brussels, Conservatory, April 1847

Die Braut von Kynast (grosse romantische Oper, 3, F. Fischer), Brunswick, 3 Oct 1847, vs (c1847)

Rodrigo von Toledo, c1848

Le chevalier Nahal, ou La gageure du diable (oc, 3, E. Plouvier), Baden-Baden, 10 Aug 1866

La boîte de Pandore (3, T. Barrière), Paris, Folies-Dramatiques, Oct 1871, vs (Paris, 1871)

Héloïse et Abélard (3, Clairville and W. Busnach), Paris, Folies-Dramatiques, 17 Oct 1872, F-Po, vs (Paris, c1872)

La belle au bois dormant (opéra féerie, 3, Busnach and Clairville), Paris, Châtelet, 4 April 1874

La fiancée du roi de Garbe (4, A. Dennery and Chabrillat), Paris, Folies-Dramatiques, 29 Oct 1874, vs (Paris, 1874)

La mandragore (oc, 3, J. Brésil, after A. Dumas père: Mémoires d’un médecin), Brussels, Fantaisies-Parisiennes, 29 Jan 1876

Les templiers (5, J. Adenis, A. Silvestre and L. Bonnemère), Brussels, Monnaie, 25 Jan 1886, vs and full ballet score (Paris, 1886)

L’escadron volant de la reine (3, Dennery and Brésil), Paris, 14 Dec 1888, vs (Paris, 1888)

Le roi Lear [König Lear] (3, J. and E. Adenis, after W. Shakespeare and R. Holinshed), Po, ov. (1890)

other vocal

Ruth et Boaz (orat, H. Lefebvre), vs (Paris, 1869)

Scenen aus Goethes Faust, solo vv, chorus, orch, F-Pn, vs pubd as op.103 (c1875)

2 other vocal-orch works; 19 songs, 1v, pf, incl. 9 in opp.49, 58, 67 and 76, 6 in Pn

orchestral

4 ovs.: Maximilian Robespierre, op.55 (1856), Das Welflied von Gustav von Meyern, op.99 (1856), Chant des Belges, op.101 (?1858), Die Girondisten, op.80 (c1870); A la mémoire de Meyerbeer, marche funèbre, Po; 3 other works

For pf, orch: 5 concertos symphoniques: no.1 lost, no.2, op.22 (Berlin, 1844), no.3, op.45 (c1846), no.4, op.102 (c1852), no.5, op.123 (c1867)

For vn, orch: Rêve d’un captif, op.41 (n.d.); Eroica concerto symphonique, op.42 (n.d.); Rêve d’amour, op.53 (n.d.); Sérénade, op.61 (n.d.), also arr. vc, pf; 3 other works

other instrumental

Chbr: Str Qt, op.60; 3 pf trios, opp.47, 56, 100

For pf: 117 characteristic pieces, incl. Spinnlied, op.81 (c1850), Zweites Spinnlied, op.104 (c1860), Les octaves, op.106 (c1860), 9 Lieder ohne Worte, opp.31 and 83; numerous dances

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

MGG1 (F. Stein)

W.R. Griepenkerl: ‘Henry Litolff und die moderne Instrumentalmusik’, NZM, xxvii (1847), 261–3

C. Moscheles: Aus Moscheles’ Leben (Leipzig, 1873)

C. Moscheles: Recent Music and Musicians as Described in the Diaries and Correspondence of Ignatz Moscheles (New York, 1873)

S. Daniel: La musique arabe (Algiers, 1879; Eng. trans., ed. H.G. Farmer, 1914/R)

R. Procházka: ‘Henry Litolff’, NZM, lxxxvii (1891), 149–50

La Mara, ed.: Franz Liszt’s Briefe (Leipzig, 1893–1902)

M. von Bülow: Hans von Bülows Briefe (Leipzig, 1899)

H. Berlioz: Les musiciens et la musique, ed. A. Hallays (Paris, 1903), 303–15

Collection Litolff (50 Jahre): Haus-Chronik von Henry Litolff’s Verlag (Brunswick, 1914)

P. Magnette: ‘Henry Litolff: seine Laufbahn in Deutschland’, Die Musik, xiii/3 (1913–14), 16–23

A.H. King: ‘A Subscription List to Mozart's Così fan tutte’, The Library, 5th ser., vii (1952), 132–3

T.M. Blair: Henry Charles Litolff (1818–1891): his Life and Piano Music (diss., U. of Iowa, 1968) [with list of works]

R. Myers: Emmanuel Chabrier and his Circle (London, 1969), 81

L. Muns: ‘Spinnen in de muziek van de 19e eeuw’, Mens en melodie, xxxix (1984), 242–9

A. Walker: Franz Liszt: the Weimar Years 1848–1861 (London, 1989), 214, 216, 265

D.I. Allsobrook: Liszt: My Travelling Circus Life (London, 1991), 33

K. Ellis: Music Criticism in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge, 1995), 164, 166–7, 217

TED M. BLAIR/THOMAS COOPER

Littkeman, Paul.

See Luetkeman, Paul.

Little, Tasmin

(b London, 13 May 1965). English violinist. She studied at the Yehudi Menuhin School and the GSM, and with Lorand Fenyves in Canada. She made her major recital début with Piers Lane at the Purcell Room (1988) and her Proms début in 1990, giving the London première of the Janáček Violin Concerto with Mackerras. She has subsequently achieved an international reputation, making her débuts in Australia and New Zealand in 1996 and in the USA in 1997, when she played with both the Cleveland Orchestra and the New York PO. Her paper on the Delius Violin Concerto was published by the Delius Society in 1986, and she gave the first Leipzig performance of the concerto the same year. In 1997 she made a television documentary programme about Delius for the BBC. Little has made many recordings, including the concertos of Brahms, Sibelius, Dvořák, Delius and Rubbra, and has given world premières of concertos by Robert Saxton and David Earl. Her playing, on a Guadagnini dated 1757, is poised and sweet-toned, with a wide dynamic range. (J. Duchen: ‘Little at Large’, The Strad, ci, 1990, 615–17)

MARGARET CAMPBELL

Little, William

(fl Philadelphia, 1798–1805). American music printer and tune book compiler. In 1801, in collaboration with William Smith, he published in Philadelphia The Easy Instructor, or A New Method of Teaching Sacred Harmony. This volume employed a notation based on fasola solmization – the first shape-note system to gain acceptance. The music in the first edition of The Easy Instructor is almost entirely American (100 of 105 pieces); Little himself contributed four works to the volume, while Smith is represented by one. Smith (who is assumed by Kaufman to be the man of that name b Hopewell, NJ, 1761; d 1808) brought out a second volume of the book on his own (Hopewell, NJ, 1803, 2/1806), but neither compiler was associated with any of the subsequent issues of The Easy Instructor. By 1831 it had reached 35 editions and had become influential throughout the country.

See also Shape-note hymnody, §2.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Lowens and A.P.Britton: ‘The Easy Instructor (1798–1831): a History and Bibliography of the First Shape-Note Tune-Book’, Music and Musicians in Early America (New York, 1964), 115, 292

C.H. Kaufman: Music in New Jersey, 1655–1860: a Study of Musical Activity and Musicians in New Jersey from its First Settlement to the Civil War (diss., New York U., 1974)

HARRY ESKEW

Little Feat.

American rock group. It was formed in 1969 by the singer and guitarist Lowell George (b Texas, 13 April 1945; d Arlington, VA, 29 June 1979) and the keyboard player Bill (William) Payne (b Waco, TX, 12 March 1949); the other founding members were the bass guitarist Roy Estrada and drummer Richie Hayward. George was the group’s leader and principal songwriter; his ornate, blues-influenced singing and precise slide-guitar playing, in combination with Payne’s penchant for chromatic harmonies and complex rhythms, were a feature of Little Feat’s style; for example the song Strawberry Flats from their eponymous first album. On their first two albums they encompassed blues, country music and basic rock, but George’s lyrics were distinctive for their absurd humour. After the commercial failure of Little Feat’s second album, Sailin’ Shoes (WB, 1972), Estrada was replaced by Kenny Gradney (b New Orleans), and the group was augmented by the guitarist Paul Barrere (b Burbank, CA, 3 July 1948) and the percussionist and drummer Sam Clayton. Dixie Chicken (WB, 1973), probably their finest album, blended New Orleans funk (recalling the Meters), twin lead-guitar lines (reminiscent of the Allman Brothers), and hints of mariachi style and gospel music; one song, The Fan, in a driving 7/4, is an early example of the group’s experiments with jazz-rock.

Little Feat made successful tours and developed a cult following, especially in the East and South. Gradually Payne and Barrere began writing and singing the greater part of Little Feat’s material. The Last Record Album (WB, 1975) and Time Loves a Hero (WB, 1977) moved closer to jazz-rock and show less of George’s direct influence. However, the live album Waiting for Columbus (WB, 1978), which was recorded with the Tower of Power horns and became Little Feat’s only gold record, was a showcase for George’s songs and performances. In 1979 George completed a solo album, Thanks, I’ll Eat it Here (WB) and announced that Little Feat had broken up. In 1988 the group released a new album, Let it Roll (WB), with Craig Fuller taking George’s place. They continued to record and tour into the 1990s, but their music suffered from over-production and the absence of George.

Throughout a turbulent career Little Feat was more influential than popular; its style mixed funk, blues, rock, jazz and tinges of classical music, and showed a flair for verbal and musical surrealism. The group claimed many of the popular-music styles of the American South (New Orleans funk, Texas blues, Georgia boogie and Memphis soul) and added its own clever, self-conscious twists.

JON PARELES

Little Hours.

Services in the Divine Office held at regular intervals during the day. Various early Christian writers advocated prayer or other devotions at the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day according to the Roman reckoning (i.e. at approximately 9 a.m., 12 noon and 3 p.m.). These same hours were important in the secular affairs of Ancient Roman cities and were often marked by the sounding of a bell; they also played a role in Jewish observances and quickly acquired religious significance (usually allegorical symbolism) in early Christian writings. The Spanish nun Egeria described services held in Jerusalem at the third, sixth and ninth hours. Later Western usage named these hours Terce, Sext and None. Prime, the fourth of the Little Hours in the Western tradition, is held at daybreak after Lauds; its origins are disputed but may be Eastern, if the service mentioned in a controversial passage in the Institutiones of John Cassian really is that of Prime. The earliest unambiguous allusions to Prime, and thus to the complete cycle of Little Hours, appear in Gallican monastic rules of the 6th century. With the detailed descriptions in the Rule of St Benedict (c530), the Little Hours may be said to have reached their final form, at least as regards Western monastic usage. Early sources for the Byzantine Office have not survived, but by the Middle Ages, if not before, the monastic tradition required celebration of the Little Hours eight times a day (12 times in Lent).

Each of the Little Hours in the Western tradition begins with the versicle and response Deus in adjutorium followed by a hymn. Hymns for the Little Hours are mentioned in the Rule of St Benedict, although the hymns most often sung in these Hours seem to have been composed somewhat later: for Prime, Jam lucis orto sidere, for Terce, Nunc Sancte nobis Spiritus, for Sext, Rector potens verax Deus, and for None, Rerum Deus tenax vigor. On some feasts these are replaced by Proper hymns. Despite their early use in the monastic cursus, hymns were not introduced into the Roman cursus until a rather late date: they are lacking from some manuscripts as late as the 12th century.

A single antiphon introduces the psalms of each of the Little Hours. Usually the four antiphons needed for this are borrowed in order from Lauds, with the fourth of the five Lauds antiphons (that for the Old Testament canticle) omitted. In their psalms, the monastic and Roman cursus are quite different. In the monastic cursus, Prime has four psalms on Sunday and three for each weekday; Terce, Sext and None always have three. Psalm cxviii (Vulgate numbering – Beati immaculati) is divided into 22 sections of eight verses each. The first four sections serve as the four psalms for Sunday Prime. The remaining sections are said in groups of three in Terce, Sext and None of Sunday and Monday; in these Hours on Tuesday Psalms cxix–cxxvii are said, and they are repeated during the rest of the week. Prime has different psalms on each weekday; they are Psalms i–xix, with some omissions for psalms with regular places in other Offices (iii–v), and some long psalms (ix and xvii) divided into two sections.

In the Roman cursus the same psalms are said every day, except at the beginning of Prime. Psalm cxviii is divided into 11 sections of 16 verses each; sections 1 and 2 count as the last two psalms of Prime, and the remaining nine sections are divided among the other Hours. The incipit of the first ‘psalm’ for Terce is thus Legem pone (Psalm cxviii.33), for Sext, Defecit in salutare (Psalm cxviii.81), and for None, Mirabilia testimonia (Psalm cxviii.129). The original scheme for Prime at Rome (at the end of the 5th century) had Psalm cxvii (Confitemini Domino) as the first psalm on Sundays, and Psalm liii (Deus in nomine) on weekdays. In the revision of the liturgy made under Pope Gregory I (d 604), however, five psalms (xxi–xxv) from Sunday Matins were placed at the beginning of Sunday Prime. The version of Prime that begins with Psalm xxi (Deus, Deus meus) is sometimes spoken of in medieval ordinals as ‘prima longa’; the expression has evident justification.

The psalms of Prime may be followed, in circumstances which vary according to time and place, by the Athanasian Creed Quicumque vult. This is often given the rubric ‘Ps.’ and directly follows the last psalm; it is also on occasion said separately, with its own antiphon. After the psalms in all the Little Hours there comes a chapter (mentioned in the Rule of St Benedict but perhaps not added to the Roman cursus until after the beginning of the 9th century), a short responsory (not in the monastic cursus), and a versicle with response. There follow Preces, including the Kyrie and Pater noster (followed in Prime by the Apostles' Creed and the general confession Confiteor), and then the versicles and responses that introduce the Collect. Benedicamus Domino – Deo gratias ends the service, which is followed by the monastic Officium capituli, or prayers for the blessing of God on the day's work, during which the martyrology is read.

In the 12th- and 13th-century manuscripts of Sens, Beauvais and Laon, which give special treatment to the Office of Compline, there are also some embellishments for the Little Hours. Generally, the most elaborate treatment is given to what might seem the least important element of the Office, the versicle with response that follows the short responsory. It is replaced by a paraphrase, sometimes in verse, which is set to music in the style either of a prosula (one note per syllable, as in Ad te de valle meroris, in None at Beauvais) or of a hymn (syllabic and neumatic styles mixed, as in Exsurge Domino nostra redemptio, for Prime at Sens). At Sens, verse paraphrases replace the Benedicamus Domino at the end of the Little Hours. The only change in the more important musical portions of these Offices (antiphons, short responsories and hymns) is the reworking at Sens of the hymn Jam lucis orto sidere into a strophic song with the refrain Fulget dies – Fulget dies ista.

See also Liturgy of the Hours.

For bibliography see Divine Office.

RUTH STEINER/KEITH FALCONER

Little Jazz.

See Eldridge, Roy.

Little Richard [Penniman, Richard Wayne]

(b Macon, GA, 5 Dec 1932). American rhythm and blues singer, songwriter and pianist. His early influences were gospel music, Louis Jordan and other jump blues and urban blues artists of the late 1940s. After making several unsuccessful recordings in the early 1950s, he recorded Tutti Frutti in September 1955, which was a success in both the rhythm and blues and the pop charts. Although part of the first wave of rock and roll hits, it was far more aggressive and retained more aspects of African-American vernacular music-making than other early recordings in this style.

Tutti Frutti set the tone for the Little Richard's hits that followed between 1956 and 1958: over a fast boogie-shuffle rhythm with many stop-time breaks, he sings playful double-entendres near the top of his range in a searing timbre interspersed with trademark falsetto whoops. His piano playing derives from the boogie-woogie style, emphasizes the upbeat and features a great many glissandos. In performance, Little Richard would frequently leave the piano to dance exuberantly, occasionally on top of the instrument itself. In addition to his manic presence as singer, pianist and dancer, his visual appearance added to the sense of his outrageousness: with his large pompadour, liberal use of makeup and gaudy clothing, he raised the spectre of cross-dressing and ambiguous sexuality at a time when such issues were strictly taboo. However, it is possible that he was accepted by the white public at the time because his performance style was perceived as an updated form of minstrelsy.

After several more hits and appearances in three films, Don't Knock the Rock and The Girl Can't Help It (both 1956), and Mister Rock ‘n’ Roll (1957), Richard decided abruptly to quit his career for the ministry. During this period he received a BA from Oakwood College (a bible school) in Huntsville, Alabama, was ordained a minister in the Seventh Day Adventist Church and recorded a gospel album that was produced by Quincy Jones. From 1963 Little Richard attempted to revive his career. Despite accolades from the Beatles and the Rolling Stones (with whom he also toured Europe), and several good recordings, he did not achieve his former success. Three recordings made in the early 1970s earned critical praise and minor commercial response. Since then he has recorded intermittently, returned to preaching and appeared in films, television shows, commercials and children's videos.

Little Richard's extrovert and energetic style made him one of the most successful performers of the rock and roll era and his fervent, high-tessitura singing influenced many subsequent musicians including James Brown, Otis Redding, Paul McCartney and John Fogerty (of Creedence Clearwater Revival). Always flamboyant and outspoken, his appearances continue to capture the spotlight after 40 years of performing.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Winner: ‘Little Richard’, The Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll, ed. A. DeCurtis and others (New York, 1976, 3/1992), 52–9

C. White: The Life and Times of Little Richard (New York, 1984)

DAVID BRACKETT

Little Theatre in the Haymarket.

London theatre built in 1720. See London (i), §V, 1.

Littleton.

English family of music publishers who succeeded to the ownership of Novello & co.

Little Walter [Jacobs, Marion Walter]

(b Alexandria, LA, 1 May 1930; d Chicago, 15 Feb 1968). American blues harmonica player and singer. Born into extreme poverty in the rural black South, he began to earn a living playing the harmonica when he was only eight. A decade later he was a street musician in Chicago, where he recorded Ora Nelle Blues (1947, Ora Nelle) in the style of Sonny Boy Williamson. He performed in Chicago clubs and on tour with Muddy Waters (1948–50, 1952) and during the 1950s travelled extensively in the USA. He soon developed his own technique of amplified harmonica playing, making use of pronounced vibrato or ‘warble’, as on Mean Old World (1952, Checker). He had an undistinguished singing voice and expressed himself most effectively through the harmonica, especially in slow numbers such as Blue Lights, with Robert jr Lockwood on guitar (1954, Checker), which made use of heavy amplification and overblowing. Little Walter’s best performances often were in support of other blues artists, as in his ‘country’ inflected accompaniment to Leroy Foster on Rollin’ and Tumblin’ (1950, Parkway), and above all the sessions with Muddy Waters that produced Long Distance Call (1951, Chess) and All Night Long (1952, Chess). Many younger urban blues musicians were influenced by his playing, and he had acquired a strong following in Europe long before he toured there in the 1960s.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

W. Lindemann and B. Iglauer: ‘Little Walter and Louis Myers’, Living Blues, no.7 (1971–2), 16–25

M. Rowe: Chicago Breakdown (London, 1973)

PAUL OLIVER

Litton, Andrew

(b New York, 16 May 1959). American conductor and pianist. He studied with Sixten Ehrling (conducting) and Nadia Reisenberg (piano) at the Juilliard School, where he won the Bruno Walter Scholarship, with Walter Weller in Salzburg, and with Neeme Järvi and Edoardo Müller. In 1982 he won the Rupert Foundation International Competition in Britain, which brought his début with the BBC SO that year. He was assistant (then associate) conductor of the National SO, Washington, DC, 1982–6, and also appeared widely throughout the USA and Europe. He was principal conductor and artistic adviser of the Bournemouth SO from 1988 to 1994, when he became Conductor Laureate. In 1994 he was appointed music director of the Dallas SO. His Metropolitan début was in 1989 in Yevgeny Onegin; he conducted the revival of the Glyndebourne Porgy and Bess at Covent Garden in 1992, and Falstaff and Salome at the ENO. He has also toured East Asia with the English Chamber Orchestra. Litton's recordings include Elgar's ‘Enigma’ Variations, which exemplifies his affinity with English music, symphonies by Brahms, Tchaikovsky, Mahler, Rachmaninoff and Shostakovich, as well as works for piano and orchestra by Ravel and Gershwin in which he is both soloist and conductor.

NOËL GOODWIN

Liturgical drama.

See Medieval drama, §II.

Liturgy, Divine.

See Divine liturgy (byzantine).

Liturgy and liturgical books.

Modern definitions of ‘liturgy’ tend to be either juridical-ritual or theological. Most of the juridical-ritual definitions of the liturgy framed by Roman Catholic authors emphasize that the liturgy is the public and officially approved worship offered to God by the Church. Juridicial definitions thus separate ‘liturgy’ from other manifestations of piety, whether private or public, and from ‘paraliturgical’ accretions (e.g. tropes), which never received formal ecclesiastical approval. Theological definitions of ‘liturgy’, while recognizing its character as signs perceptible to the senses, seek a more profound understanding of its nature. The liturgy not only praises and worships God in recognition of his transcendence and in thanksgiving for creation and salvation, but it also acts as the channel through which God bestows his grace on humanity.

The Latin translations of the scriptures did not adopt the Greek term directly but rendered it as ministerium, munus etc. Medieval authors in the Latin West most often employed terms such as officium (adj. officialis), ritus or mysterium when writing about the Church’s worship.

Not until the 16th century (and under the influence of humanism) did the term ‘liturgy’ come into vogue. Pamelius published a treatise entitled Liturgia latinorum (1571), and Cardinal Bona’s influential Rerum liturgicarum libri duo followed in 1671. The growing acceptance of the term in the 17th century is further attested in De liturgia gallicana (1685) by the Benedictine historian Jean Mabillon. In the 20th century the reform of Roman Catholic worship and prayer approved by the Second Vatican Council (1962–5) was preceded by what has been called the ‘liturgical movement’.

II. Medieval Western rite

III. Reformation and post-Reformation liturgical books

IV. Byzantine rite

JOSEPH DYER (I–III), KENNETH LEVY/DIMITRI CONOMOS (IV)

I. History and definition of liturgy

The word ‘liturgy’ derives from the Greek leitourgia, formed from the combination of the adjective lēitos (‘state’, ‘public’) and the noun ergon (‘work’). In ancient Greece a leitourgia was the offering of financial support by private citizens for some activity in the public interest. Prosperous citizens could be obliged by law to perform a leitourgia, but the term also included spontaneous gestures of civic generosity. Thus one or more citizens might, for example, undertake the training and outfitting of a chorus for the theatre, the support of gymnastic events or the equipping of a ship in time of war. From the 3rd century bce the term began to embrace other kinds of work that provided a service, often remunerated, or any kind of useful activity. The office of priest, who mediated between the people and one of the gods, was also sometimes called a leitourgia, but outside Egypt cultic connotations of the word were not widespread.

The Jewish translators of the Septuagint (prepared in Egypt, c250–150 bce) adopted leitourgia (verb: leitourgein) as the normal word to describe the service (‘avodah) of priests and Levites in the Temple; by choosing a word with weak religious connotations any terminology associated with pagan cults was thus avoided. Jewish priests and Levites performed the public ‘service’ of prayer and sacrifice directed to God on behalf of their people, for whose subordinate role other words (latreuein, douleuein) were chosen.

This technical use of the term was carried over into the New Testament. The priest Zachary, father of John the Baptist, encountered an angel who predicted the birth of his son, and then departed from the Temple ‘when the days of his liturgy were fulfilled’ (Luke i.23). The Epistle to the Hebrews, rejecting the efficacy of Jewish Temple sacrifices, glorified Christ as the true high priest of a superior ‘liturgy’ (Hebrews viii.6, cf viii.2). The author contrasted Christ’s single offering of himself with the functions of an ordinary priest, who must perform his ‘liturgy’ daily (Hebrews x.11). In the New Testament ‘liturgy’ also continued to be applied in the broader sense to other forms of service. Paul called himself ‘a liturgist’ of Jesus Christ to the Gentiles’ (Romans xv.16) and described kindness towards himself as a ‘liturgy’ (Philippians ii.25, 30). He referred to a donation for Christians at Jerusalem as ‘the fellowship of this liturgy’ (2 Corinthians ix.12). Although the New Testament never related leitourgia to the nascent Christian cult, the word was taken up by the Greek-speaking Christian East to describe the ministry of the clergy in general, and was applied in particular to the eucharistic liturgy. In its celebration of the Eucharist the Eastern Church uses three principal ‘liturgies’: the Liturgy of St John Chrysostom, the Liturgy of St Basil the Great, and (on certain days during Lent and at the beginning of Holy Week) the Liturgy of the Presanctified.

1. Structure of the liturgy and its books.

II. Medieval Western rite

2. Mass books.

3. Office books.

4. Ritual and ceremonial books.

Liturgy & liturgical books, §II: Medieval Western rite

1. Structure of the liturgy and its books.

The two principal services of the medieval Western liturgy were the Mass and the Divine Office. The central element of the Mass is a memorial re-enactment of the Last Supper. This re-enactment was preceded by scripture readings and prayers, to which chants were later added. It culminated in the reception of bread and wine, believed to be in some real or mystical sense a sharing in the body and blood of Jesus. In cathedral churches and monasteries Mass was celebrated daily (several times in the case of churches with multiple altars) and with great solemnity on special feasts, but in smaller churches perhaps only on Sundays (see Mass, §I). The Divine Office consisted of a daily series of eight times of prayer devised around the weekly recitation of the Psalter. It also comprised readings from the scriptures, the writings of the Fathers, the legends of the saints on their feast-days, hymns, chants and prayers. The liturgical day began with Matins and ended with Compline. Lauds (earlier known as Matins) was sung at daybreak, followed by the Hours of Prime, Terce, Sext and None, recited at 6 a.m., 9 a.m., noon, and 3 p.m., respectively. During the Middle Ages it became customary to celebrate with special solemnity ‘first’ Vespers on the evening preceding major feasts. On Sundays, however, afternoon Vespers was the principal observance, and still a major liturgical event in Catholic churches up to the early 20th century (see Divine Office and related articles).

Both the Mass and the Divine Office contained prayers and chants that were recited or sung daily. Other components changed according to the liturgical day, season or feast. The fixed elements were known as the Ordinary – a term applied more frequently to the Mass than to the Office – while the latter was known as the Proper. The ‘Proper of the Time’ (Lat. Temporale) was organized around the liturgical year, which began on the first Sunday of Advent, four weeks before Christmas, and closed with the last Sunday of Pentecost. The Proper of the Time included what were known as ‘feasts of the Lord’, mainly commemorations of events in the life of Christ. Some of these, such as Christmas (25 December), Epiphany (6 January) and the Annunciation (25 March) fell on the same date every year. Most, however, were movable, notably those dependent upon the variable date of Easter. These included the season of Lent (40 days preceding Easter Sunday), the feasts of the Ascension (40 days after) and Pentecost (50 days after Easter). Sundays were numbered in relation to these major feasts: for example, the Second Sunday after Epiphany, the First Sunday after Easter, the Tenth Sunday after Pentecost (or after Trinity according to some customs).

The Proper of the Saints (Lat. Sanctorale) commemorated the feast-days of individual martyrs and saints celebrated on fixed dates of the calendar. Important observances, such as the Nativity of John the Baptist (24 June), the feasts of St Peter and St Paul (June 29), or the Assumption of the Virgin (15 August), were celebrated with greater solemnity than the commemorations of saints, about whom little was known. The Sanctorale varied to a certain extent from place to place and incorporated formularies for local feasts that were not universally observed. Formularies for saints of lesser rank were drawn from the Common of the Saints (Lat. Commune sanctorum), which furnished chants, readings and prayers for the several categories of saints: apostles, evangelists, martyrs, doctors, bishops, confessors, virgins etc. In liturgical books these formularies were grouped together at the end of the Sanctorale. Elaborate rules governed which feasts of the Temporale and Sanctorale took precedence in the event that two coincided on the same day. The medieval, as well as the modern Lutheran and Anglican practices, are more flexible than late 20th-century Catholic rules, which give exclusive precedence to Sundays.

The Temporale was based on solar and (to a lesser extent) lunar cycles, while the Sanctorale was based on the division of the year into 12 months. The fact that these two astronomical cycles did not coincide from year to year presented problems for the structure of liturgical books. The two cycles could be kept entirely separate – the solution of the 7th-century Gelasian Sacramentary – or blocks of sanctoral feasts could be dispersed among the observances of the Temporale. Efforts to date revisions of liturgical books by studying the relationships of the two cycles (Chavasse) remain problematical. The history and typology of medieval liturgical books are extremely complex subjects that have been clarified in a number of recent studies (Vogel, Palazzo, Folsom). Not only are there many different types of liturgical book, but every medieval liturgical manuscript contains a potentially unique combination of elements that must be studied individually. (For examples see Sources, MS, §II.)

The earliest liturgical manuscripts, designed to permit a single individual (priest, deacon, cantor) to discharge a specific role in the liturgy, contained only the texts proper to that role. Beginning in the 9th century efforts were made to combine and standardize these books, but compilers had not only to integrate their separate contents but also co-ordinate the overlapping Temporale and Sanctorale cycles. These books, of which the missal and the breviary are the best known examples, combined in a single volume all or most of the elements needed for specific Sundays, feasts or weekdays (feriae). Liturgical standardization, a goal of the 8th-century Carolingian reforms, entered a new phase with the growth of large monastic congregations such as those of Cluny and Cîteaux. It reached its apex with the international orders of mendicant friars – Dominicans and Franciscans – who created standard exemplaria that governed liturgical observances in all houses of the orders. The printing press enabled leaders of the Reformation movement to publish orders of worship that conformed to their theological perspectives. The Council of Trent (1545–63) likewise made use of the same technology to issue a series of standard liturgical books that determined the shape of the Catholic liturgy for centuries to come.

Liturgy & liturgical books, §II: Medieval Western rite

2. Mass books.

(i) Sacramentary

(from Lat. sacramentarium, liber sacramentorum). The book used by the officiating bishop or priest at the eucharistic liturgy. It contains the texts of the Proper prayers (collect, secret, post-Communion, Preface and Canon), together with a few other formulae (benedictions etc.) recited by the celebrant. In the earliest centuries of the Christian era bishops improvised their prayers at the Eucharist. Subsequently, these were written down and preserved in small collections known as libelli missarum. The earliest surviving Western collection of such texts, the Verona Sacramentary (also known as the Leonine Sacramentary after Pope Leo I, d 461; I-VEcap 85, early 7th century), is a collection of 5th- and 6th-century libelli from Rome. The collection is incomplete in some respects and redundant in others; there are, for example, 28 formularies for the feasts of St Peter and St Paul.

The most important complete sacramentaries of Roman origin are the Gelasian and Gregorian. The Gelasian (or ‘Old Gelasian’, named after Gelasius I, d 496; I-Rvat Reg.lat.316, c750) is thought to reflect the practice of the Roman tituli (parishes) in the mid-7th century (see Chavasse, 1952, 1989). It is divided into three books: (1) the Temporale and rites of ordination; (2) the Sanctorale; and (3) 16 Sunday Masses and votive Masses for various occasions. The Gelasian text was substantially revised in Francia in the mid-8th century, when it was augmented with material from the Gregorian Sacramentary and local Gallican formulae. This version is known as the ‘Frankish’ or ‘8th-century’ Gelasian Sacramentary. The Gregorian Sacramentary was originally a papal book designed for the stational liturgy (see Rome, §II, 1) and was probably compiled in the early 7th century. Its intermingling of material from the Temporale and Sanctorale was adopted in the 8th-century Gelasians. The Gregorian sacramentary itself exists in several forms, the earliest of which, known as the ‘Paduense’ (I-Pc D.47), represents (according to Chavasse, 1952) an adaptation of the sacramentary for the presbyteral liturgy of the Basilica di S Pietro, Rome. The purest witness of papal practice is the ‘Hadrianum’, a copy of the Gregorian Sacramentary sent to Charlemagne (d 814) at his request. This text had to be supplemented in order to make it a practical Mass book for the Frankish Church. The resulting Franco-Roman liturgy became the foundation of the ‘Roman’ rite.

Western Churches that did not follow a local rite (Mozarabic, Ambrosian) were usually dependent in varying degrees on Roman models. Studies of the grouping and interrelationships of sacramentaries may be found in Bourque, Vogel, and Metzger. From the 10th century sacramentaries began to incorporate readings and chant texts (or their incipits) interspersed among the celebrant’s prayers. These books eventually evolved into the missal (see below).

(ii) Lectionary

(from Lat. lectionarium). The book containing the extracts (pericopes) from the New Testament Epistles or the Hebrew scriptures and the Gospels read at Mass in the order of the liturgical year. Before their combination in a single book, the series of Epistle and Gospel readings were transmitted separately. Historical precursors of the full lectionary consisted of lists that provided only the beginning and end of each reading, the complete text of which would be sought in a biblical codex. Such a list is known as a capitulary (from Lat. capitulare, liber capitularius; for an explanation of terminology, see Klauser, 1935). Marginal indications in some Bibles indicate that they were used in conjunction with such lists, for example, the Gospel Book of St Kilian (D-WÜu M.p.th.q.1a), with 200 indications entered between the 7th and 9th centuries. Several regional lectionary traditions (Gaul, Capua) are found in early manuscripts. The earliest Epistle list representing Roman usage is the Würzburg Capitulary (WÜu M.p.th f.62, ff.2v–10) from about 700, which reflects urban practice of perhaps as much as a century before. The same manuscript (ff.10v–16v) also contains a Gospel list that documents a later stage of liturgical development (c645).

The term ‘epistolary’ (Lat. epistolare) refers to a book containing the full text of the pericopes drawn from the Epistles and Hebrew scriptures read at Mass. An ‘evangeliary’ (from Lat. evangelarium, evangeliarium) contains the complete text of the Gospel pericopes. Epistles and Gospels are combined for the first time in a single series in the Lectionary of Murbach (F-B 184) dating from the late 8th century. This capitulare represents a Frankish adaptation of a Roman lectionary. The solemn reading of the Gospel at Mass was a special prerogative of the deacon, and the book for this reading was sometimes richly illuminated and covered with a binding embellished with gold, silver and precious stones.

See also Epistle and Gospel.

(iii) Gradual, cantatorium.

The gradual (from Lat. gradale, graduale, liber gradualis) contains the antiphonal and responsorial chants of the Mass together with votive Masses that stand outside the Temporale and Sanctorale; it may also contain chants for processions and other functions closely related to the eucharistic liturgy. The gradual is sometimes combined with a Kyriale containing chants for the Ordinary of the Mass (Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei), a Troper or a sequentiary (see Sequence (i)). The earliest extant graduals, which date from the 8th and 9th centuries (ed. R.-J. Hesbert, Antiphonale missarum sextuplex, Brussels, 1935/R), transmit only the unnotated texts of the chants. All but one of these graduals are found combined in the same manuscript with a sacramentary or (in one case) an Office antiphoner. Complete neumed exemplars of the gradual are not attested until the 10th century (CH-SGs 339; F-LA 239). Pieces from suppressed chant repertories such as the Gallican and Beneventan supplemented the Gregorian chants of the gradual, a volume traditionally associated with Pope Gregory the Great (d 604). The physical size of the gradual eventually increased, so that it could be read by several singers standing around a lectern.

The term ‘cantatorium’ was also applied to books containing chants for the Mass, especially in Roman sources. The earliest surviving examples of cantatoria (dating from the 9th and 10th centuries), one of which includes musical notation, contain only soloist’s chants, that is, the gradual, tract and alleluia. Later cantatoria vary considerably in their contents, but most are restricted to solo chants.

See also Gradual (ii), and Cantatorium.

(iv) Missal

(from Lat. missale, missalis plenarius). The book containing all the material necessary for celebrating Mass; it resulted from the integration of the priest’s sacramentary, the deacon’s evangeliary, the subdeacon’s epistolary and the cantor’s gradual. Most missals incorporated rubrics as well as private devotional prayers (apologiae) and prayers related to ritual actions (censing, ablution) that were recited silently by the priest. Not all medieval missals contained complete cycles of Masses for the liturgical year, an indication perhaps that some priests repeated a relatively small repertory of Masses. Some contained no more than the incipits of the relatively lengthy texts of the Epistle and Gospel readings. The process that led to the development of the ‘plenary’ missal was well advanced by the end of the 9th century, stimulated at least in part by the increase in private Masses. This development also reflected a shift of liturgical perspective: the priest-celebrant now discharged all of the liturgical duties that had formerly been fulfilled by clerical participants in the Mass. The function of plenary missals with musical notation has not been satisfactorily explained; certainly the copying of such books would have required planning to allow adequate space for the insertion of staffless neumes, a notation that demanded the skills of a professional singer for its interpretation.

See also Missal.

(v) Processional

(from Lat. processionale, liber processionalis). The book containing the texts and music of processional antiphons and hymns, which were sung in some places at special ceremonies and before Mass on feast days. The earliest surviving processionals were copied in the 12th century; before this time processional chants were usually included in the gradual, although they could also form part of a troper, antiphoner or breviary. Most of the extant manuscripts are small in size, making them easily portable.

See also Processional.

(vi) Troper

(from Lat. liber troparius, troparium). The book, or section of a chant book, containing the texts and music of the tropes and usually a selection of other soloist’s chants from the Mass. Tropers vary considerably in their content and organization, and might include sequence texts and melodies, offertory verses, alleluias, processional chants or Ordinary chants. The earliest extant tropers date from the 10th century; after the 13th century they are rarely found as independent books.

See also Troper.

(vii) Tonary

(from Lat. tonarius, tonarium, tonale). The book in which the antiphons of Mass and Office chants of the Gregorian repertory are classified according to the eight psalm tones; see Tonary

Liturgy & liturgical books, §II: Medieval Western rite

3. Office books.

The earliest extant medieval books for the Divine Office, like those for the Mass, followed the principle that each participant in the liturgy would have his or her own proper book.

(i) Liturgical psalter.

The book in which the psalms are divided according to the days of the week to which they were assigned; notated psalters also include the ferial antiphons for the psalms with the psalm-tone differentiae appropriate to each. The entire community of monks, nuns or secular canons participated in the singing of the psalms, but since the psalms were generally memorized, it was not necessary for every singer to use a psalter.

See also Psalter, liturgical.

(ii) Office lectionary.

The book containing the readings from the scriptures recited at Matins. At first, each day’s scripture reading simply continued from the point reached on the previous day; this practice required no book other than the Bible. As a system of fixed, assigned pericopes evolved, these were gathered into an Office lectionary, perhaps as early as the 9th century. These scriptural extracts were further abbreviated in the 11th century.

(iii) Homiliary

(from Lat. homeliarium, homeliarius, homelium, homiliarium). The book containing excerpts from the writings of the Church Fathers prescribed to be read at Matins and arranged in liturgical order. These patristic readings either explained the meaning of a feast or liturgical season, or explicated passages of scripture. The two categories were usually distinguished as sermons or homilies, respectively, but the distinction was often blurred. Several homiliary traditions have been identified. The festal homiliary of S Pietro, Rome, can be traced back to the mid-7th century (see Grégoire); it presents an anthology of patristic texts appropriate to a given feast from which liturgical readings could be selected. The Frankish Church did not follow the Roman homiliary traditions; Charlemagne, as part of his liturgical reforms at the end of the 8th century, ordered the preparation of a new homiliary, a comprehensive collection of 244 texts organized according to the number of readings required for each liturgical observance. For certain occasions (the principal feasts of the Temporale, feasts of the saints, Sundays of Lent) the Carolingian homiliary provided a sermon for the three readings of the second nocturn. For the third nocturn of every Sunday and feast day there was a homily on the Gospel reading.

(iv) Martyrology

(from Lat. martyrologium). A list of saints (not all of them martyrs) according to the days on which their feasts are observed. Generally, only the most essential details of the place, manner of death (in the case of a martyr) and approximate date of death (i.e. natalitia – birth into heavenly glory) are given. Regional modifications included the names of saints whose cult was local. Marginal entries listed the names of deceased friends and benefactors of the church or convent where the martyrology was in use, so that they could be remembered on the anniversary of their deaths. The martyrology was recited daily at Prime. In the Dominican rite the reading of the martyrology followed Prime as part of the Office of Pretiosa (called thus from its first words: ‘precious in the sight of the Lord is the death of his saints’).

(v) Legendary

(legendarius, passionarium). A book containing the Lives of the Saints (vitae), ordered according to their feast days. Such readings were at first not part of the Divine Office at Rome but were popular in the Gallican and Spanish Churches. The books might not have been intended primarily for liturgical use. A complete vita might be far too long for recitation at the night Office; marginal annotations indicated the extent of the reading and divided the text into ‘lessons’ (1 to 9). The reading of the vita could, if desired, be continued in the refectory.

(vi) Hymnary

(Lat. liber hymnorum). A book of hymns often found in conjunction with a liturgical psalter or an antiphoner. In the liturgical code of his monastic Rule, Benedict of Nursia (c480–550) prescribed the singing of a hymn at the Office Hours. This practice was adopted by the Irish and Gallican Churches, but not at Rome or at Lyons, where non-biblical texts were held in suspicion. The earliest hymnaries (known collectively as the ‘Old Hymnary’) contained mainly hymns for ferias and Sundays but very few Proper hymns for feasts. This repertory was expanded under Frankish auspices in the 8th and 9th centuries, but the largest increase came with the ‘New Hymnary’ (first found in 9th-century Frankish sources), which contained a repertory that eventually grew to more than 250 hymns in some 11th-century collections. The number of texts far exceeds the number of melodies, since melodies composed for a given metre could be fitted to all texts in that metre. Not all hymnaries are notated, but typically the melody is written out once with the first verse followed by the texts of the following verses.

See also Hymn, §II.

(vii) Antiphoner

(antiphonal; from Lat. antiphonarius, antiphonarium, antiphonale). The book that brings together, in liturgical order, the musical items of the Office sung by the cantor and choir: the antiphons for the psalms and canticles, the great responsories chanted after the readings, hymns, a collection of invitatories and possibly a psalter. Its organization follows the division of the liturgical year into the Temporale and Sanctorale, and includes a Commune sanctorum. Monastic and secular antiphoners differ mainly in the structuring of Matins, Lauds and Vespers. There were also many regional variations, particularly with respect to the choice of responsories. The term ‘antiphonarius’ is first attested from the mid-8th century and in the early Middle Ages was often applied to a book (without notation) of chant texts for the Mass as well as the Office. By the later Middle Ages and Renaissance the format of the antiphoner had grown in size and was placed on a massive lectern in the middle of the choir. Sometimes matched pairs of antiphoners were used, one on each side of the choir.

See also Antiphoner.

(viii) Breviary

(from Lat. breviarium: ‘abridgment’). The book combining all or some of the texts and, occasionally, music for the Divine Office or portions thereof, arranged according to the Temporale and Sanctorale. Medieval breviaries are not necessarily truncated versions of complete Offices or small, easily portable books. Whatever its size or degree of completeness, a breviary assembled material from various sources in a single volume. The material could be merely juxtaposed or, more usefully, integrated according to the order required for the service, although not every element needed for the celebration of the Office might be included. Salmon (1967) has traced the origins of the breviary to 9th- and 10th-century ‘collectaires enrichis’. These combined the collectar (also known as the orationale or manuale), the prayers said by the officiant (called ‘hebdomadarian’ since the duty rotated weekly) at Sunday and ferial Offices, with a capitula, brief scriptural passages recited at all the Offices except Matins. Bound with the book might be a ‘breviarium’ or ordo describing the Office throughout the year and containing incipits of prayers and chants.

See also Breviary.

Liturgy & liturgical books, §II: Medieval Western rite

4. Ritual and ceremonial books.

(i) Ordo

(Lat.: ‘ritual’). A book containing directions for the performance of one or a number of liturgical Offices. It served as a reference manual for the cantor, master of ceremonies or hebdomadarian who had responsibility for assuring the decorous celebration of the liturgy. Only the incipits of the readings, prayers and chants are usually given; the full form had to be sought in the relevant Mass or Office book. The term is generally applied to a group of documents known as the Ordines romani, commonly cited according to the modern edition of Andrieu (Leuven, 1931–56/R). Although the manuscript tradition of these ordines, numbered 1–50 in Andrieu’s edition, begins in the late 8th century, a number of the ceremonies they describe date from the late 7th century. Two principal collections of ordines have been identified: the first (A) contains authentic Roman material with few modifications, while the contents of the second (B) has been more thoroughly adapted to Frankish practice. None of the extant manuscripts originated in Rome.

(ii) Ordinal.

(from Lat. ordinarius). Each diocese, cathedral, collegiate church, monastery or confederation of monasteries might have its own liturgical directory, generally known to modern scholars as an ‘ordinal’. Unlike the Ordines romani, which describe either single ceremonies or only portions of the liturgical year (e.g. Holy Week), an ordinal covers the entire liturgical year. It was by nature a local document without the universal appeal of the Roman ordines. Ordinals intergrate the Mass and Office of the day in their proper sequence, but the large-scale structure of the book either combines the Temporale and Sanctorale in blocks over the course of the year, or divides the two cycles into separate books, a solution favoured from the 13th century onwards. The ordinal also incorporates certain ritual details about the rank of participants in the liturgy, the vestments to be worn, the number of candles etc., depending on the solemnity of the feast. A customary (from Lat. consuetudo) resembles an ordinal in some respects, but its primary purpose is the regulation of the internal discipline and customs of a monastery or a community of secular canons. (A handlist of ordinals and customaries for nearly 130 medieval institutions is given in Le graduel romain, ii: Les sources, Solesmes, 1962, 189–96.)

(iii) Ceremonial.

(from Lat. ceremoniale). A book prescribing in precise detail the actions of all participants in a liturgical observance. In general, chants or prayers specific to the liturgy are not mentioned. The two most important representatives of the genre are the Papal Ceremonial, which regulates the observance of the papal court, the election and coronation of the pope and the imperial coronation, and the Ceremonial of Bishops, which describes the conduct of Offices proper to the episcopal rank or those carried out in the presence of the diocesan bishop. Before the publication of the Caeremoniale episcoporum in 1600, many of these items could be found in the pontifical.

(iv) Pontifical

(from Lat. Ordo pontificalis). The book containing the rites proper to a bishop. In the early Middle Ages books containing these rites did not follow any standard pattern; they included material for occasional services such as clerical ordination, confirmation, the expulsion of penitents on Ash Wednesday, their reconciliation on Maundy Thursday, the dedication of churches, the blessing of sacred vessels, and the anointing of monarchs. The pontifical contains the texts of all the prayers recited by the bishop, describes the course of the ceremonies, and provides the incipits of chants or, on occasion, complete texts with notation. Scholars distinguish four successive types of medieval pontifical: (1) the Romano-Germanic Pontifical of the 10th century, compiled (c950–62) at the abbey of St Alban in Mainz and subsequently introduced at Rome; (2) the Roman Pontifical of the 12th century; (3) the various 13th-century recensions of the Pontifical of the Roman Curia; and (4) the pontifical compiled (c1293–5) by Guillaume Durand, bishop of Mende. Durand added material to earlier pontificals, but eliminated all rites not proper to the episcopal office. Agostino Patrizi de Piccolomini and Johannes Burkhard revised Durand’s work for the first printed edition of the Pontificale romanum (Rome, 1595).

(v) Benedictional

(from Lat. benedictionale, liber benedictionum). The book containing the blessings pronounced by the bishop at Mass after the Pater noster and before the Pax Domini semper vobiscum; these blessings were not included in the sacramentary. Benedictionals may also contain material for episcopal liturgical functions outside the Mass. A number of lavish Anglo-Saxon exemplars are among the surviving manuscripts.

(vi) Ritual

(from Lat. rituale, manuale, agenda, sacramentale). The liturgical book containing all the services other than the Mass and Office celebrated by a priest. Essentially, the ritual is the priest's equivalent of the pontifical and includes formulae for baptism, marriage, last rites, burial and various benedictions. Some of the earliest surviving rituals, which date from the 10th and 11th centuries, are combined with collectars or sacramentaries. From the 11th century onwards rituals became increasingly independent of the other liturgical books.

For further discussion of Western liturgical books see Plainchant, §§2–3.

III. Reformation and post-Reformation liturgical books

None of the Churches that grew out of the Reformation maintained the medieval Latin liturgy intact. Emphasis shifted in the direction of the ‘preaching service’ that had evolved within the pre-Reformation Mass liturgy. In south Germany and Switzerland in particular the preaching of the Word and admonitions addressed to the congregation were central elements of every Gottesdienst. The demand that the liturgy should be intelligible to the worshippers led to the introduction of the vernacular. As the amount of ritual solemnity was curtailed, the variable chants of the Mass fell into disuse. With the abolition of monasticism within the Reformed Churches, the Divine Office ceased to be observed by Protestants, although Anglican Matins and Evensong were notable exceptions.

Martin Luther published a proposed reform of the liturgy in 1523 (Formula missae et communis), maintaining that he did not wish to abolish the Mass but rather to purify it of elements that contradicted the scriptures (see Luther, Martin). This reform entailed the abolition of the Canon with its focus on sacrifice. Luther’s subsequent work, Deutsche Messe und Ordnung Gottes Diensts (1526), provided a simpler vernacular order of worship with congregational hymns in German. Luther adapted the traditional Latin oration and lection tones to the chanting in German of the Epistle, Gospel and pastor’s chants at the altar. Other Kirchenordnungen were introduced in those parts of Germany that embraced the Reformation.

One of these local German uses inspired Then swenska messan (1531) of the Swedish reformer Olav Petri. No music was provided in this publication, although the vernacular liturgy was celebrated with great solemnity in Stockholm. The reformed liturgy of King Johann III (Liturgia svecanae ecclesiae catholicae & orthodoxae conformis, 1576, in Latin and Swedish), although limited in its influence, was remarkable for its determination to recover the richness of the traditional Latin liturgy while remaining true to reformed principles of worship.

Ulrich Zwingli’s first vernacular order of Communion, Aktion oder Brauch des Nachtmals, was published in 1525 (see Zwingli, Ulrich). This order was intended to be a remembrance of the Last Supper and was celebrated only four times a year; the bread and wine were distributed to the congregation not at the altar rail but in the nave. On ordinary Sundays the service emphasized scripture readings and the sermon. The reformed Communion order for Basel, probably prepared by Johannes Oekolampad, dates from 1526. It was not derived from the Mass, but combined the preaching service with the order for distributing Communion outside the Mass. Common to both these Swiss orders was the presence of admonitions to the congregation that they receive Communion worthily.

The earliest surviving version of Jean Calvin’s order of reformed liturgy in Geneva, based on that of Strasbourg, carries the date 1542 (see Calvin, Jean). As its title, La forme des prieres et chantz ecclesiastiques, suggests, it was a book designed for the congregation, who sang the psalms and canticles in metrical versions. Calvin did not intend his liturgy to be imposed everywhere, but it was made obligatory for the reformed congregations of France by the Synod of Montauban in 1594.

In England the reform of the liturgical rites began after the death of Henry VIII in 1547, but the creation of a definitive English liturgy was not completed until the 1662 Book of Common Prayer. The moving spirit behind the first English liturgical reforms was Thomas Cranmer (d 1556), Archbishop of Canterbury, the chief author and editor of the Booke of the Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and Other Rites and Ceremonies of the Churche after the Use of the Churche of England. In 1549 a parliamentary ‘Act of Uniformity’ prescribed the use of this service book throughout the realm. Three years later, another version of the Prayer Book rearranged parts of the liturgy and moved English worship closer to the spirit of continental reformers such as Zwingli. The 1662 Book of Common Prayer restored a ‘consecration’ of the bread and wine, as the Scottish prayer book had done in 1637.

Cranmer restructured parts of the medieval Divine Office into the prayer services of Matins (Mattins) and Evensong. In 1550 John Marbeck issued The Booke of Common Praier Noted, with simple syllabic settings of the services, but revisions introduced by the 1552 Prayer Book made Marbeck’s syllabic settings obsolete almost immediately. From the time of Elizabeth I (1558–1603), a metrical psalter with melodies was often bound together with the Book of Common Prayer. The 1662 Prayer Book (with psalter) has never ceased to be the authorized worship book of the Church of England, although it was largely displaced in 1980 by The Alternative Service Book. The latter has itself been superseded by Common Worship (2000), which incorporates most of the material from the 1662 Prayer Book.

By the time the Council of Trent convened in 1545 to attempt to reverse the effect of the Reformation, reformed worship was entrenched throughout northern Europe. The liturgical decrees of the Council rejected the liturgical views of the reformers and ordered the preparation of standarized liturgical books (all in Latin) to be imposed on all the clergy and faithful. Chief among these were the Missale romanum (1570), the Breviarium romanum (1568, revised in 1914) and the Pontificale romanum (1595). These and the other liturgical books of the Roman Catholic Church remained virtually unchanged until the Second Vatican Council (1962–5). A revision of the Graduale romanum was also commissioned. The results, however, proved unfortunate since the editors applied humanistic concepts of accentuation and eliminated many melismas from the traditional melodies. This ‘Medicaean’ Gradual (so-called from the Roman printing office that issued it, 1614–15) distorted the traditional melodies, which were finally restored early in the 20th century on the basis of the research undertaken by the monks of the abbey of St Pierre de Solesmes. The Vatican edition of the restored Graduale romanum was issued in 1907 and later republished by the monks of Solesmes with the addition of their ‘rhythmic signs’. The modern Liber usualis is not a reproduction of any medieval liturgical book but a compilation of chants for Sundays and feasts throughout the year, together with chants for portions of the Divine Office.

The most familiar liturgical book in modern churches is undoubtedly the hymnal. Although Anglican service books have mostly remained separate from the hymnal, many denominations have adopted a combined ‘hymnal and service book’. Contents and arrangement differ but, in addition to the main corpus of hymns, there will usually be found various items of service music, an abridged psalter, rites for morning and evening prayer, and the text of occasional services (baptism, a burial Office). These books are normally official denominational publications, as, for example, the German Evangelisches Kirchengesangbuch, which exists in regional versions, and the Catholic Gotteslob, which serves Catholics in all the German-speaking countries of Europe.

For further discussion of liturgical books, including those used in the present-day services of the major denominations, see Anglican and Episcopalian church music; Baptist church music; Lutheran church music; Methodist church music; Pentecostal and Renewal church music; Reformed and Presbyterian church music; Roman Catholic church music; and Unitarian church music.

1. Structure of the liturgy.

IV. Byzantine rite

2. The liturgical year.

3. Liturgical books.

Liturgy & liturgical books, §IV: Byzantine rite

1. Structure of the liturgy.

The Byzantine rite is in most respects organized like that of the Western Church. There are regular services corresponding to the Mass (see Divine liturgy (byzantine)), celebrated daily in monasteries but normally only on Sundays elsewhere, and to the Divine Office, whose principal divisions are Orthros (‘daybreak service’, equivalent to Matins and Lauds) and Hesperinos (Vespers). Although the Byzantine Offices are very long and prolix, their daily recitation is in theory (though not in practice) obligatory for the clergy. In addition the Office includes various lesser daily services: Apodeipnon (Compline); Mesonyktikon (the ‘midnight’ service); the four Little Hours of Hōra prōtē (Prime), Hōra tritē (Terce), Hōra hektē (Sext) and Hōra ennatē (None); and Typika, the short Office that falls between the sixth and ninth hours. The contents of these Hours are found in the hōrologion (see below). Both the Divine Liturgy and the Office contain fixed and variable elements corresponding to the Ordinary and Proper of the Western rite.

Liturgy & liturgical books, §IV: Byzantine rite

2. The liturgical year.

For each year in the Eastern Church there is a calendar of movable feasts with the Lent-Easter-Pentecost cycle at its centre, and a calendar of fixed commemorations of saints, the latter, since the 9th century at the latest, beginning with the Byzantine Indiction and the feasts of St Symeon Stylites on 1 September. As in the West, Christmas falls on 25 December, Epiphany on 6 January, St George’s Day on 23 April, the Assumption on 15 August, etc. The Orthodox Liturgy has a further layer of organization not found in the West: an eight-week cycle, the weeks corresponding to the eight modes – the oktōēchos – of Byzantine chant. The Oktōēchos (with its expansion, the paraklētikē) is a collection of hymns and liturgical formulae sufficient for a full week’s services in each of the eight modes. Beginning with the octave of Pentecost and continuing until the beginning of Holy Week, each week in the Byzantine calendar has a common mode assigned to it (1st mode for the first week, 2nd mode for the second, etc.; then 1st mode again for the ninth, 2nd mode for the tenth, etc.); during Easter week the mode changes each day, and the 3rd plagal mode (barys) is omitted. Texts not provided with a specific chant formula of their own are sung to music drawn from the appropriate mode in the oktōēchos.

Liturgy & liturgical books, §IV: Byzantine rite

3. Liturgical books.

In comparison with Western usage, a relatively large number of liturgical books is employed for the celebration of the Byzantine rite. This is partly because the exceptional quantity of Eastern hymnody necessitates the division of some books that in the West remained undivided; but it is also because the contents of the Eastern books are designed more narrowly to suit particular liturgical functions and functionaries. Combination volumes such as the Western missal (in which the sacramentary, evangeliary, epistolary and gradual are combined) or the still more comprehensive, pre-Vatican II Liber usualis (which also includes much of the Divine Office) have been slower to gain popularity in the East.

The following list of liturgical books is comprehensive for the Byzantine period, omitting only some uncommon subdivisions and alternative divisions of larger collections. It is less complete for the post-Byzantine period, in which many novel anthologies with new names – anthologion, anastasimatarion, synekdēmos, biblion tōn proseuchōn, hieratikon, hierotelestikon, agiasmatarion, liturgikon, etc. – have combined anew the contents of older collections.

(i) Euchologion.

The old Eastern ‘prayer book’ for the celebrant, corresponding to the Western sacramentary; it contained the texts of the prayers for the Divine Liturgy, Office, ordinations and other rites, and also included an outline of the services, at times providing rubrics or the diakonika (responses of the deacon). The earliest known Greek copy and the oldest surviving Greek liturgical book is the Barberini Euchologion, I-Rvat Barberini gr.336, which probably dates from the late 8th century. A special class of euchologion is limited to the prayers and rubrics of the Divine Liturgy. One or all three of the standard Byzantine eucharistic liturgies (St Basil, St John Chrysostom, the Liturgy of the Presanctified) may appear. Early manuscripts of the liturgy are often in roll format.

(ii) Hōrologion.

The book of the Hours that corresponds to a Western breviary: it includes the Ordinary of the Hours (the full texts of prescribed psalms, lections and chants) as well as some Proper texts. Originally designed for the monastic Office in Palestine, the Byzantine hōrologion later fused early monastic traditions with those of the ‘cathedral’ rite.

(iii) Typikon.

The book that provides a summary of the full Ordinary and Proper for the services throughout the year and the rules governing their celebration; it corresponds in one of its forms to the Western ordinal. No single Byzantine book, however, brings together all the provisions and directions for the execution of the various rites. A Jerusalem Holy Week typikon dating from 1122 is the earliest extant extensive Greek source for the characteristic liturgical practice of the Holy City (see Papadopoulos-Kerameus). (Exemplars of the 9th–10th-century Constantinopolitan typikon have been published by Dmitrievsky (vol.i) and Mateos.)

(iv) Liturgical psalter.

A psalter in which the psalms are arranged for liturgical recitation. As in the West, the psalter is often found as a separate liturgical book, but with the biblical canticles appended. There are separate monastic and cathedral traditions for the grouping of the psalms and their division into verses.

(v) Apostolos, evangelion, prophetologion.

The liturgical books containing the readings from the scriptures, equivalent to the lectionaries of the Western Church. Unlike the liturgical volumes listed above, these books normally have provision for musical notation, which takes the form of ekphonetic (lectionary) neumes rather than melodic notation (see Byzantine chant, §2). The apostolos is the Epistle lectionary and contains all the readings from the New Testament except those from the Gospels and the Apocalypse (the latter is not used in the Byzantine liturgy). The pericopes are arranged according to their order in the calendar. Many 11th- and 12th-century copies are provided with ekphonetic neumes. In its fully developed form, the apostolos also contained, in appendices, the responsories (prokeimena, allēlouïaria) for the whole church year and calendars with lection tables for the movable and fixed cycles respectively.

The evangelion is the Gospel lectionary and is used primarily in the Divine Liturgy. Its pericopes are liturgically ordered, which distinguishes it from the tetraevangelion, a book simply containing the four Gospels in their biblical order.

The prophetologion contains the Old Testament lessons, which are more numerous in the Eastern Church than in the Roman, for the fixed and movable feasts of the year.

(vi) Synodikon.

The book containing the acts of the Synods or Councils. In a rare case – the 11th-century Holkham Synodikon (GB-Ob) – ekphonetic notation is provided for some portions of the conciliar acts that were publicly chanted each year at the commemoration of particular Councils.

(vii) Synaxarion, menologion.

The books containing collections, in calendar order, of the Lives of the Saints; they correspond to the Western martyrologies. The shortest examples are little more than annotated calendars; the longest run to a full volume for each of the 12 months.

(viii) Oktōēchos, paraklētikē.

The liturgical books that together form the Common of the Time. The Oktōēchos is a set of eight complete Proper services for the Offices of Saturday night and Sunday morning (Hesperinos and Orthros), arranged in the order of the eight modes; it forms one of the most important collections of hymns, and its music eventually appeared in the heirmologion (see below) and the noted oktōēchos. Where there is no provision for a Proper formula in the Proper of the Time or Proper of the Saints, the formula is taken from the appropriate modal section of the oktōēchos.

The paraklētikē represents an expansion of the oktōēchos; it adds Common Hours services for each weekday to the eight-week, eight-mode cycle, and in its massive content normally includes also the Saturday and Sunday services of the oktōēchos.

As these two books in effect form a Common of the Time, they must be used in conjunction with three other collections – the mēnaion, triōdion and pentēkostarion – to make up an enormous missal-breviary containing the full Proper of the Time and Proper of the Saints.

(ix) Mēnaion, triōdion, pentēkostarion.

The liturgical books that together form the Proper of the Saints for the Church year. The mēnaion (‘month’ services) contains the variable hymns and other texts proper to Hesperinos and Orthros for the fixed calendar year; it is still published in 12 volumes – a volume for each month (hence the usual plural, ‘mēnaia’), beginning with the September volume for the start of the year. The mēnaia, then, contain the Proper of the Saints and the Proper of each feast that falls on a fixed date.

The triōdion contains the Propers for Lent, and, since the central Middle Ages, has also included the material for the Sundays before Lent.

The pentēkostarion contains the Propers from the Easter Vigil up to the Byzantine feast of All Saints – the octave of Pentecost.

(x) Hymnbooks.

These are named according to their specific content and internal organization. The oldest collections, which date from the 9th and 10th centuries, are known variously as the tropologion, kanōnarion, kondakarion, theotokarian, paraklētikē and oktōēchos. These early books are not provided with notation; the earliest hymnbooks specifically designed to contain melodies throughout were the heirmologion and stichērarion (see below).

(xi) Heirmologion.

The notated hymnbook containing the syllabic heirmoi (model-stanzas) for the kānones, which are sung at Orthros (see Kanōn), arranged according to the system of eight modes. A heirmologion may also contain the stylistically similar refrains accompanying the Beatitudes (Makarismoi). The earliest surviving manuscripts date from the 10th century, and all copies were specifically designed to carry musical notation throughout, usually in Palaeo-Byzantine neumes.

See also Heirmologion.

(xii) Stichērarion.

The chant book containing music for the hymns (stichēra) sung at Orthros and Hesperinos throughout the year. With the heirmologion it was one of the oldest hymnbooks to be provided with melodic neumes throughout; the oldest extant copies date from the 10th and 11th centuries and are notated in Palaeo-Byzantine neumes. The stichērarion has four separate sections: the first three parallel the arrangement of the mēnaia, triōdion and pentēkostarion; the fourth provides music for the hymns of the modally ordered oktōēchos. These four sections of the stichērarion are also found as separate music books. Their hymn content may appear with notation interpolated within the parent text collections, making it possible to find notated hymns in a mēnaion, triōdion, pentēkostarion or oktōēchos, which are otherwise purely textual collections.

See also Stichērarion.

(xiii) Psaltikon, asmatikon.

Two important music collections representing the usage of the church of Hagia Sophia at Constantinople between the 11th (or even 9th) and 13th centuries; they contain florid hymns and psalmody. The psaltikon is a soloist’s book containing chants for the prokeimena of the Divine Liturgy and Office, the verses of the great troparia, the allēlouïa verses for the Divine Liturgy, the great responsories (hypakoai), the kontakia for the year, and, in a rare case, the full Akathistos Hymn. Only a few copies survive, all dating from the 13th or 14th centuries. The asmatikon is the corresponding book for the trained choirs – psaltai – of Hagia Sophia. The functional division between the two collections is so strictly observed that in the case of responsorial chants such as the prokeimena, which are performed in part by the soloist (psaltēs), in part by the choir (psaltai), the solo sections appear in the psaltikon, the choral sections in the asmatikon; both books are required to reconstruct the chant in full. This division also extends to style. The psaltikon has its own characteristic, melismatic styles that differ from the styles found in the asmatikon. For example, texts such as the hypakoai and kontakia may occur in both books, but the type of setting depends upon the book.

Copies of the asmatikon may contain some or all of the following: the cycles of koinōnika (communions); the choral refrains of the prokeimena and great troparia; the Pasa pnoē in the eight modes; the hypakoai and the kontakia; some Proper chants for the Dedication; and some Ordinary chants of the Divine Liturgy, including the eisodikon, the three Trisagia (see Trisagion) and the Cheroubikon. Fewer than a dozen Greek copies of the asmatikon survive, all dating from the 13th century or the early 14th; all but two are from south Italy. The two Greek copies from the Empire itself are GR-ATS great lavra γβ and Kastoria Cathedral Library MS 8; most of the south Italian copies are at Messina and Grottaferrata.

Supplementing these manuscripts is a small group of copies in Moscow and Leningrad that were written between the 11th and 13th centuries in Church Slavonic and noted in varieties of the early Slavonic melismatic notation. These manuscripts have been called ‘kondakars’ by Russian scholars, because they primarily contain the melodic versions of the kontakia found in the asmatikon; but they derive from lost archetypes of the Constantinopolitan asmatikon, and their so-called Slavonic ‘kondakarion’ notation is really derived – as are their melodies – from the Greek traditions.

(xiv) Akolouthiai and kalophonic collections.

In about 1300 the Constantinople maïstor Joannes Koukouzeles compiled the archetype of a collection called the Akolouthiai or Orders of Service, designed to contain within a single book most of the Ordinary and Proper chants then in use for Hesperinos, Orthros and the three eucharistic liturgies; many of the chants appeared there in notation for the first time. The principal omissions were the heirmoi and stichēra, whose inclusion would have made an already bulky collection altogether unmanageable.

During the 14th and 15th centuries further collections appeared, almost always containing novel florid elaborations of traditional melodic materials. The Byzantine term for such elaborations is ‘kalophonic’ (‘beautiful sounding’, or ‘beautified’; see Byzantine chant, §12, and Kalophonic chant). Thus there arose the kalophonic stichērarion, kalophonic heirmologion and kalophonic kontakarion. Another collection, also from the time of the Byzantine Empire, called the kratēmatarion, was devoted to freely composed florid melismas in the new style.

See also Akolouthiai.

For further discussion of the Byzantine rite see Byzantine chant. For other Orthodox liturgies see Armenia, §II; Coptic church music; Ethiopia, §II, 2; Georgia, §II, 2; Romania, §II; Russian and Slavonic church music; and Syrian church music, §2.

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C. Folsom: ‘Liturgical Books of the Roman Rite’, Handbook of Liturgical Studies, i: Introduction to the Liturgy, ed. A.J. Chupungco (Collegeville, MN, 1997), 245–314

H. Gneuss: ‘Zur Geschichte des Hymnars’, Lateinische Hymnus im Mittelalter: Überlieferung – Ästhetik – Ausstrahlung, ed. A. Haug, MMMA, Subsidia, ii (1997)

F.C. Senn: Christian Liturgy: Catholic and Evangelical (Minneapolis, 1997)

byzantine rite

R.F. Littledale, ed. and trans.: Offices from the Service-Books of the Holy Eastern Church with Translation (London, 1863/R)

A. Papadopoulos-Kerameus: Analekta hierosolymitikus stachyologias (St Petersburg, 1891–8/R), ii, 1–254 [contains the typikon dated 1122 of the Church of the Resurrection at Jerusalem]

L. Clugnet: Dictionnaire grec-français des noms liturgiques (Paris, 1895/R)

A.A. Dmitrievsky: Opisaniye liturgicheskikh rukopisey [An account of liturgical MSS] (Kiev and St Petersburg, 1895–1917)

F. Mercenier and F. Paris: La prière des églises de rite byzantin (Amay-sur-Meuse, 1937–48)

A. Hughes: Liturgical Terms for Music Students (Boston, 1940/R)

A. Raes: Introductio in liturgiam orientalem (Rome, 1947)

P.N. Trempelas: Mikron euchologion (Athens, 1950–55) [historical discussion of the Ordines for Orthros and Hesperinos]

O. Strunk: ‘The Byzantine Office at Hagia Sophia’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, ix–x (1956), 175–202

H.-G. Beck: Kirche und theologische Literatur im byzantinischen Reich (Munich, 1959)

J. Mateos, ed. and trans.: Le typicon de la grande église: MS Sainte-Croix no.40, Xe siècle (Rome, 1962–3)

E.V. Williams: John Koukouzeles’ Reform of Byzantine Chanting for Great Vespers in the Fourteenth Century (diss., Yale U., 1968)

M. Arranz, ed.: Le typicon du monastère du Saint-Sauveur à Messine (Rome, 1969)

Mother Mary and Kallistos Ware, trans.: The Festal Menaion (London, 1969)

E.V. Williams: ‘The Treatment of Text in the Kalophonic Chanting of Psalm 2’, Studies in Eastern Chant, ii, ed. M. Velimirović (London, 1971), 173–93

J.G. Davies, ed.: A Dictionary of Liturgy and Worship (New York, 1972)

M. Velimirović: ‘The Prooemiac Psalm of Byzantine Vespers’, Words and Music: the Scholar’s View: in Honor of A. Tillman Merritt, ed. L. Berman (Cambridge, MA, 1972), 317–37

Liturgy of the Hours

(Lat. Liturgia horarum; It. Liturgia delle ore; Fr. Liturgie des heures, etc.).

The Divine Office according to the 1971 revision, that is, the Office of the reformed Roman Breviary.

1. History.

The Hour services of the Western Church (see Divine Office) underwent radical revision after the Second Vatican Council. The principles of this revision were broadly outlined in the fourth chapter of the Constitution De sacra liturgia (adopted by 2131 placet to 50 non placet, 22 November 1963). A study group commissioned to work on the new breviary under the presidency of A.G. Martimort had an editio typica ready for the press by 1970, and this received the approval of Pope Paul VI on 1 November 1970 in his Apostolic Constitution Laudis canticum. Finally, the Institutio generalis de liturgia horarum (1971) offered a detailed presentation of the revision. It preceded by a few months the publication of the four-volume prototype Liturgia horarum juxta ritum romanum. Vernacular translations followed.

2. Structure and content.

Lauds and Vespers – Morning and Evening Prayer – are set forth as the most important of the Hours. The old night Office (Matins, Vigils) has been redesigned as an Office of Readings, suitable for recitation at any time. Prime has disappeared; Terce, Sext and None remain, but if so desired any one of these may be chosen for recitation during the day as an hora media. Compline is the final Hour, to be said before going to bed.

Psalmody is the staple substance of the Hours, and in order to make its recitation more fruitful the Psalter has been redistributed over a period of four weeks. Additional canticles from the Old and New Testaments have been included. The lectionary has been completely recast: the Office of Readings now has two lessons only (instead of three or nine as formerly), one from the Bible, the other from the Fathers or some other ecclesiastical source. Each reading is followed by a responsory. The number of Office hymns has increased and optional hymns are proposed to give greater variety. The Latin texts have been revised here and there. A rich selection of intercessions is introduced into the Offices of Lauds and Vespers. These two Hours end with the Lord’s Prayer and a collect; the other Hours have the collect only (see Table 1).

3. The calendar.

The calendar has been vigorously rehandled, with a view to emphasizing the Temporal Cycle and to obtaining a more equal distribution of saints’ days. Sundays ‘per annum’ now replace Sundays ‘post Epiphaniam’ and ‘post Pentecostem’. In classifying the Church’s festivals the older distinction between first- and second-class doubles, major doubles, semi-doubles, simples etc., has been superseded by a simpler triple gradation: solemnities, feasts and memorials. The ordinary weekday (ferial) Office occurs with greater frequency than before.

4. Music.

There is a section of the Institutio generalis (§§267–84) dealing with music in the revised Office. Paragraph 274 repeats that Gregorian chant should be given pride of place when Latin is used, but it adds: ‘No kind of sacred music is prohibited from liturgical actions by the Church as long as it corresponds to the spirit of the liturgical celebration itself and the nature of its individual parts, and does not hinder the active participation of the people’. The provision of suitable music for vernacular celebrations is recommended and singing in more than one language is not excluded (§276).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A.G. Martimort: L’église en prière (Paris, 1961, 4/1983; Eng. trans., 1986–8)

De sacra liturgia (Rome, 1964; Eng. trans., 1967)

P. Salmon: L’office divin au Moyen Age (Paris, 1967)

Hymni instaurandi breviarii romani (Rome, 1968)

Institutio generalis de liturgia horarum (Rome, 1971; Eng. trans. with commentary by A.-M. Roguet)

La liturgie des heures, La Maison-Dieu, cv (Paris, 1971)

Liturgia horarum iuxta ritum romanum (Rome, 1972)

Ordo missae celebrandae et divini officii persolvendi secundum calendarium romanum generale (Rome, 1974)

R. Taft: The Liturgy of the Hours in East and West: the Origins of the Divine Office and its Meaning for Today (Collegeville, MN, 1986)

P.J. Elliott: Ceremonies of the Modern Roman Rite: the Eucharist and the Liturgy of the Hours (San Francisco, 1995)

MARY BERRY

Lituus.

A Roman brass instrument consisting of a long tube turning in upon itself at the end and thus producing the shape of the letter ‘J’ (it is classified as an Aerophone). Pictorial representations indicate that it had a large detachable mouthpiece. Sachs's contention that it derived from the Celtic Carnyx, a similarly shaped instrument, is not widely accepted: it was known to the Etruscans long before the Romans had any significant contact with the Celts. Indeed the instrument is now looked upon as being distinctly Etruscan–Roman since it is unusual among ancient instruments, with no counterpart among the Greeks, Egyptians or Mesopotamian peoples (most ancient instruments follow a general progress from east to west in the Mediterranean basin).

The earliest extant picture of a lituus occurs in a mural from the Tomba della Scimmia in Chiusi (dating from the early 5th century bce). A number of instruments survive, including one found in 1827 in a grave at Caere (now in the Museo Gregoriano Etrusco at the Vatican); this example is approximately 1·5 metres long and sounds six pitches of the overtone series based on G.

Etruscan and early Roman representations of the lituus show it in processions, especially funeral processions, the pompae funebres (for illustration see Tibia). Players in these processions were described as siticines, a generic term embracing the players of various instruments: liticines (lituus players), tubicines (trumpet players) and cornicines (horn players). In Roman literature the lituus, like most brass instruments, had mainly military associations. The abundant artistic representations of Roman military scenes, however, show the lituus only rarely. Behn suggested in explanation of this apparent contradiction that the lituus was used at cohort rather than at legionary level. Presumably, therefore, it would not have appeared in column reliefs and other monumental sources where only higher military orders were more likely to have been celebrated. Another possibility, raised by Wille, is that the term lituus may often have been used loosely as a substitute for tuba. The evidence supporting this includes the remark in Noctes atticae (Aulus Gellius, c130–180 ce) that ‘Virgil uses this word in place of tuba’ (v.8.11). More recently, Meucci has argued that about the turn of the 1st century the lituus was replaced in military usage by the Buccina, a smaller instrument derived from the horn of an animal that was more practical for the cavalry; poets, however, continued to use lituus to describe the more prosaic buccina.

In post-classical times the term lituus has been applied to other wind instruments, notably 18th-century brass. An inventory of 1706 formerly in Ossegg monastery (now Osek), Bohemia, mentions ‘Litui vulgo Waldhorner duo ex Tono G’; Bach's Cantata no.118 calls for two litui in B that play in the range of the tenor trumpet.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Sachs: ‘Lituus und Karnyx’, Festschrift … Rochus Freiherrn von Liliencron (Leipzig, 1910/R), 241–6

C. Sachs: Real-Lexikon der Musikinstrumente (Berlin, 1913/R, enlarged 2/1964)

F. Behn: Musikleben im Altertum und frühen Mittelalter (Stuttgart, 1954)

G. Fleischhauer: Etrurien und Rom, Musikgeschichte in Bildern, ii/5 (Leipzig, 1964, 2/1978)

G. Wille: Musica romana (Amsterdam, 1967)

R. Meucci: ‘Roman Military Instruments and the Lituus’, GSJ, xlii (1989), 85–99

JAMES W. McKINNON

Litvinne, Félia (Vasil'yevna) [Schütz, Françoise Jeanne]

(b St Petersburg, ? 11 Oct 1860; d Paris, 12 Oct 1936). Russian soprano of German and Canadian descent. She studied with Pauline Viardot and Victor Maurel in Paris, making her début with the Théâtre Italien troupe as Amelia (Simon Boccanegra) in 1883. She then sang throughout Europe, in New York, at La Monnaie as Brünnhilde in the first Die Walküre in French (1887), the Opéra, La Scala, and in Rome and Venice. From 1890 she appeared in the imperial theatres in Moscow and St Petersburg. Litvinne made her Metropolitan début in 1896 as Valentine (Les Huguenots) and sang, among other roles, Aida, Donna Anna, Brünnhilde (Siegfried) and Sélika (L’Africaine). In 1899 she appeared at Covent Garden, as Isolde, returning periodically until 1910; in her last season she sang Brünnhilde in Götterdämmerung. She sang in several Russian Ring cycles, 1899–1914, and, with Charles Dalmorès, in the French premières of Götterdämmerung and Tristan under Cortot in 1902. An excellent musician and linguist, she had a large, flexible voice and great stage presence. Her recordings (1902–8, several with Cortot as her pianist) vividly convey her vibrant, impassioned singing.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GV (R. Celletti; R. Vegeto)

F. Litvinne: Ma vie et mon art (Paris, 1933; Russ. trans., abridged, 1967)

H.M. Barnes and V. Girard: ‘Félia Litvinne’, Record Collector, viii (1953), 124–32, 143, 235; xx (1971–2), 147–56 [discography by L.C. Witten], 283

S. Yu. Levik: Zapiski opernogo pevtsa [Notes of an opera singer] (Moscow, 1955, 2/1962; Eng. trans., 1995, as The Levik Memoirs)

M. Scott: The Record of Singing, i (London, 1977), 91–2

HAROLD BARNES/ALAN BLYTH

Liu Baoquan

(b Beijing, 18 Nov 1869; d Beijing, 8 Oct 1942). Chinese narrative singer. He was the creator of jingyun dagu (‘Beijing drumsong’) and its Liu style. The son of an itinerant narrative singer from Hejian county south of Beijing, Liu by the age of seven was playing sanxian lute accompaniment for his father. He later accompanied and studied with leading drumsingers such as Song Wu, Hu Shi and Huo Mingliang. By the age of 30 he was established in Beijing, turning countryside drumsong into a sophisticated urban art. He now sang in Beijing speech, and created new and expanded melodies to depict the particular characters and mood of each tale. His sanxian accompanists, and a drumsong aficionado who wrote and revised texts, were vital collaborators, and his lifelong association with Beijing opera and its singers a constant inspiration.

His repertory of 22 pieces, mostly tales of strategy and war, loyalty and valour, drew audiences back time and again; favourites included Da Xixiang (‘West Chamber Romance’), Nao Jiangzhou (‘Ruckus at Jiangzhou’), Dandao hui (‘Lone Blade Meeting’) and Ma’an shan (‘Saddle Mountain’). Liu performed with a martial energy, his drumming subtle, his enunciation crisp and explosive, while his brilliant voice leapt seamlessly over his range of nearly three octaves, strong in all registers. Dominating his contemporaries, he sang into his 70s; his recordings span 30 years.

See also China, §IV, 1(ii).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

Mei Lanfang: ‘Tan guwang Liu Baoquan de yishu chuangzao’ [On the artistic creation of drumsong king Liu Baoquan], Quyi, 1962, no.2, pp.2–19

C. Stevens: Peking Drumsinging (diss., Harvard U., 1973)

Zhang Cuifeng, trans. R.C. Pian: ‘“My Life as a Drumsinger”: the Autobiography of Jang Tsueyfaeng (as Told to Liou Fang)’, Chinoperl Papers, xiii (1984–5), 6–106

Zhongguo quyi yinyue jicheng, Tianjin juan [Anthology of Chinese narrative-singing music, Tianjin vol.] (Beijing, 1993), 25–127, 591

Zhongguo quyi yinyue jicheng, Beijing juan [Anthology of Chinese narrative-singing music, Beijing vols.] (Beijing, 1996), 829–916, 1146

recordings

Jingyun dagu: Gujie dawang Liu Baoquan zhuanji [Jingyun dagu: album of the king of the drum-singing world Liu Baoquan] (Qutan huicui, nos.7 and 11), Tianjin shi wenhua yishu yinxiang chubanshe CN-C10-96-0035-0/A.J8 (1997)

KATE STEVENS

Liu Dehai

(b Shanghai, 13 Aug 1937). Chinese Pipa plucked lute player. Considered by many to be the leading pipa musician of his generation, Liu Dehai began pipa lessons in 1950, also studying several other Chinese traditional instruments. In 1954 he became a pupil of pipa master Lin Shicheng, graduating from the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing in 1961. Liu utilized this period not only to improve his skills on pipa but also to learn piano, the seven-string zither qin and traditional Chinese percussion. Other than lessons with Lin Shicheng, Liu Dehai took consultation lessons with musicians representing several distinct schools of performance. Liu's resulting repertory and style is thus one which combines aspects from several different musical sources, both Chinese and foreign.

In 1970 Liu received the post of pipa soloist with the Central Philharmonic (Zhongyang yuetuan), and in 1983 he was appointed to the China Conservatory of Music, both located in Beijing. Liu has composed a small number of pieces for his instrument, but his best-known work is a collaborative pipa concerto entitled Caoyuan shang xiao jiemei (‘Sisters of the Grassland’), co-written with Wu Zuqiang and Wang Yanqiao (1973).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

Wu Chou-Kuang: ‘The “Erh-hu” and “Pi-pa”’, Chinese Literature (1975), no.1, pp.100–05

Pipa qu xuan 1949–1979 [Selection of pipa pieces 1949–1979], ed. Zhongguo yinyuejia xiehui (Beijing, 1982), 50–51, 68–75

Zhongguo yinyue cidian, xubian [Dictionary of Chinese music, supplementary vol.], YYS pubn (Beijing, 1992), 116

JONATHAN P.J. STOCK

Liu Guanyue

(b An'guo county, Hebei, 1918). Chinese wind player. Born to a poor peasant family, he earned a meagre living in his youth as a folk ‘blower-and-drummer’, playing guanzi double-reed pipe, suona shawm and dizi flute in rural ceremonies. Summoned to Tianjin in 1950, from 1952 he was employed as soloist in the state-supported Tianjin Song-and-Dance Troupe (Tianjin gewutuan).

His compositions, mostly arrangements of folk melodies, such as Yinzhong niao (‘Birds in the Shade’), became staples of the new conservatory professional concert repertory. Along with Feng Zicun he became known as an outstanding exponent of the lively, angular ‘northern’ style of dizi, although pieces such as Heping ge (‘Doves of Peace’) and Guxiang (‘Old Home’) are said to combine aspects of northern and southern styles. In accordance with the ethos of the new society, he also experimented with ‘improved’ versions of the construction of the traditional dizi.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

Liu Guanyue dizi quxuan, ed. Renmin yinyue chubanshe [Selected dizi pieces of Liu Guanyue] (Beijing, 1986)

Yuan Jingfang: Minzu qiyue xinshang shouce [Handbook for the appreciation of Chinese instrumental music] (Beijing, 1986), 119–20

F.C. Lau: Music and Musicians of the Traditional dizi in the People's Republic of China (diss., U. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1991)

Special Collection of Contemporary Chinese Musicians, Wind Records TCD 1018 (1996)

STEPHEN JONES

Liutaio

(It.).

See Luthier.

Liu Tianhua

(b 4 Feb 1895, Jiangyin, Jiangsu province; d 8 June 1932). Chinese composer and music reformer. Liu Tianhua's practical musical education began at middle school in 1909, when he joined his school band as cornet player. By 1914 Liu was employed as a school music teacher in the cities of Jiangyin and Changzhou. At this time, and despite his initial training in Western music, Liu became increasingly interested in Chinese traditional music. Liu studied the two-string fiddle erhu and four-string lute pipa particularly seriously, but also learnt Kunqu opera singing, the seven-string zither qin and other folk instruments. Liu also devoted much time to the collection of folk music, contracting a fatal bout of scarlet fever while investigating folk percussion music in the Tianqiao district in Beijing.

In 1922 Liu took a teaching post at Beijing University, where he became active as a music reformer. Liu, his associates and pupils strove to develop a new genre of ‘national music’ (guoyue), drawing on Chinese regional folk traditions, which they attempted to synthesize into a single, national style. Liu saw guoyue as open to modernization and development in ways in which he felt the regional traditions were not. He was also anxious to adopt aspects of Western music theory, and to use Western models of music education and dissemination in the transmission of his new genre. In 1927 he was founding editor of the journal Yinyue zazhi (Music magazine).

Liu's principal musical monument lies in his book of studies for erhu and pipa first published after his death in 1933. The ten unaccompanied erhu solos in this collection, commonly played today, include Bingzhong yin (‘Groaning During Sickness’), Yueye (‘Moonlit Night’), Chuye xiaochang (‘Festival Night Canzonetta’), Xianju yin (‘Reciting During Leisure’), Kongshoung niaoyu (‘Birds Singing on the Deserted Mountain’) and Guangming xing (‘March of Brightness’). They combine traditional characteristics (small-scale sectional form, conventional fingering patterns, descriptive titles) with aspects of Western music (such as compound time, tonal procedures and violin techniques).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Liu Fu, ed.: The Musical Compositions of the Late Liu T'ien-hwa (Beijing, 1933)

T.M. Liu: The Development of the Chinese Two-stringed Lute Erhu Following the New Culture Movement (c 1915–85) (diss., Kent State U., 1985)

Liu Tianhua chuangzuo qu ji [Collection of Liu Tianhua's compositions], ed. YYS (Beijing, 1985)

J.P.J. Stock: ‘An Ethnomusicological Perspective on Musical Style, with Reference to Music for Chinese Two-stringed Fiddles’, JRMA, cxviii (1993), 276–99

JONATHAN P.J. STOCK

Liuto (i)

(It.).

‘Lute’ (see Lute, §II).

Liuto (ii)

(It.).

See Buff stop.

Liuto attiorbato.

(It.)

A term that suggests a lute rebuilt into a theorbo-like instrument, but it was stated by Alessandro Piccinini (1623) to be merely a synonym for arciliuto (see Archlute); in any event the top two courses of a theorbo are tuned an octave lower than those (of a liuto attiorbato). The English term ‘theorbo lute’ referred, in many instances, to the theorbo and not to the liuto attiorbato. Thomas Mace (Musick’s Monument, 1676) used the terms ‘theorbo’ and ‘theorbo lute’ ir terchangeably, and called the two-headed lute merely a ‘French lute with two heads’ (not ‘theorbo lute’).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Spencer: ‘Chitarrone, Theorbo and Archlute’, Early Music, iv (1976) 407

ROBERT SPENCER

Liuzzi, Ferdinando [Fernando]

(b Senigallia, 19 Dec 1884; d Florence, 6 Oct 1940). Italian musicologist and composer. At Bologna he studied the piano and composition with Guido Alberto Fano and took an arts degree at the university (1905); at Rome he studied with Stanislao Falchi at the Liceo Musicale; at Munich he studied composition with Reger and Mottl and philosophy with Theodor Lipps. He was appointed professor of theory at the Parma Conservatory (1910–17) and also taught composition at the Naples Conservatory (1912–14); from 1917 he was professor of theory at the Florence Conservatory until 1923, when he became professor of musical aesthetics at the University of Florence; in 1927 he was appointed to the same post at the University of Rome and between 1928 and 1932 he introduced the subject to the syllabus at the Accademia di S Cecilia. He also taught at the Università per Stranieri, Perugia. In 1939 racial laws forced him to flee to Belgium, where he was visiting professor at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes de Belgique, Brussels. He was then invited to the International Musicological Congress, New York; a heart attack in January 1940, which later proved fatal, forced him to return to Italy.

Liuzzi's first compositions are all in a Romantic style, the best reflecting French impressionism (Violin Sonata, the rhapsody for orchestra Gaiola e Marechiaro). He also wrote a puppet opera (L'augellin bel verde, 1917) and other theatre music, a Passion (1930, staged at Milan in 1935), the symphonic poem Hyla and other vocal and chamber music. His scholarly activities gradually led him away from composing to the revivals of medieval music (he arranged the music of the play Sponsus, Rome, 1936) with special interest in laude and in liturgical drama. His publications on the lauda, early Christian hymnody, the interaction of Italian and Flemish music, and Palestrina are fundamental to our knowledge of early Italian music. His arrangements include Vecchi's Amfiparnaso (Florence, 1938), a stage version of Bach's Coffee Cantata (perf. Venice, 1932) and an unpublished realization of Cavalli's L'Ercole amante.

WRITINGS

‘Un nuovo frammento di musica greco-cristiana’, Cultura musicale, ii (1923), 17–20

Estetica della musica (Florence, 1924)

‘Classicità del Palestrina e romanticismo fiammingo’, Nuova antologia, ccxlviii (1926), 166–79; repr. in R. Accademia di Santa Cecilia: annuario 19 (1929), 411–35

‘Il canto greco di Ossirinco e la primitiva innodia cristiana’, RaM, i (1928), 337–51

‘Bach, Johann Sebastian’, ‘Beethoven, Ludwig van’, ‘Brahms, Johannes’, ‘Dramma liturgico’, ‘Händel, Georg Friedrich’, ‘Lauda’, ‘Mendelssohn (Mendelssohn-Bartholdy), Jakob Ludwig Felix’; sections of ‘Passione’, ‘Sacra rappresentazione’, ‘Trovatori e troveri’, Enciclopedia italiana di scienze, lettere ed arti, i–xxxvi (Rome and Milan, 1929–39)

‘L'espressione musicale nel dramma liturgico’, Studi medievali, new ser., ii (1929), 74–109

‘Drammi musicali dei secoli XI–XIV, i: ‘Le vergini savie e le vergini folli’, Studi medievali, new ser., iii (1930), 82–109

‘Melodie italiane inedite del Duecento’, Archivum romanicum, xiv (1930), 527–60

‘Ballata e lauda alle origini della lirica musicale italiana’, R. Accademia di Santa Cecilia: annuario 1930–31 (1931), 527–46

‘Profilo musicale di Jacopone’, Nuova antologia, cclxxix (1931), 171–92

‘Notazione musicale del secolo XI in un manoscritto dell'Eneide’, Studi medievali, new ser., v (1932), 67–80

‘Musica e poesia del Trecento nel codice Vaticano-Rossiano 215’, Atti della Pontificia accademia romana di archeologia, 3rd ser., Memorie, xiii (1937), 59–71

‘Il dramma delle vergini savie e delle vergini folli e l'uffizio liturgico orientale di S. Agata’, Congresso nazionale di studi romani IV: Rome 1935, ed. L. Torretta (Rome, 1938), i, 587–91

‘Le relazioni musicali tra Fiandra e Italia nel secolo XV’, Bulletin de l’Institut historique belge de Rome, xix (1938), 189–203

‘Notes sur les barzelette et les canzoni a ballo du Quattrocento italien, d'après des documents inédits’, PAMS 1939, 193–9

I musicisti in Francia, i: I musicisti italiani in Francia dalle orgini al secolo XVII (Rome, 1946)

EDITIONS

La lauda e i primordi della melodia italiana (Rome, 1935)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E.T. Ferand: ‘In memoriam: Fernando Liuzzi’, MQ, xxviii (1942), 494–504 [incl. list of writings]

CAROLYN GIANTURCO

Livadić [Wiesner], Ferdo

(b Celje, 30 May 1799; d Samobor, 8 Jan 1879). Croatian composer. He became interested in music at an early age and began to study with the organist Josip Herović in Samobor. After attending the Gymnasium in Zagreb, he continued his schooling at the Graz Lyzeum (1816–17) and then studied law at Graz university. During that time he also studied composition and joined the Steiermärkischer Musikverein (1816–22), where he probably played the violin in the orchestra. The assumption that he studied with Anselm Hüttenbrenner has not been confirmed. After graduation he settled at his family estate in Samobor and spent the rest of his life there, composing in his spare time. During the Croatian national movement (1835–48) he was a prominent supporter of its leader, Ljudevit Gaj. He composed many revolutionary marches and patriotic songs, including Još Hrvatska nij' propala (‘Croatia Hasn’t Fallen Yet’), on a text by Gaj, which became an unofficial anthem of the movement. From that time he used the Croatian form of his family name, rather than the German (Wiesner).

Livadić composed mainly short instrumental and vocal-instrumental works. His early songs, in the style of lieder, show an extraordinary lyrical talent and sensibility. However, in support of the national movement he attempted to free his style from foreign influences by adopting the Croatian folk idiom; this simplification arrested his artistic development. His output of about 100 songs in Croatian, 47 in German and seven in Slovene ranges from revolutionary songs, couplets and drinking-songs to Singspiel-style songs, romances and ballads. They are all strophic and usually very simple, but with a clear and rounded melodic line. The spirit of the early Romantic movement is displayed in Livadić’s piano works, especially in the nocturne in F minor of 1822 (on the model of John Field and thus among the earliest works in the genre); the scherzos Der Scherz and Der Eigensinn; and the programmatic piece Poziv Zrinskoga subojnike u boj (‘Zrinski’s Battle Call to his Soldiers’), depicting the battle against the Ottomans at Szigetvár in 1566.

WORKS

(selective list)

MSS in HR-Zu, Zh, Zda and SMm

vocal

Sacred: Mass, C major, S, A, B, orch, org; 2 missae croaticae pastorales, 1v, org; hymns

c150 songs, incl.:

(Croatian text): Udaljenoj ljubi [To my Distant Love] (I. Kukuljević Sakcinski), before 1845; Crne oči [Dark Eyes] (L. Vukotinović); Crnogorski sin [Montenegrin Son] (I. Budimir); Kad [When] (P. Preradović); Kamena dieva [The Stone Girl] (A. Mihanović); Mio ti je kraj [The Lovely Countryside] (Mihanović); Moja ladja [My Boat] (Preradović); Okičke vrane [The Crows at Okić] (Vukotinović), ballad; Prelja [The Spinner] (Kukuljević Sakcinski); Stanak za crnooku [Home for the Dark-Eyed Girl] (Vukotinović); Ti si moja [You are mine] (S. Vraz)

(Ger. text): Das Mädchen von Neidpath (W. Scott), c1820; Alpenlied (J.P. de Sermage), 1821; Nähe des Geliebten (J.W. von Goethe), in Musikalische Blumenlese (Graz, 1824); Der Schnee, 1833; Der Entfernten, pubd as suppl. to Iris (Graz, 1857); Der erste Mai 857, 1857; Wiegenlied (C.A. Tiedge), pubd as suppl. to Iris (Graz, 1857); Alpenglöckchen; An das Klavier; Das Traumbild (L.C.H. Hölty); Der Bettelknabe; Der liebe Vaterland (F.W. Weber); Der Sänger; Der Südsturm; Der Wunsch (?Livadić); Die Nonne (L.G. Neumann); Entsagen (H. von Schulheim); In dieser Stunde (R. Prutz); 3 Lieder: Die Klage (Hölty), Lauras Lied (Tiedge), Hoffen bringt wohl schwere Plagen; 2 Romanzen: Die Rose, Das Mädchen; Vergessen (Schulheim); Vorüber; some in Popijevke na njemačke stihove/Art Songs on German Texts, ed. M. Hornbaker (Zagreb, 1993)

Kbd (for pf unless otherwise stated): Ländler, 1818–23; Galop, A, 1820; Notturno, 1820–22, ed. J. Muraj (Zagreb, 1975); Les charmes des Marienheim, 3 scherzos en forme de valse, ?1820; Ouverture, c1820; Polonaise mélancholique d’amour, c1820; Galop di Marienheim, 1821; Scherze über Romeos und Juliens Leiden, waltz, 1821–2; Einmal und nie wieder, Tonskizze, op.18, before 1823; Slawisches Rondo, d, c1832; Kolo Ilirique (Graz, c1835); Poziv Zrinskoga subojnike u boj [Zrinski’s Battle Call to his Soldiers], 1866; [2] Charakteristiche Tonbilder: Der Scherz, Der Eigensinn, pubd as Dva scherza, ed. S. Stančić (Zagreb, 1932); Erinnerung, Tonskizze; Kroatische Heimatsklänge; marches; dances; preludes, org

Incid music: Juran i Sofija (I. Kukuljević Sakcinski), 1840; Frankopan (M. Bogović)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F.K. Kuhač: Ilirski glazbenici: prilozi za poviest hrvatskog preporoda [The Illyrian Musicians: Contributions to the history of the Croatian national revival] (Zagreb, 1893/R), 4–67 [incl. complete list of works]

L. Šaban: ‘Ferdo Livadić u javnosti i privatno’ [Livadić in public and private], Muzika i škola, xii/4 (1967), 131–6

J. Andreis: ‘Pozabljeni nokturno Ferda Livadića’ [A forgotten nocturne by Livadić], MZ, iv (1968), 70–77

K. Kos: ‘Die grazer Jahre des Ferdo Wiesner-Livadić (1816–1822)’, Grazer musikwissenschaftliche Arbeiten, v (1983), 73–91

K. Kos: ‘Vokalna lirika Vatroslava Lisinskoga i Ferde Livadića u evropskom kontekstu’ [The songs of Lisinski and Livadić in a European context], MZ, xxv (1989), 55–66

N. Bezić: ‘Popis skladbi Ferde Livadića’ [A list of compositions by Livadić], Dani Ferde Livadića 1992 (Zagreb, 1992), 26–34

K. Kos: ‘Slutnja hrvatske romanticke popijevke u opusu Ferda Wiesnera Livadića’ [The presentiment of the Croatian romantic lied in the work of Livadić], Arti musices, xxvi (1995), 19–31

ZDRAVKO BLAŽEKOVIĆ

Livanova, Tamara Nikolayevna

(b Kishinyov, 5/18 April 1909; d Moscow, 4 April 1986). Russian musicologist. She studied at the Rubinstein College of Music (1925–6), the Gnesin State Institute for Musical Education (vocal studies 1926–8; theory 1929–30) and with Ivanov-Boretsky, Mazel' and Gnesin at the Moscow Conservatory (1930–31). She completed her postgraduate studies under Ivanov-Boretsky (1935), and was awarded the doctorate in 1940 for her book Ocherki i materialï po istorii russkoy muzïkal'noy kul'turï. She taught at the Conservatory (1934–46, 1948–56), where she became professor in 1939, and at the Gnesin Institute (1944–8). She was director of studies at the Tallinn Conservatory (1948–9), and worked with Asaf'yev and Protopopov on the commission ‘Glinka i yego sovremenniki’ (‘Glinka and his contemporaries’) at the Moscow Conservatory. She assisted in setting up the music section of the Institute for the History of the Arts, where she was a senior researcher (1944–86) working with Boris Vipper. She was a member of the State Prizes Committee (1948–54), director of the musicology and criticism commission of the Union of Composers (1950–52) and president of the USSR VAK Commission of Experts for the defence of dissertations (1952–6).

Livanova's research centred on the history of Russian and European music, especially that of the 17th and 18th centuries. She made a significant contribution to Bach studies. Other achievements include the development of a musical-aesthetic theory of simultaneous contrast, evolved in connection with her studies of the music of Bach. Also important are her writings on the problems of the theory and history of musical styles and musical historiography.

WRITINGS

Muzïkal'naya klassika XVIII veka [Musical classics of the 18th century] (Moscow, 1939)

Istoriya zapadnoyevropeyskoy muzïki do 1789 goda [The history of west European music up to 1789] (Moscow, 1940; enlarged 2/1982–7)

Ocherki i materialï po istorii russkoy muzïkal'noy kul'turï [Essays and materials on the history of Russian musical culture] (diss., Institute for the History of the Arts, 1940; Moscow, 1938)

Muzïkal'naya dramaturgiya I.S. Bakha i yeyo istoricheskiye svyazi [Bach's dramatic musical works and their links with history] (Moscow and Leningrad, 1948)

Kriticheskaya deyatel'nost' russkikh kompozitorov-klassikov [The critical work of Russian classical composers] (Moscow and Leningrad, 1950; Ger. trans., 1953)

Pedagogicheskaya deyatel'nost' russkikh kompozitorov-klassikov [The teaching work of Russian classical composers] (Moscow and Leningrad, 1951)

Russkaya muzïkal'naya kul'tura XVIII veka i yeyo svyazyakh s literaturoy, teatrom i bïtom [Russian musical culture of the 18th century and its links with literature, the theatre and everyday life] (Moscow, 1952–3)

N.Ya. Myaskovskiy: tvorcheskiy put' [Creative development] (Moscow, 1953)

with V. Protopopov: Glinka: tvorcheskiy put' (Moscow, 1955)

Motsart i russkaya muzïkal'naya kul'tura [Mozart and Russian musical culture] (Moscow, 1956)

Stasov i russkaya klassicheskaya opera (Moscow, 1957) ‘Russkaya muzïka v period obrazovaniya russkoy natsii’ [Russian music at the time of the formation of the Russian nation], Voprosï formirovaniya russkoy narodnosti i natsii, ed. N.M. Druzhinin and L.V. Cherepnin (Moscow and Leningrad, 1958), 347–87

‘Ranniye otklikina iskusstvo Gaydna v Rossi’ [Early responses to Haydn's works in Russia], Konferenz zum Andenken Joseph Haydns: Budapest 1959, 85–92 [with Ger. summary]

with O. Vinogradova: Muzïkal'naya bibliografiya russkoy periodicheskoy pechati XIX veka [A musical bibliography of Russian periodical literature of the 19th century] (Moscow, 1960–79)

ed., with M.Ya. Libman and V.N. Prokof'yev: Ot ėpokhi Vozrozhdeniya k dvadtsatomu veku [From the Renaissance to the 20th century] (Moscow, 1963) [incl. ‘Na puti ot Vozrozhdeniya k Prosveshcheniyu XVIII veka (nekotorïye problemï muzïkal'nogo stilya)’ [On the way from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment of the 18th century (some problems in musical style)], 134–48

ed., with B.R. Vipper: Sovremennoye iskusstvoznaniye za rubezhom [Contemporary artistic knowledge abroad] (Moscow, 1964) [incl. ‘Noveyshiye kontseptsii “istorii muzïki” i sovremennïy Zapad’ [Modern conceptions of the ‘history of music’ and the contemporary West], 230

ed., with B.R. Vipper: Istoriya yevropeyskogo iskusstvoznaniya [A history of European artistic knowledge] (Moscow, 1965–9)

ed., with B.R. Vipper: Renessans, Barokko, Klassitsizm: problema stiley v zapadnoyevropeyskom iskusstve XV–XVII vekov [Renaissance, Baroque and Classicism: the problem of style in west European art from the 15th to the 17th centuries] (Moscow, 1966) [incl. ‘Niderlandskaya muzïkal'naya shkola i problema Vozrozhdeniya’ [The Netherlands school and the problem of the Renaissance], 161–77; ‘Iskusstvo XVII veka i problema stilya barokko’ [17th-century art and the problem of the Baroque style], 264–89

Opernaya kritika v Rossii [Opera criticism in Russia] (Moscow, 1966–73) [vol.i/1 with V.V. Protopopov]

‘Semnadtsatïy vek i puti razvitiya muzïki Zapada’ [The 17th century and the development of Western music], XVII vek v mirovom literaturnom razvitii, ed. Yu.B. Vipper and others (Moscow, 1969), 368

ed.: Mikhail Ivanov-Boretskiy: stat'i i issledovaniya, vospominaniya o nyom [Articles, research and reminiscences of the man] (Moscow, 1972)

Zapadnoyevropeyskaya muzïka XVII–XVIII vekov v ryadu iskusstv [Western music of the 17th and 18th centuries within the arts scene] (Moscow, 1977)

Muzïkal'naya dramaturgiya I.S. Bakha i yeyo istoricheskiye svyazi, ii: Vokal'nïye formï i problema bol'shoy kompozitsii [Musical drama in J.S. Bach and its historical links, ii: Vocal forms and the problem of large-scale composition] (Moscow, 1980)

ed. Yu.K. Yevdokimova: Iz istorii muzïki i muzïkoznaniya za rubezhom [From the history of music and musical knowledge abroad] (Moscow, 1980) [collection of previously pubd essays]

ed., with V.V. Protopopov: Russkaya kniga o Bakhe [A Russian book on Bach] (Moscow, 1985, 2/1986) [incl. I.S. Bakh i russkaya muzïkal'naya kul'tura [Bach and Russian musical culture], 6–99; ‘Bakh i Gendel': problemï stilya’ [Bach and Handel: problems in style], 184–204

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Yu.K. Yevdokimova, ed.: T.N. Livanova: Iz istorii muzïki i muzïkoznaniya za rubezhom (Moscow, 1980) [incl. Yu. Yevdokimova: ‘Tamara Nikolayevna Livanova’, 4–16; Yu. Yevdokimova and Yu. Kholopov: ‘Problemï istorii i teorii muzïki v trudakh T.N. Livanovoy’ [Problems in the history and theory of music in Livanova's works], 17–40

Ye.V. Nazaysky: ‘Printsip yedinovremennogo kontrasta’ [The principle of simultaneous contrast], Russkaya kniga o Bakhe, ed. T.N. Livanova and V.V. Protopopov (Moscow, 1985, 2/1986), 265–94

D.A. Arutyunov and V.V. Protopopov, eds.: T.N. Livanova: stat'i, vospominaniya [Articles and recollections] (Moscow, 1989)

TAT'YANA DUBRAVSKAYA

Liveralis, Iossif [Liberal(l)i, Giuseppe]

(b Corfu, 1820; d Zakynthos, 17 Sept 1899). Greek composer and pianist. His first teachers were his brother Antonios (1814–42), a composer and the first director of the Corfu Philharmonic Society, and Nikolaos Mantzaros. In 1840, after studying at the conservatories of Naples and Milan, he returned to Corfu, where he became assistant conductor at the newly founded Philharmonic Society. He also taught piano and theory (after 1849) and was appointed a conductor on his brother's death. In 1852 he settled in Zakynthos as a distinguished piano teacher, but he also spent some time in Patras (1870–76 or later).

With Frangiskos Domeneginis (1809–74), whose works are no longer extant, Liveralis ranks among the earliest Greek Ionian composers to write operas inspired by the 1821 Greek War of Independence. His piano piece Le réveil du Klepht (1847) is the earliest extant Ionian composition inspired by the folklore of continental Greece. This work, and the recurring presence of folk elements in other compositions by 19th-century Ionian composers (including Xyndas, Carrer and early Samaras), challenge Kalomiris's self-interested rejection of 19th-century Greek music as ‘italianate’ and his monopolizing of the national school. Although Liveralis composed some stage music, and was reportedly admired by Mantzaros and Rossini, his surviving output is mainly of piano music, marking him as one of the earlier Greek composer-pianists alongside Demetrios Agathidis (fl 1852–82). Liveralis's pieces combine melodic elegance with a sober harmonic taste. They contain transparent piano writing, with delightful virtuoso passages and ornamentation, betraying a thorough assimilation of the instrument's expressive potential.

WORKS

vocal

music lost unless otherwise stated

Il ritorno di Canaris in Psara (cant.), S/Mez, T, mixed chorus, Corfu, S Giacomo, ? ant. 1840, music lost, lib at Corfu Reading Society

Reegas Ferraeos (op, Y. Markoras), Corfu, S Giacomo, excerpts perf. before 1850

Arbace a Pompei (op), 1850, excerpts perf. Zakynthos, ?1852 or later

I epistrofi tou Kanari [Kanaris's Return] (?op), Corfu, S Giacomo, Act 1 only, ? before 1852; 42-bar frag. in Solomos and Eminent Zakynthians Museum, Zakynthos, different text from ?1840 cant.

Markos Botzaris (op), Corfu, S Giacomo, Act 1 only, ? before 1852

O apohaeretismos tis Kerkyras [Farewell to Corfu], 1v, ?pf, ?orch, ?1852; Alis ke Tzavellas [Ali (Pasha) and Tzavellas], 2vv, ?pf, ?orch; Era Lisa, S, orch, GR-An, attrib. A. Liveralis; I Dido engataleiftheisa [Dido Abandoned], 1v, ?pf, ?orch; To parapono tis apothamenis [The Complaint of the Dead Woman] (Y. Markoras), 1v, ?pf, ?orch, ?1898/9

Choral works

instrumental

for piano unless otherwise stated

Marcia per la banda della Società Filarmonica di Corfù, 1 April 1843, GR-An, attrib. A. Liveralis; Gran fantasia di concerto … sopra alcuni motivi nell'opera ‘I Lombardi’, op.1, ? before 1847, I-Mc; Le réveil du Klepht: souvenirs des chants populaires de la Grèce, theme and variations (Milan, 1847), theme arr. wind band, as Vrahydromia, 31 Aug 1849, GR-An; L'espagnole, redowa mazurka (Milan, 1849); Rosina, redowa (Milan, 1851); La fanciulla ateniese, polka (Milan, c1865); Il carnavale di Napoli, fl, pf, pubd in Ricordi's Album pour flûte avec accompagnement de piano (Milan, 1899); Pensiero romantico (Milan, n.d.); Passo doppio, E, wind band, attrib. A. Liveralis, An; Berenice, redowa, B, MS in S. Tzerbinos's private collection, Zakynthos; 7 pieces in Album de danses, xxiii (Brussels, 1889 or later); 9 works listed in Ricordi catalogue (Milan, c1905); sinfonias, mentioned by Motsenigos; march, ded. headmaster Papaloukas, Nov 1876, mentioned in Elpis, no.65 (2 Dec 1876)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Elpis, no.65 (2 Dec 1876); no.775 (24 Feb 1891); no.1248 (19 Sept 1899) [obituary]

S.S. Papageorgios: Ta kata tin Philharmonikin Etaerian apo tis systaseos tis mehri tis simeron, 1840–1890 [The activities of the [Corfu] Philharmonic Society from its foundation to the present day] (Athens, 1890)

S.G. Motsenigos: Neoelliniki moussiki: symvoli is tin historian tis [Modern Greek music: a contribution to its history] (Athens, 1958), 146, 149, 223–4

L. Zoïs: Lexikon historikon ke laografikon Zakynthou [A dictionary of Zakynthos, history and folklore], i, section B (Athens, 1963), 356

N. Bakounakis: To phantasma tis Norma: hypodohi tou melodramatos ston elliniko horo to 19o aeona [The ghost of Norma: the reception of opera in 19th-century Greece] (Athens, 1992), 51

G. Leotsakos: ‘Liveralis i Liberalis Iossif/Liveralis or Liberalis Iossif’, Lychnos ypo ton modhion: Erga Hellenon syntheton ya piano 1847–1908, Crete University Press CPE 11 (Athens, 1999), 32–46 [disc notes, incl. work-list]

GEORGE LEOTSAKOS, STELIOS TZERBINOS

Liverati, Giovanni

(b Bologna, 27 March 1772; d Florence, 18 Feb 1846). Italian composer, conductor and singer. He had his first training as a singer in Bologna from Giuseppe and Ferdinando Tibaldi. From the age of 14 he was taught singing by Lorenzo Gibelli and composition by Stanislao Mattei. He began as an opera composer there in 1790 with Il divertimento in campagna and from 1792 was first tenor at the Italian theatres in Barcelona and Madrid. On 2 October 1795 he took part in a public concert in Bologna and in 1796 went to Potsdam as Kapellmeister of the Italian Opera. In 1799 Domenico Guardasoni called him as Kapellmeister to the National Theatre in Prague, where he became acquainted with the aristocratic Kinsky and Lobkowitz families. From 1805 to 1814 he lived as a singing teacher in Vienna, where he knew Haydn, Beethoven and Salieri, as well as Leopold Kozeluch, Joseph Gelinek, Gyrowetz, Gelli, the music publisher Mecchetti and the singers J.M. Vogl and Giuseppe Siboni.

In 1815 Liverati succeeded Vincenzo Pucitta as composer and music director at the King’s Theatre in London. After two years there he is said to have returned to Italy, but must later have again settled in London, as in 1822 he was listed among the professors on the original staff of the Royal Academy of Music; letters written in 1827, 1829, 1831 and 1835 show that he was still there. He apparently spent his last years in Florence, where he was a professor at the Accademia di Belle Arti; he was also a member of the Bologna Accademia Filarmonica. His sacred drama David was performed in Florence in 1844.

Liverati’s most frequently and widely performed opera was La prova generale (1799), written in the buffo manner. The late Neapolitan style of his opere serie and cantatas resembles that of Salieri and Spontini, while his skilfully written ensembles are in the tradition of G.B. Martini. In Vienna it was just these stylistic idiosyncrasies and the occasionally arbitrary instrumental accompaniments of his arias (as in the use of obbligato bassoon and trombone or waldhorn in David) that excited the indignation of Weber and other representatives of Romantic German opera.

WORKS

operas

Il divertimento in campagna (1), Bologna, 1790

Enea in Cartagine, ?Potsdam, 1796, excerpts pubd

La prova generale al teatro (1, G. Rossi), ?Vienna, 1799, A-Wgm, I-Fc, excerpts pubd

Il convito degli dei, Vienna, c1800

La presa d’Egea, Vienna, Burg, 1809

Il tempio d’eternità (after P. Metastasio), Vienna, 1810

David, oder Goliaths Tod (op biblica, 2, de Antoni) Vienna, 1813, A-Wgm, Wn, I-Fc, vs (Vienna, n.d.)

I selvaggi (2), London, 1815, Fc, excerpts pubd

Gli amanti fanatici, London, 1816

Gastone e Bajardo (S. Vestris), London, 1820, excerpts pubd

The Nymph of the Grotto (W. Dimond), London, CG, 1829, collab. A. Lee

Amore e Psiche (S.E. Petronj), London, 1831, excerpts pubd

other works

Sacred: Mass, 4vv, orch, autograph I-Baf; Salve regina, STBB, insts, autograph Baf; L’adorazione del presepio (P. Scotes), oratorio, A-Wn; Giaculatorie, o Sette parole per l’agonia di N.S. Giesù Cristo, 3vv, orch, I-Fc

Other vocal: Il trionfo di Cesare sopra i galli, cantata, London, 1815; Il trionfo di Albione e di Roma, cantata, London, 1817; c30 solo songs; 9 duets; 3 trios; 2 ballette; solfeggios

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

FétisB

RicciTB

L. Schneider: Geschichte der Oper und des königlichen Opernhauses in Berlin (Berlin, 1852)

HELENE WESSELY

Liverpool.

City in north-west England on the Mersey estuary.

1. Early history.

2. Philharmonic Society.

3. Other institutions.

4. Popular music.

FRITZ SPIEGL (1–3), SARA COHEN (4)

1. Early history.

The earliest reference to music in the Town Books occurs in 1541, when the mayor and corporation resolved that ‘theare shalbe hired a clercke that can syng his playne song and pryck songe and play the organs’. From then until the second half of the 18th century town musicians were frequently mentioned in the records, often for being troublesome. The duties of the Liverpool Waits included attendance at the houses of returning sea captains in addition to their normal work of sounding curfew and providing music for civic dignitaries. Waits are last mentioned in 1764 and were presumably disbanded not long after. The first music festival appears to have taken place in St Peter’s Church in 1766 under Dr Hayes of Oxford, with an orchestra from London.

Among local musical societies, or convivial clubs based on musical activities, were the Ugly Face Club (1743), at least part of whose aim was the singing of songs, and the Apollo Glee Club (1796). In 1786 a Music Hall to seat 1400 was opened in Bold Street, sumptuously built and lavishly appointed at a cost of £4526 6s. 4d. It was converted into a shop in 1836 and extensively rebuilt a few years later after fire damage and survives the redevelopment that has claimed other early Liverpool buildings. But the Music Hall was never used for concerts again; only the musical motifs betray its original purpose and it still retains at the rear the colonnade under which chair carriers and coachmen sheltered while waiting for patrons.

Outdoor music was available in the Ranelagh Gardens (now Ranelagh Place) in imitation of the 18th-century London establishment of that name (see London, §V, 4). Liverpool made an important contribution to music publishing with The Muses Delight (1754), which contained songs as well as treatises on singing and several instruments. The collection was engraved and published by John Sadler, who later became celebrated for his invention of transfer printing on pottery. A later edition is notable because it includes the french horn duets by the mysterious ‘Mr Charles’.

In August 1838 Johann Strauss (i) gave six concerts at the Royal Amphitheatre, inspiring some local imitators who, aware of the huge appeal of the new Viennese-style music, lost no time to turn Strauss into ‘Scouse’. The mid-19th century demand, in Liverpool as elsewhere, for freelance players to perform Strauss’s works is vividly documented in the surviving papers of the Rogers family. Charles Henry Rogers (b 1826) was a Welsh musician who settled in Liverpool, as did his brother George Frederick (1833–74). With their numerous offspring and other family members they formed the Rogers Family of Musicians. Their trade card offers all kinds of combination, including ‘A Brass Band furnished with Drums, Cymbals, etc.’ (see fig.1), and they acted not only as players but also fixers, instrument and sheet-music sellers and concert agents. Members of the Rogers family played in the Amphitheatre orchestra and the great houses in the area. There was even the occasional foray to London. The family’s documents and diaries for 1858–9, giving details of engagements and fees, show how hard a life jobbing musicians led at that time. By the end of the century most of them had succumbed to consumption.

2. Philharmonic Society.

The Liverpool Philharmonic Society owes its foundation to the enthusiasm of a group of music amateurs. They had met for some years during the 1830s in St Martin’s Church under the guidance of William Sudlow, a stockbroker and organist, their chief interest being choral music. In 1840 a society was constituted with the object of promoting ‘the Science and Practice of Music’; its orchestra consisted largely of amateur players. The task of conducting the choir and orchestra devolved upon various members in turn, but in 1844 the Swiss Jakob Zeugheer (also known as Zeugheer Herrmann) was engaged and he occupied the post for over 20 years. On 1 January 1850 Charles Hallé started his work in Manchester; his activities 35 miles from Liverpool were to have a powerful and lasting effect on the musical life of the seaport. He persuaded many musicians from London and Germany to live in Manchester, so for the first time a fair supply of fully professional players became available in north-west England; they welcomed the opportunity of supplementing their income with outside engagements, and the arrangement saved the Liverpool Philharmonic the expense of importing what was euphemistically described as ‘metropolitan talent’ from London. Conductors of the Philharmonic who followed Zeugheer were Alfred Mellon (1865–7), Julius Benedict (1876–80), Max Bruch (1880), Charles Hallé (1883), Frederic Hymen Cowen (1896–1913), Henry Wood, Thomas Beecham ‘and guests’ (from 1913). The period during and after World War I was one of uncertainty. The use of one pool of players to augment the amateurs and semi-professionals in both the Liverpool and Manchester orchestras continued to function, but less effectively. The depression forced many musicians to seek more secure employment in ships’ orchestras; some combined the occasional symphonic work the two orchestras offered with work in hotels, cafés and (until the arrival of talking pictures) cinema orchestras.

Since its inception in 1840 the Liverpool Philharmonic Society has supported its own choir – indeed in its earlier years the choir was the society: when Bruch arrived in 1880 he was designated musical director of, principally, the society, not the orchestra. The considerable Welsh population has provided ample talent for the large Liverpool Welsh Choral Union, active continuously (usually in collaboration with the Liverpool PO) since 1849 – so much so that in 1878 the Welsh National Eisteddfod was held not in Wales but Birkenhead, on the other side of the Mersey. By contrast, the even larger Irish population in Liverpool has generally opted for folk music clubs and ceilidhs.

The Liverpool PO survived the depression and the first two years of World War II largely through the efforts of Louis Cohen, formerly one of its second violinists, who kept the players together by forming and conducting his own Merseyside SO and Merseyside Chamber Orchestra. The influx of large numbers of servicemen (combined with a shortage of other entertainment) caused a boom in symphony concerts. In 1942 Malcolm Sargent became the orchestra’s resident conductor and attracted many of London’s top-ranking instrumentalists to Liverpool, partly because of the valuable recording work he was able to secure and partly because Liverpool, unlike London, had by then ceased to be a target for German bombs. Conditions were still difficult in London, and the combination of various circumstances raised the reputation of the Liverpool PO to its zenith; through its recordings it was probably the best-known orchestra in Britain. In 1948 Sargent was succeeded as musical director by Hugo Rignold. Wartime audiences had forced the society to broaden its policies. Its activities had hitherto been enjoyed almost exclusively by the upper classes: evening dress had been obligatory in most parts of the Philharmonic Hall, and to some parts admission was denied to ‘tradesmen’ whatever their dress. Rignold’s appointment was bitterly opposed by a section of the society on the grounds that he had come to symphonic music via jazz (as a viola player in Jack Hylton’s band). Intrigues and counter-intrigues resulted in an unsettled period for the orchestra (now once again without its ‘metropolitan talent’ and recording contracts), culminating in ‘industrial action’ by the Musicians’ Union. At about this time an innovation was made in concert-giving which reflected the new spirit brought about by wartime conditions: the introduction of Industrial Concerts, with single-price tickets sold in offices and factories. It was a successful way of retaining the audiences recently gained and did much to offset the inevitable postwar slump in attendances. Efrem Kurtz and John Pritchard were joint musical directors of the Liverpool PO from 1955 to 1957, when the latter took sole charge. Charles Groves became director in 1963. He was succeeded in September 1977 by Walter Weller, followed by David Atherton in 1980, Marek Janowski in 1983 and Libor Pešek in 1987. Pešek and the orchestra introduced music by Suk and Novák to British audiences, and made many foreign tours. Special links were forged between the orchestra and Pešek’s homeland, including an association with the Prague Spring Festival. In 1997 he was succeeded by another Czech conductor, Petr Altrichter. The Liverpool PO was granted the prefix Royal in 1957.

The Philharmonic Society has possessed its own concert hall almost from its formation. The design of the first Liverpool Philharmonic Hall was entrusted in 1844 to John Cunningham, a noted pioneer architect who specialized in cast-iron structures that were amazingly advanced for the period, but the conservative members of the committee rejected his proposed design ‘in the horse-shoe shape’ and insisted on a more conventional building. This was completed and opened in 1849 (fig.2) with a four-day music festival: its acoustics were universally agreed to be superb. It was destroyed by fire in 1933; a new hall was designed by the Liverpool architect Herbert J. Rowse and this time the society accepted an unconventional shape, ‘like a megaphone with the orchestra at the narrow end’. The hall was the first to be built with an interior based on scientific acoustical data; it was opened in 1939 and the acoustics pronounced excellent, if a little dry in places. Architecturally it resembles many picture palaces of the 1930s and was in fact designed to double as a cinema, having a full-size screen which can be raised from beneath the platform, as can a Rushworth & Dreaper organ whose pipes are hidden behind decorative grilles at each side. The entrance hall has notable engraved glass panels by Laurence Whistler. The Royal Liverpool PO was for most of the 20th century the only orchestra in the country able to rehearse and keep its library and administration in its own building. In 1995–6 the building underwent a major refurbishment, including a long overdue ‘warming’ of the hall’s acoustics, platform enlargement and an extension housing a hospitality and administrative wing, the Peter Moores Suite, named after the Philharmonic Society’s principal benefactor.

3. Other institutions.

The amateur Societa Armonica was founded in 1847 and was separate from the Philharmonic Society. It gave concerts until 1909, conducted by, among others, Henry J. Wood, Vasco Akeroyd, Gordon Stukely and the German-born Alfred E. Rodewald, who also conducted the Liverpool Orchestral Society in 1884. A friend of Elgar as well as Hans Richter, Rodewald introduced Liverpool to Richard Strauss’s Tod und Verklärung and works by Rachmaninoff. In 1911 the Rodewald Concerts Society was founded in his honour for the promotion of celebrity chamber music concerts given by international artists.

From about 1900 until at least the 1930s Liverpool had a Post Office Choral Society which performed choral and orchestral works under the direction of Percival Ingram, but their programmes and other records were lost when the Victoria Street post office was bombed in 1941. The Liverpool Male Voice Choir was formed in the early years of the 20th century and, apart from periods of decline during the two world wars, survives with a healthy membership. The Liverpool Music Group (1949), drawn mostly from members of the Royal Liverpool PO and ranging from quartets to a chamber orchestra, presented for many years lighthearted concerts of 18th- and 19th-century music and an annual April Fools concert. The Liverpool Lieder Circle (1968), formed by Celia Van Mullem, promoted regular concerts to help students and young professionals embark on their singing careers. The two foregoing organizations and the Rodewald Concerts Society have been in abeyance since about 1990, but Royal Liverpool PO musicians have filled some gaps with several ensembles that perform in small halls for schools and music clubs. The semi-professional Liverpool Mozart Orchestra has been in continuous operation since 1951, and seeks out young professional conductors and soloists, but has moved its meetings to Birkenhead Town Hall. There are also several long-established amateur operatic societies in the city.

Apart from the Philharmonic Hall, venues used for concerts at various times have included the main St George’s Hall (1851) which, however, because of its cavernous acoustics, is considered less suitable for orchestral concerts than organ recitals on its 1855 Willis Organ. This is the instrument over which W.T. Best presided from that year, an appointment he held from 1851, combining it with that of organist to the Philharmonic Society (1848). The St George’s Hall Small Concert Room, on the other hand, has been found ideal for chamber music. Large orchestral concerts have taken place in the Methodist Central Hall, smaller orchestral and chamber concerts in the Bluecoat Hall situated in the former Bluecoat School (1717). The concert hall of the Wellington Rooms (1815) – former assembly rooms that once housed a dancing academy – has also offered spacious facilities and good acoustics, but during the 1970s became an Irish club and beer hall, temporarily renamed the Irish Centre, until it closed in 1997. However, during its Irish period it often resounded to Irish folk music. Even the Minstrels Gallery of the 18th-century Town Hall has occasionally hosted small period orchestras.

The proximity of Wales and Ireland, together with the continuous influx of sailors and other travellers, combined to give Liverpool folk music a special vitality. The Spinners folk group (active from 1958 to about 1990) began as a skiffle group but instead of turning, like most others, to rock and roll, remained true to the folk movement. Their guitars stayed non-electric and, with a minimal commercial veneer, they were influential in keeping real Liverpool folk music alive. Certain folk roots doubtless also played a part in the beat-group cult of the 1960s. The former Beatle Paul McCartney founded and partly funded the Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts (1996). It is housed in McCartney’s old school, the Liverpool Institute, formerly the Mechanics’ Institution (1835). One of its aims is to support the traditionally ad hoc creation of pop stars and other entertainers with a basis of theoretical and practical training, also offering courses in ancillary arts disciplines such as management. The Mechanics’ Institution’s original circular lecture theatre makes a fine and intimate hall for chamber music.

The University of Liverpool has a music department giving theoretical and practical tuition. The first Alsop Professor of Music was Gerald Abraham (1947), succeeded by Basil Smallman (1965) and Michael Talbot (1986), with Robert Orledge (1988) holding the Personal Chair in Music. The department also embraces the Institute of Popular Music (1988), under the directorship of David Horn, where a degree course in popular music is available. There is an extensive music library of standard works and a separate library of popular music, as well as the John Lennon Resource Centre.

Liverpool Hope University College, formed in 1995 from a merger of teacher training colleges, has a music department under the direction of Stephen Pratt. Its Concordia Concert Society specializes in performing new (and lesser-known old) works, encouraging young artists and composers.

Of the numerous instrument manufacturers active in Liverpool from the 19th century (Ward, J. & H. Banks, Jordan, Stansfield, Vassiere, Maybrick etc.) the only major organ builder to survive is Rushworth & Dreaper. The technical director of the firm is Alastair Rushworth, of the fifth generation since William Rushworth (i) founded the firm. The magnificent Rushworth Collection of Musical Instruments was founded by William (ii), who employed full-time scouts to find early instruments throughout Europe. In 1967 it was bought by the National Museums and Galleries on Merseyside and is now in the Liverpool Museum, where it forms approximately half of the museum’s collection of European musical instruments. It includes a Snetzler chamber organ (1776) and a Stein-type fortepiano (c1800) with probable Beethoven associations.

The Liverpool Public Library was founded as a result of the ‘free libraries’ movement initiated by Liverpool philanthropists during the 19th century. It had a fine music section, with important manuscsripts, comprehensive music reference shelves and a good orchestral library. Some material was lost during the bombing of World War II but unfortunately even more has been dispersed since in regular book sales, in response to the city council’s demands for economy. The services of a music librarian have been dispensed with and the music library now concentrates on providing a CD library.

4. Popular music.

Liverpool has a rich and varied tradition of popular music-making. Early in the 20th century its grand music halls attracted the most successful entertainers of the time; during the 1930s and 40s local dance bands performed in the city's numerous dance halls; in the 1950s and 60s the city's folk and country music scenes flourished, with some local musicians still referring to Liverpool as the ‘Nashville of the North’; and for many years cabaret music has continued to attract audiences to Liverpool pubs and social clubs and to well-known cabaret venues such as the Wooky Hollow.

The city is best known, however, for its rock and pop music which has earned it a worldwide reputation. There was, for example, the so-called ‘Liverpool Sound’ of the early 1960s involving the ‘Merseybeat’ bands that had emerged out of the skiffle groups of the 1950s. The most famous of these was the Beatles, who performed in many city venues, including the notorious Cavern Club which was originally a popular traditional jazz haunt. In the late 1970s and early 80s the city spawned other nationally and internationally renowned bands such as China Crisis, the Real People, Echo and the Bunnymen, Teardrop Explodes, Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark and Frankie Goes to Hollywood. During the 1990s Liverpool bands such as Cast, Space and the Lightning Seeds continued to top the charts. A thriving contemporary dance scene also developed in the city, supported by new music businesses such as the internationally famous Cream.

These and other popular music scenes have been shaped by Liverpool's unique social, cultural, political and economic characteristics. As a port the city had a direct shipping link with America; it was also situated close to the Burtonwood airbase which for many years housed US servicemen who regularly visited Liverpool clubs and venues. Such connections helped bring American musical influences (jazz, country, rhythm and blues, soul, rock and roll) into Liverpool at an early stage, influencing the city's popular music culture. Liverpool's musical life has also been shaped by its Irish, Jewish and African immigrants. Jewish music businesses, for example, helped support bands such as the Beatles during the 1960s, while Irish musical influences are detectable in various local popular music styles and in the city's strong tradition of music performance in pubs.

(1) William (Southcombe) Lloyd Webber

BIBLIOGRAPHY

History of the Liverpool Musical Festival (Liverpool, 1827)

W.I. Argent: Philharmonic Jubilee: Half-a-century of Music in Liverpool (Liverpool, 1889)

Liverpool’s 700th Anniversary Celebrations (Liverpool, 1907) [with music]

R. Meyrick-Roberts: The Organ at Liverpool Cathedral (London, 1926)

A.E. Hull: ‘The Opening of the Liverpool Cathedral Organ’, The Organ, vi (1926–7), 150–53

G. Benham: ‘The Organ at St. George’s Hall, Liverpool’, The Organ, vi (1926–7), 145–9

W.A. Roberts: ‘The New Organ at the Liverpool Philharmonic Hall’, The Organ, x (1930–31), 129–35

R. Whitworth: ‘The Organ in the New Philharmonic Hall, Liverpool’, The Organ, xxv (1945–6), 163–9

S. de B. Taylor: Two Centuries of Music in Liverpool (Liverpool, 1976)

P. Rushton: Catalogue of European Musical Instruments in Liverpool Museum (Liverpool, 1994)

Liviabella, Lino

(b Macerata, 7 April 1902; d Bologna, 21 Oct 1964). Italian composer. He studied at the Rome Conservatory, taking diplomas in piano (1923), organ (1927) and composition (1928) with Respighi. His symphonic poem Il vincitore brought him recognition in the music competition at the 1936 Berlin Olympics. He taught at the conservatories in Venice (1931–40), Palermo (1940–42) and Bologna (1942–53). He was also director of the Liceo Musicale in Pescara (1928) and then the conservatories in Pesaro (1953–9), Parma (1959–63) and Bologna (1963). In 1962 he was awarded an honorary diploma in art and culture of the Repubblica Italiana.

Liviabella’s work is characterized by a tendency towards musical pictorialism, chromaticism and polytonality within a traditional context. These elements are as apparent in the chamber music and dense orchestral frescos reminiscent of Respighi, such as Monte Mario and La mia terra, as in the operas and cantatas. Some of his most significant pieces belong to the latter genre, including Caterina da Siena and Le sette parole di Gesù.

WORKS

(selective list)

dramatic

Santina (op, W. Liviabella), 1922; Zanira (op, R. D’Andrea), 1924; Favola di poeta (ballet), 1936; Antigone (lyric tragedy, 3, E. Mucci), Parma, Regio, 29 Dec 1942; La conchiglia (op, 2, E. Mucci, after R.L. Stevenson), Florence, Comunale, 1955; Canto di Natale (op, 1, E. Murolo, after C. Dickens), RAI, 1963

orchestral

Vibrazioni violacee, 1921; Giovinezza mia, sym. poem, 1922; Trittico sinfonico, 1923; Il Natale, suite, 1925; Fiabesca, suite, 1933; Il vincitore, sym. poem, 1936; Monte Mario, sym. poem, 1937; Il poeta e sua moglie, suite, 1937; I canti dell’amore, hp, hmn, str, 1939; La mia terra, sym. poem 1942; Tema, variazioni e fuga, 1950; Poema, pf, orch, 1954; Vn Conc. 1956; 3 serenate, 1959; 2 concerti, 1964

With chorus: Per la divina vittoria, 1926; L’ultima luce, 1927; Manina di neve (cant.), 1935; Sorella Chiara (cant.), 1943; Caterina da Siena (cant.), 1949; O crux, ave! (cant.), 1950; Le sette parole di Gesù sulla croce (cant.), 1957

With 1v: L’usignolo e la rosa, spkr, orch, 1925; Riderella, spkr, pf, hp, str, 1927; 3 liriche allegre, 1930; 3 pagine d’argento, 1933; La madre, 1935; 3 liriche su testo di carattere popolare, 1938; Trittico lirico, 1938; Ninna nanna, 1942; 4 quartetti: sinfonia con soprano (T.S. Eliot), 1963; Ninna nanna al bambino Gesù, 1982

chamber

Str Qt no.1, 1925; Canzonetta, vn, pf, 1925; S Francesco, 2 vn, va, db, org, 1926; Preludio in modo minore, vn, vc, hmn, 1928; Canto andaluso, vn, pf, 1930; Pastorale, 2vn, vc, org, 1930; Str Qt no.2, 1930; Sonata no.1, vc, pf, 1931; Sonata no.2, vc, pf, 1932; Sonata no.2, vn, pf, 1933; Sonata no.3, vn, pf, 1934; 2 espressioni liriche, str qt, 1935; Sonata no.3, C, vc, pf, 1939; Pastorale, vn, pf, 1943; Marcetta, vn, pf, 1944; Trio in un tempo, 1948; Sonata no.1, va, pf, 1950; Quintetto-divertimento, vn, va, vc, fl, hp, 1953; Divertimento, fl, vc, pf, 1954; Str Qt no.4 ‘La malinconia’, 1955; 6 elevazioni, pf, org, 1956; Sonata no.2, va, pf, 1956; Dittico nuziale, vn, org, 1957; 7 duetti in miniatura, vn, va, 1957; Trittico nuziale, vn, org, 1961; Adagio pastorale e scherzo, ob, pf, 1982

Principal publishers: Ricordi, Suvini Zerboni, Zanibon

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DEUMM (C. Santarelli)

A. Adversi, ed.: Lino Liviabella: la sua vita, la sua musica (Macerata, 1966)

E. Mucci: Lino Liviabella (Macerata, 1974)

VIRGILIO BERNARDONI

Liviana.

Andalusian Gypsy song and dance form in flamenco style. See Cante hondo and Flamenco, Table 1.

Living Colour.

American hard rock band. Formed in 1983, its line-up stabilized in 1985 as Vernon Reid (b London, 22 Aug 1958; guitar), Corey Glover (b Brooklyn, NY, 6 Nov 1964; vocals), Muzz [Manuel] Skillings (b Queens, NY, 6 Jan 1960; bass) and William Calhoun (b Brooklyn, NY, 22 July 1964; drums). Skillings was replaced by Doug Wimbish in 1992, and the group disbanded in 1995. They created an innovative and compelling fusion of hard rock and funk, with Reid's guitar solos also displaying the influence of free jazz. Reid was a founding member of the Black Rock Coalition, which promoted black artists and fought racial stereotyping; accordingly, Living Colour was deliberately formed as a rock band that was made up entirely of black American musicians. Their lyrics often featured political criticism and emphasized self-reliance. Vivid (CBS, 1988) is usually regarded as their best album.

ROBERT WALSER

Livius Andronicus, Lucius

(b ?Tarentum [now Taranto]; fl Rome, 3rd century bce). Roman dramatic and epic poet of Greek origin. He was the first Latin poet known by name and worked at Rome as a teacher and actor. He was instrumental in introducing Greek drama to Rome; his adaptations performed in Latin versions at the ludi romani in 240 bce were the first of their type. Titles or fragments survive of ten tragedies and two comedies by him; as ‘lawgiver [Nomothet] of the Old Roman drama’ (Fraenkel) he laid the foundations for Naevius (c271–201 bce), Titus Maccius Plautus and others, who extended and elaborated the cantica (solo scenes accompanied by music and dancing) of the Roman comedies. Livius Andronicus also set a precedent with his Latin adaptation of Homer's Odyssey which was still used as didactic literature in the mid-1st century (Horace, Epistulae, ii.1.69). His contemporary reputation was considerable: the state commissioned from him a processional partheneion (maiden-song, now lost) after the Greek manner for expiatory ceremonies during the Second Punic War (207 bce). After the successful performance of this piece, poets and actors were accorded the right to form a guild, and the Senate granted them an official centre in the Temple of Minerva on the Aventine in Rome.

WRITINGS

E.H. Warmington, ed. and trans.: Remains of Old Latin, ii/2 (Cambridge, MA, 1936/R), 596

M. Lenchantin de Gubernatis, ed.: Livii Andronici fragmenta (Turin, 1937)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Fraenkel: ‘Livius Andronicus’, Paulys Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, suppl.v (Stuttgart, 1931), 598–607

K. Barwick: ‘Das Kultlied des Livius Andronicus’, Philologus, lxxxviii (1933), 204–21

S. Mariotti: Livio Andronico e la traduzione artistica (Milan, 1952)

K. Büchner: Römische Literaturgeschichte (Stuttgart, 1957, 5/1980)

G. Wille: Musica romana (Amsterdam, 1967), 47–8, 162–3, 165–6

A. Baudot: Musiciens romains de l'antiquité (Montreal, 1973), 108, 118

G. Wille: Einführung in das römische Musikleben (Darmstadt, 1977), 76

S.M. Goldberg: ‘Saturnian Epic: Livius and Naevius’, Roman Epic, ed. A.J. Boyle (London, 1993), 19–36

E. Pöhlmann: Einführung in die Überlieferungsgeschichte und in die Textkritik der antiken Literatur, i (Darmstadt, 1994), 46

GÜNTER FLEISCHHAUER

Livorno

(Eng. Leghorn).

City in Italy, on the coast of Tuscany. Founded at the end of the 16th century by the Medici grand dukes, it acquired commercial, cultural and civic importance in the 17th and 18th centuries. Many of its documents were destroyed during World War II. The Medici encouraged people of various nationalities and creeds to settle in the new city. The Sephardi Jewish community, still large today, was of particular importance; their synagogue chants were collected and transcribed by Federico Consolo at the end of the 19th century. A Sacra rappresentazione di S Orsola was performed in 1514 in the parish church of S Giulia. The organ of the parish church of S Francesco (later collegiate church and then cathedral) was built in 1596 by Francesco Palmieri and Giorgio Steiniger. The first maestro di cappella there was appointed in 1632 and the first cathedral organist in 1785, with the title of maestro di cappella and the option of conducting the theatre orchestra. Music featured here and in the lesser churches especially on feast days, for which musicians from Pisa and Lucca were engaged. Notable maestri di cappella include C.A. Campioni (?1752–62); a description of a typical church music performance (with his music) is given in a letter by Anton Raaff to Padre Martini in 1752. In the 18th century oratorios were sung in the cathedral and other churches, in the meeting-places of confraternities and in the Teatro Avvalorati.

There was a ‘commissario delle bande’ in Livorno castle by 1600. From mid-century in the Palazzo Granducale, festivities held to honour visiting foreign notables included concerts and opera. The first recorded opera performance, at Carnival 1656–7, was of Cavalli's Giasone, by the Fedeli company. In 1658 the Teatro Nuovo (also called Teatro delle Commedie or Teatro S Sebastiano) was inaugurated; it was the scene of Francesco Gasparini's and Carlo Goldoni's first successes. It closed in 1779 and was replaced by the Teatro degli Armeni (1782–1944; later Avvalorati), inaugurated with the première of Cherubini's Adriano in Siria. Other theatres were the Carlo Lodovico (1806–1944; also called dei Floridi or S Marco); the Rossini (1842–1944; also called dei Fulgidi); the Leopoldo (inaugurated 1847; also called Caporali or Goldoni), which was restored in the late 20th century; and the Politeama (inaugurated in 1878 and demolished 1968). During the 19th century opera was also performed in private theatres (the Pellettier; the Vecchio Giardinetto, also called Gherardi del Testa or Strozzi); arenas (the S Cosimo or Labronica; the Teatro Diurno or Arena degli Acquedotti or Alfieri; the Arena Garibaldi) and the outdoor summer Teatro (Teatrino) della Fiera. The theatre-cinemas La Gran Guardia and I Quattro Mori were built after World War II.

Concerts were usually given in the theatres. The violinist Pietro Nardini, with G.M. Cambini, Filippo Manfredi and Luigi Boccherini, formed the Quartetto Toscano in the mid-18th century – perhaps the first established quartet in history. There are small recital rooms in the Istituto Musicale P. Mascagni (named after the composer, a native of Livorno), the Museo Fattori and the Villa Corridi. Open-air concerts take place in the summer theatre of Villa Mimbelli, and the Fortezza Vecchia and Fortezza Nuova of the Medici.

In the second half of the 19th century the orchestral players and choruses employed in the theatres formed such associations as the Società Orchestrale Livornese and the Società del Quartetto a Corda (1881). Other 19th-century institutions were the Società per gli Esercizi Musicali (1809), the Società Filarmonica (c1839), the Società della Banda Nazionale, the Banda Musicale Volontaria Livornese (1844), the Società Corale di Dilettanti and two choral societies, the Costanza e Concordia (1894; later called Mascagni) and the Guido Monaco (1900), both still active. Early in the 20th century the Circolo Mandolinistico G. Verdi had many members. Concert series were organized by the Amici della Musica and Diapason, amalgamated in 1950 as the Associazioni Riunite Concerti, and by the municipality.

In 1847 the Pie Scuole Israelitiche had a music school. The Schola Cantorum G.B. Pergolesi was founded in 1872 at the church of S Benedetto; the first city music schools were the free school for string instruments in the Teatro Goldoni (?1867), the school run by the Società Filarmonica (?1877) and, most important, the Istituto Musicale Livornese (later renamed after Cherubini), founded in 1875 by Alfredo Soffredini, whose pupils there included Mascagni. The successful Orchestra Labronica (1937) was founded by Emilio Gragnani but disbanded because of the war. Some of its members founded the Istituto Musicale P. Mascagni (1953), whose activities include teaching, management of a youth orchestra and concerts, and musicology; its library holds materials on local music history, arranges conferences and issues publications. The Associazione Aulòs – Accademia Italiana dei Legni (1987) carries out research on wind instruments; the Centro Studi Mascagnani collects manuscripts and memorabilia of the composer and organizes conferences.

The violin makers Gaetano Bastogi, Francesco Magri, Francesco Meiberi and the Gragnani family were active in Livorno. The Cresci family made keyboard instruments in the 18th century, and Giovanni Galeazzi may have made flutes in the 19th. The Armenian typographer Yovhannes of Jaffa worked in Livorno (1640–45), and Marco Coltellini's firm printed the first edition (1755–62) of Francesco Algarotti's Saggio sopra l'opera in musica. At the beginning of the 19th century Fedele Gilardi printed works by Filippo Gragnani. During the city's commercial and cultural heyday dealers in music and instruments (Moniglia, Masi etc.) flourished. In the 19th century Gaspare Bigotti made pianolas. The recording company Fonè has its headquarters in Livorno.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DEUMM (R. Chiti, C. Gianturco)

ES (A. Guerrieri)

GroveO (R. Chiti)

Lunario ecclesiastico, colla spiegazione delle feste principali, funzioni sacre, processioni ed altre cose notabili che si costumano nella città di Livorno (per cura di P.B. Armeni) (Lucca, 1738)

G. Vivoli: Annali di Livorno (Livorno, 1842–6)

Nuova Guida civile e commerciale della città e portofranco di Livorno (Livorno, 1847)

F. Pera: Ricordi e biografie livornesi (Livorno, 1867)

F. Consolo: Sefer Shiré Israel (Florence, 1892)

E. Grassi: Le accademie di Livorno (diss., U. of Pisa, 1937)

E. Toaff: Storia di un organo (?Livorno, 1949)

P. Petrobelli: ‘The Italian Years of Anton Raaff’, MJb 1973–4, 233–73; esp. 238, 248–9

B.M. Antolini: ‘Editori, copisti, commercio della musica in Italia, 1770–1800’,Studi musicali, xviii (1989), 273–375

R. Chiti: L'Istituto musicale pareggiato ‘P. Mascagni’ di Livorno: genesi e storia (diss., U. of Pisa, 1989)

D. Bedarida: ‘Cenni sulla musica sinagogale livornese’, Comune notizie, i (1991), 57–9

R. Chiti and F.Marri: Testi drammatici per musica della Biblioteca Labronica di Livorno (Livorno, 1991–4)

P.P. Donati and R.Giorgetti: L'organo di Colognole: appunti di arte organaria livornese (Lucca, 1991)

E. Porta: ‘La cappella musicale del Duomo di Livorno’, Luigi Niccolini: compositore, organista e maestro di cappella nella Collegiata di Livorno (diss., U. of Pisa, 1992), 12–28

ROSSANA CHITI, CAROLYN GIANTURCO

Livret

(Fr.).

See Libretto.

Lizogub, Aleksandr Ivanovich

(b Chernihov region, Ukraine, Feb 1790; d ? Moscow, Jan 1839). Ukrainian composer and pianist. He was educated at the St Petersburg military school and spent the majority of his life in military service, rising to the rank of Major-General in 1834 after a distinguished career. From an early age he displayed a keen musical interest; he was an accomplished pianist and singer, and from the 1820s he performed regularly in the leading St Petersburg and Moscow salons and became particularly well known in amateur musical circles. Much of his output for piano was published during his lifetime by two leading Russian-based publishing houses, J. Paez and H. Reinsdorp. It included sets of variations on Ukrainian folksongs (a number of which are available in modern anthologies), mazurkas and at least two nocturnes. He also composed several vocal romances, a form which gained particular popularity in Russia during the early 19th century. Of the variation sets for piano, the most notable is based on Sredi doliny rovnyya, a folksong later used by Glinka as the basis of a set of piano variations. Lizogub was one of the earliest composers to take up the nocturne form, recently introduced into Russia by John Field; his two examples, which date from the early 1820s, illustrate Field’s influence, not only in their forward-looking harmonic and melodic invention, but also in the use of pedal for poetic effect.

Lizogub’s brother, Il'ya Ivanovich Lizogub (1787–1867), was the first Ukrainian known to have composed and published a sonata for cello and piano.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

V.L. Modzalevsky: ‘A.I. Lizogub’, Malorossiysky rodoslovnik (Kiev, 1912), 116

N.A. Kopchevsky, ed.: Russkaya fortepiannaya muzyka, i (Moscow, 1986), 150–53, 212

NIGEL YANDELL

Ljubljana

(Ger. Laibach).

Capital of Slovenia. The area of today’s inner city has been continuously inhabited since at least 2000 bce. At the beginning of the Christian era the Roman settlement of Emona was founded; this became a diocesan seat in the 4th century ce. The city is first mentioned in written sources in 1144 and 1146. In the 16th century it became the cultural centre of the Slovenian nation; prior to that it had been the capital of the central Slovenian province of Carniola (Kranjska), which was ruled by the Habsburg house for six centuries. In 1918 Ljubljana became the capital of the Slovenian nation and in 1945 of the Federal Republic of Slovenia, both within Yugoslavia. In 1991 the city became the capital of the independent state of Slovenia. The proximity of the city to the important cultural centres of central Europe and its long stability and freedom from Turkish invasions ensured a rich and varied musical life. The cultural identity of Ljubljana as a central European city has been influenced mostly by the achievements of Italian and German culture. The cultural history of Slovenia can be seen as a long process of formation and consolidation of a national and central European identity.

Art music in the Middle Ages was fostered predominantly by churches and monasteries. A Franciscan monastery was founded by 1242 and music was practised in the church of St Peter from the 10th century. The cathedral was musically active from the late Middle Ages and had a song school from the early 15th century. Later the Jesuit college became a centre for musical instruction. The earliest references to organized bodies performing secular music date from the 16th century; in 1544 the city council appointed musicians to the permanent posts of Stadtpfeifer and Landestrompeter, and Stadtgeiger are recorded from 1571. Throughout the 17th century these musicians regularly took part in the numerous musical performances at the Jesuit theatre which, towards the end of the 16th century, had the important task of luring the citizens away from Protestantism, at that time strongly increasing in Slovenia. After the defeat of Protestantism in Slovenia the theatre continued to add more and more splendour to its performances, but frequent visits by Italian operatic companies contributed to its decline about the middle of the 18th century. Operas had been performed by professional companies since the 1650s; after 1740 the stream of visiting Italian companies was unbroken, and after 1768 German companies began appearing too. In the 18th century operatic performances were given in the palace of Count Auersperg, until the Stanovsko Gledališče (Theatre of the Estates) was opened in 1765. Between 1779 and 1782 Emanuel Schikaneder's company performed a number of Singspiele and operas.

The important Academia Philharmonicorum (founded 1701) was an aristocratic music society which performed oratorios and orchestral music until the middle of the century, and in 1794 the middle-class Philharmonische Gesellschaft was founded. The orchestra of this society from its inception performed many works by contemporary Viennese composers. It elected Haydn (1800) and Beethoven (1819) to honorary membership; in 1816 it opened a public music school, one of the unsuccessful applicants for the post of teacher being the 19-year-old Schubert. The society continued until the early years of the 20th century, remaining identified with the German-speaking section of the population.

The activity of the Slovenian nationalists in the mid-19th century was centred on the Čitalnice (Reading Rooms), cultural societies which devoted much time to music, especially choral. The Ljubljana Reading Rooms reappeared after the March Revolution of 1848 as late as 1861. From 1872 onwards, musical life was the domain of the Glasbena Matica (Musical Centre), This society also founded the short-lived Slovenska Filharmonija (1908–13) under Václav Talich. The division into two streams of parallel effort by the German-speaking minority and Slovenian-speaking majority caused several crises as well as a positive spirit of competition during the period of growing national consciousness in the second half of the 19th century, which substantially enhanced the level and extent of musical life.

Operatic activity was likewise divided between the German Landestheater and the Slovenian Dramatično Društvo (Dramatic Society) from which the Slovenian Opera evolved. The Theatre of the Estates was destroyed by fire in 1887, and in 1892 a new theatre was built. The house was shared by the German and Slovenian ensembles and was known as the Slovensko Deželno Gledališče (Slovenian Regional Theatre). Mahler spent the 1881–2 season as conductor at the German theatre. The Slovenian Opera owed its remarkable progress to Fran Gerbič, who was its musical director between 1886 and 1895. Fritz Reiner conducted the opera in 1910–11, and Václav Talich in 1909–10 and 1911–12. The building now houses the Opera of the Slovenian National Theatre (cap. 700); the normal season extends from September to June.

After World War I the city became one of the foremost musical centres of Yugoslavia. The main task of performing orchestral music fell on the orchestra of the opera. The Ljubljana PO was founded in 1934, but lasted only until 1941. In 1948 the orchestra was reconstituted and named Slovenska Filharmonija, taking the name of the orchestra which had existed earlier in the century. Glasbena Matica continued its manifold activity – it has supported a choir, an orchestra, published music and opened a music school; in 1934 an Institute for Folk Music was started under its auspices. After World War II Ljubljana Radio-Television formed an orchestra and a choir which were considered the best in Yugoslavia, while in the 1980s opinion favoured the Slovenska Filharmonija.

The city's long tradition of music schools continued with the founding of Glasbena Matica's school in 1882 and a conservatory in 1919. In 1926 this was reorganized as a state conservatory and in 1939 became the Academy of Music. Since World War II all important Slovenian music institutions have been concentrated in Ljubljana. In addition to those already mentioned, these include the department of musicology at Ljubljana University (founded 1961), the institute of musicology at the scientific research centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts (founded 1980), the music collection of the Slovenian National and University Library (founded 1948), Gallus Hall in the Cankarjev Dom cultural centre, where operas and concerts are performed, the Ljubljana Festival, held each summer, and various music societies, notably the Society of Slovenian Composers. The music history of Ljubljana is to a large extent also the music history of Slovenia as a whole. The need to express Slovenian identity stimulated a breadth and a level of musical culture which is on a par with much bigger cities.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Keesbacher: Die philharmonische Gesellschaft in Laibach (Laibach, 1862)

J. Mantuani: ‘Ein Kapitel über die Musikpflege in Laibach zur Zeit Schuberts’, Studien zur Musikgeschichte: Festschrift für Guido Adler (Vienna, 1930/R), 195–201

D. Ludvik: Nemško gledališče v Ljubljani do l. 1790 (Ljubljana, 1957)

D. Cvetko: Academia philharmonicorum labacensis (Ljubljana, 1962) [with Fr. summary]

J. Sivec: Opera v Stanovskem gledališču v Ljubljani od leta 1790 do 1861 [Opera in the Theatre of the Provincial Estates in Ljubljana 1790–1861] (Ljubljana, 1971)

S. Škerlj: Italijansko gledališče v Ljubljani v preteklih stoletjih (Ljubljana, 1973)

I. Klemenčič: ‘Beethovnova 6. simfonija in zveze z Ljubljano’ [Beethoven's Symphony no.6 and its connections with Ljubljana], Zbornik Narodne in univerzitetne knjižnice, ii (1978), 91–9

J. Sivec: ‘Die Oper zu Ljubljana (Laibach) und ihre Beziehungen zu den deutsch-österreichischen Theatergesellschaften in Zeitalter der Klassik’, Kontakte österreichischer Musik nach Ost und Südost, ed. R. Flotzinger (Graz, 1978), 77–91

P. Kuret: Glasbena Ljubljana v letih 1899–1913 [Music in Ljubljana 1899–1913] (Ljubljana, 1985)

I. Klemenčič: Slovenska filharmonija in njene predhodnice/The Slovene Philharmonic and its Predecessors (Ljubljana, 1988)

D. Cvetko: Slovenska glasba v evropskem prostoru [Slovenian music in its European setting] (Ljubljana, 1991)

‘Ljubljana’, Enciklopedija slovenije, ed. M. Javornik, vi (Ljubljana, 1992)

J. Snoj: ‘Srednjeveški glasbeni spomeniki v Ljubljani’ [Monuments of music of the Middle Ages in Ljubljana], Muzikološke razprave, ed. D. Pokorn (Ljubljana, 1993), 43–56

BOJAN BUJIĆ/IVAN KLEMENČIČ

Ljungberg, Göta

(b Sundsvall, 4 Oct 1893; d Lidingö, nr Stockholm, 30 June 1955). Swedish soprano. She studied in Stockholm with Gillis Brand, then in Milan and Berlin, making her début in 1917 as Gutrune with the Swedish Royal Opera, where she was engaged until 1926 and was admired for her intelligence, appearance and acting ability. The sensational success of her Covent Garden début in 1924 as Sieglinde led to her engagement at the Berlin Staatsoper. Her later London roles were Salome, Kundry, Tosca, Elisabeth (Tannhäuser) and the title role of Goossens’s Judith, which she created (1929). At the Metropolitan (1932–5), she sang Salome and Wagner heroines, and created Lady Marigold Sandys in Hanson’s Merry Mount (1934). Ljungberg was visually and vocally ideal as Salome, and her recording of the final scene of Strauss’s opera shows the vibrant, clear and sensuous quality of her voice. Her recordings of Sieglinde and Kundry reveal similar vocal and dramatic excitement.

LEO RIEMENS/ALAN BLYTH

Llanas (i Rich), Albert

(b Barcelona, 7 June 1957). Catalan composer. He studied the flute, the piano and composition at the Barcelona Conservatory and won a prize for special distinction in composition. He furthered his studies with Josep Soler, Lewin-Richter and Donatoni, while maintaining regular contact with Cristóbal Halffter. From the outset Llanas’s compositions have won awards, including the European Youth Competition in the Netherlands (1985), the Tribune of Composers from the March Foundation in Madrid (1984, 1986) and the municipal prizes of Barcelona (1987), Girona (1989) and Alcoy (1989). He won the International Composition Competition and International Guitar Prize (both 1990) and the Queen Sofía Composition Prize (1996). He was selected by the ISCM for the World Days Festival (1988) and has been commissioned to compose pieces for the Spanish National Orchestra and other bodies.

Llanas teaches in various centres of Catalonia, specializing in new technologies and acoustics. His compositions reflect his desire to explore and expand the field of composition through the fusion of computer technology and traditional methods.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Dedins, defora (monologue, L. Cunillé), 1997

Vocal: Impressions, S, str qt, 1984; Poèmes d’amor I–II, 1v, pf, 1985; … y se hizo la luz, double chorus, 1986

Orch: Seqüencies, 1984–6; Cl Conc., 1989; De materia, 1989; Contexto I, 1990; Filosonia, 1991; Derivations, 1992; Polifonía de cámara, 15 str insts, 1992; Sym., 1993

5 or more insts: Pezzo per insieme strumentale, fl, cl, tpt, vn, va, vc, pf, 2 perc, pre-recorded voice, 1985; BRX 6, wind qnt, 1986; Ricerca, fl, cl, vc, pf, vib, 1986; Conc., gui, str, 1988; Qnt, fl, cl, vc, pf, perc, 1988; Spazio-tempo per dodici esecutori, chbr ens, 1990; Pf Qnt, 1996

4 insts: Str Qt no.1, 1983; BRX 5, fl, cl, bn, hn, 1985; Contexto III, 4 trbn, 1988; Necesidad y azar, fl, b cl, tpt, db, 1989; Contexto IV, 4 sax, 1992

3 insts: Miratge, fl gui, pf, 1976, rev. 1987; A trio, cl, bn, pf, 1984; BXR1, fl, cel, pf, 1984; Noniga, cl, bn/vc, pf, 1987; Chromex, suite, 3 mar, 1990

2 insts: Duetto, cl, pf, 1988; Tres imágenes de la vida de un fauno, ob, pf, 1996

El-ac and works with tape: Conc., fl, chbr ens, tape, 1987; Contexto II, fl, tape, 1988; Ànthropos captiu, orch, shadow mime, elecs, 1997

Solo inst: BXR2, gui, 1985; BXR3, pf, 1985; BXR4, vc, 1985; 3 estudios, pf LH, 1988; Contexto IV, clvd, 1989; 5 estudios, gui, 1990; Fantasie sur les folies de l’Espagne, gui, 1991; Contexto VI, cl, 1993

Principal publishers: Agenda, Catalana d’Edicions Musicals, Clivis

WRITINGS

‘Inspiració versus laboratori’, Revista musical catalana, no.30 (1987), 23–5

‘Recordant John Cage’, Catalunya música/Revista musical catalana, no.100 (1993), 6–9

with J. Casanovas: Joaquim Homs (Barcelona, 1996)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Marco: Historia de la musica española contemporánea: siglo XX (Madrid, 1983)

‘Composición española hoy’, Cuadernos Pochssimo-Rall, no.1 (1988)

68 compositores catalans (Barcelona, 1988)

F. TAVERNA-BECH

Llandaff Festival.

Festival held from 1958 to 1986 in Cardiff.

Lleno

(Sp.).

See under Organ stop (Compuestas).

Lleó, (y Balbastre), Vicente

(b Torrent, Valencia, 19 Nov 1870; d Madrid, 27 or 28 Feb 1922). Spanish composer. When he was five his family moved to Valencia, where he became a choirboy at the Real Colegio del Corpus Christi, for whose choir he composed a six-part motet in 1883. He became interested in the zarzuela, and from 1885 his works in that genre were performed in Valencia. In 1890 he moved to Barcelona, where he was a theatre conductor for some years before moving to Madrid in 1896. His first major success there came in 1899 with Los presupuestos de Villapierde, and in 1910 he had a huge success with the biblical zarzuela La corte de faraón. He also had success adapting foreign works for Spain, among them Giuseppe Mazza’s La prova d’un opera seria (1845) as the one-act zarzuela El maestro Campanone (1903) and Viennese operettas such as Lehár’s Der Graf von Luxemburg (with a baritone lead). His output of more than 100 works includes revues as well as operas and zarzuelas.

WORKS

(selective list)

mainly operas and zarzuelas: most in one act; for more detailed list see GroveO

Duo con la sultana, Valencia; De Valencia al Grao, Valencia, ?1885–7; Las traviatas, Valencia; El tenor de Baberillos, Valencia; Un casament del dimone, Valencia; Las once mil, Valencia; Las de Farandul, Madrid, 1898; Los cenceros, Madrid, 1899; Variétés, Madrid, 1899, collab. Zavala; El traje de boda, Madrid, 1899, collab. A. Rubio; Los gladiatores, Madrid, 1899, collab. Chalons; El estado de sitio, Madrid, 1899, collab. R. Calleja; Los presupuestos de Villapierde, Madrid, 1899, rev. 1900, collab. Calleja; Cambios naturales, Madrid, 1899, collab. Rubio; La tiple mimada, Madrid, 1899; Venus Salón, Madrid, 1899 rev. 1906 as Venus Kursaal, collab. Calleja; La maestra, Madrid, 1901, collab. T. Barrera and Calleja; El jilguero chico, Madrid, 1901, collab. Calleja; El dios Apolo, Madrid, 1901, collab. Calleja; Gubasta nacional, Madrid, 1902, collab. Calleja

El respetable publica, Madrid, 1902, collab. Calleja; Inés de Castro, ó Reinar después de morir, Madrid, 1903, collab. Calleja; El mozo crúo, Madrid, 1903, collab. Calleja; Copito de nieve, Madrid, 1903, collab. Calleja; El pícaro mundo, 1903/4, collab. Caballero; Gloria pura, Madrid, 1904, collab. Calleja; Hulé, Madrid, 1904, collab. Calleja; Music-Hall, Madrid, 1905, collab. Calleja; ¿Quo vadis, Montero?, Madrid, 1905, collab. Calleja; Las piedras preciosas, Madrid, Oct 1905; La taza de te, Madrid, 1906; La guedeja rubia, Madrid, 1906; La loba, Madrid, 1907; Tupinamba, Madrid, 1907; La golfa del Manzanares, Madrid, 1908, collab. Calleja; Pepe Botella, Madrid, 1908, collab. A. Vives

Episodios nacionales, Madrid, 1908, collab. Vives; Mayo florido, Madrid, 1908; La vuelta del presidio, Madrid, 1908; El quinto pelao, Madrid, 1908; La república del amor, Madrid, 1908; La balsa de aceite, Madrid, 1908; Si las mujeres mantasa, Madrid, 1908, collate. L. Foglietti; Las molineras, Madrid, 1908; La moral en peligro, Madrid, 1909; Ninfas y satiros, Madrid, 1909; La corte de Faraón, Madrid, 1910; La partina de la porra, Madrid, 1911; Livio entre espinas, Madrid, 1911; El método Górritz, Madrid, ?1911/12; El barrio latino, Madrid, 1912; La tirena, Madrid, 1913; El rey del valor, Madrid, 1914, collab. Calleja; La pandereta, Madrid, 1915, collab. J. Giménez; Sierra Morena, Madrid, 1915; Ave César, Madrid, 1922

Other works: La alegre trompetería (Paso); Apaga y vámonos; La capa encantada (J. Benavente); La carne flaca; La guedeja rubia; Los tres maridos burlados

Revisions of G. Mazza: La prova d’un opera seria, as El maestro Campanone, 1903; Lehár: Der Graf von Luxemburg, 1911, and other Viennese operettas

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO

StiegerO

Enciclopedia ilustrada europeo-americana (Barcelona, 1907–30), xxxi, 1038; appx vi (1931), 1350

R. Alier and others: El libro de la zarzuela (Barcelona, 1982, rev. as Diccionario de la zarzuela, 1986)

ANDREW LAMB

Llissa, Francisco.

Name under which Francisco Llussa is found in some sources.

Llobet Soles, Miguel

(b Barcelona, 18 Oct 1878; d Barcelona, 22 Feb 1938). Spanish guitarist, composer and arranger. His uncle brought a guitar home when Llobet was 11; at 14 he was presented by his first teacher, Magín Alegre, to Francisco Tárrega, who accepted him as a pupil. He gave his first series of private concerts in 1898 and his first public appearance was in 1901 at the conservatory in Valencia. He performed in Madrid in 1902 and again in 1903 in front of the royal family. His friend Ricardo Viñes, the noted pianist and Debussy interpreter, presented him in his foreign début, in Paris in 1904. From 1905 to 1910 Llobet gave concerts throughout Europe. He made his South American début in 1910 and set up home temporarily in Buenos Aires, from where he left from time to time on concert tours. Having made his US début in 1912 he continued to tour until the outbreak of World War I, when he returned to America for the duration of the war. After 1930 Llobet settled in Barcelona to teach and give occasional concerts. In 1934 he gave concerts in Vienna, Germany and other parts of western Europe, and a final concert in the USA at the Library of Congress, Washington, DC. He returned to Barcelona at the height of the Spanish Civil War in 1937.

Llobet is given credit for bringing the classical guitar into the modern musical world of international concert tours. He also contributed new works and transcriptions to the repertory and introduced the public to works by Falla, Villa-Lobos, Ponce and others. (Falla wrote Homenaje pour le tombeau de Claude Debussy in response to Llobet’s persistent requests for a new work for guitar.) In 1925 he made the first electric recordings on the classical guitar.

Llobet’s tally of approximately 75 publications includes 13 known original compositions, among them his guitar arrangement of Catalan folk songs, Diez canciones populares catalanas (1899–1918); of these the best known, El mestre (c1900), is harmonically one of the most advanced guitar works of its time and was much admired by Segovia.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Krick: ‘Miguel Llobet, 1878–1939’, Etude Music Magazine, lvi (1938), 762 only

B. Tonazzi: Miguel Llobet, chitarrista dell’Impressionismo (Milan, 1966)

J. Rey de la Torre: ‘Miguel Llobet: el Mestre’, Guitar Review, no.60 (1985), 22–31

R. Purcell: Miguel Llobet: Guitar Works (Heidelberg, 1989)

RONALD C. PURCELL

Lloyd, A(lbert) L(ancaster)

(b London, 29 Feb 1908; d London, 29 Sept 1982). English ethnomusicologist and folksinger. At the age of 15 he went to Australia as an assisted migrant, working on sheep stations for nine years. There he learnt bush songs from fellow workers and educated himself in music and the arts. Returning to England in the early 1930s, he associated with the left-wing London artistic set and became a founder member of the Artists International Association (1935). Needing money he signed on as a labourer on a factory ship for the 1937–8 Antarctic whaling season. The trip provided few folksongs, as the crew tended to sing hymns and popular hits. On his return he worked as a BBC scriptwriter and as a journalist on Picture Post. A self-taught ethnomusicologist, he owed much to the work of Brăiloiu and Katsarova. Influenced by A.L. Morton’s A People’s History of England (1938) he wrote The Singing Englishman (1944), a colourful, if largely unsubstantiated, polemical Marxist history of English folksong. From 1950 he worked as a freelance folklorist, concentrating mainly on south-east Europe. During the 1960s he was a visiting lecturer in ethnomusicology at various American and Australian universities. As a folksinger he made numerous recordings of English and Australian song, and was, with Ewan MacColl, one of the architects of the postwar British folk music revival. During the Cold War his Marxist credentials allowed him unique access to Albania, Bulgaria, Romania and their folklore institutes. Here he acquired many recordings of ‘peasant’ music but failed to acknowledge its subjection to communist cultural management and manipulation. From 1952 he broadcast on radio and television on different aspects of folk music, including virtuosity, polyphony, ritual, epic song, coal mining, and Bartók as a folklorist. His book Folk Song in England (1967) attempts to trace ‘folksong’ development (or erosion) from some idealized agrarian past to the urban industrial present, though is flawed by its scanty historical evidence. He remains an influential, if controversial, figure in British and Australian folk music performance and scholarship.

WRITINGS

The Singing Englishman: an Introduction to Folksong (London, 1944)

‘The Music of Rumanian Gypsies’, PRMA, xc (1963–4), 15–26

ed., with I. Aretz: Folk Songs of the Americas (London, 1965)

Folk Song in England (London, 1967)

‘Folklore and Australia’, Overland [Melbourne], xlv (1970), 17

‘The Sophisticated Savage’, Music and Musicians, xx/9 (1971–2), 26–9

Problems of Ethnomusicology (Cambridge, 1984) [trans. of C. Brăiloiu: Problèmes d’ethnomusicologie (Paris, 1959)]

FOLKSONG EDITIONS

Come all ye Bold Miners: Songs and Ballads of the Coalfields (London, 1952, enlarged 1978)

with R. Vaughan Williams: The Penguin Book of English Folk Song (Harmondsworth, 1959)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D. Harker: Fakesong: the Manufacture of British ‘Folksong’ 1770 to the Present Day (Milton Keynes, 1985)

G. Boyes: The Imagined Village: Cultural Ideology and the English Folk Revival (Manchester, 1993)

Singer, Song and Scholar: Sheffield 1982 and Leeds 1984 [incl. L. Shepard: ‘A.L. Lloyd: a Personal View’, 125–32; R. Palmer: ‘A.L. Lloyd and Industrial Song’, 133–44; V. Gammon: ‘A.L. Lloyd and History: a Reconsideration of Aspects of Folk Song in England and some of his Other Writings’, 147–64; D. Arthur: ‘A.L. Lloyd 1908–82: an Interim Bibliography’, 165–77]

M. Brocken: ‘The British Folk Revival’, Musical Traditions 〈www.mustrad.org.uk〉

DAVE ARTHUR

Lloyd, Charles Harford

(b Thornbury, Glos., 16 Oct 1849; d Slough, 16 Oct 1919). English organist and composer. He was educated at Thornbury Grammar School and Rossall School, then went to Magdalen Hall (now Hertford College), Oxford, in October 1868, with an open classical scholarship. He graduated BMus in 1871, BA in theology in 1872, MA in 1875 and DMus in 1892. He helped to found the Oxford University Musical Club, becoming its first president in 1872. In June 1876 he succeeded S.S. Wesley as organist of Gloucester Cathedral, and conducted the Three Choirs Festival at Gloucester in 1877 and 1880. The festival occasioned most of his major works over the next 20 years. While at Gloucester he also conducted the Gloucester Choral Society and the Gloucestershire Philharmonic Society. In September 1882 he returned to Oxford as organist of Christ Church Cathedral and lecturer in music at the college. In the same year he conducted the Oxford Choral Society and the Oxford Symphony Concerts, the latter until 1886. From 1887 to 1892 he taught the organ and composition at the RCM, and became in 1892 precentor and music instructor of Eton College; in 1914 he resigned this post to become organist of the Chapel Royal, St James's.

Although Lloyd enjoyed some success as a composer, notably with his cantata Hero and Leander, his real strengths lay elsewhere: as an organ recitalist and extemporizer, as a choirmaster, and as a respected teacher; among his pupils were George Sinclair Robertson, Herbert Brewer, Frederick Kelly, Edward Dent and George Butterworth. Parry, grateful of Lloyd's support during the turbulent first performance of his cantata Prometheus Unbound at Gloucester in 1880, wrote his first set of organ chorale preludes for him (published 1912).

Lloyd's music is well written though undistinguished. Stylistically similar to S.S. Wesley's, it lacks Wesley's individuality in the treatment of dissonance. His orchestral writing is effective, as in the opening chorus of Hero and Leander and the Wagnerian The Longbeards' Saga; the incidental music to Alcestis (for men's chorus, flute, clarinet and harp) shows a feeling for vocal and instrumental colour.

WORKS

(selective list)

printed works published in London

GF	Gloucester Festival
HF	Hereford Festival
WF	Worcester Festival

vocal

7 Services: E (1880), F (1881), D (1893), A (1902), E (1906), E (1911), F (1913)

Mag, Nunc, F, GF, 1880 (1881); TeD, E (1911)

Cants, solo vv, 4vv, orch, incl.: Hero and Leander, WF, 1884 (1884); The Song of Balder, HF, 1885; Andromeda, GF, 1886 (1886); The Longbeards' Saga, male vv (1887); The Gleaners' Harvest, female vv (1888); A Song of Judgment, HF, 1891; Ballad of Sir Ogie and Lady Elsie, HF, 1894 (1894)

Rossall (ode) (1894); A Hymn of Thanksgiving, HF, 1897 (1897)

The Souls of the Righteous, motet, GF, 1901 (1901)

Anthems, incl.: Blessed is he, with orch, GF, 1883, Fear not, O land (1886), Blessed be thou (1903), I will magnify thee (1912)

A Set of Chants (1906)

Partsongs, incl. To Morning (W. Blake) 8vv; Allen-a-Dale, with orch; A Thousand Years by the Sea (H.J. Newbolt); Twelve by the Clock, female vv

Songs, incl. The Garden of the Heart; Magdalen at St Michael's; Annette, with cl obbl; In Summer Weather; Hawke; The Vigil; A Song of Exmoor

other

Alcestis (incid music, Euripides), Oxford, 1887 (1887)

Organ Concerto, f, GF, 1895

Chbr: Trio, B, cl, bn, pf; Duo concertante, vn, va/cl, pf (1888); Suite, cl/va, pf (1914); many others, vn, pf

Org: Sonata, d (1886); Elegy (1911); Elegy no.2 (1917)

Pf: 2 Album Leaves (1910); 2 Concert Studies (1918); Glyndebourne Dances (1918)

EDITIONS AND WRITINGS

Church Hymns, new edn (London, 1903)

The New Cathedral Psalter (London, 1909)

Free Accompaniment of Unison Hymn Singing (London, 1928)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

‘Charles Harford Lloyd’, MT, xl (1899), 369–76

W. Shaw: The Succession of Organists (Oxford, 1991), 214–15

A. Boden: Three Choirs: a History of the Festival (Stroud, 1992)

J.C. Dibble: C. Hubert Parry: his Life and Music (Oxford, 1992)

STEPHEN BANFIELD/JEREMY DIBBLE

Lloyd, Edward

(b London, 7 March 1845; d Worthing, 31 March 1927). English tenor. The son of the tenor Richard Lloyd (1813–53), he sang in the choir of Westminster Abbey under James Turle. His voice never actually broke but deepened gradually from treble to tenor. In 1866 he joined the chapel choirs of Trinity and King's colleges, Cambridge, but resigned in 1867 to return to London and join the choir of St Andrew's, Wells Street, under Barnby. He became a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal in 1869 for two years, then turned exclusively to concert singing.

Although he sang in Beethoven's Choral Fantasy in 1870, Lloyd's first great success was in Bach's St Matthew Passion at Gloucester in 1871, followed by Acis and Galatea at the Crystal Palace Handel Festival in 1874. Thereafter he sang in the first performances of many important works. The last of these was the unsuccessful première of Elgar's The Dream of Gerontius in 1900, following which he, and the other performers, received unjust criticism from some of Elgar's supporters. His intention to retire had been announced in 1898, but he sang in concerts in London on 12 December 1900 and on 18 October 1902. He also sang at George V's coronation in 1911 and at a benefit concert in 1915. He was the outstanding festival tenor of his day, gifted with a voice of exceptional range and beauty. His repertory included both Wagner, whose music he helped popularize in the concert hall, and popular songs, which he vigorously defended. He also sang in North America and on the Continent. In deference to his wife's wishes, he never appeared on the public theatrical stage. His younger brother Henry was also a tenor. His son E. Turner Lloyd studied the piano with Clara Schumann and singing under F. Walker; in 1897 he taught singing at the Royal Academy of Music.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brown-Stratton BMB

Obituary, MT, lxviii (1927), 462

‘Edward Lloyd’, MT, xl (1899), 9–15

J. Bennett: Forty Years of Music, 1865–1905 (London, 1908)

J.N. Moore, ed.: Edward Elgar: Letters of a Lifetime (Oxford, 1990)

W.H. HUSK/GEORGE BIDDLECOMBE

Lloyd, George (Walter Selwyn)

(b St Ives, Cornwall, 28 June 1913; d London, 3 July 1998). English composer and conductor. He studied at the Trinity College of Music, where his teachers included Harry Farjeon and William Lovelock. His first success came in 1932 when he conducted his First Symphony with the Penzance Orchestral Society; the work was performed again the following year with the Bournemouth Municipal Orchestra. The Second Symphony (1933) and a canon for orchestra, since destroyed, were heard in Eastbourne in 1934. His father, who had encouraged him to write operas, became his librettist and their opera Iernin (1933–4), on a Cornish legend, was produced in Penzance in November 1934. Frank Howes, music critic for The Times, hailed the work as ‘spontaneous, melodious and dramatic’. The New English Opera Company was established to stage Iernin at the Lyceum Theatre, where it ran for three weeks, the third longest run in British operatic history. Impressed by the opera, John Ireland recommended Lloyd’s Third Symphony (1933, rev. 1935) to Edward Clark at the BBC, where Lloyd was invited to conduct the work on 29 November 1935. In 1938 the Lloyds’ second opera, The Serf (1936–8), set during the reign of King Stephen, was performed at Covent Garden and in Liverpool and Glasgow. Here Lloyd's lifelong veneration of Verdi is most apparent. Lyrical and stage worthy, it was well received by the public, but attracted some criticism for its overly traditional libretto.

During World War II, Lloyd served in the Royal Marines as a bandsman. Assigned to an Artic convoy, he was one of only four survivors when his ship’s transmitting station was struck by its own malfunctioning torpedo. Suffering from oil ingestion and shell-shock, he was slowly nursed back to health by his wife. While recuperating in Switzerland after the war, he wrote a concert overture for The Serf (1946) and his Fourth (1946) and Fifth (1947–8) symphonies. When he returned to London, however, only the overture was accepted by the BBC. Despite this setback, he was one of three composers commissioned by the Arts Council to write an opera for the Festival of Britain. Plagued by a poor production and off-stage rivalries, as well as by Lloyd’s physical exhaustion, the opera, John Socman (1949–51), was later withdrawn from the Carl Rosa tour.

Leaving London for rural Dorset, Lloyd became a market gardener, continuing to compose in his spare time. Over many years, he accumulated a substantial portfolio of new works. His First Piano Concerto ‘Scapegoat’ (1963) was given its première by Ogdon in 1964. Later he assisted Ogdon with his own Piano Concerto. It was not until 1973 that he returned to London and full-time composition. With the BBC Northern SO’s broadcast of his Eighth Symphony (1961, orchestrated 1965) under Edward Downes in 1977, he began to attract wide public recognition. During the 20 years that followed, he enjoyed a remarkable renaissance, his music, with its wide-spanning lines and traditional tonal harmony becoming for many an icon of anti-modernism. Downes introduced another five of his symphonies and recorded three of them. Lloyd conducted his own Fourth Piano Concerto (1970, orchestrated 1983) at the Royal Festival Hall in 1984, and continued to conduct and record his own works. When Royal Parks (1984) was used as the test piece for the 1985 European Brass Band Championship, a succession of commissions followed. He became associated with the Albany (New York) SO, for which he wrote both the Eleventh (1985) and Twelfth (1989) symphonies. This period also saw the composition of choral music, including The Vigil of Venus (1980), A Symphonic Mass (1992) and A Litany (1995), all characterized by their dramatic treatment and superb ear for choral textures. He continued to compose until his death. Almost all of his works have been recorded.

WORKS

Ops (all librettos by W. Lloyd): Iernin (3), 1933–4, Penzance, Nov 1934; The Serf (3), 1936–8, London, 20 Oct 1938, extracts arr. vn, pf; John Socman (3), 1949–51, Bristol, 15 May 1951

Orch: Sym. no.1, 1932, rev. 1934, 1980; Sym. no.2, 1933, Sym. no.3, 1933, rev. 1935; The Serf, concert ov., 1946; Sym. no.4, 1946; Sym. no.5, 1947–8; John Socman, ov., 1951; Sym. no.6, 1956; Sym. no.7, 1959; Sym. no.8, 1961, orchd 1965; Pf Conc. no.1 ‘Scapegoat’, 1963; Pf Conc. no.2, 1964; Pf Conc. no.3, 1968; Suite Charade, 1969; Sym. no.9, 1969; Pf Conc. no.4, 1970, orchd 1983; Vn Conc. no.2, vn, str, 1977; Sym. no.11, 1985; Sym. no.12, 1989; Le Pont du Gard, 1990; The Dying Tree, 1992; Floating Cloud, 1993; The Serf, 2 orch suites, 1997; Vc Conc., 1998

Wind: Trinidad, march, military band, 1941, orchd 1946, arr. 1990; Vn Conc. no.1, vn, wind, 1970; Sym. no.10 ‘November Journeys’, 1981; Royal Parks, 1984, no.2 ‘In Memoriam’, arr. orch; Diversions on a Bass Theme, 1986; English Heritage, 1987; Forest of Arden, 1987; Evening Song, 1991; King's Messenger, 1993

Vocal: The Vigil of Venus (Pervigilium Veneris), S, T, chorus, orch, 1980; A Sym. Mass, chorus, orch, 1992; A Litany, S, B, chorus, orch, 1995; Ps 130, chorus, 1995; Requiem, Ct, chorus, org, 1998; songs, incl. Wantage Bells (J. Betjeman), We'll Go No More a Roving (G. Byron), Noon on the River (W. Lloyd)

Chbr and solo inst: Lament, Air and Dance, vn, pf, 1975; Sonata, vn, pf, 1976; Miniature Triptych, brass qnt, 1981

Pf: An African Shrine, 1966; Aubade, 2 pf, 1971; The Aggressive Fishes, 1972; The Lily-Leaf and the Grasshopper, 1972; The Road Through Samarkand, 1972, arr. 2 pf, 1995; St Antony and the Bogside Beggar, 1972; Suite ‘Transformation of the Naked Ape’, 1972; Intercom Baby, 1987; Eventide, 2 pf, 1989

Arr.: Les sylphides, small orch, 1935

Principal publishers: R. Smith, George Lloyd Music Library, UMP, Boosey & Hawkes

Principal recording companies: Lyrita, Conifer, Albany

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO (S. Banfield) [incl. further bibliography]

F. Howes: ‘Iernin: a New Opera in Cornwall’, The Times (7 Nov 1934)

H. Farjeon: ‘The Younger English Composers: XI George Lloyd’, MMR, lxix (1939), 140–43

L. Foreman: ‘George Lloyd: Britten’s Forgotten Contemporary’, Records and Recording (May 1980), 26–9

D.J. Brown: ‘George Lloyd is a Man of the Moment’, Tempo, no.161–2 (1987), 99–102

K.A. Kleszynski: ‘George Lloyd: a Selected Bibliography and Discography’, MR, l (1989), 297–300

LEWIS FOREMAN

Lloyd [Floyd, Flude], John

(b c1475; d London, 3 April 1523). English or Welsh priest and composer. On 4 January 1499 he requested an allowance from the monastery of Thetford, which passed to William Cornysh upon his death. He was a priest in the Chapel Royal in 1505, but his permanent career as a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal began only about 1509. His will, dated 18 January 1519, includes bequests to churches in Caerleon and Bristol. He was in France at the Field of Cloth of Gold in 1520, after which he made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He appears to have returned less than a month before his death. Hawkins described him as a bachelor of music, and the inscription below one of the two puzzle canons by him in the Henry VIII manuscript (ed. in MB, xviii, 1962, 2/1969) reads ‘Flude in armonia graduat’; but the year and the university are unknown. Hawkins added that he was buried in the Savoy Chapel and gave the inscription: ‘Johannes Floyd virtutis et religionis cultor’ with the date of death.

Lloyd almost certainly composed the antiphon Ave regina and the Mass O quam suavis preserved in a manuscript of the Cambridge University Library (Nn.vi.46). Both works make extensive use of notational puzzles: the Mass (ed. H.B. Collins, London, 1927) plays upon rhythmic transformation of the tenor, while the note-lengths of one voice of the antiphon are determined by the vowels of its apparent text (Thurston Dart's unpublished edition, which broke this code, is in GB-Lbbc). The identity of their composer is concealed in an inscription attached to the antiphon: ‘Hoc fecit m…es maris’, in which a contraction obscures the key word; this was formerly misread as ‘iohannes’, and ‘Johannes Maris’ was explicated as ‘John of the Sea – Flood – Fludd – Lloyd’. The word is now taken to read ‘matres’, which seems to be nonsense, but it may be an anagram for ‘master’ with ‘maris’ as a riddling designation of the composer as before. Owing to the esoteric nature of the music and its obscure notational presentation, together with the usual requirement of a Mass-antiphon pair for the Cambridge degrees of MusB or MusD after 1515, these pieces may be taken as the composer's Exercise.

The Mass is an artistic production on the highest level. Its lengthy cantus firmus (the antiphon for the Magnificat at first Vespers of Corpus Christi) is quoted only twice in the entire work: once in the Gloria and Credo together, and once in the Sanctus and Agnus, a layout also used in Fayrfax's Mass O quam glorifica, his Oxford DMus Exercise of 1511. The style is highly florid and melismatic throughout, enlivened by numerous unobtrusive points of imitation. The mass is firmly in the tradition of esoteric academic quadrivial compositions that embraced works by Fayrfax, Ashwell, Aston and Taverner.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AshbeeR, vii

HawkinsH

R.T. Dart: ‘Cambrian Eupompus’, The Listener (17 Mar 1955)

R. Bray: ‘Music and the Quadrivium in Early Tudor England’, ML, lxxvi (1995), 1–18

JOHN CALDWELL/ROGER BRAY

Lloyd, Jonathan

(b London, 30 September 1948). English composer. His early studies were with Emile Spira and Edwin Roxburgh as a junior exhibitioner at the RCM, where he later studied with Roxburgh and John Lambert (1966–9). In 1969 he attended classes with Pousseur at Durham, and was awarded the Mendelssohn Scholarship to work in Paris. His Cantique (1969) was selected for the SPNM’s 30-year retrospective in 1973. During a fellowship to Tanglewood to study with Ligeti (1973) he won the Koussevitsky Prize with Scattered Ruins. After a period as a performer and busker he was appointed composer-in-residence at Dartington College theatre department (1978–9). His breakthrough came with Toward the Whitening Dawn (1980), a highly original cantata with elements of music theatre written in memory of John Lennon. Its distinctive, postmodern symbiosis of serious and popular idioms has been re-explored in a number of subsequent works: … and Beyond (1996), composed for the 30th anniversary of the London Sinfonietta, involved a similarly unpredictable intermingling of atonal complexity, minimalism and jazz. From the early works such as the Viola Concerto (1979–80) and Won’t it ever be Morning (1980) to the concertos for flute and violin (both 1995), such stylistic dislocations demostrate Lloyd’s capacity to surprise and challenge. The combination of coherent motivic processes, imaginative and often exotic instrumentation and clarity of structure result in a winning communicability underpinned by intellectual rigour. This is especially evident in the five symphonies (1983–9), several of which are arranged for different media: no.2 is a version of the Mass, acclaimed for its refreshing response to familiar liturgy, while no.3, where players are required to hum a plainchant, was reworked as Revelation. Lloyd’s versatility is also demonstrated by his community opera The Adjudicator, written for the village of Blewbury in Oxfordshire, by his bold 1999 adaptation of The Beggar’s Opera, and by a variety of virtuoso chamber works including the witty Feuding Fiddles, featured in the 1986 Almeida Festival.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: The Adjudicator (op, 3, M.J. White), 1985; A Dream of a Pass (radio score, Lloyd), ens, 1997

Orch: Cantique, small orch, 1968, rev. 1970; Va Conc., 1979–80; Sym. no.1, 1983; Sym. no.2, 1983–4 [from Mass, 1983]; Sym. no.3, chbr orch, 1987; Sym. no.4, 1988; There, gui, str, 1991; Wa Wa Mozart, pf, chbr orch, 1991; Tolerance, 1993; blessed days of blue, solo fl, str, mand, gui, hp, 1995; Vn Conc., 1995

Chbr: John’s Journal, s sax + a sax, pf, 1980; Won’t it ever be Morning, ww qt, a sax, 2 hn, tpt, trbn, perc, pf + harm, elec gui, str qt, 1980; Waiting for Gozo, wind qnt, tpt, tbn, str qt, db, 1981; 3 Dances, wind qnt, str qt, 1981–2, arr. small orch; Songs from the Other Shore, 4 pieces for ens, fl, cl, vn, va, vc, hp, pf, 2 perc, 1984–6; The Five Senses, fl, gui, 1985; Almeida Dances, cl + a sax, perc, pf, str qt, 1986; Feuding Fiddles, 2 vn, 1986; Sym. no.5, 6 insts/13 insts, 1989; There and Then, 2 gui, 1991–2 [version of There, 1991]; Ballad for the Evening of a Man, fl, vn, va, vc, 1992; Blackmail, cl + s sax + b cl, bn + dbn, tpt, trbn, perc, pf + toy pf, vn + va, 1992; The Apprentice’s Sorcery, fl, tape, 1998; Shadows of our Future Selves, fl + pic, 2 ob + eng hn, 2 cl, 2 bn, 2 hn, 1998

Vocal: Scattered Ruins, S, ens, 1973; Everything Returns, S, orch, 1977–8; 3 Songs (Lloyd), 1v, va, pf, 1980; Toward the Whitening Dawn (cant., C. Seejes: People of the Noatak), chorus, chbr orch, 1980; Mass, 6 solo vv, 1983; Revelation, 8 solo vv, 1990 [from Sym. no.3]; … and Beyond (cant., Hindu text), chorus, chbr orch, 1996

Arrs.: Gershwin: Let’s Call the Whole Thing Off, 4 sax, pf, perc, elec gui, str qt, 1998; Gay: The Beggar’s Opera, elaborated version, 1999

Principal publisher: Boosey & Hawkes

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Cole: ‘Jonathan Lloyd’s Music’, Tempo, no.164 (1988), 2–11

M. Miller: ‘Jonathan Lloyd’s Symphony no.3’, Tempo, no.170 (1989), 40–42

M. Miller: ‘Jonathan Lloyd’s Fifth Symphony’, Tempo, no.172 (1990), 30–31

M. Miller: ‘Blessed Days of Blue’, Tempo, no.193 (1995), 47–8

M. Miller: ‘Jonathan Lloyd and Beyond’, Tempo, no.204 (1998), 37–8

MALCOLM MILLER

Lloyd, Norman

(b Potesville, PA, 8 Nov 1909; d Greenwich, CT, 30 July 1980). American music educationist and composer. He studied at New York University (BS 1932, MS 1936), and then joined the music faculty of Sarah Lawrence College, Bronxville, New York, where he remained for ten years. There and during summers spent at Bennington College in the 1930s he developed relationships with several established choreographers, among them Hanya Holm, Doris Humphrey, Martha Graham and José Limón, for whom he composed and conducted scores. From 1946 to 1963 he held various positions at the Juilliard School, where he set up a dance department, and, with William Schuman, he designed the Literature and Materials of Music system of teaching theory at Juilliard, a method which focussed on class discussion and the study of actual musical scores rather than textbooks, employed only composers as theory teachers, and integrated the traditionally separate areas of harmony and counterpoint into a single study. In 1963 Lloyd gained the doctorate from Philadelphia Conservatory, and left Juilliard to become dean of the Oberlin College Conservatory, joining the Rockefeller Foundation as director of arts programming two years later; after his retirement in 1972 he continued to act as a private consultant for various foundations and educational institutions.

Lloyd’s published compositions include a Piano Sonata (1958) and other works for piano, and several pieces for band and for chorus; much of his music, however, notably the many dance and film scores, remains unpublished. His collections of folksong arrangements, including The Fireside Book of Favorite American Songs (1947) and The Fireside Book of Love Songs (1954), and the popular Golden Encyclopedia of Music (1968) have become standard works in their areas. His manuscripts are held at Boston University.

ELLEN HIGHSTEIN/MICHAEL MECKNA

Lloyd, Robert

(b Southend-on-Sea, 2 March 1940). English bass. He studied with Otakar Kraus in London, and made an auspicious début in 1969 at the Collegiate Theatre as Don Fernando in Leonore. He sang with Sadler's Wells Opera, then in 1972 joined the Royal Opera, Covent Garden, where he has sung more than 60 roles, including Sarastro, the Commendatore, Don Basilio, Philip II, the Landgrave, Heinrich der Vogler, Gurnemanz, Daland, Fasolt, Arkel, Fiesco, Banquo, Ashby (La fanciulla del West), Walter Furst (Guillaume Tell), Rocco, Sir Giorgio (I puritani), Frère Laurent, Philosophe (Chérubin) and Ramfis, all of which have displayed his considerable gifts as a singing actor. He has also appeared at Glyndebourne, Aix-en-Provence, Amsterdam, Munich, Madrid, San Francisco and Chicago. In 1991 he sang Gurnemanz at La Scala and the Metropolitan, where he returned (1995/6) as Arkel, Fiesco and Sarastro. His acting ability, fine presence and resonant voice are superbly displayed in the title role of Boris Godunov, which he sang in the Tarkovsky production at Covent Garden (1983) and at the Kirov Opera (1990), preserved on video. His many operatic recordings include Osmin, Sarastro, Rossini's Don Basilio, The Grand Inquisitor, Banquo and Bottom. Lloyd is also a distinguished soloist in choral works, his firm tone and authoritative phrasing making him particularly effective in Verdi's Requiem. He was made a CBE in 1991.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Milnes: ‘Robert Lloyd’, Opera, xxxiv (1983), 368–74

ELIZABETH FORBES

Lloyd-Jones, David (Mathias)

(b London, 19 Nov 1934). English conductor, editor and translator. After reading Russian and German at Oxford University, he studied music privately with Iain Hamilton. As a Russian-language specialist, his first professional engagement was to coach Boris Godunov in Russian at Covent Garden in 1959. He assisted John Pritchard in preparing the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra’s ‘Musica Viva’ series in 1960, and became chorus master and assistant conductor of the New Opera Company the same year. In 1963 he began guest engagements with the BBC Welsh Orchestra and other orchestras. He conducted Scottish Opera in his own translation of Boris Godunov in 1967 and gave the first British performances of Fauré’s Pénélope (1970, RAM) and Haydn’s La fedeltà premiata (1971, Camden Festival). He was engaged by the Welsh National Opera and the Wexford Festival, and made his Covent Garden début with Boris Godunov in 1971. The next year he joined Sadler’s Wells Opera as assistant to the musical director and conducted, with conspicuous success, the first British stage performances of Prokofiev’s War and Peace. For ENO he conducted the première of Hamilton’s The Royal Hunt of the Sun in 1977.

Lloyd-Jones was appointed music director of Opera North (initially ENO North) on its foundation in Leeds (1977), and when it became independent of the ENO was its artistic director (1981–90). During this time he conducted 50 productions for the company, including the première of Wilfred Joseph’s Rebecca (1983), the first British stage productions of Krenek’s Jonny spielt auf (1984) and Strauss’s Daphne (1987), Boris on tour in Dortmund and The Love for Three Oranges at the Edinburgh Festival (1989). He was responsible for establishing a sound musical basis for the company, and providing an enterprising variety of productions; he was also founder-director of the English Northern Philharmonia. He has worked widely in Europe, North and South America and Israel, and in Britain has conducted much opera for television. He received an honorary MusD from Leeds University in 1985, and in 1989 was appointed director of the opera course at the GSM. He has prepared important critical editions of Boris Godunov and Prince Igor, as well as The Gondoliers and Berlioz’s L’enfance du Christ. His translations include The Love for Three Oranges, Yevgeny Onegin and Rachmaninoff’s Francesca da Rimini. He made the first recordings of Musorgsky’s Night on the Bare Mountain in its original version, and has also recorded much British music, including works by Constant Lambert, Delius and Bax. His versatility and authority in performance are combined with stylistic feeling and scholarship and, in opera, a belief in lyrical qualities and verbal clarity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

N. Payne: ‘Tutta nel mondo è burla: Ten Years of Opera North’, Opera, xxxix (1988), 1040–48

ARTHUR JACOBS/NOËL GOODWIN

Lloyd Webber

English family of composers and musicians.

(2) Andrew Lloyd Webber [Lloyd-Webber; Lord Lloyd-Webber of Sydmonton]

(3) Julian Lloyd Webber

CALLUM ROSS (1), JOHN SNELSON (2), MARGARET CAMPBELL (3)

Lloyd Webber

(1) William (Southcombe) Lloyd Webber

(b London, 11 March 1914; d London, 29 Oct 1982). Composer and organist. By the age of 14 he was well known as an organ recitalist. He won an organ scholarship to Mercer’s School and subsequently to the RCM (FRCO 1933), where his teachers included Vaughan Williams, among others. Although World War II interrupted his compositional development, the conclusion of the war marked the beginning of his most prolific years. His works from 1945 to the mid-1950s include the oratorio St Francis of Assisi (1948), the orchestral tone poem Aurora (1951) and the Sonatina for viola and piano (1951). Writing in a style firmly embedded in the Romanticism of such composers as Rachmaninoff, Sibelius and Franck, he became increasingly convinced that his music was ‘out of step’ with the prevailing climate of the time. Rather than compromise his approach, he virtually stopped composing, turning instead to academic music. He taught at the RCM and in 1964 became director of the London College of Music. Shortly before his death, a sudden flourish of creativity produced the Missa sanctae Mariae Magdalenae (1979), among other works.

WORKS

(selective list)

Fantasy Trio, pf trio, 1936; Lento, str orch, 1939; Sonatina, fl, pf, 1940; St Francis of Assisi (orat, D, Pleydell-Bouverie, A. Kindersley), S, A, T, Bar, SATB, str, hp, 1948; Aurora, tone poem, orch, 1951; Sonatina, va, pf, 1951; 3 Spring Miniatures, pf, 1952; The Divine Compassion (sacred cant., Bible, John, selected A.F. Bayly), T, Bar, SATB, org, 1953; Chorale, Cantilena and Finale, org, 1957; The Saviour (B. Rees), T, B, SATB, org, 1960; Missa sanctae Mariae Magdalenae, SATB, org, 1979

Principal publishers: Bosworth, Chester, William Elkin, Kevin Mayhew, Mostyn, Music Sales, Peters, Stainer & Bell

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Wolz: Review in American Organist, xxv/2 (1991), 58–60

A. Green: Review in The Independent (27 Oct 1995)

Lloyd Webber

(2) Andrew Lloyd Webber [Lloyd-Webber; Lord Lloyd-Webber of Sydmonton]

(b London, 22 March 1948). Composer and producer, son of (1) William Lloyd Webber.

1. Life and works.

He was educated at Westminster School and the RCM. From an early age he wrote incidental music for shows with his toy theatre; at Westminster he wrote music for school revues. In the April of 1965 he met the lyricisttim Rice with whom he wrote the unperformed musical The Likes of Us and some pop songs. Their first success came with the commission to write a choral work for Colet Court School; the resulting pop cantata, Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat, was gradually extended to a full-length show and has become a constant of both amateur and professional repertories. They released the concept album for Jesus Christ Superstar (1970), which became one of the bestselling albums of that time in both the UK and USA; it was then developed for stage and opened in New York (1971). After the failure of the book musical Jeeves (1975), Lloyd Webber decided that in future works the music would lead the plot and consequently, apart from the revision By Jeeves (1996), has not yet returned wholly to book musicals. Also as a result of Jeeves, he began the annual Sydmonton Festival at his Berkshire home, Sydmonton Court, in order to test future ideas more fully before staging them commercially. In 1976 a concept album was released for Evita, a musical based on the life of Eva Peron, and all his works since have been given workshop performances at Sydmonton. In 1977 he first presented at Sydmonton his Variations for solo cello and rock band, written for his brother (3) Julian. Recorded in 1978, it also provided for many years the signature tune to London Weekend Television’s long running ‘The South Bank Show’. In the same year Evita was staged in London and marked the last major collaboration between Rice and Lloyd Webber; a virtual compendium of their styles, it has achieved wide acclaim and remains one of Lloyd Webber’s most dynamic scores.

He began collaborating with lyricists other than Rice, notably withDon Black for the dramatic sequence of songs Tell me on a Sunday (1979) and later for Phantom of the Opera and Sunset Boulevard. Along with Variations, this work was combined into the successful Song and Dance (1982). The adaption of T.S. Eliot’s poetry for Cats (1981) was an unexpected international success, and produced the now standard ballad ‘Memory’. His next musical, Starlight Express, a collaboration with the writer Richard Stilgoe, gained a popularity in part associated with the dramatic and technological staging that has become a hallmark of many of his shows. He divorced his first wife in September 1983, and the following year married the soprano Sarah Brightman, who sang the soprano solo for the première of his Requiem, with its hit single ‘Pie Jesu’. In The Phantom of the Opera (1986) Brightman created the role of Christine, written to exploit her individual light soprano sound. They were divorced in November 1990.

In 1993 he opened a musical version of the classic film Sunset Boulevard in London, choosing Los Angeles rather than New York for its American première. The planned Broadway opening of Whistle Down the Wind was cancelled after its Washington, DC, previews (1996), but the show was revised for the West End (1998). The cover version of its song ‘No Matter What’ by the pop group Boyzone was a number one chart success, and a complete album of cover versions of further songs from the show by established performers such as Tom Jones, Sounds of Blackness and Meatloaf was also released. Lloyd Webber formed these strong links between studio recording and stage with his first works: the concept albums of Jesus Christ Superstar (1970) and Evita (1976) were released before staging, and the creation of advance public and commercial interest has continued with nearly all of his later shows, most noticeably with single releases including ‘Love changes everything’ (Aspects of Love) sung by Michael Ball.

In 1977, in a move to retain both artistic and managerial control over his and Rice’s works, the Really Useful Company was founded. As successive works achieved commercial success, Lloyd Webber bought the Palace Theatre in the West End (1983) and in January 1986 the increasingly powerful company was floated as the Really Useful Group on the London Stock Exchange, an indication of the growing global importance of the organization (London VII, 6 (iii)). Bought back into the private control of Lloyd Webber in 1990 (but not bought back outright until 1999), the company’s interests extended to continental theatres dedicated to performances of Lloyd Webber musicals, such as that at Bochum, Germany, for Starlight Express and licensed productions of Cats and Phantom of the Opera in Hamburg. Along with the producer Cameron Mackintosh, with whom Lloyd Webber has sometimes collaborated, and the marketing strategies of the Really Useful Group, he has led the development of a world market in ‘mega-musicals’, and productions of Cats, Phantom of the Opera and Aspects of Love have run simultaneously in London and on Broadway. Through the record-breaking length of runs of his musicals, many now exceeding a decade, Lloyd Webber has been responsible for raising the cultural and commercial profile of the musical worldwide through the 1980s and 90s.

He was awarded an FRCM (1988), a knighthood for services to the arts (1992) and a life peerage (1997). He received the Richard Rodgers Award for Excellence in Musical Theatre (1996), and has gained six Tony awards, five Olivier awards, three Grammy awards (including that of Best Classical Composition for Requiem, 1986) and, along with Rice, an Academy Award (1997) for the song ‘You must love me’, written for the film version of Evita (1996).

2. Style.

The long periods of development and frequent overlapping of projects, along with the regular recycling of previously discarded material, blunts any clear demarcation between different stages in Lloyd Webber’s style. Certain features have remained constant. His use of familiar styles has been particularly effective in creating the sense of an individual sound world for each of his shows, for example Phantom of the Opera uses opera, while the contrasts between angular and aggressive rock-based sections in Evita and Cats are far removed from the film-style brooding opening of Sunset Boulevard. Although his early rock opera successes of Jesus Christ Superstar and Evita are essentially episodic in their construction, Lloyd Webber has concentrated on developing the sung-through narrative musical. Recitative and arioso sections are effectively used in Phantom but reach their most laboured in Aspects of Love, where repeating motifs often contribute more to the musical character rather than a precise highlighting of dramatic moments. With subsequent works he has included a more clearly defined structure and spoken narrative.

Lloyd Webber has consistently drawn on three main elements: pastiche, the rock riff and the lyric ballad. Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat established the role of pastiche as a major stylistic feature through such numbers as the French chanson ‘Those Canaan Days’, the ‘Benjamin Calypso’ and the Elvis Presley-inspired rock and roll number, ‘Song of the King’. Later examples have ranged through ragtime (‘King Herod’s Song’, Jesus Christ Superstar), country and western (‘U.N.C.O.U.P.L.E.D.’, Starlight Express) and gospel hymnody (‘The Vaults of Heaven’, Whistle Down the Wind). Beyond these examples of deliberate pastiche, Lloyd Webber has demonstrated a consistent ability to embrace popular and classical music vocabularies, recombining their elements to create remarkably popular works. The blurring of these boundaries has sometimes led to melodies with an apparent pre-existing familiarity: ‘I don’t know how to love him’ (Jesus Christ Superstar) has a melodic profile similar to the second movement of Mendelssohn’s Violin Concerto, while ‘On this Night of a Thousand Stars’ (Evita) is reminiscent of Louigy’s Cherry Pink and Apple Blossom White. Whether these similarities are conscious reworkings or simply the constant absorption of a wide range of musical sources into an already eclectic style has aroused some debate (Walsh, 13–14; Coveney, 197–200).

The riff-based element of his style draws on a strong melodic motive underpinned by equally affirmative chord sequences, further defined by a rhythmic pattern which is also subject to intense repetition rather than development: the early title chorus of Jesus Christ Superstar, ‘Love’s Maze’ (By Jeeves) and Hosanna from the Requiem are striking examples of this. This technique is at its most effective when developed, as with the displacements of melodic and rhythmic cells across the bar-line in ‘Take that look off your face’ (Tell me on a Sunday). The Variations (1977) uses the theme of Paganini’s A minor caprice and redefines its formal construction in terms of the rock riff, notably in Variation no.7. A fondness for introducing irregular metres into these repetitive sequences, particularly 7/8 as in ‘And the money kept rolling in (and out)’ (Evita) also adds to their memorability.

Lloyd Webber’s ballads point to a fundamental lyricism that runs through all his works. Early examples used the limited vocal range of the pop song (‘Close ev’ry door’, Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat), but he gradually adopted a wider melodic range, in Cats drawing on the upper extremes of both the musical theatre ‘belt voice’ in ‘Memory’ and the vernacular ballad singer in ‘The Ballad of Billy McCaw’. With Phantom of the Opera he used a more expansive lyricism suited to the operatic setting, as in the wide melodic leaps of the romantic duet ‘All I Ask of You’, the Puccini-influenced ensemble ‘Prima Donna’ and ‘Music of the Night’, which exploits the drama of vocal extremes for a single voice. Although frequently heard outside their original contexts, Lloyd Webber’s ballads have been particularly effective when allied to strong dramatic moments, as with ‘High Flying Adored’ (Evita), ‘Memory’ (Cats) and ‘With One Look’ (Sunset Boulevard). Throughout, such numbers have tended to retain simple structural forms, from ‘Any dream will do’ (Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat) to ‘Too Much in Love to Care’ (Sunset Boulevard), some 25 years later. Such structural familiarity, however, allied to an innate sense of the melodically memorable account for much of Lloyd Webber’s lasting popular appeal.

WORKS

dramatic

unless otherwise stated, all are stage musicals and dates are those of first London performance; where different, writers shown as (lyricist; book author); vocal selections for most published at time of first London performance

Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat (cant., 1, T. Rice, after Bible: Genesis), orchd Lloyd Webber, Colet Court School, 1 March 1968; rev. 1968 [for recording]; rev. 21 Aug 1972, Edinburgh [in Bible One: Two Looks at the Book of Genesis]; rev. (2) orchd D. Cullen and Lloyd Webber, London, Albery, 17 Feb 1973; [incl. Any dream will do, Close ev’ry door]

Jesus Christ Superstar (op, 2, Rice, after Bible: Gospels), orchd Lloyd Webber, discs, MKPS 2011–2 (MCA, 1970) [incl. Heaven on their Minds, Herod’s Song, I don’t know how to love him]; rev. New York, Mark Hellinger, orchd Lloyd Webber, 12 Oct 1971; film 1973

Jeeves (2, A. Ayckbourn, after P.G. Wodehouse), orchd D. Walker, Lloyd Webber, K. Amos and Cullen, Her Majesty’s, 22 April 1975; rev. as By Jeeves, Duke of York’s, 2 July 1996

Evita (op, 2, Rice), orchd Lloyd Webber, discs, MCX 55031–2 (MCA, 1976) [incl. Another Suitcase in Another Hall, Don’t cry for me, Argentina, High Flying Adored, Oh What a Circus]; rev. 1978, orchd H. Kay, Prince Edward, 21 June 1978; film 1996 [incl. You must love me]

Tell me on a Sunday (D. Black), Royalty Theatre, Jan 1980 [incl. Take that look off your face, Tell me on a Sunday]; rev. as Song and Dance, Palace, 26 March 1982 [with Variations; see other works]

Cats (2, T.S. Eliot, addl lyrics by R. Stilgoe and T. Nunn, after Eliot: Old Possum’s Book of Practical Cats), orchd D. Cullen and Lloyd Webber, New London, 11 May 1981 [incl. Memory]

Starlight Express (2, Stilgoe), orchd Cullen and Lloyd Webber, Apollo Victoria, 27 March 1984; rev. 1992

Cricket (1, Rice), private perf., Windsor Castle, 18 June 1986

The Phantom of the Opera (prol, 2, C. Hart and Stilgoe; Lloyd Webber and Stilgoe, after G. Leroux), orchd Cullen and Lloyd Webber, Her Majesty’s, 9 Oct 1986 [incl. All I Ask of You, Music of the Night, The Phantom of the Opera, Wishing You Were Somehow Here Again]

Aspects of Love (2, Black and Hart; Lloyd Webber, after D. Garnett), orchd Cullen and Lloyd Webber, Prince of Wales, 17 April 1989 [incl. Love changes everything]

Sunset Boulevard (2, Black and C. Hampton), orchd Cullen and Lloyd Webber, Adelphi, 12 July 1993 [after film; incl. As if We Never Said Goodbye, Too Much in Love to Care, With One Look]

Whistle Down the Wind (2, J. Steinman; P. Knop, G. Edwards and Lloyd Webber, after M. Hayley Bell), orchd Cullen and Lloyd Webber, Aldwych, 1 July 1998 [incl. No Matter What]

other works

Film scores: Gumshoe, 1971; The Odessa File, 1974

Orch: Variations, vc, rock band, 1977, rev. Cullen, vc, orch, 1978; Requiem, orchd Cullen and Lloyd Webber, boy S, S, T, SATB, orch, New York, St Thomas’s Episcopal Church, 24 Feb 1985

Individual popular songs, incl. Down Thru’ Summer (Rice), 1967; Probably on Thursday (Rice), 1967; Believe me I will (Rice), 1968; What a line to go out on (Rice), 1972; Christmas Dream (Rice), 1974; It’s easy for you (Rice), 1977; Magadalena (Rice), 1977; Amigos para siempre (Black), 1994 [anthem for Barcelona Olympic Games]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GänzlEMT

G. McKnight: Andrew Lloyd Webber (London, 1984)

M. Walsh: Andrew Lloyd Webber: his Life and Works (London, 1989, 2/1997)

J.P. Swain: ‘History as Musical’, The Broadway Musical: a Critical and Musical Survey (New York, 1990), 293–307

H. Muhe: Die Musik von Andrew Lloyd Webber (Hamburg, 1993)

K. Richmond: The Musicals of Andrew Lloyd Webber (London, 1995)

M. Steyn: ‘The Maximalist’, Broadway Babies Say Goodnight: Musicals Then and Now (London, 1997), 273–86

M. Coveney: Cats on a Chandelier: the Andrew Lloyd Webber Story (London, 1999)

T. Rice: Oh, What a Circus: the Autobiography, 1944–1978 (London, 1999) [incl. list of works, pp.425–36]

Lloyd Webber

(3) Julian Lloyd Webber

(b London, 14 April 1951). Cellist. Son of (1) William Lloyd Webber. He studied with Douglas Cameron, Joan Dickson and Harvey Phillips at the RCM and Fournier in Geneva. He made his London recital début in 1971 and his concerto début the following year with the first London performance of Bliss's Cello Concerto, of which he subsequently made the first recording. Lloyd Webber has appeared widely as a soloist in Britain and abroad and has given many premières, including Rodrigo's Concierto como un Divertimento (1982), Arnold's Fantasy for Cello (1987) and Cello Concerto (1989), and Gavin Bryars's Farewell to Philosophy (1995), of which he is also the dedicatee. He was appointed professor of the cello at the GSM, London, in 1978, and was artistic director of Cellothon 88 at the South Bank in 1988. Lloyd Webber is known for his exploratory approach to repertory, introducing many neglected masterpieces into his programmes and recording his brother Andrew’s Variations for cello and rock band. He has also made numerous recordings, of which several, including Bridge's Oration, are world premières. His skilful control of the instrument and well-focussed, mellow tone are allied to an acute sense of style. He plays the ‘Barjansky’ Stradivarius dated c1690. He has written Travels with my Cello (London, 1984).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Campbell: ‘Julian Lloyd Webber: a Profile’, The Strad, xcii (1981–2), 180–84

Llull, Ramon [Ramón] [Lull, Raymond; Lullus, Raymondus]

(b c1232; d c1316). Mallorcan theologian and mystic. According to his Vida, Llull became seneschal to the king of Mallorca, and was a devotee of troubadour lyrics before his ‘conversion to penitence’. He did not leave an extended discussion of music as a liberal art, however, there are brief references to music among his many theological and literary works.

In his Ars brevis Llull defined music as ‘the art devised to arrange many voices so that they may be concordant in a single song’, a definition he used in other works. The treatment of his Ars generalis ultima considers music from the standpoint of his unusal theory of cognition. More typical of his writing is the passage in his Libre de doctrina pueril, ‘De les vii arts’, which compares the clergy singing in praise of God with minstrels expressing worldly vanity in songs and on instruments. He put great stress on reforming worldly entertainment into morally improving works, and proposed the idea of divine troubadours in two works, Libre de contemplació and Libre de Blaquerna; he may have been influenced in this by the Franciscan idea of the holy minstrel. It is clear that he was aware of the power of oral transmission (as in the joglar's art) to spread ideas. The parallels drawn between music and rhetoric in his Libre de contemplació are worthy of note.

A modern Catalan composer, Xavier Benguerel Godó (b 1931), has set texts by Llull.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FasquelleE

M. Obrador y Bennássar and others, eds.: Obres de Ramón Lull (Palma de Mallorca, 1906–50)

J.N. Hillgarth: Ramón Lull and Lullism in Fourteenth-Century France (Oxford, 1971)

Raymond Lulle et le Pays d'Oc (Toulouse, 1987)

A. Bonner and L.Badia: Ramon Llull: vida, pensament i obra literaria (Barcelona, 1988)

ANDREW HUGHES/RANDALL ROSENFELD

Llussa, Francisco

(fl 1687–1738). Spanish composer and organist; he is erroneously called Llissa in some sources. According to a document in the Barcelona municipal archives (transcribed in AnM, ii, 1947, pp.203–16), he requested retirement in 1738 at an advanced age after serving as organist and priest at S María del Pino from 1687. His known works, all for organ, are found in four manuscripts at Barcelona and Astorga. E-Bc M.729 and M.736 contain settings in from two to four parts of hymns that were traditional favourites with Spanish organists, Pange lingua and Sacris solemniis. These retain the cantus firmus in various voices and surround it with animated figures, at times in close imitation. Three brief Sanctus versets are extant (E-Boc 12, ed. F. Pedrell, Antología de organistas classicos españoles, ii, Madrid, 1908, 2/1968, and J. Muset, Early Spanish Organ Music, New York, 1948). Llussa's only long composition is a tiento in a manuscript discovered in the late 1960s (E-AS; ed. J.M. Alvarez Perez, Colección de obras de órgano de organistas españoles del siglo XVII, Madrid, 1970). Though written for divided register with the left hand as soloist, it is more consistently contrapuntal than is usual with works of this type and maintains a single subject through several rhythmic transformations.

ALMONTE HOWELL

Loaysa y Agurto, Joseph de.

See Agurto y Loaysa, Joseph de.

Łobaczewska [Gérard de Festenburg], Stefania

(b Lwów, 31 July 1888; d Kraków, 16 Jan 1963). Polish musicologist. She studied the piano with V. Kurc at Lwów Conservatory and musicology with Guido Adler in Vienna and Adolf Chybiński in Lwów (1914–18). In 1929 she took the doctorate at Lwów University with a dissertation on Debussy’s harmony; in 1949 she completed the Habilitation at Poznań with a work on Szymanowski. She taught theoretical subjects at the Szymanowski School of Music in Lwów (1931–9) and at Lwów Conservatory (1940–41). From 1945 she lived in Kraków, where she was professor, dean and finally rector of the State Higher School of Music until 1955. From 1952 until her death she was also head of the musicology department at Kraków University.

Łobaczewska’s activity as a scholar concentrated chiefly on 20th-century music; her monumental biography of Szymanowski remains an important work on the composer. She was also interested in stylistic problems and in the last years of her life she began a voluminous work dealing broadly with this subject. She also edited Dokumentacja warszawskiego okresu życia i twórczości Fryderyka Chopina.

WRITINGS

‘Muzykologia Polska’, Muzyka, iv/7–9 (1927), 143–51

O harmonice Klaudiusza Achillesa Debussy’ego w pierwszym okresie jego twórczości [Debussy’s harmony in his first creative period] (diss., U. of Lwów, 1929); KM, no.5 (1929–30), 32–62

‘O ekspresjoniźmie muzycznym’, Księga pamiątkowa ku czci profesora Dr. Adolfa Chybińskiego (Kraków, 1930), 125–47

Zarys estetyki muzycznej [Outline of music aesthetics] (Lwów, 1937)

‘O zadaniach i metodzie monografii muzycznej’ [On the problems and methods of musical monographs], KM, nos.21–2 (1948), 144–69

Karol Szymanowski: życie i twórczość (1882–1937) [Szymanowski: life and works] (Habilitationsschrift, U. of Poznań, 1949; Kraków, 1950)

‘Problem wartościowania i wartości w muzyce’ [The problem of evaluation and values in music], KM, no.25 (1949), 55–119

Tablice do historii muzyki (Kraków, 1949)

Zarys historii form muzycznych: próba ujęcia socjologicznego [Outline of the history of musical forms: an attempt at a sociological approach] (Kraków, 1950)

‘Z zagadnień metodycznych historii muzyki’ [From the problems of methods of music history], Księga pamiątkowa ku czci Prof. Adolfa Chybińskiego w 70-lecie urodzin (Kraków, 1950), 120–45

Ludwik van Beethoven (Kraków, 1953, 4/1977)

‘Z zagadnień analizy muzykologicznej’ [From the problems of musicological analysis], Studia muzykologiczne, i (1953), 155–88

Wkład Chopina do romantyzmu europejskiego [Chopin’s contribution to European Romanticism] (Warsaw, 1955); Fr. trans. in Annales Chopin, ii (1957), 7–99

‘Schumann – Chopin’, Robert Schumann: aus Anlass seines 100. Todestages, ed. H.J. Moser and E. Rebling (Leipzig, 1956), 55–67

Style muzyczne (Kraków, 1960–62)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Kaczyński: ‘Młoda do ostatnich dni’ [Youthful to the end], RM, vii/5 (1963), 6–7

Z. Lissa: ‘Wspomnienie o Stefanii Łobaczewskiej’ [Reminiscences about Łobaczewska], RM, vii/5 (1963), 3–4

L. Polony: Polski kształt sporu o istotę muzyki [The Polish form of the controversy surrounding the essence of music] (Kraków, 1991)

ZYGMUNT M. SZWEYKOWSKI

Lobanov, Vasily Pavlovich

(b Moscow, 2 Jan 1947). Russian composer and pianist. He received his musical education at the Moscow Conservatory in two areas of specialization: composition (Balasanian and Schnittke) and piano (Naumov). In the 1970s he began a busy career as a soloist and ensemble player; he has been a member of a piano trio with Oleg Kagan and Natal'ya Gutman (1977–90), has played piano duets with Sviatoslav Richter (1982–4) and has also played in ensembles with Kremer and Bashmet. Since 1990 he has lived in Germany and in 1997 was appointed professor of piano at the Cologne Hochschule für Musik. He has appeared at many international festivals and headed international workshops on composition, piano and chamber music in Russia, Germany, Japan, Finland, Austria, Chile and other countries. In 1997 he was appointed Artistic Director of the Kammermusiktage Osnabrück festival.

Continual contact with the international musical repertory has left its stamp on the way Lobanov thinks as a composer. His thinking is universal by its very nature: ‘I am firmly convinced that a composer is only a medium, an intermediary between the Cosmos, God and Humankind, an intermediary between eternity and history, life and creativity. It is precisely on this boundary that art occurs.’ This explains the breadth of themes and genres that are so typical of him, his freedom in using extra-musical associations, his predilection for ‘eternal’ subjects (the operas Antigone after Sophocles and Father Sergius after Leo Tolstoy), and the non-standard treatment of seemingly traditional performing forces. Just as universal is Lobanov's musical language, which, despite the variety of stylistic influences (from Bach and Mahler to Rachmaninoff and Messiaen), is notable for its strict unity and consistency. Tonal coloration and clear-cut metrical organization of the minimalist type are combined with static meditation, which, quite unlike that in mainstream minimalism, is punctuated with sudden dramatic impulses.

WORKS

Stage: Antigone (op, 3, after Sophocles), op.51, 1985–7; Vater Sergius (op, 4 scenes, after L. Tolstoy), op.57, 1990

Orch: Pf Conc. no.1, op.35, pf, chbr orch, 1981; Vc Conc., op.42, 1984–5; Va Conc., op.53, 1989; Pf Conc. no.2, op.64, 1993; Double Conc., op.65, vn, cl, chbr orch, 1995; Tpt Conc., op.70, 1998; Va Conc. no.2, op.71, 1998

Pf: 3 Brahms Lieder, 1967; Partita [Suite no.1], op.9, 1967; Richard Strauss – Lied, 1969; Suite no.3, op.19, 1974; Sonata no.2, op.33, 1980; 7 langsame Stücke, op.34, 1980; 4 diatonische Preludien, op.44, 1984;. 2 Preludien, op.46, 1986; Fragmente, op.55, 1989

Chbr: 7 Pieces, op.25, vc, pf, 1978; Trio, fl, cl, bn, op.29, 1979; Variations, op.30, 2 tpt, 1979; Adagio, op.32, pf trio, 1980; Sonata, op.38, fl, pf, 1983; Ode an das Gras, op.37, 1982; Ode an den Wind, op.41, vn, pf, 1984; 4 Stücke im strengen Stil, op.43, cl/va, pf, 1984; Sonata, op.45, cl, pf, 1985; Fantasie, op.48, vc, 1987; Str Qt no.4, op.49, 1987–8; Str Qt no.5, op.50, 1986–8; Beschwörung, op.52, cl, pf, 1988; Sonata no.2, op.54, vc, pf, 1989; Sonata ‘In 6 Fragmente’, op.56, vn, pf, 1989; Sonata, op.58, va, pf, 1990; Fantasie, op.59, hn, pf, 1991; Pf Qnt, op.61, 1991; Trio, op.62, cl, va, pf, 1992; Little Suite, op.63, va, 1992; Offertorium, op.67, pf qt, perc, 1995; Pf Qt, op.68, 1995–6; Str Trio, op.69, 1996; Cl Qnt, op.72, 1999; Qt, op.74, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1999

Vocal: Gedichte (A. Parin), op.39, B, pf, 1984; Die Stimme, op.40, S, pf, 1984; Gott-Nachtigall, cant., op.60, Bar, chbr ens, 1991; Gott spricht zu jedem … (R.M. Rilke), Mez, pf, 1992; Iron Wool (I. Bunin), op.73, nar, vn, 1999

Arr.: Mahler: Pf Qt, 1995

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Stahnke: ‘Junge Moskauer Komponisten: Notizen zu Biographie und Werk’, NZM, Jg.142 (1981), 146–51

‘Wassili Lobanow’, Sowjetische Musik im Licht der Perestroika, ed. H. Danuser, H. Gerlach and J. Köchel (Laaber, 1990), 374–6

V. Lobanov: ‘Not ne dolzhno bït’ [There shouldn't be any notes], MAk (1996), no.1, pp.118–28

TAT'YANA FRUMKIS

Lobback, G. Christian

(b Hamburg, 20 Sept 1938). German organ builder. He served his apprenticeship with E. Kemper & Son of Lübeck (1958–61), then worked freelance for two years in Ludwigsburg and Brackwede, with the firms of E.F. Walcker and Detlef Kleuger respectively. He set up his own organ workshop in Wedel in 1964, and he moved to Neuendeich in 1981.

Lobback builds organs which have slider-chests and mechanical key actions. Each is individually designed in a contemporary style that does not refer to particular historical concepts. Organs built by him include SS Peter und Paul, Garrel (1980); Herz-Jesu, Bremerhaven-Lehe (1981); St Antonius von Padua, Rheine (1984); St Gertrud, Lohne (1985); and St Augustinus, Hanover (1991). Lobback has also undertaken restorations of instruments with mechanical and tubular-pneumatic actions, of which the best known is the reconditioning of the Jahnn organ at the Heinrich-Hertz-Schule in Hamburg (built 1926–31, restored 1990–91).

UWE PAPE

Lobe, Johann Christian

(b Weimar, 30 May 1797; d Leipzig, 27 July 1881). German writer on music, composer and flautist. He received his first flute lessons at the age of seven, and scored his first successes as a virtuoso between 1808 and 1811, the year he joined the Weimar Hofkapelle. He made intensive studies of dramatic and musical theory and early attempts at composition until 1819, and subsequently produced five operas (of which Die Fürstin von Grenada was conspicuously successful) and nearly 40 instrumental works. Because of the absence of enduring success and increasing financial difficulties, he largely gave up composing around 1840 and founded a private music institute. Pensioned off from Weimar in 1845, he was appointed professor and moved to Leipzig in 1846, where he became editor of the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung. From 1853 to 1857 he edited his own series, Fliegende Blätter für Musik, and later (1861–3) the musical section of the Illustrirte Zeitung. Lobe became well known through his theoretical and aesthetic writings. His Compositions-Lehre, a systematic treatise about thematic and motivic work, appeared in 1844. His most important works are the four volume Lehrbuch der Komposition and the Katechismus der Musik, which enjoyed international popularity. Author of numerous essays, Lobe was concerned with questions about the creative process, musical education and style. Critical of Romanticism and its free poetic description of music, he tried to establish a theory of emotive meaning based on 18th-century rationalism and the aesthetics of Weimar classicism. While holding to the model of Mozart and Beethoven, he nonetheless supported Berlioz and Liszt, though he objected to Wagner's writings.

WORKS

stage

all first produced at Weimar, Hoftheater

Wittekind, Herzog von Sachsen (op, 3, J.C. Lobe), 1818–21, perf. 5 Jan 1822, lib (Weimar, 1821)

Die Flibustier (op, 3, E. Gehe, after C.F. van der Velde), 1825–6, perf. 5 Sept 1829, vs (Leipzig, c1831)

Die Fürstin von Grenada, oder Der Zauberblick (op, 5, Lobe and P.C.C. Sonderhausen), ?1830–33, perf. 28 Sept 1833, fs (Paris and Mainz, 1834)

Der rothe Domino (comic op, 2, Theophania [Fr. von Langen], after H. Zschokke: Das Abenteuer einer Neujahrsnacht), ?1836–7, perf. 22 April 1837, lib (Weimar, 1837)

König und Pachter (comic op, 4, F.L.C. von Biedenfeld, after Karl der XII. auf Rügen), ?1843–4, perf. 24 June 1844, D-WRdn

instrumental

Orch: Fl Conc., G, op.1 (Leipzig, 1819); Concertino, fl, orch, e, op.21 (Leipzig, 1831); Ov., ‘Les charmes du vogage’, B, op.26 (Dresden, 1833); other ovs., pieces for fl and orch

Chbr: Pf qt, E, op.2 (Leipzig, 1823); Pf qt, d, op.9 (Leipzig, 1824); Str qnt, A, op.35 (Mainz, 1840); other chbr works, pieces for pf, fl, etc.

WRITINGS

Compositions-Lehre (Weimar, 1844/R)

Lehrbuch der musikalischen Komposition (Leipzig, 1850–67; vols.i, ii, iii rev. by Lobe, 1858–75, vols.i, iv rev. by H. Kretzschmar, 1884–7)

Katechismus der Musik (Leipzig, 1851, rev. 28/1904 by R. Hofmann; Eng. trans., 1874); ed. H. Leichtentritt (Leipzig, 1913, 3/1926); ed. W. Neumann (Leipzig, 1949, 12/1981)

Musikalische Briefe: Wahrheit über Tonkunst und Tonkünstler. Von einem Wohlbekannten (Leipzig, 1852, 2/1860)

Fliegende Blätter für Musik (Leipzig, 1853–7)

Aus dem Leben eines Musikers (Leipzig, 1859)

Katechismus der Compositionslehre (Leipzig, 1863/R, 2/1871, rev. 7/1902 by R. Hofmann; Eng. trans., 1874)

Consonanzen und Dissonanzen (Leipzig, 1869)

Articles in AMZ, NZM

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (R. Sietz)

W. Bode: Goethes Schauspieler und Musiker: Erinnerungen von Eberwein und Lobe (Berlin, 1912)

B. Grimm: Die sozial-ökonomische Lage der Weimarer Hofkapellisten in der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts, dargestellt am Beispiel Johann Christian Lobes (diss., U. of Leipzig, 1964)

P. Ackermann: ‘Johann Christian Lobe und die Geschichte der Instrumentationslehre in Deutschland’, Musica, xlvi (1992), 283–90

T. Brandt: Studien zu Johann Christian Lobe als Musikschriftsteller (forthcoming) [with complete list of works]

TORSTEN BRANDT

Lobel', Solomon Moiseyevich

(b Iaşi, Romania, 14/27 Jan 1910; d Kishinev [Chişinău], 2 April 1981). Moldovan composer. He studied at the Iaşi Conservatory (1931–7) while involved in the underground activities of the Romanian Communist Party. He then studied composition with Jora and the piano with Musicescu at the Bucharest Academy of Music (1938–9). When Bessarabia became part of the USSR in 1940, Lobel' moved for political reasons to Kishinev where he entered the conservatory, graduating in 1949 from Gurov's composition class. After serving in the Soviet army (1941–5) he joined the staff of the Kishinev Conservatory (1949–81, in 1962 appointed assistant professor and in 1980 professor) and became one of the most significant composition teachers in Moldova. He joined the USSR Composers' Union in 1950. He was made an Honoured Representative of the Arts in 1960 and received many other official awards. His output is largely instrumental and while the influence of 19th-century Russian composers dominates in early works, neo-classical traits appear in his compositions of the 1960s and 70s; Moldovan folklore plays an important role in his creative work.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Sym. no.1 ‘Prazdnichnaya’ [Festive], 1949; Sym. no.2 ‘Pamyati Kotovskogo’ [To the Memory of Kotovsky], 1953; Vn Conc., 1956; V roshche [In the Wood], sym. picture, 1958; Sym. no.3, 1960; Sym. no.4, 1965; Sym. no.5 ‘Pamyati Lenina’ [To the Memory of Lenin], 1970; Sym. no.6 ‘Pamyati revolyutsionerki Ol'gi Banchik’ [To the Memory of the Revolutionary Olga Banchik], 1974; Sym. no.7, 1975; Pf Conc., 1978

Vocal: Nashi zori [Our Dawns] (cant., Ye. Bukov), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1954; Poėma o Khaye Livshits [Poem about Livshits] (L. Deleanu), chorus, 1960; Poėma o partii [Poem about the Party] (Bukov), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1965; I yagodï list'ya (Berries and Leaves] (poem, G. Vieru), chorus, 1973; songs and romances, 1v, pf; Moldovan folksong arrs., 1v, pf

Chbr and solo inst: 4 Preludes, pf, 1946; Moldavskiy tanets v forme rondo [Moldovan Dance in the Form of a Rondo], pf, 1947; Pf Sonata no.1, 1948; 2 rondos, pf, 1948; Skertso, str qt, 1948; Pf Sonata no.2, 1952; Poėma, pf, 1956; 2 p'yesï [2 Pieces], str qt, 1957; Sonata no.1, cl, pf, 1961; Sonata no.1, vc, pf, 1961; Sonata no.2, vc, pf, 1965; Sonata no.2, cl, pf, 1967; Str Qt no.1, 1968; Str Qt no.2, 1971; Aforizmï [Aphorisms], sonata-mosaic, pf, 1972; 7 collections of pf pieces

Principal publishers: Cartea Moldovenească, Sovetskiy Kompozitor

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Kletinich: S. Lobel' (Moscow, 1973)

G. Kocharova: ‘Bortsam za pravdu i svobodu posvyashchayestya’ [Dedicated to the champions of truth and freedom], SovM (1979), no.5, pp.34–6 [on Symphony no.6]

E. Kletinich: Ocherki o sovetskikh moldavskikh kompozitorakh [Essays on Soviet Moldovian composers] (Kishinev, 1984)

S. Tsirkunova: ‘Aforizmï S. Lobelya: zhanrovo-stilevïye istoki tematizma, chertï kompozitsii’ [Lobel''s Aphorisms: the genre and stylistic origins of the themes, and the features of their composition], Muzïkal'noye tvorchestvo v sovetskoy Moldavii, ed. G.K. Komarova (Kishinev, 1988), 54

SVETLANA TSIRKUNOVA

Lobetanz

(Ger.).

See Ranz des vaches.

Lobkowitz [Lobkowicz, Lobkovic].

Bohemian noble family of patrons of music. The genealogy of the family, notable for its patronage of the arts, particularly music, may be traced back to the middle of the 14th century. Ferdinand August Lobkowitz (1655–1715) was an amateur lutenist and guitarist. His sons (1) Philipp Hyacinth Lobkowitz and Johann Georg Christian (Jan Jiří Kristián) Lobkowitz (1686–1755) both played important roles in Gluck’s early development, the latter, as Austrian governor of Milan, receiving the dedications of his Arsace (1743), La Sofonisba (1744) and Ippolito (1745). Of Johann Georg Christian’s children, Joseph Maria Karl (Josef Maria Karel) Lobkowitz (1725–1802) maintained a private orchestra in St Petersburg, where he was Austrian minister plenipotentiary to the Russian court; and August Anton Joseph (August Antonín Josef) Lobkowitz (1729–1803) was the family’s most prominent patron of the Loreto church at Hradčany in Prague (founded in 1626 by Benigna Katharina von Lobkowitz), where the family maintained both a vocal and an instrumental ensemble.

(1) Philipp Hyacinth [Filipp Hyacint] Lobkowitz

(2) Ferdinand Philipp Joseph [Ferdinand Filipp Josef] Lobkowitz

(3) Joseph Franz Maximilian [Josef Frantisek Maximilián] Lobkowitz

(4) Ferdinand Joseph Johann [Ferdinand Josef Jan] Lobkowitz

MILAN POŠTOLKA/WILLIAM MEREDITH

(1) Philipp Hyacinth [Filipp Hyacint] Lobkowitz

(b Neustadt an der Waldnab, 25 Feb 1680; d Vienna, 21 Dec 1734). Lutenist and composer, son of Ferdinand August Lobkowitz. He was a friend of the famous lutenist S.L. Weiss. On his extensive tours of England, France and Italy he bought large quantities of music, including lute music, and the first London editions of Handel’s works. He was also responsible for the largest musical foundation in Prague in the 18th century, the musicians attached to the Loreto church. In 1727 Gluck’s father became his head forester at Eisenberg (now Jezeří) and about 1735–6 Gluck started his career at private concerts at the Lobkowitz-Althan family’s palace in Vienna, where Philipp Hyacinth lived from 1729. A suite in B by him survives in the Nationalbibliothek, Vienna

(2) Ferdinand Philipp Joseph [Ferdinand Filipp Josef] Lobkowitz

(b Prague, 27 April 1724; d Vienna, 11 Jan 1784). Composer, third son of (1) Philipp Hyacinth Lobkowitz. He was the ruling prince at Vienna from 1743 and came to be known as ‘a very learned prince whose profound knowledge embraced the most diverse sciences’. He studied the violin with Gluck, who was his employee, and in 1745 he took Gluck on a tour of Italy and London. While in Berlin during the 1750s he became a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences and studied the violin with Franz Benda. Burney wrote an account of the impromptu composition of a symphony by him and C.P.E. Bach, each writing alternate bars. His works, which were highly appreciated by Burney in Vienna in 1772, are apparently lost.

(3) Joseph Franz Maximilian [Josef Frantisek Maximilián] Lobkowitz

(b Roudnice nad Labem, 7 Dec 1772; d Třeboň, 15 Dec 1816). Patron and bass singer, son of (2) Ferdinand Philipp Joseph Lobkowitz. He was the first Duke of Roudnice and the foremost patron of the arts in Vienna and Bohemia from his coming of age in 1797 until 1814. The Lobkowitz accounts record vast sums paid for art, books, musical instruments, and music scores. He also granted several artists annual pensions, the most famous of these being Beethoven. Beginning in 1796 or 1797 he hired a small orchestra which accompanied him on his travels and he had several operas performed every year at his seats in Vienna, Roudnice and Eisenberg (now Jezeři). He hired several copyists’ workshops to make hundreds of copies of the works of Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven and other composers and substantially enlarged the family music archives. In 1799 he converted the largest hall in his Vienna palace into a concert hall with a stage for 24 orchestra players and upholstered benches for the audience. His support of opera and theatre was prodigious: in 1809 he gave the Vienna Court Opera 20,576 florins and in 1811 a similar amount was paid to the Kärntnertortheater. In 1810 it is reported that his expenditures totalled 1.5 million florins. His extravagant support of the arts threatened to destroy the family fortune. In June 1813 his estates were put under a “friendly administration” and in July 1814 under state control, thereby ending his tenure as Vienna’s most generous patron. He died two years later at the age of 44.

He was a bass singer, performing in Handel’s Alexander’s Feast at Vienna (3 December 1812), and played both the violin and the cello. A member of the association of noblemen responsible for the direction of the Vienna court theatres from January 1807, he later had the sole direction of the opera for several years and led the Hoftheater-Musik-Verlag. He was one of the founders of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna and of the Jednota pro Zvelebení Hudhy v Čechách (Association for the Promotion of Music in Bohemia), which began the Prague Conservatory in 1810–11.

As a musical patron he supported principally Beethoven and Haydn. Haydn assisted Lobkowitz with his house concerts as early as 1793. Lobkowitz commissioned Haydn’s string quartets op.77 and was also one of the sponsors of The Creation and The Seasons, performing the former with his private orchestra in Italian (1801) and Czech (1805) and singing the bass part in the Czech performance. His music collection contains many of Haydn’s late masses and other vocal works in authentic copies.

Lobkowitz’s first recorded contact with Beethoven also dates from a concert in 1793. He subscribed to Beethoven’s op.1 trios in 1795 and continued to support the composer by purchasing multiple copies of his new works. In May and June 1804 Lobkowitz put his private orchestra at Beethoven’s disposal for rehearsals of the Eroica Symphony; in October he authorized a payment of 700 florins to Beethoven for the dedication of the symphony. In 1809 he joined Prince Kinsky and the Archduke Rudolf in putting up an annuity for Beethoven, the sole stipulation being that the composer should stay in Austria. (Beethoven also believed, though it was not specified in the contract, that the agreement gave him access to Lobkowitz’s orchestra.) Beethoven dedicated several of his works to him (the op.18 quartets, the Eroica Symphony, the Triple Concerto, the Fifth and Sixth Symphonies, the ‘Harp’ String Quartet op.74 and the song cycle An die ferne Geliebte). Though relations between the two were sometimes strained (Beethoven once ridiculed his patron’s intelligence by calling him “Prince Fizlypulzy” and on another occasion called him a “Lobkowitzian Jackass”), Beethoven expressed regret in 1816 that the prince died before he could dedicate his song cycle to him. The annuity from the Lobkowitz estate was paid until Beethoven’s own death in 1827.

(4) Ferdinand Joseph Johann [Ferdinand Josef Jan] Lobkowitz

(b Oberhollabrunn, Lower Austria, 13 April 1797; d Vienna, 18 Dec 1868). Patron, son of (3) Joseph Franz Maximilian Lobkowitz. He maintained a private orchestra until about the 1860s, with Josef Cartellieri as Kapellmeister; in addition he had a special hunting band. He was a patron of Adalbert Gyrowetz. In 1831 he organized a private music school at Eisenberg for the promotion of church music and musical education in the country.

Several later members of the family also included music among their interests. Moritz (Mořic) Lobkowitz (1831–1903), the son of (4) F.J.J. Lobkowitz, was a pianist, and enlarged the family’s music collection. Ferdinand Georg August Lobkowitz (1850–1926), a grandson of (3) J.F.M. Lobkowitz and nephew of (4) F.J.J. Lobkowitz, was the president of the Jednota pro Zvelebení Hudby v Čechách (Association for the Promotion of Music in Bohemia) from 1885 to 1909, and is credited with the development of the Prague Conservatory and the smooth transfer of that institution to state control in 1918–19. Ferdinand Joseph Lobkowitz (b 1885), a grandson of Moritz Lobkowitz, was a pianist who performed as a soloist and with the České Kvarteto; he was an adherent of Jaques-Dalcroze’s method of eurhythmics and founded a musical institute of that type at Prague in 1912.

In 1990 the Czech government passed laws ordering the return of private property confiscated by the Communists to their original owners. The Lobkowitz family asked William Lobkowicz (b Boston, 1961) to represent them; more than 200 properties were returned, as well as the surviving collection of art, books, manuscripts and musical instruments. The bulk of the collection is housed at the Museum of Czech Music. The Lobkowitz castle Nelahozeves holds a summer music festival and portions of the collection are on display there. Work on organizing and cataloguing the collections is being undertaken by the Roudnice Lobkowicz Foundation, Prague.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BurneyH

DlabacžKL

MGG1 (R. Schaal)

MooserA

A.W. Thayer: ‘The Lobkowitz Family’, Musical World, lvii (1879), 307 only, 325–6, 335 only

P. Nettl: ‘Über ein handschriftliches Sammelwerk von Gesängen italienischer Frühmonodie’, ZMw, ii (1919–20), 83–93

P. Nettl: ‘Musicalia in der fürstlich Lobkowitz’schen Bibliothek in Raudnitz’, Beiträge zur böhmischen und mährischen Musikgeschichte (Brno, 1927), 60

V. Blažek: Bohemica v lobkovském zámeckém archivu v Roudnici n.L. [Bohemica in the Lobkowitz castle archive in Roudnice nad Laben] (Prague, 1936)

R. Gerber: Christoph Willibald Ritter von Gluck (Potsdam, 1941)

R. Quoika: Die Musik der Deutschen in Böhmen und Mähren (Berlin, 1956), 65ff

R. Mužíková: ‘Složení lobkovické kapely v roce 1811’ [The members of the Lobkowitz band in 1811], MMC, no.12 (1960), 57–68

A. Weinmann: Verzeichnis der Musikalien aus dem K. K. Hoftheater-Musik-Verlag (Vienna, 1961)

G. Feder: ‘Die Überlieferung und Verbreitung der handschriftlichen Quellen zu Haydns Werken’, Haydn-Studien, i/1 (1965), 3–42, esp. 18; Eng. trans., Haydn Yearbook 1968, 102–39

K. Fiala: Z hudební minulosti severočeského kraje [From the musical past of north Bohemia] (Liberec, 1969), 7–39

J. Křivka and T. Volek: Introductory texts to Domus Lauretana Pragensis: catalogus collectionis operun artis musicae (Prague, 1973)

J. Tichota: ‘Francouzská loutnová hudba v Čechách’ [French lute music in Bohemia], MMC, nos.25–6 (1973), 7–77

A. Mahler: ‘Glucks Schulzeit: Zweifel und Widersprüche in den biographischen Daten’, Mf, xxvii (1974), 457–60

V. Schwarz: ‘Fürst Franz Joseph Maximilian Lobkowitz und die Musikpflege auf Raudnitz und Eisenberg’, Haydn Yearbook 1978, 121–31

B. Plevka: ‘Ludwig van Beethoven und Joseph Franz Maximilian Lobkowicz’, BeJB 1978–81, 307–12

R. Brinkman: ‘Kleine Eroica-Lese’, ÖMz, xxxix (1984), 634–48

M. Tusa: ‘Die authentischen Quellen der “Eroica”’, AMw, xlii (1985), 121–50

T. Volek: ‘New Beethoven Discoveries’, Czech Music, v–vi (1986), 4

T. Volek and J. Macek: ‘Beethoven's Rehearsals at the Lobkowitz's’, MT, cxxvii (1986), 75–80

Beethoven und Böhmen, ed. S. Brandenburg and M. Gutiérrez-Denhoff (Bonn, 1988) [incl.: J. Fojtikova and T. Volek: ‘Die Beethoveniana der Lobkowitz-Musiksammlung und ihre Kopisten’, 219–58; M. Gutiérrez-Denhoff: ‘“O Unseeliges Dekret”: Beethovens Rente von Fürst Lobkowitz, Fürst Kinsky und Erzherzog Rudolf’, 91–145; J. Macek: ‘Franz Joseph Maximilian Lobkowitz: Musikfreund und Kunstmäzen’, 144–202; T. Volek and J. Macek: ‘Beethoven und Fürst Lobkowitz’, 203–17]

B. Cizek: ‘Lobkovická sbírka hudebních nástroju z Roudnice nad Labem a její umîstenî v Národním Muzeu v Praze’ [The Lobkowitz collection of musical instruments from Radnice nad Labem and its transfer to the Národní Museum, Prague], Hudební nástroje, xxx (1993), 27–32

M. Ryan: ‘What would you do with a Palace?’, Parade Magazine (22 Dec 1996)

W. Brenneis: ‘“Composta per festeggiare il sovvenire di un gran uomo”: Beethovens Eroica als Hommage des Fürsten Franz Joseph Maximilian von Lobkowitz für Louis Ferdinand von Preussen’, ÖMz, liii (1998), 4–24

Lobkowitz, Juan Caramuel y.

See Caramuel, Juan.

Lobo [Lobo de Borja], Alonso

(b Osuna, 25 Feb 1555; d Seville, 5 April 1617). Spanish composer. Lexicographers have persistently confused the facts of his life, which are as follows. He was certainly not born at Borja, as has been erroneously stated, but at Osuna. The error arose from the fact that his mother's maiden name was Jerónima de Borja; both she and her husband were natives of Osuna. At the age of 11 Lobo became a choirboy at Seville Cathedral. He took the degree of licenciado at Osuna University and was appointed chapter secretary by 20 September 1581; on 26 May 1586 he was elevated to canon in the collegiate church at Osuna. On 21 August 1591 the Seville Cathedral chapter appointed him to assist the aging maestro de capilla, Francisco Guerrero; according to an agreement dated 2 September, he was to board and instruct the choirboys for an annual salary of 400 ducats and 80 fanegas of wheat. On 29 November that year he was invited to direct the choir while Guerrero was on leave of absence. On 22 September 1593 he was appointed maestro de capilla of Toledo Cathedral. He returned to a similar post at Seville on 9 March 1604. His Liber primus missarum comprises six masses and seven motets. The one five-part mass, Prudentes virgines, and the two for six voices, Beata Dei genetrix and Maria Magdalena, are based on motets by Guerrero, with whom he presumably studied during his years as a choirboy. Lobo followed the general trend towards polychoral writing begun in Spain by Victoria, though none of his extant works calls for more than two choirs. He was the first composer to publish in Spain a parody mass based on a Palestrina motet (O Rex gloriae), adding to the stylistic purity of his model the learned profundity of the Spanish school. His Credo romano with figured bass (ed. in Cárdenas Serván, 55–67) uses as cantus-firmus the widespread mensural version of Credo IV in the Liber usualis; the work continued to be popular long after his death, as were the six-voice Lamentations for Holy Saturday, copied as late as 1772 (ed. in Cárdenas Serván, 66–93). Victoria, with whom he corresponded, esteemed him as an equal. Worn copies of his 1602 liber primus missarum in Mexico City, Puebla and Coimbra show that in Portugal and Mexico as well as in Spain he was regarded throughout the Baroque period as one of the finest Spanish composers.

WORKS

Liber primus missarum (Madrid, 1602): Missa ‘Beata Dei genetrix’, 6vv; Missa Maria Magdalenae, 6vv; Missa ‘O Rex gloriae’, 4vv; Missa ‘Petre, ego pro te rogavi’, 4vv; Missa ‘Prudentes virgines’, 5vv; Missa ‘Simile est regnum coelorum’, 4vv; Ave Maria, 8vv; Ave regina coelorum, 6vv; Credo quod Redemptor, 4vv; O quam suavis est, Domine, 6vv; Quam pulchri sunt gressus tuae, 6vv; Versa est in luctum, 6vv; Vivo ego, dicit Dominus, 4vv; all ed. in Renaissance Performing Scores, ser. A: Spanish Church Music, x–xvi, xxxvii, lxxiii-lxxiv, xciv (London, 1978–87)

Credo romano, 3 Passions, Lamentations, psalms, hymns (see Stevenson, 1973)

3 motets, lost: Corona aurea super caput eius, 5vv; Isti sunt dies, 6vv; Miserere, 12vv (cited in JoãoIL)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

StevensonRB

StevensonSCM

R. Stevenson: ‘The Toledo Manuscript Polyphonic Choirbooks and Some Other Lost or Little Known Flemish Sources’, FAM, xx (1973), 87–107, esp. 99

J.E. Ayarra Jarne: La música en la catedral de Sevilla (Seville, 1976), 26–7

I. Cárdenas: Tres músicos en Osuna (Seville, 1977)

I. Cárdenas Serván: El polifonista Alonso Lobo y su entorno (Santiago de Compostela, 1987)

R. Stevenson: ‘Spanish Polyphonists in the Age of the Armada’, Inter-American Music Review, xii/2 (1991–2), 17–114, esp. 82–93

F. Reynaud: La polyphonie tolédane et son milieu des premiers témoignages aux environs de 1600 (Paris, 1996)

C. Patiño: Obras musicales recopiladas, iv (Madrid, 1999), 5

ROBERT STEVENSON

Lobo, Duarte [Lupus, Eduardus]

(b ?1564–9; d Lisbon, 24 Sept 1646). Portuguese composer. There is no evidence to support the assumption that he was born in Alcáçovas in 1565 or 1575. He studied music with Manuel Mendes at the Évora Claustra da Sé, the Cathedral cloister school, where he was a boy chorister. He became maestro de capilla at the Hospital Real, Lisbon and from about 1591 until at least 1639 he was maestro de capilla at Lisbon Cathedral. He was also director of the Seminário de S Bartolomeu, Lisbon. He taught for many years at the Lisbon Claustra da Sé where his pupils included António Fernandes, João Alvares Frouvo, Fernando de Almeida and Manuel Machado. He was the most famous Portuguese composer of his time. He published four volumes of liturgical music and was one of the leading Portuguese exponents of the polyphonic style notable in particular for the ease with which he combined mastery of learned counterpoint with refined and expressive interpretation of the text. The influence of composers such as Ockeghem and Josquin is seen in his use of cantus firmus and canonic techniques. Several of his parody masses are based on motets by Palestrina and Francisco Guerrero (i).

WORKS

Edition: Duarte Lobo: Composições polifónicas, ed. M. Joaquim (Lisbon, 1945–) [J]

sacred vocal

Opuscula: Natalitiae noctis responsoria, 4, 8vv; Missa eiusdem noctis, 8vv; Beatae Mariae Virginis antiphonae, 8vv; Eiusdem virginis Salve, 3 choirs, 11vv (Antwerp, 1602)

Cantica Beatae Mariae Virginis, vulgo Magnificat, 4vv (Antwerp, 1605); J i

Liber missarum, 4–6, 8vv (Antwerp, 1621)

Liber secundus missarum, 4–6vv (Antwerp, 1639); 2 masses, motet ed. J.E. dos Santos, Polifonia clássica portuguesa, i (Lisbon, 1937)

Dominica Palmarum: Gloria, laus et honor, 4vv, P-EVp

Other lost works listed in JoãoIL

editions

Ordo amplissimus precationum caeremoniarumque funebrium (Lisbon, 1603)

Liber processionum et stationum ecclesiae olysiponensis (Lisbon, 1607)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M.A. de Lima Cruz: Duarte Lobo (Lisbon, 1937)

J.A. Stellfeld: Bibliographie des éditions musicales plantiniennes (Brussels, 1949)

A.T. Luper: ‘Portuguese Polyphony in the Sixteenth and Early Seventeenth Centuries’, JAMS, iii (1950), 93–112

J.A. Alegria: História da escola de música da sé de Évora (Lisbon, 1973)

J.A. Alegria: Polifonistas portugueses: Duarte Lobo, Filipe de Magalhães, Francisco Martins (Lisbon, 1984)

A. Borges: Duarte Lobo (156?–1646): Studien zum Leben und Schaffen des portugiesischen Komponisten (Regensburg, 1986)

ARMINDO BORGES

Lobo, Elías Álvares

(b Itu, São Paulo, 9 Aug 1834; d São Paulo, 15 Dec 1901). Brazilian composer. He was orphaned at an early age and educated by a local priest, Diogo Antonio Feijó, but he was mostly self-taught in music. His most important sacred work is his Missa de São Pedro de Alcântara, written in 1858 for the Emperor Pedro II. Lobo’s name became nationally known after the première of his opera A noite de São João (14 December 1860) at the Teatro Lírico Fluminense in Rio de Janeiro. Produced by the Opera Lírica Nacional, this was the first opera dealing with a regional subject written by a Brazilian composer and a Brazilian librettist, the latter being the well-known Indianist writer José de Alencar. In two acts, the opera is of comic character and tells of the love affair of two cousins in the town of Brás (São Paulo). A second opera by Lobo, A Louca, was never produced. Most of his later life was dedicated to composing and conducting church music in his native state of São Paulo. Lobo also composed in the contemporary salon music genres of modinha and lundu. In 1890 he was appointed a music professor at the São Paulo Escola Normal.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L.H.C. de Azevedo: Relação das óperas de autores brasileiros (Rio de Janeiro, 1938)

L.H.C. de Azevedo: 150 anos de música no Brasil (1800–1950) (Rio de Janeiro, 1956)

A. de Andrade: Francisco Manuel da Silva e seu tempo, 1808–1865 (Rio de Janeiro, 1967)

G. Béhague: Music in Latin America: an Introduction (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1979)

GERARD BÉHAGUE

Lobo, Heitor

(b Vila Real, Trás-os-Montes, c1496; d after 1571). Portuguese organ builder. He is generally acknowledged as the father of Portuguese organ building and one of its best exponents. It is not known where he learned his craft, although the decoration and technology of his work suggests that he was familiar with Italian Renaissance traditions. The first organ known to have been built by Lobo was built for the Augustinian priory of the church of S Cruz, Coimbra, in 1530–2. Surviving documents (cited in Pinho Brandão) provide a good description of this organ, which was hailed as ‘without equal in the realm’. Heitor rebuilt the organ in 1541 and again about 1559. Repoussé metal pipes in the façade of the present organ are probably from the original instrument. Lobo is recorded as having built two smaller organs at S Cruz, one a realejo, and the other almost certainly the small instrument in the choir.

A large organ for the high choir of Oporto Cathedral dates from 1537–8, and he almost certainly built two smaller instruments in the nave. Apparently some of the Flautado and Oitava pipes from these organs were re-used by Manoel Lourenço da Conceição when he replaced them in the 18th century.

Between 1544 and 1553 Lobo was employed by the chapter of Évora Cathedral. For a salary of 13,000 reis, he was ‘to repair and tune the organs that he made and is to make’. The historic instrument, which survives to this day on the gospel side of Évora Cathedral, was almost certainly built by Lobo during this time. According to Esteves Pereira and others, the ensemble at Évora included a complementary organ on the epistle side of the nave. This disappeared about 1940, at that time being no more than an empty case. It is not known if it was ever a complete instrument. In 1551 Lobo built a large organ for the church of S Salvador, Vilar de Frades, Barcelos. Another instrument, built in 1562 for the church of Nossa Senhora da Oliveira, Guimarães, has been altered beyond the point of recognition.

The Évora instrument is noted for its tonal quality, the result of masterful pipe construction and low wind pressure. Although now somewhat changed, the instrument is useful in the evaluation of Lobo’s style and of early Portuguese organ-building traditions. Its tonal capabilities were compatible with the requirements of contemporary repertory: in its original form the instrument almost certainly had five undivided foundation stops, Flautado de 24, Flautado de 12, Oitava, Quinta, and Mixtures 15 and 17. There were no reeds and the only solo stop was a four-rank Cornet in the treble.

It is likely that Lobo was a prolific builder (the S Cruz documents of 1541 state that he was ‘of much experience and had built many organs’) but that most of his organs were replaced in the 18th century. At Évora, the Clarim and Trombeta stops, added to the façade in the late 18th century, almost certainly represented an attempt by an unknown visionary to modernize the instrument and at the same time save it from replacement by a Baroque substitute.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F.M. de Sousa Viterbo: ‘O orgão de Santa Cruz de Coimbra: o seu constructor e a sua descripção’, Arte Musical, xii (1910), 209–10

L.A. Esteves Pereira: ‘Inventário dos órgãos da diocese do Porto’, Museu, xiii (1970–71), 13–36

W.D. Jordan: ‘The Renaissance Organ of Évora Cathedral’, Organ Yearbook, xiv (1983), 5–16

D. de Pinho Brandão: Órgãos de Sé do Porto e actividades de Organeiros que nesta Cidade viveram (Oporto, 1985)

M. Valença: A arte organística em Portugal (Braga, 1990)

W.D. JORDAN

Lobo de Mesquita, José Joaquim Emerico

(b Vila do Príncipe [now Serro, Minas Gerais] 12 Oct 1746; d Rio de Janeiro, April 1805). Brazilian composer and organist. Son of the Portuguese José Lobo de Mesquita and his slave Joaquina Emerenciana, he was active in the province of Minas Gerais during the latter part of the 18th century, spending most of his life at Arraial do Tejuco (now Diamantina), where he settled in about 1776, and Vila Rica (Ouro Prêto). In 1788 he entered the brotherhood of Nossa Senhora das Mercês dos Homens Crioulos in Arraial do Tejuco, confirming that he was a mulatto. He served as organist at the church of S Antonio (1783–4), at the Ordem Terceira de Nossa Senhora do Carmo (1787–95) and was apparently the first organist of the Irmandade do Ss Sacramento, all in the same city. In 1798 he moved to Vila Rica, where he worked as a composer, conductor and organist of the same Ordem Terceira brotherhood as well as for the brotherhood of the Matriz (main church) of Nossa Senhora dos Homens Pardos. There he was appointed alferes (a military rank corresponding to second lieutenant) of the Terço de Infantaria dos Homens Pardos. In 1801 he moved to Rio de Janeiro, where he held the post of organist at the church of Nossa Senhora de Carmo until his death.

Mesquita was the most prolific composer of the Brazilian captaincy. The oldest manuscripts found to this date bear the date 1779 (Antiphona regina coeli laetare and Antiphona zelus domus tuae), but many works were copied throughout the 19th century in Minas Gerais and São Paulo as well. Mesquita cultivated primarily an individual homophonic concertante style, whose components often recall European Classical practices, and ‘possessed an extraordinarily expressive and advanced technique for his epoch’ (Lange, 1965). He is the only composer whose works are found in all of the sacred music archives of Minas Gerais, in several regional centres. In recognition of his importance, he was made the patron of Chair no.4 of the Brazilian Academy of Music.

WORKS

(selective list)

Masses: Missa, for Holy Week, 1778; Missa, F, c1780; Missa, E, c1782; Missa, C; Missa concertada e credo; Missa de requiem; Missa de S Cecilia; Missa Passio domini nostri Jesu Christi

Motets: Tercio, S, SSAB, str, 1783, Museu da música da arquidiocese de Mariana, Minas Gerais (facs. (Rio de Janeiro, 1985) [incl. thematic catalogue]); Congratulamini mihi omnes; Processione cum ramis benedictis

Ants: Regina caeli laetare, 1779; Salve regina, chorus, str, org, 1787, ed. F.C. Lange, Archivo de música religiosa de la capitanía geral das Minas Gerais, i (Mendoza, 1951); Zelus domus, 1779; Ave regina caelorum; In pacem in idipsum

Settings for Holy Week, incl. Gradual para domingo da ressurreição, ed. R. Duprat, Música do Brasil colonial (Sao Paolo and Ouro Prêto, 1994) and 4 tractus do sábado santo, ed. F.C. Lange (Recife, 1979); Offices for the dead; Ave regina caelorum, 1783; 4 lists; Matinas de Natal; 2 Mag; 5 novenas; off; Regina caeli laetare, Si quaeris miracula: both ed. R. Duprat, Música do Brasil colonial (São Paulo and Ouro Prêto, 1994); Signatum est; Stabat mater; 2 TeD

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F.C. Lange: ‘Os compositores na capitanía geral das Minas Gerais’, Revista de estudos históricos [Marília, Brazil], iii–iv (1965), 33–111

G. Béhague: ‘Música “barrôca” mineira, problemas de fontes e estilística’ Universitas [Salvador, Brazil], ii (1969), 133–58

G. Béhague: ‘Música mineira colonial à luz de novos manuscritos’, Barroco, iii (1971), 15–27

F.C. Lange: ‘La música en Villa Rica (Minas Gerais, siglo XVIII)’, RMC, no.102 (1967), 8–55; no.103 (1968), 77–149; no.125 (1974), 5–20

F.C. Lange: A música no período colonial em Minas Gerais (Belo Horizonte, 1979)

F.C. Lange: História da música na vila do Príncipe do Serro do Frio e arraial do Tejuco (Belo Horizonte, 1982)

C.F. Rezende: A música na história de Minas colonial (Belo Horizonte, 1989)

GERARD BÉHAGUE

Lobwasser, Ambrosius

(b Schneeberg, Saxony, 4 April 1515; d Königsberg, 27 Nov 1585). German jurist and humanist. He was one of the children of a Saxon mine inspector. In 1527 he went to school and later to university in Leipzig; in 1535 he took the Master of Arts degree and remained as a teacher at the university until 1550, when he became Hofmeister (private tutor) to two noble students at Leuven University and, from 1551, at the University of Paris. On returning to Leipzig in 1556, he was appointed councillor and chancellor to the Prince of Meissen (Saxony). In 1562 he went to Bologna to study at the university, taking the degree of Doctor of Laws, and in 1563 he was called by Duke Albrecht of Prussia to the chair of law at Königsberg University, where he stayed until his retirement in 1580.

Lobwasser's great achievement was the translation of the Genevan (or Huguenot) Psalter into German, following the original verse forms exactly, in the years immediately after its completion in 1562. This allowed the French metrical psalms together with the Genevan melodies to be used in German-speaking countries, both in their monophonic versions and in the homophonic settings for four voices by Claude Goudimel (1565). Although as a Lutheran Lobwasser had translated the French psalms purely out of literary interest, he thus becamc a pioneer in the introduction of the Huguenot Psalter to the German-speaking areas affected by the Reformation. The translation was completed by 1565, although it probably did not appear in print until 1573 in Leipzig, followed the next year by an edition published at Heidelberg. (The possibility of an earlier edition from Danzig has not been confirmed.) The Leipzig edition is described in the title as ‘Der Psalter … in deutsche reyme verstendiglich und deutlich gebracht … und hierüber … vier stimmen’. The latter statement refers to the four-voice Goudimel settings which were published in the same volume. In 1583 Lobwasser's translation was officially adopted in Neustadt an der Haardt in the Palatinate. This was the beginning of the extraordinary career of ‘Lobwasser’, as it was called: it continued to appear in innumerable editions (for one to four voices) brought out by all the established reformed churches of Germany and in the Zwinglian areas of northern Switzerland well into the 18th century, usually coupled with other Protestant hymns in a second section of the book. In Herborn (Nassau) alone at least 40 editions of ‘Lobwasser’ appeared between 1586 and 1694 and more than 60 were published in northern Switzerland in the course of the 17th century. This was not the only translation of the Genevan Psalter into German – Martin Opitz, among others, prepared one – but, because of its early date, it was the only one to be officially approved. Its influence extended as far as Denmark and even the Lutheran church was affected by it, as is shown by the ‘Lutheran Lobwasser’ (Rothenburg ob der Tauber, 1617), which was an attempt at providing Lutheran versions of his translations which could still be sung to the same melodies. Lutheran antagonism, of course, was stronger, but it could not stop the psalm-singing of the reformed church. The well-known Psalter Davids Gesangweis (1602), by the Leipzig professor of theology Cornelius Becker, was one such deliberate counter-offensive, but it was not used for long. The popularity of ‘Lobwasser’ rested, initially at least, as much on the easily-remembered French tunes as on the texts which, from the 17th century onwards, were subjected to growing criticism for both their theological content and their literary style. However, ‘Lobwasser’ remained in common official use up to the second half of the 18th century and was only gradually supplanted by the hymnbooks of the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment and, in western Germany, by the Neue Bereimung der Psalmen of Matthias Jorissen (Elberfeld, 1798).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BlumeEK

W. Hollweg: Geschichte der evangelischen Gesangbücher vom Niederrhein im 16.–18. Jahrhundert (Gütersloh, 1923)

E. Trunz: ‘Ambrosius Lobwasser, humanistiche Wissenschaft, kirchliche Dichtung und bürgerliches Weltbild im 16. Jahrhundert’, Altpreussische Forschungen, ix (1932), 29–97

E. Nievergelt: Die Tonsätze der deutschschweizerischen reformierten Kirchengesangbücher im XVII. Jahrhundert (diss., U. of Zurich, 1944)

F.A. Henn: Matthias Jorissen: der deutsche Psalmist in Leben und Werk (Leipzig, 1955)

N. Schiørring: ‘Nachwirkungen der Lobwasserpsalter in Dänemark’, Norddeutsche und nordeuropäische Musik: Kiel 1963, 22–6

G. Schuhmacher: ‘Der beliebte, kritisierte, und verbesserte Lobwasser-Psalter’, JbLH, xii (1967), 70–88

D. Gutknecht: ‘Vergeichende Betrachtung des Goudimel-Psalters mit dem Lobwasser-Psalter’, JbLH, xv (1970), 132–45

C. Gottwald: Sigmund Hemmel und die Psalter-Vertonungen seiner Zeit (forthcoming)

WALTER BLANKENBURG

Locatelli, Giovanni Battista

(b Milan or Venice, 7 Jan 1713; d after 1790). Italian impresario and librettist, active in central Europe and Russia. He was a member of Pietro Mingotti’s opera troupe and wrote the librettos for Filippo Finazzi’s intermezzo Il matrimonio sconcertato, per forza del Bacco (Carnival 1744, Prague), and a three-act opera Diana nelle selve (23 November 1745, Prague; score in CZ-Pnm). From 1748 to 1757 he rented the city theatre, Prague. He founded his own opera company and engaged good singers – notably Rosa Costa, Catarina Fumagalli, and his wife Giovanna della Stella, who also sang at the Bonn court and at Dresden from 1745 to 1749. For several seasons at Prague his Kapellmeister was Gluck, who directed the premières of his own Ezio (1750) and Issipile (1752), and a revival of Ipermestra (1750).

Locatelli’s concern to employ excellent singers and mount impressive productions was largely responsible for the growing financial difficulties under which his company operated. Leaving large debts, he moved to Russia after the outbreak of the Seven Years War, and became head of the tsarina’s opera in St Petersburg (1757–62); its first performance under his leadership was a pasticcio on his own text Il retiro degli dei (3 December 1757). With Italian singers and conductors (Francesco Zoppis and G.M. Rutini), he introduced opere buffe by Galuppi, Fischietti and others to Russia. He was also engaged to take his own troupe to Moscow; it opened there on 9 February 1759 with Galuppi’s La calamità de’ cuori, but in 1761 its performances ceased through lack of public interest. As a reward for Il consiglio delle muse, a birthday serenata for Catherine II (1763), Locatelli gained permission to open a place of entertainment called Krasnïy kabak (‘The Pretty Tavern’). In later years he occasionally wrote cantata texts (La sorpresa delli dei, 1777, music by Paisiello; Jahvé, 1783). After a gala benefit in St Petersburg (1783) he left public life.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FürstenauG

MooserA

O. Teuber: Geschichte des Prager Theaters, i (Prague, 1883)

R. Haas: ‘Beitrag zur Geschichte der Oper in Prag und Dresden’, Neues Archiv für sächsische Geschichte und Altertumskunde, xxxvii (1916), 68–96

H. Kindermann: Theatergeschichte Europas, v (Salzburg, 1962), 569–73, 615–17

R. Brockpähler: Handbuch zur Geschichte der Barockoper in Deutschland (Emsdetten, 1964)

P. Kneidl: ‘Libreta italské opery v Praze v 18. století’ [Italian opera librettos in Prague in the 18th century], Strahovská knihovna, ii (1967), 115–86

TOMISLAV VOLEK

Locatelli, Pietro Antonio

(b Bergamo, 3 Sept 1695; d Amsterdam, 30 March 1764). Italian composer and violinist. His importance lies particularly in his L'arte del violino: 12 violin concertos, with altogether 24 caprices for solo violin in the first and last movements of each concerto. This collection had an immense influence on the development of violin technique, especially in France, where violin teaching continued to bear signs of his style of virtuosity until the beginning of the 19th century. Locatelli must be considered the founding-father of modern instrumental virtuosity, and he also left a body of work whose idiom, from his op.2 onwards, reflects aspects of the most advanced style of his day.

1. Life.

His parents were Filippo Locatelli and Lucia Crocchi (or Trotta). A document in the Locatelli archive (I-BGc) indicates that Pietro Antonio was the first of seven sons. He would have learnt the rudiments of music in the choir of S Maria Maggiore in Bergamo, possibly under Ludovico Ferronati or Carlo Antonio Marino, two of the city's leading musicians. In April 1710 the 14-year-old violinist appeared as a member of the basilica's instrumental ensemble, and the following January he acquired the official position of third violin. In the same year, 1711, the young Locatelli was granted permission to go to Rome. The tradition that he was one of Corelli's pupils is true only in the broad sense that he belonged to the Corelli ‘school’. In fact, Locatelli polished his skills as a violinist under the wing of a recognized representative of the prestigious circle of virtuosos associated with Corelli. Possibly it was Giuseppe Valentini (who is known to have played alongside Locatelli in 1714 at performances promoted by the aristocratic Caetani family in Sermoneta) who took care of his training when he was first in Rome, but it is equally likely that Locatelli sought assistance from someone in the Ottoboni circle of the calibre of Franceso (Antonio) Montanari or Domenico Ghilarducci. Between 1717 and 1723 Locatelli was frequently called upon for performances sponsored by Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni at S Lorenzo in Damaso, and during the same period he took part on a fairly regular basis in the Congregazione dei Musici di S Cecilia and performed with this society in Rome on several occasions. It is not known exactly when Locatelli came into contact with the pope's major-domo Monsignor Camillo Cybo, the dedicatee of his XII concerti grossi opera prima (1721), but he must certainly have been under the protection of this noble prelate fairly early on, possibly from the time of his affiliation with the Congregazione (1716). After February 1723, the date of his last documented appearance at Ottoboni's residence, information about Locatelli becomes scarce. Perhaps he is the ‘bergamasco’ who played at S Giacomo degli Spagnoli in Rome in July that year. One fact is certain: Locatelli's name disappears from Roman documents in 1723, at the same time that his protector, Monsignor Cybo, left the city.

The title of virtuoso da camera which the Landgrave Philipp von Hesse-Darmstadt, Habsburg Governor of Mantua, conferred on Locatelli in 1725 does not in itself constitute evidence of his having stayed for any length of time at the landgrave's court: no trace of Locatelli's visit has yet been discovered in Mantuan archives. Nor do Venetian archives show that Locatelli resided in that city, although that he spent some time in Venice between 1723 and 1727 can be deduced from the letter of dedication to the Veneto patrician Girolamo Michiel Lini at the head of the concertos in his Arte del violino op.3. On 26 June 1727 Locatelli was in Munich, at the court of the Prince-Elector Karl Albert, where he received 12 gold florins for a performance, and the following year he was in Berlin, as is confirmed in a report by the ambassador from Brunswick to the Prussian court, referring to the violinist's appearance at the palace of Monbijou in the presence of the Queen Sophie Dorothea. Tradition has it that Locatelli came to the court of Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia from Dresden in the retinue of the Prince-Elector Augustus the Strong, and that he gave two performances before the King of Prussia and received from him a gift of ‘eine schwere goldene Dose mit Ducaten’. The problem with this legend is the precise relationship between Locatelli and the Dresden court: the only indication of a link between Locatelli and the Elector of Saxony, King of Poland, at that time is the presence of some of the composer's works in the archive of the Dresden Kapelle. Evidence for his presence in Frankfurt in 1728 is provided by his signature on a page – showing an Andante later published in the Sonata for flute op.2 no.3 (1732) – in a personal album belonging to Hendrik van Uchelen, a Dutch-born businessman living there. In December that year Locatelli was in Kassel, where he received a fee of 80 imperial thaler for ‘services rendered’ at the court of the Landgrave Carl von Hessen-Kassel. It is indeed because of Locatelli's contacts with the Kassel court that we are able to make a fair approximation of the date on which he arrived in Amsterdam: from a letter of December 1729 to Prince Maximilian von Hessen we learn that he had been in Amsterdam for at least four months and that he intended to remain there for the whole winter.

The reason for Locatelli's presence there is explained not by concert-giving in the Dutch Republic or, more precisely, in Amsterdam, but by the country's flourishing music-publishing firms, which, with their advanced technology and efficient commercial network, guaranteed wide international circulation. In Amsterdam Locatelli's collaboration with the publishing house of Roger and Le Cène, which had begun with his op.1 in 1721, continued with the publication of his orchestral works, while he issued at his own expense the collections of chamber music opp.2, 5 and 8, personally taking charge of sales from his own home. In 1731 he obtained from the States of Holland and East Friesland a privilege to print his own works which lasted for 15 years and was renewed in 1746, demonstrating cautious planning and practice in the publication of his works.

On the basis of Locatelli's own testimony and that of his contemporaries, he avoided the public, ‘and he never will Play any where but with Gentlemen’. His regular Wednesday concerts in his own home were probably for a small circle of prosperous amateurs. His estate at the time of his death demonstrates clearly that in the 35 years he spent in Amsterdam he enjoyed a certain prosperity. Among the possessions in his house were large collections of works of art and old books (covering various fields and in various languages), sometimes in multiple copies, suggesting that he was engaged in commercial activities in the northern Netherlands, where there were at the time numerous collectors.

2. Works.

Two aspects sit side by side in Locatelli's musical personality: as a composer spanning two eras he showed himself receptive to changes in the air, while as a performer his stance might even be described as provocative. The dichotomy this reveals has caused confusion in musicological writings: the questionable taste of many of the 24 caprices in the Arte del violino for a long time blinded critics to the historical value of a work whose exceptional technical demands placed Locatelli as the founding-father of the 19th-century virtuoso concerto. In his psychological make-up Locatelli also seems to be a prototype of the modern virtuoso. Whether as performer or – slightly later – as composer, he leaves the historian with the impression of developments prematurely stranded in the prosperity and isolation of a commercial city such as Amsterdam.

As a violinist Locatelli explored uncharted territory, particularly in conquering the very top register of the instrument: his almost systematic exploration reaches, in the Arte del violino, c'''' (16th position), while in the ‘Capriccio, prova dell'intonazione’ in the Sonata op.6 no.12 Locatelli reaches b'''''' (22nd position). Left-hand extensions, double and triple stopping, polyphonic passages, trills and double trills are explored in various ways, almost systematically. Frequent employment of the so-called staccato-legato, on the other hand, exemplifies the exploration of new possibilities for the right arm. Altogether these innovations earned Locatelli much criticism during his lifetime, in relation to beauty of sound, and contemporary critics compared him unfavourably with violinists who were certainly less innovative and influential. Locatelli's violin technique as a whole remains to this day a challenge for the player.

Locatelli's works comprise concerti grossi, solo concertos, trio sonatas and sonatas for one melody instrument and bass. The op.1 concerti grossi, following the model of Corelli's op.6, are divided into eight da chiesa and four da camera concertos. They are distinguished by the vitality of their counterpoint: the fugatos, fugues and double fugues generally go beyond the Corelli model and reveal a familiarity with the Roman contrapuntal tradition. Their density of texture is further intensified by the use of a viola in the concertino group. The severity of these concertos is mostly abandoned in the concertos opp.4 and 7: in many of these there is a clear tendency towards the solo concerto. The flute sonatas op.2 were widely known in the composer's day; their structures already show features which would later contribute to the formation of sonata form. They also show a movement towards the galant style: the flute's melodic line is characterized by numerous decorations including lombardic rhythms, sighs, appoggiaturas, syncopations and a huge variety of rhythmic values over a bass whose sole function is to articulate the harmony. The trio sonatas op.5 aim to create a pleasant mood, while the violin sonatas opp.6 and 8 represent the peak of Locatelli's work (fig.2), showing a highly personal fusion of the abilities of a virtuoso violinist with those of a composer at the forefront of the latest stylistic trends.

WORKS

Edition: Pietro Antonio Locatelli: Opera omnia, ed. A. Dunning and others (London, 1994) [D]

printed

published in Amsterdam unless otherwise stated

op.

1	XII concerti grossi a 4 e a 5, 2 vn, 1/2 va, b (1721, 2/1729); D i
2	XII sonate, fl, b (1732); D ii
3	L'arte del violino: XII concerti … con XXIV capricci ad libitum, vn; 2 vn, va, vc, b (1733); D iii (in preparation)
4	Parte Ia: VI introduttioni teatrali; Parte IIa: VI concerti, 2 vn, va, vc; 2 vn, va, b (1735); D iv
5	VI sonate a 3, 2 vn/fl, bc (1736); D v
6	XII sonate … da camera, vn, b (1737); D vi
7	VI concerti, 4 vn, 2 va, b (Leiden, 1741); D vii
8	X sonate; 6 for vn, b; 4 for 2 vn, b (1744); D viii
9	VI concerti, 2 vn, va, vc; 2 vn, va, b (1762), lost
Doubtful: 6 Sonatas or Duets, 2 fl/vn ‘op.4’ (London, 1746); 6 sonate, vn, vc/hpd ‘op.10’ (Paris, 1770) [no.1 also pubd (London, n.d.); nos.2, 5 and 6 also in M. Corrette: L'art de se perfectionner dans le violon (Paris, 1782/R]; Menuet, Ir M[enue]t, D [= Minuetto from op.6 no.6, lacking variations], 2r M[enue]t, D, in Nouveaux menuets francois et italiens tels qu'ils se dansent aux bal d l'Opera (Paris, n.d.); various movts, some from op.1 and ‘op.10’, in M. Corrette: L'art de se perfectionner dans le violon (Paris, 1782/R]

manuscript

Conc., A, vn, str, b, D-Dl, S-Skma; Conc., E, vn, str, D-Dl: D ix

Sinfonia … per l'esequie della sua donna … in Roma, f, 2 vn, va, b, KA; D ix

Sonata, g, vn, b, S-Uu; D ix

Conc., g, vn, str, b, lost, cited in Ringmacher catalogue (1773)

Sinfonia, C; Solo, g, ob: both lost, cited in Breitkopf catalogues

Conc. grosso a 2 cori, tpts, obs, fls, hns, timp, str, org, 1724; Quinto a 5 soprani, 2 vn, 2 va, vc, db, hpd; 2 vn concs; 2 fl concs; 2 sonatas, vc; 2 sonatas, vn; sonata, fl; sonata, kbd: all lost, cited in inventory of Locatelli's estate

Doubtful: Capriccio, E, vn, I-Rsc; Conc. (Trio Sonata, Sinfonia), A, 2 vn, b, S-L; Conc., a, vn, str, b, L; Conc., e, fl, str, b,D-MÜs (attrib. Scherer), S-Uu (attrib. Graun), cited as Locatelli's in Ringmacher catalogue (1773); Concertino (Sinfonia), A, 2 vn, va, org, F-Pn; 5 duetti, 2 fl, D-Bsb, some pubd as A. Groneman's; Menuet, D, B-Ac, in I. de Gruytters: Andante, Marchen, Gavotten (Antwerp, 1746); Sinfonia, C, 2 vn, va, b, NL-Au (anon.), S-L (2 copies, 1 attrib. Solnitz), cited as Sammartini's in Breitkopf catalogue; Sinfonia, C, 2 vn, va, b, L, cited as Agrell's in Breitkopf catalogue; Sinfonia, D, 2 vn, va, b, A; Sinfonia, F, D-SWl (attrib. Brioschi), S-L (attrib. Menegetij), Skma (attrib. D'Ambreville), cited as Locatelli's in Breitkopf catalogue (1762); Sinfonia, G, 2 vn, va, b, L, Skma (attrib. Polazzo), Uu; Sonata, A, 2 vn/fl, b/vc/hpd, L, Skma (attrib. Hasse), Uu; Sonata, D, 2 vn, b, SK; Sonata a 3, D, fl, vn, vc/hpd, Skma (based on material from op.8 no.8, op.7 no.4 and op.8 no.4); Sonata, d, 2 vn, b, SK; Sonata, E, D-Bsb; Sonata, F, vn, b, I-Rsc; 6 sonate a 3, C, F, B, G, D, A, 2 vn, b, Bc; 12 sonate, 2 fl, F-Pn (inc.); Trio, E, 2 vn, b, Pn

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BoydenH

MoserGV

NewmanSBE

ScheringGIK

A. Alessandri, ed.: Biografie di scrittori e artisti bergamaschi nativi od oriundi, di Giovanni Simone Mayr (Bergamo, 1875/R)

C. Vanbianchi: ‘Un celebre violinista bergamasco, precursore di N. Paganini: lettere e documenti inediti’, Bollettino della Civica biblioteca di Bergamo, xiv (1920), 29ff

A. Koole: Leven en werken van Pietro Antonio Locatelli da Bergamo, 1695–1764: ‘Italiaans musycqmeester tot Amsterdam’ (Amsterdam, 1949)

A. Koole; ‘Pietro Antonio Locatelli’, Chigiana, new ser., i (1964), 29–46

A. Dunning and A.Koole: ‘Pietro Antonio Locatelli: nieuwe bijdragen tot de kennis van zijn leven en werken’, TVNM, xx/1–2 (1964–5), 52–96

J.H. Calmeyer: The Life, Times and Works of Pietro Antonio Locatelli (diss., U. of North Carolina, 1969)

Pietro Antonio Locatelli: Bergamo 1969

A. Meli: Gli esordi in patria di Pietro Antonio Locatelli (Bergamo, 1970)

W. Kolneder: Das Buch der Violine (Zürich, 1972)

A. Dunning: Pietro Antonio Locatelli: der Virtuose und seine Welt (Buren, 1981; It. trans., 1983)

A. Dunning, ed.: Intorno a Locatelli: studi in occasione del tricentenario della nascita di Pietro Antonio Locatelli (Lucca, 1995) [incl.: A. Bernardi: ‘Il mecenatismo musicale a Venezia nel primo Settecento’, 1–128; M. Bizzarini: ‘I “buoni fondamenti degli Antichi” e il “gusto moderno”; l'eredità di Benedetto Marcello nella formazione culturale e musicale di Pietro Antonio Locatelli’, 129–50; A. Cantù: ‘Locatelli tra passato e futuro’, 175–96; G. Ciliberti: ‘“La naïve symphonie”: sulla recezione di alcuni modelli popolari nei concerti di Natale settecenteschi’, 197–214; C. Fertonani: ‘Le introduzioni teatrali dell'opera IV di Pietro Antonio Locatelli’, 215–40; J.H. Giskes: ‘I dedicatari olandesi delle opere di Pietro Antonio Locatelli’, 275–318; S. LaVia: ‘Il Cardinale Ottoboni e la musica: nuovi documenti (1700–1740), nuove letture e ipotesi’, 319–526; P. Palermo: ‘La musica nella basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore a Bergamo all'epoca dell'infanzia di Locatelli’, 653–748; A. Pavanello: ‘Locatelli e il Cardinal Camillo Cybo’, 749–92; F. Piperno: ‘“Su le sponde del Tebro”: eventi, mecenati e istituzioni musicali a Roma negli anni di Locatelli: saggio di cronologia’, 793–878; E. Porta: ‘La tecnica violinistica dell'Arte del violino di Pietro Antonio Locatelli’, 879–952; P. Pozzi: ‘Il concerto strumentale italiano alla corte di Dresda durante la prima metà del Settecento’, 953–1038; L. Saccà: ‘Le sonate dell'opera II di Pietro Antonio Locatelli: osservazioni sulla loro costruzione’, 1071–1112; E.K. Wolf: ‘I concerti grossi dell'opera I (1721) di Pietro Antonio Locatelli e le origini della sinfonia’, 1168–94]

M. Eynard: Il musicista Pietro Antonio Locatelli: un itinerario artistico da Bergamo a Amsterdam (Bergamo, 1995)

ALBERT DUNNING

Locatello, Gasparo

(fl 1598–1625). Italian composer. He was a canon at S Marco, Venice, and on 30 May 1612 was elected head of the compagnia of the singers there. On 17 August 1617 he was appointed maestro di canto of the seminary of S Marco; he was replaced by Alessandro Grandi the following year (see J.H. Moore: Vespers at St. Mark’s: Music of Alessandro Grandi, Giovanni Rovetta and Francesco Cavalli, Ann Arbor, 1981, i, pp.8, 77). Locatello contributed a spiritual madrigal and a solo motet to anthologies (RISM 1598⁶ and 1625²).

DENIS ARNOLD/TIM CARTER

Locatello [Loccatello, Lucatelli, Lucatello], Giovanni Battista

(b Forlì; fl 1579–93). Italian composer and organist. He was the organist of S Pietro, Rome, from 1581 to at least 1590 and in 1593, and of S Spirito in Saxia, Rome, from 1579 to some time before 1595; he also taught the harpsichord to the foundling boys in the adjoining hospital. In the 1580s he was in the service of Cardinal Filippo Buoncompagni, nephew of Pope Gregory XIII. Single madrigals by him appear in numerous collections, and six are printed together in Cancineo’s first book of madrigals of 1590. His Ardo lunge e d’appresso is printed in the madrigal anthology Le gioie (RISM 1589⁷), published by members of the Congregazione dei Signori Musici di Roma, to which Locatello must therefore have belonged. It shows a competent composer capable of matching a variety of textures to the text, but in a rather restrained style; De Ford has judged him one of the more conservative of Roman madrigalists. The eight-voice motet Super flumina Babylonis is more adventurous, both rhythmically and in its confident handling of the double-choir medium. Given the long time gap there must be some doubt that the Primo libro de madrigali of 1628 is by the same Giovanni Battista Locatelli; it might well be by a son who shared the same name.

WORKS

11 madrigals, 4–6vv, 1582⁴, 1583¹⁰, 1585²⁹, 1589⁷, 1589¹¹, 1590²¹

Super flumina Babylonis, motet, 8vv, 1614³

Laudate pueri, psalm-motet, 8vv, double choir, I-Rn

Doubtful: Primo libro de madrigali, 2-7vv, bc (Venice, 1628)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Allegra: ‘La cappella musicale di S. Spirito in Saxia di Roma’, NA, xvii (1940), 26–38, esp. 29

P. De Angelis: Musica e musicisti nell’Arcispedale di S. Spirito in Saxia dal Quattrocento all’Ottocento (Rome, 1950)

R.I. De Ford: Ruggiero Giovanelli and the Madrigal in Rome, 1572–1599 (diss., Harvard U., 1975)

G. Rostirolla: ‘La Cappella Giulia in S. Pietro negli anni del magistero di Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina’, Studi palestriniani [I]: Palestrina 1975, 99–283

F. Lipmann: ‘Giovanni de Macque fra Roma e Napoli: nuovi documenti’, RIM, xiii (1978), 243–79

N. O’Regan: Sacred Polychoral Music in Roma 1575–1621 (diss., U. of Oxford, 1988), 240

N. Pirrotta: I musici di Roma e il madrigale: Dolci affetti (1582) e Le gioie (1589) (Rome, 1993)

NOEL O’REGAN

L’Occhialino.

See Chinelli, Giovanni Battista.

Lochamer [Locheimer] Liederbuch

(D-B Mus.ms.40613). See Sources, MS, §IX, 7 and Sources of keyboard music to 1660, §2(iii).

Lochemburgho, Johannes.

See Lockenburg, Johannes.

Lochon, Charles

(b Lyons, c1760; d Paris, after 1817). French violinist and composer. He may have been related to the composer J.-F. Lochon who was active in Paris in the late 17th century. The Mercure de France, announcing his Six duos pour deux violons op. 1 in September 1777, called him ‘premier violon de la Comédie de Bordeaux’. There Lochon came under the tutelage of the eminent Mannheimer F.I. Beck, who was conductor of the orchestra. About 1780–81 he went to Paris where he took lessons from Bertheaume, and in 1782 became a first violinist both at the Opéra and at the Concert Spirituel. In 1783 the Almanach musical referred to him as a violin teacher. There is no mention of any solo performances nor, from this date, of further compositions. He remained with the orchestra of the Opéra until April 1817 when he was pensioned. Béranger in his Annonces of 19 December 1794 mentioned a ‘demoiselle Lochon’, and Lochon fils is called an ‘excellent violiniste’ in the supplement to Choron and Fayolle (ii, 464).

Lochon’s known works, all instrumental, were printed in Lyons between 1777 and 1778 by Guera and include, in addition to the violin duos op.1, a symphonie concertante in F for two violins op.2, another in A op.4, a symphony in E (issued together with the first edition of Haydn’s ‘Der Schulmeister’ Symphony and another by Vanhal) and a divertimento in D. Only the symphony and the symphonie concertante op.2 are extant, the former being a large, well-wrought, four-movement piece with a profusion of themes showing the influence of Beck and a more lyrical than dramatic talent. Lochon’s attraction to the divertimento, a rare genre among his French contemporaries, likewise shows Beck’s influence. (BrenetM; BrookB; BrookSF; Choron-FayolleD; FétisB; GerberL)

BARRY S. BROOK, JAIME GONZALEZ

Lochon, Jacques-François

(b Paris, 1660–65; d after 1700). French composer. The son of René Lochon, he entered the Ste Chapelle as a choirboy on 28 April 1670 and served continuously until 24 March 1679. Some time after this he may have held a position at Liège, which could explain Sébastien de Brossard's adding the word ‘Liégeois’ after his name on one of his motets. Lochon published Motets en musique … et un Oratorio (Paris, 1701). The motets (nine solos, one duet and two trios, with continuo) comprise slow récitatifs and fast movements. The oratorio is a Christmas work for four voices and two violins, comprising a chorus, a few dialogues and a symphonie. These works are part of the early 18th-century attempt to introduce elements of the Italian style into French music. Lochon's efforts, however, resulted in predictable and regular turns of phrase, sequential repetitions and idly rushing scales. As well as two motets from this volume, there are four further motets in Brossard's collection (F-Pn Vm¹. 1175–1175^bis).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AnthonyFB

BrenetM

EitnerQ

J.-L. Lecerf de La Viéville: Comparaison de la musique italienne et de la musique française, iii (Brussels, 1706/R)

J.A. Kotylo: A Historical and Stylistic Study of the ‘Petit Motet’, 1700–1730 (diss., U. of Colorado, 1979)

Y. de Brossard: La collection Sébastien de Brossard, 1655–1730 (Paris, 1994)

WILLIAM HAYS (with JEAN-PAUL MONTAGNIER)

Locke [Lock], Matthew

(b ?Exeter, 1621–3; dLondon, shortly before 10 Aug 1677). English composer and organist. He was the most important, influential and prolific English composer of his generation, contributing to most genres of the time.

2. Domestic consort music.

3. Other instrumental music.

4. Sacred music.

5. Secular vocal music.

PETER HOLMAN

1. Life.

A portrait of Locke attributed to Isaac Fuller in the Faculty of Music, Oxford University (fig.1) has the inscription ‘aetat 40 / anno domini 1662’, which implies that he was born sometime between March 1621 and March 1623, while Anthony Wood wrote that he was ‘bred a chorister in the Cath. Church of Exeter (being as I presume a Devonian born)’; he was perhaps the son of Humphrey Locke, carpenter and freeman of Exeter, who married Elinor Deymont in 1619. He probably joined the cathedral choir around 1630, where his teachers would have been Edward Gibbons (eldest brother of Orlando) and the organist John Lugge, though Wood mentioned that he was also taught by William Wake, a lay vicar. He carved ‘Mathew Lock / 1638’ on the organ screen, possibly when his voice broke, and was warned by the dean and chapter on 29 August 1640 for fighting with a colleague. Perhaps a second carving, ‘ML / 1641’, records the year he left the choir.

The next record of his activities is his copy of Italian motets (GB-Lbl Add.31437, ff.29–43v) labelled ‘A Collection of Songs [made] when I was in the Low Countreys 1648’. Charles I made Exeter the base for his activities in the west in 1644 and conscripted all adult Devon men into the royalist army, and it is possible that Locke was one of those who accompanied Prince Charles to France in 1646. Hulse suggested that Locke was with Charles at The Hague in 1648, and accompanied the Duke of Newcastle to Antwerp early in 1649. Perhaps he became a Catholic at this point, and copied the Latin motets in GB-Lbl Add.31437 as part of the process; he apparently took them from Antwerp reprints of Venetian prints. The annotation ‘made at the request of Mr W^m. Wake for his Schollars 1651’ against The Little Consort in his autograph score book (GB-Lbl Add.17801) suggests he had returned to Exeter by then. The Duos for Two Bass Viols are dated 1652 (Add.17801), but it is not known where or for whom they were written.

There are indications that he spent some time during this period in Herefordshire. John Aubrey wrote that there was ‘a great friendship’ between him and the antiquary and amateur musician Silas Taylor, who ‘bought church lands (during the Commonwealth) and had half the bishop's palace at Hereford’. He added that Locke ‘married Mr Garnon's daughter in Herefordshire’, and the 1683 visitation of Hereford confirms that his wife was Mary, daughter of Roger Garnons from Trelough, south of Hereford. On 29 March 1654 a deposition was made against ‘Mr. Matthew Lock as being a papist’ and being involved in a fracas in Hereford, while he labelled a canon (GB-Lbl Add.17801) ‘A Plaine Song given by M^r. William Brode of Hereford. [16]54.’; William Broad had been a vicar-choral of Hereford Cathedral. The Flat Consort, ‘for My Cousin Kemble’, has been linked with a member of the prominent Catholic family of Pembridge Castle, Herefordshire.

It is often said that Locke was in London in 1653, when James Shirley's masque Cupid and Death was performed. But it is likely that the work only had music by Christopher Gibbons at that stage, and that Locke's contribution was made for the 1659 revival. There is no other sign of his presence in the capital before 1656, when Playford published his Little Consort of Three Parts, and he wrote lost vocal music for the fourth entry of Davenant's The Siege of Rhodes; he shared the part of the Admiral of Rhodes with Peter Ryman. He also seems to have written music for Davenant's The Cruelty of the Spaniards in Peru (?25 July 1658) and The History of Sir Francis Drake (?16 June 1659). The Apes Dance and The Symerons Dance in the Locke section of Playford's Courtly Masquing Ayres (1662) appear to come from the sixth entry of the former and the second entry of the latter. His contribution to Cupid and Death, made for a semi-public performance at a riding school in Leicester Fields in 1659, involved expanding the role of music by setting a number of the original speeches to recitative, perhaps to hoodwink the authorities into thinking that their ban on spoken plays did not apply to it.

By the Restoration in 1660 Locke was England's leading composer: the main figures of the pre-war royal music had either died in the Interregnum or were nearing retirement. He was appointed composer to the Private Music, the pool of musicians that played in the royal apartments at Whitehall. A section called the Broken Consort (because it mixed violins, viols and continuo instruments) continued the tradition of contrapuntal consort music developed at Charles I's court, and presumably played Locke's two eponymous sets of suites. The first is dated 1661 in two sources and the second was probably written soon after. But, as Roger North put it, Charles II had ‘an utter detestation of Fancys’, and preferred the French-style dance music played by the court violin band, the 24 Violins. Locke received a second post as its composer, authorized ‘to order & direct them in his course of Wayting’, though this role was supplanted in spring 1662 when John Banister (i) created a Select Band and became effective leader of the whole 24 Violins.

It is often said wrongly that Locke also had a post as composer to the royal wind musicians, but he did write two five-part suites and a six-part pavan-almand ‘For his Majesty's Sagbutts & Cornetts’, and they have plausibly been associated with the entertainment organized for Charles II's entry into London on 22 April 1661, the night before the coronation. John Ogilby's published description mentions that he wrote all the music, and includes the texts of some lost songs. Locke eventually acquired a third court post when Catharine of Braganza established a Catholic chapel at St James's in 1662 (in Somerset House from 1671); Christopher Gibbons described him as ‘y^e Queenes-Organist’ in a letter of 22 June 1663 (facsimile in Rayner). According to Roger North, he carried out his duties in unusual circumstances:

He was organist at Somerset House chappell, as long as he lived; but the Italian masters, that served there, did not approve of his manner of play, but must be attended by more polite hands; and one while one Sabinico [Giovanni Sebenico], and afterwards Sig^r Babtista Draghe, used the great organ, and Lock (who must not be turned out of his place, nor the execution) had a small chamber organ by, on which he performed with them the same services.

It has been presumed that Locke's Latin motets were intended for the queen's chapel, but there is no sign that string players were employed there, so the ones with obbligato violins may be the product of other circumstances.

As a Catholic, Locke was not a member of the Chapel Royal, though he wrote for it in the 1660s: the texts of some of his anthems appear in James Clifford's Divine Services and Anthems Usually Sung in his Majesties Chappell (London, 2/1664), and most of the others probably date from the same period. In 1666 he composed a novel through-composed setting of the Ten Commandments, but it was sabotaged by the Chapel Royal choir during the first performance on 1 April. He retaliated by publishing it as Modern Church-Musick Pre-accus'd, Censur'd, and Obstructed in its Performance before his Majesty (London, 1666), and Samuel Pepys, for one, thought it ‘excellent good’ when he tried it out with his friends. Later that year, on 14 August, the great polychoral anthem Be thou exalted Lord was performed in the chapel to celebrate Albemarle's naval victory over the Dutch; Pepys wrote of hearing ‘a special good Anthemne before the king after sermon’.

Locke was one of eight members of the 24 Violins paid travelling expenses between 30 June 1665 and 18 February 1666, when the court was sheltering from the plague at Hampton Court and in Oxford. While in Oxford he participated in some of the weekly meetings of the Music School, adding a Gloria to his Jubilate Deo on 9 November 1665, and writing a four-part fantasy and courante (the so-called Oxford Suite) and the motet Ad te levavi oculos meos for the following week. His New Year songs All things their certain periods have and Come loyal hearts were performed for the king in Oxford on 1 January 1666. He probably maintained a connection with the Music School after 1666 through Edward Lowe, and was paid £5 by the university for writing an ode (probably Descende caelo cincta sororibus regina) for a degree ceremony in the Sheldonian Theatre on 14 July 1673.

In view of Locke's Oxford activities and his prominent position in English musical life, it is surprising he never received a doctorate from the university, as did Christopher Gibbons and Benjamin Rogers. Perhaps it was because he was a Catholic, though it is also likely that his assertive and quarrelsome personality, revealed in his writings, offended potential academic patrons. In particular, his quarrel with Thomas Salmon could have done him no good, since Salmon was an MA of Trinity College, and was supported by his Oxford colleagues. Salmon had approached Locke for music lessons some years earlier, but had been referred to the teacher and minor composer John Birchensha. Birchensha published Salmon's Essay to the Advancement of Musick (London, 1672), which proposed a reform of notation, to which Locke responded with Observations upon a Late Book, Entitled, An Essay to the Advancement of Musick, etc. (London, 1672). Salmon replied with A Vindication of an Essay to the Advancement of Musick from Mr. Matthew Lock's Observations (London, 1672), which in turn provoked Locke's The Present Practice of Musick Vindicated (London, 1673), including a supporting essay by John Phillips, Milton's nephew, and a letter from Playford.

In essence, Salmon proposed to reform notation by replacing the Gamut with the ordinary letters of the scale, by abandoning tablature, and by introducing a universal four-line stave in which the bottom line would always be G and its pitch would be indicated by the symbols B (bass), M (mean) and T (treble). It was probably unrealistic to expect Locke to welcome such far-reaching proposals from an amateur, but he and his supporters did not advance their case by responding with personal abuse rather than logical arguments. In many respects, the debate exemplifies the contemporary conflict between conservative and progressive thought systems, the former characterized by a respect for tradition and rote learning, the latter by an insistence on the dispassionate evaluation of evidence. Not surprisingly, Salmon was supported by the Royal Society, and was partially proved right: the Gamut was eventually abandoned, staff notation did replace tablature, and, ironically, Playford soon began to confine himself to treble and bass clefs when publishing vocal music.

Locke's main sphere of activity outside the Restoration court was London's commercial theatre. As already mentioned, he had contributed to some of Davenant's operatic experiments during the Commonwealth, and he continued the association after 1660, becoming the main house composer for Davenant and his Duke of York's Company, first at Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre and after 1671 at Dorset Garden. He wrote music for at least 12 of their productions, though for some reason his last known theatre music, a lost song for D'Urfey's The Fool Turn'd Critick (November 1676), was for the rival King's Company. The ‘Instrumental, Vocal and Recitative Musick’ for Stapylton's The Step-Mother (October 1663) is unfortunately lost, as is most of his music for Shakespeare's Macbeth (November 1664), but we have three important late dramatic works: the masque of Orpheus and Euridice from Settle's The Empress of Morocco (July 1673), the suite of incidental music for The Tempest (April 1674), and an extended score for Shadwell's Psyche (February 1675), the prototype of the Purcellian type of semi-opera.

Locke remained active until the last few months of his life. In 1673 John Carr issued his Melothesia, or Certain General Rules for Playing upon a Continued-Bass, a publication that includes keyboard music by him and eight colleagues. Locke ‘carefully reviewed’ it, and also apparently edited Carr's anthology Tripla concordia, or A Choice Collection of New Airs in Three Parts (London, 1677, but licensed on 2 March 1676), which includes three suites by him. These were apparently written specially for the collection, and are probably his last consort music; much of the rest of the music, by five younger colleagues, is corrupt or incompetent. This is perhaps a sign that his powers were failing, though he was appointed Master of the Music when Nicholas Staggins went abroad in spring 1676, and was still deputizing on 22 May 1677. He died shortly before 10 August 1677, when Henry Purcell was sworn in to his post as composer to the 24 Violins. There is no evidence that Purcell was Locke's pupil, as has often been claimed, though his early music is heavily influenced by Locke, and he wrote an affecting elegy, ‘On the Death of his Worthy Friend Mr. MATTHEW LOCKE’, What hope for us remains now he is gone? (z472). Locke's daughter Maria administered his estate, which implies that his wife was already dead and that there was no male heir.

2. Domestic consort music.

Locke was one of the greatest English composers of consort music after the Jacobean golden age, and consort music forms the largest and most consistently important part of his surviving output. The main source is the autograph score, GB-Lbl Add.17801 (fig.2), which contains six sets, each with a different scoring. He probably wrote most of them during the Commonwealth, when the interest in domestic consort music was at its height and before he had acquired demanding theatre or church commitments, though he revised them in later life.

Locke made a distinctive contribution to English consort music in the way he ordered the movements of his suites. The structure of The Little Consort is relatively conventional. The keys chosen for the suites do not make a meaningful pattern, and the uniform sequence of pavan–air (almand)–courante–saraband uses the established principle that the movements should be ordered in a progression from the slowest and most serious to the fastest and liveliest. For Several Friends uses the same principle, but is less orderly: the 54 pieces divide by key into 12 suites with between three and seven movements, though those in G minor/major, D minor/major, A minor/major, and C minor/major are adjacent and were probably intended to be performed together; William Lawes had paired fantasia-suites in this way in the 1630s. Indeed, the six suites that begin with a fantasia could be thought of as extended fantasia suites, particularly if organ accompaniment is used. The set is difficult to date. It was revised extensively before and after it was copied into the autograph, and its backward-looking features might suggest that the first version was written at least as early as The Little Consort, though there is no evidence for this in the sources.

Despite their early date, the Duos for Two Bass Viols are more sophisticated in design. There are four three-movement suites, each consisting of two fantasias and a courante or saraband. The sequence fantasia–fantasia–dance is found in William Lawes's five- and six-part viol consorts, though Locke was the first person to apply it to a complete collection, and the set is the first he organized so that the suites can be performed separately, in pairs or as a complete sequence. By contrast, The Flat Consort is relatively incoherent as a set since it has no meaningful key sequence, no standard scoring and no consistent pattern of movements. Indeed, it should perhaps be thought of as two sets, united only by three-part writing, a penchant for flat keys and, presumably, an origin in the musical activities of the Kemble household. The first two suites are scored for treble, tenor and bass, and have the unusual and effective sequence fantasia–courante–fantasia–saraband–fantasia–jig, while the other three require a treble and two basses and consist (in the revised autograph version) of four-movement sequences of fantasia–courante–fantasia–saraband. The first two may perhaps be a little earlier than the others, since they use the same scoring as the first part of The Little Consort and are relatively straightforward, while the other three have more complex and developed fantasias, with some elaborate division writing. However, they all probably date from Locke's Hereford period in the 1650s.

In the first part of The Broken Consort and the Consort of Four Parts Locke developed more intricate and satisfying versions of the triple-layered pattern used in the Duos for Two Bass Viols. They both consist of six suites with the uniform sequence fantasia–courante–air (almand)–saraband, but the suites are also paired by key and by the fact that the odd-numbered fantasias begin with homophonic ‘slow introductions’. But Locke took the pairing of suites a stage further in the Consort of Four Parts by giving the even-numbered suites a matching ‘drag’ or conclusion; only the last suite in The Broken Consort has this feature. This may mean that the Consort of Four Parts is later than has been thought, and it may even have been written after the first part of The Broken Consort, despite its scoring for conventional viol consort. Roger North rightly described it as ‘a magnifick consort of 4 parts, after the old style, which was the last of the kind that hath bin made’, and it certainly contains some of Locke's most mature, complex and sophisticated music.

The Broken Consort was a conscious revival of the pre-Civil War court tradition of contrapuntal consort music, not least in its use of a mixed ensemble of violins, bass viol and continuo instruments; Locke presumably played the organ and the partly autograph Och Mus.772–6 contains parts for three theorbos. The fantasias are noticeably less contrapuntal than those in the Consort of Four Parts, probably because Locke was aware of Charles II's ‘utter detestation of Fancys’, and it is perhaps significant that the five suites of the second part begin with pavans rather than fantasias. He only copied the first two into Lbl Add.17801, so we do not know whether he was entirely responsible for the rather disorderly sequence found in secondary sources, with suites of three, four and five movements. However, the three extended suites for two violins and bass in Tripla concordia, the only important domestic consort music he is known to have written after the early 1660s, are even more disorderly, and are similar to English theatre suites and the loose sequences of movements extracted from Lully's operas that began to circulate in England in the 1670s. They are certainly a remarkable synthesis of Locke's distinctive melodic and harmonic idiom and elements of the French orchestral style.

Locke tended to be an innovator in matters of structure and musical language rather than scoring. The combinations he used in his domestic consort music were not new, though he may have been the first person to write suites for treble, tenor and bass, treble and two basses, and four viols. He was certainly unusual at the time in not providing his consort music with organ parts, though this does not mean that he did not intend organ accompaniment; it is likely that he accompanied from score at the keyboard (there are a few figures in Lbl Add.17801), and there are continuo parts in the secondary sources of most of his sets. He was not the only English composer of the period to cultivate an angular and unpredictable melodic and harmonic idiom, but he went further than most in extracting harmonic colour from unprepared dissonances, and in raising the emotional temperature by speeding up relatively conventional progressions (ex.1). His fantasias contain some skilful counterpoint, though he was not much interested in contrapuntal devices for their own sake, and the feature of his consort suites that remains in the memory is his superb melodic sense, whether deployed in an elegant courante, a passionate slow almand or an exuberant one-in-a-bar saraband.

3. Other instrumental music.

Locke has long been recognized as an important and original orchestral composer by virtue of his suite for The Tempest, with its extraordinarily vivid curtain tune depicting the storm at the opening of the play. It was published in The English Opera (London, 1675), together with his music for Psyche, but most of the rest of his orchestral music survives only in a problematic manuscript score, ‘The Rare Theatrical’ (US-NYp Drexel 3976). It seems to contain much of the incidental music he wrote for Restoration plays, but only one or two of the 78 pieces can be identified with particular productions, and the copyist evidently broke up suites so as to organize the manuscript by key. There is little doubt that it was all intended for the 24 Violins, a section of which worked regularly for the Duke's Company from winter 1664–5. The collection also contains some fine suites of branles, probably written for court balls, and most of the pieces seem intended for a single violin part, two violas, and bass violins in B, the scoring used by the group at the time. However, The Tempest suite and a few of the ‘Rare Theatrical’ pieces have two equal soprano parts, which suggests that a change to the more modern ‘string quartet’ scoring was made during the 1670s.

Locke's keyboard music is less important. His harpsichord works, mostly printed in Melothesia, are simple pieces doubtless written for teaching, some arranged from consort dances. The seven organ voluntaries in Melothesia were probably also written for teaching, intended to serve as specimens of what was essentially an improvisation genre. Locke claimed in The Present Practice of Musick Vindicated that he had written lute pieces without having ‘the Practical Use of the Lute’. They are lost, as are the pieces for two flageolets that Pepys played with Thomas Greeting on 13 August 1668.

4. Sacred music.

Locke copied Latin motets by Galeazzo Sabbatini, Giovanni Rovetta and Francesco Costanzo da Cosena (fl 1621) when he was in the Netherlands in 1648, and would have come across other examples of the genre in Richard Dering's Cantica sacra (RISM 1662⁴); most likely, he also knew the corpus of Italian music copied by musicians in Oxford from Venetian prints now at Christ Church. His own Latin motets are for one to five solo voices with or without strings and continuo. Some of them were published in Cantica sacra (London, 1674²), the sequel to Dering's collection, and all of them are similar to Italian models in scoring, formal outlines and idioms of word-setting, though they use a much more angular and dissonant melodic and harmonic idiom, related to English traditions of declamatory song. The finest are those that are most extended and depend on the interplay of voices and violins, such as Audi, Domine, clamantes ad te and Super flumina Babylonis. They mostly survive in Oxford sources, and may have been written for the Music School in the 1660s.

Locke's domestic sacred music, for one to three solo voices and continuo, uses a similar blend of Italian and English idioms. The most important pieces are a group of 14 psalm settings for three male voices and continuo in the autograph manuscript GB-Lbl Add.31437, ff.1–19. They have often been thought of as church music, but they belong to a tradition of three-part devotional psalm settings that goes back to Choice Psalmes (RISM 1648⁴) by William and Henry Lawes. Four devotional solos and duets were published in Harmonia sacra (1688¹), perhaps at the instigation of Henry Purcell, who had a part in editing the volume.

It is possible that Locke wrote church music for Exeter Cathedral before the Civil War, though there is no reason to think that any of his surviving anthems were written before 1660. The most old-fashioned, such as the fine When the son of man shall come in his glory, with its Schütz-like sense of drama, still use an instrumental consort to accompany the solo voices in the Jacobean manner, though there is a continuo part as well. It is likely that they were written in the early 1660s, at a time when cornetts and sackbuts were still used in the Chapel Royal. We have only two Locke anthems with violins in the modern Restoration style, O be joyful in the Lord, all ye lands and Be thou exalted Lord. The latter is virtually the only true polychoral work from Restoration England, and seems designed to exploit the geography of Whitehall chapel. It is scored for three ‘Quires’ of voices. The first was probably sung by four solo voices, perhaps in the organ gallery, and was joined from time to time by soloists from the two choirs, presumably placed in the choirstalls on the floor of the chapel. They were accompanied by two groups of instruments, a consort of two violins, two bass viols and two theorbos, probably placed in a gallery, and a five-part string orchestra disposed in the French manner, presumably on the floor of the chapel. Magnificent as this work is, Locke's penitential verse anthems with organ, such as Turn thy face from my sins and Lord let me know mine end were more influential at their time with their fruitful synthesis of formal counterpoint and expressive soloistic vocal writing – the English equivalents of the stile antico and the stile moderno.

5. Secular vocal music.

Although Locke wrote some effective single songs, dialogues and partsongs, his most important secular vocal music was written for plays and masques. His contributions to Cupid and Death, the only English masque with more or less complete surviving music, are relatively immature, though the Fifth Entry is set to almost continuous music, with some effective florid dialogue passages between Mercury, Cupid, Death and Nature. It is unfortunate that Locke published his music for Psyche in a compressed form in The English Opera, for the score does not contain all the details of the instrumental writing; Thomas Shadwell's text mentions that Locke used flageolets, flutes, ‘pipes’, recorders, ‘hoboys’, cornetts, sackbuts, trumpets, drums, strings, organ and harpsichord. As it stands, the most impressive passages are the dialogues for solo voices, such as the beautiful and highly original quartet of despairing lovers in Act 2, or the song of three Elizian Lovers in Act 5. However, his most successful surviving dramatic work is the little masque of Orpheus and Euridice from Act 4 of The Empress of Morocco (ex.2). With its sensitive yet flamboyant approach to setting English in the declamatory style, it must have been an important model for the miniature all-sung operas written by his followers, John Blow and Henry Purcell.

WORKS

Editions:The John Playford Collection of Vocal Part Music, ed. W.G. Whittaker (London, 1937) [W]M. Locke: Cupid and Death, ed. E.J. Dent, MB, ii (1951, 2/1965) [D]M. Locke: Keyboard Suites, ed. T. Dart (London, 1959, 2/1964) [TD]M. Locke: Chamber Music: I, II, ed. M. Tilmouth, MB, xxxi, xxxii (1971–2) [T i–ii]M. Locke: Anthems and Motets, ed. P. le Huray, MB, xxxviii (1976) [H]M. Locke: Dramatic Music, ed. M. Tilmouth, MB, li (1986) [T iii]M. Locke: Songs and Dialogues, ed. M. Levy (1996) [L]

anglican church music

Be thou exalted Lord (A Song of Thanksgiving for his Majesty's Victory over the Dutch), verse anthem, 12vv, 2 vn, 2 b viols, 2 theorbos, 5 str, bc, 1666, H

How doth the city sit solitary, verse anthem, 5/5vv, org, H

I will hear what the Lord God will say (1p. Lord thou hast been gracious), verse anthem, 7/5vv, 3 insts (? cornett, 2 sackbuts), bc, H

Lord have mercy on us (res to the Ten Commandments), I believe in one God, the Father Almighty (Nicene Cr) (Communion Service, F), full, 4vv, Ob*, Lbl, Modern Church-Musick Preaccus'd, Censur'd and Obstructed in its Performance before his Majesty (London, 1666), ed. F. Bridge (London, 1917)

Lord let me know mine end, verse anthem, 5/4vv, org, H

Lord thou hast been gracious (2p. I will hear what the Lord God will say), verse anthem, 4/5vv, 3 insts (? cornett, 2 sackbuts), bc, Lbl (attrib. Blow)

Not unto us, O Lord, verse anthem, 8/8vv, org, H

O be joyful in the Lord, all ye lands, verse anthem, 4/4vv, 4 str, bc, H

The Lord hear thee in the day of trouble, verse anthem, 5/5vv, 4 insts (? 2 cornetts, 2 sackbuts), bc, H

Turn thy face from my sins, verse anthem, 5/5vv, org, H

When the son of man shall come in his glory, verse anthem, 6/6vv, 4 insts (? 2 cornetts, 2 sackbuts), bc, H

Who shall separate us from the love of Christ, verse anthem, 4/4vv, bc, H

fragments

God is gone up with a merry noise, 1v only, Lbl

Lord, thou hast been our refuge, 1v only, EIRE-Dcc

Lord, who shall dwell in thy tabernacle, 3vv only, Dcc

O clap your hands together, 1v only, GB-Lbl

O praise God in his holiness, 1v only, Y

doubtful

Mag, Nunc (Evening Service, d), verse, 5/4vv, Lbl (attrib. Locke by later hand)

O clap your hands together, 4/4vv, 4 viols, bc, Ob (attrib. Locke by later hand)

lost

Awake, awake, put on thy strength, text in J. Clifford, The Divine Services and Anthem (London, 2/1664)

O sing unto the Lord a new song, text in J. Clifford, The Divine Services and Anthems (London, 2/1664)

latin motets

Ad te levavi oculos meos, for Oxford Music School, 1665, 3vv, 2 tr viol/vn, 2 b viol, bc, H

Agnosce O Christiane, 2vv, bc, Lbl*, 1674²

Audi, Domine, clamantes ad te, 5vv, 2 tr viol/vn, b viol, bc, H

Cantate Domino canticum novum, 2vv, bc, Lbl*, 1674², ed. C. Bartlett (Wyton, 1989)

Bone Jesu verbum Patris, 2vv, bc, Bu

Domine est terra, 3vv, 2 tr viol/vn, b viol, bc, H

Jesu auctor clementie, 3vv, 4 str, bc, H

Jubilate Deo omnis terra (Gl added for Oxford Music School, 1665), 2vv, 2 tr viol/vn, b viol, bc, H

O Domine Jesu Christe, 2vv, bc, 1674², ed. C. Bartlett (Wyton, 1989)

Omnes gentes plaudite manibus (2p. Ascendit Deus), 2vv, bc, 1674²

Recordare Domine creaturae tuae, 2vv, bc, 1674²

Super flumina Babylonis, 4vv, 2 tr viol/vn, b viol, bc, H

doubtful

Bone Jesu verbum Patris, 1v, bc, L

Cantate Dominum et invocate nomen eius; Quid faciemus cum tuba de coelo intonare; Urbs caelestis, urbs beata; Vox dilecti mei: all 2vv, bc, B-Bc (attrib. Locke), GB-Cfm (attrib. S. Taylor)

Gratiam fac mihi, O Deus, 3vv, 2 tr viol/vn, b viol, bc, US-NYp (anon., probably by Locke)

english devotional songs and partsongs

And a voice came out of the throne, 2vv, bc, 1688¹

Arise, O Lord, 3vv, bc, GB-Lbl*

Behold how good, 3vv, bc, Lbl*, 1663⁶, W

Blessed is the man, 3vv, bc, Lbl*

Come honest sexton (The Passing Bell), 2vv, bc, 1688¹, L

From the depth have I called, 3vv, bc, Lbl*

A hymn, O God, becometh thee in Syon, 3vv, bc, Lbl*, Ob

I know that my Redeemer lives, 2vv, bc, 1688¹, ed. T. Roberts, Restoration Duets, ii (London, 1986)

In the beginning, O Lord, 3vv, bc, Lbl*; ed. in Anthems for Mens Voices, i (London, 1965)

Let God arise, 3vv, bc, Lbl*; ed. in Anthems for Mens Voices, i (London, 1965)

Lord let me know mine end, 2vv, bc, 1674², reduction of the verse anthem

Lord now lettest thou thy servant, 3vv, bc, Lbl*

Lord, rebuke me not, 3vv, bc, Lbl*; ed. in Anthems for Mens Voices, ii (London, 1965)

O give thanks unto the Lord, for he is gracious, 3vv, bc, Och, ed. J.E. West (London, 1908)

O how pleasant and how fair, 2vv, bc, 1674²

O Lord hear my prayer, 3vv, bc, Lbl*; ed. in Anthems for Mens Voices, i (London, 1965)

O Lord our Lord, how marvellous is thy name, 3vv, bc, Lbl*

Praise our Lord, all ye gentiles, 3vv, bc, Lbl*, W

Sing unto the Lord a new song, 3vv, bc, Lbl*, ed. J.E. West (London, 1905)

Then from a whirlwind oracle, 1v, bc, 1688¹, L

When I was in tribulation, 3vv, bc, Lbl*

doubtful

As on Euphrates shady banks; I to thy wings for refuge fly; Lord, to my prayers incline; My prayers shall with the sun's uprise ascend; New composed ditties sing; Now great Jehovah reigns; Now in the winter of my years; Remember Edom Lord: all 2vv, bc, B-Bc (attrib. Locke), GB-Cfm (attrib. S. Taylor)

sacred canons

Domine Jesu Christe miserere mei, canon 6 in 3, 6vv, Observations upon a Late Book [see ‘Theoretical Works’], GB-Lbl

Gloria Patri et Filio, canon 4 in 2, 4vv, Bu

Glory be to the Father, canon 2 in 1, 2vv, Lbl

O bone Jesu miserere mei, canon 2 in 1, 2vv, Observations upon a Late Book [see ‘Theoretical Works’], Lbl

Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus, Dominus Deus, canon 3 in 1, 3vv, Observations upon a Late Book [see ‘Theoretical Works’]

Domine salvum fac regem, 8vv, lost, mentioned by Pepys, 21 Feb 1660

secular vocal

Alas, alas, who has been here, on the burial of Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George Lisle, 1661, 2vv, bc, L

All things their certain periods have, for the New Year, 1666, 3/4vv, bc, GB-Lbl, Ob

Ambitious man, why dost thou raise, 1/4vv, bc, Lbl, Lgc

Cloris, it is not in our power (G. Etherege), 3vv, 1667⁶

Come let us drink and never think, catch, 3vv, 1673⁴

Descende caelo cincta sororibus regina, Oxford academic ode, 1673, 4vv, 2 vn, b viol, bc, Och

Divinest siren, cruel fair (T. Stanley), 1v, bc, L

Hail ye hallowed numens of this place, 1/3vv, 1667⁶

I charge thee Neptune (A Dialogue between Apollo and Neptune; T. Flatman), on the death of Edward Montagu, Earl of Sandwich, 1672, 2vv, bc, 1675⁷, L

In a soft vision of the night (Urania to Parthenissa; Flatman), 1v, bc, 1679⁷, L

Lucinda, wink or veil those eyes, 1v, bc, L

Ne'er trouble thyself at the times, 3vv, 1667⁶, W

Since by wealth we can't prolong our years, 3vv, 1667⁶, W

Sing forth sweet Cherubim (To a lady singing to herself by the Thames-side; W. Habington), 1v, bc, L

’Tis love and harmony, 4vv, 1667⁶, W

To Pan, great Pan, 3vv, 1667⁶

Up and down this world goes, catch, 3vv, 1685⁴

Ut la ut fa me, catch, 3vv, 1685⁴

Welcome royal May (A. Brome), for the king's birthday, 1661, 3vv, 1667⁶

When death shall part us from these kids (A Dialogue between Thirsis and Dorinda; A. Marvell), 2vv, bc, 1675⁷, L

Wrong not your lovely eyes, 1v, bc, 1675⁷, L

‘English Songe to play on ye Base viol with ye singinge’ (b viol and bc pts for an unidentified Oxford academic ode), Ob

lost

Come loyal hearts (N. Lanier), song for the New Year, 1666, text Ob

Comes not here the king of peace; From Neptune's wat'ry kingdoms; King Charles, great Neptune of the main; With all our wishes, Sir, go on; for entertainment before the king's coronation, 1661: all 3vv, texts in J. Ogilby, The Relation of his Majestie's Entertainment (London, 1661)

stage

4th entry in The Siege of Rhodes (op, W. Davenant), 1656, lost

The Apes Dance, vn, b, in The Cruelty of the Spaniards in Peru (masque, Davenant), 1658, 1662⁸

Addns, solo vv, chorus, 1/2 vn, b/bc, to Cupid and Death (masque, J. Shirley), 1659, collab. C. Gibbons, D [masque orig. perf. 1653]

The Symerons Dance, vn, b, in The History of Sir Francis Drake (masque, Davenant), 1659, 1662⁸

Dance, flageolet, in Love and Honour (play, Davenant), 1661, The Pleasant Companion (London, 1672)

Orpheus with his lute, song, 3vv, in Henry VIII (play, Davenant, after W. Shakespeare), 1663, 1667⁶

Instrumental, Vocal and Recitative Musick, in The Step-Mother (play, R. Stapylton), 1663, lost

Dance, vn, in Macbeth (play, Davenant, after Shakespeare), 1664, Apollo's Banquet (London, c1669), attrib. Locke in The Pleasant Companion (London, 1672)

Dance, flageolet, in The Comical Revenge, or Love in a Tub (play, G. Etherege), 1664, The Pleasant Companion (London, 1672)

Flow streams of liquid salt, song, 1v, bc, in Albumazar (play, T. Tomkis), 1668, GB-NO*(facs. in Hulse)

Dance, vn, in She Would if She Could (play, Etherege), 1668, Apollo's Banquet (London, c1669), setting a 4, US-NYp

No music like that which loyalty sings, song, 1v, Masque of Orpheus, 4vv, bc, in The Empress of Morocco (play, E. Settle), 1673, T iii

Suite, 4 str, in The Tempest (semi-op, T. Shadwell, after Shakespeare), 1674, The English Opera (London, 1675), 3 act tunes probably by Robert Smith (i), T iii

2 songs, Fie, fie, this love keeps such a coil, Oh the brave jolly gypsy, both 1v, bc, in The Triumphant Widow (play, W. Cavendish), 1674, NO* (facs. in Hulse)

Psyche (semi-op, Shadwell), London, Dorset Garden, 27 Feb 1675, The English Opera (London, 1675), T iii

Away with the causes of riches, song, 2vv, in Madam Fickle, or The Witty False One (play, T. D’Urfey), 1676, 1685⁴, 3vv version, Lbl

Room for a man of the town, song, in The Fool Turn'd Critick (play, D'Urfey), 1676, lost

consort music

The Little Consort, 5 suites, g, C, d, B, e, 2 tr viol/vn, b viol, opt. bc, 5 suites, F, g/G, a, B, d/D, tr viol/vn, t viol, b viol, opt. bc, 1651, Matthew Locke his Little Consort of 3 Parts (London, 1656), T i

Duos for 2 Bass Viols, 4 suites, d, D, c, C, 2 b viol, 1652, T i

For Several Friends, 12 Suites, g, G, B, d, D, e, F, a, A, c, C, d, tr viol/vn, b viol, opt. bc, T i; 7 extra pieces, GB-Cfm, Lbl, Och

The Flat Consort, 2 suites, c, B, tr, t, b viol, opt. bc, 3 suites, d, B, a/A, tr viol, 2 b viol, opt. bc, T i

The Broken Consort Part 1, 6 suites, g, G, C, C, d, D, 2 vn, b viol, bc, 1661, T ii

The Broken Consort Part 2, 4 suites, c/C, d/D, e, F, 2 vn, b viol, bc, ?1661–2, T ii

Consort of 4 Parts, 6 suites, d, d/D, F, F, g, G, 4 viols, opt. bc, T ii

2 suites, B, a, tr viol/vn, b, 1662⁸

3 suites, g, G, e, piece in B, 2 vn, b vn, 1677⁴; suite in G, ed. P. Holman (London, 1980)

Suite of branles, roundo, g, Och (inc., vn pt only)

Suite, g/B, 2 vn, b, US-NH, NYp

Fantasy, courante (The Oxford Suite), d, for Oxford Music School, 1665, 2 tr viol/vn, b viol, ?bc, T ii

15 dances, g, 4 str, NYp, ed. S. Beck (New York, 1942, 2/1947)

78 pieces, A, a, B, C, c, d, D, 4 str, NYp (facs. in MLE, A4, 1989)

2 suites, d, F, ?for entertainment before the king's coronation, 1661, 2 cornetts, 3 sackbuts, GB-Cfm, Lbl*, ed. A. Baines (London, 1951)

Pavan-almand, F, ?for entertainment before the king's coronation, 1661, 2 cornetts, 4 sackbuts, Lbl*

3 canons, a 3, G, G, C, Cfm, Lbl, in C. Simpson, A Compendium of Practical Music (London, 1667), ed. P.J. Lord (Oxford, 1970)

Counterpoint ex. (Upon an Ut Re Mi), F, a 5, Lbl

2 canons, 4 in 2, F, g, a 6, T ii

Pieces, 2 flageolets, lost, mentioned by Pepys, 13 Aug 1668

solo instrumental

4 suites, C, g, C, D/d, hpd, Melothesia [see ‘Theoretical Works’], TD

8 pieces, G, F, C, hpd, 1663⁷, 1678⁶, 7 arr. from The History of Sir Francis Drake, Cupid and Death, The Little Consort; TD

Entry, F, hpd, The Present Practice [see ‘Theoretical Works’]

Suite, D, hpd, US-NYp, 1 movt arr. from The Little Consort; TD

Almand, G, prelude a, hpd, GB-Lbl, D

Courante, a, hpd, Ob

7 voluntaries, a, F, a, d, G, a, d, org, Melothesia [see ‘Theoretical Works’], ed. C. Hogwood (Oxford, 1987)

Mr Lock's Tune, g, vn, Apollo's Banquet (London, c1669)

Almand, d, b viol, The Present Practice [see ‘Theoretical Works’]

Pieces, lute, lost, mentioned in The Present Practice [see ‘Theoretical Works’]

Voluntary, a, org, Cfm, doubtful

theoretical works

Observations upon a Late Book, Entitled, An Essay to the Advancement of Musick, etc. Written by Thomas Salmon, M.A. of Trinity College in Oxford (London, 1672) [incl. sacred canons, see above]

The Present Practice of Musick Vindicated against the Exceptions and New Way of Attaining Musick Lately Published by Thomas Salmon M.A. etc. … to which is added Duellum Musicum, by John Phillips, Gent. Together with a Letter from John Playford to Mr. T. Salmon by way of Confutation of his Essay, etc. (London, 1673/R)

Melothesia, or Certain General Rules for Playing upon a Continued-Bass, with a Choice Collection of Lessons for the Harpsicord and Organ of all Sorts: Never before Published (London, 1673⁶/R); ed. C. Hogwood (Oxford, 1987) [incl. works for kbd, see ‘Solo Instrumental’)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AshbeeR,i, v, viii

BDA

BDECM

Day-MurrieESB

DoddI

BurneyH

GroveO(‘Cupid and Death’, ‘Psyche’; C. Price)

HawkinsH

SpinkES

T. Salmon: An Essay on the Advancement of Musick (London, 1672/R

E.J. Dent: Foundations of English Opera (Cambridge, 1928/R)

E.L. Fairley: Studies in the Music of Matthew Locke (diss., U. of Rochester, 1941)

A. Lewis: ‘Matthew Locke: a Dynamic Figure in English Music’, PRMA, lxxiv (1947–8), 57–71

E.S. de Beer, ed.: The Diary of John Evelyn (Oxford, 1955)

E. Halfpenny: ‘ The “Entertainment” of Charles II’, ML, xxxviii (1957), 32–44

J. Aubrey: Brief Lives, ed. O.L. Dick (London, 1958)

T. Dart: ‘The Repertory of the Royal Wind Music’, GSJ, xi (1958), 70–77

J. Wilson, ed.: Roger North on Music (London, 1959)

A. Kooiker: Locke's ‘Melothesia’: its Place in the History of Keyboard Music in Restoration England (diss., U. of Rochester, 1962)

R. Fiske: ‘The Macbeth Music’, ML, xliv (1964), 114–25

L.M. Ruff: ‘ Thomas Salmon's Essay to the Advancement of Musick’, The Consort, xxi (1964), 266–78

W.A. Sleeper: The Harmonic Style of the Four-Part Viol Music of Jenkins, Locke and Purcell (diss., U. of Rochester, 1964)

M. Lefkowitz: ‘ Matthew Locke at Exeter’, The Consort, xxii (1965), 5–16

O. Baldwin and T. Wilson: ‘Musick Advanced and Vindicated’,MT, cxi (1970), 148–50

C.D.S. Field: The English Consort Suite of the Seventeenth Century (diss., U. of Oxford, 1970)

C.D.S. Field: ‘ Matthew Locke and the Consort Suite’, ML, li (1970), 15–25

C.G. and S.F. Rayner: ‘Christopher Gibbons: “That Famous Musitian”’,MD, xxiv (1970), 151–71

R. Latham and W. Matthews: eds.: Samuel Pepys: Diary (London, 1970–83)

R.E.M. Harding: A Thematic Catalogue of the Works of Matthew Locke with a Calendar of the Main Events of his Life (Oxford, 1971)

R. McGuinness: English Court Odes 1660–1820 (Oxford, 1971)

M. Tilmouth: ‘ Revisions in the Chamber Music of Matthew Locke’, PRMA, xcviii (1971–2), 89–100

P. Dennison: ‘ The Sacred Music of Matthew Locke’, ML, lx (1979), 60–75

C. Price: Music in the Restoration Theatre (Ann Arbor, 1979)

J.D. Shute: Anthony à Wood and his Manuscript Wood D 19 (4) at the Bodleian Library, Oxford (diss., International Institute of Advanced Studies, Clayton, MO, 1979)

M. Lefkowitz: ‘ Shadwell and Locke's Psyche, the French Connection’,PRMA, cvi (1979–80), 42–55

J. McDonald: ‘ Matthew Locke's “The English Opera” and the Theatre Music of Purcell’, SMA, xv (1981), 62–75

R.P. Thompson: English Music Manuscripts and the Fine Paper Trade, 1648–1688 (diss., U. of London, 1988)

G. Cox: Organ Music in Restoration England: a Study of Sources, Styles and Influences (New York, 1989)

P. Holman: Introduction to Matthew Locke: The Rare Theatrical, Music for London Entertainment, ser.A, iv (London, 1989)

R.P. Thompson: ‘The Sources of Locke's Consort “for seaverall freinds”’,Chelys, xix (1990), 16–43

I. Spink, ed.: The Seventeenth Century, The Blackwell History of Music in Britain, iii (Oxford, 1992)

J. Harley: British Harpsichord Music (Aldershot, 1992–4) [2 vols.]

P. Holman: Four and Twenty Fiddlers: the Violin at the English Court 1540–1690 (Oxford, 1993; 2/1995)

L. Hulse: ‘Three Newly Discovered Songs for the Restoration Stage’, ML, lxxv (1994), 200–13

I. Spink: Restoration Cathedral Music 1660–1714 (Oxford, 1995)

R. Herissone: The Theory and Practice of Composition in the English Restoration Period (diss., U. of Cambridge, 1996)

P. Holman: ‘ Original Sets of Parts for Restoration Concerted Music at Oxford’,Performing the Music of Henry Purcell, ed. M. Burden (Oxford, 1996), 9–19, 265–71

P. Walls: Music in the English Courtly Masque, 1604–1640 (Oxford, 1996)

J.P. Wainwright: Musical Patronage in Seventeenth-Century England: Christopher, First Baron Hatton (1605–1670) (Aldershot, 1997)

Lockenburg [Lochemburgho], Johannes [Jhänj]

(d Munich, 1591 or 1592). ?German composer, organist and court servant. He was a valet in the pay of Duke Albrecht V of Bavaria at his court at Munich and later a composer in the Kapelle directed by Lassus. Payments to him are first recorded in the treasury accounts in 1558. About 1562 he was taken on permanently as an organist. His starting salary was 166 florins, but he was often granted special honoraria (100 gold crowns in 1567), and when he married, in 1568, the duke gave him a drinking-vessel worth 82 florins. In the same year Massimo Troiano (in his Discorsi delli triomfi) praised him as a skilled composer. In court documents from about 1570 to 1575, the period of his main activity in Lassus's Kapelle, he is not described as organist but only as a chamerdiener-officier. He enjoyed a close friendship with the musicians of the Landshut Kapelle of Duke Wilhelm V, including Gosswin. He was awarded an annuity for life of 250 florins by a ducal decree of 26 October 1581. He was one of several competent minor composers in Lassus's circle. His close connections with Lassus are attested by his three parody masses, one of which is based on a chanson by Lassus, Avec vous mon amour finira (from his first print, of 1555). After Lassus's death, Lockenburg's mass on the chanson Or sus à coup was wrongly ascribed to Lassus and printed thus in Paris in 1607, an error repeated in several subsequent editions. The mass on Crecquillon's Se salamandra has also on occasion been wrongly attributed to Lassus.

WORKS

4 madrigals, 4vv, 1560¹⁷; madrigal, 5vv, 1559¹⁶ (copy, dated 1770, in GB-Lbl Add.14398)

Missa super ‘Avec vous’; Missa super ‘Or sus à coup’ (formerly wrongly attrib. Lassus); Missa super ‘Se salamandre’ (formerly wrongly attrib. Lassus) ed. in S. Hermelink and others: Orlando di Lasso: Sämtliche Werke (Kassel, 1956–), ix:A-Wn (copy, XIX saec); D-As, Mbs, Rp, Domarchiv, Regensburg, F-CA

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BoetticherOL

EitnerQ

MGG1(W. Boetticher)

A. Sandberger: Beiträge zur Geschichte der bayerischen Hofkapelle unter Orlando di Lasso, iii (Leipzig, 1895/R), 335

J. Huschke: ‘Orlando di Lassos Messen’, AMf, v (1940), 84–127, 153–7

W. Boetticher: Aus Orlando di Lassos Wirkungskreis (Kassel, 1963)

H. Leuchtmann: Orlando di Lasso: sein Leben (Wiesbaden, 1976), 129

WOLFGANG BOETTICHER

Lockhart, Beatriz

(b Montevideo, 17 Jan 1944). Uruguayan composer. She started her studies at the age of five with Emilia Conti de Alvarez (piano), and at 15 entered the Conservatorio Nacional de Música, being instructed by Carlos Estrada and Héctor Tosar. From 1969 to 1970 she attended the Di Tella Institut in Buenos Aires to study composition and electronic music with Ginastera, Gandini and Kroepfl. During that time she wrote orchestral, chamber and piano works, and electronic music. From 1974 to 1988 she was in Venezuela, teaching in Caracas at the Conservatorio Juan José Landaeta and the Escuela de Música José Lorenzo Llamozas. She has won composition awards from the Instituto Panamericano de Cultura, Montevideo (1972), the Símon Bolívar University, Caracas (1977), and the municipality of Caracas (1978, 1983, 1984, 1987). She has attended symposia in Venezuela, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Chile and Uruguay, where she has presented her works. Her Convergencias was performed at the International Conference Institut für Neue Musik in Weiz in 1985, and her Triptico sudamericano and Microconcierto were heard at the First Festival of 20th-Century Latin American Chamber Music in Caracas in 1986. She teaches at the University of Montevideo and is married to the composer Mastrogiovanni.

WORKS

Orch: Concertino triple, 2 vn, vc, str, 1966; Conc. grosso, str, 1966; Ecos, 1970; Pieza para orquesta, 1970; Microconcierto, pf, perc, 1978; Estampas criollas, chbr orch, 1983; Masia Mujú, fl, orch, 1987

Chbr: 2 piezas para recitante, pf, vn, vc, 1969; Tríptico sudamericano, pf qt, 1969; Suite, chbr orch; Variations, orch; Trio, fl, ob, cl; Convergencias, a-sax, vib, 1985

Vocal: Madrigal, chorus, 1966; Homenaje a Federico García-Lorca, S, pf, 1967; 2 canciones, S, orch, 1968; Homenaje a Andrés Bello, solo v, chorus, orch, 1982; Tiempo de mariposas, chorus, 1982; Visión de los vencidos, S, orch, 1990; 2 canciones indias, S, orch, 1991; several songs, v, pf

Pf: Suite, 1965; Toccata, 1967; Estudio, 1968; Theme and Variations, 1968; Joropo, 1979; Toccata, 1984; Merengue, 1986

Elec: Ejercicio I, tape, 1970

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveW (S. Salgado)

S. Salgado: Breve historia de la música culta en el Uruguay (Montevideo, 1971, 2/1980)

SUSANA SALGADO

Lockhart, James (Lawrence)

(b Edinburgh, 16 Oct 1930). Scottish conductor. He studied at Edinburgh University and the RCM, and worked as a répétiteur successively at Münster, Munich, Glyndebourne and Covent Garden, as well as directing the opera workshop of the University of Texas at Austin (1957–9). He made his début with Sadler’s Wells Opera in 1960 (Figaro), and after two seasons there became resident conductor at Covent Garden (1962–8). He conducted the première of Walton’s The Bear for the English Opera Group at the Aldeburgh Festival (1967), which he also recorded. He was music director of the WNO (1968–73), where his wide repertory included the first production of Berg’s Lulu by a British opera company (1971), and his qualities as a trainer and his overall skill decisively strengthened the company’s musical standards.

From 1972 to 1981 Lockhart was Generalmusikdirektor at Kassel, where his activities ranged from the Ring cycle to the first German production of Gilbert and Sullivan’s The Yeomen of the Guard (as Der Gaukler von London) in 1972. He moved to Koblenz (1981), where he introduced several Britten works and a Janáček cycle to the opera repertory and was made director of the Rhine State PO, with whom his recordings include orchestral works by Maurice Emmanuel and Paul Le Flem. In the USA he made his Metropolitan début (1984) conducting the ENO in War and Peace, and conducted Peter Grimes at San Diego. In 1986 he became director of opera at the RCM (from 1992 the London Royal Schools Vocal Faculty), where his productions have included the première of Paul Max Edlin’s The Fisherman (1989) in association with London International Opera Festival. As a pianist Lockhart is a sensitive accompanist of singers, notably the soprano Margaret Price, with whom he has made a number of recordings.

ARTHUR JACOBS, NOËL GOODWIN

Lockspeiser, Edward

(b London, 21 May 1905; d Alfriston, Sussex, 3 Feb 1973). English musicologist and composer. He studied in Paris (1922–6), during the last year as a pupil of Nadia Boulanger, and at the RCM (1929–30) under Kitson and Malcolm Sargent. He worked as a composer and conductor (founding the Toynbee Hall Orchestra in 1934) before becoming London music critic for the Yorkshire Post in 1936. From 1941 to 1950 he worked for the BBC, after which he spent his time teaching and as a musical journalist.

Lockspeiser's chief interest was French music. His pioneering Master Musicians study of Debussy (1936) was followed by 30 years' intensive research on the life and personality of the composer, culminating in his two-volume Debussy: his Life and Mind (1962–5). In his teaching he stressed the value of studying a composer's social and aesthetic background, and in his last work extended this principle to the visual arts. Lockspeiser's compositions date mainly from the 1920s, though he later wrote some film music. Only one work was published (Deux mélodies, Paris, 1926). For his services to French music he was made an Officier de l'Académie in 1948. His extensive library was acquired after his death by Lancaster University.

WRITINGS

‘French Influences on Bach’, ML, xvi (1935), 312–20; rev. in Eighteenth Century French Studies, ed. E.T. Dubois, E. Ratcliff and P.J. Yarrow (Newcastle upon Tyne, 1969), 29–39

Debussy (London, 1936, 5/1980)

Berlioz (London, 1939)

A New History of Music (New York, 1943/R) [trans. of H. Prunières: Nouvelle histoire de la musique (Paris, 1934–6)]

‘Mixed Gallery’, British Music of our Time, ed. A.L. Bacharach (Harmondsworth, 1946), 185–99

Bizet (London, 1951)

‘Maurice Ravel’, The Concerto, ed. R. Hill (London, 1952/R), 307–14

‘Humphrey Searle’, MT, xcvi (1955), 468–72

ed.: Lettres inédites de Claude Debussy à André Caplet (1908–1914) (Monaco, 1957)

‘French Chamber Music (from 1700)’, Chamber Music, ed. A. Robertson (Harmondsworth, 1957/R), 357–89

The Literary Clef: an Anthology of Letters and Writings by French Composers (London, 1958)

Francis Poulenc (London, 1959) [trans. of H. Hell: Francis Poulenc: musicien français (Paris, 1958)]

Debussy et Edgar Poe: manuscrits et documents inédits (Monaco, 1962)

Debussy: his Life and Mind (London, 1962–5/R)

‘Debussy's Concept of the Dream’, PRMA, lxxxix (1962–3), 49–61

‘Mallarmé and Music’, MT, cvii (1966), 212–13

‘Zola et le wagnerisme de son époque’, Europe: revue mensuelle, nos. 468–9 (1968), 324–8

‘The Berlioz-Strauss Treatise on Instrumentation’, ML, l (1969), 37–44

‘French Music, 1500–1950’, France: a Companion to French Studies, ed. D.G. Charlton (London, 1972, 2/1979)

Music and Painting: a Study in Comparative Ideas from Turner to Schoenberg (London, 1973)

DAVID SCOTT

Lockwood, Annea [Anna] (Ferguson)

(b Christchurch, New Zealand, 29 July 1939). New Zealand composer and instrument maker. After attending Canterbury University, New Zealand (BMus 1961), she studied with Peter Racine Fricker at the RCM, London (1961–3); she also attended Darmstadt summer courses (1961–2) and worked with Koenig at the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik, Cologne, and at the Bilthoven electronic music studio (1963–4). In 1973 she went to the USA and taught at Hunter College, CUNY, and in 1982 joined the staff at Vassar College.

While working in many genres, Lockwood’s compositions consistently focus on timbre and performance with spatial considerations. Her early works, including the Violin Concerto (1962), the chamber cantata A Abélard, Héloise (1963) and Aspekte einer Parabel (1964), are atonal. In the mid-1960s she moved away from both instrumental music and synthesized electronic materials to work with acoustic sounds from nature, attracted by their subtle complexity, rich variety and unpredictability. Her imaginative Glass Concert, performed many times from 1966 to 1973, uses diverse sizes and shapes of glass which are struck, rubbed, bowed and snapped. Other examples of her work as an instrument builder include Sound Hat and Sound Umbrella (both 1970) which create a private concert for the wearer of delicate sounding, suspended objects such as bamboo chimes and table tennis balls. For Silver (1984) she created a basketball-size ‘sound ball’ containing two colanders, six speakers, amplifiers and an FM receiver, all covered with gray foam; the sound ball was also used in Three Short Stories and an Apotheosis (1985), playing a Gertrude Stein text as it was passsed through the audience.

During the 1970s and early 80s she turned her attention to tape pieces and the exploration of other performance possibilities. Tiger Balm (1970) for tape effectively combines the sounds of a cat purring, a heartbeat, gongs, Jew’s harps, tigers mating, an airplane, and a woman’s sexual arousal. Here, and typically, Lockwood’s arrangement and selection of sounds are crucial since the sounds used are unmodulated. Participatory pieces, such as Humming (1972), demonstrate her interest in the connections between sound and the body, stemming from her study of psycho-acoustics during the early 1970s. Among her most unusual and controversial installations was Piano Transplants (1968–72) in which pianos were burnt, gradually drowned in a shallow lake, planted in a garden or anchored at a beach. In A Sound Map of the Hudson River (1982) the musical parameters of rhythm, pitch, counterpoint, texture and form are constructed using recorded sounds from 15 locations along the river. In the mid-1980s Lockwood returned to composing for acoustic instruments and voice. Since the mid-1980s she has returned to writing for acoustic instruments and for voices, composing solo pieces and chamber works such as Thousand Year Dreaming (1990) and Ear-Walking Woman (1996). Throughout her career she has frequently collaborated, co-authoring early tape works and also working with performers, such as in Monkey Trips (1995) composed with the ensemble California EAR Unit.

WORKS

(selective list)

Inst: Vn Conc., orch, 1962; Amazonia Dreaming, snare drum, 1988; Red Mesa, pf, 1989; 1000 Year Dreaming, vv, ob + eng hn, cl + cb cl, 4 didjeridus, conch shells, 2 trbn, perc, slide projections, 1990; Monkey Trips, chbr ens, slide projections, 1995, collab. California EAR; Western Spaces, fl + a fl, 3 perc, 1995; Ear-Walking Woman, amp prep pf, 1996; Shapeshifter, chbr orch, 1996

Vocal: Serenade no.1 (Sappho, Anacreon), S, fl, 1962; A Abélard, Héloise (chbr cant., Héloise), Mez, 10 insts, 1963; Aspekte einer Parabel (F. Kafka), Bar, chbr ens, 1964; Humming, mixed vv and/or audience participation 1972; Malaman, vv, 1974; Malolo (Lockwood), 3vv/SSA, 1978; Saouah! (Lockwood), 4 SATB groups, 4 gongs, 1986; Night and Fog (C. Forché, O. Mandelstam), Bar, b sax, perc, 1987; The Angle of Repose (R.M. Rilke, P. Matthiessen), Bar, fl, khāēn/shō, 1991; For Richard (E. Ensler), Bar, cl/pf, 1992; I Give you Back (J. Harjo), Mez, 1993; Tongues of Fire, Tongues of Silk, 8 S, perc, 1997

El-ac and mixed media: Love Field, tape, 1964; Glass Concert, amp glass insts, 1966; Shone, chant, sound games, 1966; Piano Transplants, installations, 1968–72; Glass Water, elecs, 1969; Sound Hat, sound sculpture, 1970; Sound Umbrella, sound sculpture, 1970; Tiger Balm, tape, 1970; Deep Dream Dive, db, elecs, 1972; Cloud Music, tape, 1973; EYE/EAR, light and sound installation, 1973, collab. A. Roberton; The River Archive: Play the Ganges Backwards One More Time, Sam, installation, 1973; Spirit Catchers, 4 amp speaking vv, mixer, 1974; Tripping, participatory event to stimulate listening, bus trip to the beach, 1974; World Rhythms, gong, 10-track tape, mixer, 1975; Singing the Earth, Singing the Air, audience participation event, 1976; Spirit Songs Unfolding, tape, photographs, silk screens, slide projections, 1977; Conversations with the Ancestors, installation, 1979; Delta Run, tape, movt, slide projections, 1981; Pillow Talk, installation, pillow containing tape, 1981; Singing the Moon, ritual, 1981; A Sound Map of the Hudson River, installation, 1982; Silver, tape, ‘sound ball’, 1984; 3 Short Stories and an Apotheosis, tape, ‘sound ball’, slide projections, 1985; Soundstreamer, hn, trbn, tape, 1986; Rokke, 2 pfmrs using vv, stones, dance, 1987, collab. E. Karczag; Nautilus, didjeridu + conch shells, perc + v + conch shells, slide projections, 1989; Secret Life, db, elecs, tape, 1989

Principal publishers: Boosey & Hawkes, Ear Magazine, G. Schirmer, Source, Waiteata Press

Principal recording companies: CRI, Finnadar, Harmonia Mundi, Lovely Music, New Wilderness Foundation, Nonsequitur/¿What Next?, Opus One, Source

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Lockwood: ‘Piano Burning and Tiger Balm’, Source, no.9 (1971), 48 [incl. sound recording]

A. Lockwood: ‘Piano Transplants’, Womens Work, ed. A. Knowles and A. Lockwood (New York, c1976) [14–16]

R. Johnson, ed.: Scores: an Anthology of New Music (New York, 1981), 10, 195–6, 332

A. Gros with H. Henck: ‘Annea Lockwood: ein Portrait’, Neuland, iv (1983–4), 8–14

J. Rosen: ‘Composers Speaking for Themselves: an Electronic Music Panel Discussion’, The Musical Woman: an International Perspective, ii, ed. J.L. Zaimont (New York, 1987), 280–312, esp. 301–12

W. Curnow: ‘A Conversation with Annea Lockwood’, Music in New Zealand (1989), 28–9

J.M. Edwards: ‘North America Since 1920’, Women and Music: a History, ed. K. Pendle (Bloomington, IN, 1991), 211–57, esp. 225–6, 241

P. Dadson: ‘Sound Travels, Part 2’, Music in New Zealand, no.20 (1993), 36–40

J. MICHELE EDWARDS

Lockwood, Lewis (Henry)

(b New York, 16 Dec 1930). American musicologist. He took the BA in 1952 at Queens College, CUNY, where he studied with Edward Lowinsky; subsequently he worked at Princeton University with Strunk and Mendel, taking the MFA in 1955 and the PhD in 1960. He joined the Princeton faculty in 1958 and was appointed professor in 1968. He was appointed professor at Harvard University in 1980, and in 1985 was named Fanny Peabody Professor of Music. From 1964 to 1967 he was general editor of the Journal of the American Musicological Society and he was president of the AMS from 1982 to 1987.

Lockwood's research focusses on music history and its intellectual contexts. His principal areas of concern are Renaissance music and Beethoven studies. His Renaissance interests include the musical reforms that followed the Council of Trent and the role of Vincenzo Ruffo in their implementation. He has made a thorough study of Ruffo's life and works, showing the stylistic differences between the pre- and post-Tridentine compositions and using archival materials to document Ruffo's relationships with contemporary composers and the Catholic hierarchy, particularly Cardinal Borromeo. Lockwood's other Renaissance investigations include a study of musical activities at the court of Ercole I d'Este at Ferrara, and several approaches to the problems of musica ficta, in which he has examined the writings of contemporary theorists and used computers to help determine those melodic and harmonic configurations that might require the addition of accidentals.

As one of the leading American Beethoven scholars, Lockwood is concerned with the use of sketches and autograph scores in textual criticism. His research into the sources of the op.69 cello sonata and the unfinished piano concerto of 1815, among other works, indicate no clear line of development from sketch through working score to fair copy, but rather an interrelationship between these sources as Beethoven attempted to clarify points of melodic, harmonic and formal structure and details of scoring.

WRITINGS

‘Vincenzo Ruffo and Musical Reform after the Council of Trent’, MQ, xliii (1957), 342–71

‘A Note on Obrecht's Mass “Sub tuum praesidium”’, RBM, xiv (1960), 30–39

The Counter-Reformation and the Sacred Music of Vincenzo Ruffo (diss., Princeton U., 1960; Venice, 1970 as The Counter-Reformation and the Masses of Vincenzo Ruffo)

‘A Continental Mass and Motet in a Tudor Manuscript’, ML, xlii (1961), 336–47

‘A View of the Early Sixteenth-Century Parody Mass’, The Department of Music, Queens College of the City University of New York: Twenty-Fifth Anniversary Festschrift, ed. A. Mell (Flushing, NY, 1964), 53–78

‘A Dispute on Accidentals in Sixteenth-Century Rome’, AnMc, no.2 (1965), 24–40

‘On “Parody” as Term and Concept in 16th-Century Music’, Aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Music: a Birthday Offering to Gustave Reese, ed. J. LaRue and others (New York, 1966/R), 560–75

‘Computer Assistance in the Investigation of Accidentals in Renaissance Music’, IMSCR X: Ljubljana 1967, 444–57

‘A Sample Problem of Musica ficta: Willaert's Pater noster’, Studies in Music History: Essays for Oliver Strunk, ed. H. Powers (Princeton, NJ, 1968/R), 161–82

‘Vincenzo Ruffo and Two Patrons of Music at Milan: Alfonso d'Avalos and Cardinal Carlo Borromeo’, Il duomo di Milano: Milan 1968, ii, 23–34

‘Beethoven's Unfinished Piano Concerto of 1815: Sources and Problems’, MQ, lvi (1970), 624–46; repr. in The Creative World of Beethoven, ed. P.H. Lang (New York, 1971), 122–44

‘On Beethoven's Sketches and Autographs: Some Problems of Definition and Interpretation’, AcM, xlii (1970), 32–47

‘The Autograph of the First Movement of Beethoven's Sonata for Violoncello and Pianoforte, opus 69’, Music Forum, ii (1970), 1–109

‘Josquin at Ferrara: New Documents and Letters’, Josquin des Prez: New York 1971, 103–37

‘Music at Ferrara in the Period of Ercole I d'Este’, Studi musicali, i (1972), 101–31

‘Aspects of the “L'homme armé” Tradition’, PRMA, c (1973–4), 97–122

‘Beethoven's Sketches for Sehnsucht, WoO 146’, Beethoven Studies, ed. A. Tyson (London and New York, 1974), 97–122

‘Dufay and Ferrara’, Dufay Conference: Brooklyn, NY, 1974, 1–26

‘“Messer Gossino” and Josquin Desprez’, Studies in Renaissance and Baroque Music in Honor of Arthur Mendel, ed. R.L. Marshall (Kassel and Hackensack, NJ, 1974), 15–24

‘Pietrobono and the Instrumental Tradition at Ferrara in the Fifteenth Century’, RIM, x (1975), 115–33

‘The Beethoven Sketchbook in the Scheide Library’, Princeton University Library Chronicle, xxxvii (1975–6), 139–53

‘Nottebohm Revisited’, Current Thought in Musicology, ed. J.W. Grubbs (Austin, 1976), 139–92

‘Jean Mouton and Jean Michel: New Evidence on French Music and Musicians in Italy, 1505–1520’, JAMS, xxxii (1979), 191–246

Music in Renaissance Ferrara, 1440–1505: the Creation of a Musical Center in the Fifteenth Century (Cambridge, MA, 1984)

‘Beethoven's Earliest Sketches for the “Eroica” Symphony’, MQ, lxvii (1981), 457–78

‘Musicisti in Ferrara all'epoca dell'Ariosto’, L'Ariosto: la musica i musicisti, ed. M.A. Balsano (Florence, 1981), 7–29

‘“Eroica” Perspectives: Strategy and Design in the First Movement’, Beethoven Studies 3, ed. A. Tyson (Cambridge, 1982), 85–105

‘Beethoven and the Problem of Closure: some Examples from the Middle-Period Chamber Music’, Beiträge zu Beethovens Kammermusik: Bonn 1984, 254–72

ed., with P. Benjamin: Beethoven Essays: Studies in Honor of Elliot Forbes (Cambridge, MA, 1984)

‘Adrian Willaert and Cardinal Ippolito I d'Este: New Light on Willaert's Early Career in Italy, 1515–1521’, EMH, v (1985), 85–112

‘The Compositional Genesis of the Eroica Finale’, Beethoven's Compositional Process: Victoria, BC, 1986, 82–101

‘Communicating Musicology: a Personal View’, College Music Symposium, xxviii (1988), 1–9

‘The Four “Introductions” in the Ninth Symphony’, Probleme der symphonischen Tradition im 19. Jahrhundert: Bonn 1989, 97–112

‘On the Cavatina of Beethoven's String Quartet in B-flat major’, Liedstudien: Wolfgang Osthoff zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. M. Just and R. Wiesend (Tutzing, 1989), 293–305

ed., with E.H. Roesner: Essays in Musicology: a Tribute to Alvin Johnson (Philadelphia, 1990) [incl. ‘Beethoven's First Symphony: a Farewell to the Eighteenth Century?’, 235–46]

‘Performance and “Authenticity”’, EMc, xix (1991), 501–12

Beethoven: Studies in the Creative Process (Cambridge, MA, 1992)

‘The Element of Time in Der Rosenkavalier’, Richard Strauss: New Perspectives on the Composer and His Work, ed. B. Gilliam (Durham, NC, 1992), 243–58

‘Music at Florence and Ferrara in the Late Fifteenth Century’, La musica a Firenze al tempo di Lorenzo il Magnifico: Florence 1992, 1–13

‘Text and Music in Rore's Madrigal Anchor che col partire’, Musical Humanism and its Legacy: Essays in Honor of Claude Palisca, ed. N.K. Baker and B.R. Hanning (Stuyvesant, NY, 1992), 243–51

ed.: Beethoven Forum (Lincoln, NE, 1992–)

‘Monteverdi and Gombert: the Missa in illo tempore of 1610’, De musica et cantu: Studien zur Geschichte der Kirchenmusik und der Oper: Helmut Hucke zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. P. Cahn and A.-K. Heimer (Hildesheim, 1993), 457–69

‘A Problem of Form: the “Scherzo” of Beethoven's String Quartet in F major, op.59, no.1’, Beethoven Forum, ii (1993), 85–95

‘Beethoven before 1800: the Mozart Legacy’, Beethoven Forum, iii (1994), 34–52

‘Sources of Renaissance Polyphony from Cividale del Friuli’, Saggiatore musicale, i (1994), 249–314

‘Reshaping the Genre: Beethoven's Piano Sonatas from Op.22 to Op.28 (1799–1801)’, Israel Studies in Musicology, vi (1996), 1–16

EDITIONS

A. Divitis: Missa ‘Quem dicunt homines’, Cw, lxxxiii (1961)

Drei Motetten über den Text ‘Quem dicunt homines’, Cw, xciv (1964)

Giovanni Perluigi e Palestrina: Pope Marcellus Mass (New York, 1975)

Vincenzo Ruffo: Seven Masses, RRMR, xxxii–xxxiii (1979)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.A. Owens and A. Cummings, eds.: Music in Renaissance Cities and Courts: Studies in Honor of Lewis Lockwood (Warren, MI, 1996) [incl. list of writings on Renaissance music]

PAULA MORGAN

Lockwood, Normand

(b New York, 19 March 1906). American composer. He studied with Respighi (1924–5), Boulanger (1925–7) and was a fellow of the American Academy in Rome (1929–32). His teaching appointments included positions at Oberlin Conservatory (1932–43), Union Theological Seminary (1945–53), Trinity University (1953–5), the University of Hawaii, Manoa (1960–61), and the University of Denver (1961–74). In 1945 Stravinsky included him on a list of ten notable American composers. He has received two successive Guggenheim Fellowships (1943–5), honorary doctorates from Berea College (1974) and the University of Denver (1979), and awards from the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters (1946, 1981) and the Colorado Council on the Arts and Humanities (1971) among others.

Lockwood’s compositional priority in his approximately 500 works is timbre. His adept text settings comprise tonal (Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking, 1938), modal (To Margarita Debayle, 1977) and starkly dissonant harmonic languages (Donne’s Last Sermon, 1978; Medea redux, 1992). Bitonal, quartal, octatonic and 12-note constructions appear in the concertos for organ and brasses (1951, 1977), the Piano Concerto (1973) and Reflections on the Surface of Time (1993). In most of his vocal works the musical structure evolves from the text; leitmotifs are employed in the operas and oratorios, and motivic relationships are also important in the instrumental compositions.

WORKS

(selective list)

stage

The Scarecrow (chbr op, 3, D. Lockwood, after P. McKaye), New York, 1945; Early Dawn (op, 3, R. Porter), Denver, 1961; The Wizards of Balizar (children’s op, 2, Porter), Denver, 1962; The Hanging Judge (op, 3, Porter), Denver, 1964 [orig. entitled The Inevitable Hour]; Requiem for a Rich Young Man (op, 1, D. Sutherland), Denver, 1964; 22 incid music scores

vocal

Choral: Dirge for Two Veterans (W. Whitman), SATB/TTBB, 1936; Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking (Whitman), SATB, 1938; The Birth of Moses (Bible: Exodus), SSA, pf, 1947; Carol Fantasy (trad. carols), SATB, orch, 1949; Elegy for a Hero (cant., Whitman), ?1951; Prairie (orat, C. Sandburg), SATB, orch, 1952; I Hear America Singing (Whitman), SATB, pf, 1953; Children of God (orat, C.C. Cooper), S, A, T, Bar, B, SATB, children’s chorus, orch, 1956; Light out of Darkness (orat, Pss, St Paul), Bar, SATB, orch, 1957; Land of Promise (orat, R. Porter), Bar, nar, SATB, orch, 1960; Choreographic Cant. (Bach chorale texts, trans. H. Heiberg), SATB, perc, org, 1968; Mass, children’s chorus, orch, 1976; Donne’s Last Sermon, SATB, org, 1978; The Jade Mountain (Wei Ying-Wu, trans. W. Bynner), children’s chorus, fl, va, perc, 1993; God of All Wisdom (R. Porter), SATB, wind, 1996; c160 other choral works

Solo: 3 Verses of Emily Dickinson, S, pf, 1938; 10 Songs (J. Joyce: Chamber Music), S, str qt, 1940; 5 Cinquains (A. Crapsey), S, pf, 1942; The Red Cow is Dead (E.B. White), S, pf, 1942; Ps xxiii, S, orch, 1948; Prelude to Western Star (S.V. Benét), Bar, pf, 1951, rev. 1983; Fallen is Babylon the Great, Hallelujah! (Bible: Revelation), Mez, pf, 1955; The Dialogue of Abraham and Isaac (D. Sutherland), 1v, pf, 1965; 4 Songs (W. Whitman), song cycle, S, vn, org, 1977; To Margarita Debayle (R. Darío, trans. Sutherland), S, pf, 1977; Indian Woman Down in the Marketplace (J. Pasos), S, pf, 1984; 4 Poems of Liu Chang-Ch’îng, C, fl, pf, 1984; Funeral Service (Bible, e.e. cummings, E. Dickinson, P.B. Shelley), S, A, T, B, nar, chbr orch, 1988; Medea redux (Euripides, trans. S. Goldfield), Mez, orch, 1992; c50 other works for solo vv

instrumental

Orch: A Year’s Chronicle, 1934; Weekend Prelude, wind, perc, 1944; Conc. no.1, org, 2 tpt, 2 trbn, 1951; Sym. Sequences, 1965; Conc., ob, chbr orch, 1967; From an Opening to a Close, wind, perc, 1973; Conc., org, chbr orch, 1973; Pf Conc., 1973; Sym., str, 1975; Conc. no.2, org, 2 tpt, 2 trbn, 1977; Panegyric, hn, str, 1979; Sym., 1979; Prayers and Fanfares, wind, perc, 1980; Conc., 2 hp, orch, 1981; Lenten Sequence, Interval, Ascent, wind, perc, 1989; Metaphors, wind, perc, 1991; Tpt Conc., tpt, band, 1992; Reflections on the Surface of Time, wind, perc, 1993; Sym. in 4 Movts and Coda, 1993; c12 other orch works

Chbr: 8 Str Qts, c1933–92; Pf Qnt, 1940; 9 American Folksongs, 1941; Trio, fl, va, hp, 1941, rev. 1978; Cl Qnt, 1959; Tripartito, fl, gui, 1980; 3 Chorale Voluntaries, tpt, org, 1982; Pf Trio, 1984; c30 other chbr works

Kbd: Org Sonata, 1960; Sonata Fantasia, accdn, 1964; Processional Voluntary, org, 1965; Sonata, 2 pf, 1965; Fugue Sonata, pf, 1969; Fantasia, pf, 1971; Festive Service, org, 1976; 25 Org Preludes, 1980; c50 other kbd works

MSS in US-BO, US-Bp, U. of Denver

Principal publishers: ACA, Broude Bros., Emerson, Kenwood, Margun, National, Presser, G. Schirmer, Southern

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EwenD

N. Lockwood: ‘On Reading and Setting Whitman’, Pan Pipes of Sigma Alpha Iota, liv (1961–2), 27–9

K. Norton: Normand Lockwood (Metuchen, NJ, 1993)

KAY NORTON

Loco

(Lat.: ‘in its place’).

A term used to countermand a previous instruction such as 8va bassa, All'ottava or sul ponticello.

Locrian.

The term commonly used when referring to the octave species from B to b divided at f and consisting of a diminished 5th plus an augmented 4th, B–c–d–e–f + f–g–a–b; Glarean, in the Dodecachordon (1547), called this division of the octave Hyperaeolian. The term ‘Locrian’ is mentioned by several classical writers, including Cleonides (as an octave species) and Athenaeus (as an obsolete harmonia); it occurs twice in classical citations in the Dodecachordon (i/9 and i/25) and similarly in Zarlino's Le istitutioni harmoniche (2/1573, p.367). There is no warrant, however, for the modern usage of ‘Locrian’ as equivalent to Glarean's ‘Hyperaeolian’ in either classical authority, Renaissance modal theory or its successive phases in the 17th and 18th centuries (see, for example, the entries ‘Modus musicus’ and ‘Modus locricus’ in WaltherML), or modern scholarship on ancient Greek musical theory and practice.

HAROLD S. POWERS

Loder.

English family of musicians.

(1) John David Loder

(2) Edward (James) Loder

(3) George Loder jr

(4) Kate (Fanny) Loder

NICHOLAS TEMPERLEY

(1) John David Loder

(bap. Bath, 14 Aug 1788; d London, 13 Feb 1846). Violinist and music publisher. A son of John Loder, musician of Bath (bap. Candle Stourton, Devon, 23 Sept 1757; d Weymouth, 1795), he began early to play in concert orchestras in Bath, and on 4 April 1800 took the first violin in a string quartet by Blasius at the New Assembly Rooms. From 1799 to 1836 he played in the orchestra of the Theatre Royal, most of the time as leader. From about 1812 his annual benefit night there became a considerable occasion, with visiting celebrities from London. In 1821 he engaged Angelica Catalani for a grand concert on 7 October; she returned her fee, ‘as a small tribute of regard for his private worth, and high professional skill’. He resigned in 1836 after a public quarrel with Woulds, the lessee of the theatre, but returned for two seasons in 1840–41.

Loder was the first Englishman to lead the orchestra at the Philharmonic Society of London, which he did at least once a year from 12 May 1817. From 1826 he played a large part at the Three Choirs Festivals. He was in business as a music publisher at 46 Milsom Street, Bath. In 1840 he became a professor of violin at the RAM, and he also played at the Ancient Concerts, where he succeeded Franz Cramer as leader in 1845. From 1842 until his death he played the viola in Dando's Quartet Concerts at Crosby Hall. His General and Comprehensive Instruction Book for the Violin (1814) was widely used, and was republished as late as 1911. He also produced three duets for two violins (1837) and The Whole Modern Art of Bowing (1842).

An uncle of John David Loder, Andrew Loder (bap. 1751), was organist of the Octagon Chapel, Bath; he published A Collection of Church Musick (Bath, 1798) which included ten hymn tunes of his own composition. One of John David Loder's seven children was John Fawcett Loder (b Bath, 1812; d London, 16 April 1853), who was active in Bath as a violinist, teacher and concert manager before moving around 1840 to London, where he worked as an orchestral player and leader.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DNB (L.M. Middleton)

Bath Chronicle (1799–1841)

B.S. Penley: The Bath Stage (London, 1892)

M.B. Foster: History of the Philharmonic Society of London (London, 1912)

(2) Edward (James) Loder

(b Bath, 1813; d London, 5 April 1865). Composer, son of (1) John David Loder. His mother, formerly Miss Mills, came of a long line of actors and actresses, and was stepdaughter of the comedian John Fawcett (1768–1837). Musical ability and early training came from his father. He was sent to Frankfurt in 1826 to study under Ferdinand Ries, an old friend of the family. He returned to England in 1828, and in 1830 arranged the music for a production of Black-eyed Susan at the Theatre Royal, Bath, taking the melodies from Dibdin. Later he returned to Germany with the idea of qualifying for the medical profession, but changed his mind and again placed himself under Ries, whose ambitious but unsuccessful English opera The Sorceress had been produced in London in 1831. Loder's chance to excel in the same direction came in 1834, when S.J. Arnold decided to open the rebuilt Lyceum Theatre as the English Opera House. He commissioned several new operas, one of which was Loder's Nourjahad, based on an old play of Arnold's. The theatre opened on 14 July with a week of established operas; Nourjahad followed, and Macfarren later called it ‘the inaugural work of the institution of modern English operas’. Though it contained spoken dialogue, like Oberon and The Sorceress, it was also, like them, a genuine musical drama, not a string of independent songs and ballads in the manner of Bishop. The opera found favour with the critics. William Ayrton acknowledged that ‘the music highly gratified, and not a little surprised us …. Every piece in the opera is calculated to please both those who are and those who are not qualified to judge it critically’. As a popular success it was somewhat overshadowed by Barnett's The Mountain Sylph, which opened at the same theatre on 25 August.

Loder had few opportunities in his life to develop this promising beginning. As The Times put it, he ‘chiefly occupied himself in the production of such works for the music publishers as would be most likely to procure him the means of subsistence’. For some years he was under contract with Dalmaine & Co. to furnish a new composition every week, and he produced a very large number of songs and partsongs during the next ten years. His next five dramatic productions were pot-boilers of low degree, including the so-called ‘opera’ Francis the First which was merely a collection of his songs strung together on the slenderest dramatic thread. One of them, ‘The Old House at Home’, became his most popular song.

Meanwhile, however, Loder had ‘made many successful appeals to amateurs of taste and musicians’ in the form of more sophisticated compositions, among them a string quartet in E, several times performed by the Society of British Musicians, and a set of nine sacred songs dedicated to Sterndale Bennett. In 1846 he became musical director at the Princess's Theatre, and returned at last to serious opera composition, with the production of The Night Dancers. Described as a ‘romantic opera’, it had a libretto by George Soane based on a French version of a German folk tale, The Wilis, already familiar to London audiences in Adolphe Adam's ballet Giselle. It was a very considerable success with both press and public. The composer was called for each night for a fortnight; the work was revived in 1850, and in many later years, having in the meantime travelled as far as New York and Sydney (1847).

With such encouragement Loder might well have felt able to continue to develop his serious operatic style. But the three pieces he brought out at the Princess's Theatre in 1848 represent a return to the old ballad opera form. A somewhat more serious work was the ‘operatic masque’ The Island of Calypso, which in the later 19th century would have been called a ‘cantata’. It was written for the National Concerts in 1850, but when these fell through it was not performed until 14 April 1852, when Berlioz conducted it for the New Philharmonic Society at Exeter Hall.

In 1851 Loder was engaged as musical director of the Theatre Royal, Manchester, by William Howard Glover, who had begun an ambitious programme of English opera there in 1848. The season frequently included one or two weeks of Italian opera by one of the London companies on tour, but apart from that Loder was in almost sole charge of the music and was evidently kept busy composing and arranging new farces, pantomimes and overtures, the music of which has disappeared. His last important work, and perhaps his masterpiece, Raymond and Agnes, was produced there on 14 August 1855, and had a run of seven performances. It had been announced originally (as Agnes and Raymond) for performance during the 1849–50 season at the Princess's Theatre. At Manchester the opening was several times postponed, isolated songs from the work being sung at concerts in the town. It was not a great success. The theatre was half empty on the opening night; the local newspapers gallantly defended the cast, but it is obvious that the difficult music was too much for the provincial singers (Henri Drayton as the Baron, and George Perren and Miss S. Lowe in the title roles).

Shortly after this disappointment Loder was attacked by a brain disease, which removed his only means of earning a living and soon brought him into poverty and distress. He had to give up the Manchester position and return to London. A subscription to help him was started by some fellow musicians, and was publicized by the Musical World in 1856 and 1857. His friends and family made efforts to induce the Pyne–Harrison company to perform Raymond and Agnes at Covent Garden in 1858; eventually its only London production was given by another short-lived ‘English opera company’ (formed by Augustus and Hamilton Braham, Susan Pyne and a Mme Rudersdorff) on 11 June 1859 at the St James's Theatre. Loder was too ill to conduct, and the performance was directed by his cousin (3) George Loder jr. As usual the critics were enthusiastic about the music, but the performance was no better than at Manchester and the production lasted for only a week. On 7 July a charming light operetta Never Judge by Appearances was staged at the Adelphi Theatre; it was probably written and first performed during Loder's Manchester period. The following year The Night Dancers was revived at Covent Garden.

But these successes had come too late for Loder to enjoy them. He was by now quite paralysed, and soon sank into a deep coma in which he spent the last four years of his life. He was unmarried, and he died, neglected and alone, at 101 Bolsover Street; his death was registered by his nextdoor neighbour.

Loder's three serious operas show him to have been a composer of outstanding ability. He was the equal of Balfe or any other contemporary in the rich lyricism he could pour into a ballad. ‘Wake, my love’ from The Night Dancers, and ‘Farewell, the forest and the plain’ from Raymond and Agnes, have a warmth of passion not often found in that pale form. But he possessed gifts more unusual in an English composer of his time, among them a mastery of orchestration remarked by critics in all three operas, and the ability to build up cumulative dramatic tension in a series of musical movements, the one indispensable talent for a real opera composer. This last quality is found in the grand scena ‘Giselle's dream’ in The Night Dancers, but it was fully developed only in Raymond and Agnes. As Peter Heyworth said, ‘in the second act the score develops a sustained dramatic attack that is all too rare in the annals of English opera’ (The Observer, 8 May 1966). According to Nigel Burton (GroveO), ‘the sense of drama and depth of musical characterization is close to Verdi, especially in the magnificent confrontation between Raymond and Inigo in Act 2, and in the quintet “Lost! and in a dream”’. Burton considers Loder the foremost composer of serious British opera in this period.

Little of the rest of Loder's large output is of value. He was clearly a victim of the circumstances of his time. In the absence of any effective law of copyright, he was compelled to sell his music to publishers outright for a small sum, and gained nothing from the subsequent popularity of some of his songs. Most of his music was therefore written not only in great haste, but in deliberate denial of his true musical inclinations. He forced himself to write plain, obvious tunes such as the public wanted, Shakespeare songs in close imitation of Bishop, church music in the accepted church manner. When he wrote as he wanted to, critics acclaimed him, but the public was unimpressed. Many of his best songs were composed for the theatre. A few others, such as ‘Invocation to the Deep’, ‘I heard a brooklet’, Sacred Songs and Ballads, display something of his full powers. The string quartet, which is not extant, was highly praised by musicians who heard it. A fine flute sonata in E, commissioned by Walter Broadwood, survives in a manuscript with the last page missing.

Loder's reputation did not last out the century; The Night Dancers, with other fairy operas of the English Romantic school, succumbed to the satire of Iolanthe. By 1900 only a few of the popular ballads were known. ‘I heard a brooklet’, Loder's setting of Longfellow's of the text of Schubert's Wohin?, did receive exaggerated admiration: Husk (Grove2) said it was ‘quite worthy to stand beside Schubert's setting’, and Walker called it ‘a solitary, but very real, masterpiece … an almost incredible effort’. Apart from this nothing was done for Loder until the revival of Raymond and Agnes at the Arts Theatre, Cambridge, on 2 May 1966. The music was edited by Nicholas Temperley. As Fitzball's libretto could not be found, the story was reconstructed and new dialogue written by Max Miradin. A shortened version was broadcast by the BBC on 18 December 1966. Since then, a copy of the original printed libretto has been discovered at the Library of Congress, Washington.

WORKS

printed works published in London unless otherwise stated

theatrical

first performed in London unless otherwise stated; publications are vocal scores

EOH	English Opera House [Lyceum Theatre]
PT	Princess's Theatre
TRM	Manchester, Theatre Royal
†	partly adapted
**	wholly adapted

**Blackeyed Susan (play, D. Jerrold), Bath, Theatre Royal, 18 Nov 1830 [from airs by Charles Dibdin]

Nourjahad (grand romantic op, 3, S.J. Arnold), EOH, 21 July 1834, GB-Lbl (1835)

The Widow Queen (historical drama, T.J. Serle), EOH, 9 Oct 1834

†The Covenanters (Scottish ballad op, 2, T. Dibdin), EOH, 10 Aug 1835 [from Scottish airs]

The Dice of Death (romantic drama, 3, J. Oxenford), EOH, 14 Sept 1835, Lbl

The Foresters, or Twenty-Five Years Since (drama, 3, Serle), Covent Garden, 19 Oct 1838, 1 song (?1845)

†Francis the First (grand op, McKinlan), Drury Lane, 6 Nov 1838 (1839)

†The Deer Stalkers, or The Outlaw's Daughter (Scottish operatic melodrama, M. Lemon), EOH, 12 April 1841 [from Scottish airs]; 1 song (?1845)

The Night Dancers, or The Wilis (grand romantic op, introduction, 2, G. Soane), PT, 28 Oct 1846, US-Wc (1847)

†The Sultana (play, R. Toff), PT, 8 Jan 1848

†The Andalusian, or The Young Guard (operetta, Soane), PT, 20 Jan 1848, selection (1849)

Robin Goodfellow, or The Frolics of Puck (ballad op, E.J. Loder), PT, 6 Dec 1848 (1849)

Dick Whittington and his Cat (pantomime), TRM, Dec 1852

Balcony Courtship (farce), TRM, 6 May 1853

Raymond and Agnes (romantic op, 4, E. Fitzball), TRM, 14 Aug 1855, Wc, rev. (3), St James's, 11 June 1859 (1859; ed. N. Temperley, 1966)

Never Judge by Appearances (operetta, 1, H. Drayton), Adelphi, 7 July 1859, selections (1857–8)

Not produced: Little Red Riding Hood, 1839; Pizzaro; Sir Roger de Coverley (M.D. Ryan); **The Beggar's Opera

vocal

[3 sets of] 6 songs (1837–8)

[9] Sacred Songs and Ballads (M.D. Ryan) (1840); 1 ed. in MB, xliii (1979)

4 hymn tunes, 1 chant, 1 set of responses, in Improved and Select Psalmody, ed. Loder (1840)

[12] Songs of the Poets (1841–4)

[6] Songs of the Cities (J.E. Carpenter) (1842)

6 Bass Songs (1843)

[4] Songs of the Seasons (G.D. Thompson) (1844)

2 anthems: I will arise, 1839 (1847); Enter not into judgment (Manchester, 1855)

The Island of Calypso (operatic masque, Soane), perf. Exeter Hall, 14 April 1852 (1850)

Separately pubd: 39 glees and partsongs, incl. 18 listed in Baptie, 1896; 1 trio, 18 duets; c150 songs, 3 ed. in MB, xliii (1979)

instrumental

2 concert ovs., E, E: GB-Lbl

6 theatre ovs.: Fairy Page, Gil Blas, Les frères corses, Ivanhoe, Pauline, Uncle Tom’s Cabin

String Quartet no.4, E, pf 4 hands score (1841), perf. Society of British Musicians, 29 Oct 1842

Flute/Violin Sonata, Lcm, ed. N. Temperley (Oxford, 1990)

Theme and Variations, fl, pf (1828)

Pf: Introduction and Rondo brillant, op.17 (Bath, 1829) repr. in LPS, xvi (1985); 3 Tarantellas, op.19 (1847); [3] Musical Devotions (1859); fantasias, variations, valses, melodies

Modern Pianoforte Tutor (1839)

arrangements

The First Principles of Singing, with popular airs (1838)

A Selection of Standard Songs, 41 nos. (1840–55)

Divine lyrics (c1840)

Dr Watts's Sacred and Moral Songs (c1840)

A Selection of … Songs of Handel (1841)

Locke: Macbeth (1843)

Many others for pf, pf 4 hands, 2vv

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Grove2 (W.H. Husk)

DNB (R.F. Sharp)

GroveO (N. Burton)

Monthly Supplement to the Musical Library, i (1834), 71

Musical World, xv (1841), 251; xvii (1842), 354; xxiv (1849), 609; xxvi (1851), 2, 653; xxx (1855), 550–51; xxxi (1856), 760; xxxii (1857), 203, 345; xxxvii (1859), 120–21

The Times (29 Oct 1846)

Theatre Royal, Manchester: Playbills (1 Jan 1853 – 8 Sept 1855, GB-Lbl)

Illustrated London News (27 Nov 1858)

H.C. Banister: George Alexander Macfarren (London, 1891), 246

B.S. Penley: The Bath Stage (London, 1892), 130

D. Baptie: Sketches of the English Glee Composers (London, 1896), 148–9

E. Walker: A History of Music in England (Oxford, 1907, rev. enlarged 3/1952 by J.A. Westrup), 309–10

I. Guest: ‘Parodies of Giselle on the English Stage (1841–1871)’, Theatre Notebook, viii (1953–4), 38

A. Porter: ‘Raymond and Agnes’, Financial Times (5 May 1966)

N. Temperley: ‘Raymond and Agnes’, MT, cvii (1966), 307–10

N. Temperley: ‘The English Romantic Opera’, Victorian Studies, ix (1966), 293

P.M. Young: A History of British Music (London, 1967), 473–4

N. Temperley, ed.: Music in Britain: the Romantic Age 1800–1914 (London, 1981/R), 273–5, 313, 323–7, 389

(3) George Loder jr

(b Bath, 1816; d Adelaide, 15 July 1868). Conductor and composer, nephew of (1) John David Loder. His father, George Loder, was a successful flautist in Bath, and his mother, Fanny Philpot, was a piano teacher and sister of Lucy Anderson. He went to the USA in 1836, living first in Baltimore and then in New York, where he was prominent in the early years of the Philharmonic Society (founded 1842). He played the double bass for five seasons, and occasionally conducted the society's orchestra, notably at the first American performance of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony on 20 May 1846. In 1844 he was principal of the New York Vocal Institute, for which he published The New York Glee Book containing many of his own partsongs. In 1856 he went to Australia, with Anna Bishop, and conducted operas at Adelaide. In 1859 he was again in London, conducting the revival of (2) Edward Loder's Raymond and Agnes there on 11 June. His operettas Pets of the Parterre and The Old House at Home were staged at the Adelphi Theatre in 1861–2. In 1863 he returned to Australia, conducting that year in Melbourne the first Australian performance of Les Huguenots. He died in Australia after a long illness.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DNB (L.M. Middleton)

H.E. Krehbiehl: The Philharmonic Society of New York: a Memorial (New York, 1892), 53–4

G.C.D. Odell: Annals of the New York Stage, iv (New York, 1928/R); v (New York, 1931/R)

W.A. Orchard: Music in Australia (Melbourne, 1952), 147

H. Shanet: Philharmonic: a History of New York's Orchestra (Garden City, NY, 1975)

(1) Pieter [Pierre Noël] Loeillet

(4) Kate (Fanny) Loder

(b Bath, 21 Aug 1825; d Headley, Surrey, 30 Aug 1904). Pianist and composer, sister of (3) George Loder jr. Precociously musical, she demonstrated perfect pitch at the age of three. She studied piano with Miss Batterbury (an assistant of her mother) and then with Henry Field. At the age of 13 she entered the RAM, studying the piano with her mother's sister, Lucy Anderson, and composition with Charles Lucas. In 1839 she gained the King's Scholarship. She appeared as a pianist at the RAM concerts in March 1840, at Her Majesty's Theatre on 31 May 1844 (when she played Mendelssohn's G minor Concerto in the composer's presence), and at the Philharmonic Society on 15 March 1847, when she played Weber's Concerto in E. Her performance of Mendelssohn's G minor Concerto at the Philharmonic on 29 May 1848 achieved the rare distinction of an encore, and her reputation was made; a large connection of private pupils was rapidly formed. Her last appearance in public was on 6 March 1854.

Kate Loder was appointed a professor of harmony at the RAM in 1844. On 16 December 1851 she married Henry Thompson, an eminent surgeon, who was knighted in 1867, created a baronet in 1899 and died on 18 April 1904. They had a son (Sir Herbert Thompson) and two daughters. About 1871 Lady Thompson became gradually paralysed, but she remained a strong influence on English musicians. It was at her house on 7 July 1871 that Brahms's German Requiem was first performed in England; she and Cipriani Potter played the accompaniments as a piano duet.

She achieved considerable success as a composer. Her works include an opera L'elisir d'amore, an overture (performed at the RAM, 20 April 1844), two string quartets (G minor, 1846; E minor, 1848), a piano trio, a sonata in E for violin and piano (performed at the Society of British Musicians, 5 Oct 1847) and various sonatas and other pieces for piano and for violin and piano. Among her songs, My Faint Spirit (1854) is outstanding, and compares favourably with Sullivan's setting of the same text.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveW (N. Burton)

Musical World, xix (1844), 145; xxi (1846), 553; xxii (1847), 658

W.W. Cazalet: The History of the Royal Academy of Music (London, 1854), 303ff

M.B. Foster: The History of the Philharmonic Society of London (London, 1912)

Lodge, (Thomas) Henry

(b Providence, RI, 9 Feb 1884; d West Palm Beach, FL, 16 Feb 1953). American pianist and composer. He began composing in his teens and had at least three pieces published in 1904 (two songs and a march); between 1904 and 1918 he issued some 17 rags and ragtime blues. Having moved to New York, he played piano in theatre and dance orchestras and was engaged for solo cabaret appearances. In the 1920s, while playing in dance orchestras in New York and West Palm Beach, Florida, he also wrote background music for films, spending part of 1930 in Hollywood writing film music.

Lodge is best remembered for his rags and especially for Temptation Rag (1909). One of the most successful works in the genre, it was recorded more than any other rag in the years preceding 1920. Lodge’s earlier rags were sophisticated danceable pieces which lent themselves well to orchestral treatment, but his later ragtime blues were more sombre and increasingly adventurous in harmony and structure. More than any other rag composer, Lodge explored and developed the use of minor tonalities. Among his more than 100 published works are pieces of all types including songs, waltzes and various pieces of instrumental dance music. His biggest song hit was That Red Head Gal (1922).

WORKS

(selective list)

all printed works published in New York

Pf rags: Red Pepper: Spicy Rag (1909); Temptation Rag (1909); Oh! You Turkey: a Rag Trot (1914); Geraldine: Valse Hesitation (1915); Silver Fox: a Raggy Fox Trot (1915); Baltimore Blues (1917); The Bounding Buck: a Rag Dance (1918)

Song: That Red Head Gal (G. Van, J. Schenck) (1922)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D.A. Jasen: Recorded Ragtime 1897–1958 (Hamden, CT, 1973)

D. Zimmerman: ‘The Henry Lodge Story’, Rag Times, ix/5 (1976), 1–6

D.A. Jasen and T.J. Tichenor: Rags and Ragtime: a Musical History (New York, 1978)

RICHARD ZIMMERMAN

Lodge [Lodge Ellerton], John.

See Ellerton, John Lodge.

Lodi, Pietro da

(fl c1510). Italian composer. His surviving music consists of eight frottolas and two laude which were printed in anthologies by Petrucci and Antico. He is also known to have composed music in Petrucci’s tenth frottola book, now lost. Apart from a simple strophic setting of a sonnet and one strambotto in Petrucci’s seventh book, Lodi’s frottolas are all barzellette, showing his skill as a composer within its metrical and formal limits. In La beltà ch’ogi è divina, he inverted the normal order of the barzelletta, delaying the ripresa until after the stanza. As usual in such cases, the ripresa cites a popular tune, in this case, Beato è colui ch’à bella vicina. One of Lodi’s two laude, Stella coeli extirpavit, sets a Latin antiphon to the Virgin for relief from the plague, which raged in northern Italy in the first decade of the 16th century; the other, Legno sancto e glorioso, sets a corporate, devotional prayer in the first person plural. Like many laude, it is a barzelletta. The laude settings are similar in style to the frottolas, one being indistinguishable from a barzelletta in form.

WORKS

for titles see Jeppesen, 1935 and 1968–70

8 frottolas, 1507³, 1511, 1514², 1517²; 1 ed. IMa, 2nd ser., iii (1964); 1 ed. in Jeppesen (1968–70); 1 ed. in F. Luisi, Apografo miscellaneo marciano: frottole, canzoni e madrigali con alcuni alla pavana in villanesco (Venice, 1979)

2 laude, 1508³; ed. in Jeppesen (1935)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Einstein: ‘Das elfte Buch der Frottole’, ZMw, x (1927–8), 613–24

K. Jeppesen and V. Brøndal, eds.: Die mehrstimmige italienische Laude um 1500 (Leipzig and Copenhagen, 1935/R)

K. Jeppesen: La frottola (Århus and Copenhagen, 1968–70)

F. Brancacci: ‘Il sonetto nei libri di frottole di O. Petrucci (1504–1514)’, NRMI, xxv (1991), 177–215; xxvi (1992), 441–68

JOAN WESS/WILLIAM F. PRIZER

Lodïzhensky, Nikolay Nikolayevich

(b St Petersburg, 20 Dec 1842/1 Jan 1843; d Petrograd, 2/15 Feb 1916). Russian diplomat and composer. His father was a cousin of Dargomïzhsky. In 1866 he became acquainted with the Balakirev circle. While pursuing a career in the diplomatic service he also composed, but few of his works were completed and, when he was posted to the Balkans, he gave up composition altogether. He was later appointed consul in New York, and on his return to Russia founded the Society for the Unification of the Orthodox and Anglican Churches. Though accepted socially by Balakirev and his friends, Rimsky-Korsakov regarded him as ‘bizarre, incomprehensible, eccentric, intelligent, educated and talented, and apparently fit for nothing’. Few were impressed by his music, though Rimsky referred to a ‘powerful, purely lyrical gift for composition’ and Stasov remarked that his songs were ‘full of poetry, talent and intense emotion’. Lodïzhensky composed parts of an opera, Dmitry samozvanets (‘The False Dmitry’, based on the episode of Russian history used by Musorgsky in Boris Godunov), sections of a cantata entitled Rusalka, and sketches for a symphony, all of which remain in manuscript. In 1873 he published a set of six songs, which reveal a gift for attractive melody and an ability to create an appropriate and imaginative musical atmosphere. A further set of four songs, Rekviyem lyubvi (‘Requiem of Love’), was completed in 1880 and performed in 1882 at a musical evening at the home of Nikolay and Aleksandra Molas (née Purgold, Rimsky-Korsakov's sister-in-law) in the presence of Balakirev, Stasov, Glazunov, Borodin and Blumenfeld, but it remained unpublished.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

V.V. Stasov: ‘Nasha muzïka za posledniye 25 let’ [Our music during the last 25 years], Vestnik Evropï (1883), no.10, pp.561–623; Eng. trans. in Vladimir Vasilevich Stasov: Selected Essays on Music (London, 1968), 66–116

N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov: Letopis' moyey muzïkal'noy zhizni [Chronicle of my musical life] (St Petersburg, 1909, enlarged 7/1955; Eng. trans., 1924, 3/1942/R)

V. Karatïgin: ‘Pamyati N.N. Lodïzhenskogo’ [In memory of Lodïzhensky], MS (1915–16), no.7, p.136

J. Leyda and S. Bertensson, eds.: The Musorgsky Reader (New York, 1947/R)

A.S. Lyapunova and E.E. Yazovitskaya: Miliy Alekseyevich Balakirev: letopis' zhizni i tvorchestva [Balakirev: chronicle of his life and works] (Leningrad, 1967)

JENNIFER SPENCER/EDWARD GARDEN

Lodwick.

See Bassano family, (2).

Łódź.

City in central Poland, under Russian domination 1795–1918. From 1844 touring theatre companies, mostly from Warsaw, visited the young industrial city, performing lighter works by Polish composers (Stefani, Kurpiński, Baszny and Duniecki), as well as operas by Weber, Bellini, Donizetti, Rossini and Verdi; Moniuszko’s Halka was given in 1875 and was followed by his other works. The Victoria Theatre opened in 1877; among the companies that performed here was the successful Opera Łódzka, 1892–6. From 1901 numerous operettas were performed in the newly opened Teatr Wielki. After World War I, operatic life depended on occasional guest performances organized by the Opera Society (from 1925), just as after World War II it relied on regular visits from the Silesian Opera of Bytom (1946–54).

On 18 October 1954 the Society of the Friends of Opera, under the musical direction of Władysław Raczkowski, opened the first permanent opera house in the city, the Opera Łódzka. In 1967 the company moved to the new Teatr Wielki (the largest theatre in Poland outside Warsaw; cap. 1400). Since then it has built a reputation as the best opera company in Poland after those in Warsaw and Poznań, presenting an ambitious repertory, both classical (Fidelio, Mefistofele, La Juive and Die Walküre) and modern (works by Henryk Czyż and Romuald Twardowski), and reaching a high standard of singing and production. A second music theatre, the Operetka Łódzka (Łódź Operetta), was opened in 1946.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Pellowski: ‘Opera w dawnej Łodzi’ [Opera in ancient Łódź], RM, vii/20 (1963), 13 only

S. Dyzbardis, ed.: Teatr Wielki w Łodzi (Łódź, 1966)

S. Dyzbardis, ed.: 20 lat sceny operowej w Łodzi [20 Years of the Operatic Stage in Łódź] (Łódź, 1974)

A. Pellowski and J. Andrzejewski, eds.: Kultura muzyczna Łodzi do roku 1918 [Musical culture in Łódź until 1918] (Łódź, 1994)

KORNEL MICHAŁOWSKI

Łodzia z Kępy, Jan [de Kampa, de Kempa, de familia Łodza, Johannes]

(b Kępa, Great Poland, before 1300; d ?Poznań, 14 April 1346). Polish poet. In 1319 he was chancellor, in 1320–21 archdeacon and from 1335 Bishop of Poznań, and in his official capacity he took an active part in the proceedings against the Knights of the Cross, particularly in 1339 in Warsaw, as well as in other important political events of the period. According to the information provided by Jan Długosz (1415–80) and confirmed in the Włocławski Annual, Łodzia was a great lover of both sacred and secular music and wrote sequences and other liturgical works. Three sequences – In laudem sancti sacro presuli (text ed. in Szołdrski and Kowalewicz, 1964), Paule, doctor egregie and Salve, salutis ianua (texts ed. in AH, x, 1819, xlii, 1903, and in Kowalewicz, 1964) – and an antiphon – Lux clarescit in via (in PL-Kk, GNd) – found among Polish manuscripts can be ascribed to Łodzia; two other works mentioned by Długosz (Benedicta and Tu es Petrus) have not so far been identified. Existing melodies (ed. Pikulik, 1975) were adapted to suit Łodzia’s texts, possibly by the poet himself.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Bielowski, ed.: ‘Annales polonorum’, Monumenta Poloniae historica, ii (Lwów, 1872/R), 944–5

J. Dtugosz: ‘Catalogus episcoporum posnaniensium’, Jana Długosza kanonika krakowskiego Dzieła wszystkie [Collected works of Jan Długosz, canon of Kraków], ed. A. Przeździecki and others, i (Kraków, 1887), 479–513, 499

U. Chevalier: Repertorium hymnologicum: catalogue des chants, hymnes, proses, séquences, tropes en usage dans l’église latine depuis ses origines jusqu’à nos jours (Leuven and Brussels, 1892–1921)

Z. Jachimecki: ‘Średniowieczne zabytki polskiej kultury muzycznej’ [Treasures of Polish music culture in the Middle Ages], i: ‘Łacińskie historiae, hymny i sekwencje kościoła polskiego’ [Latin histories, hymns and sequences of the Polish church], Muzyka kościelna, v/3–6 (1930)

W. Szołdrski: ‘Św. Wojciech w hymnologii łacińskiej’ [St Adalbert in Latin hymnology], Orędownik Diecezji Chełmińskiej (Chełmno, 1949), 71–2

K. Budzyk, ed.: Bibliografia literatury polskiej ‘Nowy Korbut’, ii (Warsaw, 1964), 495ff

H. Kowalewicz, ed.: Cantica medii aevi polono-latina, i: Sequentiae (Warsaw, 1964), 26–7

H. Kowalewicz: ‘Polska twórczość sekwencyjna wieków średnich’ [Polish sequences of the Middle Ages], Średniowiecze: studia o kulturze, ed. J. Lewański, ii (Warsaw, 1965), 32–302, esp. 171–74

H. Kowalewicz: Zasób, zasięg terytorialny i chronologia polsko-lacińskiej liryki średniowiecznej [The quantity, territorial distribution and chronology of Polish-Latin lyrical poetry in the Middle Ages] (Poznań, 1967), 174ff

J. Pikulik: ‘Sekwencje polskie’ Musica medii aevi, iv (1973), 7–128; v (1975), 6–194

J. Pikulik: Indeks sekwencji w polskich rękopisach muzycznych: sekwencje zespolu rękopisów tarnowskich [The sequences of the Tarnów manuscript] (Warsaw, 1974), 101

MIROSŁAW PERZ

Loeffler, Charles [Karl] Martin

(b Schöneberg, nr Berlin, or Mulhouse, Alsace, 30 Jan 1861; d Medfield, MA, 19 May 1935). Composer and violinist. He claimed Alsatian birth; his parents, however, were natives of Berlin, and the records of the Hochschule für Musik give one of their residences, Schöneberg, as the composer's birthplace. The later political difficulties endured by his father, including imprisonment (to which Loeffler attributed his father's death), made the son so hostile towards Germany that he adopted French manners, tastes and style. He had his first violin lessons in the late 1860s from a German member of the Russian Imperial Orchestra. By the age of 13 he had decided to become a professional violinist, and from 1874 to 1877 studied violin with Joachim and Eduard Rappoldi and theory with Friedrich Kiel and Bargiel at the Hochschule für Musik in Berlin. He continued his musical studies in Paris, taking private lessons in violin from Massart and in composition from Guiraud. He was a member of Pasdeloup's orchestra for a season, then played in the private orchestra of Paul de Derwies (1879–81).

After the death of Derwies in June 1881, Loeffler left for the USA. Although he returned several times to Europe (he studied violin with Léonard in Paris in 1884), he decided to settle in the country he found ‘quick to reward genuine musical merit and to reward it far more generously than Europe’, and became an American citizen in 1887. During the 1881–2 season he played in Leopold Damrosch's orchestra in New York. In May 1882 he participated in Theodore Thomas's New York Festival and the following summer in his ‘Highway’ tour. In the autumn of 1882 Loeffler joined the Boston SO as second concertmaster, a position he held for 21 years, and he became a favourite soloist with the Boston public. He was a proponent of contemporary music and played the American premières of works by such composers as Bruch, Saint-Saëns and Lalo. Loeffler's brother Erich played the cello in the Boston SO. Loeffler was also a popular composer. The first of his works to receive a public performance was one movement of the String Quartet in A minor, played by the Adamowski Quartette in Philadelphia in 1889. The Boston SO gave the première of his first orchestral work, Les veillées de l'Ukraine, in 1891.

Loeffler retired from the orchestra at the end of the 1902–3 season. After spending a year (1904–5) in Paris he settled in Medfield, Massachusetts, where he shared his time between his working farm, his thoroughbred horses, and his musical activities. He taught violin and coached chamber ensembles, and founded the female American String Quartette in 1908. For a time he directed a boys' choir in Gregorian chant, and in 1909 visited the Benedictine monastery at Maria Laach, Germany, where he studied chant practice. He remained active in the musical life of Boston, retaining unofficial ties with the Boston SO; he was a member of the board of directors of the Boston Opera Company, and served as an adviser on various competition juries. Loeffler also had interests in New York, serving as an adviser on the foundation of the Juilliard Graduate School (1924).

Loeffler's major occupation was composition. He was a skilled and careful, even fastidious, composer, who was severely self-critical; he repeatedly revised his compositions and withheld most of them from publication. His music was, nevertheless, often performed. Early in his career he was considered avant-garde, primarily for his use of programmatic forms and advanced harmonies. He was also known as a symbolist and was frequently described as decadent for the bizarre and sinister moods that coloured many of his early works (for example La mort de Tintagiles, Rapsodies, and Quatre poèmes). Loeffler espoused no particular school of composition: his technique was based on a Germanic foundation, but his style was most strongly influenced by French composers; he also borrowed heavily from Russian music, especially in early compositions such as the String Sextet, the Quintet, and Les veillées de l'Ukraine. His music displays fluid rhythmic and melodic writing, a marked ingenuity of orchestration, and sensitivity to harmonic colour.

Loeffler supported American musical activity and admired many native composers. With the exception of some works that incorporated jazz elements (for example, the Partita for violin and piano), however, he did not attempt to write in an American style. He drew from a variety of literary inspirations, including Virgil, St Francis, Gogol, Whitman, Poe, Yeats, Maeterlinck, and Verlaine. His musical interests, equally eclectic, ranged from Gregorian chant (used notably in Canticum fratris solis and Music for Four Stringed Instruments) to national musics (the Divertissement espagnol and the Five Irish Fantasies draw respectively on Spanish and Irish themes).

A man of aristocratic bearing and cosmopolitan culture, Loeffler was extremely well read (especially in French literature) and was esteemed as an intellectual as well as an artist. John S. Sargent, who painted his portrait, was among his friends. Among the many honours Loeffler received as a composer were membership in the National Institute of Arts and Letters (1908), which later awarded him a Gold Medal (1920), an honorary doctorate from Yale (1926), and election to the American Academy of Arts and Letters (1931). He was also named an Officer de l'Académie des Beaux Arts (1906) and a Chevalier of the Legion d'Honneur (1919).

WORKS

stage

Ouverture pour le T.C. Minstrel Entertainment (incid music), 2 vn, pf, Boston, ?1906

The Passion of Hilarion (op, 1 act and 2 tableaux, W. Sharp), 1912–13 (Boston, 1936)

Les amants jaloux (op, Loeffler), 1918

The Peony Lantern (op, Loeffler, after Okakura-Kakuzo), c1919

The Countess Cathleen (incid music, W.B. Yeats), 1924, Concord, MA, 8 May 1924, lost

The Reveller (incid music, D. Sargent), 1925, Boston, 22 Dec 1925 (New York, 1926)

orchestral

Les veillées de l'Ukraine, vn, orch, 1890, arr. vn, pf, c1891; rev. 1899; 1st movt separately rev. as Rapsodie russe, vn, pf, 2nd movt separately rev. as Une nuit de Mai, vn, orch

Morceau fantastique (Fantastic Concerto), vc, orch, 1893

Divertissement, a, vn, orch, op.1, 1894, arr. vn, pf, c1895

La mort de Tintagiles, 2 va d'amore, orch, op.6, 1897, rev. 1 va d'amore, orch, 1900

Divertissement espagnol, sax, orch, 1900

Poem (La bonne chanson; Avant que ru ne t'en ailles), 1901, rev. 1915

La villanelle du diable, op.9, 1901 [rev. of no.3 of Rapsodies: see songs]

A Pagan Poem, op.14, 1906 [rev. of Poème païen: see chamber]

Hora mystica, orch, male chorus, 1915

Memories of my Childhood (Life in a Russian Village), 1924

Evocation, orch, female chorus, l930

Poeme: scène dramatique, vc, orch, lost [arr of work for vc, pf: see chamber]

Untitled work, str orch, org, inc.

solo vocal with orchestra

5 Irish Fantasies (W.B. Yeats), 1920; Canticum fratris solis (G. Perara), 1925, arr. female chorus, 1925; La cloche fêlée (C. Baudelaire), Sérénade (P. Verlaine) [arrs. of nos. 1 and 4 of Quatre poèmes: see songs]

chamber

3 or more insts: Str Qt, a, 1889; Str Sextet, c1891, 2nd movt rev. as Le passeur d'eau, 1900; Qnt (Lyrisches Kammermusikstück/Eine Frühlingsmusik), 3 vn, va, vc, 1894; Octet, 2 cl, hp, 2 vn, va, vc, db, c1896; Le passeur d'eau, str sextet, 1900; 2 tapsodies, ob, va, pf, 1901 [rev. of L'étang, La cornemuse from Rhapsodies: see songs]; Poème païen (Poème antique), 2 fl, ob, cl, eng hn, 3 tpt, 2 hn, va, db, pf, 1902, rev. 3 tpt, 2 pf, 1902, lost; Ballade carnavalesque, fl, ob, sax, bn, pf, 1902; Music for 4 Str Insts, str qt, 1917–19; Historiettes, str qt, hp, 1922; Paraphrase on 2 Western Cowboy Songs (The Lone Prairie), sax, va d'amore, pf, unfinished

1–2 insts: Danse bizarre, vn, 1851; Berceuse, vn, pf, by 1884; Vn Sonata, 1886, lost; Les veillées de l'Ukraine, vn, pf, c1891; Requiem, vn, by 1894; Divertissement, vn, pf, c1895; Norske land, va d'amore, pf, rev. as Eery Moonlight, vn/va d'amore, pf, rev. as Norse saga, db, pf, 1929; Poème: scène dramatique (Poème espagnole/Conte espagnole), vc, pf, 1916; Cynthia, vn, pf, 1926; Partita, vn, pf, 1930; Airs tziganes, vn, pf; Allegretto, vn, pf; Barcarolle, vn, pf; Capriccio Russe, vn, pf; Divigations sur des airs tziganes (Repülj fecske'm), vn, pf; Grave, vn, pf; Joe Bibb (Joe Bibb: the Clown), vn, pf; Mescolanza ‘Olla Podrida’, va d'amore, pf; Une nuit de Mai, vn, pf, inc. [rev. of 2nd movt of Les veillées de l'Ukraine: see orchestral]; Rapsodie russe, vn, pf [rev. of 1st movt of Les veillées de l'Ukraine, see orchestral]; Rêverie-barcarolle, vn, pf; Romance russe, vn, pf; Rondo, vn, pf; Spring Dance (Danse norvégienne), vn, pf; Tarantella, vn, pf; III, vn, pf, inc. [rev. of 4th movt of Les veillées de l'Ukraine: see orchestral]; Zapateado, vn, pf

choral

L'archet (C. Cros), S, female chorus 4vv, va d'amore, pf, op.26, c1900; The Sermon on the Mount, female chorus 4vv, 2 va d' amore, b viol, hp, org, inc.; Ps. cxxxvii (By the rivers of Babylon), female chorus 4vv, 2 fl, vc, hp, org, op.3, c1901 (1907), version with pf acc. (1907); For One who Fell in Battle (T.W. Parsons), 8vv, 1906, rev. 1911 as Ode for One who Fell in Battle (1911); Poème mystique (G. Kahn), boys' chorus, chorus, 4 hn, 2 ob, hp, org, 1907; Beat! Beat! Drums! (Drum Taps) (W. Whitman), unison male vv, pf, 1917, version with wind, brass, perc acc. (1932); version with pf, 4 tpt, fifes, perc; Drei Marienlieder (Angelus Domini), 8vv, 1919–20; Canticum fratris solis, female chorus 3vv, 1925; Prière (R. Dévigne), 4vv, pf, 1926, arr. 1v, pf, 1926]; Ave maris stella, S, boys' chorus, str orch, pf, org

songs

Edition: C.M. Loeffler: Selected Songs with Chamber Accompaniment, ed. E. Knight, RRAM (1988)

(all for 1v, pf, unless otherwise stated)

La chanson des ingénues (P. Verlaine), 1v, va, pf, c1893; Harmonie du soir (C. Baudelaire), 1v, va/va d'amore, pf, c1893; La lune blanche (Verlaine), 1v, va, pf, c1893; Rêverie en sourdine (Verlaine), 1v, va, pf, c1893; Le rossignol (Verlaine), 1v, va, pf, c1893; 4 poèmes, 1v, va, pf, c1893, op.5 (1904): La cloche fêlée (Baudelaire), Dansons la gigue! (Verlaine), Le son du cor s'affige vers les bois (Paysage triste) (Verlaine), Sérénade (Verlaine); Rapsodies (M. Rollinat), 1v, cl, va, pf, 1898: L'étang, La cornemuse, La villanelle du diable

4 mélodies (G. Kahn), op.10, 1899: Timbres oubliés, Adieu pour jarnais, Les soirs d'automne, Les paons

Bolero triste (Kahn), (1v, pf)/(1v, vn, pf), 1900; Le flambeau vivant (Baudelaire), c1902, lost; A une femme (Verlaine), (1v, pf)/(1v, vn, pf), 1904; 4 Poems, op.15, 1905: Sudden Light (D.G. Rossetti), A Dream Within a Dream (E.A. Poe), To Helen (Poe), Sonnet (G.C. Lodge); Der Kehraus (J.F. von Eichendorff), 1906; Vereinsamt (F. Nierzsche), 1906; The Wind among the Reeds (Yeats), 1906–7: The Hosting of the Sidhe, The Host of the Air [rev. in 5 Irish Fantasies, 1920]; Je te vis (Hommage) (Kahn), 1908; Ton souvenir est comme un livre bien-aimé (A. Samain), by 1911; Hymne (Dévigne), S, str qnt, org, pf, 1919: Hymne d'église, Hymne à Dieu, Prière; 5 Irish Fantasies, 1920: The Hosting of the Sidhe, The Host of the Air (Yeats), The Fiddler of Dooney (Yeats), The Ballad of the Foxhunter (Yeats), Caitilin ni Ullachain (W. Heffernan); Vieille chanson d'amour (15th century), 1925; Prière (Dévigne), 1926 (Boston, 1936); Busslied; Girl and Boy Guides Prayer Hymn; Les hirondelles (A. d'Hotelier); Madrigal (P. Bourget); Marie (A. de Musset); Rêverie; Vassar College Song

other works

Jazz band: Suite, 1v, dance orch, 1927, unfinished, incl. Creole Blues (De'tit zozos), Tango-drag, 1926; Intermezzo (Clowns), 1928; Todavia estes a tiempo, 1932; By-an'-by, sketch

Pedagogical: Violin Studies for the Development of the Left Hand, 1920 (New York, 1936); Vn Exercises

c50 arrs., most for vn/va d'amore/other str inst, pf, of works by other composers

Cadenzas: Saint-Saëns: Vn Conc. op.1, 1893, Morceau de concert, op.62, 1894; Brahms: Vn Conc. op.77, 1897; Paganini: Vn Conc. op.6

MSS in US-Bc, Bgm, NH, Spmoldenhauer, Wc

Principal publishers: G. Schirmer, Boston Music Co., C.C. Birchard

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EwenD

Thompson1

O. Downes: ‘Originality in Composer's Art Means Sophistication’, Musical America, xi/23 (1910), 3

‘Music of Charles Martin Loeffler’, Christian Science Monitor (29 Jan 1910)

L. Gilman: ‘The Music of Loeffler’, North American Review, cxciii (1911), 47–59

C. Engel: ‘Charles Martin Loeffler’, MQ, xi (1925), 311–30

A.H. Meyer: ‘Loeffler at Seventy Finds All Music Good’, Musical America, li/2 (1931), 5

C. Engel: ‘Views and Reviews’, MQ, xxi (1935), 368–75

E.B. Hill: ‘Charles Martin Loeffler’, MM, xiii (1935–6), 26–31

W. Damrosch: Charles Martin Loeffler (New York, 1936)

‘From the Correspondence of Charles Martin Loeffler’, A Birthday Offering to C[arl] E[ngel], ed. G. Reese (New York, 1943), 155–60

H. Colvin: Charles Martin Loeffler: his Life and Works (diss., U. of Rochester, 1957)

A. Dowd: A Descriptive Catalog of the Loeffler Collection of the Library of Congress Music Division (MS, 1959, US-Wcu)

R.P. Locke: ‘Charles Martin Loeffler: Composer at Court’, Fenway Court: Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum [annual report] (1974), 30–37

E.L. Henry: Impressionism in the Arts and its Influence on Selected Works of Charles Martin Loeffler and Charles Tomlinson Griffes (diss., U. of Cincinnati, 1976)

P. Cohen: ‘The Saxophone Music of Charles Martin Loeffler’, Saxophone Symposium, vi/4 (1981), 10–17

E. Knight: ‘Chamber Music Including Viola by Charles Martin Loeffler’, Newsletter [American Viola Society], xxi/1 (1981), 10–14

E. Knight: ‘Mr. Loeffler, Mrs. Gardner, and the Viola d'amore’, Newsletter [Viola d'amore Society of America], v/1 (1981), 4–7

E. Knight: ‘The Evolution of Loeffler's “Music for Four Stringed Instruments”’, American Music, ii/3 (1984), 66–83

J. Hansen: ‘Charles Martin Loeffler and the Eberle Viola d'amore’, Fenway Court (1985), 41–3

E. Knight: ‘Charles Martin Loeffler and George Gershwin: a Forgotten Friendship’, American Music, iii (1985), 452–9

E. Knight: Charles Martin Loeffler: a Life Apart in American Music (Urbana, 1993)

ELLEN KNIGHT

Loeillet.

Flemish family of instrumentalists and composers (see fig.1).

(2) Pierre Loeillet

(3) Jean Baptiste Loeillet (i) [‘John Loeillet of London’]

(4) Jacques [Jacob] Loeillet

(5) Jean Baptiste Loeillet (ii) [‘Loeillet de Gant’]

(6) Etienne Joseph Loeillet

ALEC SKEMPTON, LUCY ROBINSON

(1) Pieter [Pierre Noël] Loeillet

(b Ghent, bap. 21 May 1651; d Ghent, 2 Nov 1735). Violinist and concertmaster. Second son of Jacques Loeillet and his wife Barbe (née Seneschal). He was a violinist and concertmaster at Ghent, and from 1715 to 1730 he worked at Bordeaux. His younger brother, Jean Baptiste François Loeillet (1653–85), was a surgeon at Ghent.

(2) Pierre Loeillet

(b Ghent, bap. 20 April 1674; d Ghent, 24 Nov 1743). Violinist, nephew of (1) Pieter Loeillet. He was the eldest son of Jean Baptiste François Loeillet by his first wife, Catherine (née van der Fonteyn); he succeeded his uncle Pieter Loeillet as violinist at the cathedral of St Baaf in Ghent.

(3) Jean Baptiste Loeillet (i) [‘John Loeillet of London’]

(b Ghent, bap. 18 Nov 1680; d London, 19 July 1730). Composer, nephew of (1) Pieter Loeillet. He was the son of Jean Baptiste François Loeillet by his second wife, Barbe (née Buys); he is often confused with (5) Jean Baptiste Loeillet (ii) (‘Loeillet de Gant’). In view of his father’s death in 1685, it is possible that John Loeillet was brought up by his uncle Pieter Loeillet. He settled in London in about 1705, where his surname was often rendered more or less phonetically as ‘Lullie’ or ‘Lully’, and he anglicized his first name to John. He is mentioned in 1707 as a member of the Drury Lane orchestra, and a year or two later he appears as principal oboist (and flautist) in Heidegger’s list of the opera band at the Queen’s Theatre, Haymarket. In 1710 or soon after he started weekly concerts at his house in Hart Street, Covent Garden, where, on a famous occasion (probably in December 1714), Corelli’s concerti grossi op.6 were first played in England. Loeillet became a celebrated master and teacher of the harpsichord. There is a tradition, which may well be true, that he was chiefly responsible for introducing the transverse flute as a fashionable instrument in England. In 1722, with Handel, Croft and others, he tested a new organ at St Dionis Backchurch. Later in his life Loeillet moved to East Street near Red Lion Square, where he died. In his will, dated 1 May 1729 and proved 9 September 1730, he left bequests to his half-brother (2) Pierre Loeillet in Ghent, to his sister Catherine and to his brother (4) Jacques Loeillet in Munich; his young cousin at Bordeaux, (6) Etienne Joseph Loeillet, received a legacy and the ‘very Best of my Absecords’, and the residuary legatee was (1) Pieter Loeillet ‘my oncle att Bordeaux in France’, also to receive ‘my … Collection of musick boocks … and musickell instruments consisting in violins, Flutes of all kind, Bass violins’.

John Loeillet of London’s nine suites of lessons for harpsichord or spinet are in the English keyboard tradition and include such characteristically English movements as the hornpipe and cibell. They are competently written and make modest technical demands, but do not approach the quality of those of his English contemporaries Blow and Croft. His instrumental sonatas fall into the sonata da chiesa pattern, usually comprising a slow first movement in common time, a fast alla breve fugal movement (often with a bass of running quavers), a sarabande-like slow movement requiring much ornamentation, and a lightweight gigue. Within these limits Loeillet used a markedly different style for each of the three groups of instruments for which he was writing. His six trio sonatas for recorder and oboe and the six sonatas for recorder are his most conservative works, and they follow the stereotyped formula of movements; the bass simply supports the melodic parts, but the two treble voices have almost equal status, whereas in the trio sonatas for two like melodic instruments the second part is subordinate to the first. The six trio sonatas for two flutes are less predictable in style than those for recorder and oboe, and more forward-looking: Loeillet used long melodic lines with suspensions, and upper parts in parallel 3rds and 6ths. The trio sonatas for two violins represent Loeillet at his most adventurous, containing idiomatic string figures and expansive themes based on arpeggios reminiscent of Corelli and Vivaldi, and the cello part is more consistently integrated into the musical texture.

WORKS

all published in London

Lessons (e, D, g), hpd/spinet (c1712); ed. in MMBel, i (1932)

[6] Sonatas for Variety of Instruments (F, G, g, D, C, e), op.1 (1722); nos.1, 3, 5 for rec, ob, bc; 2, 4, 6 for 2 fl, bc

6 Suits of Lessons (g, A, c, D, F, E), hpd/spinet (1723/R); ed. in MMBel, i (1932)

12 Sonatas in Three Parts (B, F, A, d, G, c, E, b, g, e, D, G), op.2 (c1725); nos.2, 4, 6 for rec, ob, bc; 8, 10, 12 for 2 fl, bc; others for 2 vn, bc

12 Solos (C, d, F, a, g, d, e, G, D, b, D, G), op.3 (1729); nos.1–6 for rec, bc; 7–12 for fl, bc

(4) Jacques [Jacob] Loeillet

(b Ghent, bap. 7 July 1685; d Ghent, 28 Nov 1748). Composer and oboist, younger brother of (3) Jean Baptiste Loeillet (i). He was an oboist to the Elector of Bavaria while the latter was in the Netherlands, and in 1726 he moved to the elector’s court at Munich; later he became hautbois de la chambre du roi at Versailles. In 1746 he returned to Ghent. His widow received a pension from the king of France.

All his extant sonatas are in the sonata da chiesa pattern, although they include four movements with French titles. His six solo sonatas are more substantial works than the six duets.

WORKS

6 sonates (G, D, b, A, G, e), 2 fl/vn, op.4 (Paris, 1728)

6 sonates (e, G, g, D, b, G), fl/vn, bc, ?op.5 (Paris, 1728); ed. A. and C. Manners (London, c1982–3); ed. R.P. Block (Monteux, c1985)

Opp.1–3 unknown

2 concertos, D-ROu: E, ob, str; D, fl, 2 vn, bc

(5) Jean Baptiste Loeillet (ii) [‘Loeillet de Gant’]

(b Ghent, bap. 6 July 1688; d Lyons, c1720). Composer, son of (1) Pieter Loeillet. He was the eldest son of Loeillet by his first wife, Marte (née Nortier). Loeillet de Gant, as he styled himself on all his published compositions, went to Lyons in the service of the archbishop, Paul-François de Neufville de Villeroy, and died there at an early age – before 1729 and probably about 1720. He has often been confused with his cousin (3) Jean Baptiste Loeillet (i). 48 sonatas for recorder and continuo, together with some other works, were composed by Loeillet de Gant and published in Amsterdam between about 1710 and 1717, and republished in London by Walsh & Hare between about 1712 and about 1722.

His sonatas are in the Italian style of Corelli and are generally of the sonata da chiesa type, although some (especially op.3 onwards) include several movements with named dances such as allemanda, sarabanda, gavotta and giga and have more than four movements. The bass parts are more independent than those of John Loeillet of London, not only in the fugal second movements, where they may play an equal part, but also in the slow movements, where they often have their own rhythmic patterns throughout the movement; his basses often start a movement with two or three bars solo before the recorder enters. Loeillet de Gant had a stronger contrapuntal sense than his two cousins; occasionally his fugal movements have clearly differentiated countersubjects but they lack the skill shown by many of his contemporaries. Unlike John Loeillet, Loeillet de Gant ornamented many of his slow movements in the French manner, with flourishes of demisemiquavers and notes perdues (the ‘little note that does not enter into the bar’; Marais: Pièces à une et à deux violes, 1686).

WORKS

all published in Amsterdam

op.

1	12 sonates (a, d, G, F, B, C, c, d, g, F, G, e), rec, bc (c1710); ed. G. Orbán (Budapest, c1988)
2	12 sonates (F, g, d, B, c, G, e, F, g, D, g, a), rec, bc (1714)
3	12 sonates (C, B, g, G, c, e, E, F, B, d, A, e), rec, bc (1715); ed. M. István (Budapest, c1986)
4	12 sonates (d, a, F, G, c, g, D, F, G, C, f, a), rec, bc (1716); ed. M. István (Budapest, c1986)
5	6 sonates (e, b, d, D, G, g), fl, ob/vn, bc, bk 1 (1717); (D, e, G, g, C, e), bk 2 (1717)

secular choral, partsongs, duets

(6) Etienne Joseph Loeillet

(b Macon, bap. 18 Sept 1715; dBrussels, 10 Dec 1797). Violinist and organist, son of (1) Pieter Loeillet by his second wife, Catherine (née Boutmy). He was a violinist and organist at the cathedral of St Michel et Ste Gudule in Brussels for about 40 years.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

HawkinsH

P. Bergmans: ‘Une famille de musiciens belges de XVIIIe siècle: les Loeillet’, Académie royale de Belgique: bulletin de la classe des beaux arts, ix (1927), 107–14

B. Priestman: ‘Catalogue thématique des oeuvres de Jean-Baptiste, John et Jacques Loeillet’, RBM, vi (1952), 219–74

B. Priestman: ‘The Keyboard Works of John Loeillet’, MR, xvi (1955), 89–95

A. Skempton: ‘The Instrumental Sonatas of the Loeillets’, ML, xliii (1962), 206–17 [with list of modern edns]

R.-M. Janzen: ‘Die Identität von Jean-Baptiste Loeillet’, Tibia, vii/1 (1982), 1–6

R.-M. Janzen: ‘The Loeillet Enigma’, The Consort, no.39 (1983), 502–6

Loer, Adam.

See Aquanus, Adam.

Loeschhorn [Löschhorn], Carl Albert

(b Berlin, 27 June 1819; d Berlin, 4 June 1905). German pianist and composer. He was a pupil of Ludwig Berger from 1837, and later studied at the Royal Institute for Church Music in Berlin, where his teachers included A.E. Grell and A.W. Bach; he became a piano teacher at the institute in 1851 and professor in 1858. From 1846 Loeschhorn, together with the brothers Adolf and Julius Stahlknecht, formed a trio which gained fame within Germany and toured Russia in 1853. Loeschhorn was widely known as a composer of salon pieces, studies and sonatas for piano, as well as chamber music, and for his publication of Wegweiser in der Pianoforte-Literatur (with J. Weiss; Berlin, 1862, 2/1877) and Führer durch die Klavier-Literatur (Berlin, 1886, 2/1895).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (K. Hahn) [incl. selective work-list]

T. Krause: Über Musik und Musiker (Berlin, 1900)

CHRISTOPHER FIFIELD

Loesser, Frank (Henry)

(b New York, 29 June 1910; d New York, 28 July 1969). American lyricist, composer, librettist and publisher. The son of a noted piano teacher and the half brother of Arthur Loesser (1894–1969), concert pianist, author, and for many years professor of piano at the Cleveland Institute, Frank grew up in a musical home that disdained popular culture. He enrolled at the City College of New York at the age of 15, but failed nearly every subject. After his father died unexpectedly in 1926, Loesser gained temporary employment with a succession of newspapers, at the same time working in various and often unusual jobs, including those of a process server and a restaurant reporter. He began writing song lyrics in his late teens. In 1931, while working for the publishers Leo Feist, he sold his first song lyric, In Love with a Memory of You, with music by the future eminent American composer, William Schuman. After several more years of writing and selling song lyrics, in 1936 Loesser and composer Irving Actman managed to have several songs interpolated into a revue, The Illustrators’ Show. Although the revue was a critical débâcle and rapidly folded, their songs won them a six-month contract with Universal Studios. For the next six years Loesser wrote more than 100 lyrics for various composers, most notably Hoagy Carmichael (Heart and Soul and Two Sleepy People), Burton Lane (How’dja like to love me and Says My Heart) and Jule Styne (I don’t want to walk without you). In 1942 Loesser published his first song as a composer as well as lyricist, Praise the Lord and pass the ammunition, an immediate success that quickly sold more than two million records and one million copies of sheet music. In addition to composing several other popular World War II songs (What do you do in the infantry? and Rodger Young) and the music to several revues as Private First Class Loesser, he would also, with increasing frequency, compose both the music and lyrics for films. One of these songs, Baby, it’s cold outside (1944), a party-piece duet with his first wife, Lynn Loesser, eventually appeared in Neptune’s Daughter (1948) and won an Academy Award.

Loesser’s Broadway score, Where’s Charley? (1948), based on Brandon Thomas’s perennially popular 1892 play, Charley’s Aunt, was conceived as a star vehicle for Ray Bolger. Backed by enterprising novice producers Cy Feuer and Ernest Martin and drawing on the extensive authorial and directorial experience of George Abbott, Where’s Charley? derived much of its humour from Bolger’s frantic switches of costume between Charley and his aunt. Despite many imaginative touches, the show is best remembered for ‘Once In Love with Amy’, which Bolger sang to and notably with his audiences until the show closed as the tenth-longest running musical up to that time. Loesser’s next musical Guys and Dolls (1950), based on Damon Runyon stories about the gruff but lovable tinhorn gamblers and the devoted Salvation Army missionaries who inhabit Times Square, produced by Feuer and Martin this time under the direction of George S. Kaufman, is widely regarded as one of Broadway’s most perfect amalgamations of story, music and stagecraft. After winning the Tony Award for best musical, Loesser’s second successive hit would also emerge as a popular film in 1955 and return to Broadway and London regularly, most remarkably in a 1992 Broadway revival that lasted for three seasons. In 1952 he composed eight songs for film producer Samuel Goldwyn and his star, Danny Kaye, a fictional account of the famed story teller, Hans Christian Andersen.

By this time Loesser had begun the four-year challenge of writing the libretto as well as the lyrics and a vast score for The Most Happy Fella, a process observable in 16 sketchbooks with mostly datable entries and many other subsequent drafts. The poignant story, adapted from Sidney Howard’s Pulitzer Prize-winning play, They Knew What They Wanted (1924), was a popular success, both in 1956 and in two New York revivals of the early 1990s. Nevertheless, Loesser’s self-designated ‘opera with a lot of music’, with its heterogeneous assortment of classical and popular styles, has only gradually approximated the critical and popular stature of the more consistently vernacular, homogeneous, and less operatic Guys and Dolls. Beginning in 1948 he began to acquire the rights to his own material, and by 1950 had formed the Frank Music Corporation and began to seek out other promising songwriters. Starting with Kismet (1953) he would publish all the future musicals of Robert Wright and George Forrest, and he also played a large part in discovering and developing the talents and careers of Richard Adler and Jerry Ross and Meredith Willson, as well as publishing Adler and Ross’s The Pajama Game (1954) and Damn Yankees (1955) and Willson’s The Music Man (1957).

In 1960 Loesser experienced his first Broadway failure with Greenwillow, a musical based on the charmingly bucolic but undramatic novel by B.J. Chute. The following year he and his collaborators achieved great success again with How to Succeed in Business without Really Trying, which eventually surpassed Guys and Dolls as the most popular musical of his career. A clever, good-natured, yet often wickedly irreverent satire on the world of business adapted from Shepherd Mead’s best selling handbook, How to Succeed, it earned for Loesser another New York Drama Critics Circle Award after those for Guys and Dolls and The Most Happy Fella, also his second Tony Award, and became only the fourth musical to win the Pulitzer Prize for drama. Loesser’s last completed musical, Pleasures and Palaces (1965), which Samuel Spewack, Loesser and director-choreographer Bob Fosse adapted from Spewack’s unsuccessful 1961 play Once There Was a Russian, closed out of town in Detroit. He abandoned his final incomplete musical based on a story by Budd Schulberg, Señor Discretion Himself, one year prior to his death from lung cancer in 1969. He was survived by his second wife, Jo Sullivan, a talented singer who created the role of Rosabella in The Most Happy Fella, and by two children from each of his marriages, the oldest of whom, Susan Loesser, wrote his first biography (New York, 1993).

Throughout his productive career, first as a lyricist for films and then as a composer-lyricist for films and musicals in the tradition of Berlin and Porter, Loesser exhibited a rare knack for capturing the humour as well as the humanity of a dramatic situation with catchy vernacular lyrics that invariably match their readily accessible cultivated and vernacular melodies, despite the fact that – with the exception of ‘Standing on the Corner’ from The Most Happy Fella and ‘I believe in you’ from How to Succeed … – relatively few songs from his musicals became major hits. Perhaps more than Berlin and Porter, his show-stopping Broadway songs, regularly displaying an unprecedented degree of imaginative counterpoint and harmony, typically function as miniature scenes that advance the action as well as our understanding of his characters.

WORKS

(selective list)

stage

unless otherwise stated, all are musicals, music by Loesser and dates are those of first New York performance; writers shown as (lyricist; book author)

The Illustrator’s Show (revue, Loesser; Liebman, O. Soglow and others), 48th St, 22 Jan 1936, music I. Actman and others [incl. Bang the bell rang (music: Actman)]

Skirts (revue, mostly Loesser and H. Rome), Cambridge, London, 25 Jan 1944, music mostly Loesser and Rome

About Face! (revue, Loesser, J. Livingston and others; A. Auerbach and others), Camp Shanks, 26 May 1944, music Loesser, Livingston and others [incl. One Little WAC (music: E. Dunstedter)]

Hi, Yanks! (revue, Loesser, A. North and others; Auerbach and others), Theatre No.5, Fort Dix, NJ, 7 Aug 1944, music Loesser, North and others

PFC Mary Brown (revue, mostly Loesser; Auerbach and others), cNov 1944, music mostly Loesser [incl. PFC Mary Brown]

OK, U.S.A.! (revue, probably Loesser), cJune 1945

Where’s Charley? (2, Loesser; G. Abbott after B. Thomas: Charley’s Aunt), orchd T. Royal, H. Spialek and P.J. Lang, St James, 11 Oct 1948 [incl. Make a miracle; My darling, my darling; Once in Love with Amy]; film 1952

Guys and Dolls (2, Loesser; J. Swerling and A. Burrows, after D. Runyon), orchd G. Bassman and Royal, 46th St, 24 Nov 1950 [incl. Adelaide’s Lament, Fugue for Tinhorns, Guys and Dolls, If I were a bell, I’ll know, I’ve never been in love before, Luck be a lady tonight, My Time of Day, Sit down, you’re rockin’ the boat]; film 1955 [incl. Pet me, Poppa; A Woman in Love]

The Most Happy Fella (3, after S. Howard: They Knew What They Wanted), orchd D. Walker, Imperial, 3 May 1956 [incl. Big D, Happy to Make your Acquaintance, How Beautiful the Days; Joey, Joey, Joey; The Most Happy Fella, My heart is so full of you; Somebody, Somewhere; Standing on the Corner]

Greenwillow (2, Loesser; L. Samuels and Loesser, after B.J. Chute), orchd. R. Ginzler, Alvin, 8 March 1960 [incl. The Music of Home, Never will I marry]

How to Succeed in Business without Really Trying (2, Loesser; Burrows, J. Weinstock and W. Gilbert, after S. Mead), orchd Ginzler, 46th St, 28 Mar 1963 [incl. Brotherhood of Man, The Company Way, Happy to Keep his Dinner Warm, I believe in you]; film 1967

Pleasures and Palaces (Loesser; Loesser and S. Spewack, after Spewack: Once there was a Russian), orchd Lang, Fisher Auditorium, Detroit, 11 Mar 1965

Señor Discretion Himself (Loesser; Loesser, after B. Schulberg), Musical Theatre Works, 20 Nov 1985

film songs

Lyrics by Loesser, composer in parentheses: The Moon of Manakoora (A. Newman), in The Hurricane, 1937; Blame it on the Danube (H. Akst), in Fight for Your Life, 1937; Heart and Soul (H. Carmichael), in A Song is Born, 1938; How d’ja like to love me (B. Lane), Moments Like This (Lane), I fall in love with you every day (M. Sherwin), in College Swing, 1938; Says My Heart (Lane), in Cocoanut Grove, 1938; Small Fry (Carmichael), in Sing You Sinners, 1938; Two Sleepy People (Carmichael), in Thanks for the Memory, 1938

Fidgity Joe (M. Malneck), Strange Enchantment (F. Hollaender), in Man About Town, 1939; The Boys in the Backroom (Hollaender), in Destry Rides Again, 1939; The lady’s in love with you (Lane), in Some Like It Hot, 1939; Say it (J. McHugh), in Buck Benny Rides Again, 1940; I hear music (Lane), in Dancing on a Dime, 1940; Dolores (L. Alter), in Las Vegas Nights, 1941; I’ll never let a day pass by, Kiss the boys goodbye, Sand in my Shoes (V. Schertzinger), in Kiss the Boys Goodbye, 1941

Katy-Did, Katy-Didn’t (Carmichael), We’re the couple in the castle (Carmichael), in Mr. Bug Goes to Town, 1941; I don’t want to walk without you (J. Styne), in Sweater Girl, 1942; Touch of Texas, Can’t get out of this mood, I get the neck of the chicken (McHugh), in Seven Days Leave, 1942; Jingle Jangle Jingle (J. Lilley), in The Forest Rangers, 1942; Let’s get lost, Murder, He says (McHugh), in Happy Go Lucky, 1943; The Dreamer, How sweet you are, I’m riding for a fall, Love isn’t born, it’s made, They’re either too young or too old (A. Schwartz), in Thank Your Lucky Stars, 1943

Lyrics and music by Loesser: Spring will be a little late this year, in Christmas Holiday, 1944; In My Arms, in See Here, Private Hargrove, 1944 [with T. Grouya]; I wish I didn’t love you so, Poppa don’t preach to me, The Sewing Machine, in The Perils of Pauline, 1947; Tallahassee, in Variety Girl, 1947; Baby, it’s cold outside, in Neptune’s Daughter, 1947; Red Hot and Blue, in Red Hot and Blue, 1949; Roseanna, in Roseanna McCoy, 1949; Anywhere I Wander, I’m Hans Christian Andersen, The King’s New Clothes, No Two People, Thumbalina, Inchworm, Wonderful Copenhagen, in Hans Christian Andersen, 1952

Other films, lyrics by Loesser unless otherwise stated, composer in parentheses: Blossoms on Broadway (Sherwin), 1937; Vogues of 1938 (Sherwin), 1937; Freshman Year (Actman), 1938; Men with Wings (Carmichael), 1938; Spawn of the North (Lane), 1938; Stolen Heaven (Sherwin), 1938; Cafe Society (Lane, L. Shuken), 1939; The Gracie Allen Murder Case (Malneck), 1939; Hawaiian Nights (Malneck), 1939; Invitation to Happiness (Shuken), 1939; Island of Lost Men (Hollaender), 1939; Saint Louis Blues (Carmichael, Lane, Malneck), 1939; Zaza (Hollaender), 1939

The Farmer’s Daughter (Hollaender), 1940; Johnny Apollo (A. Newman, L. Newman), 1940; Moon Over Burma (Hollaender, H. Revel), 1940; Seven Sinners (Hollaender), 1940; A Night at Earl Carroll’s (Hollaender, G. Niesen), 1940; Northwest Mounted Police (V. Young), 1940; The Quarterback (Malneck), 1940; Seventeen (Hollaender, Niesen), 1940; Typhoon (Hollaender), 1940; Youth Will Be Served (L. Alter), 1940

Aloma of the South Seas (Hollaender), 1941; Caught in the Draft (Alter), 1941; The Fleet’s In (Schertzinger), 1941; Glamour Boy (Schertzinger), 1941; Hold Back the Dawn, 1941; Sailors on Leave (Styne), 1941; Sis Hopkins (Styne), 1941; World Premiere (Lane), 1941; Beyond the Blue Horizon (Styne), 1942; Priorities on Parade (Styne), 1942; Reap the Wild Wind (Young), 1942; This Gun for Hire (J. Press), 1942; Tortilla Flat (F. Waxman), 1942; True to the Army (H. Spine), 1942

Swing Your Partner (Styne), 1943; Tornado (Hollaender), 1943; Jam Session (McHugh), 1944; Moon over Las Vegas (McHugh), 1944; You Can’t Ration Love (Styne), 1944; Duffy’s Tavern (Loesser), 1945 [lyrics, Burrows]; Her Lucky night (McHugh), 1945; Let’s Dance (Loesser), 1950; Malaya (Styne), 1950; The Flaming Feather (Sherwin), 1951; With a Song in My Heart (A. Schwartz), 1952

other songs

lyrics and music by Loesser, unless otherwise stated; other composers in parentheses

I’m in love with a memory of you (W. Schuman), 1931; Doesn’t that mean anything to you (B. Emmerich), 1934; Goo Goo Ge’Da (E. Breuer), 1934 [lyrics with B. Frisch and R. Leveen]; I wish I were twins (J. Meyer), 1934 [lyrics with E. DeLange]; Junk Man (Meyer), 1934 [lyrics with DeLange]; A Tree in Tipperaray (Actman), 1936; The last thing I want is your pity (1938); Hello Mom (Dunstedter), 1942; Praise the Lord and pass the ammunition, 1942; Have I stayed away too Long?, 1943; What do you do in the infantry?, 1943

Salute to the Army Services Forces, 1944; My Lady (collab. W. Stein), 1945; Rodger Young, 1945; Wave to me, 1945; Bloop, Bleep!, 1947; A Tune for Humming, 1947; What are you doing New Year’s Eve, 1947; The Feathery Feelin’, 1948; On a Slow Boat to China, 1948; Hoop-Dee-Doo, 1950; All is forgiven, 1953; Just Another Polka (collab. M. DeLugg), 1953

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Papers, incl. sketchbooks and correspondence: US–NYp

A. Loesser: ‘My Brother Frank’, Notes, vii (1949–50), 217–39 [incl. list of songs]

D. Ewen: ‘He Passes the Ammunition for Hits’, Theatre Arts, xl (May 1956), 73–5

S. Green: The World of Musical Comedy (New York, 1960, rev. and enlarged 4/1980)

M.A. Mann: The Musicals of Frank Loesser (diss., CUNY, 1974)

Frank Loesser Remembered (New York, 1977) [incl. list of published songs]

R. Hemming: The Melody Lingers On: the Great Songwriters and their Movie Musicals (New York, 1986)

S. Suskin: Show Tunes …: the Songs, Shows, and Careers of Broadway's Major Composers (New York, 1986, enlarged 3/2000), 243–9

G. Block: ‘Frank Loesser’s Sketchbooks for The Most Happy Fella’, MQ, lxxiii (1989), 60–78

J.P. Swain: The Broadway Musical: a Critical and Musical Survey (New York, 1990)

S. Loesser: A Most Remarkable Fella: Frank Loesser and the Guys and Dolls in His Life (New York, 1993)

G. Block: ‘Guys and Dolls and The Most Happy Fella: the Greater Loesser’, Enchanted Evenings: the Broadway Musical from ‘Show Boat’ to Sondheim (New York, 1997), 197–224, 337–40

GEOFFREY BLOCK

Loetti, Gemignano.

See Capilupi, Gemignano.

Loevendie, Theo

(b Amsterdam, 17 Sept 1930). Dutch composer. His musical career began in the Amsterdamse Postharmonie wind band, in which he played the clarinet. He soon started composing for bands which he formed with friends, in a jazz idiom inspired by the music of Benny Goodman, and later Parker, Gillespie and Ellington; he subsequently began to play the alto saxophone. After completing his military service he became a professional musician, formed his own quintet and gave concerts in night clubs. As a member of an international light orchestra, he travelled in the early 1950s to Turkey, where he acquired a lifelong fascination for Turkish folk music. Back in the Netherlands he decided at the age of 25 to enter the Amsterdam Conservatory, where he studied with Mulder and Orthel (composition) and Ru Otto (clarinet). He became active in improvised music, and as the leader of the Boy Edgars Big Band and later of his own Theo Loevendie Consort, he developed in the 1960s into one of the most successful Dutch jazz musicians, gaining an international reputation.

After his début as a composer in 1969 with Scaramuccia for clarinet and orchestra, Loevendie gradually emerged as a leading Dutch composer. He became a lecturer at the conservatories of Rotterdam (theory and composition) and Amsterdam (composition) and in the 1970s organized informal but influential STAMP concerts (Foundation for Alternative Music Practice), in which widely differing musical genres were presented on the same evening. He received many prizes, including the Koussevitzky Award for Flexio, the Matthijs Vermeulen Prize for Naima and the 3M Prize for his entire output. He has also been active in an administrative capacity: first as chairman of the GeNeCo (Society of Dutch Composers) and then as chairman of the Fonds voor de Scheppende Toonkunst.

Loevendie's late entry (at the age of 38) into the world of composed serious music with Scaramuccia was in part due to the lack of affinity he felt with the rigid intellectual aspects of serialism which, in the 1960s, governed the musical thinking of younger Dutch composers. He regarded serialism as ‘an excess of rationalism’ which did not offer him any points of contact. In Scaramuccia he contrasted this with music which excelled in polyrhythmic flexibility, a predilection for melodic and rhythmic ostinato motifs and a view of harmony and timbre which owed something to French music; the influence of Stravinsky was also important. Loevendie was not entirely insensitive to the prevailing musical fashions: for example, the spatial arrangement of the musicians in Orbits (1976) for solo horn and orchestra cannot be viewed in isolation from Stockhausen’s Gruppen; and the construction of the earlier Aulos (1972), in which the performers are given freedom in the choice of pitch, has aleatory characteristics, although in Loevendie’s case a link with improvised music is more logical.

The influence of jazz is also clearly apparent from the mid-1970s on. In Strides (1976) the hypnotic repetitions of notes characteristic of Loevendie are integrated with reminiscences of the style of Fats Waller’s Harlem stride piano, and in Bons (1991) an improvising soloist (preferably with demonstrable jazz credentials) is set against a chamber ensemble playing fully written-out parts.

From an early age Loevendie had a predilection for strict counterpoint, and devices such as canon and isorhythm, as well as ostinato, heterophony and passacaglia form play a role in all his compositions, often in the form of complex rhythmic conglomerates. Incantations for bass clarinet and orchestra (1975), Six Turkish Folkpoems (1977), Flexio for orchestra (1979) and Twee stukken op canons van Guillaume de Machaut (1993) are appealing examples. In addition, influences from non-Western music play a role in Loevendie’s work: African polyrhythm in Timbo for percussion ensemble (1974) and A Dramé for jembe and ensemble (1996); Turkish heterophony in such works as Incantations, the Folkpoems, the chamber opera Gassir, the Hero and the Piano Concerto (1995); and Argentine tango in Amsterdam Tango (1994).

Rhythm and melodic cyclic structures related to Turkish and Arabic music have also come to play an important role. These structures and their connected principle of ‘non-octave modes’ can be tracked back to the ‘curve technique’ which Loevendie first used in Flexio and with which he diverted his attention from rhythmic to pitch organization. Curve technique, unlike serialism, is not a closed system, but a flexible approach to systematic musical thought, which leaves ample latitude for the intuitive and the improvised. In its simplest form it consists of a basic melodic or melodic-rhythmic idea that is maintained throughout a work. This basic thought may be stretched and enlarged, compressed and reduced in such a way that its curve and the inherent relationships between the notes are preserved.

Since 1979 his work has been governed by six or seven curves per composition, each with a length of three to eight notes, though Loevendie has been applying the technique intuitively for longer as an improviser throughout his whole career, although as a composer for the first time in his String Quartet (1961), in a rudimentary form. In Gassir, the Hero, a stack of curves gives rise to a mode which is repeated not at the octave but at other intervals. These non-octave modes also determine the melodic and harmonic structure in works such as Cycles (1992), Lerchen-Trio (1992), Laps (1995) and his third opera Esmée (1987–94).

The subject of Esmée, like the first, Naima, is the conflict between freedom, power and the role of the outsider; this theme undoubtedly has autobiographical roots. Naima is concerned with a small group of musical guerillas who resist the ‘Institute’; Esmée tells the story of the resistance fighter Esmée van Eeghen, who during World War II was suspected of espionage for the Germans. The latter, as with all Loevendie’s operatic works, has an eclectic musical design: alongside intricate melodic-rhythmic structures, it contains a lied, Protestant psalm melodies, choral adaptations, bar music and a fugal march for percussion, recalling the composer’s captivation by brass band music in his youth.

WORKS

stage

Naima (op, 3, L. de Boer), 1985, Amsterdam, Carré, 7 June 1985

Gassir, the Hero (chbr op, 7 scenes, Loevendie), 1990, Amsterdam, Amsterdamse Studios, 30 May 1993

Esmée (op, 2, J. Blokker), 1987–94, Amsterdam, Carré, 31 May 1995

instrumental

Orch: Confluxus, jazz orch, orch, 1966; Scaramuccia, cl, orch, 1969; Incantations, b cl, orch, 1975; Orbits, hn, 4 obbl hn, orch, 1976; Flexio, 1979; De nachtegaal [The Nightingale] (H. Andersen), nar, orch, 1981; Music for a Strange Wedding, 1983 [from op Naima]; Suite, 1986 [from Naima]; Intermezzo, 1986 [from Naima]; Pf Conc., 1996; Vn Conc. ‘Vanishing Dances’, 1998; see also vocal [Oh oor o hoor, 1987]

Chbr: Str Qt, 1961; 3 stukken voor jeugdensemble, 2 fl, ob, 2 cl, pf, 1964; 3 pezzi, 3 cl, 1968; 10 Easy Sketches, cl, pf, 1970; Music for Bass Cl and Pf, 1971; 2 Trios, small perc ens, 1973; Prelude, 6 conga players, 1974; Timbo, 6 perc, 1974; Music for Fl and Pf, 1979; Voor Jan, Piet en Klaas, 2 pf 4 hands, 1979; Nonet, pic, cl, bn, hn, tpt, trbn, pf, perc, db, 1980; Venus en Adonis, suite, b cl, mand, gui, vn, perc, 1981; Back bay bicinium, pic, cl, vn, va, vc, perc, pf, 1986; Plus One, fl, b cl, pf, 1988

Drones, vn, pf, 1991; Bons, improviser, ens, 1991; Cycles, vn, cl, vc, pf, 1992; Lerchen-Trio, cl, vc, pf, 1992; 2 stukken op canons van Guillaume de Machaut, 3 fl, a fl, 1993, arr. mand, gui, hp, b cl, 1994, arr. sax qt, 1994; Amsterdam Tango, vn, bandoneon, va, vc, db, pf, 1994, arr. vn, pf; Laps, ens, 1995; Fanfare, brass ens, 1996; Que pasa en la calle?, 4 tpt, 1996; A Dramé, jembe, ens, 1996; Vueltas, str, perc, 1997; Ackermusik, pf trio, 1997; 2 Mediterranean Dances, 8 vc, 1998; Golliwogg's Other Dances, cl, bn, tpt, 1998; Kazan-trilogy, 2 perc, 1999

Solo inst: Toccata, pf, 1965; Aulos, 1 or more wind/str insts, 1972; 2 korte stukken, pf, 1976; Strides, pf, 1976; Walk, pf, 1985; Dance, vn, 1986; Duo, b cl, 1988; Gassir’s Dream, dbn/bn, 1991; Strands, fl, 1991; On the Train, pf, 1992; Trait d’union, fl, 1992; 4 Easy Pieces, pf, 1993; Dome, pf, 1999

vocal

6 Turkish Folkpoems, S, fl, cl, vn, vc, perc, hp, pf, 1977; De nachtegaal (H. Andersen), nar, ens, 1979, arr. nar, orch, 1981; All the Flowers of the Spring (J. Webster), Mez, T, pf, 1985 [from op Naima]; 2 Songs (W. Shakespeare, T. Campion), Mez, pf, 1985 [from Naima]; As fast as thou shalt wane (W. Shakespeare), S, pf, 1985 [from Naima]; Oh oor o hoor [Hear, oh Ear] (Lucebert), B-Bar, orch, 1987; Een nachtegaal in Echternach (D. Zonderland), S/Mez, pf, 1989; Sonate voor stem [Sonata for Voice], 1990

Principal publishers: Donemus, Peer Musikverlag

WRITINGS

‘The Rhythmic Structure of Six Turkish Folkpoems’, Key Notes, no.7 (1978), 38–41

‘The Curve-Based Architecture of Naima’, Key Notes, no.22 (1985), 6–11

‘De euforie van de ontdekkingsreis’ [The euphoria of the voyage of discovery], Mens en melodie, li (1996), 30–33

‘Aspekte meines Komponierens’, Rostocker Reihe neuer Musik, no.1 (1998)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. De Groot: ‘Flexibility: Pitch Organisation in Recent Works by Theo Loevendie’, Key Notes, no.24 (1981), 13–29

M. Brandt: ‘Theo Loevendie: “Het elitaire ligt me van huis uit helemaal niet!”’ [‘The élite does not appeal to me by nature’], Klank en weerklank, no.5 (1990), 7–24

E. Schönberger: ‘Stukken uit één stuk’, De vrouw met de hamer en andere componisten (Amsterdam, 1992)

R. de Groot: Het naamloze lied van Gassir, de held [The nameless song of Gassir, the Hero] (Hilversum, 1994) [Jan van Gilse lecture, 1994]

E. Voermans: ‘Het verstandelijk gevoel en het gevoelig verstand’ [Rational emotion and emotional rationality], Theo Loevendie (Amsterdam, 1994) [Donemus catalogue]

E. Voermans: ‘Sympathy for the Outcast’, Key Notes, no.29 (1995), 10–14

ERIK VOERMANS

Loewe, (Johann) Carl (Gottfried)

(b Löbejün, nr Halle, 30 Nov 1796; d Kiel, 20 April 1869). German composer and singer. He was the twelfth and youngest child of the Kantor and schoolmaster Adam Loewe (d 1826), from whom he received his first musical education. In 1807 he became a choirboy in the Cöthen court chapel, moving two years later to the Franke Institute in Halle, where he studied with Türk. His singing attracted the attention of King Jérôme of Westphalia, who awarded him an annual stipend of 300 thaler to enable him to devote his full attention to music.

Loewe’s studies were interrupted by the outbreak of war in 1812, and the death of Türk in 1813. When King Jérôme was forced to flee later that year, Loewe’s funding came to an abrupt end. In 1814 he became organist at a local church, and in 1817 he enrolled at the University of Halle to study theology and philology though his main energies continued to be devoted to music. He joined the Halle Singakademie, founded after Zelter’s model by Naue, Türk’s successor as musical director of the university, and around this time composed his first important songs. It was through the Singakademie that Loewe met his first wife, Julie von Jacob, whom he married in 1821.

In 1819 and 1820 Loewe paid visits to Dresden, Weimar and Jena, making the acquaintance of Weber, Goethe and Hummel. Having been a professor at the Gymnasium in Stettin from January 1820, in November that year he was appointed organist at the Jakobikirche; as part of the examination for the post, he was required to submit a musical exercise to Zelter. On 14 February 1821 he became musical director of the city; he worked in Stettin until 1866, when he was asked to resign his various positions following illness. Loewe spent his last years at Kiel, though after his death his heart was buried near the organ in the Jakobikirche, Stettin. His first wife having died in 1823, in 1850 he married Auguste Lange, who survived him.

During his long career in Stettin, Loewe established a reputation across Europe both as a composer and a singer. Much respected at the Prussian court, where he was a favourite of both Friedrich Wilhelm III and Friedrich Wilhelm IV, he was elected a member of the Berlin Academy in 1837. He travelled extensively: in 1837 he undertook a lengthy tour of Germany, visiting the Düsseldorf and Mainz festivals, as well as Hamburg, Lübeck and Bremen; in 1844 he visited Vienna; and in 1847 he was in London, where he performed at court and heard Jenny Lind sing. Among other important trips were those to Sweden and Norway in 1851 and France in 1857.

Loewe’s posthumous reputation as a composer rests mainly on his songs, though, for all the importance they are accorded in the scholarly literature, they remain largely neglected by modern performers. His earliest offerings, such as the Acht Jugendlieder and three Anakreontische Lieder, belong firmly to the mainstream late 18th-century tradition, with their dependence upon a single melodic line, rudimentary accompaniment and largely strophic and varied strophic forms. From around 1817, however, Zumsteeg’s influence becomes strongly apparent, and henceforth the ballad was the predominant vocal genre that Loewe cultivated. The first collection of Balladen, published in 1824, brings together three of his most successful early settings: Edward, Der Wirthin Töchterlein and Erlkönig. Each is cast in the usual rhapsodic form, but there is a striking absence of organic musical development. The choice of Erlkönig begs inevitable comparison with Schubert, and though Loewe has found his champions, his treatment is generally reckoned less effective. (The claims of his daughter Julie, that Loewe saw Schubert’s setting in manuscript and was prompted to his own version because he believed he could improve upon it are now largely discredited.) In contrast to the Schubert, there is no unifying musical motif which sets the framework for the whole song: instead, each poetic idea is treated separately and episodically. This essentially conservative approach to the ballad is maintained throughout Loewe’s output. Even in such late works as Odins Meeresritt (1851) and Die Schwanenjungfrau (1857), there is no attempt to disguise the multi-sectional structure of the work.

In other respects, Loewe was more adventurous. His handling of the accompaniment was imaginative and, at times, daring. In his setting of Alexis’s Walpurgisnacht, for example, he provided a veritable pianistic tour de force, while in songs such as Die Begegnung am Meeresstrande, with its wonderfully atmospheric opening, and the plangent Die schwarzen Augen, he demonstrated a keen appreciation of the piano’s sonorous and tonal potential.

For his earliest ballads, Loewe frequently chose poems dealing with supernatural or grotesque themes, in many cases setting texts that had been popular with composers of the previous generation, such as Uhland’s Geisterleben, Körner’s Wallhaide and the Todtengräberlied (a translation of the gravediggers’ scene from Shakespeare’s Hamlet). Although such subject matter continued to fascinate him, together with texts relating to Norse, Scottish or other folk myth, Loewe gradually turned to ballads dealing with patriotic and historic themes. Frequently, these were concerned with Teutonic history, such as Schiller’s Der Graf von Habsburg, Schwab’s Kaiser Heinrichs Waffenweihe and the set of four historic ballads Kaiser Karl V, which brought together poems by Grün, Hohlfeld and von Platen. Loewe was not immune, however, from the influence of the new Romantic movement; as well as setting a number of texts translated from the French, Italian and Spanish, he was strongly attracted to poetry reflecting an oriental influence, such as Stieglitz’s Wanderbilder aus Arabien and Bilder der Heimath aus Persien.

Although Loewe made his most characteristic contribution to the development of the lied through his ballads, he by no means limited himself to this genre. Throughout his career, he continued to compose shorter songs, often taking religious poetry, or texts dealing with nature in a stylized and idealistic anacreontic fashion strongly redolent of an earlier era. Here, as in his ballads, his choice of poets was commendably eclectic. As well as setting the verses of classical masters such as Goethe, Schiller and Herder, he was also attracted to a wide range of lesser, as well as more modern poets. His setting of Chamisso’s Frauenliebe, for example, predated Schumann’s more famous cycle by four years, while Loewe was also one of the first to set Rückert’s poetry.

In essence, though, Loewe was a conservative figure. Despite his extensive tours, he appears to have assimilated few of the more radical trends of the mid-19th century. With a few notable exceptions, it is hard to detect any influence from Schumann, Chopin or Liszt, for example, and by the time of his death he was an outdated figure. Nonetheless, his songs remained popular in Germany for some time afterwards, particularly for informal performance, though their influence on later composers is limited.

Even in Loewe’s instrumental works, the influence of song is never far removed. This is demonstrated most strikingly in his E major Piano Sonata op.16, whose slow movement is a setting for tenor of a poem entitled ‘Adolf an Adele’. Generally, Loewe owed much to the example of Hummel, Ries and, above all, Weber in his keyboard works, though they rely for much of their effect on technical display at the expense of musical invention. Even the programmatic sonatas, such as Mazeppa op.27, lack emotional depth, though in their characterful description they have much in common with the more advanced of his song accompaniments.

For most of his early career, Loewe struggled in vain to gain acceptance as an operatic composer. Some fragments of a setting of Kotzebue’s Die Alpenhütte survive, but the work was apparently never performed. His next opera fared little better: though Rudolf der deutsche Herr was well received at a private concert performance and earned Spontini’s support, Loewe was unsuccessful in his attempts to have it staged. In 1834 he finally achieved his ambition, and the comic opera Die drei Wünsche was given at the Berlin Schauspielhaus. While it was well received by the audience, some critics had reservations: ‘Dr Loewe would be even more suited to serious, heroic or tragic opera than to comic Singspiel’, noted the reviewer of the Allgemeine musicalische Zeitung (xxxvi, 1934, col.229).

In fact, with the oratorio Die Zerstörung Jerusalems, first performed two years earlier in Leipzig, Loewe had already found a more appropriate outlet for his dramatic talents. After Die drei Wünsche he effectively abandoned opera for oratorio, producing 14 works in which biblical themes were given a highly charged and dramatically compelling treatment. Although he was later not entirely unmoved by the Baroque revival that was gradually sweeping across Germany, Loewe’s conception of the oratorio remained essentially operatic. A small quantity of sacred vocal music also survives, though this contains few original moments.

As a singer, Loewe excelled in the performance of his own songs: contemporary accounts praise his imposing presence and his fine, well-honed baritone voice. He sang others’ songs only infrequently, but his Gesang-Lehre, which ran to five editions, provides some insight into his overall approach to the art and remains a useful source for contemporary vocal practice.

EWAN WEST

WORKS

Edition: Carl Loewes Werke: Gesamtausgabe der Balladen, Legenden, Lieder und Gesänge, ed. M. Runze (Leipzig, 1899–1904/R) [GA]

dramatic

oratorios

other sacred vocal

solo songs with opus numbers

solo songs without opus numbers

instrumental

dramatic

Die Alpenhütte (Spl, A. von Kotzebue), 1816; excerpts in GA i, 12

Rudolf der deutsche Herr (grosse romantische Oper, 3, Loewe and Vocke), 1825; excerpts in GA ii, 112, 122; xvi, 121, 156, 207

Malek-Adhel (grosse tragische Oper, 3, C. Pichler, after W. Scott: The Talisman), 1832; excerpt in GA xiv, 4

Das Märchen im Traum (incid music, E. Raupach), ?1832

Neckereien (komische Oper, 3, Mühlbach), 1833; excerpt in GA ii, 116

Die drei Wünsche (Spl, 3, E. Raupach), Berlin, Schauspielhaus, 2 Feb 1834, vs (Berlin, 1834)

Emmy (romantische Oper, 3, Melzer and Hauser, after Scott: Kenilworth), 1842; excerpts in GA ii, 26, 128

Scenas: Isabella (F. von Schiller), A, male chorus, orch, 1836; Die Kaiserin, A, chorus, orch, 1836; Scholastica, A, orch

oratorios

texts by L. Giesebrecht unless otherwise stated

Die Festzeiten (Bible: John), op.66, 1825–36 (Mainz, 1842); Die Zerstörung Jerusalems (G. Nicolai), op.30, 1829 (Leipzig, 1832); Die sieben Schläfer, op.46, 1833 (Mainz, 1835); Die eherne Schlange, male chorus, op.40, 1834 (Berlin, 1834); Die Apostel von Philippi, male chorus, op.48, 1835 (Berlin, 1835); Gutenberg, op.55, 1836 (Mainz, 1836); Palestrina, 1841; Johann Hus (A. Zeune), op.82, 1842 (Berlin, 1842)

Der Meister von Avis, 1843, excerpts in GA ii, 54ff and viii, 117; Das Sühnopfer des neuen Bundes (von Telschow), 1847, excerpt in GA xvi, 37; Hiob (von Telschow), 1848, excerpts in GA viii, 74, 80 and xvi, 44, 63, 81; Das hohe Lied von Salomonis, 1859; Polus von Atella, 1860, excerpts in GA xiv, 106; Die Heilung des Blindgeborenen (Bible: John ix), op.131 (Magdeburg, 1860); Johannes der Täufer (Gospels), 1862, excerpt in GA xvi, 83; Die Auferweckung des Lazarus (Bible: John xi), op.132 (Brunswick, 1863); Der Segen von Assisi, unfinished, 1st part in GA xiv, 134

other sacred vocal

TeD, chorus, orch, op.77 (Berlin, 1842); Salvum fac Regem, 4vv (Berlin, 1853); Komm, Gott Schöpfer (Easter cant.)

6 psalms: Ps xxiii, 4 male vv (Dresden, 1845); Ps cxxi, 4 male vv (Dresden, 1845); Ps xxxiii, 4 male vv (Dresden, 1845); Ps li, 4 male vv, 1849; Ps lxi, 4vv, 1850; Ps lxv.3, 4vv

3 motets: Motette (Bible: Lamentations iii.22–8), 4vv, ?1866; Motette zum Bibelfeste (Bible: Hebrews iv.12), 4 male vv; Motette zur Einweihung des Taubstummen-Instituts, 4vv; 4 Weihnachts-Responsorien, 8vv, 1859, GA i, 101

secular choral, partsongs, duets

Die Walpurgisnacht (J.W. von Goethe), 1v, chorus, pf, 1833 (Berlin, 1833)

Gesang der Geister über den Wassern (Goethe), S, A, T, B, pf (Berlin, 1842)

Die Hochzeit der Thetis, cantata (F. von Schiller), solo vv, chorus, op.120a (Berlin, 1851)

Cantate für Männerstimme, 1854

Die seligen Meister der Tonkunst (von Eckardtsberge), male vv, pf [op.138]

Festkantate zur Feier der silbernen Hochzeit des Königs Friedrich Wilhelm IV. und der Königin Elisabeth, 1848

Chorus a cappella: Meisters Schlusswort (Goethe), S, A, T, 1836, GA xvii, 174; [6] Gesänge, 4vv, op.79 (Dresden, 1841); [5] Gesänge, nos.1–3 for 4vv, nos.4–5 for female vv, op.80 (Berlin, 1842); 5 Lieder, 4vv, op.81 (Leipzig, 1842); Gutenbergs Bild (L. Giesebrecht), 4 mixed/male vv (Mainz, 1848); König Wilhelm, 4vv, op.139, 1862; Epilog zu Schillers Glocke (Giesebrecht); Brautlied (P. Brumm), 4vv

Male chorus a cappella (4vv unless otherwise indicated): 6 Gesänge, 4–5vv, op.19, 1826 (Berlin, 1827); 5 Oden (Horace), op.57, 1836 (Berlin, 1836); 6 Gesänge (Mainz, 1839); Des Königs Zuversicht (von Telschow); 2 Vaterlands-Lieder (Elberfeld, 1841); 5 Humoresken, op.84 (Berlin, 1843); Der Papagei (F. Rückert), op.111 [arr. 1v, pf (Breslau, 1847)]; Deutsche Flotte (Stettin, 1851); Der Friede (Mettlerkampf) (Zürich, 1858); Regenlied (Vogl), 1858; Märznacht (L. Uhland), 1865; Unsere Aula (Giesebrecht); Der weisse Hirsch (Uhland); Beim Mai trank (Vogl); Die brüderliche Theilung (Rückert); Die Geister der Stifter (Emsmann); Der Ritter Schlemusalnik

Quartets, pf acc.: Liebe rauscht der Silberbach, 1817, GA xvii, 166; Der Abschied, 1817, GA xvii, 171

Duets, pf acc.: Stimmen der Elfen (3 songs), S, A, op.31, 1833 (Berlin, 1833); duets, S, A, in Erste Sammlung mehrstimmige Gesänge, ed. J. Neus (Mainz, 1839); Heilig, heimlich! (F. Gubitz), S, T (Dresden, 1843); 3 Gedichte (Goethe), 2 S, op.104 (Hanover, 1845); Noch ahnt man kaum der Sonne Licht (Uhland), S, T, op.113 (Berlin, 1850); Treue Liebe (L. Tieck), S, T; Die Heimat (Wieland), 2 S

3 school songs, 2vv: Die Schule; Der Schmied (C. Enslin); Sommerlied; all in GA i, 96

solo songs with opus numbers

all in GA

op.

[1]	Klotar (F. Kind), 1812 (Halle, 1813) [original op.1]
1	3 Balladen (Berlin, 1824): Edward (Scottish, trans. J.G. von Herder), 1818; Der Wirthin Töchterlein (L. Uhland), 1823; Erlkönig (Goethe)
[2]	Das Gebet des Herrn (Vater unser), 1812 (Halle, 1813) [original op.2]
2	3 Balladen (Berlin, 1824): Treuröschen (T. Körner), 1814; Herr Oluf (Danish, trans. Herder), 1821; Walpurgisnacht (W. Alexis), 1824
3	3 Balladen, 1825 (Berlin, 1825): Abschied (L. Uhland); Elvershöh (Danish, trans. Herder); Die drei Lieder (Uhland)
4	Hebräische Gesänge (Byron, trans. F. Theremin), i, 1823 (Berlin, 1825): Herodes Klage um Marianne; An den Wassern zu Babel; Wär ich wirklich so falsch; Alles ist eitel; Totenklage; Tränen und Lächeln
5	Hebräische Gesange, ii, 1824 (Berlin, 1826): Sie geht in Schönheit; Jephtas Tochter; Die wilde Gazelle; Weint um Israel; Mein Geist ist trüb; Saul vor seiner letzten Schlacht
6	Wallhaide, ballad (K.T. Körner), 1819 (Leipzig, 1826)
7	2 Balladen (Berlin, 1826): Die Spree-Norne (Baron von Kurowsky-Eichen), 1826; Der späte Gast (Alexis), 1825
8	2 Balladen (Berlin, 1827): Des Goldschmieds Töchterlein (Uhland), 1827; Der Mutter Geist (Danish, trans. Talvj), 1824
9	[54] Gesammelte Lieder, Gesänge, Romanzen und Balladen
i, [6] Nachtgesänge (Berlin, 1828): Die Lotosblume (H. Heine), 1828; Der König auf dem Turme (Uhland), 1828; Über allen Gipfeln ist Ruh (Goethe), 1817; Der du von dem Himmel bist (Goethe), 1828; Geisterleben (Uhland), 1819; Die Elfenkönigin (F. Matthisson), 1824
ii, [5] Nachtgesänge (Leipzig, 1828): Totengräberlied (W. Shakespeare), 1827; Lied der Desdemona (Shakespeare), 1827; Die Abgeschiedenen (Uhland), 1824; Das Ständchen (Uhland), 1826; Die Jungfrau und der Tod (F. Kugler), 1827
iii, [5] Gesänge der Sehnsucht (Leipzig, 1828); Ich denke dein (Goethe), 1817; Meine Ruh ist hin (Goethe), 1822; Wie der Tag mir schleichet (J.J. Rousseau, trans. F. Gotter), 1818; Der Treuergebene (H. von Stretlingen), 1817; Sehnsucht (Goethe), 1818
iv, [5] Gesänge der Sehnsucht (Leipzig, 1828): Wenn du wärst mein eigen (L. Kosegarten), 1819; Abschied (H. von Gerstenberg), 1819; Frühlingserwachen (G. Gamberg), 1819; Ihr Spaziergang (Talvj), 1819; Graf Eberhards Weissdorn (Uhland), 1825
v, [5] Heitere Gesänge (Leipzig, 1828): Minnelied (J. Voss), 1819; Hans und Grete (Uhland), 1824; Bauernregel (Uhland), 1824; Die Zufriedenen (Uhland), 1824; An die fleissige Spinnerin (J. Krauseneck), 1819
vi, [5] Heitere Gesänge (Leipzig, 1828): Wach auf (Baron von Kurowsky-Eichen), 1824; Liebesgedanken (W. Müller), 1823; Vogelgesang (L. Tieck), 1823; Mädchen sind wie der Wind, 1818; Graf Eberstein (Uhland), 1826
vii, 6 Gedichte, 1832 (Leipzig, 1832): Der Pilgrim von St Just (A. von Platen); Im Traum sah ich die Geliebte (Heine); Erste Liebe (Heine); Neuer Frühling (Heine); Du schönes Fischer-mädchen (Heine); Ich hab’ im Traume geweinet (Heine)
viii, 5 Gedichte (Goethe), 1833 (Leipzig, 1834): Turmwächter Lynceus zu den Füssen der Helena; Lynceus, der Helena seine Schätze darbietend; Lynceus, auf Fausts Sternwarte singend; Mädchenwünsche; Gutmann und Gutweib
ix, 6 Lieder, 1835 (Leipzig, 1836): Szene aus Faust (Goethe); Der alte Goethe (F. Förster); Die verliebte Schäferin Scapine (Goethe); Eis Aphroditen (An Aphrodite) (Sappho, trans. C. von Blankensee); Eis tettiga (An die Grille) (Anacreon, trans. von Blankensee); Der Fernen (von Gerstenberg)
x, 6 Lieder, 1837 (Leipzig, 1839): Jugend und Alter (H. von Fallersleben); Die Sylphide (Herder); Der Bräutigam (O. Gruppe); Niemand hat’s gesehn (Gruppe); Einrichtung (Gruppe); Der Apotheker als Nebenbuhler (Gruppe)
10	[12] Bilder des Orients (H. Stieglitz), 1833 (Leipzig, 1834)
i, Wanderbilder: Die Geister der Wüste; Der verschmachtende Pilger; Melek in der Wüste; Die Oasis; Lied eines Vögleins in der Oasis; Melek am Quell
ii, Bilder der Heimat: Maisuna; Ali im Garten; Assard mit dem Selam; Taubenpost; Gulhinde am Putztische; Abendgesang
13	Hebräische Gesänge, iii, 1825 (Berlin, 1826): Sanheribs Niederlage; Belsazars Gesicht; Die höh’re Welt; Jordans Ufer; Wohin, o Seele?; Die Sonne der Schlaflosen
14	Hebräische Gesänge, iv, 1826 (Berlin, 1827): Saul und Samuel; Eliphas Gesicht; Davids Harfe; Saul; Jerusalems Zerstörung durch Titus
15	6 Serbenlieder (trans. Talvj), 1824 (Berlin, 1825): Mädchen und Rose; Beim Tanze; Überraschung; Des Jünglings Segen; Liebesliedchen; Kapitulation
17	Der Gang nach dem Eisenhammer, ballad (Schiller), 1829 (Leipzig, 1830)
20	3 Balladen (Goethe), 1832 (Berlin, 1832): Hochzeitlied; Der Zauberlehrling; Die wandelnde Glocke
21	Die Gruft der Liebenden, ballad (von Puttkamer), 1832 (Berlin, 1832)
22	[10] Geistliche Gesänge
i (Berlin, 1832): Wenn ich ihn nur habe (Novalis), 1821; Wenn alle untreu werden (Novalis), 1822; Der Hirten Lied am Krippelein (C. Schubart), 1828; Busslied (C. Gellert), 1829; Gottes ist der Orient (Goethe), 1829
ii (Berlin, 1833): Werfet alle eure Sorgen auf ihn (A. Niemeyer), 1830; Engelstimmen (Gellert), 1830; Der nahe Retter (Niemeyer), 1830; Wie gross ist des Allmächtigen Güte (Gellert), 1831; Ave maris stella, 1832
23	Die nächtliche Heerschau, ballad (J.C. von Zedlitz), 1832 (Berlin, 1833)
29	Die Braut von Corinth, ballad (Goethe), 1830 (Berlin, 1830)
33	[3] Legenden, 1834 (Berlin, 1834): Jungfrau Lorenz (F. Kugler); Das heilige Haus in Loretto (L. Giesebrecht); Des fremden Kindes heil’ger Christ (F. Rückert)
34	Der grosse Christoph, legend (Kind), 1834 (Berlin, 1834)
35	[2] Legenden, 1834 (Leipzig, 1834): St. Johannes und das Würmlein (H. von Chézy); Johann von Nepomuk (E. Anschütz)
36	[3] Legenden, 1834 (Leipzig, 1834): Das Milchmädchen (A. Schreiber); St Mariens Ritter (Giesebrecht); Der ewige Jude (Schreiber)
37	3 Legenden, 1834 (Mainz, 1836): Das Muttergottesbild (F. Wetzel); Moosröslein (von Chézy); Das Paradies in der Wüste (Herder)
38	Gregor auf dem Stein, legend (Kugler), 1834 (Mainz, 1836)
39	Der Bergmann, song cycle in ballad form (Giesebrecht), 1834 (Elberfeld, 1834)
43	3 Balladen, 1835 (Berlin, 1835): Der Fischer (Goethe); Der Räuber (Uhland); Das braune Mädchen (Scottish, trans. Herder)
44	3 Balladen (Goethe), 1835 (Leipzig, 1835): Der Bettler; Der getreue Eckardt; Der Totentanz
45	2 Balladen, 1835 (Leipzig, 1835); Harald (Uhland); Mahadöh (Der Gott und der Bajadere) (Goethe)
49	3 [polnische] Balladen (A. Mizkiewitsch, trans. von Blankensee), 1835 (Berlin, 1835): Die Lauer; Die Schlüsselblume; Die drei Budrisse
50	2 polnische Balladen (Mizkiewitsch, trans. von Blankensee), 1835 (Berlin, 1835): Wilia und das Mädchen; Der junge Herr und das Mädchen
51	Switezianka (Das Switesmädchen), ballad (Mizkiewitsch, trans. von Blankensee), 1835 (Poznań, 1842)
52	Esther, song cycle in ballad form (Giesebrecht), 1835 (Elberfeld, 1836)
54	Der Sturm von Alhama, romance (V. Huber), 1834 (Leipzig, 1835)
56	3 Balladen (J.N. Vogl), 1836 (Dresden, 1836): Heinrich der Vogler; Der Gesang; Urgrossvaters Gesellschaft
58	Paria, legend (Goethe), 1836 (Leipzig, 1839)
59	3 Balladen (Goethe), 1836 (Leipzig, 1839): Wirkung in der Ferne; Der Sänger; Der Schatzgräber
60	Frauenliebe (A. von Chamisso), A, 1836 (Berlin, 1837): Seit ich ihn gesehen; Er, der herrlichste; Ich kann’s nicht fassen; Du Ring an meinem Finger; Helft mir, ihr Schwestern; Süsser Freund; An meinem Herzen; Nun hast du mir den ersten Schmerz getan; Traum der eignen Tage
61	[2] Gedichte (W. Alexis), 1837 (Berlin, 1838): Fridericus Rex; General Schwerin
62	[12] Gedichte (Rückert), 1837
i (Berlin, 1837): Zeislein; Bescheidung; O süsse Mutter; Süsses Begräbnis; Hinkende Jamben; Irrlichter
ii (Berlin, 1838): Abendlied; In der Kirche; Ich und mein Gevatter; Das Pfarrjüngferchen; Kind und Mädchen; Die Blume der Ergebung
63	2 Gesänge (R. Marggraff), 1837 (Berlin, 1839): Die Schneeflocke; Der Lappländer
64	4 Fabellieder, 1837 (Berlin, 1839): Der verliebte Maikäfer (R. Reineck); Der Kuckuck; Die Katzenkönigin (von Chamisso); Der Bär (W. Alexis)
65	3 Balladen (Vogl), 1837 (Dresden, 1838): Das vergessene Lied; Das Erkennen; Karl der Grosse und Wittekind
67	3 historische Balladen, 1837 (Dresden, 1838): Der Feldherr (Gruppe); Die Glocken zu Speier (M. von Oër); Landgraf Ludwig (Gruppe)
68	3 Balladen (F. Freiligrath), 1838 (Elberfeld, 1839): Schwalbenmärchen; Der Edelfalk; Der Blumen Rache
69	[6] Nachgelassene Gedichte (von Gerstenberg), 1836 (Breslau, 1843): Gruss an Züllchow; Himmelsblüten; Abendgebet; Die Sterne; Herzen und Augen; Der Komet
70	Feuersgedanken, allegory (Trinius), 1836 (Dresden, 1843)
71	Kleiner Haushalt, lyric fantasia (Rückert), 1838 (Berlin, 1840)
	2 lyrische Fantasien (Dresden, 1844) [originally appeared without op. no.]:
[73]	Die Göttin im Putzzimmer (Rückert), 1838–9
[74]	Die Zugvögel (E. Tegnér, trans. J. Schütt), 1837–8
75	[4] Legenden, A, 1837 (Leipzig, 1840): Das Grab zu Ephesus (R. Binder); Der Weichdorn (Rückert); Der heilige Franziskus (J. von Wessenberg); Das Wunder auf der Flucht (Rückert)
76	[2] Legenden, A (Leipzig, 1840): Die Einladung (A. Knapp), 1837; Scholastica (Giesebrecht), 1838 [with chorus]
78	2 Balladen, ?1839 (Breslau, 1840): Jungfräulein Annika (Rückert); Die verlorene Tochter (A. von Zuccalmaglio)
83	Die Heinzelmännchen (A. Kopisch), 1841 (Berlin, 1842)
85	Mahomets Gesang (Goethe), T, 1840 (Berlin, 1842)
86	Mein Herz, ich will dich fragen (F. Halm), 1842 (Berlin, 1842)
89	6 Lieder (D. Helena), 1842 (Berlin, 1843): Vorspiel; Dein Auge; Allmacht Gottes; Des Mädchens Wunsch; Du Geist der reinsten Güte; Mit jedem Pulsschlag
92	Prinz Eugen, der edle Ritter, ballad (Freiligrath), 1844 (Berlin, 1844)
93	Meerfahrt, ballad (Freiligrath), 1843 (Berlin, 1843)
94	2 Balladen, 1843 (Dresden, 1843): Die Überfahrt (Uhland); Die schwarzen Augen (Vogl)
95	Alpins Klage um Morar (Goethe), 1844 (Berlin, 1844)
97	3 Balladen (Freiligrath), 1844 (Vienna, 1844): Der Mohrenfürst; Die Mohrenfürstin; Der Mohrenfürst auf der Messe
98	Der Graf von Habsburg, ballad (Schiller), ?1843 (Dresden, 1844)
99	Kaiser Karl V., 4 ballads, 1844 (Leipzig, 1845): Das Wiegenfest zu Gent (A. Grün); Kaiser Karl V. in Wittenberg (C. Holfeld); Der Pilgrim vor St Just (von Platen); Die Leiche zu St Just (Grün)
103	3 Lieder, 1844 (Brunswick, 1845): Gruss vom Meere (Fürst Schwarzenberg); Menschenlose (L. Frankl); Deutsche Barkarole (O. Prechtler)
105	Tod und Tödin, ballad (A. von Tschabuschnigg), 1844 (Brunswick, 1845)
106	Die Reigerbaize, ballad (Grün), ?1843 (Brunswick, 1845)
107a	[3 Lieder] (Helena), 1842, in Album für Gesang: [24] ausgewählte Lieder (Rudolstadt, 1846): Mondlicht; Alles in dir; Frühling
108	2 Balladen (Vogl), ?1846 (Magdeburg, 1847): Der Schützling, Hueska
109	Die verfallene Mühle, ballad (Vogl), 1847 (Hanover, 1847)
110	2 Lieder, 1847 (Hanover, 1847): Am Klosterbrunnen (Vogl); Wolkenbild (L. Loeper)
112a	Des Glockentürmers Töchterlein, ballad (Rückert), 1847 (Berlin, 1850)
114	Der Mönch zu Pisa, ballad (Vogl), Bar/B, 1846 (Berlin, 1850)
115	Der gefangene Admiral, ballad (M. Strachwitz), Bar/B, 1848 (Berlin, 1850)
116	3 Balladen (Dresden, 1850): Die Dorfkirche (von Zedlitz), 1846; Der alte König (Vogl), 1846; Der Mummelsee (A. Schnetzler), 1849
118	Odins Meeresritt, oder Der Schmied auf Helgoland, ballad (Schreiber), 1851 (Berlin, 1854)
119	Lied der Königin Elisabeth (Herder, after W. Shenstone) (Berlin, ?1866)
120b	Die Begegnung am Meeresstrande, ballad (H. Fick) (Mainz, 1853)
121	2 Balladen, 1853 (Elberfeld, 1854): Kaiser Ottos Weihnachtsfeier (H. von Mühler), A/Bar; Der Drachenfels (A. Lütze), S/T
122	Kaiser Heinrichs IV. Waffenwacht, ballad (G. Schwab), 1853 (Magdeburg, 1853)
123	3 Gesänge, 1852 (Berlin, 1856): Sängers Gebet (O. von Redwitz); Trommelständchen (Moehrcke); Die Uhr (J.G. Seidl)
124	Der letzte Ritter, 3 ballads (Grün), 1853 (Vienna, 1854): Max in Augsburg; Max und Dürer; Max’ Abschied von Augsburg
125	3 Balladen, B, 1856 (Berlin, 1856): Landgraf Philipp der Grossmütige (A. Kopisch); Das Vaterland (Vogl); Der alte Schiffsherr (Vogl)
126	Sankt Helena (A. Kahler), Bar/B, 1853 (Berlin, 1858)
127	Der kleine Schiffer, ballad (L. von Plönnies), S/T, 1857 (Berlin, 1858)
128	Archibald Douglas (T. Fontane), A/B, 1857 (Berlin, 1858)
129	3 Balladen, 1857 (Berlin, 1860–61): Der Teufel (C. Siebel, after the Qur’an); Der Nöck (Kopisch); Die Schwanenjungfrau (Vogl)
130	Liedergabe, 1859 (Berlin, 1860): Die Waldkapelle (Siebel); Herzensrose (Rückert, after Goethe); Die Amsel flötet (K. Rose); Der Hirt auf der Brücke (K. Ziegler); Frühlingsankunft (Ziegler)
133	Der Asra, ballad (Heine), 1860 (Vienna, 1867)
134	Agnete, ballad (L. von Plönnies), c1860 (Brunswick, 1866)
135a	Tom der Reimer, Scottish ballad (trans. ?Fontane), c1860 (Brunswick, 1867)
135b	Nebo, ballad (Freiligrath), 1860 (Vienna, 1866)
140	Die Gottesmauer, legend (Rückert), c1850 (Magdeburg, 1868)
141	Der seltne Beter (Der alte Dessauer), ballad (H. Fitzau), Bar/B (Berlin, 1868)
142	Der Traum der Witwe, legend (Rückert), A/Bar, 1860 (Berlin, 1868)
143	Spirito Santo (E. van der Goltz), A/Bar, 1864 (Berlin, 1868)
145	5 Lieder, A/B, c1859 (Berlin, 1869): Meeresleuchten (Siebel); Der Feind (E. Scherenberg); Im Sturme (Siebel); Heimlichkeit (Siebel); Reiterlied (von Redwitz)

solo songs without opus numbers

in GA except where otherwise indicated

8 Jugendlieder, c1810 (Vienna, 1891): An die Natur (W. Zinserling); Die treuen Schwalben (Zinserling); Das Blumenopfer (U. von Wildingen); Romanze (J. André); An die Nachtigall (F. Schmidt); Die Jagd (?Loewe); Heimweh (?Loewe); Sehnsucht (C. Reissig)

3 Anakreontische Lieder; ?1815: Eis auran (To the lyre); Eis eauton (To thyself); Eis eauton

Ständchen, c1815; Der Liebescheue, ?1816; Liebesnähe (E. Arndt), ?1816; Lebewohl (Byron, trans. Talvj), ?1818; Nachtlied, ?before 1820; Brautkranzlied (F. Goldtammer), ?1821

Des Bettlers Tochter von Bednall Green, ballad (Percy, trans. C. von Mecklenburg), 1834

8 freemasons’ songs, in Melodien des neuen Freimaurer-Gesangbuches (Berlin, 1835) [not in GA]: Auf dem ganzen Erdenrunde; Brüder, die zum Bundesfeste; Hört ihr nicht die Stimmen tönen; Wohl kennt ihr den Tempel; Schaut, Brüder, hin in jene Zeiten; Welche Klagetöne schallen; Harmonie der edlen frommen Seele; Hört ein Wort aus alter Zeit

Sängers Wanderlied (Körner), 1835 [not in GA]; Schifflein (Uhland), 1835; Canzonette (Goethe), 1835; Wechsel (Goethe), 1835; Freibeuter (Goethe), 1836; all in Der Munnesänger, ii–v (1835–8)

Frau Twardowska (Mizkiewitsch, trans. von Blankensee), Polish ballad, 1835 [originally intended for op.51]

Die engste Nähe, c1835; Gute Nacht, ?1836; Komm herbei, komm herbei, Tod! (Shakespeare, trans. Schlegel), ?1836; Schneiderlied (W Alexis), ?1836; Frage nicht, after 1836

Zwist und Sühne (C. Simrock), 1837 (Berlin, 1837); In die Ferne! (H. Kletke), 1837 (Elberfeld, 1840); Der fünfte Mai, ballad, 1837; Der Sorglose, with chorus, c1837; Findlay (R. Burns, trans. Freiligrath), 1838

Hinaus! Hinauf! Hinab! (I. Lasker), 1840 (Dresden, 1840)

Otto-Lied (J. Kugler), c1840; Stiftungslied, c1840 [not in GA]; both in Gesänge der Stettiner Liedertafel (Berlin, 1841)

Die Mutter an der Wiege (M. Claudius), c1840 (Brunswick, 1842); Der Junggesell, 1842, in Orpheus, iii (Vienna, 1842); Traumlicht (Rückert), 1842 (Leipzig, 1842); Das Vöglein, c1845 (Leipzig, n.d.); Letzter Seufzer (O. von Briesen), c1845; Annunciata (Blumenballade) (Vogl), 1846; Die Grabrose (Grün), ?1846; Wanderlied (A. Lua), 1847 (Berlin, 1848); Die schlanke Wasserlilie (Heine), 1847; Nachtständchen (Dr Mayer), 1847

Brautlied (Ich will die lauten Freuden nicht) (O. von Redwitz), c1850; Der Wurl, ballad with chorus (?Giesebrecht), c1850; Frühlingsweihe (O. Blankenfeldt), c1855; Jünglings Gebet (Rückert), 1859; Polterabendlied (Dr Bartholdy), 1859

Brautlied (Von der zarten Kinder Händen) (P. Brumm); Das ‘Dolce far niente’ (N. von Grassmann); Stille Liebe; all late 1850s

Bienenweben (Giesebrecht: Der Segen von Assisi), ?1862

Amanda; Der Zahn (Claudius); Die fünf Sinne (G. Lenz), unfinished

Gesang der Königin Maria Stuart auf den Tod Franz’ II. (Old Fr. text)

Maiblümlein; Musik (Helene, Princess of Orléans); O, meine Blumen, ihr meine Freude!

I. Religious institutions

instrumental

2 syms., d, e; 2 pf concs., E, A

4 str qts: op.24, F, G, B, 1821 (Leipzig, 1827); op.26 ‘Quatuor spirituel’, 1830 (Berlin, 1831)

1 pf trio, g, op.12, 1821 (Leipzig, 1827); Grosses Duo, pf 4 hands, op.18, 1829 (Berlin, 1830); Schottische Bilder, cl, pf, op.112 (Berlin, 1850); Grand duo, A, vn, pf [op.90]; Duo espagnole, va, pf

Pf solo: Abend-Fantasie, op.11, 1817 (Berlin, 1828); Grande sonate élegique, f, op.32, 1819–25, rev. 1834 (Berlin, 1834); Sonate brillante, E, op.41, 1819 (Bonn, 1834); Le printemps, tone poem in sonata form, op.47, 1824 (Berlin, 1835); Alpenfantasie, op.53, 1828 (Leipzig, 1835); Grosse Sonate, E, op.16, 1829 (Berlin, 1830); Mazeppa, tone poem (after Byron), op.27, 1830 (Berlin, 1830); Der barmherzige Bruder, tone poem, op.28, 1830 (Berlin, 1830); Zigeuner-Sonate, op.107b, 1842 (Dresden, 1847); [4] Biblische Bilder, op.96 (Berlin, 1844); 4 Phantasien (Auswanderer-Sonate), op.137, 1854 (Berlin, 1869); Bothwell-Marsch

Loewe, Carl

WRITINGS

Gesang-Lehre, theoretisch und practisch (Stettin, 1826, 5/1854) [songs in GA i, 56–85, 96–9 and xvi passim]

Klavier- und General-Bass-Schule (Stettin, 2/1851)

Musikalischer Gottesdienst: methodische Anweisung zum Kirchengesange und Orgelspiel (Stettin, 1851)

Loewe, Carl

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C.H. Bitter, ed.: Dr. Carl Loewe’s Selbstbiographie (Berlin, 1870/R) [with work-list compiled by Franz Espagne]

K. König: Karl Loewe: eine aesthetische Beurteilung (Leipzig, 1884)

A. Wellmer: Karl Loewe, ein deutscher Komponist (Leipzig, 1887)

M. Runze: Loewe redivivus (Berlin, 1888)

H. Bulthaupt: Carl Loewe, Deutschlands Balladenkomponist (Berlin,1898)

M. Runze: Karl Loewe (Leipzig, 1905)

H. Kleemann: Beiträge zur Ästhetik und Geschichte der Loeweschen Ballade (diss., U. of Halle, 1913)

K. Anton: ‘Karl Loewes Bedeutung für unsere Zeit und deren Ziele’,ZMw, i (1918–19), 483–501

L. Hirschberg: Carl Loewes Instrumentalwerke (Hildburghausen, 1919)

H. Engel: Carl Loewe: Überblick und Würdigung seines Schaffens (Greifswald, 1934)

W. Serauky: ‘Zu C. Loewe’s Biographie und musikalischem Schaffen’,Festschrift Arnold Schering, ed. H. Osthoff, W. Serauky and A. Adrio (Berlin, 1937/R), 213–28

R. Sietz: Carl Loewe: ein Gedenkbuch zum 150. Geburtstag (Cologne,1948)

B. Baselt: ‘Carl Loewe (30.11.1796–20.4.1869): zur Konzeption eines zeitgenössischen Loewe-Bildes’, Musik und Gesellschaft, xix (1969), 250–53

M.J.E. Brown: ‘Carl Loewe, 1796–1869’, MT, cx (1969), 357–61

J. Elson: ‘Carl Loewe and the Nineteenth Century German Ballad’,NATS Bulletin, xxviii/1 (1971–2), 16–21

D. Seaton: The Art Song: a Research and Information Guide (New York, 1987)

J. Smeed: German Song and its Poetry 1740–1900 (London, 1987)

Loewe, Frederick

(b Berlin, 10 June 1901; d Palm Springs, 14 Feb 1988). American composer of German birth. He was the son of an actress and the popular operetta singer, Edmund Loewe, who sang in numerous roles in Berlin and Vienna. Virtually all information about his European years, supplied by the composer, remains undocumented. According to his own account, Loewe was a precocious child prodigy: a composer at five, sexually active at nine, at 13 the youngest pianist to appear with the Berlin Philharmonic, and at 15 the composer of a hit song Katrina that sold two million copies of sheet music. His claim to have studied with Eugen d’Albert and Ferruccio Busoni before emigrating to the USA in 1924 remains unverified and questionable. Also by his own account, for the next decade Loewe worked in a series of unusual and sometime improbable occupations that included boxing, gold prospecting, delivering mail on horseback and cow punching. In 1935 one of his waltzes was sung by operetta star Dennis King in the play Petticoat Fever; the following year a waltz with lyrics by Earle Crooker was interpolated in the short-lived revue, The Illustrator’s Show (five performances). His next three musicals with Crooker also failed: Salute to Spring (1937) and Life of the Party (1942) closed in St Louis, and Great Lady closed on Broadway after twenty performances in 1938. In 1942 he met the much younger and untested Alan Jay Lerner (1918–86) who helped with the libretto of Life of the Party.

After two commerical failures, What’s Up? (1943) and The Day Before Spring (1945), their next musical, Brigadoon (1947), a romantic musical fantasy set mainly in Scotland, established Lerner and Loewe as the most successful new creators of so-called integrated musicals. After their less successful next collaboration, Paint Your Wagon (1951), set in California during the Gold Rush days of the 1850s, they wrote My Fair Lady (1956), an adaptation of George Bernard Shaw’s Pygmalion, the longest-running show of its era and one of the most highly regarded of all musicals. Two years later with Gigi, Lerner and Loewe contributed the screenplay, lyrics and music to an Academy Award-winning film adaptation of a Colette novella. Their final Broadway collaboration, Camelot (1960), adapted from T.H. White’s version of the King Arthur legend, The Once and Future King, survived a creative process plagued by the health problems of the director Moss Hart, personal tensions and poor initial reviews, and achieved a respectable Broadway run. Worries about his own health and continued difficulties with Lerner led to Loewe’s retirement after Camelot. More than a decade later the pair would reunite for an ill-fated stage adaptation of Gigi (1973) and a final film, The Little Prince (1974).

After Brigadoon, Lerner and Loewe musicals characteristically feature a central character played by a fundamentally non-singing male actor who delivers his songs with an idiosyncratic hybrid of talking and singing (Lee Marvin in the film of Paint Your Wagon; Rex Harrison on stage and film in My Fair Lady; Louis Jourdan in Gigi; Richard Burton (stage) and Richard Harris (film) in Camelot). There is also a popular lyrical romantic ballad (e.g. ‘On the Street Where You Live’ from My Fair Lady), sung by secondary characters. Loewe’s successful evocation of Scottish melodies in Brigadoon, Western folk songs in Paint Your Wagon (the only Lerner and Loewe musical with an American locale), and British music hall and French cabaret tunes in My Fair Lady and Gigi, respectively, camouflaged a distinctive personal style, which demonstrated a predilection, even in the Western Paint Your Wagon, for a European rather than an American vernacular musical language. The Loewe collection is held by the Music Division of the Library of Congress.

WORKS

Edition: The Lerner and Loewe Songbook, ed. A. Sirmay (New York, 1962)

stage

works are musicals, librettos and lyrics are by A.J. Lerner and dates are those of first New York performances, unless otherwise stated

Petticoat Fever (play, M. Reed), 4 March 1935 [1 song: Love tiptoed through my heart (I. Alexander)]

The Illustrator’s Show (revue), 22 Jan 1936 [1 song: A waltz was born in Vienna (E. Crooker)]

Salute to Spring (Crooker), St Louis, 12 July 1937

Great Lady (Crooker and L. Brentano, Crooker), Majestic, 1 Dec 1938

Life of the Party (Lerner, Crooker), Detroit, 8 Oct 1942

What’s Up? (Lerner and A. Pierson, Lerner), National, 11 Nov 1943

The Day Before Spring, orchd. H. Byrns, National, 22 Nov 1945

Brigadoon, orchd. T. Royal, Ziegfeld, 13 March 1947 [incl. The Heather on the Hill; Come to me, bend to me; Almost like Being in Love]; film, 1954

Paint Your Wagon, orchd. Royal, Schubert, 12 Nov 1951 [incl. I talk to the trees; They call the wind Maria; Wand’rin’ Star’]; film, 1969 [with five new songs (Lerner), music by A. Previn]

My Fair Lady (after G.B. Shaw: Pygmalion], orchd. R.R. Bennett, Mark Hellinger, 15 March 1956 [Wouldn’t it be loverly; With a Little Bit of Luck; Just you wait; The Rain in Spain; I could have danced all night; On the Street Where You Live; Get me to the church on time; Without You; I’ve grown accustomed to her face]; film, 1964

Camelot (after T.H. White: The Once and Future King), orchd. Bennett and P.J. Lang, Majestic, 3 Dec 1960 [Camelot; What do the simple folk do?; If ever I would leave you]; film, 1967

Gigi (after Colette), orchd. I. Kostal, Uris, 13 Nov 1973 [from film, 1958; incl. 5 new songs]

films

Gigi (Lerner, after Colette), 1958 [Thank heaven for little girls; The Night they Invented Champagne; I remember it well; I’m glad I’m not young anymore; Gigi]; rev. for stage, 13 Nov 1973

The Little Prince (Lerner, after A. de Saint-Exupéry: Le petit prince), 1974 [incl. Be Happy; I’m on your side]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A.J. Lerner: The Street Where I Live (New York, 1978)

S. Suskin: Show Tunes …: the Songs, Shows, and Careers of Broadway's Major Composers (New York, 1986, enlarged 3/2000), 221–6

G. Lees: Inventing Champagne: The Worlds of Lerner and Loewe (New York, 1990)

J.P. Swain: The Broadway Musical: A Critical and Musical Survey (New York, 1990)

G. Block: ‘My Fair Lady: from Pygmalion to Cinderella’, Enchanted Evenings: the Broadway Musical from ‘Show Boat’ to Sondheim (New York, 1997), 225–44, 340–41

GEOFFREY BLOCK

Loewe, Sophie (Johanna Christina)

(b Oldenburg, 24 May 1812; d Budapest, 29 Nov 1866). German soprano. She studied in Vienna and with Francesco Lamperti in Milan. In 1831 she was in Naples, where she sang Adelaide in Rossini’s Tancredi. The following year she sang Elisabetta in Donizetti’s Otto mesi in due ore at the Kärntnertortheater, Vienna. After an engagement at Berlin, where she sang Isabelle (Robert le diable) and Amina (La sonnambula), in 1841 she sang at Her Majesty’s Theatre, London, as Alaide (La straniera), Donna Elvira and Elena (Marino Faliero). The same year she created the title role of Donizetti’s Maria Padilla at La Scala. In 1844 she sang Elvira in the first performance of Ernani and in 1846 she created Odabella in Attila, both at La Fenice. She also sang Abigaille (Nabucco) and Giselda (I Lombardi) at Parma. In 1848 she retired. A forceful singer, she excelled in dramatic parts such as Norma and the soprano roles in Verdi’s early operas.

ELIZABETH FORBES

Loewenberg, Alfred

(b Berlin, 14 May 1902; d London, 29 Dec 1949). British lexicographer and historian of German birth. He studied at the universities of Berlin and Jena, taking the PhD at the latter in 1925. He at first intended to make his career as a lecturer in philosophy, but took a lively interest in the cultivation of opera, then at its height in Berlin. While attending every operatic performance he could, he began to accumulate voluminous data about operatic history: details of opera titles, composers, librettists, places and dates of production and subsequent performances all over the world. This mass of material was incomplete when the Nazi regime compelled Loewenberg to leave Germany in 1935. Having settled in London, he undertook further research in the British Museum and was able to add extensively to the material for his long-planned book, which appeared in 1943 as The Annals of Opera. The third edition, by Harold Rosenthal, included corrections and additions, but did not take the terminal date beyond 1940. Loewenberg's own plans to do so are realized in a further volume. The book remains an invaluable work of reference, a monument of accurate, painstaking research. His remarkable capacity for organizing a complex mass of titles, facts and other data led to his appointment, in 1947, as editor of the British Union-Catalogue of Periodicals. He wrote some important essays on operatic history and was also a keen student of the history of the English theatre.

WRITINGS

‘Paisiello's and Rossini's “Barbiere di Siviglia”’, ML, xx (1939), 157–67

‘Gluck's Orfeo on the Stage, with Some Notes on Other Orpheus Operas’, MQ, xl (1940), 311–39

‘Some Stray Notes on Mozart’, ML, xxiii (1942), 255–6, 319–21; xxiv (1943), 48–50, 164–8

The Annals of Opera, 1597–1940 (Cambridge, 1943, 3/1978)

‘Lorenzo da Ponte in London: a Bibliographical Account of his Literary Activity 1793–1804’, MR, iv (1943), 171–89

‘“Bastien and Bastienne” once more’, ML, xxv (1944), 176–81

‘Some Old Dumb-Show Music in Hamlet’, MR, vii (1946), 183–92

Early Dutch Librettos and Plays with Music in the British Museum (London, 1947)

The Theatre of the British Isles, excluding London: a Bibliography (London, 1950)

ERIC BLOM/ALEC HYATT KING

Loewenstein, Herbert.

See Avenary, Hanoch.

Löffeloth, Johann Matthäus.

See Leffloth, Johann Matthias.

Lofthouse, Charles Thornton

(b York, 12 Oct 1895; d London, 28 Feb 1974). English music educationist, conductor and harpsichordist. After singing as a chorister in St Paul's Cathedral (1904–10) he attended the RMCM, Manchester; after World War I he studied the organ with Walter Parratt and conducting with Boult at the RCM. Subsequently he studied the piano with Cortot in Paris and the harpsichord with Aimée van der Wiele and Gustav Leonhardt. He took the degrees of BMus (1930) and DMus (1935) at Trinity College, Dublin. From 1921 to 1939 Lofthouse was accompanist to the London Bach Choir; in this post he developed the art of continuo playing, for which he was the first person to use a harpsichord in the Royal Albert Hall. He was a professor at the RCM (1922–71), and director of music at Westminster School (1924–39) and Reading University (1939–50). He became an examiner for the Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music in 1923, and acted as external examiner in music for several university institutes of education. Lofthouse created and conducted the University of London Music Society (1934–59), with which he encouraged performances of Bach and Vaughan Williams in particular. He appeared as a continuo, chamber or solo harpsichordist throughout Europe and in the USA, and published Commentaries and Notes on Bach’s Two- and Three-Part Inventions (London, 1956).

LIONEL SALTER

Logan, Wendell (Morris)

(b Thomson, GA, 24 Nov 1940). American composer. He studied at Florida Agricultural & Mechanical University, (BS 1962), with Will Bottje at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale (MMus 1964) and with Hervig at the University of Iowa (PhD 1968). In his youth he was influenced by the music of James Brown, Fats Domino and other popular music entertainers; while in college, he played the trumpet and arranged music for jazz ensembles and marching and concert bands. He taught at Florida Agricultural & Mechanical University (1962–3, 1969–70), Ball State University (1967–9) and Western Illinois University (1970–73) before joining the faculty of the Oberlin College Conservatory. He has been the recipient of awards from the NEA, the Martha Baird Rockefeller Fund, the Cleveland Arts Prize in Music (1991) and a Guggenheim fellowship (1991). In 1995 Logan was resident composer at the Rockefeller Study Center in Bellagio, Italy. His compositions vary in style from those based on jazz idioms to electronic music. He is the author of various articles on jazz and the Primer for Keyboard Improvisation in the Jazz/Rock Idiom (1980).

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Concert Music, 1963; Polyphony I, 1968; Orbits, sym. band, 1982; The Drum Major: in memoriam Dr M.L. King, 1983; Ibo Landing, 1994–5; c80 orig. pieces and arrs. for various jazz ens

Vocal: What time is it?, S, pf, 1967; Songs of our Time, SATB, chbr ens, 1969; 3 Fragments (K. Patchen), S, cl, pf, perc, 1974; Ice and Fire (M. Evans), song cycle, S, Bar, pf, 1975; Malcolm, Malcolm, SATB, tape, 1976; Hughes Set (L. Hughes), TTB, perc, 1978; Dream Boogie, 1v, pf, 1979; Sling Along (J.W. Johnson), Bar, 1982; Runagate, Runagate, T, fl, cl, pf, vn, vc, 1990; Runagate, Runagate, T, orch, 1993–4; My Lord What a Morning, SATB, 1988; Variations on Doo-Wah, TTBB, 1988

Chbr and solo inst: Ww Qnt, 1964; Stanza for 3 Players, fl, vc, pf, 1967; Evocation, harmonica, tape, 1973; Music for Brass, brass qnt, 1976; Song of the Witchdoktor, fl, vc, pf, perc, 1976; 3 Pieces, vn, pf, 1977; Duo Exchanges, cl, perc, 1978; To Mingus, vib, 1979; Praeludium, wind ens, 1983; 4 Miniatures, sax, 1985; Children's Pieces, 1989; Roots, Branches, Shapes and Shades (of Green), pf, chbr orch, 1991; Moments, a fl + pic, cl + b cl, pf, perc, vn, vc, 1992

Multimedia: From Hell to Breakfast, jazz qnt, spkrs, lights, tape, 1973; Noah (A Jazz Cant.), nar, chorus, dancers, jazz qnt, tape, 1983; Return of the Collard People, dancers, tape, 1988

Principal publishers: MuZiMu Music, Oberlin

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SouthernB

A. Tischler: Fifteen Black American Composers: a Bibliography of their Works (Detroit, 1981)

DORIS EVANS McGINTY

Logar, Mihovil

(b Rijeka, 6 Oct 1902). Serbian composer. He studied composition at the Prague Conservatory with Jirák and in Suk’s masterclasses, from which he graduated in 1927. In that year he settled in Belgrade, teaching at the Mokranjac School of Music until 1944, when he was appointed professor of composition and instrumentation at the Academy of Music. He retired in 1972. A prolific and technically accomplished composer, he has tackled a variety of styles and genres belonging to the late Romantic era. His early works were atonal and expressionist, but later he came to adopt a style more conventional in harmony and more direct in feeling. The first of his stage works, the Četiri scene iz Šekspira (‘Four Scenes from Shakespeare’), took fragments from King Lear, The Merchant of Venice, Antony and Cleopatra and A Midsummer Night’s Dream, set in contrasted movements on the model of a symphony. His densely orchestrated opera Pokondirena tikva (‘The Stuck-up Woman’) achieves the spirit of buffo and high drama through parlando dialogues and grotesque arioso passages. In the opera Četrdesetprva (‘1941’) he predominantly uses recitative, rich orchestration and bold dissonance to build psychological profiles of main characters. His instrumental pieces are notable for their serene optimism, burlesque moods, restless melody, quick and lively rhythms and striking, colourful orchestration.

WORKS

(selective list)

stage

Četiri scene iz Šekspira [4 Scenes from Shakespeare] (stage sym., after W. Shakespeare), 1930

Sablazan u dolini šentflorijanskoj [Temptation in the Valley of St Florian] (comic op, 3), 1937; Sarajevo, 1968

Zlatna ribica [The Goldfish] (ballet), 1950

Pokondirena tikva [The Stuck-up Woman] (op, 3, after J.S. Popović), 1954; Belgrade, National, 20 Oct 1956

Četrdesetprva [1941] (music drama, 3), 1959; Sarajevo, 10 Feb 1961

Paštrovski vitez [The Knight of Paštrovići] (TV op, after S.M. Llubiša), 1978

other

Cants.: Plava grobnica [The Blue Tomb], 1934; Na vrelu [At the Fountain], 1937; Žeteoci [The Reapers], 1946; Vatra [Fire], 1959

Orch: Vesna, sym. poem, 1931; Rondo-ov., 1936; Rondo rustico, 1945; Vn Conc., 1954; Cl Conc., 1956; Kosmonauti, concert ov., 1962; Conc., cl, hn, orch, 1967

Chbr music incl. str qts, pf works

Principal publishers: Prosveta, Udruženje Kompozitora Srbije

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Kozina: ‘“Pokondirena tikva” Mihovila Logara’, Zvuk, nos.9–10 (1957), 381–3

Z. Kučukalić: ‘Četrdesetprva’ [‘1941’], Zvuk, nos.49–50 (1961), 471–9

S. Habić: ‘Zvučna sagrešenja Mihovila Logara’ [Sonorous ‘errors’ of Mihovil Logar], Zvuk, no.56 (1963), 29–32

R. Pejović: ‘“Četrdesetprva” Mihovila Logara’, Pro musica, no.19 (1966), 10–11

V. Peričić: Muzički stvaraoci u Srbiji [Musical creators in Serbia] (Belgrade, 1969)

S. Đurić-Klajn: Serbian Music through the Ages (Belgrade, 1972)

R. Pejović: ‘Dva orkestarska dela Mihovila Logara’ [2 orchestral works by Logar], Zvuk (1973–4), 394–404

STANA DURIC-KLAJN/ROKSANDA PEJOVIĆ

Logier, Johann Bernhard

(b Kassel, 9 Feb 1777; d Dublin,27 July 1846). German pianist, teacher, author and composer. After early musical training from his father, he moved to England in 1791. In 1794 he joined the band of the Marquis of Abercorn’s regiment and was later promoted from flautist to director of music. Having moved to Ireland, the band was discharged and he became organist at Westport, then director of the band of the Kilkenny Militia in 1807. He settled in Dublin in 1809 and was musical director of the Royal Hibernian Theatre for a year. In 1810 he left these posts and opened a music shop which flourished until 1817 at 27 Lower Sackville Street. He also taught the piano, and became interested in developing quicker and more thorough training methods. In 1814 he patented the chiroplast or ‘hand-director’ mechanism, a laterally sliding frame for the hands fitted above the keyboard designed to control the position of the wrists and relation of the hand to the arm (see illustration). In addition, a board ruled with bass and treble staves could be placed on the music desk, so that each note was written above the corresponding key to aid the teaching of note-names. The inability of the system to accommodate the turning under of the thumb was later rectified by a modification introduced by Kalkbrenner, and further modification was made by Hawker. Having first designed it to aid the instruction of his daughter, Logier devoted himself to its promotion, especially for the simultaneous group use of pupils at different standards. He produced a series of explanatory publications and studies for its use, employed adroit publicity, and exploited his patent to draw high fees from the many teachers who used it in Britain and also in the USA. Academies were established in the provinces, and Samuel Webbe taught the system in London at an Institute set up with Logier and others. Webbe’s pupils exhibited the method in London in 1817, providing the subject for Logier’s An Authentic Account of the Examination of Pupils (1818). Kalkbrenner’s improved version of the chiroplast was sold in England as late as 1877. Such marketing naturally brought criticism, and a series of increasingly combative publications from Logier and his opponents appeared, with rebuttals from influential professors whom he had asked to endorse the method. But, as well as Kalkbrenner, Spohr supported the invention on the grounds that it provided a disciplined method for the training of a large number of pupils.

Though it attracted vast attention (Fétis ascribes it an entry as long as for a major composer) the mechanism was only part of a larger educational goal, through which he emphasized thorough teaching of harmony and musical form, including thoroughbass, hoping his ideas would provide the means for musical cultivation on the largest scale. To an extent, they did. Promotion in France failed (1819) but in 1821 the Prussian government, at Zelter’s suggestion, invited Logier to Berlin. From 1822 to 1826 he taught the method there, whence it spread through Germany and neighbouring countries. From London Logier returned to Dublin in 1829 and continued to teach, write and manage a new music shop at 46 Upper Sackville Street. Logier’s Thorough-Bass of 1818 does not build on traditional figured bass practice, but is a theory of harmony based on the harmonic series. Logier’s presentation of the concept of chordal inversion and of the ‘fundamental bass’ influenced A.B. Marx, who translated the book (and wrote his first articles upon Logier’s system); Logier’s Thorough-Bass is recorded as the first textbook used by Wagner, in 1828. Logier later produced the System der Musik-Wissenschaft und der praktischen Komposition (1827), a textbook dealing with both harmony and form; it marks the earliest known use of the now standard German word for ‘musicology’: it is clear that Logier’s sense of the term embraced the notion of ‘music theory’ more closely than that of ‘music history’. Logier’s many compositions are mainly in salon style; as well as many arrangements, his works with piano include a Grand Concerto op.13, chamber music and songs; his military works were not published and appear to be lost.

WRITINGS AND PEDAGOGICAL WORKS

A Complete Introduction to the Art of Playing the Keyed Bugle (Dublin, 1813, 2/c1820–23)

An Explanation and Description of the Royal Patent Chiroplast, or Hand-Director (London, ?1814, 2/1816)

The First Companion to the Royal Patent Chiroplast, or Hand-Director (London, c1815)

A Second Companion to the Chiroplast Companion (London, 4/c1830)

Logier’s Theoretical and Practical Studies for the Pianoforte (London, 1816)

An Authentic Account of the Examination of Pupils (London, 1818)

Logier’s Thorough-Bass (London, 1818)

A Refutation of the Fallacies and Misrepresentations Contained in a Pamphlet, entitled ‘An Exposition of the New System of Musical Education’ Published by a Committee of Professors in London (London, 1818)

System der Musikwissenschaft und der praktischen Composition mit Inbegriff dessen was gewöhnlich unter dem Ausdrucke General-Bass verstand wird (Berlin, 1827; Eng. trans., 1827/R)

Nachträgliche Sammlung von Aufgaben und Beispielen zu J.B. Logier’s System der Musikwissenschaft und der praktischen Composition (Berlin, 1827)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

Grove1(‘Chiroplast’; F. Taylor)

MGG1(G. Pügner) [incl. lists of works and writings]

H. de Monti: Strictures on Mr. Logier’s System of Musical Education (Glasgow, 1817)

‘Mr Logier’s System of Musical Instruction’, Quarterly Musical Magazine and Review, i (1818), 111–39

H.M.B.: The Logierian System of Teaching Music carefully Surveyed, Analysed, and Exploded, by a Master, Member of the Royal Society of Musicians (London, 1818)

[G. Smart and others:] An Exposition of the Musical System of Mr Logier with Strictures on his Chiroplast (London, 1818)

C. Cummins: Logierian Sensibility, or Marsayas in the Chiroplast (Bath, 1819)

A.F.C. Kollmann: Remarks on what Mr J.B. Logier calls his New System of Musical Education (London,2/1824)

M. Becker: ‘Das System Logier’, Musica, xi (1957), 616–20

G. Pügner: Johann Bernhard Logier, ein Musikerzieher des 19. Jahrhunderts (diss., U. of Leipzig, 1959)

B. Rainbow: ‘Johann Bernhard Logier and the Chiroplast Controversy’, MT, cxxxi (1990), 193–6

DAVID CHARLTON/MICHAEL MUSGRAVE

Logische Form

(Ger.).

A form that relies on continuity and growth. See Analysis, §I, 3.

Logothetis, Anestis

(b Pyrgos, eastern Romylia, 27 Oct 1921; d Vienna, 6 Jan 1994). Austrian composer of Greek origin. In 1942 he settled in Vienna, where he studied mechanical engineering at the Technische Hochschule (1942–4) and composition at the Music Academy (1945–51). Later he attended courses in Rome, Darmstadt and elsewhere, and in 1957 he worked in the Cologne electronic studios. He received the Theodor Körner Förderungspreis in 1960. Before 1959 he composed a number of 12-note and serial works in traditional notation. Then, aiming at greater fluidity of form, he gradually turned to graphic methods, developing what he termed ‘integrating’ notation. The resulting scores, generally offering a degree of freedom in instrumentation as well as all other dimensions, are often captivating works of visual art. (LZMÖ)

WORKS

(selective list)

works in traditional notation

Orch: Doppelfuge, str, 1950; Polynom, 5 groups, 1958; 10 kleine Negerlein, chbr orch

Vocal: Libera, male chorus, 1951; Humoreske (S. Dimitriu), B, pf, 1952; Wir, längst schon (Dimitriu), chorus, 1952; Integration (Dimitriu), spkr, vn, timp, 1954; 3 Lieder (F. Mayröcker), female v, fl, gui, 1954; Uns droht kein Morgen (Dimitriu), chorus, ob, b drum, 1954; Lieder nach Texten von Friedrich Nietzsche, S, vc/db, pf, 1956, rev. as 6 Orchesterlieder, S, B, orch, 1958; Potiphar Lied (K. Klinger), S/T, hp, 1959

Chbr: 5 Fugetten, ob, cl, bn, 1950; Integrationen 51, vn, 1951; Suite, vc/db, 1951; Triptych, str trio, 1952; 12 Inventionen, str trio, 1952; Integration, pf trio, 1953; Pentaptych, cl, pf, 1953; Choralvorspiel und Präludium con Fuga, org, 1954; 2 Integrationen, vn, pf, 1954; Peritonon, fl, pf, 1954; Peritonon, hn, pf, 1954; Integration, fl, va, hpd/pf, 1955; Integration, 2 vn, vc, gui, 1955; Peritonon, vc, 1955; Integration, vn, vc, gui, 1956; Integration, vn, cl, pf, 1956; Texturen, fl, cl, hn, gui, perc, pf, vn, vc, 1956–7; Permutationen, cl, perc, 1957; Peritonon, vn, pf, 1958

Pf: Griechische Suite, 1943–8; Toccata, 1947; Humoreske, 1948; Sonata, 1948; Variations, 1949; 3 Fugen, 1950; 12 Inventionen, 1950–51; 12 Humoresken, 1951; 7 Miniaturen, 1952; Triptych, 1953; Enneaptych (9 Intervalstudien), 1954; Texturen, 1957; Integration, 1959

works in graphic notation

Dramatic: Fantasmata und Meditation, ballet, 1959–60; Himmelsmechanik, ballet, 1960; 5 Porträte der Liebe, ballet, 1960; Party, music-theatre, 1961; Odyssee, ballet, 1963; Karmadharmadrama, music-theatre, 1961–8; Das Urteil des Paris in Paris, actor, pf, 1968; Anastasis, work for stage/radio, 1969; Mantratellurium, work for radio, 1970; Kybernetikon, work for radio, 1971; Entomology-Party, work for radio 1972; Kerbtierparty, work for radio, 1972–3; Sommervögel (Schmetterlinge), work for radio, 1973; Menetekel, work for radio, 1974–5; Im Gespinst -geh! spinnst?!, music-theatre, 1976; Daidalia (Das Leben einer Theorie), music-theatre, 1976–8; Vor! Stell! Unk!, work for radio, 1980; Beinem’ Binom, work for radio, 1980; Woraus ist der Stein von Sisyphos (multi-media op, H. Reiter), 1982–4, concert perf., Vienna, Odeon, 16 Oct 1992

Other works (instrumentation free except where stated): Kompression, 1959; Texturen, 2 inst groups, 1959; Textur–Struktur–Spiegel–Spiel, 1959; Agglomeration, vn, str orch ad lib, 1960; Katalysator, 1960; Koordination, 5 orch groups, 1960; Klangassoziationsblätter: nos.1–2, 1960, no.3 ‘Meditation 61’, 1961, no.4 ‘Explosion’, 1961, nos.5–8, 1961; Impulse, 1961; Interpolation, 1961; Kulmination I–II, 1961; Meditation, 1961; 7 Kooptationen, 1961; Tonbündel, 1961; Tonclusters, 1961; Klangassoziationsblätter nos.9–12, 1962; Kleine Parallaxe, 1962; Vibration, 1962; Dynapolis, 1963; Mäandros, 1963; Cunei formi, 1964; Dispersion, 1964; Ichnologia, 1964; Kentra, 1964; Osculationen, 1964; Seismographie I–II, 1964

Desmotropie, cl, pf, 1965; Diffusion, 1965; Enoseis, 1965; Entropie, 1965; Labyrinthos, 1965; Linienmodulationen, 1965; Orbitals, 1965; Reversible Bi-junktion, 1965; Spiralenquintett, 1965; Diptychon, pf acc. ad lib, 1966; Enklaven, 1966; Integration, 1966; Klangassoziationsblätter no.13, 1966; Optionen, 1966; Desmotropie, orch, 1967; Emanationen, 1967; Kollisionen, 1967; OASI, 1967; Polychronon, 1967; Rondeau dynamique, 1967; Rondo, 1967; Starte, 1967; Syrrhoi, 1967; Evektionen, 1968; Konvektionsströme, 1968; Styx, 1968; Sublimationen, 1968; Zonen, gui, 1969; Kollisionen 70, 1970; Komplementäres, 1970; Styxische Flüsse, chorus, insts, 1970

Fusion, 1971; Klang-Raum I–III, 1972; Musikfontäne für Robert Moran, 1972; Emanation (Ein Ohr kam per Brief) (texts from newspapers), nar, cl, elecs, 1973; Apollonion pour Konstantinos Doxiadis, 2 inst groups, 2 conds., 1975; Volant, 1975; Wellen, 1975; Ya tin ora [For the Time Being], orch, 1975; Geomusik 76, cl, orch, 1976; Klangfelder und Arabeske, pf/(pf, orch), 1976; Globus, fl/any inst, orch, 1978; Hohelied, 1v, org, 1978; Rondo, orch, 1979; Chor II, mixed chorus, 1979; Wellenformen 1981, composition for cptr, 1981; Brunnen-burg-Hochzeit-Symphoniette, chbr ens, 1981; Meridiane I und Breitengrade, solo insts, orch, 1981; Paysage de temps, 1984–6; Zentrifugales in Zeitlupe, 1984–5; Doppelspirale, ens, 1985; Kyklika oder Sinfonie zyklischer Kontrapunkte, 1986–7; Bagatelle, cl, tuba, 1990; Kassandra Duo (Kassandraauge), hp, b cl, 1992

tape

Fantasmata und Meditation, 1959–60, also ballet version; Tang aus Klavier und Harfe, 1963; Ohne Titel, 1965; 6 Synthemata, 1968; Kyklopia, 1969; Schottisches Märchen, film score, 1970

Principal publishers: Breitkopf & Härtel, Deutsche Verlags Anstalten, Gerig, Logothetis, Modern, Ricordi, Universal

WRITINGS

‘Apaetissis tis moussikis graphis’ [Demands of musical notation], Epoches (1966), 253–4

Graphische Notationen (Karlsruhe, 1967)

‘Notation mit graphischen Elementen’, Aufforderungen zum Misstrauen, ed. O. Breicha and G. Fritsch (Salzburg, 1967), 486–8

‘Gezeichnete Klänge’, Neues Forum, no.183 (1969), 177–9

‘Kurze musikalische Spurenkunde’, Wort und Wahrheit, xxiv/2 (1969), 131–6

‘Eine Darstellung des Klanges’, Melos, xxxvii (1970), 39–43

‘“Karmadharmadrama” in graphischer Notation’, ÖMz, xxvii (1972), 541–6

Zeichen als Aggregatzustand der Musik (Vienna, 1974)

‘Komponieren für die Jugend?’, ÖMz, xxx (1975), 20–41

‘Von der Bedeutung der Dinge’, ÖMz, xxxv (1980), 292–5

‘Notizen su meiner Oper Daidalia’, Die Brücke, vii/2 (1981), 74–7

‘Zu Scherzophren’, Ars electronica: Linz 1988

GEORGE LEOTSAKOS/KOSTAS MOSCHOS

Logroscino, Nicola Bonifacio

(b Bitonto, bap. 22 Oct 1698; d ?Palermo, 1764/5). Italian composer. In June 1714 he and his younger brother Pietro entered the Conservatorio di S Maria di Loreto, Naples. On 1 October 1727 the conservatory expelled them both ‘for bad traits of character’. Pietro was later readmitted (on the condition that he no longer consort with his brother), but Nicola was not. In May 1728 he became organist to the Bishop of Conza (Avellino) and stayed in this post until June 1731 when he returned to Naples, marrying a local girl there in November of the same year.

Logroscino's first known composition, the oratorio Il mondo trionfante nella concezione di Maria sempre Virgine, was performed near Brno in 1730 at the court of Cardinal von Schrattenbach. In 1735 his first known comic opera, Lo creduto infedele, was presented at the Teatro della Pace, Naples. In a statement written in October 1738 by one of the ministers of the King of Naples, recommending Logroscino for an opera commission for the Teatro S Carlo, the minister added that the composer had already ‘set many comedies to music in the small theatres of the capital’. Two other comic operas reputedly by Logroscino may belong to this period: Tanto ben che male and Il vecchio marito. His first known full-length opera, Il Quinto Fabio, was written for the Teatro delle Dame, Rome. Thereafter he wrote numerous comic operas, sometimes in collaboration with other composers, most of which were for the ‘small’ Neapolitan theatres such as the Fiorentini and Nuovo. It is on these comic operas that his reputation is chiefly built.

Giuseppe Bertini, in his Dizionario Storico-Critico (1814–15), mistakenly implied that Logroscino was maestro di contrappunto at the Conservatorio de' Figliuoli Dispersi in Palermo from 1747, an error echoed in many subsequent biographies. Prince Corsini only approved the new constitution for the conservatory in that year and after the directors failed to secure Perez, Gregorio Sciroli was hired as maestro di cappella. Indeed, Prota-Giurleo cited documents confirming Logroscino's presence in Naples in 1753, and the popularity of his music in Naples throughout the 1740s and early 50s supports his continued presence there. Documentary evidence of Logroscino's move to Palermo comes from his nomination to replace Sciroli in September 1758. By January 1760 a serenata he wrote was performed in the gallery of the royal palace and about that time he completed a new third act for Galuppi's La nozze (staged in the S Cecilia theatre). In that year he also dated the autograph manuscript of his Stabat mater. He was apparently joined in Palermo by his brother, Pietro, in 1762. The administrative journals of the conservatory list pay records for Logroscino as late as 30 November 1764, but a gap in these records then stretches until September 1767. Nevertheless, the libretto for the serenata Il tempio dell'onore, dated 12 January 1765, refers to the composer as already dead.

Though Logroscino has always been considered an important composer of opera, especially comic opera, too many facts about his life and music are missing for a proper assessment to be made. It seems that his popularity as a composer of comic opera rose sharply in the years after 1738 and that he had no serious rival among composers of this genre in Naples between 1744, when Leonardo Leo died, and 1754, when Nicola Piccinni composed and presented his first comic opera to the Neapolitan public. By 1757–8 Piccinni had superseded Logroscino as the favourite composer among Neapolitan comic opera audiences. Logroscino’s posthumous fame owed much to the statement of La Borde that ‘he was the god of the comic genre, and has served as model for almost all composers of this type of work’. Later writers exaggerated his position in other ways. Gerber declared that he was the ‘creator’ of comic opera, while others, notably Framery (1791–1818), said that he instigated the practice of ending the acts of comic opera with an important vocal ensemble that gradually increased from one voice to two, three, four and up to nine singers, giving the ensemble finale. Although by 1900 it was clear to historians that he was not its inventor, Kretzschmar, in 1908, still gave him credit for inventing a new type of ensemble finale whose musical structure was determined solely by the action and the text. Even this view has since been exploded.

Modern opinion of Logroscino’s comic operas must remain flexible until more of the music is discovered. At present this music is limited to one complete work, Il governatore, and the Act 1 finale to Il Leandro. There is no evidence here that Logroscino’s finales were more advanced structurally than those of his predecessor Leo, who also composed finales with a freely evolving form to suit the words. Il governatore is weak melodically, but the dramatic characterization and instrumentation are strong. Other surviving music includes two heroic operas, Giunio Bruto and L'olimpiade, a few arias and ensembles in manuscript, and a small amount of liturgical music including two Stabat mater settings modelled on Pergolesi’s.

WORKS

stage

3-act comic operas, performed in Naples, unless otherwise stated

Lo creduto infedele (A. Palomba), Della Pace, wint. 1735

Il Quinto Fabio (dramma per musica, 3, A. Salvi), Rome, Delle Dame, carn. 1738

Inganno per inganno (G.A. Federico), Fiorentini, aut. 1738

L’inganno felice (T. Mariani), Nuovo, wint. 1739

La violante (Palomba), Nuovo, carn. 1741; rev. of Auletta’s L’amor costante

Amore ed amistade, Fiorentini, spr. 1742

La Lionora (Federico), Fiorentini, wint. 1742, collab. V. Ciampi

Il Riccardo, Fiorentini, carn. 1743

Festa teatrale per la nascita del R. Infante, pt.1, Naples, July 1743, pt.2 by G. Manna, unperf.

Il Leandro (A. Villani), Nuovo, spr. 1744, frag. GB-Cfm, modern copy US-Wc

Ciommetella correvata (P. Trinchera), Della Pace, aut. 1744; as Lo cicisbeo, Nuovo, aut. 1751

Li zite (Trinchera), Della Pace, spr. 1745

Don Paduano (Trinchera), Della Pace, wint. 1745

Il governatore (D. Canicà), Nuovo, carn. 1747, D-MÜs, modern copy US-Wc

La costanza (Palomba), Nuovo, aut. 1747

Giunio Bruto (dramma per musica, 3, M. Passeri), Rome, Argentina, Jan 1748, MÜs, 1 aria, F

La contessa di Belcolore (comic int, 2, N. Carulli), Florence, Intrepidi, carn. 1748

Li despiette d’ammore (Palomba), acts l, 2, Della Pace, carn. 1748, act 3 by N. Calandra

La finta frascatana (Federico), Nuovo, carn. 1751, rev. of Leo’s Amor vuol sofferenza with addns by Logroscino and A. Ferradini

Amore figlio del piacere (Palomba), Nuovo, aut. 1751, collab. G. Ventura

Lo finto Perziano (Trinchera), Nuovo, carn. 1752, 3 arias re-used in G. Sciroli: Li nnamorate correvate, aut.–wint. 1752

La Griselda (Palomba), Fiorentini, aut. 1752

La pastorella scaltra (comic int, 2), Rome, Valle, carn. 1753

Elmira generosa (Trinchera), Nuovo, carn. 1753, collab. E. Barbella

L'olimpiade (dramma per musica, 3, P. Metastasio), Rome, Argentina, carn. 1753, US-R, 1 aria AUS

Le chiajese cantarine (Trinchera), Nuovo, carn. 1754, collab. D. Fischietti and G. Maraucci, rev. of Fischietti: L'abate Collarone, 1749

La Rosmonda (Palomba), Nuovo, carn. 1755, collab. C. Cerere, P. Gomes and T. Traetta

Le finte magie, Fiorentini, carn. 1756

I disturbi, Nuovo, sum. 1756, collab. T. Traetta

La finta ’mbreana (G. Bisceglia), Nuovo, wint. 1756, collab. P. Errichelli

Il natale di Achille (azione drammatica, 1, G. Baldanza), Palermo, 20 Jan 1760

La fante di buon gusto (Palomba), ?1758 rev. as La furba burlata (P. de' Napoli [P. Napoli Signorelli] after Palomba), Fiorentini, aut. 1760, addns by N. Piccinni and ?G. Insanguine [see Tintori]

Perseo (azione drammatica, Baldanza), Palermo, 1762

L’innamorato balordo (de' Napoli), Nuovo, carn. 1763, collab. Insanguine and G. Geremia

La viaggiatrice di bell’umore (de' Napoli), Nuovo, wint. 1763, collab. Insanguine

Il tempo dell’onore (componimento drammatico, Baldanza), Palermo, 20 Jan 1765, collab. A. Speraindeo

La gelosia (dg, unknown Bolognese writer), Venice, S Samuele, aut. 1765

Tanto ban che male, ?Naples

Il vecchio marito, ?Naples

?Adriano (Metastasio), ?1742

other works

Il mondo trionfante nella concezione di Maria sempre Virgine (azione sacra, F. Itto), Brno, 1730

Oratorio in praise of S Anna, Naples, 1746, collab. Gizziello and Babbi [according to LaMusicaD]

Stabat mater, E, S, A, 2 vn, bc, Palermo, 1760, I-Nc*

Ester (orat), Catania, 1761

La spedizione di Giosue contro gli Amalechiti (orat), Palermo, Collegio dei Gesuiti, 1763

Gesù presentato nel tempio (azione sacra)

La tolleranza premiata (azione sacra, D.A. Galante)

Stabat mater, g, S, A, 2 vn, va, bc, Nc

Parafrasi dello Stabat mater, E, S, A, T, 2 vn, bc, Nc

Psalms, SATB, 2 vn, bc, PLcon

Str qt, D, Fl conc., Sym., D: S-L

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ES (U. Prota-Giurleo)

FlorimoN

GerberL

Grove5 (F. Walker, E.J. Dent and A. Loewenberg)

La BordeE

LaMusicaD

MGG1 (A. Mondolfi)

P. Napoli-Signorelli: Vicende della coltura nelle due Sicilie, v (Naples, 1786, 2/1810–11)

H. Kretzschmar: ‘Zwei Opern Nicolo Logroscinos’, JbMP 1908, 47–68

E.J. Dent: ‘Ensembles and Finales in 18th-Century Italian Opera, II’, SIMG, xii (1910–11), 112–42

U. Prota-Giurleo: Nicola Logroscino, ‘il dio dell'opera buffa’ (la vita e le opere) (Naples, 1927)

M. Bellucci La Salandra: Triade musicale Bitontina, Brevi cenni biografici di Bonifacio Nicola Logroscino, 1698–1760, Tommaso Traetta (1727–1779), Antonio Planelli (1747–1803) (Bitonto, 1936)

G. Tintori: L’opera napoletana (Milan, 1958)

R. Pagano: ‘L'inserimento di Nicolò Logroscino nella realtà musicale palermitana’, Musicisti nati in Puglia ed emigrazione musicale tra Seicento e Settecento (Rome, 1988), 49–55

MICHAEL F. ROBINSON/DALE E. MONSON

Lohelius, Joannes.

See Oehlschlägel, Franz Joseph.

Lohet [Loxhay], Simon

(b before c1550; bur. Stuttgart, 5 July 1611). Flemish composer and organist, active in Germany. He was the son of one Jean of Liège; the Walloon version of his surname, Loxhay, is common in the Liège area. On 14 September 1571 he was appointed organist of the Württemberg court at Stuttgart. When his older colleagues Utz Steigleder and H.F. Fries retired, he assumed sole responsibility for the chapel services. In 1594 Jérémias de la Grange, and later his own son Ludwig, joined him as assistants. He is known to have travelled three times to the Low Countries (in 1572, 1573 and 1576) and once to Venice to purchase instruments and music (in 1581). He retired on 19 December 1601, and remained in Stuttgart until his death. He trained many musicians, including his son Ludwig, W. Ganss the younger, G. Stammler and Adam Steigleder.

His 20 fugues are short pieces for four voices, often based on a single subject treated imitatively, the whole work usually consisting of a single section; a few, however, divide into two sections. He also composed two chorales, equally polished and in a typical south German style, and a canzona. These pieces, together with transcriptions of a motet and a chanson, are in RISM 1617²⁴ (ed. in CEKM, xxv, 1976); six of the fugues are also extant in D-Mbs Mus.ms.1581.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

VannesD

A.G. Ritter: Zur Geschichte des Orgelspiels, vornehmlich des deutschen, im 14. bis zum Anfange des 18. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1884/R)

K.-J. Sachs: ‘Das Fugenkorpus des Simon Lohet in Johannes Woltz' Tablaturbuch von 1617’, Von Isaac bis Bach: Festschrift Martin Just, ed. F. Heidelberger, W. Osthoff and R. Wiesend (Kassel, 1991), 155–68

JOSÉ QUITIN/HENRI VANHULST

Löhlein [Lelei], Georg Simon

(b Neustadt an der Heide, nr Coburg, bap. 16 July 1725; d Danzig [now Gdańsk], 16 Dec 1781). German teacher and composer. He was probably first taught music by his father Johann Michael Löhlein, organist and teacher in Neustadt. At the age of 16 he was conscripted into the Prussian army, where he was made to serve for 16 years. He then studied at the University of Jena (1760), where he was appointed director of the Academy Concerts and principal of the collegium musicum in 1761. In 1763 he continued his study of philosophy, ethics and poetry in Leipzig, and practised music under the direction of J.A. Hiller, who presumably made him musical director of the Grosses Konzert; he lived mainly, though, from the proceeds of private tuition. His Clavier-Schule (1765) and stage music brought him high regard in Leipzig, and in 1781, just before his death, he was appointed Kapellmeister of the Marienkirche in Danzig.

Under Hiller’s influence and support Löhlein directed his career primarily towards teaching, which prompted his several successful theoretical works and many of his compositions. His widely imitated Clavier-Schule, which appeared in various new editions for almost a century, reworked the material of C.P.E. Bach’s Versuch into a graded order of difficulty for the benefit of the musical layman; its second volume, a dissertation on continuo playing, is to a great extent based on Sorge’s Compendium harmonicum (1760). A violin method (1771), which was perhaps too dependent on Leopold Mozart’s, met with less success despite a sympathetic revision by Reichardt. Löhlein’s compositions are of secondary importance to his writings; much of his chamber and piano music was published by Breitkopf, and some occasionally shows originality in the handling of form. He also performed (in Hiller’s Grosses Konzert) on the piano and violin.

WORKS

complete list with thematic index in Glasenapp

Inst: 9 kbd concs. [1 ed. in Collegium musicum, lxxx (Leipzig, 1954)], 12 kbd sonatas [1 movt ed. in Mw, xlii (1971)], 6 kbd partitas, 6 pf trios, 6 other trios, pf qt (Leipzig, 1765–81); 2 polonaises in Hamburger Unterhaltungen (1766–8)

Vocal: 6 songs in Hamburger Unterhaltungen (1766–9); song in Hiller’s Sammlung kleiner Klavier- und Singstücke, iii (Leipzig, 1774); cants., orat, Spl etc, lost

WRITINGS

Clavier-Schule, oder Kurze und gründliche Anweisung zur Melodie und Harmonie, durchgehends mit practischen Beyspielen erkläret, i (Leipzig and Züllichau, 1765, 4/1782; Russ. trans., 1773–4); ii: Worinnen eine vollständige Anweisung zur Begleitung der unbezifferten Bässe … gegeben wird (Leipzig and Züllichau, 1781, 3/1791); both vols. (Leipzig and Züllichau, 5/1791 ed. J.G. Witthauer, 6/1804 ed. A.E. Müller, 8/1825 ed. C. Czerny, 9/1848 ed. F. Knorr)

Anweisung zum Violinspielen … mit 24 kleinen Duetten erläutert (Leipzig and Züllichau, 1774, enlarged 3/1797 by J.F. Reichardt)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Lockemann: ‘Die Anfänge des Jenaer Akademischen Konzerts’, Festschrift Armin Tille (Weimar, 1930), 215–33

H. Rauschning: Geschichte der Musik und Musikpflege in Danzig (Danzig, 1931)

F. von Glasenapp: Georg Simon Löhlein (1725–1781) (Halle, 1937) [incl. complete list of works and bibliography]

P. Benary: Die deutsche Kompositionslehre des 18. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1961)

C. Pfeiffer: ‘Die Notes inégales: ihre Bedeutung und Anwendung aus der Sicht deutscher musikgeschichtlicher Quellen des 18. Jahrhunderts’, Melos/NZM iv (1978), 512–15

D.J. Wilson: Georg Simon Löhlein's ‘Klavierschule’: Translation and Commentary (diss., U. of Southern California, 1979)

D. Wilson: ‘Löhlein's Klavierschule: Toward an Understanding of the Galant Style’, IRASM xii (1981), 103–5

J. Gudel: ‘Das öffentliche Konzertwesen in Gdańsk in der zweiten Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts’, Studien zur Aufführungspraxis und Interpretation von Instrumentalmusik des 18. Jahrhunderts xxix (1986) suppl., 17–18

LOTHAR HOFFMANN-ERBRECHT

Lohman, Alwina Valleria.

See Valleria, Alwina.

Löhner, Johann

(b Nuremberg, bap. 21 Nov 1645; d Nuremberg, 2 April 1705). German composer, organist and singer. By the time he was 15 his parents had died, and he was adopted by his brother-in-law G.C. Wecker, under whose tuition he became a musician. From the scanty information available it appears that he was away from Nuremberg for only two of his 60 years. He played the regal at St Sebaldus from 1665 to 1670. He then served briefly as a tenor at Bayreuth and made a journey to Vienna, Salzburg (where he probably performed for the archbishop) and Leipzig (to hear Sebastian Knüpfer). In 1671 he was back in Nuremberg, where he was used as a tenor in various churches and perhaps as an organist at the Frauenkirche. In 1682 he was appointed organist of the Spitalkirche and in 1694 of St Lorenz, where he remained until his death.

Like Schütz, Löhner wrote no instrumental music. The more than 300 extant songs that he wrote as devotional music for the home are short strophic settings of sacred texts for one voice and a simple continuo accompaniment; a few include ritornellos for strings. The melodies are in a rather folklike style, like those of other members of the Nuremberg School, among whom Löhner showed perhaps the most pronounced melodic gifts. Auserlesene Kirch- und Tafel-Music, containing 12 works for solo voice, two violins and continuo, is of special significance among Löhner's works. He had set the texts earlier in Der Geistlichen Erquick-Stunden, as strophic songs; in the later settings the texts are through-composed so that, as Löhner wrote in his preface, ‘one can … express them more clearly’. Seven are simply long single movements – solo concertos – of about 80 bars, while five have additional texts and are divided into separate movements forming biblical-ode cantatas, the earliest examples in Nuremberg. Löhner’s last published work (1700) is a collection of 22 canons and two four-part motets. The brief canons, which range between two and four bars in length, usually outline the triad.

Only Löhner and S.T. Staden are known to have written operas in Nuremberg during the 17th century. Of the four by Löhner, only two collections of arias were known until 1975, when the missing organ tablature of Die triumphirende Treu (1679) was found. If Staden's Seelewig (1644) is discounted as an allegorical pastorale, Löhner's work can be credited as the earliest extant German opera. Its arias, like those of Staden and Johann and J.P. Krieger, are strophic songs in the same style as his sacred works in this form.

WORKS

all printed works published in Nuremberg

operas

Die triumphirende Treu (C. Heuchelin and P. Keller), Ansbach court, 1679, ed. W. Braun, DTB, new ser., vi (1984); some arias in Keusche Liebs- und Tugend-Gedancken (1680); 4 arias ed. in Sandberger, 99–102 (see Sandberger, 87, and Sachs, 124)

Abraham (C.A. Negelein), 1683, lost (see Braun, 1984)

Der gerechte Zaleukus (J. Löhner, trans. of G.F. Minato: Seleuco), 1687, lost (see Will, iv, 442, and Sandberger, 88)

Theseus (J. Löhner, trans. of G.F. Aureli: Teseo fra li rivali), Nuremberg, 1688, lost; arias pubd in XLIV Arien aus der Opera von Theseus (1688); 8 arias ed. in Sandberger, 102–6 (see also 97)

other works

Geistliche Sing-Stunde, oder XXX Andacht Lieder, 1v, bc (1670)

Der Geistlichen Erquick-Stunden (50 songs, H. Müller), 1v, bc (1673; enlarged 2/1691)

Keusche Liebs- und Tugend-Gedancken, 1v, bc (1680)

Auserlesene Kirch- und Tafel-Music, 1v, 2 vn, bc (1682) [same texts as 1673 pubn]

Suavissime canonum musicalium delitiae, 4vv (1700); 22 ed. in ZahnM

7 songs in Dr Johann Sauberts verneuete Kirchenandacht (1674)

150 songs in Die alte Zions-Harpfe (1694)

46 songs, some for funerals, some for anthologies (1670–96); see Samuel, 301–14

5 songs, D-Ngm*

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MatthesonGEP

ZahnM

J.G. Doppelmayr: Historische Nachricht von den nürnbergischen Mathematicis und Künstlern (Nuremberg, 1730)

G.A. Will: Nürnbergisches Gelehrten-Lexicon (Nuremberg and Altdorf, 1755–8)

C. Sachs: ‘Die Ansbacher Hofkapelle unter Markgraf Johann Friedrich (1672 bis 1686)’, SIMG, xi (1909–10), 105–37

A. Sandberger: ‘Zur Geschichte der Oper in Nürnberg in der 2. Hälfte des 17. und zu Anfang des 18. Jahrhunderts’, AMw, i (1918–19), 84–107; repr. in A. Sandberger: Ausgewählte Aufsätze zur Musikgeschichte (Munich, 1921), 188–217

H.E. Samuel: The Cantata in Nuremberg during the Seventeenth Century (Ann Arbor, 1982)

W. Braun: ‘Johann Valentin Meders Opernexperiment in Reval 1680’, Beiträge zur Musikgeschichte Nordeuropas: Kurt Gudewill zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. U. Haensel (Wolfenbüttel, 1978), 69–78

W. Braun: Introduction to Die triumphirende Treu: Sing-Spiel, DTB, new ser., vi (1984)

HAROLD E. SAMUEL

Löhr, Hermann (Frederic)

(b Plymouth, 26 Oct 1871; d Tunbridge Wells, 6 Dec 1943). English composer. Son of the composer Frederic Nicholls Löhr, he studied at the RAM where he won the Charles Lucas medal for composition. He made his name as a composer of ballads, which included Chorus, Gentlemen! (words by M. Ambient; 1899), The Little Irish Girl (E. Teschemacher; 1903), Where my Caravan has Rested (Teschemacher; from Romany Songs, 1909), Little Grey Home in the West (D. Eardley-Wilmot; 1911) and Rose of my Heart (Eardley-Wilmot; 1911). He also composed music for the stage, including Our Little Cinderella (A. Wimperis; 1911), and instrumental music including the suite The Open Road (1928). His main publisher was Chappell, by whom he was employed for over 30 years. He was a cousin of the actress Marie Löhr (1890–1975).

ANDREW LAMB

Lohr, Michael

(b Marienberg, Erzgebirge, 23 Sept 1591; d Dresden, 17 Feb 1654). German composer. He is recorded in the Leipzig University matriculations for 1602. In 1612 he became Kantor at Frankenberg, Saxony, and probably in 1618 at nearby Rochlitz. From there he moved to Dresden in 1625 as Kantor of the Protestant Kreuzkirche and held this post until his death. Lohr was praised by Schütz as an excellent singer, and was also esteemed as an accomplished performer on lute, violin and other instruments. In nearly 30 years at Dresden he pursued various developments in the field of church music, especially accompanied polyphony. He published Newe teutzsche Kirchen Gesänge (Freiberg, 1629) and Ander Theil Newer teutscher und lateinischer Kirchen Gesänge und Concerten (Dresden, 1637), the former comprising one motet for seven voices and 14 for eight, the latter 24 for five, six and eight voices; settings for two choirs predominate. The motets can be sung unaccompanied, but Lohr encouraged the use of instruments to accompany or replace the voices. Only in one motet are specific instruments expressly requested and used independently in preludes and interludes. The continuo part throughout both collections is a basso seguente. Lohr intended his motets in the first instance for services at the Kreuzkirche, but they were also highly esteemed by his contemporaries in central Germany, where copies of individual pieces could also be found in manuscripts and organ tablatures. A setting by Lohr of Psalm cl (1644) has been lost.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

GerberNL

S.G. Heine: Historische Beschreibung der alten Stadt und Grafschaft Rochlitz (Leipzig, 1719)

C.A. Bahn: Historische Nachrichten von … Franckenberg und Sachsenburg (Schneeberg, 1755)

C.W.F. Schmid: Kleine Bruchstücke zum Versuch einer Gelehrtengeschichte von gebohrenen Marienbergen (Freiberg, 1806)

K. Held: ‘Das Kreuzkantorat zu Dresden’, VMw, x (1894), 239–410; also pubd separately (Leipzig, 1894)

J. Rautenstrauch: Luther und die Pflege der kirchlichen Musik in Sachsen (Leipzig, 1907/R)

G. Erler: Die jüngeren Matrikel der Universität Leipzig, i (Leipzig, 1909)

E.H. Hofmann: Capella sanctae crucis (Berlin, 1956, 3/1958)

H. John: ‘Die Dresdner Kirchenmusik in der ersten Hälfte des 17. Jahrhunderts’, Heinrich Schütz und die Musik in Dänemark: Copenhagen 1985, 81–94

KARL-ERNST BERGUNDER/GREGORY S. JOHNSTON

Lohse, Otto

(b Dresden, 21 Sept 1858; d Baden-Baden, 5 May 1925). German conductor. He studied theory with Felix Draeseke, Rischbieter and Kretschmer, conducting with Franz Wüllner, the cello with Grützmacher and the piano with H.J. Richter. After playing the cello at the Dresden Hoftheater (1877–9), he began his conducting career in Riga. He was subsequently brought to the Theater am Dammtor in Hamburg by the impresario Bernhard Baruch, but he directed the 1894 German opera season in London before beginning his duties in Hamburg. The following year Damrosch called him to New York to direct the German opera season for two years; he was at the Théâtre Municipal, Strasbourg from 1897 to 1904, during the last three years of which he also directed the Royal Opera in London. He then became director of the Cologne Opera, where Martersteig was general director, for seven years; during that time he made guest appearances in Monte Carlo, Moscow, Paris, Brussels and London. His subsequent success as the director of the Leipzig Opera was even greater. He retired to Baden-Baden in 1923 but continued to conduct there until his death.

A specialist in the works of Wagner and Strauss and other contemporary German composers, Lohse exhibited extraordinary animation as an opera conductor. The Munich critics, however, found his style ‘too angular’, in contrast with the romantic style of Mottl; but in Brussels he was said to have conducted Charpentier’s Louise ‘like a Frenchman’. He composed an operetta Der Prinz wider Willen (1890) and many songs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Krebs: Meister des Taktstocks (Berlin, 1919)

I. Scharberth: Gürzenich-Orchester Köln (1888–1988) (Cologne, 1988)

C. Fifield: True Artist and True Friend: a Biography of Hans Richter (Oxford, 1993)

FRIEDRICH BASER

Lokshin, Aleksandr Lazarevich

(b Biysk, 19 Sept 1920; d Moscow, 11 June 1987). Russian composer. At the age of six he began studying the piano and from 1930 he attended the music school in Novosibirsk; from 1936 he studied in Moscow at the school attached to the conservatory. He graduated from the composition class of Myaskovsky at the Moscow Conservatory (1944), and from 1945 he taught orchestration and score reading at the conservatory. A somewhat tragic and inauspicious character (he was expelled from the conservatory in 1939, and dismissed from his teaching position in 1948), Lokshin led a secluded life and composed in a dream-like world heightened by meditation. Many of his works have been interpreted by international conductors such as Mravinsky, Barshay, Rozhdestvensky and Jansons. Lokshin's music was highly regarded by Tishchenko, who had occasion to refer to him as his ‘teacher’; similarly, Shostakovich described the First Symphony as a work of genius.

Lokshin's favoured genre was the vocal symphony. Typically, many of these works develop forms derived from the French couplet; they also display a predilection for through-development. Of the symphonies, nos.5, 7 and 11 have been recorded and no.5 has been performed in London, New York and Amsterdam. The premières of his works were severely delayed (some of them were only performed posthumously) and the path to recognition as a composer was long and difficult. A frequent obstacle to the performance of Lokshin's symphonies in his homeland was the choice of texts that conflicted with official ideology. For this reason the première of his First Symphony in its unabridged form (with the original text) took place only after the composer's death and in Great Britain (Poole, 16 March 1988). The première of Symphony no.3 was given by the BBC SO and chorus in London in 1979.

WORKS

Syms.: no.1 ‘Rekviyem’ [Requiem] (Lat. liturgical), Mez, chorus, orch, 1957, rev. 1974; no.2 (classical Gk. poetry), chorus, orch, 1962; no.3 (R. Kipling), Bar, male chorus, orch, 1966; no.4, 1968; no.5 (W. Shakespeare), Bar, str orch, 1969; no.6 (A. Blok), Bar, chorus, orch, 1971; no.7 (classical Jap. poetry), C, str orch, 1972; no.8 (A.S. Pushkin), T, orch, 1973; no.9 (L. Martïnov), Bar, str orch, 1974; no.10 (N. Zabolotsky), C, 2 cl, str, 1976; no.11 (L. Camões), S, chbr orch, 1976

Vocal orch: 3 stsenï iz Faust [3 Scenes from Goethe's Faust], S, chbr orch, 1973–80; Tarakanishche [Cockroach] (orat, 1, K. Chukovsky), chorus, orch, 1962–80; Mat' skorbyashchaya [A Grieving Mother] (orat, 8, A. Akhmatova, Russ. funeral rite), Mez, chorus, orch, 1977; Vo ves' golos [At the Top of One's Voice] (V. Mayakovsky), B, orch, 1977; Iskusstvo poėzii [The Art of Poetry] (vocal and sym. poem after N. Zabolotsky), S, chbr orch, 1981; Sinfonietta no.1 (I. Severyanin), T, chbr ens, 1983; Sinfonietta no.2 (F. Sologub), S, chbr orch, 1985

Other inst: Variatsii [Variations], pf, 1954; Cl Qnt, 1955; Bengerskaya fantaziya [Hungarian Fantasy], vn, orch, 1958; Str Qnt, 1982; Prelyudiya i tema s variatsiyami [Prelude and Theme and Variations], pf, 1985

Principal publishers: Muzïka, Sovetskiy kompozitor (Moscow)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ye. Chigaryova: ‘Stilisticheskiye osobennosti simfonii A. Lokshina’ [The stylistic peculiarities of the symphonies of Lokshin], Muzïka i sovremennost', x (1976), 52–78

I. Lavrent'yeva: ‘Aleksandr Lokshin: iz nablyudeniy nad stilem vokal'no-simfonicheskikh sochineniy’ [Lokshin: from observations made on the style of vocal-symphonic works], Kompozitorï rossiiskoy federatsii, i (1981), 43–117

I. Lavrent'yeva: ‘O vzaimodeystvii slova i muzïki v sovetskoy vokal'noy simfonii 60–70-kh godov’ [On the interaction of the word and music in the Soviet vocal symphony of the 1960s and 70s], Problemï muzïkal'noy nauki, vi (1985), 72–109; vii (1989), 5–33

R. Barshay: ‘Vsem, zamuchennïm zhivyom’ [By all that is tormented we live], Sovetskaya kul'tura (21 July 1990)

I. Karpinsky: ‘Neizvestnïy kompozitor?’ [An unknown composer?], SovM (1990), no.7, pp.20–27

T. Gellis: ‘A. Lokshin – B. Tishchenko: k voprosu o tvorcheskom obshchenii’ [Lokshin and B. Tishchenko: on the question of creative communication], Muzïka v ryadu iskusstv (Petrozavodsk, 1994), 88–96

YURY IVANOVICH PAISOV

Lolli, Antonio

(b Bergamo, c1725; d Palermo, 10 Aug 1802). Italian violinist and composer. The death register of S Ippolito gave his age as 77; F. Guelli's epitaph, written for his Requiem, gave his age as 75. Of the musicians and dancers cited in Mooser's putative genealogy of the Lolli family, only the cellists Luigi and Giuseppe Bichi-Lolli, also from Bergamo, may be related to Antonio. In 1758 he became solo violinist at the court in Stuttgart, an appointment he apparently owed to Padre Martini and to Jommelli, who identified him in a letter to Martini as the ‘Bergamaschino’. As the successor to the brilliant Pasquale Bini, Lolli must already have been an extraordinary performer. His salary increased rapidly from 700 to 2000 florins by 1765, equalling the stipend of Nardini who was also at Stuttgart during these years. By May 1762 he had married the dancer Nanette Sauveur, sister-in-law of the court ballet-master and choreographer J.G. Noverre. The next few years, in which the Württemberg court reached its artistic apogee, brought a happy association of the two families. The soprano Brigida Lolli, Antonio's sister (not his daughter as Mooser conjectured), joined the buffa company in 1766 and married the dancer Joseph Anelli; Antonio's younger brother Gaetano, a journeyman violinist, played in the court orchestra from 1766 to 1772.

Allowances for extended leaves of absence gave Lolli ample time to tour. His first Vienna concerts may have taken place in 1760 (in 1761 or 1762 according to Hanslick); Dittersdorf (1801) described the lasting influence of Lolli's highly successful Vienna concerts in the spring of 1763. His burgeoning reputation was furthered in 1764 by his appearances in Paris at the Concert Spirituel (21, 23, 24 April; 31 May; 21 June), all reviewed in superlatives in the Mercure de France. The publication of his first concertos and other works date from this period. On 1 November 1766 he again performed at the Concert Spirituel.

During the next three years Lolli made no further tours, perhaps because of altered conditions at the Württemberg court, where economic and political pressure forced the dismissal of Noverre, with much of the musical and dance establishments (1767), and finally the cancellation of Jommelli's contract (March 1770). Negotiations in 1769 to re-engage Noverre, in which Lolli acted as intermediary, were unsuccessful. Despite Lolli's continuing annual stipend of 2500 florins and his wife's 2630 florins, they had fallen deeply into debt. Lolli was now granted leaves of absence to earn money to pay his creditors. In autumn 1769 he played in Frankfurt (14 and 24 September) and in Utrecht (14 November). In the summer of 1771 he toured Italy where he met the Mozarts, and at the end of 1773 he toured northern Germany with concerts at Hamburg, Lübeck and Stettin (now Szczecin). Early in 1774 he visited Dittersdorf in Johannisberg for a fortnight. Then, on 29 July 1774, while he was on tour, the Lollis' contracts were terminated. His wife and son Filippo (b ?Stuttgart, 1773) remained in Württemberg as hostages against the payment of the family's debts. By the summer's end Lolli was chamber virtuoso to Catherine the Great at a salary of 4000 rubles.

Throughout his Russian service (1774–83) Lolli continued his concert tours. A performance in Warsaw on 5 January 1776 marked the end of one tour. Then, to the chagrin of court officials, he extended another year's leave from the end of 1777 to early 1780. After concerts in Scandinavia and Germany, he again visited Dittersdorf early in 1778. He gave his health and the climate as excuses for not wanting to return to Russia, showed Dittersdorf 10,000 gulden in cash, and talked of retirement after one more tour which would include Vienna, Paris, London, Amsterdam, Hamburg, Berlin and the Papal States. A successful appearance in 1779 at the Concert Spirituel and a subsequent tour of Spain, both mentioned by Fétis, have not been substantiated. Lolli's affiliation to the Russian court ended at the close of 1783 after prolonged litigation; his successor was his former pupil G.M. Giornovichi. In 1784 he played at Stockholm, Hamburg and Copenhagen (25 September). Early in January 1785, he arrived in London.

Lolli's London sojourn was neither as brief, nor his departure as sudden and mysterious, as Burney maintained. Since tickets for his first concert were available at Noverre's private residence, he probably stayed with his brother-in-law. An advertised concert of 4 February was apparently postponed. His first appearance ‘For the Benefit of Signor Antonio Lolli’ was on 18 February at Willis's: P. Salomon directed, and the 13-year-old pianist J.B. Cramer and the oboist J.C. Fischer took part. On 23 February Lolli played both at the Oratorio (where Burney heard him) and at the Hanover Square Grand Professional Concert. On 7 March he appeared in a benefit concert for Nina Salas. There are no further notices from 1785 nor from his visit in 1791, when, according to Haydn's first London notebook, ‘Lolli and his son came from Stockholm’.

From 1785, information about Lolli is fragmentary. A Paris concert on 4 June 1785 may not have taken place because of a dispute over licensing. According to Gerber he visited Madrid where he received from the crown prince a gold snuff-box with 350 ducats, and also 2000 real for performing one concerto and two solos at public concerts. There are scattered notices of concerts in Italy in the late 1780s, in S Pier d'Arena (according to Gerber; now Sampierdarena), Genoa (14 September 1788) and Florence (March 1789). In 1791 he played in Berlin, Copenhagen, Hamburg (25 May, 2 August) and Stettin, assisted by his son Filippo, now an accomplished cellist. Lolli was in London in 1792 and Bertini heard him in Palermo in 1793 in probably one of his last public performances. Gerber identified him at Vienna in 1794 as first concertmaster of the King of Naples, but only Filippo played there in public and any official connection with the Naples court is still to be confirmed. When the Romberg brothers visited him at Naples (5 March 1796) Lolli played solos accompanied by A. Romberg on the violin. Lolli's last years were spent in impoverished retirement in Palermo.

Lolli had little if any formal training in composition, nor did he ever realize his intentions of studying counterpoint with Padre Martini. Such study might not have made him a better composer, but identification as a Martini pupil might have mitigated contemporary criticism of his works. Lolli's supposed ineptitude as a composer is not borne out by a study of his music, as Stoeving and Moser first pointed out; his works compare favourably with those of many other 18th-century violinist composers who, regardless of talent, were expected to provide their own repertory. The frequent reprinting of his sonatas testifies to the popularity of his music during his lifetime. Of these, the Six sonates pour violons op.9 (c1785) are of special interest, both in style and in technique. Their harmonic structure and design show his growing awareness of the Classical style. One finds passages for the G string only, examples of scordatura (nos. l and 6), harmonics, daring leaps and changes of register and cadenza-like interpolations. Of the published concertos, the most successful was no.7 in G, ‘that played by Jarnovik at the Concert Spirituel’ (Paris, 1775).

It was as a performer that Lolli made his mark. The very critics who belittled his compositions were euphoric in praise of his playing. C.F.D. Schubart, who called him ‘the Shakespeare among violinists’, wrote that his ‘octave passage on the unwieldy instrument was as pure as if it had been played on the best-tuned clavichord’, and that he played both octaves and 10ths with the greatest precision. The critic of the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung wrote that ‘the most dangerous leaps from depths to the uttermost heights were child’s play for him’. The effect of his playing on Dittersdorf, reviews of Paris concerts and the many sonatas in the ‘style of Lolli’ all testify to his influence as a performer. The language of Lolli's reviews approaches the level of hyperbole usually associated with Paganini. But his music (while it may not reflect his performing style) does not show the transcendental technique, innovation and daring that make Paganini unique. Lolli, and contemporaries who shared his virtuoso bent, prepared the way, but the extraordinary art of Paganini required a musician of special imagination and genius. One cannot speak of a Lolli school, although Giornovichi, Woldemar and others are often cited as his pupils (there is no proof that either Giornovichi or Woldemar, who was not able to perform his own music, ever studied with him). Hanslick described Lolli fittingly as ‘the forerunner and prototype of Paganini’.

WORKS

violin concertos

op.

2	Deux concerto, E, C (Paris, 1764)
4	[2] Concerto, A, B (Paris, 1766)
5	[2] Concerto, E, D (Paris, 1768)
—	Septième concerto, G (Paris, 1775)
—	Huitième concerto, D (Paris, 1776)
—	Huitième concerto (Paris, 1779) [different from that listed above]
Other edns., possibly of lost works, cited in Fétis
4 further concs, I-Nc (nos.7 [different from that listed above], 9–11)

chamber works

1	Sei sonate, vn, b (Amsterdam, c1760); as 6 Solos (London, c1775); ed. G. Gatti (Milan, 1912), ed. J. Adas (New York, 1991)
2	Sei sonate, vn, b (Amsterdam, 1769); without no.4 and with 1 addl sonata, as op.5 (Paris, 1770)
3	Sei sonate, vn, b (Paris, c1767)
3	Cinq sonates & un divertissement, vn, b (Berlin, 1776); as 6 sonates, op.10 (Paris, c1788), no.2 with va acc., no.6 lacking 3rd movt; arr. as 6 duos, 2 vn (Paris, c1777), no.6 lacking 3rd movt
9	Six sonates, 2 vn (Paris, c1785)

other works

L'école du violon en quatuor (Berlin and Amsterdam, c1784); as op.8 (London, c1785); as op.11 (Mannheim, c1794); as op.posth. (Paris, after 1803)

36 capriccios, vn, I-Mc; Ein Scherz, 2 vn (Offenbach, n.d.), doubtful

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BDA

BurneyH

FétisB

GerberL

GerberNL

G.B. Rangoni: Essai sur le gôut de la musique … /Saggio sul gusto della musica col carattere de' tre celebri sonatori di violino i signori Nardini, Lolli, e Pugnani (Livorno, 1790/R) AMZ, i (1799), 578ff, 609ff

C. von Dittersdorf: Lebensbeschreibung (Leipzig, 1801 Ditters; Eng. trans., 1896/R; ed. N. Miller (Munich, 1967))

C.F.D. Schubart: Ideen zu einer Äesthetik der Tonkunst (Vienna, 1806/R)

G. Bertini: Dizionario storico-critico degli scrittori di musica (Palermo, 1814–15)

E. Hanslick: Geschichte des Concertwesens in Wien, i (Vienna, 1869/R), l06–7

J.W. von Wasielewski: Die Violine und ihre Meister (Leipzig, 1869, rev., enlarged 8/1927/R by W. von Wasielewski), 288ff

J. Sittard: Zur Geschichte der Musik und des Theaters am württembergischen Hofe (Stuttgart, 1890–91/R)

L. Torchi: ‘La musica istrumentale in ltalia nei secoli XVI, XVII, e XVIII’, RMI, vi (1899), 693–726, esp. 724; pubd separately (Turin, 1901/R)

R. Krauss: ‘Das Theater’, Herzog Karl Eugen von Württemberg und seine Zeit (Esslingen, 1907)

P. Stoeving: ‘Some Forgotten Virtuosi of the Violin: Antonio Lolli’, The Musician, xviii (1913), 273 only, 279–81

A. Moser: ‘Arcangelo Corelli und Antonio Lolli: zwei künstlerische Ehrenrettungen’, ZMw, iii (1920–21), 415–27

A. Moser: Geschichte des Violinspiels (Berlin, 1923, rev. 2/1966–7 by H.J. Nösselt), 286–8

L. de La Laurencie: L'école française de violon de Lully à Viotti, ii–iii (Paris, 1923–4/R)

M. Pedemonte: ‘Sei Sonate di Antonio Lolli copiate da un violinista genovese sconosciuto’, Rassegna dorica, viii (1936–7), 121–4

R.A. Mooser: ‘Violonistes-compositeurs italiens en Russie au XVIIIme siècle, VI: Antonio Lolli’, RMI, 1 (1948), 225–40

R.A. Mooser: Annales de la musique et des musiciens en Russie au XVIIIme siècle, ii (Geneva, 1951), 161–8

W.S. Newman: The Sonata in the Classic Era (Chapel Hill, NC, 1963, 3/1983), 238–40

N.K. Nunamaker: The Virtuoso Violin Concerto before Paganini: the Concertos of Lolli, Giornovicchi, and Woldemar (1750–1815) (diss., Indiana U., 1968)

A. Mell: ‘Antonio Lolli's Letters to Padre Martini’, MQ, lvi (1970), 463–77

K.M. Stolba: A History of the Violin Etude to about 1800 (New York, 1979), 180, 217

ALBERT MELL

Lomakin, Gavriil Yakimovich

(b Borisovka, Kursk govt., 25 March/6 April 1812; d Gatchina, 11/21 May 1885).Russian choral conductor, teacher and composer. At the age of ten he joined Count Sheremet'yev's choir in St Petersburg (his father was one of Sheremet'yev's serfs); there he was taught music by Antonio Sapienza. When his voice broke in 1830 he became a singing teacher to the choir, and was later appointed director (1850–72). Under his leadership it became one of the most important musical institutions in Russia, giving concerts of traditional church music, folksongs and contemporary choral works. When the choir was disbanded in 1874 Lomakin conducted Sheremet'ev's male-voice choir, but ill-health soon compelled him to resign. In 1862 Balakirev invited him to help him found the Free School of Music, and for eight years Lomakin conducted the student choir. He also taught at the court chapel (1848–59), and at the drama school in St Petersburg. His pupils included the singers Mel'nikov and Karmalina and the conductor Prince Yury Golitsïn. Lomakin wrote two books on singing, and with Vorotnikov and L'vov published a collection of old Russian hymns arranged for four-part choir. He composed sacred music and a few other pieces.

WRITINGS

Kratkaya metoda peniya [A short singing tutor] (St Petersburg, 1858, 3/1882)

Rukovodstvo k obucheniyu peniyu v narodnïkh shkolakh [A guide to teaching singing in state schools] (St Petersburg, 1866)

‘Avtobiograficheskiye zapiski’ [Memoirs], Russkaya starina, xlix (1886), 645–66; l (1886), 311–26, 675–89; li (1886), 467–85 [pubd posth.]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

V.V. Stasov: ‘Kontsert gg. pevchikh grafa Sheremet'yeva’ [The concert by Count Sheremet'ev's singers], Muzïkal'nïy i teatral'nïy vestnik, i (1856), 164–6; repr. in V.V. Stasov: sobraniye sochineniy, iii (St Petersburg, 1894), 166–70

V.V. Stasov: ‘Dvadtsatipyatiletiye Besplatnoy Muzïkal'noy Shkolï’ [25 years of the Free Music School], Istoricheskiy vestnik, no. 27 (1887), 599–642; repr. in V.V. Stasov: sobraniye sochineniy, iv (St Petersburg, 1906), 368–9

D.L. Lokshin: Vïdayushchiyesya russkiye khorï i ikh dirizhyorï: kratkiye ocherki [Distinguished Russian choirs and their conductors: short essays] (Moscow, 1953, rev. 2/1963 as Zamechatel'nïye russkiye khorï)

A.S. Lyapunova and E.E.Yazovitskaya: Miliy Alekseyevich Balakirev: letopis' zhizni i tvorchestva [Balakirev: chronicle of his life and works] (Leningrad, 1967)

JENNIFER SPENCER

Lomax.

American family of folk music specialists.

(1) John Avery Lomax

(2) Alan Lomax

(3) Bess Lomax Hawes

NOLAN PORTERFIELD (1 and 3), DARIUS L. THIEME (2)

Lomax

(1) John Avery Lomax

(b Goodman, MS, 23 Sept 1867; d Greenville, MS, 26 Jan 1948). Folksong collector. While studying for his MA at Harvard (1906–7) he was encouraged by his professors George L. Kittredge and Barrett Wendell to collect the folksongs of cowboys in Texas, where he had grown up. This work resulted in Cowboy Songs and Other Frontier Ballads (1910), one of the first important collections of American folksong. He collected and published only sporadically between 1910 and 1932, after which he undertook a nationwide lecture and collecting tour that produced American Ballads and Folk Songs (with Alan Lomax, 1934), hailed as the largest single collection of indigenous American song to that time.

Lomax became curator of the Archive of American Folksong at the Library of Congress in 1933 and played a major role in its development. With support from the library and other government agencies, he and his son Alan made field recording trips throughout the 1930s, mostly in the South and Southwest, pioneering the use of instantaneous disc recording equipment for that purpose and eventually depositing in the archive recordings of more than 4000 folksongs. Among their discoveries was the black folk-blues artist Leadbelly, whom they found in prison in Louisiana in 1934 and later took to New York for concerts and commercial recordings. Sometimes criticized for carelessness with sources and documentation, Lomax nevertheless performed an invaluable role in preserving and transmitting the songs of the American people.

WRITINGS

‘Cowboy Songs of the Mexican Border’, Sewanee Review, xix (1911), 1–18

‘Some Types of American Folk-Song’, Journal of American Folklore, xxviii (1915), 1–17

‘“Sinful Songs” of the Southern Negro’, MQ, xx (1934), 177–87

‘Field Experiences with Recording Machines’, Southern Folklore Quarterly, i (1937), 57–60

Adventures of a Ballad Hunter (New York, 1947/R)

FOLKSONG EDITIONS

Cowboy Songs and Frontier Ballads (New York, 1910/R, rev. and enlarged 1938/R with J.A. Lomax)

Songs of the Cattle Trail and Cow Camp (New York, 1919/R, 2/1919/R)

with A. Lomax: American Ballads and Folk Songs (New York, 1934/R)

with A. Lomax: Negro Folk Songs as Sung by Lead Belly (New York, 1936)

with A. Lomax: Our Singing Country (New York, 1941)

with A. Lomax: Folk Song U.S.A.: the 111 Best American Ballads (New York, 1947/R, 4/1954 as Best Loved American Songs, rev. 1975 by M. Gilston

BIBLIOGRAPHY

N. Porterfield: Last Cavalier: the Life and Times of John A. Lomax (Urbana, IL, 1996)

Lomax

(2) Alan Lomax

(b Austin, Texas, 15 Jan 1915). Folksong scholar, son of (1) John Lomax. He was educated at Harvard University (1932–3), the University of Texas (BA 1936) and Columbia University (where he did graduate work in anthropology in 1939). In 1937 he began working under his father in the Archive of American Folksong, Library of Congress. He worked for the Office of War Information and US Army Special Services during World War II, and served Decca Records Inc. as Director of Folk Music (1946–9). He produced numerous educational radio and television programmes on folk music for use in the USA and Great Britain (such as the ‘American Patchwork’ series produced for PBS, 1990) and recorded and studied folksong in Great Britain, Haiti, Italy, Spain, the USA and elsewhere. He served on the boards of several American folk festivals and lectured at various American universities (Chicago, Columbia, Indiana, New York). In 1963 he became director of the cantometrics project at Columbia University, an international study of the folksong in its cultural matrix (see Cantometrics); he also founded the Association for Cultural Equity at Hunter College, CUNY.

Lomax’s search to find and record songs and singers took him on lengthy journeys through the rural southern USA to farms, churches, small night clubs and prison farms. Travelling when recording techniques were in their infancy, he and his father transported a 300-lb disc recorder in a station wagon on back roads and farm lanes. Lomax found and documented an American folk heritage in the blues steeped in African roots, and a Western heritage flavoured with cowboy lore. From the outset, his work among the creators of the vast tapestry of American and African-American folksong convinced him to urge a very broad view of the data to make possible a comprehensive study of the song in its cultural context. Working with a team of scholars and assistants, he sought to compare data on song melody and structure with ethnographic, political, economic, biological and sociological data. One result was a correlation of behavioural data with textual and musical song profiles. Working with the musicologist Bill Grauer, he reported the identification of ten regional song matrices applicable to the majority of some 400 world song traditions represented in the Lomax archives. His contribution to folksong scholarship is thus best considered in terms of his pioneering advocacy of a view of the particular within a panoramic ethnic context.

As a writer, Lomax has discussed the behavioural aspect of song performance and the place of folksong in society in his articles ‘Folk Song Style’ (1959) and ‘Song Structure and Social Structure’ (1962), and in Folk Song Style and Culture (1968). He has prepared biographies of the jazz musician Ferdinand ‘Jelly Roll’ Morton (Mister Jelly Roll 1950) and Rev. Renfrew and Nora Reed, a black American preacher and a blues singer (The Rainbow Sign, 1959), providing valuable insight into black American life and culture in the southern USA. The folksong collections he has compiled include Folk Song USA (1947), Cowboy Songs (1986) and Three Thousand Years of Black Poetry (New York, 1970, with R. Abdul), an anthology including composed poetry, song texts, African praise-poetry, and texts taken from oral tradition. His search for the roots of the blues is chronicled in Land Where the Blues Began (1993). He has also edited important collections of recorded traditional folksongs (Columbia World Library of Folk and Primitive Music), American folksongs (Southern Journey) and blues (including the Library of Congress recordings of Jelly Morton, Roll Leadbelly and Woody Guthrie, as well as the collection Muddy Waters: the Complete Plantation Recordings). The publication of Lomax’s extensive library of field recordings began in 1997 and is projected to run to 100 CDs.

WRITINGS

with S.R. Cowell: American Folk Song and Folk Lore: a Regional Bibliography (New York, 1942/R)

Mister Jelly Roll (New York, 1950, 2/1973/R)

‘Folk Song Style’, American Anthropologist, new ser., lxi (1959), 927–54

Harriett and her Harmonium: an American Adventure with Thirteen Folksongs (New York, c1959)

The Rainbow Sign (New York, 1959)

‘Song Structure and Social Structure’, Ethnology, i (1962), 425–51

with E. Trager: ‘Phonotactique du chant populaire’, L’homme, iv (1964), 5–55

Folk Song Style and Culture (Washingon DC, 1968/R)

with I. Bartenieff and F. Paulay: ‘Choreometrics: a Method for the Study of Cross-Cultural Pattern in Film’, Research Film, vi (1969), 505–17

‘The Homogeneity of African and Afro-American Musical Styles’, Afro-American Anthropology, ed. N.E. Whitten and J.F. Szwed (New York, 1970), 181–201

‘Choreometrics and Ethnographic Filmmaking’, Filmmakers Newsletter, iv/4 (1971), 22–30

with J. Halifax: ‘Folk Song Texts as Cultural Indicators’, Structural Analysis of Oral Tradition, ed. P. and E.K. Maranda (Philadelphia, 1971), 235–67

with M. Berkowitz: ‘The Evolutionary Taxonomy of Culture’, Science, clxxvii (1972), 228–39

Cantometrics: an Approach to the Anthropology of Music (Berkeley, 1977)

Index of World Song (New York, 1977)

The Land Where the Blues Began (New York, 1993)

with J.D. Elder and B. Lomax Hawes: Brown Girl in the Ring (New York, 1997)

FOLKSONG EDITIONS

Cowboy Songs and Frontier Ballads (New York, 1910/R, rev. and enlarged 1938/R with J.A. Lomax)

with J.A. Lomax: American Ballads and Folk Songs (New York, 1934/R)

with J.A. Lomax: Negro Folk Songs as Sung by Lead Belly (New York, 1936, 3/1959)

with J.A. Lomax: Our Singing Country (New York, 1941)

with J.A. Lomax: Folk Song U.S.A: the 111 Best American Ballads (New York, 1947, repr. as Best Loved American Songs, rev. 2/1975 by M. Gilson)

with J.A. Lomax: Leadbelly: a Collection of World Famous Songs (New York, 1959, 2/1965 as The Leadbelly Legend)

The Folk Songs of North America in the English Language (Garden City, NY, 1960)

Hard Hitting Songs for Hard Hit People (New York, 1967)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Berrett: ‘Alan Lomax: some Reconsiderations’, JJS, vi/1 (1979), 54–63

D. Lonergan : ‘Alan Lomax: an Essay and Bibliography’, Music Reference Services Quarterly, iii/2 (1994), 3–16

M. Parrish: ‘Documenting the Folk Music of the World’, Sing Out: the Folk Song Magazine, xl/3 (1995–6), 30–35

E.P. Olsen: ‘Ambassador of the Blues’, World & I, xii/1 (1997), 176–83

Lomax

(3) Bess Lomax Hawes

(b Austin, 21 Jan 1921). Folk music performer, scholar and arts administrator, daughter of (1) John Lomax. She was introduced to folk music and music scholarship at an early age and was educated at the University of Texas (1937–8), Bryn Mawr College (BA 1941) and the University of California (MA 1970). From 1941 to 1952 she was a member of the Almanac Singers and participated in the recording of such albums as Talking Union, Citizen CIO, American Folk Songs and Songs of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade. She continued her work in folk music after being appointed assistant professor of anthropology in 1963 at California State College, Northridge, where she rose to the rank of professor in 1974. In 1977 she became director of the Folk Arts Program of the National Endowment of the Arts; she is credited with establishing folk arts programmes in virtually every state and territory of the USA by the time of her retirement in 1992. Under her leadership at NEA, the National Heritage Program was begun, honouring traditional artists from across the nation. Her many publications have focussed primarily on childlore. Throughout her career she has served on numerous grant panels and taken an active role in the production of folk festivals, films and summer programmes. She was awarded the National Medal of Arts in 1993.

WRITINGS

‘La Llorona in Juvenile Hall’, Western Folklore, xxvii (1968), 153–70

with B. Smith Jones: Step it Down: Games, Plays, Songs and Stories from the Afro-American Heritage (New York, 1972)

‘Folksongs and Function: some Thoughts on the American Lullabye’, Journal of American Folklore, lxxxvii (1974), 140–48

‘Practice Makes Perfect: Lessons in Active Ethnomusicology’, EthM, xxxvi (1992), 337–43

‘Reminiscences and Exhortations: Growing Up in American Folk Music’, EthM, xxxix (1995), 179–93

Lomax, (Louisa) Emma [Emily]

(b Brighton, 22 June 1873; d Brighton, 29 Aug 1963). English composer and pianist. She studied piano at the Brighton School of Music and composition and clarinet at the RAM, London (1904–10; Goring Thomas Scholar, 1907–10; Lucas Silver Medal, 1910; ARAM, 1910), where she was later a professor of composition (1918–38). She and Morfydd Owen were Frederick Corder’s most distinguished women students. Lomax’s manuscripts are lost, but the stage works on supernatural themes for which she devised music, librettos, props and lighting were considered remarkable (The House of Shadows, 1905, The Wolf, 1906 and The Brownie and the Piano-Tuner, 1907), but her opera The Marsh of Vervais was never fully performed, and a toy theatre provided the main focus for her dramatic gift in later life. The Brighton Municipal Orchestra premièred her instrumental scores, notably the Toy Overture (1915), a parody of Tchaikovsky’s 1812 overture. She wrote the Gilbertian text for Walton O’Donnell’s one-act comic opera The Demon’s Bride (1909), and her recitation to music The Prince in Disguise (1908) featured during the RAM’s centenary celebrations in 1922. She was active in the Society of Women Musicians and three times president of the Sussex Women Musicians’ Club. Her enthusiasm, wit and patience made her an ideal and respected teacher and she taught until the day she died.

WORKS

Dramatic: The House of Shadows (allegorical dramatic phantasy, 2, Lomax), 1905; The Wolf (psychological sketch, Lomax), 1906; The Brownie and the Piano Tuner, or the Piano Tuner and the Brownie (fairy play, Lomax), 1907; The Marsch of Vervais (op, Lomax); incid music for toy theatre

Orch: Ida’s Flowers, 1903; Ruminations on a Quaint Theme, 1910; Toy Ov., 1915

Recitations to music: The Prince in Disguise, 1908; Bishop Hatto; 4 Nursery Rhymes; The Mother; The Sisters

Other works incl. cants. for female vv The Stormbird, The Whirlpool; partsongs; solo songs; pf works

Principal publisher: Charles Avison

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Corder: A History of the RAM from 1822 to 1922 (London, 1922)

RHIAN DAVIES

Lomazzo, Filippo

(fl 1600–30). Italian printer, bookseller and publisher. He came from a family of scholars, artists and publishers in Milan. (Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo had sponsored the publication of treatises by Gaffurius and Bonaventura da Brescia in the years 1492–1500.) He entered into partnership with the Tini family in 1603 and until 1612 they produced much music, primarily the work of local composers. From 1613 to 1630 Lomazzo worked on his own; a number of his publications appeared from the presses of other printers. He appears to have been musically literate, for he selected the contents of some of his numerous anthologies himself: they include sacred and secular music by many composers, including Ghizzolo, G.S.P. de' Negri, Orfeo Vecchi, Gastoldi and Riccardo Rognoni. He also published treatises by Scaletta and Rognoni.

His son Francesco Lomazzo was also a printer. He published about a dozen books between 1603 and 1619, mostly in collaboration with the heirs of Simone Tini, including music by Orfeo Vecchi and a basso continuo part for Palestrina masses.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Donà: La stampe musicale a Milano fino all'anno 1700 (Florence, 1961)

STANLEY BOORMAN

Lombard, Alain

(b Paris, 4 Oct 1940). French conductor. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire. His first appointment was at the Lyons Opera (1961–5), as assistant and then as principal conductor. At the instigation of Régine Crespin he was engaged to conduct Massenet’s Hérodiade for the American Opera Society at New York in 1963. He won the gold medal at the 1966 Dimitri Mitropoulos competition, and made his Metropolitan Opera début with Faust in 1967. He held appointments with the Greater Miami SO (1966–74) and the Strasbourg PO (1972–83), and from 1974 to 1980 was director of the Opéra du Rhin where he earned recognition for his artistic enterprise while sharing a modest budget between the three centres served by the company at Strasbourg, Colmar and Mulhouse. He was appointed music director at the Paris Opéra (1981–3), then of the Opéra-Comique (1983), extending his guest engagements to include the Hamburg Staatsoper and his South African début with Turandot (1985, Johannesburg). In 1988 he became musical director of the Bordeaux Opéra and the Bordeaux-Aquitaine Orchestra, and in 1990 became director of the Grand Théâtre. His recordings include Gounod’s Roméo et Juliette (1968) and Faust (1977), Delibes’ Lakmé (1971), and orchestral works by Berlioz and Debussy (with the Strasbourg PO). He is a brilliant technician and has a dynamic personality in performance.

CHRISTIANE SPIETH-WEISSENBACHER/NOËL GOODWIN

Lombardi, Luca

(b Rome, 24 Dec 1945). Italian composer. He began his composition studies with Armando Renzi, Roberto Lupi and, at the Pesaro Conservatory, Boris Porena (diploma, 1970). He went on to write a thesis on Hanns Eisler as a musicology student at the University of Rome. He lived in Cologne (1968–72) where he studied with Stockhausen, Pousseur, Kagel, Schnebel and Rzewski at the Kölner Kurse für Neue Musik, and with Zimmerman at the Hochschule für Musik. In 1973 he became a pupil of Dessau at the Akademie der Künste.

Under Zimmerman’s influence, Lombardi experimented with serialism in Proporzioni (1968–9), a work in which the durations are derived from intervallic relationships. He went on to develop his own personal style, which aims to recapture freedom and spontaneity of expression and a richness of stylistic levels within a framework governed by rigorous construction, economy in the use of musical material and techniques of varied repetition. This style, which he termed ‘exclusive’, is exemplified by works such as Wiederkehr (1971), Variazioni (1977) and Klavierduo (1978–9). His work on the music of Eisler subsequently caused him to react against what he saw as the avant garde’s indifference towards communication, by developing an ‘inclusive’ style, which harnessed the stylistic plurality already characteristic of the ‘exclusive’ method in an even more wide-ranging expression of the complexity and multiplicity of reality. The polystylism of these scores makes use of montages of popular materials (Symphony no.1, 1974–5) and the juxtaposition of stylistically differentiated textual fragments (e.g. Tui-Gesänge, 1977; Majakowski, 1979–80 and Mythenasche, 1980–81). In other pieces, as Albumblätter (1967–8), Gespräch über Bäume (1976) or Symphony no.2 (1981), stylistical inclusion co-exist with a more spontaneous proliferation of the original, basic material. The integration of tonality and modality followed on from his Eisler research and marked a reaction against what he saw as the indifference of the avant garde toward communication.

Overcoming a mistrust of the notion of historical progress (already implicit in the cyclical character of Wiederkehr) and a sense of existential emptiness (expressed in the rarified language, tense silences and Webernian resonances of Sisyphos I-III, 1984–5) Lombardi attained a new equilibrium in Faust (1986–90; awarded the Societá Italiana degli Autori ed Editori prize for music theatre) and in the Symphony no.3 (1992–3). In the Faust opera a series of poetic-philosophical opposites – life/death, empathy/estrangement, scepticism/passion and comedy/tragedy – co-exist with parallel stylistic techniques involving spontaneity/construction and complexity/simplicity. From 1980, Lombardi’s highly individual mixing of elements has also led him to explore the tension between the individual and the collective as reflected in the relationships mankind/cosmos and history/human existence, in such works as Einklang (1980), Framework (1982–3), Ai piedi del faro (1986) and the Viola Concerto (1995) and Vanitas? (1999).

WORKS

(selective list)

stage

Faust ‘Un travestimento’ (music theatre, 3, Lombardi, after E. Sanguineti) 1986–90; Basle, 1991

Dmitri oder Der Künstler und die Macht (music theatre, 13 scenes, H.-K. Jungheinrich) 1994–9; Leipzig, 2000

instrumental

Orch: Sym. no.1, 1974–5; Variazioni, 1977 [version of Variazioni su ‘Avanti popolo alla riscossa’, pf]; Sym. no.2, 1981; Framework, 2 pf, orch, 1982–3; Va Conc., 1995

Chbr: Proporzioni, 4 trbn, 1968–9; Non requiescat, musica in memoria di Hanns Eisler, chbr orch, 1973; Gespräch über Bäume, fl + pic + a fl, cl + b cl, trbn, pf + cel, perc, vn, va, vc, 1976; Klavierduo, 1978–9; Einklang, ob, eng hn, trbn, perc, pf, va, vc, db, 1980; Sisyphos, fl, cl, mand, gui, mar, hp, va, db, 1984; Sisyphos II, 14 insts, 1984; Sisifo felice, fl + pic, cl + b cl, perc, hp, mand, gui, va, db, 1985; Ai piedi del faro, fl + pic + a fl, ob + eng hn, cl + b cl, bn + dbn, hn, vn, va, vc, concertante db, 1986; Str Qt no.1 ‘Quartett vom armen Mann’, 1991–2; Bagatelles sans et avec tonalité, pf 4 hands, 1992; Jahreswechsel, chbr ens, 1993–4; Addii, vn, vc, pf, 1995–6; Infra, 11 insts, 1997

Solo inst: Albumblätter, pf, 1967–8; Wiederkehr, pf, 1971; Variazioni su ‘Avanti popolo alla riscossa’, pf, 1977; Essay 2, b cl, 1979; Schattenspiel, b fl, 1984; A chi fa notte il giorno, db, 1993

vocal

Vocal-orch: Sym. no.3 (A. Blok, B. Brecht, S.A. Esenin, S. Quasimodo, R.M. Rilke, G. Ungaretti), S, Bar, chorus, orch, 1992–3; Con Faust, SATB ad lib, orch, 1991 [4 syms. from Faust ‘Un travestimento’]; Lucrezio ‘Un oratorio materialistico (Sanguineti), spkr, S, fl, orch, 1998; Vanitas? (Ecclesiastes, anon., Horace, Lombardi), S, A, T, B, orch, 1999

Other vocal: Tui-Gesänge (A. Betz), S, fl, cl, pf, vn, vc, 1977; Majakowski (cant., V. Mayakovski), B, mixed chorus, 7 insts, 1979–80; Mythenasche (A. Betz), S, Bar, chorus, chbr orch, 1980–1; Ophelia-Fragmente (H. Müller: Die Hamletmaschine), 1v, pf, 1982; La canzone di Greta (E. Sanguineti), S, str qt, 1987; Sisyphos III (Müller), spkr, chbr ens, 1988–9; Yedid Nefesh (Canti di amore e di assenza) (M. Meghnagi, trad.), 1v, gui, 1994, arr. 1v, fl, cl, perc, gui, pf, va, vn, 1996; E subito riprende il viaggio (G. Ungaretti), S, S, T, T, Bar, 1979–80

WRITINGS

‘Considerazione su musica e film’, Filmcritica [Rome], no.188 (1968), 250–55

‘Über kollektive Komposition’, Melos, xxxviii (1971), 292–3

‘Rivoluzione della musica e musica della rivoluzione: Hanns Eisler, o di un’alternativa’, NRMI, vii (1973), 430–42

‘A colloqio con Paul Dessau’, NRMI, viii (1974), 227–33

‘Progressive Musik in Italien: ein Gespräch’, BMw, xvi/4 (1974), 325–31 [conversation with Luigi Nono]

‘Überlegungen zum Thema Musik und Politik’, Musik im Übergang (Munich, 1977), 11–20

ed.: Hanns Eisler: musica della rivoluzione (Milan, 1978)

‘Réflexions sur le thème ‘Musique et politique’, SMz, cxviii (1978), 15–20

‘Paul Dessau zum Gedenken’, Sinn und Form, xxxi (1979), 1153–4

‘Sulla mia musica’, in M. Mollia: Autobiografia della musica contemporanea (Cosenza, 1979), 132–48

ed.: Conversazioni con Petrassi (Milan, 1980)

‘“Non possiamo più vivere senza pubblico”: conversazione con Manfred Trojahn’, Musica/Realtà, i (1980), 95–107

‘Ritorno al disordine: conversazione con Wolfgang Rihm’, Musica/Realtà, no.2 (1980), 91–101

‘Una proposta sui compiti del compositore’, Musica/Realtà, no.7 (1982), 22–4

‘Konstruktion der Freiheit’, Europäische Gegenwartsmusik: Mainz 1983, 61–7; Eng. trans. in PNM, xxii/1–2 (1983–4), 253–64

‘Lettre ouverte…’, Contrechamps (1984), no.3 [the avant-garde and tradition], 91–5

‘Beim Komponieren: drei Texte’, Lust am Komponieren (Kassel, 1985), 34–47

with W. Giesler and R.-D. Weyer: Instrumentation in der Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts (Celle, 1985)

‘Souvenirs (prospectifs) de Bernd Alois Zimmermann’, Contrechamps, no.5 (1985), 78–85

‘Sul rapporto tra musica popolare e musica colta’, Chigiana, xxxvii, new ser. xvii (1980) [pubd 1985], 113–7

‘Materiali per un indagine sul concetto di figura’, Quaderni della Civica Scuola di Musica di Milano, no.13 (1986), 86–91

‘Tra preistoria e postmoderno’, Molteplicità di poetiche e linguaggi nella musica d’oggi (Milan, 1988), 27–42

‘Dalla torre d’avorio alla torre di Babele’, Annali di Sociologia, v/1 (1989), 195–9; Eng. trans. in Interface, xvii/3 (1988), 173–6

‘Tre testi’, Eunomio: parole di musica, nos.9–10 (1988), 23–6

‘(note di ) diario (di note)’, Eunomio: parole di musica, no.8 (1988), 22

‘Die Schöne im Fischteich: von einigen Schwierigkeiten beim Vermitteln der musikalischen Warheit(en)’, Merkur, xliv/9 (1990), 754–64

‘Es geht um Leben und Tod’, Frankfurt, Alte Oper, 26 August 1994 [interview]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H.W. Heister: ‘Verzweifeln und Standhalten: zu Luca Lombardis Kantate “Majakowski”, Musik und Gesellschaft, xxxiii (1983), 530–35

H.K. Jungheinrich: ‘Komponieren heute: von Hanns Eisler lernen und wegkommen: ein Porträt des Komponisten Luca Lombardi’, NZM, cxlv (1984), 16–21

I. Stoianova: ‘Auf der Suche nach dem Grundprinzip: Apropos das exklusive Kompositionsverfahren bei Luca Lombardi’, Neuland, (1984–5), no.5, 118–124

H.W. Heister: ‘Verzweifeln und Standhalten, fortgesetzt: Die “Ophelia-Fragmente” von Luca Lombardi’, Melos, xlviii/2 (1986), 22–62

G. Zaccaro: ‘Luca Lombardi ovvero l’identità politica della musica’, Eunomio: parole di musica, no.7, (1987), 21–5

H.W. Heister: ‘Nachklassische Walpurgisnacht und post-tonale Idiomatik: einige Aspekte von Luca Lombardis Oper “Faust: un travestimento”’, Dissonanz, no.30 (1991), 19–23

M. Wohlthat: ‘Doktor Faust als pluralista: ein Briefwechsel mit Luca Lombardi über seine erste Oper’, NZM, cvii/12 (1991), 15–22

L. Galliano: ‘Note sull’opera di Luca Lombardi (1967–1985)’, NRMI, xxix/2 (1995), 252–65

C. Sini: ‘Faust mito della modernità’, NRMI, xxix (1995), 267–72

L. Bramani: ‘Oggetti ritrovati: i linguaggi in Luca Lombardi’, La canzone di Greta, Ophelia-Fragmente, Ein Lied, Con Faust, BMG Ricordi CRMCD 1018 (1995) [disc notes]

E. Sanguineti: ‘Edoardo Sanguineti su “La canzone di Greta”, La canzone di Greta, Ophelia-Fragmente, Ein Lied, Con Faust, BMG Ricordi CRMCD 1018 (1995) [disc notes]

E. Fubini: ‘su “Con Faust”’, Accademia nazionale di S. Cecilia, (Rome, 1997–8) [programme notes]

MARINELLA RAMAZZOTTI

Lombardic rhythm.

Reversed dotting, that is, a succession of dotted figures whose short notes are on the beat. It is difficult to trace any rational origin for this name, which is found in the treatises of both Quantz (1752) and J.F. Agricola (1757). See Scotch snap and Notes inégales.

Lombardini, Antonio

(b ?Montagnana, nr Padua; fl 1688–9). Italian composer. The libretto of his opera Imperio deluso, ovvero La Dorice (A. Schietti; composed for Palmanova in 1688), reported in Allacci, describes him as a native of Montagnana and as a parish priest at Pozzuolo del Friuli, near Udine. He also composed Il trionfo di Amore e di Marte (P.E. Badi) for the Teatro S Moisè, Venice, in 1689. (AllacciD; EitnerQ)

Lombardini, Maddalena Laura.

See Sirmen, Maddalena Laura.

Lombardo, Bartolomeo

(b Messina; fl Tropea, Calabria, 1578). Italian composer. The title-page of his only surviving work, Il secondo libro dei mottetti a cinque voci (RISM, 1578²), describes him as a ‘gentleman from Messina’ and ‘maestro di cappella of Gerolamo de Rusticis, Bishop of Tropea’, to whom the volume is dedicated. It contains 24 motets by Bartolomeo (and one by his son Gerolamo) which make effective use of large-scale sonorities; expressive homophony alternates with strict counterpoint, both richly ornamented. An earlier book of motets is lost (Bianconi; MischiatiI). Lombardo also composed a volume of five- and six-voice madrigals, Trionfo de la victoria navale de la Santa Lega, now lost, to commemorate the Christian victory at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 (Bianconi; JoãoIL).

The motet by his son Gerolamo (1578–1604) in Lombardo’s Secondo libro, is one of the finest in the collection, with its expressive use of dissonance and suspensions. Gerolamo, who has been confused with the Venetian Gerolamo Lombardi (FétisB, EitnerQ, Tiby), is also the composer of the first setting of the title text in Le risa a vicenda (1598⁸; ed. MRS, xii, Florence, 1993). Lombardo’s setting was given as a model to the other eight composers who contributed settings of this text to the volume. He also contributed one madrigal to Infidi lumi (Venice, 1603), now lost.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

FétisB

JoãoIL

A. Mongitore: Bibliotheca Sicula, i (Palermo, 1708/R), 280

O. Tiby: ‘The Polyphonic School in Sicily of the 16th–17th Century’, MD, v (1951), 203–11

O. Tiby: I polifonisti siciliani del XVI e XVII secolo (Palermo, 1969), 51, 55, 71, 85

L. Bianconi: ‘Sussidi bibliografici per i musicisti siciliani del Cinque e Seicento’, RIM, vii (1972), 3–38, esp. 6, 27

P.E. Carapezza: ‘Il Cardinale del Monte tra il Caravaggio e Le risa a vicenda’: introduction to Le risa a vicenda, MRS, xii (1993), pp.ix–xxxix

PAOLO EMILIO CARAPEZZA, GIUSEPPE COLLISANI

Lombardo, Guy [Gaetano] (Alberto)

(b London, ON, 19 June 1902; d Houston, 5 Nov 1977). Canadian bandleader of Italian descent. He organized his first group around 1917 in London, Ontario. By 1923 they had begun to play in the USA, and a year later made their first recordings for Gennett as Guy Lombardo and his Royal Canadians. After a successful engagement at the Granada Cafe, Chicago (1927–8), the group went to New York and in 1929 began a record-breaking engagement of more than 33 years at the Roosevelt Grill. From this time on Lombardo and his band prospered and their records sold well. They appeared on radio, in films and on television, and they toured extensively, always playing in major hotels, ballrooms and nightclubs. For years CBS broadcast the band’s New Year’s Eve performances nationwide from the Roosevelt Grill (later from the Waldorf-Astoria).

Lombardo’s band was among the most popular and long-lived dance orchestras in 20th-century American musical life. His music was always pleasant and accessible as Lombardo aimed for, and reached, the broadest possible audience. The fairly stable membership of his band over the years assured continuity of style and performance. This was partly due to the participation of family members: Lebert (trumpet), Victor (clarinet and saxophone), singer Rose Marie, and especially Carmen (b London, ON, 16 July 1903; d Miami, 17 April 1971), who composed for the band, sang, played the saxophone and served as music director. The band’s emphasis on melody, its perfectly gauged tempos, its ‘sweet’ sound (from the saxophone section’s heavy vibrato, the rippling two-piano accompaniment, and the unobtrusive rhythm section), its carefully crafted arrangements (many by Dewey Bergman), and its choice of popular material all added up to a formula that continued to please audiences – particularly dancers – year after year, despite changes in musical style and the demise of many similar ensembles.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.R. Fallows: ‘Louis Armstrong and Guy Lombardo’, Jazz, v/9 (1966), 16–21

G. Simon: The Big Bands (New York, 1967, 4/1981)

G. Lees: ‘Guy Lombardo: the Melody Lingers On’, High Fidelity/Musical America, xxiv/4 (1974), 24, 29–32

G. Lombardo and J. Altshul: Auld Acquaintance (New York, 1975)

B.F. Cline: The Lombardo Story (Don Mills, ON, 1979)

S. Richman: Guy: the Life and Times of Guy Lombardo (New York, 1980)

MARK TUCKER

Lomon, Ruth (Margaret)

(b Montreal, 7 Nov 1930). American composer and pianist. She studied at McGill University and the Quebec Conservatoire. Her composition teachers included Francis Judd Cooke and Lutosławski. In addition to composing and teaching, she has performed with Iris Graffman Wenglin as a piano duo (1971–83) specializing in the standard repertory and in music by women composers. Founding president of American Women Composers Massachusetts (1984), she has also served as vice-president of the organization’s national board (1985–9), and was resident scholar in the Women’s Studies Program at Brandeis University. Her honours include Yaddo (1977) and MacDowell (1983) fellowships, and awards from the Massachusetts Council on the Arts and Humanities (1985) and the National Federation of Music Clubs (1993).

Lomon’s output includes orchestral, chamber and vocal works, as well as multimedia compositions. Terra incognita for orchestra (1993), written in an atonal musical language, features instrumental recitatives and extended performance techniques in a predominantly chamber-like texture. The cycle Songs of Remembrance (1995–6), composed during her tenure as a fellow of the Bunting Institute, Radcliffe College, sets poems written by Holocaust survivors and death camp victims. The trumpet concerto Odyssey (1997), commissioned by the Boston Pro Arte Chamber Orchestra, was inspired by her reading of Nikos Kazantzakis’s poem The Odyssey and a requiem composed earlier in her career.

WORKS

Stage: The Fisherman and his Soul (chbr op, 1, O. Wilde), 1963

Orch: Bn Conc., 1979, rev. 1992; Spells, pf, chbr orch, 1985; Terra incognita, 1993; Odyssey, tpt conc., 1997

Vocal: 5 Songs (W. Blake), C, va, 1962; Dartington Qnt (textless), S, fl, cl, vn, pf, 1964; Phase II (W. Whitman), S, vc, pf, 1974; Requiem, SATB, 2 tpt, 2 trbn, 1977; Songs from a Requiem, S, pf, 1982; Winnowing Song (Zuni poems), SATB, vc, pf, 1982; Symbiosis (Bible), Mez, pf, perc, 1983; A Fantasy Journey into the Mind of a Machine (Racter), S, sax, 1985; Songs of Remembrance (Holocaust victims and survivors), S, Mez, T, B-Bar, fl, ob, ob d’amore, pf, 1995–6; Nocturnal Songs (K. Wheeler), cycle, Mez, hp, 1997

Chbr and solo inst: Trio, hn, vc, pf, 1961; Dialogue, vib, hpd, 1964; Shapes, vn, vc, gui, pf, 1964; Phase I, vc, pf, 1969; Dust Devils, hp, 1976; The Furies, ob, ob d’amore, eng hn, 1977; Celebrations, 2 hp, 1978; Equinox, brass, 1978; Solstice, brass qt, 1978; Vitruvian Scroll, str qt, 1981; Diptych, wind qnt, 1983; Iatiku ‘bringing to life’, b cl, mar, vib, hp, hpd, pf, 1983; Desiderata, ob, mar, opt. bow chime, 1984; Janus, str qt, 1984; Metamorphosis, vc, pf, 1984; Imprints, conc., pf, 4 perc, 1987; The Talisman, cl, cl + b cl, str trio, live elecs, 1988; The Butterfly Effect, str qt, 1989; Many Moons (J. Thurber), nar, mimes, fl, ob, tpt, perc, pf, synth, str trio, 1990; Shadowing, pf qt, 1993; Running with the Wolves, pf qt, 1995

Kbd: Toccata, pf, 1961; Soundings, pf 4 hands, 1975; Triptych, 2 pf, 1978; 5 Ceremonial Masks, pf, 1980; 7 Portals of Vision, org, 1982; Esquisses, pf, 1986, rev. 1992; Commentaries, org, 1988; Dreams and Drama, pf, 1994

Principal publishers: Arsis, ISCM

Principal recording company: MMC

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Neuls-Bates, ed.: Women in Music (New York, 1982, rev. 2/1996), 343–58

A. Pierce: ‘Profile of Ruth Lomon, Composer’, ILWC Journal (1994), June, 12–15

SHARON PRADO HOWARD

Lomont [Lumon], Johannes [Zanin].

(d ?Milan, 1493). Franco-Flemish singer. See Barra, Hotinet.

Lonati [Lunati, Lainati, Leonati], Carlo Ambrogio [Ambrosio]

(b Milan, c1645; d Milan, c1710–15). Italian composer, impresario and singer. Baptized Giovanni Ambrogio Leinati, he is first heard of during the period 1665–7 as a violinist of the royal chapel in Naples, where in 1667 he also sang the comic role of Lesbo in a production of Cavalli’s Scipione africano, whose libretto refers to him as ‘milanese’. The records of the Congregazione di S Cecilia show that by 1668 he was in Rome, where he participated in several Roman oratorio productions and festivities in churches such as S Luigi dei Francesi, S Francesco, S Marcello, S Giovanni dei Fiorentini and S Giacomo degli Spagnoli. At least from 1673 he also served the expatriate Queen Christina of Sweden as leader of her string orchestra. At this time he acquired the sobriquet ‘Il gobbo della regina’ (‘the queen’s hunchback’), by which he became widely known. In 1673 he sang the comic role of Vafrindo in Pasquini’s Amor per vendetta at the Teatro Tordinona. Similar roles that call for a ‘gobbo’ or ‘nano’ in operas for the Tordinona (Il novello Giasone, 1671; Eliogabalo, 1673; Massenzio, 1673–4) may also point to his participation, and there may be an allusion to him in one scene of the Roman score of Borzio’s Narciso (in I-Rvat). Much speculation about his friendship with Stradella and the scandalous involvement which might have precipitated their departure from Rome in 1677 is based on Giazotto’s romantic biography of Stradella (1962), which must be read with caution. In the 1677–8 season he acted as impresario and composer at the Teatro del Falcone in Genoa, where Stradella joined him. There he produced Pasquini’s dramma per musica L’Amor per vendetta under the title Amor stravagante (1677), perhaps with additional music of his own, and his Amor per destino to a libretto by Minato. In 1682, after the murder of Stradella and the ensuing investigations, he was deported from Genoa; he applied unsuccessfully to return in 1683. A violinist named ‘Gobbo’ or ‘Gobbetto’ figures on the expenses list of S Luigi dei Francesi, Rome, in 1682–3. He was definitely in the service of the dukes of Mantua as a ‘virtuoso’ between 1684 and 1686, when he wrote his Ariberto e Flavio regi de’ Longobardi for the Venetian Teatro S Salvador and two works for the Modenese court, the opera I due germani rivali and the oratorio L’innocenza di Davide; he may also have been responsible for the revival there of Stradella’s Il trespolo tutore in 1686. He collaborated in several Milanese productions in the 1680s and 90s. The additional arias in the Veronese score of Marc’Antonio Ziani’s Tullo Ostilio may hint at an activity as reviser of others’ operas in that period and region. He seems to have accompanied the famous castrato G.F. Grossi on his visit to England early in 1687.

Lonati apparently spent his late years in Milan but may also have had some contact with Vienna, since he dedicated a volume of cantatas and the set of 12 violin sonatas (1701) to the Emperor Leopold I. According to F.M. Veracini’s Il trionfo della pratica musicale he spent some time in prison. In a letter from Milan (dated 2 January 1701, in I-Bc), the famous castrato Pistocchi mentions a ‘scolara del Gobbo del Violino’, so Lonati probably worked as a singing teacher also. The traditional view, based on the work of Burney and Hawkins, that he was the first violin teacher of Geminiani has not yet been ascertained. He should not be confused with Antonio, Angelo or Ascanio Lonati, who signed several Milanese librettos in the 1670s. William Corbett acquired his violin, which he offered for sale in London in 1724 (see Hill).

Lost works and uncertain attributions hamper a balanced view of Lonati as a composer, but certain traits are clear enough. The solo sonatas of 1701 pursue ranges up to the 7th position and display prominent double stopping as well as scordatura, features that link him with Biber and Matteis; no.6 is written for a five-string instrument tuned a–e'–a'–e''–a''. His nine extant trio sonatas – all called simfonie – follow the general style of the pre-Corellian Roman sonata used by his contemporaries Colista, Stradella and Mannelli. He nevertheless treats them in an individual manner, developing such features as extended contrapuntal working, especially in the fugal movements, virtuoso and idiomatic writing, and the use of melodic and harmonic sequences more typical of the Bolognese sonata. His cantatas command admiration and are worthy to rank with those of Stradella and Alessandro Scarlatti. They are basically Roman in style. Consisting of several sections or movements, they are remarkable for their length, variety, force of expression and range of tonal relationships.

Although Lonati was noted for his violin playing and his instrumental composition, he also made a significant contribution to opera, as both a performer and a composer. Whereas his activity as a singer was primarily in comic roles, his dramatic output belongs to the more serious branch of dramma per musica. His Genoese operas seem not to have been very successful despite fine musical writing, especially in those arias accompanied by string orchestra. Notwithstanding their lengthy da capo arias and a penchant for stile concitato, his later operas display skilful writing for such obbligato instruments as trumpet, violin and cello, thus revealing the adoption of some stylistic peculiarities developed in northern Italy.

WORKS

operas

all dramma per musica

Amor per destino (prol, 3, after N. Minato: Antioco), Genoa, Falcone, 1678, I-Rvat; rev. as Antioco principe della Siria, Genoa, Falcone, 1690

Ariberto e Flavio regi de’ Longobardi (3, R. Cialli), Venice, S Salvatore, aut. 1684, arias MOe

Enea in Italia (3, G.F. Bussani), Milan, Regio Nuovo, 1686, collab. Magni and Ballarotti, 2 arias MOe

I due germani rivali (3), Modena, Fontanelli, Oct 1686, MOe

Scipione africano (3, Minato), Milan, Regio, 1 Feb 1692, collab. Magni

L’Aiace (3, P. d’Averara), Milan, Regio, 1694, collab. Magni and Ballarotti, US-Cn

Music in: Tullo Ostilio, Verona, 1689; Arione, Milan, 1694; L’Etna festivo, Milan, 1696

other vocal

L’innocenza di Davide (orat, F. Sacrati), Modena, 1686, I-MOe

Messa, 8vv, vn, lost

2 canzonettas, 1679⁶; 1 ed. L. Landshoff, Alte Meister des Bel Canto, i, ii (Leipzig, 1912)

Cantate da camera, in Armonia di Pindo (Milan, 1712)

16 secular cants., 1–2vv; c40 canzonettas: A-Wn, GB-Lbl, I-Bc, MOe, Nc, Rvat, Vc, P-La

7 cants. and canzonettas, A-Wn, GB-Lbl, I-Bc, MOe, Rvat, Vnm (also attrib.: Cesti, see WECIS, i, 1960; Stradella, see WECIS, iv, 1969; Steffani; Bassani)

instrumental

Prelude, d, vn, in Select Preludes and Voluntarys for the Violin (London, 1705) [transcr. g, fl, in Select Preludes and Volluntarys for the Flute (London, 1708)

12 sonatas, vn, bc, 1701, ?lost, formerly D-Dlb; ed. F. Giegling (Winterthur, 1981)

7 sonatas, vn, bc, B-LVu, I-MOe, S-Skma

9 trio sonatas, 2 vn, bc, GB-Lbl, Ob, I-Tn, Rvat; 6 ed. P. Allsop (Crediton, 1988, 1990)

3 sonatas, vn, bc, A-Wn (attrib. ‘C A’, see Haas)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BertolottiM; BurneyH; HawkinsH; SchmitzG

F. Raguenet: Paralèle des italiens et des françois (Paris, 1702/R; Eng. trans. in MQ, xxxii, 1946, pp.411–36)

W.H. Hill and others: Antonio Stradivari (London, 1902/R), 251

R.M. Haas: Die estensischen Musikalien (Regensburg, 1927)

M. Tilmouth: ‘Nicola Matteis’, MQ, xlvi (1960), 22–40

A.F. Ivaldi: ‘Teatro e società genovese al tempo di Stradella’, Chigiana, xxxix (1982), 447–574

P. Allsop: ‘Le simfonie a 3 di Carlo Ambrogio Lonati’, Seicento inesplorato: Lenno and Como 1993, 21–43

N. Dubowy: ‘Pollarolo e Ziani a Verona: annotazioni in margine a tre partiture ritrovate’, ibid., 509–35

J. Lionnet: ‘La musique à San Giacomo degli Spagnoli au XVIIème siècle et les archives de la Congrégation des Espagnols de Rome’, La musica a Roma attraverso le fonti d’archivio, ed. B.M. Antolini, A. Morelli and V.V. Spagnuolo (Lucca, 1994), 479–505

NORBERT DUBOWY

Lonchampt, Jacques (Marie Léon)

(b Lyons, 10 Aug 1925). French music critic. He took a degree in philosophy at the University of Lyons, but was self-taught in music. He was the Lyons delegate of the Jeunesses Musicales de France in 1945, and began his career as a music critic the same year: he wrote for the Lyon-libre until 1947, then became editor of the Journal musical français (1947–60); from 1961 he wrote for Le monde, whose music critic he became in 1965, succeeding Dumesnil. He retired in 1990. He is of a line of French critics whose single-minded and obvious approval of avant-garde music has earned more than a few opponents.

WRITINGS

Dictionnaire pratique des compositeurs et des oeuvres musicales (Paris, 1955–9)

Les quatuors à cordes de Beethoven (Paris, 1956, 2/1987)

L’opéra aujourd’hui: journal de musique (Paris, 1970)

ed.: E. Vuillermoz: Histoire de la musique (Paris, 1973/R)

ed.: Chroniques de Clarendon: au bonheur des soirs, 1945–1981 (Paris, 1990)

Le bon plaisir: journal de musique contemporaine (Paris, 1994)

CHRISTIANE SPIETH-WEISSENBACHER

Loncin, Jean de

(b Liège, c1575; d Madrid, bur. 27 Aug 1593). Flemish composer and singer. He was one of 14 boy sopranos aged between seven and 12, including Géry Ghersem, Mathieu Rosmarin (Mateo Romero), Philippe Dubois, Jean Dufon and Nicolas Dupont, who were recruited in the Netherlands in 1585 to serve in the chapel of Philip II of Spain. He sang in the Flemish chapel at the court at Madrid from the beginning of January 1586 and was taught by Philippe Rogier until 1593. The catalogue of the library of King João IV of Portugal, destroyed in the Lisbon earthquake of 1755, records eight pieces by him, all to French texts and six of them known to have been for five voices.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

JoãoIL

MGG1 (P. Becquart)

BNB (P. Becquart)

P. Becquart: Musiciens néerlandais à la cour de Madrid: Philippe Rogier et son école (1560–1647) (Brussels, 1967)

M. Agulló y Cobo: ‘Documentos para las biografías de músicos de los siglos XVI y XVII’, AnM, xxv (1970), 106–124

P. Becquart: ‘Philippe Rogier et son école à la cour des Philippe d'Espagne: un ultime foyer de la création musicale des Pays-Bas (1560–1647)’, Musique des Pays-Bas anciens – musique espagnole ancienne: Brussels 1985, 215–29

PAUL BECQUART

Londariti, Francesco [Frankiskos Leontaritis, detto il Greco]

(b Iraklion; d Crete, 1572). Cretan composer, active mostly in Germany and Italy. By 1535 he had been ordained priest, and between 1537 and 1544 served as organist at the cathedral of S Titus in Iraklion. It may have been the destruction of the cathedral by fire in that year that caused Londariti to move to Venice, where he was employed as a singer at S Marco until about 1556. In the following year he served briefly as a singer at Padua Cathedral, after which he is next heard of in 1562 as a member of the Bavarian ducal chapel in Munich. There he remained until about 1566, and by 1569 he had returned to Crete. Londariti's two books of published motets contain a number of occasional pieces including two in honour of the second marriage of the banker Johann Jacob Fugger. The six-voice collection opens with an encomiastic piece, Custos Aonidum, to an obscure mythological text that implicitly praises Albrecht V, Duke of Bavaria, as a patron of music and the arts. Another piece in the collection, with its somewhat contrived opening line Lucas luce sua Grimaldi gloria lucis is canonic. Many of the 38 pieces in the Modulationum liber primus show a fondness for sections in contrasting mensurations, most notably Laetare Kierusalem, which passes through no fewer than five changes in the course of a comparitively short work. Of Londariti's three parody masses, one is based on Josquin's chanson Aller mi faut, the other two on unidentified models.

WORKS

Modulationum quae vulgo motecta vocantur liber primus, 6vv (Venice, 1564)

Modulationum liber primus, 5vv (Venice, 1566)

3 masses: Aller mi faut, 6vv, D-Rp; Je prens en grez, 6vv, Mbs; Laetatus sum, 8vv, Mbs

Motet, 1567³ (attrib. Londarito)

2 motets, formerly Breslau, Stadtbibliothek, now ?PL-WRu

4 madrigals, 4, 6vv, 1561¹⁵, 1566³, 1566²³; 2 madrigals, 5 D-W

2 napolitane, 3vv, 1565¹²

IAIN FENLON/MENTZOS

London (i).

Capital of Great Britain. The ‘City of London’ is a small (about 3·2 km²) commercial area, north of the River Thames; but ‘London’ (or ‘Greater London’) is taken to apply to a much larger region, comprising (at the beginning of the 21st century) 33 boroughs, two of which are the Cities of London and Westminster (the seat of national government). It is by far the largest city of Europe.

London has ancient musical traditions, deriving from its many ecclesiastical institutions (including St Paul’s Cathedral and Westminster Abbey), its importance as a court and centre of government, and its commercial prosperity. It has been a magnet for musicians from Europe (and more lately the rest of the world, especially the British Commonwealth and the USA) since the 17th century; from the 18th century onwards many leading composers settled in or visited London to compose for the rich and appreciative audiences – Handel, J.C. Bach, Mozart, Haydn, Spohr, Weber, Chopin, Mendelssohn, Verdi, Wagner and almost every composer of note since. Through its concert life, opera and musical theatre, as well as its espousal of popular and world music of all kinds (not least within the recording industry, it has maintained its reputation as a leading international centre of musical activity.

II. Music at court

III. Inns of Court.

IV. Musical life: up to 1660

V. Musical life: 1660–1800

VI. Musical life, 1800–1945

VII. Musical life since 1945

VIII. Educational institutions

IX. Commercial aspects

NICHOLAS TEMPERLEY (I, with PHILLIP OLLESON, 6), ROGER BOWERS (II, 1 (i–ii), H. DIACK JOHNSTONE (II, 1(iii)), RICHARD RASTALL (II, 2(i)), PETER HOLMAN (II, 2(ii–iv), MARIE AXTON, RICHARD LUCKETT (III), ANDREW WATHEY (IV), ROBERT D. HUME (V, 1), SIMON McVEIGH (V, 2), EDWARD CROFT-MURRAY/SIMON McVEIGH (V, 3), ARTHUR JACOBS/GABRIELLA DIDERIKSEN (VI, 1(i)), JOHN SNELSON (VI, 1(ii); VII, 6), CYRIL EHRLICH, SIMON McVEIGH, MICHAEL MUSGRAVE (VI, 2), DAVID C.H. WRIGHT (VII, 1, 3–4), GABRIELLA DIDERIKSEN (VII, 2), ELIZABETH ROCHE (VII, 5), BERNARR RAINBOW/ANTHONY KEMP (VIII), KATHLEEN DALE/PETER WARD JONES (IX, 1), KATHLEEN DALE/WILLIAM J. CONNER/R (IX, 2)

1. Royal abbeys and chapels.

I. Religious institutions

2. Cathedrals.

3. Other choral foundations.

4. Parish churches.

5. Charities and proprietary chapels.

6. Embassy chapels.

7. Nonconformist places of worship.

1. Royal abbeys and chapels.

(i) Chapels royal.

See §II, 1, below.

(ii) Westminster Abbey.

The Abbey of St Peter, Westminster, was founded by Edward the Confessor on the site of an older monastery in 1065 and rebuilt by Henry III in the 13th century. It was a Benedictine abbey but became a national church through its proximity to the royal palace of Westminster. William I was crowned there in 1066 out of veneration for the Confessor, and every subsequent coronation has been held there. Henry VII’s chapel, the largest of a number of side chapels and chantries, was built 1503–19. At the Dissolution in 1540 the Abbey became a cathedral with a bishop, but in 1550 the diocese was returned to the see of London. In 1560 it was refounded as a collegiate church, which it has remained.

The Westminster Customary (c1260) describes the use of three-part polyphony at the Abbey. The Lady Chapel had an organ as early as 1304; references to an organ in the choir are found in 1387–8, and a new one was built in 1441–2. The choir of the building was walled off from the nave and was used by the monks; the nave was used by the lay members of the community, servants, pilgrims etc, and had an altar below the rood screen, with a large organ nearby. Several of the chantries and side chapels may have had small organs of their own. The chantry priests assisted the monastic choir in the performance of polyphonic music. Towards the end of the 15th century a song school was organized to maintain services outside the monastic choir, in the nave or Lady Chapel. The first recorded Master of the Choristers was William Cornysh the elder, from 1479 to 1491. There were ten choristers at the Dissolution, and the same number in the new foundation, with 12 lay clerks and 12 vicars. At the beginning of Elizabeth’s reign there were three organs – in the choir, in Henry VII’s chapel, and a ‘great wooden organ’ on the screen, which was thenceforth used to accompany metrical psalms sung by the congregation in the nave. From 1599 there are references to the use of cornetts and sackbuts in the Abbey. After the Interregnum the nave organ was rapidly restored; it was heard by Pepys on 4 November 1660. A long series of famous musicians was associated with the Abbey. Edmund Hooper, Master of the Choristers from 1588, was made the first officially appointed organist in 1606. Parsons, Orlando and Christopher Gibbons, Blow, Purcell and Croft all served their turn. There followed a decline in the fame of the organists, perhaps reflecting a drop in ecclesiastical support for the music of the Abbey.

At various national occasions temporary organs were installed, usually at the west end, where they played with other instruments. This was the case at coronations from James II’s (1685) to Victoria’s (1838). The one for George II’s coronation (1727), specially built by Shrider, was afterwards erected permanently on the pulpitum and screen, and opened on 1 August 1730. It was replaced by a Gothic organ in 1831. In 1845 the organ was divided and placed in the north and south choir aisles, with the choir organ over the eastern arch of the pulpitum. A fourth manual was added in 1868, and a fifth in 1895.

The Abbey came into its own as a national church with the Handel Commemoration (see §V, 2) given in 1784 with 525 performers on a special grandstand at the west end, surmounted by an organ that had just been built for Canterbury Cathedral (see Iconography, fig.11). The unprecedented scale and splendour of this event can be recaptured in Burney (1785). It was repeated in the three following years and in 1791, each time with more performers. A similar ‘Royal Musical Festival’ took place in the Abbey in 1834, and another in 1838 after the coronation.

The regular choral services, however, remained ‘degenerate’ (in the words of John Jebb) for longer than most cathedral services in the 19th century. James Turle, organist for more than 50 years, was succeeded in 1882 by Frederick Bridge, who was by no means the equal of Stainer at St Paul’s in reforming zeal. It was not until well into the 20th century that the Abbey services were again worthy of the venerable building that housed them.

(iii) Temple Church.

Built in 1185 by the Knights Templars, the church was taken over by the Society of Lawyers after the suppression of the Templars in 1312. It is a ‘royal peculiar’. Musically it has been notable in two ways: for its association with John Playford, who was clerk there from 1653 until his death in 1686–7 and may have developed his psalm tune harmonizations there; and for its high reputation in the 19th century, when under Edward Hopkins (organist 1843–98) it developed, for the first time, a choral tradition, which became a model for many cathedrals and parish churches.

2. Cathedrals.

(i) St Paul’s.

The Norman and Gothic cathedral, replacing a Saxon building on the same site, was built between 1087 and about 1285. It was governed by a ‘great chapter’ consisting of the bishop, dean and 30 canons. Plainchant was performed according to a special use, the usus Sancti Pauli, until it was largely replaced by the Sarum Use in 1414. Polyphony was introduced about 1228–30, when a book of polyphony (first explicitly attested in an inventory of 1255) was donated by William de Fauconberg. The dean in 1289 forbade the innovation of singing polyphony (‘cantus organicos’) in the pulpitum and ordered that it should be sung in the presbytery (‘ubi Epistola de more legitur’). There was presumably an organ to accompany this music. St Paul’s was unusual among secular cathedrals in having 30 vicars-choral (who were deacons or sub-deacons) in addition to 12 minor canons (endowed and incorporated in 1394, but established long before). One of the minor canons was chosen as a sub-dean and was in charge of the choir; the second and third in precedence were called ‘cardinals’ (a term peculiar to St Paul’s in this context), and were responsible for discipline. Choristers were trained in a song school under the supervision of an almoner, mentioned in Colet’s statutes (1509). From the later 15th century the choir was supplemented by chantry priests. In 1507 Henry VII incorporated a new foundation at St Paul’s, the Guild of Jesus, which was to provide payments for the additional attendance of the 12 minor canons, eight chantry priests, six vicars-choral and ten choristers for certain special services, to be sung ‘solemnly by note’ in the crypt. The boys were frequently engaged by other churches in the City, and they also performed in mystery plays and pageants. By the 16th century the choir was second in importance only to that of the Chapel Royal. John Redford (d 1547) was choirmaster and Philip ap Rhys organist: much of their music, including that in the Mulliner Book, was probably composed for St Paul’s. The only surviving English alternatim organ mass (in GB-Lbl Add.29996) is by Rhys and was doubtless in use there. The organist was not on the foundation as such, deriving most of his income from being a vicar-choral. The first organist who was not a vicar-choral was George Martin, appointed in 1888.

Paul’s Cross, in the north-east angle of the cruciform church, was for many centuries London’s great pulpit (see fig.1.) After Elizabeth’s accession the reformers frequently celebrated their triumph by assembling at Paul’s Cross after cathedral service and singing a metrical psalm – ‘six thousand persons, old and young, of both sexes’ according to John Jewel, Bishop of Salisbury, in a letter of 1560. Metrical psalms were sung in the cathedral also, especially after the sermon; the new liturgy was sung by the choir, whose numbers remained constant (12 minor canons, six lay clerks and ten choristers). Throughout Elizabeth’s reign the choristers continued to perform in plays and pageants. The last engravings of Old St Paul’s, published in Dugdale’s History of 1658, show a large organ apparently still intact in the north aisle of the choir.

After the destruction of the cathedral in the Fire of London (1666), the new building was begun in 1675 and completed only in 1711. The Smith three-manual organ was built in 1694–7 at a cost of £2000, and (against Wren’s wishes) was placed centrally on the choir screen (see fig.2). The choir was reopened for service on 2 December 1697. The organ has been steadily enlarged since that date. Shrider added a Swell box and toe pedal pull-downs in 1720–21. For many years they were the only organ pedals in England, and Handel frequently took advantage of them, as Mendelssohn later availed himself of the ‘German’ pedals introduced in 1826. The organ was moved to the north side of the choir in 1859, and rebuilt as a divided organ on both sides of the choir in 1871–2 (with a fourth manual added). A fifth manual followed, with other enlargements, in 1897–1900. Among famous organists of the new cathedral were Jeremiah Clarke (1695–1707), Greene (1718–56), Attwood (1796–1838) and Stainer (1872–88).

The music at St Paul’s shared in the general decline in cathedral music of the 18th and early 19th centuries, and was in a disgraceful state by Attwood’s time. The first improvement was in the treatment and training of the choristers, thanks to the energies of Maria Hackett. They were soon much in demand for concerts of all descriptions, and took part in many musical events to the profit of the almoner, William Hawes, who was in sole charge of them. The standard of the services remained low, however; Goss, organist 1838–72, did little to improve it in spite of mounting criticism. Reform began in 1868 with the appointment of Robert Gregory to a minor canonry. Under his lead, and after 1872 with Stainer’s support, choir processions, rehearsals, weekly choral celebrations, and festival services were soon introduced. The numbers were increased to 20 boys and 18 men (1872), and the men’s salaries raised; discipline was enforced, and standards quickly improved. The musical emphasis drastically changed, replacing a predominantly Georgian repertory with one emphasizing 16th- and 19th-century music. The mid-Victorian style, under Martin, remained in favour at St Paul’s after it had declined elsewhere, according to Fellowes.

In modern times the tradition of choir singing at St Paul’s has been almost unbroken, the building having miraculously escaped heavy damage in World War II. It has tended to become increasingly a national rather than a merely diocesan church, and a great number of special services are held there, from the annual Festival of Carols to jazz and folk masses.

The annual service of the Festival of the Sons of the Clergy was held in St Paul’s in 1655, the year of its inauguration, and every year from 1697, to raise funds to help needy clergymen and their dependants. Music by Purcell, Handel or Boyce was repeated with little innovation from year to year; an orchestra was added to the choir and organ from 1689 to 1843, and from 1873 onwards. From 1801 to 1877 St Paul’s was also the site of the annual meeting of the charity children (see §4).

(ii) Southwark.

An Augustinian priory of St Mary Overie was founded at Southwark in 1106. The church (rebuilt 1207) contained within itself a second church of St Mary Magdalene for the use of the parishioners. Nothing is known of the music before the priory was surrendered to Henry VIII in 1540. It was then converted into a parish church and renamed St Saviour. As early as 1562 the rules of the local grammar school required the children ‘to go to church in the choir on Sundays, holy days and other festival days, with their psalm books, and books of prayers, and on Wednesdays, and Fridays in Lent, to be present at the Litany’. St Saviour thus early became dependent on ‘charity children’ for its psalmody. There is no record of any organ before 1705, when a relatively large two-manual instrument, probably by Jordan, was erected by subscription; in 1728 a third manual was introduced with Swells. The chancel had fallen into disuse, a new altar being erected in front of the screen in 1703; the children sang from the organ gallery, which was above the altar and between the transepts. Though the chancel was restored in 1821–2, the nave rebuilt in 1839, and the organ moved to the west end in 1841, the old-fashioned musical tradition continued; in 1884 there was still only a choir of children leading the singing of hymns, with no anthems or choral music. The nave was again rebuilt in 1897 in greater harmony with the Early English choir. In 1905 St Saviour became the cathedral of the new diocese of Southwark. A full cathedral foundation was constituted in 1937, with provision for choral services. The tower, which dates from about 1520, contains an outstandingly fine peal of 12 bells.

(iii) Westminster.

The Roman Catholic diocese and province of Westminster was established in 1850. In the later 19th century the only adequate Catholic music was performed at Brompton Oratory, Kensington. The present cathedral was built between 1895 and 1903, and its acoustics were soon discovered to be difficult. Nevertheless, on 6 June 1903 the first London performance of Elgar’s Dream of Gerontius was given there, conducted by the composer. R.R. Terry, organist 1901–24, trained the large choir of men and boys, and used it to revive for the first time much of the great Latin church music of English composers before and after the Reformation. Vaughan Williams’s Mass in G minor, for solo quartet and double choir a cappella, had its first performance in liturgical use at the cathedral in 1922. The choir has continued to perform traditional church music despite the reforms of the Second Vatican Council.

The present ‘grand organ’, with four manuals and pedals, was built in 1922–3 on classical lines; it is housed in a gallery against the west wall. It can also be played from the console of the apse organ, about 100 metres away at the extreme east end. The apse organ also has two independent manuals for accompanying the choir. The double control is well suited to alternatim singing by choir and congregation.

3. Other choral foundations.

(i) Bermondsey Abbey.

A Cluniac monastery, founded in 1082, it became an abbey in the 14th century, and probably sustained polyphonic music in the century before the Dissolution. The church survives as the parish church of St Mary Magdalen, rebuilt in 1680.

(ii) Guildhall Chapel.

This was a collegiate church founded in 1299 and dedicated to Our Lady, St Mary Magdalen and All Saints. It contained a number of chantries and there was considerable musical activity before the Reformation. The building was demolished in 1822.

(iii) St Anthony’s Hospital.

A choir school existed there before the Reformation; the choir sang in the parish church of St Benet Fink.

(iv) St Katharine-beside-the-Tower.

Founded as a hospital in 1148 by Queen Matilda, this body was refounded several times before the Reformation; chantries and endowments were added, and by 1535 it was an establishment with six choirmen, six choristers and a choirmaster performing daily services. It escaped the general dissolution and later Puritan attacks, surviving, though in a decayed state, until 1825. The church was then pulled down, and a new Gothic chapel of St Katharine erected in Regent’s Park. The collegiate foundation was revived and choral services resumed in Victorian times.

(v) St Mark’s College, Chelsea.

Founded in 1841 as the first training college for teachers in Church of England schools. The vice-principal, Thomas Helmore, assisted by Hullah, was charged with training the student body to perform a choral service in the college chapel, which became a model for the revival of choral music throughout the church. Services were sung a cappella until an organ was installed in 1861; choristers were trained in the attached Model School. Gregorian chants and a wide range of early polyphonic music were performed.

(vi) St Stephen’s, Westminster.

This was one of the more important medieval choral foundations, established by Edward III in 1348 with a dean and 12 secular canons, 13 vicars, four clerks and six choristers. There was considerable musical activity, encouraged no doubt by the proximity of the royal palace. Several masses by Nicholas Ludford, a member of St Stephen’s from about 1520 until its dissolution in 1547–8, were no doubt performed there: one is the five-part Lapidaverunt, based on an antiphon for the feast of St Stephen.

(vii) Whittington College.

Richard Whittington, Lord Mayor, founded a hospital and college in 1424 in connection with the church of St Michael Paternoster Royal. It consisted of five secular priests, two clerks and four choristers, with choir school attached. Some polyphonic music was performed there, and the choir by custom sang an antiphon of the Virgin at nightfall, ‘when the poor artisans and neighbours living around the church came from their work and duties’. It was dissolved at the Reformation.

London, §I, 4: Religious institutions: Parish churches

4. Parish churches.

(i) City.

(ii) Westminster.

(iii) Greater London.

(i) City.

In Norman times London had over 100 parish churches, of which not more than a dozen were outside the city walls. 96 returned inventories of their possessions in Edward VI’s reign. 35 were destroyed before or in the Great Fire of 1666 and not rebuilt; 25 were demolished between 1666 and 1939. 38 were still in use in the mid-1990s. The Guild Churches Act (1952) set aside 16 of them as weekday churches for the use of workers in the City and as centres for special branches of the church’s work.

The music of these churches in medieval times is unlikely to have consisted of anything more than plainchant, sung by the priest with responses by the parish clerk, with faburden where there were additional singers. In the 15th century parish churches began to acquire organs, for the support of which rood-lofts were built; the earliest recorded in a London parish church was at St Peter Cheap in 1433. At first the function of the organ was merely to accompany chant in unison. Towards the end of the 15th century, however, polyphonic music was introduced in a number of churches, by means of additional singers (‘conducts’) engaged at the great church festivals and the feast of the church’s patron saint. By about 1500 many of the wealthier churches were beginning to acquire a staff of full-time musicians who worked under the parish clerk. Many of these were chantry priests who were paid from the funds of an endowed chantry in the church to sing Mass at various times for the soul of the donor, but who were also expected to contribute to the general musical activity of the church. About 280 chantries were founded in London in the 14th century, 120 in the 15th, and 13 in the 16th; but it was only in the last century before the Reformation that the chantry priests played an important part in the music of the parish churches. Other musicians belonged to minor orders or were laymen. Some churches had choristers placed under the care of a conduct. Church musicians belonged to the Company of Parish Clerks, also known before the Reformation as the Fraternity of St Nicholas (see Parish clerk).

The early 16th century was a period of remarkable expansion in the music of City parish churches, paralleled only in the later 19th century. The growing popularity of the elaborate Lady Mass called for greatly increased resources, including a second, portative organ (usually housed in the Lady Chapel), an organist skilled in polyphonic playing, conducts, choristers, and books of music. Baillie has found documentary evidence of the use of polyphony at 26 churches in this period, and has estimated that nine out of ten churches heard polyphony on major feasts, while a few had it on most days of the week. St Mary-at-Hill had a particularly ambitious musical establishment: payments were made in the 1480s for a ‘prickid song Booke’ and for wine for singers ‘at Easter and at many other festes’; in 1521–2 Kyries, alleluias and sequences are mentioned; five-part polyphony was practised as well as the normal four-part, and there were collections of masses and motets. From 1523 the church had a choir school, probably the first of its kind attached to an ordinary parish church. Musicians from the Chapel Royal also sang there from 1509 to 1554, including Tallis, William Mundy and Philip ap Rhys. Other churches noted for their music were St Michael Convent, St Mary Woolnoth, and St Margaret Pattens. Towards the end of Henry VIII’s reign a new note was introduced in some churches in the form of regals. Plays were performed annually in many of the churches by the clerks and choristers, sometimes aided by waits and minstrels. Lavish music was used in processions.

The suppression of chantries in 1547 ended the careers of many professional musicians, but some churches retained enough singers to maintain polyphony. Though many organs were taken down with the rood-lofts in Edward VI’s reign, some were re-erected in side chapels or in the chancel; at least 12 London churches retained two organs, and therefore presumably continued to practise polyphony. Latin motets may have continued in use, alongside anthems in English and such adaptations of plainchant as Merbecke’s Book of Common Prayer Noted; there is no evidence that metrical psalms were sung at this date. After the restoration of Latin rites under Mary I and the accession of Elizabeth I in 1558, some London churches still retained something of the polyphonic tradition. St Botolph Aldersgate maintained a choir until 1570, St Michael Cornhill until 1579, St Dunstan-in-the-West until 1585. Many churches kept their organs in repair until about 1571, when the organ builder John Howe died; after that many organs were dismantled and sold or allowed to fall into disuse. No new organs are known to have been built in London churches during Elizabeth’s reign (1558–1603). Such choirs as there were probably sang anthems and chanted the psalms and responses in adapted forms of plainchant with faburden harmony. The new music, the metrical psalm, was first introduced at the little church of St Antholin in September 1559, and soon spread to other City churches. For the first time in memory, the whole congregation, men, women and children, could sing together. London was the centre of the Puritan movement, and for this reason the older traditions were rapidly obliterated in most of the City churches. Soon unaccompanied metrical psalms were the only music to be heard in all but a few. The parish clerk, by the end of the century, was the sole survivor of the large musical staff of former times.

This situation prevailed throughout most of the 17th century. During the late 1630s Archbishop Laud, through John Lambe, put pressure on some churches to restore their organs, but with little apparent success. The few remaining church organs were destroyed by order of parliament in 1644, and only two London churches are known to have had organs built between the Restoration (1660) and the Great Fire (1666). After the Fire many churches were not rebuilt, and it was long before others acquired organs. The shift of the wealthy classes to the West End was already far advanced, and City parishes were left with meagre financial resources. Of 76 City churches existing in 1700, only 18 had organs; 17 had still not acquired them by 1800. Where organs did exist they were used for accompanying metrical psalms and for playing voluntaries before, after, and in the middle of Morning and Evening Prayer. Normally the organist’s contract required playing only on Sundays and Christmas Day. Organs were rarely purchased out of parish expenses, as they were not considered necessary for worship; if a donor could not be found, a subscription was raised. At All Hallows, Barking-by-the-Tower, a Harris organ was bought in 1675 ‘for the improvement of the psalmody of this church’, subscribed to by about 80 persons for a total cost of £220. At St Bride’s 186 subscribers contributed to the organ erected in 1693. At St James’s, Garlickhithe, the organ in 1718 was paid for by the ‘publick Tax upon Coals’. The well-known organ at St Magnus’s, built by Jordan with the novelty of the Venetian Swell, was given by Charles Duncombe, alderman, in 1712. Between 1741 and 1814, 11 churches obtained an organ by agreeing to pay an annuity, out of parish funds, to a person who would provide one: such was the arrangement at St Katharine Coleman (1741), St Vedast-alias-Foster (1774), and at St Mary-le-Bow (1802).

The music in this period reached a certain uniformity not found in other periods. London churches did not adopt the voluntary choirs and bands that were popular in the country, but maintained congregational singing led by the organ (if there was one) and by the charity children who formed a small choir, usually in the organ gallery. The tradition of teaching the children in the local school to lead the singing in church can be traced back to the 16th century in some places; in the 18th century it became a normal feature of City churches. From 1704 the charity children of London came together for an annual festival service, at St Andrew’s Holborn (1704), St Sepulchre (1705–37), Christ Church, Newgate Street (1738–1800), and finally St Paul’s Cathedral (1801–77). Another festival service was held on St Cecilia’s Day, beginning in 1683 and continuing with decreasing frequency in the 18th century. It began with a service, usually at St Bride’s church, and continued in the Stationers’ Hall with a specially composed ode for the occasion (see Cecilia).

In other churches, however, the custom of singing was left entirely to the parish clerk, or was allowed to die out altogether, being replaced by long organ voluntaries. The organ, where there was one, became an increasingly prominent partner in the psalm tunes, adding turns, shakes, and interludes between every line of the tune, until in many churches the congregation fell silent.

Reform was initiated by the Evangelical party. A new, livelier, and more congregational style of singing was introduced, first at proprietary chapels, and then at parish churches. The first City church to be captured by the Evangelicals was St Andrew-by-the-Wardrobe, where William Romaine was installed as rector in 1764. He presented an organ in 1774 and took a keen interest in the psalm singing – an extraordinary thing for a parson at that date. But he objected to the introduction of hymns. Other Evangelicals gradually introduced hymns to replace the metrical psalms; the words of Watts, Wesley, Newton and Cowper were more inspiring than those of Tate and Brady, and were sung with more spirit. The new style of singing was faster and less densely ornamented than the old; the newly earnest clergy would not allow the clerk, charity children or organist to usurp the place of the congregation. But the majority of City churches continued in the old way until well into the Victorian period. The vast programme of church building in the 19th century, and the opportunities it brought for musical innovation, naturally centred on areas of increasing population. The City, by contrast, was becoming rapidly depopulated. 18 churches were demolished in the last third of the 19th century. Others remained, but with their music in a debased state. The more prosperous churches, however, increasingly catered for a congregation outside their own boundaries. The charity children were gradually replaced by surpliced choirs of men and women, sometimes paid, sometimes voluntary; and in a number of churches chanted psalms, anthems, and finally a fully choral service along cathedral lines were successfully introduced. Three City churches had fully choral services in 1858; by 1882 the number had risen to 30. Specially noted for their music were St Mary Woolnoth, St Margaret Pattens, St Mary-le-Bow, St Michael Cornhill, and St Nicholas Cole-Abbey.

These tendencies have continued in the 20th century. City churches have increasingly served commuters rather than residents, and weekday lunch-hour services and organ recitals have become standard. The principle was recognized in 1952 with the creation of 16 guild churches. The continuing usefulness of the churches is indicated by the fact that most of those destroyed in World War II have been rebuilt and are now in use.

London, §I, 4: Religious institutions: Parish churches

(ii) Westminster.

The Abbey was used as a parish church until the building of St Margaret’s church in the 12th century; there were two ancient Middlesex parishes to the north, St Clement Danes and St Martin-in-the-Fields, which later became part of the City of Westminster (formed in 1900). St Margaret’s has a more continuous musical tradition than many City churches, through its proximity to the Abbey. In 1484–6 singers from the Abbey were paid to perform at the church; the same was true in 1642, when anthems were sung at Christmas, Easter and Whitsun. In 1596 the churchwardens paid £13 3s. 4d. for the re-erection of the old organ from the Abbey. After the Restoration, St Margaret’s was again one of the first parish churches to acquire an organ, in 1675; ‘Father’ Smith, who built it, was the first organist. For a short time after this the psalms were chanted, but this was stopped by order of the vestry on 7 August 1676. A new organ was built by Avery in 1804.

In the 17th century Westminster was the principal seat of wealth and fashion, and several new parishes were formed: St Paul’s, Covent Garden (1645), St James’s, Piccadilly (1684), and St Anne’s, Soho (1686); St George’s, Hanover Square, followed in 1724. The patrician congregations of these churches subscribed lavishly for organs, organists, charity children and privately printed books of metrical psalms and hymns; but they had no wish to take part in the singing themselves. At St James’s in Queen Anne’s time, the rector (Dr Tenison) was Archbishop of Canterbury, while the parish clerk (John Scattergood) was in priest’s orders; both were normally represented by deputies. The organ had been presented by Queen Mary in 1691. The psalm tunes in use, printed in a special collection in 1697, were all of the plain, traditional variety, including one (‘St James’) specially composed by the organist, Raphael Courteville. They were sung by the ‘psalm clerk’ (the parish clerk’s deputy) and charity children with ornate organ accompaniment. This tradition continued in the fashionable churches of Westminster for 200 years. It was said of St George’s, Hanover Square, in 1882:

although this church is regarded as the most fashionable in the Metropolis, especially for marriages, its services partake in no degree of the fashionable and ambiguous character of too many in that locality and elsewhere. The ceremonials at St. George differ but slightly from those of the last generation.

The ‘fashionable and ambiguous’ type of service had been prominent at two of the newer Westminster churches, St Paul’s, Knightsbridge (built 1843), and St Barnabas’s, Pimlico (1850). Both had Gregorian chanting with elaborate ceremonial, processions and a large surpliced choir; St Barnabas’s was the scene of disastrous riots in November 1850 which led to the resignation of the vicar, W.J.E. Bennett (see Ouseley, frederick arthur gore, and Helmore, Thomas). St Barnabas’s was remarkable in that its foundation included a small community of priests and a choir school, the first of its kind since the Reformation. A somewhat different tradition was established at St Anne’s, Soho, after 1871, when Barnby was appointed organist: a large and semi-professional choir sang a fully choral service, with sumptuous service settings and anthems often adapted from masses by Haydn, Mozart and Gounod.

London, §I, 4: Religious institutions: Parish churches

(iii) Greater London.

The steady growth of the metropolis brought within its boundaries a number of ancient country churches, whose conservative musical traditions were often maintained. Before the 19th century little was done to accommodate the greatly increased populations in suburban areas. From the time of the Church Building Act (1818) a vast programme of church building was undertaken; and the new churches, with no traditions to hamper them, were often the scenes of innovations in church music. Many were furnished with harmoniums until greater prosperity permitted the purchase of a pipe organ. It was at Margaret Chapel, St Marylebone (later to be replaced by the church of All Saints, Margaret Street), that Frederick Oakeley in 1839 inaugurated the tradition of Tractarian worship. In 1858, among 20 London churches listed as having ‘choral’ services, only four were in central London, and several were in newly developed suburbs: St Philip’s, Dalston; Holy Trinity, Brompton; St Paul’s, Walworth; St Matthias’s, Stoke Newington. In 1876 Mackeson remarked that St Alban’s, Holborn, was ‘almost the only church in the centre of London where ultra ceremonial is the rule’, but he was able to list 19 suburban churches in this category.

In recent times the trend has moved away from choral and back to congregational worship. The typical service in many suburban churches is now the Sunday morning parish Communion, with the altar in the nave, and many new churches express this emphasis in their architecture. Canon Dearmer’s church at St Mary’s, Primrose Hill, Hampstead, was the scene of pioneering work in the development of a new and more congregational type, drawing on the resources of folksong; Martin and Geoffrey Shaw were the musical leaders there.

5. Charities and proprietary chapels.

In the 18th century many innovations in church music originated in private chapels, which were established for charitable or profit-making purposes, licensed for public worship, but not under the direct control of a bishop or other authority. They were thus free to try out liturgical and musical experiments that were impossible in consecrated churches, and some of them attracted the support of the wealthy and fashionable portion of London society. They occupied a position midway between the Church of England and the dissenting bodies, and often came under strong Methodist influence.

The Foundling Hospital, properly the Hospital for the Maintenance and Education of Exposed and Deserted Young Children, was founded by Thomas Coram in 1739. In 1745 a permanent site was obtained at Lamb’s Conduit Fields. The chapel was built in 1747, and from 1749 onwards Handel gave an annual performance of his music in aid of the foundation. He presented an organ in 1750. The chapel was long noted for its music, in which the children sang specially composed hymns (see fig.4). In 1760 the Hospital published a small book of tunes, of which a larger edition appeared in 1774. The Lock Hospital, for venereal patients, was founded in 1746. Martin Madan was appointed chaplain, and in 1762 a new chapel was built for him; his Collection of Psalms and Hymns appeared in 1760, with an accompanying tune book beginning in 1762. The Asylum or House of Refuge for Female Orphans (1758), on the Surrey side of Westminster Bridge, had as its organist and choirmaster William Riley, a notable reformer of psalmody, who also compiled collections. Most fashionable of all was the Magdalen Hospital for penitent prostitutes, opened in 1758: here the inmates sang from behind a canvas screen, following the precedent set by the ospedali in Venice. The first chaplain was William Dodd (hanged for forgery in 1777). A new building was opened at St George’s Fields, Southwark, in 1769. Thomas Call published the first ‘Magdalen Collection’ in 1762, and a later pirated edition achieved wide circulation.

The services in these four institutions, both in themselves and through the popularity of the printed collections based on them, led the way towards the Evangelical type of service that prevailed in the early 19th century. A new fervour was brought into the sermons and prayers and, naturally, into the singing also; congregations were encouraged to stand up and sing, hymns of Watts and Wesley were brought in to replace the metrical psalms. Following the example of the Methodists, tunes borrowed from secular and even operatic sources were used, to the scandal of some. A new type of anthem, for children’s or women’s voices and figured bass, became popular. Several hymns and tunes originating in these collections have entered the repertory (see Psalmody (ii), §I).

The proprietary chapel was a feature of London worship from the early 18th century to the later 19th; it was a commercial speculation, either by the clergyman himself or by his patron, and seats were sold to the public. These chapels, too, were often centres for advanced Evangelicalism. Musically the most important was Surrey Chapel, Blackfriars Road, where Rowland Hill was minister from 1783 to 1833. He is credited with the maxim that the Devil should not have all the best tunes. Benjamin Jacob, organist from 1794 to 1825, published in 1815 the usual Collection of Hymn Tunes for the chapel, and in it are found many adaptations of popular melodies, including Rule, Britannia set to a hymn of Hill’s. Set-pieces (anthem-like compositions with metrical texts) were a popular feature of the music, and were sung by the entire congregation of more than 2000. By the late 19th century, though the music at the chapel was still highly regarded, it had become largely choral, while the tenuous connection with the Established Church had been severed.

6. Embassy chapels.

The significance of the Roman Catholic embassy chapels in London was that until the Catholic Relief Acts of 1778 and 1791 they were the only places in England where Catholic services could legally be conducted. After 1791 they declined in importance as Roman Catholic parish worship began to be established, although their tradition of elaborate music continued. The chapels with the most extensive musical establishments were those of the Bavarian, Sardinian and Portuguese embassies. Plainchant alone appears to have been used until the introduction of Charles Barbandt's Hymni sacri (London, 1766) at the Bavarian chapel. In the 1770s the repertory of the chapels came to include masses and other service music by Arne, Stephen Paxton, Francesco Pasquale Ricci and Samuel Webbe (i), the organist of the Sardinian and Portuguese chapels, and the most influential figure in London Catholic church music in London at the time; much of it was published in the 1780s and early 1790s in collections assembled by Webbe. In 1797 or 1798, at the age of 16, Vincent Novello was appointed organist of the Portuguese chapel. Under his direction it became one of the most fashionable chapels in London, where Catholics and Protestants alike came to hear the masses of Haydn and Mozart. Novello's Portuguese chapel appointment also led him into publishing: his first venture, in 1811, was A Collection of Sacred Music as Performed at the Royal Portuguese Chapel in London, soon followed by other collections of Catholic church music. From about 1811 Novello was assisted at the Portuguese chapel by his friend Samuel Wesley, whose conversion to Roman Catholicism in 1784 had been brought about largely by his admiration for the music at the embassy chapels. Plainchant continued to decline in the chapels in the early 19th century as the use of modern church music increased, until in 1823 a writer in the Quarterly Musical Magazine and Review could remark that it was ‘now almost wholly discontinued in England’.

7. Nonconformist places of worship.

(i) Foundery Chapel.

John Wesley in 1739 bought an old government building in Moorgate Fields and used it as his first headquarters. Here it was that the Methodist style of hymn singing, which was eventually to sweep aside the old Puritan tradition of metrical psalmody, was first developed. The ‘Foundery Tune Book’ (A Collection of Tunes set to Music, 1742) was the first publication of tunes of the new style, and it broke tradition by including adaptations of operatic music. Wesley moved his headquarters to a new chapel in City Road in 1778.

(ii) Union Chapel, Islington.

This became perhaps the leading nonconformist chapel in London for music. Improvement was begun by Dr Allon, the great Congregationalist preacher, who went there in 1843. He instituted a psalmody class in 1847 or 1848, and appointed Henry John Gauntlett as organist and teacher of psalmody in 1852. In 1856 Allon and Gauntlett published The Congregational Psalmist and in the same year Anglican chanting, on a strictly congregational basis, was introduced in the chapel. A choir was first formed in 1859, with about 25 singers; the number reached 60 by 1880.

(iii) Weigh House Chapel, Eastcheap.

This chapel became the centre of an interesting movement for the improvement of Presbyterian psalmody in Queen Anne’s reign (1703–14) (see Psalms, metrical, §III, 2(i)). A second period of outstanding singing at this chapel was during the ministry of Thomas Binney. Taking advantage of Hullah’s sight-singing methods, Binney issued a ‘Weigh-house Tune-book’ in 1843 and had it taught to some 300 members of his congregation. It was superseded in 1852 by Congregational Church Music, prepared with the help of the visiting American musician Lowell Mason. Truly congregational singing was achieved of a kind that was imitated in many other nonconformist chapels.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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I. Spink: Restoration Cathedral Music 1660–1714 (London, 1995)

II. Music at court

1. The Chapel Royal.

2. Secular music.

London, §II: Music at court

1. The Chapel Royal.

(i) Introduction.

In standard usage the term ‘Chapel Royal’ denotes a special group of personnel maintained by successive sovereigns of England within the royal household, to whom is deputed the duty of ordering and performing divine service in the sovereign’s presence in an appropriate manner. The term may also occur in its original sense, in which it denotes the service books, vestments, relics, plate, vessels and utensils used by this organization at divine service.

Until comparatively recently the Chapel Royal observed constant attendance on the sovereign. It had no permanent base, therefore, but travelled with the royal household and discharged its duties in the chapel of whatever palace, manor house or castle in which the king then happened to be resident. Its personnel is separate from the choral staffs of certain permanent collegiate institutions that happen to enjoy royal associations – for example St George’s Chapel, Windsor Castle – but which in every other respect are organizations entirely distinct from the Chapel Royal.

(ii) Beginnings to 1558.

As a specialized body of liturgical musicians, the Chapel Royal took shape during the reigns of Edward I (1272–1307) and Edward II (1307–27). For centuries before this period, a group of selected chaplains had always formed part of the royal household, but since they constituted probably its only genuinely literate element, they were employed principally as top administrators and advisers, and their importance was primarily political rather than musical. Nevertheless, as priests they also ministered to the king’s spiritual needs as necessary, and by the 13th century they were assisted at the ceremonial occasions known as ‘crown-wearings’ by some three or four clerici. These appear to have been men in royal service who possessed good singing voices and were drafted into the chapel on such occasions to sing the acclamatory litany Christus vincit. One clericus in 1261 was Henry Blacksmith, later commended by Anonymus 4 as one of the few singers in England worthy of comparison with the singers of Notre Dame, Paris.

Between 1272 and 1318 these rather impermanent and ad hoc arrangements for observing divine service in the royal presence ceased to satisfy the needs of successive monarchs and were replaced by the provision of a self-contained department of the household called the capella regis. Its personnel included chaplains, clerks of the second form and choristers, who thus were able to perform the daily celebration of Mass and the Canonical Hours (or as much of them as was practicable for an institution that was largely peripatetic) according to some secular liturgical rite – Sarum Use by the 15th century. The composition of its staff was plainly derived from that observed at certain collegiate churches. By 1318 its working personnel consisted of a chief chaplain (later given the title of dean), five chaplains, six clerks and three or four choristers, besides the necessary ancillary staff. Among its repertory were two volumes of polyphonic music, possibly drawn from the Magnus liber of Leoninus and Perotinus.

From these modest beginnings, the chapel eventually developed into one of the foremost secular liturgical choirs in Europe. As a demonstration of their wealth and piety, the ostentatious promotion and cultivation of the Chapel Royal became for successive kings an eloquent medium for projecting the public and diplomatic image that seemed appropriate. By 1360 Edward III (1327–77) had stabilized the personnel of the chapel at 16 ‘Gentlemen’ (chaplains and clerks) and four ‘Children’ (boy choristers). Between 1394 and 1396, probably as a royal counterblast to Lollard criticism of elaborate household choirs, Richard II (1377–99) increased the number of Gentlemen to 24. Henry IV (1399–1413) maintained the chapel at these numbers while streamlining its duties, and Henry V (1413–22), mindful of his eminence as both King of England and King-designate of France, enlarged it to the exceptional size of 32 Gentlemen and 16 Children.

Henry VI (1422–61) and Edward IV (1461–83) maintained a chapel that sporadically approached similar dimensions – 36 Gentlemen and ten Children. Two valuable accounts of the composition and duties of the chapel, written in 1449 and 1471 respectively, are extant. The latter occurs in a comprehensive volume of household regulations known as the ‘Black Book of the Household of Edward IV’; the former occurs as the Liber regie capelle, an account of the constitution of the chapel and of certain ceremonies peculiar to it, compiled by the dean, William Say, and sent to King Alfonso V of Portugal at his request. Henry VII (1485–1509) was satisfied with a chapel consisting of 26 Gentlemen and ten Children; Henry VIII (1509–47), Edward VI (1547–53) and Mary (1553–8) maintained 32 Gentlemen and 12 Children.

This extensive provision of some 40–50 voices was designed to satisfy the king’s need for a conspicuous display of the wealth, resources and creative talent at his disposal in the ordering of his daily and festal religious devotions. The chapel was a privileged and well-paid body of musicians, and at least from the late 14th century onwards it (and the aristocratic household chapels modelled on it) led the way in innovations both in performing practice and compositional technique. The Chapel Royal helped to pioneer the creation of the new class of professional lay clerks around the turn of the 15th century, and during the first half of that century it may well have utilized its large number of skilled executants to inaugurate both the practice of regular daily performance of composed polyphonic music at divine service and the practice of choral polyphony. It also played a leading part in introducing treble and bass voices in the performance of composed polyphony in the second half of the 15th century and in composition for the new vernacular liturgy in the mid-16th.

Although the composers of pre-Reformation church music in England were geographically too widely dispersed for any identifiable school of composition to be detectable at the Chapel Royal or any other single institution, there were nevertheless periods when the chapel nurtured numerous active composers. John Aleyn (1362–73), John Excetre (1372–97), Roger Gerveys (1376–7) and Robert Chirbury (1420–22, 1437–49) are possibly identifiable with composers who contributed to the first layer of the Old Hall Manuscript (compiled c1418–19). Although not compiled for the Chapel Royal, it seems that this important manuscript was used by the chapel in the period c1421–30, when some 23 compositions by four of its members, present and past (Thomas Damett, Nicholas Sturgeon, John Burell and John Cooke) were added to it. Other chapel composers active at about this period were John Pyamour (1419–21) and John Plummer (1438–67). Between 1418 and 1421 the chapel accompanied Henry V to the wars in France, and continental observers admired its excellence. The chapel’s further visits to France in the royal retinue during the first half of the 15th century may also have done much to transmit to the Continent an acquaintance with the English style, widely admired and emulated there.

Composers known to have been members of the chapel up to the death of Queen Mary include Robert Fayrfax (1496–1521), William Cornysh (1496–1523), Thomas Tallis (1542–85) and John Sheppard (1552–9), and there is little doubt that the bulk of their larger-scale compositions for the Latin rite were written for performance by the Chapel Royal. Under the patronage of sovereigns as knowledgeable about music and as concerned for ceremony as Henry VIII and Mary, the chapel enjoyed a particularly fruitful and distinguished existence.

(iii) From 1558.

Under Elizabeth I the Chapel Royal flourished as never before. Not only was the choir the largest and by far the finest of its kind in the country but conditions of service were also outstandingly good, with salaries more than three times the national average. The queen’s love of music, shared to some extent by her immediate successors, James I and Charles I, was reflected both in the excellence of the chapel’s performance and in the compositional attainments of its members, who included almost every important English church musician of the period. Elsewhere, in provincial cathedrals and collegiate choirs especially, things were very different: rapid inflation and growing Puritanism, coupled with a waning of interest in church music generally during the second half of the century, had an adverse effect on both standards and resources, and it was in the Chapel Royal alone that the so-called golden age of Elizabethan church music occurred.

As a ‘royal peculiar’, the chapel is exempt from episcopal jurisdiction. Since the Reformation, however, its chief officer, the dean (appointed by the sovereign), has nearly always been a bishop (since 1748 the Bishop of London). Under him, the sub-dean (also a clergyman and in effect a precentor) is responsible for the daily routine and administration of the choir, whose members, like most royal servants, are also subject to the general authority of the Lord Chamberlain. Under Elizabeth, as under Henry VIII, Edward VI and Mary, the choir comprised 32 Gentlemen (of whom roughly a third were priests, the rest lay clerks) and 12 Children. While the latter were permanently on duty, the full body of men appeared only on special occasions. At other times a rota system of alternate months of waiting applied; for ordinary ferial services, therefore, there were probably never more than about 16 men in the choir. Over the years the size of the establishment has gradually decreased, and now stands at six Gentlemen and ten Children.

Next in importance after the sub-dean was the Master of the Children, who until 1923 (when the choir school was closed) was responsible not only for the boys’ musical training but also for their general education, maintenance and welfare. He also had power – regularly exercised, at any rate in the early days – to impress promising choristers for service in the Chapel Royal, and apparently even as late as 1684 occasional visitations were still made for this purpose. A warrant of 1626 seems to have put a stop to the longstanding tradition whereby Chapel Royal children were also involved as actors in dramatic productions at court and, from 1597, in plays at the Blackfriars theatre. In the 18th century, however, they were once again frequently employed outside the chapel, most notably perhaps in Handel’s oratorio performances. Originally, as in all cathedrals of the Old Foundation, there was no established post of organist as such, and organ playing was normally shared by those members of the choir with a particular gift for it. It was only towards the end of the 16th century that the organist’s special function came to be acknowledged officially. From then on there were three positions of organist; by the beginning of the 18th century these had been reduced to two, and since 1867 there has been only one. The organists, like the Master of the Children and the sub-dean, came from the ranks of the Gentlemen, and other special officers drawn from among them included the Confessor of the Household and the Clerk of the Cheque (who kept the books and acted as secretary). Salaries were £30 a year under Elizabeth and were raised to £40 in 1604 and to £70 in 1662; during the 18th century they stood at £73 but by 1860 had fallen again, to only £58.

On the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, services were quickly re-established, and under Henry Cooke it was not long before the Chapel Royal had regained much of its former glory. Charles II, though he was chronically short of money and salaries were thus frequently in arrears, nevertheless took a keen interest in the music of his chapel, and by bringing its members into regular association with a small nucleus of the royal band of 24 violins he greatly encouraged the development of the large-scale verse anthem with strings, to which such leading chapel members as Purcell, Blow and Humfrey made notable contributions. Although under subsequent monarchs the practice of mounting such performances whenever the king was in attendance lapsed, choir and orchestra were still combined from time to time, chiefly in the twice-yearly court odes and on a variety of other ceremonial occasions, sacred as well as secular.

Under William and Mary, Anne, and the Hanoverians especially, the Chapel Royal, like all other royal musical institutions, went into decline. Even so, there were a few interesting additions to the establishment during this period, particularly the creation in 1700 of an official post of composer, held first by Blow and later by Handel. A second such appointment was subsequently added, and the expectation was that each composer would produce a new anthem on the first Sunday of every month of waiting. At the same time – the date usually given is 1715, but that is at least two years too late – two further appointments, of a lutenist and a viol player, were also made. The twin offices of composer survived until 1872, when they were reduced to one and combined with the post of organist. From 1777 to 1846, when the place of lutenist finally became defunct, the emoluments of the post were added to those of the Master of the Children; the post of viol player, by then also a sinecure, was not abolished until 1860.

Since 1702 the home of the Chapel Royal has been the smaller of the two royal chapels in St James’s Palace (see fig.5). During most of the 17th century services were sung mainly in the Chapel Royal at Whitehall (destroyed by fire in 1698); earlier still, they often took place at Greenwich, where Elizabeth I seems most frequently to have held court. The choir went to Scotland with James I and Charles I (in 1617 and 1633 respectively), but its occasional later perambulations have seldom taken it further afield than Windsor, Hampton Court and Richmond, where for at least two centuries the English court usually spent the summer months. Various other chapels, serving the needs of individual members of the royal family, have from time to time employed a separate body of musicians. The Dean of the Chapels Royal has in his charge the chapels of St James’s Palace, Hampton Court and (since 1966) St Peter ad Vincula in the Tower of London; in all of them choral services are performed on Sundays only. The Queen’s Free Chapel of St George in Windsor Castle, often cited in this context, is, like Westminster Abbey, a wholly independent collegiate body.

Source materials for the history of the Chapel Royal after 1558 are extensive. Most important is the Old Cheque Book, published by Rimbault in 1872 (supplemented by GB-Ob Rawl.D.318; see Hillebrand); a second (the ‘New’) Cheque Book, seemingly little known, covers the years 1721–1910. Much valuable information is to be found in the Lord Chamberlain’s and Treasury records in the Public Record Office (for the period up to 1714 see AshbeeR). While the modern period is adequately covered by the Royal Kalendar and the British Imperial Calendar, the earlier publications of E. and J. Chamberlayne (Angliae notitia and Magnae Britanniae notitia, 1669 et seq.) and Miege (New State of England, 1691 et seq.) must be used with caution. A painting of about 1603 (GB-Lbl Add.35324) shows members of the Chapel Royal forming part of the funeral procession of Queen Elizabeth (see fig.6). Nearly 100 partbooks in use between about 1677 and 1810 survive, and are kept in the Royal Music Library (GB-Lbl; see Laurie). From 1712 onwards a series of official Chapel Royal wordbooks of anthems was also issued.

London, §II: Music at court

2. Secular music.

(i) Early minstrelsy.

(ii) Secular music under the Tudors.

(iii) James I and Charles I.

(iv) Charles II and James II.

(v) Decline.

(i) Early minstrelsy.

Minstrel entertainers existed in England in Saxon times, but only after the Norman Conquest are they recorded as being in the king’s permanent employment. Taillefer, William the Conqueror’s minstrel, died at the battle of Hastings juggling with a sword and singing a song of Roland at Roncesvalles; the Domesday Book names his successor as Berdic, ioculator regis. The number of royal minstrels must have increased in the 12th and 13th centuries: by the reign of Edward I (1272–1307) the king’s large household included many minstrels playing various instruments, as did the households of the queen, the Prince of Wales and the king’s younger sons.

Most minstrels were probably soloists, but there are indications of group performance. The royal trumpeters played in pairs by the 14th century, and as a group of six by the end of the 15th: numbers increased further during the 16th century. There is evidence of fiddlers and other ‘still’ instrumentalists playing in pairs. In the late 13th century the royal vigiles (household watchmen) formed a consort of shawms, and a century later the royal minstrels included the standard alta capella band of shawms and a trumpet. Throughout the 15th century ‘the shawms’ formed a mixed group, originally of three shawms and a trumpet but increasingly of two of each type. The brass instrument involved was the sackbut by the late 15th century. In 1492 Henry VII bought a set of flutes in a case, which suggests that a consort of matched flutes of different sizes was used from that date.

(ii) Secular music under the Tudors.

The secular part of the Royal Music changed in two fundamental ways in the reigns of Henry VII (1485–1509) and Henry VIII (1509–47). First, the medieval distinction between haut and bas instruments was intensified by the establishment in the 1490s of a distinction between the Presence Chamber, the public areas of the court, and the Privy Chamber, the private living and working areas of the monarch; it was eventually embodied in the Eltham Ordinances of 1526, the model for the organization of the Royal Household up to the Civil War and beyond. Loud wind instruments, such as the royal trumpeters and the shawm and sackbut players, were assigned to the former, while the players of soft instruments belonged to the latter.

Second, the solo or duet minstrelsy of the Middle Ages rapidly gave way to fixed groups playing sets of polyphonic consort instruments, creating further subsections in the structure of the Royal Music. Henry VII employed a group of shawms and sackbuts at least from 1495, and a group of ‘styll shawms’ (apparently a type of soft shawm with a cylindrical bore) is recorded at the beginning of Henry VIII's reign; to judge by their names, most of them came from Flanders and Germany, the areas that had led the way in the development of polyphonic consorts and consort instruments. Viols seem to have been introduced to Henry VIII's court about 1515 by three members of the Van Wilder family from the Netherlands, and a group of rebecs developed in the 1520s, presumably to play dance music. The rebec players apparently changed to flutes when Henry VIII recruited two new groups from Italy in 1539–40 as part of the preparations for his marriage to Anne of Cleves. The newcomers, five recorder-playing members of the Venetian Bassano family and six string players from Milan, Cremona and Venice, seem to have been Jews seeking refuge from the Inquisition. The string group played sets of violins as well as viols, and henceforth provided the court with dance music.

The structure of the Royal Music established in the 1540s remained largely unchanged until the Civil War and even beyond. The four instrumental consorts, shawms and sackbuts, recorders, flutes and violins or viols, served in the Presence Chamber alongside those who were functionaries rather than literate musicians, such as the trumpeters, the drummers and the fife players. It needs to be emphasized that they did not make up a single ‘orchestra’ but were separate groups, each with their own personnel, duties and sphere of operation in the palaces. However, they did cooperate on special occasions, such as the productions of masques, and their autonomy began to be eroded after Charles I established the post of Master of the Music at his accession in 1625. The Privy Chamber employed a more loosely organized pool of musicians, including lutenists, viol players, keyboard players, harpers and singers, who taught the royal family music and provided them with a range of domestic vocal and instrumental music. They often received the courtesy title ‘Groom of the Privy Chamber’, and some of them, such as the keyboard players Mark Smeaton and Ferdinand Richardson, were more courtier than musician, heirs to a tradition that required such personal attendants to provide the monarch with informal entertainment.

The Tudor court was by far the largest musical institution in England, and employed most of its important composers, especially after the dissolution of the monasteries disrupted collegiate foundations around the country. Yet few surviving musical sources can be associated directly with it; it is likely that any collections of court music housed at Whitehall were destroyed in the fire that consumed the old palace in 1698. However, two early Tudor songbooks, the Fayrfax Manuscript (GB-Lbl Add.5465, c1500, ed. in MB, xxxvi) and the Henry VIII Manuscript (GB-Lbl Add.31392, c1518, ed. in MB, xviii) have close connections with the court, and the Henry VIII Manuscript contains songs and instrumental pieces, some attributed to the king, that are likely to have been sung in the Privy Chamber. Similarly, the French chansons of Philip Van Wilder (ed. in Collected Works, ed. J. Bernstein, New York, 1991) are widely distributed in Elizabethan manuscripts in textless versions or arrangements for lute or keyboard. They may have been performed by singers and instrumentalists working in the Privy Chamber under his direction in the 1540s and early 1550s.

Few connections can be established between surviving manuscripts and the Royal Music in the reigns of Edward VI (1547–53), Mary (1553–8) and Elizabeth (1558–1603), although the Lumley or Arundel Partbooks (GB-Lbl Roy.App.74–6) contain a group of four- and five-part dances (ed. in MB, xliv) of about 1560 that seem to derive in part from the repertory of the court violin consort. Much of the Elizabethan contrapuntal consort repertory (mostly ed. in MB, xliv, xlv) was composed by Chapel Royal composers such as Robert Parsons, Christopher Tye, Thomas Tallis and William Mundy, perhaps for court wind or viol consorts or for the instruction of Chapel Royal choirboys. Similarly, the Elizabethan consort song (selection ed. in MB, xxii) was usually written for a boy accompanied by four viols, and seems to have originated as a genre in the laments performed in choirboy plays produced at court. A more specific connection is between the group of lutenists established in the Privy Chamber in the 1570s and 80s and the developing Elizabethan lute duet repertory. Significantly, a popular treble and ground duet by John Johnson (served 1579–94) is entitled ‘The Queen's Treble’ in two sources.

(iii) James I and Charles I.

The main changes to the Royal Music in the reign of James I (1603–25) concerned the violin consort and the developing musical establishments in the households of Prince Henry (1610–12) and Prince Charles (1616–25). The violin consort, often under strength in the later years of Elizabeth's reign, was enlarged from seven to 12 between 1603 and 1612, effectively creating an orchestral violin band, possibly the first in Europe. Its members may have worked in small ensembles in their daily work at Whitehall, though the whole group regularly provided the dances for court masques, probably augmented by the court dancing-masters; a description of Ben Jonson's Pleasure Reconcil'd to Virtue (6 January 1618) mentions ‘violins, to the number of twenty-five or thirty’. We know from John Adson's Courtly Masquing Ayres (London, 1621, ed. P. Walls, London, 1975–6) and a document of 1631 that the group played five-part music using a single violin part, three violas and bass; its establishment grew to 15 by 1629, remaining at that level until the Civil War.

Prince Henry was the first adult male heir to the throne resident at the English court for a century, and the group of musicians he established in his household was something new. Instead of the separate consorts of single types of instrument in the main Royal Music there was a single group mixing violinists, viol players and an organist with a number of singer-lutenists. The group should be seen as part of Prince Henry's italianate cultural programme, for its mixture of voices, violins and continuo instruments was clearly designed for the performance of music in the early Baroque style, such as Prime musiche nuove (London, 1613) by the Paduan Angelo Notari, who joined the group in, probably, 1611. Significantly, a number of early composers of English continuo song, such as Robert Johnson, Alfonso Balls or Bales, Robert Taylor and Nicholas Lanier, were also employed by Prince Henry or Prince Charles.

Prince Henry's household was dispersed after his untimely death in 1612, though it was reconstituted after his brother Charles became Prince of Wales in 1616. Charles also employed many singer-lutenists, though he was a viol player himself and was most interested in consort music. Under his patronage four eminent composers of consort music, Alfonso Ferrabosco (ii), Thomas Lupo, Orlando Gibbons and John Coprario, developed new types of contrapuntal music for new combinations of instruments, including two and three lyra viols, two bass viols and chamber organ, and mixed consorts of violins, viols and organ. In particular, Coprario wrote two influential sets of fantasia-suites in the early 1620s specifically for one and two violins, bass viol and organ (ed. in MB, xlvi), the model for similar sets by William Lawes (ed. in MB, lx), John Jenkins and others.

When Prince Charles came to the throne in 1625 his musical establishment was combined with James I's Privy Chamber musicians to make a new group, the Lutes and Voices. William Lawes, Coprario's pupil, drew on its resources for his pieces for harp consort (violin, bass viol, theorbo and harp, selection ed. in MB, xxi) and his Royal Consort suites (two violins, two bass viols and two theorbos, ed. D. Pinto, For ye Violls: the Consort and Dance Music of William Lawes, London, 1995), and the group was deployed en masse to provide the vocal music for the lavish court masques of the 1630s. The other main innovation of Charles I's reign was the appointment of Nicholas Lanier in 1625 as Master of the King's Music, with authority for the first time over all the groups in the Royal Music. The reorganization in 1630 of the three existing wind consorts into a single group, apparently using the more modern and flexible combination of cornetts and sackbuts, can be seen as part of an attempt by Lanier to exercise authority beyond his own group, the Lutes and Voices.

The Royal Music dispersed at the beginning of the Civil War in 1642, and its members were forced to fend for themselves: some went into exile, a few joined in the fighting, but most resorted to teaching or just disappeared from view. However, between about 1654 and 1658 a small group of musicians served Oliver Cromwell at Whitehall under the Master of the Music, the organist John Hingeston. The group included string and wind players, and their repertory probably included Hingeston's fantasia-suites as well as a large fragmentary collection of his wind music in two autograph bass partbooks bound with Cromwell's arms in GB-Lv. According to Anthony Wood, Hingeston also trained two boys to sing Richard Dering's Latin motets, ‘which Oliver was most taken with though he did not allow singing, or Organ in Churche’.

(iv) Charles II and James II.

At the Restoration in 1660 the Royal Music was reconstituted exactly as it had stood in 1642, though changes soon began to be made to accommodate Charles II's personal preoccupations. He decided to license and patronize two commercial theatres instead of paying for extravagant court masques, which reduced the importance of the Lutes and Voices (now renamed the Private Music). Furthermore, in Roger North's words, the king had an ‘utter detestation of fancys’, which meant that he soon dispensed with the services of the ‘Broken Consort’, the group in the Private Music that played fantasia-suites and other contrapuntal consort music. Locke apparently wrote his ‘Broken Consort’ suites (two violins, bass viol, continuo, ed. in MB, xxxii) for the group in 1661, and suites for three violins, bass viol and continuo by John Jenkins and the virtuoso German violinist Thomas Baltzar can also be associated with it, though it seems to have ceased its activities after Baltzar's untimely death in 1663.

Instead, the pre-Civil War violin band was enlarged to 24 places in imitation of the French court ‘Vingt-quatre Violons du Roi’, and was given a much more prominent role in court musical life (see fig.11). A section of it, the ‘Select Band’ under John Banister, was granted access to the Privy Chamber; groups from it were soon accompanying anthems in the Chapel Royal, eventually ousting the established wind musicians (it took part in the performance of court odes); and in 1664, divided into two for the purpose, it began to provide orchestral music for the two London theatres. The dominant position of the Twenty-Four Violins at court was formalized in 1666 when the Catalan Luis Grabu, a violinist, succeeded Nicholas Lanier, a singer-lutenist, as Master of the Music. Grabu was dismissed in 1673, apparently because the Test Act of that year banned Catholics from the court. But he was replaced by Nicholas Staggins, another member of the Twenty-Four Violins, and by the end of Charles II's reign the Wind Music and the Private Music had virtually been reduced to sources of places for yet more violinists.

John Banister and Matthew Locke seem to have provided the Twenty-Four Violins with most of its early repertory. Their orchestral dance music, collected particularly in GB-Och Mus.1183 and US-NYp Drexel 3976 (‘The Rare Theatrical’, facs. in MLE, A4, 1989), shows that the group was by then playing in four parts, with a single violin part, two violas and bass, although it seems to have gone over to the more modern italianate ‘string quartet’ scoring in the middle of the 1670s. Not much court orchestral music survives from succeeding decades, though we have many court odes by Pelham Humfrey, John Blow, Henry Purcell and others. They are scored for solo voices, choir (presumably the Chapel Royal), strings and continuo; recorders, oboes and trumpets were increasingly added in the 1680s and 90s. Blow and Purcell also seem to have composed a good deal of vocal chamber music for the court in the 1680s, particularly using the genre of the ‘symphony song’, usually scored for several voices, two violins or recorders, and continuo. Some of them celebrate the spring, and may relate to informal court ceremonies on 1 May.

James II embarked on a thorough reform of the royal household after his accession in 1685, the first since the reign of Henry VIII. The existing groups were replaced by a single Private Music of 35, based on the places available to the Twenty-Four Violins at the end of Charles II's reign. It consisted of an up-to-date orchestra of strings and wind instruments, five solo singers (probably retained to sing the solo parts of court odes), a continuo group of bass viol and harpsichord (Charles Coleman and Henry Purcell), a composer (John Blow) and a Keeper of the Instruments.

London, §II: Music at court

(v) Decline.

In 1689 William and Mary initially retained James II's Household, although on 2 May 1690 the king ordered that the ‘musicians be presently reduced to 24 and an instrument keeper’. It soon became apparent that they would only have to serve on an occasional basis, and the court's central place in England's musical life was soon overtaken by the burgeoning activity in London's commercial theatres and concert rooms. Purcell's career illustrates the change. Before 1690 he was essentially a court composer, writing anthems for the Chapel Royal, court odes and other secular music for the Private Music. After 1690 he continued to provide odes for Queen Mary's birthday, but was mainly a theatre composer, writing music for nearly 50 plays in little more than five years. By 1700 the duties of the royal band were probably already not far removed from those summarized in an article in The Daily Graphic for 20 July 1903:

Throughout the eighteenth century, besides their ordinary duties [? court balls], the band was employed, together with the gentlemen and children of the Chapel Royal, in the performance of odes, annually composed for their Majesties birthdays, for New Year's Day, and to celebrate victories, but since the discontinuance of the production of such odes [in 1820] their duties have been reduced to attendance on Royal Weddings, baptisms, State banquets, and State concerts.

Towards the end of the 18th century the 24 places in the royal band gradually became sinecures, often given to non-musicians, and in the 19th century its function was supplanted by other groups, including the Prince Regent's private wind band (called the King's Household Band after his accession in 1820), and Queen Victoria's private band, later developed by Prince Albert into a small orchestra that played at concerts at Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle. The ‘Private Band’ and the official ‘State Band’ were amalgamated in 1893, although the group effectively went out of existence during World War I, despite being listed in The British Imperial Calendar until 1924.

The court was essentially a musical backwater after the 17th century, and its continuing decline is reflected by the appointment of several obscure Masters of the Music in the 19th century, although the prestige of the post revived in the 20th century. Walter Parratt was the last Master to have any practical duties, and since then the post has honoured a distinguished composer. The successors of Nicholas Staggins (d 1700) were John Eccles (1700–35), Maurice Greene (1735–55), William Boyce (1755–79, but sworn in only in 1757), John Stanley (1779–86), William Parsons (1786–1817), William Shield (1817–29), Christian Cramer (1829–34), Franz Cramer (1834–48), George Frederick Anderson (1848–70), William George Cusins (1870–93), Walter Parratt (1893–1924), Edward Elgar (1924–34), Walford Davies (1934–41), Arnold Bax (1942–52), Arthur Bliss (1953–75) and Malcolm Williamson (1975–).

Nevertheless, many famous musicians were welcomed at court in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Handel wrote a number of works for royal occasions and was appointed music master to the princesses in 1723; J.C. Bach was music master to Queen Charlotte, and was a member of her Chamber Band; the eight-year-old Mozart played at court with his sister in 1764; Haydn was frequently patronized by members of the royal family during his two visits to London; Rossini was summoned to Brighton by George IV within hours of his arrival in London in 1823; and in 1842 Mendelssohn was invited by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert to play to them and make music with them at Buckingham Palace. Queen Victoria continued to patronize music after Albert's death in 1861, but she lacked the prince's breadth of interest and enthusiasm, and gradually royal interest and encouragement of music declined. The members of the present royal family are not overtly interested in musical matters, except as patrons, and music at court is restricted to ceremonial functions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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III. Inns of Court.

At the Inns of Court, England’s ‘Third University’, students continue to study common law; during the 16th and 17th centuries the Inns fostered a broader humanist education, encouraging and commissioning literary and musical entertainment. The earliest surviving records, the ‘Black Books’ of Lincoln’s Inn, begin in 1422; however, a school of law with moot exercises flourished in or before the time of Edward I, although legal training was not based in London until the 1340s when the king’s law courts ceased to travel about with their peripatetic monarch. A recently discovered contract of 1323 assures a young man four years' support among the apprentices at the king's court of Common Bench, ‘wherever the said Bench should be in England’ (Baker and Thorne, 1990, p.xxvi). The ‘ancient’ Christmas customs of Lincoln's Inn, Gray's Inn and the Middle and Inner Temples for which 15th-century records survive may in fact be coeval with the earliest moots, held annually and adapted to whatever hall was available en route. The right of the revellers to share their Christmas sports with the monarch may date from this time. Sir John Spelman, writing in the reign of Henry VII, describes the election, carols and dancing of the King of Christmas and his court at Gray's Inn as ‘the rules used in old time’. In the words and music of a polyphonic carol ‘Nowell, nowell, out of your slepe’ from Lincoln's Inn moot book (c1485–1508) we find fresh evidence of the carolling tradition at the Inns and vestiges of medieval court life from which a picture of life in the school of law may be reconstructed. One of the butlers of Lincoln's Inn transcribes in the same manuscript book ‘The howe of the howse’; perhaps the only authentic directions for the courtly hove dance, mentioned by Gower (Baker, 1986, p.28).

In the 15th and 16th centuries the law students were housed in semi-collegiate institutions. By the mid-16th century, if not earlier, the law students were supplemented by gentlemen who used the Inns as schools of manners. Christopher Hatton and Henry Helmes danced their way from the Inns to offices at the court of Elizabeth. Extra-legal education came to a seasonal climax in the Christmas revels. Sir George Buc claimed these revels required knowledge of grammar, rhetoric, logic, philosophy, history, music and mathematics. By this time students were expected to take private instruction in music and dance and to perform in plays, revels and masques presented at the Inns and occasionally at court. The annual festivities could (depending upon the Inn) last from Halloween until the feast of the Purification. Records of music and payment to musicians belong chiefly to the custom of revels and post revels: there were ‘solemn revels’ performed by the ‘whole House’ and then by the utter and inner barristers, followed by ‘post revels’ danced by the gentlemen of the inner Bar (Dugdale, 1666, p.161). Some of the music of these dances from the 16th and 17th centuries has been identified by Cunningham. Dances appropriate to the solemn revels in the early records are ‘the measures’; in the 18th century they became ‘minuets’. The Middle Temple Brerewood Manuscript (c1635–8) suggests that the lawyers concluded solemn revels processing round the hall singing psalms. Typical dances of the post revels were galliards, branles and country dances; the latter continued to the 18th century. Most of the pieces are anonymous.

Choreographies and music survive for an important suite of dances known as The Old Measures (a late 16th-century derivation of the French basse danse), comprising the Quadran Pavan, Turkelony, the Earl of Essex’ Measure, Tinternell, the Old Almain, the Queen's Almain and Cecilia Almain/the Black Almain. These were performed at the inns into the late 17th century by couples ranged in a file; the musical accompaniment was probably strings. The characteristic beauty of these dances lies in the many patterns or ‘changes’ made by dancers from a small repertory of steps. Robert Mullally concludes that choreographically the almains and pavans in this suite are barely distinguishable; the distinction between them must be sought in the music.

In addition to amateurs, composers at the Inns included professionals such as Richard Edwards (1525–66), Master of the Chapel and an honorary member of Lincoln's Inn. Thomas Campion (1567–1620) lived at Gray's Inn during the period 1586–95. Payments to musicians first appear in records of Lincoln's Inn for 1446 and occur regularly thereafter. Feasting and music are closely linked in the Elizabethan Inns. Lincoln's retained ‘musicians of the house’ on a yearly stipend: at least one musician performing throughout the year, supplemented by other regulars who earned most of their annual fee playing during the Christmas season. The two Temples, whose lavish revels began at All Saints and ended at Candlemas, habitually paid more for musicians than did the larger Grays's Inn. It is possible to trace named musicians in the 16th and 17th centuries: Lincoln's Inn's Anthony Tyndall was a London wait from 1557 to 1597, as was Henry Field at the Inner Temple; John Dowland was King's lutenist when he performed for the Middle Temple in 1612. Jeffrey Collins, who signed for an annual payment at the Middle Temple in 1640, was also a member of the Globe and Blackfriars band.

The Inns took masques to court for Henry VIII at Christmas in 1526 and 1527; fuller records, texts and songs survive for the late Elizabethan, Jacobean and Caroline entertainments. The principal surviving source of masque dances (GB-Lbl Add.10444) contains a number of dances that can reasonably be attributed to particular Inns of Court masques, and others whose names indicate that they were used at the Inns, though the precise context is uncertain. Sir Nicholas L'Estrange, the compiler, was at Gray's Inn in 1617, and admitted to Lincoln's Inn in 1624. It was usual for the lawyers to write their own entertainments until the end of Elizabeth's reign. Under the Stuarts the Inns often commissioned their scripts and engaged court musicians to compose and perform the musical accompaniment to the masques. The lawyers themselves continued to perform as dancers; they usually offered a costumed danced entry, a main dance, then invited members of the audience to dance with them, and performed a final patterned dance. Songs often separated these danced sections.

Throughout the 17th century revels flourished; the Inns presented Charles II with the masque Universal Motion in 1662. The last record of dancing as regular custom at the Inns occurs in 1733. Little music from the early revels and later masques has been identified. Most of the music in the Brerewood manuscript cited above was composed from 1612 to 1618 and several dances are by John Coprario. Masque music from 1633 to 1636 is included in Lefkowitz, and a good selection of extant music is in Sabol.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AshbeeR, i–viii

G. Buc: The Third University (London, 1615)

W. Dugdale: Origines juridiciales (London, 1666)

W.W. Greg, ed.: Gesta Grayorum (London, 1914)

W.J. Lawrence: ‘Notes on a Collection of Masque Music’, ML, iii (1922), 49–58

J.P. Cutts: ‘Jacobean Masque and Stage Music’, ML, xxxv (1954), 185–200

A.J. Sabol: Songs and Dances for the Stuart Masque (Providence, RI, 1959)

D.S. Bland: A Bibliography of the Inns of Court and Chancery (London, 1965)

J.P. Cunningham: Dancing in the Inns of Court (London, 1965)

D.S. Bland: ‘A Checklist of Drama at the Inns of Court: Supplementary Entries’, Research Opportunities in Renaissance Drama, xii (1969)

M. Lefkowitz: Trois masques à la cour de Charles Ier d’Angleterre (Paris, 1970)

J.H. Baker, ed.: The Reports of Sir John Spelman (London, 1977–8)

R.W. Weinpahl: Music at the Inns of Court during the Reigns of Elizabeth, James and Charles (Ann Arbor, 1979)

T. Orbison, ed.: ‘The Middle Temple Documents relating to James Shirley's The Triumph of Peace’, Collections [Malone Society], xii (1983), 31–84

M. Knapp and M. Kobialka: ‘Shakespeare and the Prince of Purpoole’, Theatre History Studies, iv (1984) 70–81

J.H. Baker: The Legal Profession and the Common Law: Historical Essays (London, 1986)

J.M. Ward: ‘The English Measure’, EMc, xiv (1986), 15–21

R.E. Burkhart: ‘The Dimensions of the Middle Temple Hall’, Shakespeare Quarterly, xxxvii (1986), 370–71

D.R. Wilson: ‘Dancing in the Inns of Court’, Historical Dance, ii/5 (1986–7), 3–16

J.M. Ward: ‘Newly Devis'd Measures for Jacobean Masques’, AcM, lx (1988), 111–42

J.H. Baker and S.E. Thorne: Readings and Moots at the Inns of Court in the Fifteenth Century (London, 1990)

R. Mullally: ‘More about the Measures’, EMc, xxii (1994), 417–38

J.R. Elliott, ed.: ‘Musical and Dramatic Documents from the Middle Temple’, Collections [Malone Society], xv (1993)

IV. Musical life: up to 1660

Throughout the Middle Ages London was a major European musical centre but the scale of the activity that it embraced rose markedly in the late 15th century as the royal court made the capital its permanent geographic base and as London's booming economy brought real wealth to a population concerned to endow its churches. Court and capital worked in close symbiosis; new prosperity, directly or indirectly, supported an increasingly elaborate celebration at both civic and parish level. During the 15th century a large musical workforce emerged in the capital, and parish clerks in particular developed a strong professional linkage with the book trade.

A central factor was the concept of community which, coupled with a belief in purgatory, helped to enrich the city's churches and their music, while cementing relationships on the ground between groups of musicians who settled in particular locations. Endowments for post-mortem services expanded the numbers of singers, creating a sizable workforce available for a wide range of elaborate celebration; they also provided income with which the general round of services could be enriched, and books and organs purchased. Parish communities endowed their churches, and by the late 15th century even small churches were paying regularly for the performance of polyphony as well as for its copying. Parish churches owned choirbooks containing polyphony; so did parish clerks, chantry priests and conducts, some of whose personal collections, as in other towns, were considerable.

The most striking feature of late medieval and early modern London was the close proximity of its ecclesiastical institutions. An area no larger than 1·6 km² accommodated 106 parish churches, the Cathedral of St Paul, numerous monasteries and hospitals. Small and rich parishes clustered around the main trading thoroughfares of Cheapside and Cornhill; near the walls parishes were larger and more sparsely populated. An inner ring of monasteries and hospitals lay near the walls; larger monastic foundations lay immediately beyond. Also important musically is the interaction between institutions that this proximity fostered. At St Paul's chantry priests (numbering 47 by the Reformation) were expected not only to perform post-obit services but also to sing in the cathedral choir and attend other services outside the cathedral. The cathedral, parish churches and hospitals borrowed singers from one another. On occasion parishes used singers from the royal household chapel and from neighbouring parishes. They also drew on the services of parish clerks, whose own guild statutes (from the mid-15th century) explicitly defended a trade monopoly in cross-parish activity. The activities of secular musicians also display a high degree of integration within the urban fabric, again stimulated by the presence of the court and other national institutions. Ethnic and professional factors conditioned residence, as generations of minstrels settled in the parishes in the east of the city and outside its eastern wall, preferring these areas to Westminster. Their musical contribution to the life of the capital was also driven to some extent by changes at court, whose changing spatial organization in the 16th century gave rise to new groups of performers and facilitated the importation of new generations of internationally renowned musicians.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

HarrisonMMB

J. Stevens, ed: Medieval Carols, MB, iv (1952, rev. 2/1958)

G.R. Rastall: Secular Musicians in late Medieval England (diss., U. of Manchester, 1968)

R.D. Bowers: Choral Institutions within the English Church 1340–1500 (diss., U. of East Anglia, 1975)

D. Lasocki: ‘Professional Recorder Playing in England 1500–1740, i: 1500–1640’, EMc, x (1982), 23–9

V. Musical life: 1660–1800

(ii) The masque tradition and Davenant.

1. The Stage.

(i) Introduction.

(iii) 1671–1704: semi-operas and masques.

(iv) 1705–19: Vanbrugh’s theatre and Italian opera.

(v) 1719–38: the Royal Academies and their competitors.

(vi) 1739–78: Italian versus English.

(vii) 1778–92: the end of the first King’s Theatre and the Pantheon.

(viii) 1792–1800: opera at the end of the 18th century.

(i) Introduction.

The early history of opera in London encompasses a double tradition. In ‘English’ form, opera finds its origins in the Stuart court masque and its first flowering in the half-sung, half-spoken ‘semi-opera’ that reached its zenith in the work of Henry Purcell in the early 1690s. By 1708 the transition to all-sung opera in English was well under way, but a government order temporarily separating operas from plays, along with the importation of high-priced Italian castratos, led rapidly to a tradition of performance in Italian. Unlike inhabitants of most other major opera centres in Europe, Londoners after 1710 saw their main form of opera in a language they could not understand.

A second major peculiarity of opera in London is its commercial basis. The Civil War and the execution of Charles I in 1649 terminated large-scale royal patronage. George I countenanced the establishment of the Royal Academy of Music in 1719 and provided a small subsidy, but his £1000 a year never supplied even as much as 10% of the company’s costs. Opera therefore remained the province of commercial theatres and individual impresarios – aided by shaky season subscriptions and occasionally by individual patrons (notably Lord Middlesex in the early 1740s, Bedford and Salisbury in the early 1790s).

For more than a century from 1708 the regular season consisted of twice-weekly performances, starting in December or January and totalling about 50 in all. The venue was almost always the King’s (or Queen’s) Theatre in the Haymarket. Against the grand and very expensive Italian opera, the straight theatres – Lincoln’s Inn Fields (Covent Garden after 1732) and Drury Lane – offered more popular fare in English. The ballad opera boom inaugurated by Gay’s The Beggar’s Opera (1728) was followed by a craze for burletta afterpieces, and eventually by a tradition of native light opera that virtually dominated the English theatre in the late 18th century and early 19th.

(ii) The masque tradition and Davenant.

Most authorities treat William Davenant’s The Siege of Rhodes (1656) as the first real opera in London, but it clearly derives both from continental influences and native English developments, particularly the court masque in which Davenant was heavily involved before the Civil War. The court masque itself apparently evolved out of an ancient mumming tradition that merged with elaborate continental entertainments, presenting dance, spectacle and allegorical-poetical compliments to a king or noble patron. The masque rose to dizzying heights of spectacle and expense under James I and Charles I (1603–42). The most famous examples are those devised by Ben Jonson and Inigo Jones, notably The Masque of Queens (1609), in which the antimasque was first introduced, and The Gypsies Metamorphosed (1621). When Jones broke with Jonson in 1631, others filled the place of poet, including Davenant.

Masques are mixed entertainments stressing elaborate scenery, costumes and machines but generally lacking much in the way of plot coherence and characterization. Had the Civil War not intervened, such entertainments would probably have been transplanted into the public theatre. In 1639 Davenant received a royal patent permitting him to build a playhouse and to perform not only plays but also ‘musical Presentments, Scenes, Dancing or other the like’. Obviously he hoped to present music and spectacle in a fully equipped theatre, but the Civil War delayed his experiment.

During his Civil War exile, Davenant evidently saw some Italian court operas and tragédies à machines at the Théâtre du Marais in Paris. In May 1656, evading the Puritan ban on plays, he offered ‘The First Dayes Entertainment at Rutland-House, by Declamations and Musick; after the manner of the Ancients’ on an improvised stage at his home in Charterhouse Yard, Aldersgate Street. The following September he mounted The Siege of Rhodes in the same venue, with music by Charles Coleman, Henry Cook, Henry Lawes and George Hudson (see fig.12). Following the Restoration he obtained authority from Charles II and converted Lisle’s tennis court in Portugal Street into a public theatre capable of scene changes, the first Lincoln’s Inn Fields theatre, called the Duke’s Theatre. It was small, with exterior dimensions approximately 23 metres by 9 (recent estimates of capacity vary from 350 to 500), and admission ranged from 1s. (gallery) to 4s. (boxes). The building opened in June 1661 with an expanded version (possibly without music) of The Siege of Rhodes, a triumph that forced the rival King’s Company to abandon their non-scenic Vere Street theatre and build a theatre in Bridges Street (May 1663), on whose site Drury Lane was constructed in 1674 after a fire.

(iii) 1671–1704: semi-operas and masques.

In November 1671 the Duke’s Company opened their lavish new Dorset Garden Theatre, a multi-purpose building designed to accommodate scenic spectacle and operatic extravaganzas (see fig.13). The theatre was on the river’s edge, bordering Salisbury Court off Fleet Street; its exterior dimensions were about 17 metres by 45 (recent estimates of capacity hover around 820), and the construction cost amounted to £9000. Interior details have been hotly disputed from minimal evidence, but patterns of use by the United Duke’s and King’s companies in the 1680s and 90s show that Dorset Garden was a machine house very different from the £4000 Drury Lane of 1674 (about whose interior virtually nothing is known).

At least 90% of the repertory at Dorset Garden consisted of ordinary plays; semi-operas were a special effort and an occasional treat. The fancy ones required many months to prepare and investment totally beyond ordinary budgets (up to £3000–4000 against a total annual income of some £8000–10,000). The famous 1670s productions are The Tempest (1674), the Shadwell-Locke Psyche (1675) and Circe (1677).

Theatrical hard times during the period 1678–83 delayed further extravaganzas until the Dryden-Grabu Albion and Albanius (1685), which was interrupted by Monmouth’s invasion. Though it failed, Albion and Albanius is in fact the first full-length opera in English that survives. In 1690 the United Company mounted the triumphant Betterton-Purcell Prophetess, in 1691 the Dryden-Purcell King Arthur and in 1692 Purcell’s Fairy Queen. The last two were successful but not sufficiently so to justify their enormous costs.

The semi-opera tradition received a dire setback with the early death of Henry Purcell in 1695. In the same year, the actors’ rebellion removed Thomas Betterton (the great champion of operatic spectacle) to the cramped old Lincoln’s Inn Fields Theatre, reconverted from a tennis court. These two events contributed substantially to the decline of semi-opera. The idea that new operas disappeared from the London stage until the advent of Italian opera and Handel is, however, entirely false. More than 20 new ‘operatic’ works were staged in this decade.

Between 1695 and 1701 the Patent Company under Christopher Rich mounted a series of semi-operas at Dorset Garden and Drury Lane – The Indian Queen (1695; Purcell’s last opera), Brutes of Alba (1696), the long-popular Island Princess (1699), and a pair of original extravaganzas concocted by Elkanah Settle, The World in the Moon (1697) and The Virgin Prophetess (1701). Betterton fought back as best he could at Lincoln’s Inn Fields with a series of musical masques by Peter Motteux and John Eccles, notably The Loves of Mars and Venus (1696), on which he collaborated with Godfrey Finger, and Europe’s Revels for the Peace (1697). More theatrical hard times precluded new opera offerings between 1701 and 1704, but a rising tide of entr’acte songs and instrumental entertainments, and the growing popularity of concerts of all sorts in London, gave promise of renewed interest in opera as soon as an innovatory entrepreneur seized the opportunity. All-sung opera had flourished on the Continent; its importation into London could only be a matter of time.

(iv) 1705–19: Vanbrugh’s theatre and Italian opera.

In spring 1703 John Vanbrugh started plans for a new theatre of his own design, the Queen’s (from 1714 the King’s) Theatre in the Haymarket. His plan was to reunite the two theatre companies at his own theatre. As previously in London, opera would be mounted as an occasional treat by a company devoted primarily to plays.

The theatre had outside dimensions of about 18 metres by 40, with a normal capacity of about 760; packed full, it may have held as many as 940 (attendance estimates of up to 2000 in the 1730s were for oratorios, with stage and backstage space used for seating). Vanbrugh’s architectural grandiosity and eccentricity were severely modified by alterations made in 1709 for acoustical reasons. With relatively minor changes, the 1709 building (fig.14) was to be London’s principal opera house until it burnt down in June 1789.

Vanbrugh intended to open in early 1705 with Clayton’s all-sung opera Arsinoe (in English), but Rich stole this novelty and mounted it successfully at Drury Lane. Vanbrugh countered with Jakob Greber’s Gli amori d’Ergasto (in Italian), which struggled through five performances in April 1705. During 1705–6 Rich enjoyed a major triumph with Giovanni Bononcini’s Camilla (in English); Vanbrugh riposted with two semi-operas (George Granville’s British Enchanters was a moderate success) and one all-sung pastoral. Convinced that all-sung opera would prove a goldmine, and unable to arrange the ‘union’ he desired, Vanbrugh wangled an order from the Lord Chamberlain, restricting plays to Drury Lane under Rich and opera to the Haymarket (31 December 1707). Thus in spring 1708 a company tried for the first time in London to offer nothing but opera. The results were a fiasco: Vanbrugh was bankrupt within four months. He was offering translated pasticcios of no distinction, had a wholly inadequate repertory and owed large salaries to imported castratos who could not perform in English.

The operatic history of the next decade was stormy and complex, as managements transmogrified themselves in bewildering ways. Owen Swiney took over for 1708–9, gambling on a star system by bringing in expensive Italian singers. This led, inevitably, to performances given entirely in Italian, starting with Almahide (1710) – a practice attacked by Addison in the Spectator but impossible to discard if star singers were a sine qua non. The major event of the 1710–11 season was the arrival of Handel in London and the première of his Rinaldo (24 February 1711). Handel’s first London opera was a considerable success, but management was acutely unstable and arguments over responsibility for debts to tradesmen wound up in Chancery.

The opera company limped along from season to season until 1717, but extant records show woefully short-paid salaries. The first few performances of a new production were usually offered as a ‘subscription’, but even if fully taken up such subscriptions could not pay for an elaborate new production. Managers were caught in a double-bind: to attract a fashionable audience, fabulous salaries had to be paid to foreign stars (Nicolini got 800 guineas a season, plus a benefit), yet the prices necessary to support such salaries proved prohibitive. Meanwhile, the opera suffered from musical competition at the playhouses. The Lord Chamberlain never formally rescinded his prohibition on musical entertainments at Drury Lane, but it soon fell into disregard. Especially after 1714, when Lincoln’s Inn Fields reopened, the straight theatres competed aggressively with each other and with the Haymarket opera, using musical works to do so.

During 1716–17 the Italian opera under Heidegger managed only 31 performances (including six by subscription and eight benefits), and his cashbook (now in the Essex Record Office) makes clear why he abandoned the cause as hopeless. Meanwhile, at Lincoln’s Inn Fields, John Rich presented, besides plays, 36 performances of full-length operas (in English). The works included The Island Princess, The Prophetess and Camilla – that is, both semi-opera and all-sung opera in the new ‘Italian’ manner. Lincoln’s Inn Fields’ singers were not the biggest stars (though Margherita de L’Epine, Jane Barbier and Richard Leveridge were far from negligible), but at bargain rates they attracted audiences. Drury Lane, meanwhile, countered with musical masques as afterpieces, notably Pepusch’s Venus and Adonis and Apollo and Daphne.

As of spring 1717 when Heidegger’s company closed, the taste for Italian opera appeared to be a fad that had run its course. The logic of the situation suggested that ‘serious’ opera should migrate back to the regular theatres, which could use it as an occasional treat in English. The actual course of events was to be entirely different.

(v) 1719–38: the Royal Academies and their competitors.

By January 1719 plans were afoot to re-establish Italian opera by obtaining letters patent for incorporating a joint-stock company under royal charter devoted to that purpose. George I granted a subsidy of £1000 a year and by July some 60 persons had taken at least one share of £200. Handel was dispatched to the Continent to hire singers. The patent (now in the Public Record Office) spells out the unique governance of this company, which was an odd amalgam of royal household entertainment and publicly held joint-stock company. The ‘Governor’ was to be the Lord Chamberlain, who held veto power in all matters, but each November stockholders were to elect between 15 and 20 directors, on whom operational responsibility devolved. The company would have £10,000 in pledged capital (it actually obtained about £15,000 in pledges), but hoped to call no more than 20% of it. (The prospectus suggests that a subscriber might have to put up £40 and could expect a 25% annual return – a calculation reflecting prevalent South Sea speculative fever more than reality.) ‘General Courts’ of stockholders would be held at least every three months.

The company rented Vanbrugh’s Haymarket theatre. Its normal ticket price settled at a startling 10s. 6d. (5s. for the gallery); subscribers for season tickets paid £15 (later £20) for 50–60 nights, while boxes, generally rented for the season, were extra. Performances were given twice a week from roughly December to June, on Tuesday or Wednesday and Saturday. Members of the royal family attended regularly.

The era of the ‘First Academy’ (1720–28) was artistically probably the pinnacle of opera in London. From 1720–21 to the collapse of the bankrupt company in 1728 Senesino was its principal performer. Francesca Cuzzoni joined in 1722–3 and Faustina Bordoni in 1725–6, giving the company three reigning international stars in addition to Handel. Unfortunately, rivalry between the two women and their supporters created severe tensions and even public disruption during a performance. Administration by dilettante committee proved inefficient. The company quickly ran through all the pledged capital it could collect: financially it was probably doomed from the start. But all such matters of infighting and insolvency pale into insignificance when considered against the artistic achievement of the company, however short-lived. The dozen operas Handel wrote for its eight and a half seasons represent one of the great achievements in the history of opera. Some of the highlights were Radamisto (1720), Floridante (1721), Giulio Cesare in Egitto and Tamerlano (1724) and Tolomeo (1728). By no means was the company devoted entirely to Handel’s work: it opened in April 1720 with Rolli and Porta’s Numitore, and in its early years both Handel and Bononcini had partisans among the directors.

No Italian opera was performed in London in 1728–9. A session of the remaining Royal Academy shareholders voted in January 1729 to let Handel and Heidegger have the use of their scenery and costumes for five years, and the so-called Second Academy opened in December 1729 – initially without Senesino, an effort at cost-cutting. The nature of its financial backing is unknown. The king continued his £1000 subsidy, and private patrons probably helped as well. The reconstituted company operated less lavishly, but artistically much as before. Handel’s Poro (1731) and Orlando (1733) were among its offerings. What little is known of the number of performances and of box-office receipts is unimpressive. The venture had 170 subscribers in 1731–2, and only 140 in 1732–3 (of whom 122 seem to have paid in full). None the less, losses incurred by the Second Academy were probably not more than patrons could bear; its demise came about for other reasons.

Handel and Senesino came to an unfriendly parting of ways in June 1733, and mounting personal hostility to Handel in society circles produced one of the oddest developments in the chequered history of opera in London – the establishment of the Opera of the Nobility, a rival Italian opera company. If one company could not make ends meet, a second was definitely a bad idea, and both companies were to go dismally broke in the course of the next three seasons.

The Opera of the Nobility opened at the third Lincoln’s Inn Fields Theatre (vacant since 1732) in December 1733 with Porpora’s Arianna in Nasso; Handel riposted at the King’s Theatre, Haymarket, with Arianna in Creta in January 1734. During this season Handel mounted 60 performances (including oratorios), his rivals 52, with both companies insisting on performing on Tuesday and Saturday nights in direct and destructive opposition to each other. At the end of the year, in circumstances that remain mysterious, the Opera of the Nobility took over the King’s Theatre, Haymarket, and Handel became a part-time tenant of John Rich’s at Covent Garden. In 1734–5 the Opera of the Nobility hired the glamorous Farinelli and Handel was virtually beaten from the field – though he probably lost a lot less money. By the spring of 1737 the great opera war was over. Handel joined Heidegger and the remnants of the Opera of the Nobility at the King’s Theatre, Haymarket, during 1737–8, but attempts to raise a subscription for 1738–9 failed, and the Italian opera collapsed for the third time in just over 20 years.

While Italian opera was experiencing artistic triumph but financial ruin, musical entertainment in English was for the most part flourishing. The popular English musical forms of the 1710s continued to thrive in the 20s, and The Beggar’s Opera (see fig.16) had a totally unprecedented success at Lincoln’s Inn Fields in 1728, changing the whole face of London entertainment. Gay’s oddity enjoyed a staggering 62 performances in its first half-season and spawned a tremendous boom in ballad opera in both mainpieces and afterpieces. Music virtually flooded the legitimate stage, mostly in decidedly popular forms. The suggestion that serious opera might improve its position by returning to English was put forward more than once. Aaron Hill urged Handel to ‘deliver us from our Italian bondage’ in a famous letter of 1732. Others had similar ideas, and the prospective availability of Lincoln’s Inn Fields in 1732 helped generate some attempts at the establishment of an English opera company. Thomas Arne senior, styling himself ‘Proprietor of the English Operas’, staged several works including Lampe’s Amelia (1732), J.C. Smith’s Teraminta (1732) and his own son’s Rosamond (1733). These experiments attracted little support: plenty of music was available at Drury Lane and Covent Garden, and English opera could not compete with the Italian in social glamour.

(vi) 1739–78: Italian versus English.

Handel abandoned Italian opera in 1741, and for the next 40 years the history of the form in London is a dizzying sequence of changing managements and a tale of artistic mediocrity. Throughout this period the King’s Theatre in the Haymarket continued to serve as venue and the basic season remained as before – performances on Tuesday and Saturday from December to June, with a total of roughly 50–60 nights. Ticket prices remained at half a guinea, but managers could not afford the fabulous fees that had brought the likes of Senesino, Cuzzoni and Farinelli to London. Artistically the pasticcio reigned supreme. The King’s Theatre company rarely mounted more than ten operas a season, and a large majority were never revived. No more than 15% were newly composed for London, and as time went on, comic opera and ballet loomed increasingly large in the company’s operations.

In this period, management was acutely unstable. In 1741 30 gentlemen pledged £6000 as a subsidy for four years, but the company lost about £3800 each season and survived only two. This venture was headed by Lord Middlesex, who tried to carry on by himself and did manage to bring Gluck to London for 1745–6. Middlesex’s venture had collapsed by the end of 1749 and there was a hiatus until 1753, when Domenico Paradies and Francesco Vanneschi organized a company, surviving two years. 12 separate opera managements can be identified between 1741 and 1778, when the opera house, bought by Richard Brinsley Sheridan and Thomas Harris, entered on an even more unstable phase of its stormy history.

Meanwhile at Covent Garden and Drury Lane, musical entertainments in English were proving very profitable indeed. Although the Licensing Act of 1737 produced a lengthy drought in new works of all kinds, the enormous popularity of the Carey-Lampe afterpiece The Dragon of Wantley (1737) foreshadowed the English opera boom of the 1760s. This was inaugurated, ironically, by T.A. Arne’s Artaxerxes (1762), an all-sung English version of Metastasio’s Artaserse that was regularly revived well into the 19th century. It was followed by lighter fare, with many of the librettos provided by Isaac Bickerstaff. Love in a Village (1762) was a pasticcio arranged by Arne from more than 15 sources, with some original music of his own. Other great successes at Covent Garden were the Bickerstaff-Arnold Maid of the Mill (1765, see fig.17; a charming musical treatment of Richardson’s Pamela of 1740) and the Bickerstaff-Dibdin Lionel and Clarissa (1768). Sheridan’s The Duenna, with music by the Linleys, ran a startling 75 times in 1775–6. Such works had plenty of ‘serious’ Italian music in them, but were offered as part of the regular six-days-a-week theatrical repertory at the patent theatres, always in English and at less than half the price of Italian opera. In the third quarter of the 18th century opera was flourishing in London – but at the King’s Theatre, Haymarket, it had become a decidedly sickly and uninspiring venture.

(vii) 1778–92: the end of the first King’s Theatre and the Pantheon.

In 1778 Thomas Harris and R.B. Sheridan, the principal owner-managers of Covent Garden and Drury Lane respectively, bought the King’s Theatre for £22,000 (of which £12,000 was mortgaged). Their plans were not clear: reportedly they intended to use the dormant Killigrew patent of 1662 to authorize a third playhouse. As events fell out, their purchase was the first step into legal snarls from which neither the first King’s Theatre nor its successor was to recover for more than half a century. G.A. Gallini bought the mortgage and tried to take over the theatre in 1780; Sheridan bought out Harris and then sold his interest to William Taylor, who was to remain the evil genius of Italian opera in London until 1815. Gallini and Taylor spent the 1780s fighting for control of the theatre.

In 1782 Taylor had the interior of the building virtually gutted and rebuilt by Michael Novosielski. The result was a shallower working stage, a large pit and an auditorium with five shallow tiers in horseshoe form; the capacity was just over 1800. Taylor’s artistic policy was not markedly different from that of his predecessors, but he was the first manager in many years to spend freely and promote aggressively. The immediate outcome was bankruptcy: the affairs of the King’s Theatre in the mid-1780s are a tangle of recriminatory pamphlets and Chancery actions no one has ever yet quite sorted out. Gallini managed the theatre from 1785 to 1789, despite Taylor’s determined efforts to evict him.

When the King’s Theatre burnt down on 17 June 1789 the situation became even more chaotic. Taylor and Gallini both wanted to rebuild but could not agree to cooperate. During summer and autumn 1789 at least four more schemes were proposed for the future of Italian opera in London. The one that found royal favour was officially put forward by an impecunious law clerk and amateur architect named Robert Bray O’Reilly; in fact he was simply front man for a cabal of nobles headed by the Duke of Bedford and the Earl of Salisbury (who happened to be Lord Chamberlain). The plan was to erect a glamorous new theatre along French architectural lines on the north side of Leicester Square. (An architectural plan, of disputed authorship, is now in Sir John Soane’s Museum, London.) The theatre was designed to hold only about 2300 people and had a staggering projected cost of £150,000. The scheme fell through because Taylor and shareholders in the King’s Theatre violently protested at being deprived of the opera licence, and the Lord Chancellor refused to let the patent grant pass the Great Seal.

In summer 1790 affairs took a bizarre turn. Taylor scrounged up backers and commissioned Novosielski to rebuild the King’s Theatre on a grand scale. Opened in February 1791, it measured about 28 metres by 52 and had a capacity of over 3000 (see fig.18) – even though Salisbury awarded a four-year opera licence to O’Reilly for performance at another venue. This was the Pantheon in Oxford Street, erected by James Wyatt in 1772 as an elegant exhibition space and now hastily altered for use as an opera house at a cost of some £22,000. London had not managed to keep its one opera house out of bankruptcy and now it was going to have two expensive modern theatres built for the purpose, only one of which would have a licence. For the new King’s Theatre Taylor hired dancers and Joseph Haydn, used his new building as a concert hall, and bided his time. Haydn even composed an opera seria for London, L’anima del filosofo (though in the event it was never performed).

Until the discovery of the company’s papers in the Bedford Estates Office, London, little was known about the rival Pantheon operation beyond the works it performed and the names of its principal performers – a strong company including Mara and Pacchiarotti. In fact the enterprise was a deliberate attempt to change the nature of the opera establishment in England. The Pantheon was conceived as a kind of ‘court opera’, in which more of the financial burden was to be borne directly by noble patrons, thus freeing the company to pursue innovations in opera and ballet and to hire the best performers in Europe. To compete against Haydn at the King’s, the Pantheon tried (unsuccessfully) to hire Mozart. Artistically its backers were committed to the old-fashioned opera seria, costly and tending to appeal to only a small, élite audience. But as the hastily mounted season of 1790–91 demonstrates, they were willing to support this preference with a second company devoted to opera buffa. Unfortunately very little went right. The company gave 55 performances during 1790–91 and lost a startling amount of money.

Four performances into the season of 1791–2, the Pantheon burnt to the ground under highly suspicious circumstances, and the venture finished the spring in makeshift conditions at the Little Theatre in the Haymarket. The highlight of the season was Paisiello’s La locanda, specially composed for London. Evidence in the Bedford papers suggests that the Pantheon’s backers killed it off when they realized that not even a princely subvention would be adequate to support opera seria in the fiercely competitive London theatre world. The Pantheon was a doomed experiment, and it seems to have lost more than £40,000 in its two seasons.

(viii) 1792–1800: opera at the end of the 18th century.

The burning of the Pantheon solved the city’s two-opera-house problem, and on 24 August 1792 a General Opera Trust Deed was signed, a kind of peace treaty intended to restore amity and fiscal responsibility. It did not work on either count. Trustees were to be appointed and any profits of the new King’s Theatre in the Haymarket used to pay off the Pantheon’s debts, but Taylor somehow succeeded in evading the trustee provision and the company remained mired in debts and lawsuits. Taylor managed the theatre while technically in a debtors’ prison (except between 1797 and 1802, when he was MP for Leominster). Exciting performers, composers and librettists were hired (B.G. Banti, Martín y Soler, Lorenzo Da Ponte), but chaotic management kept the company at the brink of disaster. Ticket prices were high, standards shaky. Competition from Covent Garden and Drury Lane was damaging, for those theatres increasingly featured such popular English operas as Stephen Storace’s The Haunted Tower and The Siege of Belgrade (see fig.19) – better staged, easier to follow and well sung. The ineffectuality of the competition put up by the King’s Theatre is only partly attributable to the innate unprofitability of full-fledged opera. Much of the problem must be imputed to the impresario system and the horrible financial snarls from which the King’s Theatre was never able to extricate itself – a tangle that was to haunt the Italian opera in London for decades yet to come.

Still more important than Hickford’s, both artistically and for the future of British musical life, was the establishment of Handel’s Lenten oratorio series. Originating in 1732 more by accident than by design, when the Bishop of London banned a staged performance of Esther, Handel’s oratorios at first made an ad hoc contribution to London’s calendar; but as his operatic career declined, oratorio came to dominate his activities, eventually settling in 1747 into a regular annual pattern of around a dozen performances at Covent Garden during Lent, on days traditionally forbidden to staged performance. Though not liturgical in intent (and presented in theatres), the powerfully dramatic Old Testament stories tapped into an emerging moralistic streak and sense of British nationhood. Furthermore, Handel succeeded in reaching a large and socially variegated audience at the playhouses, especially when he abandoned the high-priced subscription system in 1747 – a move that coincided with a belated rush of popular nationalism after the suppression of the 1745 uprising.

2. Concert life.

The burgeoning of London’s concert life around 1700, a development unparalleled elsewhere in Europe, resulted from a confluence of many different factors. With the end of the Commonwealth in 1660, music could be more openly promulgated as a legitimate leisure activity, whether an amusement of the idle rich or a learned pursuit of the connoisseur. Growing wealth and the expansion of mercantile interests contributed to the rise of an urban élite that was itself constantly changing and enlarging. There was, therefore, ready patronage for music in a leisured class of aristocratic and bourgeois enthusiasts, who yet lacked the means or inclination to maintain their own musical establishments (James Brydges, later the Duke of Chandos, was to prove a notable exception in the 1710s). London’s musical life was untrammelled by restrictions, dominated neither by opera nor by the court; for while the Restoration of Charles II had initiated a rich and vibrant musical culture, the role of the monarchy as a patron soon waned. As royal finances lapsed into chaos, the court lost its central place in musical life – a decline accelerated by the Glorious Revolution – and court musicians were forced to supplement their income elsewhere. Musicians nurtured in the new urban milieu developed an alert sense of commercial potential, their emerging professionalism reflected in increasingly virtuoso technique and public projection of their art. Foreign violinists such as Nicola Matteis captured the imagination of London connoisseurs with their dazzling virtuosity and flights of fancy, transporting listeners with expressive powers to match the latest Italian singers. There was also a growing sense of the autonomy of instrumental music, especially orchestral music, around which programmes could be structured. At the same time, lively amateur music-making encouraged the foundation of numerous musical societies without a commercial interest – though often with professional strengthening, a blurring of boundaries characteristic of this early period. One such society, the Academy of Ancient Music, was even inspired by professional musicians themselves, altruistically dedicated to their particular cause. London’s concert life therefore developed from a mixture of functions, motivations and patronage; and as these various factors jostled and coalesced, its structure remained extremely fluid until the later decades of the 18th century.

The birth of the public concert is usually equated with John Banister’s initiative in 1672, but his concerts were clearly founded on some kind of indigenous tradition. Taverns produced a natural venue for music-making, especially during the Puritan closure of the theatres: according to Evelyn and Pepys, organs removed from churches during the Civil War were rebuilt in tavern music rooms, and many theatre musicians were forced to try their living here.

Our music, which was held delectable and precious, that they who scorned to come to a tavern under twenty shillings salary for two hours, now wander with their instruments under their cloaks – I mean, such as have any – into all houses of good fellowship, saluting every room where there is company with ‘Will you have any music, gentlemen?’

Little is known about the standards and social status of tavern performers, partly because the Commonwealth government classed freelance musicians as vagabonds, to preserve the privileges of musicians’ guilds. Anthony Wood mentioned a music meeting in 1648 at the Black Horse, Aldersgate Street; Pepys, 17 years later, referred to ‘the King’s Head, the great musique-house’ at Greenwich; and Ned Ward gave an entertaining account of a visit to the Mitre Tavern in Wapping:

we had heard of a famous Amphibious House of Entertainment, compounded of one half Tavern and t’other Musick-House … we no sooner enter’d the House, but we heard Fidlers and Hoitboys, together with a Humdrum Organ, make such incomparable Musick … we were Usher’d into a most Stately Apartment, Dedicated purely to the Lovers of Musick, Painting, Dancing.

Ward made it clear that no charge was made for the music, but that patrons sometimes tipped the players. Other music houses were more convivial and depended on amateur music-making: Roger North recalled a tavern near St Paul’s where ‘some shopkeepers and foremen came weekly to sing in consort, and to hear, and injoy ale and tobacco; and after some time the audience grew strong’.

London’s concerts therefore developed from East London roots, through a mixture of professional and amateur music-making. Indeed societies in the City continued to play a major part in London’s musical life for many decades, providing a model for a quite different development: the rise of public concerts (promoted and performed by professional musicians), and their eventual acceptance as part of fashionable West End culture. For in essence the public concert was to carve a commercial niche that lay somewhere between bourgeois amateur societies and tavern concerts on the one hand, and the salons of the court and aristocracy on the other.

The year 1672 saw a milestone in the history of public concert promotion, with the first recorded example not only in London but also in Europe. John Banister, a disaffected court musician, brought the experience of court music to the indigenous tradition, advertising a series of daily public concerts in the London Gazette in December 1672. The venue – a room at a Whitefriars tavern, ‘rounded with seats and small tables alehouse fashion’ – was unprepossessing, and the atmosphere informal (a shilling each, ‘call for what you please’). But by engaging top professionals he attracted such large audiences that he was soon able to move westwards to Lincoln’s Inn Fields (where his ensemble numbered as many as 50) and finally in 1678 to Essex Buildings in the Strand.

Another concert initiative similarly moved westwards, transformed from an amateur club into a professional undertaking. Starting as a private diversion for a group of gentlemen, the club moved to the more formal surroundings of a tavern in Fleet Street; but when the taverner started to charge for entrance, the amateurs gradually fell away, to be replaced by professionals who spotted the commercial potential and eventually (c1689) transferred their meetings to a room in Villiers Street, York Buildings. This large and commodious hall, specially fitted out for music, quickly became London’s first fashionable concert venue, ‘for a long time the resort of all the idle and gay folk of the towne’, according to Roger North; and the concert series there during the 1690s were attended by ‘all the Quallity and beau mond’. Such was its success that a rival venue was built in nearby Charles Street (the Vendu), and at both venues enterprising musicians such as J.W. Franck and Gottfried Finger fully exploited the growing market with subscription series advertised in the daily press.

The concept of a weekly subscription series was more than a way of raising advance income, for the high prices also ensured social exclusivity: ‘at Consorts of Note the Prices are extravagant, purposely to keep out inferiour People’, as a journalist wrote in 1709. Similar factors underlay the benefit system, whereby well-placed musicians would promote their individual Consorts of Vocal and Instrumental Musick: this was to become a routine end-of-season ritual for leading performers at subscription series and musical societies. The practice mingled the unashamed commercialism of expensive tickets and alluring advertisement with more traditional patronage, for the benefitee was expected to deliver tickets to his patrons in person. Another money-making exercise for court musicians was the annual performance of an ode in honour of St Cecilia, normally held on 22 November at Stationers’ Hall. The first was perhaps that of 1683 (Purcell’s Welcome to all the pleasures), and the tradition lasted for some 20 years; often the odes (as well as those performed at court) were repeated at the York Buildings room or elsewhere.

These well-publicized events were shadowed by an array of more private music-making, often including amateur performance. One series of weekly concerts, begun by Thomas Britton in 1678, achieved prestige and fame well beyond its apparent status. The venue, a ‘bung hole’ above his coal warehouse in Clerkenwell, was cramped and uncongenial, yet among those ‘willing to take a hearty Sweat’ were aristocratic patrons and celebrated musicians including Banister, Pepusch and possibly Handel. The concerts were more or less open to the public (admission at first was free); and despite the increasing formalization of London’s concert life, they persisted until Britton’s death in 1714. Other societies were purely for amateur instrumentalists. Roger North described one such musical society ‘of gentlemen of good esteem … that used to meet often for consort’; and at another, led by a ubiquitous amateur violinist named Henry Needler, Corelli’s concerti grossi were first introduced to London, to such enthusiastic response that the musicians played them through at a single sitting.

By 1720, therefore, London had developed a lively concert life, but it was as yet relatively unstructured and certainly did not provide a secure basis for musicians’ careers. Subsequent decades witnessed not only a quickening of pace but also regularization through the development of musical institutions and a concert season that ensured a measure of continuity from year to year. Several long-lived amateur music societies were founded in the 1720s, and the benevolent Society of Musicians in 1738; subscription series were formalized at Hickford’s Room, and Handel developed his Lenten oratorio seasons during the 1730s; while music was also put on a new footing at the reconstructed pleasure gardens later in the decade. Concert programmes, too, became more rationally ordered. Whereas North had complained about the ‘consorts, fuges, solos, lutes, Hautbois, trumpets, kettledrums, and what Not, but all disjoynted and incoherent’, gradually a regular two-part plan evolved in which half a dozen instrumental works – concertos, overtures, solos – alternated with songs and other vocal pieces.

Concert life coalesced, therefore, around two principal formats, still not entirely distinguishable: musical societies for the amusement of gentlemen amateurs, mostly based in or near the City; and public concerts (subscription series, benefits and oratorios), generally held at the theatres or at West End halls. Almost all of these events took place between October and May, advertised public concerts being mainly restricted to the spring months when ‘the quality’ came to London. As the pleasure gardens became more regularized, these too provided concerts of a good standard during the summer hiatus.

The most significant of the musical societies was initiated towards 1720 by Maurice Greene and an amateur violinist named Talbot Young. Its development followed a characteristic pattern. Originally meeting at Young’s father’s house in St Paul’s Churchyard, and later at the nearby Queen’s Head, in 1724 the society moved to the Castle Tavern: as the Castle Society it was to become formalized under a committee of amateur directors, with a published constitution. The performers were mainly gentlemen instrumentalists, who met regularly for rehearsals and concerts on a weekly rotation, the earnest tone enforced by strict rules and fines for talking or walking around during the concerts. But there were also ‘auditor members’ as well as lady guests, and as numbers increased the society moved to larger venues, including Haberdashers Hall, before its demise around 1775. Another important City society met in Cornhill at the Swan Tavern (later at the King’s Arms), and both boasted leading professionals such as John Stanley among the performers.

Quite different in its agenda was the Academy of Ancient Music, founded as the Academy of Vocal Music in 1726 to revive the glories of 16th- and 17th-century sacred music and madrigals. Again, though, it was the music itself rather than profit that provided the inspiration, the founders a mix of leading professionals and aristocratic enthusiasts; and again the society was formalized and admitted larger audiences as the century progressed – although these changes brought their own problems, with an increasing partiality for later Baroque music (including Handel’s oratorios), and a gradual decline in missionary zeal for the older repertory.

The Academy met at the Crown and Anchor in the Strand, and many other societies met at London taverns, which often contained substantial ‘long rooms’ for such purposes. Newspaper advertisements and subscription lists contain many references to these societies, which included the Apollo Academy founded by Greene on his secession from the Academy in 1731; and a significant masonic society directed by Geminiani at the Queen’s Head from 1725 to 1727, the ‘Philo-Musicae et Architecturae Societas’. On a lower level, clearly distinguished by Hawkins from such ‘select meetings’, were the ‘alehouse clubs, and places of vulgar resort in the villages adjacent to London, [where] small proficients in harmony … were used to recreate themselves’, and where the price of admission was only sixpence.

At the other end of the spectrum, fashionable public concert life shifted to a new hall in the West End, Hickford’s Room in James Street, which was rebuilt in 1714. Details of subscription concerts here are sparse, but they seem to have taken place on a regular basis at least from 1728, when L.C.A. Granom promised an ambitious series of concerts for 6 guineas; the series in 1731–2 was under the management of Geminiani. In 1739 Hickford removed to Brewer Street, and the series the following year featured oratorios and other works by J.C. Smith, a rare example of an extended concert promotion by an English musician. Concert series continued at Hickford’s Room for many years, and it remained a popular venue for benefits, but the room lost its predominance after the death of the leader Festing in 1752.

Handel also became directly involved with charitable causes. The link between concerts and charity was not as strong in London as in other cathedral cities, and the Sons of the Clergy charity, for example, promoted only an annual church service with elaborate music. But Handel’s Messiah performances at the Foundling Hospital (see fig.4) in 1750 began an annual tradition that lasted until 1777 and was imitated by other institutions, notably the Lock Hospital. Handel was also a supporter and benefactor of the Society of Musicians, a benevolent fund for indigent musicians and their families, which began an annual series of benefit concerts in 1739.

The second half of the 18th century saw not only a proliferation of concerts in London, but also their propulsion to the centre of London’s musical life, at times even rivalling the Opera in terms of both artistic and social prestige. There was an increasing demarcation between prestigious professional concerts and mere amateur societies, and the regularized season assumed a continuity and impression of permanence from year to year. The rise in the status of public concerts was focussed around two main pillars: ‘modern’ subscription series (dominated by foreign visitors such as J.C. Bach and Haydn) and appreciation for ‘ancient’ music, including the remarkable continuing vogue for Handel.

In the early 1750s Hickford’s Room was eclipsed by a rival room in Dean Street, which hosted in 1751–2 London’s most ambitious and publicly fêted subscription series to date. A series of 20 concerts was given under the artistic direction of Felice Giardini, a newly arrived virtuoso violinist and exponent of the modern pre-Classical style. Taking advantage of the temporary demise of the Italian Opera, and of the availability of top opera singers, this series initiated a brief period of intense concert activity until the Opera reopened late in 1753 (in that year there were as many as three subscription series at the Dean Street Room). Yet the renewed activity proved short-lived, and it was not until 1764 that the vital step towards a permanent concert structure was taken – and this from an unlikely source.

The essential catalyst was Teresa Cornelys, a former singer and self-proclaimed society hostess, who projected her lavish entertainments at Carlisle House (Soho Square) as de rigueur for London’s high-society hedonists. Exclusivity was intrinsic to her plan, entrants being socially screened and including many of the highest nobility. Her subscription concerts featured the latest German symphonic music and Italian operatic arias, the combination that was to dominate London’s premier concert programmes for over a century. In 1765 she engaged J.C. Bach and C.F. Abel, whose annual series up until 1781 formed the first regular subscription concerts in London (see fig.21). After three seasons the composers themselves took over the management, transferring the concerts in 1775 to their new purpose-built Hanover Square Rooms. Yet social exclusivity remained a priority, not only through high-priced subscription tickets, but also by continued social screening; and advertising discreetly forbore to list programmes or even performers. By contrast with the silent ranks of the modern concert hall, the atmosphere was more that of an elegant drawing-room, with sofas around the sides and the freedom to walk around and converse during the performance. Concerts thus joined the Opera as an established part of the fashionable week – an élite, prestigious entertainment with expensive performers of international reputation and the best new instrumental music from abroad.

The Bach-Abel Concerts soon attracted rivalry, most notably from the Pantheon, Wyatt’s splendid palace of pleasure in Oxford Street, where major series were first promoted in 1774. Focussing at first on Italian and English music, and later introducing symphonies of the Viennese school, these provided formidable competition for Bach and Abel, criticized for the somewhat unvarying programmes of their own music.

After Bach’s death in 1782, the Hanover Square concerts were carried on by a variety of successors, notably the Professional Concert (1785–93). This cooperative venture succeeded both in attracting patronage from the highest levels of society and in filling the hall with musical enthusiasts captivated by the latest craze – the symphonies of Haydn, which dominated programmes from 1783 onwards. The success of the Professionals coincided with a period popularly characterized in the press as ‘the rage for music’, when concerts featured strongly in the frenetically paced London season.

Yet again there was strong competition from the Pantheon and from rival promoters such as Salomon and Madame Mara; and it was Salomon who finally toppled the Professionals, with his coup in bringing Haydn to London in 1791. Haydn’s four seasons in London (1791–2 and 1794 at Salomon’s concerts, 1795 at a new coalition named the Opera Concert) represent a high point in the musical life of the capital – not only for the works Haydn created, including the twelve last symphonies and six quartets for Salomon, but also for the intensity and vitality of these concert seasons (see fig.22). This was also a period of great productivity and individuality in piano music – the ‘London Pianoforte School’ of Clementi, Cramer and Dussek, inspired by the technological advances of Broadwood’s pianos – and of Viotti’s distinctive contribution to the violin repertory. Another striking success was the Vocal Concert, founded in 1792 by Samuel Harrison and Charles Knyvett, who unprecedentedly attracted a beau monde audience for English songs and glees, essentially a sociable male after-dinner repertory.

The prevailing fashion among cognoscenti for the latest modern music belies Britain’s reputation for musical conservatism during this period. Yet London did also foster the preservation and active revivalism of earlier music, making an important contribution to the concept of an exemplary musical canon. The Academy of Ancient Music has already been mentioned in this connection, though with increasingly eclectic programming the society became more of a regular City subscription series before its demise around 1796. More significant at this time was a new institution, the Concert of Ancient Music, which adopted some of the aspirations and organization of the old – the elevation of neglected masterworks, the reverence for learned music, the selection of programmes by an amateur director in rotation – yet maintained a quite different clientèle. Founded and directed by the upper ranks of society, it had an explicit artistic policy (a prohibition of music less than 20 years old) which deliberately linked traditional social values with the learning and understanding needed for the appreciation of old music – in outright opposition to the perceived ephemerality of frivolous modern music. Unusual and demanding works of the Renaissance and earlier Baroque were sought out, in a pioneering spirit that recalls the early days of the Academy; but a preference for Handel in some quarters came to overlay the repertory, and even during the 18th century programming began to fossilize around increasingly hackneyed Handel selections.

This connection was secured still further by the involvement of the directors (in collaboration with the Society of Musicians) in the Handel Commemoration of 1784 (see Iconography of music, fig.11) – a pivotal event in London’s musical life, which celebrated Handel’s supposed centenary through an elaborate festival at Westminster Abbey and the Pantheon. With forces unprecedented at the time – a total of 525 in the choir and orchestra – this massive celebration, attended by the entire royal family, took on the ceremonial role of a coronation and played an important part in redefining the role of King George III after a period of political unrest. Further festivals followed in subsequent years (Haydn attended the last in 1791), with the active support of the King; in 1785 he also began to attend the Concert of Ancient Music, which accordingly gained a high social profile as a court institution.

The Handel festivals also brought reviving succour to the Lenten oratorio series (see fig.23), which had, perhaps surprisingly, survived the composer’s death in 1759. His followers and their rivals – Stanley, Smith, Arne, Arnold, Linley – no doubt hoped to emulate Handel’s success in their own works; but commercial prosperity proved dependent on continued performances of Handel, and his most popular works at that. One way to capitalize further was to paste favourite numbers from Handel oratorios on to new librettos; and after the Commemoration publicly validated concert selections, the ‘Lenten oratorios’ became further divorced from complete works (Messiah always excepted). Favourite songs by other composers, even secular showpieces by Arne, found their way into the programmes; and John Ashley’s selections at Covent Garden were essentially popular concerts for commercial gain (though he was also responsible for introducing The Creation to London in 1800).

Superficially London’s lively concert life in the late 18th century suggests a modern concert structure, but it would be misleading to interpret this ‘commercialization of leisure’ as middle-class emulation of aristocratic amusement. On the contrary, public concert life was strongly influenced by discerning and influential patrons such as the Prince of Wales; while the City remained suspicious of the affected pleasures of the West End, preferring sober and frugal organizations like the Castle Society. It was regarded as worthy of comment during the 1780s that the ‘rage for music’ was spreading eastwards to the City, and in truth the top professionals rarely ventured here: it is significant that concerts at the Anacreontic Society (an aristocratic glee club) were used as a trial ground for new music and performers, while the transformed Academy of Ancient Music overreached itself and did not survive into the new century.

Furthermore, much of London’s concert activity carried on relatively unnoticed in the houses of the aristocracy and royalty, from small-scale soirées featuring the finest performers of the day to the elaborate ode in Buckingham House gardens with which Queen Charlotte surprised George III in 1763. During the 1780s there was even a vogue for large-scale private concerts, partly a reflection of the current enthusiasm for the concert per se but also a reaction against the discomforts and increasingly mixed company of public venues. Indeed, two private series, the Nobility Concert and the Ladies Concert, actually mirrored the programmes and performers of the public concert, but now rotating around the houses of the wealthy élite (the latter even took place on the same evening as the Salomon-Haydn series during 1791).

On the one hand, therefore, the development of public concerts in London was closely allied to emerging commercial values, resembling other aspects of the music business such as publishing and instrument dealing, with which activities public concert promotion was indeed closely connected. Yet at the same time it remained highly dependent on personal contacts and patrons, as part of an interlocking web which included both private concerts and family teaching. For an individual professional musician, public concerts were merely one cog in a complex set of interrelated business activities, and we should not assume that it was the ambition of every instrumentalist to appear on the concert platform (witness the reluctance of Geminiani to appear on the public stage).

Though on the surface flourishing and energetic, London’s concert life was open to several criticisms: its apparently indiscriminate encouragement of foreign musicians; its submission to commercial pressures and attendant ephemerality (which in turn resulted in the ancient–modern schism); and its indifference towards the British school of composition. During the first half of the century programmes had mixed British and foreign music, but increasingly programmes at the more prestigious concerts concentrated on Austro-German symphonies and Italian opera extracts, with British composers relegated to lesser venues and pleasure gardens (and occasionally the Lenten oratorios). In defence it may be argued that this parochial view downplays London’s patronage of resident foreign composers – from Handel and Geminiani, through J.C. Bach and Abel, to Clementi and Dussek. Nevertheless, it is inescapable that during the 1780s and 90s London concert programmes were dominated by two colossi largely in absentia – Handel and Haydn – and that little of lasting consequence was being produced by native composers, their main artistic contribution limited to the glee, which was optimistically elevated to a national art form.

After Haydn’s departure in 1795, London’s concert life lost some of its vitality, with a decline in the number of concerts, institutional cutbacks and (to judge from press coverage) diminishing public interest. In part this reflected political and economic pressures and a reaction against ostentatious luxury; but there was also some sense of exhaustion after the ‘rage for music’, which had translated concerts into the centre of London’s social life and unprecedentedly elevated two concert composers into national icons.

3. Pleasure gardens.

London’s parks and gardens have been open to the public at least since Stuart times. Hyde Park was perhaps the earliest example of this, access being granted by Charles I in 1635. Later in the century emerged the organized ‘pleasure gardens’ which levied a small entrance fee and supplied refreshments, music and other forms of entertainment. Marylebone (c1659–1778) and Vauxhall (1661–1859) originated respectively in a popular tavern and a Thames-side country house; others, like Lambeth Wells (c1697–c1829) and Sadler’s Wells (1684–c1879), began their lives as supposedly medicinal springs.

The gardens enjoyed their heyday in the 18th century, especially after both Vauxhall and Marylebone were refurbished by new owners during the 1730s; while Ranelagh, more illustrious than either, was entirely a Georgian creation. Yet their tradition was to persist well into the next century, with Cremorne Gardens (Ranelagh’s natural successor in Chelsea) and the Eagle Tavern among those most frequented by the Victorians. Of the 631 recorded, the following gardens are known to have provided musical entertainment:

Adam and Eve Tea Gardens, Tottenham Court Road (c1718–before 1811)
Albert Saloon, Shepherdess Walk, City Road (before 1838–c1857)
Apollo Gardens, Westminster Bridge Road (1788–93)
Bagnigge Wells, King’s Cross Road (1759–1841)
Balty’s Hippodrome, Kensington (1851–2)
Belvidere Tea Gardens, Pentonville Road (c1664–1876)
Bermondsey Spa (1770–1804)
Brunswick Gardens, Vauxhall (1836–45)
Cremorne Gardens, Chelsea (1836–78)
Cromwell’s Gardens, Brompton (c1762–97)
Cuper’s Gardens, Lambeth (1691–1752)
Eagle Tavern, City Road (c1822–82)
Finch’s Grotto Gardens, Southwark (1760–c1777)
Flora Gardens, Camberwell (c1849–57)
Flora Tea Gardens, Westminster Bridge Road (c1796–before 1800)
Islington Spa (1784–c1840)
Lambeth Wells (c1697–c1829)
Lord Cobham’s Head, Cold Bath Fields (1728–c1744)
London Spa, at the corner of Rosomon Street and Exmouth Street (c1685–1754)
Manor House Baths and Gardens, Chelsea (1838–41)
Marble Hall, Vauxhall (1740–1813)
Marylebone Gardens (c1659–1778)
Mulberry Garden, Clerkenwell (1742–52)
New Globe Pleasure-Grounds, Mile End Road (c1827 – after 1854)
New Wells, near London Spa (c1737–50)
Panharmonion Gardens, King’s Cross (1829–97)
Pantheon, Spa Fields (not to be confused with the more famous Pantheon in Oxford Street) (1770–76)
Ranelagh Gardens, Chelsea (1742–1803)
Rosemary Branch, Hoxton (c1830–53)
Sadler’s Wells, Clerkenwell (1684–c1879)
St Helena’s Gardens, Rotherhithe (1770–1881)
Sir John Oldcastle Tavern, Faringdon Road (c1744–6)
Surrey Zoological Gardens, between Kennington Road and Walworth Road (1831–77)
Temple of Flora, Westminster Bridge Road (1789–96)
Vauxhall Gardens, Lambeth (1661–1859)
Weston’s Retreat, Kentish Town (c1858–65)
White Conduit House, Penton Street (c1745–1849)
Yorkshire Stingo, Marylebone Road (c1770–1848)

The style of the various pleasure gardens varied considerably. Vauxhall became the quintessential 18th-century venue after its refurbishment by Jonathan Tyers in 1732: an idealized rural paradise on the edge of London, it brought together a wide cross-section of London society in the summer season (indeed it was one of the few places in London where one might rub shoulders with the likes of Dr Johnson or the Duchess of Devonshire). The gentility of those promenading around the bandstand, or taking cold suppers in alcoves decorated by Francis Hayman and Hogarth, contrasted with the shadier reputation of the ‘dark walks’ and last-night rowdyism. Ranelagh was higher-priced and altogether more genteel: essentially an indoor venue, the enormous rotunda (1742) contained an amphitheatre of supper-boxes and a huge central stove around which the visitors perambulated in sober succession (see fig.24).

Marylebone, a dangerous journey across the fields, never quite came into fashion, but a series of enterprising managers (including Thomas Lowe and Samuel Arnold) devoted consequent energy to the musical entertainments. Many other gardens and spas dotted around the periphery of the city had their Long Rooms, where a particular attraction was organ music on Sundays when families visited them in large numbers.

Characteristic evenings were described by many contemporary diarists (Pepys), essayists (Addison) and novelists (Fanny Burney, Smollett, Thackeray) and depicted by artists, notably Canaletto, Samuel Wale and Rowlandson. Concerts became an established part of the entertainments in the late 17th century. At first the outdoor bandstands (or ‘orchestras’) were simple pavilions, and the audience listened from the promenade and supper boxes: the ‘Moorish-Gothick’ temple at Vauxhall (1758) was a particularly elaborate example (see fig.25). Later, buildings provided protection for listeners as well as performers, not only the Ranelagh rotunda but also, less grandly, Vauxhall’s rococo music room aptly called the ‘Umbrella’ (1752; see fig.26).

Programmes were sometimes advertised, but the most comprehensive information is provided by the ‘Vauxhall Lists’ for 1790–93 (see Cudworth, 1967, and McGairl, 1986). The general pattern – some 12 to 20 items distributed between two acts – was common to all the gardens. The vocal items ranged from solo songs through duets, glees and choruses to vaudeville and small-scale operas; the instrumental works are mainly overtures, symphonies and concertos. All tastes were catered for, with no division between the ‘ancient’ style (Corelli, Handel) and the ‘modern’ (J.C. Bach, Haydn), between serious and popular, or sacred and secular. Many of the composers and performers were English; in fact the pleasure garden was one of the chief institutions in 18th-century England where native music was fostered. Some gardens had accredited composers. In 1745 Jonathan Tyers, the founder of Georgian Vauxhall, secured the services of Thomas Arne (and thus of many of his family and pupils); after him James Hook officiated until 1820, and Henry R. Bishop directed in the 1820s and 30s.

Though at first the gardens offered only instrumental music, it was through songs and extended vocal pieces composed between the 1730s and 1830s that the gardens made their most important contribution to English music (see fig.27). The surviving repertory is extensive: for instance, four of the Vauxhall composers – Arne, John Worgan, Hook and Bishop – produced between 1745 and 1834 no fewer than 33 collections of songs in manuscript or print. The solo songs were generally in the simple ballad form evolved in the late 17th century, later heightened with dramatic devices derived from the Italian opera. Sometimes the texts were by contemporary writers such as John Lockman in the 18th century or Edward Fitzball in the 19th; others were by earlier authors such as Shakespeare in the case of Arne, or Herrick in the case of Horn’s Cherry Ripe. Some texts reflect the surroundings (elegant pastorals or artificial rusticities, hunting and drinking songs), some are national (imitation Scots or Irish), some reflect contemporary taste (Gothic morbidity and medievalism), others indicate topical interests (Hook’s The Rights of Women, 1801, and Bishop’s heroic recitative and aria The Emancipation from Negro Slavery, 1834); and many are patriotic, especially in time of war.

More ambitious were cantatas based on the Italian model (but sometimes including strophic songs); and dialogues for soprano and tenor, directly descended from the 17th-century prototype and almost invariably on rustic or pastoral topics. Larger concerted pieces brought together all the soloists to conclude an act; and after 1750 these were sometimes specially written, such as Hook’s Vauxhall finales or Bishop’s cantata Waterloo for a ‘Magnificent Military Fete’ (1826). Opera at the gardens began in 1730, when The Prisoner’s Opera formed part of a variety programme at Sadler’s Wells; and during the 1770s cockney dialogues by Dibdin were a popular attraction here (he also wrote short operas for Ranelagh). At Marylebone a small theatre was built for performances of Italian operas or ‘burlettas’: the elder Storace put on an English version of Pergolesi’s La serva padrona in 1758, and Arnold promoted an ambitious programme of light operas by Barthélemon and others in the early 1770s. Vauxhall introduced pastiches in the 1820s, but was staging Rossini by the end of the decade, and Bishop’s own five operas for Vauxhall (1830–32) owe not a little to that composer.

Most of the popular London playhouse singers appeared at the gardens, and some became sufficiently associated to be identified in title pages, such as J.C. Bach’s Second Collection of Favourite Songs Sung at Vaux Hall by Mrs Pinto & Mrs Weichsell. The vocal music of the gardens is a valuable source of information about orchestral accompaniment of English song (particularly for the later 18th century, where there is little evidence from theatre music), since much survives in full score, both in manuscript and in print, or in reduced score with instrumental cues.

Less of the purely instrumental music performed at the gardens was written specially for them, being mainly drawn from current repertory: overtures and concertos by Handel and his Italian contemporaries, symphonies from the Mannheim and Austrian schools (including Haydn), theatre overtures by English composers such as Arne, Arnold and Fisher. The one distinctive instrumental genre was the organ concerto. Organs were installed as the gardens expanded (Vauxhall 1737, shown in fig.28; Ranelagh 1746), at the same time as they were becoming popular between the acts of oratorio performances: their carrying power and ability to stay in tune made them the most practical keyboard instruments for outdoor performance. The organist was an important figure, playing continuo and often acting as offical composer and musical director. At Vauxhall the first organist was probably Thomas Gladwin, succeeded by James Worgan and in 1751 by John Worgan, who according to Burney performed ‘every evening’ one of Handel’s concertos prefaced by ‘an extempore prelude, alla Palestrina’ and a fugue by Handel. The only noted garden composers whose organ concertos survive are Arne and Hook, who is said to have played one of his own concertos every night that Vauxhall opened from 1774 to 1820.

Much other instrumental music was provided outside the main concert by wind bands or smaller peripatetic groups hired for supper serenades, especially from the 1760s onwards. The most famous band performance was one of the earliest, the public rehearsal of Handel’s Music for the Royal Fireworks at Vauxhall (21 April 1749); and Handel’s music was again used for fireworks displays at Ranelagh from 1767 onwards. During the late 18th century military music became increasingly popular, particularly during the wars with France: from 1790 to 1816 Vauxhall had the services of the military band formed by the Duke of York for his regiment, the Coldstream Guards. In 1800, on the occasion of ‘a most superb Oriental Gala’ celebrating recent successes in India, the band performed ‘in a most Magnificent Triumphal Car … several favourite Hindostan Airs’.

The decline of the pleasure gardens began in the later 18th century, as musical taste began to change and the sites were gradually swallowed up in housing and industrial development. Vauxhall tried to adapt with a more populist programme of displays, but after many years of financial difficulty it succumbed in 1859; Marylebone had closed as early as 1778, and Ranelagh followed suite in 1803. Some new gardens did, however, open in the 19th century, such as Cremorne and the Eagle Tavern. Their music followed traditional lines, with concerts (mainly of dance music) and operatic performances: the Eagle staged Don Giovanni, Il barbiere di Siviglia and La sonnambula in the 1840s; and Cremorne in the 1870s presented works by Boieldieu, Auber and Offenbach. But there was also such up-to-date fare as Villikins and his Dinah, Pop goes the weasel and other Cockney ballads, as well as the ‘Nigger melodists’, which appropriately link the story of the later pleasure gardens with that of another Victorian institution, the Music hall.

For further information on institutions and venues, see Grove6

BIBLIOGRAPHY

opera

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C. Price, J. Milhous and R.D. Hume: ‘A Plan of the Pantheon Opera House’, COJ, iii (1991), 213–46

C. Price, J. Milhous and R.D. Hume: ‘The Rebuilding of the King's Theatre, Haymarket, 1789–1791’, Theatre Journal, xliii (1991), 423–44

J. Milhous and R.D. Hume: ‘James Lewis's Plans for an Opera House in the Haymarket (1778)’, Theatre Research International, xix (1994), 191–202

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W.H. Cummings: ‘The Lord Chamberlain and Opera in London, 1700–1740’, PMA, xl (1913–14), 37–72

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J.M. Knapp: ‘Handel, the Royal Academy of Music, and its First Opera Season in London (1720)’, MQ, xlv (1959), 145–67

P. Lord: ‘The English-Italian Opera Companies, 1732–3’, ML, xlv (1964), 239–51

E. Haun: But Hark! More Harmony: the Libretti of Restoration Opera in English (Ypsilanti, MI, 1971)

R. Fiske: English Theatre Music in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1973, 2/1986)

J. Milhous and R.D. Hume: ‘Box Office Reports for Five Operas Mounted by Handel in London, 1732–1734’, Harvard Library Bulletin, xxvi (1978), 245–66

C.A. Price: ‘The Critical Decade for English Music Drama, 1700–1710’, Harvard Library Bulletin, xxvi (1978), 38–76

F.C. Petty: Italian Opera in London, 1760–1800 (Ann Arbor, 1980)

J. Milhous and R.D. Hume: ‘Handel's Opera Finances in 1732–3’, MT, cxxv (1982), 86–9

J. Milhous and R.D. Hume, eds.: Vice Chamberlain Coke's Theatrical Papers, 1706–1715 (Carbondale, IL, 1982)

J. Milhous and R.D. Hume: ‘New Light on Handel and the Royal Academy of Music in 1720’, Theatre Journal, xxxv (1983), 149–67

R.D. Hume: ‘Opera in London, 1695–1706’, British Theatre and the Other Arts, 1660–1800, ed. S.S. Kenny (Washington DC, 1984), 67–91

J.M. Knapp: ‘Eighteenth-Century Opera in London before Handel, 1705–1710’, ibid, 92–104

J. Milhous: ‘The Multimedia Spectacular on the Restoration Stage’, ibid, 41–66

J. Milhous: ‘Opera Finances in London, 1674–1738’, JAMS, xxxvii (1984), 567–92

C.A. Price: Henry Purcell and the London Stage (Cambridge, 1984)

R.D. Hume: ‘Handel and Opera Management in London in the 1730s’, ML, lxvii (1986), 347–62

J.M. Knapp: ‘English Reactions to Handel and Italian Opera in London during 1711 to 1720’, Göttinger Händel-Beiträge, ii (1986), 155–69

R. Leppert: ‘Imagery, Musical Confrontation and Cultural Difference in early 18th-Century London’, EMc, xiv (1986), 323–45

C.M. Taylor: ‘From Losses to Lawsuit: Patronage of the Italian Opera in London by Lord Middlesex 1739–45’, ML, lxviii (1987), 1–25

D.J. Burrows: ‘Die Kastratenrollen in Händels Londoner Opern: Probleme und Lösungvorschläge’, Händel auf dem Theater (Laaber, 1988), 85–93

R.D. Hume: ‘The Sponsorship of Opera in London, 1704–1720’, Modern Philology, lxxxv (1988), 420–32

L. Lindgren: ‘Venice, Vivaldi, Vico and Opera in London, 1705–17: Venetian Ingredients in English Pasticci’, Nuovi studi vivaldiani: Edizione e cronologia critica delle opere (Florence, 1988), 633–66

C. Price: ‘Italian Opera and Arson in late Eighteenth-Century London’, JAMS, xlii (1989), 55–107

R. Fiske and H.D. Johnstone, eds.: Music in Britain: the Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 1990)

E.A. Gibson: ‘Italian Opera in London, 1750–1775: Management and Finances’, EMc, xviii (1990), 47–59

C.M. Taylor: Italian Operagoing in London, 1700–1745 (diss., Syracuse U., 1991)

D.J. Burrows and R.D. Hume: ‘George I, the Haymarket Opera Company and Handel's Water Music’, EMc, xix (1991), 323–41

D.J. Burrows: ‘Performances of Handel's Music during Mozart's Visit to London in 1764–5’, Die Rezeption der Musik Georg Friedrich Händels in der zweiten Hälfe des 18. Jahrhunderts: Halle 1991 [HJb 1992], 16–32

R.L. Neighbarger: An Outward Show: Music for Shakespeare on the London Stage, 1660–1830 (Westport, CT, 1992)

C. Price, J. Milhous and R.D. Hume: The Impresario's Ten Commandments: Continental Recruitment for Italian Opera in London 1763–64 (London, 1992)

S.J. Wynn: ‘Italian Opera and the Critic: the London Music Scene, 1785–1789’, MR, liii (1992), 75–82

T. McGeary: ‘Shaftesbury on Opera, Spectacle and Liberty’, ML, lxxiv (1993), 530–41

J. Milhous and R.D. Hume: ‘Opera Salaries in Eighteenth-Century London’, JAMS, xlvi (1993), 26–83

W. Weber: ‘La musique ancienne in the Waning of the Ancien: l'institution et son public – l'Opéra à Paris et à Londres au xviiie siècle’, Les annales, xlviii (1993), 1519–39

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W. Baethge: ‘Mit Rindern, Schafe und Spatzenschwärmen: die Londoner Uraufführung der Oper Rinaldo von Händel’, Das Orchester, xliii/11 (1995), 17–22

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L. Lindgren: ‘Critiques of Opera in London, 1705–1719’, Il melodrama italiano in Italia e in Germania nell'età barocca/Die italienische Barockoper, ihre Verbreitung in Italien und Deutschland (Como, 1995), 143–65

L. Woof: ‘Italian Opera as a Socio-Economic Signifier in 18th-Century London’, Song and Signification: Studies in Music Semiotics (Edinburgh, 1995), 10–17

J.A. Winn: ‘Heroic Song: a Proposal for a Revised History of English Theater and Opera, 1656–1711’, Eighteenth-Century Studies, xxx/2 (1996–7), 113–37

R.D. Hume: ‘The Politics of Opera in Late Seventeenth-Century London’, COJ, x (1998), 15–43

concert life

E. Ward: The London Spy (London, 1678)

C. Burney: An Account of the Musical Performances … in Commemoration of Handel (London, 1785/R)

W.H. Husk: An Account of the Musical Celebrations on St Cecilia's Day in the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries (London, 1857)

S.W. McVeigh: The Violinist in London's Concert Life, 1750–1784: Felice Giardini and his Contemporaries (diss., Oxford U., 1980)

Z.E. Pixley: The Keyboard Concerto in London Society, 1760–1790 (diss., U. of Michigan, 1986)

S.W. McVeigh: ‘The Professional Concert and Rival Subscription Series in London, 1783–1793’, RMARC, no.22 (1989), 1–135

L.A. McLamore: Symphonic Conventions in London's Concert Rooms, circa 1755–1790 (diss., UCLA, 1991)

W. Weber: The Rise of Musical Classics in Eighteenth-Century England (Oxford, 1992)

J.K. Wood: ‘“A Flowing Harmony”: Music on the Thames in Restoration London’, EMc, xxiii (1995), 553–81

L. Finscher: ‘Zur Struktur der europäischen Musikkultur im Zeitalter der Aufklärung’, Europa im Zeitalter Mozarts (Vienna, 1995), 197–203

I. Woodfield: ‘New Light on the Mozarts' London Visit: a Private Concert with Manzuoli’, ML, lxxvi (1995), 187–208

S.W. McVeigh: Concert Life in London from Mozart to Haydn (Cambridge, 1993)

pleasure gardens

BurneyH

R. and J. Dodsley: London and its Environs Described (London, 1761)

J.T. Smith: A Book for a Rainy Day (London, 1845), 39ff [on Marylebone], 133ff [on Bermondsey Spa]

J. Timbs: Curiosities of London (London, 1855)

H. Wheatley and P. Cunningham: London Past and Present (London, 1891)

W. Wroth: The London Pleasure Gardens (London, 1896)

G. Thornbury and E. Walford: Old and New London (London, rev. 4/1898)

W. Wroth: Cremorne and the later London Gardens (London, 1907)

J.G. Southworth: Vauxhall Gardens: a Chapter in the Social History of England (London, 1941)

M. Sands: Invitation to Ranelagh (London, 1946)

O.E. Deutsch: Handel: a Documentary Biography (London, 1955/R1974)

C. Cudworth: ‘The Vauxhall “Lists”’, GSJ, xx (1967), 24–42

R. Fiske: English Theatre Music in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1973)

E. Croft-Murray: ‘Cremorne Gardens’, The Chelsea Society: the Annual Report (1974), 30

E. Owens: ‘La Serva padrona in London, 1750–1783’, Studi Pergolesiani: New York 1986, 204–20

M. Sands: The Eighteenth-Century Pleasure Gardens of Marylebone, 1737–1777 (London, 1987)

VI. Musical life, 1800–1945

1. The stage.

2. Concert life.

London, §VI: Musical life: 1800–1945

1. The stage.

(i) Opera.

(ii) Popular music theatre.

London, §VI, 1: Musical life: 1800–1945: The stage

(i) Opera.

The financial and managerial entanglements that had afflicted the King’s Theatre during much of the 18th century continued seriously to hamper London’s Italian opera house well into the 19th century. William Taylor was forced to sell part of his interest in the King’s to Francis Gould in 1803–4, but after Gould’s death in 1807 Taylor and Edmund Waters, Gould’s executor, fought so viciously for control that they virtually paralysed the theatre. The King’s was dark in 1813 while the rebuilt Pantheon tried to regain the Italian opera. Waters eventually bought and sued his way into control of the King’s but went irretrievably bankrupt in 1820. Management was then assumed by John Ebers, whose artistically creditable but financially disastrous reign is chronicled in detail in his Seven Years of the King’s Theatre (1828/R).

During this period the King’s became ever more reliant on the staging of imported works. The presence of Lorenzo Da Ponte, house poet at the theatre from 1794 to 1804, promised much; but while he wrote a few original librettos for Martín y Soler, Bianchi and Winter, most of his work was focussed on the production of substitute arias and pasticcios. Adaptations of successful foreign operas increasingly came to dominate the Italian stage in London. To the operas of Paisiello, Cimarosa and M.A. Portugal were added Mozart and Rossini: La clemenza di Tito, Così fan tutte, Die Zauberflöte, Le nozze di Figaro, Don Giovanni, Il barbiere di Siviglia, Elisabetta, regina d’Inghilterra, L’italiana in Algeri, La Cenerentola and Tancredi. Leading singers continued to appear, including Banti, Michael Kelly, Josephina Grassini, Giuseppe Naldi, Angelica Catalani, Nicholas Levasseur, Giuditta Pasta, Giuseppe Ambrogetti, Carlo Angrisani, Violante Camporese and Gaetano Crivelli. Even under Ebers’s solid management, however, no important new operas were commissioned as the production of imported foreign operas took precedence. The emphasis was on Rossini – La gazza ladra was a successful novelty in 1821 – although in 1815 Ebers’s director, William Ayrton, mounted the first Meyerbeer opera to be heard in London, Il crociato in Egitto. Among the singers in this period were Marietta Brambilla, Giuseppe de Begnis, Giuditta Pasta, Malibran and the castrato G.B. Velluti.

Throughout these three decades the Italian opera was hamstrung by its own endless internecine disputes and crippling mortgages: the wonder is that it kept going at all. Until the mid-1820s English-language opera was generally in a stronger financial position, though the competitors of the King’s had their own troubles. Within the space of one year both Covent Garden and Drury Lane burnt down (in 1808 and 1809 respectively) and were replaced at enormous cost. Robert Smirke’s vast 1809 Covent Garden cost £188,000 and turned out to be a white elephant.

Both the patent theatres continued to feature music in their offerings that included newly commissioned English operas and, ever increasingly, English adaptations of foreign operas. Their approach is typified in the work of Henry R. Bishop, who was musical director of Covent Garden between 1810 and 1824 and later worked at Drury Lane. His wholesale rewritings of Mozart and Rossini have made him the target of much derision in later histories of music, but they were highly successful at the time (see fig.29). Bishop’s work was guided by the conventions embodied in the pasticcio and contemporary English opera, as well as the need to adjust these works to local performance conditions. He popularized good music, and for his achievement Bishop was knighted by Queen Victoria in 1842 – the first English musician to be so honoured.

Technically the Licensing Act remained in force, but after 1800 the authorities became more lenient about tolerating various fringe and musical enterprises. Of the dozen or so new theatres that were built during the first three decades of the 19th century, many presented programmes which placed them in direct competition with Covent Garden and Drury Lane. Two theatres are particularly important. The Lyceum was licensed for musical works in 1809 and rebuilt in 1816 as the English Opera House, a function it served until it burnt down in 1830 (rebuilt again in 1834). The Royal Coburg (which was to become the Old Vic) opened in 1818; it served primarily as a venue for melodrama.

The early history of Der Freischütz in London shows how the theatres competed. In February 1824 a version of it was given at the Coburg as the ‘legendary melodrama’ The Fatal Marksman, without mention of Weber in the playbill. The Lyceum mounted it in July as an opera, translated as Der Freischütz, or The Seventh Bullet, the music adapted by William Hawes. In August and September it was given in different forms at the Royal Amphitheatre and the Surrey Theatre. Covent Garden mounted it in October in an adaptation by J.R. Planché with the music arranged by Barham Livius; Drury Lane’s version, with additional music by Bishop, was presented in November. The popularity of all the adaptations led to Charles Kemble’s invitation to Weber to compose an English opera for Covent Garden. Weber was too ill to accept Kemble’s additional offer to become music director, although he wrote Oberon and conducted the première; he was frustrated by the demands of ‘English’ form, but still gave London its first important opera première in a very long time.

There is no precise dividing line between 18th- and 19th-century opera production in London, but by the end of the Ebers administration at the King’s Theatre quite different circumstances prevailed from those at the turn of the century. Despite the importation of Mozart and Rossini by the Italian opera company, activity at the King’s remained in many respects extremely old-fashioned and indeed derivative. New venues sprang up, and the English theatres were aggressive in mounting current continental works as well as offering their own home-grown brand of opera. Yet as the King’s seemed unable to mount any potent opposition or to resolve its ongoing financial crisis, the patent theatres, too, were hamstrung by their own financial liabilities and increasingly unable to withstand the greatly intensified competitive climate.

During the 1830s competition from the so-called minor theatres caused grave financial problems for the patent theatres, both of which were still encumbered by the rebuilding costs incurred at the beginning of the century. Frequent management changes, bankruptcies and accusations of poor artistic standards inevitably raised questions about their financial and artistic viability. Alfred Bunn’s attempt to unite the two theatres under his management between 1833 and 1835 was financially disastrous and earned Bunn stinging criticism over his apparent preference for foreign opera. His production of Auber’s Gustave III (1833), one of several French operas to be staged at Covent Garden during his tenure, received 100 performances during its first season. At Drury Lane Bunn presented Malibran in English versions of Fidelio and La sonnambula and later in Balfe’s The Maid of Artois (1836); between 1835 and 1849 Bunn gave more than 20 new British works at Drury Lane, including Balfe’s The Bohemian Girl (1843) and Vincent Wallace’s Maritana (1845). For a time the rebuilt Lyceum Theatre (opened in 1834 as the English Opera House) was a potent competitor: works by Loder, Balfe and others were given up to 1840.

The 1843 Theatre Regulation Act, which provided new legislation for the licensing of all theatres, in effect abolished the patent theatres’ monopoly over dramatic and musical presentations. In 1845 Covent Garden was forced to close as no permanent lessee could be found; over the next two years the theatre hosted, among others, touring foreign opera companies and concerts. Drury Lane continued to be used for English opera, concerts, plays and other theatrical ventures.

Amid the familiar financial difficulties at Her Majesty’s (known as the King’s Theatre until Queen Victoria’s accession in 1837) disagreements between Benjamin Lumley, manager from 1842 to 1858, and his principal artists, together with the demise of Covent Garden, brought about a drastic change in London’s theatrical landscape. In 1847 the composer Giuseppe Persiani and another business associate established the rival Royal Italian Opera at Covent Garden. Almost instantly, however, the new venture was plunged into deep trouble: high start-up costs and the conversion of the theatre into an opera house (costing about £30,000) were inadequately financed; fierce competition with Her Majesty’s left the company still further weakened. It was only under the management of Frederick Gye (1848–78) that the Royal Italian Opera eventually supplanted Her Majesty’s as London’s premier Italian opera house. Gye never made any significant profits (his early seasons showed substantial losses), but his financial acumen ensured the company’s long-term viability. At Her Majesty’s heavy losses led to the closure of the theatre between 1853 and 1856; Lumley reopened the theatre for two seasons while Covent Garden was rebuilt after having been destroyed by fire in 1856 (see figs.30 and 31). Financially, J.H. Mapleson, who took over at Her Majesty’s in 1862, was hardly more successful and after the destruction of Her Majesty’s by fire in 1867 he joined forces with Gye until 1870. On Gye’s death in 1878 the management of the Royal Italian Opera passed to his son Ernest until 1884.

Under the pressures of competition the managers of both opera houses were forced to diversify the repertory beyond the presentation of the standard works of Rossini, Bellini and Donizetti. In an extension of 18th-century production procedures all operas, including French and German works, were performed in Italian and many were adapted to conform with italianate musical and dramatic structures. Her Majesty’s continued to feature ballet as part of its programme, but at the Royal Italian Opera financial constraints resulted in the abandonment of full-length ballets in 1849. At the Royal Italian Opera Gye regularly presented French and German works, as well as Verdi’s operas. All of Meyerbeer’s most recent operas were staged, notably L’étoile du nord (1855) and Dinorah (1859), both produced under Meyerbeer’s supervision. Benvenuto Cellini had a single, disastrous performance in 1853 (conducted by Berlioz); Gounod’s Faust became a staple repertory work (1863; British première at Her Majesty’s that same year). Spohr reworked his Faust (1851) and returned for Jessonda in 1852. Following the closure of Her Majesty’s in 1853, Gye acquired Verdi’s more recent operas, including Rigoletto (1853), Il trovatore (1855) and later Don Carlos (1867) and Aida (1876). The programming of Wagner’s operas owed much to the influence of Emma Albani, who was cast in Lohengrin (1875), Tannhäuser (1876) and Der fliegende Holländer (1877, first staged at Drury Lane in 1870). Competition with Her Majesty’s over novelties was fierce: rival productions and disputes over performance rights were commonplace. Lumley distinguished his theatre’s repertory by the periodic inclusion of newly commissioned operas and Verdi’s early works. The former included Halévy’s La tempesta (1850), Thalberg’s Florinda (1851) and, most importantly, Verdi’s I masnadieri (1847). Many of Verdi’s early operas, such as I lombardi, I due Foscari (both 1847) and Attila (1848), were first staged in London at Her Majesty’s, as was La traviata in 1856. Despite competition from Gye, Mapleson continued to champion Verdi and was able to present the British premières of Un ballo in maschera and La forza del destino.

Both Italian opera houses were still dependent on attracting star names and fought intensely over artists. The defection of Mario, Grisi, Ronconi and Antonio Tamburini from Her Majesty’s in 1847 laid the foundation of the powerful ensemble, which was to become the hallmark of the Royal Italian Opera. Other notable singers joined over the next two decades, including Viardot, Tamberlik, Lablache, Lucca, Patti and Albani. Lumley countered with the sensational engagement of Jenny Lind in 1847; after her retirement in 1849, however, Lumley’s troupe was consistently less effective. Mapleson mounted a more vigorous defence with the engagement of singers such as Tietjens, Christine Nilsson, di Murska, Santley and Gassier. The conducting rested principally in Italian hands, notably those of Michael Costa and Arditi. Costa is credited with the firm establishment of the baton-conductor’s command in London opera. His decision to depart from Her Majesty’s in 1846 was a major factor in the establishment of the rival company; with Costa, almost the entire orchestra left for the Royal Italian Opera. Balfe replaced Costa at Her Majesty’s, but neither he nor the newly assembled orchestra was a match for Costa. Arditi, appointed music director for Her Majesty’s in 1858, was to be closely associated with most of Mapleson’s operatic ventures both in London and the USA.

The performance of French and German operas in their native tongues rested almost entirely on visits by foreign companies. London’s first season of German opera, managed by Bunn, took place at the King’s in 1832 with performances of Fidelio (with Schröder-Devrient) and Der Freischütz. In 1842 Bunn hired Covent Garden for a short season of German and French opera (including Les Huguenots and La vestale), performed by a German company. The Brussels Opera Company presented French operas (including works by Meyerbeer and Auber) at Covent Garden and Drury Lane in 1845. Short seasons of French opera were independently promoted at the St James’s Theatre (1854), the Gaiety Theatre (1885, with the first London performance of Delibes’s Lakmé), and Her Majesty’s (1886). Wagner in German arrived with the Ring, given at Her Majesty’s in May 1882 by a German company under Anton Seidl, followed in the same month by another German company with performances of Lohengrin, Der fliegende Holländer and Tannhäuser at Drury Lane, with Richter conducting.

The promotion of opera in English continued to be pursued by various managements. The history of these schemes has been set out by White (1951, 1983): the more important are mentioned here. The Pyne-Harrison management (as the Royal English Opera) presented winter seasons of opera in English at Covent Garden from 1858 until 1864 (see fig.32). Its repertory consisted mainly of new or recent British composers, including the first production of Julius Benedict’s The Lily of Killarney (1862), supplemented by such works as Martha and Il trovatore. The possibility of a state subsidy for this company was shelved after the death of its most important patron, the Prince Consort, in 1861. The Carl Rosa Opera Company gave its first London season in 1875 (at the Princess’s Theatre). Its repertory ran from Mozart to Massenet, the first British performance of Manon being included in its Drury Lane season of 1885. Up to Rosa’s death in 1889 new works were commissioned from composers such as Cowen, A.G. Thomas, Mackenzie and Stanford. The company was to remain a chief national purveyor of opera in English until after World War II, its significance being that its basis was national touring with regular London visits.

In 1875, on Mapleson’s initiative, the foundation stone was laid of a new ‘Grand National Opera House’, which was specifically to promote ‘the works of English composers, represented by English performers’. It was never built, the site eventually becoming that of New Scotland Yard. In the same year Trial by Jury, with a libretto by W.S. Gilbert and music by Sullivan, was produced at the Royalty Theatre (under Richard D’Oyly Carte’s management). A succession of further pieces made Sullivan the best-known British theatrical composer, established the D’Oyly Carte Opera Company, and led to the building of the Savoy Theatre and Hotel (see fig.33). The Mikado (1885) became the most-travelled English opera (or operetta) between The Bohemian Girl and Peter Grimes. Offenbach’s operettas, which had been presented in London in both French and English since 1857, remained popular; his Whittington was written for the Alhambra Theatre (1874). The so-called comedy opera Dorothy (1886, Gaiety Theatre) by Sullivan’s associate Alfred Cellier outstripped with 931 performances even the run of The Mikado and heralded the theatrical genre now known as musical comedy.

Throughout the first half of the 20th century Covent Garden remained London’s pre-eminent international house. Intermittent challenges came, however, from other theatres as well as other managers renting the opera house outside the main season. Under the management of Augustus Harris (1888–96) performances in the original language now gradually displaced the previous Italian, or italianized, performances (since 1889 performances in languages other than Italian had been admitted). In 1892 that displacement was marked by a change in name from Royal Italian Opera to Royal Opera. From Harris’s death in 1896 until 1924 the opera house was governed by a succession of managers on behalf of the Grand Opera Syndicate and operated under a similar scheme until 1939.

Singers heard during Covent Garden’s so-called ‘grand seasons’ up to 1914 included Lilli Lehmann, Tetrazzini, Melba and Caruso, the last two a famous leading pair in La bohème (first staged by the Carl Rosa company in 1897). Puccini’s works increasingly gained the public excitement that those of Verdi had formerly attained (with the first British performances of Tosca and Madama Butterfly in 1900 and 1905 respectively), but this was also a period when the prestige of French opera was sustained in repeated performances of works by Bizet, Gounod, Massenet and Saint-Saëns. Both Debussy’s Pelléas et Mélisande and Charpentier’s Louise received their first London performances (at Covent Garden) in 1909. Exceptional in the grand seasons was the first production in English of the Ring in 1908, at the instigation of the conductor, Hans Richter; the first London Ring (in German) had been given at Covent Garden in 1892 by the Hamburg Opera, conducted by Mahler.

A public plea by Stanford in 1908 for the foundation of a new national opera house supported by public subsidy gained no official backing. But in 1911 London unexpectedly acquired a new opera theatre when the impresario Oscar Hammerstein I built the London Opera House (renamed the Stoll Theatre in 1916). Two short seasons in 1911–12, with a roster of artists less lustrous than Covent Garden’s, were financially disastrous and ended Hammerstein’s venture.

In 1910 Beecham started to present his own seasons at Covent Garden on either side of the grand season. His productions included the first performances in Britain of Strauss’s Salome and Elektra and of Delius’s A Village Romeo and Juliet. Already in 1909 he had given the first British performance of Smyth’s opera The Wreckers at His Majesty’s (as that theatre had been renamed). In 1910, between his own two Covent Garden seasons, he went back to His Majesty’s for a summer season that embraced the first British performance of Strauss’s Feuersnot, Stanford’s Shamus O’Brien (1896) and three Mozart operas including Così fan tutte, then a considerable rarity. Beecham’s 1913 season at Covent Garden brought the first British performance of Der Rosenkavalier, and a later season at His Majesty’s saw the first British performance of Ariadne auf Naxos.

On Beecham’s initiative Diaghilev brought a Russian opera company to Drury Lane in 1913, Chaliapin opening the season in the title role of Boris Godunov, followed by Khovanshchina and The Maid of Pskov (as Ivan the Terrible). Although Russian opera was not absolutely new to London (A Life for the Tsar had been given at Covent Garden in 1887 and Yevgeny Onegin at the Olympic Theatre in 1892), there had been nothing like this. Not only Chaliapin, but ‘the whole company with its wonderful chorus and completely revolutionary style of operatic acting … made an impact on London such as had not been experienced since the first performances in England of the Ring and Tristan in the 1880s’ (Rosenthal, 1958, p.378).

At Covent Garden the vicissitudes of operatic management between the wars were interlocked with the various enterprises of Beecham, including the British National Opera Company and the Imperial League of Opera. Under the latter’s auspices at Covent Garden (and not in the grand season), Beecham gave the first British performance of Delius’s Koanga in 1935. Among international conductors Walter became a much-loved figure; Melba, Ponselle, Turner, Gigli and Pinza were adored stars in the Italian repertory and Lotte Lehmann, Elisabeth Schumann, Flagstad, Melchior and Richard Tauber in the German. After Puccini’s death (1924) Strauss became the only living composer whose works were regularly featured. (In 1936 Strauss himself conducted the visiting Dresden company in performances of Ariadne auf Naxos.) The British composer and conductor Eugene Goossens was given the honour of writing a new work in George VI’s coronation year, 1937 – but neither this work, Don Juan de Mañara, nor Goossens’s earlier Judith (1929) won success.

Various companies continued to promote opera in English. For the launching of Sullivan’s one ‘serious’ opera, Ivanhoe (1891), D’Oyly Carte constructed a new theatre, the Royal English Opera House. He introduced to that genre the principle of uninterrupted nightly performances (with changing casts), which hitherto had applied only to plays and operettas. Yet not even a run of 160 performances nor a subsequent English-language version of Messager’s La basoche repaid D’Oyly Carte’s investment, and in 1892 he sold the theatre, now the Palace Theatre, to Harris. Two decades later two remarkable ventures ran successfully on the principle of uninterrupted nightly performances. Rutland Boughton’s opera The Immortal Hour achieved 216 performances at the Regent Theatre, King’s Cross, in 1922–3; The Beggar’s Opera in a new musical edition by Frederic Austin opened at the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith, in 1922 and broke records with its 1463 performances.

While the Carl Rosa company continued its activity, giving the first performances in Britain of Humperdinck’s Hänsel und Gretel at Daly’s Theatre in 1894, another touring enterprise, the Moody-Manners Company, led a shorter but vigorous existence from 1898 to 1916; it occasionally occupied Covent Garden for its London seasons. The most enduring of all ventures into giving opera in English was begun in the 1880s at the Old Vic, where operatic performance was at first confined to extracts and tableaux. With the succession of Lilian Baylis as acting manager from 1898 (and sole manager from 1912) came full operatic presentations, albeit with reduced orchestra. Edward J. Dent was one of its governing body and provided outstandingly successful translations; his influence continued when an expansion of the enterprise in 1931 took in the newly rebuilt Sadler’s Wells Theatre. During the years 1931–5 the operation was known as the Vic-Wells Opera company. At first opera and spoken drama were given at both theatres, but opera became concentrated at Sadler’s Wells. The repertory of Sadler’s Wells Opera embraced several Russian works, the original version of Boris Godunov receiving there its first performance in Britain (1935). Here too Holst’s Sāvitri and Vaughan Williams’s Hugh the Drover, though not new, encountered their first regular audiences, in a repertory which in the first six years extended to more than 50 operas.

London, §VI, 1: Musical life: 1800–1945: The stage

(ii) Popular music theatre.

(a) 1800–1920.

London has long acted as a hub for musical theatre interchange, whether as the natural focus for visiting performers and theatrical companies from elsewhere in the country and overseas or as a source of new material for tours and productions within the country and abroad. A clear musical stage identity was not established for London, however, until the second half of the 19th century, when various dramatic forms that interpolated music gained a distinct repertory (and hence character) for development and a sufficiently wide audience base to support experimentation. Early forms in the first half of the 19th century included pantomime, extravaganza, burlesque and revue, usually incorporating scores assembled from pre-existing material rather than specifically written numbers. From the 1830s burlettas, burlesques and extravaganzas became popular and were particularly associated with the Olympic Theatre; by the 1850s the broad caricature that marked burlesque had become its most prominent feature; in the 1860s the Royal Strand Theatre mounted burlesques that drew upon operatic subjects, such as Der Freischütz or A Good Cast for the Pieces (1866); later still the newly built Gaiety Theatre came to be considered the centre for burlesque, with examples such as Faust up to Date (1888) and Carmen up to Date (1890).

Offenbach, whose work was first seen in London at the St James's Theatre (1857), provided the immediate catalyst for an identifiable British popular musical theatre style – indeed, French influence had been formative earlier in burlesque, revue and comic opera. It was not until ten years later, however, that an explosion of popularity of his works occurred: Orphée aux enfers, for example, was seen in seven productions between 1865 and 1877, and other pieces were regularly in the repertory of the Gaiety Theatre from 1869 until around 1885. Comparison of Offenbach's Les brigands (1869) and Gilbert and Sullivan's The Pirates of Penzance (1879) clearly shows the influence of the former on the style of the latter, a style which equalled and then outstripped the popularity of Offenbach from around the 1880s onwards. The worldwide influence of Gilbert and Sullivan is most apparent with the American reception of HMS Pinafore (1879), which led to large numbers of touring companies and the establishment of many local amateur operatic societies; the general global reception of Gilbert and Sullivan is shown by the opening of Patience in Sydney (representing the colonial sphere) some seven months after London and the simultaneous opening in New York and London of Iolanthe (25 November 1882). Other British composers benefited from the high profile that Gilbert and Sullivan had established for London's musical theatre; the most notable of these was Edward Solomon, whose Vicar of Bray opened in both London and New York in 1882.

Gilbert and Sullivan gained the epithet of the ‘Savoy operas’ for their canon through the presentation of their new works from the transfer of Patience (1881) onwards at the Savoy Theatre, newly built by Richard D'Oyly Carte, who also made it the first theatre in London to use electric light (see fig.33). D'Oyly Carte later constructed his Royal English Opera House (1891), but without great success: it became the Palace Theatre of Varieties in 1892. It was only with the management of C.B. Cochran (1923–46) and the world première of No, No Nanette (1925) some six months prior to an American opening that the Palace was established as one of the most important London theatres for musicals, a reputation sustained for the rest of the century.

The new style of ‘musical comedy’ dominated London musical theatre from the 1890s through to World War I. Initially identified with the productions of George Edwardes at the Gaiety Theatre arising out of burlesque and beginning with On the Town (1892), it introduced popular songs and contemporary and exotic locations and fashions into a light dramatic narrative. These works put London at the centre of world musical theatre, continuing the patterns of dissemination established by the Savoy operas: examples include Ivan Caryll and Lionel Monckton's A Runaway Girl (1898, Gaiety), Sidney Jones's San Toy (1899, Daly's) and Leslie Stuart's Florodora (1899, Lyric). The reputation of the Gaiety survived the demolition of the original theatre due to road widening in the Strand (closing on 4 July 1903), and reopened in a new building (26 October 1903; 1267 seats), under the management of Edwardes until 1916. Edwardes also managed Daly's Theatre (constructed 1893), whose notable successes include Jones's A Gaiety Girl (1893, Prince of Wales; 1894, Daly's) which opened at Daly's in New York (1894) and then toured to such places as Boston, Washington, Chicago and San Francisco, and The Geisha (1896), which received productions as far afield as Russia and Australia.

Imports to the West End are consequently of minor significance in this period, although they included Kerker's The Belle of New York (1898, Shaftesbury) and Will Marion Cook's In Dahomey (1903, Shaftesbury). In the opening decade of the 1900s American interest in West End productions is seen through the continued interest of the American Charles Frohman – a producer active in both New York and London – in adapting new material for Broadway, retaining Jerome Kern in London to secure songs and shows for American use. Kern also began to contribute his own works to London shows (for example his song ‘Rosalie’ was interpolated into Spring Chicken (1906, Gaiety), but it was not until 1916 that Kern received his first billing as a composer in the West End, shared jointly with Ivor Novello, for Theodore & Co. While musical comedy continued with such successes as A Country Girl (1902, Daly's), Miss Hook of Holland (1907, Prince of Wales), Our Miss Gibbs (1909, Gaiety), The Arcadians (1909, Shaftesbury) and The Quaker Girl (1910, Adelphi), European influence in the form of Viennese operetta exerted a strong if temporary hold after the first production of Die lustige Witwe (1907, Daly's), followed by Oscar Straus's Ein Waltzertraum (1908, Hick's) and Leo Fall's Die Dollarprinzessin (1909, Daly's). New theatres built at the start of the century included the Apollo and Adelphi (both 1901), the Coliseum (1904) and the Palladium (1910).

The revue gained greater prominence in the second decade of the century, through such series as those of Albert de Courville (at the Hippodrome), André Charlot (Alhambra), Alfred Butt (Palace) and the versions by Oswald Stoll (New Middlesex Music Hall) modelled on those of the Folies-Bergère. These shows provided an outlet for performers from the declining music hall and variety circuit, eventually incorporating them into personality-led ‘musicals’: the career of Cicely Courtneidge provides a good example of this progression. The gradual hybridization of musical theatre forms produced Chu Chin Chow, a potent combination of spectacle, pantomime and musical comedy which opened at His Majesty's on 31 October 1916. Through clever marketing, including the regular addition of new scenes and costumes, and a desire for escapism generated by World War I troops on leave, the show established a record run of more than 2000 performances, closing on 22 July 1921.

(b) 1920–45.

The 1920s saw a large increase in the interchange between Broadway and the West End. Performers, through the greater ease of travel, were able to establish careers in both theatrical centres, while producers could draw on the talent and expanding repertories of both cities for their new productions. London received a series of imports from New York: Fred Astaire, for example, made his West End début in Stop Flirting (10 May 1923, Shaftesbury Theatre), and later with the George and Ira Gershwin shows Lady Be Good (1926, Empire) and Funny Face (1928, Prince's Theatre, later transferring to the Winter Garden). The impetus for this increasing acceptance of American musical comedy in London was for the most part due to the influence of george Grossmith (ii) and his partners J.A.E. ‘Pat’ Malone and Edward Laurillard. Grossmith had been a leading West End comic performer, and had drawn on American writers in the previous decades to find material unknown in the West End to interpolate into his own performances. Apart from introducing the performances of Astaire and the music of Gershwin to the London stage, he also produced Kern's Sally (1921) and commissioned from him the score for The Cabaret Girl (1922). With his partners, Grossmith was also associated with management and musical comedy production at many of London's largest venues, including the Gaiety (1920–21), Apollo (1920–21), His Majesty's (1923–6) and the Winter Garden (with Laurillard, 1919–21; with Malone, 1921–6), formerly the New Middlesex Music Hall, and whose change of function and name marked the loss of one of the last major venues associated with music hall and variety in London. Particularly since Die lustige Witwe there had been a continual operetta presence; however, it had been dominated in the 1920s by the American-derived versions at Drury Lane, a change of emphasis in repertory assisted by the refurbishment of the theatre (1922) to create a new auditorium of 2283 seats. Such large-scale operettas included Romberg's Rose Marie (1925), The Desert Song (1927) and The New Moon (1928), and Kern's Showboat (1929).

London also generated material for major New York success, but this came less from musical comedies than from revues, particularly from those of c.b. Cochran (whose influence was to extend right through to the important collaborations of Vivian Ellis and A.P. Herbert in the 1940s) and of André Charlot. Most notably through the revues London Calling! (1923, London; 1924, New York), and Charlot's London Revue (1925, New York), Noël Coward, Beatrice Lillie and Gertrude Lawrence launched transatlantic careers, as did Jack Buchanan who, as a performer and producer, brought Kern's Sunny to London (1926). A virtually permanent reminder of musical comedy's roots, Gilbert and Sullivan continued to be a staple of the annual repertory, now mostly at the Prince's Theatre rather than the Savoy.

The 1930s were marked by a theatrical confidence that saw the fourth refurbishment of the Adelphi and the building of the Cambridge, Saville and Prince Edward theatres (all 1930). The Saville became associated with British musicals and revues (such as Vivian Ellis's Jill Darling!, 1934, and Billy Mayerl's Over She Goes, 1936), while the Prince Edward opened with Rio Rita but failed to achieve a consistent reputation as a theatre for musical productions; renamed the Casino it opened in 1936 as a cabaret restaurant, and later was also adopted for war service as the Queensbury All Services Club (1942). Several theatres at this time were converted to cinemas to supply a new popular demand, among them Daly's which was eventually demolished in 1937. His Majesty's Theatre became associated with a series of British works that balanced Broadway influence with a more European operetta-based approach: beginning in 1929 with Coward's Bitter Sweet, His Majesty's also saw productions of his Conversation Piece (1934) and Operette (1938), and Posford's Balalaika (1937) and Magyar Melody (1939). The Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, gambling on a return to musical theatre of Ivor Novello to reverse its declining fortunes, unwittingly launched his hugely successful series of musical romances Glamorous Night (1935), Careless Rapture (1936), Crest of the Wave (1937) and The Dancing Years (1939). The advent of World War II broke Novello's run of occupancy at Drury Lane: the show was moved out as London theatres were closed at the declaration of war. On the subsequent reopening of theatres weeks later, Drury Lane was adopted as the headquarters for ENSA. Novello's shows never returned to Drury Lane (although they continued in other London theatres to huge acclaim and long runs in the 1940s and early 1950s), but his name and works are still inextricably linked with the theatre.

The war affected the London musical stage in several ways: the repertory became isolated with the exclusion of new American shows for seven years; casts were limited through the military conscription of the youthful and fit; quickly mounted revivals had to take the place of many shows, while new shows tended to be light and distracting (frequently variety vehicles for star turns) or reflected strictly parochial concerns, such as Manning Sherwin's successful Under the Counter, a show about rationing. The provincial and military tours of London productions became a major part of boosting morale. Such isolation and introversion shifted the global appeal of London's new works so that in the first musical theatre transatlantic exchange after the war in 1947, Under the Counter was a disaster in New York, while Oklahoma! began the so-called American invasion of the West End.

London, §VI: Musical life: 1800–1945

2. Concert life.

The period 1800 to 1945 marks the gradual transition from a concert system based on the patronage of a socially exclusive class, with performers and repertory tied to this context, to a wide new consumer audience, vastly extended through broadcasting and recording, with international soloists and a repertory expanding fluidly around a standardized canon. Concerts of all types proliferated as the season lengthened, the subscription principle broadened and ticket prices came within the range of lower income groups. The predominant form of patronage shifted successively from private individuals through institutions to the music business and eventually state subsidy (including that of the BBC).

(i) 1800–1850.

(ii) 1850–1900.

(iii) 1900–1945.

London, §VI, 2: Musical life: 1800–1945: Concert life

(i) 1800–1850.

Though London’s concert life burgeoned during the 18th century, it was still constrained compared to what the 19th would come to expect. The season was short (essentially February to May), and tickets could generally be afforded only by the upper echelons of society, usually known to each other and often to the performers as well. Only concerts at the pleasure gardens and, to some extent, the Lenten ‘oratorios’ were available for a more humble shilling or two. The regular season based around subscription series was well established by 1800, but concert life still lacked durable foundations. Notably, there were no formally established institutions for either symphonic music or choral singing until the founding of the Philharmonic Society (1813; see fig.34) and the Sacred Harmonic Society (1832). The British contribution to the concert repertory had all but dried up, through under-nurturing of symphonic roots and a declining choral tradition.

The first half of the 19th century was a period of flux and realignment. Increasing commercialism and proliferation contrasted with the development of classical concerts as temples of high art. While professional musicians themselves exploited the competitive marketplace for all it was worth, they also kept a wary eye on their image with traditional patrons, as Mendelssohn was quick to observe in 1829: ‘Here they pursue music like a business, calculating, paying, bargaining, and truly a great deal is lacking … but they still remain gentlemen, otherwise they would be expelled from polite society’.

As the season became ever more congested after 1820, beginning before Christmas, the day was also extended by matinées. The audience base widened through more middle-class access to subscription series and a gradual proliferation of cheaper venues – oratorios and benefits at first, later promenade and popular concerts. Already in the 1820s the changing nature of concert patronage was a matter for anguished debate in the periodical press. If traditional aristocratic patronage was turning back to the exclusive private salon, luring the most famous artists by money and flattery, what then was the future for public concert life? Was there a new role for the bourgeoisie?

While some nouveaux riches matched the aristocracy with ostentatious soirées, others preferred to cultivate a sober reputation as connoisseurs, while distinguishing themselves from the old guard of the Ancient Music by focussing on the Viennese classics. Amateur societies in the City, inspired by German merchants, promoted Mozart’s Don Giovanni in about 1808, and the tradition persisted through two short-lived series of City Amateur concerts (both founded in 1818) and others on similar lines. Through their support of public institutions and the discerning programmes of their private concerts, the City bourgeoisie began a realignment of patronage that was only resolved in succeeding decades.

Social themes therefore intersected with differing musical tastes and repertories. Canonization was extended from ‘ancient’ music to the ‘classical’ music of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven (and, for that matter, to new music of serious aspiration by Spohr and Mendelssohn). This high-minded reverence for art contrasted with populist ephemera as well as with the glitz of Italian opera and virtuoso pianism, regarded equally as shallow upper-class infatuations. The change was most clearly articulated by the formation of the Philharmonic Society in 1813. The previous decade, despite Salomon’s advocacy of Beethoven, had been dominated by the Vocal Concerts and other series by such divas as Elizabeth Billington and Angelica Catalani; whereas the Philharmonic’s agenda explicitly elevated modern symphonies alongside ancient music, eschewing vocal solos and even concertos at first (though both these restrictions were soon abandoned). Like the Professional Concert, the Philharmonic Society was founded by musicians, but differed radically from its predecessor in its high ideals and ostentatious disdain for profit. Subscribers were admitted on the basis of artistic credentials rather than social status, resulting in many fewer titled members than at the Concert of Ancient Music and a broader audience claiming artistic discernment based on the new Viennese repertory. Admittedly the path was not always smooth, with some members reviving their allegiance to the Professional Concert in 1815 and accusations of complacency and stasis during the 1830s. With a freelance orchestra and limited rehearsal, the standard of orchestral playing cannot have been high, and although Spohr introduced the baton at a rehearsal in 1820, a dual control system between violinist and pianist persisted for many years. Nevertheless, the Philharmonic was a dominant force for many decades, responsible not only for confirming Beethoven as the keystone of the repertory, but also for commissioning music from Cherubini, Spohr and Mendelssohn (see fig.34). If the latter’s appearance at the Philharmonic in 1829 cemented his reputation and influence in England, his authority as a conductor began to encourage more precision of ensemble, an improvement much advanced by Michael Costa from 1846 to 1855.

In line with the artistic ideals of the Philharmonic was the rise of chamber music concerts. In 1835 a young violinist named Joseph Dando instituted quartet concerts in the City, soon transferring westwards to the Hanover Square Rooms (fig.35) and inviting competition from more distinguished players. Programmes were uncompromisingly based around the Viennese masters, including late Beethoven, despite an admixture of songs and other lighter items. Serious contemplation of masterworks was encouraged by seating in the round, and reflected in titles such as conversazione or soirée musicale. Chamber series were sometimes held at patrons’ houses, emphasizing a link with traditional modes of patronage; or at musicians’ own lodgings, allying them with the artistic and literary community. At John Ella’s Musical Union, founded in 1845, just three chamber works were performed by the finest artists to a rapt audience of cognoscenti, over whom Ella ruled with a rod of silence. The Beethoven Quartet Society, established by the critic T.M. Alsager in the same year, also presented three works – early, middle and late – with similar devotion, the audience following scores or detailed programme notes. Other instrumentalists also took up the classical torch: in 1838 Moscheles began a series of classical piano recitals (though again interleaving songs as well as chamber music).

The patrician Concert of Ancient Music exhibited a similarly reverential attitude towards choral music, but its petrified repertory and ambience were increasingly seen as a moribund relic of the 18th century; and it finally expired in 1848. At the 1834 Royal Festival at Westminster Abbey celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Handel Commemoration, sacred music of the Viennese school was included (in response to public pressure), but choral singing was already moving in quite a different direction. London had always lacked a major amateur society to match the provincial festivals: in 1832 the Sacred Harmonic Society was founded, soon to be transformed into a symbol of religious dissent as a coalition of nonconformist choirs excluded from the 1834 festival. Its membership largely drawn from the musically uneducated lower classes, the society maintained a high moral tone and social purpose, which extended also to its audiences. In 1836 it was granted the use of the larger Exeter Hall, focus of London’s dissenting community and designed for religious and charitable meetings, enabling vast crowds of 2000 and more to attend for no more than a shilling. Amateur choral singing in London grew apace over the next few decades, invigorated by the rise of the sol-fa movement and the singing classes of Mainzer, Curwen and Hullah; and at the Handel Festival of 1859 (see fig.37) the Sacred Harmonic choir numbered 2765. Artistic high-mindedness ensured that Handel oratorios were sung complete, and the society also performed the major new works of Spohr and Mendelssohn, including the London première of Elijah in 1847.

Changing artistic and social function encouraged a desire to redress continental domination of concert repertory. But only gradually was awareness of decline translated into active encouragement of British composers, with initiatives stemming more from musicians themselves than from their patrons: trials of new music at the Philharmonic Society (including symphonies by Cipriani Potter), public performances of student works from the new Royal Academy of Music (opened in 1823), and such initiatives as the British Concerts (1823) and the Society of British Musicians, founded in 1834. The latter was intended both as a forum for discussion and as a focus for publicity through full-scale symphonic concerts. Though foreign works were later admitted and the programmes reduced to chamber music, performances of Bennett and Macfarren during the 1830s and 40s formed a significant prelude to the emergence of a British school of composition.

Most concerts had less exalted aims, their upper echelons dominated by foreign virtuosos, who besides the occasional obligatory appearance at the Philharmonic were mainly to be heard at private soirées and benefits. Private concerts remained an essential feature of the soloist’s diary, both lucrative and an entrée into further engagements, despite protests by such musicians as Spohr and Moscheles: Every time I am applauded at such soirées, I think it is because they are relieved that I have finished playing, and that the thing is over and done with. We sacrifice as little time as possible for such evenings and hurry home as soon as the rules of etiquette permit. Soirée programmes generally mixed salon music and virtuoso showpieces with the latest Italian arias and ensembles, and sometimes English glees. Only rarely was more serious musical attention expected, though there were exceptions, such as concerts at Alsager’s house, where Moscheles gave the London première of Beethoven’s Missa solemnis in 1832.

The benefit concert, that stalwart of the 18th-century concert structure, was gradually transforming in function. Formerly regarded as a reward for good service, the benefit turned during the 19th century into a commercial catch-all, with diverse programmes presented by unknowns in ever-increasing numbers, as well as by international stars. Pianists such as Thalberg or Moscheles performed their fantasias on national airs and improvised on themes provided by the audience; singers contributed a mêlée of Italian showpieces and finales, extracts from Weber and Meyerbeer, English ballads and folksongs. Most extravagant of all were the annual Monster Concerts of Julius Benedict, beginning in 1841, when a roll call of stars – Grisi, Viardot, Mario, Vieuxtemps, Liszt – attracted large and fashionable crowds. But in general the profusion of concerts outran audiences, and halls were routinely ‘papered’ with free tickets for friends and pupils, despite the introduction of tiered prices. Economies resulted in piano accompaniment becoming the norm by 1850 – although this did allow classical works, a trend that was eventually amalgamated into the recital.

Some exploitation exceeded mere benefits. In the 1820s the soprano Catalani organized whole series around her virtuoso showpieces, only to be outdone in 1831 by Paganini’s concerts at the King’s Theatre, as frequent and as high-priced as the market would allow, followed by appearances at the London Tavern in the City (still regarded as problematical for an artist of his stature). Yet when Liszt arrived in 1840 even he cultivated a drawing-room ambience at Hanover Square for London’s first solo piano recitals.

Like benefits, the Lenten oratorios appealed to a diverse audience through mixed programming, interspersing Handel with a jumble of Italian showpieces and English ballads; indeed, their 19th-century manifestations should be regarded more as popular potpourris than serious concerts. Liberalization of theatrical regulations caused the final downfall in 1843; but other organizations were already catering for large audiences at prices of a shilling or so. In contrast to the Sacred Harmonic Society’s moral agenda, the promenade concerts initiated in 1838 clearly attempted to reach a new and uncultivated audience with populist programmes: the latest galops and quadrilles, cornet solos and every imaginable crowd-pleasing gimmick. Yet the great showman Jullien made a point of including movements from Beethoven symphonies, albeit in his own garish arrangements.

During the 1830s and 40s music began to spread outside the narrow confines of the central London concert hall, with the rapid growth of societies for self-improvement, entertainment or education. Dando’s quartet concerts in the City paved the way for cheaper and more accessible concerts by challenging licensing restrictions, and also found an obvious way of economizing without losing artistic prestige. Leading professionals could be heard at literary institutions and musical societies in such outlying districts as Highgate, Islington, Mile End and Camberwell. At the same time, amateur instrumental and choral societies proliferated around London and in the City (where the long-lived Choral Harmonists’ Society was formed in 1833); and music was one of the most striking successes of the Mechanics’ Institutes, less artisan than their name implies, which made a strong cultural impact in less prosperous areas, both for amateur players and for the sizable audiences their concerts attracted.

London, §VI, 2: Musical life: 1800–1945: Concert life

(ii) 1850–1900.

By the middle of the century London’s main musical institutions had become established around a well-defined repertory. The number of concerts and size of audiences continued to increase. The 1851 Great Exhibition and subsequent resiting of the ‘Crystal Palace’ from Hyde Park to Sydenham, a south London suburb, had long-term significance; but that decade’s most prominent musical event was the foundation of the Handel Festival there. The Sacred Harmonic Society provided the nucleus for the nationally represented choir of the Trial Festival of 1857 (numbering 2000, with an orchestra of about 400), prior to the Centenary Festival of 1859, which inaugurated the triennial Handel Festival (fig.37); by the 1880s this had a choir of 4000 and orchestra of about 450, with audiences of around 86,000 over four days. This quintessentially Victorian event was much imitated, notably in the USA, but was never fully respected by serious musicians, even within the Sacred Harmonic Society itself, and adverse comparison was made with the provincial choral festivals which were its most direct model.

The desire for sensitive performance of historical repertory was manifest in the advent of several new groups. The Harmonic Union, a subscription society founded in 1852 ‘for the performance of sacred and secular music both of the Ancient and Modern Schools’, began in December that year at Exeter Hall, the first programme including a Bach motet and C.E. Horsley’s Joseph, and it performed other modern works until its demise in 1854. The Vocal Association (fl 1856–c1866) was conducted by Julius Benedict and modelled on the German Gesangverein for performance of such larger modern choral works as Mendelssohn’s Die erste Walpurgisnacht and Spohr’s Hymn to St Cecilia. The most successful small choir of the decade was the Henry Leslie Choir, which assimilated a previous choir, first with 60 voices intended for madrigals and partsongs; it increased to 240 for large works and explored a wide repertory to a high standard, flourishing until 1887. More convivial vocal activity continued in the Round, Catch and Canon Club, founded in 1843 to sing works of its members, first at the Anchor Tavern and later St James’s Hall, finally folding in 1911.

In orchestral life, the chief innovation was the transformation of the Crystal Palace band into a full symphony orchestra in the year after the 1854 opening. Its second director of music, August Manns, provided two daily free concerts for visitors, and a Saturday concert with augmented orchestra and a more classical programme. The Palace also presented fashionable opera concerts in the summer of 1856, but the orchestral concerts were far more important in pioneering new repertory and raising performance standards. Manns’ regular contact with his players and expert training, together with the support of George Grove, Crystal Palace secretary, resulted in the rapid creation of London’s best orchestra. By the mid-1860s it was probably one of the best in Europe, and its bold expansion of repertory attracted musical connoisseurs from central London, who took specially scheduled trains. Longer seasons than the Philharmonic Society (two series through autumn and spring, later extended to summer), the participation of leading international performers and a distinctly educational ethos all gave the Crystal Palace Concerts a pre-eminence which overshadowed those of central London until the 1880s. Manns also made his concerts the leading forum for new British music, continuing until the official disbanding of the orchestra in 1900 when he was in his 70s.

Even before Manns’ tenure at the Crystal Palace, the Philharmonic Society had reached a crisis point. Long criticized for its conservative programmes before Costa left, it was challenged by a breakaway group of members who created the New Philharmonic Society in 1852 to give ‘more perfect performances of the great masters than have hitherto been attained and to bring the music of contemporary and British composers before the public’. Led by Henry Wylde, its committee consisted not of professional musicians but of wealthy amateurs. In its first season Berlioz performed part of his Roméo et Juliette and gave the first satisfactory performance in England of Beethoven’s 9th Symphony. In 1856 the concerts moved from Exeter Hall to the Hanover Square Rooms, resulting in higher prices and a more exclusive audience. In 1858 Wylde became sole director and conductor at St James’s Hall, and some members resigned to form the Musical Society of London whose wide aspirations included the provision of a good library, lectures, conversaziones, and chamber music at St James’s Hall; the society lasted until 1867 when Clara Schumann played in its last concert. The New Philharmonic was effectively finished by 1879, although it continued for three years under Wilhelm Ganz.

The opening of St James’s Hall, Piccadilly, in 1858, provided a much needed new venue in central London (see fig.38). Established by the publishers Cramer, Beale & Chappell ‘for concerts on a large scale and for public meetings’, it comprised a large concert hall and a smaller hall which housed ballad concerts and minstrelsy. S.A. Chappell’s Monday Popular Concerts (1859–76; fig.39) and later Saturday Popular Concerts (1865–1904) presented chamber music and solo performance. Leading organizations and soloists played there, beginning with Ella’s Musical Union and the Henry Leslie Choir and followed belatedly by the Philharmonic Society in 1869, when the Novello oratorio concerts also took occupancy. The Hanover Rooms were thus overtaken and closed in 1874.

Although aimed at increasingly broad audiences, these concerts were all for the musically educated; other concerts were aimed at a more popular audience. The standard and musical respectability of promenade concerts gradually improved during the period, Louis Jullien’s concerts (see fig.36) being taken over by Mellon at Covent Garden after his death in 1860; in 1850 Balfe had begun a series at the Surrey Gardens, then moving to Drury Lane and subsequently Covent Garden. Chappell began ‘Ballad Concerts’ in 1867 as a showcase for his publications, and was copied by others. Hullah’s choral concerts (1850–60), based on highly popular classes in tonic sol-fa, were more didactic, taking place from 1850 at St Martin’s Hall, Long Acre, which was built for him by supporters. Novello had generated a vast business in cheap vocal scores for the Handel Festivals at the Crystal Palace, and in 1869 launched ‘Oratorio Concerts’ under Joseph Barnby. They lasted until 1872, when the choir was amalgamated with the Royal Albert Hall Choral Society, founded with the Hall (fig.40) in 1871 (from 1888 the Royal Choral Society). Its adventurous repertory included four successive performances of Bach’s St Matthew Passion in 1873, the Verdi Requiem (under the composer) in 1875 and Dvořák’s Stabat mater in 1884, also conducted by the composer. Barnby subsequently conducted the London Musical Society, founded in 1878, which flourished until 1887 ‘for the practice and performance of the works of composers which are not generally known to the musical public’, given in St James’s Hall. Another choir associated with a new building was the Alexandra Palace Choral Society, founded at the institution located on a north London hill site (analogous in function and location to the Crystal Palace). Directed from its opening in 1873 by Thomas Weist-Hill, its programmes included revivals of Handel’s Esther and Susanna (with an orchestra of 42 and a choir of 300); it also ran a symphony competition for British composers.

If performances of Handel with large forces were popular, Bach demanded smaller and better-trained choirs and was comparatively little-known in the 1870s. The Bach Society had been formed in 1849 to collect compositions and relics, and to further understanding of his music. It gave the first English performance of the St Matthew Passion in 1854 under Sterndale Bennett, but was dissolved in 1870. The foundation of the Bach Choir in 1875 was prompted by the desire to perform the B minor Mass, then unknown to English musicians; two performances took place at St James’s Hall in 1876, conducted by Otto Goldschmidt. In addition to Bach it performed new choral music, such as the Brahms German Requiem, and achieved high standards under Goldschmidt and later under Stanford.

By the early 1880s there were already complaints by tired critics of concerts, the Musical World avowing that the receptive capacities of the ‘professional worker and amateur student’ were sorely overtaxed. But by then some of the older institutions were showing signs of age. The Sacred Harmonic Society collapsed after Costa’s death and the Handel Festival passed into the hands of the Crystal Palace, with new standards and a wider repertory imposed by August Manns. In 1882 a large amateur choir and orchestra was formed as the Handel Society and dedicated to the revival of the composer’s less familiar works and the practice and performance of other music, including all the Handel oratorios except Joseph and Esther and Mozart’s C minor Mass. New interest in historical repertory is reflected in the Magpie Madrigal Society founded in 1866 to perform 16th- and 17th-century madrigals and contemporary works, some composed for it. It was closely associated with the Royal College of Music, and was active until 1911.

The growing popular audience for classical orchestral music was wooed by a series of concerts by leading German conductors. In 1879, Hans Richter’s Orchestral Festival Concerts (later known as the Richter Concerts) began to offer the first sustained challenge to Manns. In 1884 Henschel, having resigned the position of first conductor of the Boston SO, began the London Symphony Concerts. For 11 years they introduced innovative repertory. Smaller-scale performances received a further stimulus with the opening by the piano makers of the 500-seat Steinway Hall (renamed Grotrian Hall in 1925) and, more significantly, Bechstein Hall in 1901.

By the 1880s broader audiences were introduced to classical music. Earlier educational initiatives had been concerned with choral music. A new phase in the popularization of instrumental music began with the People’s Concert Society formed in 1878 with the aim of ‘increasing the popularity of good music by means of cheap concerts’. The essential feature was the maintenance of high artistic standards and the programmes were closely modelled on those of St James’s Hall. The concerts were held in various disadvantaged parts of London including the People’s Palace in the East End and 1d charged for most seats. The operation relied on artists giving their services or taking nominal fees and was partly supported by subscription. The concerts lasted well into the 20th century. The Vocal and Instrumental Concerts of the South Place Ethical Institute, Finsbury, began in 1887 with free admission and a silver collection. In the first season there were seven concerts, in the second 13 and by the third season concerts were held weekly through the winter. When Conway Hall was built for its use in 1927–8 it was not licensed, so the South Place Concerts Society was formed for members only, thus breaking the tradition of free admission. It became an important showcase for young artists, soloists and chamber groups. The Oxford House Choral Society was founded in 1898 at Oxford House, the Oxford University Settlement in Bethnal Green, to give East Londoners the opportunity to take part in choral music. It gave regular concerts in the Excelsior Hall. In 1903 it appeared at St James’s Hall and gave an annual concert at Queen’s Hall from 1904 to 1921, and afterwards at St Martin-in-the-Fields.

London, §VI, 2: Musical life: 1800–1945: Concert life

(iii) 1900–1945.

With a range of choral, orchestral, solo and chamber music firmly established at St James’s Hall, the Royal Albert Hall, the Crystal Palace and smaller venues, central London still lacked a high-quality symphony orchestra performing a wider repertory, including new music. This came about through the opening in 1893 of the Queen’s Hall (fig.41), comprising a large hall of 2500 and a smaller hall of 500. Its first licensee, Robert Newman, sought a popular audience for good-quality orchestral music and from 1895 arranged a series of promenade concerts with the newly formed Queen’s Hall Orchestra in the summer at cheaper prices when other concert series were not available; the initiative reflected a new respectability for the promenade concept since the Monster Concerts of Jullien; admission to both the standing room and the body of the hall and to most of the seats was far cheaper than at any other concerts. With Henry Wood as conductor from 1895 until 1941, the concerts took over an educational role which connects 19th-century concert life to modern times. The first programmes still reflected the traditional mixed content, with a ‘serious’ first half and a popular second with ballads and instrumental solos, but gradually a modern structure emerged. Like Manns, Wood achieved his results by a combination of good training and regular contact with his players, who played every night of the week except Sunday for a ten-week summer season.

The new hall and concerts symbolize the beginnings of a new era. Following the disbanding of the Crystal Palace Orchestra and final closure of the Saturday Popular Concerts, St James’s Hall closed in 1905. Henceforth, serious music lovers could choose from a cluster of venues in central London, custom built and often more efficiently managed than in the past as regards tickets, seating, ventilation and general facilities. It also reflected the growing interest in orchestral music, whereas no new choral venues appeared or societies were formed. Most prominent were the appearance of celebrity solo performers. With the piano culture now at its apogee, the new concert rooms of piano manufacturers offered frequent recitals enabling such houses as Broadwood and Erard to promote visiting celebrities. Thus concert life and the exploitation of brand names – concert instruments prominently labelled – were sustained almost continuously through the year at Bechstein Hall, Steinway Hall and Aeolian Hall (pianola makers). As the main source of concert hall income shifted from subscriptions to tickets for individual concerts, crass profitability was sometimes preferred to social exclusiveness. Chamber music, long the preserve of the most educated musical class, was dominated by the concerts of the Joachim Quartet until his death in 1907 (the concerts were held in St James’s Hall until 1905). The work of the Joachim Quartet was continued by the Classical Concert Society (1908–22).

Documentation is still inadequate to chart the full range of music performed, types of audience, and locations during this period of rapid commercial development and population growth. The 19th-century obsession with Beethoven and Mendelssohn continued, along with the establishment of a limited core of Haydn and Mozart and of familiar operatic overtures and Wagnerian extracts ‘in bleeding chunks’. Wood made his mark with exotic French and Russian additions and in difficult modern scores, most notably Schoenberg’s Five Orchestral Pieces in 1912. Richard Strauss was welcomed as a celebrated composer and conductor, and Elgar made strides as the outstanding representative of the English musical renaissance.

Choice of ‘early music’ still reflected acceptable 19th-century taste, and the later 20th century’s emphasis on historical repertory such as Bach’s Brandenburg Concertos or Mozart’s piano concertos was still not apparent. Purcell, the bicentenary of whose death had been celebrated in 1895, was once again forgotten in performance as opposed to study, and Vivaldi was not yet known to the public. But programmes were beginning to relinquish Victorian excess, with shorter menus of overture, concerto and symphony, and perhaps a newly popular tone poem.

One sign of the broadening market is the fact that performances of serious music were not confined to conventional venues. For example, London’s first encounter with Parsifal, in June 1913, was a truncated version without singers as part of the Coliseum’s music-hall offerings. Beecham’s innovatory Sunday concerts, with a new orchestra recently acclaimed in Berlin and such novelties as the violin concertos of Weingartner and Busoni, with Kreisler and Szigeti as soloists, took place at the Palladium. Throughout the year there were no longer significant gaps in the concert calendar. Some music was available at Easter, and the summer months were filled by a prodigious list of proms: 61 concerts between mid-August and late October. The Annual Register reported a prom season ‘by far the most prosperous ever yet enjoyed … . Night after night the house was literally packed by enthusiasts’. Most popular was Wagner, whose ‘emotional fervour & dramatic intensity … make a strong appeal to those who wage the fight of life’ (Athenaeum).

In an age of cheap labour and large demand, impresarios and highly paid and promoted artists flourished. An impresario’s largesse could be indulged in an orchestra where about 100 players was the norm for any music, regardless of period or style. All were men, except for an occasional harpist, though plenty of women players were available: hence an occasional indulgence in the novelty of a ladies orchestra. Top violinists and pianists (there were not yet stars on such other instruments as the cello) were recognizably new, despite superficial resemblance to the obvious precursors, Paganini, Liszt and Anton Rubinstein. The new breed, epitomized by Paderewski, performed with an extravagance of tone, interpretative flair, gesture and pecuniary expectation which was variously attributed to genius, national temperament, manipulation by grasping agents, transatlantic influence and the response of vulgar audiences. In similar mould there were new virtuoso conductors, with Nikisch as exemplar, whose interpretations of familiar classics brought profitable acclaim – even to the innovative extent that concerts could succeed without a soloist. All the same, visits by high-quality foreign orchestras stood out, such as Newman’s invitation of the Colonne Orchestra and the appearance of the Meiningen orchestra under Steinbach in 1902. Smaller ensembles drew upon similar repertory in programmes which were usually a ragbag, even when carried by an artist of distinction. Few serious musicians could yet attract a sufficient audience without the ‘assistance’ of a singer or contrasting instrumentalist to provide diversity or light relief. The programme of a violin recital would normally include a concerto and ‘solo’ Bach, both with piano accompaniment. Singers rarely avoided Melba’s sound advice to ‘sing ’em muck’ – and not only in the outback or provinces – along with morsels of lieder, opera and art song. The genteel parlour entertainments of a dominant piano culture, with its dependent economics of music publishing – royalty ballads and music-hall songs, ‘effective’ piano pieces, even recitations – were still common enough in Wigmore Street. Kreisler might play at Chappell’s ballad concerts in Queen’s Hall, but on the same occasion Gervase Elwes would sing a new setting of Lead Kindly Light.

The potential audience was immense: a vast metropolitan population, enjoying increased leisure and purchasing power, and a measure of recent emancipation from the Sabbatarian constraints which had until recently denied access to the pleasures of a ‘continental Sunday’. Dispersal from workplace to suburbia was offset by the opportunity to return provided by cheap efficient public transport. Such new forms of public entertainment as the music hall already exercised a huge mass appeal, and hopes were expressed that serious music might be similarly marketed, for patronage and subsidy were virtually non-existent, in the guise of ‘respectablizing’ entertainment by raising its tone for family consumption. More central to music’s need was Robert Newman’s express intention, as he told Henry Wood, to recruit new custom ‘by easy stages … raising the standard until I have created a public for classical and modern music. Similar hopes for stable audiences, committed to music itself rather than to evanescent fashion, doubtless underlay a rapid proliferation of institutions and events during the first decade of the 20th century. A rash of orchestras, with misleading flags of stable identity, was one such excrescence. The London Symphony Orchestra (LSO, 1904) was founded as a players’ cooperative in defiance of Wood’s attempt to raise standards by challenging the deputy system in his Queen’s Hall Orchestra (1895). Hans Richter conducted the orchestra’s inaugural concert at the Queen’s Hall on 9 June 1904. There followed, in rapid succession, the Royal Albert Hall Orchestra (1905), the New SO and the Beecham SO (1909), all with access to an overflowing pool of players. None could offer enough secure employment to guarantee that long-term commitment and regular rehearsals which would have been conducive to ensemble and style, as with the best continental and American orchestras. At symphony concerts a London tradition of inspired sight-reading became deeply entrenched, even a source of pride, with conductors learning to cope.

By 1913, the last year of peace, it was a journalist’s commonplace to marvel at or deplore the excess of London’s musical calendar, ranging from rapturously received first English performances of Der Rosenkavalier to polite interest in Dolmetsch’s clavichord. It made ‘the head swim’ exclaimed the Daily Telegraph, which carried notices of 50 concert and opera performances in a week, declared that ‘efforts to create audiences … are useless’ and doubted that all this activity ‘denoted a musical nation’. A typical week began on Sunday 18 May with two afternoon concerts. At the Palladium the National Sunday League provided ‘light orchestral music’ with Yvonne Arnaud, musical comedy star and conservatoire pianist, in the Grieg Piano Concerto, and an ‘immense audience’ invaded the Albert Hall to hear Maggie Teyte, Kreisler and Backhaus, the latter in Grieg’s Piano Sonata. On Monday an afternoon recital at the Aeolian Hall was followed by evening concerts at the Queen’s, Bechstein and Steinway halls. On Tuesday afternoon Bechstein Hall offered a piano recital by the newcomer Artur Rubinstein; Aeolian Hall a vocalist with harp; and at Queen’s Hall Casals, Thibaud and Bauer attracted a small audience because trios were ‘seldom played’. That evening vocalists at the Aeolian and Bechstein halls probably fared similarly, if only because the week’s attractions at Covent Garden included Caruso in Pagliacci and Destinn and Scotti in the latest novelty, Tosca. On Wednesday there were three afternoon and four evening concerts of no great account (one conducted by Serafin), but on Thursday afternoon, in addition to a singer at the Bechstein Hall, Teyte was at the Queen’s Hall for ‘barely an hour’ with two intervals, in Debussy ‘perfectly sung’ and ‘paltry American songs only fit for a ballad concert’ (The Times, 23 May 1913). That evening a Wagner centenary concert at the Albert Hall, a violinist at the Steinway, and vocalists at the Bechstein and Aeolian entertained those who could not attend Melba’s ‘rentrée’ in La Bohème at Covent Garden. On Friday afternoon, while Isolde Menges played the Brahms Violin Concerto with Nikisch at Queen’s Hall, the London String Quartet occupied Bechstein Hall; and that evening the LSO were in the large venue while Comtesse Hélène Mersztyn gave a piano recital at the Aeolian. Saturday afternoon offered only the Wessely String Quartet and a piano recital by Egon Petri.

When London’s musical life was torn apart by war, a surfeit of musical events was followed by dearth. The open international market was disrupted by the removal of ‘enemy’ performers, and such leading contemporary composers as Richard Strauss got short shrift. But despite ‘Hun-baiting’ by some hitherto obscure piano makers and a measure of muck-racking journalism, with Bechstein Hall a significant casualty, there was remarkably little concession in repertory to nationalistic sentiment: the old masters, including Wagner, remained in central place. The return to peace in 1918 brought ‘business as usual’ back to music, with a flood of returning soloists seeking London platforms. But there was little sign of that loyal audience which Newman and enthusiasts for the musical appreciation movement had hoped to build. The rapidly growing suburbs provided their own centres of entertainment, one form of which, the cinema, soon engulfed all others. The omnipresent ‘silent’ cinemas were invariably accompanied by continuous music – much of it standard classics – and employed the overwhelming majority of professional instrumentalists. Their influence upon the education of future audiences held promise; but the immediate effects on concert life were less auspicious, notably in the quality of orchestral playing. The demand for rank and file players was buoyant as never before; but foreigners were excluded by work permit regulations, and women instrumentalists, who had entered and even led orchestras in wartime, were no longer welcome. When Newman died in 1926 it seemed likely that even the Queen’s Hall would become a cinema. If that calamity, avoided only by the BBC’s intervention, best symbolized the immediate crisis in concert life, its deeper malaise was recognized by many contemporaries in 1927, when a visit by Furtwängler’s Berlin PO demonstrated what was lacking in routine London performances. Another notoriously public incident was when Schnabel explained in a letter to The Times that a Mozart concerto had been inadequately prepared and that his offer to subsidize rehearsals was nullified by the use of deputy players. Thus were London standards mocked until, quite suddenly, the rot was stopped.

Standards of orchestral playing in London were transformed within a few years by a transformation of the city’s musical environment. The successive blows dealt by ‘talking’ cinema, the slump and long depression, and the slower but relentless collapse of the old piano culture, cumulatively destroyed employment opportunities for the vast majority of musicians. Henceforth orchestras could be selected with relentless discrimination, then rehearsed and disciplined as never before; and there were conductors with the skill and will to exert such command. Similarly unprecedented was the beginning of substantial patronage for music, with long-term commitment and lofty ideals, again for the spread and improvement of musical taste. In 1930 the BBC created Britain’s first permanent symphony orchestra with full-time contracts, while a society for the promotion of contemporary music was founded in London in 1931 under the name Macnaghten Concerts. The following year Beecham established the London Philharmonic Orchestra, with contracts less exclusive, but sufficient to ensure stability for the decade. Its legendary first concert – Berlioz’s overture Le carnaval romain, Mozart’s Prague Symphony, Delius’s Brigg Fair, Strauss’s Ein Heldenleben – took place after 12 rehearsals and, as Ernest Newman wrote, informed ‘you Londoners… what an orchestra ought to be like’. Beecham’s patronage came in part from the traditional but short-lived support of wealthy friends, its departure demonstrating the evanescence of such funding. Far more significant, for this enterprise and for the whole future of professional music-making, was the recording industry, now firmly based in London and, with the new electrical process, capable of financing, exploiting and documenting London’s orchestral revolution: gramophone records amply demonstrate the new quality of playing. London concerts generally became more selective in repertory with less resort to the ragbag and second-rate; many recitals attempted some kind of austere balance; ballad concerts abandoned the metropolis, and even remnants of the Victorian parlour culture began to fade into oblivion.

With the disruption of war in 1939, cultural euphoria became fashionable with images of Myra Hess at the National Gallery and ordinary men and women uplifted by Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony. The permanent audience for concerts, long coveted, was now thought to be attainable through the influence of responsible broadcasting and the gramophone. A plethora of concerts – in cinemas as well as the Queen’s Hall until its destruction in 1941 and the Albert Hall thereafter – may have consisted mostly of a handful of Classical and Romantic works (the repertory of piano concertos now including ersatz cinema products) read at sight by scratch orchestras. But, it was claimed, indulgent repertory and performance could be attributed to wartime exigencies. The peace would offer utopia with, at long last, commitment from government and adequate licence.

For further information on institutions and venues, see Grove6

London, §VI: Musical life: 1800–1945

BIBLIOGRAPHY

opera

M. Kelly: Reminiscences of Michael Kelly, of the King's Theatre, and Theatre Royal, Drury Lane (London, 1826, 2/1826); ed. R. Fiske (London, 1975)

J. Ebers: Seven Years of the King's Theatre (London, 1828)

W.T. Parke: Musical Memoirs (London, 1830)

G. Hogarth: Memoirs of the Musical Drama (London, 1838, 2/1851 as Memoirs of the Opera)

H.F. Chorley: Thirty Years' Musical Recollections (London, 1862, rev. 2/1926 by E. Newman)

B. Lumley: Reminiscences of the Opera (London, 1864)

J.H. Mapleson: Memoirs (London, 1888); ed. H. Rosenthal as The Mapleson Memoirs: the Career of an Operatic Impresario (London, 1966)

H. Klein: Thirty Years of Musical Life in London, 1870–1900 (London, 1903)

H. Saxe Wyndham: The Annals of Covent Garden Theatre from 1732 to 1897 (London, 1906)

C. Forsyth: Music and Nationalism: a Study of English Opera (London, 1911)

H. Klein: The Reign of Patti (London, 1920)

S.J. Adair-Fitzgerald: The Story of the Savoy Opera: a Record of Events and Productions (London, 1924)

T. Beecham: A Mingled Chime: Leaves from an Autobiography (London, 1944)

D. Shawe-Taylor: Covent Garden (London, 1948)

E.W. White: The Rise of English Opera (London, 1951)

W.C. Smith: The Italian Opera and Contemporary Ballet in London, 1789–1820 (London, 1955)

D. Arundell: The Critic at the Opera (London, 1957)

H. Rosenthal: Two Centuries of Opera at Covent Garden (London, 1958)

D. Arundell: The Story of Sadler's Wells (London, 1965)

E.A. Langhans: ‘The Dorset Garden Theatre in Pictures’, Theatre Survey, vi (1965), 134–46

E.A. Langhans: ‘Pictorial Material on the Bridges Street and Drury Lane Theatres’, Theatre Survey, vii (1966), 80–100

E.A. Langhans: ‘The Vere Street and Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatres in Pictures’, Educational Theatre Journal, xx (1968), 171–85

R. Mander and J. Mitchenson: The Lost Theatres of London (London, 1968)

R. Leacroft: The Development of the English Playhouse (London, 1973)

Earl of Harewood: The Tongs and the Bones (London, 1981)

D.H. Laurence, ed.: Shaw's Music: the Complete Musical Criticism (London, 1981)

N. Temperley, ed.: Music in Britain: the Romantic Age, 1800–1914 (London, 1981)

E.A. Langhans: ‘Conjectural Reconstructions of the Vere Street and Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatres’, Essays in Theatre, i (1982), 14–28

Royal Opera House Retrospective, 1732–1982 (London, 1982)

A. Saint and others: A History of the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, 1732–1982 (London, 1982)

G.F. Barlow: From Tennis Court to Opera House (diss., U. of Glasgow, 1983)

E.W. White: A History of English Opera (London, 1983)

J. Milhous and R.D. Hume: ‘The Charter for the Royal Academy of Music’, ML, lxvii (1986), 50–58

L. Foreman: From Parry to Britten: British Music in Letters, 1900–1945 (London, 1987)

L. Langley: ‘Italian Opera and the English Press, 1836–1856’, Periodica musica, vi (1988), 3–10

R. Cowgill: ‘Le nozze di Figaro on the London Stage, 1786–1813’, Musica antiqua, ix (1992), 168–177

G. Dideriksen and M. Ringel: ‘Frederick Gye and “The Dreadful Business of Opera Management”’, 19CM, xix (1995–6), 3–30

M. Ringel: Opera in the Donizettian Dark Ages: Management, Competition and Artistic Policy in London, 1861–70, (diss., U. of London, 1996)

J. Lee Hall: The Re-fashioning of Fashionable Society: Opera-Going and Sociability in Britain, 1821–1861 (diss., Yale U., 1996)

G. Dideriksen: Repertory and Rivalry: Opera at the Second Covent Garden Theatre, 1830–1856 (diss., U. of London, 1997)

R. Cowgill: ‘Re-gendering the Libertine; or, The Taming of the Rake: Lucy Vestris as Don Giovanni on the early Nineteenth-Century London Stage’, COJ, x (1998), 45–66

R. Cowgill: ‘“Wise Men from the East”: Metropolitan Cultural Politics and Mozart's Operas, 1800–1830’, Music and British Culture 1785–1914 (Oxford, forthcoming)

J. Milhous, G. Dideriksen and R.D. Hume: Italian Opera in Late Eighteenth-Century London, ii: The Pantheon Opera and its Aftermath, 1790–1795 (Oxford, forthcoming)

popular musical theatre

general

GänzIBMT

GänzIEMT

R. Mander and J. Mitchenson: The Theatres of London (London, 1961, 3/1975)

R. Mander and J. Mitchenson: The Lost Theatres of London (London, 1968)

R. Mander and J. Mitchenson: Musical Comedy: a Story in Pictures (London, 1969)

R. Mander and J. Mitchenson: Revue: a Story in Pictures (London, 1971)

S. Morley: Spread a Little Happiness: the First Hundred Years of the British Musical (London, 1987)

P. O'Connor: ‘Music for the Stage’, Music in Britain: the Twentieth Century, ed. S. Banfield (Oxford, 1995), 107–24

M. Steyn: Broadway Babies Say Goodnight: Musicals Then and Now (London and Boston, 1997)

1800–1945

J. Hollingshead: Good Old Gaiety: an Historiette and Remembrance (London, 1903)

G.B. Shaw: Music in London 1890–94 (London, 1932/R)

W.J.M. Pope: Theatre Royal, Drury Lane (London, 1945)

W.J.M. Pope: Carriages at Eleven: the Story of Edwardian Theatre (London, 1947/R)

W.J.M. Pope: Gaiety, Theatre of Enchantment (London, 1949)

W.J.M. Pope: Nights of Gladness (London, 1956) [on musical plays and comic operas]

D. Howard: London Theatres and Music Halls, 1850–1950 (London, 1970)

R. Pearsall: Edwardian Popular Music (London, 1975)

A. Lamb: Jerome Kern in Edwardian London (Littlehampton, 1981, 2/1985)

A. Lamb: ‘Music of the Popular Theatre’, Music in Britain: the Romantic Age 1800–1914, ed. N. Temperley (London, 1981), 92–108

J.P. Green: ‘In Dahomey in London in 1903’, Black Perspective in Music, xi (1983), 22–40

A. Lamb: ‘From Pinafore to Porter: United States–United Kingdom Interactions in Musical Theater, 1879–1929’, American Music, iv/1 (1986), 34–49

S. Porter: ‘English American Interaction in Musical Theater at the Turn of the Nineteenth Century’, American Music, iv/1 (1986), 6–19

T.L. Riis: ‘The Experience and Impact of Black Entertainers in England, 1895–1920’, American Music, iv/1 (1986), 50–58

D. Russell: Popular Music in England 1840–1914: a Social History (Manchester, 1987, 2/1997)

since 1945

E. Behr and M. Steyn: The Story of Miss Saigon (London, 1991)

C. Gardener: The Society of London Theatre: Box Office Data Report (London, 1998)

T. Travers: The Wydham Report: the Economic Impact of London's West End Theatre (London, 1998)

concert life

T. Busby: Concert Room and Orchestra Anecdotes of Music and Musicians, Ancient and Modern (London, 1825)

G. Hogarth: The Philharmonic Society of London from its Foundation, 1813, to its Fiftieth Year, 1862 (London, 1862)

F.M. Holmes: Exeter Hall and its Associations (London, 1881)

F. Hueffer: Half a Century of Music in England: 1837–87 (London, 1889, 2/1898)

J.E. Matther: ‘The Antient Concerts, 1776–1848’, PMA, xxxiii (1906–7), 55–79

H.S. Wyndham: August Manns and the Saturday Concerts (London, 1909)

M.B. Foster: History of the Philharmonic Society of London, 1813–1912 (London, 1912)

H. Klein: ‘The Jubilee of the Royal Albert Hall and the Royal Choral Society’, MT, lxii (1921), 229–35, 313–20, 393–400

W.S. Meadmore: ‘The South Place Chamber Music Concerts’, ML, vi (1925), 78–80

G.B. Shaw: Music in London 1890–94 (London, 1932)

G.B. Shaw: London Music in 1888–9 as heard by Corno di Bassetto (London, 1937)

H. Wood: My Life of Music (London, 1938)

R. Elkin: Royal Philharmonic: the Annals of the Royal Philharmonic Society (London, 1947)

R. Hill and C.B. Rees: Sir Henry Wood: Fifty Years of the Proms (London, 1948)

R. Nettel: ‘The Oldest Surviving English Music Club’, MQ, xxxiv (1948), 97–108

J. Wood: The Last Years of Henry J. Wood (London, 1948)

T. Russell: The Proms (London, 1949)

R. Elkin: The Old Concert Rooms of London (London, 1955)

A. Macnaghten: ‘The Story of the Macnaghten Concerts’, MT, c (1959), 460–61

W. Weber: Music and the Middle Class: the Social Structure of Concert Life in London, Paris and Vienna (London, 1975)

K. Nielsen: ‘Hans Matthison-Hansens breve fra en koncertrejse til London i 1864’ [Hans Matthison-Hansen's letters from a concert tour to London, 1864], Dansk årbog for musikforskning, xv (1984), 5–26

M. Gillies: ‘Grainger's London Years: a Performing History’, Musicology Australia, viii (1985), 14–23

W. Weber: ‘The Rise of the Classical Repertoire in Nineteenth-Century Orchestral Concerts’, The Orchestra: Origins and Transformations (New York, 1986), 361–86

T.M. Ellsworth: The Piano Concerto in London Concert Life between 1801 and 1850 (diss., U. of Cincinnati, 1991)

W. Wright: ‘Liszt's 1827 Concert Appearances in London: Reviews, Notices, Playbills and Programs’, The Journal of the American Liszt Society, no.29 (1991), 61–8

A. Jacobs: Henry J. Wood: Maker of the Proms (London, 1994)

C. Ehrlick: First Philharmonic: a History of the Royal Philharmonic Society (Oxford, 1995)

C. Bashford: Public Chamber-Music Concerts in London, 1835–50: Aspects of History, Repertory and Reception (diss., U. of London, 1996)

O. Biba: ‘Wiener Geiger in London: die Konzertreise der Brüder Hellmeberger im Jahr 1847’, Musikblätter der Wiener Philharmoniker, li (1997), 167–73

S. McVeigh: ‘The Benefit Concert in Nineteenth-Century London: from “Tax on the Nobility” to “Monstrous Nuisance”’, Nineteenth-Century British Music Studies, i, ed. B. Zon (Aldershot, 1999), 242–66

S. McVeigh: ‘The Society for British Musicians (1834–1865) and the Campaign for Native Talent’, Music and British Culture, 1785–1914: Essays in Honour of Cyril Ehrlich, ed. C. Bashford and L. Langley (Oxford, 2000)

6. Popular music theatre.

VII. Musical life since 1945

1. Introduction.

2. Opera.

3. Concert life.

4. Contemporary music.

5. Early music.

1. Introduction.

The determined resumption of London’s musical life after World War II re-established the pattern of mainstream professional concert and opera performances that had been in place during the inter-war years. This was maintained throughout the second half of the 20th century, despite the fact that during this period the musical environment changed radically. In that time the cultural assumptions on which the traditional pattern of musical life was based, together with the social, intellectual, economic and technological circumstances from which it developed, were subject to continuous challenge and modification. Yet the consequences of this process have largely been accommodated within traditional concert protocols, suggesting that the very familiarity of these conventions may have been a significant factor in their retention. London's musical life in this period was marked by two separate cultural upheavals, each associated with very different economic circumstances. The first of these occurred in the early 1960s, a period of radical thought at a time of public prosperity, as a strong reaction against the British musical status quo, characterized by a surge of interest in the alternatives offered by the avant-garde and historical repertories. The second, a postmodernist reorientation that gathered pace during the 1980s, asserted the principle of cultural relativism. By the early 1990s the canonical works of the traditional concert repertoire had lost their customary pre-eminence and were increasingly obliged to vie for audience attention with works from other musical traditions. The stock-market reversal of October 1987 initiated a deep economic recession in Britain; following abruptly from a period of growth and financial optimism, this generated a strong sense of economic deprivation and inequality in parts of London, spurring some minority ethnic groups to reassert their cultural identity through various art forms. The new climate of cultural pluralism encouraged the higher profiling of these and other popular traditions, so undermining long-held assumptions as to the appropriate beneficiaries of arts subsidy.

The postwar introduction of public subsidy for the performing arts was perhaps the most important single innovation of the period for music provision in London. The Arts Council of Great Britain was established in 1946 to provide government subsidy at arm's length from government control. The Council's function followed from the morale-boosting work of the Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts (CEMA) and the Entertainments National Service Association (ENSA), whose sponsorship of orchestral and operatic performances during the war had generated an important new audience for classical music. The Arts Council's Royal Charter specified that it should ‘increase the accessibility of the fine arts to the public’ and ‘improve the standard of execution of the fine arts’. For the first time, some of London's opera and ballet companies and orchestras received continuous public funding in place of sporadic private patronage, and the Arts Council provided the funds to establish a permanent opera company (later the Royal Opera) at Covent Garden, retrieving the building from its wartime role as a dance hall. Also important was the 1948 Local Government Act, which enabled discretionary arts expenditure by local government; this helped to fund the London orchestras (channelled through the London Orchestral Concerts Board) and allowed growth in the range and scope of London's music festivals. Some 40 years later, however, the growing diversity in the city's artistic and musical culture generated public debate about the basis on which the Arts Council subsidized the arts. The agreement to broaden criteria for grants to the arts came just at the time of imposed constraints on public sector spending. One consequence was increased reliance by music organizations, especially the four contract London orchestras (the LSO, the RPO, the Philharmonia and the LPO) on business sponsorship as a primary source of funds. Such sponsorship is, however, subject to changing circumstances and thus less secure in the long term.

The permanence and quality offered by the recorded format in the late 20th century effectively changed the economic basis of London's concert life. Where the financial basis of the commercial aspect originally lay in the inseparability of the performers’ action and the musical sound, technology has made the performance into a vendible commodity completely independent of the point of origin. This produced the paradoxical situation where royalties generated from the sales of recordings were needed by London orchestras to subsidize their concert appearances; box-office revenue was simultaneously being reduced because the repertory was more cheaply and conveniently available in recorded form. Although this was a universal situation, London’s abundance of professional performances accentuated its impact on concert life. For example, in 1993–4, recordings accounted for 28% of the four London contract orchestras’ total schedule, with concert performance at 27% Another factor at play was the technology of the transistor radio and the electric guitar that had fuelled the rise of the pop youth culture of the 1960s; musical taste was fragmented away from the popular orchestral classics, which had been an important element of CEMA and ENSA programmes. However, recording and broadcasting also affected concert life in directly musical ways, particularly in the higher standards they set for live performance, and the influence they exerted on musical fashion. The BBC's London presence (continually expanding from its pre-war basis), in the form of its orchestras, particularly the BBC SO, the Henry Wood Promenade Concerts and its studio recordings, made it a major contributor in London's music provision overall, and the single most influential arbiter of taste there in the late 20th century.

2. Opera.

World War II silenced opera at Covent Garden from 1940 until 1945. Sadler's Wells Opera continued presentations at the New Theatre and returned to its own theatre in 1945 with the historic first performance of Peter Grimes (under Reginald Goodall, with Peter Pears in the title role). Covent Garden had a visit from the S Carlo Opera of Naples before its own combined opera and ballet companies presented Purcell's The Fairy Queen. Ballet and opera henceforth shared the theatre equally. The new financial factor in British operatic promotion was the steady provision of state subsidy to opera through the Arts Council. Both the Covent Garden Opera Company (as the postwar company was called until its change in 1968 to Royal Opera) and Sadler's Wells Opera (in 1974 renamed English National Opera) remained dependent on it. A continuity of management was established for both companies, which henceforth dominated the London opera scene.

There was hardly any challenge from speculative impresarios between the Stoll Theatre seasons of Italian opera of 1946–8 and the arena-style performances of Aida (1988) and Carmen (1989) presented by Raymond Gubbay at Earls Court to audiences exceeding 14,000, and later similarly at the Royal Albert Hall. There were also a few short-term productions of a more specialized nature, including transfers from New York of Menotti's The Medium, The Telephone and The Consul (Aldwych Theatre, 1948; Cambridge Theatre, 1951), and Gershwin's Porgy and Bess (Stoll, 1952).

The Sadler's Wells repertory established a firm foothold for opera in English, while at Covent Garden a brief foray into opera in English translation gave way to the pre-war ideal of international opera in (mainly) the original languages. Among composers whose new works were given at Covent Garden, from Vaughan Williams to Alexander Goehr, were Britten (Gloriana, Billy Budd) as well as Tippett, who with three operas established the most conspicuous presence; Birtwistle's Gawain was one of the very few contemporary English operas to be regularly revived. Sadler's Wells (later the ENO) gave new British works by Birtwistle, Peter Maxwell Davies, Bryars and others. Of non-British composers after Stravinsky, Henze was the best represented in London, from Boulevard Solitude (New Opera Company, 1962) to We Come to the River, a Covent Garden commission produced in 1976, and Der Prinz von Homburg (ENO, 1996). The Royal Opera also presented the first British performances of Stockhausen's Donnerstag aus Licht (1985) and Berio's Un re in ascolto (1989). The ENO staged Ligeti's Le Grand Macabre (1982), Glass's Akhnaten (1987) and Schnittke's Life with an Idiot (1995).

Homage to the Second Viennese School was belatedly paid with the first British productions at Covent Garden of Wozzeck (1952), Moses und Aron (1965) and the complete Lulu (1981, under Colin Davis). Hindemith's Mathis der Maler (1995) and Pfitzner's Palestrina (1997, following the first British production by Abbey Opera in 1981) were also given at the Royal Opera. Russian opera of the Soviet era included Shostakovich's Katerina Izmaylova (Covent Garden, 1963), Prokofiev's The Fiery Angel (New Opera Company, 1965) and War and Peace (ENO, 1973).

Handel's operas, previously confined to rare and specialized revivals, now earned a more general exposure, from Covent Garden's Alcina with Sutherland (1962) to the ENO's Semele (1999). Until the mid-1970s, the heroic castrato parts were reallocated to tenors. Thereafter such roles, along with the castrato roles in Mozart's Idomeneo, La clemenza di Tito and Mitridate, were usually restored to original pitch, either by female impersonation of the male characters or by the employment of countertenors, among whom James Bowman won prominence. London was, however, slow to adopt the operatic use of period instruments. Covent Garden's first hearing of such instruments was a performance of Rameau's La princesse de Navarre in 1977 by the English Bach Festival. Under the musical direction of William Christie, Covent Garden staged a revival of Purcell's King Arthur (1995, including the complete spoken parts), as well as Rameau's Platée (1997).

An increased interest in Baroque opera by no means diminished the taste for Wagner. The Ring was regularly staged at Covent Garden (notably under Solti); Sadler's Wells Opera (since 1968 at the much larger and more central Coliseum) presented an important new production under Goodall. The appointment of Bernard Haitink as the Royal Opera's music director in 1987 brought renewed prominence to Wagner's works with an acclaimed revival of Die Meistersinger (with John Tomlinson as Sachs) and a controversial new production by Richard Jones and Nigel Lowery of the Ring.

In 1994 the Royal Opera launched a ‘Verdi Festival’ under the auspices of Edward Downes with the aim of presenting all of Verdi's operas by 2001. These included concert performances of rarely heard early works such as Il corsaro and Giovanna d'Arco, as well as a joint production with the Paris Opéra Bastille of Don Carlos (in French, with Roberto Alagna in the title role), both versions of Simon Boccanegra, and Stiffelio and Verdi's later reworking of this opera as Aroldo.

The postwar era brought stars such as Hotter (1947), Geraint Evans (1948), Christoff (1949), Gobbi (1950), Callas (1952), Sutherland (1952) and Bumbry (1963) to London. During the following decades a number of international stars regularly returned to Covent Garden, among them Pavarotti, Domingo and Kiri te Kanawa. The 1980s and early 1990s saw many British singers leading major productions at both opera houses, notably Felicity Lott, Ann Murray, Thomas Allen, Philip Langridge, Anthony Rolfe Johnson and John Tomlinson. Among conductors Carlos Kleiber, Solti, Kubelík, Kempe and Haitink exercised decisive authority, as did Colin Davis, Charles Mackerras, Mark Elder and Edward Downes, whose careers embraced both London opera houses. To Kubelík and Mackerras is particularly due the important British cultivation of Janáček, while Mackerras's conducting of Le nozze di Figaro (Sadler's Wells, 1965) was an early instance of an ‘authentic’ approach in such matters as articulation and ornamentation.

Above all, however, this was the era when the stage director took on an increasingly conspicuous role. At Covent Garden the arrival of Visconti (1958) and Zeffirelli (1959) had a notable impact, as did the work of Peter Hall from 1965. At the ENO David Pountney, Jonathan Miller, Jones and Lowery staged similarly distinctive, if perhaps more controversial, productions from the 1980s. The greater freedom claimed by the director (including the choice of stage designer) brought a widespread departure from the more or less literal staging that had previously been the norm. The importance of the director's ‘concept’ which overlaid the original libretto could result in drastic transformations of varying artistic cogency. At the ENO, an updated Hänsel und Gretel (Pountney) and a ‘de-Japanned’ Mikado (Miller) were successful, while the Napoleonic setting for Cherubini's Medée at Covent Garden in 1989 (London's first staging with authentic French spoken dialogue) was a much derided example.

The tightening of the national economy in the 1980s caused financial worries and an increased drive to find private sponsorship. By the mid-1990s financial mismanagement, the long-term reduction in government funding, and the image of opera as ‘élitist’ placed the future of the art form in London, and more particularly of the Royal Opera, in serious doubt. The institution of lottery grants to assist capital building projects only partly alleviated such uncertainty. The additional resources aided the redevelopment of the Royal Opera (commenced in 1997), provided the ENO with funds for a site feasibility study and a stabilization grant, and enabled the construction of the new Sadler's Wells Theatre (reopened 1998 for dance and opera). But they also engendered a greater degree of public scrutiny and calls for broader access to opera in return for continued subsidies. Changes in management at both the ENO and the Royal Opera in 1998 introduced some degree of financial and organizational stability. Throughout this troubled period opera remained richly varied. The Royal Opera, performing at several venues while its own theatre was being refurbished, mounted its first production of Paul Bunyan, as well as a revival of I masnadieri at the Edinburgh Festival and in Germany (the planned London production had to be cancelled), and various concert performances including Parsifal (with Domingo) and Boito's Mefistofele. The ENO staged new productions of Parsifal, Der fliegende Holländer and Musorgsky's Khovanshchina and Boris Godunov, as well as the first British staging of Zimmermann's Die Soldaten (1996). Repeat visits to London by the Kirov Opera under Gergiyev brought concert performances of works by Prokofiev, Tchaikovsky and Shostakovich.

3. Concert life.

Between 1945 and the end of the 20th century, London’s concert life was transformed by a considerable expansion and diversification of repertory on one hand, and a progressive decline in concert attendance on the other. This evolution falls into three distinct phases. The first 15 years saw the determined resumption of pre-war patterns: performances of a narrowly-drawn orchestral repertory of canonical (or exemplary) and popular works, enhanced by the visits of major international musicians who were eager to resume their London appearances. In the second phase, initiated by the 1960 Henry Wood Promenade Concerts (the first season planned by William Glock, newly appointed as controller of music at the BBC), innovatory programming incorporated new repertory drawn from modernist and early music, complemented by the exploration of unfamiliar works by the central composers. In the third phase, from the 1980s, London’s culturally diverse population began to generate alternative experiences in the shape of world musics, ‘crossover’ and new age concerts, while improvements in the quality and available range of recorded music meant that people relied less and less on the concert as their main means of enjoying music and expanding their knowledge of it. Musical organizations attempted to counter declining interest through programming and marketing initiatives designed to make concerts more attractive and informal to new and younger audiences.

(i) Postwar consolidation, 1945–60.

After the war London’s orchestras had to adjust to the return of players from the armed forces and to recruit new members. By 1949 there were three full-time concert orchestras – the LSO, the LPO and the BBC SO – and three giving occasional concerts: Walter Legge’s Philharmonia (primarily an EMI recording orchestra), Beecham’s RPO (initially making recordings and serving the Royal Philharmonic Society’s concerts), and the ad hoc New London Orchestra (centred on the New London Opera Company). In addition, a few chamber orchestras presented Baroque or Classical repertory (the former still very little played and usually in performances of symphonic dimensions) and occasionally new works; these groups included the Jacques, the Kalmar, the Boyd Neel, the Goldsbrough (now the English Chamber Orchestra) and the newly formed London Mozart Players.

Some cinemas also doubled as concert venues immediately after the war. The bombing of the Queen’s Hall in May 1941 had destroyed London’s most important orchestral and choral concert venue. The Promenade Concerts were switched to the Royal Albert Hall, where they remained through the rest of the century. The Central Hall in Westminster provided the main alternative venue until the building of the Royal Festival Hall (1951), which was a principal site for the Festival of Britain. It was initially unpopular because of its location (on the south bank of the Thames), its overall appearance and its dry acoustic.

Writing in 1949, Ralph Hill argued that an overprovision of concerts featuring the standard classics and popular repertory meant that the average audience attendance for each was low, and that except for the Promenade Concerts the BBC SO should restrict itself to specialist works beyond the financial scope of the commercial promoter. Hill also ascribed lower audiences to the high price of concert tickets for the younger and older age groups (the same groups that had been attracted by ENSA and CEMA’s concerts during the war) and to the difficulty for suburban travellers of attending the inconvenient Royal Albert Hall location at the later starting time of 8 p.m. instead of the 6 or 7 p.m. of wartime concerts. Orchestral programmes of the period were conservative, relying on frequent performances of core works. The most performed composers in the 1948–9 season were Beethoven (including 15 performances of the ‘Eroica’ Symphony), Mozart, Tchaikovsky, Brahms, Elgar and Wagner; the menu of overture, solo concerto and symphony followed the pre-war pattern. Concerts in the 1950s virtually ignored the European and American avant garde and the work of the Viennese serial composers. (It is perhaps notable in this context that the rising generation of major British composers – Harrison Birtwistle, Peter Maxwell Davies and Alexander Goehr – and the new music enthusiasts John Ogden and Elgar Howarth chose to study in Manchester rather than London.)

(ii) New repertories, 1960–mid-1980s.

Musical modernism had its first real outlet in London when William Glock joined the BBC as controller of music in 1959, with responsibility for the Promenade Concerts from 1960 to 1973. Glock took a radical and innovatory approach to programming and repertory, encouraged a new generation of British performers in early and contemporary music, raised standards in the BBC SO and recruited Pierre Boulez as its chief conductor in 1971. The effect was to revitalize London’s concerts, to bring the city’s experience of the avant garde into line with that of European and American centres of musical culture, and to open up new opportunities to young British composers.

Several Arts Council reports in the 1960s and 70s alleged orchestral overprovision in London, though it was not until the 1990s that the question was seriously addressed and note taken of the decline in audience numbers that had by then gone on for decades. For example, the optimistic tone of Lord Goodman’s Report of the Committee on the London Orchestras (1965) was in direct conflict with the decrease in audience size outlined in its statistical appendix. While Goodman acknowledged that ‘too many concerts are played to halls which are half empty or worse’, he was proud that London provided ‘music on a scale befitting a great metropolis’, and considered that the point at issue was ‘whether the potential demand [of audiences] is fully exploited’, rather than presenting concerts ‘in the right places and in the right way’. However, the inescapable conclusion of the report was that ‘present work available justifies the existence of rather more than three but less than four orchestras’.

The Royal Festival Hall (fig.44) became more central to London’s concert life and accepted as an international venue. In 1967 came the addition of the Queen Elizabeth Hall and the Purcell Room to the South Bank site. As well as these and the Royal Albert Hall, concert venues in use in the 1960s included several cinemas, a variety of inner and outer London town halls and the Fairfield Hall in Croydon; open-air concerts were given at the Crystal Palace, at Kenwood House on Hampstead Heath and in other parks.

(iii) Diversity and marketing initiatives from the mid-1980s.

Only 20 years after the Goodman report, London’s concert life presented a very different face. The most exciting programmes were being given by new and revived chamber orchestras, specialist ensembles and choirs: the London Sinfonietta, the Nash Ensemble, the Fires of London and Lontano in 20th-century music; the Academy of Ancient Music, the English Concert, the Taverner Consort and Players, the London Baroque Orchestra, the Monteverdi Choir and the Tallis Scholars in historical performance and early music; the Academy of St Martin-in-the-Fields, the London Mozart Players, the City of London Sinfonia, the Orchestra of St John’s, Smith Square and the English Chamber Orchestra in the mainstream repertory. Out of 1244 works performed in London in the 1991–2 season, only half were composed before 1900, while about 100 were written after 1982. The disadvantage of this diversification was that it tended to polarize the audiences attracted to different types of event; another threat to audience size was posed by small independent record companies taking advantage of the new, cheaper digital technology to broaden and diversify their repertoire. The cost of tickets and travel provided mounting disincentives to concert attendance, as did certain concerns of urban life: location, parking and personal safety.

The interaction of these factors meant that by the late 1980s a high priority had to be given to marketing concerts in ways that would attract specifically targeted audiences. The abolition of the Greater London Council and the winding up of the London Orchestral Concerts Board in 1986 left a vacuum in the capital’s management structure. Greater London Arts (later the London Arts Board) was established, and the Arts Council also created an independent governing board with responsibility for artistic policy at the South Bank Centre as a whole. The centre, no longer simply a space for hire, became an integrated complex and the initiator in programming events and repertory around its resident orchestras and ensembles. This approach has been characteristic also of the Barbican Centre (opened 1982), which receives an annual subsidy from the City of London; both these venues have emphasized thematic programming of concerts and festivals, designed to link the work of the resident groups, a strategy that has helped to market the events and to generate audience interest. Major thematic festivals have included ‘Mahler, Vienna and the 20th century’ and ‘Tender is the North’ at the Barbican, and composer series at the South Bank. The significance of education for audience-building was boosted by the 1992 National Curriculum in music, with practical involvement in composition and performance replacing traditionally passive music appreciation. One technique has been to pair concerts and appropriate education projects, with children composing or improvising pieces under the influence of a programmed work, often supervised by orchestral players. Sometimes the results of these workshops were presented in conjunction with the concert performance.

In 1994 a Review of National Orchestral Provision was produced jointly by the BBC and the Arts Council, a conjunction that acknowledged the BBC’s status in concert life. The BBC’s role was now held to be not only the familiar one, ‘to foster the growth of the art form’, but also ‘to keep the widest possible repertory of great music in performance’. While the review stated that ‘orchestral music continues to dominate concert-giving in this country and draws larger audiences than any other [single] area of classical music’, London’s own musical diversification has made concert life there less reliant on symphony orchestra provision than any other city in Britain, and the question is less of provision and more of attendance. The fact that the growth in the Proms’ audience during the 1980s and 90s was matched by decline at the Royal Festival Hall points to the special attraction of the Proms series (including its programming of new or unfamiliar works) and the significance of an identifiable profile for successful concert marketing. The location of the Barbican in the City of London confirmed the postwar shift in London’s musical axis away from the surrounds of Oxford Circus, with only the Wigmore Hall and the BBC’s Broadcasting House concert hall remaining in an area that had previously dominated the city’s musical life since the 18th century. The Wigmore Hall, the traditional venue of solo and chamber music recitals, has experienced a revival because of its carefully themed concerts and choice of artists. It was managed by Westminster Council until it closed for refurbishment in the 1991–2 season and is now a trust. Meanwhile, individual promoters including Victor Hochhauser and Raymond Gubbay have met the niche market demand for ‘spectacular’ performances of such popular orchestral classics as Tchaikovsky’s 1812 overture, many at the Albert Hall. Outdoor concerts, for example at Kenwood House, continue to attract strong support.

It has become clear that the single core audience for art music concerts which survived into the postwar years had ceased to exist by the century’s end; it has been replaced by a variety of smaller audiences with more focussed areas of musical interest which may nonetheless sometimes converge, as for events featuring famous performers. It is probably the cheapness, convenience and variety of recorded and broadcast music that presents the biggest threat to the health of London’s concert life; more pervasively than ever before, music faces questions about the relevance of live concert performance to its essence as an art form.

4. Contemporary music.

The contemporary (or ‘new’) music spectrum in London in the late 20th century reflected in full the fragmentary nature of composition of the period, with its bewildering abundance and frequent interaction of written and improvised styles. While the contemporary mainstream has been able to define and develop itself largely within the existing concert and funding structures of musical life, other types of contemporary music such as experimental music, electro-acoustic and some ‘crossover’ or ‘fusion’ styles have tended to assert themselves outside these frameworks, showing their musical and sometimes political independence.

London concerts did not sustain ventures into the modernist and avant-garde music of Europe and North America until the 1960 Promenade Concert season, the first planned by William Glock (see §3 above). This contact was to change London's musical life in several important respects. First, it turned London from a provincial to an international centre of contemporary music. Secondly, the performance demands and different musical attitudes of the new music repertory generated a number of specialist ensembles, while injecting a fresh set of challenges for established orchestras. Third, it changed and revitalized the repertory given at London concerts. Fourth, interest in contemporary music was a prime mover in the rise in the number and quality of London's music festivals. All these factors established London as a productive centre for freelance composers. This helps to account for the fact that in London most contemporary music of the more traditional British kind was from the 1960s eclipsed under the welter of new musical influences, except for such specialist consumers as the Anglican Church.

Another factor that fuelled the work of both composers and performers was the strength of the patronage system for new music in London. This functioned not only at the institutional level (the BBC) and that of national subsidy for the arts (the Arts Council), but also among private individuals, trusts and commercial sponsors. The BBC played the single most crucial role in the dissemination of new music in London by means of its live concerts, as well as through a broadcasting schedule that allowed its audiences to catch up with not only the modernist repertory but also its polemics. The BBC implemented a commissioning policy that was intended to bring forward talented young composers, and employed some of them as producers. The shift in mainstream contemporary musical culture away from exclusively modernist preoccupations has meant that no controller of the BBC after Glock has been able, nor perhaps has needed, to take such a strong initiative over repertory. Contemporary music in London receives practical support from a wide range of musical and educational charitable trusts, festivals and concert series and musical organizations such as the London-based British Music Information Centre (a library resource and listening centre founded in 1967) and the Society for the Promotion of New Music. The latter runs a sophisticated information network, arranging concerts of works by emerging composers and educational projects. Festival and concert series such as those held at the Almeida Theatre offer a platform to composers and performers and act as a focus for the sponsorship that the festival culture encourages. Major concert series have included the Macnaghten Concerts (refounded in 1950), the Park Lane series (1956), which offers opportunities to young professionals, and the Redcliffe Concerts of British Music (1964). The 1980s also saw a rise in the number of composition options available on courses offered by universities and conservatories in London.

From the 1960s on, a number of ensembles were formed that specialized in the performance of contemporary music. Each of these groups established its own repertory, its own pool of specialist players (many of whom transmitted their skills through conservatory teaching) and its own audiences. The instrumental groups giving concerts of contemporary music in 1988 included the Fires of London, the London Sinfonietta, the Arditti Quartet, the Nash Ensemble, the Endymion Ensemble, Exposé, Gemini, the Grosvenor Group, Lontano, Metanoia, Music Projects/London and the Parke Ensemble. Important vocal groups were Electric Phoenix, Singcircle, London Sinfonietta Voices and the New London Chamber Choir. Some of these ensembles, such as the London Sinfonietta (1968), the Fires of London (1967, which ended under that name in 1987) and the Nash Ensemble (1964), achieved a particular stability in their different musical areas and so generated a significant corpus of late 20th-century concert works, with all the benefits to composers that this implies. The scoring of the Fires of London (which began as the Pierrot Players) was based on the instrumental ensemble of Schoenberg's Pierrot lunaire, plus a percussionist. The Nash Ensemble is a classically based chamber group with a commitment to new music. By 1993 the London Sinfonietta had given 216 world premières (including 98 commissioned works) and made 100 recordings. Its defining sound, characterizing much of its repertory, comes from a chamber orchestra formation of 14 players (with single strings) inspired by Schoenberg's First Chamber Symphony. The changes in concert life since the 1960s, together with current commissioning practice, have ended the traditional, concert-based process of repertory assimilation; contemporary works now tend to be established by means of recordings and broadcasts rather than repeated concert programming. Commissions usually provide for a first performance, and programmes often use premières to attract an audience, but, except for established composers, subsequent performances are usually difficult to secure.

Non-traditional concert venues came to be seen as stylistically more appropriate surroundings to hear new repertory. These have ranged from the expanse of Camden's Round House (an informal space, formerly a turning-shed for railway engines), the Conway Hall in Holborn and the Horticultural Halls in Westminster, to the bare-bricked intimacy of the Almeida Theatre in Islington. The Queen Elizabeth Hall in the South Bank complex offers a compromise in the form of a building that is modern in spirit, with a medium-sized, informal auditorium and an adaptable stage area. The flexibility of a venue is an important consideration both because of the importance of music theatre in post-1945 composition (see also §2 above) and because of the unique formations of instrumental forces which characterize many concert pieces.

The fragmentation of London concert audiences during the second half of the 20th century, which had an adverse effect on some aspects of London's concert life (see §3 above), worked to advantage in the area of contemporary music, where committed audiences were built up through astute thematic programming (designed to provide the listener with a sense of artistic context) sometimes combined with ‘meet the composer’ events, workshops and talks, all of which also developed a communal sense of musical interests. The compositional shift that has moved much contemporary music away form the avant-garde ground it occupied during the 1960s, towards the more listener- and performer-friendly idioms of the 1990s’ postmodernism, has fuelled an enthusiasm for high-profile contemporary premières that recalls the attraction that new works had for an 18th-century audience in the same city.

5. Early music.

Even before 1945 early music, especially that of the Renaissance, had been a significant element in London's musical life. From the 1880s onwards Latin polyphony formed part of the Bach Choir's repertory, and the following decade saw Arnold Dolmetsch's first London concerts using old instruments. R.R. Terry's pioneering work at Westminster Cathedral before and during World War I brought much continental and English polyphony, including the masses of John Taverner, back into use, and at the same time the English madrigal repertory was being explored by groups such as Charles Kennedy Scott's Oriana Madrigal Society. The early 1920s experienced a short-lived but intensive wave of enthusiasm for 16th-century English music, commonly referred to as ‘Elizabethan Fever’, whose manifestations included widespread celebrations of the Byrd, Weelkes and Gibbons tercentenaries, an attempt to establish an Elizabethan Competitive Festival in London, the first notable early music recordings (of madrigals performed by the English Singers, who were the first professional vocal consort in Britain to specialize to some extent in this repertory), the first early music broadcasts and the foundation of the Haslemere Festival in 1925, as well as much scholarly activity.

For the first few years after 1945 live performances were less important to the development of an audience for early music than broadcasting. From its inauguration in 1946 the BBC Third Programme included much early music in its programmes, beginning with the monumental History in Sound of European Music, and continuing with many short series devoted to particular types of music, and exploring the then little-known medieval period as well as the relatively familiar 16th century. At the same time the widening of the recorded repertory that resulted from the development of the LP record led to a large number of early music recordings by groups such as the Deller Consort. There were a few professional lutenists and viol players, but many performances and recordings perforce used modern string and wind instruments.

In the later 1950s and early 1960s the growing popularity of Monteverdi's Vespers and events such as performances of The Play of Daniel and visits from distinguished foreign ensembles, including Noah Greenberg's New York Pro Musica, represented the first steps in the large-scale revival of interest in early music which began in earnest a few years later. For the first time reproductions of medieval and Renaissance instruments other than viols were being made and coming into professional use; it was a common criticism of many concert programmes and recordings in the later 1960s that the emphasis was more on exploiting the new instrumental sounds, especially those of the more exciting wind instruments, than on the quality of the music. Two of the most important ensembles that rose to prominence at that time were Musica Reservata and the Early Music Consort of London, whose director David Munrow did much not only to popularize early music but also to raise the technical standard of early instrument performance, as well as leading the move away from programmes based on dances and other short pieces to ones including a proportion of larger-scale works of greater musical significance. One of the most important ensembles was the Consort of Musicke, directed by Anthony Rooley, which specialized in a systematic exploration of the Italian madrigal repertory. Rooley was also a strong influence on the more general development of interest in early music, founding an Early Music Centre in London and encouraging the spread of amateur as well as professional activity; such was the growth of enthusiasm that in 1973 it was possible for Oxford University Press to found a specialist quarterly journal, Early Music.

During the last quarter of the 20th century the practice of using period instruments and performing styles was increasingly applied to later music, initially that of the later 17th and 18th centuries, as performed by such groups as the Academy of Ancient Music, founded by Christopher Hogwood, and the English Concert, directed by Trevor Pinnock, but more recently to much 19th-century music as well. The Tallis Scholars, directed by Peter Phillips, are one of the principal vocal ensembles to specialize in Renaissance polyphony, while the Gabrieli Consort, directed by Paul McCreesh, and The Sixteen, directed by Harry Christophers, are among the ensembles whose activities cover both Renaissance and later music, but there are many groups of all kinds performing and recording regularly.

(i) Theatres and associated genres.

6. Popular music theatre.

(ii) Influences on repertory.

(iii) International significance.

London, §VII, 6: Musical life: since 1945: Popular music theatre

(i) Theatres and associated genres.

As an international centre for popular musical theatre, London's identity in the first half of the 20th century combined elements that clearly reflected its position both geographically and culturally between Europe and the USA. Since 1945 the West End–Broadway axis has come to dominate the focus of attention, although European links have remained despite the huge decline in operetta performance. This emphasis is shown in the changing repertory of those main theatres most closely and continually associated with the genre, including the Theatre Royal (Drury Lane), His (later Her) Majesty's, the Palace, the Prince of Wales and the Adelphi. Drury Lane, for example, is typical in its swings between American and British shows and in its trend towards ever longer runs. In the 1930s and 40s it was occupied by the musical romances of Ivor Novello, and during the war acted as the headquarters for ENSA; it opened after the war with the much heralded but ultimately disastrous Pacific 1860 by Noël Coward. This was followed by a series of American shows that began with Oklahoma! (1947) and continued through the 1950s with The King and I, and through the 1960s with Camelot, Hello Dolly and Mame. In the 1970s a revival of The Great Waltz achieved success with its European flavour and the following new English musical Billy Liar gave a further British presence until the long occupation of David Merrick's Broadway stage version of 42nd Street (1984–9), the classic American backstage story. From 1989 Drury Lane presented Miss Saigon, a show by the French writers Bloublil and Schönberg, produced by the British company of Cameron Mackintosh, and which closed ten years later.

Other West End theatres have had important but occasional associations with popular musical theatre. The Prince Edward had originally been opened in 1930 to house large musical shows and subsequently was renamed the London Casino (1936), but by 1954 its large scale made it ideal for conversion to a Cinerama screen; it was re-established as a theatre under its original name in 1974, subsequently staging the first productions of Evita (1978–86), Chess (1986–9) and Martin Guerre (1996–8), along with the Broadway production of Crazy for You (1993–6) and Hal Prince's production of Showboat (1998). The Coliseum was the venue for the first London productions of Annie Get Your Gun (1947) and Kiss Me, Kate (1951), shows which, along with Oklahoma!, are significant in the postwar establishment of the sense of an ‘American invasion’ of West End musical theatre. Kiss Me, Kate was presented again at the Coliseum by the ENO in 1971, one of the isolated cases of a musical being absorbed by the opera house in London. Sadler's Wells saw the first major London production not by the D'Oyly Carte Company of a Gilbert and Sullivan work in Iolanthe (1962) and was home to several operetta revivals in repertory in the early 1970s. Gilbert and Sullivan has been a continually present if increasingly less consistent force through the various incarnations of the D'Oyly Carte Company (at the Savoy, Sadler's Wells, Prince's and Queen's theatres, among others), the ENO's Patience (1969), The Mikado (1986) and Princess Ida (1992), and occasional independent productions.

Although variety as a genre had effectively ended throughout most of the country by the late 1950s, personality-led variety maintained a longer presence in the capital, particularly at the Palladium and the Prince of Wales. Increasingly these limited runs were confined to single performances in concert format at venues such as the Royal Festival Hall and the Royal Albert Hall. The role of the television entertainer or pop star in the West End has become one of appearances in such musicals as Joseph and the Amazing Technicolour Dreamcoat and Grease, mutually beneficial to both the commercial success of the show and the public profile of the personality, and seldom requiring the suppression of the star's known public persona to dramatic requirements. The number of such popular personalities who have convincingly taken to West End theatrical roles is limited, and includes Tommy Steele (Half a Sixpence and Singin' in the Rain), Petula Clark (The Sound of Music and Sunset Boulevard) and Brian Conley (Jolson).

The role of intimate revue, prominent as sophisticated entertainment in the 1940s and 50s was finished as a mainstream theatrical force by the 60s, mostly through the greater ability of television satire to respond more quickly to current events. In its final few successful years it provided memorable platforms for performers such as Hermione Gingold, and was particularly associated with the Lyric Hammersmith and the Ambassadors theatres. While musical satire still appears occasionally in fringe shows, its West End appearances have been through limited concert-style engagements of specific groups whose audiences have been gained through radio and television. The Mermaid Theatre in the City of London, opened in 1959 with Laurie Johnson and Lionel Bart's musical Lock Up Your Daughters but only intermittently active in the last part of the 20th century, became particularly associated with compilation revues after its Cowardy Custard (after Noël Coward, 1973), which became a great Broadway success under the title Oh! Coward. It was followed by Cole (after Cole Porter, 1974) and Side by Side by Sondheim (1977), another Broadway success.

With the desire for spectacle at the heart of much musical theatre, there has been a premium on the occupancy of those few venues that could cope with large-scale effects. In particular, the expansion in the late 1970s and 80s through renewed interest in the form of the musical and the advanced technologies employed for its presentation (for example with Time, 1986) threw this into relief. The practical considerations that made Drury Lane appropriate to stage an earthquake or the sinking of an ocean liner for Ivor Novello in the 1930s were equally applicable to that theatre's choice for Miss Saigon in the 1980s. As the larger theatres increasingly became occupied with long runs (latterly of ‘mega-musicals’ which are resident for more than a decade), and the production costs rose to levels only within the management of the large-scale organizations, other venues began to present musical shows on a smaller scale, often of newer works that were denied access to the West End. Of these the Donmar Warehouse, a former venue for tours and the Royal Shakespeare Company, established a reputation after its 1992 reopening for introducing more chamber-style works such as Sondheim's Assassins (1992) and Yeston's Nine (1996). Also in the 1990s the fringe theatre the Bridewell – a modern conversion of an industrial space, like the Donmar Warehouse – has taken on a role of presenting new productions and revivals of lesser-known works, while many other small fringe theatres have hosted intimate musicals requiring only a few performers.

London, §VII, 6: Musical life: since 1945: Popular music theatre

(ii) Influences on repertory.

The immediate aftermath of World War II was significant in establishing an approach towards the role and status of West End musical theatre that still persists. There was already a strong audience base created by the wartime demand for escapist entertainment, although productions were often hampered by wartime strictures. When Oklahoma! arrived from Broadway in 1947 it was the first American production in the West End for seven years and its advance publicity and musical familiarity contributed to its great success. Alongside the arrival of Annie Get Your Gun within months of Oklahoma!, the profile of American shows was high, offering something positive and escapist in the face of a Britain of shortages and rationing; they also presented youthful energy, something inevitably absent from much wartime theatrical casting. West End producers exploited this enthusiasm for American shows both through productions from Broadway and through home-grown shows which played to elements of what was perceived as an American style of musical theatre presentation and construction, as with John Toré's Golden City (Adelphi, 1950) – a South African Oklahoma! – or Ivor Novello's last stage work, Gay's the Word (Saville, 1951–2), which took the stylistic debate between American and British musical theatre as its subject.

There has always been a symbiotic relationship between the repertory and fringe theatres and the West End, one in which new performers and new shows under development can be presented to agents and producers for potential West End exposure, while the gradual release of familiar West End successes to regional and fringe theatres maintains a living repertory and renews interest in the form. Sandy Wilson's The Boy Friend (Wyndham's, 1954–9) was developed from a single-act entertainment from the Players' Theatre, while Salad Days (Vaudeville, 1954–60) was written by Julian Slade as an ‘end of term romp’ for the repertory company of the Bristol Old Vic. Neither was conceived as a West End vehicle, yet both transferred there in 1954 to achieve runs of over 2000 performances, providing a temporary diversion from the American-dominated view of the West End. Another source of innovation came from outside the West End, at London's Stratford East, where Joan Littlewood's experimental company was developing a theatre based on more recognizable everyday life, rather than the removed fantasies of a theatre essentially for an educated middle class. Their surprise success, Fings Ain't Wot They Used t' Be (1959), with music by Lionel Bart, incorporated slang and an unromanticized East End setting; it became a huge hit, also marking a contemporary move in theatre in general towards the presentation of greater realism. Mostly, however, there has been a limited role for London in receiving transfers of productions from regional theatres.

The focus of the theatrical producer has shifted substantially as economic demands have escalated. Whereas C.B. Cochran was able to cultivate the creative relationship of Vivian Ellis and A.P. Herbert through their three shows Big Ben (1946), Bless the Bride (1947) and Tough at the Top (1949), increasingly the tendency has been to find immediate and proven successes that minimize the risk of financial loss. This has led to an increasing number of revivals of the most familiar parts of the canon: the 1937 show Me and My Girl in a revised form achieved long West End and Broadway runs in the 1980s and West Side Story is a West End perennial. Also, the repackaging of familiar material has become common, as with the revue-style shows based round the output of a single composer; examples include the Mermaid Theatre shows of the 1970s and the use of songs by Louis Jordan in Five Guys Named Moe (Lyric, 1990) and by Leiber and Stoller in Smokey Joe's Café (Prince of Wales, 1997). The length of runs has also extended, increasing the potential of return to investors; whereas C.B. Cochran closed Bless the Bride (Adelphi, 1947–9) when still playing to capacity in order to try a new show, by the 1990s several mega-musicals had achieved the status of tourist landmarks and with a corresponding emphasis on merchandizing. Consequently, they seem assured of even longer runs; these include Cats (New London, 1981), Les Misérables (Palace, 1985) and Phantom of the Opera (Her Majesty's, 1986), all still running in 2000. The hold of a limited group of production companies behind such ventures has been further emphasized with the subsidies to the Royal National Theatre for the staging of selected musicals from Cameron Macintosh, the production company for Miss Saigon and Phantom of the Opera in London and around the world. Although the resultant stagings have been much acclaimed, the exclusive American bias has led to a debate about the role of the National Theatre programming in balancing the presentation of world theatre and works of British origin.

Although such a bias corresponds to that of much of the postwar commentary on London's musical theatre, the supposed domination of the West End by Broadway since Oklahoma! in 1947 is by no means so clear-cut. The postwar ‘American invasion’ was more a point of view than a tangible reality: those few American shows that did achieve long runs were for the most part outperformed by contemporary British shows: Carousel at Drury Lane (1950–51) was significantly outrun by its contemporary but now forgotten Blue for a Boy at His Majesty's (1950–52). However, the self-fulfilling prophecy resulted in a crisis of confidence, one which was not to dissipate until the start of the Lloyd Webber-Rice canon in the late 1970s. This attitude has also shown how London musical theatre has frequently aspired to the merits of Broadway, but underplayed both its own different demands and the sheer range and number of its own productions.

London, §VII, 6: Musical life: since 1945: Popular music theatre

(iii) International significance.

Several shows from 1945 onwards have gained success on Broadway and in film from the West End, such as Bart's Oliver! (New Theatre, 1960) and Heneker's Half a Sixpence (Cambridge, 1963). The Rocky Horror Show, which began in the Royal Court Theatre Upstairs (1973), transferred to several other theatres before reaching the Comedy Theatre (1979), and subsequently became an international cult hit through the film (1975). From 1935 to 1951 Ivor Novello was hugely successful, writing and composing to please the West End public through catchy melody and dramatic staging, and his name was sufficient to ensure high advance sales and long runs; his two large shows, King's Rhapsody and Gay's the Word, ran simultaneously in the West End in 1951. His mixture of artistic creativity and production control was potent and has parallels with Andrew Lloyd Webber, (see Lloyd weber, (2)), the instigator of many of the dominant musicals in the West End in the 1980s and 90s. Lloyd Webber has equally captured a public imagination and had even more shows running at the same time in the West End, but has also found global success commensurate with the increased cultural dissemination. With the international roles of the Really Useful Company of Andrew Lloyd Webber (whose shares were floated on the stock market for four years) and Cameron Mackintosh, productions that originated in London have been reproduced exactly in leading cities around the world, and the role of London as an originator and disseminator of musical theatre has never been as strong as at the end of the 20th century.

This influence is, however, severely restricted by the interests of these few production companies and the limited number of shows they represent. For example, Mackintosh's production of Miss Saigon opened at Drury Lane in 1989 and by 1999 had been seen in some 60 cities, including Toronto (1993–5), Budapest (1994 and 1995), Los Angeles (1995), Vancouver and Copenhagen (1996), and Melbourne (1999). The works of Lloyd Webber in particular have met with large continental success, where Hamburg has hosted long-running licensed productions of Phantom of the Opera and Cats, and new or newly adapted theatres dedicated to his works have been opened in Bochum (for Starlight Express), Basle (Phantom of the Opera) and Wiesbaden (Sunset Boulevard). Invariably, this move towards the pre-packaged musical has lead to a decline in the significance of the individual performer in already established shows and acted as a brake on the further evolution of the form of the musical through the reduced turnover of different shows and productions. The London theatres traditionally associated with the musical are now seldom free for new productions: at the start of 1999 runs of over a decade were occupying Drury Lane (Miss Saigon), the Palace (Les Misérables), the New London (Cats), the Victoria Apollo (Starlight Express) and Her Majesty's (Phantom of the Opera).

While many fundamental ideas on the role of popular musical theatre have remained much as they were at the time of their Gaiety Theatre inception in the late 1890s and 1900s, the scale of their financial significance has grown enormously. The large part that tourism plays in the financing of London has made that city's theatre in general and musicals in particular of worldwide commercial interest; coach parties of British and foreign tourists account for much of the ticket sales, and musicals are routinely included with holiday packages. The control of most of the main theatres through a limited number of companies, particularly those of Stoll Moss and the Really Useful Company, has lead to a scale of coordinated promotion not previously seen in the capital. Although such large company interests are sometimes in opposition to an art form that relies on individual creativity, by the end of the 20th century the number of productions and their public popularity had never been as strong.

For further information on institutions and venues, see Grove6

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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opera

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1. The Gresham Chair of Music.

VIII. Educational institutions

Until the Royal Academy of Music was founded in 1822 London, like most European capitals, had no specific institution for the professional training of musicians. For most of those who intended to make music their career, the medieval system of apprenticed or articled pupils still took the place of a central institution; in the case of organ pupils trained in a cathedral loft the system survived until the mid-20th century. The first general training-ground for musicians over the centuries was often provided by membership of a cathedral choir; many former choristers of St Paul’s Cathedral and Westminster Abbey made music their profession. Above all, the Chapel Royal (see §II, 1, above), which had the power to impress talented boys as choristers, attracted gifted youngsters who received sound musical training and were encouraged to compose. During the 18th and 19th centuries, it became increasingly common to look on musical skill as exotic; when the RAM was eventually founded, most of the first professors were foreigners.

2. Universities.

3. Conservatories.

4. Other institutions.

1. The Gresham Chair of Music.

The seven Gresham professorships (in divinity, law, rhetoric, music, physics, geometry and astronomy) were established in the City of London in 1596 to provide free adult education under the will of Sir Thomas Gresham (1518–79): the holders were required to lecture twice weekly, free of charge, in Latin for the benefit of foreigners and in English for citizens. John Bull was the first professor of music; having no Latin, he was permitted to lecture in English only. Another distinguished early professor was William Petty. Not until the appointment of Edward Taylor in 1837 were the Gresham music lectures again delivered with real competence; the use of Latin and the twice-weekly lectures had by then been abandoned, and lectures were only occasional. More recent professors have included Frederick Bridge, Walford Davies, Antony Hopkins, Iannis Xenakis and John Dankworth. In 1985 an eighth chair, in commerce, was instituted.

One reason for the failure to appoint musicians to the Gresham Chair during the 17th and 18th centuries lay in the lack of general education the articled pupil system imposed. Many able practical musicians lacked any wider culture until the last quarter of the 19th century. Indeed, the first proposal to introduce degrees in music at the University of London in 1865 failed because leading musicians protested that it was unreasonable to insist on the matriculation of music candidates.

2. Universities.

The University of London, founded in 1837, did not confer degrees in music for its first 40 years. In 1876 the senate, on receiving a memorial from the council of Trinity College, agreed to institute the degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of Music. The first examinations were in 1877. The university nevertheless had no music faculty and no professorship until Frederick Bridge was appointed to the new King Edward VII Professorship in 1903 (Trinity College brought about this development by giving £5000 to found the chair). The preparation of candidates for examination, however, formed no part of the professor’s duties. Up to 1964 the only internal candidates for the BMus degree were students in the colleges of music (the RAM, RCM and Trinity College), Goldsmiths College (at that time an independent college of the university with a music department preparing students for the BMus degree and education diplomas in music), and other institutions where there were teachers recognized by the university. External candidates prepared in other institutions or by private tuition were also admitted to the examinations. No facilities for the study of music existed within the university until an active teaching department of music was established at King’s College under Professor Thurston Dart in 1964. King’s College subsequently established two further professorships, one in 1992 in performance studies, later named after Thurston Dart, the second in 1994 in composition, named after Henry Purcell.

The taught degrees at the three colleges (King’s, Royal Holloway and Goldsmiths) formerly conformed to a common syllabus and examinations but, since the mid-1980s, the undergraduate and, more recently, the postgraduate courses have been gradually devolved to the separate colleges which are in effect independent. Their degree programmes tend to be broadly based, covering a wide range of historical, technical and creative aspects of musical studies, offering opportunities for specialization at the higher levels. The university’s distinguished School of Oriental and African Studies offers specializations in non-Western music.

By 1988 King’s College had become an international community, each year attracting 35 undergraduates, over 20 masters students and about six research students working at doctoral level. A large lecturing staff supported by a team of assistant teachers not only covers all the periods of musical history, composition and analysis but also the requisite ancillary skills.

Music has played a prominent role in the life of Royal Holloway College (now Royal Holloway and Bedford New College) since its foundation as a university college for women in 1886; Emily Daymond, a pupil of Parry and the first woman DMus in the country, was the first director of music. Although practical music, and later history and theory, was taught as part of the general curriculum, a department of music was established only in 1969–70 under Ian Spink. In 1999 it had 12 academic staff plus postdoctoral research fellows covering music history, analysis, performance, composition and ethnomusicology. The annual intake includes some 50 undergraduates pursuing the BMus and BA degrees, and 20 postgraduates (MMus, MPhil, PhD). The department has taken the lead in developing teaching and research collaborations with partner institutions in the European Union and in Central and Eastern Europe.

In 1988 Goldsmiths College became a School of the University of London and assumed the same status as King’s and Royal Holloway, offering the same range of degree courses. The college has a strong commitment to composition, performance (including jazz and experimental work) and ethnomusicology. It has developed a particular ethos for musical activities across a wide variety of idioms and genres and in creative and performing arts. This work is enhanced by its Centre for Russian Studies and the Stanley Glasser Electronic Music Studio. The College has close links with the community in south-east London, and through its department of professional and community education runs an extensive range of part-time courses.

The School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) is the leading centre in Europe for the study of Asia and Africa. Of a student body of some 3000 about 80 take courses in music, taught by seven academic staff and a variable number of performance teachers. The department of music offers a unique musical education through ethnomusicology and regional music studies.

Music has been a subject of research and teaching at SOAS since 1949 when a lectureship was created in Indian music. Since then the musics of Africa, the Islamic Middle East, South-east Asia and East Asia, the study of ethnomusicology as a discipline, and interests in Chinese and Jewish musics have been developed. In 1979 a centre of music studies was created and this became the department of music in 1998. Degrees offered in 1999 included a joint honours and a single honours BA, an MMus in ethnomusicology, and MPhil/PhD by research.

Other musical activities include concerts of Asian and African music, seminars, academic conferences and summer schools. The department enjoys a reciprocal teaching relationship with King’s College and an academic exchange agreement with the department of music, Kathmandu University.

The University of Surrey, developed from Battersea Polytechnic in 1966, is located in Guildford. The music department was formally established in 1970 when the first professor was appointed. It offers bachelor and higher degrees and is especially noted for its unique and well-established BMus Tonmeister course in the theory and practice of sound recording. This four-year course allows students to spend their third year working in the appropriate industries. The department has about 50 undergraduate students and a number of research students in musicology and composition.

City University is situated in London, between the centre of Islington to the north and the Barbican Centre to the south. There are 150 students in the music department comprising 80 BMus/BSc students and 70 full- and part-time postgraduates pursuing MA courses in ethnomusicology, composition, electro-acoustic composition, musicology and music performance studies; MSc/postgraduate diploma in music information technology, and research courses (MPhil/PhD and master/doctor of musical arts). There are eight full-time academic members of staff, one research fellow in music therapy, and specialist visiting lecturers in sound recording, composition, Indonesian music and African music. All individual performance tuition is provided by professors at the GSMD.

The research interests of the academic staff are reflected in the courses offered. The BMus/BSc honours degree in music is concerned with music in today’s multicultural and technological society. It adopts a global and interdisciplinary approach to music, and includes the study of the traditional and popular musics of the world as well as classical traditions other than the Western. The department houses a wide range of ethnic instruments including three Indonesian gamelans from Bali, central Java and Sunda. It offers exciting new perspectives of the world of sound, interpreting music in its widest sense as part of our general environment.

Kingston University was developed from the former polytechnic and prior to that, Gipsy Hill College. The school of music offers the full range of bachelor and masters courses as well as supervision for research degrees. In addition, there is a secondary PGCE course, an MA in composition for film and television, and an undergraduate course taught in collaboration with the University of Hong Kong. The university also offers foundation and access courses for nearby colleges of higher education at Richmond and Merton respectively. Full-time student numbers in 1999 stood at 250, including 22 pursuing research. The school’s research work focusses on world music, particularly Chinese music, music and mathematics, music technology, music education, performance and composition. The school is housed in four buildings on one site including a purpose-built professionally designed rehearsal hall/recording studio which has been used by EMI and the BBC.

Founded in 1887, the London College of Music has metamorphosed from an autonomous institution based in Great Marlborough Street to become part of what is now the Thames Valley University based in Ealing, west London. It has built on its original mission as a conservatory providing practical and theoretical studies in music. In 1997 it expanded to become the London College of Music and Media (LCM2) with its unique blend of music, media arts and creative technologies.

The merger between the London College of Music and the music department at Ealing College in 1991 saw the beginning of a new period of collaboration. The cultural enrichment from Ealing College with a new base in Ealing Film Studios offered opportunities for launching new courses to provide students with appropriate skills for the 21st century. A million-pound grant in 1997 enabled LCM2 to equip itself with the latest technology, mirroring its strong focus on contemporary music, performance and composition, developed since 1995. LCM2 stages over 100 performance events in the locality each year, reflecting its mission to involve the local community while providing students with vital performing experience.

The University of Surrey, Roehampton (formerly Roehampton Institute of Education), London is made up of what were four autonomous and historic colleges, Southlands, Whitelands, Frobel and Digby Stuart. In 1975 a collegiate structure was developed to form the institute whilst allowing each college to retain its own unique identity. All the music teaching is carried out at Southlands College. The music division has five full-time members of staff and several visiting lecturers engaged in research and performance in 20th-century music, acoustic and electro-acoustic composition, music in education, French music, cross-arts collaboration, music therapy, non-Western musics, music and gender, and west African drumming. Besides its undergraduate courses the division offers a graduate diploma and MA in music therapy which are recognized by the Association of Professional Music Therapists.

3. Conservatories.

The first practical attempt to found a music school in London was made by Charles Burney in 1774. Impressed by the conservatories in Naples and Venice, where he had witnessed the remarkable effect of a longstanding tradition of providing musical training for orphans, Burney urged the adoption of a similar plan at the Foundling Hospital in London, already noted for the music of its chapel services. At first well received, his scheme was soon lampooned by a pamphleteer whose sarcastic criticism of the hospital governors for entertaining Burney’s proposal aroused opposition which led to its defeat.

Two important conservatories no longer in existence are the London Academy of Music and the National Training School for Music. The London Academy was founded by Henry Wylde in 1861; in 1904 three other institutions were amalgamated with it: the London Music School (founded 1865), the Forest Gate College of Music (1885) and the Metropolitan College of Music (1889), under the direction of T.H. Yorke Trotter; in 1905 the Hampstead Academy was also incorporated. Under Yorke Trotter the academy became a centre for the training of teachers according to his own system of music education for children. Throughout its history the London Academy included elocution and dramatic presentation among its activities; in 1935, under the direction of Wilfrid Foulis, its title was extended to the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (LAMDA). It moved from London at the start of World War II in 1939 and training ceased; in 1945 it reopened solely as a drama school.

The National Training School for Music was founded in 1873 and represented the fulfilment of a proposal by Prince Albert to afford free musical training to the holders of scholarships awarded on a national basis. The scheme had been discussed as early as 1854 and was revived after his death by the (Royal) Society of Arts. The school was opened at Easter 1876 with Arthur Sullivan as principal. 82 free scholarships ‘in favour of particular towns and counties’ had been established by donation, and more were promised. In 1878 a proposal to amalgamate the new institution with the RAM was defeated; but in 1882, by which time John Stainer had succeeded Sullivan as principal, it was replaced by the present RCM.

The six principal existing conservatories in London are discussed below in chronological order of foundation.

(i) Royal Academy of Music (RAM).

The RAM was founded in 1822 at the instigation of John Fane, Lord Burghersh (later 11th Earl of Westmorland), and opened in March 1823 under the patronage of George IV; the first principal was William Crotch. The foundation committee had intended that it should be supported by subscriptions and donations, and that there should be 80 resident students, half boys, half girls; but because of shortage of funds the academy opened with only 21 students, aged between ten and 15. It was housed in a building in Tenterden Street, Hanover Square. In 1827 the financial position was so disastrous that the academy’s closure was avoided only by an appeal for donations and an increase in fees.

The academy received its royal charter on 23 June 1830. In 1834 William IV directed that a quarter of the proceeds of the Westminster Abbey music festival should be given to the academy. A board of professors was appointed in 1853 to advise the committee of management; it recommended that students should no longer be resident, and requested an annual grant from the government. £500 was granted under Gladstone in 1864, but Disraeli refused to continue the grant in 1867 and an attempt was made to close the institution. The professors were then able to insist on the formation of a new board of directors on which they were strongly represented. The grant was renewed in 1868 with the return of Gladstone’s ministry, and from that year the academy began to prosper.

The academy moved in 1912 to its Marylebone Road premises, which were extended and enlarged in the 1960s and again in the 1970s. Concerts are given in the Duke’s Hall, and opera performances in the Sir Jack Lyons Theatre (opened in 1977). On the appointment of Sir David Lumsden as principal in 1982, in succession to Sir Anthony Lewis, the academy embarked on its ‘In pursuit of excellence’ campaign, recruiting a number of internationally respected musicians, some of whom played an important part in shaping the academy’s policy as well as its teaching. In 1991 the institution commenced its association with King’s College in which a four-year BMus degree in performance was developed. This development displaced the GRSM diploma course that had been offered by the Royal Schools of Music for many years. Three years later the MMus degree commenced, thus allowing the principles and philosphy of the BMus course to be extended in a more specialized form. A redefinition of its relationship with King’s in 1996 shifted the validation of the degree award to the University of London.

The academy marked its 175th anniversary in 1997, and with a grant from the National Heritage Lottery it was able to increase its overall space by a third with the purchase of 1–4 York Gate. This allowed for the rehousing of its collection of string instruments combined with the repair and manufacture of instruments. As a result of Government capping of funded places for home and European Union students since 1993, the institution was forced to reduce its student numbers. In 1999 these were 550.

(ii) Royal Military School of Music.

British Army bands were officially recognized in 1803. They were equipped with instruments and uniforms by the individual regiments’ officers and trained by civilian bandmasters. The need to reform the system and to train bandmasters from within the ranks was first authoritatively expressed in 1856 by the Duke of Cambridge in a circular to commanding officers recommending the establishment of a Military School of Music. The school was opened in March 1857 at Kneller Hall, Twickenham. The first superintendent was a civilian, Henry Schallehn, a former bandmaster and director of the Crystal Palace Band, 1854–6; he had a visiting staff of four instructors. The school was acquired by the government in 1865. The first three superintendents were civilians, but in 1890 a bandmaster was commissioned and took charge of musical training at Kneller Hall, since when a commissioned officer has always held the post with the appointment of director of music. In 1998 the responsibility for musical training at Kneller Hall was vested in the chief instructor as head of department.

Five separate courses of training are provided: a foundation course in performance for new recruits to Army Music; two upgrading courses the first of which prepares junior non-commissioned officers in the musical management required for promotion to sergeant, and the second designed to train the more senior ranks in advanced musical and administrative skills; the honours degree course for bandmasters is a three-year course to train prospective bandmasters; and the advanced certificate of music is awarded to bandmasters who wish to be considered for promotion to the rank of captain and the appointment as a director of music.

(iii) Trinity College of Music (TCM).

Founded by H.G. Bonavia Hunt in 1872 as a college of church music, this institution was incorporated with the title Trinity College, London, in 1875 (renamed Trinity College of Music, London, in 1904). Its activity was initially limited to the training of choirmasters, and the curriculum to an appropriate range of practical and theoretical studies: harmony and counterpoint, voice production, choir training and music history; but after 1876 all branches of music were included. In that year the college submitted a successful memorandum to the University of London urging the award of degrees in music, and for some years afterwards special provision was made in the college to prepare candidates for matriculation and consequent eligibility to proceed to the BMus. In 1902, after a petition to the university urging the establishment of a chair of music, the college endowed the King Edward VII Professorship, the first holder being Sir Frederick Bridge, then chairman of the college council.

Courses of training at undergraduate and postgraduate levels, including BMus and MMus degrees, are provided for performers and composers to a professional standard, with areas of particular interest including the pre-Baroque and improvised music. In 1999 there were more than 500 students undertaking undergraduate and postgraduate courses. Outreach courses are offered for teachers and professional musicians, with about 1000 teachers and performers registered in 1999. The college is also involved in community projects, and with the training of young musicians through its junior department, which was established in 1906.

A pioneer in the field of local examinations in music, the college instituted a system of certificate examinations in 1874 which includes speech as well as music and extends to over 1500 local centres throughout the world, leading to the award of professional diplomas of fellow (FTCL) and licentiate (LTCL), and the associateship (ATCL).

The present buildings in Mandeville Place, off Wigmore Street, have been occupied since 1880, and extended in 1922 and 1964, and two other buildings in Marylebone provide practice and academic study facilities. The college has planned to relocate to the Royal Naval College at Greenwich in the year 2001.

(iv) Guildhall School of Music and Drama (GSMD).

This institution was the first municipal music college in Great Britain, being founded in 1880 by the Corporation of London as the Guildhall School of Music and opened in a disused warehouse in Aldermanbury with an initial enrolment of 62 part-time students. The school quickly outgrew its first home and in 1887 moved to newly built premises in John Carpenter Street, Blackfriars. Further extensions became necessary in 1898, 1927 and 1970, and the school moved to new premises in the Barbican in 1977. In 1920 full-time courses were introduced and, in due course, departments of speech, voice and acting were established; in 1935 the school incorporated the two disciplines of music and drama. Stage management was introduced in 1970. A licentiate course in music therapy was introduced in 1968, jointly administered with the British Society of Music Therapy. This was superseded by the current postgraduate diploma in music therapy in 1987, validated by the University of York.

The school, which continues to be owned, funded and managed by the Corporation of London, has a typical annual full-time roll of some 650 students (about 520 music, 75 acting, 55 stage management) representing about 40 nationalities. There are in the region of 240 part-time students, a third receiving tuition as part of their music courses at City and Sussex universities.

Courses offered include: four year performance BMus (validated by the University of Kent); MMus in composition (one year, validated by City University); a postgraduate diploma in musical performance; advanced courses in opera, vocal studies, individual instrumental studies; orchestral training, jazz and studio music, and early music; and a diploma in continuing professional development (modular programme).

(v) Royal College of Music (RCM).

Founded by royal charter in February 1882 under the presidency of King Edward VII, then Prince of Wales, the RCM took over the premises of the former National Training School for Music as well as continuing its policy of providing musical training for the holders of endowed scholarships awarded on a national basis. The governing body consists of the president and council; the president always being a member of the royal family. The college was opened in May 1883 under the directorship of George Grove, with 50 scholars elected by competition and 42 fee-paying students; Grove was succeeded by Parry, who was director until 1918. The rapid growth of its activities soon made the original building inadequate, and a new site in Prince Consort Road, to the south of the Albert Hall, was granted by the commissioners for the Great Exhibition of 1851; new and much larger buildings were opened there in May 1894 (the old building became the premises of the College of Organists, later the Royal College of Organists). A concert hall containing a fine organ, the gift of Parry, was added in 1901; in 1964 a further extension was added to the west of the original site, and the rebuilding of the opera school and the provision of a new recreation hall followed in 1973.

The college provides comprehensive training mainly for full-time students. Student numbers were reduced in the late 1980s, since when the RCM has aimed to offer places to 520 students (170 of whom are postgraduates). Courses are provided for composers and performers, providing opportunities for the development of professional skills, including teaching skills. Under the terms of its royal charter the college can confer degrees and diplomas in music. It offers a doctorate in music (DMus) which is available through full-time or part-time study. There are two masters courses in composition, one of which enables students to specialize in composition for screen. There is also a range of postgraduate diploma qualifications offered for those specializing in solo and ensemble performance, early music performance, orchestral playing, concert singing, opera and keyboard accompaniment. All undergraduates enrol for the four-year BMus (Hons) degree course. The associate diploma (ARCM) is awarded for instrumental performance and is available externally.

The college administers considerable scholarship endowments and several substantial special funds. It also possesses a valuable collection of musical instruments, housed in a purpose-built museum which opened in 1970, a fine reference library, a centre for screen music studies housed in the RCM studios which were relocated centrally in 1995, and a 400-seat theatre, the Britten Opera Theatre, opened in 1986.

(vi) London Opera Centre/National Opera Studio.

Administered in collaboration with the Royal Opera House, the Opera Centre was founded in 1963 at a former cinema in the East End to provide ‘advanced training for student singers, répétiteurs and stage managers’. It essentially continued the work of the National School of Opera, which had been in existence since 1948 under the direction of Joan Cross and Anne Wood. Humphrey Procter-Gregg, the centre’s first director, was succeeded in 1964 by James Robertson. It accepted about 30 singers, six répétiteurs and six stage managers (half this number enrolling each year), usually for two-year courses. The centre gave stage performances in London at least twice a year. In 1978 it closed and was succeeded by the National Opera Studio, which is based at Morley College and provides one-year courses for advanced postgraduate trainees.

4. Other institutions.

In addition to the universities and conservatories in London there are three other important colleges concerned with the study of music.

The Royal College of Organists (RCO), founded in 1864 as the College of Organists on the initiative of Richard Davidge Limpus, organist of St Michael Cornhill, was designed to provide a central organization for the profession, a system of examination for the church, opportunities for meetings and lectures, and encouragement for the composition of church music. Its headquarters were in Bloomsbury. After the Royal College of Music had moved into new buildings (1894), in 1904 the College of Organists was granted its former premises in Kensington Gore, next to the Albert Hall. Originally built in 1875 for the National Training School for Music, this curious building purports to be ‘in the English style of the 17th century, with panels decorated with sgraffito’. The college was granted a royal charter in 1893 and became the Royal College of Organists. It is largely an examining body, not a teaching one, though the organization of lectures and recitals has always formed part of its work; its examinations are theoretical as well as practical. The first examinations held by the college, in 1866, were for the diploma of fellowship; in 1881 an intermediate examination for associateship was introduced and one in choir training was added in 1924. Associateship (ARCO) must precede fellowship (FRCO), which may be followed by the choir training diploma (CHM); holders of that diploma may proceed to the Archbishop of Canterbury’s Diploma in Church Music (ADCM), for which the examination is administered jointly with the Royal School of Church Music. The college’s influence is reflected in the high esteem in which its diplomas are held.

The Royal School of Church Music (RSCM) was founded by Sydney Nicholson in 1927 as the School of English Church music, and at first was controlled by a provisional council with an advisory committee of members of the Church Music Society. It had a twofold purpose: to invite church choirs to seek affiliation; and to establish a College of St Nicolas for the study of church music and the training of church musicians. The College of St Nicolas was opened at Chislehurst in 1929 with ten resident choristers, a staff of tutors under Nicholson as warden, and resident students who generally combined their studies of church music, choir training and liturgical matters at Chislehurst with a general musical training at the RAM or RCM. In 1939 the college moved to Leamington Spa, then to Canterbury; in 1954 the headquarters of both the school and the college became Addington Palace, Croydon, a former seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1945, by permission of George VI, the school was renamed the Royal School of Church Music.

In 1974 it became necessary for financial and other reasons to close the College of St Nicolas. With the move from the headquarters at Addington Palace in 1996 to Cleveland Lodge, Westhumble, near Dorking, residential courses were no longer possible. Cleveland Lodge now operates as a regional centre for music training while continuing to place more emphasis on training organized at centres around the country, both on a residential and non-residential basis. It also offers a foundation certificate in church music linked to a series of training courses throughout the UK.

Morley College possesses one of the largest centres of adult education in Britain and has been celebrated for its musical activities since 1907 when Holst was appointed director; several other eminent composers, including Tippett, and celebrated performers have taught there. From September 1999 students have been able to study music as part of a BA combined honours programme offered by South Bank University.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Ward: Lives of the Professors of Gresham College (London, 1740)

W.W. Cazalet: The History of the Royal Academy of Music (London, 1854)

F. Corder: A History of the Royal Academy of Music from 1822 to 1922 (London, 1922)

Guildhall School of Music: 50 Years of Music 1880–1930: Jubilee Souvenir (London, 1930)

H. Rutland: Trinity College of Music: the First Hundred Years (London, 1972)

L. Foreman: From Parry to Britten: British Music in Letters 1900–1945 (London, 1987)

R. Charters and D. Vermont: A Brief History of Gresham College 1597–1997 (London, 1997)

IX. Commercial aspects

1. Music publishing.

2. Instrument making.

London, §IX: Commercial aspects.

1. Music publishing.

London has always been the centre of music publishing in the British Isles, although the trade also flourished to a lesser extent in Edinburgh and Dublin during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Compared with Italy and France, England was slow to exploit the development of music printing, and had no 16th-century printers of the stature of Petrucci, Attaingnant, Gardane or Ballard. In the first half of the 16th century, apart from occasional music in liturgical books from Pynson's Sarum Missal (1500) onwards, only isolated attempts were made to print music. These include two pieces printed by John Rastell (c1520–30) and the fine XX Songes produced by an unknown printer in 1530; the former were the earliest English examples of music printed from type by single impression, which became the standard method up to 1700. From the accession of Queen Elizabeth in 1558 the most common form of musical publication was the metrical psalter with tunes, issued under a royal patent first granted to John Day in 1559. It was a profitable enterprise, and several editions appeared most years for over a century. Other music printing was governed by a complex succession of patents, dating from Tallis's and Byrd's privilege of 1575, but the real stimulus to its development came from the printer Thomas East, whose publication of Byrd's Psalmes, Sonets and Songs in 1588 inaugurated the brief flowering of the English madrigal school, which, together with the appearance of lute-song books from 1597, produced a rich harvest of publications. The market for such music, however, was comparatively small and heavily dependent on aristocratic patronage; there was little profit to be made, and so music played only a minor part in the activities of those printers who produced it.

Changing fashions led to a rapid decline in output after 1615; musical works appeared only occasionally over the next 35 years, during which time the patent system fell into disuse and was eventually abolished in 1641. Only with the emergence of John Playford and his English Dancing Master (1651) did England produce a man whose chief interest lay in music publishing. Playford, who did not print his own publications, ensured commercial success by catering for a far wider range of tastes than his predecessors, with publications that included country dance books, instrumental tutors, theatre music, songbooks, catches and psalm books. Like most publishers over the next two centuries he also acted as an instrument dealer. For nearly 40 years he had a virtual monopoly, but soon after his death in 1687 his son Henry faced competition, especially from John Walsh, who set up in business in 1695. An important late 17th-century innovation was the development of printing from engraved copper or pewter plates; although occasionally found earlier from Parthenia (c1613) onwards, it now rapidly became the usual method of printing music, having considerable advantages of flexibility and cheapness. Thomas Cross was its first significant exponent; he continued to use pure engraving, whereas others soon found it more convenient to stamp the plates with punches as far as possible.

With engraving the single-sheet song quickly developed, and was produced in great quantity during the first decades of the 18th century; such songs were either sold singly or formed into collections with an added title-page, often appearing as periodical publications like the Monthly Mask of Vocal Music. Their popularity lasted throughout the 18th century; they were apparently a speciality of the London trade, later imitated in Dublin but not on the Continent. The standard of engraving varied enormously, and is seen at its best in the superb illustrated songbooks, such as Bickham's The Musical Entertainer (1737–9).

With their shrewd business sense the John Walshes, father and son, dominated the London trade in the first half of the 18th century, although several rivals flourished and piracy was common owing to the lack of an effective copyright law for music until 1777. English publications took on a more cosmopolitan look, reflecting the new popularity of Italian music and the presence of Handel and other foreigners in London. The growth of music clubs and a general increase in musical activity meant that music of all kinds was in demand, from orchestral parts to flute airs; indeed, 18th-century England displayed a wider range of publications than any other country. Although most were undertaken at the publisher's expense, works were often issued ‘for the author’; publication by subscription also played a significant part, especially in the case of volumes of sacred music. By about 1750 the Walsh pre-eminence was beginning to wane, and the latter half of the century saw the London trade divided between a number of important firms, such as John Johnson, Bremner, Welcker, Preston, the Thompson family and James Longman and his successors, as well as a host of lesser figures. Plates were frequently passed on from one firm to another and re-used with changed imprints.

The development of cheaper and smaller pianos in the early decades of the 19th century led to an increase in domestic music-making among the middle classes, resulting in a great demand for songs and piano music. Several still extant firms were founded at that time, notably Boosey, Chappell, Cramer and Novello. The majority of publications were ephemeral; sets of the latest polkas and quadrilles, operatic arrangements and variations on popular airs appeared by the thousand. Music for the burgeoning amateur choral movement, as found in both choral societies and church choirs, was provided cheaply by the firm of Novello from the 1840s, and the production of inexpensive music was aided by the repeal of paper taxes. Music printing by lithography, although known in England from about 1805, did not become common until the middle of the century; its possibilities for providing decorative music covers, often in colour, were then thoroughly exploited, especially for music-hall songs and ballads, upon which the prosperity of many firms depended in the latter part of the century. There were English editions of foreign operas, but such demand as there was for foreign chamber and orchestral music was largely satisfied by imported editions, although firms like Augener and Robert Cocks produced editions of the standard classical solo and duo repertory.

With the appearance of a line of notable English composers at the turn of the century a number of important new firms found work, including Stainer & Bell and the music department of the Oxford University Press, both of which also became involved in issuing scholarly editions of early music. London has also had longstanding branches of a number of important continental firms, including Schott (the oldest, going back to 1838), Breitkopf & Härtel, Simrock, Universal Edition and Bärenreiter. They have experienced various degrees of autonomy from their parent companies (particularly during the war years). The advent of the gramophone, radio and television led to a steady decline in the demand for popular sheet music. Since publishers, however, also collect a percentage of performing and mechanical right fees, the recording industry developed a strong interest in the music publishing trade, and after World War II a series of takeovers eroded the independence of most important London publishers, who increasingly came under the control of recording and other media companies. British popular music publishing is now dominated by two multinational companies, International Music Publications (owned by the Warner Music Group) and Music Sales, with their many subsidiaries. The concern of most publishers is now primarily with the exploitation of performance and recording rights, and the production of printed music often plays only a minor role in their activities. Many present-day London ‘music publishers’ are that in name only, being created solely for accountancy purposes. The unprofitability of most serious new music, together with increased costs of production, has had unsettling effects on the publishing trade in London, as elsewhere. A number of firms have moved out of the capital, or retain only a showroom there, and hire libraries and general stock have been reduced, though the range of publications remains impressive. In this regard the extension of copyright in British publications from 50 to 70 years, introduced in 1996 as part of European Community harmonization of regulations, has provided welcome relief to many firms.

London, §IX: Commercial aspects.

2. Instrument making.

Although references to organs in Westminster Abbey date back to the 13th century, the first important London organ builders were the Dallam family, who went to London from Dallam in Lancashire in the early 17th century. ‘Father’ Smith, who had left Germany in 1660, built his first organ in England at the royal chapel, Whitehall, and another in 1669 for the Banqueting Hall.

The Harris organ-building family flourished in the 17th century. Renatus Harris, grandson of the founder and the most celebrated member of the family, was a rival of ‘Father’ Smith, and when the two men entered into competition in the building of an organ for the Temple Church in 1683, there was so little to choose between their instruments that the ultimate decision of the benchers in favour of Smith’s was delayed for nearly a year. John Harris (son of Renatus) completed the organ of St Dionis Backchurch (Lime Street) in 1724; he went into partnership with his brother-in-law John Byfield. Associated with this partnership were Richard Bridge, who built organs for the Priory of St Bartholomew-the-Great, Smithfield (1729), and Christ Church, Spitalfields (1730); and the Jordans, father and son, inventors of the Swell box, which was first applied to the organ they built for the church of St Magnus, London Bridge, in 1712.

Other organ builders at that time include Thomas Griffin (d 1771), who built the organ of St Helen’s, Bishopsgate, in 1741; George England, who flourished between 1740 and 1788, and his son George Pike England, who probably built the first organ with pedals in London at St James’s, Clerkenwell, in 1792; Gray & Davison, whose factory in London was established in 1774 by Robert Gray; Crang & Hancock, of whom the former altered old Echoes into Swells (at St Paul’s Cathedral and St Peter upon Cornhill); Bishop & Son, established about the end of the century by James C. Bishop; and John Snetzler, a German who settled in London in 1740 and from whom the firm of Bevington & Sons (1794) was descended by way of Snetzler’s successors, Ohrmann and Nutt.

One of the earliest 19th-century organ builders was Benjamin Flight, who set up in partnership with Joseph Robson in 1806. The firm of William Hill & Son carried out some of its work in collaboration with Henry John Gauntlett, who advocated reforms in organ building including the adoption of the C compass organ. In 1916 the Hill firm was amalgamated with Norman & Beard of Norwich and London to form Hill, Norman & Beard. Other surviving firms of London organ builders established during the 19th century include those of Joseph W. Walker & Sons (1828) and Henry Willis & Sons (1845), both of which left London, in 1975 and 1968 respectively. N.P. Mander Ltd is the most important 20th-century firm of organ builders in London; it is also well-known for restoring old instruments.

The making of stringed keyboard instruments flourished in London from the 17th century. The early builders, who principally made spinets, include the Haward family, Stephen Keene and John Player. The Hitchcock family were important keyboard makers in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Joseph Mahoon, ‘harpsichord maker to His Majesty’, and Hermann Tabel were two important early 18th-century figures. Tabel trained both Jacob Kirkman and Burkat Shudi, two men who subsequently dominated the harpsichord trade in London until almost the end of the 18th century. The few harpsichord and clavichord makers active in London in the 20th century included Thomas Goff, who was known particularly for his clavichords.

The piano found favour in London from the 1770s onwards. The Broadwood firm, which grew out of Shudi’s harpsichord-making business, is the oldest firm of keyboard makers in existence. In the early 1780s John Broadwood made his first grand piano. Kirkman and his nephew Abraham Kirkman also made pianos, and the firm was carried on by the latter’s descendants until 1896, when it was amalgamated with that of the Collards. The firm of Stodart (1776–1861) was founded by Robert Stodart, a pupil of John Broadwood. Stodart made grand pianos and also combined the principles of the harpsichord with those of the piano, an invention for which he took out a patent in 1777. Sébastien Erard went to London in 1786 and established workshops there in connection with those of his firm in Paris. The London factory was maintained until 1890. Longman & Lukey (1771), an offshoot of the music-publishing firm of J. Longman & Co. (1767; later Longman & Broderip), made numerous spinets, pianos and ‘portable clavecins’. When Longman & Broderip went bankrupt in 1798, John Longman, the successor of the founder James Longman, became a partner of Clementi. Clementi then went into partnership with F.W. Collard in 1810 and remained in the firm until 1830; after Clementi’s death in 1832 the firm was known as Collard & Collard. It was purchased by Chappell in 1929.

In 1800 John Isaac Hawkins of London and Philadelphia patented an upright piano a little over one metre in height; the younger Robert Wornum invented diagonally and vertically strung low upright pianos respectively in 1811 and 1813, and in 1827 brought out his ‘piccolo’ piano, about one metre high, the new crank mechanism of which he patented in 1829. He established a public concert room at his piano warehouse in Store Street, initiating a practice later followed by other firms who had warehouses in London: Steinway in Lower Seymour Street in 1878, Bechstein in Wigmore Street in 1901 and the Aeolian company in New Bond Street in 1904.

From the late 18th century London was one of the world’s principal centres of piano making. Many early advances in piano technology were made by London builders before Americans took the lead in the second half of the 19th century. The main London firms founded in the 19th century and extant in the 20th include Chappell (1810) and Cramer (1824–1960), both of which were originally music publishers, Challen (1820; it ceased independent manufacturing in 1959) and Brinsmead (1835).

Among the many makers of string and wind instruments in London were Richard Hunt, who made viols and lutes dated from the 1660s; Thomas Urquhart, whose violins bear dates between the 1660s and 1680s and who also made flutes; the Stanesbys, who made wind instruments in the late 17th and early 18th centuries; Barak Norman, a maker of viols and one of the first English makers of cellos, active between 1668 and 1724, and in partnership with Nathaniel Cross from 1715; Peter Wamsley, a violin maker from 1725 onwards, one of whose apprentices, Joseph Hill (1715–84), became the founder of the firm of W.E. Hill & Sons still run by his descendants; Richard Duke, who copied Stainer and Stradivari violins (c1740–80); Thomas Cahusac, a publisher and maker of flutes from the 1740s to 1798; the elder Robert Wornum, publisher and maker of violins, cellos and of the guitar-lyre between the 1770s and 1815; the Milhouse family, who moved their wind-instrument-making business to London in 1787; Tebaldo Monzani, flute maker from 1790; George Astor, flute maker and publisher; John Köhler, a bandmaster of German birth, who settled in London in 1780 and founded a firm for making brass instruments which was carried on by his descendants for nearly 100 years; Edward Light, the inventor of the apollo lyre and the harp-lute (dital harp), about 1794; John Parker, maker of wind instruments in Southwark in the 1790s; G.H. Rodenbostel, trumpet maker in Piccadilly from 1761 to 1789; John Betts and his nephew Edward Betts, violin makers at the turn of the century and, like the contemporary Dodd family, also bow makers; Hart & Son, three generations of violin makers, the earliest of whom founded the firm in 1825; William Wheatstone, professor and manufacturer of the German flute in the 1820s; Charles Wheatstone, inventor of the concertina, for which his firm held the patent from 1829 for many years; Rudall, Carte & Company, makers of flutes from the early years of the 19th century; Georges Chanot the younger, a violin maker who left Paris for London in 1851 and, after working there with Charles Maucotel until 1858, established his own firm, which was subsequently carried on by his descendants; and Boosey, music publishers from 1816, and later manufacturers of all types of band and orchestral instruments. Hawkes & Son (1865), equally important makers of military band instruments, amalgamated with Boosey in 1930. Dietrich Kessler began to make viols in London in 1959.

London, §IX: Commercial aspects.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

music publishing

Humphries-SmithMP

KidsonBMP

KrummelEMP

E. Roth: Musik als Kunst und Ware (Zürich, 1966; Eng. trans., 1969 as The Business of Music: Reflections of a Music Publisher)

J.A. Parkinson: ‘Pirates and Publishers …’, Performing Right, no.58 (1972), 20–22

J. Coover: Music Publishing, Copyright and Piracy in Victorian England … 1881–1906 (London, 1985)

London.

American record label. It was established by Decca in 1947 to issue in the USA items recorded in Britain and elsewhere in Europe; the distribution territory was later expanded to include Canada. Its catalogue was one of the first to include LPs, which were pressed in Britain by Decca and released in the USA from August 1949. In the same year issue began in the UK of American recording sessions. London was, therefore, not a record company per se but a label which licensed the products of other firms. In the early 1950s London acquired the British rights to the American Essex and Imperial labels and was at the forefront of the rock and roll boom, releasing records by artists such as Fats Domino and Bill Haley and the Comets. London also acquired rights to Atlantic (1955), Chess, Specialty (both 1956) and Sun (1957) and by the end of the decade had become the pre-eminent label for introducing new American acts into the British pop market. However, by the mid-1960s many of those companies from whom London held licences, such as Motown, Liberty, United Artists, Imperial, Chess and Atlantic, had taken their catalogues elsewhere, some worried that London's eclectic roster of acts was becoming too cumbersome.

By the early 1970s London's most successful label was the Memphis-based Hi Records who released records by soul acts such as Anne Peebles and Al Green. However, London's stock, like that of Decca itself, continued to fall during the decade and in 1980 Decca was sold. In the 1980s British synthesizer acts such as Blancmange and Bronski Beat kept the London label in the public eye, but the most successful group was Bananarama, the most popular female act of the decade in Britain. By the late 1990s London was distributing records as diverse as the trip-hop of Bristol's Portishead and the mainstream pop of Ace of Bass and All Saints.

DAVID BUCKLEY

London, Edwin

(b Philadelphia, 16 March 1929). American composer. He attended the Oberlin College Conservatory of Music, where he studied the french horn (BM 1952). He was a pupil of Schuller at the Manhattan School of Music in 1956 and studied composition with, among others, Dallapiccola and Milhaud. He also studied conducting with Izler Solomon. He gained the PhD in composition from the University of Iowa (1960). From 1960 to 1968 he taught at Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts. He joined the faculty of the University of Illinois in 1968, where he taught theory and composition for ten years and founded and directed the Ineluctable Modality, a choral ensemble that presented much experimental new music. He served as visiting professor at the University of California, San Diego (1972–3). From 1978 he was chairman of the music department of Cleveland State University, and he founded and served as music director of the Cleveland Chamber Symphony. London has received awards from the Guggenheim Foundation (1969), the ACA (1992) and the AMC (1995) among others; he won a grant from the Hamburg Opera Contemporary Festival and has several times been a resident of the MacDowell Colony. From 1974 to 1981 he was chair of the National Council for the American Society of University Composers.

London’s style is wide-ranging and at times lyrical. He juxtaposes intense drama with humour, yet manages to avoid the melodramatic effects characteristic of many composers with wide stylistic compasses. His control of pitch and rhythm owe much to a theatrical sense of timing.

WORKS

(selective list)

Dramatic: Santa Claus (mime op, E.E. Cummings), solo vv, dancer, chorus, chbr ens, 1960; Portraits of 3 Ladies (W.R. Benét, S.V. Benét), nar, Mez, chbr ens, mixed-media effects, 1967; The Iron Hand (orat, after H. Melville: The Martyr), 1975 [incl. material from The Death of Lincoln]; The Death of Lincoln (op, Justice), 1976; Metaphysical Vegas (musical, E. London), solo vv, dancers, insts, 1981

Vocal: 3 Settings of Ps xxiii, solo vv, SSAA, TTBB, SATB, 1961; 4 Proverbs, S, female vv, 2 tpt, bn, 1968; Psalm of These Days I–V (Bible), various vocal ens, insts, 1976–80

Inst: Trio, fl, cl, pf, 1956; Ww Qnt, 1958; Sonatina, va, pf, 1962; Brass Qnt, 1965; Bottom Line, tuba, chbr orch, 1997; other works, incl. several large ens and several tape pieces

Principal publishers: European-American Music, Gun-Mar, MJQ, New Valley Music, Peters

DAVID COPE

London [Burnstein, Burnson], George

(b Montreal, 30 May 1920; d Armonk, NY, 24 March 1985). American bass-baritone of Canadian birth. In 1941 he made his opera début, as George Burnson, singing Dr Grenvil (La traviata) at the Hollywood Bowl. His international career began in 1949 when he sang Amonasro in Vienna. Engagements followed at Glyndebourne, La Scala, the Metropolitan Opera, where he appeared from 1951 to 1964, Bayreuth and the Bol'shoy, where he was the first non-Russian to sing Boris (1960), a role he later recorded in Moscow. A long collaboration with Wieland Wagner culminated in London’s singing Wotan in the complete Ring in Cologne (1962–4). His repertory also included Don Giovanni and Count Almaviva (both of which he recorded), Gounod’s Méphistophélès, Escamillo, the multiple villains in Les contes d’Hoffmann, the Dutchman, Scarpia, Mandryka (which he recorded impressively under Solti) and the title role in Menotti’s Le dernier sauvage. At the height of his career London’s performances were distinguished by a rare dramatic individuality and vocal power, as the best of his recordings confirm. Perhaps his finest achievement was his commanding, anguished Amfortas, which he twice recorded under Knappertsbusch at Bayreuth. From 1968 he concentrated on arts administration, serving successively at the Kennedy Center, Washington, DC, the National Opera Institute and the Opera Society of Washington. He also staged the first complete English-language Ring in the USA (1975, Seattle).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GV [with discography by R. Vegeto and C. Williams]

T. Page: Obituary, New York Times (26 March 1985)

T. Stewart: ‘George London’, ON, l/1 (1985–6), 32–3

MARTIN BERNHEIMER/ALAN BLYTH

London Academy of Music.

London conservatory founded in 1861. It became the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art in 1935 and its musical activities ceased in 1939. See London, §VII, 3.

London Classical Players.

British orchestra. Formed as a specialist period-instrument orchestra by roger Norrington in 1978, it initially played repertory ranging from Haydn and Mozart through Beethoven and Berlioz to Brahms and Wagner. Later the orchestra revealed, too, the music of Bruckner and Smetana in its original colours, as Norrington’s investigations of sources uncovered misconceptions about such fundamental matters as tempo and even instrumental registers. The orchestra was disbanded in 1997 and much of its work taken over by the Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment.

GEORGE PRATT

London College of Music.

London conservatory founded in 1887. See London, §VII, 3(vi).

London Fellowship of Minstrels.

English organization which in 1604 became the Worshipful Company of Musicians.

London Mozart Players.

Orchestra founded in 1949 by Harry Blech. See London, §VII, 3.

London Music School.

Institution founded in 1865 and amalgamated with the London Academy of Music in 1904. See London, §VII, 3.

London Opera Centre.

Training school founded in 1963 and closed in 1978. See London, §VIII, 3(vi).

London Opera House.

Theatre built in 1911 and renamed the Stoll Theatre in 1916. See London (i), §VI, 1(i).

London Philharmonic Orchestra (LPO).

Orchestra founded in 1932 by Thomas Beecham. See London (i), §VI, 2(iii).

London Sinfonietta.

Orchestra founded in 1968 to perform 20th-century music. See London, §VII, 3.

London String Quartet.

English string quartet. It was founded in 1908 and known until 1911 as the New String Quartet. The original members were Albert Sammons and Thomas Petre (violins), H. Waldo Warner (principal viola of the New SO) and C. Warwick Evans (principal cellist of the Queen’s Hall Orchestra). Sammons was called up in 1917 and replaced by James Levey; Petre was absent from 1914 to 1918, and his place was taken successively by H. Wynn Reeves, Herbert Kinsey and Edwin Virgo; Warner was succeeded in 1930 by William Primrose. The quartet rehearsed for nearly two years before giving its first concert in London in 1910. It soon established itself in the forefront of British ensembles, with a strong public following and with a particular reputation for championing the music of living British composers. In 1920 the quartet made a three-month tour of the USA which was so successful that it was repeated four times in the next five years. Other visits abroad included Spain, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, Canada and South America, in each of which the quartet’s programmes included modern British music. It gave many first performances of works by British composers, including Delius, C. Armstrong Gibbs and Howells, as well as by two of its own members, Sammons and Warner; three of its members also took part in the British première of Stravinsky’s Pribaoutki in 1918. The quartet was internationally admired for its carefully rehearsed teamwork and for its sympathetic and unidiosyncratic performances of a wide repertory. It made several recordings in the 1920s, including works by Beethoven, Dvořák, Franck, Schubert and Vaughan Williams. It disbanded in 1934.

ROBERT PHILIP

London Symphony Orchestra (LSO).

Orchestra founded in 1904. See London, §VI, 2(iii).

Long

(Lat. longa: ‘long’ [note]).

In Western notation the note that is twice the value of a breve. It was the longer of the two notes of early mensural music and theory, hence its name. It had its origins in the virga, one of the two single-note neumes of pre-mensural notation. It is first found in early 13th-century music. Before about 1600 its value was twice or three times that of a breve, and it was usually shown as in ex.1a. Its rest was usually shown as in ex.1b, the choice of form depending on whether its mensuration was binary or ternary. The long survived into the period of ‘white’ or ‘void’ notation (post-1450), and was frequently used for the final note of a composition, where it implied a pause. It is mentioned in writings as late as Christopher Simpson’s Compendium of Practical Musick (1667), although by this date its existence was purely theoretical. Indeed, Simpson stated that ‘The Large and Long are now of little use, being too long for any Voice, or Instrument (the Organ excepted) to hold out to their full length’.

See also Notation, §III, 2 and Note values.

JOHN MOREHEN/RICHARD RASTALL

Long compass keyboard.

An organ keyboard that descends below the C normally found as the bottom note on modern organs. See Keyboard and Organ,§V, 8.

Long, Kathleen

(b Brentford, 7 July 1896; d Cambridge, 20 March 1968). English pianist. She studied with Herbert Sharpe at the RCM (1910–16) and taught there from 1920 to 1964. Early in her career she performed a wide repertory of chamber works. An artist of enduring catholic tastes, she introduced music by, among others, Bloch, Bridge, Holst and Finzi. Her Mozart playing, for which she was particularly admired, showed a satisfying balance of just proportions and tender phrasing, and she gave notable performances of Mozart and Bach with the Boyd Neel Orchestra. French music was another speciality, and she made Fauré particularly her own; under the elegance of her playing the composer’s elegiac note sounded clear. She also performed the more speculative of Beethoven’s sonatas, such as opp.109 and 110, and played Scarlatti sonatas with swagger and intensity. Her tonal range, though not wide, was precise, but none of her recordings, among them Mozart’s k491 with the Concertgebouw Orchestra under van Beinum, quite captured the bloom of her sound. Long founded her own quartet, the English Ensemble, before World War II, and played on occasion with such artists as Casals, Sammons and Suggia; she also formed a partnership with the violinist Antonio Brosa (1948–66). As well as in Europe, she performed in Canada, the USA and South Africa. She was awarded the palmes académiques in 1950 and was made a CBE seven years later.

DIANA McVEAGH

Long, Marguerite [Marie-Charlotte]

(b Nîmes, 13 Nov 1874; d Paris, 13 Feb 1966). French pianist and teacher. She studied with Henri Fissot at the Paris Conservatoire, where she won a premier prix in 1891, and later worked privately with Antonin Marmontel. Her performance of Franck’s Variations symphoniques in 1903 was praised by Fauré, who wrote in Le Figaro (23 November): ‘One could not play with better fingers, more clarity and taste, [or] a more natural and charming simplicity’. These qualities applied to her style even much later, as is evident from her recordings of Debussy’s Deux arabesques, Fauré’s Ballade (with André Cluytens conducting) and Ravel’s Concerto in G (with Pedro de Freitas Branco conducting, not Ravel as frequently stated). She played the first performances of Ravel’s Le Tombeau de Couperin and Concerto in G and also championed the music of Fauré, Milhaud and Roger-Ducasse. From 1906 to 1940 she was a noted teacher at the Paris Conservatoire, where her students included Annie d’Arco, Jacques Février, Samson François and Nicole Henriot-Schweitzer. In 1941 she opened her own school in Paris and in 1943 she and Jacques Thibaud founded the competition that continues to bear their names.

WRITINGS

Le piano (Paris, 1959)

Au piano avec Claude Debussy (Paris, 1960; Eng. trans., 1972)

Au piano avec Gabriel Fauré (Paris, 1963; Eng. trans., 1980)

La petite méthode de piano (Paris, 1963)

with Pierre Laumonier: Au piano avec Ravel (Paris, 1971; Eng. trans., 1973)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Weill: Marguerite Long: une vie fascinante (Paris, 1969)

C. Timbrell: French Pianism (White Plains, NY, and London, 1992, enlarged 2/forthcoming)

C. Dunoyer: Marguerite Long: a Life in French Music, 1874–1966 (Bloomington, IN, 1993) [incl. discography]

CHARLES TIMBRELL

Longa florata

(Lat.).

A type of ornament. See Ornaments, §1.

L’Ongaretto.

Nickname of Giovanni Battista Piazza.

Longaval [Longheval], Antoine de.

See Longueval, Antoine de.

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth

(b Portland, ME, 27 Feb 1807; d Cambridge, MA, 24 March 1882). American poet. After private schooling in Portland he completed his formal education at Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine. He spent a year studying general literature at Harvard University, learning French and Italian. At the age of 18 he was appointed to a new chair of modern languages at Bowdoin, which he assumed in 1830, having spent the intervening years travelling and studying in Europe. He settled in Cambridge in 1836 assuming a position at Harvard College, where he remained until 1854. He made further visits to Europe in 1842 and 1868–9.

Longfellow was probably the most frequently set American poet of the 19th century. There are over 1200 settings of his texts, by over 650 composers; many of them, primarily settings for solo voice and keyboard, were composed before 1890 and published in England. The text that has been most often set is ‘Stars of the Summer Night’ from The Spanish Student (1843). Choral settings include Rutland Boughton’s The Skeleton in Armour, Dudley Buck’s Scenes from the Golden Legend and Paul Revere’s Ride (the latter for male chorus), and Elgar’s Spanish Serenade.

Generally considered Longfellow’s most enduring poem, Hiawatha (1855), on American-Indian themes and written in trochaic dimeters, has appealed to many composers, notably Samuel Coleridge-Taylor, whose cantata Hiawatha’s Wedding Feast was particularly well received in England and the USA. It has also inspired several orchestral works, including symphonic poems by Louis Coerne, Delius, and Goldmark.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveA (M.W. Barndt-Webb) [incl. further bibliography]

A. Newton: Longfellow: his Life and Work (Boston, 1963)

H.E. Johnson: Operas on American Subjects (New York, 1964)

A.S. Arnell and R. Volz: ‘Longfellow and Music’, Henry W. Longfellow Reconsidered, ed. J.C. Mathews (Hartford, CT, 1970), 32–8

R.C. Friedberg: American Art Song and American Poetry, i: America Comes of Age (Metuchen, NJ, 1981)

M. Hovland: Musical Settings of American Poetry: a Bibliography (Westport, CT, 1986) [incl. list of settings]

MIRIAM W. BARNDT-WEBB

Longman & Broderip.

English firm of music publishers and instrument dealers, established in London. The business was founded in or before 1767 by James Longman and others, and was first known as J. Longman & Co. Its Harp & Crown sign, though not its premises, was apparently acquired from the widow of john Johnson (ii). From 1769 to 1775 the firm was known as Longman, Lukey & Co., becoming Longman, Lukey & Broderip when Francis Fane Broderip entered the business in September 1775. Lukey withdrew from the business in 1776 and the firm remained as Longman & Broderip until its bankruptcy in 1798. From December 1782 it had a circulating music library and in 1786 a Mr Mann and Mr Russell were sent to Calcutta to open a music shop in Loll Bazaar, opposite the Old Harmonia, while in 1789 the firm advertised that it was opening branches at Margate and Brighthelmstone (now Brighton) ‘during the watering season’.

Especially in its period as Longman & Broderip the firm ranked among the most enterprising of its time. In addition to its own wide range of publications, it claimed to be able to supply any foreign publication through its contacts with continental publishers. It had a particularly close association with Artaria in Vienna. Its own publications included English music by Arne, Avison, Shield, Storace and others, and much by foreign composers, among them J.C. Bach, Haydn (including the symphonies commissioned by Salomon), Mozart, Pleyel, Schobert, and Johann and Carl Stamitz, as well as the usual country dance books and sheet songs. From 1785 it was the official contracted publisher to the King's Theatre. Its keyboard music, some of it written two or more generations earlier, had a great influence on what English harpsichordists and organists played towards the end of the century. A number of works were published in conjunction with John Johnston, and the firm acquired some of his stock and plates as well as his trading sign ‘The Apollo’ when he ceased business in 1778. The firm was noted for the generous sums it paid composers for their works; perhaps this was a factor in its financial downfall.

Longman & Broderip sold a range of keyboard instruments, though the firm almost certainly relied on others to provide their stock-in-trade. Of the surviving plucked string keyboard instruments, four of the seven wing spinets and seven of the eleven harpsichords are by Thomas Culliford, while another harpsichord is by Baker Harris; the harpsichords owe much, both musically and stylistically, to Kirkman and Shudi. Though the workmanship of the Longman & Broderip instruments is not of the first order, Culliford's machine stop, in the case of some of the single-manual harpsichords, is more ingenious, and enables the instrument to achieve a greater degree of tonal flexibility from a 2×8', 1×4', lute specification than is the case with other makers. By the last quarter of the 18th century Longman & Broderip were turning to the piano, and particularly to the square. Clinkscale lists some 22 surviving squares bearing their name and a further 33 attributed to them. There are also two surviving grands and three ‘organized pianos’ (square pianos combined with an organ), while at least one combined harpsichord and piano is known to have been made. From advertisements it is clear that the ingenuity of the firm extended far beyond such curiosities to include ‘Glove horns’, ‘Sticcado pastorales’ (for which it also published a tutor), ‘upright harpsichords with a curious new invented swell’ (1786), ‘pianofortes in commodes, sideboards & dressing-tables’ (1786), and, from Paris, ‘portable clavecins … agreeable for travelling with, as they may be conveyed and even performed on in a coach’ (1789).

After Longman & Broderip's bankruptcy, John Longman, who had succeeded James, went into partnership with Muzio Clementi until about 1801. He then set up for himself until about 1816, introducing a drawing-room barrel piano in about 1804 which was weight-driven and had no keyboard. Giles Longman, John's successor, was in partnership with James Herron as Longman & Herron until 1822. The other partner, Francis Broderip, entered into partnership with C. Wilkinson; as Broderip & Wilkinson they reissued many of the old firm's publications in addition to publishing new ones of their own, including Broderip and Wilkinson's New and Complete Instructions for the Lute (c1800). Broderip died in 1807, and the firm became Wilkinson & Co. until 1810, when it ceased business, the stock and plates being purchased by Thomas Preston (see Preston & Son).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BoalchM

ClinkscaleMP

Humphries-SmithMP

KidsonBMP

R. Russell: The Harpsichord and Clavichord (London, 1959, rev. 2/1973 by H. Schott)

C. Flamm: ‘Ein Verlegerbriefwechsel zur Beethovenzeit’, Beethoven-Studien, ed. E. Schenk (Vienna, 1970), 57–110

R. Head: ‘Corelli in Calcutta’, EMc, xiii (1985), 548–53

J. Small: ‘J.C. Bach goes to Law’, MT, cxxvi (1985), 526–9

K. Mobbs and A. Mackenzie of Ord: ‘The “Machine Stop” and its Potential on Full-Specification One-Manual Harpsichords Made by Thomas Culliford’, GSJ, xlvii (1994), 33–46

C. Price, J. Milhous and R.D. Hume: Italian Opera in Late Eighteenth-Century London, i: The King's Theatre, Haymarket, 1778–1791 (Oxford, 1995)

D.W. Jones: ‘From Artaria to Longman & Broderip: Mozart’s Music on Sale in London’, Studies in Music History Presented to H.C. Robbins Landon on his Seventieth Birthday, ed. O. Biba and D.W. Jones (London, 1996), 105–14

N.A. Mace: ‘Haydn and the London Music Sellers: Forster and Longman & Broderip’, ML, lxxvii (1996), 527–41

PETER WARD JONES, PETER WILLIAMS, CHARLES MOULD

Longo, Alessandro

(b Amantea, 30 Dec 1864; d Naples, 3 Nov 1945). Italian pianist and composer. After studying with his father, the pianist and composer Achille Longo (b Melicuccà, 27 Feb 1832; d Naples, 11 May 1919), he attended Naples Conservatory (1878–85), where he studied the piano with Beniamino Cesi, composition with Paolo Serrao and the organ; he took a diploma in all three subjects in 1885. After teaching the piano there, initially as Cesi’s substitute and then as a regular member of staff from 1897, he taught briefly (1899) at Alfonso Rendàno’s private school; he retired in 1934 but returned in 1944 as interim director. He was also pianist for numerous concert organizations, including the Società del Quartetto (1909–15). Longo’s interest in the music of Domenico Scarlatti led to his founding a Domenico Scarlatti society at Naples (c1893) and to his publication of 11 volumes containing 544 sonatas and a fragment of Scarlatti’s keyboard music. He arbitrarily organized the sonatas into key-related suites and felt compelled to adjust some of their harmonic implications, but the edition (Domenico Scarlatti: Opere complete per clavicembalo, Milan, 1906–10) was long the most complete and did much to awaken interest in Scarlatti. He also wrote Domenico Scarlatti e la sua figura nella storia della musica (Naples, 1913). Longo was a dedicated teacher; his pupils included such pianists as Franco Alfano, Guido Laccetti, Paolo Denza and Tito Aprea. In 1914 he founded the journal Arte pianistica (later Vita musicale italiana), which continued until 1926. For his educational writings, among which are piano methods and anthologies, he received a gold medal at the music-history congress held at the Paris Exhibition. His compositions (over 300), which have been described as combining a Germanic instrumental style with Italian vocal characteristics, include works for piano, for strings, and suites for various instruments. He was a member of the Accademia Pontaniana and the Società Reale di Archeologia, Lettere e Belle Arti.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Borsa di studio Alessandro e Achille Longo sotto gli auspici del Conservatorio di musica S. Pietro a Majella (Naples, 1955)

M. Limoncelli: La musica nei salotti napoletani tra l’800 e il 900 (Naples, 1956), 54–65; pubd separately as Alessandro Longo (Naples, 1956)

E. Naso: Alessandro Longo nel primo centenario della nascita (Naples, 1964)

G. Manno: ‘La molteplice opera di Alessandro Longo’, Rassegna musicale Curci, xxxvi/3 (1983), 10–14

E. Fadini and others eds.: Domenico Scarlatti e il suo tempo: Siena 1985 [Chigiana, new ser., xx (1985)]

G. Rotondella: ‘Alessandro Longo, compositore, poeta, pianista’, Rassegna musicale Curci, xxxviii/3 (1985), 7–10

T.E. Meo: Alessandro Longo e il suo tempo (thesis, U. of Naples, 1994–5)

Amantea musica, i (1995) [whole issue; for the 50th anniversary of Longo’s death]

CAROLYN GIANTURCO/R

Longueval [Longaval, Longheval], Antoine de

(b ?Longeuval, Somme; fl 1498–1525). French composer. A papal document refers to him as ‘cleric of the diocese of Arras’, so he probably came from the village of Longueval on the southern edge of the diocese. Ferrarese documents, however, call him ‘Antonio d’Orléans’, which may indicate an early place of employment. He was a member of the household of Queen Anne of Brittany in 1498, when he was provided with a suit of mourning for the funeral of Charles VIII. From 1 June 1502 to 1 October 1504 he was at the court of Savoy (with a salary 50 per cent higher than any other singer), but while still listed as a member of that chapel he was paid for service to Alfonso d'Este in Ferrara between December 1503 and early September 1504; he was named as a member of the ducal chapel in the latter year. By 1507 he had become a valet de chambre to Louis XII – one of the king's private musicians rather than a member of the court chapel. He was made a canon of the Ste Chapelle in Bourges in 1510. Not long after he became king, François I made Longueval maître de chapelle of the royal chapel at the beginning of October 1515; like Ockeghem he was also the king's ‘counsellor’ and first chaplain, which made him supervisor of the maîtrise of the Ste Chapelle of Paris. Longueval, along with the rest of the royal chapel, accompanied François to Italy in late 1515, and on 17 December he and Mouton were made apostolic notaries by a motu proprio of Leo X. He was installed as a canon of Notre Dame, Paris, on 17 April 1517, resigning on 26 May 1519 to become abbot in commendam of the Benedictine priory of St Pierre, Longueville, a very lucrative benefice. In the same year he was approached again by Alfonso d’Este to serve in the Ferrarese ducal chapel. He is last recorded at the French court in 1525, and probably died towards the end of that year or at the beginning of the next.

Longueval's most important work, the Passio Domini nostri, may have been written in Ferrara for Holy Week 1504 (Heyink), though its earliest source, a Roman manuscript copied before 1508, ascribes the motet to an unknown ‘Jo. ala venture’ (the Toledo manuscript, copied in the Low Countries about 1520–35, also gives ‘Alaventura’). Van den Borren’s suggestion that ‘à l'aventure’ is a translation of the Dutch ongeval (‘mishap’) has nothing to recommend it, as Longueval's name was not Jean and he was not from a Dutch-speaking area. Heyink’s prposal that Longueval adopted the alternative name in Italy is not supported by any evidence and is similarly unlikely because of the different Christian name. Tagmann’s suggestion that ‘Venturo detto Musini, soprano’, a singer in Mantua in 1509–10, should be identified with Longueval is falsified by the frequent designation of Longueval as ‘contrabasso’ in Ferrarese documents. It must remain possible that Longueval was not the composer of this piece, although the ascriptions to La Rue and Obrecht in later German sources are stylistically inappropriate. The motet's text is adapted from the Passion narrative according to Matthew, but incorporates passages (especially the words of Christ) from all the Gospels. The music continually varies its scoring and rhythmic and contrapuntal character (see ..\Frames/F005197.html Passion, ex.5); the chanted recitation tone for the Passion is often present, but even when it is not the melodic patterning is dominated by recitation on a single note. The variety and expressiveness of Longueval's Passion made a strong impression in Lutheran Germany, where it was widely disseminated and served as a model for numerous 16th-century settings by other composers.

Longueval's other works are each transmitted in a single source. Like the Passion motet on a smaller scale, Benedicat nos (a setting of a prayer for Trinity Sunday) is varied in its textures. It gives impressive melismas to the word ‘imperialis’ in the opening (non-matching) duos, and brings the movement to an impressive halt at the invocation ‘Alpha et O, Deus et homo’ towards the end. Benedicite Deum is simpler and more declamatory, with a plainly French accentuation of the Latin. Alle regres is based on the tenor of Hayne van Ghizeghem's Les grans regrets, written at its original pitch but with the canonic instruction to be transposed up a step. The other three parts, in high clefs, are largely imitative; the subject at the beginning of the second phrase is related to the beginning of the second phrase of the tenor of Hayne's Allez regrets. The pacing of the chanson is varied, and the style is notably different from that of either Févin or Claudin, Longueval's royal chapel colleagues. In July 1518 a Ferrarese diplomat sent a mass and a motet by Longueval to Duke Alfonso d’Este; the works remain unidentified.

WORKS

Benedicat nos imperialis maiestas, 4vv, 1514¹; ed. in Gehrenbeck

Benedicite Deum caeli, 4vv, 1535³, I-Rvat C.G. XII 4; ed. A.T. Merritt, Treize livres de motets parus chez Pierre Attaingnant, 1534–5, xi (Monaco, 1962)

Passio Domini nostri Jesu Christi, 4vv, Fn II.I.232; attrib. ‘Jo. ala venture’ in Rvat C.S.42, E-Tc Res.23; attrib. La Rue in D-Dlb 1/D/505; attrib. Obrecht in 1538¹ and many German MSS; ed. in New Obrecht Edition, xviii (1999)

Alle regres, 4vv, I-Bc Q19; ed. R.J. van Maldeghem, Trésor musical: musique profane, année i (Brussels, 1865) (with text ‘O jours heureux’)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Brenet: Les musiciens de la Sainte-Chapelle du Palais (Paris, 1910/R)

C. van den Borren: ‘Fausses attributions et trouvestissements musicaux’, Bulletin de la Classe des beaux-arts, Académie Royale de Belgique, xxii (1940), 7–17

P.M. Tagmann: Archivalische Studien zur Musikpflege am Dom von Mantua, 1500–1627 (Bern, 1967), 32–3

M.-T. Bouquet: ‘La cappella musicale dei duchi di Savoia dal 1504 al 1550’, RIM, v (1970), 3–36, esp. 7, 31, 36

D.M. Gehrenbeck: Motetti de la Corona: a Study of Ottaviano Petrucci's Four Last-Known Motet Prints (Fossombrone, 1514, 1519) (diss., Union Theological Seminary, 1970), 509–14, 1482–9

L. Lockwood: ‘Jean Mouton and Jean Michel: French Music and Musicians in Italy, 1505–1520’, JAMS, xxxii (1979), 191–246, esp. 204, 216, 238

L. Lockwood: Music in Renaissance Ferrara, 1400–1505 (Oxford and Cambridge, MA, 1984), 153, 328

C. Wright: Music and Ceremony at Notre Dame of Paris, 500–1550 (Cambridge, 1989), esp. 306–7

R. Sherr: ‘The Membership of the Chapels of Louis XII and Anne de Bretagne in the Years Preceding their Deaths’, JM, vi (1988), 60–82, esp. 67–8

R. Heyink: ‘Die Passionsmotette von Antoine de Longueval: Herkunft, Zuschreibung und Überlieferung’, AMw, xlvii (1990), 217–44

J.T. Brobeck: The Motet at the Court of Francis I (diss., U. of Pennsylvania, 1991), 592–5

J.T. Brobeck: ‘Musical Patronage in the Royal Chapel of France under Francis I (r.1515–1547)’, JAMS, xlviii (1995), 187–239

JEFFREY DEAN

Longy, (Gustave-)Georges(-Leopold)

(b Abbeville, ?28 Aug 1868; d Moreuil, 29 March 1930). French oboist, conductor, educator and composer. He studied the oboe at the Paris Conservatoire with Georges Gillet, and in 1886 was awarded a premier prix. He played with various Paris orchestras, and from 1898 to 1925 was first oboist of the Boston SO. In 1900 he founded the Longy Club to give concerts of chamber music, principally for wind instruments and often by American composers. In 1916 he opened the Longy School of Music, which he directed for many years with the assistance of his daughter, Renée Longy-Miquelle.

He held several conducting appointments in Boston, including the Boston Orchestral Club (1899–1913), the MacDowell Club (1915–25) and the Cecilia Society chorus. From 1919 to 1921 he led the Boston Musical Association, which specialized in contemporary works. A dispute with Koussevitzky during the latter’s first season as conductor of the Boston SO led to Longy’s resignation as first oboe, and he returned to his native region of France.

When Longy died, invitations to a grand memorial concert in Boston were issued by a committee including, ironically, Koussevitzky. Longy’s compositions have never been catalogued, but two works he is known to have written during his Boston years are a Divertissement for orchestra on folk tunes from Normandy and Picardy, and a Rapsodie for solo saxophone with an ensemble of two clarinets, bassoon, double bass, harp and timpani. Loeffler’s Deux rapsodies for oboe, viola and piano (1905) were written for Longy and dedicated to him. There is a large amount of archival material on Longy in the Boston Public Library.

LEONARD BURKAT

Longyear, Rey M(organ)

(b Boston, 10 Dec 1930; d Louisville, 20 Feb 1995). American musicologist. He attended Los Angeles City College and received the BA from Los Angeles State College in 1951. At the University of North Carolina he worked with William S. Newman, taking the MA in 1954. In 1957 he received the PhD from Cornell University, where his teachers included Donald Grout, William Austin and Denis Stevens. From 1958 to 1963 he taught at the University of Southern Mississippi. He was on the faculty of the University of Tennessee from 1963 to 1964 and he was professor of music at the University of Kentucky from 1964 until his retirement in 1994.

Longyear specialized in the Classic and Romantic periods, with particular emphasis on German literature and music. His monograph Schiller and Music (1966) examines musical imagery in Schiller's writings and gives a lucid exposition of his philosophy of music. He edited two collections of early-19th-century symphonies, five symphonies by Mattei and Pavesi's Dies irae concertato. He was also interested in the study of percussion instruments, and having studied percussion at the Peabody Conservatory and the Berkshire Music Center was a percussionist with several orchestras.

WRITINGS

D.F.E. Auber (1782–1871): a Chapter in the History of the Opéra Comique, 1800–1870 (diss., Cornell U., 1957)

‘Notes on the Rescue Opera’, MQ, xlv (1959), 49–66

‘Music at the “Hohe Karlsschule” 1770–1794’, JRME, xii (1964), 123–33

‘Some Aspects of 16th-Century Instrumental Terminology and Practice’, JAMS, xvii (1964), 193–8

‘Musical Portraits in “Sturm und Drang” Drama’, ML, xlvi (1965), 39–49

Schiller and Music (Chapel Hill, NC, 1966)

‘Schiller, Moszkowski, and Strauss’, MR, xxviii (1967), 209–17

‘Binary Variants of Early Classic Sonata Form’, JMT, xiii (1969), 162–85

Nineteenth-Century Romanticism in Music (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1969, 3/1988)

‘Beethoven and Romantic Irony’, MQ, lvi (1970), 647–64

‘Principles of Neglected Musical Repertoire’, JRME, xviii (1970), 167–77

‘Liszt's B minor Sonata: Precedents for a Structural Analysis’, MR, xxxiv (1973), 198–209

‘Ferdinand Kauer's Percussion Enterprises’, GSJ, xxvii (1974), 2–8

‘The Text of Liszt's B minor Sonata’, MQ, lx (1974), 435–50

PAULA MORGAN

Lonquich, Heinz Martin

(b Trier, 23 March 1937). German composer, conductor and organist. He studied at the Saarbrücken Musikhochschule (1954–7), where his teachers included Alexander Sellier (piano), Heinnich Konietzny (composition) and Philipp Wüst (conducting). Thereafter he was coach at the Städtische Bühnen in Münster (1957–61) and Kapellmeister of the Brunswick Staatstheater (1961–4). Between 1962 and 1964 he conducted the Jeunesses Musicales orchestra of Brunswick. In 1964 he was appointed music assistant at the Städtische Bühnen in Cologne; he also took a teaching post in coaching at the Musikhochschule while continuing his composition studies there with Bernd Alois Zimmermann and Herbert Eimert (1966–70). After completing private studies in church music (1973) he was appointed organist and choirmaster of St Nikolaus, Cologne-Sülz. He has broadcast frequently as a pianist and accompanist, and was a member with Humpert of the Gruppe 8. In 1968 he received Förderungspreise in composition from Netherlands Radio and North Rhine-Westphalia, and in 1971–2 he held a scholarship to the Villa Massimo in Rome. He became a member of the music committee of the Cologne archbishopric in 1986 and received the Lassus medal of the German-speaking Cäcilienverband in 1997. Proceeding from sensitive, predominantly lyrical tone structures, sometimes freely serial, he has come, by way of many monodic liturgical compositions, to a pithy language of distinct character. His later works show spontaneous melodic invention, as well as a very varied, floating rhythm.

WORKS

(selective list)

Choral: Kölner-Domfest-Messe (K. Lüchtefeld), Mez, Bar, children’s chorus, chorus, 19 insts, 1980; Die Stunden (J. Guillén), men’s vv, 2 va, 2 vc, 1983; Bei stiller Nacht (F. von Spee), S, chorus, ob/fl, org, 1985; 5 precationes ad Mariam, 1985; Und was will diese Sonne uns (E. Meister), 2 spkr, S, chorus, fl, hp, org, 1989; Namen-Gottes-Litanei (C. Spaemann), S, A, T, B, chorus, org, 1990; Magnificat, S, A, T, B, vn, 1991; Auf dem Rand der Mauer (orat, Lüchtefeld, Bible), 5 spkr, 10 solo vv, 2 mixed choruses, 18 insts, tape, 1992–3; Corpus Christi mysticum (G. von le Fort), chorus, str qnt, 1993; Johannes-Passion in der Liturgie des Karfreitags, 4vv, 1993; Kölner Dreikönigen-Messe, chorus, 2 3-pt children’s/female choruses, 12 wind, perc, 1998; Laus Trinitati (5 motets, Hildegard of Bingen), 1999; many other liturgical works

Other vocal: Der Weg nach Tsin (Chin. poems), Bar, pf, 1963; Mondblüten (haiku), S, pf, 1966; 3 Gesänge an Gott (Bible, T. von Avila, G. von Nazianz), Mez, org, 1974; 3 Passionsgesänge (A. de Vigny, M. de Unamunu, P. Claudel), S, va, 1974; Ad honorem Sanctae Mariae (R. Schaumann), S, fl, org, 1979; Los tesoros abiertos de las almas (J.R. Jiménez), medium v, fl, cl, 1979; De spiritu sancto (Hildegard of Bingen), Mez, va, 1994; Hoschieni Elohim (Pss), Mez, B, ob, b cl, 2 trbn, va, vc, db, pf, 1997; Psalmgebet (H.I. Khan), S, A, cl, va, vc, org, 1997

Chbr and solo inst: Pentameron, gui, hp, pf, 1960; Widersprüche – Improvisationsanweisungen, 5 players, timekeeper, 1970; Emanation, elec gui, pf, elecs, 1971; Missa, wind qnt, 1971; Para/Meta, fl, ob, pf, 1975; Musik in die Stille I, 2 fl, 1976; Svolgimento, vc, 1976; Canto di gioia, fl, 1977; Konstellationen, pf, 1977; Verwandlungen, rec qt, 1977; Komposition, vc, pf, 1978-81; Schwebende Rhythmen, pf, 1978; 5 pezzi, pf, 1980; Orationes, org, 1988; Preisungen, tpt, org, 1989; TRIDUO I, 2 vn, 1994; TRIDUO II, 2 vc, 1994; TRIDUO III, vn, vc, 1994

Principal publishers: C. Dohr, P.J. Tonger, Carus, Breitkopf & Härtel

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Grube, ed.: ‘Musik, das war der Versuch zu fliegen’: Festschfrit zum 60. Geburtstag von H.M. Lonquich (Cologne, 1998)

MONIKA LICHTENFELD

Lonsdale, Christopher

(b ?1795; d 1877). English music publisher. See under Birchall, Robert.

Loomis, Harvey Worthington

(b Brooklyn, 5 Feb 1865; d Boston, 25 Dec 1930). American composer. A pupil of Dvořák at the National Conservatory, New York, he composed over 500 works, but only a few were published before 1900. Some based on Amerindian melodies, such as Lyrics of the Red Man op.76 (1903–4), were printed by the Wa-Wan Press. He appears to have been most successful in composing stage music, including the one-act opera The Traitor Mandolin, first performed in 1898, the dramatic recitation The Song of the Pear Tree (1913), the melodrama Sandalphon (1896), which he described as ‘musical symbolism’, and two burlesque operas, The Maid of Athens and The Burglar’s Bride. He also composed a cantata for children, Fairy Hill (1895), a violin sonata and many piano pieces of a descriptive nature. Most of his manuscripts are in the Library of Congress.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Hughes: Contemporary American Composers (Boston, 1900, rev. 2/1914/R by A. Elson an American Composers)

V.B. Lawrence, ed.: The Wa-Wan Press, 1901–1911 (New York, 1970)

W. THOMAS MARROCCO

Loosemore, George

(bap. Barnstaple, 12 Sept 1619; d Cambridge, before 11 Sept 1682). English organist and composer, brother of Henry Loosemore and John Loosemore. He was organist of Jesus College, Cambridge, in 1635, and of Trinity College from 1660 until his death. He took the Cambridge MusD degree in 1665. He may have been the ‘Mr Loosemore’ who played the organ and taught the choristers at St John’s College, Cambridge, at various times during the 1660s. The majority of his works survive in one or other of two autograph manuscripts. The first, GB-Lbl Add.34203, is a book of organ accompaniments; it includes six of his own works and a further two by Henry Loosemore. The second, GB-Ctc R.2.58, is a medius partbook from a set of grace books copied by George Loosemore in 1664 and intended for use on feast days in the hall of Trinity College. It contains 11 full anthems by Loosemore, most of which are settings of Prayer Book collects for the major church festivals. A twelfth anthem, to the text of the Advent antiphon ‘O sapientia’, was apparently copied into the manuscript, although it is now missing. Loosemore’s instrumental fancies, most of which also are now lost, were admired by Dudley, 3rd Lord North, at whose home at Kirtling they are known to have been played.

WORKS

sacred

Gloria in excelsis, 4vv, GB-Lbl, Ob

Athanasian Creed, verse, Lbl (inc.)

12 full anthems, Ctc (inc.), 1 lost

3 full anthems, 4vv, Ob

6 verse anthems, Lbl (inc.)

2 verse anthems, Cjc, Ckc, EL, Lbl, Lgc, Ob, Och, Y

instrumental

4 almans, 2 curants, vn, lyra viol, b viol, B-Bc

Fantasy, a 3, F-Pc (inc.)

Corant, viols, GB-Ob* (inc.) [b viol part]

Courant, hpd, Och [?by Henry Loosemore]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Dart: ‘Henry Loosemore’s Organ-Book’, Transactions of the Cambridge Bibliographical Society, iii (1959–63), 143–51

J. Morehen: The Sources of English Cathedral Music, c.1617–c.1644 (diss., U. of Cambridge, 1969), 201ff

J. Morehen: ‘The Gibbons–Loosemore Mystery’, MT, cxii (1971), 959–60

I. Payne: ‘Music at Jesus College, Cambridge, c.1557–1679’, Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, lxxvi (1987), 97–103

I. Payne: ‘George Loosemore at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1660–1682’, Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, lxxvii (1988), 145–50

W. Shaw: The Succession of Organists of the Chapel Royal and the Cathedrals of England and Wales from c.1538 (Oxford, 1991)

JOHN MOREHEN

Loosemore, Henry

(b ? Devon, 1607; d Cambridge, bur. 7 July 1670). English organist and composer, brother of George Loosemore and John Loosemore. He was organist of King’s College, Cambridge, from 1627 until his death. During the latter part of his life he was also closely associated with the North family, whose home was at nearby Kirtling. Together with John Jenkins he was a central figure at the private music meetings held there, and he was also music master to the North children. He took the Cambridge MusB degree in 1640.

With the exception of two instrumental compositions, Henry Loosemore’s surviving output consists exclusively of sacred music, more than half of which is incomplete. Although his music places him in the front rank of provincial composers, none of it appears to have achieved any wide currency during his lifetime. His anthems O Lord, increase our faith and Why art thou so heavy, O my soul were long thought to be the work of Orlando Gibbons. An important organbook which Loosemore copied probably between 1625 and 1635 survives (US-NYp Drexel 5469). It includes autograph organ parts to 17 of his compositions, some of which have not survived in any other known source.

Loosemore, George

WORKS

First Service (TeD, Jub, Lit, Ky, Cr, Mag, Nunc), 4vv, GB-Cp, DRc, Lbl, LF

Second Service (Bte, Jub), Cp (inc.)

Latin Litany (adapted from the First Service Litany), 4vv, Cp, Cu

Latin Litany, 5vv, Cp, Cu

Almighty and everlasting God, full, US-NYp (inc.); Behold, it is Christ, verse, GB-Cp; Behold, now praise the Lord (?degree exercise), 8vv, Cp (inc.); Do well, O Lord, lost; Fear not, shepherds, verse, DRc, Lbl, LF, Mp, all inc.; Fret not thyself, verse, Cp (inc.); Give the King thy judgements, O God, verse, DRc, Lbl, LF, all inc.; Glory be to God, verse, DRc, Lbl, LF, Mp, all inc.; I will give thanks unto thee, O Lord, verse, DRc, Lbl, all inc.; Let all the world, verse, LF, Y, US-NYp, all inc.; Lord, I am not high-minded, verse, NYp (inc.)

Man that is born of a woman, verse, NYp (inc.); O eternal God, King of kings, verse, GB-LF; O God, my heart is ready, verse, 5vv, Cp, Cu, US-NYp; O Jesu Christ, thou art the light, verse, words only GB-Lbl; O Lord, increase our faith, 4vv, US-NYp, GB-Lbl (incorrectly attrib. O. Gibbons); O praise God in his holiness, verse, WO (inc.); O saviour of the world, full, US-NYp (inc.); O sing unto the Lord a new song, verse, NYp; Praise the Lord, O my soul, and all, 1/5vv, NYp, GB-Cp, Cu; Praise the Lord, O my soul, while I live, 4vv, DRc, Lbl, LF, Lsp, Y; Put me not to rebuke, O Lord, 4vv, Lbl, Ob, US-NYp

Tell the daughter of Sion, 5vv, NYp, GB-Cp, Cu; The Lord hath done great things, verse, Lbl, Mp, all inc.; Thou art worthy, O Lord, verse, Cp (inc.); To Jesus Christ, the faithful witness, verse, Cp (inc.), US-NYp; To Jesus Christ, the faithful witness, full, NYp (inc.); Truly, God is loving unto Israel, verse, GB-Cp (inc.); Turn thee again, O Lord, verse, Cp (inc.); Unto thee lift I up mine eyes, 5vv, Cp, Cu, US-NYp, all inc.; Why art thou so heavy, O my soul, 4vv, GB-Lbl (incorrectly attrib. O. Gibbons), Ob, US-NYp

Verse, org, sackbutt, cornett, vn, NYp

Untitled piece, 3 viols, org, GB-Lbl

Courant, hpd, Och (?by George Loosemore)

For bibliography see Loosemore, george.

JOHN MOREHEN

Loosemore, John

(bap. Barnstaple, 25 Aug 1616; d Exeter, 8 April 1681). English organ builder and virginal maker. He was the son of Samuel Loosemore, also an organ builder, and a brother of George and Henry Loosemore, both organists and composers. The earliest references to John Loosemore are in connection with the organ at Hartland, Devon, where he carried out work between 1635 and 1638. A house organ built for Sir George Trevelyan survives in the minstrels’ gallery at Nettlecombe Court, Somerset (c1665). His most important organ was built in about 1665 for Exeter Cathedral; the case remains. This instrument was heard by Francis North, 1st Lord Guilford, in 1675, during his circuits as Lord Chief Justice. His verdict suggests that in some respects it was more pleasing to the eye than to the ear. A chamber organ of six stops formerly in the Exeter Cathedral choir school was destroyed about 1935. A virginal built by Loosemore and dated 1655 is in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London (for plan view see Virginal, fig.8). Loosemore is buried in Exeter Cathedral, where his tomb can still be seen.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BicknellH

C. Clutton and A. Niland: The British Organ (London, 1963/R, 2/1982)

M. Wilson: The English Chamber Organ: History and Development, 1650–1850 (Oxford, 1968)

B.B. Edmonds: ‘John Loosemore’, JBIOS, v (1981), 23–32

JOHN MOREHEN, STEPHEN BICKNELL

Lootens, Willem

(b Delft, bap. 9 Aug 1736; d Middelburg, 13 Jan 1813). Dutch organist, carillonneur and composer. He probably studied with his father. In 1754 he was appointed organist of the Grote Kerk in Maassluis. In 1760 he succeeded A.F. Grooneman as organist of the Grote Kerk in Zierikee, and after the death of Benjamin Bouchart was appointed organist of the Nieuwe Kerk and carillonneur of the abbey bell-tower in Middelburg, a position that he held from 1763. Zierikee, and after the death of Benjamin Bouchart was appointed organist of the Nieuwe Kerk and carillonneur of the abbey bell-tower in Middelburg, a position that he held from 1763.

As an organ adviser Lootens occupied a prominent position in the Dutch field of organ building during the 18th century. His writings on the organs of the Grote St Lievens Kerk in Zierikzee and on the De Rijckere organ of the Oostkerk in Middelburg contain valuable information concerning contemporary Flemish and Dutch organ building. Several of Lootens’s compositions survive. He was one of the supporters of the movement to improve psalm singing, to which he contributed De 150 psalmen en gezangen, a collection containing newly composed music. His Choraal in IV stemmen for the funeral oration of Professor J. Willemsen (Nieuwe Kerk, Middelburg, 17 May 1780) was rediscovered in 1990.

WORKS

3 qts, org/hpd, vn, va, b (? Middelburg, 1774), lost

De 150 psalmen en gezangen, 1v, org/hpd (Middelburg, 1776)

Choraal, 4vv, org (Middelburg, 1780)

6 Divertiments, pf (London, c1798/R in Exempla musica Zelandica, iv (Middelburg, 1996)); no.2 ed. G. Oost, Nederlandse klaviermuziek uit de Barok (Utrecht, 1992)

Nieuwe evangelische gezangen (Middelburg, 1806)

WRITINGS

Beschryving van het oude en nieuwe orgel, in de Groote of St. Lievens Monster-Kerk der stad Zierikzee (Zierikzee, 1771/R)

Bericht wegens het nieuwgebouwde orgel in de Oostkerk binnen Middelburg in Zeland (Middelburg, 1809); ed. in Kluiver

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.H. Kluiver: ‘Historische orgels in Zeeland [III]’, Archief: mededelingen van het Koninklijk Zeeuwsch genootschap der wetenschappen, ed. J.A. Lantsheer and others (Middelburg, 1976), 93–231 [incl. Bericht wegens het nieuwgebouwde orgel]

J. Zwart: Van een deftig orgel: Maassluis 1732–1932 (Koog aan den Zaan, 2/1977)

A. Clement: ‘Drie Zeeuwse componisten van psalmzettingen: Remigius Schrijver, Willem Lootens en Joost Verschuere Reynvaan’, Zeeuws tijdschrift, xl (1990), 170–78

A. Clement: Introduction to W. Lootens: 6 Divertiments for the Piano Forte, Exempla musica Zelandica, iv (Middelburg, 1996)

ALBERT CLEMENT

Lopardo, Frank

(b New York, 23 Dec 1957). American tenor. He studied at the Juilliard School with Robert White (1980–81) and made his stage début as Tamino at the Opera Theatre of St Louis in 1984. He first appeared in Europe as Fenton in Amsterdam in 1986, followed by Almaviva in 1987, the year in which he made his débuts at the Vienna Staatsoper (as Lindoro in L'italiana in Algeri) and Glyndebourne (as Ferrando). He made his début at Chicago, as Elvino (La sonnambula), in 1988, his Salzburg Festival début as Don Ottavio in 1990 and his San Francisco début, in the same role, in 1991. His Metropolitan début in 1990 was as Rossini's Almaviva and he has returned for, among other roles, Ferrando, Don Ottavio, Tamino, Fenton, Rodolfo and Idreno (Semiramide). He made a much-admired Covent Garden début, as Lindoro, in 1989, and in 1994 appeared there as Alfredo to Angela Gheorghiu's Violetta, a performance that was recorded live. Lopardo also sings regularly in concert in a wide-ranging repertory. His dark-grained, mellifluous tenor is deployed with agility and intelligence in all his roles, most notably on disc as Ottavio, Ferrando, Lindoro, Ernesto (Don Pasquale) and Alfredo.

ALAN BLYTH

Lopatnikoff [Lopatnikov], Nikolai [Nikolay] (Lvovich)

(b Reval [now Tallinn], Estonia, 16 March 1903; d Pittsburgh, PA, 7 Oct 1976). American composer and pianist of Russian origin. He studied piano with B. Sakharov and theory with Zhitomirsky at the St Petersburg Conservatory (until 1917), theory with Erik Furuhjelm at the Helsinki Conservatory (1918–20), civil engineering at the Technische Hochschule, Karlsruhe (1921–7), and took private composition lessons with Toch. Among his earliest works was the Piano Concerto no.1 (1921), of which the first performance was given by Hans Bruch in Cologne in 1925; the Second Concerto was given its première in 1930 and received many performances throughout Europe thereafter, including one at the 1932 ISCM Festival. Another work that received high praise was the Symphony no.1 of 1928; performed by major orchestras both in Europe and the USA, it was taken on tour by the Philadelphia Orchestra in 1932. During these years Lopatnikoff enjoyed success as a soloist and recitalist, often in performances of his own works. He lived in Berlin (1928–33) and London (1933–9) before moving to the USA, of which he became a citizen in 1944. He held appointments as head of theory and composition at Hartt College, Hartford, Connecticut, and the Westchester Conservatory, White Plains, New York (1939–45), and as professor of composition at the Carnegie Institute of Technology (later Carnegie Mellon University, 1945–69).

Lopatnikoff's move to New York resulted in part from an association with Koussevitzky. In 1927 Copland heard his Two Pieces for mechanical piano and brought them to Koussevitzky's attention. The conductor commissioned an orchestration of one of the pieces, played the resulting Scherzo in 1928, and offered a publication contract. There began a stormy but fruitful relationship between the two men which continued to the end of Koussevitzky's life; Koussevitzky conducted the Boston SO in the premières of Lopatnikoff's Second Symphony (in 1939), Violin Concerto (1942), and Concertino for Orchestra (1945), which had been commissioned by the Koussevitzky Foundation.

Lopatnikoff's music reflects an innate Russian spontaneity tempered by a disciplined tehnique which he credited to his studies with Toch. His early experiments in rhythm and dissonance recall Stravinsky's of the same period, and the subsequent development of his compositional style reflects his admiration for Hindemith with whom he became personally acquainted while still an engineering student in the 1920s. Prominent features of his work include linearity, motivic development and a lightly held, floating tonality. His slow movements show at once his capacity for linear working and the emotional Russian quality of his work. But, above all, he had a considerable talent for structural equipoise. His honours included two Guggenheim Fellowships (1945, 1953), a grant and citation from the National Institute of Arts and Letters, of which he was elected a member in 1963, and an NEA grant (1975) for Melting Pot, commissioned by the Indianapolis Ballet. From 1929 to 1937 he regularly contributed articles and reviews to Modern Music which described and evaluated contemporary compositional trends.

WORKS

for juvenilia, details of first performances and publication etc., see Critser

Stage: Danton (op, 3, G. Büchner), op.20, 1930–32, orch suite, op.21, 1933; Melting Pot (ballet, 6 scenes), 1975

Orch: Prelude to a Drama, op.3, 1920; Pf Conc. no.1, op.5, 1921; Introduction and Scherzo, op.10, 1927; Sym. no.1, op.12, 1928; Pf Conc. no.2, op.15, 1930; Short Ov., op.14, 1932; Sym. no.2, op.24, 1938–9, withdrawn; 2 Russian Nocturnes, op.25, 1939; Vn Conc., op.26, 1941; Sinfonietta, op.27, 1942; Opus sinfonicum, op.28, 1942; Concertino, op.30, 1944; 2-Pf Conc., op.33, 1950–51; Divertimento, op.34, 1951; Sym. no.3, op.35, 1953–4; Variazioni concertanti, op.38, 1958; Music for Orch, op.39, 1958; Festival Ov., op.40, 1960; Conc. for Wind, op.41, 1963; Conc. for Orch, op.43, 1964; Partita concertante, chbr orch, op.45, 1966; Sym. no.4, op.46, 1970–71

Chbr: Pf Trio, 1918; Str qt no.1, op.4, 1920; Duo, vn, vc, op.8, 1927; Sonata, op.9, vn, pf, snare drum, 1927; Str Qt no.2, op.6a, 1928; Sonata, op.11, vc, pf, 1929; Arabesque, vc/bn, pf, 1931; 3 Pieces, op.17, vn, pf, 1931; Elegietta, vc, pf, 1934; Pf Trio, op.23, 1935; Arietta, vn, pf, 1942; Variations and Epilogue, op.31, vc, pf, 1946, arr. vc, orch, op.31a, 1973; Sonata no.2, op.32, vn, pf, 1948; Str Qt no.3, op.36, 1955; Fantasia concertante, op.42, vn, pf, 1962; Divertimento da camera, op.44, chbr ens, 1965

Pf: 4 Small Pieces, op.1, 1920; Prelude and Fugue, op.2, 1920; Sonatina, op.7, 1926; 2 Pieces, mechanical pf, 1927; 2 Danses ironiques, op.13, 1928; Gavotte, 1929; 5 Contrasts, op.16, 1930; Dialogues, op.18, 1932; Variations, op.22, 1933; Arabesque, 2 pf, 1941; Sonata, E, op.29, 1943; Dance Piece, 1955; Intervals, op.37, 1957

Vocal: Time is Infinite Movement (L.N. Tolstoy), canon, 3vv, 1946; Vocalise in modo russo, 4vv, 1952: Concert Excerpts, A, Bar, orch, 1965 [from Danton (op)]

MSS in US-Wc, PHF (Edwin A. Fleisher Collection), Pc

Principal publishers: Associated, Edition Russe, E.B. Marks, MCA, C.F. Peters, Schott

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker7

EwenD

VintonD

F. Dorian: ‘Symphony no.3’, MQ, xli (1955), 367–8

L. Trimble: ‘Nikolai Lopatnikoff: Symphony No.3, Op.35’, Notes, xvi (1958–9), 475 only

Compositores de América/Composers of the Americas, ed. Pan American Union, xii (Washington DC, 1966)

V. Thomson: American Music since 1910 (New York, 1971), 157–8

W. Critser: The Compositions of Nikolai Lopatnikoff: a Catalogue (typescript, 1979) [photocopied for distribution to US libraries]

LESTER TRIMBLE/WILLIAM CRITSER (text, bibliography), WILLIAM CRITSER (work-list)

Lope de Baena.

See Baena, Lope de.

Lopes-Graça, Fernando.

See Graça, Fernando Lopes.

Lopes Morago, Estêvão.

See Morago, Estêvão Lopes.

López, Félix Máximo

(b Madrid, 18 Nov 1742; d Madrid, 9 April 1821). Spanish organist and composer. He joined the Madrid royal chapel as fourth organist in 1775, advancing to first organist in 1805 on Lidón’s resignation. He was twice married; two of the sons of his first marriage were prominent in court music – Ambrosio (b 5 Dec 1769; d 6 Dec 1835) as royal chapel organist, and Miguel (known also as Miguel López Remacha) (b 6 May 1772; d 14 April 1827) as first tenor of the royal chapel, composer of operatic and sacred works and author of treatises on solfège and composition.

According to Saldoni, a number of López’s works – keyboard pieces, guitar pieces, chamber works and villancicos – were published during his lifetime. As with many of his contemporaries, these publications do not seem to be extant, but several of his works have survived in manuscript. His organ pieces, mainly liturgical, range from short versets and fabordónes to lengthy sonatas, caprichos and fugues intended for the Elevation or Offertory. Some use hymn chants, including the traditional Spanish Pange lingua. Their style is a sometimes incongruous amalgam of the pianistic Viennese Classical idiom and stile antico counterpoint, but they are effective when played according to the careful registration directions on an instrument such as the royal chapel organ (built in 1778 by Jorge Bosch) for which they were written. López’s harpsichord works include competently written multi-movement sonatas in the Classical style (including two for four hands) and some colourful variations on Spanish melodies. His Reglas generales, o escuela de acompañar al órgaño, o clave (MS, E-Mn) demonstrates various ways to harmonize and ornament a bass line.

WORKS

extant works only; in E-Mn unless otherwise stated

Org: Escuela orgánica, supuestos los principios: contiene una collección de pensamientos cortos, para la Elevación, y otra de sonatas, para el Ofertorio, en la que se incluyen todos los hymnos de l iglesia, 1799; [44] Piezas al órgano, incl. sonatas, caprichos, fugas, Pange linguas, versos; [7] Glosas sobre el himno Sacris solemniis; [6] Juegos de versos; 4 of the above pieces ed. S. Rubio, Organistas de la Real capilla, i (Madrid, 1973)

Hpd: Música de clave, incl. 15 sonatas, rondo, pieza, capricho, andante, variaciones; Variaciones al minuet afandangado

Vocal: Passions and motets, in Convento de la Encarnación, Madrid

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SubiráHME

J. Gillespie: ‘The Keyboard Sonatas of Félix Máximo López: an Appreciation’, Studies in Eighteenth-Century Music: a Tribute to Karl Geiringer, ed. H.C.R. Landon and R.E. Chapman (London and New York, 1970), 243–52

A. Espinosa: The Keyboard Works of Félix Máximo López (1742–1821) (diss., New York U., 1976) [incl. thematic catalogue]

L. Bodelón: ‘Félix Máximo López: a Musician in the 18th Century’, Monsalvat, no.157 (1988), 22–4

ALMONTE HOWELL

Lopez, Francis

(b Montbéliard, 15 June 1916; d Paris, 5 Jan 1995). French composer. His career as a dentist helped support his first efforts as a part-time songwriter before his initial foray into writing for the theatre in 1945. His musical La Belle de Cadix ran for two years (about 1500 performances) and garnered both popular and critical acclaim. Lopez worked closely on this and other operettas with librettist Raymond Vincy until Le Prince de Madrid, the last operetta to be written before Vincy's death. The association of Lopez and Vincy was a felicitous one, not unlike that of Rodgers and Hammerstein, producing success after success and setting a standard for works in the genre, casting a large shadow over the musical theatre scene in postwar Paris. Besides the larger scale works such as Andalousie, Le chanteur de Mexico and La toison d'or, the pair also created chamber operettas (Quatre jours à Paris, La route fleurie), which were mounted at smaller theatres, but with success that rivalled that of the larger productions.

Films were made of several of Lopez's early operettas, and he also scored numerous films in the 1940s and 50s, and a film remake of Vincent Scotto's Violettes impériales. Lopez began to produce his own works in the 1980s at the Théâtre de la Renaissance, the Elysée-Montmartre and the Eldorado. His wife, Anya, and his son, Rodrigo, wrote some of the music for the operettas that were produced at this time. The score for La perle des Antilles (1979) is solely the work of his wife and son, and Rodrigo Lopez composed all the music for his father's production of Aventure à Tahiti (1988).

At his best, Lopez wrote music that is lively in its rhythmic vitality, suiting the voice well. The music for some of his operettas is inflected with a Spanish accent, as in Andalousie and Méditerranée. Lopez wrote an autobiography, Flamenco: la gloire et les larmes (Paris, 1987).

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage (in order of first performance): La Belle de Cadix, 1945, film 1953; Andalousie, 1947, film 1950; Quatre jours à Paris, 1948, film 1955; Monsieur Bourgogne, 1949; Pour Don Carlos, 1950; Le chanteur de Mexico, 1951, film; La route fleurie, 1952; Soleil de Paris, 1953; A la Jamaïque, 1954, film; La toison d'or, 1954; Méditerranée, 1955; El aguila de fuego, 1956; Tête de linotte, 1957; Maria-Flora, 1957; S E la Enbajadora, 1958; La cancion del amor mio, 1958; Le secret de Marco Polo, 1959

Visa pour l'amour, 1961; Le temps des guitares, 1963; Cristobal le Magnifique, 1963; Le Prince de Madrid, 1967; La caravelle d'or, 1969; Viva Napoli, 1970; Gipsy, 1972; Les trois mousquetaires, 1974; Fiesta, 1975, rev. as Viva Mexico, 1980; Volga, 1976; Aventure à Monte Carlo, 1981; La fête en Camargue, 1981; Soleil d'Espagne, 1981

Le vagabond tzigane, 1982; Vacances au soleil, 1982; L'amour à Tahiti, 1983; Les mille et une nuits, 1984; Carnaval aux Caraïbes, 1985; Le Roi du Pacifique, 1986; Fandango, 1987; Rêve de Vienne, 1988; La Marseillaise, 1989, rev. as Mariane mes amours, 1992; La belle Otéro, 1989; Portorico, 1990

Many film scores, incl. Quai des Orfèvres, 1947; Violettes impériales (after V. Scotto), 1952; L'aventurier de Séville; Je n'aime que toi; Sérénade au Texas

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GänzlEMT

F. Lopez: Flamenco: la gloire et les larmes (Paris, 1987) [autobiography]

Obituary, Variety (23 Jan 1995)

‘Lopez, Francis – in Memoriam’, Opera News, lix/17 (1995), 58 only

PAUL CHRISTIANSEN

Lopez, George [Jorge Enrique]

(b Havana, 30 Nov 1955). American composer, resident in Austria. His family emigrated to the USA from Cuba in 1960. He studied at the California Institute of the Arts (1971–5), where his composition teachers included Leonard Stein and Morton Subotnick. After holding various jobs outside music, he composed Landscape with Martyrdom (1981–4), a work that attracted the attention of Michael Gielen in 1984. Following its première at the Donaueschingen music festival (16 Oct 1987), Lopez moved to Germany (1990) and then to Austria (1991). His honours include grants from the Berlin Akademie der Künste, and the Ernst von Siemens, Paul Sacher and Heinrich Strobel foundations. He received the Austrian State Stipend in 1995.

Lopez' extremely differentiated compositional style is based on his study of Ives, Bruckner, Mahler and the Second Viennese School, as well as Messiaen, Xenakis, Ligeti and Stockhausen. He has also derived inspiration from walking expeditions through wilderness landscapes in North America, Iceland and Lapland, during which he observed irregular forms and structures, and came to regard nature as the source of the archetypes of human culture. These experiences are at the root of his preference for deep, diffuse and ‘uncivilized’ sounds, often classified as noise. In his works written in Europe, he has taken as subjects those areas that seem inaccessible to the conscious mind, but that leave traces as myth, dream and archaic ritual. After Dome Peak for 92 dispersed instrumentalists (1991–3), his works have increasingly undermined conventional concert paradigms. In Schatten vergessener Ahnen (1994–6) the apparent conductor (disguised by a martial mask covering the whole body) seems to be ritually slaughtered. Traumzeit und Traumdeutung (1996–7) involves instrumental groups positioned around a mountainous area.

WORKS

(selective list)

most works composed before 1982 have been destroyed

Landscape with Martrydom, orch, 1981–4; Blue Cliffs, chbr orch, 1985–8, rev. 1993; Breath-Hammer-Lightning, orch, 1989–91; Dome Peak, 82 insts, 1991–3; Das Auge des Schweigens, chbr orch, 1993–4; Tagebucheintragungen aus 1975–1979, orch, 1993–4; Schatten vergessener Ahnen, orch, 1994–6; Balztanz und Fahneneid, solo va, vn, 2 vc, db, 1995; Scène aux champs/Marche au supplice, chbr orch, 1995–6; Zwei Kampf/Traumhandlungen, ens, 1995–8; Gonzales the Earth Eater, eng hn, b cl, Wagner tuba, va, vc, 1996; Traumzeit und Traumdeutung, S, A, 4 pic, 2 s sax, 2 tpt, 2 trbn, 2 Wagner tubas, 2 tubas, 2 perc, 1996–7; Arbeit, Todesbewusstsein, gezügelte Sexualität, chbr orch, 1997

Principal publishers: Ricordi, Bärenreiter

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Scheib: ‘George Lopez: Traum von buddhistischem Lärm’, Positionen, no.13 (1993), 21–4

P.N. Wilson: ‘Unermessliche Räume: das biomorphe Komponieren des George Lopez’, Wien modern … ein internationales Festival mit Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts, Vienna, 23 Oct–28 Nov 1994 (Vienna, 1994), 27–8

CHRISTOPH BECHER

López (Gavilán), Guido

(b Matanzas, 3 Jan 1944). Cuban conductor, choirmaster and composer. He studied choral direction at the Conservatorio Amadeo Roldán in Havana, graduating in 1966. He continued his studies as a conductor at the Moscow Conservatory, graduating in 1973. On returning to Cuba, he taught conducting at the Havana Instituto Superior de Arte. He has conducted all the major Cuban orchestras and toured widely abroad, notably in Poland, Hungary, Yugoslavia, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Romania and Germany. He has had considerable success in Latin America, particularly in Mexico, Colombia and Ecuador.

He has written orchestral, chamber and choral works. His creative style is generally conventional though often harmonically daring. He has also written avant-garde music. His work frequently contains elements taken from diverse kinds of traditional Cuban music, such as the habanera, contradanza, guaguanco and others. Notable among his works is Victoria de la esperanza, written in 1985 for orchestra, choir, soloists, actors and dancers, and containing cinematic scenes.

OLAVO ALÉN RODRIGUEZ

López, Miguel [Miquel]

(b Villarroya de la Sierra, Aragon, 1 Feb 1669; d Zaragoza, 7 June 1723). Spanish composer and organist. He entered the Escolanía of Montserrat as a choirboy about 1678; on 15 October 1684 he became a novice in the Benedictine order there and in 1686 a full member. While serving as organist of the monastery of S Martín, Madrid (1689–96), he studied theology at Salamanca University. He was twice choirmaster at Montserrat (1699–1705 and 1715–18) and organist of the monastery of S Benito, Valladolid (1705–15). On 25 February 1722 he was named manager of the house at Alcañiz belonging to Montserrat.

Virtually all of López's known music is contained in a 580-page folio manuscript entitled Miscellanea musicae, an autograph compendium of the service pieces he prepared throughout his career, many bearing dates (between 1696 and 1720) and place names (a detailed inventory is given in MEM, vi). The vocal works are accompanied by continuo and many include small orchestral ensembles. Those for the Latin liturgy are written in the polychoral style favoured in 17th-century Spanish church music, the instrumental parts acting as one choir among several. The style is austere and non-dramatic, alternating between points of imitation and antiphonal effects. The non-liturgical pieces, apart from a few secular cantatas, are devotional villancicos designated for church festivals and ranging from solos with continuo to larger combinations. The organ works consist of a few large pieces of a didactic nature and several sets of psalm or hymn versets; all are in a thickly polyphonic Baroque style.

López was also an erudite writer. An autograph Latin history of Montserrat is extant, and he has also been identified as the ‘aficionado’ who wrote four witty pamphlets in 1718–19 in defence of Valls in the celebrated Missa aretina controversy; but his two-volume work of music theory, Exagoga ad musicem, is lost.

WORKS

Miscellanea musicae, E-Boc 37, after 1720; contains 5 masses, 32 vesper and compline pss, 3 Lamentations, 19 motets, 62 villancicos and cants., other vocal works, many org pieces; 9 org solos in Antologia de organistas clásicos españoles, ii, ed. F. Pedrell (Madrid, 1908, 2/1968); 10 in Música instrumental, i, ed. D. Pujol, MEM, iv (1934, 2/1984); 1 org verset ed. in J. Muset: Early Spanish Organ Music (New York, 1948), 41–3; 8 org versets ed. in P. Piedelièvre, Les anciens maîtres espagnols (Paris, 1952), 26–9; 2 org versets in Liber organi, v, ed. S. dalla Libera (Vicenza, 1954); 2 masses, org versets in M. López: Obres completes, i, ed. I. Segarra and G. Estrada, MEM, vi (1970); 3 org versets ed. in Organa hispanica, iii (Heidelberg, 1972)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Noviala: Breve tratado del seminario de los niños escolanes (MS, 1726, E-MO)

F. Pedrell: Catàlech de la Biblioteca musical de la Diputació de Barcelona (Barcelona, 1908–9)

G. Estrada: Miguel López (1669–1723), Ariola-Eurodisc, S.A. (1967) [disc notes]

E. Zaragoza Pascual: ‘Musicos benedictinos españoles (siglo XVIII)’, RdMc, ii (1979), 277–96

L. Jambou: ‘Aproximación a una geografía de la “música moderna” organística, 1660–1710’, De musica hispana et aliis: miscelánea en honor al Prof. Dr. José López-Calo, ed. E. Casares and C. Villanueva (Santiago de Compostela, 1990), 659–68

ALMONTE HOWELL (with ALMA ESPINOSA)

López Buchardo, Carlos

(b Buenos Aires, 12 Oct 1881; d Buenos Aires, 21 April 1948). Argentine composer and teacher. He began piano and violin studies with Hector Bellucci, studied harmony with Luis Forino and Gaito, and later took piano lessons with Alfonso Thibaud. Thereafter he was a pupil of Roussel in Paris, returning to Buenos Aires to work as a composer and teacher. In 1924 he founded the National Conservatory, which he directed until his death, and which was named in his honour; he also established the fine arts school of the University of La Plata, where he served as professor of harmony. His other appointments included the presidency of the Wagnerian Association, a directorship of the Teatro Colón (twice) and the post of director of music and art for the stage for the Ministry of Justice and Public Instruction. López Buchardo was a fine melodist and a gifted writer for the voice, whether in stage works such as lyrical comedies and musicals, or in songs on themes from Argentine peasant music. The symphonic poem Escenas argentinas – which uses motifs from the milonga and the gato, two popular dance forms – was first performed by the Vienna PO under Weingartner on a visit to Buenos Aires in 1922, and in the following year it won the municipal music prize. López Buchardo wrote several songs for voice and piano in an intimate and refined style, using French texts at first, then, from 1924, indigenous popular sources. In 1920 he married the soprano Brígida Frías; together they initiated a musical and literary salon frequented by prominent figures in Buenos Aires and visiting artists from Europe. López Buchardo also wrote six stage works: one opera, Il sogno di Alma, with an Italian fairy tale libretto, first performed at the Teatro Colón in August 1914 under Tullio Serafin and sung by Lucrezia Bori, Alessandro Bonci and Giuseppe De Luca; and five musical comedies, the last two of which remained unfinished. He also composed the incidental music for Romeo y Julieta, first performed at the Odeón in 1934 and characterized, particularly its Nocturno, by an ethereal sonority.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Il sogno di Alma (fantasía lírica, 3, S. Benelli, after E. Prins: En el país violeta), Buenos Aires, Colón, 4 Aug 1914; Madama Lynch (comedia lírica, 3, E. García Velloso and A. Remón), Buenos Aires, Odeón, 25 June 1932; La Perichona (comedia musical, 3, García Velloso and A. Remón), Buenos Aires, Ateneo, 31 May 1933; Romeo y Julieta, incid music, perf. 1934; Amalia (comedia musical, García Velloso and P.M. Obligado, after J. Marmol), Buenos Aires, Odeón, 1935; Santos Vega (leyenda lírica, 1, G. Caraballo, after R. Obligado), unfinished; La bella Otero (comedia musical, A. Berruti and Remón), collab. M. Torroba, unfinished

Orch: Escenas argentinas, sym. poem, 1920

Choral: Mass, chorus, org, 1901; other works incl. school songs

Songs for 1v, pf: 6 canciones argentinas, 1924; 5 canciones argentinas, 1935; 29 other works

Pf: Sonatina, 1944; 6 other works

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO (D. Schwartz)

A. Andrés: Carlos López Buchardo, músico argentino (Buenos Aires, 1958)

Compositores de America/Composers of the Americas, ed. Pan American Union, xii (Washington DC,1966)

A. Jurafsky: Carlos López Buchardo (Buenos Aires, 1966)

M. Ficher, M. Furman Schleifer and J.M. Furman: Latin American Classical Composers: a Biographical Dictionary (Lanham, MD, and London, 1996)

SUSANA SALGADO

López-Calo, José

(b Nebra, La Coruña, 4 Feb 1922). Spanish musicologist. After studying music with Manuel Ansola at the seminary in Santiago de Compostela, he took the diploma in philosophy at the pontifical University of Comillas (1949), continuing his music studies there with J.I. Prieto Arrizubieta; ordained a priest in 1951, he studied theology at the Granada Theological Faculty (diploma 1956). After a year in Dublin he moved to the Pontificio Istituto di Musica Sacra in Rome, where he took the master's degree in chant (1959) and the doctorate in musicology (1962); he dedicated his dissertation on music at Granada Cathedral in the 16th century to his mentor in Rome, Higini Anglès. He also studied there with Eugène Cardine, Domenico Bartolucci, Dante D'Ambrosi and Edgardo Carducci. He became Anglès's assistant (1964–5) and successor in the chair of musicology at the Pontificio Istituto (1965–70), and after Anglès's death in 1969 edited a three-volume collection of his principal articles, Scripta musicologica (1975–6). A Jesuit, he was general secretary of the International Sacred Music Society (1963–8).

Returning to Spain in 1970, López-Calo won a national competition sponsored by the Juan March Foundation that gave him responsibility for cataloguing and editing works in the musical and documentary collections of old Castile. In 1973 the University of Santiago de Compostela appointed him professor of music history, a post that he occupied until 1987, continuing as emeritus professor until 1997. In 1989 King Juan Carlos of Spain awarded him the National Gold Medal of the Arts; in 1990 his university published a Festschrift in his honour. His meticulously indexed catalogues listing over 100,000 pieces of music in Spanish cathedrals, supported by about 150,000 documents, are an invaluable resource; his copious articles, reviews and contributions to reference works make him not only one of the most extensively published but one of the most influential Spanish musicologists.

WRITINGS

‘Fray José de Vaquedano, maestro de la catedral de Santiago (1681–1711)’, AnM, x (1955), 191–216

‘El archivo de música de la Capilla Real de Granada’, AnM, xiii (1958), 103–28; xxvi (1971), 213–35; xxvii (1972), 203–27

‘Músicos españoles del pasado’,TSM, xlii (1959), 44–7, 83–5, 108–11; xliii (1960), 23–6, 67–71

La música en la Catedral de Granada en el siglo XVI (diss., Pontificio Istituto di Musica Sacra, Rome, 1962; Granada, 1963)

‘La notación musical del Códice Calixtino y la del de Ripoll y el problema de su interdependencia’,Compostellanum, viii (1963), 557–65

‘Corresponsales de Miguel de Irízar’,AnM, xviii (1963), 197–222; xx (1965), 209–33

Canti sacri per la Santa Messa (Rome, 1965, 2/1967)

‘La música en las peregrinaciones jacobeas medioevales’, Compostellanum, x (1965), 458–84

Presente y futuro de la música sagrada(Madrid, 1967; It. trans., 1968)

‘L'intervento di Alessandro Scarlatti nella controversia sulla Messa Scala aretina di Francisco Valls’,AnMc, no.5 (1968), 178–200

‘Il conflitto tra Chiesa e Stato nel ‘‘Don Carlo/Don Carlos”’, Studi verdiani II: Verona, Parma and Busseto 1969, 80–89

‘Musica e musicisti italiani in Santiago di Compostella (Spagna)’, Quadrivium, xii/2 (1971), 355–66

Catálogo musical del archivo de la Santa Iglesia Catedral de Santiago de Compostela (Cuenca, 1972, enlarged 2/1992 as La musica en la Catedral de Santiago)

‘La Spagna in Verdi’, Studi verdiani III: Milan 1972, 244–9

‘The Spanish Baroque and Francisco Valls’,MT, cxiii (1972), 353–6

‘La polifonía española del Renacimiento’, in E. Casares: La música en el Renacimiento(Oviedo, 1975), 25–34

‘L’opera in Spagna, nel Portogallo e nell’America Latina’, Storia dell’opera, ed. A. Basso and G. Barblan (Turin, 1977), ii/1, 487–563; ii/2, 65–78, 447–74

Catálogo del archivo de música de la Catedral de Avila (Santiago de Compostela, 1978)

Esencia de la música sagrada (La Coruña,1980)

La música en la Catedral de Palencia(Palencia, 1980–81)

La música medieval en Galicia (La Coruña,1982)

Historia de la música española III: Siglo XVII (Madrid, 1983)

Indices de la revista Tesoro Sacro Musical, 1919–1978(Madrid, 1983)

La música en la Catedral de Zamora, i (Zamora, 1985)

Las sonatas de Beethoven para piano (Santiago de Compostela, 1985)

La música en la Catedral de Santo Domingo de La Calzada, i (Logroño, 1988)

La música en la Catedral de Segovia(Segovia, 1988–9)

Obras musicales de Joaquín Ojinaga (San Sebastián, 1989)

La música en la Catedral de Calahorra, i (Logroño, 1991)

Catálogo del archivo de música de la Catedral de Granada (Granada, 1991–2)

Catálogo del archivo de música de la Capilla Real de Granada (Granada, 1993–4)

La música en la Catedral de Burgos(Burgos, 1995–7)

EDITIONS

Hygini Anglés scripta musicologica (Rome,1975–6)

with J. Trillo: The Symphony in Spain: Three Symphonies by José Pons (New York, 1983)

M. López: Misa de Requiem (Santiago de Compostela, 1987)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

De musica hispana et aliis: miscelánea en honor al Prof. Dr. José López-Calo, ed. E. Casares and C. Villanueva (Santiago de Compostela, 1990) [incl. E. Casares: ‘José López-Calo: trayectoria vital y musicológica’, 9–39]

R. Stevenson: ‘José López-Calo, S. J: Biobibliography’, Inter-American Music Review, xi/2 (1991), 103–22

JOSÉ M. LLORENS/ROBERT STEVENSON

López Capillas [López y Capillas], Francisco

(b Mexico City, c1605–8; d Mexico City, 18 Jan 1674). Mexican composer and organist. The son of Bartolomé López (who was possibly a royal notary) and María de la Trinidad, López was probably admitted to the choir of Mexico City Cathedral around 1625 (see Estrada); he would have studied with its maestro de capilla Antonio Rodriguez Mata. A Francisco López, who may well be the composer, graduated in theology at the University of Mexico on 20 August 1626. Stevenson has suggested that López may have studied with Juan de Riscos during a visit to Jaén, where Riscos was maestro de capilla until 1643 (Stevenson: ‘Mexico City Cathedral Music’, 1987). On 17 December 1641 López was named assistant organist and dulcian player (bajonero) at Puebla Cathedral under Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla, who had facilitated his appointment. His duties as a dulcian player were replaced with singing duties on 13 September 1645. He probably received the degree of licenciado from the University of Mexico no earlier than autumn 1646. Between 1642 and 1647 he frequently substituted for the principal organist, Pedro Simón, and on 15 January 1647 López was promoted to the position. However, following the reappointment of Simón in January 1648 (and a subsequent lowering of his own salary), López left Puebla on 15 May 1648 in search of better opportunities. His whereabouts for the next six years are unclear. On 10 March 1654 López presented a book of his compositions to the authorities at Mexico City Cathedral. When the cathedral choirmaster Fabián Ximeno died a month later, López was appointed to the dual post of organist and maestro de capilla within four days of Ximeno's death, even though the chapter had announced a 40-day waiting period for the vacancy. From this time López signed himself ‘López Capillas’ (‘López of the Chapels’). In January 1656 he was asked by the viceroy, the Duke of Alburquerque, to compose a mass for the investiture of four bishops on the feast of St James; the result may have been the four-choir mass received with amazement by Gregorio Martín de Guijo and noted in his Diario, 1648–64 (ed. M. Romero de Terreros, Mexico, 1952).

During the following years López supervised the two brilliant dedications of the new cathedral and strengthened his reputation for outstanding ability and conscientious service, but his pleas that the posts of organist and maestro de capilla be separated were refused until 1668, when the cathedral engaged Joseph Ydiáquez as principal organist. A beautifully illustrated choirbook of compositions by López, which was presented to Madrid (it is now in E-Mn M2428), may have played a part in securing a full prebend for López which was granted by a royal decree dated 23 March 1673. At the time of his death López was earning 1000 pesos, one of the largest salaries ever received by a church musician in Mexico during the colonial period. A will made on 13 January 1674 reveals that as well as valuable silver objects and a number of paintings he owned three violones and an organ.

López was the first maestro de capilla of Mexico City Cathedral to be born in the city. His numerous compositions, among the finest produced in New Spain, are written exclusively according to the prima pratica but with notable skill and fluency. Their smooth polyphony masks a learned and greatly varied use of canon (e.g. the second Agnus Dei of the Missa Quam pulchri), parody techniques and complex mensural practices. In a ‘Declaracíon de la Missa’, a preface to his hexachord mass, he cites three chapters of Guevara's lost Compendio de musica to validate his mensural practice; he also cites Cerone's El melopeo y maestro. As influences on his musical style he mentions Hellinck, Richafort, Morales and Palestrina.

WORKS

Editions: Francisco López Capillas: Obras, ed. J.M. Lara Cárdenas, Tesoro de la música polifónica en México, v-vi (Mexico City, 1993–4) [L i–ii]Latin American Colonial Music Anthology, ed. R. Stevenson (Washington, 1975) [S]

Masses, in E-Mn, MEX-Mc: Missa Pange lingua, 6vv; Missa super scalam Aretinam, 5vv [on hexachord], ed. in Brothers, The Hexachord Mass (1973) and (1989), second Ky in S; Missa Aufer a nobis, 4vv [on López's motet]; Missa super Alleluia, 5vv [on López's motet]; Missa Benedicta sit Sancta Trinitas, 4vv [on Palestrina's motet]; Missa Quam pulchri sunt gressus tui, 4vv [on Palestrina's motet], second Ag, ed. in Brothers (1989), S; Missa Re Sol, 4vv [on Riscos's canción]; Missa batalla, 6vv [on Janequin's chanson]

8 Mag, alternate verses 4vv, E-Mn, Museo del Virreinatato, Tepotzotlán, nr Mexico City; ed. in Johnson, 1 ed. S. Barwick, Motets from Mexican Archives (New York, 1952–68); Mag secundi toni, ed. in Tesoro de la música polifónica en México, i (Mexico City, 1952), ed. in Stevenson, ‘Mexico City Cathedral Music’ (1987–8)

Passio Domini nostri Jesu Christi secundum Matthaeum, 4vv, L ii

O admirabile commercium, motet, 4vv, insts, Colección Sánchez Garza, Centro Nacional de Investigación, Documentación e Información Musical, Mexico City

13 motets: Adiuva nos, Deus [pt i by A. Rodriguez Mata], L ii; Aufer a nobis, 4vv, ed. in Brothers (1989), L i, S; Christus factus est, 4vv, L ii; Cui luna, sol et omnia, 4vv, L i; Cum iucunditate, 4vv, L i; Ecce nunc tempus, 4vv, L ii; Ego enim, 6vv, L i; Et incarnatus est, L i; In horrore visionis nocturnae, 6vv, L i; Lumen ad revelationem, L i; Quicumque voluerit apostolorum, 4vv, L i; Tenebrae factae sunt, 4vv, L ii; Velum templi, 4vv, L ii

Other works: Alleluia, 4vv, ed. in Brothers (1989), L ii, S; Alleluia, dic nobis, Maria, 4vv, ed. in Brothers (1989), ed. S. Barwick, Two Mexico City Choirbooks of 1717 (Carbondale, IL, 1982), L ii, S; Ante diem festum Paschae, 4vv, L ii; Dic nobis Maria, L; Gloria, laus, 4vv [2 versions], ed. in Brothers (1989), L ii, S; In horrore visionis nocturnae, 6vv, L i; Israel es tu rex, 3vv, 4vv [2 versions], L ii; Lamentatio Hieremiae prophetae, 5vv, L ii; Laudate Dominum, ed. in Tesoro de la música polifónica en México, iv (Mexico City, 1990); Sanctus Deus, 4vv, L ii; Tantum ergo, 6vv, L i

Lost: Mass, 4 choirs, 1656; villancicos for the dedication of Mexico City Cathedral, 1656; villancicos in honour of the Virgin of Guadalupe, 1669; other villancico sets

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Martin de Guijo: Diario, 1648–1664, ed. M. Romero de Terreros (Mexico, 1952)

L.D. Brothers: The Hexachord Mass: 1600–1720 (diss., U. of California, 1973)

L.D. Brothers: ‘A New World Hexachord Mass by Francisco López Capillas’, YIAMR, ix (1973), 5–44 [incl. repr. of ‘Declaracíon de la Missa’]

R. Stevenson: Renaissance and Baroque Musical Sources in the Americas (Washington, D.C., 1976)

J. Estrada: Música y músicos de la época virreinal (Mexico City, 1980)

R. Stevenson: ‘The Music of Colonial Spanish America’, The Cambridge History of Latin America, ed. L. Bethell, ii (Cambridge, 1984), 771–98

R. Stevenson: ‘Puebla Chapelmasters and Organists: Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries: II’, Inter-American Music Review, vi/1 (1984), 29–139, esp. 69–70

J. Estrada, ed.: La música de México, Historia, ii: Período virreinal (1530 a 1810) (Mexico, 1986)

R. Stevenson: ‘Mexican Baroque Polyphony in Foreign Libraries’, Inter-American Music Review, ix/1 (1987), 55–64

R. Stevenson: ‘Mexico City Cathedral Music, 1600–1675’, Inter-American Music Review, ix/1 (1987), 75–114

L.D. Brothers: ‘Francisco López Capillas’, Inter-American Music Review, x/2 (1989), 101–18

R.M. Johnson: The Magnificats of Francisco López Capillas (diss., Arizona State U., 1990)

A. Tello: Archivo musical de la Catedral de Oaxaca: catálogo (Mexico City, 1990)

ALICE RAY CATALYNE/JOHN KOEGEL

López-Chavarri Marco, Eduardo

(b Valencia, 29 Jan 1871; d Valencia, 28 Oct 1970). Spanish musicologist andcomposer. He obtained a law degree from the University of Valencia (1896) and a doctorate in law from the Central University in Madrid (1900); as a musician he was mainly self-taught, though he had private studies in composition with Pedrell and piano lessons in France, Italy and Germany. He studied musicology in Germany, and harmony there with Salomon Jadassohn. Following a brief career as a lawyer he became a distinguished composer and critic, choral and orchestral conductor, lecturer and teacher. From 1898 until shortly before his death he was music critic for the Valencian daily Las provincias. In 1903 he founded and directed the Valencian Chamber Orchestra, which enabled him to perform works by eastern Spanish composers, including his own, thereby succeeding Salvador Giner (1832–1911) in the role of spokesman for the regional Valencian school of contemporary Spanish music. He also conducted the orchestra of the Teatro Principal (1906), and was guest conductor for the symphony orchestras of Madrid, Bilbao, Zaragoza, Oviedo and Valencia. From 1910 to 1921 he was professor of aesthetics and music history at the Valencia Conservatory, where he also directed both the orchestra and chamber orchestra. From 1943 he served as musical adviser for the Sección Femenina and wrote many works for its chorus. His compositions show a great diversity of styles and instrumental combinations, with extensive use of traditional melodies; he has collected c200 songs and dances from the coastal regions of Valencia and Alicante in the unpublished Cancionera de Valencia. Among his publications are numerous translations of studies of late 19th- and early 20th-century composers, and of some important writings by Schumann, Kufferath and Marcello; the most valuable, however, are his Música popular española, a fundamental study of Spanish traditional music, and Historia de la música. He was an honorary member of the Faculty of Arts, London University, and a member of various academies in Spain (S Carlos, Valencia; Fernando, Madrid; Bellas Letras, Córdoba and Barcelona).

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Terra d’horta (incid music, J.B. Pont), 1907

Orch: Acuarelas valencianas, str; Antiguos abanicos; Concierto breve, pf, chbr orch; Concierto español, pf, str; Concierto hispánico, pf, orch; Divertimento; 2 improvistas, str; 2 melodías breves, str; Fantasía de Almacera, cl, str; Imagenes de Antaño, str; Poema humorístico; Rapsodía de pascua (Concertino), pf, str; Rapsodía valenciana, pf, orch; Las siete palabras de Jesús Cristo en la cruz, timp, str; Sinfonía hispánica; 3 impresiones, str

Vocal-orch: Cantar de la guerra, female vv, children’s vv, orch; La danza, S, orch; Himno de Epifanía, solo vv, chorus, orch; Llegenda (Leyenda), chorus, orch (1909); Ofrenda, unison vv, orch; 6 canciones españolas, S, orch

Other works: small chbr pieces, songs, choruses, pf pieces

Principal publisher: Unión Musical Española

WRITINGS

El anillo del Nibelungo (Madrid, n.d.)

Vademécum musical (Valencia, 1906, abridged, 1949)

Cuentos lirics (Valencia, 1907)

Historia de la música (Barcelona, 1914–16, 3/1929)

Música popular española (Barcelona,1927, 3/1958)

Compendio de historia de la música(Madrid, 1930)

Nociones de estética musical (Madrid, 1930, 2/1971)

ed. and trans.: B. Marcello: Il teatro alla moda[1722] (Barcelona, 1932)

Catecismo de historia de la música(Madrid, 1944, 6/1965)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Temprano: ‘Panorama actual de la musica religiosa española, IV: Eduardo López-Chavarri’,TSM, liv (1971), 21–5

A. Fernández-Cid: La música española en el siglo XX (Madrid, 1973)

E. López-Chavarri Andújar: Compositores valencianos del siglo XX (Valencia, 1993)

E. López-Chavarri Andújar: ‘Eduardo López-Chavarri Marco’, Ritmo, no.548 (1984), 103–4

R. Díaz Gómez and V. Galbis López: Eduardo López-Chavarri Marco: correspondencia (Valencia, 1996)

ISRAEL J. KATZ

López-Cobos, Jesús

(b Toro, 25 Feb 1940). Spanish conductor. He graduated in philosophy from Madrid University, then studied conducting in Italy with Franco Ferrara and in Vienna with Hans Swarowsky. His operatic début was at La Fenice, Venice, with Die Zauberflöte in 1969, followed in 1970 by La bohème at the Deutsche Oper, Berlin, where he was engaged on a five-year contract before serving as music director, 1981–90. López-Cobos was associate conductor of the Spanish National Orchestra, 1981–3, and musical director, 1984–9. In 1987 he became conductor of the Cincinnati SO and in 1990 was appointed conductor of the Lausanne Chamber Orchestra. His American début was at San Francisco (Lucia di Lammermoor, 1972), and was followed by débuts at the Opéra (Il trovatore, 1975) and Covent Garden (Carmen, 1975), and at the Metropolitan (Adriana Lecouvreur, 1978). With the Deutsche Oper he conducted the first Ring cycle staged in Japan (1987). His recordings include Rossini’s Otello from the autograph score, the original version of Lucia di Lammermoor and Falla’s La vida breve and El amor brujo. In opera his conducting reveals a Latin liveliness of spirit, a keen sense of theatre and a concern for instrumental detail and clarity of texture.

NOËL GOODWIN

López de Velasco, Sebastián

(b Segovia, bap. 2 Feb 1584; d Granada, 1659). Spanish composer. Having received his earliest musical training from his father, Diego López de Arellano, he was a chorister at Segovia Cathedral between 1596 and about 1604, where the maestro de capilla was Pedro Serrano. From 1604 to 1607 López de Velasco served as maestro de capilla of S Coloma. He held the same post at Berlanga de Duero, Soria, for a few months in 1607 before obtaining his first important post at El Burgo de Osma, where he remained until 1614. Cathedral records there mention the composition of lamentations by him and his slow compilation of a parchment manuscript (thought lost but now known to be at Segovia Cathedral) with works by Morales, Guerrero and himself. He was ordained priest in 1609 and after the death of Serrano in 1614 he obtained the post of maestro de capilla of Segovia Cathedral. He left in 1618 and in 1619 became chaplain and maestro de capilla to Doña Juana at the Descalzas Reales, Madrid. He retired in 1636 because of ill health, spending the remainder of his life at Granada Cathedral as racionero, a royal appointment with no musical duties.

López de Velasco’s most important work is the Libro de missas, motetes, salmos, magnificats, y otras cosas tocantes al culto divino of 1628, which comprises five eight-part masses, two settings of the Magnificat, one for eight voices, the other for ten, and 22 other works, mainly motets or psalms and all for eight voices except three that are for ten, 11 and 12 voices respectively. One of the eight masses included in the collection is the same work as the eight-part version of Philippe Rogier’s Missa ‘Domine Dominus noster’ (it is known that Rogier’s 12-part version of this mass was frequently reduced to smaller forces). Additional sacred works survive at Segovia Cathedral and while no secular works by him are extant, he himself mentioned the composition of villancicos. López de Velasco is one of the most representative polychoral composers of his generation.

WORKS

Libro de missas, motetes, salmos, magnificats, y otras cosas tocantes al culto divino (Madrid, 1628); ed. R. Mota Murillo (Madrid, 1980–83)

Other sacred works, all at Segovia, Archivio de la Catedral: 3 Mag, 4–5vv; Dixit dominus, 6vv; Benedicamus domino; 2 cum invocarem, 8, 12vv; In te domine, 8vv; Nunc dimittis, 8vv; Ecce nunc, 11vv; Salve regina, 8vv; ?3 Mag, 4vv, attrib. by López-Calo (1988–9)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SubiráHME

R. Stevenson: ‘Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Resources in Mexico’, Fontes Artis Musicae, i (1954), 69–78

J. López-Calo: Historia de la música española, iii (Barcelona, 1983)

J. López-Calo: Documentario musical de la catedral de Segovia, i (Santiago de Compostela, 1990), 79–83, 85

J. López-Calo: La música en la catedral de Segovia, i (Segovia, 1988–9), 3–4, 6, 10, 30–31

EMILIO ROS-FÁBREGAS

López Jiménez, Melchor

(b Hueva, nr Guadalajara, 19 Jan 1760; d Santiago de Compostela, 19 Aug 1822). Spanish composer. He studied music at the Madrid Colegio Real and on 23 March 1784 was appointed maestro de capilla at Santiago Cathedral, where he remained until his death. López Jiménez was a prolific composer who took great care over his compositions; of over 550 masses, motets, psalms and villancicos extant in Santiago Cathedral, most of the parts are in his hand. They are models of the Classical style in the sacred music of Spain: his melodies display a deep religious spirit, and the accompaniments, mostly for a large orchestra, are expressive and imaginative. Modern editions of his works include: Villancicos galegos da Catedral de Santiago: Melchor López, ed. J. Trillo and C. Villanueva (La Coruña, 1980); Misa de Requiem, ed. J. López-Calo and J. Trillo (Santiago de Compostela, 1987); Oratorio al Santísimo Sacramento, ed. J. Trillo (La Coruña, 1995); Jubilate Deo, ed. J. Trillo (Santiago de Compostela, 1996); Misa solemne ‘Unus Deus’, ed. J. Trillo (Santiago de Compostela, 1997).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Tafall Abad: ‘La capilla de música de la catedral de Santiago’, Boletín de la Real academia gallega, xxvi (1931), 129–37, esp. 130–32

J. López-Calo: Catálogo musical del Archivo de la Santa Iglesia Catedral de Santiago (Cuenca, 1972, rev. 2/1992–8 as La musica en la Catedral de Santiago)

JOSÉ LÓPEZ-CALO

López Marín, Jorge

(b Havana, 8 May 1949). Cuban composer and conductor. He studied music in Cuba with José Ardévol, Félix Guerrero, Carlos Fariñas and Frederico Smith, and from early on showed a talent for conducting and composition. Between 1969 and 1975 he continued his training in both fields at the Kiev Conservatory, and in 1975 he went on to the music conservatory in Moscow to study with Khachaturian (composition) and Khaikin (conducting). He stayed in Russia until 1978. In his dual capacity as composer and conductor he has given numerous concerts in Cuba and abroad.

Classical forms, in particular sonata and concerto, predominate in his output, of which his masterfully orchestrated symphonic works are the best known. He was the first Cuban composer to write concertos for orchestra (no.1, 1982; no.2, 1984) and the first also to produce a cello concerto, entitled Concierto cubano (1983). The development of his thematic material is, in general, characterized by dramatic conflict. This material at times alludes to, or derives from, Cuban popular melodies, with tonal references or turns of phrase from rock, samba, tango and jazz. Not excessively experimental or abstract, López Marín’s work continues the nationalist tradition of Roldán and Caturla; it occasionally also displays the influence of Bartók and contemporary Russian composers.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Fl Conc. 1973; Obertura cubana, 1973; Tpt Conc., 1977; Beat abruptio, 1981; Conc. for Orch no.1, 1982; Concierto cubano, vc, orch, 1983; Conc. for Orch no.2, 1984; Variaciones con sin, synth, orch, 1990; Viaje, synth, str orch, 1990; Hace tango tiempo, 1992; Sinfonía en son mayor, 1996

Vocal: Canciones poéticas (T. Marín), S, orch, 1989

Chbr and solo inst: Variaciones en ritmos cubanos, str qt, 1974; Música para viola y piano, 1977; Berceuse campesina, pf, 1977; Música para nuestro tiempo, chbr ens, 1979; La palabra, sax, 1983; Ex cantus firmus, chbr ens, 1989

Principal publishers: Editorial Música, Moscow; Editora Musical de Cuba

VICTORIA ELI RODRÍGUEZ

López Mindreau, Ernesto

(b Chiclayo, 1892; d Lima, 1972). Peruvian composer and pianist. Unlike the majority of Peruvian composers of the period, who were self-taught and who composed almost exclusively for the piano, López Mindreau received a thorough musical training, both in composition and in the piano. He began his studies at the age of seven at home and subsequently in Trujillo and Lima, working under Gerdes (piano) and Valle Riestra (harmony). He went on to the Paris Conservatoire and then to New York where he studied with Rachmaninoff and Stokowski. On his return to Europe, to the Hochschule für Musik in Berlin, he was a pupil of Leichtentritt (composition, orchestration) and Scharwenka (piano). At his début in Berlin in 1921, with Scharwenka conducting, he played his teacher’s Piano Concerto no.6. Back in Lima in 1923, he gave a concert of his own works, including the première of his Fantasía for piano and orchestra. Between 1924 and 1928 he was once again in Paris, where he composed, under the generic title of Nueva Castilla, two operas: the three-act Cajamarca and the two-act Francisco Pizarro, to librettos by Luis Augusto Carranza. In 1928 he returned permanently to Peru.

Both the orchestration and the harmonic structure of López Mindreau’s symphonic works display solid, professional workmanship, though his musical language is somewhat heterogeneous. Like the majority of Peruvian composers of his day, he alternated between a European idiom and unadulterated folkloric thematic material. Typical of the former are his Preludio en estilo antiguo and the Octeto, which employs 12-note techniques; folk-derived works include Obertura a Choquehuanca, the Sinfonía peruana and ‘Marinera y tondero’ from the Album folklórico for piano. In the opera Cajamarca the influence of Italian opera and Spanish zarzuela can also be detected (Pinilla). The second act is perhaps the most interesting for its inclusion of pentatonic melodies.

WORKS

Stage: Cajamarca (op, 3), c1924–8; Francisco Pizarro (op, 2, L. Carranza), c1924–8

Pf: Preludio en estilo antiguo (Brussels, n.d.); Preludio Incaico: Gavota; Evocacíon; Album folklórico; 8 canciones populares

Other inst: Fantasia, pf, orch, c1923; Obertura a Choquehuanca, orch; Octeto; Sinfonía Peruana, orch; Str Qt; Sym. Study, orch

Songs: 2 Yaraví, 1v, pf, after 1924 [from op Cajamarca]; El fin de un sueño, 1v, pf

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Gaultier: La Crónica (26 Nov 1928)

C. Raygada: La Música en el Perú: Perú en Cifras (Lima, 1944)

C. Raygada: ‘Guía Musical del Perú’, Fenix, xiii (1963), 1–82

E. Pinilla: ‘Informe sobre la música en el Perú’, Historia del Perú, ix, ed. J. Mejía Baca (Lima, 1980), 569–85

E. Pinilla: ‘La música en el siglo XX’, La música en el Perú (Lima, 1985), 174–6

ENRIQUE ITURRIAGA

Loqueville, Richard

(d Cambrai, 1418). French composer. He played and taught the harp to the son of the Duke of Bar in 1410, as well as teaching the duke's choirboys plainsong. From 1413 to his death he taught music at Cambrai Cathedral, where he was almost certainly Du Fay's teacher (see Planchart, 357–9). His four rondeaux carry text in the highest part only. Their simple rhythms, transcribed in 6/8 with 3/4 hemiolas, are also found in the ballade, whose text laments the fact that musicians are only well fed when they have money – none too common a state when they travel abroad. The mass movements are quite varied, for the first Gloria (ed. Reaney, no.6) alternates two-part solo writing with a three-part chorus, like the works of Guillaume Legrant. The Gloria–Credo pair, transcribed in 3/4, consists of a duet for two treble voices over a supporting tenor (with a possible alternative contratenor in I-AO for the second treble). The Sanctus, in four parts, uses the Vineux melody and the associated textual trope. The isorhythmic motet, in honour of the Breton saint Yvo, has a tenor employing a retrograde colour. The Marian antiphon is no doubt a contrafactum version of a lost three-voice rondeau.

WORKS

Edition: Early Fifteenth-Century Music, ed. G. Reaney, CMM, xi/3 (1966)

Gloria, Credo, 3vv

Gloria, 3vv

Sanctus, 4vv (with trope ‘Qui januas mortis’)

O flos in divo/Sacris pignoribus, 3vv (isorhythmic motet)

O regina clementissima, 3vv (antiphon)

Quant compaignons, 3vv (ballade)

Je vous pri, 3vv (rondeau refrain)

Pour mesdisans, 3vv (rondeau)

Puisque je suy amoureux, 3vv (rondeau)

Qui ne veroit que vos deulx yeux, 3vv (rondeau)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PirroHM

StrohmR

E. Dannemann: Die spätgotische Musiktradition in Frankreich und Burgund vor dem Aufreten Dufays (Strasbourg, 1936/R)

A.E. Planchart: ‘The Early Career of Guillaume Du Fay’, JAMS, xlvi (1993), 341–68

GILBERT REANEY

Lorano, Filippo de.

See Lurano, Filippo de.

Lorber, Johann Christoph

(b ?Weimar, 19 April 1645; d Weimar, 16 April 1722). German poet and writer on music. He was royal Poet Laureate and court lawyer at Weimar and also a musical amateur, who had studied there with the Kantor Stephan Burckhard. He published a poem, Lob der edlen Music (Weimar, 1696), and the critical review Vertheidigung der edlen Music, wider einen angemassten Music-Verächter aussgefertiget (Weimar, 1697). The latter is one of three responses (including Ursus murmurat by Johann Beer) to a public lecture by Gottfried Vockerodt entitled De falsa mentium intemperatarum medicina. In it Vockerodt attributed the madness and despotism of three Roman emperors, Caligula, Claudius and Nero, to the detrimental influence of the arts of theatre, dance and music. Lorber and the other critics judged these remarks to be a general attack on music and a recommendation to ban its instruction in schools and its performance in churches. Vockerodt countered these rather exaggerated criticisms in a separate book, Missbrauch der freyen Künste, insonderheit der Music (1697). This includes his original lecture as well as excerpts from Lorber’s and the other critical essays. These documents provide valuable evidence of, and insight into, the conflict of opinions regarding the place of music in the church between Orthodox (Lorber) and Pietist (Vockerodt) Protestants.

GEORGE J. BUELOW

Lorca, Federico García.

See García Lorca, Federico.

Lord’s Prayer.

See Pater noster.

Lorée.

French firm of oboe makers. It was founded by François Lorée in 1881. Lorée (b La Couture 1835; d 1902) had worked for Triébert, first as chef de fabrication and from 1867 as chef d’atelier. By 1882, the Lorée oboe had won the approval of the eminent oboist and teacher Georges Gillet, thereafter becoming the official oboe used at the Paris Conservatoire. Lorée’s instruments, including the english horn, oboe d’amore, and baritone oboe, were awarded the silver medal at the Paris Exposition of 1889. François’ son, Lucien (b La Couture 1867; d Paris 1945), carried on the business after his father’s death. Having developed oboes with Boehm and Barret systems, he produced the ‘Conservatoire’ system (no.6 bis) in 1906 in close collaboration with Gillet, a system which may be considered the perfected form of the Lorée oboe. In 1925, Lorée sold the company to Raymond Dubois (1887–1957) but continued to work for him until 1942. On Dubois’ death the succession passed to his son-in-law Robert de Gourdon (1912–1993). The present director is his son, Alain de Gourdon (b 1949). The firm, now known as F. Lorée-De Gourdon, is based in Paris and continues to make F. Lorée oboes, english horns, oboes d’amore, bass oboes, piccolo oboes, and the Cabart student line.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Storch: ‘100 Years F. Lorée: 1881–1981’, Journal of the International Double Reed Society, no.9 (1981), 28–42

L. Storch: ‘Robert de Gourdon 1912–1993: a Tribute’, Double Reed, xvi/3 (1993), 37–8

LAILA STORCH

Lorengar, Pilar [García, Pilar Lorenza]

(b Zaragoza, 16 Jan 1928; d Berlin, 2 June 1996). Spanish soprano. She studied in Madrid, making her début in zarzuelas in 1949. In 1955 she sang Cherubino at Aix-en-Provence, Rosario in a New York concert performance of Goyescas (her American début) and Violetta at Covent Garden, where she returned as Donna Anna, Countess Almaviva, Fiordiligi and Alice Ford. She sang Pamina at Glyndebourne (1956) and Buenos Aires (1958), and Ilia (Idomeneo) at Salzburg (1961). She sang at San Francisco (1964–5) as Desdemona, Liù, Mélisande and Eva. In 1966 she made her Metropolitan début as Donna Elvira, later singing Elsa, Eva, Agathe and Butterfly. She appeared in most major European opera houses, but it was at the Deutsche Oper, Berlin, where she was engaged from 1958 for over 30 years, that she chiefly made her career, broadening her repertory to include Regina (Mathis der Maler), Elisabeth de Valois, Mařenka, Tatyana, Jenůfa, Mimì, Tosca, Manon Lescaut, Valentine (Les Huguenots), Maddalena (Andrea Chénier) and Queen Isabella in the German première of Falla’s Atlántida in 1961. Though not the deepest of interpreters, Lorengar achieved great success through her attractive stage presence, pearly tone and refined phrasing. Notable among her many recordings are her Fiordiligi and Violetta.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

W. Elsner and M.W. Busch: Pilar Lorengar: ein Portrait (Berlin, 1985)

A. Blyth: Obituary, Opera, xlvii (1996), 903–4

HAROLD ROSENTHAL/ALAN BLYTH

Lorente, Andrés

(b Anchuelo, nr Toledo, bap. 15 April 1624; d Alcalá de Henares, nr Madrid, 22 Dec 1703). Spanish theorist and composer. He was educated in Alcalá from about the age of 12, and entered the university there in 1645, taking the BA in 1650. From 1652 until his death he taught at the same university, possibly acting as assistant in the afternoons to the doctors and graduates who had given lectures in the mornings; from 1696 to 1701 he was dean of the faculty of arts. His university duties left him time to work also as senior organist at SS Justo y Pastor, an important church linked to the university in the provision of canons and prebendaries.

Lorente was known as an expert on organs. He restored the organ of the parish church in his home town in 1664–6, returned there to make some important repairs in 1684–5, and was mentioned as a builder of the organ in the university chapel of S Ildefonso. In addition to his other activities he acted in a limited, presumably honorary capacity as Commissioner of the Holy Office in Quer, the small village near Alcalá where he lived. Probably before that, in 1660–73, he was a chaplain at the parish church in Anchuelo.

Lorente's most important contribution to music is the treatise El porqué de la música, en que se contiene los quatro artes de ella, canto llano, canto de órgano, contrapunto, y composición (Alcalá de Henares, 1672, 2/1699), in which the ‘four arts’ – plainchant (including notation, modes and repertory), ‘organ chant’ (mensural notation, time and proportions), counterpoint (intervals, consonance and dissonance, and rules for part-writing) and composition (harmonic formulae, polyphonic modality and compositional styles) – are closely studied in accordance with Renaissance and Baroque theory. It is an erudite book, full of citations, but it is also a practical work with numerous music examples, many of them interesting pieces by Lorente himself. Although not entirely original, it effectively bridges the gap between the late Renaissance crystallization of Cerone's El melopeo y maestro (1613) and late Baroque summation of Pablo Nassarre's Escuela música (1723–4). At 695 pages, El porqué is shorter and more sharply focussed than either of these, and it proved to be of exceptional value in general education and as a theoretical and practical reference book, especially in ecclesiastical circles; it served for decades as a complete manual for those competing for posts as organists or maestros de capillas.

Little is known of Lorente as a composer, but it seems that many anonymous works in contemporary anthologies, especially in the Flores de música compiled by his pupil Antonio Martín y Coll, may be his, and some pieces questionably attributed to others (for example the Benedictus a fabordón por séptimo tono by ‘Maestro Torres’ in E-Bc) may also be by Lorente. The manuscript M.1358 in the Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid, has been shown to be by Lorente (see Jambou, Mélanges de la Casa de Velazquez, 1976; transcriptions in Jambou, 1977). A volume of organ tablature, Melodías músicas, by Lorente, cited in Ruiz de Ribayaz's Luz y norte musical (Madrid, 1677), has never been found.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

SubiráHME

F.-J. Fétis: ‘Noticias biográficas de Don Francisco Soto y de Don Andrés Lorente’, Gaceta musical de Madrid, i/10 (1855), 77; see also H. Eslava: ‘Algunas rectificaciones a la biografia de Don Andrés Lorente inserta en el número 10 de la Gaceta musical de Madrid’, ibid., i/11 (1855), 85

R. Mitjana y Gordón: ‘La musique en Espagne’, EMDC, I/iv (1920), 1913–2351

A. Howell: ‘Symposium on Seventeenth-Century Music Theory: Spain’, JMT, xvi (1972), 62–71

F.J. Tello: La teorída española de la música en los siglos XVII y XVIII (Madrid, 1974)

L. Jambou: ‘Andrés Lorente, compositeur: essai d'identification de la tablature du MS. M.1358 de la Bibliothèque Nationale de Madrid’, Mélanges de la Casa de Velazquez, xi (1976), 251–69

L. Jambou: ‘Andrés Lorente (15-4-1624; 22-12-1703): datos biográficos; semblanza’, TSM, lix (1976), 67–78

L. Jambou: ‘Composiciones de Andrés Lorente (1624-1703)’, TSM, lx (1977), 1–20

J. López-Calo: Historia de la música española, iii: Siglo XVII (Madrid, 1983)

ÁLVARO ZALDÍVAR

Lorentz, Johann [Johan] (i)

(b Grimma, Saxony, c1580; d Elsinore, bur. 18 June 1650). Danish organ builder of German origin, father of Johann Lorentz (ii). He studied organ building with Nikolaus Maass in Stralsund before settling down as a master builder in Flensburg in 1609. In 1616 or 1617 he was brought to Copenhagen by Christian IV and in 1639 he received the royal privilege as builder of organs in Denmark and Norway. He built and repaired many notable organs, for example those at the Trinity Church, Kristianstad (Skåne, now part of Sweden); St Marie, Elsinore; St Nikolai and St Petri, Copenhagen; S Nikolai, Nakskov; and in Odense and Sorø. The instrument in Kristianstad is the best surviving example of his work.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DBL3 (O. Olesen)

B. Lundgren: ‘Nikolaj-organisten Johan Lorentz i Köpenhamn’, STMf, xliii (1961), 249–63

N. Friis: Orgelbygning i Danmark: renaissance, barok og rokoko (Copenhagen, 1949, 2/1971)

O. Schumann: Quellen und Forschung zur Geschichte des Orgelbaus im Herzogtum Schleswig vor 1800 (Munich, 1973)

JOHN BERGSAGEL

Lorentz, Johann [Johan] (ii)

(b Flensburg [now in Germany], c1610; d Copenhagen, 19 April 1689). Danish organist and composer, son of Johann Lorentz (i). He became organist of Vor Frue Kirke, Copenhagen, in 1629 on the recommendation of King Christian IV. He was granted leave of absence to study in Italy and Germany from 1631 to 1633. During this period he may have studied in Hamburg with Jacob Praetorius, whose daughter he married in 1635 and to whose position of organist at St Petri, Hamburg, he was elected in 1651. He chose, however, to remain in his post as organist of St Nikolai, Copenhagen, which he had assumed in 1634 or 1635 and which he held until his death. He was also organist of Holmens Kirke. He and his family died in the fire that destroyed the opera house erected to celebrate King Christian V's birthday in 1689. Lorentz introduced weekday concerts at St Nikolai, where his playing on the fine organ built by his father earned him a reputation as ‘organist second to none in Europe’. According to Pirro he taught Buxtehude, but there is no evidence for this claim. Only a few short organ pieces by him survive (at DK-Kk and S-Uu; ed. B. Lundgren, Lund, 1960); most are dance movements, and they seem to have been intended for teaching purposes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Pirro: Dietrich Buxtehude (Paris, 1913/R)

B. Lundgren: ‘Johan Lorentz in Kopenhagen – organista nulli in Europa secundus’, IMSCR VII: Cologne 1958, 183–4

JOHN BERGSAGEL

Lorentzen, Bent

(b Stenvad, 11 Feb 1935). Danish composer. He studied musicology at Århus University and then theory and music history at the Royal Danish Conservatory, from which he graduated as a music teacher in 1962. At this time he also studied composition with Jersild. In 1962 he was appointed to teach theory at the Jutland Conservatory in Århus; from 1967 to 1968 he held a scholarship to study at the EMS electronic studio in Stockholm. He settled in Copenhagen in 1971, and was attached to the Danmarks Laererhøjskole (postgraduate college) in 1972–3.

In his creative work Lorentzen quickly turned away from convention and, stimulated by what he had learnt at the Darmstadt summer courses of 1965, devoted much of his attention to electronic music, which he has also used extensively in teaching. During the period 1967–8 he composed a number of electronic works, acquiring a thorough knowledge of technique and developing a quasi-serial compositional method in which timbre is the dominant element. Experience gained in the electronic field was further exploited in the late 1960s and early 1970s in instrumental compositions, of which the organ piece Intersection (1970) is an important example. This graphic score includes directions for changes of stops in a sort of tablature notation. In addition to such purely musical works, Lorentzen has interested himself in a theatrical form that seeks to voice a protest against capitalist society and its sophisticated musical life, a protest unmistakably expressed in such works as Tristan variationer, The End and Danish Wind. These two strands in Lorentzen’s work have little in common, but an attempted synthesis is perhaps to be found in the opera Euridice, in which the underworld is viewed through the eyes of the title character. The work won the 1970 Italia Prize.

During the 1970s the political commitment and avant-garde tendencies in Lorentzen’s works were replaced by a more classical orientation combined with the development of electrophonic effects. This became the point of departure for the film opera Tårnet (‘The Tower’), a prize-winner at Nyon in 1973, and for a series of musical dramatic works for vocal soloists with tape accompaniment, which he composed for German stages. Examples include Die Musik kommt mir äusserst bekannt vor (Kiel, 1974), which combines characters and quotations from Mozart’s Italian operas into a witty and characteristic collage, and Eine wundersame Liebesgeschichte (Munich, 1979), subtitled ‘Tristan variationer’, which links together Wagner’s drama with the ‘murder’ of Ludwig II of Bavaria on the Starnberger See. During the 1980s and 90s Lorentzen continued in musical theatre with a series of (often comical) works which combine electronic sound and instruments, where traditional stylistic features become more prominent to the detriment of the experimental and modernistic, and where the rhythmic element is profiled and gradually becomes just as significant as the sound element. Among the most important of these works are the psychological thriller opera Bill og Julie (Ebeltoft, 1991) and Den stundesløse (‘The Fussy One’), after the play by Holberg (Copenhagen, 1995).

Lorentzen has also composed choral and instrumental music which in the 1970s showed inspiration from Polish modernism (Penderecki and in particular Lutosławski), and following a stay in Brazil in 1977 he brought in Latin American rhythms and percussion instruments. The orchestral work Tide (1971) is an important example; others, all prizewinners, are the ensemble work Paradiesvogel, the choral work Olof Palme, the organ work Luna and a piano concerto.

WORKS

(selective list)

dramatic

Stalten Mettelil [Haughty Mettelil], op, 1963, rev. 1972; Dissonances, 1964; The Sound of your Echo, film score, 1966; Lady into Bird, ballet, orch, tape, 1967; Tristan variationer, actors, tape, 1969; Euridice, op/radio op, 1965; Friisholm, film score, 1971; The Bottomless Pit, tape, 1972; Tårnet [The Tower], film score, 1973; Die Musik kommt mir äusserst bekannt vor, op, 1974; Die Schlange, op, 1975; Eine wundersame Liebesgeschichte ‘Tristan variationer’, op, 1979; Toto, der Clown, op, 1985, rev. 1988; Bill og Julia, op, 1991; Orfeo, op, after Monteverdi, 1992; Fackeltantz, op, 1993; Den magiske Brillant [The Magic Diamond], op, 1993; Den stundesløse [The Fussy One] (op, L. Holberg), 1995; Pergolesi’s hjemmeservice [Pergolesi’s Home Service], op, 1998

Inst theatre: Studies for Two, vc, perc, 1967; Music Theatre for Three, S, vc, perc, 1968; The End, vc, 1969; Danish Wind, wind qnt, 1970; 3 Mobiles, accdn, gui, perc, 1971; Quartetto rustico, str qt, 1971

instrumental

Orch: Tide, 1971; Partita popolare, 1976; Ob Conc., 1980; Deep, 1967, rev. 1981; Latin Suite, 1984; Vc Conc., 1984; Pf Conc., 1984

Other inst: Quadrata, str qt, 1963; Cyklus 1, va, vc, db, 1966; Cyklus 2, 3 insts, 1966; Cyklus 3, vc, playback, 1966; Cyklus 4, str orch, perc, 1966; Shiftings, orch, 1967; Intersection, org, 1970; Syncretism, cl, trbn, vc, pf, 1970; 5 Simple Piano Pieces, 1971; Granite, vc, 1971; Quartz, vn, 1971; Puncta, org, 1973; Umbra, gui, 1973; Triplex, org, 1974; Groppo, org, 1975; Nimbo, org, 1977; Cruor, org, 1977; Contorni, vn, vc, pf, 1978; Colori, pf, 1978; Samba, cl, trbn, vc, pf, 1980; Sol [Sun], org, 1982; Mambo, cl, vc, pf, 1982; Wunderblumen, 12 insts, 1982; Warszawa, b cl, pf, 1983; Paesaggio, 7 insts, 1983; Paradiesvogel, 7 insts, 1983; Diamond, cl, 1983; Mars, org, 1985

other works

Vocal: The Night, S, chorus, orch, 1965; Surrealistic Songs, 1v, pf, 1967; New Choral Dramatics, 30 movts, chorus, 1968; Revolution, chorus, 1969; Choral Songs (Mao), 1970; Dialogue, 1v, tape, 1970; Northern Lights, chorus, tape, 1971; This Morning, chorus, 1971; Songs of my Country, chorus, 1971; My Bride is an Enclosed Garden, 1v, orch, tape, 1972; 4 Waves, chorus, 1972; Purgatorio, chorus, 1975; Carnaval, S, tape, 1976; 3 Madrigals, mixed chorus, 1977; 5 Motets to Isajah, mixed chorus, 1982–3; Genesis V, mixed chorus, orch, 1984; Graffiti, mixed chorus, 1984

Elec: Interferences, 1967; The Clown of Men, 1968; A Voyage of Discovery into the Strange Inner and Outer World of the Piano, 1968; Medea Suite, 1969; Forest Music, 1970; Space Music, 1971; Miseria, 1972; Nubes, 1973

Educational pieces for rec ens, orch, chorus

Principal publisher: Hansen

WRITINGS

‘Elektrofonikursus i Aarhus’, DMt, xli (1966), 118–21

‘De umusiske intellektuelle’, Nutida musik, xii/1 (1968–9), 35–6

‘Digtning med lyd’, Nutida musik, xiii/2 (1969–70), 46–8

‘Myter i den nya musiken’, Nutida musik, xvi/3 (1972–3), 55–6

‘Kreativ musiktheori’, Festskrift Gunnar Heerup, ed. J. Høybe, F.V. Nielsen and A. Schiøtz (Egtved, 1973), 63

BIBLIOGRAPHY

B. Wallner: Vår tids musik i Norden: från 20-tal till 60-tal [Nordic music of today: from the 1920s to the 1960s] (Stockholm, Copenhagen and Oslo, 1968)

JENS BRINCKER

Lorenz, Alfred (Ottokar)

(b Vienna, 11 July 1868; d Munich, 20 Nov 1939). German musicologist and conductor. A pupil of Spitta and Radecke in Berlin, he worked as a conductor from 1893, notably at Coburg and Gotha, and composed an opera, several orchestral works, songs and a Clarinet Quintet. In the aftermath of World War I he was forcibly retired and settled in Munich. He studied musicology under Moritz Bauer at Frankfurt, graduating in 1922 with a thesis on form in Wagner's Ring. The following year he was appointed lecturer, and in 1926 honorary professor, at Munich University. His four-volume Das Geheimnis der Form bei Richard Wagner (1924–33) laid the foundation for all subsequent Wagnerian analysis and is still unsurpassed in scope. Cognizant of Wagner's mention in Oper und Drama of the tonally unified ‘dichterisch-musikalische Periode’, Lorenz divided his post-Lohengrin works into such periods, each internally articulated by recurring forms such as Bar and Bogen. He was the first Wagner analyst to systematize musical procedures beyond the purely referential web of leitmotifs, endeavouring to defend the works from accusations of ‘formlessness’ and to prove their worth as absolute music. Although he claimed to exclude the drama from consideration, in practice it tended to be the primary determinant of the period boundaries. His preoccupation with form and structure was tempered by his adherence to Schopenhauerian-Wagnerian music aesthetics. He demonstrated the applicability of his formal analysis to other composers with studies of the early operas of Alessandro Scarlatti (1927) and Mozart's operatic finales (1926), as well as of instrumental pieces by Bach, Beethoven, Bruckner and Strauss. A number of his articles were published in the Bayreuther Festspielführer, 1924–39 and translated into English (Wagner, ii, 1981, 21–5, 40–44, 74–7; iv, 1983, 9–13).

Lorenz was a member of the Nazi party from 1931 and published articles on music and race, genealogical research, and the ‘Jewish question’. Many of his articles on musical form employ National Socialist rhetoric, and many of the aesthetic and philosophical foundations of Nazism are shared by his method. In 1938 he published a collection of Wagner's letters and other writings, aiming to present him as a spiritual forefather of Nazism.

WRITINGS

‘Parsifal als Übermensch’, Die Musik, i (1901–2), 1876–882

Gedanken und Studien zur musikalischen Formgebung in Richard Wagners Ring des Nibelungen (diss., U. of Frankfurt, 1922)

‘Worauf beruht die bekannte Wirkung der Durchführung im 1. Eroicasatze?’, NBeJb 1924, 159–83

‘Der formale Schwung in Richard Strauss’ “Till Eulenspiegel”’, Die Musik, xvii (1924–5), 658–69

Das Geheimnis der Form bei Richard Wagner, i–iv (Berlin, 1924–33/R; partial Eng. trans. in Prelude and Transfiguration from Tristan und Isolde, ed. R. Bailey, New York, 1985, 204–23)

‘Das Finale in Mozarts Meisteropern’, Die Musik, xix (1926–7), 621–32

Alessandro Scarlatti's Jugendoper: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der italienischen Oper (Augsburg, 1927)

‘Kunstform – Kunstgeist’, Bayreuther Blätter, l (1927), 123–8

Abendländische Musikgeschichte im Rhythmus der Generationen: eine Anregung (Berlin, 1928)

‘Homophone Grossrhythmik in Bachs Polyphonie’, Die Musik, xxii (1929–30), 245–53

‘Das Relativitätsprinzip in den musikalischen Form’, Studien zur Musikgeschichte: Festschrift für Guido Adler (Vienna, 1930/R), 179–86

‘Die Wellenlinie in Bruckners Schaffenskraft’, KJb, xxv (1930), 122–7

‘Wege zur Erkenntnis von Richard Wagners Kunstwerk’, Bayreuther Blätter, lvi (1933), 109–14

‘Neue Formerkenntnisse, angewandt auf Richard Strauss' “Don Juan”’, AMF, i (1936), 452–66

‘Zur Instrumentation von Anton Bruckners Symphonien’, ZfM, Jg.103 (1936), 1318–325

ed.: Richard Wagner: ausgewählte Schriften und Briefe, i–ii (Berlin, 1938)

‘Musikwissenschaft und Judenfrage’, Die Musik, xxxi (1938–9), 177–9

‘Die Tonkunst grüßt den Führer!’, ZfM, Jg.106 (1939), 355 only

BIBLIOGRAPHY

K. Grunsky: ‘Die Formfrage bei Richard Wagner’, Die Musik, xv (1923), 436–440

H.A. Grunsky: ‘Einer der uns fehlt: dem Gedanken von Alfred Lorenz’, Neue Wagner-Forschungen, i (1943), 35–42

C. Dahlhaus: ‘Formprinzipien in Wagner's Ring des Nibelungen’, Beiträge zur Geschichte der Oper (Regensburg, 1969), 95–129

R. van der Lek: ‘Zum Begriff Übergang und zu seiner Anwendung durch Alfred Lorenz auf die Musik von Wagners Ring’, Mf, xxxv (1982), 129–47

J. Deathridge: ‘A Brief History of Wagner Research’, Wagner Handbook, (Cambridge, MA, 1992), 202–23

S. McClatchie: Analyzing Wagner's Operas: Alfred Lorenz and German Nationalist Ideology (Rochester, 1998) [incl. list of writings]

STEPHEN McCLATCHIE

Lorenz, Max

(b Düsseldorf, 10 May 1901; d Vienna, 12 Jan 1975). German tenor. After studying with Grenzebach in Berlin he became a principal tenor at Dresden in 1928. From 1933 he was at the Berlin Staatsoper, appearing also at the Metropolitan (from 1931), Bayreuth (from 1933, and again in 1952), Covent Garden (1934 and 1937) and in many other houses in Europe and the USA. He became a member of the Vienna Staatsoper in 1937, appearing at many Salzburg festivals and creating roles in such new works as von Einem’s Der Prozess (Josef K, 1953), Liebermann’s Penelope (1954) and Wagner-Régeny’s Das Bergwerk zu Falun (1961). Lorenz was for almost three decades a prominent Wagnerian tenor, celebrated as Tristan, Siegfried and Walther in particular; he was also a notable Othello, Bacchus and Herod. Late in his career he showed his versatility in a number of smaller and less characteristic parts, but he continued to be a striking Tristan and Florestan into his mid-50s.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GV (L. Riemens; R. Vegeto)

PETER BRANSCOMBE

Lorenz, Ricardo

(b Maracaibo, 24 May 1961). Venezuelan composer. He attended the Olivares and Landaeta conservatories in Caracas and studied composition with Juan Orrego-Salas and Donald Erb at Indiana University (MM, 1986). He was acting director of the university's Latin American Music Center (1987–92), where he compiled the sourcebook Scores and Recordings at Indiana University's Latin American Music Center (Bloomington, 1995). In 1992 he moved to the University of Chicago to study for the PhD with Eaton and Ran. He has been composer-in-residence with the Chicago SO and the Billings SO (Montana).

Lorenz has emerged as one of the most prominent Venezuelan composers of his generation. He has received many prizes and grants, and his works have been performed at festivals in the Americas and in Europe. In works like the Concerto for Orchestra, commissioned by Dennis Russell Davies, his imaginative orchestration clothes complex tonal structures, frequently constructed round the rhythmical principle of the Cuban clave. The sardonic wit of his music belies a learned manipulation of elements of Latin American popular music and an ideological concern for cultural and artistic identity.

WORKS

(selective list)

Dramatic: La historia tropical, nar, dancer, cl, bn, tpt, trbn, perc, vn, db, 1986; La última lorcura (incid music), 1986

Vocal: Delirio y descanso, SATB, orch, 1984; Misericordia campana, S, amp pf, tape, 1985; Sit still, nar, SATB, chbr orch, 1991

Orch: Sinfonietta concertante, ww qnt, chbr orch, 1987; Mar acá, fl, maracas, chekeré, rainstick, chbr orch, 1989; Pf Conc., 1990; Vn Conc., 1990; Confabulaciones del alma, 3 sym. études, orch, 1992; Conc. for Orch, 1993; Entrada triunfal del Rey Magoberry, pic, 3 ob, 3 cl, 3 bn, 4 hn, 3 tpt, 3 trbn, tuba, timp, perc, pf, 1995; Conc., rec, chbr orch, 1995

Chbr and solo inst: Sones formales no.2, pf, 1981; 3 études, 2 tpt, trbn, 1982; Variaciones vivas sobre un tema muerto, vn, pf, 1982; Concertino, timp, perc, 1983; Variaciones Aldana, fl, str qt, 1984; Bachangó, pf, 1984; Triántico, rec, gui, hpd, 1985; Lascia ch'io pianga, str qt, 1985; Canciones de amor e irreverencia, T, fl, cl, bn, tpt, trbn, perc, pf, str qnt, 1988; 3 Miniatures, fl, portable hi-fi, 1988; Jaromiluna, vn, hp, 1989; Piedra en la piedra, fl, mar, 1991; Llorenç en el nou mon, vn, pf, 1993; Zamuro tumbó mirage, a sax, b cl, pf, perc, 1994; Mambozart, pf, 1995; Está lloviendo afuera y no hay agua, pf, 1996; Cecilia en azul y verde, vc, pf, 1998

Tape: Lexione prima, tape, 1986; M.I.S.A., tape, 1986

LEONARDO MANZINO, CARMEN HELENA TÉLLEZ

Lorenzani, Paolo

(b Rome, 5 Jan 1640; d Rome, 28 Oct 1713). Italian composer. He was born into an artistic family – his older brother Giovanni Andrea (1637–1712) was a poet and librettist, his uncle Lazzaro Baretta a painter – and sang soprano in the choir of the Cappella Giulia from May 1651 to July 1655 under the direction of Orazio Benevoli, maestro di cappella from 1646 to 1672. In 1669 Lorenzani’s name began to appear regularly on the registers of the Congregazione di S Cecilia when he was chosen to compose litanies, vespers and masses for various occasions in Rome, including four oratorios for the Arciconfraternita del Ss Crocifisso, in S Marcello. He succeeded Vincenzo de Grandis (ii) late in 1672 as maestro di cappella of the Jesuit Chiesa del Gesù and the Seminario Romano. His motets, along with those of the most illustrious composers of his time, appeared in two collections published in Rome and Bologna in 1675. In autumn 1675 he left his position of prestige in Rome and became maestro di cappella at Messina Cathedral. The Duke of Vivonne, brother to Mme de Montespan and Mme de Thianges, was at that time Viceroy of Sicily and in charge of the French forces. Lorenzani composed not only masses, vespers and Te Deum settings for the cathedral, but also intermedii, ballets, comédies-ballets and an opera (Il Coloandro) for the duke, who often put on sumptuous festivities and displays for the Sicilian nobility. In 1678, when Louis XIV recalled Vivonne to France and sent La Feuillade in his place to withdraw the French forces from Sicily, Lorenzani boarded La Feuillade’s ships for France; he arrived at Toulon on 7 April.

When Lorenzani reached Paris later that spring, Lully, whose career was at its height, was exercising absolute control over French opera. In 1666, with Colbert’s help, he had persuaded the king to dismiss his Italian singers, and he had since discouraged Italian music in France. But Lorenzani soon came under the protection of his former patron Vivonne, who introduced him at court in August that year. Louis XIV heard one of Lorenzani’s motets, which so pleased him that not only did he have it sung several more times, but he gave the composer a substantial sum of money, encouraged him to remain in France, and supplied him with most of the funds necessary to purchase from Jean-Baptiste de Boësset the position of maître de musique de la reine. Lorenzani’s success and popularity grew as he continued to please the king and all his court. In June 1679 the king sent him to Italy to recruit ‘the best singers he could find’ (Mercure galant, June 1679). Lorenzani returned in December with five castratos, and on 1 January 1680 he took up his new position in the service of the queen. In August that year he was placed in charge of the music for the consecration of Colbert’s son, Jacques Nicolas Colbert, as coadjutor to the Bishop of Rouen.

Lully was undoubtedly troubled by all this success. In September 1681 the Duke of Vivonne and the Duke of Nevers (Philippe-Julien Mancini), son-in-law to Mme de Thianges and a nephew of Cardinal Mazarin, organized and presented before the king at Fontainebleau an Italian pastoral-opera by Lorenzani entitled Nicandro e Fileno, on a text by Nevers himself. Although his privilege of 1672 gave him no power over this court performance, Lully, out of jealousy of Lorenzani, did everything possible to block its presentation. The opera, which featured Lorenzani’s Italian style adapted to French taste, was an immediate success. According to the Mercure galant the king saw two performances, and declared he had ‘never seen a more suitable and noble performance’.

Lorenzani continued to triumph at court in 1682: one of his psalms was performed at the royal chapel in April; a concert of his airs, requested by the king to honour the dauphine, was sung by the Italian soprano Anna Caruso in September; four new motets were given before the king in October; and in November a collaboration with Lalande in another dramatic work, a sérénade en forme d’opéra, was presented before Louis XIV at Fontainebleau. But the year 1683 marked the decline of Lorenzani’s career at court. First he was eliminated in the famous contest (suggested to the king by Lully) held to fill the four positions of sous-maître de musique de la chapelle, which were to be shared by four men, each one sharing a four month term. Lorenzani and many other deserving composers, including Charpentier, Desmarets, Nivers and Danielis, were eliminated because of a procedure that favoured patronage over merit. It is quite possible that Lully wanted by this means to exclude from court all possible rivals, the popular and successful Lorenzani in particular. The announcement of the results in May caused a near scandal. Lully was accused of intrigue, and a polemic broke out in the press, led by the Mercure galant (June 1683), over his stranglehold on operatic music in the kingdom. Nonetheless Lorenzani continued to be well thought of, offering his faithful supporter Mme de Thianges a sérénade entitled Quanto è dolce il languire on 9 July 1683. But on 30 July the queen died after a short illness, and Lorenzani was suddenly without a position at court. However, his service to the queen was acknowledged in November when a royal declaration allowed him to keep his title and all the privileges assocated with it.

Lorenzani’s activities away from court remain partly obscure. He wrote a song Tornami in petto speranza cara for a play by Fatouville performed at the Théâtre Italien on 5 March 1684, and on 20 June 1685 he was appointed director of music at the Theatine convent, where his ‘saluts en musique’, which included several sung motets, a short sermon and a benediction, became one of the most fashionable attractions of Paris and Versailles. Performances of his masses, Te Deum, Exaudiat and motets in several Parisian churches are documented, particularly for 1686–7. On 23 August 1688 the Académie Royale de Musique presented his opera Oronthée at Chantilly during magnificent festivities given for the dauphin by the Prince of Condé. The score is lost (except for a fragment), as is that of a hastily prepared divertissement performed later that week which included arias from Nicandro e Fileno. These performances did little to enhance Lorenzani’s career. In 1693 Ballard published a lavish edition of his motets. Lorenzani had these printed at his own expense and dedicated them to the king in the hope of obtaining a vacant position as sous-maître de musique de la chapelle. But when Lalande was given the position in September, this disappointment and the poor sale of his motets ‘because there were too many circulating in manuscript’ caused him to become disgusted with France, according to Sébastien de Brossard.

On 19 July 1694 the chapter of the Cappella Giulia elected him maestro di cappella to succeed Francesco Beretta, even though Lorenzani had not applied for the position and had been absent from Rome for nearly 20 years. He accepted the offer and left for Rome probably in spring 1695, assuming his new functions at the Vatican on 1 April that year. He must have married by then, since three daughters of his were baptized in Rome between 1695 and 1701. Meanwhile, Ballard published his Airs italiens in 1695 and another of his airs in 1696; these were followed by a solo cantata in 1706. Lorenzani remained active throughout his tenure at the Cappella Giulia, assuming many responsibilities beyond his duties at S Pietro. In 1696, 1704 and 1710 he was elected guardiano of the Congregazione di S Cecilia representing the maestri di cappella, and he was often called upon to compose music for various churches and celebrations in Rome. He died on 28 October 1713, at the age of ‘about 73 years’ and was buried in the parish of S Spirito in Sassia.

The only Italian composer apart from Lully to hold an official position at court during the reign of Louis XIV, Lorenzani was probably one of the most popular and influential Italian composers in France at that time. It was in France that he developed a distinctive voice as he adapted his writing to French taste. Before going to France he had established himself as one of the leading composers of his generation. Two motets published in 1675, the cantata Darmi di tali tempre and the song Due pupille amo in un volto are very much in the style of his contemporaries. During his 17 years in France he composed a great quantity of music, much of which has been lost. The motets published by Ballard in 1693 retain a number of Italian features, particularly in their form and instrumentation, but they incorporate French as well as Italian practices. Similarly, some arias from Nicandro e Fileno resemble those of Alessandro Scarlatti’s early operas, but the general style of the work, though more Italian here than in the motets, shows a remarkable capacity for adaptation to French taste on the part of Lorenzani, as do most of the cantatas and arias from the Brossard collection in the Bibliothèque Nationale. Nicandro e Fileno remains a landmark in the history of French opera, not only because of its original style but also because it was one of the rare Italian operas performed in France during the personal reign of Louis XIV. Conversely, traces of his ‘French style’ are discernible in the music written in Rome during his tenure at S Pietro. Unfortunately, few of the 180 works he left at the Cappella Giulia at his death have survived. Three Magnificat settings, litanies for the Virgin, a set of psalms for Vespers and ten other motets illustrate his mastery of tonal counterpoint and his ability to marry the traditional Roman polychoral medium with the modern concertato style. But it was in France that Lorenzani’s impact was chiefly felt. The popularity of his church compositions in particular caused a surge of interest in Italian music. His influence, along with the efforts of other ‘italianizing’ French composers of the time – Du Mont, Charpentier, Danielis, and later Campra and Brossard – eventually brought about the italianization of French music at the turn of the century.

WORKS

sacred

Magnificat, 4 solo vv, 2 SATB choirs, bc, I-Rvat; Magnificat, 5 solo vv, SSATB, SATB, bc, D-MÜs, I-Rvat, ed. G. Catalucci (Rome, 1981); Magnificat, 6vv, bc, Rsc

Litanie, 4 solo vv, SATB, bc, ed. F. Vernaz (Paris, 1992)

[25] Motets à I, II, III, IV, et V parties (Paris, 1693); 6 ed. F. Vernaz (Paris 1991)

Other motets: Alma Redemptoris mater, 3vv, bc, I-Rf, P-Lf; Ave regina caelorum, 3vv, bc, I-Rvat; Benedictus qui venit, 2vv, bc, Rvat; Caeli chori festinate, 3vv, bc, 1675³; Cibavit eos, 2 SATB choirs Rvat; Custodi me Domine, SATB, Rvat, ed. J. Lionnet, La Cappella Giulia, i: I vespri nel 18 secolo, L’arte armonica, II/ii (Lucca, 1995); Hoc est praeceptum, 2vv, bc, Rvat; Nihil est sub sole, 2vv, bc, 1675²; Obstupecite, 3vv, 2 vn, bc, F-Pn; O sacrum convivium, 3vv, bc, Rvat (4 settings), 2 ed. Lionnet, op. cit.

[7] Psalmodia varia, 6vv, bc, Rsc

L’Angelo custode (orat, G. Apolloni), music lost, lib Rvat

Lost: orats, masses, TeD, motets, cited in Mercure galant; 71 pss, 16 Mag, TeD, 6 masses, 12 grads and offs, 19 motets for the elevation, 36 ants for communion, 19 hymns for communion, listed in the archives of the Cappella Giulia, Rome

stage

Il Coloandro (op), Messina, 1679, lost

Nicandro e Fileno (opéra-pastorale, 3, P.-J. Mancini, Duke of Nevers), Fontainebleau, Sept 1681, F-Pn; 1 aria in Airs italiens de M. Lorenzani (Paris, 1695), 1 in 1695⁵, 1 ed. in Prunières; ed. A. La France (Versailles, 1999)

La sérénade (en forme d’opéra, C.-C. Genest), Fontainebleau, Nov 1682, lost, collab. M.R. de Lalande

Oronthée (opéra, 5, M. Leclerc), Chantilly, 23 Aug 1688, frag. F-Pn, lib (Paris, 1688)

Intermedio musicale (1, M. Cervoli), music lost, lib I-Rvat

4 intermedii, 2 comédies-ballets, Messina, 1675–9, lost

secular vocal

Cantatas (for 1v, 2 vn, bc, unless otherwise stated): A pena dall’oriente, 1695⁵; Colpe mie venite a piangere, Mdina archives, Malta; Darmi di tali tempre, US-Cn; Infra l’horide balze, F-Pn; Mi contento cosi, I-Rvat; Quanto è dolce il languire (Sérénade pour Mme de Thianges), 2vv, 2 vn, bc, F-Pn; Quanto poco durate, Pn, GB-Lbl, Sopra l’erbose sponde, F-Pn

Airs italiens de M. Lorenzani (Paris, 1695) (for 1v, bc, unless otherwise stated): Amorose pupillete; E chi porti, 1v, 2 vn, bc; Mi lusingate; Tornami in petto speranza cara; Voglio amar se trovero; 1 aria from Nicandro e Fileno (see stage above)

Other arias (all in F-Pn; for 1v, bc, unless otherwise stated): Amorose pupillete; Diletto perfetto piu caro, 1v, 2 vn, bc; Due pupille amo in un volto; Ho petto che basta; Luci care, luci amate, 1v, 2 vn, bc; Occhi miei che posso farvi; O questo volta si ch’io m’innamoro, 2vv, bc; Se ne vola la speranza; T’amo Filli et t’amo tanto; Una mano candidetta; Vera fe verace ardore

Quand mon destin belle Sylvie, in Airs sérieux et à boire (Paris, 1696)

Menuet, lost, mentioned in Mercure galant, May 1679, 271–3

Air in Mercure galant (May 1680), doubtful attrib.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Prunières: ‘Paolo Lorenzani à la cour de France (1678–1694)’, ReM, iii/9–10 (1921–2), 97–120

A. Tessier: ‘L’Orontée de Lorenzani et l’Orontea du Padre Cesti’, ReM, ix/7–11 (1927–8), 169–86

F. Liuzzi: I musicisti in Francia (Rome, 1946), 237ff

A. Liess: ‘Materialien zur römischen Musikgeschichte des Seicento: Musikerlisten des Oratorio San Marcello 1664–1725’, AcM, xxix (1957), 137–71, esp. 148, 154, 169

W. Gürtelschmied: Paolo Lorenzani (1640–1713): Leben, Werk, thematischer Katalog (diss., U. of Vienna, 1975)

W. Gürtelschmied: ‘Paolo Lorenzani (1640–1713): seine Tätigkeiten in Paris und Rom’, GfMKB [Berlin, 1974], ed. H. Kühn and P. Nitsche (Kassel, 1980)

A. La France: The Sacred Music of Paolo Lorenzani (1640–1713) (diss., U. of Victoria, BC, 1986)

J. Duron: ‘Aspects de la présence italienne dans la musique française de la fin du XVIIe siècle’, Les samedis musicaux au Château de Versailles: Baroque français, Baroque italien au XVIIe siècle (Versailles, 1992), 43–65 [programme book]

Y. de Brossard, ed.: La Collection Sébastien de Brossard 1655–1730: catalogue (Paris, 1994), 539

A La France, ed.: L’oeuvre de Paolo Lorenzani (1640–1713): catalogue thématique (Versailles, forthcoming)

ALBERT LA FRANCE

Lorenzi, Filiberto.

See Laurenzi, Filiberto.

Lorenzi, Giorgio

(b Florence, 1846; d London, 1922). Italian harpist and composer. He received his education at the Istituto Musicale in Florence, studying the harp under Ferdinand Marcucci, whom he succeeded as professor. About 1910 he moved to London, where he continued to teach and to perform. His compositions, all for the harp, include a method, studies and about 12 pieces.

Lorenzi’s son and pupil Mario (b Florence, 1894; d London, 1967) received his diploma from the Istituto Musicale in Florence when he was 14 years old. He played in public with his father both in Florence and in London. His technique produced a strong, rich and even tone, and as an improviser he displayed a freshness of invention. He also played the jazz harp and made some recordings. After 1952 he gave up playing because of arthritis.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M.G. Scimeca: L'arpa nella storia (Bari, 1938), 153

A.N. Schirinzi: L'arpa storia di un antico strumento (Milan, 1961), 112

ALICE LAWSON ABER-COUNT

Lorenzini, Raimondo

(b Rome; d Rome, late May 1806). Italian composer. From 1751 he was organist at S Maria Maggiore in Rome, where he became maestro di cappella on 7 September 1786 and, according to Santini, remained until 1795. He was a distinguished composer in the Roman tradition of vocal polyphony and occasionally also composed in a straightforward a cappella style. His work is closest to that of Cannicciari, Casciolini and Giorgi, as his Requiem demonstrates. His Responses for Holy Week are reminiscent of compositions by Anfossi and Cordans.

WORKS

Stage: Il matrimonio discorde (farsetta, C. Goldoni), Rome, 1756

Sacred: Requiem and 4 Assolutioni, 4–8vv; Sacerdotes Domini, Laudate Dominum, O quam suavis, Sub tuum praesidium, all 4vv, bc; Miserere, 4–8vv; Responses for Holy Week, 3vv; Dixit, 8vv, insts; Veni Creator, 2vv, bc; Salve regina, S, A, chorus, insts; 2 Tantum ergo, 1v, org, 2vv, bc; Antiphons for Advent; 4 motets ‘in pastorale’

Inst: Scala a 4 voci in forma di discorso familiare, vns, va, tpt, hn, b; kbd sonatas; 6 divertimenti, 2 vn, kbd; 6 notturni, 2 cl, 2 hn, bn, serpentone

Pedagogical: Regolamente per il cembalo, manuale sistematico per la realizzazione del continuo

Principal MS sources: D-Bsb, Mbs, MÜs; I-Rf, Rsm, RI

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

J. Killing: Kirchenmusikalische Schätze der Bibliothek des Abbate Fortunato Santini (Düsseldorf, 1910)

SIEGFRIED GMEINWIESER

Lorenzino [Lorenzino dai Liuti, Laurenzini, Laurencinus Romanus, sometimes also identified with Cavaliere del Liuto, ‘Eques Romanus’, ‘Eques Auratus Romanus’]

(d ?Rome, ?23 Nov 1608). Italian lutenist and composer. While his origins and his possible identification as the ‘Cavaliere del liuto’ cannot be confirmed, it is likely that most of the various references to a late 16th-century and early 17th-century lutenist by the name of Lorenzino refer to the same person. The first record refers to a lutenist called Lorenzino who was in the service of Cardinal Ippolito d'Este in Ferrara and Tivoli in 1570–71. He was probably Lorenzino Trajetti (d Rome, 20 July 1590), the son of Franciscus ‘Gallus Belgicus’; he died in Rome in his house in the via dell'Olmo (now via Vicolo del Lento), leaving to his widow, Lucrezia Paolini, ‘tre liuti usati’ and ‘un chitarrone usato’, among other possessions (Pesci 1997).

According to Valdrighi, a ‘Lorenzino Bolognese’, a ‘singer’ in the service of the Farnese family in Parma between 1573 and 1586, studied as a page with the celebrated Neapolitan Fabrizio Dentice (who served at the Farnese court in both Rome and Parma). On 12 August 1570 a ‘Lorenzino dai Liuti’ was called for by the Duke of Mantua, but he had already left Rome in the retinue of the Prince of Bisignano (and was possibly involved in the theatrical celebrations organized the same year in Naples for the prince by Dentice). In 1586 (when the ‘Bolognese’ Lorenzino left the service of the Farnese family), a ‘Cavaliere del liuto’ appears for the first time in the register of house musicians of Cardinal Montalto (Alessandro Peretti) in Rome. This virtuoso is mentioned several times (as well as in Jean de Macque's letters from Naples) during his time in Montalto's service, until his death in the cardinal's palace in 1608.

The identification of ‘Lorenzino dai Liuti’ with the Cavaliere del Liuto, apart from their biographical coincidence, is suggested by a poem in the Thesaurus harmonicus of 1603 by Jean-Baptiste Besard, in which he is described as ‘Laurencium civem romanum, qui propter insignem testudinis experientiam Eques Auratus [i.e. Knight of the Order of the Golden Spur] Roma fieri promeruit’. It was not unusual for Roman cardinals, particularly Montalto, to obtain titles for their most important musicians. The problem is that the styles of the pieces by Lorenzino, the so-called ‘Eques Romanus’ (whom Besard listed separately in his index), and the Cavaliere del Liuto are at times so far apart as to call into question this identification. But it is also true that there are cases where the same piece is attributed in different sources to different composers. It may well be that Lorenzino became a pupil of Dentice, probably in Rome, not in Parma. Nicola Tagliaferro, a singer in the Neapolitan Chapel Royal may have been referring to Lorenzino when he stated that Cavaliere Dentice, who was a ‘Neapolitan knight of noble standing’, had no equals, not even the ‘little knight (Cavaglierino) in the service of Cardinal Farnese in Rome’. The only surviving vocal piece attributed to ‘S. Cavaliere del liuto’ (Di pianti e di sospir, a villanella for 3 voices on a text by G. Paratico: I-Moe) is almost certainly by Fabrizio Dentice. The connection between Lorenzino and Dentice and other Neapolitan lutenists is also documented by the manuscript P-Kj, formerly D-Bds, Mus. 40032 (a rich source of single pieces by Lorenzino). The other lutenist in the service of the Farnese family appears in this source: Santino Garsi, to whom another manuscript attributes a capriccio (D-DO G.I.4), which a later Hebrew hand ascribed to a ‘Kawalis Lorenzo’, thus almost confirming the identity of ‘Cavaliere Lorenzo’.

The situation is complicated by the fact that other ‘Cavalieri del liuto’ were active in Rome after 1608. Franca Camiz has discovered a reference to ‘Cavaliere del liuto’ in the service of the Roman Orsini family and still alive after 1608, and T. Boccalini (Ragguagli di Parnaso, 1612–15) refers to a Vincenzo Pinti, a Roman nobleman, as ‘Cavaliere del Liuto’.

Lorenzino (to whatever extent he can be identified with the Cavaliere) was the most important lute teacher in Europe at the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th. In the monumental edition ‘Divo Laurencini dicata’ of the Thesaurus harmonicus (1603), Besard stated that he was a pupil of the lutenist in Rome and that he acquired from him the valuable Istruzioni published in his work entitled De modo in testudine studendi libellus, which was shortly afterwards reprinted in English (Dowland, 1610) and by Besard himself in Latin and German (1617). A manuscript copy of a similar Istructio received in Rome from a ‘Cavaliero maestro di Roma’ (another piece of evidence to identify him with Lorenzino) was copied in Latin by a Polish student on a collection of Venetian lutebooks of the years 1546–7 (which was once held in Sorau but which disappeared after 1942).

Evidence of the fame of the Cavaliere del Liuto is provided by many contemporary references in dedications by musicians close to Cardinal Montalto, such as Raval 1590, and in later documents. Alessandro Piccinini (1623) declared that one of the ‘archlutes’ he had invented in 1594 was taken from Ferrara to Naples by Prince Carlo Gesualdo and then entered the possession of the Cavaliere del Liuto, returning to Piccinini on the latter's death (an important confirmation of a connection between the Cavaliere and Naples). Besides Besard, Lorenzino's works were made known in England and the German states in the publications by Dowland (1610) and Fuhrmann (1615) and throughout Europe in a vast number of manuscript versions. In ‘Mary Burwell's lute book’, Lorenzino is credited as the ‘inventor’ of modern lute music and he is also mentioned in the manuscript treatise by E.G. Baron (1727) and in the Lexicon by J.G. Walther (1732).

Lorenzino's compositional style is derived from that of his probable teacher, Fabrizio Dentice, particularly in his adept use of counterpoint alternating with chordal homophony and in a taste for unprepared dissonances and suspensions. His mature style (and that of the Cavaliere del Liuto) is more clearly modern, with a prevalence of short, prelude-like compositions, and characteristic formulas, in which an early use of style brisé starts to appear. There is an overriding impression of compositions that are not complete but are exercises of remarkable craftsmanship and artistry, intended primarily for teaching purposes.

WORKS

all for lute; some attrib. ‘Eques Romanus’ or ‘Cavaliere del liuto’

Printed: 22 preludes (1 doubtful, 2 attrib. ‘Equitis Romani’), 9 fantasias (1 doubtful, 2 attrib. ‘Equitis Romani’, 9 galliards (1 attrib. ‘Equitis Romani’), 4 passamezzos (1 attrib. ‘Equitis Romani’), 2 branles (1 arr. Besard), 5 intabulations of It. madrigals (1 anon.), 1 of Fr. chanson; 1603¹⁵, 1610²³ (1 doubtful, 1 attrib. ‘Knight of the Lute’), 1615²⁴ (attrib. ‘Laurencini Romani’, ‘D. Laurencinus’, ‘Romanus’, ‘Laurentzini’), 1617²⁶ (attrib. ‘Laurencini’); 1 passamezzo ed. O. Chilesotti, Lautenspieler des XVI. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1891/R); 2 fantasias ed. E. Hunt, Robert Dowland: Varietie of Lute-Lessons (London, 1957); 1 branle ed. A. Souris and M. Rollin, Oeuvres pour luth seul de Jean-Baptiste Besard (Paris, 1969)

MS only: 2 passamezzos, romanesca, ricercata, 2 toccatas, 2 galliards, ‘tenore’, ‘matachin’, PL-Kj (olim D-Bsb Mus. Ms.40032); 2 passamezzos (1 ascribed ‘Equitis Romani’), 6 galliards (2 ascribed ‘Equitis Romani’), romanesca, D-W Guelf 18.7 (dated 1603); 2 galliards, I-COc (dated 1601; facs. in AntMI, Monumenta lombarda C, iii, 1980); 2 passamezzos, praeambulum (ascribed ‘Equitis Romani’), CH-Bu; toccata, 2 fantasias (ascribed ‘Cavalieri di liuto’ doubtful), GB-Cfm; fuga (‘Equitis Romani’), PL-Kj (olim D-Bsb Mus. Ms.40143); fantasia and cappriccio, D-DO G.1.IV (also attrib. Garsi); Gagliarda (‘Cavalieri del liuto’), I-PESo, Rari Ms.b–10 and F-Pn Rés.29; It. Madrigal ‘transposito Laurenzino’, D-Bsb (MS addition to copy of 1601¹⁸)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BertolottiM

N. Tagliaferro: L'esercitio (MS, I-Nf SM.XXVIII.166, 1608)

P. Canal: ‘Della musica in Mantova’, Memorie del R. Istituto veneto di scienze, lettere ed arti, xxi (1881/R), 656–774

G. Radiciotti: L’arte musicale in Tivoli nei secoli XVI, XVII e XVIII (Tivoli, 1907, enlarged 2/1921), 13

H. Osthoff: Der Lautenist Santino Garsi da Parma (Leipzig, 1926/R)

N. Pelicelli: ‘Musicisti in Parma nei secoli XV–XVI’, NA, ix (1932), 112–29, esp. 125–6; x (1933), 233–48, esp. 235; 314–25, esp. 320

F. Lippmann: ‘Giovanni de Macque fra Roma e Napoli: nuovi documenti’, RIM, xiii (1978), 243–79

J. Chater: ‘Musical Patronage in Rome at the Turn of the Seventeenth Century: the Case of Cardinal Montalto’, Studi musicali, xvi (1987), 179–227

D. Fabris: Andrea Falconieri Napoletano: un liutista-compositore del Seicento (Rome, 1987)

D. Kirsch, ed.: Santino Garsi da Parma: Werke für Laute (Cologne, 1989)

I. Pelà: ‘Per una maggiore definizione del liutista conosciuto con lo pseudonimo de “Il Cavaliere del Liuto”’, Bollettino della Società italiana del liuto, no.2 (April 1992), 6–8

P. Beier: ‘Un madrigale in esame’, Bollettino della Società italiana del liuto, no.4 (April 1992) [Special insert]

D. Fabris: ‘Lute Tablature Instructions in Italy: a Survey of the Regole from 1507 to 1759’, Performance on Lute, Guitar and Vihuela: Historical Practice and Modern Interpretation, ed. V.A. Coelho (Cambridge, 1997), 16–46

J.W. Hill: Roman Monody, Cantata and Opera from the Circles around Cardinal Montalto (Oxford, 1997)

M. Pesci: ‘Lorenzo Tracetti, alias Lorouzino, suouatore di Riuto’, Recercare, ix (1997), 233–242

DINKO FABRIS

Lorenziti [Lorenzetti, Lorenzity], Bernard

(b Kirchheim, Württemberg, c1764; d after 20 Oct 1815). French violinist and composer of Italian descent. His father was maître de chapelle to Prince Nassau de Weilburg. Bernard was taught by his brother Joseph Antoine Lorenziti (c1740–89), maître de chapelle of Nancy Cathedral. According to the Almanach musical (1775–83/R), which praised his ‘distinguished talent for the violin’, he spent about a year in Paris, where in March 1777 he published his op.1, Six Quatuors. In November that year he went to Nancy. He was a violinist in the orchestra of the Académie Royale de Musique in Paris from Easter 1787, and in 1802 was appointed first violin in the quartet established to accompany rehearsals. His retirement is recorded in a decree of 19 October 1812, issued in Moscow.

According to Fétis, he wrote almost 250 works, some 40 of which were published. They are often confused with compositions by his brother. Those which have been preserved, mainly for string instruments, are concertos and chamber music. They are technically simple, and his Six Trios (1780) were considered suitable for ‘an amateur who, fearing comparison with a virtuoso, wishes to shine in a concert and yet to play with him’ (Almanach musical, 1781). In 1798 he published his Principes, ou Nouvelle Méthode de musique pour apprendre facilement à jouer du violon. The main interest of this work lies in the duos added to it.

WORKS

published in Paris unless otherwise stated

orchestral

Violin Concerto (1787)

Viola Concerto (c1799)

chamber

3 sonatas, va, acc. b, op.39 (c1800)

6 duos, 2 vn, op.3 (c1781); 6 duos, 2 vn, op.5 (c1781); 6 duos concertants, (fl, vn)/2 vn (c1794); 6 duos d'une difficulté progressive à l'usage des commençants, 2 vn (c1794–7), also pubd as op.38 (Bonn, 1797); 6 duos concertants, 2 vc/2 bn (c1807); 3 duos dialogués à l'usage des commençants (18e livre de duos), 2 vn, op.36 (c1812)

6 trios, 2 vn, b (1780); 3 trios concertants, 3 vn, op.38 (c1799)

6 qts, 2 vn, va, b, op.1 (1777); Bataille de Prague, 2 vn, va, b (c1794)

Variations: La gamme, et 5 petits airs, vn, acc. va/b (1777); Airs variés, vn, acc. b (1785); Marche des Marseillois, vn, vc (c1793–4); Airs variés (2e suite), vn, acc. b (1794); 6 airs variés, vn, acc. vn (c1800); Ah, vous dirai-je maman, vn (c1808)

Canon, ou divertissement, 2 cl, 2 bn (c1800)

Ouverture d'Iphigénie en Aulide (Gluck), vn (c1811–14)

Doubtful: Menuet avec 10 variations, vn, b (1787), mentioned in Calendrier musical universel (1788); 6 trios, 2 vn, b, op.4 (n.d.), mentioned by Gerber; Pots-pourris (c1794–7), mentioned by Pierre

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Choron-FayolleD

EitnerQ

FétisB

GerberNL

La LaurencieEF

C. Pierre: Le Magasin de musique à l'usage des fêtes nationales et du Conservatoire (Paris, 1895/R)

A. Wirsta: Ecoles de violon au XVIIIe siècle d'après les ouvrages didactiques (diss., U. of Paris, 1955)

M. Garnier-Butel: Les quatuors à cordes publiés en France dans la seconde moitié du XVIIIe siècle (diss., U. of Paris, 1992)

MICHELLE GARNIER-BUTEL

Lorenzo da Firenze [Magister Laurentius de Florentia; Ser Lorenço da Firençe; Ser Laurentius Masii, Masini]

(d Florence, Dec 1372 or Jan 1373).Italian composer and teacher of music. He belonged to the second generation of Trecento composers. The name ‘Masini’ probably refers to his being the son of ‘Tomaso’. Villani named him together with Bartholus de Florentia as a composer. According to Gallo he was a canonicus at S Lorenzo, Florence, from 1348 until his death. The madrigal Ita se n’er’a star (see illustration) was presumably composed to rival Vincenzo’s setting of the same text. We may conclude from the texts of the Antefana and Dolgomi a voi that Lorenzo was active as a teacher. The partly contemporaneous activity of Lorenzo and Landini at S Lorenzo makes some kind of master–pupil relationship probable. Similarly, the texts of Ita se n’er’a star and Vidi, ne l’ombra strongly suggest that Lorenzo moved in the same circles as Landini, Andreas de Florentia and Paolo da Firenze. The fact that he died in 1372 or 1373 explains why Lorenzo, like Gherardello, composed only monophonic ballette. Apart from these, ten madrigals, one caccia, a two-voice Sanctus, the Antefana, and perhaps a Gloria by him have survived. The music to two ballette texts by Sacchetti has been lost. The works have come down solely in Tuscan sources, among which the Squarcialupi Codex (I-Fl 87) contains all the secular compositions. Apart from texts by Sacchetti, Soldanieri and Gregorio Calonista, Lorenzo also set to music two poems by Boccaccio.

Lorenzo’s style is characterized by the use of melisma, often very extensive. Imitations, the offsetting of text between the parts and part-crossing occur frequently. However, alongside these there are some older stylistic features such as parallel perfect consonances. In addition, there are French elements in Lorenzo’s work: the caccia with a vocal tenor in the manner of a chace and the partly isorhythmic passages in Povero zappator. In the notation a change from the older Italian to the more modern French style is detectable (cf the two versions of Ita se n’er’a star). Besides this, the use of accidentals, often in profusion and with partly chromatic effect, is striking. In the Sanctus there is singular use of heterophonic part-writing. Lorenzo’s style emerges, in the light of all this, as highly complex, many-sided and vigorously experimental.

WORKS

Editions: Der Squarcialupi-Codex Pal.87 der Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana zu Florenz, ed. J. Wolf (Lippstadt, 1955) [W]The Music of Fourteenth-century Italy, ed. N. Pirrotta, CMM, viii/3 (1962) [P]Italian Secular Music, ed. W.T. Marrocco, PMFC, vii (1971) [M]

mass movements

Sanctus, 2vv, P 1, also ed. in PMFC, xii (1976), 15, p.73

Gloria, 2vv, doubtful, P 44, also ed. in PMFC, xii (1976), 4, p.9 (see P pp.ii–iii, Layton, 364–5)

pedagogical works

Antefana, 1v, P xv

ballette

all monophonic

Donne, e’ fu credenza (N. Soldanieri), W 89, P 19, M 157

Non perch’i’ speri, W 81, P 20, M 157

Non so qual’i’ mi volgia (G. Boccaccio), W 79, P 20, M 158

Non vedi tu, Amor (?Lorenzo), W 80, P 21, M 159

Sento d’amor la fiamma (G. Calonista), W 87, P 21, M 164

Donna, servo mi sento (F. Sacchetti), lost

Temer perché (Sacchetti), lost

madrigals

Come in sul fonte (Boccaccio), 2vv, W 90, P 2, M 126

Dà, dà, a chi (Soldanieri), 2vv, W 87, P 3, M 129 (see Bongi; see also Rossi)

Di riva in riva, 2vv, W 89, P 5, M 132

Dolgomi a voi, 3vv, W 92, P 6, M 134 (text inc.; ritornello 2vv only)

I’ credo ch’i’ dormiva, 2vv, W 94, P 10, M 139, 143 (text inc.)

Ita se n’er’a star, 2vv, W 77, P 8, M 147, 151 (2 versions in different notation: see Long, 1984, and Flisi; text also set by Vincenzo da Rimini)

Nel chiaro fiume, 2vv, W 83, P 11, M 155

Povero zappator, 2vv, W 95, P 12, M 160, 162 (T partly isorhythmic; see Fischer, 1975)

Sovra la riva (Sacchetti), 2vv, W 81, P 14, M 165

Vidi, nel l’ombra, 2vv, W 79, P 15, M 168, 171 (Senhal: ‘Cosa’)

cacce

A poste messe (Soldanieri), 3vv, W 84, P 17, M 120 (3-voice canon; ritornello for 1 or ?3vv)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Villani: De origine civitatis Florentiae et eiusdem famosis civibus, ed. G.C. Galletti (Florence, 1847), 34; ed. G. Tanturl: (Padua, 1997) [see E. Li Gotti, Italica, xxiv (1947), 196–200]

S. Bongi, ed.: Le croniche di Giovanni Sercambi, Lucchese (Lucca, 1892), ii, 217–18

E. Li Gotti and N.Pirrotta: Il Sacchetti e la tecnica musicale del Trecento italiano (Florence, 1935)

N. Pirrotta: ‘ Lirica monodica trecentesca’, RaM, ix (1936), 317–25; repr. in Poesia e musica e altri saggi (Florence, 1994), 35–46

K. von Fischer: Studien zur italienischen Musik des Trecento und frühen Quattrocento (Berne, 1956)

B.J. Layton: Italian Music for the Ordinary of the Mass 1300–1450 (diss., Harvard U., 1960), 100ff, 364ff

A. Main: ‘Lorenzo Masini's Deer Hunt’, The Commonwealth of Music, in Honor of Curt Sachs, ed. G. Reese and R. Brandel (New York, 1965), 130–61

A. Seay: ‘The Beginnings of the Coniuncta and Lorenzo Masini's “L'Antefana”’, L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento: Convegno II: Certaldo and Florence 1969 [L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, iii (Certaldo, 1970)], 51–65

G. Corsi, ed.: Poesie musicali del Trecento (Bologna, 1970), pp.xl–xli, 73–80

L. Rossi, ed.: Il Novelliere di Giovanni Sercambi (Rome, 1974), i, 226

K. von Fischer: ‘Philippe de Vitry in Italy and an Homage of Francesco Landini to Philippe’, La musica al tempo del Boccaccio e i suoi rapporti con la letteratura: Siena and Certaldo 1975 [L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, iv (Certaldo, 1978)], 225–35

F.A. Gallo: ‘ Lorenzo Masini e Francesco degli Organi in San Lorenzo’, Studi musicali, iv (1975), 57–63

G.G. Allaire: ‘ Les énigmes de l'Antefana et du double hoquet de Machault: une tentative de solution’, RdM, lxvi (1980), 27–56

M.P. Long: Musical Tastes in Fourteenth-Century Italy: Notational Styles, Scholarly Traditions, and Historical Circumstances (diss., Princeton U., 1981)

J. Nádas: ‘The Structure of MS Panciatichi 26 and the Transmission of Trecento Polyphony’, JAMS, xxxiv (1981), 393–427

M. Long: ‘ Ita se n'era a star nel Paradiso: the Metamorphoses of an Ovidian Madrigal in Trecento Italy’, L'Europa e la musica del Trecento: Congresso IV: Certaldo 1984 [L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, vi (Certaldo, 1992)], 257–67

K. von Fischer: ‘Il ciclo dell'Ordinarium missae del MS F-Pn568 (Pit)’, L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, v, ed. A. Ziino (Palermo, 1985), 31–52

M. Long: ‘Landini's Musical Patrimony: a Reassessment of some Compositional Conventions in Trecento Polyphony’, JAMS, xl (1987), 31–52

F. Brambilla Ageno, ed.: Franco Sacchetti: Il libro delle rime (Florence and Perth, 1990)

F.A. Gallo, ed.: Il codice Squarcialupi (Florence, 1992) [incl. K. von Fischer: ‘ Le biografie’, i, 127–44; N. Pirrotta: ‘Le musiche del codice Squarcialupi’, i, 193–222; G. Tavani: ‘I testi poetici del codice Squarcialupi’, i, 223–42]

M. Gozzi: ‘Alcune postille sul codice Add.29987 della British Library’, Studi musicali, xxii (1993), 249–77

N. Pirrotta: ‘ On Landini and Ser Lorenzo’, MD, xlviii (1994), 5–13

M. Gozzi: ‘La cosidetta Longanotation: nuove prospettive sulla notazione italiana del Trecento’, MD, xlix (1995), 121–49

G. D'Agostino: ‘La tradizione letteraria dei testi poetico-musicali del Trecento’, Studi su Francesco Landini e la musica del suo tempo in memoria di Nino Pirrotta, ed. M.T.R. Barezzani and A. Delfino (Florence, 1999), 389–428

M. Flisi: ‘Notazione francese e italiana: Lorenzo da Firenze e la sperimentazione notazionale’, Problemi e metodi della filologia musicale, ed. S. Campagnolo (Lucca, forthcoming)

KURT VON FISCHER/GIANLUCA D'AGOSTINO

Lorenzo da Pavia [Gusnaschi, Lorenzo; Gusnasco, Lorenzo]

(d 1517). Italian instrument maker who worked in Venice. He is known both through an organ with paper pipes of 1494 and his correspondence with Isabella d'Este, a customer and patron who commissioned a virginal (clavicordio) from Lorenzo in 1496. This instrument is probably the one depicted in an intarsia in Isabella's grotta in the Palazzo Ducale, Mantua, which shows the earliest known use of the C/E–c''' compass in string keyboard instruments. Although Lorenzo made several harpsichords and lutes, his organ of 1494 is the only instrument known to have survived. This is a rare example of the use of paper pipes and also testifies to the probable use of a tuning close to 1/3-comma mean-tone (see Wraight) 77 years before it was first described in print by Zarlino (Dimostrationi harmoniche, 1571, p.221). According to Donati it had a compass FG–f''' with two ranks of pipes at 6' and 3' pitch. It is held in the Museo Correr, Venice.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Tiella: ‘The Positive Organ of Lorenzo da Pavia’, Organ Yearbook, vii (1976), 4–15

C.M. Brown and A.M. Lorenzoni: Isabella d'Este and Lorenzo da Pavia (Geneva, 1982)

P.P. Donati: ‘1470–90: Organi di cartone degli studiolo dei principi’, La Musica a Firenze al tempo di Lorenzo il Magnifico: Florence 1992, 275–81

D. Wraight: The Stringing of Italian Keyboard Instruments c1500–c1650, ii (diss., Queen's U. of Belfast, 1997), 194–210

DENZIL WRAIGHT

Loret, Jean

(b Carentan, Normandy, 1595; d Paris, 1665). French writer. He settled in Paris, where he published his first poems, including the Poésies burlesques, in 1647. Some years later he obtained the patronage of Marie d’Orléans, Princess of Longueville, who became the Duchess of Nemours when she married. She granted him a pension of 350 livres and lodgings in her residence. Loret began producing a rhyming gazette for her: a weekly letter in diary form, giving an account of the news at court and in the city in octosyllabic verse. It first appeared on 4 May 1650 and closed on 28 March 1665, on Loret’s death. It came out in manuscript until 1652; a printing licence was granted in 1655, and it appeared under the title La muze historique from 1656 onwards. Loret’s verses in themselves are mediocre, but they are of interest for the information they provide. Loret had several correspondents, and his sources are varied. There are many letters concerning music at court, with accounts of various ballets, the latest Italian spectacles, the Molière-Lully collaboration and concerts; there are letters on church music, describing many ceremonies, and accounts of music-making among both the nobility and the prosperous middle class. Many performers are mentioned and several of the letters concern the lives of musicians or concerts given in their homes, either to publicize their own or their friends’ works or to display their talents as instrumentalists.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BrenetC

Y. de Brossard: Musiciens de Paris d’après le fichier Laborde (Paris, 1965)

M. Jurgens: Documents du minutier central concernant l’histoire de la musique (1600–1650) (Paris, 1967)

Y. de Brossard: ‘La vie musicale en France d’après Loret et ses continuateurs (1650–1688)’, RMFC, x (1970), 117–94

YOLANDE DE BROSSARD

Lori, Arcangelo [Arcangelo del Leuto, Arcangelo del Liuto]

(bap. 2 Jan 1615; d Rome, 15 Jan 1679). Italian lutenist, organist and composer. He spent the whole of his known career in Rome, where he was a leading lutenist in the mid-17th century. He is first heard of, however, as an organist: it was he whom Luigi Rossi succeeded as organist of S Luigi dei Francesi on 1 April 1633. Lori maintained connections with this church, for, at least from 1649 to 1662 and again from 1665 until he was removed in 1667, he participated as a lutenist in the patronal festivals there (on 25 August). From 1655 to 1678 he was second lutenist in Lenten Oratorios performed by the Arciconfraternita del Ss Crocifisso at S Marcello. From 1651, at the latest, he was a member of the Congregazione di S Cecilia; between 1653 and 1657 and in 1664 he was guardiano of its various sections, on 19 November 1664 he was elected one of three almoners, and on 9 July 1665 he was appointed to a commission set up to revise the congregation’s statutes. A series of letters written by Lori in 1665 to the Venetian opera impresario Marco Faustini, and to Faustini’s friend Giovanni Antonio Leffio, reveal that the musician was active as a voice teacher, preparing a number of students for the operatic stage. His few surviving pieces show that he was a competent composer. Most are arias and cantatas for solo voice and continuo (in I-Rc and the Biblioteca Pamphiliana di S Agnese in Agone, Rome); one cantata, Dimmi, Amor (?c1645), whose source is now unknown, is published (ed. F.-A. Gevaert, Les gloires de l’Italie, Paris, 1868, i, and, attributed to ‘Giovanni Francesco del Leuto’, ed. A. Parisotti, Arie antiche, ii, Milan, 1890/R). There is also a motet, Venite, gentes, for soprano, violin, lute and continuo (in I-Bc).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ (under ‘Arcangelo del Leuto’)

MGG1 suppl. (H. Wessely)

RicordiE

A. Liess: ‘Materialen zur römischen Musikgeschichte des Seicento: Musikerlisten des Oratorio San Marcello 1664–1725’, AcM, xxix (1957), 137–71

R. Giazotto: Quattro secoli di storia dell’Accademia nazionale di Santa Cecilia, i (Rome, 1970)

O. Wessely: ‘Aus römischen Bibliotheken und Archiven’, Symbolae historiae musicae: Hellmut Federhofer zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. F.W. Riedel and H. Unverricht (Mainz, 1971), 81–102

J. Lionnet: La musique à Saint-Louis des français de Rome au XVIIe siècle, NA, new ser., iii (1985), suppl.; iv (1986), suppl.

B. Glixon: ‘Private Lives of Public Women: Prima donnas in mid-Seventeenth-Century Venice’, ML, lxxvi (1995), 509–31

HELENE WESSELY

Loriod, Yvonne

(b Houilles, Seine-et-Oise, 20 Jan 1924). French pianist. She studied at the Paris Conservatoire in the early 1940s with Lazare Lévy, Marcel Ciampi, Messiaen and Milhaud, taking seven premiers prix. In 1943 she joined Messiaen in the first performance of the Visions de l’amen for two pianos, and since then she has been heard in the premières of all his works which include a piano part; she has recorded them all. She became Messiaen’s second wife and subsequently appeared with him throughout the world. Messiaen said that he felt free to allow himself ‘the greatest eccentricities’ in his piano writing, knowing that they would be mastered effortlessly by Loriod. Indeed, his music is particularly suited to her style, richly sonorous, rhythmically acute, slicing into the keyboard to display extraordinary cascades of colour. She has also been associated with those composers who were her Conservatoire contemporaries, notably Boulez, whose second book of Structures she introduced with the composer at Donaueschingen in 1961. Her pioneering recordings of Barraqué’s Sonata and Boulez’s Second Sonata had the status of essential documents at a time when almost no-one else was playing such works. She taught at the Paris Conservatoire and at Darmstadt, her pupils including many of the French pianists who came to prominence during the 1960s and 1970s.

PAUL GRIFFITHS

Loriti, Henricus.

See Glarean, Heinrich.

Lo Roy.

See Roy, Bartolomeo.

Lortat-Jacob, Bernard

(b Paris, 1 Jan 1941). French ethnomusicologist. He studied music at the Schola Cantorum (1964–6), ethnology at the Sorbonne with A. Leroi-Gourhan (1966) and then ethnomusicology with Gilbert Rouget at the Musée de l’Homme, Paris (1969–73). In 1974 he joined the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, where he remained for his subsequent career as a researcher, becoming the director of research in 1993. In 1988 he was placed in charge of the ethnomusicological course for the PhD at the University of Paris X (Paris-Nanterre) and in 1991 was appointed director of the Laboratoire d’Ethnomusicologie at the Musée de l’Homme. His research concentrates chiefly on the music of countries in the Mediterranean (particularly Morocco and Sardinia) and the Balkans (especially Romania), and is conducted from a deliberately anthropological perspective.

WRITINGS

La musique de village des Ayt Mgun, Berbères sédentaires du Haut-Atlas central (Maroc) (diss., U. of Paris VIII, 1973); partially repr. in Musique en jeu, no.19 (1975), 59–69 as ‘“Si le vieux chante, il ne doit pas réprimander le jeune qui joue du tambour”: note sur la musique berbère du Haut-Atlas (Maroc)’)

‘Quelques problèmes généraux d’analyse musicale’, RdM, lxi (1975), 3–34

‘Semiologie, ethnomusicologie, esthétique’, Musique en jeu, no.28 (1977), 92–104

with H. Jouad: La saison des fêtes dans une vallée du Haut-Atlas (Paris, 1978)

‘Music as a Collective Enterprise: the Case of Berber Music of the High Atlas’, World of Music, xxii (1980), 62–77

Musique et fêtes au Haut-Atlas (Paris, 1980)

‘Community Music and the Rise of Professionalism: a Sardinian Example’, EthM, xxv (1981), 185–97

‘Community Music as an Obstacle to Professionalism: a Berber Example’, EthM, xxv (1981), 87–98

with F. Giannattasio: ‘Modalità di improvvisazione nella musica sarda: due modelli’, Culture musicali, i (1982), 3–35

with H. Jouad: ‘Les modèles métriques dans la poésie de tradition orale et leur traitement musical’, RdM, lxviii/1–2 (1982), 174–97

‘Theory and “Bricolage”: Attilio Cannargiu’s Temperament’, YTM, xiv (1982), 45–54

‘L’arbre mangé: variations sur la “chèvre qui sonne” (Calabre, Italie)’, Canadian University Music Review, v (1984), 242–68

ed.: L’improvisation dans les musiques de tradition orale: Cologne 1983 and Tours 1984

‘Improvisation et modèle: le chant à guitare sarde’, L’homme, xxiv (1984), 65–89

‘Le métier de “laǔtar”’, Dialogue: revue d’études roumaines et des traditions orales méditerranénnes, nos.12–13 (1984), 13–35

‘Music and Complex Societies: Control and Management of Musical Production’, YTM, xvi (1984), 19–33

‘Méthodes d’analyse en ethnomusicologie’, IRASM, xvii (1986), 239–57

Jeu musical, jeu social: une approche ethnomusicologique de l’aire méditerranéenne (diss., U. of Paris X, 1987)

‘Genre et forme: un champ mal partagé’, Ethnomusicologica II: Siena 1989, 15–27

Chroniques sardes (Paris, 1990; Eng. trans., 1995)

‘L’ethnomusicologie en France’, AcM, lxii (1990), 289–301

‘Savoir les chanter, pouvoir en parler: chants de la passion en Sardaigne’, Cahiers de musiques traditionnelles, iii (1990), 5–22

ed.: L’ethnomusicologie en Europe: inventaire des ressources (Paris, 1991)

‘La berceuse et l’épopée: questions de genre’, RdM, lxxviii (1992), 5–25

‘En accord, polyphonies de Sardaigne: quatre voix qui n’en font qu’une’, Cahiers de musiques traditionnelles, vi (1993), 69–86

Indiens chanteurs de la Sierra Madre: l’oreille de l’ethnologue (Paris, 1994)

‘Le jeu du kaléidoscope: hommage à Béla Bartók folkloriste’, Il saggiatore musicale, i (1994), 165–96

Musiques en fête: Maroc, Sardaigne, Roumanie (Nanterre, 1994)

‘Le champ expérimental: dictée musicale à Baia Mare (Roumanie)’, Ndroje Balendro: musiques, terrains et disciplines, ed. V. Dehoux and others (Paris, 1995), 339–64

‘L’oreille de l’ethnologue’, Cahiers de musiques traditionnelles, viii (1995), 159–72

with J. Bouët: ‘Quatre-vingts ans après Bartók: pratiques de terrain en Roumanie’, RdM, lxxxi (1995), 5–24

Canti di Passione (Lucca, 1996)

ed., with G. Léothaud and H. Zemp: Les voix du monde: une anthologie des expressions vocales (Paris, 1996) [extensive disc notes]

JEAN GRIBENSKI

Lortie, Louis

(b Quebec, 27 April 1959). Canadian pianist. He studied in Quebec with Yvonne Hubert and made his first major public appearance at the age of 13 with the Montreal SO. By the age of 15 he had won first prize in Canada’s two main competitions, the Canadian Music Competition and the CBC National Competition. He made an official début in 1978 in Toronto with the Toronto SO, which subsequently engaged him for a tour of Japan and China. In his early twenties he moved to Baltimore to study with Leon Fleisher, and in 1984 won the Busoni International Competition and was also a prizewinner at Leeds. These successes helped to launch an international career based in Canada and the USA, with frequent tours of Europe and appearances in Asia. Lortie plays with powerful projection and a straightforward and unpretentious natural musical flow. Among the best of his recordings are the Chopin Etudes, the complete piano music of Ravel and Schumann’s Concerto; his repertory also extends to Gershwin. He founded the Lortie-Berick-Lysy Trio in 1995, and appears both as conductor and soloist with the Orchestra di Padova e del Veneto. In 1992 he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada.

JESSICA DUCHEN

Lortzing, (Gustav) Albert

(b Berlin, 23 Oct 1801; d Berlin, 21 Jan 1851). German composer, actor and singer. From the mid-1830s he composed comic operas with spoken dialogue, adapting the opéra comique genre which had been very popular in Germany as well as France in the early 19th century. His operas were particularly successful in German theatres, less so in French- and English-speaking countries. While this distinction still holds good, Lortzing remains one of the most frequently performed of all operatic composers on the German stage.

IRMLIND CAPELLE (1, work-list, bibliography), JOHN WARRACK (2)

1. Life.

The composer’s father, Johann Gottlieb Lortzing (b Berlin, 12 May 1776; d Leipzig, 2 Dec 1841), was a leather merchant. His mother, Charlotte Sophie, née Seidel (b Berlin, 6 April 1780; d Vienna, 8 Dec 1846), was descended from a French émigré family. Albert’s parents took a great interest in the theatre and performed with the amateur dramatic company Urania, from which many professional actors had graduated. (Lortzing composed a festive piece in 1842 for the company’s 50th anniversary.) The composer’s uncle, Johann Friedrich Lortzing (1782–1851), had, with his wife Beate Elsermann (1787–1831) and his foster-daughter Caroline Lortzing (1809–71), been a member of the Weimar Staatstheater company under Goethe. This uncle later became a portrait painter at Weimar. At the end of 1811 Lortzing’s parents found themselves in financial difficulties and decided to make a career of their hobby. Johann Gottlieb specialized in comic and sentimental fathers, while Charlotte Sophie took larger parts, including comic old women, and was a good enough singer to appear in opera.

At first the couple were engaged to appear with various touring companies in Saxony, Bavaria, Breslau and Freiburg, but in his Autobiographische Skizze (repr. in Capelle, ed.: Albert Lortzing: sämtliche Briefe, 1995, p.450) Lortzing points out that ‘although they were employed only by touring theatrical ensembles, they did all they could for my musical education’. He had already taken piano lessons in Berlin from Johann Heinrich Griebel, bassoonist in the orchestra of the Königliche Schauspiele, and had studied theory with Karl Friedrich Rungenhagen, director of the Berlin Sing-Akademie. These studies constituted Lortzing’s only continuous training; some harmony exercises are preserved in the Lippische Landesbibliothek, Detmold. Lortzing also learnt the violin and the cello, which he occasionally played in the theatre orchestra, and sometimes appeared on stage in children’s parts with the companies employing his parents. In 1816–17, while they were in Freiburg, he composed his first publicly performed incidental music, for Kotzebue’s Der Schutzgeist (the music is now lost). He also frequently worked as a copyist to improve the family’s finances – to the benefit of his written notation, which remained very clear throughout his life.

After 1817 his parents were engaged by Joseph Derossi and Sebald Ringelhardt, whose troupe toured the Rhine area, playing in Aachen, Düsseldorf and Elberfeld; when the two theatrical directors parted company, the Lortzings stayed with Ringelhardt, performing in Aachen and Cologne. In 1820 Lortzing was engaged for the first time on his own account. According to his Autobiographische Skizze, he played the parts of ‘bons vivants and gentlemen, and sang second tenor and buffo roles’. He was generally very popular as an actor, and while he was young would take any part required of him, including such major serious roles as that of Karl Moor in Schiller’s Die Räuber. Some of these performances earned him bad reviews, and during his years in Detmold (1826–33) he confined himself to comic roles in both plays and operas. After his move to Leipzig in 1833 he took larger parts in comedies and played operatic roles until his retirement from the stage in 1844.

In 1823–4, during his engagement with Ringelhardt’s company (which lasted until 1826), Lortzing composed his first opera, Ali Pascha von Janina, a one-act piece. Its successful première took place in Münster in 1828. On 30 January 1824 Lortzing married the company’s leading lady, Rosina Regina Ahles (b Bietigheim, 10 Dec 1800; d Vienna, 13 June 1854). She continued to appear on stage until 1835, but took only minor roles in Leipzig. The marriage was a happy one and produced 11 children, five of whom died in infancy. The youngest son, Hans, became an actor.

According to Rosina Lortzing in the first biography of her husband, by their friend Philipp Düringer, Lortzing supplemented his musical training during his years with Ringelhardt’s company through his own assiduous study, particularly of Albrechtsberger’s Gründliche Anweisung zur Composition. His compositions up to the middle of 1826 confirm her account, although there is no obvious evidence of Albrechtsberger’s influence. A noticeable advance in formal control and refinement of instrumentation appears in an aria written early in 1826 for insertion into Auber’s opera La neige. The aria, which greatly increases the dramatic effect of a scene for the Prince of Neuburg, was performed in November 1826 in Detmold, where Lortzing had joined the Hoftheater company. This ensemble, directed by August Pichler, played in Detmold, Pyrmont, Münster and Osnabrück. The Lortzings were among its leading members, and would have been well content with their position had not the constant travelling from place to place prevented a settled domestic life.

In Detmold Lortzing composed a great deal of incidental music, notably for Scribe’s Yelva and for Christian Dietrich Grabbe’s Don Juan und Faust, in which he incorporated themes from Spohr’s Faust and Mozart’s Don Giovanni, two operas which left clear traces on the text itself. Lortzing’s oratorio Die Himmelfahrt Jesu Christi had its première in a concert in Münster on 15 November 1828, and was performed again in Osnabrück in 1829; it is a work that stands up well against the many oratorios of the period written for music festivals, and shows that Lortzing had learnt the craft of counterpoint. He also composed a Potpourri for horn and orchestra for his friend August Räuber, who played the horn in the Hofkapelle. Among his stage works of this period are the arrangement of Hiller’s Die Jagd (1830), the Liederspiel Der Pole und sein Kind (1832), the vaudeville Der Weihnachtsabend (1832) and two Singspiele: Andreas Hofer and Szenen aus Mozarts Leben. Apart from the overtures, all of these works draw largely or wholly on other music.

In November 1833 Lortzing and his family followed Ringelhardt to Leipzig, joining his parents who had come from Cologne. He quickly established himself there as an actor and singer, and immediately joined the Tunnel society, of which he became musical director in 1843 and for whom he wrote several occasional works. He later also joined the ‘Minerva’ freemasons’ lodge and the Schiller-Verein, founded by Robert Blum in 1840. He regularly attended concerts in the Gewandhaus but in these years composed no purely orchestral works, for the Gewandhaus orchestra was unlikely to perform a composition by an actor. His monthly salary from the theatre was only just enough for the family to live on, so in 1834 he sought to supplement his income by writing works for domestic use. His piano variations on a theme from Nestroy’s Lumpazivagabundus (now lost) failed to find a publisher, and he was soon forced to realize (see his correspondence for 1834) that this field of composition was not his strong point. He had greater success in Leipzig with songs written for insertion into other people’s works, publishing these in a series entitled Figaro.

He began work on his first full-length comic opera, Die beiden Schützen, in 1835. However, it did not receive its première in Leipzig until 20 February 1837, partly because Ringelhardt was reluctant to promote Lortzing’s ‘second career’. (For the same reason he never offered him a post as Kapellmeister.) Lortzing sent the opera to other theatres, including Berlin, but none of them was prepared to risk a work by an unknown composer. A second opera, Die Schatzkammer des Ynka, followed in 1836, to a text by Robert Blum, but its music is now lost, apart from a march. According to Lortzing himself, he never ventured to publish this ‘grand romantic opera’ after the subsequent success of his comic operas.

Immediately after the successful première of Die beiden Schützen, Lortzing started work on another comic opera, Zar and Zimmermann. First performed in Leipzig on 22 December 1837, the opera sealed Lortzing’s reputation as the foremost German composer of comic operas. It was produced in opera houses throughout the German-speaking countries (see fig.1), particularly after its triumphant performance at the Berlin Hofoper on 6 January 1839. Die beiden Schützen was now taken into the Berlin repertory as well, and Lortzing’s next ‘grand comic opera’, Caramo, oder Das Fischerstechen was composed expressly for the Berlin company. However, despite its successful première in Leipzig, with the composer conducting, the Berlin company rejected the work because its subject was similar to that of the opera Bergamo by the Berlin composer Karl Ludwig Blum. Other theatres also rejected it because of the demands it made on the singers, while the finale called for an expensive stage set of purely local interest to Leipzig.

Lortzing wrote his next opera, Hans Sachs, to a text revised by Philipp Reger, to celebrate the 400th anniversary of the invention of printing; he followed it immediately with another comic opera, Casanova, given its première on the last day of 1841. Exactly a year later, on 31 December 1842, Der Wildschütz had its brilliantly successful première in Leipzig. After Ringelhardt’s contract at the Stadttheater in Leipzig expired in 1844 Lortzing, to his delight was offered a year’s contract as Kapellmeister by the new director, Karl Christian Schmidt. Lortzing now saw the achievement of his ambitions within his grasp, while the widespread recognition he had won as a composer was further confirmed by a successful tour to Mannheim and Frankfurt in May 1844.

It is difficult to assess Lortzing’s abilities as a Kapellmeister. He and Joseph Netzer succeeded F.L. Schubert as Kapellmeister of the Leipzig theatre, and on hearing of the appointments the leader of the Gewandhaus orchestra, Ferdinand David, remarked, ‘God send us a correct beat!’ Netzer fell out with the orchestra from the very beginning, so it quickly emerged that his contract would not be extended; but Lortzing was shocked to learn that he would fare likewise. This was the first time in his life he had been dismissed, and he saw the reason as purely financial, although he later indirectly admitted that he had not at first entirely mastered the art of conducting. All his subsequent efforts to obtain a conducting post show that Lortzing felt himself cut out to be a Kapellmeister primarily because he was a successful operatic composer. He wanted a position that would allow him ample time for composing, at a period when the performance of new operas by composers such as Verdi, Wagner and Meyerbeer made increasing demands on a Kapellmeister’s energies. Although he seems initially to have found discipline difficult, contemporary accounts confirm that Lortzing was a perfectly capable conductor. But after his engagement in Vienna in 1846 he never again succeeded in finding a suitable post.

Disappointment at his dismissal as Kapellmeister in Leipzig was mitigated by the success of his Romantic opera Undine both at its première in Magdeburg and in the production he himself conducted in Hamburg. Lortzing used the year 1845–6, when he had no official duties, to build up his health (he suffered from gout). He also made several appearances as a conductor, including a successful concert in Leipzig mounted at his own expense, and composed a new opera, Der Waffenschmied. Its première in Vienna on 30 May 1846 led to his appointment as Kapellmeister at the Theater an der Wien. Lortzing took up his Viennese post in September 1846 in a spirit of optimism. He and Franz von Suppé had been engaged together as Kapellmeister, and he hoped to find a secure niche in the wide-ranging theatrical and musical life of the city. However, he soon found himself frustrated by theatrical rivalries, by a repertory that favoured established productions starring guest singers at the expense of new operas, by the lack of singers suitable for his own works and by the musical taste of the Viennese, who far preferred Italian to German opera.

At first, however, Lortzing continued to work as usual in Vienna: he composed the comic opera Zum Grossadmiral, which had its première in Leipzig on 13 December 1847, and wrote a great deal of incidental music for productions at the Theater an der Wien. A decisive change came with the events of March 1848. Lortzing sympathized with the new revolutionary ideals, wrote a number of male-voice choruses and freedom songs and saw a good opportunity for the Theater an der Wien to triumph over the rival court opera at the Kärntnertor. He composed his Regina ‘for the circumstances of the time’, but the Revolution was already over by the time it was finished in October. In retrospect, the year 1848 had brought Lortzing nothing but disappointment: takings at the theatre were irregular, and consequently so was his salary, there was little demand from other theatres for his previous opera, Zum Grossadmiral, while Regina, with its ‘liberal’ subject, had no prospect of performance. When the opera company of the Theater an der Wien was dissolved on 1 September 1848, he was once again without a post.

Lortzing knew that only a new opera could resolve his financial difficulties and give him the credit he needed in applying for a post as Kapellmeister. He completed his last full-length opera, Rolands Knappen, in the spring of 1849, conducting its acclaimed première in Leipzig on 25 May. He was immediately invited by the new director at Leipzig, Rudolf Wirsing, to take up the position of Kapellmeister in the city; but at the end of October, when his whole family had moved back to Leipzig, he learnt that his predecessor Julius Rietz had been reappointed, and resigned. He was obliged to return to acting and to touring as guest conductor in the hope of finding permanent employment. At the same time he wrote many songs and male-voice choruses, which he could sell immediately to publishers, and sketched out (but did not compose) an opera, Cagliostro. Early in 1850 he had high hopes of a projected performance of Zar und Zimmermann at Her Majesty’s Theatre in London, which would have given him an opportunity to promote the work in the English market and sell the Italian translation that now existed to other theatres. However, his negotiations with the manager of Her Majesty’s, Benjamin Lumley, fell through.

On 1 May 1850 Lortzing took up the post of Kapellmeister at the Friedrich-Wilhelmstädtisches Theater in Berlin. Its director had assured him that he could build up a repertory of comic opera there. However, political plays and farces drew bigger audiences, and nothing came of Lortzing’s plans. On 20 January 1851 his last opera, Die vornehmen Dilettanten, oder Die Opernprobe, had its première in Frankfurt. He died suddenly of a stroke the following morning.

Lortzing and his family lived in great poverty after his final return to Leipzig. Moving at this time cost 1000–1200 thalers, at least as much as his normal annual salary, and he had disbursed a similar sum for his daughter’s dowry in 1848. Since he could hardly keep his family on his salary alone, he relied heavily on the income from the sale of his operas. His account book (copy in D-Bsb) shows that his earnings were good after the success of Zar und Zimmermann; but they depended on his writing a successful opera every year, since the theatres made a one-off payment for the score and singing parts. A royalty system, which would have eased his difficulties, was not introduced until the mid-1840s, and then only tentatively, and he benefited from it only with Undine in Hamburg.

2. Works.

Lortzing was above all a man of the theatre – the theatre of the average German town in the first half of the 19th century. From his earliest years he had practical experience of acting and singing in a mixed repertory of drama (often adaptations from the French, or conventional pieces by the crude but fertile Kotzebue and his followers), of ballet, Singspiel, Liederspiel, Lustspiel, Posse and other semi-musical pieces, but all too rarely of opera as it was developing in the years after Weber and in Wagner’s early career. He was originally content to write for the audience drawn to the theatre for varied and undemanding entertainment; only as his career developed from provider of music for whatever the theatrical occasion demanded into the author of operas welcomed in the theatres of Germany did he begin to raise his sights higher.

Possessing a quick and receptive mind, as well as a highly developed practical sense, Lortzing began as an imitator when he did not actually use other men’s music. Ali Pascha von Janina is a weak dilution of the superficial rescue-opera features of Die Entführung aus dem Serail (the fashionable oriental setting, here Epirus, with a Turkish march, a harem and the Belmonte-like Bernier) and Fidelio (Ali Pascha’s vigorous vengeance aria, not only musically but verbally copying Pizarro’s ‘Ha! welch ein Augenblick – Die Rache werd’ ich kühlen’ with ‘Ha schrecklich – Will ich meine Rache kühlen’). Untypically, the action is awkward, with three settings for a one-act opera, and the dialogue stilted. The four one-act Singspiele of 1832 show a sharper ear for dialogue and greater deftness in assembling a stage piece in response to immediate stimuli. Der Pole und sein Kind and Andreas Hofer reflect the contemporary enthusiasm for the liberation struggles of Poland and the Tyrol, though the former uses only two original numbers (the overture and Janicky’s first song) and the latter draws extensively on outside music, including Spohr’s oratorio Die letzten Dinge and Weber’s Leyer und Schwert. Der Weihnachtsabend also has only its overture and one number by Lortzing, and draws extensively on Mozart. Szenen aus Mozarts Leben (on the Mozart–Salieri rivalry, with singing parts for Constanze, Aloysia, Adamberger, Albrechtsberger and Salieri and, presumably, a speaking part for Mozart) consists entirely of Mozart’s instrumental music. If it shows little real appreciation of Mozart, the piece indicates Lortzing’s admiration for what he saw as an exemplary German idiom. These lessons and experiences he put to good use in Die beiden Schützen, in its dramatic organization a pivotal work between the youthful Singspiele and the mature operas.

With Zar und Zimmermann, Lortzing hit upon the formula that, with ingenious variations and developments, was to provide him with the substance of his greatest successes. He liked to take his subjects from obscure plays (often Lustspiele, or pieces translated from the French) which provided the effective roles which he demanded; and he resisted strongly the easy recourse to the classics in choosing subjects, as he told Lobe: ‘About that, everyone must follow his own inclination … I would make no other general rule, except not to grasp at easily accessible classical pieces … Forgotten sources, like Der Bürgermeister von Saardam, Der Rehbock and so on – one can make something of them’. His distaste for the classics took satirical form in Der Wildschütz: the vogue for Sophocles that followed the 1842 Leipzig performance of Mendelssohn’s incidental music to Antigone is mocked in the Countess with her Greek mania and her perpetual Sophocles quotations. Similarly, he mocked italianate recitative, which he found dull and difficult for German singers to master, in his last work, Die vornehmen Dillettanten, oder Die Opernprobe, in which the opera-mad Count always addresses his servants in recitative. Although he did occasionally use recitative, generally for special purposes and in an un-italianate manner, he was a firm believer in dialogue, which he even introduced effectively into musical numbers, as with Peter Ivanov’s interjections into Marie’s ‘Die Eifersucht’ in Zar und Zimmermann. He normally wrote his own texts, and is the most important German composer before Wagner to have done so.

The form which he evolved for his use out of Singspiel and opéra comique is thus number opera, with dialogue, set out in a theatrically sound pattern. Normally this would consist of an overture, an opening chorus setting the scene, then a series of short numbers, building, especially in the second act, towards a finale of some structural fluency. Though the finale would hardly approach those of his exemplar Mozart in symphonic range, it could (as in Act 1 of Undine and Act 2 of Rolands Knappen) include separate songs as well as choral sections and passages of freer composition. Within the overall structure, the separate numbers were often to a formula which Lortzing, with his melodic fluency, knew he could easily diversify to the satisfaction of audiences who would still feel themselves on comfortingly familiar ground. One regular standby was the jovial, comic or explanatory aria in a square 2/4: such are Görg’s ‘Ein Schuster, jung an Jahren’ in Hans Sachs, Eduard’s ‘Fern von Treiben’ in Zum Grossadmiral, and comparable arias for Andiol in Rolands Knappen and for Casanova. Another was the tender cavatina, often given to a girl (Kunigunde in Hans Sachs) but also sometimes to a man (Amarin in Rolands Knappen); commonly these would begin on the dominant, leading into the tonic for the entry of the voice. The polacca, a type which Lortzing would have learnt from Hiller’s Die Jagd but which was a popular feature of German Romantic opera, provided a contrast: examples are given to the Countess in Der Wildschütz, to Georg in Der Waffenschmied, and to Casanova, where his cry for freedom, perhaps associated with Poland’s sufferings, becomes a motif for the whole opera. Combined with these were duets, choruses and ensembles, all leading up to the finale.

However, Lortzing was too good a craftsman and too sensitive to influences of various kinds to allow this pattern to settle into a rigid framework. His initial impulse had come from the Singspiel and from Mozart; receptive to the impressions gained during his years in the theatre, he was also capable of absorbing the example of Weber and of French opéra comique, and of taking the example of ‘reminiscence motif’ as it was developing towards leitmotif. There are several suggestions of leitmotif in Casanova; these are more fully developed in Undine, in which there is quite a sophisticated use of the device, and in Rolands Knappen and Regina; and they return even in the more modest Zum Grossadmiral. Together with this naturally goes an increased harmonic range. Fundamentally an eclectic and assimilative composer, Lortzing could also reflect part of the idiom of Spohr and Weber in some advanced chromatic harmony. The increased freedom won with Undine was put to expressive use in his other, Marschner-like, fairy opera, Rolands Knappen, in which his normally even phrase lengths and plain melodic lines could be turned to a much more expressive irregularity, despite the simple couplets (see ex.1). And the introduction to a tender aria, instead of comprising a plain dominant introduction to the tonic, could involve some chromatic harmony that was not overtaken until mature Wagner (ex.2).

But despite the achievements of Undine and Rolands Knappen, Lortzing was well advised to keep within the bounds of comic opera. Regina, his one attempt at a Revolutionary opera, was inspired more by the public mood of 1848 than by any powerful political convictions, and reduces the issues to those of a robber novel, the revolutionaries to a rebellious mob. The work is technically interesting in Lortzing’s output for its attempt to tackle Romantic opera of a particular kind, and for its move away from number opera (in the first two acts the musical continuity is broken only twice by dialogue, and in the last act there is none); but it often fails to rise to the occasion, since Lortzing could not consistently summon the creative power to charge his theme and his form with musical meaning.

It was in comic opera that he remained most at home; and though his humour does not range far beyond the homely jollity of his middle-class German audiences, he was capable of many delightful strokes. Satire was not his strong point, though he was able to make capital out of situations he really understood. There are some lively shafts in Die Opernprobe, and nothing in his output is more amusingly handled than Van Bett’s rehearsal scene in Zar und Zimmermann, when the dim-witted chorus first misunderstands its choirmaster, then repeatedly comes in wrong and falls to mutual recrimination: all this is cleverly composed into a continuous number. Van Bett is a lively buffo bass in fairly traditional vein, taking his colour from Rossini’s Bartolo in ‘O sancta justitia’ (in which his failure to achieve a low F is remedied by a helpful bassoon). In this way, characterization tends to be by reference to type, with the Marquis de Châteauneuf given an elegant aria in the French manner. It was, in fact, the singer-type which guided Lortzing’s ideas, rather than a feeling for character leading him to impose his demands on the singer. But he was a master at providing roles that ideally suited singers of the rather compartmentalized parts then common in the German theatre; and he had a particular touch with comic bass parts such as Baculus in Der Wildschütz and Van Bett. With admirable effectiveness, his old boors bumble, his maidens flirt or sigh, his ardent young men woo or make merry: each knows his place, and each expresses himself with the tunefulness that was Lortzing’s second nature. He was not equipped to make much of the characters of Hans Sachs, though there are hints, not only attributable to the common origin in Deinhardstein’s play, on which Wagner acted for Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg. There is, for instance, a sequence of dances (with which Lortzing had a sure touch) before the dénouement; Sachs is conceived as a dreamer; and Görg has a cadential figure to his first aria which curiously anticipates his Meistersinger equivalent, David.

Lortzing’s choruses tend to be simply written, opening the opera with a characteristic scene-setting number, as with the apprentices in Hans Sachs and Der Waffenschmied, the peasants in Zum Grossadmiral and the Murano gondoliers’ barcarolle in Casanova. However, the latter work includes, most entertainingly, what is probably the first operatic appearance of a chorus of comic policemen, singing with exaggerated caution as they pursue their prey (‘Ganz behutsam, still und leise’). Only with Der Wildschütz was the opening chorus first abandoned: later, Undine begins with an aria, Rolands Knappen, for dramatic reasons, with a solo terzett.

As with other contemporary developments, the greatly increased range of orchestral technique left its mark on Lortzing. He liked to work with the Mozartian orchestra that he could expect to find in the average German theatre, and he normally scored for it conventionally but deftly, with the woodwind used in chorus or individually picked out for solos. He seldom attempted any of Weber’s subtle combinations. However, there is a Weberian touch in the cantabile section of Van Bett’s ‘O sancta justitia’, when the voice is accompanied by pizzicato arpeggios over cello and double bass chords on the first beat of the bar with low held viola 3rds in the middle. Also in Zar und Zimmermann, there is an enterprising use of violins sul ponticello; and in Rolands Knappen, a work in which, exceptionally, the orchestra includes a harp, Lortzing introduced an original effect of high tremolo violins. The use of four trumpets for Ali Pascha’s vengeance aria was an experiment he did not take further, though the sound of the Euryanthe huntsmen’s horns seems to have impressed him in Rolands Knappen, as it was to impress Wagner, to judge by the opening of Act 2 of Tristan und Isolde.

The circumstances of his life at once gave Lortzing access to a readily acceptable style of theatre composition while demanding of him a high rate of production. With this, his fluency could cope; but he was given little respite in which to develop the more ambitious manner which shows intermittently in the works of his last five years. He remained essentially outside the development of Romantic opera, despite the Romantic elements which, together with much else, he absorbed into his operas, especially Undine and Rolands Knappen. Dittersdorf and Hiller, Weber, Marschner and Spohr, and above all Mozart provided him with examples; he drew on opéra comique and French dramatic style, which he knew from his mother and from the contemporary theatre, as much as on German Singspiel; like other German composers, he did not reject the Italian influence as completely as he would have one believe. An essential part of his success lay in his mastery of the native theatre song style, ultimately related to folk music, which so appealed to contemporary German audiences and has continued to do so to their descendants. Though he showed much ingenuity in developing whole operas on this basis, with a shrewd instinct for what could be harnessed to effective ends, he lacked the gift for more extended imaginative forays. It is as the ablest mid-19th-century German theatre composer for entertainment that he is remembered; and despite his attempts at larger enterprises, he would probably be content with his steady place in the affections of ordinary German audiences. To Lobe he once remarked, ‘I would be happy for a few of my works to give a number of honest souls some agreeable hours’.

WORKS

Thematic catalogue: I Capelle, ed.: Chronologisch-thematisches Verzeichnis der Werke von Gustav Albert Lortzing (Cologne, 1994) [LoWV] principal MS collections in D-Bsb, DT; librettos by the composer unless otherwise stated

singspiele and operas

LoWV

9	Ali Pascha von Janina (Ali Pascha von Janina, oder Die Franzosen in Albanien) (Oper, 1), 1824, Münster, 1 Feb 1828, vs ed. G.R. Kruse (Leipzig, 1904)
20	Die Jagd (komische Oper, 3, after J.A. Hiller and C.F. Weisse), 1829/30, Detmold, Hof, 19 Dec 1830, unpubd, lib ed. G.R. Kruse (Leipzig, 1904) [arr. of Hiller’s Die Jagd]
25	Der Pole und sein Kind, oder Der Feldwebel vom IV. Regiment (Liederspiel, 1), Osnabrück, 11 Oct 1832, vs ed. C. Braun (Regensburg, ?1835), lib in Lortzing (1847), i
26	Der Weihnachtsabend: Launigte Szenen aus dem Familienleben (Vaudeville, 1), Münster, 21 Dec 1832, unpubd, lib ed. G.R. Kruse (Leipzig, c1930)
27	Andreas Hofer (Spl, 1), 1833, unpubd; arr. E.N. von Reznicek, Mainz, 14 April 1887; ov. (Leipzig, 1940)
28	Szenen aus Mozarts Leben (Spl, 1), 1833, 18 April 1834, vs arr. V. Bankwitz (Berlin, 1932)
A-11	Der Amerikaner (after W. Vogel), ?1833–4, only lib sketched
35	Die beiden Schützen (komische Oper, 3, after J. Patrat: Les méprises par ressemblance, trans. G. Cords), 1835, Leipzig, Stadt, 20 Feb 1837, vs (Leipzig, 1838/9), ov. ed. O. Lohse (Leipzig, 1926)
36	Die Schatzkammer des Ynka (grosse romantische Oper, 5, R. Blum, after C.A. von Waschmann), 1836, unpubd, only a Festmarsch (perf. Leipzig, Stadt, 22 Dec 1837) and lib. survives
38	Zar (Czaar) und Zimmermann, oder Die beiden Peter (komische Oper, 3, after Melesville, Merle and Boirie: Le bourgmestre de Sardam, ou Les deux Pierres, trans. G.C. Römer), Leipzig, 22 Dec 1837; vs (Leipzig, 1838), fs ed. G. Kogel (Leipzig, 1900)
41	Caramo, oder Das Fischerstechen (grosse komische Oper, 3, after A. Vilain de Saint-Hilaire and P. Duport: Cosimo), Leipzig, Stadt, 20 Sept 1839, vs arr. G.R. Kruse (Berlin, 1930), lib. in Lortzing (1847), i
43	Hans Sachs (Fest-Oper mit Tanz, 3, after J.L.F. Deinhardstein, rev. P. Reger), 1839–40, Leipzig, Stadt, 23 June 1840, vs (Leipzig, 1841), ov. in fs (c1885)
50	Casanova (komische Oper, 3, after E.A. Varin and Desvergers: Casanova au fort de St André, trans. K.A. Lebrun), 1840–41, Leipzig, Stadt, 31 Dec 1841, vs (Leipzig, 1842)
58	Der Wildschütz, oder Die Stimme der Natur (komische Oper, 3, after A. von Kotzebue: Die schuldlosen Schuldbewussten), Leipzig, Stadt, 31 Dec 1842, vs (Leipzig, 1843), fs (Leipzig, 1843)
64	Undine (romantische Zauberoper, 4, after F. de la Motte-Fouqué), 1843–4, Magdeburg, Stadt, 21 April 1845, vs (Leipzig, 1845), fs ed. G. Soldan (Leipzig, 1926)
66	Der Waffenschmied (Der Waffenschmied von Worms) (komische Oper, 3), Vienna, an der Wien, 30 May 1846, vs (Leipzig, 1846), fs ed. G. Kogel (Leipzig, 1922)
74	Zum Grossadmiral (komische Oper, 3, after A. Duval: La jeunesse de Henri V, trans. A.W. Iffland), Leipzig, Stadt, 13 Dec 1847, vs (Leipzig, 1848)
83	Regina (Oper, 3), 1848, Bsb, vs ed. (Leipzig, 1954); arr. A. L’Arronge as Regina, oder Die Marodeure, Berlin, 21 March 1899, vs arr. R. Kleinmichel (Berlin, 1899), fs and vs ed. I. Capelle (Munich, 1998–9)
85	Rolands Knappen, oder Das ersehnte Glück (komische- romantische Zauberoper, 3, ‘G.M.’ [? G. Meisinger], Lortzing, P. Düringer, after G.A. Musäus), Leipzig, Stadt, 25 May 1849, vs ed. G.R. Kruse and P. Nodermann (Berlin, 1920)
91	Die vornehmen Dilettanten, oder Die Opernprobe (komische Oper, 1, after P. Poisson: L’impromptus de campagne, rev. and trans. J.F. Jünger), Frankfurt, Stadt, 20 Jan 1851, vs ed. R. Kleinmichel (Leipzig, 1893), ov. in fs (Leipzig, 1898)
109	Cagliostro (komische Oper, 3, after E. Scribe and J.-H. Vernoy de Saint-Georges), 1850, lib only, unpubd

incidental music

3	Der Schutzgeist (A. von Kotzebue), Freiburg, 1816–17, lost
12	Die Hochfeuer, oder Die Veteranen (1 act), Münster, 24 March 1828, lost
16	Don Juan und Faust (5, C.D. Grabbe), Detmold, 29 March 1829
22	Der Löwe von Kurdistan (F. Grillparzer), 1831
24	Yelva, oder Die Stumme (2, T. Hell, after E. Scribe), Pyrmont, 30 June 1832
55	Uranias Festmorgen (Festspiel), Berlin, 1842
72	Der wilde klaus, oder Der Schwur am Dreifingerstein, 1847
76	Ein Held und seine Liebe (C. Elmar), 1847
78	Vier Wochen in Ischl, oder Der Geldausleiher in Tausend Aengsten (Posse, 3, J.K. Böhm), Vienna, 18 March 1849
86a	Die Marseillaise (R. von Gottschall), 1849
88	Im Irrenhaus, 1850
93	Eine Berliner Grisette (Posse, 1, O. Stotz), Berlin, 16 June 1850
99	Der Zerissene (J. Nestroy), 1850
101	Ferdinand Schill (5, R. Gottschall), Berlin, 20 Nov 1850
102	Ein Nachmittag in Moabit (farce, 1), Berlin, 5 Dec 1850
103	Das Lied vom 9. Regiment, B solo, chorus, orch, Nov/Dec 1850, perf. 21 Jan 1851
108	Weihnachten (A.W. Hesse), 1850
A–6	Faust II (J.W. von Goethe), inc.
Other works, unperf.

other works

4	Andante maestoso con variazioni, hn, orch, 1820, vs ed. M. Andreae (Frankfurt, 1979)
A–7	Overtura alla turca, orch, 1821, lost
5	Hymne (‘Dich preist, Allmächtiger’), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1822
15	Die Himmelfahrt Jesu Christi (orat, 2, K. Rosenthal), Münster, 15 Nov 1828
23	Potpourri (Konzertstück), hn, orch, July 1831
49	Kantate zur Säkularfeier der Loge ‘Minerva zu den drei Palmen’ (L. Mothes), solo vv, male chorus, orch, Leipzig, 20 March 1841
Various choral and male vocal works, theatre songs and quodlibets; numerous songs, 1v, pf; ovs. and dances, orch

2. Opera and concert life, 1850–1900.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ADB (M. Schletterer); GroveO (C. Brown) [incl. further bibliography]

A. Lortzing: Albert Lortzings komische Opern (Leipzig, 1847)

P.J. Düringer: Albert Lortzing: sein Leben und Wirken (Leipzig, 1851)

F. Gleich: ‘Albert Lortzing (1851)’, Charakterbilder aus der neueren Geschichte der Tonkunst, i (Leipzig, 1863), 70–78

J.C. Lobe: ‘Ein Gespräch mit Lortzing’, Consonanzen und Dissonanzen (Leipzig, 1869), 300–13

H. Weber: Neujahrsstück der Allgemeinen Musikgesellschaft in Zürich, lvii (1869)

H. Welti: ‘Lortzing und Wagner’, Richard Wagner-Jb 1886, 229–38

E. Hanslick: ‘“Der “Wildschütz” von Lortzing’, Die moderne Oper, v: Musikalisches und Litterarisches (Berlin, 1889/R, 3/1911), 111–16

H. Wittmann: Lortzing (Leipzig, 1890, 2/1902)

G.R. Kruse: Albert Lortzing, Berühmte Musiker, vii (Berlin, 1899)

R. Bürner: Albert Lortzing in Detmold, Pyrmont, Münster und Osnabrück (Detmold, 2/1900)

E. von Komorzynski: ‘Lortzings “Waffenschmied” und seine Tradition’, Euphorion, viii (1901), 310–50

G.R. Kruse: Lortzings Hymne und Oratorium, Seemanns Musikführer, nos.202–3 (Leipzig, 1901)

G.R. Kruse, ed.: Lortzings Briefe (Leipzig, 1902, enlarged 2/1913 as Gesammelte Briefe)

G.R. Kruse: ‘Lortzing als Faust-Componist: eine Ergänzung’, NZM, xcviii (1902), 17–18

A. Fritz: ‘Die Künstlerfamilie Lortzing an rheinischen Bühnen’, Archiv für Theatergeschichte, i (1904), 166–76

G.R. Kruse: ‘Der Textentwurf zu Lortzings Oper “Rolands Knappen”’, Die Musik, vi/1 [no.3] (1906–7), 131–9

G.R. Kruse: ‘Krieg und Vaterland in Lortzings Werken’, Die Merker, v (1914), 527–33

G.R. Kruse: Albert Lortzing: Leben und Werk (Leipzig, 1914, 2/1947)

E. Müller: Albert Lortzing: ein Lebensbild des berühmten Musikers unter besonderer Berücksichtigung seines Wirkens und Schaffens in Münster (Münster, 1921)

K. Blessinger: Lortzing und die komische Oper (Frankfurt, 1922)

H. Laue: Die Operndichtung Lortzings: Quellen und Umwelt, Verhältnis zur Romantik und zu Wagner (Bonn, 1932)

G.R. Kruse: ‘Lortzings Ballettmusiken’, AMz, lxiii (1936), 35–7

H. Killer: Albert Lortzing (Potsdam, 1938)

O. Schumann: Albert Lortzing, 1801–1851: sein Leben in Bildern (Leipzig, 1941)

W. Schramm: Albert Lortzing während seiner Zugehörigkeit zur Detmolder Hoftheatergesellschaft 1826–1833 (Detmold, 1951)

E. Sanders: ‘Oberon and Zar und Zimmermann’, MQ, xl (1954), 521–32

M. Hoffmann: Gustav Albert Lortzing, der Meister der deutschen Volksoper (Leipzig, 1956)

E. Wulf: ‘“Die Opernprobe” von G.A. Lortzing’, Untersuchungen zum Operneinakter in der Mitte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (Cologne, 1963)

F. Racek: ‘Einiges über Lortzings Tätigkeit am Theater an der Wien’, Symbolae historiae musicae: Hellmut Federhofer zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. F.W. Riedel and H. Unverricht (Mainz, 1971)

E. Kreft: ‘Wie politisch ist “Zar und Zimmermann”? Lortzings komische Oper als verschlüsselte Zeitkritik’, Neue Musikzeitung, xxii/5 (1973)

R. Rosengard: Popularity and Art in Lortzing’s Operas: the Effects of Social Change on a National Operatic Genre (diss., Columbia U., 1973)

K.D. Gräwe: ‘“Der Wildschütz”: Idyllik und Realismus einer Spieloper aus dem “Vormärz”’, Jb der Hamburgischen Staatsoper 1973–4, 83–95

A. Goebel: Die deutsche Spieloper bei Lortzing, Nicolai und Flotow (diss., U. of Cologne, 1975)

R.R. Subotnik: ‘Lortzing and the German Romantics: a Dialectical Assessment’, MQ, lxii (1976), 241–64

H. Schirmag: Das musikalische Schaffen Albert Lortzings als progressives Erbe der deutschen Opernliteratur der Zeit des Vormärz und der deutschen bürgerlich-demokratischen Revolution von 1848/1849 (diss., U. of Halle-Wittenberg, 1978)

J. Schläder: ‘Undine’ auf das Musiktheater: zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der deutschen Spieloper (Bonn, 1979)

H.C. Worbs: Albert Lortzing in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten (Hamburg, 1980)

H.G.F. Klein: ‘Lortzing-Drucke: Mosaiksteine für eine noch nicht vorhandene Bibliographie’, Festschrift Hans Schneider, ed. R. Elvers and E. Vögel (Munich, 1981), 153–70

H. Schirmag: Albert Lortzing: ein Lebens- und Zeitbild (Berlin, 1982)

I. Capelle: ‘Albert Lortzings Schauspielmusik zu C.D. Grabbes “Don Juan un Faust” (1829)’, Und ein geschminkter Tiger ist der Mensch: Grabbe-Jb, ii (1983), 29–50

H. Schirmag: ‘“Ich bin ein geborener Berliner”: Albert Lortzing in seiner Heimatstadt’, Miniaturen zur Geschichte, Kultur und Denkmalpflege Berlins (Berlin, 1983), 77–97

J. Schläder: ‘Das Solo-Fingle: zu Form und Funktion der Baculus-Arie “Fünftausend Taler”’, Festschrift Rudolf Elvers zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. Herttrich and H. Schneider (Tutzing, 1985), 447–61

I. Capelle: ‘Albert Lortzing und das norddeutsche Singspiel: zu Lortzings Bearbeitung von Johann Adam Hillers Singspiel “Die Jagd” (1829/1830)’, Mf, xxxix (1986), 123–38

J. Schläder: ‘Die Dramaturgie in Lortzings komischen Opern’, Oper als Text: romanistische Beiträge zur Libretto-Forschung, ed. A. Gier (Heidelberg, 1986), 249–78

R. Krollage: ‘Albert und Rosina Lortzing: Ihr Wirken in Osnabrück und die Erinnerung an den Komponisten’, Osnabrück Mitteilungen: Mitteilungen des Vereins für Geschichte und Landeskunde von Osnabrück (Historischer Verein), xcvii (1992), 141–80

I. Capelle, ed.: Albert Lortzing: Sämtliche Briefe (Kassel, 1995)

I. Capelle: ‘“Spieloper”: ein Gattungsbegriff? Zur Verwendung des Terminus, vornehmlich bei Albert Lortzing’, Mf, xlviii (1995), 251–7

I. Capelle: ‘Eine neuentdeckte Komposition Albert Lortzings’, Mf, xlix (1996), 292–3

P. Fischer: Vormärz und Zeitbürgertum: Gustav Albert Lortzings Operntexte (Stuttgart, 1996)

I. Capelle: ‘“Eine interessante Epoche haben wir hier durchlebt”: Albert Lortzing und die Revolution 1848/1849’, Forum Vormärz Forschlung, iv (1998), 265–80

I. Capelle: ‘Ein Oratorio zurischen den Zeiten: Albert Lortzings Himmelfahrt Jesu Christi LoWV 15’, KJb (1999)

Los Angeles.

City in California, USA. It was founded in 1781 by settlers who were chiefly of Spanish, African and Mexican Indian descent, and incorporated in 1850.

1. Early settlers.

3. Development of a local musical culture.

4. The modern era.

ROBERT STEVENSON

1. Early settlers.

The early history of religious music in Los Angeles is the history of the San Gabriel Mission, which was founded in 1771. The Beñeme and Jeniguechi Indians gathered there each day, and sang an alabado (praise song) at dusk and dawn and a bendito (grace) before each meal. In 1776 Pedro Font, a Franciscan from Mexico, visited the mission and led a mass that he accompanied on his psaltery. In 1844 Ignacio Coronel opened a school north of Arcadia Street where he was assisted by his daughter Soledad, a harpist. As late as the mid-1850s the harp remained the favourite instrument of the local aristocracy. In 1855 Blas Raho (1806–62), a Lazarite from southern Italy, arrived in Los Angeles to become parish priest of Our Lady of the Angels Church; a skilled musician, he paid for a new organ and sought to organize a choir for services. In 1856 six Sisters of Charity, including three from Spain, arrived in the city and in 1857–8 trained a choir at their girls' school.

2. Opera and concert life, 1850–1900.

The California Minstrels visited Los Angeles in 1856; they returned to play for three nights at Jesús Domínguez's ranch and at the Nichols salon (1858), Stearns Hall (1859) and the Temple Theater (1865). Frank Hussey's Minstrels and the Metropolitan Minstrels played at the Temple in 1861. In 1865 the Gerardo López del Castillo Spanish Company from Mexico City performed one act of Verdi's Attila at the Temple Theater between acts of La trenza de sus cabellos by Tomás Rodríguez Rubí.

In the 1870s a number of sizable concert halls were constructed that could accommodate larger opera and concert performances. Merced Theater (cap. 400) opened in 1870 with a ‘grand vocal and instrumental concert’ at which the 21st Wilmington Army Band performed. Turnverein Hall, a large hall in a two-storey building on Spring Street, opened in 1872 and was the site of theatrical performances from 1874 and concerts from the following year. In 1875 the English pianist Arabella Goddard (1836–1922) gave two concerts there.

Tresa Carreño and her husband, the violinist Emile Sauret, gave four Turnverein concerts in 1875; Sauret also played duos with the guitarist Miguel S. Arévalo (1843–1900). Arévalo had studied at Guadajara, taught for two years in San Francisco, and moved to Los Angeles in 1871, where he became music director of the newly formed Los Angeles Musical Association. For three decades he was a leading concert performer, composer and teacher, as well as a frequent contributor to La crónica. He helped the area's Mexican culture withstand the pressure of German and Anglo-American musical influences that resulted from waves of immigration in the 1880s.

The completion in 1876 of the Southern Pacific railway link with San Francisco and in 1881 of a link eastward made Los Angeles virtually an obligatory stop for all concert artists touring the West. Ozro W. Childs's Grand Opera House, an elegant auditorium built in a horseshoe configuration with wide aisles, unobstructed views, and 500 seats, opened in 1884 with a house orchestra led by Peter Engels. In 1885 Emma Abbott brought her English Opera Company to the Grand Opera House. In 1887 large crowds heard Theodore Thomas and Gustav Heinrichs conduct the National Opera Company in several works at the newly opened Hazard's Pavilion. This building, also known as the Academy of Music when first opened, seated 4000 (razed after Alfred Hertz conducted Parsifal there in 1905); it would not have been large enough to accommodate the crowd that heard Patti sing the role of Semiramide (Rossini) at Mott Hall in 1887, which was ‘the largest audience in both numbers and money receipts’ that had ever gathered in Los Angeles. In 1892 the Alessandro Salvini Co. performed Mascagni's L'amico Fritz (18 November) before it was heard in New York. The first American performance of Puccini's La bohème was given by the Del Conte Italian Opera Company on 14 October 1897 at the Los Angeles Theater.

After 1875 black Americans played an important part in the history of Los Angeles. In 1876 the Jubilee Singers from Fisk University sang spirituals at Turnverein Hall, which was filled to capacity. All-black minstrel groups that performed in the city included the Original Georgia Minstrels, the New Orleans Minstrels and Brass Band, Callender's Minstrels, Richard and Pringle's Georgia Minstrels, Lew Johnson's Refined Minstrels and Cleveland's Colored Minstrels. Such well-known performers as William Kersands and Sam Lucas toured frequently with these troupes.

3. Development of a local musical culture.

In 1892 Paul Colberg, the founder of a local conservatory, sponsored a concert of his own compositions at Turner Hall; this was the first performance devoted entirely to the works of a Los Angeles resident. Colberg soon left the city, however, convinced that no national reputation could accrue to one of its inhabitants. Preston Ware Orem (1865–1938), a composer, pianist and organist who lived in the city from 1889 to 1897, left for the same reason. In 1895 Carlyle Petersilea (1844–1903), a pianist and teacher from Boston, gave a recital at the Young Men's Christian Association auditorium. The following year he played all of Beethoven's piano sonatas in a series of 11 recitals, the first time such a cycle had been given west of the Rocky Mountains.

The first amateur musical association in Los Angeles, the Ellis Club, was formed in 1888; the following year a women's club, the Treble Clef (later the Lyric Club) was organized. The number of such organizations had grown to 17 by 1922. In 1883 Emily J. Valentine founded the Los Angeles Conservatory of Music (from 1892 the Los Angeles Conservatory of Music and Art) and with the aid of her daughter directed it until her death in 1910; she bequeathed it to Adeltha Valentine Carter and Earl B. Valentine. The conservatory moved many times during the next half-century before merging in 1961 with the Chouinard Art Institute to form the California Institute of the Arts, at Valencia, north of Los Angeles.

In the 1880s and 90s a number of institutions of higher learning offered specialized musical instruction, including St Vincent's College (later Los Angeles College) and Ellis College; both retained Emilie Lassaugue as a teacher until 1884, when she left amid some controversy to establish her own musical college in Nadeau Block. In 1888 Occidental College engaged Asbury Kent, who also taught at McPherrin Academy, as a piano and singing teacher. The teaching of music in Los Angeles public schools began in 1885. In 1910 Jennie Jones became supervisor of an elementary-school orchestra programme; by 1924 there were 122 elementary and 27 high-school ensembles with a total of 2800 players.

The first church with a vested boys' choir was St Paul's Episcopal, where Alfred J.F. McKiernan was precentor from 1886 to 1889. He was assisted at St Paul's School by M.L. Laxton, a school teacher from London. Mamie Perry (1862–1949), a native of the city who had studied opera in Milan, was particularly sought after to sing in various churches in Los Angeles after giving her début at Turnverein Hall in 1882. The most widely performed and published composer of church music was Frederick Stevenson (1845–1925); he moved to the city from Denver in 1894 to conduct at St John's Episcopal Church and Temple B'nai B'rith.

B'nai B'rith (from 1933 the Wilshire Boulevard Temple) was a centre of musical activity as early as 1869, when the temple's building fund sponsored three concerts. From 1862 to 1886 services were led by Abraham Wolf Edelman, an Orthodox rabbi from Warsaw. Later another ritual was instituted; during the tenure (1899–1919) of Rabbi Sigmund Hecht, from Hungary, the congregation not only employed a gentile mixed choir and organist but more than once welcomed ‘Christian worship’. Congregation Sinai, an organization founded in B'nai B'rith hall in 1906, began with a cantor named Katz; from its inception Sinai allowed organ playing, although at first it had no choir.

(ii) Vocal and chamber music.

4. The modern era.

(i) Orchestras.

(iii) Concert halls.

(iv) Sacred music.

(v) Education and libraries.

(vi) Publishing.

(vii) Film music.

(viii) Jazz and popular music.

(i) Orchestras.

The Los Angeles Philharmonic Society was formed in 1878 and revitalized in 1888. The orchestra gave four concerts during the 1888–9 season under the direction of Adolph Willhartitz (1836–1915). Theatre musicians made up most of the 35-piece orchestra when August J. Stamm opened a four-concert season in 1893 at the Grand Opera House. In 1898 Harley Hamilton (1861–1933), the leader of Stamm's orchestra, formed the Los Angeles SO, which he conducted until 1913. He championed the works of several local composers, including Morton Freeman Mason (1859–1927), who played the bassoon in the Los Angeles SO until 1907, Charles Edward Pemberton, the orchestra's oboist in 1904–5, then a member of its violin section, Henry Schoenefeld and Stevenson. He also performed works by other Americans, including Chadwick, MacDowell, Shapleigh, Arthur Foote and Frederick Zech. In addition to leading the Los Angeles SO he conducted the Women's Orchestra of Los Angeles for 20 seasons beginning in 1893.

From 1913 to 1920 the Los Angeles SO played under Adolph Tandler (1875–1953), who conducted the Los Angeles premières of 52 compositions. A graduate of the Vienna Conservatory and founder of the Tandler Quartet (brought to Los Angeles in 1909), he was the first conductor in the western USA to perform Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, and also introduced Berlioz's Harold en Italie, Skryabin's Le poème de l'extase, Sibelius's First Symphony and other works to local audiences. He also performed works by many local composers and conducted several of his own compositions.

After performing in Trinity Auditorium during the 1916–17 season the Los Angeles SO moved for its last three seasons to the Auditorium (known as Clune's between 1915 and 1919). This auditorium, seating 2600, was inaugurated in 1906 and was then the largest reinforced concrete building in California. It became known as Philharmonic Auditorium in 1920 when the Los Angeles PO began performing there and was demolished in 1975.

Founded in 1919 and financed until 1934 by William Andrews Clark, jr (1877–1934), the Los Angeles PO was intended to be ‘as fine an orchestral institution as has existed in America’. Clark was unable to engage Rachmaninoff as its first conductor, and instead chose, on Alfred Hertz's recommendation, Walter Henry Rothwell (1872–1927), formerly the conductor of the St Paul SO. He was followed by Georg Schnéevoigt (1927–9), Artur Rodzinski (1929–33), and Otto Klemperer (1933–9). Clark subsidized the orchestra generously but left it no bequest; on his death the Southern California Symphony Association intervened and continued Klemperer's contract.

Between 1943 and 1956 the orchestra was led by Alfred Wallenstein, one of the first American-born music directors of a major orchestra. His successor, Eduard van Beinum, accepted the music directorship on condition that he be allowed to continue as director of the Amsterdam Concertgebouw. Stricken by a heart attack in 1959, he was succeeded, after Solti refused the appointment, by Zubin Mehta, who was music director and conductor from 1962 to 1978. Carlo Maria Giulini led the orchestra from 1978 to 1983, and Michael Tilson Thomas and Simon Rattle served as principal guest conductors until 1985, when André Previn's appointment as music director became effective. In 1992 Previn was succeeded by Esa-Pekka Salonen. Ernest Fleischmann, executive director from 1969 to 1997, was succeeded by Willem Wijnbergen, and in 1999 by Deborah Borda.

On 11 July 1922 members of the Los Angeles PO, conducted by Alfred Hertz, gave the opening concert in the first ten-week summer season of ‘Symphonies under the Stars’ at Hollywood Bowl. The Bowl – a 60-acre canyon possessing great natural acoustical advantages – had been sold to the Theater Arts Alliance in 1919, and was assigned by deed by the Community Park and Art Association to Los Angeles County in 1924. The Beatles drew huge audiences when they appeared at the Bowl in 1964 and 1965. To revive audiences for classical music, Fleischmann inaugurated spectaculars and mini-marathons; a wide range of popular artists and classical concerts have made the Bowl the Los Angeles PO's financial bastion.

Los Angeles's other orchestras include the Jewish SO, based in Brentwood, the Los Angeles Baroque and Mozart orchestras, the Japanese PO, formed in 1961, the Los Angeles Chamber Symphony, led by Neville Marriner from 1969, then by Gerard Schwarz (1978–85); and more than 20 community orchestras, including the Glendale SO (formed 1923 and led by Carmen Dragon from 1963 until his death in 1984), and well-known ensembles in Long Beach, conducted from 1989 by JoAnn Falletta, and in Pasadena, conducted from 1984 by Jorge Mester.

(ii) Vocal and chamber music.

The Roger Wagner Chorale was founded by Wagner (1914–92), in 1946. Out of it grew the Los Angeles Master Chorale, founded by Wagner in 1965, which during the next two decades was the only professional resident chorus in the country giving its own series of concerts; its programmes include sacred works and operas performed in concert versions. Paul Salamunovich was appointed conductor in 1991.

Since 1997 chamber concerts have been held at Beckman Auditorium, Pasadena. Japan America Theater is the favoured venue for new music involving small ensembles. Monday evening concerts, mainly of contemporary music, are held in the Leo S. Bing Theater, Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Chamber music concerts have also been sponsored by the Music Guild and other organizations.

(iii) Concert halls.

Shrine Auditorium, a massive structure built in 1927, was only partly satisfactory for opera and ballet performances. In the 1960s, however, a group of citizens led by Dorothy Buffum Chandler oversaw the financing and construction of the Music Center, a complex of three auditoriums in central Los Angeles. The Dorothy Chandler Pavilion (cap. 3200) is used chiefly for symphonic and operatic performances, the Mark Taper Forum (753) for chamber music concerts, and the Ahmanson Theater (2100) for drama, light opera and musical comedy. Auditoriums connected with academic institutions include Royce Hall (seating 1892 when built in 1939, slightly fewer after remodelling in 1984) and Schoenberg Hall (528) at UCLA; Edison Performing Arts Center, formerly Ingalls Auditorium (2000) at East Los Angeles College; Bovard Hall (1600) at the University of Southern California; and Thorne Hall (960) at Occidental College. Vying with the Pantages Theater in Hollywood, the Shubert Theater (1824) in Century City has remained the city's principal venue for musical theatre. In 1932, 1934 and each autumn from 1937 to 1965 the San Francisco Opera gave a season of several weeks in the Shrine Auditorium (cap. 6000). Music Center Opera, the city's first fully professional opera company, launched its inaugural season in 1986 with Domingo in Otello at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion.

(iv) Sacred music.

Several churches and synagogues in Los Angeles have been important centres of musical activity. First Congregational's annual Bach festival was started in 1924 by John Smallman (1886–1937). Lloyd Holzgraf became the church's organist in 1959 and began an annual recital series in 1969.

In 1928 the Church of the Blessed Sacrament acquired a Casavant organ with four manuals and 58 ranks and engaged Richard Keyes Biggs (1886–1962) as its organist. Biggs played and recorded prolifically, composed many masses and presented a series of organ recitals at which local virtuosos performed. Roger Wagner began two decades as organist and choirmaster at St Joseph's in 1944. Other prominent music directors have included Jonathan Wattenbarger, followed by Frank Brownstead, at St Paul the Apostle, James Vail at St Alban's and Charles Feldman at Wilshire Boulevard Temple. The area's best-known cantors have included J.J. Frailich at the Reform University Synagogue, Jay Harwitt at the Temple Memorah and Samuel Fordis at the Conservative Adat Shalom.

(v) Education and libraries.

In 1882 a branch of the San Jose Normal School was formally opened in Los Angeles; this became independent (renamed the Los Angeles Normal School) in 1887. It moved in 1914, and in 1919 it became the southern branch of the state university system, being empowered to grant its own degrees in 1924 and assuming its present name, the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), in 1927; it moved to its present campus in 1929. Vocal instruction was introduced at the school in 1883. In 1911 a music department was formally established, becoming a school of music with five faculty members in 1915. The school became the department of music of the new southern branch of the University of California in 1919. The MA degree was authorized in 1940, and the PhD was first conferred in 1949. Ki Mantle Hood, who began teaching at the university in 1954, founded the Institute of Ethnomusicology in 1961; this was absorbed by UCLA's music department on his retirement in 1973. The UCLA music department in the School of the Arts and Architecture offers courses for performers leading to the DMA and the MA and PhD degrees for composers. The University of Southern California (USC), a private institution, was founded in 1880 and began to offer musical instruction in 1883–4. In the mid-1990s the music faculty offered degrees in performance, music education, choral music, theory, composition, music history, conducting and musicology. In 1999 the USC’s music school was renamed the Flora L. Thornton School of Music. The USC building that had previously been occupied by the Arnold Schoenberg Institute became the headquarters of the Thelonius Monk Institute of Jazz Studies. In addition to UCLA and USC there are strong composition programmes at the California Institute of the Arts (which absorbed the Los Angeles Conservatory of Music established in 1883) and at California State University, Northridge.

Libraries in the area with important local music history material include the Henry E. Huntington Library in San Marino (which holds the scrapbooks of Lynden Ellsworth Behymer, documenting the history of symphonic and operatic performances in Los Angeles from 1898 to 1947); the William A. Clark Memorial Library; the Walt Disney Archives in Burbank; the Los Angeles Music Center Archives; the Pasadena Public Library; the library of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in Beverly Hills; and the libraries of the California State University branches in Los Angeles, Long Beach and Northridge.

(vi) Publishing.

Between 1885 and 1945 there were 29 music publishers in Los Angeles. Of these W.A. Quincke & Co. was active for the longest period; the firm was established in 1906 and was in operation until at least 1929. West Coast Publishing Co., which specialized in shape-note gospel music, was active until at least 1924. Other local music publishers and printers during this period were Southern California Music Publishing Co., Falconer & Loveland Music Printers, Frank E. Garbett, Freed & Powers, Saunders Publications, Boris Morris Music Co., Wright Music Co. and Harry G. Neville.

Musical activities in Los Angeles between 1911 and 1948 were described in the Pacific Coast Musician, a periodical founded and edited by Frank Colby (1867–1940), an organist, conductor and composer. Music of the West, a monthly issued in Pasadena from 1945 to 1969, also focussed on local musical events. The only musicological journals published in Los Angeles in more recent years are the Journal of the Arnold Schoenberg Institute (1976–94), edited until 1991 by Leonard Stein, and the Inter-American Music Review (1978–), edited by Robert Stevenson.

(vii) Film music.

The southern California climate attracted the first film companies to Los Angeles in 1913. The advent of sound films in 1927 created a far greater demand for composers and performers; Malotte settled in the city that year, founded a school for theatre organists and wrote and conducted film scores for Walt Disney. Each motion-picture studio employed an orchestra of symphonic proportions, providing a vast pool of musical talent that helped make Los Angeles a centre for radio, television and the recording industry.

(viii) Jazz and popular music.

Among the most influential jazz musicians in Los Angeles was Stan Kenton, who initiated several progressive-jazz ensembles that performed throughout the USA. Other jazz musicians who achieved prominence in Los Angeles include Shelly Manne, Les McCann and Shorty Rogers. Howard Rumsey's series of Concerts by the Sea made the Lighthouse in Hermosa Beach one of the most popular jazz clubs in southern California. In 1998 both UCLA and USC founded institutes of jazz studies. The following year a statue of Duke Ellington was placed in front of UCLA’s Schoenberg Hall.

The leading exponent of modern black gospel music, James L. Cleveland, settled in Los Angeles in 1962 and died there in 1991. He formed the Southern California Community Choir in 1968, and in 1971 became pastor of the Cornerstone Institutional Baptist Church.

Los Angeles has long been an important centre for rock music. Two of the best-known groups of the 1960s, the Doors and Frank Zappa's Mothers of Invention, began their careers in the area. More recently, Los Angeles has been home to several best-selling rap groups, notably NWA, Above the Law and Compton's Most Wanted.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveA (R. Stevenson)

H.W. Splitter: ‘Music in Los Angeles’, Historical Society of Southern California Quarterly, xxxviii/4 (1956), 307–44

A.A. Nordskog: Earliest Musical History of Hollywood Bowl (Los Angeles, 1957)

F.H. Baxter: A History of Music Education in the Los Angeles Public Schools (diss., U. of Southern California, 1960)

J.O. Northcutt: Symphony: the Story of the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra (Los Angeles, 1963)

B.L. Karson: Music Criticism in Los Angeles 1895–1910 (diss., U. of Southern California, 1964)

H.A. Sutherland: ‘Requiem for the Los Angeles Philharmonic Auditorium’, Southern California Quarterly, xlvii (1965), 303–31

N.E. Wilson: A History of Opera and Associated Educational Activities in Los Angeles (diss., Indiana U., 1967)

G.G. Koopal: Miracle of Music: the History of the Hollywood Bowl (Los Angeles, 1972)

J. Sanders: ‘Los Angeles Grand Opera Association: the Formative Years, 1924–1926’, Southern California Quarterly, lv/3 (1973), 261–302

R. Stevenson: ‘William Andrews Clark Jr., Founder of the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra’, Inter-American Music Review, iv/2 (1981–2), 65–75

R. Stevenson: ‘Local Music History Research in Los Angeles Public Libraries’, Inter-American Music Review, x/1 (1988–9), 19–38

R. Stevenson: ‘Los Angeles: the First Biennium and Beyond’, Inter-American Music Review, x/1 (1988–9), 51–111 [incl. further bibliography]

J. DjeDje: ‘Gospel Music in the Los Angeles Black Community: a Historical Overview’, Black Music Research Journal, ix (1989), 35–79

A. Fein: The L.A. Musical History Tour: a Guide to the Rock and Roll Landmarks of Los Angeles (Boston, 1990)

J. Koegel: ‘Calendar of Southern California Amusements, 1852–1897’, Inter-American Music Review, xiii/2 (1992–3), 115–43

J. Koegel: ‘Mexican and Mexican-American Musical Life in Southern California, 1850–1900’, Inter-American Music Review, xiii/2 (1992–3), 111–15

C.H. Russell: ‘Newly Discovered Treasures from Colonial California: the Masses at the San Fernando Mission’, Inter-American Music Review, xiii/1 (1992–3), 3–9

S.J. Loza: Barrio Rhythm: Mexican American Music in Los Angeles (Urbana, IL, 1993)

B. Cross: It's not about a Salary: Rap, Race, and Resistance in Los Angeles (New York, 1993)

H. Rudd, ed.: Los Angeles and its Environs in the Twentieth Century: a Bibliography of a Metropolis 1970–1990 (Los Angeles, 1996)

J. DjeDje: ‘Los Angeles Composers of African American Gospel Music: the First Generations’, American Music, xi/4 (1993), 412–57

D. Heckman: ‘Echoes of Central Avenue: Jazz Festival Celebrates Sounds that Emerged from a Prime Cultural Arena of the 1920s, 30s and 40s’, Los Angeles Times (30 July 1998)

Los Angeles, Victoria de

(b Barcelona, 1 Nov 1923). Spanish soprano. She comes from a musical family and studied the piano, the guitar and singing at home as well as at the Barcelona Conservatory. After her operatic début at Barcelona (1941, Mimì), she soon became a leading opera and concert singer, internationally as well as in Spain. Having been invited by the BBC to sing Salud in a 1948 studio broadcast of Falla’s La vida breve, she made her début at Covent Garden in 1950, and at the Metropolitan in the following year, and sang regularly in both houses until 1961. Although she successfully tackled the lighter Wagnerian roles, such as Eva and Elsa, she excelled as the more lyrical heroines of La bohème, Madama Butterfly and Manon (see illustration). At the Metropolitan she was especially admired in her début role of Marguerite, and as Mélisande and Desdemona; and in two successive years (1961 and 1962) she appeared at Bayreuth as Elisabeth. During the later 1960s she took part in several productions at the Teatro Colón, Buenos Aires, and she sang in Otello at Dallas in 1969. By that time, however, she had already confined her appearances mainly to the concert platform, where her personal and vocal charms made her a great and continuing favourite.

Victoria de Los Angeles possessed a warm, vibrant instrument of unusual clarity and flexibility, somewhat dark and southern in quality but capable of much tonal variety. In her best years the timbre of her voice was exceptionally sweet, and she was a most communicative artist in both song and opera. Among the best of her operatic recordings are La bohème and Carmen, conducted by Beecham, Il barbiere di Siviglia, two sets of Madama Butterfly, Manon (with Monteux) and La vida breve. From early in her career she made a speciality of recording Spanish songs, from the Middle Ages to the 20th century. Los Angeles studied lieder with Gerhardt, and was a particularly accomplished interpreter of Brahms, both in recital and on disc. She was also a delightful exponent of mélodies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GV (R. Celletti; S. Smolian)

C. Hardy: ‘Victoria de los Angeles’, Opera, viii (1957), 210–16

G. Moore: Am I Too Loud? (London, 1962), 168ff

A. Natan: ‘Los Angeles, Victoria de’, Primadonna: Lob der Stimmen (Basle,1962), 86ff [with discography, 117ff]

J.B. Steane: The Grand Tradition (London, 1974/R), 367–71

L’avant-scène opéra, no.78 (1985) [whole issue]

J.B. Steane: Singers of the Century (London, 1996), 126–130

A. Porter: ‘A Heavenly Creature’, International Opera Collector (wint.1998), 8–10

DESMOND SHAWE-TAYLOR

Löschenkohl, Hieronymus

(b Elberfeld, c1753; d Vienna, 11 Jan 1807). Austrian engraver and music publisher. He opened an art shop in Vienna about 1770 and became known for his topical cheap copperplate engravings; Gräffer aptly named him the ‘iconographic journalist’. Through publishing calendars and almanacs he came into contact with literary and musical circles and acquired a modest position in the Guild of Viennese Music Publishers. In the Wiener Zeitung of 29 September 1787 he announced a cheap music engraving process, which he evidently also used for the musical supplements to almanacs. On 15 March 1788 he published Giuseppe Sarti's three piano sonatas op.4, but until 1799 dealt chiefly in songs and dances from Singspiele and ballets. He was unfortunate in that 12 lieder and odes by Gellert in settings supposedly by Mozart (1800 and 1801) all proved to be forgeries. However, he became Beethoven's first publisher with the edition of Das Glück der Freundschaft op.88, which he printed on green paper in the shape of a sunflower leaf. Thereafter until 1806, apart from some works by G.J. Vogler and J.B. Vanhal and several pieces by Anton Fischer, Löschenkohl published only Austrian, French and Russian military marches. In 1806 he issued his Musikalisches Kartenspiel, a beautifully engraved musical card game including compositions by Mozart. At his death his shop was taken over by the music publisher and art dealer H.F. Müller.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

WeinmannWM

E.K. Blümml and G. Gugitz: Von Leuten und Zeiten im alten Wien (Vienna, 1922)

A. Weinmann: Wiener Musikverlag ‘Am Rande’ (Vienna, 1970)

R. Witzmann and V. Schwarz: Musicalisches Kartenspiel des Johann Hieronymus Löschenkohl (Vienna, 1981) [incl. facs. of the playing cards]

ALEXANDER WEINMANN/NIGEL SIMEONE

Löschhorn, Carl Albert.

See Loeschhorn, Carl Albert.

Lose.

Danish firm of music publishers and dealers. It was established in Copenhagen in 1802 when the Lose family took over the firm of E.F.J. Haly (founded 1793) in the name of C.C. Lose (1787–1835). Early publications bear the imprint C. Lose & Comp., though from 1814 they are marked C.C. Lose. On Lose’s death P.W. Olsen became manager, and the firm was styled C.C. Lose & Olsen until 1846, when the younger C.C. Lose (1821–92) attained majority and entered into partnership with O.H. Delbanco. The firm was then named C.C. Lose & Delbanco, but from January 1865 Lose continued alone in his own name. On 8 November 1871 he sold the firm to F. Borchorst, and until June 1879 publications bore the imprint C.C. Lose (F. Borchorst). On 25 June 1879 the firm was incorporated into the house of Wilhelm Hansen.

In 1815 the elder Lose founded the first Danish lithographic printing works; it did not meet his expectations and he sold it in 1820, subsequently establishing his own engraving and printing shop. During the first half of the 19th century Lose was the dominating music firm in Copenhagen, with about 2000 publications in its catalogue. These include works by Weyse, Kuhlau, Gade, Hartmann and Lumbye. Dramatic music is amply represented, particularly by opera, Singspiel and ballet. Important periodical publications include the Nye Apollo (12 vols., 1814–27; piano music and songs), continued as Odeon (7 vols., 1827–34; piano music), and Musikalsk Theater-journal (ed. Ludwig Zinck, 14 vols., 1817–41). Lose ran an extensive music hire library, and its printed catalogues (1818–66) provide important information on musical taste and activities in the Danish capital at that time. The collection is now in the State Library at Århus.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Fortegnelse over Musik-Forlaget af C. Lose & Comp (1813; suppls. 1815, 1817)

Fortegnelse over Musik-Forlaget af C. Lose & Comp (1818; suppls. 1819–21)

Fortegnelse over Forlags-Musikalier (1839; suppls. 1840–42)

C.C. Lose & Delbanco’s Forlags-Catalog over Musikalier (1846; suppls. 1847, 1851, 1856)

Fortegnelse over C.C. Loses Bog- og Musikhandel’s (F. Borchorst) Forlag (1874; suppl. 1878)

D. Fog: Musikhandel og Nodetryk i Danmark efter 1750 (Copenhagen, 1984), i, 214-307; ii, 191–2 [with dated plate nos.]

D. Fog: Notendruck und Musikhandel im 19. Jahrhundert in Dänemark (Copenhagen, 1986), 101–11, 298–9 [with dated plate nos.]

DAN FOG

Lösel, Johann Georg Ernst Cajetan

(b Bohemia, c1699; d Miltenberg, nr Mainz, 7 Dec 1750). German composer. After working in the electoral Kapelle in Dresden, he became a court musician to Prince Dominik Marquard von Löwenstein-Wertheim in 1723 or 1724. When the musical establishment was disbanded about 1728 he moved to the Nassau-Usingen court, but before the end of 1735 returned to Wertheim as Kapellmeister to the young prince Carl Thomas von Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg. In 1740 the prince lost interest in the Kapelle and wanted to appoint Lösel manager of his Bohemian estate; Lösel resisted this until 1747, when he left with compensation. He spent the rest of his life as a man of private means in Miltenberg, where he married Maria Klara Apollonia Kittner. Three Passion oratorios by Lösel were performed on his visits to Prague: Die obsiegende Liebe (1724), Das bittere Leiden Jesu (1726) and Das beweinte Grab des Heilands (1745); only the printed librettos survive. Of Lösel’s numerous compositions, only a concerto grosso or ‘Sinfonia’ has survived from his Dresden period and two concertos and a Capriccio for flute and orchestra from his Wertheim period. (E.F. Schmid: Musik am Hofe der Fürsten von Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg (1720–1750), Würzburg, 1953)

JIŘÍ SEHNAL

Los Reyes (y Mapamundi), Juan Mathías de

(b c1735; d Oaxaca, 17 Aug 1779). Mexican composer. Receiving his early training at Guatemala (now Antigua) Cathedral in the mid-18th century, he moved to Oaxaca Cathedral where he was employed as a harpist and singer on 27 April 1750. He was a private composition pupil of the maestro de capilla Manuel de Zumaya, who collaborated with him on Bonitatem fecisti cum servo tuo Dominum. On Zumaya’s death in 1755 Los Reyes became acting maestro de capilla (1756); in a document of 1760 he is described as a harpist, singer and teacher of the harp and organ. He was also appointed second organist in 1763. He remained maestro de capilla until his death, with two interruptions: Francisco Martínez de la Costa was appointed maestro during the period 1765–8, and Juan Verón was appointed to (but never actually held) the post in May 1770. Los Reyes purchased a pair of horns from Puebla Cathedral in 1770 and paid for two large choirbooks in April the same year. When he died he left behind his widow, María Cabada. He is often confused with Zapotec Juan Mathías who was in Oaxaca a century earlier.

WORKS

all in Oaxaca Cathedral, Mexico

Bonitatem fecisti cum servo tuo Dominum, SATB, SATB, 2 vn, bc, collab. Zumaya (1st pt by Los Reyes)

Mag, 5vv, 2 vn, clarín, 2 bajóns, bc, ed. in Tesoro de la Música Polifónica en México, iii (Mexico City, 1983)

Motete para la procesión de la Dominica in Ramis Palmarum, 4vv, 1757

Te Deum laudamus, SATB, 2 vn, 2 hn, bc, 1772

Assi de la deidad excelsa y vasa (Llega monstrando), cant., A, 2 fl, bc

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Tello: Archivo Musical de la Catedral de Oaxaca: Catálogo (Mexico City, 1990)

A. Tello: Introduction, Manuel de Sumaya, cantadas y villancicos de Manuel de Sumaya, Tesoro de la Música Polifónica en México, vii (Mexico City, 1994)

M. Brill: Style and Evolution in the Oaxaca Cathedral: 1600–1800 (diss., U. of California, Davis, 1998)

CRAIG H. RUSSELL (with MARK BRILL)

Los Ríos, Álvaro de.

See Ríos, álvaro de los.

Loss, Joe [Joshua] (Alexander)

(b Liverpool, 22 June 1910; d London, 6 June 1990). English bandleader. After studying music at Trinity College of Music and the London School of Music he led the Magnetic Dance Band (1926) and worked as a professional violinist and with dance bands in Blackpool and London. In 1930 he became the leader of a seven-piece band at the Astoria Ballroom, London, and after a short period as bandleader at the Kit-Cat Club (1931–4) he returned to the Astoria as leader of a 12-piece band, making frequent broadcasts and recordings, and annual tours. In 1940 he left the Astoria to make more extensive tours, and during the war his band, which included Chick Henderson and other notable singers, was one of the most popular in Britain. After the war his band took up a residency at the Hammersmith Palais, and he also started his own agency. He achieved chart success in the 1960s with such numbers as Wheels Cha Cha and March of the Mods, and often appeared on ‘Come Dancing’ for the BBC. He was made an OBE in 1978 and retired from performance in 1989.

Lössel [Lesselt], Vinzenz Ferdinand.

See Lessel, Wincenty Ferdynand.

Lossius [Lotze], Lucas

(b Vacha, 18 Oct 1508; d Lüneburg, 8 July 1582). German music theorist. After studies at Göttingen and Lüneburg he matriculated in 1530 at the University of Wittenberg. There he met Luther and Melanchthon, who became his teacher and friend. In 1540 he was appointed co-rector in Lüneburg, a position that he held until his death. Lossius wrote Erotemata musicae practicae (Nuremberg, 1563/R), a treatise which had several editions and which was widely used in Protestant schools. His most significant work was Psalmodia, hoc est cantica sacra veteris ecclesiae selecta (Nuremberg, 1553, with numerous later editions). In it he applied Gregorian chant melodies and texts to the evolving Lutheran liturgy. He added troped Latin texts to melismatic chants; for some melodies, such as the Te Deum, he used German texts. With the support of Melanchthon's preface, the work greatly influenced Lutheran music in north Germany.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BlumeEK

MGG1 (W. Merten)

F. Onkelbach: Lucas Lossius und seine Musiklehre (Regensburg, 1960)

W.E. Buszin: ‘Lossius, Lucas’, The Encyclopedia of the Lutheran Church (Minneapolis, 1965)

M. Pamuła: ‘Pojęcie tonów i śpiewu kościelnego w “Musices practicae erotemata” Starowolskiego’, Muzyka, xix/1 (1974), 54–68

W. Merten: ‘Die “Psalmodia” des Lucas Lossius’, Jb für Liturgik und Hymnologie, xix (1975), 1–18; xx (1976), 63–90; xxi (1977), 39–67

CLEMENT A. MILLER/R

Los Van Van.

Cuban dance band. One of Cuba's most popular dance bands, Los Van Van was founded in 1969, in La Habana, Cuba, by bassist, composer and bandleader Juan Formell. Under percussionist José Luis Quintana (‘Changuito’) the band developed a rhythm known as songo, one of the most innovative modern dance styles to emerge in Cuba since the 1959 Revolution. Fusing elements of traditional Cuban son, ritual batá drumming and traditional rumba with North American and European rock and funk, songo's dynamism is mirrored in the band's name, which loosely translates as ‘The Go-Gos’.

Although based on the traditional flute-and-violin charanga ensemble Los Van Van utilized a drum-set instead of traditional percussion. In 1981 trombones were added to thicken the middle register, with the atypical violin-trombone combination becoming Los Van Van's trademark. Throughout the 1980s, the band experimented with synthesizers, but subsequently abandoned them in the 1990s. For over 25 years, Los Van Van has enjoyed enormous popularity arising not only from their infectious dance music but also the topical nature of Formell's songs, which closely reflect and comment on everyday Cuban experiences. Among the band's dozens of hit tunes are El baile del buey cansado (1982), Sandunguera (1983), La Habana no aguanta más (1984), Se acabó el querer (1988), Que le den candela (1992), and Que sorpresa (1994).

RECORDINGS

Los Van Van: 25 Años … ¡ Y seguimos ahí!, Caribe Productions 9431–2 (1994)

Los Van Van: Lo último en vivo, Qbadisc 9020 (1994)

LISE WAXER

Losy, Jan Antonín, Count of Losinthal [Logi, Loschi, Losymthal]

(b Štekeň Castle, near Strakonice, c1650; d Prague, 9 Aug – 2 Sept 1721). Bohemian lutenist and composer. He was born into a wealthy family of Swiss origin; his father had settled in Prague in the 1620s and was raised to the Bohemian nobility for his bravery during the defence of the city against the Swedes in 1648. Losy studied at Prague University from 1661, taking the doctorate in philosophy in 1668. After this he probably undertook the customary European tour; he is known to have visited Italy, and he probably went to France and the Low Countries as well. He had a great enthusiasm for French music, especially that of Lully, and also for the music of Fux. He played the lute and violin in concerts at his palace in Prague. At the height of his fame (1696–7) he travelled in the German lands and engaged in a friendly musical competition in Leipzig with Pantaleon Hebenstreit and the Thomaskantor Johann Kuhnau, who subsequently dedicated to Losy his Frische Clavier Früchte (1696). Losy's son Adam Philipp (1705–81), who lived in Vienna and became music director to the imperial court, was a competent double bass player in aristocratic orchestras.

Losy was the best-known and most respected lutenist in late 17th-century Prague, but his reputation extended far outside his own land. He was praised by Ernst Gottlieb Baron (Historisch-theoretische und practische Untersuchung des Instruments der Lauten, 1727) and one of his courantes was printed in Le Sage de Richée's Cabinet der Lauten (1695). Silvius Leopold Weiss wrote a highly expressive tombeau in his honour. The real measure of his popularity is seen in the number and wide distribution of manuscripts containing his compositions, which also exist in arrangements for mandore, angélique and keyboard. Several manuscripts of compositions by him for guitar are probably also arrangements. Losy adopted the traditional French style and genres, but he somewhat moderated the characteristic brisé texture of Parisian lute music in favour of more distinct melody and bass lines, probably influenced by contemporary Austrian composers. Vogl identified 100 or so individual pieces, to which about 50 more may be added (see Crawford), although attributions are rarely entirely reliable. A few pieces are grouped into suites or partitas, but Losy's intentions in this regard remain unclear. About 60 pieces survive only in guitar tablature, most of which may be arrangements of lute originals.

WORKS

Courante, lute, in P.F. le Sage de Richée's Cabinet der Lauten (1695); ed. in DTÖ, l, Jg.xxv/2 (1918/R)

Other lute pieces, A-ETgoëss, Kla, KN, KR, Wn; CZ-Bm, Bu, Lobkowitz family's private collection, Prague; D-Bsb, Gs, Ngm, Ru, SWl; F-B, Pn; GB-Lbl; PL-Kj, Wn, WRu; S-K, L; US-NYp, R; Partie, 3 others ed. in DTÖ, l, Jg.xxv/2 (1918/R); 8 ed in DTÖ, lxxxiv (1966); 5 ed. in EDM, 2nd ser., Alpen- und Donau Reichsgaue, i (1942); Ouverture in D, Tombeau, ed in DČHP (1957)

Guitar pieces, CZ-Pnm, and modern gui arrs.; some ed. J. Zuth (Vienna, 1919); 9 suites, 10 other pieces ed. in MAB, xxviii (1958/R); Partita in a, arr. K. Scheit (Vienna, 1955)

Arrs., mandore/angélique/kbd, CZ-Bm, D-Bsb, S-K

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Koczirz: ‘Österreichische Lautenmusik zwischen 1650 und 1720’, SMw, v (1918), 74–85, 88–93

J. Pohanka: ‘ Loutnová tabulatura z rajhradského kláštera’ [Lute tabulatures from the Rajhrad monastery], Časopis Moravského Musea, xl (1955), 193–203

E. Vogl: ‘Zur Biographie Losys’, Mf, xiv (1961), 189–192

E. Vogl: ‘Johann Anton Losy: Lutenist of Prague’, JLSA, xiii (1980), 58–86

E. Vogl: ‘The Lute Music of Johann Anton Losy’, JLSA, xiv (1981), 5–58

T. Crawford: ‘ New Sources of the Music of Count Losy’, JLSA, xv (1982), 52–83

ADRIENNE SIMPSON/TIM CRAWFORD

Lot.

French family of woodwind instrument makers, active from c1650 to 1896. All the makers of this family trace their ancestry to Pierre Lot, whose wife Marie was related to Thomas Le Vacher, named in Mersenne’s Harmonie Universelle (1636–7) as ‘the most excellent maker of flageolets and musettes we have’. The Lots were also related to other familes of woodwind instrument makers: Hotteterre, Chédeville, Thibouville, Lessieu, Fremont, Naust, Pelletier, Cornet, Dlerablée, Noblet, Godfroy, Deschamps, Noë and Martin.

(1) Thomas Lot (ii)

(2) Thomas Lot (iii)

(3) Martin Lot

(4) Louis (Esprit) Lot

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Waterhouse-Langwill

YoungHI

K. Lenski and K. Ventzke: Das goldene Zeitalter der Flöte: die Boehmflöte in Frankreich 1832–1932: Durchsetzung, Gestaltung, Wirkung (Celle, 1992)

T. Giannini: Great Flute Makers of France: the Lot and Godfroy Families, 1650–1900 (London, 1993)

TULA GIANNINI

(1) Thomas Lot (ii)

(b La Couture, 1676; d La Couture, c1750). He was described in the 1734 marriage contract of his son (2) Thomas (iii) as an instrument maker 58 years of age, working in La Couture. Several instruments stamped ‘T*LOT’ in the Musée Jacques Hotteterre, La Couture-Boussey, can be attributed to him.

(2) Thomas Lot (iii)

(b La Couture, 1 May 1708; d Paris, 11 Feb 1787). Son of Thomas (ii). From c1722 he worked for Antoine Delerablée (1686–1734), master maker and successor to the Naust workshop in the rue de l’Arbre Sec, St Germain l’Auxerrois. After Delerablée’s death, Thomas married his employer’s widow Jeanne, a daughter of the maker Pierre Naust, and took over the workshop, serving such customers as Blavet, Philidor and Hannès Desjardins. His high standing in the Parisian musical community is evidenced by the important musicians who signed his marriage contract, among them Blavet, Boismortier and E.P. Chédeville. An inventory of the workshop in 1765 lists 323 instruments of the flute family and 78 bassoons, valued at 2739 livres.

Thomas (iii) used the mark ‘T*LOT/lion rampant’. He specialized in flutes; early instruments (1734–55) are characterized by a flat cap, small round embouchure, large ferrules, square keys and a cylindrical foot joint while late instruments (after 1775) have an oval embouchure and key, and narrow ferrules integral to the body. A pair, each with five corps de recharnge, made c1760 for Louis XV are a stunning example of his elegant workmanship (Horniman Museum, London). About 55 instruments are extant, including some 32 transverse flutes, a flute d’amour, two alto flutes, a bass flute, piccolos, recorders, oboes and a flageolet.

(3) Martin Lot

(b La Couture, 12 May 1718; d Paris, 25 June 1785). Brother of Thomas (iii). His career began in the Naust workshop. In 1743 he married a daughter of Delerablée and Jeanne Naust and established his own workshop, manufacturing under the mark ‘M*LOT/dolphin’. Martin’s work is comparable to that of his brother: its high quality is exemplified by an octave bassoon of maple with five brass keys in the Bate Collection, Oxford. About 18 of his instruments survive, including transverse flutes, oboes, tenor oboes, clarinets and bassoons.

(4) Louis (Esprit) Lot

(b La Couture, 17 May 1807; d Chatou, 12 Jan 1896). Flute maker, a descendant of Pierre Lot. By 1831 he was working in Paris for Clair Godfroy l’aîné at his workshop at 55 rue Montmartre and in 1833 he married his master’s daughter Caroline Joséphine. On 7 September of that year he formed the Société Godfroy fils et Lot with his brother-in-law V.H. Godfroy. In 1836 the Société succeeded to the mark and workshop of Godfroy aîné (see Godfroy for the manufacturing achievements of the Société). The partnership ended in 1855; in the same year Lot established his own workshop at 36 rue Montmartre and began to manufacture flutes with the mark ‘L.L./LOUIS LOT/PARIS’. He collaborated with Louis Dorus in the development of the metal French model cylinder Boehm flute and became the offical supplier to the Paris Conservatoire when the instrument was adopted there in 1860. Lot retired in 1876 and the successors to his mark were H.D. Villette (1876–82), Debonneetbeau (1882–9), E. Barat (1889–1904), E. Chambille (1904–22) and G.P. Chambille (1922–51). From 1887 the firm was located at 6 rue Monder.

The exquisite workmanship and elegant design that characterized Lot’s silver flutes was acknowledged early on by Theobald Boehm, who wrote in 1870 that he placed orders with ‘Lot of Paris who without doubt does the best work’. Between 1855 and 1863 Boehm purchased 20 keyless flutes from Lot (Giannini, 1993, p.178). Of the 2700 or so instruments made by Lot between 1855 and 1876 about a third were metal flutes, mostly silver, and the rest were Boehm system wooden flutes and piccolos and few simple system flutes. In 1869 he manufactured the first gold cylinder flute (no.1375) for Jean Rémusat; the instrument was later owned by Jean-Pierre Rampal. The gold flute modelled after Lot’s has since become the favoured instrument of soloists.

Lotfi, Mohammad Rezā

(b Gorgān, north Iran, 1947). Iranian tār and setār player. He trained at the National Music Conservatory in Tehran with Ali Akbar Shahnāzi and Habibollāh Sālehi, studying Western classical music and the violin as well as the tār and the setār. From 1969 Lotfi studied with Nur Ali Borumand at the University of Tehran, and at this time he also joined the Centre for the Preservation and Propagation of Iranian Music in Tehran as a soloist and an ensemble director. From the early 1970s he performed and recorded with many prominent classical musicians, appearing regularly on radio and television. Lotfi also taught Iranian music at the University of Tehran and was closely involved with several ensembles, notably the Sheydā Ensemble which he co-founded.

He has performed and recorded with Mohammad Rezā Shajariān; both were central figures in the revival of traditional Iranian music following the 1979 Islamic Revolution. Lotfi is widely regarded as the best performer of tār and setār in the post-1979 period and is respected for his thorough command of the classical repertory, his unrivalled technique and his musical interpretation. He has carried out research into the regional musics of Iran and has introduced folk elements into his performances of classical music. He has also been active as a composer. Since 1984 Lotfi has lived outside Iran, initially spending two years performing and teaching in Italy, before moving to the United States in 1986. There he established the Anjoman-e Sheydā organization, which publishes an annual collection of essays and writings on Iranian music under Lotfi’s editorship. During the 1990s he performed regularly in North America, Asia and Europe.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

M.R. Lotfi: Musique vocale de l’Iran: radif du maître Abdollah Davami (n.p. 1976)

S. Behroozi: Chehrehā-ye musiqi-e Iran [Profiles of Iranian musicians], i (Tehran, 1988)

The Abu-Atā Concert, rec. 1981, perf. M.R. Shajariān and M.R. Lotfi, Kereshmeh KCD-107 (1996) [voice and tār]

Mystery of Love, perf. M.R. Lotfi and M. Ghavihelm, Kereshmeh KCD-109 (c1997–8)

LAUDAN NOOSHIN

Loth, Urban

(b c1580; d Passau, 29 Dec 1636). German composer and organist, probably of Bohemian birth. He spent his early years in Bohemia (where his father was a cook in royal service, probably in Prague). In 1610 he succeeded Salomon Waldhofer as organist of Passau Cathedral and remained there until his death. He was one of a group of Catholic musicians (including Aichinger, Pfendner, Rudolph Lassus and Sätzl) in south Germany and Austria who in the early 17th century took up the form of the concertato motet for few voices and developed it along German lines. Most of the 97 works in his two motet collections, written for Passau Cathedral, are of this type (only a very few motets in four or more parts are included, in the second book). Loth preferred the combination of two or three equal voices and wrote only a few pieces for a solo voice, adopting the Italian monodic style. Interest lies not so much in the melodic content as in the imitative interplay between the voices; the motifs used are often based on the notes of the triad or on scale passages, offering opportunities for close strettos at the unison which Loth exploited to the full. Syllabic treatment of the text predominates, rhythmic interest compensating for a certain lack of melodic unity: Loth adopted only rarely the rondo or refrain form popular with other composers of this type of music. The importance of these motets lies partly in the treatment of the continuo, which is often totally independent of the voice parts while preserving a rhythmic relationship with them, and partly in the growing consciousness of a key centre, including extended dominant-tonic progressions in the bass. The large number of these motets that appeared in the principal anthologies of the time bears witness both to his contemporary reputation and to the wide use to which they were put.

WORKS

Musa melica, 1–3vv, bc (Passau, 1616); 3 pieces ed. K. Ruhland in Drei geistliche Konzerte zur Weihnachtszeit (Altötting, 1988)

Musa melica continuata, 2–8vv, bc (Passau, 1619); 3 pieces ed. Ruhland in Drei Hymnen für Ostern, Pfingsten, Dreifaltigkeit (Altötting, 1988)

Many motets in collections published 1622–72, including 1622², 1623², 1624¹, 1626², 1627¹, 1638⁵, 1672²

BIBLIOGRAPHY

W.M. Schmid: ‘Zur Passauer Musikgeschichte’, ZMw, xiii (1930–31), 289–308

H.J. Moser: Die mehrstimmige Vertonung des Evangeliums, i (Leipzig, 1931/R)

A. Adrio: Die Anfänge des geistlichen Konzerts (Berlin, 1935)

R. Schmitt: Untersuchungen zu Johann Donfrids Sammeldrucken unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der geistlichen Konzerte Urban Loths (Bonn, 1974)

A. Scharnagl: ‘Zur musikalischen Vergangenheit der Stadt Passau’, Musik in Bayern, xxiii (1981), 23–33

A. LINDSEY KIRWAN/STEPHAN HÖRNER

Lothar, Mark [Hundertmark, Lothar]

(b Berlin, 23 May 1902; d Munich, 6 April 1985). German composer. He was a pupil of Schreker and Juon at the Berlin Hochschule für Musik and studied composition privately with Wolf-Ferrari, who exercised a considerable influence on his musical development. After the success of his operas Tyll (1928) and Lord Spleen (1930), he was engaged by Max Reinhardt to become music director at the Deutsches Theater, Berlin, in 1933 and from 1934 to 1944 worked under Gustaf Gründgens at the Preussische Staatstheater. After the war, he moved to Munich where he held a similar position at the Bayerische Staatstheater. In 1956 he retired from public life to devote himself exclusively to composition.

Although Lothar wrote music in a variety of different genres, his long association with the theatre as well as his penchant for composing lieder gave him the necessary experience to write technically fluent and dramatically convincing operas. He judiciously avoided tackling psychologically complex subjects, preferring to offer the public vivid portrayals of lovable if eccentric outsiders such as Tyll Eulenspiegel (Tyll), Anton Wibbel (Schneider Wibbel) or the Irish priest of Der widerspenstige Heilige. In this respect, he attempted a renewal of the traditions of German Singspiel much in the manner of Lortzing, whose Casanova he arranged for performance at the Berlin Staatsoper in 1944. Of Lothar’s 11 operas, the most successful were Schneider Wibbel (1938), which enjoyed over 200 performances in German opera houses up to 1944, and Rappelkopf (1958). Both are notable for their swiftly moving action, skilful characterization and sense of atmosphere. In Rappelkopf, Lothar sought to bring Raimund’s musical play up to date and free it from the conventions of Viennese popular theatre. Yet despite the music’s evident charm, the score seems to lack the melodic memorability needed to ensure it a permanent place in the repertory.

WORKS

(selective list)

operas

Tyll (3, H.F. Königsgarten), op.12; Weimar, 14 Oct 1928

Lord Spleen (2, Königsgarten, after B. Jonson), op.17; Dresden, 11 Nov 1930

Münchhausen (3, W.M. Treichlinger), op.20; Dresden, 6 June 1933

Das kalte Herz (Funkoper, 1, G. Eich), Berlin Radio, 24 March 1935

Schneider Wibbel (4, H. Müller-Schlosser), op.34; Berlin, Staatsoper, 12 May 1938

Rappelkopf (2, Treichlinger, after F. Raimund), op.56; Munich, 20 Aug 1958

Der Glücksfischer (2, W. Brandin), op.62; Nuremberg, 16 March 1962

Liebe im Eckhaus, (Spl, 2, A. Cosmar), op.70

Der widerspenstige Heilige (3, Lothar, after P.V. Carrol), op.73; Munich, Gärtnerplatz, 8 Feb 1968

Momo und die Zeitdiebe (M. Ende), op.84; Coburg, Landes, 19 Nov 1978

La bocca della verità: Hommage à Baldassare Galuppi, op.93; Munich, 1982

Much incid music for stage, television, film and radio

instrumental

Orch: Suite aus einem Kindermärchenspiel, op.19 (1935); Kleine Theatersuite: Zwei Herren aus Verona, op.28 (1936); Eichendorff Suite, op.36 (1940); Spanische Lustspiel Suite, op.37 (1940); Mittelalterliche Tanz-Suite, op.49 (1952); Der Hirtenflöte, Divertimento, op.50, fl, cl, orch (1952); Konzertwalzer: Königliche Hoheit, op.52 (1953); Konzertwalzer: Regine, op.53 (1956); Verwandlerungen eines Barock-Themas, op.57 (1959); Concertino, op.63, 4 cl, str orch, hp (1962); Goldoni Suite, op.71 (1969); Zirkusmarsche, op.78 (1970); Concertino, op.79, 2 pf, str, perc (1970); Goldoni-Musik, Concertino, op.89, fl, cl, bn, orch (1973); Die Geschichten vom faulen Bären (R. Badenhausen), spkr, tuba, orch, 1978

Chbr: Kleine Sonate, op.15, vn, pf (1935); Sonatina, op.35, fl, pf (1941); Moliere Skizzen, op.75, fl, ob, cl, bn, 2 vn, vc, hp, cel/(tpt, hn, trbn), perc (1969); Trio, op.80, vn, va, vc (1971); Spitzweg-Impressionen, op.82, fl, ob, cl, hn, bn (1972); Trio, op.91, pf, fl, bn/vc (1980)

vocal

Choral: Nachtmusikanten: eine Narrenmess von Abraham a Santa Clara, male choir unacc., 1929; Sei uns, Erde, wohlgesinnt (F. Bischoff), op.46, S, Bar, SATB, orch, 1953; Wandersprüche (J. Eichendorff), op.58, SATB; Die grosse Feierabend (C. Wagner), SATB, 1960; Die Legenden von heiligen Trinker, cant., op.83, SATB, 5 insts, orch, 1973–8

Vocal (1v, pf, unless otherwise stated): 3 Lieder (Löns), 1920; 4 Lieder (H. Hesse), 1921; Süden, 5 Lieder (Hesse); 3 Heitere Lieder, 1921; 5 indische Kinderszenen (R. Tagore), 1923; 4 Little Songs (R. von Schaukal), 1924; 3 Marienlieder, 1926; 3 Lieder (G. Falke, C. Morgenstern), 1927; 3 Lieder (C. Spitteler), 1928; 4 Lieder (O.J. Bierbaum, A. Klabund, R. Dehmel), 1929; Die Bremer Stadtmusikanten, cant., S, pf, 1930; 8 Lieder (Morgenstern), 1936; Lieder der Kindheit (Bischoff), Mez/Bar, pf, 1940, arr. Mez/Bar, str orch, 1941; 2 Lieder des Mephisto (J.W. von Goethe), 1941; Altdeutsche Lieder, op.41, v, pf/orch, 1943; Oboenlieder (G. Schwarz), v, ob, pf, 1948; Jahresinge, S, Mez, pf, 1949; Ringelnatzlieder, op.46; Anfang und Ende, cycle, S, fl, cl, str qt, hp, pf, hmn, timp, 1950; Kleine Weinachtsgeschichte, cycle, 1951; Das Himmlische Menuett, 1951; 4 Lieder (R. Siegel), 1955; Liederbuch der Erinnerung (Bischoff), S, Bar, pf, 1956; 8 Lieder, 1961; Musik der Einsamen (Hesse), cycle, Mez/Bar, fl, cl, vn, vc, hp, pf, perc, 1965; Der Reiher des Vergessen (von Taube), 1970; 5 Lieder, Bar, pf, 1972; 4 Tierlieder (Krieger), Bar, pf, 1973; 5 Herbert-Günther Lieder, 1974; Vom Sinn der Jahrezeiten (cant., Kästner), S, 5 insts, 1975; 8 Haiku (G. Klinge), S, fl, va, pf, perc, 1976; Geheimnis der Jahrezeiten (Klinge), S, Bar, fl, vc, pf, perc, 1980; 5 Flötenlieder, v, fl, pf

Principal publishers: Bote & Bock; Fürstner, Leuckart, Oertel, Ries & Erler, Sikorski, Simrock

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Tessmer: ‘Hat die deutsche Oper eine Zukunft?’, ZfM, c (1933), 1000–03

J. Kapp: ‘Über Mark Lothars Opernschaffen’, Blätter der Staatsoper [Berlin] (1938)

A. Ott, ed.: Mark Lothar: ein Musikerporträt (Munich, 1968)

Mark Lothar, Ausstellung zum 75. Geburtstag: Bayerische Staatsbibliothek Musiksammlung, 12. Mai–15. Juli 1977 (Munich, 1977) [exhibition catalogue]

M. Lothar, ed.: Briefe aus einem halben Jahrhundert (Munich, 1982)

A.L. Suder, ed.: Mark Lothar (Tutzing, 1986)

ERIK LEVI

Lotinis, Johannes de.

See Lantins, de.

Lotosflöte

(Ger.).

Swanee whistle.

Lotring, I Wayan

(b Kuta, Bali, ?1883; d Kuta, 1983). Balinese composer, performer and dancer. He was a pre-eminent figure in Balinese music between the Dutch takeover in 1906 and the onset of World War II, a crucial period during which the old court system was in decline and the performing arts were enjoying a new secular and popular role. Lotring trained as a dancer at the court of Blahbatuh. Until retreating from public life in the late 1940s he drummed, choreographed and taught music to gamelan clubs in Kuta and throughout southern Bali. As well as instrumental works mainly for gamelan ensembles of the palegongan type, he reworked the legong dance form with elements of the modern kebyar style. He taught his music in numerous villages, freely reworking his compositions each time, so that contrasting variants of each work exist. The instrumental pieces achieved wide success in the 1920s and 30s as preludes for dances or dramas given in recreational contexts. Their rhapsodic, distinctively modern forms, innovative textures and patterns, and assimilation of materials from older gamelan genres (such as the incorporation of the 5 + 3 rhythm of gamelan gambang into his piece Gambangan) became models for subsequent new music composition on the island. The American musicologist Colin McPhee worked closely with Lotring in the 1930s, profiling him at length in A House in Bali (New York, 1946/R) and devoting a chapter to an analysis of his music in Music in Bali (New Haven, CT, 1966/R). Consequently, in addition to its canonization by the Balinese, Lotring's music has been widely celebrated by succeeding generations of foreign admirers.

WORKS

(selective list)

all for Balinese gamelan and composed between 1910 and 1940

Angklungan; Gambangan (Pelugon); Gegenggongan; Jagul; Kompyang; Liar Samas Cenik; Liar Samas Gdé; Pantun Cina; Sekar Gendot; Simbar; Solo

MICHAEL TENZER

Lott.

English family of violin makers. The first member of the family to make violins was John Frederick Lott (b London, 26 April 1776; d London, 13 April 1853). He is said to have worked for the Astors as a chair maker before commencing instrument making. In March 1798, through the intercession of the elder B.S. Fendt, Lott became an employee of Thomas Dodd, for whom he made many fine cellos and double basses. After leaving Dodd’s employ, he worked from his own shop on King Street, Seven Dials.

Lott had two sons, the first being George Frederick Lott (b London, c1800; d London, 29 March 1869), who worked first for William Davis on Coventry Street; after 1847 he opened a shop at 16 Princes Street, which operated until his death. His work is not well known. The younger son, John Frederick (‘Jack’) Lott (b London, 23 May 1804; d London, 7 June 1870), was the finest 19th-century English maker, and as an imitator of Guarneri del Gesù and Stradivari was unequalled in his own country. According to Jack of All Trades, a novel by Charles Reade which was based on his life, ‘Jack’ Lott also began his career as an apprentice to Davis, but after four years the apprenticeship was cancelled. He then made instruments briefly for Edward Dodd. There followed a lengthy period away from violin making, during which time he was, among other things, an organizer of firework displays, an actor, a musician and an elephant handler. He also worked as a wood-grainer, treating woods to give them the appearance of other woods and the look of age and wear; this training no doubt contributed to his later skill and success in the creation of ‘old’ violins. He spent much of the 1830s in the USA and on the European continent. He was in Geneva in 1839, where his elephant was killed; there he married and had a family, returning to England and his original profession some time after 1843. By that time the younger B.S. Fendt had explored with considerable success the idea of making new instruments appear old and used (the most difficult aspect being the imitation of worn Italian varnish); such ‘old’ instruments found a ready market, and Lott began to make them also.

Whereas Vuillaume and Fendt, among others, took pains to reproduce precisely the features they saw on the early Cremonese instruments, Lott tried more to capture their mood. His aim was to generate in the beholder the excitement felt by connoisseurs when they contemplate fine old instruments. He seems to have made few exact replicas of individual instruments, perhaps seeing himself as continuing where the masters he admired, particularly Guarneri, had left off. Lott had nearly equal success tonally, the sound of his instruments sometimes being deceptively Italianate. Ida Haendel used one of his instruments early in her career, and one can regard his work with admiration, unlike the Victorian writer who said of him that ‘all the talent and skill a craftsman of this sort has will not atone for a life of fraud’.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

W. Sandys and S.A. Forster: The History of the Violin (London, 1864)

W.M. Morris: British Violin Makers (London, 1904, 2/1920)

CHARLES BEARE, PHILIP J. KASS

Lott, Dame Felicity

(b Cheltenham, 8 May 1947). English soprano. She studied at the RAM, and made her stage début in 1973 with Unicorn Opera, Abingdon, as Seleuce (Tolomeo). She first appeared at the ENO in 1975 as a touchingly artless Pamina. An impressive Fiordiligi and an impassioned Natasha in War and Peace followed. In 1976 her Covent Garden début was in Henze's We Come to the River, and she later appeared there as Anne Trulove, Blanche (Dialogues des Carmélites), Ellen Orford, Eva and the Marschallin, all roles that exhibited her gifts for clear tone, alert musicianship and interior feeling. At Glyndebourne she has been admired as a Straussian. Her Octavian, Arabella (see illustration), Madeleine and particularly her Christine Storch (preserved on video) all brought out a touch of insouciant charm in her singing and acting. Munich, Dresden and Vienna all acknowledged her gift as a Straussian by casting her as, variously, the Marschallin, Arabella and Madeleine. The Marschallin was also the role of her Metropolitan début in 1990. Her Louise in Brussels and her Jenifer (The Midsummer Marriage) for WNO were notable successes in other genres. Lott has also been admired as a soloist in all the major oratorios and as a recitalist, and is a founder-member of the Songmakers' Almanac. She has gained a justified reputation in lieder and mélodies, her interpretations marked by the subtle nuances she brings to the text. Her gift for sensuousness is notably preserved on her recordings of Debussy and Poulenc, her sense of humour in Offenbach. Her gifts as a Mozartian are shown in her recordings of Countess Almaviva (with Haitink) as well as Fiordiligi and Donna Elvira (with Mackerras). She was made a CBE in 1990 and a DBE in 1997.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Forbes: ‘Felicity Lott’, Opera, xl (1989), 1174–80

ALAN BLYTH

Lotter.

German firm of music publishers and printers. Johann Jakob Lotter (b Augsburg, c1683; d Augsburg, 1738) founded the firm in Augsburg, and for over a century (before 1720 until after 1830) it held a leading position in south German music publishing. Although he himself was Protestant, he published primarily the works of Catholic composers, and his increasing prosperity was based in particular on church music. After his early death his son Johann Jakob Lotter (b Augsburg, 1726; d Augsburg, 1804) extended the publishing and printing business and published copious music catalogues in which south German masters predominate, although composers from central and north Germany, Italy, France and elsewhere are also represented. In its heyday the firm sold its publications beyond the south German area, evidence of which survives in Austrian and Swiss music inventories of the 18th century and early 19th.

Above all the firm of Johann Jakob Lotter & Sohn, as it subsequently became known, supplied many court orchestras, music colleges, monasteries, vicarages and schools with contemporary music literature of the most varied kind. In addition the firm offered young people in abbeys, at courts and in municipal music posts the opportunity to publish their works, thereby contributing to the extraordinary wealth of south German music during the 18th century. It has been estimated that more than 100 composers had their works published by Lotter. Leopold Mozart, a close friend of Johann Jakob Lotter the younger, had his violin tutor published by the firm, and carried out some business transactions for Lotter in Salzburg; their friendship is further confirmed by their correspondence (in D-Asa) and the fact that the publisher was the first to be informed of Wolfgang Amadeus’s birth. In the third generation of the family firm Esaias Daniel Lotter (b Augsburg, 1759; d Augsburg, 1820) had to overcome the economic setbacks which had resulted from the Napoleonic wars and subsequent secularization. Two other Lotters contributed to the technical improvements of note-type printing. The last surviving music catalogue is dated 1829; the firm probably ceased to exist in the second quarter of the 19th century.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Layer: ‘Die Augsburger Musikaliendrucker Lotter’, Gutenberg-Jb 1964, 258–63

A. Layer, ed.: Katalog des Augsburger Verlegers Lotter von 1753, CaM, ii (1964)

A. Layer: ‘Lotter und Mozart: die Geschichte einer Freundschaft’, 7 Schwaben, xiv (1964), 152–4, 156

A. Layer: ‘Johann Jakob Lotter der Jüngere, Leopold Mozarts Augsburger Verleger’, Leopold Mozart, 1719–1787: Bild einer Persönlichkeit, ed. L. Wegele (Augsburg, 1969), 117–28

H. Rheinfurth: Der Musikverlag Lotter in Augsburg (ca. 1719–1845) (Tutzing, 1977)

ADOLF LAYER

Lottermoser, Werner

(b Dresden, 18 June 1909; d Bad Reichenhall, 13 June 1997). German acoustician. After attending the Technische Hochschule in Dresden (1928–9), he studied at the universities of Kiel, Tübingen and Berlin (where he was a pupil of Biehle). His work with M. Grützmacher and Gurlitt during this period stimulated his later research. In 1935 he received a doctorate in physics at the University of Berlin with a dissertation on reed pipes. From 1936 to 1945 he worked first in the State Institute of Physics and Technology in Berlin-Charlottenburg and later was independently employed in the physics department of Tübingen University. In 1952 he began work in the Federal Institute of Physics and Technology in Brunswick, becoming administrative adviser in 1953, chief adviser and head of the acoustics laboratory in 1956, and in 1968 professor and director of the institute. He retired in 1971.

Lottermoser conducted extensive research into the acoustics of instruments, especially the organ and violin, and into the physiology of hearing them. Through his articles on differing architectural styles in churches he contributed to the study and improvement of spatial acoustics.

WRITINGS

Klanganalytische Untersuchungen an Zungenpfeifen (diss., U. of Berlin, 1935; Berlin, 1936)

‘Über die Stimmung von Flügeln’, Physikalische Zeitschrift, xxxvi (1935), 903–12

with M. Grützmacher: ‘Über ein Verfahren zur trägheitsfreien Aufzeichnung von Melodiekurven’, Akustische Zeitschrift, ii (1937), 242–8

‘Klangspektren einer Silbermann-Orgel’, Akustische Zeitschrift, v (1940), 324–30

‘Nachhallzeiten in Barockkirchen’, Acustica, ii (1952), 109–11

‘Vergleichende Untersuchungen an Orgeln’, Acustica, suppl.1 (1953), 129–38

‘Akustische Untersuchungen an alten und neuen Orgeln’, Klangstruktur der Musik, ed. F. Winckel (Berlin, 1955)

‘Beitrag zur Stimmtonfrage’, Acustica, suppl.5 (1955), 92–7

‘Acoustical Design of Modern German Organs’, JASA, xxix (1957), 682–9

‘Ausgleichsverhalten von Geigen und seine Beziehung zur Resonanzkurve’, Acustica, viii (1958), 91–8

‘Hörtest über die Eignung elektronischer Orgeln für Kirchenmusik’, Elektronische Rundschau, xv (1961), 217–20

Orgelakustik in Einzeldarstellungen (Frankfurt, 1966)

‘Zum Klang des Dresdner Kreuzchors’, Musik und Kirche, xxxix (1969), 201–06

‘Probleme bei der Restaurierung der Silbermann-Orgel in der Hofkirche zu Dresden’, Musik und Kirche, xlii (1972), 279–92

Orgeln, Kirchen und Akustik (Frankfurt, 1983)

HANS HEINRICH EGGEBRECHT

Lotti, Antonio

(b Hanover, 1666; d Venice, 5 Jan 1740). Italian composer. Though identified as a Venetian in his op.1 collection (1705), Lotti was born in Hanover, where his father Matteo was Kapellmeister. By 1683 he was in Venice studying with Legrenzi; the latter’s opera Giustino of that year was long attributed to Lotti. When the musical fraternity of S Cecilia was established at the Basilica of S Marco (act of 25 November 1687) Lotti, as an extra singer in the choir, was one of the first to sign its register. On 30 May 1689 he began receiving a regular salary for singing alto; on 6 August 1690 he became an assistant to the second organist, on 31 May 1692 second organist, and on 17 August 1704 first organist, a position he held until 1736 when he was named primo maestro di cappella. When the position became vacant on the death of Antonio Biffi in 1733 he failed to get a plurality of votes in competition with Antonio Pollarolo and Nicola Porpora (8 March 1733), and he had to wait three years to compete once more against Pollarolo, acting maestro since 1733. He now won the endorsement of nine of the 12 procurators of S Marco (2 April 1736), which qualified him for the annual salary of 400 ducats and free lodging in the piazza de’ Canonici; he held the position until his death. Angelo Lotti had been appointed to assist him at the organ at his own cost on 2 March 1732. As organist he wrote much music for the choir; the procurators had awarded him 50 ducats as early as 1698 for composing a book of masses.

In addition to the sacred music for S Marco, Lotti wrote solo motets, choral works and oratorios for the singers of the Ospedale degli Incurabili. The singing style of this female choir, famous throughout the 18th century, was grounded (according to Caffi) in Lotti’s teaching. The period of his office at the institution is not known: it must have been immediately before Porpora’s (c1726–33) unless he shared duties with C.F. Pollarolo, maestro there from about 1696 to about 1718 or later (?1722). Lotti was also maestro di cappella of Spirito Santo, at least from 1697 to 1707. His membership of the Sovvegno di Santa Cecilia is documented for the years 1737 to 1739.

Lotti’s career as an opera composer began in 1693, when his Il trionfo dell’innocenza was given in Venice. His most productive period of writing for Venetian theatres, however, was between 1706 and 1717, when at least 16 new operas (including the first setting of Zeno’s Alessandro Severo, Carnival 1717) and three revised works by him were staged. Granted leave of absence by the procurators of S Marco (22 July 1717 and renewed for another year in 1718), he left Venice (5 September 1717) to write an opera for Dresden. He took musicians of the basilica with him as well as his wife, Santa Stella, and the librettist Antonio Maria Luchini. The first of his three operas for Dresden, Giove in Argo, had its first performance on 25 October 1717 in the Redoutensaal and was revived on 3 September 1719 to inaugurate the Hoftheater, Dresden’s principal theatre in the 18th century. The opera Teofane, performed in Dresden on 13 September 1719, interested Handel to such a degree that in 1725 he included bass arias from the work in his pasticcio Elipidia. A festa teatrale by Lotti, Li quattro elementi, was performed on 15 September 1719 in a palace garden in celebration of the wedding of the Saxon Elector Friedrich August and Maria Gioseffa of Austria. Despite his successes in Dresden, Lotti retired from the theatre after his return to Venice. As souvenirs of his visit, he kept in Venice the carriage and horses that he had been given for his return trip from Dresden (autumn 1719). No other trips taken by Lotti outside Venice are recorded, except one to Novara to provide music for a religious festival on 14 June 1711: an orchestra of 37 musicians, mostly from Milan, played music by Lotti, Antonio Caldara, Francesco Gasparini and other north Italian composers. In February 1740 the Pallade Veneta reported the solemn funeral services for Lotti at S Salvatore.

Like many of his contemporaries, Lotti composed numerous cantatas for solo voice with continuo, some of them with strings; but he also wrote short pieces for two, three and more singers which make up an unusual repertory of secular music. A collection of such pieces printed in Venice in 1705 and dedicated to the Habsburg Emperor Joseph I is entitled Duetti, terzetti e madrigali a più voci op.1. In a work published anonymously, Lettera famigliare d’un accademico filarmonico, Benedetto Marcello criticized these pieces severely. Nevertheless, Padre Martini admired them and included one, Tant’è ver che nel verno, in his counterpoint treatise, Esemplare ossia Saggio fondamentale (1775). In a very different way, G.B. Bononcini used another, In una siepe ombrosa: he posed as its composer when Maurice Greene had it performed at London’s Academy of Ancient Music in 1731. Lotti provided the Academy with requested testimony (including a letter from Pietro Pariati, who had written the poetry for Lotti), and in 1732 the Academy published a report justifying Lotti’s claimed authorship.

Among Lotti’s late works is a setting of the Miserere in D, first performed in 1733 and subsequently sung every Maundy Thursday at S Marco during the 18th century and occasionally in the early 19th. A mass with vespers designated ‘nello stile a terra’ was performed annually by the S Marco choir in S Geminiano (opposite the basilica in piazza S Marco until it was destroyed in 1807) in commemoration of the composer, who was buried there. Many of Lotti’s other sacred works remained in the choir’s active repertory until the end of the 18th century.

Among the occasional works intended for banquets of the doge is Lotti’s Il tributo degli dei, a cantata for four voices and strings of 1736. His Spirto di Dio ch’essendo il mondo composed in the same year was sung by the S Marco choir when the doge sailed in the Bucintoro on Ascension Day to celebrate the symbolic marriage of Venice with the sea. The score of this madrigal was the only secular work in the S Marco library when, in the early 19th century, Caffi surveyed its holdings.

Lotti’s operas use streamlined plots and long recitatives. The arias are usually in da capo form and accompanied by treble instruments and continuo. The operas for Vienna and Dresden are especially varied in instrumentation with the basic strings and continuo being enriched variously by recorders, trumpets, oboes and horns. His melodies are often built on two- to four-bar segments which are then extended by sequence or coloratura elaboration, which often has an expressive function in terms of word-painting. In Alessandro Severo, for example, Salustria’s farewell to her father in the aria ‘Padre addio’ is expressed in short, sighing motives which give way to smooth coloratura lines, all accompanied by muted strings.

Lotti’s oratorios are stylistically similar to those of Francesco Gasparini. Simple melodies and returning ritornellos characterize Il vota crudele, while L’umiltà coronata in Esther is more ambitious with chorus sections integrated into the drama and an overture in concerto grosso style. His motets contrast contrapuntal and homorhythmic passages, and demonstrate careful attention to word rhythm and expression. Textural contrast is also achieved by alternating contrapuntal sections and monophonic chant phrases.

Lotti’s later works display an elegance and contrapuntal craft of the highest order. He was an exponent of the robust Baroque style of the late 17th century who had no difficulty adjusting to the 18th-century neo-classical taste favouring more clearly regulated harmonies and lighter textures. Perhaps better than any other composer of his time, he bridged the late Baroque and early Classical periods. When Burney heard Lotti’s music performed at S Marco in 1770 he wrote: ‘it affected me even to tears. The organist here very judiciously suffered the voices to be heard in all their purity, insomuch that I frequently forgot that they were accompanied’. Most of Lotti’s sacred music lacks orchestral accompaniments, as though they might obstruct the contrapuntal lines – what Burney called ‘the fugues and imitations’.

Among Lotti’s pupils were Domenico Alberti, Girolamo Bassani, Baldassare Galuppi, Michelangelo Gasparini, Benedetto Marcello, Giambattista Pescetti and Giuseppe Saratelli. Hasse never studied formally with Lotti, although La Borde called him a pupil. Burney merely reported that ‘Hasse regarded Lotti’s compositions as the most perfect of their kind’. This evaluation was echoed a century later by Fétis, who wrote: ‘his style is simple and clear and no one in modern times has possessed, better than he, the art of having the voice sing in a natural manner … in his madrigals and church music he is at least the equal of A. Scarlatti, and his superiority over all other masters of his time is incontestable’.

Lotti had no children, but his wife (named Santa Scarabelli Stella in a libretto of 1710) had a daughter (Lucrezia Maria Bassadonna) who became a nun. Librettos cite Santa and her sister Chiara as singers at the Mantuan court, and for a time they earned the handsome salary of 18,600 ducats; Santa, a native of Bologna, gained a considerable reputation as a soprano. After Lotti’s death, his wife erected a monument to him in S Geminiano, where she too was later buried (she died on 18 September 1759), but their tomb was moved to an unknown location on 25 June 1807.

2. Northern Netherlands, 1600–1830.

SVEN HANSELL/OLGA TERMINI

Lotti, Antonio

WORKS

operas

first performed in Venice, music lost, unless otherwise stated

VC	Venice, Teatro S Cassiano
VGG	Venice, Teatro S Giovanni Grisostomo

Il trionfo dell’innocenza (R. Cialli), S Angelo, carn. 1693, arias I-CCc, Rvat

Tirsi [Act 1] (dramma pastorale, 5, A. Zeno), S Salvatore, 3 Nov 1696, arias B-Bc [Act 2 by A. Caldara, act 3 by A.O. Ariosti]

Sidonio (5, P. Pariati), VC, aut. 1706

Achille placato (tragedia per musica, 5, U. Rizzi), VC, 12 Feb 1707, perf. with Le rovine di Troja [Dragontata e Policrone] (int), Bc, Br (facs. in DMV, x, forthcoming)

Teuzzone (Zeno), VC, 27 Dec 1707, perf. with Catulla e Lardone (int); rev. G. Vignola, as L’inganno vinto dalla ragione, Naples, Fiorentini, 19 Nov 1708

Il vincitor generoso (F. Briani), VGG, 10 or 11 Jan 1709

Ama più chi men si crede (melodramma pastorale, 3, F. Silvani), VGG, 23 Nov 1709

Il comando non inteso et ubbidito (Silvani), VGG, 8 Feb 1710, arias D-WD

La ninfa Apollo (scherzo comico pastorale, 3, F. de Lemene), VC, 4 March 1710, collab. F. Gasparini

Isacio tiranno (Briani), VGG, 24 Nov 1710, arias WD

Il tradimento traditor di se stesso (Silvani), VGG, 17 Jan 1711; rev. F. Mancini, as Artaserse, re di Persia (with prol), Naples, Palazzo, 1 Oct 1713, arias Bsb, WD

La forza del sangue (Silvani), VGG, 14 or 15 Nov 1711; rev. Vignola, Naples, S Bartolomeo, 26 Oct 1712

L’infedeltà punita (Silvani), VGG, 15 Nov 1712, arias Dlb; collab. C.F. Pollarolo

Porsenna (A. Piovene), VGG, 4 Feb 1713; rev. A. Scarlatti, Naples, S Bartolomeo, 19 Nov 1713

Irene augusta (Silvani), VGG, 22 Nov 1713, arias Dlb

Polidoro (tragedia per musica, 5, Piovene), SS Giovanni e Paolo, carn. 1715, I-Nc

Foca superbo (A.M. Lucchini), VGG, carn. 1716, D-Dlb, S-St

Ciro in Babilonia (Pariati), Reggio nell’Emilia, Pubblico, May 1716

Costantino (Pariati ?and Zeno), Vienna, Hof, 19 Nov 1716, A-Wgm, Wn; ov. by Fux, intermezzos and licenza by Caldara, arias and dances by N. Matteis

Alessandro Severo (Zeno), VGG, carn. 1717, D-Dlb (facs. in IOB, xx, 1977)

Giove in Argo (melodramma pastorale, Lucchini), Dresden, Redoutensaal, 25 Oct 1717; rev., Dresden, Neues Opernhaus, 3 Sept 1719, Bsb, Dlb, Mbs

Ascanio, ovvero Gli odi delusi dal sangue (Lucchini), Dresden, Redoutensaal, Feb 1718, Bsb, Dlb

Teofane (S.B. Pallavicino), Dresden, 13 Sept 1719, Bsb, Dlb

Li quattro elementi (carosello teatrale), Dresden, palace garden, 15 Sept 1719

oratorios

music lost unless otherwise stated

La Giuditta, 1701

Gioas, re di Giuda (Z. Valaresso), Venice, Incurabili, ?1701

San Romualdo, Venice, 1702

Il voto crudele (Pariati), Vienna, court, 1712, A-Wgm, Wn

Triumphus fidei, Venice, Incurabili, 1712

L’umiltà coronata in Esther (Pariati), Vienna, c1714, Wgm, Wn

Il ritorno di Tobia (G. Melani), Bologna, Madonna di Galliera, 1723

Judith, Venice, Incurabili

secular cantatas

Those marked ‡, and perhaps others, consist of a single aria only and may be arias from operas.

A Clorinda, al suo bene, S, bc, GB-Lbl (2 copies, 1 attrib. D’Astorga), Lcm, I-Nc; Adorato Filen prima che manchi, S, bc, D-Bsb; Alma te’l dissi pure, S, bc, GB-Gu; A l’ombra d’un alloro, A, bc, Lam; Al piè d’un colle ameno, S, bc, B-Bc; Amor perchè l’istessa fiamma, S, bc, B; ‡Amor sa far le piaghe soavi, S, str, bc, B; Ascolta Filli, S, bc, GB-Gu; Aure care, S, bc, A, bc, Lcm (2 versions); Bianca man, mano d’argento, S, bc, F-Pn; Cara Lidia adorata, S, bc, I-Nc; Cari numi, S, bc, S-L; Cedea Febo all’occaso, S, bc, D-Bsb; Chari zephyri fontes, S, 2 ob, str, bc, Berlin according to Eitner; Che v’ami il mio core, S, bc, Bsb; ‡Chi ben ama ha sol piacere, S, str, bc, Bsb; Clori, mi comandate, S, bc, Bsb; Clori, tu parti ed io lungi, S, bc, Bsb; Clori, tu parti ed io qui resto, S, bc, Bsb

Daliso io più non veggio, S, A, str, bc, MÜs; Della mia bella Clori, S, bc, GB-Lbl, Ob; Dove sei, dolce mia vita, A, str, bc, D-ROu; E pure un dolce dardo, S, bc, I-Bc; ‡E un martir che fa morir, A, str, bc, D-Bsb; Favella al tuo core, S, ob, str, bc, cited in Brook; Filli crudel, spietata Filli, S, bc, GB-Lbl, I-Nc; Finchè l’alba ruggiadosa, A, bc, Nc; Fra queste vi sono qualche, S, vn, bc, D-Bsb* according to Eitner; Fra questi alpestri, S, bc, Bsb; Gelsomin che superbetto, S, bc, Bsb; ‡Già che dovrai penar, S, str, bc, B; Già di giubilo, A, bc, A-Wn; ‡Ha colei dal cielo il viso, A, str, bc, D-Bsb

Idrena idolo mio, A, bc, Bsb; I cocenti sospiri, S, bc, GB-Gu; Il mio cor non ha riposo, S, bc, D-Dlb according to Eitner; Il tributo degli dei, 4vv, str, 1736, Mbs; In alta rocca, S, bc, Dlb according to Eitner; Io piango al tuo partir, S, bc, GB-Gu; Io sospiro se vi miro, S, bc, D-Bsb, GB-Lbl, Ob; Lagrime sventurate che pe’ i fonti, S, bc, D-Bsb; Lasciatemi piangere che di versare, S, bc, Bsb; ‡La speranza è come stella, S, str, bc, Bsb; Le stelle fortunate, S, B, str, bc, A-Wn; Lidia, amor che si pasce, S, bc, D-Bsb; Lidia, t’amai nol niego, S, bc, Bsb; Lilla, del tuo bel foco, A, bc, Bsb; Lusinghiera bellezza in dolce pena, S, bc, Bsb; ‡Ma confuse e vergognose, S, str, bc, Bsb; ‡Meco vieni e sorgerai, A, str, bc, Bsb; ‡Mi dispiace in amor, S, vn, bc, Bsb; Mi forza di morir Fillide, S, bc, Dlb according to Eitner

Mirai, e fù lo sguardo, A, bc, GB-Lbl; Mira sul verde, S, bc, D-Bsb; Occhi veri pupilli, S, bc, Dlb according to Eitner; Oh pastorello gentile e bello, S, bc, B; ‡Partirò ma tutti aurete, A, str, bc, Bsb; Pastori, se vedete all’or ch’il sole, S, bc, Bsb; Per far fede à chi non crede, S, vn, bc, Bsb; ‡Per mirar chi è la mia luce, S, str, bc, Bsb; Per rendersi gradito, S, bc, A, bc, I-Nc (2 versions); Piange il fiore, piange il prato, S, vns, bc, Mc; Qual’arde la Fenice, S, bc, D-Bsb; Quanto per te soffersi, S, bc, Bsb; Quanto siete fortunate, S, bc, Bsb; ‡Quest’alma non disprezza, S, str, bc, Bsb

Rendi al mio cor la pace, S, bc, Bsb, A, bc, GB-Lbl (2 versions); ‡Ritorna, Amor ritorna dopo impresa, S, str, bc, D-Bsb; Ruscelletto, che vai scherzando, A, bc, I-Nc; Se dì quel dì fatal, S, bc, D-Bsb; ‡Se deggio sempre amar, S, str, bc, Bsb; Sempre più sento, S, bc, GB-Lcm; Se piange l’alba, S, bc, D-Bsb; Si d’un volto la beltà, S, str, bc, cited in Brook; Si, si, v’intendo, S, str, bc, MÜs; So d’essermi d’Amor, S, str, bc, MÜs; Su i smeraldi ridenti, S, bc, Dlb according to Eitner; Sulla sponda d’un rio, S, bc, Bsb; Supplice e lagrimante, S, str, bc, MÜs; Ti sento, o Dio bendato, S, ob, bc, GB-Cfm; Tra le selve il cor perdei, S, bc, D-Bsb

Tuonava il bronzo, A, bc, A-Wn; ‡Tutto pien di chiara luce, S, va, bc, D-Bsb; Usignuolo, che nel duolo, S, ob, str, bn, bc, Bsb; Usignuolo tu ci, S, bc, Dlb according to Eitner; Va, mio core, al bel che adoro, A, bc, Bsb; Va mormorando quel ruscelletto, S, bc, Bsb, 1st aria S-LUu; Vedrò versar quel sangue, S, str, GB-Lbl

other secular vocal

[12] Duetti, [4] terzetti e [2] madrigali a più voci, vv, bc, op.1 (Venice, 1705), incl. In una siepe ombrosa (La vita caduca), D-HVs, I-Vlevi, US-Bc

Spirto di Dio ch’essendo il mondo [Madrigale del Bucintoro] (Z. Valaresso), 4vv, bc, Ascension Day 1736, I-Vnm*, copies A-Wgm; B-Br; D-Dlb, HVs, MÜs, WRgs; I-BGc, Vc, Vlevi, Vs; US-Wc

Sommo duce in trono assiso, pastorale, 4vv, B-Br, D-MÜs

Lamento di tre amanti, madrigal, 3vv, B-Br

Cants.: Corda fidelis, S, str, D-DO; Desiderata spes, S, str, H-P

7 Duetti, D-MÜs; 3 Duetti, MÜs; 4 Duetti, I-BGc, S-S; 8 Duetti, I-BGc; 4 Terzetti, BGc; 9 Terzetti, D-MÜs, single arias, D-Hs

Other madrigals, 2–5vv, survive in MSS, but no accurate survey has been made.

sacred vocal

(selective list)

Numerous masses, incl.: (d) [Ky, Gl, Cr, Crucifixus], B, D-GOl; (d), TB, A-Wgm, B-Br, D-Bsb, I-Vnm, ed. A. Bank (Amsterdam, 1950); (a), 2vv, Vnm; (C), TB, Vnm; TB, PL-WRu; (a), TTB, D-Bsb, ed. in DDT, lx (1930/R); (C), 3vv, str, A-Wgm; (C), 3vv, org, Wgm, B-Bc, I-Vnm; (C), ATB, orch, A-Wgm*; (C), 3vv, bc, Wgm, I-Vnm; (C), 3–4vv, org, B-Bc; ATB, D-Dlb, I-Vc, PL-WRu; STB, I-Vc; 3vv, A-Wn, F-Pc, I-Ls, Mc; ATB, B-Br, I-Vc, PL-WRu; (C), SATB, org, I-PAc; (C), SATB, orch, Vnm; (F), 4vv, A-Wgm*, copies D-Bsb, I-BGc; Messa a Palestrina (F), 4vv, Bsf; (A), 4vv, Vnm; Missa del primo tuono, 4vv, 1736, Mc; Missa del quinto tuono, 4vv, c1730, A-Wn, B-Br, D-Dlb, MÜs, I-Mc, Nc, Vnm, PL-WRu, US-Wc, USSR-KAu, ed. in DDT, lx (1930/R); Missa del sesto tuono, 4vv, B-Bc, D-Dlb, GB-Lwa, I-Mc, Nc, ed. in DDT, lx (1930/R); Missa in canone, 4vv, B-Bc; 4vv, SATB, org, I-PAc; 4vv, A-Wn, B-Br, D-Bsb, Mbs, F-Pc; 5vv, D-Mbs, I-Vnm; Missa in ut, 3vv, HR-Dsmb; Messa à 3, Dsmb; Missa in d, 4vv, CH-SGd; Missa sapientiae [Ky–Gl], 5–6vv, orch, D-Dlb; 2 requiems, 4vv, Dlb, Mbs, I-Mc, Pca, Vmarcello, ed. in DDT, lx (1930/R); Requiem, 5vv, D-Dlb; many paired and single mass movts in A-Wn, Z, B-Bc, Br, D-Bsb, F, HVs, Dlb, LEb, Mbs, MÜs, DK–Kk, F-Pc, GB-Lam, Lbl, Lcm, Lgc, Ob, I-Ac, BGc, Mc, Nc, Pca, Vlevi, Vmarcello, Vnm, PL-WRu, US-Wc, USSR-KAu

Works for chorus: Ad Dominum cum tribularer, 4vv, A-Wgm, D-Dlb GB-Lbl, I-Vc, Vmn; Ad Dominum cum tribularer, 10vv, DK-Kk; Adoramus te, 4vv, D-MÜs, GB-Lbl; Asperges, 4vv, A-Wgm; Ave dulcis mater, S, 4vv, Wm; Ave regina caelorum, 4vv, D-Dlb, MÜs, I-Mc; Beata es, virgo Maria, 4vv, B-Bc; Beatus vir, 4vv, B-Br, D-Dlb, I-Mc, Vnm, PL-WRu; Beatus vir, 4vv, I-BGc; Benedicam Dominum, 4vv, Mc; Benedictus settings, 4vv, B-Br, D-Dlb, I-BGc, Vnm, PL-WRu; Cantemus Domino, 3vv, WRu; Confitebor tibi settings, 4–6vv, D-Dlb, GB-Lbl, Lwa, I-Nc; Credidi, 4vv, D-Dlb; Crucifixus settings, 5–10vv, A-Wgm, Wn, D-Dlb, HR, HVs, LEmi, MÜs, ROu, GB-Lwa, I-BGc, PL-WR, US-AAu, Wc, USSR-KAu; Crudelis Herodes, 3vv, I-Vnm; Dixit Dominus settings, 5–6vv, A-Wgm, B-Bc, D-Dlb; Haec dies, 4vv, MÜs; Domine Deus, 4vv, MÜs; Gaude Maria Virgo quae Gabrielis, 4vv, LEm; In omni tribulatione, 5vv, LEm, MÜs, US-AAu; In virtute, 2vv, I-Vnm; Laudate Dominum de caelis, 4vv, Mc, Nc, Vnm; Laudate Dominum in sanctis caelis, 4vv, Vnm; Laudate pueri, 2vv, org, B-Br, D-LEb, I-Vnm, ed. G. Piccioli (Milan, 1965); Laudate pueri, 3vv, orch, B-B, D-Dlb, I-Vnm; Laudate pueri, 2vv, 4vv, DK-Kk; Mag, 2vv, I-Vnm; Mag settings, 4vv, 2nd and 5th tones, F-Pc, GB-Lwa, I-Mc, Vc, Vsm; Mag, 5vv, 1st tone, GB-Lwa; Mag, 10vv, DK-Kk; Magnus Dominus, 4vv, A-Wgm, I-Vnm; c12 Miserere, 4–8vv, some with bc or orch, B-Bc, Br, CZ-Pnm, D-Bsb, Dlb, F, HR, HVs, MEIr, MÜs, F-Pc, GB-Lbl, Lgc, I-BGcs, Mc, Nc, OS, PAc, Vc, Vnm, Vs, US-Wc, USSR-KAu; Nil canitur suavius, 4vv, I-Ac; Nos autem gloriari, 4vv, D-Bsb; O vos omnes, MÜs; Regina caeli, 4vv, D-MÜs, I-Mc, PL-WRu, US-Wc; 2 Resp, 4vv, S-Smf; Salve regina settings, 2–6vv, B-Br, D-Dlb, I-Vnm, Vs, PL-WRu; Spirito di Dio, 4vv, I-Vnm; Terribilis est, 3vv, Vnm; Vere languores nostros settings, 3–4vv, B-Br, D-HVs, MEIr, MÜs, GB-Ob, PL-WRu, US-AAu, Wc; Vexilla, 4vv, I-Mc; other motets, A-Wn, B-Br, I-Mc

Works for solo voice, all with orch: Alma ride, S, D-Bsb; Aurae lenes, A, Bsb; Beati amoris, S, W; Columbae innocentes, S, GB-Lbl, Lcm; Laeta gaude a fortunata, S, I-Ac; Sacri amoris, A, D-Bsb; Salve regina, S, Dlb; Salve regina, A, Dlb; Spera anima mea, S, Bsb

instrumental

Conc. (D), ob d’amore, str, cited in Brook

6 sinfonie, D-Bsb, Dlb

2 qt, 2 ob, 2 bn, HRD

3 trios, str, B-Bc, D-Bsb; trio (C), ob d’amore, fl, bc, cited in Brook; trio, fl, va da gamba, hpd, B-Bc; trio, 2 ob, bn, db, D-DS

6 sonatas, vn, bc, I-TSmt

La ragazza mal custodita, ballo comico per il clavier, cited in MGG1 (A. Mondolfi)

Lotti, Antonio

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BurneyFL

BurneyH

CaffisS

EitnerQ

FétisB

FürstenauG

GerberNL

La BordeE

PazdírekH

B. Marcello: Lettera famigliare … sopra un libro di duetti, terzetti e madrigali a più voci (Venice, c1711–16)

H. Bishop, ed.: Lettres from the Academy of Ancient Music of London to Signor Antonio Lotti of Venice with his Answers and Testimonies (London, 1732)

F. Caffi: Lettera di Francesco Caffi ad Emmanuele Cicogna intorno alla vita ed al comporre di Antonio Lotti (Venice, 1835), repr. in E.A. Cicogna: Delle inscrizioni veneziane, v (Venice, 1842/R), 113ff

R. Prölss: Geschichte des Hoftheaters zu Dresden (Dresden, 1878)

O. Chilesotti: Sulla lettera-critica di Benedetto Marcello contro Antonio Lotti (Bassano, 1885)

C. Spitz: Antonio Lotti in seiner Bedeutung als Opernkomponist (Borna-Leipzig, 1918)

C. Spitz: ‘Die Opern Ottone von G.F. Händel (London 1722) und Teofane von A. Lotti (Dresden 1719): ein Stilvergleich’, Festschrift zum 50. Geburtstag Adolf Sandberger (Munich, 1918), 265–71

C. Spitz: ‘Eine anonyme italienische Oper um die Wende des 17. zum 18. Jahrhundert’, ZMw, ii (1919–20), 232–45

C. Spitz: ‘Die Entwicklung des Stile recitativo’, AMw, iii (1921), 237–44

M.A. Zorzi: ‘Saggio di bibliografia sugli oratorii sacri eseguiti a Venezia’, Accademie e biblioteche d’Italia, iv (1930–31), 226–46, 394–403, 529–43; v (1931–2), 79–96, 493–508; vi (1932–3), 256–69; vii (1933–4), 316–41

B. Becherini: ‘Uno sguardo alla produzione vocale da camera di A. Lotti’, Musïche italiane rare e vive da Giovanni Gabrieli a Giuseppe Verdi, Chigiana, xix (1962), 223–31

B.S. Brook, ed.: The Breitkopf Thematic Catalogue, 1762–1787 (New York, 1966)

R.L. Holden: The Six Extant Operas of Antonio Lotti (1667–1740) (diss., U. of Washington, 1970)

L. Lindgren: ‘The Three Great Noises “Fatal to the Interests of Bononcini”’, MQ, lxi (1975), 560–83

K.J. O’Donnell: The Secular Solo Cantatas of Antonio Lotti (diss., Iowa State U., 1975)

C.E. Troy: The Comic Intermezzo: a Study in the History of Eighteenth-Century Italian Opera (Ann Arbor, 1979)

E. Selfridge-Field: Pallade Veneta: Writings on Music in Venetian Society 1650–1750 (Venice, 1985)

W. Dean and J.M. Knapp: Handel’s Operas: 1704–1726 (Oxford, 1987)

S. Mamy: La musique à Venise et l’imaginaire français des Lumières (Paris, 1996)

Lottini, Antonio

(b Pistoia; fl 1717–65). Italian bass. He was a pupil of A.F. Carli and later of the composer Francesco Gasparini, in whose Intermezzi in derisione della setta maomettana he made his first appearance (1717, Rome). Until Carnival 1729 he performed serious as well as comic roles in both southern and northern Italy. After 1729 he sang almost exclusively in Tuscany (perhaps because he had entered the service of the Grand Duchess of Tuscany), confining himself to the comic repertory. His partner in intermezzos between 1730 and 1739 was Anna Maria Faini, with whom he visited London in 1737–8 and introduced a number of comic intermezzos, which were not well received. While in London he also sang minor roles in works by Handel (Teobaldo in Faramondo, Elviro in Xerxes) and others before returning to Tuscany and resuming his career there. He was still active, in comic roles, in 1765. He was a singer of solid technique with perhaps greater agility than power.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Fassini: ‘Il melodramma italiano a Londra ai tempi del Rolli’, RMI, xix (1912), 35–74, 575–636

F. Piperno: ‘Appunti sulla configurazione sociale e professionale delle “parti buffe”’, Antonio Vivaldi: teatro musicale, cultura e società: Venice 1981, 483–97

F. Piperno: ‘F. Gasparini, le sue abitazioni romane, i suoi allievi coabitanti’, Esercizi: arte, musica, spettacolo, iv (1981), 104–15

F. Piperno: ‘Buffe e buffi’, RIM, xviii (1982), 240–84

FRANCO PIPERNO

Lotto, Izydor

(b Warsaw, 22 Dec 1840; d Warsaw, 13 July 1927). Polish violinist and composer. Son of a Jewish street musician, he played the violin in Warsaw taverns. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire (1852–5) with J.L. Massart (violin) and Ambroise Thomas (composition), and won a premier prix in 1855. His career as a soloist began in 1852 when he performed in the Salle Herz in Paris. In 1857 he gave three concerts in Warsaw (15, 18 and 19 February), in 1860 in Warsaw, Lublin and in 1861 played in Kraków; he also appeared in many European cities, including Paris (1860, 1865), Berlin, Weimar and Leipzig. He was professor of violin at the Strasbourg Conservatory (1873–80) and the Music Institute in Warsaw (from 1880); he was also leader of the Warsaw opera orchestra. His compositions are exclusively for the violin.

WORKS

5 vn concertos, 1865; Fantasia on the Russian national anthem, vn, orch or pf, op.1 (Leipzig, 1861); Morceau de concert, vn, orch or pf, op.2 (Leipzig, 1861); Fileuse, vn, pf, op.8 (Leipzig, 1861); Barcarolle; Danse slave; 12 études, op.9 (MS in Präger and Meyer's private collection, Bremen); Fantasia on a theme from Moniuszko's Halka; Le papillon; Valse de concert; Rondino, cadences to concs. by Mendelssohn, Paganini, Viotti

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PSB

SMP

A. Sowiński: Les musiciens polonais et slaves (Paris, 1857/R; Pol. trans., 1874/R, as Słownik muzyków polskich dawnych i nowoczesnych)

A. Ehrlich, ed.: Berühmte geiger der Vergangenheit und Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1893, 2/1902; Eng. trans., ed. R.H. Legge, 1897, 3/1913)

J. Lhevinne: ‘Lotto – Friend of Kings’, American Hebrew (3 Feb 1928)

J.W. Reiss: Polskie skrzypce i polscy skrzypkowie [Polish violins and violinists] (Łódź, 1946)

F. German: ‘Skrzypek Mickiewicza’ (1969), no.45

IRENA PONIATOWSKA

Lotos flute.

See Swanee whistle.

Lotze, Lucas.

See Lossius, Lucas.

Loud.

Anglo-American family of piano makers. Thomas Loud (i) (b c1762; d New York, 2 Jan 1833) was active in London at the turn of the century; the signature ‘Loud 1796’ appears on a Longman and Broderip square piano and in 1809 the Post Office Annual Directory listed him as a piano maker living at 22 Devonshire Street, Queen Square, London.

In 1802 he was granted a British patent for an upright piano just under two metres high. He stated that, by using diagonal stringing, ‘an instrument standing only five feet high and four feet wide in front will admit of the bass strings their full length which is five feet two inches’. This was not the first time that oblique stringing had been used, as Friderici had strung his pyramid piano of 1745 obliquely, in order to accommodate the exceptionally long bass strings. Loud emigrated to America before 1816, and was building overstrung ‘piccolo’ upright pianos by 1830. Records show that Thomas and John Loud arrived in Philadelphia in 1817, followed by Joseph Loud in 1828. The will (1832) of Thomas Loud (i) refers to his sons Thomas, John, Philologus and Joseph Edward as trading in Philadelphia as Loud & Brothers. In 1835 they became Loud & Co.

In 1812 the Philadelphia Aurora announced the dissolution of a partnership between Thomas Loud Evenden sr (Thomas Loud (ii)) and the cabinet maker Joshua Baker. A square piano of about 1810 (now owned by Jörg Demus), marked ‘New Patent. Thomas Loud from Clementi & Compy’, may be the work of Thomas Loud (i) or (ii), if indeed they are distinct. Thomas Loud (i) was survived by a widow, Harriet (née Evenden); from 1814 a Harriet Evenden is listed in Philadelphia directories with a Thomas Loud Evenden jr. A piano of about 1815 marked ‘Tho. L. Evenden & Son, from London’ (in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) is the only known instrument bearing the Evenden name, which was dropped in 1817 when John Loud joined Thomas in the business. Their piano of about 1818–22 marked ‘Thomas & John Loud’ is in the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. Around 1825 Philologus Loud joined the partnership, now known as Loud & Brothers; Joseph Edward Loud entered in 1828, when the firm expanded to new quarters on Chesnut Street.

By this time the family firm was among the most prolific in the USA, producing about 600 pianos annually at retail prices of $180 to $1200 and exporting instruments to the West Indies and South America. In 1832 the firm exhibited two distinctive square pianos at the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, one of them triple strung for greater brilliance, the other better suited to vocal accompaniment. In 1830 the Louds advertised a metal frame, which they patented in 1835. Their other six patents between 1827 and 1865 include a transposing action (1842) and swell device (1865); their upright piano dated as early as 1831 (in the Metropolitan Museum) is equipped with pedal-operated swell shutters and a curiously shifted action. Other family members in the piano business included Thomas C., William H. and Joseph R. Loud. Joseph R.’s career paralleled the firm’s decline: in 1855 he was listed as a piano maker, in 1860 as a tuner, and in 1862 as a plumber.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D. Spillane: History of the American Pianoforte (New York, 1890/R)

R.E.M. Harding: The Piano-Forte: its History Traced to the Great Exhibition of 1851 (Cambridge, 1933/R, 2/1978)

K.G. Grafing: Alpheus Babcock: American Pianoforte Maker (diss., U. of Missouri, 1972)

W.E. Mann: Piano Making in Philadelphia before 1825 (diss., U. of Iowa, 1977)

L. Libin: American Musical Instruments in The Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, 1985)

MARGARET CRANMER/LAURENCE LIBIN

Loud & Brothers.

See Loud.

Loudness.

The subjectively perceived strength of a sound. There is a complex relationship between this psychophysical quantity and objectively measured attributes of the sound wave. The loudness of a sound is most directly related to the intensity, which is the energy transmitted by the sound wave across unit area per second; it is also influenced by the duration and the frequency spectrum of the sound, and by the context in which the sound is heard.

It has often been suggested that subjective loudness is proportional to the logarithm of the sound intensity (an example of the Weber-Fechner psychophysical law, which states that sensation is proportional to the logarithm of stimulus). The intensity level is a logarithmic intensity measure: if the intensity is multiplied by n powers of ten, then the intensity level increases by n bels or 10n decibels (dB). For example, if one sound has twice the intensity of another, the difference in intensity is 3 dB, if the first sound is ten times more intense the difference is 10 dB, and if the first sound is a million times more intense the difference is 60 dB. The reference intensity corresponding to 0 dB is chosen to be one picowatt per square metre, which is below the threshold of audibility for almost all human listeners. The loudness level, whose unit is the phon, also takes account of the fact that the ear’s response varies with frequency; the phon rating of a sound is numerically equal to the intensity level (in dB) of an equally loud sinusoidal tone at the standard frequency of 1000 Hz.

A rough correspondence can be established between loudness level and the musical dynamic scale, with a change of 10 phons being approximately equivalent to one dynamic step (for example, from mezzo-forte to forte). Loudness level is not, however, directly proportional to loudness. A fortissimo sound might be rated at 90 phons, and a pianissimo sound at 45 phons: most listeners would judge the loudness ratio of these sounds to be much greater than two. Psychoacoustic studies of loudness ratio estimation have established that a doubling of loudness corresponds roughly to an increase of 10 phons. This is the basis of the sone loudness scale: 1 sone is equivalent to 40 phons, 2 sones to 50 phons, 4 sones to 60 phons and so on. The empirically verified sone scale implies that subjective loudness is not proportional to the logarithm of the sound intensity, but rather to the cube root of the intensity.

See also Sound.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L.E. Kinsler and others: Fundamentals of Acoustics (New York, 3/1982)

M. Campbell and C. Greated: The Musician’s Guide to Acoustics (London, 1987/R)

J.G. Roederer: The Physics and Psychophysics of Music (New York, 3/1995)

MURRAY CAMPBELL, CLIVE GREATED

Loudová, Ivana

(b Chlumec nad Cidlinou, 8 March 1941). Czech composer. She studied composition at the Prague Conservatory with Miloslav Kabeláč (1958–61) and with Emil Hlobil (1961–6) at the Prague Academy of Musical Arts, where she also undertook graduate studies between 1968 and 1972. She continued at the Paris Conservatoire, where she studied with Messiaen and Jolivet, and worked at the Centre Bourdon with the Groupe de Recherches Musicales. A jury member at many competitions, in 1992 she became a professor of composition and music theory at the Prague Academy, where she has founded the Studio N for new music.

Loudová has an extensive command of contemporary compositional and instrumental techniques (especially in creating new sounds for wind and percussion) and writes in a wide variety of genres; her music demonstrates a deep sense of form and combines timbre and rhythm to good effect. Many of her large-scale vocal works employ either Italian Renaissance or modern Czech poetry. Loudová has won many awards, including a prize for Rhapsody in Black at the GEDOK competition in Mannheim (1967), three prizes in the Guido d’Arezzo competition for Sonetto per voci bianche (1978), Italian Triptych (1980) and Occhi lucenti e belli (1984), and the Heidelberg Artistic Prize in 1993. Her choral compositions have been awarded in the Jihlava and Jirkov competition and in radio competitions in Moscow and Olomouc.

WORKS

(selective list)

Dramatic: Rhapsody in Black, ballet, 1966

Orch, large ens: Conc., chbr orch, 1961; Fantasie, 1961; 2 syms.: no.1, 1964; no.2, A, chorus, orch, 1965; Spleen, Hommage à Baudelaire, 1971; Hymnos, wind insts, perc, 1972; Chorale, 1973; Conc., org, perc, wind orch, 1974; Magic Conc., xyl, mar, vib, wind orch, 1976; Dramatic Conc., perc, wind orch, 1979; Luminous Voice, eng hn, wind orch, 1986; Double Conc., vn, perc, str orch, 1989

Chbr and solo inst: Sonata, vn, 1961; Str Qt no.1, 1964; Per tromba, 1969; Solo per King David, hp, 1972; Air à Due Boemi, b cl, pf, 1972; Agamemnón, suite, perc, 1973; Str Qt no.2, 1973–6; Partita, D, fl, hps, str, 1975; Soli e tutti, fl, ob, vn, va, vc, cemb, 1975; Aulos, b cl, 1976; Qinteto giubiloso, 1977; Con umore, F, bn, 1978; Duo concertante, b cl, mar, 1982; Hukvaldy Suite, 1984; Tango Music, pf, 1984; Sleeping Landscape, 10 brass, perc, 1985; Pf Trio, B, 1987; Italian Trio, cl, bn, pf, 1988; Don Giovanni’s Dream, wind octet, 1989; Variations on J.V. Stamic Theme, 1989; Sentimento del tempo, b cl, pf, perc, 1993; Prague Imaginations, pf, 1995; Veni etiam, 6 ob in space, 1996; Sonata angelica, trbn, pf, 1996; Canto amoroso, vc, 1996; Echoes, hn, perc, 1997; Ad caelestem harmoniam, S, 8 vc, 1998; teaching pieces for vn, pf

Vocal: Stabat mater, male chorus, 1966; Kuroshio, S, chorus, 1968; Gnomai, S, fl, hp, 1970; Sonetto per voci bianchi, 1978; Italian Triptych, 1980; Fortunate, cant., children’s chorus, chorus, 1983; Little Evening Music, ob, chorus, 1983–91; Occhi lucenti e belli, female chorus, 1984; Love!, female chorus, 1985; Life, stop for a while!, male chorus, 1987; Harmoie du soir, chorus, 1993; Duo meditativo, Mez, vc, 1994; 5 Lieder (C. Morgenstern), Mez, fl, 1995; choral cycles for children

Principal publishers: Panton, C.F. Peters (New York), G. Schirmer, Supraphon, Suvini

ANNA ŠERÝCH

Loud pedal.

See Sustaining pedal.

Loudspeaker (Fr. hautparleur; Ger. Lautsprecher; It. altoparlante).

A transducer which converts variations of electrical current into sound vibrations. The principle of the loudspeaker is the exact reverse of that of the microphone. It is driven by an amplifier (which may be housed in a separate cabinet or combined with the loudspeaker in a single ‘combination unit’), and is the exact reverse of the microphone. The loudspeaker is an essential component of every electro-musical system. A loudspeaker cabinet for professional or domestic use normally contains at least a substantial mid-range unit and a ‘tweeter’ for higher frequencies; a larger cabinet or a separate bass loudspeaker will also incorporate a low-frequency ‘woofer’. A loudspeaker installation for a large space, temporary or permanent, is normally known as a PA (‘public address’) system.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G.A. Briggs: Loudspeakers (Bradford, 1948, 5/1958)

G. Slot: From Microphone to Ear: Modern Sound-Recording and Reproduction Technique (Eindhoven, 1956, 2/1959)

J. Borwick, ed.: Loudspeaker and Headphone Handbook (Oxford, 1988, 2/1994)

HUGH DAVIES

Louël, Jean (Hippolyte Oscar)

(b Ostend, 3 Jan 1914). Belgian composer, conductor and pianist. He studied at the conservatories of Ghent and Brussels, and then at the Paris Conservatoire where, in 1946, he obtained a conducting diploma. In 1943 he won the Belgian Prix de Rome for his cantata La navigation d’Ulysse. In the same year he was appointed to teach harmony at the Brussels Conservatory, changing to counterpoint in 1955 and fugue (1967–74). In 1956 he was made inspector of music education for Flemish Belgium, and three years later he took charge of the counterpoint courses at the Chapelle Musicale Reine Elisabeth. He was artistic director of the Brussels Concerts de Midi (1949–70) and founded its chamber orchestra; he was also active as a chamber music player, notably in an ensemble he founded with two violinists. In 1968 he was elected a member of the Flemish Royal Academy of Belgium. His works, most of them instrumental, are few. Freeing himself from the influences of Ravel and Bartók, he developed a polytonal style of great complexity and rhythmic variety, giving an impression of ceaseless movement. Louël’s music exploits a wide range of performing techniques particularly in the Second Violin Concerto. In 1958 he began to use 12-note procedures, but his writing has not been strictly serial.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Fantaisie sur deux chansons de troubadours, 1942; Suite, chbr orch, 1945; Burlesque, bn, orch (1943); Marche funèbre, 1945; Conc. da camera, fl, orch (1946–7); Fanfares, 1948; Pf Conc. no.2 (1949); 2 vn concs. (1950, 1971); Sym., str, 1968–79; Toccata et fugue, wind, 1973; Rhapsodie, wind, 1976; Hn Conc., 1980; Vc Conc., 1985; Cl Conc., 1992

Chbr and solo inst: Sonatine 1942, pf (1953); Trio, tpt, hn, trbn (1951); Thème et variations, vn, pf (1953); Sonatine, 2 vn, pf, 1955; Wind Qnt, 1958; Suite, fl, harp, vib, vc, 1967; Toccata, pf (1972); Inventions, hn (1973); Cl Qt, 1981; Str Qt, 1988; pf pieces, gui pieces

MSS in B-Bcdm

Principal publishers: Brogneaux, CeBeDeM, Schott

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CeBeDeM directory

R. Wangermée: La musique belge contemporaine (Brussels, 1959)

Music in Belgium (Brussels, 1964)

HENRI VANHULST

Loufenburg, Heinrich.

See Laufenberg, Heinrich.

Loughran, James

(b Glasgow, 30 June 1931). Scottish conductor. He organized and conducted music at school, and then locally while studying law and economics. Seeking a musical career he went to Germany in 1958 on the advice of Karl Rankl and acquired experience as a répétiteur at the Bonn Opera, with the Netherlands Opera and in various Italian centres. Back in Britain he found little opportunity for work until he won a competition for conductors organized by the Philharmonia Orchestra in 1961. He was with the Bournemouth SO (1962–5), then went to Glasgow as principal conductor of the BBC Scottish SO (1965–70), and to Manchester to the Hallé Orchestra in succession to Barbirolli in 1971. From 1979 to 1983 he was chief conductor of the Bamberg SO (the first British conductor to hold a major German orchestral post), and in 1983 he ws appointed conductor laureate of the Hallé Orchestra.

Loughran conducted the première of Malcolm Williamson’s Our Man in Havana at Sadler’s Wells Theatre in 1963, and the next year made his débuts with the Sadler’s Wells company (La traviata) and at Covent Garden (Aida). He also worked with the English Opera Group (1966) and Scottish Opera (first in The Gondoliers, 1968). During his Scottish appointment he conducted as a regular policy a number of new works by British composers. In 1969, at the invitation of the European Broadcasting Union, he recorded for radio all the Beethoven symphonies with the LSO; the cycle was broadcast by member countries of the EBU during the Beethoven bicentenary year. He made his American début in New York with the New York PO in 1972 and has since worked regularly with other major orchestras in Europe, Japan and the USA. Loughran’s fruitful association with the Hallé Orchestra is commemorated in direct, satisfying recordings of Brahms’s symphonies and orchestral works, Elgar’s symphonies and Holst’s The Planets.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.L. Holmes: Conductors: a Record Collector’s Guide (London, 1988), 168–9

NOËL GOODWIN

Louie, Alexina (Diane)

(b Vancouver, 30 July 1949). Canadian composer of Chinese descent. As a piano student of Jean Lyons, Louie took the AA degree at the Royal Conservatory of Music in 1967. She went on to study composition with Cortland Hultberg at the University of British Columbia (BMus 1970). Further study with Robert Erickson and Pauline Oliveros at the University of California, San Diego followed (MA 1974). Erickson encouraged Louie to explore qualities of sounds by experimenting with polytimbral synthesizers and computer-based sequencers, and by composing music for performance by fellow students. As a member of Oliveros’s Women’s Ensemble from 1971 to 1974, she performed meditations in sound and movement, some of which were based in Tibetan Buddhism. She expanded her knowledge of Asian music through Chinese zither (qin) lessons with Tsun-Yuen Lui at UCLA. In 1975 her four-track tape piece, Molly (1972), a work based on the last segment of Joyce’s Ulysses which aims to make electronic composition sound ‘human’, was chosen for the Ripert International Festival of Electronic Music. Further recognition came with performances of Lotus I (1977) (chosen for the 1979 National Conference of the American Society of University Composers), Lotus II (1978) (which received a Composers, Authors, and Publishers Association of Canada [CAPAC] award) and Pearls (1980). These compositions combine sounds common to Asian music with avant-garde techniques.

Based in Toronto from 1980, Louie has taught at the Royal Conservatory of Music, York University (1982–4) and the University of Western Ontario (1990). The widely performed O Magnum Mysterium: In Memoriam Glenn Gould (1982) for 44 divisi strings incorporates quotations from J.S. Bach and Mahler’s ‘Der Abschied’ in a texture of eastern-influenced sounds. Her concerns over the environment are expressed in works such as The Eternal Earth (1986), Music for Heaven and Earth (1990), both commissioned by the Toronto SO, and Love Songs for a Small Planet (1989). In The Night is Shattered and the Blue Stars Shiver in the Distance (1997), based on a line from a Neruda poem, she explores orchestral colour and texture.

Louie’s numerous honours and achievements include a 1988 Juno Award for Best Classical Composition (Songs of Paradise, 1983), the distinction of ‘Composer of the Year’ from the Canadian Music Council during the ‘International Year of Canadian Music’ (1986), the CAPAC Micheline Coulombe-St Marcoux Award (From the Eastern Gate, 1987), a 1991 Society of Composers, Authors and Music Publishers of Canada award (Thunder Gate, 1991), two awards (1990, 1992) for being the most performed Canadian composer, and a 1994 Chalmers award (Their Own Words (Obsessions). Louie has served as composer-in-residence for the Canadian Opera Company and is the co-founder of the Esprit Orchestra. She is the subject of the documentary Eternal Earth (1987).

WORKS

(selective list)

Dramatic: Journal a.k.a. New York Times (dance), 1980; Shadows of Former Selves (dance), tape collage, 1981, collab. M. Mozetich; c20 film scores, collab. A. Pauk

Orch: Lamentation for the Canadian Tragedy, chbr orch, 1970; O Magnum Mysterium: In Memoriam Glenn Gould, str, 1982, rev. 1984; Sanctuary, chbr orch, 1982; Music for a Thousand Autumns, chbr orch, 1983, rev. 1985; Songs of Paradise, 1983, rev. 1984; Pf Conc., 1984; Music for a Celebration, 1985, rev. 1987; The Eternal Earth, 1986; 3 Fanfares from The Ringing Earth, 1986, rev. 1987; The Ringing Earth, 1986, rev. 1987; Demon Gate, chbr orch, 1987; Winter Music, conc., va, chbr orch, 1989; Music for Heaven and Earth, 1990; Thunder Gate, conc., vn, orch, 1991; Ricochet, conc., trbn, chbr orch, 1992; Arc, conc., vn, orch, 1993; Glance, 1994; Shattered Night, Shivering Stars, 1997

Vocal: Full Circle, SATB, 1980; Songs of Enchantment, Mez, str qt, 1987; Love Songs for a Small Planet, SATB, hp, perc, 1989, reorchd for str, 1992; Gallery Fanfares, Aria and Interludes, Bar, chbr orch, chbr ensembles, orch, 1992–3

Chbr and solo inst: Lotus II, 10 pfmrs, 1978; Pearls, fl, ob, vc, pf, perc, 1980; Refuge, accdn, hp, vib, 1981; Afterimages, 2 pf, 1981; Edges, str qt, 1981, rev. 1982; The Distant Shore, vn, vc, pf, 1982; Music for Pf, 1982; Cadenzas, cl, perc, 1985, rev. 1987; From the Eastern Gate, hp, 1985, rev. 1987; Riffs, ob, cl, bn, 1985, rev. 1987; Star-filled Night, pf, 1987; Music from Night’s Edge, pf qnt, 1988; Scenes from a Jade Terrace, pf, 1988; Bringing the Tiger Down from the Mountain II, vc, pf, 1991; Distant Thunder, ob, perc, 1991; I Leap through the Sky with Stars, pf, 1991; Cadenzas II, va, perc, 1994; Dénouement, str qt, 1994; Star Light, Star Bright, pf, 1994; Neon, cl, vc, pf, 1995, rev. 1996; Starstruck, pf, 1995; Touch, pf, 1996, Touch the Sky, 6 pfmrs, 1997

El-ac: Molly, tape, 1972; Lotus I, 5 pfmrs, tape, 1977; Dragon Bells, (pf, tape)/2 pf/prep pf, 1978; Incantation, cl, tape, 1980; Earth Cycles, accdn, tape, 1987

MSS in C-Tcm

Principal publishers: Chappell, Frederick Harris, Gordon V. Thompson, Warner Bros.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EMC2 (E. Keillor)

J.K. Parker: The Solo Piano Music of Alexina Louie: a Blend of East and West (DMA diss., Julliard School, 1989)

D. Bégay: Contemporary Music in Canada: Alexina Louie (MA thesis, U. of Ottawa, 1994)

E. Turgeon: Three Recent Works of Alexina Louie: Valuable New Compositions of the Cello, Piano and Chamber Music Literature (MM thesis, Yale U., 1994)

J. Ryan: Pitch Organization in Alexina Louie's Winter Music: the Yin/Yang Principle in Structure and Design (diss., Case Western Reserve U., 1995)

ELAINE KEILLOR

Louis XIII, King of France

(b Paris, 27 Sept 1601; d Paris, 14 May 1643). French ruler, patron of music and composer. He was the son of Henri IV, whom he succeeded in 1610. His doctor recorded that from an early age he took a lively interest in music and dancing; he continually invented new steps and songs and had musicians sing and play for him. This passionate interest, however, did nothing to change radically the nature of music at his court. He maintained the same musical establishment as his father (30 musicians in the royal chapel and the ‘24 violons du roi’) and enjoyed the same kind of airs de cour sung in his bedchamber or in public by leading singers of the day; he wrote one or two himself.

Occasionally more ambitious compositions were attempted: to mark Louis’s triumphant return from Brittany in 1614 Jacques Mauduit organized concerts for massed choirs and instruments; and to enhance the melodramatic effects of the ballet La délivrance de Renaud (1617) he composed for and directed an ensemble of 64 voices, 28 viols and 14 recorders. Yet state occasions that called for music of these dimensions were fairly rare during Louis’s reign. Even his first minister, Richelieu, sensible of the political advantages of the arts, found spectacle more eloquent than music.

For Louis XIII personal indulgence was dominant. Wherever he travelled, at royal entries or municipal banquets it was the musical aspects of the entertainment that attracted him: examples include the sound of 100 trumpets at the carousel in Paris in 1612 and the music of Sauveur Intermet performed at Avignon in 1622, when he was so moved that he had the parts torn from the players’ hands and caused the music to be repeated the following day. During the siege of La Rochelle in 1628 ‘he kept up his spirits by composing some motets’. He showed priests how to set psalms to music, and in its director’s absence he conducted the royal choir himself. He wrote the words and music and devised the choreography for Le ballet de la Merlaison, performed at Chantilly on 15 March 1635; the music (in F-Pn) in this lively ballet à entrées cleverly follows the characters of the dancers. Mersenne (Harmonie universelle, 1636–7) published an air by Louis, Tu crois, o beau soleil, arranged for keyboard by Pierre de La Barre, and Antoine Godeau claimed that four pieces in his Paraphrase des pseaumes de David (1648) were set to music by Louis, although only one, Seigneur à qui seul je veux plaire, can definitely be attributed to him. Other music that the king is said to have written is lost.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Cotte: ‘Louis XIII musicien’, Vie musicale, ii/4 (1952), 6–7

M.M. McGowan: L’art du ballet de cour en France, 1581–1643 (Paris, 1963/R)

MARGARET M. McGOWAN

Louis XIV, King of France

(b Saint-Germain-en-Laye, 5 Sept 1638; d Versailles, 1 Sept 1715). French ruler and patron of music. He was the elder son of Louis XIII, who died when he was four, and Anne of Austria, who served as his regent, aided by her first minister, Mazarin, 1643–61. From an early age, he was encouraged by Mazarin to take an interest in Italian music and French dance, which, with the help of his closest minister, Colbert, he learnt to employ to great effect in the interests of state. He inherited a musical establishment from his father that included the 24 Violons du Roi and, as king, expanded and bureaucratized it to unprecedented levels.

Louis XIV learnt dancing from Prévost, Jean Regnault and Beauchamp, and took principal roles in ballets de cour. His association with the image of the Roi Soleil (or ‘Sun King’) was established by Benserade's 1651 Ballet du roy des festes de Bacchus, in which he danced the role of Apollo, god of the sun and of music. Although he could not read music, he had an excellent ear; he learnt to play the lute from Pinel, the guitar from Bernard Jourdan de La Salle and Visée and the keyboard from Etienne Richard. His own children were later taught music by Lalande and François Couperin, establishing a fashion at court that was copied by courtiers and the bourgeoisie (and which in turn stimulated the production of music for amateurs and further employment for professional musicians). His early patronage of the Italian-born dancing-master and composer Lully yielded ever more elaborate ballets de cour (they first danced together in the 1653 Ballet royal de la nuit), followed by a series of highly successful comédie-ballets (devised in collaboration with Molière and performed in Paris throughout the 1660s) and celebrated court spectacles in the grounds of his royal hunting retreat at Versailles (1664, 1668). Louis XIV made his last public appearance as a dancer in Les amants magnifiques (1670). Foreign royalty and diplomats who attended these performances took back glowing reports of French culture and the state of the monarchy.

Louis XIV ascended the throne in 1661, having already wed the Spanish infanta, Maria Teresa, in 1660; their marriage was belatedly marked by the performance in 1662 of a specially commissioned opera, Ercole amante, by Cavalli, with ballets by Lully. One of his early acts was to make Lully surintendant de la musique du roi and maître de la musique de la famille royale. In 1669 he created the Académie Royale de Musique and three years later placed it under Lully's independent management; based in Paris, at the theatre of the Palais Royal, between 1673 and 1687, the Académie – a company of singers, dancers, instrumentalists and scenic artisans and technicians – existed exclusively to perform Lully's tragédies, on which he successfully collaborated with Quinault, who took every opportunity to associate the official successes of the reign with the plots and the king with the heroes. In the 18th century, the Académie became known as the Opéra.

The court remained in residence at the Louvre in Paris until 1672, when a permanent base was abandoned in favour of travelling between several of the royal châteaux, Fontainebleau, Versailles and Saint-Germain-en-Laye in particular, where music formed an accompaniment to both formal ceremonies and informal occasions: the daily lever, Mass (one panegyric grand motet and two petit motets were performed), meals (the dîner and the souper) and the coucher. Musical theatre pieces (divertissements and fêtes) were composed exclusively for the entertainment of the court (Lully's 1674 Divertissements de Versailles lasted six days) and most of Lully's tragédies were given their first performances before opening in Paris. In addition, music heralded the arrival of distinguished visitors and the return of the army or the hunt and serenaded royal promenades and boating on the canal. Concerts took place as part of the thrice-weekly jours d'appartement and, towards the end of his reign, in the private rooms of Mme de Maintenon (Louis XIV's morganatic second wife).

In 1682 the court took up official residence at the greatly enlarged château at Versailles, although the king continued to travel to his other royal residences, which also included Marly and Meudon (the residence of the dauphin). The royal musicians held quarterly appointments as officers and ordinaires of the chapelle, chambre and écurie; when on duty they lived in the town of Versailles and travelled with the royal entourage and when off duty they returned to Paris, where they held additional posts with churches and private patrons. Only a few women (usually members of the music dynasties in royal service) held appointments as singers in the chambre, although not in the chapelle; as a young prodigy, Elisabeth Jacquet (later de La Guerre) was taken under the personal protection of the king and his mistress, Mme de Montespan.

At Versailles, music was performed in both public and private rooms, in the gardens and in the nearby pavilions at the Maison des Italiens (the residence of the castratos who sang in the chapelle) and the Trianon; the present chapel was not completed until 1710 and the opera house was not built until 1748. From 1704, the king ceased to attend public performances. When he died in 1715, his nephew, the musical and italophile Duke of Orléans (1674–1723), succeeded as regent for the young Louis XV (1710–74) and returned the court to Paris, installing the government at the Palais Royal.

Through Louis XIV's patronage a uniquely French musical style developed during the 17th century, based on dance and the air de cour. Lully, Charpentier and Lalande orchestrated them in three and five-part textures, framed them with ouvertures, chaconnes and passacailles, and combined them into larger forms, both secular (the suite, divertissement and tragédie) and sacred (the grand and petit motet). With the interest and support of the king, instrumental virtuosos on the bass viol and the keyboard, typified by Marin Marais and Couperin, emerged and, because of the nature of their court appointments, became equally renowned as teachers. Under the influence of the great dramatists and actors of the era, singers developed a highly rhetorical style of delivery, which they developed a stage further with the application of ornamentation learnt from the great French theorbo and keyboard players of their day. From the late 1680s an unprecedented flowering of treatises and avertissements attached to collections, addressing matters of interpretation and performing practice, often in contrast with the prevailing Italian style, resulted in the codification of a French style associated with the court of Louis XIV.

The musical life of Louis XIV's reign is recorded in letters, memoirs and court diaries, published journals and annuals as well as a rich array of iconography. Many composers dedicated works to the king and based works on royal subjects (for which they had to apply for royal privileges to publish); even in instrumental music the titles assigned to movements often made allusion to the monarch. The attempts of Titon du Tillet to commemorate the achievements of musicians and writers of the louisquatorzien era, chronicled in Le Parnasse françois (1732) and its supplements, highlight the importance of the patronage of Louis XIV, which inspired other royal patrons of music, notably Charles II, Leopold I and Frederick the Great.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Masson: ‘Journal du Marquis de Dangeau, 1684–1720: extraits concernant la vie musicale à la Cour’, RMFC, ii (1961–2), 193–223

M.-F. Christout: Le ballet de cour de Louis XIV (1643–1672) (Paris, 1967)

Y. de Brossard: ‘La vie musicale en France d'après Loret et ses continuateurs, 1650–1688’,RMFC, x (1970), 117–93

M. Benoit: Musiques de cour: chapelle, chambre, écurie, 1661–1733 (Paris, 1971)

M. Benoit: Versailles et les musiciens du roi, 1661–1733 (Paris, 1971)

N. Dufourcq: La musique à la cour de Louis XIV et de Louis XV, d'après les mémoires de Sourches et Luynes, 1681–1758 (Paris, 1971)

R.M. Isherwood: Music in the Service of the King: France in the Seventeenth Century (Ithaca, NY, 1973)

J.R. Anthony: French Baroque Music from Beaujoyeulx to Rameau (London, 1974, 3/1997; Fr. trans. 1981)

A.P. de Miramonde: L'iconographie musicale sous les rois Bourbons (Paris, 1975–7)

R. Fajon: L'opéra à Paris: du Roi Soleil à Louis le Bien-Aimé (Geneva,1984)

M.-C. Moine: Les fêtes à la cour du Roi Soleil, 1653–1715 (Paris, 1984)

H. Schneider: ‘Die Funktion des Divertissement und des Ballet de cour in der höfischen Ideologie’, IMSCR XIII: Strausbourg 1982, 433–63

P.R. Rice: The Performing Arts at Fontainebleau from Louis XIV to Louis XVI (Ann Arbor,1989)

J.A. Sadie: ‘Paris and its Environs’, Companion to Baroque Music (London, 1990), 91–147

M. Benoit: Dictionnaire de la musique en France, aux xviie et xviiie siècles (Paris, 1992)

A. Cohen: ‘L'Etat de la France: One Hundred Years of Music at the French Court’, Notes, xlviii (1992), 767–805

J. de La Gorce: L'opéra à Paris au temps de Louis XIV: histoire d'un théâtre (Paris, 1992)

M. Benoit: ‘Paris, 1661–87: the Age of Lully’, Man and Music: the Early Baroque Era from the late 16th Century to the 1660s, ed. C. Price (London,1993), 238–69

C. Massip: ‘Paris, 1600–61’, Man and Music: the Early Baroque Era from the late 16th Century to the 1660s, ed. C. Price (London, 1993), 218–37

J.A. Sadie: ‘Paris and Versailles’, Man and Music: the Late Baroque Era from the 1680s to 1740, ed. G.J. Buelow (London, 1993), 129–89

P. Beaussant: ‘Louis XIV, un roi musicien’, Le concert des muses: promenade musicale dans le baroque français, ed. J. Lionnet (Paris, 1997), 25–9

JULIE ANNE SADIE

Louis, Rudolf

(b Schwetzingen, 30 Jan 1870; d Munich, 15 Nov 1914). German music theorist and critic. He studied philosophy in Geneva and Vienna where he received a doctorate in 1893 with a dissertation on conflict in music; he then studied composition with Klose and conducting with Mottl in Karlsruhe. He was appointed conductor in Lübeck and Landshut and before moving to Munich in 1897. In 1900 he succeeded Porges as chief music critic for the important Bavarian newspaper the Münchner neuesten Nachrichten. Louis's reviews for that paper, as well as his writings on individual composers reveal his bias towards the Wagnerian school, and his nationalistic and anti-Semitic book, Die deutsche Musik der Gegenwart (1909), inspired the work of both Storck and Moser. His Harmonielehre, written in collaboration with Thuille, is a practical textbook of harmonic structure and analyses up to Richard Strauss. His symphonic poem Proteus, was performed at the 1903 festival of the Allgemeiner Deutscher Musikverein in Basel.

WRITINGS

Der Widerspruch in der Musik (diss., U. of Vienna, 1893; Leipzig, 1893/R)

Die Weltanschauung Richard Wagners (Leipzig, 1898)

Franz Liszt (Berlin, 1900)

Anton Bruckner (Berlin, 1904)

Hector Berlioz (Leipzig, 1904)

Anton Bruckner (Munich, 1905)

with L. Thuille: Harmonielehre (Stuttgart, 1907, rev. 10/1933 by W. Courvoisier and others)

Grundriss der Harmonielehre (Stuttgart, 1908, many later edns)

Die deutsche Musik der Gegenwart (Munich, 1909, 3/1912); Eng. trans of chap.3 by S. Gillespie: ‘On the Tone Poems of Richard Strauss’, Richard Strauss and His World, ed. B. Gilliam (Princeton, 1992), 305–10

Aufgaben für den Unterricht in der Harmonielehre (Stuttgart, 1911, many later edns)

Schlüssel zur Harmonielehre (Stuttgart, 1912, 5/1927)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Riemann: ‘Eine neue Harmonielehre’, Süddeutsche Monatshefte, iv (1907), no.1, pp.500–04 [Louis’s reply, ibid., pp.614–20; Riemann’s reply, ibid., no.2, p.138]

E. Istel: ‘Nachruf auf Rudolf Louis’, Die Musik, xiv/1 (1914–15), 223–4

R. Falck: ‘Emancipation of the Dissonance’, Journal of the Arnold Schoenberg Institute, vi (1982), 106–11

R.I. Schwartz: An Annotated English Translation of Harmonielehre of Rudolf Louis and Ludwig Thuille (diss., Washington University, 1982)

ALFRED GRANT GOODMAN/K.M. KNITTEL

Louis Ferdinand [Friedrich Christian Ludwig], Prince of Prussia

(b Friedrichsfelde, nr Berlin, 18 Nov 1772; d Saalfeld, 13 Oct 1806). German composer and pianist. He was the son of Prince Ferdinand of Prussia, youngest brother of Frederick the Great. The most musically talented of all the Hohenzollerns, he displayed remarkable keyboard proficiency in his childhood. Frederick the Great, along with his sister and brother, Princess Amalie and Prince Heinrich, encouraged the boy to develop his musical interests. Prince Heinrich’s orchestra served as a training ground for his early compositions, and his home, a gathering place for French émigrés, provided a stimulating and cosmopolitan intellectual atmosphere. Louis Ferdinand was educated by tutors with a view to a military career; he joined the army in 1789 and in the Silesian campaign (1790) and the Franco-Prussian War (1792–5) he gained a reputation for heroism which lasted beyond his lifetime. In one incident he risked his life to rescue an Austrian soldier from gunfire, for which he was decorated by the Austrian government; he narrowly escaped death on two other occasions.

Louis Ferdinand’s creative life coincided with the development of early German Romanticism. Through his active participation in the salon life of Berlin he came into contact with the Schlegel brothers, Schleiermacher, Wackenroder, Dorothea Veit, Fichte, Tieck and other philosophers and artists who sought to rejuvenate German intellectual life. Louis Ferdinand benefited from, as well as contributed to, their discussions. He often played the piano in the salons, and was particularly noted for his improvisations. The salons also provided an outlet for his advanced political views; he chafed at Prussia’s refusal to take Napoleon seriously and predicted that all Germany would fall to Napoleon if Prussia and Austria did not settle their differences.

With his almost extravagant individuality, Louis Ferdinand was a child of the early Romantic era. His surviving letters reveal his frustration at his military inactivity during Prussia’s neutrality from 1795 to 1805, and his resentment at the restrictions under which his royal birth placed him. For some time he was unsuccessful in finding a suitable composition teacher; Jan Ladislav Dussek, with whom he had first studied in Hamburg, joined his entourage in 1804 and remained in his patronage until the prince’s death. The relationship was fruitful for both composers, but Louis Ferdinand had little time to develop his compositional bent. On the Napoleonic invasion of 1806 the prince commanded the Prussian advance guard, and was fatally wounded at the battle of Saalfeld. His death was seen as an evil omen by the Prussian people, to whom he had become a symbol of German nationalism. A folk lament based on his exploits and heroic sacrifice was sung for several decades after his death. His life was also the basis for a popular historical novel, Prinz Louis Ferdinand, written in 1848 by Fanny Lewald, the eminent and prolific German writer often compared to George Eliot and George Sand.

Louis Ferdinand had a reputation as an outstanding pianist long before he became known as a composer; Reichardt ranked him among the first and greatest of virtuosos. Beethoven, visiting Berlin in 1796, remarked that his playing was neither royal nor princely, but that of a true musician, and later demonstrated his regard by dedicating his Third Piano Concerto to him. (Some sources also state that Beethoven's Third Symphony, the ‘Eroica’ was rededicated to his memory.) Apart from a few songs, Louis Ferdinand’s music was written entirely for the piano, most often with various chamber combinations. The early works reflect the waning concept of the accompanied sonata; the later ones make considerable technical demands on the players. Contemporary reviews are uniformly enthusiastic, with theme and variation movements often singled out as being particularly successful. The music was performed from Paris to St Petersburg; its popularity is evident in the frequent new editions as well as duet and two-piano arrangements. In 1825 A.B. Marx listed the composer among ‘genuine artists’ such as Beethoven, Mozart, Weber, Dussek and Hummel, and public performances of his music occurred as late as the mid-century. His pianistic idiom, along with Dussek’s, placed him among the early Romantic colourists whose innovations were to culminate in Chopin’s mature style.

WORKS

published in Leipzig unless otherwise stated

Edition: Louis Ferdinand, Prinz von Preussen: Musikalische Werke, ed. H. Kretzschmar (Leipzig, 1910) [incl. opp.1–6, 9–10]

Pf Qnt, c, op.1 (Paris, 1803); Pf Trio, A, op.2 (1806); Pf Trio, E, op.3 (1806); Andante with variations, B, vn, va, vc, pf, op.4 (1806); Pf Qt, E, op.5 (1806); Pf Qt, f, op.6 (1806); Fugue, g, pf (1807); Nocturne, F, fl, vn, va, vc, pf, 2 hn ad lib, op.8 (1808); Rondo, B, pf, orch, op.9 (1808); Pf Trio, E, op.10 (Berlin, 1806); Larghetto with variations, G, vn, va, vc, db, pf, op.11 (Berlin, 1806); Octet, f, cl, 2 hn, 2 vn, 2 vc, pf, op.12 (1808); Rondo, E, pf, orch, op.13 (1823)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

B. Nadolny: Louis Ferdinand (Düsseldorf, 1967)

E. Klessmann: Louis Ferdinand von Preussen, 1772–1806 (Munich, 1972)

B.H. McMurtry: The Music of Prince Louis Ferdinand (diss., U. of Illinois, 1972)

N. Miller: ‘“Ein höchst poetische Natur …”: Prinz Louis Ferdinand und der Klassizismus in der preussischen Musik’, Mendelssohn-Studien, v (1982), 79–98

J. Draheim: ‘Schumanns Jugendwerk: Acht Polonaisen op.III für Klavier zu 4 Händen’, Schumanns Werke: Text und Interpretation: Düsseldorf 1985, 179–91

L. Rogols-Siegel: Preface and introduction to F. Lewald: Prinz Louis Ferdinand, Eng. trans. L. Rogols-Siegel (Lewiston, NY, 1988)

P. Schleuning: ‘Kann eine Sinfonie revolutionär sein? Beethoven und seine Eroica’, Revolution in der Musik: Avantgarde von 1200 bis 2000: Kassel 1988, 66–79

BARBARA H. McMURTRY

Louis of Toulouse.

See Ludovicus Sanctus.

Louisville.

City in Kentucky, USA. At the time of its settlement on Corn Island (1778) settlers danced to fiddle tunes played by Cato Watts (a slave on George Rogers Clark’s founding expedition). The earliest musical organization was possibly the St Cecilia Society, an orchestra whose repertory, dated 1820, is preserved in the Anderson Music Library of the University of Louisville. Singing societies established by German immigrants in the 1840s, including the Liederkranz society (1848–77) and the Louisville Sozialer Maennerchor (renamed the Social Male Chorus), built such venues as the Weisiger Hall and the Mozart Hall (1851–66), where, among distinguished visiting performers, the Mozart Musical Society's orchestra and chorus performed large choral works. In this hall the Germania Musical Society, an orchestra of 25 members, performed in 1854 just before it disbanded. The Liederkranz gave two seasons of German opera in 1873–4.

The Louisville Philharmonic Society was founded in 1866 by Louis Hast (1823–90); the Louisville Civic SO organized 50 years later by Morris Simon evolved into the Young Men’s Hebrew Association orchestra. The Louisville Orchestra (known as the Louisville Philharmonic Society, 1942–77) was founded in 1937 by the Louisville Civic Arts Association. Robert Whitney, its first conductor, encouraged the mayor, Charles P. Farnsley, to initiate the Louisville Orchestra Commissioning project in 1948 to fund new works. Whitney was succeeded by Jorge Mester (1967), Akira Endo (1980), Lawrence Leighton Smith (1983), Max Bragado-Darman (1995) and Uriel Segal as guest conductor in 1995 and conductor in 1999. Together with the University of Louisville School of Music, the orchestra organized Sound Celebration, an international contemporary music festival, in 1987 and 1992. The Greater Louisville Fund for the Arts (established 1949) supports the orchestra and 12 other organizations, including the Louisville Bach Society (founded in 1964).

The Kentucky Opera Association had its origins in an amateur group linked in the 1940s with the University of Louisville School of Music. The company became professional in 1952, with Moritz von Bomhard as artistic director, and commissioned works including Peggy Glanville-Hicks’s The Transposed Heads (1954), Richard Mohaupt’s Double Trouble (1954) and Rolf Liebermann’s The School for Wives (1955). In 1981 Thomas Smillie succeeded Bomhard, and Deborah S. Sandler assumed the position of general director in 1998. Kentucky Opera, like the Louisville Orchestra and the Louisville Ballet, perform in the Kentucky Center for the Arts (opened in 1983), which has two halls, the Robert S. Whitney Hall (cap. 2400) and the Moritz von Bomhard Theater (cap. 620).

Since 1939, after the founding by Dwight Anderson and Gerhard Herz of the Louisville Chamber Music Society, which regularly brought the Budapest and later the Juillard Quartet to the city, chamber music has flourished. Ensembles include the Kentucky Center Chamber Players (founded in 1983), which also has premièred and/or commissioned new works, Ceruti Players (founded in 1986), and Ars Femina (1987), which has uncovered over 1400 works by 300 women composers. The Speed Art Museum, University of Louisville, Indiana University Southeast and Southern Baptist Seminary also maintain chamber series.

Choral music has been prominent in the musical life of the city. In 1939, Father Joseph Emrich founded the Louisville Chorus. The Louisville Bach Society Chorus and Orchestra, founded in 1964 by Melvin and Margaret Dickinson has been responsible for the local premières of many choral masterworks including several by Bach, Beethoven's Missa solemnis, and masses by Mozart and Bruckner, as well as national premières of works by lesser known composers; it has also commissioned new works. A third choral organization presenting a regular concert season is the Choral Arts Society, founded in 1987.

Music publishing firms and music stores flourished from the 1840s, among them William C. Peters, Henry J. Peters, David P. Faulds, Tripp & Cragg and G.W. Brainard. Macauley’s Theatre, which opened in 1873, was used for performances by visiting opera troupes; it was demolished in 1925. The Speed Music Room served from 1914 to 1952 as a studio and concert hall and a concert series at the J.B. Speed Art Museum continues this tradition.

The University of Louisville School of Music was established in 1932 after the demise of the Louisville Conservatory of Music (founded in 1915). The first dean, Jacques Jolas, was succeeded in 1935 by Dwight Anderson, who helped found the Chamber Music Society (1938) and the Kentucky Opera Association. The school offers the BM and BME degrees, an MA in historical musicology and an MM in history and literature, music education, performance, and theory and composition. The University of Kentucky grants a PhD in musicology with residence at the University of Louisville. In 1977 the Isidore Philipp Archive and Memorial Library was established at the university under the aegis of the American Liszt Society. The Ricasoli Collection comprises 400 manuscripts and editions from the 18th century and the early 19th.

Music degrees are also offered by the School of Church Music at the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary (founded in 1944). The Louisville Academy of Music (1954) is a preparatory music school. Louisville was one of the first cities in the USA to include music as part of its public school curriculum (1853). A Youth Performing Arts School was completed in 1979. Witold Lutosławski was the first winner of the annual University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award for Music Composition, established in 1984 by the philanthropist H. Charles Grawemeyer.

The Henry Pilcher & Sons organ company was based in Louisville from 1872 until the 1940s. Steiner-Reck, founded in Louisville as the Steiner Organ Company, built the tracker organ in the recital hall at the School of Music, which is among the largest with mechanical action in the USA.

An annual bluegrass music festival initiated by the city in 1977 is the largest event of its kind in the USA.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.S. Johnston: Memorial History of Louisville from its First Settlement to the Year 1896 (Chicago and New York, 1896)

J.J. Weisert: Mozart Hall 1851–1866 (Louisville, 1962)

P. Hart: ‘Louisville Orchestra’, Orpheus in the New World: the Symphony Orchestra as an American Cultural Institution (New York, 1973), 192

M.G. Money: A History of the Louisville Conservatory of Music and Music at the University of Louisville, 1907–1935 (diss., U. of Louisville, 1976)

C.C. Birkhead: The History of the Orchestra in Louisville (diss., U. of Louisville, 1977)

E. Barret: ‘Louisville, 1853’, Essays on the Music of J.S. Bach and other Divers Subjects, ed. R.L. Weaver (Louisville, 1981), 255

J. Belfy: The Louisville Orchestra New Music Project: an American Experiment in the Patronage of International Contemporary Music (Louisville, 1983) [incl. selected letters of the composers]

MARION KORDA

Loulié, Etienne

(b Paris, 1654; d Paris, 1702). French musician and theorist. He was a chorister at the Ste Chapelle, Paris, from about 1663 to 1673. He is known later to have served the house of Mlle de Guise as flautist, viol player and organist, but appears to have held no important position either at court or in the church: instead he earned his living mainly as a maître de musique in Paris. He published three theoretical works and also left unpublished studies, which he willed to his close friend Sébastien de Brossard. His writings contain practical, systematic and enlightened contributions to the prevalent musical ideas of the time. His discussions of tempo, metre, transposition, ornamentation, key and temperament are particularly important for the development of French theory. He is also notable for his interest in pedagogy and for his musical inventions, which include the chronomètre (a metronomic pendulum device used to fix tempo) and the sonomètre (an instrument intended to facilitate the tuning of keyboards). Both instruments were approved by the Académie des Sciences (in 1701 and 1699 respectively).

WRITINGS

Abrégé des principes de musique (Paris, 1696)

Eléments ou principes de musique (Paris, 1696, 2/1698/R; Eng. trans. with suppl., 1965)

Nouveau sistème de musique ou nouvelle division du monocorde … avec la description et l'usage du sonomètre (Paris, 1698)

[Mélanges sur la musique] (MS, B-Br II 4167, F-Pn n.a.fr.4686, 6355–6)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Brenet: Les musiciens de la Sainte-Chapelle du Palais (Paris, 1910)

R.E.M. Harding: Origins of Musical Time and Expression (London, 1938)

A. Cohen: ‘Etienne Loulié as a Music Theorist’, JAMS, xviii (1965), 70–72

A. Cohen: ‘An Eighteenth-Century Treatise on the Viol by Etienne Loulié’, Journal of the Viola da Gamba Society of America, iii (1966), 17–23

R.T. Semmens: Etienne Loulié as Music Theorist (diss., Stanford U., 1979)

P.M. Ranum: ‘Etienne Loulié and the Music of the Ancients’, Cahiers du dix-septième: an Interdisciplinary Journal, i/1 (1987), 117–28

P.M. Ranum: ‘Etienne Loulié (1654–1702): Musicien de Mademoiselle de Guise, pédagogue et théoricien’, RMFC, xxv (1987), 26–75; xxvi (1988–90), 5–49

A. Cohen: ‘Loulié, Proportional Signs, and La Stravaganza’, Music in Performance and Society: Essays in Honor of Roland Jackson, ed. M. Cole and J. Koegel (Warren, MI, 1997), 195–203

ALBERT COHEN/CATHERINE CESSAC

Lourdault.

See Braconnier, Jean.

Lourdoys.

Ascription in Petrucci’s Canti B (RISM 1502²) of a piece commonly attributed to Jean Braconnier.

Loure [lur]

(Fr.).

A French dance and instrumental air popular in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.

The origins of the loure are obscure. The term referred to a kind of bagpipe known in Normandy during the 16th and 17th centuries, but it is not known if this use of the word has any bearing on the origin of the dance. The 18th-century loure was a slow, virtuoso French theatre dance of a noble, majestic but languid character, often associated with the pastoral tradition. The ten extant theatrical choreographies are difficult to perform even by modern standards, using complex movements such as the entrechât, battements, elegant turns of as much as one and a half times, and as many as six steps set to a 6/4 bar of music (see Little and Marsh). The loure was often described as a slow gigue or ‘Spanish gigue’, but it was also associated with the Entrée in its complex, soloistic choreography and majestic affect. The music is indeed similar to that of a slow gigue (see Gigue (i), §3), set in slow 3/4 or 6/4 time with an upbeat, using phrases of irregular length in a contrapuntal texture, and characteristic rhythmic motifs such as the typical dotted figure of the gigue (ex.1a), syncopation (ex.1b), hemiola (ex.1c) and a crotchet–minim or quaver–crotchet pattern as the upbeat. Examples of the theatrical loure may be found in such works as Lully's Les fêtes de l'Amour (1672), Alceste (1677) and his ballet Le temple de la paix (1685), Charpentier's Médée (1693), Campra's L'Europe galante (1697), Destouches' Amadis de Grèce (1699) and Sémiramis (1718), and Rameau's Les Indes galantes (1735), Les fêtes d'Hébé (1739) and Platée (1745).

Stylized loures apparently not intended to accompany dancing were composed frequently in the first half of the 18th century, although the instrumental loure never acquired the popularity of such dances as the bourrée and gavotte. François Couperin included a loure in the eighth concert of Les goûts-réunis (1724), which bears the heading ‘dans le goût théatral’ and includes useful performance indications. In addition to ornamentation and phrasing symbols, the word ‘pesamment’ at the beginning implies that the beats were to be heavily accented.

J.S. Bach is the composer of two of the most famous loures, that in the fifth French suite for keyboard (erroneously entitled ‘Bourrée II’ in some modern editions) and the second movement of the Partita in E major for solo violin, also arranged for lute an octave higher and with different ornamentation. These loures are heavily embellished, but succeed well if performed at the slow tempo proper to the dance. In addition, the C minor prelude in the first book of Das wohltemperirte Clavier and the C minor fantasy for organ both have loure characteristics, although the dance title is absent. Telemann wrote loures in both 3/4 (in the orchestral Ouvertures, see Musicalische Werke, x) and 6/4 (Musique de table, i, 1733). Other composers of stylized loures include M.-R. de Lalande (Sinfonies pour les soupers du Roi, iii), J.-J. Mouret (Nouveau recueil de chansons choisies, i, 1723) and Louis de Caix d'Hervelois (Sixième livre de pièces pour un par-dessus de viole, 1750).

In fact, the most famous loure of the 18th century was neither a theatrical nor an instrumental dance, but a social dance choreographed by Louis Pécour to the introduction of the air ‘Aimable vanqueur’ in Campra's opera Hésione (1700; Little and Marsh, no.1180). This new dance was first performed at a court ball before Louis XIV during the 1701 carnival season at Marly. The king was extremely pleased, and Pécour's dance soon became a favourite at balls throughout Europe. It was first published in dance notation in Paris in 1701 (F-Po Rés.841/3), and was subsequently reprinted widely both in France and elsewhere (as in Pablo Minguet's Arte de danzar a la francesa, Madrid, 1758).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Little and N. Jenne: Dance and the Music of J.S. Bach (Bloomington, IN, 1991), 185–90

M. Little and C.G. Marsh: La danse noble: an Inventory of Dances and Sources (Williamstown, MA, 1992)

MEREDITH ELLIS LITTLE

Louré

(Fr.).

See Portato; See also Bow, §II, 3(iii).

Lourer

(Fr.).

A term for a species of Notes inégales defined by Etienne Loulié in Eléments … de musique (Paris, 1696): ‘In any time signature, but especially in triple metre, the quavers are performed in two different ways although they are written the same … sometimes they are performed equally’ – called ‘detaching’ (détacher), for foreign music and music containing leaps – and ‘sometimes one makes the first quavers a little longer; this is called “lourer”, and is used in melodies of conjunct motion’.

DAVID D. BOYDEN

Lourié, Arthur Vincent [Lur'ye, Artur Sergeyevich]

(b Propoisk, Mogilev Province [now Slavgorod, Belarus], 2/14 May 1891; d Princeton, NJ, 12 Oct 1966). Russian composer. He studied at the St Petersburg Conservatory, but soon abandoned his formal studies to experiment with Impressionist and proto-serialist atonal techniques. Early ventures in these fields produced the five Préludes fragiles (1908–10), the two Poèmes (1912) and the Synthèses (1914). He came under the spell of Debussy and Busoni, and was also influenced by the ideas of St Petersburg futurists, with whom he became closely associated. In 1914 he participated with Benedikt Livshits and Georgy Yakulov in the publication Mï i zapad [We and the West], the St Petersburg futurists' ‘answer to Marinetti’. His next work – Formes en l'air (1915) – is sub-titled ‘sound script’ and dedicated to Picasso; the score approaches cubism in its design with staves omitted in the place of rests. The Corona carminorum sacrorum of the same year comprises settings of the Ave Maria and Salve Regina and is the first of Lourié's religious works. In 1918 he was appointed, in effect, music commissar as head of the music section of Narkompros, the state cultural and educational department, but resigned his post under mysterious circumstances in 1921 when he moved to Berlin. It was there he met Varèse and also Busoni, whose acquaintance he had made in St Petersburg in 1912; he found himself in sympathy with the Italian's broad cultural interests and philosophical ideas. He finally moved to Paris in 1924 where he encountered Stravinsky, an acquaintance that initially developed into friendship but which later turned into enmity. Lourié left for the USA in 1941 and became a citizen six years later.

Although in some works written between 1917 and 1928 – such as the Toccata of 1924 – Lourié adopted a neo-classical style, he later eschewed this. More innovative are the Sonata liturgica (1928) and the Concerto spirituale (1930); after his early experiments with atonality and quarter-tones, Lourié had come to prefer modal harmonies. The former, scored for alto voices and chamber orchestra, uses melodic ideas akin to plainsong and has a suite-like form of four chorales; the whole is suggestive of Byzantine chant. Lourié's predilection for low registers (a reflection of his Slavonic origins and his self-admitted roots in the music of Glinka and Musorgsky) is exemplified in the Concerto spirituale, for piano solo, voices and an orchestra lacking woodwinds and upper strings. The two symphonies are of greater interest. The first, the Sinfonia dialectica (1930), is a one-movement piece of great metric plasticity, closing in an extended diminuendo; the second is in ten closely connected sections forming a set of variations on the intervals of the 2nd, minor 3rd and 4th unified by rhythmic repetition. Pandiatonic harmonies of superimposed 3rds are contrasted with more melodic passages. Subtitled ‘Kormtchaia’, this second symphony bears the epigraph ‘Ricordati che vivi, e cammina!’ (‘Remember that you live, hence go!’), reputedly written by Michelangelo for his Moses; the subtitle derives from Greek and refers to Mary as guiding mother and, figuratively, to Mother Russia. Lourié considered his two stage pieces, The Feast during the Plague (1935) and The Blackamoor of Peter the Great (1961), his most important works. The action of The Feast takes place in England and is founded on John Wilson's dramatic poem The City of the Plague (1816). The later opera concerns an episode in the life of Ibrahim Hannibal, an African who was a grandfather of Pushkin.

WORKS

(selective list)

instrumental

Orch: Sym. no.1 (Sinfonia dialectica), 1930; A Little Chamber Music, str, perf. 1932; Sym. no.2 ‘Kormtchaia’, 1939; The Feast during the Plague [from opera-ballet], suite, S, chorus, orch, 1947; The Blackamoor of Peter the Great [from op], suite, orch, 1961; Conc. da camera, vn, str, 1947

Inst: Str Qt no.1, 1915; Pastorale de la Volga, ob, bn, 2 va, vc, 1916; Str Qt no.2, 1924; Sonata, vn, db, 1924; Suite (Str Qt no.3), 1924; Divertimento, vn, vas, 1929; La flûte à travers le violin, fl, vn, 1935; Dithyrambes, fl, 1942; The Mime, cl, 1956; The Flute of Pan, fl, 1957; Funeral Games in Honor of Chronos, fl, pf, cymbals, 1964

Pf: 5 Préludes fragiles, 1908–10; Estampes, 1910; 2 mazurkas, 1912; 2 poèmes, 1912; 4 poèmes, 1912–13; Masques, 1913; Sintezï (Synthèses), 1914; 3 sonatinas, ?1915–17, nos. 1–2, lost, no.3, 1917; Formes en l'air: à Pablo Picasso, 1915; Dnevnoy uzor (Daily Pattern), 1915; Suite japonaise, 1915; Royal' v detskoy [The Piano in the Nursery]/ Piano Gosse/ 8 Scenes from Russian Childhood, 1917; Upman – kuritel'naya shutka (Upman – a Smoking Sketch), 1919; Toccata, 1924; Petite suite, F, 1924; Marche, 1926; Valse, 1926; Gigue, 1927; Intermezzo, 1928; Nocturne, 1928; Berceuse de la chevrette, 1936; Phoenix Park Nocturne, 1938; Dialogue, 1930s

vocal

The Feast during the Plague (op-ballet, 2, A.S. Pushkin, after J. Wilson), 1935; The Blackamoor of Peter the Great (op, 3, I. Graham, after Pushkin), 1961

Chyotki [Rosary] (10 songs, A. Akhmatova), 1v, pf, 1914; Grecheskiye pesni na tekstï iz Safo (Sappho, trans. V. Ivanov), 1v, pf, 1914; Quasi valse, 1v, pf, 1914; Plach Bogorodtsï [Tears of the Virgin Mary] (13th century), Mez, vn, va, vc, 1915; La dame chante dulcement, cinq rondeaux de Christine de Pesan, 1v, hp/hpd/pf, 1915; Rozhdestvo Bogorodtsï (Apokrifichesky stikh) [The birth of the Virgin Mary (Apocryphal verse)] (M. Kuzmin), 1915; Corona carminorum sacrorum, 1v, pf, 1915; Tri svetlïkh tsarya [The Three Radiant Kings] (A. Blok, after H. Heine), 1v, pf, 1915; Rondel de Stéphane Mallarmé, 1v, pf, 1917; Verlaine (6 songs after P. Verlaine), 1v, pf, 1912–19

V kumirnyu zolotogo sna [In the Temple of the Golden Dream] (sym. cant., A. Blok), chorus, 1919; Golos muzï [Voice of the Muse] (A. Akhmatova), reciter, female chorus, 1919, arr. 1v + reciter, str qt; Trioletï (F. Sologub), 1v, pf, (1920); Ėlizium (8 songs, Pushkin), 1920; Pogrebal'nïy plach na smert' poėta [Funeral March on the Death of a Poet] (Akhmatova, in memory of Blok), chorus, 12 wind insts, 1921; Dve kolïbeln'ya [2 Berceuses] (Akhmatova), 1921; Canzone de la vita nuova de Dante, female chorus, 1921, female chorus, str, 1921; Pesni o Rossii: korshun [Songs about Russia: the Kite] (Blok), SATB, 1921; Uzkaya lira [The Narrow Lyre] (7 songs after Blok, Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, Akhmatova and F. Tyutchev), 1920–21

Improperium, Bar, 4 vn, db, 1923; Chant de brigand, B, pf, 1926; Sonata liturgica, A chorus, chbr orch, 1928; Conc. spirituale, pf, solo vv, chorus, brass, dbs, perc, 1929; Processions (R. Maritain), 2 S, pf, 1934; Tu es Petrus, chorus, 1935; Birth of Beauty (cant., J. Supervielle), S, 12S, 4 insts, 1937; A Cristo crucificado ante el mar, chorus, 1938; De ordinatione angelorum, Bar, chorus, 5 brass, 1942; Anathema, 3vv, male chorus, 8 insts, 1951; Little Gidding (T.S. Eliot), T, chbr orch, perf. 1952

Postcommunion, prosody and hymn, female chorus 5vv, 1952; Hymn to St Benedict the Moor, T, A, chorus, orch, 1949–55; Sybilla dicit (cant.), 2 tpt, 2 trbn, cymbals, 1964; Chant de gueuses (Akhmatova), S, Mez, eng hn, n.d.; Ave atque vale (F. Nietzsche), Bar, pf, n.d.

Principal publishers: A. Gutheil (Moscow), Editions russes de musique, Elkan-Vogel, Broude, Fischer, G. Schirmer, Rongwen

MSS in US-NYp

WRITINGS

‘K muzïke vïsshago khromatizma’ [Towards music of higher chromaticism], Strelets, no.1 (1915), 79–89

‘Na rasputi’ [At the crossroads], Strelets, no.3 (1922), 146–75

‘NeoGothic and neoclassic’, MM, v/3 (1927–8), 3–8

‘An Inquiry into Melody’, MM, vii/1 (1929–30), 3–11

‘The Crisis in Form’, MM, viii/4 (1930–31), 3–11

Sergei Koussevitzky and his Epoch (New York, 1931)

‘The Russian School’, MQ, xviii (1932), 519–29

‘Approach to the Masses’, MM, xii (1944–5), 203–7

‘L'évolution de la musique Russe’, Oeuvres nouvelles, v (New York, 1945), 121–63

‘Pochemu ėto sdelali?’ [Why did they do this?], Novoye russkoye slovo [New York] (14 March 1948)

‘The De-Humanization of Music’, Ramparts, iii/9 (1964–5), 39–41

Profanation et sanctification du temps (Paris, 1966) [essays and memoirs]

‘Nash Marsh’ [Our March], Novïy zhurnal, no.94 (1969), 127–42

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BDRSC

L. Sabaneyeff: Modern Russian Composers (New York, 1927), 238–9

H. Davenson: ‘D'une musique et d'Arthur Lourié’, Esprit (Paris, 1934), 830

J. Maritain: Creative Intuition in Art and Poetry (New York, 1936), 141, 252–3, 393, 402

G. Camajani: ‘The Music of Lourié’, Ramparts, iii/9 (1964–5), 35–8

D. Gojowy: Neue sowjetische Musik der 20er Jahre (Laaber, 1980)

D. Gojowy: ‘Arthur Louvié der Futurist’, Hindemith-Jb 1979, 147–85

I. Graham: ‘Arthur Sergeevič Lourié, Biographische Notizen’, Hindemith-Jb 1979, 186–207

D. Gojowy: ‘Arthur Lourié der Futurist, II’, Hindemith-Jb 1983, 116–57

I. Graham: ‘Materiaien zur Oper “Arap Petra Velikogo” von Arthur Lourié’, Studien zur Musik des XX. Jahrhunderts in Ost und Ostmitteleuropa (Berlin, 1990), 129–82

Z. Kapko-Foretic: ‘Zum graphischen Nachlass von Arthur Lourié’, ibid., 183–205

M. Kralin: Artur i Anna (Leningrad, 1990)

I. Nest'yev: ‘Iz istorii russkogo muzïkal'nogo avangarda. Artur Sergeyevich Lur'ye’, SovM (1991), no.1, 75–87

D. Gojowy: Arthur Lourié und der russische Futurismus (Laaber, 1993)

P.D. Roberts: Modernism in Russian Piano Music: Scriabin, Prokofiev and their Russian Contemporaries (Bloomington, IN, 1993)

L. Sitsky: Music of the Repressed Russian Avant-Garde, 1910–1929 (Westport, CT, 1994)

J.A. Powell: ‘Artur Sergeyevich Lourié’, After Scriabin: Six Composers and the Development of Russian Music (diss., U. of Cambridge, 1999)

GIOVANNI CAMAJANI/DETLEF GOJOWY

Louska [Lousca], František Ignác.

See Lauska, Franz.

Louvain

(Fr.).

See Leuven.

Louvier, Alain

(b Paris, 13 Sept 1945). French composer and conductor. Following a baccalauréat in mathematics, he entered the Paris Conservatoire in 1961, where he studied with, among others, Messiaen (analysis), Aubin (composition), Rosenthal (conducting), Veyron-Lacroix (harpsichord) and Dufourcq (history), received nine premiers prix, and became the last recipient of the Prix de Rome (1968). He was appointed director of the Ecole Nationale de Musique at Boulogne-Billancourt in 1972, and in 1975 was awarded the Prix Honegger. Since the 1970s he has established his reputation as a conductor of new music, appearing with the Radio France, Concerts Colonne and Lamoureux orchestras, and the ensemble Ars Nova. Appointed director of the Paris Conservatoire in 1986, he held this position until 1991, when he became professor of musical analysis. He received the Paul Gilson Prize in 1981 and the Enesco Prize of the SACEM in 1986.

A leading figure in the French music education reforms of the 1980s and 90s, he has composed and commissioned much pedagogical music. Some of Louvier's early works show the influence of Messiaen, notably Çandrakâla which incorporates Hindu rhythms. Much of his music is inspired by mathematical formulae, number sequences, algebraic curves and geometrical shapes, including Hommage à Gauss, Canto di Natale, Neuf carrés, Σ(NP²-1) and the fourth book of Etudes pour agresseurs designed as a meditation upon Pascal's triangle. Composed over a period of nearly 20 years (1964–83), the cycle of six books comprising Etudes pour agresseurs explores new timbral effects and keyboard techniques. Often incorporating micro-intervals and unusual scordatura he has also made use of electro-acoustic technology, the Concerto for Orchestra using computer-generated sounds realized at IRCAM.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Hommage à Gauss, vn, orch, 1968, arr. solo vn; Trois atmosphères, cl, orch (incl. 2 pf tuned 1/4 tone apart), 5 perc, 1974; Conc. for Orch, 7 perc, pf, cel, 2 hp, elec tape, orch, 1982; Conc., va, orch, 1997; Météores, 2 pf, orch, 1998

Vocal: Quatre poèmes de Mallarmé, S, narr, orch, 1968; Chant des Limbes, 2 S, 2 Bar, narr, 2 sax, 5 perc, orch, 1969; Canto di Natale, T, 2 fl + pic, ob, cl, trbn, 2 pf (tuned 1/4 tone apart), 2 vn, va, vc, db, 1976; Poèmes de Ronsard, amp v, orch, 1985; Atomes de requiem, SATB, pf (tuned in 1/16 tones), 1990; Missa de Angelis, SATB, 2 hn, perc, 1995

Chbr and solo inst: Etudes pour agresseurs, 6 bks, hpd, pf, org, 1964–83; Shima-Çandrakâla, 6 perc, 1970; Houles, ondes martenot, pf, perc, 1970; Promenade, a fl, 1971; Sept caractères d'après La Bruyère, pf, fl/pic, 2 cl + b cl, bn, hn, tpt, trbn, perc, hp, vn, vc, 1971; Neuf carrés, 4 fl, 1972; Chimère, hp, 1973; Cinq portraits et une image, a sax, reed trio, 1974; Σ(NP²-1), vn, pf, 1974; Qu'est devenu ce bel oeil?, fl/ob, elec tape, 1977; Raga, vc/ondes martenot, opt. elec tape, 1977

Le clavecin non tempéré, hpd, 1978; Anneaux de lumière, 2 pf (tuned in micro-intervals, 1 player), 1983; Trois nuits en trio, cl, vc, pf, 1984; Envols d'écailles, fl, va, hp, 1986; Chant des Aires, solo fl, 24 fl, 1988; Jour de colère, 7 brass insts, perc, 1991; Little Big Bang, brass ens, perc, 1991; L'Isola dei Numeri (6 piece cycle), pf, 1993; Livre pour virginal, virginal, 1993; Clamavi, vc, perc, 1995; Itinéraires d'outre-rêve, pf, 17 insts, 1995; La dormeuse et les oiseaux de nuit, pf, 1995; Un gamalan à Paris ou Le voyage de Pelong et Slendro au pays de l'harmonie, perc, Javanese gamalan, synth, 1995; “S”, 2 pf, 1999

Principal publishers: Leduc, Heugel, Salabert

WRITINGS

L'orchestre (Paris, 1978, enlarged 2/1997 with P.A. Castanet)

‘Les commandes d'oeuvres pédagogiques du CNR de Boulogne-Billancourt de 1972 à 1985’, Marsyas, no.15 (1990), 8–13

‘L'écoute, mémoire, images’, Marsyas, no.23 (1992), 5–8

‘La formation musicale vingt ans après: réformes du solfège en France’, Cahiers de UNDC (1996), May–June, 2–4

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P.A. Castanet: ‘Musique et nombre: la traduction musicale de l'arithmétique dans l'Étude 23 et Canto di Natale’, Cahiers du C.R.E.M., nos.1–2 (1986), 37–8

J. di Girolamo: ‘Une oeuvre, un auteur: Chant des Aires d'Alain Louvier’, Salabert-Actuel, no.6 (1988), 19–20 [publisher's newsletter]

A. Pâris: ‘Alain Louvier’, Dictionnaire biographique des musiciens, ii (Paris, 1995), 2487–8

P.A. Castanet, ed.: ‘Musique et représentation: le cas des courbes algébriques et géométriques’, Cahiers du CIREM, nos.37–9 (1996) [triple issue devoted to Louvier]

CAROLINE RAE

Louys, Jean [Louuys (Louwys), Joannes; Loys, Jan (Jhan de)]

(b c1530; d Vienna, 15 Oct 1563). Flemish composer. The frequent occurrence of this name or its Flemish counterpart, Jan Loys, makes the composer difficult to identify. He cannot be identical with the singer Jan Loys who was active in the chapels of Philip the Fair and Charles V between 1506 and 1517, since in the dedications in his three volumes of Pseaulmes cinquante de David (Antwerp, 1555) he called himself a youth. These dedications are all addressed to Antwerp citizens. From 1 Feb 1558 until his death on 15 October 1563 a certain Jhan de Loys was a singer in the chapel of the Emperor Ferdinand I. Although the commonness of the name must again give pause, an indication that Louys may have moved from the Low Countries to the Habsburg court in about 1558 is provided by the anthologies in which his motets and psalms appeared. Between 1552 and 1556 they are found in volumes published at Leuven or Antwerp, but between 1556 and 1564 they appear in volumes published at Nuremberg; in 1568, moreover, four of his motets were included in the series Novi atque catholici thesauri musici, which was dedicated to the Emperor Maximilian II and consists of five books of motets by composers active in Habsburg chapels in Germany and Austria. If, then, as is likely, Jean Louys is to be identified with Jhan de Loys, he spent the last few years of his life in Vienna.

Louys' compositions are squarely in the mid-century Dutch tradition of Crecquillon, Clemens non Papa and Gombert. Most of his motets and chansons, like all of the psalm settings, are for five voices. Motifs are often extended to form long, melismatic phrases, rather than being brief and declamatory as in the French style cultivated by Sermisy and Certon. They are overwhelmingly imitative, with thick textures. In his Pseaulmes cinquante de David he created successive points of imitation from each phrase of the Genevan melody. The psalms usually begin with longer points, which may use two phrases of the original melody simultaneously; subsequent points are generally shorter but often merge because of the absence of strong cadences between them. Psalm-derived material is all-pervasive. Although some settings open with clearly discernible counter-motifs, these are rare after the first point of imitation. As the psalm progressed, Louys tended to shape all voices after the tune. Some voices state the complete phrase, while others use only a few notes of the given melody before continuing in free counterpoint. Occasionally one voice may present the melody in breves, but this cantus-firmus style never lasts for more than a phrase. There is no pairing of voices and no expressive use of chordal writing, dissonance or chromaticism. This relentless polyphonic style reminiscent of Gombert permeates his motets and affects even his chansons, which were published in anthologies in Leuven and Antwerp.

WORKS

Pseaulmes cinquante de David composeez musicalement ensuyvant le chant vulgaire, 5vv (Antwerp, 1555)

23 motets, mostly 5, 6vv, 1552²⁹, 1553¹², 1553¹⁵, 1553¹⁶, 1554⁹, 1555⁹, 1564³, 1564⁴, 1568², 1568⁴; 12 ed. in SCMot, xv–xviii (1995–7)

8 chansons, 3–6vv, 1552¹⁴, 1553²⁴, 1553²⁵, 1554²², 1555²²; 4 (3vv), ed. in SCC, ii (1992)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P.-A. Gaillard: ‘Essai sur le rapport des sources mélodiques des Pseaulmes Cinquantes de Iean Louis (Anvers, 1555) et des “Souterliedekens” (Anvers, 1540)’, IMSCR V: Utrecht 1952, 193–8

H.J. Slenk: The Huguenot Psalter in the Low Countries (diss., Ohio State U., 1965)

H. Vanhulst: Catalogue des éditions de musique publiées à Leuven par Pierre Phalèse et ses fils, 1545–1578 (Brussels, 1990)

R.L. Weaver: A Descriptive Bibliographical Catalog of the Music Printed by Hubert Waelrant and Jan de Laet (Warren, MI, 1994)

HOWARD SLENK

Lovanio

(fl c1420). Composer. He was presumably from Leuven, although no further identification is possible; Eitner's suggestion that he might be identifiable with Thomas Fabri, who was a cleric and singer at St Donatian, Bruges, in 1412 and a composition pupil of Tapissier, is unfounded. His one ascribed work, a four-voice Credo in the early layer of I-Bc Q15 (copied 1420–25) is scribally paired with a three-part Gloria by Loqueville. The alternation of full sections and upper-voice duos, in alternating minor and major prolation (imperfect tempus throughout), are marked ‘chorus’ and ‘unus’, a characteristic of this scribe's work.

MARGARET BENT

Love.

American rock group. Formed in Los Angeles in 1965 by Arthur Lee (Arthur Porter Taylor; b Memphis, 7 March 1945; vocals and guitar), the group played an important role in the Los Angeles psychedelic scene, though it never achieved the level of US success of others such as the Byrds and the Doors. Their first single, ‘My Little Red Book’ (1966), was a rock cover version of a Bachrach-David song and a moderate hit. Much of their early music evinces strong influences from the Byrds and the Rolling Stones, for example ‘Can't Explain’ from their first album, Love (Elek., 1966). In the wake of the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, Love released their third and most celebrated album, Forever Changes (Elek., 1968), which featured ambitious tracks at times employing orchestral accompaniment and psychedelic recording-studio effects. It was more of a musical and critical success than a financial one, partly due to Lee's reluctance to tour outside southern California. The album earned the respect of many other rock musicians (including Led Zeppelin), and was also a favourite of many mid-1980s British neo-psychedelic bands such as Echo and the Bunnymen, and Siouxsie and the Banshees. In 1969 Lee and a new line-up released Four Sail (Elek.), but neither this nor subsequent releases enjoyed the influence or acclaim of Forever Changes. In the 1970s Lee released albums as a solo artist, as well as with versions of Love.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Rosen: ‘Love, Arthur Lee Style: More Changes’, Rolling Stone, no.180 (1975), 16

B. Hogg: ‘Love’, Record Collector, xxvii (1981–3), 47–52

P. Gallo: disc notes, Love, Love Story, 1966–72, Elektra R2 73500 (1995)

JOHN COVACH

Loveday, Alan (Raymond)

(b Palmerston North, New Zealand, 29 Feb 1928). English violinist. He was taught by his father from the age of two, and first performed in public when he was four. From 1939 he studied with Albert Sammons, at first privately and later at the RCM (1944–8). He made his London début in 1947, and soon established himself as a soloist in the concerto repertory, being particularly successful in the works of Paganini and Tchaikovsky. He spent a year as leader of the RPO, but left in 1968, and from then became leader or co-leader of various chamber orchestras – the Academy of St Martin-in-the-Fields, Steinitz Bach Orchestra, London Bach Orchestra and Philomusica of London. He taught at the RCM from 1955 to 1972. Loveday has not only natural musicianship and an excellent technique but also a well-developed sense of style. He has taken a special interest in performing 18th-century works (particularly unaccompanied Bach) on an instrument without modern adaptations and with a bow in the style of the period. He has made a large number of recordings, many of which are with the Academy of St Martin-in-the-Fields or with the pianist Leonard Cassini. His recordings of Vivaldi’s Four Seasons and Mozart’s G major Concerto have been particularly admired.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Creighton: Discopaedia of the Violin (Toronto, 1974, 2/1994)

WATSON FORBES

Loveless, Wendell Phillips

(b Wheaton, IL, 2 Feb 1892; d Honolulu, 3 Oct 1987). American radio evangelist and composer of gospel choruses. See Gospel music, §I, 1(v).

Lovelock, William

(b London, 13 March 1899; d London, 26 June 1986). English composer and writer on music. After studies with C.W. Pearce and Henry Geehl at Trinity College of Music, London, and service in World War I, he taught at Trinity College from 1919, was private organist to Viscountess Cowdray (1923–6), organist at St Clement, Eastcheap, and took a doctorate in composition at the University of London (1932). He served in India in World War II and was an established teacher, author of music theory textbooks, and music examiner in London when he was appointed Dean of the Faculty of Music at the University of London in 1954. He went to Australia in 1957 as founding director of the Queensland Conservatorium. His traditional approach to the new school brought difficulties, and he resigned in 1959, after which he was for 20 years music critic for the Brisbane Courier Mail as well as being a popular adjudicator and examiner for the Australian Music Examinations Board and Trinity College. He returned to London in 1981.

Lovelock’s compositions, all peerlessly written in frankly Romantic idioms, range from teaching pieces for children to full-scale orchestral, choral, brass and military band works, including 14 concertos. He produced more than 20 books, including A Concise History of Music (London, 1953; London, 2/1966), Rudiments of Music (London, 1957) and others, which remain widely used in Australia as well as in many other countries.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Fl Conc., 1961; The Western Land, suite, brass band, c1962; Sinfonietta, 1964; Concertino, trbn, str, 1965; Concertino, trbn, str, 1965; Divertimento, str, 1965; Sinfonia concertante, org, orch, 1968; Tpt Conc., c1970; Country Dance, school orch, c1971; Sax Conc., sax, orch, c1975; Raggy Rhapsody, 1976; Ov. ‘A Cheerful Occasion’, 1979; Rhapsody Conc., hp, orch, 1981; Sym., c

Choral and solo vocal: Treasury of 2-Pt Songs, vol.1: Children’s Songs, c1930; Grey Geese (Lovelock), 1950; Little Boy Fishin’ (Lovelock), 1952; Hurry Back! (Lovelock), 1957; The Counterparts (E. Briggs), SATB, 1958; Dream Pedlary (T.L. Beddoes), SA, 1958; Secret Love (J. Dryden), female vv, c1958; Weathers (T. Hardy), 1958; 2 Chronometers, 2-pt song (K. Slessor), c1959; The Fairy Ring (H.M. Burnside), 2vv, c1961; Waking Up, unison vv, c1961; Horse-Bells (D.B. Geddes), 2vv, c1963; Tom Thumb (W.N. Scott), SSA, 1963; Congregational Mass, SATB, 1969; Island Heart (Scott), c1969; Old Peter Groom (Scott), c1969; Mass, unison vv, 1971; Motet Communion, c1972

Several works for pf solo; 3 vols. of pf duets, c1976, c1978, c1978

Chbr and solo inst: 3 Sketches, fl, 1959; 4 Easy Miniatures, vn, c1960; 6 Sketches, t hn, c1969; Sonata, vc, pf; 4 Miniatures, brass ens, 1976; 4 Sketches, cl, 1976; Rhapsody, hn; Romance, vc, 1977; Young Moon, vc, 1977; Syncopation (F. Hold), 1978; Waltz, A, a sax; Sonatina, ob

Principal publishers: Allans Music, Albert & Son, Southern Music

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Sears: ‘Australian Music: a Widening Perspective’, Australian Composition in the Twentieth Century, ed. F. Callaway and D. Tunley (Melbourne, 1978), 228–31

WARREN BEBBINGTON

Lover, Samuel

(b Dublin, 24 Feb 1797; d St Helier, Jersey, 6 July 1868). Irish writer, painter and composer. He showed precocious talent from an early age. After unsuccessfully attempting to follow in his father's business as a stockbroker, he devoted himself to painting and was elected a member of the Royal Hibernian Academy in 1828, becoming its secretary two years later. He also achieved success as a writer of prose and verse, and published Legends and Stories of Ireland in 1831. On 9 February 1832 an opera to his libretto, Grana Uile, or The Island Queen, was performed in Dublin, the music selected from Irish airs and arranged by William Penson. In the same year, Lover gained fame by the exhibition of a miniature he had painted of Paganini.

In 1835 Lover settled in London, where he attained a good deal of social and artistic success as a miniature painter. His first novel, Rory O'More (the title taken from his own song arrangement of the same name, dated 1826), was published in 1837, and in the same year he dramatized it for the Adelphi Theatre, where it ran for more than 100 nights. He continued to produce musical pieces regularly for the next five years, and plays until 1861. His other successful novel, Handy Andy, appeared in 1842. He contributed to the Dublin Literary Gazette, was a founder of Dublin University Magazine and was associated with Dickens in the founding of Bentley's Miscellany.

By 1844 Lover could no longer paint because of failing eyesight, and on 13 March 1844 he started a musical entertainment, called Irish Evenings, in the Princess Concert Rooms. The experiment was so successful that he toured with it all over England, Scotland and Ireland, going to the USA (followed by Canada) in 1846. In 1848 he returned to London and appeared in a new entertainment called Paddy's Portfolio, based on his experiences abroad. Later he wrote two librettos for Balfe, which were never set. Lover's creative output ceased in 1864, and he later retired to Dublin. Among his most popular songs were Molly Bawn (from the burlesque opera Il Paddy Whack in Italia), The Low-Backed Car, The Angel's Whisper and The Girl I Left Behind Me. Some were adapted to traditional Irish melodies. He published a collection entitled Songs and Ballads in 1839.

Lover's songs were enormously popular in their day. Best among them are the Irish comic songs, which possess an engaging knockabout humour, though this cannot disguise the poverty of their harmonic vocabulary. His remaining songs merely explore a shallow vein of outdated, mild sentimentality.

WORKS

all printed works published in London

stage

all first perfomed in London

librettos by Lover (all MS in GB-Lbl) unless otherwise stated

all song texts by Lover

The Widow, or My Uncle's Will (operatic farce), Olympic, 21 Nov 1831, 1 song arr. C.E. Horn (c1835)

The Two Queens, or Politics in Petticoats (burletta, J.B. Buckstone), Olympic, 8 Oct 1835, 1 song (1835)

The Beau Ideal (burletta), Olympic, 9 Nov 1835

The Olympic Pic-Nic (burletta), Olympic, 26 Dec 1835

Rory O'More (comic drama, 3), Adelphi, 29 Sept 1837, lib pubd; collab. J Blewitt, 1 song (1837)

Snap Apple Night, or A Kick-Up in Kerry (musical drama), English Opera House (Lyceum), 10 Aug 1839

The Greek Boy (musical drama), CG, 29 Sept 1840, 4 nos. (1840)

Il Paddy Whack in Italia (operetta, 1), English Opera House (Lyceum), 22 April 1841, 4 songs, 1 trio (1841)

Music in: Lucille, or The Story of a Heart (drama), 4 April 1836, 1 song (?1840); The White Horse of the Peppers (dramatic romance), 26 May 1838, individual nos. (1838); The Happy Man (extravaganza), 20 May 1839, 1 song (1839); The Contrabandista, ?1840, 1 song (1840); The Sentinel of the Alma (farce), 18 Nov 1854, 3 songs (1854); The Irish Tourist's Ticket (entertainment, P.H. Hatch), ?1854, 4 songs (1854); Villanelle, ?1857, 1 song (?1857); MacCarthy More, or Possession Nine Points of the Law (comic drama), 1 April 1861, 3 songs (1861); Invitations to the Sea-Side (entertainment, E. Yates), ?1863, 1 song (1863)

songs

all texts by Lover

[4] Songs of the Legends and Traditions of Ireland (?1834); [12] Songs of the Superstitions of Ireland (?1834); The Songs of Rory O'More, 6 songs (1837); Songs and Ballades (1839); The Songs of Handy Andy, 13 songs (1842); [7] Songs of L.S.D. (1843); [5] Songs of America (1847); [5] Volunteer Songs (1859); c160 other songs; 7 duets; 1 trio; 18 song arrangements

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DNB (C.L. Falkiner)

NicollH

B. Bernard: The Life of Samuel Lover, R.H.A., Artistic, Literary and Musical (London and New York, 1874)

A.J. Symington: Samuel Lover: a Biographical Sketch (London and New York, 1880)

J.A. FULLER MAITLAND/NIGEL BURTON

Lo Verso, Antonio.

See Il Verso, Antonio.

Lovetti, Gemignano.

See Capilupi, Gemignano.

Lovin’ Spoonful.

American folk-rock group. Formed in New York in 1965, its members were John Sebastian (b New York, 17 March 1944; vocals, guitar autoharp and harmonica), Zal Yanovsky (b Toronto, 19 Dec 1944; vocals and lead guitar), Steve Boone (b Camp Lejeune, nr Jacksonville, NC, 23 Sept 1943; bass guitar) and Joe Butler (b New York, 19 Jan 1943; drums. Their first single, Do you believe in magic? (Kama Sutra, 1965), reached number 9 in the US pop chart, and their later successes included three top ten hits in 1966 (Daydream, Did you ever have to make up your mind? and Summer in the City) along with the soundtracks to Woody Allen’s What’s Up, Tiger Lily? (Kama Sutra, 1966) and Coppola’s You’re a Big Boy Now (Kama Sutra, 1967). The Lovin’ Spoonful’s style blended the noisy passion of rock with the affable sincerity of urban folk music, a contrast exemplified by Sebastian’s soft voice and the raucous guitar playing of Yanovsky. Most of their work is gentle and good-humoured, at times evoking the sound of a jug band. After the group disbanded in 1968, Sebastian pursued a successful solo career.

KEN TUCKER

Low Countries.

An area that includes the present-day Kingdom of the Netherlands (familiarly but imprecisely known as ‘Holland’), Belgium and Luxembourg. These countries have a long history of changing boundaries and political organization. The term ‘Netherlands’ itself has also changed meaning several times. Initially it was a general geographical name covering the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and some northern parts of France; after about the mid-15th century it became increasingly a politico-dynastic designation which referred to the northern domains of the Duke of Burgundy.

Only after the mid-16th century did the word ‘Netherlands’ appear in official documents. Stronger links were forged and there was a greater unity between the various provinces under the rule of the dukes of Burgundy. During the reign of Emperor Charles V this tendency towards centralization was continued and, except for the prince-bishopric of Liège, which maintained its independence until 1794, all parts of the present Kingdom of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and even areas of northern France (French Flanders with Arras, Hesdin, Douai and Lille and parts of southern Hainaut with the cities of Cambrai and Avesnes), the sizes of which varied according to the prevailing political climate, were united under the jurisdiction of a single prince in 1543. This political unity was disrupted during the religious upheavals and their aftermath towards the end of the 16th century and culminated in the Union of Utrecht (1579); the northern provinces united in 1588 to form the ‘Republic of the Seven United Provinces’ and for a long time they were governed by a Stadtholder or hereditary Stadtholder from the House of Orange-Nassau. Meanwhile the southern provinces, the so-called ‘Spanish’ and from 1714 the ‘Austrian’ Netherlands remained under Habsburg rule. After the French Revolution and the ensuing occupation of both the Republic of the Seven United Provinces and the Austrian Netherlands (1794–1813), the ‘United Kingdom of the Netherlands’, was created in 1815: under that arrangement the Netherlands, with the exception of a few parts of northern France, comprised the old politico-geographical unit established by Charles V. This political union was also dissolved in 1830 and it was divided into the two present states: the kingdoms of Belgium and the Netherlands.

Because of their cultural and, in part, political unity, it is proper to combine in one article the history of the musical developments until 1600 which occurred in the territories of these two states. During the era of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–30), which regarded itself in a Romantic nationalist sense as the heir to a general cultural legacy of the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the musical golden age of the area from about 1430 to the close of the 16th century was felt to be typically ‘Netherlandish’. A scholarly basis for that view was argued in the essays by Kiesewetter and Fétis which were submitted as entries in the open competition of the Koninklijk Nederlandsch Instituut van Wetenschappen, Letterkunde en Schoone Kunsten. Even after the collapse of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands the period continued to be called (by Ambros, among others) the ‘Age of the Netherlanders’. Attempts made by modern research to label parts of the period or the period as a whole ‘Burgundian’, ‘Flemish’ or ‘Franco-Flemish’ emphasize too often only a partial aspect or fail to recognize the cultural unity and independence which was centred at that time in the Netherlands as a whole. Moreover, such attempts show the embarrassment of scholarship when faced with the conceptual interpretation of a variable national-geographical name.

It should be added that the name ‘Holland’ is misleading because it strictly applies to only one province of the Netherlands of that time (still in the Kingdom of the Netherlands). The English word ‘Dutch’ should be used only with reference to aspects of the present-day Kingdom of the Netherlands. The confusion is increased when it is realized that 15th- and 16th-century documents use ‘Fiammingo’, ‘Belga’ or ‘Batavus’ and similar terms as pars pro toto for ‘Netherlander’.

I. Art music

II. Traditional music

ALBERT DUNNING (I, 1, 2), JAN L. BROECKX/R (I, 3), JOS WOUTERS/ LEO SAMAMA (I, 4), CORNEEL MERTENS/ HENRI VANHULST (I, 5), PAUL ULVELING (I, 6), WIM BOSMANS (II)

Low Countries

I. Art music

1. Netherlands to 1600.

3. Southern Netherlands, 1600–1830.

4. Kingdom of the Netherlands.

5. Belgium.

6. Luxembourg.

1. Netherlands to 1600.

The earliest evidence of the widespread cultivation of music in the Netherlands dates from the end of the Carolingian era. A planctus mourning the death of Charlemagne (d 814), supposedly by Colomban, abbot of St Truiden, has been regarded by older schools of research as the earliest evidence. The indigenous tradition of Gregorian chant is more fruitful; as in music theory, musicians from Liège led the way. Important composers of Office melodies include Bishop Stephen of Liège (c850–920), educated in the important music centres of Metz and Aachen, who composed three Offices. The antiphon Magna vox laude sonora from the Office of St Lambert remained in use as the ‘hymn’ of the prince-bishopric of Liège until the French Revolution. Office settings by composers at the abbey of St Laurent in Liège and at neighbouring St Truiden are also extant: an Office for St Maria Egyptiaca by Brother Joannes (a composer at St Laurent in Liège) and a night Office by Abbot Rodolfus of St Truiden (d 1138) survive. The sequences of the Office for the Festival of the Holy Sacrament (which had been celebrated since 1246 in Liège even before it had been generally recognized by the papacy) composed by Brother Joannes (not the above-mentioned) show a melodic inventiveness indebted to the corpus of sequence melodies currently in vogue.

The Netherlands was extremely important in the early development of liturgical drama. An Easter play originated under north-east French influences in the 12th century or the early 13th in Maastricht: the earliest surviving manuscript (NL-DHk 76.F.3) calls it the Dutch Easter Play of Maastricht. A 15th-century manuscript, a hymnary from Egmond (DHk), contains the text and music of this same drama originally performed by the monks at Egmond on Easter morning. The play, in seven scenes using 11 soloists, is among the most comprehensive of all Latin Easter plays; in addition it is the only one which incorporates the journey of the apostles to Emmaus (scene vi), which was normally an independent play. In Delft this particular drama, with many ornamentations and some secular additions, outlived the tradition of the Easter play, which died out at the end of the 15th century.

From the 12th century and especially from the 13th, a neumatic notation developed in the area around Maastricht between the Rhine, Maas and Moselle rivers, which was influenced by developments at Aachen, Liège and Cologne. Although it owed much to Germanic and Messine notations, its distinctive character was maintained and through the travels of ecclesiastics it became very widespread and is found even in Finland.

The obvious middle position of the Netherlands between French and Germanic influences can be seen in the secular monophony of the Limburg epic poet Hendrik van Veldeke, who was closely associated with the group of trouvères at the court of Marie, Countess of Champagne. His creative writing comprises the legends of Aeneas and St Servatius and many poems. From a literary point of view he seems to have stood at the beginning of the romance phase of German Minnesang: both the form and melody of his songs show strong French influence. The art of the trouvères in the 13th and 14th centuries spread chiefly through the southern Netherlands, and in this process the neighbouring area of Artois, which was extremely important for the courtly lyric, played a significant role. Jeux-partis, pastourelles and courtly songs, which became popular at the larger and smaller courts in Hainaut, Flanders, Brabant and Cambrésis, reflect this southern influence both in their literary and musical components. The most important representatives of this courtly art-form (though not all of Netherlandish origin) include Conon de Béthune, Gillebert de Berneville, Jacques de Cysoing, Jocelin de Bruges, Mahieu de Gant, Pierre le Borgne, Henri III (Duc de Brabant), Adenez, Erart and Gontier de Soignies.

The Liedgesang, which used Netherlandish texts, is frequently documented both in the northern and southern Netherlands. The corpus of songs surviving from this period can in no way correspond to the original number. The earliest source is the famous and comprehensive Gruuthuse Manuscript from the second half of the 14th century, in which a melody is appended to 147 Middle Netherlandic poems, and eight melodies are given for the allegorical poem at the end of the manuscript; the five-line notation, also found in several other contemporary manuscripts, represents an indigenous notation of Flanders.

The leading position of Liège and its surrounding area in music theory is undisputed; the various abbeys of the bishopric were involved from the 10th century and produced important works from the 11th century until the early 14th (e.g. the progressive treatises of Aribo, of Bavarian extraction, and of Johannes Cotto, Coussemaker’s Anonymus 9, Rodolfus of St Truiden, the putative anonymous compiler of the Quaestiones in musica and Magister Lambertus). This activity in music theory reached a climax with the writings of Jacobus of Liège (c1260–c1330), whose massive, encyclopedic Speculum musice (which had incorrectly been attributed to Johannes de Muris) summarizes the polarity of speculative and empirical musical thought dominant at that time. Franco de Colonia, an important Netherlandish medieval theorist whose name appears between 1215 and 1224 in the records of St Servatius, Maastricht, is probably the same person as Franco of Cologne, the mensural theorist who taught in Paris.

The small amount of polyphony surviving from the Ars Nova period which can be shown to be of Netherlandish origin does not correspond with the extensive cultivation of sacred and secular polyphony of which there is evidence. The number of works by local composers in a manuscript from the end of the Ars Antiqua (now in I-Tr vari 42, but possibly originating in the abbey of St Jacques in Liège) is uncertain. It is more certain, however, that an early 14th-century polyphonic setting of the Ordinary, the so-called Tournai Mass, is of Netherlandish origin despite the existence of concordances in Spanish, southern French and Italian sources.

The polyphonic works with Netherlandish texts in several manuscripts of Prague University Library (CZ-Pu XI.E.9) and in the Strasbourg manuscript F-Sm 222.C.22 (now lost) have been proved to be Netherlandish reshapings of originally French works. A three-part ballade in Netherlandish in the Reina Manuscript (F-Pn n.a.fr.6771) is found between Italian and French works: written in motet style, it gives a vivid picture of a Netherlandish fish market. It presumably dates from the 14th century and may have originated on the coast of northern Flanders or Zeeland. Another manuscript, in Leiden (NL-Lu BPL 2720), is probably from the first decades of the 15th century but may contain works dating from the end of the 14th century from the area of the province of Zeeland and perhaps even from Dordrecht; two composers, Martinus Fabri and Hugo Boy Monachus, are named. Its small repertory includes Latin, French and Netherlandish songs in ballade, rondeau and motet form. These short works, rooted in popular culture, do not seem to be on a par with those of international stature, yet they provide a more complete picture of the everyday cultivation of music in the Netherlands. Two manuscripts from Leiden (Lu BPL 2512, LTK 342A) and one detailed manuscript from Utrecht (Uu 6 E 37) have become the objects of scholarly attention; the existence of polyphonic Netherlandish songs alongside similar ones in French and Italian leaves no doubt that the Utrecht manuscript is of Netherlandish origin. The extensive repertory of Netherlandish manuscripts has only been described; the music itself awaits evaluation.

The picture of musical life in the Netherlands during the Middle Ages is extensively described in numerous literary documents which reveal an intense preoccupation with the various forms of music-making. The organization of music chapels in churches, cathedrals, monasteries, abbeys and fraternities (e.g. the Marian Brotherhood at ’s-Hertogenbosch, which played a decisive part in the history of Netherlandish music from the early 14th century), the recruitment of choirboys (Maastricht and Liège) at a comparatively early date, information about music instruction, the role of processional music, the employment of town musicians, the purchase of instruments and music books, the appearances of jongleurs and other itinerant musicians, all attest the inherent part which music played in daily court, religious and urban social life.

The dissemination throughout Europe of Netherlandish musicians as early as the 14th century is a remarkable phenomenon awaiting systematic study. The great emigration of Netherlandish musicians in the 15th and 16th centuries seems to have had its origins, or perhaps its counterpart, in the 14th century. Thus during the Ars Nova the court of Aragon had already attracted several singers from the Netherlands, and minstrels were sent from Spain to Flanders for their musical education; even the popes, both during their exile in Avignon and after they had returned to Rome, had Netherlandish musicians in their services, as did the dukes of Burgundy in the 14th century. By the end of the 14th century this propagation had become so advanced (the most remarkable axis was Liège to Italy, especially Rome) that it can be identified as a significant phenomenon of cultural history which later became even more intensive. Even if no satisfactory explanation can be found for the golden age of Netherlandish music (which had begun in the 14th century) its prime cause may certainly have been the emphasis and value placed on instruction in music theory.

Johannes Ciconia is by far the most important representative of Netherlandish composers of polyphonic music in the late 14th and early 15th centuries. He was born in Liège and had moved to Italy by 1393, the date of his lament on the death of Francesco de Carrara. He was employed from 1400 in Padua, and in numerous works for state occasions praised the city and its rulers; he exerted a decisive influence on his musical contemporaries both in the Netherlands and in Italy. His works show elements of the French Ars Nova combined with those of the waning Italian trecento; he revived the fading interest in the madrigal, but above all devoted himself to the popular form of the ballata, in which two upper voices tend towards a concept of harmonic sonority despite the vocal intensity of the other parts. Ciconia wrote almost equally often for three and four voices in his polytextual motets. In some of his motets he imitated the caccia type, but this canonic rigidity soon relaxed into free imitation, which set the pattern for the motet form of the ensuing period. The varied character and polytextuality of the upper voices occasionally make way for the new ideal of assimilation; the tenor, divested of its cantus firmus character and transformed into a free contrapuntally and artistically developed harmony line, became especially prominent in his later motets. He occasionally retained isorhythmic technique as a remnant of the French tradition. His settings of parts of the Ordinary are somewhat less important than his motets and are all settings of the Gloria and the Credo, which sometimes appear to be linked by isorhythmic technique, head-motifs or a common tenor; in some sections the motifs of the three melodically equal voices are linked. Thus Ciconia anticipated to some extent the development of the 15th-century Netherlandish cyclic mass and the momentous and fundamental change to homogeneous choral polyphony. The tradition of his works, in which the synthesis of French Ars Nova with the trecento is realized, shows him as the central composer of the late 14th and early 15th centuries; the term ‘Epoch Ciconia’ thus honours him as the chief exponent of this new development.

A new and radical development occurred about 1430; it was recognized as such by contemporaries (e.g. Martin le Franc in his poem Le champion des dames) as early as 1440. Tinctoris remarked on this fundamental change in the introduction to his Ars contrapuncti (1477), calling it the beginning of an ‘Ars Nova’. He wrote that, according to connoisseurs, the only music worth listening to was that of the last 40 years. Du Fay stands at the centre of these musical innovations and at the beginning of the period which has become known as the ‘Age of the Netherlanders’. He took as his starting-point the legacy of the 14th-century French Ars Nova, of his teacher Richard Loqueville and of his friend Nicolas Grenon; during his creative period, which spanned almost half a century, he synthesized the achievements of the Ciconian epoch and the English composers active on the Continent (especially Dunstaple), developing them further and interpreting them anew. The musical style developed by Du Fay and continued, transformed and expanded by his compatriots became part of a generally accepted musical language, and the steady emigration of musicians from the north ensured its rapid and broad diffusion throughout Europe. While in the service both of popes and of Italian princes Du Fay had the opportunity to come to terms with the distinctive Italian musical idioms. Throughout the period of migration of Netherlandish musicians up to the time of Lassus and Monte this confrontation with the south continually provided stimulus. The result of his versatility in serving both sacred and secular institutions was a correspondingly varied oeuvre ranging from simple sacred songs to tenor masses on a grand scale, from tasteful courtly chansons to splendid state motets.

Du Fay’s most important innovation was the reformulation of the legacy of the isorhythmic motet from the Ciconian epoch. The mathematical rigidity of the tenor line of the isorhythmic motet is gradually relaxed in Du Fay’s motets and the contratenor sinks once and for all below the tenor which simultaneously assumes the function of an axis. The new sense of harmony, which had come about as an adaptation of Fauxbourdon that involved a transformation of an English polyphonic style, now permitted this ‘contratenor bassus’ to become a harmonic supporting voice. The character of the contratenor thus became more like that of the upper pair of voices, which moved as soprano and alto separated by the interval of a 5th. In Du Fay’s later work the vocal nature of the tenor, which was formerly in long note values, became much more like that of the other parts, although polytextuality was retained as a traditional feature.

In liturgical music such as the hymn and Magnificat the ornamented cantus firmus is doubled in the discant at the interval of a 4th and a free tenor is added which transforms the parallel 4ths into 6-3 chords. To this new full sound were added the forms and flourishes of the type of melody which was fashioned principally by Du Fay, with the animated 3/4 rhythm that pervades all branches of his work. The genre of the song motet, used in private devotions, belongs in a special tradition which continued long after Du Fay’s death.

The characteristic features of Du Fay’s tenor motets set the pattern for the 15th-century motet and influenced polyphonic settings of the Ordinary, which can be considered the central form of 15th-century Netherlandish music. The striving towards musical unity in individual Ordinary sections, already noticeable in the Ciconian epoch, was largely realized in Du Fay’s contribution to the mass. A borrowed tenor, either sacred or secular, was used as a link between the individual sections; in addition, the same introductory motif could be used as a kind of motto. The relative modernity of the tenor mass can be seen in the great variety in construction of the tenor: this includes the adoption of melodies from plainchant, folksong or chanson; treatment of the melody as an ostinato in long note values; and the melodic influence of the tenor on the voices that accompany it.

Apart from the innovations made in the motet (and, related to this, in the mass), the chanson as a form retained a certain independence in Du Fay’s work. A three-part texture was still the norm, in accordance with the generally more conservative approach to the chanson; the discantus was the most prominent part, and all Du Fay’s earliest chansons were written in perfect time (though later examples in imperfect time also appeared). Serving both for special occasions and for more informal music-making, Du Fay’s chansons show in their polyphonic organization an increased interest in imitation and a songlike character. The chansons of Binchois, who was mainly active at the Burgundian court and chiefly concerned with this genre, were of decisive importance for the next generation; they are characterized by broadly flowing melodies, clear and energetic rhythms, a cantabile songlike arrangement of the superius with the contratenor functioning as a harmonizing part, and a predominance of imitation with an unmistakable tendency towards blending individual sections: these all became characteristic features of the chanson in the following period.

Although Du Fay and Binchois were the chief exponents of the musical golden age in the Netherlands, lesser masters such as Johannes de Lymburgia, Johannes Brassart and Hugo and Arnold de Lantins added depth to the pattern of stylistic developments in many individual ways. In addition their careers elucidate in detail the international validity of the early Netherlandish style.

The main achievement of the generation of Netherlandish musicians from about 1460 to 1490 did not lie as much in the creation of a fundamentally different style nor in the development of new forms as in the extension and consolidation of the achievements of the Du Fay era in the three main genres, mass, motet and chanson. This is most impressively exemplified in the work of the chief representative of that generation, the Franco-Flemish composer Jean de Ockeghem, who probably came to maturity under the influence of Binchois. Settings of the Ordinary were his main interest; the chanson and especially the motet were subsidiary genres. He was considered unequalled in France during his lifetime, overshadowing his contemporaries, Johannes Regis, Antoine Busnoys, Hayne van Ghizeghem, Robert Morton, Firminus Caron and Jacobus Barbireau. Just as the achievements of Josquin and Willaert were later codified by Glarean and Zarlino respectively as classical, so too were those of Ockeghem in the work of Tinctoris.

Ockeghem stands in a strange half-light in the musical histories of the 19th and early 20th centuries, where his contrapuntal artifices are considered the most characteristic feature of his art. Modern scholarship has concluded that such intentional complications are of only peripheral importance, yet earlier opinions persist even in recent musicological textbooks. This disproportionate emphasis on his contrapuntal skill may be the result of the difficulty in describing the essential characteristics of his style. In any case, the artifices of this epoch (enigmatic notation for all kinds of canonic forms and the refinement of mensural theory) offer impressive proof of the astonishing technical skill in counterpoint of which composers were capable.

The tendency already prefigured in the previous generation towards through-vocalization (‘Dutch imitation’) of the whole texture was developed further: in the four-part compositional structure of one of Ockeghem’s masses, for example, each individual part has been conceived with equal contrapuntal attention; the borrowed tenor frequently loses its rhythmic individuality and is assimilated into the vocal texture of the accompanying parts; and the active implementation of refined mensural theory contributes to the highly differentiated rhythm of each individual part. Long melismatic phrases abound, avoiding all metrical breaks or other stopping-points, and, in the words of Tinctoris, the codifier of Ockeghem’s art, ‘varietas’ is of the utmost importance; symmetry in phrase or sub-section seems therefore to have been avoided, and a sense of continuous movement is achieved.

Alongside Ockeghem’s ten masses, his surviving motets, at least as far as numbers are concerned, are quite modest, a phenomenon which, moreover, is symptomatic for the period as a whole; the motet was of considerable importance only in the work of Regis. As a rule the tenor motet was in five parts, and because it belonged within the tradition of the early isorhythmic motet, it became the festival music par excellence for high church and state occasions.

In the period from about 1480 to 1520, the musical influence of the Netherlands spread throughout Europe in a most impressive way; the highly talented groups of musicians in churches, at courts and above all in cathedrals caused the reputation of the Netherlands as the ‘Conservatory of Europe’ to spread to even the most distant courts and cathedrals of the Continent. The recruitment instructions contained in court and church documents in Spain, England, France, the whole Empire and above all in Italy confirm that the authorities wanted Netherlandish singers, composers and musical directors. Josquin, Obrecht, Isaac, Pierre de La Rue, Alexander Agricola, Weerbeke, Brumel, Compère and Antoine de Févin represent a body of musicians almost unparalleled in the history of music when one considers the greatness of their legacy together with the uniformity of their background.

The migration of Netherlandish musicians to Italy seems to have reached a climax during this period; the greatness of Netherlandish music would have been inconceivable without the stimulus of the southern European music and intellect. This is demonstrated most effectively in the work of Josquin, the leading composer of this generation. Probably brought up on the waning contrapuntal technique of Ockeghem, he was associated with the Milanese court from the early 1480s. It was there that his meteoric career in the service of the Sforza family, the popes and the Este family brought him into contact with the ideals of the Italian high Renaissance and with the indigenous musical forms of that country. His reputation for both wit and moodiness allowed him to take great liberties with his employers, and in his later years, when richly endowed with benefices, he could be certain of the princes’ solicitous concern for his welfare. No other Renaissance composer made such a deep impression on the theoretical writings and music of the ensuing period. Modern scholarship, fully aware of his importance, has not only named the period after him, but sometimes even refers to the following years as the ‘post-Josquin’ period. His reputation, which had already attained legendary proportions before his death, must have brought him a vast number of pupils, but this remains an unsubstantiated theory.

In the same way that Josquin’s career and reputation were international, his work, too, may be divided into distinct styles and genres of composition. Alongside the traditional species of Netherlandish music, such as the mass, motet and chanson, he also used indigenous Italian forms such as the frottola. It was probably his masses (about 20) that established his reputation with his contemporaries and with posterity; they demonstrate the whole stylistic diversity of this genre. Besides a fairly large number of cantus firmus masses, whose basic melody is taken from plainchant, folksong, chanson or solmization themes and whose melodic material sometimes permeates the texture of the accompanying parts, he wrote masses in which canonic or proportional part-writing is prescribed for parts or for the whole. The systematic imitation of the parts seems to reach its climax in his late works (e.g. the tenor Missa ‘Pange lingua’); this was an important development, for pervading imitation became the characteristic formal element in the compositions of the following generation.

The motet returned impressively to the fore in Josquin’s work. The motets (about 120, some 30 of which are of doubtful authenticity) exhibit a versatility of technique similar to that of the masses: alongside purely chordal motets, which may have been influenced by Italian musical ideals, there are tenor motets with pervading imitation in the accompanying parts and psalm settings not based on a cantus firmus. Perhaps the most important characteristic feature of Josquin’s motet style, however, is that the cantus firmus is no longer a fundamentum relationis; instead the text and its syntactic coherence became fundamental. He attempted to elucidate the meaning of the text by varying the style of the setting, using homophonic-declamatory blocks or longer sections interwoven with imitative or canonic techniques, contrasting voice pairs, and varying the number of voices. The ideals of Italian humanism undoubtedly influenced the new relationship between the composer and the text, which in turn led to the application of new stylistic methods to reflect both the content and emotion of the text (e.g. word-painting and chromaticism). From a historical point of view this new concern with the text may have been the most important innovation in the Netherlandish music of the 15th and 16th centuries, for its most extreme result was the Baroque recitative, and thus the development of opera. In Josquin’s secular works there is a similar gradual loosening of traditional forms and constructivism in favour of a musical style centring on the text and the emotions it conveys.

Josquin’s contemporaries, Pierre de La Rue and Jacob Obrecht, clearly directed their main creative efforts to settings of the Ordinary. In some 30 masses, which became quite widely known, La Rue developed an impressive technique in varying individual motifs strongly reminiscent of Ockeghem’s rhythmically varied repetition technique. On the whole the spirit of the Ockeghem era with its contrapuntal virtuosity seems to reappear in La Rue’s works, which abound in canons and other devices. Even if the existence of humanistic tendencies, as emphasized above in Josquin’s work, cannot be completely denied in that of La Rue, it must nevertheless be said that La Rue did not achieve the same results in adopting this approach.

If considered from the point of view of progress, Obrecht’s works would seem to be less fruitful. His work is best regarded as the climax and, simultaneously, as the end of a line of development, where earlier trends are finally exhausted. Like Ockeghem’s, Obrecht’s masses are the most impressive part of his output; the grand scale of his tenor masses is evidence of his superior ability. But it is significant that with Obrecht the polyphonic song in Netherlandish reappears; that genre became much more popular in the next generation.

The international career of the Flemish composer Isaac is reflected in his extensive corpus of compositions. Emphasis is always justifiably placed on his ability to familiarize himself with the indigenous musical forms of the places in which he lived (e.g. the frottolas he may have composed during his long sojourn at the Florentine court of Lorenzo il Magnifico). Isaac, with his tenor songs on German texts, was the first great Netherlandish composer of the group who made the German polyphonic song almost level with other types of vernacular composition like the chanson, the madrigal and their predecessors. His universally familiar tenor song Innsbruck, ich muss dich lassen contributed vastly to his posthumous fame (not least because of the popularity of its Protestant contrafactum); and yet, there is no thorough and comprehensive evaluation of his work. The so-called Choralis constantinus, Isaac’s work of massive proportions setting the most important melodies of the Mass Proper and completed by his pupil Senfl, is a work of uniform cyclic design and of comparable size to the Magnus liber of Leoninus and Perotinus.

The next generation of musicians, among whom the leading figures were Gombert, Clemens non Papa and Thomas Crecquillon, were primarily active in the Netherlands either at the Habsburg courts or in cathedrals and churches. A second group, distinctive in their musical style, were the travellers to Italy headed by Willaert and somewhat later by Cipriano de Rore. The large number of greater and lesser masters belonging to the first ‘northern’ group include Pierre de Manchicourt, Nicolas Payen, Cornelius Canis, Benedictus Appenzeller, Josquin Baston, Eustachius Barbion, Jean Courtois, Johannes Lupi, Lupus Hellinck and the somewhat older Jean Richafort.

This ‘northern’ group seems to have adopted one aspect in particular of Josquin’s work – imitation. This can be seen most clearly in the work of Gombert, music director at the court of Charles V and possibly a pupil of Josquin. The characteristic features of Josquin’s style were abandoned, and pervading imitation, formerly only one of many stylistic features and a development which Riemann attributed to Ockeghem, became the chief principle of construction instead; the melodic lines suggest a purely linear conception. This style permeates to almost the same extent all the main genres of this generation’s vocal music (the mass, motet, chanson and polyphonic song in the vernacular), if incidental connections with such styles as the Parisian chanson are not sought. Gombert’s output, with approximately 160 motets, testifies to the increased interest after Josquin’s generation in the motet, which is certainly the highpoint of Gombert’s work and of that of his contemporaries. Polyphonic settings of the Ordinary were almost all composed using the parody technique, which later extended to other forms such as the Magnificat. In spite of many individual features there is a fundamental style common to the work of the other members of the northern group. The strict adherence to the principle of pervading imitation in all forms did much to bring about their stylistic uniformity, which makes it difficult to identify confidently the form of a given work. More than anyone else, Clemens non Papa was able to retain a certain degree of independence in his highly striking and personal style. When compared with the broadly flowing melodic technique of his motets with a slightly emphasized superius, the often witty, folksong-like and even cunning melodies of his chansons and polyphonic Netherlandish songs present a richly shaded picture of domestic and religious musical life. His polyphonic settings of the Souterliedekens, rhymed psalms with associated melodies, are particularly important.

In the 1540s new patterns appeared in these composers’ later works; broad phrases rich in melismas formerly in vogue gradually disappeared and compositions began to be dominated by a type of motif characterized by the repetition of notes and by a declamation style reflecting the accent of the words. The formerly linear bass became a harmonic foundation to the five-voice texture, whose sound was characterized by a warmth absent in the works composed at the peak of Gombert’s classical pervasive imitative style. This re-orientation may be traced back largely to Italian influences, particularly those which were furthered by a lively cultural exchange and the prolific activity of music printers in Italy and the Netherlands.

Willaert and many other Netherlanders had settled in Italy by the 1520s; in 1527, after serving the Este court, he was appointed maestro di cappella at S Marco, Venice. Through his works and personality, which attracted a great number of influential pupils, primarily Italians, he exerted a decisive influence on the cross-fertilization of Netherlandish and Italian music unlike almost any other composer before him. With other Netherlanders he contributed to the birth of the madrigal, which was rooted in typically Italian social culture. In place of the indigenous frottola, the Netherlandish contrapuntal style of composition probably set the pattern for the early phase of the madrigal, which was used as a collective heading for the sonnet, canzona and strambotto. Enriched by such Netherlandish composers as Arcadelt, Berchem, Jan Nasco and Jhan Gero as well as by Willaert and Rore, the madrigal attained greater importance because it served as an experimental genre for chromatic style and textual interpretation, whose results in turn extended to other genres.

In addition Willaert merits special attention because of his contribution to the development of the polychoral style. Probably based on the tendency towards the richness of sound rooted in Italian music, Willaert’s salmi spezzati appeared in 1550; instead of the eight-part composition being divided into upper and lower chorus, as was sometimes the case in Josquin’s era, the two four-part choruses are contrasted with each other in dialogue. The architectonic conditions in S Marco made this division practical. The principle progressed from bi-choral to polychoral compositions with the addition of instrumental choruses and foreshadowed the typical Baroque concerto form in the compositions of Willaert’s Italian pupils and successors, including Andrea Gabrieli. Even if Willaert may not be regarded as the inventor of cori spezzati, his contribution to its development and revival was decisive.

The high quality of music and language permeating Willaert’s compositions is also evident in those of his pupil Cipriano de Rore, who expressed his aesthetic convictions in a most remarkable way in the emotional musical idiom of his madrigals. Interpretation of text and expression of emotion are here essential characteristics, and were adopted by the next and last great generation of Netherlandish composers.

The hegemony of the Netherlands was shaken soon after the mid-16th century. A steady stream of Netherlanders was still pouring abroad; the chapels of the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs were led by Netherlanders well into the 17th century, and in the more remote parts of the German Empire court institutions still showed a preference for these well-trained men. Netherlandish music became internationally known through the Netherlandish printing houses of Susato, Waelrant and Phalèse; similarly Italian, French and especially German publishers contributed to the general dissemination of works by Netherlandish composers by publishing those that had been written abroad. The efforts of the Netherlandish composers began to be rivalled by Italian, Spanish, French, English and German composers. Various reasons have been given for the gradual waning of the golden age of Netherlandish music: the religious wars with their political consequences which increasingly affected the Netherlands after the mid-16th century; the resulting decline of economic affluence; and the lowering of standards in musical training in the home country. These may all contribute to an understanding of the phenomenon, but do not provide a conclusive explanation.

The last Netherlandish composers historically recognized as being of truly European stature are Lassus and Monte. Along with Isaac, Lassus was probably the most versatile Netherlandish composer of the 16th century. He composed in virtually every form of every country and in every musical dialect, whether villanesche, chromatic madrigals, French chansons, state motets, parody masses or German polyphonic songs. After a period of travel in Italy he returned to the Netherlands in the mid-1550s. His first collection of motets (1556) comprehensively reveals the impression that Italian idioms made on him. The tendencies initiated in the later works of the northern composers of the previous generation are simultaneously crowned and surpassed. During Lassus’s time in the Netherlands the term ‘musica reservata’ was in use (see Musica reservata (i)). This term has been linked with various aspects of music of the period on the basis of different, partly contradictory, contemporary definitions. Through one such definition musica reservata was long associated with the frequent musical interpretation of individual words and of the text as a whole which occurs in Lassus’s works. In fact, this is a chief stylistic feature of the works of the late Netherlanders, particularly Giaches de Wert. In the works of Lassus and of the prolific madrigal composer Monte, the emotional content of the text becomes the primum mobile and the emotionalism or symbolism of individual words is frequently interpreted in the music. Lassus’s style seems to create a new psychological relationship between the composer and the listener, which is quite new and independent in comparison with Gombert’s esoteric principle of pervading imitation. While a standard, uniform sacred style was being codified among Palestrina’s circle in Rome under the influence of the Council of Trent, there is in Lassus’s work a blending of motet-like contrapuntal elements with the pictorialism and emotionalism of the madrigal. Admittedly this does not exclude the occasional implementation of traditional techniques, such as the use of cantus firmus, ostinato and similar devices; rather, these are united with polychoral and chromatic techniques and with a chordal foundation which became an impressive synthesis of all available stylistic means.

The Netherlandish style of the mid-16th century was long retained at the Catholic Habsburg courts in Austria, and until Monte appeared there along with such composers as Jean Guyot, Christian Hollander, Jacobus Vaet, Johannes de Cleve, Jacob Regnart and Alexander Utendal, the ‘northern’ tradition had continued to develop with relative independence. Carl Luython and Lambert de Sayve were the last representatives of this late stage of Netherlandish polyphony. The court chapel of Charles V was dissolved on his abdication in 1556–7 and his successor Philip II resided in Spain; thus the most important concentration of musicians up to that time left the Netherlands. The cultivation of music at the courts of the Habsburg Stadtholders in the Netherlands was no longer as important as it had been before 1550. Composers active in the Netherlands, all of minor importance, included Geert van Turnhout, Andreas Pevernage, Séverin Cornet and Cornelis Verdonck. After a short period of activity in the Netherlands, Joannes Tollius emigrated to Italy, where he distinguished himself as a progressive and individualistic although minor composer of madrigals which had some influence on Monteverdi.

After 1550 the Netherlanders were not the only creators of an internationally valid musical style as they had been in the eras of Ockeghem and Josquin. Only one more Netherlandish musician made a significant contribution to the history of music.

2. Northern Netherlands, 1600–1830.

The beginning of this period is dominated by Sweelinck. Even his contemporaries knew of his superior ability as a composer and a teacher. He was born into a family of musicians and by the time he was 12 he was appointed organist in the Oude Kerk in Amsterdam; he remained there until his death in 1621. His output is largely the result of his obligations to the church and the city, as well as to the bourgeois collegium musicum. At the centre of his vocal works is the polyphonic setting of the Genevan Psalter, which is strongly orientated towards the achievements of the late Netherlandish contrapuntal style. The Cantiones sacrae of 1619 are stylistically more advanced, using extensive chromaticism and keyboard accompaniment. Above all Sweelinck gained an international reputation with his keyboard compositions which had considerable influence outside the northern Netherlands, particularly among north German organists. The fantasias and toccatas, which were connected with developments abroad (Venice, Spain and England), are particularly important. His skill in variation and improvisation was attested by contemporary audiences and recorded by his pupils, including the Netherlanders Anthoni and Sybrandus van Noordt, Henderick Speuy and Dirck Scholl.

Sweelinck’s career demonstrates the basic elements of musical life in the Netherlands from the 17th century until the rise of public concerts in the late 18th century; music was cultivated chiefly under the auspices of the Calvinist church, the city authorities or in the numerous collegia musica. These existed in Amsterdam, Arnhem (1591), Deventer (1623), Utrecht (1631), Nijmegen (1632), Leiden, Leeuwarden, Groningen (1638), Rotterdam, The Hague, Middelburg, Zierikzee and Alkmaar; surviving documents provide insights into both social and specifically musical attitudes. Their importance extends far beyond the dilettantism usually associated with such groups, and they included musicians from the town churches who had been placed at their disposal by the city authorities. As early as the 17th century and increasingly in the 18th, these music institutions, supported by a wealthy bourgeoisie, enabled travelling foreign musicians to make public appearances, thus anticipating organized public concerts, which developed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. As there was no productive cultivation of church music (for a while even the playing of the organ during divine services was forbidden) and no strong interest in music emanating from the courts, the work of the collegia musica was of great significance. In the 17th century their repertory consisted largely of polyphonic songs and madrigals and simple instrumental music, some of which was of local origin. The lutebook of the Leiden nobleman Thysius (NL-Lu) shows the high esteem for lute playing in bourgeois circles. Composers of the 17th century and early 18th, both native and foreign, included Matthias Mercker, Nicolas Vallet, Lotharius Zumbach von Koesveld, Hendrik Anders, Cornelis Padbrué, Marcus Teller, Benedictus a Sancto Josepho, Quirinus van Blankenburg, Servaas de Konink, Dirck Scholl, Carolus Hacquart, Elias Bronnemüller and Joan Albert Ban (this last particularly known for his capricious doctrine of composition). The Pathodia sacra of the statesman, author and musician Constantijn Huygens is an important example of Netherlandish monody. An official document provides special insight into the musical views held by the Leiden authorities: it states that organ recitals should be given before and after Sunday services and on weekdays to keep the people away from inns and taverns. The value that the authorities placed on public organ recitals in their town churches resulted in the construction of an almost incalculable number of organs, both in the Netherlands and abroad; these are among the finest of their time.

A form of musical culture peculiar to the Netherlands was the Carillon, which still attracts the attention of foreign visitors. The immigrant brothers François and Pieter Hemony, by their accurate tuning of bells, brought the indigenous art of bellfounding to an unsurpassed peak. When the ill-humoured Charles Burney visited the country in 1772 outside the concert season, he stated that the only music to be heard was ‘the jingling of bells and ducats’.

The musical theatre came into being relatively late, when the first opera house was founded in Amsterdam in 1680. Along with works from the international operatic repertory, local works in the vernacular by Hacquart, Schenk, Konink and Anders were performed during the last decades of the 17th century.

During the 18th century, even more than in the 17th, there was extensive immigration to the Netherlands of foreign musicians. Attracted by the unparalleled wealth which made the republic one of the leading European nations in the 17th century and to a certain extent in the 18th, they either settled there or included it on their concert tours. From then on, in accordance with the Netherlandish taste of ‘bourgeois satisfait’, foreign musical productions in the French or Italian vein became standard occurrences. Indigenous music, which had until then been widely cultivated, and the further development of the Netherlandish opera were abandoned. French, Italian and German opera troupes with an international repertory appeared with varying degrees of success in the large towns. Indigenous music yielded to a taste for virtuosity which was catered for in great abundance by the numerous travelling musicians. The collegia musica gradually became chiefly concert organizers.

A special branch of musical life, music publishing, developed with unprecedented vigour in the large western towns. Profiting from the commercial and technical experience of printing in general in the 17th century, music printing and publishing houses came to the fore, particularly during the last decade of the century. The list of Amsterdam music publishers who made the city a principal centre of music publishing up to the second half of the 18th century begins with the immigrant Huguenots Pierre Mortier and Estienne Roger. Any musician with a European or especially an Italian reputation had his compositions published in Amsterdam; if the composers themselves did not send their works to the press, in some very extreme cases the publishers went so far as to commission sailors to appropriate newly composed works in Italy (if necessary, illegally) and these then appeared in print as ‘pirated’ editions without the composers’ permission. Foreigners especially seem to have found favourable conditions here for their business interests. In addition to Roger’s successors, Le Cène, La Coste and Chareau, important publishers included G.F. Witvogel, the Hummel family, Joseph Schmitt, Arnoldus Olofsen, Covens and Markordt.

The organ yielded its important position in instrumental music. The country still had accomplished organists such as the Havinghas and Radekers, and J.W. Lustig and Jacob Potholt, yet during the first half of the 18th century the public had a taste for concertos and sonatas, especially of Italian origin. Of the Netherlandish composers of violin sonatas the most important are Albertus and J.F. Groneman, J. Nozeman and J.H. Klein. Moreover, Willem de Fesch achieved fame during his lifetime beyond the boundaries of his country and especially in England, his second homeland, as an excellent composer of both violin and flute sonatas, trios, a number of concerti grossi and ambitious violin concertos. The famous Concerti armonici, long misattributed to Pergolesi, were composed by the Dutch nobleman and diplomat Count Unico Wilhelm van Wassenaer. Most of his other works are lost, although three sonatas for treble recorder and thorough bass have come to light. The work of Pieter Hellendaal was more conservative and his concerti grossi still occupy a modest place in concert programmes. In the first half of the century the Netherlands produced many talented musicians such as Ernest Heinsius, the municipal organist of Arnhem, who also worked in the collegium musicum there and composed several violin concertos. All these musicians are overshadowed as international figures by Pietro Locatelli. In his 24 caprices and 12 violin concertos op.3, which appeared in Amsterdam in 1733 under the title L’arte del violino, he revealed the latest method of violin playing, as he also probably did through his personal activity. The works of Locatelli, who remained in Amsterdam from 1729 until his death, set the pattern for the development of violin technique. His contemporary Conrad Hurlebusch, from Brunswick, also spent a large part of his life in Amsterdam, where he was most active as an organist and composer. Foreign musicians who lived for a time in the Netherlands until about the mid-18th century include Carlo Tessarini and Egidio Duni. A corollary to the predilection for violin virtuosity was the rising interest in the construction of string instruments, which had its origins in the 17th century.

The second half of the 18th century and the first decades of the 19th were characterized above all by the further development of public concerts. After various early attempts to expand Amsterdam musical life, a climax was reached with the opening by the Felix Meritis Society of a small concert hall (capacity 600) in their new building in Amsterdam in 1788. Because of its excellent acoustics this concert hall remained one of the finest in Europe for many decades. The music director was Joseph Schmitt (1734–91), formerly a German Cistercian monk, who brought great fame to the Felix Meritis concerts during the three years before his death. These concerts were the most important aspect of musical life in the Netherlands until they were replaced a century later by the Concertgebouw. Schmitt, known as the composer of a number of symphonies and chamber works (some of which were also attributed to Haydn), was the first of a line of conductors that included Ruloffs, Fodor, Bree, Verhulst and Kes and culminated in the golden age of music-making in Amsterdam with Willem Mengelberg.

A basic orchestra of 30 professional musicians was at Schmitt’s disposal, occasionally supplemented by other musicians, even amateurs. Apart from the Felix Meritis Society, other concert organizations appeared such as the Eruditio Musica in 1796 under Karl Joseph Schmidt; its chief merit lay in the swift dissemination of Viennese Classical works, particularly those of Haydn and Mozart. Schmitt’s successor in the Felix Meritis concerts was Bartholomeus Ruloffs, who, apart from composing a large number of instrumental works, attained fame through his operas in the vernacular. After his death in 1801 the directorship was taken over by Carolus Antonius Fodor until 1830.

The reputation of the music at the Stadtholder’s court was somewhat restored after the marriage of the Stadtholder Willem IV of Orange-Nassau to the English Princess Anne, a pupil of Handel. The German musician Christian Graf had been in the service of the court as early as the 1750s and was specially noted as a composer of symphonic and chamber music and as a music theorist. In 1765–6 Mozart and his sister performed at the Stadtholder’s court in The Hague and, after a stay prolonged by illness, they continued their concert tour via Haarlem, Amsterdam and Utrecht. The court orchestra varied in size but never exceeded ten professional musicians. The most important among them were the composer Colizzi and the violinist Malherbe. As was the case with the orchestra of the Felix Meritis Society, the proportion of foreign musicians in the Stadtholder’s court orchestra was initially very large. Musicians who travelled extensively also appeared at the court (e.g. Carl Stamitz and the young Beethoven). After 1820 under King Willem I the court orchestra became an official court institution and did much to promote musical life in the Netherlands during the 20 years of its existence. In 1829 under J.H. Lübeck the orchestra numbered 45 professional musicians.

3. Southern Netherlands, 1600–1830.

The 17th century, when the southern Netherlands were under Spanish rule, was an epoch disrupted by continuous threat of war, with economic stagnation (the river Scheldt was closed to trade), and the cultural dominance of nobility and clergy. Musical life was centred on the court and the church, although civic musical societies came into being at this time. The earliest collegium musicum was established in 1585 in Hasselt; and later collegia were established at Ghent (1649), Tournai (1652) and Leuven (1670). Their members, singers and instrumentalists, were dilettantes and included members of the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie as well as magistrates and church dignitaries.

The greatest period of Netherlandish music had passed and composers were curbed by both traditionalism and foreign influence, especially from Italy and France. Nevertheless there were certain compensations; for example the exceptional prosperity of the instrument building trade, especially harpsichord manufacturing.

The Brussels court chapel was reorganized in 1647 during the reign of Lodewijk-Willem. Until 1695 it was divided into ‘musique de la chapelle’ and ‘musique de la chambre’, each with its own maître, singers and instrumentalists. Up to 1660 foreign musicians, especially Spaniards and Italians, were predominant in the latter, but later there was a growing number of Netherlandish musicians. Composition was still based on the Netherlandish polyphonic tradition, but slowly it came under foreign (especially Italian) influence with the introduction of the basso continuo, concertato techniques and the sonata da chiesa. Only a small number of sources of sacred music have survived, as in the 18th century the church repertory was comprehensively revised. The choirbook of the Terry Collection (B-Lc no.1325) reflects the repertory used in the Liège diocese, with traditional compositions in a cappella style by Remouchamps, Hodemont, Hayne and others. In the second half of the century the work of Henry Du Mont, born in Looz but working mostly in Paris, shows a notable change: he mixed polyphonic techniques with basso continuo (Cantica sacra, 1652), narrative motets with dialogues in recitative style after the model of Carissimi, and double-choir motets in concertato style. Collections of sacred songs were published in different areas of the southern Netherlands (e.g. La Philomèle séraphique, Tournai, 1640, and Libellus cantionum catholicarum, Leuven, c1690).

As both the nobility and middle classes cultivated music for recreation, there is a great deal of instrumental but little secular vocal music. An evolution from traditional polythematic ricercares to motivic concentration in monothematic fugues is particularly evident in the organ works of Abraham van den Kerckhoven, a member of the royal chapel and later at the church of Ste Catherine in Brussels. Towards the end of the century a lighter, more graceful style appeared, with dance movements like allemandes or gigues, as for instance in the Livre d’orgue (1695) by Lambert Chaumont, who worked in Liège. Lute music shows obvious French influence, with dances and genre pieces after the style of the Gaultiers, for instance in the work of Jacques de Saint-Luc, born in Hainaut and active at the Brussels court. Chamber music consists mainly of sonate da chiesa for strings and continuo, for example the four sets of Symphoniae unius, duorum et trium violinorum by Nicolaes a Kempis, published by Phalèse in Antwerp (1644, 1647 and 1649). Even the melodic structure is sometimes conceived in a typically Italian way, for instance in the Fasciculus dulcedinis by Philippe van Wichel (Antwerp, 1678). In the Harmonia parnassia of Carolus Hacquart there is great variety of sequence of movements, and of melody and rhythm.

Theatre music was not extensively cultivated in the early 17th century; a notable occasion, however, was the wedding of Philip IV in Brussels in 1650, for which Giuseppe Zamponi composed Ulisse all’isola di Circe, an allegory on royal power, with ornate vocal writing and elaborate orchestration. In 1694 the Opéra du Quai du Foin was opened in Brussels under the management of P.A. Fiocco; it survived for four years, with Lully’s operas as the mainstay of the repertory. Fiocco himself wrote a pastoral Le retour du printemps in the French style.

Instrument building in the southern Netherlands took a leading position in the 17th century. Three families of violin makers, the Borbons, Snoecks and Rottenburghs, were active in Brussels, and Tilman and Hofmans, both of Antwerp, were famous for their fine Cremona imitations. Moreover, Antwerp was known for the bell-foundry of Melchur De Haze (1632–97), who supplied a carillon of 31 bells for the Escorial and another of 38 bells for The Hague. The organ builder Hans Goltfuss, whose organ for Rotterdam had three manuals and 44 stops, also worked in Antwerp. That city was, above all, a centre of harpsichord building, where the Ruckers family were established from 1575 to about 1679 (their instruments were sold all over Europe), and where the Couchet family were active from about 1642 to 1681.

The region was under Austrian domination from 1713 to 1794, a comparatively tranquil period (at least until 1789), characterized by material progress and greater middle-class participation in cultural life. Thus an intensive musical life arose outside the court and the church which stimulated the work of Netherlandish composers as did the still strong foreign influence.

Sacred music, especially in the early part of the 18th century, was dominated by the French style; later, Italian influence became more apparent and the dominant style changed from the monumental Baroque to a lighter, more florid style. The archives of Ste Gudule in Brussels contain some important examples of 18th-century sacred music. At the beginning of the century, as in the masses and motets of P.H. Brehy (1673–1737), sacred music is characterized by a powerful Baroque style using concertato technique with fanciful melodies and solid harmonization. A more expressive style characterizes the church music of the second quarter of the century, as seen in the work of J.H. Fiocco. After 1750 Rococo and pre-Classical styles predominate, especially in the works of C.J. van Helmont and in the motets and arias of H.-J. de Croes. J.-N. Hamal adopted a style near to that of Pergolesi. Gossec’s Requiem of 1760, with its vivid polyphony and colourful orchestration suitable for the concert hall, marks a culminating point in the secularization of church music, which was accelerated by a resolution made by Joseph II in 1787; this stated that hymns were to be replaced by recitation. In 1797 it was decreed that the maîtrises be closed and church organs be sold.

Secular music flourished at many social levels. Under Charles of Lorraine, the court musicians followed their sovereign to his hunting-lodges at Tervuren and Mariemont, where open-air music was often performed. In Brussels official festivities included performances of comedies and opéras comiques. In Liège opera was usually given by visiting French and Italian companies. Walloon composers copied French opéra-ballet (e.g. Les plaisirs de la paix, 1715, by T.-L. Bourgeois, in the style of Campra) and French opéra comique. J.-N. Hamal wrote in the Liège dialect, and the genre was most splendidly represented by Grétry. The more serious kind of opera eventually responded to the influence of Gluck’s reform, evident in Gossec’s Nitocris (1782). Opera was primarily a business enterprise, however, run by and for the bourgeoisie. In 1700 Maximilian-Emmanuel of Bavaria founded La Monnaie in Brussels, an institution based on the patent system. During the revolution it was abolished, and later the theatre became a centre of patriotic and republican ferment.

Among the musical academies active in the 18th century, the most prominent was the Académie Ste Cécile at Mechelen. It existed from 1704 to 1773, and counted noblemen, magistrates, lawyers and clergymen among its members; sonatas and symphonies were the principal fare. Chamber music was still based on the Baroque sonata, in a transitional style from Corelli to Vivaldi and Handel. Willem de Fesch, a native of the northern Netherlands, was kapelmeester of Antwerp Cathedral from 1725 to 1731. Sonatas are found for various combinations; for example, sonatas for flute and continuo by J.B. Loeillet, trio sonatas by Delange and de Croes, and sonatas for four or five players by Brehy.

In orchestral music there is a clear evolution from Baroque to Classical style, from concerto to symphony, and from the Italian to the German style. To the Italian type belong divertimentos, concertos and a symphony by de Croes, the overture a due cori in concertato style by Van Helmont and the six overtures by Hamal. The symphonies of Pierre van Maldere (1729–68), who was employed at the court of Charles of Lorraine and travelled to Dublin, Paris and Vienna, are in the German Classical style. As well as displaying elements of the Mannheim style, these symphonies are in Classical ternary form with thematic contrast, modulating development, binary lied-form in the second movement and sometimes a rondo finale. A similar development from symphonies concertantes to the Classical symphony can be observed in the works of Gossec, who was in Paris after 1751.

Associated with the flowering of harpsichord building, there was in the first half of the 18th century a golden age of harpsichord music in the southern Netherlands. This kind of music was generally cultivated in families and dynasties of composers, like the Loeillets, the Fioccos and the Boutmys. J.H. Fiocco’s suites contain both French multipartite and Italian quadripartite compositions side by side. Ornamentation and orchestration show the influence of Rameau, especially in the music of Josse Boutmy. Nevertheless, the end of the century saw a turn to the fanciful empfindsamer Stil of C.P.E. Bach, as in the divertimentos of François Krafft.

A special curiosity of the southern Netherlands is carillon music, best represented by the remarkable preludes and fugues of Matthias Vanden Gheyn. The turn of the century was a period of transition and revolution, social disorder and political instability. Musical life was even more influenced by the French, and although during the period 1815 to 1830, when north and south were united, there was the beginning of an economic and cultural revival, it was too short to have any lasting musical effect.

Secularization continued; the churches gave up their educational role, which was taken over by the official schools of music in Brussels and Liège. Civil concert-promoting bodies flourished especially in Brussels (the Société des Grands Concerts, 1799–1829; the Société des Amateurs de Musique, 1793–1830; the Société Philharmonique, 1794–1833). Opera was a focus of civic musical life, not only in Brussels at La Monnaie, but also in Liège and in Antwerp, whose Théâtre Royal dates from 1802.

Composition was orientated towards the theatre and was strongly influenced by early Romantic French opera, especially in the works of M.-J. Mengal and the Antwerp-born Albert Grisar. Both sacred and orchestral music developed in the Romantic style (e.g. in the works of C.-L.-J. Hanssens and his son, Charles-Louis). The musicologist, teacher and composer F.-J. Fétis was one of the most influential musical figures of the 19th century.

In the southern Netherlands it was only after 1830 that a new musical prosperity grew up, as a Flemish and Walloon Romantic style took shape.

4. Kingdom of the Netherlands.

During most of the 19th century Dutch music came strongly under German influence; certainly the Dutch music composed during the first half of the century, as in the 18th century, owed much to music brought in from the outside. In spite of this, there were isolated attempts at developing a more independent character in Dutch music, although composers of great original ability to some extent comparable with the most important contemporary composers in countries such as Germany and France are rare. During the first half of the 19th century Johannes van Bree occupied an important place in the musical life of the country both as a composer and a conductor; his output comprises numerous works which show originality (for example the Allegro for four string quartets). After van Bree’s death, Johannes Verhulst occupied a dominant position in Dutch musical life for over three decades. He was a pupil of Mendelssohn and a friend of Schumann, who in his Neue Zeitschrift für Musik often wrote favourably about his compositions. As a conductor in the most influential posts in the Netherlands, Verhulst promoted his German contemporaries and almost as fervently opposed the new German style of Wagner and Liszt. Many of his compositions (mainly those of his younger years) are not only among the best Dutch works of the mid-19th century but are also important by international standards (e.g. the Symphony in E minor op.46, Mass op.20, String Quartet op.21 and many beautiful songs). Other important composers from this period include Richard Hol, Willem Nicolai, L.F. Brandts Buys, Daniël de Lange and J.C. Coenen.

Radical changes in musical life are apparent around 1880 when, as elsewhere in Europe, a general cultural revival began to exert its influence. A national movement arose, stimulating the cultivation of a specifically Dutch art and wider public interest. This movement began in literature, and was soon followed by the visual arts and finally by music. The Amsterdam Concertgebouw, a large concert hall fulfilling all the requirements of the time, was built between 1886 and 1888, and the Concertgebouw Orchestra founded in 1888. It is principally through this orchestra that the Netherlands began to develop a particularly fruitful orchestral tradition. When Willem Mengelberg, then aged 23, succeeded Willem Kes as conductor in 1895, the orchestra soon acquired international fame, and Amsterdam became in turn an important European musical centre. Not only did many important conductors, soloists and composers go to the Netherlands to appear with the Concertgebouw Orchestra or to hear it perform their works, but the orchestra’s great success and fame also gave Dutch musicians a certain self-confidence, and thereby stimulated native composers. The first composer to react with enthusiasm and success to that stimulus was Bernard Zweers. He was a pupil of Jadassohn in Leipzig, and his Third Symphony (1890) placed him in the forefront of Dutch composers of his time. It is significant that he gave this work, which differed both through its thematic character and structure and its instrumentation from any symphony previously written in the Netherlands, the title ‘Aan mijn Vaderland’. Like Verhulst, Zweers primarily used Dutch texts for his vocal works. As a teacher at the Amsterdam Conservatory (founded in 1884) he trained a large number of outstanding musicians and imbued them with his ideals.

Around the turn of the century Alphons Diepenbrock pointed the way to a new musical development in the Netherlands through his strong personality and great gifts as a composer. As a Roman Catholic he was much influenced by the newly rediscovered Renaissance polyphony and by Gregorian chant; he also had a weak spot for Wagner’s sensual chromaticism. Diepenbrock’s musical works were essentially based on literary sources (including Sophocles, Aristophanes, Vondel, Goethe, Novalis and Nietzsche) and consist, with a single exception, of vocal works and incidental music; the vocal works are characterized by a freely flowing rhythm which, combined with undulating melodic lines, gives an individual expression to the words, while a rich orchestral sound predominates in his instrumental incidental music and, in particular, in his symphonic songs, contemporary with those of his friend Mahler.

The music of Johan Wagenaar is completely different in character; his most important works are orchestral, especially the symphonic poems and concert overtures, in which a certain relationship with the aims of Berlioz and Richard Strauss is evident. Musical humour and a subtle love of mockery characterize many of his works, in which a very personal fantasy is coupled with a sound compositional technique. His most significant contemporaries include Julius Röntgen (i), Emile and Gerard von Brucken Fock, Carl Smulders and Leander Schlegel. After Wagenaar’s generation there is a clearly perceptible duality of Germanic and French influence, a factor that has in many cases continued to characterize Dutch music, partly because of the strong cosmopolitan state of Dutch cultural life, which is much affected by the country’s geographical position.

Typically German late Romantic influences are evident in the work of such composers as Jan van Gilse, Cornelis Dopper, Jan Brandts Buys and Jan Ingenhoven, while French influences are evident in the work of Willem Landré, Bernard van den Sigtenhorst Meyer and Alexander Voormolen. A strong personal stamp characterizes the work of Matthijs Vermeulen, one of the most original Dutch composers of the 20th century. The experiments with new possibilities in sound and structural organization that started about 1920 found representatives in the Netherlands in Daniel Ruyneman, Sem Dresden, Willem Pijper, Jacob van Domselaer and Bernard van Dieren. Technically the most advanced of the group were van Dieren (whose Zes Schetsen for piano have affinities with Schoenberg’s Three Piano Pieces op.11), Voormolen (mainly influenced by Ravel), Ruyneman and Vermeulen, whose Second Symphony can be compared with Ives in its bold polyphonic textures. Each of these composers sought a renewal of compositional structure and instrumental possibilities. Willem Pijper, who made a strong impression on Dutch music as a composer, teacher and essayist, was exceptionally important in the years 1920 to 1940, and was one of the first 20th-century Dutch composers to become internationally known. Henrik Andriessen also contributed to the reputation of Dutch music through his vocal music, largely associated with the Catholic liturgy, and through his symphonic works.

During World War II, when the Germans occupied the Netherlands, funding for the orchestras and for commissions was restructured, the results of which lasted for several decades after the war. During the war most orchestral musicians remained at their posts, as did celebrated public figures such as Willem Mengelberg at the Concertgebouw Orchestra. The composer Henk Badings even took over the direction of the conservatory in The Hague during the German occupation. The creation of Dutch music was even increased with the help of the occupying government. Still, many musicians tried to survive without any official ties by giving concerts in private homes.

After 1945 it was mainly the pupils of Willem Pijper who came to the fore; many of the composers born in the first decades of the 20th century were taught by him, including Guillaume Landré, Badings (briefly), Kees van Baaren, Rudolf Escher, Bertus van Lier and Hans Henkemans. Their very different methods of writing point to an increasing diversity in Dutch music in the mid-20th century. Besides Badings, who was internationally perhaps the best-known composer of his generation, van Baaren was of major importance, both as a composer and as a teacher. Under his guidance Schoenberg’s and Webern’s 12-note technique and the new serialism inspired a generation of young composers, for example Peter Schat, Jan van Vlijmen, Misha Mengelberg, Otto Ketting, Reinbert de Leeuw and Louis Andriessen. At the same time Ton de Leeuw, a pupil of Badings, Messiaen and the ethnomusicologist Jaap Kunst, developed new techniques based on serialism, but soon experimented with aleatory techniques before evolving an idiom based on modalism. Among his pupils were Jan Vriend, Jos Kunst, Joep Svaesser, Daniël Manneke, Tristan Keuris, Alex Manassen, Guus Janssen, Paul Termos and Chiel Meyering.

The most important feature of the generation of van Baaren’s pupils has been the search for a politically and socially engaged music, as exemplified by the opera Reconstructie (1969) described as a ‘morality’ and written collectively by Schat, Andriessen, de Leeuw, Mengelberg and van Vlijmen. The opera concerns the destructive powers of American imperialism in Latin America as personified by Don Giovanni, and uses a mixture of serial and post-serial styles, pop songs, Mozartian pastiche, electronic music and improvisation. Its success resulted in the foundation of several specialist ensembles for avant-garde music. Many of them still play an important role in Dutch musical life, notably De Volharding, the ASKO Ensemble and the Schönberg Ensemble.

In the 1960s and 70s Dutch musical life became more international and more self-confident. With some 17 symphony orchestras, many specialist ensembles for both contemporary and early music (directed by audiences with such internationally renowned artists as Gustav Leonhardt, Frans Brüggen and Ton Koopman), and a keen taste for adventurous programmes, the Netherlands was in many respects a model of state-funded liberal culture. The versatility of Dutch musical life also resulted in the need to diversify official funding which was now given not only to established symphony orchestras, opera companies and composers but also to specialist ensembles, jazz and other forms of improvised music, experimental music and music theatre. The number of permanent symphony orchestras was correspondingly reduced in the 1980s to 14, including three radio orchestras.

Improvised music and jazz have become important features of Dutch musical life, with musicians such as Theo Loevendie, Misha Mengelberg, Han Bennink, Willem Breuker, Guus Janssen, Ernst Reijseger and Paul Termos. In the field of electronic music de Leeuw, Jan Boerman, Dick Raaymakers and Ton Bruynèl have been important pioneers.

As in other European countries and in the USA, the 1970s and 80s saw a further diversification in the language and techniques of Dutch composers. The post-serial musical climate embraced collage (Louis Andriessen), minimalism (Simeon ten Holt, Andriessen, Diderik Wagenaar, Joep Franssens), neo-romanticism and neo-tonality (Schat, van Vlijmen, Ketting, Keuris, Peter-Jan Wagemans), neo-modality (Ton de Leeuw), and finally an eclectic array of styles and genres. Among the most imporant composers of the youngest generation are Cornelius de Bondt, Theo Verbey, Willem Jeths, Rob Zuidam, Martijn Padding, Robin de Raaff and Peter van Onna.

5. Belgium.

Belgium became independent in 1830 and immediately set about establishing its own national musical institutions with the conservatories of Liège and Brussels. Before that year musical instruction in Belgium came principally from the French and the Austrians, but following the French Revolution, the Napoleonic wars and years of political instability before independence, Belgium was left with broken traditions and none of the foreign teachers on whom it had depended. In 1831 the former Ecole Royale de Musique in Liège became the Conservatoire Royal; it was first directed by Daussoigne-Méhul and became famous for its violin instruction. An école de chant founded in 1813 in Brussels by Jean-Baptiste Roucourt (1780–1849) became the Conservatoire Royal de Musique in 1832 and was directed by François-Joseph Fétis (1833–71) and F. Gevaert (1871–1908). Both these men made pioneering contributions to musicology and music teaching, and they established the Brussels Conservatory as one of the leading institutions of its day, training composers, performers, teachers and scholars to carry on the distinct national traditions they had begun. The Koninklijk Conservatorium Gent (founded 1812) was first directed by Joseph Mengal (1784–1851).

During the 19th century a number of additional music conservatories were founded, the most important of which was a small one founded in 1842 in Antwerp, which became the Flemish Music School in 1867 under the direction of Peter Benoit (1834–1901) and the Royal Flemish Conservatory in 1898. Also as part of the mid-19th-century nationalistic fervour, many small music schools were founded to train choirboys, to rebuild cathedral choral traditions and to channel the more gifted students into the state conservatories. Benoit was an important figure in the development of a Flemish culture and, in addition to his efforts in music education, he was responsible for the founding of the Vlaamsche Opera (1893, founded as Nederlandscg Lyrisch Tooneel in 1890) and encouraging a Flemish style of composition exhibited in his own works.

The first national school of composition developed in the genres of opera and choral music and, like all Belgian music of the early 19th century, it was predominantly influenced by the French. As early as 1820 Fétis had produced opéras comiques in the style of Boieldieu and Hérold; these were frequently staged in Paris. Albert Grisar (1808–69) was one of the first important Belgian composers known for opéras comiques influenced by Italian opera buffa and the French opéra comique. Auber, Adam and Meyerbeer overshadowed most opera composition in Belgium during the middle of the century.

About 1870 Belgian opera began to grow away from French models and came under the influence of Wagner (Lohengrin was performed in Brussels in 1870). Many composers chose to write their own librettos after Wagner’s example, which largely proved detrimental. By World War I Belgian composers had achieved a style of their own by assimilating aspects of French, Italian and German music into their operas.

Belgian composers have been particularly successful in choral music. Fétis was one of the earliest proponents of choral music; his important works include the Requiem (1850), composed for the funeral of Queen Louise-Marie, and Domine salvum fac regem nostrum (1865) for four-voice choir, organ and orchestra. César Franck, Peter Benoit, Edgar Tinel and Joseph Ryelandt were among the most important composers of oratorios, cantatas and larger choral works.

The Lemmens Institute opened at Mechelen on 2 January 1879 and played an important role in the revival and dissemination of the refined liturgical church music and the training of future clergy, organists and choirmasters in Belgium. In 1968 the institute was moved to Leuven. The founder was the organist J.-N. Lemmens who directed it until his death in 1881; he was succeeded by Edgar Tinel, a prominent composer of religious music and religious oratorios. The Benedictine monks of the Abbey of Maredsous did much to promote the singing of Gregorian chant.

A notable lieder school developed in Belgium in the late 19th century, drawing on both the French and the German traditions of songwriting. Franck, Huberti and Waelput were among the most important in this idiom.

Symphonic music developed more slowly than had opera and vocal genres. Before the 1860s very little notable orchestral music was composed in Belgium. Fétis, Hanssens and Vieuxtemps had all dabbled in orchestral writing, but without success. Peter Benoit’s symphonic poems for piano and orchestra and flute and orchestra, Adolphe Samuel’s Sixth Symphony, Theodore Radoux’s Godefroid de Bouillon and Louis Kéfer’s D major Symphony (1889) are some of the earliest significant orchestral works, largely in a style drawing heavily on contemporary French and German models.

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries an important school of violinists was based in Liège. It was founded on the virtuoso repertory of the 19th century and reached its peak with César Thomson (1857–1931), Ovide Musin (1854–1929) and Eugène Ysaÿe. By and large, Belgian music in the early years of the 20th century was dominated by Wagnerism, though Désiré Pâque (1867–1939) has claims as an early exponent of atonality. The principal composers of the time included Paul Gilson (1865–1942), Joseph Jongen (1873–1953) and Flor Alpaerts (1876–1954), all of whom were influenced by Wagner and Strauss, though Jongen inclined more towards Franck. Gilson composed little of importance after 1905, giving his attention instead to teaching and writing on music; he was almost untouched by the influence of Debussy. Jongen and Alpaerts, however, did compose impressionist scores (although not until the early 1920s) and each took something from later developments in an individual manner.

The considerable delay before pre-World War I innovations made their mark in Belgium may be attributed to the lack of performances of contemporary music. Flor Alpaerts included contemporary works of both Belgian and non-Belgian composers in the Antwerpse Dierentuinconcerten (1894) and Lodewijk de Vocht gave primarily contemporary choral programmes with the Chorale Caecilia at the Nieuwe Concerten (1903–34) in Antwerp. Paul Collaer (1891–1989) gave his first concert, with works by Bartók, Satie, Stravinsky, Roussel, Ravel and Skryabin, in Brussels in 1911, but it was not until after the war that he was able to establish a regular concert series; his Pro Arte concerts, lasting from 1921 to 1934, introduced music by Schoenberg, Berg, Webern, Stravinsky, Milhaud and others. One of the first to be influenced by the Pro Arte concerts was André Souris (1899–1970), a pupil of Gilson. He had begun as a composer of Debussian songs but in the early 1920s, following some traits in Satie and Stravinsky, he engaged in a dadaist cultivation of parody and banality. His example was taken up briefly by Willem Pelemans (1901–91), though for the most part Souris was an independent; later he created works based on earlier music and folksong, adopted 12-note serialism for a short while and then, from the late 1940s, devoted himself to film music.

Other pupils of Gilson took a more moderate attitude to modern techniques. In 1925, the same year that saw Gilson’s foundation of the Revue musicale belge, seven of his students grouped themselves together as the ‘Synthétistes’. Their aim was a synthesis of the achievements of contemporary music, and they drew principally on Ravel, Stravinsky, Hindemith and Honegger in their broadly neo-classical art. The group, which included Marcel Poot (1901–88) and Gaston Brenta (1902–69), dispersed after only a few years, but a tradition of midstream, neo-romantic modernism had been established. Yet another Gilson pupil, Jean Absil (1893–1974), learnt from the music heard at the Pro Arte concerts in developing his polytonal style. In 1934 he founded the review Syrinx and the concert series La Sirène, in which Souris and Poot were also active; both ventures were short-lived, but they did help to promote knowledge of contemporary music in Belgium.

Three of Absil’s pupils, Pierre Froidebise (1914–62), Marcel Quinet (1915–86) and Vic Legley (1915–94), came to the fore in the 1940s. Quinet’s style developed directly from Absil’s, as did that of Legley, who, like Poot, Raymond Chevreuille (1901–76) and other Belgian composers, did important work for radio in the years after World War II. Froidebise was a more independent musician: as an organist he was concerned in the revival of early music, and as a composer and teacher he took a lively interest in new trends, including Webernian serialism (from the late 1940s) and aleatory writing. One of his pupils was Henri Pousseur (b 1929), who quickly established himself as an international figure in the company of Stockhausen, Boulez and Nono. Karel Goeyvaerts (1923–93) was also an early pioneer of ‘total serialism’ and synthesized electronic music, but he soon abandoned his avant-garde position.

It was Pousseur who founded the first Belgian electronic music studio, APELAC, in Brussels in 1958. The studio was absorbed into the Centre de Recherches Musicales de Wallonie, established in Liège under Pousseur’s direction in 1970. A parallel institution in the Flemish region is the Instituut voor Psychoacoustica en Electronische Muziek in Ghent, which was founded by Louis de Meester (1904–87) in 1962 with the cooperation of Belgian radio and television and Ghent University; others who have worked there include Goeyvaerts and Lucien Goethals (b 1931). All three of these Ghent composers are leading members of the ‘Spectra’ group. Among composers closely associated with Pousseur are Philippe Boesmans (b 1936) and Pierre Bartholomée (b 1937), a founder member of the Brussels ensemble Musique Nouvelle. Other composers, such as André Laporte (b 1931) and Frederik van Rossum (b 1939) cultivate a style that synthesizes traditional and avant-garde techniques.

The Théâtre Royal de la Monnaie (Koninklijke Muntschouwburg) is the centre of opera in Brussels, as is the Vlaamse Operastichting (formerly Opera voor Vlaanderen) in Antwerp and Ghent and the Opéra Royal de Wallonie in Liège. The Société Philharmonique (Filharmonische Verening), based in Brussels, is the most important concert society in the country. In Liège the Orchestre Royal de Liège et de la Communauté Française de Belgique (Liège PO) gives frequent concerts, as does the Koninklijk Filharmonisch Orkest van Vlaanderen (Royal Flanders PO) in Antwerp, where the De Singel concert society also makes a significant contribution to musical life. The Festival van Vlaanderen and the Festival de Wallonie organize concerts in provincial towns as well as the large centres, while the Ars Musica festival has promoted contemporary music since 1988.

In Belgium, as elsewhere, radio has played an important part in musical life. However, its role has been reduced by the separation of Belgian radio into two entities (Vlaamse Radio en Televisie and Radio-Télévision Belge de la Communauté Française de Vlaamse), by the priority given to television transmissions and by financial problems. Of all the ensembles that were available to the two companies during the 1960s, only the symphony orchestra of Belgische Radio en Televisie is still in existence. Nevertheless, both broadcasting companies still have programmes exclusively devoted to music.

A protective rights society, the SABAM (Société des Auteurs Belges, or Belgische Auteurs Maatschappij), was founded in 1945. Since the reform of the Belgian state in 1970 the two linguistic communities, French-speaking and Flemish-speaking, have been separately responsible for their cultural and educational institutions. The federal government takes responsibility only for the activities of national organizations such as the Orchestre National de Belgique (Nationaal Orkest van België), founded in 1936 as successor to the Brussels SO of 1931, and since 1963 the Monnaie. The CeBeDeM (Centre Belge de Documentation Musicale) was set up in 1951 to encourage contemporary composers by publishing their music, paying recording costs and subsidizing concerts.

In 1960 the leading Belgian composers formed the Union des Compositeurs Belges to ‘promote and defend Belgian music in both national and international cultural life’; from 1968 it awarded the ‘Fuga’ medal to outstanding performers.

6. Luxembourg.

The earliest references to musical life in the area which is now Luxembourg are Ausonius's poem Mosella (c371 ce) and, two centuries later, Venantius Fortunatus's De navigio suo, both describing popular singing and folklore. The foundation of the abbey of Echternach by St Willibrord in 698 marked the beginning of sacred music in the region. The area became a duchy in 1354 and was under Burgundian, Spanish, French and Habsburg rule at various times from 1443 until 1815, when it became a grand duchy under Willem I of the Netherlands; until 1839 it included the Luxembourg province of Belgium. It became an independent state in 1839 by the Treaty of London. On the death of Willem III in 1890, the crown passed to Adolphe I, duke of Nassau-Weilburg who became Grand Duke of Luxembourg, thus founding the present dynasty. Echternach flourished during the Carolingian period and during the 10th and 11th centuries after Berengaudus had created the abbey’s schola, which became famous through the works of Marquardus and Heribert. Several manuscripts (e.g. a sacramentary and antiphoner, D-DS 1946, a troper-gradual, F-Pn lat.10510, and a sacramentary, F-Pn lat.9433) attest to a remarkable musical culture.

In 963 Count Siegfried built a castle on the banks of the Alzette and called it Lucillin Burhuc (‘little borough’); this was, in effect, the founding of Luxembourg. Echternach remained a centre of cultural life until 1794, when French Revolutionary troops attacked the town: the library was destroyed, books and manuscripts were burnt, stolen and dispersed over the neighbouring countries, and only 1500 of nearly 9000 volumes were recovered. Of these, 74 precious manuscripts were confiscated by J.B. Maugérard, Commissaire du Gouvernement pour la Recherche des Objets de Sciences et d’Art, and sent to the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. In 1797 the abbey was sold and converted into a china factory.

There was little musical activity outside Echternach during the Middle Ages; some 13th-century minstrels, such as Jacques Bretex, appeared in the castles and many nobles played the lute. In 1446 a guild of cooks, lute players and pipers of the town was established (none of the groups being numerous enough to form a corporation by itself). In 1603 the Jesuits opened a college by giving a drama festivum mixtum musica, a kind of pastoral with an orchestra and a choir; such plays with music were regularly presented at the beginning and end of the academic year, and on special festive occasions. However, few documents survive from the 17th century except the basso continuo part of a cantata, discovered in 1935.

In 1737 a certain François Ferré, either of French or Walloon origin, was authorized to establish himself in Luxembourg as ‘maître de musique pour le chant et la Basse de Violle’. The first philharmonic society was established in Wiltz in 1794 by Adam Kiseloppsky, followed by that founded in Esch/Sûre by Peter Krein in 1815. From 1818 Henri-Joseph Cornély was the first professor of music at the Ecole Modèle (later the Ecole Pédagogique) in Luxembourg; he conducted concerts for the Société Littéraire (1818) and was appointed conductor of operas and ballets for the Société d’Art Dramatique (1821). In 1822 he founded the first Ecole de Musique; this became the Ecole de Musique de la Ville de Luxembourg in 1844 and a conservatory in 1849, but later became an Ecole de Musique again. It was dissolved in 1882. Thanks to a generous foundation by Eugénie Dutreux, the new Conservatoire de Musique de la Ville de Luxembourg was opened in 1906; it has since expanded continuously and in 1984 moved to a larger building accommodating over 2000 students.

Cornély was not only an outstanding teacher but also conducted the orchestra of the Société Philharmonique (1824) which was formed from the defunct orchestra of the Société d’Art Dramatique. He was responsible for revitalizing the society in 1829 with J.B. Zinnen as director, and such conductors as Laurent Menager and Edmond Patzké; it organized the first concert given by Liszt in Luxembourg in November 1845. Zinnen opened a second Société Philharmonique together with a music school in Larochette which has produced some of the country's best composers, including Philippe Decker, his cousin Théodore Decker, who composed the famous Palm Sunday hymn Lauda Jerusalem, Philippe Manternach and Jean-Antoine Zinnen (J.B. Zinnen’s son and composer of the national anthem Ons Hémecht, 1864). The Caecilien Verein, the choir of the future Notre Dame Cathedral of Luxembourg, was founded in 1844 by Cornély, who in 1823 had created a choir and orchestra known as the Société d'Amateurs to perform sacred music in the church of St Pierre (which became the Cathedral in 1870). Later conductors of the Caecilien Verein included Henri Oberhoffer, Jean-Pierre Barthel, Pierre Aloyse Barthel, Dominique Heckmes, Jean-Pierre Schmit, René Ponchelet and Jean-Paul Majerus. Organists included André Oberhoffer, Jean-Pierre Beicht, Albert Leblanc and Carlo Hommel.

The Ecole Pédagogique became an Ecole Normale in 1845 and offered musical instruction (Father Jean Majerus was director). A new cultural society, Gym, was established in 1849 and gave such popular composers as Michel Lentz and Dicks (Edmond de la Fontaine) the opportunity to conduct; as a result the first Singspiel in the Luxembourg language, De Scholtschein by Dicks, was performed in 1855. The two military bands of Diekirch and Echternach were merged in 1868 to form what eventually became the Musique Militaire Grand-Ducale; a symphony orchestra was formed from this band. Under the auspices of the prince Henry and princess Amalia of the Netherlands, the Théâtre Municipal de Luxembourg opened in 1869 with a comic opera by J.A. Zinnen, Le chef de bande, ou Le capitaine des voleurs. On 19 July 1886 Liszt gave his second and last concert at the Casino of Luxembourg.

A federation of Luxembourg's bands and choirs, founded in 1863 by Auguste Fischer and directed by J.A. Zinnen, was disbanded in 1882. But since Grand Duke Adolphe sponsored most of the bands and choirs, a new federation was formed in 1891; called Union Grand-Duc Adolphe, it has retained this name. In Esch-sur-l’Alzette an Ecole de Musique was created in 1917 and through private initiative was very active by 1923. In 1926 it came under municipal control and in 1969 became a conservatory. Despite these institutions musical life continued to decline during the first half of the 20th century. The Société Philharmonique was disbanded in 1926 and replaced by Les Amis de la Musique under Fritz Fischer in 1928, which organized concerts with international artists and orchestras. Similarly, the Luxembourg Jeunesses Musicales (founded in 1946 by Norbert Stelmes, Mathias Thinnes and Henri Pensis) and the concert series Soirées de Luxembourg (founded in 1964 by Norbert Weber and Stelmes under the Minister of Culture, Pierre Grégoire) exist primarily to bring international artists to Luxembourg. Radio Luxembourg transmitted its first programme in 1931; its own symphony orchestra, founded in 1933, became famous under its founder Henri Pensis. Most of its musicians, however, were imported from outside Luxembourg; conductors after Pensis included Carl Melles, Louis de Froment, Pierre Cao and Leopold Hager. In 1996 the orchestra was re-formed as the Luxembourg PO under chief-conductor, David Shallon

The Ecole Normale was promoted to a university institute in 1960, now the Institut Supérieur d'Etudes et de Recherches Pédagogiques; Luxembourg’s most prominent composer at the time, Edmond Cigrang, a pupil of Müller-Zürich, Philipp Jarnach and André Jolivet, developed the institute's syllabus, providing practical music education on a high level for the country’s musicians.

In the second half of the 20th century, musical activity in Luxembourg developed vigorously. Many new orchestras and choirs were formed, among them, Les Musíciens founded (1974) by professor Josy Groben and conducted by Pierre Cao, and a new generation of composers emerged who rejected the neo-romantic and folk-influenced styles of their predecessors in favour of a modernist idiom. In addition to Cigrang, prominent composers in the latter part of the century included Victor Fenigstein, Jeannot Heinen, Alexander Müllenbach, Johny Fritz, Walter Civitareale, Camille Kerger, Georges Lentz, Marcel Wengler, Marco Kraus, Claude Lenners and Alain Nitschké.

Several important festivals were established in Luxembourg in the second half of the 20th century: the Wiltz Festival (1953), initially an open-air drama festival and later expanded to include operas, orchestral concerts and chamber music; the Echternach Festival (1975); and the annual young composers' festival organized by the Lëtzeburger Gesellschaft fir nei Musék (1983); and the Printemps Musical de Luxembourg (1983).

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R.A. Rasch: ‘The Dutch Republic’, Man & Music/Music and Society: the Late Baroque Era, ed. G.J. Buelow (London, 1993), 393–410

d: kingdom of the netherlands

J.H. Letzer: Muzikaal Nederland, 1850–1910: bio-bibliographisches woordenboek (Utrecht, 1911, 2/1913)

E. Reeser: Een eeuw Nederlandse muziek 1815–1915 (Amsterdam, 1950, 2/1986)

M. Monnikendam: Nederlandse componisten van heden en verleden (Amsterdam, 1968)

H. Zomerdijk: Het muziekleven in Noord-Brabant 1850–1914 (Tilburg, 1982)

L. Samama: ‘Much More than Jingling of Bells and Ducats’, in L. Samama, F. Abrahams and M. de Reuter: Music in the Netherlands (The Hague, 1985), 4–31

L. Samama: Zeventig jaar Nederland muziek 1915–1985 (Amsterdam, 1986)

J. van der Klis: Oude muziek in Nederland: het verhaal van de pioniers 1900–1975 (Utrecht, 1991)

P. Micheels: Muziek in de schaduw van het Derde Rijk: de Nederlandse symfonie-orkesten 1933–1945 (Zutphen, 1993)

e: belgium

F. Faber: Histoire du théâtre français en Belgique (Brussels and Paris, 1878–80)

E. Evenepoel: Le Wagnérisme hors d'Allemagne (Bruxelles et la Belgique) (Paris, 1890)

J. Kreps: ‘De Belgische orgelmakers, 13e tot 19e eeuw’, Musica sacra [Bruges], xxxix (1932), 231

E. Closson: La facture des instruments de musique en Belgique (Brussels, 1935)

R. Bragard: Histoire de la musique belge (Brussels, 1946–9)

E. Closson and others, eds.: La musique en Belgique du Moyen Age à nos jours (Brussels, 1950)

A. Vander Linden: Octave Maus et la vie musicale belge (1875–1914) (Brussels, 1950)

A. Corbet: ‘De vlaamsch muziek’, Vlaanderen door de eeuwen heen, ii, ed. M.C.G Lamberty and R. Lissens (Brussels, 1952), 257–90

J. Rottiers: Beiaarden in België (Mechelen, 1952)

R. Wangermée: La musique belge contemporaine (Brussels, 1958)

B. Huys and others: François-Joseph Fétis et la vie musicale de son temps, 1784–1871, Bibliothèque royale Albert Ier, 27 May – 26 Aug 1972 (Brussels, 1972) [exhibition catalogue]

D. von Volborth-Danys, ed.: CeBeDeM and its Affiliated Composers (Brussels, 1977–80)

R. Wangermée and P. Mercier, eds.: La musique en Wallonie et à Bruxelles (Brussels, 1980–82)

M. Haine and N. Meeús, eds.: Dictionnaire des facteurs d'instruments de musique en Wallonie et à Bruxelles du 9e siècle à nos jours (Liège and Brussels, 1986)

M. Delaere, Y. Knockaert and H. Sabbe: Nieuwe muziek in Vlaanderen (Bruges, 1998)

f: luxembourg

J. Ulveling: ‘Notice sur les anciens treize maîtres et les corporations des métiers de la Ville de Luxembourg’, Publications de la Société pour la recherche et la conservation des monuments historiques dans la Grand-duché de Luxembourg, xiv (1859), 1–24

N. van Werveke: Kulturgeschichte des Luxemburger Landes (Luxembourg, 1923–6)

A. Foos: ‘Music in Luxemburg’, Jong–Hémecht, iv/5–7 (1930), 133

F. Mertens: ‘Quelques notices sur la musique militaire de Luxembourg’, Jong–Hémecht, iv/5–7 (1930), 145

A. Sprunck: Les origines de la Bibliothèque nationale du Grand-duché de Luxembourg (Luxembourg, 1953)

G. Wagner: Luxemburger Komponisten heute (Echternach, 1986)

L. Weber: Das Luxemburger Rundfunkorchester: 1933–1940, 1946–1958 (Luxembourg, 1993)

Low Countries

II. Traditional music

The area considered in this article mainly comprises the Dutch language area, which consists of the Netherlands and Flanders (i.e. northern Belgium and the extreme north-west of France); it also includes the Frisian language area in the Dutch province of Friesland, and French-speaking Wallonia (i.e. southern Belgium). Because of their geographical situation and political history the Low Countries have always been open to foreign cultural influences. Consequently they share most of their musical traditions with neighbouring areas in Germany and France. Since the Middle Ages the Low Countries have also been among the most urbanized areas of Europe, which has meant a continuous cultural interaction between social classes.

1. Vocal music.

2. Musical instruments.

3. Instrumental music.

4. Research and revival.

1. Vocal music.

Among the most archaic vocal forms are the calls of herdsmen, of which only some Walloon examples have been studied. Their nucleus is a 3rd (usually major), which can be divided into two tones, and extended with an additional whole (or, more recently, a semi-) tone below and/or above. Also archaic are the bi- or tritonic chains of short motifs sung by children. A study by Lucy Gelber (A1972) of the Flemish children’s repertory reveals that the most representative tritonic structure is A–C–D, with C as the focal degree. Children also make great use of scales of four, five or six notes, the most frequently-heard scales being G–A–B–C–D(–E–G) and (G–) C–D–E(–G), with G or, more often, C as tonic and final note. Such scales may have been transmitted since pre-medieval times.

Until the 16th century song collections contain mainly hexatonic and modal tunes. More than half the tunes are in the D or A mode, followed in popularity by the C and G modes. Many tunes testify to the strong link between popular and church singing. The 17th-century songbooks show a transition from modal to tonal music and the appearance of accidentals. Modal tunes only disappeared from common usage in the 20th century, however, and the use of accidentals seems to have been uncommon before the end of the 19th century.

To date only folksongs in Dutch have been the subject of musical analysis. Paul Collaer studied songs collected in Flanders between about 1850 and 1910, whereas Hermine Sterringa analysed ballads collected in the Netherlands from the 1950s onwards (in Doornbosch, A1987–91).

Melodies often consist of only two phrases, and tunes of more than four phrases are exceptional. Most melodies range between an octave and an octave and a 4th, and use a major heptatonic scale. The Flemish repertory analysed so far uses the following scales: heptatonic major (35·5%), hexatonic (34%), pentatonic (14%), A mode (5%), chromatic (3·5%), D mode (3%), heptatonic minor (2%), C mode (1·5%), G mode (1%), E and F mode (together 0·5%).

Very few melodies modulate. Two-thirds of the Dutch ballads use a plagal scale and half the major plagal tunes start with the dominant followed by the tonic. They generally end on the tonic, sometimes on the third degree. The melodic outline is undulating and fluent, with a marked preference for small intervals up to a 4th. Song-tunes are essentially syllabic. Melisma occurs only exceptionally and it hardly ever exceeds two notes to the syllable.

The singing style is generally sober and has little dynamic variety. Ornamental notes are hardly ever used, except in the town of Volendam (Noord-Holland province). The use of glissando is more common.

Folksinging is essentially monodic. Spontaneous two-part singing has been recorded sporadically, but this seems to be originally a 19th-century phenomenon. There is a marked preference for binary metre and most songs are entirely isometric. When heterometre occurs, however, it is mostly as a result of the singer adapting the metre to the text or to his or her pausing at the end of a phrase. Most melodies start with an upbeat. Syncopation is extremely rare.

The traditional song repertory can basically be divided into two parts. The first group consists of songs which were mainly transmitted orally. Generally they are of a cheerful nature and meant to be sung by a group, for instance, game- and dance-songs. As a rule they are in binary metre and sung in tempo giusto. Each verse contains only one or two elements or lines; the rest of the verse consists of repetitions of those lines and of fixed refrain lines, including series of meaningless syllables, like van falderadiere, van falderada or tradérira, luron, lurette.

The second category consists of songs whose lyrics were originally written down. They may tell a merry or a sad story, and are usually sung solo. They can also be in ternary metre, and the serious songs in particular are often performed parlando rubato. The verses contain four to eight, sometimes more, lines, of which the last one or two are often repeated. The lyrics generally tended to suffer when transmitted orally.

Part of the repertory is linked to important events in the course of life such as conscription, marriage or moving house. There are, however, hardly any songs connected with birth or death rites. Another important group consists of seasonal songs, for instance, the luck-visit songs (sung to bring good luck to the households visited at these times) during Carnival and Holy Week, on May Day, midsummer and Martinmas, and in the period from Christmas to Epiphany. These luck-visit singers are now children and teenagers, but until the beginning of the 20th century many were handicapped or jobless adults.

From the 16th century until the beginning of the 20th, and in Flanders even until about 1950, broadside singers were a familiar sight at markets and outside churches after Mass. Their repertory dealt mainly with sensational news and love stories.

Examples of once popular dance-songs are ‘t patertje (a kissing dance from the Dutch language area), the seven steps/jumps dance, and dances round the maypole and autumn, Lent, midsummer and Easter bonfires. A rich variety of songs also accompanied the crâmignon, the open-air farandole which was danced until about 1960 in the town of Liège and which still survives in a few villages between Liège and Maastricht (Limburg province), though now mostly accompanied only by a brass band. A related chain-dance is the vlöggelen of Ootmarsum (Overijssel province), which is performed on Easter Sunday and Monday.

Already in the 19th century collectors were worried about the marked decline of traditional singing, which was accelerated in the 20th century by a combination of factors, the most important being the gradual loss of its function within the agricultural work-cycle and the human life-cycle. According to Doornbosch, this was caused mainly by the mechanization of agriculture, industrialization, the radio and the introduction of commercial entertainment, improvement in the means of transport, and the advent of electricity, by which twilight – the best time for singing in the family circle – was lost.

2. Musical instruments.

Some noise-makers and rhythm instruments are essentially linked with luck-visit singing. They include cog rattles (for Holy Week), the hanske knap (a clapper made from a clog and played on Plough Monday in some villages north of Antwerp) and the rommelpot (a friction drum played during Shrovetide and the Christmas and Epiphany period in some Dutch-speaking areas). A typical Carnival instrument is the musical bow (Dutch: goebe or brombas; Fr.: ramoncelle or basse de Flandres), which has one or two strings running over a bladder as resonator. The midwinterhoorn is a horn about 100–120 cm long made of wood. It is played in the Twente area (the eastern part of the province of Overijssel) during Advent.

Since at least the 12th century, a rich variety of duct flutes has been known in the Low Countries. Archaeological research has yielded dozens of bone duct flutes, most of which were excavated in the terpengebied (area of mounds) along the coast of the provinces of Friesland and Groningen. In Belgium a few traces of a pastoral cow-horn flute tradition have been found. The duct could be formed by a wooden block or the lower lip.

Six-hole duct flutes were among the most popular traditional instruments until the first decades of the 20th century. From the middle of the 19th century these were mainly factory-made metal or synthetic instruments, imported from France, Gemany or England. The last traditional players – recorded in Belgium in the 1970s – favoured a non legato style, with brisk tonguing and an economy of ornamentation. Though mostly played as a pastime, the tin whistle was also often part of informal dance bands in Belgium about 1900.

The pipe and tabor were first depicted at the end of the 13th century and were a popular accompaniment for dance until about 1650.

The fife and side drum were introduced at the end of the 15th century and, until the advent of brass bands in the 19th century, provided most open-air music. The fife and drum tradition is still very much alive in the area between the rivers Sambre and Meuse (Hainaut and Namur provinces), where the players – in post-Napoleonic uniforms – accompany the military escorts of religious processions. The fifes made in this area are in C or D, lathe-turned from a single piece of ebony, boxwood or aluminium, keyless and with a cylindrical bore. The style of playing is characterized by sparse use of slurring and ornamentation. The tradition also survives in a few towns in the province of East Flanders. There the traditional fife has been ousted by the orchestral piccolo, and the playing style is more slurred and ornamented.

Since its introduction at the end of the 15th century, the side drum has been one of the most important open-air instruments. The carnival drummers of Binche and the surrounding villages (Hainaut province) achieve an amazingly high standard of drumming, with characteristic asymmetrical rhythms.

The earliest references to the bagpipe (Dutch: moezelzak, doedelzak, pijpzak; Fr.: cornemuse, pip’sac, muchosa) date from the last quarter of the 13th century. The bagpipes of the Low Countries had a sewn bag, a conical chanter with a double reed and one (until about 1500) or two cylindrical drones with a single reed. Both drones could be mounted in a common stock, and rested against the left shoulder. In the 18th and 19th centuries shepherds in the province of Hainaut favoured a type with a parallel arrangement of chanter and small drone in the same stock, while the bass drone rested against the shoulder. In the provinces of Hainaut and Antwerp the bagpipe tradition lingered until the beginning of the 20th century.

The industrialization of wind instrument making in the first half of the 19th century brought about the formation of village wind bands. Dance bands often consisted of a clarinet, a cornet, a trombone and a tuba. There could also be a second clarinet, a flute, one or two flugelhorns and a bombardon. Until the interwar years this was the most common type of band for large village dance halls.

The accordion became a truly popular instrument about 1880, with the import of cheap German instruments and the start of mass-production in Belgium. It quickly dethroned the fiddle as the main folk instrument for small dance parties. Until the interwar years the Belgian workshops produced an amazing variety of single-action, double-action and hybrid models. Most popular among Flemish country musicians was the double-action model with two melody rows and ten bass keys, of which five keys sound bass notes and the other five their chords. Some accordion players, mainly in the province of Namur, accompanied themselves on the ‘foot-bass’ invented in 1894 by Joseph Alexandry. It consists of a large bellows on top of which is a soundbox with one row of nine to twelve buttons, depressed with both feet.

In the Ardennes (Liège and Luxembourg provinces) an archaic style of fiddle playing survived until the 1970s. It was characterized by non legato playing (with detached strokes), the use of drone strings, absence of vibrato and economy of ornamentation. In bands the fiddle could be used to play a second part or a rhythmic, generally off-beat accompaniment consisting of two notes, usually a 3rd or a 6th, sometimes a 4th apart. The fiddle was by far the most popular instrument for dancing from the 17th to the 19th centuries. Quite often it was accompanied by a bass (cello). In the provinces of Brabant and Antwerp this duo survived until about 1920. Until the beginning of the 20th century dance bands in the West-Friesland area (Noord-Holland province) generally consisted of two fiddles and a bass.

The hurdy-gurdy (Dutch: (draai)lier; Fr.: vielle à roue, vièrlète, tiesse di tch’vå) is first mentioned in the 13th century. Both diatonic instruments with a single row of keys, and fully chromatic models with a double row were used. The instrument was usually played by wandering minstrels of humble condition, many of them blind beggars. In Belgium the last players were seen about 1920.

The hammered dulcimer is first depicted between 1420 and 1435. Extant dulcimers from the 17th and 18th centuries were probably made by harpsichord makers, which points to their use as drawing-room instruments. There are, however, a few indications that the hammered dulcimer was also played by wandering street musicians until the middle of the 19th century.

The fretted zither (Dutch: hommel; Fr.: épinette) was probably introduced before 1600, as a Dutch example is dated 1608. The instrument was made in a variety of forms, ranging from crudely hollowed-out logs to fine pieces of craftsmanship. Some 20th-century Belgian zithers have an additional soundbox. There are usually from two to five melody strings and two to four drones. In the Hageland area (Brabant province) a zither tuned to two or three different major chords was popular in the 1920s. The scales produced from the frets are mostly diatonic but since about 1900, 90% of the Flemish instruments have been tuned to the following scale: C–D–E–F–G–A–B–B–C etc.. Some instruments are, however, fully chromatic.

In Belgium in the 20th century, the zither has been played exclusively with a piece of cane or hardwood run along the frets and a plectrum for plucking. The zither has always been an instrument for family music-making. It was the only folk instrument generally played by women. Until the 19th century the zither was mainly found in the provinces of Noord-Holland and Friesland, but about 1900 it was virtually extinct in the Netherlands. In Belgium, on the contrary, it reached the peak of its popularity in the interwar years.

3. Instrumental music.

Before the middle of the 18th century folk musicians left no written music. Many traditional tunes, however, found their way into printed collections for middle-class amateurs. For instance, the branles published by Tylman Susato in Antwerp (1551) and Pierre Phalèse in Leuven (1571) and Antwerp (1583) are unmistakably rooted in the Western European popular tradition. A wealth of traditional music is also to be found in the Oude en nieuwe hollantse boerenlieties en contredansen (‘Old and new Dutch peasant songs and country dances’), published in Amsterdam from 1700 to 1716. This is the largest collection of tunes ever published in the Low Countries, and contains more than 1000 melodies, many of French and English origin.

From these written sources and the instruments used it would appear that until about 1700 there was no noteworthy difference between instrumental and vocal music. Tunes were often both sung and played. The scarcity of bands points to the fact that – in contrast to middle-class music – folk music was essentially monodic, drones being the only common form of accompaniment.

A wealth of 18th-century traditional music is to be found in manuscripts and printed collections by fiddlers, dancing-masters and carillon players.

About the middle of the 18th century popular music had apparently become predominantly tonal. It was still largely diatonic, but gradually it moved away from vocal models. The use of drone accompaniment gave way to harmony, which may explain the decline of the bagpipe. Some sources give an idea of the ensemble playing that was undoubtedly also adopted by country bands. The second part is mostly isorhythmic and a 3rd or a 6th below the first part. The bass is often limited to the fundamental note of the chords, sometimes with passing notes in between. The mid-18th-century tune books contain mainly minuets and marches. The dance-tunes usually consist of an AABB structure, both units with an even number of bars, generally eight to 16, eight bars being the usual length. The marches are in 2/2 time, and generally they consist of two units with an odd number of bars as a result of the typical tonic–dominant–tonic final cadence.

In the second half of the 18th century the minuet gave way to the country dance. Both the ‘English’ longways and the ‘French’ square dances became immensely popular. The tunes were often extended to three or four units, each consisting of usually eight and sometimes 16 bars. Modulation was no longer exceptional, but was restricted to the dominant or subdominant major keys, or to the minor on the same tonic. During the 18th century the compass of dance music was apparently extended, though seldom beyond the range of an octave and a 6th. Even at the end of the century tunes with a compass of an octave or a 9th were not at all uncommon.

The traditional music of the first half of the 19th century is mainly documented by the tune books of fiddlers from the provinces of Luxembourg and Friesland. These manuscripts contain many tunes of French, German and British origin. Most popular were all kinds of country dances, like the anglois in Friesland and the passe-pied, allemande and amoureuse in the province of Luxembourg. The Frisian madlot and the Luxembourgian maclotte were local adaptations of the matelotte (‘sailor’s dance’), introduced in the second half of the 18th century.

The Frisian manuscripts contain a number of schotz or schots (‘Scottish’) tunes, which are only rhythmically related to Scots dance music. In the second half of the 19th century the skotse trije (‘Scottish three’) became the ‘national’ dance of Friesland. Although originally danced by three dancers, by the end of the century it had become a square dance.

Shortly after 1815 the first waltzes appeared. Until the middle of the 19th century waltzes were mostly written in 3/8 time, and were more akin to the Alpine ländler than to the Viennese waltz. The polka was introduced in 1844, and it conquered the remotest villages in no time. Other pair-dances imported around this time include the mazurka, the redowa, the galop and the schottische.

Most pair-dance tunes from the first half of the 19th century consisted of two units of eight bars. Some tunes introduced a new element – modulation to the relative minor. In the middle of the century the quadrille was introduced. This descendant of the country dances usually consisted of four or five figures with different tunes in 2/4 or 6/8 time.

The instrumental tradition reached its greatest complexity in the second half of the 19th century. The handwritten scores of Belgian wind and mixed bands give a first and second part, off-beat chords and a bass. The use of accidentals was generalized. The literate bands mostly played pair-dances with the structure AABBACCAABBA, each unit consisting of eight or 16 bars. B and C (called trio) modulated to different related major keys, usually to the dominant and subdominant respectively, though the B unit sometimes also modulated to the relative minor. The units were performed with contrasting dynamics. The first part (usually on clarinet, cornet or flugelhorn) was sometimes a true bravura piece with strings of quick triplets.

Country musicians continued, however, to play older and simpler forms of instrumental music until well into the 20th century. As far as one can tell, the local people have always been eager to adopt new, fashionable dances and tunes. Some became traditional and thus survived the international dance fashion a long time. Old rounds, country dances, quadrilles and pair-dances survived best in the Twente area (Overijssel province), the Achterhoek area (Gelderland), on the island of Terschelling, in the West-Friesland area (Noord-Holland), in the province of Antwerp, the central part of Brabant province and in the Ardennes area (Liège and Luxembourg). Some communities have maintained their local traditions to this day.

Since World War I the dance repertory has been extended with dances of North or South American origin, but their diffusion by radio, TV and records has limited further evolution within an oral tradition.

4. Research and revival.

Folksong research in Flanders began in the middle of the 19th century. Among the pioneers, the French musicologist C.-E.-H. de Coussemaker was the first to collect songs from the oral tradition. The results of 19th-century research into folksongs in Dutch were compiled by Flor van Duyse in his standard work Het oude nederlandse lied (A1903–08). In the first decade of the 20th century Theophiel Peeters was the first Flemish fieldworker to collect dance-tunes.

In the Netherlands and Wallonia the collection and study of traditional music made headway only at the beginning of the 20th century. The first Dutch fieldworker was Jaap Kunst, who collected songs and dances on the island of Terschelling. In the 1930s Pol Heyns of Flemish radio was the first to make field recordings of songs and dance music.

The most prolific fieldworker is Ate Doornbosch, until 1986 head of the Nederlands Volksliedarchief (Amsterdam), who managed to record some 10,000 epic songs from 1957 onwards. The most important all-embracing study of Flemish and Walloon traditional songs to date is Paul Collaer’s La musique populaire traditionelle en Belgique (E1974).

Musical instruments were the worst documented aspect of traditional music until Hubert Boone of the Brussels Museum of Musical Instruments began his pioneering research in the late 1960s.

Since about 1900 many traditional songs from the above-mentioned collections have been promoted in a ‘cultivated’ form through schools, youth movements and choral societies. In the mid-1960s the Antwerp singer Wannes van de Velde was the first of his generation to resume a traditional style of singing.

Folkdancing was revived after World War I by youth movements of all tendencies, mainly with educative intentions, as a means to counter the growing popularity of the ‘degenerate’ newly imported pair-dances of American origin. Since the early 20th century folkdances have also been cultivated and demonstrated by folklore groups, including the guilds of archers in the provinces of Brabant and Antwerp, some of which draw their repertory from local tradition. Since the late 1970s folkdance parties have stimulated spontaneous folkdancing, mainly in Belgium.

The revival of native traditional instruments was started in 1968 by Boone’s band De Vlier. In Walloon and the Netherlands the revival began in 1973, largely under the influence of Flemish bands. At first the revival caught on mainly among university students and visual artists, as a reaction against the international commercial music business. The folk revival has often had strong links with the regionalist and ecological movements. In contrast with the older folklore groups the revival ensembles have not limited themselves to the most recent traditional forms, as collected from the surviving, mostly aged, musicians. They also go back in time by drawing from older, written sources and by reconstructing and playing (virtually) extinct folk instruments. An important tendency within the revival aims at revitalizing traditional music by performing it using non-traditional arrangements, techniques, instruments and line-ups. Many of the new bands are heavily influences by foreign, particularly Irish, British and central French, revival music. Traditional music now seems to have carved out a lasting, though still marginal, place in the contemporary music scene of the Low Countries.

(1) Jean-Baptiste Lully [Lulli, Giovanni Battista] (i)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

Grove6 (F.J. de Hen)

MGG2 (‘Belgien II: Volksmusik’; W. Bosmans)

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R. Jansen: We hebben gezongen en niks gehad: muzikanten en liederen uit Midden-Brabant (Tilburg/Breda, 1984)

S. Top: Komt vrienden, luistert naar mijn lied: aspecten van de marktzanger in Vlaanderen (1750–1950) (Tielt, 1985)

E. Verstraete: Zwaarddansen in Vlaanderen (Sint-Niklaas, 1985)

A. de Bra and N. vande Voorde-Hendriks: Gentse kontradansen (Antwerp, 1987)

A. Doornbosch and others: Onder de groene linde: verhalende liederen uit de mondelinge overlevering (Amsterdam, 1987–91)

W. Bosmans: ‘De volksliedtraditie in Woluwe’, Volkscultuur in Brabant, ed. F. Vanhemelrijck (Brussels, 1994), 143–80

b: walloon songs and dances

F. Balleux and J. Dejardin: Choix de chansons et poésies wallonnes (Pays de Liège) (Liège, 1844)

L. Jouret: Chansons du pays d’Ath (Brussels, 1889)

L. Terry and L. Chaumont: Recueils d’airs de crâmignons et de chansons populaires à Liège (Liège, 1889)

P. Gilson: Chants populaires du pays Borain (Brussels, 1894)

A. Doutrepont: Les noëls wallons (Liège, 1909)

L. Simon and M. Denée: Chansons populaires condruziennes (Ghent, 1937)

E. Montellier: 14 chansons du XVe siècle extraites des archives namuroises (Brussels, 1939)

A. Libiez and R. Pinon, eds.: Chansons populaires de l’ancien Hainaut (Brussels, 1939–72)

R. Pinon: La nouvelle lyre malmédienne (Malmedy, 1949–67)

J. Vandereuse and R. Pinon: ‘Quelques danses curieuses de Wallonie’, Commission royale belge de folklore, xii (1958–9), 184–267

R. Thisse-Derouette: Le recueil de danses: manuscrit d’un ménétrier ardennais (Arlon, 1960)

E. Senny and R. Pinon, eds.: Chansons populaires de l’Ardenne Septentrionale (Lorcé et Filot) (Brussels, 1961–2)

R. Thisse-Derouette: Danses populaires de Wallonie (Charleroi, 1962–78)

R. Pinon: ‘Contribution à l’étude du folklore poético-musical des pâtres en Wallonie’, Enquêtes du Musée de la vie wallonne (1963), 19–63

L. Maes, M. Vaisière and R. Pinon, eds.: Chansons populaires de la Flandre Wallonne (Brussels, 1965)

O. Lebierre: Lyre mâmediène (Malmedy, 1966)

R. Pinon: ‘L’étude du folklore musical en Wallonie’, Jb für musikalische Volks- und Völkerkunde, iv (1968), 25–58

R. Pinon: ‘Contribution au folklore poético-musical de la ville de Charleroi’, Commission royale belge de folklore, xviii (1972)

J.-P. van Aelbrouck: Les contredanses du journal musical liégeois ‘L’Echo’ (1758–1773) (Brussels, 1986)

c: tune books

Oude en nieuwe hollantse boerenlieties en contredansen (Amsterdam, 1700–16/R1972 with introduction, notes and bibliography by M. Veldhuyzen

J. de Gruijtters: Beiaardboek (MS, 1746, B-Ac); facs. (Asten, 1968/R)

P. Trappeniers: Recueil de contredanses avec premier violon et la basse continue (Brussels, c1775–9/R)

C. Wytsman: Anciens airs et chansons populaires de Termonde (Dendermonde, 1868)

J. Rimmer: Two Dance Collections from Friesland and their Scotch, English and Continental Connections (Groningen, 1978)

B. Donay: Le manuscrit de François-Joseph Jamin, ménétrier gaumais au XIXe siècle (Liège, 1986–7) [unpublished thesis]

L. Rombouts and G. Huybens, eds.: Het liedeken van de Lovenaers: een 18de-eeuws Leuvens beiaardhandschrift (Leuven, 1990)

G. Huybens and E. Schreurs, eds.: T’Haegelant: vier 18de-eeuwse muziekboekjes uit Diest/Quatre recueils de musique du XVIIIe siècle de Diest (Peer, 1995)

G. Huybens and E. Schreurs, eds.: Speelmansboek uit Maastricht (Peer, 1996)

d: instruments

F.J. de Hen: ‘Folk Instruments of Belgium’, GSJ, xxv (1972), 87–132; xxvi (1973), 86–129

C. Brade: Die mittelalterlichen Kernspaltflöten Mittel- und Nordeuropas (Neumünster, 1975)

J. Montagu: ‘The Construction of the Midwinterhoorn’, GSJ, xxviii (1975), 71–80

H. Boone: ‘Beknopte bijdrage tot de geschiedenis van het hakkebord in de Lage Landen’, Volkskunde, lxxvii (1976), 203–16

H. Boone: De hommel in de Lage Landen (Brussels, 1976)

W.H. Thijsse: ‘De midwinterhoorn en zijn functie’, Mens en Melodie, xxxv (1980), 24–32

H. Boone: De doedelzak (Brussels, 1983)

H. Boone: De mondtrom (Brussels, 1986)

L. Moïses: La vielle belgië à roue (Brussels, 1986)

H. Boone: Het accordeon en de voetbas in België (Leuven, 1990)

H. Boone: ‘Gestreken en geschraapte pseudo-bassen in Vlaanderen en Wallonië’, Liber amicorum Prof. Dr. Jozef van Haver (Brussels, 1991), 35–46

P.-J. Foulon: ‘Tambours et fifres d’Entre-Sambre-et-Meuse’, ibid., 107–21

W. Bosmans: Eenhandsfluit en trom in de Lage Landen/The Pipe and Tabor in the Low Countries (Peer, 1991)

H. Boone and W. Bosmans: Volksinstrumenten in Vlaanderen en Wallonië (Leuven, 1995)

W. Bosmans: ‘La cwène d’Henri Crasson, ménétrier de Gueuzaine’, Studium et musicum: Mélanges Edouard Remouchamps, i (Liège, 1996), 9–22

e: general studies

E. vander Straeten: La musique aux Pays-Bas avant le XIXe siècle (Brussels, 1867–88/R)

F. van Duyse: Het eenstemmig Fransch en Nederlandsch wereldlijk lied (Ghent, 1896)

E. Closson: Notes sur la chanson populaire en Belgique (Brussels, 1913)

P. Collaer: La musique populaire traditionnelle en Belgique (Brussels, 1974)

J.P. Sepieter: De muziek van het Vlaamse volk (Dunkirk, 1981)

F. Lempereur: ‘Le folklore musical’, La musique en Wallonie et à Bruxelles, ii, ed. R. Wangermée and P. Mercier (Brussels, 1982), 303–28

J. Koning: De folkbeweging in Nederland: analyse van een hedendaagse muziek-subcultuur (Amsterdam, 1983)

J. Robijns, H. Heughebaert and H. Dewit, eds.: Op harpen en snaren: volksmuziek, volksdansen, volksinstrumenten in Vlaanderen (Antwerp, 1983)

recordings

Folksongs and Dances of the Netherlands, coll. W.D. Scheepers, FW F 4036 (1963)

Etnische muziek in België, coll. H. Daems, BRT DL 111 427 (1967)

Etnische Instrumentale Muziek uit de Brabantse Gewesten, coll. H. Boone and E. Vissenaekens, Alpha 5005 (1970)

Anthologie du folklore wallon, coll. C. Flagel and F. Lempereur, CACEF FM 33 003-6, 009-10 (1974–81) [7 vols.]

Le carnaval de Binche, Decca DA 209/210

Van een heer die in een wijnhuis zat, coll. A. Doornbosch and M. van Winkoop-Deurvorst, P.J. Meertens-Instituut and NOS 6814 230 (1980)

Belgique/België ballades, danses et chansons de Flandre et Wallonie, BRT/Ocora 558 594 (1981)

Volksmuziek uit Frans Vlaanderen/Vie musicale populaire en Flandre Française, coll. A.-M. Despringre, Alpha 5030 (1982)

Piet de Jong en Willem de Hek: harmonikamuziek van Terschelling, coll. F. Tromp, Cadans 15042 (1983)

Toen Rollewijn over die bergen kwam, coll. A. Doornbosch and M. van Winkoop-Deurvorst, P.J. Meertens-Instituut and NOS 6814 840 (1983)

Belgique: le carnaval de Binche/Belgium: the Carnival of Binche, Buda Records 825162 (1990)

Airs de fête en Wallonie: chansons et musiques traditionnelles, coll. C. Flagel, Fonti Musicali FMD 188 (1991)

Les authentiques airs de Gilles de Binche, Folklore Records 1505 (c1991)

Gilles de Binche: les airs du ‘Mardi Gras’, Ariola Express 290 837 (1991)

Belgique: ballades, danses et chansons de Flandre et de Wallonie Ocora C 580061 (1994)

Jouster Boerebrulloft/ Farmer’s Wedding in Joure, Pan records 2004 (1994)

Tambours et fifres d’Entre-Sambre-et-Meuse, coll. L. and C. Flagel, Fonti Musicali FMD 198 (1994)

Pays-Bas: chansons oubliées/The Netherlands: Songs Adrift, coll. A. Doornbosch, Ocora C 600003 (1996)

Musique populaire de la Belgique/Volksmuziek uit België/Folk Music from Belgium, coll. H. Boone, Auvidis Ethnic B 6844 (1997)

Lowe, Edward

(b Salisbury, c1610; d Oxford, 11 July 1682). English composer, music copyist, organist and writer on music. He was a chorister at Salisbury Cathedral, where he was a pupil of John Holmes. Some time between Michaelmas 1631 and 1641 he became organist of Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford. During the Commonwealth he remained in Oxford, where he gave private lessons and took part in weekly music meetings at William Ellis's house. He was paid as university organist in 1657–8 and by the end of 1658 had resumed his place at Christ Church. Soon after the Restoration he became one of the three organists of the Chapel Royal (with William Child and Christopher Gibbons) and in 1661 he succeeded John Wilson as professor of music at Oxford. He retained all of his court and Oxford appointments until his death.

Lowe's music copying, often annotated with informative historical or practical details, was extensive and varied. Most of the manuscripts are in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, and others are at Christ Church, Edinburgh University and the British Library, London. At Christ Church he added 27 anthems to the cathedral partbooks GB-Och Mus 1220–4; organ parts in his hand are in Och 438 and 1002 and voluntaries in Och 1176. Lowe's principal responsibility as professor was to organize weekly meetings for performance at the Music School, and under his direction the school's collection of vocal and instrumental performing material was greatly expanded to contain music in a variety of earlier and contemporary styles. He copied performing parts for several act songs (mostly at Ob), amongst them two works of his own, and compiled substantial collections of vocal music by his contemporaries in Eu Dc.I.69 (with its companion Ob Mus.d.38) and Lbl Add.29396 (facsimiles in Bickford Jorgens, v, viii). Most of Lowe's verse anthems, essentially traditional in style, could well have been written for the newly reconstituted choir of the Chapel Royal in the early 1660s; his A Short Direction for the Performance of Cathedrall Service (Oxford, 1661, 2/1664) contains straightforward settings of the liturgy based on pre-Civil War practice.

Lowe remained active in old age, copying out the parts of Aldrich's act song Conveniunt doctae sorores (performed 7 July 1682; Och 1127) in his usual firm and legible hand. His will reveals a great deal about his character and circumstances.

WORKS

verse anthems

†	text printed in J. Clifford: The Divine Services and Anthems (London, 2/1664)

†If the Lord himself, GB-Och, WB (inc.)

†My song shall be alway, music lost

†O clap your hands, Och, WB (inc.)

†O give thanks unto the Lord and call upon his name, music lost

†O give thanks unto the Lord for he is gracious, Lbl, Och

†O how amiable, EL 1, 28, Och, Y

Sing unto God, Och (inc.)

Turn thy face away, Och, Ojc 315 (inc.)

†When the Lord turned again, EL 1, 28, Lcm I.A.1, 2 in Ob, Och, Ojc 315

†Why do the heathen, music lost

other works

A Short Direction for the Performance of Cathedrall Service (Oxford, 1661, enlarged 2/1664 as A Review of a Short Direction)

Sacred songs, GB-Ob: Behold in sin I was conceived, S, bc; When Israel left the Egyptian land, S, bc; You who the Lord adore, A, A, B

Act songs, GB-Ob: Eja eruditam, S, A, T, T, B, SATTB, 2 vn, bc; Nunc est canendum, S, S, T, B, SSTB, vn, bc

Secular songs: Come hear me my boy, catch, Y; God prosper long our noble king, A, A, B, Eu, Och; Sir Eglamore, S, A, B, 1684⁴; The thirsty earth, S, B/SSB, bc, Lbl, Och, Tr pts by Lowe added to a B solo song by R. Hill; When death hath snatched us, S, B, bc, Och

Piece, kbd, Och

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AshbeeR, i, v

BDECM

HawkinsH

Edward F. Rimbault, ed.: The Order of Chanting the Cathedral Service; with Notation of the Preces, Versicles, Responses … as Published by Edward Lowe (London, 1843)

J.R. MaGrath, ed.: The Flemings in Oxford (Oxford, 1904–24), i, p.xvi, 541, 552; ii, p.xix

J.P. Cutts: ‘Seventeenth-Century Songs and Lyrics in Edinburgh University Library Music MS Dc.I.69’, MD, xiii (1959), 169–94

M. Crum: ‘Early Lists of the Oxford Music School Collection’, ML, xlviii (1967), 23–34

R.T. Daniel and P. le Huray: The Sources of English Church Music 1549–1660, EECM, suppl.i (1972)

M. Chan: ‘Edward Lowe's Manuscript British Library Add. MS 29396: the Case for Redating’, ML, lix (1978), 440–54

M. Chan: ‘Drolls, Drolleries and Mid-Seventeenth-Century Dramatic Music in England’, RMARC, no.15 (1979), 117–73

I. Cheverton: English Church Music of the Early Restoration Period 1660–c.1676 (diss., U. of Wales, Cardiff, 1984), iii, 682–5

E. Bickford Jorgens, ed.: English Song 1600–1675: Facsimiles of Twenty-Six Manuscripts and an Edition of the Texts (New York, 1986–9)

H.W. Shaw: The Succession of Organists of the Chapel Royal and the Cathedrals of England and Wales from c.1658 (Oxford, 1991)

C.L. Bailey: English Keyboard Music 1625–1680 (diss., Duke U., 1992)

T.A. Trowles: The Musical Ode in Britain c.1670–1800 (diss., U. of Oxford, 1992), i, 42–3

I. Spink: Restoration Cathedral Music 1660–1714 (London, 1995)

P. Holman: ‘Original Sets of Parts for Restoration Concerted Music at Oxford’, Performing the Music of Henry Purcell, ed. M. Burden (Oxford, 1996), 9–19, 265–71

ROBERT THOMPSON

Löwe, Ferdinand

(b Vienna, 19 Feb 1865; d Vienna, 6 Jan 1925). Austrian conductor. A pupil of Josef Hellmesberger (i), he was active chiefly in Vienna and Munich, later also appearing regularly in Budapest and Berlin. He was a staff conductor at the Vienna Hofoper when the newly appointed Mahler chose him to succeed Johann Nepomuk Fuchs, who died in October 1899. Löwe did not, however, live up to promise. He is chiefly remembered in connection with Bruckner, whose pupil he was at the Vienna Conservatory, and whose symphonies he championed together with Franz Schalk and Hugo Wolf. He collaborated with Schalk in a spurious score of the Fourth, with cuts and with orchestral textures recast in Wagnerian style, and this appeared as the first edition in 1890. Although Bruckner sanctioned it, he refused to sign the printer’s copy, instead making a fair copy that very year of his own definitive version of 1880. Löwe, on his own initiative, also concocted an even more doubtful version of the Ninth in 1903, seven years after the composer’s death. His (and Schalk’s) motives in presenting such editions on Bruckner’s behalf to a sceptical public and hostile music critics may have been well intentioned, but they were also misguided.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Schenk: ‘Ferdinand Löwe’, Mitteilungsblatt der Internationalen Bruckner-Gesellschaft, no.26 (1985), 5–11

M. Permoser, ed.: Die Ferdinand Löwe-Bestände (Vienna, 1994)

F. Rauner: Ferdinand Löwe: Leben und Wirken, i: 1863–1900 [sic] (Frankfurt, 1995)

DERYCK COOKE/CHRISTOPHER FIFIELD

Lowe, Joseph

(b 1796; d 1866). Scottish dancing-master. He was the most prominent member of a family of dance teachers in Scotland in the early 19th century, whose descendants numbered more than 20 teachers over five generations and who were active in Scotland, Canada, Australia and New Zealand for some 200 years. With his brothers John, Robert and James, Lowe was influential in establishing Scottish dance in a modern ballroom form. The brothers taught in different parts of Scotland and together wrote Lowes’ Ball-Conductor and Assembly Guide (Edinburgh, c1830), one of the most extensive 19th-century dance manuals. Joseph Lowe also published many arrangements of Scottish dance-tunes for the piano. From 1851 to 1860 he was dance tutor to the family of Queen Victoria, and his journal of these years gives an insight into his teaching at Windsor and Balmoral. His workbook, which contains step descriptions of dances and some entries by his son Joseph Eager Lowe, who taught in New Zealand and Australia, is in the National Library of New Zealand.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Thomas: ‘The Lowe Family Collection of Dance Books and Manuscripts’, Stout Centre Review, iii/1 (1992)

A. Thomas, ed.: A New and Most Excellent Dancing Master: the Journal of Joseph Lowe’s Visits to Balmoral and Windsor (1852–1860) to Teach Dance to the Family of Queen Victoria (Stuyvesant, NY, 1992)

ALLAN THOMAS

Lowe, Nick

(b Woodbridge, Suffolk, 25 March 1949). English songwriter, singer and record producer. During the 1970s he was a key figure in the development of English pub rock and punk rock. His early career was spent as a member of Brinsley Schwarz, a guitar- and organ-based group which set out to translate the American pop of the Band and the Byrds into an English urban context. Lowe sang, played bass guitar, and composed such songs as Nervous on the Road, Don’t lose your grip on love and What’s so funny (’bout peace, love and understanding), recorded by the group between 1970 and 1975. Next he collaborated with the club-owner and producer Dave Robinson in setting up Stiff Records (1976), which recorded such figures as Elvis Costello and Ian Dury. Lowe produced the first British punk rock album, by the Damned, before resuming his own musical career. In the late 1970s he had hit records with I love the sound of breaking glass and Cruel to Be Kind. Although he continued to compose and record as a solo artist, in the 1980s and 90s Lowe collaborated with such figures as Dave Edmunds, John Hiatt and Johnny Cash while producing albums by Costello, Carlene Carter and others.

DAVE LAING

Lowe, Thomas

(d London, 1 March 1783). English tenor. He joined the Drury Lane company in 1740 as a singing actor, and for many years appeared in ballad operas and other light theatre pieces. He enjoyed most success, however, as a singer between acts and in pleasure gardens; he was very popular at Vauxhall and sang at Ruckholt House, Essex, in 1743 and 1744. He played minor parts in Shakespeare and Restoration comedy, generally as a mouthpiece for songs; most of Arne’s Shakespeare settings were composed for him. Lowe moved from Drury Lane to Covent Garden in 1748, and back to Drury Lane in 1760, on each occasion succeeding Beard, with whom he alternated as Macheath in The Beggar’s Opera. He visited Dublin with the Arnes in summer 1742 and winter 1743–4, when he sang in the first performance of Arne’s oratorio The Death of Abel. He appeared in many of Arne’s more serious pieces in London, including Comus, Rosamond, The Judgment of Paris and Alfred, in De Fesch’s Love and Friendship (1746), and for some years was prominently associated with Handel’s oratorios. He was a member of Handel’s company at Covent Garden in 1743 and 1748–51. The parts of the Philistine and Israelite Man in Samson (1743), the title role in Joshua (1748), Jonathan in Alexander Balus (1748), the First Elder in Susanna (1749), Zadok in Solomon (1749), Septimius in Theodora (1750) and Apollo in Alceste (1750, not performed) were composed for him, as were two patriotic songs during the Jacobite rising (1745–6). He sang in the first performance of the Peace and Foundling Hospital Anthems in 1749. In the parts he composed for Lowe, Handel was careful not to tax either end of his compass (c to a'), but he must have commanded at least an adequate technique in florid music. More naturally gifted than Beard, he fell far below him in intelligence and application. According to Burney, ‘with the finest tenor voice I ever heard in my life, for want of diligence and cultivation, he could never be safely trusted with any thing better than a ballad, which he constantly learned by his ear’.

In 1763, Lowe bought the lease of Marylebone Gardens from John Trusler and gave concerts there with his pupil Ann Catley, but after initial success his voice and fortune declined and he was forced to sell to Samuel Arnold in 1769. After casual engagements at Southwark, Watford and elsewhere he was invited to Sadler’s Wells by Thomas King in 1772 and sang there on and off until his death, chiefly in dialogues by Dibdin, Hook and others. He died destitute despite having enjoyed over many years an annual income estimated at nearly £1000. His son, Halifax Lowe, a tenor of similar type, made his début at Sadler’s Wells on 15 April 1784 but died in his 29th year in October 1790.

WINTON DEAN

Löwenbach, Jan

(b Rychnov nad Kněžnou, Bohemia, 29 April 1880; d Glen Falls, NY, 13 Aug 1972). Czech musical administrator and writer. An amateur musician, he joined Hudební Matice as an expert on copyright law in 1908. He soon became an enthusiastic contributor to the Umělecká Beseda’s periodical Hudební revue and later was one of its editors. After the formation of the Czechoslovak Republic in 1918 he helped found the Klub Československých Skladatelů (Czechoslovak composers’ guild) and the Ochranné Sdružení Autorské (authors’ copyright association). He was also responsible for organizing the 1924 and 1925 ISCM festivals in Prague. Löwenbach negotiated Max Brod’s first dealings with Universal Edition as a translator and may have brought Janáček to Brod’s attention. He often gave Janáček personal legal advice, for instance over his dealings with foreign publishers, or in his dispute with the National Theatre over its use of Kovařovic’s version of Jenůfa. He also appears to have introduced Janáček to Bartók, who was his house guest during the 1924 ISCM festival.

Löwenbach spent most of the war years in New York, where he acted as cultural attaché to the Czechoslovak consulate, and where, with his articles and lectures and the organization of many concerts, he did much to promote the cause of Czechoslovak music. In November 1946 he was recalled to Prague as adviser to the Ministry of Education but was dismissed after the change of regime in February 1948 and returned to New York a few months later. His writings include two opera librettos, for Martinů’s Voják a tanečnice (‘The Soldier and the Dancer’) and Křička’s Bílý pán (‘The Gentleman in White’), and translations from Czech into German and vice versa.

WRITINGS

‘Dvořák a Amerika’, HR, iv (1911), 433–9

Gluck a Čechy [Gluck and Bohemia] (Prague, 1914)

Autor a nakladatel [Author and publisher] (Prague, 1922)

‘Hudební vztahy italsko-české’ [Italian-Bohemian musical relations], Listy Hudební matice, vi (1926–7), 214–25

Hudba v samostatném Československu [Music in independent Czechoslovakia] (Prague, 1931)

Bedřich Smetana: Genius of a Freedom-Loving People (Washington DC, 1943)

Czechoslovak Music (New York, 1943)

‘Dvořákův význam ve vývoji americké hudby’ [Dvořák’s importance in the development of American music], Tempo [Prague], xix (1946–7), 165–72

‘Jan Sibelius’, Tempo [Prague], xix (1946–7), 144–9

Českoruské vztahy hudební [Czech and Russian musical relations] (Prague, 1947)

‘Martinů pozdravuje domov’ [Martinů greets his homeland], in S. Novák: O Bohuslavu Martinů (Prague, 1947), 45–58

Hudba v Americe [Music in America] (Prague, 1948)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Stolařík: Jan Löwenbach a Leoš Janáček: vzájemná korespondence (Opava, 1958)

C. Susskind: Janáček and Brod (New Haven, CT, and London, 1985)

J. Tyrrell: Janáček’s Operas: a Documentary Account (London, 1992)

J. Porter: ‘Bartók and Janáček: Contact, Context, and Confluence’, Ethnologische, historische und systematische Musikwissenschaft: Oskár Elschek zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. F. Födermayr and L. Burlas (Bratislava, 1998), 407–15, esp. 408–10

Löwenbach papers in U. of California, San Diego

JOHN TYRRELL

Löwengebrull

(Ger.).

See String drum.

Lowens, Irving

(b New York, 19 Aug 1916; d Baltimore, 14 Nov 1983). American musicologist, critic and librarian. He attended Columbia University (BS 1939) and the University of Maryland (MA 1957). He contributed music criticism to the Washington Star from 1953, and was its chief music critic from 1960 to 1978. He was assistant head of the reference section of the music division of the Library of Congress (1962–6). He was president of the Music Library Association (1965–6), executive board member of the AMS (1964–5), and was founder-member of the Music Critics Association, of which he was also president (1971–5). In 1975 he founded the American Sonneck Society, serving as its first president (until 1981) and initiating its official journal American Music (in 1983). After working as visiting professor at Brooklyn College, CUNY (1975–6), he taught at the Peabody Conservatory, Baltimore, from 1977 until his retirement as dean emeritus in 1981.

As a critic, Lowens sought to improve both the standards of criticism and the working conditions of critics in the USA; he was also instrumental in establishing the Kennedy Center Friedheim awards for compositions. His main interest was the compilation of American tunebooks, which he began collecting early in his career. His bibliography of these works, on which he worked together with Allen P. Britton and Richard Crawford, represents 30 years of scholarship in this area. Lowen’s personal collection of over 2000 American hymnals and tunebooks forms the Irving Lowens Collection at the Moravian Music Foundation in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. The Irving Lowens Awards for the best book and the best article on American music are issued by the Society for American Music in honour of Lowen’s contributions to the field.

WRITINGS

‘The Origins of the American Fuging Tune’, JAMS, vi (1952), 43–52

Music and Musicians in Early America (New York, 1964)

ed.: Preface to O.G.T. Sonneck: A Bibliography of Early Secular American Music (New York, 3/1964) [repr. of 2/1945, rev. and enlarged by W.T. Upton]

Introduction to J. Wyeth: Repository of Sacred Music, Part Second (New York, 1964)

Lectures on the History and Art of Music (New York, 1968) [the Louis Charles Elson Lectures at the Library of Congress, 1946–63]

A Bibliography of Songsters Printed in America before 1821 (Worcester, MA, 1976)

‘Das Schrift tum zur amerikanischen Musikgeschichte zwischen den Weltkriegen (1918–41)’, ÖMz, xxxi (1976), heft 10, pp.510–16

Haydn in America (Detroit, 1979)

‘Oscar George Theodore Sonneck, his Writings and Musical Compositions: a Bibliography’, in H.W. Hitchcock: After 100 [!] Years: the Editorial Side of Sonneck, in memoriam Oscar George Theodore Sonneck, 1873–1928: a Lecture (Washington, DC, 1975), 20–38

Music in America and American Music: Two Views of the Scene, with a Bibiolgraphy of the Published Writings of Irvine Lowens (Brooklyn, NY, 1978) [rev. version of the author’s lectures given at ISAM, 1975–6]

with A.P. Britton and R. Crawford: American Sacred Music Imprints, 1698–1810: a Bibliography (Worcester, MA, 1990)

PATRICK J. SMITH/R

Lower Rhine Festival

(Ger. Niederrheinisches Musikfest).

Festival held in turn in Düsseldorf, Aachen, Wuppertal and Cologne, originating in 1817.

Löwe [Löw] von Eisenach, Johann Jakob

(b Vienna, bap. 31 July 1629; d Lüneburg, early Sept 1703). German composer. He came from an old Thuringian family whose members called themselves variously Lebe, Lew, Lewe, Löw, Löwe and Leo. He always signed himself ‘Löw von Eysenach’, but ‘Löwe’ is the form that has generally been used in writings since Gerber. The ‘von Eisenach’ is not a title of nobility but derives from his father, Johann Lewe, the Saxon electoral court’s Resident in Vienna, who was a native of Eisenach. According to Walther, Löwe was taught by ‘distinguished virtuosos at the imperial court in Vienna and at other princes’ courts’, as well as in Italy. A dedicatory verse names Bertali, Piscator, Giovanni Valentini and Verdina as his models or teachers; there is no more precise information. In January 1652 he was taken on by Schütz at the Saxon court at Dresden ‘for further improvement’, but in the following month he was engaged at the court at Altenburg for a six-month period. Schütz was almost a second father to him, and it was on his recommendation that in the summer of 1655 he became Kapellmeister of the court of Duke August the younger at Wolfenbüttel. His engagement as Kapellmeister of the court of Duke Moritz of Saxony at Zeitz (1663–5) was also on Schütz’s recommendation. His years at these two courts were his most fruitful period as a composer. He had to resign from the post at Zeitz in May 1665 as a result of disagreements with the Konzertmeister, Clemens Thieme. He probably went to Jena, but he seems to have been without regular employment for several years; he applied unsuccessfully for posts at the Brandenburg court and at Frankfurt. His name appears in the register of the Johanniskirche, Hanau, in 1678, and three children were born to him at Hanau between 1678 and 1681, but it is not known what post, if any, he held there. The Hanau Kantor, J.G. Braun, commissioned from him the music examples for a textbook he published in 1681 and wrote the texts of the songs in his Einstimmige neue Arien (1682). In April 1683 Löwe took the badly paid post of organist at the church of St Nicolai und St Marien at Lüneburg, but he made no mark on the musical life of the town. He died in poverty, as letters from the last years of his life clearly show.

Löwe’s suites for instrumental ensemble (1658) comprise varying series of dance movements. His addition of an introductory first movement in free form, which he called ‘Synfonia’, was innovatory. Such pieces, like the contents of his Sonaten, Canzonen und Capriccen (1664), are in a canzona-like style, made up of small units and imitating Italian models, which he knew from Vienna. (A letter to Schütz in 1660 shows that he still sent, at his own expense, for copies of ‘the best musical things composed in Vienna by masters famed for their art’). His secular song collections show the influence of Italian arias and canzonettas. He remained aloof from the aspirations of the Hamburg school of songwriters to a popular folklike style, and wrote instrumentally conceived melodies in an imitative style, as he also did in his Neue geistliche Concerten. Printz’s description of him as ‘a famous musician in the canonic style’ was probably prompted by a collection of canons (1665) that was praised by Schütz but is now lost. He probably wrote the music for several Singspiele and ballets with texts by Duke Anton Ulrich, given on festive occasions at Wolfenbüttel; this music too is lost, and the only time he is expressly named as the composer is in the libretto of the Singspiel Orpheus aus Thracien.

WORKS

secular vocal

[22] Zweyer gleich-gesinnten Freunde Tugend- und Schertz-Lieder, 1–3vv, 2 vn, va, bc (Bremen, 1657) [collab. J.J. Weiland]

Salanische Musenlust (M. Kempe), 40 songs, 1–4vv, str, bc (Jena, 1665); 1 ed. in Mw, xiv–xv (1957); 7 ed. in NM, xxxii (1929)

[61] Einstimmige neue Arien mit zweystimmigen Ritornellen (J.G. Braun), 1v, 2 insts, bc (Nuremberg, 1682)

sacred vocal

[12] Neue geistliche Concerten, 1–3vv, 2 vn, bc (Wolfenbüttel, 1660), inc.; 1 work also S-Uu

2 hymns (C. Hofmannswaldau) in Lüneburgisches Gesangbuch (Lüneburg, 1686)

instrumental

[52] Synfonien, Intraden, Gagliarden, Arien, Balletten, Couranten, Sarabanden, 2 vn, 2 va, bn, bc (Bremen, 1657–8); 2 ed. in NM, lxvii (1930/R1960); 1 sinfonia ed. in Riemann

[17] Sonaten, Canzonen und Capriccen, 2 clarinos/vn, va, bc (Jena, 1664); 2 ed. in J. Rifkin (London, 1968)

3 sonatas, 4–6 str, S-Uu [MS dated 1665]

Ballet, in Celler Klavierbuch, D-CEbm [MS dated 1662]; ed. M. Böcker (Wiesbaden, 1990)

lost works

for further details see Göhler, unless other sources given

Geistliche lateinische und teutsche Concerten, 3–8vv

Sonaten, Canzonen und Capriccen, 3–8vv

Fürstliche Tafelmusik: weltliche Madrigale und Cantaten

Tugendscherzlieder, pt 2

Sonaten, Intraden, Balletten, Arien, Gagliarden, pt 2

Orpheus aus Thracien (Spl, Duke Anton Ulrich), Wolfenbüttel, 20 Aug 1659, pubd lib D-W

Sacred songs (J.G. Albini), c1663–5, mentioned in M. Kempe: Poetischer Lust-Gedancken 2. Theil (Jena, 1665)

Canones über Martini Kempii Fest- und Tugendlieder, 1–8vv (Jena, 1665), see Walther and Göhler

Kurze Anleitung der edlen Musickunst … von J.G. Braun … zu welcher etliche Canones … beigefüget hat Herr J.J.L.v.E.V.A. (Hanau, 1681)

Sufficit nunc Domine, 1v, 5 insts (cited in Ansbach inventory 1686)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

GerberL

GöhlerV

WaltherML

W.C. Printz: Historische Beschreibung der edelen Sing- und Kling-Kunst (Dresden, 1690/R1964 with introduction and index by O. Wessely)

H. Riemann: ‘Zur Geschichte der deutschen Suite’, SIMG, vi (1904–5), 501–20, esp. 503–7

A. Werner: Städtische und fürstliche Musikpflege in Zeitz (Bückeburg, 1922), 74–8, 82ff

H. Walter: Musikgeschichte der Stadt Lüneburg vom Ende des 16. bis zum Anfang des 18. Jahrhunderts (Tutzing, 1967)

E. Thiel and G. Rohr: Kataloge der Herzog-August-Bibliothek Wolfenbüttel, xiv: Libretti: Verzeichnis der bis 1800 erschienenen Textbücher (Frankfurt, 1970)

R. Keuschnig: Johann Jakob Löwe von Eisenach als Instrumentalkomponist (diss., U. of Vienna, 1971)

S. Smart: Doppelte Freude der Musen: Court Festivities in Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel 1642–1700 (Wiesbaden, 1989)

K.W. Geck: Sophie Elisabeth Herzogin zu Braunschweig und Lüneburg (1613–1676) als Musikerin (Saarbrücken, 1992)

HORST WALTER

Lowinsky, Edward E(lias)

(b Stuttgart, 12 Jan 1908; d Chicago, 10 Oct 1985). American musicologist of German birth. He studied the piano, composition and conducting at the Hochschule für Musik in Stuttgart from 1923 to 1928. He received the PhD from the University of Heidelberg in 1933 after working with August Grisebach in art history, Karl Jaspers in philosophy and Heinrich Besseler in musicology. From 1933 to 1939 he lived in the Netherlands and from 1940 in the USA. He became an American citizen in 1947. Lowinsky taught at Black Mountain College, North Carolina, as an assistant professor (1942–7); at Queens College, New York, as an associate professor (1947–56); and at the University of California, Berkeley, as professor (1956–1961). In 1961 he was appointed Ferdinand Schevill Distinguished Service Professor at the University of Chicago. As a Guggenheim Fellow he studied the 16th-century motet in Italy (1947–8) and he was a member of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey (1952–5). From 1964 to 1977 he was general editor of the series Monuments of Renaissance Music, published by the University of Chicago Press. In 1971 he organized and presided over the highly successful international festival-conference held in New York to commemorate the 450th anniversary of the death of Josquin des Prez, and in 1974 became an honorary member of the Committee for the Preparation of the New Josquin Edition.

One of the major figures of postwar musicology, Lowinsky had already made a distinguished contribution to scholarship in 1937 with his PhD dissertation on Lassus’s Antwerp motet book. His next major work, on a secret chromatic art in the Netherlands motet, caused a controversy that has stimulated continued debate about problems of musica ficta in the music of the Renaissance. His work as an editor and his studies of theoretical sources and individual musical manuscripts, especially those from the time of Josquin and his immediate successors, Willaert, Clemens non Papa, Gombert and so on, led him to investigate the nature of Renaissance sources and to formulate demanding criteria for modern editions, especially with regard to musica ficta and text underlay. He produced numerous provocative and challenging articles on the relationship between music and the history of ideas. Many of his most important articles were collected into a single volume, Music in the Culture of the Renaissance (1989).

WRITINGS

Music in the Culture of the Renaissance and other Essays, ed. B.J. Blackburn (Chicago, 1989) [MCR]

Das Antwerpener Motettenbuch Orlando di Lasso’s und seine Beziehungen zum Motettenschaffen der niederländischen Zeitgenossen (diss., U. of Heidelberg, 1933); repr. in TVNM, xiv/3–4 (1935), 18–229; xv/1 (1936), 1–46; xv/2 (1937), 194–205; pubd separately (The Hague, 1937; Eng. trans. in MCR, 385–431)

‘The Concept of Physical and Musical Space in the Renaissance’, PAMS 1941, 57–84; repr. in MCR, 6–18

‘The Goddess Fortuna in Music, with a Special Study of Josquin's Fortuna d'un gran tempo’, MQ, xxix (1943), 45–77; repr. in MQ, lxxv (1991), 81–107 and in MCR, 221–39

‘The Function of Conflicting Time Signatures in Early Polyphonic Music’, MQ, xxxi (1945), 227–60; repr. in MCR, 647–64

Secret Chromatic Art in the Netherlands Motet (New York, 1946)

‘Two Motets Wrongly Ascribed to Clemens non Papa’, RBM, ii (1947–8), 21–30

‘On the Use of Scores by Sixteenth-Century Musicians’, JAMS, i/1 (1948), 17–23; repr. in MCR, 797–802

‘A Newly Discovered Sixteenth-Century Motet Manuscript at the Biblioteca Vallicelliana in Rome’, JAMS, iii (1950), 173–232; repr. in MCR, 433–82

‘English Organ Music of the Renaissance’, MQ, xxxix (1953), 373–95, 528–53; repr. in MCR, 841–67

‘Conflicting Views on Conflicting Signatures’, JAMS, vii (1954), 181–204; repr. in MCR, 665–80

‘Music in the Culture of the Renaissance’, Journal of the History of Ideas, xv (1954), 509–53; repr. in MCR, 19–39

‘Adrian Willaert's Chromatic “Duo” Re-Examined’, TVNM, xviii/1 (1956), 1–36

‘Matthaeus Greiter's Fortuna: an Experiment in Chromaticism and in Musical Iconography’, MQ, xlii (1956), 500–19; xlii (1957), 68–85; repr. in MCR, 240–61

‘On Mozart's Rhythm’, MQ, xlii (1956), 162–86; repr. in MCR, 911–28

‘Early Scores in Manuscript’, JAMS, xiii (1960), 126–73; repr. in MCR, 803–40

Tonality and Atonality in Sixteenth-Century Music (Berkeley, 1961)

‘A Treatise on Text Underlay by a German Disciple of Francisco de Salinas’, Festschrift Heinrich Besseler, ed. E. Klemm (Leipzig, 1961), 231–51; repr. in MCR, 868–83

‘On the Matter of a Doctor's Degree for Composers’, College Music Symposium, iii (1963), 43–52

‘Musical Genius: Evolution and Origins of a Concept’, MQ, l (1964), 321–40, 476–95; repr. in MCR, 40–66

‘Character and Purposes of American Musicology: a Reply to Joseph Kerman’, JAMS, xviii (1965), 222–34; repr. in MCR, 958–64 [see also Kerman, JAMS, xviii (1965), 61–9 and rejoinder, ibid., 426–7]

‘Renaissance Writings on Music Theory (1964)’, RN, xviii (1965), 358–70; repr. in MCR, 939–44

‘Taste, Style, and Ideology in Eighteenth-Century Music’, Aspects of the Eighteenth Century, ed. E.R. Wasserman (Baltimore, 1965), 163–205; repr. in MCR, 67–86

‘Music of the Renaissance as Viewed by Renaissance Musicians’, The Renaissance Image of Man and the World, ed. B. O'Kelly (Columbus, OH, 1966), 129–77; repr. in MCR, 87–105

‘Problems in Adrian Willaert's Iconography’, Aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Music: a Birthday Offering to Gustave Reese, ed. J. LaRue and others (New York, 1966), 576–94; repr. in MCR, 267–77

‘The Musical Avant-Garde of the Renaissance, or The Peril and Profit of Foresight’, Art, Science, and History in the Renaissance, ed. C.S. Singleton (Baltimore, 1967), 111–62; repr. in MCR, 730–53

‘Echoes of Adrian Willaert's Chromatic “Duo” in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth- Century Compositions’, Studies in Music History: Essays for Oliver Strunk, ed. H. Powers (Princeton, NJ, 1968), 183–238; repr. in MCR, 699–729

‘Josquin des Prez and Ascanio Sforza’, Il duomo di Milano: Milan 1968, ii, 17–22; repr. in MCR, 535–40

‘MS 1070 of the Royal College of Music in London’, PRMA, xcvi (1969–70), 1–28

‘Ockeghem's Canon for Thirty-Six Voices: an Essay in Musical Iconography’, Essays in Musicology in Honor of Dragan Plamenac, ed. G. Reese and R.J. Snow (Pittsburgh, 1969), 155–80; repr. in MCR, 278–88

‘A Music Book for Anne Boleyn’, Florilegium historiale: Essays Presented to Wallace K. Ferguson, ed. J.G. Rowe and W.H. Stockdale (Toronto, 1971), 160–235; repr. in MCR, 483–528

ed., with B.J. Blackburn: Josquin des Prez: New York 1971 [incl. ‘Ascanio Sforza's Life: a Key to Josquin's Biography and an Aid to the Chronology of his Works’, 31–75; repr. in MCR, 541–64]

‘Secret Chromatic Art Re-Examined’, Perspectives in Musicology, ed. B.S. Brook, E.O.D. Downes and S. Van Solkema (New York, 1972), 91–135; repr. in MCR, 754–78

‘The Problem of Mannerism in Music: an Attempt at a Definition’, Manierismo in arte e musica: Rome 1973 [Studi musicali, iii (1974)], 131–218; repr. in MCR, 106–53

‘Accidentals (Musica ficta)’, TVNM, xxiv/1 (1974), 53–67

‘Ludovico il Moro's Visit to the Abbey of Chiaravalle in 1497: a Report to Ascanio Sforza’, Arte lombarda, xlii–xliii (1975), 201–10; repr. in MCR, 565–72

‘Canon Technique and Simultaneous Conception in Fifteenth-Century Music: a Comparison of North and South’, IMSCR XII: Berkeley 1977, 639–40; enlarged in Essays on the Music of J.S. Bach and Other Divers Subjects: a Tribute to Gerhard Herz, ed. R.L. Weaver (Louisville, KY, 1981), 181–222; repr. in MCR, 884–910

‘Laurence Feininger (1909–1976): Life, Work, Legacy’, MQ, lxiii (1977), 327–66

‘On the Presentation and Interpretation of Evidence: another Review of Constanzo Festa's Biography’, JAMS, xxx (1977), 106–28; repr. in MCR, 945–57

‘Humanism in the Music of the Renaissance’, Proceedings of the Southeastern Institute of Medieval and Renaissance Studies [VIII]: Durham, NC, 1976, ed. D.B.J. Randall (Durham, 1979), 87–200; repr. in MCR, 154–218

‘Music in Titian's Bacchanal of the Andrians: Origin and History of the Canon per tonos’, Titian: his World and his Legacy, ed. D. Rosand (New York, 1982), 191–281; repr. in MCR, 289–350

‘Homage to Armen Carapetyan’, MD, xxxvii (1983), 9–27

‘Jan van Eyck's Tymotheos: Sculptor or Musician?’, Studi musicali, xiii (1984), 33–105; repr. in MCR, 351–82

Cipriano de Rores' Venus Motet: its Poetic and Pictorial Sources (Provo, UT, 1986)

ed., with B.J. Blackburn and C.A. Miller: A Correspondence of Renaissance Musicians (Oxford, 1990)

with B.J. Blackburn: ‘Luigi Zenobi and his Letter on the Perfect Musician’, Studi musicali, xxii (1993), 61–114

EDITIONS

The Medici Codex of 1518: a Choirbook of Motets dedicated to Lorenzo de’ Medici, Duke of Urbino, MRM, iii–v (1968)

with H.T. David and H.M. Brown: Eustachio Romano: Musica duorum, MRM, vi (1975)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Finscher: ‘Zu den Schriften Edward E. Lowinsky’, Mf, xv (1962), 54–77

C.E. Steinzor: American Musicologists, c.1890–1945: a Bio-Bibliographical Sourcebook to the Formative Period (New York, 1989), 167–92

HOWARD MAYER BROWN/R

Low Mass.

A form of the Latin Mass which grew out of a medieval custom of saying daily private masses with few or no people in attendance. Today, the Low Mass is characterized by the complete absence of singing. See also Mass.

Lownes, Humfrey

(fl 1587–1629). English music printer. He married the widow of Peter Short in 1604, and most of his few musical works were reprintings of Short's copyrights (e.g. Thomas Morley's A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practicall Musicke) published between 1604 and 1613. It is not known if he was related to Matthew Lownes, but he seems to have ceased printing music when the latter acquired the privilege of Barley in 1614. He was succeeded by Robert Young, who printed the treatise of Elway Bevin of 1631, A Briefe and Short Instruction in the Art of Musicke. (Humphries-SmithMP; KrummelEMP)

MIRIAM MILLER

Lownes, Matthew

(fl 1591–1625). English bookseller and printer. Between 1612 and 1624 he collaborated with John Browne and Thomas Snodham in the production of several music volumes, acquiring the rights to titles previously owned by William Barley and Thomas East. There is no evidence that he was himself a music printer. (Humphries-SmithMP)

MIRIAM MILLER

Lowrey organ.

An electronic organ, many models of which have been manufactured by the Lowrey Organ Co. in Lincolnwood, near Chicago (later in nearby Deerfield, and recently in nearby LaGrange Park), from about 1949. In 1918 the F.C. Lowrey Co. (founded by Frederick C. Lowrey) purchased the designs for the Choralcelo (an electrically-powered Sosienente piano) and from the 1920s experimented with many types of sound-generating systems in pursuit of a fully electronic organ. The first electronic instrument marketed by Lowrey was the Organo (1949), a small electronic organ controlled from the keyboard of a piano. Since the early 1950s a wide range of organs has been produced, including church, theatre and home organs, as well as electronic pianos, from the mid-1980s based on sampled timbres. In 1977 Lowrey became a division of Norlin Industries; it was acquired by Kawai in 1988.

From 1956 Lowrey organs featured a downward semitone ‘glide’, superseded in the 1980s by portamento and transposition. Many earlier models included a Leslie tremulant loudspeaker; in the 1970s Lowrey replaced this with an electronic equivalent. Advances in electronic technology around 1970 made possible several new devices that are now widespread: rhythm and ‘walking bass’ units, arpeggiators, a choice of chord systems, memories for pre-set registrations, and (since 1980) a selection of different accompaniments, for which microprocessors are used.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R.H. Dorf: Electronic Musical Instruments (Mineola, NY, 1954, 3/1968), 225–54

H.E. Anderson: Electronic Organ Handbook (Indianapolis, IN, 1960), 189–212

N.H. Crowhurst: Electronic Organs, iii (Indianapolis, IN, 1975), 81–90

HUGH DAVIES

Lowry, Robert

(b Philadelphia, 12 March 1826; d Plainfield, NJ, 25 Nov 1899). American composer and compiler of Sunday school songs. See Gospel music, §I.

Löw von Eysenach, Johann Jakob.

See Löwe von eisenach, johann jacob.

Löwy, Heinrich.

See Rietsch, Heinrich.

Loxhay, Simon.

See Lohet, Simon.

Loyola (Fernández), José

(b Cienfuegos, 12 Feb 1941). Cuban composer. He began studying music under his father, the flautist Efraín Loyola. He joined various bands and played the flute in his father’s popular music group as well as composing dance pieces for it. In 1962 he enrolled at the Escuela Nacional de Arte, where he continued his flute studies and took lessons in composition with Federico Smith. Between 1967 and 1973 he studied at the State Higher School of Music in Warsaw under Bacewicz and Witold Rudzinski. He was awarded the doctorate in theory of music from the Chopin Academy in Warsaw in 1985, also under the tutorship of Rudzinski. In 1973 he began working as a teacher in Havana, giving classes in composition and related disciplines, and after teaching music in various capacities in Cuba he was appointed vice-rector of the Instituto Superior de Arte (1976–8). He undertook a variety of roles within the Unión de Escritores y Artistas de Cuba, in 1988 becoming vice-president and in 1997, president.

Loyola’s composition training equipped him with the most advanced methods of the avant garde, and his first works place him firmly among the members of that movement in Cuba working in the 1960s and 70s; characteristically he used aspects of Cuban folk and popular music in combination with avant-garde elements. Among his most notable works is the series Música viva, begun in 1979. These pieces are rhythmic in essence, and display the use of original blends of timbre combined with unconventional instrumental techniques aiming to suggest the rhythms and sounds of Cuban folk percussion. In 1992 he was awarded the Premio Anual de Reconocimiento, the highest honour for composition in Cuba.

WORKS

(selective list)

Op: Monzón y el rey de Koré (anon. Bambara epic of Mali, trans. R. Martínez Furé), 1973

Orch: Sinfonietta, chbr orch, 1965; Música para flauta y cuerdas, 1968; Música viva no.2, 1976; Tropicalia I, 1987, Tropicalia II, pf, orch, 1988

Vocal: 3 imágenes poéticas (N. Guillén), Bar, pf, 1969; Antipoemas (N. Parra), mixed chorus, 1970; Poética del guerrillero (C. Pellicer), chorus, tpt, str, 1976; Canto negro (Guillén), Bar, pf, perc, 1979; Variaciones folklóricas (Loyola), Bar, mixed chorus, pf, perc, 1982; Canción del soy todo (E. Machado), spkr, ob, Afro-Cuban perc, 1990

Chbr and solo inst: Música viva no.1, perc ens, 1972; Música viva no.3, fl, Afro-Cuban perc, 1978; Música viva no.4, chbr ens, 1979

Principal publisher: Editora Musical de Cuba

WRITINGS

‘La música contemporánea cubana’, Ritmo, no.529 (1983)

‘Aparición de la percusión típica cubana en la música culta’, Unión (1984)

El bolero en la música bailable cubana (San Juan, PR, 1986)

VICTORIA ELI RODRÍGUEZ

Loyola Guevara, Pedro de.

See Guevara, Pedro de Loyola.

Loys

(fl 14th century). French composer. He is known only from a three-voice Gloria in the Avignon repertory (ed. in CMM, xxix, 1962, and PMFC, xxiii, 1989). He could be identifiable with Louis Sanctus de Beeringen, a friend of Petrarch who was called ‘magister in musica’ in a letter of Pope John XXII dated 1330, and who died in 1361. Another man of this name is Loyset, a favoured musician in 1389–90 of Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. The Gloria, which survives in F-APT 16bis and I-IV, is in motet style. Since it has the same isorhythmic tenor as the anonymous Flos ortus inter lilia/Celsa cedrus ysopus/Quam magnus pontifex, which also survives in I-IV as well as in two other sources, Leech-Wilkinson (11–12, n.21) has suggested that the name ‘Loys’ may refer to the tenor's dedicatee, St Louis of Toulouse.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

U. Berlière: Un ami de Pétrarque, Louis Sanctus de Beeringen (Rome, 1905)

B. Prost: Inventaires mobiliers et extraits des comptes des ducs de Bourgogne de la maison de Valois, 1363–1477 (Paris, 1902–13), nos.3020, 3360, 3566

E. Dannemann: Die spätgotische Musiktradition in Frankreich und Burgund vor dem Auftreten Dufays (Strasbourg, 1936/R), 3

H. Stäblein-Harder: Fourteenth-Century Mass Music in France, MSD, vii (1962), 35ff, 117ff

D. Leech-Wilkinson: ‘Related Motets from Fourteenth-Century France’, PRMA, cix (1982), 1–22

GILBERT REANEY

Loys, Jan [Jhan de].

See Louys, Jean.

Loyset (i).

See Compère, Loyset.

Loyset (ii).

See Piéton, Loyset.

Lozhky

(Russ.: ‘spoons’).

A Russian instrument of the janissary-music class which produced an effect similar to the Turkish crescent. According to Mahillon, it was adopted by the Russians from the Turks when janissary music became the rage in the early 18th century. The Turks called it kaşıklar (‘spoons’), and when the Russians borrowed the device they merely translated its name. It consisted of a round hollow case of brass to which were fixed, at an angle of 60°, two brass tubes adorned with jingles (see illustration). These tubes were joined at the extremity of the angle by a solid brass arm, by which the instrument was held. The overall shape was that of a lyre. It was used in pairs and played by clashing the two round hollow cases together. The lozhky were much favoured by the Russian cavalry and often used to accompany the soldiers’ songs. They became a special feature particularly in the bands of the Uhlans, which usually comprised a clarinet, oboe, tambourine, Turkish crescent, a pair of cymbals and the lozhky. Specimens are in the Musée des Instruments de Musique of the Brussels Conservatory (nos.883–4).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

V.C. Mahillon: Catalogue descriptif & analytique du Musée instrumental du Conservatoire royal de musique de Bruxelles, ii (Ghent, 1896, 2/1909, repr. 1978 with addl material), 182–3

C. Sachs: Real-Lexikon der Musikinstrumente (Berlin, 1913/R, 2/1964)

H.G. FARMER/R

LP [long-player; long playing record].

A 12-inch vinyl phonographic disc with a playing speed of 331/3 r.p.m. The rise of the LP was the result of a long-running dispute inside the music industry during the 1930s and 40s between two major American phonograph companies, RCA Victor and Columbia. The ten-inch shellac 78 r.p.m. was the standard format in the 1930s, but in 1948 Columbia introduced the LP, which provided superior sound quality, was more durable and could hold more musical information. RCA responded with the seven-inch 45 r.p.m. disc, but in 1952 the rival companies ensured that the LP became the format predominantly for classical music, while the single was used for popular music. From its outset the LP was thus associated with what were considered more serious listening habits, and a burgeoning market developed around its superior sound reproduction. This market was overwhelmingly male, and for some included an appreciation of faithful sound reproduction per se.

By the late 1960s and early 70s stereo sound and multi-tracking were becoming the norm, and progressive rock artists such as Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin and Mike Oldfield used the LP to encode increasingly more intricate sounds. In the early 1990s sales of LPs had decreased dramatically as the format was usurped by the CD (compact disc): in 1992 world sales figures for LPs were 126·1 million and 1152·9 million for CDs. By the late 1990s a small but committed market existed for vinyl among collectors, traders and a minority who believed in the vinyl LP’s aesthetic superiority over the CD.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Sanjek: From Print to Plastic (New York, 1983)

R. Shuker: Understanding Popular Music (London, 1994)

B. Longhurst: Popular Music and Society (Oxford, 1995)

K. Keightley: ‘“Turn it Down!” she shrieked: Gender, Domestic Space and High Fidelity, 1948–59’, Popular Music, xv (1996), 149–77

DAVID BUCKLEY

Lu’ah zarqa.

Lists of signs in Hebrew Ekphonetic notation. See also Jewish music, §III, 2(ii).

Lualdi, Adriano

(b Larino, Campobasso, 22 March 1885; d Milan, 8 Jan 1971). Italian composer, conductor and writer on music. He studied music in Rome and then in Venice with Wolf-Ferrari. After gaining his diploma in 1907, he began a career as a conductor. In the 1920s he also became active as a music critic: among his numerous writings, Viaggio musicale in Italia is particularly valuable for the light it throws on the Italian musical world of the time. An ardent fascist, Lualdi was ‘elected’ to parliament in 1929 as representative of the Sindacato Nazionale dei Musicisti. He was an organizer of the first few Venice Festivals (1930–34) and director of the conservatories of Naples (1936–44) and Florence (1947–56).

Lualdi’s association with fascism, which conditioned his teaching and organizing activities as well as his polemics, led to his being overrated in the 1930s, but in due course aroused such antagonism that his reputation may have suffered unfairly. Undoubtedly he was an imperfect composer, who rarely achieved stylistic unity and could sink to the abysmal level of Lumawig e la saetta. Yet the best pages of Le nozze di Haura and La figlia del re (e.g. Damara’s invocation to the night and the whole of Act 3, scene i in the latter work) show that his evocative powers and sense of colour were considerable. Comparable qualities still appear in some later operas, like La luna dei Caraibi, with its recurrent use of an offstage negro spiritual, or the very eclectic Il testamento di Euridice, where the search for appropriate picturesque detail led him to use the ancient Greek Epitaph of Seikilos as a leitmotif. In comic and satirical works, too, Lualdi was resourceful: the small-scale and unpretentious Le furie di Arlecchino remained close enough to Wolf-Ferrari to win easy and widespread success; but the freakish libretto of Il diavolo nel campanile (freely based on Poe) is matched by a bizarre score, whose multiple musical parodies create reckless stylistic non-sequiturs, ending in a deliberate musical chaos (with several superimposed tonalities) to underline the grotesque turmoil on the stage. In the revised version, first staged in 1954, this finale was replaced by an ingenious parody of 12-note technique.

WORKS

(selective list)

Op. Le nozze di Haura (1, L. Orsini), 1908, rev. version, 1913, Italian Radio, 19 Oct 1939, stage, Rome, Opera, 18 April 1943; La figlia del re (3, Lualdi), 1914–17, Regio, 19 March 1922; Le furie di Arlecchino (1, Orsini), Milan, Carcano, 7 May 1915, rev. version, Buenos Aires, Colón, 19 June 1925 (or ?1924); Il diavolo nel campanile (grottesco, 1, Lualdi, after E.A. Poe), 1919–23, Milan, Scala, 12 April 1925, rev. version, Florence, Comunale, 21 May 1954; La grançeola (1, A. Lualdi, after A. Bacchelli), Venice, Goloni, 10 Sept 1932; Eurydikes diatheke (Il testamento di Euridice) (4, Lualdi, after Gk. and Lat. poems), ?c1940–62, RAI, 22 Nov 1962; La luna dei Caraibi (1, Lualdi, after E. O’Neill), 1944, Rome, Opera, 1953

Other dramatic: Lumawig e la saetta (fantasia mimeografica, 1, M. Lualdi), Rome, 1936, rev. version, Milan, 1956

Vocal-orch: Attollite portas, orat, 1906; La rosa di Saaron, S, T, orch, 1927; Sire Halewyn, S, chbr orch, 1929; In festivitate Sanctae Trinitatis, orat, 1958

Orch: La leggenda del vecchio marinaio, sym. poem, 1910; Suite adriatica, 1932 [related to op. La grançeola]; Africa, 1936 [related to Lumawig]

Chbr music, choral pieces, many songs, keyboard music, incid music, film music, transcrs. and edns of music by J.S. Bach and others

Principal publishers: RAI, Ricordi, Sonzogno (Milan), Suvini Zerboni

WRITINGS

Viaggio musicale in Italia (Milan, 1927)

Serate musicali (Milan, 1928)

Viaggio musicale in Europa (Milan, 1928)

Arte e regime (Milan, 1929)

Il rinnovamento musicale italiano (Milan, 1931)

Viaggio musicale nel Sud-America (Milan, 1934)

L’arte di dirigere l’orchestra (Milan, 1940, 3/1958)

Viaggio musicale nell’URSS (Milan, 1941)

Tutti vivi (Milan, 1955)

La bilancia di Euripide: 10 libretti d’opera (Milan, 1969) [with introduction by G. Cogni, ‘antologia critica’, ed. M. Morini, and list of works]

Several other books; many articles

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO (J.C.G. Waterhouse) [incl. further bibliography]

A. Veretti: ‘Adriano Lualdi’, RMI, xxxv (1928), 105–23

F. Abbiati: ‘Musicisti contemporanei: Adriano Lualdi’, Emporium [Bergamo], lxx (1929), 231–8

G. Confalonieri: L’opera di Adriano Lualdi (Milan, 1932) [incl. list of works]

R. Smith Brindle: ‘Current Chronicle: Italy’, MQ, xl (1954), 580–07, esp. 585–7 [on Il diavolo nel campanile]

J.C.G. Waterhouse: The Emergence of Modern Italian Music (up to 1940) (diss., U. of Oxford, 1968), 204ff, 209–10, 221, 530–33

Q. Principe: ‘Das Schicksal der modernen Musik in der faschistischen kulturpolitik’, Die Wiener Schule und das Hakenkreuz (Vienna, 1990), 179–87 [discusses Lualdi’s political associations]

JOHN C.G. WATERHOUSE

Luard-Selby, Bertram

(b Ightham, Kent, 12 Feb 1853; d Brigg, Lincs., 26 Dec 1918). English organist and composer. After studying in Leipzig with Jadassohn and Reinecke, he became organist of St Barnabas, Marylebone, and Highgate School (1876), Salisbury Cathedral (1881–3), St John’s, Torquay (1884), St Barnabas, Pimlico (1886), and Rochester Cathedral (1900). He also gave chamber music concerts in London in 1880. His works include two unpublished operas (The Ring, 1886; Adela, 1888, Nottingham), cantatas, orchestral music (including Idyll, 1897), chamber music, piano and organ pieces, 16 anthems and ten services. However, he was best known for his incidental music to Helena in Troas, a drama by John Todhunter and E.W. Godwin (London, Hengler’s Circus, 17 May 1886), and a musical duologue, Weather or No (London, Savoy, 10 August 1896). The latter was also popular in Germany and Austria as Das Wetterhäuschen.

J.A. FULLER MAITLAND/ JOHN WARRACK

Luart [Lawaert], Emma

(b Brussels, 14 Aug 1892; d Brussels, 26 Aug 1968). Belgian soprano. She trained at the Brussels Conservatory and after singing in the summer season at Ostend in 1913 made her official début at The Hague the following year. From 1918 to 1922 she sang at the Monnaie in Brussels, appearing mostly in lyric roles such as Louise, Mélisande and Manon which became her most famous part. She then transferred to the Opéra-Comique in Paris where she remained till World War II. Her début role there was Lakmé, and premières in which she took a leading part included Samuel-Rousseau’s Le bon roi Dagobert and Gabriel Pierné’s one-act Sophie Arnould. At Monte Carlo in 1923 she sang in the first performances outside Russia of Musorgsky’s The Fair at Sorochintsï with John McCormack. On her retirement she taught singing in Brussels. A characteristically bright ‘French’ voice is heard in her recordings along with a touching expressiveness, especially in the excerpts from Manon.

J.B. STEANE

Lübeck.

Port and city in Germany. The earliest surviving music in Lübeck is a neumatic manuscript (c1200) presented to the cathedral by Bishop Dietrich. In 1248 a Kantor was appointed at the cathedral choir school, where the pupils were divided into pueri chorales and clerici chorales. A choir consisting of six boys and two ‘sankmeistere’ was formed at the municipal Marienkirche in 1462; its duties included the performance of polyphony (1468). Between 1366 and 1399 an organ was installed there. Records of 33 vellum manuscripts, of which 13 survive, indicate that public worship flourished at all the churches. Evidence of an early secular musical life is provided by an association of minstrels, which had a comes joculatorum in its service in 1334, and a magister fistulorum in 1416. The position of Spielgreve (chief player) appeared for the first time in 1457 and was not abolished until 1811. Another guild, the Marienbrüderschaft der Musicanten und Spielleute zu St Catherinen, is believed to date from the 13th century and was active in both sacred and secular music. After the Reformation it was renamed and became a Chor- und Köstenbrüderschaft (‘fellowship for singing and dining’).

As a free imperial city Lübeck employed two trumpeters; the best-known was Gabriel Voigtländer (1626–33). The title Ratsmusikant first occurs in 1474; there were originally 12 of these municipal musicians, but by the 17th century there were only seven. Chief among them were the violinist-composers Thomas Baltzar, Nicolaus Bleyer and Nathanael Schnittelbach. The Reformation resulted in a revival of liturgical music through the foundation of the Katherineum Lateinschule; its pupils made up the Chorus Symphoniacus which sang at the Marienkirche under the direction of the Kantor. Numerous collections in the libraries of the Marienkirche and the Petrikirche testify to the predominance of polyphony. Distinctive features of Lübeck’s musical life were the precocious occurrence of Passion music (early 16th century) and the custom of playing individual sections of the Mass and Vespers on the organ.

The new genres of sacred concerto and cantata became established in Lübeck in the early 17th century, particularly after the appointment of Tunder as organist in 1641. His preludes and chorale fantasias for organ, solo motets and sacred concertos show the influence of recent Italian music; they were performed at his ‘Abendspielen’ and at organ recitals given before audiences of city merchants. Buxtehude, succeeding Tunder in 1668, developed these concerts into the renowned Abendmusik series, which continued until 1810. Lübeck’s oratorio tradition was developed by Buxtehude's successors J.C. Schieferdecker (1707–32), J.P. and C.A. Kuntzen (1732–57 and 1757–81) and J.W.C. von Königslöw (1781–1833); five performances of oratorios with a common biblical theme were given annually during Advent. However, compared with the number of public concerts, with their performances of Passion music by C.H. Graun, Telemann, Pergolesi and Haydn, liturgical music continued only on a limited scale in the late 18th century. At Michaelmas 1801 the post of Kantor ceased to exist, and the school choir was no longer called upon for church services. Königslöw did much to promote concerts in the city; in addition to oratorios his programmes included evenings of symphonies and arias.

The appointment in 1832 of Spohr’s pupil Gottfried Herrmann as organist of the Marienkirche, director of municipal music and singing teacher at the Katherineum further stimulated the musical life of the city. Under his leadership the Gesangverein was founded in 1833, subscription concerts were given regularly, and the first Norddeutsche Musikfest was held in Lübeck in 1839, with 410 participants. In 1845 the organization of concerts was taken over by the newly founded Musikverein. The Gesangverein became the Singakademie in 1874, and mounted a series of oratorio performances.

An opera house was built in 1753 and, after staging numerous productions by visiting companies, eventually built up a permanent company with a repertory of its own. It was demolished in 1857, and in the following year the Theater der Casino-Gesellschaft was inaugurated with Der Freischütz. In the second half of the century the theatre's repertory was dominated by the works of Wagner. In 1905 the theatre was closed to be replaced by a larger one in 1908; this was restored in 1996. The Verein der Musikfreunde was founded in 1896 and assumed responsibility for the concert and theatre orchestra, which subsequently passed to the civic authorities in 1908. The orchestra remains active, giving 12 symphony concerts annually, in addition to participating in numerous productions of operas, operettas and musicals; it forms the backbone of musical activity in the city. Its principal conductors have included Furtwängler, Abendroth, Gerd Albrecht and Bernhard Klee. In 1994 it moved into a new hall, the Musik- und Kongresshalle, which has also attracted touring ensembles to the city. An oratorio chorus was formed in 1923 by the amalgamation of a female-voice choir with the Lübecker Lehrergesangverein; since 1933 it has been known as the Lübeck Singakademie. It gives an oratorio concert every winter with the town orchestra.

Walter Kraft, who became Marienkirche organist in 1929, resumed the Abendmusik tradition, with cantata and oratorio performances and organ recitals. A church orchestra was founded in 1938, performing on old instruments; it continued as a chamber ensemble for church assemblies. A boys’ choir was formed in 1936 from the best singers from the schools of Lübeck, and it has developed an international reputation. Distler was organist at the Jakobikirche (1931–7) and Bruno Grusnick Kantor (1930–72). Grusnick led the Sing- und Spielkreis, with whom he gave the first performances of most of Distler's vocal works as well as annual performances of the St Matthew Passion from 1949. Manfred Kluge was organist at the Ägidienkirche and later the Jakobikirche during the period 1928–71, and introduced the works of Messiaen and Stravinsky.

The Musikhochschule in Lübeck was founded in 1946, becoming the Schleswig-Holstein Musikakademie und Norddeutsche Orgelschule in 1950; in 1973 it achieved the status of a Hochschule für Musik and in 1991 became a branch of the Brahms Institute. It holds important sources for Brahms and his circle. A music school for children of pre-school age serves to develop musical gifts at an early stage. The Stadtbibliothek dates from 1622 and has an extensive collection of early music; it also houses the archive of Distler, Grusnick, Kluge and other Lübeck musicians. Since 1996 the Schleswig-Holstein Festival has opened with a concert in Lübeck.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (G. Karstädt)

C. Stiehl: Zur Geschichte der Instrumentalmusik in Lübeck (Lübeck, 1885)

C. Stiehl: Lübeckisches Tonkünstlerlexikon (Leipzig, 1887)

C.J.C. Stiehl: Geschichte des Theaters in Lübeck (Lübeck, 1902)

W. Stahl: Die Musikabteilung der Stadtbibliothek in ihren älteren Beständen (Lübeck, 1931)

J. Hennings and W. Stahl: Musikgeschichte Lübecks (Kassel, 1951–2)

G. Karstädt: Der Lübecker Kantatenband Dietrich Buxtehudes: eine Studie über die Tabulatur Mus. A373 (Lübeck, 1971)

W. Salmen and H.W. Schwab: Musikgeschichte Schleswig-Holsteins in Bildern (Neumünster, 1971)

W. Salmen: Musikgeschichte Schleswig-Holsteins von der Frühzeit bis zur Reformation (Neumünster, 1972)

60 Jahr Musikhochschule Lübeck, 1933–1993 (Lübeck, 1993)

GEORG KARSTÄDT/ARNDT SCHNOOR

Lübeck, Vincent (i)

(b Paddingbüttel, Dorum, Land Wursten, cSept 1654; d Hamburg, 9 Feb 1740). German composer, organist and teacher. He was the son of another Vincent Lübeck (b ?Glückstadt; d Flensburg, 1654), who had worked as an organist in Glückstadt and, from 1647, at the Marienkirche, Flensburg, where he was succeeded in 1654 by Caspar Förckelrath. Förckelrath married the widow and was the younger Vincent’s first teacher; according to Syré (1999), Vincent may also have studied with Andreas Kneller, with whose keyboard music his own shows parallels. Towards the end of 1674 Lübeck became organist of St Cosmae et Damiani, Stade, near Hamburg, marrying, as was a custom, his predecessor’s daughter, Susanne Becker. The fine organ that Arp Schnitger completed there in 1679 was no doubt a factor that persuaded him to remain until 1702. His brilliant reputation then won him the appointment of organist of the Nikolaikirche, Hamburg, which he held until his death. It too had a Schnitger organ, a four-manual instrument of 67 stops, one of the largest in the world, that was considered the best in a prosperous musical city. In his postscript to F.E. Niedt’s Musicalische Handleitung (Hamburg, 2/1721), Mattheson summed up as follows: ‘This extraordinary organ … also has an extraordinary organist. But how to extol someone who is already greatly renowned? I need only give his name, Vincent Lübeck, to complete the whole panegyric’. Numerous contemporary documents attest to his wide reputation as an organ consultant throughout north Germany. He attached particular importance to reed choruses, even in smaller organs. On several occasions he passed judgment on Schnitger’s work, not only in the churches of large cities such as Hamburg (Nikolaikirche, Georgenkirche, Jacobikirche) and Bremen (St Stephani Cathedral), but also in those of Oberndorf (Georgenkirche), Hollern (St Mauritius), Sittensen (St Dionys) and other smaller places. As a teacher he was much sought after and commanded as much as 20 thaler a month from articled pupils, more than he received in salary as organist. His most important pupils included C.H. Postel and M.J.F. Wiedeburg; he also taught two of his sons, Peter Paul (b Stade, 24 April 1680; d Hamburg, 16 Aug 1732), who followed him at Stade, and vincent Lübeck (ii) .

Despite Lübeck’s frequent opportunities to display his gifts as a composer and performer, especially in the Saturday Vesper service, only nine organ works by him are known. Yet even these few abundantly demonstrate the commanding position he occupied, together with Buxtehude and Bruhns, in north German organ music about 1700. His praeludia have been described as virtually the last link between the north German organ toccata and those of Bach (see Syré, 1999), though Lübeck attached less importance to the concept of stylus fantasticus. In general his style, like that of Bruhns, derives from Buxtehude, particularly in its polyphonic writing, the character of the fugue subjects and a fondness for double fugue. On the other hand Buxtehude rarely approached either of them in virtuosity. Of the seven praeludia and fugues in Beckmann’s edition, two (in F and G) are now thought to be by Vincent Lübeck (ii). All fall into clearly defined sections. The structure of the Praeludium in E is similar to the five-section form that Buxtehude codified: brilliant toccata-like prelude, 4/4 fugue, middle section (free or fugal), 3/4 (4/4) fugue, and concluding toccata. The Praeludia in D minor (toccata, fugue and toccata) and C minor (toccata and fugue) are perhaps later works; the latter’s short length and final cadence on the dominant suggest that it is incomplete. Like Buxtehude and Bruhns, Lübeck often unified those loose structures with subtle thematic relationships, including transformation of the fugue subject as in the Praeludium in G minor. Brilliant scales, trills in 3rds and 6ths, long pedal solos and, in the G minor work, occasional two-part writing for the pedals attest to his virtuosity and the inspiration he derived from the full choruses of the Stade and Hamburg organs. Of his two chorale settings, the extended fantasia on Ich ruf zu dir may have been composed for liturgical use during the Communion. In its exploitation of many techniques it invites comparison with Buxtehude’s great chorale fantasia on Nun freut euch. The melody appears not only in contrapuntal settings and with several coloratura-like passages but in echo and toccata-like passages as well. The incomplete partite on Nun lasst uns Gott, dem Herren also use the echo device but adhere too strictly to the basic harmony of the chorale.

Many of the brilliant qualities of the organ works are present in Lübeck’s published suite – even the Allemande is scarcely restrained. Repeated notes also characterize the fugue subject, but in a much more vigorous context than in the organ pieces. The curious chaconne Lobt Gott ihr Christen allzugleich, printed as an extra movement, does nothing to enhance Lübeck’s reputation. Five sacred cantatas are extant and 14 others are known from titles or partial texts. All date from Lübeck’s time in Stade, and the librettos he set include some supplied by the Kantor Eobaldus Laurentii between 1693 and 1702. They give the impression of being intended for a choir and instrumental ensemble of very modest attainments. The Stader Ratsmusikanten (two violins, two bass viols and a violone) provided a string consort; wind and brass players came from the local Swedish military or from musicians. The dullness of the cantata Gott wie dein Nahme is due in part to the restrictive writing for the three high obbligato instruments, presumably trumpets in the clarino register, as well as to the stereotyped rhythms. Willkommen süsser Bräutigam is a simple, lyrical work, popular in Germany at the Christmas season. Hilff deinem Volck is formally a stronger work; it also displays greater sensitivity to word-setting and incorporates a bravura recitative for bass. The other two cantatas, with separate instrumental movements, choruses and ritornello arias, are probably the best. Es ist ein grosser Gewinn, wer gottselig ist and Ich hab hier wenig guter Tag were commissioned by the Swedish administration in Stade in memory of the Swedish Queen Ulrica Eleanor. Lübeck wrote them on 10–14 November 1693 and they were performed on November 28.

WORKS

Editions: V. Lübeck: Musikalische Werke, ed. G. Harms (Klecken, 1921)V. Lübeck: Orgelwerke, ed. H. Keller (Leipzig, 1941)V. Lubeck: Sämtliche Orgelwerke, ed. K. Beckmann (Wiesbaden, 1973)

organ

all edited in Beckmann

Praeludia and fugues, C, c, d, E, F (? by V. Lübeck (ii)), G (? by V. Lübeck (ii)), g, D-Bsb (some now lost), Hs, S-L

Ich ruf zu dir, Herr Jesu Christ, D-Bsb; Nun lasst uns Gott, dem Herren, Bsb (inc.)

other keyboard

Clavier Uebung bestehend im Praeludio Fuga, Allemande, Courante, Sarabande und Gigue als auch einer Zugabe von dem Gesang Lobt Gott ihr Christen allzugleich in einer Chaconne (Hamburg, 1728); ed. H. Trede (Leipzig, 1941)

sacred vocal

Gott wie dein Nahme, 3vv, 3 insts, bc; Hilff deinem Volck, 4vv, 2 vn, 2 b viol, bc; Willkommen süsser Bräutigam, 2vv, 2 vn, bc, ed. G. Graulich and P. Horn (Stuttgart, 1969): D-Bsb; all ed. M.M. Stein (Leipzig and Berlin, 1946)

Es ist ein grosser Gewinn, wer gottselig ist, 4vv, 2 vn, 2 b viol, 2 ob, bn, bc, 1693, Stade, Niedersächsiches Staatsarchiv; ed. W. Syré (Wolfenbüttel, 1987)

Ich hab hier wenig guter Tag, 4vv, 2 vn, 2 b viol, 2 ob, bn, bc, 1693, Stade, Niedersächsiches Staatsarchiv

Passion, lost

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ApelG

FrotscherG

GerberNL

P. Rubardt: Vincent Lübeck: sein Leben, seine Werke, nebst Nachrichten über seine Familie und Beiträge zur Geschichte der Kirchenmusik in Stade und Hamburg im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert (diss., U. of Leipzig, 1922)

P. Rubardt: ‘Vincent Lübeck: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte norddeutscher Kirchenmusik im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert’, AMw, vi (1924), 450–70

H. Keller: Die Orgelwerke Bachs: ein Beitrag zu ihrer Geschichte, Form, Deutung und Wiedergabe (Leipzig, 1948/R; Eng. trans., 1967)

K.G. Powell: The North German Organ Toccata (1650–1710) (DMA diss., U. of Illinois, 1969)

K.G. Powell: ‘An Analysis of the North German Toccatas’, The Diapason, lxii/5 (1970–71), 27–9

K. Beckmann: ‘Stand Buxtehudes E-Dur Präludium ursprünglich in C-Dur?: Stellungen zu Transpositionshypothesen bei Orgelwerken D. Buxtehudes und V. Lübecks’, Der Kirchenmusiker, xxxvii (1986), 77–84, 122–7

K. Beckmann and H.-J. Schulze, eds.: Johann Gottfried Walther: Briefe (Leipzig, 1987)

K. Beckmann: ‘Echtheitsprobleme im Repertoire des hanseatischen Orgelbarocks’, Ars organi, xxxvii (1989), 161–2

J.P. Fairleigh: ‘The Organ Music of Vincent Lübeck’, The Diapason, lxxxii/4 (1991), 12–14

W. Syré: ‘The Art of the North German Organ’, Organists’ Review, lxxxiv (1988), 14–18, 100–04, 196–9, 328–31

W. Syré: Vincent Lübeck: Leben und Werk (diss., Technische U. of Chemnitz, 1999) [incl. list of works]

HUGH J. McLEAN

Lübeck, Vincent (ii)

(b Stade, 2 Sept 1684; d Hamburg, bur. 17 Jan 1755). German organist and composer, son of vincent Lübeck (i). He studied the organ with his father and became organist of Job's Hospital, Hamburg, in 1706. With J.S. Bach and six others he was a candidate for the post of organist at the Jakobikirche, Hamburg; like Bach, he withdrew when it appeared that money, rather than merit, would decide the outcome. In 1724 he went to the Georgenkirche, Hamburg, and from 1735 he assisted his elderly father at the Nikolaikirche, where he succeeded him. His works have been confused with those of his father, and scholars have tried to define his output using stylistic criteria. According to Beckmann, the short Praeludium in F and the longer Praeludium in G, which share similar figuration, are both by the younger Lübeck. Keller identified him as the composer of some organ pieces signed ‘V.L.’ that came to light in Hamburg in 1928, one of which, In dulci jubilo, he included in an appendix to his edition of the older composer's organ works (Leipzig, 1941). All these works are simple in conception and reveal nothing of the craft and virtuosity shown in his father's organ compositions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Keller: Introduction to V. Lübeck: Orgelwerke, (Leipzig, 1941)

W. Neumann and H.-J. Schulze, eds.: Bach-Dokumente, ii (Kassel, 1969), 77–9

K. Beckmann: ‘Echtheitsprobleme in Repertoire des hanseatischen Orgelbarocks'’, Ars organi, xxxvi (1989), 150–62

For further bibliography see Lübeck, Vincent (i).

HUGH J. McLEAN

Lubin, Germaine (Léontine Angélique)

(b Paris, 1 Feb 1890; d Paris, 20–27 Oct 1979). French soprano. She studied at the Paris Conservatoire (1909–12) and with Litvinne and Lilli Lehmann. She made her début as Antonia in Les contes d’Hoffmann at the Opéra-Comique, where she also sang Strauss’s Ariadne, Fauré’s Penelope, Charlotte, Louise and Camille (Zampa). At the Opéra (1916–44) she sang a very varied repertory, at first lyric roles such as Marguerite (Gounod and Boito), Juliet, Thaïs, Aida and Reyer’s Salammbô; later, heavier roles including Agathe, Fidelio, Cassandra, Elsa, Eva, Elisabeth, Sieglinde, Electra, Octavian and the Marschallin. She created Nicéa in d’Indy’s La légende de Saint Christophe (1920), Empress Charlotte in Milhaud’s Maximilien (1932) and Gina, Duchess Sanseverina in Sauguet’s La chartreuse de Parme (1939). She was admired for her classical dignity and repose in Gluck’s Alceste and Iphigénie en Aulide, as Telaira in Rameau’s Castor et Pollux (Maggio Musicale, 1935). She was also acclaimed for her singing of Dukas’ Ariane in the London première at Covent Garden in 1937.

Lubin’s friendship with the Wagners and her sympathy with Germany (though she described herself as ‘a quarter Polish, a quarter Arab and half Alsatian’) brought her career to an abrupt close in 1944 after the German occupation of Paris. She was imprisoned for three years and thereafter sang only in recitals (1952 and 1954). Her rounded, expressive voice can be heard on a number of recordings, of which several Wagner extracts are especially noteworthy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Barnes: ‘ Germaine Lubin Discography’, Recorded Sound, xix (1965), 367

M. de Schauensee: ‘Lubin Revisited’, ON, xxx/12 (1965–6), 27–8

N. Casanova: Isolde 39: Germaine Lubin (Paris, 1974) [with discography by G. Mannoni]

L. Rasponi: The Last Prima Donnas (New York, 1975), 86–97

MARTIN COOPER/ELIZABETH FORBES/R

Lubin, Steven

(b Brooklyn, NY, 22 Feb 1942 ). American pianist and musicologist. He studied philosophy at Harvard, piano at the Juilliard School of Music and took the doctorate in musicology at New York University (1974), with a dissertation entitled Beethoven's Development Sections in Middle-Period Beethoven. His piano teachers included Nadia Reisenberg, Seymour Lipkin, Rosina Lhévinne and Beveridge Webster. When builders in the 1960s began to make accurate replicas of Viennese Classical fortepianos, Lubin became an early exponent, constructing an instrument of his own and cultivating an appropriate performance style. As a groundbreaker in the American early music movement, he introduced the fortepiano to New York audiences at his Carnegie Hall début in 1977. He studied the problems of retrieving the sound and manner of the original performances of Mozart piano concertos, and founded a Classical period orchestra, the Mozartean Players, that performed throughout the 1980s at the Lincoln Center and the Metropolitan Museum in New York, with Lubin as soloist and conductor. In these roles he issued a series of recordings of Mozart piano concertos. Meanwhile, he began to tour as a recital and concerto soloist in Europe and North America, playing both the modern piano and the fortepiano.

In 1987 Lubin undertook, with Christopher Hogwood and the Academy of Ancient Music, the first recorded cycle of Beethoven's concertos on period instruments. This cycle, which strove to reproduce the instrumental sound of the premières of each of the five works, won widespread praise. Lubin's other recordings include Schubert's piano trios and ‘Trout’ Quintet.

EDWARD MURRAY

Lubotsky, Mark Davidovich

(b Leningrad [now St Petersburg], 18 May 1931). Russian violinist. He studied at the Central Music School in Moscow and at the Moscow Conservatory with Abram Yampol'sky and David Oistrakh, and won prizes at international competitions in Salzburg (1956) and Moscow (1958). He gave solo recitals and concerts in Europe, Scandinavia, the USA, and Australia, Japan and Israel, and made his British début with Britten's Violin Concerto, which he played at the 1970 Promenade Concerts and which he recorded with the composer conducting; he gave the Russian première under Kirill Kondrashin. He taught at the Gnesin Institute, Moscow (1967–76), the Sweelinck Conservatorium, Amsterdam (1976–1986), and in 1986 was appointed to the Hochschule für Musik, Hamburg. He is a notable exponent of the works of contemporary composers, and gave the first performance of Schnittke's First Violin Concerto; he also recorded Schnittke's Piano Trio (with Irene Schnittke and Rostropovich). His playing is distinguished by deep emotional feeling as well as elegant technique.

MARGARET CAMPBELL

Luca, D.

(fl Padua, ? 1401–24). Italian composer. He is named as the composer of a Gloria in the manuscript I-Bc Q15 (no.41 ff.44v–5). The ‘D’ may stand for ‘Dominus’, indicating priestly status. He may possibly be identified with one or more musicians active in Padua at this time: Luca, singer at the abbey of S Giustina, was a witness when Ciconia took possession of his first Paduan benefice in 1401; the name ‘Dominus presbiter Luca’ follows Ciconia’s on a Padua Cathedral salary list in 1411; ‘Luca da Lendinara’ succeeded Ciconia as custos following the latter’s death, a post for which his musical competence was tested.

A further reference is found in Prosdocimus de Beldemandis’s Tractatus musice speculative, which is dedicated to Luca ‘de castro lendenarie policinii rudigiensis oriundus sacerdos’ (Luca da Lendinara, priest, from the Polesine di Rovigo), calling him his brother and intimate friend, with whom from their youth he had read through many volumes of music theory and together found errors in the Lucidarium of Marchetto da Padova. Clercx stated that Luca died by 1424; more than one man could be involved, though there is musical support for all candidates.

The three-part Gloria is composed sectionally, with changes of time signature, in the Italian style of Ciconia and his successors.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D.R. Baralli and L. Torri: ‘Il Trattato di Prosdocimo de’ Beldimandi contro il Lucidario di Marchetto da Padova’, RMI, xx (1913), 707–62

S. Clercx: Johannes Ciconia: un musicien liégeois et son temps (vers 1335–1411) (Brussels, 1960), i, 47–50

A. Hallmark: ‘Gratiosus, Ciconia and Other Musicians at Padua Cathedral: Some Footnotes to Present Knowledge’, L’Europa e la musica del Trecento: Congresso IV: Certaldo 1984 [L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, vi (Certaldo, 1992)], 69–84

MARGARET BENT

Luca, Giuseppe de.

See De Luca, Giuseppe.

Luca, Sergiu

(b Bucharest, 4 April 1943). American violinist of Romanian birth. He began his musical studies at the age of four, and the following year entered the Bucharest Conservatory. In 1950 he moved with his parents to Israel, and two years later made his solo début with the Haifa SO. After a brief period of study in London with Max Rostal, he studied at the Berne Conservatory (1958–61), then emigrated to the USA and enrolled in the Curtis Institute of Music, Philadelphia, where his mentor was Galamian. He was a finalist in the 1965 Leventritt Competition, and the same year he won the Philadelphia Orchestra Youth Auditions and the Sibelius Competition, which led to his American début that year with the Philadelphia Orchestra, playing Sibelius’s Concerto. In 1966 he became an American citizen. He was founder and director of the Chamber Music Northwest festival in Portland, Oregon (1971–80) and professor of music at the University of Illinois (1980–83); in 1983 he was appointed professor of violin and violinist-in-residence at Rice University in Houston. From 1983 to 1988 Luca was music director of the Texas Chamber Orchestra, and in 1988 he became director of the newly founded Houston arts organization Da Camera. He plays a wide repertory, ranging from Baroque music (with which he has a special affinity) to contemporary works. His violin is the 1733 ‘Earl of Falmouth’ made by Carlo Bergonzi in Cremona, and his bows are of a similar vintage.

GEORGE GELLES/R

Lucacich [Lucacih], Ivan.

See Lukačić, Ivan.

Lucario, Giovanni Giacomo

(fl c1547). Italian composer. He lived in Naples, where he was acquainted with Giovanthomaso Cimello, who was probably his teacher. 15 of Lucario’s motets and one piece by Cimello are included in Lucario’s four-voice Concentuum qui vulgo motetta nuncupantur liber primus (Venice, 1547⁷; ed. in SCMot, xxii, 1987) dedicated to Bernardino Giovanni Carboni, a Neapolitan aristocrat; it is clear from an epigram by Cimello following the dedication that the two composers were closely associated. Another four-voice motet, Omnia quae fecisti, is in a Nuremberg collection (RISM 1556⁹). Although Fétis maintained that Lucario was a priest and maestro di cappella at S Croce, Venice, his statement cannot be supported by known documentary sources.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

GaspariC

R. Eitner: ‘Die Stadtbibliothek in Lübeck’, MMg, xvi (1884), 113–17

PIER PAOLO SCATTOLIN

Lucas, Charles

(b Salisbury, 28 July 1808; d Battersea, London, 23 March 1869). English cellist and composer. He was a chorister at Salisbury Cathedral, 1815–23, then entered the RAM, where he studied the cello with Robert Lindley and composition with William Crotch. In 1830 he left the RAM and joined Queen Adelaide's private band. He performed in several London orchestras, eventually taking Lindley's place as principal cellist. A keen chamber musician, he played in the Quartett Concerts (later Dando's Quartett Concerts) from 1836 to 1859 and participated in the English premières of many works, among them Beethoven's ‘late’ string quartets. He also ran subscription chamber music concerts at his home from 1845 until about 1854.

In 1832 Lucas succeeded Cipriani Potter as conductor at the RAM, directing two performances of Beethoven's Symphony no.9 in 1835–6, and later conducted at the Philharmonic Society, the Concerts of Ancient Music and the Choral Harmonists' Society. In 1839 he became organist at the Hanover Chapel, Regent Street. He was vice-president of the Musical Institute, 1851–3, and a director of the Philharmonic Society, 1856–69. From 1856 to 1865 he was a partner in the publishing firm of Addison, Hollier & Lucas (from 1863 Addison & Lucas). He was appointed principal of the RAM in 1859, but poor health forced him to resign in 1866.

Lucas's published compositions include anthems, a canonic setting for four voices of the Magnificat which won the Gresham Prize in 1836, and an opera The Regicide (vocal score, 1840). He also wrote string quartets, overtures and three symphonies, and edited Esther for the Handel Society (1845). His son Stanley Lucas (b London, 1834; d London, 24 July 1903) served as secretary of the Royal Society of Musicians (1862–1903) and the Philharmonic Society (1866–80), and was a partner in the publishing firm of Stanley Lucas, Weber & Co. from 1873 to 1899.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DNB (J.C. Hadden)

Grove1 (W.H. Husk)

C. Ehrlich: First Philharmonic: a History of the Royal Philharmonic Society (Oxford, 1995)

C. Bashford: Public Chamber-Music Concerts in London, 1835–50: Aspects of History, Repertory and Reception (diss., U. of London, 1996)

CHRISTINA BASHFORD

Lucas, Clarence

(b Grand River Reservation, ON, 19 Oct 1866; d Sèvres, 1 July 1947). Canadian composer and conductor. He began serious study of the piano, the trombone and harmony in Montreal in about 1878. In 1885 he went to Paris where he studied with G.-E. Marty and, at the Conservatoire, with Theodore Dubois. In 1889 he returned to Canada, where he taught at the Toronto College of Music and the Hamilton Wesleyan Ladies’ College. He also appeared as conductor of the Hamilton Philharmonic Society. He left Canada again in the next year to teach theory and composition at the Utica Conservatory. In 1893 he went back to Europe, working in London as a freelance journalist and, for nine years, as an editor for Chappell. He directed the Westminster Orchestral Society for one season and was a conductor for Edwardes’s touring musical comedies, giving the first performance of his own The Money Spider in London in 1897. Over the next few years he conducted c500 performances of musical shows in England and America, including a 1906 Richard Mansfield production of Peer Gynt using Grieg’s score. Lucas’s opera Peggy Machree toured the USA in 1908. In the same year he joined the editorial staff of the New York Musical Courier. He moved once more to London in 1919 and worked at a variety of musical jobs in Paris and London until his death. A prolific and sometimes imaginative exponent of an uncomplicated, conservative style, Lucas worked best in small formal units. His larger orchestral overtures tend to be episodic. Highly successful in its day, his music was performed by Wood, Mann, Hambourg and other leading musicians. He contributed regularly to journals in England and the USA and published The Story of Musical Form (London, 1908; repr. Boston, 1977).

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: The Money Spider (comic op), London, 1897; additional numbers for P. Bidwell: Peggy Machree (op), Grimsby, 1904; c5 other works

Choral: The Birth of Christ, op.41, T, chorus, orch (1901); Requiem Mass, chorus, org, 1936, rev. chorus, orch, 1942; many partsongs

Orch: Othello, ov. (1898); As you like it, op.35, ov. (1899); Macbeth, op.39, ov. (1901); Ballade, op.40, vn, orch (1901)

Pf: Prelude and Fugue, f, op.38 (1900); c40 short genre pieces

c90 songs, 20 org pieces; many transcr. and arrs.

MSS and papers in C-On

Principal publishers: Augener, Boosey & Hawkes, Breitkopf & Härtel, Chappell, Ditson, Presser, G. Schirmer, Schott, Simrock, Suckling

CARL MOREY

Lucas, Leighton

(b London, 5 Jan 1903; d London, 1 Nov 1982). English composer and conductor. He came to music through dance and drama, as a member of Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes (1918–21) and the Birmingham Repertory Theatre (1921–3). Conducting became his principal occupation after he directed a performance of Boughton’s The Immortal Hour (1923). He was musical director to the Markova-Dolin Ballet (1935–7) and conductor for the Arts Theatre Ballet (1940–41). He joined the Royal Air Force in 1941 and on demobilization in 1946 formed his own orchestra, giving concerts of unfamiliar modern music including much by French composers. He gave educational concerts for Middlesex County Council, broadcast concerts for the BBC, and lectured on ballet, music and theatre. His pre-war compositions include a Missa pro defunctis (1934, in memory of Elgar, Delius and Holst) and various theatre works, notably the ballet Death in Adagio, after Domenico Scarlatti (1936). He wrote much music for films, including a score for Ice Cold in Alex (1958), and his theatre orchestration included that of Vivian Ellis’s show Follow a Star (1930) and, in collaboration with Phil Cardew, A.P. Herbert’s musical Tough at the Top (1949). He also wrote for radio (e.g. for Richmal Crompton’s ‘Just William’ series, from 1946, and for Patric Dickinson’s Theseus and the Minotaur, 1948). From 1956 he concentrated on orchestral and concerted music.

WORKS

(selective list)

Ballets: Death in Adagio [after D. Scarlatti], 1936; The Horses, 1945–6; Tam O’Shanter (2 scenes), 1972–3, unperf.

Other stage works: The Wolf’s Bride (masque for singing, speech and dancing), 1934; The Ghost of Abel (drama, after Blake), 1934; Kanawa (Japanese masque), 1935

Choral: Every Wind that Blows, vv, 1932; Masque of the Sea, vv, orch, 1932; Missa pro defunctis, solo vv, vv, orch, 1934

Orch: La Goya, 2 dance impressions, 1932; Sinfonia brevis, hn, 11 insts, 1935; 5 Sonnets, pf, orch, 1937; L’Europe galante [after Campra], 1939; Quetzalcoatl Dances, 1939; Sonatina conertante, sax, orch, 1939; Suite française, 1940; A Litany, 1942; Vc Concertino, 1956; Prelude, Aria and Finale, va d’amore, orch, 1956; Cl Conc., 1957; Concert champêtre, vn, orch, 1959; Ballet de la reine, suite, 1960; Birthday Variations, 1970

Chbr: Str Qt, 1935; Disquisition, 2 vc, pf 4 hands, 1966

Film scores, incl. Target for Tonight (1941); The Dam Busters (1945) [collab. Coates]; Yangtse Incident (1957); Ice Cold in Alex (1958)

Principal publishers: Chester, Eulenburg

RONALD CRICHTON/R

Lucatello [Lucatelli], Giovanni Battista.

See Locatello, Giovanni Battista.

Lucca.

City in Italy, capital of the province of Lucca in Tuscany. There was a school in the cathedral of S Martino by the middle of the 8th century, and music undoubtedly formed part of the curriculum. Subsequent documents preserve the names of teachers at a singing school, Tempertus in 809 and Gausperto in 823. After that date any liturgical musical manuscripts were compiled in Lucca in a type of central Italian notation. One (I-Lc 603), from the 12th century, also preserves two interesting examples of two-part polyphony; evidence of an interest in polyphony, as well as the importance assigned to musical education, is provided by the treatise Summa artis musicae (I-Lc 614), attributed to Guglielmo Roffredi, Bishop of Lucca from 1174 to 1190. By the 13th century there were three schools: at the cathedral, at S Alessandro Maggiore and at S Maria Forisportam.

From the 14th century, when the city became an independent duchy and then a republic, the cathedral and the city government were the principal promoters of musical life. In 1306 two organs were acquired, and in 1357 an organist, Matteo da Siena, was employed. By 1308 the Comune had instrumentalists in its service and in 1372 the newly established republic founded the small Cappela della Signoria, which survived until 1517. Music played in the 14th century survives in laude and motet fragments held in the Archivio di Stato, which also houses the Lucca Codex, or Mancini Codex (I-LA 29), an important source of Ars Nova music compiled at the beginning of the 15th century.

In 1467 the English Carmelite John Hothby, a theoretican, teacher and composer, settled in Lucca; he had been summoned by the chapter of S Martino and was kept on by the republic. His 20 years in Lucca created the basis for the subsequent flourishing of polyphony. New organs were built in the 15th century in S Maria dei Servi, S Maria Forisportam and S Piercigoli. Those making the purchase objected to a first organ constructed for the cathedral, and in 1480 a second was commissioned from Domenico di Lorenzo. The instrument, built between 1481 and 1484 and one of the most important Renaissance organs, was enlarged by Luigi and Benedetto Tronci in 1792. Together with an organ built in 1615 by Andrea and Cosimo Ravani, it was replaced in 1962 by an electric organ. Among the organists at S Martino was Gioseffo Guami, the most famous member of a Lucca family of musicians. The organ tradition established an important school of organ building.

In 1543 the republican government established the Cappella di Palazzo, made up of five instrumentalists who were required to sing as necessary. Between 1557 and 1593 they were directed by Nicolao Dorati, the first Lucca composer whose name is known and founder of the city's oldest musical family. The cappella must quickly have achieved renown as in 1585 it was engaged for the wedding of Carlo Emanuele I of Savoy and Maria Caterina of Spain at Zaragoza. Giacomo Puccini, great-great-grandfather of his more famous namesake and founder of the family that dominated musical life in Lucca during the 18th and 19th centuries, directed the cappella from 1739 to 1781 (the family house holds a museum and a research institute dedicated to the better-known Giacomo, born there in 1858). Among other eminent Lucca composers who played in the cappella was Luigi Boccherini (1764–7). Expanded and reorganized according to the requirements of the day, it flourished until 1805 when it was suppressed by the Baciocchi princes.

At the end of the 16th century three seminaries (S Martino, S Michele and S Giovanni) were founded, and they became centres of musical culture. 1584 saw the establishment of the Accademia degli Oscuri, which often involved musicians from the cappella in its activities. In 1805 it took the name of the Accademia Napoleone and it is now called the Accademia Lucchese di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti.

The Congregazione degli Angeli Custodi organized sacred vigils from 1627. The first oratorios for the Congregazione di S Maria Corteorlandini date from 1636; at particular times of the liturgical year they organized cycles of oratorios. The elections (known as tasche) of the republican governors took place over three days and involved musical compositions from 1633. Certain rules were followed: librettist and composer were from Lucca, and there was generally a single subject divided into three parts or days, with one composer for each day. The compositions were cantatas or serenate politiche for soloists, chorus and orchestra, on subjects from the classical republican tradition, extolling civic virtues and the ‘libertas’ which the Lucchesi prized so highly. The practice continued until the fall of the republic in 1799.

From early times up to the 20th century the feast of the Exaltation of the Cross has been the most important civic and religious celebration, with music at First Vespers on 13 September and Mass and Second Vespers on 14 September. Added to this is a mottettone, a grand composition for two choirs, accompanied by two orchestras or an orchestra and a brass band (Michele Puccini wrote a famous example in 1845). 1711 saw a return to the ancient practice of including in the celebrations distinguished musicians from outside Lucca; outstanding soloists, particularly singers and violinists, among them Farinelli and Paganini, appeared.

From the 16th century onwards there is documentation of theatrical presentations in the Palazzo dei Borghi and the Palazzo del Podestà, and of intermedi inserted in the productions organized by the Accademia degli Oscuri. Notable performances were Esione, a ‘favola per musica intermidii’ of 1628, and Psiche (1645) by Tomaso Breni. The librettist Francesco Sbarra produced a huge output. The Febiarmonici company visited the city in 1645 and 1650. In 1672 the republic decided to build a Teatro Pubblico, which was inaugurated in 1675; it was destroyed by fire in 1688 and reopened in 1693. It remained active until the beginning of the 19th century (from 1799 as the Teatro Nazionale), when restoration became necessary. Newly inaugurated in 1819, it has since then been known as the Teatro del Giglio, from the lily on the Bourbon coat of arms. Since 1978 the summer Festival Internationale di Marlia has included opera performances.

The increasingly active musical life of the 18th century required the involvement of musicians on an almost daily basis, particularly for opera seasons and the feast of the Exaltation of the Cross. As well as the Teatro Pubblico, two other theatres were active. The Teatro Castiglioncelli, built in 1752 by the Accademia ‘Magis Vigent’ and completely remodelled in 1772, remained in use until the end of the 19th century under the names Teatro Nota and, later, Teatro Goldoni. The Teatro Pantera, built by the Accademia dei Collegati in 1770, was the city's second theatre for most of the 19th century; in the 20th it was used as a cinema.

In the 19th century, following the Baciocchi princes' suppression of many institutions, musical life again flourished under the Bourbon dukes. The Teatro del Giglio saw a particularly brilliant period, thanks to their patronage and the far-sighted policies of the impresario Alessandro Lanari. On the initiative of the opera composer Giovanni Pacini an Istituto Musicale was established (the constitution dates from 1842); in 1867 it took the name of its founder; in 1924 it was recognized as a conservatory, and it was renamed after Boccherini in 1943. The 19th century also saw the formation of a larger cappella, used particularly for major liturgical services and closely linked to the Istituto Musicale. The city is active in the commemoration of its native composers, who include – as well as the Puccinis, Geminiani and Boccherini – Cristofano Malvezzi, Francesco Barsanti and Alfredo Catalani.

Important music archives in Lucca are at the Biblioteca Capitolare, the Seminario Vescovile, the Istituto Musicale, the Biblioteca Governativa and the Oratorio di Ss Crocefisso.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Grove6 (W. Dürr)

GroveO (G. Biagi Ravenni)

M. Puccini: Della musica in Lucca: cenni storici (I-Las, 1863)

D.A. Cerù: Cenni storici dell'insegnamento della musica in Lucca e dei più notabili maestri compositori che vi hanno fiorito (Lucca, 1871)

L. Nerici: Storia della musica in Lucca (Lucca, 1879/R)

A. Bonaccorsi: ‘Il “Mottettone” della Santa Croce nella Cattedrale di Lucca’, NA, xvii (1940), 5–15

B. Paoli Catelani: Il Teatro Comunale del ‘Giglio’ di Lucca (Pescia, 1941)

A. Damerini: L'Istituto musicale ‘Giovanni Pacini’ di Lucca (Florence, 1942)

A. Bonaccorsi: ‘Catalogo con notizie biografiche delle musiche dei maestri lucchesi esistenti nelle biblioteche di Lucca’, CHM, ii (1956–7), 73–95

E. Maggini: Lucca, Biblioteca del Seminario: catalogo delle musiche stampate e manoscritte del fondo antico (Milan, 1965)

A. Bonaccorsi: Maestri di Lucca: i Guami e altri musicisti (Florence, 1967)

A. Ziino: ‘Frammenti di laudi dell'Archivo di Stato di Lucca’, Cultura neolatina, xxxi (1971), 295–312

G. Biagi Ravenni: ‘I Dorati, musicisti lucchesi, alla luce di nuovi documenti d'archivio’, RIM, vii (1972), 39–81

M. Berlardi: L'oratorio musicale del '600 e '700 a S Maria Corteorlandini a Lucca (diss., U. of Pisa, 1974)

A. Ziino: ‘Polifonia nella cattedrale di Lucca durante il XIII secolo’, AcM, xlvii (1975), 16–30

A.M. Terruggia: ‘Aggiunta al laudario frammentato dell'Archivio di Stato di Lucca’, Studi e problemi di critica testuale, xii (1976), 5–26

F. Baggiani: Organi e organisti nella Cattedrale di Lucca (Lucca, 1982)

G. Biagi Ravenni and C. Gianturco: ‘The “Tasche” of Lucca: 150 Years of Political Serenatas’, PRMA, cxi (1984–5), 45–65

A. Cavalli: ‘Scritti sulla musica nelle pubblicazioni dell'Accademia Lucchese’, IV Centenario di fondazione della Accademia Lucchese di Scienze, Lettere e Arti (Lucca, 1985), 129–61

M.T. Quilici: Spettacoli lucchesi nella seconda metà del '700 (diss., U. of Pisa, 1986)

R. Silva: Antichi organi lucchesi (Lucca, 1986)

G. Biagi Ravenni: ‘The French Occupation of Lucca and its Effects on Music’, Music and the French Revolution: Cardiff 1989, 279–301

G. Calabrese: I teatri accademici nel Settecento a Lucca (diss., U. of Pisa, 1990)

G. Biagi Ravenni: La musica a Lucca (1964–1989): venticinque anni dell'Associazione Musicale Lucchese (Lucca, 1991)

G. Biagi Ravenni: Diva panthera: musica e musicisti al servizio dello stato lucchese (Lucca, 1993)

T.F. Kelly: ‘Beneventan Liturgy and Music in Tuscany: Lucca, Biblioteca Capitolare Feliniana, ms.606’, Ricerche de storia dell'arte, xlix (1993), 51–4

G. Biagi Ravenni: ‘Il Teatro Pubblico al servizio della Repubblica di Lucca’, Il melodramma italiano in Italia e in Germania nell'età barocca: Como 1993, 277–316

GABRIELLA BIAGI RAVENNI

Lucca, Francesco

(b Cremona, 21 Dec 1802; d Milan, 20 Feb 1872). Italian music publisher. He worked as an apprentice music engraver with Giovanni Ricordi (1816–22) and was concurrently second clarinettist in the La Scala orchestra. Having learnt the trade he travelled abroad (1822–5) to perfect his craftsmanship. In 1825 he opened an engraving workshop with copying facilities in Contrada S Margherita, Milan, and the first samples were immediately admired for their clear printing and accurate copying. He later published, with Reycend of Turin, one of these, the Metodo per violino (c1835) by Baillot, Rode and Kreutzer. In Turin, where he stayed in August and December 1835, he also had an arrangement with the publisher Magrini. The firm’s first catalogue, which appeared in 1838, listed 1250 pieces: operas, and instrumental chamber works with a prevalence of piano and flute music.

Lucca announced in the press that from January 1841 he had acquired the rights of reproduction and transfer for Donizetti’s Adelia (1839) and La favorite (1841) and was preparing vocal scores and arrangements of them; he subsequently took over a share with Ricordi of the agency for Nabucco. Lucca’s relations with Verdi became closer when, through the friendship of his wife Giovannina Strazza (1814–94) with Giuseppina Strepponi, later Verdi’s wife, he persuaded the composer to give him an album of vocal music. He brought out Verdi’s Attila in 1846, Il corsaro in 1849 and I masnadieri in 1847, but Verdi severed the connection when Lucca, having refused to give him extra time to deliver the manuscript of Il corsaro, deprived him of the possibility of a lucrative contract with the London impresario Lumley, and Verdi moved to Ricordi. Rivalry and competition increased between the two firms. Lucca published a music journal, L’Italia musicale, from 1847 to 1859; in 1848 it was renamed L’Italia libera.

During this period the Lucca home was a meeting-place for Italian patriots. Lucca had major successes with operas by Mercadante, Pacini, Federico Ricci, Petrella (Jone), Gomes (Il Guarany), Marchetti (Ruy Blas) and Catalani (Edmea) and also works by Coronaro. These operas and a large amount of chamber music, including numerous arrangements for various instruments of opera excerpts, were printed using only treble and bass clefs, for the first time.

Towards the middle of the century Lucca’s wife joined the business and made an extremely valuable contribution. She bought rights for Italy of Gounod’s Faust (La Scala, 1862), Halévy’s La Juive, Flotow’s Martha and Meyerbeer’s L’Africaine; her greatest achievement was the acquisition (1868) of exclusive rights in Italy of all Wagner’s works, for which she paid 10,000 Swiss francs. She was the sole owner of the firm after her husband’s death and added to it through contracts with Berletti of Florence and Udine (1871), Canti of Milan (1878) and Vismara of Milan (1886). This expansion threatened Ricordi, and from 1886 Verdi advised Tito Ricordi to acquire Lucca; the negotiations (partly conducted by Depanis, a Turin lawyer and fervent supporter of Wagner) were protracted by Signora Lucca’s determination to keep the exclusive Wagner rights. By a contract of 30 May 1888 Ricordi finally absorbed the Lucca concern at the price of a million lire plus compensation to Lucca employees, who with a few exceptions were made redundant. Ricordi acquired about 40,000 titles.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ES(M. Morini)

SartoriD

G. Lisio: ‘Su l’epistolario di casa Lucca’, Memorie del Reale Istituto Lombardo di scienze e lettere: classe di scienze matematiche e naturali, 2nd ser., xli (1908), 308–36

G. Depanis: I concerti popolari ed il Teatro regio di Torino: quindici anni di vita musicale, i (Turin, 1914), 173

C. Sartori: Casa Ricordi 1808–1958: profilo storico (Milan, 1958)

G. Belotti: ‘La fortuna in Italia dell’opera di Chopin durante la vita del compositore’, Quadrivium, xvii (1976), 69–101

A. Pasquinelli: ‘Contributo alla storia di casa Lucca’, NRMI, xvi (1982), 568–81

L. Jensen: Giuseppe Verdi and Giovanni Ricordi: with Notes on Francesco Lucca (New York, 1989)

M. Conati, ed.: L’italia musicale, 1847–1859, Répertoire international de la presse musicale (Ann Arbor, 1992)

M. Camera: ‘Lucca’, Dizionario degli editori musicali italiani, 1750–1930, ed. B.M. Antolini (Pisa, forthcoming)

STEFANO AJANI

Lucca, Pauline

(b Vienna, 25 April 1841; d Vienna, 28 Feb 1908). Austrian soprano. She studied with Uffmann and Richard Levy, becoming a chorus member at the Vienna Hofoper, where she sang the Second Boy in Die Zauberflöte. Engaged at Olomouc she made her début there on 4 September 1859 as Elvira in Ernani, and the following year sang in Prague, as Valentine in Les Huguenots and as Norma. On the recommendation of Meyerbeer she was engaged at the Königliches Opernhaus, Berlin, from 1861. She made her London début at Covent Garden as Valentine in 1863 and returned in 1864 to sing Marguerite in Gounod's Faust. She took the part of Selika at the first London and Berlin performances of Meyerbeer's L'africaine in 1865, and during the 1866 Covent Garden season sang Léonor in Donizetti's La favorite, Zerlina in Auber's Fra Diavolo and Cherubino in Le nozze di Figaro. She sang Elisabeth de Valois in the first London performance of Don Carlos at Covent Garden in June 1867. In 1868 and 1869 she went to Russia, but returned to London in 1870; her roles in the early 1870s included Zerlina in Don Giovanni and Pamina in Die Zauberflöte. In 1872 she broke her contract in Berlin and went to sing at the Academy of Music in New York. On her return to Europe in 1874 she was engaged at the Vienna Hofoper, where she remained until her retirement in 1889. In 1882 she returned to Covent Garden, where she sang Carmen and Leonora in Il trovatore. Her voice ranged two and a half octaves from g to c''' and she was especially admired in such dramatic roles as Selika, Marguerite and Carmen.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Ehrlich [A. Payne], ed.: Berühmte Sängerinnen der Vergangenheit und Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1895)

J. Kapp: Geschichte der Staatsoper Berlin (Berlin, 1937)

H. Rosenthal: Two Centuries of Opera at Covent Garden (London, 1958)

H. Kralik: Die Wiener Oper (Vienna, 1962, Eng. trans., 1963)

ELIZABETH FORBES

Luccacich, Ivan.

See Lukačić, Ivan.

Lucchesi [Luchesi], Andrea

(b Motta di Livenza, nr Treviso, 23 May 1741; d Bonn, 21 March 1801). Italian composer. By 1757 he was in Venice where, according to Neefe, he was trained ‘in the theatrical style’ by Gioacchino Cocchi, and ‘in the church style’ by Padre Giuseppe Paolucci and Giuseppe Saratelli, the maestro di cappella of S Marco. From 1765, with the support of his patron, the music theorist Count Giordano Riccati, Lucchesi made a name for himself in Venice as an opera composer and wrote sacred and secular occasional works on commission. He also travelled to neighbouring cities as a virtuoso performer on the harpsichord and particularly organ. In 1768, for instance, he played for the dedication of the organ in Padua Cathedral.

In 1771, like many of his colleagues, he went to Germany as the director of a travelling opera company. A decree of 26 May 1774 from the Elector Archbishop of Cologne appointed him court Kapellmeister in Bonn, succeeding Beethoven's grandfather. In 1775 he married into the distinguished d'Anthoin family. As the opera company had dispersed and the court theatre had been closed, Lucchesi was now principally active as a composer of church music. Nonetheless, he still wrote a few small-scale stage works, and in 1785 composed a serenata for the elector on the occasion of his consecration as bishop. However, the musical direction of the Nationaltheater in Bonn, built in 1778, was in the hands of the court organist C.G. Neefe, while instrumental music at the court was the responsibility first of the violinist Gaetano Mattioli and later Josef Reicha.

Apart from a visit in 1783–4 to Venice, where Lucchesi produced his opera seria Ademira, and where he probably received the title of director of the Accademia Musical de' Tedeschi, Lucchesi remained in Bonn until the court was dissolved after the French occupation of the Rhineland in 1794. In 1787 he was appointed Titularrat. From 1782 to 1792 the young Beethoven was a member of the court Kapelle, first as assistant organist, then as harpsichordist and viola player. In addition to Neefe's teaching and his experience in Reicha's orchestra, Beethoven's musical development must have been considerably influenced by Lucchesi, who, as Kapellmeister, determined the repertory of sacred music performed at the court. After the elector's flight in 1794 and in the event of the court returning, plans for church music on a smaller scale were entrusted to Lucchesi. However, they came to nothing, and his final years were spent in poverty and obscurity.

In line with his career, Lucchesi's works can be divided into the operas and instrumental works of his time in Venice and early years in Bonn, and his sacred music for the electoral Kapelle. His secular works were performed in many different European cities, ranging from Lisbon, where one of his operas was performed, to Stockholm and Prague, where several of his symphonies found their way into the archives. While he had been most famous for his organ works in Italy, according to La Borde his symphonies were held in particularly high esteem in Germany, a notable achievement for an Italian at this time. Leopold Mozart, writing in his 1771 diary of his Venetian travels, described Lucchesi as a maestro di cemballo and liked to use one of his harpsichord concertos when teaching. Although only a few of Lucchesi's works appeared in print, his Sei sonate op.1 for harpsichord and violin (1772), was the first music to be printed in Bonn. Lucchesi's sacred music, apart from the early works (mostly lost), is now at the Biblioteca Estense in Modena, together with a large part of the manuscript and printed music from the elector's collection. Apart from many compositions for liturgical use, his sacred works include a Passion to a Metastasio libretto for concertante performance during Holy Week.

Various contemporary assessments of Lucchesi's style have come down to us. Burney called him ‘a very pleasing composer’, while La Borde speaks of ‘a particularly graceful style, concise and energetic arrangement of the parts, and new ideas’. Neefe described him as ‘a light, agreeable and lively composer, whose counterpoint is cleaner than that of many of his countrymen’, adding, however, that in his sacred works he ‘does not always confine himself to the strict style’. Lucchesi's approach to sacred music reconciled the stile antico and the stile moderno, combining an early form of the imitation of Palestrina with the secularized, fashionable operatic style of the 18th century. It was entirely in the spirit of the contemporary theory of church music that he had learnt from his teacher Paolucci (a pupil of Padre Martini) and from Vallotti in Padua.

WORKS

stage

L'isola della fortuna (op giocosa, G. Bertati), Venice, S Samuele, aut. 1765, P-La

Il marito geloso (cant., G. Dolfin), Venice, 1766

Le donne sempre donne (op giocosa, P. Chiari), Venice, S Moisè, 27 Feb 1767, I-MOe, P-La

Cantata a 4 (G. Gozzi), Venice, S Benedetto, 11 Feb 1767, for Duke Carl Eugene of Württemberg

Il giocatore amoroso (int a 2, A. Salvi), Venice, private perf., 13 Feb 1769; Bonn, Hof, 1772

Il matrimonio per astuzia (op giocosa), Venice, S Benedetto, Oct 1771, I-MOe (orch pts), P-La

Il natal di Giove (cant., P. Metastasio), Bonn, Hof, 13 May 1772

L'inganno scoperto, ovvero Il conte Caramella (op giocosa, 3, C. Goldoni), Bonn, Hof, aut. 1773, I-MOe (ov.)

L'improvista, ossia La galanteria disturbata (azione comica teatrale, Dolfin and Lucchesi), Bonn, Hof, wint. 1773–4, lib D-KNu

Arlequin déserteur devenu magicien, ou Le docteur mari idéal (ballet, after Ravaschiello), Bonn, Hof, 1774, I-MOe

Die Liebe für das Vaterland (prol), Frankfurt, 22 April 1783

Ademira (os, ? F. Moretti), Venice, S Benedetto, 2 May 1784, P-La, I-Mc (ov. and aria)

Cantata, Bonn, 8 May 1785 for bishopric ceremonies of Elector Max Franz of Cologne, MOe

L'amore e la misericordia guadagnano il giuoco (op giocosa, D. Friggeri), Passau, spr. 1794

sacred

Vespers, double choir, Venice, Incurabili, c1765–7, lost

Sacer trialogus (orat), Venice, Incurabili, c1767, lib I-Vmc

La Passione di Gesù Cristo (Metastasio), MOe

I-MOe: 4 masses; Sanctus, 3vv, bn; Requiem, for Duke of Monte Allegro, Venice, 1771; Dies irae, 4vv, orch; 8 vesper pss with orch; 9 Alma Redemptoris mater with orch; Stabat mater, 4vv, orch; TeD, 4vv, orch; Mag, B, 4vv, orch; Miserere, 4vv, orch; 4 motets, SATB, orch; Leves aure, SA, orch; 16 hymns, 4vv, org, some with insts; 7 Advent ants, Christmas invitatory, hymn, responsories, Off for BVM, all 4vv, orch; Palm Sunday ants, grad, San, TTB, bn

Other sacred: Mass for S Lorenzo, Venice, before 1772; Mass and vesper service for Feast of Immaculate Conception, Verona, 1770; Mass for S Rocco, Venice, before 1772; Ky, 4vv, orch, D-Dlb; Salve regina, E; TeD, S, A, orch, c1768

instrumental

Kbd Conc., F (Bonn, 1773), lost, frags. in Ellwangen (Jagst), Archiv der Rosenkranzbruderschaft; kbd conc., F, US-LOu

Syms.: B, G, D, op.2 (Bonn, 1773), lost, MSS in D-Rtt, CZ-Pnm; C, E, D-Rtt, CZ-Pnm; E, D-Dlb, Rtt, CZ-Pnm; D, I-MAav (=ov. to Il matrimonio per astuzia); D, S-Skma (=ov. to L'isola della fortuna); D, I-BGc; E, B, A, Gl (frags.)

Chbr (for hpd, vn): 6 Sonatas, op.1 (Bonn, 1772); Sonata, C (Leipzig, c1784), doubtful; Sonata, F, lost

Other works: 34 movts, hpd/org, F-Pn, I-Nc, Vc, Vnm, US-Wc; trio, kbd qts, lost

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BurneyGN

EitnerQ

GerberL

La BordeE

SchillingE

C.G. Neefe: ‘Nachricht von der churfürstlich-cöllnischen Hofcapelle zu Bonn’, Magazin der Musik, ed. C.F. Cramer, i (Hamburg, 1783/R), 377–96

A. Henseler: ‘Andrea Luchesi, der letzte Bonner Hofkapellmeister zur Zeit des jungen Beethoven: ein Beitrag zur Musik- und Theatergeschichte des 18. Jahrhunderts’, Bonner Geschichtsblätter, i (1937), 225–364

N. Jers: ‘Luchesi, Andrea’, Rheinische Musiker, vii, ed. D. Kämper (Cologne, 1972)

C. Valder-Knechtges: Die Kirchenmusik Andrea Luchesis (1741–1801): Studien zu Leben und Werk des letzten kurkölnischen Hofkapellmeisters (Berlin, 1983)

C. Valder-Knechtges: ‘Die weltlichen Werke Andrea Luchesis (1741–1801)’, Bonner Geschichtsblätter, xxxvi (1984), 79–118

C. Valder-Knechtges: ‘Andrea Luchesi: Verzeichnis der Instrumentalwerke’, Mitteilungen der Arbeitsgemeinschaft für rheinische Musikgeschichte, lxxvi (1989), 95–105

C. Valder-Knechtges: ‘Ein Jahrhundert der Musik in Bonn’, Bonn als kurkölnische Haupt- und Residenzstadt: 1597–1794, ed. D. Höroldt, Geschichte der Stadt Bonn, iii (Bonn, 1989), 471–515

C. Valder-Knechtges: ‘Andrea Luchesi: ein Italiener im Umkreis des jungen Beethoven’, Bonner Geschichtsblätter, xl (1990), 29–56

CLAUDIA VALDER-KNECHTGES

Lucchesina, La.

See Marchesini, Maria Antonia.

Lucchi, Francesca.

See Salvini-Donatelli, Fanny.

Luccio, Francesco.

See Lucio, Francesco.

Luccioni, José

(b Bastia, 14 Oct 1903; d Marseilles, 5 Oct 1978). Corsican tenor. He abandoned his formal education to work for Citroën motors, but while doing his military service he was encouraged to seek proper voice teachers. He studied in Paris with Léon David and Léon Escalaïs, and won second prize in a singing competition, whereupon he was engaged to sing at the Paris Opéra, making his début in 1931 in Bruneau’s Virginie. Success came to him the following year in Rouen, as Cavaradossi. He was re-engaged at the Opéra, where for the next 15 years he became the leading heroic tenor. His international career began in Monte Carlo, where he sang Dmitry opposite Chaliapin as Boris. He also appeared in Chicago, Barcelona, Rome (where he created Alfano’s Cyrano de Bergerac) and at Covent Garden, where he sang Don José to Supervia’s Carmen and Calaf opposite Turner as Turandot. Among his other roles were Matho in Reyer’s Salammbô, Otello, which he sang 120 times at the Opéra, and Samson, which he recorded complete in 1947. Luccioni’s true tenor voice was matched by a compelling dramatic skill. He also made two films, Colomba (1933) and Le bout de la route.

PATRICK O’CONNOR

Lucernarium

(Lat., from lucerna: ‘lamp’).

A chant song at the beginning of ‘cathedral’ Vespers in the early Church; also the opening chant of Vespers in the Ambrosian rite, and resembling in function the Mozarabic vespertinus. See Ambrosian chant, §6(v), and Mozarabic chant, §3(ix).

Lucerne

(Ger. Luzern).

City in Switzerland. The Schweizerische Musikgesellschaft was founded there in 1808, and Wagner lived at nearby Tribschen from 1866 to 1872, in the villa that now houses the Richard Wagner Museum. The city's musical importance dates from 1938, when the Lucerne International Music Festival was founded. Lucerne had grown as a fashionable resort in the late 19th century and the early 20th, when concerts were given at the Casino-Kursaal by an orchestra composed of musicians from La Scala, Milan. The suggestion for a festival came from Ernest Ansermet, who wanted summer employment for the Orchestre de la Suisse Romande. Concerts in the opening season were conducted by Ansermet, Busch, Walter, Mengelberg and Toscanini (who directed a performance of Wagner's Siegfried Idyll at Tribschen, where it had been composed in 1870). Toscanini returned in 1939, but there was no festival in 1940. The Scala orchestra, conducted by Victor de Sabata, was engaged for the following two years. The Swiss Festival Orchestra was formed for the 1943 festival and played every year (except 1954) until 1993. In 1957 the Vienna PO made its first appearance, followed in 1958 by the Berlin PO, which has continued to play every year except 1960 and 1984. Furtwängler conducted at the festival from 1944 until his death in 1954. Karajan conducted every year from 1948 to 1988, apart from 1960. Others closely associated with the festival were Rafael Kubelík, who first conducted there in 1948; Paul Sacher, who conducted Serenade concerts at the Lion Monument every year from 1944 to 1992; and Rudolf Baumgartner, who played in the orchestra in the late 1940s, founded the Lucerne Festival Strings in 1956 and served as artistic director of the festival from 1969 to 1980. Ulrich Meyer-Schoellkopf was director from 1981 to 1991, and Matthias Bamert from 1992 to 1998. He was succeeded by Michael Haefliger.

In 1970 the festival (previously a branch of the Lucerne tourist board) became legally and financially independent. It promotes around 50 concerts and recitals between mid-August and early September and is regarded as one of the premier European festivals. It first made a feature of contemporary music in 1958 and since 1970 there has been an annual focus on the work of a living composer, including Kagel (1970), Lutosławski (1975), Peter Maxwell Davies (1982) and Schnittke (1992). Since 1992 there has also been an annual Easter festival, and since 1998 a piano festival held in November. Most festival events took place in the Kunsthaus until a new concert and congress hall, designed by Jean Nouvel and Russell Johnson, opened for the festival's 60th anniversary in 1998 (see illustration).

The festival prompted the foundation of the Lucerne Conservatory in 1942. Since 1943 it has hosted annual masterclasses featuring festival participants. During the winter season, the orchestra of the Allgemeine Musikgesellschaft Luzern gives concerts in the Kunsthaus, and accompanies opera and ballet performances in the Stadttheater, which was built in 1839 and has been several times modernized. In 1982 Othmar Schoeck's comic opera Don Ranudo de Colibrados was revived there, using a score reconstructed from war-damaged fragments.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F.J. Breitenbach: Die grosse Orgel der Hofkirche in Luzern (Lucerne, 1920)

J.B. Hilber: Die Musikpflege in der Stadt Luzern von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart (Lucerne, 1958)

R. Kaufmann: Das Richard-Wagner-Museum in Triebschen in Luzern (Lucerne, 1958)

O. Fries and others, eds.: Internationale Musikfestwochen, Lucerne, 1938–1988 (Lucerne, 1988)

KURT VON FISCHER/ANDREW CLARK

Luchanok, Ihar Mikhaylavich

(b Mar'ina gorka, Minsk province, 6 Aug 1938). Belarusian composer. After a period of evacuation (1941–6) he returned with his parents to Belarus and studied music with his father (who had been a member of a touring theatrical troupe), learning to play popular songs and dances on the cimbalom, bayan or accordion. In 1950 he entered a special music school where he started studying the piano (with G.I. Shershevsky) and composition (with Tsikotsky and Viktor Bely). He graduated from the composition class of Bahatïrow at the Belarus Conservatory in 1961 and then took various teaching posts in addition to continuing his studies in Belarus with Khrennikov and in Leningrad with Salmanov. He was later appointed senior lecturer (1968) and rector (1982–5) of the conservatory; he was board chairman of the Belarusian Composers’ Union from 1979. His chief creative activity is the writing of songs whose stylistic roots lie in urban folklore and the Belarusian romance (he has done more than most other composers to develop the Belarusian tradition established by V. Olovnikov and Yu. Semenyako). They are characterized by natural rhythmic movement combined with melodic grace; predominantly dreamily elegiac in mood, their narrative is often courageous and filled with pathos. Although monologues and ballads are closest to his heart, he has also written several marches and anthemic mass songs in the Soviet style.

WORKS

Choral-orch: Kurgan [The Burial Mound] (cant., Ya. Kupala), 1962; Neizvestnïy soldat [The Unknown Soldier] (cant., P. Khor'kov), 1970; Zori nad sosnami [Dawn above the Pines] (cant., Ye. Ognetsvet), 1981

Chorus, pf: Belarus' (M. Tretyakov); Kurgan slavï [The Burial Mound of Glory] (S. Petrenko); Nash Gaydar [Our Gaydar] (S. Marshak); On rodilsya vesnoy [He was Born in Spring] (A. Chepurov); Radzima Belarus' [Native Belarus] (L. Dran'ko-Maysyuk)

Ballads (1v, pf), incl: Geroyam Stalingrada [To the Heroes of Stalingrad] (V. Gusev); Kreml' [The Kremlin] (Yu. Pankratov]; Pesnya o Minske [A Song about Minsk] (P. Panchenko); Pis'mo iz 45-ogo [A Letter from ’45] (M. Yasen'); Rodnamu krayu [To Our Native Land] (Ya. Kolos); Starïy Sozh [Old Sozh] (Yu. Yudin); Zorka kakhannya [Star of Love] (V. Neklyayev)

Romances (1v, pf), incl: Cheloveku nuzhna tishina [Silence is needed by People] (M. Traat), triptych; Dva orla [Two Eagles] (M. Tank); Gde tï, zvezda moya [Where are You, My Star] (A. Rusak); Ryabinovïy les [Rowan Tree Wood] (Panchenko); Siniy tsvet [The Colour of Blue] (N. Baratashvili, G. Emin, S. Kaputikian, S. Rabadanov), song cycle; Veranika (M. Bogdanovich); Vospominaniye [Recollection] (B. Oleynik); Zvuchaniye angel'skogo golosa [The Sound of an Angel’s Voice] (Z. Poznyak)

Over 300 songs (1v, pf), incl.: Alesya (A. Kuleshov); Moy rodnïy krut [My Native Farmstead] (Kolos); Pamyat' serdtsa [Memory of the Heart] (Yasen'); Spadchïna [Heritage] (Ya. Kupala); Tï adna [You Alone] (N. Altukhov); Zhuravli na Poles'ye letyat [The Cranes are Flying to the Poles'ye] (A. Staver)

Chbr and solo inst: Fantaziya na belorusskiye temï [Fantasia on Belarusian Themes], pf, 1960, 1963; 8 preludiy, pf, 1963; Sonata, ob, pf, 1964; 5 preludiy, pf, 1965; Str Qt, 1965; Pf Sonata, 1968; 2 preludii, pf, 1970; Scherzo, cimb, pf, 1970

Works for jazz band, incid music, film scores, music for radio

BIBLIOGRAPHY

N. Yudenich: ‘Nadezhï i somneniya’ [Hopes and doubts], SovM (1967), no.5, pp.10–16

N. Penchuk: ‘Pesnya nachinayetsya s obraza’ [A song starts with an image], SovM (1978), no.1, 33–7

L. Auerbakh: Belorusskiye kompozitorï – Ye. Glebov, S. Kortes, D. Smol'sky, I. Luchenok (Moscow, 1978), 217–76

S. Nisnevich: ‘I.M. Luchenok’, Belorusskaya muzïkal'naya kul'tura (Minsk, 1981), 207–14

V. Zdanovich: ‘Spadchina’ [Heritage], Maladosts' (1988), no.8, 68–70

TAISIYA SHCHERBAKOVA

Luchesi, Andrea.

See Lucchesi, Andrea.

Luchini, Paolo

(b Pesaro, c1535; d ?Pesaro, 1598). Italian theorist and singer. He was an Augustinian friar, at one time secretary of the order and provincial of the March of Ancona; he spent three years as court preacher in the service of Duke Francesco Maria II della Rovere at Urbino. At some time between 1568 and 1592 he was tutor to Lodovico Zacconi, probably at the monastery of Valmanente, where Zacconi spent the first years of his monastic life. The three books of Della musica theorica e pratica were compiled about 1591–2. Shortly before his death he retired to Valmanente, where he wrote the Eptamerone (published 1599).

The first book of the Della musica deals with general questions including proportions, mutations and consonances, the second principally with notation, and the third with the rules of composition and counterpoint. The work is essentially a compendium, and draws heavily upon other theorists of the 15th and 16th centuries. Nevertheless, it shows several new insights into traditional problems. Luchini’s main purpose was to simplify the complex musical theory of his time. His exposition is always orderly, concise and rich in musical examples which reveal him as a skilled contrapuntist. Although the treatise is not concerned with speculative questions, such as the controversial debate about ancient and modern music, it nevertheless shows, particularly in the discussion of the relationship between words and music, that Luchini was sensitive to new ideas.

WRITINGS

Due brevi ragionamenti, una del modo del parlar senza errore, et l’altro del consigliarsi bene (Urbino, 1588)

Della musica theorica e pratica (MS, I-PESo, c1591–2)

Eptamerone, o vero Eptalogi della nobiltà mondana (Pesaro, 1599)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Catelani: ‘Paolo Luchini da Pesaro e il suo trattato della musica’, Giornale della Società del quartetto di Milano, i (1864–5), no.12, p.91; no.13, p.97

F. Vatielli: ‘Un trattato di musica inedito del Cinquecento’, Cronaca musicale, xi (1907), 195

E. Paolone: ‘Codici musicali della Biblioteca Oliveriana e della Biblioteca del R. Conservatorio di musica di Pesaro’, RMI, xlvi (1942), 186–200

A.W. Atlas: ‘Paolo Luchini's Della musica: a Little-Known Source for Text Underlay from the late Sixteenth Century’, JM, ii (1983), 62–80

GIUSEPPE DONATO/ALLAN ATLAS

Lu Chunling

(b Shanghai, 14 Sept 1921). Chinese dizi player. Lu Chunling worked initially as a trishaw driver in pre-liberation Shanghai. However, he was a keen amateur musician, becoming familiar with the Jiangnan sizhu folk ensemble repertory as a young man. In 1952, as part of the wave of nationalization following the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (1949), Lu accepted a post as dizi soloist with the Shanghai National Instruments Orchestra (Shanghai minzu yuetuan).

From 1971 to 1976, Lu held a similar post at the Shanghai Opera Company (Shanghai gejuyuan). He joined the staff of the Shanghai Conservatory of Music in 1957, receiving promotion to Associate Professor in 1978. Lu has made numerous recordings (he is recipient of Communist China’s first gold disc) and has taken part in many governmental cultural missions, performing in countries worldwide as well as throughout China. His personal performance style, disseminated through recordings, broadcasts and recitals and by his numerous pupils, has become representative of the Jiangnan dizi tradition in general.

Although he actively encouraged the study of traditional repertory, such as Jiangnan sizhu and folk pieces like Zhegu fei (‘Partridges Flying’) Lu Chunling has also contributed to the creation of a new repertory for his instrument. From 1957, Lu composed a succession of works celebrating the new social order and experimenting with new performance techniques. The first of the compositions, Jinxi (‘Today and Yesterday’), is a typical example: a ternary structure with bright outer sections containing a tragic central segment characterized by slides and acciaccaturas.

WRITINGS

Jinxi: dizi duzouqu xuan [Today and yesterday: a selection of dizi solos] (Shanghai, 1960)

Lu Chunling dizi qu ji [Collected dizi pieces of Lu Chunling] (Beijing, 1982)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

F.C. Lau: Music and Musicians of the Traditional Chinese Dizi in the People’s Republic of China (DMA diss., U. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1991), 54–7, 237–40

Zhongguo yinyue cidian xubian [Dictionary of Chinese music, supplementary vol.] (Beijing, 1992), 121–2

Shanghai yinyue chubanshe, ed.: Zhongguo zhudi mingqu huicui [Special selection of famous pieces for Chinese bamboo flute] (Shanghai, 1994), 44–70, 501–3

J.P.J. Stock: Chinese Flute Solos (London, 1994), 8–9, 16–19

recordings

Chine: musique classique, Ocora C 559039 (1988)

Special Collection of Contemporary Chinese Musicians, Wind Records CB-07 (1996)

Xi bao/Glad Tidings, with Shanghai minzu yuetuan, cond. Xia Feiyun, Hugo HRP 7148–2 (1996)

JONATHAN P.J. STOCK

Lucia, Fernando de.

See De Lucia, Fernando.

Lucía, Paco de [Sánchez Gómez, Francisco]

(b Algeciras, 21 Dec 1947). Spanish guitarist. His precocious gifts on the guitar enabled him to augment his family’s meagre income. The dancer José Greco contracted him at the age of 13 to tour with his company from 1960 to 1961. In 1962 he won a prize at a Jerez competition; then, in 1964, he was financed by a German firm to tour with a band throughout Europe. By 1970 he had made three records and become Paco ‘de Lucía’. In the same year he appeared at a Beethoven bicentenary festival in Barcelona, where his virtuosity, of a kind previously unknown in flamenco, astonished audiences. During the 1970s he toured throughout the world and made many important recordings, including ‘Almoraima’ and a collection of flamenco reworkings of Manuel de Falla. He was also instrumental in launching the career of the great flamenco singer, El Camarón de la Isla (1950–92), with whom he made many recordings.

In the 1980s de Lucía collaborated with jazz and other non-flamenco musicians, both in the studio and on stage. His concerts in the second half of the decade (few of them in Spain) were invariably divided into two sections: one solo, one featuring his sextet, including brothers Pepe (voice) and Ramón (guitar) and other musicians de Lucía was keen to promote. Two solo recordings from the late 1980s, ‘Siroco’ and ‘Zyryab’, are among his finest. In 1991 he recorded a version of Rodrigo’s Concierto de Aranjuez – the first time a flamenco musician had committed a major classical work to disk. Although de Lucía owes much to the examples of Niño Ricardo and Sabicas, the sheer brilliance of his technique and the originality of his rhythms and melodies are unequalled in the history of the flamenco guitar.

JAMES WOODALL

Lucier, Alvin (Augustus)

(b Nashua, NH, 14 May 1931). American composer. He was educated at Yale (BA 1954) and Brandeis (MFA 1960) universities, where his teachers included Boatwright, Arthur Berger, Irving Fine, and Shapero; he also studied under Copland and Foss at the Berkshire Music Center (1958, 1959). After two years in Rome on a Fulbright fellowship, Lucier joined the Brandeis faculty in 1963 as director of the choral union; later he was head of the electronic music studio. In 1970 he moved to Wesleyan University, where he was later appointed John Spencer Camp Professor of Music. He was a co-founder of the Sonic Arts Union, music director of the Viola Farber Dance Company (1972–7) and a fellow of the DAAD Kunstlerprogramm in Berlin (1990). He has received grants from the Rockefeller Foundation, the New York State Council on the Arts, the Connecticut Commission on the Arts and the NEA. Many of his works were commissioned by American and European leading organizations.

In the mid-1960s Lucier began to explore sonic environments, particularly sounds that ‘would never – in ordinary circumstances – reach our ears’. Using performers, electronics, instruments, architecture and found objects, he devises open-ended processes specifically adapted to the phenomena he chooses to investigate or reveal. Some works exploit unusual sound sources such as brain waves (Music for Solo Performer) or radio frequency emissions in the ionosphere (Sferics), while others focus on the physical characteristics of sound waves. In Vespers (1968), performers take the acoustical measure of a room by means of echo-location devices, thus simulating bats and dolphins, while I am Sitting in a Room uses a tape loop (successively recording its own playback) to transform spoken text in accordance with the room’s resonant frequencies. In Chambers (1968), the timbres of self-sounding objects are altered after being placed in boxes or pots and are in turn influenced by the rooms and hallways through which they are carried during performance. Lucier has also explored diffraction of sound waves around moving or stationary objects (Outlines of Persons and Things); the visualization of sound disseminating from a stringed instrument with the aid of lights and a sweep oscillator (Directions of Sounds from the Bridge); freely vibrating surfaces and solids as visual equivalents of sound (The Queen of the South); the processing of wave forms – seen and heard – using common surfaces (Music for Pure Waves, Acoustic Pendulums and Sound on Paper); and the employment of solar power to integrate flows of light and sound (Solar Sound, Spira Mirabilis). In Music on a Long Thin Wire (1977), temperature, air current, footsteps and other factors influence a wire’s vibration to produce subtle changes of pitch, timbre and rhythm. In 1982 Lucier began composing for traditional instruments (some with oscillators and resonating objects) focussing on the audible beating between closely tuned pitches.

WORKS

acoustic

(selective list)

Orch: Partita, fl, hpd, str, 1954; Sweepers, 1997; Cassiopeia, 1998; Diamonds, for 1, 2, or 3 Orchestras, 1999

Chbr and solo inst: Fragments for Str, 1961; Chambers, pfmrs, resonant environments, 1968; (Hartford) Memory Space, any no. of insts, 1970; Risonanza, resonating object, 3 insts, 1982; Fideliotrio, va, vc, pf, 1987; Navigations, str qt, 1992; Panorama, trbn, pf, 1993; Spider Paths, lute/gui, 1994; 2 Stones, pfmr, 2 pieces of basalt, 1994; Music for Vn and Alto Sax, 1995; Q, vn, cl, trbn, db, 1996; Op with Objects, pfmr(s), resonant objects, 1997; Rare Books, pfmrs, 1997; Small Waves, trbn, pf, str qt, 1997

Vocal: The Sacred Fox, 1v, sonorous vessels, 1994; Theme (J. Ashberry), vv, sonorous vessels, 1994; Unamuno, 4 equal vv, 1994; I Remember (J. Brainard), vv, resonant objects, 1997; Wave Painting Songs, 1v, 1998; Man Ray, female v, vc, 1999

Kbd: Action Music, pf, 1962; Music for Pf with One or More Snare Drums, 1992; Hands, org, pfmrs, 1994

electro-acoustic

Dramatic: Skin, Meat, Bone, actors, resonant objects, tape recorders, moving wall, pure wave oscillators, 1994, collab. K. McDermott and R. Wilson; incid music and TV film scores

With inst(s): Music for Solo Pfmr, perc, amp brain waves, elec, perc, 1965; Crossings, small orch, oscillator, 1982–4; In memoriam Jon Higgins, cl, oscillator, 1984; 1985; Septet, 3 wws, 4 str, pure wave oscillator, 1985; Homage to James Tenney, db, oscillators, 1986; Kettles, 5 timp, oscillators, 1987; Silver Streetcar for the Orch, amp triangle, 1988; Carbon Copies, sax, pf, perc, environmental recordings, 1989; Music for Snare Drum, Pure Wave Oscillator, 1 or more reflective surfaces, 1990; Nothing is Real, pf, amp teapot, tape recorder, 1990; Music for Pf with Amp Sonorous Vessels, 1991; Music for Cello with One or More Amp Vases, 1992; Music for Pf with Slow Sweep Pure Wave Oscillators, 1992; Music for Accdn with Slow Sweep Pure Wave Oscillators, 1993; Distant Drums, amp perc, 1994; Music for Gamelan Insts, mics, amp, loudspkr, 1994; Spira Mirabilis, b inst, elec light, 1994; Music for Pf with Magnetic Strings, 1995; Wind Shadows, trbn, oscillators, 1994; Still Lives, pf, slow sweep pure wave oscillator 1995; 40 Rooms, vn, cl, trbn, vc, db, Lexicon Acoustic reverberance system, 1996, arr. orch, reverberance systems, 1997; CW25, pf, slow sweep pure wave oscillator, 1997; Sizzles, org, amp b drums with fine strewn materials, 1997; Islands, 5 insts, amp snare drums, 1998; other el-ac works with insts

With voice: The only Talking Machine of its Kind in the World, spkr, tape delay, 1969; I am Sitting in a Room, v, elec tape, 1970; The Duke of York, v(v), synth, 1971; Still and Moving Lines of Silence in Families of Hyperbolas, vv, insts, dancers, perc, 1973–4, rev. as 11 Solos and a Duet, S, insts, oscillators, 1982–4; Tyndall Orchestrations, female v, sensitive flame pfmrs, bunsen burners, glass tubes, recorded birdcalls, 1976; Words on Windy Corners, vv, mics, moving loudspkrs, 1980; Intervals, vv, sound-sensitive lights, 1983; 6 Geometries, SATB, oscillators, 1992; Music for Baritone with Slow Sweep Pure Wave Oscillators, 1993; Music for Soprano with Slow Sweep Pure Wave Oscillators, 1993

Live elec works: Shelter, vibration pickups, amp, enclosed space, 1967; Vespers, pfmrs, echolocation devices, 1968; Quasimodo the Great Lover, relays of amp systems, 1970; Gentle Fire, multiple synths, 1971; The Queen of the South, pfmrs, resonant environment, live video, 1972; The Fires in the Minds of the Dancers, 4-track playback environment, 1974; Bird and Person Dyning, pfmr, binaural mics, amps, loudspkrs, elec birdcall, 1975; Outlines of Persons and Things, pfmrs, mics, loudspkrs, oscillators, 1975; Clocker, pfmr, galvanic skin response sensor, elecs, 1978; Ghosts, pfmr, light, oscillator, loudspkrs, 1978; Reflections of Sounds from the Wall, moving wall, elecs, 1981; Sferics, antennas, tape recorders, 1981; Amplifier and Reflector One, umbrella, roasting pan, amp clock, 1991; other elec works

Sound installation: Music on a Long Thin Wire, audio oscillator, elec monochord, 1977; Directions of Sounds from the Bridge, 1 str, oscillator, sound-sensitive lights, 1978; Solar Sound I, solar elec music system, 1979; Music for Pure Waves, Bass Drums and Acoustic Pendulums, 1980; Seesaw, 1983; Spinner, 1984; Sound on Paper, paper, loudpkrs, oscillators, 1985; Chambers (installation version), self-sounding objects in resonant vessels, 1988, Locales, 1995; Empty Vessels, resonant objects, 1997; Sound on Glass, 1997; other installations

Principal publishers: Material Press, Frankfurt

WRITINGS

‘Three Points of View: with Ellie Siegmeister and Mindy Lee’, MQ, xlv/2 (1979), 286–90

with D. Simon: Chambers (Middletown, 1980)

‘The Tools of My Trade’, Contiguous Lines, ed. T. DeLio (Lanham, 1985), 143–60

Reflections/Reflexionen: Interviews, Scores, Writings (Cologne, 1995)

‘Origins of a Form’, Leonardo Music Journal, viii (1999)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Mumma: ‘Alvin Lucier's Music for Solo Performer (1965)’, Source, ii (1968), 68–9

J.D. Simon: ‘Vespers: an Interview with Alvin Lucier’, Arts in Society, ix/2 (1972), 277–85

R. Reynolds: ‘Alvin Lucier: Music for Solo Performer (1965)’, Mind Models (New York, 1975), 200–04

W. Zimmermann: Desert Plants: Conversations with 23 American Musicians (Vancouver, 1976), 137–48

A. Sondheim: ‘Alvin Lucier’, Parachute, xii (1978); repr. in Ear, iv/8–9 (1978–9)

T. DeLio: ‘Avant-Garde Issues in Seventies Music’, Breaking the Sound Barrier, ed. G. Battock (New York, 1981), 254, 267–9

T. DeLio: Circumscribing the Open Universe: Essays on Cage, Feldman, Wolff, Ashley and Lucier (Lanham, MD, 1984), 89–105

T. Johnson: The Voice of New Music (Eindhoven, 1989), 31–3, 68–9, 288–91

M. Parsons: ‘Beats that can Move Sugar’, Resonance, iv/10 (1995), 10–16 [interview]

A. Rovner: ‘I am Sitting in a Room with Alvin: Lucidity from Lucier’, 20th Century Music, v/10 (1998), 1–4

W. Duckworth: 20/20: 20 New Sounds of the 20th Century Demystified and Explained (New York, 1999)

LINDA SANDERS/KEITH MOORE

Lucino, Francesco

(b Caravaggio, nr Milan, second half of the 16th century; d ?Milan, shortly before 11 Dec 1617). Italian composer and singer. He was a priest. He was engaged as a bass in Milan Cathedral choir about 1580 and remained there until his death, which is reported in a document in the cathedral archives dated 11 December 1617. He was an assistant to the maestro di cappella, G.C. Gabussi, and in 1610 became vice-maestro. When Gabussi died in September 1611 Lucino acted as maestro until Vincenzo Pellegrini was appointed on 26 February 1612. He then reverted to the position of vice-maestro, which he held until his death. He was highly regarded as a singer. Magistri acclaimed him as ‘a very deep bass’, and Guarini celebrated him in a madrigal verse. It is also known from two letters that he wrote in 1598 to Cardinal Federico Borromeo (in I-Ma) that he had received offers of other appointments but did not wish to leave Milan Cathedral because of his admiration for the cardinal. He is named, together with all the other cathedral musicians, in the dedication to the Liber primus motectorum (1592) by his colleague Damiano Scarabelli.

It may have been Gabussi who persuaded Lucino to publish Le gemme, a collection of madrigals by composers active in Bologna. Subsequent collections contained works by composers working in Milan and Lombardy. The 1608 collection includes concertos by 11 Milanese composers and was the first in a series of anthologies to present sacred works in the new concertante style. The success of this print was such that the printer Filippo Lomazzo was encouraged to publish a new edition, with additoinal solo motets, in 1612; he brought out a second expanded edition in 1617 which included further motets, a Mass, two Magnificats, a litany and 12 Canzoni per sonare. Lucino’s importance as a composer is overshadowed by his contribution as a collector and editor of the music of Bolognese madrigalists and of composers working in Milan and other parts of Lombardy who cultivated a modern concertante style based on the alternation of solos and chorus.

WORKS

Pater noster, 5vv, 1619³, I-Mcap(d)

Vulnerasti cor meum, 2vv, bc, 1627²

editions, collections

Le gemme, madrigali de diversi eccellentissimi musici della città di Bologna, 5vv (Milan, 1590¹³)

Concerti de diversi eccellentissimi autori, 2–4vv, org (Milan, 1608¹³)

Aggiunta nuova delli concerti, 1–4vv, bc (Milan, 1612⁹)

Seconda aggiunta alli concerti, 2–4vv, bc (Milan, 1617²)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

SartoriB

MS documents (I-Mcap)

G. Magistri: Descrittione dell’apparato fatto dal Borgo di Castano Diocese di Milano, per ricevere le sante reliquie (Milan, 1610), 22

F. Mompellio: ‘La cappella del duomo dal 1573 al 1714’, Storia di Milano, xvi (Milan, 1962), 506–52, esp. 512 [pubn of the Fondazione Treccani degli Alfieri per la storia di Milano]

La musica sacra in Lombardia nella prima metà del Seicento: Como 1985 [includes V. Gibelli: ‘La raccolta del Lucino (1608) e lo stile concertante in Lombardia’, 61–77; J. Roche: ‘Cross-Currents in Milanese Church Music in the 1640s: Giorgio Rolla's Anthology Teatro musicale (1649), 11–30]

J. Ladewig: Introduction to Canzonas and Capriccio from the Second Aggiunta alli concerti (New York, 1995)

MARIANGELA DONÀ

Lucio [Luccio, Luzzo], Francesco

(b ?Conegliano, c1628; d Venice, 1 Sept 1658). Italian composer and organist. He spent his life in Venice; his earliest known musical activities there date from March 1645, when he became an organist at the church of S Martino. He served there intermittently until 1652, after which records do not survive. In 1645 he also began work as a freelance organist, performing for special festivities at the Venetian convents. In his second book of motets (1650) he is described as a pupil of G.A. Rigatti and singing master at the Ospedale degli Incurabili; he was probably appointed to replace his teacher, who died on 25 October 1649. In March 1658 he headed a group of musicians performing at the convent of S Martino, Burano. His death later that year came as a result of a sword wound; he was buried at S Martino in Venice. Apparently he had also been employed at the Ospedale della Pietà, to which he left all his music. He was notable primarily as a composer of opera. The attribution to Lucio of L’Orontea (traditionally acknowledged as the work of Cesti, whose later version survives) is found in a letter by P.A. Ziani dated 30 January 1666. The widest survey of Lucio’s operatic work is contained in the Arie of 1655; the arias are close to Cavalli in form and in style of vocal writing, but they are perhaps more striking in their sometimes angular melodic style and more inclined to chromatic harmony. Some of the arias of Il Medoro are notable for their unusual formal design.

WORKS

operas

all performed in Venice; exact dates are of dedication

L’Orontea (drama musicale, prol., 3, G.A. Cicognini), SS Apostoli, 20 Jan 1649 [music traditionally attrib. Cesti, but see Bianconi and Walker; music lost, unless the score of the 1654 Naples performance (I-Nc, at least partly by Cirillo) contains some of the orig. music]

Gl’amori di Alessandro Magno e di Rossane (dramma musicale, prol., 3, Cicognini, completed by an unknown librettist), SS Apostoli, 24 Jan 1651, arias in Arie (1655/R1984 in DMV, iv)

Pericle effeminato (drama per musica, 3, G. Castoreo), S Apollinare, 7 Jan 1653, arias in Arie (1655/R1984 in DMV, iv), 1 in GB-Lbl

L’Euridamante (drama regio, prol., 3, G. dall’Angelo), S Moisè, 20 Jan 1654, arias in Arie (1655/R1984 in DMV, iv)

Il Medoro (drama per musica, prol., 3, A. Aureli, after L. Ariosto), SS Giovanni e Paolo, 11 Jan 1658, I-Vnm (facs. in DMV, iv, 1984); 1 aria ed. in Worsthorne, 3 ed. in Rosand

other works

Ecce nunc, 1v, vn, in G.A. Rigatti: Salmi diversi di compieta in diversi generi di canto (Venice, 1646); ed. in SCISM, xi (New York, 1995)

Motetti concertati, 2, 3vv, bc, op.1 (Venice, 1649)

Motetti concertati, 2, 3vv, bc, op.2 (Venice, 1650)

Arie, 1v, bc (Venice, 1655)

4 arias, 1656⁴

4 motets, S-Uu (tablature), according to Eitner

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S.T. Worsthorne: Venetian Opera in the Seventeenth Century (Oxford, 1954/R)

T. Walker: ‘Gli errori di “Minerva al tavolino”: osservazioni sulla cronologia delle prime opere veneziane’, Venezia e il melodramma nel Seicento: Venice 1972, 7–20

L. Bianconi and T. Walker: ‘Dalla Finta pazza alla Veremonda: storie di Febiarmonici’, RIM, x (1975), 379–454

G. Morelli: ‘Fare un libretto: la conquista della poetica paraletteraria’, DMV, iv (1984), pp.ix–lvii

T. Walker: ‘“Ubi Lucius”: Thoughts on Reading Medoro’, DMV, iv (1984), pp.cxxxi–clxiv

E. Rosand: Opera in Seventeenth-Century Venice: the Creation of a Genre (Berkeley, 1991)

B. Glixon: ‘Music for the Gods?: a Dispute Concerning F. Lucio’s Gl’Amori di Alessandro Magno, e di Rossane (1651)’, EMc (forthcoming)

THOMAS WALKER, BETH L. GLIXON

Łuciuk, Juliusz

(b Brzeźnica, nr Radomsko, 1 Jan 1927). Polish composer. After graduating in musicology at the university in Kraków he transferred to the State Higher School (later Academy) of Music, where his teachers included Wiechowicz. He continued his training in Paris with Max Deutsch and Boulanger, and in 1959 attended the Darmstadt summer course. He has received several awards including the second prize in the 1960 Vercelli Competition for Sen kwietny (‘Floral Dream’) and first prize in the 1974 Prince Rainier Competition for Portraits lyriques. Łuciuk began to break with his neo-classical training in 1957, adopting serial procedures, though these are personalized by his music's innate lyricism. Thenceforth he explored a sonoristic style of writing, producing a number of delicately impressionistic works (some for the stage) where the piano strings are played with percussion brushes or sticks (Maraton and Lirica di timbri are characteristic examples). After a series of poetic song cycles (1966–74), of which the opera Demiurgos is an extension, Łuciuk concentrated almost exclusively on setting liturgical texts and writing large-scale oratorios. His musical idiom features triadic harmony and modal clusters, ancient chants and popular hymnody, and uses dissonance as a means of effecting colour.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Niobe (ballet-pantomime, 1, A. Tatara-Skocka), chorus, orch, 1962; Maraton [Marathon] (pantomime, H. Tomaszewski), prep pf, 1963; Suknia [The Frock] (mime drama, Tomaszewski), prep pf, ens, 1965; Brand – Peer Gynt (mime drama, Tomaszewski, after H. Ibsen), 2 prep pf, ens, 1967; Legenda czasu [The Legend of Time] (choreodrama, Tomaszewski, after F.G. Lorca), prep pf, ens, 1972; Śmierć Eurydyki [The Death of Eurydice] (ballet, 1, A. Świerszczyńska), Mez, orch, 1972; Miłość Orfeusza [The Love of Orpheus] (op-ballet, 2 pts, Świerszczyńska), S, Mez, T, Bar, chorus, orch, 1973; Medea (ballet, 1, A. Lis), S, chorus, chbr orch, 1975; Demiurgos (op, 1, Lis and Łuciuk, after B. Schulz), 1976

Orch: 4 szkic symfoniczny [4 Sym. Sketches], 1957; Sym. Allegro, 1958; Kompozycja, 4 orch groups, 1960; Speranza sinfonica, 1969; Lamentazioni Grażyna Bacewicz in memoriam, 1970; Concertino, pf, orch, 1973; Legenda warszawska, 1974; Wiklina [Willow], str, 1979; Db Conc., 1986; Hommage a quelqu'un, gui, str, 1993

Vocal: 3 pieśni [3 Songs] (L. Staff), S, pf, 1954; Dzikie wino [Virginia Creeper] (K.I. Gałczyński), S, chorus, 1958; Sen kwietny [Floral Dream] (J. Przyboś), 1v, pf/12 insts, 1960; Pour un ensemble (Przyboś), spkr, str, 1961; Pacem in terris, 1v, prep pf, 1964; Narzędzie ze światła [Tool of the Light] (Przyboś), Bar, pf, 1966, orchd; Poème de Loire (A. Kosko), S, orch, 1968; Wiatrowiersze [Wind-Verses] (W. Broniewski), Bar, chbr orch, 1971; Skrzydła i ręce [Wings and Hands] (T. Różewicz), Bar, orch, 1972; Missa gratiarum actione, chorus, 1974; Portraits lyriques (A. Świrszczyńska and others), S, 2 vn, vc, pf, 1974; 3 pieśni zbójnickie [3 Highland Robber Songs] (folk texts), T, chorus, 1975; Hymnus de caritate (St Paul), chorus, 1976; Św. Franciszek z Asyżu [St Francis of Assisi] (orat, M. Skwarnicki), S, T, Bar, chorus, orch, 1976; Pieśń nadziei [Song of Hope] (J. Słowacki), chorus, 1978; 4 Antiphonae, male chorus, 1980–4; Litania polska [Polish Litany] (J. Twardowski), S, Mez, A, T, B, chorus, str, 1984; Apocalypsis, S, A, T, Bar, chorus, 1985; O ziemio polskę [Oh Polish Land] (Pope Jean-Paul II), chorus, 1987; Vesperae in Assumptione Beata Mariae Virginis, male chorus, 1987–9; Magnificat, chorus, 1990; 4 Antiphonae, chorus, 1992; Oremus, chorus, 1992; Msza polska [Polish Mass], Mez, chorus, wind orch, 1993; Sonet słowiański IX [Slavonic Sonnet] (K. Wojtyła), chorus, 1995; Gesang am Brunnen (Loccum breviary), S, T, Bar, chorus, chbr orch, 1996; Sanctus Adalbertus flos purpureus [St Wojciech, a Scarlet Flower] (orat, St Adalbert), Mez, T, Bar, chorus, orch, 1997

Chbr and solo inst: Capriccio, vn, pf, 1956; Sonata, cl, pf, 1956; Sonata, bn, pf, 1956; 3 impresje rytmiczne, pf, 1958; Lirica di timbri, prep pf, 1963; Maraton [Marathon], prep pf, 1963 [version of pantomime]; Passacaglia, prep pf, 1968; Image, org, 1977; Preludia Maryjne [Marian Preludes], org, 1982; Tripticum paschale, org, 1993; pf pieces for children

Principal publishers: Agencja Autorska PWM

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Grove6 (B. Schäffer)

T.A. Zieliński: ‘Muzyka fortepianowa Juliusza Łuciuka’, RM, xi/2 (1967), 5–6

J. Jaroszewicz: ‘Muzyka intymności’ [Music of Intimacy], RM, xviii/2 (1974), 8 only

M. Chrenkoff: ‘Oratorium Św. Franciszek z Asyżu Juliusza Łuciuka’, Krakowska szkoła kompozytorska 1888–1988, ed. T. Malecka (Kraków, 1992), 149–64

B. Pacholarz-Kunz: ‘Juliusz Łuciuk: czterdzieści lat muzyki’ [Łuciuk: 40 years of music], RM, xxxix/8 (1995), 11–13

ADRIAN THOMAS

Lucký, Štěpán

(b Žilina, Slovakia, 20 Jan 1919). Czech composer and writer. From 1936 to 1939 he studied composition at the Prague Conservatory with Hába, Šín and Řídký. He took an active part in the struggle against the German invaders, and was imprisoned in the Auschwitz and Buchenwald concentration camps. After his release in 1945 he continued his composition studies with Řídký until 1947, concurrently studying musicology at Prague University (1945–8). Between 1946 and 1948 he was a committee member of the Přítomnost association for contemporary music. Then he worked as a music critic for Prague daily newspapers, and also published articles in Rytmus and Hudební rozhledy. He was appointed head of music at the inception of Czech television in 1954, staying there for four years. He taught television opera production at the Prague Academy of Musical Arts from 1956 to 1961.

Until the end of the 1940s, Lucký was an inventive composer, using a lively sense of colour. He wrote Three Etudes (1946) for quarter-tone piano and experimented in other directions in his Cello Concerto (1946), Piano Concerto (1947) and Divertimento (1946) for three trombones and strings. During the 1950s and 1960s he devoted all of his energies to composing film music. With Václav Trojan and Jiří Srnka he established himself as one of the leading Czech composers of film scores. He wrote music for more than 40 feature films and over 100 short films, as well as much theatre music. He employed a Romantic style which brought Czech folksong into contact with South American folk music or with jazz and dance music. Only in the late 1960s did he return to composing concert music. His writings include Filmová hudba Václava Trojana (‘The film music of Václav Trojan’) (Prague, 1958; with V. Bor).

WORKS

(selective list)

Op: Půlnoční překvapení [The Midnight Surprise] (1), 1959, Prague, 1959

Orch: Symfonický prolog, 1939; More imperator, 1940–41; Vc Conc., 1946; Pf Conc., 1947; Orlická suita [Orlice Suite], str, 1951; Dvojkoncert [Double Conc.], vn, pf, orch, 1971; Nénie, vn, vc, orch, 1974–5; Conc. for Orch, 1976; Koncertantní fantasie, b cl, pf, str, 1983

Chbr and solo inst: Pf Sonata, 1940; Pf Sonatina, 1945; Divertimento, 3 trbn, str, 1946; 3 Etudes, 1/4-tone pf, 1946; Wind Qnt no.1, 1946; Sonata brevis, vn, pf, 1947; 3 pezzi per i Due Boemi, b cl, pf, 1970; Str Octet, 1970; Malá suita [Little Suite], vn, pf, 1971; Sonata doppia, 2 vn, 1971; Duo concertante, vn, gui, 1972; Sonata, fl, pf, 1973; Divertimento, wind qnt, 1974; Balada, vc, 1976; Preludio e scherzino, cl (1976); Invence pro sonátory [Impressions for sound makers], fl, b cl, prep pf, 1977; Musica collegialis, 2 ob, 2 cl, 2 bn, 2 hn, tpt, db, 1980; Rhapsodie, org, 1981; Wind Qnt no.2, 1982; Str Qt, 1984; Wind Qt, 1985; Sonatina, 2 gui, 1986

Vocal: Stesk [Nostalgia], song cycle, 1939–40; Loučení [Parting], song cycle, 1940; Nedopěné písně [Songs Half-Sung], song cycle, 1945; Milý na stráži [The Beloved One on Guard], song, chorus, orch, 1952; Osudová [Fateful] (V. Šefl), chorus, 1985

Film scores: Není stále zamračeno [It’s not Cloudy all the Time], 1950; Černý prapor [Black Flag], 1958; Komu tančí Havana [For whom Havana Dances]; Pochodně [Torches]; Znamení kouře [The Smoke Signal]; Rychlík do Ostravy [Express to Ostrava]

Principal publisher: Panton

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ČSHS

M. Kuna: Zvuk a hudba ve filmu [Sound and music for films] (Prague, 1969), esp. 156, 173, 180, 183, 186, 189, 220

OLDŘICH PUKL/R

Ludecus [Lüdtke, Lüdeke], Matthäus

(b Wilsnack [Bad Wilsnack], Prignitz, 21 Sept ?1527; d Havelberg, Prignitz, 12 Nov 1606). German civic official, ecclesiastic and composer. Fornaçon said he was born in 1517, but this date does not accord with those of his schooling. Owing to the early death of his impecunious parents he grew up in the Wendenhof at Wilsnack, at that time the seat of the Bishop of Havelberg, Busso II von Alvensleben. In 1539 he attended the school at Perleberg, and from 1540 to 1542 that at Pritzwalk, after which, owing to ill-health, he at intervals lived again at Wilsnack. Later Busso II appointed him tutor to two of his nephews at Wittstock and subsequently clerk in his own chancellory. When, after the bishop’s death in 1548, the diocese of Havelberg adopted the reformed faith, Ludecus went to Frankfurt an der Oder for a short period of study. At Easter 1550 he was summoned by Konrad von Rohr, chief administrator of the district of Prignitz, to work as clerk in his service; he carried out his laborious duties for four years. He then successfully applied for the post of town clerk of Lüneburg, making it a condition that he first be allowed to complete his studies at Frankfurt an der Oder. In 1556 he became town clerk of Prenzlau, Uckermark, and in 1560 collector of land taxes for Prignitz, a position that he held until 1597. In 1562 he also became a canon of Havelberg Cathedral. The cathedral chapter elected him dean in 1573. In this office, which he retained until his death, he devoted himself assiduously to the internal and external business of the chapter. His special interest in liturgical matters is reflected in four liturgical publications, all of which appeared in 1589. Together with similar works by Lucas Lossius (1553), Johannes Keuchenthal (1573) and Franz Eler (1588), they form a very important part of the Lutheran liturgical repertory of the 16th century. They are at once the last and most conservative of their kind, with Latin hymns forming a large part of their contents. The Missale includes four Latin Passions (one according to each of the four gospels), all based on traditional Passion tones and all monophonic. The performance of them, as readings during a service, would have been divided between the vicar, deacon and sub-deacon; they must therefore have been designed for cathedral use, since such a practice was not allowed in other churches at that time.

WORKS

Missale, hoc est Cantica, preces et lectiones sacrae quae ad Missae Officium … cantari usitate solent: prior pars de tempore (n.p., 1589)

Missale, hoc est Cantica, preces et lectiones sacrae quae ad Missae Officium … cantari usitate solent: posterior pars de sanctis (Wittenberg, 1589)

Vesperale et matutinale, hoc est Cantica, hymni et collectae sive precationes ecclesiasticae, quae in primis et secundis vesperis, itemque matutinis precibus … cantari usitate solent (n.p., 1589)

Psalterium Davidis … una cum antiphonis et psalmorum tropis: ad septem partes, ad numerum dierum unius hebdomadae digestum et ad matutinas et vespertinas preces accomodatum (Wittenberg, 1589); some ed. in Handbuch der deutschen evangelischen Kirchenmusik, i/1 (Göttingen, 1941)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (‘Passion’, W. Blankenburg)

S. Kümmerle: Encyklopädie der evangelischen Kirchenmusik, ii (Gütersloh, 1890/R)

T. Schrems: Die Geschichte des gregorianischen Gesanges in den protestantischen Gottesdiensten (Fribourg, 1930)

O.J. Mehl: ‘Das “Vesperale und Matutinale” des Matthäus Ludecus (1589)’, Theologische Literaturzeitung, lxxx (1955), col.265–70

S. Fornaçon: ‘Matthaus Lüdtke (Ludecus)’, Jb für Liturgik und Hymnologie, xii (1967), 167–70

WALTER BLANKENBURG

Luders, Gustav (Carl)

(b Bremen, Germany, 13 Dec 1865; d New York, 24 Jan 1913). American composer of German birth. He studied in Germany and in 1888 went to Milwaukee, where he conducted popular orchestras and led a light opera company. From 1889 he was an arranger for a branch of Witmark and directed theatre orchestras in Chicago. He wrote at least 13 operettas, musical comedies and musical plays, many of which were performed in Chicago before they appeared on Broadway. His chief lyricist was Frank Pixley. Their most successful work was The Prince of Pilsen (1903), which was performed in Boston, New York, St Louis and London and revived until at least 1957; it includes the songs ‘The Tale of the Seashell’, ‘The Message of the Violet’ and ‘The Heidelberg Stein Song’, which retains prominence in the college glee-club repertory. Other successful works by Luders include The Burgomaster (1900), Woodland (1904) and The Sho-Gun (1904).

Luders’s style reveals a familiarity with both Viennese operetta and the music of Arthur Sullivan. His works have an abundance of graceful waltzes and humorous or sentimental love songs, with sophisticated melodies, simple but varied rhythms and phrases, and a wider harmonic vocabulary than most stage musicals of the time. After 1904 he continued writing shows for the New York stage but did not achieve his previous popularity. He has been ignored by most writers on 20th-century musical theatre or popular song.

WORKS

all are operettas or musical plays, and unless otherwise stated dates are those of first New York performance

Little Robinson Crusoe (H.B. Smith), Chicago, 1899; The Burgomaster (F. Pixley), 31 Dec 1900 [incl. The Tale of the Kangaroo]; King Dodo (Pixley), 12 May 1902 [incl. The Tale of the Bumble Bee]; The Prince of Pilsen (Pixley), 17 March 1903 [incl. The Heidelberg Stein Song, The Message of the Violet, The Tale of the Seashell]; Mam’selle Napoleon (J.W. Herbert), 8 Dec 1903; The Sho-Gun (G. Ade), 10 Oct 1904; Woodland (Pixley), 21 Nov 1904 [incl. The Tale of the Turtle Dove, The Message of Spring]; The Grand Mogul (Pixley), 25 March 1907; Marcelle (Pixley), 1 Oct 1908; The Fair Co-Ed (Ade), 1 Feb 1909; The Old Town (Ade), 10 Jan 1910; The Gypsy (Pixley), 14 Nov 1912; Somewhere Else (A. Hopwood), 20 Jan 1913

Principal publisher: Witmark

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.W. McSpadden: Light Opera and Musical Comedy (New York, 1936)

S. Spaeth: A History of Popular Music in America (New York, 1948)

D. Ewen: Popular American Composers (New York, 1962; suppl. 1972)

DEANE L. ROOT

Ludewig, Wolfgang

(b Marburg am Lahn, 7 Dec 1926). German composer. He studied the piano and theory at the Mannheim Musikhochschule (1939–43), composition with Fortner (1946–52) and musicology at Heidelberg University with Thrasybulos Georgiades and Walter Gerstenberg (1953–8). In addition, he was deeply influenced by his contact with Leibowitz, Krenek and Varèse at Darmstadt summer courses. After early activity as a music critic he was made manager of the press department for Schott of Mainz, and from 1968 to 1992 he was editor in the music department of South German Radio. He became President of the Freie Akademie der Künste at Mannheim in 1994. At first he used serial techniques to give form to an expressionist statement, but after 1960 he developed beyond the influence of the Second Viennese School to combine new sound materials with conventional formal elements.

WORKS

(selective list)

Str Trio no.1, 1949; Str Trio no.2, 1950; Sinfonietta, str, 1951; Str Qt no.1, 1952; Leonce und Lena (op, 3), 1956/7; Str Qt no.2, 1960; Die Probe (op, 1), 1963; Im Wachen und im Traum, S, 8 insts, 1963; Gesang der Nacht, A, str, 1964; Tibi Christe, Splendor Patris, S, A, brass, pf, perc, 1965; Exercises, pf, 1968; Essay, ob, musette, str orch, 1969; Apokalyptische Vision, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1971; Mosaik, wind qnt, 1973–4; Invokationen, fl, pf, 1974; Soni, ob + eng hn, 1974; Reflexionen, fl, vc, pf, 1974–5; Gedanken eines Siebzehnjährigen (M. Ludewig), spkr, fl, perc, 1975; Fantasie [on a theme of Mozart], ens, 1976; Str Qt no.3, 1980; Movimento variato, fl, va, gui, 1981; Die Zeit ist reif, cantata against war, spkr, chorus, ens, 1986; Epigramme, cl qt, 1988; Jeu pour orchestre, 1989; My Love is a Fever (W. Shakespeare), Bar, pf, 1990; Sextuor, wind qt, perc, 1990; Konfigurationen, str trio, perc, 1993; Klatropos, tpt, trbn, pf, 1994; Mouvement, mar, 1994; Drei Fantasiestücke, va, perc, 1994; Fantasie, vn, perc, 1995; Immagini, fl, perc, 1995; Wind Ot, 1998; Variationen t rec, perc, 1991

Principal publishers: Bote & Bock, Edition Gravis

WRITINGS

‘“Kunst für Gott”: die geistlichen Werke von Igor Stravinsky’, Musica sacra, xcii (1972), 41–9

‘Über Strömungen und Entwicklungen in der Musik der zwanziger Jahre’, Musica sacra, xxxi/5 (1977), 412–15

‘Die Oper – eine Schau der Welt’, Zur Dramaturgie der Barockoper: Karlsruhe 1992 und 1993 (Laaber, 1994), 133–40

CLYTUS GOTTWALD

Ludford [Ludforde, Ludforth], Nicholas

(b c1490; d bur. Westminster, 9 Aug 1557). English composer. He is considered to be one of the most important and innovative composers in early Tudor England. Nothing is known of his early musical training and career. He may have been born in London, where in 1495 the composer John Ludforde (possibly Nicholas’s father) joined the Fraternity of St Nicholas, the London Guild of Parish clerks; Nicholas Ludford himself joined in 1521. It is clear that he was very much a local composer who was employed for the majority of his adult working life at the royal chapel of St Stephen in the Palace of Westminster (a sister foundation of St George’s, Windsor). Since its foundation by Edward III in 1348, St Stephen’s comprised a dean, 12 secular canons, 13 vicars choral, four clerks or ‘singing men’, six choristers (a seventh being added sometime in the late 15th century), a verger and a sacristan. The Instructor of the Choristers was to be appointed from among the vicars choral and clerks; Ludford is not known to have held this post.

The earliest reference to Ludford in Westminster is in January 1517 when he rented lodgings from Westminster Abbey, during which time he may have had some association with the Chapel Royal. He was certainly attached to St Stephen’s in the early 1520s (perhaps as a clerk or vicar choral), and acquired a full probationary post by 1525. On 30 September 1527 he was formally appointed verger of the chapel with an annual income of £9 2s. 6d., and an additional 13s. 4d. each year at Christmas towards his ecclesiastical dress; as organist he received an additional stipend of 40 shillings. The origin of the post of ‘verger cum organist’ is not clear but it seems to have been more administrative than musical, even though other composers are known to have held it (for example, Johannes Bedyngham at St Stephen’s in 1457 and John Plummer at St George’s, Windsor, from about 1460 to 1484). Ludford was probably responsible for overseeing chapel maintenance and leading the processions. Besides his organ-playing, these duties may have extended to the supervision of music in the chapel (somewhat like the duties of a precentor).

Throughout his adult life Ludford was also heavily active in the administration of St Margaret’s, Westminster. He regularly maintained his pew there from 1525 and bore witness to the churchwarden’s accounts between 1537 and 1556. He probably did not participate much in the music-making there, though in 1553 the churchwardens paid him 20 shillings for ‘a pryke songe boke’. Between 1552 and 1554 Ludford was himself elected churchwarden of St Margaret’s, during which time his first wife, Anne, died; on 21 May 1554 he married a Helen Thomas. There is no evidence that he composed for the reformed church, and it is likely that he remained a staunch Catholic throughout his life. He died in 1557, possibly from the influenza epidemic that raged in England at this time, and was buried in the vaults of St Margaret’s church on 9 August next to his first wife. His will was proved on 22 November.

The majority of Ludford’s festal settings of the Mass and his Magnificat are copied in the so-called Caius and Lambeth Choirbooks (GB-Cgc 667 and GB-Llp 1). Both books are enormous productions, copied by the same hand, and were probably commissioned by Edward Higgins, a prominent royal lawyer who held a canonry at St Stephen’s from 1517, and who was Master of Arundel College, Sussex, from 1520. A manuscript roll containing the bass part of Ludford’s antiphon Gaude flore virginali in Arundel Castle (GB-AR A340) is also in the same hand as the choirbooks, leading to the hypothesis that both books were assembled in Arundel under Higgins’s mastership: Lambeth as an everyday choirbook of Arundel College, with the more elaborately decorated Caius as a presentation manuscript from Higgins to St Stephen’s (possibly to mark Ludford’s formal appointment as verger there in 1527).

The two six-part masses (Missa ‘Videte miraculum’ and Missa ‘Benedicta et venerabilis’) best exemplify Ludford’s command of full, rich and sonorous writing. The latter is of particular interest because of its associated Magnificat, which is the only English setting to incorporate an independent plainchant melody rather than a psalm tone. Both the Mass and the Magnificat are constructed with two equal bass parts throughout, while Videte miraculum (arguably Ludford’s greatest work) exploits the opposite end of the vocal spectrum with two equal treble parts (see illustration). The five-part masses and votive antiphons are moulded in the post-Eton Choirbook style as developed in the works of Robert Fayrfax, where the slow-moving harmonies take precedence over individual elaborate vocal lines.

The seven three-part alternatim masses comprise the only complete weekly cycle of English Lady Masses known to have survived. They are copied in a set of four partbooks that can be dated between about 1515 and 1525, and were probably a gift to Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon (they are recorded in an inventory made in 1542 of Henry VIII’s books in Westminster). The polyphony is florid and stylistically similar to the verse sections in Ludford’s festal masses. The alleluia and sequence movements of the solo passages are in plainchant, but in the Kyrie, Gloria and Credo movements they are in measured polyphony taken from a repertory of uncertain origin (possibly borrowed from polyphony) that has come to be known as ‘squares’. Ludford also set a four-part mass (now fragmentary), which uses as its cantus firmus the same square as the first of the Lady Masses (Dominica). The theme, associated with the name ‘Le roy’, was also used by John Taverner and an anonymous English composer as a cantus firmus for settings of the Kyrie.

WORKS

Editions: Nicholas Ludford: Collected Works, ed. J.D. Bergsagel, CMM, xxvii (1963–77) [B]Nicholas Ludford: Mass Inclina (or meum Deus) and Antiphons , ed. D. Skinner, EECM, xliv (forthcoming) [S]

Missa ‘Benedicta’, 6vv, GB-Cgc 667, Llp 1; B ii

Missa ‘Christe virgo dilectissima’, 5vv, Cgc 667, Cu Peterhouse 471–4 (lacks T); B ii

Missa ‘Inclina cor meum Deus’, 5vv, Cu Peterhouse 471–4 (lacks T); S

Missa ‘Lapidaverunt Stephanum’, 5vv, Cgc 667, Llp 1; B ii

Missa ‘Le roy’, 4vv, Lbl Add.30520 (inc., part of San and Ag only)

Missa ‘Regnum mundi’, 5vv, Cu Peterhouse 471–4 (lacks T and part of triplex); S

Missa ‘Videte miraculum’, 6vv, Cgc 667; B ii

7 alternatim ferial Lady masses, 3vv, Lbl Roy.App.45–8; B i

Magnificat ‘Benedicta et venerabilis’, 6vv, Cgc 667 (on Mass); ed. in EECM, iv (1964), B ii

Ave cuius conceptio, 5vv, Cu Peterhouse 471–4 (lacks T); S

Ave Maria ancilla Trinitatis, 5vv, Cu Peterhouse 471–4 (lacks T); S

Gaude flore virginali, AR a340 (inc. bassus only); S

Domine Jesu Christe, 5vv, Cu Peterhouse 471–4 (lacks T); S

Salve regina mater misericordie, 5vv, Cu Peterhouse 471–4 (lacks T), Lbl Harl.1709 (inc., medius only); S

Salve regina pudica mater, Lbl Harl.1709 (inc., medius only); S

Missa ‘Tecum principium’; Missa ‘Requiem eternam’ (?‘Regnum mundi’); Missa ‘Sermone blando’: lost (listed in index to lost partbooks, now flyleaf in Merton College, Oxford, 62.f.8)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

HarrisonMMB

H. Baillie: ‘Nicholas Ludford (c.1485–c.1557)’, MQ, xliv (1958), 196–208

J. Bergsagel: ‘An Introduction to Ludford’, MD, xiv (1960), 105–30

J. Bergsagel: ‘On the Performance of Ludford’s alternatim Masses’, MD, xvi (1962), 35–55

J. Milsom: ‘The Date of Ludford’s Lady Masses: a Cautionary Note’, ML, lxvi (1985), 367–8

D. Skinner: ‘“At the Mynde of Nycholas Ludford”: New Light on Ludford from the Churchwardens’ Accounts of St Margaret’s, Westminster’, EMc, xxii (1994), 393–413

F. Kisby: ‘Music and Musicians of Early Tudor Westminster’, EMc, xxiii (1995), 223–40

D. Skinner: Nicholas Ludford (c1490–1557): a Biography and Critical Edition of the Antiphons, with a Study of the Collegiate Chapel of the Holy Trinity, Arundel, under the Mastership of Edward Higgons, and a History of the Caius and Lambeth Choirbooks (diss., U. of Oxford, 1995)

D. Skinner: ‘Discovering the Provenance and Date of the Caius and Lambeth Choirbooks’, EMc, xxv (1997), 245–66

D. Skinner: ‘William Cornysh: Clerk or Courtier’, MT, cxxxviii (1997), 5–12

D. Skinner: ‘Ludford’s Lady Masses, XX Songes, and a Westminster Inventory of 1542’ (forthcoming)

DAVID SKINNER

Ludovico, Luigi.

See Gianella, Louis.

Ludovico Milanese [Ludovico de Mediolano; Zoppino]

(b ?Milan, c1480; d after 1537). Italian composer, organist and singer. He was a priest. His name indicates that he was born in or around Milan. He was maestro di cappella and organist at S Michele, Lucca from 1512 to 1514, with a salary of 50 ducats a year. In August 1512, just after being installed in S Michele, he auditioned in Siena for the position of organist at the Cathedral and was offered the large salary of 100 florins a year. For some reason, he either did not accept or the offer fell through, for he returned to Lucca in September. In 1514 he was made a canon at S Martino Cathedral, Lucca. In 1519 he was given a three-year stipend of 24 ducats a year for ‘teaching music to the many youths who so greatly desire it’. He appears to have left Lucca in July 1537, when his name disappears from the records of S Martino.

Ludovico’s one lauda, A te drizo ogni mio passo, is a barzelletta; his eight frottolas consist of four strambotti, three ode (one of which is endacasyllabic) and one barzelletta. He seems to have preferred melancholy texts for his frottolas, for none are of the lighter, humorous variety found in the works of other composers. Serà chi per pietà uses dissonance as an expressive device. Ameni colli, a strambotto, features an almost recitative-like melody and is one of the few frottolas for five voices. The publication of four of his works in 1517 and 1519 suggests that he was still active as a frottolist while he was in Lucca and, by extension, that the frottola was being cultivated on Tuscan soil in addition to its native territory of northern Italy. Two barzellette (Chiara luce mi può dare and S’io non venni) ascribed to ‘Ludovico S’ in Sambonetto’s Canzone, sonetti, strambotti et frottole, libro primo (Siena, 1515), may also be by Ludovico Milanese (D’Accone, 1995).

WORKS

for 4vv unless otherwise stated

Lauda: A te drizo ogni mio passo, 1508³, ed. in Jeppesen and Brøndahl (1935/R)

Frottolas: Alme celeste, 1507⁴, ed. in IMa, new ser., iii (1964); Ameni colli, 5vv, 1507⁴, ed. in IMa, new ser., iii (1964); Benigno e grave, 1517²; Haimè haimè nè mo nè mai, 1517²; Hor che serà di me, 1519⁴; Quando mi mostra, 1507⁴; Serà chi per pietà, 1507⁴, ed. in IMa, new ser., iii (1964); Vinto da passion, 1517²

BIBLIOGRAPHY

NericiS

K. Jeppesen and V. Brøndahl, eds.: Die mehrstimmige italienische Laude um 1500 (Copenhagen and Leipzig, 1935/R)

B. Disertori, ed.: Le frottole per canto e liuto intabulate da Franciscus Bossinensis, IMa, new ser., iii (1964)

K. Jeppesen: La frottola (Århus and Copenhagen, 1968–70)

F. Luisi: La musica vocale nel Rinascimento (Turin, 1977)

F. D’Accone: ‘Instrumental Resonances in a Sienese Vocal Print of 1515’, Le Concert des voix et des instruments à la Renaissance: Paris, 1995, 333–59

F. D’Accone: The Civic Muse: Music and Musicians in Siena during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (Chicago, 1997)

WILLIAM F. PRIZER

Ludovicus Sanctus [Ludwig van Kempen]

(b ?Beringen, ?1304; d Avignon,?May 1361). Franco-Flemish music theorist. During the years 1329–30 he served as magister in musica to Cardinal Giovanni Colonna in Avignon. There he met Petrarch, with whom, under the pseudonym ‘Socrates’, he became close friends. Unlike Colonna, Ludovicus survived the plague years of 1342–8 and stayed in Avignon until his death. He is probably the author of two music treatises, which in some secondary sources are attributed to St Louis of Toulouse (Louis of Anjou, 1274–97): De musicae commendacione (lost) and Sentencia in musica sonora subiecti Ludovici sancti (a short text on f.170r of I-Fl Ashburnham 1051). In the latter the author used the form of a scholastic argument to investigate the essence of musica sonora, which, he concluded, pertained first and foremost to the relation of number and sound; secondly to the relation of one sound to another (from which the subject of polyphony has occasionally been misconstrued); and finally – based on the first two categories – to the determination of proprieties, passions and modulations. Thus musica sonora largely describes Boethius's concept of musica instrumentalis, and in this sense the term also appears in several other 13th- and 14th-century treatises (e.g. by Robertus Kilwardby and Jehan des Murs).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

U. Berlière: Un ami de Pétrarque: Louis Sanctus de Beeringen (Rome and Paris, 1905)

A. Amelli: ‘Di uno scritto inedito di S. Lodovico vescovo di Tolosa intorno alla musica’, Archivum franciscanum historicum, ii (1909), 378–83

H. Cochin: ‘Sur le Socrate de Pétrarque: le musicien flamand Ludovicus Sanctus de Beeringhen’, Mélanges d'archéologie et d'histoire, xxxvii (1918–19), 3–32

ANDREAS GIGER

Lüdtke [Lüdeke], Matthäus.

See Ludecus, Matthäus.

Ludus

(Lat.: ‘game’, ‘play’).

See Medieval drama.

Ludus Coventriae

(Lat.).

One of the Corpus Christi Plays. See Medieval drama §III, 3(i).

Ludus Danielis

(Lat.).

Play of Daniel. See Medieval drama.

Ludvicus de Arimino

(b Rimini; fl 1435). Italian composer. He may be identifiable with the rector of S Andrea in the village of Masone Vicentino in 1446, a position controlled by the Paduan monastery of S Giustina, or with the presbyter ‘Ludvico quondam Acolini Ariminensis preposito S Trinitatis de Padua’, who acted as a leading member of the fratelea cappellanorum in Padua between 1455 and 1475.

Ludvicus’s three extant works are in the fourteenth gathering of I-TRmp 87), written by a single scribe on a paper found also in Vicenza between 1433 and 1436. Salve cara deo tellus (edn in DTÖ, lxxvi, Jg.xl (1933), 14–15; also ed. Disertori, 75–8, Stevens, suppl., and Nosow, 379–87), on a text by Petrarch, is a finely controlled motet in the florid style initiated by Du Fay, with a highly elaborate superius line. The ballata Gentile alma benigna (ed. in DTÖ, xxii, Jg.ix (1903), 115–16), attributed to ‘lb’ (‘Ludbicus’) at the top of the page and in the tenor, directly follows Salve cara deo tellus in the manuscript. The untexted duo headed ‘Unum pulcrum’ (TRmp 87, f.157) has an extended second ending in the manner of ballatas like Or s’avanta omay by Prepositus Brixiensis.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

B. Disertori: ‘L’epistola all’Italia del Petrarca musicata nei Codici Tridentini’, RMI, xlvi (1942), 65–78

D. Stevens: ‘Petrarch’s Greeting to Italy’, MT, cxv (1974), 834–6

R. Nosow: The Florid and Equal-Discantus Motet Styles of Fifteenth-Century Italy (diss., U. of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1992)

T.C. Schmidt: ‘“Carmina gratulatoria”: Humanistische Dichtung in der Staatsmotette des 15. Jahrhunderts’, AMw, li (1994), 83–109

ROBERT NOSOW

Ludvig-Pečar, Nada

(b Sarajevo, 12 May 1929). Croatian composer. She studied composition with Miroslav Špiler in Sarajevo and Škerjanc in Ljubljana, and from 1969 taught theory at the Sarajevo Music Academy. Her musical language is rooted in European music of the first decades of the 20th century. She has contributed to almost all musical genres but most successfully to the solo song repertory. Her most notable works are Sappho for voice and piano (1974), a violin suite (1965), the String Quartet in D (1966) and the piano pieces Deset studija (Ten Studies, 1965) and Suita hexatonica (1973).

MELITA MILIN

Ludvová, Jitka

(b Holešov, 1 Oct 1943). Czech musicologist. She studied piano with František Rauch and music theory with Janeček at the Prague Academy of Musical Arts (graduating in 1969), and took the doctorate in musicology in Olomouc in 1975 with a dissertation on the Czech Society for Modern Music in Prague. She worked at the Musicology Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences (1969–98), interrupted by a brief period as a freelancer (1990–93). She joined the Theatre Institute in Prague in 1998 to work on an encyclopedia of Czech theatre, with responsibility for the 19th century. A specialist in 19th- and early 20th-century Czech music, she wrote several joint studies with Vladimír Lébl, culminating in the penultimate chapter of the standard Czech music history, Hudba v českých dějinách. Ludvová’s interests have been in Czech music theory (which has resulted in a two-volume survey from 1750 to 1900) and in the German contribution to music in Bohemia, notably the history of the Prague German theatre and of Mahler’s connections with Prague. Her many specialist translations from the German include a Czech edition of Hanslick’s memoirs and reviews.

WRITINGS

Matematické metody v hudební analýze [Mathematical methods in musical analysis] (Prague, 1975)

Spolek pro moderní hudbu v Praze [The Society for Modern Music in Prague] (diss., U. of Olomouc, 1975); abridged in HV, xiii (1976), 147–73

‘Viktor Ullmann’, HV, xvi (1979), 99–120

with V. Lébl: ‘Pražské orchestrální koncerty v letech 1860–1895’, HV, xvii (1980), 99–139

with V. Lébl: ‘Dobové kořeny a souvislosti Smetanovy Mé vlasti’ [The historical roots and connections of Smetana’s Má vlast], HV, xviii (1981), 99–141

‘Neues deutsches Theater in Prag 1888–1988’, Oper heute, vi (1983), 269–86

‘Schönbergovi žáci v Čechách’ [Schoenberg’s students in Bohemia], HV, xx (1983), 322–53

with V. Lébl: ‘Nová doba (1860–1938)’ [The new period], in J. Černý and others: Hudba v českých dějinách [Music in Czech history] (Prague, 1983, 2/1989), 329–419

‘Meyerbeer na pražském německém jevišti 1815–1935’ [Meyerbeer in the Prague German theatre], HV, xxi (1984), 365–75

Česká hudební teorie: 1750–1850 [Czech music theory] (Prague, 1985)

‘Gustav Mahler in Prag im Mai 1908’, HV, xxiii (1986), 255–63

‘Twórczosc Chopina w dziewietnestowiecznej Pradze’ [Chopin’s works in 19th-century Prague], Rocznik chopinowski, xviii (1986), 107–24

‘Zur Bibliographie Eduard Hanslicks’, SMw, xxxvii (1986), 37–46

‘Chopin v českém tisku v 19. století’ [Chopin in the 19th-century Czech press], HV, xxv (1988), 103–19 [with Ger. summary]

‘Hudební motivy Hankových padělků’ [Musical motifs in Hanka’s forgery], HV, xxv (1988), 293–310 [with Ger. summary]

Česká hudební teorie novější doby, 1850–1900 [Czech music theory of the later period, 1850–1900] (Prague, 1989)

‘Hankovy padělky v české hudbě’ [Hanka’s forgeries in Czech music], HV, xxvii (1990), 299–319

ed.: Dokonalý antiwagnerián E. Hanslick (Prague, 1992) [trans. of Hanslick’s memoirs and reviews]

‘Anton Joseph Gruss (1816–1893): Vierteltonmusik im 19. Jh.’, Mitteilungen der Österreichischen Gesellschaft für Musikwissenschaft, no.28 (1995), 34–41

‘Československé státni ceny pro německé hudebníky’ [Czech state prizes for German musicians], HV, xxxii (1995), 99–129

Gustav Mahler a Praha/Gustav Mahler und Prag (Prague, 1996)

‘Mahler, Zemlinsky und die Tschechische Philharmonie’, Nachrichten zur Mahler-Forschung, no.36 (1997), 3–10

JOHN TYRRELL

Ludwig.

American firm of instrument makers. William F. Ludwig (i) (b Nenderoth, 15 July 1879; d Chicago, 14 June 1973) left Germany for Chicago as a boy, and in 1909 founded Ludwig & Ludwig with his brother Theobald (1888–1917). Their first product was a foot-pedal for trap drums. Having played hand-tuned kettledrums in the Pittsburgh Orchestra, Ludwig decided to build his own pedal timpani. With his brother-in-law, the engineer Robert C. Danly, he designed a model, patented in 1913, with a hydraulic pump and an expandable rubber tube filled with water which pressed a hoop against the membrane from inside the kettle for rapid tuning. An improved model with flexible tuning cables operated by a foot-pedal with self-locking device was patented in 1920. The ‘Natural Way Balanced Action’ timpani (patented 1923) made use of a compression spring for tension balance to hold the pedal in place. The firm expanded and made quantities of drum kits and sound-effect instruments for the flourishing silent movie theatres. However, the arrival of talking pictures and the Depression resulted in declining sales, and in 1930 the company merged with C.G. Conn. Its production was combined with that of the Leedy drum division (see Leedy manufacturing co.) and moved to Elkhart, Indiana, with Ludwig as manager. During this period he introduced the first lightweight, chromatic bell-lyra for marching bands (for illustration see Bell-lyra). In 1936 Ludwig resigned to set up the W.F.L. Drum Co. together with his son in Chicago and over the next 20 years produced several new models of timpani and a variety of percussion instruments. (For illustration of Ludwig machine timpani, see Timpani, fig.4.) In 1955 he bought back the Ludwig portion of Conn's percussion business, which became the Ludwig Drum Co. The Musser Marimba Co. (a manufacturer of vibraphones, marimbas, xylophones, bells and chimes) and its two subsidiaries was acquired in 1966; a parent company, Ludwig Industries, was subsequently organized over all the divisions. William F. Ludwig (ii) became president in 1972 and in 1981 the firm was acquired by Selmer. At the end of the 20th century it continued to operate, both the Musser Marimba Co. and the Ludwig Drum Co., as separate divisions. The Ludwig Drum Co., produces five models of timpani: the ‘Ringer’ Dresden-style, with hand-hammered, pure copper, camber-shaped kettles; the similar grand symphonic drums; the professional and standard series, with parabolic bowls and ‘balanced action’ pedals; and the universal model tuned by means of a hand crank.

EDMUND A. BOWLES

Ludwig, Christa

(b Berlin, 16 March 1928). German mezzo-soprano. The daughter of the singers Anton Ludwig and Eugenia Besalle, she studied with her mother and Felice Hüni-Mihaczek, making her début in 1946 as Orlofsky at Frankfurt, where she sang until 1952. After engagements at Darmstadt and Hanover, she joined the Vienna Staatsoper in 1955 and remained there for more than 30 years, creating Miranda in Martin’s Der Sturm (1956) and Claire Zachanassian in Einem’s Der Besuch der alten Dame (1971). Having first sung at Salzburg in 1954 as Cherubino, she took part in Liebermann’s Die Schule der Frauen (1957) and returned there until 1981, when she sang Mistress Quickly. Ludwig made her American début in Chicago in 1959 as Dorabella. At the Metropolitan (1959–90) her roles included Cherubino, the Dyer’s Wife, Dido in the first American production of Les Troyens (1973), Fricka, Waltraute, Ortrud, Kundry, the Marschallin, Charlotte and Clytemnestra. At Bayreuth she sang Brangäne (1966) and Kundry (1967). She made her Covent Garden début in 1968 as Amneris, returning as Carmen (1976). Her repertory included Leonore (Fidelio) and Lady Macbeth, as well as Monteverdi’s Octavia, Eboli and Marie (Wozzeck). She was also a renowned interpreter of lieder, especially those of Brahms and Mahler. Her voice was rich, even-toned and expressive, and she was a compelling actress. Ludwig’s many operatic recordings include Dorabella under Böhm, Leonore with Klemperer, Venus and Kundry for Solti and Ortrud for Kempe. She also recorded much of her large concert and lieder repertory, notably Bach’s St Matthew Passion, Brahms’s Alto Rhapsody, and Das Lied von der Erde (all with Klemperer). From 1957 to 1971 she was married to the bass-baritone Walter Berry. At the time of her retirement in 1994 she gave an outspoken television interview with Thomas Voigt (now available on video), in which she discussed her career and her working relationships with Klemperer, Karajan and others.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P. Lorenz: Christa Ludwig, Walter Berry (Vienna, 1968)

C. Osborne: ‘Christa Ludwig’, Opera, xxiv (1973), 216–22

ALAN BLYTH

Ludwig, Friedrich

(b Potsdam, 8 May 1872; d Göttingen,3 Oct 1930). German musicologist. He studied in the history faculty of Strasbourg University under Bresslau, but after he gained the doctorate in 1896 with a dissertation on military journeys in the Middle Ages, medieval music claimed most of his attention. Among musicians in Strasbourg in these years were Pfitzner, Schweitzer and Gustav Jacobsthal, the latter (from 1897) the only musicologist to be full professor at a German university. Jacobsthal’s research into 13th-century polyphony was continued by Ludwig, who succeeded his mentor in the chair of musicology (1905), later becoming professor (1910). After the war he became professor at Göttingen University (1920), and later rector of Göttingen (1929–30). His papers are preserved in the Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek, Göttingen.

Ludwig’s remarkable work, his eminence in university circles and the distinction of his pupils make him an outstanding figure in the world of learning. While Coussemaker, W. Meyer and Jacobsthal had all made valuable contributions to the study of the early motet, Ludwig’s systematic appreciation and analysis of all the important 13th-century sources of polyphony remains perhaps the most important achievement made by one man in the study of medieval music. His Repertorium – unfinished at his death, yet an indispensable textbook, research tool and guide to analytical technique – has dwarfed all subsequent work on the music. The Catalogue raisonné of sources in square notation appeared in 1910; sources in mensural notation were to have been described in a subsequent volume. Proofs (of pp.345–456; pagination was continuous through the first two volumes), describing the La Clayette Manuscript and part of the Montpellier Motet Manuscript, had been checked by Ludwig by 1911, but were not published until Gennrich’s edition of 1961–2. The complete volume was then edited by Max and Sylvie Lütolf, and Dittmer from Ludwig's manuscript, and published in 1978. ‘Die Quellen der Motetten ältesten Stils’ (1923), a magisterial survey of these sources, is based on material originally intended for the second volume. At the time of this essay, the material from newly discovered peripheral sources, and the necessity of signalling the wealth of new writing on medieval music and literature, had brought an account of the repertory as thorough as Ludwig had accomplished to the limit of human capacity. Part II of Repertorium, containing music and text incipits arranged by cantus firmus after the course of the liturgical year, was also partly in proof by 1911. This, and Ludwig’s manuscript of the rest of the volume, were also edited by Gennrich after his death.

From his essay on 14th-century music (in SIMG, iv, 1902–3) it is clear that Ludwig would have been a lone giant in work on this period too, but for the simultaneous interest of Johannes Wolf. As it was, Ludwig offered a remarkable critique of Wolf’s Geschichte der Mensural notation von 1250–1460 (1904/R), and wrote a masterly summary of his own life’s work in Adler’s Handbuch der Musikgeschichte(1924): this covered not only all polyphonic music to about 1430, but also music of the troubadours and trouvères (from Gennrich’s explanation it is clear that Ludwig was the earliest advocate of using the system of rhythmic modes in the transcription of troubadour and trouvère melodies), and liturgical drama and other para-liturgical monophony. Ludwig’s edition of Machaut’s works was nevertheless his only publication of this type.

To later generations of musicians, for whom microfilm has replaced the copying of manuscripts by hand, and for whom the main outlines of medieval music history have been drawn, Ludwig’s work of synthesis is as difficult to appreciate adequately as it is almost hypnotic in its authority. Gennrich continued his work of cataloguing, Besseler his work on later medieval music; Anglès, Husmann, Bomm and Müller-Blattau were other outstanding pupils.

WRITINGS

‘Studien über die Geschichte der mehrstimmigen Musik im Mittelalter’, i: ‘Die mehrstimmige Musik des 14. Jahrhunderts’; ii: ‘Die 50 Beispiele Coussemaker’s aus der Handschrift von Montpellier’; iii: ‘Über die Entstehung und die erste Entwicklung der lateinischen und französischen Motette in musikalischer Beziehung’, SIMG, iv (1902–3), 16–69; v (1903–4), 117–224; vii (1905–6), 514–28; ed. F. Gennrich, SMM, xvi (1966)

‘Geschichte der Mensural notation von 1250–1460: nach den theoretischen und praktischen Quellen bearbeitet von Johannes Wolf’,SIMG, vi (1904–5), 597–641 [review]

‘Studien über die Geschichte der mehrstimmigen Musik im Mittelalter’, i: ‘Die mehrstimmige Musik der ältesten Epoche im Dienste der Liturgie’; ii: ‘Ein mehrstimmiges St. Jakobs-Offizium des 12. Jahrhunderts’, KJb, xix (1905), 1–16

‘Die gregorianische Choralrestauration und der Internationale Kongress für gregorianischen Gesang in Strassburg vom 16. bis 19. August 1905’, ZIMG, vii (1905–6), 129–34

Review of V. Lederer: Über Heimat und Ursprung der mehrstimmigen Tonkunst, ZIMG, vii (1905–6), 404–14; see also Lederer’s reply, SIMG, viii (1906–7), 491–516 and Ludwig’s reply, pp.630–37

‘Die Aufgaben der Forschung auf dem Gebiete der mittelalterlichen Musikgeschichte’, Allgemeine Zeitung, suppl. (Munich, 17–18 Jan 1906), 97–9, 107–9 [inaugural lecture]

‘Die mehrstimmigen Werke der Handschrift Engelberg 314’, KJb, xxi (1908), 48–61

‘Die liturgischen Organa Leonins und Perotins’,Riemann-Festschrift (Leipzig, 1909/R), 200–13

‘Die mehrstimmige Musik des 11. und 12. Jahrhunderts’, IMusSCR III: Vienna 1909, 101–8

‘Zur “modalen Interpretation” von Melodien des 12. und 13. Jahrhunderts’, ZIMG, xi (1909–10), 379–82

Repertorium organorum recentioris et motetorum vetustissimi stili, i: Catalogue raisonné der Quellen, pt 1: Handschriften in Quadrat-Notation (Halle, 1910); repr. with preface by L. Dittmer in Musicological Studies, vii (1964); pt 2: Handschriften in Mensural-Notation, ed. F. Gennrich, SMM, vii (1961); ed. M. and S. Lütolf, and L. Dittmer, Musicological Studies, xxxvi (1978); ii: Musikalisches Anfangs-Verzeichnis des nach Tenores geordneten Repertorium, ed. F. Gennrich, SMM, viii (1962); repr. with preface by L. Dittmer in Musicological Studies, xvii (1972)

‘Gustav Jacobsthal’, Strassburger Post (18 Nov 1912); also in ZIMG, xiv (1912–13), 67–70

Die älteren Musikwerke der von Gustav Jacobsthal (†1912) begründeten Bibliothek des ‘Akademischen Gesangvereins’ Strassburg (Strasbourg, 1913)

‘Mehrstimmige Musik des 12. oder 13. Jahrhunderts im Schlettstädter St. Fides Codex’, Festschrift Hermann Kretzschmar (Leipzig, 1918/R), 80–84

‘Beethovens Skizzen’, Göttinger Zeitung (12 Dec 1920)

‘Perotinus Magnus’, AMw, iii (1921), 361–70

‘Musik des Mittelalters in der Badischen Kunsthalle Karlsruhe’, ZMw, v (1922–3), 434–48; suppl., 640

‘Ergänzungen zur Anzeige von H. Kjellman: Le troubadour Raimon-Jordan (1922)’, Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, xliii (1923), 502–4

‘Die Quellen der Motetten ältesten Stils’,AMw, v (1923), 184–222, 273–315; suppl., vi (1924), 245; repr. in SMM, vii (1961)

‘Die geistliche nichtliturgische und weltliche einstimmige und die mehrstimmige Musik des Mittelalters bis zum Anfang des 15. Jahrhunderts’, Handbuch der Musikgeschichte, ed. G. Adler (Frankfurt, 1924, 2/1930/R), 157–295

‘Die mehrstimmige Messe des 14. Jahrhunderts’,AMw, vii (1925), 417–35; corrections, AMw, viii (1926), 130; summary in Deutsche Musikgesellschaft: Kongress I: Leipzig1925, 218

‘Versuch einer Übertragung der Motetten Herenthals Nr. 4 und 5’, ZMw, ix (1926–7), 196–201

‘Beethovens Leonore’, Mitteilungen des Universitätsbundes Göttingen, ix (1927), 12–32

‘Die Erforschung der Musik des Mittelalters’,Mitteilungen des Universitätsbundes Göttingen, xii (1930), 1–30

‘Über den Entstehungsort der grossen Notre Dame-Handschriften’, Studien zur Musikgeschichte: Festschrift für Guido Adler (Vienna, 1930/R), 45–9

EDITIONS

transcr. for La musique des intermèdes lyriques dans le Remède de Fortune, Oeuvres de Guillaume de Machaut, ii, ed. E. Hoepffner (Paris, 1911)

G. de Machaut: Musikalische Werke, i–iii, Publikationen älterer Musik, i/1, 3–4 (Leipzig, 1926–9/R); iv (Leipzig, 1943/R) [ed. H. Besseler, with suppl.]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.M. Müller-Blattau: Dem Andenken Friedrich Ludwigs (Kassel, 1930) [with list of writings]

Obituaries: K. Ameln, Die Singgemeinde (1930), Oct–Nov; H. Besseler, ZMw, xiii (1930–31), 83–91 [incl. list of writings and reviews]; J. Handschin, Neue Zürcher Zeitung (8 Oct 1930); C. Mahrenholz, Musik und Kirche, ii (1930); J.M. Müller-Blattau, Monatsschrift für Gottesdienst und kirchliche Kunst (Oct 1930); L. Schrade, Musikerziehung, vii (1930), 333–9; G. Cesari, RMI, xxxviii (1931), 110–14

H. Anglès: El Còdex musical de Las Huelgas, i (Barcelona, 1931/R), p.v, 211

F. Gennrich: Die Strassburger Schule für Musikwissenschaft (Würzburg, 1940)

J. Chailley: ‘Quel est l’auteur de la “théorie modale” dite de Beck-Aubry?’, AMw, x (1953), 213–22 [with letter from Ludwig to Aubry, 13 April 1907]

H. Besseler: ‘Dufay in Rom’, Miscelánea en homenaje a Monseñor Higinio Anglés (Barcelona, 1958–61), 111–34

F. Gennrich: ‘Wer ist der Initiator der “Modaltheorie”? suum cuique’, Miscelánea en homenaje a Monseñor Higinio Anglés (Barcelona, 1958–61), 315–30

DAVID HILEY

Ludwig, Johann Adam Jakob

(b Sparneck, Upper Franconia, 1 Oct 1730; d Hof, 8 Jan 1782). German critic and writer on organ building. He was a postal clerk in Hof and, after 1764, accountant at the Vierling bookshop. He was a member of several scientific and economic societies and his contact with distinguished organ builders (such as J.A. Silbermann) enabled him to acquire a thorough knowledge of organ building. Ludwig was a friend and business partner of G.A. Sorge (whom he supported in his polemical arguments, interspersed with personal insults, with F.W. Marpurg), and probably wrote the pamphlet Eine helle Brille für die blöden Augen eines Albern Haberechts zu Niemandsburg, which was published anonymously during these polemics. His writings contain valuable information about J.J. Graichen (1701–60) and J.N. Ritter (1702–82), pupils of Gottfried Silbermann working in Franconia.

WRITINGS

Versuch von den Eigenschaften eines rechtschaffenen Orgelbauers (Hof, 1759)

Gedanken über die grossen Orgeln, die aber deswegen keine Wunderwerke sind (Leipzig, 1762); ed. P. Smets (Mainz, 1931)

Den unverschämten Entehrern der Orgeln (Erlangen, 1764)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Flade: Der Orgelbauer Gottfried Silbermann (Leipzig, 1926, 2/1953)

H. Hofner: ‘Die Silbermannschule im Markgrafentum Bayreuth’, ZI, liii (1932), 301–3, 315–7, 331–3, 348–51

HANS KLOTZ

Ludwig, Joseph [Josef]

(b Bonn, 6 April 1844; d London, 29 Jan 1924). British violinist, teacher and composer of German birth. When he was 15 he was sent to the Cologne Conservatory where he studied the violin with Grünwald and composition with Ferdinand Hiller for four and a half years. He then went to Hanover, where he was a student of Joachim for two years. After a break in his musical career for military examinations, he gave concerts in Germany before moving in 1870 to London, where he succeeded Leopold Jansa at the RAM. He became a British citizen and earned a reputation as a performer of chamber music and as a teacher, one of his pupils being Beatrice Langley.

In his chamber music concerts in London and the provinces Ludwig performed most often with G.W. Collins, Alfred Gibson (or Alfred Hobday) and W.E. Whitehouse in quartets and also in solo sonatas and concertos with piano accompaniment. Reviews of his playing suggest that as a soloist he excelled at slow movements rather than fast virtuoso pieces. Shaw recalled his performance of the Brahms G major Sonata with Ernest Fowles on 14 June 1893 when he ‘handled the violin part with discretion and sympathy, if not with a very ardent appetite for its luxuries’. His compositions (e.g. the Piano Quartet in E and the Symphony no.1 in F, performed in London, 1894) are competent and interesting but by no means novel. He also wrote a second symphony and pieces for violin or cello with piano. His son Paul, a cellist, studied at the RCM and performed in chamber and orchestral concerts in London (including some with his father).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G.B. Shaw: Music in London 1890–94 (London, 1932/R), 13

Cobbett’s Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber Music (London, 1929–30, enlarged 2/1963 by C. Mason)

E. van der Straeten: The History of the Violin, its Ancestors and Collateral Instruments (London, 1933), ii, 260

GAYNOR G. JONES

Ludwig, Leopold

(b Witkowitz [now Vítkovice], Moravia, 12 Jan 1908; d Lüneburg, 24 April 1979). Austrian conductor. After studying the piano at the Vienna Conservatory under Emil Paur, he began his conducting career with engagements in south Germany and at Brno. In 1936 he became music director of the Oldenburg Staatsoper and began to be a frequent guest in Berlin. He was appointed principal conductor of the Vienna Staatsoper in 1939 and principal conductor of the Berlin Städtische Oper in 1943. After World War II he continued to appear frequently at both the Städtische Oper and the Staatsoper in Berlin, but the appointment that brought him the widest international repute came in 1950, when he was appointed Generalmusikdirektor of the Hamburg Staatsoper, where he remained until 1971. He played a full part in the company’s development, helping to broaden the repertory, and also taking it to a number of leading festivals, including the Edinburgh Festival in 1952 (giving the British première of Hindemith's Mathis der Maler) and the Lincoln Center Festival, New York, in 1967; he made his American début with the San Francisco Opera in 1958. Ludwig conducted the first Glyndebourne production of Der Rosenkavalier in 1959. His performances of Mathis der Maler in 1967 reflected many of his virtues and failings: they evoked gratitude for the championship of a neglected work, admiration for the ability to build impressive orchestral effects and balance them skilfully with the stage action, but also astonishment at cuts so drastic that they changed the entire meaning of at least one crucial scene. Ludwig was best known for his operatic work, but he also conducted leading orchestras in London, Paris, Amsterdam and elsewhere, and made an early LP recording of Mahler’s Ninth Symphony.

BERNARD JACOBSON

Ludwig, (Heinrich) Max

(b Glauchau, 25 Oct 1882; d Leipzig, 1945). German conductor and composer, brother of Otto Ludwig. He began his career as a music teacher in Gesau and Glauchau and studied at the Leipzig Conservatory (1908–10) with Busoni, Reger, Reisenauer and Teichmüller, excelling as a pianist and organist. In Leipzig he was professor and deputy director at the conservatory, conductor of the Riedel-Verein and the Neuer Leipziger Männergesangverein, as well as Kantor and organist at the Peterskirche. His sacred songs for mixed choir include Abendlied, Ein Lied zu Gottes Ehre and Reformationsgesang (text by Luther); in addition he wrote and arranged secular works for male chorus and organ pieces, of which the Allegro scherzo, Basso ostinato and Fugue in A minor op.5 (dedicated to Max Reger) is noteworthy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

W. Hüttel: Musikgeschichte von Glauchau und Umgebung (Glauchau, 1995), 142, 249

WALTER HÜTTEL

Ludwig, (Heinrich) Otto

(b Glauchau, 1 Sept 1874; d Leipzig, 1922). German conductor and composer, brother of Max Ludwig. He was an established violinist and organist and, like his brother, a music teacher before he went to Leipzig to study at the conservatory with Nikisch, Reger and others. In 1901 he was appointed Kantor at Hohndorf, and he simultaneously held the post of choirmaster of the teachers’ choral society in Glauchau. Three years later he became Kantor at Wurzen. Later he returned to Leipzig to direct the male choral society. His works for male chorus include the motet Es werden wohl Berge weichen, the psalm setting Es ist ein köstlich Ding, dem Herrn danken and the secular piece Vöglein im Walde; he also wrote some festive orchestral music.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

W. Hüttel: Musikgeschichte von Glauchau und Umgebung (Glauchau, 1995), 142

WALTER HÜTTEL

Ludwigsburg.

Residence of the dukes of Württemberg, 15 km north of Stuttgart.

Luengo, Maria Teresa (Eduarda)

(b Quilmes, 25 Nov 1940). Argentine composer. She graduated in composition and musicology from the Catholic University of Argentina in 1969. Between 1973 and 1980 she experimented with a personal language influenced by ethnic music (as in Cuatro soles, 1973), which she later consolidated (in Navegante, 1983). Using consonant and dissonant ‘regions’, differentiated by particular groupings of small intervals, she builds modules of sounds and silence that have an archaic atmosphere and sonority, but without reference to Argentine or Latin American folk music. Most of her works are for chamber groups, using various combinations of instruments. They have won many prizes. Luengo also teaches contemporary techniques and in 1990 instituted a course in electro-acoustic composition at the National University in Quilmes.

WORKS

(selective list)

Sonata, pf, 1964–5; 6 preludios, str qt, 1968, rev. 1970; Heptafón, fl, cl, str qt, pf, 1969; Ambitos, pf qnt, 1971; Duetto, vn, pf, 1972; Absolum, tape, 1973; 4 soles, fl, ob, vc, pf, perc, 1973; Del museo imaginario, pf qt, perc, 1975; El libro de los espejos, 2 fl, cl, vn, va, vc, pf, perc, 1976; Mahlerianas, pf, 1976; 6 imágenes mágicas, fl, cl, vc, perc, 1978; Presencias, fl, vn, pf, 1980; Nao, wind qnt, 1983; Navegante, pf, 6 perc, 1983; Ecos por Tupac, a fl, b cl, vc, 1984; Las aguas de la luz, 2 fl, b cl, vc, 1989; Saltos transparentes, pf, 1990; Nave radiante, vn, pf, 1966; Ví un mar de cristal y fuego, 2 fl, b cl, vn, pf, 1997; Taumanía (film score, dir. P. Delfini)

Principal publisher: EAC-Moeck

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D. Durañona y Vedia: ‘Entrevista a Maria Teresa Luengo’, Realidad musical Argentina, no.1 (1983), 11–12

A.M. Mondolo: ‘Maria Teresa Luengo’, Revista del Instituto de investigación musicológica Carlos Vega, ix (1988), 137–47

D. Grela: Catálogo de obras musicales argentinas (1950–1992) (Santa Fé, Argentina, 1993)

W.A. Roldán: Diccionario de música y músicos (Buenos Aires, 1996)

M. Ficher, M.F. Schleifer and J.M. Furman: Latin American Classical Composers (London and Lanham, MD, 1996)

RAQUEL C. DE ARIAS

Luening, Otto (Clarence)

(b Milwaukee, 15 June 1900; d New York, 2 Sept 1996). American composer, teacher, conductor and flautist. His mother was an amateur singer and his father a music professor at the University of Wisconsin who had studied at the Leipzig Conservatory. Luening began composing as a child in 1906. In 1912 the family moved to Munich, where he studied theory at the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik with Anton Beer-Walbrunn (1915–17) and made his début as a flautist (1916). When the USA entered World War I he moved to Zürich, where he studied at the conservatory and at the university (1919–20), and also privately with Jarnach and Busoni, who both deeply influenced Luening’s conception of music and his teaching methods. While in Zürich he played the flute in the Tonhalle Orchestra and at the Municipal Opera, and for a season was an actor and stage manager with James Joyce’s English Players Company. He made his début as composer-conductor in 1917.

In 1920 Luening came to Chicago, where he studied with Wilhelm Middelschulte. He conducted the American Grand Opera Company in performances of operas in English (including Cadman’s Shanewis). From 1925 to 1928 he was at the Eastman School as executive director of the opera department and conductor of the Rochester Opera Company (and later of its offshoot, the American Opera Company). Then, after a year in Cologne (1928–9) Luening worked in New York as a freelance composer-conductor until he was awarded two Guggenheim fellowships (1930–31, 1931–2; he was awarded a third in 1974), which enabled him to write the text and music of his opera Evangeline. In 1932 he began teaching at the University of Arizona, and in 1934 he was appointed chairman of the music department at Bennington (Vermont) College, remaining until 1944. During his tenure at Bennington, Luening also took part in the WPA programme and was associate conductor, under Hans Lange, of the New York Philharmonic Symphony Chamber Orchestra (1936–8), and from 1941 together with Alan Carter was active in the Vermont Chamber Music Composers’ Conferences. In addition Luening was a co-founder of ACA (1938) and the American Music Center (1939).

In 1944 Luening was appointed director of opera productions at Columbia University, where he developed a graduate seminar in composition, and professor at Barnard College. During his tenure at Columbia he conducted the world premières of Menotti’s opera The Medium, Thomson’s The Mother of Us All, and his own opera Evangeline. Luening was a founder of CRI (1954) and a trustee of the American Academy in Rome (1953–70), where he was also composer-in-residence (1958, 1961 and 1965). His other recognitions have included several honorary degrees as well as awards from the National Institute of Arts and Letters (1946), the NEA (1974, 1977), the National Music Council (1985) and ACA (1970, 1985).

In 1964 Luening retired from Barnard but continued to teach at Columbia until 1960, when he became professor emeritus and music chairman of the School of the Arts until his retirement in 1970. He then taught at the Juilliard School (1971–3). Among his many students are Wuorinen, Chou Wen-Chung, Dodge, Carlos and Laderman. In 1980 Luening published an autobiography, The Odyssey of An American Composer, documenting all aspects of his career.

Luening’s early works written in Zurich, notably the Sextet, the Sonatina for flute and piano and the First String Quartet, are highly contrapuntal combining tonal and atonal languages, and using polytonal and protoserial techniques derived from the theories of Ziehn. From the 1920s his music also exhibits a lifelong interest in his concept of ‘acoustical harmony’ (using voicings involving careful aural recognition and use of overtones) and the notion of musical colour as an element of form. Luening attributed his concern with sound colour in both traditional and electronic venues to Busoni’s teachings. His earliest electronic works, Fantasy in Space (1952) and Low Speed (1952), use timbres of tape composition as a primary formal component. In 1953–4 Luening wrote Rhapsodic Variations for tape recorder and orchestra, the first of several works written in collaboration with Ussachevsky and one of the first works for this genre; they subsequently established an electronic music centre at Columbia University (later named the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center). In the late 1960s Luening renewed his interest in chamber music. A strong proponent of music education, he wrote many of these works for chamber groups with modest abilities. As in Busoni’s music, the juxtaposition of styles in these pieces is an essential forming principle. In the last part of his life Luening devoted himself to orchestral and chamber music, characterized by spare textures that are richly resonant, and by the aim of maximizing the presence and power of the single pitch.

WORKS

selective list

stage

Sister Beatrice (incid music, M. Maeterlinck, trans. P. Horgan), 1926; Eastman School of Music, Rochester, 15 Jan 1926

Evangeline (op, 3, Luening, after H. Longfellow), 1930–32, rev. 1947–8; cond. Luening, Brander Matthews Theatre, New York, 5 May 1948

Blood Wedding (incid music, F. García Lorca), 1940; Bennington College, Bennington, VT, 1 Dec 1940

orchestral

Sym. Fantasia I, 1924; 2 Sym. Interludes, 1935; Prelude to a Hymn Tune by William Billings, chbr orch, 1937; Suite, str orch, 1937; Sym. Fantasia II, 1939–49; Pilgrim’s Hymn, chbr orch, 1946; Legend, ob, str orch, 1951; Kentucky Conc.: Louisville, Lexington, Kentucky Rondo, 1951 [orig. entitled Louisville Conc.]; Wisconsin Suite: of Childhood Tunes Remembered, 1954; Serenade, fl, str orch, 1956; Lyric Scene, fl, str orch, 1958; Fantasia, str qt, orch, 1959; Broekman Fantasia, str orch, 1966; Sym. Fantasia III, 1969–82; Sym. Fantasia IV, 1969–82; Sonority Forms no.1, 1973; Wisconsin Sym., 1975; Sym. Interlude no.3, 1975; Sym. Fantasia V, 1979–85; Potawatomi Legends, chbr orch, 1980; Sonority Forms II, 1983; Sym. Fantasia VI, 1985; Sym. Interlude no.4, 1985; Sym. Fantasia VII, 1986; Sym. Fantasia VIII, 1986; Sym. Interlude V, 1986; Sym. Fantasia IX, 1989; Sym. Fantasia X, 1990; Sym. Fantasia XI, 1991; Divertimento,1992–5; Fanfare for Those We Have Lost, wind orch, 1993; Sym. Fantasia XII, 1994; Concertpiece, vc, orch, 1996

electronic

Fantasy in Space, fl, tape, 1952; Invention in 12 Notes, fl, tape, 1952; Low Speed, fl, tape, 1952; Theatre Piece no.2 (ballet, J. Limón), 1v, insts, tape, 1956; Dynamophonic Suite, tape, 1958; Gargoyles, vn, tape, 1960; A Day in the Country, vn, tape, 1961; A Study in Synthesized Sounds, 1961; Synthesis, orch, tape, 1962; Moonflight, fl, tape, 1968; In the Beginning, tape, 1970; Variations on ‘Fugue and Chorale Fantasy’, org, elec doubles, 1973

in collaboration with V. Ussachevsky

Incantation, 1953

Rhapsodic Variations, orch, tape, 1953–4

A Poem in Cycles and Bells, orch, tape, 1954

Of Identity, ballet, 1954; American Mime Theatre, Brooklyn Academy of Music, New York, 9 Feb 1955

Carlsbad Caverns, TV score, 1955

King Lear (incid. music, W. Shakespeare), 3 versions: tape; solo voice; 1v, instr, tape; 1956

Back to Methuselah (incid. music, G.B. Shaw), 1960

Concerted Piece, orch, tape, 1960

Incredible Voyage, TV score, 1968, collab. Shields, Smiley

in collaboration with H. El- Dabh

Diffusion of Bells, 1962–5

Electronic Fanfare, 1962–5

chamber

Vn Sonata no.1, 1917; Sextet, fl, cl, hn, vn, va, vc, 1918; Fl Sonatina, 1919; Str Qt no.1, 1919–20; Pf Trio, 1921; Variations on ‘Yankee Doodle’, pic, pf, 1922, rev. 1994; Vn Sonata no.2, 1922; Str Qt no.2, 1923; Sonata, vc, 1924; Str Qt no.3, 1928;

Mañana, vn, pf, 1933; Fantasia brevis, cl, pf, 1936; Fantasia brevis, vn, va, vc, 1936; Short Sonata no.1, fl, pf/hpd, 1937; Variations on a Theme Song for a Silent Movie, eng hn, pf, 1937; Fuguing Tune, fl, ob, cl, hn, bn, 1938; The Bass with the Delicate Air, fl, ob, cl, bn, 1940;

Andante and Variations (Vn Sonata no.3), 1943–51; Suite, vn, va, vc, 1944–66; Suite, vc/va, pf, 1946; Suite no.1, fl, 1947; Suite, db, pf, 1950; 3 Nocturnes, ob, pf, 1951; Sonata, bn/vc, pf, 1952; Trio, fl, vn, pf, 1952; Suite no.2, fl, 1953; Trbn Sonata, 1953; Sonata Composed in 2 Dayturns, vc, 1958; Sonata, db, 1958; Sonata, va, 1958; Sonata no.1, vn, 1958; Song, Poem and Dance, fl, str qt, 1958; 3 Fantasias, gui, 1960; Suite no.3, fl, 1961

Sonority Canon, 2–37 fl, 1962; 3 Duets, 2 fl, 1962; Trio, fl, vc, pf, 1962; Duo, vn, va, 1963; Elegy, vn, 1963; Match for Diverse High and Low Insts, 1963; Suite for Diverse High and Low Insts, 1963; Suite no.4, fl, 1963; Entrance and Exit Music, 3 tpt, 3 trbn, cymbals, 1964; Fanfare for a Festive Occasion, 3 hn, 3 tpt, 3 trbn, timp, bells, 1965; Fantasia, vc, 1966; Trio for 3 Flutists, 1966; 2 Pieces (Short Sonata no.3), fl, pf, 1966; Meditation, vn, 1968; Sonata no.2, vn, 1968; Suite no.5, fl, 1969

Trio, tpt, hn, trbn, 1969; Sonata no.3, vn, 1970; 8 Tone Poems, 2 va, 1971; Short Sonata no.2, fl, pf, 1971; Elegy for the Lonesome Ones, 2 cl, str, 1974; Mexican Serenades, db, wind, perc, 1974; Short Suite (4 Cartoons), str trio/(fl, cl, bn), 1974; Suite, 2 fl, pf, vc ad lib, 1976; Triadic Canons, 2 vn, fl, 1976;

10 Canons, 2 fl, 1979; Fantasia, vn, vc, pf, 1981; Serenade, vn, vc, pf, 1983; Fantasia and Dance in memoriam Max Pollikoff, vn, 1984; Opera Fantasia, vn, pf, 1985; Serenade and Dialogue, fl, pf, 1985; 3 Canons, 2 fl, 1985; 3 Fantasias for Baroque Fl, 1986; Lament for George Finkel, vc/unison vc ens, 1987; Suite hn, 1987–8; Divertimento, brass qnt, 1988; Divertimento, ob, vn, va, vc, 1988; Green Mountain Evening, fl, ob, cl, 2 vc, pf, 1988; Canon with Variations, db, 1989

Qt, 4 c fl, 1989; Bells of Spence, db, pf, 1992; Fantasia, fl, 1992; Fanfare, 4 fl, 1992; Sonata, vc, pf, 1992; Canonical Studies, 2 fl, 1993; Fantasia no.2, vn, vc, pf, 1993; Canon Per Tre Flauti, 1994; Canonical Variations, fl, 1994; Canonical Variations, str qt, 1994; Divertimento, vn, cl, pf, 1994; Fantasia, va, 1994; Divertimento, ob, pf, 1995; Divertimento, ww qnt, 1995; 6 Etudes, fl, 1995; A Box at the Opera, va, vc, 1996

keyboard

piano solo unless otherwise stated

Org Piece, 1916; Fugue, 1917; Gavotte, 1917; One Step, 1917; Thema con variazione, 1917; Fuga a 3 voci, 1918; Coal Scuttle Blues, 1922, version for 2 pf, 1943, collab. E. Bacon; Choral Fantasy, org, 1922; 2 Bagatelles, 1924; Dance Sonata, 1928

8 Pieces, 1928; Fantasia, org, 1929; 3 Pieces, 1932–3: Birds, Swans, Stars; Fantasia no.2, 1933; Phantasy, 1935; 6 Preludes, 1935–51; 6 Inventions, 1938–9; Fuga a 3 voci no.2, 1939; Short Sonata no.1, 1940; Variations, hpd/pf, 1940; Canonical Study, 1941; Canons, hpd/pf, 1941; Fantasia, hpd/pf, 1942;

10 Pieces for 5 Fingers, 1946; Sonata in memoriam Ferruccio Busoni, 1955; Short Sonatas nos.2–3, 1958; The Bells of Bellagio, pf 4/6 hands, 1967; Rondo, accdn, 1967; Short Sonata no.4, 1967; Fugue, org, 1971; Short Sonatas nos.5–7, 1979; Sonority Forms I, 1982–3; Sonority Forms II ‘The Right- Hand Path’, pf right hand, 1984; Tango, 1985; Chords at Night, 1988; Sonority Forms III, 1989; The Bells of Riverside, carillon, 1988; Fantasia Etudes, 1994; 2 Etudes, 1994; 3 Etudes on the White Keys, pf 4 hands, 1996

songs

all for soprano, piano, unless otherwise stated

Der Eichwald (A. Lenan), 1915; September-morgen (E. Mörike), 1915; Wir wandeln alle den Weg (F.M. von Bodenstadt), 1915; In Weihnachtszeiten (H. Hesse), 1917; Mysterium (Frey), 1917; Requiescat (O. Wilde), 1917; Wie sind die Tage (Hesse), 1918; Transcience (S. Naidu), 1922; Gliding o’er All (W. Whitman), 1927; A Roman’s Chamber (P.B. Shelley), 1928; Auguries of Innocence (W. Blake), 1928; Infant Joy (Blake), 1928; Locations and Times (Whitman), 1928; Songs of Experience (Blake), B-Bar, pf, 1928

To Morning (Blake), 1928; Visored (Whitman), 1928; Wake the serpent not (Shelley), 1928; Young Love (Blake), 1928; A Farm Picture (Whitman), 1929; Goodnight (Shelley), 1929; Here the frailest leaves of me (Whitman), 1929; I faint, I perish (Shelley), 1929; At the Last (Whitman), 1936; Forever Lost (G. Taggard), 1936; Hast never come to thee, S, fl, 1936, rev. 1989; Only themselves understand themselves (Whitman), 1936; Suite, S, fl, 1936;

9 Songs to Emily Dickinson Texts, 1942–51; Love’s Secret (Blake), 1949; Divine Image (Blake), 1949; She walks in beauty (Byron), 1951; The harp the monarch minstrel swept (Byron), 1951; The Little Vagabond (Blake), 1980; Silent, Silent Night (Blake), 1980; Ah! Sunflower (Blake), 1984; The Lily (Blake), 1984; Declamation for Solo Voice, 1994; Joyce Cycle, 1993

other vocal

Trio, S, Mez, A, 1914; Cum spiritu sancto, SATB, 1917; Enigma Canon, SSAATB, 1922 [after J.S. Bach]; The Soundless Song (Luening), S, fl, cl, str qt, pf, dancers, lights, 1923; Trio, S, fl, vn, 1924; Sun of the Sleepless (Byron), SSA, 1927, arr. 1986

Behold the Tabernacle of God, S, SATB, pf/org, 1931; Anthem, SATB, org, 1932; When in the languor of evening (J.M. Gibbon), S, chorus, str qt/ww qt, pf, 1932; Christ is Arisen, SSAATB, pf/org, str, fl ad lib, cl ad lib, bn ad lib, 1940; Pilgrim’s Hymn (H. Moss), SA, pf/orch, 1946

Vocalise, SSAA, 1949; The Tiger’s Ghost (M. Swenson), TTBB, 1951; Lines from a Song for Occupations (Whitman), SATB, 1964; No Jerusalem but this (cant., S. Menashe), solo vv, mixed chorus, 15 insts, 1982; Lines from The First Book of Urizen and Vala, or a Dream of 9 Nights (Blake), solo vv, chorus, 1983; Laughing Song (Blake), T, Bar, Bar/Ct, 1984

MSS in US-NYp

Recorded interviews in NHoh

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EwenD

E Carter: ‘Late Winter, New York, 1937’, MM, xiv (1936–7), 154 [on Prelude to a Hymn Tune by William Billings]

A. Copland: ‘Scores and Records’, MM, xv (1937–8), 180 [on Two Symphonic Interludes]

B. Rogers: ‘Rochester Twenty Years After’, MM, xxii (1944–5), 262 [on Second Quarter]

V. Thomson: ‘Luening’s “Evangeline”’, New York Herald Tribune, V (16 May 1948), 5 only

J. Beeson: ‘Otto Luening’, ACAB: American Composers Alliance Bulletin, iii/3 (1953), 2–4

Composers of the Americas/Compositores de América, ed. Pan American Union, vii (Washington DC, 1961)

V. Thomson: American Music since 1910 (New York, 1970)

C. Wuorinen: ‘Conversation with Otto Luening’, PNM, x/1 (1971–2), 200

H. Russcol: The Liberation of Sound (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1972/R)

E. Schwartz: Electronic Music (New York, 1973)

L.R. Wyatt: The Mid-Twentieth-Century Orchestral Variation, 1913–1963: an Analysis and Comparison of Selected Works by Major Composers (diss., U. of Rochester, 1974) [incl. a discussion of the Rhapsodic Variations]

V.A. Kellogg: A New Repertoire: Works for Solo Violin and Tape (DMA diss., Eastman School, 1975) [incl. a discussion of Gargoyles]

O. Luening: The Odyssey of an American Composer (New York, 1980) [autobiography]

D.W. Moore: ‘Composers Recordings: at the Quarter-century Mark, Carter Harmon and Otto Luening Talk about CRI’s Past, Present, and Future’,American Record Guide, xliii/4 (1980), 6–9

J. Rockwell: ‘An Influential Musician at 80’, New York Times (15 June 1980), 27 only

R. Moog: ‘The Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center: Thirty Years of Explorations in Sound’, Contemporary Keyboard, vii/5 (1981), 22–4

W.J. Richards: An Analysis of Three Works by Luening, Rochberg, and Wolff as Representative of Unaccompanied Solo Violin Literature Composed 1970–79(DMA diss., U. of Northern Colorado, 1983) [on Vn Sonata no. 3]

J. Chute: ‘Hey Fred! Otto’s Really Made It!’ Milwaukee Journal (27 May 1984) [interview]

J. Krutz: ‘Otto Luening: an 85-Year Investment in American Music’,The Sinfonian, xxxv/1 (1985), 10

B. Wentz: ‘Otto Luening at 85: an Interview’, High Fidelity/Musical America, xxxv/11 (1985), 24

S. Neff: ‘Otto Luening and the Theories of Bernhard Ziehn’,Current Musicology, xxxix (1985), 21–41

R. Philip: ‘Opera Tells Acadian Story’, Times Record (21 April 1986), 7

R. Hartsock: Otto Luening: a Bibliography (Westport, CT, 1991)

A. Kozinn: ‘95 Year Old Composer Honoured by Ensemble 80 Years Younger’, New York Times(8 June 1995), 28 only

A. Rich: New Sources, New Sounds (London, 1995)

F. Silverman: ‘Otto Luening at 96’, The Sonneck Society Bulletin, xxii/2 (1996), 1, 10–11

LESTER TRIMBLE/SEVERINE NEFF

Luetkeman [Lütkemann, Lutkeman, Littkeman], Paul

(b Kolberg, Pomerania [now Kołobrzeg, Poland], c1555; d 1616). German composer and musician. He was a student at the University of Frankfurt an der Oder in 1578. In 1587 he was a Stadtpfeifer at Wismar and in 1588 became chief Stadtpfeifer at Stettin, where he also supervised the music at St Jakob and St Nikolai. In 1604 Duke Bogislav XIII granted special privileges to one of his colleagues, and it was probably this that caused him to move two years later to Frankfurt an der Oder as a Stadtpfeifer (1606–11). He published Newe lateinische und deutsche Gesenge auf die vornembsten Feste und etliche Sontage im Jahr nebst nachfolgenden schönen Fantasien, Paduanen und Galliarden lustig zu singen und gar lieblich auf allerley art Instrumenten zu gebrauchen (Stettin, 1597; some works ed. in Denkmäler der Musik in Pommern, ii, 1931). It comprises 28 settings of sacred texts for five to eight voices and 32 five- and six-part instrumental pieces. A number of motets and occasional pieces – for Christmas, weddings and funerals – by him were published singly at Stettin between 1597 and 1606 and at Frankfurt an der Oder between 1609 and 1611 (another is undated). After his death, the Neue auserlesene geistliche Kirchengesänge was published in Frankfurt an der Oder in 1616.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E.W. Böhme: ‘Lebensbild und Würdigung der Werke Luetkemans innerhalb der pommerschen Musikgeschichte’: introduction to Fantasien über Kirchenmelodien der pommerschen Reformationszeitn, Denkmäler der Musik in Pommern, ii (Kassel, 1931)

M. Ruhnke: Beiträge zu einer Geschichte der deutschen Hofmusikkollegien im 16. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1963)

M. Ruhnke: ‘Stand der Forschung zur Geschichte der Musik in Pommern’, Musik des Ostens, xi (1989), 251–70

W. Schwarz: Pommersche Musikgeschichte, ii: Lebensbilder von Musikern in und aus Pommern (Cologne, 1994), 10–19

B. Köhler: Pommersche Misikkultur in der ersten Hälfte des 17 Jahrhunderts (Sankt Augustin, 1997)

INGRID SCHUBERT

Luetti, Gemignano.

See Capilupi, Gemignano.

Luftpause

(Ger.: ‘air-break’).

A momentary interruption of the metre by silence, often indicated by a comma or ‘V’ above the staff. Though strictly an opportunity for a singer or wind player to take a breath, this device was used by Mahler and others at moments of such musical tension as to make the actual intake of breath almost impracticable. Within the Viennese tradition the word Cäsur or Zäsur (‘caesura’) seems to have been preferred: Mahler used it in his scores, and it remains the standard word for the interruptions that have come to be considered traditional in the Viennese waltz repertory. In the same tradition, Atempause (‘breath-break’) has occasionally been used to designate a slight hesitation before the third beat of the bar in a waltz, but there is some disagreement as to whether a waltz should be performed in this way; the word is more often used to describe a breathing-pause indicated by a superscript comma. In some cases Luftpause designates such a break taken by the whole ensemble, whereas Atempause applies within a solo line.

DAVID FALLOWS

Lugge, John

(b Exeter, c1587; d Exeter, after 1647). English composer. Lugge was organist from 1603 and lay vicar-choral from 1605 of Exeter Cathedral until 1647. His father was probably Thomas Lugge, who married in 1586, also a lay clerk at the cathedral, but who later lost his post for misbehaviour. Another son, Peter, was brought up in Lisbon, whence he sent John a letter that the authorities intercepted in 1617, causing John to be examined before Bishop Cotton on suspicion of having Roman Catholic sympathies. The bishop exonerated him with the report that ‘though I fear, and by conference do suspect that he hath eaten a little bit, or mumbled a piece of this forbidden fruit, yet I verily believe he hath spit it all out again’. A search of his house four years later revealed nothing incriminating. His son Robert (b 1620), who graduated BMus from St John’s College, Oxford, in 1638, was in similar trouble. Sent down in disgrace, he shortly afterwards fled abroad and became a Roman Catholic. Some compositions previously attributed to him are more likely therefore to be his father’s.

Since the repertory of English organ music in the first half of the 17th century is slender, Lugge’s contribution, preserved in one autograph manuscript, assumes an important place along with that of Orlando Gibbons, Tomkins and Bull. His settings of the standard cantus firmi are fluent and inventive, and the three voluntaries for double organ are the best examples of this peculiarly English genre written before the Civil War. His church music is of only minor significance, though well written.

WORKS

Short Service for Meanes in A (Ven, TeD, Mag, Nunc), 4vv, GB-Lbl

[Short] Service in C (TeD, Bs, Ky, Cr, Mag, Nunc), 4vv, Och (org only), US-NYp (ptbks)

Service in D (TeD, Jub, Ky, Cr, Mag, Nunc), 4vv, GB-Cu, Lbl

4 full anthems (1 text only), 4–5vv, Lbl, US-NYp

2 verse anthems, 4/4vv, GB-Cu, Lbl, Y, US-NYp

Kbd: Miserere, Christe qui lux, Gloria tibi trinitas (6 settings), In Nomine, Ut re mi fa sol la, 3 voluntaries, Jigg, GB-Och, 2 toys, F-Pc: all ed. S. Jeans and J. Steele, The Complete Keyboard Works: John Lugge (London, 1990)

Doubtful, attrib. Robert Lugge: Service in d (TeD, Jub, Ky, Cr, Mag, Nunc), 4vv, GB-Och (org only), Ojc (org only, also includes Lit), Ob (B only); 3 anthems (2 full, 4vv; 1 verse), Lbl, Ob, Och, Ojc

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Jeans: ‘Musical Life of Exeter Cathedral (1600–1650)’, Quarterly Record of the Incorporated Association of Organists, xliii (1958), 103–13

S. Boyer: ‘The Manchester Altus Partbook MS 340 Cr 71’, ML, lxxii (1991), 197–213

JOHN STEELE

Lugge, Robert.

English musician, possibly composer. See under John Lugge.

Luigi del Cornetto.

See Zenobi, Luigi.

Luigini, Alexandre (Clément Léon Joseph)

(b Lyons, 9 March 1850; d Paris, 29 July 1906). French violinist, conductor and composer. His father, Joseph Luigini, was born in Italy and became a naturalized French citizen; he conducted at the Grand Théâtre at Lyons, the Théâtre Italien in Paris (1872), the Théâtre Lynque (Ventadour) (1878) and Folies-Dramatiques (1882). He composed a ballet, Les filles de Gros-Guillot (Lyons, 1866), two cantatas (1865, 1866) and danced divertissements including Zédouika, Le printemps and Les postillons for the Fantaisies-Oller in Paris (1876).

Alexandre Luigini won the second prix for violin at the Paris Conservatoire in 1869, and from that year led the orchestra of the Grand Théâtre at Lyons; he was appointed its conductor in 1877. While at Lyons he was a member of its conservatory and founded the Concerts Bellecour and the Concerts du Conservatoire. In 1897 he became a conductor of the Opéra-Comique in Paris. He wrote numerous ballets, including Ballet égyptien (Lyons, 1875; apparently also included in a 1895 production of Aida in Lyons), Ange et Démon (Lyons, 1876) and a Ballet russe included in Meyerbeer's L'étoile du nord in Lyons in 1896. His light orchestral music includes Fête arabe, Carnaval turc and Marche de l'emir, along with three string quartets as well as other chamber works, piano music, songs and two operas, Les caprices de Margot (1 act, Coste), given at the Grand Théâtre, Lyons, on 13 April 1877, and Faublas (3 acts, E. Cadol and G. Duval), at the Théâtre de Cluny, Paris, on 25 October 1881. (C.E. Curinier: Dictionnaire national des contemporains (Paris, 1889–1906))

DAVID CHARLTON

Luik

(Flem.).

See Liège.

Luillier.

See L’Huyllier.

Luiton [Luitton], Carl.

See Luython, Carl.

Lukačić [Lucacich, Luccacich, Lucacih], (Marko) Ivan [Ioannes]

(b Šibenik, bap. 17 April 1587; d Split, 20 Sept 1648). Croatian composer. He entered the Franciscan order at the age of ten, studied theology and music in Italy and was awarded the degree of Magister Musices in Rome in 1615. He returned to Šibenik in 1618 but soon went to Split, where he became prior of the Franciscan monastery in 1620. This duty he combined for the rest of his life with that of director of music at Split Cathedral.

At the time he returned to Dalmatia from Italy the new monodic style was strongly represented there by Tomaso Cecchino and Marcantonio Romano and in Istria by Gabriello Puliti. Lukačić's only contribution to the already substantial Dalmatian repertory was a collection of Sacrae cantiones (Venice, 1629; ed. in Corpus musicum Franciscanum, i, Padua, 1986), 27 motets for one to five voices with organ continuo. Giacomo Finetti was largely responsible for their publication, and it is possible that Lukačić had been his pupil. The motets are the works of an accomplished and sensitive musician. Those for four and five voices are based on the alternation of solo and tutti passages; those for one, two and three voices use the elements of the monodic style with a remarkable feeling for dramatic presentation. Domine, puer meus iacet is a miniature cantata for three soloists, one a narrator, the others a centurion and Christ.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Županović: ‘Umjetnost Ivana Lukačića Šibenčanina’ [The art of Ivan Lukačić of Šibenik], Radovi Instituta JAZU u Zadru, xiii–xiv (1968), 377–400

D. Plamenac: ‘Tragom Ivana Lukačića i nekih njegovih suvremenika’ [On the trail of Ivan Lukačić and some of his contemporaries], Rad JAZU (1969), no.351, 63–90

N. O'Loughlin: ‘A Note on Lukačić’, MT, cxiv (1973), 479–80

J. Andreis: Music in Croatia (Zagreb, 2/1982), 51–5

L. Maračić, ed.: Lukačić, zbornik radova Znanstvenog skupa održanog u povodu 400. obljetnice rodjenja [Lukačić, a collection of papers from a symposium on the occasion of the 400th anniversary of his birth] (Zagreb, 1987)

BOJAN BUJIĆ

Lukács, Pál

(b Budapest, 27 April 1919; d Budapest, 22 May 1981). Hungarian viola player, singer and teacher. He studied at the Budapest Academy with Imre Waldbauer (violin), 1934–9, and with Imre Molnár (singing), 1937–43. While still a student he sang in oratorio and changed from the violin to the viola. He was appointed a professor of singing at the academy in 1946, and leader of the viola faculty in 1947, when he also became principal viola of the Hungarian State Opera orchestra. The first Hungarian to gain an international reputation as a viola player, he won the 1948 Geneva International Competition, and toured widely in Europe. He was admired for his warm timbre, faultless technique and stylish musicianship over a wide repertory, and he applied the style of the Hungarian violin school to the viola. He gave the first performance of Hartmann's Concerto at the 1958 Venice Biennale, and inspired a number of new works by Hungarian composers, including Gyula Dávid’s Concerto, which he recorded. Lukács brought about a new critical appreciation of the viola in Hungary, and was an outstanding teacher. He edited classical and modern works and published a pedagogical work, Fekvésváltó gyakorlatok brácsára (‘Studies for change of positions for viola’, Budapest, 1960). In 1975 he was elected vice-rector of the Budapest Academy and became head of the singing faculty.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Gabor: ‘Lukács Pál hüsége’ [The devotion of Pál Lukács], Muzsika, xxii/4 (1979), 14–15

PETER P. VÁRNAI/R

Lukas, Viktor

(b Rothenburg ob der Tauber, 4 Aug 1931). German organist, church musician and conductor. He studied at the Musikhochschule in Munich (1951–3) with Karl Richter (organ), Fritz Lehmann (conducting) and Gustav Geierhaas (composition), and then privately with Friedrich Högner (organ). From 1953 to 1956 he read musicology, pedagogy and English at Munich University. He completed his organ studies in 1955–6 at the Paris Conservatoire with Marcel Dupré and Falcinelli. From 1956 to 1960 he held a post as organist in Kempten. He was appointed organist and church music director of the Stadtkirche in Bayreuth in 1960. He conducts the Bayreuth Kantorei and in 1961 founded ‘Musica Bayreuth’, an annual series of concerts. In 1968 Lukas founded a consort which he directs from the harpsichord; with this ensemble, and even more as an organist, he has made concert tours to central Europe and the USSR (twice with exclusively Bach programmes) and also to the USA and East Asia. In 1975 he became director of an organ masterclass at the Cologne Hochschule für Musik and also organist at the Gürzenich, later becoming organist of the newly opened Cologne Philharmonie. He has recorded the complete organ works of Brahms and Mendelssohn, and has also recorded on the Stumm organ at Oberlahnstein and the organ of the Philharmonie. He has also compiled an organ music guide (Stuttgart, 1963, 3/1974).

GERHARD WIENKE

Lukáš, Zdeněk

(b Prague, 21 Aug 1928). Czech composer. In Prague he studied theory with Modr (1943–6) and composition with Řídký. He worked for Czech radio in Plzeň, at first as an editor and later as choirmaster of the Česká Píseň and director of the radio orchestra (1953–65). Thereafter he lived in Prague, giving most of his time to composition. His early works, from the 1950s, are in a late Romantic style influenced by Czech folksong, examples of which are the First Quartet, the orchestral Matce (‘To Mother’) and several choral works. With the two sinfoniettas (1957, 1962) Lukáš developed a polyphonic manner close to Martinů; he then followed directions suggested by the work of Kabeláč and employed more modern techniques. A typical example is the Double Concerto (1968), where a tonal basis is combined with modal areas, an application of 12-note serialism and aleatory passages. Particularly in these later concertante pieces, Lukáš’s music derives from minimal initial material. His best electronic work, Nezabiješ (‘You do not kill’), has a definite expressive force. In the mid-1990s, with Mácha, Fišer and Bodorová, Lukáš formed the composer group Quattro.

WORKS

(selective list)

Principal publishers: Český Hudební Fond, Panton

operas

Al žije mrtvý [Long Live the Dead] (radio op, J. Hurta), 1967–8; Domácí karneval [Home-Made Carnival] (radio op, Z. Barborka), 1968; Planeta s tiše fialovou září aneb Hvězdářská opera [A Planet Glaring in Silent Purple, or Astronomic Opera] (J. Suchý), 1978; Falkenstein (D. Ledečová), 1985; Veta za vetu [Revenge for Revenge] (Ledečová), 1986

instrumental

Orch: Matce [To Mother], 1955; Sinfonietta no.1, 1957; Sym. no.2, 1960–61; Sinfonietta no.2, 1962; S Sax Conc., 1963; Sonata concertata, pf, wind, perc, 1967; Sym. no.4, 1967; Conc., vn, va, orch, 1968; Partita, C, chbr orch, 1968; Variace, pf, orch, 1970; Postludium, str, 1971; Bn Conc., 1976; Cl Conc., 1976; Conc. grosso, chbr orch, 1977; Proměny [Metamorphoses], conc., pf, orch, 1978; Bagately, 1980; Hpd Conc., str, 1980; Vn Conc., 1981; Fl Conc., 1981; Koncertantní hudba [Concert Music], hp, str, 1982; Ouvertura boema, 1982; Va Conc., 1983; Pf Conc., 1984; Vc Conc., 1986; Hn Conc., 1989; Sym. no.6, 1991; Pf Conc. no.3, 1993; Conc. grosso no.4, saxes, orch, 1994

Chbr and solo: Str Qt no.1, 1954; Wind Qnt with Triangle, 1969; Sax Qt, 1970; Meditace [Meditation], va, hpd, 1976; Katedrály [Cathedrals], org, brass, 1976; Duets, tpt, org, 1976; Intarzie [Inlay], vn, va, vc, 1977; Sonata di danza, vn, va, vc, pf, 1980; Serenáda, 5 brass, 1981; Rondo, bn, pf, 1981; Canti, str, 1982; Canzoni da sonar, fl, ob, vn, vc, 1983; Str Qt no.4, 1987; Intarzie II, hn trio, 1989; Pf Qt no.2, 1991; Chorale, 2 pf, 1991–2; Quartetto noc flauto, fl, vn, vc, hpd, 1992

Elec: Arecona, 1968; Ecce quomodo moritur iustus, 1969; Nezabiješ [You do not Kill], 1971; Vivat iuventus, 1972

vocal

Choral: Parabolae Salomonis, 1968; Adam a Eva (orat, K. Šiktanc), spkr, S, A, Bar, chorus, orch, 1969; Lode al canto, men’s vv, orch, 1973; Kalendář [Calendar] (folk poetry), solo vv, female choruses, vn, fl, pf, hpd, perc, 1976; Písně moudrosti II [Songs of Wisdom II] (Bible: Proverbs), Mez, chbr ens, 1977; Olmicii laudes (cant.), op.142, children’s chorus, 3 tpt, org, perc, 1979; Cara mihi semper eris (medieval poetry), op.171, 1982; Praze [For Prague] (cant., Procházková), op.174, 2 S, male chorus, orch, 1982; Missa brevis, Bar, female chorus, 1990; Requiem, chorus, 1992; Plynutí času [The Passing of Time] (V. Fischer), chorus, 1993; folksong arrs.

Songs: Přísloví [Proverbs] (Bible: Proverbs), 1983; 5 písní [5 songs] (D. Ledečová), 1985; Báseň [Poem] (M. Kohoutová), high v, pf, 1988, orchd; Mariánské písně [Marian Songs] (Kohoutová), high v, sax qt, 1991; others

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ČSHS

A. Špelda: ‘Tvůrčí vývoj Zdeňka Lukáše’ [Lukáš’s creative development], HRo, xxi (1968), 575–8

R. Budiš: ‘Rozhlasové opery Zdeňka Lukáše’ [Lukáš’s radio operas], HRo, xxii (1969), 707–9

V. Bokůvková: ‘Elektronickém studiu v Plzni’, OM, iv (1972), 161–9

OLDŘICH PUKL, JAROMÍR HAVLÍK (work list)

Łukaszewicz, Maciej

(d Kraków, 25 Feb 1685). Polish composer and singer. In 1661 he became a substitute singer in the Capella Rorantistarum of the Sigismund Chapel in Wawel Cathedral and probably in 1662 became a full member of it. He seems to have left in 1668. Some six years later he returned to the chapel and on 10 June 1682 became its director in place of M.A. Miskiewicz, who had resigned as a result of disagreements. These continued, and Łukaszewicz himself resigned in January 1685, a month before his death. From 1681 he was also director of the main cathedral music, in succession to Daniel Fierszewicz. Three four-part sacred works by him survive (PL-Kk): Vexilla regis prodeunt, Lustra sex qui iam paregit and Credo super ‘In natali Domini’. They are simple pieces in a traditional polyphonic idiom. The two Patrem rotulatum settings by Bartłomiej Pękiel, his outstanding predecessor as director of music at Wawel Cathedral, served as models for the ‘Patrem’ section in the Credo.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

A. Sowiński: Les musiciens polonais et slaves anciens et modernes: dictionnaire biographique (Paris, 1857/R)

J. Surzyński: Muzyka figuralna w kościołach polskich od XV do XVIII wieku [Figural music in Polish churches from the 15th to the 18th century] (Poznań, 1889)

A. Chybiński: Słownik muzyków dawnej polski do roku 1800 [Dictionary of early Polish musicians to 1800] (Kraków, 1949)

H. Feicht: ‘Muzyka w okresie polskiego baroku’ [Music in the Baroque period in Poland], Z dziejów polskiej kultury muzycznej, i: Kultura staropolska, ed. Z.M. Szweykowski (Kraków, 1958), 157–229, esp. 214ff; repr. in Opera musicologica Hieronymi Feicht, iii: Studia nad muzyka polkiego renesanu i baroku (Kraków, 1980), 87–181, esp. 162ff

E. Głuszcz-Zwolińska: Zbiory muzyczne proweniencji wawelskiej [The collection of music originally from Wawel Castle archives], Musicalia vetera: katalog tematyczny rękopiśmiennych zabytków dawnej muzyki w Polsce [Thematic catalogue of manuscript treasures of early Polish music], ed. Z.M. Szweykowski, i/2 (Kraków, 1972), no.49

MIROSŁAW PERZ

Lulier, Giovanni Lorenzo [Giovannino del Violone]

(b Rome, c1662; d Rome, 29 March 1700). Italian composer, cellist and trombonist. According to Pitoni, he was ‘Roman, a counterpoint scholar of Pier Simone Agostini, an excellent player of the violone, a chamber composer for the most eminent Cardinal Ottoboni, who died in età fresca soon after 1700’. According to a newsletter, the cause of death was an accidente appoplettico. ‘Giovannino’ played regularly at the church of S Luigi dei Francesi during the period 1676 to 1699, and had joined the musicians' Congregazione di S Cecilia by 13 October 1679. By 1681 he was employed by Cardinal Pamphili, who appointed him aiutante di camera in 1682, after which he was in charge of the cardinal's musical affairs; by 1688 he was a trombonist in the Musici del Campidoglio. When Pamphili left Rome to become papal legate at Bologna in 1690 Lulier, like Corelli, entered the service of Cardinal Ottoboni, where he remained until his death. Yet in 1694 he was still called ‘Giovannino di Pamphili’. In the 1690s he did continue to perform for Pamphili, was also employed by the Borghese family, and indeed seems to have been the concertino cellist whenever Corelli was the principal violinist.

Lulier's oratorio S Maria Maddalena de' Pazzi (1687) gives a good idea of his style; the emphasis is on rather brief da capo arias with a strongly projected affect and with four-part instrumental ritornellos that usually feature imitative textures. La Via surveyed many of Lulier's vocal works and found, surprisingly, that none had an outstanding part for the cello.

WORKS

lost unless otherwise stated

operas

performed in Rome unless otherwise stated

[L'Agrippina] (dramma per musica, 3, G. De Totis), intended for carn. 1691, unperf., arias D-MÜs, I-Fc, Rli and Rvat

La S Genuinda, overo L'innocenza difesa dall'inganno [Act 1] (dramma sacro per musica, 3, ? P. Ottoboni), Palazzo della Cancelleria, Dec 1694, D-Mbs, F-Pc and GB-Lbl [Act 2 by A. Scarlatti, Act 3 by C.F. Pollarolo]

Il Clearco in Negroponte [Act 2] (dramma, 3, after A. Arcoleo), Capranica, 18 Jan 1695, arias D-MÜs, I-Rmalvezzi, Rc and US-NYlibin [Act 1 by B. Gaffi, Act 3 by C.F. Cesarini]

L'amore eroico fra pastori [Act 2] (favola pastorale for puppets, 3, Ottoboni), Palazzo della Cancelleria, Feb 1696 [Act 1 by Cesarini, Act 3 by G. Bononcini]; rev. A. Scarlatti as La pastorella, also for puppets, Venetian Embassy, 5 Feb 1705, arias GB-Lbl; rev. P.A. Motteux and V. Urbani as Love's Triumph, London, Queen's, 26 Feb 1708, 70 arias (London, 1708)

Fausta restituita al impero (dramma per musica, 3, after N. Bonis: Odoacre), Tordinona, 19 Jan 1697, arias D-MÜs, F-Pn, GB-Lbl, Ob and I-Rc

Temistocle in bando [Act 1] (dramma per musica, 3, after A. Morselli), Capranica, 2 Feb 1698, arias attrib. Lulier I-Bc, anon. arias B-Br, F-Pc, Pn, GB-Lbl, Lcm and Ob [Act 2 by ? M.A. Ziani, Act 3 by G. Bononcini]

serenatas

performed in Rome

Applauso musicale (F.M. Paglia), 4vv, Piazza di Spagna, 5 Aug 1693

Serenata a 3 (Tirsi, Daliso, Lisetta), Palazzo della Cancelleria, 9 Aug 1694

Cantata a 2, ? Palazzo della Cancelleria, c1 July 1695

Componimento drammatico (Gloria, Roma, Valor) (G.B. Grappelli), S, S, A, ob/fl, 2 vn, va, bc, ? Palazzo della Cancelleria, c13–19 Feb 1700, D-Hs

cantatas

dates are of the earliest copies and are listed in Marx 1968 or 1983

Amor di che tu vuoi, D-MÜs; Con ingiuste querele, S, bc, 1691, GB-Cfm, I-Rvat; Delle luci guerriere, D-MÜs; Dove spiegate il volo, S, bc, GB-Cfm; Era pur meglio Amor, v, 2 vn, bc, 1695, lost (Marx, 1968); Ferma alato pensier, 1693, D-MÜs; Già del empio tiranno (La Didone), MÜs; Già di trionfi onusto (Il Germanico) (B. Pamphili), 1688, F-Pn; Incatenata a un sasso (Andromeda) (F.M. Paglia), I-Rvat (text only); Intorno a picciol lume (La farfalla), S/A, 2vn, bc, GB-Cfm, Lbl; Ivi cadenti non mormorate, S, bc, Cfm; Là dove a Pafo in seno, S, vn, bc, Cfm; La fortuna con eccessi di sventure (Pamphili), 1690, D-MÜs, F-Pn; La scitica regnante (Tomiri vendicata), S, bc, 1691, I-Rli, Rvat

Non vantar tanta bellezza (Pamphili), S/A, 2 vn, bc, 1689, GB-Cfm, Lbl; Ove per gl'aiuti infausti, lost (Marx, 1983); Per queste amene sponde, D-MÜs; Qual barbara mercede, S, bc, GB-Cfm; Sarei troppo felice (Pamphili), S, 2 vn, bc, ?1682, Cfm; Sgridar volte il pensiero, D-MÜs; Speranze lasciatemi languir del dolor, S, bc, 1691, GB-Cfm, I-Rvat; Stanca d'afflitta Clori (Clori all'infedeltà di Fileno), D-MÜs; Stanco un giorno Alessandro, 1688, lost (Marx, 1983); Stan soggetti alla fortuna, A, 2 vn, bc, 1689, GB-Lbl; Sul margine adorato, S, bc, Lbl; Tra folte ombrose piante, S, vn, bc, 1692, Cfm; Una beltà divina, S, bc, Cfm, Lbl, I-Plc

oratorios

performed in Rome unless otherwise stated

S Vittoria (B. Pamphili), Seminario Romano, 2 March 1685; ? = Il martirio di S Vittoria, Florence, Oratorio di S Filippo Neri, 1693

S Maria Maddalena de' Pazzi (Pamphili or G. De Totis), Palazzo Cardinale Medici, 9 June 1687, I-MOe (facs. in The Italian Oratorio 1650–1800, vi, New York, 1986); Modena, 1688; Florence, 1705

S Beatrice d'Este (Pamphili or G.C. Grazzini), Palazzo Pamphili, 31 March 1689; Modena, 1689, 1697, 1699, 1701, D-MÜs, F-Pc; ed. A. Cavicchi (Milan, 1968)

Bethsabeae (melodrama, G.F. Rubini), SS Crocifisso, 21 March 1692

La Bersabea (M. Brugueres), Seminario Romano, 26 March 1692; Florence, Oratorio di S Filippo Neri, 1693

Per la nascita del Redentore (componimento sagro per musica, P. Ottoboni), Chiesa Nuova, 26 Dec 1698; rev. Ottoboni as Componimento sagro a 5 voci sopra la nascita del Redentore, Palazzo Apostolico, 24 Dec 1700, I-Rvat

La fondatione dell'Ordine de' Servi di Maria (C. Doni), Todi, 10 May 1699; Rome, S Giovanni dei Fiorentini, 28 Feb 1700

Oratorio per la SS Annunziata (Ottoboni), Palazzo della Cancelleria, 25 March 1700

liturgical

Te Deum a 3 (Marx, 1968, no.77d)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PitoniN

SartoriL

L. Montalto: Un mecenate in Roma barocca: il cardinale Benedetto Pamphili (1653–1730) (Florence, 1955)

H.J. Marx: ‘Die Musik am Hofe Pietro Kardinal Ottobonis unter Arcangelo Corelli’, AnMc, no.5 (1968), 104–77, esp. 172

R. Giazotto: Quattro secoli di storia dell'Accademia nazionale di Santa Cecilia (Verona, 1970), esp. i, 297–8

T. Griffin: The Late Baroque Serenata in Rome and Naples: a Documentary Study with Emphasis on Alessandro Scarlatti (diss., UCLA, 1983), 196, 212–14, 316–17

H.J. Marx: ‘Die “Giustificazioni della Casa Pamphilij” als musikgeschichtliche Quelle’, Studi musicali, xii (1983), 121–87

O. Mischiati: ‘Una statistica della musica a Roma nel 1694’, NA, new ser., i (1983), 209–25, esp. 222

S. La Via: Il violoncello a Roma al tempo del Cardinale Ottoboni: ricerche e documenti (diss., U. of Rome, 1983–4), 109–19, 187–92

J. Lionnet: La musique à Saint-Louis des Français de Rome au XVII^o siècle, Note d'archivio per la storia musicale, new ser., suppl. iii–iv (Venice, 1985–6)

A. Morelli: ‘Il “Theatro Spirituale” ed altre raccolte di testi per oratorio romani del Seicento’, RIM, xxi (1986), 63–143, esp. 127, 133

S. Franchi: Drammaturgia romana: repertorio bibliografico cronologico dei testi drammatici pubblicati a Roma e nel Lazio, secolo XVII (Rome, 1988)

F. Carboni, T.M. Gialdroni and A. Ziino: ‘Cantate ed arie romane del tardo Seicento nel fondo Caetani della Biblioteca Corsiniana: repertorio, forme e strutture’, Studi musicali, xviii (1989), 58–9, 111, 115–17

G. Staffieri: Colligite fragmenta: la vita musicale romana negli ‘Avvisi Marescotti’ (1683–1707) (Lucca, 1990)

G. Rostirolla: ‘La professione di strumentista a Roma nel Sei e Settecento’, Studi musicali, xxiii (1994), 87–174, esp. 90, 107–8, 111–12, 117

A. Morelli: ‘La circolazione dell’oratorio italiano nel Seicento’, Studi musicali, xxvi (1997), 105–86

LOWELL LINDGREN

Lulinus Venetus, Johannes

(b ?Venice; fl early 16th century). Italian composer. The form of his name suggests that he was born in Venice. He wrote 17 frottolas contained in Petrucci’s 11th book (1514²; 1 ed. in EinsteinIM) of which only one occurs elsewhere (I-Vnm). They consist of settings of six barzellette, five ballatas, two canzoni, two sonnets, one capitolo and one freer poem. Five of the texts are by Petrarch. The works are generally simple in form and compositional technique; all his barzellette set only the ripresa, without separate music for the stanza. Two pieces display examples of word-painting: Fuga ognun amor begins with imitation on the word ‘fuga’, and his setting of Petrarch’s Chiare, fresche e dolci acque has a three-bar melisma on the word ‘extreme’. The ballata Nel tempo che riveste includes two popular tunes: E donde vien tu, bella, in its inverted ripresa, and A l’ombra d’un bel pin, in its stanza.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Einstein: ‘Das elfte Buch der Frottole’, ZMw, x (1927–8), 613–24

F. Torrefranca: Il segreto del Quattrocento (Milan, 1939/R) [incl. edn]

K. Jeppesen: La frottola (Århus and Copenhagen, 1968–70)

F. Luisi: Apografo miscellaneo marciano: frottole, canzoni e madrigali con alcuni alla pavana in villanesco (Venice, 1979) [incl. edn]

W.F. Prizer: Courtly Pastimes: the Frottole of Marchetto Cara (Ann Arbor, 1980)

F. Brancacci: ‘Il sonetto nei libri di frottole di O. Petrucci (1504–1514)’, NRMI, xxv (1991), 177–215; xxvi (1992), 441–68

WILLIAM F. PRIZER

Lull [Lulio], Antonio

(b Mallorca, c1510; d Besançon, 12 Jan 1582). Spanish grammarian, rhetorician and theologian. A descendant of Ramón Llull, he settled at an early age in the Franche-Comté, where he was private tutor to Claude de Baumes. The latter, on his later appointment as Bishop of Besançon, made Lull curate of the diocese. An expert in Latin, Greek and Hebrew, Lull also taught theology at Dôle University. Four of his works survive (two on rhetoric, one on grammar and one on ecclesiastical matters), of which one, Sobre el decoro de la poética, is available in a modern edition (ed. A. Sancho Royo, Madrid, 1994).

In his most important work, De oratione libri septem (Basle, c1558), Lull attached great importance to various musical questions, perhaps because he himself had written a treatise on music (now lost). He explained the relationship between rhetoric and music in terms of the elocutio (speech), whose components, numerus (i.e. the rhythm of the prose) and melos, are employed by orators, poets and musicians. Thus the study of music is necessary to the orator's training, in the same way that the study of arithmetic and geometry are necessary to the musician. He defined melos as a suave modulación de la voz (gentle modulation of the voice) composed of harmonía (alternation of high and low sounds) and rhythmus. Four principles underlie melos: sound, resonance, voice and movement.

In discussing the acento del discurso (inflection in speech), Lull established a typology for rhetorical expression according to the modulation of the voice: the expression ‘virilis et erecta’ would be accompanied by a rising interval in the voice, the expression ‘religiosa et lamentabilis’ by a falling interval followed by a rising interval, and the expression ‘moderata, gravis et magnifica’ by a rising 5th, followed by the equivalent falling interval, as in psalmody. The last volume of De oratione includes a short treatise on poetics in which Lull identified four types of poetry: dramatic (including the function and movement of the Classical chorus), epic, dithyrambic or lyric (sung poetry in which string or wind accompaniment is indispensible), and ‘aulic’ (i.e. courtly, synonymous with purely instrumental music).

Lull was highly regarded during his lifetime, notably by Zarlino, who cited extensive passages from De oratione in his Sopplementi musicali (Venice, 1588/R).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Mitjana y Gordón: ‘La musique en Espagne: art réligieux et art profane’, EMDC, I/iv (1920), 1913–2351; Sp. trans. as La música en España (Madrid, 1993), 127

F.J. León Tello: Estudios de historia de la teoría musical (Madrid, 1962) 304–5

L. López Grigera: La retórica en la España del Siglo de Oro (Salamanca, 1994), 59, 71, 77–81

LUIS ROBLEDO

Lull, Raymond.

See Llull, Ramon.

Lullaby.

Originally, a vocal piece designed to lull a child to sleep with repeated formulae; less commonly, it can be used to soothe a fractious or sick child. Like the lament, with which it has much in common, the lullaby is usually (though not exclusively) sung solo by women and displays musical characteristics that are often archaic, such as a descending melodic line, portamento effects, stylized representations of sighing or weeping, and non-stanzaic text lines. As with laments, the singer communicates in a direct, intimate manner that can be formalized and at the same time intense. Generically, lullabies have links not only with the lament but with vendors’ cries, dance-tunes, serenades, prayers, charms, songs about the other world, and narrative songs. The use of ballad fragments has been noted especially in European and North American traditions: the Irish night-visiting song The Mason’s Word, for instance, has been used as a lullaby.

Context and practice are not universally consistent: lullabies can be performed seated while cradling the infant in the lap, as in Samoa, or by the parents swinging the child slowly in an arc between them, as with the Ewe of West Africa. As regards the purpose of lullabies, those of the Hazara of Afghanistan, for example, are categorized as either ‘functional’ or ‘stylized’; the former are sung by women to put small children to sleep, the latter by men for entertainment, often accompanied by a dambura (two-string fretless lute). They may also have more than one function: for the Hazara, lullabies not only send the child to sleep but can also act as a signal to the singer’s lover. In the sub-Arctic Algonkian area, the bebe ataushu repertory is predominantly private, women’s music. For the Navajo, lullabies are one of a number of non-ceremonial types of traditional song. In Italy, lullabies have been classified as magical (directly involving sleep), erotic (explicit love songs) or di sfogo (‘outlet’, ‘venting’), in which the female singer laments her own or the human condition. Textual analysis of Japanese lullabies suggests a close connection between the manner of performance of lullabies and magic.

Textual formulae and refrains can be used, like ‘fatta la ninna’ (‘rock-a-bye’) in Italian lullabies, to ward off evil and invoke divine help, and can vary, in the vowel set of the refrain, within regions of a country such as Spain. They can cross cultural boundaries, as in ‘ninna-nanna’ (Italy), ‘nani, nani’ (Albania), and ‘ljulja nina’ (Bosnia-Hercegovina). Formulae appear again in the imagery and repeated diminutives of a Zuñi lullaby (‘little boy, little cotton-tail, little jack-rabbit, little rat’), and melodically, in the same lullaby, with a range of just two notes. The Hazara texts contain the sounds ‘lalai’ or ‘lalu’ along with the interjection of terms of endearment such as ‘my sweet’ or ‘my eyes’. The sound effects of the lullaby sometimes take precedence over meaning, with words being deliberately altered to produce assonant, mellifluous sounds. Lullabies among the Tuareg differ from other women's songs in their more supple style, the use of semitones and a dissymmetric structure subordinate to the demands of improvised texts. The melody invariably moves within a fairly narrow range of a 4th or 5th, but can have, as in Norway, great melodic and rhythmic flexibility within a few common formulae.

The words of the lullaby can instil cultural values or incorporate the fears of the parent. Imagery involving the wolf in southern Italian lullabies suggests the need to cope with life's harsh realities; it may also represent violence and dominance. The ‘lullaby’ can, indeed, convey a plurality of messages in its text and style: one Gaelic-text lullaby ostensibly contains information, sung to another woman washing clothes, about the singer's abduction by fairies and the breaking of the spell (to be accomplished by her husband). The abducted woman lulls a fairy child to sleep by means of repetitive musical phrases, suggesting to the fairies that all is well. The ‘narrative’ message is to the other woman. In reality, however, the song itself tells listeners of the woman's plight. The lullaby text, therefore, can be creatively complex; matched to formulaic snatches of melody it can result in a rich and eloquent musical genre.

The lullaby as a vocal (with or without accompaniment) or instrumental piece appears in art music of all periods; examples are found in medieval carols with ‘lullay’ burdens, in 18th-century choral music, 19th-century lieder, and 19th- and early 20th-century piano pieces. See Berceuse and Wiegenlied.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Naselli: Saggio sulle ninne-nanne siciliane (Catania, 1948)

A.M. Jones: Studies in African Music (London, 1959)

L. Greni: ‘Bånsuller i Setesdal: om bruken av tradisjionelle melodieformler’, Norveg, vii (1960), 13–17

P. Augier: ‘Ethnomusicologie saharienne: les documents sonores recueillis récemment en Ahaggar et au Gourard’, Libyca 20, xx (1972), 291–311

B.L. Hawes: ‘Folksongs and Functions: some Thoughts on the American Lullaby’, Journal of American Folklore, lxxxvii (1974), 140–48

M.B. McDowell: ‘Folk Lullabies: Songs of Anger, Love, and Fear’, Women's Studies, v (1977), 205–18

M. Ramsten: ‘“Jag vet sa dejlig en ros”: Om folklig vissång’ [‘I know such a lovely rose’: on traditional songs], Folkmusikboken, ed. J. Ling (Stockholm, 1980), 104–57, esp. 124

C. Rihtman: ‘Kinderlieder in der Volkstradition Bosniens und der Herzegowina’, Die südosteuropäische Volkskultur in der Gegenwart: Graz 1970, in Musikethnologisches Kolloquium: zum 70. Geburtstag von Walter Wünsch (1978), ed. A. Mauerhofer (Graz, 1983), 151–60

Y. Ikegami: ‘The Lullaby as Magic: a Textual Analysis of Traditional Japanese Children's Songs’, The Oral and the Literate in Music: Tokyo 1985, 96–109

L.H. Sakata: ‘Hazara Women in Afghanistan: Innovators and Preservers of a Musical Tradition’, Women and Music in Cross-Cultural Perspective, ed. E. Koskoff (New York, 1987), 85–95

L. Del Giudice: ‘Ninna-nanna Nonsense? Fears, Dreams, and Falling in the Italian Lullaby’, Oral Tradition, iii (1988), 270–93

B.D. Cavanagh: ‘Music and Gender in the Sub-Arctic Algonkian Area’, Women in North American Indian Music, ed. R. Keeling (Bloomington, IN, 1989), 55–66

C. Frisbie: ‘Gender and Navajo Music: Unanswered Questions’, ibid., 22–38

B. O Madagáin: ‘Gaelic Lullaby: a Charm to Protect the Baby’, Scottish Studies, xxix (1989), 29–38

E.E. Masuyama: ‘Desire and Discontent in Japanese Lullabies’, Western Folklore, xlviii (1989), 169–77

JAMES PORTER

Lully.

French family of composers and musicians.

(2) Louis Lully

(3) Jean-Baptiste Lully (ii)

(4) Jean-Louis Lully

JÉRÔME DE LA GORCE

(1) Jean-Baptiste Lully [Lulli, Giovanni Battista] (i)

(b Florence, 29 Nov 1632; d Paris, 22 March 1687). Composer, dancer and instrumentalist of Italian birth.

1. Life.

Lully's origins were modest. His father, Lorenzo (1599–1667), seems to have come from peasant stock; like his ancestors, he was born in Tuscany in the Mugello area and probably at Campestri, where he, his brothers and a cousin owned a chestnut wood. By the age of twenty he was living in Florence, and in 1620 he married a miller's daughter, Catarina del Sera (or del Seta). They had three children: Verginio (1621–38), Giovanni Battista and Margherita (d 1639). Little is known about the education of the younger son. He may have learnt writing and arithmetic at an early age from his father, who became a miller and a businessman, but the boy probably had to turn to the Franciscan friars of the Via Borgo Ognissanti, where his parents lived, for his introduction to music and instruction on the guitar and violin, which he must have learnt in his youth. According to Le Cerf de la Viéville, his first music master was ‘a good Franciscan friar’. It is not known how he came to be chosen to go to France as an Italian tutor to Louis XIV's cousin Anne-Marie-Louise d'Orléans, known as the ‘Grande Mademoiselle’, who was studying the language at the time, but he was engaged by the princess's uncle Roger de Lorraine, the chevalier de Guise, who visited Florence in 1645 and 1646. In late February 1646 Giovanni Battista left his native land for Paris.

Lully's post was that of garçon de chambre to the Grande Mademoiselle, who was then living in the Palais des Tuileries. Thanks to his employer, who was probably entertained by his lively and humorous character, he quickly completed his musical education. According to an account printed in 1695, it is likely that he studied harpsichord and the rules of composition with Nicolas Métru and Nicolas Gigault, both of them organists of the Jesuit church of St Louis in the rue Saint-Antoine in Paris. The same source tells us that he also took lessons from François Roberday, who lived in the Tuileries ‘near the great staircase of the apartments of Mademoiselle d'Orléans’. Other masters in the service of the princely household to which he belonged included Jacques Cordier, known as Bocan, who may have helped Lully to perfect his violin playing, and Jean Regnault, who could have trained him as ‘le grand baladin’(‘the great dancer’) he was soon to become. He was certainly acquainted with the dancers of the royal ballets at this time, and collaborated with one of them, Du Moustier, in composing the music for the Mascarade de la Foire Saint-Germain, performed at the Grande Mademoiselle's palace in March 1652. Of this, the first work known to have been composed by Lully, only the libretto survives. It provides a possible explanation of the story that he was once a scullion: in the course of the masquerade the young musician did indeed appear in the character of a crieur de ratons, an itinerant seller of small cheesecakes supposedly made by himself. The artistic circles in which he mingled on this occasion, and the princess whom he served, probably provided him with the opportunity of meeting his future father-in-law, Michel Lambert, already famous as a singer.

However, it must have been thanks to Du Moustier or Regnault, who became mâitre à danser du roi in 1651, that Lully entered the service of Louis XIV. After the Fronde uprising of late 1652 he left the service of the Grande Mademoiselle, whose involvement with the rebels had obliged her to retire to the château at Saint-Fargeau. On returning to Paris Lully was therefore able to take part, at the age of 20, in the magnificent Ballet royal de la nuit, whose many entrées called for a vast number of performers. He played the parts entrusted to him so well that on 16 March 1653, even before the spectacular festivities were over, the king appointed him to the post of compositeur de la musique instrumentale in succession to the famous violinist Lazaro Lazarin. For the next few years he combined the careers of dancer and composer, but it was only after 1655 that he became well known to the public.

As a dancer in the ballets performed at court Lully excelled in character parts that allowed him to display his talents for mime and comedy. His sense of rhythm and precise, supple movements meant that he was soon dancing in the same entrées as Louis XIV. Several years older than the young king, Lully soon had a privileged relationship with him, and took advantage of it to become Louis's favourite musician. Before reaching that point, however, he had to overcome many obstacles and found his way barred by a number of prerogatives. At first, in accordance with contemporary custom, he had to share the composition of the entrées and then the récits of ballets with other authors, usually specialists in either instrumental or vocal music. They included Verpré, Louis de Mollier and Michel Mazuel, the last of whom, like the conducteur et répétiteur des ballets Michel Léger, belonged to the famous 24 Violons du Roi, usually called upon to play for all the court spectacles. Lully did not like the way this ensemble performed, and to circumvent its power he got permission from the king to direct another, the ‘petits violons’, which he was able to conduct as he pleased.

In 1656 Lully employed this ensemble in the masquerade La galanterie du temps, the first work for which he wrote all the music himself. After Le ballet des bienvenus, performed the previous year at Compiègne for the wedding of the son of the Duke of Modena to Laure Martinozzi, Mazarin's niece, he was no longer satisfied with providing music for the dances alone, but also wrote the various vocal pieces: the récit grotesque, the air, dialogue, duet and chorus, which were sung in Italian. In the cause of his art he recruited the aid of a remarkable singer, Anna Bergerotti, in whose house he used to take part in concerts she held for her compatriots. With the support of a considerable Italian contingent, many of whose members were close to Mazarin, and of the young king himself, he was not slow to make his mark as the principal composer of royal ballets, although a spectacle entitled Ballets des plaisirs troublés, by Louis de Mollier, was produced in 1657 to uphold the French tradition in rivalry with L'Amour malade, to which Lully had contributed. From this period on, Isaac de Benserade wrote laudatory verses about him, which were published in the librettos handed out to the audience, while Loret described him in La muze historique as ‘a genius’.

The 1660s marked a turning point in Lully's career, for several reasons. The arrival of Francesco Cavalli in France to produce operas at court on the occasion of Louis XIV's marriage stimulated Lully to extend his creative activities. He was still writing ballet scores, in particular to enhance the performances of Cavalli's Xerse and Ercole amante in 1660 and 1662, but in 1660 he also made his mark with a sacred work, the Motet de la Paix (probably the Jubilate Deo), which enjoyed such popularity that it was sung at the Louvre at least nine or ten times. Soon afterwards, in 1663, he composed a true masterpiece, his Miserere, for divine service at court. Was he intending at this time to take part, along with Du Mont and Robert, in the competition organized to recruit sous-maîtres for the royal chapel? He was never to hold a permanent post in the royal chapel, but he continued to put his talents at the service of the church. By 1663, as it happened, the situation had changed a good deal: with Mazarin's death and the only moderate success of Ercole amante, followed by Cavalli's departure, the way was again open for him to shine in the entertainments produced for the sovereign.

At the beginning of his personal reign, on 16 May 1661, Louis XIV granted Lully the highest office to which he could aspire, that of surintendant de la musique de la chambre du roi. Lully realized that to discharge his responsibilities he must adopt France as his country, and he was naturalized in December 1661. On 24 July 1662, in the church of St Eustache in Paris, he married the 20-year-old Madeleine, daughter of the composer Michel Lambert. The couple had six children. Lully's marriage contract shows how prominent was his position at court: it was signed by Louis XIV, the queens Marie-Thérèse and Anne of Austria, Louis Hesselin, intendant of the Menus-Plaisirs, and the king's famous minister Jean Baptiste Colbert. The composer's reputation soon spread beyond the frontiers of the kingdom. In 1663 the Grand Duke of Tuscany approached him with a commission to write some instrumental pieces, including dances in the most fashionable style of the time. His most successful airs, in particular a famous bourrée, spread to Italy, England and, even at this early date, perhaps to other European countries as well.

This widespread diffusion of his works, evidence of his growing reputation, came at the beginning of the most brilliant period of Louis XIV's reign, a reign propitious to the development of the arts and literature. Lully took advantage of these exceptional circumstances. In 1664 he was called upon to collaborate with Molière in a series of excellent comédies-ballets. His relationship with the famous actor and dramatist was productive. It enriched his knowledge of the theatre, particularly of the French dramatic repertory, and helped him to perfect his interpretation of the comic parts he himself took after 1662 at the latest, singing baisse-taille (baritone). His retirement from stage performance as a dancer in 1667, or early 1668, was probably due to his age, although he was extremely successful in 1669 and 1670 when he appeared under the pseudonym of ‘Il Signor Chiacchiarone’ (the Garrulous Man), first in Monsieur de Pourceaugnac and then in Le bourgeois gentilhomme, taking the parts of an Italian musician and the Grand Mufti. The masterpieces of the ‘deux Baptiste’, as Molière and Lully were called at the time, were all first performed at court as divertissements. Several of them were included in the programmes of the grandes fêtes. At the most brilliant of these entertainments at Versailles, Les plaisirs de l'ile enchantée of 1664 and a similar fête in 1668, performances of La Princesse d'Elide and George Dandin respectively were given.

Lully also contributed to other less well-known entertainments staged in the park at Versailles, in particular the performance of a tragi-comedy by Mademoiselle Desjardins, Le favory, in 1665. In the years 1663–5 he collaborated with his father-in-law Michel Lambert on the composition of several ballets, and thereafter he participated in all the great celebratory occasions that marked the course of the Sun King's life: the reception of the papal legate at Versailles and Fontainebleau in 1664, the baptism of the dauphin at Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1668, and the funeral in 1670 of Henriette d'Angleterre, daughter of Charles I of England and wife of the duc d'Orléans.

Lully's many and varied responsibilities were bound to improve his personal situation, and soon he was prosperous enough to plan the building of a magnificent house in Paris. The façades can still be seen today on the corner of the rue Sainte-Anne and the rue des Petits Champs. When work on this house began in 1670, Molière made the composer a loan of 11,000 livres, but the relationship between the ‘deux Baptiste’ rapidly deteriorated. The works they had created at court came to include more and more music, but when they were produced in Paris at the theatre of the Palais Royal, Molière took the profits without giving the composer his share. This was probably the reason for their quarrel, which can be dated to 1671, after the composition of Psyché.

Several historians have suggested another reason for the estrangement: referring to a later document, the Lettre de Clément Marot by Bauderon de Sénecé, published in 1688, they maintain that Lully and Molière had agreed to act as joint directors of the newly founded Académie de Musique, otherwise known as the Paris Opéra. This theory seems improbable: it is hard to imagine Molière content to see his role limited to the writing of librettos, and Lully himself did not at first think highly of the chances of French opera. However, the triumph of Cambert's Pomone on 3 March 1671, and the favourable reception at court of another pastorale en musique, Sablières's Les amours de Diane et d'Endymion, must have convinced Lully that he was wrong and inclined him towards this new kind of music drama.

Circumstances were in his favour. Taking advantage of the dispute between the librettist of Pomone, Pierre Perrin, and some of his associates, he was able to buy the privilege of the Opéra which the king had granted to Perrin in 1669. In March 1672 Lully thus became director of what was henceforth the Académie Royale de Musique. At first his position at the head of this institution was a difficult one. Both Molière and Perrin's former associates, Sourdéac, Champeron, Sablières and Guichard, tried to oppose the registration of Louis XIV's patents confirming Lully in his new appointment, and the conditions in which he assumed it were far from easy. Unlike other Parisian theatrical troupes, the operatic company received no allowance from the king, although opera was more expensive to stage than any other kind of spectacle. Lully had also to begin by finding a theatre, hiring a tennis court (jeu de paume) for the purpose (the Béquet or Bel-Air court in the rue de Vaugirard), and he then had to have it fitted out for theatrical performances.

To achieve this end and cover his expenses, Lully went into partnership on 23 August 1672 with Carlo Vigarani, an architect and designer of stage sets and machinery, whom he had known at court for over ten years. They each advanced 10,000 livres, reserving the rights to share annual profits on the takings. After opening with a pastiche, Les fêtes de l'Amour et de Bacchus, consisting of extracts from comédies-ballets, they staged an original work, Cadmus et Hermione (fig.2). This first tragédie en musique, which had its première in mid-April 1673, was so successful that Louis XIV came to see it in person.

The support of the king was much in evidence for over ten years. On 28 April 1673, after the death of Molière, Lully was authorized to use the Palais Royal theatre free of charge. This meant the expulsion of its former occupants, the famous actor's own company and the Italian company with which it had shared the theatre. Fearing competition, Lully inflicted yet another blow on his rivals: they were prohibited from using dancers in their productions, and were not to employ more than two voices and six violins. Reaction was not long in coming. Alceste, the tragédie en musique performed in January 1674 in the Opéra's new home, was savagely attacked by a cabal, and even a visit from Louis XIV could not mitigate the ill effects. Impressed by the latest dramatic works of his surintendant, the king now decided to have them produced at court, where criticism would be less virulent and where they would be sure of better publicity. Furthermore, rehearsals would be financed by the royal treasury, and a generous present of the sets, machinery and at least some of the costumes would be made to Lully and Vigarani so that they could be used again for revivals in Paris. Consequently Thésée, Atys and Isis had their premières between 1675 and 1677 in the salle de ballets of the old château of Saint Germain-en-Laye before being performed in the city.

Lully's enemies were not disarmed. He suffered some violent attacks during these years, particularly in connection with the lawsuit he brought against Perrin's former partner Henry Guichard, whom he accused of having tried to poison him in order to acquire his privilege. This sinister business involved Lully in controversy, and his private life did not escape the mud-slinging. The affair also sowed dissension in the theatre he directed. Guichard succeeded in seducing one of his best women singers, Anne de Boscreux, and tried to wreck his partnership with Vigarani by negotiating with the stage designer for another academy, the Académie des Spectacles, to offer the public tournaments, races and firework displays.

It was also at this period that Lully quarrelled with La Fontaine after rejecting the poet's libretto for Daphné. He was scarcely more accommodating to the musician La Grille, although he was related to him through his wife's family: in 1677 he used the authority of his privilege to have La Grille banned from staging music drama with the large marionettes known as bamboches, probably fearing that they would be used to ridicule his operas. Isis, his latest tragédie en musique, had just been at the centre of a scandal: several of Lully's enemies claimed to see Louis XIV and his mistresses portrayed in the principal characters, identifying Jupiter with the king, the jealous Juno with Mme de Montespan, and the beautiful nymph Io with Marie-Elisabeth de Ludres, Louis's latest favourite. These insinuations displeased the king and were not without consequences: for two years Lully was deprived of the aid of his faithful librettist Phillipe Quinault.

However, the king bore the composer no grudge. He never tired of hearing his other operas at Saint Germain-en-Laye and Fontainebleau, where he stood godfather to the eldest son of his surintendant at a magnificent baptismal ceremony on 9 September 1677, giving the boy his own first name. The first performance of Lully's famous Te Deum was given on this occasion. Lully was soon to have a second protector at court in the dauphin. From the time of the first performances in 1679 of Bellérophon the heir to the throne often attended operatic performances in Paris, and it was to celebrate the dauphin's marriage to Marie-Anne-Christine-Victoire of Bavaria that Lully composed Le triomphe de l'amour. Three of Louis XIV's other children danced in this ballet, which had its première at Saint Germain-en-Laye in 1681: they were the Comte de Vermandois, the Princesse de Conti and the young Mademoiselle de Nantes. In the same year Lully appeared on stage again in a revival of Le bourgeois gentilhomme, and made the audience laugh so much in the part he had previously taken over ten years before that the king appointed him conseiller secrétaire du roi, a distinction which meant he could be immediately ennobled.

In his 50th year, Lully was at the peak of his career. He had not had any partners in the Opéra since 1680: when his contract with Vigarani expired he preferred not to renew it but to employ a salaried designer for his productions, turning for the purpose to Jean Berain, dessinateur de la chambre et du cabinet du roi. Lully was as shrewd a businessman as ever in his management of the Palais Royal theatre. While he gave standing room to the humbler part of the audience for only 30 sols, he charged higher prices than any other theatre in Paris for the seats reserved for more prosperous opera lovers. The highest price of all, one louis d'or, was charged to sit on the stage itself, a favour he granted the dauphin's retinue. Thanks to a second privilege granted by the king on 20 September 1672, he also derived royalties from the librettos sold to the audience, and from 1677 from his printed music. He published the separate parts of Isis that year, and after 1678 he issued the complete scores of all his music dramas.

While he was enriching himself in this way, he made the best use he could of his prerogatives to the performance of opera in France. He was unyielding to rivals, such as Jean-François Lalouette and Paolo Lorenzani, who might set up in Paris, but proved more accommodating to provincial entrepreneurs: in 1684 he allowed the composer Pierre Gautier (ii) to open another Académie de Musique in Marseilles in return for a fee, and he gave permission for two citizens of Rouen, Pierre Le Clerc and François Pannuit, to organize public concerts ‘of five voices and 30 instruments’ in their city. At this period he also made up his quarrel with La Fontaine, whom he asked to provide dedications to the king for his tragédies en musique Amadis and Roland, and he agreed to write an Idylle sur la paix to verses by Racine, another writer who had previously been hostile to his productions. His works were successful both in the city and at court. They were revived in Marseilles, Brussels, Antwerp and on the other side of the Rhine in Regensburg, Wolfenbüttel and Ansbach. In Paris Lully's fame was evident in another medium when his portrait by Paul Mignard was engraved; in June 1685 the engraving went on sale in the rue Saint-Honoré, near the Opéra.

A few months earlier, however, an incident occurred which compromised him seriously and caused him to fall out of favour to some extent with the king. Louis XIV learnt that he had seduced the page Brunet assigned to his service. Increasingly preoccupied with morality and religion under the influence of the devout Mme de Maintenon, who was trying to persuade him to turn away from the theatre, the king could not tolerate such a scandal. The composer's masterpiece, Armide, was a triumph in Paris in 1686 (fig.4), but it was never performed in the king's presence. A production of Michel-Richard de Lalande's Ballet de la jeunesse was preferred to it at Versailles. Lully now found a new patron in the duc de Vendôme. Thanks to this prince, his heroic pastoral Acis et Galatée was first performed at the château of Anet during festivities organized for the dauphin. Despite the continued support of the heir to the throne and the successful marches he composed for two grand tournaments given at court in the dauphin's honour in 1685 and 1686, Lully never enjoyed as much favour as before with Louis XIV. Soon he was even asked to leave the Palais Royal theatre, since the king wished to construct apartments for the duc de Chartres on the site. However, these projects were not put into practice. Lully died on 22 March 1687 as the result of a self-inflicted wound to his foot three months earlier, when he was conducting his Te Deum in the church of the Feuillants in the rue Saint-Honoré. Gangrene subsequently spread to his leg, and despite the efforts of several doctors it finally killed him.

Lully's body was buried in the chapel of St John the Baptist in the Augustinian church of Notre Dame des Victoires, while his entrails were buried in the church of Ste Marie-Madeleine, his own parish. In fact the composer died in a house he had bought not far away, now the site of 28 and 30 rue Boissy-d'Anglas. He left a considerable fortune in addition to the several properties he owned in Paris. With his father-in-law Michel Lambert he also owned a house outside Paris in Puteaux, and he had acquired stocks, gold and jewels. The direction of the Opéra, of which the sets, machinery and costumes were his property, passed not to one of his sons, as set out in his privilege, but to his son-in-law Jean-Nicolas de Francine, whose abilities were far from matching Lully's own.

Lully was sincerely mourned, despite his faults. He was grasping, so jealous of his prerogatives as to do his utmost to oust any possible rivals, and insolent enough to defy the highest personages in the land; his manners were always rustic despite his extraordinary rise in the social scale. His modest origins, which he tried to hide by passing himself off (even in his marriage contract) as the son of a gentleman in Florence, were said to be evident in his physical appearance. According to Le Cerf de la Viéville, ‘his lively and singular physiognomy’ was ‘not at all noble’. His features were coarse, with ‘a large nose and a large, well-formed mouth’, and his small eyes were short-sighted. Since he had a good appetite and liked his wine, he must have acquired a certain corpulence in maturity; we can guess at it in the portraits that have survived. The best of them is the bust by Coyzevox which was placed on his tomb. It displays a mixture of power and brutality characteristic of Lully's personality (fig.5). His temper could sometimes be extremely violent, particularly towards his operatic company in Paris. He was known to have broken violins over the backs of certain players when their playing displeased him, and was even said to have kicked pregnant actresses in the stomach to make them abort. He certainly imposed very strict discipline. According to Le Cerf de la Viéville, he refused to tolerate ‘women singers suffering from colds for six months of the year, or men who were drunk four times a week’. A contract of engagement confirms the severity of his discipline; it sets out the fines for each hour of rehearsal time missed, or for any absence from performances. However, Lully also paid his performers well, made up his quarrels with them when he had been angry, looked after their welfare and even guaranteed them earnings outside the Opéra as long as those earnings were not made in the service of rival enterprises.

Some of the notable personalities in the company had been recruited in the time of Perrin and Cambert. Others, including Marie-Louise Desmatins, Marie Le Rochois and Louis Gaulard Dumesny were chosen by Lully. The instrumental ensembles that performed the composer's works at the royal residences or in Paris were sometimes large ones: over 75 players took part in the première of Le triomphe de l'amour at Saint Germain-en-Laye in 1681. Lully's orchestra, regarded at the time as the best in Europe, contained some remarkable musicians: the famous dynasties of flautists and oboists, the Philidors, the Hotteterres; the harpsichordists Jean-Henry D'Anglebert and his son Jean-Baptiste-Henry; and the viol players Marin Marais and Jean Theobaldo de Gatti. All these performers received excellent training from Lully. As a violinist, dancer and actor himself he was able to control the accuracy of the instrumental playing, demonstrate the steps of ballets, show how a performer should make an entrance and move on stage, and display the attitudes they should adopt. From the first, thanks to these abilities and the convergence of so many talents, his work received excellent performances which contributed to their success.

2. Ballets de cour.

None of Lully's musical autographs has survived, but the many manuscript copies and printed scores provide evidence of the breadth and influence of his creativity. His impressive body of work may be divided into ballets, comédies-ballets, operas and sacred music. His first known works are ballets, a genre to which he first contributed in 1652 with the Mascarade de la Foire Saint-Germain. None of the music is extant, and neither are the Italian vocal pieces he composed at the beginning of his career at court. These include the récit grotesque of the Ballet des bienvenus, the concert in the scene in the underworld from the Ballet de Psyché, récits, dialogues and duets from La galanterie du temps, and almost all the airs and ensembles of L'Amour malade. In these circumstances it is difficult to assess Lully's role between 1655 and 1657, when he emerged as the principal representative of Italian influence in the spectacles in which the young Louis XIV took part.

However, he did not disdain the French style in his dance music, and at first collaborated with other musicians in composing it. There are more sources available here, but they present different problems. They are all late manuscript copies, and the attribution to Lully of various passages of instrumental writing from the time of the Ballet du temps (1654) onwards is not supported by any contemporary document. Furthermore, different versions of the same works are sometimes found, even though they may have received only a few performances over a short period of time.

In spite of many uncertainties, however, Lully's authorship of entrées in the ballet de cour tradition can be confirmed. Some of those concerning such stock characters as demons or the divinities of the winds, suggested by rapid passages in the music, continued to feature in the composer's operas. Examples occur from the time of the Ballet d'Alcidiane (1658), which includes ‘a battle and a siege’, a descriptive passage developed further in the tragédies en musique. The stately dances also foreshadow those in Lully's dramatic works, in particular the chaconnes and related pieces. The famous ‘Louchie’ at the end of the Ballet de la raillerie (1659) is notable for its exceptional length and its studied writing: it has great rhythmic variety, with syncopations, effective use of rests, melodic development of the outer parts, the use of shorter note values to produce more movement, and a passage in the minor mode. Lully was to employ all these methods again, and he also made good use of the minuet: he introduced it into court spectacles with the Ballet de la raillerie and was chiefly responsible for making it popular.

It was during this period that Lully began to adopt the French overture, which is found as early as the Ballet d'Alcidiane (1658). While he was to make constant use of this type of overture, contributing more than anyone to its wide dispersal, he does not seem to have invented it. According to one of the extant sources of the masquerade in the Ballets des plaisirs troublés, his rival Mollier was ahead of him, and had written an accomplished example of the genre as early as 1657. The two-part design – a majestic first section in duple metre with dotted notes, followed by a fast contrapuntal section in triple time and (usually) a short, slower conclusion effectively recalling the solemnity of the opening bars – was to remain the pattern until Lully's last operas.

From 1661, when he became surintendant, Lully was anxious to make his vocal music conform better to the country where he was to pursue his career. His first great success with a French air, ‘Sommes-nous pas trop heureux’, which was to be much imitated, came in the Ballet de l'impatience (1661). A few months later, in the Ballet des saisons, a marked decrease can be observed in his use of Italian words for musical setting. From this point on he was to reserve Italian for comic scenes, such as that with the schoolmaster in Les noces de village (1663), and for particularly emotional moments. In the latter context he took as his model the Italian lamento, employing descending chromaticisms to express grief, dissonances of an equally expressive nature, and a slow tempo suited to melancholy meditation. His first example was in Les Amours déguisés of 1664, with the ‘récit d'Armide’, ‘Ah Rinaldo, e dove sei?’. In the following year he composed another plainte, for Ariadne in the Ballet de la naissance de Vénus, this time to a French text, ‘Rochers, vous êtes sourds’. It caused a great sensation. One of his most moving examples, however, is the plainte de Vénus in the Ballet de Flore (1669), a fine lament over the body of Adonis, with the voice beginning on a heart-rending major 7th (ex.1).

During this period Lully's instrumental music also evolved at a remarkable rate. He devised concerts for his ballets, varying the instrumental timbres to suit what was being described in the librettos. After a ritournelle pour le concert du Printemps in the Ballet des saisons, he introduced a concert de trompettes into his entrées for Cavalli's Ercole amante, as well as two concerts de guitares, in which he himself was one of the peformers. However, it was in the Ballet des muses of 1666 that he really displayed his talents as an instrumentalist, this time on the violin, playing a solo part in a piece where he represented Orpheus. The passages he played alternated with orchestral passages in a manner which foreshadowed the concerto. The Ballet des muses also contained a ‘Spanish concert with harps and guitars’. This piece was intended to suggest local colour, while in Les amours déguisés of 1664 flutes had been chosen to convey the character of the Loves. Lully was to recall this later in the prelude he gave the little god Cupid in his score for Le triomphe de l'amour (1681; see fig.6).

3. Comédies-ballets.

In his comédies-ballets Lully took a different line. After writing a single dance, a courante, for the first of these works, Les fâcheux (1661), and leaving the rest of the musical composition to Pierre Beauchamps, he contributed a good deal to the success of the new genre created by Molière. The intermèdes, often well integrated into the dramatic action, gave him the chance to write irresistibly amusing scenes for his singers. He exploited this comic vein from 1664, notably in La princesse d'Elide for the scene in which the kennel boys wake Lyciscas, a part taken by Molière at the work's première. Monsieur de Pourceaugnac inspired Lully to write equally comical passages, such as the duet ‘Buon dì’ sung by the Italian musicians, and in particular the duet for the lawyers, one of them ‘jabbering’ and the other ‘drawling’. Le bourgeois gentilhomme holds a special place among these comic works. The Turkish ceremony begins with a famous march, which until the end of the 18th century served as a model for many composers who wanted to suggest oriental music. The passages for the Turks themselves in lingua franca, a device already used by Molière in Le Sicilien (1667), derive their comic effect from the words, repetitions, rhythm and use of rests. In Le bourgeois gentilhomme Lully also depicted everyday life, introducing several chansons à boire, and the famous minuet to which Monsieur Jourdain learns to dance, already used the same year in Les amants magnifiques, would have been familiar to the first audiences. According to several sources, its tune was derived from a popular song, ‘Margot sur la brune’, which was being hummed as early as 1660, and it satirized the duchesse de Vitry, who had retired to the convent of the Assumption (ex.2 and ex.3).

While drawing on the musical sources of his new country, Lully did not entirely abandon passages in the Italian manner in his comédies-ballets. In La princesse d'Elide he wrote his first lament to French words (Tircis's ‘Arbres épais’) and he composed another, exceptional in its development, Cloris's ‘Ah, mortelle douleur’, for George Dandin, performed as part of a divertissement at Versailles in 1668. Two years later Les amants magnifiques contained the first of Lully's sommeils, or slumber scenes, the origins of which may be sought in the works of Luigi Rossi and Francesco Cavalli. After a ritournelle for flutes (instruments well chosen to express the sweetness and charms of slumber), came the trio ‘Dormez, dormez, beaux yeux’, notated in long notes in 3/2 time. The first intermède in Les amants magnifiques also foreshadowed Lully's future operas in its length, and in the importance attached to the solo singers, choruses and dances.

However, the work that came closest to the new repertory which the composer was to contribute to music drama in Paris was Psyché (1671). This was a tragédie-ballet, a unique hybrid spectacle partaking of the nature of both the tragédie à machines and the comédie-ballet. From the former genre, its model first perfected by Pierre Corneille in his Andromède (1650), Psyché borrowed the structure of five acts and a prologue, with a change of setting and the intervention of a glory, or of a heavenly chariot, in each act. It also took an elevated subject from classical mythology and treated it in a manner sometimes galant and sometimes dramatic, while the description of the piece in the libretto as a ‘tragi-comedy’ allowed a happy ending. Molière, who was short of time, had asked Corneille to write almost all the verses for the last four acts. The contribution of the comédie-ballet genre was equally large: no tragédie à machines had ever had the advantage of large-scale intermèdes in which music and dancing could feature so prominently. The first of these intermèdes, rightly regarded as one of the peaks of Lully's art, presented a long funereal lament, while the last was a monumental finale with a succession of entrées de ballet, airs for solo singers, vocal ensembles and choruses. In spite of all these features, Psyché was not an opera; to make it into one it was necessary to replace all the spoken dialogue by recitatives, and that was exactly what Lully, Corneille's brother Thomas and his nephew Fontenelle did in 1678, when they turned the tragédie-ballet into a tragédie en musique.

4. Operas.

However, the composer did not wait until then to create his new operatic genre. It was revealed to the public in 1673 with Cadmus et Hermione. For the libretto Lully had turned to Philippe Quinault, who had already provided the French words for the vocal numbers in Psyché. The poet devised an excellent solution to the major problem of recitative. In the first place, he simplified and tightened the plot, stripping it of unnecessary episodes so as to keep the audience's interest constantly alive. The concision of his language was much admired, and he proved skilful in facilitating the setting of the libretto to music, resorting to free verse and flexibly alternating alexandrines and octosyllabic lines to provide both vivacity and dignity. He may have acquired this ease of style from his predecessors at the Académie de Musique, Pierre Perrin and Gabriel Gilbert, who adopted the same approach and introduced the same kind of variety. They had already made use of lines of six and seven syllables.

Nonetheless, Quinault's style was superior to that of the earlier librettists. Taking Psyché as his model, he and Lully devised a nobler and more refined kind of French opera, drawn from the superior literary traditions of Corneille and Molière. When looking for models for his recitatives the composer, who had written the intermèdes for Oedipe and probably for other tragedies as well, is said to have gone to the Comédie to hear Marie Desmares, known as ‘La Champmeslé’, famous for her performances in Racine's plays, and to note the intonations and inflections of her voice. Anxious to adapt an Italian genre to the French milieu, he adopted some of Perrin's practices and avoided castrati, who were popular in Italy but whom Perrin, an amateur theoretician, regarded as ‘the horror of the ladies and the laughing-stock of men’. Again following his predecessor's recommendations, Lully realized that operas should not last more than ‘two and a half hours’ or ‘three short hours’, the usual length in other Parisian theatres. That did not prevent his choosing Quinault as his librettist, and he was particularly demanding towards the dramatist, making him revise the words of his librettos as often as he himself thought necessary. For the airs de danse he provided the poet with an outline (‘canevas’) with some provisional words to help him in his task.

Most of the verses, however, were written before being set to music, in particular all the texts for the recitatives; Lully used melodic, rhythmic and harmonic procedures to make them expressive. A rising or falling interval, a melisma or a dissonance judiciously underlining certain words could suggest an image or express an idea or sentiment. A whole musical language, punctuated by rests which were sometimes emotionally charged, was devised for the dialogues and monologues, the most famous of which is the second act of Armide (‘Enfin, il est en ma puissance’). These passages were intended to drive the dramatic action forward, and superfluous ornamentation was excluded since it would have been detrimental to comprehension of the sung text, something to which the logically minded French audiences of the time were particularly attached. To add variety to these scenes Lully supported the voices with a continuo comprising some ten instruments, at least in performances at court: two harpsichords, four theorbos, archlutes or lutes, two bass viols and one or two bass violins. From Bellérophon (1679) onwards he also adopted the Italian practice of using the string ensemble to provide greater density at certain dramatic moments. At the same time he also developed this practice in various airs.

Several kinds of air may be distinguished in Lully's writing, depending on their form. As well as those to be sung to dances during the ballets, there are binary and ternary forms. Others are rondeaux or written over a ground bass. Those in the last category, apparently inspired by examples from Cavalli, are mostly for tearful lovers. A justly famous air is Sangaride's ‘Atys est trop heureux’ in Act 1 of Atys, which is heavily tinged with melancholy. There are other and equally moving examples, for instance Theone's heart-rending ‘Il me fuit l'inconstant’ in Act 2 of Phaëton. Most of these lyrical passages are integrated into the recitatives, and sometimes display parallels with them that create some ambiguity, particularly when accompanied by the string ensemble. Many of them, however, required no instrumental support except for a continuo, and consisted of short, simple melodies to a straightforward rhythm, so that they were easy to remember and became widely popular. According to Le Cerf de la Viéville, the famous air of Arcabonne, ‘Amour, que veux-tu de moi’, from the second act of Amadis, was sung by every cook in France. The plaintes remained more complex: the lament of Pan in Isis is accompanied by flutes, according to contemporary reports in order to suggest the sound of the wind in the reeds.

The vocal ensembles, most of them duets, show equal sensitivity, allowing the hearer to appreciate both words and music, as in the amorous exchange between Renaud and Armide, ‘Aimons-nous, aimons-nous, tout nous y convie’, in the last act of Armide. Phaëton also contains two fine duets for Epaphus and Lybie. One of them, ‘Que mon sort serait doux’, for which Lully had a special fondness, displays refined harmonic writing with a succession of delicate dissonances (ex.4).

The chorus, usually in four parts (soprano, haute-contre, tenor and bass) is sometimes heard during recitatives from the wings, but it also takes its usual place on stage in the divertissements developed from the great intermèdes of the comédies-ballets, which in the tragédies en musique are situated in the middle or at the end of each act. In those scenes where the dances are concentrated, the chorus contributes to the lavish spectacle by its presence alongside other performers and by its frequently solemn character enhanced by chordal writing. While bringing interest and diversity to those moments when attention tends to turn away from the drama, it sometimes gave the audience a chance to join the singing too, adopting a simple melody of a popular cast that could be easily memorized. The audience could join the members of the chorus in taking up themes sung first by a soloist, the words being contained in the librettos on sale at the theatre door, and this practice also occurred in the prologues. It can be traced back to Cadmus et Hermione, and is found in tragédies en musique of a later date, notably in the fourth act of Phaëton, nicknamed ‘the opera of the people’, in the catchy ensemble sung by the Hours, ‘Que ce palais’.

In the divertissements the chorus is sometimes closely associated with the composition of the dances. In the last act of Armide it helps to amplify the monumental character of a passacaille devised, like the chaconnes, to show the expressive possibilities of the orchestra. Minuets and gavottes are the dances most frequently found in the ballets, in greater number than bourrées, canaries, gigues, loures, passepieds, rigaudons and sarabandes. To this remarkable variety one may add that provided by the airs and the entrées, which illustrate the nature of the characters and take an effective part in the development of the dramatic action. In the third act of Atys, for instance, the Pleasant and Sorrowful Dreams point out to the young Atys, in their mime, the advantages and disadvantages likely to come his way, depending on whether he rejects or accepts the love of the goddess Cybele.

The orchestra alone is also required to play a descriptive part in preludes, ritournelles and other symphonies. As with the dances, the music is usually in five or three parts. The five-part string ensemble, consisting of violins, three sizes of violas (hautes-contre, tailles and quintes) and bass violins, already in use at court under Louis XIII for the ballet repertory, was introduced to the lyric theatre in Paris by Lully, and was to maintain its place there until 1720. In the orchestral ensemble, placed in front of the stage as it is today, it constituted the basis of the grand choeur, often duplicated, at least in the top and bottom parts, by recorders, flutes, oboes and bassoons. This ensemble, sometimes with trumpets and kettledrums to accompany heroic scenes, was distinct from the smaller petit choeur, which consisted of the continuo instruments. It was a powerful ensemble, well able to evoke the tumult of battle, the raging of the sea, the descent of heavenly machines and the chaotic atmosphere of the underworld.

This resource led Lully to modify his descriptive language. Up to Persée and Phaëton his slumber scenes are of Italian inspiration, and the scene in Atys, although notated in duple metre, is in the same tradition. Renaud's sommeil in Armide, by contrast, bears no relation to similar scenes by Cavalli: the violins, muted, no longer hold long notes but imitate the movement of the water flowing slowly past the turf on which the hero lies asleep, the victim of a spell.

A development connected with the nature of the librettos can also be observed. After 1677 all trace of comedy disappeared, and Lully no longer sought to make the audience smile with repeated notes for the barking of Cerberus in Alceste or the shivering of the inhabitants of cold climates in Isis. However, when Quinault abandoned mythological subjects and turned, with Amadis, to themes drawn from tales of chivalry, the music (unlike the settings and costumes) underwent no particular modification. On the other hand, it greatly influenced the music of the other dramatic genres to which Lully devoted himself after 1672. Vocal writing is more prominent in his later ballets, Le triomphe de l'Amour and Le temple de la paix. The second of these, with its more coherent dramatic action, is in fact related more to opera than to the old type of choreographic spectacle. As for the heroic pastoral Acis et Galatée, it borrows even more from the new tragédie en musique: despite having three acts and not five, it has the same internal organization, with recitative scenes sprinkled with airs, and divertissements with choruses and dances similar to those of the new genre.

5. Church music.

Lully wrote comparatively few sacred works, but they occupy an important place in his output. According to contemporary accounts and the extant musical sources, they were composed between 1660 and 1687, that is over a period of more than 25 years during the most fruitful part of his career. Some were particularly popular, including the Miserere, much admired by Louis XIV and Mme de Sévigné, as well as the Te Deum, De profundis and Quare fremuerunt.

A distinction must be made between the grands motets and the petits motets. The former, written for performance by the royal chapel, were for two choirs each consisting of five parts. One contained the solo singers, and was dominated by high registers, with two sopranos, haute-contre, tenor and bass. The other was a sizable ensemble with a noticeable emphasis on lower registers in the choice of a single soprano part together with haute-contre, tenor and bass. This vocal distribution had been adopted in France at the beginning of the 17th century by Nicolas Formé, sous-maître of Louis XIII's chapel and then by his successor Thomas Gobert and by Jean Veillot. Lully and his contemporaries also adopted it and followed Veillot in using a string ensemble for accompaniment, here and elsewhere, which was also inherited from the royal music: the 24 Violons du Roi. While Lully represented a structure governed by national institutions, he was able to give his grands motets certain touches whose origin must be sought on the other side of the Alps, and it was not surprising that the papal nuncio considered the Te Deum ‘a work of Italian inspiration’. Du Mont, too, was subject to Italian influence, but his choral writing is less homophonic. Lully excelled in massive vocal homophony, which he used to dramatic effect, as did Carissimi, whose histoires sacrées he must have known.

The powerful inspiration behind these vocal ensembles is maintained in frequent interventions from the orchestra. With his Miserere of 1663 Lully was probably the first composer to begin a grand motet with a five-part instrumental introduction. Such symphonies assumed increasing importance with Plaude laetare (1668) and superseded three-part ritournelles in the Te Deum (1677), where they are sometimes reinforced by trumpets and kettledrums. This, again, was an innovation in the dignified genre of sacred music. A new development can also be observed in the solo récits of the petit choeur. The Miserere contains numerous duets, often beginning with introductions in imitation. Such duets became fewer in the other motets, allowing solo passages to be better developed and to comment more effectively on the words. During Lully's lifetime, these works were praised for their ‘correctness of expression, answering to the subject’. An extract from the Te Deum illustrates this characteristic, appealing as much to melodic as to harmonic qualities (ex.5).

The petits motets devoted to the cult of the Virgin and the holy sacrament, are thought to have been composed for the Parisian convent of the Assumption in the rue Saint-Honoré. They are among Lully's most italianate works. Their scoring, in three parts with continuo, and certain turns of phrase are evidence of the continued influence of Carissimi. However, they fall within a decidedly French body of music, the motets et élévations represented at the time by Du Mont, Robert and Danielis, and as with Lully's other sacred compositions their contrasts of effect meant that they did not fail to please.

6. Influence.

The influence of Lully's work was considerable. In France it was felt in most of the genres to which he turned. He endowed the grand motet with all the ceremony proper to a regal genre. Lalande owed much to him, and Charpentier's famous Te Deum would never have been what it is without Lully's setting. Charpentier, wrongly regarded by many as Lully's principal rival, also respected the structure of the tragédie en musique in his own Médée. The model of this genre, the most successful in French opera under the ancien régime, was to inspire many composers for over a century: first Lully's most faithful disciples, Collasse, Marais and Desmarest, and then Rameau and Gluck in the 18th century, to mention only the most famous names. Even in opéra-ballet, a form of spectacle which was to rival the tragédie en musique in popularity towards the end of Louis XIV's reign, references to it still remain: several passages in Campra's L'Europe galante allude directly to the sommeil of Renaud and the passacaille in Armide. Lully's operatic works remained alive in the public's memory until the eve of the Revolution, and they were often revived in Paris and in the provincial theatres of Marseilles, Lyon, Rouen, Lille, Dijon and Strasbourg.

Outside France Lully's works were also performed in Brussels, The Hague, Hamburg, Stuttgart and Rome. In Amsterdam the publishers Heus, Pointel and Roger issued his overtures and other instrumental pieces between 1682 and 1715, thereby contributing to the creation and success of the French suite in north European countries, where composers as eminent as Bach and Handel contributed to the genre. Through some lesser known composers (Humphrey, Muffat, Fischer and Kusser, thought to have been acquainted with Lully in Paris) his music also reached England, where it had a strong influence on Purcell and was performed in Germany, Austria and Bohemia as well.

This extraordinary degree of influence resulted from the prestige of French culture in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the astonishing popularity of many secular airs by Lully, which were constantly imitated and used in church services and performances of the new opéra-comique genre. Some of these melodies were famous: the celebrated chorus of shiverers in Isis provided inspiration both for Purcell in King Arthur and for Vivaldi in the ‘Winter’ section of the ‘Four Seasons’. Lully, regarded throughout Enlightenment Europe as the leading figure in French music, created a style which was truly his own, drawing on many sources which he was probably better able to assimilate than anyone else in his time. The language he forged, and to which he sometimes brought exceptional breadth, could leave no one indifferent, and it still attracts audiences today with its power, clarity, equilibrium, coherence, poetry and exquisite sensitivity.

WORKS

Editions: Les chefs-d'oeuvres classiques de l'opéra français, ed. T. de Lajarte (Paris, 1878–83) [L]Jean-Baptiste Lully: Les oeuvres complètes, ed. H. Prunières (Paris, 1930–39/R) [P]; Motets, iii, ed. H. Prunières, rev. M. Sanvoisin (New York, 1972) [P, motets iii]French Opera in the 17th and 18th Centuries, ed. B. Brook (New York, 1984–) [FO]

Catalogue: Chronologisch-thematisches Verzeichnis sämtlicher Werke von Jean-Baptiste Lully, ed. H. Schneider (Tutzing, 1981) [LWV]

operas

tragédies en musique, in a prologue and five acts, unless otherwise stated

printed works published in Paris unless otherwise stated

LWV

47	Les fêtes de l'Amour et de Bacchus (pastorale, prol., 3, P. Quinault, after Molière and Lully, LWV 33, 38, 42, 43), Paris, Jeu de Paume de Béquet, 11 Nov 1672 (1717); FO ii
49	Cadmus et Hermione (Quinault, after Ovid: Metamorphoses), Paris, Jeu de Paume de Béquet, mid-April 1673 (1719); L xx, P i
50	Alceste, ou Le triomphe d'Alcide (Quinault, after Euripides: Alcestis), Paris, Opéra, ?18 Jan 1674, reduced score (1708); L xvi, P ii
51	Thésée (Quinault, after Ovid: Metamorphoses), Saint Germain-en-Laye, 15 Jan 1675 (1688); L xxvi
53	Atys (Quinault, after Ovid: Fasti), Saint Germain-en-Laye, 10 Jan 1676 (1689); FO iii; L xviii
54	Isis (Quinault, after Ovid: Metamorphoses), Saint Germain-en-Laye, 5 Jan 1677, part books (1677), score (1719); L xxi
56	Psyché (T. Corneille and B. le Bovier de Fontenelle, after Apuleius: The Golden Ass), Paris, Opéra, 19 April 1678 (1720); L xxv, ed. in Turnbull (1981)
57	Bellérophon (T. Corneille and Fontenelle, after Hesiod: Theogeny), Paris, Opéra, 31 Jan 1679 (1679); L xix
58	Proserpine (Quinault, after Ovid: Metamorphoses), Saint Germain-en-Laye, 3 Feb 1680 (1680); L xxiv
60	Persée (Quinault, after Ovid: Metamorphoses), Paris, Opéra, 18 April 1682 (1682); FO v. L xxii
61	Phaëton (Quinault, after Ovid: Metamorphoses), Versailles, 8/9 Jan 1683 (1683); L xxiii
63	Amadis (Quinault, after Montalvo, adapted by N. Herberay des Essarts, Amadis de Gaule), Paris, Opéra, 16 Jan 1684 (1684); P iii
65	Roland (Quinault, after L. Ariosto: Orlando furioso), Versailles, 8 Jan 1685 (1685)
71	Armide (Quinault, after T. Tasso: Gerusalemme liberata), Paris, Opéra, 15 Feb 1686 (1686); FO vi, L xvii, ed. F. Martin (Geneva, 1924)
73	Acis et Galatée (pastorale héroïque, prol, 3, J.G. de Campistron, after Ovid: Metamorphoses), Anet, 6 Sept 1686 (1686)
74	Achille et Polyxène [ov. and Act 1] (Campistron, after Homer: Iliad), Paris, Opéra, 23 Nov 1687 (1687) [prol., Acts 2–5 by P. Collasse]

ballets

principal sources in D-Bsb, Sl, F-B, Pa, Pc, Po, V, GB-Cfm, Lbl, US-BE; see also LWV; until 1665 most in collaboration with other composers

—	Mascarade de la Foire St Germain (9 entrées), Paris, Tuileries, 7 March 1652, music lost
1	Le temps (23 entrées, I. de Benserade), Paris, Louvre, 3 Dec 1654; P, ballets i
2	Les plaisirs (25 entrées, Benserade), Paris, Louvre, 4 Feb 1655; P, ballets i
4	Les bienvenus (18 entrées, Benserade), Compiègne, 30 May 1655, music lost
6	Psyché, ou La puissance de l'amour (27 entrées, Benserade), Paris, Louvre, 16 Jan 1656, music lost
7	La galanterie du temps (10 entrées, F. Buti), Paris, Louvre, 3 Feb 1656, music lost
8	Amour malade (L'Amor malato, 10 entrées, F. Buti), Paris, Louvre, 17 Jan 1657; P, ballets i
9	Alcidiane (21 entrées, Benserade), Paris, Louvre, 14 Feb 1658; P, ballets ii
11	La raillerie (12 entrées, Benserade), Paris, Louvre, 19 Feb 1659; P, ballets i
13	Ballet mascarade, Toulouse, Nov/Dec 1659
12	Intermèdes de Xerxes (6 entrées for F. Cavalli: Serse), Paris, Louvre, 22 Nov 1660
5	La revente des habits de ballet et de comédie (10 entrées, Benserade), Paris, Louvre, 15 Dec 1660
14	L'impatience (16 entrées, Benserade and Buti), Paris, Louvre, 19 Feb 1661
15	Les saisons (9 entrées, Benserade), Fontainebleau, 26 July 1661
17	L'Hercule amoureux (18 entrées for Cavalli: Ercole amante, Benserade), Paris, Tuileries, 7 Feb 1662
18	Les arts (7 entrées, Benserade), Paris, Palais Royal, 8 Jan 1663
19	Les noces de village, mascarade ridicule (13 entrées, Benserade), Vincennes, 3/4 Oct 1663
21	Les amours déguisés (14 entrées, Perigny), Paris, Palais Royal, 13 Feb 1664
22/xxiii–xxix	Le palais d'Alcine (5 entrées for third day of Les plaisirs de l'Ile enchantée), Versailles, 9 May 1664
23	Entr' actes d'Oedipe (ov., 5 airs de danse for P. Corneille: Oedipe), Fontainebleau, 3 Aug 1664
27	La naissance de Vénus (12 entrées, Benserade), Paris, Palais Royal, 28 Jan 1665
24	La réception faite pour un gentilhomme de campagne à une compagnie choisie à sa mode, qui le vient visiter, mascarade (10 entrées, Benserade), Paris, Palais Royal, Feb 1665, music mostly lost
28	Les gardes, ou Les délices de la campagne (5 airs de danse, for Mme de Villedieu: Le favory), Versailles, 13 June 1665; P, ballets ii
30	Le triomphe de Bacchus dans les Indes, mascarade (5 entrées), Paris, Hôtel de Créqui, 9 Jan 1666
32	Les muses (13 entrées, Benserade), Saint Germain-en-Laye, 2 Dec 1666 (Paris, n.d.)
36	Le carnaval, mascarade royale (7 entrées, Benserade), Paris, Louvre, 18 Jan 1668
40	Flore (15 entrées, Benserade), Paris, Tuileries, 13 Feb 1669
52	Le carnaval, mascarade (9 entrées, Benserade and Molière), Paris, Opéra, Oct 1675 (Paris, 1720)
59	Le triomphe de l'amour (20 entrées, Benserade and P. Quinault), Saint Germain-en-Laye, 21 Jan 1681 (Paris, 1681)
69	Le temple de la paix (6 entrées, Quinault), Fontainebleau, 20 Oct 1685 (Paris, 1685)

comédies-ballets etc.

comédies-ballets in collaboration with Molière unless otherwise stated

principal sources in D-Bsb, Sl, F-B, Pa, Pc, Po, V, GB-Cfm, Lbl, US-BE

motets

all printed works published in Paris

12 grands motets, 2 choirs, with orch: Benedictus, lwv64/ii, part books (1684); De profundis, lwv62, 1683, part books (1684), P, motets iii; Dies irae, lwv64/i, 1683, part books (1684), P, motets ii; Domine salvum fac regem, lwv77/xiv, P, motets iii; Exaudiat, lwv77/xv, 1687; Jubilate Deo [?=motet de la paix], lwv77/xvi, ?1660; Miserere, lwv25, 1663, part books (1684), P, motets i; Notus in Judea, lwv77/xvii; O lachrymae, lwv26, 1664; Plaude laetare, lwv37, 1668, part books (1684), P, motets ii; Quare fremuerunt, lwv67, 1685; Te Deum, lwv55, 1677, part books (1684), P, motets ii

10 petits motets, 3vv, bc: Anima Christi, lwv77/i, P, motets iii; Ave coeli munus supernum, lwv77/ii, P, motets iii; Dixit Dominus, lwv77/iii; Domine salvum fac regem, lwv77/iv; Exaudi Deus deprecationem, lwv77/v; Laudate pueri Dominum, lwv77/vii; O dulcissime Domine, lwv77/ix, P, motets iii; O sapientia in misterio, lwv77/xi; Regina coeli, lwv77/xii; Salve regina, lwv77/xiii

other vocal

LWV

3	Dialogue de la Guerre avec la Paix, 1655, music lost
76/i	Ingrate bergère, v, bc, vn (Paris, 1664)
76/ii	Aunque prodigoas, v, bc, vn
76/iii	Scoca pur tutti, v, bc, vn (Paris, 1695)
76/iv	A la fin petit Desfarges, v
76/v	D'un beau pêcheur la pêche malheureuse, v
76/vi	Un tendre coeur, canon à 5 (Amsterdam, 1725)
76/vii	Courage, Amour, la paix est faite (Paris, 1661)
76/viii	Non vi è più bel piacer, music lost
76/ix	Le printemps, aimable Silvie (P. Perrin), music lost
76/x	Tous les jours cent bergères (Perrin), music lost
76/xi	Viens, mon aimable bergère (Perrin), music lost
76/xii	Qui les aura, mes secrètes amours (Perrin), v, bc (Paris, 1664)
76/xiii	Où êtes-vous allez, mes belles, v, bc
76/xiv	Nous meslons toute notre gloire, v
76/xv	Pendant que ces flambeaux, v
76/xvi	La langueur des beaux yeux (Paris, 1666), music lost
76/xvii	On dit que vos yeux sont trompeurs (Président de Périgny) (Paris, 1666), music lost
76/xviii	Que vous connaissez peu trop aimable Climène (P. Quinault) (Paris, 1666), music lost
76/xix	Si je n'ay parlé de ma flamme (Paris, 1666), music lost
76/xx	En ces lieux je ne vois que des promenades ((1) J.-B. Lully (i)) (Paris, 1668), music lost
76/xxi	Ah qu'il est doux de se rendre (Quinault) (Paris, 1668), music lost
76/xxii	J'ai fait serment, cruelle, de suivre une autre loi (Quinault) (Paris, 1668), music lost
76/xxiii	Le printemps ramène la verdure (Lully) (Paris, 1668), music lost
76/xxiv	Depuis que l'on soupire sous l'amoureux empire (Quinault) (Paris, 1668), music lost
76/xxv	Sans mentir on est bien misérable (Paris, 1671), music lost
76/xxvi	Venerabilis barba capucinorum, 3vv, ed. F. Robert (Paris, 1968)
77/xviii	Il faut mourir, pécheur, canon à 5, 1687, F-Pn

instrumental

10	Première marche des mousquetaires, orch, 1658
31	Branles, orch, 1665
35	[18] Trios pour le coucher du roi, 2 vn, bc, ed. H. Schneider (Paris, 1987)
44	Marches et batteries de tambour, orch, 1670
48	Marche, orch, 1672
66	Marches pour le régiment de Savoie, orch, 1685
70	Pièces de symphonie, Noce de village, Airs pour Mme la dauphine, orch (Paris, 1685)
72	Airs pour le carrousel de Monseigneur, orch, 1686
75	Marches, incl. Marche des dragons du roi, Marche du Prince d'Orange, orch

(2) Louis Lully

(b Paris, 4 Aug 1664; d Paris, 1 April 1734). Composer, the eldest son of (1) Jean-Baptiste Lully (i). He did not have the successful career that was anticipated for him, partly because of his own dissolute conduct. After being ‘imprisoned by the authority of justice in the religious house of the Charité at Charenton’, he was almost disinherited by his father. Subsequently, and against his family's wishes, in 1691 he married Marthe Bourgeois, by whom he had already had a child in 1690. His distressing behaviour and many debts prevented his taking up the posts he could have claimed: he never succeeded his father as director of the Opéra, or in any other position. Moreover, he was of questionable talent. Those of his operas which did prove successful and were revived several times (Zéphire et Flore and Alcide) were written in collaboration with other composers, the first with his brother Jean-Louis and a music master, Pierre Vignon, the second with Marin Marais. On the other hand, the work to which he put his own name alone, Orphée, was hissed at its first performances. However, the act set in the underworld still merits attention for the prominence it gives to accompanied recitative, one of the most original features of the late 17th-century French operatic repertory.

WORKS

Idylle, Anet, Aug 1687, F-B, Pn Collection Meyer; collab. (4) J.-L. Lully

Zéphire et Flore (opéra, prol., 3, M. Du Boullay), Paris, Opéra, 22 March 1688 (Paris, 1688), collab. (4) J.-L. Lully and P. Vignon; rev. Destouches, 1715, Po

Epithalame, for wedding of the Prince of Conti and Mlle de Bourbon, July 1688, music lost

Orphée (tragédie en musique, prol., 3, Du Boullay), Paris, Opéra, 21 Feb 1690 (Paris, 1690)

Eglogue (J. Palaprat), Anet, 1691, music lost

Alcide (tragédie en musique, prol., 5, J.G. de Campistron), Paris, Opéra, 31 March 1693, Pn, collab. M. Marais

(3) Jean-Baptiste Lully (ii)

(b Paris, 6 Aug 1665; d Paris, 9 March 1743). Composer, second son of Jean-Baptiste Lully (i). He was destined for the church at an early age, and on 6 May 1678, when he was 12, the king gave him the benefice of the abbey of St Hilaire in the diocese of Carcassonne; he exchanged it for that of St Georges-sur-Loire, near Angers, in 1684. Like his brothers, he was active as a composer, but there was some dispute concerning his talents. According to a document of 1768, he ‘knew hardly anything about music’, a situation which suggests that he had recourse to the services of one or more collaborators. That did not prevent his putting his name to several works at court, and being appointed surintendant de la musique du roi on 7 February 1696. It was reported that he was granted this position, which he shared with Lalande, ‘out of consideration for his father's talents’.

WORKS

Le triomphe de la Raison sur l'Amour (pastorale), Fountainebleau, 25 Oct 1696 (Paris, 1697)

Eglogue, pastorale, Fountainebleau, Oct 1697, music lost

Apollon et Daphné, divertissement, Fountainebleau, 5 Nov 1698, music lost

Concert de violons et hautbois donné au souper du roy, Versailles, 16 Jan 1707, F-Pc

Divertissement, Paris, Hôtel de Vendôme, 30 Aug 1721, music lost

(4) Jean-Louis Lully

(b Paris, bap. 24 Sept 1667; d Paris, 23 Dec 1688). Composer, youngest son of Jean-Baptiste Lully (i). On 8 June 1687 he was appointed to two positions his father had held at court, becoming surintendant and compositeur de la musique de la chambre du roi. According to another royal warrant issued later that month, he was under consideration for succession to another of his father's posts, that of director of the Opéra. The decision was deferred because of his youth, and his premature death meant that it was never ratified. It is doubtful, though, that he was any better a composer than his brothers. Most of the works of which he claimed authorship, including an Idylle performed at Anet and Zéphire et Flore, the profits of which he shared with Louis Lully, were largely written by Vignon. The music written for a divertissement, dated Chantilly, August 1688, is lost.

Lully: (4) Jean-Louis Lully

BIBLIOGRAPHY

sources, catalogues

17th- and 18th-century writings

historical context

biography, criticism

collaborators, interpreters

operas

ballets

comédies-ballets

sacred and instrumental works

performing practice

reception, influence

sources, catalogues

AnthonyFB

R. Reuss: Correspondances politiques et chroniques parisiennes adressées à Christophe Güntzer, syndic général de la ville de Strasbourg, 1681–1685 (Paris, 1890)

G. Rouchès: Inventaire des lettres et papiers manuscrits de Gaspare, Carlo et Lodovico Vigarini (Paris, 1913)

P. Mélèse: Répertoire analytique des documens contemporains d'information et de critique concernant le théâtre à Paris sous Louis XIV 1659–1715 (Paris, 1934)

H.M. Ellis: ‘The Sources of Jean-Baptiste Lully's Secular Music’, RMFC, viii (1968), 89–130

H. Schneider: ‘Dokumente zur französischen Oper von 1659 bis 1699’, Quellentexte zur Konzeption der europäischen Oper im 17. Jahrhundert, ed. H. Becker (Kassel, 1981), 105–60

H. Schneider: ‘Die Uberlieferung der frühen Bühnenwerke von Jean-Baptiste Lully’, Mf, xxxiv (1981), 284–92

P. Cadell: ‘La musique française classique dans la collection des comtes de Panmure’, RMFC, xxii (1984), 50–58

J. Hajdu: ‘Recent Findings in the Sources of Lully's Motets: the Traditions of Philidor and Foucault’, Le grand motet français (1663–1792): Paris 1984, 77–87

Jean-Baptiste Lully: Saint Germain-en-Laye and Heidelberg 1987 [incl. R. Fajon: ‘Jean-Jacques Lefranc de Pompignan et le fonds musical Lully de la Bibliothèque municipale de Toulouse’, 357–81; C.B. Schmidt: ‘Livrets for Lully's Ballets and Mascarades: Notes Toward a Publishing History and Chronology (1654–1671)’, 331–48]

B. Gustafson: ‘The Lully Labyrinth: Cross References and Misattributions in the Lully-Werke-Verzeichnis’, Notes, xliv (1987–8), 33–9

C.B. Schmidt: ‘Newly Identified Manuscript Sources for the Music of Jean-Baptiste Lully’, Notes, xliv (1987–8), 7–32

B. Gustafson: A Thematic Locator for the Works of Jean-Baptiste Lully (New York, 1989)

J. de La Gorce: Lully, un âge d'or de l'opéra français: catalogue Drouot-Montaigne 1991–1992 (Paris, 1991) [exhibition catalogue]

C.B. Schmidt: The Livrets of Jean-Baptiste Lully's Tragédies lyriques: a Catalogue Raisonnée (New York, 1995)

17th- and 18th-century writings

M. de Pure: Idée des spectacles anciens et nouveaux (Paris, 1668/R)

[C. or P.] Perrault: Critique de l'opéra, ou Examen de la tragédie intitulée ‘Alceste ou Le triomphe d'Alcide (Paris, 1674)

C.-F. Menestrier: Des représentations en musique anciennes et modernes (Paris, 1681/R)

C.-F. Menestrier: Des ballets anciens et modernes (Paris, 1682/R)

A. Bauderon de Sénecé: Lettre de Clément Marot à M. de ***, touchant ce qui s'est passé à l'arrivée de J.-B. de Lulli aux Champs-Elysées (Cologne, 1688); repr. in Echo musical, ii (1913), Feb–April

F. de Callières: Histoire poétique de la guerre nouvellement déclarée entre les anciens et les modernes (Paris, 1688)

C. Perrault: ‘Eloge de J.-B. Lully’, Les hommes illustres qui ont paru en France, i (Paris, 1696, 3/1701), 180–84

J.N. de Francine, ed.: Receuil général des opéras representez par l'Académie Royale de Musique, depuis son établissement (Paris, 1703–6/R)

J.L. Le Cerf de la Viéville: Comparaison de la musique italienne et de la musique françoise (Brussels, 1704–6/R)

C. Marguetel de Saint-Evremond: Oeuvres meslées (London, 1705)

N. Boindin: Lettres historiques sur tous les spectacles de Paris (Paris, 1719)

J.-B. Dubos: Réflexions critiques sur la poésie et sur la peinture (Paris, 1719, 7/1770/R; Eng. trans., 1748/R)

E. Titon du Tillet: Description du Parnasse françois (Paris, 1732–43/R)

P. Bayle: Oeuvres diverses (The Hague, 1737/R)

R. de Saint-Mard: Réflexions sur l'opéra (The Hague, 1741/R)

J.-B. Durey de Noinville and L. Travenol: Histoire du théâtre de l'Académie royale de musique en France (Paris, 1753, 2/1757/R1969 as Histoire du théâtre de l'Académie royale de musique en France)

historical context

BenoitMC

A. Pougin: Les vrais créateurs de l'opéra français: Perrin et Cambert (Paris, 1881)

C. Nuitter and E. Thoinan: Les origines de l'opéra français (Paris, 1886/R)

J. Ecorcheville: De Lulli à Rameau, 1690–1730: l'esthétique musicale (Paris, 1906/R)

P.-M. Masson: ‘Lullistes et Ramistes, 1733–1752’, Année musicale, i (1911), 187–211

T. Gérold: L'art du chant en France au XVIIe siècle (Strasbourg, 1921/R)

L. de La Laurencie: Les créateurs de l'opéra français (Paris, 1921, 2/1930/R)

P. Mélèse: Le théâtre et le public à Paris sous Louis XIV (Paris, 1934)

P.H. Lang: The Literary Aspects of the History of Opera in France (diss., Cornell U., 1935)

R.M. Isherwood: ‘The Centralization of Music in the Reign of Louis XIV’, French Historical Studies, vi (1969–70), 156–71

Y. de Brossard: ‘La vie musicale en France d'après Loret et ses continuateaurs, 1650–1688’, RMFC, x (1970), 117–93

A. Ducrot: ‘Les représentations de l'Academie royale de musique à Paris au temps de Louis XIV (1617–1715)’, RMFC, x (1970), 19–56

M. Benoit: Versailles et les musiciens du roi, 1661–1733 (Paris, 1971)

C. Girdlestone: La tragédie en musique, 1673–1750, considérée comme genre littéraire (Geneva, 1972)

N. Dufourcq: ‘Les fêtes de Versailles: la musique’, XVIIe siècle, nos.98–9 (1973), 67–75

R.M. Isherwood: Music in the Service of the King: France in the Seventeenth Century (Ithaca, NY, and London, 1973)

J. de La Gorce: L'opéra sous le règne de Louis XIV: le merveilleux ou les puissances surnaturelles, 1671–1715 (diss., U. of Paris-Sorbonne, 1978)

J. de La Gorce: ‘L'opéra et son public au temps de Louis XIV’, Bulletin de la Société de l'histoire de Paris et de l'Ile-de-France, cviii (1981), 27–46; repr. in The Garland Library of the History of Western Music, ed. E. Rosand, xi (New York, 1986), 143–62

J. de La Gorce: ‘Une Académie de musique en province au temps du Roi-Soleil: l'Opéra de Rouen’, IMSCR XIII: Strasbourg 1982, ii, 465–96

L. Rosow: ‘French Baroque Recitative as an Expression of Tragic Declamation’, EMc, xi (1983), 468–79

J. de La Gorce: ‘L'opéra français à la cour de Louis XIV’, Revue de la Société d'histoire du théâtre, xxxv (1983–4), 387–401

Jean-Baptiste Lully: Saint Germain-en-Laye and Heidelberg 1987 [incl. F. Karro: ‘L'Empire ottoman et l'Europe dans l'opéra français et viennois au temps de Lully’, 251–69; W. Braun: ‘Lully und die französische Musik im Spiegel der Reisebeschreibungen’, 271–85; H. Himelfarb: ‘Un domaine méconnu de l'empire lullyste: le Trianon de Louis XIV, ses tableaux et les livrets d'opéras (1687–1714)’, 287–306]

R. Harris-Warrick: ‘La mariée: the History of a French Court Dance’, Jean-Baptiste Lully and the Music of the French Baroque: Essays in Honor of James R. Anthony, ed. J.H. Heyer and others (Cambridge, 1989), 239–57

J.-P. Neraudau: La tragédie lyrique (Paris, 1991)

C. Kintzler: Poétique de l'opéra français de Corneille à Rousseau (Paris, 1991)

J. de La Gorce: L'Opéra à Paris au temps de Louis XIV: histoire d'un théâtre (Paris, 1992)

I. Data: ‘Il matrimonio di Anna d'Orléans e Vittorio Amadeo II di Savoia: presenze musicali nella Libreria Ducale di Torino’, Studi musicali, xxv (1996), 91–102

J. Lionnet: ‘Les événements musicaux de la Légation du Cardinal Chigi en France, Eté 1664’, Studi musicali, xxv (1996), 127–53

biography, criticism

A.-M.-L. d'Orléans, duchesse de Montpensier: Mémoires (Paris, 1854)

E. Radet: Lully: homme d'affaires, propriétaire et musicien (Paris, 1891)

R. Rolland: Musiciens d'autrefois (Paris, 1908, 3/1912; Eng. trans., 1915, as Some Musicians of Former Days)

H. Prunières and L. de La Laurencie: ‘La jeunesse de Lully (1632–62)’, BSIM, v (1909), 234–42, 329–53

H. Prunières: Lully: biographie critique (Paris, 1909, 2/1927)

H. Prunières: ‘Recherches sur les années de jeunesse de J.-B. Lully’, RMI, xvii (1910), 646–54

J. Ecorcheville: ‘Lully gentilhomme et sa descendance’, BSIM, vii (1911), no.5, pp.1–13; no.6, pp.1–12; no.7, pp.1–11

L. de La Laurencie: Lully (Paris, 1911, 2/1919/R)

H. Prunières: ‘Lully, fils de meunier’, BSIM, viii/6 (1912), 57–61

H. Prunières: ‘La vie scandaleuse de Jean-Baptiste Lully’, Mercure de France, cxv (1916), 75–88

L. de La Laurencie: ‘Une convention commerciale entre Lully, Quinault et Ballard en 1680’, RdM, ii (1920–21), 176–82

H. Prunières: ‘Lully and the Académie de musique et de danse’, MQ, xi (1925), 528–46

M.E. Sainte-Beuve: ‘Le tombeau de Lully’, Gazette des beaux-arts, 5th ser., xiv (1926), 198–208

E. Benham: ‘A Musical Monopolist’, ML, ix (1928), 249–54

H. Prunières: La vie illustre et libertine de Jean-Baptiste Lully (Paris, 1929/R)

P. Jarry: ‘Lully à la Ville-l'Evêque: le no 30 de la rue Boissy-d'Anglas’, Bulletin de la Société de l'histoire de Paris et de l'Ile-de-France, lxi (1934), 103–7

E. Borrel: Jean-Baptiste Lully: le cadre, la vie, l'oeuvre, la personalité, le rayonnement, les oeuvres, bibliographie (Paris, 1949)

J. Cordey: ‘Lully installe l'opéra dans le théâtre de Molière: la décoration de la salle (1673)’, Bulletin de la Société de l'histoire de l'art français (1950), 137–42

T. Valensi: Louis XIV et Lully (Nice, 1951)

N. Slonimsky: ‘Lullistes, à vos pièces!’, Guide du concert, xxxii (1951–2), 120 only

J. Chailley: ‘Notes sur la famille de Lully’, RdM, xxxi (1952), 101–08

J. Cordey: ‘Lully d'après l'inventaire de ses biens’, RdM, xxxvii (1955), 78–83

A. Ducrot: Recherches sur Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632–1687) et sur les débuts de l'Academie royale de musique (diss., Ecole de Chartes, 1961)

C. Masson: ‘Journal du Marquis de Dangeau, 1684–1720: extraits concernant la vie musicale à la cour’, RMFC, ii (1961–2), 193–223

L. Maurice-Amour: ‘Comment Lully et ses poètes humanisent dieux et héros’, Cahiers de l'Association internationale des études françaises, xvii (1965), 59–95

XVIIe siècle, nos.98–9 (1973) [incl. A. Ducrot: ’Lully créateur de troupe’, 91–107; N. Dufourcq: ‘Lully: l'oeuvre, la diffusion, l'héritage’, 109–21; G. Mongrédien: ‘Molière et Lully’, 3–15]

R. Scott: Jean-Baptiste Lully (London, 1973)

A.I. Borowitz: ‘Lully and the Death of Cambert’, MR, xxxv (1974), 231–9

J.R. Anthony: ‘Lully's Airs: French or Italian?’, MT, cxxviii (1987), 126–9

L. Auld: ‘Lully's Comic Art’, Jean-Baptiste Lully: Saint Germain-en-Laye and Heidelberg 1987, 17–30

J. de La Gorce and others: Lully, musicien soleil, Domaine de Madame Elisabeth, 12 Sept – 11 Oct 1987 (Versailles, 1987) [exhibition catalogue]

J. de La Gorce: De la naissance à la gloire: Louis XIV à Saint-Germain, 1638–1682, Chapelle du château, Musée des antiquites nationales, 24 Sept – 27 Nov 1988 (Saint Germain-en-Laye, 1988) [exhibition catalogue]

M. Benoit: ‘The Residences of Monsieur de Lully: a West Side Story’, Jean-Baptiste Lully and the Music of the French Baroque: Essays in Honor of James R. Anthony, ed. J.H. Heyer and others (Cambridge, 1989), 159–82

P. Beaussant: Lully, ou Le musicien du soleil (Paris, 1992)

M. Couvreur: Jean-Baptiste Lully: musique et dramaturgie au service du prince (Brussels, 1992)

J. de La Gorce: Lully (forthcoming)

collaborators, interpreters

G. Lote: ‘La déclamation du vers français à la fin du XVIIe siècle’, Revue de phonétique, ii (1912), 313–63

H. Prunières: ‘La Fontaine et Lully’, ReM, ii/9–11 (1921), 98–112; repr. in ReM, nos.398–9 (1987), 49–64

A. Levinson: ‘Notes sur le ballet au XVIIe siècle: les danseurs de Lully’, ReM, vi/5 (1924–5), 44–55

E. Gros: Philippe Quinault: sa vie et son oeuvre (Paris, 1926/R)

J.-B. Buytendorp: Philippe Quinault: sa vie, ses tragédies et ses tragicomédies (Amsterdam, 1928)

M. Jurgens and E. Maxfield-Miller: Cent ans de recherches sur Molière (Paris, 1963)

J. de La Gorce: Berain: dessinateur du Roi Soleil (Paris, 1986)

Jean-Baptiste Lully: Saint Germain-en-Laye and Heidelberg 1987 [incl. V. Kapp: ‘Benserade, librettiste de Lully et panégyriste du roi’, 167–80; D. Fricke: ‘Molière et Lully: une symbiose artistique sans suite?’, 181–92; M.-F. Christout: ‘Baptiste, interprète des ballets de cour’, 209–22]

J. de La Gorce: ‘Un proche collaborateur de Lully: Philippe Quinault’, XVIIe siècle, no.161 (1988), 365–70

C. Massip: ‘Michel Lambert and Jean-Baptiste Lully: the Stakes of a Collaboration’, Jean-Baptiste Lully and the Music of the French Baroque: Essays in Honor of James R. Anthony, ed. J.H. Heyer and others (Cambridge, 1989), 25–39

M. Couvreur: ‘La collaboration de Quinault et Lully avant la Psyché de 1671’, RFMC, xxvii (1991–2), 9–34

R. Harris-Warrick: ‘Magnificence in Motion: Stage Musicians in Lully's Ballets and Operas’, COJ, vi (1994), 189–203

operas

A. Pougin: ‘L'Opéra sous le règne de Lully’, Le ménestrel (7 Feb – 21 March, 25 April – 9 May, 13 June – 4 July 1886)

J.-G. Prod'homme: ‘Lettre de Claude Perrault à Colbert sur la représentation de l'Alceste de Lully’, RdM, v (1924), 173 only

F. Torrefranca: ‘La prima opera francese in Italia? (L'Armida di Lulli, Roma 1690)’, Musikwissenschaftliche Beiträge: Festschrift für Johannes Wolf, ed. W. Lott, H. Osthoff and W. Wolffheim (Berlin, 1929/R), 191–7

H. Prunières: ‘La première tragédie en musique de Lully: Cadmus et Hermione’, ReM, nos.100–05 (1930), 385–94

E. Borrel: ‘L'interpretation de l'ancien récitatif français’, RdM, xii (1931), 13–21

D.J. Grout: ‘Seventeenth-Century Parodies of French Opera’, MQ, xxvii (1941), 211–19, 514–26

A.M. Nagler: ‘Lully's Opernbühne’, Kleine Schriften der Gesellschaft für Theatergeschichte, xvii (1960), 9–26

N. Demuth: French Opera: its Development to the Revolution (Horsham, Sussex, 1963/R)

L. Hibberd: ‘Mme de Sévigné and the Operas of Lully’, Essays in Musicology: a Birthday Offering for Willi Apel, ed. H. Tischler (Bloomington, IN, 1968), 153–63

Y. Giraud: ‘Quinault et Lully ou l'accord de deux styles’, Marseille, no.95 (1973), 195–212

P. Howard: ‘Lully's “Alceste”’, MT, cxiv (1973), 21–5

P. Howard: The Operas of Lully (diss., U. of Surrey, 1974)

P. Howard: ‘The Académie Royale and the Performance of Lully's Operas’, The Consort, no.31 (1975), 109–15

R. Fajon: ‘Propositions pour une analyse rationalisée du récitatif de l'opéra lullyste’, RdM, lxiv (1978), 55–75

R.P. Wolf: ‘Metrical Relationships in French Recitative of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, RMFC, xviii (1978), 29–50

J.E.W. Newman: Jean-Baptiste de Lully and his tragédies lyriques (Ann Arbor, 1979)

L. Rosow: Lully's Armide at the Paris Opéra: a Performance History, 1686–1766 (diss., Brandeis U., 1981)

T.M. Turnbull: A Critical Edition of “Psyché”: an Opera with Words by Thomas Corneille and Philippe Quinault, and Music by Jean-Baptiste Lully (diss., U. of Oxford, 1981)

C. Wood: ‘Orchestra and Spectacle in the tragédie en musique, 1673–1715: Oracle, sommeil and tempête’, PRMA, cviii (1981–2), 25–46

H. Schneider: ‘Tragédie et tragédie en musique: querelles autour de l'autonomie d'un nouveau genre’, Komparatistische Hefte, v–vi (1982), 43–58

M. Turnbull: ‘The Metamorphosis of Psyché’, ML, lxiv (1983), 12–24

R. Fajon: L'opéra à Paris du Roi Soleil à Louis le Bien-Aimé (Geneva, 1984)

J.-P. Pinson: ‘L'action dans le récitatif pathétique de Lully: la déclamation’, Canadian University Music Review, v (1984), 152–78

F. Reckow: ‘“Cacher l'Art par l'Art même”: Lully's Armide-Monolog und die “Kunst des Verbergens”’, Analysen: Beiträge zu einer Problemgeschichte des Komponierens: Festschrift für Hans Heinrich Eggebrecht (Wiesbaden, 1984), 128–57

H. Schneider: ‘“Canevas” als Terminus der lyrischen Dichtung’, AMw, xlii (1985), 87–101

F. Karro: ‘Le prologue d'Armide (Quinault-Lully)’, Les écrivains français et l'opéra: Cologne 1986, 39–47

C. Kintzler: ‘De la pastorale à la tragédie lyrique: quelques éléments d'un système poétique’, RdM, lxxii (1986), 67–96

L. Rosow: ‘From Destouches to Berton: Editorial Responsibility at Paris Opéra’, JAMS, xl (1987), 285–309

B. Norman: ‘Anciens et modernes, tragédie et opéra: le querelle sur Alceste’, D'un siècle à l'autre: anciens et modernes: Marseille 1986, ed. L. Godard de Donville (Marseille, 1987), 229–38; Eng. trans. in French Musical Thought, 1600–1800, ed. G. Cowart (Ann Arbor, 1989), 177–96

C.V. Palisca: ‘The Recitative of Lully's Alceste: French Declamation or Italian Melody?’, Actes de Baton Rouge: Papers on 17th-Century Literature, xxx (1986), 19–34

Jean-Baptiste Lully: Saint Germain-en-Laye and Heidelberg 1987 [incl. J.R. Anthony: ‘The Musical Structure of Lully's Operatic Airs’, 65–76; H. Schneider: ‘Strukturen der Szenen und Akte in Lully's Opern’, 77–98; P. Howard: ‘The Positioning of Woman in Quinault's World Picture’, 193–9; J. de La Gorce: ‘Un théâtre parisien en concurrence avec l'Académie royale de musique dirigeée par Lully: l'Opéra des Bamboches’, 223–33; L. Rosow: ‘The Metrical Notation of Lully's Recitative’, 405–22; T. Boucher: ‘Un haut lieu de l'opéra de Lully: la salle de spectacles du château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye’, 457–67]

L'avant-scène opéra, no.94 (1987) [Atys issue]

J. de La Gorce: ‘Lully's First Opera: a Rediscovered Poster for Les fêtes de l'Amour et de Bacchus’, EMc, xv (1987), 308–14

W. Brooks: ‘Lully and Quinault at Court and on the Public Stage, 1673–86’, Newsletter of the Society for Seventeenth-Century French Studies, x (1988), 101–21; suppl. note, xi (1989), 147–50

H. Schneider: ‘Les monologues dans l'opéra de Lully’, XVIIe siècle, no.161 (1988), 353–63

L.A. Rosow: ‘How Eighteenth-Century Parisians Heard Lully's Operas: the Case of Armide's Fourth Act’, Jean-Baptiste Lully and the Music of the French Baroque: Essays in Honor of James R. Anthony, ed. J.H. Heyer and others (Cambridge, 1989), 213–37

P. Howard: ‘The Influence of the Précieuses on Content and Structure in Quinault's and Lully's Tragédies Lyriques’, AcM, lxiii (1991), 57–72

R. Legrand: ‘Persée de Lully et Quinault: orientations pour l'analyse dramaturgique d'une tragédie en musique’, Analyse musicale, no.27 (1992), 9–14

B. Norman: ‘Le héros contestataire dans les livrets de Quinault: politique ou esthétique?’, Ordres et contestations au temps des classiques (Paris, 1992), 289

W. Brooks, ed.: Le théâtre et l'opéra vus par les gazetiers Robinet et Laurent (1670–1678) (Paris, 1993)

W. Brooks, B. Norman and J. Morgan Zarucchi, eds.: Alceste suivi de la querelle d'Alceste, Anciens et Modernes avant 1680 (Geneva, 1994)

C. Wood: Music and Drama in the Tragédie en musique, 1673–1715: Jean-Baptiste Lully and his Successors (New York, 1996)

L. Dieu: ‘Le manuscrit Boucard: un manuscrit inconnu du Persé de Lully révèle la mise en scène et l'utilisation du théâtre en machine’, Ostinato rigore, viii–ix (1997), 123–42

J. de La Gorce: ‘La dernière oeuvre de Lully retrové: Il faut mourir, pécheur’, Ostinato rigore, viii–ix (1997), 117–21

ballets

A. Tessier: ‘Un document sur les répétitions du Triomphe de l'Amour à Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1681)’, Congrès d'histoire de l'art: Paris 1921, ii/2 (Paris, 1924/R), 874–94

W. Storz: Der Aufbau der Tänze in den Opern und Balletts Lully's vom musikalischen Standpunkte aus betrachtet (Göttingen, 1928)

H. Prunières: ‘Les premiers ballets de Lully’, ReM, no.116–20 (1931), 1–17

M.-F. Christout: Le ballet de cour de Louis XIV, 1643–1672 (Paris, 1967)

H.M. Ellis: The Dances of J.B. Lully (1632–1687) (diss., Stanford U., 1967)

M. Ellis: ‘Inventory of the Dances of Jean-Baptiste Lully’, RMFC, ix (1969), 21–55

Jean-Baptiste Lully: Saint Germain-en-Laye and Heidelberg 1987 [incl. D. Launay: ‘Les airs italiens et français dans les ballets et les comédies-ballets’, 31–49; T. Betzwieser: ‘Die Türkenszenen in Le sicilien und Le bourgeois gentilhomme im Kontext der Türkenoper und des musikalischen Exotismus’, 51–61; M. Little: ‘Problems of Repetition and Continuity in the Dance Music of Lully's “Ballets des arts”’, 423–32]

J.R. Anthony: ‘More Faces than Proteus: Lully's Ballet des muses’, EMc, xv (1987), 336–44

J.R. Anthony: ‘Towards a Principal Source for Lully's Court Ballet: Foucault vs. Philidor’, RMFC, xxv (1987), 77–104

comédies-ballets

M. Pellisson: Les comédies-ballets de Molière (Paris, 1914)

E. Borrel: ‘L'interprétation de Lully d'après Rameau’, RdM, x (1929), 17–25

F. Noack: ‘Die Musik zu der molièrischen Komödie Monsieur de Pourceaugnac von Jean Baptiste de Lully’, Musikwissenschaftliche Beiträge: Festschrift für Johannes Wolf, ed. W. Lott, H. Osthoff and W. Wolffheim (Berlin, 1929/R), 139–47

H. Prunières: ‘Les comédies-ballets de Molière et de Lully’, Revue de France, xi/5 (1931), 297–319

H. Prunières: ‘Le Mariage forcé et L'amour médecin de Molière et Lully’, ReM, no.116–20 (1931), 289–99

L.A. Auld: The Unity of Molière's Comedy-Ballets: a Study of their Structure, Meanings and Values (diss., Bryn Mawr College, 1968)

C. Abraham: On the Structure of Molière's Comédies-Ballets (Paris, 1984)

D. Fricke: ‘Le bourgeois gentilhomme de Molière et de Lully: un opéra avant la lettre’, Les écrivains français et l'opéra: Cologne 1986, 9–17

C. Mazouer: ‘Le mariage forcé de Molière, Lully et Beauchamp: esthétique de la comédie-ballet’, Mélanges pour Jacques Scherer (Paris, 1986), 91–8

Jean-Baptiste Lully: Saint Germain-en-Laye and Heidelberg 1987 [incl. D. Launay: ‘Les airs italiens et français dans les ballets et les comédies-ballets’, 31–49; M. Turnbull: ‘The Sources for the Two Versions of Psyché (1671 and 1678)’, 349–56]

V. Kapp: Le bourgeois gentilhomme: problèmes de la comédie-ballet (Paris, 1991)

C. Mazouer: Molière et ses comédies-ballets (Paris, 1993)

L. Rosow: ‘Making Connections: Thoughts on Lully's Entr'actes’, EMc, xxi (1993), 231–8

S.H. Fleck: Music, Dance and Laughter: Comic Creation in Molière's Comedy-Ballets (Paris, 1995)

sacred and instrumental works

W.P. Cole: The Motets of Jean-Baptiste Lully (diss., U. of Michigan, 1967)

H. Schneider: ‘Die französische Kammersuite zwischen 1670 und 1720’, Jakob Stainer und seine Zeit: Innsbruck 1983, 163–73

H. Schneider: ‘La parodie spirituelle de chansons et d'airs profanes chez Lully et chez ses contemporains’, La pensée religieuse dans la littérature et la civilisation du XVIIe siècle en France: Bamberg 1983, 69–91

J. Hajdu: ‘Recent Findings in the Sources of Lully's Motets: the Traditions of Philidor and Foucault’, Le grand motet français: Paris 1984, 77–87

H. Schneider: ‘Lullys Beitrag zur Entstehung des Grand Motet’, Le grand motet français: Paris 1984, 67–75

H. Schneider: ‘Chaconne und Passacaille bei Lully’, Studi corelliani IV: Fusignano 1986, 319–34

Jean-Baptiste Lully: Saint Germain-en-Laye and Heidelberg 1987 [incl. J. Duron: ‘Le rapport choeur-orchestre dans les grands motets de Lully’, 99–144; J. Hajdu Heyer: ‘Lully's Jubilate Deo, lvw77/16: a Stylistic Anomaly’, 145–54; C. Massip: ‘Les petits motets de Jean-Baptiste Lully: de quelques problèmes d'authenticité et de style’, 155–64; L. Sawkins: ‘Lully's Motets: Source, Edition and Performance’, 383–403]

Jean-Baptiste Lully and the Music of the French Baroque: Essays in Honor of James R. Anthony, ed. J.H. Heyer and others (Cambridge, 1989) [incl. L. Sawkins: ‘Chronology and Evolution of the Grand motet at the Court of Louis XIV: Evidence from the Livres du roi and the Works of Perrin, the sous-maîtres and Lully’, 41–79; J. Hajdu Heyer: ‘The Sources of Lully's Grands motets’, 81–98; H. Schneider: ‘The Amsterdam Editions of Lully's Orchestral Suites’, 113–30]

J.C. Teboul: ‘Réflexions sur différents aspects de la forme binaire à partir de certaines pièces de J.-B. Lully’, Ostinato rigore, vii–ix (1997), 143–55

performing practice

M. Pincherle: ‘L'interpretazione orchestrale di Lulli’, L'orchestra (1954), 139–52

J. Eppelsheim: Das Orchester in den Werken Jean-Baptiste Lullys (Tutzing, 1961)

F.-H. Neumann: Die Asthetik des Rezitativs: zur Theorie des Rezitativs im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert (Strasbourg, 1962)

K. Cooper and J. Zsako: ‘Georg Muffat's Observations on the Lully Style of Performance’, MQ, liii (1967), 220–45

S. Harris: ‘Lully, Corelli, Muffat and the Eighteenth-Century Orchestral String Body’, ML, liv (1973), 197–202

E.B. Lance: ‘Molière the Musician: a Tercentenary View’, MR, xxxv (1974), 120–30

M. Seares: ‘Aspects of Performance Practice in the Recitatives of Jean-Baptiste Lully’, SMA, viii (1974), 8–16

D. Muller: ‘Aspects de la déclamation dans le récitatif de Jean-Baptiste Lully’, Basler Studien zur Interpretation der alten Musik, ed. H. Oesch, ii (Winterthur, 1980), 234–51

G. Sadler: ‘The Role of the Keyboard Continuo in French Opera, 1673–1776’, EMc, viii (1980), 148–57

W. Hilton: ‘Dances to Music by Jean-Baptiste Lully’, EMc, xiv (1986), 51–63

EMc, xv (1987) [Lully anniversary issue; incl. L. Sawkins: ‘For and Against the Order of Nature: Who Sang the Soprano?’, 315–24; L. Rosow: ‘Performing a Choral Dialogue by Lully’, 325–35; D. Tunley: ‘Grimarest's Traité du récitatif: Glimpses of Performance Practice in Lully's Operas’, 361–4]

Jean-Baptiste Lully: Saint Germain-en-Laye and Heidelberg 1987 [incl. R. Harris-Warrick: ‘Contexts for Choreographies: Notated Dances Set to the Music of Jean-Baptiste Lully’, 433–55; N. Zaslaw: ‘Lully's Orchestra’, 539–79]

J. de La Gorce: ‘Some Notes on Lully's Orchestra’, Jean-Baptiste Lully and the Music of the French Baroque: Essays in Honor of James R. Anthony, ed. J.H. Heyer and others (Cambridge, 1989), 99–112

R. Harris-Warrick: ‘A Few Thoughts on Lully's Hautbois’, EMc, xviii (1990), 97–106

R. Harris-Warrick: ‘From Score into Sound: Questions of Scoring in Lully's Ballets’, EMc, xxi (1993), 354–62

(1) Hans Christian Lumbye

reception, influence

B. Champigneulle: ‘L'influence de Lully hors de France’, ReM, nos.198–202 (1946), 26–35

C.L. Cudworth: ‘“Baptist's Vein”: French Orchestral Music and its Influence from 1650 to 1750’, PRMA, lxxxiii (1956–7), 29–47

L. Rosow: Lully's Armide at the Paris Opéra: a Performance History, 1686–1766 (diss., Brandeis U., 1981)

H. Schneider: Die Rezeption der Opern Lullys im Frankreich des Ancien Regime (Tutzing, 1982)

Jean-Baptiste Lully: Saint Germain-en-Laye and Heidelberg 1987 [incl. F. Moreau: ‘Lully en visite chez Arlequin: parodies italiennes avant 1697’, 235–50; P.M. Ranum: ‘“Mr de Lully en trio”: Etienne Loulié, the Foucaults and the Transcription of the Works of Jean-Baptiste Lully (1673–1702)’, 309–30; D. Fuller: ‘Les arrangements pour clavier des oeuvres de Lully’, 471–82; M. Rollin: ‘Les oeuvres de Lully transcrites pour le luth’, 483–94; B. Gustafson: ‘The Legacy in Instrumental Music of Charles Babel, Prolific Transcriber of Lully's Music’, 495–516; B. Coeyman: ‘Lully's Influence on the Organization and Performance of the “Ballet de cour” after 1672’, 517–28; J. Cheilan-Cambolin: ‘La première décentralisation des opéras de Lully en province: la création de l'Opéra de Marseille au XVIIe siècle’, 529–38; W. Weber: ‘Lully and the Rise of Musical Classics in the 18th Century’, 581–90; F. Noske: ‘L'influence de Lully en Hollande (1670–1700)’, 591–8]

Y. de Brossard: ‘Quelques commentaires de Brossard concernant Lully et Charpentier’, XVIIe siècle, no.161 (1988), 387–92

C.B. Schmidt: ‘Une parodie hollandaise peu connue sur la musique de Lully: les Opwekklyke zedezangen’, XVIIe siècle, no.161 (1988), 371–86

Jean-Baptiste Lully and the Music of the French Baroque: Essays in Honor of James R. Anthony, ed. J.H. Heyer and others (Cambridge, 1989) [incl. L.A. Rosow: ‘How Eighteenth-Century Parisians Heard Lully's Operas: the Case of Armide's Fourth Act’, 213–37; C.B. Schmidt: ‘The Geographical Spread of Lully's Operas during the Late Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries: New Evidence from the Livrets’, 183–211]

Lumbye.

Danish family of musicians.

(2) Carl (Christian) Lumbye

(3) Georg (August) Lumbye

SIGURD BERG

Lumbye

(1) Hans Christian Lumbye

(b Copenhagen, 2 May 1810; d Copenhagen, 20 March 1874). Conductor and composer. He first studied music in Randers and Odense where at the age of 14 he served as a military trumpeter; from 1829 he served in the Horse Guards in Copenhagen while still continuing his musical education. In 1839 he was deeply impressed by an Austrian band which performed compositions by Lanner and Strauss in Copenhagen, and in 1840 he appeared at the head of his own orchestra performing his own works in ‘Concerts à la Strauss’. He became associated with a number of theatres and other places of entertainment in Copenhagen in the next few years, and he achieved popularity, not only as a conductor (who often played his violin at the head of the orchestra) but also as a composer of brilliant dance melodies and other light music. He entered into a successful collaboration with the famous Danish ballet-master Auguste Bournonville, composing impressive dances for Bournonville’s ballets at the Royal Theatre. His greatest fame began with the opening of the Tivoli Gardens in 1843, where Lumbye served as music director until 1872 and founded the musical traditions which are still alive in Tivoli today.

In addition to light music, including a large number of his own compositions, Lumbye conducted concerts of Danish and foreign symphonic works. From 1844 he also toured the Danish provinces between the Tivoli summer seasons and made several concert tours to such foreign cities as Paris, Vienna, Hamburg, Berlin, St Petersburg and Stockholm; he was applauded everywhere as a worthy rival to the famous Viennese dance composers.

WORKS

(selective list)

for complete list, see Skjerne

Edition: Folkeudgave af H.C. Lumbye’s Kompositioner, all works arr. solo pf (Copenhagen, c1880) [L]

all published in Copenhagen

dances and marches

Waltzes: Amélie vals (1846), L ii; Krolls ballklänge (1846), L ii; Souvenir de Johann Strauss (1849); Hesperus vals (1853), L ii; Dronning Louise (1868), L i

Polkas: Polka militaire (1842); Emilie polka (1848); Pepita polka (1858); Britta polka (1864), L i

Galops: Champagnegalop (1845), L i, ed. S. Lunn (1950) [orch]; Les zouaves (1859), L i; Salut for August Bournonville (1869), L i; Bouquet royal (1870), L i

Marches: Marche de Napoléon (1857); Kong Frederik VII’s honneurmarsch (1861), L i; Kong Christian IX’s honneurmarsch (1864), L i; Storfyrst Alexander (1866), L i

Ballet music, for A. Bournonville, Royal Theatre, Copenhagen: Napoli, 1842: Finale galop, L i; Polacca guerriera, 1846: Pas de deux; Fjernt fra Danmark, 1860: Indiansk krigdans, L ii; Livjaegerne paa Amager, 1871: Finale galop, L ii

other works

Fantasies for orch: Drømmebilleder (1846); Krigerens drøm (1856); Drømmen efter ballet (1861); En festaften paa Tivoli (1861)

Other inst works, incl. Concert polka, 2 vn, orch (1863), ed. (1956); 48 lette dandse for claveer (n.d.)

Music for Singspiels in the Folketeatret and Casino, Copenhagen; songs

Lumbye

(2) Carl (Christian) Lumbye

(b Copenhagen, 9 July 1841; d Copenhagen, 10 Aug 1911). Violinist, conductor and composer, son of (1) Hans Christian Lumbye. He was taught the violin by Ferdinand Stockmarr and theory by Edvard Helsted. For many years he played in his father’s orchestra and later conducted the orchestras of several places of entertainment in Copenhagen; for 20 years he directed the wind band in the Tivoli Gardens. He also taught singing in schools and composed many dances, marches and songs.

Lumbye

(3) Georg (August) Lumbye

(b Copenhagen, 26 Aug 1843; d Copenhagen, 29 Oct 1922). Conductor and composer, son of (1) Hans Christian Lumbye. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire and became a conductor of light-music orchestras. After making concert tours in Denmark he conducted the Tivoli wind band from 1885, and in 1891–7 the Tivoli Concert Hall orchestra. In addition to light music he composed some string quartets and many songs, of which several attained considerable popularity, as well as operettas and incidental music.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Bournonville: Mit theaterliv, iii (Copenhagen, 1878)

G. Skjerne: H.C. Lumbye og hans samtid (Copenhagen, 1912, enlarged 2/1946)

C.A. Clemmensen: Tivoli 1843–1918 (Copenhagen, 1918)

D. Fog: Lumbye-katalog: fortegnelse over H.C. Lumbyes trykte kompositioner (Copenhagen, 1995)

Lumley [Levy, Levi], Benjamin

(b ?Birmingham, 1810; d London, 17 March 1875). English impresario. His father was Lion or Sion Levi (later Louis Levy), a Canadian merchant resident in Birmingham. The boy attended King Edward’s School, Birmingham, 1823–6, and left to work as clerk to an attorney in London, adopting the name Lumley about the same time. In 1832 he became a solicitor and three years later was hired to resolve the bankruptcy of P.F. Laporte, manager of the Italian opera at the King’s Theatre (renamed Her Majesty’s in 1837). From 1836 Lumley oversaw all the opera’s finances and in 1842, after Laporte’s death, reluctantly succeeded him. The new manager dealt coolly with the vieille garde of Grisi, Persiani, Rubini, Tamburini and Lablache, and with Michael Costa the conductor. In 1846–7 all but Lablache left him to set up their own (successful) company at Covent Garden, the ‘Royal Italian Opera’. Jenny Lind’s appearances at Her Majesty’s Theatre, 1847–9, together with aristocratic support, briefly strengthened the manager’s position, but for the seasons 1853–5 he had to close. Reopening in 1856, he struck a notable success with Piccolomini in the first London performances of La traviata. Thereafter receipts went down. In August 1858 the Earl of Dudley, by then Lumley’s creditor and the theatre’s lessee, took possession and the manager retired. He resumed his law practice and later wrote two books of fiction and two on his operatic experiences; the last are particularly valuable for their discussion of the opera house as legal property in England and of the weaknesses of the commercial finance system.

Although Lumley may be credited with introducing Lind, Johanna Wagner, Tietjens and other singers to London, as well as with the London premières of Linda di Chamounix and Don Pasquale (1843), Ernani (1845), Nabucco and I Lombardi (1846), and Traviata, he is also associated with some outstanding failures, including Costa’s Don Carlos (1844), Verdi’s I masnadieri (1847; commissioned by Lumley and conducted by the composer) and Thalberg’s Florinda (1851). He seems to have suffered from a combination of bad luck (Verdi’s withdrawal from a proposed King Lear in 1846), bad judgment (too much emphasis on the ballet; the choice of Balfe as a replacement for Costa) and hostility from certain sections of the press (notably Chorley in the Athenaeum).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DNB (L.M. Middleton)

Grove4 (W.H. Husk)

B. Lumley: The Earl of Dudley, Mr. Lumley and Her Majesty’s Theatre: a Narrative of Facts (London, 2/1863)

B. Lumley: Reminiscences of the Opera (London, 1864)

Obituary, The Times (19 March 1875)

R. Bledsoe: ‘Henry Fothergill Chorley and the Reception of Verdi’s Early Operas in England’, Victorian Studies, xxviii (1984–5), 631–55

LEANNE LANGLEY

Lumsdaine, David

(b Sydney, 31 Oct 1931). Australian composer. After early studies at the NSW Conservatorium and private composition study with Gordon Day, he took his first degree at Sydney University; subsequently he moved to England in 1952, studying composition with Lennox Berkeley at the RAM, and independently with Seiber. At the RAM he instituted the Manson Room as a centre for contemporary studies, and until 1970, when he was appointed lecturer at Durham University, he pursued a freelance career in London, composing, teaching, editing and playing a leading part in the Society for the Promotion of New Music. In Durham he established a major electro-acoustic composition studio, and became recognized as an outstanding teacher of composition. There he was awarded the DMus (1978), and in 1981 he joined his wife, Nicola LeFanu, at King's College, London, as senior lecturer. He retired in 1993 to pursue composition full time, in Britain and Australia.

Lumsdaine's music is a highly individual amalgam of diverse techniques. Early on the influence of Stockhausen's advanced serial procedures was apparent, as were techniques derived from medieval music and the classical music of northern India; note-permutation systems and cyclically evolving rhythmic structures remained a fundamental part of his compositional vocabulary for over two decades. Such controls were applied to provide structural strength, not rigidity, and the major orchestral works Episodes (1968–9) and Hagoromo (1977) demonstrate the degree to which Lumsdaine's interpretation of these devices allows room for an almost improvisatory fantasy. Many of his earlier works have been withdrawn, but Annotations of Auschwitz (1964), a cantata upon a text by Peter Porter, is typical of a group of passionately lyrical vocal works written during that period, all with clear historical connections. This and other Porter collaborations notwithstanding, Kelly Ground (1966) for solo piano is the first major work with evidence of what was later to become a significant preoccupation with his native Australia: first its history, then increasingly, too, its natural soundscapes. Salvation Creek with Eagle (1974) for chamber orchestra, Cambewarra (1980) for piano and Mandala V (1988) for orchestra are all typical in their luminosity and slow-breathing spaciousness; perhaps Aria for Edward John Eyre (1972), an hour-long work for voices, electronics and instruments, is the most intensely personal work of inner exploration of those years, a dramatic treatment of Eyre's account of his transcontinental Australian journey of 1846.

Among other electro-acoustic compositions, Big Meeting (1978), a celebration of the Durham Miners' Gala, and A Wild Ride to Heaven (1980), described by the composer as ‘a radiophonic adventure playground for the ear’, all show personal insights into the capabilities of the medium, and are characteristic examples of Lumsdaine's habit of periodically re-examining a given compositional premise. The five Mandala works share this feature, united as they are by a concern with the idea of music as a multi-dimensional object upon which to meditate. They show a clear progression outwards (one might equally well say inwards) from one Mandala to the next, into a broader, deeper and more intensely personal sound-world. Mandala III (1978), for instance, contains woven into its final movement an entire work for solo piano, Ruhe sanfte, sanfte Ruh’, composed four years earlier; this in its turn reveals the final chorus in Bach's St Matthew Passion from which it takes its title. The quotations woven into the orchestral textures of Mandala V are of Australian birdsong. Indeed Lumsdaine's music is far from hermetic; earlier works such as Episodes for orchestra and Caliban Impromptu (1972) for piano trio with electronics make clear reference to compositions by Bach and Schubert respectively. More recent pieces show a readiness to embrace elements of folksong and jazz. Shoalhaven (1982), commissioned for a semi-professional orchestra in southern New South Wales, has clear connections with traditional jazz, and A Dance and a Hymn for Alexander Maconochie (1988) draws its explosive energy from brilliantly subsumed folk rhythms. The cantata A Tree Telling of Orpheus (1990) is frankly modal, showing, for all that, no relaxation in its technical demands upon the five players or the soprano soloist.

Throughout his working life, Lumsdaine, a gifted ornithologist, has been concerned with making high-quality recordings of birdsong. Much of this work resides in the Australian National Sound Archive (part of the British Insitute of Recorded Sound, London), and leading from it are the Soundscapes 1–6 (1990–95), commissioned by the Australian Broadcasting Commission. Herein, Lumsdaine insists, it is the birds who are the composers; his own function has simply been to record sequences of song in defined areas of bushland, subjecting them in the studio to a necessary minimum amount of editing. The line of progression through Big Meeting and A Wild Ride to Heaven to the Soundscapes is evident.

WORKS

Ballet: Meridian, perc, pf, tape, 1973

Orch: Episodes, 1968–9; Salvation Creek with Eagle, chbr orch, 1974; Sunflower, chbr orch, 1975; A Little Dance of Hagoromo, orch, 1975; Hagoromo, 1977; Shoalhaven, 1982; Mandala V, 1988; The Arc of Stars, str orch, 1990; A Garden of Earthly Delights, vc, orch, 1992

Brass band: Evensong, 1975

Choral: Dum medium silentium, SATB, 1975; Tides (various Jap.), nar, 12vv, perc, 1979; Where the lilies grow, 8 pt chbr choir, 1985

Solo vocal: Annotations of Auschwitz (P. Porter), S, fl + b fl, tpt, hn, pf, vn, vc, 1964; Easter Fresco (Lat., Bible: John), S, fl, hn, hp, pf, 1966, rev. 1971; My Sister's Song (anon. Tamil poetry, trans. A.K. Ramanujan), S, 1974; What shall I sing? (W.H. Auden, C. Isherwood, S. Takahashi, trad.), S, 2 cl, 1982; Fire in Leaf and Grass (D. Levertov), S, cl, 1990; A Tree Telling of Orpheus (Levertov), S, fl, cl, vn, va, vc, 1990; A Norfolk Song Book (Lumsdaine), S, recs/fls, 1992; A Child's Grace (R. Herrick), 1v, ob, hp, 1993

Chbr: Mandala I, wind qt, 1968; Mandala II (Catches Catch), fl, cl, perc, va, vc, 1969; Kangaroo Hunt, pf, perc, 1971; Mandala III, solo pf, fl, cl, va, vc, bell, 1978; Mandala IV, str qt, 1983; Bagatelles, fl, cl, pf, vn, va, vc, 1985; Empty Sky – Mootwingee, fl, trbn/hn, vc, 2 perc, 2 pf, 1986; A Dance and a Hymn for Alexander Maconochie, fl, cl, perc, mand, gui, vn, db, 1988; Round Dance, sitar, tabla, fl, vc, kbd, 1989; Sine nomine, a sax/b cl, perc, 1990; Rain Drums, 4 perc, 1993; Kali Dances, fl, ob, cl, tpt, tba, vib, pf, vn, va, vc, db, 1994

Pf: Kelly Ground, 1966; Flights, 2 pf, 1967; Ruhe sanfte, sanfte Ruh’, 1974; Cambewarra, 1980; 6 Postcard Pieces, 1994

Other solo inst: Blue upon Blue, vc, 1992; Curlew in the Mist, shakuhachi, 1993; Metamorphosis at Mullet Creek, sopranino rec, 1994

El-ac: Looking Glass Music, brass qnt, tape, 1970; Aria for Edward John Eyre (E.J. Eyre), vv, ens, elecs, 1972; Caliban Impromptu, pf, vn, vc, live elecs, tape, 1972; Big Meeting, tape, 1978; A Wild Ride to Heaven, tape, 1980, collab. N. LeFanu; Soundscapes 1–4 (Lake Emu, Meunga Creek, River Red Gums and Black Box, Butcher Birds and Spirey Creek), tape, 1990; Soundscape 5 (Cambewarra), tape, 1991; Soundscape 6 (Mutawinji), tape/CD, 1995

Other: 2 Just So Stories (R. Kipling: The Elephant's Child, The Sing Song of Old Man Kangaroo), nar, dancer, live elecs (midi), 1990; The Crane (incid music, B. Townshend), fl, perc, hp, synth, 1991

Principal publishers: University of York Music, Universal

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Cooke: ‘David Lumsdaine’, Music and Musicians, xxi/5 (1972–3), 36–43

N. LeFanu: ‘ David Lumsdaine’, MT, cxvii (1976), 25–7

A. Schultz: Identity and Memory: ‘Temporality in the Music of David Lumsdaine’,SMA, xxv (1991), 95–101

A. Ford: ‘David Lumsdaine’, Composer to Composer: Conversations about Contemporary Music (Sydney, 1993)

ANTHONY GILBERT

Lumsden, Sir David (James)

(b Newcastle upon Tyne, 19 March 1928). English organist, choirmaster, harpsichordist and teacher. As organ scholar of Selwyn College, Cambridge, he studied with Ord and Dart, taking the MusB degree in 1951, the PhD in 1955 (with a dissertation on Elizabethan lute music) and the Oxford doctorate in 1959. He was appointed Nottingham University organist in 1954 and was organist and choirmaster at St Mary's, Nottingham and founder conductor of the Nottingham Bach Society. In 1956 he succeeded Robert Ashfield as rector chori at Southwell Minster and became director of music at the University College of North Staffordshire, Keele (later Keele University); he also taught at the RAM, 1960–62. In 1959 he became organist and Fellow of New College, Oxford, and university lecturer in music. He inherited from H.K. Andrews a choir of high reputation and added to its lustre, as was evidenced by the choir's unusually diverse repertory, its recordings and its impact on audiences during two tours of the USA (1973 and 1975). He established a particular affinity with the composer Kenneth Leighton, whose music the New College choir memorably recorded. He was also responsible for the versatile new organ built in 1969 for New College chapel by Grant, Degens and Bradbeer. In 1978 Lumsden became principal of the Royal Scottish Academy, moving in 1982 to London as principal of the RAM where in 1990 he established the first performance-based undergraduate course between the RAM and King's College, London, as well as the first joint faculty between the RAM and the RCM. He holds an honorary fellowship at Selwyn College and received and honorary DLitt from the University of Reading in 1990. He retired from the RAM in 1993.

Lumsden is a noted solo organist, particularly drawn to the music of Bach. He was for a time harpsichordist with the London Virtuosi, a chamber group whose other members were principals with the LSO. He is a specialist in Elizabethan music, has published An Anthology of English Lute Music (1954) and Thomas Robinson's School of Musicke, 1603 (1971), and is general editor of Music for the Lute (1968). He has been president of the Royal College of Organists and of the Incorporated Association of Organists, and a vice-president and general editor for the Church Music Society. He was knighted in 1985.

STANLEY WEBB/PAUL HALE

Lun.

See Rich, John.

Luna (y Carné), Pablo

(b Alhama de Aragón, Zaragoza, 21 May 1879; d Madrid, 28 Jan 1942). Spanish composer. He studied harmony and composition at the music school in Zaragoza, then worked as a conductor of various zarzuela companies before becoming conductor at the Teatro de la Zarzuela in Madrid in 1908. There he did much to further the music of Spanish composers such as Falla, Turina, Guridi and Millán. At the same time he was making a name with his own stage works, not least those that moved the zarzuela away from traditional settings, such as Molinos de viento (1910), set in the Netherlands. There followed Los cadetes de la reina (1913), El niño judío (1918) and La pícara molinera (1928), all of which displayed Luna’s fluent and insinuating melodic invention and command of atmosphere to good effect. He composed more than 170 stage works, including operettas and revues.

WORKS

(selective list)

all stage works, in order of first performance; first performed in Madrid unless otherwise stated; most published in vocal score in Madrid shortly after production; for more detailed list see GroveO

La escalera de los duendes, Bilbao, 1904; La rabalera, Zaragoza, 1904; El oso blanco, Zaragoza, c1904; Musetta, 13 July 1908; Fuente escondida, 1908; ¡A.C.T! … ¡Que se va el tío!, 27 Feb 1909, collab. T. Barrera; Pura, la cantaora, 1909; Las once mil virgénes, 1909; Vida de principe, 1909, collab. L. Foglietti; El club de las solteras, 1909, collab. Foglietti; La reina de los mercados, 1909; Molinos de viento, Seville, 1910; Huelga de criadas, 1910; El dirigible, 1911; Sangre y arena, 1911, collab. P. Marquina; Las hijas de Lemnos, 1911; La canción húngara, Seville, 1911

El paraguas del abuelo, 1911, collab. Barrera; Canto de primavera, Zaragoza, 1912; Los cuatro gatos, 1913; Los cadetes de la reina, 1913; La cucaña del Sotanillo, 1913; La alegría del amor, 1913; La gloria del vencido, Bilbao, 1913, collab. M. Amenázabal; La corte de Risalia, 1914; El rey del mundo, 1914; El potro salvaje, 1914, collab. Valverde hijo; Salambó, o Los ojos de mi morena, 1914; La boda de Cayetana, o Una tarde en Amaniel, 1915; El patio de los naranjos, 1916; El asombro de Damasco, 1916; El sapo enamorada, 1916; La casa de enfrente, 1917

Los postineros, 1917, collab. Foglietti; El niño judío, 1918; El aduar, 1918; Trini, la Clavellina, 1918; Los calabreses, 1918; Muñecos de trapo, 1919; La menanógrafa, 1919; Pancho Virondo, 1919; ¡Llévame al Metro, mamá!, 1919; El suspiro del moro, 1919; Una aventura en París, 1920; Las Venus de las pieles, 1920

Su alteza se casa, 1921; Los papiros, 1921; Ojo por ojo, 1921; El sinvergüenza en palacio, 1921, collab. A. Vives; Los dragones de París, 1922; Los apuros de Pura, 1922; La tierra de Carmen, 1923, collab. Valverde hijo; Benamor, 1923; La moza de campanillas, 1923; Su Majestad, 1923; Rosa de fuego, 1924; La joven Turquía, Barcelona, Sept 1924; Calixta la prestamista, o El niño de Buenavista, 1924; El anillo del sultán, 1925; La paz del molino, 1925; Sangre de reyes, 1926, collab. F. Balaguer

Los ojos con que me miras, 1925; El torpiezo de la Nati, o Bajo una mala capa, 1925; Las espigas, 1925, collab. E. Brú; Las musas del Trianón, 1926; La pastorela, 1926, collab. F. Moreno Torroba; Las mujeres son así, o Amor con amor se gana, 1926; El fumadero, 1927, collab. Moreno Torroba; La manola del portillo, 1928; La chula de Pontevedra, 1928, collab. E. Brú; La pícara molinera, Saragossa, 1928; ¡Ris Ras!, 1928, collab. M. Penella; La ventera de Alcalá, 1928/9, collab. R. Calleja; El antojo, 1929; El caballero del guante rojo, 1929; La mujer de su marido, 1929

La ventera de Alcalá, 1929; Flor de Zelanda, 1930; La moza vieja, 1931, rev. as El pregón del riojana; ¡Como están las mujeres!, 1932; Los moscones, 1932; Las peponas, 1934; Al cantar el gallo, 1935; Quién te puso petenera, o Una copla hecha mujer, 1939; Currito de la Cruz, o El chavalillo, 1939; La gata encantada, o Flor del cerezo, 1939; Los calatravas, 1941; El Pilar de la victoria, Saragossa, 1944, completed J. Gómez

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO

A. Sagardía: Pablo Luna (Madrid, 1978)

J. Arnau and C.M. Gomez: Historia de la zarzuela (Madrid, 1979)

R. Alier and others: El libro de la zarzuela (Barcelona, 1982, 2/1986 as Diccionario de la zarzuela)

ANDREW LAMB

Lunati, Carlo Ambrogio.

(1) Ambrose [Ambrosio] Lupo

Lund.

Town in Sweden. It is 16 km north-east of Malmö.

Lund, Carsten

(b Copenhagen, 12 May 1940). Danish organ builder. He was an apprentice of Troels Krohn in Hillerød from 1957 to 1961, and worked for Poul-Gerhard Andersen in Copenhagen from 1962 to 1966; he founded his own workshop in Copenhagen in 1966. He is the organ builder who has followed and developed the ideas of the Danish Organ Reform Movement with the greatest consistency and his designs are rooted in classical European organ-building traditions. In Denmark, he has pioneered the use of flexible winding, suspended action, soldered pipe caps, hammered pipe metal and classical keyboard design, and has developed his key action to a high degree of perfection. Examples of his work are in Copenhagen at St Stefans church (1983), Frederiksberg Castle Church (1994), Garnisons Church (1995) and Sions Church (1996), and in Vålerengen Church, Oslo (1987).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

O. Olesen: ‘The New Organ Revival in Denmark’, JBIOS, iii (1979), 46–55

F. Brouwer: Orgelbewegung und Orgelgegenbewegung (Utrecht, 1981)

OLE OLESEN

Lund, Gudrun

(b Copenhagen, 22 April 1930). Danish composer. She was educated in Copenhagen at the university, studying music, German and English, and at the Kongelige Danske Musikkonservatorium. She began to compose when she was 46; she then took lessons in composition and orchestration with Svend S. Schultz and Mogens Winkel Holm. In 1983–4 she studied in the USA at the Hartt College of Music. Between 1966 and 1995 she taught at KDAS, a college of education in Copenhagen, while composing prolifically. Her wide-ranging music embraces several styles and compositional techniques, and has become increasingly modernistic. Her stylistic diversity is characterized by a certain unpretentiousness which can turn into humorous abandon.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Prinsessen på aerten [The Princess on the Pea] (musical fairytale, 2, Lund, after H.C. Andersen), op.41, 1980, Göteborg, Musikhögskolan, Feb 1992; Simple Johnny (mini-op, Lund, after Andersen), op.128, 8vv, 7 insts, 1991; Den Stundes Løse (mini-op, Lund, after Holberg), op.141, 10vv, children's chorus, chbr ens, 1994

Orch: Conc., op.26, a trbn, chbr orch, 1978; Consequences, op.32, 1979; Negotiations, op.76, wind band, 1983; Walking Along, op.86, cl, orch, 1984; Celebration, op.100, 1986; Militaermarch, op.125, military band, 1990

Chbr, inst: Str Qt no.1, op.8, 1976; Trio, op.10, fl, vn, va, 1976; Str Qt no.2, op.20, 1978; Serenata seriosa, op.42, str trio, 1980; 7 facetter [7 Facets], op.43, org, 1980; 5 Boys I Know, op.53, b trbn, 1981; Abstract, op.66, accdn, 1982; Str Qt no.4, op.70, 1983; Con anima, op.73, fl, vn, va, vc, 1983; Str Qt no.5, op.77, 1984; Diversions, op.88, fl, ob, cl, bn, hn, 2 vn, va, vc, db, 1985; 5 Pieces for Grand Piano, op.109, 1988; 5 Girls I Know, op.114, tpt, trbn, 1988; Spanish Lady, op.123, pf, 1990; Str Qt no.6, op.134, 1992; Suite, op.135, str, 1992; A Suite for Brass, op.144, 2 tpt, hn, trbn, tuba, 1996; Trio Sonata, op.145, 2 vn, hn, 1996

Vocal: 4 Songs (J.A. Schade), op.12, SATB, 1977; Skisma (T. Ditlevsen), op.14, S, orch, 1977; 3 sange om livet og døden [3 Songs about Life and Death] (G. Risbjerg Thomsen), op.36, S, trbn, org, 1979; A Woman's Nature?, op.98, S, wind qnt, hpd, 1986; Summer, op.104, S/T, pf, tape, 1987; Jungle Music, op.117, S, vn, perc, tape, 1988; Snake (D.H. Lawrence), op.120, T, mixed chorus, pf, 1989; Dejlige Danmark [Beautiful Denmark] (Lund), op.133, mixed chorus, 1992; 10 tankevaekkende udsagn [10 Suggestive Utterances], op.139, 1v, fl, vc, accdn, 1993

Principal publisher: Samfundet

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CC (B. Weir)

A.I. Cohen: International Encyclopedia of Women Composers (New York, 1981, 2/1987)

L. Storm-Jørgensen: Kvindelige komponister: Gudrun Lund (diss., Copenhagen U., 1984)

I. Bruland: ‘Fire danske kvindelige komponister fra det 20. århundrede’ [Four Danish Women Composers from the 20th Century], Årbog for kvindeforskning, v (1986), 33–59

INGE BRULAND

Lundquist, Torbjörn Iwan

(b Stockholm, 30 Sept 1920). Swedish composer, conductor and pianist. He studied composition and instrumentation with Dag Wirén, the piano and harmony with Ragnar Althén, the piano with Yngve Flyckt, counterpoint with Hans Leygraf and conducting with Hugo Hammarström (choral conducting) and Othmar Suitner. In the 1950s he taught composition and the piano at the Stockholm Citizens’ School and was conductor at the Drottningholm Palace theatre. He was a board member of FST, the Society of Swedish Composers (1953–71), acting as its deputy chairman. He began writing film and other light entertainment music, but after his Kammarsymfoni of 1956 he concentrated on a more serious art music. Of his output nine symphonies are the dominant component, and they reflect his strong commitment to ecology (no.4 ‘Sinfonia ecologica’, no.6 ‘Sarek’) and to humanism (no.2, no.7 ‘Humanity’ – in memory of Dag Hammarskjöld – and no.9 ‘Survival’). He has also been influenced by the ethnic music of various cultures. He has said that in his music he seeks ‘the core of life, not to flee reality but to re-establish it’. His music is chiefly traditional in form, but he does not shirk avant-garde elements and jazz-influenced excursions.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Herdespel [Pastoral] (O. von Dalin), 1953; Sekund av evighet [Second of Eternity] (op, K. Boldemann), 1973

Syms.: no.1 ‘Kammarsymfoni’, op.11, 1950–6, rev. 1971; no.2, 1956–70; no.3 ‘Sinfonia dolorosa’, 1971–5; no.4 ‘Sinfonia ecologica’, 1974–85; no.5, 1980; no.6 ‘Sarek’, 1985; no.7 ‘Humanity’, S, Bar, SATB, orch, 1986–8; no.8 ‘Kromata’, 1989–92; no.9 ‘Survival’, 1996

Other orch: Divertimento, op.1, fl, ob, cl, bn, str, 1951; Canzona, op.12, fl, ob, tpt, str 1957; Conc. da camera, accdn, orch, 1965; Fervor, violino grande, orch, 1967; Hangarmusik, 1967; Intarzia, accdn, str, 1967, rev. 1981; Confrontation, 1968; Evoluzione, str, 1968; Sogno, ob, str, 1968, rev. 1970; Mar Conc., 1972–9; Conc. grosso, vn, vc, str, 1974; Arktis [The Arctic], 1977, arr. sym. band, 1984; Galax, 1971–7; Schatten, 1977; Tuba Conc., 1977; Vc Conc. ‘Fantasia pragense’, vn, orch, 1978; Landskap, tuba, pf, str, 1978, rev. 1994; Sea-room, hn, pf, str, 1978, rev. 1989; Vc Conc., 1977; Vindkraft, wind, 1978, rev. 1994; Serenad, str, 1979; Pic Tpt Conc. ‘Trumpet Music’, 1980; Integration, 5 perc, str qt/orch, 1980–82; Accdn Concertino ‘Samspil’, 1981

Chbr: Sonatin, vn, pf, 1955; Str Qt no.1 ‘Mälarkvartett’, 1956–72; Partita piccola, pf/accdn, 1964–5; Bewegungen, accdn, str qt, 1966; Combinazioni, vn, perc, 1966; Duell, accdn, perc, 1966; Teamwork, wind qnt, 1967; 4 rondeaux, wind qnt, pf, 1969; Tempera, brass ens, 1969; Str Qt no.2 ‘Quartetto d’aprile’, 1969–70; Kopparstick [Etching], brass ens, 1975; Trio fiorente, vn, vc, pf, 1975; Ballad, str, 1976; Sisu, 6 perc, 1976; Scandinavian Music, brass qnt, 1978; Concitato, a sax, 1980; Assoziationen, accdn, 1989; Metamorfoser, pf, 1997

Vocal: Elegier från bergen (cant., B. Setterlind), op.15, T, male chorus, orch, 1958; Via tomheten (Setterlind), op.17, S, Bar, SATB, orch, 1960; Triptyk (Ö. Sjöstrand), SATB, 1963; Anrop (R. Piuva), S, orch, 1964; 5 Rilke-sånger, 1v, pf, 1983; Siebenmal Rilke, 1v, pf/orch, 1983–4, rev. 1989; [7] New Bearings (D. Hammarskjöld), Bar, pf, 1989; [7] Pour l’éternité, Bar, pf, 1989; [7] Irish Love Songs (J. Joyce), Bar, pf, 1992; [9] Chbr Music (Joyce), Bar, vc, pf, 1996

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Hedwall: Den svenska symfonin (Stockholm, 1983)

J.-L. Caron: ‘Portrait d’un compositeur suédois contemporain vivant: Torbjörn Iwan Lundquist: l’humanisme viril’, Les bulletins de l’Association Française Carl Nielsen (1993), no.10, pp.62–195

B. Hölzing: Torbjörn Iwan Lundquist: Werverzeichnis und Diskographie (Bochum, 1994) [also incl. analysis by G. Wagner of the Partita piccola]

L.A. Cleveland: An Analysis of Referential Collections in the Contemporary Accordion Works of Torbjörn Iwan Lundquist (Ann Arbor, 1996)

ROLF HAGLUND

Lundsdörffer, Albrecht Martin.

German 17th-century composer. He contributed to collections edited by Johann Christoph Arnschwanger.

Lüneburg.

City in Lower Saxony, northern Germany, south of Hamburg. A member of the Hanseatic League from 1371, it was a prosperous town from the Middle Ages, with an economy based largely on the mining of its rich salt deposits. Politically Lüneburg belonged to the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg, whose royal residence was in Celle. The earliest record of musical activity dates from about 955 with the founding of the Benedictine monastery of St Michael. Choristers were trained in its associated school, but few documents about the music there survive. Missals from the 11th and 12th centuries are known to have existed, but are lost; a few sources survive from the 14th and 15th centuries. Christian lay fellowships, notably the Kalandbruderschaft, took part in liturgical music. A second centre of church music developed after the founding of the Johannisschule (1406), and in 1430 a schola externa was opened at the monastery of St Michael for students from the town, where singers were trained for church services.

Polyphonic sacred music was introduced to Lüneburg rather late, about 1516, but subsequent inventories of both the Johannisschule and Michaelisschule include many masses and motets by leading 16th-century composers, such as Lassus, Clemens non Papa, Handl, Crecquillon, Kerle, Lechner, Rore, Ruffo and Wert. After the Reformation a document laying down the essentials of musical instruction as well as of the liturgy was published as the Psalmodia (1553) by the assistant headmaster at the Johannisschule, Lucas Lossius, and at this time school choirs became important to the city's musical life. These choirs (Chori symphoniaci) sang in the church, in the streets before the houses of Lüneburg residents and at various private ceremonies and festivities. Cantilena singing in the streets at Christmas was a distinctive musical activity of the Lüneburg schools (see Walter, 1967). Choruses of poor children were also permitted to sing in the streets, but monophonic songs only, on Tuesdays, for the purpose of collecting alms. The schools also performed plays with music directed by the Kantor. Kantors at St Johannis included Lampadius (1535–7), Bertram (1559–62), Christoph Praetorius (1563–81), Euricius Dedekind (1582–94), Cossius (1627–50), Michael Jacobi (1651–63) and Funcke (1664–94); at the Michaeliskirche Anton Burmeister was Kantor from 1604 to 1634.

From the 17th century the town council employed between four and seven salaried instrumentalists (Ratsmusikanten); they participated in church music, school plays and civic ceremonies. About ten additional musicians were available for dances, weddings, guild festivities and the annual ‘Kopefest’ (pre-Lenten celebration). The most important 17th-century organists were Christian Flor (Lambertikirche and St Johannis), Johann Jakob Löwe (Nikolaikirche) and Georg Böhm (St Johannis). Löwe and Böhm were active when J.S. Bach was a student at the Michaelisschule (1700–?1702), a poorly documented period of his life (see Fock), though scholars have speculated on how Bach may have been influenced by music there (see Blume). The keyboard tablatures in the Ratsbibliothek (D-Lr), especially the organ tablatures with music by Jacob Praetorius (ii), Scheidemann, Weckmann and others, are evidence for Lüneburg's musical traditions between 1610 and 1670, and are an important source of north German Baroque keyboard music. The inventories of the lost library of the monastery of St Michael provide information about the flourishing practice of vocal music between 1630 and 1690; as in other north German towns there were oratorio concerts in addition to liturgical music. In the 18th century many Passions and cantatas were performed including Passions of Handel (1723), Telemann (1766) and C.P.E. Bach (1774). Kantor Eberwein performed the Passions of C.H. Graun, Rolle and Homilius. To a lesser extent new organ music was performed by the organist of St Johannis, L.E. Hartmann. An important successor of the latter was J.C. Schmügel, a pupil of Telemann and teacher of J.A.P. Schultz.

Opera and Singspiel became popular in the 18th century. In 1718 Glückliche Liebe, a pastoral play with arias and dances after Keiser, was performed. Later, visiting theatrical troupes put on plays, replacing the previous school dramas. The Seyler company appeared in 1769; their performances always concluded with a ballet. The Stöffler troupe often performed Singspiele and operettas directed by F.A. von Weber, composer of the operetta Lindor und Ismene. In 1786 the Vereinigte Gesellschaft Deutscher Schauspieler gave a performance of Hiller’s comic opera Die Jagd. Heinrich Marschner visited the city in 1843, followed in 1850 by Lortzing with his operas Zar und Zimmermann and Die beiden Schützen.

There was little amateur or private music-making before the 19th century; however, a Musikverein founded in 1823 gave performances of Handel's Samson in St Johannis. This was succeeded mostly by subscription concerts with mixed programmes. In 1859 a Schiller festival took place, and Romberg's Glocke was performed. At the beginning of the 20th century a Verein für Geistliche Musik began to organize concerts, and between 1902 and 1910 performed choral works by Beethoven, Brahms, Schumann and Berlioz. It also gave the première of Busoni's Sonnabend auf dem Dorfe (1929).

Lüneburg commemorated the bicentenary of Bach's death (1950) with a large festival. At the same time the Gesellschaft für Musikforschung held the first international musicological congress after World War II. In 1956 the 33rd German Bach Festival again brought many internationally known musicians and scholars to Lüneburg. The city's postwar musical life has been provided chiefly by the church choirs, the Stadttheater, which presents operas, operettas and musicals, and by subscription concerts with visiting orchestras and soloists. Chamber music concerts are held in the Lüne monastery, and are devoted to early music.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Seiffert: ‘Die Chorbibliothek der St. Michaelisschule in Lüneburg zu Seb. Bach's Zeit’, SIMG, ix (1907–8), 593–620

G. Fock: Der junge Bach in Lüneburg (Hamburg, 1950)

F. Welter: Katalog der Musikalien der Ratsbücherei Lüneburg (Lippstadt, 1950)

F. Blume and M. Ruhnke: ‘Aus der Musikgeschichte der Stadt Lüneburg’, Aus Lüneburgs tausendjähriger Vergangenheit, ed. U. Wendland (Lüneburg, 1956), 109–38

P.A. von Magnus: Die Geschichte des Theaters in Lüneburg bis zum Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts (Lüneburg, 1961)

H. Walter: Musikgeschichte der Stadt Lüneburg vom Ende des 16. bis zum Anfang des 18. Jahrhunderts (Tutzing, 1967)

F. Blume: ‘J.S. Bach's Youth’, MQ, liv (1968), 1–30

C. Schormann: Studien zur Musikgeschichte der Stadt Lüneburg im ausgehenden 18. und im 19. Jahrhundert (Regensburg, 1982)

GEORG KARSTÄDT/R

Lunelli, Renato

(b Trent, 14 May 1895; d Trent, 14 Jan 1967). Italian musicologist, organist and composer. He attended the local technical school and the Munich Handelhochschule (1913–14) but was forced by the outbreak of World War I to return to Trent, where he studied the organ with Attilo Bormioli at the Liceo Musicale. Almost all his musical activity centred on Trent where he was organist at S Maria Maggiore, music critic for Il nuovo Trentino and L’adige, and where in 1953 he was asked to organize the new music section of the Biblioteca Comunale.

Lunelli’s main interest was organs; he pioneered this subject in Italy and became an uncontested authority. His first publication in the field (1925) dealt with the restoration of the organ in S Maria Maggiore; his subsequent research spread from Trent to the whole of Italy and resulted in articles on the origin of the organ in Italy and foreign organs in Italy, as well as the monograph L’arte organaria del Rinascimento in Roma (Florence, 1958). With Tagliavini he founded L’organo: rivista di cultura organaria e organistica and edited it from 1960 until his death. He also composed much vocal music, including five male-voice masses and three cantatas.

WORKS

(selective list)

5 masses (male vv, org): op.7, 1932; op.13, 1933; op.14, 1935; op.15, 1935; op.19, 1936

Cants.: 11 beato Stefano Bellisini, op.26, solo vv, male chorus, org (1940); Giubila il salmo, op.27 (1944); Il campanile del borgo, op.33, 1v, male chorus, org (1949)

Other liturgical works, Trent folksong arrs.

WRITINGS

Un ventennio di attività organaria nel Trentino (Trent, 1931)

ed.: C. Antegnati: L’arte organica (Mainz, 1938, 2/1958) [incl. Ger. trans. by P. Smets]

‘Musiche del sec. XVII per strumenti ad arco in manoscritti scoperti a Bressanone’, Archivio per l’Alto Adige, xxxviii (1943), 377–424

‘Contributi trentini alle relazioni musicali fra l’Italia e la Germania nel Rinascimento’, AcM, xxi (1949), 41–70

Mistica ed estetica delle sonorità organistiche al servizio della liturgia (Trent, 1950)

‘La storia avventurosa e leggendaria di un organo’, I ‘bellissimi organi’ della Basilica di S. Maria Maggiore in Trento (Trent, 1953), 7–17

ed.: A. Barcotto: ‘Un trattatello di Antonio Barcotto colma le lacune dell’Arte organica’ [Regola e breve raccordo], CHM, i (1953), 135–55

‘Nuovi spunti biografici sul musicista trentino F.A. Bonporti’, Studi trentini di scienze storiche, xxxiv (1955), 279–81

‘Descrizione dell'organo del duomo di Como e l'attività italiana di Guglielmo Hermans’, CHM, ii (1956), 255–76

Der Orgelbau in Italien in seinen Meisterwerken vom 14. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart (Mainz, 1956)

‘A che punto è in Italia la storia dell’arte organaria?’, AcM, xxx (1958), 137–69

L’arte organaria del Rinascimento in Roma e gli organi di S. Pietro in Vaticano, dalle origini a tutto il periodo frescobaldiano (Florence, 1958)

‘Di alcuni inventari delle musiche già possedute dal coro della parrocchiale di Merano’, SMw, xxv (1962), 347–62

ed. R. Maroni: Organi trentini: notizie storiche, iconografia (Trent, 1964)

ed. R. Maroni and C. Lunelli: La musica nel Trentino dal XV al XVIII secolo (Trent, 1967)

ed. R. Maroni and C. Lunelli: Strumenti musicali nel Trentino (Trent, 1968)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Lunelli: ‘Bibliografia degli scritti di Renato Lunelli’, L’organo, v (1964–7), 175–92

C. Moretti: ‘Uno scritto inedito di Renato Lunelli’, L’organo, v (1964–7), 135–6

L.F. Tagliavini: ‘In memoria di Renato Lunelli’, L’organo, v (1964–7), 131–4

CAROLYN GIANTURCO/TERESA M. GIALDRONI

Lunga

(It.: ‘long’).

A word often placed above a note or, particularly, a fermata to indicate a longer wait than might be expected. The words ‘lunga pausa’ or ‘pausa lunga’ also appear to indicate that a pause is to be made at the performer’s discretion, not according to rests showing the precise length.

DAVID FALLOWS

Lungul, Semyon Vasil'yevich

(b Khlinaya, Sloboziya region, 16 Feb 1927). Moldovan composer. He graduated from the Kishinev (Chişinău) Conservatory in 1958 as a composition student of Gurov and Lobel'; the year before he had begun teaching at the Coca School in Kishinev. Since 1974 he has held various official positions in the Moldovan Composers' Union, the USSR Composers' Union and the Moldovan broadcasting authority. His music is broadly lyrical and dramatic, though he is not averse to elements of the grotesque, and combines distinctive traits of Moldovan folk music with a contemporary style and non-traditional schemes. Important works include the oratorio Dmitrie Cantemir and the songbooks Cântările Nistrului (‘Songs of the Dniester’).

WORKS

(selective list)

Choral poems: Toamna în Moldova [Autumn in Moldova] (A. Busuioc), 1962; A fost război [There was a War] (G. Vieru), 1968; Memoria veacurilor [The Memory of Centuries] (Busuioc), 1973; Ciclu de poeme corale [Cycle of Choral Poems] (V. Filip and others), 1980–83

Other vocal: Meleaguri natale [Native Expanses] (cant., L. Deleanu), 1958; Cântările Nistrului [Songs about the Dniester] (vocal cycle, Vieru and others), bk 1, 1970; Patria mea [My Native Land] (cant., Vieru), 1972; Dmitrie Cantemir (orat, G. Dimitriu), T, Bar, spkrs, chorus, orch, 1973; Cântările Nistrului [Songs about the Dniester], bk 2, 1984

Chbr and solo inst: Capriccio, pf, 1966; Măşti [Masks], pf, 1972; Suită, fl, 1978; Concertino, vn ens, 1979; Desenele lui Bidstrup [Drawings by Bidstrup], vn, pf, 1980; Ciclu de piese pentru copii [Cycle of Children's Pieces], vn, pf, 1985–7; Sonata, taragot, 1990; Chbr Suite, 4 vn, 1992

Inst miniatures, songs, romances, folksong arrs.

Principal publishers: Literatura Artistică, Cartea Moldovenească, Sovetskiy Kompozitor

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Alyabov: ‘Kantata “Melyagur' natale” de Semyon Lungul’, Vyatsa muzicalė a Moldovey (1958), nos.5–6, pp.12–14

A. Alyabov: ‘S.V. Lungul’, Kompozitorï Moldavskoy SSR, ed. A.D. Skoblionok (Moscow, 1960), 125–8

Ye. Abramovich: ‘S.V. Lungul’, Kompozitorï sovetskoy Moldavii, ed. M. Manuilov (Kishinev, 1967), 99–105

T. Derkach: Semyon Lungul (Kishinev, 1977)

TAT'YANA BEREZOVIKOVA

Lünicke.

See Linike family.

Lunn, (Louise) Kirkby

(b Manchester, 8 Nov 1873; d London, 17 Feb 1930). English mezzo-soprano. She studied in Manchester and then at the RCM with Visetti. While still a student she sang Margaretha in the English première of Schumann’s Genoveva (1893) and the Marquise de Montcontour in Delibes’s Le roi l’a dit. She sang Nora in Stanford’s Shamus O’Brien at the Opéra-Comique in 1896, then joined the Carl Rosa company, where her roles included Julia in Sullivan’s Martyr of Antioch and Ella in the première of MacCunn’s Diarmid, both at Covent Garden (1897). In 1901 she reappeared there as the Sandman in Hänsel und Gretel and Siébel in Faust; she continued to sing at Covent Garden until 1914, appearing in several London first performances, notably as Pallas in Saint-Saëns’s Hélène and in the title role in Hérodiade (both 1904), Hate in Gluck’s Armide (1906) and Delilah (1909), as well as Orpheus, Ortrud, Brangäne, Fricka, Carmen, Olga (Yevgeny Onegin) and Amneris. She appeared at the Metropolitan (1902–3 and 1906–8). She sang Kundry in English in Boston (1904), and later with the British National Opera Company at Covent Garden (1922). She possessed a large, rich voice, which ranged from g to b''; recordings confirm its size and its steady, somewhat severe quality. Her stage performances were sometimes considered rather cool; Saint-Saëns said he thought her Delilah was a clever embodiment ‘même avec son peu de chaleur’.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.B. Richards: ‘Louise Kirkby Lunn’, Record Collector, xix (1970–71), 101–43; ‘The Kirkby Lunn Recordings’, xix (1970–71), 172–88 [discography]

HAROLD ROSENTHAL/R

Lunssens, Martin

(b Molenbeek St Jean, Brussels, 16 April 1871; d Etterbeek, Brussels, 1 Feb 1944). Belgian conductor and composer. He studied at the Brussels Conservatory and won the Belgian Prix de Rome (1895) with his cantata Callirhoé; he later taught at the conservatory for many years. Afterwards he was successively director of the Kortrijk Academy of Music (1905–16), the Charleroi Academy of Music (1916–21), the Leuven Conservatory (1921–4) and the Ghent Conservatory (from 1924). He conducted Wagner at the Royal Flemish Opera, Antwerp, and composed in a ponderous style close to that of Bruckner and Mahler; his works include three symphonies, five concertos and four symphonic poems.

ERIC BLOM/CORNEEL MERTENS

Luo Dayou [Lo Ta-yu]

(b Miaoshu province, Taiwan, 20 July 1954). Chinese popular songwriter and singer born in Taiwan. Luo began his creative career as a composer of film music in 1974 while studying in medical school. In 1980, he received his licence to practice as a doctor. However, when he released his first solo album the following year to much critical acclaim, he gave up the medical profession. Luo moved his base of operation from Taibei to Hong Kong in 1987. Two years later, he established his own production company, Music Factory, in Hong Kong, to develop the East Asian market (Hong Kong, China, Taiwan). Widely respected as an all-round musician, Luo has received numerous awards for his film music (in background and feature song categories) in Hong Kong and Taiwan from 1987 onward.

Luo is versatile: he composes and arranges in all popular styles, from folk-like melodies and mellow soft-rock tunes to rock ’n’ roll. He also produces his own recordings, most of which have topped popular charts in Hong Kong and Taiwan. His songs feature lyrics in Mandarin, Cantonese and the Taiwanese dialect of Hokkien. Luo also experimented with the crossover trend in the early 1990s, organizing pops concerts with symphony orchestras; he made his debut as a stage composer in 1997.

Keenly aware of his identity as a Chinese born in Taiwan, Luo’s output is distinguished by political and cultural commentaries, ranging from topics such as Chinese communism, Taiwanese independence and the 1989 Beijing student movement to Hong Kong’s return to China in 1997. His fans found resonance in his voice of dissent. Among Luo’s most popular songs were the Lianqu(‘Lovesong’) trilogy (1979–94), Airen tongzhi (‘Comrade Lover’, 1989), and Huanghou dadao dong (‘Queen’s Road East’, 1991).

See also Taiwan, §V.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

Weng Jiaming: Cong Luo Dayou dao Cui Jian [From Luo Dayou to Cui Jian] (Taibei, 1992)

recordings

Jai/Home, Rock Records RD–1016 (1984)

Qingchun wuqu/Youth Movement, Rock Records RD–1046 (1985)

Airen tongzhi/Comrade Lover, Rock Records RD–1040 (1989)

Yijin huanxiang/To Return Gloriously, Rock Records RD–1062 (1989)

Huanghou dadao dong/Queen’s Road East, Culture Records MFCR 9101–2 (1991)

Shoudu/Capital, Culture Records MFCR 9202–2 (1992)

Lianqu 2000/Lovesong 2000, Rock Records RD–1287 (1994)

Baodao xiansuntian/Salty, Sour, Sweet from Formosa, Era EMI EDL–6001 (1996)

JOANNA C. LEE

Luo Jiuxiang

(b Dapu, Guangdong province, 1902; d 1978). Chinese zheng player. He is considered the foremost representative of the Hakka (Keija) regional school of zheng performance. He was active as a performer throughout much of his life, working as an accompanist to the regional opera hanju, and gaining conservatory teaching posts both in the northern city of Tianjin and in his home province, Guangdong. Luo also recorded widely from the mid-1950s. Unlike some of his peers in other schools of performance, Luo did not attempt to create new pieces for his instrument and his music remains largely in traditional style.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

Shi Chaoyuan, ed.: Hanyue zhengqu 40 shou [40 hanyue zheng pieces] (Beijing, 1985)

Zhongguo yinyue cidian [Dictionary of Chinese music] (Beijing, 1985), 249

Zhongguo guzheng mingqu huicui [Special collection of famous pieces for the Chinese guzheng], ed. Shanghai yinyue chubanshe (Shanghai, 1993), 107–48

Special Collection of Contemporary Chinese Musicians, Wind Records CB-07 (1996)

JONATHAN P.J. STOCK

Luo Yusheng [Xiao Caiwu]

(b nr Shanghai, 1914). Chinese narrative-singer. Most influential of the female performers of jingyun dagu (Beijing drumsong) following Liu Baoquan, she created her own ‘Luo style’. She began by singing Beijing opera arias, only commencing serious study of drumsong in 1934. When she moved north with her teacher (later also accompanist), she reworked the repertory of Liu Baoquan, adding other pieces and winning acceptance in Tianjin (1936) and Beijing (1939). Alone among her contemporaries, Luo deliberately went beyond the confines of a single school, adopting elements from Bai (Yunpeng) and Young Bai (Fengming) styles. Her most successful pieces date from this period: Jian’ge wenling (‘Eavesbells at Sword Hall’), a slow reflective lament of the emperor for his lost love, created by Luo, became her signature piece. In 1951 Luo joined the new Tianjin Narrative arts troupe, where she both taught and performed through the years, creating many new pieces. She sang well into her seventies, making many recordings.

Her range is close to that of Liu Baoquan, and her voice has been called golden. In China she is appraised as singing the melody as well as the tale, the lyric tones floating out, graceful and winding, but so full of inner steel that the result stirs the gut and shakes the spirit.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

Luo Yusheng: ‘Wutai shenghuo liushi nian’ [60 years of stage life], Tianjin wenshi ziliao xuanji, no.14 (Tianjin, 1981), 170–95

Tianjin shi quyi tuan, ed.: Luo Yusheng yanchang jingyun dagu xuan [Selected jingyun dagu pieces performed by Luo Yusheng] (Tianjin, 1983)

Xue Baokun: Luo Yusheng he tade jingyun dagu [Luo Yusheng and her Beijing drumsong] (Harbin, 1984)

Zhongguo quyi yinyue jicheng, Tianjin juan [Anthology of Chinese narrative-singing music, Tianjin vol.] (Beijing, 1993) 200–327, 593

Zhongguo quyi yinyue jicheng, Beijing juan [Anthology of Chinese narrative-singing music, Beijing vols.] (Beijing, 1996), 829–916, 1146

recordings

Luo Yusheng (Xiao Caiwu) jingyun dagu yanchang ji [Collected jingyun dagu performances of Luo], Zhongguo changpian zong gongsi EL-268 to 271 (1988)

KATE STEVENS

Luo Zhongrong

(b Santai, Sichuan, 12 Dec 1924). Chinese composer. As a composition student of Tan Xiaolin and Ding Shande at the Shanghai Conservatory of Music in the 1940s, he developed a special interest in the music and writings of Hindemith, whose book on harmony he translated into Chinese. He went to Beijing in 1951 where he worked with the Central Philharmonic Society as a resident composer until his retirement. His formal reputation in China is based on the popular mass song The Land is Beautiful Beyond the Mountain (1947) and on various conventional orchestral works of the 1950s and 60s. Luo was harassed and imprisoned during the Cultural Revolution.

When he took up composition again in 1979, his affinities with Western music shifted from Hindemith to Schoenberg. He wrote several song cycles and chamber works applying serial techniques. Luo has frequently stressed the coincidental but striking relationship between Western rhythmic or timbral serialism and the structural principles of shifan luogu, a genre of Chinese ritual percussion music. His String Quartet no.2 (1985) is very percussive in character and makes use of various luogu series. His musical style fluctuates between mild, Debussian Romanticism and serialism with a distinct pentatonic flavour, but he encourages bolder innovations in the younger generation. A private composition tutor at the Central Conservatory, he is held to be the spiritual father of modern Chinese music by many young composers in Beijing and Shanghai.

WORKS

(selective list)

Vocal: Song to Autumn, 3 songs, S, pf, 1962; Picking Lotus Flowers by the River, S, pf, 1979

Inst: Sym. no.1, 1959; Sichuan Suite, orch, 1963; Sym. no.2, 1964; Wind Qnt, 1980; Str Qt no.1, 1984; Str Qt no.2, 1985; 3 Pieces, pf, 1986; 3 Movts, str, 1987; Sonata, hn, pf, 1987; The Faint Fragrance, zheng, orch, 1989; Xiaokaimen, guan, orch, 1992; Tune of the Qin, guqin, ens, 1993

FRANK KOUWENHOVEN

Lupacchino [Luppachino, Luppagnino, Carnefresca], Bernardino

(b Vasto; fl 1543–55). Italian composer. He served as a priest at S Maria Maggiore in Vasto in 1543, but may have moved further north by 1547, when his Primo libro di madrigali a cinque was published with a dedication to ‘Carlo Antonio da Bologna Fantucci’ and a laudatory sonnet by ‘Giovan Batista da Forsembruno’. He was named maestro di cappella of S Giovanni in Laterano, Rome, in 1552 in succession to Paolo Animuccia, but was replaced in 1555 by Palestrina, having given offence by his ostentatious manner of living. His life thereafter is unknown. His works include 85 madrigals for three, four and five voices; he also wrote 13 duos without words, which were published together with 15 by G.M. Tasso and 11 that cannot be attributed firmly to either composer, as Il primo libro a due voci (Venice, 1559²⁴; the first edition, now lost, must have dated from the 1540s, as Doni mentioned it in 1550). The popularity of the duos is attested by the great number of surviving reprints, the last from 1701.

The sonnet by Giovan Batista da Forsembruno at the end of Lupacchino's 1547 publication praises him for matching music to words. He did, indeed, make extensive use of word-painting, and he showed some whimsy in his choices of texts as well. La cara pastorella (1543), for example, is a dialogue in which a peasant girl promises that if her companion will show her the way, she will let him hear the song of the cu-cu-cuckoo (with suitable musical play on ‘cu cu’). A few of the texts name specific women: Lucrezia, Laura, Julia, Bartholuccia (twice).

Although Lupacchino handled imitation well, he seems to have preferred a homophonic and declamatory texture. He was a skilled and imaginative harmonist, notwithstanding several instances of rough part-writing, and he used register effectively, not only for contrast but to produce clear and well-spaced sonorities. Repetitions of musical phrases (with new text) provide an organizing element in the music. Ludovico Balbi provided the cantus of Lupacchino's Il dolce sonno with four new lower voices in Musicale essercitio (RISM 1589¹²).

Lupacchino's untexted duos often include runs and modestly complicated figures in short note-values; some have long melodies with no pauses for breathing. Most phrases open imitatively then dissolve into free passages, often with runs in 3rds or 6ths, before proceeding to a clearcut cadence. Passages are sometimes repeated, especially the final phrase.

WORKS

Madrigali, 4vv (Venice, 1543)

Secondo libro di madrigali, 4vv (Venice, 1546)

Primo libro di madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1547)

[with Gioan Maria Tasso] Il primo libro a due voci (Venice, ?2/1559²⁴)

Madrigals, 3–4vv, 1551¹⁰, 1555²⁷, 1560¹⁰ (attrib. P. Animuccia in 1558¹³, 1559¹⁷)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DBI (‘Carnefresca, Bernadino’; R. Meloncelli)

EinsteinIM

GaspariC

SartoriB

A. Doni: La libraria del Doni Fiorentino (Venice, 1550–51)

G. Baini: Memorie storico-critiche della vita e delle opere di Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (Rome, 1828/R), 59–60

L. Marchesini: Storia di Vasto (Naples, 1838), 318

J. Haar: ‘The Libraria of Antonfrancesco Doni’, MD, xxiv (1970), 101–23, esp. 112

D. Kämper: Studien zur instrumentalen Ensemblemusik des 16. Jahrhunderts in Italien, AnMc, no.10 (1970)

THOMAS W. BRIDGES

Lupato, Pietro [Luppato]

(fl 1524–7). Singer. In 1524 he was promoted at S Marco, Venice, from the capella minor to the capella maior and in October 1525 he became acting maestro di cappella during the illness of Petrus de Fossis. On the latter's death (by July 1526) he became interim maestro, serving until the appointment of Willaert on 12 December 1527. Although he was reinstated in the capella maior, there is no further record of Lupato after this date. It now seems unlikely that he should be identified with the composer Lupus. (See G. Ongaro: ‘Willaert, Gritti e Luppato: miti e realtà’, Studi musicali, xvii, 1988, pp.55–70.)

BONNIE J. BLACKBURN

Lupi, Johannes [Leleu, Jehan; Leleu, Jennot]

(b c1506; d Cambrai, 20 Dec 1539). Franco-Flemish composer. From 1514 to 1521 he was a choirboy at Notre Dame Cathedral in Cambrai. After attending school in Cambrai he received a fellowship from the cathedral chapter to study at the University of Leuven, where he enrolled in the faculty of philosophy on 28 August 1522. On 18 June 1526 he returned to the cathedral as a parvus vicarius. On 21 March 1527 he succeeded Johannes Remigii (Jean Rémy, dit Descaudin) as master of the choirboys. He was promoted to magnus vicarius on 8 April 1530 and shortly thereafter named sub-deacon. Lupi was repeatedly dismissed from his post, mainly because of his inability to keep discipline among the choirboys; he also had difficulty in balancing the budget. But he was held in such high esteem as a musician that he was always reinstated, upon his promise of emendation. He suffered from a chronic illness that caused him to leave his position from 1535 to 1537 and that was responsible for his early death. He never became a priest; it took the chapter’s special dispensation to fulfil his wish to be buried in the cathedral. Josquin Baston’s déploration, Eheu dolor (F-Pn 1591), mourns the death of Lupi, ‘not a wolf but an innocent lamb’.

In 1542 Attaingnant & Jullet published a book of motets entirely devoted to Lupi, containing 15 four- to eight-part motets. The collection is a retrospective one, containing early and late works, and was edited with exemplary care, particularly with regard to text underlay. The opening motet, Salve celeberrima virgo, is an impressive example of Lupi’s skill in writing eight-part counterpoint.

Lupi was among the foremost composers of his generation. He was gifted with an uncanny ability to weave five and six voices together in faultless imitative counterpoint. His melodies tend to be very melismatic, yet with an unusual sensitivity to text declamation. His works show a fine sense of harmonic planning, with a preference for the Dorian mode. Stylistically, he was closer to the school of Gombert than to the French school. Like Gombert, he preferred a full texture, continuous imitative counterpoint and elided cadences, often with a flattened 7th (for a contrary view, see Urquhart). He did not use canon or cantus firmus and only rarely paraphrased the chant melody.

Lupi wrote only two masses. Missa ‘Philomena praevia’, based on Richafort’s motet, shows an unusual type of parody treatment: the Kyrie is a literal transcription of the prima pars of the motet, and the Gloria and Credo have no more than a few freely written bars, although the sections of the motet are not quoted consecutively. Only the ‘Pleni’, Benedictus and Agnus Dei are entirely Lupi’s own creation. Missa ‘Mijn vriendinne’, called Missa ‘Plus oultre’ in one source, also seems to be a parody mass, but of a different type. It is related to an anonymous Missa ‘Amica mea’ that survives in fragmentary state (NL-L, F).

Lupi’s creative genius is best shown in his motets. An outstanding trait of his works is thematic unity. 13 of his motets are settings of responsories in the form aBcB, but two others also have identical musical endings for the two partes. His themes are related in various ways: by emphasis on certain intervals or notes, by exact repetition, by inversion or by variations in rhythm. Melodic unification also results from Lupi’s handling of the modes; each mode suggested to him a number of melodic shapes appropriate only to that particular one, and thus similarities can be traced between motets written in the same mode. A number of his themes exhibit antecedent–consequent relationships. Lupi paid particular attention to text setting. The text shapes the melodic lines as well as the motet’s whole structure. Each phrase of text is usually stated twice. The first musical phrase in most cases comes to rest on a non-cadential degree, avoiding traditional clausulas and a complete stop; the repetition of the phrase ends with a full cadence on the tonic or dominant, or with an interrupted cadence, depending on the grammatical structure of the text.

Lupi’s chansons range from the serious to the risqué. Vous scavez bien, an early work, begins with a theme very similar to one in Josquin’s Mille regretz and has the same melancholy cast. Au joly bois sur la verdure and Quant j’estoys jeune fillette are light, narrative chansons in the Parisian tradition, with many syllables set to repeated quavers. Chansons such as Reviens vers moy, a lady’s plea to her lover, and its regretful response, Plus revenir, are more characteristic; nearly all phrases are set in close imitation, with little chordal motion. Stylistically, Lupi was just outside the Parisian school. His chansons are more polyphonic than those of Claudin de Sermisy; often they have long melismas. He liked to repeat the first phrases, at times using the opening material in the final phrase.

Lupi’s music was generally not confused with that of Lupus and Lupus Hellinck in contemporary sources. An exception is the motet Ergone conticuit, a setting of Erasmus’s lament on the death of Ockeghem, attributed to ‘Jo. Lupi’ in RISM 1547⁵. Chronological and stylistic considerations suggest that this is more likely to be the work of Lupus. There were two other musicians named Johannes Lupi. One was an organist who in 1502 left his post at the collegiate church of Ste Gertrude in Nivelles. The other, who probably died in about 1548, was a chaplain and singer at the church of Our Lady in Antwerp. (On these two musicians, see Albrecht.) Neither is known to have been a composer.

WORKS

Edition:Johannis Lupi Opera omnia, ed. B.J. Blackburn, CMM, lxxxiv/1–3 (1980–89) [B i–iii]

only principal sources given

masses

Missa ‘Mijn vriendinne’, 4vv, B iii (called Missa ‘Plus oultre’ in E-MO 771)

Missa ‘Philomena praevia’, 4vv, B iii (on Richafort’s motet)

motets

Musicae cantiones (Paris, 1542), B i

Ad nutum Domini, 6vv, B i; Adoremus regem magnum, 5vv, B ii; Alleluia. Ego dormivi, 5vv, B ii; Angelus Domini apparuit Zachariae, 5vv, B i (attrib. Jacquet de Berchen in I-TVd 5); Apparens Christus post passionem, 5vv, B ii; Ave verbum incarnatum, 6vv, B ii

Beata es Maria, 5vv, B ii; Benedictus Dominus Deus Israel, 4vv, B i; Domine quis habitabit, 4vv, B ii; Expurgate vetus fermentum, 5vv, B ii (attrib. Gombert in Motectorum quinque vocum . . . Liber secundus (Venice, 1541), ed. in CMM, vi/8; attrib. Giachet Berchem in 1552²); Felix namque es, 5vv, B i

Gaude proles speciosa, 5vv, B ii; Gaude tu baptista Christi, 5vv, B ii; Gregem tuum, O pastor, 5vv, B i; Hodie Christus natus est, 5vv, B ii (attrib. Consilium in 1554¹⁰); Isti sunt viri sancti, 5vv, B i; Nisi Dominus aedificaverit, 4 vv, B ii; Nos autem gloriari oportet, 5vv, B ii

O florens rosa, 6vv, B i; Pontificum sublime decus, 5vv, B ii (attrib. Lupus Hellinck in 1546⁷); Quam pulchra es et quam decora, 4vv, B i (attrib. Verdelot in 1538⁸); Quem terra pontus/Ave maris stella/O quam glorifica, 6vv, B ii

Salve celeberrima virgo, 8vv, B i; Sancta Dei genitrix, 5vv, B ii; Sancte Marce evangelista [= 2p. of Vidi speciosam sicut columbam], 5vv, I-TVd 29 (attrib. Jo. Lupi); Spes salutis pacis portus, 4vv, B i; Stella maris luminosa, 5vv, B i; Stirps Jesse virgam, 5vv, B i; Surge propera amica mea, 4vv, B ii

Te Deum laudamus, 4vv, B ii; Tu Deus noster suavis, 5vv, B i; Veni electa mea, 4vv, B ii; Vidi speciosam sicut columbam, 5vv, B i; Virginibus sacris fit vox, 5vv, B ii; Virgo clemens et benigna, 6vv, B i

chansons

all edited in B iii

A jamais croy recouvrer mon adresse, 4vv; Au joly bois sur la verdure, 5vv; C’est une dure departye, 4vv; Changer ne puis, 4vv; Contraincte suis de reveler, 4vv; Dueil double dueil, 6vv (based on 4-voice version by Hesdin)

En revenant de Noyon, 4vv; Il me suffit de tous mes maulx, 4vv; Il n’est tresor que de lyesse, 4vv; Jamais ung cuer, 4vv; J’ay trop d’amours, 4vv; Jectes moy sur l’herbette, 4vv; Joyeulx recueil, 5vv

Les fillettes de Tournay, 4vv; Mon pauvre cueur plain de douleurs, 4vv; O vin en vigne, 4vv; Plus revenir ne puis, 4vv; Pour ung semblant, 4vv; Puisque j’ay perdu mes amours, 4vv; Puisque j’ay perdu mes amours, 5vv

Quant j’estoys jeune fillette, 4vv; Reviens vers moy, 4vv; Se j’ay eu du mal, 5vv; Vostre gent corps doulce fillette, 5vv; Vous scavez bien ma dame, 4vv; Vray Dieu qu’amoureux ont de peine, 4vv

doubtful works

Christus factus est, 5vv; attrib. Lupi in 1555¹², attrib. Crecquillon in 1554⁶, 1559¹

Dum fabricator mundi, 5vv, B ii; attrib. Franciscus Lupino in 2 voices of 1555¹², Lupi in others

Ergone conticuit, 4vv; attrib. Jo. Lupi in 1547⁵

Pastores loquebantur ad invicem, 5vv, B ii; attrib. Lupi in 1550², DK-Kk 1873

Quam pulchra es et quam decora, 4vv, ed. in CMM, iv/7 (1959); attrib. Lupi in 1538⁵, attrib. Mouton in F-CA 124

Quem vidistis pastores?, 4vv, B ii; attrib. Joannes Lupi (index only) in NL-L 1439

Quis est iste qui progreditur, 5vv; attrib. Lupi in NL-Lml B, attrib. Sermisy in 1545³ and Sermisy’s motet book of 1542

Dueil double dueil, 4vv, B iii; attrib. Lupi in 1544¹⁰, attrib. Hesdin in 1536³ and 4 later sources

Je suys desheritée, 4vv, ed. in Cw, xv (1931); attrib. Lupus in 1545¹³ and 1537⁴, attrib. Cadéac in 1540¹¹ and all later sources

Malgré moy suis en prison, 4vv, B iii (source unknown, ed. R. van Maldeghem, Trésor musical, xxiv, 1888 as a work by ‘Johannes Lupus’)

Ma pouvre bource a mal au cueur, 4vv, B iii; attrib. Lupi in 1541⁷ and D-Mbs 1508, attrib. Beaumont in 1530³

Pluschen van Brusel hestoy gheset, 4vv, B iii; attrib. Jo. Lupi in P-Cug 48

Plus oultre j’ay voulu marcher, 4vv, B iii; attrib. Lupi in 1540¹⁶ (not related to Lupi’s mass of the same name)

Se je suis en tristesse, 6vv, B iii; attrib. Lupy in 1540⁷

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (L. Finscher)

H. Albrecht: ‘Lupus Hellinck und Johannes Lupi’, AcM, vi (1934), 54–65

J. Delporte: ‘Jean Leleu (dit Lupus ou Lupi: 1506–1539)’, Musique et liturgie, xxii (1938–9), 61–6, 81–5, 101–5

H. Boone: ‘Un musicien de l’école cambrésienne du XVIe siècle, Jean Leleu’, Mémoires de la Société d’émulation de Cambrai, lxxxvii (1939), 99–117

C. van den Borren: Geschiedenis van de muziek in de Nederlanden, i (Antwerp, 1948), 297ff

B.J. Blackburn: The Lupus Problem (diss., U. of Chicago, 1970)

B.J. Blackburn: ‘Johannes Lupi and Lupus Hellinck: a Double Portrait’, MQ, lix (1973), 547–83

C. Wright and R. Ford: ‘A French Polyphonic Hymnal of the 16th Century: Cambrai, Bibliothèque municipale, MS 17’, Essays on Music for Charles Warren Fox, ed. J.C. Graue (Rochester, 1979), 145–63

P. Urquhart: ‘Cross-Relations by Franco-Flemish Composers after Josquin’, TVNM, xliii (1993), 3–41

BONNIE J. BLACKBURN

Lupi, Roberto

(b Milan, 28 Nov 1908; d Dornach, Solothurn, 17 April 1971). Italian composer, conductor and theoretician. He studied at the Milan Conservatory, graduating in piano in 1927, in cello in 1928 and in composition under Pedrollo in 1934. In 1937 he won the first Rassegna Nazionale for young conductors, and from that time he was very active as a conductor. He taught composition at the Florence Conservatory (1941–71) and was appointed artistic director of the Accademia di S Cecilia in 1944. From 1936 he worked on a new harmonic system, ‘armonia di gravitazione’, which he adapted skilfully in his compositions and which was discussed in his books Armonia di gravitazione (Rome, 1946) and Il mistero del suono (Rome, 1955). The system, which has something in common with Hindemith’s Unterweisung im Tonsatz, associates structural principles with theosophical ideas and symbolism influenced by Rudolf Steiner’s eurhythmics. Lupi applied it in his theatre music from La danza di Salomè (1952), but most markedly in La nuova Euridice (1957), in which he borrowed from Steiner’s theories.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: La danza di Salomè (sacra rappresentazione, 1, after 14th-century ancient Umbrian text), Perugia, 1952; La nuova Euridice (mistero melodrammatico, 3, M. Della Quercia), Bergamo, 1957; Persefone (12 immagini sceniche), Florence, 1970

Vocal orch: Stabat mater, 1944; Psalm cl, 1945; Orpheus (cant.), 1950; Bucolica, 1953; Epigrammi enigmatici, 1960; 7 ideogrammi, 1963; Misteri, 1968

Orch: Varianti, 1948; Studi per ‘Homunculus’, 1958; Azioni sonore, 1960–62; 5 pezzi brevi, 1966; 12 ricercar in forma di Zodiaco, vc, orch, 1966

Chbr and solo inst: 6 studi, pf, 1942; Duo, vn, vc, 1943; Sonata, vc, pf, 1943; 7 aforismi, pf, 1944; 12 pezzi brevi, pf, 1944; Varianti, vn, pf, 1944; Nonephon, fl, 1966; Diario, fl, cl, pf, 1968; Diario secondo, sul nome BACH, vn, va, vc, gui, 1969;

Songs for 1v, pf: 7 favole e allegorie (L. da Vinci), 1944; 2 canti d’amore (Catullus), 1947; 12 Galgenlieder (C. Morgenstern), 1967–8;

Edns.: Italian Ars Nova pieces, Renaissance lute music, works by Boccherini, Cherubini, Locatelli, Monteverdi, Vivaldi

ALBERTO PIRONTI (with RAFFAELE POZZI)

Lupino, Francesco

(b Ancona, c1500; d c1572). Italian composer. He was a priest. His first known appointment was at the Santa Casa, Loreto, where he was a singer from September 1532 to October 1533, and maestro di cappella e canto from October 1533 to September 1540. From 1540 to 1543 he was maestro at Fano Cathedral, and was appointed maestro di cappella at Urbino Cathedral in 1544, remaining in this position until 1555. He was made a canon of the same church in 1563 and probably remained there until his death. Lupino is briefly mentioned by Pietro Cinciarino (a native of Urbino) in his treatise Introduttorio abbreviato di musica piana (Venice, 1549). Lupino's only surviving publication, Il primo libro di motetti (Venice, 1549), for four voices, is dedicated to Cardinal Giulio Feltrio della Rovere, brother of Duke Guidobaldo II of Urbino, papal legate and patron of the Santa Casa, Loreto. The contents include a number of canonic motets and, despite the title of the book, a complete setting of the ordinary of the mass, the Missa ‘Haec est Regina’, composed in a strongly imitative style. In 1541 Lupino received, as a gift from the author, Del Lago's ‘opera de musiche’, probably the Breve introduttione di musica misurata (Venice, 1540). An eight-voice Magnificat survives in manuscript (in I-GUBd).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SpataroC

R. Paolucci: ‘La cappella musicale del duomo di Fano (1423–1889)’, NA, iii (1926), 81–168; iv (1927), 100–15

E. Alfieri: La cappella musicale di Loreto dalle origini a Costanzo Porta (1507–1574) (Bologna, 1970)

M.C. Clementi: La cappella musicale del duomo di Gubbio nel '500 con il catalogo dei manoscritti coevi (Perugia, 1994), 55–6

A.M. Giomaro: Strutture amministrative, sociali e musicali nella Urbino dei duchi: la cappella del SS. Sacramento (Urbino, 1994), 207–22

IAIN FENLON

Lupi Second [Lupi], Didier

(fl mid-16th century). French composer. He appears to have spent most of his life in Lyons, although he was probably not born there, as his book of four-part secular chansons published by Beringen in August 1548 is dedicated to various Italian bankers and merchants who had befriended and supported him since his arrival there. This volume includes settings of five texts by Clément Marot and four by Charles Fontaine; most of the texts are courtly épigrammes of eight or ten lines, but the volume includes a number of bawdy anecdotes set in lively syllabic counterpoint. In the same year he issued the Premier livre de chansons spirituelles, in collaboration with the poet Guillaume Guéroult, who worked for the Lyons printers Arnoullet (1550–53) and Granjon (1557). This volume attained considerable success: up to the mid-17th century the chanson Susanne un jour from this book was set by some 30 composers in about 40 different arrangements, most of which use Lupi's tenor as the melody. He was probably still working in Lyons in 1559 when Granjon published his setting of O que je vis en estrange martyre, a poem written for Clémence de Bourges by the son of the royal governor of Lyons Jean du Peyrat.

Lupi's close relationship with the Beringen brothers, Guéroult, Giles d'Aurigny and Barthélemy Aneau perhaps best expresses his attitude towards the Reformation. His music is part of the stream of new ideas that were being cultivated enthusiastically in Lyons at the time. The volume of chansons spirituelles is the first such large-scale work of importance by a French Protestant poet and musician. The pieces (including five psalm settings, a set of Lamentations, a Te Deum and two laments for St Susanna) fall into two distinct, characteristic groups. The first comprises strophic settings: in style these follow the model set by Bourgeois' 24 psalms published by Beringen in 1547 and described as ‘en style familier ou vaudeville’ or ‘à voix de contrepoint égal consonnante au verbe’, with characteristically simple melodies in the tenor that blend elements of folksong with the severity of Huguenot psalms. The second group contains non-strophic polyphonic pieces, in which frequent imitation alternates with syllabic passages; it is in these works that the influence of the secular chanson is most felt. The settings of 30 psalms by d’Aurigny are strophic and in a simple, syllabic style; their concise dimensions preclude long, imitative passages and text repetition. Brief imitation between groups of voices is common (mostly the lower voices alternating with the higher ones).

WORKS

Premier livre de chansons spirituelles nouvellement composées par Guillaume Guéroult, 4vv (Lyons, 1548); 1 ed. in Levy, 2 ed. in Becker, 9 ed. M. Honegger (Paris, 1960–65)

Tiers livre contenant trente et cinq chansons, 4vv (Lyons, 1548); 7 ed. M. Honegger (Paris, 1964)

Psaumes trente du royal prophète David, traduictz en vers françois par Giles Daurigny, dict le Pamphile, 4vv (Lyons, 1549); ed. in Eitner (1874), suppl., 1 ed. in Dobbins

Chanson, 4vv, 1559¹⁴; chanson spirituelle in B. Aneau: Genethliac (Lyons, 1559)

Chansons spirituelles, cited in AnnM, i (1953), 343, possibly by Lupi; chansons in 1540¹⁶, 1541⁷, 1541⁸, 1543¹⁴, probably by Johannes Lupi

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (M. Honegger)

R. Eitner: ‘Zur Musikbeilage’, MMg, vi (1874), 138–40 [and music suppl.]

G. Becker: Guillaume Guéroult et ses chansons spirituelles (Paris, 1880)

K.J. Levy: ‘“Susanne un jour”: the History of a 16th Century Chanson’, AnnM, i (1953), 375–408

V.L. Saulnier: ‘Dominique Phinot et Didier Lupi, musiciens de Clément Marot et des Marotiques’, RdM, xliii (1959), 61–80

M. Honegger: Les chansons spirituelles de Didier Lupi Second et les débuts de la musique protestante en France (Lille, 1971)

L. Guillo: Les éditions musicales de la Renaissance lyonnaise (Paris, 1991)

F. Dobbins: Music in Renaissance Lyons (Oxford, 1992)

MARC HONEGGER/FRANK DOBBINS

Lupo [de Milano, de Almaliach].

Family of Jewish string players, active in Italy and then England. It is likely that as Sephardi Jews they were expelled from Spain in 1492 and subsequently settled in Milan and Venice. Three individuals ‘de Milano’, Ambrosio, Romano and Alexandro, were among the six string players recruited in Venice for the English court in 1539–40. Romano died in 1542, when the group returned briefly to Italy, and Alexander disappears from records in 1544. Ambrosio or Ambrose, however, remained and founded a dynasty whose members served in the court violin consort up to the Civil War. In addition to those discussed separately below there were Horatio (bap. London, 5 Nov 1583; bur. London, 23 Oct 1626), son of (3) Joseph and brother of (4) Thomas (i); and Thomas (ii) (bap. London, 7 June 1577; d 1647–60), son of (2) Peter. It is not yet clear how several other musical Lupos were related to them. Francis Franz[oon] Lupo founded an instrument making dynasty in Amsterdam that included his son Pieter and the Kleynman family of violin makers, while Andrew Lupo stated he was a musician of St Giles Cripplegate, London when he made his will on 3 October 1689. Branches of the family still exist in the USA, descended from two sons of (1) Ambrose who settled in Virginia in the reign of James I.

(2) Peter [Pietro] Lupo

(3) Joseph [Gioseffo, Josepho] Lupo

(4) Thomas Lupo (i)

(5) Theophilus Lupo

PETER HOLMAN

(1) Ambrose [Ambrosio] Lupo

(b ?Milan; d London, 10 Feb 1591). String player and composer. According to one document he was the son of Baptist from the Venetian district of Castello Maiori and ‘Busto in Normandy, in the republic of Malan’. His Jewish ancestry is revealed in a probate document of 1542, when he is described as ‘Ambrosius deomaleyex’, apparently a garbled rendering of ‘de Olmaliach’ or ‘de Almaliach’, a version of the Sephardic name ‘Elmaleh’. He served in the English court string consort from 1 May 1540 until his death; in 1590 he was described as ‘one of the eldest’ of the group. He may be the author of some or all of the pieces ascribed to ‘Ambrose’ in English lute sources (see Craig-McFeely).

(2) Peter [Pietro] Lupo

(b Venice, c1535; d London, spring 1608). String player, son of (1) Ambrose Lupo. He joined the musicians’ guild in Antwerp on 17 January 1555. In the following year he travelled to England to join the court string consort, and served until his death. He may have been an instrument maker, for in 1559–60 he sold a set of violins and some wind instruments to the town of Utrecht. He may be the ‘Peter’ whose name is attached to one of the sets of divisions in the early Elizabethan collection of dances, GB-Lbl Roy.App.74–6, and could also be the ‘Mr Petro’ who contributed a galliard to the Willoughby Lutebook.

(3) Joseph [Gioseffo, Josepho] Lupo

(b Venice, c1537; bur. Richmond, 23 April 1616). String player and composer, son of (1) Ambrose Lupo and father of (4) Thomas Lupo (i). He followed his brother into the musicians’ guild in Antwerp on 20 August 1557, but preceded him to London. He joined the court string consort in November 1563, and served until his death. He composed a beautiful five-part pavan based on Lassus’s Susanne un jour in GB-Lbl Eg.3665 and contributed a commendatory poem to John Mundy’s Songs and Psalmes (1594).

(4) Thomas Lupo (i)

(bap. ?London, 7 Aug 1571; d London, ?Dec 1627). Violinist and composer, son of (3) Joseph Lupo and father of (5) Theophilus Lupo. He joined the court violin consort at the beginning of 1588 at the age of 16, but did not receive a paid post until May 1591. He served continuously until his death at the end of 1627, when he was succeeded by his son (5) Theophilus. In 1610 he received a second place in the household of Prince Henry (renewed in 1617 when Prince Charles formed his own household). In June 1619 his original post was exchanged for one described in the warrant as ‘composer for our violins, that they might be the better furnished with variety and choise for our delight and pleasure in that kind’. He was evidently in deep financial trouble towards the end of his life, for on 27 July 1627 he was forced to sign away more than £100 of future income to a creditor; the clerk noted that ‘before he could subscribe his wife by violence kept him of[f] and would not permit him’

Most of Lupo’s surviving music seems to have been written as part of his work in the household of Prince Charles. Charles was an accomplished and enthusiastic viol player and patronised Orlando Gibbons, Alfonso Ferrabosco (ii) and John Coprario, the composers who, with Lupo, effectively created the English viol consort repertory. The idiom of Lupo’s five- and six-part fantasias was derived from the Italian madrigal, and some of them are modelled on particular works by Marenzio, Vecchi and others, though he sometimes introduced idiomatic division passages for the bass viols. The three- and four-part fantasias are more experimental. He used a number of new scorings, including three trebles, three basses, two trebles and tenor, two tenors and bass, two trebles and bass, and two trebles and two basses. The last two, in particular, seem designed for the mixed ensembles of violins and viols with organ accompaniment that were developed in Prince Charles’s household. They introduce dance-like elements appropriate to the violin into the fantasia, and were evidently stages in the process that led in the 1620s to Coprario’s fantasia-suites.

Little survives of the music Lupo must have written for the court violin band, though some of his compositions and arrangements presumably survive anonymously in the sources of Jacobean masque dance music. In 1611 he was twice paid £5 for setting the dances ‘to the violins’ for Ben Jonson’s Oberon and Love Freed from Ignorance and Folly; the £10 he received for Campion’s The Lords’ Masque (1613) was presumably for similar services. His surviving output of vocal music is small but distinguished, and includes a fine group of five-part penitential Latin motets. His importance as a composer, however, lies in his viol fantasias. They reveal a resourceful and accomplished composer, who deserves more attention than he has received in modern times.

WORKS

vocal

Edition: Thomas Lupo: The Complete Vocal Music, ed. R. Charteris (Clifden, 1982)

Sacred Vocal: Have mercy upon me, O God, 5vv; Hear my prayer, O Lord, 5vv; Heu mihi Domine, 5vv; Jerusalem, plantabis vineam, 5vv; Miserere mei, Domine, 5vv; Miserere mei, Domine, 5vv; O Lord, give ear to my complaint, 4vv; Out of the deep have I called unto thee, 5vv; O vos omnes, 5vv; Salve nos, Domine, 5vv; The cause of death is wicked sin, 5vv

Secular Vocal: Ay me, can love and beauty so conspire, 6vv; Daphnis came on a summer’s day, 1v b; Shows and nightly revels; Time that leads the fatal round, 1v, lute, b viol; transcr. insts in P. Rosseter: Lesson for Consort (London, 1609); ed. in MB, xl (1977)

instrumental

Editions: Thomas Lupo: The Four-Part Consort Music, ed. R. Charteris and J.M. Jennings (Clifden, 1983)Thomas Lupo: The Two- and Three-Part Consort Music, ed. R. Charteris (Clifden, 1987)Thomas Lupo: The Six-Part Consort Music, ed. R. Charteris (London, 1993)Thomas Lupo: The Five-Part Consort Music, ed. R. Charteris, i-ii (London, 1997–8)

24 fantasias, a 3; 4 pavans, a 3; 13 fantasias, a 4; 35 fantasias, a 5 (incl. some wordless Italian madrigals); 12 fantasias, a 6; 2 galliards, ?a 5, inc.; Almand, a 6, inc.; Galliard, set for kbd by B. Cosyn

3. Structure of the Western lute.

(5) Theophilus Lupo

(bur. London, 29 July 1650). English violinist and composer, son of (4) Thomas Lupo (i). He succeeded his father in the court violin band at Christmas 1627 and served until the beginning of the Civil War; a list of the group dated 12 April 1631 shows that he was one of the two ‘contratenor’ players. There are 30 consort dances and two dance-like duets apparently by Theophilus in GB-Ob Mus.Sch.D.220 and US-NH Filmer 3, though some of those attributed just to ‘Lupo’ or ‘T. Lupo’ could be by (4) Thomas (i).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AshbeeR, i-viii

BDA

BDECM

DoddI

J.M. Jennings: ‘The Fantasias of Thomas Lupo’, Musicology, iii (1968–9), 34–48; repr. in Chelys, iii (1971), 3–15

J.M. Jennings: The Viol Music of Thomas Lupo (diss., U. of Sydney, 1969)

D. Pinto: ‘The Fantasy Manner’, Chelys, x (1981), 17–28

C. Monson: Voices and Viols in England, 1600–1650: the Sources and the Music (Ann Arbor, 1982)

J.M. Jennings: ‘Thomas Lupo Revisited: is Key the Key to his Later Music?’, Chelys, xii (1983), 19–22

R. Prior: ‘Jewish Musicians at the Tudor Court’, MQ, lxix (1983), 253–65

J.H. Giskes: ‘Cornelis Kleynman (1626–1686), Vioolmaker te Amsterdam’, Amstelodamum, lxxiv (1987), 11–16

R. Prior: ‘A Second Jewish Community in Tudor London’, Jewish Historical Studies, xxxi (1988–90), 137–52

R. Rasch: ‘The “Konincklycke Fantasien” Printed in Amsterdam in 1648: English Viol Consort Music in an Anglo-Spanish-Dutch Political Context’, Viola da Gamba Miscellany: Utrecht 1991, 55–73

P. Holman: Four and Twenty Fiddlers: the Violin at the English Court 1540–1690 (Oxford, 1993, 2/1995)

D. Bertenshaw: ‘Another Five-Part Piece by Thomas Lupo?’, Chelys, xxiii (1994), 17–36

J. Craig-McFeely: English Lute Manuscripts and Scribes, 1530–1630 (diss., U. of Oxford, 1994)

P. Walls: Music in the English Courtly Masque 1604–1640 (Oxford, 1996)

D. Bertenshaw: ‘Madrigals and Madrigalian Fantasies: the Five-Part Consort Music of John Coprario and Thomas Lupo’, Chelys, xxvi (1998), 26–51

Lupo, Peter.

See Lupo family.

Lupo, Thomas.

See Lupo family.

Lupot, Nicolas

(b Stuttgart, 4 Dec 1758; d Paris, 30 Aug 1824). French violin maker of German birth. He is considered the greatest of the French makers, and is often referred to as the French Stradivari. The first violin maker of the family was his grandfather Laurent Lupot (bap. Mirecourt, 11 Aug 1696; d Orléans, after 1762). He worked in Plombières (near Epinal) about 1725, then in Lunéville for Stanislas Leczinski's court from 1738 to 1756, and finally in Orléans from 1762 until his death. His eldest son, François (i) (b Plombières, 5 July 1725; d Paris, 25 Aug 1805), Nicolas' father, left Lunéville to work in Germany as violin maker to the Duke of Württemberg. He settled in Stuttgart, where Nicolas was born, then in Ludwigsburg. In 1768 he returned to France and joined his father in Orléans, where he opened his own workshop and acquired the sobriquet François Lupot d'Orléans.

For a time Nicolas worked with his father, but the son's superiority quickly came to the fore in every department of violin making. From the beginning he determined to learn from Stradivari's work and had made considerable progress by the time he moved to Paris in 1794 (although he returned frequently to Orléans, where he continued to make instruments). The move was due principally to the encouragement of François-Louis Pique, himself a fine maker, only a year older than Lupot but established in Paris since about 1780. The two were in close contact during the last years at Orléans and began to work together, a collaboration which developed when Lupot arrived in Paris. Lupot quickly perfected his models and the style of his workmanship, doubtless inspired by an abundance of Stradivari instruments in the city. In 1798 he opened his own workshop at 24 rue Croix-des-Petits-Champs. Like that of Stradivari, Lupot's career had so far been one of constant, steady improvement. He reached the highest level of his achievement towards 1810, and generally sustained it to the end of his life. In 1813 he was appointed violin maker to the imperial chapel (after 1815 the royal chapel), and in 1816 he became violin maker to the Ecole Royale de Musique.

Although the work of Stradivari was Lupot's guide, he was anything but a slavish copyist. What he did grasp as well as any Stradivari follower was incomparable good taste in workmanship; within this discipline he gave expression to his own admirable ideas, as described by Sibire (1806). His rich orange-red varnish, perfectly transparent, gave the final touch. Occasionally he copied Guarneri ‘del Gesù’, whose violins were rapidly achieving fame in the first two decades of the 19th century. Lupot's production was almost entirely of violins; violas and cellos are a rarity. The aristocratic tonal qualities of his instruments have always been well appreciated by players. Lupot's most important pupil was Charles-François Gand, who also became his successor through having married a young girl that Lupot considered as his adopted daughter. Another was Sébastien-Philippe Bernardel. Lupot's influence was strongly felt in Paris throughout the 19th century; above all, he created the standard by which the rest of the great French school is judged.

François Lupot (ii) (b Orléans, 1775; d Paris, 4 Feb 1838) was a younger brother of Nicolas. From 1798 he lived for a while in Nicolas' home in Paris, where he began to make violins and bows. When he married in 1806, he went into business on his own at 18 rue d'Angevilliers. He was celebrated principally as a bowmaker; at times he rivalled François Tourte. Of the many bows branded ‘Lupot’ on the handle, a considerable number are the work of other contemporaries, but thousands of cheap bows were thus branded in Germany at the end of the 19th century.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

VannesE

S.A. Sibire: La chélonomie ou le parfait luthier (Paris, 1806, 2/1823/R)

W.H., A.F. and A.E. Hill: Antonio Stradivari: his Life and Work (1644–1737) (London, 1902/R, 2/1909)

J. Roda: Bows for Musical Instruments of the Violin Family (Chicago, 1959)

W.C. Retford: Bows and Bow Makers (London, 1964)

CHARLES BEARE/SYLVETTE MILLIOT

Luppachino [Luppagnino], Bernardino.

See Lupacchino, Bernardino.

Luprano, Filippo de.

See Lurano, Filippo de.

Lupu, Radu

(b Galaţi, 30 Nov 1945). Romanian pianist. He began to study the piano when he was six, made his public début when he was 12, and continued his studies with Florica Musicescu (who had taught Lipatti). In 1963 he was awarded a scholarship to the Moscow Conservatory, where his teachers included Heinrich and Stanislav Neuhaus. Despite winning two international piano competitions (the Van Cliburn, 1966, and the Enescu International, 1967), he remained a student in Moscow until 1969. That year he won the Leeds Piano Competition; shortly afterwards (27 November 1969) he gave his first London recital, with considerable success.

Lupu’s favoured composers are the great 19th-century Romantics – Schubert, Schumann, Brahms – as well as Mozart and Beethoven; in 1975 he gave the first performance of André Tchaikowsky’s Piano Concerto, which is dedicated to him. His style is lyrical with a notable concern for smooth, rounded tone and a delicate refinement of the lower dynamics. He has been criticized for rhythmic waywardness, for a sometimes mannered bending of the basic pulse; but at its best his playing is distinguished by poetic sensitivity and a quiet, inward-looking emotional intensity. With Szymon Goldberg he recorded, and frequently played in concert, Mozart’s piano and violin sonatas. Lupu’s solo recordings include works by Schubert (a composer with whom he has a special affinity), Schumann and Brahms.

MAX LOPPERT/R

Lupus

(fl 1518–30). Composer. His musical style, and the fact that a piece of his was copied in the so-called Medici Codex of 1518 (in I-Fl), a manuscript of predominantly French repertory, suggest that he may have been a northerner. Since many of his works appear in Italian sources, he is probably the ‘Lupo francese cantore’ (called ‘fiammengo’ in some documents) who was employed by Sigismondo d’Este in Ferrara from June 1518 to the end of April 1519 (Lockwood). Furthermore, he may be identifiable with Lupus Hellinck, who became a priest in Rome in April 1518 while in papal employment (Sherr, pp.xi–xii); but although the dates fit well, Hellinck was not French by language or political allegiance, and there are sharp stylistic differences between his and Lupus’s music.

Although the title of one of Lupus’s masses, Missa Hercules Dux Ferrariae, seems to confirm his connection with the Ferrarese court, its soggetto cavato is not derived from the title; moreover, the work was published two years before Ercole II d’Este came to power in 1534. Neither does the soggetto fit the name of the reigning duke, Alfonso, or Sigismondo. (The publisher Moderne may have added the title.) Another mass, on the soggetto cavato ‘Carolus Imperator Romanorum Quintus’, seems to connect Lupus with Charles V, possibly after his election in June 1519, or certainly after he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1530 by Pope Clement VII. The two masses are technically similar to Josquin’s Missa Hercules Dux Ferrariae, although written a generation later; they are completely unlike Hellinck’s masses.

The motet O spem non similem, attributed to Lupus in the Vallicelliana Codex (I-Rv), was probably performed at the entry of Marino Grimani, Patriarch of Aquileia, in 1524. In describing Grimani’s entry into Aquileia, Marino Sanuto spoke of ‘una bellissima laude’ performed in his honour by ‘the most excellent singers of Venice’. The hypothesis that one of these singers, Pietro Lupato, might be identifiable with Lupus now seems less likely; the motet appears (anonymously) with the text Regina clementissima in I-Pc A17, dated 1522, suggesting that the text mentioning Marino Grimani is a contrafactum, though neither text fits the music particularly well.

Lupus was a composer of modest talent. His earlier works, such as Esto nobis Domine and In nomine Jesu, lack rhythmic and melodic direction; the texture is uniformly dense, the modal centres ill-defined and the counterpoint awkward, with frequent harsh dissonances. Other motets, however, such as Postquam consummati sunt, Deus canticum novum and In convertendo Dominus, show marked improvement in compositional skill; they enjoyed considerable success, judging from their appearance in numerous manuscripts and publications. Since Hellinck’s works were often published under the name ‘Lupus’, it is possible that some of the better motets are his. The motet Ergone conticuit, set to a poem by Erasmus on the death of Ockeghem, fits stylistically into Lupus’s oeuvre, although printed by Susato in 1547 as a work of Johannes Lupi.

WORKS

only principal sources given

masses, lamentations

Missa Carolus Imperator Romanorum Quintus, 5vv, D-Mbs 19 (Mus.ms.69) (T has soggetto cavato from the title of the mass: fa sol ut mi re fa sol sol fa sol ut mi ut)

Missa Hercules Dux Ferrariae, 4vv, 1532⁸ (T has enigmatic soggetto cavato: sol fa re fa re mi re fa fa mi re)

Missa ‘Quam pulchra es’, 4vv, A-Wn 11883 (on a motet by Moulu or Mouton)

Incipit oratio Hieremie, I-Bc Q23 (2 settings; only Sup, A and T survive)

motets

Deus canticum novum, 4vv, 1538⁵; ed. in SCMot, xiv (1995)

Ergone conticuit vox illa (Erasmus), 4vv, 1547⁵, attrib. ‘Jo. Lupi’ but stylistically unlike J. Lupi’s works); ed. R. Wexler and D. Plamenac, Johannes Ockeghem: Collected Works, iii (Boston, 1992)

Esto nobis Domine turris fortitudinis, 5vv; ed. in MRM, iv (1968)

In convertendo Dominus, 4vv; ed. A. Smijers and A.T. Merritt, Treize livres de motets parus chez Pierre Attaingnant en 1534 et 1535, ix (Monaco, 1962)

In nomine Jesu omne genu, 4vv, I-Bc Q19; ed. in Sherr, vii

Miserere mei Deus quoniam tribulor, 5vv, Bc Q19; ed. in Sherr, vii

Miserere mei Domine quoniam infirmus sum, 6vv, Bc Q19; ed. in Sherr, vii

O spem non similem (text: contemporary poem in honour of Marino Grimani, Patriarch of Aquileia) (= Regina clementissima), 6vv, I-Rv S^I 35–40

Postquam consummati sunt, 4vv; ed. A. Smijers and A.T. Merritt, Treize livres, i (Paris, 1934)

Regina clementissima (= O spem non similem), 6vv, I-Pc A17 (anon.)

doubtful works

Egregie Dei martir, 5vv; ed. R. van Maldeghem, Trésor musical: Musique religieuse, xx (Brussels, 1884) (attrib. ‘Lupus’)

Nigra sum sed formosa, 4vv, attrib. Lupus in I-Bc Q19, attrib. Consilium in 1539¹⁰; ed. in Sherr, vii

Paradisi portas aperuit nobis, 4vv, attrib. Lupus in VEcap 760, attrib. Renaldo in Bc Q19; ed. in Sherr, vi

Rex autem David, 4vv, attrib. Lupus in 1539¹¹, attrib. Gascongne in 1521⁵, 1535³, attrib. La Fage in 1521⁶; ed. in MRM, viii (1987)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Stefani, ed.: I diarii di Marino Sanuto (Venice, 1879–1902), xxxvii, 179

A. Thürlings: ‘Die soggetti cavati dalle vocali in Huldigungskompositionen und die Herculesmesse des Lupus’, IMusSCR II: Basle 1906, 183–94

E.E. Lowinsky: ‘A Newly Discovered Sixteenth-Century Motet Manuscript at the Biblioteca Vallicelliana in Rome’, JAMS, iii (1950), 173–232; repr. in E.E. Lowinsky: Music in the Culture of the Renaissance and Other Essays, ed. B.J. Blackburn (Chicago, 1989), 433–82

E.E. Lowinsky, ed.: The Medici Codex of 1518, MRM, iii–v (1968)

B.J. Blackburn: The Lupus Problem (diss., U. of Chicago, 1970)

A. Dunning: Die Staatsmotette 1480–1555 (Utrecht, 1970), 29–32

B.J. Blackburn: ‘Johannes Lupi and Lupus Hellinck: a Double Portrait’, MQ, lix (1973), 547–83

L. Lockwood: ‘Jean Mouton and Jean Michel: New Evidence on French Music and Musicians in Italy’, JAMS, xxxii (1979), 191–246, esp. 198–9

R. Sherr, ed.: Selections from Bologna, Civico Museo Bibliografico Musicale, MS Q 19 (‘Rusconi Codex’), SCMot, vi–vii (1989) [incl. commentary]

BONNIE J. BLACKBURN

Lupus, Eduardus.

See Lobo, Duarte.

Lupus, Manfred Barbarini.

See Barbarini Lupus, Manfred.

Lupus, Martin.

Organist. He is possibly identifiable with Manfred Barbarini Lupus.

Lupus Hellinck.

See Hellinck, Lupus.

Lupus Italus.

See Lupo family, (1) Ambrose.

Lupus Press.

The 16th-century printing press in Cologne owned by Arnt von Aich.

Lur.

(1) A highly distinctive lip-vibrated instrument dating from the late Nordic Bronze Age (it is classified as an aerophone trumpet). It consists of a conical tube, some 2 to 3 metres in length, made of several sections joined by bands and twisted into the shape of a contorted ‘S’. At the speaking end in place of a bell is a bronze disc ornamented with geometric figures. Some examples of the instrument have small metal plates hanging from rings near the mouthpiece; these swing against each other to create a rattle effect. A large number of lurs have been excavated from peat bogs in the vicinity of the Baltic Sea, particularly in Denmark (see illustration) and southern Sweden. Similar instruments have been excavated in Ireland.

Its remarkable record of preservation and the striking appearance of the instrument, together with a certain measure of ethnic motivation, have led to enthusiastic claims for its musical importance which appear in some respects to be exaggerated. The fact that lurs are frequently found in pairs inspired the claim that they played part-music and influenced the beginnings of Western polyphony. This is not convincing, particularly since the phenomenon of ancient brass instruments appearing in pairs is widespread (for example, the Jewish Temple trumpets, the hasoserot). Somewhat more plausible are the claims for its musical versatility. These stem from experiments in which modern players using modern mouthpieces have produced all the notes of the chromatic scale. Sachs argued against these claims on the grounds that it is fallacious to equate an ancient instrument's potential with what was actually played on it. He cited the ability of modern string players to play medieval instruments in several positions whereas they were in fact played only in the 1st.

A further area of dispute is the timbre of the instrument, its protagonists attributing a noble, somewhat mellow character to it. However, there is virtually unanimous testimony to the raucous character of other ancient trumpets. There is also the question of whether the lur was primarily a cult or a military instrument, a mellow quality being supposed more appropriate for religion and a strident tone more appropriate for war. Perhaps the instrument was used for both, as was the case with brass instruments of the Mediterranean cultures. There, the raucous quality of trumpets served to strike fear into the enemy and likewise performed an apotropaic function in cult, that is, they warded off unwanted evil spirits during sacrifice. The Sistrum, a kind of metal rattle, performed the same function on a smaller scale and one cannot but compare it with the rattle-like attachments of the lur.

(2) Scandinavian bark and wooden trumpet played by herders, until late in the 19th century, to frighten away wild animals and to round up cattle. See Norway, §II, 3, and Sweden, §II, 2.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SachsH

H.C. Broholm, W.P. Larsen and G. Skjerne: The Lures of the Bronze Age (Copenhagen, 1949)

F. Behn: Musikleben im Altertum und frühen Mittelalter (Stuttgart, 1954)

P. Downey: ‘Lip-Blown Instruments of Ireland before the Norman Invasion’, HBSJ, v (1993), 75–91

JAMES W. McKINNON (1)

Lurano [Luprano, Lorano], Filippo de

(b ?Cremona, c1470; d after 1520). Italian composer and priest. He is listed as ‘clericus Cremonensis’ in the records of Cividale del Friuli Cathedral, a fact that calls into question Ambros's claim that he was born in Vatellina or elsewhere in the Tyrol, and Disertori's that he was born at Laurana in Venetian territory. He was resident in Rome during the late 15th and early 16th centuries; he wrote Quercus juncta columnus est (RISM 1509²) for the wedding of Marcantonio I Colonna to Lucrezia Gara della Rovere, niece of Pope Julius II, on 2 January 1508. In a Florentine manuscript (I-Fl Antinori 158), the text of his Donna, contra la mia voglia is preceded by the comment ‘this song was the favourite of Duke Valentino’ (Cesare Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VI), and this and five others of his pieces in the same manuscript are described as having been brought to Florence from Rome. He is also the most heavily represented composer in a Roman manuscript of about 1501 (GB-Lbl Egerton Eg.3051). Lurano left Rome by May 1512, when he appeared as singer at S Maria Assunta in Cividale; he left there by 1515 and is next recorded, in 1519, at Aquileia Cathedral. In 1520 he was succeeded by Jacopo Lurano, probably a relative. Filippo is included among other composers, Italian and north-European, in Filippo Oriolo's poem, Monte Parnassus, of about 1520.

Lurano wrote one secular motet, two or perhaps three laude, and 35 frottolas, of which two are also ascribed to other composers. All the frottolas except one appeared in Petrucci's prints between 1504 and 1509. The motet, Quis deus hic? Phoebus, which appears in a manuscript from Cividale, was probably written while Lurano was there, and is set to a text by the Friulian poet Marc' Antonio Grineo (b c1476; d between 1544 and 1550). A Latin lauda, Anima Christi, is also found in the Cividale manuscript. Petrucci's second book of laude (1508³) contains one or two laude by Lurano: Ne le tue brazie, o Virgine Maria, ascribed to ‘Filip. de Lurano’; and Salve, sacrata, ascribed to ‘D. Philipo’. This name, however, could also refer to Don Filippo Lapacino, Mantuan priest and composer, whose works were included in Petrucci's lost tenth book of frottolas.

Lurano was one of the most productive and artful frottolists of the early 16th century. He favoured texts in the form of barzelletta or variants of it, setting 27 such poems. He also set four ode, one capitolo, one strambotto and two Latin poems. Among the barzellette are three songs intended for carnival in Rome: a trionfo of the goddess Fortuna, Son Fortuna omnipotente (1505⁴), and two mascheratas, Noi l'amazone siamo and Da paesi oltramontani (both in 1509²). The last two contain the typically coarse doubles entendres of the carnival-song repertory and appear to represent men masquerading as Roman courtesans.

Lurano often set poems that resemble serenades, such as Aldi, donna, non dormire (1505⁴), or offer complaints against the harshness of a lady, such as Fammi quanto mal (1505⁵). He was also fond of setting pairs of works with complementary textual themes, sometimes as a response to a previous work, as in Se me è grato el tuo tornare, perhaps an answer to Se m'agrava el tuo partire, and the paired texts of Donna, contra la mia voglia/Donna, questa è la mia voglia. His Dissimulare etiam sperasti sets a portion of Dido's lament from Virgil's Aeneid. This is a particularly significant work, with its recitative-like melody and through-composed form. Also indicative of his abilities is the secular motet Quis deus hic? Phoebus, a description of the lira-playing Apollo surrounded by the nine muses, over the mock-serious tenor, ‘Sancta Maria, ora pro nobis’. As a frottola composer, Lurano ranks with Pesenti and just after Cara and Tromboncino. His frottolas are characterized by carefully constructed melodic lines and a skilful alternation of homorhythmic passages with sections containing brief imitative play.

WORKS

Editions: Die mehrstimmige italienische Laude um 1500, ed. K. Jeppesen and V. Brøndal (Copenhagen and Leipzig, 1935/R) [J]Ottaviano Petrucci, Frottole, Buch I und IV, ed. R. Schwartz, Publikationen älterer Musik, viii (Leipzig, 1935/R) [S]Canzoni, sonetti, strambotti et frottole, libro tertio (Andrea Antico, 1517), ed. A. Einstein, SCMA, iv (1941) [E]Le frottole nell'edizione principe di Ottaviano Petrucci, G. Cesari and others, Ima, 1st ser., i (1954) [C]Italia sacra musica, ed. K. Jeppesen, ii (Copenhagen, 1962) [I]Le frottole per canto e liuto intabulate da Franciscus Bossinensis, ed. B. Disertori, IMa, 2nd ser., iii (1964) [D]

secular

Aldi, donna, non dormire, 1505⁴ (GB-Lbl Eg.3051 with text ‘Odi, donna, el mio tormento’), C; Dammi almen l'ultimo vale 1505⁵ (1514², attr. Tromboncino), S; Da paesi oltramontani, 1509², ed. in Gallucci (1966); De servirti al tuo dispecto, 1505⁶; Dissimulare etiam sperasti (Virgil), 1507⁴, D; Dolce amoroso focho, 1505⁶, D; Donna, contra la mia voglia, 1505⁵, ed. in Ferand (1941); Donna, questa è la mia voglia, 1505⁵, S; D'un partir nascon, 1506³

Fammi almen una bona cera, 1505⁵, S; Fammi quanto mal, 1504⁵, S; Ha, bella e fresca etade, 1507³; Io te 'l voria pur dire, 1513¹; Io ti lasso, donna, hormai, 1505⁶; Noi l'amazone siamo, 1509², ed. in Gallucci (1966); Non mi dar più longe, 1505⁵, S; Non si pò quel si vole, 1506³, D; Non som quel che solea, 1506³, D; Poi che gionto è 'l tempo, 1506³; Poi che speranza è morta, 1509²; Quanto più, donna, 1505⁵, S; Quercus juncta columna est (‘Luranus numeros feciebat carmina faustos’), 1509²; Quis deus hic? Phoebus (Grineo), I-CF 59

Rompe, Amor, questa cathena, 1505⁵, S; Se m'agrava el tuo partire, Fn B.R. 230 (1504⁴, attr. Tromboncino), C; Se me è grato el tuo tornare, 1504⁴, C, D; Son fortuna omnipotente, 1505⁴, C, ed. in PirrottaDO; Son tornato e Dio el sa, 1505⁴, C; Tutto el mondo chiama, 1505⁵ (GB-Lbl Eg.3051 with text ‘Da poi ch'ai el mio core’), S; Un solicito amor, 1505⁵, S; Vale, hormai, con tua durezza, 1505⁵, S; Vale, signora, vale, 1509²; Vale, valde decora, 1509²; Vana speranza mia, 1505⁵, S, ed. in Haar (1986); Vien da poi la nocte luce, 1505⁵, S; Viverò patiente, forte, 1505⁴, C

sacred

Anima Christi, sanctifica me, I-CFm 59, I; Ne le tue brazie, O Virgine Maria (Giustiniani), 1508³, J; Salve, sacrata, doubtful, 1508³, J

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AmbrosGM

EinsteinIM

PirrottaDO

G. Vale: ‘Vita musicale nella chiesa metropolitana di Aquileia (343–1751)’, NA, ix (1932), 201–16

E. Ferand: ‘Two Unknown Frottole’, MQ, xxvii (1941), 319–28

H. Osthoff: ‘Vergils Aeneis in der Musik von Josquin des Prez bis Orlando di Lasso’, AMw, xi (1954), 85–102

H.C. Slim: ‘Musicians on Parnassus’, Studies in the Renaissance, xii (1965), 134–63

J.J. Gallucci: Festival Music in Florence, ca. 1480–ca. 1520: Canti Carnascialeschi, Trionfi, and Related Forms (diss., Harvard U., 1966)

K. Jeppesen: La frottola (Århus and Copenhagen, 1968–70)

W. Osthoff: Theatergesang und darstellende Musik in der italienischen Renaissance (Tutzing, 1969)

F. Luisi: La musica vocale nel Rinascimento (Turin, 1977)

J. Haar: Essays on Italian Poetry and Music in the Renaissance, 1350–1600 (Berkeley, 1986)

L. Lockwood: ‘Sources of Renaissance Polyphony from Cividale del Friuli: The Manuscripts 53 and 59 of the Museo Archeologico Nazionale’, Il Saggiatore Musicale, i (1994), 249–314

W.F. Prizer: “‘Facciamo pure noi carnevale”: Non-Florentine Carnival Songs of the Late Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries’, Musica Franca: Essays in Honor of Frank A. D'Accone, ed. I. Alm, A. McLamore and C. Reardon (Stuyvesant, NY, 1996), 173–211

W.F. Prizer: ‘Local Repertories and the Printed Book: Antico's Third Book of Frottole (1513)’, Music in Renaissance Cities and Courts: Studies in Honor of Lewis Lockwood, ed. J.A. Owens and A.M. Cummings (Warren, MI, 1997), 347–71

WILLIAM F. PRIZER

Luscinius [Nachtgall], Othmar

(b Strasbourg, c1478–80; d Freiburg, 5 Sept 1537). German theorist and composer. He studied from 1494 to 1496 in Heidelberg, later in Leuven and, from 1505, in Vienna. There he took organ lessons from the cathedral organist, Wolfgang Grefinger. Luscinius particularly admired the playing of Hofhaimer, the imperial organist, praising him in his Musicae institutiones and discussing his pupils, among them Hans Buchner and Kotter. Luscinius continued his studies (which were not only in music) in many centres in Europe and the Near East, and gave music lectures at Vienna University. In 1510 he met Virdung at the Reichstag in Augsburg. Further journeys took him to Konstanz and Melk. Between 1511 and 1514 he studied Greek and theology in Paris and then returned to Strasbourg, where he was organist at St Thomas from 1510 to 1520. In 1519 he took the degree of Doctor of Canon Law from Padua University. As a result of the Reformation he lost his organist’s post and was prevented from obtaining a canonry. In 1523 he was in Augsburg and from 1525 to 1528 he was a preacher at St Moritz there. From 1528 he was a preacher at Freiburg Cathedral. In Freiburg he became friendly with Glarean and Erasmus and stayed with Erasmus for some time. In 1531 he went to live in the Carthusian monastery near Freiburg. Luscinius was one of the best-known humanist scholars in Germany, having written nearly 40 works on various subjects, including two treatises on music. Musicae institutiones (Strasbourg, 1515) contains his lectures on music given at Vienna. Musurgia seu praxis musicae was finished in 1518 although not printed until 1536. The first part is a free translation of Virdung’s Musica getutscht (Basle, 1511), but the classification of the instruments is improved. The second part contains teaching in composition and discusses the latest techniques. No music by Luscinius survives apart from three organ works in the Kleber tablature (ed. H.J. Moser, Frühmeister der deutschen Orgelkunst, Leipzig, 1930).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Y. Rokseth: ‘Othmar Nachtgall, dit Luscinius’, L’humanisme en Alsace: Strasbourg 1938 (Paris, 1939), 192–204

K.W. Niemöller: ‘Othmar Luscinius, Musiker und Humanist’, AMw, xv (1958), 41–59

W. Werbeck: Studien zur deutschen Tonartenlehre in der ersten Hälfte des 16. Jahrhunderts (Kassel, 1989)

KLAUS WOLFGANG NIEMÖLLER

Lush, Ernest (Henry)

(b Bournemouth, 23 Jan 1908; d Harrogate, 12 May 1988). English pianist. He studied with Tobias Matthay and Carl Friedberg and in 1928 became a staff accompanist for the BBC in London. He was senior accompanist until 1966 when he retired to work independently. He performed with many of the world’s most celebrated musicians (he was a fine sonata player) as well as appearing as a soloist at the Proms in London; he made a number of tours as accompanist including one with Pierre Fournier in East Asia. Lush did not confine himself to what is generally known as ‘serious’ music: the BBC series ‘Men about Music’, in which he and the baritone Owen Brannigan gave programmes of light music, often including folksongs (to which Lush usually improvised the accompaniments), became very popular. A number of his recordings, including recitals with Kathleen Ferrier and Jacqueline du Pré, have been reissued on disc.

RONALD KINLOCH ANDERSON

Lusheng.

Mouth organ of various tribal peoples in south-west China and mountainous areas of South-east Asia, notably Miao, Dong, Yao and others in Guizhou, Guangxi and nearby provinces. Chinese sources of the 13th century mention an eight-pipe mouth organ, lusha, played by the Yao people. Lusheng (‘reed mouth organ’) is a Chinese name, first used in the 16th century in reference to the mouth organ used in dance celebrations by the Miao people. Tribal names include geng (Miao), gazheng (Dong) and other cognate terms, kāēng being a common South-East Asian term. Some Chinese sources also refer to the instrument as liusheng (liu: ‘six’, the usual number of pipes).

The lusheng has a relatively narrow wind-chest of carved wood which is wrapped with rattan or other fibre, and a long, straight blow-pipe extending from one end. Passing through the wind-chest (and extending below the bottom) are six bamboo pipes of varying lengths, open at their top ends but (among Chinese types) closed by natural nodes near their bottom ends. Each pipe has a triangular free reed of bamboo or bronze (enclosed within the wind-chest) and a finger-hole (exposed above the wind-chest). On some variants, one pipe has two or three reeds for extra volume. The reed is activated upon closing of its finger-hole and either exhaling or inhaling through the blow-pipe. Tuning is pentatonic in any of several modes (see Yuan, 1986, pp.130–31).

A closely related mouth-organ is the hulu sheng (‘calabash mouth organ’), which is prevalent among other tribal cultures of south-west China, notably the Yi, Lahu and Lisu in Yunnan province. Local names include ang (Yi), nuo or naw (Lahu). The hulu sheng is constructed from a dried calabash gourd (forming both wind-chest and blow-pipe), through which five or more bamboo pipes are inserted. Hulu sheng pipes also protrude through the wind-chest, but unlike lusheng pipes they are open at their bottoms and sit flush with the bottom of the wind-chest, allowing the right thumb to cover selected holes to obtain alternate pitches.

Hulu sheng wind-chests made entirely of bronze have been found in sites in central Yunnan province dating from around the 5th century bce (examples are preserved at the Yunnan Provincial Museum, Kunming, and at the British Museum, London). Because these wind-chests are shaped like gourds, it is apparent that gourd mouth organs were used as models and date to an earlier period – making this one of the oldest instrument types in continuous usage in East Asia. Hulu sheng type mouth organs played by tribal peoples living in and around Yunnan province have been mentioned in Chinese sources from the 9th century to the present day. In traditional practice, both lusheng and hulu sheng are used in accompaniment of festival dances (especially those associated with courtship), played by young men while dancing.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Li Kunsheng and Qin Xu: ‘Hulu sheng’, Wenwu, viii (1980), 85–7

Yuan Bingchang and Mao Jizeng, eds.: Zhongguo shaoshu minzu yueqi zhi [Dictionary of musical instruments of the Chinese minorities] (Beijing, 1986), 123–33

Liu Dongsheng and others, eds.: Zhongguo yueqi tuzhi [Pictorial record of Chinese musical instruments] (Beijing, 1987)

Liu Dongsheng and Yuan Quanyou, eds.: Zhongguo yinyue shi tujian [Pictorial guide to the history of Chinese music] (Beijing, 1988)

A. Thrasher: La-Li-Luo Dance-Songs of the Chuxiong Yi, Yunnan Province, China (Danbury, 1990)

Liu Dongsheng, ed.: Zhongguo yueqi tujian [Pictorial guide to Chinese instruments] (Ji'nan, 1992), 162–4

ALAN R. THRASHER

Lushier [Lusher], Mr

(fl c1595–1600). ?English lutenist and composer. Nothing is known of his life. Two pavans and four almains for six- or seven-course lute survive in English manuscripts (GB-Cu, Cfm and Lspencer) ascribed to Lushier/Lusher. A further pavan and two galliards in the same style, ascribed to ‘L’ (in GB-Cu), are probably by the same composer. The music is melodically and harmonically simple, with some technically brilliant divisions in one of the pavans.

ROBERT SPENCER

Lusikian, Stepan

(b Yerevan, 31 January 1956). Armenian composer and pianist. He attended the Komitas Conservatory in Yerevan where he studied composition with Sar‘ian, with whom he undertook postgraduate work (1975–83), and in 1981 completed studies in the piano faculty with G. Saradzhev. He taught harmony and composition at the Yerevan Conservatory from 1984, later becoming a senior lecturer. From 1992 to 1997 he was deputy Minister of Culture and Sport. He has won various awards in Armenia and the former Soviet Union. His style is based on both Near Eastern and Armenian traditions. His piano compositions, which are similar to early 20th-century works of the region (especially those of Komitas and Tigranian), and his vocal cycles are notable for their transparent texture and linear writing which is both ascetic and fluid. The principle of variation of short motifs and an improvisational manner of development are characteristic of Lusikian; this trait begins with the Cello Sonata (1982). Elements of maqām improvisation and allusion to the folk instrument kemanche can be observed in other string works. The imagery of the ballet Tohpurn u mrjun'e (‘The Dragonfly and the Ant’) is akin to that of Khachaturian and Prokofiev with its adaptation to children's experiences. He has written much other music for children including stage works and puppet shows.

WORKS

Stage: Tchpurn u mrjun'e [The Dragonfly and the Ant] (children's ballet, 2, Lusikian, after Aesop), Yerevan, Children's Music Theatre, 1991; Medsapativ muratsmanner [The Highly Esteemed Beggars] (musical, after H. Paronyan), Yerevan, Musical Comedy Theatre, 1994

Orch: Pf Conc., pf, str, perc, 1980; Sym., chbr orch, 1984

Chbr and solo inst: Pf Sonata, 1978; St Qt, 1979; Sonatina, 2 pf, 1980; Elegiya I tanets [Elegy and Dance], pf, 1981; Sonata, vc, pf, 1982; Sonatina no.1, pf, 1982; Arevi yerkir [Land of the Sun], children's album, 1983; Sonatina no.2, 1984; Sonata, vn, pf, 1988; Sonata, vc, 1995

Vocal: 3 Songs (R. Davoian), 1982; Trioletï (V. Terian), 1982; 2 Songs (V. Tekeian), 1984; 3 Songs (Terian), 1987

Choral: Ayastan (Lusikian), 1983; Hnchi im yerg [Ring out, my Song] (R. Avetisian), 1985

Music for 30 shows

Principal publishers: Sovetakan grokh, Luys, Hayastan

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Sarkisian: ‘Nachalo’ [The brinciple], Komsomolets (21 April 1983)

‘S. Lusikyan (Erevan)’ [On myself], SovM (1984), no.2, p.124 only

Sh. Apoian and I. Zolotova: ‘Fortep'yannaya muzïka’, Muzïkal'naya kul'tura v Sovetskoy Armenii (Moscow, 1985), 322–66

SVETLANA SARKISYAN

Lusingando

(It.: ‘coaxing’, ‘wheedling’, ‘caressing’; gerund of lusingare, ‘to flatter’).

An expression mark also found in the adjectival form lusinghiero (‘seductive’, ‘flattering’).

Lusitano, Manuel Leitão de Avilez.

See Avilez, Manuel Leitão de.

Lusitano, Vicente [Lusitanus, Vincentius]

(b ?Olivença [now Olivenza, Spain]; d after 1561). Portuguese composer and theorist. His family name is unknown: the surname ‘Lusitano’ simply means ‘Portuguese’. Much of the received knowledge of his life is based on the 18th-century biography of Barbosa Machado: Vicente was born in Olivença, became a priest of the order of St Peter, and taught with great success in Padua and Viterbo. He published a treatise, Introduttione felicissima, in Venice in 1561, which was translated into Portuguese by Bernardo da Fonseca and published in Lisbon in 1603. One of Barbosa Machado's sources calls him a mestizo. Except for the fact of his priesthood and the printing of his Italian treatise, none of these statements has yet been verified. More can be deduced from his writings and the documentation concerning his dispute with Nicola Vicentino in Rome in 1551.

Lusitano's book of motets, Liber primus epigramatum, was dedicated to the young Dinis de Lencastre, son of Dom Afonso de Lencastre, Portuguese ambassador to the Holy See, 1551–7. Lusitano praised Dinis's musical knowledge and implies patronage of some sort; the book bears his coat of arms. The theorist Giovan Tomaso Cimello provided a prefatory epigram, flattering Lusitano as another Orpheus. Cimello at some point was in the service of Marc'Antonio Colonna, to whom Lusitano dedicated his Italian treatise of 1553, calling him ‘mio Signore’, but not clarifying the relationship.

By 1561 Lusitano had converted to Protestantism and sought a post at the court of Christoph, Duke of Württemberg, at Stuttgart, supported by Pietro Paolo Vergerio, ex-bishop and the duke's counsellor. Though he was paid for the compositions he sent (which probably included the Beati omnes in D-Sl), Lusitano was not hired. All trace of him is lost after this point.

Lusitano is remembered chiefly for the debate with Nicola Vicentino, which gave rise to the latter's L'antica musica ridotta alla moderna prattica (1555) and is reported on there at the end of Book IV, and also to the unpublished treatise of Ghiselin Danckerts, one of the judges. It originated in an argument about a Regina caeli performed in the home of Bernardo Acciaioli in Rome: according to Vicentino, Lusitano claimed that the music was purely diatonic; Vicentino maintained that in all contemporary music the chromatic and enharmonic genera were mixed with the diatonic. The debate took place in June 1551 in various stages. Danckerts having been absent at the time of the final encounter, both parties presented their positions in writing, which Vicentino included in his treatise. Vicentino lost. Danckerts, however, claimed that Vicentino had falsified the report, and that the debate turned on whether composers knew in which genus they were composing, Vicentino denying, Lusitano affirming. (They were arguing at cross-purposes, since Vicentino claimed that the interval of a minor third belonged only to the chromatic genus, that of a major third only to the enharmonic, whereas Lusitano equated the chromatic genus with successive semitones and the enharmonic with quartertones.)

Apart from the last section of the Introduttione, Lusitano's treatise is ‘very easy and useful’, treating very briefly the Guidonian hand, hexachords (including transpositions to A, B, D and E), intervals, psalm intonations, and notation, with longer sections on proportions and counterpoint. A major section is devoted to ‘General rules for making imitations on a cantus firmus in two, three, and four voices’, followed by advice on composition. At several points Lusitano mentioned a longer ‘trattato di musica pratica’. Robert Stevenson plausibly suggested that this was the anonymous Spanish Tratado de canto de organo in F-Pn. Like the Introduttione, it lays particular emphasis on improvised counterpoint.

As a composer Lusitano wrote imitative counterpoint in the manner of Gombert, but with even fewer rests. He followed his own advice to cadence occasionally in other modes, but not to mix mollis and durus (G Dorian motets have notated A flats, as does a Regina caeli that may be the one that sparked the debate). His Iberian heritage is reflected in his use of G sharp. The eight-voice Inviolata and Praeter rerum are modelled on Josquin's motets; the former uses the same canon (but with different rests between phrases), the latter the same melody and mensuration. The works in the Granada manuscripts attributed to ‘Lusitano’ (two have a double attribution, Avilés/Lusitano, unless this should be read as Avilés Lusitano) are possibly not his.

WORKS

MSS in E-GRcr are given parenthetical nos. following López-Calo

Liber primus epigramatum que vulgo motetta dicuntur, 5, 6, 8vv (Rome, 1551, altered to 1555 in unique copy) [1551]

motets

Adjuva nos Deus, 3vv, E-GRcr 7 (1); Adjuva nos Deus, 4vv, GRcr 7 (1); Aspice Domine de sede sancta tua, 6vv, 1551; Aspice Domine quia facta est desolata, 5vv, 1551; Ave spes nostra Dei genitrix, 5vv, 1551; Beati omnes, 6vv, D-Sl Mus.fol.I 3; Benedictum est nomen tuum, 5vv, 1551; Clamabat autem mulier Cananea, 5vv, 1551; Crux et virga vigilans, 5vv, 1551; Domine non secundum peccata nostra, 4vv, E-GRcr 7 (1)

Elisabeth Zacharie magnum virum genuit, 5vv, 1551; Emendemus in melius, 5vv, 1551; Hic est Michael archangelus, 5vv, 1551; Hodie Simon Petrus crucis patibulum, 5vv, 1551; In jejunio et fletu, 4vv, GRcr 7 (1); Inviolata, integra et casta es, 8vv, 1551; Isti sunt due olive, 5vv, 1551; Lucia virgo quid ad me petis, 5vv, 1551; Non est inventus similis illi, 4vv, GRcr (5); O beata Maria quis tibi digne, 6vv, 1551

Passion according to St John, 4vv, GRcr 7 (1); Passion according to St Matthew, 4vv, GRcr 7 (1); Praeter rerum seriem, 8vv, 1551; Quid montes Musa colitis, 5vv, 1551; Quomodo sedet sola, 4vv, GRcr (5); Regina celi, 5vv, 1551; Salve regina, 6vv, 1551; Sancta Maria succurre miseris, 6vv, 1551; Sancta mater istud agas, 5vv, 1551; Sum servus Domini, 6vv, 1551; Videns crucem Andreas, 5vv, 1551; Vidi civitatem sanctam, 5vv, 1551

madrigal

All'hor ch'ignuda d'herb'et fior, 3vv, 1562⁸, ed. in M. Joaqim: ‘Um madrigal de Vicente Lusitano publicado no “Libro delle Muse”’, Gazeta musical, ii, nos.13–14 (1951), 13–14

WRITINGS

Introduttione facilissima, et novissima, di canto fermo, figurato, contraponto semplice, et in concerto, con regole generali per far fughe differenti sopra il canto fermo, a 2, 3, et 4 voci, et compositioni, proportioni, generi. s. diatonico, cromatico, enarmonico (Rome, 1553/R1989, 3/1561)

Tratado de canto de organo, F-Pn esp.219, ed. H. Collet: Un tratado de canto de órgano (siglo XVI) (Madrid, 1913); anon. in MS, attrib. Lusitano in Stevenson

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D. Barbosa Machado: Bibliotheca lusitana, iii (Lisbon, 1752/R), 779

C. Dahlhaus: ‘Die Formen improvisierter Mehrstimmigkeit im 16. Jahrhundert’, Musica, xiii (1959), 163–7

E.E. Lowinsky: Afterword to facs. of Nicola Vicentino: L'antica musica ridotta alla moderna prattica, DM, 1st ser., Druckschriften-Faksimiles, xvii (1959)

R. Stevenson: ‘Vicente Lusitano: New Light on his Career’, JAMS, xv (1962), 72–7 [should be read in the light of Alves Barbosa]

J. López-Calo: ‘El Archivo de música de la Capilla Real de Granada’, AnM, xiii (1958), 103–28

H.W. Kaufmann: The Life and Works of Nicola Vicentino (1511–c.1576), MSD, xi (1966), esp. 22–32

M.A. Alves Barbosa: Vicentius Lusitanus: ein portugiesischer Komponist und Musiktheoretiker des 16. Jahrhunderts (Lisbon, 1977)

G. Gialdroni: Introduction to facs. of Vincenzo Lusitano: Introduttione facilissima (Lucca, 1989)

BONNIE J. BLACKBURN

Lusse, Christophe de.

See Delusse, Christophe.

Lusse, (Charles) de [De-Lusse; Delusse; D.L.]

(b ?1720–25; d after 1774). French composer, flautist and writer on music. The name Charles was supplied by Fétis; contemporary sources identify him by only his last name or by the initials D.L. Following Choron and Fayolle (1810–11) writers have confused his activities with those of the woodwind instrument makers Jacques and Christophe Delusse. Although the composer is designated as ‘Le Sr Delusse le fils’ in the earliest known reference to him (Mercure de France, June 1743), there is no demonstrable connection between him and the other Delusses and no contemporary reference to his activity in instrument making.

According to Gerber, Lusse was a flautist at the Opéra-Comique in about 1760, but neither his claim, nor Fétis’s statement that he entered that orchestra in 1758 is confirmed by contemporary sources. He may have been active earlier in Paris as a flautist and flute teacher since he published several works there for that instrument between 1751 and 1757. He also composed vocal music, including a one-act comic opera and numerous songs, and he edited the earliest collection of romances, which appeared in 1767. In the 1760s he produced three theoretical works: a flute method first published in late 1760 or early 1761, a proposed reform of solmization syllables using only vowel sounds, and the article ‘Musique’ for the collection of tables to Diderot and d’Alembert’s Encyclopédie. He may also have either written or published a dictionary of music, for in 1765 the Mercure de France announced that anyone interested in such a work should address himself to M. de Lusse. He is last mentioned in 1774.

Lusse was an important figure of the French flute school, particularly because of his experimentation with innovative techniques. His solo sonatas, all three-movement works, are full of brilliant effects and complex rhythms, dynamics and articulation markings. They exploit a higher range than previous French flute works, and the sixth sonata is the first to call for harmonics and double-tonguing. An explanation and table of fingerings for harmonics also appear in the collection – the latter more extensive than the one in Lusse’s flute method. His trios for flute, violin and cello are the earliest French examples of flute trios without a figured bass part. While the flute largely predominates in them, they are still somewhat conversational in style. Their slow movements possess a remarkable depth of feeling.

Lusse’s L’art de la flûte traversière, although not a lengthy treatise, has important discussions of ornaments, tonguing and vibrato. Moens-Haenen points out that its treatment of ornamentation and vibrato is similar to that of Geminiani’s The Art of Playing on the Violin (London, 1751). L’art de la flûte traversière also contains an important early example of progressive studies, preludes in 20 different keys and 12 long and difficult caprices or cadenzas ‘suitable for the exercise of the embouchure and fingers, that can also be used at the end of concertos’. These are the earliest independent cadenzas in French flute literature, and also mark the beginning of the true flute étude in France. There is also an Air à la grecque (ed. R. Rasch, Utrecht, 1984) featuring quarter-tones, for which Lusse supplied a fingering chart. At least one extant copy of the method also has a handwritten description of fingering on a six-keyed flute tipped into it.

WORKS

flute

6 sonates, fl, bc, avec une tablature des sons harmoniques, op.1 (Paris, 1751/R)

6 sonates, 2 fl, op.2 (Paris, 1751/R, 2/c1761)

Les favoris d’Euterpé: [6] trios, fl, vn, vc, op.3 (Paris, 1757; 2/6 trios, 1761)

Recueil de vaudeville, menuets, contredances, et airs detachées, fl/hurdy-gurdy/musette, i (Paris, 1752)

vocal

L’amant statue (comic op, 1, Guichard), Paris, Théâtre du Fauxbourg St Laurent, 18 Aug 1759; ariettes, 1–2vv unacc. (Paris, 1759)

Le retour des guerriers, cantatille, S, bc (Paris, 1743)

25 romances in Recueil de romances historiques, tendres et burlesques, tant anciennes que modernes, avec les airs notés, ed. de Lusse, i, 1v (Paris, 1767) [reviewed, before pubn, in Annonces, affiches et avis divers (5 Nov 1766)]

Other songs in Mercure de France (Feb 1744, March 1746, Feb 1760, Nov 1765, Dec 1765), and in 18th-century anthologies

theoretical works

L'art de la flûte traversière (Paris, c1761/R, 2/?1763/R) [with 28 lessons, 20 preludes, 12 caprices]; 12 caprices, ed. D. Lasocki (London, 1979)

‘Lettre sur une nouvelle dénomination des sept degrés successifs de la gamme, où l’on propose de nouveaux caractères propres à les noter’, Mercure de France (Dec 1765), 173–80 [also pubd separately (Paris, 1766)]

‘Musique’, Recueil de planches, sur les sciences, les arts libéraux, et les arts méchaniques, avec leur explication, vii (Paris, 1769) [accompanies the Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts, et des métiers, ed. Diderot and d’Alembert]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Choron-FayolleD

FétisB

GerberL

LaurencieEF

Mercure de France (June 1743), 1413–14; (Sept 1759), 202; (Oct 1759), i, 197–9; (Jan 1761), ii, 176–8, and (April 1763), i, 163–6 [reviews of L’art de la flûte traversière]; (Jan 1765), i, 156

Mémoires pour l’histoire des sciences et des beaux-arts (Mémoires de Trévoux) (Jan 1766), ii, 357–8

J.M. Bowers: The French Flute School from 1700 to 1760 (diss., U. of California, Berkeley, 1971), 74–5, 328–46

G. Moens-Haenen: Introduction to M. Delusse: L’art de la flûte traversière (1760) (Buren, 1980), i–vi

R. Lynn: ‘The Art of the Transverse Flute by M. De Lusse: Translation and Annotation’, The Courant, i (1983), 2–17

E.R. Reilly and J. Solum: ‘De Lusse, Buffardin, and an Eighteenth-Century Quarter-Tone Piece’, Historical Performance, v (1992), 19–23

JANE M. BOWERS

Lusse, Jacques.

See Delusse, Christophe.

Lussy, Mathis

(b Stans, 8 April 1828; d Montreux, 21 Jan 1910). Swiss theorist. He received his first musical training from Alois Businger, the church organist in Stans, and in 1842 he entered the seminary of Saint-Urban to study organ and composition with Leopold Nägeli. Four years later he went to Paris to study medicine but soon abandoned the subject to devote himself exclusively to music. In 1852 he became a piano teacher in the Pipeus convent in Paris and taught there for the next 40 years. He returned to Switzerland in 1902 and spent his last years in Montreux. In 1908 he was made a Chevalier of the Legion d'Honneur for his contributions to music theory and aesthetics.

Between 1863 and 1909 Lussy published five books and several articles on the history of musical notation, the cultivation of musical feeling, and the theory of rhythm and expression. He hoped that the study of expression in performance would become a standard branch of musicology. His last book, L'anacrouse dans la musique moderne, is particularly valuable as a historical document as it involves comparative analyses of actual performances by the most important pianists of the late 19th century, namely Hans von Bülow, Anton Rubinstein and Karl Klindworth. Such analyses had no predecessors.

Lussy’s theory of musical expression has been cited, along with the works of Spencer and Hanslick, as one of the most important contributions to music psychology and psychological aesthetics in the 19th century. His thesis that the generating causes of expression in performance reside in the musical structure has decidedly modern overtones, and it marks a significant departure from the earlier conceptions, which attributed the source of expression to the inspired soul of the performing artist.

Lussy’s theory of rhythm, which is built on the principle of action–repose or tension–relaxation first formulated by Momigny, directly influenced the theories of Jaques-Dalcroze and Solesmes scholars, as well as those of Riemann.

WRITINGS

Exercices de piano (Paris, 1863, 2/1878)

Traité de l'expression musicale (Paris, 1874, 8/1904; Eng. trans., 1885)

with E. David: Histoire de la notation musicale depuis ses origines (Paris, 1882)

Le rythme musical (Paris, 1883, 4/1911; Eng. trans., abridged 1908)

‘Die Correlation zwischen Takt und Rhythmus’, VMw, i (1885), 141–57

‘Zur neueren Literatur über die Reform der musikalischen Vortragszeichen’, VMw, i (1885), 546–59

‘Chabanon, précurseur de Hanslick’, Gazette musicale de la Suisse romande (7 May 1896)

L'anacrouse dans la musique moderne (Paris, 1903)

‘De la culture du sentiment musical’, IMusSCRII: Basle 1906, 5–53

‘De l'accent esthétique’, Vie musicale, ix (1908), 129–34

‘De la diction musicale et grammaticale’, Riemann-Festschrift (Leipzig, 1909/R), 55–60

ed. A. Dechevrens: La sonate pathétique de L. van Beethoven, op.13, rythmée et annotée par Mathis Lussy (Paris, 1912)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. David: ‘Traité de l'expression musicale par Mathis Lussy’, Bibliographe musical, xxiv (1875), 407–15

F. Niecks: ‘Mathis Lussy’s Le rythme musical’, MMR, xiii (1883), 274–7

C.D.J. Fuchs: Die Freiheit des musikalischen Vortrags im Einklange mit H. Riemann’s Phrasierungslehre, nebst einer Kritik der Grundlagen poetischer Metrik des Buches ‘Le rythme’ von Mathis Lussy (Danzig, 1885)

R. Bouyer: ‘En lisant “L'anacrouse dans la musique moderne” par Mathis Lussy’, Le ménestrel (9 Oct 1904)

E. Combe: ‘Mathis Lussy’, Semaine littéraire, xvi (1908), 397–400

E. Monod: Mathis Lussy et le rythme musicale (Neuchâtel, 1912)

MİNE DOĞANTAN

Lustig, Jacob Wilhelm [Wohlgemuth, Conrad]

(b Hamburg, 21 Sept 1706; d Groningen, 17 May 1796). Dutch theorist, organist and composer, of German descent. His father, also Jacob Wilhelm, was a pupil of J.A. Reincken and was organist at the two Michaelis churches in Hamburg. In 1723 Lustig became organist at the Lutheran Filial church there; his teachers included Mattheson, Telemann and Kuntzen. He heard many virtuoso organists, including (in 1720) J.S. Bach, and he was a friend of the organ builder A.A. Hinsz. In 1728 he was appointed organist at the Martinikerk in Groningen, in succession to Havingha, and he remained there until his death at the age of 89. In 1732 or 1734 – Lustig gave different dates in the two sources of information on his life, his autobiography under the pseudonym Conrad Wohlgemuth in Marpurg’s Historisch-kritische Beyträge zur Aufname der Musik, and a commentary in his Dutch translation of Burney’s travels – he received a grant from his church to study in London. He married Alijne Reckers in 1736 and acquired Dutch nationality in 1743. Although in his autobiography he stated that he was perfectly happy with his post and would never leave Groningen, he applied for the post of organist at the Nieuwe Kerk in The Hague in 1741. Among his acquaintances were Burney, whom he met in 1772 and whom he presented with a list of his compositions, and G.J. Vogler, who visited Groningen in March 1786 and played the organ there.

As far as can be judged from his few surviving works Lustig was a composer of little originality or importance. His sonatas, despite French titles to individual movements, show exclusively Italian and German stylistic influences; there are occasionally striking harmonic progressions, but usually suggesting awkwardness rather than invention. In his lifetime he was highly regarded as an organist, organ examiner and teacher. He was also important as a writer on music. He translated much current literature into Dutch, notably works by Quantz, Werckmeister, Marpurg, Pasquali and Burney. His own writings provide much information on his contemporaries and musical life in the Netherlands, but are marred by his conceit, his jealous remarks on his more talented colleagues like Locatelli and Hurlebusch and his spiteful comments on publishers who refused his works. His books include passages taken, with acknowledgment, from the writings of Mattheson.

WORKS

6 sonates, hpd, op.1 (Amsterdam, 1735); partly repr. with other pieces (Paris, 1742/R in Musica Repartita, xi (Utrecht, 1987); ed. L. Cerutti (Padua, 1994))

Vervolg van ’tet musikaels tydverdryf, 10 secular and 20 sacred songs, 1v, bc, in A. Mahaut, Maendelyks musikaels tydverdryf (Amsterdam, 1752/R1979)

V Geestryke zang- en muzyk-stukjes (?Amsterdam, 1754–5), lost

Other compositions, all lost, cited in Commentary

WRITINGS

Inleiding tot de muzykkunde (Groningen, 1751, 3/1771)

Muzykaale spraakkonst (Amsterdam, 1754)

Samenspraaken over muzikaale beginselen (Amsterdam, 1756)

Autobiography in F.W. Marpurg, Historisch-kritische Beyträge zur Aufname der Musik, ii (Berlin, 1761–3/R) [under pseudonym Conrad Wohlgemuth]

Commentary in Rijk gestoffeerd verhaal van de eigenlijke gesteldheid der hedendaagsche toonkonst (Groningen, 1786) [Lustig’s trans. of BurneyFI and BurneyGN]

Other writings, not printed, lost, mentioned in Saar, 120ff

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

GerberL

NNBW (J.W. Enschedé)

J. du Saar: Het leven en de werken van Jacob Wilhelm Lustig (Amsterdam, 1948)

H.J.M. Muller: ‘Over de muziekopvatting van Jacob Wilhelm Lustig’, RBM, iii (1949), 90–104

A. Dekker: ‘Bach, Lustig en Hamburg’, Mens en Melodie, xxiv (1969), 45–6

C.C. Vlam: ‘Bijdragen tot de biografie van de Groningse organist Jacob Wilhelm Lustig’, Bouwstenen voor een geschiednis der toonkunst in de Nederlanden, iii (Amsterdam, 1980), 115–34

AREND KOOLE/PAUL VAN REIJEN

Lute

(Arabic ‘ūd; Fr. luth; Ger. Laute; It. lauto, leuto, liuto; Sp. laúd).

A plucked chordophone, made of wood, of Middle Eastern origin (see ‘Ud) which flourished throughout Europe from medieval times to the 18th century. Broader, generic uses of the term are discussed in §1.

1. The generic term.

2. Ancient lutes.

KLAUS WACHSMANN (1), JAMES W. McKINNON, ROBERT ANDERSON (2), IAN HARWOOD, DIANA POULTON/DAVID VAN EDWARDS (3–4), LYNDA SAYCE (5), DIANA POULTON/TIM CRAWFORD (6–8)

1. The generic term.

In the Hornbostel-Sachs classification system (Sachs and Hornbostel, A1914) the term ‘lute’ covers those ‘composite chordophones’ – string instruments in which a string bearer and a resonator are ‘organically united’ and cannot be separated without destroying the instrument – in which the plane of the string runs parallel with the soundtable (figs.1 and 2). This definition excludes harps and zithers but includes pluriarcs (or bow lutes) (see Gabon, fig.2), lyres of various sorts and ‘handle lutes’ proper. The following excerpt from Hornbostel and Sachs (from the GSJ translation, with minor alterations) shows the classification of handle lutes: for their complete classification of lute types see Chordophone.

321.3 Handle lutes: the string bearer is a plain handle; subsidiary necks, as e.g. in the Indian prasārinī vīnā are disregarded, as are also lutes with strings distributed over several necks, like the harpo-lyre, and those like the lyre-guitars, in which the yoke is merely ornamental
321.31 Spike lutes: the handle passes diametrically through the resonator
321.311 Spike bowl lutes: the resonator consists of a natural or carved-out bowl – found in Persia [now Iran], India, Indonesia
321.312 Spike box lutes or spike guitars: the resonator is built up from wood – found in Egypt (rabāb)
321.313 Spike tube lutes: the handle passes diametrically through the walls of a tube – found in China, Indochina [now Vietnam]
321.32 Necked lutes: the handle is attached to or carved from the resonator, like a neck
321.321 Necked bowl lutes (mandolin, theorbo, balalaika)
321.322 Necked box lutes or necked guitars: (violin, viol, guitar) NB a lute whose body is built up in the shape of a bowl is classified as a bowl lute
321.33 Tanged lutes: the handle ends within the body resonator

Common usage also excludes bowed instruments (such as the violin). However, the Hornbostel-Sachs classification provides suffixes for use with any division of the class of chordophones to indicate the method of sounding; thus, for example, a violin if played with a bow is classified as a bowed lute.

Spike lutes and necked lutes differ from each other by the manner in which neck and resonator are assembled. Fig.3 illustrates possibilities of assembly as found in a series of instruments of the lute family (played with a bow) from the Indonesian island of Sulawesi. If the neck clearly passes through the resonator, as it does in the first four examples, the label ‘spiked lute’ applies. But in six cases the handle is ‘attached’, and in this sense the instruments are ‘necked lutes’. However, the examples show that there are several transitional forms to which neither label applies well; hence a third category has been added to the Hornbostel-Sachs classification above, under the code 321.33, for instruments in which, as Hornbostel himself described it, ‘the handle ends within the body’.

Sachs ascribed the earliest types to a period from the 4th to the 2nd millennium bce, basing his conclusion on cultural geography. Seen in the perspective of human development, lutes are in any event a comparatively late invention. Because the use of a bow to play string instruments is even more recent – the earliest documentation dates from around the end of the 1st millennium ce – the discussion of ancient lutes in §2 deals exclusively with plucked instruments.

2. Ancient lutes.

Two types of ancient lute are clearly distinguishable: the earlier long-necked lute and the short-necked lute. There is a wide range of difference within each type, but the most common features of the long-necked lute are an unfretted, rod-like neck and a small oval or almond-shaped body, which before the advent of wood construction was fashioned from a gourd or tortoise shell. In many early examples where the table is of hide, the neck or spike is attached to it by piercing it a number of times in the manner of stitching. The strings, usually two, are attached at the lower end of the spike in varying ways and are bound at the top by ligatures from which hang decorative tassels. Pegs were not used until comparatively late in the instrument's history.

The long-necked lute is now thought (by Turnbull and Picken, for example) to have originated among the West Semites of Syria. Turnbull (A1972) has argued convincingly for its earliest appearance being that on two cylinder seals (see fig.4a) of the Akkadian period (c2370–2110 bce); on one the lute is in the hands of a crouching male who plays while a birdman is brought before a seated god. In contrast to the draped female harpists, the lutenists of early Mesopotamia are men, sometimes shown naked or with animals. None of these instruments has survived, but the lute's popularity is attested by many objects of the Babylonian period. The Louvre possesses a Babylonian boundary stone, found at Susa, which shows bearded men with bows on their backs playing the lute in the company of such animals as the lion, panther, antelope, horse, sheep, ox, and an ostrich. In the the early 2nd millennium bce the lute is also attested for the Hittite Old Kingdom: a sherd from Alishar Höyük has preserved the end of a neck with two strings hanging from it.

The lute first appeared in Egypt as a result of Hyksos influence, which opened the country to Western Asiatic ideas. In the New Kingdom (1550–1070 bce) the long-necked lute was often represented in banquet scenes, played either by men or women. The two main types of instrument, with round (usually a tortoise shell) or oval soundbox, appear in a scene now at the British Museum showing details of the frets and soundholes as well as the plectrum. The earliest Egyptian evidence of the lute to survive is a soundbox now in the Metropolitan Museum, New York, and there is a well-preserved instrument from the Theban tomb of the singer Harmose in the Cairo Museum (Dynasty 18, 1550–1320). The lute had a function in ritual processions such as those depicted in the Luxor temple at the festival of Opet, when a number of players performed together. It appeared more often, though, in the chamber groups that featured at court functions and official banquets. The end of the neck is sometimes carved with the head of a goose or falcon. This probably had religious significance, as is clearly the case when a Hathor head is carved. The dwarf-god Bes, himself probably of Asiatic origin, is an adept at the lute, and satirical scenes show it in the hands of a crocodile.

Greco-Roman lutes (see Pandoura), which are depicted in a number of Hellenistic sculptures and on late Roman sarcophagi, are comparatively rare. They appear to have at least three strings, plucked with the fingers, and a thick unfretted neck. (The evidence indicating this last feature, however, may be influenced by the sculpture medium.) One depiction, a terracotta in the Louvre (see fig.4c), shows the body tapering to form the neck in the manner of the short-necked lute. The surviving representations from Byzantium, most notably a 5th-century mosaic from the former imperial palace of Istanbul and a 6th-century mosaic from a church near Shahhat, Libya, show lutes of the pandoura type.

The short-necked lute, which is characterized by a wooden body tapering off to form the neck and fingerboard, probably also originated in Asia. There are only rare representations of it until the first centuries bce. A number of statuettes and reliefs (see Geiringer, A1927–8, pls.1–3) are preserved from the Gandhara culture of the time, named from an area in north-west India under the influence of Greek civilization; these show short-necked lutes with a pear-shaped body, a frontal string-holder, lateral pegs and four or five strings plucked with a plectrum. The Sassanid lute or barbat, as shown on a 6th-century silver cup from Kalar Dasht, was of this type. Apparently these instruments are related to those lutes that spread eastwards to China and Japan, as well as to the Arabian ‘ūd, the immediate ancestor of the European classical lute.

3. Structure of the Western lute.

The structure of the Western lute evolved gradually away from its ancestor the Arabian ‘ūd, though some features have remained sufficiently consistent to constitute defining characteristics. Chief among these are: a vaulted back, pear-shaped in outline and more or less semicircular in cross-section, made up of a number of separate ribs; a neck and fingerboard tied with gut frets; a flat soundboard or belly in which is carved an ornate soundhole or ‘rose’; a bridge, to which the strings are attached, glued near the lower end of the soundboard; a pegbox, usually at nearly a right angle to the neck, with tuning-pegs inserted laterally; and strings of gut, usually arranged in paired courses.

The ribs, of which the body is constructed, are thin (typically about 1·5 mm) strips of wood, bent over a mould and glued together edge to edge to form a symmetrical shell. Although the overall sizes of lutes vary considerably, there is much less variation in the thicknesses of their constituent parts, and even very large lutes have ribs of less than 2 mm. The glue joints between the ribs are reinforced inside with narrow strips of paper or parchment. Many surviving lutes also have five or six strips of, usually, parchment glued round inside the bowl across the line of the ribs. The number of ribs varies according to date and style from only seven to up to 65, but it is always an odd number because lute backs are built outwards from a single central rib. Many kinds of wood, even sometimes ivory, have been used for the back. Maple and yew were the favoured local woods but exotic woods from South America and East Asia, such as rosewood, kingwood and ebony, were used as they became available in the 16th century. The extent of their use by 1566 is revealed in the inventory of Raimund Fugger (see Smith, B1980). At the lower end, where these ribs taper together, they are reinforced internally with a strip of softwood bent to fit, and externally with a capping strip, usually of the same material as the ribs. At the other end the ribs are glued to a block, often of softwood, to which the neck is attached. In most pictures of medieval lutes up to about 1500, as in the early ‘ūd, the ribs are shown as flowing in a smooth curve into the line of the neck and in these cases the end of the neck itself, suitably rebated, may have formed the block to which the ribs were glued. However, by 1360 there are already some pictures showing lutes with a sharp angle between neck and body, implying that the separate block, which is universally present in surviving lutes, was not unknown. The overlap of these two forms spanned at least 200 years; both forms are depicted in The Last Judgement by Hieronymus Bosch (c1500, Vienna Academy). In the later two-part construction the joint is a simple glued butt joint, secured with one or more nails driven through the block into the end-grain of the neck. This simple joint proved adequate during the remainder of the lute's history.

Most surviving lutes from the early 16th century have been re-necked in later styles but iconographical sources reveal that early necks appear most often to have been made of a single piece of hardwood such as sycamore or maple to match the body. In later and surviving lutes after about 1580, the neck is most often veneered in a decorative hardwood, often ebony, sometimes striped or inlaid with ivory, on a core of sycamore or other common hardwood. At first, throughout the medieval period and into the Renaissance, necks were semicircular or deeper in cross-section. As the number of courses increased through the 16th and 17th centuries, the necks became correspondingly wider, necessitating a change of left-hand position to enable stretches across to the bass strings. This meant that a thinner neck was more comfortable. Baron (C1727) commented that Johann Christian Hoffmann (1683–1750) made the necks of his lutes to fit the hand of their owner, unlike his father Martin Hoffmann (1653–1719), who made his necks too thick.

Separate fingerboards are often not very apparent in pictures of medieval lutes, leading to the supposition that they were either made of boxwood or simply constituted the flat top surface of the neck. Sometimes when there is a marked change of colour between the ‘fingerboard’ and the soundboard, the join occurs so far down the soundboard as to be beyond any possible neck block; a separate fingerboard is therefore structurally impossible. Instead, the change of colour must result from a protective coat of something like varnish. Surviving lutes from the 1580s onwards almost universally have separate ebony fingerboards set flush with the soundboard and, after about 1600, usually with separate ‘points’ decorating the joint between the fingerboard and soundboard (see fig.5). The lutes of Tielke in the 18th century often had multiple ‘points’ (see G. Hellwig, B1980). Medieval and Renaissance lute fingerboards were usually flat, even the wide chitarrone and theorbo fingerboards, but from about 1700 makers started to give a curve to their fingerboards, helping the lie of the frets and making fingering easier.

At the back of the top end of the neck a rebate is cut out to form a housing for the pegbox. This same design of joint, with or without a reinforcing nail into the end-grain of the neck, was used throughout the history of the lute, as was the basic form of the pegbox: a straight-sided box, closed at the back, open at the front and tapering slightly in both width and depth. However, after about 1595 various branches of the lute family also developed different and characteristic pegbox forms in order to accommodate the longer bass strings needed to extend the range of the lute downwards. Slender tapering hardwood tuning-pegs were inserted from the sides. Medieval pegs appear often to have been made of boxwood, but later, in the 17th and 18th centuries, fruitwood such as plum seems to have been a preferred material, though these were often stained black.

The soundboard is a flat straight-grained softwood plate, nowadays mostly thought of as Picea abies or Picea excelsa (though historically the types of wood used may have included species of Pinus and Abies) into which is carved an ornamental rose soundhole, whose pattern often shows decidedly Arabic influence (see Wells, D1981). However, it is noticeable that iconography does not support a continuous tradition of rose design from the Arabic ‘ūd; most medieval pictures of lutes feature gothic designs, and the frequency of Arabic patterns in the later surviving lutes may reflect rather the contemporary interest in such designs by artists such as Leonardo da Vinci and Dürer. The soundboard is often made from the two halves joined along the centre line, but on larger instruments several pieces may be used. Most surviving lute soundboards are quite thin, often about 1·5 mm. However, there is some support for the view that the very earliest soundboards, dating from about 1540, may have been rather thicker, and that they were made progressively thinner as the number of the supporting bars was increased (see Nurse, D1986). Early lutes from before the 1590s usually had no edging to the soundboard. After that, often an ebony or hardwood strip was rebated into half the depth of the soundboard edge as a protective measure. Later still, when the fashion for re-using old soundboards was in sway (see Lowe, B1976), a ‘lace’ of parchment or cloth with silver threads was often used to wrap the edge, possibly to cover pre-existing wear.

Bridge designs went through a slow evolution, particularly in the shape of the decorative ‘ears’ which terminate both ends, but were consistently made of a light hardwood such as pear, plum or walnut, sometimes stained black, and were glued directly to the surface of the soundboard. Their cross-sectional design was very cleverly arranged to minimize stress at the junction with the thin and flexible soundboard. Holes drilled through the bridge took the strings, which were tied so that they were supported by a loop of the same string rather than by a saddle as in the modern guitar. This has a marked effect on the tone of the instrument, and contributes to the sweetness of the lute's sound.

The tension of the strings, because they are pulling directly on the soundboard, tends to cause it to distort. This is resisted by a number of transverse bars of the same wood as the soundboard, glued on edge across its underside. These bars, besides supporting the soundboard, have an important effect on the sound quality. By dividing the soundboard into a number of sections, each with a relatively high resonant frequency, they cause it to reinforce the upper harmonics produced by a string rather than its fundamental tone. This is matched by the strings themselves, which are quite thin compared with those of a modern guitar; a thin string tuned to a certain note produces more high harmonics than a thicker string tuned to the same note. Thus the whole acoustical system of the lute is designed to give a characteristically clear, almost nasal, sound (see also Acoustics, §II, 8).

4. History.

The European lute derives both in name and form from the Arab instrument known as the ‘Ūd, which means literally ‘the wood’ (either because it had a soundboard of wood as distinct from a parchment skin stretched over the body, or because the body itself was built up from wooden strips rather than made from a hollow gourd). The Arab ‘ūd was introduced into Europe by the Moors during their conquest and occupation of Spain (711–1492). Pictorial evidence shows Moorish ‘ūd players, and 9th- and 10th-century accounts tell of visits of famous players such as Ziryāb to the court of the Andalusian emir ‘Abd al-Rahmān II (822–52). The ‘ūd was not confined to Muslims, however, as is shown by illustrations to the Cantigas de Santa María of Alfonso el Sabio (1221–84) which include players in distinctive Christian costume (fig.6). However, from pictorial and written evidence it is clear that by 1350 what we must now call lutes, since there is no longer any connection with Arab musicians, had spread very widely throughout Europe, even though trading and cultural links with Moorish Spain were not well developed. We need to look elsewhere for a route that would lead to the eventual domination of European lute making by numerous German families who came originally from around the Lech valley region and Bavaria. Bletschacher (B1978) has argued that this was due largely to the royal visits of Friedrich II with his magnificent Moorish Sicilian retinue to the towns in this valley between 1218 and 1237. The valley was a main north–south trading route across the Alps, with the necessary raw materials growing there in abundance, so it would have been a natural focus for any such development to occur, even more so following the Venetians' capture of Constantinople in 1204 which so greatly increased their trading activities with the Near East. The ‘ūd is still in use although it no longer has frets. Over the centuries it has undergone structural changes analogous to those of the lute, and thus differs from both the original ‘ūd and the medieval lute.

As no lutes from before the 16th century have survived, information must be gathered from pictures, sculpture and written descriptions. These indicate that the lute has usually had its strings in pairs, and that at first there were only four such ‘courses’ (fig.7). From the start, lutes were made in widely different sizes, and therefore of different pitches. Both pictorial and written evidence point to the use of different sized lutes for treble and ground duet performance (see Polk, F1992). During the 15th century a fifth course was added. Masaccio depicted two five-course lutes in his altarpiece, Virgin and Child (1426; now in the National Gallery, London). Later, in his De inventione et usu musicae (c1481–3), Tinctoris mentioned a sixth course and there are even tablatures from this period calling for a seven-course lute, though no contemporaneous pictures show one.

The earliest extant account of structural details for the European lute is in a manuscript of about 1440 written by Henri Arnaut de Zwolle (see Harwood, D1960). Arnaut described both the lute itself and the mould on which it was built, combining the two in the same diagram (fig.8). His design was unmeasured but instead was worked out in terms of geometrical proportion, including the positions of bridge, soundhole and three transverse bars. Almost 200 years later, Mersenne (1636) described the design and construction of a lute by remarkably similar methods. By this time the number of soundboard bars had doubled, but the placing of three of them, as well as that of the soundhole and bridge, corresponds with that given by Arnaut. There can be no doubt that there was a well-established tradition of instrument design by geometrical methods, going back to the ‘ūd at least as far as the 9th and 10th centuries (see Bouterse, D1979). It is perhaps significant that a portrait (1562) of the lute maker Gaspar Tieffenbrucker surrounded by his lutes and other instruments shows him holding a pair of dividers. However, when Arnaut's design is compared to lutes shown in most paintings of the period, it is in fact rather different, being oddly rounded at the top of the body. The very long neck he specifies is almost never shown. This suggests that, as an enquiring scholar, he may have been given the general principles of design by the lute maker(s) he consulted, but not the exact relationships which determine the precise shape and which may have been regarded as a craft secret.

Medieval lutes usually had two circular roses, one large and more or less halfway between the bridge and the neck, as specified by Arnaut, the other much smaller and higher up the body close to the fingerboard. The large rose was occasionally of the ornate ‘sunken’ variety, often with designs similar to some gothic cathedral windows. This may have been intentional, for Arnaut calls the rose in his drawing ‘Fenestrum’. Around 1480 there was even a brief fashion for the upper rose to be in the form of a lancet window, and interestingly just such a rose has survived in the clavicytherium now in the RCM, London, which has been dated to about 1480 (see E. Wells: ‘The London Clavicytherium’, EMc, vi, 1978, pp.568–71).

The ‘ūd was, and still is, played with a plectrum, and at first the same method was used for the lute (see figs.4 and 5). With this technique it was probably mainly a melodic instrument, playing a single line of music, albeit highly ornate, with perhaps strummed chords at important points. However, some of the very early plectra are shown as large and solid looking, implying that the lute may also have been used as a percussive rhythm instrument rather like the Romanian cobză, which closely resembles the very early medieval lute, especially in the wide spacing of the strings at the bridge and the shortness of the steeply tapering neck (see Lloyd, B1960). This may explain the early drone tunings (see §5 below).

During the second half of the 15th century, there was a change to playing with the fingertips, though, as Page (B1981) pointed out, the two methods continued for some time side by side. Tinctoris (c1481–3) wrote of holding the lute ‘while the strings are struck by the right hand either with the fingers or with a plectrum’, but did not imply that the use of the fingers was a novelty. However, the change was very significant for the lute's future development, for it allowed the playing of several parts at once, and meant that the huge repertory of vocal part music both sacred and secular became available to lute players. This function was made easier by the invention about this time of special systems of notation known as tablature, into which much of this repertory was transcribed (intabulated). There were three main kinds of tablature for the lute, developed in Germany, France and Italy respectively. A fourth early system, ‘Intavolatura alla Napolitana’, was also used from time to time. Of the four main types the French may have been the earliest. The German one was probably written during the lifetime of Conrad Paumann (c1410–1473), the supposed inventor of the system. Although Tinctoris had mentioned a six-course lute, these first tablatures, and indeed the very names by which the strings of the instrument were known, suggest five courses as still the most usual number at this time.

By about 1500 a sixth course was commonly in use, which extended the range of the open strings by another 4th to two octaves. This may have been enabled by improvements in string making. Gut was used for all the strings and it was usual on the two or three lowest courses to set one of the pair with a thin string tuned an octave higher, to lend some brilliance to the tone of its thick neighbour.

By 1500 the first written records confirm the existence of several lute-making families in and around Füssen in the Lech valley. Most of the famous names of 16th- and 17th-century lute making seem to have originated from around this small area of southern Germany. By 1562 the Füssen makers were sufficiently well established to form a guild with elaborate regulations which have survived (see Bletschacher, B1978, and Layer, B1978). A careful reading of these regulations reveals how much they were predicated on the idea of export. They also show an organized tendency to keep the trade within individual families, which resulted in much intermarriage. This was a powerful force for continuity which clearly lasted for centuries. However, the number of masters who could set up a workshop in the town was limited to 20, so there was a built-in pressure to emigrate. It was also precisely this area which was devastated first by the Peasants' Revolt of 1525, the war against the Schmalkaldic League (1546–55), and finally by the Thirty Years War which killed more than half the population of central Europe. It is hardly surprising that lute makers, who already had international connections, moved away from the area in such numbers.

Many settled in northern Italy, no doubt attracted by the country's wealth and fashion but also perhaps by the access to exotic woods imported via Venice. The tradition of intermarriage meant that they remained together in colonies and did not become much integrated into Italian society. Luca Maler (see Maler) was active in Bologna from about 1503; by 1530 he was a property owner of considerable substance and had built up an almost industrial scale workshop employing mostly German craftsmen (see Pasqual and Ragazzi, B1998). The inventory compiled at his death in 1552 lists about 1100 finished lutes and more than 1300 soundboards ready for use; his firm continued trading until 1613. Among several other lute makers in Bologna were Marx Unverdorben (briefly) and Hans Frei. The main characteristic of their lutes is a long narrow body of nine or 11 broad ribs with rather straight shoulders and fairly round at the base. This form is remarkably close to that proposed by Bouterse (D1979) in his interpretation of Persian and Arabic manuscripts of the 14th century. The chief difference is that these Middle Eastern descriptions, like Arnaut's, indicate a semicircular cross-section, whereas the instruments of Maler and Frei are somewhat ‘more square’. Often made from sycamore or ash, they remained highly prized as long as the lute was in use, but became increasingly rare as time went on. No unaltered example is known to have survived, for their prestige was such that they were adapted (sometimes more than once) to keep abreast of new fashions. They have all been fitted with replacement necks to carry more strings; sometimes the vaulted back is the only original part remaining (see Downing, B1978).

In Venice, as in Bologna, the German colony kept to its own quarter and had its own church. By 1521 Ulrich Tieffenbrucker is recorded as present in the city, and for the next hundred years the Tieffenbrucker family, especially Magno (i), Magno (ii) and Moisé, as well as Marx Unverdorben and Luca Maler's brother, Sigismond, dominated lute making in the city (see Toffolo, B1987). The name Tieffenbrucker was taken from their original village of Tieffenbruck, but their instruments are usually signed Dieffopruchar and regional spellings abound with variants such as Duiffoprugcar and even Dubrocard. Another branch of the Tieffenbrucker family settled in Padua, including ‘Wendelio Venere’, who has recently been discovered to be Wendelin Tieffenbrucker, probably the son of Leonardo Tieffenbrucker the elder. Michael Hartung also worked in Padua and may have been taught by Wendelin, although Baron (C1727) stated that he was apprenticed to Leonardo the younger. The typical body shape of these Venetian and Paduan lutes was less elongated than that of Maler's and Frei's instruments, and the shoulders were more curved (see fig.10a, c–f). The first examples had 11 or 13 ribs, but later the number was increased, a feature associated with, but not exclusive to, the use of yew, which has a brown heartwood and a narrow white sapwood. For purposes of decoration, each rib was cut half light, half dark, which restricted the available width and required a large number of ribs, sometimes totalling 51 and even more. The yew wood was supplied from the old heartland of lute making in south Germany, and cutting the ribs for Venetian makers became a valuable source of winter employment there (see Layer, B1978).

The use of geometrical methods of lute design has already been mentioned, and it has been found by several writers that the shape of these instruments can be readily reproduced by such means (see Edwards, D1973; D. Abbott and E. Segerman: ‘The Geometric Description and Analysis of Instrument Shapes’, FoMRHI Quarterly, no.2, 1976, p.7; Söhne, D1980; Samson, D1981; and Coates, D1985). This may account for the similarity in basic form between instruments of different sizes and by different makers. By comparison with the modern guitar, these early lutes, whether of the Bolognese or Paduan type, are distinguished by the lightness of their construction. The egg-like shape of the lute body is inherently strong and does not need to be built of very thick materials. Although the total tension of up to 24 gut strings (for later lutes) can be as much as 70–80 kg, the well-barred thin soundboard withstands this pull remarkably well. Though in the 17th century, as Constantijn Huygens's correspondence makes clear, it was routine to re-bar old lutes as part of their renovation, this may have had more to do with alterations in barring layout than structural weaknesses.

The instruction to tune the top string as high as it will stand without breaking is given in many early lute tutors (though not by Dowland or Mace). If the highest string is lowered for safety's sake much beneath its breaking point, the basses will be either too thick and stiff or, if thinner, too slack to produce an acceptable sound. Wire-wound bass strings which could ease this dilemma by increasing the weight without increasing the stiffness are not known to have been available until after 1650, and were apparently not much used thereafter either. Therefore, as the breaking pitch of a string depends on its length but not on its thickness, the working level of a given instrument is fixed within quite narrow limits.

In the second half of the 16th century there was a tendency to build instruments in families of sizes (and thus pitches), roughly corresponding with the different types of human voice. The lute was no exception. Examples of the variety of sizes available around 1600 are shown in fig.9. The instrument by Magno Tieffenbrucker (fig.9a) has a string length of 67 cm; the string lengths of the instruments shown as fig.9c–g are 29·9 cm, 44 cm, 44·2 cm, 66·6 cm, and 93·8 cm. Strictly speaking, the smallest of these (fig.9c) should be called a Mandore (see also Mandolin, §1). In England the nominal a' or g' lute was known as the ‘mean’, and was the size intended in most of the books of ayres, unless otherwise specified. The only other names used in English musical sources are ‘bass’ (nominally at d') and ‘treble’, which is specified for the Morley and Rosseter Consort Lessons. The pitch of these ‘treble’ lutes implied by the other parts was also g' but it is possible that this music was intended to be played at a pitch level a 4th higher than that of the mean lute (see Harwood, B1981). This nomenclature of ‘treble’ has caused some interest and, taken together with a number of specifically English pictures of small-bodied long-necked lutes, may indicate a particular English variant (see Forrester, B1994).

It should be noted that although all sorts of sizes were available at most times, the general trend from 1600 to 1750 was towards larger instruments for common use. Thus, for example, we might expect Dowland's songs to be accompanied on a lute of about 58 cm string length tuned to a nominal g' or a', whereas most French Baroque music of the mid-17th century calls for an 11-course lute of about 67 cm with a top string at a nominal f', while the lutes used in Germany in the 18th century were mostly 13-course instruments of about 70–73 cm, also with a nominal top string of f'. Some of this may represent a drop in the pitch standard, but we must also assume that string makers had managed to improve their products to increase the total range available, since these size changes represent considerable changes in the instruments' requirements. Apart from the development of overwound strings, this increase in range could only have been achieved by increasing the tensile strength of the trebles, by making the thick basses more elastic and flexible or by increasing the density of bass strings, perhaps by the addition of metallic compounds (see Peruffo, D1991). There is currently much interest in trying to reproduce these conjectured developments. It is noticeable from written accounts that the cost of strings was remarkably high compared to that of the lutes themselves, leading to the thought that there was more to their manufacture than is now apparent.

Although seven-course lutes appear as early as the late 15th century, and Bakfark's apprentice, Hans Timme, wanted to buy an Italian seven-course lute as early as 1556 (see Gombosi, F1935), it was only in the 1580s that they became at all common with the seventh course pitched at either a tone or a 4th below the sixth (see §5 below). Improved strings are conjectured to have popularized this greater range, perhaps providing a better tone and enabling John Dowland, in his contribution to his son Robert's Varietie of Lute Lessons (1610), to recommend a unison sixth course:

Secondly, set on your Bases, in that place which you call the sixt string, or γ ut, these Bases must be both of one bignes, yet it hath beene a generall custome (although not so much used any where as here in England) to set a small and a great string together, but amongst learned Musitians that custome is left, as irregular to the rules of Musicke.

The same book, reflecting the growing tendency to increase the number of bass strings, included English and continental music for lutes with six, seven, eight and nine courses. This only occasionally extended the range to low C; mostly the extra strings were used to eliminate awkward fingerings resulting from having to stop the seventh course. These ‘diapasons’ were usually strung with octaves. Already by the early 1600s the ten-course lute had made its appearance, shown in contemporary illustrations as constructed like its predecessors, with the strings running over a single nut to the pegbox, which has to be considerably longer to accommodate the additional pegs. The pegbox is also usually shown as being at a much shallower angle to the neck than the earlier Renaissance lute, a fact borne out by the surviving original ten-course lute by Christofolo Cocho in the Carl Claudius collection, Musikhistorisk Museum, Copenhagen (no.96a). Often the paintings of ten-course lutes show a treble ‘rider’, a small extra pegholder on top of the normal pegbox side, designed to give a less acute angle on the nut for the fragile top string.

Another innovation reported by Dowland in Varietie was the lengthening of the neck of the instrument:

for my selfe was borne but thirty yeeres after Hans Gerles booke was printed, and all the Lutes which I can remember used eight frets … some few yeeres after, by the French Nation, the neckes of the Lutes were lengthned, and thereby increased two frets more, so as all those Lutes, which are most received and disired, are of tenne frets.

Initially this may have been done to improve the tone of the low basses, but unless stronger treble strings became available at the same time, the pitch level of these longer lutes must have been lower than the older eight-fret instruments. Interestingly, one such lengthened neck survived until quite recently, but when it was ‘restored’ this important source of evidence for the practice was removed. Sometimes extra wooden frets were glued on to the soundboard, an invention which Dowland attributed to the English player Mathias Mason.

It is interesting that Dowland should thus report the prevailing fashion in lutes as coming from France, for by his death in 1626 France was the dominant culture musically and was the centre for developments in different tunings, starting some time around 1620, which led to the 11-course lute. Lowe (B1986) has suggested that the 11th course may at first have been only an octave string. The later surviving 11-course lutes mostly appear to be conversions of ten-course instruments, all done in the same way, by making the second course single and adding a treble rider for the top string or ‘chanterelle’ on the top of the normal pegbox treble side. This effectively gave two extra pegs which were used for the new bass course, but, because the neck was now too narrow, these strings were taken over an extended nut which projected beyond the fingerboard and were fastened to the pegs on the outside of the pegbox. The famous portrait of Charles Mouton (see fig.12) clearly shows that this was obviously not regarded as a stopgap measure. This final extra course on the same string-length has often been attributed to the invention of wire-wound or overspun strings, first advertised in England by Playford in 1664. However there is distressingly little hard evidence that these were in fact much used and they are not mentioned by either Mace or the Burwell tutor even though both wrote about the choice of strings. As Lowe (B1976) has shown, during the 17th century the French were already buying and converting early 16th-century Bologna lutes, seemingly because of a new aesthetic which valued the antique. There are so few surviving lutes with any claim to have been made in France that it is not possible to be sure what their makers were producing by way of new lutes at a time when lute playing was so important to French musical life. One must assume that the French cannot all have been playing on antique instruments. Indeed the inventory of the French maker Jean Desmoulins (d 1648) points to a vigorous rate of production since it lists 249 lutes in various stages of construction as well as 14 theorbos both large and small (see Lay, F1996). Only one lute by this maker has survived (Cité de la Musique, Marseilles).

Makers working in Italy, where the old tuning held sway, had already addressed the problem of extending the bass range in the 1590s by the expedient of having longer and therefore naturally deeper-sounding strings carried on a separate pegbox. The theorbo, chitarrone, liuto attiorbato and archlute all had extended straight-sided pegboxes carved from a solid piece of wood set into the neck housing at a very shallow angle and carrying at their ends a separate small pegbox for these extended bass strings. The form of all these instruments is very similar, differing mainly in the length of the extended pegbox, the number of courses carried and whether the bass courses were double or single. It was therefore only to be expected that this principle of longer, and therefore unfingered, bass strings should also be applied to non-continuo lutes. From about 1595 to 1630 various other types of extended pegboxes were tried for the bass strings. In one version, an extra piece of neck was added on the bass side which carried its own small bent-back pegbox. One of these (by Sixtus Rauwolf, 1599, though the extension may be later) has survived in the Carl Claudius collection, Musikhistorisk Museum, Copenhagen and there are several paintings showing this form, including works by Carlo Saraceni (c1579–1620) and Jan Miense Molenaer (c1610–1668).

More widely adopted was a double-headed lute with curved pegboxes (see fig.13), one set backwards at an angle rather like the normal lute, the other extended in the same plane as the fingerboard. This carried four separate small nuts to take the bass courses in steps of increasing length. This form usually had 12 courses and was apparently invented by Jacques Gautier in about 1630 (see Spencer, B1976, and Samson, B1977) but was not used much by the French who remained largely loyal to their single-headed lutes. As the author of the Burwell Lute Tutor (c1670) wrote: ‘All England hath accepted that Augmentation and ffraunce att first but soone after that alteration hath beene condemned by all the french Masters who are returned to theire old fashion keeping onely the small Eleaventh’. He, or she, objected to the length of the longer bass strings and felt that they rang on too much, thereby causing discords in moving bass lines. It was, however, widely used in England and the Netherlands until at least the end of the 17th century. The apparent thinking behind this form was a desire to avoid the sudden leaps in tone quality between the treble and bass strings which characterize the theorbo and archlute forms. An important tutor for this type of lute was Thomas Mace's Musick's Monument (1676), in which it was classed as a French lute; Talbot (c1695), however, called it the ‘English two headed lute’. For Talbot the ‘French lute’ had 11 courses, with all the strings on a single head. There has been some discussion as to the size of these instruments (see Segerman, D1998). Talbot measured the string length of a 12-course instrument of this type as 59·7 cm; iconographical sources show all sizes. To date, six examples of this type have been found with fingered string lengths of between 50 and 75 cm.

This same principle of stepped nuts for bass strings of gradually increasing length lay behind a specifically English form of the theorbo, which is also described in Mace and was measured by Talbot (see Sayce, B1995; Van Edwards, B1995). Unusually for a theorbo this had double-strung courses in the bass which still further smoothed the transition across the range. None of these have survived. The French too seem to have developed their own version of the theorbo principle in the 17th century with a shorter extension than the Italian theorbo and possibly with single stringing (see Theorbo).

In Italy in the 17th century the drive towards extending the bass range of the lute was accommodated somewhat more consistently by incorporating the theorbo design into smaller lutes for solo use. Thus the liuto attiorbato came to be used in addition to normal lutes and theorbos, and later archlutes, for accompanying singers and continuo work. Matteo Sellas was part of another large German family of instrument makers still based in Italy, and produced very elaborate lutes and liuti attiorbati of ivory and ebony at his workshop ‘alla Corona’ (at the sign of the crown) in Venice. His brother Giorgio made equally decorative guitars and lutes ‘alla stella’. Working in Rome, beyond what might seem to be the natural bounds of migration from Germany, were David Tecchler, Antonio Giauna and Cinthius Rotundus, from each of whom has survived an archlute, attesting this instrument's importance in Rome in the 17th and 18th centuries.

By the beginning of the 18th century, the centre of activity in lute music shifted from France to Germany and Bohemia. The makers extended the range of the instrument still further, and by 1719 composers were writing for 13 courses. There were two types of 13-course lutes developed and it is hard to say which was first, since both are possible conversions from pre-existing 11-course instruments and so labels are not conclusive. Paintings of both types are surprisingly rare. In one version a single pegbox was used like that of the 11-course lute, but, possibly starting as a conversion, a small subsidiary pegbox or ‘bass rider’ with four pegs to take the extra two courses was added to the bass side of the main pegbox (see fig.14). This had the effect of giving between 5 and 7 cm extra length to these two courses. Commonly these lutes were quite large by previous standards with 70 to 75 cm being the usual string length. From what has been said so far about stringing this must imply a lower pitch for the main strings. It is clear from the details of the tablature that Silvius Leopold Weiss composed throughout his life for this version of the 13-course lute which was developed by the new generation of German makers, working in Bohemia and Germany itself. Among the most important at this time were Sebastian Schelle and his pupil Leopold Widhalm working in Nuremberg (see Martius, B1996), Martin Hoffmann and his son Johann Christian working in Leipzig, Joachim Tielke and his pupil J.H. Goldt working in Hamburg (see G. Hellwig, B1980) and Thomas Edlinger of Augsburg and his son Thomas, who moved to Prague and set up his workshop there. All these makers were violin makers as well, reflecting the growing importance of this instrument at a time when the lute was becoming less in demand.

These makers were also responsible for the other version of the 13-course lute with extended bass strings, the German Baroque lute (see Spencer, B1976). This had an ornately curved double pegbox carved out of a single piece of wood, usually ebonized sycamore. This type did not usually have a treble rider, but did occasionally feature a small separate slot carved in the treble side of the main pegbox to take the top string. Typically this kind of lute had eight courses on the fingerboard and five octaved courses going to the upper pegbox, these five being normally between 25 and 30 cm longer than the fingered strings. This design appears to be a modification of the pre-existing Angélique form. Some apparently early 13-course lutes, such as the 1680 Tielke instrument, dating from long before the earliest surviving 13-course music (c1719), seem to be converted ‘angéliques’. Others, such as the Fux conversion in 1696 of a Tieffenbrucker instrument and the 13-course lute of Martin Hoffmann dating from the 1690s, raise more awkward questions of dating. An even more elaborate triple pegbox form of this type was also developed and a few examples have survived, notably by Johannes Jauck, a lute and violin maker working in Graz, and Martin Bruner (1724–1801) in Olomouc. These seem to have been functionally the same as the double pegbox form, and they may have represented a further attempt to obtain a smoother transition from the treble to bass courses.

Internally, the barring structure behind the bridge was altered by these makers. Beginning with an increase in the number of small treble-side fan bars, the characteristic J-bar on the bass side of the Renaissance soundboard was finally removed and various kinds of fan-barring were introduced right across this area of the soundboard. These seem to have had the effect of increasing the bass response. The main transverse bars were also made slightly smaller and more even in height, maybe with the same intention. The body outline of these lutes is remarkably similar to that of the early 16th-century lutes of Frei and Maler and this resemblance may well have been deliberate, for the old instruments continued to be highly prized. It was about this time (1727) that the first systematic history of the lute was written, by E.G. Baron. Referring to the lutes of Luca Maler, he wrote:

But it is a source of wonder that he already built them after the modern fashion, namely with the body long in proportion, flat and broad-ribbed, and which, provided that no fraud has been introduced, and they are original, are esteemed above all others. They are highly valued because they are rare and have a splendid tone.

This echoes the value placed on Maler lutes in the Fugger inventory of nearly 200 years earlier, which talks of ‘An old good lute by Laux Maler’ and ‘One old good lute by Sig[ismond] Maler’. Baron's comment on the possibility of fraud is also interesting in this context, since there are several surviving lutes with supposedly 16th-century Tieffenbrucker labels which are clearly the work of Thomas Edlinger the younger working in Prague at about the time Baron was published. Thomas Mace too wrote of Maler ‘but the Chief Name we most esteem, is Laux Maller, ever written with Text Letters: Two of which Lutes I have seen (pittiful Old, Batter'd, Crack'd Things) valued at 100 l [£] a piece’.

In the 18th century a much simpler form of German ‘lute’, the mandora, emerged with the same string lengths and barring system as the Baroque lute but usually with only six or eight courses in a variety of tunings. Apparently mainly used by amateurs, it also found a useful niche in orchestras in place of the 13-course Baroque lute as well as for continuo and bass lines in sacred music, especially large scale works.

Throughout the lute's history the gut strings have been matched by movable gut frets tied around the neck. The placing of these frets has always been a problem to both theoreticians and players, and many attempts have been made to find a system that will give the nearest approach to true intonation for as wide a range of intervals and in as many positions as possible. A number of writers, including Gerle (C1532), Bermudo (C1555), the anonymous author of Discours non plus mélancholique (1557), Vincenzo Galilei (Fronimo, 1568) and John Dowland, put forward various systems, many of which were based on Pythagorean intervals. Late 16th-century theorists in Italy, as well as 17th-century writers such as Praetorius and Mersenne, habitually assumed that the intonation of the lute (and other fretted instruments) represented equal temperament, whereas keyboard instruments were tuned to some form of mean-tone temperament (see Temperaments).

5. Tunings.

The earliest tuning instructions for the Western lute date from the late 15th century and are mostly for five-course lute. The best known is that of Johannes Tinctoris, whose De inventione et usu musicae (c1481–3) gives a tuning of 4ths around a central 3rd. However, as both five- and six-course lutes are mentioned, the position of the ‘central 3rd’ is unfortunately ambiguous. Both the Königstein Liederbuch (c1470–73) and an English manuscript dating from between 1493 and 1509 (GB-Ctc 0.2.13) give intervals of 4–3–4–4 from bass to treble. Ramis de Pareia (Musica practica, Bologna, 1482) stated that the most common tuning was G–c–e–a–d', but mentioned another drone tuning with the lowest three strings tuned to A–d–a; the trebles were set in various (unspecified) ways. Antonio de Nebrija (Vocabulario Español-Latino, Salamanca, c1495) apparently gave an unlikely diminished 5th between the two lowest courses, then 3–4–5, but the correct translation of his description is disputed. The late 15th-century Pesaro manuscript (I-PESo 1144) includes tablature for a seven-course lute with the tuning 4–4–4–3–4–4, as does a manuscript now in Bologna (I-Bu 596.HH.2⁴, which probably dates from the same period. The latter gives the tuning E–A–d–g–b–e'–a'.

By around 1500 six courses had become standard; the earliest printed sources, including Spinacino (1507), Dalza (1508) and Bossinensis (1509 and 1511) require a six-course lute, usually tuned 4–4–3–4–4. Virdung (Musica getuscht; Basle, 1511) mentioned lutes of five, six and seven courses, the six-course lute being the most common, and gave a tuning 4–4–3–4–4, with the sixth course tuned to a nominal A. The fourth, fifth and sixth courses were tuned in octaves, the second and third courses in unisons, with a single first course. Agricola advocated this pattern in the first edition of his Musica instrumentalis deudsch (Wittenberg, 1529) but gave a tuning a tone lower, in nominal G. Occasionally the sixth course was tuned down a tone, a variation called ‘Abzug’ by Virdung and ‘bordon descordato’ by Spinacino. In the 1545 edition of Musica instrumentalis deudsch Agricola stated that a seven-course instrument, with the seventh course tuned a tone below the sixth course, was preferable to this scordatura, which was difficult to manage.

This basic six-course tuning, with octaved lower courses, and an interval of two octaves between the outer courses, remained the norm for most of the 16th century. Tablature sources with parallel staff notation (from both the 16th and early 17th centuries) show that the most common nominal tunings were either in A (A–d–g–b–e'–a') or G (G–c–f–a–d'–g'), though lutes in other nominal pitches are encountered. There is a considerable body of literature discussing whether or not these variable pitches were intended to be interpreted literally. Practical considerations of instrument availability, together with notational considerations such as the avoidance of leger lines in the staff notated part, suggest that these apparent lute pitches were only nominal. Cue notes are often provided in the tablature, to clarify the relationship of lute pitch to staff notation. The absolute pitch of the lute was variable; contemporary tutors typically instruct the player to tune the top course as high as possible, and set the other strings to that.

Surviving 16th-century tablatures for multiple lutes call for a total ‘consort’ of nominal d'', a', g', e' and d', to accommodate all of the variations encountered in the duet and trio repertories, though Praetorius (Syntagma musicum, ii, 1618, 2/1619/R) mentioned other sizes too. The intervals between courses remained the same, irrespective of the size of the lute. A few lutenists explored other tunings, albeit briefly; these included Hans Neusidler (1544) whose infamous Judentanz requires a drone tuning; Barberiis (1549) printed pieces using the tunings 4–5–3–4–4, 5–4–2–4–4, and 4–4–3–5–4; Wolff Heckel (1562) also used a drone tuning for a Judentanz and other pieces.

By the 1580s a seventh course, tuned either a tone or a 4th below the sixth course, was in regular use, and eight-course lutes incorporating both of these options became common in the 1590s. By the early 1600s ten-course lutes were in use, with diatonically tuned basses descending stepwise from the sixth course. Around the same period the octave tuning of at least the fourth and fifth courses was dropped in favour of unisons, though the octaves were certainly retained on the lowest courses and perhaps on the sixth course too. Otherwise the tuning of the six upper courses remained essentially unchanged, and became known as vieil ton. There was a brief vogue for cordes avallées tunings in France, used by Francisque (1600) and Besard (C1603), which involved lowering the fourth, fifth and sixth courses to give drone-like 4ths and 5ths. These tunings were used almost exclusively for rustic dance pieces.

In the early years of the 17th century two distinct traditions began to emerge. The Italians mostly retained the old tuning, adding extra bass courses (see Archlute) though P.P. Melli and Bernardo Gianoncelli experimented with variant tunings of the upper courses. Around 1620 French composers began to experiment with several accords nouveaux, first on ten-course lutes, and later on 11- and 12-course instruments. (With these new tunings, the interval between the first and sixth courses was always narrower than the two octaves of vieil ton; they should not be confused with the cordes avallées tunings, where this interval was always wider than two octaves.) This experimentation continued until at least the 1670s, and music for over 20 different tunings survives, many of which were given different names by different scribes or composers (see Schulze-Kurz, E1990). However, only a handful were common and these included what is today considered to be the normal ‘Baroque’ D minor tuning. This did not become standard until the second half of the 17th century; the tuning commonly known as ‘Flat French’ was equally popular until about the 1660s. The advantages of the new tunings were increased resonance and ease of left-hand fingering, though only within a very limited range of keys. The derivation of these tunings from vieil ton, and the subsequent emergence of the D minor tuning, has been somewhat obfuscated by recent editorial methods which transcribe these tunings on the basis of an instrument whose sixth course is tuned to G. The transition is much clearer (and transcriptions emerge in less obscure keys) if the sixth course in vieil ton is considered to be A. Some of the more common tunings are shown in Table 1. In all of the above tunings (including vieil ton on lutes with more than eight courses) the basses were tuned diatonically downwards from the sixth course. The lute had become essentially diatonic in its bass register, and the tuning of the lowest courses would be adjusted for the key of the piece. (This was a major factor in the grouping of pieces by key, which led to the baroque suite.)

The first print to use the new tunings was Pierre Ballard’s Tablature de luth de différents autheurs sur l’accord ordinaire et extraordinaire (Paris, 1623; now lost). Slightly later collections survive, containing fine music by Mesangeau, Chancy, Belleville, Robert Ballard (ii), Pierre Gautier (i) and others, in various accords nouveaux. The tunings were widely used in England after the 1630s; publications by Richard Mathew (1652) and Thomas Mace (C1676) use ‘Flat French’ tuning; Mace provided a translation chart to convert tablatures between ‘Flat French’ and ‘D minor’ tunings. By the 1670s the 11-course single-pegbox lute in D minor tuning had emerged as the preferred norm throughout much of Europe, and remained so until the early years of the 18th century, when two further courses were added, extending the lute’s range down to A'. The last printed sources to make significant use of variant tunings are Esaias Reusner (ii) (1676) and Jakob Kremberg (1689).

6. Technique.

Several writers of instruction books for the lute have remarked that many masters of the art were, as Mace put it, ‘extreme Shie in revealing the Occult and Hidden Secrets of the Lute’. Bermudo had lamented the same characteristic in teachers: ‘What a pity it is (and those who have Christian understanding must weep for it) that the great secrets of music die in a moment with the person of the musician, for lack of having communicated them to others’. The training of professional players was almost certainly carried on through some system of apprenticeship, and this may well be one of the reasons why comparatively few books give really informative instructions on all aspects of playing technique. Nevertheless, details have been left by the more conscientious authors that are sufficiently clear to establish the main characteristics of lute technique in each period.

Although little was written about left-hand techniques, certain basic rules were mentioned from the Capirola Lutebook (c1517, US-Cn; ed. O. Gombosi, 1955; see also Marincola, F1983) onwards. The lute must be held in such a way that no weight is taken by the left hand. The thumb should be placed lightly on the underside of the neck, opposite the first and second fingers. The tips of the fingers should always stay as close as possible to the strings so that each one is ready to take its position without undue movement. Fingers must be kept in position on the strings until they are required to stop another string, or until the harmony changes. Judenkünig went so far as to say they must never be lifted until needed elsewhere.

In Capirola’s lutebook the player was advised to keep the fingers in readiness and not to avoid using the little finger; the first finger could be laid across several strings to form a barré chord. Sometimes a finger was placed on one string only of a course in order to create an extra voice (a device also described by Valentin Bakfark and the vihuelist Miguel de Fuenllana); the right hand would then strike through the whole course as usual.

It was, however, the German masters who first codified a system of fingering. Judenkünig gave a series of diagrams of left-hand positions. In the first of these the hand spans the first three frets and the fourth fret on the sixth course; the first finger is marked with the six characters of the first fret in German tablature; the second finger is marked with the next series; the third finger takes the lower three courses on the third fret; and the little finger takes the upper three courses as well as the fourth fret on the sixth course. Each diagram shows the fingers rigidly aligned on the appropriate fret. A small cross placed above a letter indicates that the finger must be held down and the following note played with the next finger, whatever fret it may be on. Judenkünig did not describe the fingering of chords, or cross-fingering where the counterpoint makes it necessary to depart from the prescribed alignment. Neusidler (Ein newgeordnet künstlich Lautenbuch, 1536) indicated by means of dots the fingering of a number of simple compositions. In general he followed the rules laid down by Judenkünig, but he also showed how chords constantly demand the use of fingers on frets other than those allotted to them in a strict diagrammatic scheme.

In England and France little attention was given to left-hand technique until the publication of Adrian Le Roy’s tutor Instruction … de luth (?1557, lost, repr. 1567, also lost, Eng. trans., 1568, see §8(v)), which described the barré chord as ‘couching’ the first finger ‘along overthwart the stoppe’. Robinson (C1603) described how to finger certain chord passages and also how to finger ascending and descending melodic lines. He also added fingering marks to the first five compositions in his books. Besard (C1603) described in considerable detail the use of the barré, and half barré, and also gave advice on how to choose the correct finger for holding notes, particularly in the bass. Later in the 17th century more complete markings were given by Nicolas Vallet (Secretum musarum, 1615) and, for a 12-course French lute, Mace.

Until about the second half of the 15th century most representations of lute players (where the details are visible) show the strings being struck with a quill or plectrum. The hand approaches the strings from below the bridge and lies nearly parallel with them. The plectrum or quill is held either between the thumb and first finger, or the first and second, or even the second and third. Gradually the fingers replaced the plectrum. In pictures dating from about 1480 it is common to see players with the hand in a slightly more transverse position (see fig.9). For any composition involving chords the advantage of this change is obvious. Tinctoris observed that players were becoming so skilful that they could play four voices together on the lute perfectly.

The earliest printed books gave little information about right-hand techniques. A dot placed under a note signified that it was to be played upwards, and the absence of a dot downwards; all passages of single notes were played accordingly. Later sources specified that the downward stroke was always taken by the thumb on the accented beat, while the unaccented beat was taken upwards, usually with the first finger. This type of fingering was to remain standard practice until about 1600. It was still mentioned by Alessandro Piccinini (Intavolatura di liuto, et di chitarrone, 1623) and by Mersenne (1636–7), and it survived for runs of single notes across the lute from bottom to top and for certain other passages until 1660–70.

According to the instructions in the Capirola manuscript (the first to give any real insight into the playing position of the right hand), the thumb was held under the second finger, that is, inside the hand. Adrian Le Roy was the first to mention that the little finger is placed on the belly of the lute, although many representations of players before 1568 show the hand with the little finger in this position. Le Roy wrote: ‘the little finger serveth but to keep the hande from [firm] upon the bealie of the Lute’. From then onwards it was frequently mentioned. Robinson, for example, said: ‘leane upon the bellie of the Lute with your little finger onelie, & that neither to far from the Treble strings, neither to neere’. Mace wrote: ‘The 2d. thing to be gain’d is, setting down your Little Finger upon the Belly, as aforesaid, close under the Bridge, about the first, 2d, 3d, or 4th. Strings; for thereabout, is its constant station. It steadies the Hand, and gives a Certainty to the Grasp’. From this time onwards, portraits of performing lute players always show the little finger placed either on the soundboard, in front of or behind the bridge, or on the bridge itself (as in fig.11).

During the Renaissance, chords were usually played with the thumb on the bass, playing downwards, and the first and second, or the first, second and third fingers, playing upwards. For chords of more than four notes the following procedure was given by Le Roy and Besard: for five-note chords the thumb plays the bass downwards, the third and fourth courses are raked upwards by the first finger, and the first and second courses are played respectively by the third and second fingers; six-note chords are played in a similar way with the thumb playing downwards across both the sixth and fifth courses. The upper note of two-part chords was generally taken by the second finger, although Robinson preferred the third.

A single dot under a chord of two or three notes generally means that it is played upwards with the usual fingers, but without the thumb. Gerle, however, used a dot under a chord to show that all the notes were to be played upwards with the first finger, while Judenkünig said that in dance music full chords may be stroked or strummed with the thumb throughout. Neusidler also mentioned the ‘thumb-stroke’. Robinson, however, advocated the third finger for notes farthest from the thumb, the second for the next note, and the first for those nearest. Besard was the first writer to describe a new position for the thumb; his directions are translated as follows in Dowland’s book of 1610:

stretch out your Thombe with all the force you can, especially if thy Thombe be short, so that the other fingers may be carryed in the manner of a fist, and let the Thombe be held higher than them, this in the beginning will be hard. Yet they which have a short Thombe may imitate those which strike the strings with the Thombe under the other fingers, which though it be nothing so elegant, yet to them it will be more easie.

Dowland himself is said to have changed to the ‘thumb-out’ position in mid-career (Beier, B1979), presumably to take advantage of the consequent greater stretch, perhaps in connection with the addition of extra courses. The increase in the number of courses was probably also responsible for a general shift in the position and movement of the hand. Besard suggested:

the first two fingers may be used in Diminutions very well insteed of the Thombe and the fore-finger, if they be placed with some Bases, so that the middle finger be in place of the Thombe, which Thombe whilst it is occupied in striking at least the Bases, both the hands will be graced and that unmanly motion of the Arme (which many cannot well avoide) shall be shunned. But if with the said Diminutions there be not set Bases which are to be stopped, I will not counsell you to use the two first fingers, but rather the Thombe and the fore-finger: neither will I wish you to use the two fore-fingers if you be to proceede (that is to runne) into the fourth, fift or sixt string with Diminutions set also with some parts.

Markings comprising a pair of dots or small strokes under the note to indicate the use of the second finger occur in many manuscripts from the early 17th century (e.g. Vallet used the latter marking). A single vertical line or stroke under a note was an indication to use the thumb, to which greater attention was paid with the increasing number of bass strings. Piccinini described an apoyando stroke:

The thumb, on which I do not approve of a very long nail, must be employed in this manner, that every time you sound a string you must direct it [the thumb] towards the soundboard, so that it is crushed onto the string below, and it must be kept there until it has to be used again.

This type of stroke was mentioned by other writers and appears to have become standard practice during the Baroque period. In fact, such a technique is almost essential when the thumb has to make rapid jumps among a number of diapasons. If the thumb is held free, there is no point of reference from which each movement can be judged accurately.

In the second decade of the 17th century many new technical devices began to appear. Bataille’s Airs de différents autheurs (iv, 1613) used a dot for a quasi-rasgueado device in repeated chords (ex.1) that is described by Mersenne and became extremely common, especially in pieces in sarabande rhythm: the dot at the top of the chord stands for an upward stroke with the first finger, while the dot at the bottom stands for a downward stroke with the back of the same finger (ex.1a). For this device, sometimes called tirer et rabattre, later composers often distinguished the second, downward-struck chord by dots next to the notes (ex.1b).

Italy was apparently the first country in which the slur was developed as part of normal technique instead of being confined to the execution of graces. Pietro Paoli Melli (Intavolatura di liuto attiorbato libro secondo, 1614) described the action of the left hand, and placed a ligature under pairs of notes to be slurred, a marking which was always used to indicate the slur. There seems to be no evidence that the slur was used in France, England or Germany at this early date, but Mersenne described it in 1636.

Piccinini introduced some individualistic traits into his playing: although the use of the nails was deprecated by nearly all other writers, Piccinini said that they should be ‘a little long, in front of the flesh, but not much, and oval in shape’. He played the rapid ‘groppo that is made at the cadence’ with the first finger alone, striking upwards and downwards with the tip of the nail. (This is similar to the vihuela’s ‘dedillo’, which was usually played with short nails.) He also advocated a change of tone colour by moving the right hand nearer or farther from the bridge. In France an increasing number of different right-hand strokes were used. Mersenne gave the traditional fingerings both for chords and single-note passages, and some new strokes which had evidently become popular by then. He described several ways of playing chords, and a system of marking by which each method could be distinguished. Some chords were played downwards with the thumb: others with all the notes played by the thumb except the top one which was played by the first finger; others with the thumb playing the single bass note while the first finger raked the rest of the notes upwards. Unfortunately these detailed notations seem not to have been adopted in other surviving printed and manuscript sources. Nevertheless many of these devices became part of the French Baroque style. In volumes such as Denis Gaultier’s Pièces de luth (1666), Denis and Ennemond Gaultier’s Livre de tablature des pièces de luth (c1672) and Jacques Gallot’s Pièces de luth (1681), markings are given for arpeggiating or ‘breaking’ chords. Some writers described the ‘slipping’ of the first finger across two notes on adjacent strings to realize a short mordent, usually at a cadence; this characteristic device, which was used well into the 18th century, was shown by three different markings (ex.2).

Many of these techniques were carefully described in English lute books such as the Mary Burwell Lute Tutor (c1660–72, GB-Lam) and in Mace’s Musick’s Monument. The techniques were passed on to the German school; a similar variety of strokes is described by Baron who also mentioned a change of right-hand position for tone colour. As in other countries, German sources vary greatly in the extent to which technique marks and left-hand fingerings were added to the tablature, often reflecting the level of attainment of the person for whom they were written.

The development of playing technique was thus closely related to the continual process of extending the resources of the instrument. Moreover, each technique produces particular qualities suited to its own time, and the modern lutenist must know this in order to do justice to the music. Most ‘technical’ indications, such as vibrato or staccato (see §7 below), or the spreading of chords (indicated by oblique lines separating the notes of a chord; see §8(iii)), come under the general heading of ‘graces’ (Fr. agréments; Ger. Manieren), which term adumbrates most aspects of performance as well as ornamentation in treatises, including playing loudly and softly or with rhetorical intent.

7. Ornamentation.

The use of what in modern terms would be called trills, mordents, appoggiaturas and vibrato has evidently always been an integral part of the performance of lute music. The fact that in the Renaissance period ornament signs are frequently not included in printed books or manuscripts and are written about comparatively rarely in early tutors may be due to several causes; probably the most important was that there was a living tradition that was considered unnecessary to mention or notate. Another reason may have been that cited by Mersenne, namely that printers lacked the requisite signs in their equipment. These ornaments never acquired a standardized nomenclature or system of signs, although some degree of conformity developed towards the end of the Baroque period.

In the Capirola Lutebook (c1517, US-Cn), the earliest known source of information, two signs are used: one shows figures notated with red dots; the other consists of two red dots placed over the figure. Of the first sign it is said only that the finger on the lower fret is held firm and another finger is used to ‘tremolize’ on or from the fret above. The second sign is said to indicate that the note is ‘tremolized’ with a single finger; it probably represents a mordent.

More precise information was given by Pietro Paolo Borrono in the second printing (Milan, 1548) of the Intavolatura di lauto which gives appoggiaturas with both notes carefully indicated by sign. Only the appoggiatura from above is mentioned in the directions, which also say that it is to be played on the beat.

Rudolf Wyssenbach printed a transcription in German tablature (Zürich, 1550) of part of the contents of the Francesco-Borrono book of 1546; half circles are said to indicate mordanten, but no further explanation is given. The word mordanten appears to have been used in German as a general term for ornaments including the appoggiatura rather than as a specific term for any one type of ornament. It occurs in Martin Agricola’s Musica instrumentalis deudsch (1529) and was still used by Matthäus Waissel in his Lautenbuch darinn von der Tabulatur und Application der Lauten (1592). Waissel’s remark that the fingers are put ‘a little later on the letters and moved up and down two or three times’ indicates (in agreement with Borrono) that the ornament came on or after the beat and not before.

No information appears to have survived concerning ornamentation of French lute music before Besard, who made the following remark:

You should have some rules for the sweet relishes and shakes if they could be expressed here, as they are on the LUTE: but seeing they cannot by speech or writing be expressed, thou wert best to imitate some cunning player.

Vallet used two signs: a comma, signifying a fall from above the main note (upper appoggiatura), and a single cross, signifying the same thing repeated several times, i.e. a trill. In his Regia pietas (1620) Vallet described what is in effect a vibrato, indicated by a double cross.

Mersenne gave the most complete exposition of the art of ornamentation of the period. Excluding minor variants (such as whether a tone or semitone is involved), seven ornaments may be tallied: the tremblement (trill); the accent plaintif (appoggiatura from below, equal in duration to half the value of the main note); the martelement or soupir (mordent); the verre cassé (vibrato, which Mersenne said was not much used in his time, although it was very popular in the past; in his opinion, however, it would be as bad a fault to omit it altogether as to use it to excess); the battement (long trill, more suitable to the violin, he said, than to the lute); a combination (for which no name is given) of appoggiatura from below with trill from above; and a mordent ending with verre cassé. He gave a sign to indicate each of the seven types, but remarked that in French music the small comma was generally used to ‘express all sorts’.

In Italy, Kapsperger (Libro primo d’intavolatura di chitarrone, 1604) placed two dots above many notes to indicate the trillo, and also added a sign (an oblique stroke with a dot on either side) below certain chords to show that they were to be arpeggiated. Melli marked the notes on which a ‘tremolo’ should be performed, but gave no explanation of the meaning of the word, though he described a method of performing an appoggiatura from below by sliding the auxiliary to the main note with a single finger. This is indicated by a ligature above the two notes and appears to be unique in this period. Piccinini, however, gave detailed descriptions of the trill, the mordent and the vibrato, which he called the first, second and third tremolo, but he did not include signs for them in the tablature.

Early English manuscript sources show no ornament signs, but all the books copied by Matthew Holmes (c1580–1610, GB-Cu) contain them, although their placing is often curious. At least 17 other manuscripts also have signs, and William Barley’s A Newe Booke of Tabliture (1596) includes the double cross, but with no explanation of its meaning. The only English book of this period containing information on the subject is Robinson’s The Schoole of Musicke (1603). He gave no signs nor any indication of where the graces should be placed, but he described three that could be used: the relish (perhaps an appoggiatura from above, or a trill); the fall (an appoggiatura from below); and a fall with a relish (possibly the same as Mersenne's combination of lower appoggiatura and upper trill). Robinson said of the relish:

The longer the time of a single stroke … the more need it hath of a relish, for a relish will help, both to grace it, and also it helps to continue the sound of the note his full time: but in a quicke time a little touch or jerke will serve, and that only with the most strongest finger.

The variety of graces in use around 1625 is indicated in Table 2, taken from the Margaret Board Lutebook (GB-Lam, f.32). Generally, however, the lack of standardization in signs and the absence of any indication of their meaning as used by different scribes poses a formidable problem in interpretation, and it is possible here only to offer some suggestions based on a study of their context in all the available material. Table 3 shows the signs most generally found in English manuscript sources. Sign (a) is often the only sign in a manuscript, and, like the French comma, can be taken ‘to express all sorts’. If it appears in company with other signs it seems to signify an ornament from above the main note, perhaps an appoggiatura or trill. Sign (b) indicates an appoggiatura from below, a mordent, or a slide (the ornament that comes up to the main note from a minor or major 3rd below). Sign (c) appears in the Sampson Lutebook (GB-Lam); its possible interpretation as a slide on a major 3rd is discussed below. Sign (d) indicates an appoggiatura from below, in the Sampson Lutebook; this is suggested by the fact that the sign appears before a note which is followed by (a), presumably indicating Robinson’s ‘fall with a relish’. Sign (e) is used similarly (US-Ws 1610.1). Signs (f) and (g) (the latter from GB-Lbl Add.38539) indicate a mordent, appoggiatura from below or a slide. Sign (h) occurs in a limited number of pieces in GB-Lbl Add.38539, always on a note immediately preceded by the note above, and often in fairly fast runs. This may be the ‘little touch or jerke’ mentioned by Robinson, or possibly an inverted mordent. Although the latter was clearly described in Spain from the time of Tomás de Santa María (in Arte de tañer fantasía assi para tecla como para vihuela, 1565) to Pablo Nassare (Escuela musica, 1724), in Italy by Girolamo Diruta (Il transilvano, 1593) and in Germany by Praetorius (Syntagma musicum, iii, 2/1619), there is no mention of it in any English source. It would, however, fit into the passages in which the sign is used. Signs (i), (j) and (k) indicate a fall with a relish. In compositions in John Dowland’s hand, (c), which appears on both open and stopped notes, presumably indicates an upper appoggiatura or trill; (f), which appears on stopped notes only, may indicate an appoggiatura from below; and (b), which appears on open notes only, may indicate a trill. However, these interpretations are open to question owing to a marked lack of consistency in the application of gracing, and in its notation. Many sources have few, if any, grace marks, and in the final analysis musical intuition has to be the arbiter. (The interpretation of ornament signs in English lute music is further addressed, with somewhat differing results, in studies by Buetens and Shepherd.)

Fashion in ornamentation may have varied from country to country; English players of the first two decades of the 17th century perhaps graced their music to a greater extent than those in any other part of Europe. A Fantasie by Dowland (GB-Lbl Add. 38539, f.14v; ex.3), with nine ornaments in the space of five bars, shows an extreme of English practice.

No exact line of demarcation can be drawn between Renaissance and Baroque ornamentation. Most graces used in the earlier period continued in favour, but a few more elaborate combinations appeared. From Mersenne’s time onwards, some French manuscripts have a large variety of signs: the comma, ‘’ and ‘’ for martelements, something like an ordinary mordent sign placed under a note, and, to indicate the appoggiatura from below, a bow-like sign placed beneath the tablature letter, very like Mace’s sign for a slur. Double shakes or appoggiaturas began to appear. The étouffement (Mace’s ‘tut’) is also mentioned in some sources, and the sign ‘’ is used. Mace’s Musick’s Monument, in many ways the most thorough study of the French lute, includes (pp.101ff) a list of ornaments, which are summarized in Table 4. He also wrote of loud and soft play and the use of the pause (indicated by a small fermata sign) as additional graces to be observed.

In Denis Gaultier’s Pièces de luth (1666) less elaboration is found. The two ornaments given are indicated by the comma and the slur and are equivalent to Mace’s back-fall and fore-fall. In Livre de tablature des pièces de luth by Denis and Ennemond Gaultier (c1672) the explanation of the comma shows that the number of falls should be increased according to the length of the note. According to Mary Burwell’s teacher, however, Denis Gaultier ‘would have no shake at all’. Undoubtedly personal taste played a part in ornamentation as in all other aspects of performance. Three ornament signs are listed by Gallot: tremblement, or trill, indicated by a small comma after the tablature letter; martelement, or mordent, indicated by ‘’; choutte, or tombé, an appoggiatura from below, indicated by an inverted ‘’ before the letter. The rhythmical breaking of chords, a universal feature of the French lute style (see §8(iii) below, esp. ex.6), was explicitly indicated by oblique lines between chord members. The existence of another explicit notation, a vertical line connecting non-adjacent tablature letters, to indicate that the notes are to be struck together, suggests that a certain degree of spreading was in fact normal.

German Baroque lutenists at first consciously maintained the tradition of the Parisian luthistes, using many of the French ornament signs, which they classed under the general heading of Manieren (equivalent to agréments or ‘graces’) along with other technical or performance indications. The Breslau lutenist, Esaias Reusner (ii), who was coached by an unknown French lutenist in Paris in the 1650s, used a cross, a comma and a ‘fermata’ sign (Delitiae testudinis, 1667 and Neue Lauten-Früchte, 1676) but did not explain their meaning. The context suggests that the comma indicates a trill and the cross a mordent, while the fermata probably represents a pause, as it does for his English contemporary, Mace. Reusner indicated the appoggiatura from below by a bow under the letter. Le Sage de Richée (Cabinet der Lauten) gave, together with other information about performing practice, three ornaments: the trill indicated by a comma; the appoggiatura from above, which he called Abzug; and the appoggiatura from below (Fall). Both appoggiaturas are written out with a bow under the pairs of letters (the explanations are somewhat ambiguous). Radolt (Vienna, 1701) provided an exhaustive list of Manieren citing François Dufaut’s example. Hinterleithner (Vienna, 1699) explained that the Abzug (which he called Abriss) divides the ornamented note’s duration equally. Trills are only played on dotted notes; on shorter notes they are abbreviated to an Abriss. Radolt stressed that the trill always begins on the upper note. Baron (Nuremberg, 1727) used the same signs as Radolt for the appoggiatura from above (Abziehen) and for the trill (performed from the upper note, and gradually increasing in speed), but in addition described two forms of vibrato (Bebung): one (on the higher strings) performed with the thumb released from the back of the neck, the other with the thumb held firm. He indicated them with a double and slanted cross respectively. Baron added that the ornaments he mentioned were not the only ones that could be used, as many more could be added with the use of skill and taste: ‘Every player must judge for himself what sort of affect he wishes to express with this or that ornament’. He also stressed the difference between solo performance, where a player could use more ornamentation and rubato, and ensemble playing, where each player’s performing method had to be known in advance and accommodated for the sake of good ensemble. For faster music, Baron remarked that ‘the best Manier is nothing more than neatness and clarity, and if someone wanted to make many other additions it would be as ridiculous as chasing rabbits with snails and crabs’.

Silvius Leopold Weiss’s notational practice was remarkably consistent in his numerous autograph manuscripts. As was common in the period, he tended to use more ornamentation in slow movements, and the ornamental notes are seamlessly integrated into the music, occasionally (especially the Einfall) being written out explicitly in the tablature, often using separate strings for the ornamental and main notes, rather than being indicated by signs. This ‘two-string appoggiatura’ (ex.4) had been in use since the days of the Parisian luthistes, but unlike them Weiss frequently used it in an unambiguously melodic context. He used the normal comma sign for an Abzug or Triller, sometimes extended by repetition, and the bow under a letter for an appoggiatura from below; sometimes, especially at a cadence, this sign extends backwards towards the previous note, even across a barline, looking somewhat like a legato slur (ex.5). The mordent is marked by a single cross and Bebung (vibrato, rarely used by Weiss) by a short wavy line above and to the right of the letter.

There is no surviving treatise or table of ornaments by Weiss although he was much in demand as a teacher. Whereas he was following earlier practice in not using signs to distinguish the Abzug and Triller, nor the short and long forms of mordent and trill, later players, whose extensive repertory of signs was possibly influenced by the practice of their keyboard-playing contemporaries, became more explicit in their notation. A manuscript from Bayreuth (c1750, D-Ngm M274) contains two tables of ‘Zeichen der Lauten Manieren’ (‘signs for lute graces’) attributable to Weiss’s one-time pupil, Adam Falckenhagen. The signs therein correspond with Falckenhagen’s printed works and with the tablature version of J.S. Bach’s Lute Suite in G minor bwv995, which was probably intabulated by Falckenhagen. Signs which seem to be introduced in these tables for the first time include one for ‘gebrochener Bass’ (‘broken bass’; the fundamental and octave strings of a bass course being rhythmically separated), a sign for staccato or damped (‘gestossen’) chords, and a sign for the full turn (with a written-out realization equivalent to C.P.E. Bach’s geschnellte Doppelschlag). A closely related table was printed by J.C. Beyer with his lute arrangements of Herrn Prof. Gellerts Oden und Lieder (1760). The principal ornament signs used or explained by Le Sage de Richée, Hinterleithner, Radolt, Baron, Weiss, Falckenhagen and Beyer are summarized in Table 5.

From the early years of the 16th century to the end of the 18th, the use of graces was an integral part of performing practice on the lute as it was on the harpsichord. Because of its lack of sustaining power (compared with bowed instruments) these devices were essential, especially in slower music. Finally the necessity promoted the fashion and composers expected graces to be added, whether or not they were actually indicated, since they were an essential feature of lute style.

During the 17th and 18th centuries the art of ornamentation received careful attention in numerous treatises on singing and on playing various instruments, and also in composers’ prefaces to their works: this valuable information is often applicable to the lute as well as to the particular subject under consideration (see Ornaments).

(ii) Germany, Bohemia and Austria.

8. Repertory.

From the 1270s, when Jehan de Meung in Le roman de la rose mentioned ‘quitarres e leüz’, the presence of the lute in western Europe is evident in literary sources, court records and inventories. The Duke of Orléans is said to have had in his service in 1396 ‘un joueur de vièle et de luc’ called Henri de Ganière. The names of a few players from other parts of Europe have also survived, such as a certain Obrecht in Basle in 1363, and the brothers Drayer, minstrels at Mechelen from 1371 to 1374. During the 14th century, representations of the lute in drawings, paintings and sculpture became common, often in combination with other instruments, sometimes accompanying one or more voices.

Extant 15th-century records mention sums of money paid to lute players in service at the French court. In 1491 for example, Antoine Her, a lute player of the chamber royal, received a monthly stipend of 10 livres and 10 sols. The great esteem in which virtuosos were held is evident in the case of Pietrobono, who served the Este family at the court of Ferrara from about 1440 until his death in 1497. Other courts competed for his services; he was widely travelled, became a rich man and was celebrated by poets and writers of the time (including Tinctoris). Surviving documents imply that he accompanied himself in singing and that he was associated with another player who was listed as a ‘tenorista’ – possibly another lute player or a viol player who, in either case, would have supplied a ‘tenor’ against which Pietrobono would have improvised. He seems to exemplify an age in which Italian lute players were passing from a style that had been mainly improvisatory to one in which, as Tinctoris suggested, a full training in the technique of contrapuntal writing or playing was essential.

This development was associated with the change from playing the lute with a plectrum to using the right-hand fingers. Whereas previously the lute had been a melodic instrument, it could now be used for polyphony. This in turn soon led to the invention of special forms of notation to overcome the particular problems involved in transmitting the music to the written or printed page. Examples of German, French and Italian tablatures from the end of the 15th century have come to light, but these fragments reveal little about the early repertory. In addition, there are in the Segovia Cathedral manuscript some instrumental duos with elaborate divisions by Tinctoris, Agricola and others that well suit the lute and clearly reflect the improvisational demands on players of the time; one of these in particular, a setting of Hayne van Ghizeghem’s De tous biens plaine, ascribed to Roellrin, also appears in a German manuscript (PL-Wu Mf.20161) and is unlikely to have been playable on any other contemporary instrument. Some of the compositions in the earliest printed sources show a similar style.

A common thread that runs throughout the history of lute playing is the improvisatory skill of the great performers. For this reason, most of the repertory was probably never written down. Lute playing was passed on by individual tuition, and many lute manuscripts were compiled by teachers for their pupils, and supplemented (sometimes somewhat inexpertly) from memory by the pupils. These circumstances, combined with the irrecoverable loss of a great many sources, account for the fact that much lute music in manuscript carries no composer’s name, and, as much in the Baroque period as in the Renaissance, there is frequently divergence between versions of the same piece in different sources, especially in matters concerning performance. For a fuller discussion of lute sources, with illustrations, see Sources of lute music.

(i) Italy.

(iii) France.

(iv) The Netherlands, Spain and eastern Europe.

(v) England.

(i) Italy.

The earliest surviving significant Italian lute source is a heart-shaped manuscript (I-PESo 1144) partially copied in the last decades of the 15th century and possibly of Venetian origin. Unusually, it is notated in a rudimentary form of French lute tablature (the rhythm-signs and sporadic barring being apparently based on the position of the tactus rather than on note durations) using letter-ciphers rather than numbers. This early layer of the manuscript, which includes one piece for seven-course lute, contains a few song arrangements (including the ubiquitous De tous biens plaine), a number of ricercares in improvisational style, and a single bassadanza, a setting of the well-known basse danse tenor La Spagna. From the first decade of the 16th century the Venetian printing press of Petrucci distributed music by the early lutenist-composers of the Italian school, whose influence was felt throughout Europe for the entire 16th century. Although Marco Dall’Aquila obtained a Venetian privilege to print lute music in 1505, no such publications by him have survived. Petrucci published six volumes of lute tablature between 1507 and 1511. The first two books, entitled Intabulatura de lauto (1507), contain works by Spinacino, mainly for solo lute but there are also a few duets. There are 25 pieces called ‘recercare’ but most of the pieces are intabulations of Flemish chansons (from the 1490s) originally for voices. The Intabulatura de lauto, libro tertio (1508), devoted to music by Gian Maria Hebreo, is now lost; the Libro quarto by Dalza (1508) contains dances and a few intabulations of frottolas by contemporary Italians such as Tromboncino. These books include rudimentary instructions for tablature reading and right-hand technique. Songs for solo voice and lute appeared in the Tenori e contrabassi intabulati col sopran in canto figurato per cantar e sonar col lauto (Libro primo, 1509; Libro secundo, 1511), in which the lutenist Franciscus Bossinensis intabulated the lower parts of frottolas whose vocal originals had already been printed by Petrucci. The first book contains 70 such compositions, the second 56; each contains 20 or more ricercares as well. The six Petrucci volumes form a substantial collection of first-rate music in what must have been a well-established tradition of lute writing. The types of composition they contain evidently reflect the unwritten procedures of late 15th-century lute playing. The ‘first phase’ of Italian printed books for lute included one more collection of frottolas with voice part and tablature, by Tromboncino and Marchetto Cara. The sole extant copy is undated, but it certainly appeared in the 1520s.

Among the earliest examples of Italian lute music are two pieces in a Bologna manuscript (after 1484, I-Bu 596). The first page gives an explanation of the tablature headed ‘La mano ala viola’. There has been some discussion about the meaning of ‘viola’ in this instance but, since the discovery of Francesco Canova da Milano’s Intavolatura de viola o vero lauto (Naples, 1536/R), it is clear that it refers to the flat-backed, waisted instrument which closely resembles the Spanish vihuela and which was considered suitable for playing lute music. The form of tablature used in this case is the rare ‘Intavolatura alla Napolitana’ in which the second volume of Francesco’s book is printed and which is explained in Michele Carrara’s Regola ferma e vera (Rome, 1585). In appearance it resembles Italian tablature but it is the reverse way up, with the figures for the lowest course lying on the bottom line of the staff. The figure 1 is used throughout for the open course.

Few contemporary manuscripts survive, but two are of special importance, both of Venetian provenance. The earlier (F-Pn Rés.Vmd 27) dates from the first decade of the 16th century, and, like the earlier Pesaro manuscript, the tablature for the most part omits bar-lines and rhythm-signs. It comprises two sections, the first of which contains 25 ricercares, dances and frottolas for solo lute; a ricercare and the bassadanza on La Spagna are also found in the Pesaro manuscript. The second section contains lute accompaniments to 89 frottolas without the vocal melody. The other manuscript, the Capirola Lutebook (c1517, US-Cn), beautifully written and adorned with drawings by a pupil expressly to ensure its preservation, includes instructions for playing and the use of ornamentation (see §7 above). The composer, Vincenzo Capirola (b 1474; d after 1548), was clearly the outstanding figure of the earliest period of written lute music.

The acknowledged leader of the following generation, and one of the most famous lutenists of any age, was Francesco Canova da Milano. He was already famous for his remarkable skill at improvisation (his contemporaries often referred to him as ‘Il divino’) when his first works were published: Intabolatura di liuto (Venice, 1536), and the above-mentioned Intavolatura de viola o vero lauto. Some 120 to 150 of his compositions are known today; many continued to appear in print until late in the century and also appeared in manuscript collections in several countries besides Italy. Francesco’s lute music consists chiefly of pieces entitled ricercare or fantasia. He expanded the scope of the quasi-improvisatory ricercare of the older generation of composers, often making greater use of sequence, imitation and repetition, and sometimes writing in the strictly contrapuntal style that became characteristic of the ricercare during and after the latter part of the 16th century. There are also many intabulations of chansons and other vocal works, most of which were published after Francesco’s death. (For a modern edition of Francesco’s lute works see The Lute Music of Francesco Canova da Milano (1497–1543), ed. A.J. Ness, HPM, iii–iv, 1970.)

From 1536 onwards, publishers, clearly exploiting a growing level of demand from dilettante players, frequently issued lute music in books devoted to more than one composer’s music. Five distinguished lutenist-composers are represented in the Intabolatura de leuto di diversi autori published by Castiglione (Milan, 1536); as well as fantasias by Francesco himself, there are several of comparable quality by Marco Dall’Aquila, Giovanni Giacopo Albuzio and Alberto da Ripa, as well as dances by Pietro Paulo Borrono.

Marco Dall’Aquila is the most important figure immediately preceding Francesco. A number of his works were printed, but most, including several which may originate from a lost print, are collected in a Munich manuscript (D-Mbs 266). The challenge of marrying a strictly imitative compositional style to the technical resources of the lute was also taken up by Alberto da Ripa (works ed. J.-M. Vaccaro, CM, Corpus des luthistes français, 1972–5), whose fantasias, often of considerable length, further add a telling use of expressive dissonance. Borrono seems to have specialized in dance music, although he also composed fantasias. His excellent dances are usually arranged into suite-like groupings of three or more pieces, sometimes with a concluding toccata.

Borrono published several collections of his own works and those of Francesco from 1546 onwards. In that year a large number of publications appeared containing works by minor composers such as Giulio Abondante, Melchiore de Barberiis, Giovanni Maria da Crema, Marc’Antonio Pifaro, Antonio Rotta and Francesco Vindella. Alongside idiomatic dances, fantasias and ricercares appears an almost equal number of arrangements or ‘intabulations’ of ensemble music, usually originally written for voices but occasionally of instrumental music by Julio Segni and others. Often these are hard to distinguish from original lute compositions, and recent research has begun to reveal that extracts of previously composed works were sometimes incorporated without acknowledgement into lute ricercares by many lutenists of the period, including Francesco himself.

Among the great number of Italian composers for the lute working in the second half of the 16th century, none reached the stature of Francesco Canova da Milano, although Giacomo Gorzanis (from 1561 to 1579), Giulio Cesare Barbetta and Simone Molinaro (1599) published some excellent works. All the current types of composition are represented in their works: ricercares and fantasias in the contrapuntal style developed by Francesco; intabulations of vocal originals; settings of dances, including the various popular grounds such as the passamezzo antico, the passamezzo moderno and the romanesca, as well as other famous tunes of the time. Much of this music was for solo lute, but a collection of dances for three lutes by Giovanni Pacoloni, long thought to have been lost, survives in an edition printed by Pierre Phalèse (i) in Leuven in 1564. In 1559 some of Francesco Canova da Milano’s ricercares were published by the Flemish composer Ioanne Matelart as Recercate concertate, that is, with a second lute-part or contrapunto, ingeniously converting the original solos into duets. Until the middle of the 16th century, lute music was generally within the prevailing modal ideas of the time, although some composers occasionally departed from strict modal structure. In 1567, however, Gorzanis produced a remarkable manuscript of 24 passamezzos, each with its accompanying saltarello, in major and minor modes on all the degrees of the chromatic scale, rising in succession.

True chromatic writing for the lute was rare, although by the end of the century it was beginning to be exploited, notably in works by the Genoese maestro di cappella, Simone Molinaro. The few surviving fantasias by the important Neapolitan composer and lutenist Fabrizio Dentice show a great command of the instrument and its contrapuntal possibilities; they are technically demanding, being consistently written in four real parts.

Vicenzo Galilei was another important figure of the period, though he is less known today as a composer than as a writer; his theoretical and practical studies are contained in books printed between 1568 and 1589, while further prints and manuscripts preserve a large body of his excellent lute music (extracts ed. in IMi, iv, 1934). At this time Italian lutenists were in demand throughout Europe; Galilei’s gifted younger son Michelangelo (1575–1631) worked as lutenist for the Polish and Bavarian courts (it was said that his brother, the scientist Galileo, was an even finer player). Diomedes Cato and Lorenzini were outstanding composers, each with a very personal style. Diomedes served the Polish court for many years, while Lorenzini, said to have received a papal knighthood for his lute playing, was unsuccessfully approached by Lassus as a recruit for the Kapelle of the Duke of Bavaria. His technically demanding and expressive music was later collected and published by a pupil, the French lutenist Besard, in his Thesaurus harmonicus (Cologne, 1603). Another distinguished lutenist who does not seem to have left Italy, Giovanni Antonio Terzi, published two books of his own fine music (1593 and 1599) – fantasias, vocal intabulations and dances – mainly for solo lute but including music for two and four lutes as well as lute parts to be played with other instruments. In Terzi’s second collection the ‘courante francese’ appears for the first time in Italy, presaging the changes in musical style and lute technique that were to result in French dominance of the lute scene for most of the following century.

French influence in dance music becomes increasingly important in the few Italian lute collections of the 17th century, although the expressive Italianate toccata style holds sway in freely composed genres. Michelangelo Galilei (1620) composed suites each comprising an introductory toccata effectively exploiting expressive dissonance followed by a sequence of dances in French style. This quasi-improvisatory style was taken somewhat further in the collections for lute and chitarrone or theorbo (1604, 1611 and 1640) by the lutenist and theorbist of German extraction, Giovanni Girolamo Kapsperger, whose idiosyncratic works have been compared with those for keyboard by his Roman colleague, Frescobaldi. A more reserved figure is Kapsperger’s Bolognese rival, Alessandro Piccinini, who was capable of fine works in a severely contrapuntal idiom as well as tuneful dances, virtuoso variations and expressive toccatas, frequently using chromaticism to good effect. A number of pieces by various members of the Garsi family of lutenists from Parma are found in a variety of manuscript sources, suggesting that their music was especially popular among dilettante players such as the owner of one such book (PL-Kj Mus Ms 41053), the Polish or White Russian nobleman K.S.R. Dusiacki (see Garsi, Santino).

By the 1620s the lute in Italy was normally fitted with several extra bass courses. A full octave of open basses on an extended neck was standard on the liuto attiorbato (the ‘theorboed lute’) as used in the French-influenced works of Pietro Paolo Melli who, unusually, experimented with scordatura tunings. This type of instrument, whose larger cousin, the arciliuto (archlute), was principally (although not exclusively) used for accompaniment from around 1680, was also called for in the highly virtuoso music of Bernardo Gianoncelli (1650), and again in the Corellian sonatas of Giovanni Zamboni (1718). Lute tablature was by this time virtually obsolete in Italy, although the instrument was used throughout the 18th century. The last significant sources, Filippo Dalla Casa’s manuscripts of 1759 (I-Bc EE155; ed. O. Cristoforetti, 1984), are written entirely in staff notation, a fact which raises the question as to whether more Italian lute music may survive in this form as yet unrecognized.

(ii) Germany, Bohemia and Austria.

Although based in Italy, many of the important figures in the early history of the lute were in fact German, notably the 15th-century blind organist, harpist and lutenist Conrad Paumann, who is said to have invented the German lute tablature system. Outside Italy the first printed lute music appeared in the Germanic states of the Holy Roman Empire. Virdung included instructions for the lute and one piece as a pedagogical illustration. Schlick’s Tabulaturen etlicher Lobgesang und Liedlein (1512) contains 14 songs for voice and lute and three solo pieces. Judenkünig’s Utilis et compendiaria introductio (c1515–19) and Ain schone kunstliche Underweisung (1523) both include instructions for playing as well as music. The first contains solo lute intabulations of settings of Horace’s odes by Petrus Tritonius published for voices in 1507, together with other similar pieces and dance music; the second is a mixture of dances, lute versions of vocal originals, and five pieces called ‘Priamel’, corresponding to the Italian ricercare. Gerle (1532) gave instructions and music for viol and rebec as well as for lute; his book was reprinted in 1537, and in 1546 a revised and enlarged edition was published. His Tabulatur auff die Laudten (1533) comprises music for solo lute, including intabulations and pieces entitled ‘Preambel’.

The publications of Hans Neusidler began with his book of 1536. He was the first writer of instruction books to show real pedagogic talent; not only did he give clear instructions for both right and left hands, but his pieces are carefully graduated, leading the beginner by gentle degrees through the initial difficulties. Two modified tunings are found in his work: one, known as ‘Abzug’, consisted in lowering the sixth course by a tone, and the other was used in his Judentanz. (The scordatura notation of this piece has been misread by some scholars, who thereby mistook it for an early example of polytonality.)

Collections of music in German tablature continued to be printed until 1592, some under the name of the publisher, such as those of Rudolf Wyssenbach (1550) and Bernhard Jobin (1572), others by composer, collector or arranger, such as Sebastian Ochsenkun (1558), Matthäus Waissel (1573, 1591, 1592) and Wolff Heckel (including music for two lutes, 1556, 1562). A total of about 20 or 30 volumes appear to have been printed. Most of these show considerable influence from Italian, French and even Spanish music of the time.

The German system of lute tablature was in use not only in Germanic countries, but was also widespread throughout central and Eastern Europe. Its earliest appearance (the Königstein Liederbuch; see Sources of lute music, §3), however, records a few single-line melodies which may be more suitable for a bowed instrument (identical tablature notation systems were often used for plucked and bowed instruments until well into the 18th century). Although there have been a number of studies of German lute tablature sources, the general lack of modern editions reflects the reluctance of modern lutenists to play from German tablature, which is commonly perceived as more difficult to read than the French or Italian systems. The relative importance of German lute sources has thus been consistently undervalued in the modern revival.

Many of the surviving manuscripts have evident associations with a university milieu, and these ‘student’ lutebooks often incorporate an anthology of Latin verses (frequently amorous), classical quotations and wise proverbs. Their musical content is sometimes less edifying, but they are valuable as repositories of a very wide range of styles and types of music, from solo pieces (fantasies, preludes etc.), complex intabulated vocal polyphony from the French, Italian and Flemish repertory as well as German chorale settings and Gesellschaftslieder, through to otherwise unrecorded dance and ‘folk’ music, often explicitly labelled with a regional origin. Some of the dance music can be shown to have its origins in polyphonic music and in the repertory of the Stadtpfeifer. An interesting characteristic is the late survival in lute sources of otherwise obsolete genres such as the Tenorlied and the Hoftanz. From the late 16th century onwards, formerly popular Hoftänze are often classed as ‘Polish dances’ in German lute sources. In manuscript and printed sources, the non-German music included tends to be predominantly Italian in the early 16th century, but by the end of the century a scattering of French, Polish and other Slavic, Hungarian and other Eastern European, and, increasingly, English dances are identified, many of which prove to be unique survivals.

After 1592, German publications for the lute used either Italian or French tablature, although German tablature continued in manuscript sources until about 1620. Important printed collections were those of Adrian Denss (Florilegium, 1594), Matthias Reymann (Noctes musicae, 1598) and Johann Rude (Flores musicae, 1600); these are extensive collections of pieces from the international repertory, and similar compilations continued to appear in the 17th century. The most important of these anthologies was Besard’s Thesaurus harmonicus (Cologne, 1603), mentioned above in connection with Lorenzini, Besard’s lute teacher in Rome, whose works occupy a central position in the volume. Others were those of Georg Leopold Fuhrmann (Testudo gallo-germanica, Nuremberg, 1615), Elias Mertel (Hortus musicalis, Strasbourg, 1615), and Johann Daniel Mylius (Thesaurus gratiarum, Frankfurt, 1622).

Probably as a consequence of the Thirty Years War (1618–48), little music for the lute was published in German-speaking lands until much later in the century. A few manuscripts, and the evidence of paintings and literary sources, suggest, however, that the instrument continued in regular use, in solos and for accompanying the voice. Among the most important manuscripts is that compiled by Virginia Renata von Gehema in Danzig (now Gdańsk) around the middle of the century (D-Bsb Mus.ms.40624). In common with most such collections, it consists mostly of music by French lutenists such as Mesangeau, the Gaultiers, Dufaut and Pinel, or by their German imitators, leavened with German song settings (and, in this particular case, by an unusual number of Polish dances). The French influence extended to the use of the accords nouveaux on lutes with ten to twelve courses. Esaias Reusner (ii), who studied with a French lutenist, in his two published collections (1667 and 1676) mostly used the D minor tuning that was rapidly becoming the standard, but also employed other tunings in a highly idiomatic fashion. While Reusner’s debt to French models, especially Dufaut, is clear, his music is characterized by an increasing tendency towards a cantabile melodic style and an expressive use of dissonance. Philipp Franz Le Sage de Richée seems to have worked for Baron von Niedhardt in Breslau, capital of the German-speaking province of Silesia, a region of much importance in the subsequent history of lute music. In his Cabinet der Lauten (n.p., n.d.; the copy formerly in Riemann’s possession bore the date 1695), he praised Gaultier, Dufaut, Mouton (his former teacher) and the influential Bohemian aristocratic lutenist Count Jan Antonín Losy. His valuable lute-playing instructions were frequently copied into manuscripts and his book was – most unusually – reprinted as late as 1735. A more mysterious figure is Jacob Bittner who a decade earlier published a highly accomplished collection of Pieces de lut (Nuremberg, 1682).

In the Hapsburg lands of Austria and Bohemia, French influence on lute music was, if anything, even stronger, and it seems likely that several French players visited the region. Among the large number of items of lute and guitar music assembled in the great library of the Lobkowitz family at Roudnice are several that suggest close personal contact with Mouton, Gallot and others, including the guitarists Derosiers and Corbetta. Local composers for the lute, like their German counterparts, tended to imitate the French, while adding touches of Italianate melody, explicitly in the case of movements labelled ‘Aria’, which may reveal the increasing influence of opera. By 1700 the lute was unmistakably an ‘aristocratic’ instrument in Vienna, although T.B. Janovka (Clavis ad thesauram magnae artis musicae, Prague, 1701/R, 2/1715/R as Clavis ad musicam) stated that lutes were so plentiful in Prague that the houses could be roofed with them. The Viennese lutenists Ferdinand Ignaz Hinterleithner (1699) and Baron Wenzel Ludwig von Radolt (1701) dedicated their published works to successive music-loving emperors, although neither contains much music of any inspiration; they are both collections of chamber music for lute with other instruments. Their younger contemporary J.G. Weichenberger left no published collection, and much of his music is lost, but what remains shows some fine qualities, especially in his extended improvisatory preludes.

Count Jan Antonín Losy von Losinthal, the ‘Prince among lutenists’ according to Le Sage de Richée, left a significant number of works in manuscript in an idiomatic and appealingly mixed French/Italian style. He is best known, however, as the posthumous dedicatee of a tombeau composed on his death (1721) by the greatest lutenist of the following generation, Silvius Leopold Weiss (1686–1750), whose influence was felt throughout the German-speaking world. Weiss’s long career embraced early employment in his native city of Breslau, an extended stay in Italy (1708–14) and a lengthy period of employment as one of the stars of the Dresden musical establishment (1717–50). A larger body of music by him survives than by any other lutenist of any age (over 650 pieces) dating from all periods of his life, although establishing a reliable chronology for Weiss’s works is extremely difficult. In his multi-movement pieces, which he always called ‘sonatas’, he took the standard constituent dance forms of the French suite, working them out into impressive structures, often, especially in the later music, of great length. Some require a great deal of virtuosity in performance, but all remain highly idiomatic for the lute. In slower movements, such as sarabandes and allemandes, Weiss used a three-part texture, the inner voice contributing greatly to the expressive effect, while in faster music such as courantes, gigues and other virtuoso finale movements, the texture becomes predominantly two-part. Many of his sonatas are on an unprecedentedly large scale; they can take up to 30 minutes in performance. Most, however, do not survive with integral preludes; these are sometimes found added later to the manuscripts, in a few cases by Weiss himself. This suggests that he supplied them as substitutes or models for a movement that he expected an expert player to improvise. These highly expressive quasi-improvised preludes and fantasies, often employing chromatic harmony, represent some of Weiss’s most characteristic music. He also composed a good deal of music of a more contrapuntal nature in fugal sections of overtures and fantasies as well as in a number of self-standing fugues.

Among the pieces of J.S. Bach believed to have been intended for the lute (or lute-harpsichord, and thus in direct imitation of lute style) are some fugues (bwv997, 998) which extend the demands on the player beyond the normal bounds of idiomatic technique. Bach, although usually restrained in the simultaneous activity of the voices in these works, builds towards contrapuntal climaxes in four real parts, whereas Weiss ingeniously gives the impression of more complexity than in fact is present. Several of Bach’s lute works are adaptations of music originally for solo cello or violin which he made himself or are the work of contemporary lutenists (e.g. bwv997 and 1000, tablature versions by J.C. Weyrauch; bwv995, arranged by Bach, tablature version probably by Adam Falckenhagen), a precedent which has been successfully followed by many of today’s players. Bach clearly admired the instrument, writing expressive obbligato solo parts for the original versions of the St Matthew and St John Passions and using a pair of lutes in the Trauerode. The suite for harpsichord and violin bwv1025, for some time suspected as a spurious work, has been shown to be an arrangement of a lute sonata by Weiss, and contemporary references testify to the two composers’ acquaintance and mutual respect.

Weiss was the pre-eminent leader among a flourishing community of both amateur and professional lutenists in his time. Among the best-known were Wolff Jacob Lauffensteiner (1676–1754), Adam Falckenhagen (1697–1754), and the Breslau-born players Ernst Gottlieb Baron (1696–1760), already mentioned as an early historian of the lute, and Weiss’s pupil Johann Kropfgans (1708–c1771). Lauffensteiner’s music, and that from the early careers of Baron and Falckenhagen, is similar in style to that of Weiss (which leads to some confusion in manuscript sources). By the 1740s, however, lute composers began to prefer a simpler two-part texture, with increased treble–bass polarization. Later lutenists, such as the expert keyboard player and student of J.S. Bach, Rudolf Straube (1717–c1780) and the Bayreuth violinist Joachim Bernhard Hagen (1720–87), were affected by the somewhat different idioms of their principal instruments, and no trace of influence from the earlier French lute tradition remains. All these players, including Weiss himself, composed chamber works for the lute with other instruments, including concertos, although in the case of Straube and, most regrettably, of Weiss himself, none survive in complete form. There was a continuing demand for lute music among German amateurs, as is shown by the large quantity offered for sale in Leipzig; over 200 solo works, 23 lute duets, over 150 trios for lute, violin and bass, and 50 concertos for lute with string ensemble feature in various Breitkopf catalogues between 1761 and 1771. A significant repertory of vocal music arranged for the lute, sometimes fully texted, together with occasional written references to the practice, suggests that the lute at least in some circles maintained its traditional role in domestic situations as an accompaniment to the voice. The use of the larger and louder theorbo as a continuo instrument in church and opera house continued as long as there were expert players; Weiss performed in all the Hasse operas in Dresden until late in 1749, and Kropfgans took part in Hiller’s operettas in Leipzig for another two decades after that. Carl Maria von Weber heard Weiss’s son, Johann Adolf Faustinus Weiss, play the theorbo in the Dresden Hofkirche as late as 1811.

Questions of authenticity surround the handful of early works by Haydn in contemporary versions for lute with other instruments, in which the first violin part of a quartet, transposed down an octave and furnished with a simplified bass line, is given to the lute. Some highly idiomatic music in a similar style was composed by the Viennese lutenist Karl Kohaut (1726–82; like Haydn, a member of Baron van Swieten’s circle), including ensemble divertimenti, some challenging concertos and a single surviving solo sonata. Towards the end of the century Friedrich Wilhelm Rust composed a set of three sonatas for lute and violin (dated 1791 on one manuscript, but probably composed some years earlier). The last work for solo lute was a set of 12 variations by Christian Gottlieb Scheidler (d 1815) on a theme by Mozart, inspired by the first performance of Don Giovanni in Prague in 1787.

(iii) France.

Although the Pesaro manuscript (see §8(i) above) was written in ‘French’ tablature, its repertory and origin are exclusively Italian. The first printed French tablature, using a five-line staff, appeared in Guillaume Vorstermann’s Livre plaisant et tres utile (Antwerp, 1529), a translation of Virdung’s book of 1511. Virdung’s musical example was replaced with the Flemish chanson Een vrolic wesen (in organ tablature and staff notation as well as for lute). Also in 1529 Pierre Attaingnant at Paris printed his Tres breve et familière introduction; his Dixhuit basses dances of 1530 contained some 66 lute pieces (for a modern edition of some of Attaingnant’s music, see Preludes, Chansons and Dances for the Lute, ed. D. Heartz, 1964).

Between 1551 and 1596 Adrian Le Roy printed books of music for guitar and cittern as well as for lute. His surviving lutebooks extend from Premier livre de tablature de luth (1551) to Livre d’airs de cour (1571) for voice and lute. His instructions for playing the lute survive in English translation, and give a clear description of the technique used in France at the time.

Guillaume Morlaye was associated with the printer Michel Fezandat, also of Paris, who brought out not only Morlaye’s own works (1552–8) but also those of the Italian, Alberto da Ripa (1552–62). Julien Belin’s Premier livre (1556) was printed by Nicolas Du Chemin, and Giovanni Paolo Paladin’s (1560) at Lyons by Simon Gorlier.

In the latter part of the 16th century French music publishing declined somewhat, and few lutebooks were issued except for some reprints of earlier works. With the increase of diapason strings, the use of a five-line tablature staff gave way to six lines, and around the end of the century further changes began to appear. Somewhat earlier, the term ‘à cordes avallées’ had been used in one of Gorlier’s guitar books to denote the lowering of certain strings. The application of this term to the lute in Anthoine Francisque’s Le trésor d’Orphée (1600) signified a departure from the basic Renaissance tuning and foreshadowed a period of transition in which many tuning systems were adopted, though the old set of intervals continued in use for some time (see §5 above). The most notable collection of this period was Besard’s Thesaurus harmonicus (1603); the same editor’s Novus partus (1617) includes several pieces for an ensemble of lutes and instruments or voices as well as for solo lute. The ten-course lute figured largely in the books of Robert Ballard (ii) (1611, 1614) and of Vallet (1615, 1619, 1620), who also included a set of pieces for a quartet of lutes. Other distinguished composers for the lute in vieil ton include Julien Perrichon, Victor de Montbuisson, Mercure d’Orléans and Charles Bocquet. Their excellent works include a number of preludes or other improvisational genres, although dance music predominates.

Together with the increase in the number of diapason strings and the new tunings a marked change of style became apparent. Preludes, courantes, voltas and sarabandes became the favourite forms in the first decades of the 17th century, while intabulations of polyphonic music and the contrapuntal fantasie all but disappeared. The characteristic form of French lute song, the air de cour, sprang from the elaborate court ballets, and flourished between 1571 and 1632.

The eight volumes of Airs de différents autheurs (1608–18), the first six of which were arranged by Gabriel Bataille, include works by all the finest French songwriters of the time and show the influence of musique mesurée à l’antique. Although the exact setting of long and short syllables was not always strict, the verbal rhythms and poetic structure became of prime importance, and the restriction of the bar-line almost entirely disappeared. Many songs of great beauty were written in this style, notably by Pierre Guédron. (See also Chansons au luth et airs de cour français du XVIe siècle, ed. L. de La Laurencie, A. Mairy and G. Thibault, 1934; and Airs de cour pour voix et luth (1603–1642), ed. A. Verchaly, 1961.)

Early works by René Mesangeau and Ennemond Gaultier use the vieil ton, but both composers left a larger body of music in the later tunings. Gaultier in particular favoured the D minor tuning which was to become the norm by the mid-17th century. Three important anthologies under the title Tablature de luth des différents autheurs sur les accords nouveaux were issued at Paris by Pierre Ballard (1623, 1631, 1638); unfortunately the earliest does not survive. These present informal ‘suites’ of dances grouped by composer and tuning (strongly associated with key); although the numbers of each dance vary, the order of the ‘core’ component movements – allemande, courante, sarabande – remains fixed. Among the dances, which include sets of branles, there are a few song settings. Some of the composers, including Belleville and Chancy, were fashionable dancing masters who were closely associated with the ballet de cour; others, especially Mesangeau, Pierre Dubut le père and François Dufaut, together with the eminent royal musician Germain Pinel, were prominent and influential lutenists whose works make up a large proportion of the manuscript repertory preserved in France, Britain and German-speaking countries during the rest of the century.

Coinciding with the emergence of the D minor tuning as the favourite accord nouveau, the 11-course lute (see §3 above) became established as the norm, and seems to have ousted the 12-course instrument in France by the middle of the century, although the latter retained its popularity in Britain, Germany and the Netherlands for much longer. Players such as Dufaut and Dubut le père adapted to the new tuning with great success, while a new generation of lutenists, among them Denis Gaultier, Jacques Gallot and Charles Mouton produced a major body of expressive work in the classic style précieux of the Paris salon. In the pursuit of rhetorical expression (a goal made explicit in the famous and sumptuously decorated manuscript of Denis Gaultier’s music, La rhétorique des dieux, Paris, c1652; ed. A. Tessier, PSFM, vi–vii, 1932/R) a variety of strokes and fairly extensive ornamentation were expected, even more than those specifically indicated in the notation, and the use of notes inégales was also left to the taste and discretion of the player. (For the solo lute music see Corpus des luthistes français, a series produced by the CNRS, 1957–.)

An integral characteristic of the music of the French Baroque school was a convention of performance, reflected in the notation, that came to be known as style brisé; in many passages the notes of the treble and bass (or other voices) were sounded one after another (the bass first) instead of simultaneously as was the more general practice in polyphonic music. A related feature was the rhythmic breaking or arpeggiation of chords that were often written plain. This could be indicated by oblique lines placed between the component notes; often, however, such signs, like the explicit notation of notes inégales, were omitted altogether. Perrine, in a passage addressed to harpsichordists as well as lutenists, referred to the convention as ‘the special manner of playing all sorts of lute pieces’; ex.6 shows the interpretation given in his Pieces de luth en musique (1680). It was this style in particular that exerted a considerable influence on the writing of contemporary keyboard players and visitors such as the young Froberger. These conventions in the performance of French lute music were clearly considered characteristic of the genre by Germans adopting the French lute style. They are almost always more explicitly notated in the many important German sources of 17th-century French lute music which formed the basis of the German repertory well into the 18th century. Since, furthermore, these manuscripts often preserve large numbers of works (e.g. by Dufaut, Gallot and Mouton) not found in French sources their importance is considerable.

(iv) The Netherlands, Spain and eastern Europe.

In Antwerp Guillaume Vorstermann, who had published the French translation of Virdung’s Musica getutscht, brought out a Flemish translation, Dit is een zeer schoon boecxken … opt clavecordium luyte ende fluyte (1554, 2/1568). Of greater scope were the activities of Pierre Phalèse (i), whose first lutebook, Des chansons reduictz en tabulature de lut (Leuven, 1545), contained works by many composers. Phalèse, something of a pirate among publishers, specialized in large anthologies of music from all over Europe, collecting vocal as well as instrumental music of many kinds. The only surviving edition of Giovanni Pacoloni’s book, with music for three lutes, was published by Phalèse at Leuven in 1564. He later moved his press to Antwerp, where he joined Jean Bellère. Emanuel Adriaenssen’s books Pratum musicum, 1584, and Novum pratum musicum, 1592, with other editions up to 1600, were printed by Pierre Phalèse (ii) at Antwerp, and contain work by other composers besides Adriaenssen himself, in arrangements for one to four lutes with and without voices.

Joachim van den Hove produced two large collections of works by internationally famous composers: Florida (1601) and Delitiae musicae (1612). His own compositions and arrangements, which demand a sure technique, also appear in them and in a number of manuscripts, two of which are autograph (the Schele manuscript, D-Hs; and Hove, D-Bs). In 1626 Adriaen Valerius published an unusual collection of music for voice, lute and cittern with or without other instruments called Neder-landtsche gedenck-clanck. This was a thinly disguised book of patriotic songs directed against the occupying Spanish forces, using many popular tunes, some of them English. The enormous Thysius manuscript (see Thysius, Johan) contains lute music in all the genres of the early 17th century, including much English music, a large repertory of intabulated sacred and secular vocal music and a number of pieces for an ensemble of lutes. As far as the rest of the 17th century is concerned, although copious iconographical evidence suggests continuing popularity of the instrument in the Netherlands, there are almost no surviving musical sources for the lute.

After the expulsion of the Moors in 1492 the history of the lute in Spain becomes obscure. It was referred to by Bermudo as ‘vihuela de Flandes’, implying a degree of unfamiliarity. The only extant books of tablature printed in Spain are for the vihuela, which, though tuned to the same intervals as the lute, is a quite distinct instrument (for an account of its history and repertory see Vihuela). Nevertheless there is much evidence to suggest that the lute was more commonly used than has been generally recognized.

The most famous 16th-century east European lutenist was Valentin Bakfark, born in Transylvania. He wrote some fine fantasias in the Italian manner, and his great renown as a player took him to various courts and the houses of nobles and magnates all over the Continent. His books testify to his cosmopolitan reputation: Intabulatura liber primus (1553) was printed in Italian tablature in Lyons and was partially reprinted as Premier livre de tabelature de luth (1564) in French tablature, by Le Roy & Ballard in Paris. His Harmoniarum musicarum in usum testudinis factarum tomus primus (1565) was printed in Kraków and reprinted in Antwerp (1569), both editions using Italian tablature. Wojciech Długoraj, born in Poland about 1557, published no books of his own, but his works are found in several collections. Jakub Reys (‘Polonois’) was also born in Poland, but went to France when quite young and was appointed lutenist to Henri III; his works are mostly found in French anthologies.

(v) England.

Little is known about the use of the lute in England before the 14th century. Social development was hardly ripe for the general spread of art music outside the church, the court and a few great houses. Under the Tudors, however (following the Wars of the Roses which ended with the seizure of the English throne by Henry VII), a wealthy middle class began to appear, and the few urban centres of population grew at an unprecedented rate. From the time of Henry VIII onwards, manuscripts containing lute tablature began to appear, though none extant dates from before 1540. Most of the professional lutenists at Henry’s court were Flemish or Italian. The three royal children were taught to play, and evidence suggests that in general some amateur performers were beginning to become quite proficient.

The growth of the ‘leisured classes’ by about the middle of the 16th century led to a demand for instructions for playing the lute, which was best satisfied by printed books. The register of the Stationers’ Company records licences to John Alde for The Sceyence of Lutynge (1565) and to Robert Ballard (i) for An Exortation to All Kynde of Men How they shulde Learn to Play of the Lute (1567), but neither of these is now extant. The first three surviving instruction books in English are all derived from a single French source, Le Roy’s Tres breve et tres familière instruction, now lost. A Briefe and easye Instru[c]tion (1568) ‘englished by J. Alford Londenor’ contains instructions in the form of rules with music examples, followed by a collection of fantasias and dances. The rules, with certain minor variants, are reprinted as the second part of A Briefe and Plaine Instruction (1574), which also teaches ‘to set all music of eight divers tunes in Tableture for the Lute’ (almost all the examples being chansons by Lassus). The third part comprises a collection of music, quite different from that of 1568, ‘conteinynge diverse Psalmes, and manie fine excellente Tunes’; the latter are versions of French chansons that Le Roy had set for voice and lute in his Livre d’airs de cour (1571). English Protestant taste (the book is dedicated to Edward Seymore, Earl of Hertford) is catered for by the inclusion of metrical psalm tunes.

Le Roy’s instructions were again translated, but without acknowledgment, by William Barley in A New Booke of Tabliture (1596), which also contains sections for the orpharion and bandora. This work is the first printed collection for lute by English composers, and includes, in the bandora section of the book, the earliest English solo songs with tablature accompaniment. Robinson’s The Schoole of Musicke is a thorough lute method, written in the form of a dialogue ‘between a Knight, having children to be taught, and Timotheus, who should teach them’. The music that follows is all by Robinson himself, and includes some pieces for two lutes as well as fantasias, dances and settings of popular tunes for solo lute.

The last English instruction book for the Renaissance lute was Robert Dowland’s Varietie of Lute-Lessons (1610), comprising a translation of the instructions from Besard’s Thesaurus harmonicus (1603) and other observations on lute playing, by John Dowland. These are the only words on the subject that John Dowland left, despite references to ‘my father’s greater work’ in Robert Dowland's other publication of the same year, the songbook A Musicall Banquet. The Varietie contains a selection of fantasias, pavans, galliards, almains, currants and voltes (by English and continental composers) which must surely have been collected originally by John Dowland on his European travels.

These books, together with a considerably larger body of manuscript collections dating from about 1580 to about 1625, reveal music of the highest quality by composers such as John Johnson (i), Francis Cutting, Richard Allison, Daniel Bacheler, Philip Rosseter, Robert Johnson (ii), Alfonso Ferrabosco (i) (who spent most of his time in England between about 1562 and 1578), and above all John Dowland whose international fame at this time was unique among lutenists.

Solo lute music circulated mainly in manuscript, but starting with Dowland’s First Booke of Songes (1597) a series of songbooks for voice and lute was published in England – some 30 volumes averaging about 20 songs apiece. The duration of this vogue was only 25 years (the last collection was John Attey’s First Booke of Ayres of 1622) but it was responsible for some of the finest English songs of any period. A few of the composers also wrote in the madrigal style, and a few also composed solo lute music; but in general the writers of lute-songs in England kept almost entirely to that genre. Its appeal lay in a direction other than that of madrigals or solo lute music, for it entailed a much more concise setting of the text than the former, and had a less abstract emotional effect than the latter.

Many books of ayres were arranged so that they could be performed either as solo songs with lute and usually bass viol accompaniment, or as partsongs for four voices with lute. The favouring of a sustained bass line to balance the melody in the voice reflects the tendency to think in terms of a polarization of harmonic interest between those two parts. Many collections include lute parts as contrapuntal as the texture of a madrigal, but eventually accompaniments showed a tendency towards simplification, with less imitative part-writing and more straightforward chordal structure. Ultimately this led to the ‘continuo song’, where only the melody and bass were written down and the lutenist or theorbo player was expected to fill out the harmonies according to certain conventions known as the ‘rule of the octave’. The partsong alternative, started by Dowland in his First Booke and originally intended to appeal to a public eagerly immersed in madrigal singing, lent a characteristic stamp to the English ayre that makes it quite distinct from anything produced on the Continent. (For a modern edition of some of Dowland’s music, see Collected Lute Music, ed. D. Poulton and B. Lam, London, 1974, 3/1984.)

Another English use of the lute was in the mixed consort of three melody instruments (treble viol, flute, bass viol) and three plucked (lute, cittern, bandora), a grouping almost certainly conceived originally as an accompaniment to a solo voice somewhat in the manner of the older songs with viols (see Consort, §2). The treble viol, flute and bass viol played in three-part harmony which, often incomplete on its own, was filled in by the three plucked instruments. The cittern and bandora (both wire-strung) formed the alto, tenor and deep bass, while the lute had a dual role. Much of the music was in dance forms, with repeated sections, in the first of which the lute played chords; but in the repeats the lute played elaborate and rapid ‘divisions’, giving a silvery, shimmering quality to the music. This technique was known as ‘breaking the ground in division’; hence the expression ‘broken music’. The light texture of the three melody instruments allowed the lute prominence, while the cittern and the deep bandora provided fullness and body.

Printed collections of music for such a combination include the First Booke of Consort Lessons edited by Morley in 1599 and reissued with additional pieces in 1611 (ed. S. Beck, 1959) and Philip Rosseter’s 1609 edition of Lessons for Consort. No complete set of partbooks has survived for any of the editions. There are, however, two manuscript collections (the Matthew Holmes manuscripts in GB-Cu and the Walsingham consort books in GB-BEV and US-OAm), both also incomplete but whose contents overlap to some extent with those of the printed books. Part of William Leighton’s The Teares or Lamentacions of a Sorrowfull Soule (1614) is devoted to ‘consort songs’ set for four voices with the same six instruments.

With the development of the Jacobean and Caroline masque, larger groups of instruments began to appear. In Ben Jonson’s Oberon (1611) ‘20 lutes for the Prince’s dance’ were required, and the description of Love freed from Ignorance (1611) tells of the entrance of ‘12 Musitions that were preestes that songe and played’ and ‘12 other lutes’. The theorbo, said to have been introduced into England by Inigo Jones in 1605, soon found its way into favour in these entertainments. In James Shirley’s masque, The Triumph of Peace (1634), as many as seven lutes and ten theorbos were used.

Soon after the death of John Dowland in 1626, however, the English school of lutenist-composers declined. For some time the popularity of the lute had been overshadowed by that of the lyra viol, which was now cultivated by those amateurs who were also avid players of ensemble music for viols. With the coming of Charles I’s wife, Queen Henrietta Maria, and her entourage from France, a fashion grew up at court for all things French. The famous lutenist Jacques Gautier arrived from Paris with the Duke of Buckingham in 1617, was appointed to the court in 1619 and soon became popular in London, where he entered the literary circles of writers such as John Donne.

An interesting English manuscript spanning the change from the ‘old’ lute music of the Elizabethan and Jacobean composers to that of the new French style was compiled by Lord Herbert of Cherbury. It includes music by Dowland, Rosseter, Holborne and other such composers, along with that of Gautier and some compositions of Cherbury himself, the latest dated 1640. Also represented in this manuscript is Cuthbert Hely, who is otherwise virtually unknown. His music is of astonishing intensity: firmly grounded in the earlier English tradition, it nonetheless explores previously untried harmonic territory. Cherbury retained the ‘old’ tuning of the main six courses despite his interest in the new music and the French lute, but the new tunings are in evidence in other manuscripts, such as the latter part of Jane Pickering’s Lutebook where compositions by John Lawrence (d c1635) and Gautier demonstrate the ‘Harpe way’, ‘flat way’ and ‘tuning Gautier’.

With a few exceptions, such as the solos and duos by William Lawes, of which only three pieces survive, and the large quantity of (lost) lute music said to have been composed by John Jenkins, little music of any great value was written for the lute by English composers up to the time of the Civil War; but Lawes, using the theorbo as thoroughbass in his ‘Royal’ and ‘Harpe’ consorts, produced some of the most distinguished instrumental music of his time. During the Commonwealth and at the Restoration, trio sonatas continued to appear for viols or violins with the theorbo specified as a suitable continuo. A set of 30 unnamed pieces for solo lute or theorbo by John Wilson (1595–1674) is of outstanding interest. The pieces are in a distinctive improvisatory preludial style and systematically cover all 24 major and minor keys, with tuning indications to match. Such a scheme was only possible on the lute, whose tablature was unaffected by aspects such as enharmonic spellings and ‘double’ accidentals, which would have caused great problems in the staff notation of the time.

Meanwhile, the French lute and music by French composers began to enjoy considerable popularity, although the contents of Richard Mathew’s The Lute’s Apology for Her Excellency (which he claimed was the first printed book for the French lute to appear in England) fall well below the standard of excellence maintained in such manuscript collections as the Hender Robarts Lutebook, the Mary Burwell Lute Tutor (GB-Lam) and the Panmure Lutebook (GB-En). These collections, all compiled by, or under the supervision of, lutenists from Paris, show that the works of the Gaultiers, Vincent, Pinel and other distinguished French composers were familiar to English and Scottish players of the second half of the 17th century. An early 18th-century repertory for the French lute in Scotland is found in the Balcarres Lutebook, whose approximately 200 pieces consist of dance-tunes (often arranged from fiddle versions) and intabulations of Scottish melodies and well-known English songs such as ‘Lillibulero’ and ‘The King Enjoys his Own Again’, as well as a few French lute pieces.

The last great figure in the history of the lute in England was Mace, whose Musick’s Monument contains the most thorough extant set of instructions for the French lute, as well as some appealing music. He discussed technique, ornamentation, playing style, stringing, tuning, care of the instrument and many aspects of its history. The section on the theorbo is also valuable.

As a continuo instrument, particularly in accompanying the voice, the theorbo was important throughout the 17th century and well into the first half of the 18th. The theorbo or theorbo-lute is mentioned on the title-pages of many volumes ranging from Angelo Notari’s Prime musiche nuove (London, c1613) through most of Playford’s songbooks to Purcell’s Orpheus Britannicus (1698–1702), John Blow’s Amphion Anglicus (1700) and John Eccles’s Songs for One, Two and Three Voices (1704). Walter Porter included both lutes and theorbos among the accompanying instruments of the consort in his Madrigales and Ayres (1632).

The lute and theorbo were used by Handel in a number of his operas and other works, both as continuo and as obbligato in certain arias, such as ‘The soft complaining flute’ in his Ode for St Cecilia’s Day (1739). Players of the instrument were becoming rare, however, and Handel’s occasional use of it was usually due to the presence of a visiting virtuoso player, such as Carlo Arrigoni (in London between 1731 and 1736), who played in the Concerto op.4 no.6, originally scored for ‘Lute, Harp and Lyrichord’. According to Burney, the final appearance of the lute in an opera orchestra in England was in the aria ‘Due bell’aline’ in Handel’s Deidamia (1741).

Little more is heard of the lute in England in the 18th century, although the names of distinguished foreign players are occasionally encountered in newspaper advertisements for concerts; S.L. Weiss visited London and gave a short series of concerts in 1718. One player who settled in London was J.S. Bach’s former pupil, Rudolf Straube, from whom Thomas Gainsborough bought a lute and requested lessons in 1759. A manuscript partially compiled by Straube (GB-Lbl Add.31698) contains annotations in a later hand suggesting that pieces from it were copied by a player of the ‘Theorboe Lute’ up to the late date of 1813. However, the instrument mentioned on a few title pages dating from about 1800 as the ‘lute’ was in fact the harp-lute, whose music shows no discernible relationship with the real lute. (For other modern editions of English lute music see the series English Lute Songs, London, 1967–71, and Music for the Lute, ed. D. Lumsden, 1966–.)

a: ancient and non-european lutes

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A Ancient and non-European lutes. B Western lute, general. C Theoretical and pedagogical. D Construction. E Notation and tunings. F Repertory.

b: western lute, general

c: theoretical and pedagogical

d: construction

e: notation and tunings

f: repertory

a: ancient and non-european lutes

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b: western lute, general

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VannesE

M. Brenet: ‘Notes sur l'histoire du luth en France’, RMI, v (1898), 637–76; vi (1899), 1–44; pubd separately (Turin, 1899/R)

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A. Baines: ‘Fifteenth-Century Instruments in Tinctoris's De inventione et usu musicae’, GSJ, iii (1950), 19–26

B. Disertori: ‘Remarques sur l'évolution du luth en Italie au XVe siècle et au XVIe’, Le luth et sa musique: Neuilly-sur-Seine 1957, 19–24

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LSJ (1959–) [renamed The Lute in 1982]

G. Hayes: ‘Musical Instruments: Mandora and Lute’, Ars Nova and the Renaissance, 1300–1540, NOHM, iii (1960/R), 487–8

A.L. Lloyd: ‘The Rumanian Cobza’, LSJ, ii (1960), 13–16

M. Morrow and M. Graubart: ‘Lutes and Theorboes: their Use as Continuo Instruments described by Michael Praetorius in his Syntagma musicum’, LSJ, ii (1960), 26–32

M.W. Prynne: ‘James Talbot's Manuscript, IV: Plucked Strings – the Lute Family’, GSJ, xiv (1961), 52–68

M.W. Prynne: ‘Some Remarks on Lute Forgeries’, LSJ, iii (1961), 17–21

M.W. Prynne: ‘The Fretted Instruments, I: the Lute’, Musical Instruments through the Ages, ed. A. Baines (Harmondsworth, 1961/R, 2/1966/R)

M.W. Prynne: ‘The Old Bologna Lute-Makers’, LSJ, v (1963), 18–31

H. Radke: ‘Wodurch unterscheiden sich Laute und Theorbe’, AcM, xxxvii (1965), 73–4

J. Jacquot and A. Souris, eds.: Thomas Mace: Musick's Monument, ii: Commentaire et transcriptions (Paris, 1966)

R.G. Campbell: Zur Typologie der Schalenlanghalslaute (Strasbourg, 1968)

L. Cervelli: ‘Brevi noti sui liutai tedeschi attivi in Italia dal secolo XVIo al XVIIIo’, AnMc, no.5 (1968), 299–337

JLSA (1968–)

E. Pohlmann: Laute, Theorbe, Chitarrone: die Instrumente, ihre Musik und Literatur von 1500 bis zur Gegenwart (Bremen, 1968, enlarged 5/1982)

F. Hellwig: ‘Makers' Marks on Plucked Instruments of the 16th and 17th Centuries’, GSJ, xxiv (1971), 22–32

B. Tonazzi: Liuto, vihuela, chitarra e strumenti similari nelle loro intavolatura: con cenni sulle loro letterature (Milan, 1971, 2/1974)

H. Radke: ‘Theorbierte Laute (liuto attiorbato) und Erzlaute (arciliuto)’, Mf, xxv (1972), 481–4

F. Hellwig: ‘Zur Terminologie der europäischen Zupfinstrumente: das Vokabularium in den Quellen zum historischen Lautenbau’, Festschrift für Ernst Emsheimer, ed. G. Hilleström (Stockholm, 1974), 81–6

FoMRHI Quarterly (1975–)

I. Harwood and M. Prynne: A Brief History of the Lute (Richmond, 1975)

M. Saffle: ‘Lute and Related Instruments in Eight Important European and American Collections’, JLSA, viii (1975), 22–48; ix (1976), 43–61

D. Gill: Gut-Strung Plucked Instruments Contemporary with the Lute (Richmond, 1976)

M. Lowe: ‘The Historical Development of the Lute in the 17th Century’, GSJ, xxix (1976), 11–25

R. Spencer: ‘Chitarrone, Theorbo and Archlute’, EMc, iv (1976), 407–23

D. Abbott and E. Segerman: ‘The Names, String-Lengths and Pitch-Standards of Extended-Neck Lutes of the 17th Century’, FoMRHI Quarterly, no.7 (1977), 26–32

H.M. Brown: ‘Trecento Angels and the Instruments they Play’, Modern Musical Scholarship: Oxford 1977, 112–40

D. Poulton: ‘The Lute in Christian Spain’, LSJ, xix (1977), 34–49

W.B. Samson: ‘The Twelve-Course “English Lute”’, LSJ, xix (1977), 50–53

L. Wright: ‘The Medieval Gittern and Citole: a Case of Mistaken Identity’, GSJ, xxx (1977), 8–42

R. Bletschacher: Die Lauten- und Geigenmacher des Füssener Landes (Hofheim am Taunus, 1978)

J. Downing: ‘The Maler and Frei Lutes: some Observations’, FoMRHI Quarterly, no.11 (1978), 60–64

A. Layer: Die Allgäuer Lauten- und Geigenmacher (Augsburg, 1978)

D.B. Lyons: Lute, Vihuela, Guitar to 1800: a Bibliography (Detroit, 1978)

P. Päffgen: Laute und Lautenspiel in der ersten Hälfte des 16. Jahrhunderts (Regensburg, 1978)

D.A. Smith: ‘The Lutes in the Bavarian National Museum in Munich’, JLSA, xi (1978), 36–44

P. Beier: ‘Right Hand Position in Renaissance Lute Technique’, JLSA, xii (1979), 5–24

Gitarre & Laute (Kassel, 1979– )

J. Griffiths: ‘Lutes in the Museo Municipal de Música in Barcelona’, JLSA, xii (1979), 48–66

F. Hellwig: ‘Die Lauteninstrumente im Germanischen Nationalmuseum in Nürnberg’, Gitarre & Laute, i/6 (1979), 6, 8–15

J. Klima: ‘The D minor Lute in Central Europe after the Second World War’, JLSA, xii (1979), 73–7

K. Ragossnig: Handbuch der Gitarre und Laute (Mainz, 1979)

K. Rottmann: ‘The Resurrection of the Lute in Twentieth Century Germany’, JLSA, xii (1979), 67–72

D. and E. Segerman: ‘On Baroque Lute Stringing and Tunings’, FoMRHI Quarterly, no.16 (1979), 26–33

P. Abondance: ‘L'apport de l'iconographie la connaissance du luth’, Le luth et sa musique II: Tours 1980, 139–56

G. Hellwig: Joachim Tielke, eine Hamburger Lauten- und Violenmacher der Barockzeit (Frankfurt, 1980)

H. Heyde and P. Liersch: ‘Studien zum sächsischen Musikinstrumentenbau des 16./17. Jahrhunderts’, Jb Peters, ii (1980), 231–59

H. Radke: ‘Zur Spieltechnik der deutschen Lautenisten des 16. Jahrhunderts’, AcM, lii (1980), 134–47

D.A. Smith: ‘The Musical Instrument Inventory of Raymund Fugger’, GSJ, xxxiii (1980), 36–44

I. Harwood: ‘A Case of Double Standards? Instrumental Pitch in England c1600’, EMc, ix (1981), 470–81

F. Hellwig: ‘The Morphology of Lutes with Extended Necks’, EMc, ix (1981), 447–54

D. Gill: ‘Mandores and Colachons’, GSJ, xxxiv (1981), 130–41

C. Page: ‘The 15th-Century Lute: New and Neglected Sources’, EMc, ix (1981), 11–21

R. Spencer: ‘Lute and Guitar’, How Music Works, ed. K. Spence and G. Swayne (New York and London, 1981), 79–92

G. Ferraris: ‘Liuto, arciliuto, chitarrone, strumenti dell'età barocca in Italia’, Il ‘Fronimo’, xxxix (1982), 11–18

C. Page: ‘German Musicians and their Instruments’, EMc, x (1982), 192–200

J.M. Ward: ‘Changing the Instrument for the Music’, JLSA, xv (1982), 27–39

J. Dugot: ‘Description des luths de musée instrumental du C.N.S.M.’, Musique ancienne, xix (1985), 78–84

J. Dugot: ‘Some Lutes in Paris Museums’, JLSA, xvi (1983), 27–56; xvii–xviii (1984–85), 53–105

F. Rossi: Il liuto a Venezia dal Rinascimento al Barocco (Venice, 1983)

S. Toffolo: ‘The Corporation of Lute-Makers in Venice: Historical Aspects’, The Lute, xxiii (1983), 29–32

C. Young: ‘Zur Klassification und ikonographischen Interpretation mittelalterlicher Zupfinstrumente’, Basler Jb für historische Musikpraxis, viii (1984), 67–104

F. Getreau: ‘The Lute Collection of the Paris Museum of Musical Instruments: its Character, Formation and Development’, JLSA, xvii–xviii (1984–5), 50–52

O. Cristoforetti: ‘Les Piccinini et l'évolution organologique du luth à la fin du XVIe siècle’, Musique ancienne, xix (1985), 4–19

C. Gonzales Marcos: ‘Les luths du Museu de la Música de Barcelona’, Musique ancienne, xvi–xvii (1983), 22–73; xix (1985), 62–77

S. Howell: ‘Ramos de Pareja's Brief Discussion of Various Instruments’, JAMIS, xi (1985), 14–37

N. North: Continuo Playing on the Lute, Archlute and Theorbo (London, 1985)

P.L. Polato: ‘Liutai veneziani nei secoli XVI, XVII e XVIII: ricerca documentaria nell'Archivio di Stato di Venezia’, Flauto dolce, no.12 (1985), 6–15

S. Toffolo and M.P. Pedani: ‘Una famiglia di liutai tedeschi a Venezia: I Tieffenbrucker’, Il ‘Fronimo’, xiii (1985), 56–62

D. Gill: ‘Alternative Lutes: the Identity of 18th-Century Mandores and Gallichones’, The Lute, xxvi (1986), 51–62

H. Heyde: Musikinstrumentenbau im 15.–19. Jahrhundert: Kunst, Handwerk, Entwurf (Wiesbaden, 1986)

Lute Symposium: Utrecht 1986 [incl. M. Lowe: ‘Renaissance and Baroque Lutes: a False Dichotomy: Observations on the Lute in the Seventeenth Century’, 124–39]

I. Watschorn: ‘Einige bau- und spieltechnische Aspekte der “Barocklaute” anhand zeitgenössischer Beschreibungen, Ikonographien und vorhandener Instrumente’, Zupf- und Schlaginstrumente des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts: Blankenburg, Harz, 1986, 33–47

S. Toffolo: Antichi strumenti veneziani 1500–1800: quattro secoli di liuteria e cembalaria (Venice, 1987)

D. Poulton: ‘The Early History of the Lute’, JLSA, xx–xxi (1987–8), 1–21

A. Bollini: ‘L'attività liutistica a Milano dal 1450 al 1550: nuovi documenti’, Il ‘Fronimo’, xvi (1988), 9–23

C. Massip: ‘Facteurs d'instrument et maîtres à danser parisiens au XVIIe siècle’, Instrumentistes et luthiers parisiens: XVIIe–XIXe siècles, ed. F. Getreau and B. de Andia (Paris, 1988), 17–34

H. Minamino: Sixteenth-Century Lute Treatises with Emphasis on Process and Techniques of Intabulation (diss., U. of Chicago, 1988)

F. Pavan: ‘Liutisti itinerati e rapporti culturali fra le corti italiane del primo Cinquecento’, Il ‘Fronimo’, xvii (1989), 42–53

A. Corona-Alcalde: ‘The Vihuela and the Guitar in Sixteenth-Century Spain: a Critical Appraisal of some of the Existing Evidence’, The Lute, xxx (1990), 3–24

S. Toffolo: ‘Sul rapporto tra liuteria e iconografia in area veneto-lombarda tra Cinque e Seicento’, Liuteria e musica strumentale a Brescia tra Cinque e Seicento: Salò 1990, 45–61

K. Martius and K. Schulze: ‘Ernst Busch und Paul Hiltz: zwei Nürnberger Lauten- und Violenmacher der Barockzeit’, Anzeigen des Germanischen Nationalmuseums (1991), 145–83

G.M. Ongaro: ‘The Tieffenbruckers and the Business of Lute-Making in Sixteenth-Century Venice’, GSJ, xliv (1991), 46–54

R. Lundberg: ‘In Tune with the Universe: the Physics and Metaphysics of Galileo's Lute’, Music and Science in the Age of Galileo, ed. V.A. Coelho (Dordrecht, 1992), 211–39

J. Sage: ‘A New Look at Humanism in 16th-Century Lute and Vihuela Books’, EMc, xx (1992), 633–41

E. Neubauer: ‘Der Bau der Laute und ihre Besaitung nach arabischen, persischen und türkischen Quellen des 9. bis 15. Jahrhunderts’, Zeitschrift für Geschichte der arabisch-islamischen Wissenschaften, viii (1993), 279–378

S. Toffolo: ‘Sui liutai tedeschi a Venezia nel Cinque e Seicento e sui rapporti tra liuteria tedesca e pittura Veneziana’, Venedig und Oberdeutschlang in der Renaissance, Studi, ix (Sigmaringen, 1993), 197–205

P. Forrester: ‘An Elizabethan Allegory and some Hypotheses’, The Lute, xxxiv (1994), 11–14

C. Meyer: ‘Eine Lauten-Unterweisung aus dem späten 15. Jahrhundert’, Musik in Bayern, no.49 (1994), 25–33

M. Burzik: Quellenstudien zu europäischen Zupfinstrumentenformen (Kassel, 1995)

S. Court: ‘Renaissance Instrumental Ensembles: the Role of the Lute in Sixteenth-Century Consorts – Evidence from Terzi's Intabulations’, Performance Practice Review, viii (1995), 147–70

P. Király: A lantjáték Magyarországon a XV. századtól a XVII. század közepéig [Lute playing in Hungary from the 15th century until the mid-17th century] (Budapest, 1995) [with Ger. summary]

L. Sayce: ‘Continuo Lutes in 17th and 18th-Century England’, EMc, xxiii (1995), 666–84

D. Van Edwards: ‘Talbot's English Theorbo Reconsidered’, FoMRHI Quarterly, no.78 (1995), 32–3

K. Martius: Leopold Widhalm und der Nürnberger Lauten- und Geigenbau im 18. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt, 1996)

V.A. Coelho, ed.: Performance on Lute, Guitar and Vihuela: Historical Practice and Modern Interpretation (Cambridge, 1997)

Die Laute (1998–)

S. Pasqual and R. Regazzi: Le radici del successo della liuteria a Bologna (Bologna, 1998)

Acoustique et instruments anciens: Paris 1998

D.A. Smith: History of the Lute from Antiquity to the Renaissance (forthcoming)

c: theoretical and pedagogical

MersenneHU

PraetoriusSM, ii

VirdungMG

H. Arnaut de Zwolle: Treatise (MS, c1440; F-Pn lat.7295); facs., Fr. trans. and commentary in G. Le Cerf and E.-R. Labande: Instruments de musique du XVe siècle (Paris, 1932/R)

J. Tinctoris: De inventione et usu musicae (Naples, c1481–3); ed. K. Weinmann (Regensburg, 1917, rev. 2/1961 by W. Fischer)

H. Gerle: Musica teusch (Nuremberg, 1532/R, rev. 3/1546/R as Musica und Tabulatur)

J. Bermudo: Declaración de instrumentos musicales (Osuna, 1555/R)

J.-B. Besard: Thesaurus harmonicus (Cologne, 1603/R; Eng. trans. of appx in R. Dowland: Varietie of Lute-Lessons, 1610)

T. Robinson: The Schoole of Musicke (London, 1603/R); ed. in CM (1971)

R. Dowland: Varietie of Lute-Lessons (London, 1610/R) [incl. section by J. Dowland, and Eng. trans. of appx to J.-B. Besard: Thesaurus harmonicus, 1603]

T. Mace: Musick's Monument (London, 1676/R)

E.G. Baron: Historisch-theoretisch und practische Untersuchung des Instruments der Lauten (Nuremberg, 1727/R; Eng. trans., 1976, as Study of the Lute)

M. Southard and S. Cooper: ‘A Translation of Hans Newsidler's Ein Newgeordent künstlich Lautenbuch’, JLSA, xi (1978), 5–25

d: construction

I. Harwood: ‘A Fifteenth-Century Lute Design’, LSJ, ii (1960), 3–8

M.W. Prynne: ‘Lute Bellies and Barring’, LSJ, vi (1964), 7–12

F. Hellwig: ‘On the Construction of the Lute Belly’, GSJ, xxi (1968), 129–45

F. Hellwig: ‘An Example of Lute Restoration’, GSJ, xxiii (1970), 64–8

D. Edwards: ‘A Geometrical Construction for a Lute Profile’, LSJ, xv (1973), 48–9

D. Abbott and E. Segerman: ‘Strings in the 16th and 17th Centuries’, GSJ, xxvii (1974), 48–73

F. Hellwig: ‘Lute Construction in the Renaissance and the Baroque’, GSJ, xxvii (1974), 21–30

F. Hellwig: ‘Lute-Making in the Late 15th and the 16th Century’, LSJ, xvi (1974), 24–38

R. Lundberg: ‘Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Lute-Making’, JLSA, vii (1974), 31–50

D. Abbott and E. Segerman: ‘On Lute Bridges and Frets’, EMc, iii (1975), 295 only

D. Abbott and E. Segerman: ‘Gut Strings’, EMc, iv (1976), 430–37

D. Abbott and E. Segerman: ‘The Geometric Description and Analysis of Instrument Shapes’, FoMRHI Quarterly, no.2 (1976), 7–13

J. Downing: ‘Lute Bridges and Frets’, EMc, iv (1976), 365–7

I. Firth: ‘Acoustical Experiments on the Lute Belly’, GSJ, xxx (1977), 56–63

C. Bouterse: ‘Reconstructing the Medieval Arabic Lute’, GSJ, xxxii (1979), 2–9

M. Lowe: ‘An Assessment of the Progress of Twentieth-Century Lute-Making, with Suggestions for Future Development’, Le luth et sa musique II: Tours 1980, 157–62

G. Söhne: ‘On the Geometry of the Lute’, JLSA, xiii (1980), 35–54

W. Samson: ‘Lute Outlines: a Pragmatic Approach to Geometrical Description’, FoMRHI Quarterly, no.25 (1981), 35–8

R.H. Wells: ‘Number Symbolism in the Renaissance Lute Rose’, EMc, ix (1981), 32–42

S. Barber: ‘Making Lute Moulds’, The Lute, xxii (1982), 21–3

K. Coates: Geometry, Proportion and the Art of Lutherie (Oxford, 1985)

J. Dugot: ‘La facture du luth’, La facture instrumentale européenne: suprématies nationales et enrichèssement mutuel, Musée instrumental du Conservatoire national supérieur de musique de Paris, 6 Nov 1985 – 1 March 1986 (Paris, 1985), 35–51 [exhibition catalogue]

D. Edwards: ‘Gut Strings and Angled Bridges’, The Lute, xxv (1985), 17–28

Lute Symposium: Utrecht 1986 [incl. R. Nurse: ‘Design and Structural Development of the Lute in the Renaissance’, 101–12; J. Dugot: ‘Some Aspects of the Construction of Archlutes and Theorboes in Venice (ca. 1600–1650)’, 113–23]

R. Lundberg: ‘Historical Lute Construction: the Erlangen Lectures’, American Lutherie, no.19 (1989), 6–19; no.20 (1989), 40–53; no.21 (1990), 16–29; no.22 (1990), 20–27; no.23 (1990), 42–53; no.24 (1990), 40–53; no.28 (1991), 8–17; no.29 (1992), 10–19; no.30 (1992), 28–39; no.31 (1992), 46–54; no.35 (1993), 34–43; no.36 (1993), 32–8; no.37 (1994), 32–8; no.38 (1994), 8–17

M. Peruffo: ‘New Hypothesis on the Construction of Bass Strings for Lutes and other Gut-String Instruments’, FoMRHI Quarterly, no.62 (1991), 22–36

E. Segerman: ‘The Size of the English 12-Course Lute’, FoMRHI Quarterly, no.92 (1998), 31–2

e: notation and tunings

W. Apel: The Notation of Polyphonic Music, 900–1600 (Cambridge, MA, 1942, 5/1961; Ger. trans., rev., 1970)

G. Hayes: ‘Instruments and Instrumental Notation: the Lute’, The Age of Humanism, 1540–1630, NOHM, iv (1968), 709–83, esp. 721ff

J. Tichota: ‘Intabulationen und tschechischer Gemeinschaftsgesang an der Wende des 16. Jahrhunderts’, Musica bohemica et europaea: Brno V 1970, 63–9

H.M. Brown: ‘Embellishment in Early Sixteenth-Century Italian Intabulations’, PRMA, c (1973–4), 49–83

D. Poulton: ‘Graces of Play in Renaissance Lute Music’, EMc, iii (1975), 107–14

M. Lindley: ‘Luis Milan and Meantone Temperament’, JLSA, xi (1978), 45–62

H. Charnassé: ‘Transkription deutsches Lautentabulaturen par Computer’, Gitarre & Laute, i/4 (1979), 16–23

W. Boetticher: ‘Zum Problem der ältesten handschriftlich überlieferten Lautentabulaturen’, Ars musica, musica scientia: Festschrift Heinrich Hüschen, ed. D. Altenburg (Cologne, 1980), 61–5

Le luth et sa musique II: Tours 1980 [incl. J. Tichota: ‘Problèmes d'édition des tablatures de rédaction défectueuse’, 43–58; H.M. Brown: ‘La Musica Ficta dans les mises en tablatures d'Albert de Rippe et Adrian Le Roy’, 163–82]

G. Söhne: ‘Regelmässige Temperaturen auf der Laute’, Gitarre & Laute, iv (1982), 98–91

M.L. Göllner: ‘On the Process of Lute Intabulation in the Sixteenth Century’, Ars iocundissima: Festschrift für Kurt Dorfmüller, ed. H. Leuchtmann and R. Münster (Tutzing, 1984), 83–96

M. Lindley: Lutes, Viols and Temperaments (Cambridge, 1984)

H. Minamino: ‘Transformation in Intabulation’, JLSA, xvii–xviii (1984–5), 114–17

H.M. Brown: ‘The Importance of Sixteenth-Century Intabulations’, Lute Symposium: Utrecht 1986, 1–29

H.M. Brown: ‘Bossinensis, Willaert, and Verdelot: Pitch and the Conventions of Transcribing Music for Lute and Voice in Italy in the Early Sixteenth Century’, RdM, lxxv (1989), 25–46

F. Dry: Accords et frettages du luth et de la vihuela d'après quelques traités des XVI et XVII siècles (Paris, 1989)

E. Schulze-Kurz: Die Laute und ihre Stimmungen in der ersten Hälfte des 17 Jahrhunderts (Wilsingen, 1990)

S. Buetens: The Meaning and Performance of Ornament Signs in English Lute Tablatures (Menlo Park, CA, 1991)

J. Le Cocq: ‘The Pitch and Tuning in French Lute Song: 1603–1643’, The Lute, xxxii (1992), 46–71

D. Tunley: ‘Tunings and Transpositions in the Early 17th-Century French Lute Air’, EMc, xxi (1993), 203–11

M. Shepherd: ‘The Interpretation of Signs for Graces in English Lute Music’, The Lute, xxxvi (1996), 37–84

2. Origins and consolidation (1523–80).

f: repertory

A. Koczirz: ‘Österreichische Lautenmusik zwischen 1650 und 1720’, SMw, v (1918), 49–96; also pubd as introduction to DTÖ, 1, Jg.xxv/2 (1918/R)

H. Sommer: Lautentraktate des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts in Rahmen der deutschen und französischen Lautentabulatur (diss., U. of Berlin, 1923)

A. Koczirz: ‘Böhmische Lautenkunst um 1720’, Alt-Prager Almanach (1926), 88–100

P. Warlock: The English Ayre (London, 1926/R)

J. Zuth: Handbuch der Laute und Gitarre (Vienna, 1926–8/R)

L. de La Laurencie: Les luthistes (Paris, 1928/R)

O.J. Gombosi: Bakfark Bálint élete és müvei (1507–1576)/Der Lautenist Valentin Bakfark (1507–1576) (Budapest, 1935, rev. 2/1967 by Z. Falry in Ger. only)

H.-P. Kosack: Geschichte der Laute und Lautenmusik in Preussen (Kassel, 1935)

R. Newton: ‘English Lute Music of the Golden Age’, PMA, lxv (1938–9), 63–90

F.J. Giesbert: Schule für die Barocklaute (Mainz, 1940)

A. Koczirz, ed.: Wiener Lautenmusik des 18. Jahrhundert, EDM, 2nd ser., i (1942)

W. Boetticher: Studien zur solistischen Lautenpraxis des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1943)

J.M. Ward: The Vihuela da Mano and its Music (1536–1576) (diss., New York U., 1953)

La musique instrumentale de la Renaissance: Paris 1954

M. Rollin: ‘Le “tombeau” chez les luthistes Denis Gautier, Jacques Gallot, Charles Mouton’, XVIIe siècle, nos.21–2 (1954), 463–79

D. Lumsden: The Sources of English Lute Music, 1540–1620 (diss., U. of Cambridge, 1955)

L.H. Moe: Dance Music in Printed Italian Lute Tablatures from 1507 to 1611 (diss., Harvard U., 1956)

Le luth et sa musique: Neuilly-sur-Seine 1957

D. Heartz: Sources and Forms of the French Instrumental Dance in the Sixteenth Century (diss., Harvard U., 1957)

A. Malecek: ‘Beiträge zur Geschichte der Wiener Lautenspieler’, Jb des Vereins für Geschichte der Stat Wien, xiii (1957), 63–92

J. Jacquot: ‘Le luth et sa musique: vers une organisation internationale des recherches’, AcM, xxx (1958), 89–99

W.S. Casey: Printed English Lute Instruction Books, 1568–1610 (diss., U. of Michigan, 1960)

G. Lefkoff, ed.: Five Sixteenth Century Venetian Lute Books (Washington DC, 1960)

J. Ward: ‘The Lute Music of MS Royal Appendix 58’, JAMS, xiii (1960), 117–25

W. Rubsamen: ‘Scottish and English Music of the Renaissance in a Newly-Discovered Manuscript’, Festschrift Heinrich Besseler, ed. E. Klemm (Leipzig, 1961), 259–84

Z. Stęszewska: Tance polskie z tabulatur lutniowych [Polish dances in lute tablature], i–ii (Kraków, 1962–6)

H. Radke: ‘Beiträge zur Erforschung der Lautentabulaturen des 16. bis 18. Jahrhunderts’, Mf, xvi (1963), 34–51

J. Tichota: ‘Tabulatory pro loutnu a přibuzné nástroje na území ČSSR’ [Tablatures for lutes and related instruments in Czechoslovakia], Studie a materiály k dějinám starší české hudby (Praha, 1965), 139–49

E. Vogl: ‘Lautenisten der böhmischen Spätrenaissance’, Mf, xviii (1965), 28–901

J. Ward: ‘Parody Technique in 16th-Century Instrumental Music’, The Commonwealth of Music, ed. G. Reese and R. Brandel (New York, 1965), 208–28

C.M. Simpson: The British Broadside Ballad and its Music (New Brunswick, NJ, 1966)

K. Dorfmüller: Studien zur Lautenmusik in der ersten Hälfte des 16. Jahrhunderts (Tutzing, 1967)

H.B. Lobaugh: Three German Lute Books: Denss's ‘Floregium’, 1594; Reymann's ‘Noctes musicae’, 1598; Rude's ‘Flores musicae’ 1600 (diss., U. of Rochester, 1968)

E. Pohlmann: Laute, Theorbe, Chitarrone: die Instrumente, ihre Musik und Literatur von 1500 bis zur Gegenwart (Bremen, 1968, enlarged 5/1982) [incl. bibliography]

W.H. Rubsamen: ‘The Earliest French Lute Tablature’, JAMS, xxi (1968), 286–99

K. Dorfmüller: ‘Die Edition der Lautentabulaturen’, Musikalische Edition im Wandel historischen Bewusstseins, ed. T.G. Georgiades (Kassel, 1971), 189–202

H. Radke: ‘Zum Problem der Lautentabulatur-Übertragung’, AcM, xliii (1971), 94–103

P. Danner: ‘Before Petrucci: the Lute in the 15th Century’, JLSA, v (1972), 4–17

D. Heartz: ‘Mary Magdalen, Lutenist’, JLSA, v (1972), 52–67

W. Rave: Some Manuscripts of French Lute Music, 1630–1700 (diss., U. of Illinois, 1972)

A. Rooley and J. Tyler: ‘The Lute Consort’, LSJ, xiv (1972), 13–24

R. Henning: ‘German Lute Tablature and Conrad Paumann: Commemorating the 500th Anniversary of his Death’, LSJ, xv (1973), 7–10

U. Henning: ‘The Lute made Easy: a Chapter from Virdung's Musica getutscht (1511)’, LSJ, xv (1973), 20–36

J. Tichota: ‘Francouzská loutnová hudba v Čechách’ [French lute music in Bohemia], MMC, nos.25–6 (1973), 7–77 [with Ger. summary]

T. Heck: ‘Lute Music: Tablatures, Textures and Transcriptions’, JLSA, vii (1974), 19–30

H. Tischler: ‘The Earliest Lute Tablature?’, JAMS, xxvii (1974), 100–03

C.N. Amos: Lute Practice and Lutenists in Germany between 1500 and 1750 (diss., U. of Iowa, 1975)

L. Nordstrom: ‘The English Lute Duet and Consort Lesson’, LSJ, xviii (1976), 5–22

D. Fallows: ‘15th-Century Tablatures for Plucked Instruments: a Summary, a Revision and a Suggestion’, LSJ, xix (1977), 7–33

W. Boetticher: Handschriftlich überlieferte Lauten- und Gitarrentabulaturen des 15. bis 18. Jahrhunderts: beschreibender Katalog (Munich, 1978)

J. Jacquot: ‘Le luth et sa musique: from the Neuilly Colloquium to the Corpus of French Lutenists’, LSJ, xx (1978), 7–17

D. Lyons: Lute, Vihuela, Guitar to 1800: a Bibliography (Detroit, 1978)

P. Päffgen: Laute und Lautenspiel in der ersten Hälfte des 16. Jahrhunderts: Beobachtungen zur Bauweise und Spieltechnik (Regensburg, 1978)

Le luth et sa musique II: Tours 1980 [incl. A. Bailes: ‘An Introduction to French Lute Music of the XVIIth Century’, 213–29]

C. Page: ‘French Lute Tablature in the 14th Century?’, EMc, viii (1980), 488–91

W.F. Prizer: ‘Lutenists at the Court of Mantua in the Late Fifteenth and Early Sixteenth Centuries’, JLSA, xiii (1980), 5–34

J.-M. Vaccaro: La musique de luth en France au XVIe siècle (Paris, 1981)

D. Ledbetter: ‘Aspects of 17th-Century Lute Style Reflected in the Works of the Clavecinistes’, The Lute, xxii (1982), 55–67

E.A. Bowles: La pratique musicale au Moyen Age/Musical Performance in the Late Middle Ages (Geneva, 1983)

C.P. Comberiati: ‘On the Threshold of Homophony: Texture in Sixteenth-Century Lute Music’, JMR, iv (1983), 331–52

J. Glixon: ‘Lutenists in Renaissance Venice: some Notes from the Archives’, JLSA, xvi (1983), 15–26

F. Marincola: ‘The Instructions from Vincenzo Capirola’s Lute Book: a New Translation’, The Lute, xxiii (1983), 23–8

V. Coelho and others: ‘Studies in the Lute and its Music: Prospects for the Future’, JLSA, xvii–xviii (1984–5), 118–32

V. Ivanoff: ‘Das Lautenduo im 15. Jahrhundert’, Basler Jb für historische Musikpraxis, viii (1984), 147–62

J.M. Meadors: Italian Lute Fantasias and Ricercars Printed in the Second Half of the Sixteenth Century (diss., Harvard U., 1984)

J. Tichota: ‘Bohemika a český repertoár v tabulaturách pro renesanční loutnu’ [Bohemiana and the Czech repertory in tablature for the Reniassance lute], MMC, no.31 (1984), 143–222

D.J. Buch: ‘Style brisé, style luthée, and the choses luthées’, MQ, lxxi (1985), 52–67, 220–21

P. Päffgen: ‘Ein artliches Lob der Lauten: Blüte und Niedergang von Laute und Lautenspiel im 16.–18. Jahrhundert’, Concerto, ii (1985), 48–55

R. Toft: ‘An Approach to Performing the Mid 16th-Century Italian Lute Fantasia’, The Lute, xxv (1985), 3–16

L. Hoffmann-Erbrecht: ‘Lautenspiel und Lautenkomposition in Schlesien’, Musikgeschichte Schlesiens (Dülmen, 1986), 77–89

Lute Symposium: Utrecht 1986 [incl. A.J. Ness: ‘The Siena Lute Book and its Arrangements of Vocal and Instrumental Part-Music’, 30–49; L. Nordstrom: ‘The Lute in Settings for Consort’, 50–63]

S. McCoy: ‘Lost Lute Solos Revealed in a Paston Manuscript’, The Lute, xxvi (1986), 21–39

T.J. McGee: ‘Instruments and the Faenza Codex’, EMc, xiv (1986), 480–90

C. Meyer: Contributions à l'étude des sources de la musique de luth dans les Pays germaniques au XVIIème siècle (diss., U. of Strasbourg II, 1986)

H. Minamino: ‘Conrad Paumann and the Evolution of Solo Lute Practice in the Fifteenth Century’, JMR, vi (1986), 291–310

W.F. Prizer: ‘The Frottola and the Unwritten Tradition’, Studi musicali, xv (1986), 3–37

D. Ledbetter: Harpsichord and Lute Music in 17th-Century France (London, 1987)

S. McCoy: ‘Edward Paston and the Textless Lute-Song’, EMc, xv (1987), 221–7

P. Päffgen: ‘Lautenmusik vor 1500’, Gitarre & Laute, ix/6 (1987), 58–61

M. Spring: The Lute in England and Scotland after the Golden Age, 1629–1750 (diss., U. of Oxford, 1987)

D.J. Buch: ‘Texture in French Baroque Lute Music and Related Ensemble Repertories’, JLSA, xx–xxi (1987–8), 120–54

R. d'A. Jensen: The Lute Ricercar in Italy, 1507–1517 (diss., U. of California, 1988)

J.J. Kmetz, ed.: Die Handsschriften der Universitätsbibliothek Basel. Katalog der Musikhandschriften des 16. Jahrhunderts: Quellenkritische und historische Untersuchung (Basle, 1988)

A. Schlegel: ‘Bemerkungen zur “Rhétorique des dieux”’, Gitarre & Laute, xi/2 (1989), 17–23

J. Griffiths: ‘Une fantaisie de la Renaissance: an Introduction’, JLSA, xxiii (1990), 1–16

D. Ledbetter: ‘French Lute Music 1600–1650: Towards a Definition of Genres’, The Lute, xxx (1990), 25–47

D. Fabris: ‘Influenze stilistiche e circolazione manoscritta della musica per liuto in Italia e in Francia nella prima metà del Seicento’, RdM, lxxvii (1991), 311–33

D. Fabris: ‘Voix et intruments pour la musique de danse: à propos des airs pour chanter et danser dans les tablatures italiennes de luth’, Le Concert des voix et des instruments à la Renaissance: Tours 1991, 389–422

C. Meyer and others: Sources manuscrites en tablature: luth et théorbe (ca. 1500–ca. 1800), catalogue descriptif, i–iii (Baden-Baden, 1991–9)

R. Eberlein: ‘The Faenza Codex: Music for Organ or for Lute Duet?’, EMc, xx (1992), 460–66

M. Gómez: ‘Some Precursors of the Spanish Lute School’, EMc, xx (1992), 583–93

C. Meyer: ‘Quelques aspects de la diffusion de la musique de luth dans les Pays rhénans à l'époque de la Renaissance et du Baroque’, Mitteilungen der Arbeitsgemeinschaft für mittelrheinische Musikgeschichte, lix (1992), 363–72

K. Polk: German Instrumental Music of the Late Middle Ages: Players, Patrons and Performance Practice (Cambridge, 1992)

J.M. Ward: Music for Elizabethan Lutes (Oxford, 1992)

J. Craig-McFeely: English Lute Manuscripts and Scribes 1530–1630 (diss., U. of Oxford, 1993)

D. Kirsch and L. Meierott: Berliner Lautentabulaturen in Krakau (Mainz, 1993)

V.A. Coelho: The Manuscript Sources of Seventeenth-Century Italian Lute Music (New York, 1995)

P. Lay: ‘French Music for Solo Theorbo: an Introduction’, Lute News, no.40 (1996), 3–7

V.A. Coelho, ed.: Lute, Guitar and Vihuela: Historical Practice and Modern Interpretation (Cambridge, 1997) [incl. D. Fabris: ‘Lute Tablature Instructions in Italy: a Survey of the Regole from 1507–1759’, 16–46]

A. Brinzing: ‘Formen und Traditionen in den deutschen Lautentänzen des 16. Jahrhunderts’, Die Laute, i (1998), 5–17

P. Király: ‘Einige Beobachtungen und Anmerkungen ber Lautenmusikquellen, Lautenisten und Amateure im 16. und frühen 17. Jahrhundert’, Die Laute, i (1998), 24–44

Lute-harpsichord

(Fr. clavecin-luth; Ger. Lautenklavecimbel, Lautenklavier, Lautenwerck).

A gut-strung harpsichord (occasionally supplemented with a choir of metal strings) intended to imitate the sound of the lute. It should not be confused with the so-called Lute stop on some harpsichords. Some writers have described the Arpicordo as a form of lute-harpsichord, but this is incorrect because ‘arpicordo’ is only another name for the Italian polygonal virginal. Gut-strung arpicordi were known, however – Michel de Hodes made an ‘arpicordo leutato’, and Banchieri’s Arpitarrone (L’organo suonarino, 2/1611) was probably gut-strung – and in all probability there were other experiments with gut-strung keyboard instruments. A ‘Harfentive’ was described by Virdung (1511) as being gut strung, but exactly what kind of instrument it was is unclear; it seems to have been intended to imitate the harp.

German makers in the first half of the 18th century seem to have been those most interested in the potentials of the lute-harpsichord and a number of different types were produced by such builders as Johann Christoph Fleischer, Zacharias Hildebrandt and Johann Nicolaus Bach. The form and layout of lute-harpsichords was quite variable. Some were rectangular, some oval, some wing-shaped like a harpsichord; some had a hemispherical resonator below the soundboard (similar to the lute); some had individual bridges for each string and others had continuous bridges like those in a conventional harpsichord. Of all these instruments, Fleischer’s ‘Theorbenflügel’ was probably the most elaborate, having three sets of strings: the register at 8' pitch and the one tuned an octave lower were of gut, but there was also a 4' register with metal strings, presumably to brighten the overall sound.

Jacob Adlung devoted a chapter of his Musica mechanica organoedi (ii, 1768, pp.133ff) to lute-harpsichords and considered them to be ‘the most beautiful of all keyboard instruments after the organ … because it imitates the lute, not only in tone quality, but also in compass and delicacy’. He gives the compass as generally three octaves, C to c'', with strings that are not as long in the bass as in a harpsichord. The two lower octaves have two strings to every note and in the bass octave these are tuned as unison and octave, as on the lute; the top octave is single strung. According to Adlung the ‘Lautenwerk’ sounded so like the lute that it could deceive even experienced lutenists, but had the serious disadvantage of not being able to imitate the lute’s dynamic gradations. J.N. Bach (a second cousin of J.S. Bach) partly overcame this difficulty by devising instruments with two or three keyboards. The jacks plucked the strings at different distances from the nut, those furthest from the nut giving the softest tone.

Among the instruments in the inventory of J.S. Bach’s estate, made after his death in Leipzig in 1750, there were two lute-harpsichords, valued at 30 Reichsthaler each. An interesting eyewitness account of a lute-harpsichord which Bach is said to have designed, and had built for him by Zacharias Hildebrandt, is given by J.F. Agricola, who was himself a pupil of Bach. Agricola wrote in Adlung’s Musica mechanica organoedi (p.139) that

It had two courses of gut strings, and a so-called Little Octave of brass strings. In its normal disposition – that is, when only one stop was drawn – it sounded more like a theorbo than a lute, but if one drew the lute stop [i.e. the buff stop] such as is found on a harpsichord together with the cornet stop [i.e. the 4' brass strings], one could almost deceive even professional lutenists.

One work by J.S. Bach that must surely have been written for a lute-harpsichord is the Suite in E minor, bwv996. Bach’s autograph has not survived but a contemporary manuscript copy, by J.L. Krebs, has the following inscription on the title-page: ‘Preludio con la Svite / da / Gio: Bast. Bach./ aufs Lauten Werck’.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Adlung: Musica mechanica organoedi, ii, ed. J.L. Albrecht (Berlin, 1768/R); ed. C. Mahrenholz (Kassel, 1931)

U. Henning: ‘The Most Beautiful Among the Claviers: Rudolf Richter’s Reconstruction of a Baroque Lute-Harpsichord’, EMc, x (1982), 477–86

U. Henning: ‘Zur Frage des Lautenklaviers bei Johann Sebastien Bach’, Alte Musik als ästhetische Gegenwart: Bach, Händel, Schütz: Stuttgart 1985, 465–9

U. Henning and R. Richter: ‘Die “Laute auf dem Clavier”: zur Rekonstruktion des Theorbenflügels nach Johann Christoph Fleischer (1718) durch Rudolf Richter (1986)’, Basler Jb für historische Musikpraxis, xii (1988), 109–22

EDWIN M. RIPIN/DENZIL WRAIGHT

Lute societies.

In England, the Lute Society was founded in 1956, to encourage the playing of the lute and related instruments; the dissemination of information on playing technique and historical instruments; and, by making working drawings available, the construction of modern instruments. The society, numbering about 400 members in the 1990s, holds three or four meetings a year for lectures and performance. It publishes information booklets and lute music in tablature, and arranges playing days. The Lute Society Journal commenced in January 1957; since 1959 it has appeared annually, changing its title to The Lute in 1982. A newsletter has been issued irregularly since February 1959, frequently with a music supplement in tablature.

The Lute Society of America, founded in 1966, issues irregularly a newsletter (known as the Quarterly from 1989), and annually a journal (no.1, 1968). The Swedish Guitar and Lute Society, founded in 1968, publishes a quarterly journal, Gitarr och luta (no.1, October 1968), and arranges a summer school. The Centre Animation Expression Loisir in Paris commenced publication of the journal Luth et musique ancienne in June 1977. The title was shortened to Musique ancienne from June 1978, but the journal continued to devote considerable space to the lute until the final issue (no.23, June 1989). The Nederlandse Luit Vereniging, founded in 1982, issues a newsletter approximately every four months, de tabulatuur (no.1, November 1982). The Société Française de Luth, founded in 1985, issues a bulletin about three times a year called Tablature (no.1, January 1985). It also arranges playing days and publishes tablature. The Società Italiana del Liuto, founded in 1990, issues a quarterly Bollettino.

ROBERT SPENCER

Lute stop

(Fr. nasale, registre d’hautbois; Ger. Nazard, Nasal-Register, Nasalzug, Oboezug).

A row of jacks plucking one of the 8' choirs of a harpsichord very close to the nut, producing a characteristically penetrating sound. In the 18th century the German terms for the stop were ‘Spinet’ and ‘Cornet’. Although this stop has been called ‘lute’ in English since the 18th century there is considerable confusion as to the proper use of the term, since such apparently equivalent foreign terms as ‘Lautenzug’ actually refer to the Buff stop. For clarity, the term ‘nasal stop’ is now sometimes used in English.

EDWIN M. RIPIN/JOHN KOSTER

Lutfullayev, Bakhrullo

(b Farish area, Jizak province, 5 Sept 1948). Uzbek composer. He trained at the Tashkent Conservatory as a choral conductor (graduating in 1972) and composer (graduating in 1987 from the class of M. Tajiyev). He has worked as a chorus member and conductor for Uzbek Radio (1965–88), teacher at the Tashkent Conservatory (1988–92), head of the music department of Uzbek Radio (1992–6) and, since 1996, as head of music on Uzbek TV. His broadly lyrical style is influenced by Uzbek maqom; his works are notable for their sumptuous combination of Uzbek melodies with Western forms of polyphonic development.

WORKS

(selective list)

Str Qt, 1985; Sym. no.1, 1987; Ulugbek yulduzi [The Star of Ulugbek], poem, orch, 1987; Vatan madhi (cant.), 1987; Sym. no.2 ‘Mungh’ (after T. Tula), nar, solo vv, chorus, str, perc, 1988; Conc.-Sym. ‘Dughokh’ (after Navoi, Babur, Nisbat), nar, solo vv, chorus, 1989; Sym. no.3 ‘Uzbekistan’ (after Kh. Alimdjan), nar, 1v, chorus, orch, 1989; Cycle (A. Navoi), chorus, 1990; Sym. no.4 ‘Nido’, nar, solo vv, chorus, 1991; Samarkand Ushshogi (musical drama, U. Azim), 1992; Sym. no.5, 1993; Yyor istab (musical comedy, Kh. Sharipov), 1993; Takdir (musical drama, R. Ma''diev), 1999; chbr works, songs, romances

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Golovyants and E. Meyke: ‘Bakhrullo Amrullayevich Lutfullayev’, Kompozitorï i Muzïkovedï Uzbekistana (Tashkent, 1999)

RAZIA SULTANOVA

Luth

(Fr.).

See Lute.

Luthé

(Fr.).

A term used by François Couperin to characterize the consistent application of the arpeggiated lute style to the harpsichord. See Style brisé.

Luthéal [piano-luthéal].

A modified grand piano with parallel (not overstrung) strings, fitted with a mechanism which caused a ‘pièce de touche’ or buffer to come down on the strings, thereby producing sounds of a very individual timbre. The device was named ‘jeu de harpe tirée’ by its inventor, the Belgian organ builder Georges Cloetens. His first patent for it, granted on 28 January 1919, shows a very strong damper added to the strings which resulted in a kind of imitation of the ‘lute-like’ playing of the harpsichord (‘jeu de clavecin’), very rich in harmonics. The keyboard was arranged in two halves, dividing at middle C. With four draw stops (two each for the treble and bass, as in a harmonium) the performer thus had nine combinations of timbres available, including the normal timbre of the piano.

Ravel used the instrument for the accompaniment to his violin piece Tzigane (1924); he also scored for it in his opera L’enfant et les sortilèges (1920–25). In the latter work, he suggested placing sheets of paper between the hammers and the strings of an upright piano as an alternative method of obtaining the jeu de clavecin, a technique which was employed at the Paris Opéra and which had previously been used by Satie in Le piège de Méduse (1914). A luthéal has been discovered in the cellars of the museum of the Brussels Conservatory and restored. In 1987 the French government commissioned the building of a luthéal to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Ravel’s death; this instrument is now in the Musée de la Musique, Paris.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

‘Séances de la Société: séance du jeudi 14 juin 1972’, Revue de musicologie, lix (1973), 317 [report on R. Cotte: ‘Un instrument de musique peu connu, le luthéal, utilisé par Maurice Ravel’]

R. Cotte: ‘Le luthéal’, Hi-fi stéréo (1976), 221–4

H. Davies: ‘Maurice Ravel and the Luthéal’, Experimental Musical Instruments, iv/2 (1988), 11–14

ROGER J.V. COTTE

Luther, Martin

(b Eisleben, 10 Nov 1483; d Eisleben,18 Feb 1546). German theologian andfounder of the Lutheran Church. He influenced all 16th-century church reformers to a greater or lesser extent by his writings and activities but, unlike some of them, Luther gave an important place to music.

ROBIN A. LEAVER

1. Life.

Luther was the son of a fairly prosperous Thuringian miner, who wanted his son to become a lawyer. He was sent to appropriate Latin schools in Mansfeld and Magdeburg, and to the Georgschule in Eisenach. In 1501 he entered the University of Erfurt, where he took the bachelor’s and master’s degrees. Then, following his father’s wishes, he began to study law, but unexpectedly entered the local Augustinian monastery and in 1505 became a monk. In April 1507 he was ordained priest and celebrated his first Mass a month later. Three years later he was commissioned to visit Rome to plead the cause of the reorganization of the Augustinian order. While there he was shocked by the commercialism and worldliness of the Italian clergy.

On his return Luther took the doctorate in theology (1512) and became professor of sacred scripture at the University of Wittenberg, a post he held until his death. Between 1512 and 1518 he lectured on a number of biblical books, including Psalms, Romans and Galatians. During these years he ceased to be just another scholastic theologian and emerged as the biblical theologian and church reformer of his time. At this time he had the so-called ‘tower experience’: he came to believe that the essence of the Gospel is faith in the crucified and risen Christ; that the sinner is ‘justified by faith alone’. Justification by faith is the touchstone of Luther’s theology and, as he began to come to terms with the doctrine and its implications, he carried most of the university faculty with him. Wittenberg became known as a centre of biblical studies.

Since Luther’s theology was based on the scriptures rather than on the traditions of the church, a conflict was inevitable. Thus Luther called the practice of selling indulgences into question, and on 31 October 1517 gave notice of his wish to debate the matter by nailing his 95 Theses to the door of the Schlosskirche in Wittenberg. These were quickly circulated throughout Germany – indeed, throughout Europe – and the financial returns from the sale of indulgences were adversely affected. Despite pressure to silence him, he continued to make his views public. In 1520 he published three significant writings which, in a sense, were foundation documents of the emerging church which was eventually to bear his name. In the An den christlichen Adel deutscher Nation von des christlichen Standes Besserung he argued against the power of the papacy; De captivitate Babylonica ecclesiae praeludium was his classic statement against the sacramentalism and sacerdotalism of the Roman Catholic Church: and Von der Freiheit eines Christenmenschen augued that a Christian is not bound by the laws of the church but is freed in the Gospel to serve Christ and his fellow man.

The following year he was excommunicated and, after his appearance at the Diet of Worms, where he refused to recant, was condemned as an outlaw by the state. Returning from Worms he was ‘kidnapped’ by his friends and taken to Wartburg Castle near Eisenach. During the following months of enforced solitude he was able to reflect on the implications of biblical doctrines for the life of the church; it was a very productive period and among other writings he completed his translation of the New Testament into German. When he returned to Wittenberg in 1522 he began to reorganize the church there in accordance with biblical principles. The form of worship was changed, hymnbooks were issued, and the basic Reformation doctrines were taught through his Large and Small Catechisms of 1529. The definitive summary of Lutheran belief, the Augsburg Confession, written by Melanchthon with Luther’s full agreement, was presented to Emperor Charles V on 25 June 1530.

For the rest of his life Luther continued lecturing, preaching and encouraging the progress of the Reformation in Saxony and throughout Germany. His greatest work in these years was the completion of his German translation of the entire Bible, a translation which provided inspiration for generations of Lutheran composers. Luther died after acting as a mediator in a quarrel between the princes of Mansfeld. His body was reverently borne to Wittenberg and was buried five days later beneath his pulpit in the Schlosskirche.

Luther, Martin

2. Works.

The Nuremberg poet Hans Sachs described Luther’s reforming work as the singing of ‘the Wittenberg nightingale’ in a poem published in 1523, when Luther was beginning to compose hymn melodies. Luther’s musical abilities were recognized early; for example, while at school he received free bed and board from an elderly woman who admired his voice. He himself reported that he joined other boys singing from house to house there, begging for bread according to custom (Luther’s Works [LW], xlvi, p.250). His practical involvement was matched by an understanding of music theory, which can be judged from his frequent references to the Quadrivium, the medieval fourfold division of mathematics into arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music (LW, xlv, p.369; LW, xlvi, p.252). His experiences within the Augustinian order and his visit to Rome brought him into contact with the music of many composers, particularly that of Josquin des Prez and Ludwig Senfl, which he valued highly. He is said to have had a fine, though soft, tenor voice, and was an accomplished performer on the flute and lute: the Tischreden contains a number of references to his playing the lute at table and singing with his friends. At various periods Luther worked with significant musicians including the large body of singers and instrumentalists that Frederick the Wise employed at the Schlosskirche in Wittenberg (Duffy, 1995). He also had close associations with the organists Georg Planck in Zeitz and Wolf Heinz in Halle, with the music publisher Georg Rhau and his assistant Sixt Dietrich, as well as with the two successive Kapellmeisters to Duke Frederich, Conrad Rupsch and Johann Walter (i).

In contrast to other reformers, Luther developed a positive, theological understanding of music. He considered music to be ‘the excellent gift of God’ (LW, liii, p.321; see also LW, xv, p.247; WA, Tischreden, no.4441), and maintained: ‘I place music next to theology and give it highest praise’ (WA, Tischreden, no.7034; see also nos.968, 3815, and his letter to Senfl, 4 October 1530). In a much-quoted reference (WA, Tischreden, no.1258) he commented that Josquin’s music was as free as the song of the finch, epitomizing the freedom of the gospel in contrast to the constraint of the law. Older commentators have drawn attention to the parallel between Josquin’s later style, in which greater emphasis is placed on the text than in his earlier compositions, and Luther’s theology of the word and his concern for the clarity and comprehensibility of the liturgical text. However, later writers (Wiora, 1969; Staehelin, 1986), suggest that Luther’s appreciation of Josquin’s music was as much aesthetic as theological.

The two focal points of Luther’s reforms were the church and schools. In his ecclesiastical reform, vernacular congregational hymnody was fundamental (see Chorale). Beginning in winter 1523–4 Luther and his colleagues began writing, revising, composing and arranging hymns for people to sing in the new evangelical worship. While Luther’s ability in writing the texts of these hymns has been universally acknowledged, his compositional accomplishments in this hymnody have been variously evaluated. During the 19th century, scholarly opinion credited few, if any, of these melodies to Luther. By the mid-20th century this consensus was reversed and Luther was regarded as the composer and/or arranger of virtually all the melodies that originally appeared with his texts, a consensus based on three principal reasons: Luther’s contemporaries considered them to be his; it was customary for composers to write poetry and poets to write music; and Luther clearly had the necessary musical gifts and abilities. More recent scholarship, while accepting Luther’s authorship of most of these pieces, has raised questions about some of the melodies. Evidence suggests that Walter may have collaborated with Luther in establishing the accepted forms of particular melodies (Blankenburg, 1978 and 1991).

Luther not only supplied congregational hymns for the new forms of worship but also various liturgical chants. Again, his principal collaborator was Walter, who, in about 1566, recollected Luther’s skill at writing such music (Praetorius, Syntagma musicum, 451–2; trans. Nettl, 75–6):

When he, Luther, 40 years ago desired to introduce the German mass in Wittenberg, he … urged His Electoral Highness to bring … Konrad Rupsch and me to Wittenberg. At that time he discussed with us the Gregorian chants and the nature of the eight modes, and finally he himself applied the eighth mode to the Epistle and the sixth mode to the Gospel, saying: ‘Christ is a kind Lord, and His words are sweet; therefore we want to take the sixth mode for the Gospel; and because Paul is a serious apostle we want to arrange the eighth mode for the Epistle’. Luther himself wrote the music for the lesson and the words of the institution of the true body and blood of Christ, sang them to me, and wanted to hear my opinion of it. … One sees, hears and understands at once how the Holy Ghost has been active not only in the authors who composed the Latin hymns and set them to music, but in Herr Luther himself, who has invented most of the poetry and melody of the German chants. And it can be seen from the German Sanctus [Jesaja dem Propheten geschah] how he arranged all the notes to the text with the right accent and concent in masterly fashion. I, at the time, was tempted to ask His Reverence from where he had these pieces and his knowledge; whereupon the dear man laughed at my simplicity. He told me that … all music should be so arranged that its notes are in harmony with the text.

The close association between words and notes, which later characterized the compositions of Schütz, was extremely important to Luther. In 1525 he wrote that ‘both text and notes, accent, melody and manner of rendering ought to grow out of the true mother tongue and its inflection’ (LW, xl, p.141; see also D. Martin Luthers Werke, [WA] Briefwechsel, iii, no.847; WA, Tischreden, no.2545). He also had an acute sense of the rhythmic stress of poetry (WA, Tischreden, no.1333) that was reflected in the rhythmic energy of the original forms of his melodies (seeChorale, with facs. of Ein’ feste Burg). These rhythms were changed in the 18th-century isometric versions.

In his concern for reform of music in schools attached to evangelical churches, Luther joined forces with various colleagues notably Philipp Melanchthon, who supplied the pedagogical framework for music in schools, Johann Walter, who composed much of the polyphonic repertory that was first taught in schools, and Georg Rhau, who published a whole series of editions of music for school and church. For Luther the knowledge of music was of utmost importance in the education of young people; he sent his son Hans to Torgau to study music with Walter (see the letter to M. Crodel, 26 August 1542), declared that a schoolmaster must know how to sing, and even held that no one should be ordained who had no practical experience of music (WA, Tischreden, no.6248). Thus it became customary in the Lutheran church, until the 18th century, for musicians to study theology and prospective pastors to study and practise music.

The combination of Luther’s theology of music, his provision and promotion of hymns and chants, his encouragement of congregational, vocal and instrumental liturgical music, and his concern for music in schools, laid the foundation for the distinctive tradition of Lutheran church music.

See alsoChorale andLutheran church music.

Luther, Martin

WORKS

Editions:D. Martin Luthers Werke: kritische Gesamtausgabe (Weimar, 1883–) [WA]Luther’s Works, ed. J. Pelikan and H.T. Lehmann (St Louis and Philadelphia, 1955–) [LW]Luthers geistliche Lieder und Kirchengesänge, ed. M. Jenny (Cologne, 1985) [J]

hymns

all in WA xxxv, LW liii and J

original hymns

Ach Gott vom Himmel sieh darein (Ps xii); Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir (Ps cxxx); Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam; Dies sind die heiligen zehn Gebot (Exodus xx); Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott (Ps xlvi); Ein neues Lied wir haben an (in honour of Lutheran martyrs burnt in Brussels, 1 July 1523); Erhalt uns, Herr, bei deinem Wort; Es spricht der Unweisen Mund wohl (Ps xiv); Es wolle Gott uns gnädig sein (Ps lxvii)

Jesus Christus unser Heiland, der den Tod (in Leise form); Mensch willt du leben seliglich (Exodus xx); Mit Fried und Freud ich fahr dahin (Nunc dimittis); Nun freut euch, lieben Christen g’mein; Sie ist mir lieb die werte Magd (Revelation xii); Vater unser in Himmelreich (Lord’s Prayer); Vom Himmel hoch da komm ich her (Luke ii); Vom Himmel kam der Engel Schar (Luke ii); Wär Gott nich mit uns diese Zeit (Ps cxxiv); Wohl dem, der in Gottes Furcht steht (Ps cxxviii)

hymns based on Latin models

Christum wir sollen loben schon (from A solis ortus); Der du bist drei in Einigkeit (from O lux beata trinitas); Jesus Christus, unser Heiland, der von uns (based on Jesus Christus nostra salus, attrib. Huss); Komm Gott, Schöpfer, Heiliger Geist (from Veni Creator Spiritus)

Komm, Heiliger Geist, Herre Gott (from Veni Sancte Spiritus); Nun komm der Heiden Heiland (from the Ambrosian Veni Redemptor genitum); Verleih uns Frieden gnädiglich (from Da pacem Domine); Was fürcht’st du, Feind Herodes, sehr (from Hostis Herodes impie)

hymns based on German models

Christ ist erstanden; Christ lag in Todesbanden; Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ; Gott der Vater wohn uns bei: Gott sei gelobet und gebeneidet; Komm heiliger Geist, Herre Gott; Mitten wir im Leben sind; Nun bitten wir den Heiligen Geist; Nun lasst den Leib begraben; ?Unser grosse Sünde und schwere Missetat; Wir glauben all’ an einen Gott

Liturgical Psalms and Hymns

?All Ehr und Lob soll Gottes sein (Gloria in excelsis Deo; see Ameln, 1988), Christe du Lamm Gottes (Agnus Dei), Die deutsche Litanei, Herr Gott dich loben wir (Te Deum laudamus); Ich dank dem Herrn (Ps cxi), Ich will den Herrn loben (Ps xxxiv), Jesaja dem Propheten das geschah (German Sanctus), Latina litania correcta, Lobet den Herren (Ps cxvii)

melodies associated with luther's hymns and liturgical texts

Editions:J. Zahn: Die Melodien der deutsche evangelischen Kirchenlieder (Gütersloh, 1889–1893) [Zahn]M. Jenny: Luthers Geistliche Lieder und Kirchengesänge: Vollständige Neuedition in Ergänzung zu Band 35 der Weimarer Ausgabe [Archiv zur Weimarer Ausgabe der Werke Martin Luthers, iv (Cologne, 1985) [AWAiv]]Evangelisches Gesangbuch (Berlin, 1993) [EG]

a: composed by luther



Hymns	Zahn	AWAiv	EG

Ach Gott vom Himmel sieh darein (1529/33)	4431	8 D	273
Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir (1524)	4437	11 B	299a
Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott (1529)	7377a	28	362
Ein neues Lied wir haben an (1523)	7245	18	—
Erhalt uns, Herr, bei deinem Wort (1543)	350	38	193
Es wolle uns Gott genädig sein (1524)	7247	10 A	280
Jesus Christus unser Heiland, der den Tod (1524)	1978	13 C	102
Jesus Christus, unser Heiland, der von uns (1533)	1577	6 B	—
Nun freut euch, lieben Christen g'mein (1524)	4427	2 A	341
Nun freut euch, lieben Christen g'mein (1529/33)	4429a	2 C
=Es ist gewisslich an der Zeit			149
Sie ist lieb die werte Magd (1535)	8516	34	—
Vater unser in Himmelreich (c1538)	2562	35 A	—
Verleich uns Frieden gnädiglich (1529)	1945	30	421
Vom Himmel hoch da komm ich her (1539)	346	33 B	24
Wohl dem, der in Gottes Furcht steht (1524)	298	7 B	—


Liturgical texts	Zahn	AWAiv	EG

?All Ehr und Lob soll Gottes sein (1537)	8618	—	—
Christe du Lamm Gottes (1528)	58	27	190.2
Die deutsche Litanei (1529)	8651	29 A	192
Gelobet sei der Herr (Benedictus) (1533)	—	45	—
Herr Gott dich loben wir (Te Deum) (1533)	8652	31	191
Ich dank dem Herrn (Ps cxi) (1533)	—	43	—
Ich will den Herrn loben (Ps xxxiv) (1526)	—	—	—
Jesaja dem Propheten das geschah (1526)	8534	26	—
Kyrie eleison (1526)	—	25	178.3
Latina litania correcta (1529)	—	29 B	—
Lobet den Herren (Ps cxvii) (1533)	—	44	—
Verba testamenti (1526) (WA xix, 97–99; LW liii, 80–81	—	—	—


Lectionary Tones

The melodic formulae are given in the Deutsche Messe und Ordnung Gottesdienst (1526), together with a fully notated epistle and gospel; WA xix, 72, LW liii, 61. In an appx further examples of a fully notated epistle and gospel are given, but these are probably the work of Johann Walter.

b. adapted by luther



Hymns	Zahn	AWAiv	EG

Christ ist erstanden (1529)	8584	32	99
Christum wir sollen loben schon (1524)	297	16	—
Der du bist drei in Einigkeit (1545)	335	41	[470]
Dies sind die heiligen zehn Gebot (1524)	1951	1 A	231
Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ (1524)	1947	5	23
Gott sei gelobet und gebenedeiet (1524)	8078	4	214
Jesus Christus, unser Heiland, der von uns (1533)	1576	6 A	215
Komm Gott, Schöpfer, Heiliger Geist (1524/9)	294	17	126
Komm, Heiliger Geist, Herre Gott (1524)	7445	15	125
Nun bitten wir den Heiligen Geist (1524)	2029	19	124
Nun komm der Heiden Heiland (1524)	1174	14	4
Nun laßt uns den Leib begraben (1542)	[340]	40 B	—
?Unser große Sünde und schwere Missetat (1545)	—	42	—
Vater unser in Himmelreich (1539)	2561	35 B	344


Funeral Sentences (1542)	Zahn	AWAiv	EG

Credo quod redemptor (Job xix.25; Ps cxlvi.1–2		464
Ecce quomodo moritur (Isa lvii.1-2; Ps xvii.15)		466
Cum venisset Jesus (Mt ix.23–24; Mk vi.41–42)		468
Ecce mysterium magnum (1 Cor xv.51–52, 54–55)		469
Stella enim differt (1 Cor xv.41–45)		470
Nolumus autem vos fratres ignorare (1 Thess iv.13–14)		472
Si credimus quod Jesus Christus (1 Thess iv.14; 1 Cor xv.22)		473

C. Composed or Adapted by Luther in Collaboration with Johann Walter



Hymns	Zahn	AWAiv	EG

Christ lag in Todesbanden (1524)	7012	12/b	101
Gott der Vater wohn uns bei (1524)	8507	23	138
Jesus Christus unser Heiland, der den Tod (1524)	1977	13 A	—
Wir glauben all an einen Gott (1524)	7971	24/a	183

D. Composed or Adapted by Johann Walter

Ach Gott vom Himmel sieh darein (1524)	4432a	8 C	—
Es spricht der Unweisen Mund wohl (1524)	4436	9 C	196
Es wolle uns Gott genädig sein (1524)	7246	10 B	—
= Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam	—	—	202
Jesus Christus unser Heiland, der den Tod (1524)	1976	13 B	—
Mensch, willst du leben seliglich (1524)	1956	20 B	—
Mit Fried und Freud ich fahr dahin (1524)	3986	21/a	519
Mitten wir im Leben sind (1524)	8502	3	518
Nun freut euch, lieben Christen g’mein (1524)	4428	2 D	—
Wär Gott nicht mit uns diese Zeit (1524)	4434	22 A	—
Wär Gott nicht mit uns diese Zeit (1528)	4435	22 D	—
Vom Himmel hoch, da komm ich her (1541)	345	33 C	—

polyphonic settings

?Höre Gott meine Stimm’ in meiner Klage (Ps lxiv.1), 4vv, WA xxxv, 543

Non moriar, sed vivam (Ps cxviii.17), 4vv, WA xxxv, 537, LW iii, 339

writings relatng to music

Peri tēs mousikēs (1530), WA xxx/2, 695 (Ger. trans. in O. Söhngen,Theologie der Musik, Kassel, 1967, p.87)

Encomion musices (preface to Rhau’s Symphoniae iucundae, Wittenberg, 1538⁸), WA1, 368, LW liii, 321 (see Blankenburg, 1972)

Letter, end of 1523, to G. Spalatin, WA Briefwechsel iii, 220, LW xlix, 68

Letter, 4 Oct 1530, to L. Senfl, WA Briefwechsel v, 639, LW xlix, 427

Letter, 7 Oct 1534, to M. Weller, WA Briefwechsel vii, 104; ed. T.G. Tappert, Luther: Letters of Spiritual Counsel (London, 1955), 96

Letter, 26 Aug 1542, to M. Crodel, WA Briefwechsel, x, 134; LW l, 230

Tischreden, ed. in WA Tischreden i–vi [contains numerous allusions to or comments on music]

Preface to J. Walter’s Geystliche Gesangk Buchleyn (Wittenberg, 1524), WA xxxv, 474, LW liii, 315

Preface to J. Klug’s Gesangbuch (Wittenberg, 1529), WA xxxv, 475, LW liii, 317 (formerly thought to have appeared in H. Weis’s Gesangbuch, Wittenburg, 1528; see J 31–5)

Vorrhede auff alle gute Gesangbücher … Frau Musica, preface to J. Walter’s Lob und Preis der löblichen Kunst Musica (Wittenberg, 1538/R), WA xxxv, 483, LW liii, 319 (formerly thought to have appeared in H. Weis’s Gesangbuch, Wittenburg, 1528; see J 31–5)

Preface to J. Klug’s Begräbnislieder (Wittenberg, 1542), WA xxxv, 478, LW liii, 325

Preface to V. Bapst’s Geistliche Lieder (Leipzig, 1545/R, 1959, 1966), WA xxxv, 476, LW liii, 332

liturgical writings

Formula missae et communionis pro Ecclesia Wittembergensi (Wittenberg, 1523), WA xii, 205, LW liii, 19

Von Ordnung Gottesdienst in der Gemeine (Wittenberg, 1523), WA xii, 35, LW liii, 11

Deutsche Messe und Ordnung Gottesdienst (Wittenberg, 1526/R), WA xix, 72, LW liii, 61

Luther, Martin

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BlumeEK

MGG1(W. Blankenburg)

ReeseMR

ZahnM

J. Rautenstrauch: Luther und die Pflege der Kirchlichen Musik in Sachsen (Leipzig, 1907/R)

K. Anton: Luther und die Musik (Zwickau, 1916, 4/1957)

W.E. Buszin: ‘ Luther on Music’, MQ, xxxii (1946), 80–97

P. Nettl: Luther and Music (Philadelphia, 1948/R)

R.M. Stevenson: ‘Luther’s Musical Achievement’, Patterns of Protestant Church Music (Durham, NC, 1953), 3–12

V. Vajta: Die Theologie des Gottesdienste bei Luther (Göttingen, 1952, 3/1959; Eng. trans., abridged, 1958, as Luther on Worship)

T. Hoelty-Nickel: ‘Luther and Music’, Luther and Culture, Martin Luther Lectures, iv (Decorah, IA, 1960), 143–211

K.F. Müller and W.Blankenburg, eds.: Leiturgia Handbuch des Evangelischen Gottesdienstes, iv: Die Musik des Evangelischen Gottesdienstes (Kassel, 1961)

K. Ihlenfeld: ‘ Die himmlische Kunst Musica: ein Blick in Luthers Brief’, Luther: Zeitschrift der Luther-Gesellschaft, xxxiv (1963), 83–90

M. Jenny: ‘The Hymns of Zwingli and Luther: a Comparison’, Cantors at the Crossroads: Essays on Church Music in Honor of Walter E. Buszin, ed. J. Riedel (St Louis, Missouri, 1967), 45–63

J. Riedel: The Lutheran Chorale: its Basic Traditions (Minneapolis, 1967)

O. Söhngen: Theologie der Musik (Kassel, 1967)

J.W. Barker: ‘ Sociological Influences upon the Emergence of Lutheran Music’, MMA, iv (1969), 157–98, esp. 172–85

W. Wiora: ‘Josquin und “des Finken gesang” (zu einem Ausspruch Martin Luthers)’, DJbM, xiii (1969), 72–81

R.L. Gould: The Latin Lutheran Mass at Wittenberg, 1523–1545: a Survey of the Early Reformation Mass and the Lutheran Theology of Music (diss., Union Theological Seminary, 1970)

W. Blankenburg: ‘Überlieferung und Textgeschichte von Martin Luthers “Encomion musices”’, Luther-Jb (1972), 80–104

R.A. Leaver: The Liturgy and Music: a Study of the Use of the Hymn in Two Liturgical Traditions (Nottingham, 1976)

W. Blankenburg: ‘Johann Walter: der Urheber der endgültigen Gestalt der Weisen von “Wir glauben all an einen Gott” und “Mitten wir im Leben sind”’, JbLH, xxii (1978), 146–55

M. Jenny: ‘Luthers Gesangbuch’, Leben und Werk Martin Luthers von 1525 bis 1546, ed. H. Junghans (Berlin, 1983), 303–21, 825–32

F. Kalb: ‘Luther und die Musik des Gottesdienst’, Gottesdienst und Kirchenmusik (1983), 144–50

J.-D. Kraege: ‘ Luther théologien de la musique’, Etudes théologiques et religieuses, lviii (1983), 449–63

H.R. Pankratz: ‘Luther's Utilization of Music in School and Town in the Early Reformation’,The Martin Luther Quincentennial: Michigan 1983, 99–112

O. Söhngen: ‘Luthers Bedeutung für die Geschichte der Musik’, Musik und Kirche, liii (1983), 225–33

F. Weiniger: ‘ Die Musik im pastoralen Konzept Martin Luthers’, Diakonia, xiv (1983), 372–7

F. Weiniger: ‘ Martin Luther und die Musik’, Musica sacra, ciii (1983), 184–6

M. Jenny: ‘Sieben biblische Begräbnisgesänge: ein unbekanntes und unediertes Werk Martin Luthers’, Lutheriana: zum 500. Geburtstag Martin Luthers, ed. G. Hammer and K.-H. zur Mühlen (Cologne, 1985), 455–74

R. Schmidt-Rost: ‘Martin Luthers Gedanken über die Orgel im Gottesdienst’,Württembergische Blätter für Kirchenmusik, lii/2 ( 1985), 40–45

K.C. Sessions: ‘Luther in Music and Verse’, Pietas et societas: New Trends in Reformation Social History: Essays in Memory of Harold J. Grimm, ed. K.C. Sessions and P.N. Bebb (Kirksville, MO, 1985), 123–39

M. Staehelin: ‘ Luther über Josquin’, Festschrift Martin Ruhnke zum 65. Geburtstag (Neuhausen, 1986), 326–38

P. Veit: Das Kirchenlied in der Reformation Martin Luthers (Wiesbaden, 1986)

E. Foley: ‘Martin Luther: a Model Pastoral Musician’, Currents in Theology and Mission, liv (1987), 405–18

G. Kappner: ‘ Luther und die Musik’, Singet und spielet dem Herrn: Bremer Beiträge zur Kirchenmusik, ed. G. Kappner (Bremen, 1987), 64–8

K. Ameln: ‘“All Ehr und Lob soll Gottes sein”: ein deutsches Gloria von Martin Luther?’, JbLH, xxxi (1988), 38–52

C. Schalk: Luther on Music: Paradigms of Praise (St. Louis, 1988)

K. Ameln: ‘Luthers Kirchenlied und Gesangbuch: offene Fragen’, JbLH, xxxii ( 1989), 19–28

K. Ameln: ‘Über die Sprachmelodie in den geistlichen Gesängen Martin Luthers’,Questiones in musica: Festschrift für Franz Krautwurst, ed. F. Brusniak and H. Leuchtmann (Tutzing, 1989), 13–32

R.A. Leaver: ‘ The Lutheran Reformation’, The Renaissance: from the 1470s to the End of the 16th Century, ed. I. Fenlon (London, 1989), 263–85

H. Robinson-Hammerstein: ‘The Lutheran Reformation and its Music’, The Transmission of Ideas in the Lutheran Reformation, ed. H. Robinson-Hammerstein (Dublin, 1989), 141–71

W. Blankenburg: Johann Walter: Leben und Werk, ed. F. Brusniak (Tutzing, 1991)

R.A. Leaver: ‘Christian Liturgical Music in the Wake of the Protestant Reformation, Sacred Sound and Social Change: Liturgical Music in Jewish and Christian Experience, ed. L.A. Hoffman and J.R. Walton (Notre Dame, 1992), 124–44

H. Pietsch: ‘ On Luther's Understanding of Music’, Lutheran Theological Journal, xxvi (1992), 160–68

B.A. Föllmi: Das Weiterwirken der Musikanschauung Augustins im 16. Jahrhundert (Berne,1994)

K.A.P. Duffy: The Jena Choirbooks: Music and Liturgy at the Castle Church in Wittenberg under Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony (diss., U of Chicago, 1995)

H. Guicharrousse: Les musiques de Luther (Geneva, 1995)

R.A. Leaver: ‘ Theological Consistency, Liturgical Integrity, and Musical Hermeneutic in Luther's Liturgical Reforms’, Lutheran Quarterly, ix (1995), 117–38

R.A. Leaver: ‘ Luther's Catechism Hymns’, Lutheran Quarterly, xi/xii (1997–8)

A. Lindner: ‘ “Nonmoriar sed vivam”: Luther, Senfl und die Reformation des Hochstifts Naumburg-Zeitz’, JbLH, xxxvi (1997), 208–17

Lutheran church music.

1. Background.

3. Confessionalism and Orthodoxy (1580–1680).

4. Pietism and Enlightenment (1680–1800).

5. Restoration and conservation (1800–1914).

6. Rebirth and incorporation (after 1914).

7. Nordic traditions.

8. North American traditions.

9. Worldwide Lutheranism.

ROBIN A. LEAVER

1. Background.

Lutheran church music is rooted in the flowering of Franco-Flemish polyphony during the later Renaissance. The contrapuntal techniques associated with cantus-firmus and Tenorlied compositions of this period were exploited by the composers writing for the emerging Lutheran Church.

Martin Luther’s protector Friedrich der Weise, Elector of Ernestine Saxony between 1486 and 1525, was an astute politician. On becoming Elector, Friedrich began the systematic development and consolidation of his political influence in Germany from his various residences, notably in Wittenberg and Torgau. After Maximilian I was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1493, this process was intensified when Friedrich pursued a political agenda that made him second only to Maximilian. Indeed, on the latter’s death in 1519, Friedrich der Weise was seen as the natural successor. In the event, Charles of Spain became the emperor, but Friedrich nevertheless continued to command a powerful political influence throughout the German states, especially since Charles was essentially an absentee ruler.

Saxony had been divided in 1485: Albertine Saxony in the south encompassed the ducal residence in Dresden and the university of Leipzig (founded 1409); Ernestine Saxony in the north was without a court of the stature of Dresden and had no university at all. Thus, Friedrich addressed both deficiencies. In 1502 he founded Wittenberg University, and his court chapel of All Saints effectively doubled as the university church. Modelled on the university of Tübingen, the new university was centred on theology, philosophy, law, medicine and the arts. Its professors, who generally favoured the new learning of humanism, included Luther, who arrived in the winter of 1508–09, and Philipp Melanchthon, who was appointed in 1517. During the same period Friedrich intensified and expanded the liturgical and musical traditions of his court chapels, especially in Wittenberg and Torgau, so that they rivalled Maximilian’s Hofkapelle. Between 1508 and 1520 the provision for music in the liturgy of the Schlosskirche, Wittenberg, increased twofold, from 40 singers and instrumentalists to 81. The polyphonic repertory sung at the daily Masses and Offices was extensive and included music by such prominent composers as Josquin, Isaac and Obrecht (Heidrich, 1993; Duffy, 1994). It was against this background that Luther, with others, created the environment that fostered the development of various forms of worship music in Wittenberg, and thus provided the foundation for the Lutheran tradition of liturgical music.

See also Luther, Martin.

(iii) Vespergottesdienst.

2. Origins and consolidation (1523–80).

This period is bounded by the Formula missae (1523), Luther’s first reform of the Mass, and the Formula concordiae (1577), the document that defined Lutheran confessional theology (published in German in the Konkordienbuch of 1580).

(i) Liturgical reforms.

(ii) Hauptgottesdienst.

Lutheran church music, §2: Origins and consolidation (1523–80)

(i) Liturgical reforms.

Luther’s liturgical reforms, which included both radical and conservative elements, preserved a continuity with existing liturgical music, while at the same time fostering new developments, particularly those related to the congregational chorale (see Choraleand associated articles). In the Latin Formula missae Luther retained the traditional structure of the Mass, including Ordinary and Propers, which continued to be performed either as plainchant or polyphonically (see Table 1). This meant that mass settings by Catholic composers were still sung in the new evangelical liturgy and that Lutheran composers wrote new settings of the traditional Ordinary. But the theology of the Mass was radically reinterpreted: Luther, instead of viewing the Eucharist as a ‘sacrificium’, that is, an offering to God, understood it as a ‘beneficium’, a gift from God. By removing all elements that spoke of sacrifice, he effectively eliminated the Offertory and most of the Canon. The Verba testamenti (Words of Institution) were retained, but Luther regarded them as proclamation, not prayer, and preferred that they be sung rather than remain, as in the Roman Canon, mostly inaudible. Towards the end of the Formula missae Luther expressed the desire for congregational German hymns to be sung after the gradual, Sanctus and Agnus Dei, although at this stage only the Leisen (older vernacular folk-hymns; see Leise) were available for such use.

Three years after the Formula missae Luther issued the Deutsche Messe (1526), designed for use by congregations in smaller towns and cities. Other evangelical masses in the vernacular had already appeared in print, such as those of Caspar Kantz (1522) and Thomas Müntzer (1523/4), but Luther’s was to have much the greatest influence. Music is fundamental to the Deutsche Messe – of its 39 pages following the preface, 31 include musical notation that frequently fills the page. For this Mass, Luther collaborated with two of Friedrich der Weise’s leading musicians, Conrad Rupsch, the aged Kapellmeister, and Johann Walter (i), Rupsch’s younger colleague and eventual successor. The structure, while generally following the traditional Mass, represents a simplification of the traditional order (see Table 1): a simple threefold Kyrie replaced the ninefold form of the Latin Mass; the alleluia, gradual, sequence, Sursum corda and Preface were omitted; the prose Credo was replaced by the credal hymn Wir glauben all an einen Gott; the Lord’s Prayer with its introductory ‘paraphrase’ was brought forward to appear in the position of the traditional Preface; the Sanctus was expanded within a vernacular form that included the biblical context of Isaiah vi, Jesaja dem Propheten das geschah, and moved to the distribution of Communion, where it became an optional item along with the German Agnus Dei. The other music of the Deutsche Messe included (in sequence): in place of the introit, either a prose psalm (sung to a psalm tone) or a hymn; a collect (tone 8); the Epistle (tone 8), chanted to specific melodic formulae; the hymn Nun bitten wir den Heiligen Geist, sung in place of the gradual (hence the term Graduallied); the Gospel (tone 6), chanted to its own melodic formulae modelled on the Holy Week Passion tones; the Verba testamenti, similarly sung to the Gospel melodic formulae (tone 6) (see Leaver, 1995); the German Sanctus, Jesus Christus, unser Heiland (Luther’s reworking of the Latin communion hymn attributed to Jan Hus), and the German Agnus Dei, sung as musica sub communione, that is, during the distribution of Communion.

Although the Deutsche Messe did not include a version of the Gloria in excelsis Deo, its use is confirmed by later practice. The omission from the Deutsche Messe in 1526 is almost certainly to be explained by the fact that the document was drawn up in December 1525, that is, during Advent, when the Gloria was customarily omitted. The vernacular translation by Nikolaus Decius, Allein Gott in der Höh sei Ehr (1523), quickly became the hymnic version in universal use. The Deutsche Messe thus established the principle of congregational, hymnic alternatives to the traditional liturgical Ordinary. After the German version of the Kyrie fons bonitatis appeared in 1537, the following were the primary liturgical hymns: ..\Frames/F921689.htmlThese chorales formed the basis of much of the liturgical music of virtually every generation of Lutheran composers, encompassing a wide variety of genres and forms of choral, vocal, organ and other instrumental music, a notable example being the first group of chorales in part 3 of J.S. Bach’s Clavier-Übung (1739).

Luther’s two liturgical forms were not mutually exclusive; neither was the later vernacular order intended to replace the Latin evangelical Mass. Latin was actively encouraged in the churches of towns and cities where there were Latin schools and/or universities. A substantial part of Luther’s strategy for the consolidation of the reforming movement was in a specific educational programme. The pre-existing Latin schools were reformed, and basic evangelical theology was taught alongside subjects such as grammar, rhetoric and music, the last being given high priority. Both the theoretical and practical aspects of music were addressed, and the repertory that formed the basis of the teaching was also sung in the church to which the school was attached. The choir of school pupils (Kantorei), led by their music teacher (Kantor), who was also director of music in the church (see Rautenstrauch, 1907), sang the polyphonic liturgical music and led the congregation in singing the chorales. In this educational reform Luther provided the fundamental theology of music and Melanchthon the pedagogical principles and curricula; Johann Walter, who in 1529 became the first Lutheran Kantor in Torgau, composed much of the repertory; and Georg Rhau, in collaboration with Luther, Melanchthon and Walter, published a steady stream of music and music theory for church and school – 60 imprints appeared in the period 1528–48 (see Mattfield, 1966, appx III).

Many of the numerous Lutheran church orders of the 16th century were based on conflations of Luther’s two liturgies. The first part of the eucharistic rite (Hauptgottesdienst), the Ministry of the Word, in general approximated more closely to that of the Formula missae, being mostly in Latin, and the later part, the Ministry of the Sacrament, to that of the Deutsche Messe, being mostly in German. These macaronic liturgies frequently duplicated the Ordinary, whereby the German hymnic form, sung congregationally, would follow the Latin version sung by the choir. For example, Allein Gott in der Höh sei Ehr was sung after the Latin Gloria in excelsis Deo, or Wir glauben all an einen Gott after the Latin Credo. This admixture of Latin and German encouraged composers to integrate the texts and melodies of German hymns into their settings of both Ordinary and Proper, such as Christ ist erstanden, the Leise that Johannes Galliculus incorporated into the sequence and Agnus Dei of his Easter mass (published in Rhau’s Officia paschalia, 1539), and Allein Gott in der Höh sei Ehr interwoven within J.N. Bach’s concerted Gloria in excelsis Deo (1716).

An examination of the different liturgical elements, together with their associated liturgical music, of the morning eucharistic Hauptgottesdienst and the afternoon Vespergottesdienst, as commonly found in the Lutheran church orders of the 16th century, reveal the distinctive features of Lutheran church music that were developed in a variety of ways in subsequent centuries.

Traditional monodic chant continued in use, often with revised texts (in either Latin or German) and in melodic forms customarily sung in Germany (see Ameln, Mahrenholz and Thomas, 1933–74; Brodde, 1961; Mattfeld, 1966, appx IV). These chant forms were found either in locally prepared manuscript collections or in printed anthologies, such as Johann Spangenberg’s Cantiones ecclesiatica latinae … Kirchen Gesenge deutsch (1545, and later editions); Lucas Lossius’s Psalmodia, hoc est cantica sacra veteris ecclesiae selecta (1553, and later editions); and Johannes Keuchenthal’s Kirchen Gesenge latinisch und deudsch (1573).

Lutheran church music, §2: Origins and consolidation (1523–80)

(ii) Hauptgottesdienst.

(a) Introit.

The traditional introits (in Latin or German) for the principal Sundays and festivals of the church year and for a few (mostly biblical) saint’s days continued to be sung to the traditional chant melodies. But the practice was generally more flexible in the evangelical Mass than in the Roman Mass. On some Sundays and festivals in various towns and cities the introit could be replaced by a suitable Latin motet, usually with a biblical text, that announced the primary theme of the day or celebration. These motets were composed by local church musicians or could be found in the published works of various leading composers, such as Michael Praetorius and Heinrich Schütz, or in motet anthologies such as those edited by Erhard Bodenschatz and Melchior Vulpius.

At other times the introit was replaced by a hymn appropriate to the day or season, either Latin (sung by the choir) or German (sung by the congregation). In each case the singing was unaccompanied, the choir supporting the congregation when a German hymn was sung. Whether the service began with a traditional introit, a choral Latin hymn or a congregational German chorale, the singing was introduced by an improvised organ prelude, the primary purpose of which was to establish the pitch for the unaccompanied singing. In the case of a chorale, such ‘preluding’ by the organist would remind the congregation of the melody about to be sung. Thus the genre of Chorale prelude was established. At the end of the 16th century, organ accompaniment was introduced in order to improve the quality of congregational singing (see also §3 below).

(b) Kyrie and Gloria.

Luther’s Formula missae had retained all the traditionally sung parts of the Ordinary; polyphonic settings thus continued to be sung in the early Lutheran Mass. The basic repertory was published by Rhau in Wittenberg: Opus decem missarum (1541) for Sundays, and Officia paschalia (1539) and Officiorum … de nativitate (1545) for the major festivals. Composers, who were mostly Catholic rather than Lutheran, included Johannes Galliculus, Henricus Isaac, Conrad Rein, Adam Rener, Johann Stahel and Thomas Stoltzer, and much of the repertory was heavily dependent on the partbooks compiled during the first two decades of the century for the ducal Kapelle in Wittenberg (see §1 above). Galliculus’s Easter mass (1539) consists of through-composed settings of introit, Kyrie, Gloria, alleluia, sequence (prosa), Gospel, Sanctus-Benedictus, Agnus Dei and communion. In some settings, only sections of the texts have music, implying an alternatims praxis of chant and polyphony, a practice that continued well into the 17th century. The gradual and Credo were omitted because these would have been sung as German congregational chorales (see below). Since the Sanctus and Agnus Dei were not necessarily sung at every celebration, a composed Lutheran mass came to mean settings of just the first two parts of the Ordinary that were customarily sung, the Kyrie and Gloria, being referred to as ‘missa,’ or simply ‘Kyrie’, later ‘missa brevis’. Many later Lutheran composers produced masses in which 16th-century polyphony was replaced by 17th-century concerted music with independent instrumental parts, a sequence that culminated in J.S. Bach’s large-scale Missa of 1733 (bwv232).

(c) Graduallied.

The traditional Latin graduals and sequences continued to be sung, at least on some Sundays and festivals. But, whether or not these Latin Propers were used, the congregation sang a vernacular chorale, a Graduallied, between the Epistle and Gospel. This was a de tempore hymn appropriate to the day or season, as is directed in both of Luther’s liturgical orders. The traditional alternatims praxis, in which plainchant alternated with polyphony, was here transmuted into an alternation between congregation and choir. The first stanza of the hymn was sung unaccompanied in unison, with the choir supporting the congregation. The second stanza was then sung by the choir, in a cantus firmus Chorale motet, and thus in alternation throughout the remainder of the hymn. The first collection of such polyphonic settings of chorale melodies was Johann Walter’s influential Geystliche gesangk Buchleyn (1524), the so-called Chorgesangbuch. Employing the twin models of the cantus-firmus technique of Franco-Flemish polyphony and the Tenorlied, especially the imitative style of Stoltzer and Senfl, Walter created a more concise form, with the congregational chorale melody rather than plainchant or secular song supplying the cantus firmus. With two exceptions, all Walter’s settings follow the established practice of placing the melody in the tenor, the other voices being treated in imitative counterpoint, although some settings are more homophonic. Walter issued later, expanded editions of his Chorgesangbuch, and other similar anthologies of chorale motets were also published, notably Rhau’s Newe deudsche geistliche Gesenge (1544). In such collections the form was further developed by numerous composers, including Sixt Dietrich, Benedictus Ducis, Johannes Eccard, Hans Leo Hassler, Leonhard Lechner, Caspar Othmayr, Melchior Vulpius and Michael Praetorius, among many others. With the passage of time, as what was to become the cantata began to evolve, the Graduallied tended to be sung by the congregation stanza after stanza, and the alternatims praxis, and thus the interchange of chorale motet and congregational unison, declined.

In the Valentin Bapst hymnal Geistliche Lieder (1545 and later editions), the last Gesangbuch to be supervised by Luther, 13 Graduallieder were given in sequence, covering the church year seasons from Advent to Trinity. Over the next generation more Graduallieder were written so that every Sunday and feast day had at least one appropriate hymn directly related to the Gospel of the day. In the manuscript church order of 1579 for Annaberg in Saxony, two hymns were assigned for each Sunday and celebration of the church year (Rautenstrauch, 1907, pp.171–6). Bartholomäus Gesius in his Geistliche deutsche Lieder … Welche durchs gantze Jar in der Christlichen Kirchen zu singen gebräuchlich (1601) assigned as many as three or four hymns for each day. The expansion of the church year hymn repertory continued throughout the 17th century and into the 18th (see Liliencron, 1893, pp.61–77; and Gojowy, 1978). The tendency was to use the oldest hymns as Graduallieder, the newer examples being sung elsewhere in the worship of the day. These church year hymns formed the basic corpus of Lutheran hymnody, and they occur repeatedly, together with their associated melodies, in a wide variety of choral, vocal and instrumental, and organ compositions, especially in the Chorale cantata that emerged during the 17th century.

(d) Epistle and Gospel.

Luther stressed the proclamatory role that music should have in the liturgy, and his followers developed the Latin formula ‘viva voce evangelii’ to express this understanding of music as the ‘living voice of the Gospel’. Luther therefore directed that biblical lections should continue to be sung, and in the Deutsche Messehe gave in detail the specific melodic formulae for the clergy to chant the Epistle and Gospel. This liturgical recitative continued in Lutheran worship generally until the 18th century, but the practice also gave rise to other genres closely related to the singing of the Gospel.

Rhau’s anthology Selectae harmoniae … de passione Domini (1538) included responsorial and motet Passions, together with other music for Holy Week, by such composers as Loyset Compère, Galliculus, Isaac, Antoine de Longueval (Obrecht according to Rhau), Senfl and Walter. The responsorial Passions of St Matthew and St John, attributed to Walter, were sung almost universally until well into the 18th century as, respectively, the Gospels for Palm Sunday and Good Friday. In his Officia (1539) and Officiorum (1545) Rhau included motet settings of the Gospels for the major festivals of Christmas, Circumcision and Easter by Galliculus, Johannes Lupi, Cristóbal de Morales and Balthasar Resinarius. A more extended collection appeared later as Evangelia dominicorum et festorum … continentis … historias … de nativitate, de epiphaniis, de resurrectione Jesu Christi (1554¹⁰). Thus the ‘historia’ tradition was established within Lutheranism, whereby narrative accounts of the primary events in the life of Christ are expounded in significant musical settings. The greater part of this repertory consists in Passion settings, based on any one of the four Gospels or on conflated texts and poetic versions, by composers from the 16th century to the 20th, but there are also important musical treatments of Christ’s birth, notably by Schütz, J.S. Bach and Hugo Distler, among others, and of his resurrection and ascension.

Another outgrowth from polyphonic settings of the Gospels for the major festivals of the church year was the Gospel motet, or Spruchmotette (scripture-verse motet), a through-composed setting of the key verse or verses of the Sunday and festival Gospels. Lassus published 17 Gospel motets between 1556 and 1571, and complete cycles for the church year were issued by Sethus Calvisius (1594–9), Jacobus Handl (1586–90), Leonhard Paminger (1573–80) and Andreas Raselius (1594–5), thus establishing a particular genre that has been extensively employed by subsequent Lutheran composers from the 16th century to the 20th.

(e) Credo.

The Creed continued to be sung in Latin to the traditional plainchant melodies as well as in polyphonic settings, though not as regularly as in the Roman Mass. Virtually every generation of Lutheran composers produced through-composed settings of the Latin Credo, which was sung somewhat sparingly in contrast to the vernacular congregational credal chorale, Wir glauben all an einen Gott, which was always sung.

(f) Pulpit hymn (Kanzellied).

It became customary for one or two stanzas of an appropriate chorale, usually on the Word of God but sometimes reflecting the season of the church year, to be sung by the congegation while the preacher ascended the pulpit steps, preceded by the customary organ chorale prelude.

(g) Sursum corda, Preface, Sanctus.

The liturgical dialogue leading to the Preface and Sanctus was sung only on principal days and major festivals of the church year. On other Sundays, following the sermon, the service proceeded directly to the Lord’s Prayer and the Verba testamenti. This liturgical sequence, beginning with the Sursum corda, might be sung in plainchant, or the liturgical dialogue might alternate chant and homophonic responses, leading to the Sanctus, which could be an extended polyphonic (later a concerted) setting. The Benedictus was not always sung. In some areas the tradition was that if the Sanctus was sung to a traditional plainchant melody, the Benedictus followed; if a polyphonic (or concerted) setting was sung, the Benedictus was omitted. Lutheran composers, therefore, commonly wrote independent settings of the Sanctus without necessarily including the Benedictus (e.g. J.S. Bach).

(h) Verba testamenti.

Following Luther’s liturgical directions, these words were to be sung by the Lutheran celebrant alone, but by the end of the 16th century some Lutheran composers (e.g. Michael Praetorius and Schütz) produced motets of this liturgical text. Whether such motets were intended to be sung at this juncture (on behalf of a non-musical celebrant), as musica sub communione (see next), or at Vespers when these words (which, according to Luther’s Small Catechism, had to be memorized by all) were taught as part of the catechism (see below), remains unclear.

(i) Musica sub communionem.

In his Deutsche Messe Luther commended the practice of music during the distribution of Communion: congregational chorales either with a specific eucharistic content or appropriate to the celebration or season. According to custom these chorals were introduced by organ chorale preludes, which did not need to be as concise as elsewhere in the service, since the distribution took some time to be completed, especially at major festivals. It is likely that the development of the organ genres of Chorale partita and Chorale variations was influenced by the need for extended music during the distribution of Communion. Luther also directed that his German Sanctus and Agnus Dei (Jesaja dem Propheten das geschah and Christe, du Lamm Gottes) could also be sung during the distribution. What in the Deutsche Messe was considered to be wholly congregational quickly became an alternation between organ and congregation or between congregation and choir. Thus, after the congregation had sung an appropriate chorale and before it sang another, the choir might sing a setting of Jesaja dem Propheten das geschah or of Psalm cxi, which Luther included as a communion psalm in the Wittenberg hymnal (Joseph Klug’s Geistliche Lieder, 1529, 2/1533/R). But the choir might equally sing during the distribution a through-composed setting of the Latin Sanctus or Agnus Dei, or else an appropriate motet. In time, with the evolution of the cantata form, musica sub communione became another opportunity for concerted music of a devotional nature.

(j) Benediction response and closing chorales.

The Benediction was followed by a congregational response, Gott sei uns gnädig (from Psalm lxvii), sung to the tonus peregrinus. Afterwards three chorales, whose melodies were thematically related, were customarily sung, either by the congregation or by the choir, or by both in combination: Verleih uns Frieden gnädiglich, Gib unserm Fürsten und aller Obrigkeit and Erhalt uns, Herr, bei deinem Wort. Numerous settings of these chorales, especially Verleih uns Frieden, can be found from all periods, notably by Walter, Michael Praetorius, Schütz, J.S. Bach, Felix Mendelssohn and Distler, among many others.

Lutheran church music, §2: Origins and consolidation (1523–80)

(iii) Vespergottesdienst.

This service was very similar to the pre-Reformation daily Office of Vespers. For example, the Saxon Agenda (1539/40) gave the following description of the order for use on Saturdays, Sundays and feasts:

Vespers shall be held at the usual time after midday; the [school]boys shall sing one, two or three Psalms with the antiphon of the Sunday or feast, and thereafter a Responsory or [Latin] hymn, where a pure one is available. Afterwards let a boy read a lesson from the New Testament. After the lesson the Magnificat is sung with an antiphon of the Sunday or feast, and ending with the collects and Benedicamus.

Although this basic structure was normative, in practice it was subject to a wide flexibility of use, especially with regard to music (see Leaver, 1990).

(a) Psalms.

The beginning of the vesper service gave primary place to the psalms, which, until the 18th century, were customarily sung to all eight plainchant psalm tones. However, on feastdays and special celebrations in particular, an extended psalm motet would replace the chanted psalmody. Depending on local traditions, the text of these settings could be either Latin or German, and an extended repertory of such settings was built up over the generations, beginning with the psalm motets of Walter and Stoltzer in the 16th century, reaching a particular zenith in Schütz’s Psalmen Davids (1619) and continuing through subsequent periods to the present day.

(b) Responsory.

Traditional chant responsories continued to be sung but usually only on major feasts and their eves. Polyphonic settings were also sung, or the responsory was replaced by an appropriate hymn or motet of the day or season.

(c) Hymn.

In the 16th century an appropriate hymn might be sung in a variety of ways: the choir could sing a polyphonic setting of the stanzas of a Latin hymn in alternation with the organ; or the choir could alternate with the congregation, the former singing the stanzas in Latin and the latter singing the equivalent stanzas in German. There was also the possibility, at varying points of the service, of singing a de tempore German chorale of the day in the same way that the Graduallied was sung at the morning Hauptgottesdienst, that is, an alternatims praxis of congregational unison and choral polyphony.

(d) Lesson, catechism, motet.

The lesson was usually the Epistle of the day, and the teaching of the catechism (at Sunday Vespers, as well as on some weekdays) might immediately follow it, or be placed after the sermon. Luther’s catechisms were generally divided into six main sections, each one with an associated hymn by Luther. ..\Frames/F921690.htmlAs with hymnic versions of the Mass Ordinary, the melodies associated with these hymns formed the basis for many congregational, choral and organ settings by numerous Lutheran composers. The notable example is the second chorale group of Bach’s Clavier-Übung part 3 (1739), which is made up of two complete cycles of organ chorale preludes on these catechism chorales: one of settings for manuals alone and the other for manuals and pedal, corresponding to Luther’s Small and Large Catechisms. But composers also wrote through-composed ‘catechism’ music that was unrelated to these catechism chorales, such as Matthaeus Le Maistre’s Catechesis numeris musicis inclusa (1559). Thus the teaching of the catechism might be followed by the singing of an appropriate catechism chorale or motet, or by organ music.

(e) Pulpit hymn.

Usually the same as that sung at the morning service.

(f) Magnificat.

Following the sermon the Magnificat was sung, either in Latin by the choir or in German by the congregation: Meine Seele erhebt den Herren, a prose text sung to the the tonus peregrinus. The Latin Magnificat continued to be sung in settings that alternated polyphony and chant, in all eight tones and with appropriate antiphons. This gave rise to Magnificat settings for organ in each of these tones, a genre that continued to be composed into the 18th century. Alternation of chant and polyphony gave way to through-composed and concerted settings in the 17th century. In his Latin Magnificat quinti toni Galliculus incorporated vernacular Christmas songs, such as Lieber Joseph, into the texture of his polyphony. Later composers, such as Michael Praetorius, Johann Kuhnau and J.S. Bach, introduced ‘chorale interpolations’ into the text of the canticle as separate movements for use at Christmas Vespers.

(g) Benedicamus.

This could be sung in simple chant or chorally, and might be followed or replaced by the Benediction and Benediction response as sung at the morning service. Similarly, the three related chorales sung at the end of the Hauptgottesdienst were also frequently sung at the end of the Vespergottesdienst.

Walter included many vesper compositions in the various editions of his Chorgesangbuch, and Rhau, as he had done for the evangelical Mass, provided a significant corpus of music for evangelical Vespers: Vesperarum precum officia (1540) comprised complete choral settings for weekly Vespers; Sacrorum hymnorum(1542), polyphonic settings of Latin hymns; Postremum vespertini officii (1544), Magnificat settings in all eight tones; and additional collections of vesper music by Dietrich and Resinarius.

3. Confessionalism and Orthodoxy (1580–1680).

The generation after Luther was characterized by internal theological conflict. The issues were ultimately resolved by the Formula concordiae (1577). The content of Lutheran confessionalism was defined by the anthology of documents entitled Concordia (1580), usually known in English as the Book of Concord. As well as the three historic creeds and Luther’s two Catechisms, the Book of Concord included the Augsburg Confession (1530), which defined Lutheranism as against Roman Catholicism, and the Formula concordiae, which established the essence of Lutheran faith in contrast to the alternatives proposed by some of its own theologians. Calvinism was only cursorily addressed, but the growing influence of the Reformed faith in Germany necessitated the Wittenberg Visitation Articles of 1592, which delineated Lutheranism in contradistinction to Calvinism. Thereafter these visitation articles were usually appended to the Book of Concord. Before being confirmed in church appointments both clergy and musicians had to give formal and written assent to the detailed confessional content of the Book of Concord.

Although Lutheran Orthodoxy was thus established, theological debate continued and became increasingly polemical and polarized. Part of the debate, which materially affected the music of the church, concerned ‘adiaphora’. The term was employed to distinguish ‘things indifferent’ from those that were essential for salvation. Worship forms and ceremonial, including music, came within the purview of ‘adiaphora’. For Orthodoxy, worship forms and their music, while being included among the ‘adiaphora’, could not be considered as peripheral matters of little consequence. On the contrary, Lutheran liturgical forms and practices, along with their musical elements, epitomized the practical outworking of specific Lutheran theology.

Following the lead of Luther, Walter and Rhau in Wittenberg, later Lutheran Orthodox clergy and musicians promoted the use of a wide range of vocal, organ and concerted music in worship. In particular, the Italian concertato style was embraced and explored by such composers as Hassler, Schütz and Michael Praetorius, among others, and organ versets, which substituted for the choir in the alternation singing of hymns and canticles (especially the Magnificat), were developed by Hieronymus Praetorius, Heinrich Scheidemann, Samuel Scheidt and others. By the early 17th century the features of the Baroque organ were fully developed and Scheidt contributed significantly to the establishment of idiomatic liturgical organ music, much of it chorale-based, for the Lutheran Church. The increased use of basso continuo, the ‘affective’ monodic principle and the use of independent instrumental parts led to the transmutation of the chorale motet into the chorale concertato, which consisted of brief, varied movements and instrumental ritornellos. But this new ‘seconda pratica’ did not displace the older contrapuntal ‘prima pratica’ style of Latin and German motets, which, as the contents of the widely circulated anthologies of Bodenschatz, Vulpius and Abraham Schadaeus exemplify, continued to be composed and sung. By the second decade of the 17th century the composition of settings of the Latin Ordinary was commonly restricted to the Kyrie and Gloria of the Lutheran Missa, although these sometimes appeared in German translation, such as Michael Praetorius’s Missa, gantz Teudsch (Polyhymnia, 1619).

The Thirty Years War had a devastating effect on the musical life of Germany. The large-scale polychoralism of the earlier part of the 17th century was forced to give way to smaller-scale forms, a distinct contrast in style that is apparent when Schütz’s Psalmen Davids (1619) are compared with his Kleine geistliche Concerte (1636, 1639). The war also led to an internalizing of spirituality, a process reflected in the hymnody of Paul Gerhardt, Johannes Crüger, and J.G. Ebeling, as well as in the more intimate musical forms composed by Schütz, J.H. Schein, Andreas Hammerschmidt, W.C. Briegel and others who contributed significantly to the development of the cantata form at the end of the century and also influenced the later Pietist desire for musical simplicity (see §4).

While the music of Orthodoxy was self-consciously Lutheran, it was not without Calvinist influences. In 1573 Ambrosius Lobwasser published his German metrical psalms with French-Genevan tunes. Although Lutheran suspicion of Calvinist ‘heresies’ led to the censure of the Lobwasser texts and the encouragement of ‘Lutheran’ metrical psalms, principally those of Cornelius Becker (1602), many of the Genevan tunes were taken over into the Lutheran chorale tradition. These tunes also provided composers such as Crüger in the middle of the 17th century with a compositional model. Calvinist influence is also to be found in the simple note-against-note homophony of Lutheran cantional style, which owes much to the Genevan psalm settings by Loys Bourgeois and Claude Goudimel, among others, and was established in Lutheran Germany by Lucas Osiander (court preacher in Stuttgart, one of the theological architects of the Formula concordiae, and also an accomplished musician) in his Fünfftzig geistliche Lieder und Psalmen mit vier Stimmen … für die Schulen und Kirchen (1586). Osiander’s purpose was to improve the quality of the singing of school choirs by replacing the contrapuntal settings of the previous generation with this simpler style, a feature of which is the placing of the choral melody in the upper voice part rather than in the tenor. In the Hamburg Melodyen Gesangbuch of 1604, the cantional-style settings by Heinrich Scheidemann, Joachim Decker and Hieronymus and Jacob Praetorius (ii) were, according to the preface, also suitable for the accompaniment of congregational singing. This style, therefore, though originally choral, became the norm for the organ accompaniment of congregational chorales, especially in smaller churches without choirs. Important anthologies of cantional settings include those of Eccard (1597), Hassler (1608), Michael Praetorius (Musae Sioniae, vi–viii, 1609–10), Schein (1627), Schütz (1628, 3/1661) and Gottfried Vopelius (1682).

4. Pietism and Enlightenment (1680–1800).

German Lutheran Pietism of the later 17th century was strongly influenced by Calvinism in general and by English Puritanism in particular. The translation of Lewis Bayley’s Practice of Piety into German earlier in the century was particularly important, as was the internalization of spirituality occasioned by the Thirty Years War. Devotional books by German authors, such as Johannes Gerhard’s Mediationes sacrae (1606) and Johann Arndt’s Wahres Christenthum (1606–09), stressed the need for inner spirituality to complement outward conformity to orthodoxy. Crypto-Calvinists within Lutheranism went further to suggest that outward liturgical forms, together with elaborate music, should be eliminated. If such things were genuinely ‘adiaphora’, it was argued, then they could and should be dispensed with. The result of such criticism led Orthodox churchmen to be somewhat circumspect about their views of music in worship, while making no substantial concession to Calvinist demands. Thus the printed sermons of Christoph Frick (1631), Conrad Dietrich (1632), J.C. Dannhauer (1642) and Martin Geier (1672) avowed that formality in worship and its music is inadequate if not accompanied by internal spiritual commitment.

But in his Wächterstimmen (1661), the Rostock theologian Theophilus Grossgebauer argued on theological grounds for the elimination of virtually all music that was not effectively congregational. This was substantially the Calvinist position. Grossgebauer was answered by Hector Mithobius, also from Rostock, in his Psalmodia christiana (1665), who expounded the Orthodox Lutheran understanding of the place and purpose of ‘figural’ music in worship. Other Rostock theologians, such as Joachim Lütkemann and Heinrich Müller, were also somewhat critical of liturgical music but, unlike Grossgebauer, argued from within confessional Lutheranism. In his sermons Müller promoted a mystical spirituality, without which, he claimed, worship was merely an outward duty instead of the expression of inward desire. He also edited a hymnal, Geistliche Seelenmusik (1659), in which the texts of older hymns were revised and the newer texts, particularly his own, exhibited an intense subjectivity; the melodies, around a third of them the compositions of Nikolaus Hasse, established the freer style developed by the later Pietists (see Bunners, 1966).

Arndt, Gerhardt, Müller and others have to be regarded as pre-Pietists, since the movement cannot be said to have begun until the 1680s, following the publication of P.J. Spener’s Pia desideria, originally written as an introduction to Arndt’s Wahres Christenthum in 1675. Spener promoted a programme of spiritual reform based on private devotional meetings for prayer and bible study (collegia pietatis). Spener’s booklet was widely circulated and became the manifesto of Lutheran Pietism. Spener’s successor as the leader of the movement, A.H. Francke, was more radical than his mentor and maintained that Luther had not gone far enough in his Reformation. The primary difference between Orthodoxy and Pietism within Lutheranism was essentially ecclesiological rather than a question of the nature and content of devotional life. Pietists did not have a monopoly on piety; many of the Orthodox, such as Erdmann Neumeister, could express warm devotional sentiments in their sermons, hymns and other poetry, very similar to the imagery favoured by the Pietists. But the Pietists deviated from Orthodoxy on the nature and function of the Church. They argued that the real Church was to be found in the collegia pietatis and that public worship should become more like the informal worship of these private gatherings. Elaborate liturgical forms, therefore, should be greatly simplified and church music confined to hymns in a freer, more intimate style, with modest organ accompaniment. In the early 18th-century there was much Pietist criticism of concerted church music, especially the reform cantata promoted by Neumeister, which incorporated secco recitative and da capo aria, both self-consciously borrowed from opera, a practice that Pietists dismissed as inappropriate ‘theatralische Kirchen-Musik’ (see Heidrich, 1995).

In spite of the acrimonious debates between Orthodox and Pietist proponents over theology, ecclesiology, worship practice and the nature of church music, the spirituality of both was nevertheless expressed in similar terms. For example, the music of Buxtehude shows traces of Pietist influence, and the important and widely used Pietist hymnal edited by J.A. Freylinghausen, Geistreiches Gesang-Buch (1704; censured by the Orthodox Wittenberg theological faculty in 1716), included some hymn texts written by the Orthodox Neumeister. Similarly, many of the melodies that J.S. Bach edited (bwv439–507) for G.C. Schemelli’s Musicalisches Gesangbuch (1736) – essentially an Orthodox hymnal – were either taken from the Freylinghausen Gesang-Buch or composed in a similar style.

The rationalism of the Enlightenment paralleled Pietism in its effect on Lutheran worship life and its music. Elaborate music and highly developed liturgical ceremonial were considered to be remnants of an earlier unenlightened period and should therefore be substantially simplified, if not abolished. During the second half of the 18th century worship was reduced to a simple structure of hymns, readings, prayers and moralistic preaching; the sacraments were undervalued; and the music of worship was reduced to the singing of rationalized hymn texts to melodies composed in or revised to conform to a galant style. After its climax in the works of Bach, Lutheran church music thus declined, and its more significant compositions were mostly the extra-liturgical oratorio with its Italian operatic influences. The generation of C.H. Graun, J.F. Doles, C.P.E. Bach and J.A. Hiller produced religious music reflecting polite church-going society in contrast to the specifically liturgical and confessional music of previous generations.

5. Restoration and conservation (1800–1914).

The 300th anniversary of Luther’s 95 Theses (1517–1817) gave rise to the beginnings of a restoration movement that countered the effects of both Pietism and the Enlightenment on the theology and practice of the Lutheran Church. In his Von dem Wort und dem Kirchenliede (Bonn, 1819/R) E.M. Arndt called for the texts of the old hymns to be restored to their original forms. Although Arndt’s agenda was concerned with texts, others saw that his arguments also applied to hymn melodies. But the restoration also involved liturgy and church music as well as hymnody. Berlin was in the forefront of this restoration movement, with the theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher assuming a leadership role and Romanticism supplying its ethos. In 1829 a new liturgical Agenda for the area was issued in Berlin, a revision of the Berlin cathedral liturgy of 1822, which was one of the earliest attempts at a restoration of liturgical form and content. In the 1822 Agenda the supplement of liturgical music was scored for TTBB, but in 1829 it was arranged for SATB. The same year (1829) a new hymnal, influenced by Arndt’s views, was published as Gesangbuch zum Gottesdienstlichen Gebrauch, and the following year A.W. Bach, Felix Mendelssohn’s organ-teacher, published his Choralbuch (1830) containing organ settings for use with the new hymnal. Many of Mendelssohn’s specific church compositions were written for the choir of Berlin Cathedral around this time.

But the Prussian Church, centred in Berlin, was in the process of becoming a union Church, incorporating both Lutheran and Reformed (Calvinist) congregations. To confessional Lutherans such unionism compromised their theology and worship in general and their music and hymnody in particular. Confessional Lutherans either moved to specifically Lutheran areas or founded Lutheran churches independent of the state; some emigrated to the USA. In Bavaria Wilhelm Löhe argued for a raising of liturgical standards within the Lutheran Church and, with American Lutherans in mind, published Agenda für christliche Gemeinden des lutherischen Bekenntnisses (1844), a complete set of liturgical forms taken largely from 16th-century sources, with liturgical chant edited by Friedrich Layriz. Layriz was a pioneer in advocating the abandonment of the later isometric forms of chorale melodies in favour of their original rhythmic versions. He published his collection of 16th- and 17th-century melodies in 1839; this was expanded in later editions and was reprinted in the USA in the 1880s. The work of Layriz and others led to the publication of Deutsches evangelisches Kirchen-Gesangbuch: in 150 Kernliedern (1854), a collection of the primary chorales of Lutheranism (both texts and music), given in their original forms, intended as a resource for hymnal editors. The voluminous riches of Lutheran hymnody were thoroughly researched in substantial reference works and issued in definitive editions (Knapp, 1850, 4/1891; Wackernagel 1855/R, 1864–77/R; Fischer 1878–86/R; Zahn, 1889–93/R; Fischer and Tümpel, 1904–16/R). Many of the 16th-century church orders (which not only included liturgical forms but also other material such as prescriptions concerning the duties of organists and church musicians) were republished (Richter, 1846/R), as well as an extensive anthology of liturgical music, mostly edited from early Lutheran sources (Schoeberlein, 1865–72/R). Lutheran church music was the subject of extensive study (e.g. Winterfeld, 1843–7/R; Kümmerle, 1888–95/R; Liliencron, 1893/R), and a succession of collected works of Lutheran composers began to be published, for example, J.S. Bach (in 1851), Handel (in 1858), Schütz (in 1885) and Schein (in 1901). The publication of the music of Bach, together with Spitta’s monumental biographical study of the composer, had a significant impact on the later decades of the century. Nevertheless, even though Bach and Schütz were promoted as models for Lutheran church musicians, much of the music heard in many churches during the later 19th century reflected the successive Romanticism of Mendelssohn, Brahms, Herzogenberg and Reger. There is a certain irony in the fact that none of these composers was in the mainstream of Lutheran church music reform: they were, respectively, a converted Jew, an agnostic and two Catholics. Further Catholic influence on Lutheran church music in the later 19th century was the Palestrina style, brought into prominence by the Cecilian movement.

6. Rebirth and incorporation (after 1914).

During the 20th century a re-evaluation of the scriptures and the liturgy, together with a renewed interest in the life and theology of Luther, prompted a revival of liturgical worship and its music. The characterization of the ‘rebirth’ of church music in the early years of the century was coined by Söhngen (1953). This rebirth arose from the new awareness of Lutheran liturgical music traditions that had been fostered during the second half of the previous century. But it was also part of a multi-faceted renewal that included the singing movement (Singbewegung), the amateur music-making movement (Laienspielbewegung), the organ renewal movement (Orgelbewegung), the Bach movement, especially the influence of Karl Straube in Leipzig, the new theological climate ushered in by Karl Barth’s commentary on Romans (1918), the ecclesiastical movement for liturgical renewal that was fostered by a new critical and comprehensive anthology of 16th-century Lutheran church orders (Sehling, 1902–13), and the founding of the liturgically-orientated Michaelsbruderschaft (1931), whose influence continued for much of the remainder of the century.

A new hymnal, Deutsches evangelisches Gesangbuch (DEG), was published in 1915, the first to be designed for use by all the territorial churches (Landeskirchen), replacing the many regional and local hymnals that had been customary in earlier generations. In the years following, each Landeskirche issued its own edition of the basic anthology of Lutheran hymns, together with its own supplement of additional hymns and liturgical pieces. A new set of regional supplements to DEG were published in about 1930, the 400th anniversary of the Augsburg Confession (1530). Most of the texts and tunes were of the older, classic hymns from the 16th to the 18th centuries, with some examples of 19th-century German hymnody. However, some new chorale melodies were beginning to be composed, for example, H.F. Micheelsen’s Neue Gemeindelieder (1938).

Schöberlein’s treasury of liturgical music (1865–72) was reprinted in 1928; work began on its replacement, a new critical and practical anthology (Ameln, Mahrenholz and Thomas, 1933–); and important studies were issued (e.g. Gosslau, 1933; Leupold, 1933; Kempff, 1937).

In choral church music there was a distinct reaction against Romanticism. Pre-19th-century compositions were commended both as music to be performed liturgically and also as models for contemporary composition. New collected editions of the works of Lutheran composers were begun during this period, for example, Vincent Lübeck (in 1921), Scheidt (1923), Buxtehude (1925), Michael Praetorius (in 1928) and Johann Walter (1941). The influential journal Musik und Kirche was founded in 1928, Blume’s seminal history of Lutheran church music first appeared in 1931 and Moser’s larger study of Schütz was published in 1936. New directions in composition for the Church were signalled in Kurt Thomas’s Mass in A minor (op.1), heard for the first time sung by the Thomanerchor in Leipzig under the direction of Straube in 1925. Notable composers of this period include J.N. David, Hugo Distler, Karl Marx, Arnold Mendelssohn, Günter Raphäel, Ernst Pepping, Johannes Petzold and Hermann Stern, whose works reflected the music of the past while exploring 20th-century techniques and employed biblical, liturgical and chorale texts (see Distler, 1935). Some of the Landeskirchen founded church-music schools that offered systematic study of the theory and practice of church music, preparing candidates for the ministry of music in the individual churches: these schools include Aschersleben (1926), later moved to Halle; Spandau (c1927); Heidelberg (1931) and Hamburg (1938) (see Blankenburg, 1968). In addition to local church choirs, a marked feature of German Lutheran church music is the widespread use of Posaunenchöre (trombone choirs), a tradition that has its roots in the old custom of using municipal musicians for church music, although in the modern manifestation such groups are amateur rather than professional.

With the rise of National Socialism and the dominance of the Landeskirchen by the Nazi ‘Deutschen Christen’, Lutheran church music during the 1930s was deflected into a heavily nationalistic and anti-Semitic mode. The DEG was criticized for its inclusion of Semitic vocabulary, and from the mid-1930s other hymnals with titles such as Gesangbuch der kommenden Kirche were published, from which Hebraisms (‘Alleluia’, ‘Amen’, ‘Sabaoth’ etc.) had been expunged and whose texts manifested a pronounced ‘Vaterland’ vocabulary and imagery.

The immediate postwar period in Germany was one of restoration, rebuilding and recovery of what had been lost or disfigured between 1933 and 1945 (see Söhngen, 1954; Prolingheuer, 1989; Riethmüller, 1989; Krieg, 1990). In many respects this was a process of reconstitution of what had begun before the rise of the Third Reich, though now hampered by the existence of two German nations. New church-music schools were founded by those Landeskirchen that had not created such institutions during the inter-war years, for example, Griefswald and Hanover (1945), Görlitz and Schleuchtern (1947), Bayreuth (1948), later in Erlangen, Esslingen (1948), Frankfurt am Main, Herford, Dresden and Düsseldorf (1949), and Eisenach (1950). In 1948 the territorial churches came together to form the Vereinigte Evangelisch-Lutheranische Kirche Deutschlands (VELKD). A new hymnal, Das evangelische Kirchengesangbuch (EKG), was published in 1950. Like the DEG it replaced, the EKG provided a basic corpus of hymnody to which each Landeskirche added its own supplement. Similarly, the EKG was also a conservative collection of hymnody, with over 90% of its content dating from the 16th to 18th centuries. The EKG was followed by new liturgical forms issued by the VELKD in 1955.

The postwar years saw many new publications: the journals Der Kirchenmusiker (1950–) and Jahrbuch für Liturgik und Hymnologie (1955–); Moser’s expansive study of Lutheran church music (1953); new collected editions, replacing the earlier ones, of the works of J.S. Bach (1954–) and Schütz (1955–); the Walter edition that had foundered during the war years (1953–); and entirely new editions of the works of Telemann (1950–), Leonhard Lechner (1956–), and the music publications of Georg Rhau (1955–). There was much discussion of and experimentation in new music (see Böhm, 1959; Blume, 1960; Scheytt, 1960; Blankenburg, Hoffmann and Hübner, 1968; Söhngen, 1978 and 1981). Among the new composers were those who had studied with Straube, Pepping and Distler, such as Jan Bender (who later spent some years in the USA), Günther Ramin, and Siegfried Reda. Others were H.W. Zimmermann, who was influenced by jazz idioms, Wolfgang Fortner, who developed a neo-classical style, and P.E. Ruppel, who drew inspiration from black American spirituals. Anthologies of choral music were issued for practical use, such as Das Wochenlied (1951), mostly 3- and 4-part settings of the primary church year hymns edited by Philipp Reich, which not only included compositions from earlier periods but also newly commissioned pieces by such composers as F.M. Beyer, Walter Kraft, Konrad Voppel and Friedrich Zipp. On the other hand, the Chorgesangbuch (1975) for one to five voices, edited by Richard Gölz, consisted almost entirely of 16th- and 17th-century settings. Those who held important church music positions, such as the brothers Erhard and Rudolf Mauersberger – respectively directors of the Thomanerchor, Leipzig, and the Kreuzchor, Dresden – influenced the repertory of churches in other cities and towns.

From the 1950s the influence of the Kirchentag, a lay church congress held every few years, promoted a newer, freer style of church music and hymnody that contrasted with mainstream Lutheran church music. Ecumenical and international contacts have similarly augmented the German Lutheran tradition, reflected in the new liturgical Agenda (1990) and the new hymnal Evangelisches Gesangbuch (EG) of 1993. Unlike its predecessor (EKG), EG includes a significant proportion of hymnody and liturgical music from non-German sources, for example, from England, most central European (as well as some East European) countries, Nordic countries, Israel, USA, Latin America, Africa and Asia. As with other church music traditions at the end of the 20th century, an increasing proportion of the music heard in individual congregations is representative of worldwide Christianity.

7. Nordic traditions.

The development of church music in the Lutheran churches of Nordic countries (Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Sweden and Finland) paralleled that of Germany between the 16th and 18th centuries. The Chapels Royal in Copenhagen and Stockholm were particularly influential, especially in the latter part of the 17th century, when Andreas and Gustaf Düben, father and son, performed in Stockholm works by many leading German and Italian composers. Both Schütz and Buxtehude spent some time working within the Danish kingdom.

Claus Mortensen issued a Danish Mass and hymnal in 1528, and Olaus Petri published Swedish hymns in 1526 (with at least four further, enlarged editions by 1546) and a Swedish Mass (influenced mostly by Luther’s Formula missae rather than his Deutsche Messe) in 1531. Both Danish and Swedish practice involved the continued use of Gregorian chant forms and congregational hymnody modelled on the German chorale, although some of the tunes were adapted from Danish and Swedish folksongs. Hans Thomissøn’s Den danske Psalmebog (1569; eight further editions by 1634), a collection often described as the greatest achievement in the history of Danish church music, contained liturgical music as well as hymnody; and Niels Jesperssøn’s Gradual: en almindelig sangbog (1573, 1606, 1637), the Danish equivalent of Lucas Lossius’s Psalmodia (1553), provided chant forms for the Propers of the church year. Similarly Laurentius Petri’s revisions of the Swedish Mass (1541–57), incorporated into Den svenska kyrkoordningen (1571), called for the continued use of liturgical music. Later Danish hymnals that had a continuing influence were those associated with Thomas Kingo (from 1683) and H.A. Brorson (from 1739). Swedish hymnody of the 18th century was dominated by Then swenska psalmboken (1695), whose Koralbok (1697) was a carefully edited production, each melody being supplied with figured bass. The foremost Nordic composer of church music in the 18th century was the Swedish J.H. Roman.

The remarkable Piae cantiones (1582) edited by Theodoricus Petri Nylandensis, a Finnish student at Rostock University, does not fit conveniently into any category, and yet it was one of Scandinavia’s most influential collections of music. It included plainchant hymns, medieval carols, student songs and a few rudimentary polyphonic settings and was widely known throughout most of Finland and Sweden for over 200 years.

The use of Latin and Gregorian chant was abandoned in Denmark by the end of the 17th century, and somewhat later in Sweden and Finland. The influence of Pietism touched most of the Nordic countries in the 18th and 19th centuries, especially Sweden, as is witnessed in the many manuscript chorale books in which the Pietistic texts are set to ornamented variants of earlier tunes and a wide selection of folk melodies. By 1800 simpler, isometric forms had become the norm in chorale books, one example being H.O.C. Zinck’s Koral-Melodier (1801), the last Danish collection to include figured bass.

Much 19th-century Nordic church music was composed expressly for major festivals and other special occasions, in a style strongly influenced by the Cecilian movement; Uppsala was an influential centre for such extra-liturgical music. Leading composers include C.E.F. Weyse, J.P.E. Hartmann and H. Matthison-Hanson in Denmark (Niels Gade composed little for church use); B.W. Hallberg and J.A. Söderman in Sweden; and L.M. Lindeman in Norway. In the earlier 19th century in Sweden, male-voice choirs, which sang a repertory of simple hymnic settings, were very popular throughout the country; in mid-century attempts were made to encourage a broader range of choral music in the churches.

The 20th century was marked by the liturgical movement that affected all Nordic churches. For example, at the turn of the century a committee was formed to provide musical settings for the revised Swedish prayer book of 1894. The resulting Svenska massan of 1897 laid the foundations of Sweden’s 20th-century liturgical style that combines chant forms along with traditional and newly composed music. All the Lutheran churches of Nordic countries issued new hymnals in the latter part of the 20th century, such as the Den danske salmebog (1982), Norske salme bok (1985) and Den svenska psalmboken (1986), that exhibit a common core of Lutheran hymnody (much of it German), examples of their own distinctive linguistic and national tradition, together with a selection of representative items from world Christianity. Recent composers include S.-E. Bäck, Roland Forsberg, Egil Hovland and Trond Kverno.

8. North American traditions.

A number of independent settlements of Lutherans on the east coast of the continent existed in the 17th century; these were essentially foreign churches, supported and staffed by the home country. A significant increase in the immigration of Lutherans occurred in the 18th century: some settled in what is now Georgia, others in New York and Pennsylvania. H.M. Muhlenberg (1711–87), ‘the patriarch of the Lutheran Church in America’, was commissioned by G.A. Francke, the director of the Pietist missionary enterprises in Halle, to minister in America. Muhlenberg soon rose to a position of influence and leadership among the Pennsylvania clergy. In the 1740s he observed that organs were a rarity and that hymn singing was either appalling or non-existent. His concern for music provided the inspiration for the first German hymnbook produced in America, the Erbauliche Lieder-Sammlung (1786), which drew largely on the Halle Pietist hymnal, Neues geistreiches Gesang-Buch, edited by Freylinghausen. The influence of Pietism in these pioneer days was such that little music other than hymn singing flourished.

In the mid-19th century there was a new influx of immigrants from Germany, who brought with them various regional hymnals. In their desire to be doctrinally orthodox they turned away from much of the 18th- and 19th-century content of these hymnals and rediscovered the rugged hymns of the 16th century. They abandoned the later isometric forms of the melodies in favour of the original rhythmic forms as they found them in Friedrich Layriz’s chorale books (see §5 above). These volumes, together with his liturgical settings for Löhe’s Agenda (1853), helped to make Layriz influential in forming the musical ideals of Lutheranism in the USA. As in Germany, the recovery of early Lutheran hymnody led to a rediscovery of classic Lutheran composers and their music. Lutheran immigrants from Nordic countries continued with the hymnody of their own language-group, largely a blend of folksong and the type of tune promoted by German Pietism.

The renaissance of choral music began in the early 20th century, largely through the efforts of F.M. Christiansen, composer and conductor at St Olaf Lutheran College, Northfield, Minnesota. In 1941 the music department of Concordia Publishing House, St Louis, was reorganized and thereafter restricted its publication of music to what was specifically appropriate for Lutheran worship. For the next 40 years this publisher had an enormous impact on American church music generally. In 1944 Theodore Hoelty-Nickel founded the Valparaiso University Church Music Seminar, an annual event that provided information and inspiration to Lutheran composers and musicians. Other pioneers included C.F. Pfatteicher, Paul Bunjes and Walter Buszin, organists who exerted considerable influence through their writings, lectures, recitals and performing editions. A new awareness of the place of music in the worship and witness of the Lutheran Church was fostered, which included new ideals in organ building and the use of varied instrumental resources. In the 1960s the influence of German composers such as Pepping, Distler and H.W. Zimmermann was strong, partly owing to Distler’s pupil Jan Bender, who was then resident in the USA. Other composers active since the 1960s include Richard Wienhorst, Daniel Moe, Richard Hillert, Carl Schalk, Walter Pelz and David Johnson. But the music of such non-Lutheran composers as Healey Willan, Dale Wood and Richard Proulx has also been widely used in Lutheran churches. In the last quarter of the 20th century various Lutheran hymnals were issued, including the Lutheran Book of Worship (Inter-Lutheran Commission on Worship, 1978); Lutheran Worship (The Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod, 1982); Christian Worship: a Lutheran Hymnal (Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod, 1993); and Evangelical Lutheran Hymnary (Evangelical Lutheran Synod, Mankato, Minnesota, 1996). Most of these hymnals are conservatively ‘Lutheran’, but the supplementary hymnals of this period exhibit a more pronounced ecumenical and international content.

9. Worldwide Lutheranism.

As Lutheranism expanded through missionary endeavour in the 19th century, in Latin America, Africa, Australasia and elsewhere, church music developed in ways similar to the process of acculturation that had occurred earlier in Nordic countries. The earlier periods were characterized by the importation of the traditions of the respective European Lutheran missionaries (German, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian etc.). During the latter part of the 20th century the tendency was to incorporate indigenous musical styles as well as maintaining an ecumenical perspective.

4. The period of transition, 1956–60.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BlumeEK

C.G.A.V. von Winterfeld: Der evangelische Kirchengesang und sein Verhaltniss zur Kunst des Tonsatzes (Leipzig, 1843–7/R)

A.L. Richter: Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des 16. Jahrhunderts (Weimar, 1846/R)

A. Knapp: Evangelischer Liederschatz für Kirche, Schule und Haus (Stuttgart, 1850, 4/1891)

P. Wackernagel: Bibliographie zur Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenliedes im XVI. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt, 1855/R)

P. Wackernagel: Das deutsche Kirchenlied von der ältesten Zeit bis zu Anfang des XVII. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1864–77/R)

L. Schoeberlein: Schatz des liturgischen Chor- und Gemeindegesangs nebst den Altarweisen in der deutschen evangelischen Kirche aus den Quellen vornehmlich des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts geschöpft ... unter der musikalischer Redaktion von F. Riegel (Göttingen, 1865–72/R)

A.F.W. Fischer: Kirchenlieder-Lexicon (Gotha, 1878–86/R)

S. Kümmerle: Encyklopädie der evangelischen Kirchenmusik (Gütersloh, 1888–95/R)

J. Zahn: Die Melodien der deutschen evangelischen Kirchenlieder (Gütersloh, 1889–1983/R)

R. von Liliencron: Liturgisch musikalische Geschichte der evangelischen Gottesdienste von 1523 bis 1700 (Schleswig, 1893/R)

D.G. Rietschel: Die Aufgabe der Orgel im Gottesdienste bis in das 18. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1893/R)

E. Sehling, ed: Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des 16. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1902–13)

A.F.W. Fischer and W.Tümpel: Das deutsche evangelische Kirchenlied des 17. Jahrhunderts (Gütersloh, 1902–16/R)

J. Rautenstrauch: Luther und die Pflege der Kirchlichen Musik in Sachsen (Leipzig, 1907/R)

E. Abrahamsen: Liturgisk musik i den danske kirke efter Reformationen (Copenhagen, 1919)

F. Blume: Das monodische Prinzip in der protestantischen Kirchenmusik (Leipzig, 1925/R)

W. Stählin: Die bedeutung der Singbewegung für den evangelischen Kirchengesang (Kassel, 1928)

W. Gosslau: Die religiöse Haltung in der Reformationsmusik: nachgewiesen an den ‘Newen deudschen geistlichen Gesengen’ des Georg Rhaw, 1544: ein Beitrag zur Musikanschauung des 16. Jahrhunderts (Kassel, 1933)

U. Leupold: Die liturgischen Gesänge der evangelischen Kirche im Zeitalter der Aufklärung und der Romantik (Kassel, 1933)

S. Widding: Dansk messe, tide- og psalmensang, 1528–1573 (Copenhagen, 1933)

K. Ameln, C.Mahrenholz and W. Thomas: Handbuch der deutschen evangelischen Kirchenmusik (Göttingen, 1933–74)

H. Distler: ‘Vom Geiste der neuen Evangelischen Kirchenmusik’, ZfM, cii (1935), 1325–9

G. Kempff: Der Kirchengesang im lutherischen Gottesdienst und seine Erneuerung (Leipzig, 1937)

P. Graff: Geschichte der Auflösung der alten gottesdienstlichen Formen in der evangelischen Kirche Deutschlands (Göttingen, 2/1937–9)

A.D. Müller: Musik als Problem lutherischer Gottesdienstgestaltung (Berlin, 1947)

O.H. Bostrom: ‘The Status of Liturgical Music in the Churches of the National Lutheran Council’, Lutheran Quarterly, ii (1950), 369–81

O. Söhngen: Das kirchenmusikalische Amt in der Evangelischen Kirche der altpreussischen Union: mit wichtigsten geltenden Verordnungen und Erlasse auf dem Gebiete der Kirchenmusik (Berlin, 1950)

O. Söhngen: Die Wiedergeburt der Kirchenmusik: Wandlungen und Entscheidungen (Kassel, 1953)

H.J. Moser: Die evangelische Kirchenmusik in Deutschland (Berlin, 1954)

O. Söhngen: Kämpfende Kirchenmusik: die Bewährungsprobe der evangelischen Kirchenmusik im Dritten Reich (Kassel, 1954)

H. Kätzel: Musikpflege und Musikerziehung im Reformationsjahrhundert: dargestellt am Beispiel der Stadt Hof (Göttingen, 1957)

W.H. Rubsamen: ‘The International “Catholic” Repertory of a Lutheran Church in Nürnberg (1574–1597)’, AnnM, v (1957), 229–327

A. Böes: ‘Die reformatorischen Gottesdienste in der Wittenberger Pfarrkirche von 1523 an’, JbLH, iv (1959), 1–40

H. Böhm, ed: Kirchenmusik heute: Gedanken über Aufgaben und Probleme der musica sacra (Berlin, 1959)

F. Kalb: Die Lehre vom Kultus der lutherischen Kirche zur Zeit der Orthodoxie (Berlin, 1959; Eng. trans., 1965 as Theology of Worship in 17th-Century Lutheranism)

F. Blume: ‘Das Problem der Kirchenmusik in unserer Zeit’, Musik und Kirche, xxx (1960), 129–37

A.W. Grauer: The Vocal Style of Sixt Dietrich and Johann Eccard and their Contributions to Lutheran Church Music (diss., Rochester U., 1960)

S. Scheytt: ‘Musik im Getto: soziologischer Kommentar zur modernen evangelischen Kirchenmusik’, Musik und Kirche, xxx (1960), 107–13

E.C. Wolf: Lutheran Church Music in America during the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries (diss., U. of Illinois, 1960)

G.M. Cartford: Music in the Norwegian Lutheran Church: a Study of its Development and its Transfer to America, 1825–1917 (diss., U. of Minnesota, 1961)

K.F. Müller and W.Blankenburg: Leiturgia: Handbuch des Evangelischen Gottesdienstes, iv: Die Musik des Evangelischen Gottesdienstes (Kassel, 1961) [esp. O. Brodde: ‘Evangelische Choralkunde: der gregorianische Choral im evangelischen Gottesdienst’, 343–555]

W.E. Buszin: ‘Lutheran Church Music in the Age of Classic Lutheran Theology’, The Symposium on Seventeenth Century Lutheranism (St Louis, 1962), 62–76

M. Geck: Die Vokalmusik Dietrich Buxtehudes und der frühe Pietismus (Kassel, 1965)

D. Krickeberg: Das Protestantische Kantorat im 17. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1965)

A.A. Moorefield: The Music of Johannes Galliculus and its Function in the Early Lutheran Liturgy (diss., UCLA, 1965)

R. Schaal, ed.: Das Inventar der Kantorei St. Anna in Augsburg: ein Beitrag zur protestantischen Musikpflege im 16. und beginnenden 17. Jahrhundert (Kassel, 1965)

K.M. Ziegler: ‘Kirchenmusik zwischen Avantgarde und Gemeinde’, Musik und Kirche, xxxv (1965), 73–85

C. Bunners: Kirchenmusik und Seelenmusik: Studien zu Frömmigkeit und Musik im Luthertum des 17. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1966)

V.H. Mattfeld: Georg Rhaw’s Publications for Vespers (New York, 1966)

L.E. Cuyler: ‘Musical Activity in Augsburg and its Annakirche, ca.1470–1630’, Cantors at the Crossroads: Essays on Church Music in Honor of Walter E. Buszin, ed. J. Riedel (St Louis, 1967), 33–43

H. Gotsch: ‘The Organ in the Lutheran Service in the 16th Century’, Church Music, lxvii/2 (1967), 7–12

H.E. Samuel: ‘Michael Praetorius on the Concerto Style’, Cantors at the Crossroads: Essays in Honor of Walter E. Buszin, ed. J. Riedel (St Louis, 1967), 95–109

W. Blankenburg: ‘Die Idee der evangelischen Kirchenmusikschule 1928, 1948, 1968’, Musik und Kirche, xxxviii (1968), 270–78; repr. in Hübner and Steiger (1979), 323–31

W. Blankenburg, F.Hofmann and E. Hübner, eds.: Kirchenmusik im Spannungsfeld der Gegenwart (Kassel, 1968)

E. Liemohn: The Organ and Choir in Protestant Worship (Philadelphia, 1968)

H.J. Moser: Die mehrstimmige Vertonung des Evangeliums (Hildesheim, 2/1968)

W. Zeller: ‘ “Die edle und wohlgeordnete Musik der Gläubigen”: zum 300. Geburtstage Johann Porsts’, Musik und Kirche, xxxviii (1968), 159–65

J.W. Barker: ‘Sociological Influences upon the Emergence of Lutheran Music’, MMA, iv (1969), 157–98

L.E. Cuyler: ‘Georg Rhaws’s Opus decem Missarum, 1541: some Aspects of the Franco-Flemish Mass in Germany’, Renaissance-muziek 1400–1600: donum natalicium René Bernard Lenaerts, ed. J. Robijns and others (Leuven, 1969), 71–81

R.V. Scholz: 17th-Century Magnificats for the Lutheran Service (diss., U. of Illinois, 1969)

R.L. Gould: The Latin Lutheran Mass at Wittenberg 1523-1545: a Survey of the Early Reformation Mass and the Lutheran Theology of Music (diss., Union Theological Seminary, New York, 1970)

G. Stiller: Johann Sebastian Bach und das Leipziger gottesdienstliche Leben seiner Zeit (Kassel, 1970; Eng. trans., 1984)

B.R. Butler: Liturgical Music in Sixteenth-Century Nürnberg: a Socio-Musical Study (diss., U. of Illinois, 1971)

W. Dehnhard: Die deutsche Psalmmotette in der Reformationszeit (Wiesbaden, 1971)

J.E. Windh: Early Lutheran Masses (diss., U. of Illinois, 1971)

P.S. Cavanaugh: A Liturgico-Musical Study of German Polyphonic Mass Propers, 1490–1520 (diss., U. of Pittsburgh, 1972)

A. Bond: ‘Plainchant in the Lutheran Church’, MT, cxiv (1973), 582–7, 993–7, 1114–18

L. Lockwood: ‘Music and Religion in the High Renaissance and the Reformation’, The Pursuit of Holiness in Late Medieval and Renaissance Religion: Michigan 1972, ed. C. Trinkaus and H.A. Oberman (Leiden, 1974), 496–502

W. Blankenburg: ‘Gottesdienstreform in der Sicht geschichtlicher, insonderheit kirchenmusikalischer Entwicklung’, Musik und Kirche, lxv (1975), 183–290

O. Söhngen: Erneuerte Kirchenmusik: eine Streitschrift (Göttingen, 1975)

R.A. Leaver: The Liturgy and Music: a Study of the Use of the Hymn in Two Liturgical Traditions (Bramcote, Notts., 1976)

D. Gojowy: ‘Kirchenlieder im Umkreis von J. S. Bach’, JbLH, xxii (1978), 79–123

E. Hübner and R.Steiger, eds.: Kirche und Musik (Göttingen, 1979) [Blankenburg Fs, 75th birthday]

A. Kirwan-Mott: The Small-Scale Sacred Concertato in the Early Seventeenth Century (Ann Arbor, 1981)

M.E. Krentz: The Use of Sequences in German Lutheran Churches during the Sixteenth Century (diss., Northwestern U., 1981)

O. Söhngen: Musica Sacra zwischen gestern und morgen: Entwicklungsstadien und Perspektiven in der 2. Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 2/1981)

H.E. Samuel: The Cantata in Nuremberg during the Seventeenth Century (Ann Arbor, 1982)

J.B. Howard: The Latin Lutheran Mass of the Mid-Seventeenth Century: a Study of Andreas Hammerschmidt’s Missae (1663) and Lutheran Traditions of Mass Composition (diss., Bryn Mawr College, PA, 1983)

H. Frederichs: ‘Johann Mattheson und der Gottesdienst seiner Zeit’, Musik und Kirche, liv (1984), 1–10

J. Irwin: ‘German Pietists and Church Music in the Baroque Age’, Church History, liv (1985), 29–40

R.A. Leaver: ‘The Liturgical Place and Homiletic Purpose of Bach’s Cantatas’, Worship, lix (1985), 194–202

R. Schmidt-Rost: ‘Usus musicae – divinus rebus accommodatus: Martin Luthers Auffassung von der Musik im Gottesdienst und ihr Bedeutung für die evangelische Orgelmusik’, Die Orgel im Dienst der Kirche, ed. H.H. Eggebrecht (Murrhardt, 1985), 82–100

W. Fritz: ‘The Decline of Lutheran Music During the Classical Period’, Journal of Church Music, xxix (1987), 17–19, 46

R.M. Cammarota: The Repertory of Magnificats in Leipzig at the Time of J.S. Bach: a Study of the Manuscript Sources (diss., New York U., 1986)

A.F. Carver: Cori spezzati (Cambridge, 1988)

J. Fischer: ‘Evangelische Kirchenmusik im Dritten Reich: “Musikalische Erneuerung” und ästhetische Modalität des Faschismus’, AfM, xlvi (1989), 185–234

R.A. Leaver: ‘The Lutheran Reformation’, The Renaissance: from the 1470s to the End of the 16th Century, ed. I. Fenlon (London, 1989), 263–85

H. Prolingheuer: ‘Die “Entjudung” der deutschen evangelischen Kirchenmusik zwischen 1933 und 1945’, Der Kirchenmusiker, xl (1989), 121–37

A. Riethmüller: ‘Die Erneuerung der Kirchenmusik im Dritten Reich: eine Legende?’, Der Kirchenmusiker, xl (1989), 161–74

F.J.C. Brouwer: Vernieuwing in drieklank: een onderzoek naar de liturgische ontwikkelingen in Denemarken (c.1800 tot c.1950) (diss., U. of Utrecht, 1990)

W. Herbst: ‘Die Wiedergeburt der Kirchenmusik und ihr politischer Kontext’, Der Kirchenmusiker, lxi (1990), 121–36

G.A. Krieg: Die gottesdienstliche Musik als theologische Problem: dargestellt an der kirchenmusikalischen Erneuerung nach dem ersten Weltkrieg (Göttingen, 1990)

R.A. Leaver: ‘Lutheran Vespers as a Context for Music’, Church, Stage, and Studio: Music and its Contexts in Seventeenth-Century Germany, ed. P. Walker (Ann Arbor, 1990), 143–61

D.P. Walker and P.Walker: German Sacred Polyphonic Vocal Music Between Schütz and Bach: Sources and Critical Editions (Warren, MI, 1992)

G. Webber: ‘Organ or Orphanage? Religious Controversy Surrounding the Role of Organ Music in German Lutheran Worship in the Baroque Era’, BIOS, no.16 (1993), 29–38

J. Heidrich: Die deutschen Chorbücher aus der Hofkapelle Friedrichs des Weisen: ein Beitrag zur mitteldeutschen geistlichen Musikpraxis um 1500 (Baden-Baden, 1993)

J.L. Irwin: Neither Voice nor Heart Alone: German Lutheran Theology of Music in the Age of the Baroque (New York, 1993)

K. Rohring: ‘ “Passage” und “Prelude” zum Unsagbaren: neue Musik in der Kirche-Entwicklungen im 20. Jahrhundert’, Der Kirchenmusiker, lxiv (1993), 121–30

F. Schulz: ‘Psalmgesang in der Gemeinde nach lutherischer Tradition: geistlich – musikalisch – liturgisch’, Musik und Kirche, lxiii (1993), 2–15, 81–91

J. Butt: Music Education and the Art of Performance in the German Baroque (Cambridge, 1994)

K.A.P. Duffy: The Jena Choirbooks: the Music and the Liturgy of Pre-Reformation Saxony (diss., U. of Chicago, 1994)

K. Klek: ‘Heinrich von Herzogenberg und Friedrich Spitta: sieben fruchtbare Jahre für die evangelische Kirchenmusik, 1893-1900’, Musik und Kirche, lxiii (1993), 312–18; lxiv (1994), 95–106

C. Krummacher: Musik als praxis pietatis: zum selbstverständnis evangelischer Kirchenmusik (Göttingen, 1994)

W. Miersemann: ‘Lieddichtung im Spannungsfeld zwischen Orthodoxie und Pietismus: zu Erdmann Neumeisters Weissenfelser Kommunionbuch Der Zugang zum Gnaden-Stuhl Jesu Christo’, Weissenfels als Ort literarischer und künstlerischer Kultur im Barockzeitalter: Weissenfels 1992, ed. R. Jacobsen (Amsterdam, 1994), 177–216

W. Steude: ‘Anmerkungen zu David Elias Heidenreich, Erdmann Neumeister und den beiden Haupttypen der evangelischen Kirchenkantate’, ibid., 45–61

J. Heidrich: Der Meier-Mattheson-Disput: eine Polemik zur deutschen protestantischen Kirchenkantate in der ersten Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts (Göttingen, 1995)

R.A. Leaver: ‘Theological Consistency, Liturgical Integrity, and Musical Hermeneutic in Luther’s Liturgical Reforms’, Lutheran Quarterly, new ser., ix (1995), 117–38

R. Lorenz: Pedagogical Implications of Musica practica in Sixteenth-Century Wittenberg (diss., Indiana U., 1995)

H.-J. Schulze: ‘Über den Endzweck der Kirchenmusik in Leipzig nach 1750’, BJb 1995, 191–3

G. Webber: North German Church Music in the Age of Buxtehude (Oxford, 1996)

M.E. Frandsen: The Sacred Concerto in Dresden, ca. 1660–1680 (diss., Eastman School of Music, Rochester U., 1997)

R.A. Leaver: ‘Music and Lutheranism’, The Cambridge Bach Companion, ed. J. Butt (Cambridge, 1997), 35–45, 253–6

A. Brinzing: ‘Ein neuer Fund zu den Quellen evangelischer Kirchenmusik im 16. Jahrhundert’, Neues musikwissenschaftliches Jb, vi (1997), 37–58

D.O. Heuchemer: Italian Musicians in Dresden in the Second Half of the Sixteenth Century, with an Emphasis on the Lives and Works of Antonio Scandello and Giovanni Battista Pinello di Ghirardi (diss., U. of Cincinnati, 1997)

P. Wollny: ‘Materien zur Schweinfurter Musikpflege im 17. Jahrhundert: Von 1592 bis zum Tod Georg Christoph Bachs (1642-1697)’, Schütz Jb, xix (1997), 113–63

Luthier

(Fr.; It. liutaio).

Originally the word for a lute maker, it has become a general term for a maker of violins or other string instruments. Though French, the word has gained currency in English and German. Similarly, the derivative ‘lutherie’ (lute making) has acquired the meaning of instrument making in general.

Luthon, Carl.

See Luython, Carl.

Lutkeman, Paul.

See Luetkeman, Paul.

Lutkin, Peter Christian

(b Thompsonville, WI, 27 March 1858; d Evanston, IL, 27 Dec 1931). American music educator, organist, conductor and composer. He was a chorister at the Episcopal Cathedral in Chicago and taught piano at Northwestern University in Evanston (1879–81) before studying with Raff, Bargiel and Haupt in Berlin, and Moszkowski in Paris (1881–4). On returning to Chicago he served as organist of St Clement’s (1884–91) and St James’s (1891–7). His main achievement was the founding and development of the Northwestern University School of Music, of which he was the first dean (1895–1928); he established the Chicago North Shore Festival (1909–30), and served as its choral conductor. He was a founder of the American Guild of Organists (1896) and received an honorary MusD from Syracuse University (1900). Lutkin’s compositions consist mostly of church music. His writings include Music in the Church (1910), Hymn-Singing and Hymn-Playing (1930), and a History of Music in Northwestern University (MS in US-Eu).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DAB (R.G. Cole)

Grove3, Amer. suppl. [incl. list of works]

P.G. Kennel: Peter Christian Lutkin: Northwestern University’s First Dean of Music (diss., Northwestern U., 1981)

BRUCE CARR

Lütolf, Max

(b Altishofen, 1 Dec 1934). Swiss musicologist. He studied musicology first at the University of Fribourg with Brenn, and then with Schrade and Schmitz at the University of Basle, where he took the doctorate in 1967 with a dissertation on medieval polyphonic mass settings. Concurrently he made extensive research trips to nearly every European country. He also worked as an assistant under Schrade (1959–61) and subsequently became Kurt von Fischer’s research assistant (1967) and a lecturer at the musicology department of Zürich University (1968). He completed the Habilitation in 1975 with a study of the polyphonic Italian Passion, and was appointed reader in 1977. He was a member of the directorate of the Schweizerische Musikforschende Gesellschaft (from 1971) and the IMS (1977–87) and he is general editor of the Schoeck collected edition.

Lütolf’s main areas of research have been the history of music in the Middle Ages, Italian music after 1600 and French music around 1700. His dissertation, for which he received the Dent Medal in 1973, is a particularly authoritative exposition, informed by philological precision, a wide knowledge of sources and a remarkable analytic method. In his important first critical edition of an opéra-ballet by André Campra (Les festes vénitiennes, 1710), his study of the incorporation of earlier ideas into French music of this period gave rise to some valuable aesthetic hypotheses. He also specializes in the history of music in Switzerland and has prepared the published work-lists of the composers Albert Jenny (Zürich, 1985), Oswald Jaeggi (with E. Jaeggi, Zürich, 1990), Reinhard Peter (with B. Hangartner, Stans, 1992) and Paul Huber (St Gallen, 1993).

WRITINGS

Die mehrstimmigen Ordinarium Missae-Sätze vom ausgehenden 11. bis zur Wende des 13. zum 14. Jahrhundert (diss., U. of Basle, 1967; Berne, 1970)

ed., with K. von Fischer: Handschriften mit mehrstimmiger Musik des 14., 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts, RISM, B/IV/3–4 (Munich, 1972)

ed., with H.H. Eggebrecht: Studien zur Tradition in der Musik: Kurt von Fischer zum 60. Geburtstag (Munich, 1973) [incl. ‘Zur Rolle der Antike in der musikalischen Tradition der französischen Epoque classique’, 145–64]

Beiträge zu einer Geschichte der mehrstimmigen liturgischen Passion in Italien (Habilitationsschrift, U. of Zürich, 1975)

‘Eine neue Quelle zur italienischen Kirchenmusik des Trecento’, AnMc, no.17 (1976), 1–22

ed., with others: Analecta hymnica medii aevi: Register (Berne, 1978)

with R. Richter: ‘Les poésie lyriquese de Matfré Ermengau’, Romania, xcviii (1977), 15–33

ed.: F. Ludwig: Repertorium organorum recentioris et motetorum vetustissimi stili, i/2 (Brooklyn, NY, 1978)

‘Anmerkungen zum litergischen Gesang im mittelalterlichen St Katharinenthal’, Das Graduale von Sankt Katharinenthal (Luzern, 1983), 235–94

‘Fünf Punkte zur Mehrstimmigkeit in Spanien vor 1320/30’, RdMc, x (1987), 53–66

‘Notations des XIIe–XIIIe siècles et leur transcription: difficultés d'interprétation’, Cahiers de civilisation médiévale, xxxi (1988), 151–60

‘Die Gesänge im Codex Gressly’, Missale Basileense (Codex Gressly), ed. A. Hänggi and P. Ladner, ii (Freiburg, 1994) [companion volume to facs]

‘A New Source for the Antiphonale Missarum’, Songs of the Dove and the Nightingale, Sacred and Secular Music c900–c1600, ed. G.M. Hair and R.E. Smith (Sydney, 1994), 33–62

ed.: Alessandro Scarlatti und seine Zeit (Berne, 1995)

EDITIONS

A. Campra: Les festes vénitiennes: opéra-ballet (1710), Le pupitre, xix (Paris, 1972)

Arcangelo Corelli: Sonate da chiesa opus I und II, mit Francesco Geminianis Concerto grosso-Bearbeitungen (Cologne, 1987)

Das Graduale von Santa Cecilia in Trastevere (1071) (Cologne, 1987)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

B. Hangartner and V. Fischer, eds.: Max Lütolf zum 60. Geburtstag: Festschrift (Basle, 1994) [incl. list of writings, 295–8]

JÜRG STENZL

Lutosławski, Witold (Roman)

(b Warsaw, 25 Jan 1913; d Warsaw, 9 Feb 1994). Polish composer.

1. Life, 1913–45.

2. Life, 1945–94.

3. Works up to 1956.

5. Stylistic maturity, 1960–79.

6. The late works, 1979–94.

CHARLES BODMAN RAE

1. Life, 1913–45.

He was born into a distinguished family of the Polish landed gentry which had its estates in and around Drozdowo, on the river Narew, north-east of Warsaw. He was the youngest son of Józef Lutosławski (1881–1918), an accomplished amateur pianist who had taken lessons with Eugene d'Albert. Together with four of his brothers, Józef was active in the politics of the National Democracy Party, Endecja, which sought to align Poland with Imperial Russia in order to counter the expansionism of Imperial Germany. On the outbreak of World War I, many Poles associated with Endecja sought refuge in Russia. The Lutosławski family, who found themselves directly in the path of the invading army, left for Moscow, where Witold spent his next three years of childhood: he later recalled witnessing the commotion in the streets at the time of the 1917 February and October revolutions. Both before and during the revolutionary period, Józef Lutosławski was away from Moscow helping to organize the formation of Polish military units under the cover of the Imperial administration. But after the October revolution, the Poles found themselves in direct conflict with the victorious Bolsheviks. Józef and his brother Marian were arrested and, in September 1918, executed by firing squad. After her husband's death Maria Lutosławska left Moscow with her three sons, taking refuge at her family home in the Ukraine. Once the German occupation of Warsaw had ended on 13 November 1918, the family returned briefly to Drozdowo, the estates of which had been ravaged during the occupation, before settling again in the centre of Warsaw.

It was in Warsaw that Witold's musical education began. At the age of six he started to have lessons with a well regarded piano teacher, Helena Hoffman, who gave him a secure grounding in piano technique and music theory. His mother's financial difficulties, however, forced her to curtail the lessons after two years. In 1921, the family returned to Drozdowo, and Lutosławski resumed piano lessons with a local teacher. The training was not of the same calibre as that provided by Hoffman; nevertheless he was encouraged to compose, and, by the age of nine, had produced his first piano piece.

In 1924 Maria and her sons returned to live in Warsaw, where Lutosławski entered the prestigious Stefan Batory high school and continued his piano studies with Józef Śmidowicz (1888–1962). Two years later, in 1926, he began violin studies with an eminent teacher, Lidia Kmitowa (1888–1967), and, after six years, had gained sufficient proficiency on the instrument to be able to perform solo works by Bach, as well as Mozart concertos and the Franck sonata. Perhaps the most significant musical experience from his adolescence was a 1924 concert performance in Warsaw of Szymanowski's Symphony no.3 ‘Song of the Night’ (1914–16). This was apparently his first exposure to the live orchestral sound in that rich, post-Debussian harmonic vocabulary characteristic not only of Szymanowski but also of Ravel and early Stravinsky. These figures, together with Debussy, were to influence the development of Lutosławski's sound language. Some aspects of Szymanowski's musical aesthetic, such as his ‘orientalism’ and his effusive emotionalism, were later to repel him. Lutosławski's cooler, more controlled temperament was inclined more to the anti-Romanticism of Stravinsky than the post-Romanticism of his compatriot.

In 1927 Lutosławski entered the Conservatory as a part-time student, while still attending the Stefan Batory high school, but had to suspend his studies there after a year because of the combined pressure of schoolwork and violin studies. In the meantime, however, he had made sufficient progress in composition to write a Poème for piano, on the strength of which he was accepted as a private composition pupil of Maliszewski. He then proceeded, in 1930, to write Taniec Chimery (‘Dance of the Chimera’), for piano, which was his first publicly performed piece. His first attempt at an orchestral piece, a Scherzo, also dates from that year, but, like the piano pieces, it has not survived. Maliszewski's teaching in the area of musical form was to prove one of the strongest and most enduring influences on Lutosławski. His approach, taught through analysis of the works of Haydn and Beethoven in particular, was to examine musical forms as different kinds of abstract drama. He identified four basic kinds of musical ‘character’ within a large-scale form: introductory, transitional, narrative, and concluding. The psychological journey through the piece would be analysed according to the interaction of these types of formal function. Lutosławski's recollection of Maliszewski's teaching that ‘only in the Narrative is content the most important thing to be perceived, while in all the other three the role of the given section in the form of the music is more important than the content’ provides a vital clue to understanding his own approach to large-scale form. Maliszewski's four basic ‘characters’ can be identified in many of Lutosławski's large-scale forms; in certain works, such as Jeux vénitiens and Livre pour orchestre, they can be associated directly with the individual movements of a four-movement form.

After passing his final high school examinations in 1931, Lutosławski enrolled at Warsaw University to study mathematics, while continuing to study privately with Maliszewski, Kmitowa and Śmidowicz. That year he composed incidental music for a dramatization of Haroun al Rashid. In 1932, he formally entered Maliszewski's composition and analysis class at the Warsaw Conservatory; he also discontinued his violin studies in order to concentrate on the piano, enrolling at the Conservatory as a student of Jerzy Lefeld (1898–1980). The following year he curtailed his studies of mathematics, withdrawing from Warsaw University in order to devote himself fully to a musical career.

The most immediate result of his new concentration on composition was the first performance of an orchestral piece (lost at the end of the war): a revised version of a dance from Haroun al Rashid was conducted by Józef Ozimiński at the Warsaw Philharmonic Hall. The most significant piece from these student years is also his earliest extant work, the Piano Sonata, completed in December 1934. Lutosławski gave several performances of the piece himself, notably in Riga and Wilno (now Vilnius) in 1935. It was at one of the Riga performances that he had his one and only meeting with Szymanowski.

In 1936 Lutosławski received his piano diploma from the Warsaw Conservatory, and in the following year he was awarded his composition diploma on the basis of a portfolio that included two fragments of a requiem, Requiem aeternam and Lacrimosa, of which only the latter survives. He had in the meantime begun work on the Symphonic Variations, which he completed, after his compulsory year of military service, in 1938. They received their first performance in a Polish Radio broadcast in April 1939, and their first concert performance two months later in Kraków by the Polish RSO under Grzegorz Fitelberg, who became a significant champion of Lutosławski's work. Since his graduation in 1937, Lutosławski had hoped to continue his studies with Nadia Boulanger in Paris; but military service had already intervened once, and by the middle of 1939 general mobilization was ordered and Lutosławski found himself back in uniform as an officer cadet in the signals and radio unit. He was eventually taken prisoner by the German Wehrmacht near Lublin, but after eight days in captivity, managed to escape and make his way back to Warsaw. (His less fortunate brother Henryk was taken captive by the Red Army and died in the Gulag Archipelago in 1940.) Lutosławski remained in Warsaw until 1944, earning his living by performing in cafés, first with a cabaret group and later in a piano duo with his composer contemporary Panufnik. Together they made numerous arrangements for two pianos: Lutosławski's set of Variations on a Theme by Paganini (1941), based on the famous A minor Caprice, dates from this period. Just before the launch of the heroic but ill-fated Warsaw uprising of August–October 1944, Lutosławski and his mother left the city to seek refuge with relatives at Komorów. He was able to take only a handful of works, including his sketches for the First Symphony, a few student pieces (including the Piano Sonata), the Two Studies for piano, the Symphonic Variations and the Paganini Variations. All his other scores were left in Warsaw where they perished during the final destruction of the city. While in Komorów, Lutosławski occupied himself by writing a series of contrapuntal studies, mostly canons and interludes for wind instruments. Elements of this material were to find their way into the First Symphony as well as a Wind Trio.

2. Life, 1945–94.

With the absence of musical life in Warsaw in 1945, cultural and artistic activity transferred to Kraków where there was still an infrastructure. From 29 August to 2 September the first congress of the new Polish Composers' Union (ZKP) was held, together with a festival of new music, at which Lutosławski's Wind Trio was first performed. He was elected secretary and treasurer of the ZKP and held these honorary positions until the political deterioration of 1948. For a brief period immediately after the war, Lutosławski held the position of music director at Polish Radio. He also embarked on a series of projects for Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne (PWM), the new Polish publishing house for music, based in Kraków. In 1946 he wrote incidental music for two films, one of which, Suita Warszawska, is a particularly good example of his deft treatment of folk sources and imaginative use of small orchestral resources.

On 26 October 1946 Lutosławski married Danuta Bogusławska, daughter of the architect Antoni Dygat, and sister of the writer Stanisław Dygat. They moved into a cramped apartment with their respective mothers and the son from his wife's first marriage. In order to support this extended family, Lutosławski composed a large quantity of ‘functional music’ of various kinds, including children's songs (primarily for Polish Radio), songs and instrumental pieces based on folk material, commissioned by PWM; popular songs and dances under the pseudonym ‘Derwid’, and much incidental music for the theatre (principally the Teatr Polski in Warsaw) and for radio plays. It is important to distinguish between these modest but numerous functional pieces, and the concert pieces, especially cantatas and other vocal works, which other composers wrote in order to satisfy the criteria of socialist realism. (This issue re-emerged during the politically turbulent period of the early 1980s, when an attempt was made to discredit Lutosławski by falsely suggesting that he had composed a ‘cantata’ in praise of the Stalinist regime.) Lutosławski's use of folk material after the war was not a response to the new political climate: indeed the folk-influenced pieces he composed in 1946 predated the political pressures, which began in earnest only in 1948. He soon became a victim of those pressures nonetheless. In November 1948 he was dropped from the committee of the Polish Composers’ Union, and in August 1949 his First Symphony became the first significant Polish composition to be branded as ‘formalist’ and thus proscribed. It was not performed again in Poland until the late 1950s.

During the 1950s Lutosławski survived the changes in political climate by pursuing three parallel strands of activity. The first of these involved a substantial output of functional pieces for immediate consumption (including many little popular pieces written under the pseudonym ‘Derwid’). The second yielded a small number of modest concert pieces, based on folk material, which were far removed from the ‘serious’ musical projects on which he would have preferred to work. The third strand was hidden from public view, and concerned his private investigations into new elements of compositional technique. Aspects of these techniques were tested in a few of the functional pieces (for example, his technique of melodic interval-pairing, which appeared in certain children's songs), but his more radical techniques of pitch organization (such as 12-note chords) were not able to progress beyond his private sketch materials. It is thus entirely misleading to suggest, as did many western European commentators in the 1960s and 70s, that Lutosławski changed his style as a result of the post-Stalin ‘thaw’ and the events that followed (such as the establishment of the Warsaw Autumn Festival in 1956). His sketches show that his style and technique were continuing to develop throughout the late 1940s and 1950s, but the political circumstances of the time prevented him from applying the elements of his new harmonic language in concert pieces until works of the late 1950s, such as the Five Iłłakowicz Songs, and in Muzyka żałobna (Musique funèbre, 1954–8). The folk-music period reached its high point with the Concerto for Orchestra (1950–54), and its conclusion with the Dance Preludes (1954).

The Concerto for Orchestra established Lutosławski's reputation in Poland as the leading composer of his generation, especially since Panufnik, his most eminent contemporary, had defected to England. Four years later, his Musique funèbre brought him international acclaim, an acclaim that was further enhanced in 1961 by Jeux vénitiens, the first piece to adopt his particular approach to aleatory techniques. In 1963 Lutosławski returned to the podium as conductor of the orchestra in the first performance of his Trois poèmes d'Henri Michaux. His previous experience of conducting had been in radio studios with broadcasting orchestras, but from 1963 he was to be increasingly active conducting his own works in concert performances. His main motivation for doing this was to overcome difficulties presented by his aleatory technique. He was thus able to explain in rehearsal how such sections should operate and could direct the ensemble with his technique of left-hand and right-hand cues (as distinct from conventional, metred conducting). Not only did his work as a conductor enable him to promulgate internationally his particular approach to ensemble coordination in aleatory passages, but it also fed back into his work as a composer. Perhaps paradoxically it led, from the mid-1970s until the end of his career, to a gradual reduction in his use of aleatory techniques in his orchestral works. The promotion of his music outside Poland and the Soviet bloc was also furthered by his signing in 1966 with the Chester publishing house in London. The hard-currency royalties yielded by the new contract enabled the composer and his wife to buy a detached house in the exclusive Żoliborz area of north Warsaw, which was to provide Lutosławski with the ideal working conditions he enjoyed for the rest of his life, away from the noises and disturbances of flat-dwelling.

The decade from the late 1970s to the late 80s witnessed the birth, suppression and ultimate victory of the Solidarity movement in Poland. Lutosławski's position in relation to the events of this period is significant in that he found himself among an élite group of internationally acclaimed Polish figures in whom a kind of unofficial moral leadership became invested. His address to the Congress of Culture in early December 1981 included open references to the damage caused by the Stalinist cultural dictates of the 1950s (under which he and many others had suffered). During the period of severe oppression which followed the imposition of martial law that same month, Lutosławski was one of the most high-profile figures to observe the artists’ boycott of the state media, and he remained true to it throughout the decade by refusing to conduct his music in Poland, declining to meet government ministers and refusing offers of state prizes and other financial inducements. The integrity of his stance was recognized by the award of the Solidarity Prize in 1983. Only after the suppression of Solidarity was lifted, leading to the free elections of 1988–9, did Lutosławski end his boycott, resuming his participation in Polish public life and joining a number of advisory committees set up by the newly-elected president, Lech Wałęsa. Wałęsa's presidency saw the reintroduction of the Order of the White Eagle, an award which had not been made during the communist period. The first recipient was Pope John Paul II; the second, in January 1994, a month before his death, was Lutosławski.

3. Works up to 1956.

Tracing Lutosławski's early development is problematic, given the small number of pieces which survived the war. Of those that did, the Piano Sonata and the Symphonic Variations are the most substantial. The Piano Sonata (1934) exists only in manuscript; except for the war it might have been published, but by 1945 Lutosławski evidently felt that it was no longer representative of his style and so consigned it to his bottom drawer, where it remained except for a single postwar performance. The sonata is cast conventionally in three movements, the first of which is in sonata form. The piano writing is accomplished and idiomatic, and foreshadows later works in its characteristic partitioning of registral space into three layers, each with particular harmonic characteristics. The harmonic language of the piece is post-Debussian, and shows a clear affinity with the music of Ravel, a composer whose influence was largely absent from his music of the 1960s and 70s, not re-emerging until such late works as the Piano Concerto and the song-cycle Chantefleurs et chantefables. If Debussy and Ravel were the principal influences on the Piano Sonata, the Symphonic Variations (1936–8) bear the unmistakable imprint of early Stravinsky. That imprint is again apparent in the first movement of the First Symphony (1941–7). The slow, second movement, on the other hand, alludes to three different composers: Bartók, in the curling chromatic lines which result from the manipulation of intervallic cells; Prokofiev, in the parodied march theme for clarinets; and Roussel, the slow movement of whose Third Symphony it resembles both dramatically and structurally as well as in its harmonic idiom. The scherzo and trio features a 12-note melodic line, but it is not treated serially.

The proscription of the First Symphony as ‘formalist’ prompted Lutosławski to concentrate on producing functional music together with some modest pieces based on folk material. The Concerto for Orchestra (1950–54) grew out of this work on folk music, and was originally intended as a piece on a more ambitious scale than the Little Suite (1950), but not the grand work that it turned out to be. It is a summation of Lutosławski's technique up to this time, but without the 12-note pitch techniques on which he was now working in private. The first section of the finale is a passacaglia which provides the first example of the so-called ‘chain technique’ which he explored in more thoroughgoing fashion in the 1980s. After the Concerto for Orchestra, Lutosławski composed the set of five Dance Preludes, for clarinet and piano (1954), which he described as his ‘farewell to folklore’.

4. The period of transition, 1956–60.

The Five Songs (1957, orchd 1958), to poems by Kazimiera Iłłakowicz, mark a radical change of style and compositional technique, and were his first pieces to employ 12-note chords. 12-note chords, used as structural elements in their own right without recourse to serial techniques, were to remain the cornerstone of his compositional technique for the rest of his career. Lutosławski's most characteristic 12-note sonorities are those in which the musical space is subdivided into three musical registers (high, middle, low), each containing particular kinds of four-note chord configuration (according to the principle of pitch complementation, whereby three four-note chords provide 12 pitches without duplication). The songs are studies in this type of harmony.

In his next work, Musique funèbre, Lutosławski reserved the full density of vertical 12-note harmony for the third section of the piece (Apogeum). In the piece as a whole it is the influence of Bartók, to whose memory the work is dedicated, that underlies both the dramatic shape and the distinctive intervallic vocabulary. The dramatic unfolding of the piece resembles that of the first movement of Bartók's Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta, which also reaches its climax close to the point of the Golden Section. Whereas the Bartók is fugal, the Lutosławski is canonic, at least in the first and fourth sections. Both pitch and rhythm are tightly organized, the pitch organization being governed in the canonic sections by a 12-note row consisting exclusively of alternating tritones and semitones. Lutosławski had experimented with this type of interval-pairing in several earlier pieces, such as the Dance Preludes, but never before had he used it as the primary material for a whole work. Moreover the use of the technique in conjunction with a 12-note row makes Musique funèbre a significant landmark in Lutosławski's career. After completing the work he embarked on another orchestral project: the Postlude no.1 (1958–60), which turned out to be another Bartókian piece, both in terms of its manipulation of intervallic cells and its dramatic shape (which climaxes at the Golden Section). But while working on the project Lutosławski, now with highly developed and sophisticated resources for harmonic organization, found himself dissatisfied with his handling of rhythm and polyphony. The suggestion of a way out of this impasse came from an unexpected source.

5. Stylistic maturity, 1960–79.

Lutosławski's decision to adopt aleatory techniques was prompted in part by hearing a radio broadcast of the Concert for Piano and Orchestra by John Cage, and he expressed his gratitude to his American colleague by presenting him with the autograph manuscript of Jeux vénitiens, the work in which he first employed them. However, the nature of Cage's influence on Lutosławski's techniques has often been misconstrued. Some commentators have erroneously associated them with more general principles of indeterminacy when in fact they involve no improvisation, nor any opportunity for players to choose what or when to play during a performance. In Lutosławski's aleatory passages pitch material is fully specified, as is the rhythmic material of each individual part. Only the rhythmic coordination of parts within the ensemble is subject to an element of chance. For this reason the technique is often described as ‘aleatory counterpoint’, and this remains the most accurate term for it. Along with its characteristic notation of conducted cues (both hands for the beginnings and endings of tutti sections, and left-hand cues for the entrances and exits of individual parts or groups of parts), it has been extensively imitated and adapted by other composers, particularly those of younger generations. It has become part of the stock-in-trade of advanced compositional studies both in Poland and abroad. His techniques of pitch organization, however, have hitherto been less well explored and exploited by others.

In each of Lutosławski's works from the 1960s the aleatory and textural elements nonetheless form only part of the total picture and are at the service of a serious treatment of formal considerations. In Jeux vénitiens (1960–61), for example, the often discussed aleatory ‘game’ which he played in the first movement can be seen as a variant of the scheme of refrains and episodes which he later explored in several other works. The progress of the fourth movement, which unfolds through a succession of overlapping textural blocks, functions in a broader sense as the climactic phase of the four-movement design.

The range of possibilities opened up by aleatory counterpoint was explored to different ends in Lutosławski's next two major works. The Trois poèmes d'Henri Michaux (1961–3) is the only choral work of Lutosławski's mature style, and also the only work in which pitch is not always specified within aleatory sections, the voices here being required not only to sing, but also to recite, speak, whisper and shout. The second work, the String Quartet (1964), has earned a place as one of the most outstanding contributions to the quartet literature since Bartók. Lutosławski's neglect of chamber music during the 1960s and 70s, to which the quartet constitutes the singular exception, can be explained by his desire to explore fully the possibilities of aleatory technique in works for medium or large forces. Yet paradoxically, the quartet uses aleatory technique more extensively than any of his other works. Because of this the composer found it difficult to produce a full score; it had been conceived and composed in separate parts.

The quartet was the first of Lutosławski's works to be composed according to his characteristic two-movement form, whereby the first movement is introductory, hesitant and episodic, and the second is developmental, goal-orientated and climactic. Here the two movements are simply subtitled ‘introductory movement’ and ‘main movement’, whereas in the Second Symphony (1965–7), the two movements are given subtitles, ‘Hésitant’ and ‘Direct’, which encapsulate the dialectical principle of contrast at the heart of the scheme. The first movement uses the form of refrains and episodes which occurs in various guises in many of Lutosławski's works. The second movement, on the other hand, moves inexorably towards a colossal, awe-inspiring climax. There is nothing conventionally ‘melodic’ in this symphony, unlike in each of the other three. The first movement exploits contrasts of timbre between distinct instrumental groupings and the complementation of pitch sets, while the second concerns the gradual movement of sound masses, long-range rhythmic acceleration, climax and subsidence. The form becomes the content. In spite of the rather overlong first movement, and some excessively dense textures in the second, the work is rightly regarded as one of the finest symphonic achievements of the late 20th century.

Lutosławski's next orchestral work, Livre pour orchestre (1968), rather than adopting the two-movement scheme, reworks the four-movement structure used in Jeux vénitiens. The orchestral writing is less dense than in the Second Symphony, with fewer ‘sound masses’ and more clearly defined harmonic sonorities in the different registers. This new harmonic clarity was achieved thanks to a refinement of Lutosławski's technique of constructing 12-note chords. From Livre onwards, these chords tend to be subdivided into three complementary subsets, with particular types of four-note chord characterizing each register. The development of characteristic harmonies based on a limited number of interval classes opened up new possibilities of harmonic contrast and differentiation. In Preludes and Fugue (1970–72) for 13 solo strings, sections governed by tritones and semitones alternate with others identified by the pairing of whole tones and perfect 4ths or 5ths. This technique of contrasting different types of interval-pairing might be viewed as providing, within the context of an atonal language, an analogy (and compositional substitute) for the functions of key change in a tonal language. Preludes and Fugue is another example of the two-movement scheme. The fact that the seven preludes can be played in any predetermined order is made possible by the ingenious device of overlapping complementary pitch sets at the beginnings and ends of the pieces (rather like the ‘chain’ technique which he was to explore in the 1980s); the work can also be played in an abridged form, with certain preludes or sections of the fugue omitted. In its complete version it is, at around 35 minutes, the longest of Lutosławski's large-scale works.

Two of the works of the mid-1970s rank among Lutosławski's finest achievements: Les espaces du sommeil, for baritone and orchestra (1975); and Mi-Parti (1975–6) for orchestra. Though Robert Desnos's poem was chosen as much for its abstract formal and dramatic structure as for its poetic content, the work, like the earlier settings of Jean-François Chabrun in Paroles tissées, succeeds in conjuring up a surreal dreamscape. The slow, central section of the work is one of the most beautiful passages in Lutosławski's output, and this is due, in part, to the way the pitch material used for the wind and percussion group is separated from the pitches used by the strings and the voice. Although Mi-Parti, with its hauntingly beautiful coda, is undeniably one of his finest works, the composer was troubled, when conducting it during the late 1970s, by what he saw as a lack of differentiation (in the opening phases especially) between harmonic background and melodic foreground. After the Novelette (1978–9), another work for large orchestra, Lutosławski set himself to address this problem, initially in the context of chamber music.

6. The late works, 1979–94.

It was Epitaph (1979) for oboe and piano that marked the turning point towards Lutosławski's late style, which was marked above all by more transparent harmony (with 12-note chords reserved for significant staging posts in the form) and restraint in the use and extent of aleatory technique. The simplification of harmony made possible an increasing use of lyrical, expressive melodic lines projected as foreground material, while the fact that a larger proportion of each work was written in conventional metre (rather than aleatory counterpoint) resulted in greater rhythmic pace and energy. Many of the late-period works allude to formal or textural aspects of Baroque music. Lutosławski also looked back within his own output, making allusions to works he had composed before 1960 and realizing compositional projects which had remained unfulfilled since his youth.

Both Epitaph and Grave (1981) for cello and piano were written as memorial tributes for friends. The more restricted palette of the duo medium appears to have focussed the composer's attention on the relationship between melodic foreground and harmonic accompaniment, and prompted a simpler kind of harmony, still based on 12-note fields but less dense than in previous works. Both Epitaph and Grave feature the alternation of sections based on contrasted interval pairings, making particular use of the tritone-semitone pairing which had determined the funereal character of his earlier Bartók tribute. The form of the two pieces differs, however: Epitaph follows the pattern of refrains and episodes which had been applied in other works, while Grave has a scheme of ‘metamorphoses’ (corresponding to the work's subtitle) which echoes the procedure in the second section of Musique funèbre. Epitaph acted as a kind of compositional study for the concertante piece which followed it. The Double Concerto (1979–80) for oboe and harp, written for Heinz and Ursula Holliger, has some connection with the Baroque concerto grosso in its first movement scheme of ritornello and episodes, while the final movement's parody of a march theme, with its echoes of Prokofiev, relates back to the slow movement of the First Symphony.

The Third Symphony (1981–3) also brings together past and present moments within Lutosławski's creativity, incorporating as it does material conceived and sketched during the mid- to late-1970s. It thus has a slightly hybrid quality, whereby some passages have the more melodic focus of the late style, whereas others represent the more dense, textural approach of the earlier phase. Though conceived in terms of the same two-movement scheme as the Second Symphony, it differs greatly from its predecessor, above all in that the most memorable material comes after the climax, in the epilogue. The greater melodic focus of the composer's late style contributes to the work's accessibility – it has become one of the most widely performed of late-20th-century symphonies – and helps to project a more sustained thematic argument. In this respect it represents a return to a more traditional approach to the form, though there are no traces of neo-romanticism, either in terms of the work's aesthetic or its content.

The principal formal process of Lutosławski's late style was that for which he coined the term ‘chain’ technique, to signify a form in which the beginnings and ends of sections or strands of material overlap and interlock like the links in a chain. Chain 1 (1983) was written for the 14 solo players of the London Sinfonietta and thus has something of the character of large-scale chamber music. Chain 2 (1984–5), on the other hand, is a violin concerto in all but name. The chain technique comes in the second movement, where successive, overlapping sections of the form are identified with strongly contrasting intervallic combinations. Chain 2 was conceived and composed alongside another violin work, the Partita (1984), one of the finest works of his late period. It exists in two versions: the original, for violin and piano duo; and a later, concertante version for violin and orchestra. It is in five movements, the second and fourth of which are aleatory interludes which provide episodes of repose and relaxation separating the three main movements. The title acknowledges Lutosławski's fondness for music of the Baroque era, and aspects of the musical content – especially as regards rhythm, phrasing and rhythmic patterning – establish aural connections with music of that period. For the première of Chain 2, Paul Sacher, the work's dedicatee, engaged Anne-Sophie Mutter as soloist. So impressed was Lutosławski by her playing that he orchestrated the Partita so that she could perform both works in the same programme. Sacher then commissioned a short orchestral Interlude (1989) to link the two concertante pieces. As a triptych they last some 40 minutes in performance and occupy a unique position in the solo violin repertory.

Chain 3 (1986) is of interest principally because of the way chain technique is applied in the first stage of the form. There are 12 overlapping ‘links’ in the chain, and these are differentiated both by contrasted instrumental groupings and by complementation of pitch sets. While Chain 3 was the last work to bear Lutosławski's new generic designation, it was not the last instance in his output of chain technique, which was featured again in the finale of his next major work, the Piano Concerto (1987–8). Lutosławski had tried to write a piano concerto both before and just after the war, but other projects had intervened. Now, having composed Grave and Partita, with their prominent piano parts, he felt able to tackle a large-scale concertante work for the instrument. The concerto was received by some commentators as marking a turn towards neo-romanticism (with alleged references to Rachmaninoff and others). But while there are similarities of harmonic sonority to the music of Ravel (as there are in the song cycle Chantefleurs et chantefables which followed in 1989–90), and some of the pianistic gestures invite comparison with those of the Romantic repertory, neither the content nor the aesthetic of the piece is neo-romantic. Indeed there are Baroque echoes in certain passages of rhythmic figuration (as in the Partita), as well as in the final movement's chaconne procedure (which recalls more directly the finale of the Concerto for Orchestra).

The last major work which Lutosławski was to complete was the Fourth Symphony (1988–92). Like the Second and Third, it is in two movements, the second following the first without a break. Stylistically, however, it is more homogeneous than the Third Symphony, and while most of its first movement (like that of its predecessor) is introductory and episodic in character, it does not open in his customary ‘hesitant’ manner, but with material of primary, thematic significance (solo woodwind lines against sustained strings, above a slowly pulsating bass line). The second movement, by contrast, is developmental and climactic: its memorable features include a long, powerful, cantando line, which unfolds sequentially, and passages of sophisticated rhythmic layering, which superimpose in Bachian fashion three metrical layers moving at different rates.

After this final symphonic essay, Lutosławski turned once more to the violin. The last work he completed was Subito (1992), a four-minute test piece for the 1994 Indianapolis International Violin Competition. While recalling stylistically the outer movements of Partita, it has more in common structurally with Epitaph in its treatment of the refrain-episode principle. He then set to work on a violin concerto for Mutter. The surviving bundles of sketches indicate that the piece was to be for large orchestra (unlike Chain 2) and suggest a four-movement structure, but the material is for the most part too fragmentary to admit the possibility of a reconstruction. The composer left instructions that the piece should not be completed.

Lutosławski is generally regarded as the most significant Polish composer since Szymanowski, and possibly the greatest Polish composer since Chopin. It was not always thus. During the postwar years his contemporary, Andrzej Panufnik had a much higher profile in Poland. This prominence caused Panufnik many difficulties and contributed to his decision to defect to England in 1954. At about the same time Lutosławski's reputation in Poland was enhanced by the success of his Concerto for Orchestra. During the 1960s his name was often linked with that of Penderecki, 20 years his junior, on account of their use of aleatory procedures, together with textural and gestural effects. However the term ‘Polish School’, under which both composers were assimilated by critics outside Poland, belied the stylistic disparity between their approaches. Comparisons with Penderecki, whose reputation, unlike Lutosławski's, declined after the 1970s, are perhaps ultimately less fruitful than with Panufnik, who had much in common in his treatment of intervallic cells and his productive assimilation of Bartók's influence. Since his death the assessment of Lutosławski's creative achievement has remained much as it was during his last years: he is now acknowledged as one of the major European composers of the 20th century.

WORKS

orchestral

Scherzo, 1930, lost

Haroun al Rashid, incid music, 1931, lost

Double Fugue, 1936, lost

Symphonic Variations, 1936–8

Symphony no.1, 1941–7

Odra do Baltyku [Via the Oder to the Baltic] (film score, dir. S. Możdeńskí), 1945

Suita Warszawska [Warsaw Suite] (film score, dir. T. Makarczynski), 1946

Overture, str, 1949

Little Suite, chbr orch, 1950

Concerto for Orchestra, 1950–54

Muzyka żałobna (Musique funèbre), str, 1954–8

Dance Preludes, cl, orch, 1955 [version of chbr work]

Three Postludes, 1958–63

Jeux vénitiens, chbr orch, 1960–61

Symphony no.2, 1965–7

Livre pour orchestre, 1968

Cello Concerto, 1969–70

Preludes and Fugue, 13 solo str, 1970–72

Mi-Parti, 1975–6

Novelette, 1978–9

Double Concerto, ob, hp, chbr orch, 1979–80

Symphony no.3, 1981–3

Grave: Metamorphoses, vc, str, 1982 [version of chbr work]

Chain 2: Dialogue, vn, orch, 1984–5

Chain 3, 1986

Fanfare for Louisville, 1986

Piano Concerto, 1987–8

Partita, vn, orch, 1988 [version of chbr work]

Symphony no.4, 1988–92

Interlude, 1989

Prelude for GSMD, 1989 [for Guildhall School of Music and Drama]

vocal

Vocal-orch: Lacrimosa, S, opt. SATB, orch, 1937 [frag. of requiem]; Requiem aeternam, chorus, orch, 1937, lost [frag. of requiem]; Tryptyk Śląski [Silesian Triptych] (Silesian folk texts), S, orch, 1951; Wiosna [Spring] (cycle of children's songs, W. Domeradzki, J. Korczakowska, H. Januszewska, L. Krzemieniecka), Mez, chbr orch, 1951, nos.2, 4, arr. 1v, pf, no.4 arr. SSA, pf; Jesień [Autumn] (4 children's songs, Krzemieniecka), Mez, chbr orch, 1951; [4] children's songs, 1v, chbr orch, 1954; Spijze, śpij [Sleep, Sleep] (Krzemieniecka), Idzie nocka [Night is Falling] (J. Osińska), Warzywa [Vegetables] (J. Tuwim), Trudny rachunek [Difficult Sums] (Tuwim); 5 Songs (K. Iłłakowicz), 1v, orch, 1958 [arr. of songs for 1v, pf]; 3 poèmes d'Henri Michaux, chorus, orch, 1961–3; Paroles tissées (J.F. Chabrun), T, chbr, orch, 1965; Les espaces du sommeil (R. Desnos), Bar, orch, 1975; 20 Polish Carols (M. Mioduszewski, O. Kolberg, trans. C.B. Rae), S, female chorus, chbr orch, 1984–9 [version of 20 koled, 1v, pf]; Chantefleurs et chantefables (Desnos), S, chbr orch, 1989–90

Songs (1v, pf, unless otherwise stated): 2 songs (Iłłakowicz), S, pf, 1934, lost: Wodnica [Water-Nymph], Kolysanka lipowa [Linden Lullaby]; Pieśni walki podziemnej [Songs of the Underground Struggle] (S. Dobrowolski, A. Maliszewski, Z. Zawadzka, anon.), 1942–4; 20 kolęd [20 Carols] (Mioduszewski, Kolberg), 1946; 6 piosenek dziecinnych [6 children's songs] (Tuwim), 1947; 2 children's songs (Tuwim), 1948; Spózniony słowik [The Overdue Nightingale], O Panu Tralalińskim [About Mr Tralaliński]; Lawina [The Snowslide] (A. Pushkin), 1949; Słomkowy łańcuszek i inne dziecinne utwory [Straw Chain and other Children's Pieces] (song cycle, trad., J. Porazińska, T. Lenartowicz, Krzemieniecka), S, Mez, wind qnt, 1950–51; 7 Songs (T. Urgacz and others), 1950–52, no.4 arr. unacc. male chorus, 1951, nos.2, 4, 5, arr. unacc. mixed chorus, 1951

10 polskich pieśni ludowych na tematy żołnierskie [10 Polish Folksongs on Soldiers' Themes] (Kolberg, anon.), male chorus, 1951; 2 children's songs (A. Barto), 1952, arr. Mez, chbr orch, 1953: Srerbna szybka [Silver Window-Pane], Muszelka [Cockle-Shell]; 3 pieśni żołnierskie [3 Soldiers' Songs] (S. Czachorowski, A. Rymkiewicz, M. Dołega), 1953; Children's Songs, 1953: Pióreczko [Little Feather] (Osińska), Wróbelek [Little Sparrow] (Krzemieniecka), Pozegnanie wakacji [Goodbye to Holidays] (Krzemieniecka), Wianki [Wreaths] (S. Szuchowa); 5 pieśni (Iłłakowicz), S, pf, 1957, orchd 1958; 3 children's songs (R. Pisarski), 1958, unpubd: Na Wroniej ulicy w Warszawie [On Wronia Street in Warsaw], Kuku, kuku, [Cuckoo, Cuckoo], Piosenka na prima aprilis [Song on April Fools' Day]; Piosenki dziecinne [Children's Songs] (J. Porazińska), 1958; 3 piosenki dziecinne (B. Hertz), 1959, unpubd; Nie dla ciebie [Not for You] (Iłłakowicz), 1981; Tarantella (H. Belloc), Bar, pf, 1990

chamber and solo instrumental

2 Sonatas, vn, pf, 1927, lost; 50 contrapuntal studies, ww, 1943–4, unpubd; Trio, ob, cl, bn, 1944–5, unpubd, lost; Recitative e arioso, vn, pf, 1951; Bukoliki [Bucolics], va, vc, 1962 [arr. of pf work]; Dance Preludes, cl, pf, 1954, orchd, 1955, arr. 9 insts, 1959; Str Qt, 1964; Sacher Variation, vc, 1975; Epitaph, ob, pf, 1979; Grave: Metamorphoses, vc, pf, 1981, orchd, 1982; Mini-Ov., hn, 2 tpt, trbn, tuba, 1982; Chain 1, chbr ens, 1983; Partita, vn, pf, 1984; Fanfare for CUBE, 1987 [for Cambridge University Brass Ensemble]; Przezrocza [Slides], chbr ens, 1989; Fanfare for Lancaster, brass ens, side drum, 1989; Subito, vn, pf, 1992

Pf (solo unless otherwise stated): Prelude, 1922, lost; Poème, 1928, lost; Taniec Chimery [Dance of the Chimera], 1930, lost; Sonata, 1934, unpubd; Prelude and Aria, 1936, unpubd; 2 Studies, 1940–41; Wariacje na temat Paganiniego [Variations on a Theme by Paganini], 2 pf, 1941; Melodie Ludowe [Folk Melodies], 12 easy pieces, 1945; Bukoliki, 1952; Miniatura, 2 pf, 1953; 3 Pieces for the Young, 1953; Invention, 1968

Incid music, radio scores, songs and inst pieces based on folk material

MSS in CH-Bps, PL-Wn

Principal publishers: Chester, Moeck Verlag, Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne

WRITINGS

‘Tchnienie wielkości’ [Breath of greatness], Muzyka polska, iii (1937), 169–70 [on Szymanowski]

‘O Grzegorzu Fitelbergu’, Muzyka, v/7–8 (1954), 26–33

‘Kompozytor a odbiorca’ [The composer and the listener], Ruch muzyczny, iv/4 (1964), 3–4; Eng. trans. in Nordwall (1968), 119–24

‘O roli elementu przypadku w technice komponowania’ [On the role of the element of chance in compositional technique], Res facta, i (1967), 34–8; Eng. trans. in G. Ligeti, I. Lidholm and W. Lutosławski: Three Aspects of New Music (Stockholm, 1968), 45–53

Notes on the Construction of Large-Scale Forms (c1969) [lecture]

‘Nowy utwór na orkiestrę symfoniczną’ [A new work for symphony orchestra], Res facta, iv (1970), 6–13 [on Symphony no.2]; Eng. trans. in The Orchestral Composer's Point of View, ed. R. Hines (Norman, OK, 1970), 128–51

‘O rytmice i organizacji wysokości dźwięków w technice komponowania z zastosowaniem orgraniczonego działania przypadku’ [Rhythm and the organization of pitch in composing techniques employing a limited element of chance], Muzyka w kontekście kultury: Baranów 1976, 76–87; Eng. trans. in Polish Musicological Studies, ii (1986), 37–53 [contains typographical errors]; Ger. trans. in Witold Lutosławski, Musik-Konzepte, nos.71–3 (1991), 3–32

‘Kilka problemów z dziedziny rytmiki’ [Some problems in the area of rhythm], Res facta, ix (1982), 114–28

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A Life and works, monographs on music. B Collections of essays, symposia. C Individual works. D Other studies.

a: life and works, monographs on music

S. Jarociński: Witold Lutosławski: materialy do monografi [Materials for a monograph] (Kraków, 1967)

O. Nordwall, ed.: Lutosławski (Stockholm, 1968)

B. Pociej: Lutosławski a wartość muzyki [Lutosławski and the value of his music] (Kraków, 1976)

S. Stucky: Lutosławski and his Music (Cambridge, 1981)

P. Gantchoula: Hésitant–direct: l’oeuvre de Witold Lutosławski (diss., Paris Conservatoire, 1985)

T. Kaczyński: Lutosławski: zycie i muzyka [Lutosławski: life and music] (Warsaw, 1994)

C. Bodman Rae: The Music of Lutosławski (London, 1994, enlarged 3/1999)

D. Rust: Lutosławski’s Symphonic Forms (diss., Yale U., 1995)

M. Homma: Witold Lutosławski: Zwölfton-Harmonik, Formbildung, ‘aleatorischer Kontrapunkt’ (Cologne, 1996)

J. Paja-Stach: Witold Lutosławski (Kraków, 1996)

J. Paja-Stach: Lutosławski i jego styl muzyczny [Lutosławski and his musical style] (Kraków, 1997)

b: collections of essays, symposia

Witold Lutosławski: Kraków 1980

Witold Lutosławski: Warsaw 1984

Witold Lutosławski, Musik-Konzepte, nos.71–3 (1991) [incl. M. Homma: ‘Vogelperspektive und Schlüsselideen’, 33–51, ‘Chronologisches Werkverzeichnis, Auswahlbibliographie, Auswahldiskographie’, 198–223; A. Michaely: ‘Lutosławskis III Sinfonie’, 63–92]

Muzyka, xl/1–2 (1995) [Lutosławski issue, incl. K. Baculewski: ‘Lutosławski: jedna technika, jeden styl?’ [Lutosławski: one technique, one style?], 25–39; M. Homma: ‘O przestrzenj muzycznej w harmonice dwunastotonowej W. Lutosławskiego’ [On musical space in Lutosławski's 12-note harmony], 85–110; A. Jarzębska: ‘Problem kształtowania kontinuum formy w IV Symfonii W. Lutosławskiego’ [The problem of building a form continuum in the fourth symphony by Lutosławski], 135–54; D. Krawczyk: ‘Koncepcja czasu Witold Lutosławskiego’ [Lutosławski's conception of time], 111–33; K. Meyer: ‘Kilka uwag na temat organizacji wysokości dźwięków w muzyce Witolda Lutosławskiego’ [Some observations on the subject of pitch organization in the music of Lutosławski], 3–24; I. Nikolska: Niektóre zasady konstruowania melodii w twórczości W. Lutosławskiego z lat 1960–80’ [Some principles for contructing melodies in Lutosławski's works from the years 1960–80], 59–84; J. Paja-Stach: ‘Witold Lutosławski: documentacja’, 155–222; C. Bodman Rae: ‘Organizacja wysokości dźwięków w muzyce Witolda Lutosławskiego’ [Pitch organization in the music of Lutosławski], 41–58]

Z. Skowron, ed.: Lutosławski Studies (Oxford, 2000) [incl. essays by J. Casken, S. Stucky, M. Homma, C. Bodman Rae, A. Thomas, A. Whittall, I. Nikolska, J. Paja, A. Tuchowski]

c: individual works

Z. Lissa: ‘Koncert na orkiestrę Witolda Lutosławskiego’ [Witold Lutosławski's Concerto for Orchestra], Studia muzykologiczne, v (1956), 196–299

W. Brennecke: ‘Die Trauermusik von Witold Lutosławski’, Festschrift Friedrich Blume zum 70. Geburtstag, ed. A.A. Abert and W. Pfannuch (Kassel, 1963), 60–73

A. Thomas: ‘A Deep Resonance: Lutosławski's Trois Poèmes d'Henri Michaux’, Soundings, i (1970), 58–70

M. Stanilewicz: ‘Organizacja materiału dzwiękowego w Muzyce żałobnej Witolda Lutosławskiego’ [Pitch organization in Muzyce żałobna], Muzyka, xx/4 (1975), 3–27

S. Stucky: ‘Lutosławski's Double Concerto’, MT, cxxii (1981), 529–32

A. Thomas: ‘Jeux vénitiens: Lutosławski at the Crossroads’, Contact, no.24 (1982), 4–7

M. Homma: ‘Witold Lutosławski: Mi-Parti’, Melos, xlvii/3 (1985), 22–57

T. Zielinski: ‘Witold Lutosławski's Chain 1’, Polish Music, nos. 1–2 (1985), 17–24

I. Balázs: ‘Macht und Ohnmacht der Musik: Witold Lutosławskis Cellokonzert und seine gesellschaftlichten Zusammenhänge’, NZM, Jg.147, nos.7–8 (1986), 40–47

M. Homma: ‘Unerhörtes Pathos: Witold Lutosławski, III Symphonie’, MusikTexte, no.13 (1986), 7–12

P. Gantchoula: ‘La 3ème symphonie de Lutosławski: synthèse d'un itinéraire créateur’, Analyse musicale, no.10 (1988), 68–74

C. Bodman Rae: ‘Ambition Attained: the Background to Lutosławski's New [Piano] Concerto’, The Listener (27 July 1989)

M. Homma: ‘Gleichzeitigkeit des Ungleichartigen: Witold Lutosławskis Vierte Sinfonie – Syntheses seines Schaffens’, MusikTexte, no.54 (1994), 51–6

d: other studies

E. Dziębowska: ‘Pieśń masowa w twórczości Witolda Lutosławskiego’ [The mass song in the work of Lutosławski], Muzyka, v/7–8 (1954), 38–44

M. Piotrowska: ‘Aleatoryzm Witolda Lutosławskiego na tle genezy tego kierunku w muzyce współczesnej’ [Lutosławski's aleatorism in the context of this trend in contemporary music], Muzyka, iv/3 (1969), 67–86

E. Cowie: ‘Mobiles of Sound’, Music and Musicians, xx/2 (1971–2), 34–40

T. Kaczyński: Rozmowy z Witoldem Lutosławskim [Conversations with Lutosławski] (Kraków,1972, 2/1993; Eng. trans., 1984)

J. Casken: ‘Transition and Transformation in the Music of Witold Lutosławski’, Contact, no.12 (1975), 3–12

B.A. Varga: Lutosławski Profile (1976) [interview]

J.-P. Couchoud: La musique polonaise et Witold Lutosławski (Paris, 1981) [interview]

P. Petersen: ‘Über die Wirkung Bartóks auf das Schaffen Lutosławskis’, Béla Bartók, Musik-Konzepte, no.22 (1981), 84–117

K. Meyer: ‘O muzyce Witolda Lutosławskiego’, Res facta, ix (1982), 129–40

Z. Helman: Neoklasycyzm w muzyce polskiej XX wieku [Neo-classicism in Polish music of the 20th century] (Kraków, 1985)

M. Homma: ‘Horizontal-vertikal: zur Organisation der Tonhöhe bei Witold Lutoslawski’, ‘Materialen zur Arbeit von Witold Lutoslawski’, Neuland, v (1985), 91–112

C. Bodman Rae: ‘Lutosławski's Golden Year’, MT, cxxvii (1986), 547–51

K. Baculewski: Polska twórczość kompozytorska 1945–1984 [The Work of Polish Composers 1945–84] (Kraków, 1987)

A. Panufnik: Composing Myself (London, 1987)

C. Bodman Rae: ‘Lutosławski's Late Style’, The Listener (26 Jan 1989)

J. Paja: ‘The Polyphonic Aspect of Lutosławski's Music’, AcM, lxii (1990), 183–91

C. Bodman Rae: ‘Lutosławski's Late Violin Works’, MT, cxxxi (1990), 530–33

A. Chłopecki: ‘Zeugnis zerfallender Werte: Witold Lutoslawskis Abschied von der Moderne’, MusikTexte, no.42 (1991), 45–50

P. Petersen: ‘Bartók–Lutosławski–Ligeti: einige Bemerkungen zu ihrer Kompositionstechnik unter dem Aspekt der Tonhöhe’, HJbMw, xi (1991), 289–309

I. Nikolska: ‘Symfonizm Witolda Lutosławskiego’ [The symphonism of Lutosławski], Muzyka, xxxvii/3 (1992), 37–51

A. Chłopecki: “‘Tombeau” einer Epoche: Witold Lutosławski, eine Würdigung’, MusikTexte, no.54 (1994), 47–50

I. Nikolska: Conversations with Witold Lutosławski (1987–92) (Stockholm, 1994)

C. Bodman Rae: ‘Witold Lutosławski’, The Independent (9 Feb 1994) [obituary]

A. Thomas: ‘Your Song is Mine’, MT, cxxxvi (1995), 403–9 [on popular songs and dances pubd under pseudonym ‘Derwid’]

T. Kaczyński: ‘Witold Lutoslawski vu à travers sa correspondance’, Mitteilungen der Paul Sacher Stiftung, ix (1996), 11–13

Lutyens, (Agnes) Elisabeth

(b London, 9 July 1906; d London, 14 April 1983). English composer. A daughter of the architect Sir Edwin Lutyens, she began serious music studies at the Ecole Normale, Paris, in 1922 and subsequently entered the RCM, where she studied composition with Harold Darke and the viola with Ernest Tomlinson. Her first important public performance was that of the ballet The Birthday of the Infanta in 1932. This score has been withdrawn, as have other works of the period performed at the Macnaghten-Lemare Concerts: indeed, Lutyens’s stylistic evolution was a slow and arduous process worked out, she claimed, without knowledge of radical developments outside England. An important experience was her introduction to the Purcell string fantasias. Their independence of part-writing was to lead her to a personal brand of serialism in the Chamber Concerto no.1 (1939), one of the most innovatory British works of the period. The rigorously chromatic thematicism of this piece – and also the extremely attenuated textures – immediately marked Lutyens off from her English contemporaries. Her sense of isolation at this point seems to have been complete: she was driven to battle against the incomprehension of the English musical establishment, and she was not helped by her turbulent domestic life. In 1939 Lutyens left her first husband, the singer Ian Glennie, for Edward Clark, the influential BBC programme maker (1927–36) who had introduced most of the avant-garde composers of the time to British listeners. He was never to hold a steady job, however, and Lutyens was forced to compose for film and radio to support her four children. The situation lasted over twenty years and seriously hindered her artistic development. She was always to consider her commercial work artistically insignificant.

At the beginning of this period, which embraced World War II and after, she explored in many directions. The romantic Expressionism and the bold dramatic outlines of the Three Symphonic Preludes, for example, contrast strongly with the unrhetorical First Chamber Concerto, while the neo-classical concertos for horn and bassoon are quite different again. Yet with each work Lutyens approached a little nearer the sensibility and style of her maturity. By the end of the war she was using with commanding ease a fully developed 12-note technique: O saisons, o châteaux! (1946) marked a new important stage in her development. Here the refined sensuousness and magical feeling of Arthur Rimbaud are embodied in a completely individual harmony. It only remained for her to evolve an equally original rhythmic style, and the seeds for this had already been sown in the Chamber Concerto no.1.

Three works mark her final steps to maturity. The Concertante for Five Players (1950) employs a new sparseness of texture with greater ease and freedom than in the Chamber Concerto, and it includes the first writing typical of her later work. This newly won ground was to some extent confirmed in the Sixth String Quartet (1952) where the rhythmic freedom and the independence of parts show a considerable advance over the music of the previous decade. Lutyens’s next work, the Motet on words of Ludwig Wittgenstein, at last took up the challenge of the First Chamber Concerto. Canonic and tightly organized in melodic flow, the Motet is based on a 12-note series itself formed from a three-note cell, so allowing quasi-Webernian symmetries.

Lutyens was now on the point of writing her finest music, yet her personal life was at a low ebb – as she related in her autobiography A Goldfish Bowl (London, 1972) – and the direction taken by her work had led to an almost total neglect. Her use of 12-note technique seems to have been considered almost morally reprehensible by some in England in the 1950s, but in the more sympathetic climate of the following decade Lutyens achieved a greater measure of recognition. Even so, works of her first full maturity, such as the chamber opera Infidelio (1954) and the very fine cantata De amore (1957), were not performed until 1973. These and other pieces of the period foreshadow lines of development that were to occupy her for some years. Music for Orchestra I (1955), however, is backward-looking in that its warm Expressionism brings to fruition that vein that had run through other works back to the Three Symphonic Preludes. In De amore the emotional warmth is still present but now somewhat objectified. The process of refinement shortly yielded two of her finest works, Six Tempi (1957) with its impressively lean flow of events, and Quincunx (1959), whose balanced architecture presents a classically controlled passion and grandeur. A continuously evolving monody, scattered widely across the orchestra, coalesces into, or is punctured by, harmonic incidents of varying density. This sombre and elegiac work marked a new level of achievement, a level maintained in Lutyens’s later work.

The Wind Quintet (1960) aligned her new linguistic freedom with classical discourse, using in its first movement the palindromic form that became a preoccupation. The Symphonies for Solo Piano, Wind, Harps and Percussion (1961), however, explored further aspects of Lutyens’s imposing splendour, objective in its rhetoric and drama. Yet new ground was reached in Catena (1961) where atmospherically evocative and picturesque music illuminates a wide variety of texts. This was the first of several vocal anthologies, using various chamber ensembles, which constitute an important part of Lutyens’s later music. Music for Orchestra II (1962), in which the strongest feelings are rigidly controlled, is one of her most uncompromisingly objective works but also one of her most deeply moving. A headlong Allegro, coloured by the searing sound of a large clarinet and saxophone section, subsides into a chorale which closes with a whisper – a swift cataclysm opposed by the colourful romantic drama of Music for Orchestra III (1963). The refinement of Lutyens’s language at this time is epitomized in The Valley of Hatsu-se (1965). Here the extreme concentration of the Japanese poems is matched by lyrical traceries shorn of rhetoric and expansion.

At about this time there was a change of direction in Lutyens’s work: a widening of vocabulary admitted more repetitive and simply patterned ideas; pictorial and atmospheric writing came to co-exist with more abstract music, as in Akapotik Rose (1966). The less complex harmony, the simpler gestures and the block structuring of And Suddenly it’s Evening (1966), for example, provide a strong contrast with the fluidly evolving lyricism of previous works. The full implications were realized in the magnificent choral and orchestral Essence of our Happinesses (1968) where airy textures and intercalated silences are crucial. Repetition and reduced eventfulness are carried to daring limits, giving a sense of timelessness and exactly conveying the metaphysical texts from Donne and Islam. Most of Lutyens’s major works of the 1960s and early 70s involved words, and from increasingly various sources. Vision of Youth (1970) finds a new context for triadic progressions and extended homophony in its valedictory settings of Joseph Conrad. Islands (1971), though perhaps too reliant on illustrative effect and on a loose succession of moods, presents a riot of colour and at times a wildness that is far from the emotional monotone of Vision of Youth. The Tears of Night (1971) combines Renaissance and modern vocal and instrumental resources in an intense nocturnal sadness, and Counting your Steps (1972) uses primitive poetry to create a starkly simple ritual with hypnotic repetition.

Before 1965 Lutyens had written two short chamber operas: The Pit (1947), concerning trapped miners, and Infidelio (1954), the story of a broken love affair traced back from the girl’s suicide to the first meeting. Now, however, she began a series of three full-length works, of which the first staged was Time Off? Not a Ghost of a Chance! (1967–8). Described as a charade, it deals with ideas rather than events. Riddles, puns and free associations move from the nature of time to the workings of chance, from the ages of man to his spiritual existence; every facet of Lutyens’s music is called upon, including parody. The first of the operas to be composed had been The Numbered (1965–7), one of Lutyens’s most cherished projects and the climax to the period of purity of language. The text, based on Elias Canetti’s Die Befristeten, treats the problems of a society in which everyone knows his time of death but is sworn to keep his age secret; it drew some of Lutyens’s most powerful music. Her third opera, Isis and Osiris (1969–70), is a ritual of the seasons and of life and death. Appropriately it uses her simpler, more hard-edged manner with repetitive figures and much block harmony.

In this phase of predominantly dramatic and vocal music Lutyens wrote few instrumental pieces, but in 1972 she embarked on the Plenum series, in which her scope and individuality, and her keen awareness of contemporary trends, enabled her to assimilate greater rhythmic flexibility in free notation. After 30 years of consistently excellent and often radical achievement Lutyens received some measure of official recognition with the award in 1969 of the City of London Midsummer Prize; in the same year she was made a CBE. It is unfortunate that during the last decade of her career a certain fading of the impulse that had energized her previous music took place. The rhythmic freedom led to a lack of structural focus. But she was still capable of arresting ideas and concentrated thought, and it was touching that, crippled by arthritis, she was able to produce in her last year the marvellously fresh and pointed Triolets.

(1) Nikolay Aleksandrovich L'vov

ANTHONY PAYNE (work-list, bibliography with TONY CALAM)

Lutyens, Elisabeth

WORKS

A list of published works only. Most MSS, including many unpublished works, are held at GB-Lbl

stage

The Pit (dramatic scene, W.R. Rodgers), op.14, 1947; concert perf., London, Wigmore Hall, 18 May 1947; stage, Palermo, Teatro Massimo, 24 April 1949

Penelope (music drama for radio, Lutyens), 1950, unorchd

Infidelio (op, 7 scenes, T.E. Ranselm [Lutyens]), op.29, 1954; London, Sadler’s Wells, 17 April 1973

The Numbered (op, prol, 2, M. Volonakis, after E. Canetti: Die Befristeten), op.63, 1965–7, unperf.

Time Off? Not a Ghost of a Chance! (charade, 4 scenes and 3 interruptions, Lutyens), op.68, 1967–8; London, Sadler’s Wells, 1 March 1972

Isis and Osiris (lyric drama, Lutyens, after Plutarch), op.74, 1969–70; London, Morley College, 26 Nov 1976

The Linnet from the Leaf (music-theatre work, Lutyens), op.89, 1972; BBC, 11 Nov 1979

The Waiting Game (op, 3 scenes, Lutyens), op.91, 1973, unperf.

One and the Same (scena, Lutyens), op.97, 1973–4; York, 21 June 1976

The Goldfish Bowl (ballad op, Lutyens), op.102, 1975, unperf.

Like a Window (op, after letters of V. Van Gogh), op.109, 1976; BBC, 24 Nov 1977

vocal

Choral: Motet ‘Excerpta Tractatus logicophilosophici’ (L. Wittgenstein), op.27, chorus, 1953; De amore (cant., G. Chaucer), op.39, S, T, chorus, orch, 1957; Encomion (Apocrypha), op.54, chorus, brass, perc, 1963; Motet ‘The Country of the Stars’ (H. Boethius, trans. Chaucer), chorus, 1963; Magnificat, Nunc dimittis, male chorus, 1965, rev. SATB, 1970; Motet ‘The Hymn of Man’ (A.C. Swinburne), op.61, male chorus, 1965, rev. SATB, 1970; The Essence of our Happinesses (Abü-Yasïd, trans. R.C. Zaehner, J. Donne, A. Rimbaud), op.69, T, chorus, orch, 1968; The Tyme doth Flete (Petrarch and Ovid, trans. T. Wyatt), op.70, chorus, ad lib prelude and postlude for 2 tpt, 2 trbn, 1968; Verses of Love (B. Jonson), chorus, 1970; Voice of Quiet Waters, op.84, chorus, orch, 1972; Counting your Steps (African trad.), op.85, chorus, 4 fl, 4 perc, 1972; It is the Hour (Byron), op.111a, SSTB, 1976; The Roots of the World, op.136, vv, vc, 1979

Solo v(v) with orch or inst ens: O saisons, o châteaux! (cant., Rimbaud), op.13, S, mand, gui, hp, str orch, 1946; Nativity (W.R. Rodgers), S, str orch/org, 1951; 3 songs and incid music for Group Theatre ‘Homage to Dylan Thomas’, S, (fl, va)/accdn/pf, 1953; Quincunx (after T. Browne), op.44, S, Bar, orch, 1959–60; Catena, cant., op.47, S, T, 21 insts, 1961; The Valley of Hatsu-Se (Jap.), op.62, S, fl, cl, vc, pf, 1965; Akapotik Rose (E. Paolozzi), op.64, S, fl + pic + a fl, cl + b cl, cl + t sax, vn, va, vc, pf, 1966; And Suddenly it’s Evening (S. Quasimodo, trans. J. Bevan), op.66, T, inst ens, 1966; A Phoenix (Ovid, trans. A. Goulding), op.71, S, cl, vn, pf, 1968, arr. as op.71a, S, pf, 1968; Anerca (Inuit trad.), op.77, spkr/actress, 10 gui + perc, 1970; Vision of Youth (J. Conrad), op.79, S, 3 cl + b cl, pf + cel, perc, 1970; Islands (Sophocles trans. Volonakis, P.B. Shelley, R.L. Stevenson, F. Rabelais trans. T. Urquhart and P.A. Motteux), op.80, S, T, nar, 8 insts, 1971; Requiescat [in memory of Stravinsky], (S, str trio)/(Mez, 2 cl + b cl), 1971; The Tears of Night (14th century, G. Stein, J. Joyce, D. Thomas), op.82, 6 S, Ct, 3 inst ens, 1971; Dirge for the Proud World (T. Merton), op.83, S, Ct, hpd, vc, 1971; Chimes and Cantos (R. Herrick), op.86, Bar, 2 tpt, 2 trbn, perc, 4 vn, 2 db, 1972; Laudi (Lutyens), op.96, S, 3 cl, pf, perc, 1973; Concert Aria, op.112, female v, orch, 1976; Cascando (S. Beckett), op.117, C, vn, str orch, 1977; Chorale Prelude and Paraphrase (J. Keats), op.123, T, str qnt, 3 perc, pf, 1977; Elegy of the Flowers (C. Cavafy, trans. R. Devlen), op.127, T, 3 inst ens, 1978; Echoi, op.129, Mez, orch, 1979; Cant. (U. Vaughan Williams), op.130, S, inst ens, 1979; Cant. (C. Baudelaire), op.134, S, C, B, inst ens, 1979; Echoes (H. Sudo), op.138, C, a fl, eng hn, str qt, 1979; Concert Aria: Dialogo (Quasimodo), op.142, S, inst ens, 1980; Mine Eyes, my Bread, my Spade (T. Tanner), op.143, Bar, str qt, 1980; Fleur du silence (R. de Gourment), op.150, T, inst ens, 1980

Solo v(v) with 1 inst or unacc.: The Virgin’s Cradle Hymn (S.T. Coleridge), 1v, pf, 1939; 2 Songs (W.H. Auden), S/Bar, pf, 1942; 9 Songs (S. Smith), Mez, pf, 1948–53; In the Temple of a Bird’s Wing (Tanner), op.37, Bar, pf, 1956, rev. 1965; The Egocentric (index I, Oxford Book of English Verse), T/Bar, pf, 1968; The Supplicant, B/Bar, pf, 1969–70 [from Isis and Osiris, op.74]; In the Direction of the Beginning (Thomas), op.76, B, pf, 1970; Lament of Isis on the Death of Osiris, S, 1970 [from Isis and Osiris, op.74]; Oda a la tormenta (P. Neruda), op.78, Mez, pf, 1970; Dialogo (Quasimodo), op.88, T, lute, 1972; Roads (Lutyens), op.95, 2 S, Ct, T, Bar, B, 1973; The Hidden Power (Shelley), 2 equal vv, 1974; Of the Snow (F. Martens), 3 equal vv, 1974; Sloth – One of the 7 Deadly Sins (Lutyens), 2 Ct, T, 2 Bar, B, 1974; 2 Songs (D.H. Lawrence), 1v, 1974; Nocturnes and Interludes (R. Burns, R. Kipling, A. Tennyson, R. Graves, C. Marlowe, Lutyens, J. Milton, H. Newbolt, G. Peele), op.111, S, pf, 1976; Variations: Winter Series – Spring Sowing (U. Vaughan Williams), op.115, S, pf, 1977; By all These (R. Jeffries), op.120, S, gui, 1977; She Tells her Love while Half Asleep (Graves), op.13, S, 1979; That Sun (G. Flaubert, trans. J. Cohen), op.137, C, pf, 1979; The Singing Birds (W.B. Yeats, Lutyens, after M. Silverthorne, after Plato), op.151, actress/spkr, va, 1980

orchestral

3 Pieces, op.7, 1939; Chbr Conc. no.1, op.8/1, ob, cl, bn, hn, tpt, trbn, str trio, 1939; Chbr Conc. no.2, op.8/2, cl, t sax, pf, str orch, 1940–41; 3 Sym. Preludes, 1942; Chbr Conc. no.3, op.8/3, bn, str orch, 1945; Chbr Conc. no.4, op.8/4, hn, chbr orch, 1946–7; Chbr Conc. no.5, op.8/5, str qt, chbr orch, 1946; Va Conc., op.15, 1947; Music for Orch I, op.31, 1955; Chorale (Hommage à Stravinsky), op.36, 1956; Symphonies for Solo Piano, Wind, Harps and Percussion, op.46, 1961; Music for Orch II, op.48, 1962; Music for Orch III, op.56, 1963–4; Music for Pf and Orch, op.59, 1964; Novenaria, op.67/1, 1967; The Winter of the World, op.98, vc, 2 inst ens, 1974; Eos, op.101, small orch, 1974–5; Rondel, op.108, 1976; 6 Bagatelles, op.113, chbr orch, 1976; Nox, op.118, pf, 2 chbr orchs, 1977; Tides, op.124, 1978; Wild Decembers, op.149, chbr orch, 1980; Music for Orch IV: Gone Like a Sea-Covered Stone, op.152, chbr orch, 1981

instrumental

3 or more insts: Str Qt no.2, op.5/5, 1938; Str Trio, op.5/6, 1939; Str Qt no.3, op.18, 1949; Concertante for 5 Players, op.22, fl + pic, cl + b cl, vn + va, vc, pf, 1950; Str Qt no.6, op.25/3, 1952; Nocturnes, op.30, vn, vc, gui, 1955; Capriccii, op.33, 2 hp, perc, 1955; 6 Tempi, op.42, fl, ob, cl, bn, tpt, hn, pf, vn, va, vc, 1957; Wind Qnt, op.45, 1960; Str Qnt, op.51, 1963; Wind Trio, op.52, 1963; Fantasie-Trio, op.55, fl, cl, pf, 1963; Str Trio, op.57, 1964; Scena, op.58, vn, vc, perc, 1964; Music for Wind, op.60, double wind qnt, 1964; The Fall of the Leafe, ob, str qt, 1966; Music for 3, op.65, fl + pic + a fl, ob, pf, 1966; Horai, op.67/4, vn, hn, pf, 1968; Driving out the Death, op.81, ob, str trio, 1971; Rape of the Moone, op.90, wind octet, 1973; Plenum II, op.92, ob, 13 inst, 1973; Plenum III, op.93, str qt, 1973; Kareniana, op.99, solo va, fl + a fl, ob, cl + b cl, tpt, trbn, hn, hp, pf + cel, 2 perc, 1974; Fanfare for a Festival, 3 tpt, 3 trbn, 1975; Go, Said the Bird, op.105, elec gui, str qt, 1975; Mare et minutiae, op.107, str qt, 1976; Fantasia, op.114, a sax, 3 inst ens, 1977; O Absalom, op.122, ob + eng hn, vn, va, vc, 1977; Doubles, op.125, str qt, 1978; Trio, op.135, cl, vc, pf, 1979; Str Qt, op.139, 1979; Rapprochement, op.144, solo hn, solo hp, fl + a fl, ob, cl + b cl, 2 perc, cel, pf, vn, va, vc, 1980; Str Qt: Diurnal, op.146, 1980; Six, op.147, cl + b cl + E-cl, B-tpt + D-tpt + flugel hn, perc, pf, vn, db, 1980; Branches of the Night and of the Day, op.153, (hn, vn, 2 va, vc)/(hn, 2 vn, va, vc), 1981; Str Qt no.12, op.155, 1981; Str Qt no.13, op.158, 1982; Triolets: op.160a, cl, vc, mand, op.160h, vc, hp, mar, 1982

1 or 2 insts: The Check Book (12 Pieces for Children), pf, 1937–8; Sonata, op.5/4, va, 1938; 5 Intermezzi, pf, 1941; 9 Bagatelles, vc, pf, 1942; Suite gauloise, vn, pf, 1944, arr. wind octet, movt 1 arr. chbr orch; 5 Little Pieces, cl, pf, 1945; Aptote, vn, 1948; 3 Improvisations, pf, 1948; Ninepins, 2 vn, 1948; Prelude and Capriccio, op.20, vc, 1949; Valediction [in memory of Dylan Thomas], op.28, cl, pf, 1953–4; Sinfonia, op.32, org, 1955; 3 Duos, op.34: (1) hn, pf, (2) vc, pf, (3) vn, pf, 1956–7; Variations, op.38, fl, 1957; Piano e forte, op.43, pf, 1958; 5 Bagatelles, op.49, pf, 1962; Présages, op.53, ob, 1963; Helix, op.67/2, pf 4 hands, 1967; Scroll for Li-Ho, op.67/3, vn, pf, 1967; Epithalamion, op.67/5, org, S ad lib (E. Spenser), 1968; Temenos, op.72, org, 1969; The Dying of the Sun, op.73, gui, 1969; 3 pièces brèves, chbr org, 1969 [from Isis and Osiris, op.74]; The Tides of Time, op.75, db, pf, 1969; Plenum I, op.87, pf, 1972; Tre, op.94, cl, 1973; Plenum IV, op.100, org 4 hands, 1974; This Green Tide, op.103, basset-hn, pf, 1975; Pietà, op.104, hpd, 1975; The Ring of Bone, op.106, pf, opt. spkr(s), 1975; Constants, op.110, vc, pf, 1976; 5 Impromptus, op.116, pf, 1977; Madrigal, op.119, ob, vn, 1977; Romanza, op.121, gui, 1977; 7 Preludes, op.126, pf, 1978; Footfalls, op.128, fl, pf, opt. spkr(s), 1978; The Great Seas, op.132, pf, 1979; Prelude, op.133, vn, 1979; Morning Sea, op.140, ob + ob d’amore, pf, 1979; Bagatelles (3 bks), op.141, pf, 1979; Déroulement, op.145, ob, gui, 1980; Soli, op.148, cl + b cl, db, 1980; La natura dell’aqua, op.154, pf, 1981; The Living Night, op.156, perc, 1981; Echo of the Wind, op.157, va, 1981; Encore-Maybe, op.159, pf, 1982; Solo Fanfare (Jubilate), va, 1982

Arr.: Purcell: Air-Dance-Ground, va, pf, 1946

Many film, theatre and radio scores, light music

Principal publishers: Augener, Chester/Belwin Mills, Lengnick, Novello, Olivan/Universal, Schott, de Wolfe, Yorke

Lutyens, Elisabeth

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R.M. Schafer: ‘Elisabeth Lutyens’, British Composers in Interview (London, 1963), 103–11

N. O’Loughlin: ‘Elisabeth Lutyens’s “Novenaria”’, Tempo, no.88 (1969), 55–6

A. Payne: ‘Elisabeth Lutyens’s “Essence of our Happinesses”’, Tempo, no.95 (1970–71), 33–4

S. Bradshaw: ‘The Music of Elisabeth Lutyens’, MT, cxii (1971), 653–6

L. East: ‘Time Off … with Lis Lutyens’, Music and Musicians, xx/6 (1971–2), 18, 20 only

R.R. Bennett: ‘Time Off? Not a Ghost of a Chance!’, Opera, xxiii (1972), 102–5

E. Lutyens: A Goldfish Bowl (London, 1972) [autobiography]

S. Walsh: ‘“Time Off” and “The Scene Machine”’, MT, cxiii (1972), 137–9 [interview]

R. Saxton: ‘Composer Portraits: Elisabeth Lutyens’, New Music 88, ed. M. Finnissy, M. Hayes and R. Wright (Oxford, 1988), 9–21

M. Harries and S. Harries: A Pilgrim Soul: the Life and Work of Elisabeth Lutyens (London, 1989)

S.J. Tenant-Flowers: A Study of Style and Techniques in the Music of Elisabeth Lutyens (diss., U. of Durham, 1991)

Lutz, (Johann Baptist Wilhelm) Meyer

(b Münnerstadt, 16 May 1828; d Kensington, London, 31 Jan 1903). English composer, conductor and organist of German descent. He was the second of eight children of a Münnerstadt music teacher and schoolmaster, Georg Joseph Lutz, and his wife Magdalena; his elder brother, Johann von Lutz, became the prime minister of Bavaria who committed Ludwig II. Lutz played the piano in public with an orchestra at the age of 12, and when his family moved to Würzburg he attended the Gymnasium and later the university there, studying music with Franz Xaver Eisenhofer and Max Keller but training for a career in medicine. In 1846 he went to Birmingham with a German orchestra. Among several German musicians to find employment opportunities in England after Catholic emancipation, he became deputy organist of the Roman Catholic cathedral in Birmingham, St Chad’s, before moving to St George’s Roman Catholic Cathedral, Southwark (London) as its first organist and choirmaster, in which post (1848–74) he gave performances of numerous orchestral masses, including his own, with professional forces. He also served briefly at St Anne’s, Leeds, and as a freemason was appointed organist in Grand Lodge (1890) by Edward, Prince of Wales.

Not uncommonly for musical directors of his period and indeed earlier and later ones in Britain, Lutz moved between three worlds: the church, the theatre and the resort. His seaside work was mainly in Scarborough, where he conducted the Spa band and taught for the 1867 to 1879 and 1884 to 1892 summer and autumn seasons, transferring to the New Spa at Bridlington for the last ten years of his life. As an operatic practitioner Lutz conducted an annual season at the Surrey Theatre, London (1851–5), acted as musical director to various English opera companies in the 1860s, oversaw stage and concert tours by Giulia Grisi and G.M. Mario, Louisa Pyne and William Harrison, and others, and composed light operas ‘in the school of Auber’. He made his greatest mark in the popular musical theatre in London, however, where he was a force in the development of the musical. In February 1869 he was appointed director of music at the new Gaiety Theatre, where he proved an invaluable support to the manager, John Hollingshead, for 17 years. He then served under Hollingshead’s successor, George Edwardes, who began to present original scores (rather than pasticcios) by Lutz. In 1893 Lutz relinquished the post to another immigrant, Ivan Caryll.

In Lutz’s day the Gaiety purveyed burlesque, parodying opera and current literature in what now suggests itself as a grotesque manner, yet with the greatest stars of the time. Hence the titles of his scores – Faust Up-to-Date, Carmen Up-to-Data, A Model Trilby, or A Day or Two after Du Maurier – and the unrecoverable crossover of taste in Carmen Up-to-Data which could embrace both ‘coon’ song and Bizet in ‘Hush! the Bogie!’, one of his popular successes. (He also wrote and arranged for the Christy’s Minstrels). But hence, too, the affection with which his era was remembered, for example by P.G. Wodehouse. Lutz conducted Alfred Cellier Dorothy at the Gaiety but just missed composing whole musical comedy scores in the new vein: Caryll’s own The Shop Girl was his successor’s first assignment. Nevertheless, his ‘Pas de quatre’ from Faust Up-to-Date, which became the Gaiety’s signature tune and was enormously popular, helped secure a tripping lightness of style for musical comedy with its rhythmic topic of which echoes can be heard in the musical theatre as late as ‘Wouldn’t it be loverly?’ from My Fair Lady (1956).

Lutz was wedded to the stage in every way, and in marrying his deceased wife’s sister (in Jersey, because of English law) twice became brother-in-law to the opera singer Thomas Aynsley Cook (himself father-in-law of the second generation Eugène Goossens).

WORKS

(selective list)

all publications are vocal scores published in London; theatrical works first produced in London, unless otherwise stated; for fuller list of stage works see GänzlEMT

Operas and operettas: The Charmed Harp (1, J. Courtney), Surrey, 30 Aug 1852; Mephistopheles, or Faust and Marguerite, Surrey, 16 May 1855; Zaida, or The Pearl of Granada (O. Summers), Liverpool, Amphitheatre, 14 Feb 1859; Blonde or Brunette (1, J.P. Wooler), Royalty, 19 May 1862; Felix, or The Festival of the Roses (1, J. Oxenford), Royalty, 23 Oct 1865; The Miller of Millberg (1, M. Lutz), Gaiety, 13 April 1872; Frasquita (W. Godfrey), Gaiety, 29 May 1893

Burlesques, first produced at Gaiety Theatre unless otherwise stated: Little Jack Sheppard (H.P. Stephens, W. Yardley), 26 Dec 1885; Miss Esmeralda, or The Monkey and the Monk (F. Leslie, H. Mills), 8 Oct 1887; Frankenstein (R. Butler, H.C. Newton), 24 Dec 1887 (1888); Faust Up-to-Date (G.R. Sims, H. Pettitt), 30 Oct 1888 (1889); Ruy Blas and the Blasé Roué (Leslie, H.F. Clark), Birmingham, Grand, 3 Sept 1889 (1890); Carmen Up-to-Data (Sims, Pettitt), Liverpool, Shakespeare, 22 Sept 1890 (1891); Cinder-Ellen Up too Late (Leslie, W.T. Vincent), Melbourne, 22 Aug 1891 (1892), collab. O. Carr, L. Monckton, others; Don Juan (J.T. Tanner, A. Ross), 28 Oct 1893 (1894); A Model Trilby, or A Day or Two after Du Maurier (1, C.H.E. Brookfield, W. Yardley), Opera Comique, 16 Nov 1895

Cantatas: Herne the Hunter (O. Summers) (1863); King Christmas (1864); Legend of the Lys (R. Reece) (1873)

Motets for the Year, a Collection of Offertories (c1875); other sacred works

Orch and chbr works, incl. str qt

Popular songs

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GänzlBMT, i

GänzlEMT

F. Goodricke: Scarborough and Scarborough Spa (London, 1891), 100–05

W. Macqueen-Pope: Gaiety: Theatre of Enchantment (London, 1949)

K. Young: Music’s Great Days in the Spas and Watering-Places (London, 1968), 84–5

A. Lamb: ‘Music of the Popular Theatre’, Music in Britain: the Romantic Age 1800–1914, ed. N. Temperley (London, 1981/R), 92–108

M. Whittaker: The Book of Scarborough Spaw (Buckingham, 1984), 156–9

P. Young: Elgar, Newman and ‘The Dream of Gerontius’ in the Tradition of English Catholicism (Aldershot, 1995)

STEPHEN BANFIELD

Lü Wencheng [Ley Mensing]

(b Zhongshan, Guangdong, 1898; d Hong Kong, 1981). Chinese musician and composer. Along with musicians such as Qiu Hechou (Yau Hokchau) and He Dasha (Ho Daeso), Lü Wencheng was a prolific composer of the new style of instrumental music evolving in colonial Guangzhou (Canton), Hong Kong and Shanghai in the 1920s and 30s, influenced by Western jazz and the new film industry as well as traditional Cantonese styles. Brought up in Shanghai, Lü popularized the new Cantonese style with national tours and many recordings. In 1932 he moved to Hong Kong, where he continued to record prolifically.

Lü created a modified version of the erhu bowed fiddle called gaohu, using high positions and glissandos, which became a distinctive voice of the Cantonese ensemble. He was also a noted singer of Cantonese opera. Among his most popular instrumental pieces are Pinghu qiuyue (‘Autumn Moon over Lake Ping’) and Bubu gao (‘Stepping High’).

See also China, §IV, 4(i).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

Huang Jinpei: Guangdong yinyue xinshang [Appreciation of Cantonese music] (Guangzhou, 1984)

S. Jones: Folk Music of China: Living Instrumental Traditions (Oxford, 1995, 2/1998 with CD), 344–63

recordings

Chinese Masterpieces for the Erhu, perf. Lui Man-sing and others, Lyrichord LLST7132 (c1960)

Lü Wencheng zuopin xuan [Selected works of Lü Wencheng], Zhongguo changpian she Guangdong fenshe SL-5 and SL-87 (1983)

Rain Dropping on the Banana Tree, Rounder CD 1125 (1996)

STEPHEN JONES

Luxembourg.

See Low Countries, §I, 6.

Luxon, Benjamin

(b Redruth, Cornwall, 24 March 1937). English baritone. He studied at the GSM and in 1963 joined the English Opera Group, for which his roles included Britten’s Sid, Tarquinius and Demetrius, and Purcell’s King Arthur (1970). He created the title role in Britten’s television opera Owen Wingrave (1971), subsequently recording the part with the composer, and took the roles of the Jester, Death and Joking Jesus in the première of Maxwell Davies’s Taverner at Covent Garden (1972). Other roles he sang there included Owen Wingrave, Yevgeny Onegin, Wolfram, Marcello, Falke (Fledermaus) and Diomede (Troilus and Cressida). At Glyndebourne (1972–80) he sang Monteverdi’s Ulysses, Count Almaviva, Don Giovanni, Papageno, the Forester (The Cunning Little Vixen) and Ford. With the ENO (1974–90) he sang Posa, Papageno, Falstaff and Gianni Schicchi. He sang Wozzeck in Glasgow (1983), Sherasmin (Oberon) in Edinburgh (1986), Captain Balstrode in Philadelphia (1987) and Wozzeck again in Los Angeles (1988), where he returned as Falstaff (1990). His strong personality and warm, expressive voice were as effective in contemporary works as in his most famous role, Yevgeny Onegin, which he sang at the Metropolitan (1980), Frankfurt (1984), La Scala, Geneva (1986), Amsterdam, Paris and Prague. Luxon was also a sympathetic interpreter of lieder and of Russian and, especially, English songs, as can be heard on several recordings. He was made a CBE in 1986.

ALAN BLYTH

Luynes, Charles Philippe d'Albert, Duke of

(b 1695; d 1758). French courtier and diarist. His memoirs, like those of his grandfather, the marquis de Dangeau, are among the most illuminating of musical life at the French court. Given that his wife was a lady-in-waiting to the queen, Maria Leczynska, Luynes had unrivalled access to the intimacies of court life. Covering the years 1735–58, his diary records the emergence of Rameau as an operatic composer and a courtier and the passion for music of Louis XV's queen and of his mistress, Mme de Pompadour. The musical tastes of the dauphin, for whom Royer composed, and of the second dauphine, Marie-Josèphe de Saxe, are observed. Luynes detailed the increasing significance of dance music and the divertissement as entertainments, recording the names both of librettists and composers. He also reported details of the chapel music, episodes of the long-running battle between the sous-maîtres de la chapelle and the surintendants over rights to conduct the Te Deum on ceremonial occasion, and the detailed financial arrangements made between the leading musical figures at court, such as Royer, Collin de Blamont, Rebel, Bury and Antoine Blanchard (23 Sept 1753). Luynes also kept a close eye on the increasing Italian influence in musical life and preserved colourful accounts of the visits to the court of Farinelli (29 Sept 1737, 21 June 1752), Caffarelli (13 June, 6 July 1753) and other musicians.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Dussieux and E Soulié, eds.: Mémoires du duc de Luynes sur la cour de Louis XV 1735–58 (Paris, 1860–65)

N. Dufourcq, ed.: La musique à la cour de Louis XIV et de Louis XV d'après les mémoires de Sourches et Luynes 1681–1758 (Paris, 1970)

LIONEL SAWKINS

Luyr, Adam.

See Aquanus, Adam.

Luython [Luiton, Luitton, Luthon, Luythonius, Luyton], Carl [Carolus, Charles, Karl]

(b Antwerp, 1557/8; d Prague, Aug 1620). Flemish composer and organist. He spent nearly all his life in the service of the Habsburg imperial chapel in Vienna and Prague. In 1566 he was recruited as a chorister for the court of the Emperor Maximilian II in Vienna; his music teachers there may have been Jacobus Vaet, Alard du Gaucquier and Philippe de Monte, while he must have studied the organ either with the first court organist Wilhelmus Formellis or with one of the sub-organists, Wilhelm von Mülin or Paul van Winde.

On leaving the chapel on 30 July 1571 after his voice changed, Luython was given the usual honorarium of 50 guilders. He travelled to Italy to work and further his education, as had other imperial court singers such as Jacob Regnart. On 18 May 1576 he returned to the employ of the imperial court as a ‘chamber musician’ (probably as organist rather than singer) with a salary of 10 guilders a month. He was one of the first members of the newly founded Kammermusik, a parallel establishment to the court chapel and the military band.

In 1577 Luython was retained as a chamber organist in the newly established court of Maximilian's successor Rudolf II, which was transferred to Prague. Between 25 February 1580 and 28 February 1581 he augmented his meagre salary with that of a junior official in the imperial wardrobe (unndergwardaroba). When the first court organist Formellis died on 4 January 1582, Luython was retroactively appointed third court organist as from 1 January 1577, with a monthly salary of 25 guilders. Later in 1582 he accompanied Rudolf to the Diet at Augsburg as second court organist, and at that time he published in Venice his first and only book of madrigals, dedicated to the Augsburg magnate Johann Fugger. This excursion began the rise of Luython's reputation.

Luython collaborated with the organ builder Albrecht Rudner on the reconstruction of the organ in Prague Cathedral. The two disagreed on several matters, and in court records between April 1581 and 22 December 1590 Luthon's objections are spelt out in great detail. His first collection of motets, Popularis anni jubilus, was published in Prague in 1587, with a dedication to Rudolf II's brother Archduke Ernst on the occasion of his consecration as bishop. On 1 April the same year Luython was granted a minor coat of arms (Wappen mit Lehenart) in recognition of his services as court organist. He probably served in effect as first court organist from 1594, when Paul van Winde left for the Netherlands; he was officially appointed to the post when van Winde died in 1596.

When Monte died on 4 July 1603, Luython succeeded him as court composer, with an increase in salary of 10 guilders a month. He published in Prague another volume of motets in 1603, a book of Lamentations in 1604, and a collection of masses in 1609 (twice reprinted in Frankfurt). The dedication of the masses to Rudolf II brought Luython a gift of 500 guilders. On 16 May 1611 he was awarded a yearly pension of 200 guilders in recognition of 35 years of loyal service to the imperial court. But like many of Rudolf's employees, Luython had trouble collecting what was owed him; his salary had been 1600 guilders in arrears in 1591, and during Rudolf's lifetime he was hard pressed to collect his pension. After Rudolf's death in 1612, his brother and successor Matthias disbanded the court chapel and disclaimed responsibility for debts to its members. Luython, who had never married or taken holy orders, died a pauper in 1620, leaving 2400 guilders in arrears of salary and pension to his brother Claude and sisters Clara and Sibella; his will was never executed.

Praetorius gave a description of a remarkable harpsichord owned by Luython; he called it ‘clavicimbalum universale seu perfectum’. The instrument had a four-octave enharmonic keyboard on which all five of the regular raised keys in each octave were split, and raised keys tuned as E and B were inserted between E and F and between B and C; it could play in the chromatic and enharmonic genera as well as the diatonic. The sliding keyboard could be set at any of the seven enharmonic steps spanning a major 3rd. Poverty forced Luython to sell his harpsichord for 100 guilders in 1613.

Luython's vocal music largely reflects the influence of Monte. Ten of the 11 madrigals in his first book set poems by Petrarch, but the sixth, Sacro monte mio dolce, is a homage to Monte whose text may have been written by Luython. The four parody masses of the nine in his first book are all based on motets and madrigals by Monte. Another mass, the seven-voice Missa super basim ‘Caesar vive’, reinforces the volume's dedication to Rudolf II; its cantus firmus is a short melody composed for the purpose. The remaining four masses are all entitled Missa quadlibetica, a term used also by Vaet and Regnart. They share a rapid, mostly syllabic declamation of the words and a notable degree of thematic unity within each setting. The ‘Osanna’ section of the Sanctus is always elided with the ‘Pleni sunt caeli’, and the Agnus Dei is given a single rather than a threefold setting. The thematic concentration suggests that the ‘quodlibet’ masses may be parodies of existing compositions, but no models have been identified. While the three- and four-voice examples are simpler in texture and structure, the six-voice Missa quodlibetica is contrapuntally complex and expansive in form. Luython's Missa ‘Tytire tu patule’, not included in the printed volume, is probably one of the masses dedicated to Maximilian II mentioned in documents of 1575 and 1576.

Luython was less conservative in his composition for instruments, which reflects the ideas of forward-lookiing contemporaries; he is perhaps best remembered for the handful of keyboard pieces in which he anticipated later fugal procedures. His Fuga suavissima has been compared to similar pieces by Sweelinck and Frescobaldi; it is divided into three sections and based on three subjects. All his other instrumental works are of the ricercare type.

WORKS

sacred vocal

Popularis anni jubilus, 6vv (Prague, 1587)

Selectissimarum sacrarum cantionum … fasciculus primus, 6vv (Prague, 1603)

Opus musicum in Lamentationes Hieremiae prophetae, 6vv (Prague, 1604); ed. in Musica sacra, xx (Berlin, 1879)

Liber primus missarum, 3–7vv (Prague, 1609); 4 ed. in Musica sacra, xiii, xvii, xix (Berlin, 1876–8)

5 motets, hymn, 1604⁷, 1611¹, 1621², 1629⁴

3 masses, 3 motets, hymn, A-Gu, Wn, CZ-Pnm, D-Bsb, PL-WRu

4 masses, Kyrie, 5 motets: lost, formerly Breslau Stadtbibliothek, Liegnitz Ritter-Akademie, now ?WRu

secular vocal

Il primo libro de madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1582); 3 ed. in DTÖ, lxxvii (1934); 11 transcr. in Sass

7 Ger. songs, 1609²⁸; 3 Lat. odes, 1610¹⁸

Song, PL-WRu

instrumental

Fuga suavissima, 1617²⁴; ed. in Ritter, ed. in MMBel, iv (1938)

3 ricercares, a 4, 3 fantasias, A-Wm (org tablature), D-Bsb (doubtful) [1 ricercare also attrib. J. Hassler, I-Pu]; ed. in MMBel, iv (1938)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PraetoriusSM

L. de Burbure: Charles Luython (1550–1620), compositeur de musique de la Cour impériale, 1550–1620: sa vie et ses ouvrages (Brussels, 1880)

A.G. Ritter: Zur Geschichte des Orgelspiels, vornehmlich des deutschen, im 14. bis zum Anfange des 18. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1884/R)

A. Koczirz: ‘Zur Geschichte des Luython’schen Klavizimbels’, SIMG, ix (1907–8), 565–70

P. Wagner: Geschichte der Messe, i (Leipzig, 1913/R), 230–38

A. Smijers: Karl Luython als Motetten-Komponist (Amsterdam, 1923)

A. Smijers: ‘Die kaiserliche Hof-Musikkapelle in Wien von 1543–1619’, SMw, vi (1919), 139–86; vii (1920), 102–42; viii (1921), 176–206; ix (1922), 43–81

G. van Doorslaer: ‘La chapelle musicale de l'empereur Rudolphe II, en 1594 sous la direction de Philippe de Monte’, AcM, v (1933), 148–61

A. Einstein: ‘Italienische Musik und italienische Musiker am Kaiserhof und an den erzherzoglichen Höfen in Innsbruck und Graz’, SMw, xxi (1934), 3–52

H. Osthoff: Die Niederländer und das deutsche Lied, 1400–1640 (Berlin, 1938/R)

C. Sass: Charles Luython: ses madrigaux et oeuvres instrumentales (diss., U. of Leuven, 1958)

H. Leuchtmann: Orlando di Lasso: sein Leben, i (Wiesbaden, 1976)

W. Pass: Musik und Musiker am Hof Maximilians II. (Tutzing, 1980)

C.P. Comberiati: Late Renaissance Music at the Habsburg Court (New York, 1987)

C.P. Comberiati: ‘Carlo Luython at the Court of Emperor Rudolf II: Biography and his Polyphonic Settings of the Mass Ordinary’, Music from the Middle Ages through the Twentieth Century: Essays in Honor of Gwynn S. McPeek, ed. C.P. Comberiati and M. Steel (New York, 1988), 130–46

CARMELO PETER COMBERIATI

Luzern

(Ger.).

See Lucerne.

Luzzaschi, Luzzasco

(b Ferrara, ?1545; d Ferrara, 10 Sept 1607). Italian composer, organist and teacher. He was the leading musician at the Ferrara court in the later 16th century, a noted teacher and keyboard player and an influential madrigalist and composer of instrumental music.

EDMOND STRAINCHAMPS

1. Life.

He appears to have lived his entire life in Ferrara. According to his own testimony he was a pupil of Rore. He probably studied the organ with Jacques Brunel and may also have studied composition with Alfonso dalla Viola after Rore left Ferrara in 1558. In May of 1561 he became an organist at the Este court, and in 1564, after the death of Brunel, he was appointed first organist. Although this always remained his official title, his responsibilities were broadened to include the direction of one of the court orchestras, the training of musicians placed under him, and composing for the court. Bottrigari, who was in Ferrara from 1576 to 1587, reported that his authority was equal to that of the court maestro di cappella, Ippolito Fiorini; in fact, Duke Alfonso II’s musical establishment was so large that it required two maestri di cappella, which in effect it had. Luzzaschi was also organist at Ferrara Cathedral and held a similar title in the Accademia della Morte. His many services to the court were rewarded by gifts of land and a house.

Some time before 1570 Luzzaschi took charge of Duke Alfonso’s private musica da camera, the most celebrated aspect of which became known as the concerto di donne. The ‘singing ladies’ of Ferrara, the three best-known of whom, Lucrezia Bendidio, Tarquinia Molza and Laura Peverara, were famous throughout Italy, performed a secret repertory jealously guarded by the duke, at least some of it composed by Luzzaschi. Many accounts exist of the duke’s private concerts, which were Luzzaschi’s responsibility and at which he played keyboard instruments and to which numerous outsiders were invited. Both madrigals and instrumental music were performed in abundance, but the remarkable virtuoso singing of the women, singly and in duets and trios, seems to have been the most impressive feature. Luzzaschi’s Madrigali per cantare et sonare a 1–3 soprani, published in 1601, some years after the concerts had ceased, contains pieces from the secret repertory.

Little is known about Luzzaschi’s career after the demise of the Este court in 1597, but it seems likely that he remained at Ferrara and served the papal governor, Cardinal Pietro Aldobrandini, who took charge of the state. Letters from him (in I-Ma) show that he was in contact with Cardinal Federico Borromeo and sent him compositions between 1599 and 1601, but there is no evidence that he ever visited Milan. He was in Aldobrandini’s retinue when he visted Rome in 1601, when, perhaps with the support of Cavalieri, arrangements must have been made for his publication of that year. At his funeral his body was accompanied by 80 musicians, who further honoured him by placing a gilded laurel wreath on his catafalque.

Luzzaschi was much lauded by his contemporaries both as a player of keyboard instruments and as a composer. Because of his excellent playing Vincenzo Galilei called him one of the very best musicians in Italy, and Banchieri declared him to be one of the two finest organists (the other was Merulo). Further praise was bestowed on him by Antegnati and by Girolamo Diruta, who published three of his works in Il transilvano, where they acted as models for the art of organ playing. His extraordinary skill as a keyboard player and harmonist even made it possible for him to perform on Nicola Vicentino’s archicembalo; Bottrigari reported that he had composed special compositions for it which he managed most delicately, and Cerone recalled that such perfect harmony had never been heard as when he played the instrument. G.C. Monteverdi listed him among the composers of the seconda pratica in the Dichiaratione published in his brother Claudio’s Scherzi musicali (1607). Several other writers wrote admiringly of him. He must have had many pupils, but only a few are now known. The most renowned of them was Frescobaldi, who praised him as a musician and teacher in his publications of 1624 and 1630. Others were Girolamo Belli, Fabio Ricchetti, who became organist of Modena Cathedral, and Carlo Mentini, who was organist at S Marco, Venice, and Einstein believed that Alfonso Fontanelli must have studied composition with him. His instrumental music was influential and instructive well beyond Ferrara: in both Naples and Rome the imitative contrapuntal style of his keyboard works was central to the formation of schools of instrumental composition.

Luzzaschi, Luzzasco

2. Works.

In addition to the explicit praise given to Luzzaschi’s music, the high regard in which his five-part madrigals were held is evident from their frequent appearance in anthologies and in the publications of other composers. The posthumous collections of madrigals drawn almost entirely from his earlier books were probably arranged for by Gesualdo, who was much influenced by him and whose admiration for him is well documented. Luzzaschi’s sixth book of madrigals (1596) contains a remarkable aesthetic statement that in some respects adumbrates ideas expressed shortly afterwards by Monteverdi, Giulio Caccini and Marco da Gagliano. It begins by affirming the closeness of poetry and music, which he described as twins that resemble one another in manner and style, but he stressed that poetry, born first, always takes precedence and that music must always follow. It continues with an extended account of the affective affinity between the two arts. Finally, Luzzaschi declared that composers had achieved in his day a hitherto unknown perfection in madrigal composition that he attributed to the new compositional means and methods used by himself and his contemporaries. Though he was not specific, some of these new techniques are surely well represented in the more progressive of his own madrigals.

Though his contemporaries acclaimed him as a keyboard player, only a handful of keyboard works by Luzzaschi survive. There is evidence that he published at least three volumes of four-part ricercares that are now lost, though the contents of one survive in manuscript. The madrigals for one to three voices with keyboard accompaniment belong to the 16th-century tradition of pseudo-monody and are elaborate virtuoso pieces that can best be regarded as a cappella madrigals recast. The shift in aesthetic attitude underlying the appearance of genuine monody, with its polarity in both character and function between voice and accompaniment, is wholly absent in these works, which, despite their late date of publication (1601), were probably written in the 1580s. Luzzaschi’s surviving works otherwise consist chiefly of unaccompanied five-part madrigals, which fall into an early and a late style, reflecting to some extent the 12-year hiatus between his third and fourth books. The stylistic metamorphosis that can be observed in his works may be summarized generally as a movement from a musically amorphous and barely differentiated style to one that is clarified and sharply defined in all its aspects.

In Luzzaschi’s earliest madrigals, melody is basically of two kinds. One is rather awkward in character, with leaps of 4ths and 5ths and somewhat unvocal contours, the other covers a narrower range and includes frequent use of repeated notes. In both types the text is most often set syllabically. In the later madrigals the first type has evolved into a longer, more graceful, lyrical melody with an increased use of melisma, sometimes for purposes of word-painting (which is now much more prevalent), the second into a more confined and repetitive declamatory line that is sometimes recitative-like. Something of a combination of these attitudes occurs in the later works with the use of a contrasting motif – a melodic line, mannerist in character, that includes abrupt shifts of contour and the close juxtaposition of extremes in rhythmic values. The contrasting motif may be seen as presenting in extreme form and in microcosm an attitude towards rhythm that informs Luzzaschi’s later works, which are rhythmically much more flexible than the early works and show no sign of their steady motor pulse. The most dramatic stylistic change between his early and late madrigals concerns texture, which was perhaps the aspect of composition that interested him most in his last works. Contrapuntal texture dominates his earlier works, with only occasional chordal writing impeding the polyphonic flow; but he was not as a rule interested in strict imitation, preferring instead a loosely imitative procedure in which each voice may have a slightly different version of a motif. A typical illustration of this is the opening of Non fu senza vendetta (in book ii), in which the cantus and bass, the highest and lowest voices and the first and last to enter, are more closely related, thus unifying the passage and giving the impression that there is more imitation within the ensemble than there actually is. Strict imitation, even double counterpoint, is not unknown, but it is rare in the early works. Mentre gira soave i chiari lumi (book ii), like many of the other early madrigals, uses two pairs of voices. One enters after the other, and they are imitative within and between each pair; the result is a contrapuntal duet very similar to paired imitation but loosely knit in polyphonic treatment.

Luzzaschi’s later madrigals are particularly marked by decisive changes in texture, with a greater emphasis on homophony, which from book iv is no less important than counterpoint. At its simplest it appears as chordal writing, but when the text is set in accordance with speech rhythms a choral recitative results, and when the ensemble is homophonic, with one voice highlighted, the resulting texture might best be described as choral or ensemble monody – monodic texture achieved through purely vocal means. Although imitative passages are usually more strictly organized in the later madrigals, many contrapuntal sections are now conditioned by homophony. The most frequently encountered texture is one in which two voices are set in note-against-note style to form a homophonic vocal unit, which is then manipulated in contrapuntal combinations with single voices or with another similar unit, as in Quando miro me stessa (book iv) and Tra le dolcezze (book v).

Harmony is the one stylistic factor that changed little in the course of Luzzaschi’s madrigal production. Most often he used a subdued, traditional harmonic language, but occasionally he used chromaticism, even of an extreme kind, sometimes for brief passages, sometimes for an entire madrigal, as in Quivi sospiri (book ii; ed. in Einstein, The Golden Age of the Madrigal, 53), where for a harsh text he chose harsh chromatic expression. His use of chromatic language probably reached its apotheosis in Itene, mie querele (book vi and Seconda scelta; ed. in EinsteinIM, iii, 262) in a harmonic style of brilliant contrasts and surprises. It should be stressed, however, that, despite his command of it, he reserved chromaticism for relatively few highly expressive moments in his madrigals. His contemporary reputation as a chromaticist must have derived chiefly from his keyboard performances. Modern historians have been misled in categorizing Luzzaschi as a chromatic composer by the disproportionate number of madrigals in an extreme chromatic style among the small number published in modern editions.

Luzzaschi’s later madrigals are remarkable for their very rich use of colour and sonorous contrast. In his last works the use of the full ensemble, but more frequently of a variety of smaller groupings drawn from it within a single madrigal, further varied and contrasted by differences among them in melody, rhythm and texture, presents a brilliant concertato display. The degree of sectionalization and the great variety of contrasting portions of musical material produce, as in Itene, mie querele, a veritable musical patchwork. It could indeed be said that for Luzzaschi in his late madrigals the quest for contrast at all levels is the chief compositional motivation and the aesthetic goal.

The influence of a variety of contemporaries, older and younger, northern and Italian, can be discerned in Luzzaschi’s music. In many ways his early style resembles that of his teacher Rore, and he must certainly have been strongly influenced at an early date by Wert. Three Italians, Giovanni Gabrieli, Marenzio and Monteverdi, may be seen as strongly affecting his style and as prime external agents in its metamorphosis. Like these three, he was a master composer and a progressive musician, but unlike them he was not an innovator or even very daring. He is a quiet but stimulating complement to the dramatic musical events that took place in the world around him.

Luzzaschi, Luzzasco

WORKS

secular vocal

Il primo libro de madrigali, 5vv (Ferrara, 1571)

Secondo libro de madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1576–7); 1 ed. A. Einstein, The Golden Age of the Madrigal (New York, 1942), 53; some ed. in Strainchamps and in Spiro

Terzo libro de madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1582); some ed. in Strainchamps, Spiro and in NewcombMF

Il quarto libro de madrigali, 5vv (Ferrara, 1594) [incl. 2 works previously pubd 1582⁵, 1590¹⁵]; ed. R. Nielsen, Dodici madrigali del scuola ferrarese su testi di Torquato Tasso (Bologna, 1954); some ed. in Strainchamps, Spiro and in NewcombMF

Quinto libro de madrigali, 5vv (Ferrara, 1595); some ed. in Spiro

Sesto libro de madrigali, 5vv (Ferrara, 1596); 1 ed. in Einstein, some in Spiro

Madrigali … per cantare et sonare a uno, e doi, e tre soprani (Rome, 1601); ed. in MMI, ii/2 (1965); 1 ed. R. Nielsen, Dodici madrigali del scuola ferrarese (Bologna, 1954)

Settimo libro de madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1604); some ed. in Spiro

Madrigali di Luzasco Luzaschi, et altri autori, 5vv (Naples, 1611) [anthology of previously pubd madrigals]

Seconda scelta delli madrigali, 5vv (Naples, 1613) [anthology of previously pubd madrigals with 1 new work]

Madrigal, 4vv, 1588¹⁷, ed. H.B. Lincoln, L’amoroso ero(Albany, NY, 1968); 5 madrigals, 5vv, 1582⁵, 1590¹⁵, 1591⁹, 1592¹⁴, 1604⁸ [2 repr. in Il quarto libro de madrigali, 5vv]; 2 madrigals, 6vv, 1583¹⁰, 1586¹⁰; 1 canzonetta, 4vv 1597¹⁴

sacred vocal

Sacrarum cantionum liber primus, 5vv (Venice, 1598)

Mass, 5vv, I-Mb (formerly attrib. Luzzaschi, probably not by him)

instrumental

Canzona, 1608²⁴, ed. in Bartholomew, ii, 27; 2 ricercares, toccata, 1593⁹, 1609⁹, ed. in Ladewig, 1978, Newcomb, 1979; ricercare, I-Tn, Foà, ed. in Ladewig, 1978; 2 ricercares (doubtful) Rvat, ed. in Ladewig, 1978; dance, inc., Mc; ricercares, a4, 3 pubd bks, lost; Secondo libro de ricercare a 4, Bsf, ed. M. Pascale, Rome, 1981

Luzzaschi, Luzzasco

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BertolottiM

EinsteinIM

NewcombMF

PirrottaDO

Vander StraetenMPB

V. Galilei: Dialogo della musica antica et della moderna (Florence, 1581/R), 138–9

E. Bottrigari: Il desiderio (Venice, 1594/R1969 in BMB, section 2, xxviii, 2/1599/R, 3/1601; Eng. trans., MSD, ix, 1962)

C. Antegnati: L’arte organica (Brescia, 1608/R), ed. R. Lunelli (Mainz, 1938, 2/1958), preface

A. Banchieri: Conclusioni nel suono dell’organo (Bologna, 1609/R, 2/1626/R as Armoniche conclusioni nel suono dell’organo; Eng. trans., 1982), 13 [p. no refers to 1609]

P. Cerone: El melopeo y maestro (Naples, 1613/R), 1041

A. Solerti: Ferrara e la corte estense nella seconda metà del secolo decimosesto (Città di Castello, 1891, 2/1900), pp.cxii, cxv, cxxi–cxxii, cxxiv, cxxviff, cxxxiv, cxxxvi, chap.9

O. Kinkeldey: ‘Luzzasco Luzzaschi’s Solo-Madrigale mit Klavierbegleitung’, SIMG, ix (1907–8), 538–65

O. Kinkeldey: Orgel und Klavier in der Musik des 16. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, 1910/R), 157ff, 286ff

F. Waldner: ‘Zwei Inventarien aus dem XVI. und XVII. Jahrhundert über hinterlassene Musikinstrumente und Musikalien am Innsbrucker Hofe’, SMw, iv (1916), 128–47, esp. 136

H. Prunières: ‘Une lettre inédite d’Emilio del Cavaliere’, ReM, iv/7–9 (1923), 128–33

J.A.F. Orbaan: ‘Notizie inedite su Luzzasco Luzzaschi’, Bollettino bibliografico musicale, iv/1 (1929), 9–14

J. Racek: ‘Les madrigaux à voix seule de Luzzasco Luzzaschi’, ReM, nos.127–30 (1932), 11–23

R. Nielson: Preface to Dodici madrigali della scuola ferrarese su testi di Torquato Tasso (Bologna, 1954)

D. Arnold: ‘“Seconda pratica”: a Background to Monteverdi’s Madrigals’, ML, xxxviii (1957), 341–52

E. Strainchamps: Luzzasco Luzzaschi and his Five-Part Madrigals (diss., Columbia U., 1960)

A.G. Spiro: The Five-Part Madrigals of Luzzasco Luzzaschi (diss., Boston U., 1961)

C.V. Palisca: ‘Musical Asides in the Diplomatic Correspondence of Emilio de’ Cavalieri’,MQ, xlix (1963), 339–55, esp. 353

L.E. Bartholomew: Alessandro Raverij’s Collection of ‘Canzoni per sonare’ (Venice, 1608) (Fort Hays, KS, 1965), i, 338ff

A. Cavicchi: Preface to MMI, 2nd ser., ii (1965)

A. Newcomb: ‘Carlo Gesualdo and a Musical Correspondence of 1594’, MQ, liv (1968), 409–36, esp. 414, 424, 429ff

L. Bianconi: ‘Weitere Ergänzungen zu Emil Vogels “Bibliothek der gedruckten weltlichen Vocalmusik Italiens, aus den Jahren 1500–1700” aus italienischen Bibliotheken’, AnMc, no.9 (1970), 142–202, esp. 170–71

G. Watkins: Gesualdo: the Man and his Music (London, 1973, 2/1991)

A. Newcomb: ‘Alfonso Fontanelli and the Ancestry of the Seconda Pratica Madrigal’, Studies in Renaissance and Baroque Music in Honor of Arthur Mendel, ed. R.L. Marshall (Kassel and Hackensack, NJ, 1974), 47–70

J. Ladewig: Frescobaldi’s ‘Recercari, et canzoni franzese’ (1615): A Study of the Contrapuntal Keyboard Idiom in Ferrara, Naples, and Rome, 1580–1620 (diss., U. of California, Berkeley, 1978), i, 9–27, 189–209; ii, 1–14

A. Newcomb: ‘Il modo di far la fantasia: An Appreciation of Luzzaschi's Instrumental Style’,EMc, vii (1979), 34–8

A. Newcomb: The Madrigal at Ferrara, 1579–1597 (Princeton, NJ, 1980); see also review by J.A. Owens, EMH, i (1981), 366–78, esp. 373

J. Ladewig: ‘Luzzaschi as Frescobaldi's Teacher: A Little-Known Ricercare’, Studi musicali, x (1981), 241–64, esp. 241–6

E. Durante and A.Martellotti: ‘Tasso, Luzzaschi e il Principe di Venosa’, Tasso, la musica, I musicisti, ed. M.A. Balsano and T. Walker (Florence, 1988), 17–44

Luzzi, Luigi

(b Olevano di Lomellina, nr Pavia, 28 March 1828; d Stradella, 26 Feb 1876). Italian composer. He studied medicine and humanities at the University of Turin. In 1853 he made his début at the Teatro Nazionale, Turin, with his opera Chiarina. He was a member of the Accademia Filarmonica in that city, and he published there a number of songs and piano pieces. A fervent patriot, he dedicated many of his scores (including his opera Tripilla) to members of the Savoy family, and he composed a funeral march for Cavour (1861). Also in 1861 he was among the signatories of a petition for a state conservatory to be established in Turin.

The operas of Luzzi are valuable examples of the survival of opera buffa and opera semiseria in the mid-19th century; Tripilla, in particular, is a delightful free adaptation of the age-old subject of ‘l'inutil precauzione’ which had also served Rossini in Il barbiere di Siviglia. His songs show an individual melodic vein and polished harmonization, while his piano pieces, some of them requiring considerable technical skill, are among the first products of a reawakening interest in instrumental music in Italy.

WORKS

Ops: Chiarina (P.A. Balestrini), Turin, Nazionale, 1853; Tripilla (L. Scalchi), Turin, Carignano, 1858; Fra Dolcino, unperf.; La ventola, unperf.

Orch: Sinfonia a grande orchestra, Marcia funebre in morte di Cavour (1861)

Pf pieces, incl. Le grazie, Un sogno

It. songs, incl. Mia madre!, La derelitta, Lia!, Ave Maria (1863)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DEUMM

SchmidlD

G. Pestelli: ‘Beethoven a Torino e in Piemonte nell'Ottocento’, NRMI, iv (1970), 1013–86, esp. 1032, 1069

A. Basso: Il Conservatorio di Musica ‘Giuseppe Verdi’ di Torino (Turin, 1971), 43, 57

FRANCESCO IZZO

Luzzo, Francesco.

See Lucio, Francesco.

L'viv

(Pol. Lwów; Ger. Lemberg).

City in Ukraine. From 1349 to 1772 it belonged to Poland; from 1772 to 1918 the city was the capital of the Austrian province of Galicia. Between 1918 and 1939 it was part of the newly independent Poland, and from 1939 to 1991 it was the capital of the Ukrainian SSR (under German occupation, 1941–4).

1. To 1939.

From the Middle Ages onwards the city was a major cultural centre, reaching its peak between the 16th and early 18th centuries. Marcin Leopolita (1540–89), one of the most significant composers of the Polish Renaissance, was a native of the city and returned there after serving at the court of King Zygmunt August in Kraków. From the late 16th century, the city became an important centre for printing, publishing and bookselling. The ensemble of singers at the Dominican monastery created at the end of the 16th century (to which instruments were later added) had a high reputation. From the second half of the century polyphony was gradually introduced in the Orthodox churches.

Significant Polish composers connected with the city from the late 17th century were S.S. Szarzyński, who was active at the turn of the 18th century, J. Staromiejski, who was at the Dominican chapel in the years around 1740, and Adalbert Dankowski (b c1760), who moved to the city in 1792. In 1793 a university, named after King Stefan Batory, was founded as a successor to the Jesuit academy which had existed since 1661.

After 1772, when the city came under Austrian rule, there was a rapid influx of musicians. Two theatre companies were established, one German (1776–1872), and one Polish (1780), and L'viv became an important centre for drama and opera. Noted Kapellmeister at the Polish theatre included the composer Józef Elsner (1792–9) and the virtuoso violinist K.J. Lipiński (1810–14). Operas, Singspiele and vaudevilles were given by the Polish theatre company, whose most influential directors were Franciszek Bull (1789–94) and Wojciech Bogusławski (1795–9). The latter did much to develop a national theatre, and encouraged local composers, including Elsner and K.K. Kurpiński, to write operas. Subsequent directors of the Polish theatre included Henryk Jarecki (1873–1900) and Stanisław Niewiadomski (1886–7 and 1918–19).

During the 19th century the cultural life of the city developed along with its institutions. Significant events in the concert life of the city were the founding of the Philharmonic Society by Elsner, the public concerts organized by Johann Mederitch (1803–12 and 1817–30), and the founding in 1826 of the Cäcilien-Verein by F.X.W. Mozart (known as Wolfgang Amadeus the younger), who lived in the city from 1808 to 1814 and from 1822 to 1838. The focus of Polish intellectual and cultural life in the city during the years of Austrian rule were the theatre, the university (re-established in 1817) and the publishing house Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich (the Ossoliński National Institution), founded by J.M. Ossoliński in 1817. One of the most important 19th-century societies was the Gesellschaft zür Beförderung der Musik in Galizien (1838), successively renamed the Galicyjskie Towarzystwo Muzyczne (Galician Music Society, 1848) and the Polskie Towarzystwo Muzyczne we Lwowie (Polish Music Society of Lwów, 1919); the society financed the conservatory (from 1870), several choirs and an amateur symphony orchestra. Eminent musicians associated with the society included Karol Mikuli, a student of Chopin, who was the society’s artistic director from 1858 to 1887 and a director of the conservatory; Stanisław Niewiadomski, a professor of theory and history of music at the conservatory from 1887 to 1914; Mieczysław Sołtys, director of the conservatory from 1899 to 1929; Henryk Melcer-Szczawiński, a professor at the conservatory from 1897 to 1899; Józef Koffler, who taught classes in composition from 1928 to 1941; and Adam Sołtys, son of Mieczysław, director of the conservatory from 1929 to 1939. Under the direction of Adam Sołtys the conservatory choir became the best in Poland.

In 1864 the Ukrainian Theatre was founded in the city; it was supported by Lavrivs'ky, Anatol' Vakhnyanyn and other Ukrainian musicians. Under the successive direction of Jarecki (1874–1900), Tadeusz Pawlikowski (1900–06) and Ludwik Heller (1906–18) the Polish theatre in L'viv became, after Warsaw, the most important Polish opera house. Internationally famous singers who started their careers there included Salomea Krusceniski, Adam Didur and Aleksander Myszuga. Having achieved success at La Scala, Didur returned to the city in 1932 and became director of the Opera and professor of singing at the conservatory. In 1900 a new building was opened, the Teatr Wielki (Grand Theatre), which during the interwar period was one of three opera houses in Poland (along with Warsaw and Poznań) to remain permanently open.

At the end of the 19th century two important choirs were founded: Lutnia (1880) and Echo-Macierz (1887). These two choirs inspired the formation of similar choirs in other Polish cities and in Polish communities abroad, and helped to maintain a sense of national identity during the period of foreign occupation. Ukrainian choirs were also founded, notably Bojan (1890) and Bandurzysta (1905). In 1902 the Philharmonic Orchestra was founded under the direction of Henryk Melcer; this survived only a short time but was revived in 1921. In 1902 the Karol Szymanowski Music School was opened as a successor to the Lwów Music Institute, and in 1903 the Lysenko Music Institute (Ukrainian) was founded. From 1913 the Stefan Batory University opened a department of musicology, directed until 1941 by Adolf Chybiński. With Zdzisław Jachimecki in Kraków, Chybiński was responsible for establishing Polish musicology as a modern scientific descipline.

Musical journalism in the city blossomed during the 1920s and 30s. Notable periodicals included Wiadomości artystyczne (‘Arts news’, 1896), Gazeta muzyczna (1918), Lwowskie wiadomości myzyczne i literackie (‘Musical and literary news from Lwów’, 1925–34) and Echo (1936–7). Leading music critics between the wars were Seweryn Barbag, Józef Koffler and Stefania Łobaczewska. The most important musical institutions founded during this period were the Związek Muzyków we Lwowie (Lwów Musicians’ Union, 1919), the Polskie Towarzystwo Muzyki Współczesnej (Polish Society for Contemporary Music), which was affiliated to the ISCM from 1930, and the Lwowskie Towarzystwo Miłośników Muzyki i Opery (Lwów Society for Lovers of Music and Opera, 1933), which organized regular concerts.

In 1939 the city was invaded by the Soviet Red Army and incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR. Education was reorganized along Soviet lines; this led to the fusion of three institutions (the conservatory, the Lysenko Music Institute and the Szymanowski Music School) into the Lysenko Conservatory. Among the professors of the reconstituted conservatory were Adam Sołtys, Józef Koffler, Zofia Lissa and Adolf Chybiński.

2. Since 1939.

The establishment of Soviet power in L'viv, although a mixed blessing culturally, strengthened Ukrainian aspirations not only by introducing a strong music education system, but also by financing the Philharmonic Society (with its symphony and chamber orchestras) and the opera house and establishing the L'viv branch of the Composers' Union of the USSR, into which Stanislav Lyudkevych, Adam Soltys, Filaret Kolessa and A.J. Kos-Anatols'ky were integrated. However, Vasyl' Barvyns'ky, an important creative force, was arrested during the purges of 1948 and imprisoned for ten years in a Mordovian labour camp before returning to L'viv. In the 1960s L'viv's cultural and musical activities produced two important new voices, those of Andry Nikodemowich and Myroslav Skoryk, and in the 1980s Yury Lanyuk began to create the highly refined works that have brought him international attention.

Musical life in L'viv centred on three institutions: the conservatory, the Philharmonic Society and the opera house. During the 1960s and 70s L'viv had an excellent secondary music school system, producing many superb musicians, among them the pianist Aleksandr Slobodianyk and viola player Yuri Bashmet. Since 1991 the principal music school has been the L'vivs'ky Vyshchy Derzhavny Muzychny Instytut imeni Lysenka (the Lysenko High State Music Institute, in L'viv), formerly called the Lysenko Conservatory (formed in 1939). In the year 2000 the name was changed to the L'viv Music Academy. The activities of the Philharmonic Society (founded in 1939, then re-established in 1944) include concerts by the symphony orchestra, the Trembita choir, a chamber orchestra and various folk ensembles. The existence of a state symphony orchestra was vital in developing an orchestral repertory by western Ukraine's composers. The opera house has always been an important cultural focus in L'viv. In 1939 the Grand Theatre was renamed the L'vivs'ky Derzhavny Teatr Opery ta Baletu (L'viv State Theatre of Opera and Ballet) and reopened on 21 September 1940, staging 11 works. Productions continued during the German occupation, when the theatre was known as the L'vivs'ky Operny Teatr. Ironically, it was during this period that Ukrainian opera was relatively free of external artistic interference. With the return of Soviet rule, it again became the L'viv State Theatre of Opera and Ballet and in 1956 was renamed the L'vivs'ky Akademichny Teatr Opery ta Baletu imeni I. Franka (Franko Academic Theatre of Opera and Ballet) and, together with similar theatres in Kiev, Kharkiv and Odessa, became one of the most important in Ukraine. Premières of Ukrainian operas there have included Vitaly Kyreyko's Forest Song (1958), Yuly Meytus's Stolen Happiness (1960) and Rikhard Zorge (1976), the revised version of Borys Lyatoshyns'ky's The Golden Ring (1970), Volodymyr Zahortsev's Mother (1985) and Mark Karmins'ky's One Day Left (1987).

Since independence, L'viv's musical institutions have had to overcome many crises in the post-colonial world. A variety of new programmes are being tried and important archival collections have been established; prominent among these is the Lyudkevych Musical Memorial Museum, opened in 1995 as a branch of the Solomiya Krushel'nyts'ka Musical Memorial Museum, begun in 1991. In 1996 the museum acquired the archives of Modest Mentsyns'kyi and the unique collection of gramophone recordings of the early 20th century of the violinist Yaroslav Hrytsay. International exchanges and tours are encouraged, and a number of festivals have been firmly established, two of them attaining international recognition: Virtuosos (annual since 1990), and the international contemporary music festival Contrasts (annual since 1995).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

O. Palamarchuk and T. Eder: L'vivs'kyy teatr opery ta baletu imeni Ivana Franka [L'viv Ivana Franko theatre of opera and ballet] (L'viv, 1987)

O. Palamarchuk and V. Pylypiuk: L'vovskiy gosudarstvennïy akademicheskiy teatr operï i baleta im. Ivana Franko [L'viv Ivana Franko state academic theatre of drama and ballet] (Kiev, 1988)

For further bibliography see Ukraine, §I.

JOLANTA GUZY-PASIAKOWA (1), VIRKO BALEY (2)

L'vov (ii).

Russian family of scholars and musicians.

(2) Fyodor Petrovich L'vov

(3) Aleksey Fyodorovich L'vov

GEOFFREY NORRIS/MARGARITA MAZO (1), GEOFFREY NORRIS (2), GEOFFREY NORRIS/EDWARD GARDEN (3)

L'vov

(1) Nikolay Aleksandrovich L'vov

(b Cherenits'i estate, Tver' province, 4/15 March 1751; d Moscow, 22 Dec 1803/3 Jan 1804). Russian poet and scholar. He lived in St Petersburg from 1769 but travelled widely as a diplomat. Active also as an architect, he designed several churches as well as the Nevsky Gate to the Peter-Paul Fortress in St Petersburg. L'vov's knowledge, creativity and love for the arts attracted a circle of artists, poets and musicians in St Petersburg. He regarded folksong as the kernel of Russia's national identity and national music, and included it in his libretto for Fomin’s one-act comic opera Yamshchiki na podstave (‘Postal Coachmen at the Relay Station’); this may have been first performed at the Municipal Theatre in Tambov in 1788, where the libretto was published in the same year. Some of his poems, like the incomplete Dobrïnya, bogatïrskaya pesnya (‘Dobrïnya, Song of a Bogatïr’) published posthumously in 1804, are also written in a folk idiom. Three further opera librettos by L'vov are known. L'vov collaborated with J.G. Pratsch to produce the Sobraniye narodnïkh russkikh pesen s ikh golosami (‘Collection of Russian folktunes with vocal parts’, St Petersburg, 1790; enlarged 2/1806/R1987 with Eng. introduction by M. Mazo, ed. M.H. Brown; 6/1986), which contains an unsigned preface by L'vov, ‘O russkom narodnom penii’ (On the nature of Russian folk singing), the first extensive discussion of Russian folksong in print. This collection of 100 songs, taken from rural and urban sources, served for over a century as a source of Russian folksong for both Russian and Western composers, including Beethoven, Rossini, Musorgsky and Stravinsky.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO (R. Taruskin) [incl. further bibliography]

Ya. Kann-Novikova: ‘Sobiratel' russkikh narodnïkh pesen N.A. L'vov’ [N.A. L'vov, the collector of Russian folksongs], SovM (1951), no.12, pp.77–81

T.N. Livanova: Russkaya muzïkal'naya kul'tura XVIII veka [Russian musical culture of the 18th century], ii (Moscow, 1953)

R. Taruskin: ‘N.A. L'vov and the Folk’, Defining Russia Musically (Princeton, 1997)

L'vov

(2) Fyodor Petrovich L'vov

(b 1766; d 1836). Scholar and musician, nephew of (1) Nikolay Aleksandrovich L'vov and father of (3) Aleksey Fyodorovich L'vov. In 1825 he succeeded Bortnyans'ky as director of the imperial court chapel choir, a post which he occupied until his death. His book, O penii v Rossii (‘On singing in Russia’), was published in St Petersburg in 1834.

L'vov

(3) Aleksey Fyodorovich L'vov

(b Reval [now Tallinn], Estonia, 25 May/5 June 1798; d nr Kovno [now Kaunas], Lithuania, 16/28 Dec 1870). Composer and violinist, son of (2) Fyodor Petrovich L'vov. He received a broad musical education and learnt to play the violin at an early age. After studying at the Engineering Institute he enlisted in the army in 1818, serving in the Novgorod government and, from 1826, in St Petersburg as adjutant to Count Benckendorff, Nicholas I's chief of security police. In 1834 he was appointed personal adjutant to the tsar, and in 1837 he succeeded his father as director of the imperial court chapel choir. Even before he took over this post Aleksey L'vov was actively involved with music. In 1831 he arranged Pergolesi's Stabat mater for four-part choir and orchestra, and in 1833 he responded to the tsar's request to compose a Russian national anthem. This famous hymn, Bozhe, tsarya khrani (‘God Save the Tsar’), with words by Zhukovsky, has unfortunately largely obscured L'vov’s other compositions, most of which represent his two principal interests, liturgical music and the violin. Because of his high social and military rank L'vov was unable to perform publicly in Russia. In 1849 he travelled to Leipzig; there, unfettered by social convention, he gained a reputation as a fine soloist, and earned high praise from Schumann, who heard him play first violin in quartets by Mozart and Mendelssohn. He performed Mendelssohn's Violin Concerto in the Gewandhaus, with the composer himself conducting, and it is likely that he also played his own violin concerto. This highly virtuoso piece in three movements was unusual for its time in that the first movement is in A minor, the last in C major. For the violin L'vov also composed 24 caprices and, for violin and cello, a dramatic fantasy entitled Le duel.

However, a greater proportion of his musical output consists of sacred pieces, which he wrote for the imperial chapel choir, the conducting of which he delegated to assistants, including Glinka. He composed a large number of kheruvimskiye pesni, the hymns sung during the communion in the Divine Liturgy of the Orthodox Church, and also at least one setting of the Lord's Prayer. In 1851 he composed a Stabat mater, which, with Latin and German words, was published in Vienna by Glöggl. The third number in this piece, ‘Quis inter homines’, is of special interest, for it is set in the manner of a Russian church chant (znamennïy). In 1852, by order of Nicholas I, L'vov arranged for four-part choir the Lenten hymns of the Orthodox Church.

L'vov composed some eclectic secular songs and also a number of operas, the first of which was Bianca und Gualtiero; four months after its première it was performed in an Italian translation in St Petersburg. It received only two performances. The libretto of L'vov's next opera, the three-act Undina, is again based on a French text later used by Tchaikovsky for his own ill-fated opera on the same theme. A German translation by Otto Prechtler was given in Vienna on 30 October 1852 under the title Die Tochter der Wellen. The overture was later re-orchestrated by Balakirev. Much more successful than its predecessor, Undina remained in the repertory until the 1860s. L'vov's final stage work, Starosta Boris (‘Boris the Head Man’), was an effective vehicle for the great bass Osip Petrov.

Towards the end of his life L'vov wrote two short literary works: a pamphlet O svobodnom ili nesimmetrichnom ritme (‘On free or asymmetrical rhythm’, 1858) and Sovetï nachinayushchemu igrat' na skripke (‘Advice to a beginner in playing the violin’, 1859). In 1861 L'vov was compelled by increasing deafness to resign the directorship of the imperial chapel choir; he retired from musical life in 1867.

WORKS

operas

Bianca und Gualtiero (2, J.C. Grünbaum, after J. Guillau), Dresden, 13 Oct 1844; as Biancae Gualtiero, St Petersburg Bol'shoy, 28 Jan/9 Feb 1845

Undina (3, Sollogub, after F. de La Motte Fouqué), St Petersburg, Bol'shoy, 8/20 Sept 1848; as Die Tochter der Wellen, Vienna, 30 Oct 1852

Starosta Boris, ili Russkiy muzhichok i frantsuzskiye marodyorï [Boris the Head Man, or The Russian Peasant and the French Marauders] (comic op, 3, N.I. Kulikov), St Petersburg, Aleksandrinsky, 19 April/1 May 1854 (St Petersburg, c1855)

vocal

Bozhe, tsarya khrani [God Save the Tsar: Russian national anthem], 1833

Otche nash [Our Father] (?St Petersburg, c1850)

Stabat mater, solo vv, orch (Vienna, 1851)

Irmosï [Collection of Lenten hymns] (St Petersburg, 1852)

38 short choral pieces (?St Petersburg, c1855; GB-Lbl)

instrumental

Violin Concerto, a, 1840 [arr. vn, pf, pubd in IRMO, iii (Moscow, 1970), 272ff]

Le duel, vn, vc (Berlin, c1840)

Divertimento, vn, vc, pf/org (Berlin, c1840)

Divertimento, vn, vc, orch/str qt/pf (Berlin, c1841)

Overture, C (St Petersburg, c1850)

24 caprices, vn (Moscow, c1850)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Vol'f: Khronika peterburgskikh teatrov, i (St Petersburg, 1877)

N. Findeyzen: ‘Avtor gimna “Bozhe tsarya khrani”, A.F. L'vov: biografichesky ocherk’ [L'vov, composer of the hymn ‘God save the tsar’], RMG, i (1895), 397, 452

K. Nelidov: ‘A.F. L'vov: ego deyatel'nost' v oblasti dukhovnogo muzïki’ [The activity of L'vov in the field of sacred music], RMG, vi (1899), 1242, 1253, 1289

M. Montagu-Nathan: ‘The Composer of the Russian National Anthem’, MT, lvi (1915), 82–4

I.M. Yampol'sky: Russkoye skripichnoye iskusstvo: ocherki i materialï [Russian violin playing: essays and materials] (Moscow, 1951)

L.S. Ginzburg: Istoriya violonchel'nogo iskusstva [The history of the art of cello playing], ii (Moscow, 1957)

A.S. Lyapunova and E.E. Yazovitskaya: Mily Aleksandrovich Balakirev: letopis' zhizni i tvorchestva [Balakirev: chronicle of his life and works] (Leningrad, 1967)

A. Gozenpud: Russkiy opernïy teatr XIX veka (1836–1856) (Leningrad, 1969)

Lwów

(Pol.).

See L'viv.

Lwowa [Lwowczyk], Marcin z.

See Leopolita, Marcin.

Lyadov [Liadov], Anatoly [Anatol] Konstantinovich

(b St Petersburg, 29 April/11 May 1855; d Polïnovka, Novgorod district, 16/28 Aug 1914). Russian composer, teacher and conductor. His first teacher was his father, conductor at the Mariinsky Theatre from 1850 to 1868, but lessons were irregular and unsystematic. In 1870 he entered the junior classes of the St Petersburg Conservatory with the piano and the violin as his principal studies. He soon forsook both instruments, but remained an accomplished pianist. He transferred to Johannsen’s classes in counterpoint and fugue, where he developed a lasting interest in contrapuntal techniques. Rimsky-Korsakov recalled that he and Lyadov each wrote a fugue a day on the same subject during the summer of 1878 and, according to Rimsky-Korsakov's pupil, Jāzeps Vītols, the Canons op.34 were composed during breakfast in the conservatory common room. In 1873 Musorgsky described Lyadov to Stasov as ‘a new, unmistakable, original and Russian young talent’; his songs op.1 date from this time. He was admitted to Rimsky-Korsakov’s composition classes but before long was expelled (together with his great friend Georgy Dütsch) for failure to attend. Lyadov was however readmitted early in 1878 to prepare his graduation composition, the final scene from Schiller’s Die Braut von Messina, which was performed with great success on 23 May/4 June. Of the many influences on this work, the most interesting is Cui's opera William Ratcliff (1861–8), which had been composed with much help from Balakirev, and it is not surprising that Cui's and Stasov's reviews were complimentary.

In September 1878 Lyadov became a teacher of elementary theory at the conservatory, taking over the instruction of advanced counterpoint in 1901, and, in 1906, composition. In 1905 he resigned in protest at Rimsky-Korsakov’s dismissal, but returned when Rimsky-Korsakov was reinstated; among his students at this time was the young Prokofiev, who found him likeable but dry and fastidiously pedantic. From 1885 Lyadov also taught theory at the court chapel, at a time when Balakirev was musical director and Rimsky-Korsakov his assistant. His ideas on teaching harmony formed the basis for Rimsky-Korsakov’s textbook on the subject (1886); and in the late 1870s he had collaborated with Balakirev and Rimsky-Korsakov in preparing an edition of Glinka’s operas.

Lyadov made numerous appearances as a conductor without holding a permanent appointment. During the 1890s he conducted many of the Imperial Russian Music Society concerts. He was associated with the Moguchaya Kuchka (‘The Five’) in the 1870s, tolerating Balakirev’s attempts at religious indoctrination. To Balakirev's disapproval, he became a founder-member of the Belyayev circle which met on Friday evenings in the 1880s. The joint compositions resulting from these gatherings were published by Belyayev under the title Pyatnitsï (‘Fridays’). When Belyayev founded a publishing house in 1884, Lyadov acted as one of his advisers, and he was appointed to the board of management as a trustee (with Rimsky-Korsakov and Glazunov) on Belyayev’s death in January 1904. As such an important figure in this circle, he must be at least partially responsible for the tame and pallid nature of much of the music by young Russian composers published by Belyayev, although, at Glazunov's instigation, he did agree that the firm should publish Stravinsky's songs Favn i pastushka (‘Faun and Shepherdess’), which had been rejected by Balakirev's publisher J.H. Zimmermann. In 1889 he visited Paris to hear two of his works performed at the Exposition Universelle. He undertook a journey to collect folksongs for the Imperial Geographical Society in 1897, and subsequently published several volumes of folksong arrangements. Through his marriage in 1884 he obtained a country property at Polïnovka where he spent his summers in idleness, making sporadic attempts at composition. After three years of ill-health he died there in 1914.

Lyadov’s indolence was not the only factor to limit his compositional output. He felt himself to be overshadowed by Rimsky-Korsakov, referring to him as a gigantic mountain in comparison with ‘present-day grains of sand and pottery shards’ (Yastrebstev, 1959–60). Moreover, he was a severe self-critic who doubted both the quality of his ideas and his ability to develop them, and many of his pieces are essentially a series of variations on pre-existing motifs, such as folksongs (Variations on a Polish Folk Theme op.51; Huit chants populaires russes op.58; numerous arrangements of folk melodies); other composers’ themes (Variations on a Theme by Glinka op.35; his contribution to Parafrazï); or a cantus firmus (12 Canons, 1914). Although his fascination with variation techniques and canonic devices suggests that he was interested in the problems of creating abstract musical forms on a small scale, he generally preferred to rely on a programme as the basis for his structures. He was little concerned with the expression of human emotion in music, but, like Rimsky-Korsakov, he possessed a highly developed sense of orchestral colour and gift for musical characterization in an admittedly limited sphere of fable and fantasy. The three descriptive orchestral pieces based on Russian fairy tales, Baba-Yaga, Kikimora and Volshebnoye ozero (‘The Enchanted Lake’), are among his most successful and justly popular works. Here the lack of purposeful harmonic rhythm (less obvious in Baba-Yaga and Kikimora because of the purely superficial but nonetheless exhilarating bustle and whirl), a serious fault in much of his music, produces a sense of ageless unreality akin to that induced by the telling of an oft-repeated and much-loved fairy tale. Other fine works include the epic piano piece (later orchestrated) Pro starinu (‘About Olden Times’), reminiscent of Borodin’s Song of the Dark Forest, in which Lyadov finds himself firmly in the tradition of The Five; Idylle in D (1891), an imaginative piece that Lyapunov was soon to use as the starting-point of his study of the same name, op.11 no.7. In the late piano pieces op.64 and his last symphonic piece Skorbnaya pesn' (‘Threnody’), he forms, together with Skryabin, a link with a new generation of composers such as Myaskovsky.

Lyadov came from a family of professional musicians notorious for their loose living and slipshod attitude to work. He broke away only partly from this pattern; his personal integrity was beyond reproach, but he never succeeded in applying himself wholeheartedly to his work for more than a short period. Although he possessed considerable technical facility, it was sheer indolence that led to his expulsion from the St Petersburg Conservatory in 1876, and his unreliability was such that Rimsky-Korsakov, an admirer of his talents, was unwilling to allow him to become director of the Free School concerts in 1880. His lifelong reputation for procrastination was confirmed for posterity when, after much dithering, he turned down Diaghilev's request to write a ballet score to be based on The Firebird, thus providing Stravinsky with one of his first important commissions. Yet he was held in great affection by his fellow musicians, and, although he never completed a work of any size or scope, the best of his miniatures assure for him a permanent niche in the history of Russian music.

Lyadov, Anatoly Konstantinovich

JENNIFER SPENCER/EDWARD GARDEN

WORKS

published in St Petersburg until 1884, thereafter in Leipzig by Belyayev

orchestral

op.

16	Scherzo, D, 1879–86 (1887)
19	Sel'skaya stsena u korchmï [Village Scene by the Inn], mazurka, 1887 (1887)
49	Polonaise, in memory of A.S. Pushkin, 1899 (1900)
55	Polonaise, D, for unveiling of statue of A.G. Rubinstein, 14 Nov 1902 (1903)
56	Baba-Yaga, ?1891–1904 (1905)
58	8 chants populaires russes (1906)
62	Volshebnoye ozero [The Enchanted Lake] (1909)
63	Kikimora, 1909 (1910)
65	Danse de l’Amazone, 1910 (1910)
66	Iz Apokalipsisa [From the Apocalypse], 1910–12 (1913)
67	Skorbnaya pesn' [Threnody] (Nénie) (1914)

choral

28	Final scene from Schiller: Die Braut von Messina, 4 solo vv, chorus, orch, 1878 (1891)
—	Velichaniye V.V. Stasova [In Praise of Stasov], female vv, 1893 (1894) [for Stasov's 70th birthday]
47	Slava, female vv, 2 hps, 2 pf (8 hands) (1899)
50	Proshchal'naya pesn' vospitannits Instituta imperatritsï Marii [Farewell Song of the Pupils of the Empress Maria Institute], female vv, pf, 1900 (1900)
54	Hymn, G, mixed vv, for unveiling of statue of A.G. Rubinstein in the St Petersburg Conservatory, 1902 (1903)
60	Soeur Béatrice (Maeterlinck), incid music, 1906 (1908)
61	10 arrs. from the Obikhod, unacc. vv (?1909)
—	Yezhechasnaya molitva svyatitelya Iosafa Gorlenko [The Hourly Prayer of Prelate Iosaf Gorlenko], unacc. vv, pubd in A. Malyarevsky: Svyatitel' Iosaf, ėpiskop Belgorodskiy [Prelate Iosaf, Bishop of Belgorod] (1910)

songs

1	Chetïre romansa [4 Songs], 1873–4 (1876): Ne poy, krasavitsa, pri mne [Do not sing in my presence, my beauty] (Pushkin); Pesnya [Song] (A.K. Tolstoy); Iz Geine (Iz slyoz moikh) [From my Tears]; Vot bednaya ch'ya-to mogila [There is some poor person’s grave] (Maykov)
14	Shest' detskikh pesen na narodnïye slova [6 Children’s Songs with Folk Texts], i, 1887 (1887): Zaychik [Little Hare]; Soroka [Magpie]; Zabavnaya (Skok-poskok) [Amusing Song: Galloping Pace]; Petushok [Cockerel]; Zabavnaya (Kosoy bes) [Amusing Song: Cross-eyed Demon]; Kolïbel'naya [Lullaby]
18	Shest' detskikh pesen na narodnïye slova [6 Children’s Songs with Folk Texts], ii, 1887 (1887): Ladushki [Beloved Ones]; Zhil-bïl zhuravl' da ovtsa [Once upon a time there lived a crane and sheep]; Kolïbel'naya (U kota, kota) [Lullaby: Next to the Cat]; Zabavnaya (Bom, bom, bom) [Amusing Song]; Dozhdik, dozhdik! na dyadinu pshenitsu [A Shower, a Shower! on Uncle’s Wheat]; Zabavnaya (Galki, voronï) [Amusing Song: Jackdaws, Crows]
22	Shest' detskikh pesen na narodnïye slova [6 Children’s Songs with Folk Texts], iii (1890): Kolïbel'naya (Kotinka-kotok) [Lullaby: Little Cat]; Zabavnaya (Mikayla Kortoma) [Amusing Song]; Oklikaniye dozhdya [The Call for Rain]; Moroz [Frost]; Zabavnaya (Luchina) [Amusing Song: Torch]; Zabavnaya (Tatarki) [Amusing Song: Tatar Women]

piano

2	Biryul'ki [Spillikins], 14 pieces, 1876 (1876)
3	Shest' p'yes [6 Pieces], 1876–7 (1877): Prelude, D; Giga, F; Fugue, g; 3 mazurkas, G, B, C
4	Arabesques, 4 pieces, 1878 (1879): c, A, B, E
5	Etude, A, 1881 (1881)
6	Impromptu, D, 1881 (1881)
7	Two Intermezzos, D, F, 1881 (1882)
8	Two Intermezzos, B (1883), no.1 orchd 1902 (1903)
9	Dve p'yesï [2 Pieces], 1883 (1884): Waltz, f; Mazurka, A
10	Tri p'yesï [3 Pieces], 1884 (1885): Prelude, D; 2 Mazurkas, C, D
11	Tri p'yesï [3 Pieces], 1885 (1886): Prelude, b; Mazurka in the Dorian mode, a; Mazurka, f
12	Etude, E (1886)
13	Four Preludes, G, B, A, f (1887)
15	Two Mazurkas, A, d (1887)
17	Two Bagatelles, 1887 (1887): Stradaniye (La douleur), b; Pastoral, b
20	Novinka [Novelette], c, c1882–9 (1889)
21	Pro starinu [About Olden Times], ballade, D, 1889 (1890), orchd 1906 as op.21b (1906)
23	Na luzhayke (Nabrosok) [In the Glade: Sketch], F, 1890 (1890)
24	Dve p'yesï [2 Pieces] (1890): Prelude, E; Kolïbel'naya (Berceuse), G
25	Idylle, D (1891)
26	Malenkiy val's [Little Waltz], G, 1891 (1891)
27	Three Preludes, E, B, G (1891)
29	Kukolki [Marionettes], E, 1892 (1892)
30	Bagatelle, D, 1889 (1889)
31	Dve p'yesï [2 Pieces] (1893): Derevenskaya mazurka (Mazurka rustique), G; Prelude, b
32	Muzïkal'naya tabakerka [A Musical Snuffbox] (1893)
33	Tri p'yesï [3 Pieces]: Prelude on a Russian Theme, A, 1889 (1914); Grotesque, C, 1889 (1914); Pastoral, F, 1889 (1889, 1914)
34	Three Canons, G, c, F, 1894 (1894)
35	Variations on a Theme by Glinka, B, 1894 (1895)
36	Three Preludes, F, b, G (1895)
37	Etude, F, 1895 (1895)
38	Mazurka, F, 1895 (1896)
39	Four Preludes, A, c, B, f, 1895 (1896)
40	Etude, c, and 3 Preludes, C, d, D (1897)
41	Two Fugues, f, D, 1896 (1897)
42	Two Preludes, B, B, and Mazurka on Polish themes, A, 1898 (1898)
44	Barcarolle, F (1898)
46	Four Preludes, B, g, G, e (1899)
48	Etude, A, and Canzonetta, B (1899)
51	Variations on a Polish Folk Theme, A (1901)
52	Tri baletnïkh nomera [3 Ballet Numbers], E, C, A (1901)
53	Three Bagatelles, B, G, A (1903)
57	Tri p'yesï [3 Pieces], c1900–05 (1906): Prelude, D; Waltz, E; Mazurka, f
64	Chetïre p'yesï [4 Pieces], 1909–10 (1910): Grimace, C; Sumrak (Ténèbres), c; Iskusheniye (Temptation), E; Vospominaniye (Réminiscence), B
—	Prelude-Pastoral, 1894 (1894)
—	Twenty-four Canons (1898)
—	Sarabande, g (1899)
—	Tanets komara [Gnat’s Dance], Russ. song, pubd in Galchonok (1911), no.2
—	Fugue on La–do–fa, 1913, facs. in ‘Pis'ma A.K. Lyadova k A.V. Ossovskomu’, RMG (1916), no.11
—	Twelve Canons on a cantus firmus (1914)

collaborations

Parafrazï, pf (3 hands), collab. Borodin, Cui, Rimsky-Korsakov, Shcherbachov; excerpts, 1878 (1879)

Scherzo from B–la–f, str qt, 1886 (1887) [other movts by Rimsky-Korsakov, Borodin, Glazunov]

Velichaniye [Song of Praise], from Imeninï, 1887 (1899) [other movts by Glazunov, Rimsky-Korsakov]

Slavleniya [Celebration] (Les fanfares), brass, perc, 22 Dec 1890 (1891), collab. Glazunov [for Rimsky-Korsakov’s 25th jubilee]

Shutka [Joke], quadrille, pf 4 hands (1891), collab. N. Artsïbushev, J. Vītols, N. Sokolov, Glazunov, Rimsky-Korsakov

Slavleniya [Celebration], pf 4 hands (1894), collab. F. Blumenfeld, Glazunov [for Stasov]

Pyatnitsï [Fridays] (1899), collab. Sokolov, Glazunov, Rimsky-Korsakov, Kopïlov [incl. Lyadov’s Polonaise, Sarabande, Fugue, Mazurka (all for str qt), Trio]

Variations on a Folk Theme, str qt (1899), collab. Artsïbushev, Skyrabin, Glazunov, Rimsky-Korsakov, Vītols, Blumenfeld, Sokolov, V. Ewald, A. Winkler

Variations on a Russian Theme from Abramïchev’s Collection (1900), collab. Rimsky-Korsakov, Winkler, Blumenfeld, Sokolov, Vītols, Glazunov

Variations on a Russian Theme, orch, 1901 (1903), collab. Artsïbushev, Vītols, Sokolov, Glazunov, Rimsky-Korsakov

Cantata in Memory of M. Antokol'sky, T, chorus, orch, 1902 (1906), collab. Glazunov

other works

Zoryushka, op, sketched before 1909, material used in opp.62–3 (see ‘Orchestral’)

Leyla i Adelay, ballet, c1912–13, inc.

Muzïkal'naya tabakerka [A Musical Snuffbox], arr. picc, 2 fl, 3 cl, hp, bells, op.32 (1897), orig. for pf

Allegro, str qt, not pubd

orchestrations, arrangements

Excerpts from Borodin: Polovtsian Dances from Prince Igor, 1879; part of 2nd version of Cui: Kavkazskiy plennik [Prisoner of the Caucasus], 1881–2; Dargomïzhsky: Paladin, song, 1881, ?lost; excerpts from Musorgsky: Sorochinskaya yarmarka [Sorochintsy Fair], 1881–1903 (1904): Vstupleniye [Introduction], Dumka Parubka, Pesnya Khivrï [Khivra’s Song], Gopak

Shcherbachov: Serenade for Orchestra op.23, ?1893 (1894) [pubd anon.]

A.G. Rubinstein: 5 pieces from op.93, orch, c1899 (1899): Sarabande, Serenade, Minuet, U okna [By the Window], Kolïbel'naya [Lullaby]

Schumann: Carnaval, 1902 (1956), collab. Arensky, Winkler, Vītols, Glazunov, others

Tchaikovsky: V tyomnom ade [In Dark Hell], song, orch, op.16 no.6, 1909 (1910)

Many folksong arrs., (1v, pf)/choir, incl. opp.43, 45, 59, some ed. B.V. Budrin: Russkiye narodnïye pesni v obrabotke A. Lyadova (Moscow, 1965)

Lyadov, Anatoly Konstantinovich

BIBLIOGRAPHY

N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov: Letopis' moyey muzïkal'noy zhizni [A chronicle of my musical life] (St Petersburg, 1909, 9/1982; Eng. trans., 1924, 3/1942/R)

A.N. Rimsky-Korsakov: ‘Lichnost' Lyadova’ [Lyadov's personality], MS, (1915–6), no.1, pp.28–40

V.V. Yastrebstev: Moi vospominaniya o N.A. Rimskom-Korsakove [My reminiscences of N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov] (Moscow, 1917) [inc.; see Yastrebstev (1959–60)]

B.V. Asaf'yev: Russkaya muzïka ot nachala XIX stoletiya [Russian music from the beginning of the 19th century] (Moscow and Leningrad, 1930, rev. 2/1968 by Ye.M. Orlova as Russkaya muzïka: XIX i nachala XX veka [Russian music: the 19th and early 20th centuries]; Eng. trans., 1953), 101, 206, 267–70

G. Abraham: ‘Random Notes on Lyadov’, MR, vi (1945), 149–53; repr. in Slavonic and Romantic Music (London, 1968), 212–17

N.V. Zaparozhets: A.K. Lyadov: zhizn' i tvorchestvo [Life and works] (Moscow, 1954) [with complete work-list]

D. Zhitomirsky: ‘O Lyadove’, SovM (1955), no.4, pp.41–9

M. Velimirovič: ‘Russian Autographs at Harvard’, Notes, xvii (1959–60), 539–58

V.V. Yastrebstev: Nikolay Andreyevich Rimskiy-Korsakov: vospominaniya [Reminiscences], ed. A.V. Ossovsky (Leningrad, 1959–60; Eng. trans., abridged, 1985)

I. Stravinsky and R. Craft: Memories and Commentaries (London, 1960/R), 62–3

O. Tompakova: ‘Fol'klornïye istoki “Detskikh pesen” Lyadova’ [The sources of Lyadov’s ‘Children’s songs’ in folklore], SovM (1960), no.4, pp.106–10

M.K. Mikhaylov: A.K. Lyadov: ocherk zhizni i tvorchestva [Life and works] (Leningrad, 1961; rev. 2/1985) [with complete work-list]

Avtografï A.K. Lyadova i materialï, svyazannïye s yego deyatel'nost'yu v fondakh gosudartsvennogo tsentral'nogo muzeya muzïkal'noy kul'turï imeni M.I. Glinka [Autographs of Lyadov and material connected with his work in the archives of the M.I. Glinka State Central Museum of Musical Culture], ed. V.A. Kyselev (Moscow, 1963) [catalogue]

S. Prokofiev: Avtobiografiya, ed. M.G. Kozlova (Moscow, 1973); Eng. trans. as Prokofiev by Prokofiev: a Composer's Memoir, ed. D.H. Appel (New York, 1979; abridged version, ed. F. King, 1979)

D. Street: ‘A Forgotten “Firebird”’, MT, cxix (1978), 674–6

D. Eberlein: Anatolij K. Ljadov: Leben, Werk, Musikanschauung (Cologne, 1980)

Lyapunov [Liapunov], Sergey Mikhaylovich

(b Yaroslavl, 18/30 Nov 1859; d Paris, 8 Nov 1924). Russian composer, pianist and conductor. His father, a mathematician and astronomer, was head of the observatory near Yaroslavl', but died when Sergey was about eight. In 1870 he and his mother moved to Balakirev’s home town, Nizhniy Novgorod, where he attended the gimnaziya (grammar school) and, from its foundation in 1873, the classes of the local branch of the Russian Musical Society, whose first director was V.Yu. Villoing (nephew of A.I. Villoing, who had taught the Rubinstein brothers). Lyapunov’s mother was an excellent pianist, and Lyapunov’s early piano lessons from her were of far more use to him than Vasily Villoing’s; the latter, unlike his uncle, was primarily a violinist, and allowed Lyapunov to develop bad technical habits which had to be eradicated when, on the advice of Nikolay Rubinstein, he enrolled in the Moscow Conservatory in 1878. His piano teachers included Klindworth, who had been a pupil of Liszt. As far as composition was concerned, he was just in time to attend the last classes given by Tchaikovsky before his resignation from the conservatory. Tchaikovsky’s classes were taken over by Nikolay Gubert, but Lyapunov’s most influential lessons were from Sergey Taneyev. He graduated in both composition and piano in 1883, and first met Balakirev at the end of that year. He moved permanently to St Petersburg in 1885, and became the most important member of Balakirev’s latterday circle. Balakirev and Lyapunov thought highly of one another, and Balakirev encouraged the shy and self-effacing young man, urging him to take composition seriously and ceaselessly trying to get his works published, achieving only occasional success until his highly satisfactory arrangement with the publisher J.H. Zimmermann was established in 1899.

Meanwhile, in 1893, Lyapunov, with Balakirev and Lyadov, was commissioned by the Imperial Geographical Society to collect folksongs from the regions of Vologda, Vyatka and Kostroma, to the north-east of Moscow. They collected nearly 300 songs, which were published by the society in 1899; some were also published in arrangements by Lyapunov with piano accompaniment. He did not have the experience or personality to succeed Balakirev on his retirement in 1894 as director of music at the imperial chapel – Balakirev recommended Arensky for the post – but instead he succeeded Rimsky-Korsakov as assistant director that year; he resigned in 1902 because of his dislike of the increasingly alcoholic Arensky, accepting the post of inspector at the Yelena Institute (until 1910). He became a director of Balakirev’s Free School of Music in 1905, later becoming its head (1908–11). After Balakirev’s death in 1910, Lyapunov allowed himself to be persuaded to teach theory and piano at the St Petersburg Conservatory (until 1917), and in 1919 he became a lecturer at the new State Institute of Art. But the stormy times in which he lived had taken their toll, and, having emigrated to Paris in 1923 and directed a school of music for Russian émigrés there, he succumbed to a heart attack the following year.

Before World War I he had made several tours in Germany and Austria as a conductor and pianist, and the critic and musicologist M.-D. Calvocoressi had helped his music to gain a foothold in Paris (where his First Piano Concerto was performed by Josef Hofmann in 1907) as well as translating some of his songs into French and English. But for the war, he might have enjoyed an Indian summer of composition such as Balakirev had experienced. As it was, some of the compositions after 1914 show a definite falling off in comparison with the rich vein he had struck between 1910 and 1914. Lyapunov prepared for publication Dargomïzhsky’s Rusalka and, with Balakirev, the complete works of Glinka. He edited Balakirev’s correspondence with both Tchaikovsky and Rimsky-Korsakov, and wrote a series of articles on Balakirev.

The second of Lyapunov’s three daughters, Anastasiya (A.S. Lyapunova, 1903–73), published articles on her father and Balakirev as well as an edition of the correspondence between Balakirev and Vladimir Stasov. She was the music specialist in the archives division of the library in which Stasov had worked for many years in St Petersburg (now RF-SPsc). The manuscripts and documents relating to her father that she gave to the library are to be found in Fonds 451 and 1141; some documents, however, were placed in a special archive, to remain closed until 25 years after her death. Lyapunov’s correspondence is expected to be released for eventual publication.

Lyapunov was born between the members of The Five together with Tchaikovsky, on the one hand, and the radical composers of the later period, including Skryabin, Stravinsky, Prokofiev and Shostakovich, on the other. The difficulty for Lyapunov and other composers of what may be called this interim period was whether or not they should continue with the nationalist or Tchaikovskian idiom; and, if not, what line they should take. Many followed a bland path, safe rather than sorry.

But Lyapunov, as we have seen, chose Balakirev as his mentor, and when he had moved to St Petersburg in the mid-1880s he was put to work on a symphony, just as Rimsky-Korsakov and Borodin had been two decades earlier. The resulting work was as inferior to Borodin’s First Symphony as it was superior to Rimsky’s. Lyapunov’s smaller-scale orchestral works such as the Solemn Overture on Russian Themes and the Ballade for orchestra are more successful, but even here the considerable influence of Balakirev is all too apparent in the way the material is worked, the structure and the orchestration. Lyapunov’s talent did not lie in that direction, and even with Balakirev’s assistance he was unable to stitch over the seams between the sections. Yet these and other orchestral works written during Balakirev’s lifetime all have a certain quality which is contrasted by the Second Symphony (1917), a work of monumental proportions that reflects the troubled times in which it was written. It perhaps reveals the path he might have taken, as the former pupil of Taneyev at the Moscow Conservatory, had not Balakirev taken him firmly in hand. In his concerted works, too, he was unable to sustain a prolonged movement convincingly, though his First Piano Concerto did receive a Belyayev Glinka Prize in 1904 (together with Rachmaninoff’s Second Concerto, Arensky’s Piano Trio in D minor, Skryabin’s Third and Fourth Piano Sonatas and Taneyev’s C minor symphony). Lyapunov’s Second Piano Concerto has little that is new to say, and his Rhapsody on Ukrainian Themes for piano and orchestra, dedicated to Busoni, derives much from Rimsky-Korsakov, starting in a similar way to the latter’s Piano Concerto, and in the same key of F minor.

It is in his compositions for piano, and to a lesser extent his songs, that Lyapunov comes into his own. His masterpiece is the op.11 group of 12 transcendental studies dedicated to the memory of Liszt, a project that took eight years (1897–1905). Like most of Liszt’s, these studies are given French titles, their Russian titles being translations. They complement Liszt’s, which ascend through the flat keys, while Lyapunov’s descend through the sharp keys, starting with F major and finishing with E minor. Lisztian piano techniques are used throughout, and a number of the studies have their equivalents in Liszt. For example, Tempête has much in common with Liszt’s Etude in F minor, as has Lyapunov’s Rondes des sylphes with Feux follets. More often the connections are more tenuous, as is the case with Liszt’s Paysage and Lyapunov’s Idylle, whose origins are to be found not so much in Liszt as in Lyadov’s Idylle (1891), op.25, and Prelude-Pastoral, without opus number (1894). Nevertheles, Idylle is a charmingly lyrical piece in its own right, and demonstrates Lyapunov’s characteristic style to great advantage. The introduction is integrated into the piece with skill, and one version of it includes a felicitous false relation (ex.1).

Besides the obvious influence of Balakirev in Lesghinka, subtitled ‘style Balakirew’, where comparison with Balakirev’s Islamey(1869) is inescapable, the magnificent Térek has a Balakirevian thrust while maintaining its individuality; it demonstrates that Lyapunov was capable of controlling strict and succinct sonata form in a relatively short piece. Another influence to be found in this G minor study is Borodin’s song More (‘The Sea’) (1870), like Térek a stormy piece and also in G minor, written as it were in the wake of Balakirev’s Islamey. Only one authentic folksong is used in the set, Iz-za lesu, lesu tyomnogo (‘Out of the Forest, the Dark Forest’), collected by Lyapunov on his 1893 expedition and employed as the main theme in Chant épique. The second theme of this study is almost more folklike than the genuine article, although it was composed by Lyapunov. (Borodin similarly combined a real and a pseudo-folksong in the slow movement of his First String Quartet, which Lyapunov much admired.) Other Russian influences include the use of the idée fixe that represents the eponymous hero in Rimsky-Korsakov’s Antar Symphony as the second theme in Tempête. But all these derivations and influences are fully absorbed and never swamp Lyapunov’s originality, with only the last study falling short of the high standard of inspiration to be found in the others.

Besides many short piano pieces, Lyapunov wrote some more extended works of distinction such as the single-movement Piano Sonata op.27. This is modelled structurally on Liszt’s Sonata and, as had been the case with the studies, owes much to his keyboard style as well; nevertheless, like the studies, it also contains original material of a high order, and the piano writing, though very difficult in places (for example in the scherzo section), is never awkward. After Balakirev’s death, Lyapunov, having completed the unfinished finale of that composer’s E Piano Concerto, composed some of his best music. The Scherzo in B minor and the magnificent Variations on a Russian Theme op.49, which culminate in a superb fugue, are good examples, but perhaps the finest of all is the Prelude and Fugue in B minor op.58 (1913). Although the fugue may have had as its starting-point the first subject of the finale of Borodin’s First Quartet, which contains the elements of a fugal exposition, it is nonetheless a wholly original composition. The momentum in the exposition, and elsewhere in the principal entries of the subject and answer, is inexorable; relative repose is achieved only during the episodes, some of which contain examples of the characteristic Lyapunov false relation. This fugue is undoubtedly one of the finest in the late Romantic piano repertory.

Lyapunov had already demonstrated his contrapuntal dexterity, for example in the version of the Russian Orthodox Church theme heard in canon in the third transcendental study, Carillon, in the upper register of the piano. But his finest canon is found in the Prélude-pastorale for organ, written in 1913 at the invitation of a French publisher for inclusion in a volume of pieces by many composers. The extraordinary chordal canon with which the work starts is matched by other contrapuntal devices, but these are never intrusive; curiously for an Orthodox Christian with no experience of the organ, Lyapunov cannot be faulted in his writing for the instrument, and his piece is among the best of the volume.

Even in Russia, Lyapunov’s songs have failed to achieve the success they deserve. His setting of Gornïye vershinï (‘The Mountain Peaks’) op.52 no.3 is masterly. It was written two years after Balakirev’s death; the words are taken from a poem by that composer’s favourite poet, Lermontov. The first song in the group is entitled Pamyati M.A. Balakireva (‘In Memory of Balakirev’); but there is little if any influence of the older composer in Gornïye vershinï. Perhaps it was easier to have Balakirev looking over his shoulder spiritually rather than corporeally. The song contains a good example of a typical false relation (bar 17). An interesting earlier song is Melodiya s beregov Ganga (‘Melody from the Shores of the Ganges’) op.32 no.3, which is as fine as anything Rimsky-Korsakov wrote in ‘oriental’ vein. More passionate is Speshi, moy yakhont (‘Hurry, my Ruby’), with words by Golenishchev-Kutuzov, the third of the seven songs that constitute op.43 (1911). This is a gem of a song which encapsulates Lyapunov’s gift for late Romantic lyricism, quite different from that of Rachmaninoff.

This ripe and piquant lyrical gift, together with Lyapunov’s contrapuntal dexterity and the complete mastery in writing for the keyboard which can only be achieved by a good pianist, combine to earn his compositions a small but important place in the repertory of Russian piano music and songs with piano accompaniment. His orchestral pieces, though well orchestrated in the Balakirev manner, are less successful and are sometimes shortbreathed.

WRITINGS

Lyapunov, Sergey Mikhaylovich

EDWARD GARDEN

WORKS

orchestral

op.

2	Ballade, c, 1883, rev. 1894–6 (Berlin, 1898)
4	Piano Concerto no.1, e, 1890 (Berlin, c1896)
7	Solemn Overture on Russian Themes, C, 1896 (Moscow, 1899)
12	Symphony no.1, b, 1887 (Leipzig, 1901)
16	Polonaise, D, 1902 (Leipzig, 1903)
28	Rhapsody on Ukrainian Themes, f, pf, orch, 1907 (Leipzig, 1908)
37	Zelazowa Wola, sym. poem, b, 1909 (Leipzig, 1909)
38	Piano Concerto no.2, E, 1909 (Leipzig, 1910)
53	Hashish, sym. poem after A. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, b, 1913 (Leipzig, 1913)
61	Violin Concerto, d, 1915, rev. 1921
—	orchestration of Balakirev: Islamey, 1916
66	Symphony no.2, b, 1917

piano

1	Three Pieces, D, e, A, 1887–8 (St Petersburg, 1889)
3	Rêverie du soir, b, 1880, rev. 1903 (Leipzig, 1903)
5	Impromptu, A, 1894 (Berlin, 1896)
6	Seven Preludes, B, G, e, B, A, f, D, 1895 (Berlin, 1896)
8	Nocturne, D, 1898 (Leipzig, 1898)
9	Two Mazurkas, f, D, 1898 (Leipzig, 1898)
11	Douze études d’exécution transcendante (Leipzig, 1900–05): 1 Berceuse, F, 1897–8, 2 Rondes des fantômes, d, 1897–8, 3 Carillon, B, 1901, 4 Térek, g, 1900, 5 Nuit d’été, E, 1900, 6 Tempête, c, 1897, 7 Idylle, A, 1901, orchd 1908, 8 Chant épique, f, 1903, 9 Harpes éoliennes, D, 1902, 10 Lesghinka, b, 1903, 11 Rondes des sylphes, G, 1905, 12 Elégie en mémoire de François Liszt, e, 1905
17	Mazurka no.3, e, 1902 (Leipzig, 1903)
18	Novelette, C, 1903 (Leipzig, 1904)
19	Mazurka no.4, A, 1903 (Leipzig, 1904)
20	Valse pensive, D, 1903 (Leipzig, 1904)
21	Mazurka no.5, b, 1903 (Leipzig, 1904)
22	Chant du crépuscule, b, 1904 (Leipzig, 1904)
23	Valse-impromptu, D, 1905 (Leipzig, 1905)
24	Mazurka no.6, G, 1905 (Leipzig, 1906)
25	Tarantella, b, 1906 (Leipzig, 1906)
26	Chant d’automne, f, 1906 (Leipzig, 1906)
27	Sonata, f, 1906–8 (Leipzig, 1908)
29	Valse-impromptu no.2, G, 1908 (Leipzig, 1908)
31	Mazurka no.7, g, 1908 (Leipzig, 1908)
33	arrangements of 2 numbers from Glinka: Ruslan and Lyudmila (Kolïbel'naya, Bitva i smert' Chernomora), 1907–8 (Moscow, c1908)
34	Humoresque, G, 1909 (Leipzig, 1909)
35	[Six] Divertissements, 1909 (Leipzig, 1909): Loup-garou (Serïy volk), E, Le vautor: jeu d’enfants (Igra v korshunï), c, Ronde des enfants (Detskiy khorovod), F, Colin-maillard (Slepoy kozyol), b, Chansonnette enfantine (Detskaya pesenka), E, Jeu de course (Gorelki), b
36	Mazurka no.8, g, 1909 (Leipzig, 1909)
40	Trois morceaux de moyenne difficulté, 1910 (Leipzig, 1910): Prélude, D, Elégie, f, Humoresque, F
41	[Quatre] Fêtes de Noël (Svyatki), 1910 (Leipzig, 1910): Nuit de Noël (Rozhdestvenskaya noch'), d, Cortège des mages (Shestviye volkhvov), E, Chanteurs de noëls (Slavil'shchiki), A, Chant de Noël (Kolyada), g/A
45	Scherzo, b, 1911 (Leipzig, 1911)
46	Barcarolle, g, 1911 (Leipzig, 1911)
49	Variations on a Russian Theme, d, 1912 (Leipzig, 1912)
55	Grande polonaise de concert, c, 1913 (Leipzig, 1913)
57	Trois morceaux, 1913 (Leipzig, 1913): Petite fugue (Malen'kaya fuga), c, Chant du printemps (Vesennyaya pesnya), A, Près d’une fontaine (U fontana), étude, c
58	Prelude and Fugue, b, 1913 (Leipzig, 1913)
59	Six morceaux faciles, 1914 (Leipzig, 1919): Jeu de paumes (Igra v myach), D, Berceuse d’une poupée (Kolïbel'naya kukla), c, Sur une escarpolette (Na kachelyakh), G, A cheval sur un bâton (Verkhom na palochke), B, Conte de la bonne (Nyanina skazka), e, Ramage des enfants (Detskaya boltovnya), D
60	Variations on a Georgian Theme, A, 1914–15 (Moscow, 1915)
65	Sonatina, D, 1917 (Moscow, 1922)
70	Valse-impromptu no.3, E, 1919 (Moscow, 1922)
—	Six Very Easy Pieces, 1918–19 (Moscow, 1931)
—	Toccata and Fugue, C, 1920 (Moscow, 1949)
—	Canon, e, 1923 (Moscow, 1949)
—	Allegretto scherzando, G, 1923 (Moscow, 1949)
—	Two Preludes, D, G, 1923 (Moscow, 1949)

vocal

for solo voice and piano unless otherwise stated

10	Russkiye narodïye pesni [30 Russian Folksongs], arr. 1901 (Leipzig, 1901)
13	Tridtsat'pyat' pesen russkogo naroda [35 Russian Folksongs], arr. before 1897
14	Romansï [4 Songs], c1900 (Leipzig, c1901): Sladko dïshit noch' levkoyem [The night smells sweet of gilly-flower] (after H. Heine), F, Posledniye tsvetï [The Last Flowers] (A.S. Pushkin), b, Nachtstück (A. Khomyakov), D, Vostochnïy romans [Eastern Romance] (Khomyakov), F
15	Dve russkiye pesni [2 Russian Songs], mixed vv, c1900
30	Romansï [4 Songs], 1908 (Leipzig, c1908): Tri klyucha [Three Keys] (Pushkin), e, Sulamita (P. Burturlin), c, Zabelela siren' [The White Lilac] (Burturlin), e, Portret [Portrait] (A. Maykov, after Heine), d
32	Romansï [4 Songs], 1908 (Leipzig, c1909): Zvyozdï [Stars] (M.Yu. Lermontov), g/A, V stepyakh [In the Steppes] (Maykov), A, Melodiya s beregov Ganga [Melody from the Shores of the Ganges] (Maykov), f, Dub [The Oak] (S. Makovsky), e
39	Romansï [3 Songs], 1909 (Leipzig, 1910): Utro [Morning] (A. Shenshin), E, Priliv [The Flood] (V. Velichko), B, Tayna [The Secret] (Shenshin), D
42	Romansï [3 Songs] (A. Kol'tsov), 1910–11 (Leipzig, 1911): Tak i rvyotsya dusha [How my soul is yearning], b, Mnogo yest' u menya teremov i sadov [I have many towers and gardens], F, Ne vesna togda zhizn'yu veyala [Not spring then breathed with life], b
43	Romansï i pesni [7 Songs], 1911 (Leipzig, 1911): Pesnya razboynika [Brigand’s Song] (Kol'tsov), g, Tsarskosel'skaya statuya [The Statue at Tsarskoye Selo] (Pushkin), g, Speshi, moy yakhont [Hurry, my Ruby] (A. Golenishchev-Kutuzov), B, Drobitsya i pleshchet [It smashes and splashes] (A. Tolstoy), E, Zima [Winter] (Ye. Baratïnsky) F, Menya tï v tolpe ne uznala [You didn’t recognize me in the crowd] (Golenishchev-Kutuzov), c, Bushuyet burya [The storm is raging] (Golenishchev-Kutuzov), a
44	Romansï [3 Songs], 1911 (Leipzig, 1911): Na lagunakh Venetsii [On the lagoons of Venice] (Golenishchev-Kutuzov), D, Lotos [Lotus] (M. Mikhaylov, after Heine), B, Vopros [Question] (Golenishchev-Kutuzov), f
47	Five Quartets, male vv, 1912
48	Five Quartets, male vv, 1912
50	Romansï [4 Songs] (Golenishchev-Kutuzov), 1912 (Leipzig, 1912): Noch' [Night], D, Letnyaya noch' [Summer night], E, Barkarola, F, Umolkli sela [The villages fell silent], g
51	Romansï [4 Songs], 1912 (Leipzig, 1912): Podlunnaya pesenka [Moonlight Song] (A. Korinfsky), B, Ditya moyo, vzglyani [Look, my child] (Golenishchev-Kutuzov), G, Slovno golos list'yev [As if the voice of the leaves] (Golenishchev-Kutuzov), D, Lyublyu ya, milaya [I love you, darling] (Golenishchev-Kutuzov), F
52	Romansï [4 Songs], 1912 (Leipzig, 1913): Pamyati M.A. Balakireva [In Memory of Balakirev] (Golenishchev-Kutuzov), f, Tishina [Silence] (Golenishchev-Kutuzov), C, Gornïye vershinï [The Mountain Peaks] (A. Lermontov), C, Son [Sleep] (A. Pleshcheyev), e
56	Romansï [4 Songs], 1913 (Leipzig, 1913): Vershinï derev'yev [The Tops of the Trees] (A. Smirnov), d, V tishine vecherney [In the evening silence] (Afanas'yev), E, Mne snilos' [I dreamt] (Nadson), D, Nad spokoynoy kholodnoy rekoy [On the calm, cold river] (Sushkova), e
62	Sacred works and arrs., mixed vv, 1915
64	Psalm cxl, C, 1v, org, hp, 1916, rev. 1923
68	Vechernyaya pesn' [Evening Song] (cant., Khomyakov), T, chorus, orch, 1920
69	Chetïre romansa [4 Songs] (Khomyakov), ?1919: Russkaya pesnya [Russian Song], b, Ėlegiya, D, K detyam [To the children], A, Kogda glyazhu [When I look], D
71	Romansï [4 Songs], 1919–20: Shotlandskaya pesn' [Scottish Song] (Pushkin), b, Moy golos [My Voice] (Pushkin), F, V tumane utrennem [In the morning mist] (V. Solov'yov), c, Noch' [Night] (I. Aksakov), B

other works

54	Prélude-pastorale, org, 1913 (Paris, 1913)
63	Sextet, b, pf, 2 vn, va, vc, db, 1915, rev. 1921 (Leipzig, 1921)

editions

with F.M. Istomin: Pesni russkogo naroda, sobranï v guberniyakh Vologodskoy i Kostromskoy v 1893 godu [Russian folksongs from the Vologda and Kostroma governments collected in 1893] (St Petersburg, 1899)

Lyapunov, Sergey Mikhaylovich

WRITINGS

‘Otchot ob ėkspeditsii dlya sobiraniya russkikh narodnïkh pesen s napevami v 1893 godu’ [Report on the 1893 expedition to collect folksongs], Izvestiya Russkogo geograficheskogo obshchestva, xxx (1894), 347–54

‘Mily Alekseyevich Balakirev’, EIT 1910, no.7, pp.40–67; no.8, pp.31–53

ed., with introduction : Perepiska M.A. Balakireva s P.I. Chaykovskim [Balakirev’s correspondence with Tchaikovsky] (St Petersburg, 1912)

ed., with preface and notes: ‘Perepiska M.A. Balakireva i N.A. Rimskogo-Korsakova’ [Balakirev’s correspondence with Rimsky-Korsakov], MS (1915–16), nos.1–3, 6–7; (1916–17), nos.1–4, 7–8

ed. and enlarged A.S. Lyapunova: ‘Molodïye godï Balakireva’ [Balakirev’s early years], Mily Alekseyevich Balakirev: vospominaniya i pis'ma [Balakirev: recollections and letters], ed. E. Frid and others (Leningrad, 1962)

Lyapunov, Sergey Mikhaylovich

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M.D. Calvocoressi and G. Abraham: Masters of Russian Music (London, 1936), 436–8

I. Yampol'sky: ‘Neopublikovannïy skripichnïy kontsert Lyapunova’ [Lyapunov’s unpublished violin concerto], SovM sbornik, vi (1946)

A. Lyapunova: ‘S.M. Lyapunov’, SovM (1950), no.9, pp.90–93

V.V. Yastrebtsev: N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov: Vospominaniya 1886–1908 [Reminiscences], ed. A.V. Ossovsky (Leningrad, 1950–60; Eng. trans., abridged, 1985)

Yu. Keldïsh: Istoriya russkoy muzïki [History of Russian music], iii (Moscow, 1954), 456–73

A. Lyapunova, ed.: ‘Perepiska V. Stasova i S. Lyapunova’ [The correspondence of Stasov and Lyapunov], SovM (1957), no.1, pp.71–8

M.Ye. Shifman: ‘Dvenadtsat' ėtyudov Lyapunova i nekotorïye voprosï ikh interpretatsii’ [A few questions on the interpretation of Lyapunov’s 12 studies], Vosprosï muzïkal'no-ispolnitel'skogo isskustva, ed. L.S. Ginzburg and A.A. Solovstov (Moscow, 1958), 374–401

‘Pis'ma S.M. Lyapunova k P.A. Potekhinu’ [Lyapunov’s letters to Potekhin], SovM (1960), no.3, pp.81–7

R. Davis: ‘Sergei Lyapunov (1859–1924): the Piano Works: a Short Appreciation’ MR, xxi (1960), 186–206

M.Ye. Shifman: S.M. Lyapunov: ocherk zhizn' i tvorchestva [Life and works] (Moscow, 1960)

A. Lyapunova: ‘Iz istorii tvorcheskikh svyazey M. Balakireva i S. Lyapunova’ [From the history of the creative links between Balakirev and Lyapunov], Mily Alekseyevich Balakirev: issledovaniya i stat'i [Investigations and articles], ed. E. Frid and others (Leningrad, 1961), 388–421

Ye. Frid and others, eds.: Mily Alekseyevich Balakirev: vospominaniya i pis'ma [Balakirev: recollections and letters] (Leningrad, 1962)

E. Garden: Balakirev (London, 1967)

A.S. Lyapunova and Ye.Ye. Yazovitskaya: Mily Alekseyevich Balakirev (Leningrad, 1967)

A.D. Alekseyev: Russkaya fortep' yannaya muzïka: konets XIX – nachala XX veka [Russian piano music from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th] (Moscow, 1969), 97–105

T. Leye: ‘Moskovskaya prem'yera‘ [A Moscow première], SovM (1969), no.9, p.47 [on the 2nd Sym.]

M.C. Burford: The Transcendental Studies of S.M. Lyapunov (thesis, U. of Sheffield, 1988)

G. Norris: The Russian Piano Concerto: the Nineteenth Century (Bloomington, IN, 1994), 95–8

K. Hamilton: Liszt: Sonata in B minor (Cambridge, 1996), 81–2

R. Taruskin: Stravinsky and the Russian Traditions: a Biography of the Works through ‘Mavra’, i (Oxford and Berkeley, 1996)

Lyatoshyns'ky, Borys Mykolayovych

(b Zhytomyr, 22 Dec/3 January 1895; d Kiev, 15 April 1968). Ukrainian composer. In 1913 he entered the law faculty of Kiev University and started studying composition with Glière, first privately, then at the newly opened Kiev Conservatory. He taught at this institution for the rest of his life (1919–68, as professor from 1935). He directed the Ukrainian Association of Contemporary Music (1922–5). He later taught orchestration at the Moscow Conservatory (1935–7 and 1943–4); he was also president (1939–41) and then a board member of the Ukrainian Composers' Union. After World War II he travelled extensively, often as a member of international competition juries including that of the Tchaikovsky Competition in Moscow (1958, 1962), the Belgian Quartet Competition in Liège (1956, 1959, 1962) and the Lysenko Competition in Kiev (1965, as president). Awards made to him included two state prizes (1946, 1952), the Polish prize awarded ‘for the strengthening of Russo-Polish friendship’ (1963) and, posthumously, the Shevchenko Prize (1971).

During the decade following World War I Lyatoshyns'ky initiated the modern musical movement in Ukraine with a series of intense and highly expressive works which, in an individual manner, reflected his central preoccupation with expressionism. During the 1920s and early 30s he composed most of his major chamber works and completed the first Ukrainian music-drama Zolotyi obruch (‘The Golden Ring’, 1929). By the time he composed the Violin Sonata in 1926, the identifying features of his style were firmly established. The music often begins as if suddenly startled out of deep slumber. Tensely, and with hints of apprehension, the themes unfold gradually, propelled by insistent rhythms and extreme dynamics. His melodies are essentially introspective: they are woven out of short phrases and though imbued with often Skryabinesque Romantic ecstasy they frequently seem incomplete. The essential character of the works emerges by the placing of motifs on rhythmic and dynamic waves that cajole the music to open up and affirm itself in defence. The basic method is thus expressionistic, yet this aesthetic stance is complicated by attempts to integrate folk music into the language, something first tried in the Overture on Four Ukrainian Folk Themes (1926). The unity of thematic and structural transformations, and the laconic but restless sensibility stimulating continual development both make the Violin Sonata unique in the violin repertory and also one of the most significant works to come out of the Soviet Union in the 1920s. In the Violin sonata and many of the other large-scale works of the 1920s, Lyatoshyns'ky came close to Berg by writing music of fervent emotion while finding solutions to the complex problems of achieving unity in a sonata that utilizes a volatile atonal idiom. A set number of chords and melismas – often stated at the beginning of a piece – serve as a paradigm for the work as a whole. The 3-movement Violin Sonata unfolds with the ingenuity of the triadic dialectical development – from the thesis of the first movement (a dramatic poem) to the antithesis of the second (a lyric verse) to a synthesis in the finale (an epic narrative). Although each movement has its own scenario and its own clashes and dependencies, no single movement is, in itself, complete. Each ending is immediately stated as the next beginning: the final phrase of the first movement (a retrograde of the violin's opening three notes) is also the opening of the second movement, while the last movement begins decisively with the last questioning chord of the second movement. The structural processes revolve around the continual ‘melodification’ of two chords: G major 7th and B major 7th. But as in Berg's Violin Concerto, where the first eight notes of the series could be described as a G minor-major 7th and an A minor-major 7th, these chords only act as an intermediary between atonality and tonality. They also supply the intonational background from and into which all melodic, harmonic and rhythmic motives emerge and are resubmerged. Zolotyi obruch saw his style brought into further conflict by a greater reliance on folk motives. In the monologue of Zakhar Berkut, Lyatoshyns'ky employs an old Galician folksong as a cantus firmus (this same melody was used again in the Third Symphony of 1951) and this music brilliantly demonstrates his ability to unify and transform diverse musical structures – in this case the diatonic naiveté of the folk idiom and the volatile, atonal language of expressionism. The 1930s saw his style undergoing further refinement and the production of one genuine masterpiece, the Second Symphony (1935–6).

In his first mature works (of 1919–36) Lyatoshyns'ky had been influenced by the then prevalent Romantic vitalism, a loosely defined Ukrainian artistic current that shared with other modernist movements of the day an exuberant belief in the dawning of a new age; this aesthetic was seen as an alternative to the primitivization of the arts in the USSR which started in the mid-1920s and which by the early 1930s was enshrined in the dogma of socialist realism. The opera Shchors, essentially a commission from Stalin, was a stylistic disaster. In works such as the Ukrainian Quintet, the expressionism which was natural to Lyatoshyns'ky was curdled by socialist realism and naked folklorism. This metamorphosed style is more successful in the Second Piano Trio (1942), where the escape into the picturesque saves the work from the pathos of attempted heroics. Like almost all the works composed during World War II, the trio relies heavily on the melodic, harmonic and rhythmic peculiarities of Ukrainian folk music. However, as with earlier compositions, the mood swings are extreme, verging on the surreal while insistent rhythms seethe as if in constant flux. The culmination of this style can be seen in the epic Third Symphony in which the two sides, the expressionistic and the national, are most successfully integrated. The work was severely criticized at its première and Lyatoshyns'ky was forced to revise it. But in the last decade of his life, spurred by the emergence of a talented group of young Ukrainian composers, many of them his students (Hodzyats'ky, Hrabovs'ky, Huba, Sil'vestrov) he returned to his first style in such works as the Fourth Symphony, the Polish Suite (1961) and the phenomenal cycles for unaccompanied chorus. Although Lyatoshyns'ky's originality is not always conspicuous, it becomes abundantly apparent on repeated hearings, as does his intellectual range and rigour. His style – and especially the harmonic language employed in works of the 1920s – bears comparison to that of Kodály and Nielsen as well as that of Berg and Hindemith. Like his slightly younger colleague Shostakovich, he never totally abandoned tonality no matter how much he expanded its meaning. Ukrainian music, stifled by the repressive policies of the Russian tsarist regimes, had not developed a talent of comparable magnitude since Dmytro Bortnyans'ky who died in 1825. Alongside the sculptor Archipenko and the film-maker Dovzhenko, Lyatoshyns'ky is one of just three Ukrainian artists of the first half of the 20th century to have received international recognition.

WORKS

Stage: Zolotyi obruch [The Golden Ring] (music drama, 4, Ya. Mamontov, after I. Franko), op.23, 1929, Odessa, Kiev, Khar'kiv, 1930; rev. version L'viv, 1970; Shchors (op, 5, I. Kochergi, M. Ryl's'ky), op.37, 1937; Kiev, 14 Sept 1938, rev. as Polkovodets [The Commander], Kiev, 18 Feb 1970

Orch: Sym. no.1, A, op.2, 1918–19; Fantasticheskiy marsh, 1920; Uvertyura na chotyry ukraïns'ky narodny temy [Ov. on 4 Ukrainian Folk Themes], op.20, 1926; Zolotyi obruch, suite, 1929; 3 marches, ww, 1933–6; Sym. no.2, op.26, 1935–6, rev. 1940; Poėma vossoyedineniya [Poem of Reunification], op.49, 1949–50; Sym. no.3, b, op.50, 1951, rev. 1954; Taras Shevchenko, suite, op.51, 1952 [from film score]; Slavyanskiy kontsert [Slavic Concerto], pf, orch, op.54, 1953; Romeo i Dzhul'yetta [Romeo and Juliet], op.55, 1955 [suite from incidental music]; Grazhyna, ballad, op.58, 1955; Na berehakh Visly [On the Banks of the Vistula], sym. poem, op.59, 1958; Pol'skaya syuita [Polish Suite], 1961; Slavyanskaya uvertyura, 1961; Sym. no.4, bb, op.63, 1963; Liricheskaya poėma, 1964; Sym. no.5 ‘Slavyanskaya’ [Slavonic], C, op.67, 1965–6; Slavyanskaya syuita [Slavonic Suite], op.68, 1966; Urochista Uvertyura [Solemn Overture], op.70, 1967

Choral: Torzhestvennaya, kantata [Solemn Cant.] (M. Ryl's'ky), 1939; Zapovit [The Commandment] (T. Shevchenko), 1939; 48 Choruses (Shevchenko), 1949–51; 62 Choruses (A. Fet), 1961; 18 folksong arrs.

Vocal: Lunniye teni [Moon shadows] (P. Verlaine, I. Severyanin, K. Bal'mont, O. Wilde), lv, pf, op.9, 1923; Tri stikhotvoreniya P. Shelli [3 Poems of Shelley], 1v, pf, op.14, 1924; 52 songs, 1v, pf; 59 folksong arrs.; 9 folksong arrs., 2vv

Chbr and solo inst: Str Qt no.1, d, op.1, 1915; 8 Preludes, pf, 1920–43; Str Qt no.2, A, op.3, 1922; Pf Trio no.1, op.7, 1922, rev.1925; Pf Sonata no.1, op.13, 1924; Otrazheniya [Reflections], 7 pieces, pf, 1925; Pf sonata no.2/Sonata-ballada, op.18, 1925; Sonata,vn, pf, op.19, 1926; Str Qt no.3, op.19, 1928; Shevchenkivs'ka syuita [Shevchenko Suite], pf, 1942 [incomplete]; Pf Trio no.2, op.41, 1942; Ukrayn'skiy kvintet, pf qnt, op.42, 1942, rev.1945; Str Qt no.4, 1943; Suite, ww qt, 1944; Syuita na ukraynskiye narodnïye temi [Suite on Ukrainian Folk Themes], str qt, 1944

Other: 12 small inst pieces; incid music for stage and film

WRITINGS

‘L. Revuts'ky ta yogo druha symfoniya’ [L. Revuts'ky and his Second Symphony], Radyans'ka muzyka (1934), nos.8–9 [Russ. trans. in SovM (1935), no.1, pp.16–24]

‘Monumental'nost' i yedinstvo’ [Monumentalism and Unity], Muzïka (6 Oct 1937) [on Shchors]

‘Bedrzhikh Smetana’, Literatura i iskusstvo (15 Jan 1944)

‘Istoki russkogo romansa’ [Origins of the Russian romance], Literatura i iskusstvo (15 Jan 1944)

‘O tvorchestve opernogo kompozitora’, Sovetskoye iskusstvo (1945), no.20

‘R. Glier: muzïkant, uchitel', drug’ [Glière: musician, teacher, friend], SovM (1956), no.10, pp.12–17

‘Konkurs kvartetnoy muzïki’, SovM (1957), no.1, pp.137–8

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Bėlza: B.M. Lyatoshyns'kiy (Kiev, 1947; Russ. trans., 1947)

M. Byalik: ‘Tret'ya simfoniya B. Lyatoshinksogo’ [Lyatoshyns'ky's Third Symphony], SovM (1957), no.2, p.98

A. Shol'ts: Tret'ya simfoniya Lyatoshinskogo (Moscow, 1960)

N. Zaporozhets: ‘Slavyanskiye obrazï v muzïke B. Lyatoshinskogo’ [Slavonic forms in Lyatoshyns'ky's music], SovM (1960), no.1, p.34

A. Malozyomova: ‘Stanovleniye geroicheskikh chert v ukrainskoy sovetskoy opere 20–30 godov’ [The appearance of heroic features in Ukrainian Soviet opera in the 1920s and 30s], Ukrainskoye muzikovedeniye (Kiev, 1966), 86–116 [incl. analysis of Shchors]

S. Savenko: ‘Monumental'naya ėpopeya (o slavyanskoy simfonii do mazhor B. Lyatoshinskogo)’, SovM (1968), no.6, p.19

M. Hordiychuk: Ukrayns'ka radyans'ka symfonichna muzyka [Soviet Ukrainian Symphonic Music] (Kiev, 1969)

N.A. Zaporozhets: Boris Nikolayevich Lyatoshinsky (Moscow, 1969)

V. Samokhvalov: B. Lyatoshyns'ky (Kiev, 1970, 2/1974)

L. Khrivych: ‘Tvory velykykh maystriv (khory B. Lyatoshyns'kogo na slova M. Ryl's'kogo)’ [The works of a great master: Lyatoshyns'ky's choruses to words by M. Ryl's'ky], Muzyka (Kiev, 1971), no.3, p.6

B. Lyatoshinskiy: vospominaniya, pis'ma, materialï, 2 vols., ed. L.N. Grisenko (Kiev, 1985)

B. Lyatoshinskiy: sbornik statey, ed. M. Kopitsa (Kiev, 1987)

M. Kopitsa: Simfonii B. Lyatoshinskogo: ėpokha, kollizii, dramaturgiya, issledovaniye [The Symphonies of B. Lyatoshyns'ky: the Epoch, Collisions, Dramaturgy, Research] (Kiev, 1990)

J. Powell: After Scriabin: Six Composers and the Development of Russian Music (diss., U. of Cambridge, 1999)

VIRKO BALEY

Lybbert, Donald

(b Cresco, IA, 19 Feb 1923; d New York, 26 July 1981). American composer. He studied at the University of Iowa (BM 1946), at the Juilliard School with Robert Ward and Bernard Wagenaar (1946–8), at Columbia University with Carter and Luening (MA 1950) and in Fontainebleau with Boulanger (1961). During World War II he served as an officer in the US Navy. He was a teaching fellow at the Juilliard School (1947–8) and from 1954 to 1980 taught at Hunter College, CUNY. While some works are in part serial, his basic style is freely atonal with an emphasis on audible formal structure. Song settings such as Octagon show a fine feeling for clear declamation. He also experimented successfully with microtonality (in Lines for the Fallen), asymmetrical metres (Sonata brevis) and the combination of recorded electronic sounds with live performance. He wrote (with F. Davis) The Essentials of Counterpoint (Norman, OK, 1969/R).

WORKS

(selective list)

2 ops: Monica, 1952; The Scarlet Letter, 1965

Introduction and Toccata, brass, pf, 1956; Chamber Sonata, hn, va, pf, 1958; Concert Ov., orch, 1958; Austro terris inflente, 3 motets, 1961; Sonata brevis, pf, 1962; Trio, cl, bn, hn, 1962; Praeludium, brass, perc, 1963; Lines for the Fallen (W. Blake), S, 2 quarter-tone-tuned pf; Zap (Bible: Ecclesiastes), choruses, 4 ens, rock group, 1970; From Harmonium (W. Stevens), high v, pf, 1970; Conc., pf, tape; Octagon (after J. Joyce: Ulysses), S, ens, 1975; Fanfare, 4 tpt, 4 trbn, 1977; 2 other pf sonatas, 1947, 1954; chbr works; song cycles

Principal publisher: Peters

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E.B. Carlson: A Bio-Bibliographical Dictionary of Twelve-Tone and Serial Composers (Metuchen, NJ, 1970), 120–21

OLIVER DANIEL/MICHAEL MECKNA

Lyceum (i).

Educational movement begun in Massachusetts, USA, in 1826. Its founder Josiah Holbrook (1788–1854) conceived a national network of local groups whose members aimed to improve each others’ minds by lectures, discussions and presentations. Soon there were thousands of groups all over the USA, and professional touring speakers largely replaced local presenters. Music was at first only occasionally discussed; among the speakers were Lowell Mason and John Sullivan Dwight.

After the Civil War professional lyceum bureaus were formed to manage the travelling talent. The Redpath Lyceum Bureau, founded by James Redpath (1833–91) in 1868, eventually comprised a dozen semi-independent offices in all parts of the USA and one in Canada. The lyceum movement remained high-minded but now placed more emphasis on entertainment. By the 1900s music had become the largest element in the programmes. Lectures and performances were given throughout the autumn, winter and spring; singers, instrumental soloists and ensembles, choruses and bands appeared. Many of the presenters also appeared on the Chautauqua circuit. The lyceum movement declined in the 1930s, in many cases giving way to civic music programmes that no longer used the name.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveA (‘Chautauqua and lyceum’; F. Crane)

G. MacLaren: Morally We Roll Along (Boston, 1938)

I. Briggs and R.F. DaBoll: Recollections of the Lyceum & Chautauqua Circuits (Freeport, ME, 1969)

FREDERICK CRANE

Lyceum (ii).

London theatre built in 1772, and reopened in 1834 as the English Opera House. See London (i), §VI, 1(i).

Lydian.

The common name for the fifth of the eight church modes, the authentic mode on F. In the Middle Ages and Renaissance the Lydian mode was described in two ways: as the diatonic octave species from f to f', divided at c' and consisting of a third species of 5th (tone–tone–tone–semitone) plus a third species of 4th (tone–tone–semitone), thus f–g–a–b–c' + c'–d'–e'–f'; and as a mode whose Final was f and whose Ambitus was f–f' (or f–g'). In addition to the final, the note c' – the tenor of the corresponding fifth psalm tone – was regarded as having an important melodic function in the fifth church mode.

The Lydian mode was anomalous in two respects. First, the ambitus of each of the other authentic modes, Dorian, Phrygian and Mixolydian, was reckoned as beginning from its subfinal, which lies a tone below the final. But the note below the final of the Lydian mode, e, makes the interval of a semitone with the final, and ‘because of the deficiency below of [that] semitone’, as Guido expressed it in chapter 13 of the Micrologus (1025–6), the final f itself was normally stipulated as the lower limit of the mode. Second, despite the theoretical scale type of the Lydian, in particular its third species of 5th f–g–a–b–c', theorists from as early as Hucbald (De Harmonica Institutione, ed. C.V. Palisca and trans. W. Babb, New Haven, CT, 1978) recognized that in fact it is b rather than b that is characteristic in the two F modes, and even more so in the Hypolydian than in the Lydian. Similarly, according to chapter 15 of the Dialogus de musica attributed to Odo (GerbertS, i, 261), ‘in the fifth and sixth [modes] the first ninth degree b [reckoned from A] will prevail’, thus attesting to the prevalence of b rather than of b, the ‘second ninth degree’. Phrases in the lower part of the octave f–f' are more likely to use the fourth species of 5th (tone–tone–semitone–tone), which gives b on the fourth degree (for this reason one invariably finds b, rather than b used in the Hypolydian mode). Marchetto da Padova, in the Lucidarium of 1318 (ed. and trans. J.W. Herlinger, Chicago, 1985), gave the following rule of thumb for the use of b in the Lydian mode: ‘we should sing with b when the notes of the fifth tone [i.e. mode] are around c' and do not descend below a’ (bk 11, chap.4).

In Renaissance polyphony a great many compositions end on an F major triad, with parts ranging more or less within the Lydian and Hypolydian ambitus and with prominent cadences on C and A, as well as on F. With rare and special exceptions, these pieces are set in cantus mollis (i.e. with a one-flat signature); but here the use of cantus mollis does not denote a transposition of the mode up a 4th, as it does in pieces ‘in G Dorian’. Rather, it denotes the prevalence of B over B in the F modes. The 16th-century theorists who promulgated the theory that there were 12 modes in music, rather than the traditional eight of Gregorian chant, considered F-mode pieces in cantus mollis, however, as transpositions up a 4th from the C modes (Ionian and Hypoionian). Both Glarean (Dodecachordon, 1547, iii/16) and Zarlino (Le istitutioni harmoniche, 2/1573, iv/18) cited Josquin’s five-part Stabat mater, an F-mode piece with a one-flat signature in all voices, as an example of the transposed Ionian. But for the most part 16th-century musicians thought of F-mode pieces in cantus mollis as being in the Lydian or Hypolydian mode in the traditional system of the eight church modes. In modally ordered sets of pieces, they are found between the E-mode and G-mode compositions. For instance, of Palestrina’s modally ordered settings of stanzas from Petrarch’s Vergine canzone no.266, which comprise nos.1–8 of his Madrigali spirituali (1581), nos.5–6 are F-mode compositions in cantus mollis with higher voice ranges. No.5 has higher voice ranges, corresponding to the authentic Lydian mode, indicated by Chiavette; no.6 uses standard clefs to indicate the lower range of the plagal Hypolydian mode.

In the 19th and 20th centuries composers often used exotic scales and harmonies foreign to the conventional tonal major and minor modes to evoke peasant, nationalistic, mysterious or religious associations. One of the earliest such evocations is the slow movement of Beethoven’s Quartet op.132, which bears the inscription ‘Heiliger Dankgesang eines Genesenen an die Gottheit, in der lydischen Tonart’. Its principal sections are set in F, but without a key signature; the consistent use of B (usually in secondary dominant harmony), together with an avoidance of accidentals throughout each of the principal sections, give the tonality its Lydian character.

Modern scholars use ‘Lydian mode’ to designate the scale type of a folksong or non-Western melody that uses the modern major scale with the fourth degree raised by a semitone.

For the early history of Greek-derived modal names see Dorian. See also Mode.

HAROLD S. POWERS

Lydian music.

See Anatolia.

Lykeios.

See Apollo.

Lymburgia, Johannes de.

See Johannes de Lymburgia.

Lympany, Dame Moura

(b Saltash, 18 Aug 1916). English pianist. She studied at Liège and won the Ada Lewis Scholarship to the RAM, London, where she studied with Coviello. Further studies were with Paul Weingarten, Mathilde Verne, Edward Steuermann and, more extensively, Matthay. Her début was at Harrogate at the age of 12, in Mendelssohn’s First Concerto. In 1938 she placed second to Gilels in the Ysaÿe Piano Competition in Brussels, beating both Flier and Michelangeli. She gave the première performance of Khachaturian’s Concerto in Britain, introduced the work to London (1940) and other European cities and also gave numerous performances abroad of concertos by Delius, Ireland, Rawsthorne and Arnell. On 31 October 1969 she played Cyril Scott’s Concerto in the presence of the composer at his 90th birthday concert. Among Lympany’s many recordings are the first complete Rachmaninoff preludes, concertos by Khachaturian and Saint-Saëns and the Rawsthorne Concerto no.1. Although a Rachmaninoff specialist, her musical interests were wide (her repertory encompassed 60 concertos); she brought a deep understanding and comprehensive command to all her performances. For many years she directed the Festival des Sept Chapelles in Rasiguères, near Perpignan, which she founded with Prince Louis de Polignac. She has received honours from the French and Belgian governments, and was made a DBE in 1991.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Foss: ‘Moura Lympany: a Great British Pianist’, The Canon, iv (1950–51), 593–6

R. Kammerer: ‘Moura Lympany: Artist of Wide Interests’, Musical America, lxxviii/2 (1958), 9–10

S. King: ‘Women Talking about Men, III: Moura Lympany’, The Times (14 June 1967)

FRANK DAWES/BRYCE MORRISON

Lynn, Frank.

See Schillinger, Joseph.

Lynn, [née Webb], Loretta

(b Butcher Hollow, nr Van Lear, KY, 14 April 1935). American country singer and songwriter. Attracted to country music in her childhood, she married at the age of 13 and began to sing locally. A talent contest brought her to the attention of a Canadian lumberjack, who financed her first record, I'm a honky-tonk girl (1960), in which the influence of Kitty Wells is evident. When the record became a success she moved to Nashville, where she was championed by Patsy Cline. She soon became a regular performer on the ‘Grand Ole Opry’ radio show and, by the late 1960s, she was well established nationally.

Lynn became famous when country music was caricatured as ‘redneck’ and conservative, and its practitioners ridiculed. She and her peers, proud of their working-class origins and culture, helped it win respect and a wider audience. Her early life of material deprivation and human warmth was chronicled in her most celebrated song, Coal Miner's Daughter, also the title of her autobiography (Chicago, 1976) on which was based an award-winning film (1980).

Although not of the feminist movement, her support for women's rights is reflected in many of her songs, including Don't come home a-drinkin' (with lovin' on your mind), Your squaw is on the warpath (an acknowledgment of her Cherokee blood) and The Pill. She has won numerous awards from the Country Music Association and, in 1971, a Grammy. Her sister, Crystal Gayle (Webb, Brenda Gail; b Paintsville, KY, 9 Jan 1951), has also pursued a successful career as a country and popular singer.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D.A. Horstman: ‘Loretta Lynn’, Stars of Country Music, ed. B.C. Malone and J. McCulloh (Urbana, IL, 1975), 309–25

L. Lynn and G. Vecsey: Loretta Lynn: Coal Miner's Daughter (Chicago, 1976) [autobiography]

M.A. Bufwack and R.K. Oermann: Finding Her Voice: the Saga of Women in Country Music (New York, 1993)

LIZ THOMSON

Lynn [Welch], Dame Vera

(b London, 20 March 1917). English popular singer. She sang in working men’s clubs from an early age and later with the bands of Joe Loss and Ambrose in the late 1930s before launching a solo career in 1940. Through her BBC radio programme ‘Sincerely Yours’ she established a lifelong connection with the armed forces, gaining the soubriquet of ‘the forces’ sweetheart’, and is particularly associated with such wartime songs as We’ll meet again and White Cliffs of Dover. She was a popular variety performer throughout the 1950s and 60s and had several chart successes in both the UK and the USA. Although principally associated with romantic ballads of the 1930s and 40s, delivered in a rich mezzo-soprano with elegant phrasing and diction, her repertory was extended to include pop songs of the 1960s and country songs on the album Vera Lynn in Nashville (1977). She has increasingly restricted her appearances to those associated with World War II veteran associations. She was made an OBE in 1969 and a DBE in 1975, and has written an autobiography, Vocal Refrain (London, 1975).

Lyon, Gustave

(b Paris, 19 Nov 1857; d Paris, 12 Jan 1936). French piano maker. He took control of the firm of Pleyel, Lyon et Cie after his father-in-law Auguste Wolff’s death in 1887. See Pleyel (ii).

Lyon, James

(b Newark, NJ, 1 July 1735; d Machias, ME, 12 Oct 1794). American composer and tune book compiler. In 1759 he graduated from the College of New Jersey (Princeton University). The following year he gave lessons in singing in Philadelphia and before the end of 1761 published his tune book Urania. Licensed to preach in 1762 by the Presbyterian Synod of New Brunswick, New Jersey, he devoted the rest of his life to the church, moving to Nova Scotia in 1764 and accepting a pastorate in Machias, Maine, which he held from 1772 until his death. Lyon is known to have written only nine musical compositions; his main importance is as a compiler. Urania, his greatest achievement, is a landmark in American psalmody. Larger than any earlier American tune book, it was the first to contain English fuging tunes and anthems and the first to identify native compositions. It was drawn primarily from British sources, but also included the first printed compositions of Lyon and Francis Hopkinson and was the earliest American publication to print compositions by William Tuckey. Reprinted at least five times, Urania served as a source for a generation of American compilers.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DAB (F.W. Coburn)

J. Lyon: Urania, or A choice Collection of Psalm-Tunes, Anthems, and Hymns (Philadelphia, 1761/R1974 with new preface by R. Crawford)

Memorial of the Centennial Anniversary of the Settlement of Machias (Machias, ME, 1863), 33–4, 49–51, 78, 95–6, 142–3, 170

O.G.T. Sonneck: Francis Hopkinson … and James Lyon (Washington DC, 1905/R)

F.J. Metcalf: American Writers and Compilers of Sacred Music (New York, 1925/R), 32–41

RICHARD CRAWFORD/R

Lyonel (Power).

See Power, Leonel.

Lyon & Healy.

American firm of instrument manufacturers and music dealers. Founded in 1864 in Chicago by George Washburn Lyon and Patrick Joseph Healy as a Midwest outlet for the publications of the Boston company of Oliver Ditson, the firm rapidly expanded to include retail distribution of music from publishers and musical instruments of all types. Under Healy’s direction (Lyon retired in 1889) the store became widely known in Chicago and throughout the USA for its broad range of merchandise and advanced advertising and selling methods. It was one of the first businesses in the USA to appraise instruments. From about 1890 the firm used the marque ‘George Washburn’ for its better fretted instruments. In about 1928 the trade name and activities other than piano and harp manufacture were acquired by the Tonk Bros. Co., which continued to sell instruments under the name into the 1930s. Tonk Bros. was acquired by C.G. Conn in 1947.

As an instrument manufacturer, the firm is best known for the Lyon & Healy harp, first placed on the market in 1889. Healy was interested in developing a harp that would be better suited to the rigours of the American climate than the available European models, and his engineers, basing their instruments on Erard’s pedal harp, succeeded in producing a harp notable for its strength, reliability of pitch, and freedom from unwanted vibration. When Wurlitzer stopped producing harps before World War II, Lyon & Healy remained the sole large-scale harp builder in the USA. Other contributions made by Lyon & Healy include innovations in the style of the instrument, notably the modern Salzedo model of 1935, and the development of a small, lever harp, the Troubador, in 1962.

In 1977 Lyon & Healy was bought by CBS, which at the time also owned Steinway. Under CBS, Lyon & Healy decided to focus exclusively on harp production and music publishing. Following this decision CBS closed all Lyon & Healy retail stores in 1979, and the name of the firm was changed to Lyon & Healy Harps. In 1985 Steinway Musical Properties (SMP), a Boston-based holding company, acquired Lyon & Healy Harps. In 1987 SMP sold Lyon & Healy to a Swiss-based holding company, Les Arts Mechaniques, which also owned the European firm Salvi Harps. The two firms then worked together, with two distinctive lines of pedal and lever harps. In 1990 pianos began to be sold under the Lyon & Healy name again, the firm carrying a European-made model.

In the mid-1980s the firm brought out the Folk Harp and in the mid-1990s the Prelude, both being lever harps. They introduced the Electric Harp in 1993, which emits an electronic signal designed to emulate the sound of the acoustic harp. A combination instrument, the Electro-acoustic harp, was introduced in 1997.

Lyon & Healy is also identified with several international harp competitions. The company donates the first prize (a concert grand harp) for the Israel Competition and the USA International Harp Competition held in Bloomington, Indiana. In addition, they sponsor the biannual Lyon & Healy International Jazz and Pop Harpfest held in the USA.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.B. Weidensaul: ‘Lyon & Healy: the First 90 Years’, American Harp Journal, vii/2 (1979), 5–9

Lyon & Healy Letter (1986–)

S.A. Turnbow: ‘Coming of Age: the Electric Harp’, American Harp Journal, xiv/4 (1994), 12–13

L. Howie: ‘Loud & Clear’, Harp Today, i (1997), 11–17, 42

ANNETTE FERN (with JAY SCOTT ODELL)/JOAN LAUREL FERGUSON

Lyons

(Fr. Lyon).

City in France, situated at the confluence of the Rhône and Saône.

1. Early history.

2. Medieval and Renaissance music.

3. Music publishing in the 16th century.

FRANK DOBBINS

1. Early history.

Under the Romans (from 43 bce) Lyons was the capital of Gaul. In the 2nd century it was the first place in Gaul to be converted to Christianity; under Christian government it became the seat of the primate of France. In 1271 the citizens rejected the archiepiscopal rule in favour of the protection of the French crown, but maintained a considerable degree of administrative and fiscal independence until the Revolution. The growth in industry, banking and commerce, which coincided with the decline of the church’s political influence, reached its apogee during the Franco-Italian wars of the early 16th century. By 1550 the increasing activity of the trade fairs, the presence of Italian merchants and bankers (notably Florentine refugees), the frequent visits of the French court and the spread of the printing and silk industries helped to create an environment in which the fine arts flourished. The traditional anti-clerical and liberal feelings of the town council and some of the royal governors made the town safer than Paris for evangelical humanists or neo-Platonists such as Dolet, Des Périers, Barthélémy Aneau, Rabelais and Charles de Sainte-Marthe whose works issued freely from the numerous and active presses. The second third of the 16th century represented an Augustan Age for the city’s literature: the important role accorded to music in verse by Scève, Tyard, La Taissonnière, Pernette du Guillet and Louise Labé was reflected in the output of publishers such as Moderne, Beringen and Granjon. During the second half of the century the spread of Protestantism and relations with nearby Geneva were reflected in a proliferation of vernacular psalm settings and spiritual songs; but the ensuing religious wars reduced the town’s cultural life as well as its prosperity.

2. Medieval and Renaissance music.

Although the Lyonese liturgy is one of the oldest in Europe and although the choir school (manécanterie) of the Cathedral of St Jean dates from the 11th century, the city has no great tradition of church music. Polyphony was proscribed at St Jean, although the clerical organization, with a maître and sous-maître du choeur, a chapelain des douze, several manécantants and a maître d’enfants, resembles that of the French royal chapel. In the 16th century the churches of St Nizier, St Paul and Notre Dame de Fourvière maintained choirs, while the organs at the churches of the Augustine, Jacobin and Franciscan orders were replaced in 1537, 1570 and 1593 respectively. The most distinguished organists were employed by the Florentine community for the chapel of Notre Dame de Confort built by Tommaso Guadagni in 1523 in the Jacobin church: Francesco de Layolle (c1523–38), Piero Mannucci (who composed music for six intermedi by Luigi Alamanni performed during a revival of Bibbiena’s Calandra in 1548), Matthieu de Fleurs (1559), Philibert Ydeux (1573) and Jehan Duprey (1595).

Letters in archives at Florence and Modena respectively suggest the presence at Lyons of Ninot le Petit in 1478 and of Antoine Brumel in 1506. Moreover, despite the absence of definite records, it is certain that some of the musicians of Louis XII and François I, if not the entire royal chapel, travelled to Lyons during the Italian Wars (1494–1525): Louis XII set up court in the town between 1499 and 1503, the Archduke Philip the Fair visited it in June 1503 and Margaret of Austria was often there after her marriage to Filiberto II, Duke of Savoy.

There is more evidence of secular than sacred musical activity at Lyons during the Renaissance. The poets who provided the amorous texts for the composers of the courtly polyphonic chanson described amateur music-making and acknowledged their musical colleagues: thus Des Périers extolled the lutenist Alberto da Ripa; Aneau and Charles de Sainte-Marthe praised the composer P. de Villiers; and the poet–musician Eustorg de Beaulieu admired Francesco de Layolle as much as his patrons did. Documents record the activities of some of the city’s professional musicians and instrument makers: chansons and dances were played on the shawm, cornett or violin by Charles Cordeilles, Guillaume de La Moeulle and their fellow waits, enlivening public and private festivities from royal entries and dramatic entertainments to banquets, weddings and carnivals. These same musicians composed four-voice chansons for Jacques Moderne, who monopolized the printing of polyphonic music in the town between 1532 and 1547. Many of the musicians whose works were published solely or mainly at Lyons probably lived in or around the town; but the names of only eight composers – Cordeilles, La Moeulle, Francesco and Alamanne de Layolle, Loys Bourgeois, G.P. Paladino, Philibert Jambe de Fer and Jean de Maletty – have been found in the archives. Yet in tax records for the whole of the 16th century over 100 instrumentalists are mentioned, including 27 organists, 12 lutenists, eight violinists, eight trumpeters, seven flautists, seven drummers, six shawm and cornett players and six rebec players. During the century the town also increased in importance as a centre for the manufacture and sale of musical instruments; more than 50 craftsmen worked there, mostly foreign luthiers, including the famous Gaspar Tieffenbrucker and the flute maker Claude Rafi. This tradition remained strong during the 17th and 18th centuries (P. Demouchi, Lisieux, J. Morliet, Louvet, Mériotte, Micot, Guignon, Saraillac, Collesse and J. Frankii).

3. Music publishing in the 16th century.

The first surviving polyphonic choirbook (RISM 1528¹), a collection of four-voice settings of the Mass Proper printed by Bernard Guaynard, includes music by Francesco de Layolle later music editor to Jacques Moderne who published 75 madrigals, 13 chansons, 20 motets and several masses by him. Layolle was the leading composer at Lyons between his arrival from Florence (c1521) and his death (c1540). His son Alamanne was active as an instrumentalist and organist at Lyons between 1551 and 1565 when he returned to Florence. Moderne published in the Parangon des Chansons series (see fig.1) three pieces by the poet-musician Eustorg de Beaulieu, who lived in Lyons between 1534 and 1537; but he gave greater prominence to the work of P. de Villiers, publishing 23 French chansons, four motets, one mass, two Italian pieces and a piece in Provençal dialect by him. A number of minor composers whose music was entirely or predominantly published in Moderne’s anthologies may have had local connections: Gabriel Coste, Henry Fresneau, Antoine Gardane, P. de La Farge, F. de Lys, Guillaume de La Moeulle, Loys Bourgeois and Charles Cordeilles; but as there were no other significant rivals to Attaingnant’s monopoly in France, many composers in the provinces and Italy may have found Lyons a more convenient outlet than Paris. After 1540 Moderne preferred collections devoted to a single composer or tabulator; these include volumes by Layolle, Pierre Colin and the Florentine Mattio Rampollini. Moderne encountered competition during his later years, notably from Godefroy and Marcellin Beringen, brothers of German Protestant origin operating in the rue Mercière between 1544 and 1559. The Beringen press issued psalms by Loys Bourgeois and Simon Joly, psalms and chansons by the younger Didier Lupi, and motets and chansons by Dominique Phinot.

Whereas music represents a significant proportion of the total output of Moderne (55 of 84 signed editions) and Beringen (13 of 62), a number of other printers made exceptional excursions into the field during the latter half of the 16th century. In 1555 and 1556 Matthieu (Macé) Bonhomme published a collection of monophonic noëls and chansons in French or Savoyard dialect by Nicolas Martin of St Jean de Maurienne. Michel du Bois was one of a number of printers whose activity was divided between Geneva and Lyons: between 1555 and 1559 he issued a collection of monophonic psalms by Philibert Jambe de Fer, a Burgundian musician resident at Lyons between 1553 and 1564 when he organized music festivities for the entry of Charles IX. Du Bois also printed his practical treatise Epitome musical and a collection of his four-voice psalms dedicated to the Lyonese banker Georg Obrech. In 1559 Robert Granjon published five music collections, two devoted to four-voice chansons and five- to eight-voice motets by Barthélemy Beaulaigue, a choirboy prodigy at Marseilles, two anthologies of favourite four-part chansons (1559¹⁴ and 1559¹¹) and a collection of 49 psalm paraphrases by Marot set by Michel Ferrier from Cahors. After preparing a book of guitar intabulations printed by Granjon and Fezandat at Paris in 1551 but dedicated to a Lyonese friend, the lutenist Simon Gorlier obtained his own royal privilege to print music in 1558; during the next few years he issued tablatures for the German flute, spinet, guitar and cittern (all lost) as well as a reprint of a lutebook by G.P. Paladino (1560²⁷ – reprinted from an edition of 1553 by G. Pullon de Trino), a collection of chansons spirituelles entitled La lyre chrestienne by Antoine de Hauville (1560) and the chansons and voix de ville by Alamanne de Layolle (1561). Although maligned as a ‘trougnon d’épinette’ in a lampoon published by Loys Bourgeois in 1554, Gorlier remained active in the book trade at Lyons until 1584. Lyons’ Italianate taste is reflected in the fact that the lutebooks of Francesco Bianchini (1547²⁷), G.P. Paladino (1549⁴⁰ and 1560²⁷) and Bálint Bakfark (1552²⁰) use Italian rather than French tablature (Paladino remained at Lyons until his death in 1566). The lute tradition was carried into the 17th century by Ennemond Gaultier (c1575–1651).

The advance of Calvinism, which reached its peak at Lyons in the early 1560s, is reflected in a spate of psalm prints; many included the Genevan melodies and a few were polyphonic settings. The chief publisher, Antoine Vincent, was of Lyonese origin but operated from Geneva with associates such as François Perrin, Jean de Tournes, Jean Maréschal, Charles Pesnot, Augustin Marlorot, Gabriel Cottier, Claude Ravot, Antoine Cercia and Pierre de Mia representing his interests at Lyons. The last two of these collaborated in publishing Jambe de Fer’s simple four-voice setting of the complete Psalter; a second edition by the composer himself in association with Pierre Cussonel and Martin la Roche also appeared in 1564. Another complete setting by Richard Crassot was published in 1564 by Thomas de Straton, who had issued an anthology of chansons spirituelles by Didier Lupi and others in 1561 (for a later revised edition see RISM 1568⁹). Apart from Alamanne de Layolle’s chansons the only secular collection to appear at Lyons during the 1560s was a collection of four-voice madrigals by Giovanni Antonio di Mayo, printed by Antoine Cercia in 1567.

The publications of the next decade were dominated by Jean de Tournes, who in 1572 issued a collection of chansons by Arcadelt with spiritual contrafacta texts edited by Claude Goudimel. De Tournes also published Le II jardin de musique, containing chansons and voix de ville by Cornelius Blockland, and a collection of four- to six-voice chansons by Gilles Maillard of Thérouanne, who lived at Lyons between 1581 and 1584.

Two books of selected chansons by Goudimel and Lassus were published by Jean Bavent in 1574 (1574¹ and 1574²). Three years later Clement Baudin issued the first book of five-voice madrigals (1577¹⁰) by the Luccan Regolo Vecoli; in the same year Gasparo Fiorino, a musician in the service of Cardinal Filippo d’Este of Ferrara, published a collection of Canzonetti alla neopolitano at his own expense.

Charles Pesnot, who had printed an edition of the monophonic Psalter for Antoine Vincent in 1563, returned to music in 1578 with a collection of psalm paraphrases by George Buchanan and three books of chansons (mostly chansons spirituelles) set for four to eight voices by Jean Servin. A collection of popular hymns by the Jesuit Michel Coyssard was published at Lyons by Jean Pillehotte (RISM 1592⁶) before appearing in numerous later editions in other cities. Anthologies of sacred music were issued by Jean Didier (RISM 1610¹¹) and Louis Muguet (RISM 1615⁷), but thereafter the city lost its position as an important centre of music publishing.

4. 1600–1800.

Despite the absence of corporations for civic musicians and the rejection of a Parisian form of organization led by a roy des violons, band music continued and expanded at Lyons during the 17th century. The Desbargues family of instrumentalists grew in stature: Mayot and Martial Desbargues were active from 1575; Dominique Desbargues, maistre en la grand bande in 1643, was succeeded by his son Charles before 1676; and at the opening of the opera in 1688, three Desbargues, Hugues, Charles and Noel, played among the orchestra’s 20 violins. Between 1657 and 1659 Augustin Dandricourt de Sainte-Colombe was employed as maître de musique des enfants at the orphanage (L’Hôpital de la Chana). The Académie Royale de Lyon was instituted in 1687 with a three-year privilege granting performing rights (on payment to Lully’s heirs) of tragédies lyriques which had already been performed at Paris. The first director was Jean-Pierre Leguay (c1655–1731), who engaged as principal singers the Lyonese Jean Journet and his two daughters, Andrée (‘Drion’) and Françoise; the chorus numbered about 25, mostly male (only the top part being sung by women), and there were eight full-time dancers. In addition to 20 strings, the orchestra had five wind players plus continuo instruments – two bass viols (Pierre Bellon and Jean Rebel, the latter doubling on theorbo) and harpsichord (J.B. Duplessis, who also acted as répétiteur). Its first musical director, Philippe Delacroix, was replaced in September 1688 by Pierre Gautier (ii); Leguay continued to organize the choreography and administration. Performances of Lully’s Phaëton, Bellérophon, Armide and Atys were given four times a week before the first opera house (a former tennis court in the rue Pizay) was destroyed by fire on 29 November 1688. Opera performances continued at the home of the governor, the Duke of Villeroy (d 1730), and a new nine-year privilege was granted in December 1690 to Nicolas le Vasseur, who hired stables in the Place Bellecour from the Chaponay family to construct a new theatre. Meanwhile the company mounted productions at Aix-en-Provence, Avignon, Châlon, Dijon, Grenoble and Marseilles. Leguay resumed the direction in 1694 and continued performances of works by Lully and Desmarets. In June 1699 the theatre walls collapsed, and during the next 12 years Leguay’s troupe toured Provence, introducing works by Campra (L’Europe galante 1701, Les fêtes vénitiennes 1710) and Destouches (Issé 1709).

An academy for fine arts, established in 1714 under the patronage of the Duke of Villeroy, promoted both vocal and instrumental music, with weekly concerts including opera excerpts and instrumental music by Lully, Corelli, Mascitti, Senaillé and Jacques Aubert le vieux, concluding with a grand motet composed in the manner of Lalande. This concert society flourished through the support not only of the Villeroy family – notably the duke’s son, the Archbishop Paul-François, who himself composed two grands motets (Vallas, pp.123ff) – but also of a number of enthusiastic amateurs, for instance the scientist J.P. Christin (1683–1755) and the lawyer N.A. Bergiron (1690–1768), who organized the motley musical ensemble (including violins, viols, trumpet marine, guitars, lutes, theorbos, mandolins, harpsichord, flutes, recorders, oboes, bassoons, horns, trumpets, serpent, musette and percussion) and the library.

In 1714 Bergiron composed an Impromptu divertissement for the Duke of Villeroy (F-LYm); a number of similar works were performed at the opera in the course of the ensuing decade and several of his cantatas were published in Lyons by Thomas Marchand in 1729 and in Paris by François Boivin. The new concert society included in its repertory the early motets of Rameau, who was engaged by the council to compose music for the festivities celebrating the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) and for the investiture of the Archbishop Paul-François de Villeroy two years later. By 1715 Rameau had been succeeded as organist at the Jacobins’ church by Pietro Antonio Fiocco and Etienne le Tourneur. In 1728 a certain ‘Fabry, organiste à Lyon’ obtained a privilege to publish in Paris pieces for organ and harpsichord, sonatas, motets and a treatise on accompaniment.

In 1718 Bergiron ceded the direction of the academy to Jacques David, a pupil of Bernier. The academy’s success gave rise to a rival association, the Académie des Jacobins, founded by the Intendante Marie Poulletier in 1718, under the musical direction of François Estienne, a prolific composer of grands motets. After the death of its founder (1727) the second concert society collapsed, and Estienne moved to the original academy, which had acquired a new concert hall in the Place des Cordeliers, designed by the Milanese architect F. Pietra Santa (it remained standing until 1856). Other locations were occasionally used: the College de la Trinité, where between 1722 and 1764 a newly composed motet was performed annually on 8 August for the ‘Voeu de Roi’; and the Hôtel de Ville, where from 1733 during Holy Week and Easter Week the Concert Spirituel was established along the lines of the Parisian model. The library catalogue for this period lists music by Campra, Destouches, François Francoeur and François Rebel, Lully, Morin, Mouret and Montéclair, and also works by local composers such as Mathieu Belouard, Jacques David and the Leclair family. Although the most famous son of Antoine Leclair, Jean-Marie l’aîné, had left Lyons in 1722 to seek his fortune at Turin and subsequently Paris, the rest of the violinist family remained, including Jean-Marie le cadet (1703–77) whose sonatas and musical entertainments Le Rhône et la Saône (1733) and Divertissement champêtre (1736) were performed by the academy. The Lyons violinist Etienne Mangean, whose Concert de simphonie was published at Paris in 1735, played for the Parisian Concert Spirituel between 1742 and 1755. By 1736 the academy’s concert section was virtually independent of the fine arts and sciences section, which organized regular conferences. The orchestra, being more reliant on admission charges and municipal subsidy than membership fees, had become increasingly professional and had appointed more and more violins (the double bass was used from 1727); viols and lutes were rejected so that many of the original participants left but continued to organize amateur concerts on a smaller scale. From 1740 the academy’s concerts were directed by the Parisian François Lupien Grenet; the dazzling performances of visiting virtuosos such as Guignon and Mondonville in the summers of 1744 and 1745, though enthusiastically received, were censured by the academy’s secretary, the organist Louis Bollioud-Mermet, whose treatise on De la corruption du goust dans la musique françoise was published at Lyons by De La Roche in 1746. The old school was also represented by Jean-Baptiste Prin, an actor, dancer and monochord player active at Lyons from 1688, who in 1742 presented to the academy his Traité sur la trompette marine. The conferences thrived during the Age of Reason: Bollioud-Mermet and his colleagues, the Jesuits Jean Dumas and C.-P.-X. Tolomas (1706–62), Charles Bordes (1711–71) and C.-J. Mathon de la Cour (1738–98) read papers on composition, harmony, tuning and music history.

After 1713 the opera received civic subsidies and under the direction of Antoine-Michel Desbargues mounted Campra’s Iphigénie and Destouches’ Callirhoé at the Hôtel du Gouvernement. When Leguay was recalled as director between 1716 and 1722 he mounted only comedies and ballets including the ‘Idylle héroique chantée … dans l’Académie des Beaux-Arts le 25 de May, 1718’, Le retour de Pyrrhus Néoptolème en Epire (Lyons, 1718; manuscript in LYm; see Vallas, pp.149ff); the libretto of the Idylle was by Nicolas Barbier and the music by Paul Villesavoye, the Academy’s maître de musique between 1718 and 1731.

Between 1722 and 1739 the opera was dominated by the Desmarets (Eucher) family: with the chorus cut from 25 to 17 and the dancers from 17 to 13, comédie- and opéra-ballets by Lully, Bourgeois, Campra, Destouches, Francoeur and Rebel were performed alongside potpourris by local musicians such as François Henry Desmarets. Bergiron and Grenet took charge in 1739, giving way to Jean Monnet in 1745, J.S. Mangot in 1749, and Mathieu Belouard in 1751: these changes in direction reflect the opera’s constant financial difficulties, though by 1750 the company had increased to 32 singers and 16 dancers. A highpoint was reached with the presence between 1750 and 1752 and in 1758–9 of the dancer and choreographer J.-G. Noverre; he collaborated in several ballet pantomimes with the composer François Granier, whose cello sonatas were published at Lyons in 1757. In 1756 a new theatre was constructed behind the Hôtel de Ville by J.G. Soufflot; under the direction of the actress Michelle Poncet (Destouches) (1752–79) and her husband, the singer Jean Lobreau, the company presented opere buffe in translation, opéras comiques by Philidor, Monsigny and Duni. Michelle’s half-sister Marie Dunant-Destouches took over the direction between 1782 and 1785, presenting new works by Gluck (Cythère assiegée), Piccinni (who personally directed his Didon in 1787) and Grétry (who visited Lyons on the eve of the Revolution in May 1789). Pygmalion by Coignet and Rousseau was first performed privately at the Hôtel de Ville in 1770.

During the second half of the 18th century the academy’s concerts continued to flourish under the direction of J.S. Mangot (1753–6) and A.L. le Goux (1756–65), who with his brother Claude ran a music shop in the rue Grenette and taught composition, singing and the flute. Foreign virtuosos were frequently invited (e.g. Pugnani in 1754) and some remained (e.g. Lorenzo Carminati, 1711–82). In 1757 20 symphonistes and 20 singers were on the payroll. The grand motet remained the favourite genre: Lalande’s and Mondonville’s dominated, but many by J.F. Lallouette, F. Pétouille, Henry Desmarets, Collin de Blamont and Laurent Belissen were heard at Lyons before being performed in Paris. Excerpts from operas by Rameau, Rebel and Francoeur, Mouret, Montéclair and Gluck were included alongside cantatilles by resident musicians such as Grenet, Itasse and Warin. In 1761 an organ was installed and performances were given of concertos by J.J. Charpentier, the organist at the Hospice de la Charité. Clarinets were added to the orchestra in July 1763 (Baumann taught the clarinet from 1771) and horns were occasionally included. New symphonies by Stamitz, Holzbauer, Fils, Beck, Toeschi, Cannabich, Abel, J.C. Bach, Touchemoulin, Leclair le cadet and Gossec were performed during the 1760s and sold by Le Goux. Claude le Goux continued the business and direction of the academy until its collapse early in 1774, caused by lack of subscriptions. The Mozart family spent four weeks at Lyons in November 1766: Wolfgang played the harpsichord but made little impression. A symphony by Haydn introduced by the academy in 1772 did not enjoy the esteem accorded to Manfredi and Boccherini when they performed together in 1767, or to Clementi, who while in Lyons in 1782 fell in love with one of his piano students, Victoire Imbert-Colomès, the daughter of a banker.

Despite the demise of the academy, musical commerce had almost regained the position it had enjoyed at the international fairs during the 16th century. Numerous instrument makers were active during the late eighteenth century including the harpsichord builders Desruisseux, Donzelague and Collesse. The almanachs of the 1760s list some 80 music teachers, including teachers of singing, of composition and of instruments. Most of the music shops were situated in and around the rue Mercière; the earliest, Debretonne’s, was established before 1735; the Le Goux firm was acquired in 1766 by J.A. Castaud who published and sold music from the Place de la Comédie. A profitable music printing business was begun by the German C.G. Ghera in 1772 and continued after 1778 by his heirs at the Place des Terreaux. Among the wealthiest private patrons were members of the Dumont family of silk manufacturers, who assembled an amateur orchestra at the Maison Mantes to perform Grétry’s overtures and the latest Mannheim symphonies; the group was led by the clarinettist Anton Stadler and included his pupil, the violinist Tony Bauer, who led the concert revival under the Directory in 1795.

5. From 1800.

In 1803 Napoleon was entertained with a concert given by Kreutzer, Lamaire and Garat and with a festive opera, Trajan, composed by the 16-year-old timpanist of the theatre orchestra, Nicholas Bochsa. Two years later on his return as emperor he and Josephine were regaled with Le songe d’Ossian, a cantata by Etienne Foy. By 1820 two opera houses were active with the Célestins presenting opéra comique and mélodrame with a group of 17 musicians and the Grand Théâtre offering grand opéra and ballet with 34 musicians.

Concert life flourished under the guidance of François Alday and Tony Bauer at the Hôtel du Nord between 1805 and 1820 when the cellist François Hainl and the violinist Guérin took the lead. A permanent orchestra engaged to perform in the new opera house was directed successively by Joseph Hainl (1835–9), François Hainl (1841–63), Joseph Luigini (1863–71 and 1873–5), Edouard Mangin (1811–2) and Alexandre Luigini (1877–97). Visiting artists included Liszt (1837 and 1848), Thalberg (1842, 1846 and 1849), Berlioz (1845 and 1848) and Félicien David (Christophe Colomb, 30 June 1847). The tradition of the 18th-century concert societies was revived by Hainl’s Concerts Symphoniques (1833), the Concerts Symphoniques Populaires (1873), the Concerts Symphoniques du Grand Théâtre (1884), the Société Symphonique Lyonnaise (1898), and the Association Lyonnaise des Grands Concerts (1904), later known as the Société des Concerts Philharmoniques and now the Société Philharmonique de Lyon. The Ochestre Philharmonique Rhône-Alpes established in 1969 directed successively by Louis Frémaux, Serge Baudo (1971–89), Emmanuel Krivine (1987–99) and D. Robinson. In 1979 the Choeur de l'Orchestre de Lyon was formed under the direction of Bernard Tetu.

Charles Widor was born at Lyons in 1845 and played the organ at the church of St François between 1860 and 1870. The Lamannière music school for young ladies was established in 1803 and soon followed by another in the Place des Carmes (directed by the guitarist Laflèche and the cellist Lefèvre) and in 1826 by a third in the rue Malet. The municipal school begun by Edouard Mangin in 1872 acquired the status of a national conservatory two years later; subsequent directors included Aimé Gros (1874–81), Augustin Savard (1902–22), Florent Schmidt (1922–4), Georges Witkowski (1924–41), Ennemond Trillat (1941–63), Louis Bertholon (1963–73), Michel Lombard (1973–87) and René Clément (1987–). A new Conservatoire National Supérieure de Musique was established in 1979 to provide professional training in music and dance. Its directors have been the organist Pierre Cochereau and the composer Gilbert Amy (1984–). As well as running courses in early music and organ performance it has a department of electro-acoustic music and music information technology. The Lyons Festival held annually in June and July under the direction of Robert Proton de la Chapelle was launched in 1945; based on a programme of music, dance and theatre, it has included an international competition in improvisation since 1968.

The refurbished Grand Théâtre was inaugurated in 1831 with Boieldieu’s La dame blanche. Enlarged to include a fourth balcony in 1837 (fig.2), it was renamed Lyons Opéra. Although in the second half of the 19th century and in the early 20th, French opera was the backbone of the repertory, with premières of Gounod’s Cinq Mars in 1877, Saint-Saëns’s Etienne Marcel in 1879, Chabrier's Gwendoline in 1893, Pierné's Vendée in 1897 and Mariotte’s Salomé in 1908, the company’s Wagner productions became famous after the local premières of Lohengrin (1891), Tannhäuser (1892), Die Walküre (1894) and Die Meistersinger (1896; also the national première), all sung in French.

From 1955 the Lyons Opéra was directed by Paul Camerlo and from 1970 by his nephew, Louis Erlo, who has made it one of the most adventurous opera companies in France. 1981 Erlo has also directed the Aix-en-Provence Festival and arranged a system of co-productions between Aix and Lyons. In summer, performances are sometimes given at the Roma theatre of Fouvières. The Lyons Berlioz Festival (biennially in October), which represented Berlioz’s operas in the Ravel Auditorium, was transformed into the Biennale de la Musique Française in 1991.

In 1989 the Opéra was closed for renovation and enlargement, reopened in 1993. The Opéra Studio, directed by Louis Erlo and Eric Tappy, is attached to the Opéra as a training school for young singers, making Lyons one of the few French houses with the basis of a permanent company. The Opéra’s music directors have included Theodo Guschlbauer, Serge Baudo, John Eliot Gardiner – who formed the present opera orchestra after the Orchestre National de Lyon, formerly attached to the Opéra, became a permanent symphony orchestra – and, from 1989, Kent Nagano. Several of the most successful productions of the Gardiner and Nagano eras have been recorded. Since 1975 the company has also performed in the Auditorium Maurice Ravel, a large (2055 seats) modern concert hall and opera house situated in the modern district, La Part Dieu.