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MOYA ALIYA MALAMUSI, MOSES YOTAMU

1. Languages, ethnic groups and music history.

Except for small hunter-gatherer groups in the south-west who cross the borders with Namibia and Angola and speak a San language, all the peoples of present-day Zambia speak Bantu languages. Seven Zambian languages are officially approved by the Ministry of Education and are used in schools: Cinyanja (Nyanja), Icibemba (Bemba), Kaonde, Lunda, Luvale, Silozi (spoken by the Lozi) and Tonga (fig.1).

Before 700 ce much of the south was occupied by San hunter-gatherers. When Bantu-language speakers migrated to areas of central and southern Zambia c300–400 ce from the north-east, Bantu-San interaction began. According to Gerhard Kubik (1988; 1994), San ideas of harmonics-based tonal systems were adopted and assimilated by several early waves of Bantu-language-speaking migrants in Zambia and Zimbabwe. A remote San musical heritage can still be identified in tonal-harmonic patterns used by some present-day Zambian ethnic groups.

A division across Zambia according to tonal-harmonic systems was first observed by A.M. Jones (see his ‘harmony map’, 1959). Among southern peoples (Nsenga, Lala, Lenje, Soli, Ila, Tonga and Lozi), the system of harmonic part-singing is based on 4ths, 5ths and octaves, appearing in a distinctive order within their heptatonic tonal system, while among northern peoples (Bemba, Ushi or Aushi, Biisa or Bisa and crossing into the Democratic Republic of the Congo) harmonic part-singing in parallel 3rds prevails (also within a heptatonic system). Mwesa Mapoma noted that this cuts across linguistic and cultural divisions (Mapoma, 1982). An explanation was offered by Kubik (1988), who pointed out that immigrants to Zambia after 1000–1100, such as the ancestors of the Bemba, brought their own harmonic tradition based on 3rds from the area of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, arriving at a time when San speakers had already left most parts of Zambia. In contrast to earlier Bantu migrants, they could not, therefore, have had any contact with San musical ideas. Assimilating some of the offspring of those earlier migrants, now called Lala, Lamba and Swaka, the latter became culturally and linguistically close to the Bemba, but they retained a ‘pre-Bemba cluster of tonal-harmonic traditions’ (Kubik, 1988, p.45), including the so-called Nsenga ‘harmonic cliché’ (ex.1) first identified by Jones (1959, p.218).

At the site of Ingombe Ilede along the Zambezi river, Iron Age artefacts were excavated, including a single flange-welded bell with a central ridge in the middle of the flare and a sharply bent stem-grip (fig.2) that has been radiocarbon dated to between the 5th and 7th centuries ce (Fagan, 1969; Gansemans and Schmidt-Wrenger, 1986). Iron Age technology, including the making of bells, came to Zambia with the first wave of Bantu migrants. Although verification is difficult, it seems that several iron prongs excavated by Joseph O. Vogel at Kumadzulo along the Zambezi river, dating approximately to the same period, are lamellae of early Iron Age lamellophones, reflecting the complex development of African lamellophones in the Zambezi-Zimbabwe cultural area.

The Lunda cluster of peoples extends from the central area of the Democratic Republic of the Congo into north-western Zambia’s Mwinilunga and Kabompo districts, and includes speakers of Lunda, Kaonde and Mbwera-Ng’koya (Mbowela-Nkoya) languages. Trade routes through Katanga in pre-colonial times left their mark on the music of this zone, as did the more recent border crossings by itinerant workers to and from mining centres along the Zambian Copperbelt and in Katanga.

2. Musical traditions of main ethnic groups.

Since Zambia emerged only with the advent of colonial rule, it is understandable that its cultural and stylistic divisions expand into neighbouring countries: Angola, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi, Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Prior to colonial rule, the vast territory was the crossroads for successive migrations and trading connections. Trade stimulated the emergence of powerful centralized states such as the Lozi in the west, Cewa (Chewa) in the east, Bemba in the north and the Mwata Kazembe in the Luapula valley near Lake Mweru.

(i) Bemba-Ushi and related peoples.

Among the Bemba-Ushi peoples in the Northern Province and adjacent areas there are long-established musical genres that include nfunkutu and ndelema dance-songs, mupukumo drinking songs, ishimi story-telling and the more recent kalela dance (Mitchell, 1956). Centralized political structures in this culture area have produced musics associated with traditional rulers, such as the royal cinkumbi drums of the Luunda of Mwata Kazembe near Lake Mweru. Professional musicians in the service of the political hierarchy, called ingomba (Bemba and Ushi) and abafwalwa (Luunda of Mwata Kazembe) (Mapoma, 1974), maintain duties including ‘praising chiefs and the members of the royal family, cheering up a chief, inciting chiefs into taking action and spying’ (Mapoma, 1985, p.6).

South of the Luunda is the area of the Lala, in the Serenje District. Tracey’s recordings include fwanda-fwanda dance-songs accompanied by akanono (conical-shaped drums), cimbulunge and fwanda-fwanda. He also recorded chendende dance-songs with drums, sticks and rattles, and other genres. In a study with Leonard Kombe, Jones analysed an older version of the icila dance among the Lala (Jones and Kombe, 1952).

The Tumbuka people, concentrated in the area of Lundazi in Eastern province, practise healing ceremonies and spirit possession. The Tumbuka are also known for the music and dance genre called mitungu, performed at beer parties or marriage celebrations, accompanied by gourds filled with small stones, struck on the ground in rhythmic patterns such as khwere khwechere, while participants sing.

(ii) Nyanja-Cewa cluster.

Contemporary Cewa society continues to be marked by its ‘nerve centre’, the masked secret association usually called gule wa nkulu (‘big dance’), or, between initiates, nyau. The nyau includes anthropomorphic and zoomorphic masked characters, each assigned specific dance movements. The zoomorphic structures made from scaffolding of twigs and husks of maize are called nyau yolemba (‘mask that draws circles on the ground’), referring to the spatial layout of dance movements. Other masks include: (a) kasinja with head cover of loose net, guinea fowl and chicken feathers, and short skirt made of torn bark, embodying the spirit of the deceased; (b) kang’wing’wi, characterized by high voices and fierce behaviour; (c) nkhalamba (‘old man’); (d) makanja, masked stilt-dancer; (e) cakayamoto, mask with strings of bark set on fire during the dance (Yoshida, 1993).

The Nsenga are related linguistically to the Cewa, but are musically quite different. Their two-part singing style displays chains of 4ths and 5ths, not necessarily parallel, but in a structurally determined order (see the song Therekantalo of the mbanda dance in Kubik, Theory, 1994). Many songs end with the Nsenga ‘harmonic cliché’ (see ex.1). Tracey recorded Nsenga topical songs and an 11-note kalimba lamellophone with a fan-shaped board and external resonator in 1957. Mensah mentions several traditions the Nsenga share with their neighbours (1971, ‘Performing Arts’, p.78), such as mashawe spirit-possession dances and mitungu. In easternmost Chipata, the Nsenga practise chitelela, a dance genre similar to girls’ initiation dances, but intended for much younger girls, involving women who accompany with hand-clapping and two drums.

(iii) Ila-Tonga cluster.

Tonga music is well known owing to Tracey’s 1957 recording efforts of the so-called Valley Tonga, i.e. the Tonga who settled in the basin of the Zambezi river before their homeland was inundated after the completion of the Kariba Dam (see H. and P. Tracey, 1959). Much Tonga music was linked to annual agricultural cycles, such as tunes played for harvest on side-blown reed flutes (fig.4), in addition to pounding, canoe-launching and work-songs, including the muzemu dance with three milupa membranophones, mulai double basket rattles, silimba 12-note gourd-resonated xylophone and namalwa friction drum. Tracey’s recordings include the magnificent nyeele end-blown antelope-horn ensemble with 17 individual horns.

Among Tracey’s documentation of the Lost Valley was a seven-drum set, ngoma dzi yawontiwe, and a four-note chikorekore xylophone played across the legs. He also recorded two lamellophones: kankowela (fan-shaped) and deza (board-shaped with shell buzzers and external resonator). The kalumbo, a one-string, braced, gourd-resonated bow includes a spider’s-web mirliton on its resonating gourd (Tracey, 1973).

Some Tonga musicians are well known throughout the country. Simion Hamucemba (d 1970s) is remembered as an important Tonga guitarist. At a time when many young men went to work in Johannesburg and Salisbury, he warned against going to the cities, as in the song Cakaindilila ikunwa cakabaalilaa kuvuva (‘Drinking beer was too much so that they failed to acquire wealth’).

(iv) Silozi-speaking people and their neighbours.

Further up the Zambezi river, the Lozi occupy an area including a large annually inundated flood-plain. The paramount chief, known as the Litunga, presides over annual kuomboka ceremonies marked by a procession by boat (Kalaluka, 1979; Brown, 1983). At the height of the rain season, the Lozi ceremonially migrate with their cattle to the dry highland, accompanied by a display of performances and musical instruments. In 1957 Tracey recorded siyomboka dance-songs with xylophone and three milupa (membranophones), and girls’ initiation songs, morality songs, manyanga and liyala dances, and kangombio lamellophones.

The silimba gourd-resonated xylophone (fig.5) varying in number of slats from nine to fourteen, has attracted repeated ethnomusicological attention, particularly regarding its manufacture and tuning patterns (Mensah, ‘Principles’, 1970; Kubik, 1988). Although known to be a Lozi instrument, silimba is also used by the neighbouring Nkoya, Mbunda, Kwangwa, Totela and Nyengo (Mensah, ‘Performing Arts’, 1971; Kubik, Theory, 1994).

Lozi maoma royal drums symbolize the authority of the Litunga. Regalia is also kept by lesser chiefs in the Western and North-Western provinces of Zambia, such as lilunga (single iron bell), ndamba (scraper) and other hereditary objects documented by Malamusi and Kubik in the possession of Luchazi village headman, Kajimu Makeche (Kubik, ‘Erbstücke’, 1994). There are also itinerant Silozi-speaking musicians, such as a blind guitarist known throughout the Mongu and Senanga districts as Katiba. Until recently, Katiba performed regularly with his acoustic guitar, playing and singing for people on demand.

(v) Lunda cluster.

Lunda hunters and diviners perform muta to help hunters trap or hunt animals, but it can also afflict a person with illness. In such cases, a member of an afflicted family seeks advice from a chimbanda (healer), and if the chimbanda discovers by divination that the cause of an illness is the muta spirit, then it is indicated that a family member must have died as a hunter and returned as a spirit. The chimbanda also arranges a performance of muta music and dance while administering medicines to the sick individual. The instrument used to accompany muta is a ndamba (scraper) made from a palm stalk about one metre in length. The performer rubs along a notched side, producing a loud sound. The songs are satirical, often containing jokes and personal allusions.

(vi) Luvale-Cokwe cluster.

During the 1970s Cokwe (Chokwe) or Luvale-speaking peoples came to the Zambian mines. Tracey recorded various types of cisanji (lamellophone), including one made entirely of vegetable materials by a Luvale-speaking musician, the ciyanda dance of the Cokwe and the ubiquitous kachacha dance of the Luvale. Kachacha was originally a ceremonial dance of the Luvale in which men and women formed circles while moving anticlockwise, accompanied by a set of up to six jingoma (drums) played by one performer in the middle of the circle. These tall drums, placed against a bar or rack constructed for this purpose (fig.8), are carefully tuned with paste attached to the centre of the drumheads. A second musician beats a time-line pattern with a stick on the wooden body of a drum. The word kachacha derives from the sound of sangu (leg rattles) worn by female dancers that produce the rhythmic sound, ‘cha cha cha’. Kachacha dates back as far as the Luvale, Cokwe, Luchazi and Mbunda can remember.

The Luvale people have several ritual institutions with associated songs such as mukanda, the boys’ circumcision school performed with makishi (masks) (Tsukada, 1988; Kubik, 1993), and girls’ initiation ceremonies, litungu lya mwali (Rauter, 1991). In these contexts songs demonstrate an impressive harmonic singing style (Tsukada, 1990; Kubik, Theory, 1994). During the season of mukanda and litungu lya mwali youths of 10–25 years assemble in villages to perform the shombe dance game, particularly popular among Luvale, Cokwe and Luchazi young people. Performers form a running circle, rotating anticlockwise while clapping hands, then enter the circle, one at a time, briefly dancing before approaching a member of the opposite sex to replace them. Shombe is performed in late evenings. Those who are 20–30 years old perform shikinya, another circle dance, also in late evenings after meals. Accompanying instruments include ngoma (drum), ndamba and pairs of iron tools used for percussion.

Colonial economic policy in the 1920s generated massive labour migration to Northern Rhodesia, notably the Copperbelt, a string of mining towns in the north. Eventually, social conditions in the mines and on European-owned farms generated reactions against exploitation and racial discrimination, culminating in political movements. After the formation of the United National Independence Party (UNIP) in 1960, the country gained independence. The tensions of the pre-independence period and the impact of mass-media technology combined to stimulate compensatory reactions with many innovations in the arts, particularly music and literature.

3. Modern developments.

One reaction to colonial rule was the rise of the kalela dance among the Biisa that included military-style parading (Mitchell, 1956). Jones was among the first who paid attention to such emerging traditions in Zambia (1945; 1959). In the early 1920s the introduction of Christian hymns and school music stimulated new forms of religious music, either within established churches or in separatist religious movements, such as the Emilio and Lumpa churches of the 1950s.

In the field of popular dance music, Zambia became a crossroads of central and southern African styles. From the 1940s until the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) of Southern Rhodesia in 1965, exported music from South Africa and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) via mass media was a dominant factor in many urban centres. Soon after 1945 gramophones and radios became common among civil servants and mine-workers. Hollywood cinema became a regular feature in most towns and at schools, with South African music films promoting jive, makwaya (choirs) and kwela regularly shown as pre-programmes as early as the mid-1950s. The Central African Broadcasting Station (CABS) was established in 1945, and a typical programme in the 1950s included jazz and country records from the USA, jive and makwaya from South Africa, guitar recordings from Southern Rhodesia and also locally recorded music, resulting in an instant recycling of innovative trends. New urban musical forms emerging in the 1940s and 50s in South Africa soon spilled over into what became the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1953–63), including Northern Rhodesia. The most important development of the late 1940s and the 50s, however, was acoustic guitar music, particularly in the mining centres of the Copperbelt, involving mine-workers from diverse ethnic groups. For this reason, the new guitar music is often called the Copperbelt or Katanga guitar style. Tracey’s recordings of 1952 and 1957 include excellent demonstrations of this style performed by Steven Tsotsi Kisumali.

Returning migrant workers brought guitars to their home villages in the 1950s and 60s. When guitars were brought to Mwinilunga, Kabompo and Zambezi, their presence generated distinct Lunda, Luvale and Luchazi guitar styles, as demonstrated in Thomas Maliti’s distinctive Luchazi-style guitar playing. A specific Lunda guitar style had already developed before 1950 in the mining centres of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and some of these songs were based on the kachacha time-line. While Copperbelt guitar music was a spontaneous development in the milieu of mine workers, there were simultaneous developments within institutions controlled by Europeans, such as missions, schools and the state radio station.

A key musical personality in Lusaka during the 1950s was Alick Nkhata, singer, guitarist and composer. He undertook recording trips with Tracey and was later employed by CABS, forerunner of the Zambian Broadcasting Service (ZBS), where he supervised an extensive programme of recording musical traditions throughout Zambia. The Alick Nkhata Quartet, a vocal group that set traditional songs to makwaya harmonies, became popular for humorous texts that castigated social evils of an urbanized society. In the 1960s and 70s Zambia became a haven for refugees from South Africa and Rhodesia, among them musicians and singers, including Zimbabwe-born Dorothy Masuka, who won the award as the outstanding artist at the Algiers Pan-African Cultural Festival (1969). Masuka identified with Zambian society and recorded in Cinyanja, although with a foreign accent. In her songs she joined the Zambian government’s struggle for a reversal of the urbanization trend.

In the 1970s and 80s soul and reggae music influenced urban groups striving to create something Zambian. Several terms were coined, such as Zamrock, but the breakthrough came at the grassroots level; kalindula, from a rural area in the north, can be played with various instruments, from common electric guitars to home-made acoustic instruments. Spokes Chola made this music popular with Mansa Radio Band. Chola received a prize in 1981 from the National Music Industry as the best rural band in Zambia. Chola, a blind man, has made many records with the Zambia Teal Record Company, and after the release of his records, kalindula spread rapidly to other parts of the country.

Apart from 19th-century travellers’ accounts (Livingstone, 1865; Holub, 1881), systematic musical research began in the 1930s with the efforts of Jones who worked from 1929 to 1950 as a missionary and principal at St Mark’s College, Mapanza. Some fundamentals of African music, valid in many African musical cultures, were noted by Jones using Zambian material: the principle of interlocking drum beats; the presence of a ‘multiple main beat’ and the intrinsic structure of time-line patterns, particularly the five-stroke, 12-pulse time-line common in many musical cultures of eastern and southern Zambia.

4. Research.

Hugh Tracey, a contemporary of Jones, undertook four comprehensive recording tours to Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) in 1948, 1949, 1952 and 1957. Particularly important in the coverage of various Zambian traditions are his 1957 recordings, published in the AMA Sound of Africa series. In the 1970s Atta Annan Mensah demonstrated a new approach to the analysis of Zambian musical traditions drawing on concepts such as ‘bi-musicality’ (Mensah, ‘Ndebele-Soli Bi-Musicality’, 1970). He also presented a diachronic analysis of the musical traditions of a single village (Mensah, ‘The Music of Zumaile’, 1970). Mapoma (1974) presented a detailed study of ingomba, the royal court musicians among the Bemba in Luapula and Northern provinces. He also studied musical instruments of the Lala of Serenje district and worked on the issue of Bantu migration and music history (1982). In 1971, 1973 and 1977–8 Kubik, Kayombo ka Chinyeka and Moses Yotamu conducted comprehensive fieldwork among Luchazi speakers in Kabompo District, on mukanda boys’ initiation, makisi masked dancing and visimo chantefables (Kubik, 1975; 1993). This work was continued in 1979 and in 1987 by the research team of Moya A. Malamusi, Lidiya Malamusi and Kubik. In 1990 Eva Rauter carried out an ethno-choreographic study of Luvale litungu lya mwali (girls’ initiation). A socio-musical study of mukanda among the Luvale at Chavuma was undertaken in the 1980s by Kenichi Tsukada (1988; 1990). In 1994 Tsukada analysed ‘phonaesthetic systems’ among the Luvale, in cooperation with Yotamu, studying mnemonic devices used in the teaching of drumming. Ernest Brown (1983) covered the famous Kuomboka ceremony among the Lozi of Western province, also described by Likando Kalaluka (1979). In Eastern province, Kenji Yoshida and his wife carried out extensive fieldwork in 1984–6 on the nyau masked society of the Cewa.

(1) Nikolay Ivanovich Zaremba

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D. and C. Livingstone: Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries; and of the Discovery of the Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa 1858–1864 (London, 1865)

E. Holub: Seven Years in South Africa: Travels, Researches and Hunting Adventures between Diamond-Fields and the Zambezi, 2 vols. (London, 1881)

A.M. Jones: ‘African Music: the Mganda Dance’, African Studies, iv (1945), 180–88

A.M. Jones: African Music in Northern Rhodesia and some Other Places, The Occasional Papers of the Rhodes-Livingstone Museum, iv (Manchester, 1949)

A.M. Jones: ‘The Kalimba of the Lala Tribe, N. Rhodesia’, Africa, xx (1950), 324–34

A.M. Jones and L. Kombe: The Icila Dance, Old Style: a Study in African Music and Dance of the Lala Tribe of Northern Rhodesia (Roodeport, 1952)

J.C. Mitchell: The Kalela Dance: Aspects of Social Relationships among Urban Africans in Northern Rhodesia, The Occasional Papers of the Rhodes-Livingstone Museum, xxvii (Manchester, 1956)

A.M. Jones: Studies in African Music, 2 vols. (London, 1959)

H. and P. Tracey: ‘The Lost Valley, a Broadcast Programme’, AfM, ii/4 (1959), 44

J. Blacking: ‘Patterns of Nsenga Kalimba Music’, AfM, ii (1961), 26–43

B.M. Fagan: Iron Age Cultures in Zambia, Robin Series, v (London, 1967–9)

A.A. Mensah: ‘The Music of Zumaile Village, Zambia’, AfM, iv (1970), 96

A.A. Mensah: ‘Ndebele-Soli Bi-Musicality in Zambia’, Yearbook of the International Folk Music Council, ii (1970), 108–20

A.A. Mensah: ‘Principles Governing the Construction of the Silimba, a Xylophone Type Found among the Lozi of Zambia’, Review of Ethnology, iii/3 (1970), 17–24

A.A. Mensah: Music and Dance in Zambia (Ndola, Zambia, 1971)

A.A. Mensah: ‘Performing Arts in Zambia, Music and Dance’, Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research, xiii (1971), 67–82

Kayombo ka Chinyeka: Vihandyeka vya mana (Sayings of Wisdom), Accta Ethnologica et Linguistica xxx, Series Africana viii (Vienna, 1973)

H. Tracey: Catalogue: the Sound of Africa Series (Roodeport, 1973)

M.I. Mapoma: Ingomba: the Royal Musicians of the Bemba People of the Luapula and Northern Provinces of Zambia (diss., UCLA, 1974)

G. Kubik: ‘Kulturelle und sprachliche Feldforschungen in Nordwest-Zambia, 1971 und 1973’, Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research, xvii (1975), 87–115

D.W. Phillipson: The Later Prehistory of Eastern and Southern Africa (London, 1977)

L. Kalaluka: Kuomboka: a Living Traditional Culture among the Malozi People of Zambia (Lusaka, 1979)

M.I. Mapoma: Survey of Zambian Musical Instruments: Case Study: Musical Instruments of the Lala People of Serenje Districts (Lusaka, 1982)

E. Brown: ‘Drums on the Water: the Kuomboka Ceremony of the Lozi of Zambia’, African Musicology, i (1983), 65–80

M.A. Malamusi: ‘The Zambian Popular Music Scene’, Jazz Research, xvi (1984), 189–98

M.I. Mapoma: ‘Music and Bantu Migration Pattern’, (1985)

J. Gansemans and B. Schmidt-Wrenger, eds.: Zentralafrika: Musikgeschichte in Bildern (Leipzig, 1986)

G. Kubik: ‘Nsenga/Shona Harmonic Patterns and the San Heritage in Southern Africa’, EthM, xxxii/2 (1988), 39–76

K. Tsukada: Luvale Perceptions of Mukanda in Discourse and Music (diss., Queen’s U. of Belfast, 1988)

G. Kubik: ‘The Southern African Periphery: Banjo Traditions in Zambia and Malawi’, World of Music, xxxi (1989), 3–30

K. Tsukada: ‘Kukuwa and Kachacha: the Musical Classification and the Rhythmic Patterns of the Luvale in Zambia’, Peoples and Rhythms, ed. T. Sakurai (Tokyo, 1990), 29–75

K. Tsukada: ‘Variation and Unity in African Harmony: a Study of Mukanda Songs of the Luvale in Zambia’, Florilegio Musicale: Festschrift für Professor Dr. Kataoka Gido zu seinem siebzigsten Geburtstag, ed. U. Mubuchi and others (Tokyo, 1990)

W. Bender: Sweet Mother: Modern African Music (Chicago, 1991)

E. Rauter: Litungu lya mwali: Mädcheninitiation bei den -Luvale und verwandten Ethnien in Nordwestzambia (diss., U. of Vienna, 1991)

G. Kubik: Makisi, Nyau, Mapiko: Maskentraditionen im Bantu-sprachigen Afrika (Munich, 1993)

K. Yoshida: ‘Masks and Secrecy among the Chewa’, African Arts, (April 1993), 34–45

M. Yotamu: ‘Notes on Zambian LPs and 45 r.p.m. Singles (Text Transcriptions and Translations)’, deposited at the African Music Archive, U. of Mainz (Mainz, 1993)

G. Kubik: ‘Erbstücke eines Kalucasi-Dorfvorstehers: Chief Kajimo Makeche’, Vergleichend-systematische Musikwissenschaft, ed. T. Hilscher and T. Antonicek (Tutzing, 1994), 297–326

G. Kubik: Theory of African Music, i (Wilhelmshaven, 1994)

Zambomba

(Sp.).

Friction drum. See Drum, §I, 4.

Zamboni, Giovanni

(b Rome, 2nd half of the 17th century; d Pisa, early 18th century). Italian composer. He was noted as a virtuoso on the theorbo, lute, harpsichord, guitar, mandore and mandolin. As such Zamboni, who also seems to have been a jeweller, found employment at Pisa Cathedral. His collection of Sonate d’intavolatura di leuto op.1 was published at Lucca in 1718. A contemporary account praises him as a ‘very excellent contrapuntist’, an ability which may be seen in his two books of four-part madrigals with continuo (I-Bc); they are, however, in a conservative style, and not dramatic. Lost works include two cantatas, a sonata for two lutes, two violins and basso continuo, and a sinfonia. He may have been related to V. Zambone, a Sistine Chapel singer in 1582.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Matei: ‘Fragmenta’, NA, xvii (1940), 72–3

‘Der Wiener Musikalienhandel von 1700 bis 1778’, Wiener Musikwissenschaftliche Beitrage, v (1960), 100–01

CAROLYN GIANTURCO

Zamboni, Giuseppe.

See Zamponi, Giuseppe.

Zamboni, Luigi

(b Bologna, 1767; d Florence, 28 Feb 1837). Italian bass-baritone. He made his début in 1791 at Bologna in Cimarosa’s Il fanatico burlato. He sang in Naples, Venice, Parma, at La Scala and at the Teatro Argentina, Rome, where in 1816 he created Figaro in Il barbiere di Siviglia, a role which Rossini, whose father was a family friend, had written specially for him. For two seasons from 1829 he directed an Italian company at St Petersburg, performing 19 Rossini operas (and other works) in Italian, with recitatives intact.

ELIZABETH FORBES

Zamboni, Maria

(b Peschiera, 25 July 1895; d Verona, 25 March 1976). Italian soprano. She studied at the Parma Conservatory and in Milan. Following her début in 1921 as Marguerite in Faust at Piacenza, she sang in many leading Italian houses, including La Scala from 1924 to 1931, missing only the 1928 season. In 1926 she sang Liù in the première of Turandot under Toscanini, and in 1930 created the part of Maria in Pizzetti’s Lo straniero. She was also a favourite in South America. Her repertory included the roles of Elsa and Eva, Desdemona, and Manon in the operas of both Massenet and Puccini. The latter she recorded complete in 1930. She retired in 1936, shortly after appearing at the S Carlo, Naples, in her original role of Liù and in the title role of Mario Persico’s Morenita. As heard on records, her vibrato is too prominent for comfort, but she sings with lively temperament and characterizes vividly.

J.B. STEANE

Zámečník, Evžen

(b Frýdek-Místek, 5 Feb 1939). Czech composer and conductor. He studied the violin and composition at the Brno Conservatory (1956–61), then composition with Kapr at the Janáček Academy; his graduation piece was the one-act opera Fraška o kádi (A Farce about the Tub). Thereafter he was a pupil of Bialas at the Hochschule in Munich (1968–70) and of Dvořáček at the Prague Academy of Musical Arts (1974–9). For many years Zámečník was a violinist with the Janáček Opera and the Brno State PO. In 1982 he became founder-director of the Brno Brass Band, an ensemble for which he and other Czech composers have written numerous pieces and arrangements. From 1989 to 1994 he was dramaturge of the opera at the National Theatre in Brno (until 1991 State Theatre of Brno, 1991–93 Regional Theatre of Brno). He was president of the board of the Copyright Union Fund (1992–8), and in 1994 was appointed director of the Brno Conservatory. At first Zámečník's style gravitated towards neo-classicism; later this was extended to include atonální a modální compositional techniques. Many of his works are tributes to celebrated figures such as Stravinsky, André Breton, Pablo Casals and Janáček. Most of Zámečník's works abound with humorous combinations of ideas or expressions, not unlike concerts of the Brno Brass Band.

WORKS

(selective list)

stage and vocal

Ops: Ferda mravenec [Ferda the Ant] (children's op, Zámečník, after O. Sekora), 1971, Brno, Janáček, 3 June 1977; Brouk Pytlík [Baggy the Beetle] (children's op, R. Žák, after Sekora), 1982, Prague, Smetana, 8 April 1988

Vocal: Impromptus I, SATB, 1969; Impromptus II, SATB, tpt, 1969; Tam pod horamipod vysokými [There beneath the High Hills] (P. Bezruč, folk poetry), spkr, Bar, SA, orch, 1975; Hrátky [Games] (medieval text), S, T, SATB, fl, va, brass ens, 1984; Lašské jaro (Bezruč, folk poetry), Bar, SATB, va, orch, 1989

instrumental

Orch: Elegie, vn, str, 1969; In memoriam I. Stravinskij, 1971; Musica concertante, str, 1973; Musica giocosa, str, 1973; Vn Conc. no.1, 1976; Kontaktonia I, vn, fl, str, 1977; Divertimento semplice, str, 1979; Preludio deciso, 1979; Musica lamentosa, 1982; Serenata piccola, str, 1983; Conc. grosso, 1984; Rondo buffo, 2 vn, str, 1996

Wind orch: Sojuz-Apollo, 1975; Žabáci a dinosauři [Frogs and Dinosaurs], 1978; Moravské preludium [Moravian Prelude], 1979; Variace na téma J. Pravečka, 1981; Moravská rapsodie, 1984; Lašské slunce [Lachian Sun], 1988; La dernière valse, 1992; Kerkrade panorama, 1993; Junácká suita [Scouts' Suite], 1994; Bitva u Slavkova [The Battle of Slavkov], 1994; Concertino giocoso, cl, wind orch, 1996; Dance Fascination, 1996; Dětská symfonie (Hommage à Joseph Haydn) [Children's Sym.], 1996; Schubert-Metamorphosen, 1997; Concertino, vn, wind orch, 1998

Chbr and solo: Suite, vn, 1963; Str Qt no.1, 1964; Duo, 2 vn, 1966; Duo II, 2 vn, 1969; Elegie, vn, pf, 1969; 12 etud, vn, 1970; Meditace, str qt, 1974; Suite, wind qnt, 1974; Duo, vn, vc, 1975; Musica per P. Casals, vc, 1975; Str Qt no.2, 1976; Obrazy [Pictures], pf trio, 1978; Canto, vn, pf, 1979; Etuda, D, vc, 1980; U Harabiša [At Harabiš's], Moravian dance, brass ens/orch, 1980; Capricio, accdn, 1982; Trio, 3 va, 1982; Str Qt no.3, 1987; Trio, fl, pf, 1993; Moto perpetuo, vn, pf, 1996; Trombonella I, trbn, pf, 1998

Principal publishers: Český Hudební Fond, Partor, Schott, Supraphon

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Linka: ‘Orchestr s trojí iniciálou B v názvu’ [The orchestra with 3 Bs in their name], OM, xv (1983), 286–7

J. Fukač: ‘Křižovatky Evžena Zámečníka’ [Zámečník's points of crossing], OM, xviii (1986), 21–5

J. Šmolík: ‘Tři otázky pro Evžena Zámečníka’ [Three questions for Zámečník], HRo, 1 (1997), 34–5

MOJMÍR SOBOTKA

Zaminer, Frieder

(b Kronstadt [now Braşov], Romania, 31 Oct 1927). German musicologist. He studied musicology with Thrasybulos Georgiades, Greek philology with Otto Regenbogen and philosophy with Hans Georg Gadamer at Heidelberg University (1948–54). He took the doctorate at Heidelberg in 1956 with a dissertation on the Vatican organum treatise. From 1958 to 1961 he was an assistant lecturer in the musicology department of Munich University, and subsequently, as the holder of an award from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, he concentrated on research in ancient music and contributed to the 12th edition of the Riemann Musik Lexikon. Between 1968 and 1991 he was director of the historical department of the Staatliches Institut für Musikforschung of the Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin, where he edited a comprehensive history of music theory; in 1973 he also became a lecturer in musicology at the Free University and in 1982 at the Technical University of Berlin. Among the publications he has edited are Geschichte der Musiktheorie (1984–) and Die Musik des Altertums (1989). He is principally concerned with ancient and medieval music and with the theory and terminology of music.

WRITINGS

Der vatikanische Organum-Traktat (Ottob. lat. 3025) (diss., U. of Heidelberg, 1956; Tutzing, 1959)

with H.H. Eggebrecht: Ad organum faciendum (Mainz, 1970)

ed.: Über Musiktheorie: Berlin 1970 [incl. ‘Griechische Musiktheorie und das Problem ihrer Rezeption’, 9–14]

‘Griechische Musikaufzeichnungen’, Musikalische Edition im Wandel des historischen Bewusstseins, ed. T. Georgiades (Kassel, 1971), 9–27

‘Rhythmus und Zeitdauern-Organisation’, Zur Terminologie der Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts: Freiburg 1972, 60–68

‘Über die Herkunft des Ausdrucks “Musik verstehen”’, Musik und Verstehen, ed. P. Faltin and H.P. Reinecke (Cologne, 1974), 314–19

‘Konsonanzordnung und Saitenteilung bei Hippasos von Metapont’, Jb des Staatlichen Instituts für Musikforschung 1981/82, 231–40

‘Hypate, Mese und Nete im frühgriechischen Denken’, AMw, xli (1984), 1–26

‘Die “Tonhöhe”: zum Problem ihrer Auffassung seit der Antike’, Musik in Antike und Neuzeit, ed. M. von Albrecht (Bern, 1987), 17–29

‘Rhythmischer Kontrapost bei Aischylos’, Das musikalische Kunstwerk: Festschrift Carl Dahlhaus, ed. H. Danuser and others (Laaber, 1988), 186–96

‘Rhythmus und Form in Pindars 12. Pythischer Ode’, Liedstudien: Wolfgang Osthoff zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. M. Just and R. Wiesend (Tutzing, 1989), 5–30

with S. Ziegler: ‘Polyphonie médiévale et polyphonie Caucase’, Polyphonies de tradition orale: Royaumont 1990, 69–84

‘Jean Pierre Burette (1665–1747) und die Erforschung der antiken Musik im Rahmen der Pariser Inschriften-Akademie’, Akademie und Musik: Erscheinungsweisen und Wirkungen des Akademiegedankens in Kultur- und Musikgesichte … : Festschrift für Werner Braun, ed. W. Frobenius and others (Saarbrücken, 1993), 289–99

‘Mousiki: zur frühen Wort- und Begriffsgeschichte’, Sprache und Musik, ed. A. Riethmüller (Laaber, 1997)

‘Von der Musenkunst zur Musik’, Perspektiven einer Geschichte des abendländischen Hörens, ed. W. Gratzer (Laaber, 1997), 45–57

HANS HEINRICH EGGEBRECHT/KARL-HEINZ SCHLAGER

Zammāra.

See Mizmār.

Zampieri, Mara

(b Padua, 24 May 1941). Italian soprano. She studied in Padua and made her début in 1972 at Pavia as Nedda. After singing at various Italian theatres, in 1978 she appeared at La Scala in three Verdi roles: Elisabeth de Valois (Don Carlos), Amelia (Un ballo in maschera) and Amalia (I masnadieri). Having made her British début in 1983 at Newcastle as Tosca, she sang the role at Covent Garden a year later. Her repertory also includes Donizetti’s ‘Tudor trilogy’, Norma, Maddalena (Andrea Chénier), Zandonai’s Francesca, Puccini’s Minnie and Manon Lescaut and Katerina Izmaylova, which she sang at La Scala in 1992. Verdi’s Lady Macbeth (which she has recorded memorably with Sinopoli), Odabella (Attila), Elvira (Ernani), Leonora (Il trovatore), Aida and Amelia (Simon Boccanegra) are among her finest roles. The dramatic intensity of Zampieri’s performances and the magnetism of her appearance compensate for a slightly raw edge to her tone.

ELIZABETH FORBES

Zampogna

(It.; Sp. zampoña).

See Bagpipe. See also Panpipes {South American, Andea} {2}.

Zamponi [Zamboni, Samponi], Giuseppe [Gioseffo]

(b Rome, 1600–10; d Brussels, Feb 1662). Italian composer. On 1 November 1629 he succeeded Paolo Tarditi (who probably taught him) as organist of S Giacomo degli Spagnoli, Rome. He left there at the end of May 1638. In February 1638 he appears in the household register of Cardinal Pier Maria Borghese as ‘aiutante di camera’. The cardinal died in June 1642 and nothing more is known of Zamponi’s movements until 1648, when, at the request of Archduke Léopold-Guillaume, governor-general of the Low Countries, he went to Brussels with a number of other Italian musicians. He brought with him a mass composed in homage to the archduke, and he was named director of chamber music. In a document dated 1661 he is described as director of music to the Elector of Cologne. He enjoyed considerable success, both financially and in terms of renown. He owned two houses in Brussels, and his wealth was great enough to provoke a legal dispute among his inheritors lasting several years. Huygens, writing to a correspondent in Austria in 1657, asked if his correspondent had ‘something distinguished … either by Sr. Zamponi or by someone else you esteem’. Zamponi’s Ulisse all’isola di Circe, the first opera to be performed in the southern Netherlands, was presented at court in honour of the marriage of Philip IV of Spain and Maria Anna of Austria. With the Ballet du monde of Giambattista Balbi performed between the acts, Ulisse was staged by the highly praised G.B. Angelini. Two further performances took place in 1655 at the specific request of Queen Christina of Sweden, who was paying a state visit to Brussels. The opera is in the Venetian style. Three chamber sonatas by Zamponi are extant. Evans singled out the extended opening Adagio of one sonata (at GB-DRc) and referred to Zamponi’s noteworthy powers of expression.

WORKS

2 sacred pieces, I-Rc

Ulisse all’isola di Circe (op), Brussels, court, 24 Feb 1650, A-Wn, B-Bc (copy by Wotquenne)

Dies irae, 5vv, 3 insts, S-Uu

Sonata, vn, va da gamba, bc, GB-DRc

Sonata, vn, va, bc, F-Pn (attrib. Zamboni)

Sonata, 2 vn, bc, B-Bc

Capriccio, F-Pn

2 arias, 1640²

Many lost works, incl. 2 masses, motets, cited in 1666 inventory of J. Tichon, in 1734 inventory of Oudenaarde parish church, and in Salvati catalogue, 1874: B-Bc

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

Vander StraetenMPB, i; ii

J. Chifflet: Aula sacra principum Belgii (Antwerp, 1650)

W.J.A. Jonckbloet and J.P.N. Land, eds.: Musique et musiciens au XVIIe siècle (Leiden, 1882)

R. Haas: ‘Gioseppe Zamponis “Ulisse nell’isola di Circe”’, ZMw, iii (1920–21), 385–405; v (1922–3), 63 only

H. Liebrecht: ‘Les origines de l’opéra à Bruxelles’, Le flambeau (31 Dec 1921)

A. van der Linden: ‘Un fragment d’inventaire musical du XVIIe siècle’, RBM, iii (1949), 43–4

C. van den Borren: Geschiedenis van de muziek in de Nederlanden, ii (Antwerp, 1951), 59ff

P. Evans: ‘Seventeenth-Century Chamber Music Manuscripts at Durham’, ML, xxxvi (1955), 205–23

MARY ARMSTRONG FERRARD/PHILIPPE VENDRIX

Zanata [Zanatta, Zannatta], Domenico

(b Verona, c1665; d Verona, 5 Aug 1748). Italian composer. In 1724 he and his son, Girolamo, entered the competition for the post of maestro di cappella of Verona Cathedral. Girolamo was awarded the appointment but conceded it to his father out of respect and took instead the job of teaching ‘figured song’ at the Scuola degli Accoliti in Verona. In 1746 Domenico was able to hand over the post to his son, who held the position until his death in 1770.

Zanata’s music displays a sound contrapuntal technique and a devotion to a cappella vocal polyphony; at the same time, he adheres to the concertante forms of the period, and his work is notable for its expressive power, particularly the cantatas, in which pregnant melodic lines are combined with rich harmony. The variety of rhythmic patterns and the frequent changes from duple to triple time are noteworthy.

WORKS

Sonate da chiesa, a 3, op.1 (Bologna, 1689)

Cantate a voce sola, S, vns, op.2 (Venice, 1695)

Intrecci armonici … cantate a voce sola, S, A, op.4 (Venice, 1696)

Cantate a voce sola, S; ariette, S, vns, op.6 (Venice, 1698)

Salmi spezzati, 4vv, op.7 (Venice, 1715)

Oratorios: Il sacrificio di Abram (L. Nogarola), I-VEc; Il peccato originale, A-Wn

3 masses; Ky and Gl; Missa brevis; 3 resp; Requiem; 2 Mag; Improperia et vexilla; Haec dies; Victimae paschali; Veni Sancte Spiritus; Litanie della BVM; Dixit Dominus: Wn, I-Nc, VEcap

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (G. Vecchi); SchmitzG

A. Spagnolo: Le scuole accolitali in Verona(Verona, 1904)

C. Bologna: ‘Dalla musica post-rinascimentale ai giorni nostri’, La musica a Verona, ed. P. Brugnoli (Verona, 1976), 217–422

GUIDO SALVETTI

Zancanaro, Giorgio

(b Verona, 9 May 1939). Italian baritone. He studied in Verona and after winning the 1970 Voci Verdiane competition made his début at the Teatro Nuovo, Milan, as Riccardo (I puritani). He appeared at Parma, Bologna, Florence and Venice, then launched an international career singing Luna at Hamburg (1977). He made his Covent Garden début in 1978 as Miller (Luisa Miller), returning as Enrico Ashton, Escamillo, Posa, Gérard (Andrea Chénier), Ezio (Attila) and Anckarstroem (Un ballo in maschera). He sang Ford at La Scala (1981), and made his Metropolitan début (1982) as Anckarstroem, subsequently appearing there as Luna. His repertory also includes Albert (Werther), Scarpia and many Verdi roles, notably Nabucco, Macbeth, Germont and Iago, which he sang at Verona in 1994. His many recordings include Luna, Carlo (La forza del destino), Germont, Rigoletto, Montfort (Les vêpres siciliennes), William Tell and Scarpia. Zancanaro has a powerful voice, particularly strong in the upper register, and though not a particularly subtle artist he can portray a character on stage with impressive conviction.

ELIZABETH FORBES

Zanchi, Liberale

(b Treviso, c1570; d after 1621). Italian composer. The place and approximate date of his birth can be deduced from the title-page and preface of his first book of five-part madrigals (1595), which he described as ‘my first works’. He was recorded in 1595 and 1596 as Kapellmeister and organist to the Archbishop of Salzburg, and he was chamber organist to the Emperor Rudolf II in Prague from 1 November 1596 until the emperor’s death in 1612. He did not continue as a musician under Rudolf's successor, Matthias, but the imperial court still owed him a large sum of money in 1621.

Apart from the madrigals of 1595 Zanchi’s works have not survived complete, which is probably a major reason why they have not yet been properly studied. The technique of cori spezzati seems to have had a considerable influence on Zanchi; he may have modelled his polychoral writing on that of Jakob Handl, who was active in Prague until 1591. His canzonas were among the seminal pieces in 17th-century Austrian instrumental music.

WORKS

Il primo libro de madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1595)

Sacrae cantiones, 6–8, 12vv (Venice, 1598), inc.

Sacrarum cantionum, 6–8, 12, 16vv, liber 2 (Venice, 1602), inc.

Cantiones a 4 e 8vv per ogni sorte d’istrumenti (Prague, 1603), inc.

5 psalmorum in vesperis, 8, 12vv (Prague, 1604), inc.

Other vocal and instrumental works in contemporary MSS and pubd collections, including 6 canzonas in A-Wm

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Smijers: ‘Die kaiserliche Hofmusik-Kapelle von 1543–1619’, SMw, vi (1919), 139–86; ix (1922), 43–81

H. Spies: ‘Die Tonkunst in Salzburg in der Regierungszeit des Fürsten und Erzbischofs Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau (1587–1612)’, Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Salzburger Landeskunde, lxxi (1931), 1–64; lxxii (1932), 65–136

F.W. Riedel: Das Musikarchiv im Minoritenkonvent zu Wien, CaM, i (Kassel, 1963), 133

HELLMUT FEDERHOFER

Zänckl, Narcissus.

See Zängel, Narcissus.

Zander, Johan David

(b 1753; d Stockholm, 21 Feb 1796). Swedish conductor, violinist, viola player and composer. His father, the bassoonist and oboist Johan David Zander (1714–74), moved from Germany to Stockholm as a member of the orchestra of Prince Adolphus Frederik, who acceded to the Swedish throne in 1743. The younger Johan joined the orchestra as a violinist in 1772, rose to third Konzertmeister in 1787 and deputy Konzertmeister the next year, a post he held until his death. As a solo violinist, viola player and conductor he frequently appeared in concerts in Stockholm. He taught the violin at the Swedish Royal Academy of Music from 1785 and at the Opera school from 1786; he became a member of the Academy in 1786.

After his first published works, the two violin solos (1781), Zander composed theatre music in which he emulated the style of French opéra comique and German Singspiel, inserting familiar Swedish national tunes. The combination proved quite popular; from 1784 until his death he composed for and served as musical director of Carl Stenborg’s theatre, which under him enjoyed its greatest success.

WORKS

all in MS in S-St unless otherwise stated

stage

all first performed in Stockholm

Kopparslagaren [The Coppersmith] (comic op, 1, C. Envallsson), Eriksberg, 8 Dec 1781

Donnerpamp (parody, 1, C.I. Hallman and C. Stenborg), Eriksberg, 21 June 1783

Njugg spar och fan tar, eller Åldrarnes dårskaper [Thrift Saves and the Devil Takes, or The Folly of the Age] (comic op, 2, Envallsson), Eriksberg, 17 Feb 1784

Herregårds Högtiden [The Manor Feast] (dramatic divertissement, 1, Envallsson), Eriksberg, 4 Aug 1784

Landstiguingen [The Landing] (play with music, 1, D.G. Björn), Royal, 22 July 1788

Lisette (comic op, 3, N.B. Sparrschöld), Munkbro, 25 Jan 1789

Den tokroliga natten, eller Lyckan står de djärfve bi [The Ludicrous Night, or Fortune Stands by the Bold] (comic op, 4, Envallsson, after G. Stephanie: Doktor und Apotheker), Munkbro, 28 Oct 1791

Qvinnorna och förtroendet (Women and Trust] (comic op, 1, J.M. Lannerstierna, after A.-F. Quétant: Les femmes et le secret), Munkbro, 11 June 1792

Den förförda flickan [The Maiden Seduced] (play with music, 3, Björn, after J.E.B. de Jaure: Louise et Volsan), Munkbro, 19 Nov 1793

other works

Other vocal: Songs, 1v, pf: in Musikaliskt tidsfördrif, iii (1791); in Skaldestycken satte i musik [Poetry set to music], ii (1797); ed. J. Elers: Glada qwäden [Merry Songs] (Stockholm, 1792); Arias, 1v, orch

Inst: Ov., Kronofogdarne [The Sheriffs], 1787; Sym., B, 1785; concs. for vn, va, vc, ob, lost; 3 str qts, S-HÖ; 2 vn solos (n.p., 1781); works, vn, pf, in Musikaliskt tidsfördrif (n.d.), Balletter och marcher samt entre-acter utur svenska theater piecer (Stockholm, 1789); other works

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO(A. Lönn) [incl. further bibliography]

P. Vretblad: Konsertlivet i Stockholm under 1700-talet [Concert life in Stockholm in the 1700s] (Stockholm, 1918)

T. Norlind and E.Trobäck: Kungliga Hovkapellets historia 1526–1926 (Stockholm, 1926)

L. Hedwall: Den svenska symfonin (Stockholm, 1983)

L. Hedwall: ‘Johan David Zander and the Swedish Opéra-comique’, Gustavian Opera: an Interdisciplinary Reader in Swedish Opera, Dance and Theatre 1771–1809, ed. I. Mattsson (Stockholm, 1991), 365–74

L. Hedwall: ‘The Stenborg Stage’, Gustav III and the Swedish Stage: Opera, Theatre and Other Foibles: Essays in Honor of Hans Åstrand, ed. B. van Boer (Lewiston, NY, 1993), 103–16

ANDERS LÖNN/LENNART HEDWALL

Zandonai, Riccardo

(b Sacco di Rovereto, Trentino, 30 May 1883; d Pesaro, 5 June 1944). Italian composer. He studied at Rovereto, and with Mascagni at the Liceo Musicale, Pesaro (1898–1901). In 1907 Boito introduced him to Giulio Ricordi, who launched him as an opera composer: after the success of Il grillo del focolare the Ricordis regarded him as Puccini’s natural successor, and even sent him to Spain to ‘collect material’ for Conchita. After a troubled period during World War I, when the Austrian government condemned him for his irredentist activities, Zandonai married the singer Tarquinia Tarquini and settled in Pesaro, where he directed the Conservatory (formerly the Liceo Musicale), 1940–43. Between the wars he was widely active as a conductor.

Although an uneven, often rather superficial composer, Zandonai was the most important of those Italians of his generation who, unlike Pizzetti, Malipiero and even Alfano, remained content to modify rather than reject the operatic tradition of Mascagni and Puccini. Not that he was ever a mere imitator of these older composers: even in the unpretentious, homely II grillo del focolare the orchestral part is more ‘symphonically’ conceived than in most Mascagni, though neither here nor in his later operas could Zandonai match his teacher’s melodic spontaneity. In Conchita the true nature of his talent was becoming clear: the piquant harmonies and colourful orchestration, with judicious borrowings from Strauss and Debussy comparable with those in La fanciulla del West, seemed bold to Italian audiences of the time; yet the result is an eclectic amalgam, whose greatest virtue is its strong sense of atmosphere and the picturesque, with many Spanish touches. The prelude and ensuing ‘Notte a Siviglia’ that open Act 3 are especially effective, and there is abundant vitality in the ensemble scenes, notably the first scene of all. By comparison, the more passionate music can seem self-conscious and overemphatic, though the Carmen-like heroine is forcefully portrayed.

Similar qualities and defects recur in Francesca da Rimini, which has had many productions internationally and remains Zandonai’s most popular work in Italy. In parts of Acts 1 and 3 (especially those dominated by female voices) his flair for the colourful and decorative is seen at its very best, clearly stimulated by the rich imagery of D’Annunzio’s words. Archaic, modal outlines are backed up by ‘antique’ touches of instrumentation (including a lute), the results having at times an unforgettable radiance and charm, as in the beautiful ensemble sung by Francesca and off-stage female chorus at her first entry. But just as D’Annunzio’s opulent poetry of the senses went hand in hand with something more barbarous and sinister, so Zandonai also indulged, especially in the Act 2 battle scene, in orgies of crude orchestral rhetoric. Moreover, in the more dramatic solo music, even more than in the comparable parts of Conchita, he too often seems to have been affecting more emotion than he felt.

Zandonai’s postwar operas on the whole show little fundamental advance on Francesca, despite incidental new departures: Giulietta e Romeo is an especially direct, though inferior, successor to the earlier work. In I cavalieri di Ekebù, however, the strange libretto served both as a safeguard against the worst sort of rhetoric and as an intermittent stimulus to break new ground: the ‘theatre band’ music in Act 2 even introduces stark parallel minor 2nds, minor 9ths etc. comparable with those in Puccini’s Turandot. Such harmonic explorations were not developed further in Zandonai’s last operas, which show signs, rather, of a return to simplicity: Giuliano, with its Oedipus-like plot and its ‘mystical’ prologue and epilogue, adapts the manner of Francesca in more subdued and contemplative terms; while La farsa amorosa attempts, not altogether convincingly, to revive something of the spirit (rather than the letter) of opera buffa.

Zandonai’s instrumental music, which has usually had less than its due share of attention, includes several works inspired by his native Trentino. In descriptive pieces like these his picturesque sense could achieve a purer expression than is usually possible in a dramatic context, though the variegated orchestration cannot disguise the slenderness of some of the ideas. However, the Concerto andaluso, whose quasi-Spanish material is presented in neatly neo-Scarlattian terms (enhanced by a prominent harpsichord in the small orchestra), has abundant melodic life: this is probably Zandonai’s best instrumental composition, embodying in a light, compact form the neo-classical spirit evident in La farsa amorosa.

WORKS

(selective list)

theatre

La coppa del re (op, l, G. Chiesa, after F. von Schiller), 1906 or earlier, unperf., unpubd

L’uccellino d’oro (children’s op, 3, G. Chelodi, after J.L. and W.C. Grimm), Sacco di Rovereto, spr. 1907, unpubd

Il grillo del focolare (op, 3, C. Hanau, after C. Dickens), begun 1905, Turin, Politeama Chiarella, 28 Nov 1908

Conchita (op, 4, M. Vaucaire and C. Zangarini, after P. Louÿs), Milan, Dal Verme, 14 Oct 1911; extract Notte a Siviglia arr. concert perf. 1933

Melenis (op, 3, M. Spiritini and Zangarini, after L. Bouillet), begun 1908, Milan, Dal Verme, 13 Nov 1912

Francesca da Rimini (op, 4, G. D’Annunzio, cut by T. Ricordi, after Dante: Inferno), Turin, Regio, 19 Feb 1914

La via della finestra (op, 3, G. Adami, after E. Scribe), Pesaro, Rossini, 27 July 1919; rev. in 2 acts, Trieste, Verdi, 18 Jan 1923; Piccola suite agreste arr. concert perf. 1929

Giulietta e Romeo (op, 3, A. Rossato and M. Bandello, after L. da Porto and N. d’Atri), Rome, Costanzi, 14 Feb 1922; extracts Danza del torchio e cavalcata arr. concert perf. 1921

I cavalieri di Ekebù (op, 4, Rossato, after S. Lagerlöf), Milan, Scala, 7 March 1925

Giuliano (op, prol, 2, epilogue, Rossato, after J. da Varagine and G. Flaubert), Naples, S Carlo, 4 Feb 1928

Una partita (op, 1, Rossato, after Dumas père), Milan, Scala, 19 Jan 1933

La farsa amorosa (op, 3, Rossato, after P.A. de Alarcón), Rome, Opera, 22 Feb 1933

Il bacio (op, 3, Rossato and E. Mucci, after G. Keller), 1940–44, inc., 2 completed acts perf. RAI, 10 March 1954

Other works: Ajax (incid music, Sophocles), Syracuse, 1939, orch suite (1940); film music

other works

Orch: early pieces, unpubd; Serenata medioevale, vc, hp, 2 hn, str, 1909; Terra nativa, 2 suites: Primavera in Val di Sole, 1914–15; Autunno fra i monti (Patria lontana), 1917–18; Conc. romantico, vn, orch, 1919; Ballata eroica, 1929; Fra gli alberghi delle Dolomiti, 1929; Quadri di Segantini, 1930–31; Il flauto notturno, fl, small orch, 1932; Spleen, vc, small orch, 1934; Conc. andaluso, vc, small orch, 1934; Colombina, ov., 1935; Rapsodia trentina, 1936; Biancaneve, perf. 1940

Vocal-orch: Il ritorno di Odisseo (G. Pascoli), S, T, chorus, orch, 1900–01, unpubd; Il sogno di Rosetta (Pascoli), S, T, female chorus, orch, 1902, reorchd 1937, unpubd; O Padre nostro che ne’ cieli stai (Dante), male chorus, orch, 1909; Ave, o Maria, female chorus, str, hp, triangle, 1909; Vere novo (D’Annunzio), Bar, orch, 1912; Casa lontana, T, orch, 1939 [from film Un passo nella notte]; La ballata del Messimerit, T, chorus ad lib, orch, 1942

Other inst works: Trio-Serenata, pf trio, 1943; few other chbr pieces, most of them early or small; 12 band pieces; kbd pieces; arrs. of music by J.S. Bach, Catalani, Rossini, Schubert, Schumann, Tartini, etc.

Other vocal works: Messa da requiem, chorus, 1915; other church music, most composed before 1910; other choral pieces, incl. some patriotic works; c30 songs with pf

Principal publisher: Ricordi

For fuller lists see Ziliotto (1923), 21–2; ‘Riccardo Zandonai’ (1931), 19–21; Bonajuti Tarquini (1951), 281ff; Rizzoli-Ricordi (1972)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DEUMM (F. Bussi)

GroveO (J.C.G. Waterhouse) [incl. further bibliography]

A. d’Angeli: ‘Francesca da Rimini di R. Zandonai’, Cronaca musicale, xviii (1914), 136–55

G. Bastianelli: ‘Riccardo Zandonai’, Il convegno [Milan], ii (1921), 522–32; repr. in NRMI, vi (1972), 409–18

B. Ziliotto: Francesca da Rimini: guida attraverso il poema e la musica (Milan, 1923)

‘Riccardo Zandonai’, Bollettino bibliografico musicale, vi/12 (Milan, 1931), 5–21

A. Gasco: Da Cimarosa a Strawinsky (Rome, 1939)

G. Cetrangolo: Lo ‘Stabat mater’ di Jacopone da Todi e il prologo del ‘Giuliano’ di Arturo Rossato, nei riferimenti delle rispettive composizioni di G. Rossini e R. Zandonai (Pesaro, 1941)

V. Bonajuti Tarquini: Riccardo Zandonai nel ricordo dei suoi intimi (Milan, 1951)

G. Barblan, R. Mariani and others: A Riccardo Zandonai (Trent, 1952)

A. Damerini: ‘Le musiche non teatrali di Zandonai’, La Scala, no.59 (1954), 17–20 [also articles by A. Toni, 9–11, and R. Paoli, 13–15]

T. Zandonai Tarquini: Da ‘Via del paradiso’ al n.1 (ricordi vicini e lontani) (Rovereto, 1955)

B. Becherini: ‘Dal teatro alla produzione sinfonica di Riccardo Zandonai’, Immagini esotiche nella musica italiana, Chigiana, xiv (1957), 87–99

J.C.G. Waterhouse: The Emergence of Modern Italian Music (up to 1940) (diss., U. of Oxford, 1968), 523–8

‘Zandonai, Riccardo’, Rizzoli-Ricordi: Enciclopedia della musica (Milan, 1972)

A. Porter: ‘Musical Events: Wagnerismo’, The New Yorker (31 March 1973); repr. in A. Porter: A Musical Season (New York and London, 1974), 209–13 [on Francesca da Rimini]

B. Cagnoli: Riccardo Zandonai (Trent, 1978, 2/1983)

Riccardo Zandonai: Rovereto 1983

F. Nicolodi: Musica e musicisti nel ventennio facista (Fiesole, 1984)

Quaderni zandonaiani (1987–9)

J. Maehder: ‘The Origins of Italian Literaturoper: Guglielmo Ratcliff, La figlia di Iorio, Parisina and Francesca da Rimini’, Reading Opera, ed. A. Groos and R. Parker (Princeton, NJ, 1988), 92–128

A. Bassi: Riccardo Zandonai (Milan, 1989)

Riccardo Zandonai nel 50° della morte: Rovereto 1994

K.C. Dreyden: Riccardo Zandonai (Frankfurt, 1999)

JOHN C.G. WATERHOUSE/R

Zandt, Marie van.

See Van Zandt, Marie.

Zanella, (Castore) Amilcare

(b Monticelli d’Ongina, Piacenza, 26 Sept 1873; d Pesaro, 9 Jan 1949). Italian composer, conductor and pianist. He studied with Bottesini and others at the Parma Conservatory. In 1890 he first conducted the orchestra of the Teatro Regio di Parma. From 1893 to 1900 he was in South America, at first as substitute conductor in Marino Mancinelli’s opera company, then independently as a pianist. He directed the Parma Conservatory (1903–5) and the Liceo Musicale, Pesaro (1905–40).

Some of Zanella’s earlier pieces were considered adventurous in their day, especially in their rhythmic freedom: the intriguing Due studi op.44 dispense entirely with bar-lines, as do the opening and closing sections of the evocative, Leopardi-inspired Il passero solitario. Moreover his unpublished compositions of the period include some (mostly piano pieces gathered under the general title L’arte del fare il nuovo and described as ‘composizioni burlesche, avveniristiche’) which were deliberately freakish, with nonsense titles paralleling those of Satie. Later he became, on the whole, more staid and conformist – overproductive and often lapsing into a rather prolix academicism, out of touch with contemporary trends. Even the would-be-modish Rondò-jazz da concerto shows no understanding whatever of jazz idioms. Only three of his operas ever reached the stage. Aura and La sulamita suffer from unconvincing librettos, and the music of the latter especially lacks dramatic tension. Only in Il revisore, which won albeit ephemeral success in both Germany and Italy, did Zanella create something with real theatrical vitality, showing clear signs of the bizarre sense of humour that had been evident in the early piano pieces.

WORKS

(selective list)

stage, orchestral and vocal-orchestral

Stage: Aura (op, Haydée [I. Finzi], Pesaro, Rossini, 27 Aug 1910; La sulamita (op, 3, A. Lega, after Bible: Song of Solomon), Piacenza, Municiple, 11 Feb 1926; Il revisore (Il trappolone) (op, Lega, after N.V. Gogol: The Inspector General), 1938, Trieste, Verdi, 20 Feb 1940; 4 other ops, ballet, all unperf., some apparently never orchd

Orch: Conc. sinfonico, pf, orch, 1897–8; Fede, sym. poem, 1901; Sym. no.1, e, op.24, 1901; Fantasia e grande fugato sinfonico, op.25, pf, orch, 1902; Vita, sym. poem, 1907; 2 pezzi, op.58: Lacrymae rerum, Umoresca [arr. from pf pieces], also arr. hp, str; Fantasia sinfonica, 1918; Sym. no.2 (Sinfonia fantastica), A, op.76, 1919; Edgar Poe, sym. impression, ?1921; Poemetto, vn, orch, 1922; Elegia e momento frenetico, keyed xyl, str, 1923; smaller pieces

Vocal-orch: Panteismo, op.53 (G. Carducci), T, orch, ?1908; I due fanciulli, op.75 (G. Pascoli), chorus, str, pf, org, 1918; Il racconto del figlio, 1v, orch, 1927; L’infinito (G. Leopardi), T, chorus, orch, 1929; Alla Madonna della neve (M. di Savoia), 1v, chorus, pf, org, orch, 1930; Rapsodia dei canti di trincea, male chorus, orch, 1932; Felix mater, chorus, orch, 1934; other pieces

other works

Chbr: Pf Trio no.1, e, op.23, 1899; Brass Qt, op.30, 3 tpt, trbn; Nonet, op.45, fl, ob, cl, bn, pf qt, db, 1906; Str Qt no.1, A, op.62, 1918; Pf Qnt, op.64, 1917; Sonata, f, op.71, vn, pf, 1917; Sonata, A, op.72, vc, pf, 1917; Str Qt no.2, d, 1924; Pf Trio no.2, g, 1928; Preludio drammatico e danza dei fiori, db, pf, 1928; Intermezzi per il Macbeth di Shakespeare, op.94, pf qt, db, also orchd; smaller pieces, some with unconventional scoring (3 hps; 2 fl, 2 hps, hpd; 6 vc; etc.)

Pf: Sonata drammatica, op.5, 1890; Il passero solitario, 1898; L’arte del fare il nuovo: pezzi stupidi e nuovi, ?c1902 [incl. Danza senile di un fanciullo precocemente invecchiato, Lotta tumultuosa fra l’acido solforico e il marmo, Passeggiata di un pazzo nel giardino del manicomio]; 2 studi (amaritmiche), op.44 (1906); 2 leggende, op.47 (1912); Introduzione e fuga a 2 soggetti, op.67, 1915–16; Lacrymae rerum, Umoresca, op.58, 1915–16, orchd; Sonata, e, op.70, 1917; Poema fantastico, op.90 (1937); Jota da concerto, op.91 (1938); Rondò-jazz da concerto, op.92 (1939); c30 other works

Sacred: Messa di Requiem, op.63, 3 male vv, org, 1915; De profundis, unison vv, str qt, org, hp (1950); other pieces

Other works: choral pieces, most of them unacc. or with pf [incl. Canone enigmatico cancherizzato, scorbutico e antivocale, 4vv]; songs; band pieces; arrs. of Rossini and others

Principal publishers: Bongiovanni, Carisch, Giuliana (Trieste), Ricordi, Sonzogno

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO (J.C.G. Waterhouse)

La sulamita: opera in tre atti di Amilcare Zanella (Cremona, 1927)

Amilcare Zanella: artista, uomo, educatore (Ferrara, 1932)

A. Dioli and M.F. Nobili: La vita e l’arte di Amilcare Zanella (Bergamo, 1941)

Cronaca musicale [Pesaro], new ser., i/1 (1963) [Zanella issue, incl. list of works and bibliography]

J.C.G. Waterhouse: The Emergence of Modern Italian Music (up to 1940) (diss., U. of Oxford, 1968), 620–24

F. Bussi: ‘Amilcare Zanella musicista piacentino (1873–1949) emulo di Busoni e paladino di Rossini, vent’anni dopo’, Studi storici in onore di Emilio Nasalli Rocca (Piacenza, 1971), 83–121

A. Dioli: Girolamo Frescobaldi principe degli organisti – Amilcare Zanella: nonetto op.45, Il revisore (Bologna, 1971)

JOHN C.G. WATERHOUSE/R

Zanelli (Morales), Renato

(b Valparaiso, 1 April 1892; d Santiago, 25 March 1935). Chilean baritone, later tenor. He studied in Santiago as a baritone and made his début there in 1916 as Valentin (Faust). He was engaged by the Metropolitan in 1919, making his début as Amonasro. In 1923 he went to Italy and was advised to change his voice to tenor; after a year’s intensive study he made his tenor début at Naples as Raoul (Les Huguenots). He became a noted exponent of dramatic roles; in 1926 he sang Otello for the first time in Turin, following it with Lohengrin. In 1928 he made his Covent Garden début as Otello, an interpretation of historic power. In the next few years he became the leading Wagnerian tenor in Italy and sang Tristan, Lohengrin and Siegmund. In 1930 he created the leading tenor role in Pizzetti’s Lo straniero in Rome. Extracts of his Otello on disc confirm his power in the role; other recordings, made early in his career, show his beauty of tone and line as a baritone.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Saavedra and W.R. Moran: ‘Renato Zanelli’, Record Collector, vii (1952), 197–207 [with discography]

J.B. Steane: Singers of the Century (London, 1996), 51–5

HAROLD ROSENTHAL/ALAN BLYTH

Zanési, Christian

(b Lourdes, 22 May 1952). French composer. After studying for two years in the music department of Pau University, he entered the Paris Conservatoire in the electro-acoustic music class of Pierre Schaeffer and Guy Reibel (1974–6). In 1977 he became a member of the Groupe de Recherches Musicales, where he gained experience as a director and producer of radiophonic transmissions. He has composed music for the theatre, the cinema and dance, as well as acousmatic works for the concert hall. His interest in transforming sound material, concrete sound in particular, is exemplified in Courir (1989), which involves a microphone placed in the mouth of a runner to capture different rhythms of respiration; this raw material is then processed and reworked in the studio. Grand bruit (1990) is based on the sounds of the Paris Métro as recorded on the same daily journey. Arkhéion, les mots de Stockhausen (1995) and Arkhéion, les voix de Pierre Schaeffer (1997) are works written in tribute to the two composers, one being an example of electronic music, the other of musique concrète.

WORKS

for 2-track tape unless otherwise stated

Eclisses, 1978; La nuit rebis, 1979; Trois devinettes à écouter pendant l'orage, 1980; D'un jardin à l'autre, 1982; Stop! L'horizon, 1983; L'intime, 1985; La traversée, 1986; Profil désir, 1988; Courir, 1989; Grand bruit, 1990; Intérieur nuit, 1991; Cello, vc, 2-track tape, 1993; Arkhéion, les mots de Stockhausen, 1995; Toto-Valse, 1996; Arkhéion, les voix de Pierre Schaeffer, 1997; Jardin public, 1997

Principal recording companies: INA-GRM, Metamkine

BRUNO GINER

Zanetti.

See Zannetti family.

Zanetti, Francesco.

See Zannetti, Francesco.

Zanetti [Zannetti], Gasparo

(fl Milan, 1626–45). Italian music editor and violinist. He contributed two-part reductions of a three-voice canzona by G.D. Rivolta and one for four voices by G.F. Cambiago to the local collection Flores praestantissimorum virorum (RISM 1626⁵). He probably played and taught the violin, since his only work is Il scolaro … per imparar a suonare di violino, et altri stromenti (Milan, 1645), a collection of dances in four parts (mostly violin, two violas and cello) for learning the violin. Each dance is accompanied by an intabulation which prescribes the fingering (all in first position) for the four players and also gives bowing indications by means of the letters ‘P’ and ‘T’, which according to Francesco Rognoni Taeggio (Selva di varii passaggi, Milan, 1620/R) stand for ‘pontar in sú’ (upbow) and ‘tirare in giù’ (downbow); the bowings occur at the beginnings of pieces and sometimes later as well. The dances, some of them traditional ones such as the Girometta or the Aria del gran duca, are by various composers, who are not named in the print; some, in accordance with a custom of Lombard origin, bear the names of Milanese aristocratic families or musicians (e.g. Rolla, Lomazzo).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SartoriB

WolfH

D.D. Boyden: The History of Violin Playing from its Origins to 1761 (London, 1965/R), 118, 153ff

W. Kirkendale: ‘Franceschina, Girometta, and their Companions in a Madrigal “a diversi linguaggi” by Luca Marenzio and Orazio Vecchi’, AcM, xliv (1972), 185–235

W. Kirkendale: L’aria di Fiorenza, id est Il ballo del Gran Duca (Florence, 1972), 17–18, 65, 69

GIUSEPPINA LA FACE

Zanetti, Gerolamo

(fl 1679–92). Italian writer on music, composer and violinist; he may have been a relation of Gasparo Zanetti. He published a treatise, Consideratione sopra una questione nata, se alcune note poste nella chiave di F.fa ut grave … siano autentiche o placali (Milan, 1680), which includes two two-part ricercares using the same subject. His only other known works are three florid solo motets (two in RISM 1681¹ and one in 1692¹).

GIUSEPPINA LA FACE

Zanettini, Antonio.

See Giannettini, Antonio.

Zanetto [Joannetto] da Montichiaro (Micheli) [de Michaelis]

(b ‘Roma de Monteclaro’, 1489–90; d Brescia, 26 April 1560–12 Aug 1561). Italian viol and violin maker. His instruments are the earliest extant examples of the Brescian school. G.M. Lanfranco (Scintille di musica, Brescia, 1533) praised the work of ‘Zanetto Montechiaro’. He is variously recorded in Brescian city records from 1527 as ‘Joannettus de li violettis’, ‘magister a liriibus’, ‘magister a violonis et violis’ and ‘di liuti’. He was excused from duty in the register of night guards of 1549–50 because he had reached the age of 60. An almost perfectly preserved six-string viol with its original label ‘Zanetto in Bressa’ is in the Musée Royal of the Brussels Conservatory, and shows this maker to have been an excellent designer and craftsman. A smaller viol, from Bisiach, also has its label and is in the Shrine to Music Museum, Vermillion, South Dakota. Several other instruments are attributed to him. Zanetto is a very important figure in the early history of the violin. He is the earliest violin maker about whom sufficient documentation exists to draw a picture of his life and work.

His son, Peregrino [Pellegrino] Micheli (b Brescia, c1520; d Brescia, 1606–20 July 1609), was also a fine maker. He is recorded as a maker of ‘viole, lire, cittare, lauti et altri instrumenti’. A tenor viola with the label ‘Peregrino f[ilius]. q[uondam]. m[agistro]. Zanetto’ in Brescia is in the Shrine to Music Museum, and a bass viol with a carved scroll and an unusual body shape in the Musée de la Musique, Paris, is attributed to him. His three sons, Giovanni (b c1562; d after 1619), Battista (b c1568; d before 1615) and Francesco (1579–1615), worked with him.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Livi: I liutai bresciani (Milan, 1896)

F. Dassenno and U.Ravasio: Gasparo da Salò e la liuteria bresciana tra Rinascimento e Barocco (Brescia, 1990)

U. Ravasio: ‘Vecchio e nuovo nella ricerca documentaria su Gasparo da Salò e la liuteria bresciana’, Liuteria e musica strumentale a Brescia tra Cinque e Seicento: Salò 1990, i, 25–43

CHARLES BEARE/UGO RAVASIO

Zang, Johann Heinrich

(b Zella St Blasii, nr Gotha, 15 April 1733; d Würzburg, 18 Aug 1811). German composer and organist. He was probably a pupil of J.S. Bach in Leipzig in 1748–9; he spent some time in Coburg and took lessons from J.K. Heller before working as a clerk in Banz and organist at Schloss Hohenstein, near Coburg. In 1751–2 he was Kantor at Walsdorf near Bamberg, and then Kantor in Mainstockheim. Most of his music is lost; but his own writings make clear that he composed two complete cycles of cantatas for the church year and some keyboard music. The style of the surviving cantatas is typical of the generation after J.S. Bach, with recitatives and de capo arias, little choral polyphony and a preference for madrigalian poetry rather than biblical or chorale texts. Zang edited the collection Singende Muse am Mayn under the pseudonyms ‘Forceps’ in Würzburg and ‘Ighnaz’ in Nuremberg (both 1776). His Der vollkommene Orgelmacher oder Lehre von der Orgel und Windprobe, first published in Nuremberg in 1804 (later editions 1810 and 1829), provides an interesting insight into the preferred organ sound at the turn of the century. Zang favoured fundamental stops, rejecting Quint and Tierce stops alone or in combination; he largely abandoned the Werkprinzip and used the pedal division exclusively for the bass part, though the specifications that he quotes in his examples are more traditional.

WORKS

?100 church cants., incl.: Also hat Gott die Welt geliebet, S, S, T, B, SATB, 2 bn, 2 hn, timp, str, bc, 1756; Mache dich auf, werde licht, B, SATB, 2 hn, timp str, bc, 1756; Machet die Thore weit!, S, A, T, B, SATB, 2 hn, str, bc, 1758; Halleluja! der Sieg ist da, T, B, SATB, 2 hn/tpt, timp, str, bc, 1759; Es ist nur ein Gott, S, T, B, SATB, 2 hn, timp, str, bc, 1771; Nach dem Ungewitter lässest du die Sonne wieder scheinen, S, A, T, B, SATB, str, bc, 1774; Denen zu Zion wird ein Erlöser kommen, S, A, T, B, SATB, str, bc, 1777: all in D-Mbs; others lost

Kbd: 6 sonatas; 12 trios, org with obbl pedal: all lost

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

GerberNL

Artistisch-literarische Blätter von und für Franken, i (Würzburg, 1808), 135–7

H. Löffler: ‘Die Schüler J.S. Bachs und ihr Kreis’, Zeitschrift für evangelische Kirchenmusik, viii (1930), 130

Mitteilungen der Johann-Heinrich-Zang-Gesellschaft (Mainstockheim, 1986–)

JOHANNES HEINRICH

Zange, Nikolaus.

See Zangius, Nikolaus.

Zängel [Zanggel, Zenngel, Zänckl], Narcissus

(b Augsburg, c1555; d after 1607). German composer. His father may be identified with Narcissus Zänkl from Murnau, Bavaria, who matriculated from Ingolstadt University on 1 June 1539 and who copied the 1543 part of the manuscript D-Mu 326. Zängel was a chorister under Lassus in the Bavarian court chapel at Munich in the early 1570s. In 1573 he visited France, presumably to study; his journey was financed by the Munich establishment. On his return he became organist at the Premonstratensian abbey of Roggenburg in Upper Swabia, and about 1585 he was chamber musician to Jakob Fugger at Augsburg. In 1590 he became Kapellmeister at the court of Count Eitelfriedrich IV von Hohenzollern-Hechingen, then served at Sigmaringen during the period 1596–8, before returning to Hechingen, where he supervised the lavish musical entertainments in connection with the marriage of the count's heir, Johann Georg. Nothing definite is known of his life following his resignation from Hohenzollern service in 1599, though he may have moved to Vienna, since he dedicated from there his only known collection of music, Cantiones sacrae, quas vulgo Missas appellant (Vienna, 1602). It comprises six parody masses which are typical products of their time, including both counterpoint in 16th-century style and more progressive features: a bold use of homophony, some tentative word-painting and antiphonal groups of contrasting voices. The links between the various mass sections, which arise from the parody technique, are apparent in both melody and bass lines. Zängel's only other extant works are a five-part motet (in RISM 1604⁷) and a mass for five voices and continuo (in 1628²); a number of other works have doubtless been lost.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (E. Stiefel)

A. Sandberger: Beiträge zur Geschichte der bayerischen Hofkapelle unter Orlando di Lasso, iii (Leipzig, 1894), 52, 71, 243

G. Bossert: ‘Die Hofkantorei unter Herzog Ludwig von Württemberg’, MMg, xxxiii (1901), 27–9

G. von Pölnitz, ed.: Die Matrikel der Ludwig-Maximilian-Universität Ingolstadt-Landshut-München, i (Munich, 1937), 555

L. Finscher: ‘Eine wenig beachtete Quelle zu Johann Walters Passions-Turbae’, Mf, xi (1958), 189–95

E.F. Schmid: Musik an den schwäbischen Zollernhöfen der Renaissance (Kassel, 1962), esp. 42ff, 242ff

M. Ruhnke: Beiträge zu einer Geschichte der deutschen Hofmusikkollegien im 16. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1963)

A. LINDSEY KIRWAN/CLYTUS GOTTWALD

Zanger, Johann

(b Innsbruck, ? after 31 Oct 1517; d Brunswick, 5 April 1587). Austrian theologian and music theorist. From 1523 or 1524 he was a chorister in King Lajos II of Hungary’s court chapel in Buda under the direction of Thomas Stoltzer. In 1526 he fled to Vienna with the widowed Queen Mary’s retinue and was accepted in Ferdinand I’s Hofkapelle in 1527. According to his own writings he received his musical training there from Heinrich Finck, Arnold von Bruck, Stephan Mahu and Johann Langkusch, and he also met Erasmus Lapicida. In August 1536 he entered the arts faculty of Vienna University; he continued his studies in Prague in 1540 and in the law faculty of Cologne University. After travelling through Germany and Brabant he returned to Innsbruck in 1542 as a tutor for the sons of noblemen. In the same year he moved to Wittenberg where he taught music at the university and studied Protestant theology there. In 1545 he settled in Brunswick where Philipp Melanchthon had procured for him the post of Kantor at the school of St Martin. In Brunswick he held various posts both in the schools and in the church, and was considered an impressive preacher and a skilful church politician. In Torgau in 1576 he played a decisive role in the preparation of the formula concordiae. His widely disseminated music primer Practicae musicae praecepta (Leipzig, 1554), in its coverage of psalm tones and mensural notation, includes musical examples from composers such as Ockeghem, Brumel, Josquin and Thomas Sporer. Intended for use in the school system in Brunswick, this treatise also relates Zanger's experiences in Ferdinand's Hofkapelle and provides records of conversations between chapel masters.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H.-J. Moser: ‘Johannes Zanger’s Praecepta’, MD, v (1951), 195–201

H.-J. Moser: ‘Addendum to … Johannes Zanger’s Praecepta’, MD, vi (1952), 133 only

O. Wessely: ‘Beiträge zur Lebensgeschichte von Johann Zanger’, Musikwissenschaftlicher Kongress: Vienna 1956, 708–26

O. Wessely: ‘Beiträge zur Geschichte der Hofkapelle Lajos’ II. Jagello, Königs von Böhmen und Ungarn’, Festschrift Bruno Stäblein zum 70. Geburtstag, ed. M. Ruhnke (Kassel, 1967), 293–300

K. Niemöller: Untersuchugen zu Musikpflege und Musikunterricht an den deutschen Lateinschulen vom ausgehenden Mittelalter bis um 1600 (Regensburg, 1969)

OTHMAR WESSELY/WALTER KREYSZIG

Zangius [Zange], Nikolaus

(b Mark Brandenburg, possibly at Woltersdorf, nr Königswusterhausen, c1570; d Berlin, c1618). German composer and court official. He is first heard of in 1597, when he was Kapellmeister to Prince-Bishop Philipp Sigismund of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel at Iburg, near Osnabrück. In 1599 he went to Danzig, first as deputy to the Kapellmeister of the Marienkirche, Johannes Wanning, who was then a sick man, and shortly afterwards as his successor. In order to escape from plague-ravaged Danzig he obtained a long leave of absence in 1602, and until the end of 1605 he was an official at the imperial court in Prague. Only in 1607 did he return to Danzig, and even then only for a short time, for he was soon staying briefly at Stettin before returning to Prague, where he resumed his court duties in 1610. Finally, in 1612 he moved to Berlin as Kapellmeister to the Elector of Brandenburg, in succession to Johannes Eccard. He was joined there by several members of the Prague establishment, and during his few years in office he did much to raise musical standards. He is important as a composer for his sacred, and especially his secular, ensemble songs, which were highly esteemed by his contemporaries. Although he also on occasion cultivated the older polyphonic style, he was one of the first composers, particularly in north Germany, to adapt the Italian villanella style to German usage. His three three-part collections, the first of which was twice reprinted, are evidence of his achievements in this genre. His Gesellschaftslieder are also highly successful. A specially notable piece is the inventive five-part quodlibet Ich will zu land ausreiten from his 1597 collection, which probably served as a model for Melchior Franck’s farrago Kessel, Multer binden (in his Grillenvertreiber of 1622), the most famous example of the genre at that period.

WORKS

Edition:Nicolaus Zangius: Geistliche und weltliche Gesänge, ed. H. Sachs and A. Pfalz, DTO, lxxxvii (1951)

Schöne newe ausserlesene geistliche und weltliche Lieder, 3vv (Frankfurt an der Oder, 1594)

Etliche schöne teutsche geistliche und weltliche Lieder, 5vv (Cologne, 1597); ed. F. Bose (Berlin, 1960)

Harmonia votiva pro felici fato, 6–8vv (Bautzen, 1602); 1 motet ed. F. Kessler, Danziger Kirchen-Musik (Neuhausen-Stuttgart, 1973)

Kurtz weilige newe teutsche weltliche Lieder, 4vv (Cologne, 1603)

Nobili eximio … viro, Dn. Georg. Sebisch … vota secunda concentu musico pro honorario nuptiarum … 17. Oct … 1606, 6vv (Breslau, 1606)

Epithalamia in honorem nuptiarum Dn. Hyneck, 7, 8vv (Breslau, 1609)

Magnificat secundi toni, 6vv (Prague, 1609)

Ander Theil deutscher Lieder, 3vv (Vienna, 1611)

Andreae Bodenstein … nuptias celebraturo, ?4vv (Breslau, 1611)

Cantiones sacrae, 6vv (Vienna, 1611)

Dritter Theil newer deutscher weltlicher Lieder, 3vv (Berlin, 1617)

Lustige newe deutsche weltliche Lieder und Quodlibeten, 5, 6vv (Berlin, 1620)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (F. Bose, K. Gudewill)

C. Sachs: Musik und Oper am kurbrandenburgischen Hof (Berlin, 1910/R)

H. Rauschning: Geschichte der Musik und Musikpflege in Danzig (Danzig, 1931)

H.J. Moser: Corydon, das ist Geschichte des mehrstimmigen Generalbassliedes und des Quodlibets im deutschen Barock (Brunswick, 1933, 2/1960), i

J. Sachs: Nikolaus Zanges weltliche Lieder (diss., U. of Vienna, 1934)

R. Caspari: Liedtradition im Stilwandel um 1600 (Munich, 1971)

T. Straková: ‘Vokálne polyfoní skladby na Moravě v. 16. a na počátku 17. století’ [Polyphonic vocal compositions in Moravia in the 16th century and at the beginning of the 17th], Časopis Moravského Musea, lxvi (1981), 165–78

WALTER BLANKENBURG/DOROTHEA SCHRÖDER

Zani, Andrea

(b Casalmaggiore, nr Cremona, 11 Nov 1696; d Casalmaggiore, 28 Sept 1757). Italian composer and violinist. He was taught the violin by Giacomo Civeri and later by Carlo Ricci. An invitation from Antonio Caldara, who had met him while passing through Casalmaggiore, took him to Vienna, where he became a well-known virtuoso and teacher without, however, obtaining an official position in the service of the imperial court. In 1738 he returned to Casalmaggiore for good, except for occasional appearances as a soloist in neighbouring cities. Two distinguished pupils of his were Valentino Majer of Mantua and Domenico Ferrari of Cremona.

It has been suggested that Zani became acquainted with Vivaldi during the latter’s sojourn at Mantua during 1718–20. Certainly his earlier works (up to op.4) are remarkably Vivaldian in form and idiom, though the frequency of appoggiaturas (especially short appoggiaturas) provides a foretaste of a second, galant phase beginning in the 1730s, in which ‘Venetian’ extravagances yield to a more cantabile manner. The Fonds Blancheton (F-Pc) includes, among other works by Zani, six trios, which, if genuine, represent a third, pre-Classical phase. (After Zani's return to Casalmaggiore his works were published in Paris, then approaching the heyday of its pre-eminence as a publishing centre; it is therefore conceivable that the trios were sent there late in his life for possible publication as a set.) The sonatas and concertos surviving in print show him to be an accomplished and fairly inventive composer.

WORKS

op.

1	[12] Sonate da camera, vn, b (Casalmaggiore, 1727, 2/c1740 as op.3); extract in Corrette
2	6 sinfonie da camera e altretanti concerti da chiesa, 2 vn, va, b (Casalmaggiore, 1729, 2/c1737 as op.1); extract in Corrette
3	[see op.1]
4	Concerti 12 a quatro con suoi ripieni (Vienna, by 1735, 2/c1741 as op.2)
5	Sonate 12, vn, b, intitolate Pensieri armonici (Vienna, 1735)
6	[6] Sonate, vn, b (Paris, c1740)
Sonata in Thompson’s Six Sonatas, 2 vn, vc, bc (hpd) (London, 1764)
3 fl concs.; 1 fl sonata: all D-KA; vn concs., Dlb, F-Pc, GB-Mp; trios, 2 vn, bc, and sinfonias: all F-Pc

BIBLIOGRAPHY

NewmanSBE

M. Corrette: L’art de se perfectionner dans le violon (Paris, 1782)

L. de La Laurencie: Inventaire critique du fonds Blancheton de la Bibliothèque du Conservatoire de Paris (Paris, 1930–31)

M. Pincherle: Antonio Vivaldi et la musique instrumentale (Paris, 1948/R)

R. Monterosso: ‘Medaglioni di musicisti lombardi, Andrea Zani’, Musicisti lombardi ed emiliani (Siena, 1958)

MICHAEL TALBOT

Zanibon.

Italian firm of publishers. It was founded at Padua in 1908 by Guglielmo Zanibon (b Padua, 5 Oct 1878; d Padua, 21 April 1966). After studying music in his native city he moved to New York, where in 1903 he founded the periodical The Mandolin. He played the double bass with various touring companies until Cleofonte Campanini appointed him general secretary and librarian to the orchestra of the Manhattan Opera House. Back in Padua in 1908, he associated himself with Alessandro Parisotti and managed a small music publishing house, of which he then took sole control, calling it ‘Edizioni Zanibon’. He worked with many well-known musicians, among them Marco Enrico Bossi and Dallapiccola. His large output included sacred music, instrumental and polyphonic works and Italian music of the 17th and 18th centuries. At his death the management of the house passed to his adopted son Guglielmo Travaglia Zanibon (b 23 Dec 1920), who paid particular attention to the classical guitar repertory, early Italian music (notably for keyboard, Urtext editions), contemporary composers (Bettinelli, Margola and Luciane Chailly) didactic works and books on music. In 1992 the ‘Edizioni Zanibon’ moved to Milan and was incorporated in the Ricordi Group, keeping on the publication of Boccherini’s works in: Luigi Boccherini: Edizione critica delle opere, ed. A. Paris (Padua, 1977–). The Zanibon catalogue contains about 7000 items.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SartoriD

E. Parenzan: Guglielmo Zanibon a cent’anni dalla nascita (Padua, 1978)

MARIANGELA DONÀ

Zani de Ferranti, Marco Aurelio

(b Bologna, 23 Dec 1801; d Pisa, 28 Nov 1878). Italian guitar virtuoso and composer. When he was 12, he heard Paganini and took up music, learning the violin, which he abandoned for the guitar four years later. In 1820 he went to Paris, where he gave guitar lessons, had some compositions published and gave his first concert, but attracted little notice. He then became librarian to Senator Miatleu in St Petersburg, and later secretary to Prince Naryshkin; he gave concerts and more of his compositions were published, but in 1824 was expelled because of his political involvement. He subsequently lived in Denmark, Hamburg, Brussels, Paris and London, and in 1827 settled in Brussels. There he laboriously perfected what he called the art of ‘sustaining notes on the guitar’. He made his improved technique public in 1832, to considerable acclaim; in 1834, when he was championed by Fétis, his career began to flourish, and he was appointed honorary guitarist to the King. Paganini declared him superior to all other guitarists he had heard, and he toured the Netherlands, England and France with considerable success. Later his interests turned to literature: he published poetry, became a Dante scholar and started reviewing concerts, and in 1843 became professor of Italian at the conservatory in Brussels. He met and befriended the violinist Camillo Sivori and in 1846 went to the USA as his agent; he stayed for six months, giving concerts and having some of his music published. In 1855 he toured Italy with the soprano Euphemie Wittmann, whom he married, but who died during the tour. Ferranti returned to Paris, giving solo concerts as he travelled, a practice thought hitherto to have been exclusive to Liszt. In the 1860s he gradually abandoned his concerts for ‘Dante lectures’, readings which he gave in Paris, Brussels, London and Liverpool; he also twice returned to Italy, where he died. He composed more than 100 pieces for guitar, at least 50 songs and 48 Mélodies bibliques for violin, cello and piano. He also wrote several books, among them a noted commentary on Dante. Some of his works have appeared in modern editions (see Wynberg).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

Quelques Articles concernant M.-A. Zani de Ferranti, premier guitariste de S.M. le Roi des Belges, ex-professeur au Conservatoire Royal de Bruxelles (Milan, c1860)

F.-J. Fétis: ‘La guitare et Zani de Ferranti’, Revue musicale (1834), 27; Ger. trans., Der Gitarrefreund, xxvi (1925), 34–8

H. Berlioz: Mémoires (Paris, 1870/R; ed. and Eng. trans. by D. Cairns, 1969, 2/1970); ed. P. Citron (Paris, 1969, 2/1991))

M. Battistini: Marco Aurelio Zani de’ Ferranti, di Bologna, musicista e letterato (Bologna, 1931)

R. Ferrari: Zani de Ferranti, Marco Aurelio (Modena, 1933)

M. Van de Cruys: ‘Der Paganini der Gitarre: Marco Aurelio Zani de Ferranti’, Gitarre & Laute, ix (1987), no.4, pp.17–18, 37–9; no.5, pp.49–52; x (1988), no.4, pp.20–24

S. Wynberg: Marco Aurelio Zani de Ferranti: Guitarist (1801–1878) (Heidelberg, 1989) [incl. checklist of Ferranti's compositions]

M. Van de Cruys: ‘Compiling the Zani de Ferranti catalogue’, Gendai Guitar Magazine, xxxi (1997), no.11, pp.36–41 [incl. complete catalogue of guitar works]

MARC VAN DE CRUYS

Zaninus [Çaninus] de Peraga de Padua

(fl mid- to late-14th century). Italian composer. He is possibly identifiable with a nobleman of that name who died in Padua in 1374. He wrote a three-voice ballata, Se le lagrime antique, which survives in the northern Italian fragment I-ST 14 (no.3; ed. in PMFC, x, 1977, p.130). The piece shows French influence, and is probably the work referred to in sonnet no.48 of Prudenzani’s Sollazzo.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Cattin: ‘Richerche sulla musica a Santa Giustina di Padova all’inizio del I Quattrocento: il copista Rolando di Casale’, AnMc, vii (1964–77), 17–41

F.A. Gallo: ‘La trattatistica musicale’, Storia della cultura veneta, ii, ed. G. Folena (Vicenza, 1976), 469–76, esp. 474

A. Hallmark: ‘Some Evidence for French Influence in Northern Italy, c1400’, Studies in the Performance of Late Mediaeval Music: New York 1981, 193–225

KURT VON FISCHER

Zannatta, Domenico.

See Zanata, Domenico.

Zannetti [Zanetti].

Italian family of printers. They were active in the 16th and 17th centuries and three of them printed music in Rome. An early member of the family, Bartholomeo de Zanetti da Bressa, printed Pier Maria Bonini’s treatise Acutissime observationes at Florence in 1520. His name gives the only indication of the probable origin of the family. The first music printer in the family was Luigi Zannetti, who worked at Rome between 1602 and 1606 and printed mostly sacred music by Agostino Agazzari, Antonio Cifra and their contemporaries. Bartolomeo, probably his son, appears to have taken over at once, for he began to produce music in 1607. Between 1618 and 1621 he was printing at Orvieto, where he produced two music books, but he later returned to Rome. His output was much larger than his father’s and included music by most contemporary Roman composers and sacred music by other Italians. He published a series of anthologies of sacred works edited by Fabio Constantini (RISM 1614³, 1616¹, 1618³ and 1620¹, the last at Orvieto) and the first edition of Frescobaldi’s Ricercari et canzoni franzese (1615). After his return to Rome, he published only one volume of music, by Tullio Cima. In 1638 Francescho Zannetti published four volumes of music by Domenico Mazzocchi. He was probably related to Bartolomeo.

STANLEY BOORMAN

Zannetti [Zanetti], Francesco

(b Volterra, 27 March 1737; d Perugia, 31 Jan 1788). Italian composer. He studied composition with G.C.M. Clari in Pisa from 1750 to 1754, at the same time performing as a violinist and tenor in Lucca. In 1757 his training in opera began at the Conservatorio della Pietà dei Turchini in Naples, but he abandoned his studies after two years. His subsequent admission to the Accademia Filarmonica in Bologna (1760) indicates his preference for sacred and instrumental music over opera. From 1756 to 1762 he was maestro di cappella at Volterra and from 1762 to 1788 at Perugia Cathedral, where he composed a great deal of music, including many of his operas; he also worked as music director at the Teatro del Pavone and the Teatro dell’Aquila and occasionally acted as impresario at the Pavone in the 1770s, for works including Sacchini’s Alessandro nell’Indie, Anfossi’s Quinto Fabio and L’incognita perseguitata and Mysliveček’s Adriano in Siria. Generally he adopted a strict, but elegant style, attentive to the innovations introduced by Gluck and completely freed from the Neapolitan school. As well as operas he composed cantatas and oratorios, unfortunately almost all now lost, and various instrumental works. In the instrumental pieces he attempted to fuse sonata form with a galant style, and there are clear influences from such composers as Nardini, Boccherini and Viotti.

WORKS

operas

L’Antigono (os, P. Metastasio), Livorno, 1765

La Didone abbandonata (os, 2, Metastasio), Livorno, 1766

La contadina fortunata (farsetta, 2), Rome, Capranica, carn. 1771, I-Rdp

Le lavanderine (int, 2, F. Mari), Rome, Capranica, carn. 1772, D-Dlb, F-Pn; as Die Wascherinnen, Dresden, 1779, D-Bsb, 3 songs (Leipzig, 1780)

Sismano nel Mogol (os, 2, G. De Gamerra), Livorno, S Sebastiano, 27 Dec 1775

Le cognate in contesa (dg, 2, E. Argolide), Venice, Giustiniani, aut. 1780, Dlb, I-Fc, Tf (as Le due cognate in contesa)

Artaserse (os, 2, A. Zeno and P. Pariati), Treviso, Onigo, aut. 1782

Gismondo da Mendrisio, aria Nc

Il figlio del Signor Padre, ?unperf.

oratorios

Il pianto di penitenza espresso dal Santo Re Davidde nel Salmo L (Florence, 1773)

Lost: La morte di S Ottaviano protettore della città di Volterra, Volterra, 1761; Il sacrificio di Giefte, Città di Castello, 1764; La Giustizia e la Pace concordi, Perugia, 1765; Se più giovi la pietà alle lettere, o le lettere alla pietà, Città di Castello, 1765; Il trionfo della virtù, Perugia, 1767; La Davide in Efrata, Perugia, 1769; Isacco figura del Redentore, Perugia, 1769; Salomone esaltato al trono, Firenze, 1775; Il trionfo di Giuda Maccabeo, Arezzo, 1779

other vocal

Liturgical: Masses, Requiem, ants, hymns, lits, Mags, motets, offs, psalms, D-Bsb, I-Baf, Bc, Fc, PIp, PS and others

Cantata a 4 voci, Volterra, 1759; Cantata a 2 voci, Perugia, 1763, lost

instrumental

6 trios, 2 vn, bc, op.1 (Paris, 1761), 5 repr. in 6 Sonatas, op.3 (London, c1764); 6 Sonatas, 2 vn, bc, op.1 (London, 1762), arr. hpd, vn acc. (London, c1770); 6 Qnts, 3 vn, vc, bc, op.2 (London, 1763); 6 Sonatas, 2 vn, bc, op.4 (London, c1770); 6 trios, 2 vn, vc, op.1 (Paris, Florence and Perugia, 1767); 6 trios, vn, va, vc, op.2 (Perugia, 1782); 6 Solos, vn/fl, bc (London, c1764); 6 trios, 2 fl/vn, bc (London, c1771); 6 str qts (Perugia, 1781); Concertino, 2 fl, orch, I-Ac; 6 fugues, org, PEsp; 2 sonatas, org, PEsp

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DEUMM(M. Pascale)

G. Giustiniani: Francesco Zannetti: musicista italiano del XVIII secolo (diss., U. of Florence, 1972)

O. Landmann: Die Dresdner italienische Oper zwischen Hasse und Weber (Dresden,1976), 44, 80

B. Brumana: ‘Per una storia dell’oratorio musicale a Perugia nei secoli XVII e XVIII’, Esercizi arte musica e spettacolo, iii (1980), 97–167

B. Brumana and M. Pascale: ‘Il teatro musicale a Perugia nel settecento: una cronologia dai libretti’, Esercizi arte musica e spettacolo, vi (1983), 71–134

B. Brumana and G. Ciliberti: Musica e musicisti nella cattedrale di S. Lorenzo a Perugia (XIV-XVIII secolo) (Florence, 1991)

G. Ciliberti: Il teatro degli accademici illuminati di Città di Castello (Florence, 1995)

GALLIANO CILIBERTI

Zannetti, Gasparo.

See Zanetti, Gasparo.

Zannettini, Antonio.

See Giannettini, Antonio.

Zannoni [Zanoni], Angelo Maria

(b Venice; fl 1710–32). Italian bass. He was for some years in the service of the Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt. His first known appearances were in Padua in 1710 and 1712, and in 1713 he sang at Ferrara in Albinoni’s Lucio Vero. From December 1714 Zannoni spent five months in London, making his début at the King’s Theatre as Argante in a revival of Handel’s Rinaldo on 30 December. He appeared in the pasticcios Lucio Vero (26 February) and Arminio (26 March) and at two concerts in the Great Room (in James Street) on 9 and 16 May. At the first, for his benefit, he also played the bass viol. In 1716 he sang at Venice in two operas by Vivaldi and one by Chelleri, and in June and July 1718 in Orlandini’s Lucio Papirio at Bologna and Padua. He was again at Venice in 1719–21, 1726 and 1732; in all he appeared in nine operas there. He is said to have worked in Germany, Vienna and France. There are three caricatures of him by A.M. Zanetti in the Cini collection (I-Vgc).

WINTON DEAN

Zanobi, Luigi.

See Zenobi, Luigi.

Zanotti, Camillo [Ioannotus, Camillus; Cannatij, Camillus; Canotij, Camillus]

(b Cesena, c1545; d Prague, 4 Feb 1591). Italian composer. The title-pages of some of his publications and a letter from Emperor Rudolf II of Habsburg indicate that he was from Cesena, and this is confirmed by various later historians. A document in the Archivio Capitolare, Cesena, states that he was maestro di cappella at Cesena Cathedral though, as the document is undated, it is not clear when he held this position or for how long. He became vice-Kapellmeister of Rudolf II's household on 1 August 1586 (as stated by Sartori, not on 31 August 1586 or 1587 as variously reported); details of the travelling expenses he received in 1587 indicate that he was called to the imperial court ‘from the Netherlands’. He remained in Prague until his death. The only other evidence of his journeys is his reference, in the dedication of his third book of madrigals, to a stay in Conegliano, in the Veneto. He was much esteemed, to judge from his monthly salary of 25 guilders (which was above the usual level) and from the gratuities he received in 1587 and 1588 from the emperor, mainly in return for the dedication of madrigals and masses. His richly ornamented secular music belongs to the late 16th-century madrigalian tradition; the sacred music is characterized by a marked tonal orientation. His reputation is most evident from the number of his publications and the frequent reprinting of his works in anthologies.

WORKS

published in Venice unless otherwise stated

Il primo libro de madrigali, 5vv (1587)

Missarum liber primus, 5vv (1588), inc.

Il primo libro de madrigali, 6vv (1589)

Il terzo libro de madrigali con alcune villotte, 5vv (1589), inc.

Madrigalia tam italica quam latina nova prorsus, 5, 6, 12vv (Nuremberg, 1590)

Works in 1590²⁸, 1598², 1610¹⁸

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (C. Sartori)

B. Manzonius: Caesenae Chronologia (Pisa, 1643), 131

J.B. Braschius: Memoriae Caesenates sacrae et profanae per secula distributae (Rome, 1738), 362

A. Smijers: ‘Die kaiserliche Hofmusik-Kapelle von 1543–1619’, SMw, vi (1919), 139–86, esp. 147

W. Pass: Musik und Musiker am Hof Maximilians II. (Tutzing, 1980)

A. and G. Vannoni: Camillo Zanotti (Florence, forthcoming)

WALTER PASS/GIULIA VANNONI

Zanotti, Giovanni (Calisto Andrea)

(b Bologna, 14 Oct 1738; d Bologna, 1 Nov 1817). Italian composer. Nephew of Francesco Maria Zanotti, a noted Bolognese scientist and scholar, he studied with Martini in the late 1750s. Admitted to the Accademia Filarmonica in 1758, he was principe in 1764 and 1765. He became assistant maestro di cappella at S Petronio in 1761 and from 1774 to 1789 was maestro di cappella there. Although Zanotti composed sacred music almost exclusively, letters to Martini from F.A. Barberi and Paolo Sabbatini of Modena refer to the great success of his only opera L’olimpiade, performed there during Carnival. In 1774 and 1778 Zanotti was in Venice, employed by Count Carlo di Colloredo. When the Liceo Filarmonico was established in 1804, Zanotti was appointed piano professor, a post he held until 1812.

Burney heard a performance of Zanotti’s Dixit at the annual concert of the Accademia Filarmonica in 1770 (a concert also attended by Mozart) and praised it extravagantly:

There were all the marks of an original and cultivated genius. … The accompaniments were judicious, the ritornels always expressing something, the melody was new and full of taste, and the whole was put together with great judgment, and even learning. In short, I have very seldom in my life received greater pleasure from music than this performance afforded me.

Examination of Zanotti’s music does not corroborate Burney’s enthusiastic judgment; he was a skilful, though conservative, composer in the style of the late 18th-century Bolognese school derived from Martini. Almost all his extant music is sacred, written for chorus, soloists and orchestra. Most of his works are in manuscript in the Bologna Conservatory library and the archives of S Petronio (others in I-Baf, Bca, Fc, MAC). (BurneyFI; MGG1 (G. Vecchi) [with detailed list of works])

HOWARD BROFSKY

Zaparth, Jean.

See Japart, Jean.

Zapf, Helmut

(b Rauschengesees, Thuringia, 4 March 1956). German composer. After studying sacred music (1974–9) and working as a choirmaster and organist in Thuringia, he became a masterclass student of Katzer at the Akademie der Künste der DDR (1982–6). In 1986 he met the improvisatory musician Johannes Bauer, who was to have a lasting influence. From that time, improvisation of a lively, spontaneous and physical nature became common in his works, as well as spatial thinking; this is particularly notable in Wandlungen (1986), the Dreiklang compositions (1990–92) and strumento dell arco (1994). Traditional materials, such as forms of the Christian liturgy, and quotes from the music of Bach and Schoenberg, appear in his works as if refracted, presented so that the elementary characteristics of the material express something new. His awards include the Hanns Eisler Prize (1986), the Valentino Bucchi Prize (1987) and the Arts Advancement Prize of the Akademie der Künste, Berlin (1993).

WORKS

(selective list)

Inst: Fuge über A.S., org, 1978; Recitativo, ob, str qt, 1979; Toccata, org, 1979; Brechungen III, fl, str trio, 1981–5; Singender Mann, fl, 1982; Str Qt no.1, 1983–4; Concertino, orch, 1986; Venezianische Erinnerungen, orch, 1987; Zusammenklang I, 16 insts, 1987; organum, hp, perc, org, 1988; Psalmos, fl, hp, 1988; Zusammenklang II, 8 insts, 1988; rivolto, eng hn, va, db, 1989; 2+4, 6 perc, 1990; Dreiklang I–V: I, 2 b cl, db, 1990; II, 2 b cl, tuba, 1991; III, orch, 1992; IV, 2 db cl, b cl, 1992; V, pf, orch, 1992; Qt, solo db, va, 2 str qt, 1993; sound, str qt, 1993; être en vie, 6 perc, 1994; Herbst, accdn, va, 1994; Zwischentöne, 10 insts, 1994; Abendklänge, 11 insts, 1995 [after C.P. Baudelaire]; Contra-Punkte, fl, bn, va, pf, perc, 1995; DD und zurück, ens, 1995; Romanze, vn, pf, 1995; 3 zu 2 zu 1, 2 gui, 1995; air varié, ob, va ad lib, hp, 1996; Spiel, 6 young pfmrs, 1996; Denstedter Klanglandschaften, vn, org, 1997; drei, 7 young pfmrs, 1997; Frühling, accdn, hp, 1997; 3 Brechungen aus VII, cl, str trio, 1998; Sommer, cl, accdn, 1998

Vocal: Lukas Passion, solo vv, SATB, b cl, vn, org, 1980; Wie lieblich sind deine Wohnungen (Bible), SATB, 1988; Pater noster, 16-pt mixed chorus, 1990; Totentanz (R. Gerlach), spkr, 2 b cl, org, 1992; discantus I (E.-M. Kohl), Mez, vn, perc, org, 1997; discantus II – ex omni lapide, 3 S, 2 T, 3 B, fl, sax, hn, vn, va, 2 db, perc, 1997; magnificat (Bible: Luke), A, men's vv, vn, org, perc, 1997; conversion, S, fl, gui, perc, 1998

El-ac and multimedia: Wandlungen, trbn, tape, 1986; arpeggio, hp, tape, 1989; canzone, drum, live elecs, 1994; strumento dell arco, partita, inst, tape, 1994; canto dell aria, ob, tape, 1995; approximation, str trio, elec gui, tape, dancer and slide projections, 1996, collab. R. Schulze; vortex, installation, 1996; ombre per organo, org, tape rec, 1997; Denstedter Klanglandschaften II, vn, org, perc, tape, 1998; square, b cl, tpt, vn, db, tape, 1998

EVELYN HANSEN

Zaphelius [Zapfelius, Zapfl], Matthias [Matthäus]

(b Styria, before 1550; d after 1572). Austrian singer and composer. In 1560 he enrolled at the University of Vienna and, until his voice broke in 1562, served as a chorister in the Emperor Ferdinand I's court chapel at Vienna. Later he studied under the Jesuits in the same city and in 1565 the payment of his bursary was extended for two more years. Immediately after completing his studies he probably joined the Graz court chapel of Archduke Karl II, where he served as tenor and master of the choristers. The Graz court accounts list him for the last time in these capacities in 1572.

He was a minor master in the later Spanish-Netherlandish style, as is shown by his eight motets in collections (RISM 1568², 1568⁴, 1568⁵; 1 ed. in TM, xix, 1972) mainly of works composed by musicians at the Habsburg court. His three-section motet for five voices, Veni Redemptor gentium (ed. in TM, v, 1971) uses the plainsong melody as the cantus firmus; the counterpoint is dense and the melodic quality of the voices is notable.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Federhofer: Musikpflege und Musiker am Grazer Habsburgerhof der Erzherzöge Karl und Ferdinand von Innerösterreich (1564–1619) (Mainz, 1967), 141–2

HELLMUT FEDERHOFER

Zappa, Francesco

(b Milan; fl 1763–88). Italian cellist and composer. The dedication of his six trios for two violins and bass (London, 1765) shows that he had given the Duke of York, the dedicatee, music lessons in Italy (the duke had been in Italy from late November 1763 to mid-1764). By 1767, the year of the duke’s death, he had entered his service as maestro di musica, as shown by the title-page of his trio sonatas op.2. He then apparently took up residence in The Hague as a music master. He was still there in 1788, according to the place and date of a manuscript Quartetto concertante (in D-Bsb). He had a reputation among his contemporaries as a virtuoso and he toured Germany in 1771, playing in Danzig and, on 22 September, in Frankfurt. According to Mendel, he made another concert tour of Germany in 1781 (though this may be an error for 1771).

Zappa’s writing is lyrical, but tends towards a seriousness of manner in which the galant elements are tempered by a Classical dignity. His works with obbligato cello demonstrate an easy familiarity with thumb position fingerings, slurred staccato bowings and idiomatic string crossing patterns.

WORKS

Duos: 6 Sonatas, kbd/hp, vn, as op.4a (Paris, n.d.); 6 duos (v, vc)/2 vn (Paris, n.d.)

Trio sonatas, 2 vn, b: 6 Trios (London, 1765), as op.1 (?The Hague, n.d.); 6 as op.2 (London, c1767); 6 as op.3 (Paris, n.d.); 6 as op.4 (London, n.d.); 6 sonates (The Hague, n.d.)

Other works: 6 kbd sonatas, op.6 (Paris, 1776), mentioned in MCL; 6 syms. (Paris, n.d.); 2 romances, 1v, pf, as op.4 (The Hague, n.d.); 27 pieces, 2 for pf, 5 for 1v, pf, op.11 (The Hague, n.d.); 2 Sonata à tre, v, vc obbl, b, ed. in Early Cello Series, xxiii (London, 1983); other works, A-Wgm, D-Bsb, I-Mc

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

GerberL

MCL

E. van der Straeten: History of the Violoncello (London, 1915/R)

O. Tajetti: ‘Francesco Zappa: violoncellista e compositore milanese’, Antiquae musicae italicae studiosi, iii/6 (1987), 9–12

GUIDO SALVETTI/VALERIE WALDEN

Zappa, Frank [Francis] (Vincent)

(b Baltimore, 21 Dec 1940; d Laurel Canyon, Los Angeles, 4 Dec 1993). American composer, rock musician and guitarist. His family moved to California in 1950, where Zappa played the drums and guitar in high-school bands with, among others, Don Van Vliet (later to become Captain Beefheart). He studied briefly at Chaffey College, Alta Loma, but left to write music for B-movies. In 1964 he formed his band the Mothers of Invention (originally the Soul Giants); the personnel changed frequently and Zappa disbanded the group in the 1970s to work with musicians selected for particular projects, including Ian Underwood (keyboards, saxophones, brass, guitar etc.), Ruth Underwood (percussion), George Duke (keyboards and trombone), Aynsley Dunbar (drums), Sugar Cane Harris (organ, electric violin and vocals) and Jean-Luc Ponty (violin).

The Mothers of Invention’s first release was Freak Out! (Verve, 1966), which savagely parodied both corporate America and hippy counter-culture in such songs as ‘Hungry Freaks, Daddy’ and ‘Who are the Brain Police?’, culminating in ‘The Return of the Son of Monster Magnet’, an extended improvisation using avant-garde techniques. It was followed by Absolutely Free (Verve, 1967), the experimental orchestral album Lumpy Gravy (Verve, 1968), the parody of the Beatles’ Sergeant Pepper in We’re Only in it for the Money (Verve, 1968), and the doo-wop pastiches of Cruising with Ruben & The Jets (Verve, 1968). They developed a cult following on both sides of the Atlantic, having made their UK début in 1967, and Zappa was releasing on average two albums a year, a level he was to sustain throughout his career. He toured extensively, with a stage act involving props and interaction with the audience, and developed a system of hand signals which enabled him to initiate rapid switches of style, rhythm and tempo, lending a spontaneity to what were otherwise tightly-controlled structures. In 1970 Zappa performed 200 Motels (U.A., 1971) for rock band and orchestra in Los Angeles at a contemporary music festival organized by Zubin Mehta, and the following year made a film of it: this is one of a number of Zappa large-scale multi-media projects.

Zappa’s music is eclectic and draws freely on the popular music of the 1950s and early 60s, embracing rhythm and blues, rock and roll, doo-wop, middle-of-the-road ballads, the world of Hollywood film music and of TV advertisements, treating them as objets trouvés; at the same time it also draws on the soundworlds of Stravinsky, Ives, Varèse and Stockhausen, creating multi-layered textures and employing montage techniques and abrupt stylistic juxtapositions which have the effect of Brechtian alienation and Dadaist confrontation, as in Burnt Weeny Sandwich (Reprise, 1970) and Over-Nite Sensation (Discreet, 1973). Zappa wanted his music to achieve the autonomy associated with high art music while subversively working from within the popular music industry. In the 1980s this was accentuated by the increasing esteem in which Zappa was held as a serious composer, so that his performances and two albums with the London SO (LSO: Zappa, 1983–7) and with the Ensemble Intercontemporain (The Perfect Stranger, 1984) appear at the same time as his bizarre synthesizer recreations of pieces by his 18th-century namesake (1984). He set up his own record company (Barking Pumpkin) and, after lawsuits, gained control over the master-tapes of his albums released in the 1960s and 1970s by MGM/Verve. In his final decade he worked at his home studio, using a Synclavier synthesizer to create such albums as Jazz From Hell (Capitol, 1986), and to remix much of his earlier work and, in effect, to re-create, through intercutting, a body of previously unissued recordings. His last public appearance was in Frankfurt in 1992 at a concert of his works by the Ensemble Modern, recorded as The Yellow Shark (Barking Pumpkin, 1993), a few months before his death. The first posthumous album appeared in 1994, Civilization: Phaze III, on which Zappa had been working since the late 1980s.

Zappa’s importance lies less in any obvious influence on rock music than in the way in which his music embraces American popular culture while simultaneously maintaining a critical distance from it, and in the way in which his musical critique at the same time constitutes a political and social critique. He saw the music business as concerned with the manipulation of music and its consumers and dedicated to profit. His own material is always calculatedly secondhand, disposable and ephemeral; his approach to structuring it is critical, ironic and self-reflective. The result has a richness of allusion, wealth of detail and a consistency of thought reminiscent of James Joyce. The comprehensive study by Watson (1993) is part of a large and expanding interpretative literature.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D. Walley: No Commercial Potential: the Saga of Frank Zappa (New York, 1980, 2/1996)

F. Zappa and P. Ochiogrosso: The Real Frank Zappa Book (London, 1989)

B. Miles: Frank Zappa: a Visual Documentary (London, 1993) [incl. discography]

B. Watson: Frank Zappa: the Negative Dialectics of Poodle Play (London, 1993) [incl. discography and bibliography]

F. Zappa and B. Miles: Frank Zappa: in his Own Words (London, 1993)

R. Kostelanetz ed.: The Frank Zappa Companion (London, 1997)

B. Watson: The Complete Guide to the Music of Frank Zappa (London, 1998) [incl. discography]

MAX PADDISON

Zappasorgo, Giovanni

(b Treviso; fl 1571–6). Italian composer. He was probably the Zappasorgo who in 1576 was listed as a singer and cornettist at Treviso Cathedral. He published two books of three-voice napolitane (Venice, 1571 and 1576) which include variants of successful texts set earlier by his contemporaries. In keeping with the tendency to create hybrid forms, he set four madrigal texts to music in a light vein and placed them prominently in his books. Most of the settings are in ternary form, and the primarily chordal textures are enlivened by syllabic declamation and occasional points of imitation; parallel 5ths are rare.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EinsteinIM

G.M. Monti: Le villanelle alla napoletana e l’antica lirica dialettale a Napoli (Città di Castello, 1925)

G. d’Alessi: La cappella musicale del duomo di Treviso (1300–1633) (Vedelago, 1954)

R.I. DeFord: ‘The Influence of the Madrigal on Canzonetta Texts of the Late Sixteenth Century’, AcM, lix (1987), 127–51

C. Assenza: ‘La trasmissione dei testi poetici per canzonetta negli ultimi decenni del secolo XVI’, RIM, xxvi (1991), 205–40

DONNA G. CARDAMONE

Zaqef.

Zār.

Spirit possession ceremony with music. See Egypt, §II; Oman, §3(iv); Somalia; Sudan, §I; and Yemen.

Zara

(It.).

See Zadar.

Zaramella.

Italian composer, probably not identifiable with Pandolfo Zallamella.

Zarathustran [Zoroastrian] music.

See Iran, §I, 5.

Zardt, Georg.

See Zarth, Georg.

Zarębski, Juliusz

(b Zhitomir, 28 Feb 1854; d Zhitomir, 15 Sept 1885). Polish composer and pianist. He studied at the Vienna Conservatory, graduating in 1872 with gold medals in composition (which he studied with F. Krenn) and piano (J. Dachs). In 1873 he studied at the St Petersburg Conservatory (gaining his Free Artist diploma in only three months); in 1874 he went to Rome, studying the piano for a year with Liszt, whose favourite pupil he became. On 30 January 1880 Zarębski was appointed professor of piano at the Brussels Conservatory, a post he occupied until his death. As a pianist he made his earliest public appearances in the spring of 1874, giving concerts in Odessa and Kiev; later he performed with great success in many European cities, including Rome, Naples, Constantinople, Warsaw, Paris and London. He mastered, within two months, the technique of playing the two-keyboard piano, an invention of the Mangeot brothers; he then developed a repertory for it, and gave concerts on the instrument during the Paris Exhibition of 1878 and later in London.

Zarębski was the most original Polish composer of the second half of the 19th century. His piano works were influenced by Liszt, as is shown in the orchestral treatment of the piano in, for instance, the Grande polonaise op.6. He also developed some of Chopin’s methods, drawing on folk music and making creative use of some of its modal characteristics in his harmony; and he had a comprehensive command of the technical resources of the piano. His compositions are marked by great variety of colour, as in Les roses et les épines op.13, and sometimes by an emancipation of unrelated chords which marks him out as a forerunner of impressionism. Zarębski’s finest work is his Piano Quintet op.34, written in 1885. Advanced harmony, richness of colour and an enterprising use of rhythm, as well as the full exploitation of the piano and its skilful blending with the strings, combine to make it one of the most remarkable Polish chamber works of the second half of the century. Premature death from tuberculosis cut short Zarębski’s promising career.

WORKS

piano

for solo piano unless otherwise stated

Andante ma non troppo, PL-Wn; Romance sans paroles, f, c1870, Wn; Adieu, f, c1870, Wn; Maria, ov. to opera, pf 4 hands, 1871, Wn; Marsz [March], pf 4 hands, 1875, lost; Wielka fantazja [Grand Fantasia], 1876, destroyed by composer; pieces for 2-kbd pf, 1878, lost; Menuet, op.1 (n.p., 1879); 3 danses galiciennes, pf 4 hands, op.2 (Berlin, 1880); Etiuda koncertowa, G, op.3 (Berlin, 1879); 4 Mazurkas, pf 4 hands, op.4 (Berlin, 1880); 2 morceaux en forme de mazurka, pf 4 hands, op.5 (Berlin, 1881)

Grande polonaise, F, op.6 (Berlin, 1881); 3 études de concert, op.7 (Mainz, 1881); Mazurek koncertowy, c, op.8 (Mainz, 1882); Fantaisie polonaise, op.9, c1877 (Mainz, 1882); Polonaise mélancolique, op.10 (Mainz, 1882); Polonaise triomphale, pf 4 hands, op.11 (Mainz, 1882); Divertissement à la polonaise, pf 4 hands, op.12 (Mainz, 1883); Les roses et les épines, op.13 (Mainz, 1883); impromptu-caprice, op.14 (Leipzig, 1883); Mazurka de concert no.2, g, op.15 (Leipzig, 1883)

Suite polonaise, op.16 (Leipzig, 1883); Valse sentimentale, op.17 (Leipzig, 1884); Ballade, g, op.18 (Wrocław, 1884); Novellette-caprice, op.19 (Wrocław, 1884); Sérénade burlesque, op.20 (Wrocław, 1884); Berceuse, op.22 (Leipzig, 1884); A travers Pologne, pf 4 hands, op.23 (Wrocław, 1884); Valse-caprice, op.24 (Leipzig, 1884); Tarantelle, op.25 (Leipzig, ?1885); Sérénade espagnole, op.26 (Leipzig, 1883); Etrennes, op.27 (Wrocław, 1885); Polonaise, op.28 (Leipzig, 1885); Gavotte, op.29 (Leipzig, 1885); Valse, op.30 (Leipzig, 1885); Barcarolle, op.31 (Leipzig, 1885); Menuet, op.32 (Mainz, 1885)

other works

Chbr: Pf Trio, 1872; Pf Qnt, g, op.34, 1885 (Warsaw, 1931)

Songs: Wilija, naszych strumieni rodzica [Vilya, Mother of our Streams] (A. Mickiewicz), lost; Te rozkwitłe świeże drzewa [The Trees, Freshly in Bloom] (Mickiewicz), Wn; Akacja [Acacia], c1880, Wn

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SMP

T. Strumillo: Juliusz Zarębski (Kraków, 1954, 2/1985)

M. Karczyńska: Muzyka fortepianowa Juliusza Zarębskiego (diss., Jagiellonian U., Kraków, 1962)

A. Nowak-Romanowicz and others, eds.: Z dziejów polskiej kultury muzycznej [From the History of Polish Musical Culture], ii (Kraków, 1966)

K. Samaeva: ‘Juliusz Zarębski w Zytomierzu’, Muzyka, xxiv/2 (1979), 19–31

M. Kwiatkowska: ‘Fortepian z podwójna klawiatura i rola Juliusza Zarębskiego w jego prezentacji’ [The double reverse keyboard pianoforte and Juliusz Zarębski's role in its introduction], Muzyka, xxix/3 (1984), 51–61

ZOFIA CHECHLIŃSKA

Zaremba.

Belarusian and Ukrainian family of musicians.

(2) Vladislav Ivanovich Zaremba

(3) Sigismund Vladislavovich Zaremba

JENNIFER SPENCER/EDWARD GARDEN

Zaremba

(1) Nikolay Ivanovich Zaremba

(b Vitsebsk province, 3/15 June 1821; d St Petersburg, 24 Aug/8 Sept 1879). Belarusian teacher and composer. He was a pupil of Gross and Herke and studied in Berlin with Adolf Bernhard Marx. He also attended St Petersburg University, where he had a symphony performed by the student orchestra. In 1854 he was appointed director of the choral society at the Lutheran church of St Peter and St Paul. (He was a zealous member of the Moravian Brethren.) From 1859 he taught harmony and composition at the St Petersburg School of the Russian Musical Society, and was invited to teach these subjects at the newly opened St Petersburg Conservatory in 1862. He was the first to use Russian rather than German terminology in his teaching of theory. In 1867 he succeeded Anton Rubinstein as director of the conservatory. During his four years in office he sought to raise the standards of teaching, and to draw up a syllabus in which the study of strict counterpoint should play an important part. Zaremba, like his teacher Marx, was a staunch conservative in musical matters, and was opposed to all contemporary trends in composition: Mendelssohn, whom he admired, was for him a modern composer. His classical leanings were satirized by Musorgsky in Rayok (‘The Peepshow’) (1870), where Zaremba is introduced by a quotation from Handel’s Judas Maccabaeus, and is made to declaim to an imaginary class of students, ‘the minor key is our original sin, but the major key is our sin’s redemption’. With Anton Rubinstein, he was severely critical of Tchaikovsky’s First Symphony, and refused to let it be performed in a Musical Society concert until it had been drastically revised. However, in spite of the narrowness of his views, he was a respected teacher and played a part in the education of almost a whole generation of Russian musicians. As well as Tchaikovsky, his pupils included Laroche and Solov'yov, whose music criticism V.V. Stasov considered to be ‘reactionary’. Failing health compelled him to resign from the conservatory, and in 1872 he went to western Europe. (Curiously, it was in Zaremba’s house that Musorgsky and Rimsky-Korsakov shared a rented room in 1871–2.) On Zaremba’s return to St Petersburg in 1878 he completed an oratorio, Ioann Krestitel' (‘John the Baptist’). He wrote chamber music, piano pieces and songs, but as a composer he was uninspired, and his compositions were soon forgotten.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

N.S. Rimsky-Korsakov: Letopis' moyey muzïkal'noy zhizni [A chronicle of my musical life] (St Petersburg, 1909, rev. 8/1980; Eng. trans., 1923, 1942/R)

J. Leyda and S. Bertensson, eds.: The Musorgsky Reader (New York, 1947/R)

P.A. Vul'fius, ed.: Iz istorii Leningradskoy konservatorii: materialï i dokumentï 1862–1917 [From the history of the Leningrad Conservatory: materials and documents 1862–1917] (Leningrad, 1964)

D. Brown: Tchaikovsky: a Biographical and Critical Study, i (London, 1978)

Zaremba

(2) Vladislav Ivanovich Zaremba

(b Dunayivtsï, Podilya province, 15/27 June 1833; d Kiev, 24 Oct 1902). Ukrainian composer and conductor, brother of (1) Nikolay Ivanovich Zaremba. He studied with Joseph and Anton Kocipiński at Kamyanets'-Podil's'kïy, and at the Kiev Institute, where from 1862 he taught the piano. He also made a name as a choral conductor. His most famous work is Muzïka do kobzarya, a collection of songs to words by the Ukrainian poet Shevchenko. He wrote piano music for children and songs to Polish texts, and made piano arrangements of Ukrainian folksongs. He edited Śpiewnik dla naszych dziatek (‘A songbook for our children’) and Mały Paderewski (for piano).

Zaremba

(3) Sigismund Vladislavovich Zaremba

(b Zhytomyr, 30 May/11 June 1861; d Petrograd, 14/27 Nov 1915). Ukrainian conductor and composer, son of (2) Vladislav Ivanovich Zaremba. His first teacher was his father; he then took cello lessons with Alois and composition lessons with Kazbiryuk, and attended Kiev University. For some years he was director of the local branch of the Russian Musical Society in Voronezh; he taught in the society’s school, conducted the orchestra and organized chamber music concerts. In 1901 he settled in St Petersburg, where he took up a non-musical post, but made occasional appearances as an accompanist. His works include a Suite for string orchestra op.33, a Danse slave and a Polonaise for orchestra, a string quartet, other chamber music, piano pieces and songs.

Zaremba, Eléna

(b Moscow, 10 July 1957). Russian mezzo-soprano. Born into a family of singers, she joined the Bol'shoy Opera in 1984 upon graduating from the Gnesin State Institute in Moscow. She made her Western début on the 1989 Bol'shoy tour to La Scala, singing Vanya in A Life for the Tsar. Her repertory then was dominated by a typical mixture of Russian roles, ranging from Laura (The Stone Guest) and the Innkeeper (Boris Godunov) to Olga (Yevgeny Onegin) and Amelfa (The Golden Cockerel), and Western ones, including Cherubino and Lola (Cavalleria rusticana). Her first Western engagement was as Konchakovna (Prince Igor) at Covent Garden in 1990 (recorded on video), and other débuts followed: New York (Bol'shoy at the Metropolitan, 1991), Vienna Staatsoper (Ulrica, 1992) and Bregenz (Carmen, 1992). In 1991 she sang in the world première of Slonimsky's Master and Margarita in Moscow. Since moving to the West, Zaremba has widened her repertory to include such roles as Dalila, which she has sung regularly. She has recorded Wagner's Erda with Dohnányi, although most of her recordings, which range from Rimsky-Korsakov's Christmas Eve to songs by Shostakovich, are of Russian music. Her statuesque voice has a contralto-like richness.

JOHN ALLISON

Zarewutius [Zarevutius, Zerewucius, Zarevutzius], Zachariáš [Zacharias]

(b Brezovica nad Torysou [now Berzevicze], nr Prešov, c1605; d Bardejov, 20 Feb 1667). Slovak composer and organist. He was educated at the Latin school in Brezovica. In 1623–4 he was organist at the Lutheran church in Spišská Nová Ves, and then, until 1667 at St Giles in Bardejov. He was married twice and had six children, two of whom became musicians: Ján (1645–99) was organist in Bardejov from 1668 to 1673 and Zachariáš (1631–93) exercised the same profession in Levoča from 1682 to 1693.

Only 18 of Zarewutius’s works survive (nine of them incomplete), in manuscripts in the Bardejov collection (H-Bn). Zarewutius copied them into partbooks and tablature books along with pieces by Handl, Hassler, Lassus, Hieronymus Praetorius, Scheidt and others; some items bear copying dates between 1650 and 1665. Zarewutius’s own works include a mass, Magnificat settings and motets for Christmas, New Year, Whitsun and Trinity Sunday. They show a mastery of polychoral technique, with frequent antiphonal exchanges in mostly homophonic textures, contrasts of rhythm, metre and timbre and various combinations of voices.

WORKS

Edition: Zachariáš Zarewutius (1605?–1667): Magnificats and Motets, ed. R.Á. Murányi and I. Ferenczi, Musicalia Danubiana, viii (Budapest, 1987) [M]

all extant works in H-Bn*

latin sacred

Missa (Ky, Gl), 4vv (inc.)

Kyries, 6, 8, 10vv, lost

Magnificat primi toni, 8vv, M; Magnificat secundi toni, 8vv, M

Exultet hymnus in festo S Jacobi (inc.); Gloria tibi Trinitas (inc.); Officium super Veni Domine, 8vv (inc.); O Jesu mi dulcissime, 8vv, M; Psallite terrigenae, 8vv (inc.); Surge Petre et induete, 8vv (inc.)

german sacred

Ach Christe Jesu Kindelein, 8vv, M; Da Jesus geboren war zu Betlehem, 8vv, M; Das alte Jahr vergangen ist, 8vv, M; Der Tag, der ist so freudenreich, 8vv, M; Du bist allerdinge schön, meine Freundin, lost; Meine Seele erhebt den Herren (Ger. Mag), 6vv, M; Nun bitten wir den heiligen Geist, 8vv (inc.); Officium super Das neugeborene Kindelein, 8vv (inc.); [Stehe auf meine freundin] … und kom und kom, 4vv (inc.); Wir loben all das Kindelein, 8vv, M

instrumental

Benedicamus Domino, org; ed. L Kačic, Organová hudba na Slovensku v 17. a 18. storiči [17th- and 18th-century Slovakian organ music] (Bratislava, 1996)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

O. Gombosi: ‘Die Musikalien der Pfarrkirche zu St. Aegidi in Bártfa’, Musikwissenschaftliche Beiträge: Festschrift für Johannes Wolf, ed. W. Lott, H. Osthoff and W. Wolffheim (Berlin, 1929), 38–47

O. Gombosi: ‘Quellen aus dem 16.–17. Jahrhundert zur Geschichte der Musikpflege in Bartfeld (Bártfa) und Oberungarn’, Ungarische Jahrbücher, xii (1932), 331–40

R. Rybariĉ: ‘K biografii J. Schimbraczkého a Z. Zarewutia’ [On the biographies of Šimbracký and Zarevutius], SH, x (1966), 108–9

R. Rybariĉ: ‘Zacharias Zarewutius, organista Bartphae (1625–1664)’, Nové obzory, xvi (1974), 261–84 [incl. thematic catalogue]

F. Matúš: Zacharias Zarewutzky: Biographia (diss., U. of Prešov, 1976)

R. Rybarič: Dejiny hudobnej kultúry na Slovensku, i: Stredovek, renesancia, barok [The history of musical culture in Slovakia, i: The Middle Ages, Renaissance and Baroque] (Bratislava, 1984)

R. Benjamin and others, ed. : Magyarország zenetörténete [The History of Music in Hungary], ii (Budapest, 1990)

L. Kačic: ‘Barok’, Dejiny slovensky hudby: od nojstarisch cias po súcasnost, ed. O. Elschek (Bratislava, 1996), 75–118

JANKA PETŐCZOVÁ-MATÚŠOVÁ

Zargen

(Ger.).

See Ribs.

Zariņš, Margers [Margeris]

(b Jaunpiebalga, 24 May 1910; d Riga, 27 Feb 1993). Latvian composer and writer. He studied with Vītols at the Latvian State Conservatory (1929–33), and was director of music at the Latvian Art Theatre (1940–50) and chairman of the Latvian Composers’ Union (1956–68). He received the Order of Lenin in 1956.

Of his compositions, the music for stage has attracted the most attention. His musical trait in other genres is also theatricality, with unexpected contrasts in style and genre, and various manifestations of comic humour. His early pieces developed along post-Impressionist and neo-Romantic lines, though his works of the 1960s turned to stylizing older genres, giving many works a neo-classical feel. In the 1970s he became a writer of prose, producing three novels, collected stories and a number of autobiographical works.

WORKS

(selective list)

stage

Uz jauno krastu [Towards the New Shore] (op, 4, after V. Lācis), 1953, Riga, 9 March 1954; Zaļās dzirnavas [The Green Mill] (comic op, 3, after J. Janševskis), 1956–8, Riga, 28 June 1958; Nabagu opera [Beggars' Story] (op, 3, Zariņš after 8. Grīva), 1964–5, Riga, 5 Dec 1965; Opera uz laukuma [Opera on the Square] (op, 4, J. Vanags and Zariņš, after V. Mayakovsky and J. Reed), 1970; Svētā Maurīcija brīnumdarbi [The Miracle of St Mauritius] (comic op-ballet, 2, Zariņš), 1964 and 1974, Riga, 28 Dec 1974; Didriķa Taizeļa brīnišķīgie piedzīvojumi [The Wonderful Adventures of Didriķis Taizels] (musical, Zariņš), perf. 1982; Sapnis vasaras naktī [Summer Night's Dream] (musical, Zariņš), perf. 1985

other

Orch: Grieķu vāzes [Greek Vases], conc., pf, orch, 1960; Conc. Grosso, pf, cimb, orch, 1968; Conc. Innocente, org, chbr orch, 1969; Conc. Triptichon, org, chbr orch, 1972; Conc. Patetico, org, perc, hp, 1975; Org Conc. no.4, org, vc ens, 1977

Org: Variations on theme BACH, 1970; Fantasy on J. Poruk's theme, 1971; Variācijas par Alfrēda Kalniņa tēmu [Variations on A. Kalniņš theme], 1979; Kurzemes baroks [Baroque Music of Kurzeme], suite, 1980; Divertimento, timp, 1983

Choral: 12 Latvian folk songs and games, 1948; Valmieras varoņi [Heroes of Valmiera] (orat), 1950; Gleznas [Pictures] (suite), chorus, orch, 1959; Dziemas ar Ē. Ādamsona dzeju [Setting of Ē. Ādamsons poetry], 1959–61; Vecā Taizeļa brīnišķīgie piedzīvojumi [The Wonderful Adventures of Old Taizels], suite, 1960; Nezinītis Saules pilsētā [Dunno in the City of the Sun] (suite), chorus, orch, 1961; Dziesmas ar R. Bernsa dzeju [Setting of R. Burns's poetry], 1962; Variācijas par partizānu dziemas tēmu [Variations on a Partisan song], 1962; Mahogany (orat), 1965; Didrika Taizeļa brīnišķīgie piedzīvojumi [The Wonderful Adventures of Didrika Taizels], suite, 1978; Poēma par pienu [Poem on Milk], org, chorus, 1979; Kuršu ziņges un danči [The Kurshi Songs and Dances], 1983; other choral songs

Solo vocal: Sudrabota gaisma [Silver Light], song cycle, Mez, pf, 1952; Carmina antica, suite, Mez, inst ens, 1963; Četras japāņu miniatūras [4 Japanese Miniatures], Mez, pf, 1963; Partita baroka stilā [Partita in a Baroque Style], Mez, inst ens, 1963; Bilitis songs, Mes, gui, org

Incid music, film scores

Principal publishers: Liesma, Muzïka, Sovetskiy kompozitor

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Krasinska: Margeris Zariņš (Riga, 1960)

O. Gravitis: ‘Margeris Zariņš’, Padomju Latvijas mūzikas darbinieki (Riga, 1965), 624–8

L. Viduleja: Latviešu padomju opera [Latvian soviet operas] (Riga, 1973)

V. Briede-Bulavinova: Opernoye tvorchestvo latïshskikh kompozitorov [Operas of Latvian composers] (Leningrad, 1979), 90–114

T. Kurysheva: Marger Zarin (Moscow, 1980)

ARNOLDS KLOTIŅŠ

Zarlino, Gioseffo [Gioseffe]

(b Chioggia, probably 31 Jan 1517; d Venice, 4 Feb 1590). Italian theorist and composer. He was a leading theorist of counterpoint in the 16th century. In his book Le istitutioni harmoniche, a landmark in the history of music theory, he achieved an integration of speculative and practical theory and established Willaert’s methods as models for contrapuntal writing.

CLAUDE V. PALISCA

1. Life.

Baldi, who knew Zarlino personally and whose biography of him is dated 20 November 1595, stated that he was born on 31 January 1519/20, but there are no documents to support this date, and other dates that he cited are inconsistent with it. In his own history of the Capuchin friars of Venice (1579) Zarlino recalled that when he was very small his uncle Bartolomeo Zarlino entered the Franciscan order on 24 July 1521 together with a Fra Paulo, who became a strong influence in his childhood. He received his early education among the Franciscans. According to Baldi he studied grammar with Giacobo Eterno Sanese, arithmetic and geometry with Giorgio Atanagi and music with Francesco Maria Delfico. Archival documents give the dates of his religious promotions: the first tonsure on 14 April 1532; minor orders on 3 April 1537; and a deaconship on 22 April 1539 (from which his presumed date of birth is deduced on the basis of a regulation that one had to be 22 to be eligible for this position). He is recorded at Chioggia Cathedral as a singer in July 1536 and as organist in 1539–40. He must have been ordained by 1540, because on 27 April he was elected ‘capellano’ and mansionario of the Scuola di S Francesco, Chioggia. He moved to Venice in 1541 and became a pupil of Willaert. According to Baldi he also studied logic and philosophy with Cristoforo da Ligname, Greek with Guglielmo Fiammingo and Hebrew with a nephew or grandson of Elia Tesbite.

After the resignation of Rore, a fellow pupil of Willaert, Zarlino was appointed maestro di cappella of S Marco, Venice, on 5 July 1565, and he held this post until his death. In the same year he was elected a chaplain of S Severo. In 1583 he was made a canon of the chapter of Chioggia Cathedral; also in that year he was nominated for the office of bishop by a delegation from Chioggia but lost the election. Among his pupils were Claudio Merulo, Giovanni Croce, Girolamo Diruta, Vincenzo Galilei and Giovanni Maria Artusi.

2. Works.

Le istitutioni harmoniche (1558) is one of the most important works of music theory. Zarlino aimed in it to unite speculative theory with the practice of composition on the grounds that ‘music considered in its ultimate perfection contains these two parts so closely joined that one cannot be separated from the other’ (i, 2). The composer must not be content to master his craft; he should know the reason for what he does, and this can be discovered through an alliance of the rational and sensory faculties. The first two parts (they are designated ‘books’ in the 1573 edition) present the traditional curriculum of musica theorica from a fresh viewpoint. In part i Zarlino reviewed the philosophical, cosmological and mathematical basis of music. Part ii sets forth the Greek tonal system and supplants it with a modern theory of consonances and tuning. Zarlino synthesized critically a vast literature on music, philosophy, theology, mathematics and classical history and literature.

Having observed, like Ramis de Pareia, Gaffurius, Spataro and Lodovico Fogliano before him, that 3rds and 6ths were not consonant in the ratios handed down by Pythagorean theory, he sought a system that would permit sweet-sounding imperfect consonances, which were essential components of modern part-writing. The Pythagoreans had limited the class of intervals they called consonant to those produced by the first four divisions of a string: the octave, 2:1; 5th, 3:2; 4th, 4:3; octave plus 5th, 3:1; and double octave, 4:1. Zarlino extended the upper limit to the divisions of the string into two, three, four, five and six equal segments. Thus the number six, ‘numero senario’ (fig.2), epitomized the formal cause – the ‘sonorous number’ (‘numero sonoro’) – that generated consonances out of the ‘sounding body’ (‘corpo sonoro’). The elevation of the determinant of consonance from four to six permitted the admission of several more intervals: the major 3rd, 5:4; the minor 3rd, 6:5; and the major 6th, 5:3. The minor 6th, 8:5, which remained outside this sanctuary, had to be rationalized as the joining of a perfect 4th and a minor 3rd.

Before the newly gained consonances were legitimately practicable, a tuning that yielded them consistently had to be devised. The syntonic diatonic, which Ptolemy had praised (as Zarlino learnt from Gaffurius) because its tetrachord was made up entirely of superparticular ratios (descending 9:10, 8:9, 15:16), fitted Zarlino’s needs, and it could be adapted to the Western ascending scale (ii, 39), from C to c: 9:8, 10:9, 16:15, 9:8, 10:9, 9:8, 16:15. This scale lacked the symmetry of the two descending disjunct tetrachords of the Greeks, as in e to E, but for Zarlino it had the overriding virtue of containing, reduced to an octave, the consonances as generated by the first six divisions of the string in the order of the sonorous numbers – octave, 5th, 4th, major 3rd, minor 3rd.

The order of the sonorous numbers explained also Zarlino’s preference for the major over the minor 3rd and for its placing below the minor 3rd in a chord. He discovered an additional reason for this placement in the ancient doctrine of the harmonic and arithmetical means. If the three notes, for example C, E, G, are represented by string lengths, as 30, 24, 20, the middle term, 24, is the harmonic mean. This was the most perfect arrangement of consonances, in which the larger interval was divided harmonically. The reverse arrangement of 3rds, produced by the arithmetical mean, ‘is somewhat removed from perfection of harmony, because its elements are not arranged in their natural locations’ (iii, 31). A further consequence of the sonorous numbers, but one which Zarlino did not deduce until his Dimostrationi harmoniche of 1571 (Rag.v, defi.8, 14), was the renumbering of the modes. As is evident from the scale given above, his primary octave was C to c rather than A to a as with Boethius and his followers. The species of consonances should, therefore, be numbered from C rather than, as traditionally, from A. Since the modes were essentially species of octaves, they too should be numbered from C so that C authentic is 1, C plagal 2, D authentic 3 etc. Zarlino showed that this system had two further advantages: it started from the ut of solmization; and the intervals between the finals of the first three authentic modes were parallel to those that separated the Greek Dorian, Phrygian and Lydian modes (tone–tone–semitone). He did not, however, use the Greek names for his modes.

Zarlino acknowledged that the numerical criteria that he established in parts i and ii for the tuning of the consonances did not apply to instrumental music, which employed artificial tunings made necessary by the imperfection of instruments. But in the natural medium of the voice it was possible, he maintained, to realize all the inherent perfection of harmony. It was in the vocal medium that he was able to bring to bear on musica practica, the art of counterpoint, the consequences of his theory of consonances. Counterpoint was fundamentally an art of bringing harmony out of diversity: ‘a kind of harmony that contains diverse variations of sounds or steps, using rational intervallic proportions and temporal measurements … an artful union of diverse sounds reduced to concordance’ (iii, 1). Zarlino’s rules established certain conditions through which diverse elements were brought into agreement: (1) dissonances were subordinated to consonances by being allowed on the down- or upbeat (the first and third minim in C) only when held over from a syncopated consonance, that is, in suspensions; dissonances of small value and of local motion were permitted on subdivisions of these beats; (2) contrary motion and independence of melody maintained an equilibrium among the parts; (3) a composition was organized around a determinate mode, which harmonized different sections through permissible cadences and limited the introduction of notes outside the diatonic steps; (4) the steady recurrence of down- and upbeats integrated the diverse rhythms within a rational scheme of measurement.

The rules of counterpoint developed by Zarlino from the teachings of Willaert were propagated in the next generation by his pupil Artusi, who reduced them to tabular form in L’arte del contraponto ridotta in tavole (1586), and by Orazio Tigrini in a compendium of 1588. Translations and adaptations by Jean le Fort and Claude Hardy and heavy borrowing by Salomon de Caus and Mersenne in France and paraphrases by Sweelinck and his pupils in the Netherlands and Germany provide evidence of the wide diffusion of his theories of composition. His theoretical foundations had a shorter life, however. Almost immediately the scientist Giovanni Battista Benedetti in two letters to Rore of about 1563 (later published in his Diversarum speculationum, 1585) demonstrated mathematically that a choir singing consistently according to the intervals of the syntonic diatonic would deviate progressively further and further from the starting pitch. Galilei in his Dialogo of 1581 raised similar objections and also pointed out numerous instances in which Zarlino had misunderstood his ancient sources. Zarlino replied at great length in his Sopplimenti musicali (1588), in which he displayed much greater penetration into the ancient authors, particularly Aristoxenus and Ptolemy, which had been published in 1562 in a Latin translation by Gogava, than in Le istitutioni harmoniche; but he failed to refute Galilei’s valid criticisms.

Zarlino’s compositions, though learned and polished, are of secondary interest. His motets are models of canonic procedures, both with and without a cantus firmus. He was extremely attentive to text-setting and underlay according to the natural rhythm and accent of speech, an aspect of composition that he dealt with definitively in Le istitutioni (iv, 33). His madrigals are conservative in their use of dissonance and chromaticism, and even homophonic textures are rare. Although conventional word-painting is common, the expressiveness characteristic of Willaert’s late works is matched only rarely, as in the setting of Petrarch’s spiritual sonnet I’ vo piangendo.

WRITINGS

Le istitutioni harmoniche (Venice, 1558/R, 3/1573/R; Eng. trans. of pt.iii, 1968/R, as The Art of Counterpoint; Eng. trans. of pt.iv, 1983, as On the Modes)

Dimostrationi harmoniche (Venice, 1571/R, 2/1573)

Sopplimenti musicali (Venice, 1588/R)

De tutte l’opere del r. m. G. Zarlino (Venice, 1588–9) [incl. the above 3 works as vols.i–iii and non-musical works in iv]

WORKS

Dates and nos. in parentheses indicate edn, pt. or bk, and chap. references in Le istitutioni harmoniche.

Edition: Gioseffo Zarlino: Nove madrigali a cinque voci tratti da varie raccolte, ed. S. Cisilino (Venice, 1963) [C]

sacred

Moduli motecta vulgo noncupata liber primus, 5vv (Venice, 1549) [1549]

Modulationes per Philippum Iusbertum … collectae, 6vv (Venice, 1566) [1566]

Works in 1549³, 1549⁷, 1549⁸, 1563⁴, 1567³

Adiuro vos, filie, 5vv, 1549⁸

Amavit eum Dominus, 6vv, I-TVd

Aptabo cythare, 5vv, 1549

Ascendo ad patrem, 6vv, 1566, MOe

Ave regina coelorum, 5vv, 1549

Beatissimus Marcus, 5vv, 1549

Capite nobis vulpes, 5vv, 1549 (1558 iii, 28; iv, 19; 1573 iii, 28; iv, 21)

Clodia quem genuit, 5vv, 1549

Confitebor tibi, 5vv, 1549

Ecce iam venit, 4vv, 1563⁴; ed. in Cw, lxxvii (1960), 13

Ecce tu pulchra es, 5vv, 1549 (1558 iii, 66; 1573 iii, 66); ed. in AMI, i (1897/R), 79

Ego rosa Saron, 5vv, 1549 (1558 iii, 28; iv, 19; 1573 iii, 28; iv, 21)

Ego veni in hortum, 5vv, 1549 (1558 iv, 28; 1573 iv, 18)

Exaudi Deus orationem, 6vv, 1566

Ferculum fecit sibi, 5vv, 1549 (1558 iv, 20; 1573 iv, 22)

Hodie Christus natus, 6vv, 1566

Hodie sanctus Benedictus, 5vv, TVd

In lectulo meo, 5vv, 1549

In principio Deus, 6vv, 1566 (1558 iii, 66; 1573 iii, 66)

Litigabant Iudaei, 6vv, 1566 (1558 iii, 66; 1573 iii, 66; iv, 19)

Manus tue, Domine, 4vv, 1563⁴

Miserere mei, Deus, 6vv, 1566, MOe (1558 iii, 66; iv, 21; 1573 iii, 66; iv, 23)

Misereris omnium, 6vv, 1566, MOe (1573 iii, 66; iv, 23); ed. in Cw, lxxvii (1960), 19

Nemo potest venire, 5vv, 1549; ed. in Cw, lxxvii (1960), 1

Nigra sum, 5vv, 1549 (1558 iv, 18; 1573 iv, 20); ed. in AMI, i (1897/R), 69

O beatum pontificem, 5vv, 1549 (1558 iii, 66; iv, 18; 1573 iii, 66)

O quam gloriosum, 6vv, 1566 (1558 iv, 29; 1573 iv, 19)

O sacrum convivium, 5vv, 1549

Osculetur me osculis, 5vv, 1549 (1558 iii, 28; 1573 iii, 28)

Parce mihi, Domine, 4vv, 1563⁴

Parcius Estenses, 5vv, 1567³

Pater noster, Ave Maria, 7vv, 1549, rev. in 1566 (1558 iii, 28, 66; iv, 19; 1573 iii, 28, 66; iv, 21)

Salve regina, 6vv, 1566 (1558 iii, 66; 1573 iii, 66; iv, 20)

Sebastianus Dei cultor, 6vv, 1566

Si bona suscepimus, 5vv, 1549 (1558 iv, 26; 1573 iv, 28)

Si ignoras, 5vv, 1549⁷

Stabat mater, I-Vnm, iv, 1792

Tedet animam meam, 4vv, 1563⁴

Veni Sancte Spiritus, 5vv, 1549

Victimae paschali, 6vv, 1549³, rev. in 1566 (1573 iv, 20)

Virgo prudentissima, 6vv, 1566 (1558 iii, 28; 1573 iii, 28); ed. G. Paolucci, Arte pratica di contrappunto (Venice, 1765–72), ii, 250

secular

Amor mentre dormia, 5vv, 1562⁵; C 17

Cantin’ con dolc’e gratios’ accenti, 5vv, 1562⁵; C 53

Come si m’accendete, 4vv, 1567¹⁶

Donna che quasi cigno, 5vv, 1566²³; C 97

E forse el mio ben, 5vv, 1562⁶; C 85

E questo il legno, 5vv, 1562⁵; C 69

I’ vo piangendo, 5vv, 1562⁵ (1558 iv, 26; 1573 iv, 28); C 40; ed. in Cw, lxxvii (1960), 24

Lauro gentile, 5vv, 1548⁹; C 1

Mentre del mio buon, 5vv, 1568¹⁶; C 111

Quand’il soave, 4vv, 1567¹⁶

Si ch’ove prim, 5vv, 1570¹⁵; ed. in Flury

Si mi vida es, 4vv, 1567¹⁶

Spent’era gia l’ardor, 5vv, 1562⁵; C 28

2. The 19th century and the ‘género chico’.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CaffiS

StrunkSRZ

G. Zarlino: Informatione … intorno la origine della congregatione de i Reverendi Frati Capuccini (Venice, 1579)

B. Baldi: ‘Vite inedite di matematici italiani’, [MS, 1595] ed. E. Narducci, Bolletino di bibliografia e storia delle scienze matematiche e fisiche, xix (1886), 633–40

G.B. Benedetti: Diversarum speculationum mathematicarum & physicorum liber (Turin, 1585)

V. Galilei: Discorso intorno all’opere di Messer Gioseffo Zarlino da Chioggia (Florence, 1589/R)

G.M. Artusi: Impresa del molto Rev. M. Gioseffo Zarlino da Chioggia … dichiarata (Bologna, 1604)

H. Riemann: ‘Zarlino als harmonischer Dualist’, MMg, xii (1880), 155–7, 174

H. Zenck: ‘Zarlino’s “Istitutioni harmoniche” als Quelle zur Musikanschauung der italienischen Renaissance’, ZMw, xii (1929–30), 540–78

C. Dahlhaus: ‘War Zarlino Dualist?’, Mf, x (1957), 286–91

R.W. Wienpahl: ‘Zarlino, the Senario, and Tonality’, JAMS, xii (1959), 27–41

G.A. Marco: ‘Zarlino’s Rules of Counterpoint in the Light of Modern Pedagogy’, MR, xxii (1961), 1–12

C.V. Palisca: ‘Scientific Empiricism in Musical Thought’, Seventeenth-Century Science and the Arts, ed. H.H. Rhys (Princeton, NJ, 1961); repr. with pref. note in Palisca, Studies in the History of Italian Music and Music Theory (Oxford, 1994), 200–35

R. Flury: Gioseffo Zarlino als Komponist (Winterthur, 1962)

R. Monterosso: ‘L’estetica di Gioseffo Zarlino’, Chigiana, xxiv, new ser. iv (1967), 13–28

R. Crocker: ‘Perché Zarlino diede una nuova numerazione ai modi?’, RIM, iii (1968), 48–58

C.V. Palisca: Introduction to G. Zarlino: The Art of Counterpoint, trans. G.A. Marco and C.V. Palisca (New Haven, CT, and London, 1968), xiii–xxvi; see also review by D. Launay, RBM, xx (1970), 240–42

J. Haar: ‘Zarlino’s Definition of Fugue and Imitation’, JAMS, xxiv (1971), 226–54

D.P. Walker: ‘Some Aspects of the Musical Theory of Vincenzo Galilei and Galileo Galilei’, PRMA, c (1973–4), 33–47; repr. in Walker, Studies in Musical Science in the Late Renaissance (London, 1978), 14–26

M.S. Lewis: ‘Zarlino’s Theories of Text Underlay as Illustrated in his Motet Book of 1549’, Notes, xlii (1985–6), 239–67

J. Levy and A. Mori: ‘The Diatonic Basis of Fugue in Zarlino’, In Theory Only, ix/2–3 (1986), 33–46

I. Palumbo-Fossati: ‘La casa veneziana di Gioseffo Zarlino nel testamento e nell’inventario dei beni del grande teorico musicale’, NRMI, xx (1986), 633–49

P. Walker: ‘From Renaissance “fuga” to Baroque Fugue: the Role of the “Sweelinck Theory Manuscripts”’, Schütz-Jb 1986, 93–104

D. Harrán: Word-Tone Relations in Musical Thought: from Antiquity to the Seventeenth Century (Stuttgart, 1986)

P. Barbieri: Acustica, accordatura e temperamento nell’Illuminismo veneto (Rome, 1987)

E. Fubini: ‘Zarlino, Venezia e la musica strumentale’, Andrea Gabrieli e il suo tempo, ed. F. Degrada (Florence, 1987), 387–402

D. Harrán: ‘Sulla genesi della famosa disputa fra Gioseffo Zarlino e Vincenzo Galilei: un nuovo profilo’, NRMI, xxi (1987), 467–75

B. Rivera: ‘Zarlino’s Approach to Counterpoint Modified and Transmitted by Seth Calvisius’, IMSCR XIV: Bologna 1987, ii, 167–8

D. Harrán: In Search of Harmony: Hebrew and Humanist Elements in Sixteenth-Century Musical Thought (Stuttgart, 1988)

R. Airoldi: La teoria del temperamento dell’età di Gioseffo Zarlino, ed. E.F. Barassi (Cremona, 1989)

M. Fend: ‘Zarlinos Versuch einer Axiomatisierung der Musiktheorie in den Dimostrationi harmoniche (1571)’, Musiktheorie, iv/2 (1989), 113–26

L. Fico: Zarlino: Consonanza e dissonanza nelle ‘Istitutioni harmoniche’ (Bari, 1989)

C.V. Palisca: The Florentine Camerata: Documentary Studies and Translations (New Haven, CT, 1989)

P. Sanvito: ‘Le sperimentazioni nelle scienze quadriviali di alcuni epistolari Zarliniani inediti’, Studi musicali, xix (1990), 305–18

M. Lindley: ‘Zarlino’s 2/7-Comma Meantone Temperament’, Music in Performance and Society: Essays in Honor of Roland Jackson, ed. M. Cole and J. Koegel (Warren, MI, 1997)

Zarotto, Antonio

(b Parma, c1450; d Milan, 1510). Italian printer. He was the first printer in Milan, from 1471. His Missale romanum of 1474, the first dated printed missal, and its successor, the first Missale ambrosianum (1475), contain no printed music; scribes filled in the notation, in the latter book with a two-line red and yellow staff. Zarotto later printed the music of Ambrosian plainchant in the missal (1488, 1490), ritual (c1487) and psalter (1496). He added roman plainchant characters to his fount to print the music of other missals (1488, 1492, 1504).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DugganIMI

A. Ganda: I primordi della tipografia milanese: Antonio Zarotto da Parma (1471–1507) (Florence, 1984)

M.K. DUGGAN

Zarqa.

Sign used in Hebrew Ekphonetic notation. See also Jewish music, §III, 2(ii).

Zart

(Ger.: ‘delicate’, ‘tender’, ‘sensitive’, ‘subdued’).

An expression mark found particularly in German scores of the 19th and 20th centuries, also in the instruction zart hervortretend (‘coming forward within the orchestral texture but remaining gentle’). For Wagner zart may have meant something different from dolce, for he often has the two in close proximity (e.g. in the final scene of Tristan).

See also Tempo and expression marks.

DAVID FALLOWS

Zarth [Czard, Czarth, Szarth, Tzarth, Zardt], Georg

(b Hochtann, nr Deutschbrod, Bohemia, 8 April 1708; d ?Mannheim, after 1778). Bohemian composer and violinist. He received his earliest musical instruction from Lukas Lorenz, the Deutschbrod teacher with whom Johann Stamitz is alleged to have studied. Around 1725 he went to Vienna where he studied the violin with F.J. Timmer and J.A. Rosetter and took flute lessons from Biarelli. Zarth then entered the service of Count Pachta at Rajov, but did not remain long in this post; he had formed a friendship with Franz Benda and as both were equally dissatisfied with their positions they left Vienna abruptly in 1729 and fled to Poland. After a short stop in Breslau, they found employment near Warsaw with the Starost Suchaczewsky. From this point until 1757 Zarth’s career followed Benda’s very closely. They remained with the Starost for about two and a half years before first Benda, and then Zarth, left to join the Polish royal chapel in Warsaw. On the accession of August II in 1733 both musicians transferred to the Dresden Hofkapelle. Their appointment was, however, of short duration, for in 1734 Zarth followed Benda in accepting a summons to the chapel of Crown Prince Frederick at Ruppin. Zarth remained in Frederick’s service for over 20 years, moving with the rest of the chapel to Rheinsberg in 1736 and then to Berlin after Frederick’s accession in 1740. It was not until 1757 or 1758 that the careers of Benda and Zarth diverged: while Benda remained in Berlin, Zarth took up a post at Mannheim. He was listed among the first violins in 1767 and was still a member of the court orchestra in 1778, when the Munich archives recorded payment of 800 guilders to the violinist ‘Czard’.

As only a small proportion of Zarth’s music has survived it is difficult to assess his development as a composer. The printed sonatas seem to be early works, written when Zarth’s style was still rooted in the Baroque idiom. The Allegro from op.2 no.5 is characteristic in its reliance on sequential figuration and in its colourful exploitation of string technique. In other works Zarth adopted a more galant style, but he was never in the forefront of developments; his move to Mannheim came too late to be of decisive importance.

WORKS

Six sonates, fl, bc, op.1 (Paris, c1750)

Six sonates, vn, bc, op.2 (Paris, c1750), lost; Allegro from op.2 no.5 in J.B. Cartier: L’art du violon (Paris, 1798, 2/1801)

Sonata, G, fl, bc, D-Bsb, DK-Kk

Sonata, E, fl, bc, DK-Kk

Sonata, C, vn, bc, Cz-Pnm

Trio, G, fl, vn, bc, B-Bc, D-SWl

Trio, G, 2 fl, bc, B-Bc

Advertised in Breitkopf catalogues: Sonata, G, 2 vn, bc, 1762; Sonata, A, 2 vn, 1762; Sinfonia à 4, D, 1766; Conc., D, vn, str, 1766; Solo, g, vn, bc, 1768; Conc., D, vn, orch, 1782–4: all lost

Fl concs. in MS cited by Marpurg and Gerber, lost

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BrookB

GerberL

KöchelKHM

NewmanSCE

WalterG

F.W. Marpurg: Historisch-kritische Beyträge zur Aufnahme der Musik (Berlin, 1754–78/R), i, 547–8

H. Riemann: Introduction to DTB, xxviii, Jg.xvi (1915), pp.xxiv, lviii

P. Nettl: Forgotten Musicians (New York, 1951/R), 214–15, 218, 220

PIPPA DRUMMOND

Zarzuela

(Sp., from zarza: ‘bramble’, ‘bramble bush’).

A Spanish genre of musical theatre characterized by a mixture of sung and spoken dialogue. Covarrubias's Tesoro de la lengua castellana (1611) defines zarza as ‘a spiny mat … a thing that is all linked together and intertwined in itself’. ‘Zarzuela’ is also used generally to describe a mixture or jumble.

1. To 1800.

3. The 20th century.

LOUISE K. STEIN (1), ROGER ALIER (2, 3)

1. To 1800.

The first use of the word ‘zarzuela’ in a theatrical and musical context is found in the auto sacramental De los cantares by Lope de Vega. In a scene that includes rustic dances, one called ‘zarzuela’ carries as its text an adaptation of an older popular peasant song or seranilla.

In the late 1650s ‘zarzuela’ was used to refer to short musical plays of a lightly burlesque nature organized by Gaspar de Haro, the Marquis of Heliche, to entertain the king and his guests at the renovated Palacio Real de la Zarzuela, a royal hunting-lodge in the wooded outskirts of Madrid. The first such plays, with texts by Pedro Calderón de la Barca and music presumably by Juan Hidalgo, called for an especially large number of female actor-singers. Musical intervention was not at all new in court plays, and in the 1650s both the two-act pastoral zarzuelas and the more complex, heavily dramatic, three-act mythological comedias or semi-operas (see Semi-opera) performed at the Coliseo del Buen Retiro included songs of various sorts and spoken dialogue together with declamatory sung dialogue. Although most 17th-century zarzuelas do not call for recitative at all, or require at most only one or two small sections of it, recitative was included in Calderón’s mythological plays as early as 1652 in La fiera, el rayo, y la piedra and in the extensively musical semi-opera Fortunas de Andrómeda y Perseo (presumably with music by Hidalgo) of 1653.

The first known zarzuela is Calderón’s El laurel de Apolo, in two acts, written in 1657 to celebrate the birth of Prince Philip (Felipe Próspero) but not performed until early in 1658. Court documents confirm that it and his one-act ‘piscatory eclogue’ El golfo de las sirenas (1657) were produced by the Marquis of Heliche emphasizing musical splendour rather than extensive visual display. Since Calderón seems to have abruptly left off writing mythological semi-operas after 1653 (though he later returned to the genre), it is likely that these works of 1657 were invented to present highly entertaining musical plays appropriate for the royal decorum on the small stage of the Zarzuela palace, without the enormous rehearsal time and expenditure that the semi-operas required. In 1658, however, the Marquis of Heliche produced a spectacular musical play at the Coliseo del Buen Retiro in celebration of the prince’s birth. This play, Triunfos de Amor y Fortuna by Antonio de Solís (extant songs by Juan Hidalgo and Cristóbal Galán), is much like a zarzuela in its musical scenes, with ensemble songs (coros) and solo songs mostly in the form of coplas and estribillo. Its plot also exhibits the mixed and somewhat messy character of the zarzuela, combining two different mythological love stories in a rustic and pastoral setting, complete with classical deities as protagonists in the company of pastoral and allegorical figures.

17th-century zarzuelas varied in the quantity of music they included, so that the genre cannot be defined or understood on this basis alone. They take the rustic and pastoral landscape as their setting, and, just as the zarza is a common sort of vegetation, the zarzuela used predominantly common sorts of music. Calderón’s text for El laurel de Apolo is exemplary, although its music seems not to survive. This is a fiesta de zarzuela in two acts, introduced by a loa (prologue), set in the ‘fields of Madrid’, in which the character of Zarzuela explains that rustic simplicity is an element long overlooked in courtly entertainments, and promises that everyone will enjoy the new genre, which is not a comedia but a shorter pastoral fable that is partly sung and partly spoken. El laurel de Apolo is not a opera text: its stage directions make clear that it was not fully sung; yet Calderón mentioned Italian practice in Zarzuela’s monologue (‘a imitación de Italia / se canta y se representa’), referring to the alternation between sung and spoken dialogue that came to characterize the zarzuela and most other large-scale Spanish court plays. It is likely that Calderón needed to explain his choice of the pastoral as a musical entertainment because the mythological pastoral had not been cultivated at court for nearly three decades. By recuperating it as a hybrid zarzuela, Calderón introduced a new genre.

Virtually all the dramatists who wrote for the Spanish court in the 17th century provided zarzuela texts, and the zarzuela became the favourite and most prolifically cultivated genre of palace play during the reigns of the last of the Spanish Habsburgs. Younger contemporaries of Calderón, including Francisco de Avellaneda, Juan Bautista Diamante, Melchor Fernández de León, Agustín de Salazar y Torres, Antonio de Solís and Juan Vélez de Guevara, contributed zarzuelas to great acclaim. This kind of zarzuela set the model for some courtly celebrations in Latin America as well, to judge by the elegantly preserved text for También se vengan los dioses, a zarzuela in two acts by Lorenzo de las Llamosas (a Peruvian writer who later emigrated to the Spanish court in Madrid), performed in Lima to honour the birth of the second son of the viceroy, the Count of Monclova.

The extant music for many of the Madrid productions, which has survived mainly as individual songs in performing parts and anthologies, points to Hidalgo as the chief composer for court musical plays from the 1650s to his death in 1685, although Galán also wrote for a few plays. Hidalgo’s songs were composed as perfect vehicles for affective expression in their respective scenes, using the standard Spanish forms of the tono (usually with coplas and estribillo) and tonada, while closely projecting and interpreting the elaborately baroque song texts provided by the dramatists. Hidalgo’s music set the standard for other composers, and his collaborations with the dramatists of his time reflect the solidification of the musical-theatrical conventions that characterized Spanish musical drama for some time to come.

Hidalgo’s pupil Juan Francisco de Navas and Juan Serqueira de Lima, a famous composer and harpist who worked in the theatre companies, composed for revivals of older zarzuelas when the original music had been lost. Navas composed new zarzuelas to texts by Fernández de León and later authors such as Francisco de Bances Candamo, Lorenzo de las Llamosas, Manuel Vidal Salvador and Antonio de Zamora. The extant songs by Navas for these works and the invaluable printed score of his music for Destinos vencen finezas (1698; text by Llamosas) demonstrate a slightly more modern musical style incorporating obbligato instrumental parts that join the vocal parts in dialogue, longer phrases and more ornamented, longer-breathed vocal lines. Navas also composed longer, continuous musical scenes that incorporate recitado (a Spanish type of recitative) together with highly affective estribillos and traditional, typically declamatory coplas.

Musical innovations are also found in the extant scores of zarzuelas by Sebastián Durón, who collaborated with Navas in at least one work and succeeded him as the most brilliant composer of zarzuelas in the last years of the 17th century and the first two decades of the 18th. The several zarzuelas that Durón composed for the court (with texts by José de Cañizares, Marcos de Lanuza and Antonio de Zamora) were also performed with great success in the public theatres of Madrid in the period 1710–20, although Durón was forced for political reasons into exile in France and died there in 1716. Another court musician, the highly original Antonio Literes, incorporated the traditional Spanish musical forms (tonos, tonadas, coplas, estribillos, recitados) and the stylistic ideals and affective conventions of Hidalgo, Navas and Durón into his zarzuelas of 1708–11, alongside italianate arias and recitatives. Literes also composed stage works for noble patrons, which may be why he composed so few works for the royal court and the public theatres. Literes’s zarzuela Accis y Galatea (1708), however, was a great success at court and subsequently became extremely popular in the public theatres.

In the first and second decades of the 18th century the zarzuela was transformed from a genre designed to delight princes into a genre beloved of the mixed public that attended the public theatres. This transformation came about because of political change (the War of the Spanish Succession resulted in the accession of the Bourbon dynasty to the Spanish throne), a change in royal preferences, changes in literary taste and fashion and a renewed interest on the part of Madrid’s theatre-going public for musical plays. The administrators of the public theatre discovered (through the production of works like Literes’s Accis y Galatea) that musical plays brought in substantial revenue. This also meant that violinists and oboists were suddenly in demand for the theatre orchestras – further evidence of the zarzuela’s adaptation to the demands of new musical practices, since these small orchestras had traditionally been large continuo bands built of harps and guitars. Talented female actor-singers were also newly in demand for the busy theatrical troupes. Castrato singers were not a part of the Spanish theatrical practice (they sang only in chapel) and it was traditional that serious singing roles were taken by women.

Apart from the works of Durón and Literes, few zarzuelas survive from the early 18th century, although administrative documents record their performance histories. The character of the full-blown 18th-century zarzuela, with its absorption of the mainstream pan-European operatic style (principally in mature da capo arias and italianate recitatives) and conservation of traditionally Spanish numbers (coplas, seguidillas and frequent four-voice coros, for example), characters (the graciosos) and conventions is exemplified in José Nebra’s hugely successful Viento es la dicha de Amor (first version 1743; later versions 1748 and 1752) to a text by Antonio de Zamora (who died about 1728). Nebra’s score preserves Zamora’s older libretto, except that all the song texts for the principal serious characters (Amor, Liríope, Céfiro, Ninfa) are replaced by new texts appropriate for recitative and da capo arias. In this sense Nebra’s work demonstrates the flexible, hybrid character of the zarzuela, with its admixture of typically Spanish numbers (for the comic and castizo characters) and musical forms drawn from contemporary opera seria.

The history of the zarzuela in the 18th century unfolds in an epoch characterized by the co-existence of musical styles and genres, and by the increasing separation of the court’s musical and musical-theatrical life from that of the public sphere. The preference of the Bourbon kings and their wives for Italian opera seria and Italian singers (almost entirely in private performances in the Coliseo del Buen Retiro and other royal theatres) did not find popular support in Madrid, though Italian composers and musicians had worked in the public theatres during the first half of the 18th century, providing music for comedias and zarzuelas. Operatic music was cultivated in the public theatres in Madrid in productions of texts by Metastasio, but these were adapted to the Spanish practice. The librettos were translated into Spanish, the recitative dialogues were replaced by spoken dialogue in Spanish and a number of arias were cut. These ‘operas’ were performed by all-female casts and were clearly shaped not by the aesthetic of opera seria but by the aesthetic and conventions of zarzuela.

About 1760 Spanish composers recaptured the public by deliberately and selfconsciously cultivating a recognizably ‘Spanish’ and madrileño musical style, shaping large-scale works according not to operatic convention but to the conventions developed a century earlier. This was a nationalist movement that depended to a large degree on the new influence of the prolific dramatist Ramón de la Cruz (1731–94), and the inspiration of new native or castizo forms such as the comic sainete and tonadilla, cultivated by composers such as Jacinto Valledor, Pablo Esteve and Blas de Laserna. The large-scale zarzuela burlesca El tío y la tía (1767) by Antonio Rosales, to a one-act libretto by Ramón de la Cruz, was the first important production of this new movement. In 1769 a two-act zarzuela by Antonio Rodríguez de Hita, Las labradoras de Murcia, also with text by Ramón de la Cruz, was produced in Madrid. This is the first extant zarzuela de costumbres. Its plot is not only laced through with popular humour, but is devoted to an exposition of local customs and social convention with highly castizo musical numbers. It may have served as an example to those composers and librettists who took up the cause of the zarzuela in the later 19th century. In the works of Rosales and Rodríguez de Hita there are obvious musical gestures from opera buffa and the predominant musical style is pan-European.

In the last quarter of the 18th century and the first of the 19th the zarzuela disappeared from the stages of Madrid and no new works were added to the repertory. Ramón de la Cruz wrote no zarzuela texts after about 1776, and late 18th-century composers devoted themselves to composing shorter comic works (sainetes and tonadillas) in which the emphasis was wholly on singing, with buffa arias, duets and ensembles combined with fashionable Spanish dances and castizo songs. Indeed, a number of these sainetes play the Spanish and Italian conventions and musical styles against each other in a humorous and lightly selfconscious fashion. Their arias contain sometimes exceedingly long and difficult passages of coloratura writing, and demand expertise, control and vocal range from the singers. This would seem to demonstrate that in the late 18th century the focus of musical plays for the public was on music and musical performance. Although the sainetes and tonadillas were not zarzuelas, they benefit from the legacy of the hybrid zarzuela, with its focus on lyrical songs and its selective exploitation of elements from the pan-European musical style of 18th-century opera, alongside popular Spanish songs and dances.

2. The 19th century and the ‘género chico’.

In the early 1800s the zarzuela was virtually forgotten; Italian opera had taken its place. When in 1832 Ramón Carnicer, Mateo Albéniz and the musicologist Baltasar Saldoni wrote a little opera in Spanish, Los enredos de un curioso, for the Madrid Conservatory, Saldoni insisted on calling it a zarzuela since it had spoken parts in Spanish; but the revival of the genre would have to wait until the mid-19th century. Among the first to try his hand at it was the Italian Basilio Basili, whose one-act pieces El novio y el concierto (1839) and El ventorillo de Crespo (1842) were billed as zarzuelas and show some Andalusian influence. While musical circles in Madrid were trying to create a truly ‘national opera’ in Spanish, other less ambitious composers revived the zarzuela tradition, especially after Rafael Hernando won great success with Colegiales y soldados at the Teatro del Instituto, Madrid, in 1849. This is usually considered the first modern zarzuela, but other pieces by Cristóbal Oudrid, Augustín Azcona, Mariano Soriano Fuertes, Sebastián Iradier and Hernando himself had already been performed with some success.

Hernando’s El duende (libretto by Luis de Olona) had over 100 performances after its première at the Teatro de Variedades, Madrid, in 1849 and encouraged other composers, including Joaquín Gaztambide, José Inzenga and Francisco Asenjo Barbieri to compose zarzuelas. These three, together with Hernando, Oudrid, Olona and the baritone Francisco L. Salas, formed in 1851 a Sociedad Artística which hired the Teatro de Circo for a season of zarzuelas. Their first production, Gaztambide’s Tribulaciones, was unsuccessful, but the venture was saved by Barbieri’s Jugar con fuego, which enhanced the composer’s standing as leader of the group. Under Barbieri’s influence the zarzuela was italianate in musical style but took the outward form of the French opéra comique. Many librettos follow the French genre closely, including those of Gaztambide’s El valle de Andorra (1852, based on Halévy’s opera) and Catalina (1854, on Meyerbeer’s L’étoile du nord), Barbieri’s Los diamantes de la corona (1854, on Auber’s opera), Inzenga’s ¡Si yo fuera rey! (1862, on Adam’s Si j’étais roi) and Martín Sánchez-Allú’s Fra Diavolo (1857). Some also use plots derived from Italian opera, such as Gaztambide’s Un día de reinado (1854, following Verdi’s Un giorno di regno) and his El juramento (1858, following Mercadante’s opera).

The effectiveness of these zarzuelas attracted composers who had at first snubbed them, the most remarkable being Pascual Emilio Arrieta, who had worked on Italian opera in Spanish for Queen Isabella II at her private theatre in the royal palace (closed after the public Teatro Real was opened in November 1850). With El dominó azul (1853, after Auber) Arrieta followed the trend of imitating French opéra comique and had great success with El grumete (1853), but it was his Marina (1855, libretto by Francisco Camprodón) which was to prove his masterpiece after being made into a Spanish opera in 1871 at the request of the Italian tenor Enrico Tamberlik.

The Sociedad Artística’s success was so great that its members (Arrieta was admitted, while Inzenga and Oudrid left when more money was required) decided to build a new theatre, the Teatro de la Zarzuela, which still exists. It opened in October 1856 but faced a severe crisis almost immediately and was always on the brink of bankruptcy, from which it was saved by occasional long-running works such as Gaztambide’s Los magyares (1857) and Barbieri’s Pan y toros (1864).

Other composers who took up the genre were Manuel Fernández Caballero (not well known until many years later), Dionisio Scarlatti (a great-grandson of Domenico Scarlatti) and Joaquín Espín y Guillén (1812–81), whose main work was Carlos Broschi (1854, Seville). In Barcelona the composers in what was there a new genre included Francesc Porcell and the Minorcan Nicolau Manent, whose La tapada del Retiro, given in 1853 at the Gran Teatre del Liceu, was a lasting success. Josep Pujadas (with Setze jutges, 1858) and José Anselmo Clavé (with L’aplec del Remei, 1858) started a new brand of zarzuela in Catalan, while Manent, the Austrian Demay de Schönbrunn and Gabriel Balart (1824–93) usually composed theirs to Spanish librettos.

During the early 1860s the zarzuela attracted a large following, and troupes of singers and musicians travelled throughout the former Spanish dominions in South and Central America and Mexico. Gaztambide, Arrieta and Barbieri were the most popular composers, and Gaztambide’s Una vieja (1860) and La conquista de Madrid (1863), together with Barbieri’s Pan y toros, the main landmarks in the zarzuela’s progress.

Zarzuelas in opéra comique style were not to everyone’s taste, however, and when the impresario Francisco Arderíus had the idea of imitating Offenbach, offering buffo zarzuelas on non-mythological subjects (beginning with El joven Telémaco, with music by José Rogel, in 1866), it met with instant approval. At the Teatro de Variedades in Madrid Arderíus’s troupe, the Bufos Madrileños, almost ousted the regular zarzuela company and spread the newer style to other cities (they visited Barcelona in the 1870s and 80s). One consequence was the introduction of translated French operetta; Offenbach’s works at first, but then Audran’s La mascotte and Lecocq’s popular pieces (especially La fille de Madame Angot) began to rival the prestige of the zarzuela.

A type of shorter zarzuela, usually in one act – the so-called género chico – developed after the revolution of 1868. Its main characteristics were extended dialogue and a relatively small amount of music; the plots were mostly set in the working-class districts of Madrid, and composers drew on such popular music as the schottische and the mazurka, which the madrileños had come to regard as part of their folklore. Against this trend some composers, notably Fernández Caballero (who scored a political and musical success with La Marsellesa in 1876) and the Valencian Ruperto Chapí, maintained the standards of the traditional ‘zarzuela grande’, even though some of their works (such as Fernández Caballero’s El dúo de la africana and Gigantes y cabezudos, set in Aragon; see illustration) belong to the género chico. A Majorcan composer, Pere Miquel Marquès (1843–1918), wrote a few works remarkable for their robust, almost operatic orchestration, among them El anillo de hierro (1878), which is still fairly well known.

The género chico’s success was unparalleled, however, and the demand for it so great that in the 1890s no fewer than 11 theatres in Madrid were entirely given over to it and more than 1500 examples were produced. Federico Chueca, Joaquín Valverde, Manuel Nieto (1844–1915) and Tomás Bretón were among the best-received composers in the género chico. Some of their works have remained popular, especially Bretón’s La verbena de la paloma (1894) and Chapí’s La revoltosa (1897), both of which are set in a typical Madrid district. Chueca and Valverde usually worked together (Valverde for the most part scoring Chueca’s musical ideas) and they wrote extremely popular works such as La gran vía (1886) and El año pasado por agua (1889). After parting with Valverde, Chueca wrote Agua, azucarillos y aguardiente (1897) and El bateo (1901), delightful sketches of lower middle-class life in old Madrid. In the same vein Tomás López Torregrosa composed El santo de la Isidra and La fiesta de San Antón (both 1898), while Jerónimo Giménez set his short and tuneful sketches El baile de Luis Alonso (1896) and La boda de Luis Alonso (1897) in a romanticized Andalusia of the 1840s. Giménez was popular because of his elegant dance music and his interest in genuine folklore and gypsy music, evident in, for example, La tempranica (1900).

In Barcelona the zarzuela in Catalan thrived, especially with Urbano Fando, whose Lo somni de l’Ignoscencia (1895) was performed more than 3000 times in its first 25 years. A more intellectual approach was taken by the modernista generation, with composers such as Enric Morera (1865–1942), who fought to create a renewed Teatre Líric Català excluding the Spanish zarzuela. In Valencia Salvador Giner and Vicent Díez-Peydró (1861–1938) wrote zarzuelas in their Valencian brand of the Catalan language.

3. The 20th century.

The turn of the century almost coincided with a renewal in the ranks of zarzuela composers. The elder ones were almost all gone by 1910 and the género chico started a speedy decline, despite some late landmarks such as Chapí’s El puña de rosas (1902). The influence of Lehár and his operettas, especially Die lustige Witwe, quickly made itself felt, and the waltz soon replaced the schottische and the mazurka in a series of longer works that set typical operetta stories to lilting, delightful tunes. The first in this field, El rey que rabió, was written by Chapí as early as 1891, but the influence of the foreign operetta was mainly felt from about 1910, when Vicente Lleó scored a triumph with his suggestive and amusing La corte de faraón, while Pablo Luna started his career with Molinos de viento (1910) and confirmed it with Los cadetes de la reina (1913) and El asombro de Damasco (1916). Luna then took a somewhat different path with El niño jurío (1918), which started a fashion for including a patriotic song in every zarzuela.

Several younger composers excelled in this new type of operetta-zarzuela, especially Amadeo Vives, who also showed a bent towards opera with Euda d’Uriac (1900) and Bohemios (1904, based on Henry Murger’s famous novel). In Maruxa (1914) he made something worthwhile of an unpromising libretto set in Galicia. His remarkable operetta La generala (1912) retains its place in the repertory, as does Doña Francisquita (1923), his most popular work. José Maria Usandizaga moved further away from operetta in his verista zarzuela Las golondrinas (1914); after his death his brother transformed it into an opera.

The Valencian José Serrano was among the few composers of this period who remained faithful to some extent to the género chico. His keen feeling for Spanish folklore is evident in his most popular works, such as La reina mora (1903), Moros y cristianos (1905), La alegría del batallón (1909), La canción del olvido (1916) and, in the last years of his career, Los claveles (1929) and La dolorosa (1930). Another Valencian, Manuel Penella, was most successful in his operettas, including El gato montés (1916). He often wrote his own librettos; Don Gíl de Alcalà (1932) is set in 18th-century Mexico.

Of the composers who came to the fore in the 1920s and 30s, many chose to work in the more lengthy type of zarzuela, among them Jacinto Guerrero, whose Los gavilanes (1923) and La rosa del azafrán (1930) are influenced by operatic verismo. At the same time, some composers were trying to update the zarzuela by including new dances or dance rhythms such as the tango and the foxtrot. Francisco Alonso was able enough to succeed with mainly short zarzuelas, most of which might be counted as género chico, although they lack many of the features usually associated with that genre. Among other composers of this period were Jesús Guridi, whose Basque zarzuela El caserío (1926) shows a keen theatrical sense and who also wrote some successful operas, the Galician composer Reveriano Soutullo, whose tuneful and attractive zarzuelas, including La leyenda del beso (1924), La del soto del Parral (1927) and El último romántico (1928) were written in collaboration with Joan Vert Carbonell (1890–1931); and José Padilla, whose songs include the well-known ‘Valencia’ from his La bien amada (1925).

Madrid had been losing its hold on the zarzuela. For a number of years Barcelona became a more active centre, and some important premières took place there, including those of Rafael Millán’s La dogaresa (1920, set in medieval Venice) and El pájaro azul (1921), Fernando Díaz Giles’s El cantar del arriero (1930) and Penella’s Don Gíl de Alcalà. The great baritone Marcos Redondo settled in Barcelona in the 1920s and the finest productions and most interesting premières were to be seen in the Catalan capital. At that time a Valencian composer, Rafael Martínez Valls, became a favourite in Barcelona; his Cançó d’amor i de guerra (1926) and La legió d’honor (1930) are still the most popular zarzuelas in Catalan.

Madrid soon had a new and remarkable composer in Federico Moreno Torroba, whose Luisa Fernanda (1932), set in the Madrid of the last years of Isabella II, revived interest in Madrid stories. Moreno Torroba repeated his success with La chulapona (1934) and wrote many other zarzuelas, several of which remain in the repertory. The Basque composer Pablo Sorozábal started his long career in the 1920s; his first great success came with Katiuska (1931), and just before the Spanish Civil War he scored an even bigger one in Barcelona with La tabernera del puerto (1936).

Zarzuela suffered severely from the restrictions of the civil war and never fully adapted itself to changing times. Some composers tried to follow new trends; in Sorozábal’s Don Manolito (1942) a football match is described on the radio. Before the war several of the leading Spanish composers had tried their hands at writing zarzuelas, including Falla, Albéniz, Granados and Conrado del Campo, but after their deaths the prestige of the zarzuela declined, and among composers of quality only Sorozábal and Moreno Torroba still sought to keep the genre alive. With Moreno Torroba’s Maria Manuela (1957) the last chapter in the history of the zarzuela seems to have been written; only Manuel Moreno-Buendía, Manuel Parada and a few others have since made the occasional attempt to compose new works of this kind.

The preservation of the repertory owes much to the conductor Ataúlfo Argenta, who in the 1950s began recording many of the finest zarzuelas. His example was followed by others, and today the music of almost 100 zarzuelas is available on disc. Since the 1960s the Spanish government has tried to protect the zarzuela through publicity and radio broadcasts of the most important recordings, but the Teatro de la Zarzuela, refurbished and reopened in 1956, is now the only subsidized house in Spain which regularly includes zarzuelas in its repertory.

(1) Josef Rudolf Zavrtal [Sawerthal]

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C. Caballero: ‘Nuevas fuentes musicales de Los celos hacen estrellas de Juan Vélez de Guevara’, Cuadernos de teatro clásico, iii (1989), 119–55

L.K. Stein: ‘Opera and the Spanish Political Agenda’, AcM, lxiii (1991), 125–67

L.K. Stein: ‘Convenciones musicales en el legado de Juan Hidalgo: el aria declamatoria como tonada persuasiva’, F. Bances Candamo y el teatro musical de su tiempo (1662–1704): Oviedo 1992, 177–217

M.S. Alvarez Martínez: José de Nebra Velasco (Zaragoza, 1993)

L.K. Stein: ‘The Iberian Peninsula’, Man & Music: the Late Baroque Era, ed. G.J. Buelow (London, 1993), 411–34

L.K. Stein: Songs of Mortals, Dialogues of the Gods: Music and Theatre in Seventeenth-Century Spain (Oxford, 1993)

L.K. Stein: ‘Spain’, Man & Music/Music and Society: the Early Baroque Era, ed. C. Price, (London, 1993), 327–48

Música y literatura en la península ibérica: Valladolid 1995 [incl. P. Bolaños and M. de los Reyes Peña: ‘Teatro español en Lisboa durante la temporada de 1724–25: la fiesta de Las nuevas armas de amor’, 13–29; L.K. Stein: ‘“Este nada dichoso género”: la zarzuela y sus convenciones’, 185–217; M.C. de Brito: ‘Relações entre o teatro, a literatura e a ópera em Portugal e no Brasil do sécolo XVIII’; J.M. Leza Cruz: ‘La zarzuela Vientos es la dicha de Amor: producciones en los teatros públicos madrileños en el siglo XVIII’, 393–405]

J.J. Carreras: ‘“Conducir a Madrid estos moldes”: producción, dramaturgia y recepción de la fiesta teatral Destinos vencen finezas (1698/99)’, RdMc, xviii (1995), 113–43

J.J. Carreras: ‘Entre la zarzuela y la ópera de corte: representaciones cortesanas en el Buen Retiro entre 1720 y 1724’, Teatro y música en España (siglo XVIII), ed. R. Kleinertz (Kassel, 1996)

J.J. Carreras: ‘“Terminare a schiaffoni”: la primera compañía de ópera italiana en Madrid (1738/39)’, Artigrama, xii (1996–7), 99–121

J.M. Leza Cruz: ‘Francesco Corradini y la introducción de la ópera en los teatros comerciales de Madrid (1731–1749)’, ibid., 123–46

G.G. Stiffon: ‘La música teatral de Nicoló Conforto: el estado de la investigación’, ibid., 147–62

J.J. Carreras: ‘From Literes to Nebra: Spanish Dramatic Music between Tradition and Modernity’, Music in Eighteenth-Century Spain (forthcoming)

L.K. Stein: ‘Zarzuela’, Diccionario de la música española e hispanoamericana, ed. E. Casares Rodicio (Madrid, 2000)

after 1800

LaborD

A. Peña y Goñi: La ópera española y la música dramática en España en el siglo XIX (Madrid, 1881)

F.A. Barbieri: La zarzuela: carta a D. Pascual Millán (Madrid, 1887)

F. Pedrell: Teatro lírico español anterior al siglo XIX (La Coruña, 1897–8)

E. Cotarelo y Mori: Historia de la zarzuela, o sea El drama lírico en España (Madrid, 1934)

G. Chase: ‘Barbieri and the Spanish Zarzuela’, ML, xx (1939), 32–9

G. Chase: The Music of Spain (New York, 1941, 2/1959)

J. Subirá: Historia de la música teatral en España (Barcelona, 1945)

M. Muñoz: Historia de la zarzuela y el género chico (Madrid, 1946)

J. Deleito y Piñuela: Origen y apogeo del ‘género chico’ (Madrid, 1949)

R. Mindin: Die Zarzuela (Zürich, 1965)

A. Fernández Cid: Cien años de teatro musical en España (1875–1975) (Madrid, 1975)

J. Arnau and C.M. Gómez: Historia de la zarzuela (Madrid, 1980–81)

R. Alier and others, eds.: El libro de la zarzuela (Madrid, 1982, 2/1986 as Diccionario de la zarzuela)

R.J. Vázquez: The Quest for National Opera in Spain and the Reinvention of the Zarzuela (1808–1849) (diss., Cornell U., 1992)

E. Casares Rodicio and C. Alonso González: La música española en el siglo XIX (Oviedo, 1995)

Zarzycki, Aleksander

(b Lwów, 26 Feb 1834; d Warsaw, 1 Nov 1895). Polish pianist and composer. He studied the piano in Berlin under Rudolf Viole, at the same time giving concerts with the violinist Biernacki in Poznań and Kraków (1856–7). From 1857 he studied composition under N.H. Reber and C. Reinecke in Paris, and in 1860 performed in a composers’ concert at the Salle Hertz, where he played his Grande polonaise op.7 and Piano Concerto op.17. He played in Germany and Austria (1862–3) and in 1866 gave many concerts in Warsaw; he later performed in Germany and England, and in Polish towns (1867). In 1865 he settled in Warsaw where, besides performing, he gave music lessons and composed. He was one of the founders and the first director of the Warsaw Music Society (1871–5), and after the death of Kątski he became director of the Music Institute (1879–88). Here he reorganized the teaching methods and the piano courses, employing teachers such as Paderewski. He also did much to improve the string, chamber and orchestral classes, thereby considerably raising the institute’s teaching standards. He taught a piano class himself and conducted the student orchestra. From about 1879 he was choirmaster of St John’s Cathedral, and he also gave many charity concerts. The final years of his life were devoted mainly to composition. Zarzycki’s songs imitate the style of Moniuszko (directly so in his op.13 and op.14 songbooks, which are modelled on Moniuszko’s Śpiewniki domowe); although they lack his melodic inventiveness, Zarzycki had a deeper understanding of the function of the piano in such works. His instrumental works are miniatures in a salon style and display the influence of Chopin, particularly in their use of harmony and texture.

WORKS

Orch: Grande polonaise, E, pf, orch, op.7, 1859–60 (Leipzig, c1865); Pf Conc., A, op.17, 1859–60 (Berlin, c1868); Suite polonaise, A, op.37 (Berlin, 1893)

For vn, orch: Romance, E, op.16 (Berlin, c1876), also arr. vn, wind insts (c1876); Andante et polonaise, A, op.23 (Berlin, c1876); Mazurka, G, op.26 (Berlin, 1884); Introduction et cracovienne, D, op.35 (Berlin, n.d.); Mazurka, E, op.39 (Berlin, c1895)

Pf: 3 pièces musicales, opp.1 and 3 (Paris, 1862); Grande valse, g, op.4 (Leipzig, c1865); Barcarolle, B, op.5 (Leipzig, c1865); 2 chants sans paroles, op.6 (Kraków, 1865); Valse brillante, A, op.8 (Berlin, c1864); 2 nocturnes, G, A, op.10 (Leipzig, c1870); 2 mazourkas, B, g, op.12 (Warsaw, c1870); Grande valse, D, op.18 (Berlin, c1883); 2 mazourkas, b, A, op.20 (Berlin, c1883); 3 morceaux, op.34 (Berlin, c1889); 2 mazourkas, A, B, op.36 (Berlin, c1893)

Vocal: 65 songs, incl. 2 songs, op.9 (Warsaw, c1870); Śpiewnik [Songbook], op.13 (Warsaw, 1871); Drugi śpiewnik [Second Songbook], op.14 (Warsaw, 1873); 5 songs, op.15 (Warsaw, before 1874); 3 songs, op.22 (Berlin, c1883); 2 songs, op.28 (Warsaw, c1883); Ave Maria, op.27 (Warsaw, c1884); 2 psalms, op.29 (Warsaw, c1884); 2 songs, op.30 (Warsaw, c1883); 3 songs, op.33 (Warsaw, c1889)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SMP

J. Stattler: ‘Śp. Aleksander Zarzycki’, Echo muzyczne, teatralne i artystyczne, xii (1895), 517–18 [incl. list of works], 531–2

W. Żeleński: ‘Aleksander Zarzycki: ze wspomnień osobistych’ [From personal reminiscences], Echo muzyczne, teatralne i artystyczne, xii (1895), 566–8

F. Kęcki: ‘Aleksander Zarzycki: człowiek i artysta’ [Man and artist], Muzyka Polska, ii (1935), 16–28 [with list of works]

S. Śledziński, ed.: 150 lat Państwowej Wyższej Szkoły Muzycznej w Warszawie [150 years of the State High School of Music in Warsaw] (Kraków, 1960), 86–91, 113 only

W. Poźniak: ‘Pieśń solowa po Moniuszce’ [The solo song after Moniuszko], Z dziejów polskiej kultury muzycznej, ii, ed. A. Nowak-Romanowicz and others (Kraków, 1966), 361–2

BARBARA CHMARA-ŻACZKIEWICZ

Zasa, Paolo

(fl 1639–51). Italian composer. On the title-pages of the volumes of his Selva spirituale he described himself as rector of the parish of SS Leontio e Carpoffaro at Schio, near Vicenza. The second and fourth books contain performance directions for some of the pieces.

WORKS

Selva spirituale armonico secondo libro … motetti, canzone, li salmi ordinarii con il Magnificat … messa, 1–4, 8, 12vv, bc (Venice, 1640) [ded. 1639]

Selva spirituale armonico terzo libro … motetti, canzone, una messa, li salmi ordinarii e della Madonna con il Magnificat, 1–4vv, bc (Venice, 1645)

Selva spirituale armonico quarto libro … motetti, canzone, li salmi ordinarii, e della Madonna, con il Magnificat, intieri, e una messa, 1–4, 7vv, 2 vn, bc (Venice, 1651)

Zaslaw, Neal

(b New York, 28 June 1939). American musicologist. He graduated from Harvard College with the BA in 1961, then began graduate studies at the Juilliard School, where he studied the flute and received the MS in 1963; he was also a flautist in the American Symphony Orchestra under Stokowski, 1962–5. He took further graduate courses at Columbia University, working with Lang and receiving the MA there in 1965 and the PhD in 1970. He then taught at the City College of CUNY from 1968 to 1970. He then joined the faculty at Cornell University, where he was made Herbert Gussman professor of music in 1995, and he was a member of the graduate faculty at Juilliard, 1988–91. In addition to his academic positions he was musicological advisor and scholar-in-residence of the Lincoln Center Festival celebration of the Mozart bicentennial, editor-in-chief of Current Musicology (1967–70) and book review editor of Notes.

Zaslaw’s work is imbued with a concern for music in performance. His doctoral study of Leclair establishes the composer’s style in the context of his French and his Italian training. He has worked on issues of tempo and ornamentation and particularly the early development of the orchestra. Zaslaw later turned to Mozart, co-editing a volume of wind music for the Neue Mozart-Ausgabe (VII/xvii, 1979) and writing a substantial and much admired study of the symphonies (1989), setting them in a broad context; he has also written works more general in character and other publications on performance issues. He was awarded the Austrian Ehrenkreuz für Wissenschaft in 1991 and in 1997 he was appointed Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 1993 Zaslaw was invited to be principal editor of the new Köchel catalogue.

WRITINGS

Materials for the Life and Works of Jean-Marie Leclair L’ainé (diss., Columbia U., 1970)

with M. Vinquist: Performance Practice: a Bibliography (New York, 1971)

‘A Rediscovered Mozart Autograph at Cornell University’, MJb 1971–2, 419–31

‘Mozart’s Tempo Conventions’, IMSCR XI: Copenhagen 1972, 720–33

‘Toward the Revival of the Classical Orchestra’, PRMA, ciii (1976–7), 158–87; repr. in The Garland Library of the History of Western Music, ed. E. Rosand, vii (New York, 1986), 274–305

‘Music in Provence in the 14th Century’, CMc, no.25 (1978), 99–120

‘Mozart, Haydn, and the “Sinfonia da Chiesa”’, JM, i (1982), 95–124

‘Rameau's Operatic Apprenticeship: the First Fifty Years’, Jean-Philippe Rameau: Dijon 1983, 23–50

‘Leopold Mozart's List of his Son's Works’, Music in the Classic Period: Essays in Honor of Barry S. Brook, ed. A. Atlas (New York, 1985), 323–74

‘Improvised Ornamentation in Eighteenth-Century Orchestras’, JAMS, xxxix (1986), 524–77

‘Lully's Orchestra’, Jean-Baptiste Lully: Saint Germain-en-Laye and Heidelberg 1987, 539–79

ed.: Man & Music:/Music in Society: The Classical Era (London, 1989) [incl. ‘Music and Society in the Classical Era’, 1–14]

‘The First Opera in Paris: a Study in the Politics of Art’, Jean-Baptiste Lully and the Music of the French Baroque: Essays in Honor of James R. Anthony, ed. J.H. Heyer and others (Cambridge, 1989), 7–23

Mozart’s Symphonies: Context, Performance Practice, Reception (Oxford, 1989)

The Compleat Mozart: a Guide to the Musical Works (New York, 1990)

ed. with F.M. Fein: The Mozart Repertory: a Guide for Musicians, Programmers, and Researchers (Ithaca, NY, 1991)

‘Scylla et Glaucus’, COJ, iv (1992), 199–228

‘The Origins of the Classical Orchestra’, Basler Jb für historische Musikpraxis, xvii (1994), 9–40

‘Ornaments for Corelli's Violin Sonatas, op.5’, EMc, xxiv (1996), 95–115

ed.: Mozart’s Piano Concertos: Text, Context, Interpretation (Ann Arbor, 1996) [incl. ‘Contexts for Mozart's Piano Concertos’, 7–16]

‘Audiences for Mozart's Symphonies during his Lifetime’, Israel Studies in Musicology, vi (1996), 17–32; rev. version in Festschrift Christoph-Hellmut Mahling, ed. A. Beer, K. Pfarr and W. Ruf (Tutzing, 1997), 1579–94

‘The Breitkopf Firm's Relations with Leopold and Wolfgang Mozart’, Bach Perspectives, ii (1996), 85–103

‘The Adagio in F major, K³ Anhang 206a = K⁶ Anhang A 65’, Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven: … Essays in Honour of Alan Tyson, ed. S. Brandenburg (Oxford, 1998), 101–113

with J. Spitzer: The Birth of the Orchestra (Oxford, forthcoming)

with C. Eisen and U. Konrad: Der neue Köchel (Leipzig, forthcoming)

with R. Seletsky: Ornaments for Corelli’s Opus 5 (Madison, forthcoming)

PAULA MORGAN

Zäsur

(Ger.: ‘caesura’).

In the theory of rhythm, the point separating regular rhythmic units (phrases or ‘periods’ of four, eight, 16 bars, etc.) from one another, or marking an internal division in one of these units. It is achieved most frequently by a rest, though sometimes articulated by a fermata, by phrasing or by a change in harmony or scoring. Sometimes it is used as a synonym for Luftpause, a short pause made by a performer to separate phrases; see also Caesura.

Zatta, Antonio

(fl late 18th century). Italian printer and publisher. He was in business with his sons under the name ‘Antonio Zatta e figli Librai e Stampatori veneti’, with premises in Venice ‘al traghetto di S Barnaba’; theirs was the largest engraving works in the city, their activity dating back to about 1750. The output included philosophical texts, novels, daily papers, illustrated books and 47 volumes of Carlo Goldoni’s comedies (1788). Music printing and editing began in 1783 through the Calcografia Filarmonica which was active until 1788. From 1786 the firm began printing, on its own press from engraved plates, a weekly piece of instrumental music for sale by subscription; in the following years this initiative expanded to include trios, duos, quartets, symphonies or sonatas for various instruments, and even vocal pieces, issued on a monthly basis. In the letters circulated to ‘professori e dilettanti di musica’, inviting them to become subscribers, the firm explained the preponderance of instrumental music by the fact that Italy ‘abounds without doubt more in professional and amateur players than in singers’. Instrumental works by Corelli, Bertoni, Boccherini, Capuzzi, Andreozzi, Cirri, Cambini, Pichl, Fodor, Stabinger, Grazioli, Haydn, Mozart and Salieri, and vocal pieces (arias by Cimarosa, Guglielmi, Paisiello, Anfossi, Naumann, Gazzaniga, Borghi, Traetta and Piccinni) were printed and published. Many of Zatta’s editions were reprints from German or Viennese publications, especially of Hoffmeister’s, a publisher with whom Zatta had connections. Zatta also published didactic methods (Pfeiffer, La bambina al cembalo) and music theory. After 1788 all editorial activity ceased, but Zatta continued to trade in music publications. One of Antonio’s daughters, Marina, married the publisher Sebastiano Valle, who continued the work of the Zatta family until about 1806.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MischiatiI

SartoriD

B.M. Antolini: ‘Editori, copisti, commercio della musica in Italia, 1770–1800’, Studi musicali, xviii (1989), 287–99

MARIANGELA DONÀ

Zátvrzský, Miloš.

See Sádlo, Miloš.

Zauberoper

(Ger.: ‘magic opera’).

A term, used more often by music and theatre historians than by contemporary librettists and composers, for a Singspiel with spoken dialogue that relies to an unusual extent on stage machinery and spectacular effects. In theory the term could be applied to any opera that employs magic; but in practice its use is normally restricted to the kind of magic Singspiel that was a staple of the Viennese popular repertory during the 18th and early 19th centuries. Philipp Hafner’s Megära, die förchterliche Hexe (a ‘Zauberlustspiel’, 1763) is an early example, Mozart’s Die Zauberflöte the most famous one. The Wenzel Müller-Perinet adaptation, Megera (1806) is actually subtitled ‘Zauberoper’. Müller’s Kaspar der Fagottist, and Wranitzky’s and Weber’s adaptations of Wieland’s Oberon, are typical examples of the recurrent motif of the hero being granted supernatural aids to enable him to rescue a woman in peril. The Kauer-Hensler Das Donauweibchen (1798), an Ondine variant long popular in German lands, inverts the usual formula by having magic separate the earthly lovers.

Numerous operas employing magic to a more or less marked extent continued to be written and performed during the remainder of the 19th and much of the 20th century; Schreker’s Der Schmied von Gent (1932), indeed, is subtitled ‘Grosse Zauberoper’. However, the Zauberoper genre in its original and limited sense tends to exclude operas (for instance Wagner’s Ring, and the Strauss-Hofmannsthal Die Frau ohne Schatten and Die ägyptische Helena) in which, though magic plays an important part, the emphasis is primarily on more exalted concerns

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Weisstein: ‘Geschichte der Zauberpossen’, Spemanns goldenes Buch des Theaters, ed. R. Genée and others (Berlin, 1902, 2/1912)

O. Rommel, ed.: Barocktradition im österreichisch-bayrischen Volkstheater, i: Die Maschinenkomödie (Leipzig, 1935/R); ii: Die romantisch-komischen Volksmärchen (Leipzig, 1936/R)

O. Rommel: Die Alt-Wiener Volkskomödie (Vienna, 1952)

P. Branscombe: W.A. Mozart: Die Zauberflöte (Cambridge, 1991)

B. Heinel: Die Zauberoper: Studien zu ihrer Entwicklungsgeschichte anhand ausgewählter Beispiele von den Anfängen bis zum Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts (diss., U. of Freiburg, 1993)

PETER BRANSCOMBE

Zavaglioli, Simone

(b Verona; fl 1641–4). Italian composer. He was maestro di cappella of Verona Cathedral in 1641, when his only surviving publication, Missae et sacrae laudes cum basso partim musicisque instrumentis partim vero sine instrumentis, appeared in Venice; he resigned on 2 November 1644. His volume is interesting for its mixture at quite a late date of a cappella and concertato styles. One of the three masses and four of the ten motets have the former designation. The concertato works include several with obbligato violins, one of which, Confitemini Domino, for five voices, has a sectional form: movements respectively for solo soprano and alto, bass with violins and two tenors are interspersed with an exciting, brilliantly contrapuntal tutti with an ‘Alleluia’ passage. Large-scale motets of this kind were somewhat rare by the 1640s, a ceremonial style usually being confined to mass and psalm settings.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Spagnolo: Le scuole accolitali in Verona (Verona, 1904), 122

J. Roche: North Italian Church Music in the Age of Monteverdi (Oxford, 1984)

JEROME ROCHE

Zavarský, Ernest

(b Varov Šúr, 17 Sept 1913). Slovak musicologist. From 1933 he studied philosophy at Munich and Innsbruck, where he also took courses in composition with Fritz Wiedlich and in musicology with Walter Senn; he continued his studies in philosophy, theology, the piano and composition in Kraków (1938–9), art history, aesthetics and psychology at Bratislava University (1941–4), composition at the Janáček Academy, Brno (graduated 1952), the piano and organ in Bratislava and musicology with Jan Racek and Bohumír Štědroň at Brno University (1948–52). He took the doctorate at Brno in 1951 with a dissertation on the development of realism and harmony in Suchoň’s work. After a period as dramaturg of the Slovak Folk Theatre in Nitra (from 1941) and music correspondent for Bratislava Radio (1942–5) he visited Vienna, where he collected material for his Bella monograph; he then became director of the Slovak music centre (1945–8), archivist of the Slovak Composers’ Union (1953–8), director of the Slovak Music Information Centre, Bratislava (1965–9), director of the Slovak section of the Neue Bach-Gesellschaft (1969–73) and a member of its board of directors (from 1973). His main research has been on contemporary Slovak music, organ building and restoration, and the life and work of J.S. Bach.

WRITINGS

Všeobecná náuka o hudbe [General music primer] (Bratislava, 1946) [under pseud. Pavol Záhorský]

Súčasná slovenská hudba [Contemporary Slovak music] (Bratislava, 1947)

Vývoj realizmu a harmonického myslenia v tvorbe E. Suchoňa [The development of realism and harmony in Suchoň’s work] (diss., U. of Brno, 1951)

Eugen Suchoň: profil skladateľs [Suchoň: profile of the composer] (Bratislava, 1955)

Ján Levoslav Bella: život a dielo [Bella: life and work] (Bratislava, 1955)

‘Základné otázky pri stavbe organov’ [Basic questions of organ building], Duchovný pastier, xxxii (1955), nos.8–10; xxiii (1956), no.1

Prehľad dejín slovenskej hudby [Short history of Slovak music] (Prague, 1956)

Eugen Suchoň a jeho opera Krútňava [Suchoň and his opera The Whirlpool] (Bratislava, 1957)

‘Beiträge zur Musikgeschichte der Stadt Kremnitz/Slowakei’, Musik des Ostens, ii (1963), 112–25; iii (1965), 72–89; iv (1967), 117–35

Maurice Ravel (Bratislava, 1963)

‘Zum Pedalspiel des jungen Johann Sebastian Bach’, Mf, xviii (1965), 370

‘Zur angeblichen Pressburger Herkunft der Familie Bach’, BJb 1967, 21–7

Johann Sebastian Bach: das Leben, das Werk, das Leben des Werkes (Bratislava, 1971, 2/1985; Eng. trans., 1973)

‘J.S. Bachs Entwurf für den Umbau der Orgel in der Kirche Divi Blasii’, Bach-Studien, v (1975), 82–93

‘Beiträge zur Musikgeschichte der Stadt Kremnitz’, Musik des Ostens, vii (1975), 7–173

Zavateri, Lorenzo Gaetano

(b Bologna, 9 Aug 1690; d Bologna, Dec 1764). Italian violinist and composer. He studied the violin with Giuseppe Torelli and composition with L.A. Predieri. He achieved considerable fame as a violinist in Livorno, Venice and Ferrara (there is no evidence that, as is sometimes stated, he was a cellist). He became a member of the Accademia Filarmonica di Bologna on 20 May 1717 and held various offices in that organization. His name appears in the records of S Petronio, Bologna, from 1713, when he was engaged to play the violin at several patronal feasts. He joined the regular cappella musicale as a viola player in December 1725 and, with brief interruptions, played the violin or viola there until his death. Among his pupils were N. Lenzi, G. Castoneri and G.F. Landini as well as some members of the nobility. He published two sets of instrumental pieces, of which his op.1, Concerti da chiesa e da camera (?Bologna, 1735), received praise from Padre Martini for ‘a well refined intelligence’. In the set of 12 concertos, only five call for an obbligato violin; the others use no solo instruments. No.9 is called ‘Concerto teatrale’, no.10 ‘Concerto a pastorale’ (in which the final movement is a pastorale in 12/8) and no.12 ‘Concerto a tempesta di mare’, with indications on the score depicting the progress of a storm. These works and the Divertimenti musicali per camera a violino e tasso op.2 (Pesaro, n.d.) show considerable virtuosity, imaginative writing and a keen understanding of the instrument. The dance pieces in the 1736 manuscript collection of Petronio Francesco Rampionesi (I-Bc), designed for the amateur, are much less impressive.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GaspariC

O. Penna: Catalogo degli aggregati dell’Accademia filarmonica di Bologna (MS, I-Bc), facs. (Bologna, 1973); sometimes attrib. G.B. Martini

G.B. Martini: ‘Serie cronologica de’ Principi dell’Accademia de’ filarmonici di Bologna’, Diario bolognese (MS, Bc, 1776), facs. (Bologna, 1970)

ANNE SCHNOEBELEN

Zavrtal [Zavertal, Zavrthal, Zaverthal; orig. Sawerthal].

Czech family of military musicians.

(2) Václav [Wenceslas, Venceslao] Hugo Zavrtal

(3) Ladislao (Joseph Philip Paul) Zavertal [Ladislav (Josef Filip Pavel) Zavrtal]

WORKS

(selective list)

printed works published in London unless otherwise stated

MSS mainly in GB-Gu

operas

Tita (ob, 3, G. Pasetti) Treviso, Garibaldi, 29 May 1870 [collab. V.H. Zavrtal]; rev. 1880 as Adriana, ovvero Il burattinaro di Venezia (Pasetti and A. Zanardini), vs (Griante, 1930)

I tre perucchi (commedia musicale, 5, C. Arrighi), Milan, Milanese, 1871

La sura palmira sposa (commedia musicale, 5, Arrighi), Milan, Milanese, 1872

Una notte a Firenze (Noc ve Florencii) (op tragica, 4, S. Interdonato), 1872–3, Prague, Provisional, 20 March 1880 [in Cz.], MSS vocal and orch parts in CZ-Pnm, vs (Milan, n.d.)

A Lesson in Magic (operetta, 1, T.M. Watson), 1880, Woolwich, 27 April 1883; rev. as Love's Magic (J.R.J. Jocelyn), 1889, Woolwich, 18 Feb 1890, vs (London, n.d.)

Mirra (Myrrha) (dramma lirico, 4, Interdonato), 1882–3, Prague, National, 7 Nov 1886 [in Cz.], MSS in CZ-Pnm, vs (Milan, n.d.)

other works

Choral: Serenata (G. Carcano), S, Mez, chorus, pf, hmn, c1875, rev. 1927; Jubilee Hymn (A.C. Trevor), chorus, orch, 1887, vs (1887); Fulget Sabaudiae virtus (E. Marenesi), 4vv, military band (Milan, 1901)

Orch: 2 syms., c, 1878–84, d, 1884; 3 ovs., Garibaldi, 1882, lost [reconstructed as Sinfonia patriottica, 1918], Loyal Hearts, 1897 (1897), Slavonic Ov., 1898; Chanson arabe, str, 1882 (1887); Al fresco, str, 1884 (1887); Virtute et valore, grand march, 1900 (1901)

Chbr: Pf Qnt, C, 1877 (Edinburgh, c1877); Pf Qt, D/b (Edinburgh, c1877); Schlummerlied, qnt, 1877 (c1879); In a Trance, str, c1887 (?1895)

Vocal: Ecco miei verd'anni!, v, pf (London, n.d.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

WurzbachL

J. Srb-Debrnov: Slovník hudebních umělců slovanských [Dictionary of Slavonic composers], 1884–1900 (MS, CZ-Pnm)

R.A. Marr: Music and Musicians at the Edinburgh International Exhibition 1886 (Edinburgh, 1887), 84, 117

British Bandsman, ii (1888–9), 60; iii (1889–90), 149

R.A. Marr: Music for the People: a Retrospect of the Glasgow International Exhibition 1888, with an Account of the Rise of Choral Societies in Scotland (Edinburgh, 1889), 92

H.G. Farmer: Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Band (London, 1904)

‘Un ambrosiano’ [G. Bampo]: Del maestro di musica milanese Ladislao Zavertal (Milan, 1914)

A. Faraone: Il commendatore Ladislao Zavertal (Treviso, 1929)

L. Boháček: ‘Rod Zavrtalů’ [The Zavrtal family], Hudební věstník, xxviii/6 (1935), 4–5

H.G. Farmer and H. Smith: New Mozartiana: the Mozart Relics in the Zavertal Collection at the University of Glasgow (Glasgow, 1935/R)

Z. Nejedlý: Dějiny Národního divadla, iii: Opera Národníko divadla do roku 1900 [History of the National Theatre, iii: Opera up to 1900] (Prague, 1935, 2/1949)

J. Bartoš: Prozatímní divadlo a jeho opera [The Provisional Theatre and its opera] (Prague, 1938)

H.G. Farmer: ‘The Royal Artillery Concerts (1810–1911)’, MR, vi (1945), 154–9, 220–29; pubd separately (London, 1945)

H.G. Farmer: Cavaliere Zavertal and the Royal Artillery Band (London, 1951) [incl. catalogue of works]

JOHN CLAPHAM

Zavrtal

(1) Josef Rudolf Zavrtal [Sawerthal]

(b Polepy, nr Litoměřice, 5 Nov 1819; d Litoměřice, 3 May 1893). Conductor and composer. He studied the trumpet and trombone at the Prague Conservatory from 1831 to 1837, and after two years in the Austrian army he became bandmaster of the 6th Cuirassiers in 1839. From 1845 he was bandmaster of the 53rd Infantry Regiment, and was in active service in Hungary and Italy; he agitated successfully in 1846 for the founding of a pension fund for Austrian bandmasters. The next year his two-act Singspiel Die Alpenhirtin (libretto by P. Protics) was performed at Temesvár, and in 1874 at Trieste as Là pastorella. In 1850 he became director of music to the Austrian navy and marine at Trieste, where he founded the Società Musicale. He entered the Archduke Maximilian's service in 1857 and, after his master became Emperor of Mexico, served from 1864 as court Kapellmeister and director of military music; he returned to Europe in 1867 when the Austro-Mexican corps was disbanded. He settled in England the following year and became bandmaster of the King's Own (Royal Lancaster) Regiment; for 19 years from 1871 he directed the Royal Engineers' wind and string bands at Chatham until he retired to Polepy in 1890. He was decorated by Franz Joseph, Napoleon III and the Shah of Persia, and Maximilian conferred on him a knighthood of the Order of S María of Guadeloupe. In addition to his opera he wrote marches, quadrilles and polkas for band and full orchestra, some chamber music and songs.

Zavrtal

(2) Václav [Wenceslas, Venceslao] Hugo Zavrtal

(b Polepy, 31 Aug 1821; d Litoměřice, 8 Sept 1899). Conductor and composer, brother of (1) Josef Rudolf Zavrtal. After studying the clarinet at the Prague Conservatory from 1834 to 1840, he followed a varied career. He held positions as clarinettist at theatres at Laibach (Ljubljana) (1841) and Prague (1843), and in 1842 sang bass roles in Budapest. In 1845 he was Kapellmeister of the 18th Bohemian Regiment stationed at Milan, and two years later became music director of the Gran Teatro del Liceo and professor of the conservatory at Barcelona. He returned to the Austrian army as Kapellmeister of the 54th Infantry in 1850, first at Milan and then Vienna, and from 1855 to 1859 held a similar position with the 49th Infantry at Trieste; during that time he was music critic of La scena. He was in close touch with Mozart's son Carl between 1848 and 1859, and acquired the Mozart collection which was later bequeathed to Glasgow University by his son Ladislao. His Czech patriotism led him to resign from the Austrian army after Solferino (1859) and join the Italian Grenadiers, who were based at Turin and then Naples. He became director of the Istituto Musicale and music director of the theatre at Treviso (1867–70), and then held similar posts at Modena (1870–74). Later he joined his son in Glasgow, and taught and composed at Helensburgh from 1875 until 1895, when he retired to Litoměřice. He composed an opera, Estrella (libretto by Piave), an Overture in F minor, marches, dances and fantasias, and numerous vocal works.

Zavrtal

(3) Ladislao (Joseph Philip Paul) Zavertal [Ladislav (Josef Filip Pavel) Zavrtal]

(b Milan, 29 Sept 1849; d Cadenabbia, 29 Jan 1942). Conductor and composer, son of (2) Václav Hugo Zavrtal. He received his first musical instruction from his father and mother (the operatic soprano Carlotta Maironi da Ponte), and for a short time studied at the Naples Conservatory, where Tosti taught him the violin. His first opera, Tita (1870, Treviso), which his father orchestrated, ran for a fortnight. After a year as chorus master under his father at Modena, he went to Milan in 1871, where he was soon made music director of the Teatro Milanese. The following year he went to Glasgow as a band instructor, remaining there to teach and to conduct the Glasgow Amateur Orchestra (1873) and the music associations of Hillhead (1874) and Pollokshields (1875). In 1877 he conducted the piano concertos played by Hans von Bülow on his Scottish tour, and in 1880 his four-act opera Una notte a Firenze was produced and warmly received in Prague. He became master of the Royal Artillery Band at Woolwich in 1881 and considerably enhanced its already fine reputation. Later he organized a symphony concert at the Prince's Hall, London (1888), and then annual series at St James's Hall and Queen's Hall (1889–95), and for ten years from 1895 he ran Sunday concerts at the Royal Albert Hall; it was there that Hanslick heard, and was much impressed by, Zavertal's fine orchestra. In 1896 Zavertal became a British subject; he retired to Italy in 1906. King Umberto made him Cavaliere della Corona d'Italia, and he was honoured by Sultan Abdul-Hamid II of Turkey and the kings of Greece, Serbia and England.

Zavertal had a gift for italianate melody and some feeling for drama; but he was not particularly original, and contemporary critics recognized his indebtedness to Verdi, Meyerbeer and Gounod. Una notte a Firenze was highly successful in Prague, but Mirra, written for the National Theatre in Prague, disappointed those who were expecting the maturing composer to cultivate a distinctly Czech style, and in consequence this work received only three Prague performances.

Zawose, Hukwe Ubi

(b Dodoma, Tanzania, 1940). Tanzanian musician. He grew up raising cattle in the Ugogo central region of Tanzania. He drew on the musical heritage of the Wagogo people, performing on traditional Wagogo instruments such as the ilimba lamellophone, the zeze one-string chordophone and filimbi (flutes). His original and adapted compositions retell historical tales and praise political parties; for many years he was associated with the country's national music and dance troupe. He was also a founding director of the Chuo cha Sanaa (College of Arts), a school established to teach and maintain aspects of traditional expressive culture located in Bagamoyo in coastal Tanzania. His recordings demonstrate his ability to perform the diphonic singing that is part of the Wagogo harmonic singing tradition. Zawose's participation in WOMAD festivals around the world helped to promote traditional Wagogo music as well as his recording career. By the end of the 20th century he was considered one of Tanzania's most important and influential traditional musicians.

WRITINGS

recordings

Tanzania yetu (Our Tanzania), Triple Earth, Terra 101 (1985)

Mateso (Suffering): Master Musicians of Tanzania, Triple Earth, TERRACD 104 (1989)

The Art of Hukwe Ubi Zawose, JVC VID-25011 (1989)

Chibite, Realworld CD 031 32900 (1995)

GREGORY F. BARZ

Zaytz, Giovanni von.

See Zajc, Ivan.

Zazhyt'ko, Serhy

(b Chernigov, 6 Dec 1962). Ukrainian composer. He studied the piano at the Lysenko special music school, Kiev, and, after making a name for himself early on by winning first prize in a Ukrainian young composers’ competition in 1979, went on to graduate in 1990 from the Kiev Conservatory where he studied composition under Stankovych. He then worked as a music editor for the publishers Muzychna Ukraïna. In 1993 he was accepted for membership of the Ukrainian Union of Composers and since then has worked for this body as a consultant. His post-modern tendencies as a composer lend him an affinity with certain Western contemporary trends; his predilection for theatrically-inspired chamber compositions (which became more evident in the 1990s) bears witness to his interest in Kagel’s works.

WORKS

Orch: Hn Conc., 1990; Entelekhiya, 1991

Vocal: Fol'k diptikh (Ukr. folk texts), S, ens, 1990; Akh tï, step' shirokaya [Ah You, the Broad Steppe], psychedelic serenade, Bar, 4 male vv, dancers, cl, trbn, perc, balalaika, 1995; Yeshchyo!… [More!…], Bar, pic, cl, a sax, 2 hn, tpt, trbn, perc, 1996

Chbr and solo inst: Ekzoticheskiye fragmentï, pf, 1982–96; Str Qt, 1987; Sonata, va, pf, 1988; Ushedsheye [Parted], vn, pf, 1990; Monoversiya, cl, 1992; Stretta, 6 insts, 1992; Pastorali, ww qnt, 1993; Gersterker, pf, actor, 1994; Epitafiya Markizu de Sadu [Epitaph for the Marquis de Sade], 2 vc, 1996; Iznutri [From Within], perc, 1996; Parus (M.Yu. Lermontov), S, perc, balaika, vc, 1996; Semyuelyu Bekketu [To Samuel Beckett], mute reader, db, 1996

INESSA RAKUNOVA

Zazzerino.

See Peri, Jacopo.

Zbinden, Julien-François

(b Rolle, canton of Vaud, 11 Nov 1917). Swiss composer and pianist. During and after his training as a primary school teacher (diploma 1938), Zbinden studied the piano with Emile Doosterd (1930–35), Gertude S. Keller-Ching and Marie Panthès (1940–45). He began his professional career as an orchestral and jazz pianist (1938–47), and then joined the Lausanne studio of Radio Suisse Romande (RSR) as a pianist and sound engineer. In 1956 he became director of the music department of RSR, and was the chief assistant for music broadcasting there from 1965 to 1982. He was also president of the Swiss Composers' Union (1973–9), and of the Swiss composers' copyright association SUISA (1987–91).

As a composer he was initially self-taught, but in 1942 began three years of study with R. Gerber in Neuenburg (counterpoint and orchestration), culminating in the composition of his Suite brève en ut op.1, the harmony of which shows Ravel's influence. In Zbinden's subsequent compositions the influence of Stravinsky's neo-classical works is stronger, and jazz rhythms also leave their mark. Jazz sonatine for piano and Jazzific 59–16 for jazz band and string orchestra are explicitly concerned with the jazz tradition, but its influence is also perceptible in other works. His interest in the harmonic dimension, increasingly obvious from his Second Symphony onwards, has led him to retain a tonal idiom in his work; certain polytonal passages are related to the music of Honegger, whose humanistic ideas he shares and to which he refers in several works (the Second Symphony's slow movement and Hommage à Arthur Honegger op.68). His music only occasionally employs more modern techniques, such as an aleatory formal structure (Pianostinato) and – with satirical intent – 12-note technique (the fourth of the Proverbes en forme d'études). Awards he has won for his work as a composer include the Prix Henryk Wieniawski, Warsaw (1956), the Grand Prix de la Communauté Radiophonique des Programmes de Langue Française, Montreal (1963), and the Médaille d'Or of the city of Lausanne (1993).

WORKS

(selective list)

dramatic and vocal

Fait divers (op, M. Sénéchaud), op.31, Swiss Radio, 1960; music for theatre, cinema and radio

Choral: Passage de l'homme (cant., M. Audin), op.24, 1956; Impératifs (Zbinden), op.27, 1957; 6 proverbes en form d'études, op.29, male vv, 1958; Espéranto (Zbinden), op.34, spkr, S, chorus, orch, 1961; 7 proverbes sur l'amour, op.40, female vv, 1965; Terra Dei (orat, Zbinden, L. Dallinges), op.41, S, A, T, B, chorus, orch, 1966–7; Monophrases, op.47, chorus, 2 pf, 6 perc, 1970; TeD, op.51, chorus, 1973; L'Innocent (cant., P. Gringore), op.59, choir, 2 tpt, 2 trbn, 1978; Jubilate, op.63, solo vv, choir, orch, 1980; Hommage à Arthur Honegger (H. Naef), op.68, choir, orch, 1983; Clair-obscur (L. Delarue-Mardrus, M. Gevers, A. Audra, M. Pomès, L. Paulin), op.74, female vv, 1986; Vade retro (A. Pasquali), op.79, choir, orch, 1991; Campana (A. Rimbaud), op.85, vocal qt/choir, 1995

Solo vocal: Détresse en paradis (Naef), op.7, 1v, pf, 1946; Blasons des fleurs (15th cent.), op.30, S/T, gui/hpd/pf, 1958; Ethiopiques (L.S. Senghor), op.49, spkr, orch, 1971–2; Jardins (Zbinden), op.53, S, Bar, orch, 1974; La Solitude (S. Sicaud), op.71, S, orch, 1985

instrumental

4 syms.: op.18, 1953, op.26, 1951–6, op.77, 1988–9, op.82, 1992

Other orch: Pf Conc., op.3, 1944; Concertino, op.6, tpt, perc, str, 1945–6; Divertissement, op.10, db/vc, orch, 1948–9; Conc. da camera, op.16, pf, str, 1950–51; Suite française, op.23, str, 1954; Rhapsodie, op.25, vn, orch/pf, 1956; Jazzific 59–16, op.28, jazz band, str, 1958; Conc. breve, op.36, vc, orch, 1961–2; Vn Conc., op.37, 1962–5; Orchalau-Conc., op.38, chbr orch, 1962; Lémanic 70, ov, op.48 (1970); Conc., op.56, ob, str, 1976; Conc., op.57, 1977; Prosphora, op.61, 1979; Torneo veneto, op.64, str, 1981; Conc. grosso, op.66, vn, str, 1982–3; Haïfa, op.70, 1983–4; Triade, op.78, 2 tpt, str/org, 1990; Sinfonietta, op.81, 1991; Poème, op.84, va, str/pf, 1993–4; Cl Conc., op.87, 1996; Triptyque, op.89, trbn, str/pf, 1998

Chbr: Sonatina, op.5, fl, pf, 1945; Septet, op.8, fl, cl, hn, str qt, 1947; La fête au village, op.9, vn, vc, 1948; Trio d'anches, op.12, ob, cl, bn, 1949; Trio, op.13, tpt, hn, trbn, 1949; 4 miniatures, op.14, fl, 1950–55; Sonata, op.15, vn, pf, 1950; 3 pièces, op.20, 4 hn, 1953; Prélude, fugue et postlude, op.39, tpt, pf, 1964; Capriccio, op.43, fl, eng hn, bn, vn, hpd, 1968; Hommage à J.S. Bach, op.44, db, 1969; Sonate en trio, op.46, 2 va da gamba, hpd, 1969; Dialogue, op.50, tpt, org, 1972–3; M K 2, op.55, 2 fl, 1976; Str Qt, op.60, 1978–9; Alligun, op.69, str qt, 1983; 3 esquisses japonaises, op.72, hp, 1985; Mouvements, op.75, vn, va, vc, 1986–7; Narbonne Festival, op.80, 2 tpt, hn, trbn, tuba, 1991; Kalamala, op.86, 2 hp, 1995; Alternances, op.88, fl, va, hp, 1997; Hexade, op.91, gui, 1998

Pf: Suite brève en ut, op.1, 1937–42; Ballade romantique, op.2, 1943; 3 préludes, op.4, 1944–6; Jazz Sonatine, op.11, 1949–50; 4 solitudes, op.17, 1951; Album pour mon chien, op.19, 1953; Pianostinato, op.45, 1969; Sonata fantastica, op.54, 1975–6; 3 paysages helvétiques, op.65, 1975, rev. 1982; Méditation sur le nom de G.E.R.B.E.R., op.90, 1998

Org: Variations libres, op.32, 1960; Interlude sur le nom de Tristan, op.42, 1966; Cathédrale, op.83, 1992

Principal publishers: Breitkopf & Härtel, Foetisch, Schott

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R.-A. Mooser: Aspects de la musique contemporaine (Geneva, 1957)

R.-A. Mooser: Visages de la musique contemporaine (Paris, 1962)

C. Tappolet: Lettres de compositeurs suisses à Ernest Ansermet (Geneva, 1989)

C. Tappolet: Julien-François Zbinden: compositeur (Geneva, 1995)

PATRICK MÜLLER

Zbruyeva, Yevgeniya (Ivanovna)

(b Moscow, 24 or 26 Dec 1867/5 or 7 Jan 1868; d Moscow, 20 Oct 1936). Russian contralto. She was the daughter of the singer and composer Pyotr Bulakhov. She graduated from Yelisaveta Lavrovskaya’s class at the Moscow Conservatory in 1893 and joined the Bol'shoy the following year. In 1905 she joined the Mariinsky Theatre in St Petersburg and taught at the conservatory (1915–17). Zbruyeva’s voice was deep, rich and smooth, powerful and beautiful throughout its wide range. Her clear diction, precise intonation and keen, subtle phrasing made her a finished performer. Her great roles were Glinka’s Vanya and Ratmir, and Marfa in Khovanshchina (which she sang at the 1911 Mariinsky première), but she was also extraordinarily successful in such character parts as Solokha (Rimsky-Korsakov’s Christmas Eve) and the Innkeeper (Boris). Her memoirs are published in the collection Muzïkal'noye nasledstvo (‘Musical heritage’, i, Moscow, 1962).

I.M. YAMPOL'SKY

Zeami [Motokiyo, Kanze Saburō]

(b ?1363; d ?8 Aug 1443). Japanese nō actor and writer. As a boy he was known as Fujiwaka. He was the eldest son of Kan'ami Kiyotsugu, the founder of the Kanze school of nō. Their performance in 1374 so impressed the shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu that he invited them to his court and became their lifetime patron, and eventually nō became the official performing art of the shogunate. Of about 50 surviving nō plays by Zeami, the most famous are Takasago, Izutsu and Matsukaze. He also wrote many treatises and essays, the most important of which is Fūshi Kaden (1400), better known as Kadensho (‘Book of Flowers’), a treatise on the aesthetics of nō. After the death of Yoshimitsu in 1428, Zeami fell foul of his successor, Ashikaga Yoshinori, and was banished to Sado Island in 1434. Whether he returned to Kyoto is not known.

See also Japan, §IV, 1.

MASAKATA KANAZAWA

Zeani [Zehan], Virginia

(b Solovastru, 21 Oct 1925). Italian soprano of Romanian birth. After studying in Bucharest and with Pertile in Milan, she made her début at Bologna in 1948 as Violetta, which she also sang at her London (1953, Stoll Theatre), Vienna (1957), Paris (1957), Metropolitan (1966) and Bol'shoy (1969) débuts and at Covent Garden (1959). She made her Scala début in 1956 as Handel’s Cleopatra opposite Nicola Rossi-Lemeni (whom she married) as Julius Caesar. In 1957 she created Blanche in Dialogues des Carmélites at La Scala. She participated in important revivals of Maria di Rohan (1965, Naples), Rossini’s Otello (1968, Rome) and Verdi’s Alzira (1970, Rome). Originally a specialist in coloratura parts including Lucia, Elvira (I puritani) and Adèle (Le comte Ory), she began in 1970 to undertake more dramatic roles, notably Aida, Manon Lescaut, Tosca, Magda Sorel (The Consul) and Giordano’s Fedora (1977–8, Barcelona). Zeani had a naturally beautiful voice, and performed with great dramatic conviction; among her recordings she is best represented by her intense, involving Violetta.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GV (G. Gualerzi; C. Williams)

HAROLD ROSENTHAL/ALAN BLYTH

Żebrowski, Marcin Józef

(fl Częstochowa, 1748–65, 1780). Polish composer and musician. In 1748–65, and probably again in 1780, he was a member of the chapel at the Pauline Monastery in Częstochowa as a highly esteemed violinist and virtuoso bass singer. Over 30 manuscripts of his works, dating from 1752 to 1798, are extant, and are perhaps in part autograph copies; a complete edition of his works is currently in preparation.

Żebrowski is a typical representative of the galant style in sacred music, as is most evident in the ornamentation of his melodic lines. However, some of his music also displays features of the late Baroque, such as the use of polyphony (including double counterpoint), concertato techniques and multi-sectional structures. Generally, his works for voices and instruments use cantata-like forms, with frequent use of developed solo vocal passages in arias. There is no difference in structure between his Sonatae and Andante pro processione, which are short da capo pieces played at processions during Mass.

WORKS

MSS mostly in PL-CZp

Sacred: 6 Masses, 1 lost; 2 vespers; Mag, ed. in WDMP, lxiv (1968); Ecce vidimus eum; Mittit ad virginem; Rorate caeli; 5 arias and duets, incl. Salve regina, ed. in WDMP, lxviii (1971); 6 Andante pro processione, 2 ed. in ZHMP, xxxii (1990); 12 Sonatae pro processione, 5 ed. in ZHMP, xxxii (1990)

Doubtful: Symphony

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Pośpiech: ‘Twórczość mszalna Marcina Józefa Żebrowskiego’ [Żebrowski's Mass settings], Muzyka, xxxi/1 (1986), 67–97

ZYGMUNT M. SZWEYKOWSKI

Zecchi, Adone

(b Bologna, 23 July 1904; d Bologna, 20 Dec 1995). Italian composer, conductor and musicologist. He studied the violin and, later, composition with Alfano and Nordio at the Bologna Conservatory. He then undertook much work as a conductor and organizer, founding and directing the choir Euridice, the Bologna Chamber Orchestra and, in 1950, the female G.B. Martini madrigal group. A teacher of choral music and choral conducting (1942–60), fugue and composition (1960–65) at the Bologna Conservatory, he was director from 1965 to 1974. He was secretary of the Italian Contemporary Music Society (1956–9), president of the Association of Italian Choirs and of the National Association of Music Teachers, a member of the Accademia Filarmonica di Bologna e di Roma and of the RAM, London. He also contributed to newspapers and periodicals, was editor of the journal Educazione musicale, and was responsible for the publication of several collections of popular Italian songs.

Zecchi's early works are neo-classical, sometimes exhibiting rigorous contrapuntal structures. In the 1950s he used a flexible version of dodecaphony, which became stricter in the later, more developed Caleidofonia and Trattenimento musicale. He also wrote much music for stage, radio and television.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Partita, 1933; Ricercare e toccata, 1942; 2 astrazioni in forma di fuga, 1945; 2 invenzioni, 1948; Caleidofonia, vn, pf, orch, 1963; Trattenimento musicale, str, 1969

Choral: Ditirambo, 4 vv, male chorus, 1938; Requiem, chorus, orch, 1945; 3 frammenti di Anacreonte, chorus, 1973

Chbr: Sonata, vn, pf, 1926; Divertimento, fl, hp, 1932, version for fl, hp, str qnt, 1942; Sonata, vn, pf, 1934; Pf Trio, 1939; Quatuor du temps perdu, pf qt, 1959; Musiche per un balletto immaginario, hp, 1960; Bicinium, 2 fl, 1973

TV score: Il mulino del Po (R. Bacchelli), 1962

Principal publisher: Bongiovanni (Bologna)

WRITINGS

Collana di saggi verdiani (Bologna, 1952)

Il coro nella storia (Bologna, 1960)

with R. Allorto: Educazione musicale (Milan, 1962)

Il direttore di coro (Milan, 1965)

with R. Allorto: Il mondo della musica (Milan, 1969)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (O. Mischiati)

‘Voci aggiunte a un dizionario dei musicisti italiani contemporanei’, RaM, ix (1936), 237–45, esp. 240

R. Vlad: Storia della dodecafonia (Milan, 1958), 219–21

T. Gotti: ‘Adone Zecchi, 5 anni di direzione’, Annuario 1965–70 del Conservatorio di musica ‘G.B. Martini’ di Bologna (1971), 233–7

T. Gotti: ‘Adone Zecchi, 10 anni di direzione’, Profili di un decennio, 1964–74 (Bologna, 1974)

R. Zanetti: La musica italiana nel novecento (Busto Arsizio, 1985), 966, 1260–61

ROBERTA COSTA

Zech.

American family of musicians of German origin. They were active in San Francisco.

(1) Jacob Zech

(2) Frederick Zech jr

(3) William Frank Zech

JOHN A. EMERSON/ROBERT COMMANDAY

Zech

(1) Jacob Zech

(b Bad Dürkheim, 25 July 1832; d San Francisco, 13 Sept 1889). Piano maker. After the death of his father Franz Phillip Zech (1789–1849), a piano maker, he went to New York and worked for five years at Nunns & Clark and Steinway. In May 1856 he moved to San Francisco, and by March 1857 had built his first instrument. The following September a square piano of his manufacture was awarded first prize at the Mechanics Institute Fair. By 1867 he had custom-built 494 instruments.

Zech’s son, August Friedrich Zech (b San Francisco, 20 May 1857; d San Francisco, 20 April 1891), studied at the Leipzig Conservatory from 1876 to 1880 and in San Francisco. He became music director of the Arion Singing Society and several other German singing societies in San Francisco.

Jacob Zech’s brother, Frederick Zech sr (1837–1905), was also a piano maker who went to San Francisco from Philadelphia to work for his brother. Between 1862 and 1864 he ran his own manufactury but was later employed at other piano companies, including his brother’s.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Daily Evening Bulletin (San Francisco, 25 March 1857), 3; (7 April 1860), 1; (30 June 1863), 3; (16 July 1870), 4

Alta California (San Francisco, 16 May 1867), 1

N.E. Michel: Historical Pianos, Harpsichords, and Clavichords (Pico Rivera, CA, 1963), 70

Zech

(2) Frederick Zech jr

(b Philadelphia, 10 May 1858; d San Francisco, 15 Oct 1926). Composer,pianist, conductor and teacher, nephew of (1) Jacob Zech. After arriving in San Francisco in 1860, he studied music there, then in Berlin (1878–82). On 30 November 1882 he presented an orchestral concert of his compositions in Platt’s Hall in San Francisco, an unprecedented event in the history of the city. Hitherto, local musicians had been represented by popular piano pieces and songs. In 1902–3 he financed and directed a series of symphony concerts featuring several of his orchestral tone poems. He later taught at the College of Notre Dame, Belmont, California. His manuscripts are held by the Music Library of the University of California, Berkeley, and his correspondence is at the California Historical Society, San Francisco.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: 4 pf concs., 1881–96; Larghetto and Menuetto, 1881; Introduction and Fugue, 1881, rev. 1894; Concert Ov., 1892; 5 syms., c1883–1893; 5 sym. poems, 1892–1906; Vc Conc., 1907; Vn Conc.

Inst: 3 vn sonatas, 1895–9; Cl Sonata, 1897; Vc Sonata, 1897; 2 str qts, 1897–1902; Pf Qnt, 1903; Fl Sonata, 1906; Pf Trio

Ops: La Paloma, or The Cruise of the Excelsior (3, M. Fairweather-Widemann), San Francisco, 1896; Wa-Kin-Yon, the Red Man (3, Fairweather-Widemann), San Francisco, 1914

Vocal: 3 Lieder, male chorus, 1881; 2 Lieder, 4vv, 1881; Lobet den Herrn, 4vv, 1881; The Absent Sailor, Mez, orch, 1883; c50 songs, 1v, pf

MSS in US–BE

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Grove3, Amer. suppl.

San Francisco Morning Call (4 Dec 1882), 1

San Francisco Chronicle (30 Oct 1902), 14

Pacific Coast Musical Review (San Francisco,10 June 1911), 3; (16 Dec 1911), 41; (1 Dec 1917), 1

Zech

(3) William Frank Zech

(b San Francisco, 22 July 1869; d San Francisco, 26 May 1950). Violinist, conductor and teacher, brother of (2) Frederick Zech jr. After study under Joseph Joachim at the Hochschule für Musik, Berlin (1892–7), he returned to San Francisco, founded and led the Zech String Quartet (1901–4), and from 1905 the Zech Orchestra which flourished for over 35 years. He was also musical director of the Arion Singing Society and the San Francisco Musical Club, and a faculty member and orchestra conductor at San Francisco State College; an award for music undergraduates was established in his memory.

His son, Norman Frederick Zech (b San Francisco, 31 May 1914; d San Francisco, 28 Aug 1997), a violinist, conductor and teacher, studied at San Francisco State University and the University of Southern California. He served as Dean of Instruction and professor of music at Reedley College, Reedley, California, from 1939 to 1975, and was also the director of the Reedley Baroque Strings and Community Orchestra from 1974.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Grove3, Amer. suppl.

N.F. Zech: ‘A Pioneer California Music Family’, Lifeliner: Genealogical Society of Riverside, iii/2 (1967), 37

Zechlin, Ruth

(b Grosshartmannsdorf, Saxony, 22 June 1926). German composer, harpsichordist and organist. She studied at the Leipzig Musikhochschule (1943–9), where her teachers included Johann Nepomuk David and Wilhelm Weismann (composition), Karl Straube and Günther Ramin (organ) and Anton Rohden and Rudolf Fischer (piano). From 1950 she taught at the Hanns Eisler Musikhochschule, Berlin, where she became professor for composition in 1984, the first woman in Germany to be so appointed. In 1970 she was elected to the DDR Akademie der Künste, where she gave a composition masterclass, and in 1990 she was made vice-president of the Berlin Akademie der Künste. As a performer of harpsichord and organ she has specialized in early English keyboard music, the music of J.S. Bach and contemporary music. Her many honours include the Hanns Eisler Prize (1968), the National Prize of the DDR (1975, 1982), the Heidelberg Women Artists' prize (1996) and the Cross of Merit (first class) of the Federal Republic of Germany (1997).

The strictly linear nature of Zechlin’s early works shows her attempt to overcome traditional tonal and formal compositional styles; she first adopted a freely tonal language and later drew upon a range of contemporary resources. Her compositions develop from her musico-dramatic sense, which determines the nature and length of a work through patterns of tension and relaxation. Influenced by the music of Henze and Lutosławski, and particularly by Schoenberg’s Pierrot lunaire, she has found her central inspiration in the work of J.S. Bach, whose style is at the heart of her polyphonic thinking. She has extended a polyphonic approach to tonal areas, rhythmic structures, dynamics, instrumentation and form. In her orchestral work Musik zu Bach (1983) small, splintered melodic cells coalesce into a vertically and horizontally transparent whole. In Metamorphosen (1982) sound surfaces developing out of a single pitch eventually merge to form a 12-part canon. One of her few works to make a direct political statement is Wider den Schlaf der Vernuft for organ (1989), a protest against the East German system. Many of her compositions borrow ideas from the visual arts, architecture and literature. Although she has written many operatic and vocal works her main emphasis has been on instrumental composition.

WORKS

(selective list)

for fuller list see GroveW

stage

Reineke Fuchs (Funkhörspiel, G. Deicke, after J.W. von Goethe), 1962, stage version, 1967, Berlin, 1968; La vita: Konstellationen (ballet, Zechlin), 1983, Berlin, 1985; Sommernachtsträume (Die Salamandrin und die Bildsäule) (op, F. Göhler, after C.M. Weiland), 1990; Die Reise (chbr op, H. Müller, after Motekiyo), 1992, Saarländ, 1998; Un baiser pour le roi (dance score), 1995, Passau, 1995; Die Geburt der Blauen Blume, 1996, Passau, 1997; incid music; documentary film scores

instrumental

Orch: Vn Conc., 1963; Sym. no.1, 1965; Sym. no.2, 1966; Chbr Sym. no.1, 1967; Sym. no.3, 1971; Chbr Sym. no.2, 1973; Org Conc. no.1, 1974; Pf Conc., 1974; Kristalle, hpd, str, 1975; Org Conc. no.2, 1975; Briefe, 1978; Musik, 1980; Situationen, 1980; Metamorphosen, 1982; Musik zu Bach, 1983; Linien, hpd, orch, 1986; Kristallisation, 1987; Vn Conc. ‘Hommage à György Kurtág’, 1990–91; Stufen, 1993; Conc., ‘Venezianisches’, hpd, str, 1994; Hommage à Heidelberg und seine Manessische Handschrift, 1995; Triptychon 2000, 1997–8; Our Father, soloists, orch, 1998; Varianten zu Goethes ‘Märchen’, chbr orch, 1998

Chbr: Str Qt no.1, 1959; Str Qt no.2, 1965; Amor und Psyche, ens, hpd, 1966; Keunergeschichten (after B. Brecht), spkr, ens, 1966; Str Qt no.3, 1970; Str Qt no.4, 1971; Str Qt no.5, 1971; Hommage à PHL, str qnt, perc, 1973; Begegnungen, 1977; Str Qt no.6, 1977; Szenen ‘Hommage à Shakespeare’, 1978; Aktionen, 4 solo str, 1979; Reflexionen, 14 str, 1979; Katharis, ob, vc, perc, 1981; Prometheus (F. Kafka), spkr, pf, perc, 1986; Synthese, org, perc, 1986; 7 Versuche und 1 Ergebnis, sax qt, 1988; Alternativer Baukasten, 1993; Circulation, 8 perc, 1994; Reminiszenzen, vn, kbd, 1996; Ruhe und Bewegung, 2 org, 1996; 5 Studien und 1 Collage, 1996; Hommage à Henry Purcell, rec, hpd, 1997; Aphorismen zu Goethes ‘Urworte. Orphisch’, ob, hpd, 1998; Musikalische Antworten auf J.S. Bach, fl, org, 2000

Solo: pour le flûte, 1973; Beschwörungen, perc, 1980; Da capo, vn, 1982; 5 Mobiles, hp, 1988; Musik, vc, 1988; 3 Briefe an HWH, ob, 1992; Musik zu Kafka II, perc, 1992; In memoriam Witold Lutosławski, va, 1995; Inkarnation, hpd, 1996; Figurinen für Tom, ob, 1997; An Aphrodite, ob, 1998; Inspirationen, cymbals, 1998

keyboard

for org unless otherwise stated

Toccata and Passacaglia, hpd, 1962; Spektrum, 1973; Evolution, 1981; Genesis, 1981; Traum und Wirklichkeit, 1982; Fantasie, Interludium und Fuge, spinet, 1986; Im Salon der Rahel Levin, hpd, 1986; 3 Miniaturen, pf, 1989; Verkündigung, 1989; Wider den Schlaf der Vernuft, 1989; Diagonalen, hpd, 1990; Bicinien pour Jacques, hpd, 1992; Geistliches Triptychon, 1992; Evolution II, 1994; Hommage à J.S. Bach, hpd, 1994; Musik zu Epiphanie, 1996; Die sieben letzten Worte Jesu am Kreuz, 1996; Requiem, 1997; Auferstehung, 1998

vocal

Mass, chorus, 1946; Ode an die Lufte (P. Neruda), Mez, orch, 1962–4; Canzoni alla notte (S. Quasímodo), Bar, orch, 1974; Das Hohelied (Bible), T, orch, 1979; Angelus Silesius’ Sprüche, mixed vv, 1983; Das A und O, A, perc, 1992; Geistliche Kreise, 3 choruses, 1995; 3 Lieder (Hildegard von Bingen), Mez, fl, 1996; Sonnengesang des Franz von Assissi, 8-pt chorus, 1996; 2 poèmes (L. Aragon, S. Mallarmé), female vv, fl, 1997; Kantate, 1v, org, 1998; Stabat Mater, T, org, 1998; Dies lrae, A, org, 1999

MSS in D-Bsb

Principal publishers: Breitkopf & Härtel, Deutscher Verlag, Bärenreiter, Henschel, Lienau, Peters, Ries & Erler, Verlag Neue Musik, Zimmermann

Principal recording companies: Arte Nova, Eterna, Berlin Classics, Melodia, Wergo

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveW (R. Sperber) [incl. further bibliography]

U. Stürzbecher: ‘Ruth Zechlin’, Komponisten in der DDR: 17 Gespräche (Hildesheim, 1979), 150–71

H. and J. Mainka, eds.: Ruth Zechlin: Situationen, Reflexionen: Gespräche, Erfahrungen, Gedanken (Berlin, 1986)

M. Hansen: Komponieren zur Zeit: Gespräche mit Komponisten der DDR (Leipzig, 1988), 296–311

U. Stürzbecher: ‘Laudatio für Ruth Zechlin’, Gegenwelten, ed. R. Sperber (Heidelberg, 1997), 257–61

BETTINA BRAND (with ROSWITHA SPERBER)

Zechner, Johann Georg

(b Gleisdorf, 9 April 1716; d Stein an der Donau, 7 June 1778). Austrian composer and organist. He held posts as organist at the Benedictine abbey of Göttweig, Lower Austria (1736–43), and choral director of St Veit, Krems an der Donau (1746–53); between 1743 and 1746 he apparently studied philosophy and theology, and at some time between 1750 and 1752 he was ordained priest. In 1753 he was appointed to the charge of the Chapel of All Saints at Stein an der Donau, a sinecure which allowed him to devote the rest of his life exclusively to composition.

Zechner was a leading figure in a group of composers who wrote for the monasteries and the nobility in Lower Austria. His compositions were distributed in all the Habsburgian countries and in southern Germany. His extensive output of liturgical music covers almost all contemporary genres and he was one of the first to feature extensive solo writing for the organ in some of his Missae solemnes. The early works still show the influence of Fux and Caldara, but more popular rhythmic and melodic elements become prevalent in the motets and arias and his later works are in a fully developed early Classical style. An interesting feature is his combination of galant melody with scholarly counterpoint. Zechner also composed seven applausus works for the abbey at Göttweig. Notable among his instrumental output, which has much in common with that of G.C. Wagenseil and M.G. Monn, are some late instances of music for lute and some early examples of keyboard concertos.

WORKS

MSS in A-Gd, GÖ, H, HE, KR, LA, M, MZ, R, SEI, Wgm, WIL, Wn, Wp; CZ-Bm, Pak, Pnm; H-Bn, Gc

Vocal: 37 missae solemnes, 1 ed. F.W. Riedel, Grosse Orgelsolo-Messe (Stuttgart, 1999); 19 missae ordinariae; 8 masses, a cappella; 6 requiem; 20 vespers, pss; 27 Marian antiphons; 13 lits.; 5 TeD; 3 Veni Sancte Spiritus; Stabat mater; 61 Lat. offs, motets; 56 Ger. motets, arias; 12 orats; 2 ops; 7 applausus works; other sacred and secular works

Inst: 10 syms., 2 ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. B, vi (New York, 1982); 4 hpd concs., ed. in MAM, xxxi–xxxiv (1973); Vn conc.; 4 divertimentos, partitas, 2 for 2 vn, vc, ed. in MAM, xxiv (1970); other pieces, org/lute

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (F.W. Riedel)

F.W. Riedel: ‘Beiträge zur Geschichte der Musikpflege an der Stadtpfarrkirche St Veit zu Krems’, 950 Jahre Pfarre Krems, ed. H. Kühnel (Krems an der Donau, 1964), 300–41 [incl. list of works]

R.N. Freeman: The Practice of Music at Melk Monastery based upon the Documents 1681–1826 (Vienna, 1989)

G. Chew: ‘The Austrian pastorella and the stylus rusticanus: Comic and Pastoral Elements in Austrian Music, 1750–1800’, Music in Eighteenth-Century Austria, ed. D.W. Jones (Cambridge, 1996), 133–93

F.W. Riedel, ed.: Kirchenmusik mit obligater Orgel: Untersuchungen zum süddeutsch-österreichischen Repertoire im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert (Sinzig, 1999)

FRIEDRICH W. RIEDEL/DAVID WYN JONES

Zeckwer, Camille

(b Philadelphia, 26 June 1875; d Southampton, NY, 7 Aug 1924). American composer. He learnt music with his father, then studied with Dvořák in New York (1893–5) and Philipp Scharwenka in Berlin, where he also studied violin with Florian Zajic. He settled in Philadelphia as a teacher and became director of the Academy of Music on the retirement of his father Richard Zeckwer (b Stendal, Germany, 30 April 1850; d Philadelphia, 31 Dec 1922) in 1917. His music evokes romantic images by the sparing use of Impressionist harmonic and melodic devices within conventional formal structures. He wrote numerous popular piano pieces (such as Ballads of the Sea op.25) and performed his Piano Concerto in E minor op.8 (1897) three times with the Philadelphia Orchestra (1899, 1904, 1914). He composed two symphonic poems: Sohrab and Rustum (after Matthew Arnold) op.30 (1915); and Jade Butterflies op.50, which won the Chicago North Shore Festival Prize and was performed by the Chicago SO under Frederick Stock on 30 March 1922. His cantata The New Day op.24 (SATB, pf 4 hands) won the Cleveland Mendelssohn Prize in 1914. His three-act opera, Jane and Janetta op.20, was never performed. He also wrote chamber music and songs.

MSS in US-PHf

Principal publishers: Fischer, Presser

OTTO E. ALBRECHT/MICHAEL MECKNA

Zedda, Alberto

(b Milan, 2 Jan 1928). Italian conductor and musicologist. He studied at the Milan Conservatory with Votto and Giulini, and he made his conducting début in 1956. He worked in the USA (1959–61) teaching and coaching the winners in American vocal competitions. He then took charge of the Italian repertory at the Deutsche Oper, Berlin (1961–3), worked with the New York City Opera in a similar capacity from 1963 and began guest conducting more widely. In 1969 he published (in Milan) a critical edition of Il barbiere di Siviglia, which was taken up by several companies and recorded under Abbado (1972); Zedda used it for his Covent Garden début in 1975, and in 1989 with the Cologne Opera in East Asia.

This publication heralded much scholarly research for the Fondazione Rossini at Pesaro, of whose complete edition of Rossini (Pesaro, 1979–) Zedda is joint general editor, with Philip Gossett. Zedda conducted numerous performances in Europe and America of familiar and less familiar Rossini works such as Adelaide di Borgogna, Ermione and Maometto II; his edition of La Cenerentola was also recorded by Abbado (1971). Zedda's editorial attention extended to Monteverdi, whose L'incoronazione di Poppea he recorded in his own version; to Bellini, in a recording of Beatrice di Tenda (1986) and the revision of the vocal parts for I Capuleti e i Montecchi; and to Donizetti, for whose L'elisir d'amore he discovered (in Paris) and restored an aria for Adina (1987, Bergamo). He was artistic director of La Scala, Milan from 1992 to 1993. Zedda's other recordings include an admired version of Rossini's Tancredi.

PIERO RATTALINO, NOËL GOODWIN

Zednik, Heinz

(b Vienna, 21 Feb 1940). Austrian tenor. After studying in Vienna, he made his début in 1964 at Graz as Trabuco (Forza). Engaged at the Vienna Staatsoper for more than 30 years, he created Kalb in von Einem’s Kabale und Liebe (1976). He sang David, Mime and Loge at Bayreuth (1970–80) and made his Metropolitan début in 1981 as Mime and Loge. He sang at Frankfurt, Zürich and Salzburg, where he created the Producer in Berio’s Un re in ascolto (1984), repeating it at La Scala (1986). He also took part in the premières of Krenek’s Kehraus um St Stephan at the Ronacher, Vienna (1990), and Schnittke’s Gesualdo at the Vienna Staatsoper (1995). An excellent character actor with a strong voice, he had a repertory of some 140 roles, ranging from Monostatos, Pedrillo and Jaquino to Vašek, Remendado, Valzacchi, Herod and the Captain (Wozzeck). He made many recordings, including Pedrillo, Monostatos, the Captain and such vivid cameos as the Shabby Peasant (Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District), a Drunken Cossack (Mazeppa) and the spoken role of Njegus (Die lustige Witwe).

ELIZABETH FORBES

Zeffirelli, Franco [Corsi, Gian Franco]

(b Florence, 12 Feb 1923). Italian director and designer. After working for the spoken theatre and in films, he turned to opera in 1948. His early stagings in Italy were of Rossini and Donizetti operas, including La Cenerentola at La Scala in 1953. He gave new life to Italian Romantic opera with his production of Lucia di Lammermoor (with Joan Sutherland) at Covent Garden in 1959, and later that year he turned to verismo with Cavalleria rusticana and Pagliacci, also at Covent Garden. Both productions were still running 25 years later. In 1963 he collaborated with Karajan on an opulent, Romantic staging of La bohème at La Scala, which established him as one of the leading Italian opera directors of his generation. His production of Falstaff for the Metropolitan in 1964 was criticized as fussy and un-Shakespearean. In 1965 he worked with Maria Callas on her Tosca at Covent Garden and Norma at the Paris Opéra. In 1966 he staged the première of Samuel Barber’s Antony and Cleopatra at the opening of the new Metropolitan Opera building. His Otello at La Scala in 1976 and Carmen at the Vienna Staatsoper in 1978, both conducted by Carlos Kleiber, were widely recognized as exemplary in their lyrico-dramatic power. His Turandot at La Scala in 1983 and La traviata in New York, Florence and Paris (1985–6) were the culmination of a growing trend in his work towards spectacular opulence, thought by many to be over-elaborate and prohibitively expensive for most opera houses. He has, however, always remained very popular with subscribers at the Metropolitan Opera. He has made films of La traviata (1983) and Otello (1986), in both of which a number of controversial cuts were made.

ANDREW CLARK

Zehan, Virginia.

See Zeani, Virginia.

Zehavi, Oded

(b Jerusalem, 2 Feb 1961). Israeli composer. He studied with André Hajdu and Jan Radzynski, then at the Rubin Academy in Jerusalem (BM 1986), with Crumb at the University of Pennsylvania (MA 1990), and at SUNY, Stony Brook (PhD 1995). After returning to Israel in 1992, he became composer-in-residence of the Haifa SO (1993–7) and the Israel Chamber Orchestra (1998–9). He was awarded the Prime Minister's Prize for Composers in 1995. Coordinator of music studies at Haifa University, he teaches at several other music institutions. His works have been performed by the Kirov Opera Orchestra and the LSO. Striving to be communicative, Zehavi integrates various stylistic approaches, ranging from neo-Romantic to dense, almost atonal writing. In his vocal works, such as Erga (1995), Zehavi reflects the influences of Argov and Wilensky, two important Israeli song writers. His concertos for viola (1994) and violin (1998), show the influence of Radzynski, and demonstrate Zehavi's gift for melody and orchestration. Further information is given in R. Fleisher: Twenty Israeli Composers: Voices of a Culture (Detroit, 1997), 288–99.

WORKS

(selective list)

Dramatic: Suspects (op, 2, S. Lapid), 2000; music for theatre, film and TV

Inst: Va Conc., 1994; Dagan, 1996; El male (Kaddish), 1996; Vn Conc., 1998; other orch and chbr works

Vocal: L.H.M. Israeli War Requiem, 1991; Erga, 5 songs, A, orch, 1995; Stav, 3 A, chbr orch, 1997; 3 Jerusalem Songs, A, orch, 1998; Tohm, song cycle, S, chbr orch, 1998; arrs. of folk and pop music

Principal publisher: Israel Music Institute

RONIT SETER

Zehetmair, Thomas

(b Salzburg, 23 Nov 1961). Austrian violinist. His parents started teaching him the violin at five, and from 1973 he studied at the Mozarteum with his father, Helmut Zehetmair, also learning composition. Later he worked with Franz Samohyl, Max Rostal and Nathan Milstein. In 1975 he won the ‘Jugend musiziert’ competition and in 1978 the international Mozart competition. That year he made his début in Vienna, and since then he has been regarded as one of the most interesting exponents of the Austro-German violin literature. From 1981 he studied performance practice with Nikolaus Harnoncourt, for whom he acknowledges admiration. His playing of Bach, clearly influenced by the period instrument movement, strikes a good balance between the excesses of that tendency and the equally questionable practices of the old school. Sometimes, as in his 1997 recording of the Beethoven Concerto with Frans Brüggen conducting, he has played a violin set up in period fashion. Zehetmair often appears with chamber orchestras, directing the players himself in the concertos of Bach, Haydn and Mozart; and since 1993 he has shared the direction of the Camerata Bern with Ana Chumachenko. In addition to many of the great concertos, for which he has often written his own cadenzas, he has recorded such neglected works as Schumann's C major Fantasie. In 1987 he gave the first performances of two solo sonatas by Karl Amadeus Hartmann, and he has since given the premières of works by Dieter Schnebel, Valentin Silvestrov, Isang Yun, Wilhelm Killmayer and Heinz Holliger. In chamber music he has appeared and recorded with Alfred Brendel, Malcolm Frager, Gidon Kremer, Tabea Zimmermann, Richard Duven and Cyprien Katsaris, as well as his own string quartet. He plays a 1751 violin by Giovanni Battista Guadagnini.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Campbell GV

D. Rooney: ‘On the Fantastical Edge’, The Strad, ciii (1992), 231–3

TULLY POTTER

Zehm, Friedrich

(b Neusalz an der Oder [now Nowa Sól], Silesia, 22 Jan 1923). German composer. He began music studies with Lampe at the Salzburg Mozarteum and studied composition with Genzmer and the piano with Picht-Axenfeld at the Freiburg Musikhochschule (1948–51). After working as a pianist, composer and private teacher, he was music reviewer for the Amerika-Haus, Freiburg (1956–63). In 1963 he took a post as reader for Schott. He also served as docent for composition at the University of Mainz. He has received special awards from the cities of Düsseldorf and Stuttgart, including the Robert Schumann Prize, and an award from the Esslinger Künstlergilde. Through Genzmer, Zehm is linked to the Hindemith tradition of straightforward music that often takes on a lyrical quality. His work is less contrapuntally conceived than Hindemith’s, however, and relies more on contrasting blocks of sound and instrumental doublings. A free use of 7th and 9th chords is typical of Zehm’s tonal harmonic vocabulary; his rhythmic style includes the use of ostinato and, on occasion, jazz elements.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Allegro concertante, 1960; Fl Conc., 1962; Capriccio, perc, chbr orch, 1968; Rhythmophonie, 1970; Divertimento ritmico, 1970; Conc. da camera, ob, str, 1971; Conc. in Pop, pop group, orch, 1973; Schwierigkeiten und Unfälle mit einem Choral, conductor, 10 wind, 1975; Divisions on the song ‘Let it be’, str, 1976

Vocal: La belle cordière (Labé), S, insts, 1958; Lyrische Kantate (J. Bissier), Bar, orch, 1966; Deutsche Messe mit Einheitsliedern, chorus, congregation, 5 brass, 1968; Ein Bündel Chansons von frech bis poco triste (F. Grasshoff), 1969; Grasshoffiade, male chorus, 1969; Nonstop-songs, chorus, insts, 1970; Vagantenlied, chorus, insts, 1970; 6 Gedichte (M.L. Kaschnitz), Mez/Bar, pf, 1976; a cappella choruses

Chbr: Wind Qnt, 1954; Pf Trio, 1962; Musica pastorale, 6 wind, 1966; Canto e rondo, tpt, pf, 1969; 6 caprices, 2 fl, 1969; Serenade, fl, gui, 1969; Konzertstück, 10 wind, 1970; Pentameron, bn, pf, 1970; Str Qt, 1971; Wind Trio, 1971; Stücke, 4 brass, 1972; Tripelmusik, vn, kbd, perc, tape, 1973; Wind Trio, 1973; Trias, perc, 1974; Sisyphos, db, perc, hpd, 1975; Sonatina giocosa, cl, pf, 1976; Hindemith Variations, 2 ob, eng hn, 1979; Musica notturna, gui, 1980; 6 preludes and fugues, gui, 1980; Rhapsodische Sonate, vn, pf, 1982; Wie spät ist es, Signor Haydn? pf duet, 1982; 3 Elegies, va, pf, 1987

Principal publishers: Schott, Simrock, Zimmermann

GEORGE W. LOOMIS

Zeiler, Gallus

(b Kempten, 10 May 1705; d Füssen, 7 Jan 1755). German composer. He was educated at the monastery schools at Ochsenhausen and Ottobeuren (though there is no evidence that he sang in the choir of either) and at Innsbruck University. In 1721 he entered the Benedictine house of St Mang at Füssen, where his activities were by no means confined to music. As well as being organist for seven years, he taught Latin and Greek in the school, served a nearby parish and administered the monastery's vineyard. After being elected abbot in 1750, he arranged for the building of a new organ in the abbey church.

Despite Zeiler's other occupations, he found time to compose a great deal of church music in the simple style, suitable for parish choirs, which was current at the time. From 1732 to 1740 he seems to have published almost one volume a year, though not all are extant. Unlike most of his contemporaries he does not seem to have written masses or sets of vesper psalms, preferring to set less usual texts: he published a set of 20 Benedictions for the Corpus Christi week, and another of responses to the Holy Week Lamentations. In four-voice pieces and in solo arias his music is typical of the simple, tuneful style of the period; his instrumental writing is unusual, however, in that his viola parts are obligatory (most church music required only two violins and continuo). Zeiler does not seem to have been one of the most popular church composers of his day, presumably because of the comparatively limited liturgical usefulness and non-standard scoring of much of his music; Marianus Königsperger, himself a skilful composer, regarded Zeiler as the best church composer of his generation.

WORKS

all printed works published in Augsburg

Dulia harmonica (1732), lost

Cithara Mariana sedecim antiphonis, 4vv, 2 vn, va, b (1734)

XII Concert, 2 vn, vc, org (c1735)

XXX deutsche Arien auf das ganze Jahr eingetheilt (1736)

Canticum Marianum bipartitum XII Magnificat complectens, 4vv, insts, op.5 (1737)

Latria musica Deo eucharistico sacra complectens 20 Benedictiones pro solemni octava Corporis Christi, 4vv, insts (1739)

XVI antiphonae (1740)

Responsoria ad Lamentationes Hebdomadae Sanctae; 4 Alma Redemptoris, 5 Ave regina, 5 Regina coeli, for 1v, 2 vn, va, bc, D-Dkh according to EitnerQ

ELIZABETH ROCHE

Zeira, Mordecai

(b Kiev, 6 July 1905; d Tel-Aviv, 1 Aug 1968). Israeli composer of Ukrainian birth. In 1924 he emigrated to Palestine, where he helped to found the Kibbutz Afiqim. The following year he joined the Ohel Workers' Theatre; there he met Yoel Angle who directed the theatre's chorus and wrote incidental music. After Angle's death in 1927, Shlomo Rozovsky, his successor, agreed to give Zeira music lessons. Zeira began by re-composing songs written by his friends. Songs written during this period include Ashreiha-ish (‘Joyful is the man’) and Paqad adonai (‘God Commanded’). The latter of these, originally performed in Yemeni style, became a hit. From the 1930s onwards, Zeira composed hundreds of songs that accompanied and reflected the changing life of the Israeli people in their new society. Any events in the Hityashvut (establishment of new settlements), whether cultural, political or religious, found their expression in his work. During World War II, Zeira enlisted in the British Army, continuing to write songs for various Jewish military units. Later, during the Independence War (1948), he went from trench to trench organizing singing among the soldiers. His songs were published by the hundreds in song books and recorded on Israeli and international labels. Collections of his works include: Shirim (‘Songs’, 1948); Mivhar yesirotav (‘A selection of his work’, 1960); Laylah laylah (‘Night after night’, 1998); and children's collections Pil pilon (‘Elphi Elephant’, 1978) and La-pe^cotim (‘For toddlers’, 1960).

Principal publisher: Culture Works

NATAN SHAHAR

Zeisl, Eric [Erich]

(b Vienna, 18 May 1905; d Los Angeles, 18 Feb 1959). American composer of Austrian birth. A student of Richard Stöhr, Joseph Marx and Hugo Kauder, Zeisl achieved early recognition, publishing his first songs at the age of 16 and winning the Austrian State Prize in 1934 for the Requiem concertante (1933–4). He was compelled to leave Austria and went first to Paris (1938) and then to the USA (1939). He moved from New York to Hollywood to work for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (1941), then settled in Los Angeles and became professor of theory and composition at Los Angeles City College in 1949. His gifts for melody, orchestration and dramatic expression were first developed in the songs of his Austrian years. Evident in his other Austrian compositions are the variation techniques and contrapuntal textures that would become lifelong preoccupations. In the USA, where he produced roughly half of his output, he abandoned song in order to devote more attention to instrumental pieces, sacred music and especially dramatic works, which powerfully express his Jewish heritage. Throughout his career he derived his large forms principally from those of the Baroque and Classical periods, but after his emigration earlier Austro-German Romantic elements were replaced by a combination of soaring, cantillation-like melodies, modal harmonies, metric shifts, flexible rhythmic patterns and dark orchestral colours.

WORKS

Stage: Leonce and Lena (Singspiel, 3, J. Kafka, after H.P. Königsgarten, after G. Büchner), 1937; Job (op, 2, Kafka, after J. Roth), 1939–41, 1957–9, inc.; The Return of Ulysses (incid music, E. Ludwig), 1943; Uranium 235 (ballet, M. Dekobra), 1945–6; The Vineyard (ballet, B. Zemach, after Bible), 1953; Jacob and Rachel (ballet, Zemach, after Bible), 1954

Orch: Passacaglia-Fantasia, e, 1933; Kleine Sinfonia, f–a, 1935–6; Scherzo und Fuge, a–D, str, 1936–7 [from Str Qt no.1, 1930–33]; November, 6 sketches, chbr orch, 1937–8; Music for Christmas, G, 1950; Pf Conc., C, 1951–2; Conc. grosso, d–F, vc, orch, 1955–6

Choral: Afrika singt (F. Horne, L. Hughes), c1930; Requiem concertante, S, A, T, B, SATB, orch, 1933–4; Cant. of Verses (A. Silesius, Bible), SATB, orch, 1935; Requiem ebraico (Ps xcii), S, A, Bar, SATB, org/orch, 1944–5; 4 Songs for Wordless Chorus (Songs for the Daughter of Jephtha), SA, pf/str, hp/pf, tpt, timp, 1948; From the Book of Psalms, T, TB, orch, 1952

Chbr and solo inst: Triosuite, b–B, vn, vc, pf, c1920–24; [13] Pieces for Barbara, pf, 1944; 4 Pf Pieces for Good Players, 1944; Prelude, a, org, 1944; Sonata barocca, f–D, pf, 1948–9; Sonata ‘Brandeis’, e–C, vn, pf, 1949–50; Sonata, a–A, va, pf, 1950; Sonata, a–D, vc, pf, 1951; Str Qt no.2, d–G, 1953; Trio ‘Arrowhead’, d–D, fl, va, hp, 1956

Songs: 3 Lieder (?, Schreyvogl, Mäding), S, Bar, pf (c1922); Mondbilder (C. Morgenstern), Bar, pf/orch, 1928; 6 Kinderlieder (C. Brentano and A. von Arnim: Das Knaben Wunderhorn, R. Dehmel), S, pf/orch (1933); 6 Lieder (J.F. von Eichendorff and others), Bar, pf (1935); 7 Lieder (A. Holz and others), S, pf (1936); Prayer ‘For the United Nations’ (Bible), S, pf/org/orch, 1945

MSS, scores and papers in Eric Zeisl Archive, US-LAu

Principal publishers: Belwin-Mills, Doblinger, Fischer, Österreichischer Bundesverlag, Transcontinental, Universal

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M.S. Cole: ‘Eric Zeisl's “American” Period’, CMc, no.18 (1974), 71–8

M.S. Cole: ‘Eric Zeisl: the Rediscovery of an Emigré Composer’, MQ, lxiv (1978), 237–44

G.S. Zeisl: Eric Zeisl: his Life and Music [transcript of interview, 1978, by M.S. Cole, copy in Zeisl Archive]

M.S. Cole and B. Barclay: Armseelchen: the Life and Music of Eric Zeisl (Westport, CT, 1984)

M.S. Cole: ‘Eric Zeisl's “Hiob”: The Story of an Unsung Opera’, OQ, ix (1992), 52–75

MALCOLM S. COLE

Zeisler [née Blumenfeld], Fannie

(b Bielitz, 16 July 1863; d Chicago, 20 Aug 1927). American pianist of Austrian origin. She was taken to the USA in 1868 by her parents, who settled in Chicago, adopting the name of Bloomfield. She studied there under Bernhard Ziehn and Carl Wolfsohn, and in 1878 went to Vienna, where she studied with Leschetizky for five years. She returned to the USA in 1883 and at once made a name as a pianist. In 1893 and 1894 she made concert tours in Germany. In 1898 she appeared in London and at the Lower Rhine Music Festival at Cologne; she made European tours in subsequent years. She married Siegmund Zeisler, a Chicago lawyer, in 1885. She was a cousin of the pianist Moriz Rosenthal. Her style was one of individuality, fiery intensity and incisiveness. Critics noted particularly the beauty and power of her tone and the clarity and polish of her passage work. She had a special interest in promoting the works of female composers, and published a paper called ‘Women in Music’ in the Music Teachers National Association Official Report … 1890.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveA (D.W. Krummel)

W.S.B. Mathews: ‘A Great Pianist at Home’, Music [Chicago], ix (1895–6)

N. Bergenfeld: ‘Piano Mastery: Profiles of Twentieth-Century Artist-Teachers’, Piano Quarterly, lxxv (1971), 12–17

RICHARD ALDRICH

Zeitlin, Zvi

(b Dubrovnik, 21 Feb 1922). American violinist of Russian origin. After studying at the Hebrew University, Jerusalem, his principal violin training was at the Juilliard School, New York, under Sascha Jacobson, Louis Persinger and Ivan Galamian. He made his début with the Palestine Orchestra in 1940, and first performed in New York in 1951, and in London (Wigmore Hall) in 1961. The same year he made débuts in Vienna, Milan, Stockholm and Amsterdam. As well as playing the standard repertory, he was specially involved with contemporary music and gave first performances of concertos written for him by Paul Ben-Haim (1962), Sverre Jordan (1965) and Carlos Surinach (1982) and other works by Jacob Druckman, Robert Starer, Ben-Zion Orgad, Samuel Adler and Verne Reynolds. He was one of the few violinists of his generation to have Schoenberg’s concerto in his repertory, and brilliantly mastered its musical and technical difficulties; he gave its first performances in South America (1961) and Israel (1970) and recorded it in 1971 with Kubelík conducting, a performance that reflects intensity of expression more than tonal variety or accuracy of intonation. His other recordings include music by American composers and the complete works for violin and piano by Stravinsky. He joined the faculty of the Eastman School of Music, Rochester, in 1967, and in 1974 became the first holder of the Kilbourn Professorship there. Between 1976 and 1982 he was a member of the Eastman Trio, with whom he recorded works by Schubert, Tchaikovsky, Glinka, Arensky and Rachmaninoff. His research areas include Hebrew biblical cantillation, and he has discovered six concertos by Pietro Nardini (1722–93), one of which he has edited for publication. Zeitlin played a Guarneri violin, the ‘Count Doria’ (1734).

MICHAEL STEINBERG/R

Zeitoper

(Ger.: ‘opera of the times’).

Term for a type of opera current in Germany especially during the 1920s and 30s, dealing with issues ‘of the times’, usually socio-political ones. It is applied to such works as Krenek’s Jonny spielt auf (first performed in 1927), which deals with the claims of pleasure-seeking as opposed to intellectual pursuits, Hindemith’s Neues vom Tage (1929), a satire on social behaviour, and Weill’s Die Bürgschaft (1932), a wide-ranging commentary on current civilization and its values.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Knessl: ‘Das dunkle Wasser: Krenek zwischen “Jonny” und Zeitfragen’, NZM, Jg.125 (1964), 553–4

S.C. Cook: Opera for a New Republic: the Zeitopern of Krenek, Weill, and Hindemith (Ann Arbor, 1988)

Zekert, Josef.

See Seger, Josef.

Zelenka, István

(b Budapest, 30 July 1936). Swiss composer of Hungarian birth. He studied at the Liszt Academy of Music and, after emigrating to Austria in 1956, at the Vienna Music Academy. In 1962 he settled in Switzerland where he held the posts of sound engineer, manager and producer for Radio Romande; he has also taught at the Geneva Conservatoire. As a composer, Zelenka has combined the serial influences evident in his early works with electro-acoustic techniques and Cagean indetermination. From the 1960s onwards, his compositions, often featuring critical or ironic titles, are characterized by an abandonment of traditional formal structures. Rather than mirroring the linearity of narrative, his works integrate a multitude of gestural signs, inviting comparisons with music drama. In his later works a reflection on context, both musical and extra-musical, plays an increasingly important role; his ‘philophonique’ compositions, performed in an urban area over several days, weave networks of sonorous and visual correspondences between the performers and their environment. Many scores are notated graphically, include chronometric indications, or superimpose autonomous modular compositions.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Ein Zwischenspiel (chbr op), 1960

Inst: Trio, vn, hn, pf, 1958; Gué, hp, hpd, gui, chbr orch, 1966; Dictionnaire, orch, 1967; Prétexte II, va, trbn, gui, elec org, 1969; A propos FAFNER, orch, 1971; Progression/Regression?, vc, pf, 1979; Médaille, pile et face, orch, 1984; Insulaire, vc, pf, perc, 1986; musique nécessaire/musique possible?, pf, 1989; gerüst, pf, 1990; The Trumpet Shall Sound, vc, 1990; cependant l'OZONE, par exemple, pf, 1991; The Skinscrapers Testimony, perc, 1995; weder/doch -sogar- Konzept für!, 1–3 insts, 1995

Vocal: Requiem pro viventibus, S, str trio, 1957; Union libre 1977, female v, fl, vc, pf, 1977; Glock, Glück ist?, spkr, mixed chorus, cl, 1978; AIR(E)S, 1v, cl, trbn, vc, pf, perc, 1987; jäh+, spkr, chorus, org, 1994

El-ac and other works: Dove, dove, signore, signori, 1v + actor, pic + actor, cl + actor, trbn + actor, pf + actor, tape, 1971; Un peu de SALADE encore, monseigneur?, Mez, hn, pf, perc, tape, 1982; Parking Music, 3 cars, tape recs, loudspeakers, 1984; Phontaine, installation, 1984; Jeune et bronzé, fl, gui, tape rec, 1987; Mais où êtes-vous passé, mon CHou?, spkr, trbn, tape rec, 1987; … sind wir nich immer verpflichtet … , accdn, tape rec, 1988; Etat de siège(s), vn, 5 tape recs, 1989; Musique piétonne, 1989; KUKUKUPOPOL, 1993; warumweltfreundlich erregt, 1995; Wer ist der Verantwortliche? Werwird verantworlich gemacht? Wer nimmt die Verantwortung auf sich?, 1995; ein laden/einladen, 1996; exercice/extasis, 1996; observateur? complice, 1997; phon mir aus: ein – 1 Modell, 1997; Quer – eine WerkStadt in 3 Phasen, 1997

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Zimmerlin and I. Zelenka: ‘Vorschläge für einen Dialog mit dem Lebensraum’, Dissonanz, no.49 (1996), 23–6

VINCENT BARRAS

Zelenka, Jan (Lukáš Ignatius) Dismas

(b Louňovice pod Blaníkem, bap. 16 Oct 1679; d Dresden, 22/23 Dec 1745). Czech composer.

JANICE B. STOCKIGT

1. Life.

Zelenka's first teacher was probably his father, Jiří, cantor and organist of the parish church of Louňovice, a village south-east of Prague. Music for a school drama of 1704 performed at the Jesuit College of St Mikulás in the Lesser Town, Prague, is Zelenka's earliest known composition (zwv245, music lost). Further works composed for the Jesuit Collegium Clementinum in Prague have led to the supposition that he received a Jesuit education in that city. In 1709 he was attached to the Prague household of a member of the von Hartig family, possibly Jan Hubert. Zelenka moved to Dresden about 1710–11 as a violone player in the Hofkapelle. His starting salary of 300 thaler rose to 400 in 1714, and remained at that level for the next 18 years. Zelenka attributed this increase to a performance of his Missa Sanctae Caeciliae (zwv1), given in 1711 in the new Catholic Hofkirche. This church, open to the public, was established following the conversion in 1697 of the Saxon elector, Friedrich August I, who became King of Poland in that same year. From 1710 the chaplains there were administered by the Jesuit province of Bohemia. Young Bohemian musicians provided the usual liturgical music; royal musicians performed on high feast days and state occasions.

The years 1716–19 represent a period of study and travel for Zelenka, although details remain unclear. Accounts of a visit to Naples (Rochlitz) and study in Venice with Lotti (FürstenauG) have not been confirmed, but a Saxon court document dated 26 November 1715 ordered 1200 thaler for the journey to Italy of four Dresden musicians, Christian Petzold, Johann Georg Pisendel, ‘Selencka’ and J.C. Richter. Although Zelenka had asked the king for the opportunity to spend a year of study in Italy and France (1712), it was in Vienna that he received instruction from the imperial Kapellmeister J.J. Fux. Various works (zwv149, 166, 183 and 185) and sections of the Collectaneorum musicorum libri quatuor (D-Dlb Mus. 1-B-98) are dated from Vienna between 1717 and February 1719. In later petitions Zelenka wrote that there, by royal command, he had served the electoral prince for 18 months. By Carnival 1719 he had returned to Dresden.

Following the closure of the Dresden opera in 1720, musical attention turned to the royal chapel, where the Kapellmeister J.D. Heinichen, G.A. Ristori (director of the Polish Chapel and the Comici Italiani) and Zelenka began to compose, collect and arrange music for its use. The support and patronage of the electoral prince and his Habsburg consort, Maria Josepha, led to a vigorous promotion of Catholic liturgical music in Dresden. Major compositions from the beginning of this era include Zelenka's celebrated set of six sonatas (zwv181) and works for Holy Week (zwv53 and 55–6). In 1721–2 Zelenka visited Prague, and in 1723 the Collegium Clementinum commissioned him to compose and direct his Melodrama de Sancto Wenceslao (zwv175) for the Prague celebrations marking the coronation of Charles VI and Elizabeth Christine as King and Queen of Bohemia. An account in the Literae annuae Collegii Societatis IESU Pragae ad S. Clementem ad annum 1723 confirms the enormous success of the performance, given on 12 September 1723 in the presence of the imperial couple: it even reports that some noble spectators expressed a preference for Zelenka's melodrama over Fux's opera Costanza e Fortezza for these celebrations. Zelenka's instrumental compositions dated ‘Praga, 1723’ were probably intended for events during the coronation festivities.

Early in 1726 Zelenka began to compile an inventory of his compositions and collected works, Inventarium rerum musicarum ecclesiae servientium (D-Dlb Bibl. Arch. III Hb 787^d). Despite his vast output of sacred vocal music in the second half of the 1720s, he continued to be paid as a middle-ranking instrumentalist, although in a formal document of 1729 he styled himself ‘Compositore di S: M: Re di Polonia’. Following Heinichen's death in July 1729, Zelenka assumed most of the musical responsibilities for the Dresden royal chapel. Not surprisingly, he expected to succeed Heinichen as Kapellmeister, but his hopes were dashed by the increasing desire of the electoral princes for the re-establishment of opera. Throughout the 1720s Italian singers had been employed in Dresden and a new, specially trained group arrived in 1730, followed in 1731 by Hasse. From this time Zelenka's compositional activity significantly decreased. Hints of illness and a long court case are provided in an undated draft of an appeal to Maria Josepha. After the death in February 1733 of Friedrich August I, for whose Dresden exequies he composed the music (zwv46–7), Zelenka presented his successor, Friedrich August II, with a petition (dated 18 November 1733) requesting the position of Kapellmeister. He also sought reimbursement for his earlier Viennese expenses, copying costs, and a salary supplement he believed should have been paid to him following Heinichen's death. Eight Italian arias dated October 1733 (zwv176) were probably intended to support the petition by demonstrating his potential for secular vocal composition. Notwithstanding these efforts, it was Hasse who, in 1733, formally received the coveted title.

In the years that followed, frequent visits of the court to Poland and Hubertusburg led to the loss of sustained royal patronage for the music of the Dresden Catholic chapel, and to a lack of co-operation by certain members of the Hofkapelle in the performance of liturgical music. The Saxon Hof- und Staats-Calender listed Zelenka as ‘Contra Basso & Compositeur’ (1732), ‘Compositeur’ (1731–2) and, from 1735 until his death, ‘Kirchen Composit[eur]’. In 1736 his annual salary rose to 800 thaler, the result of a further petition. Zelenka died of edema (‘Wassersucht’) during the night of 22–3 December 1745 and was buried on 24 December in the Catholic cemetery in Dresden. Fürstenau reported that contemporaries regarded Zelenka as ‘a reserved, bigoted Catholic, but also a respectable, quiet, unassuming man, deserving of the greatest respect’. From Zelenka's unkown beneficiaries (he was unmarried), Maria Josepha purchased his compositions and musical estate, thus preserving these treasures for Dresden. Among his composition students were J.J. Quantz, J.G. Harrer and Johann Georg Röllig.

Zelenka, Jan Dismas

2. Works.

Compared with that of many of his contemporaries, Zelenka's musical output was not large. His greatest works were composed in the early 1720s and during his final years (especially the masses beginning with zwv17 and the litanies zwv151–3). Yet the most prolific years were those of the second half of the 1720s, and this has led to Reich's observation that Zelenka's creative curve did not coincide with the curve of productivity (Horn and Kohlhase, 1989, pp.280–81). His musical idiom is highly original, and his liturgical works show a concern for the rich musical expression of texts. This, combined with contrapuntal mastery, elicited the admiration of Zelenka's contemporaries (Bach, Telemann, Pisendel, Mattheson and Mizler), and later commentators (Gerbert, Rochlitz and Fürstenau). In large- and small-scale psalm compositions the structural features of refrain and ostinato, the use of cantus firmi and recurring musical-rhetorical figures may all be traced back to practices of the Monteverdi era. Many of the psalm settings conclude with remarkable double fugues; others demonstrate Zelenka's concern with large-scale cyclic form. The final masses and litanies, powerful expressions of Zelenka's spirituality, are especially notable as examples of monumental ‘number’ works, comprising great choral movements with powerful ritornellos, arias in the galant style and a cappella choruses in an archaic style. Extraordinary rhythmic invention (elements of which may be derived from Bohemian folk music) is characterized by asymmetrical groupings of bars, frequent use of triplets, concern with rhythmic proportions, patterns, and recurring rhythmic phrases. Harmonic motifs and sequences abound. Repeated shifts between parallel major and minor tonalities, chromaticisms emanating from the use of the passus duriusculus and concentrated harmonic progressions with amassings of suspensions (reminiscent of Lotti) frequently appear. A symbolic and programmatic background to the six sonatas (zwv181) has been sought in analytical studies (Reich, 1987).

As well as being influenced by Fux, Zelenka was alert to contemporary developments in French and Italian music, and this is especially evident in the capriccios composed in Vienna about 1717–18 (zwv182–5). A quirky humour is sometimes displayed, especially in certain movements of the capriccios, with their high horn parts. From the late 1720s characteristics of the galant style are increasingly apparent and, beginning in the early 1730s, the influence of Hasse is discernible (Horn, 1996/7, p.151).

The autograph scores indicate that most liturgical works require four vocal soloists, four-part choir, strings (the tenor viola disappeared from Zelenka's scores in the mid- to late 1720s), ripieno oboes (occasionally ‘con sordini’) and basso continuo. Flutes are frequently employed, recorders are used for pastoral Christmas music (zwv8, 171 and 172) and the chalumeau often has an obbligato role. Trumpets and timpani are joined by a pair of horns in certain festive masses and trombones appear in requiem music. Zelenka's imaginative orchestration is especially evident in Gesù al Calvario (zwv62), where the concerted obbligato woodwind writing in one aria (no.20) anticipates orchestration practices of the Classical era.

Some of Zelenka's liturgical compositions were listed in the Breitkopf catalogues of 1761, 1764 and 1769. Others were held by the Concert of Ancient Music in London (zwv107), G.J.D. Poelchau (zwv8, 11 and 55), R.G. Kiesewetter (zwv55), Otto Jahn (zwv11), St Michael's College, Tenbury (zwv7 and 16) and the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, Vienna (zwv16, 19, 21 and 46). The rich collection of Zelenka sources in the Czech Republic bears testimony to a continuous interest in, and performance of, his music in his homeland. Zelenka himself possessed copies of numerous works by older polyphonic masters as well as works by Bohemian, Austrian and Italian contemporaries and near contemporaries. His adaptations of liturgical works by Palestrina and sections from Frescobaldi's Fiori musicali (1635) reflect the organization and performing practices of the distinguished Dresden orchestra, and his reworkings of settings (held in his collection) by other composers often heightens dramatic relationships between text and music; this is especially true of his reworkings of psalm settings.

Zelenka, Jan Dismas

WORKS

autograph, in D-Dlb, unless other source information given

numbering is from the Zelenka Werke Verzeichnis (ZWV, after Reich) in Horn and Kohlhase (1989)

masses

for S, A, T, B, SATB and instruments unless otherwise stated

1, Sanctae Caeciliae (G), 1711, rev. c1712–28; 2, Judica me (frags.), 1714, rev. c1720–23 (see 30); 3, Corporis Domini (without Gl) (C), c1719; 4, Sancti Spiritus (D), 1723/c1729; 5, Spei (C), 1724, missing (formerly D-Dlb*); 6, Fidei (Ky, Gl) (C), S, A, B, SATB, insts, 1725; 7, Paschalis (D), 1726/c1732; 8, Nativitatis Domini (D), 1726, CZ-Pu, D-Bsb, Dlb* (Ky, Gl, Cr); 9, Corporis Dominici (D), c1727, CZ-KR (as S Antonii de Padua), D-Bsb; 10, Charitatis (D), c1727; 11, Circumcisionis D.N.J.C. (D), 1728, ed. R. Rüegge (Adliswil-Lottstetten, 1983); 12, Divi Xaverii (without Cr) (D), 1729; 13, Gratias agimus tibi (D), S, S, A, A, T, B, SATB, insts, 1730, ed. T. Kohlhase (Stuttgart, 1983); 14, Sancti Josephi (without Cr) (D), c1732; 15, Eucharistica (Ky, Gl) (D), 1733; 16, Purificationis (D), S, S, A, T, B, SATB, insts, 1733, Dlb (partly autograph); 17, SS Trinitatis (a), 1736, ed. in EDM, 1st ser., ciii (1987); 18, Votiva (e), 1739, ed. in EDM, 1st ser., cviii (1995); 19, Dei Patris (C), 1740, ed. in EDM, 1st ser., xciii (1985); 20, Dei Filii (Ky, Gl) (C), c1740, ed. in EDM, 1st ser., c (1989); 21, Omnium sanctorum (a), 1741, ed. in EDM, 1st ser., ci (1989)

Mass movements: 26, Ky, San, Ag (d), SATB, insts, 1722/c1724; 27, Ky (a), S, SATB, insts, 1725; 28, Ky (d), missing (formerly Dlb*); 29, Christe eleison (e), A, insts, c1740, ed. T. Kohlhase (Stuttgart, 1981); 30, Gl (F), 1724 (reworking of 2); 31, Cr (for Caldara's Missa Providentiae) (d), SATB, insts, c1728; 32, Cr (F), SATB, SATB, insts, c1724; 33, Cr (g), SATB, insts, c1725, CZ-Pnm; 34, San, Ag (g), SAATB, bc, c1728; 35, San (a), SATB, insts, 1725; 36, San (d), SSATTB, bc, c1728; 37, Ag (C), B, SATB, insts, c1724; 38, Ag (G), S, SATB, insts, 1725; 39, Ag (g), missing (formerly D-Dlb*)

other large sacred vocal

for S, A, T, B, SATB and instruments unless otherwise stated

Offices for the dead: 45, Requiem (c), CZ-Pnm; 46, Requiem for Elector Friedrich August I (D), 1733; 47, Invitatorium, 3 lectiones, 9 responsoria for Elector Friedrich August I, 1733, nos.3, 5, 7 ed. T. Kohlhase (Stuttgart, 1983); 48, Requiem (d), for anniversary of Joseph I, c1730–32, SK-MO; 49, Requiem (int, seq) (F), before 1730, CZ-Pnm; 50, De profundis (d), A, T, B, B, B, SATB, insts, 1724, ed. in MAB, II/v (1971), ed. W. Horn (Stuttgart, 1980)

Music for Holy Week: 53, [6] Lamentationes Jeremiae prophetae pro hebdomada sancta (c, F, Bf, g, A, F), A, T, B, insts, 1722, ed. in MAB, II/iv (1969), ed. T. Kohlhase (Stuttgart, 1987); 54, [3] Lamentationes Jeremiae prophetae pro hebdomada sancta (Bf, F, F), A, T, B, bc, 1723; 55, [27] Responsoria pro hebdomada sancta, 1723, ed. T. Kohlhase and W. Horn (Stuttgart, 1995); 56, Miserere (d), S, T, B, SATB, insts, 1722; 57, Miserere (c), S, SATB, insts, 1738, ed. in EDM, 1st ser., cviii (1995); 58, Immisit Dominus pestilentiam, 1709; 59, Attendite et videte, S, A, T, B, SAATTBB, insts, 1712; 60, Deus dux fortissime, S, A, T, B, SATB, SATB, insts, 1716; 61, Il serpente di bronzo (cantata sacra, S. Pallavicini), S, A, A, T, B, SATB, SATB, insts, 1730; 62, Gesù al Calvario (componimento sacro, M. Boccardi), S, S, A, A, A, SATB, insts, 1735, ed. H.-J. Irmen (Vaduz, 1980); 63, I penitenti al sepolcro del Redentore (orat, Pallavicini), A, T, B, SATB, insts, 1736; 206, Benedictus Dominus (g), ed. J. Vojtěšková and T. Kohlhase (Stuttgart, 1991)

Psalms: 66, Dixit Dominus (a), c1725; 67, Dixit Dominus (D), c1728; 68, Dixit Dominus (D), 1726, ed. M. Hutzel (Stuttgart, 1984); 69, Dixit Dominus (F), c1728, missing (formerly D-Dlb*); 70, Confitebor tibi Domine (a), c1727–8; 71, Confitebor tibi Domine (c), B, insts, 1729, ed. V. Kalisch (Stuttgart, 1981); 72, Confitebor tibi Domine (e), 1725, ed. in MAB, II/v (1971); 73, Confitebor tibi Domine (e), c1728–9; 74, Confitebor tibi Domine (G), missing (formerly Dlb*); 75, Beatus vir (a), A, SATB, insts, 1725, ed. in MAB, II/v (1971); 76, Beatus vir (C), S, T, B, SATB, insts, 1726, ed. V. Kalisch (Stuttgart, 1983); 77, Beatus vir (d), missing (formerly Dlb*); 78, Laudate pueri (A), missing (formerly Dlb*); 79, Laudate pueri (a), missing (formerly Dlb*); 80, Laudate pueri (A), missing (formerly Dlb*); 81, Laudate pueri (D), T/S, insts, c1729, ed. V. Kalisch (Stuttgart, 1981), ed. W. Reich (Merseburg, 1982); 82, Laudate pueri (F), B, SSA, insts, c1725, ed. V. Kalisch (Stuttgart, 1982)

83, In exitu Israel (d), c1725, ed. in MAB, II/v (1971); 84, In exitu Israel (g), SATB, insts, c1727–8, ed. W. Horn (Stuttgart, 1983); 85, Credidi (a), c1727–8, ed. V. Bělský (Prague, 1990); 86, Laudate Dominum (F), missing (formerly Dlb*); 87, Laudate Dominum (F), T, SATTB, insts, c1728, ed. V. Bělský (Prague, 1990); 88, Laetatus sum (D), S, A, SATB, insts, c1726; 89, Laetatus sum (D), missing (formerly Dlb*); 90, Laetatus sum (A), S, A, insts, c1730 or later, CZ-Pak; 91, In convertendo (g), S, A, T, SATB, insts, c1728, ed. V. Bělský (Prague, 1990); 92, Nisi Dominus (a), c1726; 93, Nisi Dominus (a), missing (formerly D-Dlb*); 94, Beati omnes (g), S, A, T, SATB, insts, c1728; 95, De profundis (a), 1728; 96, De profundis (c), T, B, SATB, insts, c1727, ed. V. Bělský (Prague, 1990); 97, De profundis (d), c1725 (rev. of zwv50), ed. in MAB, II/v (1971), ed. W. Horn (Stuttgart, 1980); 98, Memento Domine David (Ef), c1728; 99, Ecce nunc benedicite (a), c1739; 100, Confitebor (Bf), c1728; 101, Domine probasti me (F), c1728; 102, Lauda Jerusalem (a), T, SATB, insts, c1728; 103, Lauda Jerusalem (d), missing (formerly Dlb*); 104, Lauda Jerusalem (F), T, SATB, insts, 1727

Magnificat settings: 106 (a), missing (formerly Dlb*); 107 (C), S, SATB, insts, c1727, ed. T. Kohlhase (Stuttgart, 1984); 108 (D), S, A, SATB, insts, 1725, ed. in MAB, II/v (1971), ed. W. Horn (Stuttgart, 1985)

Hymns: 110, Ave maris stella (inc.) (d), S, A, SATB, bc, c1726 or later; 111, Creator alme siderum (d), S, A, SATB, insts, 1725; 112, Crudelis Herodes (g), SATB, bc, 1732; 113, Deus tuorum militum (C), SATB, bc, c1729 or later; 114, Exsultet orbis gaudiis (D), SATB, bc, c1730; 115, Jam sol recessit (d), SATB, bc, c1726; 116, Jesu corona Virginum (d), SATB, bc, c1729 or later; 117, Iste confessor (a), SATB, bc, c1729 or later; 118, Ut queant laxis (a), SATB, insts, c1726–7; 119, Veni creator Spiritus (a), SATB, bc, c1726–7; 120, Veni creator Spiritus (C), SATB, bc, c1729 or later

Marian antiphons: 123, Alma Redemptoris mater (A), S, insts, c1727–8; 124, Alma Redemptoris mater (a), SATB, insts, c1725–6; 125, Alma Redemptoris mater (a), SATB, insts, c1729; 126, Alma Redemptoris mater (D), A, insts, 1730; 127, Alma Redemptoris mater (d), S, A, insts, c1729; 128, [6] Ave regina (a, d, C, g, G, a), SATB (with S, T, B in no.6), insts, 1737, no.4. ed. T. Kohlhase (Stuttgart, 1983); 129, [3] Regina coeli (C, a, C), SATB, insts, after 1728; 130, Regina coeli (A), S, S, SSATB, insts, 1729; 131, Regina coeli (A), missing (formerly D-Dlb*); 132, Regina coeli (C), missing (formerly Dlb*); 133, Regina coeli (D) (inc.), c1731; 134, Regina coeli (F), S, S, A, insts, c1726–7; 135, Salve regina (a), S, insts, 1730 (see 204); 136, Salve regina (a), SATB, insts, c1727; 137, Salve regina (a), SATB, insts, Bsb; 138, [2] Salve regina (C, D), missing (formerly Dlb*); 139, Salve regina (d), B, insts, 1724; 140, Salve regina (g), SATB, insts, c1725–6; 141, Salve regina (g), SATB, insts, Bsb, PL-Wu

Te Deum: 145 (D), S, S, A, T, B, SSATB, insts, c1724, ed. T. Kohlhase (Stuttgart, 1986); 146 (D), S, S, A, T, B, SATB, SATB, insts, 1731

Litanies: 147, De venerabili sacramento (C), 1727; 148, De venerabili sacramento (D), 1729; 149, Lauretanae (C), 1718; 150, Lauretanae (G), SATB, 1725; 151, Lauretanae (G), S, SATB, insts, 1744, ed. in EDM, 1st ser., c (1989); 152, Lauretanae (F), S, A, T, SATB, insts, 1741/4, CZ-KR, D-Dlb* (inc.), I-Mc, ed. in EDM, 1st ser., ci (1989); 153, Omnium sanctorum (a), after 1730, CZ-Pk, Pnm; 154, Xaverianae (D), S, A, T, B, B, B, SATB, insts, 1723; 155, Xaverianae (c), 1727; 156, De S Xaverio (F), 1729

Processionals: 157, [10] Sub tuum praesidium (g, c, d, d, e, F, g, G, d, g), SATB, bc, c1729–34, D-Bsb*; nos.1–3 ed. T. Kohlhase (Stuttgart, 1984); 158, no.1 of Statio quadruplex pro processione Theophorica (Bf), SATB, bc, before 1710; 159, Pange lingua ‘pro stationibus Theophorica’ (c), missing (formerly Dlb*)

small sacred vocal

161, Angelus Domini descendit (A), off, T, SSATB, insts, 1723/5; 163, [4] Asperges me (F, F, G, G (inc.)), SATB, bc, c1725, no.1 ed. T. Kohlhase (Stuttgart, 1983); 164, Barbara dira effera (F), motet, A, insts, c1733; 165, Chvalte Boha silného (G), B, insts, CZ-Pnm, ed. J. Smolka (Prague, 1990); 166, Currite ad aras (C), off, T, insts, 1716; 167, Da pacem Domine (BF), SATB, SATB, insts, c1740, ed. V. Bělský (Prague, 1990); 168, Gaude laetare (A), motet, T, insts, 1731; 169, Haec dies (C), hymn, SATB, insts, c1730, ed. J.E. Floreen (Stuttgart, 1987); 170, Haec dies (F), hymn, SATB, insts, c1726; 171, O magnum mysterium (E), motet, A, insts, 1723/c1728, ed. S. McAdoo (New Jersey, 1997); 172, Proh! Quos criminis in clementia (F), motet, T, insts, 1723/c1726; 233, Eja triumphos pangite (C), off, SATB, insts, 1715, ed. in Kohlhase (1993)

secular vocal

175, Sub olea pacis (melodrama de S Wenceslao, M. Zill), 1723, ed. in MAB, II/xii (1987); 176, 8 Italian arias, 1733; 177, Questa che il sol produsse, serenata (S. Pallavicini), S, S, S, S, A, SATB, insts, 1737; 178, Emit amor, 2 canons, c1723, ed. in Horn and Kohlhase (1989); 179, Vide Domine, cantilena circularis, pubd as Canon mit 14 Vorkehrungen in G.P. Telemann: Der getreue Music-Meister (Hamburg, 1728), ed. in Horn and Kohlhase (1989); 245, Via laureta (school drama), music lost, lib pubd (Prague, 1704); 211, Qui nihil sortis (BF), motet, c1730, D-Dlb

instrumental

181, [6] sonatas (F, g, Bf, g, F, c), 2 ob (vn, ob in no.3), bn, bc, c1721–2, ed. C. Schoenbaum (Kassel, 1955–65), ed. W. Horn and W. Reich (Kassel, 1992–6); 182–5, 190 [5] capriccios, D (c1717), G (1718), F (c1718), A (1718), G (1729), 2 hn, 2 ob, bn, 2 vn, va, bc, all ed. in MAB, I/lxi (1963); 186, Conc. a 8 (G), ob, bn, 2 vn, va, vc, bc, 1723, ed. C. Schoenbaum (Vienna, 1960); 187, Hiponcondrie a 7 (A), 2 ob, bn, 2 vn, va, bc, 1723, ed. in MAB, I/lxi (1963); 188, Ouverture a 7 (F), 2 ob, bn, 2 vn, va, bc, 1723, ed. C. Schoenbaum (Vienna, 1960); 189, Simphonie a 8 (a), 2 ob, bn, 2 vn, va, bc, 1723, ed. in MAB, I/lxi (1963); 191, [9] canons on the hexachord, c1721, ed. in Horn and Kohlhase (1989)

doubtful works

lost unless otherwise indicated

for details see Horn and Kohlhase (1989) and Horn (1994)

Masses: 22, S Blasii (C), CZ-Pnm; 23, mass (D), SK-MO, CZ-Pu; ZWVdeest, In honorem B. Alberti Magni (D), PL-Pa; mass (D), Pa; 200, mass (C), CZ-Bm; 213, mass (D) (Ky, Gl), based on movts by D.N. Sarri, D-Dlb; 214, mass (D), based on setting by C. Baliani, Dlb; 215, mass (g), based on setting by F.B. Conti; 240, S Conservationis (formerly in CZ-Pak); 242, Tranquilli animi (formerly in Pak); 247, Requiem, 1724

Mass sections: 201, Cr (D), A-Wn; 202, San, Ag (G), c1725, ed. T. Kohlhase (Stuttgart, 1983); 216, Cr (D), D-Dlb; 237, 2 Ky, 2 Cr (cited in inventory of Zerbst castle, 1743)

Sacred vocal listed in Zelenka's Inventarium: 230, Ag (a); 231, Animae poenitentis (c), aria; 232, Ave regina (a); 234, Gaudia mille (C), motet; 236, Iste confessore (C), hymn; 241, Missa Theophorica; 243, Quid [hic] statis, motet; 244, Tantum ergo (c)

Other sacred vocal: 203, Lamentationes Jeremiae prophetae, D-Dlb (partly autograph); 204, Salve regina (a), c1719, Dlb* (rev. as 135); 205, Salve regina (F) (formerly in Dlb); 162, 2 arias, O sponsa amata, Lauda Sion salvatorem, both CZ-Bm (attrib. Zechner and Zelenka); 207, Benedictus sit Deus Pater (D), ed. T. Kohlhase (Stuttgart, 1982); 208, Propter veritatem (F), grad, A-Wgm; 209, Sollicitus fossor (D), motet, c1730, D-Dlb; 210, Veni Sanctus Spiritus (D), 1739, Dlb; 217, Salve regina duplex (by G. Zeiler); 218, Salve regina (d) (by A. Reichenauer); 219, Salve regina (by J.V. Rathgeber); 220, 18 Cantiones sacrae (by G.P. da Palestrina); 221, O sing unto the Lord, anthem, GB-Ob (from 7)

Instrumental: 212, 6 trumpet fanfares (C), c1722, ed. J. Burghauser (Prague, 1961), ed. K. Janetzky (Leipzig, 1962), ed. C. Blümel (Leverkusen, 1985); 246, 5 concs., 1723

Zelenka, Jan Dismas

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FürstenauG

Grove6 (C. Schoenbaum)

MGG1 (H. Unverricht)

F. Rochlitz: Für Freunde der Tonkunst, ii (Leipzig, 1830), iv (Leipzig, 1832)

E. Trolda: ‘O skladbách J.D. Zelenkových’ [Zelenka's compositions], Cyril, lv (1929), 17 only, 30–32, 48–9, 64–6, 75 only, 78–80

N. Schulz: Johann Dismas Zelenka (diss., U. of Berlin, 1944)

G.H. Hausswald: ‘Johann Dismas Zelenka als Instrumentalkomponist’, AMw, xiii (1956), 243–6, lvi (1930), 5–7, 21–3, 46–7, 64 only, 77–8; lvii (1931), 12–14, 41–3, 59–61, 80–83, 97 only; lviii (1932), 7–10, 39–46, 68–78

C. Schoenbaum: ‘Die Kammermusikwerke des Jan Dismas Zelenkas’, Musikwissenschaftlicher Kongress: Vienna 1956, 552–62

T. Kohlhase: ‘Ad Majorem Dei Gloriam: Anmerkungen zu Zelenkas Kirchenmusik’, SMz, cxx (1980), 284–97

S. Oschmann: Jan Dismas Zelenka: seine geistlichen italienischen Oratorien (Mainz, 1986)

W. Horn: Die Dresdner Hofkirchenmusik 1720–1745: Studien zu ihren Voraussetzungen und ihrem Repertoire (Kassel and Stuttgart, 1987)

W. Reich: Zwei Zelenka-Studien (Dresden, 1987)

W. Horn and T. Kohlhase, eds.: Zelenka-Dokumentation: Quellen und Materialien (Wiesbaden, 1989)

Zelenka-Studien I: Marburg 1991

T. Kohlhase: ‘Der Dresdener Hofkirchenkomponist Jan Dismas Zelenka: ein Forschungsbericht’, Musik des Ostens, xii (1992), 115–212

T. Kohlhase: ‘Echtheitsfragen aus quellenkritischer Sicht: Anmerkungen zu zwei Kompositionen Zelenkas, die Bearbeitungen fremder Werke sein könnten’, Festschrift Hubert Unverricht, ed. K. Schlager (Tutzing, 1992), 125–36

J. Stockigt and J. Vojtěšková: ‘Zpráva o návštěvě císaře Karla VI. s chotí v Klementinu v roce 1723’ [Information on the visit of Emperor Charles VI with his consort to the Clementinum in 1723] HV, iv (1992), 351–9

W. Horn: ‘Überlegungen zu einigen “Incerta” im Werk Jan Dismas Zelenkas, vorgetragen mit besonderer Sympathie für das Duett “Qui nihil sortis felicis videt” (ZWV 211)’, Ars musica (1994), 14–28

S. Oschmann: ‘Zur Rezeption von National- und Gattungsstilen in den Corno da caccia-Suiten von Jan Dismas Zelenka’, AMw, li (1994), 315–39

W. Reich: ‘Zelenka ante portas’, Ars musica (1994), 28–42

J.B. Stockigt: The Vespers Psalms of Jan Dismas Zelenka (1679–1745) in the Liturgy and Life of the Dresden Catholic Court Church (diss., Melbourne U., 1994)

M. Talbot: The Sacred Vocal Music of Antonio Vivaldi (Florence, 1995)

Zelenka-Studien II: Dresden and Prague 1995

W. Horn: ‘Nachahmung und Originalität. Zelenkas Studien bei Fux und die Bedeutung die “Imitatio”’, Johann Joseph Fux und seine Zeit: Hanover 1991, 137–69

W. Reich: ‘The Wind Sonatas of Jan Dismas Zelenka: Structural Devices and Semantic Implications’, A Time of Questioning, ed. D. Lasocki (Utrecht, 1998)

J. Stockigt: Jan Dismas Zelenka (1679–1745): a Bohemian Musician at the Court of Dresden (Oxford, forthcoming)

Zelenscius, Mikołaj.

See Zieleński, Mikołaj.

Żeleński, Władysław

(b Grodkowice, nr Kraków, 6 July 1837; d Kraków, 23 Jan 1921). Polish composer, conductor, pianist and teacher. He studied in Kraków with Jan Germasz (piano) and Franciszek Mirecki (harmony), then (from 1859) in Prague with Alexander Dreyschock (piano) and Joseph Krejčí (composition). From 1866 to 1870 he studied composition in Paris with Henri Reber and Berthold Demcke. He had earlier studied philosophy at the University of Kraków and in 1862 received the PhD from the University of Prague. In 1871 he returned to Poland. He was appointed professor of harmony and counterpoint at the Warsaw Music Institute (1872–8) and became director of the Warsaw Music Society (1878). In 1881 he moved to Kraków, where he was initially a teacher of theory at the music school. In 1888 he helped to establish the conservatory of the music society in Kraków, and became its director. He also conducted symphony concerts and wrote articles for the Kraków journal Czas.

Żeleński is considered the most significant 19th-century Polish opera composer after Moniuszko. There are obvious influences from French grand opera, such as the inclusion of grandiloquent choral sections and ballet numbers in Konrad Wallenrod; from the Polish operatic tradition, especially Moniuszko (folklore elements and lyrical solo parts); and from Wagner, in the harmony, the blurring of divisions between scenes and the use of leitmotifs, and in the dominant role of the orchestra in Stara baśń (‘Old Fable’). His songs also have a lyrical quality. They are mainly on Polish texts (including Mickiewicz and Krasiński) and occupy an important position in the development of 19th-century Polish song after Moniuszko.

In general, Żeleński's compositional language is conservative, similar to that of Mendelssohn. His instrumental music is in Classical forms and shows structural symmetry combined with clearly tonal, functional harmony. The majority of Żeleński's published works are piano pieces and solo songs; the few published symphonic and vocal-instrumental works were issued mainly in piano reductions. Most of his works are lost and it is therefore difficult to establish a comprehensive list. It is also difficult to establish the number of pieces within genres, because the sources are unreliable and contradictory, often using different titles to refer to the same piece.

WORKS

stage

Konrad Wallenrod (op, 4, Z. Sarnecki and W. Noskowski, after A. Mickiewicz), Lemberg, Hrabiego Fryderyka Skarbka, 26 Feb 1885 (Kraków, 1886)

Goplana, ?1891 (op, 3, L. German, after J. Słowacki), Kraków, Miejski, 23 July 1896 (Kraków, 1896)

Janek [Johnny] (op, 2, German), Lemberg, Miejski, 4 Oct 1900, PL-Kj, vs (Kraków, 1900)

Stara baśń [Old Fable] (op, 4, A. Bandrowski-Sas, after J.I. Kraszewski), Lemberg, Miejski, 14 March 1907, Kj, vs (Kraków, 1910)

Incid. music

vocal

3 masses, chorus, orch; other sacred works

8 secular cants.; choral songs

c100 songs, 1v, pf

orchestral

2 syms.: b, 1871, perf. 1872, a, 1912, both lost, Symfonie leśne [Spring Symphony], op.41

Ovs., incl. 1 untitled, 1857, W Tatrach [In the Tatra Mountains], op.27, 1872 (Leipzig, n.d.)

Romance, vc, orch, op.40 (Leipzig, n.d.); Pf Conc., E, op.60 (Brunswick, n.d.)

Suite of Polish dances, op.47; other dance suites, krakowiaks, mazurkas, polonaises, marches

chamber

5 str qts, incl. Variations on an original theme, op.21 (Leipzig, before 1870), F, op.28, 1875 (Leipzig, n.d.), A, op.42 (Wrocław, n.d.)

Piano Quartet, op.61 (Brunswick, n.d.)

Pf trios, incl. E, op.22 (Leipzig, n.d.), Kołysanka [Lullaby], op.32 (Leipzig, n.d.)

Sonatas, vn, pf, incl. F, op.30 (Warsaw, n.d.); miniatures for vn, pf and vc, pf

keyboard

Pf: 2 sonatas: op.5 (Milan, 1859), op.20 (Leipzig, n.d.); Grand scherzo de concert, op.35 (Leipzig, n.d.); Thème varié, op.62 (Warsaw, n.d.); other works

Org: 25 Preludes, op.38 (Warsaw, n.d.)

WRITINGS

with G. Roguski: Nauka harmonii i pierwszych zasad kompozycji [The Theory of Harmony and First Principles of Composition] (Warsaw, 1877)

Nauka elementarna zasad muzyki [The Theory and Elementary Principles of Music] (n.p., 1897)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Rieger: Pieśni solowe z towarzyszeniem fortepianu W. Żeleńskiego [Żeleński's solo songs with piano accompaniment] (diss., U. of Kraków, 1938)

Z. Jachimecki: Władysław Żeleński: życie i twórczość [Life and works] (Kraków, 1959)

W. Poźniak: ‘Opera po Moniuszce’ [Opera after Moniuszko], Z dziejów polskiej kultury muzycznej, ii, ed. A. Nowak-Romanowicz and others (Kraków, 1966), 281–94

W. Poźniak: ‘Pieśń solowa po Moniuszce’ [Solo song after Moniuszko], ibid., 364–70

A. Nowak: ‘Pieśni Władysława Żeleńskiego’ [Żeleński’s songs], Krakowska szkoła kompozytorska 1888–1988: w 100–lecie Akademii Muzyczney w Krakowie (Kraków, 1992)

ZOFIA CHECHLIŃSKA

Zeljenka, Ilja

(b Bratislava, 21 Dec 1932). Slovak composer. While attending the gymnasium in Bratislava he took private lessons in harmony and counterpoint with Zimmer and studied the piano with Rudolf Macudziński. From 1951 to 1956 he studied composition with Cikker at the Bratislava Academy of Music and Dramatic Art. Appointments followed as dramaturg for the Slovak PO (1957–61) and as producer and lecturer for Czechoslovak radio in Bratislava (1961–8). In the charged political atmosphere in Slovakia during the late 1960s Zeljenka was joint chairman of the Slovak Composers’ Union; in 1972 he was expelled from the Union, and thereafter his works were rarely performed in public. During the early 1990s he was president of the Slovak Music Union and director of the Bratislava international festival of contemporary music, Melos-Ethos. From 1985 to 1996 he taught at the Academy of Music and Dramatic Art, where his pupils included Alexander Mihalič. Zeljenka’s works have been performed at prominent music festivals throughout Europe.

Encouraged by his affinity for physics, chemistry and astronomy, Zeljenka has come to regard music as a form of science. (He is also the author of prose and a gifted orator, philosopher and visual artist.) His first pieces, some of which were composed in the style of Prokofiev (e.g. Symphony no.2, 1961) or else Bartók, Honegger and Stravinsky (e.g. Piano Sonata no.1 or the Piano Quintet no.2), stemmed from improvising at the piano. In the 1960s he experimented with sound, form and pitch organization: Štuktúry and Polymetrická hudba (‘Polymetric Music’) employ serial technique (though a 12-note row of Webern’s was used in the earlier Piano Quintet no.2, 1958); Oświęcim, Metamorfózy XV, Zaklínadlá (‘Incantations’) and Hry (‘Games’) are studies in timbre, and make use of echo, spatial effects and various qualities of the voice (e.g. whispering, shouts and hoarseness); while Structures, in addition, uses aleatory devices. He also experimented with time and polyrhythms; for example, Polymetric Music (1969) for 20 string instruments is performed with the aid of purpose-made metronomes with lights, Quartet (1964) is for solo pianist and three tape-playback piano ‘voices’. The effect in many of his works relies on stage presentation and requires a great deal of acting on the part of performers. In the early 1960s Zeljenka became the first Slovak composer to write electro-acoustic music for film.

In the next decade, and as the consequence of public performances of his works being prohibited, Zeljenka turned to writing for folk ensembles; among these pieces were Vajano and Musica slovaca. Away from the public eye, however, and working in seclusion, he devised a new musical language that was cellular, based on earlier experiments and which became the basis for horizontal and vertical organization – a quarter-tone scale incorporating major and minor 2nds. This is found typically in Elégia for solo violin and strings and the Second Piano Sonata; slightly later are Musica per pianoforte ed archi (1975) and Šesť štúdií (‘Six Studies’) for organ (1976). The ensuing reduction of musical material strengthened the meditative quality of Zeljenka’s music, lending a new atmospheric and philosophical dimension. Several works from this period contain social commentary in support of his long-held views on the failings of society. The Fourth Symphony, as the ballet Hrdina (‘Hero’, 1978), for example, presents the story of a prisoner who decides to leave the safety of his prison cell even at the likely cost of losing his life. The cantata Slovo (‘The Word’, 1980), in a similar vein, criticizes the communist regime.

During the 1980s and 90s Zeljenka perfected and consolidated features of his musical language. He returned to rhythmic processes and polyrhythms in Hry pre Biancu (‘Games for Bianca’) and Hry pre jedného (‘Games for One’), while the String Quartet no.8 (1995) represents further experimentation with quarter-tones. What is new, however, is the use of traditional genres including the Mass, Passion and opera.

WORKS

(selective list)

vocal

Ops: Báthoryčka (2, P. Maťo, after J. Záborský), 1994; Posledné dni Veľkej Moravy [The Last Days of Greater Moravia] (P. Maťo and P. Smolík, after Záborský), 1996

Choral: Oświęcim (cant., M. Kováč), 2 nar, 2 chorus, orch, 1959; Hudba pre zbor a orchester [Music for Chorus and Orch], 1965; Zaklínadlá [Incantations] (Zeljenka), chorus, orch, 1967; Hry [Games], 13vv, perc, 1968; Caela Hebe, chorus, orch, 1970; Intermezza, 1972; 3 madrigaly, 1973; Spievať? [To Sing?] (cant., J. Botto), nar, chorus, orch, 1973; 3 bagately, 1975; Hry a riekanky [Games and Nursery Rhymes], 1977; Večer [Evening] (M. Válek), 1977; Hassleriana, chorus, fl, perc, 1980; Hry [Games], children’s chorus, 1980; Hudba pre madrigalistov [Music for Madrigalists] (C. Morgenstern), chorus, fl, ob, cl, bn, hn, perc, 1980; Slovo [Word] (cant., Válek), nar, chorus, orch, 1980; Lamentoso, zborohra, 1985; Pieseň mladosti [Song of Youth], chorus, tpt, timp, 1986; Vokálna poéma na Bottovu Smrť Jánošíkovu [Vocal Poem on the Death of Jánosík], chorus, tpt, timp, 1988; Chvála spevu [Eulogy of Singing], 1991; Syn človeka [The Son of Man] (Passion), chorus, chbr orch, 1993; Cantate domino, chorus, 4 hp, 1994; Fortuna, male chorus, tpt, 1994; Virtus, male chorus, tpt, 1995; Missa serena, Bar, B-Bar, chorus, chbr orch, 1995

Solo vocal: Galgenlieder (C. Morgenstern), S, fl, cl, str qt, pf, 1975; Mutácie [Mutations], S, B, vn, fl, cl, bn, hn, perc, 1979; Musik für Morgenstern, B, cl, str, 1983; Rozmar [Caprice], S, b cl, 1983; Aztécke piesne [Aztec Songs], S, pf, perc, 1986; Hry pre jedného [Games for One], 1v, fl, pf, bongos, 1992; Sourire, S, pf, perc, 1995; Aztécke piesne II, B+4 bongos, fl, vc, 1997; see instrumental [Str Qt no.6]

instrumental

Orch: Sym. no.1, 1953; Dramatická ouvertura, 1955; Karikatúra, 1956; Sym. no.2, C, str, 1961; Revolučná predohra [Revolutionary Ov.], 1962; Štuktúry, 1964; Pf Conc. no.1, 1966; Komorná hudba [Chbr Music], chbr orch, 1972; Sym. no.3, 1972; Vn Conc., str, 1974; Musica per pianoforte ed archi, 1975; Musica slovaca, str, 1975 [based on folk music from Čičmany and Dolné Vadičovo]; Sym. no.4 ‘Hrdina’ [Hero], ballet on a theme by F. Pokorný, 1978; Pf Conc. no.2, 1981; Ouvertura giocosa, 1982; Conc., cl, str, xyl, timp, 1984; Rozhovory [Dialogues], vc, str, 1984; Sym. no.5, 1984; Hudba pre Warchala [Music for Warchal], suite, str, 1987; Musik für Leipziger Kammerviolen, 4 va, db 1987; Concertino, str, cl, pf, perc, 1988; Vn Conc., 1989; Zakliaty pohyb [Magic Movement], 1989; Concertino, db, str, 1994; Conc. for Orch, 1994; Double Conc., 2 vc, str, 1994; Symfonietta giocosa, str, 1995; Concertino, pf, str, 1997

Str qts: no.1, 1963; no.2, 1976; no.3, 1979; no.4, 1986; no.5, 1988; no.6 ‘Zariekania’ [Magic Formulae] (R. Pandulová), A, str qt, 1988; no.7 ‘Pamiatke Beethovena’ [In Memory of Beethoven], 1992; no.8, 1995

Other chbr: Pf Qnt no.1, 1953; Pf Qnt no.2, vn, va, vc, cl, pf, 1958; Metamorphoses XV (Ovid), nar, ens, 1966; Polymetrická hudba [Polymetric Music], 8 vn, 4 va, 4 vc, 4 db, 1969; Pf Trio, vn, va, pf, 1975; Wind Qnt no.1, 1977; 3 skladby pre Nato Gabunija [3 Compositions for N. Gabunija], vn, pf, 1978; Husľové duetá [Violin Duets], 2 vn, 1981; Hudba, fl, pf, perc, 1985; Hudba, vc, pf, 1985; Wind Trio, fl, ob, bn, 1985; Pastorale, fl, hp, 1986; Capriccio, fl, db, 1988; Marekánia, fl, perc, 1992; Sonata, vn, pf, 1992; Sonata, bn, pf, 1993; Wind Qnt no.2, 1993; Mobíla, ob, pf, 1994; Concertino, tpt, org, 1995; Marekánia, cl, perc, 1995; Musica semplice, str qt, 1995; Quartettino semplice, 3 cl, b cl, 1995; Trio, fl, vn, vc, 1995; Flautové duetína, 2 fl, 1996

Pf: Bagatelly, 1953; Karikatúra, 1956; Sonata no.1, 1957; Qt, pf, tape playback, 1964; Sonata no.2, 1974; Sonata no.3, 1985; 5 etud, 1988; 3 Preludes and Fugues, 1989; Sonata no.4, 1989; Chvála rytmu [Eulogy to Rhythm], 1993; Toccata, 2 pf, 1994; Hallo Mr Finnissy, 1995; Aforizmy, 1997; 24 invencií, 1997

Other solo: Ligatury, org, 1972; Prelude and Fugue, vn, vc, 1973; Reliéfy, org, 1979; 3 monológy, vc, 1980; Listy priateľom [Letters to Friends], org, 1984; 3 skladby [3 Compositions], fl, 1984; 3 kusy [3 Pieces], va, 1985; Poéma, vn, 1988; Hry pre Biancu [Games for Bianca], pf + 4 bongos, 1991; Pulzácie [Pulsations], org, 1992; Toccata, org, 1992; Ostináto, org, 1993; 3 Preludes and Fugues, org, 1993; Duettina, vn, 1994; Helios-toccata, org, 1995; Hudba, org, 1995; Monodrama, vn, 1995; Polarity, vc, 1995; Hry pre Jordanku, pf+tom-tom, 1997; Kontrasty, vn, 1997

El-ac: Elektro-akustické štúdie 001, prep pf, 1962; 65 000 000 (film score, dir. M. Horňák), 1962; Slnko v sieti [The Sun in the Net] (film score, dir. Š. Uher), 1962; Voda a práca [Water and Work] (film score, M. Slivka), 1963; Každý týždeň sedem dní [7 Days a Week] (film score, E. Grečner), 1964; Polymetria II, cptr, synth, 1995; Polymetria III, cptr, synth, 1995

Other film scores; incid music

Principal publishers: Opus, Panton, Slovenský hudobný fond, Supraphon

Principal recording companies: Opus, Supraphon

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Hrušovský: Slovenská hudba v profiloch a rozboroch [Slovak music in profiles and analyses] (Bratislava, 1964)

P. Faltin: ‘Noud Lundba na Slovensky’, [New Music in Slovakia] SH, xi (1967), 340–47

J. Hatrík: ‘Konfrontácie Ilju Zeljenku’ [The confrontations of Zeljenka], Hudobný život, xv/9 (1983), 4, 8

Ľ. Chalupka: ‘Podiel strednej skladateľskej generácie na štýlovej konfrontácii slovenskej hudby v 60. rokoch’ [The contribution of the middle generation of composers to the confrontation of styles in Slovak music of the 1960s], Zrod a vývoj slovenskej národnej moderny (Bratislava, 1984), 65–75

Ľ. Chalupka: ‘Slovenská hudba 20 storočia: vývoj po roku 1945’ [Slovak music of the 20th century: development after 1945], Dejiny slovenskej hudby od najstarších čias po súčasnosť, ed. O. Elschek (Bratislava, 1996), 273–342

J. Lexmann: Slovenská filmová hudba 1986–1996 [Slovak film music 1986–96] (Bratislava, 1996)

Y. Kajanová: ‘Rozhovory s Iljom’ [Interviews with Ilja], Slovenský spisovateľ (Bratislava, 1997)

YVETTA LÁBSKA-KAJANOVÁ

Zell [Zelle], Christian

(b ?1683; bur. Hamburg, 13 April 1763). German harpsichord maker. The year of his birth is conjectured from an entry in the register of deaths and burials at the Jacobikirche in Hamburg stating that he was 79½ when he died. According to Krickeberg and Rase he was probably a pupil of Michael Mietke. He is first mentioned in 1722 in the register of citizens of Hamburg. On 1 September that year he married the widow of the instrument maker Carl Conrad(t) Fleischer (1680–1721/2), whose workshop near the old Gänsemarkt opera house he took over. There were three children of the marriage, all with godparents from Hamburg families of musicians. Christian Zell is thought not to have been related to the painter and draughtsman Gottfried Zell, active in Hamburg 1788–90. Three surviving Zell harpsichords are known: one dated 1728, in the Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe, Hamburg (see Harpsichord, fig.13), another, dated 1737, in the Museu de la música, Barcelona, and a third (1741), owned by the Ostfriesische Landschaft, in the Steinhaus Museum of the Norddeutsche Orgelakademie in Bunde, near Leer, Lower Saxony. A wing-shaped harpsichord lid, acquired in 1992 by a private collector in Hamburg and showing scenes from Ovid's Metamorphoses, is as likely, from its pictorial composition and choice of subject, to have come from the Hamburg workshops of Hieronymus Albrecht Hass and his son Johann Adolph as from that of Zell.

Zell harpsichords were prized not only for the richness of their decoration, with lacquered chinoiserie in the typical Hamburg style, but above all for their matchless tone. The interest generated by instruments of this quality may be gauged from the increasing frequency of visits by players and especially makers eager to examine the 1728 harpsichord.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BoalchM

A. Conradt: ‘Hamburger Musikinstrumente des 18. Jahrhunderts mit Lackmalerei’, Jb der Hamburger Kunstsammlungen, ix (1964), 30–35, figs.1–5

M. Skowroneck: ‘Das Cembalo von Christian Zell, Hamburg 1728, und seine Restaurierung’, Organ Yearbook, v (1974), 79–87

H. Vogel: ‘Das Cembalo von Christian Zell aus dem Besitz der Ostfriesischen Landschaft’, Ostfriesland (1978), 27–9 [with illustration]

D. Krickeberg and H. Rase: ‘Beiträge zur Kenntnis des mittel- und norddeutschen Cembalobaus um 1700’, Studia organologica: Festschrift für John Henry van der Meer, ed. F. Hellwig (Tutzing, 1987), 285–310

C. Brink and W. Hornbostel, eds.: Pegasus und die Künste, Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe, Hamburg, 8 April – 31 May 1993 (Munich, 1993), 228 [exhibition catalogue]

ALEXANDER PILIPCZUK

Zellbell, Ferdinand (i)

[den äldre] (b Uppsala, 14 or 15 April 1689; d Stockholm, 6 July 1765). Swedish organist and composer. As one of a family that had come to Sweden from Lüneburg, Germany, in the 17th century, he was a member of the Swedish royal chapel from 1715 to 1762. He was also active as an organist, notably at the Storkyrka in Stockholm from 1718–19; after 1753 his duties there were fulfilled by his son, Ferdinand den yngre, although he retained the post until his death. He was active as a music teacher, and played both the harpsichord and string bass in addition to the organ, on which he was regarded by J.H. Roman as an outstanding performer. His musical style is difficult to determine owing to attribution problems, but the authentic chorale preludes 30 praeludia pro exitu show the influence of Buxtehude. The instrumental works show traces of the galant style.

His brother Anders (b Uppsala, between c1680 and c1690; d Uppsala, Sept 1727) was a civil servant, who from 1697 to his death functioned on occasion as cathedral organist and director musices in place of C. Zellinger; on 31 March 1726 he received an organist’s post.

WORKS

some works may be by F. Zellbell (ii)

30 praeludia pro exitu, 1720–28, Järpen, Skansborgs skola

? 69 intonationes, org, in Brita Strobill notebook, S-ÖS

? Conc., D, Skma

? Sinfonia, C, Skma, ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. F, iii (New York, 1983)

? Vn Conc., D, SK

Choralbok författad af Ferdinand Zellbell; Svenska psalmernas melodier … redigare afsatte och nödtorfteligen förbättrade af Ferdinand Zellbell är 1749: both Sk

WRITINGS

Temperatura sonorum, frag. of theoretical work [advertised in the Posttidningar (Stockholm, 1740)], in Brita Strobill notebook, ÖS

Institutiones bassi continui, cited in J. Mattheson: Grundlage einer Ehren-Pforte (Hamburg, 1740), lost

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Morin: ‘Ferdinand Zellbell den äldre: liv och verk’, STMf, xliii (1961), 265–71

A.L. Holm: ‘Ferdinand Zellbell d.ä.:s inkomster år 1722’, STMf, lxxiii (1991), 85–96

L. Jonsson and A.Ivarsdotter-Johnson: Musiken i Sverige, ii:Frihetstid och gustaviansk tid, 1720–1810 (Stockholm, 1993)

INGMAR BENGTSSON/BERTIL H. VAN BOER

Zellbell, Ferdinand (ii) [den yngre]

(b Stockholm, 3 Sept 1719; d Stockholm, 21 April 1780). Swedish musician and composer, son of ferdinand Zellbell (i). He studied with his father and J.H. Roman; in 1741–2 he travelled to Germany and studied with Telemann and others. On his return to Sweden he received, in 1743, an assistantship to his father's post as organist of the Storkyrka in Stockholm, assuming most of the duties and half the salary from 1753. On 18 July 1750 he succeeded Per Braut as hovkapellmäster, but his salary was not paid until 1762, when he was appointed to succeed his father. Zellbell visited St Petersburg in 1758 and, for the tsarina's birthday, composed his first opera, Il giudizio d'Aminta. From 1759 he contributed to Stockholm's musical life primarily as director of the public concerts and as a member of the Order of Freemasons (which he had entered on 28 June 1758). Zellbell was the only professional musician among the founders of the Swedish Royal Academy of Music (1771), and from 1772 to 1774 acted as the director of education at the academy's newly opened school. In 1773 he was commissioned to write the short opera-ballet Sveas högtid, which was performed the following year in a concert version. He died unmarried and destitute, leaving a large collection of printed books and music.

Contemporary opinions on his personality and importance as a musician were sharply divided: he was condemned by some for his indolence and old-fashioned taste, and praised by others for his skill as an organist and improviser. His extant authenticated works are stylistically mixed, though galant elements can be discerned. Zellbell often indicated dynamic contrasts more carefully than his contemporaries, but the tendency towards mechanical repetition found in his father's music is often evident.

WORKS

(selective list)

some works may be by F. Zellbell (i); unless otherwise stated, MSS in S-Skma

vocal

Passaggier che su la sponda (aria, P. Metastasio), S, 2 cornetts, str, 1735–50

Där mildhet spiran för (aria, H.C. Nordenflycht), S, str, for birthday of King Frederik I, 17 April 1750, S-St

Befalla Herranom din wäg (duet), 2 S, bc, Uu

Auf, Zion, auf! (cant.), B, orch, St Petersburg, 8 Nov 1758

Il giudizio d'Aminta (op, L. Lazzaroni), St Petersburg, 17 Dec 1758

Söta wän hor döden brotit (aria), S, bc, 1760–65, SK

Att wara fri för fel (cant.), S, 2 fl, bc, 1763

Wår kung, wår bror (aria, J. Fant), A, 2 fl, str, for initiation of King Adolphus Frederik as a freemason, 11 Sept 1771

instrumental

4 sinfonias, C, D, D, d, 1 ed. in The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. F, iii (New York, 1983); ? Sinfonia, C [attr. F. Zellbell (i)]

Ov., d; ov., D [MS dated 21 April 1742], S-Uu; ov., D, from Sveas högtid (opera-ballet), St

Introduzzione, g, orch; Lamento, c, orch

Conc., a, bn (1 movt); Conc., D, vc [MS dated Hanover, 1741]; Conc., D, 3 vn, bc, L

Sonata, G, hpd (1 movt), 1 of projected set of 12 announced in Stockholm Post, no.84 (1754)

Various small pieces, kbd

lost works

Andakts Upmuntran (cant.), for centenary of the Jakobskyrka, Stockholm, 1743

Så har vi dager fått (cant., Nordenflycht), for ennoblement of Adolphus Frederik, 1743

Musica marina al turcheso eller Turkisk watten musique, orch, 1762, perf. 1767

? Choral pieces in Pergolesi's Stabat mater for perf. in Stockholm, 1764

Sveas högtid eller Fria konsternas vördnadsoffer åt Dygderna (op, G.F. Gyllenborg), Stockholm, 1774, some excerpts, S-St

? Chorale book, mentioned in notice of 1782

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P. Vretblad: Konsertlifvet i Stockholm under 1700-talet (Stockholm, 1918)

E. Sundström: ‘Ferdinand Zellbell den yngre och hans opera Il giudizio d'Aminta’, STMf, i (1919), 58–69

S. Walin: Beiträge zur Geschichter der Schwedischen Sinfonik (Stockholm, 1941)

E. Haeger: ‘Anteckningar om Ferdinand Zellbell den yngre och hans vokalmusik’, STMf, xxxiv (1952), 60–83

I. Bengtsson: ‘Johann Helmich Romans flöjtkonsert’, STMf, lv (1973), 5–22

B. Åberg: ‘En självbiografi av Ferdinand Zellbell den yngre’, STMf, lxii (1980), 51–5

L. Hedwall: Den svenska symfonin (Stockholm, 1983)

INGMAR BENGTSSON

Zelle, Christian.

See Zell, Christian.

Zeller, Carl (Johann Adam)

(b St Peter in der Au, 19 June 1842; d Baden, nr Vienna, 17 Aug 1898). Austrian composer. As a boy he had a fine soprano voice and showed facility on several instruments. He studied with the village teacher and organist, and at the age of 11 joined the boys' choir of the court chapel in Vienna. He studied law at Vienna University, at the same time studying composition with Simon Sechter, and in 1869 took a doctorate in law at Graz University. After practising as a solicitor with the land tribunal he entered the Ministry of Education and Culture in 1873. His compositions include ballad plays, songs and choral works: a comic opera Joconde, set in Scotland in Cromwell's time, was produced in 1876. His greatest success was achieved with the operetta Der Vogelhändler (1891), which revived the fortunes of Viennese operetta during the 1890s. Supported by a richness of melodic invention and fine handling of the voice and ensemble numbers, it has remained one of the classics of the genre. Der Obersteiger (1894), though also a success and scarcely inferior in invention, has remained familiar mainly through the tenor solo ‘Sei nicht bös’. Zeller's last years were unhappy: by 1895 he had risen to a high position in the ministry, but signs of nervous and mental disorder began to appear. After he was retired on pension he was found guilty of perjury, but the conviction was later repealed.

WORKS

operettas first produced in Vienna unless otherwise stated

Joconde (comic op, 3, M. West and Moret), Wien, 18 March 1876, vs (Vienna, 1877)

Die Fornarina (comic op, 3, F. Zell and R. Genée), Munich, Gärtnerplatz, 18 Oct 1879

Die Carbonari (3, West and Zell), Carltheater, 27 Nov 1880; rev. as Capitän Nicoll (West and H. Hirschel), Berlin, Friedrich-Wilhelmstädtisches, 5 Nov 1881

Der Vagabund (3, West and L. Held), Carl, 30 Oct 1886

Der Vogelhändler (3, West and Held, after Varin and Biéville: Ce qui deviennent les roses), 10 Jan 1891, vs (Vienna, 1891)

Der Obersteiger (3, West and Held), Wien, 5 Jan 1894, vs (Vienna, 1894)

Der Kellermeister (3, West), Raimund, 21 Dec 1901, vs (Vienna, 1902), completed by J. Brandl

Numerous songs, choruses

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GänzlEMT

A.M. Schneider: ‘Der Tondichter Carl Zeller’, Unsere Heimat [Vienna], new ser., xi (Vienna, 1939)

C.W. Zeller: Mein Vater Carl Zeller (St Pölten, 1942)

R. Holzer: Die Wiener Vorstadtbühnen: Alexander Girardi und das Theater an der Wien (Vienna, 1951)

E. Nick: Vom Wiener Walzer zur Wiener Operette (Hamburg, 1954)

R. Traubner: Operetta: a Theatrical History (New York, 1983)

ANDREW LAMB

Zelman, Alberto

(b Melbourne, 15 Nov 1874; d Melbourne, 3 March 1927). Australian violinist and conductor. He was the son of an Italian musician who had taken an opera company to Australia in the 1860s. Alberto, who was largely self-taught in music, made his first appearance as a violinist at six, and at 17 toured as a soloist in Tasmania and New Zealand; in his early years he also conducted light opera. He taught privately, at the Melbourne University Conservatorium and at the Albert Street Conservatorium. He founded several musical organizations in Melbourne, including the Melbourne String Quartet (1905) and the Melbourne SO (1906), which then consisted largely of amateurs and his own pupils. For 16 years he was conductor of the Melbourne Philharmonic Society, giving many choral works (including the Australian premières of several by Elgar) with leading soloists from Australia and abroad. He conducted one season with Melba. In 1922 he and his wife (the Australian soprano Maude Marie Harrington) undertook a European tour, during which he conducted the LSO and the Berlin PO. Moresby wrote of his broadly flowing style and his pure and beautiful violin tone, as well as his warm and sympathetic temperament. (I. Moresby: Australia Makes Music, London, 1948)

Zeltenpferd

(fl c1400). Composer. Reaney attributed a three-voice Gloria in GB-Lbl Add.29987 (ed. in CMM xi/6, 1977, p.115, and in PMFC, xii, 1976, p.25) to Antonio Zacara da Teramo, partly on the basis of a slight similarity (especially in the ‘Amen’) to Zacara’s (four-voice) Gloria ‘Micinella’. This attribution was generally rejected; but when it was noted (by F. LeClercq) that the same music appears in the lost Strasbourg manuscript (F-Sm 222, now known only from Coussemaker’s transcription, B-Bc 56.286) ascribed to ‘Zeltenpferd’, Fischer agued that this could be a corruption of ‘z. de Teramo’. The piece is cited as ‘Et in terra Zeltenpferd’ twice in the treatise De minimis notulis, also known only from F-Sm 222 (ed. in CoussemakerS, iii, 414 and 415), which might therefore endorse the correctness of the name. On the other hand, the name is otherwise unknown and may be a pseudonym (like ‘Zacara’), and the word appears in early German contexts to denote an odd manner of walking, which would evidently apply to Zacara; moreover, the work is very much in the North Italian mannerist style, unlike anything otherwise known by Germanic composers, and is in several ways reminiscent of Zacara. Pending further investigation, the case remains open.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G. Reaney: ‘The Manuscript London, British Museum, Additional 29987 (Lo)’, MD, xii (1958), 67–91

K. von Fischer: ‘Bermerkungen zur Überlieferung und zum Stil der geistlichen Werke des Antonius dictus Zacharias de Teramo’, MD, xli (1987), 161–82

DAVID FALLOWS

Zelter, Carl Friedrich

(b Berlin, 11 Dec 1758; d Berlin, 15 May 1832). German composer, conductor and teacher. His father George, a mason from Saxony, settled about 1750 in Berlin, where he worked as a building contractor and married Anna Dorothea Hintze, daughter of a cloth-worker; Carl Friedrich was the second of two sons of this marriage. Zelter was first taught at home and then attended the Joachimsthaler Gymnasium. At his father’s wish, he trained as a mason, becoming in 1783 a master mason and partner in his father’s business, which he took over in 1787; he remained a member of the Berlin masons’ guild until 1815. In 1787 Zelter married Sophie Eleonora Flöricke, née Kappel, who had three children by her first marriage and bore him eight more but died in 1795. A year later he married the singer Juliane Pappritz (d 1806), who bore him two children.

Zelter was familiar with music from early childhood. He taught himself to play various instruments (including the violin and piano) and later took formal violin lessons. In 1779 he played part-time in the orchestra of the Theater am Gendarmenmarkt, and a few years later he played first violin in J.A. Hiller’s Berlin performance of Messiah. His early compositions date from this period. Zelter finally took composition lessons (1784–6) with C.F.C. Fasch, who later founded the Berliner Sing-Akademie. He became a member of this organization in 1791 and its conductor after Fasch’s death in 1800. Under Zelter, the Sing-Akademie became a model for the performance of sacred music from the past, and similar institutions were founded throughout Germany. While a cappella singing predominated at first, it soon began performing choral works with instrumental accompaniment, provided by an ensemble, the Ripienschule, which Zelter founded in 1807. Its repertory ranged from polyphony of the 16th and 17th centuries to contemporary works; Zelter set high standards with his performances of Handel’s oratorios, Bach’s motets, cantatas and St Matthew Passion, Haydn’s Creation and Seasons and Mozart’s Requiem. Zelter also established the Liedertafel, a patriotically inclined men’s choir, in 1809, and he was appointed professor of music of the Akademie der Künste in Berlin the same year.

On his initiative, institutes for teaching church and school music were founded in Königsberg (now Kaliningrad; 1814), Breslau (now Wrocław; 1815) and Berlin (1822); he took over complete responsibility for the Berlin institute in 1823. He also founded a student ‘collegium musicum vocale’ (1830). His many pupils included A.W. Bach, Eduard Grell, A.B. Marx, Felix Mendelssohn, Giacomo Meyerbeer, Otto Nicolai and G.W. Teschner. In 1829 Zelter received an honorary doctorate from the University of Berlin. He died only a few weeks later than his friend Goethe.

Zelter’s work had consequences for the whole of German musical life in the 19th century, and led to a realization that music education should now be delivered by state-maintained institutes and civic music societies. Zelter, who was himself active in both kinds of organizations, saw his prime task as their creation and development, and he devoted himself to it passionately and tirelessly. It was this side of Zelter’s character that drew Goethe to him. According to P.C. Kayser and J.F. Reichardt, Goethe found in Zelter the musical adviser he had been seeking. Their correspondence, eventually comprising almost 900 letters (1799–1832), grew increasingly intimate, and finally, when Goethe wrote to Zelter about the suicide of his stepson Karl Flöricke, employed the familiar pronoun ‘du’. Accounts of notable events – the meeting between Goethe and Beethoven in 1812, the production of Der Freischütz in 1821, the performance of Bach’s St Matthew Passion in 1829 – make it a valuable source of music history. Goethe and Zelter also discussed basic questions relating to music – notably the lied – and its position among the arts. The correspondence reveals Zelter’s natural outspokenness and his earthy wit and humour, as well as profound shocks that he suffered.

Zelter is remembered primarily as a composer of lieder. Of his 210 solo lieder, 75 are to texts by Goethe. In a letter of 10 January 1824 to Carl Loewe, Zelter describes some of his aesthetic principles in songwriting: the text must take priority, the strophic song is to be preferred to ‘absolute through-composing’, the accompaniment must stay in the background (so that ‘if necessary the melody could exist without it’). His setting of Der König in Thule is a classically simple, self-contained melodic structure with dark tone-colours and an Aeolian modal quality. Goethe praised the Mitternachtslied in a letter to Zelter of 19 March 1818, saying: ‘Your midnight six-eight time is all-exhausting. Such quantities and qualities of tone, such diversity of movement, of rests and of pauses for breath! It is always the same and ever-changing!’ Zelter, he wrote earlier, understood ‘the character of such a piece, with its recurrent strophes, so well that you feel it anew in every individual part, where others would destroy the impression of the whole by introducing obtrusive details in what is called through-composing’ (letter to Wilhelm von Humboldt, 14 March 1803). This opinion, which Zelter no doubt shared, does not imply the outright rejection of the principle of through-composition, but merely questions its suitability for the setting of classical lyric poetry. Goethe particularly liked the powerful, sturdy tone of Zelter’s male choruses, which he preferred to a more elegiac style. At their best, these works display many varieties of humour, which may be conveyed subtly (as in Beherzigung), directly (Meister und Gesell) or with a touch of irony (Flohlied). Outstanding among his sacred works are a Requiem for Fasch (now lost), the motet Der Mensch lebt und bestehet and the oratorio Die Auferstehung und Himmelfahrt Jesu. None of the large projects that he and Goethe discussed was ever realized: Goethe could not warm to the operatic subjects of Samson and Hercules suggested by Zelter, and Zelter left his incidental music to Goethe’s Götz von Berlichingen unfinished, nor did he carry out his plans to set Goethe’s play Pandora and write a Reformation cantata.

Zelter always felt compelled to express his artistic ideas in writing: hence his autobiographies and memoranda, commemorative addresses and testimonials, reviews and music criticism, sketches and analyses of projects, and in particular the surviving letters, which number over 1000 in all. His contributions to such journals as Deutschland, Lyceum der schönen Künste and the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung reflect an understanding of music history derived from the Berlin school of the 18th century. He left a valuable and extensive collection of music, containing many Bach manuscripts. While this may have been intended chiefly for the use of the Sing-Akademie, Zelter also drew from it his profound understanding of musical works and sources, and thereby gained a reputation as an authority on the church music of the past and on the works of Handel, Bach and his sons, the Grauns and others. Of the Viennese Classical composers, Haydn and Mozart were the closest to him; his introductory text for the Sing-Akademie’s performance of The Creation on 31 March 1826 appeared in the fifth volume of Kunst und Altertum. He had an ambivalent attitude towards Beethoven (whom he met in 1819): while he admired the Egmont overture and Wellingtons Sieg, he seems otherwise to have flinched from Beethoven’s novelty and radicalism. He was opposed to some tendencies in contemporary music (such as those in the works of Weber and Berlioz), and ignored others (as in the case of Schubert).

WORKS

Editions:Karl Friedrich Zelter: Fünfzehn ausgewählte Lieder, ed. M. Bauer (Berlin, 1924) [B]Carl Friedrich Zelter: Lieder, Balladen und Romanzen, ed. F. Jöde, NM, lx (1930) [J]C.F. Zelter: Fünfzig Lieder … für eine Singstimme und Klavier, ed. L. Landshoff (Mainz, c1932) [L]C.F. Zelter: Lieder, ed. R. Kubik and A. Meier, EDM, 1st ser., cvi (1995) [facs.] [K]

vocal

Die Auferstehung und Himmelfahrt Jesu (orat, K.W. Ramler), 4 solo vv, chorus, orch, 1807, pt i D-Bsb* (chorus and insts only)

Sacred: Hallelujah, lobet den Herrn (Ps cl), 4vv, orch, 1782 [for ded. of new organ at Georgenkirche, Berlin], Bsb; Averte faciem, motet, double choir, bc, 1791, ?lost; TeD, solo vv, double choir, 1801, lost; Requiem … für Fasch, 4 solo vv, chorus, 1802, perf. 3 Aug 1803, lost; Der Mensch lebt und bestehet (M. Claudius), motet, double choir, bc, 1803, MS lost, edn (Rodenkirchen, 1960); Wer spannt den Bogen (Friedrich Leopold Graf zu Stolberg-Stolberg), motet, double choir, 1803, Bsb; Quando corpus, 1806 [on death of Juliane Zelter], lost; Den Menschen treibt ein ewig Streben, 4 solo vv, chorus, org, 1811 (Berlin, n.d.) [on death of Prince Louis of Prussia], lost; Der Mensch geht eine dunkle Strasse (C.A. Tiedge), 4vv, org, 1811 (Berlin, 1821); Gl, 4vv, pf, 1817, Bsb*; Kirchenmusik zur Reformationsfest, 4vv, orch, org, 1817, lost; Tenebrae factae sunt, 4 solo vv, chorus, 1818 (Leipzig, n.d.), edn (Boston, 1987); Ein kurzes Requiem, 4vv, 1823 [arr. of G.O. Pitoni: Dies irae], lost; Gl, 4vv, 1824, ?lost; Liturgische Chöre für die Berliner Agende, 1829, Bsb; Beatus vir, 4vv, insts, A-Wn; Ecce benedicite Domino (Ps cxxxiv), 3vv, ?lost; Have anima pia, 6vv, lost; Gl, 6vv, ?lost; 12 chorales, solo vv, chorus, D-Bsb; for further chorales, undated and lost works, see Lederbur and Kruse

Cant.: La Medea (Sanseverino), ?1782, lost; Serafina, o du, den meine Seele liebt (C.M. Wieland), S solo, orch, 1783, frag. Bsb; Warum ist euer Blick so tief gesenkt? (J.D. Sander or K.W. Ramler), solo vv, chorus, orch, Berlin, 25 Oct 1786 [on death of Frederick the Great and accession of Friedrich Wilhelm II], lost; Dir, die du Heil und Segen: Auf den Geburtstag einer geliebten Mutter (C.F. Nicolai), 1v, chorus, orch, 1793, Bsb*; Der Fromme geht dahin (Ribbeck), 4 solo vv, chorus, orch, 1806, ?lost; Die Gunst des Augenblicks (F. von Schiller), 4 solo vv, chorus, pf, orch (Berlin, ?1806), ed. in NM, xcii (1932); Johanna Sebus (Goethe), Bar, chorus, insts, 1810, D-WRgs*, arr. for 1v, chorus, pf (Leipzig, ?1810), ed. in NM, xci (1932)

Other choral: Ode an die Freude (F. von Schiller), chorus, pf (Berlin, 1793); Hymnus an die Sonne: In Flammen nahet Gott (Tiedge), 1v, double choir, pf, 1808, Bsb; Quis sit desiderio (Horace: OdesI), 4 solo vv, chorus, c1820, autograph MS in Cincinnati Art Museum; Hymnus in solemnia academiae: Felix ad est, solo v, chorus, 1825, lost; Das Gastmahl (Goethe), solo vv, chorus (Berlin, 1832); Divis orte bonis optime prussiae, chorus, lost

Opera, scenas etc.: Das Orakel (op, C.F. Gellert), c1778, frag., lost; O Dio, se in questo istante (scena and aria, P. Metastasio), 1781, D-Bsb; Misero me! ah! che veggo! (scena and aria, Metastasio), 1783, lost; Barbaro, che a tuoi nodi (scena and aria, Metastasio), S solo, insts, Bsb; Dove sei mia bella Nice, Bsb; Le tendre coeur de la bergère, Bsb; Vieni, audace nemico (scena and aria, Metastasio), lost

Lieder: 12 Lieder am Klavier zu singen (Berlin and Leipzig, 1796/R), 2 ed. in B, 4 ed. in L; 12 Lieder am Clavier zu singen (Berlin, 1801/R), 3 ed. in L; Sammlung [12] kleiner Balladen und Lieder (Hamburg, before 1803/R), 1 ed. in J, 2 ed. in L; Zelter’s [48] sämmtliche Lieder, Balladen und Romanzen, i–iv (Berlin, 1810–13, 2/1816/R), 12 ed. in B, 7 ed. in J, 18 ed. in L, selection ed. in NM, lx (1930); [12] Ausgewählte Lieder, Romanzen und Balladen (Leipzig and Berlin, ?1813); Neue Liedersammlung (12 lieder) (Zürich and Berlin, 1821/R), 1 ed. in B, 2 ed. in J, 5 ed. in L; 6 deutsche Lieder, B solo, pf (Berlin, 1826/R); 6 deutsche Lieder, A solo, pf (Berlin, 1827/R), 2 ed. in L; 6 Gesänge für Männerstimmen (Berlin, ?1828); [10] Tafel-Lieder für [4] Männerstimmen, v, vii (Berlin, c1830); 10 Lieder für Männerstimmen, i–ii (Berlin, before 1833); 7 in Musen-Almanach, ed. F. von Schiller (Tübingen, 1797); 4 in Musen-Almanach, ed. Schiller (Tübingen, 1798); 5 in Musenalmanach, ed. J.H. Voss (Neu-Strelitz, 1800), 1 ed. in L; Liedertafel Gesänge, 6 vols., D-Bsb; further lieder in Bsb, DEl, DÜk, HVs, WRgs, A-Wn, 17 ed. in L; for lists of individual lieder, see Lederbur, Kruse, and Barr

instrumental

Orch: Va Conc., 1779, B-Bc, ed. R. Jauch (Leipzig, n.d.)

Kbd: Variations … sur la composition chantée à Berlin de la romance du Mariage de Figaro, hpd, ?op.1 (Berlin, ?1786); 8 variazioni d’un rondo, hpd/pf, op.2 (Berlin ?1786); Tanz und Opfergesang aus der Oper Axur oder Tarar von Salieri mit … Veränderungen, pf, op.4 (Berlin, 1792); La malade, pièce caractéristique, pf (Berlin, 1792); Sonata, c, hpd, ?op.3, 1793, D-Bsb; Canzonetta con variazioni, 2 hpd, WRgs; individual works in anthologies, incl. Clavier-Magazin (Berlin, 1787), Kleine Clavier- und Singstücke (Berlin, 1794)

WRITINGS

Karl Friedrich Christian Fasch (Berlin, 1801/R)

Practische, Gesang Lehre (MS, 1812, D-Bsb)

2 und 3 Cursus der Compositionslehre (MS, 1824, Bsb)

Gesang-Übungen (MS, 1825, Bsb)

ed. J.-W. Schottländer: C.F. Zelter: Darstellung seines Lebens (Weimar, 1931/R)

For contributions to contemporary journals, see MGG1

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GerberNL; MGG1(M. Geck)

Correspondence with Goethe, 1799–1832, D-WRgs, pubd as Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Zelter in den Jahren 1799 bis 1832, ed. H.-G. Ottenberg and E. Zehm (Munich, 1991–)

Correspondence with L. van Beethoven, C. Loewe, F. Mendelssohn, J.F. Reichardt, F. von Schiller, L. Spohr and others, esp. Bsb, DL, DÜk, Ff, WRgs

F. Rochlitz: ‘K.F. Zelter: Nekrolog’, AMZ, xxxiv (1832), 157–94

W. Rintel, ed.: Carl Friedrich Zelter: eine Lebensbeschreibung nach autobiographischen Manuscripten (Berlin, 1861)

C. von Ledebur: Tonkünstler-Lexicon Berlin’s (Berlin, 1861/R)

G.R. Kruse: Zelter (Leipzig, 1915, 2/1931)

J.-W. Schottländer: ‘Zelters Beziehungen, zu den Komponisten seiner Zeit’, Jb der Sammlung Kippenberg, viii (1930), 134–248

W. Victor: Carl Friedrich Zelter und seine Freundschaft mit Goethe (Berlin, 1960)

C. Schröder, ed.: Carl Friedrich Zelter und die Akademie: Dokumente und Briefe zur Entstehung der Musik-Sektion in der Preussischen Akademie der Künste (Berlin, 1959) [incl. Zelter’s essays on music education, 1803–12]

I. Kräupl: ‘Die Zelter-Bildnisse im Goethe-Museum Düsseldorf’, Jb der Sammlung Kippenberg, new ser., i (1963), 70–100

R.A. Barr: Carl Friedrich Zelter: a Study of the Lied in Berlin during the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries (diss., U. of Wisconsin, 1968)

R. Elvers: ‘Ein nicht abgesandter Brief Zelters an Haydn’, Musik und Verlag: Karl Vötterle zum 65. Geburtstag, ed. R. Baum and W. Rehm (Kassel, 1968), 243–5

E.R. Jacobi: ‘C.F. Zelters kritische Beleuchtung von J.N. Forkels Buch über J.S. Bach, aufgrund neu aufgefundener Manuskripte’, IMSCR XI: Copenhagen 1972, 462–6

R.M. Grace: Carl Friedrich Zelter’s Musical Settings of Johann Wolfgang Goethe’s Poems (diss., U. of Iowa, 1976)

P. Nitsche: ‘Die Liedertafel im System der Zelterschen Gründungen’, Studien zur Musikgeschichte Berlins im frühen 19. Jahrhundert, ed. C. Dahlhaus (Regensburg, 1980), 11–26

D. Seaton: ‘A Composition Course with Carl Friedrich Zelter’, College Music Symposium, xxi/2 (1981), 126–38

H.-G. Ottenberg: ‘C.P.E. Bach and Carl Friedrich Zelter’, C.P.E. Bach Studies, ed. S.L. Clark (Oxford, 1988), 185–216

H.-J. Schulze: ‘Karl Friedrich Zelter und der Nachlass des Bach–Biographen Johann Nikolaus Forkel’, JbPrKu (1993), 141–50

D. Fischer-Dieskau: Carl Friedrich Zelter und das Berliner Musikleben seiner Zeit: eine Biographie (Berlin, 1997)

HANS-GÜNTER OTTENBERG

Zemlinsky [Zemlinszky], Alexander (von)

(b Vienna, 14 Oct 1871; d Larchmont, NY, 15 March 1942). Austrian composer and conductor. Although closely linked to the Second Viennese School (Schoenberg was his pupil), Zemlinsky was no outright revolutionary. While undisputedly a conductor of the first rank and an interpreter of integrity, he lacked ‘star quality’ and was overshadowed by more domineering personalities. His music is distinguished by an almost overpowering emotional intensity. It took several decades before it became known and began to be appreciated.

ANTONY BEAUMONT

1. Life.

His father, born in Vienna of Slovakian Catholic descent, converted to Judaism in 1870; his mother, born in Sarajevo, was the daughter of a mixed Sephardi-Muslim marriage. At the age of four he showed aptitude at the piano, and after completing his regular schooling in 1886 he enrolled at the Vienna Conservatory, studying the piano with Door, harmony and counterpoint with Krenn and Robert Fuchs (1888–90), and composition (1890–92) with the latter's brother, J.N. Fuchs. From 1893 onwards his first chamber compositions were performed at the Wiener Tonkünstlerverein, in whose concerts he also often appeared as pianist and conductor. Brahms was impressed by his work and recommended him to Simrock. In 1895–6 Zemlinsky conducted an amateur orchestra, the Polyhymnia, in which Schoenberg played the cello. Their friendship, initially an informal teacher-pupil relationship, became close: Schoenberg composed his D major Quartet under Zemlinsky's supervision, and his op.1 lieder are dedicated in gratitude to his ‘teacher and friend’. Also in 1896, with the opera Sarema (for which Schoenberg had prepared much of the vocal score), Zemlinsky won the Luitpold Prize in Munich; in 1900 Mahler gave the première of his second opera, Es war einmal …, at the Vienna Hofoper. In 1901 Schoenberg married his sister, Mathilde, and between April and November of that year Zemlinsky himself became passionately involved with his pupil Alma Schindler. She taunted him with his diminutive stature and unattractive appearance, however, and ultimately rejected him in favour of Mahler.

From 1903 Zemlinsky taught orchestration at the Schwarzwald school, where his pupils included Berg, Horwitz, Jalowetz, Erwin Stein and Webern (a later, private composition pupil was Korngold). In 1904, with Mahler's support, he and Schoenberg founded the Vereinigung Schaffender Tonkünstler to promote new music in Vienna. But from 1900, due to the early death of his father, he was also obliged to seek regular paid employment. Until 1903 he was Kapellmeister at the Carltheater, and from 1903 at the Theater an der Wien (both operetta houses). In 1904 he was appointed chief conductor at the Volksoper, where the repertory extended to Mozart and Wagner (and, in 1906, to the Viennese première of Salome). In 1907 he joined Mahler at the Hofoper; after the latter's resignation he was engaged at Mannheim, but the contract was not implemented. In 1908, returning to the Volksoper, he conducted the influential Viennese première of Dukas' Ariane et Barbe-bleue; his own Kleider machen Leute followed in 1910.

The acclaim with which each new work of his had been greeted gradually abated, and in 1911 he acepted the musical directorship of the Neues Deutsches Theater in Prague. Although the theatre schedule allowed little time for composition, his finest works – the Maeterlinck songs, the Second Quartet, the Lyrische Symphonie, Eine florentinische Tragödie and Der Zwerg – date from his Prague period. His assistants included Kleiber (1911–12), Webern (1917–18) and Szell (1919–20), and Viktor Ullmann as chorus master (1921–7). With the founding of the Czech Republic in 1918, the position of the German minority became precarious, but Zemlinsky proved an able diplomat and succeeded in securing the future of the Deutsches Landestheater, as it was now renamed. In 1920 he was appointed rector of the Deutsche Akademie für Musik und Bildende Kunst, where his pupils in his composition masterclass included Krása. From 1923 he was a frequent guest conductor with the Czech PO, playing a key role in establishing that orchestra's Mahler tradition; abroad he became a champion of Czech music, conducting notable premières of Smetana, Janáček and Suk. As an opera conductor he cultivated ensemble theatre at a high level and was particularly admired for his Mozart and Strauss: Stravinsky recalled Figaro in Prague as the most satisfying opera performance opera he had ever heard. In 1924 Zemlinsky conducted the world première of Schoenberg's Erwartung at the Prague ISCM Festival, but relations with his brother-in-law subsquently deteriorated – partly for personal reasons, partly due to disagreement over the technique of 12-note composition. When Schoenberg reverted to Judaism in 1933, Zemlinsky failed to follow suit: the rift was complete. While he continued to support the music of Schoenberg, and particularly of Berg, whose Wozzeck fragments he performed in 1925, his interest in other recent developments led him also to champion the music of Hindemith, Krenek, Schulhoff, Stravinsky and Weill.

Despite the stability of his Prague existence, he made several attempts to return to Vienna or further his career in Germany. In 1923 Max von Schillings offered him the post of Generalmusikdirektor at the Staatsoper in Berlin; his refusal, prompted by the galloping inflation then prevailing in Germany, proved to be a serious miscalculation. The advent of Hans Wilhelm Steinberg as first Kapellmeister in Prague caused an uneasy rivalry, nurtured by the press, and in 1927 Zemlinsky accepted Klemperer's invitation to Berlin, in a subordinate position at the Kroll Oper. When the theatre was closed in 1931, Zemlinsky was offered the position of Generalmusikdirektor at Wiesbaden, but he chose to remain in Berlin, teaching score-reading at the Musikhochschule and expanding his activities as guest conductor to France, Italy, Russia and Spain. In December of that year he conducted the first Berlin production of Weill's Mahagonny. His setting of Klabund's Kreidekreis, completed in 1932, reflects a certain influence of Weill, but also of Krenek's Johnny spielt auf.

With the highly acclaimed Zürich world première of Der Kreidekreis in 1933 Zemlinsky broke a creative silence of some six years. Forced to leave Germany earlier that year (although his music continued to be performed there until 1935), he returned to Vienna and concentrated his energies on composition. He completed the short score of Der König Kandaules in 1936 but was obliged to abandon the orchestration at the time of the Anschluss, in March 1938. In September he fled with his wife and daughter via Prague to New York. Bodanzky had promised to perform Kandaules at the Metropolitan Opera, but the libretto was deemed unsuitable and the score set aside. Obliged to compose school pieces and other trivia in order to eke out a living, Zemlinsky started work on a new opera, Circe, but in the autumn of 1939 he was crippled by a stroke. Partial reconciliation with Schoenberg and a nationwide NBC broadcast of the Sinfonietta under Mitropoulos could only momentarily alleviate the gloom of his final years. Although the New York Times published an obituary, in Europe his death went virtually unnoticed.

Zemlinsky, Alexander

2. Works.

Following the example of Brahms and Robert Fuchs, Zemlinsky adopted and refined the technique of developing variation (maximal exploitation, modification and transmutation of minimal thematic particles). His textures are predominantly polyphonic; the tradition of ‘Viennese espressivo’ determines the inflections of his melodic line; in his harmony, which upholds longstanding Austro-German conventions of key symbolism, Zemlinsky seeks innovatory solutions but eschews the furthest extremes of dissonance. ‘A great artist, who possesses everything needed to express the essentials, must respect the boundaries of beauty, even if he extends them far further than hitherto’ (letter to Schoenberg, 18 February 1902). He remained true to this credo throughout his creative life: ultimately, the breach with Schoenberg was inevitable. Although his music demonstrates strong emotional affinity with that of Berg, Zemlinsky never entirely crossed the threshold of atonality; and where Berg sought the most logical solution to each structural problem, Zemlinsky delighted in asymmetry, in the subtle aberration of logical processes. Craftsmanship of a consistently high level is coupled in his music with a sure instinct for vocal writing and a precise ear for instrumental sonority.

In his earlier works Zemlinsky steered a middle course between the antipodes of Wagner and Brahms. Yet Sarema and Es war einmal … , despite their indebtedness to the former, demonstrate an individual talent for colour and dramatic pacing. The First Quartet and the Clarinet Trio, overtly Brahmsian in form and content, possess a nervous intensity typical of the fin-de-siècle artist and far removed from the objectivity of their classical models. The outcome of the Alma Schindler affair changed Zemlinsky radically. In Die Seejungfrau, his first musical reaction to this personal debacle, emotional intensity often rises to fever pitch. Despite an incohesive libretto, in which Alma is indirectly depicted both as fairy princess and outcast woman, Der Traumgörge contains some of his finest music. With the large-scale free forms of the two Oscar Wilde operas Zemlinsky achieved a striking integration of music and drama, a ‘seismographic reactivity to the many stimuli with which he permeated himself’ (Adorno, 1963). Der Zwerg is the catharsis of his Alma-instilled idée fixe, the ‘tragedy of an ugly man’. The early Symphonies in D minor and B major had shown that techniques of developing variation were ultimately incompatible with traditional sonata form. Applied to developing variation and every other musical parameter, ‘seismographic’ structure enabled Zemlinsky to generate tightly argued large-scale forms within a symphonic outer framework. The most striking examples of this art are the Second Quartet (also notable for its exploitation of polyrhythm) and the Lyrische Symphonie (1922–3).

In 1924 the Third Quartet, with its angular lines, irregular rhythms, astringent harmonies and spare textures, abruptly ushered in a new style. The ensuing five years were almost barren (an operatic project, Der heilige Vitalis, and a six-movement string quartet were abandoned), but the Symphonische Gesänge and Der Kreidekreis consolidated the process of rejuvenation. The Fourth Quartet (written on the death of Berg) and the lieder opp.22 and 27 carry the terse, pessimistic manner of the preceding works to its logical conclusion, while the Sinfonietta, Psalm xiii and Der König Kandaules move freely between the composer's older and newer styles.

Among his smaller works, Zemlinsky's lieder stand out as models of craftsmanship and artistic sensibility. He possessed an instinctive empathy for verse wide ranging in style and origin, from Wunderhorn poetry to Franco-Belgian symbolism, from the erotic intensity of Dehmel to the wry humour of the Überbrettl. The Maeterlinck songs (1910–13) are arguably his masterpiece in this field, but earlier collections, particularly opp.7, 8 and 10, are also very fine.

Had Zemlinsky outlived the war, he would, like Korngold, Wellesz and Hans Gál, have experienced his eclipse by the post-Webernian serialists. Together with Schreker, to whom he has often been likened, he all but vanished from concert and opera programmes until the later 1960s. Thereafter, in the wake of the rehabilitation of Mahler, his music experienced a renaissance. Major works, such as the Fourth Quartet and Psalm xiii, which had neither been published nor performed during his lifetime, were discovered among his posthumous papers; Die Seejungfrau, which had not been performed since 1908, was reassembled from separate manuscripts in Vienna and Washington; Der Traumgörge, scheduled for perfomance by Mahler in 1907 but cancelled by Weingartner, finally received its world première in 1980.

Zemlinsky, Alexander

WORKS

stage

op.

—	Sarema (op, 2, ?Adolph von Zemlinszky, after R. von Gottschall: Die Rose vom Kaukasus), 1893–5; Munich, Hof, 10 Oct 1897
—	Es war einmal … (op, prelude, 3, M. Singer, after H. Drachmann), 1897–9; Vienna, Hof, 22 Jan 1900
—	Der Triumph der Zeit (ballet, 3, H. von Hofmannsthal), 1901, inc.; act 2 separated as Ein Tanzpoem, 1901–4; Zürich, 19 Jan 1992
—	Ein Lichtstrahl (mime drama with pf, 1, O. Geller), 1901
—	Der Traumgörge (op, 3, L. Feld), 1904–6; Nuremberg, 11 Oct 1980
—	Kleider machen Leute (comic op, prelude, 3, L. Feld, after G. Keller), 1907–9; Vienna, Volksoper, 2 Dec 1910; rev. 1922 (prelude, 2), Prague, Deutsches Landestheater, 20 April 1922
—	Cymbeline (incid. music, W. Shakespeare), 1913–15
16	Eine florentinische Tragödie (op, 1, O. Wilde, trans. M. Meyerfeld), 1915–16; Stuttgart, Hof, 30 Jan 1917
17	Der Zwerg (op, 1, G.C. Klaren, after Wilde: The Birthday of the Infanta), 1920–21; Cologne, Neues, 28 May 1922
—	Der Kreidekreis (op, 3, after Klabund), 1930–32; Zürich, Stadt, 14 Oct 1933
—	Der König Kandaules (op, 3, A. Gide, trans. F. Blei), 1935–8, orchestration completed A. Beaumont, 1993; Hamburg, Staatsoper, 6 Oct 1996

choral

—	Minnelied (H. Heine), TTBB, 2 fl, 2 hn, hp, c1895
—	Frühlingsglaube (L. Uhland), SATB, str, 1896
—	Geheimnis (unidentified), SATB, str, 1896
—	Hochzeitsgesang (Jewish liturgy), cantor (T), SATB, org, 1896
—	Frühlingsbegräbnis (P. Heyse), S, Bar, SATB, orch, 1896, rev. c1903
—	Psalm lxxxiii, S, A, T, B, SATB, orch, 1900
14	Psalm xxiii, SATB, orch, 1910
—	Aurikelchen (R. Dehmel), SSAA, c1920
24	Psalm xiii, SATB, orch, 1935

orchestral

—	Symphony [no.1], e, c1891, fragment
—	Symphony [no.2], d, 1892–3
—	Lustspielouvertüre, 1895
—	Suite, c1895
—	Symphony [no.3], B[], 1897
—	Drei Ballettstücke, from Der Triumph der Zeit, 1901
—	Die Seejungfrau, symph. fantasy after H.C. Andersen, 1902–3
18	Lyrische Symphonie (R. Tagore), S, Bar, orch, 1922–3
23	Sinfonietta, 1934

chamber and solo instrumental

—	Romanze, D[], vn, pf, 1889
—	Terzet, str trio, 1892
—	String Quartet, e, c1893
—	String Quintet, d, 2 vn, 2 va, vc, 1894–6, movts 2–3 lost

—	Suite, A, vn, pf, 1895
3	Trio, d, cl/vn, vc, pf, 1896
4	String Quartet no.1, A, 1896
15	String Quartet no.2, 1913–15
19	String Quartet no.3, 1924
—	Zwei Sätze, str qt, 1927
25	String Quartet no.4 (Suite), 1936
—	Hunting Piece, 2 hn, pf, 1939
—	Humoreske, wind qnt, 1939

piano

—	Sonata [no.1], G, 1887
—	Sonata [no.2], c, 1890
—	Nocturnes, D, E, 1889
—	Scherzo, 1889
—	Vier Miniaturen, c1891
—	Drei Stücke, 1891
—	Zwei Stücke, 1891
—	Drei leichte Stücke, 1891
—	Zwei Stücke, 4 hands, 1891
1	Ländliche Tänze, 1892
—	Vier Balladen, c1893
—	Albumblatt, 1895
—	Skizze, 1896
9	Fantasien über Gedichte von Richard Dehmel, 1898
—	Menuett, pf, 1901
—	Drei Stücke, 4 hands, 1903

songs

for 1v, pf unless otherwise stated

—	17 early songs, 1889–1895
—	Orientalisches Sonett (H. Grasberger), 1895
—	Waldgespräch (J.F. von Eichendorff), S, 2 hn, hp, str, 1896
—	Nun schwillt der See so bang (P. Wertheimer), 1896
—	Süsse, süsse Sommernacht (A. Lynx), 1896
—	Der Tag wird kühl (P. Heyse), 1897
2	Lieder (Heyse, T. Storm, J.W. von Goethe and others), 2 vols., 1895–6
5	Gesänge (Heyse, D. von Liliencron and others), 2 vols., 1896–7
6	Walzer-Gesänge nach toskanischen Volksliedern (Gregorovius), 1898
7	Irmelin Rose und andere Gesänge (C. Morgenstern, Dehmel, J.P. Jacobsen, P. Wertheimer), 1898–9
8	Turmwächterlied und andere Gesänge (Jacobsen, Liliencron), 1899
10	Ehetanzlied und andere Gesänge (O. Bierbaum, Morgenstern and others), 1900–01
—	In der Sonnesgasse (A. Holz), 1901
—	Herr Bombardil (R.A. Schröder), 1901
—	Maiblumen blühten überall (Dehmel), S, 2 vn, 2 va, 2 vc, c1903
—	Es war ein alter König (H. Heine), 1903
—	Mädel, kommst du mit zum Tanz? (Feld), c1904
—	Über eine Wiege (D. von Liliencron), 1904
—	Schlummerlied (R. Beer-Hofmann), 1905
—	Zwei Balladen (V. Klemperer, H. Amann), 1907
—	Fünf Lieder (Dehmel), 1907
13	[6] Gesänge (M. Maeterlinck), Mez/Bar, pf, 1910–13, orchd 1913, 1922
—	Noch spür ich ihren Atem (Hofmannsthal), 1916
—	Hörtest du denn nicht hinein (Hofmannsthal), 1916
—	Die Beiden (Hofmannsthal), 1916
—	Harmonie des Abends (C. Baudelaire, trans. A. Englert), 1916
20	Symphonische Gesänge (L. Hughes, C. Cullen and others, trans. H. Kesser and others), Mez/Bar, orch, 1929
—	Und einmal gehst du (Eigner), 1933
22	Sechs Lieder (Morgenstern, Goethe and others), 1934
—	Das bucklichte Männlein (Des Knaben Wunderhorn), 1934
—	Ahnung Beatricens (F. Werfel), 1935
27	Zwölf Lieder (S. George, Kalidasa, Goethe and others), 1937
—	Three Songs (I. Stein-Firner, trans. A. Matullath), 1939
MSS in US-Wc, NYp, A-Wn, Wst, Wgm
Principal publishers: Universal, Ricordi

Zemlinsky, Alexander

BIBLIOGRAPHY

letters, source material

A. Zemlinsky: ‘Brahms und die neuere Generation: persönliche Erinnerungen’, Musikblätter des Anbruch, iv (1922), 69–70; repr. in Brahms and His World, ed. W.M. Frisch (Princeton, NJ, 1990), 205–10

A. Zemlinsky: ‘Lyrische Symphonie’, Pult und Taktstock, i (1924), 10–11

A. Zemlinsky: ‘Einige Worte über das Studium von Schönbergs Erwartung’, Pult und Taktstock, iv (1927), 44–5

A. Zemlinsky: ‘Jugenderinnerungen’, Arnold Schönberg zum 60. Geburtstag(Vienna, 1934), 33–5

A. Beaumont, ed.: ‘Alexander Zemlinsky: Der Triumph der Zeit – Drei Ballettstücke – Ein Tanzpoem, eine Dokumentation’, Über Musiktheater, eine Festschrift, ed. S. Harpner and B. Gotzes (Munich, 1992), 13–31

H. Weber, ed.: Briefwechsel mit Arnold Schönberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg und Franz Schreker (Darmstadt, 1995)

A. Beaumont and S. Rode-Breymann, eds.: Alma Mahler-Werfel: Tagebuch-Suiten 1898–1902 (Frankfurt, 1997; Eng. trans., 1988)

biographical, analytical studies

R. Heuberger: Im Foyer: gesammelte Essays über das Opernrepertoire der Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1901)

R. Specht: ‘Die Jungwiener Tondichter’, Die Musik, ix/2 [no.7] (1909–10), 3–16, esp. 9–12

R.S. Hoffmann: ‘Alexander von Zemlinsky’, Der Merker, ii (1910–11), 193–7

Der Auftakt, nos.14–15 i (1920–21), 197–240 [Zemlinsky issue]

P. Stefan: ‘Zemlinsky’, Musikblätter des Anbruch, vii (1932), 126–7

T.W. Adorno: ‘Zemlinsky’, Quasi una fantasia: musikalische Schriften II (Frankfurt, 1963; Eng. trans., 1992), 155–80

H. Weber: ‘Zemlinsky in Wien 1871–1911’, AMw, xxviii (1971), 77–96

O. Kolleritsch, ed.: Alexander Zemlinsky: Tradition in Umkreis der Wiener Schule, Studien zur Wertungsforschung, vii (Graz, 1976)

H. Weber: Alexander Zemlinsky, Österreichische Komponisten des XX. Jahrhunderts, xxiii (Vienna, 1977)

L.A. Oncley: ‘The Works of Alexander Zemlinsky: a Chronological List’, Notes, xxxiv (1977–8), 291–302

R. Stephan: Alexander Zemlinsky: ein unbekannter Meister der Wiener Schule (Kiel, 1978)

A. Clayton: ‘Brahms und Zemlinsky’, Brahms Congress: Vienna 1983, 81–93

W. Loll: Zwischen Tradition und Avantgarde: die Kammermusik Alexander Zemlinskys, Kieler Schriften zur Musikwissenschaft, xxxiv (Kassel, 1990)

ÖMz, iv/4 (1992) [special number]

O. Biba: Alexander Zemlinsky: bin ich kein Wiener? (Vienna, 1992) [exhibition catalogue]

H. Krones, ed.: Alexander Zemlinsky: Ästhetik, Stil und Umfeld, Wiener Schriften zur Stilkunde und Aufführungspraxis, i (Vienna, Cologne and Weimar, 1995)

U. Sommer: Alexander Zemlinsky: Der König Kandaules, Musik-Konzepte, xcii–xciv (Munich, 1996)

Zemp, Hugo

(b Basle, 14 May 1937). Swiss-French ethnomusicologist. He met the anthropologist Denise Paulme and her husband the ethnomusicologist André Schaeffner during a trip to the Côte d’Ivoire in 1958 and thereafter reorientated his musical career, studying musicology and anthropology at the University of Basle (1958–61) while finishing a diploma in percussion at the Basle Conservatory (1960). He then attended the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes and took the doctorate with Paulme and Schaeffner in 1968; he also joined the CNRS at the Musée de l’Homme, Paris, then directed by Gilbert Rouget, in 1967. He was appointed to teach ethnomusicology in 1981 at the University of Paris X-Nanterre; in 1982 he was made editor of the recording series Collection CNRS/Musée de l’Homme, to which he has contributed recordings both before and during his term as editor (Traditional Polynesian Music of the Ontong Java, 1972; Jüüzli: Yodel for the Muotatal Switzerland, 1990; Solomon Islands: ‘Are’are Intimate and Ritual Music, 1995; Voices of the World: an Anthology of Vocal Expression, 1996).

Zemp’s extensive fieldwork in West Africa, Oceania and Switzerland have resulted in writings which are now standard reference works. His dissertation was one of the first books on African music written from the anthropological perspective outlined in Merriam’s Anthropology of Music; Zemp has also explored the sophisticated polyphony and structures of vernacular oral traditions of the ‘Are’are of the Solomon Islands in a number of publications (1978, 1979, 1995). His films (such as Voix de tête, voix de poitrine, 1988) and writings about film, particularly concerning yodelling, investigate for the first time the visualization of musical structure as well as the physiological and acoustical aspects of overtone singing. His writings, recordings and films have earned him several international awards.

WRITINGS

‘La légende des griots malinké’, Cahiers d’études africaines, vi (1966), 611–42

‘Comment on devient musicien: quatre exemples de l’ouest africain’, La musique dans la vie, i, ed. T. Nikiprowetzki (Paris, 1967), 79–103

Musique et musiciens chez les Dan (Côte d’Ivoire) (diss., Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, 1968; Paris, 1971, as Musique Dan: la musique dans la pensée et la vie social d’une société africaine)

with C. Kaufmann: ‘Pour une transcription automatique des langages tambourinés mélanésiens’, L’homme, ix/2 (1969), 39–88

‘Tambours de femme en Côte d’Ivoire’, Objets et Mondes: la revue du Musée de l’Homme, x/2 (1970), 99–118

‘Instruments de musique de Malaita’, Journal de la société des océanistes, xxvii/30 (1971), 31–53; xxviii/34 (1972), 7–48

with J. Schwarz: ‘Echelles équiheptatoniques des flûtes de Pan chez les ‘Are’are (Malaita, Iles Salomon)’, YIFMC, v (1973), 85–121

“Are’are Classification of Musical Types and Instruments’, EthM, xxii (1978), 37–67

with D. de Coppet: ‘Aré’aré, un peuple mélanésien et sa musique (Paris, 1978) [incl. recording]

‘Aspects of ‘Are’are Musical Theory’, EthM, xxiii (1979), 5–48

‘Melanesian Solo Polyphonic Panpipe Music’, EthM, xxv (1981), 383–418

‘Deux à huit voix: polyphonies de flûtes de Pan chez les Kwaio (Iles Salomon)’, RdM, lxviii (1982), 275–309

‘Filming Music and Looking at Music Films’, EthM, xxxii (1988), 393–427

‘Filming Voice Technique: the making of “The Song of Harmonics”’, World of Music, xxxi/3 (1989), 56–85

‘Ethical Issues in Ethnomusicological Filmmaking’, Visual Anthropology, iii (1990), 49–64

‘Visualizing Music Structure through Animation: the Making of the Film “Head Voice, Chest Voice”’, Visual Anthropology, iii (1990), 65–79

with T. Quang Hai: ‘Recherches expérimentales sur le chant diphonique’, Cahiers de musiques traditionnelles, iv (1991), 27–68

‘Quelles images pour la musique?’, Journal des anthropologues, xlvii–xlviii (1992), 107–17

Ecoute le bambou qui pleure: récits de quatre musiciens mélanésiens (‘Aré’aré, Iles Salomon) (Paris, 1995)

‘The/An Ethnomusicologist and the Record Business’, YTM, xxviii (1996), 36–56

‘Composer et interpréter des rythmes: musique et langage tambouriné chez les ‘Aré’aré’, Cahiers de musiques traditionnelles, x (1997), 191–235

SUSANNE FÜRNISS

Zemtsovsky, Izaly Iosifovich

(b Leningrad, 22 Feb 1936). Russian ethnomusicologist and folklorist. He studied composition at the Leningrad College of Musical Education with Ustvol'skaya (diploma, 1955), and philology, folklore (with Vladimir Propp) and linguistics at Leningrad University (BA 1958). He obtained graduate degrees in ethnomusicology (1960) and composition (1961) at the Leningrad Conservatory, and in 1960 joined the staff at the Leningrad Institute for the History of the Arts, where he took the kandidat degree in ethnography and folklore in 1964 and later served as head of the folklore department until 1995. During the 1970s and 80s he conducted fieldwork in regions throughout the USSR. He obtained a further doctoral degree at the Kiev Institute of the Arts, Ethnography and Folklore in 1981 and served as department chair at the Pedagogical University, Leningrad, 1989–93.

Zemtsovsky was appointed visiting professor at UCLA in 1994. He then became a research fellow at the University of Wisconsin (1995–6), after which he was appointed visiting professor at the University of California, Berkeley. His professional duties have included executive board member of ICTM (1989–93), liaison officer for UNESCO (1993–7) and adviser for the Center of Jewish Culture in Los Angeles (from 1994). A prolific author, his publications include five monographs and over 400 articles. He has concentrated his scholarship on the musics of European Russia, the origin of melodies, Jewish traditional music and the history of ethnomusicology.

WRITINGS

Russkaya narodnaya pesnya: nauchno-populyarnïy ocherk [The Russian folksong: educational essay] (Leningrad, 1964)

Russkaya protyazhnaya pesnya [The Russian drawn-out song] (diss., Institute for the History of the Arts, Leningrad, 1964; Leningrad, 1967)

Iskateli pesen: rasskazï o sobiratelyakh narodnïkh pesen v dorevolyutsionnoy Rossii [Song hunters: stories about folksong collectors in Russia] (Leningrad, 1967)

‘Russkaya sovetskaya muzïkal'naya fol'kloristika’ [Russian Soviet musical folkloristics], Voprosï teorii i ėstetiki muzïki, vi–vii (1967), 215–62

Poėziya krest'yanskikh prazdnikov [The poetry of peasant holidays] (Leningrad, 1970)

ed.: Slavyanskiy muzïkal'nïy fol'klor (Moscow, 1972) [incl. ‘Fol'kloristika kak nauka’ [Folkloristics as scholarship], 9–79; ‘Zarubezhnaya muzïkal'naya fol'kloristika (kratkiy obzor poslevoyennïkh publikatsiy’ [Foreign musicological study of folklore: a brief survey of post-war publications], 350–72]

‘Semasiologiya muzïkal'nogo fol'klora’ [The semasiology of musical folklore], Problemï muzïkal'nogo mïshleniya, ed. M. Aranovsky (Moscow, 1974), 177–206

‘Znacheniye teorii intonatsii Borisa Asaf'yeva dlya razvitiya metodologii muzïkalnoy fol'kloristiki’ [The signifigance of Asaf'yev’s theory of intonation for the development of the methodology of musical folkloristics], Sotsialisticheskaya muzïkal'naya kultura: traditsii, problemï, perspektivï, ed. G. Orjonikidze and J. Ėlsner (Moscow, 1974; Ger. trans., 1977), 95–109

Melodika kalendar'nïkh pesen [The melodics of calendar songs] (Leningrad, 1975; diss., Kiev Institute of Arts, Ethnography and Folklore, 1981)

‘Rosyjeskie piesni zapustne’ [Russian carnival songs], Muzyka, xxi/2 (1976), 10–30 [in Pol. with Eng. summary]

‘Narodnaya muzïka i sovremennost'; k probleme opredeleniya fol'klora’ [Folk music and today: the problem of folklore definition], Sovremennost' i fol'klor, ed. A.A. Gorkovenko and V.Ye. Gusev (Moscow, 1977), 28–75

Fol'klor i kompozitor (Moscow 1978) [collected essays; incl. list of writings, 1958–77, pp.158–73]

‘Problema varianta v svete muzïkal'noy tipologii’ [The problem of variant in light of musical typology], Aktual'nïye problemï sovremennoy fol'kloristiki, ed. V.Ye. Gusev (Leningrad, 1980), 36–50

ed.: Narodnaya muzïka SSSR i sovremennost' [Folk music and current lifestyles in the USSR] (Leningrad, 1982) [incl. ‘Sotsialisticheskaya kul'tura i fol'klor’, 7–30]

‘Iz bolgaro-litovskikh ėtnomuzïkal'nïkh paralleley: Balkano-Balto-Slavika kak predmet muzïkoznaniya’ [From the Bulgarian-Lithuanian ethnomusical parallels: Balkano-Balto-Slavica as a subject of ethnomusicology], Balto-slavyanskiye issledovaniya 1982 (Moscow, 1983), 205-23

‘Stil', zhanr, forma’ [Style, genre and form], Artes populares [Hungary], xiv (1985), 17–58 [in Russ.]

‘Rekonstruktsiya predstavleniya o tselostnosti fenomena fol'klornogo zhanra (metod i primer)’ [The concept of folklore genre integrity: an attempt at a reconstruction (methods and examples)], Balgarskoye muzikoznaniye, x/1 (1986), 16–24 [in Russ. with Eng. summary]

‘Vul'garnïy sotsiologizm v ėtnomuzïkoznanii’ [Vulgar sociology in ethnomusicology], SovM (1986), no.6, pp.97–105

‘The Ethnography of Performance: Playing – Intoning – Articulating Music’, Folklor i njegova umetnička transpozicija [I] : Belgrade 1987, 7–22 [summaries in Fr., Ger., Russ., Serb.]

Po sledam vesnyanki iz fortepiannogo kontserta P. Chaykovskogo: istoricheskaya morfologiya narodnoy pesni [On the trail of the ‘Vesninka’ melody in Tchaikovsky’s piano concerto: the historical morphology of the folksong] (Leningrad, 1987)

‘Muzïka i ėtnogenez: issledovatel'skiye predposïlki, zadachi, puti’, [Music and ethnogenesis: research prerequisites, goals and methods], Sovetskaya ėtnografiya, ii (1988), 15–23

‘Music and Ethnic History: an Attempt to Substantiate a Eurasian Hypothesis’, YTM, xii (1990), 20–28

‘Artikulyatsiya fol'klora kak znak ėtnicheskoy kul'turï’ [Folklore articulation as a sign of ethnic culture], Ėtnoznakovïye funktsii kul'turï, ed. Yu.V. Bromley (Moscow, 1991), 152–89; Eng. version in Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia, xxxv/1 (1996), 7–51

‘World Music: Phenomenon and Object of Modern Science’, World Music – Musics of the World: Cologne 1991, 89–105

‘Cajkovskij and the European Melosphere: a Case of Cantilena-Narration’, Čajkovskij-Symposium: Tübingen 1993, 329-35

‘Text – Kultur – Mensch: Versuch eines synthethetischen Paradigmas’, Festschrift zum 60. Geburtstag von Wolfgang Suppan, ed. B. Habla (Tutzing, 1993), 113–28

‘Underground Style as a Feature of Totalitarian Culture: the Case of Russian Music’, Verfemte Musik: Dresden 1993, 195–203

‘Jewish Music: Values from within versus Evaluation from without’, Representations of Jews through the Ages: Omaha, NE, 1995, ed. L.J. Greenspoon and B.F. Le Beau (Omaha, NE, 1996), 131–51

with A. Kunanbayeva: ‘Communism and Folklore’, Folklore and Traditional Music in the Former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe: Los Angeles 1994, 3–23, 42–4

‘An Attempt at a Synthetic Paradigm’, EthM, xli (1997), 185–205

FOLKSONG EDITIONS

Toropetskiye pesni: pesni rodinï M. Musorgskogo [Songs of Toropets: songs from the homeland of Musorgsky] (Leningrad, 1967)

Obraztsï narodnogo mnogogolosiya [Examples of Russian folk polyphony] (Moscow, 1972)

Uglichskiye narodnïye pesni [Russian folksongs of Uglich] (Leningrad, 1974)

Russkiye narodnïye pesni napetïye Annoy Stepanovoy [Russian folksongs performed by Anna Stepanova] (Leningrad, 1975)

with M. Gol'din: Yevreyskaya narodnaya pesnya: antologiya [Jewish folksongs: an anthology] (St Petersburg, 1994) [in Yiddish, Russ., Eng.]

MARIYA IVANOVNA RODITELEVA

Zemzaris, Imants

(b Riga, 14 April 1951). Latvian composer and critic. He graduated from Skulte’s composition class (1974) at the Latvian State Conservatory. Since 1972 Zemzaris has been teaching composition and music theory at the Emils Dārziņš Music School in Riga, and writes as a music critic in weekly publications. Zemzaris’s characteristic genres are instrumental chamber music and symphonic miniatures. He refers to the worlds of literature, theatre and painting by appending to his works poetic epigraphs or polysemantic titles. He also creates poetic signs and symbols by citing well-known musical styles, collages and models. With the freedom of a postmodernist, Zemzaris uses both historical styles and jazz and rock music idioms to achieve complicated subtexts with simple musical text. He favours extended repetitions of his material in the spirit of minimalist music. His music in in general lyrically fragile, sophisticated and intellectualized.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: XII gadsimta stabule [A 12th-Century Pipe], fl, str, db, 1978; Pēc Aitmatova lasījuma [Under the Impact of Aitmatov’s Readings], 1981; Sym., 1983; Veltījums pirmajai vizbulei [To the First Wood Anemone], 2 fl, small bell, hpd, str, 1987; Tēvzemes elēgija [Elegy of the Fatherland], str, 1994

Chbr and solo inst: Antikvārs [The Antiquarian], 2 pf, 1973; Warsaw Triptych, pf, 1973; Play Time, pf, 1974; Three Sisters (after A. Chekhov), fantasia, 2 pf, 1975; A Little Rock Music, pf trio, 1976; Suite, G, pf, 1977; Pf Sonata, 1980; 4 Preludes on a Theme by A. Kalniņš, wind qnt, 1981; Pirms sniega (Before the Snowfall], str qt, pf, 1983; Lauks [The Field], org, 1984; Jāņu diena [Midsummer Day], hn, vn, vc, pf, 1986; Pastorāles vasaras flautai [Pastorales for a Summer Flute], org, 1986; Mežezers [The Lake in the Wood], org, 1992; Viva la sonatina, pf, 1995; Augu ieziemošana [Plants Covering Up for the Winter], pf, 1995; Brīnumskaņdarbi [Miracle Pieces], pf qt, 1995; Trollis [Troll], fl, org, 1995; Liriskas skices [Lyrical Sketches], str qt, 1998

Choral and solo songs, incid music, film scores

Principal publishers: Liesma, Muzyka, Sovetskii Kompozitor, Leduc

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Zemzare, G. Pupa: Jauro mūzika [The Music of the Young] (Riga, 1979), 96–118

L. Mūrniece, ed.: Muzïka sovetskoy Latvii [The music of Soviet Latvia] (Riga, 1988), 102–5

E. Dubinets: ‘Vesti iz Riga’ [News from Riga], MAk (1993), no.3, p.62 only

ARNOLDS KLOTIŅŠ

Zenaro, Giulio

(b Salò, second half of the 16th century; d after 1590). Italian composer. As with many minor Italian madrigalists of the period, there is little record of his activities. He probably spent much of his career working in the environs of Venice, perhaps in the employ of Lorenzo Vettori, Archbishop of Candia, to whom he dedicated his 1588 collection. That he spent some time in Rimini in 1590 can be determined from the dedication of his volume of that year. Zenaro published a total of 64 madrigals.

WORKS

Il primo libro de madrigali, 5vv (Venice, 1588), inc.

Il primo libro de madrigali, 3vv (Venice, 1589)

Madrigali spirituali, 3vv (Venice, 1590)

1 Latin contrafactum, 1601¹⁸

PATRICIA ANN MYERS

Zenatello, Giovanni

(b Verona, 22 Feb 1876; d New York, 11 Feb 1949). Italian tenor. He studied as a baritone at Verona with Zannoni and made his début at Belluno in 1898 as Silvio in Pagliacci; the next year, at the Mercadante, Naples, he sang Canio in the same opera. He continued his studies with Moretti in Milan, and after a period in minor theatres, he appeared at Lisbon (1902) and during the 1902–3 season at La Scala (La damnation de Faust and Un ballo in maschera). He sang at La Scala frequently until 1907, taking the leading tenor roles in many premières there, notably of Giordano’s Siberia (1903) and Madama Butterfly (1904). He was often engaged in South America, notably at Buenos Aires (1903 and 1910), and was first heard at Covent Garden in 1905 as Riccardo, returning until 1909 and again in 1926 (as Otello). He made his New York début in 1907 at the Manhattan Opera House, where he sang regularly until 1910; during the next few years he worked mainly at the Boston Opera (1910–14 and 1915–17). After retiring from the stage in the 1928–9 season he directed a school of singing in New York (among the pupils was Lily Pons), and for several seasons he was manager of the Verona Arena, where he had inaugurated the opera performances as Radames (1913). Among his qualities were a warm and resonant baritonal timbre, and a clear, easily produced top register. A vigorous and passionate interpreter of Don José, Canio and Puccini’s Des Grieux, he was also much admired in Verdi (especially as Radames and Otello), although his style sometimes showed the coarsening influence of verismo.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ES (R. Celletti); GV (R. Celletti; R. Vegeto)

T. Hutchinson and C.W. Williams: ‘Giovanni Zenatello’, Record Collector, xiv (1961–2), 100–43, 170–71; xv (1963–4), 18–20 [with discography]

N. Zenatello Consolaro: Giovanni Zenatello, tenore (Verona, 1976)

RODOLFO CELLETTI/VALERIA PREGLIASCO GUALERZI

Zenck, Hermann

(b Karlsruhe, 19 March 1898; d Freiburg, 2 Dec 1950). German musicologist. He studied music at Karlsruhe Conservatory and in 1919 gained the Scheffel State Prize for composition. He then studied musicology under Sandberger at Munich and under Kroyer at Heidelberg and Leipzig, obtaining the doctorate at Leipzig in 1924 with a dissertation on Sixt Dietrich; he completed the Habilitation there in 1929 with a work on Willaert. In 1932 he went to Göttingen University as an external lecturer, becoming reader there in 1934 and full professor in 1937. In 1942 he was appointed professor at the University of Freiburg, but his activity there was hampered by the war. Although he had served in World War I he was called up again and was a POW from 1944 to 1946. When the series of Denkmäler was reorganized by its publishers he took charge of the Landschaftsdenkmäler for Lower Saxony. In his research he concentrated mainly on medieval and Renaissance music and was responsible for many important scholarly as well as performing editions.

WRITINGS

Sixtus Dietrich (ca.1492–1548) (diss., U. of Leipzig, 1924; Leipzig, 1928 as Sixtus Dietrich: ein Beitrag zur Musik und Musikanschauung im Zeitalter der Reformation)

‘Musikgeschichte bis zum XV. Jahrhundert’, Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, xviii (1928), 328–44

Studien zu Adrian Willaert (Habilitationsschrift, U. of Leipzig, 1929); extracts in ZMw, xii (1929–30), 540–78

ed., with H. Schultz and W. Gerstenberg: Theodor Kroyer: Festschrift (Regensburg, 1933) [incl. ‘Nicola Vicentinos L'antica musica’, 86–101]

‘Die Musik im Zeitalter Dantes’, Deutsches Dante-Jb, xvii (1935), 1–19

‘Ludwig Senfl zur vierhundertsten Wiederkehr seines Todesjahres’, Deutsche Musikkultur, viii (1943–4), 61–75

‘Theodor Kroyer (1873–1945)’, Mf, i (1948), 81–91

‘Adrian Willaerts “Salmi spezzati” (1550)’, Mf, ii (1949), 97–107

Articles repr. in Numerus und Affectus: Studien zur Musikgeschichte, ed. W. Gerstenberg (Kassel, 1959) [incl. complete list of writings]

EDITIONS

M. Praetorius: Megalynodia Sionia [1611], Gesamtausgabe der musikalischen Werke, xiv (Wolfenbüttel, 1934)

J. Schultz: Musikalischer Lüstgarten [1622], EDM, 2nd ser., Niedersachsen, i (1937)

Sixt Dietrich: Ausgewählte Werke, EDM, 1st ser., xxiii (1942, enlarged 2/1953/R as Hymnen (Wittenberg, 1545))

Adrian Willaert: Opera omnia, Publikationen älterer Musik, ix (1937; repr. in CMM, iii/1–2, 1950), CMM, iii/3 (1950)

KARL GEIRINGER

Zenck, Martin

(b St Peter, Schwarzwald, 9 Aug 1945). German musicologist. After taking private lessons in clarinet and music theory, he studied musicology with Dammann at Freiburg University, with philosophy and German literature as secondary subjects. He continued to study musicology (MA 1973, PhD 1975) with Dahlhaus at the Technische Universität, Berlin, where he completed the Habilitation in 1982 and acted as lecturer, 1982–6; he was also a producer for WDR (1984–6) and a lecturer at the Darmstadter Ferienkurse (1984–6). He was acting professor at Essen University (1986) and Saarbrücken University (1988) and was appointed full professor at Bamburg university in 1989; that same year he was also made lecturer on 20th-century music at the Würzburg Musikhochschule. He has been invited to lecture on 20th-century music at congresses and research institutes world-wide and has received many fellowships, including a five-month research grant from the Paul Sacher-Stiftung (2000). Zenck's scholarship has focussed on the reception history of Bach in the 18th and 19th century, 19th-century German and Austrian composers (particularly Schubert) and Adorno's theories of aesthetics.

WRITINGS

‘Aspekte der Mahler-Rezeption: Bemerkungen zu einer Theorie der musikalischen Rezeption’, GFMKB: Berlin 1974, 526–30

‘Ausdruck und Konstruktion im Adagio der 10. Sinfonie Gustav Mahlers’, Beiträge zur musikalischen Hermeneutik, ed. C. Dahlhaus, (Regensburg, 1975), 205–22

‘Die Aktualität Gustav Mahlers als Problem der Rezeptionsästhetik: Mahlers Naturerfahrung und Formen der Rezeption’, Melos/NZM, iii (1977), 225–32

Kunst als begriffslose Erkenntnis: zum Kunstbegriff der ästhetischen Theorie Theodor W. Adornos (Munich, 1977)

‘Auswirkungen einer “musique informelle” auf die Neue Musik: zu Theodor W. Adornos Formvorstellung,’ IRASM (1979), 137–65

‘Phantasmagorie - Ausdruck - Extrem: die Auseinandersetzung zwischen Adornos Musikdenken und Benjamins Kunsttheorie in den dreissiger Jahren’, Adorno und die Musik: Graz 1979, 202–26

‘Entwurf einer Soziologie der musikalischen Rezeption’, Mf, xxxiii (1980), 253–79

‘Rezeption von Geschichte in Beethovens “Diabelli - Variationen”: zur Vermittlung analytischer, ästhetischer und historischer Kategorien’, AMw, xxxvii (1980), 61–75

‘Mahlers Streichung des “Waldmärchens” aus dem “Klagenden Lied”: zum Verhältnis von philosophischer Erkenntnis und Interpretation’, AMw, xxxviii (1981), 179–93

‘Krenek als Problem der “Avantgarde”: Überlegungen zum Fortschrittsbegriff der Neuen Musik’, Ernst Krenek, ed. O. Kolleritsch, (Vienna, 1982), 216–37

‘Stadien der Bach-Deutung in der Musikkritik, Musikästhetik und Musikgeschichtsschreibung zwischen 1750 und 1800’, BJb 1982, 7–32

‘Zum Begriff des Klassischen in der Musik’, AMw, xxxix (1982), 271–92

‘Das Irreduktible als Kriterium der Avantgrade: Überlegungen zu den vier Streichquartetten Giacinto Scelsis’, Giacinto Scelsi, Musik-Konzepte, no.31 (1983), 67–81

‘Weberns Wiener Espressivo: seine Voraussetzungen im späten Mittelalter und bei Beethoven’, Anton Webern, Musik-Konzepte (1983), 179–206 [special issue]

‘“Die ich rief, die Geister/Werd ich nun nicht los”: zum Problem von György Ligetis Avantgarde-Konzeption’, György Ligeti: Graz 1984, 153–78

‘Pousseurs theoretische und kompositorische Auseinandersetzung mit Anton Webern: zur Differenzierung des Sachverhalts “serielle Webern-Rezeption”’, Anton Webern, ii, Musik-Konzepte (1984), 218–37 [special issue]

‘Die Ungleichzeitigkeit des Neuen: zu den acht Streichquartetten Ernst Kreneks’, Ernst Krenek, Musik-Konzepte, nos.39–40 (1984), 92–113

‘Wenn Bach Bienen gezüchtet hätte: zur Bedeutung Bachs in der Interpretations- und Kompositionsgeschichte des 20. Jahrhunderts’, Bach im 20. Jahrhundert: Neue Musik in der Kirche, ed. W. Rehm and K.M. Ziegler (Kassel, 1984), 102–26

‘Bach, der Progressive: die “Goldberg-Variationen” in der Perspektive von Beethovens “Diabelli-Variationen”’, Johann Sebastian Bach: Goldberg-Variationen, Musik-Konzepte, no.42 (1985), 29–92

‘Bach in der Musikgeschichtsschreibung und in der Musik des 18. Jahrhunderts’, JSIM 1985–6, 239–56

‘1740–1750 und das ästhetische Bewusstsein einer Epochenschwelle? Zum Text und Kontext von Bachs Spätwerk’, Johann Sebastian Bachs Spätwerk und dessen Umfeld: Duisberg 1986, 109–16

Die Bach-Rezeption des späten Beethoven: zum Verhältnis von Musik-historiographie und Rezeptionsgeschichtsschreibung der ‘Klassik’ (Stuttgart, 1986)

‘Die Hölderlin-Vertonungen Max Regers: zur Interpretation der Skizzen und Kompositionen opus 75, nr. 6 und opus 124’, Reger-Studien, iii, (1986), 157–82

‘Oratorien nach Auschwitz: zu Bernd Alois Zimmermanns “ecclesiastischer Aktion” “Ich wandte mich um und sah an alles Unrecht, das geschah unter der Sonne,”’: Beiträge zur Geschichte des Oratoriums seit Händel: Festschrift Günther Massenkeil, ed. R. Cadenbach and H. Loos (Bonn, 1986), 557–86

‘“Gesture as an Universal Language”: die Bedeutung der Joyceschen Poetik in Bernd Alois Zimmermanns “Requiem für einen jungen Dichter”’, Zwischen den Generationen: Cologne 1987, 47–75

‘Die romantische Erfahrung der Fremde in Schuberts “Winterreise”’, AMw, xliv (1987), 141–60

‘Tradition as Authority and Provocation: Anton Webern's Confrontation with Johann Sebastian Bach’, Bach Studies, ed. D.O. Franklin, i (Cambridge, 1989), 297–322

‘Karel Goeyvaerts und Guillaume de Machaut.: zum mittelalterlichen Konstruktivismus in der seriellen Musik der fünfziger Jahre’, Mf, xliii (1990), 336–51

‘“…es sind/noch Lieder zu singen jenseits/der Menschen”: vier Kompositionen des Gedichts “Fadensonnen” aus Paul Celans “Atemwende”’, Paul Celan, ‘Atemwende’: Materialien, ed. G. Buhr and R. Reuss (Würzburg, 1991), 267–97

‘Nono - Mozart: das Verstehbare und Nicht-Vestehbare ihrer Kunst’, Kunst-Verstehen/Musik-Verstehen, ed. S. Mauser (Munich, 1992), 403–23

‘Das revolutionäre Exilwerk des Komponisten Stefan Wolpe – mit kritischen Anmerkungen zur Musikgeschichtsschreibung der dreißiger und vierziger Jahre’, Exilforschung: ein internationales Jb, (1992), 129–51

‘Der Garten der Pfade, die sich verzweigen: Komponieren von Streichquartetten im 20. Jahrhundert’, Die Befreiung der Musik eine Einführung in die Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts, ed. F.X. Ohnesorg (Cologne, 1993) 188–207

‘Die “Lust am Text” versus “Werktreue”: zur musikalischen Interpretation des 1. Satzes von Schuberts Klaviersonate B Dur (D 960)’, Das Wissen von Menschen, ed. W. Faber, (Bamberg, 1993), 142–7

‘Nono - Mozart: das Verstehbare und Nicht-Verstehbare ihrer Kunst’, Kunst-Verstehen/Musik-Verstehen ed. S. Mauser (Laaber, 1993) 215–36

‘Im Zustand der Erschöpfung: : Kategorien im Musikdenken von Gérard Zinsstag’, MusikTexte, no.52 (1994), 5–13

‘“Musik” über Musik in Michel Butors Kunstbuch: “Beethovens dialogue avec le valse de Diabelli”’, Musik und Literatur ed. A. Gier and G.W. Gruber (Frankfurt, 1995), 283–92

‘“Musik” über Musik in Adornos “Ästhetischer Theorie”’, Studien zur Musikgeschicht eine Festschrift für Ludwig Finscher, ed. A. Laubenthal and K. Kusan-Windweh (New York, 1995)

‘Emmanuel Nunes' “Quodlibet”: Gehört mit den Ohren Nonos’, Nähe und Distanz: nachgedachte Musik der Gegenwart, ed. W. Gratzer (Hofheim, 1996), 1–17

‘Bach in the 19th and 20th Century’, The Cambridge Companion to Bach, ed. J. Butt (Cambridge, 1997), 1–88

‘Mandelstam - du Bouchet: Celans Übersetzungen in der Musik von Klaus Huber und André Boucourechliev’, Celan-Jb, vii (1997–8), 143–64

ed.: Music, the Arts and Ritual, World of Music, i (1998)

Der ‘andere’ Schubert: sein Werk in der Perspektive des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts (Wiesbaden, forthcoming), [incl. ‘Franz Schubert im 19. Jahrhundert: zur Kritik eines beschädigten Bildes’; ‘Anmerkungen zur musikalischen Interpretation von Schuberts Klaviersonate B-Dur D. 960,’; ‘Zur Entgrenzung von vokaler Gattung und Szene in Schuberts Oper “Fierrabras”’]

Zender, Hans

(b Wiesbaden, 22 Nov 1936). German composer and conductor. He studied the piano with August Leopolder and Edith Picht-Axenfeld, composition with Kurt Hessenberg and Wolfgang Fortner, and conducting with Carl Ueter at the Musikhochschule in Frankfurt and Freiburg. He began his professional career in 1959 as Kapellmeister for the Städtische Bühnen, Freiburg. From 1964 to 1968 he was the principal conductor of the Bonn opera and in 1969 accepted the post of general music director in Kiel. In 1971 he was appointed principal conductor of the Saarbrücken RSO, which became one of Europe’s leading contemporary music ensembles under his direction. He went on to co-found the Musik im 20. Jahrhundert festival with Christof Bitter, commissioning compositions from both young and well-established composers. In 1984 he moved to Hamburg, where, as the general music director of the Staatsoper, he was first to produce Nono’s opera Intolleranza. He also served as the general music director of the city. From 1987 to 1990 he conducted the Radio Chamber Orchestra, Hilversum, and served as principal guest conductor of La Monnaie, Brussels. In addition to performing internationally as a guest conductor, he has been appointed co-conductor of the SWF Orchestra of Baden-Baden/Freiburg (from 1999).

Zender’s conducting career has always been closely paralleled by his composing. His works, however, cannot be associated with one particular style or school of composition. The series Canto I–VIII (from 1965), influenced by his contact with Chinese and Japanese cultures, explores a new conception of musical time. In these works a teleological understanding of time is replaced by a cyclic understanding that allows forces pulling in seemingly opposite directions to combine. In Shir hashirim (1995–6) this temporal philosophy is applied to large-scale form; new harmonic structures develop out of the transcription of temperatures into the equal-tempered system. His re-compositions, arrangements, or as he calls them ‘composed interpretation[s]’, of music by Schubert (Schubert-Chöre, 1986; Winterreise, 1993) and Debussy (5 préludes, 1991) confront the music of the past. Similarly, the String Quartet ‘Hölderin lesen I’ (1979) borrows a ‘stylistic glissando’ from Beethoven’s musical language. Other notable works include two compositions for musical theatre: Stephen Climax (1979–84) and Don Quijote de la Mancha (1989–91). In 1988 he accepted the post of professor of composition at the Frankfurt Musikhochschule. His many honours include two fellowships to the Villa Massimo, Rome (1963–4, 1968–9), where he became friendly with Bernd Alois Zimmermann, the Frankfurt music prize (1997), the Goethe prize (1997) and membership in the Hamburg (1985), Berlin (1989) and Munich (1990) arts academies.

WORKS

dramatic

Stephen Climax (op, 3, Zender, after text and motifs on the life of St Simeon and J. Joyce: Ulysses), 1979–84; Don Quijote de la Mancha (31 theatralische Abenteuer, Zender, after M. de Cervantes), 1989–91; Nanzen und die Katze (radio play), 1995

instrumental

Orch: Schachspiel, 1969; Modelle, variable insts, 1971–3; Zeitströme, 1974; Dialog mit Haydn, 2 pf, orch, 1982; Fl Conc. (Lo-Shu V), 1987; Koan, 1996; Kalligraphie I (Introitus), 1997–8

Chbr and solo inst: 3 Nocturnes, hpd, 1963; 3 Stücke, ob, 1963; Qt, fl, vc, pf, perc, 1964–5; Trifolium, fl, vc, pf, 1966; Chiffren, hpd, 1976; Happy Band, scherzo, 12 wind, 1976; Litanei, 3 vc, 1976; Lo-Shu I, 1–3 fl, 1–3 vc, 1–3 perc, 1977; Lo-Shu II (Mondschrift), fl, 1978; Lo-Shu III, fl, 24 insts, 1978; 5 Haiku (Lo-Shu IV), fl, str, 1982; Angezogen vom Ton der Flöte, 3 études, fl, 1985; Lo-Shu VI (5 Haiku), fl, vc, 1989; Memorial, 3 studies, pf, 1989; Spazierwege und Spiele (14 Stücke für Kinder), pf, 1990; 5 Haiku, str qt, 1991

vocal

Choral: Canto I, chorus, fl, str, pf, perc, 1965; Canto II (E. Pound), S, chorus, orch, 1967; Canto IV (4 Aspekte) (Bible, T. Müntzer, M. Luther, T. de Chardin), 16vv, 16 insts, 1969–72; Canto V (Kontinuum und Fragmente) (after Heraclitus), vv, perc ad lib, 1972–4; Animula, female vv, 5 fl, hp ad lib, 3 perc, live elecs, 1988; Canto VI (Pss xxii, xxiii), B-Bar, mixed chorus, tape ad lib, 1988; Nanzen No Kyo (Canto VII), chorus, insts, 1992; Johannes III, mixed chorus, 1997; Shir hashirim [Song of Songs] (Canto VIII), solo vv, chorus, orch, live elecs, 1995–6

Solo: 3 Rondels (after S. Mallarmé), A, fl, va, 1961; 3 Lieder (J. von Eichendorff), S, orch, 1963–4; Vexilla regis, conc., S, fl, tpt, insts, 1964; Les sirènes chantent quand la raison s’endort (Hommage à Max Ernst), S, fl, cl, vc, pf, vib, 1966; Canto III (Der Mann von La Mancha) (Cervantes), S, T, Bar, insts, live elecs, 1968; Muji No Kyo, 1v, fl, vn/vc, perc + synth, inst ens, 1975; Hölderlin lesen I (F. Hölderlin: An die Madonna), 1v, str qt, 1979; Cantate nach Meister Eckhart, A, vc, hpd, 1980; Die Wüste hat zwölf Ding (Mechthild von Magdeburg), A, small orch, 1985; Hölderlin lesen II, 1v, va, live elecs, 1987; Jours de silence (H. Michaux), Bar, orch, 1987–8; Furin No Kyo, S, cl, chbr ens, 1989; denn wiederkommen (Hölderlin lesen III) (Hölderlin: Patmos), 1v, str qt, 1991; Römer VIII, S, A, org, live elecs, 1994

other

Arrs.: Schubert: Chöre, chorus, orch, 1986; Debussy: 5 préludes, chbr orch, 1991; Schubert: Winterreise, T, ens, 1993; Schumann: Fantasie, orch, 1997

El-ac: BREMEN WODU, 1967; Elemente, 1976

Principal publishers: Bote & Bock, Breitkopf & Härtel, Universal

BIBLIOGRAPHY

KdG (W. Gruhn) [incl. discography, writings list and further bibliography]

W. Konold: ‘Kristallines Gebilde im musikalischen Material: der Komponist Hans Zender’, Musica, no.27 (1973), 253–6

V. Wacker: ‘Hans Zenders Oper “Stephen Climax”: Betrachtungen und Aspekte’, Musiktheater im 20. Jahrhundert (Laaber, 1988), 239–58

W. Fink: ‘Versuch über Hans Zender’, Hans Zender (Wiesbaden, 1993) [Breitkopf & Härtel catalogue]

H. Lachenmann: ‘Zu Hans Zenders 50. Geburtstag’, Musik als existentielle Erfhrung: Schriften 1966–1995, ed. J. Häusler (Wiesbaden, 1996)

W. Gruhn: ‘Das andere Denken der Ohren: der Einfluss fernöstlichen Denkens auf die Zeitvorstellung in Kompositionen Hans Zenders’, Philosophischer Gedanke und musikalischer Klang, ed. Gunter Scholtz (forthcoming, 1998)

WILFRIED GRUHN

Zeneműkiadó Vállalat.

Original name of Editio Musica Budapest.

Zenngel, Narcissus.

See Zängel, Narcissus.

Zeno, Apostolo

(b Venice, 11 Dec 1668; d Venice, 11 Nov 1750). Italian poet, librettist, scholar and antiquarian. He was educated by the Somaschi fathers in the Venetian classical tradition, but was also familiar with the empiricism of Galileo and with rationalism. In 1691 he founded the Accademia degli Animosi, where he became prominent at a very young age as a poet in the late-Baroque mould. Like the more famous Accademia degli Animosi it had as its aim the restoration of Arcadian ‘good taste’. Zeno took part in the debate between G.G. Orsi and Bouhours, defending in a letter to Orsi of 29 October 1706 certain verses of Tasso's Gerusalemme liberata against the accusation by the Frenchman that they were artificially refined. With Scipione Maffei, Antonio Vallisnieri and his brother Pier Caterino Zeno he founded the Giornale de' letterati d'Italia (Verona, 1710). He was the chief editor between 1710 and 1718, entrusting the position to his brother when he left for Vienna to become court poet and historian. His prolific correspondence with distinguished men of letters (Orsi, L.A. Muratori, G. Fontanini, G. Gigli, A. Maghabechi, F. Marmi and the brothers A.M. and S. Salvini) reveals details of his projects, such as that on the history of Italian poets, and confirms his belief in the civilizing influence of culture; his interest in collecting books, manuscripts, medals and coins, and in scholarly research is also evident. Zeno kept his work for the theatre and his scholarly activities separate, and while the former allowed him financial security, he considered it to be less prestigious.

His first libretto, set by C.F. Pollarolo in 1696, was Gli inganni felici, in which the pastoral plot is complicated by incredible misunderstandings and comic lines. He produced librettos for the commercial theatres of Venice and Milan, often collaborating with Pietro Pariati, who versified the dramas. His choice of the theatre as a means of communication was motivated not only by the financial rewards, but also by the practical possibilities of theatre as an art. However, he strove endlessly to meet the demands set down by the impresarios, greedy for profit, and singers. In spite of his copious libretto production, Zeno always felt constrained by the requirements of opera as a spectacle: content and form were heavily conditioned by the need to entertain – ‘if one does not allow oneself many extravagances, the main purpose of such compositions, which is enjoyment, is lost’ (letter to Muratori of August 1701). This was somewhat at odds with his aspirations towards the austere restraint of tragedy: ‘something has to be conceded to the indulgences of the age, to decoration, to music’ (letter to P.C. Zeno of 6 January 1720, on the Venetian production of Lucio Papirio).

In 1709–10 Zeno was commissioned by the Habsburg pretenders to the Spanish throne to write Atenaide and Scipione nelle Spagne, dramas delineating the monarch's role as servant of the state, concerned with respect for the law and the virtues of justice, clemency and self-restraint. He thus showed himself adept in the functions of court poet, a post which he held in Vienna from 1718 until 1729, when Pietro Metastasio was summoned, ostensibly to help the older poet but in effect to replace him. Zeno returned to Venice in the same year and sent one more libretto, Enone (1734), to his former patrons. In the latter years of his residence in Vienna he had turned towards scholarly matters, organizing the coin museum of Charles VI, and when he returned to Italy he concerned himself exclusively with study.

While recent studies have suggested that it was not Zeno who initiated the ‘reform’ of opera, the word riforma appears frequently in his letters on the subject of the theatre. In a letter to Giuseppe Gravisi of 3 November 1730, immediately after he had left the service of the court, he stressed as intrinsic limitations to the verisimilitude of opera ‘the need to sing the da capo in ariettas, and all those changes of scene’. The first of these caused him special difficulties in sacred dramas, where he found it unseemly to provide dignified personages with trifling passages; and the second prevented exact observance of the rule of unity of place, which he had to relax, though he kept the action within a single town.

The specific objective behind Zeno's reform was moral rectitude. In the same letter to Gravisi, he complained about the ‘scant regard’ poets had for the ethical aspect of the theatre, seeing that they aimed to arouse passions, particularly love, rather than to keep a rein on them. The idea of catharsis seemed necessary to Zeno, but not only as a purgation by means of terror and pity: he also created examples of virtue to be admired and imitated in his dramas, thus achieving the happy ending traditionally expected in court dramas (the happy ending of a married couple should perhaps be seen in moral terms as a celebratory metaphor of the eternal renewal present in the stable dynastic lines of Zeno's clients). Zeno's dramatic verse was inspired by G.B. Guarini's pastoral tragicomedies: the characters are of noble condition, as tragedy required, the emotional orientation is towards pathos, not terror, and the sadness of the audience is assuaged with a happy ending. The operas written in Vienna are of this type (Meride e Selinunte, 1721; Euristeo, 1724; Imeneo, 1727).

Zeno continued with dramas on mythical subjects, even though he was particularly attracted to historical subjects for their intrinsic and noble realism. He maintained a strong respect for history, punctiliously citing his sources, both classical and medieval, in his plot summaries. His directions for scene changes (few in number) reveal his care for historical and iconographical evidence, whether the subject was Greek, Roman (Flavio Aricio Olibrio, 1707) or Byzantine, medieval or Nordic (Faramondo, 1698; L'amor generoso, 1707; Engelberta, 1708; Sirita, 1719). He paid particular attention to the scenic atmosphere of exotic subjects, which the public found particularly delightful – Chinese (Il Teuzzone, 1706), Persian (Ormisda, 1721), Egyptian (Nitocri, 1722) and Indian (Gianguir, 1724).

Zeno dedicated to his imperial patrons his Poesie sacre drammatiche (Venice, 1734), which is important as a poetic testament because it traces his move from the commercial theatres of Venice to the Viennese court theatre, which marked a turning-point in the ethical aspect of his lodevol riforma; freed from the constraints of pecuniary success, conscious that his patrons were concerned with the more enduring profits of praise and prestige, he could put forward on the imperial stage models of human perfection. These, according to his assertion in the dedication, would be directly inspired by the imperial pair themselves and by august persons of classical antiquity. However, the main means of making drama was by catharsis through admiration, which could best be achieved in sacred drama; by its more austere tone and discourse this approached more closely his objective of the restoration of tragedy.

Zeno expressed doubt on how effective the reform had been in a letter to Gravisi of 1735: ‘Save for a few of them, I consider them as failures and monstrosities’. Yet many were remarkable successes, produced often in a variety of theatres and set to music by diverse composers.

LIBRETTOS

ELENA SALA DI FELICE

Zeno, Apostolo

LIBRETTOS

theatrical works

drammi per musica unless otherwise stated; selective list of settings

Gli inganni felici, C.F. Pollarolo, 1696 (A. Scarlatti, 1699; Buini, 1722); Il Tirsi (dramma pastorale), Lotti, Caldara and Ariosti, 1696; Il Narciso (pastorale), Pistocchi, 1697 (Sarti, 1763); I rivali generosi, M.A. Ziani, 1697 (Monari, Pistocchi and Capelli, 1710; Albinoni, 1725; Vignati, 1726); Eumene, Ziani, 1697 (Gasparini, 1714; Torri, 1720; Porpora, 1721; Albinoni, 1723; Giai, 1737; Jommelli, 1742; Manna, 1750; Aurisicchio, 1754; Mazzoni, 1759; Sacchini, 1763; De Majo, Insanguine and Errichelli, 1771; Carvalho, 1773; Insanguine, 1778; Borghi, 1777; Bertoni, 1783); Odoardo, Ziani, 1698; Faramondo, Pollarolo, 1698 (Porpora, 1719; Gasparini, 1720; Handel, 1738)

Lucio Vero, Pollarolo, 1700 (Albinoni, 1713; Gasparini, 1719; Torri, 1720; Sarro, 1722; Ciampi, 1726; Ariosti, 1727; Keiser, 1728, as Lucius Verus; Araia, 1735; Sala, 1737, as Vologeso; Di Capua, 1739, as Vologeso re de' Parti; Pulli, 1741, as Vologeso, re de' Parti; Manna, 1745; Galuppi, 1748, as Vologeso; Jommelli, 1754; Perez, 1754; Sarti, 1754, as Vologeso; Bertoni, 1757; Perez, 1762, as Berenice; Fischietti, 1764, as Vologeso; Sacchini, 1764; Jommelli, 1766, as Vologeso; Colla, 1770, as Vologeso; Sacchini, 1772, as Vologeso; Traetta, 1774; Guglielmi, 1775, as Vologeso; Rutini, 1775, as Vologeso; Masi, 1776, as Vologeso; Rust, 1778, as Vologeso; Martín y Soler, 1783, as Vologeso; Brunetti, 1789, as Vologeso, re de' Parti)

Temistocle (azione scenica), Ziani, 1701 (Porpora, 1718; Chelleri, 1721); Griselda, A. Pollarolo, 1701 (Albinoni, 1703; Chelleri, 1707; Predieri, 1711, as La virtù in trionfo, o sia La Griselda; Orlandini, 1716; A.M. Bononcini, 1718; G. Bononcini, 1722; A. Scarlatti, 1721; Torri, 1723; F.B. Conti, 1725; Ciocchetti, 1728; Vivaldi, 1735; Latilla, 1751); Il Venceslao, C.F. Pollarolo, 1703 (Perti, 1708; Mancini, 1714, as Il Vincislao; Boniventi, 1720; Capelli, 1724; Caldara, 1725; Torri, 1725; Porta, 1726, as La Lucinda fedele; Scalabrini, 1744; Pampani, 1752; Latilla, 1754); Aminta (dramma regio pastorale), Albinoni, 1703; Pirro, Aldrovandini, 1704 (Gasparini, 1717)

Antioco (with P. Pariati), Gasparini, 1705 (Hasse, 1721, Gurecký, 1729); Artaserse (with Pariati), Giannettini, 1705 (Orlandini, 1706; Sandoni, 1709; Ariosti, 1724); Ambleto (with Pariati), Gasparini, 1706 (D. Scarlatti, 1715; Vignati, 1719; Carcani, 1742); Statira (with Pariati), Gasparini, 1706 (Albinani, 1726); Il Teuzzone, Magni and Monari, 1706 (Lotti, 1707; Orlandini and others, 1712; G. Casanova and Fioré, 1716; Feo, 1720; Ariosti, 1727; Nicolini, 1725), L'amor generoso, Gasparini, 1707 (Orlandini and Ceruti, 1708; Costanzi, 1727; Vivaldi, 1731, as Alvilda regina de' Goti; Galuppi, 1737, as L'Alvilda); Anfitrione (tragicommedia, with Pariati), Gasparini, 1707

Flavio Anicio Olibrio (with Pariati), Gasparini, 1708 (Porpora, 1711; Porta, 1726, as Il trionfo di Flavio Olibrio; Vinci, 1728; E. Duni, 1736, as La tirannide debellata; Jommelli, 1740, as Ricimero re de' Goti); Engelberta (with Pariati), Fiorè, 1708 (Albinoni and Gasparini, 1709; Orefice and Mancini, 1709; C.F. Pollarolo, 1711; Bioni, 1729; Paganelli, 1743); Astarto (with Pariati), Albinoni, 1708 (Fago, 1709; G. Bononcini, 1715; Predieri, 1715, as Astarte; Conti, 1718; Caldara, 1725; Hasse, 1726; Galuppi, 1736, as Elisa regina di Tiro; Terradellas, 1739); Il falso Tiberino (with Pariati), C.F. Pollarolo, 1709; Atenaide, Fiorè, Caldara and Gasparini, 1709 (Ziani, A. Negri and Caldara, 1714; Vivaldi, 1728); Zenobia in Palmira (with Pariati), Chelleri, 1709 (Leo, 1725; Brusa, 1725, as L'amore eroico)

Scipione nelle Spagne, comp. unknown, 1710 (A. Scarlatti, 1714; Caldara, 1722; Albinoni, 1724; Ferrandini, 1732; Arrigoni, 1739; Leo, 1740; Bertoni, 1768); Costantino (with Pariati), Gasparini, 1711 (Lotti and Caldara, 1716; Orlandini, 1731, as Massimiano); Merope, Gasparini, 1712 (Fiorè, 1716; Orlandini, 1717; Predieri, 1718; Torri, 1719; Broschi, 1732; Giacomelli, 1734; Vivaldi, 1737, as L'oracolo in Messenia; Brivio, 1738; G. Scarlatti, 1740; Jommelli, 1741; Terradellas, 1743, Cocchi, 1748; Perez, 1750; Capranica, 1751; Gassmann, 1757; Sciroli, 1761; Latilla, 1763; Sala, 1769; Insanguine, 1772; Guglielmi, 1775; Traetta, 1776)

Alessandro Severo, Lotti, 1717 (Mancini, 1718; Chelleri, 1718; Sarro, 1719; Orlandini, 1723; Giacomelli, 1732; Handel, 1738; Bernasconi, 1738; Sacchini, 1763); Ifigenia in Aulide, Caldara, 1718 (Orlandini, 1732; Porpora, 1735; Porta, 1738; Salari, 1776); Sirita, Caldara, 1719; Lucio Papirio dittatore, Caldara, 1719 (A. Pollarolo, 1721; Giacomelli, 1729; Porta, 1732; Holzbauer, 1737; Hasse, 1742; Graun, 1745, as Quinto Fabio; Manna, 1748; Galupi, 1751; Paisiello, 1767; Anfossi, 1771, as Quinto Fabio; Bertoni, 1778, as Quinto Fabio; Bortnyansky, 1778, as Quinto Fabio; Cherubini, 1779, as Quinto Fabio; Borghi, 1781, as Quinto Fabio; Marinelli, 1791; Zingarelli, 1794)

Don Chisciotte in Sierra Morena (tragicommedia per musica, with Pariati), Conti, 1719; Alessandro in Sidone (with Pariati), Conti, 1721 (G. Bononcini, 1737); Meride e Selinunte, Porsile, 1721 (Porpora, 1726; Chiarini, 1744); Ormisda, Caldara, 1721 (Orlandini, 1723; A. Pollarolo, 1723, as Cosroë; Cordans, 1728; Handel, 1730); Nitocri, Caldara, 1722 (Sellitto, 1733; Leo, 1733; Giacomelli, 1736; Cocchi, 1751; Agnesi-Pinottini, 1771; Mercadante, 1824); Euristeo, Caldara, 1724 (Hasse, 1732); Andromaca, Caldara, 1724 (Feo, 1730); Gianguir, Caldara, 1724 (Giacomelli, 1729; Porta, 1732; Giai, 1738; V. Ciampi, 1759); Semiramide in Ascalona, Caldara, 1725; I due dittatori, Caldara, 1726; Imeneo, Caldara, 1727; Ornospade, Caldara, 1727; Mitridate, Caldara, 1728 (Giai, 1730; Porpora, 1730); Caio Fabbrizio, Caldara, 1729 (Hasse, 1732; Scalabrini, 1743; Auletta, 1743; Graun, 1746; Scolari, 1755; De Majo, 1760); Enone, Caldara, 1734

Incomplete, in I-Vnm: Antiochide; Caio Mario in Minturno

oratorios

first performed in Vienna: music by Caldara unless otherwise stated

Sisara, Porsile, 1719; Tobia, Porsile, 1720; Naaman, Conti, 1721; Giuseppe, 1722; David, Conti, 1724; Le profezie evangeliche d'Isaia, 1725; Gioaz, 1726; Il Batista, 1727; Gionata, 1728; Naboth, 1729; Daniello, Hasse, 1731; David umiliato, 1731; Sedezia, 1732; Gerusalemme convertita, 1733; San Pietro in Cesarea, 1734; Gesù presentato nel Tempio, 1735; Ezechia, G. Bononcini, 1737

Zeno, Apostolo

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ES (A. Basso)

MGG (A.A. Abert)

SmitherHO, i

A. Zeno: ‘Catalogo dei drammi composti dal signor Apostolo Zeno con la dichiarazione de' luoghi e de' tempi in cui l’autore stesso li la pubblicati’, Novelle della Repubblica Letteraria per l'anno MDCCXXXV, no.46 (1735), 361–4

A. Zeno: Poesie drammatiche, ed. G. Gozzi (Venice, 1744)

J. Morelli, ed.: Lettere di Apostolo Zeno Cittadino veneziano istorico e poeta cesareo (Venice, 1785)

F. Negri: La vita di Apostolo Zeno (Venice, 1816)

L. Pistorelli: Il melodrammi di Apostolo Zeno (Padua, 1894)

L. Pistorelli: ‘Due melodrammi inediti di A. Zeno’, RMI, iii (1896), 261–74

A. Menghi: Lo Zeno e la critica letteraria (Camerno, 1901)

A. Wotquenne: Alphabetisches Verzeichnis der Stücke in Versen aus der dramatischen Werken von Zeno, Metastasio und Goldoni (Leipzig, 1905)

W. Pietzsch: Apostolo Zeno in seiner Abhängigkeit von der französischen Tragödie (diss., U. of Leipzig, 1907)

M. Fehr: Apostolo Zeno und seine Reform des Operntextes (Zürich, 1912)

A. Michieli: ‘Le poesie sacre drammatiche di Apostolo Zeno’, Giornale storico della letteratura italiana, xcv (1930), 1–33

R. Giazotto: Poesia melodrammatica e pensiero critico nel Settecento (Milan, 1952)

R. Freeman: ‘Apostolo Zeno's Reform of the Libretto’, JAMS, xxi (1968), 321–41

D.J. Grout: ‘La Griselda di Zeno e il libretto dell'opera di Scarlatti’, NRMI, ii (1968), 207–25

C. De Michelis: ‘Le iniziative di informe di Apostolo Zeno’, Lettereti e lettori nell Settecento veneziano (Florence, 1979), 37–65

R.S. Freeman: Opera without Drama: Currents of Change in Italian Opera, 1675–1725 (Ann Arbor, 1981)

P. Gallarati: ‘Zeno e Metastasio’, Metastasio e il melodramma, ed. E. Sala Di Felice and L. Sannia Nowè (Padua, 1985), 89–104

E. Sala Di Felice: ‘Alla vigilia di Metastasio: Zeno’, Metastasio: Atti del convegno dell'Accademia nazionale dei Lincei: Rome 1985, 79–110

E. Kanduth: ‘Das Libretto im Zeichen der Arcadia, Paradigmatisches in den Musikdramen Zenos (Pariatis) und Metastasios’, Oper als Text: romanistische Beiträge zur Libretto-Forschung, ed. A. Gier (Heidelberg, 1986), 33–53

E. Sala Di Felice: ‘Zeno: dal teatro impresariale al teatro di corte’, L'opera italiana a Vienna prima di Metastasio, ed. M.T. Muraro (Florence, 1990), 65–114

M. Viale Ferrero: ‘Le didascalie sceniche nei drammi per musica di Zeno’, ibid., 271–85

L. Bianconi and G. LaFace, eds.: I libretti italiani di Georg Friedrich Händel e le loro fonti, i (Florence, 1992)

E. Sala Di Felice: ‘Zeno, Metastasio e il teatro di corte’, Italia–Austria alla ricerca del passato comune, ed. P. Chiarini and H. Zeman (Rome, 1995), 523–68

Zeno, George.

See Lewis, George.

Zenobi [Zanobi], Luigi [Cavaliere Luigi del Cornetto]

(b Ancona, 1547/8; d ?Naples, after 1602). Italian cornett player and writer. He was engaged as a cornett player at the court of Maximilian II in Vienna in November 1569; he left without permission in November 1573 after unsuccessfully seeking a post at the Bavarian court. After a period in Rome he returned to Vienna in 1575; by 1583 he had gained a knighthood, probably from Rudolf II. He was recruited by the court of Ferrara in 1583, where he was ‘the most highly paid single musician in the history of the Este court to that time’ (NewcombMF). During various periods of leave in Rome he sought singers for the court; in 1587 he was directing music at the Oratory of Filippo Neri. He returned to Vienna before Alfonso II d’Este’s death in 1597. His last years seem to have been spent in Naples at the court of the viceroy (Francisco Ruiz y Castro); five letters are dated from there in 1601–2.

From his letters (18 of which are extant) we learn that he was a painter and a miniaturist; he also wrote a cycle of one hundred sonnets on the death of Maximilian II (1576), dedicated to the Duke of Savoy (in I-Tn), as well as madrigal verse. He is mentioned as a virtuoso cornett player by the painter Gian Paolo Lomazzo (1584) and remembered with admiration by Costanzo Antegnati (L’arte organica, 1608) and Vincenzo Giustiniani, who heard him play the cornett so softly that it did not drown out the sound of the harpsichord (Discorso sopra la musica de’ suoi tempi, 1628).

Zenobi is the author of a long letter (in I-Rv) to an unnamed prince, probably written about 1600, on the qualities of a perfect musician. It reveals him as a keen observer of musical practice and discerning judge of singers. He details the requirements for a good singer, a good director (rimettitore) and a good composer, stressing the importance of knowing how to improvise counterpoint. Taking up the voice parts in turn, he discusses ornaments, ranges, and vices to be avoided. He also treats of the performing practice of string and wind players and harpsichordists, as well as the role of the accompanist.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

NewcombMF

W. Pass: Musik und Musiker am Hof Maximilians II. (Tutzing, 1980), 222–3

A. Morelli: Il tempio armonico: musica nell’oratorio dei Filippini in Roma, 1575–1705, AnM, no.27 (1991), 11–12

R. Lindell: ‘New Findings on Music at the Court of Maximilian II’, Kaiser Maximilian II: Kultur und Politik im 16. Jahrhundert, ed. F. Edelmayer and A. Kohler (Vienna, 1992), 231–45

B.J. Blackburn and E.E. Lowinsky: ‘Luigi Zenobi and his Letter on the Perfect Musician’, Studi musicali, xxii (1993), 61–114

F. Piperno: ‘Diplomacy and Musical Patronage: Virginia, Guidobaldo II, Massimiliano II, “Lo Streggino” and others’, EMH, xviii (1999), 259–85

BONNIE J. BLACKBURN

Zenti, Girolamo [Zentis, Hieronymus de]

(b Viterbo, ?1609–11; d Paris, 1666/7). Italian maker of harpsichords, spinets and organs. His first recorded commission is from 1635, and in 1641 he was appointed to maintain Pope Urban VIII’s keyboard instrument collection. Zenti was perhaps the best known Italian keyboard maker of his day. His craftsmanship is neat, although not elaborate, but his extensive employment at the royal courts in Stockholm (1652–6), Paris (1660–c1662) and England (1664) bears testimony to the regard of his contemporaries for his instruments. He was in Paris again in 1666 and died there some time before Easter the following year (see Barbieri). It seems that during Zenti’s periods abroad his wife oversaw his workshop in Rome, with various assistants.

No organ by Zenti survives. In 1660 he was commissioned by Camillo Pamphili to build the new organ of S Agnese in Navona, Rome, but never executed the work, having taken up the appointment to the French court. The inventory of instruments belonging to Ferdinando de’ Medici in Florence in 1700 (see Gai) lists six harpsichords and spinets by Zenti, dating three of them: 1653 (made in Stockholm), 1656 and 1658 (both made in Rome). A harpsichord now in the Deutsches Museum, Munich, bearing a faked Cristofori inscription, has been attributed to Zenti and is probably identical with the instrument of 1658 in the Medici inventory (see Wraight, 1991). Only five of the surviving signed instruments are thought to be authentic: a bentside spinet of 1637 (see Spinet, fig.3), an undated trapezoidal spinet in ebony, and harpsichords made in 1656, 1666 and 1668. The last of these was apparently finished in Paris by Zenti's workshop after his death (see Wraight, 1997), and is in most respects a French rather than an Italian harpsichord. A harpsichord formerly attributed to Zenti in the Musikinstrumenten-Museum, Universität Leipzig, originally with split sharps, is now known to have been made by Querci. It is probable that Zenti was the first to build bentside spinets, the whereabouts of a possible earlier example by the French maker Montazeau, reportedly dated 1632, being unknown.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BoalchM

V. Gai: Gli strumenti musicali della corte medicea e il museo del conservatorio ‘Luigi Cherubini’ di Firenze (Florence, 1969)

E. Ripin: ‘The Surviving Oeuvre of Girolamo Zenti’, Metropolitan Museum Journal, vii (1973), 71–87

F. Hammond: ‘Some Notes on Giovanni Battista Boni da Cortona, Girolamo Zenti, and Others’,GSJ, xl (1987), 37–47

P. Barbieri: ‘Cembalaro, organaro, chitarraro e fabbrictatore di corde armoniche nella “Polyanthea technica” di Pinaroli’, Recercare, i (1989), 123–209

H. Henkel: ‘Sechzehnfuss-register im italienischen Cembalobau’, Das Musikinstrument, xxxix/7 (1990), 6–10

D. Wraight: ‘A Zenti Harpsichord Rediscovered’, EMc, xix (1991), 99–101

D. Wraight: The Stringing of Italian Keyboard Instruments c1500–c1650 (diss., Queen’s U. of Belfast, 1997), ii, 317–21

EDWIN M. RIPIN/DENZIL WRAIGHT

Zerafa, Benigno [Beninju, Beninn]

(b Rabat, 25 Aug 1726; d Valletta, 20 March 1804). Maltese composer. As a boy soprano in the Mdina Cathedral cappella, he received his early instruction from its maestro, Pietro Gristi (1696–1738). On 8 July 1738, with financial help from the cathedral chapter, he became a student at the Conservatorio dei Poveri di Gesù Cristo, Naples, under Francesco Feo, Alfonso Caggi and Girolamo Abos. He returned to Malta in 1744 and on 22 August, when not yet 18 years old, was appointed maestro di cappella at the cathedral. His irascible temper was the probable cause of an incident which led to his dismissal in 1751. A suitable replacement not being found, he was reinstated on 15 April 1753 with even better conditions, and he was able to enlarge and refine the cappella. He held the post until he died, although only nominally after 1785 because of failing health. His last composition, Litaniae B. Mariae Virginis, is dated 1782.

Zerafa, who had been ordained priest on 19 September 1750, was a gifted composer. 170 of his works are extant (in Mdina Cathedral), all sacred and encompassing virtually all contemporary genres as well as the stile antico. Unusually, he preferred ‘Kyrie–Gloria–Agnus Dei’ settings of the Mass. He composed several such works with multi-movement structures, either for double or for single four-part choir, with instrumental accompaniment. A sensitive and technically accomplished composer of depth and individuality (Heighes), the economy and asceticism of his stile breve create an aura of humble devotion in his music.

WORKS

(selective list)

autograph MSS in Mdina Cathedral archives

Masses: SATB, SATB, insts, 1743; Requiem, SATB, insts, 1744; Messa in Pastorale, SATB, insts, 1746; SATB, SATB, insts, 1752; SSB, insts, 1764; Requiem, SSATB, insts, 1765

Pss, canticles, hymns: Dixit Dominus, SATB, SATB, insts, 1743; Mag, SSATB, insts, 1744; Beatus vir, B, insts, 1745; TeD, SATB, insts, 1746; Mag, SATB, insts, 1753; Dixit Dominus, SATB, SATB, insts, 1755; Salve regina, SSB, bc, 1764; Laudate pueri, S, insts, 1764; Nisi Dominus, S, 2 vn, org, 1764; Beatus vir, S, insts, 1765; Confitebor, S, insts, 1765

Motets, arias: Laeta surge, SATB, insts, 1749; [2] Motteti per la processione dell’Ascensione, SATB, vn, org, 1753; Felise carina, S, insts, 1758; [6] Motetti per ogni tempo, SATB, org, 1781

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Mifsud Bonnici: Mużiċisti kompożituri maltin: maestri di cappella tal-Kattidral (Malta, 1950), 9–10

J. Vella Bondin: ‘Five Maltese Composers of the 18th Century’, Sunday Times [Malta] (25 July 1976)

G. Azzopardi: ‘Beninju Zerafa (1726–1804)’, Il-mużika barokka ta’ Beninju Zerafa, ed. A. Borg, S. Fiorini and F. Sammut (Malta, 1987), 9–12

S.J. Heighes: ‘The Music of Benigno Zerafa: a Preliminary Study’, ibid., 19–24

JOSEPH VELLA BONDIN

Zerbst.

Town in eastern Germany. Zerbst was an important provincial centre during the years 1603 to 1793. Music was cultivated in the court, in the Schlosskirche (officially opened in 1719) and in the three principal churches in the town: St Bartholomäikirche, the Nicolaikirche and Trinitatiskirche. There are also reports of musical activities in the town organized by the journeymen from the various guilds in the 16th century and there were at least three annual fairs when the Stadtpfeifer (town wind players) performed with the journeymen.

The Schlosskapelle was in existence by 1215 and was reformed in 1541. The flowering of music in the court took place in the first half of the 18th century, lasting from the expansion of the court Kapelle in 1709 by Prince Karl Wilhelm to the dispersal of the court for a short period in 1758 due to the aggressive actions of Frederick the Great, after which the court gradually declined while the prince remained absent in Luxembourg.

In its heyday the court enjoyed a lively musical life, with a constant flow of visiting operatic and theatre groups and guest soloists, including J.C. Freislich, C.F. Abel, F. Benda, J.C. Hertel and C.P.E. Bach. From 1708 to 1716, guest players, including possibly J.P. Kunzen, took on the duties of the Kapellmeister. The official Kapellmeister were J.B. Kuch (from c1716 to 1722), J.F. Fasch (to 1758), J.G. Röllig (to 1790) and B.L. Heidicke. In 1794, following the death of Friedrich August, the last reigning prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, the posts of Kapellmeister of the Zerbst Schloss and of organist of St Bartholomäikirche were amalgamated.

The Kapelle gradually grew from a small string ensemble in 1721 to a full orchestra of 15 instrumentalists with four singers in 1757 (listed in Marpurg), with additional trumpeters and drummer for ceremonial duties. Carl Höckh (Konzertmeister 1733–70), Fasch and Röllig took on several important pupils, including J.G. Seyffarth (1735), J.W. Hertel (1742–3), G.P. Weimar (1758–63) and F.W. Rust (from 1762).

There are several detailed reports on the repertory of the court and a library of surviving music (the Zerbster Musikstube), currently in D-ORB and HAmi. In addition to the court instrumental music, there was a rich provision of concerted sacred music in the Schlosskirche, much of which was composed by Fasch, including a number of mass settings exchanged with the court of Dresden. Notable was the cycle of oratorio Passion performances instituted by Kuch in 1720 which lasted uninterrupted to 1764. Zerbst was the only venue other than Hamburg to adopt a four-year cycle following the Gospel order, and the only centre to adopt multi-part Passion settings in four to seven parts, each performed in separate services from Palm Sunday to Good Friday. Three settings survive: St Luke (Fasch?), St John (Fasch, 1748) and St Mark (Röllig, 1750).

With the demise of the court and the passing of the ownership of Zerbst to Anhalt-Dessau in 1793, Zerbst ceased to be a significant musical centre.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG2 (G. Kraft)

F. Preitz: ‘Über die Kapellmeister und Organisten Hochfürstlich Anhalt-Zerbstischen Hofe im 18. Jahrhundert’, Das Litterische Anhalt: arbeiten zeitgenössischer Schriftsteller, ed. J.B. Wuschi and H. Wäschke (Dessau, n.d.), 177–81

F.W. Marpurg: Historisch-kritische Beyträge zur Aufnahme der Musik, iii (Berlin, 1757), 125–9

H. Wäschke: ‘Die Zerbster Hofkapelle unter Fasch’, Zerbster Jb, ii (1906), 47–63

H. Wäschke: ‘Die Schlosskapelle in Zerbst’, ‘Rölligs Kantate für St. Jakobs-Tag’, Zerbster Jb, iv (1908), 1–6, 6–19

B. Baselt: ‘Brandenburg-Prussia and the Central German Courts’, Man & Music: the Late Baroque Era, ed. G.J. Buelow (London, 1993), 230–53, esp. 235

B. Clark: The Zerbster Musikstube [Catalogue of the Zerbst music manuscripts in Schloss Oranienbaum] (Huntingdon, 1995)

N.R. Springthorpe: Passion Composition and Composers of Passion Music Associated with the Court of Anhalt-Zerbst (diss., U. of Surrey, 1997)

NIGEL SPRINGTHORPE

Zerewucius, Zachariáš.

See Zarewutius, Zachariáš.

Žerotín.

Czech musical society founded in 1880 in Olomouc.

Zervos, Yorgos [George]

(b Cairo, 17 Dec 1947). Greek composer and musicologist of Egyptian birth. He studied theory and piano at the Hellenic Conservatory, Athens (1975–7), and then composition with Ioannidis at the Orpheion (1977–81). He then went to Paris, where he studied musicology and the aesthetics of music at the Sorbonne, as well as composition with Xenakis. He also attended Boulez's seminars at the Collège de France (1982–3) and spent time at IRCAM. He has held a number of teaching posts at Greek conservatories, including the Orpheion (1977–8), the National Conservatory (1978–9) and the Athenaeum (1984–5). In 1998 he was appointed lecturer in the department of musical studies at Athens University.

Zervos is anything but a prolific composer. Meticulously conceived and elaborated, his atonal writing, illustrated in such works as Anabase: chanson I (1986–7) and Horochronia I (1988) and II (1989), achieves a clarity of statement and form through economy and abstraction. Despite its emotional restraint, however, his approach does not exclude broad dramatic gestures, as is demonstrated in the ballet Eros and Psyche (1997), which, with its sombre, doom-laden atmosphere, ranks among the most remarkable Greek scores of the 1990s.

WORKS

(selective list)

Ballet: Eros ke Psychi [Eros and Psyche] (4 scenes, choreog. A. Papadamaki), Athens, Concert Hall, 29 Nov 1997

Vocal: 2 pieces (A. Embirikos, N. Engonopoulos), mixed chorus, 1981; Sti Ruth ke sti Valia [To Ruth and Valia] (N. Kalas), 6vv, chorus, 1984; Anabase: chanson I (St John Perse), Mez, fl, ob, cl, perc, str qnt, 1986-7; 3 Songs (F. Nietzsche: Also sprach Zarathustra, R.M. Rilke, G. Trakl), S, orch, 1998–2000

Inst: 5 Variations, fl, pf, 1979–80; Str Qt no.1, 1980–81; Archetypes II, fl, ob, cl, b cl, bn, hn, tpt, trbn, 2 perc, pf, str qt, db, 1985; Qnt, fl, cl, vn, va, pf, 1986; Horochronia I, fl, 1988; Horochronia II, fl, ob, 1989; Horochronia III, db, 1995; Sonata, va, pf, 1998–9

WRITINGS

‘To noïma tou athematismou ston Webern’ [The meaning of athematism in Webern's music], Moussikologhia, i/1 (1985), 68–76

‘Modernismos–metamodernismos’ [Modernism–Postmodernism], Tetarto, no.31 (1987)

‘O thesmos ton odheion’ [Conservatories as institutions], Tetarto, no.38 (1988)

‘Aspects de la musique hellénique contemporaine’, Revue d'esthetique, no.20 (1991), 91–9

I krisi tou thématos sto érgo ton syntheton tis dhéfteris scholis tis Viennis [The crisis of theme in the work of the composers of the Second Viennese School] (diss., U. of Thessaloniki, 1994)

‘I krissi sti moussiki tou 20ou aeona: théma ke morfi sti synchroni moussiki dhimiourghia’ [Crisis in 20th-century music: theme and form in contemporary music], Moussikologhia, no.9 (1997), 14–27

‘To kontsérto ya piano ke orchistra op.42 tou Arnold Schoenberg, mia asymvatotita metaxy tou dodhekaphtongikou ke tou rhythmikou-melodhikou ylikou’ [Arnold Schoenberg's Piano Concerto op.42, an incompatibility between twelve-note and rhythmic-melodic material], Moussikologhia, nos.10–11 (1998), 124–38

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Symeonidou: ‘Zervos, Yorgos’, Lexiko Ellinon Syntheton [Dictionary of Greek composers] (Athens, 1995), 116–18

T. Kaloyeropoulos: ‘Zervos, Yorgos’, To lexico tis ellinikis moussikis [Dictionary of Greek music], ii (Athens, 1998), 303–5

GEORGE LEOTSAKOS

Zesen, Philipp von

(b Priorau, nr Dessau, 8 Oct 1619; d Hamburg, 13 Nov 1689). German poet and writer. He studied at the Gymnasium in Halle and at the age of 12 compiled a lexicon of rhymes, which shows his early interest in verse. While at the University of Wittenberg he published his first work, the Hochdeutscher Helicon (1640), and worked extensively with August Buchner on poetry; his acquaintance there with Malachias Siebenhaar proved valuable for both, since Siebenhaar became the chief composer of songs to his poems. In Hamburg on 1 May 1642 Zesen founded the Teutschgesinnte Genossenschaft, a philological society whose members included Harsdörffer, Schwieger and the Dutch poet Jakob van der Vondel. At first he and Rist were close, but by 1648 they had split. With Hamburg as a base but without any permanent position, Zesen travelled to various parts of Germany, to France and in 1643 to London, and he often visited Leiden and Amsterdam. He was ennobled in 1653.

Zesen was one of the most gifted German Baroque writers. In poetic structure he synthesized Dutch verse forms and rhythms with those of Opitz, Rist and Buchner, and he achieved a depth of expression rare at the time. He wrote original poetry not only in German but in Dutch, Latin and French too, and he translated poetry from these languages into German. Many of his strophic poems – German, Dutch and translations – were set to music, usually under his own supervision; some come from novels, for which he is specially important. The settings, by Siebenhaar and other Hamburg friends such as Weckmann and the elder Johann Schop, are not monodic and subscribe to the Hamburg school's care for the correlation of poetic and musical rhythm; many of the tunes are taken from the Dutch (and ultimately French) repertory.

WORKS SET TO MUSIC

for other writings see Goedeke

Frühlingslust, oder Lob-, Lust- und Liebes-Lieder und poetischer Rosenwälder Vorschmak (Hamburg, 1641)

Dichterische Jugendflammen in etlichen Lob-, Lust- und Liebes-Liedern (Hamburg, 1651⁵)

Gekreutzigter Liebesflammen, oder Geistliche Gedichte Vorschmak (Hamburg, 1653⁵)

Salomonis des ebreischen Königes geistliche Wohl-lust, oder Hohes Lied (Amsterdam, 1657), music by J. Schop (i); (enlarged 2/1674), music by J.U. Sultzberger

Die reinweisse Hertzogin (Hamburg, 1668⁸)

Schöne Hamburgerin (Hamburg, 1668⁷)

Dichterisches Rosen- und Lilientahl (Hamburg, 1670⁶)

Andächtige Lehr-Gesänge von Kristus (Nuremberg, 1675), music by Siebenhaar

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ADB (K. Dissel)

MGG1 (U. Härtwig)

K. Goedeke: Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung (Dresden, 2/1887), iii, 95–104

W.V. Meid: Zesens Romankunst (Frankfurt, 1966)

J.H. Baron: Foreign Influences on the German Secular Solo-Continuo Lied in the Mid-Seventeenth Century (diss., Brandeis U., 1967)

J.H. Baron: ‘Dutch Influences on the German Secular Solo-Continuo Lied in the Mid-Seventeenth Century’, AcM, xliii (1971), 43–55

F. van Ingen, ed.: Philipp von Zesen 1619–1689: Beiträge zu seinem Leben und Werk (Wiesbaden, 1972)

G.C. Thomas: Philipp von Zesen and Music (diss., Harvard U., 1973)

T.J. Minnes: Zesens Rosen-Mand und kleinere poetologische Schriften: ein Kommentar (diss., SUNY, Stony Brook, 1981)

JOHN H. BARON

Zesso, Giovanni Battista

(fl early 16th century). Italian composer. The theorist Giovanni Del Lago mentioned him as having been his teacher in Padua. Three of Zesso's frottolas were intabulated in Bossinensis's second collection (RISM 1511), which contains a number of works by other lesser composers. Dun bel matin and E quando andaretu use popular tunes: the former was also set by A. Capriolus, and the latter is related to the folktune that became known as Rosina, one of the standard patterns of the 16th century.

WORKS

all for 4 voices

Anima mia diletta, 1508³, ed. in Jeppesen (1935); Deh non piu no, 1507⁴ (‘Ionnes B. Gesso’); [Dun bel matin] damor, 1507³; E quando andaretu al monte, 1507³, ed. A.W. Ambros, Geschichte der Musik, v (Leipzig, rev. 3/1911 by O. Kade), 534; Io non manchi di fede, RISM 1511 (lute intabulation), ed. in IMi, new ser., iii (1964); Io t'ho donato il core, 1507³ (lute intabulation in RISM 1511), ed. in Rubsamen and IMi, new ser., iii (1964); Jesu benigno e pio, 1508³, ed. in Jeppesen (1935); Starala ben cussi, RISM 1511 (lute intabulation), ed. in IMi, new ser., iii (1964)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

K. Jeppesen: Die mehrstimmige italienische Laude um 1500 (Leipzig, 1935)

W. Rubsamen: Literary Sources of Secular Music in Italy (c.1500) (Berkeley, 1943)

K. Jeppesen: La frottola (Copenhagen, 1968–70)

STANLEY BOORMAN

Zeugheer, Jakob [Herrmann, Jakob Zeugheer]

(b Zürich, 20 July 1803; d Liverpool, 15 June 1865). Swiss violinist and composer. He studied the violin first with Wassermann in his native town, and in 1818 went to Munich, where he studied the violin with Ferdinand Fränzl and composition with Gratz. The example of Schuppanzigh and of the four brothers Moralt suggested to Zeugheer the idea of attempting the same with his friends at Munich, as ‘das Quartett Gebrüder Herrmann’. The other members were Joseph Wex, Carl Baader and Joseph Lidel. They started in 1824, touring in Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Belgium, France and England, playing with particular success at Dover, Ramsgate and Brighton, where they settled for five months. Later tours took them throughout the British Isles, where in many places they were the first professional quartet ever to appear. By the spring of 1830 the ‘brothers’ had had enough of a roving life and Zeugheer settled at Liverpool, where he remained till his death.

In 1831 Zeugheer became conductor of the Gentlemen’s Concerts at Manchester, a post he retained until 1838. The Liverpool Philharmonic Society, originally a private society, had begun in 1804 to give public orchestral concerts, and Zeugheer conducted them from 1843 until shortly before his death. But the great work of his life at Liverpool was teaching.

Zeugheer wrote two symphonies, two overtures, a cantata, two sets of entr’actes, a violin concerto, a pot-pourri for violin and orchestra, a quartet, an Andante and Rondo for violin and piano, and a choral polacca, few of them published. At Liverpool he wrote an opera, Angela of Venice, to his pupil Chorley’s libretto, but it was neither produced nor published.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Bloesch: Die Bernische Musikgesellschaft 1815–1915 (Berne, 1915), 465

E. Dejung: ‘Zeugheer’, Dictionnaire historique et biographique de la Suisse, ed. M. Godet, H. Turler and V. Attinger (Neuchâtel, 1921–33)

RUSSELL MARTINEAU/R

Zeuner, Charles (Heinrich Christoph)

(b Eisleben, Germany, 20 Sept 1795; d Philadelphia, 7 Nov 1857). German-American composer, compiler and organist. He studied in Weimar with Hummel, then with Michael Gotthard Fischer in Erfurt, where in about 1822 he published a set of piano variations and four polonaises. He was apparently a court musician near his birthplace, and also served as a musician in the military. He probably arrived in Boston in 1830, when he made his first concert appearance on 13 February, playing the organ and piano and singing in his own works. He became organist for the Handel and Haydn Society in September of the same year. During his years in Boston he held posts as organist at three city churches, and also taught the organ, theory and singing. In 1839 he moved to Philadelphia, where he became organist at St Andrew’s Episcopal Church, and then at Arch Street Presbyterian Church.

Zeuner composed a number of songs and piano works, and many hymn tunes, of which ‘Hummel’ and ‘Missionary Chant’ are still in use. His two organ concertos are the first extant written in the USA; he also wrote the earliest published American voluntaries. He compiled three collections of church music and a musical manual for Sunday schools. He also wrote larger works for choral and instrumental groups, much of high quality. His most ambitious work, and perhaps the first of its kind to be composed in the USA, was the oratorio The Feast of Tabernacles (1832), which received eight complete performances by the Boston Academy of Music in 1837. His fine abilities as a composer are evident in 20 manuscript organ fantasias and fugues, which show a thorough understanding of J.S. Bach’s music.

WORKS

MSS in US-Wc and PHf

Vocal: Missa solemnis no.1, c (Leipzig, n.d. [1826]); Mass no.3, E, c1824–30; The Feast of Tabernacles (orat), 1832, choral parts pubd (Boston, 1837); 8 services, liturgical settings; 7 anthems; c244 hymn tunes, chorales, chants; 5 cants.; 47 songs, some separately pubd; 8 glees; 3 canons; 6 other works

Inst: Variations, A, pf, orch; Rondo polacca, hn, orch/str; Variations on ‘Home Sweet Home’, hn, str; Variations on Mozart’s ‘Là ci darem la mano’, vn, pf; 4 marches, band

Solo kbd: Voluntaries, org (Boston, 1830); 2 org concs., 1830, 1831; Voluntaries, org (Boston, 1840); 20 fantasias and fugues, org; 28 marches, 8 variations, 4 waltzes, 4 polonaises, 3 divertissements, 2 rondos, 12 other works, pf, some separately pubd

Edns: Church Music … Anthems, Motets, and Chants (Boston, 1831); The American Harp (Boston, 1832); The Ancient Lyre (Boston, 1833); The New Village Harmony: a Musical Manual for Sabbath Schools (Boston, 1833)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DAB (O. Strunk)

C.C. Perkins and J.S. Dwight: History of the Handel and Haydn Society of Boston, Massachusetts, i (Boston, 1883–93/R)

F.J. Metcalf: American Writers and Compilers of Sacred Music (New York, 1925/R)

W.G. Bigger: The Choral Music of Charles Zeuner (1795–1857), German-American Composer, with a Performance Edition of Representative Works (diss., U. of Iowa, 1976)

J.B. Clark: ‘American Organ Music before 1830: a Critical and Descriptive Survey’, The Diapason, lxxii/11 (1981), 1–3

K. Loveland: ‘The Life of Charles Zeuner, Enigmatic German-American Composer and Organist’, The Tracker, xxx/2 (1986),19–28 [incl. list of works]

J.B. Clark: The Dawning of American Keyboard Music (Westport, CT, 1988)

B. Pursley: Charles Zeuner's Concerto No.1 for Organ and Orchestra (diss., U. of Kansas, 1988)

J. BUNKER CLARK

Zeuner, Karl Traugott

(b Dresden, 28 April 1775; d Paris, 24 Jan 1841). German pianist and composer. He studied the piano in Dresden and composition with D.G. Türk in Halle; in 1802 while in St Petersburg he also took lessons from Clementi. On a later visit to Russia he taught the young Glinka, who found his theoretical teaching dull though he made progress as a pianist. He undertook concert tours to Paris in 1803, and in 1805 to Vienna, where he settled briefly (and was employed by Prince Golitsïn). He returned to his home city and continued to tour Europe as a successful concert pianist until just before his death on a visit to Paris. Though less admired for his composition than his playing, he wrote some technically skilled if uninspired piano pieces, chamber music and songs which were much in vogue in his time. These included fantasias and variations for piano, a Polonaise for piano duet op.10, string quartets (opp.11, 14 and 15), two piano concertos (op.12 in G and op.13 in E) and several ballets.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

MGG1 (K. Laux) [incl. list of works]

M.I. Glinka: Zapiski [Memoirs] (St Petersburg, 1887)

D. Brown: Mikhail Glinka (London, 1974)

JENNIFER SPENCER/MICHAEL MUSGRAVE

Zeuner, Martin

(b Mupperg, nr Coburg, 1554; d Ansbach, bur. 13 Dec 1619). German composer and organist. He was appointed to the collegiate church of St Gumbertus at Ansbach on 16 June 1576 with a yearly salary of 50 florins and remained at this post until his retirement. On 20 June 1610 he was called to play the positive, regals and other instruments at the Brandenburg-Ansbach court; he was entrusted with composing the ceremonial music for the marriage of Margrave Joachim Ernst in 1612. He retired on 17 September 1616 after playing a leading role in the musical life of Ansbach for 40 years. Municipal tax records show that he was involved in several disputes concerning the payment of taxes and his various dealings in wine, and on 5 October 1615 the margrave settled in his favour a quarrel concerning singing and organ playing in which he had become involved with the Konrektor. His German songs (1617) show the influence both of prominent earlier German composers of such pieces, notably Georg Forster and Leonhard Lechner, and of such Italians as Gastoldi, Marenzio and Orazio Vecchi. They are predominantly contrapuntal, as are some of the chorale settings (1616). Other chorales, however, are chordal pieces in a more modern style with very simple harmonies; the frequent modulation and the cadential appoggiaturas anticipate Bach. Zeuner's wedding music (1612), for 12 and 24 voices, is in the polychoral Venetian tradition adopted in Germany by such composers as Hassler and Lechner, who may have influenced him.

WORKS

[17] Cantilena pia in solemnitatem nuptialem … Henricii Wilhelmis Comitis Solmensis, 12vv (Ansbach, 1612)

Votum musicale in nuptias D.J. Ernesti, Marchionis Brandenburgiensis, 24vv (Ansbach, 1612)

82 schöne, geistliche Psalmen, 5vv (Nuremberg, 1616); ed. in PÄMw, xxviii (1904/R)

Schöne teutsche weltliche Stücklein, 4, 5vv (Nuremberg, 1617)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BlumeEK

EitnerQ

GerberNL (‘Zeuner, Maximus’)

G. Schmidt: Die Musik am Hofe der Markgrafen von Brandenburg-Ansbach (Kassel, 1956), 40ff

E. FRED FLINDELL

Zeutschner, Tobias

(b Neurode [Nowa Ruda, Poland], 1621; d Breslau [Wrocław], 15 Sept 1675). German composer, organist and poet. He received a Protestant schooling at Bernstadt. Though he was drawn into the religious upheaval that afflicted Silesia, he was also receptive to his musical environment, and he may have been taught music by Löwenstern. His first post was nearby at Öls, where he was organist and also a member of the council from 1643 to the spring of 1649. From 4 May 1649 he was an organist and schoolmaster in the New City of Breslau and from 8 October 1655 was organist of the second most important church in Breslau, St Maria Magdalena. From 24 February 1654 he was permitted to sign himself ‘Notarius Caesareus Publicus’. The many surviving copies of his 1661 volume (as well as transcriptions of it) indicate that he was one of the most successful exponents of the simplified sacred concerto. The characteristics of his style – clear-cut forms (with sinfonias, interludes, solo episodes and tutti ritornello sections), smooth harmony and parlando choral declamation – were particularly suited to music intended for use in the home as well as in church; following traditional theological thinking, he regarded devotion as more important than art. His song collections of 1667 and 1670 contain settings of his own poems and show him clearly following in Löwenstern’s footsteps, without, however, adopting his complex metrical structures.

WORKS

Decas prima, oder Musicalischen Fieisses erster Theil, 3–5, 7vv, vns ad lib (Breslau, 1652)

Ein hertzlicher Wunsch: O dass ich dich mein Bruder, 2vv, 2 vn, bc (Breslau, 1652), lost

Threnodia, oder Briegische Trauer-Klage: Höchster Gott, schaw unsern Jammer, 4vv (Breslau, 1659), lost

Neu-Jahrs-Lied, auff das 1660ste Jahr Christi: Gott und Vater, reich von Güte, 4vv (Breslau, 1660)

Musicalische Kirchen- und Haus-Freude, 4–6vv, 2 vn, 3 trbn, 2 clarinos (Leipzig, 1661)

Musicalischer Hausandacht erstes Zehn (Brieg, 1667); several melodies ed. in ZahnM

Unser Wandel ist im Himmel, 5vv, 2 vn, trbn, trbn/va, trbn/vle, bc (Breslau, 1670)/R1991 in Bircher)

Musicalischer Hausandacht anderes Zehn (Brieg, 1670); several melodies ed. in ZahnM

Ade, du süsse Welt, birthday ode, 3vv, 2 vn, bc (n.p., 1670), lost

O Trauerstund, und stock-dick finstrer Tag, 4vv (Brieg, n.d.) [5vv version, D-Bsb]

1 chorale in P. Sohr: Musicalischer Vorschmack (Ratzeburg, 1683)

Musicalischer Wunsch: Der Herr gebe euch vom Taw des Himmels, 18 or 23vv, 1656, D-Bsb*

Halleluja, höret an die Geburt, 18vv, Bsb

Musicalischer Zuruff: In suis Deus profecto sit, 8vv, 10 insts, 1668, Bsb*

Te Deum, 15 or 20vv, Bsb

Ach Jesu, liebes Kind, 1v, 2 va, bc, PL-WRu

Ich, der Herr, ich bin der erste, 4vv, 2 vn, D-LUC

Jesu dulcis memoria, 3vv, 2 vn ad lib, 3 va, bc, S-Uu; doubtful authenticity

Several lost MS works, see MGG1

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. Starke: ‘Tobias Zeutschner’, MMg, xxxii (1900), 195–207, 213–19

R. Starke: ‘Die Orgelwerke der Kirche zu St. Elisabeth in Breslau’, MMg, xxxv (1903), 34–8

R. Starke: ‘Kantoren und Organisten der Kirche zu St. Maria Magdalena zu Breslau’, MMg, xxxvi (1904), 85–100

F. Koschinsky: Das protestantische Kirchenorchester im 17. Jahrhundert unter Berücksichtigung des Breslauer Kunstschaffens dieser Zeit (diss., U. of Breslau, 1931), 65

F. Hamann: ‘Dokumente zur Musikpflege in Schweidnitz (Schlesien) um 1700’, Mf, iii (1950), 72–4

B. Grusnick: ‘Die Dübens ammlung: ein Versuch ihrer chronologischen Ordnung’, STMf, xlvi (1964), 27–82, esp. 43, 51, 53, 79; continued in xlviii (1966), 63–186

L. Hoffmann-Erbrecht: ‘Die Weihnachtshistorie von T. Zeutschner (Breslau, um 1660)’, Jb der Schlesischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität zu Breslau, xxix (1988), 111–20

L. Hoffmann-Erbrecht: ‘T. Zeutschners kleines geistliches Konzert “Unser Wandel ist im Himmel”’, Briefe der Fruchtbringenden Gesellschaft und Beilagen: die Zeit Herzog Augusts von Sachsen-Weissenfels, 1667–1680, ed. M. Bircher (Tübingen 1991), 227–32

W. Braun: ‘Berliner Kirchenmusik im letzten Drittel des 17. Jahrhunderts: zur Sammelhandschrift Koch aus der ehemaligen Singakemie’, Jb des Staatlichen Instituts für Musikforschung Preussischer Kulturbesitz (1996), 166–93

WERNER BRAUN

Zeyfas [N. Golodnova; Zh. Kozina; N. Mikhaylova], Natal'ya Mikhaylovna

(b Rostov-na-Donu, 7 Oct 1947). Russian musicologist. She studied musicology at the Moscow Conservatory (1965–70) with Yu.A. Fortunatov (her other teachers included I.A. Barsova and V.A. Zuckermann), and she completed her postgraduate studies at the Leningrad Institute for Theatre, Music and Cinematography with L.N. Raaben in 1974. In 1975 she obtained the Kandidat degree and in 1993 the doctorate. After working as a music journalist for the Moscow Radio (1970–78), she was an editor for Sovetskaya muzïka (from 1992 called Muzïkal'naya akademiya), 1978–94. She has taught music history from 1992 at the A.V. Sveshnikov Academy of Choral Art, where she was appointed senior lecturer in 1994 and acting professor in 1997. Her scholarly interests include the music and the musical aesthetics of the 18th century, the work of contemporary composers from Russia and the former Soviet Union (especially Georgia), musical theatre and incidental music. Opposed to the idea of a ‘pure science’ of musicology, she strives to make her scholarly writings lively and accessible and her journalistic writings on music relevant to other cultural issues. She has also published under the pseudonyms Golodnova, Kozina and Mikhaylova.

WRITINGS

‘Zametki ob ėstetikye zapadnoyevropeyskogo barokko’ [Notes on the aesthetics of the Western European Baroque], SovM (1975), no.3, pp.99–106

‘Die Concerti grossi Op.6 und ihre Stellung in Händels Gesamtwerk’, HJb 1980, 2–58

Concerto grosso v tvorchestvye Gendelya [The concerto grosso in the work of Handel] (diss., Leningrad Institute for Theatre, Music and Cinematography, 1975; Moscow, 1980)

‘Mattezon i teoriya orkestrovki’ [Mattheson and the theory of orchestration], Istoriya i sovremennost', ed. A. Klimovitsky, L. Kovnatskaya and M. Sabinina (Leningrad, 1981), 33–55

‘Mattheson und Telemann: eine vergleichende Analyse ihrer ästhetischen Ansichten’, Die Bedeutung Georg Philipp Telemanns für die Entwicklung der europäischen Musikkultur im 18. Jahrhundert: Magdeburg 1981, 21–30

‘Zabïtïy “otets simfonii” (Dzh.B. Sammartini)’ [The forgotten ‘father of the symphony’ (Sammartini)], SovM (1985), no.2, pp.91–5

‘Gija Kanschelis Opera “Musik für die Lebenden”’, Sowjetische Musik im Licht der Perestroika: Interpretationen, Quellentexte, Komponistenmonographien, ed. H. Danuser, H. Gerlach and J. Köchl (Laaber, 1990), 207–13

‘Muzïka v teatrye imeni Rustaveli’ [Music in the Rustaveli Theatre], Muzïkal'nïy teatr: sobïtiya, problemï, ed. M.D. Sabinina (Moscow, 1990), 141–69

Pesnopeniya: o muzïkye Gii Kancheli [Chants: on the music of Giya Kancheli] (Moscow, 1991)

‘Simfoniya “Ognennogo angela” (3 simfoniya Prokof'yeva)’ [The ‘Fiery Angel’ Symphony (Prokofiev’s Third Symphony)], SovM (1991), no.4, pp.35–41

‘Motsart i traditsiya muzïkal'nogo barokko’ [Mozart and the tradition of Baroque music], MAk (1992), no.2, pp.184–6

Natsional'noye, individual'noye i obshchechelovecheskoye v muzïke Gia Kanceli: problemï tvorceskoye ėstetiki i stilya [Nationality, individuality and humanity in the music of Giya Kancheli: problems of creative aesthetics and style] (diss., Russian Institute of the Arts, 1993)

‘“Tret'ye dïkhaniye” gruzinskoy operi?’ [The ‘third wave’ of Georgian opera?], Muzïkal'nïy teatr: nadezhdi i deystvitel'nost', ed. E. Kurilenko (Moscow, 1993)

TAT'YANA S. KYUREGYAN

Zeydman, Boris Isaakovich

(b St Petersburg, 28 Jan/10 Feb 1908; d Tashkent, 30 Dec 1981). Russian composer and teacher. He studied with Steinberg at the St Petersburg Conservatory (1927–31) and then taught there (1933–9) before moving to Central Asia and the Caucasus where he spent the rest of his life helping to establish and develop professional composition in Azerbaijan and Uzbekistan. Zeydman instilled in Uzbek traditional musicians a feeling for and understanding of the principles of Western genres. After a spell in the Baku Conservatory, he was appointed in 1957 to teach at Tashkent Conservatory where he remained until his death. His creativity includes compositions from many different genres, including chamber pieces, opera and ballet. He was a co-founder of Uzbek's composer's school. His students included Amirov, Kazhlayev, Mukhatov, Khalilov, Kurbanov and Saydaminova. He has received numerous awards including that of People's Artist of Uzbekistan.

WORKS

(selective list)

Dramatic: Gnev narodnïy [The People's Wrath] (op, A. Badalbeyli), 1941, Baku, 28 Dec 1941, collab. A. Badalbeyli; Maskarad (op, after M.Yu. Lermontov), 1945; Gore ot uma [Woe from Wit] (op, after A. Griboyedov), 1946; Ferganskïy rasskaz [The Ferghana Story] (musical drama), 1958, collab. T. Djalilov; Zaiynab va Omon [Zainab and Omon] (op, Zulfiya), 1958, collab. T. Sadïkov, D. Zakirov and Yu. Radjabi; Chelovek, kotorïy smeyotsya [The Laughing Man] (ballet, Badalbeyli, M. Satanovsky, after V. Hugo), 1962; Drakon i solntse [The Dragon and the Sun] (ballet, A. Ginzburg), 1964; Sïn zhenitsya [The Son is Marrying] (musical drama), 1964, collab. Yu. Radjabi and S. Yudakov; Zolotoy klyuchik [The Golden Key] (ballet, after A. Tolstoy), 1965; Dvenadtsataya noch' [Twelfth Night] (op, after W. Shakespeare), 1968; Russkiye lyudi [The Russian People] (op, after K. Simonov), 1970; film scores, incid music

Orch: Pf Conc. [no.1], 1931; Pf Conc. [no.2], 1935; Bn Conc., 1938; Khosrov i Shirin [Khosrov and Shirin], dramatic sym., 1941; Sinfonietta [no.1], 1943; Vc Conc., 1949; Sinfonietta [no.2], 1957; Vn Conc., 1958; Sym. Conc. [no.1], 1963; Pesni bor'bï [Songs of Struggle], sym., 1966; Sym. Conc. [no.2], 1970; Dni vesnï [Days of Spring], sym., 1971

Chbr works, choral music and songs

RAZIA SULTANOVA

Žganec, Vinko

(b Vratišinec, Međimurje, Croatia, 22 Jan 1890; d Zagreb, 12 Dec 1976). Croatian folksong collector. At Zagreb he graduated from the Theological Faculty (1914) and took a doctorate in law in 1919; he studied music privately, and until World War II practised law and published many legal studies. Subsequently he was the curator of the Zagreb Ethnographic Museum (1945–8), then worked for the Institute for Traditional Arts (1948–64; director 1948–52), and also lectured on traditional music at the Zagreb Academy of Music (1949–68). He first collected folksongs in Međimurje (then Muraköz, Hungary) in 1908, more intensively after 1920. The important collection published in 1924–5 led to correspondence with Bartók concerning archaic Hungarian song types and Yugoslav folk music in general (Béla Bartók: Letters, ed. J. Demény, Budapest, 1971).

From the 1940s Žganec devoted his full energies to folk music collecting and research (chiefly for the Institute of Folk Art in Zagreb), using a tape recorder from 1952. His collection of more than 15,000 folksongs with melodies includes about 4000 from Međimurje. A full edition of the Međimurje collection is underway. From his other chief area of collection, Croatian Zagorje (north and northeast of Zagreb), he published over 750 songs, collected in 1947–8, and from Koprivnica (east of Zagorje) over 400 songs. He also collected across northern Croatia, along the Croatian coast, in Istria, in Dalmatia and its islands, and among the Croats in the Gradišće (Burgenland) province of Austria, as well as among Croatian enclaves in Hungary. His articles on the music of regions (Dalmatia, Međimurje, Istria, Slavonia, Susac island) provide valuable information about the survival of traditional genres and instruments. His manuscripts, transcriptions and recordings are kept in the Institute of Ethnology and Folklore, Zagreb.

Žganec’s writings include a volume of lectures (1962), which serves as a basic textbook on Croatian folk music, and an article on the ‘Istrian scale’ (his theory concerning a special characteristic of Croatian folk music). His numerous compositions are chiefly choral arrangements of folksongs. He was president of the Yugoslav IFMC National Committee (1952–66); in 1966 he became a full member of the Yugoslav (later Croatian) Academy of Sciences and Arts, Zagreb.

WRITINGS

Kroatische Volksweisen und Volkstänze (Zagreb, 1944)

‘Istarski muzički folklor’, Istra i slovensko primorje, ed. V. Holjevac (Belgrade, 1952), 35–7

‘Orijentalizmi u jugoslavenskom muzičkom folkloru’, Tkalčićev zbornik, i, ed. I. Bach (Zagreb, 1955), 81–90

‘Die Elemente der jugoslawischen Folklore-Tonleitern im serbischen liturgischen Gesänge’, Studia memoriae Belae Bartok sacra, ed. B. Rajeczky and L. Vargyas (Budapest, 1956, 2/1957; Eng. trans., 1959), 349–63

‘Folklore Elements in the Yugoslav Orthodox and Roman Catholic Liturgical Chant’, JIMFC, viii (1956), 19–22

‘Muzički folklor’, Otok Susak [Folk music on the island of Susac] (Zagreb, 1957), 333–48

ed.: Yugoslav Folklore Association: [Congress IV]: Varaždin 1957 [incl. ‘Die Musikfolklore der Bevölkerung des pannonischen Bassins’, 71–6]

‘The Tonal and Modal Structure of Yugoslav Folk Music’, JIFMC, x (1958), 18–21

Muzički folklor, i: Uvodne teme i tonske osnove [Introduction and basic scales] (Zagreb, 1962)

‘Kuhačev rad, život i značenje za našu muzičku kulturu’ [The work, life and importance for our musical culture of Franjo Kuhač], Zvuk, no.54 (1962), 435–46

‘La gamme istrienne dans la musique populaire yougoslave’, SM, iv (1963), 101–28

‘Metrika i ritmika u versifikaciji narodnog deseterca’ [Metrics and rhythm in versification of the folk decasyllabic line], Narodna umjetnost, ii (1963), 3–37 [with Ger. summary]

‘Muzičke skale i ritmovi u gradišćanskim narodnim pjesmama’ [Musical scales and rhythms in the folksongs of Croatians in Burgenland, Austria], Narodna umjetnost, iii (1964–5), 149–62

‘Govor varijanata’ [What variants say], Zbornik za narodni život i običaje Južnih Slavena, xlv (1971), 725–42 [Study of musical variants of a ballad]

‘Muzički folklor Poljica u Dalmaciji’, Zbornik radova o Stevanu Mokranjcu, ed. M. Vukdragović (Belgrade, 1971), 221–44 [with Fr. summary]

‘Neki narodni plesovi iz Hrvatskog Zagorja’ [Some folkdances from Croatian Zagorje], Narodno stvaralaštvo, nos.41–3 (1972), 45–56

‘Der glagolitische Gesang als kostbares kulturhistorisches Erbgut der Kroaten’, Musikethnologische Sammelbände, vi (1983), 169–73

FOLKSONG EDITIONS

Hrvatske pučke popijevke iz Međumurja [Croatian folksongs from Međimurje], i: Svjetovne [Secular]; ii: Crkvene [Religious] (Zagreb, 1924–5) [vol.i incl. introduction on region and music]

Hrvatske narodne pjesme: Kajkavske [Croatian folksongs in Kajkavian dialect] (Zagreb, 1950) [texts and melodies of 376 songs]

Narodne popijevke Hrvatskog zagorja [Folksongs of the Croatian Zagorje], i: Napjevi [Melodies]; ii: Tekstovi (Zagreb, 1950–52); iii: ‘Etnomuzikološka studija za knjigu Narodne popijevke Hrvatskog zagorja’, Zbornik za narodni život i običaje JAZU, xliv (1971)

with N. Sremec: Hrvatske narodne pjesme i plesovi [Croatian folksongs and folkdances] (Zagreb, 1951) [incl. ‘Osnovni stilovi hrvatskih narodnih pjesama’ (The basic styles of Croatian traditional melodies), 5–9; with Eng. trans., 228–31]

Međimurje u svojim pjesmama [Međimurje in its songs] (Zagreb, 1957)

Hrvatske narodne popijevke iz Koprivnice i okoline [Croatian folksongs from Koprivnica and the surroundings] (Zagreb, 1962) [with comments and musical analysis]

Jačkar: hrvatske narodne jačke iz Gradišća (Austrije) [Croatian folksongs from Burgenland (Austria)] (Čakovec, 1964) [collected by M. Meršić, with commentary by Žganec]

Pučke popijevke Hrvata iz okolice Velike Kaniže u Mađarskoj [Croatian folksongs from the Nagykanizsa area in Hungary] (Čakovec, 1974)

Hrvatske pučke popijevke iz Zeline i okolice [Croatian traditional songs from Zelina and its environs] (Zelina, 1979)

Hrvatske pučke popijevke iz Međimurja [Croatian traditional songs from Međimurje], ed. J. Bezić, G. Marošević and R. Bonifačić (Zagreb, 1990–92) [402 songs with comments and musical analysis]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Bezić: ‘Etnomuzikološki rad akademika Vinka Žganca’, Narodno stvaralaštvo, vii (1968), 1–10

O. Delorko: ‘Vinko Žganec i naša narodna poezija’ [Žganec and our folk poetry], Narodno stvaralaštvo, vii (1968), 16–19

I. Ivančan: ‘Vinko Žganec zapisivač narodnih plesova’ [Collector of folkdances], Narodno stvaralaštvo, vii (1968), 11–15

J. Bezić, ed.: ‘Rasprave i prilozi uz stogodišnjicu rođenja Vinka Žganca’ [Studies and contributions for the one hundredth anniversary of Žganec's birth], Narodna umjetnost, iii (1991) [Žganec issue; incl. 23 essays and complete lists of writings, manuscripts and field recordings]

F. Hrg: ‘O Žgančevim harmonizacijama međimurskih crkvenih napjeva’ [Žganec's harmonizations of Međimurje church hymns], Sv. Cecilija, lxi (1991), 6–9

BARBARA KRADER/ZDRAVKO BLAŽEKOVIĆ

Zgureanu, Teodor

(b Condrăteşti, Ungheni, 24 May 1939). Moldovan composer and choral conductor. He graduated from the Kishinev Institute of Arts where he studied choral conducting with L. Aksyonova. He has since conducted the leading choral ensembles of Moldova such as the Doina chorus (1967–76) and state radio and television choir (1976–87). In 1988 he founded the Renaissance choir which, under his direction, has won a number of awards and performed internationally. Zgureanu won the ‘best conductor’ prize at competitions in Varna, Bulgaria (1995), and Debrecen, Hungary (1996). He has headed the choral conducting department of the Chişinău Institute of Arts and in 1992 was appointed professor. He was awarded first prize by UNESCO for the Trei madrigale (‘Three Madrigals’) in 1995; he has also received many official awards. His output is associated with most choral genres. In stylistic terms, he combines techniques prevalent in post-World War II composition with ancient Moldovan folklore and Byzantine chant. Miniatures such as Ninge (‘It is Snowing’) and Peisaj de iarnă (‘Winter Landscape’) are notable for their colouristic choral writing and new effects.

WORKS

(selective list)

Vocal-orch: Ecoul gliei [Echo of the Earth] (cant., trad.), SATB, orch, 1973; Să-n floreşti, pământ natal [Flourish, Native Land] (choral poem, G. Vieru, A. Ciocanu), Mez, B, SATB, orch, 1980; Pământul meu [My Land] (orat, A. Rosca, I. Vieru, D. Matcovschi), B, SATB, orch, 1982; Cant solemn [Solemn Song] (choral poem, S. Ghimpu), Bar, SATB, orch, 1983; Moldova (orat, D. Matcovschi), S, B, SATB, orch, 1986; Oratoriul psalmelor [Orat of Psalms] (Bible), B, SA, chbr orch, 1995

Unacc. choral: Casa mare la izvoare [Kasa Mare near the Spring] (suite, trad.), SATB, 1978; Înfloreşte Moldova [Moldova is Flourishing] (suite, trad.), SATB, 1988; Ciobănas de la miori [The Shepherd] (suite, trad.), SATB, 1994

Incid music, over 50 choruses and songs for children, romances (M. Eminescu and others), chbr and solo inst works

Principal publishers: Literatura Artistică, Hyperion

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Moraru: ‘Muzică celestă’, Literatura şi arta (8 Dec 1994)

T. Zgureanu: ‘În “Clopotele astrale” am încercat să prind ecoul unor lumi paralele’, Momentul (22 July 1995)

I. Nechit: ‘Un cor, îndrăgostit de Renaştere’, Literatura şi arta (19 Oct 1995)

VICTORIA TCACENCO

Zha Fuxi

(b Yongshun, Hunan, 1895; d 1976). Chinese performer and scholar of the qin plucked seven-string zither. Brought up in Hunan, he studied the qin, and qin songs, from 1908. Moving to Shanghai, he helped found the celebrated Jin Yu qinshe qin society in 1936, while maintaining the amateur tradition of the qin. He made a lecture tour of the USA in 1945. Having taken part in a revolt against the Nationalist airline for which he worked, he moved to Beijing after the People's Republic of China was established in 1949. There he founded the Beijing Qin Research Association and joined the Chinese Music Research Institute, in whose intense scholarly atmosphere he thrived in the 1950s, working alongside eminent musician-scholars such as Yang Yinliu and Guan Pinghu. In 1956 Zha Fuxi led a major project to document qin players over the whole of China; the recordings and transcriptions of this project form the basis for our understanding of qin styles today. He further undertook painstaking historical work on qin scores, initiating the major project of facsimiles Qinqu jicheng, a series of historical biographies of qin players, and writing many articles. His historical work was also manifest in his interpretations of qin songs and vocal music from other early collections of notation. See also China, §IV, 4(ii)(a).

WRITINGS

ed.: Cunjian guqin qupu jilan [Index of extant qin pieces and scores] (Beijing, 1957)

with Xu Jian and Wang Di: ‘1956 nian guqin caifang gongzuo baogao’ [1956 fieldwork report on the qin], Minzu yinyue yanjiu lunwenji, no.3 (Beijing, 1957), 1–8

ed. Huang Xudong and others: Zha Fuxi qinxue wencui [Collected works of qin scholarship of Zha Fuxi] (Hangzhou, 1995)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

Qinqu jicheng [Anthology of qin pieces], ed. YYS and Beijing guqin yanjiuhui (Shanghai, 1981–)

Zhongguo yinyue daquan: guqin juan/An Anthology of Chinese Traditional and Folk Music: a Collection of Music Played on the Qin, China Record Co. CCD-342 to CCD-349 (1994); reissued as Zhongguo yinyue daquan: qindao chanyun, Xueding chuban youxian gongsi CRCD703 to CRCD710 (1996)

STEPHEN JONES

Zhang Jianting

(b Wuxi, Jiangsu province, 23 Feb 1909; d 24 April 1984). Chinese Suzhou tanci ballad singer. Zhang’s career began at the age of nine as a religious ballad singer travelling with his uncle from one village to another. Reaching Hangzhou in 1921, Zhang joined the Hongqingtang Shaoxing daban troupe. Over the next five years he performed in a number of operatic and ballad genres, including Beijing opera. Zhang took Zhu Yongjun as his Suzhou pingtan (tanci) balladry teacher in 1926, improving his skills as a singer-instrumentalist in this important Chinese narrative genre.

Zhang used his knowledge of the repertory of other ballad styles to develop new pingtan texts, and began to perform in this style across Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces. From 1929 he became a successful singer in Shanghai, his reputation increasing over the following two decades. In 1951 Zhang was assigned to the newly established Shanghai People’s Pingtan Troupe (Shanghai Shi Renmin Pingtan Gongzuotuan).

Zhang’s style, developed continuously throughout his career, has become one of the primary ‘schools’ of pingtan performance. Influenced initially by the singer Ma Rufei, Zhang later adapted elements of the performance style of Xia Hesheng and Jiang Yuequan, adding his own rhythmic and melodic innovations and the results of his early encounters with such forms as Beijing opera. For instance, in his version of The White-Haired Girl (Baimao nü) (1958) Zhang extends the standard vocal range upwards a minor 3rd.

See also China, §IV, 1(ii).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Zhongguo yinyue cidian, xubian [Dictionary of Chinese music, supplementary vol.], YYS pubn (Beijing, 1992), 250

PENG BENLE

Zhang Ziqian

(b Yangzhou, 1899; d Tianjin, 1991). Chinese qin zither master. Born in the historical site of the Guangling school, Zhang studied qin as a teenager with Sun Shaotao. By his early twenties he was already an accomplished performer, though remaining true to the amateur ideal of the qin. In the 1930s Zhang moved to Shanghai, acquainting himself with the qin players Zha Fuxi and Peng Zhiqing; their regular meetings led in 1936 to the founding of the Jin Yu qinshe (Qin Society of Contemporary Yu Region) in Suzhou. After the founding of the People’s Republic, Zhang was enlisted to the state-sponsored Shanghai Folk Music Troupe (Shanghai minzu yuetuan), and in 1957 he was appointed a teacher of qin at the Shanghai Conservatory. Zhang promoted the Guangling style through his performances, teaching and publications. His distinctive style of rhapsodic rhythm and flexible phrasing can be heard in his recordings of pieces such as Meihua sannong (‘Three Variations of Plum Blossom’), Pingsha luoyan (‘Geese Descending on the Sandbank’) and Longxiang cao (‘Soaring Dragon’).

See also Qin; China, §IV, 4(ii)(a).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

Ancient Qin Music: Guangling Qin Music, vol.1, Zhang Ziqian, Hugo HRP 7139-2 (1987)

Dai Xiaolian: ‘In Memory of a Great Guqin Player, Master Zhang Ziqian’, CHIME, no.3 (1991), 76–87

Gong Yi and Xu Guohua: ‘Weijun yi huishou, ru ting wanhe song: guqinjia Zhang Ziqian’ [A simple stroke of his hand was like hearing pines in myriad ravines: the qin player Zhang Ziqian], Zhongguo jinxiandai yinyuejia zhuan [Biographies of modern Chinese musicians], ed. Xiang Yansheng (Shenyang, 1994), 361–70

JOSEPH S.C. LAM

Zhao Songting

(b Dongyang county, Zhejiang province, 29 Aug 1924). Chinese dizi bamboo flute player. He trained as a teacher in Zhejiang, following this with an education in both Western and Chinese music and a course of legal study in Shanghai (1949). During the 1940s he was active as a music teacher in his home county, joining the Zhejiang Song and Dance Troupe (Zhejiang Sheng Gewutuan) as dizi soloist in 1956. At this time he was already active as a composer and arranger of music for the dizi, and taught pupils at both the Zhejiang College of Arts (Zhejiang sheng yishu xuexiao) and the Shanghai Conservatory of Music. Employment of such techniques as circular breathing in compositions such as Sanwuqi (‘Three-Five-Seven’), based on a melody from Zhejiang traditional wuju opera, illustrates Zhao’s attempts to contribute to the new solo repertory for his instrument. However, Zhao’s middle-class background implicated him in the anti-rightist campaign of 1958, and five years of imprisonment ensued.

Further periods of captivity and victimization followed during the Cultural Revolution (1966–76); not permitted to perform during this phase, Zhao concentrated on the development of refinements in dizi design and on teaching a succession of pupils, many of them now leading professionals. Since 1976 Zhao has resumed his former posts and interests, also publishing two sets of essays and teaching materials for his instrument.

WRITINGS

ed.: Zhao Songting de dizi [The dizi of Zhao Songting] (Hangzhou, 1957)

Dizi yanzou jiqiao guangbo jiangzuo [Broadcast lectures on dizi performance technique] (Beijing, 1983)

Diyi chunqiu [A lifetime of dizi art] (Hangzhou, 1985)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F.C. Lau: Music and Musicians of the Traditional Chinese Dizi in the People’s Republic of China (DMA diss., U. of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 1991), 58–61

Zhongguo yinyue cidian, xubian [Dictionary of Chinese music, supplementary vol.], YYS pubn (Beijing, 1992), 254–5

Shanghai yinyue chubanshe, ed.: Zhongguo zhudi mingqu huicui [Special selection of famous pieces for Chinese bamboo flute] (Shanghai, 1994), 71–91, 503–4

JONATHAN P.J. STOCK

Zhao Yuzhai

(b Yuncheng, Shandong province, 2 Feb 1924). Chinese zheng zither player. He is noted as a leading exponent of the zheng zither and the two-string fiddle leiqin. A member of the Shandong school of performance, Zhao is also composer of the highly influential zheng piece Qingfeng nian (‘Celebrating the Harvest’, 1955), one of the first compositions for this instrument in which left- and right-handed plucking techniques are used simultaneously, a notion probably inspired by piano performance technique. This composition, which reworks Shandong folk tunes including xiaoxi liushui (‘The Flowing Brook’), was intended for use by zheng performers in the new traditional music programmes then being opened at conservatories across China. In other works Zhao introduces aspects of pipa four-string lute technique and blends fingering techniques from several different schools of zheng performance. He also draws on the repertory of the local narrative singing tradition Shandong qinshu. Until the early 1950s, Zhao was active mostly as a performer, visiting many parts of China; thereafter he worked in a number of educational institutions, including the Shenyang Conservatory of Music.

WRITINGS

ed.: Zhengqu xuanji [Selected anthology of zheng pieces] (Beijing, 1960)

ed.: Guzheng quji [Collection of pieces for guzheng] (Shanghai, 1963)

‘Lu zheng Lao baban chuantong liupai yuequ yanjiu: diyi dataoqu gaishuo’ [Survey of the first suite of Old Eight-Beat, a traditional piece of the Shandong zheng school], Yuefu xinsheng (1983), no.1, pp.34–8

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Jiao Jinhai, ed.: Zheng yanzoufa [Zheng performance technique] (Beijing, 1987), 130–34

Cheng Te-yuan: Zheng Tradition and Change, (diss., U. of Maryland, 1991), 126–7, 313–14, 318–25

Zhongguo yinyue cidian xubian [Dictionary of Chinese music, supplementary vol.] (Beijing, 1992), 255

Shanghai yinyue chubanshe, ed.: Zhongguo guzheng mingqu huicui [Special collection of famous pieces for the Chinese guzheng] (Shanghai, 1993), 1–10

Special Collection of Contemporary Chinese Musicians, Wind Records CB-07 (1996)

JONATHAN P.J. STOCK

Zhelobinsky, Valery Viktorovich

(b Tambov, 14/27 Jan 1913; d Leningrad, 13 Aug 1946). Russian composer. He studied under Shcherbachyov at the Leningrad Conservatory (1928–32) and from the late 1920s was active as a concert pianist. In 1942 he taught at the College of Music in Tambov, where until 1943 he was chairman of the Composers' Union. A collection of his writings, entitled Imeninï [Namedays], was published in Leningrad in 1935.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Pod steklyannïm kolpakom [Under the Bell Glass] (operetta, V. Volnov), 1930; Kamarinskiy muzhik [The Kamarino Peasant] (op, O. Brik), 1933; Imeninï [Nameday] (op, Brik, after N. Pavlov), 1933–4; Mat' [Mother] (op, A. Preys, B. Gusman, after M. Gor'ky), 1938; Posledniy bal [The Last Ball] (operetta, L. Zeltser, V. Vladimirov), 1939; Siren-cheremukha (operetta)

Syms.: 1930, 1932, 1939, 1942, 1944, 1946

Pf concs.: 1933, 1934, 1938–9

Other orch: Sinfonietta, 1934; Romantic Poem, vn, orch, 1939

Inst: Conc., vn, pf, 1937; Pf Sonata, 24 Preludes, other pf pieces

Songs (A. Akhmatova, A. Fet), music for the theatre and cinema

Principal publishers: Sovetskiy Kompozitor, Soviet State Publishing House

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BDRSC

SKM

‘Zhelobinskiy, Valeriy Viktorovich’, Muzïkal'nïy ėntsiklopediya, ed. G.M. Tsïpin (Moscow, 1974)

‘Zhelobinskiy, Valeriy Viktorovich’, Muzïkal'nïy ėntsiklopedicheskiy slovar', ed. G.V. Keldïsh (Moscow, 1990)

DETLEF GOJOWY

Zheng.

A plucked half-tube zither with movable bridges, one of the principal Chinese zithers, the others being the Qin and the ancient se (see China, §III). Discussed here are construction, early history, tuning and notation; for living traditions and repertories, see China, §IV, 4(ii)(b).

The zheng consists of a soundbox with adjustable bridges over which a number of strings are stretched. The size of the zheng ranges from 120 to 170 cm long and 20 to 35 cm wide, depending on the number of strings. The soundboard is made of wutong wood (Firmiana platanifolia), the bottom being flat and the upper board convex. The wood used for the sides and bottom is traditionally hardwood: red sandalwood, rosewood or sometimes boxwood. The bridges, used for fine tuning, are usually made of wood, occasionally of ivory or bone. The strings are secured on pins at one end of the instrument, stretched over individual bridges, and wound around tuning pegs at the other end. While silk strings were traditionally used, today they are most commonly of steel wound with nylon. The bridges divide the strings into two sections, the portion to the right delineating the open-string tuning mode and the plucking area, that to the left the area where ornamentations and pitch modifications may be made.

The zheng has a history of over 2500 years. The 2nd–century dictionary Shuowen jiezi states: ‘The zheng has plucked strings and a bamboo body. [Its music onomatopoeically] sounds “zheng”’. Another 2nd-century document, the Fengsu Tongyi, indicates: ‘The zheng [prior to the 1st century ce] had five strings and the body of a zhu [another ancient zither made of bamboo]’. The Chinese character for zheng has two portions: the upper, zhu (‘bamboo’), probably refers to the use of bamboo in the construction of the body during its early development; the lower, zheng, is clearly a representation of its sound when played (Cao, 1983, p.2). While it is possible that the ancient zheng distributed in north-central China was made of bamboo and had five strings, no evidence has been found for the theory that it derived from a combination of two ‘prototype’ zithers, the se and the zhu.

Zheng performance was first documented in the Shiji (‘Records of the Historian’, 237 bce): ‘[People of the Qin state, now Shaanxi province] beat clay drums and earthen jars, play zheng and slap their thighs to accompany songs. This is the true music of Qin’. Some sources state that the zheng was invented by Meng Tian (d 210 bce), a general of the Qin state. However, because the lower portion of the character has the same pronunciation and form as the word zheng (to quarrel), other legends emerged describing how a fight between two people over a 25-string se zither led to the division of the instrument in half, thus creating both a 12-string and 13-string zheng. Since ancient Chinese custom and literature commonly credits famous persons or mythical beings with the invention of musical instruments, caution is needed in assessing such legends.

Traditional Chinese scholarship supposed that the zheng originated in north-central China. In the 1970s, however, several 12- and 13-string zithers dating to the 6th or 7th century bce were unearthed in Guangxi and Jiangxi provinces in southern China. Based on their construction and the way their strings are mounted, they are almost certainly identifiable as zheng types (Huang, 1987). Since these instruments are older than any other known zheng, these archaeological finds have challenged traditional notions about the northern origin of the instrument. It is now suggested that the zheng may have originated in southern China, or that it may have had multiple origins (Xiang, 1994).

Fu Xuan’s poetic essay Zhengfu xu (c265 ce) describes the zheng of that period as follows: ‘Its upper part is convex like the vault of heaven; its bottom flat like the earth; its inside is hollow so as to accommodate the six points of the compass, and its 12 strings with their bridges symbolize the 12 months of the year’. Thus by this period the number of strings in north-central China had already increased from five to twelve. During the Han dynasty, the zheng was part of the string and wind ensemble which accompanied xianghe ge (‘harmonious song’), a singing and dancing tradition in north-central China. In the Sui, Tang and Song dynasties (581–1279), the zheng was a member of court musical ensembles, which performed yanyue (banquet music) and qingshang yue (music deriving from xianghe ge) (Yang, 1981, p.219). According to the Tang encyclopedia Tongdian (801) both 12-string and 13-string zheng were then in existence; the zheng was introduced to Korea as the 12-string kayagum and to Japan as the 13-string Koto.

By the 18th century the number of strings had increased to 14 or more. It is generally assumed that the 16-string zheng was in fashion before the 19th century. Since the mid-20th century, zheng zithers have been constructed with 18, 21 and even 25 or 44 strings. While the 21-string zheng is most commonly used, the 16-string zheng is still in use by some traditional musicians, especially along the southeastern coast of mainland China and in Taiwan.

Before the Song dynasty, the instrument was placed on the performer’s knees with the end pointing away to the left (Liu and Yuan, 1988, p.83), a position still preserved in kayagum performance. Now the zheng is played on a table or a pair of stands (fig.1). The technique used in playing is twofold. With the right hand the performer plucks the strings with the fingernails (either real or simulated), which produce single notes, octaves or harmonies. The thumb plays outwards while the index and middle fingers play inwards. Subtle nuances are achieved through different levels of intensity in plucking, through the use of the nail only or a combination of fingernail and fingertip flesh, and by variation of the plucking positions on the strings. Traditionally, the left hand is used to apply pressure to and release the strings for ornamentation, such as vibrato, portamento and pitch alterations. In contemporary practice the left hand may also join the right hand in playing melody on the right side of the bridges.

The open strings are tuned to an anhemitonic pentatonic scale of sol la doh re mi, usually in either the key of G or the key of D, with the lowest string tuned to D. The 16-string zheng is tuned to give three complete octaves, while the 21-string zheng has four complete octaves. By moving certain bridges the key can be transposed.

The earliest known zheng notation is preserved in the 12th-century Japanese manuscript Jinchi yoroku which, together with signs for fingering movements, employs 13 Chinese characters and numbers to represent the 13 strings of the instrument. This is believed to be Chinese zheng notation used in the Tang dynasty (Picken, 1981; Cheng, 1991, p.15). At least from the Qing dynasty, the gongche system of notation, which uses Chinese characters to denote a kind of solfeggio, was widely used for zheng music. (fig. 2). The ersi pu (‘2–4 notation’) (fig. 3) used until recently in Chaozhou music, which uses seven numbers and metrical symbols, is also considered to have been handed down from the Tang and Song periods (Chen, 1978). In the early 20th century, cipher notation became a common teaching device. Although Western staff notation is used by some conservatory-trained musicians, cipher notation is more widely used.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

R.H. van Gulik: ‘A Brief Note on the Cheng, the Chinese Small Cither’, Tōyō ongaku kenkyū, ix (1951), 10–25

K. Hayashi: Dongya yueqi kao [Study of East Asian musical instruments] (Beijing, 1962/R), 165–93

Chen Leishi: Chaoyue juepu ‘ersi’ pu yuanliu kao [Study of the origin and history of the lost Chaozhou notation ersi pu] (Hong Kong, 1978)

L. Picken and others: Music from the Tang Court (Oxford, 1981; Cambridge, 1985–)

Yang Yinliu: Zhongguo gudai yinyue shigao [Draft history of ancient Chinese music] (Beijing, 1981)

Cao Zheng: ‘A Discussion of the History of the Gu Zheng’, AsM, xiv/2 (1983), 1–16

Huang Chengyuan: ‘Gongyuanqian 500 nian de zheng’ [The zheng before 500 bce], Zhongguo yinyue (1987), no.3, pp.39–40

T. Kwok: ‘Zheng: a Chinese Zither and its Music’ (thesis, U. of Hawaii, 1987)

L. Rault-Leyrat: Comme un vol d’oies sauvages: la cithare chinoise (Paris, 1987)

Liu Dongsheng and Yuan , eds.: Zhongguo yinyue shi tujian [Pictorial guide to the history of Chinese music] (Beijing, 1988)

Cheng Te-yuan: Zheng, Tradition and Change (diss., U. of Maryland, 1991)

Liu Dongsheng , ed.: Zhongguo yueqi tujian [Pictorial guide to Chinese instruments] (Ji'nan, 1992), 200–09

Xiang Yang: ‘Kaogu faxian yu Qinzheng shuo’ [Archaeological discoveries and theories on the Qin zheng], Yinyuexue wenji [Collected articles on musicology], ed. YYS (Ji'nan, 1994), 198–217

HAN MEI

Zhiganov, Nazib Gayanovich

(b Ural'sk, Kazakhstan, 2/15 Jan 1911; d Ufa, Bashkir Republic, 1 June 1988). Tatar composer. He was orphaned at the age of five and, 12 years later, made his own way to Moscow to attend a music college before transferring to the conservatory there in 1935; he graduated in 1938 from the composition class of Litinsky. In 1939 he was appointed artistic director of the Tatar Opera Theatre and also became the chairman of the Tatar Composers' Union, a post he held until 1978. He taught orchestration in the Kazan' Conservatory (1945–88, professor 1953); he held numerous official positions and received the USSR State Prize in 1948 for the opera Altinchech (‘Golden-Haired’).

Zhiganov is regarded as the founder of Tatar art music. He aspired to attain European standards of professionalism in the writing of stage and orchestral works – he wrote the first Tatar symphony while still a student (first performance: Kazan' 1938) – and in order to establish his achievements in these areas he founded the Kazan' Conservatory which became a major musical centre in the Middle Volga and Ural' regions. The first 20 years of his creative life were dedicated to operatic composition (he wrote more operas than any other Tatar composer); these years (1937–57) were those in which the first exponents of Tatar art music familiarized themselves with European techniques and forms. However, Zhiganov was innovative in his approach to Western genres and incorporated many Tatar aspects into his art: he established a type of monologue ‘opera-poem’ with Jalil which, along with many of his other stage works and his 16 symphonies, relies heavily on Tatar folk sources.

WORKS

(selective list)

Ops (all staged in the Tatar State Theatre of Opera and Ballet, Kazan'): Kachkin [The Fugitive], 1939; Irek [Freedom], 1940; Altinchech [Golden-Haired], 1940; Ildar, 1942, rev. 1954; Shagiir [The Poet], 1947; Tulyak, 1945, rev. as Tulyak and Su-Slu, 1967; Namus [Honour], 1950; Jalil, 1957

Ballets: Fatikh, 1943; Zugra, 1946; 2 Legends: Zugra and Nzhery, 1970

Cants.: My Republic, chorus, orch, 1960; Hello, Moscow, chorus, orch, 1980

16 syms., 1937, ‘Sabantuy’ [Ploughing Holiday], 1968, ‘Lyric’, 1971, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985

Other orch: Kirlay, sym. poem, 1946; Suite on Tatar National Themes, 1949; Nafisa, sym. poem, 1952; Sym. Novels, 1964; Sym. Songs, 1965

Other works: pf works incl. Sonata, over 100 romances for 1v, pf, folksong arrs., choruses

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ya. Girshman: Nazib Zhiganov (Moscow, 1975)

M. Faizulayeva: Fol'klornïye istoki tatarskoy operï [Folklore sources of Tatar opera] (Kazan', 1996)

MARGARITA PAVLOVNA FAZULAYEVNA

Zhilin, Aleksey Dmitriyevich

(b Kursk province, c1766; d Moscow, c1848). Russian composer. At the age of six months he lost his sight, but nevertheless he learnt to play the piano, violin, cello and guitar. In 1808 he was appointed Kapellmeister of the Institute for Blind Workers in St Petersburg, where he directed the orchestra and gave concerts. He left the Institute in 1818, and after a brief sojourn in Moscow went to live in his home town of Kursk. He returned to Moscow in 1837, where he remained until his death.

His first known composition is a song written in 1809; the following year in St Petersburg he produced a Journal de musique pour le piano-forte, which was intended solely as a collection of his own compositions. The Journal contains six polonaises, one of which has a part for solo voice, six marches, quadrilles, waltzes and écossaises, together with variations on six Russian folk tunes. Some of these piano pieces were published in the first volume of the keyboard anthology Russkaya fortepiannaya muzïka (ed. N.A. Kopchevsky, Moscow, 1986). In 1814 some of Zhilin’s songs were published in an eight-part collection entitled Erato. These short strophic pieces have a melodic and harmonic vocabulary which, if not adventurous, is attractive in its simplicity; the sentimental texts are chosen from the works of Zhukovsky, Kheraskov and some minor poets such as Neledinsky-Meletsky and Dmitriyev. His song Malyutka shlem nosya (‘The Little Lad in the Helmet’) is composed to a text from A.F. Merzlyakov’s play Velizariy, first produced in 1806. As well as composing a piano concerto (performed 1815), Zhilin also wrote an overture for full orchestra. The scores of both works are lost.

GEOFFREY NORRIS

Zhilyayev, Nikolay Sergeyevich

(b Kursk, 6/18 Oct 1881; d 20 Jan 1938). Russian critic, composer and teacher. A member of the London Geographic Society. Zhilyayev first studied with Taneyev (1896–1900) and was one of his favourite pupils; he later studied with Ippolitov-Ivanov at the Moscow Conservatory, graduating in 1905. His activity as a composer was limited to the period 1905–9, and several of his works were published by Jurgenson. After a round-the-world trip during which he visited Grieg at his house in Troldhaugen (1907), he appeared as a pianist with the singer M. Deysha-Sionitskaya at the Muzïkal'nïye vïstavki (‘Musical Exhibitions’) in Moscow. He was active as a music critic and wrote for the journals Zolotoye runo (‘The Golden Fleece’), Moskovskiy yezhenedel'nik (‘Moscow Weekly’), Muzïka (‘Music’) and for the newspaper Rul' (‘The Rudder’) (in which he used the pseudonym Peer Gynt). One of Skryabin’s close friends, Zhilyayev made editorial corrections to a number of his works during the composer’s final years, including the piano sonatas nos.8, 9 and 10. Not long before World War I Zhilyayev began teaching; among his first pupils were Stanchinsky, Feinberg and Anatoly Aleksandrov; as a member of the editorial board of the Music Sector of Gosizdat during the 1920s and 30s, he edited Skryabin’s complete works (in 1933 he was responsible for the publication of a symphony by Debussy written in his youth). Professor of composition at the Moscow Conservatory (1926–30, 1933–7), his pupils there included Yevgeny Golubev, Aram Khachaturian, L. Knipper, Kirill Kondrashin, A. Spadavecchia and D. Zhitomirsky. Zhilyayev was a victim of the Stalinist purges.

WRITINGS

‘Rimskiy-Korsakov’, Zolotoye runo (1908) nos.7–9, pp.114–16

‘Wanda Landowska i starinnaya muzïka’ [Wanda Landowska and early music], Rul' (1909), no.153

‘A.N. Skryabin i yego tvorchestvo’ [A.N. Skryabin and his work], Rul' (1909), no.159

‘Shopen i Shumann (parallel')’ [Chopin and Schumann (a parallel)], Moskovskiy yezhenedel'nik (1910), no.30

‘Muzïka Griga k dramaticheskoy poėme Ibsena “Pyora Ginta”’ [Grieg’s incidental music to Ibsen’s ‘Peer Gynt’], Muzïka, lxlviii (1912)

‘Deystvitel'no li na Verdi otrazilos' vliyaniye Vagnera? (Po povodu yubileya Verdi)’ [Was the influence of Wagner really reflected in Verdi? (A propos Verdi’s jubilee)], Maski, ii (1913–14)

with K. Kuznetsov: ‘Tsezar' Frank’ [César Franck], Muzïka (1922), 4

‘K voprosu o podlinnom tekste sochineniy Skryabina’ [On the question of Skryabin’s urtexts], Muzïkal'naya nov' (1923), no.1, pp.9–11

‘Kharakternïye chertï tvorchestva Prokof'yeva’ [Characteristic features in the works of Prokofiev], Istoriya russkoy muzïki v issledovaniyakh i materialakh [The history of Russian music in research and materials], i (Moscow, 1924), 125–33

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ye. Golubev: ‘Nikolay Sergeyevich Zhilyayev’, Vïdayushchiyesya deyateli teoretiko-kompozitorskogo fakul'teta Moskovskoy konservatorii [Outstanding figures from the faculty of theory and composition at the Moscow Conservatory] (Moscow, 1966), 58–62

K. Kondrashin: ‘Vospominaniya o N.S. Zhilyayeve’ [Reminisciences about Zhilyayev], O dirizhorskom iskusstve [On the art of conducting] (Leningrad and Moscow, 1970)

G. Frid: ‘Tridtsatïye godï: konservatoriya: N.S. Zhilyayev’ [The thirties: the conservatory: Zhilyayev], SovM (1991), no.3, pp.6–12

V. Blok: ‘Ob Ėdvarde Grige i ne tol'ko o nyom’ [On Grieg and not only about him], MAk (1994), no.4, pp.132–44

MIKHAIL MISHCHENKO

Zhitomirsky, Aleksandr Matveyevich

(b Kherson, Ukraine, 11/23 May 1881; d Leningrad, 16 Dec 1937). Russian composer and teacher. He studied the violin under Ye. Mlïnarsky in Odessa (1892–97) and under K. Prill in Vienna (1898–1900) where he also attended a course in composition and the piano. In the 1900s he entered the St Petersburg Conservatory, studying under Rimsky-Korsakov (orchestration and composition) and Lyadov, graduating in 1910. He later taught there (1915–37) and in 1919 he became a professor. Many outstanding musicians graduated from his class including Andrey Balanchivadze, Mikhail Chulaki, Aleksandr Gauk, Khristofor Kushnaryov, Aleksandr Melik-Pashayev and Mikhail Yudin.

WORKS

Orch: Simfonicheskaya poėma, op.10, 1915; Suite, 1929; Geroicheskaya poėma [Heroic Poem], 1933; ‘Vesenneye’, poėma pamyati N. Rimskogo-Korsakova [‘Vernal’, a Poem in Memory of Rimsky-Korsakov], 1933; Traurnoye shestviye pamyati S. Kirova [Funeral Procession in Memory of S. Kirov], 1935; Vn Conc., 1937

Chbr: Str Qt, c1923; pieces for violin, cello and piano

7 russkikh narodnïkh pesen [7 Russian Folk Songs] 1v, str qt; Obrabotka yevreyskikh pesen [Arrangement of Jewish Songs] 1 solo v, chorus, pf; romances (1v, pf)

MIKHAIL MISHCHENKO

Zhitomirsky, Daniil' Vladimirovich

(b Pavlodar, Yekaterinoslav province, 9/22 Dec 1906; d Moscow, 27 June 1992). Russian musicologist and critic. He studied the theory of music at Kharkiv Conservatory under S.S. Bogatïryov and later studied the theory and history of music with Ivanov-Boretsky and composition with Zhilyayev at the Moscow Conservatory, graduating in 1931. He took the Kandidat degree in 1942 with a dissertation on Tchaikovsky and the doctorate in 1968 with a dissertation on Schumann. In the late 1920s and early 1930s he was a member of the Russian Association of Proletarian Musicians (RAPM) and, as music critic, was on the editorial staff for the journals Proletarskiy muzïkant (‘The Proletarian Musician’) and Za proletarskuyu muzïku (‘For Proletarian Music’). He began teaching the history of music at the Moscow Conservatory in 1931. He was forced to leave his post in 1937 and despite being quickly reinstated was once again dismissed in 1948, in connection this time with the campaign against cosmopolitanism. He continued his teaching career at the conservatories of Azerbaijan in Baku (1949–53) and Gor'kiy (1955–70) and in 1965 became a senior scientific officer at the Moscow Institute for the History of Art.

Schumann and the aesthetics of German romanticism form the central themes of Zhitomirsky's research work. For his monograph on Schumann, as well as his work on Schumann's letters and articles, he was awarded the International Schumann Prize in 1966. He also studied Russian musical culture focussing on the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Remarkable in this respect was his study of Skryabin, a composer whose creative work he examined for the first time in all its diverse associations with the spiritual strivings of the age. He also wrote on Soviet composers of the 1920s such as Davidenko, Kastal'sky and in particular Shostakovich. In his articles, reviews and reminiscenes on Shostakovich, Zhitomirsky displayed his nonconformist attitude that was also evident in his presentation at the Leningrad conference of 1968, which shed new light on the history of Soviet music. His study of contemporary Western music is also notable with his article ‘K izucheniyu zapadno-yevropeyskoy muzïki XX veka’ (‘Towards a Study of Western European Music of the 20th Century’) being a landmark for Soviet musicology in overcoming the old dogmas and prohibitions. During the last years of his life, however, his attitude towards contemporary music and especially the composers of the avant garde took on a more censorial note. His book on the Western musical avant garde (1989) contains evidence of this new line of thought.

WRITINGS

‘“Nos”, opera D. Shostakovicha’ [The Nose, the opera by Shostakovich], Proletarskiy muzïkant, nos.7–8 (1929)

‘Tvorchestvo A. Davidenko’ [The creative work of Davidenko], Proletarskiy muzïkant, no.3 (1929)

Simfonicheskoye tvorchestvo Chaykovskogo [Tchaikovsky's symphonic works] (Moscow, 1936)

‘K izucheniyu stilya N.Ya. Myaskovskogo’ [Towards a study of the style of Myaskovsky], SovM (1941), no.4, pp.32–46

Kompozitori kontsa XIX – nachala XX veka [Composers at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th] (Moscow, 1945, 2/1960)

Dmitriy Shostakovich (Moscow, 1947)

ed.: Pesnennoye i khorovoye tvorchestvo sovetskikh kompozitorov [The songs and choral works of Soviet composers], i (Moscow, 1949)

Baletï P. Chaykovskogo [Tchaikovsky's ballets] (Moscow, 1950, 2/1957)

ed.: Robert Shuman (Moscow, 1955, 2/1960)

ed.: R. Shuman: izbrannïye stat'i o muzïke [Schumann: collected articles on music] (Moscow, 1956) ‘[incl. ‘Muzïkal'no-kriticheskoye naslediye Roberta Shumana’ [The musical legacy and critical articles of Schumann]]

‘Lunacharskiy – muzïkal'nïy kritik’ [Lunacharsky as a music critic], SovM (1959), no.7, pp.42–8

ed.: A.D. Kastal'skiy: Stat'i, vospominaniya, materialï [Kastal'sky: articles, reminiscences and material] (Moscow, 1960) [incl. ‘Idei i iskaniya A.D. Kastal'skogo’ [The ideas and quests of Kastal'sky]]

Robert i Klara Shuman v Rossii (Moscow, 1962)

Iz proshlogo russkoy revolyutsionnoy pesni [Russian revolutionary song in the past] (Moscow, 1963)

Robert Shuman: ocherk zhizni i tvorchestva [Schumann: a study of his life and works] (Moscow, 1964)

‘Voyennïy rekviyem Brittena’ [Britten's War Requiem], SovM (1965), no.5, pp.111–19

ed.: R. Shuman: pis'ma [Schumann's letters] (Moscow, 1970–82)

‘K izucheniyu zapadnoyevropeyskoy muzïki XX veka’ [A study of west European music of the 20th century], Sovremennoye zapadnoye iskusstvo, ed. G.A. Nedoshivin (Moscow, 1971)

‘Ideal'noye i real'noye v muzïkal'noy ėstetike Ė.T.A. Gofmana’ [Ideology and reality in Hoffmann's musical aesthetic], SovM (1973), no.8, pp.97–107

‘O garmonii Skryabina’ [On the harmony of Skryabin], A.N. Skryabin: k stoletiyu so dnya rozhdeniya (Moscow, 1973)

ed.: Robert Shuman: O muzïke i muzïkantakh [Schumann: on music and musicians] (Moscow, 1975–9)

‘Iz razmïshleniy o stile Shostakovicha’ [Reflections on the style of Shostakovich], SovM (1976), no.9, pp.55–62

‘A.N. Skryabin’, Muzïka XX veka, i–ii (Moscow, 1977)

‘O tekhnike Rompozitsii XX veke’ [On compositional technique in the 20th century], SovM (1978), no.11, pp.111–22

ed., with B.I. Zingerman and G.A. Nedoshivin: Zapadnoye iskusstvo: XX vek (Moscow, 1978) [incl. ‘K istorii muzïkal'nogo “klassitsizma” XX veka: idei F. Buzoni’ [On the history of musical ‘classicism’ of the 20th century: the ideas of Busoni]]

ed.: Iskusstvo i massï v sovremennom burzhuaznom obshchestve (Moscow, 1979, 2/1989) [incl. ‘Bunt i slepaya stikhiya (v mire pop-muzïki)’ [Revolt and the blind element (in the world of pop music)]]

Izbrannïye stat'i [Selected articles] (Moscow, 1981)

with O. Leont'yeva: ‘Uroki ukhodyashchego veka (iz razmïshleniy o krakhe avangardistskikh illyusiy)’ [Lessons from the passing century (reflections on the collapse of the illusions of the avant garde)], SovM (1981), no.3, pp.37–46; no.4, pp.53–62

‘Gofman i muzïkal'nïy teatr’ [Hoffman and the musical theatre], Khudozhestvennïy mir Ė.T.A. Gofmana, ed. I.F. Bėlza and others (Moscow, 1982)

Materialï k moyey biografii [Material for my biography] (MS, c1985–90); extracts in MAk (1993), no.2, pp.144–54; no.3, pp.15–30; (1994), no.3, pp.62–8; see also Muzïkal'naya zhizn' (1993), no.6, pp.11–12; partial Ger. trans., ed. E. Kuhn, as Blindheit als Schutz vor der Wahrheit (Berlin, 1996) [incl. list of writings]

‘O proshlom bez prikras: vospominaniya i razmïshleniya’ [The past unadorned: reminiscences and reflections], SovM (1988), no.2

‘Na puti k istoricheskoy pravde: iz vospominaniy o postanovleniyakh ob iskusstve v 1946–48 g.g.’ [On the road towards historical truth: reminiscences about the resolutions on art adopted in the period 1946–8], Muzïkal'naya zhizn' (1988), no.13

‘V trudnïye godï: G.G. Neygauz i A.G. Gabrichevskiy’ [In years of hardship: Neugauz and Gabrichevsky], Muzïkal'naya zhizn' (1988), no.12

with O. Leont'yeva and K. Myalo: Zapadnïy muzïkal'nïy avangard posle vtoroy mirovoy voynï [The Western avant garde after the Second World War] (Moscow, 1989)

‘Shostakovich ofitsial'nïy i podlinnïy’ [The official Shostakovich and the real one], Daugava (1990), no.3, pp.88–100; no.4, pp.97–108

BIBLIOGRAPHY

G.B. Bernandt and I.M. Yampol'sky: Kto pisal o muzïke [Writers on music], i (Moscow, 1971)

TAMARA NIKOLAYEVNA LEVAYA

Zhivotov, Aleksey Semyonovich

(b Kazan', 1/14 Nov 1904; d Leningrad, 27 Aug 1964). Russian composer. In 1930 he completed studies at the Leningrad Conservatory with Shcherbachyov. He was a committee member of the Leningrad Composers' Union (1941–4, from 1948) and received the title Honoured Artist of the RSFSR in 1957. His reputation rests chiefly on his song cycles and also on the highly modernist Fragmentï.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Suite, 1927; Elegiya pamyati S.M. Kirova [Elegy in Memory of Kirov], 1935; Tantseval'naya syuita [Dance Suite], 1935; Romanticheskaya poėma, 1940; Geroicheskiy marsh [Heroic March], 1946; Prazdnichnaya uvertyura [Festival Ov.], 1947; Teatral'naya syuita [Theatre Suite], 1949; Geroicheskaya poėma (1963); entertainment music

Chbr: Fragmentï, fl, cl, bn, tpt, pf qnt, 1928

Choral: Zapad [West] (revolutionary poems), T, chorus, orch, 1932

Song cycles: Liricheskiye ėtyudï (N. Gorskaya), 1934; Schast'ye [Happiness] (Gorskaya), 1943; Pesni o Leningrade [Songs about Leningrad] (Gorskaya), 1944; 4 Romansï (D. Davïdov), 1946; Vesna [Spring] (M. Isakovsky, S. Shchipachev, A. Prokof'yev), 1949; 5 Romansï (Isakovsky), 1950; other songs

16 incid scores, film music

Principal publishers: Sovetskiy Kompozitor, Soviet State Publishing House, Universal, Sikorski

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BDRSC

L. Sitsky: Music of the Repressed Russian Avant-Garde, 1900–1929 (Westport, CT, 1994), 318–25

DETLEF GOJOWY

Zhol-khang, bSod-nams Dar-rgyas

(b Lhasa, 1922). Tibetan teacher and researcher. He came from an aristocratic family and showed interest in folksongs and dances from an early age. At 16 he entered the Nang-ma'i sKyid-sdug society and studied a range of instruments, especially the pi-wang (fiddle) and the sgra-snyan (lute); his main teachers were Bai Walli and A-jo rNam-rgyal. In 1978 he was appointed music teacher at what was to become Tibet University in Lhasa. He then became vice-director of its arts department and vice-chairman of the Tibet Music Association. With the gar master Pa-sangs Don-grub, he played an important role in the resurrection of Tibetan music, particularly traditional music theory and nang-ma and stod-gzhas forms, although his expertise ranges over all the Tibetan performing arts. He sat at most of the government conferences on traditional performing arts. Together with Garpa Tashi Tsering he is an important figure in the revival of nang-ma music in Tibet. Most of the nang-ma that is played in Lhasa nowadays has been taught by Zhol-khang. He is considered the authority on the subject and has published two books, twelve articles in Tibetan journals and one series of recordings.

WRITINGS

‘Bod kyi glu gzhas sgra-sbyong gyi dbyangs kyi rnam-gzhag rags-tsam brjod-pa’ [Brief discussion on the principles of sound in the voice training for Tibetan songs], Bod kyi rtsom-rig sgyu-rtsal [Tibetan literature] (1998), no.4, pp.63–9

Glu gar tshangs-pa'i chab-rgyun [The tradition of pure songs and dances] (Lhasa, 1992)

‘Nang-ma'i skyid-sdug byung-'phel gyi lo-rgyus zhib-par gleng-ba’ [Detailed discussion on the history of the Nangme Kyidu], Bod-ljongs sgyu-rtsal zhib-'jug [Tibetan arts studies] (1993), no.2, pp.1–17

‘Nang-ma bkra-la shis-pa las ‘phros te nang-ma'i gzhas kyi sgrig-gzhi dang khyad-chos skor brjod-pa’ [From the nang-ma song ‘Talashiba’: discussion on the structure and characteristics of the nang-ma songs], Bod-ljongs sgyu-rtsal zhib-‘jug (1995), no.1, 33–42

RECORDINGS

Gangs-can gna'-bo'i dbyangs-snyan [Tibetan classical music], ed. dGe‘dun, Bod-ljongs sgra-brnyan par-skrun-khang [Tibet music and video publishing house] (1985) [incl. ‘sTod-gzhas nang-ma’, perf. Zhol-khang bSod-nams Dar-rgyas and ‘mChod-sprin gar-rol’, perf. Gar-dpon Pa-sangs Don-grub]

ISABELLE HENRION-DOURCY

Zhong.

Bronze bell of the Han Chinese, used mainly in ritual music. Early Chinese bells are of many sub-types, differentiated by shape of the cross-section (leaf-shaped, elliptical or round), curve of the ‘mouth’ (concave or flat), lateral profile (elongated or broad), method and angle of suspension (vertical, oblique or hand-held upright) and method of striking (internal clapper or external beater). The term zhong is used both as a general reference to all clapperless bells (including bo, nao and zheng) and as a specific reference to one sub-type. Bells with internal clappers are generally called ling. Metal used in most Chinese bell construction is an alloy of three or more parts of copper to one part of tin.

1. Structures and types.

(i) Zhong.

The bell specifically identified as zhong has a leaf-shaped cross-section (oblate ellipsoid), concave mouth (or rim) and a slightly expanding profile from the crown outward (fig.1). Suspension methods are of two types. Most common among ancient bells is the elongated handle or shank (yong) extending out from the crown, with a small ring at its base from which the bell is suspended at an oblique angle. The second suspension method is by a loop (niu), from which the bell hangs vertically (rather than diagonally). Both types are suspended in a frame, together with other bells in a set (bianzhong), and struck externally with a beater. While most zhong measure between 15 and 40 cm in total height, some are as small as c9 cm and as large as c153 cm. Outer surfaces are typically decorated with raised rectangular ribs, repetitive claw-like (or horn-like) designs and protruding knobs or ‘nipples’ – typically four clusters (two on each side of the bell) containing nine knobs each. The early sets were tuned by maintaining uniform thickness while varying the size (smaller bells producing a higher pitch). The most distinctive acoustical feature of bells in this shape is their ability to produce two pitches, commonly (but not always) a minor 3rd apart: one pitch when struck at the lower centre, the other at an area between the centre and left or right lower corner.

(ii) Bo.

The bo bell typically has an elliptical or round cross-section (though some are leaf-shaped), a flat mouth, and a loop on its crown for vertical suspension. Unlike the zhong bell, it is capable of sounding only a single pitch. On older bo bells, the outer surface is also more elaborately decorated than the zhong, with abstract zoomorphic designs and hangers in the shape of dragons or other auspicious animals (fig.2). Most single bo bells are about 40 cm in height, though some are as large as about 112 cm. When constructed in sets (also called bianzhong), bo-type bells are usually of uniform size but of varying thickness (bells with thicker metal producing a higher pitch).

(iii) Other bells.

Remaining Chinese bell types, such as nao, zheng, chun, ling and duo, are mostly historic relics. The ancient nao, most similar in appearance to the zhong, is relatively short and broad, without clapper, and usually decorated with taotie (stylized animal face) masks on both sides. Most small nao bells were clearly designed to be held by the handle mouth upward and struck with a beater. As shown by Tong Kin-woon, large nao bells (70 cm or more in height, sometimes identified as yong) were most likely mounted on poles. The zheng bell has the appearance of a thin, elongated zhong; it was held and struck like the nao. The chun, which is the most dissimilar from the above sub-types, has a round cross-section, with a crown larger than its rim, and a niu-type hanger usually in the shape of a tiger or horse. Small bells with internal clappers, such as ling (with a loop on its crown and a flange on one or both sides) and duo (a bell externally resembling the nao and larger than the ling), were designed to be hand-held and shaken.

2. History and usage.

The earliest clapperless bells found in China, uncovered in Shaanxi province sites and dating to about 2100 bce, are made entirely of clay. Virtually nothing is known about their usage. Bells constructed of bronze, notably nao and zheng, first appeared during the late Shang dynasty (13th–11th centuries bce). Numerous small nao bells have been found in Henan province and elsewhere on the Central Plain, often in sets of three and five; very large single nao bells have also been found. The Zhouli states that ‘the metal nao is used to stop the drum’, implying use by army commanders for the purpose of signalling. Since nao bells also appeared in tuned sets, they may have been used for ceremonial occasions as well.

The bell known as zhong, with its longer body, distinctive decorative features and mouth-downward oblique suspension, emerged during the Zhou dynasty (11th–3rd centuries bce). Zhong bells were normally constructed in tuned sets (bianzhong) for melodic performance. During the 20th century, uncountable numbers of these sets were broken up and sold piece by piece to art dealers outside China. Of the sets still intact, most noteworthy are those found at Changtaiguan Tomb #1 and the tomb site of the Marquis Yi of the Zeng state. The 13-bell Changtaiguan set, found in a mid-Zhou site in Henan province, is now kept at the Chinese Historical Museum in Beijing. The bells are of varying size, each producing two pitches distributed within a two-octave range (allowing limited chromatic capability), and suspended by niu loops mouth downward from an elaborately decorated frame. More spectacular in size, decoration and diversity is the 65-piece bianzhong found at the tomb of Marquis Yi of the Zeng state, a 5th-century bce site in Hubei province, now kept at the Hubei Provincial Museum (see China, §II, 2). The bells in this set are of three different types, suspended from a three-tiered frame: 45 very large yong-type zhong on the lower two tiers, 19 niu-type zhong on the upper tier, and a single bo bell in the middle of the bottom tier. The pitch range spans five octaves, with full chromatic capability in the middle three octaves.

By the Song dynasty (960–1279), the use of bianzhong in ritual performances had become more or less standardized, but several elements had changed. As seen in 12th-century Chinese instruments preserved in Korea (P’yonjong) and other sources, sets of bells usually totalled 16, suspended in a two-tiered frame. Most bianzhong sets from this period onward are of the bo construction, with same-sized barrel-shaped (or other related) profiles, niu hangers and flat mouths. Furthermore, these single-pitched bells were tuned chromatically over a range of one octave and a minor 3rd (for a 16-bell set). Two bianzhong sets dating from the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), with 16 bo-type bells tuned in this manner, are preserved at the Palace Museum and Confucian shrine in Beijing. The prevailing bell types of the Qing period are still employed in the Confucian ritual celebrations in Taiwan, though occasionally the ancient Zhou-style bells are used as well.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Fontein and TungWu: Unearthing China’s Past (Boston, 1973)

N. Spear, jr: A Treasury of Archaeological Bells (New York, 1978)

Huang Xiangpeng and others: ‘Suixian chutu yinyue wenwu zhuanji’ [Special issue on the musical relics excavated in Suixian], Yinyue yanjiu (1981), no.1

Tong Kin-woon: Shang Musical Instruments (diss., Wesleyan U., 1983); repr. in AsM, xiv/2 (1983), no.2, pp.17–182; xv (1983), no.1, pp.103–84; xv (1984), no.2, pp.67–143

Shen Sin-yan: ‘The Acoustics of the Bian-Zhong Bell Chimes of China’, Chinese Music, ix (1986), no.3, pp.53–7; no.4, pp.73–8; x (1987), no.1, pp.10–19

Liu Dongsheng and others, eds.: Zhongguo yueqi tuzhi [Pictorial record of Chinese musical instruments] (Beijing, 1987)

Liu Dongsheng and YuanQuanyou, eds.: Zhongguo yinyue shi tujian [Pictorial guide to the history of Chinese music] (Beijing, 1988), 17–49

Liu Dongsheng, ed.: Zhongguo yueqi tujian [Pictorial guide to Chinese instruments] (Ji'nan, 1992), 62–93

L. von Falkenhausen: Suspended Music: Chime-Bells in the Culture of Bronze Age China (Berkeley, 1993)

Li Chunyi: Zhongguo shanggu chutu yueqi zonglun [Survey of ancient excavated musical instruments in China] (Beijing, 1996)

Zhongguo yinyue wenwu daxi [Compendium of Chinese musical artefacts] (Zhengzhou, 1996–)

ALAN R. THRASHER

Zhou Long

(b Beijing, 8 July 1953). Chinese-American composer. Born to artistic parents, he began piano lessons at an early age. During the Cultural Revolution he was sent to work on a rural state farm. He enrolled in Beijing’s Central Conservatory of Music when it reopened in 1977 and completed the doctorate in 1993 at Columbia University, where his teachers included Chou Wen-chung, George Edwards and Mario Davidovsky. In 1989 he became the director of Music from China (New York). Among his honours are awards and fellowships from the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters, the Guggenheim and Koussevitzky foundations, the International Composition Competition (d’Avray, France, 1991) and the BBC Masterprize competition (1998). He is married to the composer Chen Yi.

Although many of Zhou’s early works are characterized by folk-like melodies and tonal harmonies, he was quick to explore new media and extended instrumental techniques after his arrival in the USA. His later style mediates Chinese musical traditions and free atonal composition. In addition to combining Chinese and Western instruments in some ensemble works, he has experimented with electronic techniques, and written new music for traditional Chinese ‘silk and bamboo’ ensemble. A number of chamber works show the influence of Buddhist thought.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Fisherman's Song, 1981, unpubd; Dong shi (ballet), 1983, unpubd; Sym. ‘Guang ling san’, 1983, unpubd; Da qu, perc, orch, 1991, unpubd; King Chu Doffs his Armour, pipa, orch, 1991; Peking Drum, pipa, orch, 1994; Poems from Tang, str qt, orch, 1995 [2 movts arr. as 2 Poems from Tang, str qt, orch, 1998]

Vocal (all unpubd): Li sao (cant., Qu Yuan), female v, ens, 1988; Konghou fantasia (Li He), S, erhu, pipa, zheng, 1995; 2 Poems (The Book of Songs), SATB, 1997

Chbr and solo inst: Song of the Ch'in, str qt, 1982; Taiping Drum, vn, pf, 1983, unpubd; Valley Stream, di, guan, zheng, perc, 1983, unpubd; Green, dizi, pipa, 1984, unpubd; Song Beneath the Moon, 2 guan, yangqin, 1984, unpubd; Triptych of Bell-Drum Music, perc, 1984; Soul, pipa, str qt, 1987; Dhyana, fl, cl, vn, vc, pf, 1990; Ding, cl, perc, db, 1990; Su, fl, hp, 1990; Wu ji (pf, zheng, perc)/(pf, hp, perc)/(pf, tape), 1991; Tian ling, pipa, 14 insts, 1992; Wild Grass, vc, 1993; Five Maskers, brass qnt, 1994; The Ineffable (fl, vn, vc, pipa, zheng, perc)/(fl, zheng, perc), 1994; Metal-Stone-Silk-Bamboo, dizi, fl, vn, cl, vc, perc, 1997; Tales from the Cave, huqin, perc qt, 1998

Principal publisher: Presser

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CC1 (Chen Yi)

V.M. Lei: Wu Ji for Piano and Synthesized Sounds (diss., U. of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 1990)

JOANNA C. LEE

Zhou Xinfang

(b Qingjiang, Jiangsu province, 14 Jan 1895; d Shanghai, 8 March 1975). Chinese actor. A specialist in laosheng (old male) roles, Zhou first performed in such a role in Hangzhou, the Zhejiang province capital, at the age of seven, and in 1907 acted in Shanghai. In 1908 he went for training to Beijing's Fuliancheng School, and there got to know and became lifelong friends with Mei Lanfang. He left Beijing soon after, spending most of his career in Shanghai. He supported the Communists after 1949, being a member of the National People's Congress for over a decade and joining the Communist Party in 1959. Zhou was deeply involved in politics and used the stage for political causes, especially against the Japanese. Despite his left-wing sympathies he was persecuted as a reactionary when the Cultural Revolution erupted in 1966.

Zhou created many new roles. His singing was noted much more for its expressive quality than the beauty of its sound, some even calling his voice gritty. In 1956 a film on his artistic life was issued in Shanghai.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

Su Yi and others: Zhongguo jingju shi [The history of Beijing opera in China], ii (Beijing, 1990), 543–51

Xu Jinwen ed.: Zhou Xinfang yanchu juben changqiang ji [Collected vocal melodies from librettos performed by Zhou Xinfang] (Shanghai, 1986)

Shen Hongxin: Zhou Xinfang zhuan [Biography of Zhou Xinfang] (Shijiazhuang, 1996)

recordings

Zhongguo xiqu yishujia changqiang xuan, 12: Zhou Xinfang [Selected vocal melodies of Chinese opera artists, 12: Zhou Xinfang], ed. Zhongguo yishu yanjiuyuan Xiqu yanjiusuo, China Record Co. HD-38 (1982)

COLIN MACKERRAS

Zhubanova, Gaziza Akhmetovna

(b Aktyubinsk region, Kazakhstan, 2 Dec 1927). Kazakh composer. She was the daughter of the composer and scholar Akhmet Zhubanov, who was the organizer and conductor of the Kazakh Instruments Orchestra. She studied composition with Gnesin and Streicher at the Gnesin Institute, Moscow, and with Shaporin at the Moscow Conservatory, from which she graduated in 1954, continuing with postgraduate work until 1957. Between 1962 and 1968 she was chairwoman of the Kazakh Composers’ Union. She taught composition at the Alma-Ata Conservatory from 1967 and was its director from 1975 to 1987.

A significant part of Zhubanova’s output consists of large-scale works, in which a blurring of generic boundaries is evident: traits of oratorio appear in her operas, such as Enlik-Kebek and Dvadtsat' vosem' (‘Twenty-Eight’), as do operatic traits in oratorios, including Pesnya Tat'yanï (‘Tat'yana’s Song’). She has perpetuated the Eastern tradition of writing dedications; for example her ‘Zhiger’ Symphony is dedicated to the folk composer Dauletkerei, and the opera Kurmangazï to a famous exponent of the Kazakh instrumental genre, the küi. In both its meditative and its dynamic forms, the küi is often the basis of Zhubanova’s music; authentic küis act as cultural symbols where they appear in her compositions, but the versions she herself has written, even those that occur, paradoxically, in choral textures, still remain within the nature of the genre.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Khirosima [Hiroshima] (ballet, 1, A. Mambetov), 1966; Enlik-Kebek (op, 3, S. Zhiyenbayev, after M. Auyezov), 1975; Dvadtsat' vosem' [Twenty-Eight] (op, 2, Mambetov), 1981; Kurmangazï (op, 3, H. Yergaliyev), 1987 [completion of A. Zhubanov’s op]; Karagoz (ballet, 2, Mambetov, G. Aleksidze, after Auyezov), 1990; Burannïy Edigey (Legendï Aytmatova) [Blizzard Edigey (Aytmatov’s Legends)] (op, 3, Mambetov, Zhiyenbayev, after Ch. Aytmatov); incid. music [over 30 scores]

Orch: Vn Conc., 1957; Sym. no.1 ‘Zhiger’ [Energy], 1973; Sym. no.2 ‘Ysla de las mujeres’, 1983; Pf Conc., 1986; Sym. no.3 ‘Sarozekskiye metaforï’ [Sarozek Metaphors], 1989; Vc Conc., 1991

Choral: Danushpan [Genius] (orat, K. Murzaliyev), 1969; Kui-poėma (H. Yergaliyev), unacc. chorus, 1973; Aral'skaya bïl' [Aral Story] (orat, S. Zhiyenbayev), 1978; Pesnya Tat'yanï [Tat'yana’s Song] (orat, after A.S. Pushkin: Yevgeny Onegin and other poems, trans. Abay), 1983; Vozlyubi chelovek cheloveka [Man, Love Man] (orat, O. Suleymenov, R. Gamzatov, Yu. Drunina, Aytmatov, I. Bergman), 1988

Chamber and solo inst: Str Qt, 1952; Pf Trio, 1985; Str Qt, 1990; Suite, tpt, pf, cel, perc, 1992; pieces for fl, qobuz, va; pf sonatas, preludes and other pieces

Also songs and film music

BIBLIOGRAPHY

L. Uzkikh: ‘Teoreticheskiye zametki o simfonii G. Zhubanovoi “Zhiger”’ [Theoretical notes on Zhubanova’s Symphony ‘Zhiger’], Muzïkoznaniye [Alma-Ata], viii–ix (1976), 103

Interviews, SovM (1985), no.4, pp.21–6

S. Shubina: ‘Poysk obshchechelovecheskikh tsennostei’ [A search for universal values], SovM (1989), no.1, pp.23–9

L.S. Ajazbekova: ‘Muzïkal'naya traditsiya ėtnosa i yrego rol' v formirovanii kompozitorskogo mïshleniya (na primere opernogo tvorchestva G. Zhubanovoi)’ [Ethnic musical tradition and its role in the formation of composers’ thought (based on the operatic works of Zhubanova)] (diss., All-Union Scientific Institute of History of Arts, Moscow, 1990)

OL'GA MANULKINA

Zhu Jian'er [Zhu Rongshi]

(b Tianjin, 18 Oct 1922). Chinese composer. A self-taught musician, he began his musical career conducting an army brass band in the 1940s. In 1949 he started working in the Shanghai film industry, before studying at the Tchaikovsky Conservatory in Moscow (1955–60). He worked for the Shanghai Opera House on his return, becoming composer-in-residence of the Shanghai Symphony Orchestra in 1975. Zhu is exceptional among Chinese composers of his generation for his remarkable capacity to adapt himself to the changing political climate. After his studies in Moscow his brazenly Romantic music was criticized in China for its revisionist spirit and he stopped composing for a while. In the late 1960s he was swept along by the revolutionary ardour of the Maoists and began to compose choral cantatas on texts of Mao Zedong. By the end of the Cultural Revolution he had lost faith in his political music and in himself, but in the 1980s he embarked on an astonishing second career as an orchestral composer.

His Symphony no.1, completed in 1986, is musically indebted to Britten and Shostakovich and took him nine years to write. In subsequent explorations in this genre he paid tribute to many Western models, from Bartók to Ligeti and beyond. His moving Symphony no.4 (1990) for dizi and strings, which won the Queen Marie José prize in Geneva, shows that true musical innovation in China is not the exclusive domain of younger composers. Of the nine symphonies Zhu had composed by 1998, three were completed in 1994 during a stay in the USA.

WORKS

(selective list)

Syms.: no.1, 1977–86; no.2, 1987; no.3 ‘Tibetan’, 1988; no.4, dizi, str, 1990; no.5, Chin. large drum, orch, 1991; no.6, ‘3 Y’, tape, orch, 1994; no.7, ‘Sounds of Heaven, Sounds of Earth, Sounds of Man’, perc ens, 1994; no.8 ‘Qiusuo’, vc, 1 perc player, 1994; no.10, male v, guqin, orch, 1998

Other orch: Festival Ov., 1958; In memoriam, str, 1978; Sym. Fantasia, 1980; Sketches in the Mountains of Guizhou, 1982; The Butterfly Fountain, erhu, orch, 1983; A Wonder of Naxi, 1984; Suona Conc., 1989; Sinfonietta, 1994; Mountain Soul, 1995; 100 Years of Vicissitudes, 1996

Other: Gadameilin, chorus, orch, 1958; The Green, Green Water Village, chorus, 1981; Harmony, 5 Chin. insts, 1992

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Wang Guowei: ‘Wuxing, xunxing, gexing: zuoqujia Zhu Jian'er fangtan lu’ [Insight, wit and personality: an interview with composer Zhu], Yinyue aihaozhe (1995), no.3, pp.30–33

Sun Guozhong: Zhu Jian'er's Symphonies: Context, Style, Significance (diss., U. of California, Los Angeles, 1997)

Wang Yuhe: ‘Ziwo fouding, ziwo chaoyue, bu duan qianjin: ji zuoqujia Zhu Jian'er’ [Negating himself, surpassing himself, making constant progress: composer Zhu], Renmin yinyue (1997), no.5, pp.6–10

FRANK KOUWENHOVEN

Zhu Jingqing.

See Sang Tong.

Zhukov, Sergey Viktorovich

(b Zhytomyr, Ukraine, 30 Aug 1951). Russian composer. He studied with Chulaki at the Moscow Conservatory and completed a postgraduate course in 1980, when he was accepted into the Composers' Union. His artistic diversity manifests itself through the range of stylistic, linguistic and temporal sources he draws on in works which span the widest of genres. His ballet Solyaris, based on the science fiction novella by Stanisław Lem, employs an orchestra amplified by an expanded percussion section and synthesizer in a counterpoint of earthly and cosmic references; likewise, Zhrebiy Nemezidï (‘The Destiny of Nemesis’) is notable for its singular combination of dancing clarinettist, ballerina and tape. His compositional style ranges from the folkloristic and tonal to one which employs aleatory, constructivist, minimalist, serialist and sonoristic methods. He has also drawn on Baroque models in works such as the Pesni proshchaniya (‘Songs of Farewell’) for soprano, flute, viola da gamba and harpsichord. In his setting of texts he stresses psychological subtext and is drawn towards metaphor, while in spiritual terms he is attracted to Daoism, anthroposophy and mysticism. Since the mid-1980s the religious aspect of his work has been embodied in his use of znamennïy and Gregorian chant. His works have been heard at festivals in Belgium, the Czech Republic, Russia and the USA. He has carried out research on the creative process, musical semantics and the organ in Russia.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Solyaris (ballet, 2, after S. Lem), 1988–1990, Dnepropetrovsk, Theatre of Opera and Ballet, 1990; Zhrebiy Nemezidï [The Destiny of Nemesis] (choreog. composition), dancing clarinettist, ballerina, tape/synth, 1992; Bessonnitsa [Insomnia] (ballet, after Pushkin), 1999, Moscow, Bol'shoy Theatre, 1999

Choral: Dramaticheskiy triptikh (V. Mayakovsky), solo vv, chorus, orch, 1973; Mgnoveniya, begushchiye chredoy [Moments Running by Turns] (orat, I. Bunin), nar, solo vv, children's chorus, women's chorus, orch, 1986–7; Blagoslovi, dushe moya, Gospoda [Praise the Lord, O My Soul], 1992; Molitva pokayaniya prepodobnogo Serafima Sarovskogo [The Prayer of Repentance of the Most Holy Serafim Sarovsky], 1994; Otkroveniye Ioanna Bogoslova [The Revelation of Ioann Bogoslov], 1995; Blazhenï [They are Blessed] (Bible: The Sermon on the Mount), 1996

Orch: Poėma, vn, orch, 1976; Khoreograficheskiye kartinï [Choreographic Pictures] [after N.V. Gogol': Viy], 1984; Sym., 1985; Perc Conc., 1990; Kontsert-partes, str, 1992; Kontsert-misteriya [Conc.-Mystery], vn, vc, pf, orch, 1993–4; Conc., cl, hpd, orch, 1996–7; Conc. grosso, vn, vc, pf, str, 1997; Difiramb na temu Perotina [A Dithyramb on a Theme by Perotin], 1997

Chbr and solo inst: Listki iz al'boma: tsikl graficheskikh igr [Pages from an Album: a Cycle of Graphic Games], pf, 1976–98; Sonata-capriccio, vc, 1980; Partita, vn, 1983; Prelomlennïye zvuki [Refracted Sounds], wind qnt, 1984; Peysazh [Landscape], cl, 1988; Pf Sonata, 1988; Lik i preobrazheniye [The Image and Transfiguration], org, 1991; Transformï zamknutogo prostranstva [Transformations of an Enclosed Space], fl, 1995; Vision, vn, vc, pf, 1997 [after Gogol': Viy]

Other vocal: Chyornïye klavishi [The Black Keys] (suite, Ė. Meželaitis), 1973; Vocal Qts (V. Mayakovsky), 1974; Spivanochki [Little Songs] (chbr cant., trad. Ukrainian texts), 2 S, inst ens, 1975; Na beregu [On the Shore] (8 novellas, A. Tarkovsky), S, nar, str qnt, kbd insts, tape, 1977; Ėkho (3 poems, A.S. Pushkin), S, pf trio, 1979; Monologi (cant., M. Tsvetayeva), S, str orch, perc, 1981; Chbr Cant. (T. Shevchenko), S, str orch, 1982; Pesni proshchaniya [Songs of Farewell] (Y.K. Leopold), S, fl, va da gamba/vc, hpd/pf, 1992; Sadovnik i smert' [The Gardener and Death] (P.N. van Eyck), C/Ct, vc, perc, 1993

BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. Lobanova: ‘Novïye imena: Sergey Zhukov’ [New names: Zhukov], Muzïka v SSSR (1987), nos.1–3

Ye. Dolinskaya: ‘Razmïshleniya posle prem'yeri: balet “Solyaris”’ [Reflections after a première: the ballet ‘Solyaris’], MAk (1992), no.1, pp.37–9

S. Berinsky and S. Zhukov: ‘Svoboda dukha: svoboda tvorchestva’ [Freedom of spirit is the freedom to create], MAk (1992), no.1

I. Romashchuk: ‘Sergey Zhukov: plyus kompozitor na teatre’ [Zhukov: plus the composer for the theatre], Muzïkal'naya zhizn' (1997), no.5, pp.17–18

ALLA VLADIMIROVNA GRIGOR'YEVA

Zhukovsky, Herman Leont'yovych

(b Radyvyliv [now Chervonoarmiyske], Volhynia region, 29 Oct/11 Nov 1913; d Kiev, 15 March 1976). Ukrainian composer. He studied the piano and composition with Revuts'ky at the Kiev Conservatory, graduating in 1941, and returned to teach theory there (1951–8). In 1950 he was awarded the Stalin Prize even though his opera of that year Vid shchyroho sercia (‘From the Whole Heart’) was officially banned for ideological deviation; he was made National Artist of Ukraine in 1973. He wrote in many genres, but his chief contribution lay in the nine operas and three ballets he composed between 1939, with the opera Maryna, and 1971, with the ballet Divchyna i Smert' (‘Death and the Maiden’), the latter of which is arguably one of his best. His musical style is a slightly modernistic version of the prevailing socialist realism. In Divchyna i Smert' the cantilena passages are sharply contrasted with episodes in which elastic motoric rhythms are etched in sharply, albeit traditional, harmonic schemes.

WORKS

(selective list)

Ops: Maryna (V. Dyachenko, after T.H. Shevchenko), 1939, Kiev, 12 March 1939; Chest' [Honour] G. Plotkin, 1943; Vid shchyroho sercia [From the Whole Heart] and (V. Bagmet and A. Kovalenko, after E. Mal'tsev), 1950, Saratov, 1950, rev. 1951, Moscow, Bol'shoy, 16 Jan 1951; Persha vesna [First Spring], 1959; Andante patetico (op-ballet), 1960; Kontrasty vikiv [Contrasts of Epochs] (3 two-act ops), 1960–67; Volzhskaya ballada/Zhena soldata [Volga Ballad/The Soldier's Wife] (monodrama), 1967, Kiev, 1968

Ballets: Rostyslava, 1956; Lisova pisnya [Forest Song], 1961, Moscow, 1 May 1961; Divchyna i smert' [Death and the Maiden], 1971

Cants.: Prazdnik v karpatakh [Festival in the Capathians], 1949; Slavsya, otchizma moya [Hail, my Fatherland], 1949; Klyatva molodyozhi mira [Prayer of World Youth], 1951; Oktyabrskiye novellï [October Novellas], 1957; Dnepr shumit [The Dnieper Ripples], 1957

Orch: Pf Conc., 1938; Vn Conc., 1953; Carnaval, dance suite 1967; Hutsulske kaprichiyo [Hutsul Capriccio], vn, orch, 1967

Film scores, chbr works, choruses, songs, Ukr. folksong arrs.

Principal publishers: Izobrazitel Iskusstva, Mistestvo, Sovetskiy Kompozitor

BIBLIOGRAPHY

K. Dankevich: ‘G.L. Zhukovsky’, SovM (1963), no.11, pp.146–7

L. Arkhimovych: Shlakhy rosvytku ukraïns'koï radyans'koï opery [The paths of development of Ukrainian Soviet opera] (Kiev, 1970)

VIRKO BALEY

Zhukovsky, Vasily Andreyevich

(b Mishenskoye, Belev district, Tula province, 29 Jan/9 Feb 1783; d Baden-Baden, 24 April 1852). Russian poet and translator. He was a highly placed official in the government of Tsar Nicholas I. As one of the prime representatives of the Romantic movement in Russia he cast a long shadow over Russian opera in the 19th century. A friend of Glinka, he steered the latter towards writing the opera that won him immortality, A Life for the Tsar; Zhukovsky contributed the text of the famous (or infamous) patriotic epilogue-apotheosis that became an alternative tsarist anthem. Earlier, his ballad Gromoboy had formed the basis for Aleksey Verstovsky’s magic-romantic opera Vadim (1832), as well as its much later sequel Gromoboy (grand fantastic opera, 1854). Rachmaninoff and Taneyev composed song-settings of Zhukovsky’s poems, and Janáček’s Pohádka for cello and piano is based on the epic poem Skazka o tsare Berendyeye (‘The Tale of Tsar Berendyey’). His translations (which include the standard Russian singing text for Haydn’s The Seasons) formed the basis for librettos to the operas Undina (A.F. L'vov, after La Motte Fouqué, 1848), The Maid of Orléans (Tchaikovsky, after Schiller, Die Jungfrau von Orleans, 1881) and Nal' i Damayanti (Arensky, after the Mahābhārata, 1904).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I.M. Semenko: Vasily Zhukovsky (Boston, 1976)

A. Pein: Schiller and Zhukovsky: Aesthetic Theory in Poetic Translation (Mainz, 1991)

RICHARD TARUSKIN

Zhu Qinfu

(b nr Wuxi, 1902; d 1981). Chinese Daoist ritual drum master. Zhu Qinfu was a Daoist priest and master of the ritual music of the southern Jiangsu area known as Shifan gu and Shifan luogu. Brought up in a family of Daoists in Wuxi, he also frequented the élite Tianyun she society. Around 1940 he set up a group of outstanding Daoist musicians called Shi wuchai. His close collaboration with the musicologist Yang Yinliu from 1937 resulted in major and influential publications on the local Shifan music. In 1947 he led performances in Shanghai; though published and broadcast, the recordings have not apparently survived the Cultural Revolution.

Under the People's Republic of China, in 1952 Zhu was incongruously enlisted to the orchestra of the Central Opera and Ballet Academy in Beijing. He was liberated from this job by the cutbacks of 1962, whereupon the major conservatories, to their credit, seized on the chance to employ him to teach and record his old art. This was interrupted by the Cultural Revolution; he was only able to continue his teaching in 1978. The Shanghai Conservatory made audio and video recordings of his drum playing before his death in 1981.

See also China, §IV, 4(i).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

Li Minxiong: ‘Yi Sunan chuida minjian yinyuejia Zhu Qinfu’ [In memory of Zhu Qinfu, folk wind-and-percussion musician from southern Jiangsu], Zhongguo yinyue (1982), no.3, pp.55–6

Yuan Jingfang: Minzu qiyue xinshang shouce [Handbook for the appreciation of Chinese instrumental music] (Beijing, 1986), 131–2

Qian Jiandong: ‘Nan guwang Zhu Qinfu’ [Zhu Qinfu, southern drum king], Renmin yinyue (1988), no.7, pp.35–7

China: Folk Instrumental Traditions, AIMP VDE 822-823 (1995)

S. Jones: Folk Music of China: Living Instrumental Traditions (Oxford, 1995, 2/1998 with CD), 246–69

Special Collection of Contemporary Chinese Musicians, Wind Records TCD 1018 (1996)

STEPHEN JONES

Zhu Quan

(b 1378; d 1448). Chinese musician and theorist. Born the 17th son of Zhu Yuanzhang, founder of the Ming dynasty, Zhu Quan was a prince of many talents and interests. In Chinese music history he is remembered as the author of two most important documents, the Shenqi mipu (Wondrous and secret notation, preface 1425), and the Taihe zhengyin pu (Song register of great harmony and accurate tones, preface 1398). Two music dramas by Zhu have also been preserved.

The Shenqi mipu is the earliest known extant anthology of qin music. In addition to the notated music of 64 qin compositions from the Song, Yuan, Ming and earlier dynasties, the preface describes how Zhu Quan spent 12 years compiling the document, collecting ancient scores, selecting music from a repertory of over 1000 pieces, and writing informative programme notes about individual works. Zhu himself is thought to be the composer of Qiuhong (‘Autumn Geese’), an extensive piece that appears at the end of the anthology.

The Taihe zhengyin pu lists 678 titles of Yuan and early Ming dramas and the names of their authors, classifies 335 labelled melodies (qupai) of ‘northern arias’ (beiqu) into 12 modally defined groups, illustrates phrase and linguistic-tone schemes of the arias, and provides a miscellany of notes on musicians and singing techniques.

See also Qin; China, §II, 5 and IV, 1(i) and IV, 4(ii)(a).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D.R. Jonker: ‘Chu Ch’üan’, Dictionary of Ming Biography, ed. L. C. Goodrich (New York, 1976), 305–7

G. Goormaghtigh and B. Yung: ‘Preface of Shenqi Mipu: Translation with Commentary’, ACMR Reports, x/1 (1997), 1–13

B. Yung: Celestial Airs of Antiquity: Music of the Seven-String Zither of China (Madison, WI, 1997)

JOSEPH S.C. LAM

Zhu Rongshi.

See Zhu Jian'er.

Zhu Zaiyu

(b 1536; d 1611). Chinese scholar, mathematician and music theorist. Heir apparent of the sixth prince of Zheng under the Ming dynasty, Zhu Zaiyu probably formulated the first system of equal temperament in world history.

Zhu’s achievement was based on the studies of his father, Zhu Houhuan (1518–91), He Tang (1474–1543) who taught his father, and many Song and Ming dynasty scholars. Zhu studied widely, as is evident from the long bibliography in his Yüelu quanshu (Collected works of music theory), which he presented to the court in 1606. The 15 individual treatises in the collection were completed over a period between 1551 and 1606: for example, the Lüxue xinshuo (New theory of musical pitches), which represents Zhu’s theory and calculation of pitches of equal temperament, was completed by 1584; the Lülü jingyi (Essentials of music theory), which preserves Zhu’s important comments on the experiments of many Song and Ming music theorists, was written between 1584 and 1596. The collection includes a substantial amount of notated music, including pieces for the state sacrifice honouring imperial ancestors and antiquarian songs with qin accompaniments to folk tunes of his time, as well as a series of pictograms illustrating the choreography of ritual dances.

See also China, §II, 5.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Kuttner: ‘Prince Chu Tsai-yu's Life and Work: a Re-evaluation of his Contribution to Equal Temperament Theory’, EthM, xix (1975), 163–206

K.G. Robinson and C. Fang: ‘Chu Tsai-yu’, Dictionary of Ming Biography, ed. L.C. Goodrich (New York, 1976), 367–70

K. Robinson: A Critical Study of Chu Tsai-yu’s Contribution to the Theory of Equal Temperament in Chinese Music (Wiesbaden, 1980)

Huang Xiangpeng: ‘Luxueshi shangde weida chengjiu jiqi sixiang qishi’ [A great achievement in the history of temperamentology and its intellectual inspiration], Yinyue yanjiu (1984), no.4, pp.2–12

Dai Nianzu: Zhu Zaiyu: Mingdai di kexue yu yishu juxing [Zhu Zaiyu: a star of Ming dynasty science and arts] (Beijing, 1986)

JOSEPH S.C. LAM

Zhyvny, Wojciech.

See Żywny, Wojciech.

Ziak, Benedikt.

See Schack, Benedikt.

Ziani, Marc’Antonio

(b Venice, c1653; d Vienna, 22 Jan 1715). Italian composer, partly active in Austria, nephew of Pietro Andrea Ziani. Towards the end of the 17th century he was a leading composer of opera for Venice, and he was a major figure at the imperial court in Vienna early in the 18th century.

THEOPHIL ANTONICEK/JENNIFER WILLIAMS BROWN

1. Life.

The most important influence on Ziani's early life was probably his uncle, with whom he may have studied. Certainly Pietro Andrea's reputation and connections, particularly in Venice and Vienna, must have aided Ziani throughout his life. Marc’Antonio began his career as an opera composer in 1674 by adapting older works for the Venetian stage. In 1677 he acted as an intermediary for his uncle (who was in Naples) during negotiations with S Marco concerning the latter's post as first organist; after Pietro Andrea resigned, Marc’Antonio boldly applied for the position, but was passed over. Pietro Andrea may have arranged for his nephew's first opera, Alessandro Magno in Sidone, first performed in Venice in 1679, to be repeated in Naples later that year. Ziani may have attended his uncle's deathbed in Naples early in 1684. Letters written in 1699 and 1703 suggest that he spent a considerable amount of time in Bologna, and possibly studied there.

On 28 September 1686 Ziani became maestro di cappella di chiesa to Ferdinando Carlo Gonzaga, last Duke of Mantua; his uncle's past service to Empress Eleanora Gonzaga in Vienna may have influenced this appointment. Caffi's assertion (Storia della musica, 1854–5) that the duke paid Ziani to give music lessons to Caldara remains unproven. Although Ziani was in Ferdinando Carlo's service until at least 1691, he remained active in Venice, where the duke often visited. He soon became (with Pollarolo) one of the republic's leading opera composers. He was a member of the Venetian congregation of St Cecilia (1687) and the instrumentalists’ guild Arte de Sonadori (c1694, presumably as an organist); he may also have been involved (as Pietro Andrea had been) with the Ospedale degli Incurabili. His Venetian operas were revived numerous times in other cities; Tullo Ostilio was particularly successful. In 1695 he supervised a production of L'amante eroe (as Alessandro amante eroe) in Turin.

Already at the height of a brilliant career in Venice, on 1 April 1700 Ziani was appointed vice-Hofkapellmeister to Emperor Leopold I in Vienna. In December 1711 he participated in the coronation of Charles VI at Frankfurt, and on 1 January 1712 Charles officially promoted him to Hofkapellmeister (the previous Hofkapellmeister, Antonio Pancotti, died in 1709). In Vienna, Ziani's duties included composing operas and shorter dramatic pieces for birthdays and namedays of imperial family members, as well as for carnival; he probably wrote several of the anonymous dramatic works performed in Vienna during these years. He also composed sepolcri for the annual Good Friday celebrations, as well as masses and motets for special feasts and saints' days. On his death he was succeeded by his vice-Hofkapellmeister, J.J. Fux.

Ziani's excellent reputation continued to be evident after his death, when the emperor granted life pensions not only to his widow but also to his brother Francesco. An elaborate memorial service was held at S Salvatore, Venice, in which Senesino participated. Ziani's works continued to be performed regularly in Vienna until the 1740s, and he was mentioned in Bartolomeo Dotti's Satire (Amsterdam, 1709) and Lotti's plagiarism dispute with Bononcini. He continued to be highly regarded until the late 18th century: Arteaga, for example, included him among those composers who wrote ‘in the very best taste’. A Pietro Ziani (b c1663, possibly Marc’Antonio's brother) was named one of the best violinists in Venice in 1706; he was active both at S Marco and the Mantuan court.

2. Works.

Ziani's first known works, modestly presented as ‘retouchings’ of operas by more famous masters, are instead virtual recompositions that show a secure grasp of Venetian styles. His arias of the early 1680s typically feature a repeating bass pattern, often imitated by the voice; the most successful numbers (like those of his uncle) are poignant, slow arias in 3/2 or a measured 4/4. His recitative is graceful and melodious, its harmonic motion and melodic inflections carefully tailored to reflect the ebb and flow of the drama. A hallmark of Ziani's style throughout his career was an attempt to achieve variety in both form and texture. His works show a reluctance to capitulate entirely to the da capo aria trend, often favouring altered A sections with codas, as well as more complex forms and occasional arioso fragments. By the 1690s he was finding imaginative ways to vary the instrumental texture using just the 4-part strings and continuo (with occasional trumpet) typical in Venice; for example, he sometimes included elaborate obbligato lines for continuo instruments.

In Vienna, Ziani had tremendous resources at his disposal. He was part of a brilliant team that included the Bononcinis, Fux and Ariosti, the court poets Cupeda, Bernardoni and Stampiglia, the designers Burnacini and the Galli-Bibienas, plus an impressive stable of singers and a large and interesting assortment of virtuoso instrumentalists (including theorbist and composer F.B. Conti). Ziani took particular advantage of the latter group: many arias feature difficult obbligato parts for violin, cello, viola da gamba, bassoon, trombone (in sacred works), and lute (L'Ercole vincitor dell'Invidia, 1706); he was one of the first to use the chalumeau (Caio Popilio, 1704). In 1702 the oboe joined the Viennese orchestra; thereafter Ziani's works regularly require oboes, often playing independent parts, and sometimes forming a concertino contrasting with the strings. Schoenbaum saw parallels with Bach in Ziani's treatment of solo instruments, in the contours of his themes and in the nature of his thematic development.

Like his uncle, Ziani exemplified the superb technique favoured at the imperial court. His command of counterpoint is often apparent, as in the double fugues of the introductions to his sepolcri, and the cantus firmus movement ‘La scala’ in the opera Il sacrifizio d'Isacco (1707), in which the strings portray the character's increasing anxiety by weaving elaborate counterpoint around a series of rising hexachords. Wellesz felt that such pieces ‘have scarcely ever been surpassed’. Ziani's operas and oratorios have extensively developed sinfonias and ritornellos; those in sepolcri contain striking chromatic passages that may have influenced Vivaldi. Affective chromaticism is also prominent in his later vocal writing.

A vast number of liturgical pieces by Ziani survive, most apparently dating to his years in Vienna; some were still in the repertory of Austrian monasteries as late as 1785. These works use both stile antico (‘con l'organo e senza’) and more modern concerted styles, with a rich range of instruments.

WORKS

music lost unless source given

operas

drammi per musica in three acts, first performed in Venice

unless otherwise stated

La schiava fortunata (G.C. Corradi, after G.A. Moniglia), S Moisè, 1 Jan 1674, I-MOe, Vnm, arias MOe; rev. of A. Cesti, Semirami

Leonida in Tegea (N. Minato), S Moisè, 9 Feb 1676, Vnm, arias Vc, Vqs; rev. of A. Draghi's setting

Alessandro Magno in Sidone (La virtù sublimata dal grande) (A. Aureli), SS Giovanni e Paolo, carn. 1679, Nc, Vnm, arias D-HVs, I-MOe, Nc, Rvat, Vqs; aria ed. M. Zanon, 36 arie italiane di 36 diversi autori dei secoli XVII e XVIII (Milan, 1959)

Damira placata (?F. Acciaiuoli, after Aureli), site of S Moisè, carn. 1680, Vnm; perf. with puppets

L'Alcibiade (Aureli), SS Giovanni e Paolo, carn. 1680, MOe (perf. Modena, 1685), Vnm, arias B-Bc, I-Vqs

La Flora (N. Bonis), S Angelo, carn. 1681, Vnm, arias Bca, Rvat, Vqs; completion of op by A. Sartorio

Tullo Ostilio (Alba soggiogata dai Romani) (A. Morselli), S Salvatore, carn. 1685, D-Mbs (perf. Verona, ?1689), F-Pc (perf. Reggio, 1686), arias D-MÜs

L'inganno regnante, o vero L'Atanagilda regina di Gottia (Corradi), SS Giovanni e Paolo, 26 Dec 1687, arias GB-Lbl, Ob, I-Rvat

Il gran Tamerlano (Corradi), SS Giovanni e Paolo, 1689, arias F-Pn, I-MOe

La Falsirena (Marte deluso) (R. Cialli), S Angelo, carn. 1690, arias D-MÜs, GB-Lbl, Och, I-MOe, Rli, Rvat

Creonte (Cialli), S Angelo, carn. 1691, arias F-Pn, GB-Cfm, I-Rvat

L'amante eroe (Alessandro amante eroe) (D. David), S Salvatore, carn. 1691, arias D-MÜs

La Virtù trionfante dell'Amore e dell'Odio (Gl'amori ministri della fortuna) (F. Silvani), S Salvatore, aut. 1691, arias GB-Lam, I-Rvat

La Rosalinda (A. Marchi, after B. Morando), S Angelo, 11 Nov 1692, arias I-Rvat

L'Amore figlio del Merito (M. Noris), S Angelo, carn. 1694, arias, PAc, Rvat

La moglie nemica (Silvani), S Salvatore, 10 Jan 1694, arias, PAc, Rvat

Il Domizio (Corradi), S Angelo, carn. 1696, arias F-Pn, I-Rvat

La finta pazzia d'Ulisse (Noris), S Salvatore, carn. 1696, arias Rvat

La costanza in trionfo (Silvani), S Angelo, 3 Nov 1696, D-AN, arias B-Bc, I-Vc, Vlevi

I rivali generosi (Belisario in Ravenna) (A. Zeno), S Salvatore, carn. 1697, arias A-Wn, F-Pn, GB-Ob

La ninfa bizzarra (dramma pastorale, Aureli), Venice, Dolo, nr Novo Teatro, Oct 1697

Eumene (Zeno), S Angelo, aut. 1697

Odoardo (Zeno), S Angelo, carn. 1698, arias Ob, I-Rvat

L'Egisto re' di Cipro (Corradi), S Cassiano, aut. 1698, arias B-Bc

Gl'amori tra' gl' odii, o sia Il Ramiro in Norvegia (M.A. Remena), S Cassiano, carn. 1699

Il Teodosio (various), S Cassiano, carn. 1699; lib not by V. Grimani

Il duello d'amore e di vendetta (L'odio placato) (Silvani), S Salvatore, 26 Dec 1699, arias GB-Lpro

La pace generosa (Silvani, after L.A. Seneca: Troades), S Salvatore, 10 Feb 1700

Le gare dei beni (applauso poetico per musica, 1), Vienna, Favorita garden, 25 July 1700, A-Wn; also attrib. C.A. Badia

Il Gordiano pio (D. Cupeda), Vienna, Wiener Neustadt, 26 Aug 1700, D-B, I-Vgc

La congiura del Vizio contro la Virtù (scherzo musicale, 1, Cupeda), Vienna, Hof, 15 Nov 1700; not by P.A. Ziani

Temistocle (azzione scenica, 3, Zeno), Vienna, Favorita garden, 27 June 1701

Gli ossequi della notte (serenata, 1, Cupeda), Vienna, Favorita garden, 25 July 1701

La fuga dell'Invidia (poemetto drammatico, 1, P.A. Bernardoni), Vienna, Hof, 15 Nov 1701

Il Romolo (Cupeda), Vienna, Favorita, 20 Aug 1702

L'Esopo (tragicomedia per musica, 3), Vienna, Hof, 13 Feb 1703, A-Wn (Act 3 only)

Caio Popilio (trattenimento musicale, 1, Cupeda), Vienna, Gran Sala avanti il Teatro, 9 Jun 1704, Wn

L'Ercole vincitor dell'Invidia (D. Mazza), Vienna, Hof, 19 March 1706, Wn

La Flora (poemetto drammatico pastorale, 1, Bernardoni), Vienna, 21 April 1706, Wn, D-Dl; with arias by Joseph I

Il Meleagro (Bernardoni), Vienna, Hof, 16 Aug 1706, A-Wn

L'Alboino, Vienna, Hof, carn. 1707, Wn (Act 3 only); lib not by Corradi

Il campidoglio ricuperato (festa per musica, S. Stampiglia), Vienna, Hof, 26 July 1709, Wn

Chilonida (Minato), Vienna, Hof, carn. 1710, Wn; with arias by Joseph I; possibly perf. 21 April 1709

L'Atenaide [Act I] (Zeno), Vienna, Hof, 19 Nov 1714, Wn, D-W; Act 2 by A. Negri, Act 3 by A. Caldara

Amor tra nemici, Vienna, 1714

Andromeda (poemetto drammatico, P. Pariati), Vienna, Hof, 1714, A-Wn

other vocal

18 masses, 4, 5, 8vv, some with insts, A-HE, KN, Wgm, Wn*, D-B, OB; 1 ed. K. Rasch and H. Boehm (Augsburg and Vienna, 1932)

3 requiem settings, A-HE, KN, Wn

116 motets, etc., H, HE, KN, Wgm, Wm, Wn, CH-Saf, CZ-Bm, K, D-B, Lem, OB, I-Vgc; 5 motets ed. in DTÖ, ci–cii (1962); 2 pieces ed. K. Shifrin, The Solo Baroque Trombone in Chamber Music, i, ii (Nottingham, 1987)

11 sepolcri: Il fascietto di Mirra, in petto alla sposa de'sacri cantici (?D. Cupeda), 1701; Le profezie adempiute e le figure illustrate (?Cupeda), 1702; La tempesta de'dolori (?Cupeda), 1703; Il mistico Giobbe (Cupeda), 1704, A-Wgm (excerpts), Wn, D-Rp; Le due Passioni: una di Christo nel corpo, l'altra della vergine madre nell'anima (P.A. Bernardoni), 1705, I-Vnm (‘Il sepolcro’, not by B. Marcello; ?autograph); La morte vinta sul Calvario (Bernardoni), 1706, A-Wn, I-Vgc; Il sacrifizio d'Isacco (Bernardoni), 1707, A-Wn, I-Vgc; La Passione nell'orto (Bernardoni), 1708, A-Wn, I-Vgc; Giesù flagellato (Bernardoni), 1709, A-Wn, I-Vgc; La sapienza umana, illuminata dalla religione nella Passione del figliuolo di Dio (G.B. Ancioni), 1710, A-Wn, I-Vgc; Il sepolcro nell'orto (S. Stampiglia), 1711, A-Wn, I-Vgc

5 orats: La Giuditta, 1686, F-Pc; Davide liberato (L. Verzuso Beretti), 1687; Il giudizio di Salomone (R. Cialli), 1687/1698, A-Wn (perf. 1701); Santa Pelagia, 1698; Santa Eufrosina (P. del Nero), 1713, Wn, I-Vgc

Introduzione per musica al problema della prima accademia … se si possi trovare un'amore senza speranza (cant., Bernardoni), 1706, A-Wn*

Introduzione per musica al problema della seconda accademia … sè più innamori bella donna che pianga, overo Bella donna, che canti (cant., Bernardoni), 1706, Wn*

Introduzione per musica al problema d'un accademia (cant., Bernardoni), 1707

Introduzione per musica per una altra accademia (cant., Bernardoni), 1707

Other secular cants. and arias, Wgm, Wn, D-B, MÜs, GB-Lbl, Lam, I-BGc, MOe

instrumental

Ziani's Aires or Sonatas in 3 Parts, 2 vn, bc, op.1 (London, 1703), nos.1–12 probably by T.G. Albinoni, nos.13–22 probably by Ziani; see also ‘Doubtful Works’ (6 sonatas)

Sonata, 2 vn, bc, GB-Ob

attributed to ‘ziani’

15 masses, 5 requiem settings, 8 vespers settings, other sacred pieces, A-Ee, H, KR, LA, CZ-Bm, Pak, St František, Prague, D-DS, F-Pn

Arias and cants. D-DS, Kl, MÜs, F-Pn, GB-Lbl, I-Bc, Nc, Vc, US-IDt

Sonata, C, org, in: Sonate da organo, ed. G.C. Arresti (Bologna, ?1697//R); [17] Sonates, org, hpd (Amsterdam, 1705); Volentarys & fugues (London, 1710/R); D-Dl (lost), MÜp, GB-Lbl (‘Capriccio’), I-Nc

Individual pieces in: Select preludes & voluntarys, vn (London, 1705/R); Select preludes & volluntarys, fl (London, 1708); Meslanges de musique (Paris, 1726)

Ov., C, 2 vn, bc, A-WIL

doubtful works

Pimpinone (intermezzo, P. Pariati); set by Albinoni, 1708, F.B. Conti, 1717

6 sonatas (B, g, e, f, A, F), 2 vn, 2 va, vc, org, GB-DRc, Och; arr. a 3 in 6 sonates (Amsterdam, 1702), Ziani's Aires (London, 1703), attrib. ‘Ziani’ in these sources, probably by Albinoni

6 sonatas, 3 vn, vc, bc, A-Wst, attrib. Marco Ziani

Sonata a 6, D, tpt, str, bc, GB-Och, attrib. ‘Ziani’, probably by Albinoni

9 toccatas, hpd, I-Nc, attrib. ‘D. Nicolò Ziani Napoletano’

1. Historical background.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BertolottiM

MGG (Antonicek)

NGO (Saunders)

S. Arteaga: Le rivoluzioni del teatro musicale italiano dalla sua origine fino al presente (Bologna, 1783–8/R, 2/1785)

E. Wellesz: ‘Die Opern und Oratorien in Wien von 1660–1708’, SMw, vi (1919), 5–138

H.C. Wolff: Die venezianische Oper in der zweiten Hälfte des 17. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1937/R)

F. Hadamowsky: ‘Barocktheater am Wiener Kaiserhof, mit einem Spielplan (1625–1740)’, Jb der Gesellschaft für Wiener Theaterforschung 1951–2, 7–117; pubd separately (Vienna, 1955)

C. Schoenbaum: Beiträge zur solistischen katholischen Kirchenmusik des Hochbarocks, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung J.A. Plánickýs (1691?–1732) (diss., U. of Vienna, 1951), 82ff

T. Antonicek: ‘Die Damira-Opern der beiden Ziani’, AnMc, no.14 (1974), 176–207

E. Selfridge-Field: Venetian Instrumental Music from Gabrieli to Vivaldi (Oxford, 1975, 3/1994)

H.C. Wolff: ‘Italian Opera 1700–1750’, NOHM, v (1975), 73–168

E. Selfridge-Field: Pallade Veneta: Writings on Music in Venetian Society 1650–1750 (Venice, 1985)

H. Seifert: Die Oper am Wiener Kaiserhof im 17. Jahrhundert (Tutzing, 1985)

N. Dubowy: ‘I trionfi della costanza: sulle fonte dell'opera veneziana’, Rassegna veneta di studi musicali, iv (1988), 113–122

S. Carter: ‘Trombone obbligatos in Viennese oratorios of the Baroque’, HBSJ, ii (1990), 52–77

N. Dubowy: Arie und Konzert: Zur Entwicklung der Ritornellanlage im 17. und frühen 18. Jahrhundert (Munich, 1991)

P. Everett: ‘Opening ‘Il Sepolcro’: Ziani, Vivaldi, and a question of stylistic authenticity’, Vivaldi vero e falso, ed. A. Fanna and M. Talbot (Florence, 1992), 69–89

J.W. Brown: ‘Con nuove arie aggiunte’: Aria Borrowing in the Venetian Opera Repertory 1672–1685 (diss., Cornell U., 1992)

N. Dubowy: ‘Pollarolo e Ziani a Verona: annotazioni in margine a tre partiture ritrovate’, Seicento inesplorato: l'evento musicale tra prassi e stile: un modello di interdipendenza, ed. A. Colzani et al (Como, 1993), 509–35

Ziani, Pietro Andrea

(b Venice, probably before 21 Dec 1616; d Naples, 12 Feb 1684). Italian composer and organist, uncle of Marc’Antonio Ziani. He became a deacon on 19 March 1639 and took holy orders on 22 December 1640. At this time he was a member of the convent of canons regular at S Salvatore, Venice, where he was also organist. In his op.2 (1640) he is mentioned as holding both functions, but in his op.3 (1641) he is described only as organist at the church of S Salvatore and may thus have left the congregation of canons regular. In 1654 he appeared for the first time as an opera composer in Venice with La guerriera spartana. During most of the 1650s he was employed at St Mark’s, but in what capacity is unclear. From 15 May 1657 to 21 June 1659 he was maestro di cappella at S Maria Maggiore, Bergamo. In 1660 he dedicated his op.6 to Archduke Ferdinand Karl of the Tyrol and in the late autumn of 1662 went to Innsbruck; at the end of that year he went to Vienna as vice-Kapellmeister to the dowager Empress Eleonora. While he was in her service he directed performances of theatre and church music at Dresden in December 1666 and January 1667 to celebrate the marriage of the Elector Johann Georg III of Saxony to Princess Anna Sophia of Denmark. On 20 January 1669 he became first organist of St Mark’s, Venice. He succeeded Cavalli, who had been appointed maestro di cappella, and early in 1676, following Cavalli’s death, he applied unsuccessfully to follow him in that post too, which must have been his real ambition. In 1677 (as he had already done in 1673) he attended performances of his works in Naples. Illness forced him to overstay his leave of absence, and after lengthy negotiations he was relieved of his post in Venice. He was given a teaching post at the Conservatorio S Onofrio, Naples, and the title of honorary organist at the court, where in 1680 he was appointed maestro di cappella. His position gave him the opportunity to present several of his old operas from Venice and Vienna on the Neapolitan stage. From his correspondence with Marco Faustini (in I-Vas) it appears that he was of a sickly constitution and was often forced into persistent and seemingly petty quarrels over payment.

Ziani wrote his first three operas for the short-lived Teatro S Apollinare. His Fortune di Rodope e Damira, the only opera staged in Venice during Carnival 1657, was the last opera presented there. Marco Faustini was the impresario at this theatre; after 1657 he left to reopen the Teatro S Cassiano, which he in turn left in 1660 to manage the Teatro SS Giovanni e Paolo. Faustini engaged Ziani for all the theatres he managed. 12 letters that Ziani sent to Faustini from Vienna and Innsbruck, 1665–6, document the process involved in arranging a Venetian opera production. These reveal the remarkable speed at which some operas were composed; for example, Ziani claimed to have written Annibale in Capua in five days.

The librettos Ziani set for the commercial theatres of Venice combine serious and comic elements; few adopt the heroic stance and historical subject matter that prevailed later in the century. The dramatic texts he set for Vienna were sometimes on a smaller scale than opera. Several of these were for court occasions, such as the birthday of Emperor Leopold I or of the dowager Empress Eleonora. In the course of Ziani’s career, Cavalli, the dominant figure in Venetian opera to the 1660s, was superseded by the younger generation of Antonio Sartorio, Carlo Pallavicino and Giovanni Legrenzi. Along with Cesti, Ziani was important in the transition from Cavalli’s style to that of the younger generation, chiefly by responding to the mid-17th-century audience’s desire for easily accessible lyricism. In one of his letters, he claims that the public has lost interest in long soliloquies (characteristic of Cavalli), preferring canzonettas. The contrast between the 38 arias of Le fortune di Rodope e Damira and the 63 of his last opera, L’innocenza risorta (1683), illustrates the change that took place during his career.

Formal variety and smooth transition from one declamatory style to another characterize Ziani’s operas. Up to the early 1670s he used a variety of aria forms, any of which could be strophic: bipartite arias, arias in ABB' form and arias with refrains, including arias in incipient da capo form. By the late 1670s, da capo form predominates. He often used ostinatos and walking basses for situations in which a character confronts implacable forces. Arioso passages, often in triple metre, are smoothly integrated into recitative. Ziani’s instrumental forces respond flexibly to the voice. Most of the arias, like recitative, are accompanied by continuo alone. Detachable ritornellos sometimes follow or, less often, precede continuo arias. In the accompanied arias, upper melodic instruments usually alternate with the voice. The little documentation that survives suggests that the forces for Ziani’s Venetian operas were small – 10 to 15 players, on strings, continuo and sometimes one or two trumpets.

Ziani’s oratorios display characteristics similar to those of the operas, but there is a greater emphasis on weighty musical elements, especially contrapuntal writing. Fugal movements are also prominent in Ziani’s sonatas, most of which are in three or four movements. Most begin with such a movement, whose features include a regular beat and part-writing that often gives rise to harmonic asperities. The finales are generally in the manner of a gigue. The sonatas are similar in style to those of Venetian contemporaries of Ziani such as Legrenzi and Massimiliano Neri.

WORKS

operas

drammi per musica in three acts unless otherwise stated

La guerriera spartana (prol, 3, G. Castoreo), Venice, S Apollinare, carn. 1654, music lost

Eupatra (prol, 3, G. Faustini), Venice, S Apollinare, carn. 1655, music lost

Le fortune di Rodope e Damira (prol, 3, A. Aureli), Venice, S Apollinaire, carn. 1657, I-IBborromeo, MOe, Nc, Vnm

L’incostanza trionfante, ovvero Il Theseo (prol, 3, F.M. Piccioli, after Plutarch), Venice, S Cassiano, carn. 1658, music lost

Antigona delusa da Alceste (prol, 3, Aureli), Venice, SS Giovanni e Paolo, carn. 1660, Vnm

Annibale in Capua (prol, 3, N. Beregan), Venice, SS Giovanni e Paolo, carn. 1661, D-ANsv, I-Nc (arias), Rvat, Vnm; sections ed. in Wolff 1937

Gli scherzi di Fortuna subordinato al Pirro (prol, 3, Aureli), Venice, SS Giovanni e Paolo, carn. 1662, Vnm

Le fatiche d’Ercole per Deianira (prol, 3, Aureli), Venice, SS Giovanni e Paolo, carn. 1662, Vnm; rev. A. Perruccio, Naples, S Bartolomeo, carn. 1679, Nc

L’amor guerriero (prol, 3, C. Ivanovich), Venice, SS Giovanni e Paolo, carn. 1663, Vnm; sections ed. in Wolff 1937

Oronisbe (componimento drammatico in musica, 3, A. Draghi), Vienna, 9 June 1663, music lost

La congiura del vizio contro la virtù (scherzo musicale, 1, D. Cupeda), Vienna, 15 Nov 1663

La ricreazione burlesca (1), Vienna, 1663/8, A-Wn

L’invidia conculcata dalla Virtù, Merito, Valore della S.C. Mta di Leopoldo imperatore (componimento drammatico, Draghi), Vienna, 1664, Wgm (1 dance), Wn, I-Vgc

Circe (Ivanovich), Vienna, 9 June 1665, Vnm

Cloridea (Draghi), Vienna, 1665, Vnm

Doriclea (prol, 3, G. Faustini), composed for Venice, SS Giovanni e Paolo, carn. 1666, but only prol perf. as prol to Cesti: Orontea

L’onore trionfante (D. Federici), Vienna, Favorita, 9 June 1666, music lost

Elice (introduzione ad un regio balletto, Federici), Vienna, 18 Nov 1666, A-Wgm, Wn

Galatea (favola pastorale per musica, 3, Draghi), Vienna, 19 Feb 1667, Wgm (sections), Wn

Alciade (prol, 3, Faustini), Venice, SS Giovanni e Paolo, carn. 1667, music lost

Semiramide (M. Noris, after G.A. Moniglia), Venice, SS Giovanni e Paolo, aut. 1670, D-AN, I-Vnm; sections ed. in Wolff 1937

Ippolita reina delle amazzoni [Act 3] (C.M. Maggi), Milan, Ducale, 1670, I-Nc; Act 1 and arias added to Act 2 by L. Busca, Act 2 by P.S. Agostini

Heraclio (Beregan), Venice, SS Giovanni e Paolo, carn. 1671; with prol (G. Cicinelli), Naples, S Bartolomeo, Dec 1673; Nc, Vnm, Vqs (arias)

Attila (Noris), Venice, SS Giovanni e Paolo, carn. 1672, IBborromeo, Vnm, Vqs (arias)

Chi tal nasce tal vive, ovvero L’Alessandro Bala (A. Perruccio), Naples, S Bartolomeo, Dec 1678, MC, Nc, arias in Gl and Nc

Candaule (A. Morselli), Venice, S Cassiano, week before 9 Dec 1679; as Candaule re di Lidia, Naples, Real Palazzo, ded. 21 Dec 1679; D-AN, I-Vnm, arias in B-Bc, GB-Ob, I-MOe, Tn and Vqs; sections ed. in Wolff 1937

Enea in Cartagine (M.A. Catania), Palermo, 1680, music lost

L’innocenza risorta, ovvero Etio (Morselli), Venice, S Cassiano, week before 6 Feb 1683; as Il talamo preservato dalla fedeltà di Eudossa, Reggio Emilia, 1–11 May 1683, MOe (facs. in IOB, xii, 1978)

Prol (Cicinelli) to G.A. Boretti: Marcello in Siracusa, Naples, 1673, music lost; rev. of A. Sartorio: Orfeo, Naples, 1682, Nc

Doubtful: Cleandra (N. Minato), Bologna, 1678 [adaptation of Draghi: Chilonida]

oratorios

Santa Caterina, Vienna, 1662, A-Wn

Oratorio di S Pietro piangente (P. Guadagni), Vienna, 1664, Wn

Oratorio dell’incredulità di S Tomaso (G.A. Scacchi), Vienna, 1665, music lost

Gli affetti pietosi per il sepolcro di Cristo (D. Federici), Vienna, 1666, music lost

Lagrime della Pietà nel sepolcro di Cristo (Federici), Vienna, 1667, music lost

L’Assalone punito (Padre Lepori), Vienna, 1667, Wn, I-Vgc

Il cuore umano all’incanto, Naples, 1681, Nf

Le stimate di S Francesco, Nf

sacred vocal

Partitura delli [24] motetti, libro primo, 1v, op.2 (Venice, 1640)

[13] Sacrae laudes complectentes tertiam, missam psalmosque dominicales, 5vv, 2 insts, op.6 (Venice, 1660)

5 Lat. motets, 1649⁶, 1656¹, 1668²

3 masses, 8vv, vns, one dated 1672; 2 Mag settings, 6vv, insts; Stabat mater; Lamentations, 1–3vv, insts; 4 pss; 6 motets, 3, 5, 6, 8vv, vns; hymns, 1–4vv, 2 vn, 1667; It. sacred work, 1v, vns; further sacred works: Kl, I–Nf, Vnm, Vsm, Mauritiusarchiv, Krems

secular vocal

Fiori musicali raccolti … nel giardino de madrigali, 2–4vv (Venice, 1640)

Il primo libro di canzonette, 1v, op.3 (Venice, 1641)

[16] Canzonette, 1v, op.8 (Venice, 1670)

2 It. arias, 1v, bc, 1656⁴

4 It. cants., 2 duets, madrigals, 2–3vv: GB-Lbl, I-Bc, Nc, Nf

instrumental

[20] Sonate, a 3–6, op.7 (Freiburg, c1667), 12 repr. 1678 also as op.7

Ziani’s Aires or Sonatas in 3 Parts, 2 vn, bc, op.1 (London, 1703)

6 sonates, 2 vn, bc (org) (Amsterdam, c1710)

6 sonatas, str; 2 sonatas, 2 vn, 4 va, bc (org), 1670; sonata, tpt, str, org: GB–Och, Mauritiusarchiv, Krems

For doubtful works attrib. ‘Ziani’ see MGG1

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CaffiS

EitnerQ

FürstenauG

MGG1 (T. Antonicek)

SennMT

M. Fürstenau: Zur Geschichte der Musik und des Theaters am Hofe zu Dresden (Dresden, 1861–2/R)

A. von Weilen: Zur Wiener Theatergeschichte: die vom Jahre 1629 bis zum Jahre 1740 am Wiener Hofe zur Aufführung gelangten Werke theatralischen Charakters und Oratorien (Vienna, 1901)

A. Heuss: ‘Die venetianischen Opern-Sinfonien’, SIMG, iv (1902–3), 404–77

E. Wellesz: ‘Die Opern und Oratorien in Wien von 1660–1708’, SMw, vi (1919), 5–138

H.C. Wolff: Die venezianische Oper in der zweiten Hälfte des 17. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1937/R)

F. Hadamowsky: ‘Barocktheater am Wiener Kaiserhof, mit einem Spielplan (1625–1740)’, Jb der Gesellschaft für Wiener Theaterforschung 1951–2, 7–117; pubd separately (Vienna, 1955)

W. Senn: Musik und Theater am Hof zu Innsbruck (Innsbruck, 1954)

H. Knaus: ‘Wiener Hofquartierbücher als biographische Quelle für Musiker des 17. Jahrhunderts’, AÖAW, cii (1965), 178–206

R. Giazotto: ‘La guerra dei palchi’, NRMI, i (1967), 245–86, 465–508; iii (1969), 906–33; v (1971), 1034–52

I. Bartels: Die Instrumentalstücke in Oper und Oratorium der frühvenezianischen Zeit: dargestellt an Werken von Cavalli, Bertalli, P.A. Ziani und Cesti anhand der Bestände der Österreichischen Nationalbibliothek in Wien (diss., U. of Vienna, 1970)

H.J. Marx: ‘Monodische Lamentationen des Seicento’, AMw, xxviii (1971), 1–23

T. Antonicek: ‘Die Damira-Opern der beiden Ziani’, AnMc, no.14 (1974), 176–207

L. Bianconi: ‘Funktionen des Operntheaters in Neapel bis 1700 und die Rolle Alessandro Scarlattis’, Alessandro Scarlatti: Würzburg 1975, 13–116

E. Selfridge-Field: Venetian Instrumental Music from Gabrieli to Vivaldi (Oxford, 1975)

H.C. Wolff: ‘Italian Opera from the Later Monteverdi to Scarlatti’, NOHM, v (1975), 1–72, esp. 39–42

C.B. Schmidt: ‘An Episode in the History of Venetian Opera: the Tito commission (1665–6)’, JAMS, xxxi (1978), 442–66

T. Antonicek: ‘Beobachtungen zu den Wiener Opern von Pietro Andrea Ziani’, L’opera italiana a Vienna prima di Metastasio: Venice 1984

L. Bianconi and T. Walker: ‘Production, Consumption and Political Function of Seventeenth-Century Opera’, Early Music History, iv (1984), 211–99

S. Wiesmann: ‘Das Wiener Sepolcro’, Oper als Text: Romantische Beiträge zur Libretto-Forschung, ed. A. Gier (Heidelberg, 1986), 25–31

P. Fabbri and R. Verti: Due secoli di teatro per musica a Reggio Emilia: Repertorio cronologico delle opere e dei balli 1645–1857 (Reggio Emilia, 1987)

E. Rosand: Opera in Seventeenth-Century Venice: the Creation of a Genre (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1991)

W.B. Heller: Chastity, Heroism and Allure: Women in Opera of Seventeenth-Century Venice (diss., Brandeis U., 1995)

THEOPHIL ANTONICEK, H.S. SAUNDERS

Zich, Otakar

(b Králové Městec, 25 March 1879; d Ouběnice, nr Benešov, 9 July 1934). Czech composer and aesthetician. While studying mathematics at Prague University (where he took the doctorate in 1901) he was a pupil of the Czech musicologist and aesthetician Otakar Hostinský from 1897 to 1901; later he attended a course in composition under Stecker. From 1901 he taught physics and mathematics at a secondary school in Domažlice, a town in the Chod region of south-west Bohemia which at that time retained a strong folk tradition. He used the time spent in this region to collect folksongs and dances, which in turn influenced his own compositions. In 1906 he returned to Prague and completed his Habilitation as an aesthetician at the university in 1911 with a work on the apperception of music. When the university in Brno was established, he became professor of philosophy (1919) but returned to Prague in 1924 to become professor of aesthetics.

Zich was essentially a self-taught composer, finding his models in the 19th-century Czech national music, particularly that of Smetana and Fibich; he also admired European Romanticism and had a particular affinity for Mahler. Because of his close relation to folk art, he stood apart from the mainstream of early 20th-century Czech music (which tended to follow western European trends). He seldom took his inspiration from modern sources, the most significant exception being his opera Vina (‘Guilt’), where following the Expressionist plot he showed a fine sense for dramatic musical effect. His compositions are mostly vocal (arrangements of folksongs, choruses, cantatas, a melodrama, operas); neither during his lifetime nor later did his music gain public response and many of his compositions exist only in manuscript.

Zich's scholarly heritage is much more important. Together with Hostinský he is considered the founder of Czech musicology, particularly its aesthetics, and a founder of specific semantic theory in music. As early as his Habilitationsschrift he showed exceptional depth of knowledge; this and a scholar’s detachment combined fruitfully with his feeling and understanding (gained as a composer) of all the subtle components of creative and apperceptive processes in music. His basic orientation came through his teacher Hostinský, an adherent of German formalism and psychology of positivism, and through his studies with him of the traditions of Herbart, Vischer, Hanslick and Riemann he was confronted with the central problem of musical thinking – in Riemann's words, the ‘logic’ of music. To Hostinský's dualistic theory (absolute as against programme music) he added the study of musical apperception, attempting to state the difference between the imaginative meanings and affective-reactive meanings of music. Next to psychological aesthetics, which enabled him to elaborate a relatively precise notion of the creative and apperceptive processes, he also attempted the objective analysis of a work as form, or ‘musical morphology’. Through these two methods he examined the quality of the work of art; at the same time he was aware of the limitations of his approach and employed the experience and intuition of an artist to arrive at the final analysis. His studies of Smetana, Dvořák and Berlioz occupy a special place among his works.

His son Jaroslav Zich (b Prague, 17 Jan 1912) studied philosophy and musicology at Prague University and composition with Foerster. He has drawn on his experience as a pianist and composer for his theoretical writings, in which he has made a particular study of the aesthetic problems in musical performance.

WORKS

selective list

op.

—	Pf Trio, e, 1902
1	Osudná svatba [The Ill-Fated Wedding] (cant., trad.), 1905
2	Pátý hrobeček [The Fifth Grave] (cant., J. Stretz), 1906
3	Zimní balada [Winter Ballad] (cant., J. Neruda), 1906
4	Ze srdce [From the Heart] (Neruda), Bar, orch, 1907
5	Polka jede [The Polka Rides] (cant., Neruda), 1907
6	Romance o Černém jezeře [Romance of the Black Lake] (melodrama), 1907
7	Malířský nápad [A Painter's Whim] (op, 1, Zich after S. Čech), 1908, Prague, National Theatre, 11 March 1910
8	Matičce [To my Mother] (Neruda), Bar, orch, 1911
10	Vina [Guilt] (op, 3, J. Hilbert), 1911–15, Prague, National Theatre, 14 March 1922
12	Preciézky (op, 1, after Molière: Les précieuses ridicules), 1924, Prague, National Theatre, 21 May 1926
13	Střepiny dnů [Fragments of Days] (J. Jiří), Mez/Bar, orch, 1926
14	Czech Suite, vn, vc, 1928
16	Z mělnické skály [From the rock of Mělnik] (Neruda), Bar, orch, 1909, rev. 1915
Partsongs, folksong arrs.
Orchestration of B. Smetana: Czech dances, 1919–23

Principal publishers: Hudební Matice, Starý, Urbánek
MSS owned by Jaroslav and Otakar Zich, Prague

WRITINGS

‘Píseň a tanec “do kolečka” na Chodsku’ [Singing and dancing rounds in the region of Chod], Český lid, xv (1906), 305–10, 406–10; xvi (1907), 305–10, 353–7, 406–11; xvii (1908), 19–22, 68–70, 261–3; xviii (1909), 98–100, 221–4, 276–8, 326–8, 442–5; xix (1910), 33–5, 100–01, 13–15

‘Hudební impressionismus’ [Musical Impressionism], Lumír, new ser., xxxvii (1909), 339–46, 390–7

Estetické vnímání hudby [Aesthetic apperception of music] (Habilitationsschrift, U. of Prague, 1911; Prague, 1910), ed. M. Jůzl (Prague, 1981)

Smetanova Hubička [Smetana's The Kiss] (Prague, 1911)

Hector Berlioz a jeho Episoda ze života umělcova [Berlioz and his ‘Episode from the life of an artist’] (Prague, 1914)

České lidové tance s proměnlivým taktem [Czech folkdances with changing metre] (Prague, 1917)

‘Hodnocení estetické a umělecké’ [Aesthetic and artistic evaluation], Česká mysl, xvi (1917), 129–65

Symfonické básně Smetanovy [Smetana's symphonic poems] (Prague, 1924, 2/1949)

‘O slovenské písni lidové’ [Slovak folksong], Slovenská čítanka, ed. J. Kabelík (Prague, 1925), 599–618

‘Čtvrttónová hudba’ [Quarter-tone music], HRo, ii (1925–6), 19–23, 69–74, 90–93, 110–13, 121–3

‘Hudební vývoj J.B. Foerstra’ [The musical development of J.B. Foerster], Památník Foerstrův, ed. A. Rektorys (Prague, 1929), 39–68

Estetika dramatického umění [Aesthetics of dramatic art] (Prague,1931/R, 2/1986)

‘Umělecký odkaz Bedřicha Smetany’ [Smetana's artistic legacy], Karlova universita Bedřichu Smetanovi (Prague, 1934), 25–38

BIBLIOGRAPHY

K.B. Jirák: ‘Písňové cykly Otakara Zicha na slova J Nerudy’ [Zich's song cycles to the words of Jan Neruda], Smetana, vi (1915–6), 17–24

J. Mukařovský: ‘Otakar Zich: Estetika dramatického umění’ [Aesthetics of dramatic art], Časopis pro moderní filologii a literaturu, xix (1933), 318

V. Helfert: ‘Vědecký odkaz Otakara Zicha’ [Zich’s scholarly heritage], Index [Brno], vi (1934), 97

J. Fiala: Dílo Otakara Zicha [The works of Otakar Zich] (Prague, 1935)

J. Plavec: Otakar Zich (Prague, 1941)

O. Sus: ‘Sémantický problém “významové představy” u O. Zicha a J. Volkelta’ [The semantic problem of Zich’s and Volkelt’s ‘concepts of meaning’], SPFFBU, F2 (1958), 99–116 [incl. Russ. and Ger. summaries]

J. Zich: ‘Hudební svět Otakara Zicha’ [Zich’s musical world], Živá hudba, i (1959), 227–46

J. Burjanek: Otakar Zich: studie k vývoji českého muzikologického myšlení v první třetině našeho století [A study of the development of Czech musicological thought in the first third of this century] (Prague, 1966)

O. Sus: ‘Poetry and Music in the Psychological Semantics of Otakar Zich’, SPFFBU, H4 (1969), 77–96

Vědecký odkaz Otakara Zicha: Prague 1979

K. Neumann: ‘Otakar Zich, ein tschechischer Ästhetiker der zwanziger und dreissiger Jahre’, HJbMw, ix (1986), 105–20

R. Pečman: ‘Josef Suk von Otakar Zich betrachet’, An der Epochen- und Stilwende (Brno, 1993), 54–8

JOSEF BEK

Zichy, Count Géza

(b Sztára, Hungary [now Slovakia], 23 July 1849; d Budapest, 14 Jan 1924). Hungarian pianist and composer. Although he lost his right arm in a hunting accident when he was 14, he became a celebrated piano virtuoso and made frequent concert tours from 1880. He studied composition with Robert Volkmann and the piano with Liszt, who orchestrated his ballad Der Zaubersee (now lost), transcribed his Valse d’Adèle (originally for left hand) and wrote a preface to his Six études pour la main gauche seule (Paris, 1878); the two became intimate friends and performed together in benefit concerts. Zichy also attained prominence as a jurist and administrator in Budapest; between 1891 and 1894 he was Intendant of the Royal Hungarian Opera, his appointment precipitating Mahler’s resignation as music director. From 1895 to 1918 he was president of the National Conservatory. In 1911 he was elected to the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, giving an inaugural address on Liszt (in Akadémiai Értesítő, Budapest, 1911). His music shows little individuality. His numerous piano pieces and transcriptions, written to enrich his concert repertory, are interesting chiefly for their use of specialized left-hand techniques. In addition to these and several choral and instrumental works, he wrote five operas to his own texts: Alár (produced in Budapest, 1896), Roland mester (Budapest, 1899) and a trilogy on the life of Rákóczi (Budapest, 1905–12); he also wrote a ballet, Gemma (Prague, 1903). He published two volumes of poetry and an autobiography.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (Z. Gárdonyi)

G. Zichy: Aus meinem Leben (Stuttgart, 1911–29; in Hung. as Emlékeim, Budapest, 1912–13)

M. Prahács: ‘A Zenemuveszeti Foiskola Liszt-hagyateka’ [The Liszt bequest in the academy of Music], ZT, vii (1959), 47–582 [incl. Fr. Summay p.692 only]

T. Gedeon and M. Máthé: Gustav Mahler (Budapest, 1965)

W. Schreiber: Gustav Mahler in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten (Hamburg, 1971)

G. Staud, ed.: A Budapesti Operaház 100 éve [100 years of the Budapest Opera House] (Budapest, 1984)

M. Eckhardt: ‘Zichy Géza, gróf’, Brokhaus-Riemann zenei lexikon (Budapest, 1985) [with list of works]

JOHN S. WEISSMANN/MÁRIA ECKHARDT

Žídek, Ivo

(b Kravaře, nr Opava, 4 June 1926). Czech tenor. He studied in Ostrava, where he made his début as Werther (1944), then joined the Prague Opera in 1948, his roles including Tamino, Don Carlos, Siegmund, Hoffmann, Tom Rakewell and Peter Grimes. Many of his greatest successes were in Janáček operas, most notably as Gregor in The Makropulos Affair, Števa and Laca in Jenůfa and Skuratov in From the House of the Dead. In 1966 he sang the Inventor in the première of Kašlík’s Krakatit. He also appeared in Vienna, Wexford, Germany, South America and at the Edinburgh Festival (1964 and 1970 as Dalibor and as Mazal in the British première of Janáček’s The Excursions of Mr Brouček). Though occasionally reported as sounding strained or coarse, he was widely acclaimed for the commanding style of his acting and the clear-cut intensity of his singing. Recordings include ardent performances as Jeník in The Bartered Bride and Števa in Jenůfa. He became Intendant of the Prague National Opera in 1989.

J.B. STEANE

Židek, Paulus.

See Paulirinus, Paulus.

Ziegfeld, Florenz, jr

(b Chicago, 15 March 1867; d New York, 22 July 1932). American theatrical producer. His father, Florenz Ziegfeld sr, was head of the Chicago Musical College, but the younger Ziegfeld’s reaction to a background of classical music was a lifelong aversion to great musical masterpieces. In 1893 the elder Ziegfeld was appointed music director for the World’s Columbian Exposition and sent his son to Europe to obtain performers; however, the younger Ziegfeld returned with music hall artists and circus acts. It was only after his marriage to Anna Held that Ziegfeld began to produce musicals, initially as vehicles for his wife, although they always included a chorus of beautiful girls in striking costumes.

Among Ziegfeld’s early productions were Papa’s Wife (1899), The Little Duchess (1901), The Red Feather (1903), Mam’selle Napoleon (1903), Higgledy Piggledy (1904) and A Parisian Model (1906). In 1907 he introduced the first of his annual Follies, to which he added his name in 1911 and which he later advertised as ‘glorifying the American girl’. The Ziegfeld Follies ran until 1925, with two more versions in 1927 and 1931; four shows bearing Ziegfeld’s name were also produced after his death (1934, 1936, 1943, 1957). His other productions included Sally (Kern, 1920), Kid Boots (Tierney, 1923), Rio Rita (Tierney, 1927), Show Boat (Kern, 1927), Rosalie (G. Gershwin and Romberg, 1928), The Three Musketeers (Friml, 1928), Whoopee (Donaldson, 1928), Bitter Sweet (Coward, 1929) and Simple Simon (Rodgers, 1930). Ziegfeld’s reputation was such that contemporary critics referred to Kern’s and Hammerstein’s work as ‘Ziegfeld’s Show Boat’.

Ziegfeld built his own theatre in New York, the Ziegfeld, which he opened in 1927. Although he was often accused of being indifferent to music, he always sought the best composers for his shows as a matter of sound business practice: from the Follies came such songs as Shine on harvest moon (by Bayes and Norworth, 1908), Row, Row, Row (William Jerome and Jimmy Monaco, 1912), Hello, Frisco! (Louis Hirsch, 1915), A pretty girl is like a melody (Berlin, 1919), and Shaking the Blues Away (Berlin, 1927). Ziegfeld’s name remains synonymous with theatrical opulence and glamour more than 60 years after his death.

See also Revue.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

E. Cantor and D. Freedman: Ziegfeld: the Great Glorifier (New York, 1934)

P. Ziegfeld: The Ziegfelds’ Girl (Boston, 1964)

C. Higham: Ziegfeld (Chicago, 1972)

R. Carter: The World of Flo Ziegfeld (New York, 1974)

R. and P. Ziegfeld: The Ziegfeld Touch: the Life and Times of Florenz Ziegfeld, Jr. (New York, 1993)

GERALD BORDMAN

Ziegler.

Austrian firm of woodwind instrument makers. Its founder, Johann Joseph Ziegler (b Komorn [now Komárom], Hungary, 1795; d Vienna, 10 March 1858), was granted a privilege to trade in Vienna in 1821. He made all kinds of woodwind instruments for orchestral use, as well as the csakan, an instrument which enjoyed great regional popularity during the early 19th century. Ziegler worked on improvements to instrument design, for instance introducing metal clarinet mouthpieces. In 1837 he sold six clarinets (two in A, two in B and two in C) and two bassoons to the Vienna Hofmusikkapelle. It says much for the efficiency of his firm and the quality of its instruments that it could meet extremely large orders: in 1845 Ziegler apparently supplied instruments to the bands of 30 Austrian regiments, and he had a flourishing export business. After Ziegler's death the firm was continued by his son Johann Baptist (b 19 April 1823; d 10 Jan 1878) who maintained its tradition of high quality. His instruments were awarded a gold medal at the 1867 Paris Exposition. The firm continued until the early 20th century, trading under the name of Johann Ziegler Nachfolger. Ziegler instruments bear the mark of the double eagle and the wording i: ziegler/wien (to 1847 and after 1858) or i: ziegler & sohn/wien (1847–58).

In the Austrian territories in particular, the Ziegler flute with its full, soft tone and its extended range (lowest note b, and g when made with an extension) remained the orchestral instrument of choice until the 20th century, when it was superseded by the stronger tone of the Boehm flute. Unlike its rival, the Ziegler flute had an inverted conical bore. Ziegler's key system represented a further development of the Classical and early Romantic design, with several doubled keys.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Waterhouse-LangwillI

R. Hellyer: ‘Some Documents Relating to Viennese Wind-Instrument Purchases, 1779–1837’, GSJ, xxviii (1975), 50–59

H. Ottner: Der Wiener Instrumentenbau: 1815–1833 (Tutzing, 1977)

N. Toff: The Development of the Modern Flute (New York, 1979)

R. Hopfner: Wiener Musikinstrumentenmacher: 1766–1900 (Tutzing, 1999)

RUDOLF HOPFNER

Ziegler, Caspar

(b Leipzig, 15 Sept 1621; d Wittenberg, 17 April 1690). German poet. From 1638 to 1654, when he was a law and theology student in Leipzig, Ziegler was active as an amateur poet. From 1654 until his death he was an important professor of law and eventually Rektor at the University of Wittenberg and a prominent civic official there, and had practically no more connection with the arts.

A friend of Rosenmüller and Schütz, he exerted some influence on both. His poetry, apparently mostly sacred, served for occasional music, and a few poems became chorale texts. More important, his treatise Von den Madrigalen (?Leipzig, 1653, enlarged 2/1685; ed. D. Glodny-Wiercinski, Frankfurt, 1971), written at Schütz's request, set forth rules for German madrigal poetry that were then observed until well into the 18th century. Hitherto German poets had not provided texts comparable to Italian madrigals, but after analysing the structure of the Italian poems, Ziegler adapted them to the peculiarities of German prosody. The German madrigal should consist of any number of lines, usually from seven to eleven and rarely fewer than five or more than sixteen; the lines should have seven or eleven syllables if the ending is feminine, six or ten syllables if it is masculine; a caesura is optional in lines of ten or eleven syllables; the rhyme scheme varies, but no more than three consecutive lines may pass without some rhyme; and only authentic rhymes are considered. As a relatively free, non-strophic poem the German madrigal is ideal for recitative and was so used, even by Bach.

JOHN H. BARON

Ziegler [née Romanus], Christiane Mariane von

(b Leipzig, bap. 30 June 1695; d Frankfurt an der Oder, 1 May 1760). German poet and cantata librettist. The daughter of a prominent Leipzig family, she began to pursue a professional literary career in her late twenties after she had been widowed twice and lost the children of both marriages. Johann Christoph Gottsched became her mentor and principal sponsor. She published her first collection of verse, Versuch in gebundener Schreib-Art, in 1728; a second volume followed a year later. In 1731 she brought out a collection of letters and became a member of the Deutsche Gesellschaft in Leipzig, whose prize for poetry she won in 1732 and 1734. In 1733, at Gottsched’s recommendation, the Faculty of Philosophy of Wittenberg University elected her imperial poet laureate. Ziegler’s last publication, Vermischte Schriften in gebundener und ungebundener Rede – probably a revised version of a lost collection announced in the Leipzig fair catalogue of 1736 – appeared in Göttingen in 1739. Two years later, she married Wolf Balthasar Adolf von Steinwehr, professor of philosophy at the University of Frankfurt an der Oder, whom she had met in Gottsched’s circle.

In the spring of 1725, J.S. Bach wrote a series of nine cantatas (bwv103, 108, 87, 128, 183, 74, 68, 175, 176) to librettos that Mariane von Ziegler subsequently published in the first volume of her Versuch. Bach and Ziegler may have met through a mutual friend, Maria Elisabeth Taubert; whether they actually worked together, however, remains uncertain. The published versions of the librettos differ markedly from those used by Bach, and some of the variants suggest that Bach altered Ziegler’s verses substantially when composing his cantatas. Bach set no further texts by Mariane von Ziegler, even though she published more librettos in her collection of 1729. The reason for this may have been that Bach began to work with Christian Friedrich Henrici, whom Gottsched and his circle (to which Ziegler belonged) opposed.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

P. Spitta: ‘Mariane von Ziegler und Joh. Sebastian Bach’, Zur Musik (Berlin, 1892/R), 9–118

L.F. Tagliavini: Studi sui testi delle cantate sacre di J.S. Bach (Padua, 1956)

W. Herbst: ‘Der Endzweck: ein Vergleich zwischen Joh. Seb. Bach und Chr. Mariane v. Ziegler’, Musik und Kirche, xxx (1960), 248–55

A. Mendel: Johann Sebastian Bach: Kantaten zum 2. und 3. Pfingsttag, Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke, 1st ser., xiv (Kassel, 1962)

F. Zander: ‘Die Dichter der Kantatentexte Johann Sebastian Bachs: Untersuchungen zu ihrer Bestimmung’, BJb 1968, 9–64

W. Neumann and H.-J. Schulze, eds.: Fremdschriftliche und gedruckte Dokumente zur Lebensgeschichte Johann Sebastian Bachs 1685–1750, Bach-Dokumente, ii (Kassel, 1969)

H.-J. Schulze: ‘Neuerkenntnisse zu einigen Kantatentexten Bachs auf Grund neuer biographischer Daten’, Bach-Interpretationen, ed. M. Geck (Göttingen, 1969), 22–8

A. Dürr: Die Kantaten von Johann Sebastian Bach (Kassel, 1971, 6/1995)

H. Streck: Die Verskunst in den poetischen Texten zu den Kantaten J.S. Bachs (Hamburg, 1971)

C. Wolff: ‘Ein Gelehrten-Stammbuch aus dem 18. Jahrhundert mit Einträgen von G.Ph. Telemann, S.L. Weiss und anderen Musikern’, Mf, xxvi (1973), 217–24

W. Neumann, ed.: Sämtliche von Johann Sebastian Bach vertonte Texte (Leipzig, 1974)

S. Ehrmann: ‘Johann Sebastian Bachs Leipziger Textdichterin Christiane Mariane von Ziegler’, Bach-Studien, ix–x (Leipzig, 1991), 261–8

JOSHUA RIFKIN/KONRAD KÜSTER

Ziegler, Christian Gottlieb

(b Pulsnitz, Saxony, 25 March 1702; d after 1760). German composer and theorist. He was a son of the Pulsnitz schoolmaster and organist, Johann Gottlieb Ziegler. He learnt music from his father until he was 13; in 1715 he studied at the Halle orphanage, and in 1720 embarked on three years of theological study at Halle University while continuing his musical studies with his uncle, Johann Gotthilf Ziegler. As a member of the Halle collegium musicum he composed, according to Gerber, several cantatas, overtures, concertos and trios and arranged their performance. In 1723 he was in Dresden, profiting from contact with J.D. Heinichen, S.L. Weiss, Christian Pezold and J.G. Pisendel, and above all learning from Heinichen and Pezold ‘much about music’ (according to Walther). In 1724 he returned to Halle and embarked on a three-year course in law; after that he went to Quedlinburg as court organist, becoming organist of St Benedikti in 1730. An unpublished treatise, Der wohlinformierte Generalbassist, is mentioned by Walther and Gerber as having been written between 1728 and 1731, and the New York Public Library has a manuscript Anleitung zur musicalischen Composition, written in Quedlinburg in 1739. His only surviving musical work is a cantata Kommt herzu (A-Wn), written for birthday celebrations for Princess Amalia of Prussia at the Quedlinburg convent on 9 November 1760.

For bibliography see Ziegler, Johann Gotthilf.

DIETER HÄRTWIG

Ziegler, Johann Gotthilf

(b Leubnitz, nr Dresden, 25 March 1688; d Halle, 15 Sept 1747). German organist and composer. A member of a large Saxon family of musicians, he had his first instruction from his father Daniel Ziegler, a schoolmaster and organist in Pulsnitz. He then studied under Pezold, organist of the Sophienkirche in Dresden, where he attracted attention as a child prodigy at the court of August II. Later he travelled around Germany, working with various orchestras including the collegium musicum in Halle; it was directed by the well-known pedagogue A.H. Francke, whose pupil he was for nearly three years. In 1710 he studied for six months with Zachow; he then read law and theology at Halle University for three years, and in 1715 studied with J.S. Bach in Weimar. According to Walther he was also a pupil of Johann Theile of Naumburg. In 1716 Kirchhoff, organist at the Liebfrauenkirche in Halle, certified his musical proficiency and he became assistant organist at the Ulrichskirche there, succeeding Meissner in 1718 as director musices and organist, a post he held until his death. He was much in demand as a teacher. Between 1716 and 1726 he received three invitations to a post in Reval, which he used to negotiate better conditions at Halle. In 1746 he applied to succeed Kirchhoff, but W.F. Bach was appointed.

Ziegler was the most notable member of his family and, with Zachow and Kirchhoff, was a leading figure among late Baroque composers in Halle. His fame as a composer and as an organist and teacher spread well beyond the city. Apparently none of his compositions survive; they included four cycles of church cantatas and two each of gospels and epistles, to texts by C.F. Hunold (Menantes), J.J. Rambach and Ziegler himself. The foreword to Rambach's Geistliche Poesien und Cantaten (Halle, 1720) states that the work owed its existence to Ziegler's initiative; presumably Ziegler commissioned (and repeatedly set) these texts, which are among the best church cantata poetry of the period. All the music has disappeared, but texts of some of Ziegler's works have survived, among them the solo cantatas Christi Glieder, Christi Brüder of 1716 (text no.13 in J.M. Heineccius: Hundertjähriges Denckmahl der Reformation, Halle, 1718) and Da hörst du, Mensch of the same date (in J.G. Ziegler: Texte zur Music, welche in der St. Ulrichskirche allhier am 18. Sonntag nach Trinitatis gehalten worden, Halle, 1716). In both works, da capo arias and recitatives alternate with chorales for the congregation. In 1721 Ziegler wrote in a letter that he had composed and performed ‘for three whole years a new church piece for every season’. In 1740 he wrote the Trauer-Music for the funeral of Friedrich Wilhelm I. He composed for other cities besides Halle, including a Leichen-Music (1736) for a funeral in the noble family of Zerbst, and other music for weddings and funerals. The 24 Polonoises pour le clavecin (1764) attributed by Eitner to Ziegler were in fact written by a Johann Gottfried Ziegler, possibly a relative.

Ziegler wrote three treatises which remained unpublished: Neuerfundener Unterricht vom Generalbass, 1718 (lost), Neuerfundene musicalische Anfangsgründe, die sogenannten Galanterien betreffende (lost) and Unterricht von der Composition (in D-Bsb).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ADB (R. Eitner)

EitnerQ

GerberL

GerberNL

SchillingE

WaltherMI

S. Kümmerle: Encyklopädie der evangelischen Kirchenmusik, iv (Gütersloh, 1895/R)

W. Serauky: Musikgeschichte der Stadt Halle, ii (Halle and Berlin, 1939–42/R)

D.-R. Moser: Musikgeschichte der Stadt Quedlinburg (diss., U. of Göttingen, 1967)

G. Stauffer: ‘Christian Gottlieb Zieglers “Anleitung zur musikalischen Composition”: ein Bach-Dokument aus der New York Public Library’, BJb, lxxiv (1988), 185–9

DIETER HÄRTWIG/PETER WOLLNY

Ziegler [Zügler], Joseph Paul

(b Vienna, 14 Sept 1722; d Vienna, 18 Oct 1767). Austrian violinist and composer. After teaching the violin at the Jesuit seminary in Vienna, he became a cathedral musician at the Stephansdom and played at the court chapel. About 1753 he gave violin lessons to Dittersdorf, who later spoke of him as ‘a very fine violinist and a skilful and worthy composer of chamber music. He took great pains with me’. Through Ziegler's recommendation Dittersdorf gained his first musical appointment. Ziegler's chamber and sacred compositions were highly esteemed in Vienna and he was also respected as a virtuoso; Albrechtsberger and Joseph and Michael Haydn praised his playing.

WORKS

all MS

Masses, 4vv, orch: C, D, A-H, KR; C, H, KN, KR; A, C, KR, Wp

Litanies, orch acc.: Lytaniae Lauretanae, C, H; Lytania de BVM, H; 2 Lytaniae, KN; Lytaniae solennes, KN; Lytaniae (Lauretanae), G, KN, Wn; Lytaniae, TU; Lytaniae de venerabili, TU

Other sacred works: Salve regina, S, orch, org, KN, KR; Te Deum, KR; c20 motets, antiphons, offertories (arias, arias with chorus), H, KN, KR

Inst: Vn Conc., Wgm; Sinfonie, 1758, Wn; Divertimento, KR; Sonata, vn, bc, lost

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

MGG1 (K. Pfannhauser)

C.D. von Dittersdorf: Lebensbeschreibung (Leipzig, 1801; Eng. trans., 1896/R); ed. N. Miller (Munich, 1967)

GERNOT GRUBER

Ziehharmonika

(Ger.).

See Accordion.

Ziehn, Bernhard

(b Erfurt, Germany, 20 Jan 1845; d Chicago, 8 Sept 1912). German-American music theorist. After settling in 1868 in Chicago, he taught mathematics, German and music at the German Lutheran School (1868–71) before establishing himself as a private music teacher. His independent and original views were greatly admired by Hans von Bülow, Hugo Kaun, Leopold Godowsky, Ferruccio Busoni, George P. Upton and others. Ziehn’s critical essays are mostly polemic, whether championing (Theodore Thomas, Anton Bruckner) or condemning (Hugo Riemann, Eduard Hanslick, Philipp Spitta). His system of exercises for pianists led him to the realization that passages beginning on D or A yield upward and downward an exact symmetry of tones and of fingering – a principle of ‘symmetric inversion’ he subsequently applied to music theory. His textbooks on harmony and composition are distinguished by a minimum of rules and explanations and a wealth of music examples (from Schütz and Rameau to Bruckner and Boito). While still structuring chords by 3rds, he strongly rejected Riemann’s functional harmony and proceeded from accepting and interpreting literally the equally tempered division of the octave. The result is a chromatic and enharmonic system, occasionally complicated in its terminology, but pointing to the later language of Skryabin and Schoenberg. His ‘enharmonic law’ affirms that ‘every chord tone may become the fundamental’.

WRITINGS

System der Uebungen für Clavierspieler und ein Lehrgang für den ersten Unterricht/System of Exercises for Pianoforte and a New Method of Instruction for Beginners (Hamburg, 1881) [bilingual edn]

Harmonie- und Modulationslehre (Berlin, 1887; rev. 2/1907 as Manual of Harmony)

Five- and Six-part Harmonies/Fünf- und Sechsstimmige Harmonien (Milwaukee and Berlin, 1911) [bilingual edn]

Canonical Studies: a New Technic in Composition/Canonische Studien: eine neue Compositions-Technik (Milwaukee and Berlin, 1912 [bilingual edn]; abridged in Eng. as Canonic Studies, London, 1976)

ed. J. Goebel: ‘Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Geschichte und Theorie der Musik von Bernhard Ziehn’, Jahrbuch der Deutsch-Amerikanischen Historischen Gesellschaft von Illinois, xxvi–xxvii (1926–7) [double issue devoted chiefly to a collection of Ziehn’s articles, with introduction by J. Goebel and 2 essays by T. Otterstrom]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

F. Busoni: ‘Die “Gotiker” von Chicago’, Signale für die musikalischen Welt, lxviii (1910), 163; repr. in Wesen und Einheit der Musik (Berlin, 1956)

W. Sargeant: ‘Bernhard Ziehn, Precursor’, MQ, xix (1933), 169–77

H.J. Moser: ‘Bernhard Ziehn’, Jb der Musikwelt, i (1949–50), 209–98; repr. as monograph (Bayreuth, 1950) [for review see MQ, xxxvii (1951), 435]

E.M. Belcher jr: The Musical Theories of Bernhard Ziehn (diss., Indiana U., 1975)

R. Stevenson: ‘Bernhard Ziehn’s Contribution to the Development of Canon’, introduction to B. Ziehn: Canonic Studies (London, 1976)

C.K. Baron: ‘At the Cutting Edge: Three American Theorists at the End of the Nineteenth Century’, International Journal of Musicology, ii (1993), 193–247

SIEGMUND LEVARIE

Ziehrer, C(arl) M(ichael)

(b Vienna, 2 May 1843; d Vienna, 14 Nov 1922). Austrian bandmaster and composer. His father financed his musical education at the Vienna Conservatory in return for a contract giving Carl Haslinger publishing rights. In 1863 Haslinger launched Ziehrer with an orchestra at the Dianasaal following financial disagreement with Johann Strauss II. Competition from the Strauss's probably led Ziehrer to three years as bandmaster to the 55th Infantry Regiment from 1870. He then formed an orchestra for the 1873 Vienna Weltausstellung and in 1874 founded the musical journal Deutsche Musik-Zeitung. While he was bandmaster of the 76th Infantry Regiment (1875–7) he changed his publisher to Doblinger. Later, he hired many of Eduard Strauss's musicians, naming them the Former Eduard Strauss Orchestra which led to an unpopular lawsuit; self-banishment took him through Eastern Europe and Germany with a reconstituted orchestra. He met his wife, Marianne Edelmann, an operetta singer, in Berlin in 1881.

He was appointed bandmaster of the Hoch und Deutschmeister Regiment in 1885, which also performed as a civilian orchestra. With them he raised standards to unprecedented levels and attracted huge crowds. He was subsequently invited to represent Austria at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893, which was followed by an extended American tour, and which led to his dismissal for overstaying his leave. Renaming his band the Chicagoer Konzert-Kapelle he toured Germany widely. Later, he would retire each summer to the mountains to compose operetta: his farce Die Landstreicher (1899) ran for a record 1500 performances. Further successes were staged in Vienna and other European cities, and a few reached Broadway. His last operetta Das dumme Herz, with Alexander Girardi in the leading role, was curtailed by the war. The local character of his operettas limited their international appeal and all but three are no longer in the repertory; however, dance arrangements, marches and some songs and overtures from them remain popular.

In 1903, as a guest conductor, he was instrumental in forming the Wiener-Tonkünstler Orchestra, the forerunner of the Vienna SO, to perform popular music to high standards. In 1909 Emperor Franz Joseph finally appointed him as Imperial Court Ball Director in recognition of his popularity and contribution to music. Ziehrer, the only director not from the Strauss family, conducted the last Court Ball in 1914. The war destroyed him and he died penniless.

The greatest rival to the Strauss brothers, Ziehrer's long career was similar to Johann Strauss II except for the periods as a military bandmaster. This experience gave a brashness and swagger to his compositions which, influenced by local folk music, created his unmistakable style. Though not an innovator he was a master of original melody. Often performed are the waltzes Wiener Bürger, Weaner Mad'ln and Herrreinpaziert!, and his military legacy remains in the Freiherr von Schönfeld-Marsch. A monument to him stands in the Prater, and the Austrian National Library runs a permanent exhibition in the Theatre Museum and holds most scores, which belong to the Ziehrer Foundation. Some film footage of Ziehrer survives and Willi Forst produced a film of his life in 1949. Max Schönherr promoted his music through Austrian radio, and Ariola Eurodisc produced the first modern orchestral recordings with Robert Stolz in 1972 (Wiener Musik). Increased interest in his work has led to further new recordings.

WORKS

(selective list)

orchestral

dates of first performance: opp.1–209, 1863–73; opp.210–373, 1874–85; opp.374–497, 1886–99; opp.498–566, 1900–22

c130 waltzes, incl. Der Himmel voller Geig'n, op.34; Grazer Juristenball-Tänze, op.80; Fachblätter, op.102; Fidele Grundsätze, op.162; Walzer der Kaiserin, op.177; Wienerisch!, op.211; Wiener Volksposie, op.314; In der Sommerfrische, op.318; Alt-Wien, op.366; Oesterreich in Tönen, op.373; Faschingskinder, op.382; Weaner Mad'ln, op.388; Natursänger, op.415; Wiener Bürger, op.419; Wiener Ball-Photografian, op.425; Backfischerln, op.432; Liebesrezepte, op.434; Heimathsgefühle, op.436; Gebirgskinder, op.444; Donausegen, op.446; Evatöchter, op.448; Clubgeister, op.452

Märchen aus Alt-Wien, op.458; Nachtswärmer, op.466; Parfum-Walzer, op.469; Schneeballen, op.471; Ziehrereien, op.478; Singen; Lachen; Tanzen, op.486; In lauschige Nacht, op.488; Mein Herz hängt an Wien, op.500; Von der Donau-zur Spree, op.502; Buberl Komm'!, op.505; Sammt und Seide, op.515; Herreinpaziert!, op.518; Sei brave, op.522; Tolles Mädel!, op.526; Liebeswalzer, op.537; Ball bei Hof, op.547; Casimir-Walzer, op.551; O diese Husaren!, op.552; Ich Lach!, op.554 and Kulturbilder, op.563

c84 marches, incl. Oesterreichischer Kriegermarsch, op.11; Auersperg-Marsch, op.111; Franz Josef-Marsch, op.151; John-Marsch, op.285; Militär-Marsch, op.321; 's ist mein echt's Wienerblut, op.367; Hoch und Neider, op.372; Dorner-Marsch, op.377; Wacht an der Donau!, op.385; Freiherr von Schönfeld-Marsch, op.422; Der Vater des Regiments, op.431; Werner-Marsch, op.439; Columbus-Marsch, op.457; Der Zauber der Montur, op.493; Mein Feld die Welt, op.499; Auf! In's XX. Jahrhundert, op.501; Beim-Militär, op.516; Der Herr Leutnant, op.527

c210 polkas, incl. Die Lustigmacherin, op.4; Milostenka, op.9; Badner Park-Polka, op.65; Im Fluge, op.78; Bürgerlich und Romantisch, op.94; Pfeilschnell, op.108; Augensprache, op.120; Die beiden Nachtigallen, op.128; Gruss an Pest, op.140; Ziehrerei, op.200; Schäferstündchen, op.278c; Neue Welt-Blümchen, op.316; Immer lustig, op.324; Leben heisst Geniessen!, op.325; Vinea-Galopp, op.332; Liebesbrief, op.370; Das liegt bei uns im Blut!, op.374; Pfiffig, op.384; Losslassen!!!!, op.386; Schneidig, op.387; Busserl, op.389; Endlich allein!, op.390; Boshaft!, op.424; Wurf-Bouquet, op.426; Nadelstiche, op.429; Frauenlogik, op.445; Matrosen-Polka, op.449; Cavallerie-Polka, op.454; Lieber Bismarck; schaukle nicht, op.465; Electrisch, op.492; Sternschnuppen, op.510

c15 other dances, incl. 100,000 Éljen! Czardas, op.51; D'Kernmad'ln Steierische Tänze, op.58; Aus dem Volksmunde Ländler, op.189; Metternich Gavotte, op.378; Echt Wienerisch Tänze, op.381; Goldene Myrthe Gavotte, op.495; Diplomaten Gavotte, op.511; Goldene Jugendzeit Gavotte, op.523; Fächer-Polonaise, op.525

c40 potpourris, quadrilles, arrangements and other works, incl. Wien's Tanzmusic seit 50 Jahren, potpourri, op.27; Verliebt, op.319 Nr.1; romance; Der Traum eines österreichischen Reservisten, tone poem (1914)

vocal

23 operettas (first performed in Vienna unless otherwise stated; most pubd in vs in Vienna at time of first production; incl. some orch. potourris), incl. Das Orakel zu Delfi (2, C. Costa), Linz, Stadttheater, 21 Sept 1872; König Jérôme (4, A. Schirmer), Ringtheater, 28 Nov 1878; Wiener Kinder (3, L. Krenn and C. Wolff), Carl, 19 Feb 1881; Ein Deutschmeister (3, R. Genée and B. Zappert), Carl, 30 Nov 1888; Der schöne Rigo (2, Krenn and C. Lindau), Venedig in Wien, 24 May 1898; Die Landstreicher (prelude, 2, Krenn and Lindau), Venedig in Wien, 29 June 1899

Die drei Wünsche (prelude, 2, Krenn and Lindau), Carltheater, 9 March 1901; Der Fremdenführer (prelude, 3, Krenn and Lindau), An der Wien, 11 Oct 1902; Der Schätzmeister (3, A. Engel and J. Horst), Carl, 10 Dec 1904; Fesche Geister (prelude, 2, Krenn and Lindau), Venedig in Wien, 7 July 1905; Ein tolles Mädel (2, W. Sterk), Wiesbaden, 24 Aug 1907; Der Liebeswalzer (3, R. Bodansky and F. Grünbaum), Raimund, 24 Oct 1908; Ball bei Hof (3, Sterk), Stettin, Stadt, 22 Jan 1911

Manöverkinder (3, O. Friedmann and F. Lunzer), Kaisergarten, 22 July 1912, rev. as Der Husarengeneral (3, Friedmann and Lunzer), Raimund, 3 Oct 1913; Fürst Casimir (3, M. Neal and M. Ferner), Carl, 13 Sept 1913; Das dumme Herz (3, R. Oesterreicher and Sterk), Johann-Strauss, 27 Feb 1914; Die verliebte Eskadron (3, Sterk), Johann-Strauss, 11 July 1930 [posth., arr. K. Pauspertl]

8 Spls, incl. Wiener Luft (3, B. Rauchenegger), An der Wien, 10 May 1889; Herr und Frau Biedermeier (1, Sterk), Munich, Lustspiel, 9 Jan 1909; Deutschmeisterkapelle (1, H. Marischka and Oesterreicher) Raimund; 30 May 1958 [posth., arr. M. Schönherr]

c50 popular operetta songs, incl. In lauschiger Nacht; O Wien; mein liebes Wien; Küsse im Dunkeln; Rote Rose

c60 Lieder, couplets and hymns, incl. Wiener Lieder, op.326–31

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Gerlich: Erinnerungen aus C.M. Ziehrer (MS, 1951, A-Wst) [notes by Ziehrer's secretary]

M. Schönherr: Carl Michael Ziehrer: sein Werk, sein Leben, seine Zeit (Vienna, 1974)

M. Schönherr: Lanner, Strauss, Ziehrer (Vienna, 1983)

J.E. Diamond: From Gold to Silver (London, 1994)

JOHN E. DIAMOND

Zielche [Zielcke], Hans Heinrich [Hinrich]

(bap. Plön, 22 Feb 1741; d Copenhagen, 13 June 1802). German composer and flautist. He learnt to play the flute from his father. In 1757, after he had spent some time in Lübeck, Duke Friedrich Carl of Plön financed his studies in Hamburg, where he took composition lessons with Telemann and flute lessons with F.H. Graf. After the duke’s death, the Duchy of Plön was annexed by Denmark in 1761 and the Hofkapelle was dissolved. Zielche first went with other Plön court musicians to Hamburg, where he organized performances and sold tickets to concerts. In 1770, together with other musicians from Plön, he joined the royal orchestra in Copenhagen; he was solo flautist under J.G. Naumann from 1785, and was also court organist. Around 1780 he married the singer Anna Elizabeth Maria Franziska Almerigi. For a time Zielche was the most highly paid court musician in Copenhagen. He retired in 1796 and lived in Copenhagen until his death.

Zielche’s virtuosity, much admired by Copenhagen audiences, finds expression in his chamber works, which give prominence to the flute. They show the influence of Telemann and also, like his symphonies, that of the Mannheim composers. His Singspiel Belsor i Hytten, hardly any of which has been preserved, was unsuccessful. Zielche’s printed works went into a number of editions and were listed in the Breitkopf catalogue.

WORKS

(selective list)

most MSS in DK-Kk

Belsor i Hytten, eller Den unventede opdagelse (Spl), 1776, frag. extant

6 sonates, fl, bc (Berlin, n.d.), also as op.1 (Berlin, n.d.); 6 qts, fl, vn, va, b, op.2 (Copenhagen, 1779); 3 quartetto, fl, vn, va, vc; 6 solo, fl, vc; Trio, 2 fl, bc; 12 fl duos; 6 syms. (1724)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DBL3 (T. Krogh)

C. Thrane: Fra Hofviolonernes Tid: Skildringer af det kongelige Kapels Historie (Copenhagen, 1908)

T. Krogh: Zur Geschichte des dänischen Singspiels im 18. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1923), 49

N. Friis: Det Kongelike Kapel fem Aarhundreder ved Hoffet: paa Teatret og i Koncertsalen (Copenhagen, 1948)

N. Heydemann: Das Musikleben am Plöner Hof in der Zeit Herzog Friedrich Carls (Nordelbingen, 1993), 53

J. Kremer: ‘“Telemannischer Geschmack” in Dänemark: zur Geschichte der deutsch-dänischen Musikbeziehungen im 18. Jahrhundert’, DAM, xxii (1994), 9–16

JOACHIM KREMER

Zieleński [Zelenscius], Mikołaj

(fl 1611). Polish composer and organist. From his publication of 1611, dedicated to Wojciech Baranowski, Archbishop of Gniezno and primate of Poland from 1608, it is known that he was organist and director of music to the archbishop. Dunicz showed that this position applied to the primate’s private chapel and residence at Łowicz; it is not known whether it also applied to Gniezno Cathedral (see Podejko). In dedicating his work Zieleński affirmed that Baranowski had ‘cultivated’ his talent, that his work originated ‘through [his] recommendation and in [his] service’, that it appeared in print thanks to his ‘liberality and generosity’, was ‘accomplished for the first time by a Pole in a new way’ and was the fruit of ‘no new zeal’ on his part in the archbishop’s service. Also in 1611 he took part in a court case at Łowicz.

Zieleński’s Offertoria/Communiones totius anni of 1611, his only known music, comprises two separate cycles for the church’s year – liturgically rather free and incomplete – as well as additional motets and sacred symphonies. The two parts have separate title-pages but share a common dedication and list of contents. Among the 56 compositions in the Offertoria there are only 44 offertories, the main unifying feature in the volume being the monumental polychoral character of all the settings: there are 12 works for seven voices and 43 for eight – all for two choirs – and a 12-part Magnificat for three choirs. The choirs are split into high and low voices, and Zieleński emphasized their differences by the addition of instruments, while uniting them in their dialogues by the use of imitation. A continuo part for organ is provided throughout. The Offertoria is recognized as the most outstanding achievement by a Polish composer of the period.

If the contents of the Offertoria are monumental, those of the Communiones are more intimate. Of the 66 titles only 53 are communiones, or antiphons, but the total number of compositions is actually 57, since nine are variants. The volume consists of works for solo voices with accompaniment and also three instrumental fantasias. There are five works for three voices (in the original index nos.28–32, including two of the fantasias), 32 for four (nos.1–18, 20–27, 33–43, including the other fantasia, five works being found in two versions), 14 for five (nos.19, 44–59, three in two versions) and six for six (nos.60–66, one in two versions). The solo pieces are the earliest Polish monodies and the other vocal pieces the earliest Polish concertatos; the vocal parts are enhanced by italianate embellishments. The instrumentation, which is precisely designated though optional, embraces richer groups than those in the Offertoria and includes string, wind and plucked instruments. The three fantasias are the earliest Polish works specifically intended for instrumental ensemble. The Communiones, however, also contains motets in a traditional late Renaissance imitative style, and only their dramatic expressiveness and frequent chromaticisms testify to their comparatively late date. All Zieleński’s work indeed is typical of the age of transition from Renaissance to Baroque styles, and he is certainly the most outstanding Polish composer of his time.

WORKS

Edition:Mikołaj Zieleński: Opera omnia, ed. W. Malinowski and Z. Jachimecki, MMP, ser.A, i/1–5 (1966–91) [M i–v]

Offertoria totius anni, quibus in festis omnibus Sancta Romana Ecclesia uti consuevit, 7, 8vv, insts … aliquot sacrae simphoniae cum Magnificat, 12vv (Venice, 1611); M i–iii; 2 ed. in Muzyka polskiego odrodzenia (Kraków, 1953; Eng. trans., 1955); 1 ed. in WDMP, xli (1960, 2/1966); 3 ed. H. Feicht, Muzyka staropolska (Kraków, 1966); 2 ed. in MAP, Baroque, i (1969)

Communiones totius anni quibus in solennioribus festis Sancta Romana Ecclesia uti consuevit ad cantum organi, 1–6vv, insts, cum … vocis resolutione, quam Itali gorgia vocant … aliquot simphoniae, 4–6vv, et tres fantasiae, insts (Venice, 1611); M iv–v; 5 ed. J. Surzyński, Monumenta musices sacrae in Polonia, i–ii (Poznań, 1885–7); 1 ed. in Opieński, suppl.; 4 ed. W. Gieburowski, Cantica selecta musices sacrae in Polonia (Poznań, 1928); 13 ed. in WDMP, xii, xxxi, xxxiv, xli, xlv, liii, lxx (1953–73); 3 fantasias ed. in Florilegium musicae antiquae, xx (Kraków, 1967); 4 ed. in MAP, Baroque, i (1969)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ; SMP

M. Szczepańska: ‘O dwunastogłosowym “Magnificat” Mikołaja Zieleńskiegoz r. 1611’ [On the 12-part Magnificat (1611) by Mikołaj Zieleński], PRM, i (1935), 28–54

J.J. Dunicz: ‘Do biografii Mikołaja Zieleńskiego’ [Towards a biography of Mikołaj Zieleński], PRM, ii (1936), 95–7

A. Chybiński: Słownik muzyków dawnej Polski do roku 1800 [Dictionary of early Polish musicians to 1800] (Kraków, 1949)

P. Podejko: Dawna muzyka polska na terenie dzisiejszego województwa bydgoskiego i Pomorza gdańskiego [Early Polish music in the region of the present province of Bydgoszcz and Gdańsk Pomerania] (Bydgoszcz, 1960), 12–14

W. Malinowski: ‘Partitura pro organo w Offertoriach Mikołaja Zieleńskiego’ [Partitura pro organo in Mikołaj Zieleński’s Offertoria], Prace naukowe Instytutu muzykologii Uniwersytetu warszawskiego, i (1961), 1–54

W. Malinowski: ‘Wokół Magna est gloria eius Mikołaja Zieleńskiego’ [On Mikołaj Zieleński’s Magna est gloria eius], Res facta, v (1971), 182–7

W. Malinowski: ‘Transkrypcja wykonawcza “Communiones” Zieleńskiego: podstawowe problemy’ [Transcriptions of Zieleński’s Communiones: basic problems], Pagine, i (1972), 45–51

W. Malinowski: Polifonia Mikołaja Zieleńskiego (Warsaw, 1974)

W. Malinowski: ‘Chiavetty w Offertoriach Zieleńskiego’ [Chiavette in the Offertoria of Zieleński], Muzyka, xxiv/4 (1979), 71–6

M. Perz: ‘W sprawie dokumentacji fantazji Mikołaja Zieleńskiego’, [On the documentation of Zieleński’s fantasias], Muzyka, xxxvi/3 (1991), 83–4

J. Jazdon: ‘Zaginionych “Fantazji” Mikołaja Zieleńskiego dokumentacji ciąg dalszy’ [Zieleński’s fantasias: further documentation], Muzyka, xxxviii/1 (1993), 103–5

MIROSŁAW PERZ

Zielińska, Lidia

(b Poznań, 9 Oct 1953). Polish composer. While attending Koszewski's composition class at the Poznań Academy she was a violinist with the Duczmal Chamber Orchestra (1972–4) and the Poznań PO (1972–8). In 1983 she was appointed to the staff of the academy. She has worked in electronic studios in Poland and abroad, conducted multimedia and educational projects, especially as a founder-member of the group House of World Rhythms, and in 1990 co-founded Brevis, the first independent music publishers in post-communist Poland. From 1989 to 1992 she was artistic director of the Poznań Spring festival of contemporary music. She is the recipient of many national and international prizes.

Her compositional interests are wide-ranging: in addition to her concert music, she has created a number of performance-art pieces and worked in theatre and radio (the luminous Cascando after Beckett brings a number of these threads together). Her music is impressionistic, pulsating and unpredictable in its expression: background frequently becomes foreground; dance and folk materials merge into oscillating groups of notes; underlying pentatonism or diatonism in her music is distorted, for example by glissandos and oboe multiphonics in Pleonazm (1987); and minimalist repeated phrases arrive at unexpected junctures, particularly in Mała symfonia atroficzna (‘Little Atrophic Symphony’, 1988).

WORKS

(selective list)

Dramatic, multimedia: Słuchaj, Joe [Listen, Joe] (monodrama, S. Beckett), mime, tape, orch, 1978; Pani Koch [Mrs Koch] (tragi-farce, 1, M. Białoszewski), solo vv, vocal and inst ens, tapes, 1981; Cascando (Beckett), actor, double mixed chorus, 1983, rev. actor, chbr chorus, 1991; Sztuczny kult [Artificial Cult], tape, video, neon signs, visual objects, 1985 [collab. W. Olesiak]; Heldenleben, podsłuchane, podpatrzone [Heldenleben, Overheard and Spied On], tape, video, shadow-graph, 1986; 8 heures de la vie des femmes (music theatre), 9 pfmrs, 1988; Na polu [In the Field] (mini-spectacle), 1990; Venture Unknown (ballet), 20 insts, 1995; The Plot Theory of Sound, installation, 1996

Orch: Vn Conc., 1979; Pożegnanie z Tooropem [Farewell Mr Toorop], 1981; 2 tańce [2 Dances], str, 1981; Epitafium pamięci poznańskiego czerwca 1956 [Epitaph in Memory of Poznań, June 1956]; Fikcja [Fiction], 1986; Mała symfonia atroficzna [Little Atrophic Sym.], 1988

Choral: Muzyka konkretna, chorus, orch, 1987; Muzyka na Wielki Tydzień [Music for Holy Week], chorus, perc, 1988; Jednostka TOGO [TOGO Unit], male chorus, pf, 1995

Chbr and solo inst: Minuten-Sonate, op inst, 1981; Traktat [Treaty], ob, str trio, 1982; Kołysanka-gagaku [Gagaku Lullaby], db, 1984; Sonet o Tatrach [Sonnet on the Tatras], bells, accdn, vn, tpt, trbn, 1985; Glossa, vn/va, 1986; Pleonazm, ob, vn, str, 1986; Str Qt, 1987; Jacquard, 15 pfmrs, 1991; Fago, bn, db, accdn/elec kbd, 1992

El-ac: Tańce polskie według księdza Baki [Polish Dances according to Father Baka], tape, 1986; Utwór fabularny [Feature Piece], sax, tape, 1987; Musica humana albo Skąd się biorą symfonie [Musica Humana or How Symphonies are Born], radio piece, 1989; Grafika II, 10 insts, live elecs, 1991; Short Piece, fl, cptr/tape, 1992; Zeitschlingen, sound spectacle, 1994; Schon wieder diese weissen Mäuse, radio piece, 1996; Expandata, perc, tape, 1997; see also dramatic and multimedia works

Music for children, incid music, film scores

Principal publisher: Brevis, Agencja Autorska

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveW (B. Zwolska-Stęszewska)

E. Gajkowskiej: ‘Piękno i moc’ [Beauty and strength], RM, xxxviii/9 (1994), 1, 3 only

ADRIAN THOMAS

Zieliński, Jarosław

(b Lubocza Królewska, 31 March 1847; d Santa Barbara, CA, 25 July 1922). Polish pianist and composer. He graduated from secondary school in Lemberg, having studied music under F. Guniewicz and Mikuli while still at school. He continued his studies in Berlin and Vienna with Schulhoff and Frey, and in Milan with Ceruti. In Vienna he also graduated from the Theresianum Imperial Military Institute. After the failure of the January uprising he left in 1864 for the USA, where he settled permanently and fought in the Civil War; he left the army in 1865 and started giving concerts. In 1869 he went to live in Michigan, first at Grand Rapids, later in Detroit, and in 1878 became director of the music department at Fairmount College, Tennessee. From 1888 to 1910 he lived in Buffalo, giving frequent concert performances in different states of the USA. He organized a music department at the University of Bailey Springs, Alabama, in 1893, and in 1894 became head of the conservatory in Olean. In 1910 he moved from Buffalo to Los Angeles, where he founded a piano school. Zieliński composed a number of piano miniatures; he also made transcriptions and wrote songs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SMP

W.M. Kozłowski: ‘Jarosław Zieliński’, Echo muzyczne, teatralne i artystyczne, xv (1898), 6–7

JERZY MORAWSKI

Zieritz, Grete von

(b Vienna, 10 March 1899). Austrian composer and pianist. She studied at the Graz music school (1912–17) with Hugo Kroemer (piano) and Mojsisovics (composition). In 1917 she moved to Berlin and continued her studies with Martin Krause (piano) and Rudolf Maria Breithaupt. From 1919 she taught at the Stern Conservatory. She began to attract notice as a composer in 1921 with the first performance of her Japanese songs for soprano and piano. In 1926 she went to the Berlin Hochschule für Musik to continue her composition studies with Schreker, and it was through him that she forged a strongly individual style. In 1928 she was awarded the Mendelssohn Prize for composition as well as the Schubert Grant from the Columbia Phonograph Company. She was the first woman to receive the title of honorary professor from the Austrian president (1958); later honours included the Austrian Ehrenkreuz für Wissenschaft und Kunst (1978) and the Verdienstkreuz am Bande der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (1979). Zieritz toured extensively in Germany and other countries, often performing her own works. In 1988 her Zigeunerkonzert was played to celebrate her 89th birthday in a concert given by the Moscow PO. As a composer she was most at home in chamber works, many of which feature wind instruments, but she also wrote a substantial number of orchestral, choral and solo vocal pieces. She never abandoned tonality. Many of her musical ideas had their genesis in visual images and pictures, and her writing is distinguished by vivid tone painting and clarity of form.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Kleine Abendmusik, str, 1916; Triple Fugue, str, 1926; Bilder vom Jahrmarkt, fl, orch, 1937; Triple Conc., fl, cl, bn, orch, 1950; Le violon de la mort (Danses macabres), vn, pf, orch, 1956–7; Conc., 2 tpt, orch, 1975; Org Conc., 1977; Zigeunerkonzert, vn, cimb, orch, 1982

Chbr and solo inst: Str Qt, 1916; 2 Fugues, pf, 1921; Prelude and Fugue, pf, 1921; Bokelberger Suite, fl, pf, 1933; 6 Dämonentänze, pf, 1948; Suite, a fl, pf, 1952; Trio, cl, hn, bn, 1955; Die Jagd, cl, hn, pf, 1957; Musik, cl, pf, 1957; Dance Suite, gui/hpd, cl, bn, perc, 1958; Concertino, cl, hn, bn, str qnt, 1965; Sextet, bn, str qnt, Triptychon, fl + pic + a fl, 1968; Trio, ob, cl, bn, 1971; Le roi a fait battre tambour, ob d’amore, 1973; Cascade, tpt, 1975; Arabeske und Aria, eng hn, pf, 1976; Danza, 3 gui, 1979; Ildico und Attila, vn, 5-str db, 1979; Une humoresque diabolique, db, 1980; Folkloristische Fantasie, vn, pf, 1982; Triptychon, vn, 1984–6; Kassandra-Rufe, 8 solo insts (vn, va, vc, db, cl, Ecl, b cl, bn), nonet, 1986

Vocal: Vogellieder, S, fl, orch, 1933; 5 Gesänge (F. Nietzsche), 4 solo vv, pf, 1935; 6 Gesänge (S. George), Bar, str qt, 1935; Hymne (Novalis), Bar, orch, 1942; 3 Gesänge (F. Blücher von Wahlstatt), Bar, vc, pf, 1946; Zigeunermusik, S, fl, vn, pf, 1955; Die Zigeunerin Agriffina, S, orch, 1956; Zlatorog, Bar, cl, hn, pf, 1957–9; Berglied, mixed vv, 1962; 7 Gesänge (contemporary black poetry), mixed chorus 8vv, 1966; Japanische Lieder, S, chbr orch, 1972; Lieder zum Mond (C. Lavant), S, ww qt, 1974; 3 Lobgesänge (Pol. poems), Mez, pf, 1979

Principal publishers: Astoria, Ries & Erler

BIBLIOGRAPHY

KdG (P. Beate)

MGG1 (W. Suppan)

RiemannL12

GroveW (R. Marciano) [incl. fuller list of works]

J. Lansky: ‘Grete von Zieritz’, Mitteilungen des Steirischen Tonkünstlerhundes, xix–xx (1964), 1–3

U. Werk: Grete von Zieritz (Berlin, 1989) [incl. discography]

R. Aigner: Grete von Zieritz: Leben und Werk (Berlin, 1991)

P. Beate: Grete von Zieritz und der Schreker-Kreis: die Kunst des unbedingten Ausdrucks (Wilhelmshaven, 1993)

ROSARIO MARCIANO/R

Zierler, Steffan.

See Zirler, Stephan.

Ziernicki, Ignacy

(b 1752; d 1829). Polish organ builder. Active in Kraków and its environs, he seems to have specialized in large structures, building organs for Wawel Cathedral (1785), St Mary (1800) and the Franciscan and Dominican churches. The Dominican church organ perished in the great fire of 1850. The organ built for St Mary was of high quality and served the congregation for more than a century before falling victim to the Romantic trend in organ building. Ziernicki’s last, equally prestigious assignment was a reconditioning of the main organ of the Marian sanctuary at Jasna Góra (Częstochowa) started in about 1828 and cut short by his death the following year. For further information see J. Gołos: Polskie organy i muzyka organowa (Warsaw, 1972; Eng. trans., 1992, as The Polish Organ, i: The Instrument and its History).

JERZY GOŁOS

Ziesak, Ruth

(b Hofheim am Taunus, 9 Feb 1963). German soprano. She studied with Christoph Prégardien at the Musikhochschule in Frankfurt and with Elsa Cavelti. She made her début as Valencienne in Die lustige Witwe in Heidelberg in 1988, and then worked at the Deutsche Oper am Rhein (1990–91). Her first international engagement was as Pamina with Solti at the 1991 Salzburg Festival. She later sang the role at La Scala, the Staatsoper in Munich, Dresden's Sächsische Staatsoper and the Vienna Staatsoper. She made her début at the Opéra Bastille in Paris as Susanna in 1993, followed by Sophie in 1998, and first appeared at Covent Garden in 1997 as Ighino (Palestrina). Her other roles include Ilia and Sophie. Ziesak is also an accomplished soloist in concert works; she won first prize at the lieder competition at 's-Hertogenbosch, and following her Viennese recital début in 1991 has gained a reputation as a discerning interpreter of lieder. Among her many recordings those of Pamina for Solti, Marzelline for Dohnányi, Aennchen for Janowski, Gretel for Runnicles, the title role of Schumann's Genoveva for Harnoncourt and Wolf's Italienisches Liederbuch reveal her pure tone and fresh, unaffected style.

ALAN BLYTH

Zieyeva, Malika

(b Fergana Basin, 1 Feb 1956). Uzbek dutār player. From 1970 to 1974 she attended the Fergana College of Art. From 1974 to 1979 she studied the dutār with Fakhriddin Sadyqov at the Tashkent State Conservatory, learning many pieces from the traditional classical repertory including well-known makom melodies such as Shafoat, Chohorgoh and Chully Iroq. In 1979 she began working with the Uzbek State Radio naqam ensemble founded by Yunus Rajabi. During the next two decades many of her performances were recorded for the archives of Uzbek State Radio, and in 1987 she received a Golden Gramophone award from the Melodiya recording company. Her use of ornamentation in performance has been acclaimed. She was appointed to teach at the Tashkent State Conservatory in 1991 and founded an ensemble of female dutār players in 1993, maintaining the tradition of the Fergana area where the dutār is especially associated with women.

RAZIA SULTANOVA

Ziffrin, Marilyn J(ane)

(b Moline, IL, 7 Aug 1926). American composer and musicologist. She studied at the University of Wisconsin, Madison (BM 1948), Columbia University Teachers College (MA 1949) and the University of Chicago. Her composition instructors included Karl Ahrendt and Alexander Tcherepnin. After teaching in the public schools, she joined the music department at Northeastern Illinois University (1961–6) and later taught at New England College (1967–82). She has also taught composition privately at St. Paul’s School (1972–92). Her many honours include fellowships from the MacDowell Colony and first prize in the Delius Composition Competition (1971) for Haiku.

Influenced primarily by the music of Bach, Bartók, Stravinsky, the synagogue and jazz, Ziffrin's style can best be described as postmodern. Expressive and vibrant, her music often includes clear melodic lines juxtaposed against complex rhythmic gestures. Dissonance and quartal harmonies dominate many pieces. Several of her works have been recorded. Her writings include the biography Carl Ruggles: Composer, Painter, Storyteller (Urbana-Champaign, IL, 1994).

WORKS

(selective list)

Film score: White Lies, 1984

Orch: Waltz, rev. 1957; Ov., band, 1958; Small Suite, str, 1963, rev. 1975; Piece, 1976–77; Colors, rev. 1979; Salute to Lexington, ov., band, 1985; Sym. ‘Letters’, 1v, orch, 1988; Movie Music, suite, 1993; Cl Conc., 1994–5; Strings, str, 1996

Vocal: Jewish Prayer, SATB, 1950; Death of Moses (cant.), SATB, 1954, rev. 1983; 3 Songs (M. Brand, C. Hill), Mez, pf, 1957; Prayer, SATB, 1966; Haiku (K. Martin), song cycle, S, va, hpd, 1971; Trio, S, xyl, tuba, 1973–4; Chorus from Alcestis (Euripedes), 1990; 3 Songs of the Trobairitz, S, pf, 1991; Choruses from the Greeks, SATB, 1992; New England Epitaphs, SATB, 1994; Clichés, SATB, 1997; Encore no.2, 2vv, pf, 1997; For Love of Cynthia (Propertius), song cycle, Bar, accdn/(vn, hn, pf), 1997; 2 Songs, S, va, pf, 1998

Chbr: The Little Prince, suite, cl, bn, 1953; Make a Joyful Noise, rec qnt, 1966; In the Beginning, perc ens, 1968; XIII, ens, 1969; Str Qt no.1, 1970; Movts, cl, perc, 1972; Sonata, vc, org, 1973; Pf Trio, 1975; Qnt, ob, str qt, 1976; Conc., va, ww qnt, 1977–8; Sono, vc, pf, 1980; Yankee Hooray, pf 4 hands, 1984; Duo, 2 a rec, 1985; Conversations, db, hpd, 1986; Tributum, cl, va, db, 1992; Fantasy, 2 pf, 1995; Flute Fun, 2 fl, 1995; Trio, cl, bn, pf, 1995; The Encore, 2 pf, 1996; Lines and Spaces, brass qnt, 1996; Str Qt no.2, 1999; Concertino, str qt, fl, ob, bn, pf, 1999

Solo inst: Theme and Variations, pf, 1949; Pf Suite, 1955; Toccata and Fugue, org, 1956; Rhapsody, gui, 1958; 4 Pieces, tuba, 1973; Fantasia, bn, 1986; Incantation and Dance, gui, 1989–90; 3 Movts, gui, 1989; Themes and Variations ‘In Memoriam’, org, 1989–90; Obsolo, ob, 1994; Recurrences, pf, 1998

Principal publishers: Editions Orphee, Frank E. Warren

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.L. Zaimont and K. Famera, eds.: Contemporary Concert Music by Women (Westport, CT, 1981)

M.B. Schantz: ‘Marilyn J. Ziffrin: a Lifetime of Creating Music’, Sonneck Society for American Music Bulletin, xxiv/1 (1998), 1, 5–7

MALINDA BRITTON SCHANTZ

Zigeunertanz

(Ger.: ‘gypsy dance’).

A dance imitating Gypsy music. Several examples survive among colourful popular pieces by German composers, including Hans Neusidler’s ‘Der Zeuner tantz’ (Ein newes Lautenbüchlein, 1540) and Wolff Heckel’s ‘Der Züner tantz’ (Lautten Buch, 2/1562); both of these have an appended triple-time after-dance (‘Hupff auff’ or ‘Proportz’). Neusidler’s dance is characterized by a florid, improvisatory melody to be played in high positions on the top string of the lute, accompanied by a simple bass line played on the unstopped lower three courses, suggesting an imitation of the fiddle and bagpipe combination typical of Hungarian Gypsy dance music (see Hungary, §II, 3).

Ziino, Agostino

(b Palermo, 24 Dec 1937). Italian musicologist, son of Ottavio Ziino. After studying with Aurelió Roncaglia and Luigi Ronga at Rome University and graduating in 1962, he taught history of music at Perugia Conservatory (1962–3). Subsequently he studied musicology at Freiburg University with Reinhold Hammerstein, at the Pontificio Istituto di Musica Sacra in Rome with Eugène Cardine and Higini Anglès and at the Scuola di Paleografia e Filologia Musicale in Cremona with Raffaello Monterosso and Federico Mompellio. He taught music history at Cremona, (1967–71), and later at the universities of Messina, Siena (1979–81), Naples (1981–95) and at the Tor Vergata University, Rome, in 1995. He was visiting professor at UCLA during 1986 and has also lectured at Certaldo.

His principal research interests are medieval Italian and French music, with particular reference to the lauda and the Ars Nova. He has identified a number of important manuscript sources, including the Turin manuscript T.III.2 at the Bibliotecà Nazionale Universitaria, and has also worked on subjects from later periods, such as Lorenzo il Magnifico, Palestrina and Tasso, Pietro della Valle, Francesco Lambardi, Stradella and the Roman Baroque cantata, the 18th-century festa teatrale in Naples, and 19th-century figures Luigi Romanelli, Giovanni Agostino Perotti and Wagner.

Ziino worked for the journal Nuova rivista musicale italiana (1967–9) and in 1972 joined the editorial board of Studi musicali. He was chairman of the Società Italiana di Musicologia, 1988–94. He is an active member of the Accademia Nazionale di S Cecilia in Rome and their representative on the UNESCO cultural committee. In 2000 he received the A. Feltrinelli Award from the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei.

WRITINGS

‘Pietro della Valle e la “Musica erudita”: Nuovi documenti’, AnMc, no.4 (1967), 97–111

Strutture strofiche nel Laudario di Cortona (Palermo, 1968)

‘“Contese letterarie” tra Pietro della Valle e Nicolò Farfaro sulla musica antica e moderna’, NRMI, iii (1969), 3–22

ed.: Antologia della critica wagneriana in Italia (Messina, 1970)

‘Frammenti di laudi nell’Archivio di Stato di Lucca’, Cultura neolatina, xxxi (1971), 295–312

with G. Cattin and O. Mischiati: ‘Composizioni polifoniche del primo Quattrocento nei libri corali di Guardiagrele’, RIM, vii (1972), 153–81

with F. Carboni: ‘Laudi musicali del XVI secolo: il manoscritto Ferrajoli 84 della Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana’, Cultura neolatina, xxxiii (1973), 273–329

with G. Donato: ‘Nuove fonti di polifonia italiana dell’Ars nova’, Studi musicali, ii (1973), 235–55

‘Polifonia nella cattedrale di Lucca durante il XIII secolo’, AcM, xlvii (1975), 16–30

‘Polifonia “primitiva” nella Biblioteca Capitolare di Benevento’, AnMc, no.15 (1975), 1–14

‘Testi laudistici musicati da Palestrina’, Studi palestriniani [I]: Palestrina 1975, 383–408

‘Isoritmia musicale e tradizione metrica mediolatina nei mottetti di Guillaume de Machaut’, Medioevo romanzo, v (1978), 438–65

‘Laudi e miniature fiorentine del primo Trecento’, Studi musicali, vii (1978), 39–83

‘Polifonia “arcaica” e “retrospettiva” in Italia centrale: nuove testimonianze’, AcM, l (1978), 193–207

‘Testi religiosi medioevali in notazione mensurale’, La musica al tempo del Boccaccio e i suoi rapporti con la letteratura: Siena and Certaldo 1975 [L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, iv (Certaldo, 1978)], 447–91

‘Luigi Romanelli e il mito del classicismo nell’opera italiana del primo Ottocento’, Chigiana, new ser., xvi (1979), 173–215

‘“Magister Antonius dictus Zacharias de Teramo”: alcune date e molte ipotesi’, RIM, xiv (1979), 311–48

‘Ancora sulla sequenza “Ave stella matutina”: note sull’Amen polifonico’, Le polifonie primitive in Friuli e in Europa: Cividale del Friuli 1980, 311–22

‘Ripetizioni di sillabe e parole nella musica profana italiana del Trecento e del primo Quattrocento: proposte di classificazione e prime riflessioni’, Musik und Text in der Mehrstimmigkeit des 14. und 15. Jahrhunderts: Wolfenbüttel, 1980, 93–119

‘Due sequenze del XIII secolo in notazione mensurale’, Letterature comparate, problemi e metodo: studi in onore di Ettore Paratore (Bologna, 1981), 1075–105

with F. Trinchieri Camiz: ‘Caravaggio: aspetti musicali e committenza’, Studi musicali, xii (1983), 67–90

ed.: L’Ars Nova italiana del Trecento, v (Palermo, 1985) [incl. ‘Una sequenza mensurale per san Fortunato ed un Amen a tre voci nella Biblioteca Comunale di Todi (con un’Appendice sul frammento di Cortona)’, 257–70]

ed., with N. Pirrotta: Händel e gli Scarlatti a Roma: Rome 1985

ed., with D.A. D’Alessandro: La musica a Napoli durante il Seicento: Naples 1985

‘Il canto delle laudi durante il Trecento: tre città a confronto: Firenze, Fabriano e Gubbio’, La musica nel tempo di Dante: Ravenna 1986, 113–29

‘La ballata in musica dalla frottola al madrigale: campioni per una ricerca’, La letteratura, la rappresentazione, la musica al tempo di Giorgione: Castelfranco Veneto and Asolo 1978, ed. M. Muraro (Rome, 1987), 259–72

ed., with B. Cagli: Il Teatro di San Carlo 1737–1987, ii: L’opera e il ballo (Naples, 1987)

with F. Carboni and T.M. Gialdroni: ‘Cantate ed arie romane del tardo Seicento nel Fondo Caetani della Biblioteca Corsiniana: repertorio, forme e strutture’, Studi musicali, xviii (1989), 49–192

‘La laude musicale del Due-Trecento: nuove fonti scritte e tradizione orale’, Miscellanea di studi in onore di Aurelio Roncaglia (Modena, 1989), 1465–502

ed., with J. Nàdas: The Lucca Codex (Lucca, 1990)

‘Caratteri e significato della tradizione musicale trobadorica’, Lyrique romane médiévale: la tradition des chansonniers: Liège 1989, 85–218

ed.: Musica senza aggettivi: studi in onore di Fedele D’Amico (Florence, 1991)

‘On the Poetic and Musical Form of Six Ballades of the Manuscript Turin, Biblioteca Nazionale, J.II.9’, The Cypriot-French Repertory of the Manuscript Torino J.II.9: Paphos 1992, 377–94

‘Again on the Music of the Poem “La Nencia da Barberino”’, Lorenzo de’ Medici, New York 1992, ed. B. Toscani (New York, 1993), 203–18

ed.: Il Codice T.III.2, Torino, Biblioteca Nazionale Universitaria (Lucca, 1994)

with T.M. Gialdroni: ‘La “Festa teatrale” nella tradizione musicale napoletana, 1734–1797’, Il Settecento, ed. G. Pugliese Carratelli (Naples, 1994), 419–68

‘Minima palestriniana: Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina e la ballata’, Note su note, ii (1994), 221–72

with G. Gialdroni: ‘Due nuovi frammenti di musica profana del primo Quattrocento nell’Archivio di Stato di Frosinone’, Studi musicali, xxiv (1995), 185–208

with F. Carboni: ‘Un elenco di composizioni musicali intorno alla metà del Quattrocento’, Musica Franca: Essays in Honor of Frank A. D’Accone, ed. I. Alm, A. McLamore and C. Reardon (Stuyvesant, NY, 1996), 425–87

with F. Zimei: ‘Nuovi frammenti di un dispenso lauderio fiorentino’, Col dolce suon che de te piore: studi su Francesco Laudini e la musica del suo tempo (Florence, 1999), 485–505

TERESA M. GIALDRONI

Ziino, Ottavio

(b Palermo, 11 Nov 1909; d Rome, 1 Feb 1995). Italian composer, conductor and teacher. He was director of the conservatories of Palermo, Naples and Rome, and a member of the Accademia di S Cecilia. He was also director of two important musical institutions from the time of their foundation: the Teatro Lirico Sperimentale in Spoleto and the Orchestra Sinfonica Siciliana, with which he produced interesting series of concerts, of which the Giornate di Musica Contemporanea deserve special mention. In writing his Ricordi di un musicista (Palermo, 1994) at the end of his busy career, Ziino declared that compared with other aspects of his multiple artistic personality, he considered composition to be his main musical activity. A pupil of Antonio Savasta, an exceptional teacher who instilled in him a love of counterpoint, Ziino completed his studies under Pizzetti (composition) and Bernardino Molinari (conducting). He was an active, highly competent conductor, with a repertory which ranged from orchestral music of every period and style to opera; this repertory allowed him to assimilate contemporary idioms, which he did with discernment, never merely copying famous models. A prolific composer, his melodic style – while based on Sicilian folksong – avoids the explicit quotation of folk material; his pieces show a contrast between lively, rhythmic movements and spare-textured calm adagios. Among his most important works are the Hymni cristiani in diem and the series of solo concertos, which develop single-movement form and allow the thematic material to be circulated internally while avoiding the schematic nature of many cyclical forms.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Poema eroico, 1931; Sinfonia in un tempo, 1933; Adagio e fuga, str, pf, org, 1935; Sinfonia in tre tempi, 1939; Sinfonia all'italiana, 1942; Rapsodia, 1945; Sinfonia in quattro tempi, 1946; Sym. no.2 ‘Melbourne’, 1955; Piccola sinfonia concertante, 1958; Ouverture giocosa, 1960; Tema, 7 variazioni e fuga, 1966; Evocazioni, fl, orch, 1970; Preludio, adagio e finale, 1971; 3 pezzi sacri, 1974; Pf Conc., 1976; 2 studi, 1976; Adagio, str, 1978; Vn Conc., 1981; Ob Conc., 1983; Vc Conc., 1985; Str Conc., 1987; Va Conc., Palermo, 3 May 1987; Conc., org, str, perc, Lecce, 19 Sept 1992

Vocal: Hymni cristiani in diem (cant.), S, Bar, chorus, orch, 1957; 3 liriche su poesie di Quasimodo, S, orch, 1973

Chbr and solo inst: Sarabanda e allegro, vn, pf, 1930; Pf Qnt, 1931; Sonata no.1, vn, pf, 1931; Str Qt, 1931; Sonata, vc, pf, 1946; Sonata no.2, vn, pf, 1950; Str Qt, 1958; Preludio evocativo, pf, 1960; Trio, vn, vc, pf, 1960; Adagio e allegro, 2 fl, pf, 1987; Tema e variazioni, pf, 1988; Arioso e burlesca, vn, pf, Gorizia, Sept 1990

ROBERTO PAGANO

Zikr.

See Dhikr.

Zilberstein, Lilya

(b Moscow, 19 April 1965). Russian pianist. She studied with Ada Traub at the Gnesin Special Music School from 1971 to 1983, and then with Alexander Satz at the Gnesin Institute from 1983 to 1990. Her first prize in the Busoni Competition in 1987 led to a German début in 1988 in Munich and to an exclusive recording contract with Deutsche Grammophon. She has subsequently given concerts throughout Europe as well as in New York and Tokyo, and has performed Rachmaninoff’s second and third concertos with the Berlin PO under Claudio Abbado. Her many recordings, which include works by Brahms, Debussy and Ravel as well as the Russian Romantic repertory, show great technical command and musicality.

DAVID FANNING

Zilcher, Hermann (Karl Josef)

(b Frankfurt, 18 Aug 1881; d Würzburg, 1 Jan 1948). German composer, pianist and conductor. Born into a family of musicians, he studied at the Hoch Conservatory in his home town and then embarked on a career as a pianist. In 1908 he joined the staff of the Munich Academy of Music, and from 1920 to 1944 he was principal of the Würzburg Conservatory, where he also conducted and played a large part in the Mozart festivals founded in 1922. As a composer he represented a current of south German traditionalism that was heavily dependent on Schumann and Brahms and sometimes inclined to a popular style. Zilcher employed Impressionist harmonies on occasion, and he also drew on Baroque music and on folksong. His large output (about 100 works were published) is not always strikingly individual, but his music gives an impression of vivid inventiveness, with convincing contrapuntal thematic development.

WORKS

(selective list)

Ops: Fitzebutze (R. Dehmel), perf. 1903; Dr Eisenbart (O. Falckenberg), perf. 1922

Orch: 5 syms., opp.1, 17, 27, 84, 112; 5 suites, opp.4, 54b, 71, 73a, 76; 3 vn concs., opp.9, 11, 92; 2 pf concs., opp.20, 102; Accdn Conc., op.114

Chbr: Sonata, op.16, vn, pf; Sym., op.30, 2 pf; Pf Qnt, op.42; 2 pf trios, opp.56, 90; Str Qt, op.104

Many songs incl. Dehmel-Zyklus, op.25, Deutsches Volkslied-Spiel, op.32

Orats, choruses incl. Reinhart, op.2, Liebesmesse, op.27

Principal publisher: Breitkopf & Härtel

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Oppenheim: Hermann Zilcher (Munich, 1921)

H.J. Moser: Das deutsche Lied seit Mozart (Berlin, 1937, 2/1968)

T. Hlouschek: Hermann Zilcher (Jena, 1952) [incl. list of works]

KLAUS KIRCHBERG

Zildjian.

Turkish and American family of cymbal makers comprising the Avedis Zildjian Co. of Norwell, Massachusetts, and K. Zildjian of Istanbul. The family traces its lineage back to Avedis Zildjian, a Constantinople alchemist who in 1623 discovered a process for treating alloys. He applied this process to the making of cymbals, an already flourishing craft in Turkey. The details of his secret were closely guarded and have been passed down through the family. For three centuries, with the exception of the short period of political exile of Aram Zildjian, Zildjian cymbals have continued to be manufactured in Turkey (see fig.1; see also Cymbals, fig.1 ).

In 1928 Aram, rehabilitated in Constantinople, contemplated retirement, and (being childless) passed the family secret to his nephew Avedis (b Dec 1889; d 8 Feb 1979) who lived in the USA. In 1929 Avedis established a foundry in North Quincy, later moving to Norwell. Soon after World War II, Avedis initiated his sons Armand (b 18 Feb 1921) and Robert into the craft; they continued the tradition in the Norwell factory until December 1981, when Armand became the Norwell company’s president (retaining the trade names A. Zildjian and K. Zildjian). The firm passed to Armand’s daughter Craigie in 1996. Robert established a new company, Sabian Ltd, in Meductic, New Brunswick, Canada, for the manufacture of Sabian cymbals. Zildjian and Sabian Ltd are now great competitors in the lucrative cymbal industry.

The brilliant and unique ‘Zildjian sound’ continues to be heard in the world’s greatest orchestras and dance bands and wherever cymbals are used. The metallurgical formula of Zildjian cymbals is known to be 80% copper and about 20% tin with the addition of a small amount of silver. The methods of casting, rolling, tempering and hammering are also no secret. What is not known, however, is the ingenious method of treating alloys in the cymbal casting process that was discovered in 1623. Zildjian now make cymbals of all types, two octaves of crotales, hand hammered gongs and a wide range of mallets.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BladesPI

T.R. Navin: ‘The World’s Leading Cymbal Maker: Avedis Zildjian Company’, Bulletin of the Business Historical Society, xxiii (1949), 196–206

JAMES BLADES/JAMES HOLLAND

Ziliani, Alessandro

(b Bussetto, 3 June 1906; d Milan, 18 Feb 1977). Italian tenor. He studied with Alfredo Cechi in Milan and in 1928 made his début there at the Dal Verme in Madama Butterfly. At Rome he sang in the première of Wolf-Ferrari’s La vedova scaltra (1931) and Mascagni’s Pinotta (1932). In that year he also made his début at La Scala, where he continued to appear until 1946. His roles there included Dmitry in Boris Godunov, Enzo in La Gioconda and Des Grieux in Manon Lescaut, in which he was widely considered to be the best of his generation. He made guest appearances at San Francisco in 1938 and travelled extensively in Europe. When Busoni’s Turandot had its Italian première in 1940 he sang the role of Calaf. He also appeared with Maria Callas in the revival of Rossini’s Armida at the Florence Festival of 1952. In later years he turned to operetta, films and concert work; he then established himself as an agent, promoting, among others, the career of Luciano Pavarotti. His recordings include the part of Alfredo in the first electrical recording of La traviata and display a resonant lyric voice and pleasing style.

J.B. STEANE

Zillig, Winfried (Petrus Ignatius)

(b Würzburg, 1 April 1905; d Hamburg, 18 Dec 1963). German composer and conductor. He studied with Schoenberg from 1925 to 1928, first privately in Vienna, then as a student at the Preussische Akademie der Künste in Berlin. He was an assistant of Kleiber’s at the Berlin Staatsoper (1927–8). He worked as a solo coach and conductor at the Staatstheater in Oldenburg (1928–32). There he helped mount one of the first performances of Berg’s Wozzeck outside a major opera house. Zillig held the post of conductor in Düsseldorf from 1932 to 1937 and in Essen from 1937 to 1940. He was then the principal musical director of the Reichsgautheater in occupied Poznań (1940–43). From 1947 to 1951 Zillig conducted at the Hessische Radio in Frankfurt, and from 1959 until his death he led the music division of NDR. As conductor and lecturer, he energetically promoted the music of Mahler, Schreker, Reger and Schoenberg, and was responsible for the first European performances of many works. Some of his radio programmes served as the basis for his survey of 20th-century music Variationen über neue Musik.

Together with Webern, Berg and Eisler, Zillig was one of Schoenberg’s first students to employ 12-note techniques. He came to view 12-note harmony as a more general form of traditional tonality. His musical style has often been characterized as a synthesis of Schoenbergian and Stravinskian styles. Inspired by Schoenberg’s Suite op.29, Zillig often divided his note row into diatonic units, such as four triads. He also favoured chords frequently associated with contemporary French music, such as tertian harmonies, major-minor triads, and the Petrushka chord. His 12-note music often suggested tonal centres. Rhythms in his compositions tended to be more pointed, less fluid than Schoenberg’s. Zillig’s dodecaphonic/neo-classical amalgam remained remarkably consistent over his lifetime.

Zillig exaggeratedly claimed, after 1945, that his music was banned by the National Socialist cultural authorities. However, many of his post-1933 compositions had their premières in Nazi Germany. With the success of his film score for Der Schimmelreiter (1933), Zillig received many commissions for film music and other incidental music, including for the Reichsfestspiele at Heidelberg. In 1936 his Romantische Sinfonie in C was commissioned and performed by the Reichssinfonieorchester of the Nationalsozialistische Kulturgemeinde. An opera, Das Opfer (1937), a heroic tale of self-sacrifice set at the South Pole, fared less well, principally because of its quirky libretto and demanding chorus parts. The folkloric Die Windsbraut (1941) enjoyed a successful première in Leipzig. At the war’s end Zillig was at work on an opera based on Troilus and Cressida, which he hoped would be ‘worthy of the heroism’ of his times. He also composed about 150 songs during this period. In his last years he completed Schoenberg’s oratorio Die Jakobsleiter, on the basis of Schoenberg’s sketches, and prepared the vocal score of the same composer’s opera Moses und Aron. As a composer his reputation increased with the publication of most of his compositions in the late 1950s. By then, the difficulties of his works were easily comprehended and his music was valued for its Romantic sound, rhythmic verve and orchestral imagination.

WORKS

dramatic

Rosse (op, R. Billinger), 1932; Gaukelei, ballet, 1935; Das Opfer (op, R. Goering), 1937; Die Windsbraut (op, Billinger), 1940; Troilus und Cressida (op, Zillig, after W. Shakespeare), 1949, rev. 1963; Musik zu einem abstrakten Film, 15 insts, 1954; Bauernpassion (TV op, Billinger), 1955; Die Verlobung in St Domingo (radio op, after H. von Kleist), 1956; Das Verlöbnis (op, Billinger), 1962

Many film scores (incl. Panamericana, 1958–62) and other incid music for stage and radio from 1933

instrumental

Orch: Choralkonzert, 1924; Ov., 1928; Vorspiel zu Strindbergs Traumspiel, chbr orch, 1929; Konzert für Orchester in einem Satz, 1930; Conc., vc, wind orch, 1932–52; Schwarze-Jäger-Suite, winds, hp, 1934; Romantische Sinfonie in C, 1936; Tanzsymphonie, 1938; Lustspielsuite, chbr orch, 1939 [arr. of chbr work]; Fantasia irica, hp, str, 1953; Vn Conc., 1955; Fantasia, Passacaglia and Fugue on the Meistersinger Chorale, 1963

Chbr: Scherzo, vc, pf, 1925; Str Qt no.1, 1927; Serenade no.1, 8 brass, 1927–8; Serenade no.2, 9 insts, 1929; Serenade no.3, pf, 1931; Lustspielsuite, wind qnt, 1938; Tema con variazioni, str qt, 1941; Str Qt no.2, 1944; Serenade no.4, 15 insts, 1952; Sonata, vc, 1958

vocal

Der Einsiedler (J. Eichendorff), chorus, orch, 1923–4; Komm in den totgesagten park und schau (S. George), S/T, chbr orch; 5 Lieder (G. Trakl), A, chbr orch, 1924–5, rev. 1954; Chorfantasie über ein Fragment von Hölderlin, 1931; 3 kleine Lieder (George, C. Baudelaire), high v, pf, 1932; 5 Lieder (George: Das Jahr der Seele), S, pf, 1936; 10 Lieder (J.W. von Goethe), S/T, pf, 1941; 6 Lieder (Goethe), S, orch, c1941; Vergessene Weisen (P. Verlaine, George), S, pf/orch, 1940, arr. orch, 1954; Lieder des Herbstes (R.M. Rilke), low v, pf, 1940; Chorsinfonie ‘Troilus und Cressida’, 1949 [from op]; Nachtwache (Billinger), Bar, pf; Nun die Schatten dunkeln (E. Geibel), high v, pf, 1942; Italienisches Liederbuch (Zillig), high v, pf, 1942; 4 Sonette (Goethe), S/T, pf, 1943; 12 Liebeslieder (Goethe), high v, pf, 1944; 8 Lieder (G. D'Annunzio, Zillig), low v, pf, 1944, arr. orch, 1962; 7 Sonette (Eichendorff), high v, pf, 1945, arr. orch, 1951; 6 Lieder (Goethe), high v, orch, 1951; 6 Lieder (Rilke), A, pf; Lieder des Abschieds (Rilke), low v, pf, 1951; 4 Chöre (B. Brecht), 1957–8; Salve regina, chorus, 1963; Du kannst nicht treu sein, orat

Principal publisher: Bärenreiter

WRITINGS

‘Aufsatz über die Zwölftonmethode’, in J. Rufer: Die Komposition mit zwölf Tönen (Berlin, 1952), 197

‘Schönbergs “Moses und Aron”’, Melos, xxiv (1957), 69–71

Variationen über neue Musik (Munich, 1959, 2/1963 as Die neue Musik: Linien und Porträts)

‘Arnold Schönbergs “Jakobsleiter”’, ÖMz, xvi (1961), 193–204

Von Wagner bis Strauss (Munich, 1966)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

U. Dibelius: ‘Winfried Zillig’, Musica, xii (1958), 651–5

S. Günther: ‘Winfried Zillig: Komponist und Dirigent neuer Musik’,NZM, Jg.122 (1961), 446–7

T.W. Adorno: ‘Zilligs Verlaine-Lieder’, Moments musicaux: neu gedruckte Aufsätze 1928 bis 1962 (Frankfurt,1964), 141–52

T.W. Adorno: ‘Winfried Zillig: Möglichkeit und Wirklichkeit’, Impromptus: Zweite Folge neu gedruckter musikalischer Aufsätze (Frankfurt, 1968), 157–65

H. Federhofer: ‘Winfried Zillig Einführung in die Zwölftonmusik’, Musik und Bildung, vi (1974), 561–6

W. Konold: ‘Hindemith, Hartmann und Zillig heute’, Hindemith-Jb, viii (1979), 119–37

H.G. Klein: ‘Atonalität in den Opern von Paul von Klenau und Winfried Zillig – zur Duldung einer im Nationalsozialismus verfemten Kompositionstechnik’, GfMKB: Bayreuth 1981, 490–94

E. Levi: ‘Atonality, 12-Tone Music and the Third Reich’, Tempo, no.178 (1991), 19–26

S. Hilger: Autonom oder ungewandt? Zu den Hörspielmusiken von Winfried Zillig und Bernd Alois Zimmermann (Mainz, 1996)

GREGORY S. DUBINSKY

Ziloti [Siloti], Aleksandr Il'yich

(b nr Kharkiv, 27 Sept/9 Oct 1863; d New York, 8 Dec 1945). Ukrainian pianist and conductor. He studied the piano at the Moscow Conservatory with Zverev from 1871 and with Nikolay Rubinstein, Taneyev, Tchaikovsky and Hubert from 1875, graduating with a gold medal in 1881. He worked with Liszt in Weimar (1883–6), co-founded the Liszt-Verein in Leipzig, and made his professional début there in 1883. Returning in 1887, he taught at the Moscow Conservatory, where his students included Goldenweiser, Maksimov and his cousin Rachmaninoff. In this period he began work as editor for Tchaikovsky, particularly on the first and second piano concertos. He left the conservatory in May 1891 and from 1892 to 1900 lived and toured in western Europe. He also toured New York, Boston, Cincinnati and Chicago in 1898. From 1901 to 1903 Ziloti directed the Moscow PO; from 1903 to 1917 he organized, financed and conducted the influential Ziloti Concerts in St Petersburg, where he presented Auer, Casals, Chaliapin, Enescu, Hofmann, Landowska, Mengelberg, Mottl, Nikisch, Schoenberg and Weingartner, and local and world premières of works by Debussy, Elgar, Glazunov, Prokofiev, Rachmaninoff, Rimsky-Korsakov, Skryabin, Sibelius, Stravinsky and others. Diaghilev first heard Stravinsky at a Ziloti Concert. In 1918 Ziloti was appointed intendant of the Mariinskiy Theatre, but late the following year fled Soviet Russia for England and finally settled in New York in 1921. From 1925 to 1942 he taught at the Juilliard School of Music, where he became a venerated figure and occasionally gave recitals of Liszt’s music. His private students included Marc Blitzstein and Eugene Istomin. He wrote over 200 piano arrangements and transcriptions and made orchestral editions of Bach, Beethoven, Liszt, Tchaikovsky and Vivaldi. Ziloti also made eight piano rolls and published reminiscences of Liszt, Moi vospominaniya o F. Liste (St Petersburg, 1911; Eng. trans., 1913/R).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Bertensson: ‘Knight of Music’, Etude, lxiv (1946), 369

L.M. Kutateladze and L.N. Raaben, eds.: Aleksandr Il'yich Ziloti, 1863–1945: vospominaniya i pis'yma (Leningrad, 1963)

B. Dexter: ‘Remembering Siloti, a Russian Star’, American Music Teacher, xxxviii/4 (1989), 18–21

C. Barber: Lost in the Stars: the Forgotten Career of Alexander Siloti (Berkeley, forthcoming)

CHARLES BARBER

Zimbabwe

, Republic of.

Country in southern Africa. It has an area of 390,759 km². The most vibrant forms of contemporary Zimbabwean music draw on indigenous traditions of the Shona, Ndebele and various minority linguistic groups; syncretic genres that emerged during the colonial period; music of Christian churches; and a variety of urban popular styles. European classical music has a relatively small presence, mainly among the white élite and the post-independence black élite. Chishona (Shona) is the mother tongue for approximately 71% and Sindebele (Ndebele) for 16% of a population of 12·39 million (2000 estimate). Many people also speak English, the former colonial language and now an official language. Europeans and Asians, the two largest foreign groups, comprise no more than 2% of the population. The majority of Zimbabweans live as agriculturalists/herders and farm labourers in rural areas, and 20% of the population live in Harare and Bulawayo, Zimbabwe’s two largest cities. For the black working class, there is much movement between urban townships and rural homesteads; both indigenous music styles and urban popular traditions are performed in the townships and countryside. There is a major collection of audio and video recordings of indigenous and urban popular music and dance in the National Archives of Zimbabwe in Harare.

2. Indigenous traditions.

3. Modern developments.

THOMAS TURINO

1. Historical background.

Before the 19th century the region of Zimbabwe was inhabited by a number of local chieftaincies and kingdoms. Linguistic groups, including Zezuru, Korekore, Karanga, Ndau and Manyika, became known collectively as ‘the Shona’ during the colonial period. The Ndebele fled Zululand in South Africa in the early 19th century, taking over what is now south-western Zimbabwe near Bulawayo.

A variety of mission groups accompanied colonial occupation (1890–1980). Christianity has been widely accepted and adapted in myriad ways to indigenous religious beliefs. Shona religion, which remains central for many people, maintains relationships with family and lineage ancestors through spirit possession within special ceremonies. These ceremonies remain primary sites for indigenous musical performance along with guva (grave) ceremonies held a year after death, and at weddings, funerals, agricultural tasks such as grinding and threshing, and also at informal beer parties and jit dancing in rural areas and beerhall performances in the cities. Municipal governments and social organizations have held festivals for indigenous performers since the 1960s. Professional dance troupes also perform indigenous dance at tourist locations.

2. Indigenous traditions.

Hosho (gourd rattles) and a variety of ngoma (drums) are the most common indigenous instruments among the Shona and Ndebele. Short single-headed drums played with sticks as well as taller, 1.2 metre high single-headed drums played in pairs with hands are used for a variety of dance genres; the heads are attached with pegs and tuned with the application of heat to the drumhead. The Shona are well known for their performance of several regional types of Lamellophones, including the Zezuru mbira from the Harare area, the hera and matepe of Korekoreland in the north, the njari (fig.1), originally associated with south-central Zimbabwe, and the karimba. Each of these instruments has its own distinctive key arrangement, number of keys and tunings. Whereas the hera and matepe have remained largely localized in the north, the njari was widely diffused in the first half of the 20th century, later replaced by the 22 key Zezuru mbira as the most popular Shona lamellophone after the 1960s. The term mbira is sometimes used generically to refer to lamellophones; in such contexts the Zezuru mbira is distinguished by a variety of names such as mbira huro and mbira dza vadzimu.

Ngororombe panpipes are performed in large ensembles with drums, hosho and leg rattles in north-eastern Zimbabwe, usually in pairs with two and three tubes played in interlocking fashion. Several chipendani (fig.2) and mukube (mouth bows) are performed for informal entertainment. Less commonly, animal-horn trumpets are used as drones. Popularized by Kwanongoma Music College in Bulawayo since the 1960s, the marimba is now played throughout Zimbabwe. Most Zimbabwean genres involve solo or group singing.

Shona music is organized in cycles. Mbira and matepe pieces are based on cycles of four phrases of 12 fast pulses each (12/8); particularly common in ngororombe, karimba and a good deal of dance-drumming and choral vocal music are cycles comprising two 12/8 phrases. Dance-drumming genres may also have cycles of 16 (8/8) and 18 (9/8) pulses. The music is usually heptatonic with descending melodies. Responsorial singing and the interlocking or hocketing of many rhythmic and melodic parts at different structural levels are standard practice. Dense overlapping textures are favoured. Like much African music, instrumental and vocal parts may be categorized according to their ground and elaboration functions. Hosho, supporting drums, and the basic kushaura mbira part supply the foundational structures for elaboration by singers, lead drummers, accompanying mbira players and dancers. In choral music one group of singers may maintain the basic ostinato, which might be either a single melody or the resultant of call-and-response parts, while others provide overlapping, interlocking variations. Distinctive Shona vocal techniques include yodelling and a good deal of improvised singing on vocables; Ndebele singing often resembles slower Zulu choral styles with an emphasis on the outer voices.

There is a plethora of regional dance-drumming, instrumental and vocal genres. In Mashonaland these are often categorized by their relationship to spirit possession. The mbira and matepe genres are closely associated with spirit possession ceremonies that take place indoors, although this music is also frequently performed for secular occasions. Karimba are typically used in secular contexts, and njari have both ritual and non-ritual uses. Ngororombe is not associated with spirit possession but rather with recreational outdoor activities at weddings, beer drinks and guvas; guva ceremonies may involve spirit possession inside and other activities outside the house.

Among the dance-drumming genres in the north-east, dhinhe and dandanda are almost completely restricted to spirit possession ceremonies inside the house. Performed with call-and-response singing, hosho and two short drums, dandanda songs are typically two-phrase ostinato in 12/8 patterns. Like mbira dance music, dandanda is performed collectively. Dancers enter individually at will and move in their own personal styles. In the same region, the jerusarema dance is strictly associated with outdoor recreational activities. Performed with two tall ngoma (drums), hosho, woodblocks and vocals, jerusarema is a playful dance comprising active and resting sections of two 4/4 sections each. In the active sections, the male dancers clap interlocked patterns with woodblocks as a base for the drummer’s varied repertory of formulaic patterns; in the resting sections the male dancers are silent and the drummer plays a simple holding pattern. The men sing vocables and yodel throughout both sections. The main dancing by individuals, couples or groups of women during the active section involves a series of standardized moves, playful choreography and mime. Recreational dance-drumming genres, such as shangara from central Zimbabwe and mbukumba from further south, emphasize intricate rhythmic footwork. Muchongoyo, associated with the Ndau people of south-eastern Zimbabwe, is a militaristic dance style modelled on certain Nguni dances of South Africa and requires great choreographic precision. Isitchikitcha was originally a dance associated with spirit possession among the Ndebele, but more recently it is sometimes performed as a recreational dance.

3. Modern developments.

(i) Colonial syncretic styles.

Mission and government school singing generated several derivative styles. Adult choirs in urban townships maintained the same style comprising hymns, North American spirituals, choir music by black middle-class South African composers, and secular songs from England and the United States (e.g. Shortin’ Bread) sung with tonal harmonies in precise homophonic arrangements and enunciation of the texts. In contrast, makwaya emerged in rural areas and among the urban working class. Makwaya, like the term itself, which is an Africanization of ‘choir’, involved adaptation of school performance practices according to indigenous aesthetics. Makwaya singing variably combines triadic harmonies and homophonic singing with call-and-response, overlapping textures, freer variations, harmonies in 4ths and 5ths and indigenous vocal techniques such as yodelling.

Beginning in the 1920s European zithers, harmonicas, accordions and banjos were brought to Zimbabwe from South Africa by returning migrant workers. From the 1940s through the 1960s itinerant acoustic guitarists performed styles ranging from North American country and blues (Jimmie Rodgers was an important model) to a wide variety of local indigenous songs. Both recreational and religious dance-drumming songs were adapted to a two-finger picking style (thumb and index finger), with chords played in standard tunings to accompany the guitarists’ singing. Mbira pieces were performed with a slide, or bottle-neck, technique on guitars with open tunings. Innovative performers, including Jeremiah Kainga, Josaya Hadebe, George Sibanda, Ngwaru Mapundu and Pamidze Benhura, performed for tips in beerhalls, on streets and at township parties. These performers were sometimes hired to entertain farm workers and miners and were recorded for radio broadcast. In the 1950s and 60s acoustic guitarists superimposed fast 12/8 Shona rhythms onto South African chord progressions (e.g. I–IV–I–V) and tsaba, marabi and jive rhythms in moderate 4/4 time to create the jit, or jiti, dance genre. Jit was then diffused to rural villages where it is still performed with drums, hosho and group singing. In the 1970s and 80s jit was readapted to guitars by urban electric bands, and it remains one of the most prominent urban popular genres in Zimbabwe.

After World War II various mission groups began to foster an Africanization of church music in contrast to previous policies that discouraged indigenous music-making. Several missionaries who became prominent ethnomusicologists, including A.M. Jones, Robert Kauffman and John Kaemmer, were involved in this effort. Olof Axelsson characterized the resulting acculturated church music as incorporating responsorial singing, descending melodies, adherence to language tones, polyrhythmic structures and the use of parallel 4ths and 5ths as African, with adherence to diatonic scales and tonal harmony with the addition of 3rds as European. In contemporary Zimbabwe, African church performance runs the gamut from standard cosmopolitan repertory and style to the use of music and dance strongly based in indigenous styles, aesthetics and practices.

(ii) Urban popular music.

By the mid-1930s a form of urban popular concert music grew out of the school singing tradition in the townships of Harare and Bulawayo. As concert music emerged, the number of performers was reduced from the school choirs, and instrumental accompaniment in the form of a combination of guitar, piano, bass, traps and woodwinds was added, but the focal point was usually a vocal quartet, quintet or sextet. From the late 1940s through the 1960s these groups were closely modelled on the Mills Brothers and the Ink Spots and also similar South African groups such as the Manhattan Brothers. Their concerts involved cosmopolitan popular music, carefully choreographed dance, and skits for well-dressed, middle-class African audiences in township recreation halls. Kenneth Mattaka’s Bantu Actors was the prototype, and sometimes training ground, for many of the most prominent groups, such as De Black Evening Follies, the Epworth Theatrical Strutters, the City Quads, the Golden Rhythm Crooners and the Cool Four. Dorothy Masuka, Zimbabwe’s first international singing star, was born in Bulawayo. Performing in a style reminiscent of Miriam Makeba, she worked in South Africa with Makeba and the Manhattan Brothers and in Zimbabwe with the Golden Rhythm Crooners in the late 1950s and early 1960s. She lived and performed outside the country from the mid-1960s to 1980.

The origin of many instrumental jazz and dance bands in Zimbabwe may be traced to the Police Band, which supplied instruments and training for members who moonlighted. August Musarurwa, Zimbabwe’s most revered jazz saxophone player and composer, left the Police Band in 1947 and formed the Cold Storage Band, later renamed the Bulawayo Sweet Rhythm Band. He recorded his international hit, Skokiaan (referring to illicit alcohol), with this group for Gallo of South Africa (GB11 52.T); sheet music with words by Tom Glazer was published by Gallo in 1952. The text refers to ‘happy, happy Africa’, and this may be the source for the title of Louis Armstrong’s version of the song. Musarurwa’s music was known as tsaba-tsaba, a southern African derivation of swing in duple metre on simple harmonic vamps (e.g. I–IV–I–V, I–V). Musarurwa and other Zimbabwean jazz bands emphasized the basic melody more and improvisation less than their North American counterparts. Jazz dance bands, including the Harare Hot Shots and the City Slickers, performed for both black and white ballroom dancing, a particularly popular activity among the colonial black middle class.

The acoustic guitar, concert and jazz traditions declined in popularity with the advent of rock-and-roll around 1960. A host of young combos comprising two electric guitars, bass, traps, vocals and occasionally saxophones emerged during the 1960s and 70s. At first their repertories included covers of North American rock and rhythm and blues artists; rumba and cha cha cha diffused to Zimbabwe by Zaïrean bands after the late 1950s, and, in the late 1960s, South African mbaganga, an electrified, bass-heavy style of urban jive in duple metre. The liberalization of liquor laws and the opening of African night clubs after 1957 inspired the formation of new bands with professional aspirations. Between 1966 and 1974 groups such as the Harare Mambos, the Springfields with Thomas Mapfuno, Saint Paul’s Band, the Zebrons and the Beatsters experimented with adapting indigenous Shona songs to rock rhythms and styles as part of their bid to appeal to new audiences.

A gradual shift from rock-based to indigenous aesthetics and style occurred as this trend progressed. In 1968, M.D. Rhythm Success included indigenous drums and drumming in their guitar-band rendition of a jit song in 12/8, and in 1973 they recorded, in indigenous style, a song based on the classical mbira piece Kuzanga (Gallo GB.3739 and GB.3815). In 1974, Lipopo Jazz, originally a Harare-based Zaïrean rumba band, recorded a song based on the mbira piece Taireva (GB.3868), as did Thomas Mapfumo with Joshua Hlomayi and the Hallelujah Chicken Run Band, Ngoma Yarira, based on Karigamombe (Teal AS 105). For this genre the four-phrase mbira cycle is performed with a damped technique by the guitar, bass and sometimes keyboards and with the drummer playing the triplets of the hosho part on the highhat. In conjunction with the Liberation War of the 1970s, urban audiences were increasingly receptive to arrangements of indigenous music. A number of electric bands, including Thomas Mapfumo and the Blacks Unlimited, Oliver M’tukudzi, Jonah Sithole and Storm, Jordan Chataika and the Highway Stars, the Green Arrows, among others, were performing indigenous-based music with political lyrics in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Thomas Mapfumo emerged as the foremost national and international exponent of this style in the 1980s and 90s. In the mid-1980s he added mbira players to his band and continued to develop his indigenous style of singing. In response to Mapfumo’s international success, a new generation of bands emerged in the late 1980s that performed jit, mbira music and a variety of other indigenous Shona and Ndebele genres, thus maintaining this unique Zimbabwean style alongside other international popular styles.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

and other resources

H. Tracey: ‘The Mbira Class of African Instruments in Rhodesia (1932)’, African Music, iv/3 (1969), 78–95

R.A. Kauffman: Multi-Part Relationships in the Shona Music of Rhodesia (diss., UCLA, 1970)

A. Tracey: ‘The Matepe Mbira Music of Rhodesia’, African Music, iv/4 (1970), 37–61

A. Tracey: ‘The Original African Mbira?’, African Music, v/2 (1972), 85–104

O.E. Axelsson: ‘Historical Notes on Neo-African Church Music’, Zambezia, iii/1 (1973), 89–100

A. Tracey: ‘The Family of the Mbira: the Evidence of the Tuning Plans’, Zambezia, iii/1 (1973), 1–10

J.E. Kaemmer: The Dynamics of a Changing Music System in Rural Rhodesia (diss., Indiana U., 1975)

P.F. Berliner: The Soul of Mbira: Music and Traditions of the Shona People of Zimbabwe (Berkeley, 1978)

R.A. Kauffman: ‘Tradition and Innovation in the Urban Music of Zimbabwe’, African Urban Studies, vi (1980), 41–8

O.E. Axelsson: ‘The Development of African Church Music in Zimbabwe’, Symposium on Ethnomusicology [I]: Grahamstown 1981, 2–7

A.J.C. Pongweni: Songs that Won the Liberation War (Harare, 1982)

F. Zindi: Roots Rocking in Zimbabwe (Gweru, Zimbabwe, 1985)

B. Chinamhora: ‘African Popular Music’, ‘Classical Music’, and ‘Traditional Music’, Tabex Encyclopedia Zimbabwe, ed. K. Sayce (Harare, 1987), 261–8

J.E. Kaemmer: ‘Social Power and Musical Change among the Shona’, EthM, xxxiii/1 (1989), 31–46

D.A. Maraire: The Position of Music in Shona ‘Mudzimu’ (Ancestral Spirit) Possession (diss., U. of Washington, 1990)

A.M. Impey: They Want Us with Salt and Onions: Women in the Zimbabwean Music Industry (diss., Indiana U., 1992)

C. Jones: Making Music: Musical Instruments in Zimbabwe Past and Present (Harare, 1992)

K.W. Asante: An Aesthetic Analysis of the Jerusarema and Muchongoyo Dances (diss., New York U., 1993)

M.S.B. Lane: ‘The Blood that Made the Body Go’: The Role of Song, Poetry and Drama in Zimbabwe’s War of Liberation, 1966–1980 (diss., Northwestern U., 1993)

E. Brown: ‘The Guitar and the Mbira: Resilience, Assimilation, and Pan-Africanism in Zimbabwean Music’, World of Music, xxxvi/2 (1994), 73–117

recordings

The Soul of Mbira, coll. P.F. Berliner, Nonesuch H-72054 (1973)

Shona Mbira Music, coll. P.F. Berliner, Nonesuch H-72077 (1977)

Corruption, perf. I Mapfumo, Mango MLPS 9848 (1989)

Chamunorwa, perf. T. Mapfumo, Mango 162-539 900-1 (1991)

Music of Zimbabwe: Earth and Spirit, coll. T. Turino, RTP L4 VA 100 (????)

Zimbala

(Sp.).

See under Organ stop (Zimbel).

Zimbalist, Efrem (Alexandrovich)

(b Rostov-na-Donu, 9 April 1890; d Reno, NV, 22 Feb 1985). American violinist, composer and teacher of Russian birth. His father, a professional violinist and conductor of the Rostov Opera, taught him for the first few years. In 1901 Zimbalist joined Auer's class at the St Petersburg Conservatory, and received the Gold Medal and the Rubinstein Prize on his graduation in 1907. That year he made his débuts in Berlin (7 November) and London (9 December). He made a memorable appearance at the Leipzig Gewandhaus on 1 January 1910 under Nikisch, playing the Tchaikovsky Concerto. At his American début in Boston on 27 October 1911 Zimbalist introduced Glazunov’s Concerto. His success made him decide to settle in the USA. He married twice, in 1914 the singer Alma Gluck with whom he frequently appeared in joint recitals as a violinist and also as an expert accompanist, and in 1943 Mary Louise Curtis Bok, founder of the Curtis Institute, Philadelphia.

In 1928 Zimbalist began to teach at the Curtis Institute, and was director from 1941 to 1968. Among his best-known students were Oscar Shumsky and Norman Carol. He retired from the platform with a farewell concert in New York on 14 November 1949, but returned in 1952 to give the première of Menotti's Violin Concerto, dedicated to him. He also played the Beethoven Violin Concerto with the Philadelphia Orchestra as late as 1955. He served on the jury of the Tchaikovsky Competition in Moscow in 1962 and 1966.

Zimbalist was usually considered, with Elman and Heifetz, to represent the Auer school at its best. Yet the three were very dissimilar. Less emotional than Elman's and less perfectionist than Heifetz's, Zimbalist's interpretations derived their strength from a searching penetration into the meaning of the music. His quiet temperament led to unhurried tempos; his performances were noble, fine-grained, never extrovert. In general he avoided virtuoso exhibitionism, yet he could play Paganini with flair and was one of the first to use Emile Sauret's intricate cadenza for the Violin Concerto in D.

Like Flesch, he gave a series of five programmes spanning violin music over four centuries, which led to his publishing Solo Violin Music of the Earliest Period (Bryn Mawr, 1951). Among his compositions are an opera, Landara (1956), a symphonic poem, Portrait of an Artist (1945), concertos, chamber music and effective solo violin music (Carmen Phantasy, Sarasateana, Coq d'Or Phantasy). He was also a skilful transcriber.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CampbellGV

SchwarzGM

M. Davenport: ‘Profile of Efrem Zimbalist’, New Yorker (5 Dec 1931)

J. Bescoby-Chambers: ‘Efrem Zimbalist’, The Archives of Sound (Lingfield, 1966), 46 [partial discography]

J.W. Hartnack: Grosse Geiger unserer Zeit (Munich, 1967, 4/1993)

J. Creighton: Discopaedia of the Violin, 1889–1971 (Toronto, 1974)

‘Efrem Zimbalist Honored by the Curtis Institute of Music’, Journal of the Violin Society of America, iv/1 (1977–8), 57–78

R. Malan: ‘Beyond Virtuosity’, The Strad, c (1989), 315–21

BORIS SCHWARZ/R

Zimbel (i)

(Ger.).

A term found in medieval sources for the Cymbala.

Zimbel (ii)

(Ger.).

See under Organ stop.

Zimbelstern

(Ger.).

See under Organ stop.

Zimerman, Krystian

(b Zabrze, 5 Dec 1956). Polish pianist. He studied with Andrzeij Jasinski, first privately and then at the Katowice Conservatory. He gave his first recital at the age of six and in 1975 became the youngest-ever winner of the International Chopin Competition in Warsaw. Feeling the need to expand his horizons, Zimerman worked intensively with Rubinstein, one of his greatest musical heroes, in 1976. In 1980 he curtailed his flourishing career and took a 14-month sabbatical in London. On his return to the concert platform his playing was marked by even greater freshness and vitality, which he attributes to his refusal to give more than 50 or 60 concerts a year. Among the finest pianists of his generation, he has made numerous recordings, including the Lutosławski Concerto (written for him and first performed by him in 1988), the complete Beethoven and Brahms concertos (the latter with Bernstein), much Chopin and an imaginative coupling of Liszt’s B minor Sonata with several of his later, prophetic works, including La notte. He has also recorded an award-winning disc of the complete Debussy preludes and a disc of the Respighi and Richard Strauss violin sonatas with Kyung-Wha Chung. Fiercely self-critical, Zimerman has long resisted the temptation to record his celebrated readings of Szymanowski’s piano music.

BRYCE MORRISON

Zimmer, Ján

(b Ružomberk, 16 May 1926; d Bratislava, 21 Jan 1993). Slovak composer, pianist and teacher. He studied the organ, the piano with Anna Kafendová (from 1941) and composition with Suchoň at the Bratislava Conservatory before continuing his studies in composition under Farkas at the Budapest Music Academy (1948–9) and in Salzburg (1949). From 1945 to 1948 he contributed to Czechoslovak radio and, for the next four years, taught theory and the piano at the Bratislava Conservatory. Thereafter he devoted his time to composition and, exceptionally, to performance as a concert pianist.

His compositional style had its roots in the work of Suchoň, manifested by his emphasis on concise structure (based mostly on Classical or Romantic forms) and in the use of modally extended tonality, with elements of dodecaphony in works of the 1960s. After an early period of compositional constructivism and sober emotionality (as in the Concerto grosso, 1951), he tended towards large, teleologically closed symphonic pieces, mainly as a consequence of political and cultural pressure. This change involved building upon contrast between meditative sections and exalted, extravagant gradations. While the chamber works of his mature compositional period display intimate expressivity (e.g. Piesne bez slov (‘Songs without Words’), Four Madrigals and Smaragd), his symphonic works from the same period show a predilection towards Baroque polyphony, which he convincingly combines with Romantic potency in instances such as the eighth and eleventh symphonies. The music of his opera–oratorio Oidipus draws upon Renaissance monody, while Herakles combines stimuli from Greek theatre with the poetics of Bertolt Brecht. His pieces and concertos for piano contain a virtuoso and highly idiomatic style of writing.

WORKS

(selective list)

Ops: Oidipus (2, prol and epilogue, Zimmer, after Sophocles), op.48, 1963, unstaged, rev. 1919 for Czechoslovak TV; Herakles (op-pantomime, 4, Zimmer), op.70, 1972–82, unstaged, rev. 1987 for Czechoslovak TV; Odlomený čas [The Broken-Off time] (2, epilogue, Zimmer, after L.N. Tolstoy: Bozheskoye i chelovecheskoye [The Divine and the Human]), op.76, 1977

Syms. [12]: op.21, 1955; op.26, 1958; op.33, 1959; op.37 (J. Kostra), S, T, chorus, orch, 1959; op.44, 1961; ‘Improvisata’, op.51, 1965; op.54, 1966; op.68, 1971; op.72, 1973; ‘Homage à J. Haydn’, op.82, 1979; op.98, 1980; op.107, orch, org, tape, c1985

Other orch: Pf Conc. no.1, op.5, 1949; Conc. grosso, op.7, 2 pf, perc, pf, 2 str orch, 1951; Pf Conc. no.2, op.10, 1952; Vn Conc., op.15, 1953; Concertino, op.19, pf, str, 1955; Conc., op.27, org, str, perc, 1957; Pf Conc. no.3, op.29, 1958; Strečno, sym. poem, op.34, 1959; Pf Conc. no.4, op.36, 1960; Pf Conc. no.5 op.50, left hand, 1964; Conc., op.57, 2 pf, orch, 1967; Piesne bez slov [Songs without Words], op.66, str, 1970; Pf Conc. no.6, op.71, 1972; Oslobodenie [Liberation], sym. poem, op.78, 1975; Chbr Conc., op.102, str, portative org, 1983; Pf Conc. no.7, op.106, 1985

Vocal: Jar v údolí [Spring in the Valley] (R. Dilong), op.3, S, pf, 1947; Povstanie [Uprising] (cant., M. Procházka), op.17, male chorus, orch, 1954; Holubica pokoja [The Dove of Peace] (cant., J. Kostra), op.41, solo vv, chorus, orch, 1960; Pamiatke Jiřího Wolkra [In Memory of Jiří Wolker] (J. Wolker), song cycle, op.43, B, pf, 1961; 4 Madrigals (Eng.), op.52, chorus, 1964; 4 Motets (Latin), op.58, chorus, 1967; Smaragd, song cycle, op.64, S, pf, 1969; Letters to Hebrews (3 madrigals), chorus, 1977

Chbr: Fantasia and Toccata, op.32, org, 1958; Sonata, op.31, va, 1958; Str Qt no.1, op.39, 1960; Conc., D, op.42, org, 1960; Poetická sonáta, op.85, vn, pf, 1976; Variations, op.87, 2 vn, va, 1977; Str Qt no.2, op.100, 1983; Str Qt no.3, op.110, 1987

Pf: 7 sonatas: op.4, 1948, op.45, 1961, op.55, 1966, op.69, 1971, op.90, 1978, op.94, 1980, op.113, 1988; Tatry [The High Tatra], Suite no.1, op.11, 1952, arr. orch; 4 sonatas, 2 pf: op.16, 1954, op.35, 1959, op.53, 1965, op.73, 1973; Tatry, suite no.2, op.25, 1956, arr. orch

Principal publishers: Opus, Slovenský hudobný fond

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Hrušovský: Slovenská hudba v profiloch a rozboroch [Slovak music in profiles and analyses] (Bratislava, 1964), 355–68

J. Hatrík: ‘Jánovi Zimmerovi namiesto blahoželania’ [For Zimmer instead of the congratulation], Hudobný život, viii/10 (1976), 4 only

VLADIMÍR ZVARA

Zimmerman, Franklin B(ershir)

(b Wauneta, KA, 20 June 1923). American musicologist. He attended the University of Southern California, where he took the BA in 1949 and the MA in 1952. He earned the BLitt at Oxford in 1956, then returned to USC to complete the doctorate on Purcell in 1958. His teachers have included Ingolf Dahl, Halsey Stevens, Egon Wellesz and Sir Jack Westrup. He began his teaching career at the State University of New York, Potsdam (1958–9). From 1958 to 1964 he taught at USC. He was professor of music and director of the collegium musicum at Dartmouth College, 1964–8, and following a brief period teaching at the University of Kentucky (1968), he became chairman of the music department at the University of Pennsylvania. He retired in 1993.

Zimmerman is noted for his research on English Baroque music, particularly the music of Restoration England and the works of Purcell and Handel. His numerous Purcell studies culminated in a thematic catalogue (1963) arranged by form and performing medium, and a biography (1967) including much material on genealogy and cultural history. He has also edited works by C.F. Abel (Six Symphonies, opus 1, The Symphony 1720–1840, ser. E, ii, New York, 1983).

WRITINGS

‘Purcell Portraiture’, HMYB, x (1958), 136–49

Purcell’s Musical Heritage: a Study of Musical Styles in Seventeenth-Century England (diss., U. of Southern California, 1958)

‘Italian and English Traits in the Music of Thomas Morley’, AnM, xiv (1959), 29–37

‘A Newly Discovered Anthem by Purcell’, MQ, xlv (1959), 302–11

‘Purcell’s Handwriting’, ‘Purcell’s Autographs’ [with N. Fortune], Henry Purcell, 1659–1695: Essays on his Music, ed. I. Holst (London, 1959), 103–5, 106–21

with C.L. Cudworth: ‘The Trumpet Voluntary’, ML, xli (1960), 342–8

‘Handel’s Purcellian Borrowings in his Later Operas and Oratorios’, Festschrift Otto Erich Deutsch, ed. W. Gerstenberg, J. LaRue and W. Rehm (Kassel, 1963), 20–30

Henry Purcell, 1659–1695: an Analytical Catalogue of his Music (London, 1963/R, 2/forthcoming)

‘Purcell's Family Circle Revisited and Revised’, JAMS, xvi (1963), 373–81; pubd separately, n.p., 1963

‘Musical Borrowings in the English Baroque’, MQ, lii (1966), 483–95

Henry Purcell, 1659–1695: his Life and Times (London, 1967, 2/1983)

‘Sound and Sense in Purcell’s “Single Songs”’, Words to Music (Los Angeles, 1967), 45–90

‘Anthems of Purcell and Contemporaries in a Newly Rediscovered “Gostling Manuscript”’, AcM, xli (1969), 55–70

‘Performance Practice and Rehearsal Techniques’, CMc, no.9 (1969), 101–11

The Anthems of Henry Purcell (New York, 1971)

Introduction to J. Playford: An Introduction to the Skill of Musick (London and New York, 1972)

Henry Purcell, 1659–1695: Melodic and Intervallic Indexes to his Complete Works (Philadelphia, 1975)

‘Louis Grabu in England’, The Works of John Dryden, xv, ed. E. Miner (Berkeley, 1976), 336–61

Foreword to The Gostling Manuscript (Austin, TX, 1977) [facs.]

‘Handels Parodie-Ouverture zu Susanna: eine neue Ansicht über die Entstehungsfrage’, HJb 1978, 19–30

‘Air, a Catchword for New Concepts in Seventeenth-Century English Music Theory’, Studies in Musicology in Honor of Otto E. Albrecht, ed. J.W. Hill (Kassel, 1980), 142–57

‘Purcellian Passages in the Compositions of G.F. Handel’, Music in Eighteenth-Century England: Essays in Memory of Charles Cudworth, ed. C. Hogwood and R. Luckett (Cambridge, 1983), 49–58

Henry Purcell: a Guide to Research (New York, 1989)

Henry Purcell (1659–1695): Analytical Essays on his Music (forthcoming)

PAULA MORGAN

Zimmermann, Agnes (Marie Jacobina)

(b Cologne, 5 July 1847; d London, 14 Nov 1925). English pianist and composer of German birth. Her family moved to England when she was a young child. From 1857 to 1864 she attended the RAM, studying the piano with Cipriani Potter and Ernst Pauer, and composition with Charles Steggall and George Macfarren (who later wrote his third piano sonata for her); she won the King’s Scholarship in 1860 and again in 1862. She made her professional début in 1863 at the Crystal Palace, where she performed two movements of Beethoven’s ‘Emperor’ Concerto. In 1865 she gave the first of a long-running series of recitals and chamber concerts at the Hanover Square Rooms, continued from 1875 at St James’s Hall. Zimmermann was praised for her clarity and control, and was regarded as one of the country’s leading pianists. She performed regularly at the Popular Concerts in London and accompanied Joachim (the dedicatee of her first violin sonata), Neruda and Alfredo Piatti; she also made several tours of Germany.

Zimmermann’s own compositions are rooted in Classical forms; her piano pieces and chamber music were widely played during her lifetime, though her songs and other vocal works were less highly regarded. She also edited the sonatas of Mozart and Beethoven and the piano works of Schumann.

WORKS

selective list; some MSS at GB-Lam

Chbr: Sonata, vn, pf, d, op.16 (1868); sonata, vc, pf, g, op.17 (1872); suite, vn, vc, pf, d, op.19 (1873); sonata, vn, pf, a, op.21 (1876); sonata, vn, pf, g, op.23 (1897); str qt, E; qnt, fl, ob, cl, bn, pf, E; pf trio, A; pf qt, c

Pf solo: Bolero, op.2; Barcarolle, op.8; Mazurka, op.11 (1869); Marche, op.13 (1869); Gavotte, op.14 (c1870); Presto alla tarantella, op.15 (c1869); Gavotte, op.20 (c1873); Suite, op.22 (1878); Bourée, op.24 (1883); Sonata, g; others

Vocal: solo songs; duets; partsongs, 4vv; Benediction Service (1901)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB; Grove1 (G. Grove)

A. De Ternant: ‘Short Sketches of Contemporary Women Composers: Agnes Zimmermann’, The Englishwoman’s Review, xviii (1887), 17–18

Obituaries, MT, lxvi (1925), 1136; The Times (17 Nov 1925)

Lady Arbuthnot: ‘In Memoriam Agnes Zimmermann: Pianist and Composer, 1847–1925’, MT, lxvii (1926), 28–9

S. Fuller: The Pandora Guide to Women Composers: Britain and the United States, 1629–Present (London, 1994), 345–7

SOPHIE FULLER

Zimmermann, (Johann) Anton

(b Breitenau [now Široká Niva], nr Bruntál, bap. 27 Dec 1741; d Pressburg [now Bratislava], c8 Oct 1781). Austrian composer. He probably received his musical education in Silesia; later he was organist at the cathedral in Königgrätz (now Hradec Králové, Czech Republic). From the early 1770s he was active in Pressburg, where his Singspiel Narcisse et Pierre is reported to have been performed in 1772 (as documented by the Pressburger Zeitung); in 1773 he composed works for the St Cecilia festivities there. His works were first listed in the Breitkopf thematic catalogues in 1769 and 1772–84; the earliest manuscript sources date from 1770, and printed sources apparently from 1775. Early in 1776 he was appointed Kapellmeister and court composer to Count Joseph Batthyány, the Archbishop (cardinal from 1778) of Hungary. Zimmermann developed the orchestra into an outstanding ensemble of over 20 musicians (including the double bass virtuoso Johannes Sperger), in which wind instruments seem to have been prominent; he conducted from the first violinist’s chair and remained the head of the orchestra until his death. The orchestra performed publicly twice a week, with secular works dominating its repertory. From 1780 Zimmermann was also the organist at St Martin’s Church.

The widely scattered sources of Zimmermann’s works are the subject of current research, and as yet a fully accurate account cannot be given. He wrote many symphonies, mostly in the early and mid-1770s, at least two of which have been confused with Haydn’s. The Sinfonia pastoritia in G, an early example of a pastoral symphony, is important for its use of Moravian folk music. The double bass concertos are notable for their thematic links between solo and tutti passages. In his string chamber music Zimmermann approached Mozart’s musical language and reached a high level of invention and originality. His divertimentos, cassations, nocturnes and partitas are marked by charm, virtuosity and instrumental effects. After Georg Benda, Zimmmermann was one of the first composers of melodrama who was capable of dramatic characterization in music. His church compositions have fugal sections and are richly scored.

Some works attributed to Zimmermann may be spurious, as he has often been confused with like-named contemporaries (see GerberL, GerberNL and EitnerQ). He is almost certainly not the Lieutenant de Zimerman whose chamber sonatas were published in Paris about 1765.

WORKS

principal sources: A-KR, MÖ, Wgm, CZ-Bm, K, Kra, Pnm, D-RH, SWI, H-Bn, KE, I-Fc, SK-BRm, BRnm, Mms, TN, TR

vocal

Masses: 6 in C; 3 in D; 1 in A; c6, doubtful, also attrib. C.D. von Dittersdorf, J. Haydn, Hofer, I. Holzbauer, K. Loos, Novotny, F.N. Novotny, S. Seiler; 3, spurious, by F.X. Brixi, K. Vogl, M. Haydn

Other sacred: Der sterbende Heiland (orat), doubtful; 6 grads, 1 doubtful, also attrib. T. Gabrielli; 6 offs, 2 doubtful, also attrib. L. Hofmann, G. Huber, Ryba; 2 TeD; 1 ps; 6 motets; 2 Tantum ergo, 1 doubtful, also attrib. Brixi; 3 Veni Sancte Spiritus, 1 doubtful; Pange lingua, doubtful; Vexilla regis; 3 Ave regina; 6 Regina coeli; 6 Salve regina, 1 doubtful, also attrib. Brixi; 7 Litaniae lauretanae, 1 doubtful, also attrib. L. Hofmann; Litaniae lauretanae, spurious, by J.A. Kobrich; 4 arias; 1 chorus

Stage: Narcisse et Pierre (Spl, A. Berger), Pressburg, 1772; Die Wilden (melodrama or incid music, J. Schilson), Pressburg, 13 Dec 1777, lost; Andromeda und Perseus (melodrama, A. Cremery), Vienna, Hofburg, 23 April 1781, arr pf (Vienna, 1781); Zelmor und Ermide (melodrama); Leonardo und Blandine (melodrama, 1), doubtful, arr. pf (Vienna, n.d.)

Other works: Denis Klage auf Tod M. Theresien (cant., Denis), 1v, hpd (Pressburg, c1781); Ziehet ein zu diesen Thoren (cant.), vv, orch

instrumental

Syms.: c9 in C, ed. Z. Fekete (Vienna and Basle, 1950), 1 also attrib. Haydn; 6 in D; 5 in E; 3 in E; 3 in F; 5 in G, incl. Sinfonia pastoritia, 1 ed. in the Symphony 1720–1840, ser. B, xiv (New York, 1985), 1, doubtful, also attrib. G.B. Sammartini; 3 in A; 5 in B; 1, F, spurious, by I. Pleyel

Concs. (only solo insts listed): Grand concert, hpd/pf, op.3 (Vienna, 1782); 1 for hpd; 1 for vn; 3 for db, incl. 1 in D, c1778, ed. R. Malaric (Vienna and Munich, 1978), 1 in D, c1779, 1 in E; 1 for bn; 1 for bn, lost, listed in Breitkopf suppl., 1769; 1 for 2 bn; 1 for hp, 1 for ob, both lost

Chbr: 6 quartetti, str, op.3 (Lyons, c1775); 6 duetti, hpd, ?vn, op.1 (Lyons, ?1776), lost, listed in Breitkopf suppl., 1776–7; 6 sonate, hpd, vn, op.2 (Lyons, 1777), ed. D. Múdra (Vienna and Munich, 1998); 3 sonate, hpd, vn, op.1 (Vienna, 1779); Quartetto, A, 2 vn, vc, hpd (Pressburg, before 1794); 6 sextets, 2 vn, va, 2 hn, bc; 12 qnts, 3 vn, va, vc, ed. J. Mezei (Budapest, 1996); 12 qnts, 2 vn, 2 va, vc; Qnt, A, 2 vn, 2 hn, vc; 12 qnts, fl, 2 vn, va, vc, lost, listed in Traeg catalogue, 1799; Quartetto, 2 vn, va, vc; Quartetto, G, vn, va, vc, hpd; 3 trios, vn, va, vc, 2 ed. D. Múdra (Bratislava, 1996); Duetto, fl, vn, ed. D. Múdra (Bratislava, 1994); 2 duets, hpd, vn; Duetto, hpd, vn; Duetto, vn, bc; Belagerung von Valenciennes, vn, pf (Vienna, n.d.), lost; Sonata, vn, vc, op.4; Sonata, hpd, vn

Other inst: (for ens unless otherwise stated): 5 cassations; 10 divertimentos, 1 lost, listed in Breitkopf suppl., 1782–4; 6 ländler, str, lost, ed. P. Polák in Tance (Bratislava, 1966); 13 minuets; Notturno-quartetto, str; 3 other notturni; 4 partitas; 1 serenata, 2 vn, 2 va, 2 cl, 2 bn, bc; 3 preludes, kbd, 1 doubtful, also attrib. Albrechtsberger; 3 fugues, kbd, 1 doubtful; 7 versets org, 1 in F, doubtful, also attrib. M. Haydn, in F.P. Rigler: Anleitung zum Gesange, und dem Klaviere (Ofen [now Buda], 1798); 12 zingareses, pf, ed. G. Papp in Hungarian Dances 1784–1810 (Budapest, 1986)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ČSHS

DlabacžKL

EitnerQ

GerberL

GerberNL

NewmanSCE

WurzbachL

C.F. Cramer, ed.: Magazin der Musik, i/1 (Hamburg, 1783/R) [incl. C.F. Cramer: ‘Auszüge aus Briefen, Nachrichten, Lodesfälle: Presburg 1781’, 148–208, esp. 190–1; ‘Recensionen, Anzeigen, Anfündigungen, Sinphonien’, 239–317, esp. 276; (n.n.) ‘Andromeda und Perseus’, 480 only, review]

‘Über Kirchenmusik in München’, AMZ, v (1802–3), 561–9, esp. 569

Y. Lacroise: ‘Un mélodrame du XVIIIe siècle’, ReM, v/9–11 (1923–4), 1–12

A. Meier: ‘Die Pressburger Hofkapelle des Fürstprimas von Ungarn, Fürst Joseph von Batthyányi in den Jahren 1776 bis 1784’, Haydn Yearbook 1978, 81–9

P. Polák: ‘Beiträge zur Biographie von Anton Zimmermann, Kapellmeister des Fürsten Joseph Batthyány’, SMw, xxx (1979), 61–89

M.L. Jurjevich: Anton Zimmermann’s Chamber Music for Strings (diss., U. of Illinois, Urbana, 1987)

D. Múdra: Dejiny hudobnej kultúry na Slovensku, ii: Klasicizmus [The history of music culture in Slovakia, Classicism] (Bratislava, 1993), 60–65

D. Múdra: Hudobný klasicizmus na Slovensku v dobových dokumentoch [Classical music in Slovakian documents] (Bratislava, 1996), 58–62

MILAN POŠTOLKA/DARINA MÚDRA

Zimmermann, Bernd Alois

(b Bliesheim, nr Cologne, 20 March 1918; d Grosskönigsdorf [now Pulheim], nr Cologne, 10 Aug 1970). German composer. Remaining independent from the various fashionable schools of the 1950s and 60s, he steadfastly developed and perfected an individual style in which quotations, carefully woven into a colourful atonal fabric, often played an important part. His single opera, Die Soldaten, is widely acknowledged as the most important in German since those of Berg.

Zimmermann studied philosophy, German literature and music education before embarking on professional training in music at the universities of Cologne and Bonn, and at Musikhochschulen in Cologne and Berlin. His studies were temporarily interrupted by military service; he was posted to the Russian front and to occupied France, where he became acquainted with scores of Stravinsky and Milhaud that greatly influenced his subsequent development. In 1942 he resumed his studies, which now included musicology, at the University of Cologne (1943–4) and the Cologne Musikhochschule under Heinrich Lemacher, Paul Mies, Philipp Jarnach and others. His musical pursuits included work with dance orchestras and amateur choruses, as well as compositions and arrangements for broadcast documentaries and radio dramas. After additional study with Wolfgang Fortner and René Leibowitz (1948–50) at the Darmstadt summer courses, he was appointed to a lectureship in musicology at the University of Cologne (1950–52). His earlier experiences with broadcasting bore fruit in his subsequent appointment as director of radio drama, film and stage music at the Cologne Hochschule (from 1957, professor 1962). He was elected president of the German section of the ISCM in 1956. His later years were disrupted by recurrent illness and great personal duress. His numerous awards include two fellowships to the Villa Massimo, Rome (1957, 1963), the grand prize of Nordrhein-Westfalen (1960) and the art prize of the City of Cologne (1966).

Zimmermann applied his knowledge of historical contrasts and connections in composition, drawing in particular on medieval Catholic philosophy, on literature from Aeschylus and Dante to Dostoyevsky and Mayakovsky, Pound and Joyce, and on music from the Renaissance to the 20th century (particularly Bach, Mozart and Debussy). His philosophy of time lay at the foundation of his pluralist theory of composition. He observed that time can be perceived as a unity of past, present and future, as a type of internalized consciousness or awareness. In his essay Intervall und Zeit (Mainz, 1974), he encapsulated his position in the assertion that ‘Music is essentially understood through the arrangement or ordering of progressions of time … as an experience which occurs both in time while also embodying time within itself.’ Quotation, in his view, was no mere ornament but a sign of the real simultaneity of musical occurrences.

Zimmermann's earliest works, such as the Kleine Suite for violin and piano (1942), Sinfonia prosodica for orchestra (1945) and Concerto for Orchestra (1946, rev. 1948), provoked discussion from the time of their first performances. Early critical reviews by Herbert Eimert, Hans Heinz Stuckenschmidt and Heinz Joachim recognized a strong personal identity, a forceful rhythmic and harmonic alchemy, and a juxtaposition of contrasts within firmly grasped formal designs. Zimmermann's adoption of dodecaphony as a thematic resource, technique and system, can be traced in the series of works that followed shortly thereafter. His use of serialism at this stage was personalized and conditioned by his own needs, rather than inspired by any readiness to echo the Second Viennese School. The Trumpet Concerto (1954), for example, is based on both a 12-note row and the black American spiritual Nobody knows de trouble I see. Complete in one movement, the concerto adopts techniques reminiscent of the chorale prelude, with the spiritual theme serving as the chorale, as well as making extensive use of jazz media and techniques. Among his most important scores from the second half of the 1950s is Perspektiven, subtitled ‘Music for an imaginary ballet for two pianos’ (1955–6). Commissioned for the tenth anniversary of the Darmstadt summer courses, it is his first thoroughly serialized work.

Canto di Speranza, a cantata for cello and orchestra (1953–7), emerged from a long creative gestation, initially appearing in 1953 as the first of two designated cello concertos. In its later form, Zimmermann perceived its conceptual origins as related to the Cantos of Ezra Pound, responding to Pound's treatment of speech rhythms and the presence of ideas on multiple levels. The cantata Omnia tempus habent (1957) is rigorous in its serialism and has been described as one of Zimmermann's most extreme works. Though it signified the fulfilment of the serial principle, it was to be subsumed into a pluralist composition, the opera Die Soldaten (1958–60).

By the middle of the 1950s, Zimmermann was seriously contemplating the possibility of opera and music theatre, deliberating as to whether a modern setting of Ben Jonson's Volpone might prove a fruitful point of departure. Eventually abandoning the idea, he was alerted in the summer of 1957 to the possibilities of J.M.R. Lenz's Soldaten, a text explored over 20 years earlier by Manfred Gurlitt. In a letter to Ludwig Strecker in 1958 Zimmermann expressed his admiration and enthusiasm for the text, applauding not only its drama of class conflict and social criticism, but also its demonstration of the power of character and circumstance, forces able to destroy even fundamentally honest human beings recognizable in everyday life. Serving as his own librettist and dramaturg, Zimmermann condensed Lenz's lengthy original text into four acts by enacting several different scenes simultaneously over stages mounted at different levels or angles. To accomplish such dramaturgical condensation, he harnessed a range of technological resources and devices, including the splicing and interpolation of film strips. Influenced by the scores of Wozzeck and Lulu, he composed the music for the four acts in a sequence of genres, indicated in recurrent titles such as ‘Strofe’, ‘Ricercare’, ‘Toccata’, ‘Ciâconna’, ‘Nocturne’, ‘Rappresentazione’, ‘Rondino’ and ‘Tropi’. Numerous scenes are linked by interludes or intermezzi, while a dodecaphonic all-interval row, divisible into four three-note cells, provides a correspondence with Lenz's desired unity of ‘internal scenario’. Also noteworthy are the superimposed layers of musical quotation in different styles, such as the Dies irae chant and the Bach chorale Wenn ich einmal soll scheiden. The third ‘Toccata’ (Act 3), which combines no less than seven of Lenz's original scenes, represents a zenith in Zimmermann's pluralist composition.

Among Zimmermann's later scores, the sonatas for solo cello (1960) and solo flute (Tempus loquendi, 1963) are noteworthy, deriving their aesthetic impulse from the third book of Ecclesiastes from the Vulgate and featuring multiple movement or sectional schematas. The five movements of the Cello Sonata carry interdisciplinary titles; the middle group both affords scope for improvisation and requires a mastery of novel performance techniques, including the use of quarter-tones. In the flute sonata, where seven of the 13 movements require bass flute, there is an even greater emphasis on timbral vacillation. The sixth dialogue, viewed by the composer as a macro-structural cadence, employs a collage of layered textures, utilizing quotations from Mozart's Piano Concerto k467, figures from Debussy's Jeux, a citation of the Veni creator spiritus and jazz elements.

Zimmermann's free adaptations of folk, vernacular and early music, including the Rheinische Kirmestänze for 13 wind (1950–62) and the Giostra Genovese (1962) on 16th-century dances by Gibbons, Byrd, Frescobaldi and others, occupy a middle ground between his numerous incidental works for theatre, radio and television and his major compositions engaging pluralist techniques. These works, in particular the second, prefigure the Musique pour les soupers du Roi Ubu (1962–6), in which early dances underpin and act as scaffolding for a score elaborated by the use of quotation from manifold sources.

Compositions written during the last five years of Zimmermann's life place an increasing emphasis on two developing temporal concepts. The first of these, Zeitausdehnung (expansion of time, as opposed to the contraction and concentration of time), Zimmermann identified as the particular innovation of Webern. Its musical manifestation predominates in two orchestral works: Photoptosis (1968) and Stille und Umkehr (1970). The second concept, foreshadowed in Soldaten, developed from his strong identification with a compassionate humanism that could generate a form of Bekenntnismusik in which, again through pluralist quotation, various texts or text fragments are overlayed or used in quick succession. This technique is exemplified by Requiem für einen jungen Dichter (1967–9), a moving evocation of European history between 1920 and 1970, which includes texts by a variety of authors, including James Joyce, Ezra Pound, Albert Camus and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Smaller segments of text montages draw on the words of Pope John XXIII, Joseph Goebbels, Adolf Hitler, Neville Chamberlain, Imre Nagy, Mao Zedong, press reports and other sources. The musical form is comprised of sections differentiated through the type and combination of texts, the applied musical materials and various style parameters. As in Soldaten, Zimmermann favoured such titles as ‘Ricercare’, ‘Tratto’, ‘Rappresentazione’, ‘Elegia’ and ‘Lamento’ to indicate various sections. His final score, Ich wandte mich und sah an alles Unrecht, das geschah unter der Sonne (1970) for two narrators, solo bass voice and orchestra, completed five days before his death, is expressive of a deep-seated hopelessness and pessimism, yet has a succinctness and directness almost without comparison in his oeuvre. Its textural sources include the Preacher Salomo in the translation of Martin Luther, the Book of Ecclesiastes, as well as Dostoyevsky's Grand Inquisitor.

WORKS

WRITINGS

ANDREW D. Mc CREDIE (with MARION ROTHÄRMEL)

Zimmermann, Bernd Alois

WORKS

dramatic

Des Menschen Unterhaltsprozess gegen Gott (radio op, 3, H. Rüttger, after P. Calderón), 1952, Westdeutscher Rundfunk, Cologne, 12 June 1952; Die Soldaten (op, 4, Zimmermann, after J.M.R. Lenz), 1958–60, rev. 1963–4, Cologne, 15 Feb 1965

Concert works also intended for ballet production: Alagoana, Kontraste, Perspektiven, Présence, Musique pour les soupers du Roi Ubu, Vc Conc.

orchestral

Sinfonia prosodica, 1945; 3 Stücke, 1945, unpubd; Symphonisches Vorspiel, 1945, unpubd; Conc. for Orch, 1946, unpubd, rev. 1948; Sym., 1 movt, 1947–51, unpubd, rev. 1953; Conc., str, 1948 [after Str Trio]; Symphonische Variationen und Fuge über ‘In dulci jubilo’, 1949; Alagoana, caprichos brasileiros, 1950–55; Rheinische Kirmestänze, 13 wind, 1950–62; Vn Conc., 1950; Conc., ob, small orch, 1952; Conc., vc, small orch, 1953 [rev. as Canto di speranza, 1957]; Kontraste, music to an imaginary ballet, 1953; Metamorphose, suite, small, orch, 1954 [from film score]; Tpt Conc. ‘Nobody knows de trouble I see’, orch, 1954; Laquitas, danza del antiplano, 1956, unpubd; Impromptu, 1958; Dialoge, conc., 2 pf, orch, 1960, unpubd, rev. 1965; Antiphonen, va, small orch, 1961–2; 5 capricci, orch, 1962 [after G. Frescobaldi]; Giostra Genovese, small orch, 1962 [after 16th- and 17th-century dances]; Musique pour les soupers du Roi Ubu, ballet noir, 1962–6; Un petit rien, small orch, 1964; Vc Conc. ‘en forme de “pas de trois”’, 1965–6; Photoptosis, prelude, 1968; Stille und Umkehr, orch sketches, 1970; numerous arrs. of light and folk music for radio, unpubd

vocal

5 Lieder, Mez/Bar, pf, 1942–6: Es fiel ein Stern ins Meer (H. Gloth), An der Brücke stand jüngst ich (F. Nietzsche), Stimme eines Armen an der Hand eines Engles (R.M. Rilke), Initiale (Rilke), Schenke im Frühling (Li Bai [Li Tai-po], trans. Klabund); 3 geistliche Lieder (E. Bertram), Mez/Bar, pf, 1946; Altdeutsches Bild, Altkölnischer Meister, Abendglocke; Die Brünnlein, die da fliessen (cant., trad.), A, Bar, SATB, 11 insts, 1947, unpubd; Tantum ergo, chorus 4vv, 1947; Lob der Torheit (burlesque cant., J.W. von Goethe), S, T, B, chorus, orch/(2 pf, insts, perc), 1948; Omnia tempus habent (cant., Vulgate), S, 17 insts, 1957–8; Die Soldaten, vocal sym., 6 solo vv, orch, 1957–63 [from op]; Requiem für einen jungen Dichter (lingual, various), spkr, S, Bar, 3 choruses, orch, jazz group, org, tape, 1967–9; Ich wandte mich und sah an alles Unrecht, das geschah unter der Sonne (ecclesiastical action, Ecclesiastes, Dostoyevsky), 2 spkr, B, orch, 1970

chamber, solo instrumental and tape

Extemporale, pf, 1939–46; Kleine Suite, vn, pf, 1942, lost; Str Trio, 1944, unpubd; Capriccio, pf, 1946, arr. 4 hands, 1946, unpubd [on folksong themes]; Enchiridion, short pieces, pf, 1949–52; Sonata, vn, pf, 1950; Sonata, vn, 1951; Metamorphosen, pf, 1954; Perspektiven, music to an imaginary ballet, 2 pf, 1955–6; Sonata, va, 1955; Konfigurationen, 8 pieces, pf, 1956; Sonata, vc, 1960; Présence, ballet blanc, pf, trio, 1961; Tempus loquendi, pezzi ellittici, fl + a fl + b fl, 1963; Monologe, 2 pf, 1964 [after Dialoge, 2 pf, orch, 1960]; Tratto, choreographic study, tape, 1965–7; Die Befristeten, jazz qnt, 1967; Intercomunicazione, vc, pf, 1967; 4 kurze Studien, vc, 1970; Tratto II, choreographic study, tape, 1970

incidental music

Das Grün und das Gelb (puppet drama, F. Schneckenburger), 1952, unpubd [used in Kontraste; orch suite, 1952]; Die Grasharfe (Capote), 1954, unpubd; Metamorphose (film score, M. Wolgensinger), small orch, 1954, unpubd; Miss Sara Sampson (G.E. Lessing), 1954, unpubd; Sam Egos Haus (Saroyan), 1954, unpubd; Die Verschwörung des Fiesco zu Genua (Schiller), 1954, unpubd; Der Graf von Ratzeburg (Barlach), 1955, unpubd; Die Sündflut (Barlach), 1955, unpubd; Der Lügner (Goldoni), 1956; unpubd; Melusine (Goll), 1956; unpubd; Der Ruhetag (Claudel), unpubd; numerous radio scores, unpubd

Principal publisher: Schott

Principal recording companies: Wergo, Sony, CPO, Koch, ECM

Zimmermann, Bernd Alois

WRITINGS

(selective list)

‘Jenseits des Impressionismus: von Debussy bis zur Jeune France’, Musica, iii (1949), 339–441

‘Material und Geist’, Melos, xviii (1951), 5–7

‘Unzeitgemässe Betrachtungen zur Musik und der jungen Generation’, Melos, xix (1952), 305–7

‘“Zeitgenössische” oder “neue Musik”’, Köln: eine Vierteljahresschrift für die Freunde der Stadt (1960)

Intervall und Zeit: Aufsätze und Schriften zum Werk (Mainz, 1974)

Zimmermann, Bernd Alois

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Grove6 (M. Rothärmel) [incl. further bibliography]

G.W. Baruch: ‘Zeitgenössische Komponisten: Bernd Alois Zimmermann’, Melos, xx (1953), 319 only

M. Rothärmel: ‘Der pluralistische Zimmermann’, Melos, xxxv (1968), 97–102

H. Halbreich: ‘Bernd Alois Zimmermann’, Festschrift für einen Verleger: Ludwig Strecker, ed. C. Dahlhaus (Mainz, 1973), 242–58

A. von Imhoff: ‘Der frühe Bernd Alois Zimmermann’, Melos, xlii (1975), 359–65

A. von Imhoff: Untersuchungen zum Klavierwerk Bernd Alois Zimmermanns (Regensburg, 1976)

C. Kuhn: Die Orchesterwerke Bernd Alois Zimmermanns (Hamburg, 1976)

K.-J. Müller: ‘Erleben und Messen: zu Bernd Alois Zimmermanns Anschauung der Zeit in seinen letzten Werken’, Musik und Bildung, ix (1977), 550–54

C. Dahlhaus: ‘“Kugelgestalt der Zeit”: zu Bernd Alois Zimmermanns Musikphilosophie’, Music und Bildung, x (1978), 633–6

H. von Lüttwitz: ‘Und das verjagte: zur Funktion der Collagen in Bernd Alois Zimmermanns Zeitkugel Jahresring 79–80’, Literatus und Kunst der Gegenwart (Stuttgart, 1979), 311–16

W. Konold: ‘Zimmermanns zweites Opernprojekt’, Für und Wider der Literarturoper, ed. S. Wiesman (Laaber, 1982), 43–119

W. Grohn: ‘Integrale Komposition: zu Bernd Alois Zimmermanns Pluralisations-Begriff’, AMw, xl (1983), 287–302

Bernd Alois Zimmermann, Contrechamps, no.5 (1985)

H. Beyer and S. Mauser, eds.: Zeitphilosophie und Klanggestalt: Untersuchungen zum Werk Bernd Alois Zimmermanns (Mainz, 1986)

K. Ebbeke: ‘Sprachfindung’: Studien zum Spätwerk Bernd Alois Zimmermanns (Mainz, 1986)

W. Konold: Bernd Alois Zimmermann: der Komponist und sein Werk (Cologne, 1986)

Zwischen den Generationen: Cologne 1987

‘Die Soldaten’ de Bernd Alois Zimmermann, Contrechamps (1988) [special issue]

K. Ebbeke, ed.: Bernd Alois Zimmermann: Dokumente zu Leben und Werk (Berlin, 1989)

L. Helleu: ‘Interchangeabilité de l'espace et du temps dans Les Soldats de B.A. Zimmermann’, Analyse musicale, no.15 (1989), 25–32

W. Konold: ‘Bernd Alois Zimmermann: Struktur und Imagination’, Vom Einfall zum Kunstwerk: der Kompositionsprozess in der Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts (Laaber, 1993), 297–308

J.P. Hiekel: Bernd Alois Zimmermanns Requiem für einen jungen Dichter (Stuttgart, 1995)

S. Hilger: Autonom oder ungewandt? Zu den Hörspielmusiker von Winfried Zillig und Bernd Alois Zimmermann (Mainz, 1996)

E. Ebbeke: Zeitschichtung: Gesammelte Aufsätze zum Werk von Bernd Alois Zimmermann (Mainz, 1998)

Zimmermann, Frank Peter

(b Duisburg, 27 Feb 1965). German violinist. He studied at the Folkwang Hochschule, Essen, with Valery Gradov, the Staatliche Hochschule in Berlin with Saschko Gawrillof, and from 1980 with Hermann Krebbers in Amsterdam. He made his début in 1975 playing Mozart's G major Concerto k216, and in 1976 he won the Jugend Musiziert competition. Zimmermann subsequently appeared as a soloist throughout Europe and made his US début in 1984 with the Pittsburgh SO. He has since followed an international solo career, performing with the world's leading orchestras and conductors, and has often played in major festivals. Notable among his many recordings are Tchaikovsky's Concerto and Prokofiev's First Concerto with the Berlin PO conducted by Maazel, Mozart sonatas with Alexander Lonquich and Paganini's 24 Caprices (1985). He plays the ‘Hilton’ Stradivarius of 1691, strung with gut strings, on which he produces a beautiful, pure tone.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

S. Tomes: ‘Steady Success’, The Strad, xcix (1988), 624–7

MARGARET CAMPBELL

Zimmermann, Heinz Werner

(b Freiburg, 11 Aug 1930). German composer. He first received composition tuition from J. Weismann, then studied with Fortner in Heidelberg (1950–54). After taking examinations to teach composition in Freiburg he became lecturer and Fortner's successor at the Kirchenmusikalisches Institut Heidelberg. Zimmermann's proximity to one of the most important Protestant theological faculties, together with the cultivation of church music in Heidelberg, directed his attention to biblical texts, above all psalms, and he began to examine the legacy of the movement to renew church music. In 1963 he was appointed director of the Berliner Kirchenmusikschule in Spandau. His awards include a scholarship for the Villa Massimo, Rome (1965–6). In 1967 he received an honorary doctorate from Wittenberg University, Springfield, Ohio. He taught in the USA, from 1967, and at New College, Oxford (1969). From 1975 to 1996 he taught composition in Frankfurt at the Hochschule für Musik und Darstellende Kunst.

Zimmermann is regarded as an outstanding representative of modern sacred symphonic writing for choirs. Prosody and jazz idioms were early on fundamental to his work, and instrumental recitation already characterized his early compositions. Inspired by his study of American spirituals, he created a new kind of choral music, in which biblical prose is sung syllabically, the vocal parts written using the rhythms of speech and underpinned by a plucked double bass (to which his addition of an augmented cantus firmus is often rhythmically related). He unites central European and North American musical traditions while maintaining a Lutheran fusion of the sacred and the secular. Traditional genres and forms are filled with new content, through his combination of jazz rhythms with contrapuntal techniques such as fugue (The Bible of Spirituals). His inclusion of jazz elements, which he understands as ‘international folklore’, serves to represent over and above the compositional and artificial a philosophical idea. From 1965 he tested possibilities of a ‘polystylistic polyphony’, combining counterpoint, prosody and jazz rhythm, as well as further developing quotation, collage and montage procedures (Credo in Missa profana). His musical idiom is fundamentally vocal, and he broadens the harmony by ‘twin and triplet chords’, in which two or three different independent chords are combined.

WORKS

(selective list)

Inst: 4 Orgelpsalmen, 1955; Va Conc., 1980–86; Str Qt, 1982–8; Pf Conc., 1985–96; Ob Conc., 1987–94; Str qnt 1988–99; Prolog und Fuge, org, 1989–90; 3 Orgelvorspiele, 1994

Choral: Make a joyful noise unto God (Ps lxvi.1–3), motet, 1964; Chorvariationen über ein Thema von Distler, S, chorus, 1964; Two Spiritual fantasies, 1968; Ps cxxi, 1973; Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, choral fantasia, 1979; Nun sich das Herz von allem löste (choral fantasia, J. Klepper), 1980; Gott ist Liebe, motet, 1990; Grosser Gott meines Lebens, ich will Dir lobsingen (motet, G. von LeFort: TeD), 1992

Choral with insts: Lobet, ihr Knechte des Herrn, motet, chorus, db, 1956; Uns ist ein Kind geboren, motet, chorus, db, 1956; Psalmkonzert, cant., B-Bar, chorus, children's chorus, 3 tpt, vib, db, 1956–7; Das Vater Unser, motet, chorus, db, 1957; Weihnacht, 4 motets, chorus, db, 1957–8; Herr, mache mich zum Werkzeug Deines Friedens, motet, chorus, db, 1958; 6 neue Lieder, org/chorus, 1959–68; Vesper, 5 movts, chorus, vib, cimb, db, 1960–61; Missa profana, S, M, A, T, B, chorus, jazz group, elec noises, orch, 1962–77; 3 Fragen (G. Benn, H.M. Enzensberger, I. Bachmann), T, spkr, chorus, chbr orch, 1966–8; Ps c, chorus, 1969; Ps xxiii, chorus, org, db, 1970; 5 Hymns, org/chorus, 1970–71; 4 Collagen (after J.S. Bach), chbr chorus, pf, 1972; Ps xiii, chorus, org, db, 1973; Ps cxxxiv, male chorus, hp, org, 1974; Come, let us praise the Lord, carol, org/chorus, 1974; 3 Nestroy-Collagen, chorus, 2 pf, 1976–7; Ps cl, coloratura S, 2 chorus, org, 1978; St Thomas-Kantate (‘O komm, Du Geist der Wahrheit’), Mez, Bar, chorus, orch, 1981–2; The Bible of Spirituals (orat, 2 pts, 16 texts of Amer. Spirituals), S, A, T, B, chorus, children's chorus, orch, 1984–7; Nunc (‘Herr, nun lässest Du Deinen Diener’), chorus, vib, org, db, 1987–8; TeD, S, Bar, chorus, orch, 1990–98; Neujahrslied (‘Von guten Mächten’ ) (D. Bonhoeffer), chorus, org, db, 1991; Symphonia sacra (Symphonie des Lichtes) (Bible, Ger. spiritual poetry), 5 movts, S, T, B, jazz combo, chorus, orch, 1992–5

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Davidson: I will Sing a New Song unto the Lord: the Works of Heinz Werner Zimmermann (Springfield, OH, 1969)

H.-G. Oertel: ‘Kirchenmusik und Jazz – Heinz Werner Zimmermann’, Credo musicale: Festgabe zum 80. Geburtstag Rudolf Mauersberger (Kassel, 1969), 197–213

A. Ilick: The Choral Style of Heinz Werner Zimmermann (diss, Stanford U., 1970)

R. Stroope: The Later Choral Works of Heinz Werner Zimmermann (diss., Arizona State U., 1988)

H.U. Engelmann: ‘Heinz Werner Zimmermann 60 Jahre’, Musik und Kirche, lx (1990), 226–8

F. Freese: The Hymns of Heinz Werner Zimmermann and their Relation to Post-1945 Hymnody (diss., Indiana U., 1991)

FRIEDHELM BRUSNIAK

Zimmermann, Julius Heinrich

(b Sternberg, 22 Sept 1851; d Berlin, 25 April 1922). German music publisher and woodwind and brass instrument manufacturer. He had factories in St Petersburg (1876), Moscow (1882) and Riga (1903). The headquarters of the publishing firm was established in Leipzig in 1886, with the actual printing being carried out by Breitkopf & Härtel. Zimmermann became friendly with Balakirev in 1899 and thereafter published all the works of that composer. It may be that it was Zimmermann’s exhortations that encouraged the prolificness of the final decade of Balakirev’s life. He also published the majority of the compositions of Balakirev’s protégé Sergey Lyapunov. Other composers’ music published by him include Medtner, Josef Hofmann, Tausig, A.S. Taneyev and Reinecke. He suffered financial hardship during World War I, but, although he resumed the publication of music by Russian composers in 1919, he was unable to reopen his former Russian factories and shops. In 1928 the proprietor became Wilhelm Zimmermann and, after World War II, the firm was established in Frankfurt.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

V.A. Kiselyov and A.S. Lyapunova, eds.: M.A. Balakirev: perepiska s notoizdatel'stvom P. Yurgensona [Balakirev’s correspondence with Jürgenson’s publishing house] (Moscow, 1958)

M.E. Shifman: S.M. Lyapunov: zhizn' i tvorchestvo [Life and works] (Moscow, 1960)

E. Garden: Balakirev: a Critical Study of his Life and Music (London, 1967)

A.S. Lyapunova and E.E. Yazovitskaya: Mily Alekseyevich Balakirev: letopis' zhizni i tvorchestva [Chronicle of his life and works] (Leningrad, 1967)

B. Vol'man: Russkiye notnïye izdaniya: XIX–nachala XX veka [Russian editions of music: 19th century–beginning of the 20th] (Leningrad, 1970)

EDWARD GARDEN

Zimmermann [Zimmerman], Pierre-Joseph-Guillaume

(b Paris, ?19 March 1785; d Paris, 29 Oct 1853). French pianist, teacher and composer. The son of a Paris piano maker, he entered the Conservatoire in 1798 to study piano with Boieldieu and harmony with J.-B. Rey and then Catel. In 1800 he won a premier prix for piano (over Kalkbrenner) and in 1802 a premier prix in harmony; later he studied composition with Cherubini. From 1811 he assisted in teaching the piano at the Conservatoire and in 1816 was appointed professor. In 1821 he was selected to succeed A.-F. Eler as professor of counterpoint and fugue, but decided to teach the piano only and the vacant post went to Fétis. He was one of the most influential French keyboard teachers of his time; his pupils included Franck, Alkan, Louis Lacombe, Ambroise Thomas, Bizet and A.-F. Marmontel (who succeeded him in 1848). He also taught Gounod (who became his son-in-law). He retired early from public performance in order to devote himself to teaching and composition. His Encyclopédie du pianiste (1840) was intended to train the pianist both as executant and composer. He was a Chevalier of the Légion d'Honneur.

WORKS

(selective list)

Ops: L'enlèvement (oc, 3), Paris, OC (Ventadour), 26 Oct 1830; Nausicaa, unperf. [intended for Opéra]

Sacred choral: Première messe solennelle, 4vv (Paris, 1846); Requiem héroïque (Paris, 1846); Pie Jesu (Paris, 1853)

Other vocal: 3 romances, 1v, pf, incl. Croyez-vous qu'elle m'aime encore? (C. Bonjour), pubd in The Harmonicon, ii (1824); Mon fils est là (E. Scribe), pubd in The Harmonicon, vi (1828)

Orch: 2 pf concs.

Solo pf: Variations on A. Boieldieu's romance ‘S'il est vrai que d'être deux’, op.2 (Paris, 1818); Fantaisie on the air ‘Salut’, op.3; Sonate, op.5; variations on ‘Guardami un poco’, op.6; Badinage on ‘Au clair de la lune’, op.8; Le bouquet de romarin, air varié, op.12; Rondo on the air ‘C'est le solitaire’, op.14, pubd in The Harmonicum, iii (1825); Solo, op.19; 24 Etudes, op.21 (Paris, ?1840); La Gasconne, ‘bluette’ with variations

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FétisB

J.B. Labat: Zimmermann et l’école française de piano (Paris, 1865)

A.-F. Marmontel: Les pianistes célèbres: silhouettes et médaillons (Paris, 1878, 2/1887)

FRÉDÉRIC ROBERT

Zimmermann, Tabea

(b Lahr, 8 Oct 1966). German viola player. Encouraged by her elder siblings, who wanted to play trios, she started playing a small viola at three and at five began learning the piano. From 1979 she studied with Ulrich Koch at the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik in Freiburg and from 1986 with Sándor Végh at the Salzburg Mozarteum. She was a prizewinner at international competitions at Geneva in 1982, Paris in 1983 – where she was awarded a new Etienne Vatelot viola – and Budapest in 1984. She then began an outstanding career which has taken her all over the world. Her US début was made in 1993 and in 1995 she gave her first recital in Carnegie Hall, New York. Zimmermann is among today's finest viola virtuosos, with a superb technique and an ample, supple tone; but she is also an artist of rare profundity. She is often heard in concert with the pianist Hartmut Höll or the conductor David Shallon, and other close colleagues are the oboist Heinz Holliger, and violinists Gidon Kremer, Thomas Zehetmair and Frank Peter Zimmermann (not related to her). She gave the first performances of Volker David Kirchner's Shibboleth and Mark Kopytman's Cantus V, both in 1990; Wilhelm Killmayer's Die Schönheit des Morgens and Ligeti's Viola Sonata (dedicated to her), both in 1994; and of Alexander Goehr’s Schlussgesang in 1997. Goehr’s Sur terre, en l’air was written as a musical portrait of her. Her recordings include the Bartók and Schnittke concertos, Hindemith's Die Schwanendreher, Kopytman's Cantus V, the Brahms and Shostakovich sonatas, a viola transcription of Schubert's Winterreise and songs by Adolf Busch (with Höll and his wife Mitsuko Shirai). From 1987 to 1989 she taught at the Musikhochschule in Saarbrücken and in 1994 she was appointed professor of viola at the Musikhochschule in Frankfurt. In 1995 she was awarded the Frankfurt Music Prize and in 1997 the International Prize of the Accademia Chigiana.

TULLY POTTER

Zimmermann, Udo

(b Dresden, 6 Oct 1943). German composer. A member of the Dresden Kreuzchor as a boy, he then attended the Dresden Hochschule für Musik (1962–8), where he studied composition with Thilman, in addition to conducting and singing. His studies were completed by attending Kochan’s masterclasses at the German Academy of Arts in East Berlin (1968–70). Between 1966 and 1968 he received the GDR’s Mendelssohn Scholarship three times, and in 1972 he was awarded the Hanns Eisler Prize of Radio DDR. In 1974 he became founder and director of the Studio Neue Musik of the Dresden Staatsoper and Radio DDR. He became professor of composition at the Dresden Hochschule für Musik in 1982, and directed the Werkstattbühne für Zeitgenössisches Musiktheater in Bonn from 1985 to 1990. In 1986 he was appointed director of the Dresden Centre for Contemporary Music, and in 1988 artistic director of the Musica-Viva-Ensemble, Dresden.

In 1990 Zimmermann became director of the Leipzig Opera, which he has led in a series of startling productions; indeed, under his directorship, the repertory of Leipzig Opera has become unique among opera companies in Central Europe. Since 1990 he has held numerous other posts, including president of the board of trustees of the Stiftung Kulturfond in Berlin, composer-in-residence at the Salzburg Festival (1991 and 1995), president of the Freie Akademie der Künste, Leipzig (since 1992), artistic director of the Musica Viva series of the Bayerischer Rundfunk (1997) and president of the Jean Sibelius Gesellschaft Deutschland (since 1999). He also holds membership of the European Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Akademie der Künste, Berlin, and the Freie Akademie der Künste, Hamburg. He is multiple winner of the UNESCO Composers’ Tribune, Paris, and has won numerous other national and European prizes.

Zimmermann has conducted his works and those by other composers with all major European orchestras since 1979. As might be expected from his work in theatre, the form of Zimmermann’s own music is often strongly dramatic. A clear structure, and the use of serialism, aleatory elements and collage are among the features of his works. Compositional techniques are rarely used for their own sake; rather they remain subordinate to the dramaturgy and to the subject of the piece. Occasionally, tonality continues to play a certain role. In the 1960s Zimmermann grappled with the music of Henze and with the ‘Polish School’ (Lutosławski, Penderecki and Baird). Lutosławski’s influence can be felt in Musik für Streicher (1968) and in Reflexionen über Ernst Barlach (1970). With respect to aesthetics, Zimmermann is drawn to Rihm and Schnittke. He rejects both intellectual and technical projections as well as the ‘New Simplicity’, and regards as important a music motivated by moral considerations and human emotions. This aspect is most manifest in his operas: in Weisse Rose, composed in two versions (1966–8 and 1985), he exposes the tragic fate of the students Hans and Sophie Scholl who were active in the resistance against Hitler. Zimmermann’s vocal and stage music is founded on the role of the text; in the vocal part, therefore, he prefers syllabic settings which frequently carry features of recitative. He does not treat the lyrics as linguistic stock, but as a starting-point to provide a formal integrity and fulfil functional purposes. In his instrumental works as well, Zimmermann is often guided by non-musical considerations: for instance, the mood and attitude of García Lorca’s lyrics is present in Sinfonia come un grande lamento (1977), composed in commemoration of the poet. Zimmermann’s compositional output has decreased since the late 1980s (the only substantial work of the 90s is the opera Gantenbein), as he has become increasingly committed to his work as musical manager and director. He will be director of the Deutsche Oper, Berlin, from 2001.

WORKS

(selective list)

Ops: Die weisse Rose (I. Zimmermann), 1966–7, rev. 1968; Die zweite Entscheidung (I. Zimmermann), 1969–70; Levins Mühle (I. Zimmermann, after J. Bobrowski), 1971–2; Der Schuhu und die fliegende Prinzessin (P. Hacks), 1974–6; Die wundersame Schustersfrau (U. Zimmermann, E. Schmidt, after F.García Lorca), 1978–81; Weisse Rose (W. Willaschek), 1985; Gantenbein (Willaschek, after M. Frisch), 1997

Orch: Dramatische Impression, vc, pf/orch, 1963, rev. 1986; Vn Conc., 1964; Timp Conc., 1966, rev. 1983; Musik für Streicher, 1968; L’homme (after E. Guillevic), 1970; Sieh, meine Augen (after E. Barlach), chbr orch, 1970; Tänzerinnen – Choreographien nach Dégas, 21 insts, 1973; Cantiones, 1973; Mutazioni, 1973; Musik (after H. Arp), 2 pf, orch, 1974; Sinfonia come un grande lamento, 1977; Songerie, chbr orch, 1982; Va Conc., 1982; Mein Gott, wer trommelt denn da?, 1986; Danse la marche (Hommage à W. Lutosławski), 1994

Chbr/solo inst: Sonatine, vn, pf, 1964; Movimenti caratteristici, vc, 1965; Pf Sonata, 1967; Episoden, wind qnt, 6 timp, pf, 1965 (rev. as Kontraste, chbr ens, 1970); Str Qt, 1974; Die Spieldose, hpd, 1981; Canticum marianum, 12 vc, 1984

Vocal: 3 motets, chorus, 1959, 1961, 1962; 5 Gesänge (W. Borchert), Bar, chbr orch, 1964; 3 Lieder (P. Neruda), 1v, pf, 1965; Sonetti amorosi (G. Stampa), A, fl, str qt, 1966; Holunderblüte (Bobrowski), 1v, pf, 1968; Der Mensch (cant., Guillevic), S, 13 insts, 1970; Ein Zeuge der Liebe, die besiegt den Tod (T. Różewicz), S, chbr orch, 1973; Ode an des Leben (Neruda, L. Carus), A/Mez, 3 choruses, orch, 1973–4; Psalm der Nacht (N. Sachs, after Ps cxxix), chorus, perc, org, 1976; Hymne an die Sonne (H. von Kleist), S, a fl, hpd, 1976; Wenn ich an Hiroshima denke (S. Kurihara), S, pf/chbr orch, 1981/2; Pax questuosa, vv, 3 choruses, orch, 1982; Mahnung (Kurihara), S, orch, 1986; Gib Licht meinen Augen, oder ich entschlafe des Todes (Willaschek), S, Bar, orch, 1986; Nouveaux divertissements d’après J.-Ph. Rameau, chorus, chbr orch, 1988; Wenn ein Wintervogel das Herz … (R. Lutter), Bar, pf, 1990

Principal publishers: Deutscher Verlag für Musik, Peters (Leipzig)

WRITINGS

‘Musikalisches Ereignis als Herausforderung für die Szene’, ÖMz, xxxiv (1979), 205–9

‘Siebzig Blicke auf meine Musik’, Komponieren zur Zeit: Gespräche mit Komponisten der DDR, ed. M. Hansen (Leipzig, 1988), 312–44

‘Über die “Weisse Rose”’, Im Osten nichts Neues?: zur Musik der DDR, ed. H. Hopf and B. Sonntag (Wilhelmshaven, 1989), 127–33

‘Weshalb wir Neue Musik brauchen’, ‘Eine Sprache der Gegenwart’: musica viva 1945–1995, ed. R. Ulm (Mainz and Munich, 1995), 359–62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GroveO (D. Gojowy)

KdG (F. Nicolai)

RiemannL12

MGG1 (D. Härtwig)

PEM (T. Gartmann)

H. Böhm: ‘Sonetti amorosi von Udo Zimmermann’, MG, xviii (1968), 754–61

E. Schwinger: ‘Die Oper “Levins Mühle”’, Musica, xxvii (1973), 268–9

F. Hennenberg: ‘Musikdramatik und Dialektik: analytische Versuche’, Sammelbände zur Musikgeschichte der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, ed. H.A. Brockhaus and K. Niemann, iv (Berlin, 1975), 236–71

D. Gojowy: ‘Affinität zu szenisch gebundener Musik’, Musica, xxx (1976), 384–91

U. Stürzbecher: Komponisten in der DDR: 17 Gespräche (Hildesheim, 1979), 86–106

F. Hennenberg: Udo Zimmermann für Sie porträtiert (Leipzig, 1983)

F. Hennenberg: Udo Zimmermann: Leidenschaft Musik – Abenteuer Theater: Komponist – Intendant – Dirigent (Bonn, 1992)

M. Ernst, ed.: Udo Zimmermann: ein Fünfzigjähriger im Spiegelbild von Zeitgenossen: eine Biographie in Zitaten (Leipzig, 1993)

LARS KLINGBERG

Zimmermann, Walter

(b Schwabach, Franconia, 15 April 1949). German composer. He studied with Heider in Nuremberg (1968–70) and performed as a pianist in the ars-nova-ensemble. In 1970 he went to Cologne, where he attended courses on new music given by Kagel. Largely self-taught as a composer, he later studied at the Institute of Sonology, Utrecht (1970–73) with Otto Laske, at the Jaap-Kunst ethnological centre, Amsterdam, and at the Alexander Hamilton Institute, USA (1974), where he took a computer studies course. In 1977 he founded the Beginner-Studio in Cologne, where he organized concerts for a number of years. He has lectured at the Darmstadt summer courses (1982–4) and taught at the Royal Conservatory, The Hague, the Karlsruhe Musikhochschule and the Essen Folkwang-schule. In 1993 he was appointed professor of composition at the Berlin Hochschule der Künste. His honours include the Förderpreis of the city of Cologne (1980), first prize of the Ensemblia Mönchengladbach (1981), a bursary from the Villa Massimo, Rome (1987), the Schneider-Schott prize (1989) and the Italia Prize (1990) for Die Blinden.

Zimmermann’s music derives from the tension between abstract concepts and their translation into sound. Greatly influenced by the thinking and music of Cage and Feldman, he considers a negation of the composer’s personality to be a precondition for the creative process. His works – explorations of musical material, rather than means of musical expression – are often based on the structure of philosophical and literary texts.

WORKS

Stage: Die Blinden (statisches Drama, after M. Maeterlinck), 1984; Über die Dörfer (op, after P. Handke), 1985–6; Hyperion (op, after F. Hölderlin), 1990

Orch: Akkordarbeit, pf, orch, tape, 1971; In Understanding Music the Sound Dies, 21 insts, 1974; Ländler-Topographien, 1979; Ataraxia, pf, orch, 1988; Diastatsis/Diastema, 2 orch, 1992; Clinamen–Epikur–Transkriptionen, orch, 1996

Chbr and solo inst: Parabel, str qt, 1965; Gliss, 5 trbn, 1970; Einer ist keiner, 7 insts, 1972; GAZE–Beduinenlied, ob, tape, 1976–93; Mandingo–Koroharfe, mand, 1976–93; 10 fränkische Tänze, str qt, 1977; Erd-Wasser-Luft-Töne, trbn, pf, glass harmonica, 1979; 20 Figuren-Tänze, 6 insts, 1979; 25 Kärwa-Melodien, 2 cl, 1979; 15 Zwiefache, 2 gui, 1979; Keuper, str qt, 1980; Riuti, perc, 1980; Wolkenorte, hp, 1980; Ephemer, pf trio, 1981; Garten des Vergessens, pf trio, 1983; Glockenspiel, perc, 1983; Lösung, va, vc, db, 1983; Fragmente der Liebe, sax, str qt, 1987; Lied im Wüstenvogelton, b fl, pf, 1987; The Echoing Green, vn, pf, 1989; Geduld und Gelegenheit, vc, pf, 1989; Festina lente, str qt, 1990; Die Sorge geht über den Fluss, vn, 1991; Distentio, str trio, 1992; Schatten der Ideen 1, octet, 1992; Schatten der Ideen 2, pf qt, 1993; Shadow of Cold Mountain, 3 rec, 1993; Kindheitsblack, va, cel, 1994; Neue Apologie des Buchstaben B, fl, cl, str trio, 1994; Schatten der Ideen 3, accdn, 1994; Ursache und Vorwitz, hn, vn, vc, pf, perc, tape, 1994; Groll & Dank, 6 pfmrs, 1995; North-West-Passage, ens, tape, 1995; El balle de la Conquista, fl, ob, perc, 1996; In der Welt sein, hn, 1996; Monade/Nomade, trbn octet, 1996

Kbd: Nothing but, pf, cel, hpd, elec org, 1969; As a Wife has a Cow, pf 4 hands, 1970; Beginner's Mind, pf, 1975; Abgeschiedenheit, pf, 1982; Wüstenwanderung, pf, 1986; Ein wenig Grazie, pf, 1994

Principal recording companies: Wergo, PMS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Fox: ‘Walter Zimmermann's Local Experiments’, Contact, no.27 (1983), 4–9

R. Oehlschlägel: ‘Konzeptionelle Wörtlichkeit: Walter Zimmermann’s statisches Drama “Die Blinden”’, MusikTexte, no.15 (1986), 39–43

F. Zehenreiter: ‘Walter Zimmermann: der dialektische Komponist’, Positionen, no.3 (1993), 25–8

FRIEDRICH SPANGEMACHER

Zinck [Zink], Bendix [Benedict] Friedrich

(b Husum, Holstein, bap. 8 March 1743; d Ludwigslust, 23 June 1801). German instrumentalist and composer, brother of Hardenack Otto Conrad Zinck. His father, also named Bendix Friedrich Zinck, was a town musician in Husum, then cathedral organist in Schleswig (c1783), who wrote Kleine Duette für verschiedene Instrumente and other pieces for wind instruments (according to GerberL). Zinck studied the violin, harpsichord and organ with his father. About 1764 he visited Norway and stayed for a time in Christiania (now Oslo), and in 1767 he became a violinist at the Ludwigslust Hofkapelle of the Duke of Schwerin, where he served until his death. From Ludwigslust he made several concert tours to Dresden, Hamburg (where he studied composition with C.P.E. Bach), Berlin, London and elsewhere, becoming known as a violinist and keyboard player. In 1781 he married the court singer Charlotte Nussbaum (1760–1817).

At the centre of Zinck’s compositions are his 15 symphonies, including one published by J.J. Hummel (Simphonie à grand orchestre, Berlin and Amsterdam, 1780) and 14 in manuscript in the Landesbibliothek Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Schwerin. They show him to be a disciple of C.P.E. Bach, who ‘personally esteemed and loved him’ (GerberNL). His other works held in Schwerin are a setting of Psalm ciii for four voices and instruments, and Hin an dein Creuz zu treten (text by G.B. Funk), a cantata-like Passion chorale. The Cölestine, a combined organ and glass harmonica of three manuals which has been wrongly attributed to B.F. Zinck, was the invention of a Zink who was a deputy headmaster in Hessen-Homburg (now Bad Homburg) in 1800.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

GerberL

GerberNL

SchillingE

Obituary, AMZ, iii (1800–01), 754–5

O. Kade: Die Musikalien-Sammlung des Grossherzoglichen Mecklenburg-Schweriner Fürstenhauses aus den letzten zwei Jahrhunderten (Schwerin and Wismar, 1893–9/R)

DIETER HÄRTWIG

Zinck [Zink], Hardenack [Hartnack, Harnack] Otto Conrad

(b Husum, Holstein, 2 July 1746; d Copenhagen, 15 Feb 1832). German composer and instrumentalist, brother of Bendix Friedrich Zinck. Like his brother, he was taught several musical instruments and harmony by his father. He continued his studies in Hamburg for ten years and performed in both amateur and public concerts there; he also had the special esteem of his teacher, C.P.E. Bach, under whose direction he performed as a singer in 1768. In 1777 he was recruited as first flautist and chamber musician in the Ludwigslust Hofkapelle of the Duke of Schwerin, where he dedicated himself increasingly to composition, learning from imitation of Classical models and from C.P.E. Bach’s Versuch, Kirnberger’s Kunst des reinen Satzes and Marpurg’s theoretical writings (preface to his Sechs Clavier-Sonaten, 1783). In August 1786 he visited Copenhagen, where he gave a highly successful concert, appearing as a flautist, keyboard player and composer. A year later he was offered the post of Singmeister (first accompanist) in the Copenhagen Kongelige Kapel through the Hofkapellmeister J.A.P. Schulz. He accepted it, and his wife, Elisabeth Pontet Zinck, an outstanding singer at the Schwerin and Ludwigslust courts since 1779, soon took a similar post at the Danish court in Copenhagen. Zinck was also organist at the Vor Frelsers Kirke (1789–1801), a teacher at Blaagaards Seminary (1791–1811) and editor of the authorized hymnbook (Choral-Melodier, 1801). Following the example of C.F.C. Fasch in Berlin, he founded a Singakademie in 1800.

As a flute and keyboard virtuoso, and particularly as a composer, Zinck was rightly considered one of the most gifted members of the Ludwigslust Hofkapelle. Unlike his brother, he was less interested in symphonies than in lieder and lyrical keyboard pieces. His six keyboard sonatas, which C.F. Cramer praised highly, are admirably suited to the keyboard and rich in invention, and link the keyboard sonatas of C.P.E. Bach with those of the turn of the century. In the preface to this collection Zinck advocated ‘characteristic instrumental pieces with new and eloquent expression’; he also explained in detail the programmatic ideas of the sixth sonata, whose finale leads directly to a ballad-like choral setting of 12 verses by Count F.L. Stolberg. Following C.P.E. Bach’s example, Zinck took part in the newly evolving relationship between vocal and instrumental music by using instrumental sound, rather than text, as a starting-point.

The four volumes of Compositionen für den Gesang und das Clavier (1791–3) contain lieder with German and Danish texts, pieces from the Singspiel Selim og Mirza and sonatas and variations for keyboard instruments. Apart from C.P.E. Bach and J.A.P. Schulz, Zinck was also influenced by J.H. Rolle, as shown, for example, by the folklike melodies of his oratorio Das Weltgericht. Zinck’s cantatas, like similar compositions of his Schwerin contemporaries, were meant for the concerts spirituels in popular character introduced there by Duke Friedrich of Mecklenburg.

WORKS

MSS in D-SWl unless otherwise stated

Sacred: Das Weltgericht (orat), solo vv, choir, orch, 1780; O Lamm Gottes im Staube (J.J. Tode), as introduction to pt 2 of G.F. Handel’s Messiah, choir, orch, 1780; Miserere mei Deus, choir, orch; Ew’ger Sohn, erhaltner Segen, aria, S, orch; Klager ved Jesu Christi grav (orat), mentioned in Schering

Other vocal: Empfindungen eines Mecklenburgers bey der Geburt eines jungen Prinzen (cant.), S, orch, 1778; Halleluja, gelobet sey des Herren Name (cant.) for birthday of Duchess Louisa Friderica, 4vv, orch, 1779, D-ROu, SWl; Cantate par Enigheds-Selskabets Stiftelsesfest, 1784, DK-Kk; Selim og Mirza (Spl, P.A. Heiberg), Copenhagen, 1790; Compositionen für den Gesang und das Clavier (Compositiones for sangen og klaveret), i–iv (Copenhagen, 1791–3); Cantate auf den Geburtstag eines Freundes, Venskabet, cant., org motet, all Kk

Inst: 6 sonatas, 2 fl, op.1 (Berlin and Amsterdam, 1782); 6 Clavier-Sonaten benebst der Ode ‘Kain am Ufer des Meeres’ als einen Anhang zur sechsten Sonate (Leipzig and Hamburg, 1783), ed. A. Kranz (Leipzig and Berlin, 1954); 3 sonatas, hpd, fl, op.2 (Berlin and Amsterdam, 1785), ?lost; Rundgesang der Kinder in Ludwigslust mit 24 Veränderungen, kbd (Berlin and Amsterdam, c1785); Divertimento, hpd, vn; Sonata, hpd, vn; Trio, 2 fl, bc, B-Bc

WRITINGS

Die nördliche Harfe, ein Versuch in Fragmenten und Skizzen über Musik und ihre Anwendung im Norden (Copenhagen, 1801)

Vorlesungen über Musik und ihre nützlichste Anwendung (Copenhagen, 1813)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EitnerQ

GerberL

GerberNL

JohanssonH

ScheringGO

C.F. Cramer: Review of Sechs Clavier-Sonaten (1783), Magazin der Musik, i (Hamburg, 1783/R), 1259–75

O. Kade: Die Musikalien-Sammlung des Grossherzoglichen Mecklenburg-Schweriner Fürstenhauses aus den letzten zwei Jahrhunderten (Schwerin and Wismar, 1893/R)

C. Meyer: Geschichte der Mecklenburg-Schweriner Hofkapelle (Schwerin, 1913)

E. Winckel: ‘H.O.C. Zinks klaversonater’, DMt, xxvi (1951), 137–43

DIETER HÄRTWIG

Zincke, Hans Friedrich August.

See Sommer, Hans.

Zinck-Pass

(Ger.).

See Cinque pas.

Zindelin, Philipp

(b Konstanz, c1570; d Augsburg, Feb 1622). German composer and instrumentalist. He matriculated at Freiburg University in 1589. For 11 years he was a musician in the service of Cardinal Andreas of Austria at Konstanz. He then moved to Augsburg and worked as a cornettist, organist and composer in the service of the town, the cathedral and the influential Fugger family, Maximilian Fugger being a particular patron of his. In 1614 he applied for the post of Kapellmeister at Augsburg Cathedral, in succession to Bernhard Klingenstein, but Georg Mezler was preferred to him. He was a talented instrumentalist and received a special subsidy for training younger cornett players. He was also highly esteemed at the Munich court, where he frequently performed as a cornettist; he received five payments for compositions, the last being in 1619. He was also connected with the court at Innsbruck, being personally acquainted with Archduke Leopold, a keen patron of music.

Zindelin’s output consists entirely of church music, most of it in Latin and showing a preference for serious subject matter and Marian texts. In general he can be described as a typical composer of the turn of the century: his roots were clearly in the 16th century, but he was also influenced to some degree by early Baroque practices. The 1615 collection of Magnificat settings and antiphons is one of the first publications with continuo to appear in Germany after those of Aichinger. There are sections in one, two and three parts, though their style is not noticeably different from that of the four-part tuttis. The use of short motifs, touches of homophony and some independence in the continuo part all betray early 17th-century influence; however, there is little of the polarization between soprano and bass or the emphasis on word-painting found in similar compositions of the period. Chorales also influenced his work, which thus to some extent reflects the religious dichotomy that prevailed in Augsburg at the time.

WORKS

Primitiae odarum sacrarum, 4vv (Augsburg, 1609)

Lugubria, 5vv (Dillingen, 1611)

Trauriges Klagelied, 3vv (Augsburg, 1612)

Symphonia Parthenia, 4vv, bc (Augsburg, 1615)

3 motets, 1604⁷, 1605¹, 1629¹

5 motets, 1622²

Magnificat, 5vv, D-Kl

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SennMT

O. Bucher: ‘Adam Meltzer (1603–1610) und Gregor Hänlin (1610–1617) als Musikaliendrucker in Dillingen/Donau’, Gutenberg-Jb 1956, 216–26, esp. 221, 225

A. Layer: Musik und Musiker der Fuggerzeit (Augsburg, 1959), 36, 38, 44, 48, 78

E.F. Schmid: Musik an den schwäbischen Zollernhöfen der Renaissance (Kassel, 1962), 115–16, 142

P. Winter: Der mehrchörige Stil (Frankfurt, 1964)

A. Layer: ‘Augsburger Musikkultur der Renaissance’, Musik in der Reichsstadt Augsburg, ed. L. Wegele (Augsburg, 1965), 43–102, esp. 68, 88

M. Schmidmüller: ‘Die Augsburger Domkapellmeister seit dem Tridentinum bis zur Säkularisation’, Jb des Vereins für Augsburger Bistumsgeschichte, xiii (1989), 69–107

A. LINDSEY KIRWAN/STEPHAN HÖRNER

Zineroni, Agostino

(b Bergamo; fl 1599). Italian composer. He is known by one work, Missa, beatae vergine cantica, sacraeque cantiones vulgo motecta appellatae, tum viva voce … genere octo vocibus (Venice, RISM 1599⁵). At the time of its publication he was maestro di cappella at Bergamo Cathedral.

Zingarelli, Niccolò Antonio

(b Naples, 4 April 1752; d Torre del Greco, nr Naples, 5 May 1837). Italian composer and teacher. Left fatherless at the age of seven, Zingarelli was enrolled in the Conservatorio di S Maria di Loreto, where his father had taught singing, and studied with Fenaroli, Speranza, Anfossi and Sacchini. After his graduation in 1772 he became organist and violin teacher at Torre Annunziata. When his first patron the Duchess of Castelpagano gave him her support, however, he began his career as an opera composer, in the theatres of northern Italy, Florence and Rome. His first cantata was performed in 1778 and his first opera, Montezuma, in 1781. Although Haydn did not praise this work as highly as once was supposed, he nevertheless produced it (and later Alsinda) at Eszterháza. Between 1785 and 1803 Zingarelli was principally known as an opera composer.

In 1790 he visited Paris, where his opera Antigone was performed, without success, and Les Hespérides and Pharamond were tentatively accepted but not produced. In the same period three other operas, L'olympiade, Les femmes and Zadig were composed in collaboration with his pupil Isabelle de Charrière but never performed, despite various attempts to produce them; the unsettled conditions due to the Revolution compelled his return to Italy. He petitioned the chapter of Milan Cathedral for the post of maestro di cappella in 1793, and obtained it in 1795; the following year he accepted a similar post at the Santa Casa, Loreto, where he remained until 1804 (although retaining the right to succeed Carlo Monza at Milan Cathedral). There he composed the Annuale di Loreto, sacred compositions for the entire church year, as well as his most famous opera, Giulietta e Romeo. After Guglielmi’s death in 1804 Zingarelli became musical director at S Pietro, Rome. In 1811, when Napoleon had his infant son crowned King of Rome, the French occupiers of Rome demanded solemn musical festivities in all the churches, but Zingarelli refused to comply on the grounds that he recognized only the pope, Pius VII (then imprisoned at Fontainebleau), as king of Rome. For this he was arrested and imprisoned, but at Napoleon’s personal intervention he was sent to France, where he endeared himself to the emperor by writing a full-scale solemn mass that lasted only 20 minutes. In 1813 he was appointed head of the newly consolidated conservatory S Pietro a Majella in Naples. After the execution of Murat and the restoration of the Bourbons he retained his position because of his loyalty to the pope and his abstemious and exemplary Catholic life, and his approval by the Austrians for having set Carpani’s translation of the emperor’s hymn to music. After Paisiello’s death in 1816 Zingarelli was also appointed musical director of Naples Cathedral.

Opinions differ about his success as a teacher and administrator of the Naples Conservatory, but the conventional portrait of Zingarelli as a vindictive reactionary is an exaggerated one. He encouraged his students to study the works of foreign as well as Italian composers, stressed the importance of a mastery of the fundamentals of harmony and counterpoint, and emphasized the composition of melody and the search for musical simplicity. His most famous pupils were Morlacchi (at Loreto), Mercadante, Michael Costa and Bellini. From 1804 he received many honours from various European monarchs and musical societies, culminating in his knighthood from Ferdinando I in 1822. He continued to compose, though almost exclusively church music and one-movement symphonies, until his death. He was a highly prolific composer in all vocal and in many instrumental genres.

Zingarelli was the last major composer of opera seria. Most of his librettos are on mythological subjects with happy endings, and his last opera, Berenice, is based on a libretto originally by Zeno. His best-known opera, Giulietta e Romeo (1796), loosely modelled after Shakespeare’s tragedy and with a happy ending, was internationally performed until about 1830 (often as a pasticcio, with pieces added by other composers) and was a favourite vehicle for Maria Malibran. Many of his best operas, including Artaserse, Pirro, Giulietta e Romeo, Ines de Castro and Edipo a Colono, were revised by his contemporaries. Although he was not particularly inclined to comedy, he wrote at least two successful comic operas, Il mercato di Montefregoso (1792) and Il ritratto (1799), both performed at La Scala, Milan.

One of the principal characteristics of Zingarelli's style is the simplicity (and often the sweetness) of his melodic language; his almost obsessive search for a natural style sometimes leads to a certain banality of melodic material. His arias were written specifically for such singers as Crescentini, Rubini, Pasta and Malibran and are in a very simple style, leaving plenty of room for improvisation. His orchestration sometimes shows interesting attempts to exploit the possibilities of single instruments, whether with the voice or alone, but genuine originality is only rarely achieved, and usually in his early works. His tendency to increase dramatic complexity, especially at key moments in the action, results in a combination of traditional forms, often highly extended, and more modern forms (secco or accompanied recitatives, rondos or cabalettas, ensemble or chorus scenes); however, he frequently resorts to conventional solutions to recurring musico-dramatic problems. Zingarelli's main interest was in the expression of tenderness or pathos, and this is best exhibited in his arias for solo voice and string accompaniment, often for secondary characters. Some of these arias retained their popularity into the 1820s and 30s.

After 1811 Zingarelli stopped writing operas and returned to composing or revising oratorios in which he adapted his own style to new tastes through more complex dramatic structures, more elaborate choral writing and by abandoning the castrato voice.

His secular cantatas, with string or orchestral accompaniment, occupy an important place in his output. Since Zingarelli wrote them throughout his career they demonstrate, more than the operas and sacred music, all his various attempts at stylistic renewal, and are thus important from a historical perspective. Of the dramatic cantatas, the more interesting date from before 1790, such as Pigmalione (1779); in the years immediately following, as his interest in Haydn and Mozart waned, he showed greater respect for the formal models and styles current in the late 18th-century cantata. His refined literary taste is reflected in his choice of texts by Dante, Petrarch, Ariosto and his favourite, Tasso. In his mature compositions Zingarelli attempted to adapt to the new sentimental genre which swept Naples in the wake of the success of the French romance and led to the creation and popularity of the salon song. He also wrote a large number of concert arias, duets and terzettos. For the collection of settings of the poem In questa tomba oscura (1808), Beethoven wrote one song but Zingarelli ten, an example of his prolific, if not always discriminating, creativity.

In contrast to the symphonic style of the Viennese mass or the dramatic masses of Cherubini, Zingarelli’s church music is completely functional, intended to support the liturgical ceremony rather than to serve as independent compositions. His sacred works range from motets for solo voice with organ accompaniment, through choruses ranging from two-part boys’ choirs to eight-part double choruses, all with organ accompaniment (musica di capella), to masses or mass sections with full orchestra (musica a pieno). Masses for one or two choirs with a florid soprano solo and organ accompaniment are generally early works. Many of his works for Lent are given a particularly penitential and sombre colour through his use of a reduced orchestral accompaniment consisting solely of violas, cellos, bassoons, basses and organ.

Zingarelli was a pioneer in the setting of sacred devotional works to vernacular texts. Of these, the various settings of devotions on the three hours of Christ's agony stand out: Zingarelli seems to be the only composer from whom a large number of works for this occasion has survived; despite his rather schematic approach to the treatment of the individual texts, they are powerfully expressive. He also wrote vernacular settings of the Stabat mater sequence and of various psalms. Since his sacred music was intended to support rather than to dominate the liturgy, it is difficult to single out individual works on the basis of their musical merit alone, but his mass for Napoleon, the Missa classica di requia, the F major Dixit in which an orchestral ostinato is superimposed on the psalm tone, a Christus e miserere for three solo voices, organ and solo cello, and his settings of Psalms xli and cxii may be considered his best works written specifically for the church. His most famous sacred work is the Christus e miserere alla Palestrina for unaccompanied chorus, written for the students of the Naples Conservatory in 1826. His large non-liturgical choral works include operas on sacred topics and oratorios which range from the classic Neapolitan type (his setting of Metastasio’s Passion) to two massive choral works written in his late years, his setting of Isaiah xii for the Birmingham Festival, 1829, and his oratorio Saulle; Sir Michael Costa made his London début with the revised second version. The best of his non-liturgical choral works are his intimate Nativity cantatas.

Zingarelli’s sonatas and symphonies are generally short one-movement works rather than the multi-movement instrumental cycles of his contemporaries. One of the few composers of the time to write for the organ, he was most interested in the pastorale and its lilting 6/8 rhythm. His numerous fugues, perhaps originally contrapuntal exercises, can also be played on the organ. Most of his chamber music seems to have been written for teaching purposes and consists primarily of duos for two similar string instruments (even two double basses); his best chamber work, a quartet for two cellos, bassoon and contrabass, was probably a prelude to a Lenten devotion. His symphonies represent the peak of his instrumental music, and after 1815 reflect his interest in the music of Haydn and Mozart in their rich orchestral writing, and particular emphasis on the woodwind. Apart from 12 three-movement symphonies which date from his Milan days, they are one-movement works, generally with a slow introduction, highly contrapuntal treatment of the first group of themes, and frequent motivic relationships between groups of themes. They may have been used as ‘overtures’ to solemn masses, especially the four funeral symphonies.

Zingarelli’s relative isolation from contemporary musical currents and his deeply ingrained conservatism caused him to compose, at his best, in a dignified neo-Classical idiom distinguished by skilful counterpoint and noble melodies, but his music at its worst is superficial, stereotyped, dull and even trivial. He was both industrious and prolific and wrote rapidly, often choosing the easiest rather than the best solution to a compositional problem; in the few instances when he revised a work, his second inspirations were superior to his first ones. He believed that Rossini’s music had swept his aside. His posthumous reputation was marred by the bitter attacks of Fétis and the unflattering comments by Méhul, Spohr and Fellerer. The sheer bulk of his musical output and the dispersal of his manuscripts has inhibited detailed studies of his work.

WORKS

Zingarelli, Niccolò Antonio

R.M. LONGYEAR/RODOBALDO TIBALDI

WORKS

Not published unless indicated; MSS primarily in I-Nc, Mc, Ac, LT; others in A-Wgm, Wn; D-Mbs; I-Bc, Fc, MOe, Nf; and Ricordi archives in Milan; US-Wc; opera libs in B-Bc

operas

opere serie unless otherwise stated

for individual manuscript locations see GroveO

I quattro pazzi (int), ?Naples, Conservatorio di S Maria di Loreto, 1768

Motezuma (3, V.A. Cigna-Santi), Naples, S Carlo, 13 Aug 1781

Alsinda (3, F. Moretti), Milan, Scala, 22 Feb 1785

Ricimero (3, F. Silvani), Venice, S Benedetto, 5 May 1785

Armida (3, J. Durandi/S. De Rogatis), Rome, Dame, Feb 1786

Antigono (2, after P. Metastasio), Mantua, Ducale, 13 April 1786

Ifigenia in Aulide (3, Moretti), Milan, Scala, 27 Jan 1787

Artaserse (3, after Metastasio), Trieste, Regio, 19 March 1789

Antigone (3, J.F. Marmontel), Paris, Opéra, 30 April 1790, F-Po*

La morte di Cesare (3, G. Sertor), Milan, Scala, 26 Dec 1790

Pirro, re d’Epiro (3, G. de Gammera), Milan, Scala, 25 Dec 1791

Annibale in Torino (2 or 3, Durandi), Turin, Regio, carn. 1792

Atalanta (?3, C. Olivieri), Turin, Regio, carn. 1792

L’oracolo sannita (3, D. Del Tufo), Milan, Scala, carn. 1792

Il mercato di Monfregoso (ob, 2, after Goldoni: Il mercato di Malmantile), Milan, Scala, 22 Sept 1792

La Rossana (3, P. Calvi), Genoa, S Agostino, carn. 1793, arias

La secchia rapita (ob, 2, A. Anelli), Milan, Scala, 7 Sept 1793

Apelle (2, A.S. Sografi), Venice, Fenice, 18 Nov 1793

Alzira (3, ?G. Rossi, after Voltaire), Florence, Pergola, 7 Sept 1794

Quinto Fabio (2, after Zeno: Lucio Papirio dittatore), Livorno, Accademia degli Avvalorati, aut. 1794

Il conte di Saldagna (3, Moretti), Venice, Fenice, 24 Dec 1794, F-Pn*

Gli Orazi e i Curiazi (2, G. Sernicola), Naples, S Carlo, 4 Nov 1795

Giulietta e Romeo [Romeo e Giulietta] (3, G. Foppa), Milan, Scala, 30 Jan 1796

Andromeda (2, G. Bertati), private perf., Venice, 1796

La morte di Mitridate [Il Mitridate] (2, Sografi), Venice, Fenice, 27 May 1797

Meleagro (3, G. Schmidt), Milan, Scala, Jan 1798

Carolina e Mexicow (3, G. Rossi), Venice, Fenice, carn. 1798

Ines de Castro (2, A. Gasperini), Milan, Carcano, 11 Oct 1798

I veri amici repubblicani (3, G. Boggio), Turin, Regio, 26 Dec 1798

Il ritratto (ob, 2, L. Romanelli), Milan, Scala, 12 Oct 1799

Il ratto delle Sabine (2, Rossi), Venice, Fenice, 26 Dec 1799

Clitennestra (2, F. Salfi), Milan, Scala, 26 Dec 1800, I-Mr

La notte dell’amicizia (G. Foppa), Venice, Fenice, carn. 1802

Edipo a Colono (2, Sografi), Venice, Fenice, 26 Dec 1802

Il bevitore fortunato (ob, 2, Romanelli), Milan, Scala, Nov 1803

Il ritorno di Serse (G. De Ferrari), Modena, Ducale, 8 July 1808

Baldovino (2, J. Ferretti), Rome, Argentina, 11 Feb 1811

Berenice, regina d’Armenia (2, Ferretti, after Zeno: Lucio Vero), Rome, Valle, 12 Nov 1811

Malvina, Naples, S Carlo, carn. 1829, collab. M. Costa

Undated, lost, only frags. extant: Alessandro nelle Indie; Adriano in Siria; Attilio Regolo; Catone in Utica; Castore e Polluce; Ciro riconosciuto; Demetrio; Enea e Lavinia; L'eroe cinese; Les femmes [collab. I. de Charrière]; Ipermestra; Irene; Nitteti; Le nozze di Dorina; Olympiade [collab. Charrière]; Partenope; Il re pastore; Zadig [collab. Charrière]

sacred

La passione di Gesù Cristo (orat, Metastasio), Milan, 1787

Other orats, incl. Giuseppe in Egitto, 1797 Il figliuol prodigo, 1800; Saulle ovvero Il trionfo di Davide (G. Ferretti), Naples, Lent 1805; La riedificazione di (?after Metastasio: Giuseppe riconosciuto) Gerusalemme, Florence, 1812; L’amor filiale, c1815; Il sacrificio d’Abramo (?after Metastsio Isaaco, figura de redentore), c1815; Cantico d’Isaiah profeta, xii, Birmingham, 1829

23 masses, vv, orch, incl. 1 for 8vv, 1 dubious; 58 messe di gloria, vv, org, incl. 1 for 8vv; 4 pastoral masses, 3–4vv; 15 masses, 2–4vv, org; 15 Requiem, incl. 5 for vv, orch; numerous mass sections

?55 Mag; 23 TeD, 3–8vv, incl. 7 with org, 14 with insts; lamentations; lits

Annuale di Loreto, 541 pss and propers, 1794–1804; 15 Stabat mater, incl. 7 with org, insts, 8 with org; 6 Dolore di Maria santissima [It. Stabat mater]; several Pater nosters, incl. 1 to It. text of Dante; Christus e miserere alla Palestrina, 4vv a cappella, Naples, 1826 (Naples, c1860); several other Christus e miserere, vv, insts; 33 Dixit; other pss, incl. lii, cxiii, cxvii, cxxxvii; Pange lingua, 1837; Responses, vv a cappella; many motets, ants, grads, Lat. and It. hymns, 1–5vv, org/orch

16 Le tre ore di agonia, incl. 7 with org, str, 9 with org: after c1820; 2 Quando Gesù all’ultimo lamento, sonetti sacri

Dio salvi Francesco Imperatore (Vienna, 1798), text trans. Carpani from Austrian imperial hymn; Domine salvum fac Imperatorem Napoleonem, Paris, 1811

secular vocal

c20 cants., incl. Elpino e Nice, 1778; Pigmalione, 1779; Il trionfo d’amore (Metastasio), c1785; La danza (?Metastasio); Alcide al bivio (Metastasio), 1787; L’amistà; Didone; La Galatea (?Metastasio); Il nome (?Metastasio); Saffo; La morte di Alceste, 1789; Telemaco, c1793; La vendetta giurata o sia L’Oreste, c1793; All'armi franche, Jesi, 1798; Ulisse nell’isola di Circe; Il lamento dal Conte Ugolino (Dante), c1805; Francesca da Rimini (Dante), c1805; La nascità del Re di Roma, c1811; La fuga in Egitto, Naples, 1837

Odes (Sappho, Anacreon), c1805

In questa tomba oscura (Carpani), 10 settings (Vienna, 1808)

Gerusalemme liberata, canto xii (Paris, c1808)

Many concert arias, duets, terzettos, mostly orch acc., incl. Eno, monologue, 1812

Numerous solfeggios, mostly S

instrumental

12 3-movt sym., c1785; 53 1-movt sym., c1815–c1835; 4 1-movt funeral sym.

3 str qts; 4 1-movt str qts; Qt, a, 2 vc, bn, db

Duettinos, 2 vn; 1-movt sonatas, 2 vc; 1-movt sonatas, 2 db; 1-movt sonatas/etudes, db

7 1-movt sonatas; sonatina, d; 39 fugues; 21 marches: all org

11 pastorales, org/pf; 3 sonatas, pf, c1775

Many fugues and partimenti

Zingarelli, Niccolò Antonio

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DEUMM (R. Bossa)

ES (U. Prota Giurleo)

FlorimoN

GroveO (M. Caraci Vela)

MGG1 (F. Degrada)

G. Carpani: Le Haydine (Milan, 1812, 2/1823/R; Eng. trans., 1820)

G. Carpani: Le rossiniane ossia Lettere musico-teatrali (Padua, 1824)

R. Guarini: Notizie della vita del Cav. D. Niccolò Zingarelli (Naples, 1837)

B. Vita: Catalogo della musica lasciata dal maestro Zingarelli (Naples, 1837) [incl. partial list of works]

R. Liberatore: Obituary, Gli annali civici del regno delle Due Sicilie, xxviii (1837), 3–56

A. de la Fage: ‘Nicolas Zingarelli’, Miscellanées musicales (Paris, 1844)

A. Schmid: Joseph Haydn und Niccolò Zingarelli (Vienna, 1847)

Stendhal: ‘Notes d'un dilettante’, Mélanges d'art et de littérature (Paris, 1867), 285–91

S. Di Giacomo: ‘Il fiero Zingarelli’, Musica d'oggi, v (1923), 1777–9

A. Mondolfi: ‘Nicola Zingarelli attraverso la catalogazione dei suoi autografi nella Biblioteca di S. Pietro a Majella’, Il rievocatore, vi (1955)

F. Mompellio: ‘La cappella del Duomo dal 1573 ai primi decenni del '900’, Storia di Milano, xvi (1962), 507–88

R.M. Longyear: ‘The Symphonies of Niccolò Zingarelli’, AnMc, no.19 (1979), 288–319

W. Witzenmann: ‘Grundzüge der Instrumentation in italienischen Opern von 1770 bis 1939’, AnMc, xxi (1982), 276–331

L.M. Kantner: ‘Das Messenschaffen Joseph Haydns und seiner italienischen Zeitgenossen: ein Vergleich’, Joseph Haydn: Tradition und Rezeption, ed. G. Feder, H. Hüschen and U. Tank (Regensburg, 1985), 145–59

M. Caraci: ‘Niccolò Zingarelli fra mito e critica’, NRMI, xxii (1988), 375–422

S. Balthazar: ‘Mayr, Rossini, and the Development of the Early concertato Finale’, JRMA, cvi (1991), 236–66

M. Caraci Vela: ‘Il “tragico colorito” della Musa zingarelliana dalla cantata da camera alla romanza da salotto’, Gli affetti convenienti all'idee: studi sulla musica vocale italiana, ed. M. Caraci Vela, R. Cafiero and A. Romagnoli (Naples, 1993), 423–52

A. De Bei: ‘Giuliettae Romeo di Nicola Zingarelli: fortuna ed eredità di un soggetto shakespeariano’, Aspetti dell'opera italiana fra Sette e Ottocento: Mayr e Zingarelli, ed. G. Salvetti (Lucca, 1993), 71–125

P. Peretti: ‘“All'armi franche”: una cantata rivoluzionaria di Niccolò Zingarelli (Jesi 1798)’, Gli affetti convenienti all'idee: studi sulla musica vocale italiana, ed. M. Caraci Vela, R. Cafiero and A. Romagnoli (Naples,1993), 453–81

C. Toscani: ‘Soggetti romantici nell'opera italiana del periodo napoleonico (1796–1815)’, Aspetti dell'opera italiana fra Sette e Ottocento: Mayr e Zingarelli, ed. G. Salvetti (Lucca, 1993), 13–70

F. Bruni and F. Refrigeri: ‘Musiche per le tre ore di agonia di N.S.G.C. Nuove fonti per lo studio della funzione del Venerdì santo in Italia’, NRMI, xxviii (1994), 483–506

C. Bongiovanni: ‘Una messa inedita autografa di Zingarelli a Piacenza’, Jommelli e musica religiosa in Italia alla fine del Settecento: tradizione e contaminazione nella produzione sacra del tempo: Aversa 1996

Zingarese, alla

(It.: ‘in gypsy style’).

A performance direction found particularly in virtuoso violin music of the late 19th century. Brahms marked the finale of his G minor Piano Quartet op.25 ‘Rondo alla zingarese’. See also Gypsy music.

Zingel, Hans J(oachim)

(b Frankfurt an der Oder, 21 Nov 1904; d Cologne, 16 Nov 1978). German harpist and musicologist. He was the son of Rudolf Ewald Zingel (1876–1944), an organist, choral conductor and composer in Greifswald. From 1923 to 1927 he studied at the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik in Berlin with harp (under Max Saal) as his main subject. He then studied musicology under Max Schneider, with German literature and aesthetics as secondary subjects, at the universities of Berlin, Breslau (1927–8) and Halle (1928–30). He took the doctorate in Halle in 1930 with a dissertation on harp playing from the 16th century to the 18th. Harpist in the Städtische Orchester of Lübeck from 1932, he joined the Städtische Orchester of Halle in 1934 and the Gürzenich Orchestra in Cologne in 1938, where he remained until his retirement in 1969; he also played in the Bayreuth Festival Orchestra (1933–8, 1951–6). He became lecturer in harp (1948) and professor (1974) at the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik in Cologne. He published numerous studies on the history of harps and harp music as well as harp tutors and modern performing editions of early harp music.

WRITINGS

Harfe und Harfenspiel vom Beginn des 16. bis ins zweite Drittel des 18. Jahrhunderts (diss., U. of Halle, 1930; Halle, 1932/R)

‘Zur Bibliographie der Schulwerke für Harfe’, AcM, v (1935), 162–7

‘Zur Geschichte des Harfenkonzerts’, ZMw, xvii (1935), 503–12

‘Studien zur Geschichte des Harfenspiels in klassischer und romantischer Zeit’, AMf, ii (1937), 455–65

‘Die Einführung der Harfe in das romantische Orchester’, Mf, ii (1949), 192–204

‘Die Harfe in der Musik unserer Zeit’, Festschrift Max Schneider zum achtzigsten Geburtstag, ed. W. Vetter (Leipzig, 1955), 285–93

Harfenmusik … Verzeichnis der gedruckten und zur Zeit greifbaren Literatur für Pedalharfe (Hofheim, 1965)

Neue Harfenlehre (Leipzig, 1967–9)

König Davids Harfe in der abendländischer Kunst/King David's Harp as Represented in European Art (Cologne, 1968)

Die Entwicklung des Harfenspiels von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1969)

Orchesterstudien für Harfe aus Orchesterwerken des 20. Jahrhunderts (Cologne, 1972)

Harfenspiel im Barockzeitalter (Regensburg, 1974)

Harfenmusik im 19. Jahrhundert (Wilhelmshaven, 1976; Eng. trans., 1992)

Lexikon der Harfe: ein biographisches, bibliographisches, geographisches und historisches Nachschlagewerk von A–Z (Laaber, 1977)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

H.J. Zingel: ‘Zingel, Hans Joachim’, Rheinische Musiker, ii, ed. K.G. Fellerer (Cologne, 1962) [incl. complete list of publications to 1962]

HANS HEINRICH EGGEBRECHT

Zingoni [Singoni, Zingone], Giovanni Battista

(b Florence, 1718/20; d Colliges [now Colligis], nr Laon, 21 April 1811). Italian tenor and composer. He studied in Naples at the Conservatorio di S Maria della Pietà dei Turchini. In 1749 he competed unsuccessfully for the post of maestro di cappella of S Stefano (dei Cavalieri) in Pisa. Between 1751 and 1752 he was active in Savona as a singer and maestro di cappella, and he held the same post at S Ambrogio in Alassio between March 1753 and December 1754. From 1756 onwards his career as a singer and composer took him to a number of European cities. In 1759 he joined the opera company of the De Amicis family; in the autumn of 1760 his opera Zenobia was performed in Amsterdam with Anna Lucia De Amicis in the title role. In 1762 the De Amicis company appeared, with Zingoni, in the Smock Alley Theatre in Dublin, where on 27 February of that year Zingoni's comic opera La creanza was performed. From the end of 1762 until May 1763 he was in London, where he sang secondary roles at the Haymarket Theatre under the direction of J.C. Bach. From February 1764 Zingoni was in Holland as maestro di cappella, composer and singer to the House of Orange. Leopold Mozart, in Holland at the time, refers to him as the ‘princesses' teacher’ at The Hague between the end of 1765 and 1766. The latter year saw the publication of his eight symphonies, op.1, in Amsterdam. These symphonies are conventional and well-crafted pieces, produced in a period when the genre was undergoing considerable development. As well as being praised by J.A. Hiller and appearing in the Breitkopf sales catalogue, the Paris publisher Simon Le Duc obtained the rights to reprint them in 1767. Documents indicate that from 1764 to 1768 and from 1778 to 1781 Zingoni received a salary from the Dutch court, which became an annual pension from 1782 to 1810. From 1786 he was living in Colliges, a small town near Laon, where he died in 1811, at about the age of 91.

WORKS

dramatic

Chi tutto vuole aver nulla possiede (int), Savona, Collegio dei Padri Gesuiti, 1752 and 1762, I-SA

Zenobia (dramma per musica, P. Metastasio), Amsterdam, Gran Teatro, aut. 1760, music lost

La fausse épouse (oc, 3), Amsterdam, Gran Teatro, wint. 1761, music lost

La creanza (dramma per musica), Dublin, Smock Alley, 27 Feb 1762, music lost

Arias in Extrait des airs françois de tous les operas nouveaux (Amsterdam, n.d.); 2 arias in Extrait des airs françois des opéras nouveaux (Liège, c1766); 1 aria in A Select Collection of Vocal Music, Serious and Comic (London, 1770)

3 arias, Gl; 2 arias, D-Bsb

sacred

Cr, 3vv, 2 vn, 2 ob, 2 hn, va, bc, GB-Lbl

Dixit Dominus, 4vv, 2 vn, 2 hn, bc, I-Gl

Dominus e Dixit, 3vv, 2 vn, bc, Gl

instrumental

8 syms., 2 vn, 2 ob, 2 hn, va, bc, op.1 (Amsterdam, 1766)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (K.H. Köhler)

SartoriL

M. De Smet: La musique à la cour de Guillaume V, Prince d'Orange (1748–1806) d'après les archives de la Maison Royale des Pays-Bas (Utrecht, 1973)

C. Bongiovanni: ‘La carriera europea del tenore e compositore Giovanni Battista Zingoni (Firenze, 1718/1720–Colligis, 1811)’, La musica ad Alassio dal XVI al XIX secolo: storia e cultura, ed. G. Puerari (Savona, 1994), 505–59

CARMELA BONGIOVANNI

Zink (i)

(Ger.).

See Cornett.

Zink (ii)

(Ger.).

See under Organ stop.

Zink, Benedict.

See Zinck, Bendix Friedrich.

Zink, Harnack Otto Conrad.

See Zinck, Hardenack Otto Conrad.

Zinman, David (Joel)

(b New York, 10 July 1936). American conductor. After early violin studies at the Oberlin Conservatory he studied theory and composition at the University of Minnesota and took up conducting at Tanglewood. He then worked in Maine with Monteux (1958–62), serving as his assistant from 1961 to 1964. Zinman was principal conductor of the Netherlands Chamber Orchestra from 1965 to 1977, music director of the Rochester PO from 1974 to 1985 and chief conductor of the Rotterdam PO from 1979 to 1982. After two years as principal guest conductor, Zinman was appointed music director of the Baltimore SO in 1985, a position he held until 1998. With that orchestra he made important recordings (including a series of Schumann symphonies and much American music) and transformed a regional ensemble into a leading American institution, his musical strengths complemented by an engaging manner, a deep commitment to music education and community relations, deft use of the media and self-deprecating humour (‘I am the Mel Brooks of the violin’, he once declared). He has also appeared with leading orchestras and festivals in the USA, Canada and Europe. Zinman has given numerous premières at Baltimore and elsewhere, including works by Adams, Bolcom, Danielpour, Daugherty, Kernis, Kirchner, Rouse and Torke. His recording of Gorecki’s Symphony no.3 with the London Sinfonietta was an international bestseller. Zinman became music director of the Zürich Tonhalle Orchestra in 1995 and the following year was appointed music director of the Aspen Festival and received the Peabody Award from Johns Hopkins University.

CHARLES BARBER

Zinsstag, Gérard

(b Geneva, 9 May 1941). Swiss composer and flautist. He studied the flute at the Geneva Conservatory, the Paris Conservatoire and the Accademia Chigiana, Siena. After playing in various European orchestras (1964–7), he became a member of the Zürich Tonhalle-Orchester (1967–75). It was during this period that he began to study composition, working with Hans Ulrich Lehmann at the Zürich Conservatory (1973–5) and privately in Stuttgart and Hanover with Helmut Lachenmann (1975–7). From 1976 to 1978 he was an active participant in the Darmstadt summer school. He later lived in the USA (1979–80, 1983), Berlin (1981–2) and Paris (1982), where he worked at IRCAM. In 1986 he co-founded the Tage für Neue Musik Zürich with Thomas Kessler, serving as co-director until 1994. His honours include the title of guest of honour at the Leningrad Spring Festival (1990) and a sabbatical grant from the city of Zürich (1991).

Zinsstag is interested in the antithesis of harmony and discord, ‘finished sounds’ and open-ended noises, illusion and reality. He tries to eliminate such distinctions by relating the musical to the extra-musical, manipulating beautiful sounds until they are unrecognizable and showing the beautiful side of ugliness. His works have been influenced by philosophers and writers such as Samuel Beckett, Christopher Caudwell, Jean-Paul Sartre and Leon Trotsky (Foris, 1979), Ernst Bloch and Karl Marx (Trauma, 1980–81) and Edmund Husserl (Tempor, 1991–2). Frequently including musical quotations, his music oscillates between the poles of matter and memory. His imagination for sound and his increasing interest in dance, singing and folk music (such as in Espressivo, 1990) have led to vibrant, colourful compositions.

WORKS

Vocal: wenn zum beispiel … (F. Mon), 4 spkr, trbn, db, pf, 2 perc, 1975; Hülsen … oder die irrfahrt des Kerns), 4vv, speaking chorus, str sextet, 2-track tape, 1977; Trauma, chorus, 1980–81; eden jeden (C. Bremer), Mez/A/Bar, 14 insts, tape, 1987; Hommage à Charles Racine, Mez, 8 insts, 1997

Orch: Innanzi, db, orch, 1978; Foris, 1979; Altération, chbr orch, 1980; Tempi inquieti, pf, 2 perc, orch, 1984–6; Anaphores, pf, orch, 1989; Alteration, chbr orch, 1991, frag.; Tahir, va, str orch, perc, 1995

Chbr and solo inst: Déliements, fl, org, 1975; Tatastenfelder, 3 typewriters, pf, tape recorder, 1975; Suono reale, pf, 1976; Perforation, 2 vc, elec gui, 2 pf, 3 perc, 1980; Incalzando, 2 pf, 1981; Artifices I, 18 insts, 1982–3; 7 Frags., str qt, 1982–3 [nos. 1, 2, 3, 6, 7 arr. as 5 Frags.]; Cut Sounds, org, 1984, rev. 1991; Stimuli, va, vc, db, 1984; Artifices II, 2 tapes, 10 insts, elecs, 1988; Espressivo, cymbals, 13 insts, 1990; Tempor, fl, cl, str trio, pf, 1991–2; Diffractions, 3 perc, 1993; Artifices III, fl, cl, elec gui, synth, perc, elecs, 1994; Str Qt no.2, 1994–5; … u vremenu rata …, perc, 1994; Ergo, pf, small wind ens, perc, 1996

Principal publishers: Salabert, Edition Modern

BIBLIOGRAPHY

T. Meyer: ‘Aus dem Prozess des Komponierens heraus’, Tages-Anzeiger [Zürich] (13 Oct 1979) [interview]

P. Szendy: ‘Gérard Zinsstag: Matière et mémoire’, Dissonanz, no.31 (1992), 14–18

M. Zenck: ‘Im Zustand der Erschöpfung: Kategorien im Musikdenken von Gérard Zinsstag’, MusikTexte, no.52 (1994), 5–13

J.-N. von der Weid: ‘Gérard Zinsstag’, Contemporary Swiss Composers (Zürich, 1996)

ANTON HAEFELI

Zinzendorf (und Pottendorf), (Johann) Karl (Christian Heinrich) von

(b Dresden, 5 Jan 1739; d Vienna, 5 Jan 1813). Austrian diarist, nephew of Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf. A highly placed government official, he chronicled aristocratic life in Vienna and elsewhere in his diary, which he kept from the age of eight to his death. This diary, in 76 volumes, is in the Haus- Hof- und Staatsarchiv in Vienna. The Tagebücher or diaries comprise volumes 6–57 and begin at the time of Zinzendorf's move to Vienna in 1761. Factual and reliable, they have long been consulted by music historians to establish what was performed when, where and for whom; only rarely, however, do they also provide performance details or critical commentary. Although Zinzendorf was a connoisseur of the theatre, he was not especially musical. He generally attended concerts, particularly of instrumental music, only if they were society events. His comment at a performance of Handel's Messiah on 7 April 1789 is characteristic: ‘I became somewhat bored although the music was very beautiful’; he knows the music to be beautiful only because others have said so. However, precisely because he defers to the judgment of others in musical matters, he functions as the ideal spokesman for his class.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

O.E. Deutsch: ‘Mozart in Zinzendorfs Tagebücher’, Smz, cii (1962), 211–18

H. Wagner: Wien von Maria Theresia bis zur Franzosenzeit: aus den Tagebüchern des Grafen Karl von Zinzendorf (Vienna, 1972)

C. Pagnini: Il periodo triestino del diario inedito del Conte Carlo de Zinzendorf Primo Governatore di Trieste (1776–1777) (Trieste, 1978)

M. Breunlich: ‘Gluck in den Tagebüchern des Grafen Karl von Zinzendorf’, Gluck in Wien: Vienna 1987, 62–8

G. Englebert: J.K.C.H. Comte de Zinzendorf; journal chronique belgo-bruxelloise 1766–1770 (Brussels,1991)

M. Breunlich and M. Mader: Karl Graf von Zinzendorf: aus den Jugendbüchern 1747, 1752 bis 1763 (Vienna, 1997)

D. Link: ‘Vienna’s Private Theatrical and Musical Life, 1783–92, as reported by Count Karl Zinzendorf’, JRMA, cxxii (1997), 205–57

D. Link: The National Court Theatre in Mozart’s Vienna: Sources and Documents 1783–1792 (Oxford,1998)

DOROTHEA LINK

Zinzendorf, Nikolaus Ludwig von

(b Dresden, 26 May 1700; d Herrnhut, 7 May 1760). German religious leader. The founder in 1722 of the Renewed Moravian Church, he was from infancy subject to the ardent Pietism of both sides of his family, which was of noble lineage. Spener, the father of Lutheran Pietism, was his godfather. The early death of his father, and his mother's remarriage, left him under the care of his maternal grandmother on a country estate, where the precocious child acquired a deep sense of personal attachment to Christ. At the age of ten he went to Francke's school at Halle; his six years there were a time of difficult adjustment, but deepened his piety and zeal for future Christian service.

As a nobleman Zinzendorf could not become a pastor. Reluctantly he studied at Wittenberg for three years in preparation for state service, privately reading more theology than law. A grand tour of cultural centres following university introduced him to men of differing religious views; thereafter doctrine was of lesser importance to him than the ‘heart religion’ which united all Christians. His own preference was the Augsburg Confession. On this tour he saw a painting of the crucified Saviour in Düsseldorf which implanted in him a lifelong fixation on the sufferings of Christ, vividly expressed in his hymns and other writings.

In 1721 he half-heartedly accepted an appointment as councillor at the Saxon court. At the same time, a year before his marriage, he bought a manorial estate in Upper Lusatia, on which he hoped to foster Pietism. It became a haven for Moravian refugees seeking to revive the church of their forefathers, the Unitas Fratrum (Unity of Brethren). Named Herrnhut, this settlement became the prototype for others in Europe and America. After 1727 he gave all his time to the emerging Moravian Church of which he later became a bishop. Exiled from Saxony from 1736 to 1747 for his religious innovations, he became the ‘pilgrim count’, travelling on behalf of Pietist societies in Europe and missions overseas.

To Zinzendorf, singing had above all to express Christian experience. He himself wrote some 2000 hymns and stimulated others to write. Most Moravian hymns were sung to German chorale tunes. Gifted with a fine voice, he led song services and initiated the famed Singstunde, a service built around stanzas spontaneously but skilfully chosen to form a unified theme. He believed that only memorized hymns could express the Christian's deepest feelings. Zinzendorf was original and imaginative, and directed his congregations to make the widest possible use of organs, orchestras, brass ensembles and choirs. The Moravian Church under his direction absorbed much of the rich musical life of 18th-century Germany. He also encouraged the use of music to add enjoyment and enthusiasm to the performance of daily tasks. He reinstated the love-feast (agapē) of the New Testament Church, which in the Moravian Church has become a musical service during which the congregation eats a simple meal.

Zinzendorf published many hymns, sacred texts and other writings; a collected edition has been published, edited by E. Beyreuther and G. Meyer (Hildesheim, 1962–6).

See also music of the Moravians.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J.T. Hamilton: A History of the Church Known as the Moravian Church (Bethlehem, PA, 1900/R)

J.R. Weinlick: Count Zinzendorf (Nashville, 1956/R)

E. Beyreuther: Zinzendorf und die Christenheit (Marburg, 1961)

A.J. Lewis: Zinzendorf, the Ecumenical Pioneer (London, 1962)

D. Meyer, ed.: Bibliographisches Handbuch zur Zinzedorf-Forschung (Düsseldorf, 1987)

JOHN R. WEINLICK

Zipoli, Domenico

(b Prato, 16/17 Oct 1688; d Santa Catalina, nr Córdoba, Argentina, 2 Jan 1726). Italian organist and composer. He was the sixth child born to Sabatino Zipoli and Eugenia Varrochi. The Prato Cathedral organist-choirmasters in his youth were both Florentines: Ottavio Termini (from 1703) and Giovanni Francesco Beccatelli. On 12 September 1707 he petitioned Cosimo III, Grand Duke of Tuscany, for six scudi monthly so that he could study at Florence, where the cathedral organist from 1703 was Giovanni Maria Casini. On 2 February and 9 March 1708 he cooperated with Casini, Caldara, Gasparini and 20 others in composing an oratorio produced at Florence under the supervision of Orlandini by the Compagnia di S Marco, and later that year at the Oratorians’ church in a version with arias by Zipoli replacing those of Omodei Sequi. Supported by a further ducal charity grant, he moved to Naples in 1709 for lessons with Alessandro Scarlatti but left in the same year after disagreements and went to study at Bologna under Lavinio Felice Vannucci; he next went from Bologna to Rome for lessons with the veteran Bernardo Pasquini. Staying in Rome after Pasquini’s death in 1710, he composed two oratorios of which only the librettos survive, S Antonio di Padova (1712) and S Caterina vergine, e martire (1714). In 1715 he was appointed organist of the Jesuit church at Rome and the next year published the keyboard collection on which his fame rests, Sonate d’intavolatura. The Princess of Forano to whom he dedicated the work, Maria Teresa Strozzi, may have been related to the bishop, Leone Strozzi, who had confirmed him at Prato Cathedral on 2 May 1699. Throughout his stay in Rome Zipoli lodged with Filippo Baldocci, prior of S Giovanni dei Fiorentini.

Zipoli joined the Society of Jesus on 1 July 1716, and soon after went to Seville to await passage to the Paraguay province. With 53 other prospective Jesuit missionaries he sailed from Cádiz on 5 April 1717. After a violent storm he and the others disembarked in July at Buenos Aires, and after 15 days set out for Córdoba. By 1724 he had completed with distinction the required three years each of philosophy and theology at the Jesuit Colegio Máximo and university in Córdoba. He was ready to receive priest’s orders in 1725, but died (of tuberculosis) without them for lack of a bishop in Córdoba to ordain him that year.

Zipoli was one of many excellent musicians recruited by the Jesuits between 1650 and 1750 for work in the so-called Paraguay reductions. His music was much in demand in South America: the viceroy in Lima asked for copies, and as late as 1784 a three-part orchestrally accompanied mass was copied in Potosí and sent to Sucre (Higher Peru, now Bolivia). Jesuit documents of 1728, 1732 and later note his continuing reputation up to at least 1774 in Yapeyú and other Guarany Indian villages from which Europeans were excluded; at one mission, S Pedro y S Pablo, nine ‘motetes’ by Zipoli were listed among the effects left after the expulsion of the Jesuits. In the 1970s some 23 works by Zipoli (including copies of known keyboard pieces) were discovered among a large collection of manuscripts at the San Rafael and Santa Ana missions in eastern Bolivia (they are now deposited at Concepción, Apostolic Vicariate of Ñuflo de Chávez). At San Rafael the Swiss Jesuit Martin Schmid (1694–1772) may have prepared a Spanish drama celebrating the lives of Loyola and Francis Xavier, which ended with a paragraph in the Chiquitano language summarizing the moral of the drama. In 1997 the Argentine scholar Bernado Illari interpolated excerpts into this (including some possibly by Zipoli) to form an ‘opera’, S Ignacio.

The charm and winsomeness of Zipoli’s 1716 keyboard works inspired their republication in London by Walsh and in Paris (1741; the harpsichord music only). The first part, for organ, consists of a brilliant prefatory toccata followed by five sets of short versos, each set ending with a canzona (of which much the most elaborate is the last in G minor), two elevations, a post-communion, an offertory and a folklike pastorale. The second part, for harpsichord, contains four short dance suites and two partitas (or variations). Zipoli moved freely between keys, timed his modulations exquisitely, never laboured an imitative point, made a virtue of concision, and wrote melodies instead of mere contrapuntal lines. His South American mass, copied at Potosí in 1784, closing with the ‘Osanna’, exhibits similar virtues. He was the most renowned Italian composer to go to the New World in colonial times and the most famous to have chosen the Jesuit order.

WORKS

oratorios

only librettos extant

Sara in Egitto (D. Canavese), Florence, Compagnia di S Marco, 1708, collab. others

S Antonio di Padova (C. Uslenghi), Rome, Oratorio della Chiesa Nuova, 1712

S Caterina vergine, e martire (G.B. Grappelli), Rome, Oratorio S Girolamo della Carità, 1714

other works

Sonate d’intavolatura, org, hpd, parte prima (?Rome, 1716; 2/c1722 as A Third Collection of Toccates, Vollentarys and Fugues … with particular Great Pieces for the Church), parte seconda (?Rome, 1716; 2/1725 as Six Suits of Italian Lessons … with great Variety of Passages and Variations, hpd/spinet, op.1); ed. in I classici della musica italiana, xxxvi (Milan, 1919); ed. L.F. Tagliavini (Heidelberg, 1959)

Missa, SAT, 2 vn, org, bc, Sucre, Archivo Nacional, Música 1208 [?pasticcio, copied 1784]; contains concordances with a Missa brevis (ky and Gl) and Misa de San Ignacio (Cr and San), both Concepción, The Apostolic Vicariate of Ñuflo de Chávez, Bolivia

Messa concertata, 8vv, insts, lost, mentioned by G.B. Martini, see MGG1

Ave maris stella, S, vn, bc (odd verses), SAT, vn, bc (even verses); Beatus vir, S, SAT, 2 vn, bc; Confitebor tibi Domine, A, SAT, 2 vn, bc; Deus ad adjutorium, SAT, 2 vn, bc; Deus ad adjutorium, S, T, SATB, vn, bc; Dixit Dominus, S, T, SATB, vn, bc; Laudate Dominum omnes gentes, SATT, vn, bc: all Concepción, The Apostolic Vicariate of Ñuflo de Chávez, Bolivia

Letania, Tantum ergo, see Claro

Cants.: Dell’offese a vendicarmi chiamo all’armi, Bar, bc, D-Bsb; Mia bella Irene, S, bc, GB-Lcm

Sonata, vn, bc, D-Dl; ed. in Erikson-Bloch

Retirada del emperador de los dominios de S[ua] S[antidad], kbd, Concepción, The Apostolic Vicariate of Ñuflo de Chávez, Bolivia; other works, kbd, org (incl. ?earlier versions of some in 1716 vol., ?autograph), I-MAC

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (L.F. Tagliavini)

StevensonRB

G. Fúrlong Cardiff: ‘Domenico Zipoli músico eximio en Europa y América, 1688–1726’, Archivum historicum Societatis Iesu, xxiv (1955), 418–28 [with reproductions of original documents]

L. Ayestarán: Domenico Zipoli: vida y obra (Buenos Aires, 1962)

S. Claro: ‘La música en las misiones jesuitas de Moxos’, RMC, no.108 (1969), 7–31, esp. 22–6, 30

F.C. Lange: ‘Der Fall Domenico Zipoli: Verlauf und Stand einer Berichtigung’, Musicae scientiae collectanea: Festschrift Karl Gustav Fellerer, ed. H. Hüschen (Cologne, 1973), 327–55

F.C. Lange: ‘O caso Domenico Zipoli: uma retificação histórica – a sua Opera Omnia’, Barroco (Belo Horizonte, 1973), no.5, pp.7–44

J.P. Franze: ‘La obra completa para órgano de Domenico Zipoli’, Buenos Aires musical, no.466 (1974)

S. Erickson-Bloch: The Keyboard Music of Domenico Zipoli (diss., Cornell U., 1975)

R. Stevenson: ‘Ginastera's Arrangement of an Organ Toccata by Domenico Zipoli’, LAMR, vi (1985), 94–6

R. Stevenson: ‘Zipoli's Transit Through Dictionaries, a Tercentenary Remembrance’, Inter-American Music Review, ix/2 (1987–8), 21–89

T.F. Kennedy: ‘Colonial Music from the Episcopal Archive at Concepción, Bolivia’, LAMR, ix (1988), 1–17

W.A. Roldán: ‘Catálogo de manuscritos de música colonial de los archivos de San Ignacio y Concepción (Moxos y Chiquitos), de Bolivia’, Revista del Instituto de investigación musicológica Carlos Vega, xi/11 (1990), 225–478

P. Nawrot: Vespers Music in the Paraguay Reductions (diss., Catholic U. of America, 1993)

P. Nawrot: Introduction to Musica vesperarum in Chiquitorum reductionibus Boliviœ (1691–1767): opera Dominici Zipoli ac anonymorum magistrorum jesuitarum et indigenarum (Concepción, Bolivia, 1994)

ROBERT STEVENSON

Ziporyn, Evan

(b Chicago, 1959). American composer and clarinettist. He took the BA at Yale (1981) and the MA and doctorate at the University of California, Berkeley. His composition teachers included Bresnick, Imbrie, Grisey, Lewin, Schwantner, Felciano and Anthony Davis. He also studied the clarinet (with Keith Wilson), Balinese drumming and jazz performance. After graduating from Yale, Ziporyn spent a year in Bali studying under I Made Lebah. From 1990 he taught at the MIT, in 1993 he became director of the ensemble Gamelan Galak Tika (a group that has provided him with opportunity to explore combinations of Indonesian and Western instruments) and in 1977 he joined the staff at Yale. For several years he has been a prominent performer at the New York Bangon a Can festival.

Ziporyn's career embodies jazz clarinet playing, composition in a postmodernist vein and ethnomusicology. Not surprisingly, his music embraces the differences between music cultures. For instance, in Luv Time (1984) three saxophones perform riffs in the style of John Coltrane against a background of rubato piano chords and Balinese percussion, while Tree Fire (1994) blends electric guitars and synthesizers (and the musical rhetoric of such instruments) with a Balinese gamelan using traditional techniques. Much of his music features virtuoso clarinet writing (he is also an accomplished bass clarinettist) and repetitive harmonic progressions, affecting accessibility and the suggestion of jazz.

WORKS

Large ens: White Dwarf, orch, 1980; Is: this, chbr orch, 1980; Second Prize, chbr orch (1981); Pleasureville, Pain City, orch, 1985, Filling Station, orch, 1986; Night Bus, Sundanese gamelan degung, 1990; Kekembangan, sax qt, Balinese gamelan gong kebyar, 1990, collab. I. Nyoman Windha; Tire Fire, gui qt, Balinese gamelan gong kebyar, 1993; Houtman's Men in Buleleng, wind ens, guis, perc, 1994; Kebyar Maya, solo vc, vc ans, 1995; Amok!, Balinese gamelan gong kebyar, MIDI (2 p mrs) 1996; Tsmindao Ghmerto, b cl , wind ens, 1997

Small ens: 33 Vortices, 5 cl, 1978; 10 Str Qts, 1979; Luv Time, chbr ens, 1984; Twine, S, b cl, 2 sax, vn, 1985; What she Saw There, b cl/vc, 2 Mar, 1988; Tree Frog, b cl, bar sax, trbn, vn, kbd, perc, 1990; Dog Dream, fl, cl, vn, vc, elec, 1990; Bossa Nova, brass qnt, 1991; Esto House, elecs, 1991; Be-In, str qnt, 1991; Aneh Tapi Nyata, gui, pf, perc, Balinese perc, 1992; Perques, elec insts, 1994; Weeds, elec insts, 1994; Pay Phone, elec insts, 1994; Eel Bone, str qt, 1996; Dreams of a Dominant Culture, fl, cl, vn, vc, elec pf, perc, 1997; Serenity Now, wind nonet, 1998; Melody Competition, 6 perc, 1999

1 or 2 insts: 2 Obsessions, cl, 1980; Weltscenen, pf, 1981; The Water's Fine, pf, 1983; It is and it isn't, 2 cl, 1985; Some Coal, pf, 1985; Waiting by the Phone, cl, 1986; Fractal Head, pf, 1987; Walk the Dog, b cl, tape, 1991; China Spring, ob, pf, 1991;The Motions, va + elecs, 1991; Studies in Normative Behaviour, perc, 1991; Tsmindao Ghmerto, b cl, 1992; Bindu Semara, cl, 1994; Partial Truths, b cl, 1997; Current Rate, 2 pipa, 1998

Principal publisher: Airplane Ears

Principal recording companies: CRI, Sony, New World

WRITINGS

‘It's Monk's Time’, PNM, xx (1981–2), 10–11

with J. Bauberger: ‘Getting it Wrong’, Worlds of Music, xxxiv/3 (1992–3), 22–56 [a study of Balinese ornamentation and pedagogical techniques]

‘Who Listens if you Care’, New Observations (1991), wint.; repr. in StrunkSR2, vii

KYLE GANN

Zipp, Friedrich

(b Frankfurt, 20 June 1914; d Freiburg, 7 Oct 1997). German composer, teacher and organist. In 1933 he attended the Hoch Conservatory in Frankfurt, where he studied the organ with Walcha and composition with Sekles, and also studied at the university of Frankfurt. From 1934 to 1938 he continued his studies at the Staatliche Hochschule für Musikerziehung und Kirchenmusik in Berlin-Charlottenburg, where his teacher of composition was Armin Knab. Under Knab’s influence Zipp developed a keen and lasting interest in German and international folk music and particularly the treasury of old chorale tunes. He learnt to compose with the most archaic musical elements, convinced that they would best convey his personal musical expression. From 1938 until his war service (1941–5) he was active in Frankfurt as an organist and teacher. In 1947 he was appointed lecturer in composition at the Staatliche Hochschule für Musik in Frankfurt, later becoming a professor (1962–76).

Zipp’s sacred composition was guided by his conviction that genuine church music depends upon the composer’s inner relationship to the liturgy and to the laity. ‘Hence, we should have the courage to compose in a modest style’, he stated, ‘realizing that the simplest solution is often the best’. Rejecting 12-note, serial and electronic techniques, Zipp produced spirited music for use in church services, and a quantity of Gebrauchsmusik for church musicians, amateurs, laity and children. His use of intervals is unpretentious, involving parallel 4ths, 5ths and octaves and unresolved 7ths; there are brief modal excursions, and simple counterpoints, creating rather frugal and at times archaic music, its simple musical structure enabling audiences immediately to understand his work. In his efforts to reach lay choirs, Zipp revived Junktim and Alternatimpraxis; he also cultivated medieval, Renaissance and Baroque figurations, part-writing and forms.

Zipp’s investigation of the entire Pythagorean tradition led him to favour a form of tonality which consistently grants structural priorities (also in chords and intervals) to the lower ‘enmelic’ pitches of the overtone series. This remained a feature of his organ chorale preludes, toccatas, arrangements and ‘free pieces’. His subtle melodic gifts aided him in attaining a welcome and expressive folksong-like style of great economy and unaffected simplicity.

WORKS

(selective list)

Orch: Kirchensuite, str (1962); Tokkata, aria e danza sacra (1970)

Sacred vocal: 40 Advent and Christmas Songs, 1v, pf (1961); Fröhlich soll mein Herze springen, Christmas cant., mixed chorus, 2 vn, org, vc ad lib (1968); Gott ist Liebe, 3 motets, mixed chorus (1970); Jauchzt, alle Lande, Gott zu Ehren, cant., mixed chorus (1974); Kleine geistliche Konzerte, opp.38 and 44, various vv and ens

Secular vocal: Wunderhorn-Lieder, op.5, 1v, pf/insts (1967); Chinesische Jahreszeiten, op.19, unacc. mixed chorus (1940); Madrigale nach Rokoko-Texten, unacc. mixed chorus (1955); Alte Minnelieder, 1v, pf/str ens (1957); 4 alte Minnelieder, 1v, rec, ob/vn, vn, va, vc (1988); 3 Russian Folksongs, 1v, pf (1961); 40 Folksongs, 1v, vn (1 player) (1968); Wolkenlieder, unacc. mixed chorus (H. Claudius) (1976); many other folksongs from different countries and song settings for all combinations

Org: Freie Orgelstücke, vol.1 (1958), vol.2 (1962); 10 Chorale Preludes, (1966)

Pf: O du lieber Augustin – Metamorphosen, 1975; Tokkata quasi fantasia, 1978

Other inst/chbr: Conc. grosso, op.29a, ob, str (1945); Str Qt, C, op.25, 1947; Kammerkonzert, pf, a cl, vc, str qnt, 1961; Sonatine, op.23a, rec/fl/vn, pf (hpd), 1948; Festliche Musik, B, 3 tpt, 2 trbn (1960); ‘Sonne der Gerechtigkeit’, 2 tpt, 2 trbn, org (1966); Tokkata, pastorale e fantasia, cl/va, pf (1992)

Principal publishers: Bärenreiter, Breitkopf & Härtel, Hug, Peters, Schott

WRITINGS

Vom Wesen der Musik (Heidelberg, 1974)

Vom Urklang zur Weltharmonie (Kassel, 1985)

De musica: gesammelte Aufsätze (Kassel, 1989)

Volkslied und Choral in Schaffen von Armin Knab (Kassel, 1991)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MGG1 (E.F. Flindell)

O. Riemer: ‘Friedrich Zipp’, Musica, xiv (1960), 12–15

A. Ullmann: ‘Er fahrbar, Einfach-Friedrich Zipp’ Frankfurter Rundschau (14 Aug, 1990)

M. Töpel: ‘Friedrich Zipp, “Sonne der Gerechtigkeit” …’, Musica, xlviii (1994), 250 only

E. FRED FLINDELL

Zirler, Stephan [Cirlerus, Stephanus; Zyrlerus, Stephanus; Zierler, Steffan]

(b Rohr, Bavaria, c1518; d Heidelberg, end of July 1568). German composer. In 1529 or 1530 he was a chorister in the electoral court in Heidelberg, where he met Georg Forster, Caspar Othmayr and Jobst von Brandt and, like them, studied with Lorenz Lemlin. Forster later dedicated to Zirler the fourth part of his Frische teutsche Liedlein (Nuremberg, 1556) as a seal to the friendship formed in Heidelberg. In 1537 Zirler became a student at Heidelberg University, and then was made an official at the Palatine court in Heidelberg, eventually serving as personal secretary to Elector Friedrich III. In his religious belief Zirler inclined towards Calvinism. All except one of Zirler’s 23 songs were published in Forster’s Frische teutsche Liedlein. Most of them retain the principle of the tenor cantus firmus, though the tenor has largely lost the character of a leading voice, the texture being either imitative or chordal. These songs were popular in their day, and there are transcriptions for lute or organ in the collections of Ochsenkun, Jobin, Neusidler, Schmid and Paix. In 1569 Clemens Stephani published a Latin psalm setting for four voices.

WORKS

22 songs, 4vv, 1540²¹, 1549³⁶, 1556²⁸, 1 song, 4vv, D-Rp 855; 3 ed. in Cw, lxiii (1957), 3 ed. in EDM, 1st ser., lx (1969); intabulations in 1558²⁰, 1572¹², 1574¹³, 1577¹², 1583²³

1 motet, 4vv, 1569¹

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C.P. Reinhardt: Die Heidelberger Liedmeister des 16. Jahrhunderts (Kassel, 1939)

G. Pietzsch: Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der Musik am kurpfälzischen Hof zu Heidelberg bis 1622 (Mainz, 1963)

FRANZ KRAUTWURST

Zirra, Alexandru

(b Roman, 2/14 July 1883; d Sibiu, 23 March 1946). Romanian composer and teacher. He studied at the Iaşi Conservatory (1902–5) with G. Musicescu, T. Cerne (harmony) and E. Mezzetti (singing), and then took composition lessons with C. Gatti at the Milan Conservatory (1905–7, 1909–11). Returning to the Iaşi Conservatory to teach harmony (1907–9, 1911–25, 1931–40), he directed the institution from 1922 until 1924, and he was also professor of harmony and singing and director of the Cernăuţi Conservatory (1925–31, now Chernovtsy, Ukraine); in these appointments he established a reputation as a remarkable teacher.

As a composer he was above all attracted to the theatre. Most of his six stage works are based on episodes in Romanian history, and all attest to his supreme handling of the dramatic-lyrical genre of which, with Caudella, Drăgoi, Nottara and Stephănescu, he was an originator. His greatest achievements in this manner were the opera Alexandru Lăpuşneanu and the musical fairytale for children Capra cu trei iezi (‘The Goat with Three Kids’). Zirra’s operas give pride of place to the choruses and vocal lines, and there is extensive use of ideas from folk music: recitatives in folk style, melodies built from doina motifs, modal harmonies and an orchestration influenced by folk instruments. Occasionally Zirra drew on Byzantine chant, as in the friars’ chorus in the third act of Alexandru Lăpuşneanu, producing excellently effective results. He had a gift for treating powerful dramatic conflicts, despite his essentially lyrical temperament, and this predilection may explain the large number of programmatic orchestral works. The symphonic poems, suites and even the symphonies are based on literary ideas, generally concerned with the village life and landscape of Zirra’s native Moldavia. Again the material is rooted in the music of the Gypsies and peasants. Zirra collected folksongs in his youth, and his early works were largely songs in a folklike style.

WORKS

(selective list)

Stage: Luceafărul (musical fairytale, Zirra, after M. Eminescu), 1912; Alexandru Lăpuşneanu (op, 3, 4 tableaux, Zirra, after C. Negruzzi), 1930–35, Bucharest, Romanian Opera, 6 March 1941, rev. 1944; O făclie de Paşti [An Easter Torch] (op, 3, Zirra, after I.L. Caragiale), 1937; Capra cu trei iezi [The Goat with Three Kids] (children’s fairy-tale op, 2, Zirra, after I. Creangă), 1939, Bucharest, Romanian Opera, 23 Dec 1941; Furtuna [The Tempest] (op, 3, Zirra, after G. Ureche), 1941; Ion Vodă Potcoavă (op, 3, Zirra), 1943

Orch: Preludiu simfonic, 1908; Sym. no.1, ?1920; Sym. no.2 ‘Ţărăneasca’ [Rustic], 1921; Sym. no.3 ‘Descriptiva’, 1922; Tîndală şi Păcală, sym. poem, 1925; Tiganii [The Gypsies], sym. poem, 1929; Rapsodia I, 1930; Uriel d’Acosta, sym. poem, 1930; Pe şesul Moldovei [In the Moldavian Plain], sym. poem, 1931; Schiţe cernăuţene [Sketches from Cernăuţi], 1931; Hanul Ancuţei [Ancutza’s Inn], ?1932; O săptămînă muzicală [A Musical Week], 1935; Cetatea Neamţului [The Neamţ Citadel], sym. poem, 1936

Chbr: Sonata, vn, pf, 1928; Str Qt, ?1929; Wind Qt, ?1930; Coral, preludiu şi fugă, pf, 1942

Vocal: 43 coruri [43 choruses], 1928; 9 melodii, songs, 1v, pf (1928); Albăstrele [Cornflowers], songs, 1v, pf (1930); Flori de cîmp [Field Flowers] (trad.), songs, 1v, pf (1930)

Principal publishers: Brandstätter, Scrisul Românesc (Craiova)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. Schmidt: Alexandru Zirra: viaţa în imagini [Zirra: a life in pictures] (Bucharest, 1967)

V. Cosma: Muzicieni români: lexicon (Bucharest, 1970), 469–70

A. Zirra: ‘Păreri critice asupra muzicii româneşti’, Studii de muzicologie, xviii (Bucharest, 1984), 59–94

C. Catrina: ‘Alexandru Zirra şi revista “Izvoraşul”’, Muzica, new ser., vi/2 (1995), 139–45

VIOREL COSMA

Ziryāb [Abū ’l-Hasan ‘Alī ibn Nāfi‘]

(b Iraq; d Córdoba, Spain, Aug 852). Arab musician. A mawlā (‘freedman’) of Caliph al-Mahdī (775–85) at Baghdad, he was a pupil of Ibrāhīm al-Mawsilī and a rival of Ishāq al-Mawsilī at the court of Hārūn al-Rashīd (786–809). He left Baghdad for Syria, served the Aghlabid ruler Ziyādat Allāh (817–38) in Qairawan (Tunisia), and later received a generous welcome from ‘Abd al-Rahmān II (822–52) in Córdoba. His influence there as a court musician and companion (nadīm) must have been exceptional: customs in clothing and eating that he had brought from Baghdad became fashionable, and the tradition of his school of music was maintained by his descendants at least two generations after his death. Like his contemporary al-Kindī he seems to have known the musical theory of late antiquity and to have reconciled it with the teachings of his masters in Baghdad. Details of his vocal training techniques are described by Ibn Hayyān (d 1076) in his Kitāb al-muqtabis (‘Enlightening book’) cited by al-Maqqarī (d 1632) in his Nafh al-tīb, a history of Muslim Spain. Like some of his colleagues in Baghdad he is said to have introduced a fifth string on the lute, to have replaced the wooden plectrum with a plectrum made from an eagle’s wing feather and to have improved the resonance and purity of tone of the lute. The first steps in the development of the later four-movement nawba (nūba) are perceptible in his performing practice as described by Ibn Hayyān. A collection of his song texts was made by Aslam ibn ‘Abd al-‘Azīz, the brother of one of his sons-in-law.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

EI2

J. Ribera: La música de las cantigas (Madrid, 1922; Eng. trans., 1929/R as Music in Ancient Arabia and Spain), 100–07

H.G. Farmer: Historical Facts for the Arabian Musical Influence (London, 1930/R), 28, 241, 308

H.G. Farmer: ‘The Minstrels of the Golden Age of Islam’, Islamic Culture, xviii (1944), 56

R. d’Erlanger: La musique arabe, v (Paris, 1949), 388ff

K. al-Wahhābī: Marāji‘ tarājim al-udabā’ al-‘arab [Source materials for the biographies of Arabian littérateurs], iii (Nejef, 1958), 128–9

E. Neubauer: ‘Der Bau der Laute und ihre Besaitung nach arabischen, persischen und türkischen Quellen’, Zeitschrift für Geschichte der arabisch-islamischen Wissenschaften, viii (Frankfurt, 1994), 279–378

ECKHARD NEUBAUER

Zister

[Ger.].

See Cittern.

Zítek, Vilém

(b Prague, 9 Sept 1890; d Prague, 11 Aug 1956). Czech bass. He was apprenticed and worked as a mechanic; at 18 he joined a choral society, then entered Pivoda’s school of singing as a pupil of Alois Vávra (1909–11). In 1912 he joined the Prague National Theatre, at first in small parts; he also performed in plays and ballets. In the 1920s and 30s he was the company’s leading member and was given many opportunities by Otakar Ostrčil, then head of opera, with whom Zítek maintained a close friendship and who greatly valued him as an artist. Zítek studied with Giovanni Binetti in Milan in 1925 and then took short engagements in Turin, Copenhagen, Milan, Stockholm, Paris, Berlin, Florence, Yugoslavia and the USSR. He was the first Czech singer to be made National Artist (1946); his career was cut short by a heart attack in 1947.

Zítek had a sonorous, perfectly controlled voice of wide compass and with rich possibilities of expression and timbre, an outstanding ability as an actor (acquired by studying the great Czech actor, Eduard Vojan) and a highly developed feeling for the heroic. Among the most remarkable of his dramatic roles were Vodník in Rusalka (Dvořák), Kecal in The Bartered Bride, the Devil in The Devil’s Wall and Chrudoš in Libuše (by Smetana), Boris Godunov, Mozart's Figaro, Don Giovanni, Pizarro, Don Quichotte and Philip II in Don Carlos. His performances were often compared with Chaliapin’s, whom as a singing-actor he much resembled.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ČSHS

H. Thein: Vilém Zítek (Prague, 1947) [incl. summary of repertory and his autobiography ‘How I Began and Continued’]

A. Rektorys, ed.: Korespondence Otakara Ostrčila s Vilémem Zítkem (Prague, 1951) [incl. detailed account of activities at the National Theatre]

V. Pospíšil: ‘Jubileum národního umělce Viléma Zítka’ [The anniversary of Vilém Zítek, National Artist], HRo, viii (1955), 704 only

F. Pujman: ‘Vilému Zítkovi na rozloučenou’ [Farewell to Zítek], HRo, ix (1956), 643–4 [obituary]

E. Kopecký and V. Pospíšil: Slavní pěvci Národního divadla [Famous singers of the National Theatre] (Prague, 1968)

V. Procházka, ed.: Národní divadlo a jeho předchůdci [The National Theatre and its predecessors] (Prague, 1988) [incl. list of repertory and discography]

ALENA NĚMCOVÁ

Zither.

A term having two main senses in modern organology. The first denotes (in both English and German) a large category of string instruments also known as ‘simple chordophone’ (defined in §1 below); the second, more limited and perhaps more familiar sense refers to a small group of Alpine folk and popular instruments. From the late 15th century the term ‘zither’ was used exclusively to denote chordophones with necks, of the cittern type. It was only from the early 19th century that the name began to be used for descendants of the north European Scheitholt type of instrument (see §§2 and 3 below), which had no neck and frets placed directly on the box. From the Scheitholt evolved the modern Alpine instrument still known as the zither (Fr. cithare; Ger. Zither; It. cetra da tavola); other types of fretted zither are found elsewhere in Europe.

1. The generic term.

2. The modern Alpine zither.

3. Other fretted zithers.

4. East and South-east Asia.

MARK LINDLEY (1), ANDREAS MICHEL (2–3), ALAN R. THRASHER (4)

1. The generic term.

According to the classification system of Hornbostel and Sachs (1914; see Chordophone), a zither is a ‘simple chordophone’, consisting solely of a string bearer (and its string or strings) or of a string bearer with a resonator that can be detached without destroying the sound-producing apparatus. Zithers are thus distinguished from ‘composite chordophones’, such as harps and lutes, in which the string bearer and a resonator are organically united and cannot be separated without destroying the instrument. Whereas the strings of a lute or lyre extend past the face of the instrument along a neck or out to a yoke, and those of a harp extend away from the soundboard, the strings of a zither do not go beyond or away from the body of the instrument. The variety of musical instruments that fit this description can be seen in fig.1.

2. The modern Alpine zither.

The present form of the south German and Austrian instruments that are generally known simply as zithers dates from the 19th and early 20th centuries. Structurally they have the same elements as other fretted zithers (a box, fretted melody strings and open strings), but their playing technique is distinct. The five chromatically fretted metal melody strings, which are usually tuned by machine screws, are individually finger-stopped with the left hand and plucked with a plectrum attached to the right thumb; the remaining fingers of the right hand select individual notes or chords from the open gut or nylon strings (numbering perhaps 30 or more and tuned by metal wrest-pins).

The early forms of the modern zither, known as Kratzzithern, were played in the same way as the Scheitholt (see §3 below), although they have differently shaped bodies. The crucial innovation was that the frets were no longer anchored directly to the box but placed on a fingerboard stuck to it (fig.3) These early zithers derived their names from the manner of playing, which was to ‘scratch’ (kratzen) or strum with a horn plectrum, a quill or the like. One Kratzzither type, the Raffelzither (‘grater zither’), had a fingerboard but no accompanying strings; another had a curved body and octave strings with shorter scalings fitted to a wrest plank of their own, the Oktävchen or Trompeterl.

The Schlagzither (struck zither; fig.4) differed from the Scheitholt and Kratzzither types in the abandonment of bourdon tuning and in the technique of striking the strings separately with the fingers and a plectrum on the thumb. The fingerboards of both the Kratzzither and the Schlagzither have partly diatonic fret patterns, usually producing a major scale beginning with the lower fourth. To increase the musical possibilities open to the Kratzzither, some were made with two or three differently scaled fingerboards on the same body (fig.5). Sections tuned a 4th or 5th from each other allowed a change to another register. Such double zithers are still used in Switzerland, known as Schwyzer Zither.

The body shape of some modern zithers is analogous to that of guitars or citterns (the ‘Mittenwald’ form); others imitate the structure of keyboard instruments with transverse stringing (such as the spinet and clavichord), with the rounded projection on the side furthest from the player (the ‘Salzburg’, ‘Hallein’ or ‘Pinzgau’ form). The ‘Salzburg’ has become the more usual. There were many attempts to improve the zither’s acoustics and structure. The Luftresonanzzither (‘air resonance zither’), attributed to Johann Jobst of Graz around 1890, had a second soundhole located above the wrest plank; the special structure of the wrest plank and fingerboard was intended to reduce their vibration-damping effects. The Harfenzither (‘harp zither’) had a pillar (the Baronstange) between the wrest plank and the middle of the body.

In the modern zither the accompanying strings are tuned in 4ths and 5ths. Initially, many different tunings existed; a few standard tunings were established in the late 19th century (Table 1). Various efforts were made to devise an arrangement that would be both physiologically practicable for the right hand and based on functional harmony. Nikolaus Weigel (Theoretischpraktische Zitherschule, 2/1844) was the first to call for a 28-string zither having a complete chromatic fingerboard, and for the accompanying strings to be tuned in 4ths and 5ths on the basis of the circle of 5ths. Different regional tunings of the melody strings subsequently came into use. ‘Stuttgart tuning’ (e''–e''–a'–d'–g–c), probably developed by the Stuttgart instrument maker Lorenze Kriner, was in use until the early 20th century. For ‘Munich tuning’ (a'–a'–d'–g–c), the accompanying strings are notated up an octave in the treble clef; both this system and ‘Vienna tuning’ (a'–d'–g'–g–c) are still used. Normal modern tuning for the 40–42 string zither is shown in Table 1. The tuning of the ‘Perfekta’ zither (fig.7) superimposes the third circle of 5ths on the second, thus better accommodating the span of the hand. In the ‘Reform’ zither (see fig.6) the first five strings of the fifth circle of 5ths are placed under the strings of the second circle, passing over a bridge about 2 to 3 mm lower. In the ‘Ideal-Reform’ zither there are additional strings in the first and second circle of 5ths passing over a second lower bridge. These modifications decreased the distance between the outer strings of the third circle of 5ths and the fingerboard. The transformation of the zither into a concert instrument and the construction of an entire zither family began in the mid-19th century, only a few years after the introduction of the new tuning system. Concert zithers differ from their predecessors in having a fully chromatic fingerboard with 29 frets, and in the enlarged scaling of the fingerboard strings (while the stringing remains unchanged). The modern zither family, whose earliest member is the Altzither (1851), is described in Table 2.

3. Other fretted zithers.

While iconographical evidence suggests that unfretted box zithers were used in Europe from at least the 12th century (see Psaltery), zithers with one or more fretted strings have been used extensively in some form or other in most of Europe except the British Isles, Italy and the Iberian and Balkan peninsulas. They appear to be of north-west European development, and have not been traced back much further than the 16th century. Since zithers with one or more stopped strings and several bourdons existed previously in eastern Asia, the idea may have been brought to Europe after European merchants had visited the East in the 16th century. The large number of regional variants in Europe and the circumstances in which they have developed provide a striking example of non-evolutionary history. Although a rectangular instrument with few strings seems to have been the earliest, there has been no universal change towards larger and more complex forms. Rather, different forms seem attributable to different situations. Chronology cannot be consistently established, and terminology can be variable, even within small areas.

Among 31 angel musicians in a fresco from 1560 in the church of Rynkeby in Denmark, there is one playing a long, narrow, rectangular zither, stopping one of its strings with two left-hand fingers and striking with the right-hand fingers (see fig.8). The instrument is much longer than the brass-strung Scheitholt (‘wooden log’) depicted in Praetorius’s De organographia (1618) and called by him a disreputable (lumpen) instrument. This had one melody string with 18 frets beneath it, set directly into the box, and two or three bourdon strings – one tuned to the same pitch as the melody string, another hooked down at a third of its length (thus giving a 5th higher), and an optional one an octave above the first. All were tuned by laterally set, hand-turned wooden pegs. The melody string was stopped against the frets by a small rod held in the left hand, and the right-hand thumb struck across all the strings. A Danish schoolmaster, Hans Mikkelsen Ravn, mentioned in his Heptachordum danicum (1646) an instrument called ‘langeleg’, somewhat like a monochord and played by peasants. In Norway in the 17th century, an instrument called ‘langspil’ was referred to by Anders Arrebo, who described it as being between a crwth and a Hackbrett and used for ballad tunes. In 1699 the Friesian organist-pedagogue Claas Douwes described the noardske Balke as an instrument of some 60 to 90 cm, with three or four strings and diatonic frets under the melody string, the rest being unison-tuned bourdons; some players used a rod for stopping and a plectrum for striking, others stopped with the left-hand thumb and sounded the strings with a bow. The earliest known use of this name is in 1660; in Reynvaan’s Muzikalwordenboek (1795) it was synonymous with hommel (‘drone’). In Iceland in 1772, a Swedish traveller, Uno van Trojel, noted a bowed langspil with six brass strings; presumably these were in three double courses. In 1809 W.J. Hooker was more specific about technique and use:

… Danish and Icelandic songs … which she accompanied with tunes upon the Lang-spil … It is usually played with a bow of horsehair … but the Etatstroed’s daughter frequently made use only of her fingers, as with a guitar … she pressed the end of her thumb upon the wires, moving it up and down to produce the different modifications of sound.

Apart from some instruments of conservative styling, such as the Epinette de Vosges, most modern fretted zithers have elements of structure and technique derived from sources other than these three- or four-string instruments. In the Norwegian langeleik and the Appalachian dulcimer, strings are still generally tuned by lateral wooden pegs. The langeleik, however, has up to ten bourdons, three of the short ones sometimes being set in a second pegbox at the opposite end from the main one, and pyramid-shaped individual bridges (see Norway, II, 3, fig.2). Its playing technique includes the use of three fingers on the melody string, enabling the player to produce the elaborate characteristic Norwegian gracing, and stylized rhythmic striking patterns executed with a flexible plectrum. Virtually all other fretted zithers have strings fixed to sagittal iron wrest pins tuned with a key; on some instruments melody strings are tuned by machine heads.

Like the langeleik, the kisfejes citera (the characteristic Hungarian instrument) has some bourdons set in separate pegboxes, but they are always at the same end as the main pegbox; both rod and finger-stopping are used and plectra range from quills or wood to flexible plastic. Those zoomorphic- or anthropomorphic-headed instruments with many courses are the most spectacular of European zithers (see fig.9). Rectangular instruments resembling the Scheitholt are considered by some scholars to be fairly new to Hungary; it is this type that is now sometimes electronically amplified. Terminology in central Europe is shifting: in the Hungarian plains the kisfejes citera was often called ‘tambura’, a term that could also denote a small ‘zitherized’ lute, while in Czechoslovakia the zither name is ‘kobza’, which in Romania denotes a true lute.

Not all zithers are plucked. Bowing has been an occasional alternative sounding method for fretted zithers that were generally plucked or struck. A few true bowed zithers have also been known in Europe. The Streichmelodion and Schossgeige were four-string instruments invented in the late 19th century in south German and Austrian regions, where they are still used to a small extent; they might well be described as zitherized fiddles and guitars. Baltic fretted monochords are also classified as a kind of zither. They consisted of a single string over a long, tapering box with 28 or 30 chromatic frets, generally with the note names painted in. Such an instrument was known as Psalmodikon in Sweden, versikannel in Karel'skaya ASSR, mollpill in Estonia and diga in Latvia; it was popular in the 19th century as an aid in teaching singing and for playing regional and religious songs. Unfretted bowed zithers have included the Trumscheit and the Icelandic fidhla (see Iceland, fig.1), both now extinct. A two-string bowed zither was formerly played by some of the indigenous peoples of Mexico: this may have been imported in the early Colonial period for teaching purposes.

See also Iceland, §II, 1, and Norway, §3. For unfretted zithers, see Harp zither.

4. East and South-east Asia.

It is clear from Chinese archaeological finds and historic citations that zithers were already major instrument types in China by the mid-Zhou dynasty (c7th–5th centuries bce). That they were known many centuries earlier is apparent from the pictographic character of about the 12th century bce for yue (meaning ‘music’), a graph depicting silk strings over wood. Other string instrument types were not known in China until later periods. There are several early zither types still in use, all of which have been found in Zhou burial sites and cited in texts from the ancient Shijing onward. Of these, the bridgeless Qin (pronounced ‘chin’) is unquestionably the most highly venerated. Having emerged from earlier (generally smaller) models, the qin of today, with a soundbox of irregular shape (c120 cm in length) and seven silk strings, was in recognizable form by about the 3rd century ce. Perhaps because of its close association with Confucian ideology and the values of the literati class, the qin was not widely known outside of China.

The zither se is a generally larger instrument, with rectangular soundbox, 25 strings and a bridge under each string. Early se zithers found in Zhou and Han sites are short (c100–20 cm) and broad (c40 cm), their length increasing to nearly double this (c200 cm) by the 18th century. The primary function of the se throughout history has been mostly restricted to the ritual tradition of the imperial courts.

Third among the major Chinese zithers is the Zheng, an instrument shorter and thinner than the present-day se, with variable string numbers (12 or 13 during the 8th century) and a bridge under each string. The early 20th-century Chaozhou style of zheng (south China) is close in size to the qin (c110–20 cm), though with highly arched soundboard and 16 metal strings; the late 20th-century style is considerably longer (c160 cm), with more gently arched soundboard and 18 or 21 metal strings. The zheng is a ‘popular’ (i.e. non-ritual) instrument, with a large solo and chamber repertory. Its influence upon other East Asian zither traditions has been considerable. Less significant of the Chinese zithers are the ancient five-string zhu (for which specimens have been found in Zhou sites) and the medieval multi-string bowed yazheng (still marginally preserved in Hebei province).

Numerous related zithers subsequently emerged among other Asian cultures, most being adaptations of Chinese types. The Japanese koto and Korean kayagum were among the earliest, both appearing by the 8th century ce, possibly earlier. The 13-string Koto (c180 cm) with movable bridge under each string is a clear adaptation of the 13-string Tang-style zheng. While the word koto is Japanese, it is written with the same Chinese graph for zheng, and it shares significant repertory characteristics as well. The Korean 12-string Kayagŭm is shorter (c145 cm for the sanjo kayagŭm), with tall wooden bridges and stylized carvings of ‘ram's horns’ at the lower end of the instrument. Distantly related to the koto is the Japanese Wagon (c190 cm), a six-string zither with movable bridges. The wagon is documented from the 2nd century ce onwards and is believed by scholars to be indigenous to Japan. Two other Korean zithers, the komun'go and ajaeng, are more idiosyncratic. The six-string komun'go (c150–60 cm) has 16 broad, fixed frets glued to the soundboard, and three movable bridges. Appearing in 7th-century-ce tomb paintings, it was possibly derived from the Chinese ‘horizontal’ konghou (which was a zither in appearance if not in name). The seven-string ajaeng (c160 cm) with movable bridges is unusual in that it is bowed with a rosined stick (rather than plucked). Appearing between the 10th and 14th centuries, the ajaeng was clearly derived from the Chinese yazheng.

In cultures to the north and to the south of China, other related zither traditions emerged from about the 14th century onwards. Among Mongolian people the yatga zither (c160 cm), with between ten and 13 strings, has been in use since this period. In Thailand the three-string, fretted čhakhē (literally ‘crocodile’, c130 cm), used in the traditional mahōrī ensemble, appears to reflect both Indian and Chinese influences. The 16-string Vietnamese Dàn tranh (90–110 cm), however, is identical in all essential features to the Chaozhou-style zheng of south China, from where it was introduced.

There are yet other Asian zithers which are less clearly related to the above types. The most ancient are probably the various tube zithers marginally preserved among peoples of the Pacific islands. Constructed from tubular sections of stout bamboo, their multiple strings are usually raised up from the bamboo surface itself (i.e. idiochordal) and plucked with the fingers of both hands or struck with a stick. Examples include the kolitong (or kulibit and known by many other names) in the Philippines (c60 cm), the rare celempung bambu in West Java (c80 cm) and the zharong (Chinese: zhuqin, ‘bamboo qin’) among the Yao and other tribal peoples of south-west China. Zither types very possibly similar to these were reported in the 2nd-century-ce Chinese dictionary Shuowen jiezi as being constructed from a bamboo tube and possessing five strings.

Finally, among the tribal peoples of South-east Asia there are very unusual single-string zithers. The Thai phīn is a short stick zither (c80 cm) with one or two metal strings and an attached half-gourd resonator. It bears close similarities to Indian zithers, notably the early bin (or vina) from which its name derives. Another is the Dàn bau (c100 cm) of minority peoples of northern Vietnam and south-west China, a box zither with a single metal string attached to a flexible stem (for pitch control), and performed on the harmonic series.